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University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8400586 L am bur, M ichael T hom as AN EVALUATION OF PROJECT PEST’S "PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL" A MEANS FOR TRANSFERRING INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT INFORMATION TO URBAN HOMEOWNERS Michigan State University University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Ph.D. 1983 PLEASE NOTE: In all c a s e s this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this docum ent have been identified here with a check mark V 1. Glossy photographs or p a g e s ______ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or p rin t______ 3. Photographs with dark b ack g ro u n d ______ 4. Illustrations a re poor c o p y ______ 5. P ages with black marks, not original 6. Print shows through a s th ere is text on both sid es of pag e_____ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on severalp a g e s 8. Print exceeds margin requirem ents______ 9. 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O ther________________________________________________________________________ University Microfilms International AN EVALUATION OF PROJECT PEST'S PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL AS A MEANS FOR TRANSFERRING INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT INFORMATION TO URBAN HOMEOWNERS By Michael Thomas Lambur A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e requirem ents f o r the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY D ep art m ent o f F o r e s t r y 1983 ABSTRACT AN EVALUATION OF PROJECT PEST'S PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL AS A MEANS FOR TRANSFERRING INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT INFORMATION TO URBAN HOMEOWNERS By Michael Thomas Lambur In r e c e n t y e a r s , i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM) ha s been recognized as a p o te n tia l ur b an v e g e t a t i o n . s t r a t e g y f o r d e a l i n g w i t h p e s t p ro b le m s on While r e s e a r c h s t i l l n ee d s t o be c o n d u c t e d on t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f a p p l y i n g IPM in urb an s i t u a t i o n s , an a d d i t i o n a l a r e a o f i n q u i r y t h a t ha s been v i r t u a l l y u n i n v e s t i g a t e d i s t h e t r a n s f e r o f IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o a s i g n i f i c a n t urban p e s t management d e c i s i o n - m a k e r — t h e u r b a n homeowner. This study r e p r e s e n t e d a response t o t h a t need. I t was u n d e r t a k e n t o e v a l u a t e a r e c e n t e f f o r t t o t r a n s f e r IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o homeowners in a Michigan s u bu r ba n community; P r o j e c t PEST's P e s t Management Manual — a homeowner's s e l f - h e l p g u i d e t o IPM. A model d e v e l o p e d t o e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s by which i n d i v i d u a l s a d o p t i n n o v a t i o n s (new i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s ) , c a l l e d t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s m ode l, was u s ed a s t h e e v a l u a t e framework. A number o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e model were s e l e c t e d and m e as u re d. The c a t e g o r i e s o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s inclu d ed : in d iv id u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (socioeconomic, a t t i t u d i n a l , communication b e h a v i o r , problem v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n ) ; and innovation c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( r e l a t i v e advantage, c o m p a tib ility , Michael Thomas Lambur com plexity, t r i a l a b i l i t y , o b s e r v a b il ity ) . The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e IPM i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s in t h e manual had been a d o p t e d i n t h e two y e a r s s i n c e i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n . A s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d mail q u e s t i o n n a i r e was us ed t o c o l l e c t d a t a from 41 o f t h e 75 manual owners i n P r o j e c t PEST's t a r g e t community - M e r i d i a n C h a r t e r Township, M ich ig an . Data were a n a l y z e d t o d e t e r m i n e : ( 1 ) t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f manual u s e r s ; ( 2 ) t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u s e o f t h e m a nu al ; and (3) t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e model c o u l d be used t o c h a r a c t e r i z e o t h e r IPM inform ation t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s . Based on s t u d y r e s u l t s , i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e i n n o v a t i o n d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model was a p p l i c a b l e , t o a d e g r e e , f o r c h a r a c ­ t e r i z i n g t h e t r a n s f e r o f p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n ( a s an i n n o v a t i o n ) t o ur ba n homeowners. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS T hr ou gho ut t h i s u n d e r t a k i n g , numerous p e o p l e have p r o v i d e d a g r e a t deal o f a s s i s t a n c e and s u p p o r t . I t is w ith g re a t pleasure th a t I am a b l e t o acknowledge them. As my co m mi tt ee c h a i r m a n , Dr. Gary Simmons a l l o w e d me t h e free dom t o d e s i g n and p u r s u e a " d i f f e r e n t " t y p e o f d o c t o r a l program. His u n s e l f i s h s u p p o r t , enc ou ra g em en t and b e l i e f in n\y e f f o r t s o v e r t h e p a s t s e v e r a l y e a r s i s d e s e r v i n g o f my most s i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n . I owe a g r e a t d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e t o a good f r i e n d and c o l l e a g u e , Dr. Frank F e a r . With h i s c a p a b l e g u i d a n c e , I have been a b l e t o m e a n i n g f u l l y combine t h e s o c i a l w i t h t h e b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s i n b o th my program and r e s e a r c h . As my d i s s e r t a t i o n a d v i s e r , he al w ay s to ok t h e t i m e t o e x t e n s i v e l y r e v i e w and comment on d r a f t s o f ea ch c h a p t e r . In a d d i t i o n t o e x h i b i t i n g t h e u t m o s t p a t i e n c e w i t h me t h r o u g h o u t t h i s e n d e a v o r , p e r h a p s more t h a n a n y t h i n g , Frank h e l p e d me t o r e a l i z e my c a p a b i l i t i e s a s a w r i t e r and r e s e a r c h e r . Indeed, w ith o u t h is e n c o u r a g e m e n t , e n t h u s i a s m and s u p p o r t , t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n c o u l d n o t have been c o m p l e t e d . In a d d i t i o n , a p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x t e n d e d t o o t h e r members o f my g r a d u a t e co m m it te e : Dr. Melvin K o e l l i n g and Dr. James K e i l b a s o . I would a l s o l i k e t o acknowledge t h e a s s i s t a n c e and s u p p o r t o f two c l o s e f r i e n d s and c o l l e a g u e s . As c o - w o r k e r s on P r o j e c t PEST, I o f t e n t u r n e d t o Brad P a r k s and Randy Rogan a s " so u n d i n g b o a r d s " f o r a number o f i d e a s e x p r e s s e d i n t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n ; most n o t a b l y t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e m a nu al . W it h o u t e x c e p t i o n , t h e y l i t e r a l l y d ro p p ed w h at t h e y were d o in g t o h e l p . support, For t h i s , and t h e i r moral I am p r o f o u n d l y g r a t e f u l . A p p r e c i a t i o n i s e x t e n d e d t o two members o f t h e Dep art me nt o f Entomology: Dr. James Bat h a n d , e s p e c i a l l y , Dr. S t u a r t Gage. t h e i r b e l i e f and s u p p o r t , Through I have been a f f o r d e d t h e u ni q u e o p p o r t u n i t y t o g a i n v a l u a b l e e x p e r i e n c e " p r a c t i c i n g w ha t I p r e a c h " , w h i l e com pleting t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . For t h i s I am d e e p l y i n d e b t e d . A s p e c i a l n o t e o f t h a n k s g oe s t o M a r g a r e t Beaver f o r h e r t e c h n i c a l a s s i s t a n c e and e x c e l l e n t work i n t y p i n g t h i s m a n u s c r i p t . And f i n a l l y , t h a n k you S har on. Wi tho ut y o u r l o v e , e n c o u r a g e m e n t , p a t i e n c e and s a c r i f i c e t h i s e f f o r t would have been d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t im possible, to achieve. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF T A B L E S .......................................................................................................... ix LIST OF FIGURES............................................................................................................ x i i i CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................... A P e s t C o n t r o l P r o f i l e o f Urban Homeowners .......................... Use o f P e s t i c i d e s .............................................................................. Use o f Nonchemical C o n t r o l s ............................................................. A t t i t u d e s and B e h a v i o r s Re ga rd in g P e s t C o n tr o l . . . . S o u r c e s o f P e s t C o n t r o l I n f o r m a t i o n .......................................... The P e s t C o n t r o l P r o f i l e i n Summary .......................................... Ri s k s and Problems A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Use o f P e s t i c i d e s . . Human R i s k s fr om P e s t i c i d e s ............................................................. E n v i r o n m en ta l Problems from P e s t i c i d e s ...................................... L i m i t a t i o n s o f P e s t i c i d e s a s a P e s t C o n tr o l Tec hn iqu e . I n t e g r a t e d P e s t Management: A P o t e n t i a l S t r a t e g y f o r P e s t C o n tr o l in t h e Urban S e c t o r ........................................ What i s I P M ? ....................................................................................... P r i n c i p l e s o f I P M .............................................................................. IPM i n t h e Urban S e c t o r : O p p o r t u n i t i e s and C o n s t r a i n t s . . . The Need f o r Urban IPM I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r E f f o r t s . . . . Stu dy P u rp o se and O v e r v i e w .................................................................... CHAPTER 2. PROJECT PEST AND THE PEST MANAGEMENT 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 9 9 10 11 11 12 13 15 16 19 MANUAL ................. 22 An Overview o f P r o j e c t P E S T ....................................................................... P r o j e c t Goal and M e t h o d s .................................................................. The T a r g e t Community and P r o j e c t Co-Sp ons or ........................ P r o j e c t P la n o f W o r k ........................................................................... S t r u c t u r e o f t h e C i t i z e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n Program . . . . R e c r u i t i n g C i t i z e n P a r t i c i p a n t s .................................................... D e s i g n i n g and C o n d u c t in g t h e Needs A ss e s s m e n t Study . . A s s e s s m e n t Study F i n d i n g s . . ......................................................... D e s i g n i n g and Co nd u ct in g t h e Community E d u c a t i o n P r o g r a m .............................................................................................. The D e m o n s t r a t i o n Y a r d ............................................................. The M a n u a l .......................................................................................... E v a l u a t i o n o f P r o j e c t P E S T ............................................................. P r o c e s s E v a l u a t i o n ....................................................................... Imp act E v a l u a t i o n ....................................................................... The P e s t Management Manual ........................................................................... S t a f f and Committee Member Ro le s i n t h e Manual P l a n n i n g and P r o d u c t i o n P r o c e s s ...................................... 22 23 24 24 25 25 26 28 iv 29 29 30 31 31 32 33 33 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page CHAPTER 2. (Continued) I n i t i a l P l a n n i n g C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h e Manual . . . . ........................................................................... P r o d u c in g t h e Manual The F i n i s h e d M a n u a l ................................................................................ Background o f P r o j e c t P E S T .................................................... Manual Focus ..................................................................................... How t o Use t h e Manual ............................................................. M o n i t o r i n g / R e c o r d s ....................................................................... Management T e c h n i q u e s .............................................................. S a f e t y ................................................................................................... P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n ................... A p p e n d i x .............................................................................................. G l o s s a r y .............................................................................................. 34 37 40 42 42 43 47 55 61 61 69 72 CHAPTER 3. THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE S T U D Y ........................................................................................................ 73 PART I : THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK.................................................................. 73 The I n n o v a t i o n - D e c i s i o n P r o c e s s Model ............................................... The I n n o v a t i o n ......................................................................................... S t a g e s o f t h e M o d e l ................................................................................ F l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e Model .................................................................. V ariab les A ffectin g th e Innovation-D ecision Process . . . . I n d i v i d u a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .............................................................. S o c i a l System C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ......................................................... Communication C h an ne l s ....................................................................... P e r c e i v e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e I n n o v a t i o n ........................ The R a t i o n a l e f o r S e l e c t i n g t h e Model ............................................... 73 75 77 82 83 85 89 90 91 93 PART I I : THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK.................................................................. 95 The Manual a s an I n n o v a t i o n ....................................................................... 95 O b j e c t i v e and S u b j e c t i v e "Newness" o f t h e Manual . . . 96 Components o f t h e M a n u a l .................................................................. 97 The Manual a s a Te ch nol og y C l u s t e r ........................................... 98 Ad op tio n o f t h e M a n u a l ..................................................................................... 99 A d d i t i o n a l Ad op tio n C o n c e p t s ......................................................... 100 The E x t e n t o f Ad op tio n and I m p l e m e n t a ti o n o f t h e M a n u a l ......................................................................................102 I n d i v i d u a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ............................................................................ 106 S oc ioe con om ic V a r i a b l e s ....................................................................... 107 P e r s o n a l i t y V a r i a b l e s ............................................................................ 109 110 A D e f i n i t i o n o f A t t i t u d e ......................................................... A t t i t u d e S t r u c t u r e ....................................................................... Ill A t t i t u d e D i r e c t i o n , I n t e n s i t y and I m p o r t a n c e . . . 112 A t t i t u d e s and B e h a v i o r .............................................................. 113 A t t i t u d e s S e l e c t e d f o r Study ................................................ 116 v TABLES OF CONTENTS (C ontinued) Page CHAPTER 3. (Continued) Communication B e h a v i o r V a r i a b l e s ............................................... 119 Problem v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n ................................................ 121 Communication C h a n n e l s ..................................................................................... 122 Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the Innovation ................................. 123 Con sequences ............................................................................................................ 128 D escriptive V ariables ..................................................................................... 130 S tud y H y p o t h e s e s .........................................................................................................132 CHAPTER 4. METHODS............................................................................................................. 134 Stu dy D e s i g n ..................................................................................................................134 Stu dy R e s p o n d e n t s ....................................................................................................135 S a m p l i n g ........................................................................................................................... 135 Data C o l l e c t i o n Method ..................................................................................... 136 Meas ur ing t h e V a r i a b l e s ................................................................................ 137 The E x t e n t o f Ado pti on and I m p l e m e n t a ti o n o f t h e M a n u a l ......................................................................................137 Individual C h a r a c te r is t ic s ............................................................. 141 Socio ec on omi c V a r i a b l e s ......................................................... 141 P e rso n ality Variables ............................................................. 143 Communication B e h a v i o r V a r i a b l e s ...................................... 147 Problem v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n ................................. 150 Communication Ch an ne ls ....................................................................... 151 P e r c e i v e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e I n n o v a t i o n ........................ 151 Consequences .............................................................................................. 152 D e s c r i p t i v e V a r i a b l e s ........................................................................... 155 P e s t C o n t r o l on P l a n t Groups i n t h e Y a r d .........................155 S a t i s f a c t i o n w ith R esults .................................................... 155 Recommending t h e Manual t o O t h e r s ................................. 155 Addition of Information ......................................................... 155 B e s t and L e a s t Liked A s p e c t s o f t h e Manual . . . . 155 P a r t i c i p a t i o n in P r o j e c t PEST A c t i v i t i e s ................... 156 C o n s t r u c t i n g t h e Q u e s t i o n n a i r e .................................................................. 156 Pre-Testing the Q uestionnaire .................................................................. 163 D e l e t i n g S c a l e Ite m s from S em an tic D i f f e r e n t i a l s . . . 165 C on du ct in g t h e Main S u r v e y ................................................................................. 172 Data A n a l y s i s ............................................................................................................. 174 Ge neral D e s c r i p t i o n ................................................................................ 174 T e s t s o f H y p o t h e s e s ......................................................................................175 M ultiv ariate R elationships ............................................................. 179 CHAPTER 5. STUDY FINDINGS ..................................................................................... 182 G ene ral D e s c r i p t i o n ......................................................................................... E x t e n t o f A do pt io n and I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e Manual . . I n f o r m a t i o n and P r a c t i c e s Item s Used ............................... E x t e n t o f Ad o pt io n S c o r e s .................................................... 182 182 184 190 vi TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page CHAPTER 5. (C ontinued) ............................................................. 192 Individual C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s Socioeconomic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................................... 192 Personality C h arac teristics ............................................... 194 197 Communication B e h a v i o r ............................................................. Problem v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n ................................. 201 Communication Chan nels ....................................................................... 201 P e r c e i v e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e I n n o v a t i o n ........................ 203 A t t r i b u t e Scores f o r t h e S o f t w a r e Component . . . 203 A t t r i b u t e Scores f o r t h e Hardware Component . . . 205 A t t i t u d e s Toward t h e S o f t w a r e and Hardware C o m p o n e n t s .................................................................................207 Consequences .............................................................................................. 209 D e s c r i p t i v e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ............................................................. 211 P e s t C o n t r o l on P l a n t Groups in t h e Y a r d .........................211 S a t i s f a c t i o n with R esults .................................................... 213 Recommending t h e Manual t o O t h e r s ................................. 217 A d d i t i o n o f I n f o r m a t i o n ......................................................... 217 B e s t and L e a s t Liked A s p e c t s o f t h e Manual . . . . 217 P a r t i c i p a t i o n in P r o j e c t PEST A c t i v i t i e s ................... 218 T e s t s o f H y p o t h e s e s ...............................................................................................220 Individual C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ............................................................. 220 Socioeconomic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................................... 220 Personality C h a ra c te ristic s ............................................... 224 Communication B e h a v i o r ............................................................. 225 Problem v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n ................................. 226 Communication Ch ann el s ....................................................................... 226 P e r c e i v e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e I n n o v a t i o n ........................ 226 A t t r i b u t e s o f t h e S o f t w a r e Component ............................ 226 A t t i t u d e s Toward t h e S o f t w a r e Component ................... 227 A t t r i b u t e s o f t h e Hardware Component ............................ 227 A t t i t u d e s Toward t h e Hardware Component ................... 227 Consequences .............................................................................................. 228 M u l t i v a r i a t e R e l a t i o n s h i p s ........................................................................... 228 CHAPTER 6 . SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .................................................................. 234 S u m m a r y ...........................................................................................................................234 General D e s c r i p t i o n ................................................................................ 236 T e s t s o f H y p o t h e s e s ......................................................................................239 M u l t i v a r i a t e R e l a t i o n s h i p s .............................................................. 240 C o n c l u s i o n s ..................................................................................................................240 P a r t I : The M a n u a l ............................................................................................... 241 Use o f t h e M a n u a l .......................................................................................... 241 I n f o r m a t i o n and P r a c t i c e Items Used ............................. 241 E x t e n t o f Ado pti on and I m p l e m e n t a ti o n ........................ 245 Individual C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ............................................................. 246 Socioeconomic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ........................................... 246 Personality C h arac teristics ............................................... 247 v ii TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Pa^e CHAPTER 6 . (Continued) Communication B e h a v i o r ............................................................. Problem v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n ................................. Communication Chan nels ....................................................................... C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e M a n u a l ......................................................... The S o f t w a r e Component ............................................................. The Hardware Component ............................................................. Consequences .............................................................................................. D e s c r i p t i v e C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ....................... P a r t I I : The M o d e l ......................................................................................... I m p l i c a t i o n s ............................................................................................................ Stu dy L i m i t a t i o n s .............................................................................................. Recommendations f o r F u t u r e Re s ea r c h ................................................... 248 249 250 250 250 252 253 254 255 257 259 261 APPENDICES Appendix A F r o n t Cover and T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s o f t h e P e s t Management Manual .................................................................. Appendix B The P e s t Management Manual Owner's Survey Q uestionnaire ........................................................................... Appendix C Cover L e t t e r and F i r s t and Second Reminder L e t t e r s Used i n t h e P e s t Management Manual O wn er' s Survey ........................................................................... Appendix D The P r o c e d u r e Used f o r D e l e t i n g S c a l e Items From Se m a n tic D i f f e r e n t i a l s ........................................... Appendix E Survey R e s u l t s f o r Manual Non-Users .......................... Appendix F A d d i t i o n a l M u l t i p l e R e g r e s s i o n A n a l y s i s R e s u l t s ......................................................................................... LIST OF REFERENCES....................................................................................................... v iii 262 267 284 287 290 293 294 LIST OF TABLES Table 1.1 Page D i f f e r e n c e s between a g r i c u l t u r a l and ur ba n p e s t m a n a g e m e n t ........................................................................................................ 17 2.1 Needs a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y d e s i g n f o r P r o j e c t PEST .................... 27 2.2 P r i n c i p l e s o f IPM p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P e s t Management Manual ................................................................................................................. 44 O b j e c t i v e s o f IPM p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P e s t Management M a n u a l ................................................................................................................. 45 2.4 F iv e s t e p s f o r u s i n g t h e P e s t Management Manual .................... 48 2.5 Six c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P e s t Management M a n u a l .................................................................. 58 Four q u e s t i o n s t o an sw er b e f o r e c h o o s i n g and a p p l y i n g c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s p r e s e n t e d in t h e P e s t Management M a n u a l ................................................................................................................. 60 O r g a n i z a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n on " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n Forms" i n t h e P e s t Management Manual . . . . 64 P l a n t g r o u p s and p e s t s p e c i e s and pr ob le m s c o v e r e d in .................................................................. t h e P e s t Management Manual 70 F i v e a t t r i b u t e s o f i n n o v a t i o n s and t h e i r a f f e c t on t h e r a t e o f a d o p t i o n .......................................................................................... 92 2.3 2.5 2.7 2.8 3.1 4.1 4.2 4.3 O rig in al sem antic d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a le items used to m e asu re t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e to w a r d h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b le m s on t h e p l a n t s i n h i s y a r d .................................................... 148 O r i g i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s u s ed t o me asu re t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e s to w ar d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t p r o bl em s i n h i s y a r d ................................... 149 O rig in al sem antic d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e items used to mea sur e p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e p e s t management i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e manual ix . 153 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Table 4.4 Page O r i g i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s used t o mea sur e p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e h a r d w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e manual a s a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n ........................................................................................................ 154 S e c t i o n and q u e s t i o n numbers o f v a r i a b l e s i n t h e P e s t Management Manual Own er's Survey .................................................... 158 F i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s u s ed t o me asu re t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e to w a r d h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b le m s on t h e p l a n t s i n h i s y a r d ...................................... 168 F in a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s u s ed t o mea sur e t h e i n d i v i d u a l ’ s a t t i t u d e s to w ar d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t pro bl em s i n h i s y a r d ........................ 169 F i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s u s ed t o me asu re p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e p e s t management i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s c o n t a i n e d in t h e m a n u a l ........................................................................................................ 170 Final semantic d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a le items used to me asu re p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e h ar d w ar e component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e manual a s a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n ........................................................................................................ 171 Range and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s f o r t h e f i v e semantic d i f f e r e n t i a l s ........................................................................... 173 A l t e r n a t i v e e m p i r i c a l and s t a t i s t i c a l h y p o t h e s e s a d d r e s s e d in t h e s t u d y ........................................................................... 176 5.1 I n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s r e s p o n d e n t s r e a d a b o u t i n t h e manual 185 5.2 P r a c t i c e i t e m s r e s p o n d e n t s were r e g u l a r l y u s i n g from t h e manual ........................................................................................................ 187 The t o t a l number o f new i t e m s r e s p o n d e n t s r e a d a b o u t and w ere c u r r e n t l y u s i n g from t h e manual ................................. 189 5.4 E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s ......................................................................... 191 5.5 R e s p o n d e n t s ' a g e ............................................................................................ 193 5.6 Respondents' educatio n le v el 193 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4.11 5.3 x . . ............................................................... LIST OF TABLES (C ontinued) Table Page 5.7 R e s p o n d e n t s ' s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ..................................................... 195 5.8 Respondents' income ...................................................................................... 195 5.9 A t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b le m s in t h e y a r d , u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t p r o bl em s in t h e y a r d ........................ 196 S o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n us ed f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t prob lems in t h e y a r d ........................................................................................................ 198 5 .1 1 Index o f communication b e h a v i o r s c o r e s 200 5.12 F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual 5.13 Why r e s p o n d e n t s p u r c h a s e d t h e manual ............................................ 202 5.14 How r e s p o n d e n t s f i r s t h e a r d a b o u t t h e manual b e i n g a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e ..................................................................................... 202 A t t r i b u t e s c o r e s f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l ................................................................................................................. 204 A t t r i b u t e s c o r e s f o r t h e h ar d w ar e component o f t h e m a n u a l ................................................................................................................. 206 A t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r t h e s o f t w a r e and ha rd w ar e components o f t h e m a n u a l ................................................................................................... 208 The d e g r e e t o which r e s p o n d e n t s f e l t t h e manual had changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and h a n d l i n g p e s t pr ob le m s i n t h e i r y a r d ............................................................................ 208 5.19 Consequence s c o r e s ...................................................................................... 210 5.20 P l a n t g r o u p s on which p e s t p r ob le m s o c c u r r e d and r e q u i r e d management ..................................................................................... 210 The p e r c e n t a g e o f time p e s t i c i d e s were us ed t o manage p e s t p r o b l e m s ................................................................................................... 212 The p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s were us ed t o manage p e s t p r o b l e m s ............................................................. 214 The p e r c e n t a g e o f ti m e no a c t i o n was t a k e n t o manage p e s t p r o b l e m s ................................................................................................... 215 S a t i s f a c t i o n from u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual 216 5.10 5.15 5.16 5.17 5.18 5 .2 1 5.22 5.23 5.24 xi ....................................... . . . . . . . . 200 LIST OF TABLES (Continued) Table Page 5.25 P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s .................................. 219 5.26 Summary o f z e r o - o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n s f o r t h e 15 s t u d y h y p o t h e s e s ....................................................................................................... 221 R e s u l t s o f r e g r e s s i n g 20 i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s on e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s ...................................................................... 230 D.l S c a l e i t e m s d e l e t e d from s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s ..................... 289 F .l F in a l u n s t a n d a r d i z e d r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e 20 i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ...................................................................... 293 5.27 xi i LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 Example o f c a r t o o n s i n t h e P e s t Management Manual . . . . 2.2 Plant condition ra tin g c h a rt 2.3 P e s t and p l a n t damage abundance r a t i n g c h a r t 2.4 Inju ry acceptance le v e ls c h a r t .............................................................. 39 50 ......................... 52 .......................................................... 54 2.5 Example p e s t m o n i t o r i n g f o r m .............................................................. 56 2.6 Quick p e s t r e f e r e n c e g u i d e f o r o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s . . 63 2.7 P e s t i n f o r m a t i o n form f o r a p h i d s on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s ..................................................................................................................... 65 3.1 A model o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s .............................. 79 3.2 V ariables a s s o c ia te d with th e in n o v a tio n -d ec isio n p r o c e s s model .................................................................................................. 84 How r e s p o n d e n t s were c h a n n e l e d t h r o u g h t h e P e s t Management Manual Owner's Survey .................................................... 160 4.1 x ii i CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION In e f f o r t s t o make t h e i r r e s i d e n t i a l surroundings a e s t h e t i c a l l y p l e a s i n g , t o e n h an c e p r o p e r t y v a l u e s , and t o b u f f e r e n v i ro n m e n t a l and d e v el o pm en t f a c t o r s ( s u ch a s w in d , n o i s e , and h i g h w a y s ) , p e o p l e in ur b an a r e a s p l a n t t r e e s , s h r u b s , f l o w e r s , g a r d e n s , and lawns a r o u n d t h e i r homes. For t h e most p a r t , s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e o rn am en tal p l a n t s i s l a r g e l y b a s e d on a e s t h e t i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s such a s c o l o r , f or m , and h e i g h t ( K o e h l e r 19 7 9 ). In a d d i t i o n , many n o n - n a t i v e , e x o t i c s p e c i e s a r e o f t e n s e l e c t e d by t h e u r b a n homeowner. With t h i s p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f d i v e r s e and e x o t i c p l a n t m a t e r i a l , numerous a s s o c i a t e d p e s t p o p u l a t i o n s become e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e a b s e n c e o f t h e i r n a t u r a l en em ie s ( E h l e r 1 9 7 9 ) . Compounding t h e s e p e s t pro blem s i s t h e i n c r e a s e d d e n s i t y o f human i n h a b i t a n t s in l o c a l a r e a s , which p r o v i d e a s e r i e s o f u n i q u e ur b an e c o l o g i c a l n i c h e s t h a t a r e i n v a d ed and c o l o n i z e d by a r t h r o p o d s and v e r t e b r a t e s (Committee on Urban P e s t Management 19 8 0 ) . P r e s e n t e d f i r s t i n t h i s i n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r i s an o v e r v ie w o f t h e a c t i o n s and o r i e n t a t i o n s o f ur b an homeowners r e g a r d i n g p e s t pro bl em s on t h e p l a n t s i n t h e i r y a r d . A p est control p r o f il e is d e v e l o p e d i n d i c a t i n g t h a t , among o t h e r t h i n g s , ur ba n homeowners a r e q u i t e r e l i a n t on p e s t i c i d e s a s a means f o r p e s t c o n t r o l . The f r e q u e n t us e o f t h e s e compounds h a s , however, r e s u l t e d in a number 2 o f r e a l r i s k s and p r o b l e m s . A d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e s e r i s k s and pr ob lem s a s s o c ia te d with p e s t i c i d e s i s presented n ex t. Because o f a growing c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e heavy r e l i a n c e on p e s t i c i d e s , an a l t e r n a t i v e p e s t management s t r a t e g y , c a l l e d i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM), has evolved. While d e v e l o p e d and implemented p r i m a r i l y i n t h e a g r i ­ cu ltu ra l s e c to r, th i s ecological been r e c o g n i z e d a s a p o t e n t i a l p h i l o s o p h y o f p e s t management has s t r a t e g y f o r t h e urban s e c t o r a s w e l l . A d e f i n i t i o n o f IPM i s g i v e n , i n a d d i t i o n t o an e x p l a n a t i o n o f i t s underlying p r i n c i p l e s . O p p o r t u n i t i e s and c o n s t r a i n t s f a c i n g t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f ur ba n IPM pro gr ams a r e d i s c u s s e d n e x t . research s t i l l While n e e d s t o be c o n d u c t e d on t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f a p p l y i n g IPM in t h e ur ba n s e c t o r , an a d d i t i o n a l a r e a o f i n q u i r y t h a t has been v i r t u a l l y u n i n v e s t i g a t e d i s t h e t r a n s f e r o f IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o a s i g n i f i c a n t u r b an d e c i s i o n - m a k e r — t h e ur ba n homeowner. Thus, in t h i s l a s t s e c t i o n o f C h a p t e r 1, t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s revealed: t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e t r a n s f e r o f IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o u r b a n homeowners. A P e s t C o n t r o l P r o f i l e o f Urban Homeowners What a c t i o n s do ur b an homeowners t a k e when c o n f r o n t e d w i t h p e s t pr ob le m s on p l a n t s in t h e i r y a r d s ? F o r t u n a t e l y , d a t a from a number o f s t u d i e s f o c u s i n g on p e s t c o n t r o l i n ur b a n a r e a s p r o v i d e i n f o r ­ m a tio n t h a t can be u s e d t o p r e s e n t a p r o f i l e o f urb an homeowners and t h e i r p e s t c o n t r o l a c t i o n s and o r i e n t a t i o n s . This p r o f i l e c o n s is ts o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e u s e o f p e s t i c i d e s , t h e us e o f nonchemical 3 c o n t r o l s , a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r s r e g a r d i n g p e s t c o n t r o l , and sources o f p e s t con tro l inform ation. Use o f P e s t i c i d e s Data from one n a t i o n a l s u r v e y and s e v e r a l l o c a l ones i n d i c a t e t h a t p e s t i c i d e s a r e u s ed by s u b s t a n t i a l numbers o f homeowners a s a p e s t c o n t r o l method. In a s u r v e y c o n d u c t e d by Savage e t a l . ( 1 9 7 9 ) , d a t a were c o l l e c t e d on h o u s e h o l d p e s t i c i d e u s ag e i n t h e U n i t e d S tates. S tud y d a t a showed t h a t an e s t i m a t e d 90.7% o f a l l h o u s e h o l d s in t h e U.S. u s ed p e s t i c i d e s . The r e s e a r c h e r s a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d where p e s t i c i d e s w ere a p p l i e d : 21.4% o f t h e h o u s e h o l d s us ed p e s t i c i d e s in t h e ga r d en (on f l o w e r beds and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s ) ; 38.7% used p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d (on t r e e s , s h r u b s , and l a w n s ) . A number o f l o c a l s tu d ie s provide a d d itio n a l p e s t i c i d e us e by ur ba n homeowners. i n f o r m a t i o n on In 1972, von Rumker e t a l . c o n ­ d u c t e d a s u r v e y o f p e s t i c i d e u s e in s u b u r b a n homes and g a r d e n s in th ree m etropolitan areas: Mic hi g an . D a l l a s , P h i l a d e l p h i a , and L a n s i n g , The a u t h o r s fo und t h a t 92.5% o f r e s p o n d e n t s in t h e t h r e e c i t i e s rep o rte d using p e s t i c i d e s . In f a c t , d a t a a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e s e homeowners a p p l i e d more p e s t i c i d e s p e r a c r e t h a n f a r m e r s d i d in t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l l a n d s . A l o c a l s t u d y o f p e s t i c i d e use in A l l e g h e n y Cou nt y , P e n n s y l ­ v a n i a , was c o n d u c t e d by Lande ( 1 9 7 5 ) . Of t h e s i n g l e f a m i l y d w e l l i n g u n i t s s t u d i e d , 84.6% u s e d p e s t i c i d e s a t some t i m e in t h e p r e v i o u s 12 months. F i n k l e a e t a l . (1969) a l s o r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r r e s u l t s o f p e s t i c i d e u s e i n u r b a n h o u s e h o l d s i n S ou th C a r o l i n a ; 89% o f 196 f a m i l i e s s u r v e y e d u s ed p e s t i c i d e s f o r p e s t c o n t r o l . F r a n k i e and Levenson (1978) r e p o r t e d t h a t f o r homeowners s u r v e y e d in B r y a n - C o l l e g e S t a t i o n , T e x a s , 49%, 50%, and 43% used p e s t i c i d e s on o u t d o o r p e s t pr o bl em s i n 1974, 1975, and 1976, r e s p e c t i v e l y . For D a l l a s Cou nty, T ex a s, t h e f i g u r e s were 58% in 1975 and 33% in 1976. And more r e c e n t s u r v e y work was c o n d u c t e d by F r a n k i e e t a l . (1981) on p e s t c o n t r o l by ur b an homeowners in B e r k e l e y , C a l i f o r n i a ; D a l l a s , T e x a s ; and New B r u ns w i ck , New J e r s e y . In t h i s s t u d y , t h e a u t h o r s r e p o r t e d t h a t 52% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ( a v e r a g e f o r a l l c i t i e s ) us ed p e s t i c i d e s on o u t d o o r p e s t pr ob lem s in 1977 -78. And f i n a l l y , w h i l e s p e c i f i c d a t a on t h e amount o f p e s t i c i d e s a p p l i e d by ur b a n homeowners i s l i m i t e d , a t l e a s t one s t u d y s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e amount i s s u b s t a n t i a l . In a 1979 n a t i o n w i d e s t u d y c o n d u c t e d by t h e U.S. E nv ir onm ent al P r o t e c t i o n A g e n c y ' s O f f i c e o f P e s t i c i d e P ro g ram s, an e s t i m a t e d 7.5% o f a l l p e s t i c i d e s u se d in t h e U n it e d S t a t e s w ere u s ed by home d w e l l e r s and g a r d e n e r s . T h i s f i g u r e , which amounts t o 87 m i l l i o n l b s . , i s e q u i v a l e n t t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y two l b s . p er household per y e a r (M etcalf e t a l . 1980 ). Use o f Nonchemical C o n t r o l s While p e s t i c i d e s a p p e a r t o p l a y a p r e d o m i n a n t r o l e i n t h e urban homeowner's p e s t c o n t r o l s t r a t e g y , t h e use o f no nchemical methods h a s a l s o been r e p o r t e d . In F r a n k i e and L e v e n s o n ' s (1978) s u r v e y o f homeowners in B r y a n - C o l l e g e S t a t i o n and D a l l a s C o u nt y , T e x a s , t h e a u t h o r s r e p o r t e d t h a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% o f t h e B r y a n - C o l l e g e S t a t i o n r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had t r i e d o t h e r means b e s i d e s c h e m i c a l s f o r c o n t r o l l i n g i n s e c t s in t h e y e a r s 19 74- 76. D allas County r e s u l t s , however, were l o w e r ; 38% us ed nonchemical methods in 1975 and 21% i n 1976. (All f i g u r e s r e p o r t e d were f o r i n d o o r and o u t d o o r p e s t p r o b l e m s . ) And in t h i s a u t h o r ' s more r e c e n t s u r v e y work ( F r a n k i e e t a l . 1 9 8 1 ) , an a v e r a g e o f 51% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n t h r e e m e t r o a r e a s ( B e r k e l e y , C a l i f o r n i a ; D a l l a s , T e x a s ; New Br u ns w ic k, New J e r s e y ) i n d i c a t e d t h e y had t r i e d some nonchemical means t o c o n t r o l b o t h i n d o o r and o u t d o o r p e s t pr o bl em s i n 1977- 78. However, t h e y a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y w er e somewhat l e s s s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e s e means than with p e s t i c i d e s . A t t i t u d e s and B e h a v i o r s Regar din g P e s t Co nt ro l While t h e r e i s some e v i d e n c e t o s u g g e s t t h a t homeowners a r e b e g i n n i n g t o cha ng e t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tow ard p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t i c i d e use, c u rre n t behaviors in d icate th a t p e s tic id e s are s t i l l an i m p o r t a n t means o f p e s t c o n t r o l . For ex am p le, even though von Rumker e t a l . (1972) f oun d t h a t most homeowners w ish ed t o r e d u c e t h e i r use o f p e s t i c i d e s and oppos ed t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f c h e m i c a l s by p u b l i c a g e n c i e s , a h ig h p e r c e n t a g e (84%) r e p o r t e d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s w i t h o u t reservation. F r a n k i e and Levenson (1978) r e p o r t e d s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s in t h e i r B r y a n - C o l l e g e S t a t i o n and D a l l a s , County s u r v e y . Over 70% o f r e s p o n d e n t s in t h e ur b an a r e a s u r v e y e d ( D a l l a s County) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e i r a t t i t u d e was more " c a u t i o u s " r e g a r d i n g t h e use o f p e s t i c i d e s , w i t h o v e r 50% i n d i c a t i n g t h a t ch emical insecticides s h o u l d be u s ed in n a t i o n a l o r s t a t e p a r k s o n l y un d er emergency circum stances. Yet 88% f e l t t h a t p e s t i c i d e s " d i d some g ood "; 87% f e l t t h a t p e s t i c i d e s " d i d no harm ." Frankie e t a l . (1981) a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t on a v e r a g e , f o r t h e t h r e e m e tr o a r e a s s t u d i e d , 47% 6 f e l t t h a t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s to w ard p e s t i c i d e s had changed t o "more cautious." And o f t h o s e who m e nt io ne d harm a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e s e compounds, o n l y 11.8% p r o v i d e d a t l e a s t one s p e c i f i c example. In a somewhat d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t , S a l c e d o e t a l . (1971) s u r v e y e d f a r m e r s and c i t y d w e l l e r s in Champaign Cou nty, I l l i n o i s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e i r a t t i t u d e s to w ar d t h e p e s t i c i d e i n d u s t r y . O v erall, the authors fo und t h a t w h i l e a t t i t u d e s e x i s t e d tow ard t h e p e s t i c i d e i n d u s t r y , t h e y were c l u s t e r e d a t b o th en ds o f t h e c o n t in u u m ; 43% were f a v o r a b l e , 19% n e u t r a l , and 38% u n f a v o r a b l e . A m a j o r i t y in both g r o u p s d i s a g r e e d t h a t t h e p e s t i c i d e i n d u s t r y i s o f t e n t o blame f o r a c c i d e n t s i n v o l v i n g p e s t i c i d e m is us e and t h a t i t i s a g a i n s t r e s t r i c t i o n s on p e s t i c i d e us e so t h a t i t can s e l l more o f i t s products. A m a j o r i t y a l s o a g r e e d t h a t t h e p e s t i c i d e i n d u s t r y s h o u ld be p r a i s e d b e c a u s e i t s p r o d u c t s a r e e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f h ig h q u a l i t y f o o d s a t r e a s o n a b l e c o s t , t h a t i t i s a t l e a s t a s concerned as th e general p u b lic about th e i n h e re n t dangers o f i t s p r o d u c t s , and t h a t i t i s g e n e r a l l y s t a f f e d by h i g h l y t r a i n e d scien tists. But t h e y a l s o a g r e e d t h a t n o t enough e x t e n s i v e s t u d y has been done r e g a r d i n g t h e p o t e n t i a l harmful e f f e c t s o f p e s t i c i d e s and t h a t th e p e s t i c i d e in d u s tr y needs to b e t t e r inform th e p u b lic o f the d a n g e r s i n v o l v e d w i t h newer p e s t i c i d e s and c h e m i c a l s . And in g e n e r a l , i t was fo und t h a t c i t y d w e l l e r s were more c o n c e r n e d th a n f a r m e r s a b o u t t h e harmful n e s s o f p e s t i c i d e s . S o u r c e s o f P e s t C o n tr o l Information F i n a l l y , t h e s o u r c e s t h a t ur ba n homeowners use f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t c o n t r o l r e v e a l much a b o u t t h e i r p e s t c o n t r o l actions. Data on how p e s t i c i d e s a r e s e l e c t e d f o r p e s t c o n t r o l were r e p o r t e d by Lande ( 1 9 7 5 ) . T h i r t y - t h r e e p e r c e n t o f the survey r e s p o n d e n t s u s e d i n f o r m a t i o n from t h e p r o d u c t l a b e l t o s e l e c t a p esticide. In a d d i t i o n , 27.3% r e l i e d on a d v e r t i s e m e n t s , 18.2% bas ed t h e i r d e c i s i o n on c o s t , and 15.2% p u r c h a s e d p e s t i c i d e s s im p l y from habit. Lande a l s o f ou nd t h a t 9.1% o f t h e homeowners in h i s s t u d y b as ed t h e i r p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n on recom mendations from t h e r e t a i l salesperson. S i m i l a r r e s u l t s were r e p o r t e d by F r a n k i e e t a l . ( 1 9 8 1 ) . In t h e i r s u r v e y , an a v e r a g e o f 24.4% o f r e s p o n d e n t s in t h e t h r e e me tro a r e a s s t u d i e d u s ed a d v e r t i s e m e n t s a s t h e b a s i s f o r t h e i r p e s t i c i d e p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n , 17.7% us ed t h e p r o d u c t l a b e l , 17.4% r e l i e d on p r o f e s s i o n a l a d v i c e , and 14.3% i n d i c a t e d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e w i t h the product. While Lande (1 975) r e p o r t e d t h a t c o s t was a f a c t o r in p e s t i c i d e p u r c h a s e , F r a n k i e e t a l . ( 1 9 8 1 :4 6 ) o b s e r v e d t h a t " N e i t h e r p r i c e n o r s a f e t y a p p e a r s t o be a m o t i v a t i n g f a c t o r in d e t e r m i n i n g which p e s t i c i d e p r o d u c t s w i l l be p u r c h a s e d . " For p e s t c o n t r o l i n f o r m a t i o n , Savage e t a l . (1979) found t h a t t h e l a b e l was t h e s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n on p e s t i c i d e use by 36.7% o f surveyed households. T h i s was f o l l o w e d by: t h e mass media (1 6.9%); n e i g h b o r s , f r i e n d s o r r e l a t i v e s (13 .3 % ); r e t a i l ( 5 . 7 % ) ; and f i n a l l y t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l Interestingly, s a le s persons E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e (3 .2% ). i t was a l s o r e p o r t e d t h a t l e s s t h a n 50% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s had r e a d p e s t i c i d e l a b e l s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n p r o c e d u r e s and p r e v e n t a t i v e m e a s u r e s . Lande (1975) s t u d y were s i m i l a r : R e s u l t s from t h e 45.5% used t h e p r o d u c t l a b e l f o r d i r e c t i o n s and 27.3% f o r p r e c a u t i o n s . And, s u r p r i s i n g l y , 21.2% o f t h e homeowners in t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h e y had r e a d n o t h i n g on t h e pesticide label. In t h e F r a n k i e and Levenson (1978) s t u d y , e x t e r m i n a t o r s and n u r s e r i e s w ere t h e s o u r c e s most c o n s u l t e d f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on b o th i n d o o r and o u t d o o r p e s t pr ob le m s (40% and 26%, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) i n t h e u r b an a r e a . Only 3% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s u t i l i z e d t h e s e r v i c e s o f n e a r b y Texas A&M U n i v e r s i t y . And i n t h e i r more r e c e n t s u r v e y work F r a n k i e e t a l . (1981) f ou n d t h a t p r o f e s s i o n a l p e s t c o n t r o l o p e r a t o r s w ere t h e number one s o u r c e u s e d by r e s p o n d e n t s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on pest control (35%). A d d i t i o n a l s o u r c e s us ed w er e: o t h e r ( u n s p e c i ­ f i e d ) 16%; u n i v e r s i t y 14%; p r i n t e d m a t t e r 13%; nu rserymen 10%; f r i e n d s 9%; and t e l e v i s i o n / r a d i o 2%. The P e s t Co n tr o l P r o f i l e in Summary Based on i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g f o u r s e c t i o n s , t h e f o l l o w i n g p e s t c o n t r o l p r o f i l e o f ur b an homeowners em erges: 1. P e s t i c i d e s a r e u s ed by l a r g e numbers o f homeowners for pest co n tro l. 2. The amount o f p e s t i c i d e s a p p l i e d i n u rb a n a r e a s appears to 3. be s u b s t a n t i a l . Some homeowners us e no nchemical means t o c o n t r o l p e s t p r o b l e m s , in a d d i t i o n t o p e s t i c i d e s . 4. While homeowners a r e b e g i n n i n g t o e x p r e s s more concern about th e dangers a s s o c i a t e d w ith p e s t i c i d e s , t h e i r b e h a v i o r s do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y r e f l e c t t h i s orientation. 5. I n f o r m a t i o n on p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t c o n t r o l is o b t a i n e d p r i m a r i l y from p r o d u c t l a b e l s and p r o f e s ­ s i o n a l s involved in p e s t c o n t r o l . In summary, i t a p p e a r s t h a t w h i l e ur b an homeowners seem t o be more aware o f t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f p e s t i c i d e us e (numbers 3 and 4 ) , t h e s e compounds p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e i r p e s t c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h (numbers 1, 2 and 5 ) . R i s k s and Problems A s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e Use o f P e s t i c i d e s While ur b an homeowners a r e q u i t e d e p e n d e n t on p e s t i c i d e s , t h i s form o f chem ica l t e c h n o l o g y p r e s e n t s human and e n v i r o n m e n t a l r i s k s t h a t a r e o n l y b e g i n n i n g t o be u n d e r s t o o d . The use o f t h e s e compounds a l s o ha s d i s t i n c t l i m i t a t i o n s a s a p e s t c o n t r o l B ottrell technique. P er h ap s ( 1 9 7 9 : 4 ) b e s t p u t s t h e i s s u e o f p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t c o n t r o l into perspective: I r o n i c a l l y , t h e s u c c e s s o f chem ica l p e s t i c i d e s c r e a t e d a dilemma. On one h a nd , many o f o u r " n e c e s s i t i e s " have coevolved w ith p e s t i c i d e technology to th e e x t e n t t h a t we e v e n t u a l l y became l a r g e l y d e p e n d e n t upon t h e t e c h n o ­ l o g y . Yet t h e r e have been ample w a r n i n g s — f i r s t i s s u e d more t h a n 50 y e a r s ago and s i n c e a m p l i f i e d many t i m e s — a g a i n s t c o n t i n u i n g t o r e l y h e a v i l y on p e s t i c i d e t e c h n o l o g y , and many p e s t c o n t r o l s c i e n t i s t s a r e q u e s t i o n i n g w h e t h e r t h i s t e c h n o l o g y can p r e v e n t s e r i o u s p e s t r a v a g e s in t h e future. Human R i s k s from P e s t i c i d e s Because p e s t i c i d e s a r e d e s i g n e d t o be b i o l o g i c a l l y a c t i v e , t h e y p r e s e n t p o t e n t i a l h a z a r d s t o human h e a l t h ( B o t t r e l l 19 7 9) . While a d v e r s e h e a l t h e f f e c t s from p e s t i c i d e s have been d e b a t e d , no conclusive epidem iological evidence e s t a b l is h in g a causal lin k 10 between i n c i d e n t a l l o n g - t e r m e x p o s u r e and h e a l t h pr ob le m s h as been shown ( P i m e n t a l e t a l . 19 80 ). However, p o t e n t i a l h e a l t h pro ble m s from i n g e s t i o n o f p e s t i c i d e r e s i d u e s o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s has y e t t o be a d e q u a t e l y a s s e s s e d (Rudd 1 9 6 4 ) . R elatively l i t t l e inform ation is a v a i l a b l e on t h e h a z a r d s o f p e s t i c i d e s and t h e i r r e s i d u e s u n d er f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s (von Rumker e t a l . 1975). Alth oug h t e s t i n g o f p e s t i c i d e s u n d e r c o n t r o l l e d l a b o r a t o r y c o n d i t i o n s ha s p r o v i d e d some m e as ur e f o r a s s i g n i n g " a c c e p t a b l e " r e s i d u e l e v e l s in human t i s s u e , a s E p s t e i n ( 1 9 7 4 :2 4 2 7 ) o b s e r v e s , " i t i s n o t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t s a f e l e v e l s o f c a r c i n o g e n s on an a r b i t r a r y f r a c t i o n o f t h e l o w e s t e f f e c t i v e animal do se i n a p a r t i c u l a r e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n . " En vi ro n m en ta l Problems from P e s t i c i d e s P e s t i c i d e s have been more r e a d i l y i m p l i c a t e d in e n v i r o n m e n t a l contam ination. The f a t e o f a number o f t h e more p e r s i s t e n t c h l o r i n a t e d h y d r o c a r b o n s ( f o r e x am pl e, DDT, DDE and d i e l d r i n ) have been shown t o a c c u m u l a t e and become b i o l o g i c a l l y m a g n i f i e d i n t h e fo o d c h a i n o f w i l d l i f e ( B o t t r e l l 19 7 9 ) . These compounds have been d i s t r i b u t e d t h r o u g h o u t t r o p h i c webs t o u l t i m a t e l y c o n t a m i n a t e an d , in some c a s e s , d e s t r o y s p e c i e s a t t h e t o p o f a q u a t i c fo o d c h a i n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y s p e c i e s o f b i r d s s uch a s e a g l e s , o s p r e y s , p e r e g r i n f a l c o n s and s p a r r o w hawks (von Rumker e t a l . 1972; Pime nta l and Goodman 1 97 4 ) . T h i s im p ac t l e d t o d i s c o n t i n u i n g t h e use o f t h e s e more p e r s i s t e n t b u t l e s s t o x i c compounds. I n s t e a d , t h e use o f compounds more i n i t i a l l y t o x i c t o warm bl o o d e d s p e c i e s , b u t l e s s p e r s i s t e n t in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , h a s o c c u r r e d (von Rumker e t a l . 1972 ). 11 L i m i t a t i o n s o f P e s t i c i d e s a s a P e s t Co n tr o l Technique One o f t h e most s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s o f p e s t i c i d e s i s t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t g r o u p s o f p e s t s have d e v e l o p e d g e n e t i c r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e s e compounds. At t h e p r e s e n t t i m e , o v e r 300 s p e c i e s o f i n s e c t s , m i t e s and t i c k s a r e known t o p o s s e s s s t r a i n s r e s i s t a n t t o one o r more chemical p e s t i c i d e s ( G l a s s 1975; B o t t r e l l 1 97 9 ) . And n e a r l y every s p e c ie s o f i n s e c t i s p o t e n t i a l l y capable o f developing r e s i s t a n c e t o any k i n d o f i n s e c t i c i d e ( N a t i o n a l Academy o f S c i e n c e s 1975 ). R e p e a te d a p p l i c a t i o n o f a p e s t i c i d e may t h e r e b y r e s u l t in i n e f f e c t i v e p e s t c o n t r o l and s e r v e t o i n c r e a s e t h e r a t e a t which p e s t s p e c i e s d e v e l o p t h i s r e s i s t a n c e (van Emden 19 7 4) . In a d d i t i o n , u n n e c e s s a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s may a l s o i n t e n s i f y e x i s t i n g p e s t s i t u a t i o n s a n d / o r c r e a t e new pro ble m s by d e s t r o y i n g n o n - t a r g e t o r g a n i s m s , such a s p r e d a t o r s and p a r a s i t e s ( B e i r n e 1970; Smith 1970; B o t t r e l l 1979; Committee on Urban P e s t Management 19 80 ). I n t e g r a t e d P e s t Management: A P o t e n t i a l S t r a t e g y f o r P e s t C o n tr ol i n t h e Urban S e c t o r Because o f t h e growing c o n c e r n a b o u t t h e heavy r e l i a n c e on chem ica l p e s t i c i d e s a s a means f o r c o n t r o l l i n g p e s t s , t h e d ev el op m en t o f a l t e r n a t i v e p e s t management s t r a t e g i e s has grown (Committee on Urban P e s t Management 1 9 8 0 ) . R a t h e r t h a n r e l y i n g on a s i n g l e c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e (s uc h a s p e s t i c i d e s ) , a t t e n t i o n i s b ei ng d i r e c t e d t o t h e use o f m u l t i p l e t e c h n i q u e s , an ap p r o ac h c a l l e d i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM). 12 What i s IPM? IPM i s an e c o l o g i c a l p h i l o s o p h y t h a t a d v o c a t e s u s i n g a l l a v a i l a b l e and n e c e s s a r y t e c h n i q u e s t o manage p e s t s a s n a t u r a l l y as p o s s i b l e t h e r e b y l e s s e n i n g r e l i a n c e on chem ica l p e s t i c i d e s . The u l t i m a t e outcome s o u g h t in t h i s a p p r o a c h i s e f f e c t i v e , l o n g - t e r m management o f p e s t p o p u l a t i o n s and n o t n e c e s s a r i l y t h e c o m p le te e lim in a tio n o f th e se organisms. While t h e c o n c e p t and p r a c t i c e o f IPM was o r i g i n a l l y p i o n e e r e d i n a g r i c u l t u r e , i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r de v el op m en t and u s e i n t h e ur ba n s e c t o r ha s been r e c o g n i z e d ( B e n n e t t 1978; Olkowski e t a l . 1978; B o t t r e l l 1979; Committee on Urban P e s t Management 1980; M e t c a l f e t a l . 1980). I n t e g r a t e d p e s t management has been d e f i n e d by many i n d i v i d u a l s ( S t e r n e t a l . 1959; Southwood and Way 1970; G l a s s 1975; B e n n e t t 1978; Olkowski e t a l . 1978; B o t t r e l l 1979; B i r d 1980; M e t c a l f e t a l . 1980; E x t e n s i o n Committee on O r g a n i z a t i o n and P o l i c y 1980; C o r b e t 1981; F l i n t and van den Bosch 1981; Sawyer and C as ag r an de 1 98 3 ) . The d e f i n i t i o n g iv e n by B o t t r e l l ( 1 9 7 9 : v ) w i l l be u sed a s a f r a m e - o f - r e f e r e n c e f o r d i s c u s s i n g t h i s p h i l o s o p h y and a p p r o a c h t o p e s t management: I n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM) i s t h e s e l e c t i o n , i n t e g r a t i o n , and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p e s t c o n t r o l b a s e d on p r e d i c t e d ec o n o m ic , e c o l o g i c a l , and s o c i o l o g i c a l consequences. IPM s e e k s maximum us e o f n a t u r a l l y occurring p e s t c o n t r o l s , including w eather, d isease a g e n t s , p r e d a t o r s , and p a r a s i t e s . In a d d i t i o n , IPM u t i l i z e s v a r i o u s b i o l o g i c a l , p h y s i c a l , and chemical c o n t r o l and h a b i t a t m o d i f i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s . A r t i f i c i a l c o n t r o l s a r e imposed o n l y a s r e q u i r e d t o keep a p e s t from surpassing in t o l e r a b l e population le v e ls predetermined from a c c u r a t e a s s e s s m e n t s o f t h e p e s t damage p o t e n t i a l and t h e e c o l o g i c a l , s o c i o l o g i c a l , and economic c o s t s o f the co n tro l measures. 13 P r i n c i p l e s o f IPM While t h e above d e f i n i t i o n i s g iv e n t o f a c i l i t a t e a d i s c u s s i o n o f IPM, i t i s n e v e r t h e l e s s a d i f f i c u l t t h i n g t o " p in down." Pe rh ap s C o r b e t ( 1 9 8 1 :1 8 5 ) b e s t summed up t h i s a p p r o a c h t o p e s t management when he w r o t e , "IPM i s a s much a s t a t e m e n t o f p h i l o s o p h y o r i n t e n t as i t is a re c ip e f o r a c t io n ." In a d d i t i o n t o a d e f i n i t i o n o f IPM t h e n , a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f a number o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s h o u l d f u r t h e r s e r v e t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h i s dynamic p e s t management p h i l o s o p h y . B ottrell The p r i n c i p l e s a r e t a k e n , in p a r t , from (1979:vi-vii). P o t e n t i a l l y harmful o r g a n is m s w i l l c o n t i n u e t o e x i s t a t low l e v e l s and in f a c t may be u s e f u l . pests necessarily j u s t i f i e s IPM p h i l o s o p h y . The n o t i o n t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f action fo r control i s r e j e c t e d in t h e In f a c t , i n most c a s e s i t i s n e a r l y i m p o s s i b l e t o c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e p e s t s . Low l e v e l s o f p e s t s p e c i e s o f t e n p r o v i d e vital f ood s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y t o s u p p o r t n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g p r e d a t o r s and p a r a s i t e s . The p r a c t i c e o f p e s t e r a d i c a t i o n o r e l i m i n a t i o n t h e n , i s c o n t r a r y t o an IPM p h i l o s o p h y . I n s t e a d , an a c c e p t a n c e o r b a l a n c e o f low l e v e l s o f p e s t s p e c i e s i s a d v o c a t e d ; h e n c e , t h e te rm management r a t h e r t h a n c o n t r o l i s more a p p r o p r i a t e . The e c o s y s t e m i s t h e management u n i t . Because o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a l l components in t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ( t h e e c o s y s t e m ) , a d e c i s i o n t o c o n t r o l a p e s t a t one l e v e l o r t i m e may c r e a t e unforeseen consequences elsew here. In p r a c t i c i n g IPM, an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e a r r a y o f components c o m p r i s i n g t h e e c o s y s t e m and how t h e y r e l a t e and i n t e r a c t i s e s s e n t i a l . The goal in IPM i s 14 t o manage p e s t p o p u l a t i o n s a t t o l e r a b l e o r a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s w h i l e avo id in g d i s r u p t i o n s to the ecosystem. A v a r i e t y o f management t e c h n i q u e s a r e u s e d . IPM c a l l s f o r u s i n g a v a r i e t y o f management t e c h n i q u e s t h a t se ek t o keep p e s t p o p u l a t i o n s a t o r below a c c e p t a b l e l e v e l s . These t e c h n i q u e s a r e i d e a l l y ch os en t o m in im iz e ec ono m ic, e c o l o g i c a l and s o c i o l o g i c a l consequences w hile producing s a f e , e f f e c t i v e lo ng-term p e s t management c o n s i s t e n t w i t h management o b j e c t i v e s . In a d d i t i o n , t h e s e l e c t i o n and i n t e g r a t i o n o f p a r t i c u l a r t e c h n i q u e s c a l l s f o r a t h o r o u g h knowledge o f t h e p l a n t and t h e b i o l o g y and e c o l o g y o f t h e pest. P r e v e n t a t i v e m e a s u r e s , which a r e aimed a t t h e p l a n t and i t s immediate s u r r o u n d i n g s ( f o r ex am p le, u s i n g r e s i s t a n t p l a n t v a r i e t i e s and c u l t u r a l m a n i p u l a t i o n ) and t h e e n co ur a g em en t and us e o f n a t u r a l c o n t r o l a g e n t s ( p r e d a t o r s and p a r a s i t e s ) a r e s t r e s s e d f i r s t . The a p p l i c a t i o n o f management t e c h n i q u e s t o t h e p e s t i t s e l f ( f o r ex a m p le , p h y s i c a l , m e c h a n i c a l , and p e s t i c i d e c o n t r o l s ) a r e g iv e n s ec ond p r i o r i t y , t o be u sed o n l y when n a t u r a l r e g u l a t i n g f a c t o r s and other suppressive e f f o r ts f a i l . M o n i t o r i n g e s s e n t i a l e c o s y s t e m components p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n to e s ta b lis h th resh o ld le v e ls f o r decision-making. E ssential to the IPM p h i l o s o p h y i s t h e r o u t i n e m o n i t o r i n g o f e c o s y s t e m co m po n en ts, such a s p e s t p o p u l a t i o n s , n a t u r a l and i n t r o d u c e d c o n t r o l a g e n t s , e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s and management p r a c t i c e s . This monitored i n f o r m a t i o n can t h e n be u se d t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e c u r r e n t mix o f management t e c h n i q u e s s h o u l d be r e l a x e d , o r w h e t h e r a d d i t i o n a l o n es s h o u l d be a p p l i e d . A key c o n c e p t p r o p o s e d f o r making these decisions is the threshold le v e l. The t h r e s h o l d l e v e l i s t h a t 15 m a g n it u d e o f a p e s t p o p u l a t i o n a t which t h e c o s t s o f c o n t r o l a r e eq u a l t o t h e r e t u r n s o r b e n e f i t s . Until t h i s le v el is reached, a p p l i c a t i o n o f i n i t i a l o r a d d i t i o n a l management t e c h n i q u e s w i l l n o t p r o d u c e enough b e n e f i t t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e i r u s e . (In a g r i c u l t u r e t h e s e c o s t s and b e n e f i t s a r e u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d i n economic t e r m s , w h i l e i n ur b an a p p l i c a t i o n s t h e y a r e t y p i c a l l y c l a s s i f i e d u n d e r t h e somewhat vague t e r m " a e s t h e t i c . " ) I d e a lly then, th e monitoring p ro c e ss p ro v id e s in fo rm a tio n about th e ecosystem f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h r e s h o l d l e v e l s and making management d e c i s i o n s . IPM in t h e Urban S e c t o r : From a t e c h n i c a l in t h e ur ba n s e c t o r . O p p o r t u n i t i e s and C o n s t r a i n t s s t a n d p o i n t , t h e IPM p h i l o s o p h y can be a p p l i e d The p r i n c i p l e s from a g r i c u l t u r e a r e t h e same, a s a r e many o f t h e management t e c h n i q u e s (Committee on Urban P e s t Management 19 8 0 ) . While a p p r o p r i a t e t h r e s h o l d l e v e l s need t o be d e v e l o p e d f o r d i f f e r e n t ur ban s i t u a t i o n s and a d e q u a t e b i o l o g i c a l , b e h a v i o r a l , and e c o l o g i c a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t many ur ba n p e s t s n eed s t o be r e s e a r c h e d , IPM s t i l l control o ffe rs a viable a lte rn a tiv e fo r pest i n t h e ur ban e n v i r o n m e n t . As B o t t r e l l (1 9 7 9 : 7 5 ) has s t a t e d : " I t [IPM] ha s b r o a d a p p l i c a t i o n and o f f e r s t h e o n l y known l o n g - t e r m s o l u t i o n s t o some o f t h e most s e v e r e urb an p e s t p r o b l e m s . " A s i d e from t h e t e c h n i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r i m p le m e n ti n g IPM in ur b a n s e t t i n g s , its to tal incorporation is s t i l l hampered by a number o f o b s t a c l e s . One o f t h e m a jo r d i f f i c u l t i e s i s t h e r e l a t i v e newness o f IPM. A lt h o u g h a g r i c u l t u r a l IPM h as been s t u d i e d , t h e 16 s e p a r a t e and s p e c i a l i z e d f i e l d o f "Urban IPM" has o n l y r e c e n t l y been r e c o g n i z e d (Committee on Urban P e s t Management 19 80 ). The d i f f e r e n c e s between u r b an and a g r i c u l t u r a l p e s t management, w i t h r e g a r d t o IPM, a r e o n l y b e g i n n i n g t o be u n d e r s t o o d . These d i f f e r e n c e s stem from a v a r i e t y o f f a c t o r s , o n l y some o f which a r e b e g i n n i n g t o be a d d r e s s e d . A number o f t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s a r e p re s e n te d in Table 1.1 . The Need f o r Urban IPM I n f o r m a t i o n T r a n s f e r E f f o r t s S u c c e s s in managing p e s t pro ble m s in t h e u r b an e n v i r o n m e n t depends h e a v i l y on t h e c o o p e r a t i o n o f in f o r m ed homeowners ( F a r a c e 1979; Committee on Urban P e s t Management 19 80 ). The urban homeowner has been c o n d i t i o n e d t o p r i m a r i l y u s e one method ( p e s t i c i d e s ) when p e s t p r ob le m s a r i s e . T h e r e f o r e , e f f o r t s t o cha ng e and c o n s i d e r a l t e r n a t i v e s t r a t e g i e s f o r p e s t c o n t r o l a r e d i f f i c u l t . A t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r s have been s h a p e d and r e i n f o r c e d f o r o v e r f o u r d e c a d e s ( s i n c e t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f s y n t h e t i c p e s t i c i d e s in t h e 1940*s ) , and e f f o r t s to a l t e r c u rre n t p e s t control p r a c tic e s are often f r u s tr a te d by a d e s i r e f o r a p e s t - f r e e e n v i r o n m e n t . The E x t e n s i o n Committee on O r g a n i z a t i o n and P o l i c y ( 1 9 8 0 : 9 ) has commented on t h i s s i t u a t i o n : A p p l i c a t i o n o f IPM t e c h n i q u e s by commercial p e s t c o n t r o l a p p l i c a t o r s i s made d i f f i c u l t by p u b l i c e x p e c t a t i o n s and l e v e l s o f p e s t p o p u l a t i o n s t h e y f r e q u e n t l y e n c o u n t e r . The commercial p e s t c o n t r o l a p p l i c a t o r i s u s u a l l y c o n t a c t e d a f t e r a p e s t pr o bl em has o c c u r r e d , and a s k e d t o e l i m i n a t e t h e pr ob lem . The p u b l i c ' s g e n e r a l l a c k o f a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r a to l e r a b l e p e s t i n f e s t a t i o n l e v e l , plus the s u b sta n tia l c o m p e t i t i o n among f i r m s f o r w h at i s p e r c e i v e d t o be t h e h i g h e s t q u a l i t y o f work w i t h a minimum o f p e s t r e c u r r e n c e s , o f t e n r e s u l t in a heavy r e l i a n c e on p e s t i c i d e s . Table 1.1. D i f f e r e n c e s between a g r i c u l t u r a l and urban p e s t management P e s t management i n t h e : A gricultural secto r Urban s e c t o r 1. P e s t management i s an i n t e g r a l component o f crop p ro duction. 1. P e s t management i s more an i n c i d e n t o f d a i l y life. 2. P e s t management d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g i s based on economic c r i t e r i a ( te r m e d t h e economic t h r e s h o l d l e v e l i n IPM). 2. P e s t management d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g can be b as ed on a number o f c r i t e r i a ( f o r ex a m p le , ec o n o ­ m ic , a e s t h e t i c , and p u b l i c h e a l t h ) d e p en d in g on t h e p e s t and t h e s i t u a t i o n ; a l l have e c o ­ nomic a s p e c t s , b u t o n l y some l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o economic d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g . 3. P e s t managers a r e o f t e n t r a i n e d p r o ­ fessionals. 3. P e s t managers may be p r o f e s s i o n a l s , p a r a p r o f e s s i o n a l s , o r urban d w e l l e r s w i t h no formal o r in f o r m a l t r a i n i n g . 4. Inform ation d is s e m in a tio n i s e a s i e r because managers s h a r e common i n t e r e s t s and s i m i l a r v a l u e s ; managers t y p i c a l l y us e p e s t manage­ ment i n f o r m a t i o n t o make a l i v i n g . 4. I n f o r m a t i o n d i s s e m i n a t i o n i s d i f f i c u l t be­ c a u s e o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s ur ba n p o p u l a t i o n s who a r e n o t u s i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o make a living. 5. B i o l o g i c a l and economic f a c t o r s d r i v e t h e system. 5. F a c t o r s o t h e r t h a n b i o l o g i c a l and economic d r i v e t h e s y s t e m ; t h e s y st e m mus t be viewed in t e r m s o f s o c i o - e c o n o m i c and p o l i t i c a l f a c t o r s ; u n d e r s t a n d i n g human a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r s i s i m p o r t a n t s i n c e many pr ob le m s i n v o l v e i n d i v i d u a l and s o c i a l psychology. Source: C o n m it te e on Urban P e s t Management (1980) 18 Thus , homeowners, who a r e p r i m a r i l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e s t management d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , become a s i g n i f i c a n t component in d e t e r m i n i n g i f urban IPM pr ograms w i l l be e f f e c t i v e . In a d d i t i o n , t h e a c t i o n s t h e y t a k e and t h e p e s t c o n t r o l o p t i o n s t h e y s e e k w i l l account f o r a major p o r ti o n o f th e su ccess o f th e s e programs. Consequently, inform ation t r a n s f e r a c t i v i t i e s t h a t "provide m o t i v a t i o n t o a c t , c o u r s e s o f a c t i o n , and r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r s u c c e s s f u l a t t e m p t s , a l l f i g u r e i m p o r t a n t l y i n a co m pr e he ns iv e p e s t management s t r a t e g y " (Farace 1979:1). The t r a n s f e r o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o urban homeowners, however, i s a c o m p l i c a t e d m a t t e r s i n c e most p e s t c o n t r o l a c t i v i t y i s c a r r i e d o u t by i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i v e r s e e x p e r i e n c e s , m o t i v a t i o n s , and e x p e c ­ t a t i o n s (as noted in Table 1 . 1 ) . One o f t h e c h a l l e n g e s o f ur ba n IPM then i s to se rv e th e extrem ely d iv e r s e u s e r groups w ith a p p r o p r ia te IPM i n f o r m a t i o n ( B e n n e t t 1978; Olkowski e t a l . 1978; B o t t r e l l 1979; Committee on Urban P e s t Management 1980; E x t e n s i o n Committee on O r g a n i z a t i o n and P o l i c y 198 0). The need f o r s t u d y i n g and u n d e r s t a n d i n g such e f f o r t s , and in d e e d t h e p r i m a r y r e a s o n f o r t h i s s t u d y , i s b e s t p u t f o r t h by t h e Committee on Urban P e s t Management ( 1 9 8 0 : 2 4 4 - 2 4 5 ) : The need t o convey i n f o r m a t i o n - - k n o w l e d g e and t e c h n i q u e s - from t h o s e who have i t t o t h o s e who nee d i t i s a common pro blem i n a l m o s t e v e r y f i e l d . To be u s e f u l , i n f o r m a t i o n must be conveyed u n d e r s t a n d a b l y , and in such a way t h a t i t i s l i k e l y t o be u s e d and u sed e f f e c t i v e l y . A lt h ou gh p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n in urb an p e s t management i s u r g e n t l y n e e d e d , t h e prob lem s o f co n v e y i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n t o urban r e s i d e n t s have n o t been s t u d i e d s u f f i c i e n t l y t o p e r m i t d e f i n i t i v e s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t which methods a s s u r e t h a t t h e message w i l l be r e c e i v e d and a p p l i e d . Hence t h e r e i s an u r g e n t need f o r r e s e a r c h on how t o t r a n s f e r i n f o r m a t i o n on u rb an p e s t management e f f e c t i v e l y . They go on t o s t a t e : 19 A v a r i e t y o f media and messag es --ma ny a s y e t u n t r i e d - - m a y t h e r e f o r e be n e c e s s a r y t o convey u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n on p e s t control. Methods w i l l a l s o be needed t o measure t h e im p ac t and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f p a r t i c u l a r e d u c a t i o n a l e f f o r t s so t h a t more e f f e c t i v e means can be d e v i s e d f o r f u t u r e u s e . Stud y P u r po se and Overview The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e needs s t a t e d above by t h e Committee on Urban P e s t Management ( 1 9 8 0 ) : to b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d t h e t r a n s f e r o f urban p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h i s s t u d y f o c u s e s on e v a l u a t i n g one r e c e n t e f f o r t t o t r a n s f e r i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n t o urban homeowners. In d o in g s o , i t i s e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e r e s u l t s w i l l n o t only provide a b e t t e r understanding of the f a c t o r s a s s o c ia te d with t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s f e r e f f o r t , b u t w i l l a l s o p r o v i d e a framework t h a t o t h e r s can u s e t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d and p e r h a p s improve t h e i r t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s in ur b a n p e s t management. Towards t h i s e n d , C h a p t e r 2 d e s c r i b e s a community de ve lo pm en t p r o j e c t ( P r o j e c t PEST) c o n d u c t e d i n M e r id i a n C h a r t e r Township, Michigan t h a t was d e s i g n e d t o i n c r e a s e a w a r e n e s s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s among ur ba n homeowners. One component o f P r o j e c t PEST was t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e P e s t Management Manual — a homeowner's s e l f - h e l p a p p r o a c h t o IPM. T h i s ma nu al, and t h e 75 to w n s h ip homeowners who p u r c h a s e d i t , rep resen ts the tr a n s f e r e f f o r t th a t is i n v e s t i g a t e d in t h i s s t u d y . Consequently, Chapter 2 a ls o p rovides a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e P e s t Management M anual. Having d e s c r i b e d w h at w i l l be i n v e s t i g a t e d , C h a p t e r 3 i s d e v o t e d t o how t h e manual w i l l be e v a l u a t e d . D iv id e d i n t o two p a r t s , 20 P art I (the th e o re tic a l framework) d e s c r i b e s a s o c i o l o g i c a l - b a s e d model d e v e l o p e d t o e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s an i n d i v i d u a l go es t h r o u g h when d e c i d i n g t o a d o p t o r r e j e c t a new i d e a o r p r a c t i c e ( l a b e l l e d an innovation). C o n s i d e r i n g t h e manual an i n n o v a t i o n , a r a t i o n a l e f o r u s i n g t h e model and how i t w i l l be a p p l i e d i n t h i s s t u d y c o n c l u d e s Part I. P a r t I I ( t h e c o n c e p t u a l framework) i s d e v o t e d t o s e l e c t i n g s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e model and c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g them f o r u s e i n t h i s s t u d y . In a d d i t i o n t o u s i n g t h e model a s a means t o d e t e r m i n e t h e f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e u s e o f t h e manual by t o w n s h ip homeowners (m ea sur ed i n te r m s o f t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y a d o p t e d i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s from i t ) , i t s u s e f u ln e s s as a framework f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g o t h e r t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s w i l l a l s o be determ ined. T h i s w i l l be a c c o m p l i s h e d by t e s t i n g a number o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s fo und t o e x i s t between t h e i n d e p e n d e n t and d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s in t h e mod el. The c h a p t e r en ds w i t h a l i s t o f t h e 15 h y p o t h e s e s t h a t w i l l be us ed t o t e s t t h e m o d e l ' s a p p l i c a b i l i t y f o r ur b an p e s t management t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s . Study methods a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 4. The f i r s t f o u r s e c t i o n s d e s c r ib e th e approach taken in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n : a c r o s s s e c t i o n a l p o s t - o n l y s u r v e y o f a l l manual owners in M e r i d i a n C h a r t e r Township, M ic h i g a n . The f i f t h s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a d e t a i l e d p r e s e n ­ t a t i o n o f how ea c h o f t h e v a r i a b l e s was m e a s u r e d . Remaining s e c t i o n s i n c l u d e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t us ed t o c o l l e c t s u r v e y d a t a (a s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d mail q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) , p r e - t e s t p r o c e d u r e s and r e s u l t s , how t h e main s u r v e y was c o n d u c t e d ( i n c l u d i n g r e t u r n r e s u l t s ) and t h e me thods u s ed t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a . 21 Sur vey r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 5. B a s i c d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the data fo r a ll v a ria b le s are presented f i r s t . The s ec o nd p a r t o f t h e c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o p o s e d i n t h e 15 s t u d y h y p o t h e s e s u s i n g c o r r e l a t i o n analysis. In t h e f i n a l s e c ti o n , r e s u l t s o f ex ploring the r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p between t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual ( t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ) and t h e e n t i r e s e t o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , u s i n g m ultiple regression a n a ly sis , are presented. The f i n a l c h a p t e r ( C h a p t e r 6) b e g i n s w i t h a summary o f t h e r e p o r t e d s u r v e y f i n d i n g s . C o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual was us ed and f a c t o r s fo und t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s use are discussed. In a d d i t i o n , t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model a s a means f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g and u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g u r b a n p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s i s a l s o addressed. F i n a l l y a number o f l i m i t a t i o n s i n t h e s t u d y a r e d e s c r i b e d , a s w e l l a s i m p l i c a t i o n s and recom men dat ion s f o r f u t u r e research. CHAPTER 2 PROJECT PEST AND THE PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL During t h e p e r i o d 1 9 7 9 -8 1, a community deve lo pm ent p r o j e c t was c o n d u c t e d i n a Michigan s u bu rb an community. The goal o f t h i s p r o j e c t ( P r o j e c t PEST) was t o i n c r e a s e community a w a r e n e s s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s f o r managing p e s t pr ob le m s i n t h e y a r d . To a c h i e v e t h i s g o a l , a community e d u c a t i o n program was c o n d u c t e d t h a t i n c l u d e d t h e p r o d u c t i o n and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f an i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management ma n ua l, t i t l e d t h e P e s t Management M anual, t o community homeowners. S i n c e t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s t o e v a l u a t e t h e P e s t Management Manual a s a means f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n t o urban homeowners, t h i s c h a p t e r i n c l u d e s an o v e r v i e w o f P r o j e c t PEST and a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e P e s t Management Manual. An Overview o f P r o j e c t PEST P r o j e c t PEST r e p r e s e n t e d one a p p r o a c h t o t r a n s f e r IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o urban homeowners.* I t was d e s i g n e d a s a community d e ve l o pm en t p r o j e c t i n which ur ban homeowners j o i n e d w i t h Michigan ♦ P r o j e c t PEST was fu n d e d by t h e Env ir on me nta l E d u c a t i o n Program o f t h e U.S. O f f i c e o f E d u c a t i o n from O c t o b e r , 1979 t o F e b r u a r y , 1981. A c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p r o j e c t were c o n d u c t e d a s p a r t o f P r o j e c t 1359H o f t h e Michigan A g r i c u l t u r a l Ex per im ent S t a t i o n , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , E a s t L a n s i n g , M ichi gan. 22 23 S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y s p e c i a l i s t s from t h e f i e l d s o f en t o m o lo g y , f o r e s t r y , and community d e v el op m en t t o d e s i g n and c o n d u c t p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s . The community de ve lo pm en t a p p r o a c h r e f e r s t o a c t i o n s t a k e n w i t h i n a community t o change t h e ec ono m ic, s o c i a l , c u l t u r a l , o r e n v i r o n m e n t a l situation ( C h r i s t e n s o n and Robinson 1 9 8 0 ). An i m p o r t a n t e l e m e n t in c o n d u c t i n g e f f e c t i v e community dev el o pm en t pro gra ms i s c i t i z e n p a r t i ­ c i p a t i o n ; c i t i z e n s become i n v o l v e d and can c o n t r o l the e n t i r e process o r work w i t h o t h e r s ( s u c h a s change a g e n t s ) t o e f f e c t t h e ch an ge . The community dev el op me n t a p p r o a c h h e l p s t o i n s u r e t h a t t h e n ee d s o f t h e citizens ( w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e cha ng e ) a r e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n . T h i s ap p r o a c h a l s o h e l p s t o i n c r e a s e commitment t o , and a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f , t h e change b e c a u s e c i t i z e n s a r e i n v o l v e d in s o l v i n g community pro b le m s ( F e a r e t a l . 19 81 ). T h e r e f o r e , t h e community de v el op m en t a p p r o a c h was used in P r o j e c t PEST t o : (1) f a c i l i t a t e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n b e i n g t r a n s f e r r e d ; and (2) i n c r e a s e t h e c a p a c i t y t o d e s i g n t h e t r a n s f e r e f f o r t t o make i t c o m p a t i b l e w i t h e x i s t i n g a t t i t u d e s , b e l i e f s , v a l u e s , and p r a c t i c e s o f community homeowners. P r o j e c t Goal and Methods The p r i n c i p a l goal o f t h e p r o j e c t was: t o i n c r e a s e community a w a r e n e s s a b o u t a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s f o r managing p e s t pr obl em s in t h e y a r d . S e v e r a l methods u se d t o a c h i e v e t h e goal were p r o p o s e d a t t h e beginning of the p r o je c t: 1. Develop and implement a community e d u c a t i o n program on a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o urb an p e s t management; and 24 2. I n v o l v e community r e s i d e n t s in t h e p r o c e s s o f d e s i g n i n g , im p l e m e n t i n g , and e v a l u a t i n g t h e p r o j e c t . The T a r g e t Community and P r o j e c t Co-Sponsor M er id i a n C h a r t e r Township, Michigan was t h e t a r g e t community. The to w ns h ip i s l o c a t e d in t h e n o r t h c e n t r a l p o r t i o n o f Ingham County ( i n t h e c e n t e r o f M i c h i g a n ' s lo w er p e n i n s u l a ) and i s p a r t o f t h e Lansing m e tro p o lita n a r e a . The e s t i m a t e d p o p u l a t i o n o f M er id i an Township i s j u s t o v e r 2 9 , 0 0 0 . M er id i a n Township was s e l e c t e d as t h e s t u d y s i t e b e c a u s e : (1) t h e community i n c l u d e s a h ig h p r o p o r t i o n o f urb an homeowners; (2) a f e d e r a t e d homeowners' a s s o c i a t i o n was i n t e r e s t e d i n c o - s p o n s o r i n g t h e p r o j e c t ; and ( 3 ) t h e t o w n s h ip i s c o n t i g u o u s t o Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , which p e r m i t t e d t h e t i m e - e f f i c i e n t in v o l v em en t o f p r o j e c t staff. The p r o j e c t c o - s p o n s o r was t h e L i a i s o n f o r I n t e r - N e i g h b o r h o o d C o o p e r a t i o n (LINC). LINC f u n c t i o n s a s a medium f o r c o l l e c t i n g and d i s s e m i n a t i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o to w n s hi p r e s i d e n t s . P e r s o n s in a p p r o x i m a t e l y 2300 h o u s e h o l d s were dues p a y i n g members a t t h e t i m e o f the p ro je c t. Given t h e i r commitment t o i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r and i n t e r e s t in t h e p r o j e c t , p r o j e c t s t a f f f e l t t h a t a c o - s p o n s o r s h i p would g r e a t l y h e l p in a c h i e v i n g t h e p r o j e c t g o a l . P r o j e c t Plan o f Work The p r o j e c t p l a n o f work i n c l u d e d t h r e e components: a s s e s s m e n t , community e d u c a t i o n , and program e v a l u a t i o n . specifically: n ee d s More 25 A ss es s m en t o f t h e c u r r e n t urban t i o n in t h e to w n s h i p ( i n c l u d i n g e x p e r i e n c e d , how t h o s e pro blems p e s t i c i d e u s e , a t t i t u d e s toward to p e s tic id e s ) ; p e s t management s i t u a ­ t y p e s o f p e s t problems were managed, e x t e n t o f t h e use o f a l t e r n a t i v e s The d e s i g n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f a community e d u c a t i o n program b as ed on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y ; E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e e d u c a t i o n program and t h e community d e v el op m en t p r o c e s s u se d t o c o n d u c t t h e p r o j e c t . S t r u c t u r e o f t h e C i t i z e n P a r t i c i p a t i o n Program The c i t i z e n p a r t i c i p a t i o n program was c e n t r a l t o t h e P r o j e c t PEST e f f o r t . I t was i m p o r t a n t t h a t l o c a l r e s i d e n t s had an o p p o r t u n i t y t o p a r t i c i p a t e in p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s . The program was b as ed on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t d i f f e r e n t r e s i d e n t s would want t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e p r o j e c t f o r d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s , a t d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s , and on d i f f e r e n t topics. One who and the With t h i s i n mi nd , a t h r e e p a r t program was d e s i g n e d : C i t i z e n S t e e r i n g Comm ittee: A group o f r e s i d e n t s would work c l o s e l y w i t h t h e s t a f f t o d e s i g n , implement evaluate all a c t i v i t i e s . These p e o p l e would work on p r o j e c t throughout i t s d u ra tio n ; Three Ad Hoc C o m m it t e e s : R e s i d e n t s who would j o i n w i t h t h e C i t i z e n S t e e r i n g Committee and s t a f f t o work on d e s i g n i n g , i m p l e m e n t i n g , a n d / o r e v a l u a t i n g one o f t h e p r o j e c t components ( A s s e s s m e n t , E d u c a t i o n , E v a l u a t i o n ) ; T hr ee S h o r t- T e r m V o l u n t e e r Co m m itt ee s : R e s i d e n t s would p e r f o r m a c t i v i t i e s t h a t c o u l d be c o m pl et e d in a l i m i t e d amount o f t i m e d u r i n g one o f t h e p r o j e c t components ( A s s e s s ­ me nt, E d u c a t i o n , E v a l u a t i o n ) . R ecruiting C itizen P a r tic ip a n ts A p u b l i c m e e t i n g was s c h e d u l e d in e a r l y November, 1979 t o "kick-off" the p ro je c t. The m e e ti n g was p r e c e d e d by a p u b l i c i t y campaign mounted t o e n c o u r a g e a t t e n d a n c e . The campaign i n v o l v e d t h e us e o f media and d i r e c t m a i l i n g s t o to w n s hi p r e s i d e n t s ( f o r e xa m pl e, 26 a f l y e r , which i n c l u d e d g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e p r o j e c t , was m ailed to over 2,300 households in th e tow nship). T h i r t y - s i x people a tte n d e d t h i s f i r s t m eeting. At t h e end o f t h e m e e t i n g , a v o l u n t e e r form was d i s t r i b u t e d t o t h e a u d i e n c e . P e r s o n s i n d i c a t e d on t h e form i f and how t h e y w an te d t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t h e p r o j e c t ( g i v e n t h e o p t i o n s p r o p o s e d a b o v e ) . The v o l u n t e e r form was a l s o d i s t r i b u t e d , on r e q u e s t , t o i n t e r e s t e d p e r s o n s who had n o t a t t e n d e d t h e m e e t i n g . Eight people volunteered f o r t h e C i t i z e n S t e e r i n g Committee and a l l Ad Hoc C om m itt ee s ; t h r e e v o l u n t e e r e d f o r a t l e a s t one Ad Hoc Committee; and e i g h t s i g n e d up a s Short-Term V o lu n te e rs. D e s ig n in g and C o n d u c t in g t h e Needs A s s e s s m e n t Study The a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y was t h e f i r s t m a j o r p r o j e c t a c t i v i t y . The s t a f f , C i t i z e n S t e e r i n g Committee (CSC), and t h e Ad Hoc A ss es s m en t Committee began w o r k in g c o l l a b o r a t i v e l y on t h e a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y in mid-December, 1979. Dur ing i n i t i a l m e e t i n g s , t h e s t a f f p r e s e n t e d v a r i o u s o p t i o n s r e g a r d i n g a s s e s s m e n t t o p i c s and d a t a c o l l e c t i o n m e tho ds . In many c a s e s , t h e a d v a n t a g e s and d i s a d v a n t a g e s o f ea ch o p t i o n were d i s c u s s e d ; t h i s p r o c e d u r e p r o v e d t o f a c i l i t a t e e f f i c i e n t decision-making. A f t e r d i s c u s s i n g a l l o p t i o n s , t h e c o m m it te e d e c i d e d upon t h e a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y d e s i g n p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 . 1 . Having made t h e s e d e c i s i o n s , t h e s t a f f and c i t i z e n c o m m it te e members began d e s i g n i n g t h e a s s e s s m e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e , s e l e c t i n g t h e survey sample, r e c r u i t i n g Short-Term V o lu n te ers f o r q u e s t i o n n a i r e d i s t r i b u t i o n and c o l l e c t i o n , and p l a n n i n g a S h o r t - T e r m V o l u n t e e r t r a i n i n g pro gr am. The Dill man (1978) " T o t a l Design Method" was used 27 Table 2.1 . Needs a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y d e s i g n f o r P r o j e c t PEST To pi c D ecision Data c o l l e c t i o n method S elf-adm inistered questionnaire Q uestionnaire respondents Ten p e r c e n t s y s t e m a t i c random sample o f to w n s h i p homeowners How q u e s t i o n n a i r e s would be d i s t r i b u t e d and collected Door t o do or by S h o r t- T e r m V o l u n t e e r s P l a n t g r o u p s on which d a t a would be c o l l e c t e d Ornamental/shade t r e e s , f r u i t t r e e s , s h r u b s , f l o w e r s , la w n , v e g e t a b l e g ar d en Categories o f q u estio n s E x t e n t o f p e s t p r ob le m s ( t y p e and e x t e n t o f p e s t pro ble m s in t h e y a r d ) Methods o f p e s t management ( e x t e n t o f p e s t i c i d e and a l t e r n a t i v e u s e , t y p e s o f p e s t i c i d e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s u s e d , where p e s t i c i d e s were p u r c h a s e d and s t o r e d , level o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith p e s ti c id e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s ) P e s t management i s s u e s ( w i l l i n g n e s s t o spend t i m e i n p e s t management a c t i v i t i e s , w illingness to accept pest le v e ls , w illin g ­ n e s s t o use r e s i s t a n t p l a n t v a r i e t i e s ) P e s t management e d u c a t i o n ( i f r e s p o n d e n t s were i n t e r e s t e d i n r e c e i v i n g p e s t manage­ ment i n f o r m a t i o n , how r e s p o n d e n t s would p r e f e r t o r e c e i v e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , on which t o p i c s r e s p o n d e n t s would p r e f e r t o r e c e i v e i n f o r m a t i o n , on which p l a n t gr o u p s r e s p o n d e n t s would p r e f e r t o r e c e i v e inform ation) Background i n f o r m a t i o n on r e s p o n d e n t s ( a g e , l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n , income, s i z e o f yard) Data c o l l e c t i o n p e r i o d L a t e F e b r u a r y - e a r l y March, 1980 28 f o r c o n s tru c tin g the survey q u e s tio n n a ire . Ge neral p r i n c i p l e s f o r c o n d u c t i n g a community s u r v e y were drawn from a f i e l d t e s t e d document p u b l i s h e d by t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f M i s s o u r i - C o l u m b i a and M i s s o u r i D i v i s i o n o f Community B e t t e r m e n t ( 1 9 7 7 ) . By e a r l y March, t h e sample o f t o w n s h ip homeowners had been drawn u s i n g to w n s h i p t a x p a y e r r o l l s . Newspaper a r t i c l e s were u se d t o p u b l i c i z e t h e impending s u r v e y ; a s u r v e y announcement was m a i l e d t o e a c h h o u s e h o l d s e l e c t e d f o r i n c l u s i o n i n t h e s am pl e. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e S h o r t - T e r m V o l u n t e e r s , a number o f v o l u n t e e r s were r e c r u i t e d t o d i s t r i b u t e and c o l l e c t t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e (many v o l u n t e e r s were neighbors o f th e p ro s p e c tiv e survey re s p o n d e n ts ). The v o l u n t e e r s were a s s e m b l e d and t r a i n e d in t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d i s t r i b u t i o n / c o lle c tio n process. Most q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d i s t r i b u t e d and c o l l e c t e d w i t h i n a f i v e day p e r i o d . Of t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s t h a t were d e l i v e r e d t o homeowners, 76.1% were c o l l e c t e d by t h e v o l u n t e e r s and r e t u r n e d t o p r o j e c t s t a f f (519 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were d e l i v e r e d , 395 returned). T h i r t y q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were r e t u r n e d i n c o m p l e t e , t h e r e f o r e 70.1% o f t h e r e t u r n e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s (3 65) were u s e a b l e . Th us , t h e a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y was b a s e d on a 7% sample o f t o w n s h ip homeowners. A s s e s s m e n t S tu dy F i n d i n g s Re s po ns es t o e ac h q u e s t i o n were o r g a n i z e d i n t a b l e form and p r e s e n t e d t o CSC/Ad Hoc Committee members. The f o l l o w i n g f i n d i n g s w ere e s p e c i a l l y r e l e v a n t f o r d e s i g n i n g t h e community e d u c a t i o n program ( s e e Lambur e t a l . (1982) f o r a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f survey f in d in g s ) : 1. S e v e n t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d an i n t e r e s t in r e c e i v i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n from P r o j e c t PEST. 29 2. Those who w ant ed i n f o r m a t i o n fo r inform ation t h a t focused t r e e s , and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s p rev en tio n o f p e s t problems, a lte rn a tiv e s to p e stic id e s. expressed a c l e a r preference on l a w n s , o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e and i n c l u d e d t o p i c s such as p r o p e r us e o f p e s t i c i d e s , and 3. Eighty p e r c e n t of th e resp o n d en ts i n d i c a t e d they p r e f e r r e d r e c e i v i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e form o f a m a n u a l ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% p r e f e r r e d d e m o n s t r a t i o n y a r d s and w o r ks ho ps . 4. Most s u r v e y r e s p o n d e n t s e x p r e s s e d a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e t o IPM p r i n c i p l e s : 75% i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y would be w i l l i n g t o u s e l e s s p e s t i c i d e f o r p e s t management even i f i t would r e s u l t in t h e i r s p e n d i n g more t i m e i n t h e y a r d d e a l i n g w i t h p e s t p r o b l e m s , 66% r e p o r t e d a w i l l i n g n e s s t o p l a n t v eg e­ t a t i o n t h a t h a s been shown t o d i s p l a y a g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e t o p e s t s even i f t h e p l a n t s c o s t more t h a n o t h e r v a r i e t i e s , and o v e r 50% i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y would be w i l l i n g t o a c c e p t p e s t s on p l a n t s even i f t h e h e a l t h and a p p e a r a n c e o f p l a n t s were s l i g h t l y a f f e c t e d . D e s ig n in g and C o n d u c t in g t h e Community E d u c a t i o n Program Based on t h e s u r v e y f i n d i n g s , t h e s t a f f , CSC, Ad Hoc A s s e s s m e n t , and Ad Hoc E d u c a t i o n Committees d e c i d e d t o d e v e l o p a manual and c o n d u c t a d e m o n s t r a t i o n y a r d a s t h e P r o j e c t PEST community e d u c a t i o n pr ogram. topics: Both e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s would f o c u s on t h e f o l l o w i n g IPM c o n c e p t s and p r i n c i p l e s , p e s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and moni­ t o r i n g , p e s t p r ob le m p r e v e n t i o n , p r o p e r u s e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s , and p r o p e r us e o f p e s t i c i d e s . The p l a n t gr o u p s t o be c o v e r e d i n t h e manual i n c l u d e d o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , t h e l a w n, and the v eg etab le garden. O r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s would r e c e i v e s o l e a t t e n t i o n in th e dem onstration y a rd . The D e m o n s t r a t i o n Ya rd . The d e m o n s t r a t i o n y a r d program was c o n c e i v e d t o i n c l u d e p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n o f IPM in a number o f homeowners' y a r d s in t h e t o w n s h i p . These d e m o n s t r a t i o n y a r d s would t h e n be "opened up" and gu id e d t o u r s h e l d f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f 30 d e m o n s t r a t i n g IPM t e c h n i q u e s t o community homeowners. However, due t o l i m i t e d ti m e and l o g i s t i c a l p r o b l e m s , t h e d e m o n s t r a t i o n y a r d program was m o d i f i e d i n t o a "Walking Tour" on t h e Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y campus. T h i s s i t e was s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e o f i t s a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o to w n s h ip r e s i d e n t s and b e c a u s e i t p r o v i d e d a b r o a d a r r a y o f o r n a ­ m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s p e c i e s and p e s t p r o b le m s . "Walking Tour" were t o : The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h e (1) show p a r t i c i p a n t s what s p e c i f i c t r e e p e s t pr obl em s lo ok e d l i k e ; and ( 2 ) p r o v i d e a forum f o r d i s c u s s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e ways o f h a n d l i n g t h e s e t y p e s o f pro ble m s ( w i t h i n an IPM framework). A s e r i e s o f "Walking Tour s" were c o n d u c t e d on t h e campus d u r i n g A u g u s t , 1980. A gu idebook was p r e p a r e d f o r t h e t o u r and d e s i g n e d so t h a t p a r t i c i p a n t s c o u l d r e t u r n a t t h e i r l e i s u r e and r e v i e w t h e t r e e s and pro ble m s d i s c u s s e d in t h e t o u r . Four 1 - 1 / 2 h o u r t o u r s were e v e n t u a l l y c o n d u c t e d (80 p e r s o n s a t t e n d e d ) . The Manual. A m an ual , t i t l e d t h e P e s t Management Manual, was p rod uce d and c o n t a i n e d IPM i n f o r m a t i o n s p e c i f i c a l l y a d a p t e d f o r t h e n ee d s o f urban homeowners. The manual i n c l u d e d : (1) an i l l u s t r a t e d d i s c u s s i o n o f IPM p r i n c i p l e s and g u i d e l i n e s ; (2) an i n t r o d u c t i o n t o IPM t e c h n i q u e s ; ( 3 ) rec om mendations f o r t h e s a f e u s e , s t o r a g e , and d i s p o s a l o f p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t i c i d e c o n t a i n e r s ; (4) a damage key and p e s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n l i s t by p l a n t g r o u p ; and (5) p e s t management a l t e r n a t i v e s t h a t c o u l d be us ed f o r e ac h p o t e n t i a l p e s t . The manual was p u t i n t o a l a r g e , l o o s e - l e a f no te bo o k t o a l l o w f o r e x p a n s i o n and the inclusion of ad d itio n al inform ation. Thr ee hun dred c o p i e s o f t h e manual were p r o d u c e d . A d i r e c t mail announcement o f manual a v a i l a b i l i t y was s e n t t o a l m o s t 2500 31 households in t h e tow nship. A r t i c l e s a b o u t t h e manual a p p e a r e d in l o c a l n ew sp ap ers and a f e a t u r e magazine s t o r y a l s o p u b l i c i z e d i t s availability. A $ 6 . 0 0 f e e was c h a r g e d f o r t h e manual t o h e l p d e f r a y a p o r t i o n o f p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s . As o f F e b r u a r y 1982, 75 M e r id i a n Town­ s h i p homeowners had p u r c h a s e d a copy o f t h e ma nua l. E v a l u a t i o n o f P r o j e c t PEST As a p r o t o t y p i c a l p r o gr am , e v a l u a t i o n was an i m p o r t a n t p a r t o f P r o j e c t PEST. I t was d e c i d e d t o e v a l u a t e how t h e p r o j e c t was c o n d u c t e d ( p r o c e s s e v a l u a t i o n ) , a s w ell a s t o d e t e r m i n e wh at p e s t management ch an g e s had o c c u r r e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h e e d u c a t i o n program (impact e v a l u a t i o n ) . P r o c e s s e v a l u a t i o n was c o n c e i v e d a s an ong oin g a c t i v i t y ; im p ac t e v a l u a t i o n c o u l d o n l y be implemented a f t e r e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s had been c o n d u c t e d . Process E v a lu a tio n . P r o c e s s e v a l u a t i o n was a c c o m p l i s h e d by i n t e r v i e w i n g members o f t h e p r o j e c t s t a f f , CSC, Ad Hoc A ss ess me nt Committee, and a random sample o f r e s p o n d e n t s who c om p le te d t h e assessment q u e s tio n n a ire . The I n d u c t i v e S y s t e m s - P r o c e s s (IS P) model d e v e l o p e d by Bu rto n (1978) was s e l e c t e d a s t h e s p e c i f i c e v a l u a t i o n t o o l and us ed a s a framework f o r d e s i g n i n g e v a l u a t i o n i n t e r v i e w s . E v a l u a t i o n o b j e c t i v e s were i d e n t i f i e d a s : (1) d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e p r o c e s s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e a c h i e v e m e n t o f t h e p r o j e c t g o a l ; (2) p r o v i d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o make ch an g e s o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s in t h e p r o c e s s f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e p r o j e c t ; and (3) making recom­ m e n d a ti o n s f o r f u t u r e p r o j e c t s . While n o t r e p o r t e d h e r e , t h e e v a l u a ­ t i o n f i n d i n g s and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s g i v e n by Rogan (1981) p r ov ed t o be v a l u a b l e f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e v a r i o u s i s s u e s and pro ble m s 32 e n c o u n t e r e d d u r i n g t h e p r o j e c t ( t o t h a t d a t e ) and h e l p i n g t o modi fy t h e p r o c e s s so t h a t r e m a i n i n g p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s c o u l d be c a r r i e d o u t more e f f e c t i v e l y . Impact E v a l u a t i o n . Impact e v a l u a t i o n ( t o d a t e ) c o n s i s t e d o f j u d g i n g t h e e f f e c t o f t h e Walking Tour to w ard c r e a t i n g a w a r e n e s s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r managing p e s t p r o bl em s on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s ( t h e Burton ISP model was a l s o used f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e t o u r s ) . A q u e s t i o n n a i r e was m a i l e d t o each p e r s o n who had a t t e n d e d one o f t h e f o u r t o u r s . E i g h t y p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s c o m p l e t e d and r e t u r n e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Key e v a l u a t i o n q u e s t i o n s i n c l u d e d i n t h e q u e s t i o n ­ n a i r e we re: (1) What e x p e c t a t i o n s d i d p a r t i c i p a n t s have r e g a r d i n g t h e t o u r ? ; ( 2 ) To what e x t e n t were t h o s e e x p e c t a t i o n s m e t ? ; ( 3 ) Were t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e p e s t pr ob le m s and management t e c h n i q u e s d i s ­ c u s s e d d u r i n g t h e t o u r (from t h e p a r t i c i p a n t ' s p e r s p e c t i v e ) ? ; (4) What d i d t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s l e a r n from t h e t o u r t h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d t o a p p l y in t h e i r y a r d s ? ; (5) What was t h e i r o v e r a l l r a t i n g o f t h e t o u r ? ; and ( 6 ) How c o u l d t h e t o u r have been improved? P a r t i c i p a n t s were g e n e r a l l y s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e t o u r and i n d i ­ c a t e d t h a t t h e y had l e a r n e d a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount from a t t e n d i n g . Each r e s p o n d e n t l i s t e d a t l e a s t one way t h a t t h e a c q u i r e d i n f o r m a t i o n had been a p p l i e d o r would be a p p l i e d i n t h e i r y a r d . e x p e c t a t i o n s o f p a r t i c i p a n t s had been me t. Tour was j u d g e d a s s u c c e s s f u l In a d d i t i o n , C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e Walking in b e g i n n i n g t o i n c r e a s e a w a r e n e s s o f a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s f o r managing p e s t s on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s . (See F e a r e t a l . (1 983) f o r a more d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e Walking Tour e v a l u a t i o n . ) 33 The P e s t Management Manual Beca use e x i s t i n g p u b l i c a t i o n s were j u d g e d t o be u n s u i t a b l e " as i s " f o r us e a s t h e p r o j e c t m a nu al , p r o j e c t s t a f f and com mi tt ee members m u t u a l l y a g r e e d t h a t t h e b e s t c o u r s e o f a c t i o n would be t o p r o d u c e a u n i q u e IPM p u b l i c a t i o n t i t l e d t h e P e s t Management Manual. Given t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e manual t o t h e p r o j e c t and b e c a u s e i t i s t h e t r a n s f e r mechanism t h a t i s b e i n g e v a l u a t e d in t h i s s t u d y , t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s p r e s e n t a c h r o n i c l e o f how t h e manual was pro du ce d and a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e f i n i s h e d ma nua l. S t a f f and Committee Member Role s in t h e Manual P l a n n i n g and P r o d u c t i o n P r o c e s s Work began on t h e manual in J u n e , 1980. Before production s t a r t e d , t h e s t a f f and co m mi tt ee members (CSC and Ad Hoc Committees) d i s c u s s e d t h e i r r o l e s i n t h e manual p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s . C onsistent w i t h t h e a p p r o a c h u s ed t o d e v e l o p t h e a s s e s s m e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e , s t a f f members would be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p r o p o s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s ( r e g a r d i n g f o r m a t and c o n t e n t ) and p e r f o r m i n g p r o d u c t i o n t a s k s ; co m mi tt ee members would f u n c t i o n in h e l p i n g t o make d e c i s i o n s (among t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s ) and by r e v i e w i n g s e c t i o n s o f t h e manual a s t h e y were developed. During t h e e n t i r e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s , co m mi tt ee members were more a c t i v e l y i n v o l v e d in t h e i n i t i a l planning s ta g e s . A fte r general f o r m a t and c o n t e n t d e c i s i o n s were made by t h e e n t i r e g r o u p , s t a f f members p u r s u e d t h e w r i t i n g and p r o d u c t i o n on t h e i r own. a r r a n g e m e n t was a g r e e d upon f o r two r e a s o n s : This ( 1 ) g iv e n t h e t e c h n i c a l c o n t e n t o f t h e ma nu al, c o m m it te e members f e l t t h e y c o u l d n o t 34 c r i t i c a l l y r e v i e w t h e m a t e r i a l ; and (2 ) s i n c e a g r e a t amount o f s t a f f t i m e was t y p i c a l l y s p e n t p r e p a r i n g f o r co m mi tt ee m e e t i n g s , i t was f e l t t h i s t i m e would be b e t t e r s p e n t on p r o d u c i n g t h e manual. Initial P l a n n i n g C o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t h e Manual Data from t h e a s s e s s m e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n t o b e g i n p l a n n i n g and d e s i g n i n g t h e ma nu al. In a d d i t i o n , a number o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e manual were d i s c u s s e d a t t h e f i r s t ed ucational planning meeting. These i n c l u d e d : good; (2) i t s h o u l d be r e v i s a b l e ; p r a c t i c a l and u s e a b l e ; (1) i t should look (3 ) t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d be ( 4 ) t h e c o s t s h o u l d be m o d e r a t e ; (5 ) i t s h o u l d be d u r a b l e ; ( 6 ) i t s h o u l d a d d r e s s p e s t p r o bl em s to w n s h ip homeowners were c u r r e n t l y e x p e r i e n c i n g ; and ( 7 ) i t s h o u l d be w r i t t e n from an IPM s t a n d p o i n t , t o c a p i t a l i z e on s u r v e y d a t a i n d i c a t i n g an o p e n n e s s o r f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h i s p e s t management a p p r o a c h . While t h e manual was n o t acknowle dg ed t o be e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e Walking T o u r , i t was t o be u s ed a s t h e s o u r c e o f p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n f o r t h i s and any o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s . Given t h e s e i n i t i a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s t h e f o l l o w i n g d e c i s i o n s were made c o n c e r n i n g t h e m an ual . A th r e e - r in g binder with ta b d iv id e rs would be u s ed t o h o l d and o r g a n i z e t h e p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n . The b i n d e r would be d u r a b l e and i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be e a s i l y referen c ed with the ta b d iv id e rs . In a d d i t i o n , new m a t e r i a l s c o u l d e a s i l y be adde d and o u t d a t e d m a t e r i a l s t a k e n o u t . The b i n d e r f o r m a t would a l s o o f f e r a p l a c e t o s t o r e o t h e r p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n . To make t h e manual "l o o k g o o d " , i t was d e c i d e d t o have a d e s i g n s i l k s c r e e n e d on t h e c o v e r and s p i n e o f t h e b i n d e r . To keep t h e p r i c e 35 o f t h e manual m o d e r a t e , a p o r t i o n o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s would be c o v e r e d by p r o j e c t f u n d s . And i t was a l s o d e c i d e d t h a t where a p p r o p r i a t e , e x i s t i n g in fo rm atio n (such as Cooperative Extension m a t e r i a l s ) would be i n c l u d e d i n t h e ma n ua l, t h e r e b y l e s s e n i n g t h e t i m e and e x p e n s e o f w r i t i n g and r e p r o d u c i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n . Even th ou gh t h e manual was i n t e n d e d t o be u se d a s a w h o le , i t was a l s o r e c o g n i z e d t h a t some homeowners would p r o b a b l y us e o n ly c e r t a i n p a r t s o f t h e manual. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e manual had t o be w r i t t e n and a r r a n g e d t o accommodate u s e by a br o a d a r r a y o f p e o p l e - p e o p l e w i t h d i v e r s e p e s t management i n t e r e s t s and s k i l l s . On t h e one h an d , p e r s o n s u n f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e p h i l o s o p h y and p r a c t i c e o f IPM c o u l d r e a d a b o u t and become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s a p p ro a c h t o p e s t management. C o n v e r s e l y , p e r s o n s f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM c o u l d p r o c e e d t o th o se s e c ti o n s w ith a p p r o p r ia te inform ation only. In t h i s manner, t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e manual was en h a n c e d . Manual s e c t i o n s and t h e i r c o n t e n t , a s i n i t i a l l y p r o p o s e d , included: I n t r o d u c t i o n - t h i s s e c t i o n would a c q u a i n t t h e u s e r w i t h t h e p r o j e c t , i n a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g back gr ou nd i n f o r m a t i o n on p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e manual. How t o Use t h e Manual - t h i s s e c t i o n would o u t l i n e t h e f o r m a t o f t h e manual w i t h i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r i t s u s e . Management v s . C o n tr o l - t h e c o n c e p t o f managing p e s t pro ble m s (IPM), r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n t r o l them, would be o u t l i n e d in t h i s s e c t i o n . Management Te c h n iq u e s - g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t e c h n i q u e s f o r p r o p e r p l a n t management, such a s p r u n i n g , f e r t i l i z i n g , and c h o o s i n g p e s t r e s i s t a n t p l a n t v a r i e t i e s would be p r e s e n t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n . S a f e t y C o n s i d e r a t i o n s - t h i s s e c t i o n would c o n t a i n s a f e t y c o n s i ­ d e r a t i o n s p r i m a r i l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e use o f p e s t i c i d e s . 36 P l a n t Groups - t h i s s e c t i o n would be d i v i d e d i n t o s u b - s e c t i o n s , one f o r ea ch o f t h e p l a n t g r o u p s i d e n t i f i e d in t h e a s s e s s ­ ment q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( t h a t i s , o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , f r u i t t r e e s , s h r u b s , f l o w e r s , la w n , v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s , and o t h e r vegetation). Wi thin ea ch s u b - s e c t i o n , a s t a n d a r d f o r m a t s h e e t would i n c l u d e i n f o r m a t i o n on p l a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , p e s t pro ble m i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and management o p t i o n s ( p e s t i ­ c i d e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s ) . M o n i t o r i n g Re co rd s - a number o f forms f o r r e c o r d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e m o n i t o r e d i n f o r m a t i o n , a d a p t e d f o r t h e homeowner, would be c o n t a i n e d in t h i s s e c t i o n . Manual E v a l u a t i o n - w h i l e n o t p r o p o s e d a s a s e p a r a t e s e c t i o n , an e v a l u a t i o n form t o a s s e s s t h e u s e r ' s r e a c t i o n t o t h e m a n ua l, i n c l u d i n g rec ommendations f o r change and improvement was s u g g e s t e d . A number o f a d d i t i o n a l p r e - p r o d u c t i o n d e c i s i o n s were made r e g a r d i n g t h e ma nua l. Rather than in c lu d e m a te ria l f o r i d e n t i f y i n g p l a n t s ( i t was f e l t t h a t t h e amount o f a p p r o p r i a t e p l a n t i d e n t i ­ f i c a t i o n m a t e r i a l would be to o numerous t o i n c l u d e ) , i t was d e c i d e d t o p u r c h a s e p l a n t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n g u i d e s s e p a r a t e l y and p l a c e them on perm an ent lo a n in t h e l o c a l l i b r a r y f o r us e by to w n s h ip r e s i d e n t s . T h i s i d e a was a l s o expanded upon; i t was d e c i d e d t o p u r c h a s e a d d i ­ t i o n a l r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l s on v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f p e s t and p l a n t management t h a t would a l s o be p l a c e d i n t h e l i b r a r y ( u n d e r a s p e c i a l r e s e r v e s e c t i o n e n t i t l e d P r o j e c t PEST). And f o r t h o s e p e r s o n s who d i d n o t w i s h , o r were u n a b l e t o p u r c h a s e a copy o f t h e m a n ua l, s e v e r a l c o p i e s would be p u t on r e s e r v e a t t h e l o c a l l i b r a r i e s f o r t h e i r u s e . Given i n i t i a l e s t i m a t e s f o r p r o d u c t i o n c o s t s , i t was d e c i d e d t o p ro du ce 300 c o p i e s o f t h e manual. These would be made a v a i l a b l e on a f i r s t - c o m e , f i r s t - s e r v e b a s i s , making d i s t r i b u t i o n a s s i m p l e a s possible. P u b l i c i t y r e g a r d i n g manual a v a i l a b i l i t y would i n c l u d e a r t i c l e s in l o c a l n e w s p a p e r s , r a d i o s p o t s on a r e a s t a t i o n s , and d i r e c t mail ann ou n ce me n ts. P r o j e c t s t a f f would a l s o be a v a i l a b l e f o r 37 making p r e s e n t a t i o n s a t l o c a l community a s s o c i a t i o n m e e t i n g s ( f o r ex a m p le , g a r d e n c l u b s and homeowner a s s o c i a t i o n s ) . P r o d u c in g t h e Manual The P e s t Management Manual was pro du ce d in e i g h t months ( J u l y , 1980 - F e b r u a r y , 1 9 8 1 ) . During t h i s t i m e , t h e s t a f f c o o r d i n a t e d and p er fo r m e d a l l p r o d u c t i o n t a s k s . C i t i z e n com mi tt ee members were u p d a t e d on p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s a n d , a t t i m e s , as k ed t o h e l p make d e c i s i o n s on p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e n t and f o r m a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . W i th in t h e f i r s t month o f p r o d u c t i o n , t h r e e i m p o r t a n t d e c i s i o n s were made c o n c e r n i n g t h e c o n t e n t and f o r m a t o f t h e ma nu al. The f i r s t d e c i s i o n c o n c e r n e d t h e i n c l u s i o n o f a l t e r n a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n from n o n -s c ie n tific sources. alternative A f te r a p r e lim in a r y review o f a p p r o p r ia te ( n o n - p e s t i c i d e ) t e c h n i q u e s was c o n d u c t e d , t h e s t a f f inf or m ed c o m m it te e members t h a t many o f t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s a p p e a r e d in the s o - c a ll e d "organic" l i t e r a t u r e . As s u c h , most were n o t s u b j e c t e d t o s c i e n t i f i c t e s t i n g ; t h e i r e f f i c a c y r e s t e d on what some r e f e r r e d t o as " te s ti m o n ia ls ." Given t h e d e a r t h o f a p p r o p r i a t e l y t e s t e d a l t e r n a t i v e s , i t was d e c i d e d t o i n c l u d e t h e s e " o r g a n i c " t e c h n i q u e s , w i t h a c a u t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e i r " s u p po s ed " a b i l i t y t o e i t h e r k i l l o r repel p e sts. The s ec o nd d e c i s i o n p e r t a i n e d t o t h e number o f p l a n t g ro u p s t h a t c o u l d be a d d r e s s e d i n t h e ma nu al. of early f a l l , With an o r i g i n a l d i s t r i b u t i o n d a t e 1981, i t became a p p a r e n t t h a t p e s t pr ob le m s f o r a l l p l a n t g r o u p s c o u l d n o t be i n c l u d e d . A f te r reviewing the survey d a ta , i t was d e c i d e d t o i n c l u d e o n l y t h e more i m p o r t a n t p e s t problem s o f o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , la w n s , and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s . The r e m a i n i n g 38 p l a n t g r o u p s and t h e i r p e s t p r o bl em s c o u l d be c o v e r e d in " u p d a t e s " , i f ti m e a n d / o r a d d i t i o n a l f u n d i n g became a v a i l a b l e . The t h i r d d e c i s i o n came a b o u t a f t e r co m mi tt ee members were as k ed t o r e v i e w and comment on s e c t i o n d r a f t s a s t h e y were p r e p a r e d . The d r a f t s w er e t y p e d on 8 - 1 / 2 " x 11" p a p e r and i t was assumed t h a t t h e y would be i n c l u d e d " a s i s " in t h e ma n ua l. However, s e v e r a l co m mi tt ee members commented t h a t i f t h i s was how t h e m a t e r i a l would a p p e a r in t h e m a n ua l, i t would c e r t a i n l y be u n i n t e r e s t i n g and t h u s , u n l i k e l y t h a t p e o p l e would even r e a d i t . I n s t e a d , i t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e m a t e r i a l c o u l d be made more i n t e r e s t i n g and a p p e a l i n g , p e r h a p s by in clu ding artwork or c a rto o n s . From t h e s e comments, i t was d e c i d e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e c a r t o o n s and l i n e d r a w i n g s i n t o t h e manual t o i l l u s t r a t e r e l e v a n t c o n c e p t s and t e c h n i q u e s . While two members o f t h e s t a f f had t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e in p e s t management and IPM (one from t h e D ep ar tm en t o f F o r e s t r y and one from t h e Dep art me nt o f En to m o lo g y ), o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y s p e c i a l i s t s w it h r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r p e s t p r o bl em s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e p l a n t gr o u p s r e v i e w e d p r e p a r e d i n f o r m a t i o n on s p e c i f i c p e s t s f o r c l a r i t y o f technical co n ten t. In a d d i t i o n , t h e s e s p e c i a l i s t s were g i v e n c o p i e s o f o t h e r manual s e c t i o n s and a s k e d t o r e v i e w and comment on them. A p r o f e s s i o n a l a r t i s t was employed t o p r e p a r e c a r t o o n s t h a t would be i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e t e x t . A f t e r c o m p l e t i o n o f a s e c t i o n , s t a f f members r e v i e w e d t h e s e c t i o n ' s c o n t e n t s . Where a p a r t i c u l a r c o n c e p t c o u l d be g r a p h i c a l l y e n h a n c e d , a c a r t o o n was p r e p a r e d t h a t i l l u s t r a t e d the concept. (An example i s p r o v i d e d i n F i g u r e 2 . 1 . ) A number o f u n i v e r s i t y g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , w i t h p e s t management b a c k g r o u n d , were a l s o employed t o a s s e m b l e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e 39 MF-2 management techniques* and a method for selecting among them. Finally, in prac­ ticing IPM it is important to remember that pest situations will mean different things to different people. What is a problem for your neighbor may not be a problem for you--only you can judge. IPM Rmrrf CHEW pesticide We hope that your manual will provide you with alternative approaches useful in managing pest problems in your yard. We also hope it will gain your enthusiastic acceptance. The IPM approach may not always be as simple as the chemical pesticide approach, and it may involve more preliminary planning and thinking, but it will also provide you with the satisfactions of self-reliance and improved environmental quality. Pesticide Use: How Perspectives Have Changed The period immediately following World War II witnessed the increased production of man made (synthetic) chemicals used to control pests. These chemicals, or pesticides, rapidly replaced the time-tested, more traditional forms of handling pest problems such as cultivation, crop rotation, the planting of diverse species and others. With little fear of potential side effects or associated problems, these *The "Management Strategies" listed on all pest information forms represent methods found by others to be successful. Since many of these methods have not yet been scientifically tested, you may wish to try them and see if they work for you. We make no claims or recommendations r e ­ garding their effectiveness or desireability. Figure 2 .1 . GUARANTEED ETHO Example o f c a r t o o n s i n t h e P e s t Management Manual [ r e p r o d u c e d from t h e P e s t Management Manual (Lambur and P a r k s 1980)1 40 s p e c i f i c p e s t s and management t e c h n i q u e s t h a t would be c o v e r e d in t h e manual. P r o j e c t s t a f f were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a u t h o r i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30% o f t h e manual ( t h e r e m a i n i n g 70% c o n s i s t e d o f e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l , such as Cooperative Extension b u l l e t i n s ) . The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f IPM, a s a s e l f - h e l p a p p r o a c h , was b as ed on t h e s t a f f ' s u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e IPM p h i l o s o p h y and t h e i r i d e a s o f how i t c o u l d be p r a c t i c e d by urban homeowners. all Most o f t h e p r o c e d u r e s a r e a s y e t u n t e s t e d . In a d d i t i o n , f o r m a t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s (s u ch a s l a y o u t , s e l e c t i o n o f t h e b i n d e r , t a b - d i v i d e r s , f r o n t c o v e r d e s i g n ) were c o o r d i n a t e d by one s t a f f member who had e x p e r i e n c e and e x p e r t i s e in g r a p h i c a r t s and p u b lic a tio n design. The F i n i s h e d Manual The f i n i s h e d manual included a l l o f th e i n i t i a l format c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p r o p o s e d by t h e s t a f f and co m mi tt ee members. Minor d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r r e d from r e a r r a n g i n g and rena mi ng s e v e r a l s e c t i o n s ; m a j o r d i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r r e d from a d d i n g new s e c t i o n s . All ch an g e s in f o r m a t were b a s e d on e n h a n c i n g t h e p r a c t i c a l i t y and u s e a b i l i t y o f t h e manual. For e x am pl e, two empty t a b d i v i d e r s w ere i n c l u d e d . la b el th e s e , perhaps f o r a d d itio n a l n o t c o n t a i n e d i n t h e ma nua l. U se rs c o u l d i n f o r m a t i o n , o r f o r a p l a n t group A l s o , a " M i s c e l l a n e o u s " s e c t i o n was added t o s t o r e i n f o r m a t i o n n o t f a l l i n g u n d e r any o f t h e o t h e r pre-labeled sections. I n f o r m a t i o n on a l l p e s t s was p u t i n t o a s t a n d a r d i z e d f o r m a t t o f a c i l i t a t e q u i c k and e a s y r e f e r e n c e . And a "Quick P e s t R e f e r e n c e 41 Guide" p r e c e d e d e ac h o f t h e t h r e e p l a n t group s e c t i o n s . i n c l u d e d c on de ns ed i n f o r m a t i o n , in t a b l e fo rm , on: d ev el op m en t s t a g e o f t h e damage c a u s i n g p e s t ; T h i s gu ide (1) t h e (2) when p l a n t symptoms o r damage a p p e a r e d ; and (3) s u i t a b l e h o s t p l a n t s f o r t h e p e s t . The i n t e n t was t o p r o v i d e a l i s t o f p e s t s c o v e re d in t h e s e c t i o n w it h s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t o make a p r e l i m i n a r y p e s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . The e v a l u a t i o n form was m o d i f i e d i n t o a r e t u r n p o s t c a r d , which was i n c l u d e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e ma nu al. comments o r s u g g e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e manual. The p o s t c a r d asked f o r T h i s f o r m a t was s e l e c t e d t o deem pha siz e any aca demic c o n n o t a t i o n s t h a t a formal e v a l u a ti o n q u e s t i o n n a i r e might e l i c i t . Three p r e - a d d r e s s e d , m e te re d p o s t c a r d s were i n c l u d e d in ea ch manual. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e c a r t o o n s t h a t were u se d t o enhance u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m a t e r i a l , o r i g i n a l l y a u t h o r e d s e c t i o n s were w r i t t e n in a p e r s o n a l s t y l e . Where a p p r o p r i a t e , p e r s o n a l pr onouns ( f o r ex am pl e, y o u , y o u r s , we, u s ) were u s ed . And when t h e manual was p u r c h a s e d , ea ch p e r s o n r e g i s t e r e d t h e i r name and a d d r e s s ( t h r o u g h a r e c e i p t ) . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n would be used f o r c o n t a c t i n g manual owners r e g a r d i n g manual u p d a t e s and f u t u r e i n s t a l l m e n t s . In a s much a s t h e f o r m a t t i n g o f t h e manual p r e s e n t e d a c h a l l e n g e t o t h e s t a f f and co m mi tt ee members, so d i d t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f IPM. As m e n t i o n e d , no e x i s t i n g m a t e r i a l was l o c a t e d t h a t i n c o r p o r a t e d t h e p r i n c i p l e s and t e c h n i q u e s o f IPM i n t o a p r a c t i c a l , s e l f - h e l p g u id e f o r homeowners. I n d e e d , i t was f e l t t h a t t o sim p l y o f f e r a l t e r ­ n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s would n o t be s u f f i c i e n t . On t h e o t h e r h an d, i t must a l s o be acknowledged t h a t t h e added t a s k o f p r e p a r i n g a g u i d e t o IPM may have ex ce ed ed t h e bounds o f t h e p r o j e c t . N evertheless, the 42 manual c o n t a i n e d b o t h . s e c tio n , follow s. A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e m a nu al , s e c t i o n by (The f r o n t c o v e r and t a b l e o f c o n t e n t s a r e r e p r o d u c e d i n Appendix A.) Background o f P r o j e c t PEST. pre-labeled tab d ividers. This s h o r t s e c tio n preceded th e The d e c i s i o n t o i n c l u d e t h i s s e c t i o n was bas ed on i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from t h e e v a l u a t i o n i n t e r v i e w s c o n d u c t e d from a sample o f r e s p o n d e n t s t o t h e a s s e s s m e n t q u e s ­ tio n n aire. A p p r o x im a t e ly 25% o f t h o s e i n t e r v i e w e d had n o t h e a r d o f , n o r were f a m i l i a r w i t h P r o j e c t PEST b e f o r e r e c e i v i n g t h e a s s e s s m e n t questionnaire. T h i s f i n d i n g was s i g n i f i c a n t s i n c e t h e s e homeowners had been s e n t two d i r e c t mail p i e c e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e p r o j e c t . In a d d i t i o n , a p u b l i c i t y e f f o r t , which i n c l u d e d new spaper a r t i c l e s and r a d i o s p o t s , was c o n d u c t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e p r o j e c t t o in fo rm to w n s h ip r e s i d e n t s o f c u r r e n t p r o j e c t s t a t u s and upcoming e v e n t s . Based on t h i s f i n d i n g , a b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r o j e c t was i n c l u d e d i n t h e ma nu al. T h i s s e c t i o n , w r i t t e n in a q u e s t i o n and ans we r f o r m a t , d e s c r i b e d t h e p r o j e c t and i n c l u d e d how t h e manual r e l a t e d t o o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s and t h e e n t i r e p r o j e c t . Manual F o c u s . T h i s s e c t i o n i n t r o d u c e d and e x p l a i n e d t h e IPM a p p r o a c h t a k e n i n t h e ma nu al. To be us ed s u c c e s s f u l l y , t h e manual was p r e s e n t e d a s a s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n and a d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g g u i d e . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e dynamic n a t u r e o f IPM, t h e manual p r o v i d e d a r a n g e o f management t e c h n i q u e s and a method f o r s e l e c t i n g among them, r a t h e r t h a n p r e s c r i b i n g t r e a t m e n t s f o r use by homeowners. A b r i e f d i s c u s s i o n f o l l o w e d on how p e r s p e c t i v e s have changed r e g a r d i n g t h e p r e d o m i n a n t use o f p e s t i c i d e s f o r p e s t c o n t r o l . R ead er s were a d v i s e d t h a t w h i l e t h e u s e o f p e s t i c i d e s has i n c r e a s e d , 43 many have q u e s t i o n e d t h i s form o f p e s t c o n t r o l . s i t u a t i o n has been IPM. One r e s p o n s e t o t h i s While o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d in a g r i c u l t u r e , IPM i s b e i n g m o d i f i e d and used t o manage ur b an p e s t p r o b le m s . In a d d i t i o n , pro bl em s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e s t i c i d e s were p r e s e n t e d and d is c u s s e d under th e h eadings: " C r e a t i n g H e a l t h H a z a r d s " , "Promoting P e s t R e s i s t a n c e " , and "Reducing H e l p f u l O r g an is m s ." A d e f i n i t i o n o f IPM was th e n g i v e n . d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s by whi ch: IPM was d e f i n e d a s a (1) p e s t pr obl em s a r e p r e v e n t e d o r t h e i r s e v e r i t y r e d u c e d by d e l i b e r a t e l y s e l e c t i n g a p p r o p r i a t e p l a n t s and c a r i n g f o r them w i s e l y ; (2 ) p l a n t s a r e o b s e r v e d on a r e g u l a r b a s i s , n o t i n g p e s t p r o b le m s t h a t a r e a l r e a d y p r e s e n t o r i n d i c a t i o n s o f t h o s e t h a t may a p p e a r ; ( 3 ) a d e c i s i o n i s made a s t o w h e t h e r o r n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t p e s t p r ob le m i s p r e s e n t , u s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n g a i n e d from o b s e r v a t i o n s in number 2 a b o v e ; and (4) a d e c i s i o n i s made on how t o b e s t manage s i g n i f i c a n t p e s t p r o bl em s by drawing from a r a n g e o f management t e c h n i q u e s . F ol lo w in g t h e d e f i n i t i o n , p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s o f IPM were p r e s e n t e d t o f u r t h e r c l a r i f y and o p e r a t i o n a l i z e t h i s p e s t management approach. P r i n c i p l e s o f IPM would h e l p r e a d e r s u n d e r s t a n d t h i s p h i l o s o p h y o f p e s t management; o b j e c t i v e s s e r v e d a s t h e g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r a l " s t e p s " o f t h e IPM a p p r o a c h . P r i n c i p l e s o f IPM a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 . 2 ; o b j e c t i v e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 . 3 . How t o Use t h e M anual. T h i s s e c t i o n o u t l i n e d how t h e manual c o u l d b e s t be u s e d . The i d e a t h a t t h e manual was meant t o be f l e x i b l e was s t r e s s e d . Re ade rs were a l s o e n c o u r a g e d t o add t h e i r own p e s t management m a t e r i a l s . A s h o r t summary o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f each Table 2 .2 . P r i n c i p l e s o f IPM p r e s e n t e d in t h e P e s t Management Manual Principle B rie f explanation 1. Keeping numbers o f p e s t s low i s more p r a c t i c a l th a n t r y i n g t o c o m p l e t e l y e l i m i n a t e them. 1. I t may be i m p o s s i b l e and u n d e s i r a b l e t o c o m p l e t e l y e l i ­ minate s p e c ie s o f p e s t s . Small p o p u l a t i o n s o f p e s t s a r e need ed t o p r o v i d e v i t a l food s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y t o s u s t a i n b e n e f i c i a l organisms. 2. You l i v e , work and manage y o u r p e s t s w ithin ecosystems. 2. All l i v i n g and n o n - l i v i n g components o f t h e e n v i r o n ­ ment a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d . A d e c i s i o n t o c o n t r o l a p e s t in one p l a c e o r a t one t i m e may c r e a t e an u n f o r e s e e n problem i n a n o t h e r p l a c e o r a t a n o t h e r t i m e . 3. More t h a n one management t e c h n i q u e w i l l p r o v i d e a b e t t e r ch an c e o f success. 3. IPM c a l l s f o r u s i n g a v a r i e t y o f t e c h n i q u e s r a t h e r t h a n j u s t on e . The f i r s t s t e p i s t o p r e v e n t p e s t problems by m a n i p u l a t i n g e i t h e r t h e p l a n t o r i t s immediate s u r ­ roundings to discourage p e s t s . A combination o f d i r e c t p e s t c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s may be n e e d e d , which may i n ­ c l u d e t h e use o f p e s t i c i d e s . Chemical c o n t r o l s , how­ e v e r , a r e t o be u sed a s a l a s t r a t h e r t h a n f i r s t c h o i c e . 4. You must be w i l l i n g t o c o n s i d e r r e v i s i n g y o u r d e c i s i o n s o f how much p l a n t i n j u r y you w i l l " a c c e p t . " 4. Managing p e s t s a t t o l e r a b l e l e v e l s i s more a p p r o p r i a t e th a n t r y i n g t o e l i m i n a t e them. The p o i n t o r p e s t l e v e l a t which i t i s r e a s o n a b l e t o t a k e a c t i o n i s c a l l e d t h e " i n j u r y a c c e p t a n c e l e v e l . " The i n j u r y a c c e p t a n c e l e v e l i s dynamic and c h a n g e s , d e p en d in g upon t h e p l a n t and t h e p e s t s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h them. Table 2 .3 . O b j e c t i v e s o f IPM p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P e s t Management Manual O b j e c t i ve B r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n w i t h l o c a t i o n s where f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be found i n t h e manual 1. Try t o p r e v e n t o r m i n im i ze y o u r p e s t p r o b le m s . S e l e c t i n g p l a n t s t h a t a r e more r e s i s t a n t t o p e s t s a n d / o r m a i n t a i n i n g them in p r o p e r c o n d i t i o n can p r e v e n t o r a t l e a s t m in im iz e p e s t p r o b l e m s . Re ad e rs were r e f e r r e d t o t h e "Management Te c h n iq u es " s e c t i o n . 2. E s t a b l i s h y o u r own m o n i t o r i n g program. M o n i t o r i n g i n v o l v e s t h e r e g u l a r o b s e r v a t i o n and r e c o r d i n g o f ch ang es i n p l a n t c o n d i t i o n , abundance o f p e s t s and p l a n t damage, and management a c t i v i t i e s . The p u r p o s e o f m onitoring i s to supply r e c e n t , a c c u ra te inform ation f o r making a p p r o p r i a t e p e s t management d e c i s i o n s . R ead er s were r e f e r r e d t o th e "Monitoring/Records" s e c t i o n . 3. E s t a b l i s h y o u r own i n j u r y acceptance le v e ls f o r p e s ts . I n j u r y a c c e p t a n c e l e v e l s a r e dynamic b e c a u s e t h e y may change f o r d i f f e r e n t p e s t s i t u a t i o n s and w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y be d i f f e r e n t f o r ea ch i n d i v i d u a l homeowner. Using t h e in ju r y acceptance level concept allows b e t t e r p est management d e c i s i o n s t o be made. Read ers were r e f e r r e d t o th e "Monitoring/Records" s e c t i o n . 4. S e l e c t and use t h e " b e s t " management t e c h n i q u e s . S e l e c t i n g any c o m b in a ti o n o f management t e c h n i q u e s w i l l depend on t h e s p e c i f i c p l a n t , t h e p e s t , t h e i n j u r y a c c e p t ­ a n c e l e v e l , and m a t e r i a l s o r r e s o u r c e s a v a i l a b l e t o t h e homeowner. P r e v e n t i n g o r m i n i m i z i n g p e s t pro ble m s ( O b je c­ t i v e 1) i s t h e f i r s t l i n e o f d e f e n s e . I f d ir e c t control t e c h n i q u e s a r e n e e d e d , t h o s e t h a t c a u s e t h e l e a s t amount o f harm t o t h e e c o s y s t e m a r e c o n s i d e r e d f i r s t (s uc h a s m e c h a n i c a l , m a n u a l, and b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l m e t h o d s ) . The l a s t r e s o r t i s th e use o f p e s t i c i d e s . With a p p r o p r i a t e Table 2 .3 . (Continued) O bjective 5. Evaluate your a c tio n s . B r i e f e x p l a n a t i o n w i t h l o c a t i o n s where f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be found i n t h e manual 4. (continued) m o n i t o r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , t h e s e compounds may be a p p l i e d more s p a r i n g l y . R ead er s w ere r e f e r r e d t o t h e "Manage­ ment T ec h n iq u es " s e c t i o n and t h e i n d i v i d u a l p e s t forms i n t h e " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n " s e c t i o n . 5. J u d g i n g t h e outcomes o f p e s t management a c t i o n s can provide useful inform ation f o r in c re asin g the success o f f u t u r e p e s t management a c t i v i t i e s . Read ers were r e f e r r e d t o the "Monitoring/Records" s e c t i o n . 47 s e c t i o n was p r o v i d e d g i v i n g an o v er v ie w o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e manual. Als o i n c l u d e d in t h i s s e c t i o n was a h e a d i n g e n t i t l e d , "F iv e S t e p s t o Using t h e M anu al. " The " s t e p s " i l l u s t r a t e d how t h e manual c o u l d be us ed t o b e g i n an IPM program in t h e y a r d . F o ll o w in g each s t e p , r e a d e r s were d i r e c t e d t o a s e c t i o n o f t h e manual where f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be fo u nd ( s e e T a b l e 2 . 4 ) . The s e c t i o n ended w i t h an example i l l u s t r a t i n g how t h e manual c o u l d be us ed i n t h e y a r d . The a p p r o p r i a t e " s t e p s " ( g iv e n by number) were p r i n t e d on t h e r i g h t hand margin o f t h e p a g e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e i r use i n t h e exam ple. The example t r a c e d t h e a c t i o n s o f a " t y p i c a l " homeowner, A l i c e , a s she u s ed t h e manual t o d ea l w i t h Tomato Hornworms in h e r g a r d e n . M onitoring/Records. This s e c ti o n provided a guide f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e m o n i t o r i n g component o f t h e IPM pr ogram. Of t h e i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d in t h e ma nu al, t h e i d e a s and t e c h n i q u e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n were t h e most t h e o r e t i c a l . I t was f e l t , however, t h a t p r o v i d i n g a m o n i t o r i n g a p p r o a c h t h a t was t o o g e n e r a l o r c o n c e p t u a l m ig ht c r e a t e more c o n f u s i o n t h a n c l a r i t y . D espite the s c a r c i t y o f a p p r o p r ia te in fo rm atio n in t h i s a r e a , a guide to m o n i t o r i n g and d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g was d e v e l o p e d by t h e s t a f f . While t h e components a r e so und , t h e i r c o m b i n a t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n have n o t been tested. The s e c t i o n began w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p u r p o s e o f m o n i t o r i n g . M o n i t o r i n g was p er f o r m e d t o s u p p l y r e c e n t , a c c u r a t e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r making a p p r o p r i a t e p e s t management d e c i s i o n s t h a t " f i t " t h e r e a d e r ’s IPM pr ogram. M o n i t o r i n g i n c l u d e d t h e r e g u l a r o b s e r v a t i o n and r e c o r d i n g o f : 48 T ab le 2 . 4 . F iv e s t e p s f o r u s i n g t h e P e s t Management Manual S t e p s f o r u s i n g t h e manual Manual s e c t i o n s where a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n c o u l d be found 1. Become f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e p l a n t s and o t h e r o r g a n is m s in y o u r y a r d . 1. " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and and S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n " ( f o r p e s t i n f o r m a t i o n ) ; "Appendix" ( f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on b e n e f i ­ c i a l o r g a n i s m s , p l a n t s and fu rth e r references) 2. E s ta b lis h your monitoring program. 2. "M onitoring/Records" 3. S e l e c t management t e c h n i q u e s . 3. "Management T e c h n i q u e s " ; " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and S t r a tegy S ele ctio n " 4. Evaluate your a c t io n s a f t e r p r a c t i c i n g management t e c h ­ niques. 4. "Monitoring/Records" 5. C o n ti n u e m o n i t o r i n g . 5. "M onitoring/Records" 49 (1) t h e c o n d i t i o n o f p l a n t s ( t h e i r v i g o r and a p p e a r a n c e ) ; (2) t h e abundanc e o f p e s t s and p l a n t damage; and (3) t h e management a c t i v i t i e s p er f o r m e d and t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e p l a n t s . These t h r e e i t e m s were s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e y r e p r e s e n t m a jo r components o f p e s t and p l a n t i n t e r a c t i o n , and s e r v e a s g e n e r a l i n d i c a t o r s o f t h e e x t e n t o f p e s t s i t u a t i o n s . Awareness o f t h e s e it em s can h e l p t o a n t i c i p a t e c o n d i t i o n s o r ch an g e s t h a t may l e a d t o p e s t p r o b le m s . And in some c a s e s , m o n i t o r i n g w i l l a l l o w p e s t pr o bl em s t o be p r e v e n t e d o r a l l e v i a t e d b e f o r e t h e y become s e r i o u s . To d e t e r m i n e t h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p l a n t and t h e abundanc e o f p e s t s and p l a n t damage, two c h a r t s were p r o v i d e d ( r e p r o d u c e d in F i g u r e s 2 . 2 and 2 . 3 ) . The c h a r t s were p r e s e n t e d as g u i d e s f o r d e v e l o p i n g a q u a n t i t a t i v e r a t i n g t h a t c o u l d be us ed f o r d e c i d i n g t o e i t h e r take a c tio n or continue m onitoring. A s h o r t s e c t i o n f o l l o w e d t h a t recommended m o n i t o r i n g on a regular basis. I t was s t r e s s e d t h a t t h r o u g h r e g u l a r i n s p e c t i o n o f p l a n t s , o b s e r v a t i o n s c o u l d be compared t o p r o v i d e a more r e l i a b l e p i c t u r e o f th e s i t u a t i o n over time. Because d i f f e r e n t p e s t s p e c i e s a r e more a c t i v e o r i n a c t i v e a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s o f t h e d a y , r e a d e r s were a l s o u rg e d t o i n s p e c t p l a n t s a t v a r i o u s t i m e s o f t h e day — d e p en di n g on t h e e x i s t i n g o r p o t e n t i a l p e s t p ro bl em . R ead er s were r e f e r r e d t o " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n " s e c t i o n , which contained t h i s inform ation. The n e x t p a r t o f t h e m o n i t o r i n g s e c t i o n o u t l i n e d a p r o c e d u r e f o r d e c i d i n g upon a c o u r s e o f a c t i o n , a f t e r m o n i t o r i n g i n f o r m a t i o n was collected. Each ti m e p l a n t s were m o n i t o r e d , r e a d e r s were d i r e c t e d t o answer two q u e s t i o n s t h a t a d d r e s s e d t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p e s t 50 MO-3 CHART 1 PLANT CONDITION RATING PLANT CONDITION RATING f INDICATORS OF PLANT CONDITION Leaf Color EXCELLENT Amount of Amount/Size Presence of Dead Plant Parts of Growth Pest Problems Good None Adequate No Major Ones GOOD Good Few Slightly Reduced Few Minor Ones FAIR Poor Many Much Reduced Major or Minor Ones Occurring Frequently POOR Poor Severely Reduced Both Major and Minor 5nes Occurring Frequently Note: Innumerable The Plant Condition Rating Chart is presented as a guide only. When determining plant condition, your selected indicators may fall in several different Plant Condition Rating categories. If this occurs, you will have to decide which Plant Condition Rating category best approximates or describes the plant's condition. (SEE LEGEND ON BACK OF THIS PAGE) Figure 2 .2 . P l a n t c o n d i t i o n r a t i n g c h a r t [ r e p r o d u c e d from t h e P e s t Management Manual (Lambur and P a r k s 1 98 0) ] 51 MO-A EXPLANATION OF INDICATORS LEAF COLOR: good le a f color poor le a f color Note: refers to a deep green refers to shades from pale green to yellow Some ornamental trees and shrubs plum) do not have green leaves. (like the purple-leaf DEAD PLANT PARTS: few, many or innumerable dead plan t p a rts refers to varying amounts of dead twigs, branches, leaves, stems, flowers or fruit Note: When observing plants remember to examine a ll of their parts. This would include the plant's leaves, stems, flowers, fruit and, if possible, its roots. Some of the more important evidence you might find could include plant parts that are spotted, discolored, wilted, rotted, dead or even missing. You should also examine the ground for dead plant parts and insects. Some small plants can be shaken to dislodge insects onto the ground. AMOUNT/SIZE OF GROWTH: amount o f growth refers either to the length of new growth that the plant puts on in the year or the number of new leaves or foliage added. Note: Different plants put on different amounts of growth. For example, an oak tree doesn't put on as much growth in one year as a maple tree. siz e o f growth refers to the s iz e (not numbers of each) of leaves, flowers or fruits PRESENCE OF PEST PROBLEMS: Presence o f p e s t problems refers to whether or not a pest problem occurred or is occurring. If so, then: a major p e st problem is one that requires management and has seriously affected or injured the plant a minor p e st problem is one that may or may not require management and may or may not affect or injure the plant Figure 2 .2 . (Continued) 52 M O-6 CHART 2 PEST & PLANT DAMAGE ABUNDANCE RATING ABUNDANCE SATING INDICATORS OF ABUNDANCE FEW -Organisms or plant damage occasionally found - but only after much searching COMMON -Organisms or plant damage e a sily ty p ic a l searching ABUNDANT -Organisms or plant damage found in large numbers obvious without searching EXTREME -Organisms or plant damage extremely numerous (found on all plants in large numbers) - obvious without searching Figure 2 .3 . found - during P e s t and p l a n t damage abundanc e r a t i n g c h a r t [ r e p r o d u c e d from t h e P e s t Management Manual (Lambur and P a rk s 19807] 53 s i t u a t i o n and t h e management t e c h n i q u e s t h a t would be most a p p ro p ria te ( i f any). The f i r s t q u e s t i o n was: problem?" "Am I r e a l l y f a c e d w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t I f t h e answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n was "No", t h e r e was no need t o a s k t h e s ec on d - - r e a d e r s were a d v i s e d t o c o n t i n u e m o n i t o r i n g t h e situation. I f t h e answer t o t h i s q u e s t i o n was "Y e s" , r e a d e r s were d i r e c t e d t o ans we r t h e s eco nd q u e s t i o n . The se cond q u e s t i o n was: "Which management t e c h n i q u e s m i g h t be most a p p r o p r i a t e , i f any?" At t h i s p o i n t , r e a d e r s were d i r e c t e d t o p r o c e e d t o t h e "Management Te c h n iq u es " s e c t i o n f o r a g e n e r a l d i s c u s s i o n o f management t e c h n i q u e s o r t o t h e " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n " s e c t i o n f o r s p e c i f i c p e s t management t e c h n i q u e s . An a i d f o r a n s w e r in g t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n ( i s t h e pro ble m s i g n i ­ f i c a n t ? ) was p r e s e n t e d in a c h a r t t i t l e d , ( r e p r o d u c e d in F i g u r e 2 . 4 ) . " I n j u r y A c c e p t a n c e L e v e ls " T h i s c h a r t was p r e p a r e d a s a g u i d e t o e s t a b l i s h , f o r e ac h i n s t a n c e , a l e v e l a t which t h e p e s t s i t u a t i o n was i m p o r t a n t enough t o t a k e a c t i o n - - t h e i n j u r y a c c e p t a n c e l e v e l . U n t i l a r e a d i n g in "Zone #3 C o n tr o l P r o b a b l y Needed" was r e a c h e d , r e a d e r s were e n c o u r a g e d t o t o l e r a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n . An example was p r o v i d e d , i l l u s t r a t i n g how t h e " I n j u r y A c c e p t a n c e L e v e l s " c h a r t s h o u l d be u s e d . While t h e " I n j u r y A c c e p t a n c e L e v e l s " c h a r t p r e s e n t e d d i s c r e t e c a t e g o r i e s f o r d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g , t h e accompanying d e s c r i p t i o n s t r e s s e d using i t only as a guide. The s t a f f d e c i d e d t o use t h i s t y p e o f g r a p h i c p r e s e n t a t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g t h e two c h a r t s f o r m o n i t o r i n g i t e m s ) t o i n c r e a s e t h e r e a d e r s ' u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f m o n i t o r i n g and f a c i l i t a t e i t s us e i n t h e i r IPM pr o g ra m s . 54 MO-11 CHART 3 INJURY ACCEPTANCE LEVELS Zone #3 CONTROL PROBABLY NEEDED Abundant Zone It2 CONTROL POSSIBLECONTINUE MONITORING Common OR PLANT DAMAGE ABUNDANCE RATING Extreme PEST Zone It 1 j CONTINUE | MONITORING i Few Excellent Good Fair Poor PLANT CONDITION RATING Figure 2 .4 . In ju ry acceptance le v e ls c h a r t [reproduced from t h e P e s t Management Manual (Lambur and P ar k s 19 80 )] 55 A g u i d e f o r e v a l u a t i n g o r j u d g i n g management a c t i o n s was presented next. Each t i m e management a c t i v i t i e s were p e r f o r m e d , r e a d e r s w ere u r g e d t o e v a l u a t e : ( 1 ) what t h e y d i d ; ( 2 ) how w ell t h e y d i d i t ; and (3 ) how e f f e c t i v e i t was. The i n t e n t was t o h e l p them improve f u t u r e p e s t management a c t i v i t i e s by l a b e l i n g p a s t a c t i o n s as s a t i s f a c t o r y o r u n s a t i s f a c t o r y . By r e p e a t i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y a c t i o n s and r e j e c t i n g o r m o d i f y in g u n s a t i s f a c t o r y o n e s , t h e i r IPM program c o u l d improve. F iv e e v a l u a t i o n q u e s t i o n s were l i s t e d : (1) Was I f a c e d w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t pr oblem? (2 ) Were management t e c h n i q u e s r e a l l y c a l l e d f o r o r m i g h t t h e p ro b lem have g o t t e n b e t t e r even i f I had l e f t i t a l o n e ? (3) Did t h e management t e c h n i q u e I ch o s e a d e q u a t e l y s o l v e t h e p r ob le m — d i d i t improve my r e a d i n g on C h a r t 3 , I n j u r y Acceptance L e v e ls ? (4) Could I manage t h e p ro b lem b e t t e r n e x t t i m e - - i f s o , how? (5) Will I need more o r b e t t e r i n f o r m a t i o n t o make f u t u r e decisions? The f i n a l p o r t i o n o f t h e m o n i t o r i n g s e c t i o n i n c l u d e d s e v e r a l b l a n k m o n i t o r i n g fo r m s . Read ers were en c o u r a g e d t o use t h e s e forms f o r r e c o rd in g monitored inform atio n . One form was c o m p l e t e d , a s an e x a m p le , f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p e s t p ro b lem ( r e p r o d u c e d in F i g u r e 2 . 5 ) . Re ad e rs were ur g e d t o r e p r o d u c e and use t h e s e forms " a s i s " , o r modi fy them t o f i t t h e i r p r e f e r e n c e s f o r r e c o r d i n g i n f o r m a t i o n . Management T e c h n i q u e s . An o v e r v ie w o f t e c h n i q u e s used t o manage p e s t p r o b le m s was p r e s e n t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n . Six c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s were c l a s s i f i e d i n t o two t y p e s : t e c h n i q u e s and c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s . c o n s is te n t with the d e f in i ti o n preventative T h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme was (and p h i l o s o p h y ) o f IPM p r e s e n t e d in t h e ma nu al. A g e n e r a l e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s i x c a t e g o r i e s o f management MONITORING RECORD Name of Plant Date fv je e fc o a e . u fr ffo Condition of Plant Presence of Helpful Organisms Abundance of Pests Abundance of Plant Damage K bue G fiop fhiHiGD o r or v* ee (fMtJuAL. Q W H o tS ) Cco l/C h ’d o t& m o / (s m € ) good A fe w u tp fe 04$ m ^ / *[*■!*> OfC euj& jj’ fJ O H Jtx Management Activities Evaluation Remarks fe m u /e p M & rr &>% o r 4 Au£> fa * a u t& > u e e e u r m m e e fa u n * * o r t**u£> I f. fiMiCMJCf ^flW 55S (m o tik u 6a v n tc £ ) C fiM iT AMMdrtfWflUT*) leeep r e u i/ WOM6 LCDK. 1h m r u B f& r a c H tseiP er*.. C tie p -u p ' re u i m u1 w o ije tc e e p M u r ttm ifX i. m u) uoue r B O U W lO l K> O rin b & x e w ff* r (* * * * ) P s u i/ g B S D ttV -fffe K . ek c e u su r m o lAPVBOCrS a fe u )/ UX*£> «*oop. uxm + (t/nap. ffa n * 6tALLi> m o 'ttM iS je o * •1 0 * 0 7 A JB W VfeA R! o w s iN u e o > \ M > Figure 2 .5 . Example p e s t m o n i t o r i n g form [ r e p r o d u c e d from t h e P e s t Management Manual (Lambur and P ar k s 19 80)] 57 t e c h n i q u e s was p r e s e n t e d in t h i s s e c t i o n ; s p e c i f i c t e c h n i q u e s were l i s t e d in t h e " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n " s e c t i o n . B e f o r e c o n s i d e r i n g t e c h n i q u e s aimed d i r e c t l y a t p e s t s , m e as u r e s t o p r e v e n t o r m i n im i ze p e s t p r o bl em s were s t r e s s e d . These f i r s t two c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s w ere P l a n t S e l e c t i o n and PI a n t Management ( s e e T a b l e 2 . 5 ) . Sho uld t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s f a i l t o m in im iz e o r p r e v e n t p e s t p r o b l e m s , more d i r e c t c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s m i g h t need t o be us ed ( s e e T a b l e 2 . 5 ) . To a i d in c o r r e c t l y c h o o s i n g from among (and w i t h i n ) t h e t e c h n i q u e s , f o u r q u e s t i o n s were p r e s e n t e d ( s e e T ab l e 2.6). The i n t e n t o f t h e f i r s t t h r e e q u e s t i o n s was t o i n s u r e t h a t b e f o r e t a k i n g any a c t i o n , r e a d e r s i d e n t i f i e d t h e p e s t and t h e p l a n t on which i t o c c u r r e d , and t h e s t a g e o f t h e p e s t ’ s l i f e c y c l e i n which a p p l i c a t i o n o f a c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e would p r o d u c e t h e b e s t r e s u l t s . The f o u r t h q u e s t i o n r e i n t r o d u c e d and em p ha si ze d t h e i n j u r y a c c e p t a n c e l e v e l c o n c e p t f o r making a d e c i s i o n t o a p p l y a c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e . The o r d e r i n which t h e s i x c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s were p r e s e n t e d was i n t e n t i o n a l . P r e v e n t a t i v e t e c h n i q u e s were t o be g i v e n t h e h i g h e s t p r i o r i t y ; d i r e c t c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s were t o be s e l e c t e d and u s e d , i f p o s s i b l e , from t h e o r d e r i n which t h e y were presented. C o n s e q u e n t l y , chem ica l c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s r e c e i v e d t h e l o w e s t p r i o r i t y — t o be u sed o n l y when o t h e r t e c h n i q u e s were n o t a p p r o p r i a t e o r d i d n o t e f f e c t i v e l y manage t h e p ro b le m . was em p h a si z e d a t t h e end o f t h e s e c t i o n . This i n t e n t Five g u i d e l i n e s f o r s e l e c t i n g management t e c h n i q u e s were p r e s e n t e d : (1) C o n s i d e r f i r s t t h o s e management t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a r e l e a s t l i k e l y t o do harm t o y o u r f a m i l y , n e i g h b o r s , and environment. (2) Choose t h o s e management t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a r e l e a s t l i k e l y t o do harm t o h e l p f u l o r g a n i s m s . T ab l e 2 . 5 . S ix c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P e s t Management Manual Management t e c h n i q u e s D efinition P r e v e n t a t i v e Te c h n iq u e s 1. Plant selec tio n Using p l a n t s p e c i e s r e s i s t a n t o r l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o p e s t p ro b le m s . Using p l a n t s t h a t a r e w e l l s u i t e d t o l o c a l c l i m a t e and s o i l c o n d i t i o n s . 2. P l a n t management A ctions taken to a l t e r a p e s t ' s environm ent, there b y re n d e rin g th e p e s t l e s s harmful t o t h e p l a n t . A c t i o n s a r e aimed a t t h e p l a n t i t s e l f , o r t h e e n v i r o n m e n t ar oun d t h e p l a n t . A c t i o n s aimed a t t h e p l a n t a r e f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e p l a n t i n a v i g o r o u s s t a t e , making i t l e s s s u s c e p t i b l e t o p e s t pr ob lem s o r b e t t e r a b l e t o s u s t a i n o r r e c o v e r from s e v e r e p r o b le m s . Examples i n c l u d e : f e r t i l i z i n g , p r u n i n g , mulch­ i n g , and w a t e r i n g . A c t i o n s aimed a t t h e e n v i r o n m e n t around t h e p l a n t a r e done t o make i t l e s s a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e p p s t a n d / o r more a t t r a c t i v e t o t h e p e s t ' s n a t u r a l e n e m ie s . Examples 'e: th in n in g p l a n t s , p ro p e rly spacing p l a n t s , r o t a t i n g p l a n t s , .ng s o i l , m a i n t a i n i n g a d i v e r s e number o f p l a n t s p e c i e s , and u s i r ,a n ts tha* e i t h e r a t t r a c t b e n e f i c i a l o r g a n is m s o r r e p e l p e s t s . D i r e c t C o n t r o l T e c h n iq u e s 3. Manual p e s t c o n t r o l 3. Using hand methods o r m e ch an ic al d e v i c e s t h a t • , u i r e p h y s i c a l t i o n e i t h e r t o d e s t r o y p e s t s o r make an e n v i r o n m e n t u n s u i t a b l e p e s t's survival. Examples i n c l u d e : removing i n s e c t s by h an d , p e s t s o f f p l a n t s , s w a t t i n g i n s e c t s , removing p e s t - r i d d e n p l a n t and s h o o t i n g l a r g e r p e s t s . opera­ f o r the washing p arts, Table 2 .5 . (Continued) Management t e c h n i q u e s D efinition 4. Mechanical p e s t c o n t r o l 4. Using m e ch an ic al d e v i c e s t h a t do n o t r e q u i r e c o n s t a n t p h y s i c a l o p e r a ­ t i o n e i t h e r t o d e s t r o y p e s t s o r t o make t h e e n v i r o n m e n t u n s u i t a b l e f o r the p e s t 's su rv iv al. Examples i n c l u d e : f e n c i n g t o p r o t e c t p l a n t s , and t r a p s t h a t e i t h e r c a t c h o r d e s t r o y p e s t s . 5. B iological p e s t control 5. Using o r e n c o u r a g i n g n a t u r a l enem ies t o d e s t r o y p e s t s . En co ur ag in g common p r e d a c i o u s s p e c i e s such a s l a d y b u g s , b i r d s , and t o a d s was emp has iz ed r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o i n t r o d u c e and e s t a b l i s h p r e d a t o r s and p a r a s i t e s . 6. Chemical p e s t c o n t r o l 6. Using any k i n d o f s u b s t a n c e t o p r e v e n t , d e s t r o y , o r r e p e l p e s t s ( n o t i n c l u d i n g p r e v i o u s l y m e n ti o n ed c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s ) . T h i s c o n t r o l technique r e f e r s p rim a rily to s y n th e tic organic p e s ti c id e s . 60 T ab l e 2 . 6 . Four q u e s t i o n s t o answer b e f o r e c h o o s i n g and a p p l y i n g c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e P e s t Management Manual Question B rie f explanation 1. Have I c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i ­ f i e d th e cause o f the problem? 1. Pest control techniques applied t o t h e wrong p e s t w i l l pr o d u c e po o r r e s u l t s . The s i t u a t i o n may even be worse ned by d e s t r o y i n g beneficial o r g a n is m s t h a t a r e mistaken f o r p e s t s . 2. Have I c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i ­ f i e d t h e p l a n t which has t h e p e s t problem? 2. Pest species often a sso c ia te themselves w ith p a r t i c u l a r s p e c i e s o r g r o up s o f p l a n t s . C orrectly id e n tify in g the p la n t can o f t e n h e l p i n c o r r e c t l y id e n tify in g the p e st resp o n sib le f o r t h e damage. 3. Do I know t h e p e s t ' s l i f e cycle? 3. C e r t a i n p e s t s p e c i e s can be co n­ t r o l l e d more e f f e c t i v e l y w h i l e in a p a r t i c u l a r s t a g e o f t h e i r l i f e cycle. Knowing t h i s you can d e t e r m i n e i f you can con­ t r o l t h e p e s t , when t o t a k e a c t i o n , and what t e c h n i q u e s can be u s e d . 4. Have I c o n s i d e r e d and d e c i d e d w h e t h e r t h e damage i s now s e r i o u s enough t o apply control techniques, o r can I e x p e c t i t t o b e ­ come s e r i o u s enough l a t e r on? 4. The f i n a l d e c i s i o n t o a p p l y a p a r t i c u l a r c o n tro l technique depends on an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f the in ju r y acceptance level concept. 61 (3) A tt e m p t t o p r e v e n t o r a t l e a s t min imi ze p e s t pr ob le m s by u s i n g recommended p l a n t s e l e c t i o n and p l a n t management techniques. (4) S e l e c t o n l y p e s t c o n t r o l t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a r e aimed s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t h e p e s t you a r e a t t e m p t i n g t o c o n t r o l . (5) Choose t h o s e management t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a r e e a s y t o use b u t t h o s e which s t i l l s a t i s f y t h e above g u i d e l i n e s . S a f e t y . The " S a f e t y " s e c t i o n c o n t a i n e d m a t e r i a l from C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e b u l l e t i n s , o r g a n i z e d in two s u b - s e c t i o n s : "P esti­ c i d e s " and " E q u ip m e n t. " Because homeowners f r e q u e n t l y use p e s t i c i d e s , a l a r g e amount o f i n f o r m a t i o n on them was i n c l u d e d . T h i s , however, d i d n o t c o n s t i t u t e an en d o r s em e n t f o r t h e i r u s e , b u t was done t o em ph asi ze t h a t t h e p r o p e r us e o f t h e s e compounds e n t a i l s many c o n s i ­ d erations. Material in t h e " P e s t i c i d e " s u b - s e c t i o n i n c l u d e d : " P e s t i c i d e s and S a f e Use"; " P e s t i c i d e C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s and F o r m u l a t i o n s " ; "Dormant O i l s : What They Are and How They Are Used"; "What I s On The P e s t i c i d e L a b e l " ; " F a c t o r s A f f e c t i n g P e s t i c i d e A c t i v i t y " ; " P r o t e c t i n g t h e En vi r o n m en t" ; " P r o t e c t i n g Man--Using P e s t i c i d e s S a f e l y " ; and " F i r s t Aid f o r P e s t i c i d e P o i s o n i n g . " p i e c e s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e "Equipment" s u b - s e c t i o n : Two "Equipment f o r P e s t C o n t r o l " ; and "What You Should Know About S a f e Chain Saw O peration." P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n and S t r a t e g y S e l e c t i o n . This s e c ti o n contain ed p e s t i n f o r m a t i o n forms on s p e c i f i c p e s t s p e c i e s f o r t h e p l a n t gr oup s c o v e r e d i n t h e manual Trees). (Lawns, V e g e t a b l e G a r d e n s , and O rn am e n t a l/ S h a d e In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e t h r e e p l a n t g r o u p s , p r e - p r i n t e d t a b - d i v i d e r s f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g p l a n t g ro u p s were a l s o i n c l u d e d ( t h e s e s e c t i o n s were l e f t e m p ty ) : " F l o w e r s " ; "Small F r u i t s " ; " S h r u b s " ; " F r u i t T r e e s " ; and "Nut T r e e s . " Two empty t a b - d i v i d e r s were p r o v i d e d 62 f o r p l a n t group c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s n o t r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e e i g h t p r e ­ l a b e l e d p l a n t gro up s e c t i o n s ( t h e s e c o u l d be l a b e l e d by r e a d e r s ) . P r e c e d i n g t h e p l a n t group s e c t i o n s was an E x t e n s i o n p u b l i c a t i o n titled , "Pests: An I n t r o d u c t i o n t o T h e i r I d e n t i f i c a t i o n . 11 T h i s was in c lu d e d to p ro v id e a general o u t l i n e o f th e d i f f e r e n t p e s t groups and t h e i r i d e n t i f y i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The e i g h t p l a n t gr o up s e c t i o n s f o l l o w e d . To f a c i l i t a t e e a s y r e f e r e n c e , o r g a n i z a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l w i t h i n ea ch o f t h e t h r e e p l a n t g r o u p s was s t a n d a r d i z e d . A "Quick P e s t R e f e r e n c e Guide" was i n c l u d e d a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f e a c h s e c t i o n (an example i s r e p r o d u c e d in F i g u r e 2 . 6 ) . The g u i d e p r o v i d e d a l i s t o f p e s t s c o v e r e d in t h e s e c t i o n , w i t h s u f f i c i e n t i n f o r m a t i o n t o make p r e l i m i n a r y p e s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s . W it h in t h e s e c t i o n s , heavy bond, c o l o r p a p e r d i v i d e r s o r g a n i z e d t h e m aterial by p e s t group and management t e c h n i q u e s . Thes e d i v i d e r s were p re-labeled as: (1 ) f o r p e s t g ro u p s - " I n s e c t s " , " D i s e a s e s " , "Weeds", " E n v i r o n m e n t a l " , and " V e r t e b r a t e s " ; and ( 2 ) f o r management t e c h n i q u e s - " P l a n t S e l e c t i o n " , " P l a n t Management", "Manual P e s t C o n t r o l " , "Mechanical P e s t C o n t r o l " , " B i o l o g i c a l P e s t C o n t r o l " , and "Chemical P e s t C o n t r o l ." I n f o r m a t i o n on e a c h p e s t was p r e s e n t e d in a s t a n d a r d i z e d f o r m a t c a l l e d a " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n Form." The f o r m a t was us ed t o f a c i l i t a t e e a s i l y lo c a tin g p e r ti n e n t inform ation. In a d d i t i o n , i n f o r m a t i o n f o r p r a c t i c i n g IPM ( s u c h a s p e s t l i f e c y c l e s , s u i t a b l e h o s t p l a n t s , and p l a n t symptoms/damage) was i n c l u d e d . The o r g a n i z a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e p e s t i n f o r m a t i o n forms i s p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 2 . 7 ; an example form i s r e p r o d u c e d i n F i g u r e 2 . 7 . QUICK PEST REFERENCE GUIDE Page 1 of 3 PLANT GROUP: Ornamental/Shade Trees DEVELOPMENT STAGE OF PEST CAUSING DAMAGE WHEN PLANT SYMPTOMS/ DAMAGE APPEARS* Aphids, Aphis, Plant Lice Nymph, Adult May - September Stunted, deformed or curled buds, flowers and leaves. Presence of honeydew on leaves and/or ants on trees. All trees Birch Leaf Miner Larva Late May - early June Late July - early August Brown blotches on new leaves Grey, cut-leaf and paper birch Bronze Birch Borer Larva May - September Dieback at top of tree. Swelling at main stem. European white birch, grey birch Cooley Spruce Gall Aphid Nymph, Adult Late May - Early June Galls on branch tips Colorado blue spruce, Sitka spruce, Englemann spruce, Douglas-fir Elm Leaf Beetle Larva Early - Late June Leaves with tissue missing between the veins American, English, Scotch, Siberian and Camperdown elms Maple BladderGall Mite Nymph, Adult May - Late July Galls on upper sur­ face of leaves Silver maple NAME OF PEST PLANT SYMTPOMS/DAMACE SUITABLE HOSTS Insects *The listed times when plant symptoms/damage will appear are estimates only. weather conditions and the vigor of a suitable host plant. Figure 2 .6 . They will vary depending upon Quick p e s t r e f e r e n c e g u i d e f o r o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s [ r e p r o d u c e d from t h e P e s t Management Manual (Lambur and P a r k s 198 0) ] 01 to Ta b l e 2 . 7 . O r g a n i z a t i o n and d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n on " P e s t I n f o r m a t i o n Forms" i n t h e P e s t Management Manual Item Description Name o f p e s t Common and s c i e n t i f i c name g i v e n . Illu stra tio n of pest o r p l a n t symptoms/ damage Bl ac k and w h i t e l i n e d r aw in g s were i n c l u d e d t o a i d i n p e s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Drawings were o f : l a r v a l and a d u l t forms f o r i n s e c t s ; p l a n t symptoms/damage f o r d i s e a s e s and e n v i r o n m e n t a l ; t h e p l a n t i t s e l f f o r weeds; a d u l t forms f o r vertebrates. "Pest id e n tific a tio n " A d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e p e s t forms was g iv e n f o r i n s e c t s , w e e d s , and v e r t e b r a t e s t o f u r t h e r a i d in t h e i r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . "Life cycle" A b a r c h a r t was used t o g r a p h i c a l l y p r e s e n t t h e a p p r o x i m a t e m o nt hly a p p e a r ­ an ce o f t h e s t a g e s i n t h e l i f e c y c l e o f i n s e c t s and w eeds. L i f e c y c l e d e s c r i p t i o n s were a l s o g i v e n f o r i n s e c t s , d i s e a s e s , and weeds. " P l a n t symptoms/ damage" A d e s c r i p t i o n o f p l a n t symptoms/damage c au s ed by t h e p e s t was g i v e n . a v a i l a b l e , s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n on p e s t m o n i t o r i n g was a l s o g i v e n . "S u ita b le hosts" P l a n t s s u s c e p t i b l e t o i n f e s t a t i o n o r damage by t h e p e s t were l i s t e d . "Management s t r a t e g i e s " S p e c i f i c management t e c h n i q u e s were o r g a n i z e d and l i s t e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e s i x c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s d e f i n e d i n t h e manual. When 65 common n a m e : scientific n a m e : Aphids, Aphis, Plant Lice Aphididae spp. THE ROSY APHID WINGLESS FORM WINGED FORM PEST IDENTIFICATION: Adults: Adult aphids are small, soft-bodied insects about 1/16 inch in length. There are numerous species ranging in color from milky white to green to black. Aphids are pear­ like in shape, have long antennae and a pair of tube-like structures (cornicles) that project from the rear of the abdomen. There are winged and wingless forms depending upon the species. Wings, if present, are clear and held roof-like over the body. LIFE CYCLE: Eggs Nymphs Adults MAY Figure 2 .7 . JUNE JULY AUG SEPT P e s t i n f o r m a t i o n form f o r a p h i d s on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s [ r e p r o d u c e d from t h e P e s t Management Manual (Lambur and P a r k s 19 80 )] 66 Aphids, Aphis, Plant Lice 2 of A Aphids overwinter as eggs or young females on plant pa r t s . In early spring the eggs hatch and all -.phs develop into females, some of which may * ' win There may be as many as 10 generations , 'r • Most of these generations consist of femaler 6 females. Males are only produced in the fall, .xme they mate with females to produce the o v e n eggs Aphids have a high reproductive capacity u female capable of having 80-100 offspring. PLANT SYMPTOMS/DAMAGE: .ch Trees infested with aphids may have stunted, deformed or curled buds, flowers and leaves. This results from the aphids sucking sap from these tender plant parts. If aphid populations are h i g h , they may be found clustered together on tender shoots, buds, flowers and leaves. Aphids produce and excrete a sticky fluid, high in sugars, called honeydew. This sub­ stance is often found coating leaves. While harmless, it may create a nuisance problem when it collects on parked cars and lawn furniture sitting under infested trees. Numerous ants in the trees may also indicate the presence of aphids. Ants "tend" the aphids so they can feed on the honeydew and may protect aphids from predators. Aphids may also transmit the bacterial disease, fireblight, from an infected plant to a healthy one. SUITABLE HOSTS: Almost all trees. MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES: Plant Management: Figure 2 .7 . -Maintain trees in a vigorous state by proper watering and fertilizing. However, do not fertilize heavily with nitrogen. This may promote excessive shoot growth which is more susceptible to attack by aphids (see Ferti­ lizing Shade and Ornamental T r e e s , Extension Bulletin E-786, in this section under Plant Management) . (Continued) 67 Aphids, Aphis, Plant Lice 3 of 4 Manual Pest Control: -If just one or two growing tips are affected they can be removed and destroyed (see Pruning Shade and Ornamental T r e e s , Extension Bulletin E-804, in this section under Plant Management) . -Aphids can be knocked off of plants by water spray from a hose. Mechanical Pest Control: -If ants are tending aphids, a band of sticky material (Tanglefoot) can be placed around the stem of the tree to trap the ants. Biological Pest Control: -A wide variety of naturally occurring organisms feed upon aphids. Encouragement of these insects may help keep aphid popu­ lations in check: predators - ladybugs, soldier beetles, damsel b u g s , big-eyed bugs, pirate bugs, assasin bugs, syrphid flies, lacewings and spiders; parasites braconid wasps and chalcid wasps. Some of these insects are commercially available (see Sources of Biological Control Agents For Home Gardeners, Insect & Nematode Special Report No. 79-11, in the Appendix) . Chemical Pest Control: -There are a variety of "homemade” sprays that have been used for control of aphids. While most of these substances have not been scientifically tested for their effec­ tiveness, you may wish to experiment on your own. It is always a good idea to test these substances on a small portion of the plant first, to see if any plant damage occurs. If damage does occur, do not use the sub­ stance on that plant. These sprays can be applied when the aphids are numerous enough to warrant control. These sprays include: <>A 1% soap solution (not detergent) in water. Plants should be rinsed with clean water afterwards. °A strong lime and water solution. <>An onion and water solution mixed as 50% onion juice and 50% water. Figure 2 .7 . ( C o n ti n u e d ) 68 Aphids, Aphis, Plant Lice A of A °Boil 3 pounds of rhubarb leaves in 3 quarts of water for one-half hour. When cool mix with one quart of water in which one ounce of soap flakes has been added. Caution: Rhubarb leaves are very poisonous and boiling concentrates the toxic materials in them. Be very careful in using this solution. oMelt % l b . of water soluble glue in 1 g a l . of warm water and let it stand over night. Apply as a spray the following day. When it dries, the glue will flake off with the suffocated aphids. -A spray application of an insecticide to the affected plant parts will aid in control of the adults and nymphs. These can be applied when the aphids are numerous enough to warrant control. -For proper chemical recommendations see Pesticides For Control of Landscape Orna­ mental Insect P e s t s , Insect & Wematode Special Report No. 79-15, in this section under Chemical Pest Control. -See the Safety section for information on proper pesticide use. Figure 2 .7 . (Continued) 69 Where a p p r o p r i a t e m a t e r i a l on s p e c i f i c management t e c h n i q u e s was a v a i l a b l e , i t was p r e s e n t e d a f t e r t h e p e s t i n f o r m a t i o n forms ( o r g a n i z e d by t h e l a b e l e d d i v i d e r s ) . For ex a m p le , one management s t r a t e g y f o r a p h i d s on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s i s t o m a i n t a i n t r e e s in a v i g o r o u s s t a t e by p r o p e r l y w a t e r i n g and f e r t i l i z i n g ( l i s t e d as a p l a n t management t e c h n i q u e on t h e p e s t i n f o r m a t i o n f o r m ) . An E x t e n s i o n p u b l i c a t i o n , " F e r t i l i z i n g Shade and Ornamental T r e e s " (Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y E x t e n s i o n b u l l e t i n E-786) was i n c l u d e d u n d e r t h e d i v i d e r l a b e l e d " P l a n t Management." Re ade rs were r e f e r r e d t o t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n f o r s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n on u s i n g t h i s management technique. T h i r t y - f o u r p e s t s were i n c l u d e d i n t h e manual f o r t h e t h r e e p l a n t groups (see Table 2 . 8 ) . m a ti o n from two s o u r c e s : (2) T h e i r s e l e c t i o n was b as ed on i n f o r ­ (1) t h e ne e d s a s s e s s m e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e ; and E x t e n s i o n s p e c i a l i s t s a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . Re sp on de nt s t o t h e ne e d s a s s e s s m e n t q u e s t i o n n a i r e were a s k e d t o l i s t p e s t p r o bl em s t h a t t h e y had e x p e r i e n c e d on s p e c i f i c p l a n t g r o u p s in t h e i r y ard th e p revious y e a r (1979). These d a t a w ere t a b u l a t e d f o r t h e t h r e e p l a n t g r o u p s t o be c o v e r e d i n t h e ma nua l. Extension s p e c i a l i s t s a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y were t h e n a s k e d t o r e v i e w t h e s e r e s u l t s and comment on t h e i r v a l i d i t y and p r i o r i t y . A p p e n d ix . The "Appendix" c o n t a i n e d a v a r i e t y o f m a t e r i a l s , o r g a n i z e d by management t e c h n i q u e s ( w i t h heavy bond, c o l o r p a p e r dividers). T h i s m a t e r i a l was i n t e n d e d t o s u p p le m e n t t h e m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n e d in o t h e r s e c t i o n s o f t h e m an ual . For ex a m p le , u n d e r t h e " P l a n t Management" d i v i d e r , E x t e n s i o n p u b l i c a t i o n s on sa m p l in g s o i l s , c o m p o s t i n g , and d e s i g n i n g l a n d s c a p e s t o c o n s e r v e e n e r g y were Table 2 .8 . P l a n t g ro u p s and p e s t s p e c i e s and pr o bl em s c o v e r e d i n t h e P e s t Management Manual P l a n t group P e s t s p e c i e s o r problem P l a n t group P e s t s p e c i e s o r problem Lawns Insects Vegetable Gardens I n s e c ts (continued) 1. Sod Webworm, B l u e g r a s s Webworm ( Crambus t e t e r r e l u s ) 2. White G r u b s, J une B e e t l e s , May B e e tle s ( Phyllophaga s p p .) Diseases 1. Fus ari um B l i g h t ( Fu sarium ro s eu m ) 2. M e l t i n g o u t , L e a f s p o t , Root r o t , Crown r o t ( Helm in th o sp o riu m spp.) D iseases 1. Club Root (P la s m o d i o p h o r a brassicae) 2 . Corn Smut ( U s t i l a g o m a y d i s ) 3. Powdery Mildew (many v a r i e t i e s ) Weeds 1. Da nd el io n (Taraxacum o f f i c i n a l e ) 2. Crabgrass (D i g i t a r i a sanguin a l i s , £ . i s ch ae nu m ) Vegetable Gardens 3. I m p or te d Cabbage W o r m / B u tt e r f ly (P ieris rapae) 4. Mexican Bean B e e t l e ( E p i l a c h n a v arivestis) 5. Tomato Hornworm, Tobacco Hornworm (Manduca q u i n q u e m a c u l a t a , M. s e x t a ) Envi ro nme nta l 1. Tomato Blossom-End Rot V ertebrates V ertebrates 1. Moles ( S c a l o p u s a q u a t i c u s , Condylura c r i s t a t a ) 1. R a b b i t s (S y l v a l a g u s floridanusj Insects 1. A p h id s , A p h i s , P l a n t L i c e ( A p h id id ae s p p . ) 2. Cutworms (many v a r i e t i e s ) O rn a m e n t a l/ Shade T r e e s Insects 1. A p h i d s , A p h i s , P l a n t L ic e ( A ph id id ae s p p . ) 2. B i r c h L e a f Miner ( Fenusa pusilla) Table 2 .8 . (Continued) P l a n t group P e s t s p e c i e s o r problem P l a n t group P e s t s p e c i e s o r problem Ornamental/ Shade T r e e s In s e c ts (continued) Ornamental/ Shade T r e e s Environmental 3. Bronze B i r c h B o r e r ( A g r i l u s anxius) 4. C o l l e y Sp ruce Gall Aphid (A d el g es c o o l e y i ) 5. Elm L e a f B e e t l e ( P y r r h a l t a luteola) 6. Maple B l a d d e r - G a l l Mite (Vasates q u a d r ip e d e s ) 7. P in e Needle S c a l e ( P h e n a c a s p i s p in ifo liae) Diseases 1. A n t h r a c n o s e (Gnomonia s p p . ) 2. Apple Scab ( V e n t u r i a inaequalis) 3. Ced ar- H aw tho rn /A pp le Ru st ( Gymnosporangium j u n i p e r i virginianae) 4. C y to s p o r a Canker ( C y to s p o r a kunzei) 5. D i p l o d i a Tip B l i g h t ( D i p l o d i a pinea) 6. F i r e B l i g h t ( E r w in i a a m y l o v o r a ) 7. Wetwood ( E r w in ia n i m i p r e s suralis) 1. I r o n C h l o r o s i s 2. L e a f Sc orch V ertebrates 1. Rabbi t s ( S y l v a l a g u s f l o r i da nu s ) 72 included. The d i v i d e r l a b e l e d " B i o l o g i c a l P e s t C o n t r o l " c o n t a i n e d an E x t e n s i o n b u l l e t i n on how t o i d e n t i f y b e n e f i c i a l b i o l o g i c a l c o n t r o l a g e n t s c o u l d be p u r c h a s e d . i n s e c t s and where A ls o i n c l u d e d i n t h e "Appendix" was m a t e r i a l d e t a i l i n g how homeowners s h o u l d c o l l e c t , p r e p a r e , and se nd s am p le s o f o r g a n is m s and p l a n t s t o t h e l o c a l C ooperative Extension o f f i c e f o r proper i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . ended w i t h a l i s t o f a l l The s e c t i o n r e f e r e n c e m a t e r i a l t h a t was p u r c h a s e d and p u t on r e s e r v e a t t h e l o c a l p u b l i c l i b r a r y . G lossary. A 3 5 - pa ge g l o s s a r y , d e f i n i n g o v e r 300 p e s t and v e g e t a t i o n management t e r m s , was co m pi le d from numerous s o u r c e s . Each t e r m and d e f i n i t i o n was r ev ie w e d and e d i t e d f o r a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s and c l a r i t y o f e x p r e s s i o n . CHAPTER 3 THE THEORETICAL AND CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY T h i s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l and c o n c e p t u a l framework t h a t w i l l be us ed t o e v a l u a t e t h e P e s t Management Manual a s a means f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o urb an homeowners. d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s . The c h a p t e r i s P a rt I i s devoted to a t h e o r e t i c a l d is c u s s io n o f a mode l, c a l l e d t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s mod el, t h a t w i l l be u s ed in t h i s s t u d y . P a r t I en d s w i t h a d i s c u s s i o n o f s p e c i f i c a l l y why t h i s model was ch o s en and how i t w i l l be a p p l i e d i n t h i s investigation. P a r t I I f o c u s e s on i d e n t i f y i n g and c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g a s e l e c t s e t o f v a r i a b l e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s from t h e model. The c h a p t e r c o n c l u d e s w i t h a l i s t i n g o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s t h a t w i l l be t e s t e d in th is investigation. PART I : THE THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK The I n n o v a t i o n - D e c i s i o n P r o c e s s Model The t h e o r e t i c a l framework t h a t w i l l be us ed i n t h i s s t u d y i s t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s m od el , a s i m p l i f i e d h e u r i s t i c d e v i c e used t o d e s c r i b e " t h e p r o c e s s t h r o u g h which an i n d i v i d u a l (or other d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g u n i t ) p a s s e s from f i r s t knowledge o f an i n n o v a t i o n , t o f o rm in g an a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e i n n o v a t i o n , t o a d e c i s i o n t o a d o p t 73 o r r e j e c t , t o i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e new i d e a , and t o c o n f i r m a t i o n o f th is decision" (Rogers 1 9 8 3 : 1 6 3 ) . The model i s one o f t h e c e n t r a l components o f t h e b r o a d e r t h e o r e t i c a l a r e a c a l l e d d i f f u s i o n o f innovations. D i f f u s i o n t h e o r y s e e k s t o e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s by which i n n o v a t i o n s a r e communicated t o members o f a s o c i a l s y st e m o v e r time ( Rogers 1 9 8 3 ) . While t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e s e two p r o c e s s e s a p p e a r s t o be t h e same, t h e r e i s n e v e r t h e l e s s a s u b t l e b u t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e . The i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s , a l s o c a l l e d t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s , i s d i f f e r e n t i a t e d from t h e d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s by i t s f o c u s ; adoption occurs a t the in d iv id u a l l e v e l , whereas d i f f u s i o n occu rs among i n d i v i d u a l s a t t h e s o c i a l s y st e m l e v e l . Consequently, th e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s i s a component o f t h e d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s , w i t h t h e e x t e n t o f d i f f u s i o n b e i n g d e p e n d e n t , i n p a r t , on t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n by i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h i n t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m . Zaltman and Lin ( 1 9 7 1 :6 5 3 ) p u t t h e s e two p r o c e s s e s i n t o p e r s p e c t i v e when t h e y w r o t e , " I t ( d i f f u s i o n ) i s a phenomenon which em erg es fr o m t h e a d o p t i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n by p o t e n t i a l a d o p t e r u n i t s and i s u s u a l l y a p a r t i a l result o f i n t e r a c t i o n among t h e s e u n i t s . " The i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model ( h e r e a f t e r r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e model) was f i r s t p r o p o s e d by J o e M. Bohlen i n t h e 1 9 5 0 ' s and was b a s e d on " a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s by which human p e r s o n a l i t y d e v e l o p s and a b o u t how t h e e n t i t y known a s man r e s p o n d s t o s t i m u l i when he r e c e i v e s them" (Bohlen 1 9 6 7 : 1 1 3 ) . S i n c e t h a t ti m e t h e model has a p p e a r e d i n v a r i o u s b u t s i m i l a r forms in p u b l i c a t i o n s by L i o n b e r g e r ( 1 9 6 0 ) , Rogers ( 1 9 6 2 ) , Rogers w i t h Shoemaker (19 71 ) and Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 ) . The model — and t h e whole a r e a o f d i f f u s i o n - - i s e s s e n t i a l l y a m u l t i d i s c i p l i n a r y one t h a t ha s e v o l v e d from t h e o r e t i c a l 75 and e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h in a v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s . For ex a m p le , Rogers (1983) i d e n t i f i e s a n t h r o p o l o g y , e a r l y s o c i o l o g y , r u r a l s o c i o l o g y , e d u c a t i o n , p u b l i c h e a l t h and me d ic al s o c i o l o g y , co m m u n ic a ti o n , m a r k e t i n g , geo gr ap hy and g e n e r a l s o c i o l o g y a s t h e n i n e m a j o r d i s c i p l i n e s t h a t have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e e v o l u t i o n o f a d o p t i o n and d i f f u s i o n t h e o r y . (For a d d i tio n a l i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e h i s t o r i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t o f a d o p t i o n and d i f f u s i o n s e e Rogers 1962; Katz e t a l . 1963; King 1966; Rogers w i t h Shoemaker 1971; and Goss 1 9 7 6 . ) The p a r t i c u l a r form o f t h e model t h a t w i l l be us ed i n t h i s s t u d y i s t a k e n from R o g e r s ' 1983 book, D i f f u s i o n o f I n n o v a t i o n s . In t h i s , t h e most r e c e n t e d i t i o n o f R o g e r s ' books on d i f f u s i o n , t h e a u t h o r has c o m p il e d and s y n t h e s i z e d o v e r 3 , 0 0 0 d i f f u s i o n p u b l i c a t i o n s from a wide v a r i e t y o f d i s c i p l i n e s . T h i s form o f t h e model was ch os en b e c a u s e i t i s one o f t h e mos t w i d e l y us ed and b e c a u s e i t ha s been ackn ow le dge d by many t h a t t h e work o f Rogers o f f e r s p e r h a p s t h e most e x h a u s t i v e t r e a t m e n t on t h i s s u b j e c t t h u s f a r (Valkonen 1970; T a y l o r and M i l l e r 19 78 ). Consequently, the fo llow ing d is c u s s io n i s adapted from Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 ) ; a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n from o t h e r s o u r c e s i s added and c i t e d where a p p r o p r i a t e . The I n n o v a t i o n Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 : 1 1 ) d e f i n e s an i n n o v a t i o n a s , "an i d e a , p r a c t i c e , o r o b j e c t t h a t i s p e r c e i v e d a s new by an i n d i v i d u a l o r o t h e r u n i t o f adoption." "perceived." The most i m p o r t a n t t e r m i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n i s t h e word From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e i n n o v a t i o n ' s o b j e c t i v e o r a c t u a l newness makes l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e . i d e a , p r a c t i c e o r o b j e c t ha s Even i f t h e e x i s t e d f o r many y e a r s , i t would s t i l l 76 be c o n s i d e r e d an i n n o v a t i o n , i n t h i s c o n t e x t , i f i t were p e r c e i v e d a s new by t h e i n d i v i d u a l . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e above d e f i n i t i o n , an i n n o v a t i o n , t e c h n o l o g y o r t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n (Rogers u s e s t h e s e t e r m s synonymously) u s u a l l y c o n s i s t s o f two components: (1) a hardw are component; and (2) a s o f t w a r e component. ( I n p a s t d i f f u s i o n t e r m i n o l o g y t h e s e w i d e l y r e c o g n i z e d components have t y p i c a l l y been r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e o b j e c t o r m a t e r i a l component and t h e i d e a component, r e s p e c t i v e l y ( L i o n b e r g e r 1960; K lon gla n and Coward 1970; Rogers w i t h Shoemaker 1 9 7 1 ) . ) The har dw are component r e f e r s t o t h e " t o o l t h a t embodies t h e t e c h n o ­ l o g y a s m a t e r i a l o r p h y s i c a l o b j e c t s " ; t h e s o f t w a r e component r e f e r s t o t h e " i n f o r m a t i o n b a s e f o r t h e t o o l " (Ro ger s 1 9 8 3 : 1 2 ) . While a l l i n n o v a t i o n s i n c l u d e o r p o s s e s s a s o f t w a r e component, n o t a l l w i l l n e c e s s a r i l y have a h ar d w ar e component. Examples c i t e d by Rogers (1983) o f i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t a r e a l m o s t e n t i r e l y c o m pr is ed o f a s o f t w a r e component, o r i n f o r m a t i o n , a r e a p o l i t i c a l p h i l o s o p h y , a r e l i g i o u s i d e a , a news e v e n t , a rumo r, a s s e m b l y - l i n e p r o d u c t i o n and management by o b j e c t i v e (MBO). Two f i n a l c o n c e p t s c o n c e r n i n g t h e i n n o v a t i o n a l s o need t o be addressed. In some i n s t a n c e s , an i n n o v a t i o n may a c t u a l l y c o n s i s t o f a number o f c l o s e l y r e l a t e d i n n o v a t i o n s . The t e r m " t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r " i s us ed t o d e f i n e t h o s e i n n o v a t i o n s t h a t " c o n s i s t o f one o r more d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e elem ents o f technology t h a t a re p erce iv ed as being closely in terrelated " (Rog ers 1 9 8 3 : 1 4 ) . The se cond c o n c e p t c o n c e r n s t h e " d e g r e e t o which an i n n o v a t i o n i s chang ed o r m o d i f i e d by a u s e r in t h e p r o c e s s o f i t s a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . " 16-17). (Rogers 1983: Termed " r e - i n v e n t i o n " , t h i s c o n c e p t was d e v e l o p e d t o e x p l a i n 77 t h e f a c t t h a t i n n o v a t i o n s were o f t e n m o d i f i e d when p u t i n t o u s e . It was r e c o g n i z e d t h a t an i n n o v a t i o n was n o t n e c e s s a r i l y i n v a r i a n t during i t s d i f f u s i o n , nor did a d o p te rs simply e x h i b i t p a ssiv e b e h a v i o r by j u s t im p le m en tin g a s t a n d a r d t e m p l a t e o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y . And b e c a u s e i n d i v i d u a l s may a d o p t t h e same i n n o v a t i o n f o r a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t r e a s o n s and n e e d s , t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may o n l y be o b s e r v e d in how t h e a c t u a l innovation i s adopted. Rogers (1983: 180- 181) p r o v i d e s s i x r e a s o n s why i n n o v a t i o n s may be r e - i n v e n t e d : 1. I n n o v a t i o n s t h a t a r e r e l a t i v e l y more complex and d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d a r e more l i k e l y t o be r e - i n v e n t e d ( L a r s e n and A g a r w a l a - R o g e r s , 1977a, 1 9 7 7 b ) . * 2. R e - i n v e n t i o n can o c c u r owing t o t h e a d a p t e r ' s l a c k o f d e t a i l e d knowledge a b o u t t h e i n n o v a t i o n , such a s when t h e r e i s r e l a t i v e ­ l y l i t t l e d i r e c t c o n t a c t between t h e a d a p t e r and change a g e n t s o r p r e v i o u s a d o p t e r s (R ogers e t a l . , 1977a; Eveland e t a l . , 1977; La rs en and A g a r w a l a - R o g e r s , 1977a, p. 3 8 ) . 3. An i n n o v a t i o n t h a t i s a g e n e r a l c o n c e p t o r a t o o l ( l i k e a co m pu ter ) w i t h many p o s s i b l e a p p l i c a t i o n s i s more l i k e l y t o be r e - i n v e n t e d ( R o g e r s , 1 9 78 ). 4. When an i n n o v a t i o n i s implemented i n o r d e r t o s o l v e a wide r a n g e o f u s e r ' s p r o b l e m s , r e - i n v e n t i o n i s more l i k e l y t o occur. 5. Local p r i d e o f o w n e r s h ip o f an i n n o v a t i o n may a l s o be a cause o f r e - in v e n tio n . 6. F i n a l l y , r e - i n v e n t i o n may o c c u r b e c a u s e a change agency i n f l u e n c e s i t s c l i e n t s t o modify o r a d a p t an i n n o v a t i o n . S t a g e s o f t h e Model The model c o n s i s t s o f f i v e main s t a g e s t h a t r e p r e s e n t t h e a c t i v i t i e s an i n d i v i d u a l p a s s e s t h r o u g h when d e c i d i n g t o a d o p t o r *A11 c i t a t i o n s i n t h i s l i s t a r e from t h e o r i g i n a l t e x t . c i t a t i o n s can be fou nd in t h e l i s t o f r e f e r e n c e s . F u ll 78 r e j e c t an i n n o v a t i o n ( p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e 3 . 1 ) . As Rogers (19 83 :1 6 3) s t a t e s , "The p r o c e s s c o n s i s t s o f a s e r i e s o f a c t i o n s and c h o i c e s o v e r ti m e t h r o u g h which an i n d i v i d u a l o r an o r g a n i z a t i o n e v a l u a t e s a new i d e a and d e c i d e s w h e t h e r o r n o t t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e new i d e a i n t o on go ing p r a c t i c e . " Having acknowledged t h e e x i s t e n c e o f an i n n o v a t i o n , t h e in n o v a tio n -d e c is io n p ro cess i s conceived as beginning with the knowledge s t a g e . In t h i s s t a g e t h e i n d i v i d u a l becomes aware o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n ' s e x i s t e n c e and g a i n s some u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how i t functions. On one h an d, a w a re n e s s may come a b o u t from t h e i n n o v a t i o n ' s a b i l i t y t o s a t i s f y a need t h a t a l r e a d y e x i s t s f o r t h e individual. On t h e o t h e r h an d , i t i s a l s o acknowledged t h a t in many c a s e s a w ar en es s o r knowledge o f an i n n o v a t i o n may a c t u a l l y c r e a t e t h e need f o r t h e new i d e a , p r a c t i c e o r o b j e c t . While t h e r e seems t o be no c l e a r - c u t answer t o t h e a w ar en es s o f a need v s . a w a r e n e s s o f an i n n o v a t i o n g u e s t i o n - - a l s o r e f e r r e d t o a s a problem v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y (Reynol ds 1971) — t h e r e does a p p e a r t o be agreement t h a t awareness i s not j u s t a p a s s iv e a c t i v i t y . Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 :1 6 6 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t , "The p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s o f i n d i v i d u a l s i n f l u e n c e t h e i r b e h a v i o r tow ard communication me ssages and t h e e f f e c t s t h a t such m e ss ag es a r e l i k e l y t o h a v e . Individuals generally t e n d t o ex po se t h e m s e l v e s t o i d e a s t h a t a r e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r i n t e r e s t s , needs, or e x is tin g a t t i t u d e s . " Movement i n t o t h e p e r s u a s i o n s t a t e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e e k i n g more c o m p le te i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i n n o v a t i o n , m e n t a l l y " w ei gh ing " t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n , and c o n s e q u e n t l y fo rm in g e i t h e r a f a v o r a b l e o r u n f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e i n n o v a t i o n . The main I. K n o w l e d g e II. P e r s u a s i o n III. D e c i s i o n F IV. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n J . Adoption V. C o n fi rm a tio n r Continued Adoption L ater Adoption „ jr >< * "2. R e j e c t i o n Discontinuance ^ C o n tin u e d Rejection Time F i g u r e 3 . 1 . A model o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s ( a d a p t e d from Rogers 1983:165) ^ 80 outcome o f t h i s s t a g e i s t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e innovation. I f t h e a t t i t u d e i s f a v o r a b l e , t h e n i t i s assumed t h i s w i l l l e a d t o a s u b s e q u e n t change i n o v e r t b e h a v i o r ( t h a t i s , a d o p t i o n of the innovation). On t h e o t h e r h an d, an u n f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e would lead to a r e j e c t i o n d e c isio n . And even th ou gh r e s e a r c h on a t t i t u d e - b e h a v i o r c o n s i s t e n c y i s g e n e r a l l y f a r from c o n c l u s i v e on t h i s p o i n t , f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h e model i t i s assumed t h a t t h e r e i s a te n d e n c y f o r a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r t o become c o n s i s t e n t . At t h e d e c i s i o n s t a g e , "An i n d i v i d u a l (or o th e r decision-making u n i t ) en g a g e s in a c t i v i t i e s t h a t l e a d t o a c h o i c e t o a d o p t o r r e j e c t the innovation. A do pti on i s a d e c i s i o n t o make f u l l u s e o f an innovation as th e b e s t course of a c tio n a v a i la b l e . R ejection i s a d e c i s i o n n o t t o a d o p t an i n n o v a t i o n " (Ro ger s 1 9 8 3 : 1 7 2 ) . The i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e o c c u r s when t h e i n d i v i d u a l a c t u a l l y puts the innovation in to use. While t h e p r e v i o u s t h r e e s t a g e s a r e men tal a c t i v i t i e s , t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y , o r i n v o l v e s , o v e r t b e h a v i o r (as su mi n g t h e outcome o f t h e d e c i s i o n s t a g e was an a d o p t i o n d e c i s i o n ) . S i n c e t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e i s a new a d d i t i o n t o t h e model ( i t d i d n o t a p p e a r in t h e 1971 c o n c e p t u a l i ­ z a t i o n o f t h e model by Rogers w i t h S h oe ma ke r) , Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 :1 7 4 ) p r o v i d e s a r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s i n c l u s i o n by e x p l a i n i n g : I t i s o f t e n one t h i n g f o r an i n d i v i d u a l t o d e c i d e t o a d o p t a new i d e a , and q u i t e a d i f f e r e n t t h i n g t o p u t th e innovation in to use. Problems i n e x a c t l y how t o us e t h e i n n o v a t i o n may c r o p up a t t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e . Implementation u s u a l l y fo llo w s the d e c i s i o n sta g e r a t h e r d i r e c t l y u n l e s s i t i s h e l d up by some l o g i s t i c a l p r o b le m , l i k e t h e t e m p o r a r y u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e innovation. The l e n g t h o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e w i l l v a r y d ep e n d i n g on t h e n atu re o f the innovation. A r e l a t i v e l y complex i n n o v a t i o n would 81 p r o b a b l y r e q u i r e a l o n g e r t i m e t o p u t i n t o use t h a n a s i m p l e on e. It i s a l s o a t t h i s s t a g e t h a t r e - i n v e n t i o n o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n o c c u r s . The p o i n t t h a t marks t h e end o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n i s when, " t h e new i d e a becomes an i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d and r e g u l a r i z e d p a r t o f t h e a d o p t e r ' s on g oi n g o p e r a t i o n s " (R o ge rs 1 9 8 3 : 1 7 5 ) . The c o n f i r m a t i o n s t a g e f i n d s t h e i n d i v i d u a l s e e k i n g r e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n t h a t was made. The i n c l u s i o n o f t h i s s t a g e in t h e model e m p h a s i z e s t h e dynamic n a t u r e o f t h e p r o c e s s , i n t h a t t h e i n d i v i d u a l may r e v e r s e h i s p r e v i o u s d e c i s i o n i f l a t e r exposed t o c o n f l i c t i n g in fo rm atio n about the in n o v a tio n . An i n d i v i d u a l may l a t e r d e c i d e t o r e j e c t t h e i n n o v a t i o n he had p r e ­ v i o u s l y a d o p t e d ( t e r m e d a d i s c o n t i n u a n c e ) o r a d o p t an i n n o v a t i o n he had p r e v i o u s l y r e j e c t e d . As can be s e e n , t h e c o n f i r m a t i o n s t a g e can c o n t i n u e f o r an i n d e f i n i t e p e r i o d o f t i m e . While n o t e x p r e s s e d a s a s t a g e o f t h e mode l, t h e f i n a l outcome o r t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f t h e p r o c e s s d e s e r v e me n tio n a t t h i s p o i n t . Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 :3 7 1 ) d e f i n e s c o n s e q u e n c e s a s " t h e ch a n g e s t h a t o c c u r t o an i n d i v i d u a l o r t o a s o c i a l s y s t e m a s a r e s u l t o f t h e a d o p t i o n o r r e j e c t i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n . " In d i f f u s i o n and a d o p t i o n s t u d i e s , r e s e a r c h e r s have g i v e n s c a n t a t t e n t i o n t o c o n s e q u e n c e s p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e t h e y o f t e n assume t h a t a d o p t i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n w i l l p r o d u c e only b e n e f ic ia l r e s u l t s (la b e lle d the pro-innovation b ia s ) . Instead, t h e main f o c u s o f most r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a i s on what v a r i a b l e s a r e r e l a t e d to innovative behavior. Rogers (1983) o f f e r s two a d d i t i o n a l r e a s o n s why c o n s e q u e n c e s have n o t been s t u d i e d s u f f i c i e n t l y : usually s u r v e y r e s e a r c h methods a r e i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r i n v e s t i g a t i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s , and c o n s e q u e n c e s a r e s i m p l y d i f f i c u l t t o m e a s u r e . 82 In an e f f o r t t o promote and improve t h e s t u d y o f t h e e f f e c t s o f a d o p t i o n o r r e j e c t i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n , Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 : 3 8 0 - 3 8 8 ) has p r o p o s e d t h e f o l l o w i n g c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ys te m a s a way t o view and c o n c e p t u a l i z e c o n s e q u e n c e s t o an i n d i v i d u a l o r a s o c i a l s y st em : 1. D e s i r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s - t h e f u n c t i o n a l e f f e c t s o f an innovation. U n d e s i r a b l e c o n s e q u e n c e s - t h e d y s f u n c t i o n a l e f f e c t s o f an innovation. 2. D i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s - ch an g e s t h a t o c c u r i n immediate r e s p o n s e t o an i n n o v a t i o n . I n d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s - ch an g e s t h a t o c c u r a s a r e s u l t o f th e d i r e c t consequences. 3. A n t i c i p a t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s - ch a n g e s t h a t a r e r e c o g n i z e d and intended. U n a n t i c i p a t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s - ch a n g e s t h a t a r e n e i t h e r intended nor recognized. F l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e Model The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e s e d i s c r e t e , s e q u e n t i a l s t a g e s i s n o t meant t o imply t h a t t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s al w ay s o c c u r s in t h i s manner f o r a l l individuals. Depending on t h e i n d i v i d u a l and t h e t y p e o f i n n o v a t i o n , t h e e x a c t o r d e r o f e v e n t s may v a r y . Fo r e x am pl e, Rogers (1983) c i t e s a c a s e where t h e se q u e n c e o f s t a g e s i n t h e model was a c t u a l l y knowledge - d e c i s i o n - p e r s u a s i o n , when a p p l i e d t o s t u d y i n g c o n t r a c e p t i v e s i n a Korean v i l l a g e . I t i s a ls o im portant to recognize t h a t e a c h s t a g e i n t h e model i s a p o t e n t i a l r e j e c t i o n p o i n t . Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 : 1 7 3 ) p o i n t s o u t , " i t i s p o s s i b l e t o r e j e c t an i n n o v a t i o n a t t h e knowledge s t a g e by s i m p l y f o r g e t t i n g a b o u t i t a f t e r i n i t i a l a w a r e n e s s . " More i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e model e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s i s t h e r e s u l t o f a s eq ue nc e o f e v e n t s and n o t j u s t random b e h a v i o r , n o r an i n s t a n t a n e o u s a c t (Campbell 1966; Bohlen 1 96 7 ). Bohlen ( 1 9 6 7 :1 1 8 ) commented on t h e i n t e n d e d f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e model when he w r o t e : 83 I do n o t wis h t o l e a v e t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s i s one composed o f s t a g e s t h r o u g h which t h e a d o p t e r p a s s e s in an i r r e v o c a b l e manner and t h a t he p asses through each s ta g e com pletely p r i o r to e n te r in g th e n ex t succeeding s ta g e . The p r o c e s s i s p o r t r a y e d in s t a g e s f o r h e u r i s t i c p u r p o s e s and t h o s e n o t d e e p l y i n ­ volved in th e em p iric a l re s e a r c h f r e q u e n t l y conclude th a t the actual process d u p licates the h e u r is tic . Such c o n c l u s i o n s a r e n o t w a r r a n t e d by t h e d a t a . From a t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t h e model s e r v e s t o s i m p l i f y and r e p r e s e n t , in a u s e f u l way, a v e r y complex s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s d e s c r i b i n g a r e l a t i v e l y c o n t i n u o u s se q u e n c e o f e v e n t s t h a t i n t e r v e n e between i n i t i a l knowledge o f an i n n o v a t i o n and t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n t o a d o p t o r r e j e c t i t ( L i o n b e r g e r 1960; White 1 9 6 7 ) . From an a n a l y t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e t h e model p r o v i d e s "a c o n c e p t u a l framework f o r o r g a n i z i n g and a n a l y z i n g i n f o r m a t i o n r e l a t e d t o a p e r s o n ' s a d o p t i o n o r r e j e c t i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n " (Reynol ds 1 9 7 1 : 2 1 5 ) . V ariables A ffe c tin g the Innovation-D ecision Process A l a r g e number and v a r i e t y o f v a r i a b l e s have been i n v e s t i g a t e d and fo und t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h , and c o n s e q u e n t l y a f f e c t , an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a c t i v i t i e s and movement t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s model. The four general c a te g o rie s of v a ria b le s are individual c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , s o c i a l s y s t e m c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , communication c h a n n e l s and p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the innovation. T heir a s s o c ia tio n with the stag es i n t h e model i s d e p i c t e d i n F i g u r e 3 . 2 . For c l a r i t y , a number o f t h e v a r i a b l e s from t h e Rogers w i t h Shoemaker (1971) and Rogers (1983) t e x t a r e combined and s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d f o r t h i s s t u d y . Communication Channels I. K n o w l e d g e II. P e r s u a s i o n f Individual C h a ra c te ris tic s Social System C h a ra c te ristic s Perceived C h a ra c te ris tic s of the Innovation 1. Socioeconomic c h a r a c te r is tic s 1. Social system norms 1. R elative advantage 2. P erso n ality c h a r a c te r is tic s 2. Tolerance of deviancy 2. C om patibility 3. Com unicatlon behavior 3. Communication in te g ra tio n 4 . T r l a la b ll lt y 4. Problem vs. innovation o rie n ta tio n III. D e c i s i o n IV. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n .1. A d o p t i o n V. C o n f ir m a tio n Continued Adoption L a ter Adoption 3. Complexity 5. O b serv ab ility 2. R e j e c t i o n Discontinuance Continued Rejection Time Figure 3 .2 . V a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model ( a d a p t e d from Rogers w i t h Shoemaker 1971:102 and Rogers 198 3:165) 85 Individual C h a r a c te r is t ic s The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s i s ba s e d on t h e f a c t t h a t a l l members o f a s o c i a l sy st em ex po se d t o an i n n o v a t i o n do n o t a d o p t o r r e j e c t t h e i n n o v a t i o n a t t h e same t i m e . th a n o t h e r s . Some i n d i v i d u a l s move t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s more r a p i d l y The t i m e i t t a k e s f o r an i n d i v i d u a l t o move t h r o u g h t h e model i s te rm ed t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p e r i o d . Through i n v e s t i ­ g a t i o n , i t h as been fo un d t h a t some i n d i v i d u a l s move t h r o u g h t h e p r o c e s s more r a p i d l y t h a n o t h e r s , t h a t i s , t h e y have a s h o r t e r innovation-decision period. The d e g r e e t o which an i n d i v i d u a l i s r e l a t i v e l y e a r l i e r i n a d o p t i n g i n n o v a t i o n s t h a n o t h e r s i s te rm ed innovativeness. C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t ha s been found t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e more i n n o v a t i v e ( a d o p t q u i c k e r ) p o s s e s s d i f f e r i n g d e g r e e s o f c e r t a i n i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s th a n t h o s e who a r e l e s s i n n o v a t i v e (adopt slow er). A d d i t i o n a l l y , ba s e d on r e s e a r c h e r s have c l a s s i f i e d adopter categories are: the c r it e r io n of innovativeness, in d ividuals into adopter ca te g o rie s. The innovators, early adopters, e arly m ajority, l a t e m a j o r i t y and l a g g a r d s . By d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t a d o p t e r d i s t r i ­ b u t i o n s ap pr oa c h n o r m a l c y , t h e normal c u r v e i s d i v i d e d i n t o f i v e se gments r e p r e s e n t i n g s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s from t h e mean, o r t h e average time o f th e in n o v a tio n - d e c is io n p e r io d . Each o f t h e s e s e g ­ ments r e p r e s e n t s a s t a n d a r d i z e d p e r c e n t a g e o f a d o p t e r s w i t h s i m i l a r degrees of innovativeness. A c c o r d i n g l y t h e n , t h e f i r s t 2.5% t o a d o p t a r e c a l l e d i n n o v a t o r s ; t h e n e x t 13.5% a r e e a r l y a d o p t e r s ; t h e n e x t 34% a r e t h e e a r l y m a j o r i t y ; t h e n e x t 34% a r e t h e l a t e m a j o r i t y ; and t h e f i n a l 16% a r e c a l l e d l a g g a r d s . While i t i s recognized t h a t 86 innovativeness is a continuous v a r i a b l e , th e p a r t i t i o n i n g o f adopters i n t o d i s c r e t e c a t e g o r i e s , l a b e l l e d " i d e a l t y p e s " , i s o n l y a co n ­ c e p t u a l d e v i c e much l i k e t h e s t a g e s o f t h e model i t s e l f . As Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 :2 4 8 ) s t a t e s , " I d e a l t y p e s a r e b as ed on a b s t r a c t i o n s from e m p i r i c a l c a s e s and a r e i n t e n d e d a s a g u i d e f o r t h e o r e t i c a l formu­ l a t i o n s and e m p i r i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s . " S p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t have been i n v e s t i g a t e d and fou nd t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n n o v a t i v e n e s s a r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o three categories of v ariab les: s o c io e c o n o m ic v a r i a b l e s , p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s and communication b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s . In c o m p i l i n g and s y n t h e s i z i n g a l a r g e number o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s , Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 : 2 5 1 - 2 6 1 ) has f o un d s u p p o r t f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s : 1. Socioeconomic v a r i a b l e s : E a r l i e r a d o p t e r s a r e no d i f f e r e n t in a g e ; have more y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n ; a r e more l i k e l y t o be l i t e r a t e ; have h i g h e r s o c i a l s t a t u s ; have a g r e a t e r d e g r e e o f upward s o c i a l m o b i l i t y ; have l a r g e r s i z e d u n i t s ( f a r m s , c o m p a n ie s , and so o n ) ; a r e more l i k e l y t o have a commercial ( r a t h e r t h a n a s u b s i s t e n c e ) economic o r i e n t a t i o n ; have a more f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e to w ar d c r e d i t ( b o r ro w i n g money); and have more s p e c i a l i z e d o p e r a t i o n s t h a n l a t e r a d o p t e r s . 2. P e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s : E a r l i e r a d o p t e r s have g r e a t e r emp athy ; may be l e s s d o g m a t i c ; have a g r e a t e r a b i l i t y t o d ea l w i t h a b s t r a c t i o n s ; have g r e a t e r i n t e l l i g e n c e ; have a more f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e to w ard c h a n g e , e d u c a t i o n and s c i e n c e ; a r e more a b l e t o cope w i t h r i s k and u n c e r t a i n t y ; a r e l e s s f a t a l i s t i c ; have h i g h e r l e v e l s o f a c h i e v e m e n t m o t i v a t i o n ; and have h i g h e r a s p i r a t i o n s ( f o r e d u c a t i o n , o c c u p a t i o n s , and so on) t h a n l a t e r a d o p t e r s . 3. Communication b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s : E a r l i e r a d o p t e r s have more s o c i a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n ; a r e more h i g h l y i n t e r c o n n e c t e d in t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m ; a r e more c o s m o p o l i t e ; have more change a g e n t c o n t a c t ; have g r e a t e r e x p o s u r e t o mass m e d ia ; have g r e a t e r e x p o s u r e t o i n t e r p e r s o n a l com mu nic at ion c h a n n e l s ; s e e k i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t i n n o v a t i o n s more a c t i v e l y ; have g r e a t e r knowledge o f i n n o v a t i o n s ; have a h i g h e r d e g r e e o f o p i n i o n l e a d e r s h i p ; and a r e more l i k e l y t o b el o n g t o h i g h l y in te r c o n n e c t e d systems than l a t e r a d o p t e r s . 87 In g e n e r a l t h e n , i t a p p e a r s t h a t f o r so c io e c o n o m ic v a r i a b l e s , t h e more i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s p o s s e s s b o th t h e m a t e r i a l r e s o u r c e s and mental s k i l l s t h a t a l l o w them t o i n n o v a t e more f r e e l y . m aterial The r e s o u r c e s (money, o r more c o l l e c t i v e l y , w e a l t h ) may a l l o w them t o t a k e t h e p e r c e i v e d r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n n o v a t i v e b e h a v i o r and p e r h a p s be b e t t e r a b l e t o a b s o r b t h e l o s s from o c c a s i o n a l failure. The mental s k i l l s ( e d u c a t i o n , l i t e r a c y ) may a l l o w them t h e f l e x i b i l i t y n e c e s s a r y t o u n d e r s t a n d and implement i n n o v a t i o n s . For p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s , t h e more i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s t e n d t o e x h i b i t a more open s o c i a l p s y c h o l o g i c a l o r i e n t a t i o n t h a t a l l o w s them t o deal w i t h new i d e a s , p r a c t i c e s and o b j e c t s in a more f a v o r a b l e manner. And f i n a l l y , f o r communication b e h a v i o r v a r i a b l e s , t h e more i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s have more c o n t a c t w i t h , and t e n d t o a c t i v e l y e x p o s e t h e m s e l v e s more, t o a v a r i e t y o f communication c h a n n e l s . The r e s u l t i s a g r e a t e r a w a r e n e s s and knowledge o f many d i f f e r e n t i n n o v a t i o n s , moreso t h a n l a t e r a d o p t e r s . In summary, i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e r e l a t i v e l y more i n n o v a t i v e w i l l s c o r e h i g h e r on t h e s e v a r i a b l e s t h a n t h o s e who a r e l e s s i n n o v a t i v e ( t h e r e v e r s e i s t r u e f o r dogmatism and f a t a l i s m ) . The u t i l i t y o f t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s y s t e m , however, goes beyond t h e c o n c e p t u a l and e m p i r i c a l n ee d s o f r e s e a r c h e r s ; i f cha ng e a g e n t s can i d e n t i f y p o t e n t i a l a d o p t e r c a t e g o r i e s in t h e i r a u d i e n c e , t h e y m i g h t implement somewhat d i f f e r e n t ch an ge s t r a t e g i e s f o r ea ch gr o u p . One a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e , c l a s s i f i e d h e r e a s an i n d i v i d u a l variable, i s c a l l e d t h e pr ob lem v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n . While n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y a d d r e s s e d a s such i n any o f R o g e r s ' t e x t s , he has a l l u d e d t o t h i s c o n c e p t when d i s c u s s i n g t h e i s s u e o f t h e p r o c e s s 88 b e i n g i n i t i a t e d from e i t h e r t h e i n n o v a t i o n f u l f i l l i n g a need o r c r e a t i n g a need. We would a l s o s u s p e c t t h a t t h i s i s h i s i n t e n t by i n c l u d i n g t h e i t e m c a l l e d " f e l t n e e d s / p r o b l e m s " in h i s f i g u r e o f t h e innovation-decision process. A lt ho ugh Rogers does n o t c a t e g o r i z e i t a s a v a r i a b l e a f f e c t i n g t h e p r o c e s s ( i t i s te rm ed a " p r i o r c o n d i ­ t i o n " ) , i t w i l l be c o n s i d e r e d an i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e i n t h i s s t u d y . The t e rm "pro blem v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n " i s t a k e n from an a r t i c l e by Reynolds (1971) in which he r e p o r t s t h e r e s u l t s o f a s t u d y d e s i g n e d t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e r e i s any d i f f e r e n c e i n a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s b e h a v i o r r e l a t e d t o an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p r o c e s s o r i e n t e d b e g i n n i n g . This s t u d y , which was acknowledged a s e x p l o r a t o r y , u t i l i z e d p e r c e i v e d r i s k by r e t a i l m e r c h a n t s who a d o p t e d a new bank c h a r g e a c c o u n t program a s the dependent v a r i a b l e . R es p o n d en t s were a s k e d t o r e s p o n d t o a s t r u c t u r e d s e t o f s t a t e m e n t s and s e l e c t t h e one t h a t b e s t d e s c r i b e d t h e i r r e a s o n f o r j o i n i n g t h e bank c h a r g e a c c o u n t p l a n . situational The s t a t e m e n t s were w r i t t e n t o r e f l e c t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e resp o n d en ts' process beginning (th e independent v a r i a b l e ) . An i n n o v a t i o n - o r i e n t e d b e g i n n i n g i n v o l v e d an " u n - a c t i v e " s e a r c h f o r t h e i n n o v a t i o n ; a p r o b l e m - o r i e n t e d b e g i n n i n g i n v o l v e d an " a c t i v e s e a r c h " f o r the innovation. A p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p was fo und between p e r c e i v e d r i s k and s e a r c h f o r i n f o r m a t i o n among t h e r e s p o n d e n t s . F u r t h e r , Reynolds ( 1 9 7 1 :2 1 7 ) s t a t e d : P r o b l e m - o r i e n t e d r e s p o n d e n t s , in d i s c u s s i n g t h e n a t u r e o f t h e i r c r e d i t p r o b l e m s , t e n d e d t o em p ha siz e some problem t h a t added t o t h e c o s t o r e x p e n s e o f o f f e r i n g c r e d i t t o customers. I n n o v a t i o n - o r i e n t e d a d o p t e r s viewed t h e i n n o ­ v a t i o n more a s a c o m p e t i t i v e n e c e s s i t y ( " a l l my c o m p e t i t o r s were j o i n i n g t h e p r o g r am " ) t h a n a s a means o f r e d u c i n g c r e d i t - r e l a t e d expenses. 89 C o n s e q u e n t l y , Reynolds c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e c u r r e n t c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s c o u l d be enha nc ed by a l l o w i n g f o r p r obl em o r i e n t e d b e h a v i o r a s a s t a r t i n g p o i n t ( i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e assumed o r i m p l i e d i n n o v a t i o n - o r i e n t e d b e g i n n i n g ) . We would th e re fo re expect to s e e some d i f f e r e n c e i n p r o c e s s b e h a v i o r d e p en d in g upon i f i n d i v i d u a l s a c t i v e l y sought o ut th e innovation to f u l f i l l a need o r s o l v e a pr oblem (a pro ble m o r i e n t a t i o n ) o r i f t h e y s im pl y became aware o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n w i t h o u t a c t i v e l y s e a r c h i n g (an i n n o v a t i o n orientation). U n f o r t u n a t e l y , t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h i s d i f f e r e n c e c a n n o t be s p e c i f i e d ( a s Rogers h as done i n h i s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s ) u n t i l more re s e a rc h is conducted. S o c i a l System C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o c i a l s y st e m a l s o a c t t o a f f e c t t h e in d iv id u a l's innovation-decision process. S o c i a l sy ste m v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e t h e norms o f t h e s y s t e m , i t s t o l e r a n c e o f d e v i a n c y , communi­ c a t i o n i n t e g r a t i o n and t h e l i k e . C o l l e c t i v e l y th e se a re r e f e r r e d to as th e s t r u c t u r e o f th e s o c ia l system. While t h e a f f e c t s o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s have r e c e i v e d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e i n v e s t i g a t i o n , one prominent typology a p p lie d reg ard in g t h i s concept i s th e t r a d i t i o n a l v s . t h e modern s o c i a l social s y s t e m (R og er s w i t h Shoemaker 1 9 7 1 ) . Modern s y s t e m s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s b e i n g more change o r i e n t e d , t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d , s c i e n t i f i c , r a t i o n a l , c o s m o p o l i t e and empathic. T raditional s o c i a l s y s t e m s , on t h e o t h e r h an d, a r e c h a r a c ­ t e r i z e d a s e x h i b i t i n g " o p p o s i t e " o r i e n t a t i o n s on t h e s e i t e m s . modern s y s t e m s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be more change o r i e n t e d th a n Since 90 t r a d i t i o n a l o n e s , we would e x p e c t fe w e r s o c i e t a l b a r r i e r s t o an i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n o v a t i v e b e h a v i o r in a modern s o c i a l sy st em . Communication Cha nne ls Communication c h a n n e l s a l s o p l a y an i m p o r t a n t r o l e in t h e adoption pro cess. Communication c h a n n e l s a r e t h e means by which m e ss ag es a r e moved from a s o u r c e t o a r e c e i v e r and a r e a s s o c i a t e d with a l l s t a g e s o f t h e model. categories: They a r e t y p i c a l l y d i v i d e d i n t o two mass media c h a n n e l s , o r t h o s e t h a t e n a b l e a s o u r c e o f one o r a few i n d i v i d u a l s t o r e a c h an a u d i e n c e o f many (exam ples i n c l u d e r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n , f i l m , ne w s p ap er s and m a g a z i n e s ) ; and i n t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n n e l s , o r t h o s e t h a t i n v o l v e a f a c e - t o - f a c e excha nge o f i n f o r m a t i o n between two i n d i v i d u a l s . Past research concerning the i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s and communication c h a n n e l s has i n d i c a t e d t h a t mass media c h a n n e l s a r e r e l a t i v e l y more i m p o r t a n t a t t h e knowledge s t a g e . That i s , th e s e channels serv e to c r e a t e awareness t h a t t h e i n n o v a t i o n e x i s t s and p r o v i d e g e n e r a l function o f the innovation. i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e I n t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n n e l s , on t h e o t h e r h an d, a r e more i m p o r t a n t in s u b s e q u e n t s t a g e s o f t h e model ( p e r s u a s i o n , d e c i s i o n , i m p l e m e n t a t i o n and c o n f i r m a t i o n ) . In t h e s e s t a g e s , i n d i v i d u a l s a r e in t h e p r o c e s s o f f o rm in g o r c h a n g i n g t h e i r a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e i n n o v a t i o n and d e c i d i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t o a d o p t or reje ct it. As Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 : 1 8 ) p o i n t s o u t , "most p e o p l e depend m a in ly on s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n t h a t i s conveyed t o them from o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s l i k e t h e m s e l v e s who have p r e v i o u s l y adopted th e in n o v a tio n ." I n t e r p e r s o n a l communication a l l o w 91 i n d i v i d u a l s t o s e c u r e more s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n and c l a r i f i c a t i o n upon which t o e v a l u a t e and behave w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e i n n o v a t i o n . Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Innovation Perceived c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the innovation, or innovation a t t r i b u t e s , are th e p r o p e r ti e s a s s o c ia te d with the innovation t h a t a f f e c t i t s adoption or r e j e c t i o n . As i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n , t h e s t u d y o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f an i n n o v a t i o n i s based upon how t h e y a r e p e r c e i v e d by i n d i v i d u a l s . Regardless o f t h e i r o b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n , t h e i r a f f e c t on i n n o v a t i v e b e h a v i o r i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n o f them. The f i v e c a t e g o r i e s o f i n n o v a t i o n a t t r i b u t e s p r o p o s e d by Rogers (1983) and t h e i r a f f e c t on t h e r a t e o f a d o p t i o n a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 3 .1 . (While a number o f o t h e r a u t h o r s have p r o p o s e d a d d i t i o n a l and somewhat d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( s e e f o r ex a m p le , F l i e g e l and K i v l i n 1966; K i v l i n and F l i e g e l 1967, 1968; F l i e g e l e t a l . 1968; Zaltman and Lin 1971; Lin and Zaltman 1 9 7 3 ) , much o f t h e d i f f e r e n c e is a re su lt of in terp retatio n . c o n s is te n c y , Rogers' study.) For t h e s ak e o f s i m p l i c i t y and (1983) f i v e c a t e g o r i e s w i l l be used i n t h i s Of t h e f i v e , f o u r ( r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , c o m p a t i b i l i t y , t r i a l a b i l i t y and o b s e r v a b i l i t y ) a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o be p o s i t i v e l y r e la te d to the r a t e of adoption. T h i s means t h a t an i n n o v a t i o n t h a t i s p e r c e i v e d t o p o s s e s s a h ig h d e g r e e o f t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s w i l l be a d o p t e d more r a p i d l y o r r e a d i l y t h a n i f i t d i d n o t . a ttrib u te 's The r e m a i n i n g (com plexity) a s s o c ia t io n with th e r a t e o f adoption is e x p r e s s e d in t e r m s o f a n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p ; t h e h i g h e r t h e d e g r e e o f p erceived com plexity, th e slower the r a t e o f adoption. Table 3 .1 . F i v e a t t r i b u t e s o f i n n o v a t i o n s and t h e i r a f f e c t on t h e r a t e o f a d o p t i o n A ttribute D efinition A f f e c t on r a t e o f a d o p t i o n R e la tiv e advantage The d e g r e e t o which an i n n o v a t i o n i s p e r ­ ceiv ed as being b e t t e r than th e id e a , p r a c tic e o r o b je c t i t supercedes. Sub­ d im e n s i o n s i n c l u d e : d e g r e e o f economic p r o f i t a b i l i t y , i n i t i a l c o s t, perceived r i s k , d e g r e e o f d i s c o m f o r t , s a v i n g s in t i m e and e f f o r t , and immediacy o f re w ar d . P o s itiv e ly r e la te d to i t s r a t e o f adoption Compatibilty The d e g r e e t o which an i n n o v a t i o n i s p e r ­ ceived as c o n s is te n t w ith th e e x i s t in g v a l u e s , p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s and n ee d s o f the individual. P o sitiv ely re la te d to i t s r a t e of adoption Compl exi ty The d e g r e e t o which an i n n o v a t i o n i s p e r ­ ceived as r e l a t i v e l y d i f f i c u l t to under­ s t a n d and u s e . N egatively r e l a t e d to i t s r a t e o f adoption T rialabil ity The d e g r e e t o which an i n n o v a t i o n may be e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h on a l i m i t e d b a s i s . P o sitiv ely re la te d to i t s r a t e o f adoption O bservability The d e g r e e t o which t h e r e s u l t s o f an innovation are v i s i b l e to o th e rs . P ositively rela ted to it s r a t e o f adoption Source: Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 : 2 1 3 - 2 3 9 ) 93 In a d d i t i o n t o t h e a f f e c t o f i n n o v a t i o n a t t r i b u t e s on t h e r a t e o f a d o p t i o n in g e n e r a l , Rogers w i t h Shoemaker (1 9 7 1 :1 6 0 ) have p r o p o s e d t h a t t h e v a r i o u s p e r c e i v e d a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n may be more c r i t i c a l a t c e r t a i n s t a g e s o f t h e model ( n o t d e p i c t e d a s such in Figure 3 . 2 ) : 1. At t h e knowledge s t a g e , t h e i n n o v a t i o n ' s c o m p l e x i t y and c o m p a t i b i l i t y s h o u l d be most i m p o r t a n t . 2. At t h e p e r s u a s i o n s t a g e , t h e i n n o v a t i o n ' s r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e and o b s e r v a b i l i t y s h o u l d be most i m p o r t a n t . 3. At t h e d e c i s i o n s t a g e , t h e i n n o v a t i o n ' s t r i a l a b i l i t y s h o u l d be most i m p o r t a n t . These p r o p o s e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s , however, a r e " l o g i c a l d e r i v a t i o n s on t h e b a s i s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s t a g e s and t h e i n n o v a t i o n characteristics" (Ro ger s w i t h Shoemaker 1 9 7 1 : 1 5 9 ) . The R a t i o n a l e f o r S e l e c t i n g t h e Model Having g a i n e d an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s mod el, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o s p e c i f i c a l l y a d d r e s s t h e i s s u e o f why t h i s p a r t i c u l a r model was s e l e c t e d and how i t w i l l be a p p l i e d in t h i s study. F i r s t , w h i l e t h e i d e a and p r a c t i c e o f p e s t c o n t r o l i s u n d e r s t a n d a b l y n o t new t o homeowners, i t was assumed t h a t t h e f o c u s o f t h e P e s t Management Manual ( t h a t i s , IPM) and many o f t h e i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s c o n t a i n e d i n i t would be p e r c e i v e d a s new by many manual ow n er s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e manual c o u l d be a p p r o p r i a t e l y c o n s i d e r e d an i n n o v a t i o n . Sec on d, t h e model c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's decision-making process with regard t o the innovation. Since th e focus o f t h i s study i s th e i n d i v i d u a l 's e v a l u a t i v e response t o t h e manual a s a means t o e f f e c t i v e l y convey p e s t management 94 i n f o r m a t i o n (IPM), t h e u n i t o f a n a l y s i s in t h e s t u d y and in t h e model a r e t h e same. T h i r d , t h e model i s e s s e n t i a l l y a g e n e r i c o n e , c h a r a c t e r i z i n g any ( o r mos t) i n d i v i d u a l ' s i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n process. By s e l e c t i n g and u s i n g a model t h a t h a s been v a l i d a t e d and a p p l i e d s u c c e s s f u l l y i n o t h e r f i e l d s ( f o r ex a m p le , e d u c a t i o n , m e d i c i n e , m a r k e t i n g and a g r i c u l t u r e ) , much nee d e d groundwork can be l a i d f o r o t h e r s w i s h i n g t o u t i l i z e t h e same a p p r o a c h t o s t u d y s i m i l a r e f f o r t s in t h e f i e l d o f urban p e s t management. And t o o u r k now led ge, no one has u s ed t h i s p a r t i c u l a r model i n t h i s f i e l d . And f i n a l l y , t h e model p r o v i d e s a framework f o r t h e c o l l e c t i o n , a n a l y s i s and in te r p re ta tio n of data. A p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e model in t h i s s t u d y w i l l f o c u s on d e t e r m i n i n g t o wh at e x t e n t i t c o n s t i t u t e s an a p p r o p r i a t e framework f o r b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and e x p l a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s in t h e f i e l d o f urban p e s t management. Towards t h i s e n d , a number o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o p o s e d by Rogers (1983) and o t h e r s w i l l be t e s t e d . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y w i l l p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n t o ans we r t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e P e s t Management Manual: 1. Was t h e manual used? 2. To what e x t e n t was i t us ed ? 3. What c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e manual a f f e c t e d i t s use o r non-use? 4. What a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f manual owners? 5. To what e x t e n t d i d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f manual owners a f f e c t i t s use o r n o n - u s e ? The s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s t h a t w i l l be used and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t w ill be t e s t e d a r e a d d r e s s e d in P a r t I I o f t h e c h a p t e r . 95 PART I I : THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Having p r e s e n t e d t h e t h e o r e t i c a l framework and a r a t i o n a l e f o r i t s s e l e c t i o n and a p p l i c a t i o n , P a r t I I o f t h e c h a p t e r f o c u s e s on t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and c o n c e p t u a l t r e a t m e n t o f t h e s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s and r e l a t i o n s h i p s t h a t w i l l be a d d r e s s e d i n t h e s t u d y . F i r s t , how t h e manual w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s an i n n o v a t i o n and what i s meant by a d o p t i o n — t h e main d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e in t h e s t u d y - - i s p r e s e n t e d . The r e m a i n i n g s e c t i o n s , which a r e o r g a n i z e d ar ou nd R o g e r s ' (1983) v a r i a b l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n c a t e g o r i e s , i d e n t i f y and d e f i n e t h e s p e c i f i c i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s t h a t w i l l be a d d r e s s e d in t h i s s t u d y . (All c a t e g o r i e s , e x c e p t s o c i a l s y st em v a r i a b l e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d . ) I n c l u d e d i n e ac h s e c t i o n , and a g a i n in a l i s t a t t h e end o f t h e c h a p t e r , a r e t h e h y p o t h e s e s t h a t w i l l be t e s t e d in t h e s t u d y . The Manual a s an I n n o v a t i o n As d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 2 , t h e P e s t Management Manual was one component o f P r o j e c t PEST's community e d u c a t i o n program t h a t was d e s i g n e d t o p r o v i d e p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n s t r e s s i n g a l t e r ­ n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s t o ur b an homeowners. R e c o g n i z in g t h e o p p o r ­ t u n i t y t o p r e s e n t a l t e r n a t i v e p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n w i t h i n an i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM) fr amework, t h e manual was pr od uc ed by p r o j e c t s t a f f w i t h t h e a i d o f community v o l u n t e e r s . While a v a r i e t y o f p o p u l a r and t e c h n i c a l p e s t management l i t e r a t u r e was a v a i l a b l e , no one p u b l i c a t i o n e x i s t e d t h a t o f f e r e d t h e 96 p e s t management f o c u s d e s i r e d f o r t h e p r o j e c t ; a p u b l i c a t i o n s t r e s s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s w i t h i n an IPM fr amework, s p e c i f i c a l l y a d a p t e d t o t h e p e s t pr ob le m s o f homeowners in t h e a r e a ( M e r id ia n C h a r t e r Township, M i c h i g a n ) . For ex am pl e, a number o f p u b l i c a t i o n s were r e j e c t e d b e c a u s e t h e i r p r e s e n t a t i o n o f IPM was j u d g e d t o be e i t h e r t o o t e c h n i c a l o r t o o g e n e r a l . In a d d i t i o n , C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e p u b l i c a t i o n s , some o f which o f f e r e d a l te r n a t iv e control techniques, s t i l l p r i m a r i l y recommended p e s t i c i d e c o n t r o l s f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f p e s t p r o b le m s . And t h e s o - c a l l e d " o r g a n i c " l i t e r a t u r e , which c o n t a i n e d a l a r g e v a r i e t y o f a l t e r n a t i v e te c h n iq u e s , did n ot s p e c i f i c a l l y advocate using a l t e r n a t i v e s w ith in an IPM framework. So, w h i l e p u b l i c a t i o n s e x i s t e d t h a t s a t i s f i e d a number o f t h e c r i t e r i a d e s i r e d f o r t h e p r o j e c t ma n ua l, no one p u b l i c a t i o n a d e q u a t e l y s a t i s f i e d a l l o f them. The d e c i s i o n t o p r o d u c e a manual s o u g h t t o a l l e v i a t e t h e s e p e r c e i v e d s h o r t c o m i n g s o f e x i s t i n g p u b l i c a t i o n s by: ( 1 ) p r o v i d i n g a p r o c e d u r a l g u i d e t o IPM s p e c i f i c a l l y w r i t t e n f o r t h e homeowners; and ( 2 ) i n c l u d i n g a l a r g e number o f management t e c h n i q u e s - - i n c l u d i n g b o t h p e s t i c i d e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s — from v a r i o u s e x i s t i n g s o u r c e s and a d v o c a t i n g t h e i r us e w i t h i n t h e IPM framework. O b j e c t i v e and S u b j e c t i v e "Newness" o f t h e Manual From an o b j e c t i v e s t a n d p o i n t , p r a c t i c a l l y a l l o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e manual i s n o t new. The p r e s e n t a t i o n o f IPM i s ba se d on p r i n c i p l e s and g u i d e l i n e s p r e v i o u s l y advanc ed and a p p l i e d t o an e x t e n t i n a g r i c u l t u r e and c u r r e n t l y b e i n g recommended f o r u s e i n t h e urb an s e c t o r . In a d d i t i o n , a l l o f t h e management t e c h n i q u e s were 97 t a k e n from e x i s t i n g p e s t c o n t r o l and p l a n t c a r e p u b l i c a t i o n s . P er ha p s t h e o n l y new a s p e c t s o f t h e m a n u a l, from an o b j e c t i v e s t a n d p o i n t , were t h e manner in which a number o f IPM o b j e c t i v e s were a d a p t e d f o r a c t u a l u s e by t h e homeowner ( f o r e x a m p le , how t o d e t e r m i n e an " i n j u r y a c c e p t a n c e l e v e l " f o r a p a r t i c u l a r p e s t prob lem ) and t h e way i n which t h e m a t e r i a l was o r g a n i z e d and p r e s e n t e d . However, d e t e r m i n i n g i f t h e manual was new o r o l d in o b j e c t i v e t e r m s makes l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h i s p u b l i c a t i o n a s an i n n o v a t i o n . The key t o d e f i n i n g an i n n o v a t i o n r e q u i r e s ack n o w le d g in g i t s p e r c e i v e d o r s u b j e c t i v e newness f o r t h e p o t e n t i a l a d o p t e r . Because t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s s e e k s t o e x p l a i n an i n d i v i d u a l ' s p s y c h o l o g i c a l and b e h a v i o r a l a c t i o n s w i t h r e g a r d t o an i n n o v a t i o n , h i s p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i d e a , o b j e c t o r p r a c t i c e a s new — n o t i t s o b j e c t i v e newness - - w i l l p r e d i s p o s e h i s a c t i o n s . Rogers (1 9 8 3 :1 1 ) makes t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n c l e a r by s t a t i n g : I t m a t t e r s l i t t l e , so f a r a s human b e h a v i o r i s c o n c e r n e d , w h e t h e r o r n o t an i d e a i s " o b j e c t i v e l y " new a s measured by t h e l a p s e o f t i m e s i n c e i t s f i r s t us e o r d i s c o v e r y . The p e r c e i v e d newness o f t h e i d e a f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l determ ines h is or her re a c tio n to i t . I f t h e i d e a seems new t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , i t i s an i n n o v a t i o n . T h e r e f o r e , t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s among i n d i v i d u a l s who have a c q u i r e d t h e m a n u a l, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e manual r e p r e s e n t e d a p e r c e i v e d o r s u b j e c t i v e l y new i d e a f o r them. Components o f t h e Manual The two components o f an i n n o v a t i o n p r e s e n t e d in P a r t I o f t h i s c h a p t e r were i t s h a r d w a r e a s p e c t ( t h e t o o l t h a t embodies t h e i n n o v a t i o n a s a m a t e r i a l o b j e c t ) and i t s s o f t w a r e a s p e c t ( t h e 98 inform ation base f o r t h e t o o l ) . Viewing t h e manual from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , we w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e h ar d w ar e component t o be t h e means u se d t o p r e s e n t IPM t o i n d i v i d u a l s ( t h e l o o s e l e a f b i n d e r ) . The s o f t w a r e component r e f e r s t o t h e IPM i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s i n t h e manual. The Manual a s a Tec h no lo g y C l u s t e r The s i n g u l a r p e s t management a p p r o a c h c a l l e d IPM c o n s i s t s o f a number o f i n t e r r e l a t e d y e t d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e com po nen ts. To l a b e l t h e manual a s a s i n g l e i n n o v a t i o n , we would nee d t o c o n s i d e r o n l y t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who had r e a d t h e e n t i r e p u b l i c a t i o n and c o n s i d e r e d a l l o f i t new. I f we p r o c e e d e d b a s e d on h i s a p p r o a c h , h ow eve r, we would p r o b a b l y have no i n n o v a t i o n t o s t u d y . As d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 2 , t h e manual was w r i t t e n t o be u se d in a v a r i e t y o f ways by i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h d i v e r s e p e s t management i n t e r e s t s and s k i l l s . While i n d i v i d u a l s were e n c o u r a g e d t o u s e i t a s a " w h o l e " , which p r e s u m a b l y would r e s u l t in t h e i r p r a c t i c i n g IPM, t h e y c o u l d a l s o us e o n l y p a r t s o f i t d e p en di ng on t h e i r c u r r e n t o r i e n t a t i o n s and n e e d s . t h i s d i v e r s i t y in th e th e ir potential individuals' By ack no w le d gi n g knowledge o f p e s t management and s e l e c t i v e us e o f t h e m a n ua l, i t becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n f o r e ac h i n d i v i d u a l may v a r y considerably. In o t h e r w o r d s , no two i n d i v i d u a l s may have a t t e n d e d t o t h e same p o r t i o n s o f t h e m a n u a l , and even i f t h e y d i d , what was new f o r one may have been o l d f o r t h e o t h e r . And we must a l s o acknowledge t h a t , d e p e n d i n g on an i n d i v i d u a l ' s ba ck gr ou nd in p e s t management, a l l o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s he r e a d a b o u t o r u se d i n t h e manual 99 m i g h t be o l d i n f o r m a t i o n t o him. In t h i s c a s e t h e n , t h e manual would n o t r e p r e s e n t an i n n o v a t i o n f o r t h a t p a r t i c u l a r p e r s o n . Given t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , we w i l l c o n s i d e r t h e manual t o re p r e s e n t a technology (in n o v atio n ) c l u s t e r . While we know t h e u l t i m a t e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e c l u s t e r - - from a l l i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d new t o a t l e a s t two b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d new - - t h e e x a c t d i m e n s i o n s f o r any g i v e n i n d i v i d u a l w i l l be d e p e n d e n t on t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e manual was a t t e n d e d t o and p e r c e i v e d a s new by t h a t i n d i v i d u a l . And g i v e n t h e v a r i e t y o f i n f o r m a t i o n , most o f w hich i s n o t o b j e c t i v e l y new, we would e x p e c t t h a t some o f i t would be p e r c e i v e d a s new. C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e manual a s an i n n o v a t i o n w i l l r e p r e s e n t d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s t o d i f f e r e n t p e o p l e . S i n c e t h e c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e manual a s a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r i s c lo s e ly t i e d to i t s adoption, the next s e c tio n w ill provide a c l e a r e r p e r s p e c t i v e on t h i s m a t t e r . A d o pt io n o f t h e Manual D e s c r i b i n g t h e manual a s a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r ha s d i r e c t i m p l i ­ c a t i o n s f o r c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g i t s a d o p t i o n ( t h e main d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e in t h i s s t u d y ) . Beca use t h e manual a s an i n n o v a t i o n can mean d i f f e r e n t th i n g s t o d i f f e r e n t p e o p le , i t fo llo w s t h a t i t s adoption or r e j e c t i o n can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d i n t h e same manner. Before proceeding t o a c o n c e p t u a l d i s c u s s i o n , ho w ev er , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o e x p l o r e a d o p t i o n i n more d e t a i l . 100 A d d i t i o n a l Ad o pt io n Co nc ep ts In P a r t I o f t h i s c h a p t e r , a d o p t i o n was d e f i n e d a s a d e c i s i o n t o make f u l l u s e o f an i n n o v a t i o n a s t h e b e s t c o u r s e o f a c t i o n . The c o n c e p t o f a d o p t i o n , ho wev er, i s open t o much i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and v a r i e s c o n s id e r a b ly in a p p l i c a t i o n . P r e s s e r (1969) p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f a d o p t i o n by r e s e a r c h e r s , and even between i n n o v a t i o n s f o r one r e s e a r c h e r . To i l l u s t r a t e t h i s v a r i a b i l i t y he o f f e r s t h a t : A d op tio n may be d e f i n e d a s c o n t i n u e d f u l l s c a l e u s e s i n c e th e f i r s t t r i a l ; in c re a s in g s c a le o f use s in c e f i r s t t r i a l ; t r i a l , u s e and l a t e r d i s c o n t i n u a n c e ; t r i a l and t h e n d i s c o n ­ tinuance; or j u s t t r i a l alone. For new i d e a s , even i n t e n t i o n t o u s e i s sometimes c l a s s i f i e d a s a d o p t i o n ( P r e s s e r 1 9 6 9 : 5 1 2 ) . He c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r a d o p t i o n n ee d s t o be c l e a r l y s p e c i f i e d in any i n v e s t i g a t i o n . A n o th e r i s s u e t h a t has r e c e i v e d a t t e n t i o n when c o n s i d e r i n g a d o p t i o n o f i n n o v a t i o n s i s t h e c o n c e p t and p r a c t i c e o f s ym bo li c adoption. I f an i n n o v a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a ha rd w ar e component and a s o f t w a r e component ( a l s o c a l l e d a m a t e r i a l and an i d e a component, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) , then i t i s proposed t h a t th e in d iv id u a l w ill fa c e a t l e a s t two a d o p t i o n d e c i s i o n s : " t o a c c e p t o r n o t a c c e p t t h e i d e a and t o u s e o r n o t us e t h e p r o d u c t o r p r a c t i c e " 1970:78). (K lo n g la n and Coward (In f a c t , while not e x p l i c i t l y s t a t i n g t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n , P r e s s e r ( 1 9 6 9 :5 1 2 ) i m p l i c i t l y acknowle dged t h e i d e a o f s y m b ol ic a d o p t i o n i n t h e p a s s a g e q u o t e d above by s t a t i n g , " F o r new i d e a s , even i n t e n t i o n t o us e i s sometimes c l a s s i f i e d a s a d o p t i o n . " ) A c c e p t a n c e o f t h e i d e a r e f e r s t o s y m b o li c a d o p t i o n and p u t t i n g t h e p r a c t i c e i n t o u s e r e f e r s t o use a d o p t i o n o r s im p l y a d o p t i o n . Kl ong la n and Coward (1 970) e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t s ym bo li c a d o p t i o n s h o u l d be an 101 e x p l i c i t outcome o f t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s . They p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e advantage o f c o n c e p tu a l iz in g adoption as a two-phase p ro c e ss could h e l p r e s e a r c h e r s deal w i t h t h e r e a l i t i e s o f s t u d y i n g t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f innovations. For ex a m p le , s ym bo li c a d o p t i o n m i g h t h e l p t o e x p l a i n in c o m p l e t e a d o p t i o n , o r t h e s i t u a t i o n where an i n d i v i d u a l was f a v o r a b l y o r i e n t e d to w a rd an i n n o v a t i o n , b u t f o r one r e a s o n o r a n o t h e r was n o t u s i n g i t . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e i n d i v i d u a l may have a c c e p t e d o r a d o p t e d t h e i d e a , y e t was u n a b l e o r u n w i l l i n g t o a c t upon th i s favorable o rie n ta tio n . While n o t u s i n g t h e same t e r m i n o l o g y , Rogers (1983) has e s s e n t i a l l y i n c o r p o r a t e d t h i s c o n c e p t in h i s most r e c e n t v e r s i o n o f t h e model. Whereas t h e d e c i s i o n s t a g e in h i s e a r l i e r c o n c e p t u a l i ­ z a t i o n s i n c l u d e d t h e a c t i o n o f i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o r u s e , in h i s 1983 v e r s i o n he makes t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between a d e c i s i o n t o a d o p t ( t h e d e c i s i o n s t a g e , which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o s y m b ol ic a d o p t i o n ) and p u t t i n g t h e i n n o v a t i o n i n t o u s e ( t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e , which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o us e a d o p t i o n ) . The a d d i t i o n o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e c o n f i r m s t h e o p i n i o n s e x p r e s s e d by Klong lan and Coward ( 1 9 7 0 ) . A lth o ug h n o t u s i n g t h e t e r m s y mb oli c a d o p t i o n , Rogers (1 98 3 :1 7 4 ) r e a l i z e d t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h i s c o n c e p t when he w r o t e : Past co n ce p tu alizatio n s of the innovation-decision process have g e n e r a l l y n o t f u l l y r e c o g n i z e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e , o r even t h e e x i s t e n c e , o f t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e ( f o r e x am pl e, Rogers w i t h Shoemaker 1971, pp. 9 8 - 1 3 3 ) . I t i s o f t e n one t h i n g f o r t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o d e c i d e t o a d o p t a new i d e a , and q u it e a d i f f e r e n t th in g to put th e innovation in to use. Problems i n e x a c t l y how t o us e t h e i n n o v a t i o n may c r o p up a t th e implementation s ta g e . Implementation u s u a ll y follow s t h e d e c i s i o n s t a g e r a t h e r d i r e c t l y u n l e s s i t i s h e l d up by some l o g i s t i c a l p r o b le m , l i k e t h e t e m p o r a r y u n a v a i l a b i l i t y o f the innovation. 102 The a c t o f a d o p t i n g an i n n o v a t i o n w i l l a l s o v a r y d e p en di ng on t h e t y p e o f i n n o v a t i o n un d er i n v e s t i g a t i o n and what p e o p l e p e r c e i v e t o be a d o p t i o n . Many s t u d i e s o f a d o p t i o n deal w i t h a s i n g l e , e a s i l y d e f i n e d i n n o v a t i o n in which a d o p t i o n ( i n c l u d i n g i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ) i s c l e a r l y u n i f o r m a c r o s s a d o p t e r u n i t s ( f o r exam ple , p l a n t i n g h y b r i d s e e d co r n o r u s i n g a new a n t i b i o t i c ) . However, where t h e i n n o v a t i o n i s n o t a s e a s i l y d e f i n e d , t h e meaning o f a d o p t i o n may be l e s s c l e a r . Warner ( 1 9 7 4 :4 4 1 ) p r o v i d e d a good example o f t h i s phenomenon when he d i s c u s s e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e between a d o p t i n g h y b r i d s e e d co r n and PPBS ( t h e P l a n n i n g , Programming, B u d g e t in g S y s te m ): The f o r m e r [ h y b r i d s e e d c o r n ] i s s p e c i f i c and w e l l d e f i n e d ; t h e l a t t e r [PPBS] means many d i f f e r e n t t h i n g s to d i f f e r e n t agencies. PPBS i s implemented in numerous ways: some a g e n c i e s may c o n s i d e r t h e m s e l v e s " a d o p t e r s " by m e re ly a d o p t i n g t h e l a b e l , w h er ea s o t h e r s w i l l n o t employ t h e l a b e l u n t i l t h e y have s e r i o u s l y a t t e m p t e d t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h e p r i n c i p l e s o f s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s i n t o t h e i r programming, p l a n n i n g , and b u d g e t i n g . A g a in , Rogers (1983) has i n c o r p o r a t e d t h i s i d e a i n t o h i s most r e c e n t c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e p r o c e s s by i n c l u d i n g t h e a c t o f re-invention. As d e f i n e d i n P a r t I , r e - i n v e n t i o n i s t h e d e g r e e t o which an i n n o v a t i o n i s changed o r m o d i f i e d by a u s e r i n t h e p r o c e s s o f i t s a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n . I f t h e i n n o v a t i o n i s n o t a s i n g l e o r simple e n t i t y , then r e - i n v e n t i o n i s l i k e l y to occur. The E x t e n t o f Ado pti on and I m p l e m e n t a ti o n o f t h e Manual The a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e manual must n e c e s s a r i l y t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n i t s c h a r a c ­ t e r i z a t i o n a s a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r and t h e c o n c e p t o f r e - i n v e n t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , t h i s a p p r o a c h w i l l a l s o be i n f l u e n c e d by t h e c u r r e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s and t h e f o c u s o f t h e s t u d y . Given t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , 103 t h e f o l l o w i n g a p p r o a c h , which r e p r e s e n t s an e x t e n s i o n o f " t y p i c a l " adoption beh av io r, w ill be us ed i n t h i s s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e manual. Because t h e d i f f u s i o n o f an i n n o v a t i o n t o members o f a s o c i a l s y st e m i s a p r o c e s s t h a t t a k e s p l a c e o v e r a l o n g p e r i o d o f ti m e (Rogers w i t h Shoemaker 1 9 7 1 ) , r e s e a r c h e r s t y p i c a l l y a n a l y z e t h e process a f t e r i t i s com plete, or n early complete, in the population o f a d o p t e r u n i t s ( K lo n g la n e t a l . 19 7 1 ) . Using t i m e ( u s u a l l y y e a r ) o f a d o p t i o n (and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ) a s t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , t h e y th e n go back and r e c o n s t r u c t t h e s t a g e s o f t h e a d o p t i o n model a s t h e y o ccu rred , d e fin e a d o p te r c a t e g o r i e s , determine th e r a t e o f adoption and so on. S i n c e o n l y two y e a r s have e l a p s e d s i n c e t h e manual was i n t r o d u c e d , and o n l y a small number o f i n d i v i d u a l s have p u r c h a s e d t h e manual t o d a t e , i t would be r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t t h i s s t u d y i s ta k in g pla ce d u rin g , r a t h e r than a f t e r , th e d i f f u s io n p ro c e ss. Given t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , t h e f o c u s on a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r i n t h i s s t u d y w i l l be s h i f t e d from t h e r e l a t i v e ti m e t h a t a d o p t i o n ( o r r e j e c t i o n ) o c c u r r e d t o t h e amount o f a d o p t i o n o r r e j e c t i o n t h a t to o k p l a c e in t h e two y e a r s s i n c e t h e m a n u a l ' s i n t r o d u c t i o n among t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who c u r r e n t l y own i t . The a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e amount o f a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r is c l o s e l y linked with i t s d e f i n i t i o n as a technology c l u s t e r . In c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e manual as an i n n o v a t i o n , i t was d e s c r i b e d a s a dynamic t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r . T h a t i s , f o r any i n d i v i d u a l , t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e c l u s t e r w i l l v a r y d e p en di ng on t h e p a r t s o f t h e manual he a t t e n d e d t o and p e r c e i v e d a s new o r o l d . S i n c e i t would be v i r t u a l l y i m p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x a c t e l e m e n t s i n any one 104 i n d i v i d u a l 's technology c l u s t e r a p r i o r i , a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r i s m e a s u re d . i t w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d when S i n c e r e - i n v e n t i o n o f t h e manual was e s s e n t i a l l y e n c o u r a g e d and e x p e c t e d , t h e d i m e n s i o n s o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r w ill be d e f i n e d a s t h e e x t e n t t o which r e - i n v e n t i o n o c c u r r e d . In o t h e r w o r d s , t h e c o m b i n a t i o n s o f new i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l a d o p t e d and implemented w i l l c o n s t i t u t e t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r f o r him. While t h e d i s c u s s i o n t o t h i s p o i n t has c e n t e r e d on t h e new a s p e c t s o f t h e m a n u a l, we have a l s o acknowledged t h a t some p a r t s o f i t w i l l be p e r c e i v e d a s o l d i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s . Investigating o n l y i t s "new" a s p e c t s would keep us w i t h i n t h e f o c u s o f t h e mo de l, b u t would a l s o l i m i t t h e f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y ( t h a t i s , u s e o f t h e manual i n g e n e r a l ) . R a t h e r t h a n e x c l u d e t h e s e o l d i t e m s , t h e ap p r o ac h us ed t o d e t e r m i n e a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r w i l l be e x t e n d e d t o i n c l u d e them. By i n c l u d i n g a l l i t e m s used from t h e manual and w e i g h t i n g new ones more t h a n o l d o n e s , a t o t a l u s e s c o r e w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d t h a t w i l l n o t o n l y r e f l e c t t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual a s an i n n o v a t i o n was a d o p t e d and imple me nte d b u t a l s o t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual was u s ed i n g e n e r a l . T h u s , i n d i v i d u a l s who used more o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual and c o n s i d e r e d more o f t h e s e a s new w ill receive the highest scores. Because t h i s s c o r e , l a b e l l e d t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n , r e f l e c t s t h e amount o f a d o p t i o n and implemen­ t a t i o n o f t h e m a n u a l, we would e x p e c t i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e v a r i o u s i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s p r o p o s e d by Rogers (1983) and o t h e r s t o r em ai n t h e same. A more s p e c i f i c d i s c u s s i o n w i l l s e r v e t o p u t t h e s e c o n c e p t s and t h e a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n into perspective. 105 IPM, a s d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 1 and p r e s e n t e d i n t h e m a nu al , c o n s i s t s o f a number o f components t h a t when p r a c t i c e d in c o m b i n a t i o n r e s u l t in a dynamic a p p r o a c h t o managing p e s t p r o b le m s . The u l t i m a t e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f IPM n e c e s s a r i l y demands t h a t a l l o f t h e s e com­ p o n e n t s be a p p l i e d i n c o n c e r t . However, i t mus t a l s o be acknowledged t h a t e a c h o f t h e s e components m i g h t be u s ed s i n g l y , o r in numerous com binations. Given t h e complex and i n h e r e n t p h i l o s o p h i c a l n a t u r e o f IPM, we would s u s p e c t t h a t a f t e r o n l y two y e a r s , most i f n o t a l l i n d i v i d u a l s would n o t have p u t i n t o use t h e f u l l r a n g e o f IPM com­ p o n e n t s from t h e ma nua l. R a t h e r t h a n i g n o r e t h e p a r t i a l us e o f t h e c o m po ne nt s , i t seems u s e f u l t o c o n c e i v e o f t h e p r a c t i c e o f IPM a s an incremental a c t i v i t y . In t h i s a p p r o a c h , which has been u se d in e v a l u a t i n g c o t t o n IPM progr ams (Bou twe ll and Smith 1 9 8 1 ) , t h e components o f IPM a r e s e p a r a t e d i n t o m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e c a t e g o r i e s . The e x t e n t o f p r a c t i c i n g IPM i s t h e n d e t e r m i n e d o b j e c t i v e l y by a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n d i c a t e t h e components t h e y a r e c u r r e n t l y u s i n g . R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r s u b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s o f t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e y p r a c t i c e IPM, t h o s e who use more components a r e d e s c r i b e d a s p r a c t i c i n g IPM t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e who u s e l e s s com po nen ts. T h i s a p p r o a c h w i l l be u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y , w i t h m o d i f i c a t i o n s f o r new and o l d co m p o n en ts , t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e ma nua l. S i n c e t h e manual c o n t a i n s b o th i n f o r ­ m a ti o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s , i t w i l l be n e c e s s a r y t o d e v e l o p a m u t u a l l y e x c l u s i v e l i s t o f components f o r ea ch o f t h e s e . I n f o r m a t i o n com­ p o n e n t s w i l l be t h o s e t h a t can be a d o p t e d o r a c c e p t e d on an i d e a l e v e l ; p r a c t i c e components w i l l be t h o s e t h a t can be a d o p t e d and 106 im ple m ent ed t o d i r e c t l y c o n t r o l p e s t p r o b l e m s . By a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n d i c a t e t h e new and o l d i n f o r m a t i o n components t h e y had r e a d a b o u t and a d o p t e d and t h e new and o l d p r a c t i c e components t h a t t h e y had a d o p t e d and were c u r r e n t l y u s i n g from t h e m a nu al , an e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n (and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ) s c o r e can be d e t e r m i n e d . This score w i l l n o t o n l y r e f l e c t t h e e x t e n t t o which IPM from t h e manual was u s ed b u t a l s o t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual a s a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r was r e - i n v e n t e d . And b e c a u s e new i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s w i l l be w e i g h t e d more t h a n o l d o n e s , i n d i v i d u a l s r e a d i n g a b o u t and a d o p t i n g more new i n f o r m a t i o n components and a d o p t i n g and im pl em en ti n g more new p r a c t i c e components w i l l r e c e i v e t h e h i g h e s t s c o r e s . Individual C h a ra c te ris tic s In P a r t I o f t h i s c h a p t e r , a l a r g e number o f i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were p r e s e n t e d t h a t have been i n v e s t i g a t e d and found to a f f e c t the innovation-decision process. The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have shown, in g e n e r a l , t h a t p e r s o n s a d o p t i n g inno v atio n s e a r l i e r than o th e rs tend to e x h i b i t o r possess g r e a t e r d e g r e e s o f c e r t a i n s o c i o e c o n o m i c , p e r s o n a l i t y and communication behavior c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Because t h i s s t u d y e s s e n t i a l l y r e p r e s e n t s an e x p l o r a t o r y a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e model i n t h i s f i e l d , a number o f v a r i a b l e s from ea ch o f t h e s e t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s were s e l e c t e d t o in c lu d e in t h i s in v e s t i g a t i o n . The s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e s ( c o n s i d e r e d i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ) ch o s en f o r s t u d y and t h e i r conceptual treatm ent a re th e s u b je c t of the next th r e e s u b -s e c tio n s . 107 Socio ec on omi c V a r i a b l e s From among t h e many s o c io e c o n o m ic v a r i a b l e s found t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , t h r e e were s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y : a g e , e d u c a t i o n and so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . Based on h i s r e v i e w o f d i f u s s i o n s t u d i e s , Rogers (1983) found t h a t a c o n s i s t e n t d i r e c t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between age and i n n o v a t i v e n e s s was n o t s u p p o r t e d by s t u d y r e s u l t s . In o t h e r w o r d s, e a r l i e r a d o p t e r s a r e no d i f f e r e n t in age t h a n l a t e r a d o p t e r s . However, he d i d c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e r e m a i n i n g two v a r i a b l e s were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o i n n o v a t i v e n e s s ; t h a t i s , e a r l i e r a d o p t e r s have more y e a r s o f e d u c a t i o n and h i g h e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s th a n l a t e r a d o p t e r s . The e x p l a n a t i o n s p r o p o s e d f o r why, i n g e n e r a l , i n n o v a t i v e in d iv id u als e x h ib it th e se c h a r a c te r i s t ic s are also applicable fo r t h i s study. Use o f t h e m a nu al , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r IPM, r e q u i r e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s comprehend and combine a number o f components. Even t h ou g h a t t e n t i o n was g i v e n t o w r i t i n g t h e t e x t in an i n t e r e s t i n g and r e a d a b l e manner ( r e a d a b i l i t y measu red by t h e F l e s c h f o r m u l a ( F l e s c h 1951) was e q u i v a l e n t t o "some hi g h s c h o o l " ) , t h e manual was i n t e n d e d t o be us ed a s a d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g g u i d e . R a t h e r th a n t e l l i n g u s e r s e x a c t l y wh at t o do i n any g i v e n s i t u a t i o n , t h e manual o f f e r e d a framework t h a t e s s e n t i a l l y r e q u i r e d them t o d e s i g n and c o n d u c t t h e i r own p e s t management pr o gr am . Consequently, th e a b i l i t y to read, comprehend and a p p l y t h e i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e manual would p e r h a p s r e q u i r e t h e mental s k i l l s and f l e x i b i l i t y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h i g h e r educational attainm ent. With r e g a r d t o s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , we would e x p e c t t h e same p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p , b u t f o r r e a s o n s somewhat d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h o s e e x p r e s s e d by Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 ) . P e r s o n s o f h i g h e r soc io ec o no m ic s t a t u s a r e more l i k e l y t o r e s i d e in a r e a s where l a n d s c a p e f e a t u r e s a r e a s i g n i f i c a n t component o f t h e ou tw ar d a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e home and a r e given c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n . The c a r e o f p l a n t s in t h e l a n d s c a p e , t h e r e f o r e , becomes an i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r in o v e r a l l home m a i n t e n a n c e . Given t h i s i n c r e a s e d im p o r t a n c e o f p l a n t s in t h e l a n d s c a p e — w h e t h e r welcomed o r n o t — t h e r e i s p e r h a p s a g r e a t e r nee d t o p r o t e c t t h i s investm ent. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e i s t y p i c a l l y some d e g r e e o f s o c i a l p r e s s u r e t o m a i n t a i n t h e l a n d s c a p e i n an a e s t h e t i c a l l y a c c e p t a b l e s t a t e ( F i r s t Survey R es e a r c h C e n t e r , I n c . 1 9 6 7 ) , which would i n c l u d e pest control. We m i g h t a l s o e x p e c t t h a t p e r s o n s o f h i g h e r s o c i o ­ economic s t a t u s a r e s i m p l y more a b l e t o d e v o t e t h e r e s o u r c e s ( t i m e , money) t o t h e i r l a n d s c a p e , i n c l u d i n g t h e management o f p e s t p r o b le m s . ( T h i s l a s t e x p l a n a t i o n more c l o s e l y p a r a l l e l s t h a t p r e s e n t e d by Rogers ( 1 9 8 3 ) , which was d i s c u s s e d i n P a r t I o f t h i s c h a p t e r . ) While age and e d u c a t i o n v a r i a b l e s a r e c o n c e p t u a l l y s t r a i g h t ­ f o r w a r d , s o ci oe c on om ic s t a t u s ne e d s c l a r i f i c a t i o n . Nam and Gustavus ( 1 9 7 6 :3 2 1 ) d e f i n e so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s a s "A c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f p e o p l e o r g r o u p s on t h e b a s i s o f such s o c i a l and economic v a r i a b l e s a s t h e i r e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l , o c c u p a t i o n , income, and h o u s i n g s t a t u s . " E s s e n t i a l l y i t i s an a t t e m p t t o p r o v i d e , i n one i n d i c a t o r , a p i c t u r e o f t h e o v e r a l l s t a t u s s t r u c t u r e o f i n d i v i d u a l s o r g ro up s o f i n d i v i d u a l s from v a r i o u s s o c i a l and economic m e a s u r e s . Th ere a r e c u r r e n t l y a l a r g e number o f i n d e x e s t h a t u t i l i z e a wide v a r i e t y o f i n d i c a t o r s t o d e t e r m i n e an i n d i v i d u a l ' s so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . While o c c u p a t i o n has been shown t o be t h e b e s t s i n g l e p r e d i c t o r o f s o c i a l s t a t u s , a number o f o t h e r f a c t o r s such a s income and e d u c a t i o n a l 109 a t t a i n m e n t a r e a l s o known t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o c c u p a t i o n a l r a n k s ( M i l l e r 19 7 7) . S e l e c t e d f o r use i n t h i s s t u d y i s H o l l i n g s h e a d ' s two f a c t o r ind ex o f s o c i a l p o s i t i o n , which u t i l i z e s o c c u p a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n t o d e t e r m i n e so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . T h i s p a r t i c u l a r in de x was s e l e c t e d o v e r o t h e r s b e c a u s e i t u t i l i z e s two i n d i c a t o r s r a t h e r t h a n one ( o c c u p a t i o n ) , i t makes a f i n e r d i s t i n c t i o n between o c c u p a t i o n a l c a t e g o r i e s t h a n t h o s e b a s e d on c e n s u s c a t e g o r i e s and i t i s one o f t h e more w i d e l y u s ed i n d e x e s ( M i l l e r 19 7 7 ) . Therefore, so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s in t h i s s t u d y w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d from t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s o c c u p a t i o n and income. With r e g a r d t o t h e s e t h r e e so ci o ec o n o m ic v a r i a b l e s and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r t h e n , we would e x p e c t t h a t age would n o t be r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n , w h i l e e d u c a t i o n and so ci o ec o n o m ic would be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to th e dependent v a r i a b l e ; t h a t i s , individuals w i t h more e d u c a t i o n and h i g h e r so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e w i t h l e s s e d u c a t i o n and lo w e r so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e above v a r i a b l e s , two o t h e r so ci o ec o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l be i n c l u d e d a s d e s c r i p t o r s o f i n d i v i d u a l s who p u r c h a s e d t h e manual. One i s t h e income l e v e l o f t h e h o u s e h o l d . The o t h e r i s t h e c u r r e n t employment s t a t u s o f i n d i v i d u a l s , i r r e s p e c t i v e o f t h e i r s p e c if i c occupation. P e rso n a lity Variables While so ci o ec o n o m ic v a r i a b l e s d e s c r i b e t h e s o c i a l and economic standing o f in d iv id u a ls, p e rs o n a lity v a ria b le s c h a ra c te riz e t h e i r 110 s o c ia l psychological o r i e n t a t i o n s . As d i s c u s s e d in P a r t I o f t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e more i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t p e r s o n a l i t y o r i e n ­ t a t i o n s t h a t a l l o w them t o d e a l w i t h new i d e a s in a f a v o r a b l e , more open manner. And even though t h e i r u t i l i t y a s i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i s r e c o g n i z e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y , Rogers (1 9 8 3 :2 5 7 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t , " P e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n n o v a t i v e n e s s have n o t y e t r e c e i v e d much r e s e a r c h a t t e n t i o n , i n p a r t b e c a u s e o f d i f f i c u l t i e s o f measuring p e r s o n a l i t y dimensions in f i e l d i n t e r v i e w s ." While p erso n ality v aria b les previously in v e stig ated are ty p ic a lly general, t h o s e i d e n t i f i e d f o r t h i s s t u d y f o c u s s p e c i f i c a l l y on t h e s u b j e c t m a t t e r o f i n t e r e s t ; a number o f a t t i t u d e s d e a l i n g w i t h p e s t manage­ ment a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be me as u re d and a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n behavior. However, b e f o r e i d e n t i f y i n g t h e s e s p e c i f i c a t t i t u d e s , an overview o f th e a t t i t u d e concept i s p r e s e n t e d , to b e t t e r u n derstand i t s s ig n if i c a n c e in th e adoption p rocess. A D efinition of A ttitu d e . While many d e f i n i t i o n s o f a t t i t u d e have been p r o p o s e d (Shaw and W ri g h t 1967; K i e s l e r e t a l . 1969; Lemon 1973; F i s h b e i n and Ajze n 1975; a l l c o n t a i n e x c e l l e n t d e f i n i t i o n a l r e v i e w s ) , m os t t e n d t o a g r e e t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t s e p a r a t e s a t t i t u d e from o t h e r p e r s o n a l i t y c o n c e p t s i s i t s e v a l u a t i v e o r a f f e c t i v e n a t u r e (Shaw and W rig ht 1967; F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1975; Olson 1 9 80 ). By a f f e c t i v e o r e v a l u a t i v e i s meant some d e g r e e o f favorableness or unfavorableness regarding the a t t i t u d e o b je c t. The d e f i n i t i o n o f a t t i t u d e ch os en f o r t h i s s t u d y i s one p r o p o s e d by Shaw and W rig h t ( 1 9 6 7 ) . I t was s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e i t r e p r e s e n t s an e c l e c t i c one; th e a u t h o rs p u r p o s e f u lly e x t r a c t e d th e commonalities o f v a rio u s d e f i n i t i o n s and a t t e m p t e d t o r e l a t e t h e c o n c e p t a s c l o s e l y a s Ill p o s s i b l e t o t h e o p e r a t i o n s t y p i c a l l y us ed t o m e asu re a t t i t u d e s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e t e r m a t t i t u d e w i l l be d e f i n e d a s : A r e l a t i v e l y enduring system o f e v a l u a t i v e , a f f e c t i v e r e a c t i o n s b a s e d upon and r e f l e c t i n g t h e e v a l u a t i v e c o n c e p t s o r b e l i e f s which have been l e a r n e d a b o u t t h e c h a r a c te r i s t ic s o f a social o b je ct or c la s s of social o b j e c t s (Shaw and W r ig h t 1 9 6 7 : 3 ) . A ttitude S tru ctu re. The more t r a d i t i o n a l view p o s i t s t h a t a t t i t u d e c o n s i s t s o f t h r e e b a s i c components - - t h e c o g n i t i v e ( b e l i e f s ) , a f f e c t i v e and b e h a v i o r a l - - t h a t e x i s t in b a l a n c e (Engel et al. 1968; Katz 1968; Lau er 1 9 7 1 ) . A more c o n t e m p o r a r y v i e w , p r o p o s e d by F i s h b e i n and Ajzen (1975) and r e f l e c t e d in Shaw and W r i g h t ' s (1967) d e f i n i t i o n s t a t e d a b o v e , h o l d s t h a t an a t t i t u d e to w ar d some o b j e c t i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s b e l i e f s and c o n s i s t s o n l y o f t h e sum o f h i s a f f e c t i v e o r e v a l u a t i v e r e a c t i o n s as s o c ia te d with those b e l i e f s . a primary causal In a d d i t i o n , a t t i t u d e s a r e c o n s i d e r e d i n f l u e n c e on b e h a v i o r a l i n t e n t i o n s , which i n t u r n a r e a major d e te rm in a n t o f b eh av io r. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , a p e r s o n ' s b e l i e f s r e p r e s e n t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n he has a b o u t t h e o b j e c t . The o b j e c t can be any e n t i t y o r a c t i o n ; t h e i n f o r m a t i o n ( o r a t t r i b u t e s ) can be any c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r d im e n s io n s a ss o c ia te d with the o b je c t. A b e l i e f , t h e n , l i n k s an a t t r i b u t e t o some o b j e c t ( F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1 97 5 ). For ex a m p le , t h e b e l i e f " u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s i s dangerous" l i n k s th e o b je c t "using p e s t i c i d e s " to the a t t r i b u t e "dangerous." B e l i e f s may be formed on t h e b a s i s o f d i r e c t o b s e r v a t i o n , from i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d t h r o u g h o u t s i d e s o u r c e s o r by ways o f v a r i o u s i n f e r e n c e p r o c e s s e s ( F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1975 ). Moreso, b e l i e f s a r e m o t i v a t i o n a l l y o r e m o t i o n a l l y n e u t r a l and R o b e r t s o n 19 6 8 ) . (K assarjian A b e l i e f "becomes" an a t t i t u d e , o r an a t t i t u d e 112 i s f o r m e d , when t h e i n d i v i d u a l a t t a c h e s e v a l u a t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e t o the a t t r i b u t e s a s s o c ia te d with the o b je c t. In t h i s vie w, which i s t a k e n in t h i s s t u d y , t h e t e r m a t t i t u d e i s u s ed t o d e s c r i b e o n l y t h e a f f e c t i v e o r e v a l u a t i v e a s p e c t a s s o c i a t e d with a b e l i e f . I t i s c o n sid ere d a d i s t i n c t element in a c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s y s t e m , r a t h e r th a n an e l e m e n t in a b a l a n c e d s y s t e m l a b e l l e d attitude. At t h e f o u n d a t i o n o f t h i s i n t e r r e l a t e d s y st e m l i e s a p e r s o n ' s b e l i e f s , which s e r v e " a s t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a l b a s e t h a t u l t i m a t e l y d e t e r m i n e s h i s a t t i t u d e s , i n t e n t i o n s and b e h a v i o r s ( F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1 9 7 5 : 1 4 ) . A t t i t u d e D i r e c t i o n , I n t e n s i t y and I m p o r t a n c e . The d i r e c t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e i s r e p r e s e n t e d by i t s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e v a l e n c e , which r e f l e c t s t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e o b j e c t (Shaw and Wright 1 96 7 ). Th u s, a p e r s o n i s d e s c r i b e d a s h a v i n g e i t h e r a p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a r d a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t . A ttitu d e i n t e n s i t y , or the stre n g th o f the a f f e c t iv e r e a c tio n , r e f e r s to "the extrem ity of t h e p o s i t i o n o c c u p i e d on t h e c o n t i n u u m , becoming s t r o n g e r a s one goes o u tw ar d from a n e u t r a l position" (Shaw and W rig ht 1 9 6 7 : 7 ) . This co nt in u um r a n g e s from e x t r e m e l y p o s i t i v e t o e x t r e m e l y n e g a t i v e . An i n d i v i d u a l ' s l o c a t i o n on t h i s c o nt in u um i s , in p a r t , a f u n c t i o n o f t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e o b j e c t f o r him (Newcomb e t a l . 1965; Andreasen 1968; F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1 9 7 5 ) . More i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t s s t a y in t h e f o r e f r o n t o f th e i n d i v i d u a l 's co n sc io u sn e ss, e i t h e r because of e x t e r n a l c irc u m stan c es o r in d iv id u a l motive s t a t e s 19 6 5 ) . (Newcomb e t a l . As t h e o b j e c t becomes more i m p o r t a n t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e n d s t o a c q u i r e more s p e c i f i c and c e r t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n ( o r b e l i e f s ) a b o u t i t , which a r e t y p i c a l l y e v a l u a t e d more p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y (Shaw and 113 W rig h t 1967; F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1975 ). Conversely, f o r o b je c ts t h a t a r e more p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y remot e o r p e r i p h e r a l , t h e i n d i v i d u a l t e n d s t o have l e s s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t them and t h e r e f o r e e x h i b i t a l e s s intense a ffe c tiv e reac tio n . I m p o r t an ce a l s o a f f e c t s a t t i t u d e s t a b i l i t y . The more i m p o r t a n t t h e o b j e c t i s t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l , t h e more s t a b l e h i s a t t i t u d e w i l l be tow ard i t (Newcomb e t a l . 1965; Shaw and W rig ht 1967; Olson 19 80 ). On t h e o t h e r han d, a t t i t u d e s d e v e l o p e d tow ard l e s s i m p o r t a n t o b j e c t s a r e u s u a lly l e s s s t a b l e over tim e. The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f a t t i t u d e s t a b i l i t y a r e t y p i c a l l y m a n i f e s t e d i n t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e y a r e r e s i s t a n t t o c h a n g e ; s t a b l e a t t i t u d e s a r e m a xi m al ly r e s i s t a n t t o c h a n g e , wh ere as l e s s s t a b l e a t t i t u d e s a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e t o change ( p a r t i c u l a r l y t h r o u g h new i n f o r m a t i o n ) (Newcomb e t a l . 1965; Shaw and Wright 1 96 7 ) . A t t i t u d e s and B e h a v i o r . While t h e above d i s c u s s i o n has c e n t e r e d on what a t t i t u d e s a r e , t h e i s s u e o f a t t i t u d e s and b e h a v i o r f o c u s e s on what t h e y a r e s a i d t o do. In a d d i t i o n t o o v e r t b e h a v i o r , which i s t y p i c a l l y c o n s i d e r e d t h e end p r o d u c t o f t h e a t t i t u d i n a l process, a t t i t u d e s a f f e c t t h e f u l l gamut o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s a s w ell ( f o r ex a m p le , p e r c e p t i o n and l e a r n i n g ) (Newcomb e t a l . 19 65 ). C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e e n s u i n g d i s c u s s i o n w i l l p r o v i d e an o v e r v i e w o f t h e a t t i t u d e c o n c e p t a s i t r e l a t e s t o b o th p s y c h o l o g i c a l (in t h i s ca se , p e r c e p t i o n ) and o v e r t b e h a v i o r . P e r c e p t i o n i s t h e p r o c e s s by which an i n d i v i d u a l d e c o d e s o r i n t e r p r e t s incoming i n f o r m a t i o n (Newcomb e t a l . 19 6 5) . A ttitu d e s are p a r t o f t h e s e l e c t i v e mechanism t h a t g o v e r n s p e r c e p t i o n , so t h a t p e r c e p t i o n o f incoming i n f o r m a t i o n t e n d s t o be c o n g r u e n t w i t h 114 existing attitu d es (L au e r 1971 ). When t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n i s p e r c e i v e d a s s u p p o r t i v e o f t h e p e r s o n ' s p r i o r a t t i t u d e , t h e e x p e r i e n c e i s more l i k e l y t o have some r e i n f o r c i n g a f f e c t on t h e a t t i t u d e and t h e inform ation is more l i k e l y t o be l e a r n e d o r r e t a i n e d (Newcomb e t a l . 1965; Lau er 19 71 ). Depending on t h e d e g r e e t o which incoming inform ation i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h e x i s t i n g a t t i t u d e s , however, t h e i n d i v i d u a l may e x h i b i t s e l e c t i v e exposure an d /o r s e l e c t i v e distortion. A person tends to avoid exposure to inform ation t h a t is in c o n s i s t e n t with h is a t t i t u d e s . T herefore, inform ation t h a t is c o n tr a d ic to r y or otherw ise in c o n s i s t e n t with h is a t t i t u d e s i s l i k e l y t o pro vo ke a r e a c t i o n o f s e l e c t i v e e x p o s u r e , whereby t h e c o n t r a ­ d i c t o r y i n f o r m a t i o n i s a v o i d e d . A p e r s o n may a l s o s e l e c t i v e l y d i s t o r t incoming i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t i s i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s a t t i t u d e s . Once ex p o s ed t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , he may p e r c e i v e and i n t e r p r e t i t in a manner c o n t r a r y t o i t s o r i g i n a l i n t e n t , b u t c o n s i s t e n t w i t h h i s attitudes (Engel e t a l . 1968). The r e l a t i o n s h i p between a t t i t u d e s and o v e r t b e h a v i o r has r e c e i v e d much a t t e n t i o n . However, r i g o r o u s t e s t s o f t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p a r e d i f f i c u l t and have pr od uc ed d i f f e r e n t and somewhat c o n t r o v e r s i a l r e s u l t s ( K i e s l e r e t a l . 1969; Lemon 1973; Ajzen and F i s h b e i n 1977; Olson 19 8 0 ) . A lt h ou gh t h e a t t i t u d e c o n c e p t was o r i g i n a l l y i n t r o d u c e d a s an e x p l a n a t o r y d e v i c e t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d human b e h a v i o r ( F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1 9 7 5 ) , t h e l a c k o f a s im p l e o n e - t o - o n e c o r r e s p o n d e n c e between t h e two o f t e n r e s u l t s b e c a u s e many s t u d i e s u t i l i z e a g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e mea sur e t o p r e d i c t o r e x p l a i n a s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r ( K i e s l e r e t a l . 1969; F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1975; Ajzen and F i s h b e i n 1977; J a c c a r d e t a l . 1977; Wells 1 9 8 0 ) , and 115 b e c a u s e o v e r t b e h a v i o r i s g e n e r a l l y r e c o g n i z e d a s a f u n c t i o n o f both a t t i t u d e s and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s (Newcomb e t a l . 1955; Lauer 1971; Wicker 1971; Lemon 1973; F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1975; Ajzen and F i s h b e i n 1977; Olson 1980 ). With r e g a r d t o t h e f i r s t i t e m , t h e d e g r e e t o which a t t i t u d e s a r e r e l a t e d t o b e h a v i o r de p en ds in p a r t on t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e a t t i t u d e and t h e b e h a v i o r a r e in c o r r e s p o n d e n c e ( K i e s l e r e t a l . 1969; F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1975; Ajzen and F i s h b e i n 1977; Wel ls 1 98 0 ) . When t h e a t t i t u d e o b j e c t h a s been g e n e r a l and t h e b e h a v i o r s p e c i f i c , low c o r r e l a t i o n s have t y p i c a l l y been r e p o r t e d (Ajzen and F i s h b e i n 1977; J a c c a r d e t a l . 19 77 ). T h e r e f o r e , a t t i t u d e m e a su r e s a r e l e a s t l i k e l y t o be u s e f u l , from b o th a p r e d i c t i v e and e x p l a n a t o r y s t a n d p o i n t , when we t r y t o i n f e r s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r s from g e n e r a l a t t i t u d e s (Wells 19 8 0 ) . L o g i c a l l y t h e n , t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p s h o u ld be improved by b r i n g i n g t h e a t t i t u d e and b e h a v i o r i n t o c l o s e r c o r r e s p o n d e n c e . Towards t h i s e n d , r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e s t h a t a d i s t i n c t i o n s h o u ld be made between an a t t i t u d e to w ard an o b j e c t and an a t t i t u d e toward t h e a c t o f p e r f o r m i n g a b e h a v i o r (Cohen 1 9 8 1 ) . Where an a t t i t u d e tow ard p e r f o r m i n g a b e h a v i o r has been u s e d , r a t h e r t h a n an a t t i t u d e tow ar d t h e o b j e c t , s i g n i f i c a n t f i n d i n g s have been o b t a i n e d ( F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1975; Ajzen and F i s h b e i n 1 97 7 ) . For e x am pl e, i f t h e b e h a v i o r u n d er i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s " u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s , " t h e n t h e r e l e v a n t a t t i t u d e u s ed t o p r e d i c t o r e x p l a i n t h i s b e h a v i o r s h o u l d be t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s " a t t i t u d e to w ar d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s " and n o t t h e i r " a t t i t u d e to w ar d p e s t i c i d e s i n g e n e r a l . " With r e g a r d t o t h e se cond i t e m , w h i l e most a u t h o r s would a g r e e t h a t a t t i t u d e i s o n l y one f a c t o r d e t e r m i n i n g b e h a v i o r , t h e r e i s no 116 a g r e e m e n t a s t o e x a c t l y which " o t h e r v a r i a b l e s " a r e most i m p o r t a n t . Even t h e manner i n which o t h e r v a r i a b l e s a r e t h o u g h t t o i n t e r a c t w i t h a t t i t u d e s i s r e p r e s e n t e d by two p o i n t s o f view: one p r o p o s e s t h a t o th e r v a r ia b le s i n t e r a c t with a t t i t u d e s to determine behavior; the o t h e r s u g g e s t s t h a t o t h e r v a r i a b l e s a c t s e p a r a t e l y , and when added t o a t t i t u d e s d e t e r m i n e b e h a v i o r ( F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 19 7 5) . Examples o f o t h e r v a r i a b l e s s u g g e s t e d by v a r i o u s a u t h o r s i n c l u d e : p e r s o n a l and s i t u a t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d i n g o t h e r a t t i t u d e s h e l d by t h e i n d i v i d u a l ; h i s a c t i v i t y l e v e l , v e r b a l , i n t e l l e c t u a l and s o c i a l a b i l i t i e s ; the presence o f o th e r people; the range o f a l t e r n a t i v e b e h a v i o r s a v a i l a b l e ; t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f u n f o r e s e e n e v e n t s (Wicker 1 9 7 1 ) ; t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e s i t u a t i o n imposes n o r m a t i v e p r e s c r i p ­ t i o n s on t h e i n d i v i d u a l a b o u t which b e h a v i o r i s a p p r o p r i a t e ; t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e i n d i v i d u a l p o s s e s s e s t h e n e c e s s a r y knowledge t o c o n n e c t h i s a t t i t u d e t o t h e r e l e v a n t b e h a v i o r ; t h e e x t e n t t o which the s i t u a t i o n a c t u a ll y provides o p p o r tu n itie s f o r a t t i t u d i n a l l y c o n g r u e n t b e h a v i o r ( i f no s u i t a b l e a l t e r n a t i v e s a r e p r e s e n t , t h e i n d i v i d u a l may ch o os e t o p e r f o r m some a c t i v i t y he d i s l i k e s ) ; and t h e a n t i c i p a t e d f u t u r e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f b e h a v i o r (Lemon 19 7 3 ). A tti tu d e s S e le cted f o r Study. Given t h e above d i s c u s s i o n o f a t t i t u d e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o p s y c h o l o g i c a l and o v e r t b e h a v i o r , i t i s a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e a t t i t u d e c o n c e p t has much t o o f f e r in t h e way o f h e l p i n g t o e x p l a i n an i n d i v i d u a l ' s a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s . However, i t i s a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e d e g r e e t o which a t t i t u d e s can be u s ed a s an e x p l a n a t o r y d e v i c e i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y a r e u n d e r s t o o d and us ed p r o p e r l y i n a g i v e n s i t u a t i o n . In t h i s s t u d y , a t t i t u d e s w i l l be a d d r e s s e d in two d i f f e r e n t c o n t e x t s . F i r s t , as 117 p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s ( d e s c r i b e d in t h i s s e c t i o n ) a t t i t u d e s a r e c o n c e i v e d a s e x i s t i n g p r i o r t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s emergence i n t o t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s . To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y i n f l u e n c e o r a r e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r in g e n e r a l , t h e s e a t t i t u d e s m i g h t b e s t be described as "other v a ria b le s ." Second, t h e outcome o f t h e p e r s u a s i o n s t a g e o f t h e model i s t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s f o r m a t i o n o f a f a v o r a b l e o r u n f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e i n n o v a t i o n . Since a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n a r e g e n e r a l l y t h o u g h t t o f o l l o w a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e i n n o v a t i o n , in t h i s c o n t e x t t h e a t t i t u d e may be c o n s i d e r e d t h e f o c a l o r p r i m a r y one most d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h o v e r t b e h a v i o r ( t h i s w i l l be t a k e n up i n more d e t a i l in a l a t e r s e c t i o n ) . With t h i s in mind, t h e t h r e e p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s t h a t w i l l be me asu re d i n t h i s s t u d y a r e : 1. The i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e to w ar d h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o bl em s on t h e p l a n t s i n h i s y a r d . 2. The i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e to w ar d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr ob le m s in h i s y a r d . 3. The i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e to w a r d u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t p r o bl em s i n his yard. S i n c e i n d i v i d u a l s who p u r c h a s e d t h e manual had t o make a c o n s c i o u s e f f o r t t o do s o , i t would be r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s were o f some i n t e r e s t o r i m p o r t a n c e t o them. Therefore, i t m i g h t a l s o be r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t them t o p o s s e s s an a t t i t u d e o f some d i r e c t i o n and i n t e n s i t y to w ar d ea c h o f t h e s e i t e m s . g i v e n t h e f o c u s o f t h e manual and t h e p o t e n t i a l Moreso, influence of a t t i t u d e s a s o t h e r v a r i a b l e s on p s y c h o l o g i c a l and o v e r t b e h a v i o r , we would f u r t h e r e x p e c t t h e i n d i v i d u a l s ' a t t i t u d e s to w ar d e ac h o f t h e s e 118 i t e m s t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y a d o p t e d t h e manual. And f i n a l l y , t o i n c r e a s e t h e p o t e n t i a l power o f t h e s e v a r ia b le s f o r e x p la in in g th e se types o f behavior, they are expressed as a t t i t u d e s to w ar d t h e a c t o f p e r f o r m i n g s p e c i f i c b e h a v i o r s most c lo s e ly r e l a t e d to th e innovation. The f i r s t a t t i t u d e i t e m i s t h e most g e n e r a l o f t h e t h r e e . I t was i n c l u d e d t o p r o v i d e a m e asu re o f t h e p e r s o n ' s o v e r a l l r e a c t i o n and o r i e n t a t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l a c t i v i t y o f d e a l i n g w i t h p e s t pr ob le m s in the yard. P r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h by Pampel and van Es (1977) and T a y l o r and M i l l e r (1978) found t h a t by i n c l u d i n g a mea sur e o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' o r i e n t a t i o n s to w ar d t h e g e n e r a l a d o p t i o n a c t i v i t y , p r e d i c t i o n o f a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r was en h an c ed . Because t h e p r a c t i c e o f IPM i s p r o a c t i v e r a t h e r t h a n r e a c t i v e and r e q u i r e s t h a t a number o f components be implemented in te n s iv e . R ealizing t h i s , the a t one t i m e , i t i s n e c e s s a r i l y d e g r e e t o which i n d i v i d u a l s labor either l i k e o r d i s l i k e h a n d l i n g p e s t pro ble m s in t h e i r y a r d i s l i k e l y t o i n f l u e n c e , i n p a r t , t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e manual and t h e i r s u b s e q u e n t b e h a v i o r . T h e r e f o r e , we would e x p e c t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w ar d h a n d l i n g p e s t p ro bl em s on t h e p l a n t s in t h e i r y a r d w i l l have p e r c e i v e d t h e manual more p o s i t i v e l y and w i l l have a d o p t e d i t t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h i s a c t i v i t y . The s e c o n d and t h i r d a t t i t u d e i t e m s a r e more s p e c i f i c and f o c u s on a somewhat c o n t r o v e r s i a l t o p i c and i n d e e d t h e c e n t r a l P r o j e c t PEST was c o n d u c t e d and t h e manual p r o d u c e d . i s s u e o f why T h a t urban homeowners p o s s e s s a t t i t u d e s to w ard p e s t i c i d e s has been s u b s t a n t i a t e d (see Chapter 1). And, a t l e a s t i n M e r i d i a n Township ( P r o j e c t PEST's 119 t a r g e t com mun ity), a m a j o r i t y o f community s u r v e y r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s to w ard a number o f p r i n c i p l e s u n d e r l y i n g IPM (Lambur e t a l . 19 8 2 ) . Even though IPM, a s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e m a nu al , ackno wl ed ges t h a t p e s t i c i d e s a r e p a r t o f t h i s a p p r o a c h t o h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b l e m s , t h e y a r e e x p l i c i t l y give n t h e s t a t u s a s a c o n t r o l measure o f " l a s t r e s o r t . " In f a c t one o f t h e b e g i n n i n g s e c t i o n s was d e v o t e d t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n e g a t i v e c o n s e q u e n c e s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e r e p e a t e d us e o f t h e s e compounds. T h e r e f o r e , t h e manual i s u n q u e s t i o n a b l y a p e r s u a s i v e document e x p r e s s i n g t h e p o i n t o f view t h a t t h e u s e o f p o t e n t i a l l y d an ge ro us p e s t i c i d e s s h o u l d be l e s s e n e d and r e p l a c e d , i n p a r t , w i t h nonpesticidal a lte rn a tiv e s. I t should then fo llo w t h a t th e e x t e n t to which t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d i n a l o r i e n t a t i o n s a r e c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h i s p o i n t o f view, w i l l a f f e c t t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual i s p e r c e i v e d a s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t h e e x t e n t t o which a doption took p la c e . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , we would e x p e c t t h a t , r e l a t i v e t o a t t i t u d e s to w a r d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s ways o f h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o bl em s in t h e y a r d , i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a r d u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e t o p e s t i c i d e s w i l l have p e r c e i v e d t h e manual more p o s i t i v e l y and w i l l have a d o pt ed i t t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who p o s s e s s l e s s e r o r o p p o s i t e attitudinal t e n d e n c i e s to w ard t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s . Communication B e h a v i o r V a r i a b l e s As d i s c u s s e d i n P a r t I o f t h i s c h a p t e r , t h e d e g r e e t o which i n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t more d i v e r s e communication b e h a v i o r i s p o s i t i v e l y 120 r e la te d to t h e i r innovativeness. More i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s g e n e r a l l y p u r s u e and u s e a g r e a t e r number o f b o th mass media and i n t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n n e l s o f commu nic at ion . Because o f t h i s , t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f becoming aware o f i n n o v a t i o n s i s i n c r e a s e d . The a b i l i t y to gain i n i t i a l , as well as a d d i tio n a l inform ation about the i n n o v a t i o n i s a l s o en h a n c e d . Communication b e h a v i o r s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o p e s t management w i l l be a d d r e s s e d in t h i s s t u d y . While R o g e r s ' (1983) g e n e r a l i ­ z a t i o n s e x p r e s s t h e d e g r e e t o which s i n g u l a r communication c h a n n e l s are r e l a t e d to adoption behavior, i t w ill composite v a r i a b l e . be t r e a t e d h e r e a s a L a b e l l e d t h e inde x o f communication b e h a v i o r , t h i s v a r i a b l e w i l l r e p r e s e n t t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f mass media and i n t e r p e r s o n a l s o u r c e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s us e t o o b t a i n p e s t management inform ation. I f i n d i v i d u a l s us e a b r o ad a r r a y o f communication s o u r c e s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on h a n d l i n g p e s t pr o bl em s i n t h e i r y a r d , i t m i g h t be r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t them t o p o s s e s s a c o n s i d e r a b l e amount o f knowledge a b o u t p e s t management. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t t h e y do p o s s e s s more knowledge o f p e s t management, t h e y may be more f a m i l i a r w i t h and r e c e p t i v e t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e manual and t h e r e f o r e more a p t t o us e i t . Th us , w h i l e t h e number o f new i t e m s i n t h e manual may be f e w e r f o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y u se d t h e manual ( t h e t o t a l number o f i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s u s e d ) may be h i g h e r . Because t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e in t h i s s t u d y i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l number o f b o t h new and o l d i t e m s , i t s h o u l d s t i l l h o ld t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s v a r i a b l e and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r would be p o s i t i v e (even though a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r s c o r e s m i g h t be l o w e r ) . 121 T h e r e f o r e , we would e x p e c t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t i n g more d i v e r s e communication b e h a v i o r w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than th o se e x h i b i ti n g l e s s d iv e rs e behavior. One a d d i t i o n a l s t u d y s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e t h a t f a l l s w i t h i n t h i s c a t e g o r y w i l l a l s o be a d d r e s s e d . While a m e asu re o f communication b e h a v i o r i s e x p e c t e d t o p r o v i d e a g e n e r a l mea sur e o f p e s t management knowledge, i t w i l l a l s o be i n s t r u c t i v e t o d e t e r m i n e i f and t o what e x t e n t i n d i v i d u a l s were f a m i l i a r s p e c i f i c a l l y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e ma nu al. As f o r communication b e h a v i o r , i n d i v i d u a l s f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM may c o n s i d e r more o f t h e manual o l d , b u t a t t h e same t i m e u t i l i z e a l a r g e r number o f i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s in i t . We would e x p e c t t h e n , t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s more f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual w i l l have a d o p t e d i t t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e l e s s f a m i l i a r o r n o t a t a l l f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e manual p u r c h a s e . Problem v s . Innovation O r ie n ta tio n The l a s t i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e s e l e c t e d f o r s t u d y c o n c e r n s t h e i n d i v i d u a l 's o r i e n t a t i o n a t th e beginning o f th e in n o v a tio n -d e c is io n process. T h i s v a r i a b l e a d d r e s s e s t h e q u e s t i o n , "Does t h e r e a s o n f o r en g a g i n g in t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s a f f e c t a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ? " Reasons f o r i n i t i a t i n g t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s a r e l a b e l l e d an i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n and a pr obl em o r i e n t a t i o n . An i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d b e g i n n i n g i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by an u n - a c t i v e s e a r c h f o r t h e i n n o v a t i o n and may a l s o be d e s c r i b e d a s t h e c a s e whereby t h e e x i s t e n c e o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n e s s e n t i a l l y c r e a t e s a need f o r i t . prob lem o r i e n t e d b e g i n n i n g i n v o l v e s an a c t i v e s e a r c h f o r t h e A 122 in n ovation; t h a t i s , th e innovation re p re s e n ts a p o te n tia l so lu tio n t o a c u r r e n t pro ble m . While r e s e a r c h on t h i s phenomenon i s s c a n t ( o n l y one s t u d y (Rey no ld s 1971) was f o u n d ) , an i n t u i t i v e a p p r a i s a l would s u g g e s t t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a c t i v e l y s e e k i n g i n f o r m a t i o n t o s o l v e a pro blem would be more l i k e l y t o p u t t h a t i n f o r m a t i o n i n t o u s e , i f t h e y p e r c e i v e d i t a s suitable. From t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s t h e n , t h e y m i g h t more r e a d i l y a d o p t t h e i n n o v a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e y have n o t had t o spend t h e mental t i m e c r e a t i n g a need f o r i t . As an e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e i n t h i s s t u d y , t h e pro blem v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n w i l l f o c u s on t h e r e a s o n why t h e manual was purchased. I f i n d i v i d u a l s i n d i c a t e d a prob lem o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n t h e n we would e x p e c t t h a t t h e y w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n i f t h e y i n d i c a t e d an i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d purchase d ecisio n . Communication Chan nels Corranunication c h a n n e l s s e r v e n o t o n l y t o c r e a t e a w a r e n e s s a b o u t t h e e x i s t e n c e o f i n n o v a t i o n s , b u t a l s o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n upon which i n d i v i d u a l s g a i n a d d i t i o n a l knowledge a b o u t t h e i n n o v a t i o n . As v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m od el , mass media c h a n n e l s a r e r e l a t i v e l y more i m p o r t a n t in c r e a t i n g a w a r e n e s s and p r o v i d i n g g e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e i n n o v a t i o n , w h er ea s i n t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n n e l s convey more s p e c i f i c , s u b j e c t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n . For t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e i n t e r e s t i n communication c h a n n e l s w i l l f o c u s on 123 d e t e r m i n i n g how i n d i v i d u a l s f i r s t became aware o f t h e manual b e i n g available for sale. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h p a s t r e s e a r c h , we would e x p e c t t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s would have f i r s t become aware o f t h e manual t h r o u g h a mass media r a t h e r t h a n an i n t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n n e l . In a d d i t i o n , by p r o v i d i n g a l i s t o f t h e v a r i o u s ways in which t h e manual was p u b l i c i z e d t h r o u g h t h e mass m e d ia , i t w i l l a l s o be p o s s i b l e t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f e ac h o f t h e s e f o r c r e a t i n g in itial a w a r e n e s s o f t h e ma nu al. However, s i n c e t h e mass media campaign was o n l y c o n d u c t e d t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e m a n u a l ' s av ailab ility , i t w i l l a l s o be n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e ti m e ( y e a r ) of purchase. P erceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Innovation Up t o t h i s p o i n t , v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r have f o c u s e d on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . The p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n , on t h e o t h e r han d, a r e t h e p r o p e r ti e s o r a t t r i b u t e s a s s o c ia te d with the innovation i t s e l f t h a t a f f e c t i t s r a te o f adoption. The f i v e c a t e g o r i e s o f a t t r i b u t e s p r o p o s e d by Rogers (1 983 ) ( s e e T a b l e 3 . 1 ) a r e r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , c o m p a t i b i l i t y , c o m p l e x i t y , t r i a l a b i l i t y and o b s e r v a b i l i t y . Based on p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e i n n o v a t i o n e x h i b i t s t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s , r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , c o m p a t i b i l i t y , t r i a l a b i l i t y and o b s e r v a b i l i t y have been fo und t o be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e i n n o v a t i o n ' s r a t e o f a d o p t i o n ; c o m p l e x i t y has been found t o be n eg a tiv e ly r e l a t e d to i t s r a t e o f adoption. 124 All f i v e c l a s s e s o f a t t r i b u t e s can be a p p l i e d t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s c o n t a i n e d i n t h e ma n ua l. One m a jo r a s p e c t o f IPM's r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e i s fo und i n t h e r i s k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e o v e r u s e and p o t e n t i a l m i su s e o f p e s t i c i d e s . To t h e d e g r e e t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s p e r c e i v e a r i s k a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p e s t i c i d e s , IPM may p r e s e n t a r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e b e c a u s e i t s e e k s t o m in im iz e t h e us e o f t h e s e compounds, and where p o s s i b l e , t o r e p l a c e them w i t h a l t e r n a t i v e s . O t h e r s u b - d i m e n s i o n s o f r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e t h a t a p p l y t o IPM i n c l u d e t h e d e g r e e t o which i t r e q u i r e s an a d d i t i o n a l i n v e s t m e n t o f ti m e and l a b o r ( i t i s t y p i c a l l y more l a b o r i n t e n s i v e ) , i t s c o n v e n i e n c e ( r e l a t e d somewhat t o t i m e and l a b o r ) and p e s t management r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d (IPM a d v o c a t e s an a c c e p t a n c e o f c e r t a i n l e v e l s o f p e s t s and damage r a t h e r t h a n t h e c o m p le te e l i m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e o r g a n i s m s ) . C o m p a t i b i l i t y r e f e r s t o t h e e x t e n t t o which IPM i s c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s and n e e d s o f i n d i v i d u a l s . While IPM may be a new t e r m t o some p e o p l e , many o f t h e p r i n c i p l e s and t e c h n i q u e s , viewed i n d i v i d u a l l y , c o u l d a l s o r e p r e s e n t i t e m s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s a r e f a m i l i a r w i t h and p e r h a p s have p r a c t i c e d i n t h e p a s t . In a d d i t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l s who a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h a n d / o r s e e k i n g t o r e d u c e t h e i r use o f p e s t i c i d e s , m i g h t view IPM a s a method f o r h e l p i n g f u l f i l l need. this While t h e s e ex am p le s d e s c r i b e c o m p a t i b i l i t y in a p o s i t i v e s e n s e , IPM c o u l d j u s t a s e a s i l y be p e r c e i v e d a s i n c o m p a t i b l e . I n d i v i d u a l s who a r e s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e i r c u r r e n t p e s t c o n t r o l a p p r o a c h may view IPM a s s o m e t h in g t o o new and d i f f e r e n t and n o t w o r th t h e e f f o r t . Or t h e y may f e e l no p r e s s i n g need t o a l t e r t h e i r c u r r e n t a c t i o n s . And even i f t h e y d i d , t h e y may j u d g e t h a t IPM i s n o t t h e s o l u t i o n f o r them. 125 The d e g r e e t o which IPM i s p e r c e i v e d t o be r e l a t i v e l y d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d and u s e ( i t s c o m p l e x i t y ) s h o u l d a l s o a f f e c t t h e e x t e n t t o which i t was a d o p t e d . To p r a c t i c e IPM r e q u i r e s t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s u n d e r s t a n d a number o f s i n g u l a r components r e l a t e d t o p e s t s and p l a n t s , b u t more i m p o r t a n t l y t o i n t e g r a t e and a p p l y t h e s e i n a u n i f i e d manner. To add t o t h i s , IPM i s p r e s e n t e d a s a dynamic ap p r o a c h t h a t d oe s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y demand t h e same a c t i o n s ( i f any) f o r t h e same p e s t pro ble m each t i m e i t o c c u r s . While an ex tr e m e e f f o r t was made t o p r e s e n t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i n an u n d e r s t a n d a b l e and e a s i l y f o l l o w e d f o r m a t , t h e " t r u e " p r a c t i c e o f IPM r e q u i r e s an a b i l i t y t o p u t many t h i n g s t o g e t h e r , which i s i n h e r e n t l y d i f f i c u l t . IPM can e a s i l y be e x p e r i m e n t e d w i t h on a l i m i t e d b a s i s ( i t s t r i a l a b i 1i t y ). A lt ho ugh i t s f u n c t i o n o f m a i n t a i n i n g an e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e between b e n e f i c i a l o r g a n i s i m s and p e s t s p e c i e s i s de p en d e n t i n p a r t on a somewhat l a r g e s c a l e o f o p e r a t i o n ( f o r e x am p le , w i t h i n a g a r d e n a s opposed t o o n l y a s i n g l e p l a n t ) , many o f t h e p r a c t i c e s can be t r i e d on a small s c a l e ( f o r e x am pl e, e x p e r i m e n t i n g w i t h " o r g a n i c s p r a y s " on i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s in t h e y a r d ) . And f i n a l l y , t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t p l a n t s ar o un d t h e home a r e v i s i b l e , so t o i s IPM. In f a c t , t h e p r im a r y r e a s o n f o r managing p e s t prob lem s on o r n a m e n t a l s in t h e l a n d s c a p e i s t o en han ce t h e i r v i s u a l appearance. However, s i n c e IPM m a i n t a i n s t h a t p l a n t a p p e a r a n c e may need t o be s a c r i f i c e d somewhat t o m a i n t a i n a d e g r e e o f e c o l o g i c a l b a l a n c e , an a e s t h e t i c compromise may be u n a c c e p t a b l e t o some homeowners. In a d d i t i o n t o a p p l y i n g t h e a t t r i b u t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme t o t h e IPM i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s c o n t a i n e d in t h e manual (its 126 s o f t w a r e co m p o n e n t) , i t w i l l a l s o be used t o s e p a r a t e l y e v a l u a t e t h e means used t o p r e s e n t IPM t o homeowners ( t h e l o o s e ! e a f b i n d e r o r ha rd w ar e component o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n ) . Two a t t r i b u t e s , c o m p l e x i t y and r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , p r o v i d e u s e f u l c r i t e r i a f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e hard ware component o f t h e innovation. Dimensions manual was p e r c e i v e d a s o f c o m p l e x i t y i n c l u d e t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e easy or d i f f i c u l t to understand, lo c a te i n f o r m a t i o n and u s e , w h e t h e r t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n s were m e an in g f ul o r n o t , t h e s i m p l i c i t y o r c o m p l e x i t y o f t h e l a n g u a g e and t h e d e g r e e o f d e t a i l and o r g a n i z a t i o n of the inform ation. Whether t h e manual co n tain ed too l i t t l e o r t o o much i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e d e g r e e t o which t h i s means t o convey t h e i n f o r m a t i o n was c o n s i d e r e d a s b e t t e r o r worse t h a n o t h e r means ( p u b l i c a t i o n s ) a r e a s p e c t s o f i t s r e l a t i v e advantage. Two a d d i t i o n a l a t t r i b u t e s , i n t r o d u c e d by t h i s r e s e a r c h e r , w i l l a l s o be used t o e v a l u a t e t h e hardw are component o f t h e manual. first, The l a b e l l e d a p p e a r a n c e , r e f e r s t o t h e ou twa rd c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r lo o k o f t h e manual. Even though t h e us e o f a l o o s e l e a f b i n d e r was d e c i d e d upon t o accommodate and f a c i l i t a t e t h e a d d i t i o n o f o t h e r m a t e r i a l s , i t s s i z e m i g h t a p p e a r f o r m i d a b l e t o some i n d i v i d u a l s . a d d i tio n , the q u a n tity o f inform ation w ith in i t , including the numerous c o l o r e d t a b - d i v i d e r s , m ig h t a l s o a p p e a r c o m p l i c a t e d , even th ou gh i t was d e s i g n e d f o r q u i c k and e a s y r e f e r e n c e . a ttrib u te is durability. The s ec ond S i n c e t h e manual was d e s i g n e d f o r a c t i v e u s e , i t s a b i l i t y t o w i t h s t a n d and h o l d - u p o v e r r e p e a t e d h a n d l i n g s m i g h t a l s o a f f e c t t h e d e g r e e t o which i t was a c t u a l l y u s e d . In With r e s p e c t t o t h e a f f e c t o f p e r c e i v e d a t t r i b u t e s on a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , v i r t u a l l y a l l p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h has t r e a t e d them as separate v ariab les. While t h e same ap p r o ac h w i l l be t a k e n in t h i s s t u d y , t h e y w i l l a l s o be t r e a t e d i n an a d d i t i o n a l manner. Ro ge rs ' (1983) c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e model p o s i t s t h a t t h e outcome o f t h e persuasion stag e i s the formation of e i t h e r a fav o rab le or u n f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e i n n o v a t i o n . He f u r t h e r s t a t e s t h a t t h e outcome o f t h e d e c i s i o n s t a g e ( r e j e c t i o n o r a d o p t i o n ) i s g e n e r a lly c o n s is te n t w ith th e d ir e c tio n of t h i s a t t i t u d e ; i f the a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e i n n o v a t i o n i s n e g a t i v e , r e j e c t i o n w i l l o c c u r and i f i t is p o s i t i v e , adoption w ill occur. In view o f t h e p r e v i o u s d i s c u s s i o n on a t t i t u d e s , i t becomes a p p a r e n t t h a t s i n c e t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s by t h e i n d i v i d u a l a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e v a l u a t i v e , t a k e n c o l l e c t i v e l y t h e y p r o v i d e a measure o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e i n n o v a t i o n . That i s , the a t t r i b u t e s c o n s t i t u t e a s e t o f b e l i e f s from which an a t t i t u d e toward t h e i n n o v a t i o n i s fo rmed. Given t h e t h e o r y o f a t t i t u d e f o r m a t i o n and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o b e h a v i o r , i t i s a l s o a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e model i s e s s e n tia lly a conceptualization of th is process. ( It is interesting t o n o t e t h a t o n l y one c i t a t i o n was fo und (Valkonen 1970) t h a t e x p l i c i t l y made t h i s o b s e r v a t i o n . ) Viewed from t h i s p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e v a r i o u s i n d i v i d u a l , p e r s o n a l i t y and communication ch ann el v a r i a b l e s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d " o t h e r v a r i a b l e s " t h a t , i n a d d i t i o n t o t h e a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e i n n o v a t i o n , d e t e r m i n e o r l e a d t o a s p e c i f i c o v e r t b e h a v i o r ( a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ) . Consequently, in a d d i tio n to determ ining the a f f e c t o f in dividual perceived a t t r i b u t e s o f the 128 m a n u a l ' s s o f t w a r e and h a r d w a re components on a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , t h e y w ill be t r e a t e d c o l l e c t i v e l y a s a t t i t u d e s . In summary, we would e x p e c t t h e f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between a t t r i b u t e s and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . Fo r a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e s o f t w a r e component, t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , c o m p a t i b l i l i t y , t r i a l a b i l i t y and o b s e r v a b i l i t y , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n ; t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d com­ p l e x i t y , t h e l e s s e r w i l l be t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n . And, i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h i s component o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e w i t h a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a rd i t . For a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e ha rd w ar e component, t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , a p p e a r a n c e and d u r a b i l i t y , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e e x t e n t o f ad o p tio n ; th e g r e a t e r th e degree o f perceived com plexity, the l e s s e r w i l l be t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n . And, i n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e h ar d w ar e component w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e w i t h a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e to w a r d i t . Consequ enc es Consequences w ere p r e v i o u s l y d e f i n e d a s ch a n g e s o c c u r r i n g t o an individual or a social innovation. s y st e m a s a r e s u l t o f a d o p t i n g o r r e j e c t i n g an Where t h e outcome o f t h e a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s has t y p i c a l l y been t h e f o c u s o f most p a s t d i f f u s i o n r e s e a r c h ( t h a t i s , i t is the d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ) , when s t u d y i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s , a d o p t i o n becomes an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e u s ed t o h e l p e x p l a i n o r p r e d i c t c o n s e q u e n c e s . 129 For t h e most p a r t , however, i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a d o p t i n g an i n n o v a t i o n has been i g n o r e d by most d i f f u s i o n r e s e a r c h e r s because o f a p ro -in n o v a tio n b i a s , i n a p p r o p r i a te re s e a rc h d e s ig n s , a n d / o r t h e d i f f i c u l t y o f m e a s u r i n g t h e s e e f f e c t s (Ro ger s 19 8 3 ) . While t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y i s n o t t o s p e c i f i c a l l y m e asu re t h e e f f e c t s o f a d o p t i n g t h e manual (in f a c t the research design, p re s e n te d in Chapter 4, i s in a p p ro p r i a te f o r determ ining e f f e c t s ) , several v a ria b le s w ill be i n c l u d e d t o p r o v i d e a g e n e r a l i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a d o p t i n g t h e ma nu al. to Rogers' (non-causal) With r e g a r d (1983) c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme f o r c o n c e p t u a l i z i n g c o n s e q u e n c e s ( p r e s e n t e d in P a r t I o f t h i s c h a p t e r ) , t h e s e would be viewed a s d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s , o r ch an g e s t h a t o c c u r r e d i n immediate response to the innovation. The a p p ro a c h u se d t o d e t e r m i n e c o n s e q u e n c e s w i l l be t o s im p l y a s k i n d i v i d u a l s i f t h e y f e l t t h a t t h e y had chang ed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and a c t u a l l y h a n d l i n g p e s t p r ob le m s in t h e i r y a r d a s a r e s u l t o f a d o p t i n g t h e ma nua l. l i m i t a t i o n s of t h i s kind o f " r e t r o s p e c t i v e p r e t e s t " While t h e (Campbell and S t a n l e y 1963) a r e acknowledged ( i n d i v i d u a l s may p r o v i d e s o c i a l l y d e s ir a b l e r e s p o n s e s ), i t w ill a t l e a s t provide a general p e rs p e c tiv e on c o n s e q u e n c e s o f a d o p t i n g t h e manual. I f t h e manual (and more s p e c i f i c a l l y , IPM) r e p r e s e n t e d a u s e f u l a p p r o a c h f o r managing p e s t p ro b le m s i n t h e y a r d , t h e n we m i g h t e x p e c t the follow ing r e l a tio n s h ip to e x i s t : i n d i v i d u a l s who a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t w i l l have chang ed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o bl em s in t h e y a r d more t h a n t h o s e who a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t . D escriptive V ariables A number o f a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s n o t c o n t a i n e d in t h e t h e o r e t i c a l frame wor k, n o r e a s i l y c l a s s i f i e d un de r any o f t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n s , w i l l a l s o be a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s s t u d y . These v a r i a b l e s , which a r e s t u d y s p e c i f i c , a r e i n c l u d e d a s d e s c r i p t i v e ones and w i l l n o t be u s ed i n a r e l a t i o n a l c o n t e x t t o e x p l a i n a d o p t i o n behavior. 1. D escrip tiv e v a ria b le s include: P e s t c o n t r o l on p l a n t g r o u p s i n t h e y a r d . In a d d i t i o n t o f o c u s i n g on i t e m s s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d t o t h e m a nu al , i t w i l l a l s o be u s e f u l t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on p e s t management by homeowners. A d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f where p e s t pr ob le m s o c c u r r e d in t h e y a r d and how t h e y were h a n d l e d by homeowners w i l l be made. 2. S a t i s f a c t i o n with r e s u l t s . IPM f o r urban a r e a s , and e s p e c i a l l y f o r urban homeowners, i s c u r r e n t l y a new, d e v e l o p i n g f i e l d . As s t a t e d i n C h a p t e r 2 , t h e IPM a p p r o a c h p r e s e n t e d i n t h e m a nu al , w h i l e t h e o r e t i c a l l y and c o n c e p t u a l l y s ou nd , has n o t r e a l l y been thoroughly te s te d . In a d d i t i o n , many o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e manual have n o t been s c i e n t i f i c a l l y t e s t e d and t h e r e f o r e mi gh t p r o d u c e v a r i a b l e r e s u l t s when a p p l i e d (a c a u t i o n p o i n t i n g t h i s o u t was e x p l i c i t l y s t a t e d i n t h e m a n u a l ) . And f i n a l l y , one o f t h e b a s i c u n d e r l y i n g p r i n c i p l e s o f IPM i s an a c c e p t a n c e o f low l e v e l s o f p e s t s , which c o u l d r e s u l t in a l e s s t h a n p e r f e c t a p p e a r a n c e o f some o r n a m e n ta l p l a n t s . Given t h e s e c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i t w i l l be u s e f u l t o determine the i n d i v i d u a l s ' o v e ra ll s a t i s f a c t i o n with the r e s u l t s of a p p l y i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual p l a n t groups in th e y a rd . ( b o t h o l d and new) t o s p e c i f i c 131 3. Recommending t h e manual t o o t h e r s . One measure o f t h e s u c c e s s o f any e f f o r t i s t h e d e g r e e t o which p e o p l e " p a s s i t a l o n g . " P e r h a p s i f i n d i v i d u a l s f e l t t h a t t h e manual was a b e n e f i c i a l p u b l i c a t i o n , t h e y would have recommended i t t o o t h e r p e o p l e . Whether o r n o t i n d i v i d u a l s who a d o p t e d t h e manual recommended i t t o o t h e r s w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d . 4. Addition of inform ation. As n o t e d in C h a p t e r 2 , t h e manual i n c l u d e d i n f o r m a t i o n on o n l y a s e l e c t number o f p e s t pro ble m s f o r t h r e e p l a n t g ro u p s i n t h e y a r d ( o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e s s , v e g e t a b l e g ardens, lawns). While p r o j e c t s t a f f had a n t i c i p a t e d a d d i t i o n a l u p d a t e s , t h e y have n o t been p r o d u c e d a s o f y e t . In a n t i c i p a t i o n o f t h e p o s s i b l e p r o d u c t i o n o f f u t u r e u p d a t e s , i n d i v i d u a l s who have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o some e x t e n t would be a m e an in g f u l s o u r c e t o t a p regarding the content o f fu tu r e updates. Whether o r n o t i n d i v i d u a l s who a d o p t e d t h e manual would l i k e t o s e e a d d i t i o n a l t o i t , and i f s o , 5. i n f o r m a t i o n added what s p e c i f i c t y p e s w i l l a l s o be a d d r e s s e d . B e s t and l e a s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e ma nua l. To t h e e x t e n t t h a t a l l o f t h e p r e v i o u s i t e m s do n o t c a p t u r e o r a l l o w i n d i v i d u a l s t o e x p r e s s a p a r t i c u l a r p o i n t o f view and t o p r o v i d e a g e n e r a l e v a l u a t i v e r e s p o n s e o r i e n t e d i t e m t o t h e i n s t r u m e n t , t h e l e a s t and b e s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e manual w i l l be d e t e r m i n e d . 6. P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s . As d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 2 , t h e P e s t Management Manual r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y one a s p e c t o f P r o j e c t PEST. A v a r i e t y o f o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s , in which community r e s i d e n t s c o u l d be i n v o l v e d , were c o n d u c t e d d u r i n g t h e d u r a t i o n o f t h i s community dev el o pm en t e f f o r t . T h i s i t e m i s i n c l u d e d t o d e t e r m i n e t o what e x t e n t i n d i v i d u a l s were i n v o l v e d i n o t h e r p r o j e c t a c t i v i t i e s . 132 S tud y H y po th es es In summary, t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s w i l l be a d d r e s s e d in t h i s study: For Socioe con omi c V a r i a b l e s H y p o t h e s i s 1: The age o f i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l n o t be r e l a t e d t o t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y a d o p t e d t h e manual. H y p o t h e s i s 2: I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h more e d u c a t i o n w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n tho se with l e s s education. H y p o t h e s i s 3: I n d i v i d u a l s o f h i g h e r so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n t h o s e o f lo w er so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . For P e r s o n a l i t y V a r i a b l e s H y p o t h e s i s 4: I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e toward h a n d l i n g p e s t pr obl em s on t h e p l a n t s i n t h e i r y a r d w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than th o s e w ith a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h i s a c t i v i t y . H y p o t h e s i s 5: I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e toward u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s in t h e i r y a r d w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e w i t h a l e s s n e g a t i v e o r p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h i s activity. H y p o t h e s i s 6: I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e toward using a l t e r n a t i v e s to p e s t i c i d e s in t h e i r yard w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than those w ith a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g ativ e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h i s a c t i v i t y . For Communication B e h a v i o r V a r i a b l e s H y p o t h e s i s 7: I n d i v i d u a l s e x h i b i t i n g more d i v e r s e communication b e h a v i o r w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than th o se e x h i b it i n g l e s s d iv e rs e communication b e h a v i o r . Hypothesis 8: I n d i v i d u a l s more f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r ­ c h a s i n g t h e manual w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n t h o s e l e s s f a m i l i a r o r n o t a t a l l f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual. 133 For Problem v s . Innovation O rien ta tio n H y p o t h e s i s 9: I n d i v i d u a l s i n d i c a t i n g a p ro bl em o r i e n t e d p u r ­ c h a s e d e c i s i o n w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e i n d i c a t i n g an i n n o v a ­ tion oriented decision. For Communication Chan nels H y p o t h e s i s 10: The m a j o r i t y o f i n d i v i d u a l s who p u r c h a s e d t h e manual i n i t s f i r s t y e a r o f a v a i l a b i l i t y f i r s t became aware o f i t t h r o u g h a mass media c h a n n e l . For P e r c e i v e d C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e I n n o v a t i o n H y p o t h e s i s 11: For a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e s o f t w a r e component, t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i v e adv an ­ t a g e , c o m p a t i b i l i t y , t r i a l a b i l i t y and o b s e r v ­ a b i l i t y , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e e x t e n t o f adoption; the g r e a te r the e x te n t o f perceived c o m p l e x i t y , t h e l e s s e r w i l l be t h e e x t e n t o f adoption. H y p o t h e s i s 12: I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e s o f t w a r e component w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e w i t h a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h i s component. H y p o t h e s i s 13: For a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e h ardw are component, t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i v e ad v a n ­ t a g e , a p p e a r a n c e and d u r a b i l i t y , t h e g r e a t e r w i l l be t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n ; t h e g r e a t e r t h e d e g r e e o f c o m p l e x i t y , t h e l e s s e r w i l l be t h e e x te n t o f adoption. H y p o t h e s i s 14: I n d i v i d u a l s w i t h a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w ard t h e hard ware component w i l l have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e w i t h a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h i s component. For Consequences H y p o t h e s i s 15: I n d i v i d u a l s who a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t w i l l have changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and h a n d l i n g p e s t pr obl em s i n t h e y a r d more t h a n t h o s e who a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a le sse r extent. CHAPTER 4 METHODS The methods u s ed i n t h i s s t u d y a r e d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r . The f i r s t f o u r s e c t i o n s c o n t a i n t h e s t u d y d e s i g n , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f s t u d y r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e sa m p l in g p r o c e d u r e u s ed and a g e n e r a l o v e r v ie w of data c o lle c tio n . The f i f t h s e c t i o n p r o v i d e s a d e t a i l e d p r e s e n t a t i o n o f how e a c h o f t h e v a r i a b l e s was m e as u r e d. Remaining s e c t i o n s i n c l u d e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t used t o c o l l e c t s u r v e y d a t a (a s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d mail q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) , t h e p r e - t e s t i n g p r o c e d u r e s and r e s u l t s , how t h e main s u r v e y was c o n d u c t e d ( i n c l u d i n g r e t u r n r e s u l t s ) and t h e methods us ed t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a . S tu dy Design The s t u d y d e s i g n u s e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was a c r o s s s e c t i o n a l p o s t - o n l y d e s i g n (Ju dd and Kenny 1 9 8 1 ) . This design is c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a a f t e r t h e " t r e a t m e n t " has been a d m i n i s t e r e d . In t h i s c a s e t h e " t r e a t m e n t " r e f e r s t o t h e p u r c h a s e o f t h e m a n ua l. The use o f t h i s d e s i g n was d i c t a t e d p r i m a r i l y from c i r c u m s t a n c e s ; t h e d e c i s i o n t o e v a l u a t e t h e manual was made a f t e r i t had been i n t h e hands o f t o w n s h ip homeowners. While t h e us e o f a c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l p o s t - o n l y d e s i g n l i m i t s i n f e r e n c e s ( i n t e r n a l v a l i d i t y ) when m e a s u r i n g t r e a t m e n t e f f e c t s 134 135 ( I s a a c and Michael 1 9 8 2 ) , i t n e v e r t h e l e s s o f f e r s an a p p r o a c h f o r d e s c r i b i n g and d e t e r m i n i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s between v a r i a b l e s a t t h e t i m e o f t h e s t u d y (B abbie 19 7 3 ) . Given t h e f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y , t h i s d e s i g n would a p p e a r t o be a r e a s o n a b l e one b e c a u s e a t r e a t m e n t e f f e c t was n o t s p e c i f i c a l l y b e i n g s o u g h t . S tud y R esp on den ts Potential s t u d y r e s p o n d e n t s were i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g i n M e r i d i a n C h a r t e r Tow nship, Michi gan who had p u r c h a s e d t h e manual i n 1981 o r 1982 (n = 7 5 ) . A lt h o u g h t h e manual was p u r c h a s e d by an a d d i t i o n a l 47 p e o p l e r e s i d i n g i n t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a , i t was d e c i d e d t o f o c u s on M e r i d i a n Township manual owners b e c a u s e t h e to w n s h ip was t h e t a r g e t community f o r P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s . Sampling A n o n p r o b a b i l i t y s a m p l i n g a p p r o a c h ( t o t a l e n u m e r a t i o n ) was u s e d in t h i s s t u d y (Bab bi e 1 9 7 3 ) . That i s , a l l i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g in M e r i d i a n Township who had p u r c h a s e d t h e manual i n 1981 o r 1982 were considered p o te n tia l study respondents. T h i s a p p r o a c h was t a k e n b e c a u s e o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y s ma ll number o f i n d i v i d u a l s who had p u r c h a s e d t h e manual a t t h e t i m e o f t h e s t u d y ( F e b r u a r y 1 9 8 3 ) . I t was a l s o f e l t t h a t c o l l e c t i n g d a t a from as many o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s as possible (a ll i n d i v i d u a l s were g i v e n an eq u al o p p o r t u n i t y t o r e s p o n d ) was a p p r o p r i a t e g i v e n t h e e x p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . 136 The b i g g e s t d i s a d v a n t a g e i n n o n p r o b a b i l i t y s a m p l in g i s t h e i n a b i l i t y to g e n e r a l i z e study f in d i n g s to o t h e r p o p u la tio n s or s e ttin g s (called external v a lid ity ) (Babbi e 1 97 3 ) . While t h i s l i m i t a t i o n i s ac kn o w le d g e d , i t must a l s o be n o t e d t h a t t h e ap p r o a c h used t o e v a l u a t e t h e manual ( t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model) ha s been " g e n e r a l i z e d " t o many d i f f e r e n t s i t u a t i o n s . T h e r e f o r e , w h i l e s t u d y f i n d i n g s t h a t p e r t a i n t o t h e manual a s a means t o t r a n s f e r IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o urb an homeowners c a n n o t be e x p l i c i t l y g e n e r a l i z e d t o o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s , f i n d i n g s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e model a s a means t o e v a l u a t e t h e manual s h o u l d p r o v i d e more g e n e r a l i z a b l e evidence regarding i t s p o te n tia l u sefu ln ess f o r c h a ra c te riz in g oth er t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s i n u r b a n p e s t management. Data C o l l e c t i o n Method A s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d mail q u e s t i o n n a i r e was us ed i n t h i s s t u d y fo r co lle c tin g data. T h i s s u r v e y method was p r e f e r r e d r a t h e r t h a n personal or telephone in te rv ie w s fo r several reasons. F i r s t , evidence suggests t h a t th e p r o b a b il it y o f o b taining s o c ia l ly d e s ira b le r e s p o n s e s i s i n c r e a s e d in p e r s o n a l and t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w s (Diliman 19 7 8) . Because a number o f p r o p o s e d s u r v e y i t e m s d e a l t w i t h i s s u e s t h a t m i g h t s o l i c i t s o c i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e r e s p o n s e s ( f o r e xa m pl e, a t t i t u d e s to w ar d t h e u s e o f p e s t i c i d e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s in t h e y a r d ) , i t was f e l t t h a t a mail s u r v e y would a v o i d t h i s p o s s i b l e b i a s . Sec on d, t h e a d d i t i o n a l ti m e and ex p e n s e t o r e c r u i t , t r a i n and s u p e r v i s e i n t e r v i e w e r s - - f o r p e r s o n a l o r t e l e p h o n e i n t e r v i e w s - - was c o n s i d e r e d t o be p r o h i b i t i v e . F inally, a self-adm inistered 137 q u e s t i o n n a i r e would a l l o w i n d i v i d u a l s t o c o m p le te t h e i n s t r u m e n t anonymously and w i t h o u t t h e t i m e c o n s t r a i n t s imposed by an i n t e r v i e w . Having d e c i d e d on t h e s t u d y ap pr o ac h o u t l i n e d in t h i s and p r e c e d i n g s e c t i o n s , t h e v a r i a b l e s d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 3 were measu red and p u t i n t o a q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o r m a t o u t l i n e d by Dillman (1978). The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was t h e n p r e - t e s t e d among a small group o f to w n s h ip homeowners. Based on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e p r e - t e s t , a number o f i t e m s were changed and t h e f i n a l q u e s t i o n n a i r e was s u b s e q u e n t l y m a i l e d t o a l l manual owners in M e r id i a n Township. In t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n s , ea c h o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s i s d e s c r i b e d in d e t a i l . Meas ur ing t h e V a r i a b l e s In P a r t I I o f C h a p t e r 3 , t h e v a r i a b l e s t o be a d d r e s s e d i n t h i s s t u d y were i d e n t i f i e d and c o n c e p t u a l i z e d . In t h i s s e c t i o n , a d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e methods t h a t were us ed t o m e asu re ea ch v a r i a b l e are presented. The E x t e n t o f Ado pti on and I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e Manual In m e a s u r i n g t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e m a n u a l, t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s needed t o be c o n s i d e r e d : (1) d e f i n i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r in u s e ; ( 2 ) d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between "new" and " o l d " i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s ; and (3) accommodating a " n o - u s e " and p o s s i b l e r e j e c t i o n r e s p o n s e . Given t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e main d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was measured i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner. 138 All i t e m s i n t h e manual were d i v i d e d i n t o two g r o u p s : t h e f i r s t group c o n s i s t e d o f i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s t h a t c o u l d be r e a d a b o u t ; th e se con d group c o n s i s t e d o f p r a c t i c e i t e m s t h a t c o u l d be p u t i n t o u s e . The t e n i t e m s in each gr ou p we re: I n f o r m a t i o n Ite m s 1. 2. The pro ble m s w i t h p e s t i c i d e s . The p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s o f i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM). 3. P r e v e n t i n g p e s t pro bl em s th r o u g h p r o p e r p l a n t s e l e c t i o n and c a r e . 4. M onitoring a c t i v i t i e s . 5. I d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t p r o b le m s . 6. B e n e f i c i a l o r g a n i s m s and th e ir identification. 7. D ec id i n g i f and when t o us e management t e c h n i q u e s . 8 . The g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s and guidelines fo r th e ir selection. 9. The d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a lte rn a tiv e s to p esticid es and how t o us e them. 10. The d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p e s t i c i d e s and methods f o r t h e i r s a fe use. F irst, P r a c t i c e Items 1. P r e v e n t i n g p e s t problem s through proper p l a n t s e l e c t i o n and c a r e , 2. M onitoring p l a n t s in th e yard. 3. I d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t p r o b le m s . 4. I d e n ti f y in g b e n e f i c ia l organisms. 5. D e c id i n g i f and when t o use management t e c h n i q u e s (from I n j u r y A c ce p t an ce Levels c h a r t ) . 6 . Using g u i d e l i n e s t o s e l e c t management t e c h n i q u e s , 7. S e l e c t i n g and p r o p e r l y applying a l t e r n a t i v e s to pesticides. 8 . S e l e c t i n g and p r o p e r l y applying "approp riate" pesticides. 9. H an d li ng p e s t i c i d e s s a f e l y , 10. E v a l u a t i n g y o u r p e s t management a c t i o n s . i n d i v i d u a l s were a s k e d i f t h e y had r e a d any p a r t s o f t h e ma nu al. I f t h e y r e s p o n d e d "No" t o t h i s q u e s t i o n , t h e y were a l s o as k ed t o i n d i c a t e , i n an open r e s p o n s e f o r m a t , why t h e y had n o t r e a d any p a r t s o f t h e ma nu al. Depending on t h e e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n , i f a n y , a number o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were p o s s i b l e : (1 ) t h e y had n o t p r o g r e s s e d any f u r t h e r t h a n t h e knowledge s t a g e i n t h e mode l; o r (2) t h e y had d e c i d e d t o r e j e c t t h e manual w i t h o u t a t t e n d i n g t o i t . Sec o nd , i n d i v i d u a l s who r e s p o n d e d t h a t t h e y had r e a d p a r t s o f t h e manual were a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e , from t h e l i s t o f i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s , t h o s e t h e y c o n s i d e r e d e i t h e r new o r o l d when f i r s t r e a d i n g 139 a b o u t them. The t o t a l number o f i t e m s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y a t t e n d e d t o t h e i d e a s and i n f o r m a t i o n i n t h e ma nu al; t h e t o t a l number o f new i t e m s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r t h a t c o u l d p o t e n t i a l l y be a d o p t e d . T h i r d , t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were as k ed i f t h e y were c u r r e n t l y u s i n g any p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual t o h a n d l e p e s t pr o bl em s in t h e y a r d . If t h e y i n d i c a t e d "No", t h e y were a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e , in an open r e s p o n s e f o r m a t , why t h e y were n o t c u r r e n t l y u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual. The n a t u r e o f t h i s r e s p o n s e , i f an y , was u s ed t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s t h e y had r e a d a b o u t were a d o p t e d o r r e j e c t e d . U n le s s t h e r e s p o n s e c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had r e j e c t e d t h e manual a f t e r r e a d i n g p a r t s o f i t , i t was assumed t h a t t h e y had a d o p t e d t h e new and o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s (on an i d e a l e v e l ) . The e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e f o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s t h e n , was ba se d o n l y on i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s from t h e manual. F o u r t h , t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who were u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual were a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e , from t h e l i s t o f p r a c t i c e i t e m s , t h e on es t h a t t h e y c o n s i d e r e d e i t h e r new o r o l d f o r them. The t o t a l number o f i t e m s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e e x t e n t t o which p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual were a c t u a l l y u s e d ; t h e t o t a l number o f new i t e m s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r t h a t were a c t u a l l y im ple m ent ed. Thus , t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e f o r t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s was b a s e d on i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s t h a t t h e y a c c e p t e d o r a d o p t e d and p r a c t i c e i t e m s t h a t t h e y had us ed o r im plemented. As d i s c u s s e d in C h a p t e r 3, t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n was c o n c e p t u a l i z e d a s i n c l u d i n g b o th new and o l d i t e m s from t h e ma nua l. T h i s a p p r o a c h was t a k e n b e c a u s e c o n s i d e r i n g o n l y new i t e m s from t h e 140 manual m i g h t n o t t r u l y r e f l e c t t h e e x t e n t t o which i t was t o t a l l y u s ed by any i n d i v i d u a l . To accommodate b o th o f t h e s e n e e d s , an e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e was c a l c u l a t e d t h a t a s s i g n e d a h i g h e r s c o r e t o t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who u s e d more t o t a l i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e it em s and c o n s i d e r e d more o f t h e s e a s new r a t h e r t h a n o l d i t e m s . The e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e (EAS) f o r ea ch r e s p o n d e n t was c a l c u l a t e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g manner: 1. The r e s p e c t i v e t o t a l s o f new i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s , o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s , new p r a c t i c e i t e m s and o l d p r a c t i c e i t e m s were added t o g e t h e r . 2. A s ec on d v a l u e was c r e a t e d by a d d i n g one t o v a l u e o b t a i n e d i n number 1. the 3. The v a l u e o b t a i n e d in number 1 was m u l t i p l i e d by t h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d in number 2. 4. The r e s p e c t i v e t o t a l s o f new i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s and new p r a c t i c e i t e m s were added t o g e t h e r and added t o t h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d i n number 3. 5. The r e s p e c t i v e t o t a l s o f o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s and o l d p r a c t i c e i t e m s were added t o g e t h e r and s u b t r a c t e d from t h e v a l u e o b t a i n e d in number 4. Expressed as a form ula, th e e x t e n t o f adoption sc o re i s : EASj = [ (NI + 01 + NP + OP) x (NI + 01 + NP + OP + 1)] + (NI + NP) - (01 + OP) where NI = = 01 = OP = NP total total total total number o f new i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s number o f new p r a c t i c e i t e m s number o f o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s number o f o l d p r a c t i c e i t e m s By u s i n g a c o n s t a n t t h a t i n c r e a s e s by a f a c t o r o f one and w e i g h t i n g b o th new and o l d i t e m s e q u a l l y (+1 f o r new, -1 f o r o l d ) , t h e fo r m u l a r e p r e s e n t s a l i n e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n w i t h r a t i o c h a r a c t e r ­ istics ( e q u a l i n t e r v a l s w i t h an a b s o l u t e z e r o ) . In a l l c a s e s , t h e sc o re s a t i s f i e s th e needs e x p ressed f o r measuring th e e x t e n t o f adoption. In o t h e r w o r d s , i n d i v i d u a l s who had u se d more t o t a l it em s 141 from t h e manual ( r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e mix p r a c t i c e items) o f new and o l d i n f o r m a t i o n and would a l w a y s r e c e i v e a h i g h e r s c o r e - - b e c a u s e o f the i n c r e a s i n g c o n s t a n t m u l t i p l i e r - - th a n t h o s e who had u s ed a s m a l l e r number o f t o t a l item s. In a d d i t i o n , by w e i g h t i n g t h e new and o l d i t e m s , i n d i v i d u a l s who had u s e d more new i t e m s f o r any gi v e n number of total item s, would a l w a y s r e c e i v e a h i g h e r s c o r e t h a n t h o s e who had u s ed a s m a l l e r number o f item s). new i t e m s ( o r a l a r g e r number o f o l d For e x am p le , an i n d i v i d u a l who had u s ed 10 t o t a l i t e m s would al w ay s r e c e i v e a h i g h e r s c o r e (by a t l e a s t one u n i t ) t h a n one who had u s ed o n l y n i n e , even i f a l l n i n e i t e m s were c o n s i d e r e d new. o t h e r h a nd , i f two i n d i v i d u a l s had b o th used 10 t o t a l On t h e i t e m s , t h e one who had u s ed se ven new and t h r e e o l d i t e m s would r e c e i v e a h i g h e r s c o r e ( a g a i n in t h i s c a s e by one u n i t ) t h a n t h e one who had u s ed s i x new and f o u r o l d i t e m s . Using t h i s a p p r o a c h , e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s c o u l d r a n g e from 1 (one o l d i t e m u s e d ) t o 440 (20 new i t e m s used). C o n s e q u e n t l y , i n d i v i d u a l s r e c e i v i n g h i g h e r s c o r e s would be d e s c r i b e d a s p r a c t i c i n g IPM and a d o p t i n g and im p le m en ti n g i t e m s from t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e r e c e i v i n g l o w e r s c o r e s . Individual C h a r a c te r is tic s Soci oe con omi c V a r i a b l e s . S oci oeconomic v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d a g e , e d u c a t i o n , s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , income and employment s t a t u s . These v a r i a b l e s were measured i n t h e f o l l o w i n g manner: Age was me as ur e d d i r e c t l y i n y e a r s . E d u c a t i o n was me as ur e d by a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r h i g h e s t l e v e l o f formal e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t from among t h e follow ing c a te g o rie s : 142 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Some g r a d e sch ool ( g r a d e s 1 t o 8) Completed g r a d e sc ho ol Some h ig h school ( g r a d e s 9 t o 12) Completed hi g h scho ol Some c o l l e g e Completed c o l l e g e T e c h n i c a l / t r a d e sch ool Some g r a d u a t e work Completed a g r a d u a t e d e g r e e C o n s e q u e n t l y , e d u c a t i o n s c o r e s r a n g e d from 1 t o 9. S o cio ec o no mi c s t a t u s was me asured u s i n g H o l l i n g s h e a d ' s two f a c t o r in de x o f s o c i a l p o s i t i o n (from M i l l e r 19 77 ). T h i s in d e x combines a w e i g h t e d o c c u p a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n s c o r e f o r a m e asu re o f so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s . In itial o c c u p a t i o n and e d u c a t i o n s c o r e s a r e t a k e n from p r e - d e t e r m i n e d l i s t i n g s ( s e e M i l l e r 19 7 7) . The o c c u p a t i o n s c o r e i s m u l t i p l i e d by a f a c t o r w e i g h t o f s e v e n ; t h e e d u c a t i o n s c o r e i s m u l t i p l i e d by a f a c t o r w e i g h t o f f o u r . These two p a r t i a l scores a r e t h e n summed t o y i e l d t h e so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s s c o r e . S c o r e s r a n g e from 11 t o 77 ( t h e lo w e r t h e s c o r e t h e h i g h e r t h e soc io ec on om ic s t a t u s ) and can be e x p r e s s e d i n t h e f o l l o w i n g f i v e s o c i a l c l a s s e s (M ill e r 1977:230): Class I II III IV V Range o f S c o r e s 11-17 18 - 31 32 - 47 48 - 63 64-77 While t h e p r o c e d u r e f o r m e a s u r i n g e d u c a t i o n was d e s c r i b e d a b o v e , o c c u p a t i o n was me as ur e d by a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r usu al o c c u p a t i o n by i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r j o b t i t l e and t h e k in d o f work t h e y performed. ( I f t h e y were r e t i r e d , t h e y were a s k e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e i r usual o ccu p atio n b e fo re r e t i r e m e n t . ) Income was me as ur e d by a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r g r o s s f a m i l y income from among t h e f o l l o w i n g income b r a c k e t s : 143 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Less t h a n $10 ,0 00 10,00 0 - 1 4 , 9 9 9 1 5 ,0 00 - 1 9 ,9 9 9 2 0 ,0 00 - 2 4 , 9 9 9 25,000 - 29,999 30,000 - 34,999 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 3 5 ,0 00 - 3 9 , 9 9 9 4 0 ,0 0 0 - 4 4 , 9 9 9 4 5, 00 0 - 4 9, 99 9 50 ,0 00 - 5 4 ,9 9 9 55,00 0 - 6 0 ,0 00 Over $60 ,000 Employment s t a t u s was measured by a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n d i c a t e i f t h e y were c u r r e n t l y employed, unemployed, r e t i r e d o r a f u l l - t i m e homemaker. In a d d i t i o n t o i t s use a s a d e s c r i p t i v e v a r i a b l e , t h i s i n d i c a t o r was u se d a s a c r o s s - c h e c k when o c c u p a t i o n was l e f t b la n k ( e s p e c i a l l y i f i n d i v i d u a l s i n d i c a t e d t h e y were f u l l - t i m e homemakers). Personality V ariab les. The t h r e e p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s measu red i n c l u d e d i n d i v i d u a l s ' a t t i t u d e s t o w a rd : th e p l a n t s in t h e i r y a r d ; (1) h a n d l i n g p e s t pro ble m s on ( 2 ) u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o ha n d l e p e s t p r ob le m s i n t h e i r y a r d ; and ( 3 ) u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t pro blem s in t h e i r y a r d . The method s e l e c t e d t o measure t h e s e a t t i t u d e s was t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l d e v e l o p e d by Osgood e t a l . (1957). While t h i s t e c h n i q u e i s now w i d e l y used f o r a t t i t u d e measurement (Lemon 1973; F i s h b e i n and Ajzen 1 9 7 5 ) , i t was o r i g i n a l l y d e v e l o p e d a s an i n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e measurement o f meaning. A b r i e f o v e r v ie w o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e w i l l p r o v i d e a b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how i t was u s ed t o measure a t t i t u d e s i n t h i s s t u d y . In t h e i r e f f o r t s t o d e v e l o p a measure o f mea ning , Osgood e t a l . (1957) s e t t l e d on v e r b a l r e s p o n s e s t o an o b j e c t o r c o n c e p t . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t s i n c e t h e b a s i c f u n c t i o n o f la n g u a g e was t o communi­ c a t e meaning, o r d i n a r y l a n g u a g e c o u l d be u se d t o mea sur e meaning. The r e s u l t i n g t e c h n i q u e t h a t was d e v e l o p e d u t i l i z e s a s e r i e s o f a d j e c t i v e p a i r s o f o p p o s i t e mea ning , ea ch s e p a r a t e d by a s e v e n - s t e p scale. The i n d i v i d u a l i s a s k e d t o c o n s i d e r t h e o b j e c t o r c o n c e p t in te rm s o f e ac h o f t h e a d j e c t i v e p a i r s i n t h e s e r i e s and t o i n d i c a t e 144 t h e d i r e c t i o n o f h i s a s s o c i a t i o n and i t s i n t e n s i t y on t h e s e v e n - s t e p scale. Based on a n a l y s i s o f d a t a from a l a r g e number o f s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f a d j e c t i v e p a i r s and d i f f e r e n t c o n c e p t s , Osgood and h i s a s s o c i a t e s i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e b a s i c d im e n s io n s o r components o f meaning: e v a l u a t i v e , p o t e n c y and a c t i v i t y . The e v a l u a t i v e d i m e n s i o n , c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d j e c t i v e p a i r s such as g o o d - b a d , c l e a n - d i r t y and b e a u t i f u l - u g l y , was t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t factor. The s eco nd dim en sio n t h a t a p p e a r e d in a n a l y s i s , l a b e l l e d p o t e n c y , was c o n c e r n e d w i t h power and t h e t h i n g s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t such a s s i z e , w e i g h t , t o u g h n e s s , and t h e l i k e . A djective p a irs c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h i s component were l a r g e - s m a l l , s t r o n g - w e a k and t h i c k - t h i n . The t h i r d d im e n s io n was c a l l e d a c t i v i t y — c o n c e r n e d w i t h q u i c k n e s s , e x c i t e m e n t , warmth, a g i t a t i o n and so f o r t h . A djective p a i r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h i s component i n c l u d e d f a s t - s l o w , a c t i v e p a s s i v e and h o t - c o l d . Because t h e e v a l u a t i v e o r a t t i t u d i n a l dim en sio n was i d e n t i f i e d a s a p r i m a r y component o f meaning, Osgood and h i s a s s o c i a t e s r e c o g ­ n i z e d t h a t t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l t e c h n i q u e c o u l d be u s e d a s a method f o r m e a s u r i n g a t t i t u d e s . They c o n c l u d e d t h a t a t t i t u d e s c o u l d be measu red by a s k i n g t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o r a t e a p a r t i c u l a r o b j e c t on a s e t o f s c a l e i t e m s ( a d j e c t i v e p a i r s ) known t o be h i g h l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e e v a l u a t i v e d im e n s io n . S e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l t e c h n i q u e t o measure a t t i t u d e s i n t h i s s t u d y was ba s e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g r a t i o n a l e . F irst, i t r e p r e s e n t e d a method t h a t a p p r o p r i a t e l y measured a t t i t u d e ; t h a t i s , t h e d i r e c t i o n and i n t e n s i t y o f a p e r s o n ' s e v a l u a t i v e r e a c t i o n 145 ( b a s e d on b e l i e f s ) to w ar d some a t t i t u d e o b j e c t . measurement i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s i n t e r v a l Seco nd, i t s l e v e l o f (Osgood e t a l . 1 95 7 ) , t h e r e b y a l l o w i n g t h e us e o f more po werfu l s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s in analysis. T h i r d , i t c o n s t i t u t e d a f o r m a t t h a t c o u l d be us ed t o mea sur e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n s e p a r a t e l y and c o l l e c t i v e l y as an a t t i t u d e to w ard i t s har dw are and s o f t w a r e components. The f o r m a t o f t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l as i t i s p re s e n te d to t h e i n d i v i d u a l c o n s i s t s o f t h e a t t i t u d e o b j e c t t o be e v a l u a t e d w ritten a t the t o p o f t h e page . The s e r i e s o f a d j e c t i v e p a i r s , s e p a r a t e d by a s e v e n - s t e p s c a l e , a r e l i s t e d down t h e page each in t h e f o l l o w i n g manner: C o n cep t/A ttitu d e Object (1) polar adjective A (2) (3) ( 4 ) (5 ) (6) (7) : __ :___ p o l a r a d j e c t i v e B : __ :___ : __ : For e ac h a d j e c t i v e p a i r , i n d i v i d u a l s a r e i n s t r u c t e d t o p l a c e an "X" on t h e l i n e t h a t b e s t r e p r e s e n t s t h e i r r e a c t i o n t o t h e a t t i t u d e o b je c t according to the following g u id e lin e s : (1 ) (2 ) (3) (4 ) is is is is extrem ely A quite A slightly A n e ith e r A nor (7 ) i s e x t r e m e l y B (6) i s q u i t e B (5) i s s l i g h t l y B B, o r e q u a l l y A and B. When u s i n g t h e same s e t o f a d j e c t i v e p a i r s t o measure a t t i t u d e s to w ar d d i f f e r e n t o b j e c t s , t h e o r d e r and t h e p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e p o l e s o f t h e e v a l u a t i v e a d j e c t i v e s a r e a l t e r e d randomly t o p r e v e n t t h e f o r m a t i o n o f p o s i t i o n p r e f e r e n c e s . The number o f a d j e c t i v e p a i r s u s ed i s v a r i a b l e , b u t " t y p i c a l " s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s employ anywhere from 5 t o 20 p a i r s de p e n d i n g on t h e t y p e s o f a d j e c t i v e s b e i n g us ed and t h e a t t i t u d e b e i n g m e as u re d. In a d d i t i o n t o u s i n g e v a l u a t i v e a d j e c t i v e p a i r s i n v e s t i g a t e d by Osgood e t a l . (1957), 146 o t h e r s can be used a s l o n g a s t h e y r e p r e s e n t d im e n s io n s o f t h e a t t i t u d e being measured. For e x am p le , O s g o o d ' s p o t e n c y o r a c t i v i t y p a i r s have been u s e d , a s w e ll a s s i t u a t i o n s p e c i f i c a d j e c t i v e s d e v e l o p e d by o t h e r differential researchers. And f i n a l l y , t h e s e m a n t i c ha s been m o d i f i e d w i t h s u c c e s s when a p p l i e d in o t h e r f i e l d s such a s a d v e r t i s i n g and m a r k e t i n g . In a d d i t i o n t o s i m p l e one-word a d j e c t i v e s , d e s c r i p t i v e nouns and p h r a s e s have a l s o been u s ed a s s c a l e i t e m s (Mindak 1 9 6 9 ) . Consequently, th e d i f f e r e n t i a l o f f e r s the i n v e s t i g a t o r the choice of using only " te s te d " a d j e c ti v e p a i r s from Osgood e t a l . (1957) o r o f c o n s t r u c t i n g a t a i l o r - m a d e instrum ent to s u i t h is p a r t i c u l a r needs. Once t h e s c a l e i t e m s a r e s e l e c t e d and t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l is a d m i n i s t e r e d , a m e asu re o f a t t i t u d e to w a rd t h e o b j e c t i s o b t a i n e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g manner: r e s p o n s e s f o r e ac h s c a l e i t e m a r e s c o r e d from 1 to 7, with 7 assigned to the p o s itiv e (favorable) side of the scale. The s c o r e s a re then summed f o r a l l t a k e n a s an in de x o f a t t i t u d e . t h e number o f s c a l e s c a l e i t e m s and t h i s v a l u e i s The a t t i t u d e s c o r e can r a n g e from 1 x i t e m s (an e x t r e m e l y u n f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e ) t o 7x t h e number o f s c a l e i t e m s (an e x t r e m e l y f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e ) . The s i n g l e a d j e c t i v e and s h o r t d e s c r i p t i v e p h r a s e p a i r s u s e d in t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s t o m e asu re a t t i t u d e s in t h i s s t u d y were s e l e c t e d p r i m a r i l y from t h o s e i n v e s t i g a t e d by Osgood e t a l . ( 1 9 5 7 ) . A d d i t i o n a l s c a l e i t e m s were d e v i s e d b a s e d on t h i s r e s e a r c h e r ' s f a m i l i a r i t y and e x p e r i e n c e in t h e f i e l d o f u r b a n p e s t management. R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e s o u r c e , t h e p r i m a r y c r i t e r i o n f o r i n c l u d i n g any a d j e c t i v e o r p h r a s e p a i r was t h e p e r c e i v e d e x t e n t t o which i t r e p r e s e n t e d an e v a l u a t i v e d im en s io n ( b a s e d on a b e l i e f ) o f t h e 147 p a r t i c u l a r a t t i t u d e being measured. One s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l was c o n s t r u c t e d and u sed t o mea sur e t h e a t t i t u d e tow ard h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b le m s i n t h e y a r d ; a se cond d i f f e r e n t i a l was c o n s t r u c t e d and used t o m e asu re b o t h a t t i t u d e s tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s in th e y a rd . The two o r i g i n a l s e t s o f 25 a d j e c t i v e and p h r a s e p a i r s a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e s 4 . 1 and 4 . 2 . S i n c e a p r e - t e s t was c o n d u c t e d t o p r o v i d e , among o t h e r t h i n g s , a means f o r e l i m i n a t i n g i t e m s in e a c h o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s , t h e i r f i n a l forms w i l l be p r e s e n t e d l a t e r i n t h i s c h a p t e r . Communication B e h a v i o r V a r i a b l e s . Two m e a s u r e s o f communication b e h a v i o r were i n c l u d e d i n t h i s s t u d y : t h e in de x o f communication b e h a v i o r and f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM. These v a r i a b l e s were me asu re d in t h e f o l l o w i n g manner. An in d e x o f communication b e h a v i o r was c o n s t r u c t e d by a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o s e l e c t from a l i s t , t h e a c t i v i t i e s o r s o u r c e s t h a t t h e y u s ed t o o b t a i n i n f o r m a t i o n on h a n d l i n g p e s t pro ble m s and t o i n d i c a t e how f r e q u e n t l y t h e y had used them. The a c t i v i t i e s and s o u r c e s l i s t e d we re: P rin te d m a te ria l from: Books Magazines Newspapers Pamphlets/manuals Package/containerla b e ls Conversations w i t h : C ooperative Extension s e r v i c e personnel Garden s t o r e p e r s o n n e l Tree/lawn/landscape serv ice personnel Friends/neighbors Matchi ng o r l i s t e n i n g t o : Radio Television P r i n t e d m a t e r i a l and w a t c h i n g o r l i s t e n i n g t o t h e r a d i o o r t e l e v i s i o n r e p r e s e n t e d mass media communication c h a n n e l s ; c o n v e r s a t i o n s r e p r e s e n t e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l com munication c h a n n e l s . F req ue nc y o f use 148 Table 4 .1 . O r i g i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s used t o measu re t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e to w a rd h a n d l i n g p e s t pr o bl em s on the p la n ts in h is yard S c a l e i terns S ou rce Positive Negative Osgood e t a l . (1957) E v a l u a t i v e dim en sio n Good O ptim istic Happy W illing Voluntary S killful Pleasurable Soothing Successful Meaningful Positive Important Useful A ttractive Motivated Easy Leisurely Interesting C u r io u s R e l a x in g Satisfying Varied Pleasant Like Rewarding Bad P essim istic Sad Unwilling Compulsory Bun gli ng Painful Aggravating Unsuccessful M e a n in g l e s s Negative U n im p or ta nt Useless Repulsive Ai mless D ifficult Hasty Boring Indifferent Stressful F rustrating Monotonous Unpleasant D islike Unrewarding A c t i v i t y dim en sio n S t a b i l i t y dim en sio n R e c e p t i v i t y d im e n s io n Author 149 T ab l e 4 . 2 . O r i g i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s used t o me asu re t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e s tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s as a way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr ob le m s in h i s y a r d S ou rce Osgood e t a l . (1957) E v a l u a t i v e dim en sio n A c t i v i t y dim ens ion U n as si g ne d dim en sio n A u th o r _______________S c a l e i t e m s P ositive N e g a ti v e Safe Beneficial Meaningful Successful Important Useful A ttractive Wa rr ant ed Positive B elievable Wise Sufficient Valuable Superior S killful Simple Easy Inexpensive Dangers o v e r p l a y e d Necessary C on v e n i e n t Good r e s u l t s C ertain r e s u l t s Under recommended Like Dangerous Harmful M e a n in g l e s s Unsuccessful U nim por ta nt U seless Repulsive Unwarranted N e g a ti v e Skeptical F o o li sh Insufficient Worthless Inferior Bungling Complex D ifficult Expe ns ive Dangers u n d e r p l a y e d Un n ec es sa ry Inconvenient Bad r e s u l t s Uncertain r e s u l t s Over recommended D islike 150 r a t i n g s w er e: f r e q u e n t l y , so m et im e s, and seldom. The inde x o f communication b e h a v i o r was d e t e r m i n e d by summing t h e w e i g h t e d f r e q u e n c y o f us e r a t i n g s ( f r e q u e n t l y = 3 , sometimes = 2 , seldom = 1) for all items s e l e c t e d . T h i s y i e l d e d an ind ex w i t h s c o r e s r a n g i n g from 1 t o 33 ; t h e h i g h e r t h e s c o r e t h e g r e a t e r t h e d i v e r s i t y and f r e q u e n c y o f communication a c t i v i t i e s and s o u r c e s u s ed . F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM was measured by a s k i n g i n d i v i d u a l s t o i n d i c a t e i f t h e y had been f a m i l i a r i n any way w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual ( y e s / n o r e s p o n s e f o r m a t ) . I f they responded "Ye s", t h e i r e x t e n t o f f a m i l i a r i t y was d e t e r m i n e d by a s k i n g them t o i n d i c a t e i f t h e y w er e: (1) v e r y f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM; ( 2 ) somewhat f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM; o r (3) had h e a r d a b o u t IPM b u t d i d n o t r e a l l y know what i t meant. F a m i l i a r i t y s c o r e s were i n t e r p r e t e d a s n o n e , low ( 3 ) , medium (2) and h ig h ( 1 ) . Problems v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n . T h i s v a r i a b l e was measured u s i n g t h e same method employed by Reynolds ( 1 9 7 1 ) . F i r s t , a number o f s t a t e m e n t s were d e v e l o p e d , i n d i c a t i v e o f e i t h e r a problem ( a c t i v e ) o r innovation (u n -a c tiv e ) o rie n te d beginning. I n d i v i d u a l s were th e n a s k e d t o s e l e c t t h e one s t a t e m e n t t h a t most n e a r l y d e s c r i b e d t h e i r r e a s o n f o r p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual. The s t a t e m e n t s us ed we re: 1. I h e a r d a b o u t t h e manual and t h o u g h t i t would be u s e f u l (innovation o r i e n t a t i o n ) . 2. I was i n t e r e s t e d in t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and how I c o u l d use i t in my y a r d (pr obl em o r i e n t a t i o n ) . 3. I am al w ay s on t h e l o o k - o u t f o r p e s t c o n t r o l p u b l i c a t i o n s and d e c i d e d i t would be u s e f u l t o have (pr ob lem orientation). An a d d i t i o n a l u n c l a s s i f i e d s t a t e m e n t , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e manual was r e c e i v e d a s a g i f t , was i n c l u d e d t o h a n d l e c a s e s where t h e manual was 151 p u r c h a s e d by a s eco nd i n d i v i d u a l b u t r e g i s t e r e d in t h e r e c e i v e r ’s name. Communication Ch an ne ls The communication c ha n ne l v a r i a b l e f o c u s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y on how i n d i v i d u a l s f i r s t h e a r d a b o u t t h e manual b e i n g a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e . A l i s t o f t h e v a r i o u s mass media c h a n n e l s t h a t were u se d t o p u b l i c i z e t h e manual were p r o v i d e d f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t o s e l e c t from. An i n t e r p e r s o n a l ch ann el s o u r c e and an " o t h e r " c a t e g o r y ( t o accommodate an u n l i s t e d s o u r c e ) were a l s o p r o v i d e d . 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. The c o m p le te l i s t was: Newspaper a r t i c l e / a n n o u n c e m e n t Radio announcement Mail announcement At a P r o j e c t PEST "Walking Tour" At t h e M e r id i a n M un ic ip al B u i l d i n g / a r e a l i b r a r i e s From a f r i e n d / n e i g h b o r O th e r ( s p e c i f y ) __________________________ Items 1-5 r e p r e s e n t e d mass media c h a n n e l s ; i t e m 6 r e p r e s e n t e d an in te rp e rso n a l channel. Because o n l y a p o r t i o n o f t h e mass media p u b l i c i t y campaign was c o n d u c t e d in t h e f i r s t y e a r o f t h e m a n u a l ' s a v a i l a b i l i t y ( i t e m s 1 - 3 ) , i n d i v i d u a l s were a l s o as k ed t o i n d i c a t e in what y e a r (1981 o r 1982) t h e y had p u r c h a s e d t h e manual. Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e Innovation P e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f b o th t h e s o f t w a r e component ( i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s ) and t h e hardw are component ( t h e l o o s e l e a f b i n d e r ) were me asu re d u s i n g two s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s . R o g e rs ' (1983) f i v e c a t e g o r i e s o f a t t r i b u t e s were used f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component ( r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , c o m p a t i b i l i t y , c o m p l e x i t y , t r i a l a b i l i t y and o b s e r v a b i l i t y ) ; two o f h i s c a t e g o r i e s ( r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e 152 and c o m p l e x i t y ) and two o r i g i n a l a t t r i b u t e s ( a p p e a r a n c e and d u r a b i l i t y ) were u se d t o a s s e s s t h e ha rd w ar e component. Where more t h a n one s c a l e i t e m was used t o measure a p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c , t h e s c o r e f o r t h a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c was c a l c u l a t e d by a d d i n g t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l w e i g h t s (1 t h r o u g h 7) o v e r t h e s c a l e i t e m s u s e d . And, a s d is c u s s e d in Chapter 3, a t o t a l s c o r e would be c a l c u l a t e d from a l l s c a le items in each d i f f e r e n t i a l to determ ine th e i n d i v i d u a l 's a t t i t u d e to w a r d ea ch component o f t h e ma n ua l. o f a d j e c t i v e and p h r a s e p a i r s a r e p r e s e n t e d The two o r i g i n a l s e t s in T a b l e s 4 . 3 and 4 . 4 . The f i n a l forms a r e p r e s e n t e d l a t e r in t h i s c h a p t e r . Consequences Changes o c c u r r i n g t o i n d i v i d u a l s were me asured in two ways. I n d i v i d u a l s were a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e manual had ch ang ed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and a c t u a l l y h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o bl em s i n t h e i r y a r d . q u e s t i o n w er e: Response c a t e g o r i e s p r o v i d e d f o r ea ch ( 1 ) v e r y much s o ; (2) somewhat; (3) t o a small d e g r e e ; and ( 4 ) n o t a t a l l . In a d d i t i o n , i n d i v i d u a l s were i n v i t e d t o comment on t h e i r r e s p o n s e t o ea c h q u e s t i o n . Res ponses were w e i g h t e d ( v e r y much so = 3 , somewhat = 2, t o a small d e g r e e = 1, n o t a t a l l = 0) and summed f o r t h e two i t e m s t o y i e l d a co n s eq u en c e s c o r e w i t h v a l u e s r a n g i n g from 0 t o 6. A s c o r e o f 0 was i n t e r p r e t e d a s no cha ng e t a k i n g place fo r the in d iv id u a l; a score o f 6 in d icate d th a t had c ha ng e d a g r e a t d e a l a s a r e s u l t o f t h e ma nu al. the individual 153 Table 4 .3 . O r i g i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s us ed t o mea sur e p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e p e s t management i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s c o n t a i n e d in t h e manual Scale items Negative C haracteristic Positive R e la tiv e advantage Small amount o f r i s k involved B enefits apparent G iv es good r e s u l t s Easy t o a p p l y in t h e yard C o n v e n i e n t way t o h a n d l e p e s t prob lem s E f f o r t l e s s way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr ob le m s Superior Co mp a tib le w i t h my fe e lin g s about p est control S i m i l a r t o w h at I have done i n t h e past Easy t o u n d e r s t a n d C om patibility Co mp le xit y T rialab ility O bservability General e v a l u a t i v e Easy t o a p p l y Simple Clear P o s s i b l e t o t r y on a s ma ll s c a l e R esu lts easy to see B elievable Meaningful Approve Useful Positive B eneficial Valuable Complete H e lp f u l Lar ge amount o f r i s k involved B e n e fits unapparent Giv es bad r e s u l t s D i f f i c u l t to apply in th e y a rd I n c o n v e n i e n t way t o h a n d l e p e s t prob lem s L a b o r i o u s way t o h a n d l e p e s t pro ble m s Inferior I n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h my f e e l in g s about p est control U n l i k e wh at I have done i n t h e p a s t D i f f i c u l t to under­ stand D i f f i c u l t to apply Complex C o n f u s in g I m p o s s i b l e t o t r y on a sm all s c a l e Results d i f f i c u l t to see Skeptical Meaningless D is a p p r o v e Useless Negative Harmful Worthless Incomplete Hindering 154 T a b l e 4 .4 . O r i g i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s u sed t o me asu re p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e ha rd w are component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e manual a s a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g p e s t management inform ation C haracteristic R ela tiv e advantage Compl exi ty __________________ S c a l e i t e m s P ositive Negative C o n t a i n s t o o much inform ation* Superior to oth e r publications Easy t o l o c a t e inform ation Easy t o u n d e r s t a n d I l l u s t r a t i o n s are m e an in gf u l Language i n s im p l e Easy t o use Too much d e t a i l * M aterial i s organized App earance D urability Ge neral e v a l u a t i v e Too l a r g e * Too lo n g * Too o r n a t e * Rugged Tough Sufficient Approve Useful H el p f u l Contains too l i t t l e inform ation In fe rio r to other publications D if f ic u lt to lo c ate inform ation D i f f i c u l t to under­ stand I ll u s t r a ti o n s are meaningless Language i s complex D i f f i c u l t t o use Too l i t t l e d e t a i l M aterial is unorganized Too small Too s h o r t Too p l a i n D elicate Fragile Insufficient Di sa pp ro ve Useless Hindering *A p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e t o t h e s e i t e m s was a 4 on t h e seven s t e p s c a l e . T h e r e f o r e , c o d i n g f o r t h e s e s c a l e i t e m s was m o d i f i e d t o : 4 = 7 , 3 o r 5 = 5 , 2 o r 6 = 3 , and 1 o r 7 = 1. 155 D escriptive Variables P e s t C o n tr o l on P l a n t Groups i n t h e Y ar d . I n d i v i d u a l s were f i r s t a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e p l a n t g r o up s in t h e i r y a r d t h a t had p e s t pr obl em s and r e q u i r e d management o v e r t h e p a s t two y e a r s . s p e c i f i c p l a n t g r o up s and an " o t h e r " c a t e g o r y were l i s t e d . Six The p l a n t gr ou ps we re: o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , f r u i t t r e e s , s h r u b s , f l o w e r s , lawn, and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n . S e c o n d l y , f o r t h o s e p l a n t gr ou ps on which p e s t management a c t i v i t i e s were p e r f o r m e d , i n d i v i d u a l s were as k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e t h e y had used e i t h e r p e s t i c i d e s o r a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a means t o h a n d l e t h e p e s t p r o b le m s . Responses were r e c o r d e d a s d i r e c t p e r c e n t a g e s . S a ti s f a c tio n with R e s u lts . I n d i v i d u a l s who were c u r r e n t l y u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual ( b o t h o l d and new) were as k ed t o i n d i c a t e , by p l a n t g r o u p , how s a t i s f i e d t h e y were w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f a p p l y i n g those p r a c t i c e s . For e ac h p l a n t g r o u p , s a t i s f a c t i o n r e s p o n s e s were: v e r y s a t i s f i e d , s a t i s f i e d , d o n ' t know, s l i g h t l y s a t i s f i e d and n o t satisfied at a ll. Recommending t h e Manual t o O t h e r s . I n d i v i d u a l s were a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e i f t h e y had recommended t h e manual t o o t h e r s ( y e s / n o r e s p o n s e ) a n d , i f t h e y h a d , t o whom (open r e s p o n s e ) . Addition o f Inform ation. I n d i v i d u a l s were a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e i f t h e y would l i k e t o s e e new i n f o r m a t i o n added t o t h e manual ( y e s / n o r e s p o n s e ) a n d , i f s o , wh at t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y would l i k e t o se e added (open r e s p o n s e ) . B e s t and L e a s t L ik ed A s p e c t s o f t h e Manual. I n d i v i d u a l s were a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e wh at t h e y l i k e d b e s t and l e a s t a b o u t t h e manual (two q u e s t i o n s , b o th open r e s p o n s e ) . 156 P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n P r o j e c t PEST A c t i v i t i e s . I n d i v i d u a l s were as k ed t o i n d i c a t e i f and how t h e y had p a r t i c i p a t e d in P r o j e c t PEST. A c t i v i t i e s l i s t e d we re: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. A t t e n d e d t h e p r o j e c t " k i c k o f f " m e e t i n g ( M er id ia n M unicipal B u i l d i n g , November 1979) P a r t i c i p a t e d a s a p r o j e c t com mi tt ee member P a r t i c i p a t e d a s a p r o j e c t v o l u n t e e r ( d i s t r i b u t e d and c o l l e c t e d p r o j e c t s u r v e y q u e s t i o n n a i r e , March 1980) Re ce iv ed a copy o f t h e p r o j e c t q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Su rve y o f p e s t p ro bl em s i n t h e y a r d , March 1980) A t t e n d e d t h e Aug ust 1980 "Walking Tour" (Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y campus) A t t e n d e d t h e August 1981 "Walking Tour" (Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y campus) Not a p p l i c a b l e C onstructing the Q uestionnaire Having d e v e l o p e d m e a su r e s f o r ea ch o f t h e v a r i a b l e s , a s e l f ­ a d m i n i s t e r e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e was w r i t t e n f o l l o w i n g t h e f o r m a t o u t l i n e d by Di liman i n h i s 1978 book, Mail and T el ep ho ne S u r v e y s : The T o t a l Design Method. T h i s t e s t e d a p p r o a c h t o s u r v e y d e s i g n and p r o c e d u r e s i s b a s e d on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t : t o maximize b o t h t h e q u a n t i t y and q u a l i t y o f r e s p o n s e s , a t t e n t i o n must be g i v e n t o e v e r y d e t a i l t h a t might a f f e c t response behavior. The TDM [ t o t a l d e s i g n method] r e l i e s on a t h e o r e ­ t i c a l l y b a s e d view o f why p e o p l e do and do n o t r e s p o n d t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and a w e l l - c o n f i r m e d b e l i e f th a t a tte n tio n to a d m in istrativ e d e ta il is e s s e n t i a l t o c o n d u c t i n g s u c c e s s f u l s u r v e y s (Dillman 1978:v i i i ) . F o l l o w i n g D i l l m a n ' s (1978) re co m m en d at io n s , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p r e p a r e d in a b o o k l e t f o r m a t ( 6 - 1 / 2 " x 8 - 1 / 2 " ) , 16 p ag es in l e n g t h ( e x c l u d i n g f r o n t and back c o v e r ) . Each page was i n i t i a l l y t y p e d on 8 - 1 / 2 " x 11" p a p e r and t h e n r e d u c e d t o 75% o f i t s o r i g i n a l size. I n c l u d e d on t h e c o v e r o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t , t i t l e d " P r o j e c t PEST's P e s t 157 Management Manual Owner's S u r v e y " , was a p i c t u r e o f t h e manual and a r e f e r e n c e t o P r o j e c t PEST ( c o - s p o n s o r e d by t h e L i a i s o n f o r I n t e r - n e i g h b o r h o o d C o o p e r a t i o n (LINC) and Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y D ep art m en ts o f Re s ou rc e Development, Entomology and F o r e s t r y ) . The e n t i r e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( i n f i n a l form) i s i n c l u d e d in Appendix B. The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was o r g a n i z e d i n t o f o u r main s e c t i o n s : (1) H and li ng P e s t Problems i n t h e Yard; (2 ) R e a c t i o n s t o Ha nd li ng P e s t Problems in t h e Yard; (3) The P e s t Management Manual; and ( 4 ) Background I n f o r m a t i o n . The P e s t Management Manual s e c t i o n was f u r t h e r d i v i d e d i n t o two s u b - s e c t i o n s : P a r t 1 - P u r c h a s e and Use I n f o r m a t i o n and P a r t 2 - R e a c t i o n s t o t h e Manual. A t o t a l o f 29 q u e s t i o n s were u se d t o measure a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s . An o v e r v ie w o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 4 . 5 . Even though many o f t h e q u e s t i o n s in t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e a l t w i t h use o f t h e m a nu al , we c o u l d in no way be a s s u r e d t h a t e v e r y manual owner had a c t u a l l y used i t . And, g iv e n t h e manner i n which use was c o n c e p t u a l i z e d and m e a s u r e d , t h i s t o o c o u l d v a r y f o r d i f f e r e n t individuals. critical. T h e r e f o r e , o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was To accommodate t h e s e v a r i o u s s i t u a t i o n s , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n c l u d e d s p e c i f i c q u e s t i o n s and r e s p o n s e s t h a t d i r e c t e d r e s p o n d e n t s t o c o m p le te o n l y t h o s e i t e m s t h a t t h e y c o u l d a p p r o p r i a t e l y answer C o n s e q u e n t l y , n o t a l l r e s p o n d e n t s c o m p l e t e d e v e r y i t e m in t h e questionnaire. F i g u r e 4 . 1 p r e s e n t s a f lo w d ia g ra m o f how r e s p o n d e n t s were c h a n n e l e d t h r o u g h t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . All r e s p o n d e n t s co m p le te d q u e s t i o n s one t h r o u g h n i n e i n t h e f i r s t t h r e e s e c t i o n s o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e — H an dl in g P e s t Problems in t h e Yard, R e a c t i o n s t o Ha nd li n g P e s t Problems in t h e Yard and The Table 4 .5 . S e c t i o n and q u e s t i o n numbers o f v a r i a b l e s i n t h e P e s t Management Manual Owner1s Survey Q uestionnaire section A. B. C. Q u e s t i o n number H a n d li n g p e s t pr ob le m s i n t h e y a r d R e a c t i o n s t o h a n d l i n g p e s t pr obl em s in t h e y a r d The p e s t management manual P a r t 1 - P u r c h a s e and u s e i n f o r m a t i o n Q - l , Q-2 P e s t c o n t r o l on p l a n t g r o u p s i n t h e y a r d (descriptive) Q-3 Communication b e h a v i o r ( i n d e x ) Q-4 A t t i t u d e to w ard h a n d l i n g p e s t pr oblems in the yard Q-5 A t t i t u d e to w ar d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s t o h a n d l e p e s t pr obl em s in t h e y a r d Q-6 A t t i t u d e to w ar d u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s t o h a n d l e p e s t pr o bl em s in the yard Q-7, Q-8 Q-9 Q-10, Q - l l , Q-12, Q-13 P a r t 2 - R e a c t i o n s t o t h e manual V ariable Communication c h a n n e l s Problem v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n and im p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e manual Q-14 S a t i s f a c t i o n with r e s u l t s ( d e s c r ip tiv e ) Q-15 A t t r i b u t e s / a t t i t u d e toward hardware component Q-16 A t t r i b u t e s / a t t i t u d e toward s o f t w a r e component Table 4 . 5 . (Continued) Q uestionnaire section C. P a rt 2 - continued Q u e s t i o n number Q-17 Q-18, Q-19 Background i n f o r m a t i o n F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM (co mnum 'cation behavior) Consequences Q-20 Recoiranending t h e manual t o o t h e r s (descriptive) Q-21 Addition o f inform ation ( d e s c r ip t i v e ) Q-22, Q-23 D. V ariable B e s t and l e a s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e manual ( d e s c r i p t i v e ) Q-24 Age Q-25 Employment s t a t u s ( d e s c r i p t i v e ) Q-26, Q-28 Socioeconomic s t a t u s ( o c c u p a t i o n and education) Q-27 Income ( d e s c r i p t i v e ) Q-29 P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s (descriptive) Q-l t o Q-9 All R es po nd en ts Determ ine r e j e c ­ tion or i f s t i l l i n knowledge s t a g e Q-10 Read P a r t s ? YES New/Old Read Q-12 Using P ractices? De ter m ine Ad option or Rejection. Cal­ c u la te Extent of Ado pti on S co re YES Q-13 New/Old App lyi ng C alcu late Extent Ado p tio n S co re Q-15 t o Q-23 All Re sp on de nt s Q-24 t o Q-29 Figure 4 .1 . How r e s p o n d e n t s were c h a n n e l e d t h r o u g h t h e P e s t Management Manual O wn er' s Survey 161 P e s t Management Manual: P a r t 1 - P u r c h a s e and Use I n f o r m a t i o n ( s e e Table 4 .5 f o r s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s ) . Q u e s t i o n 10 was t h e f i r s t q u e s tio n s t h a t could r e d i r e c t respondents to o th e r s e c tio n s o f the questionnaire. I f r e s p o n d e n t s had n o t r e a d any p a r t s o f t h e ma n ua l, t h e y were as k ed t o i n d i c a t e why n o t (open r e s p o n s e ) and d i r e c t e d t o s k i p d i r e c t l y t o t h e l a s t s e c t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e (Background I n f o r m a t i o n ) and c o m p l e t e q u e s t i o n s 24 t o 29. As p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d , t h e r e s p o n s e g iv e n i n q u e s t i o n 10 ( i f any) would p r o v i d e e v i d e n c e t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e s e r e s p o n d e n t s were s t i l l in t h e knowledge s t a g e o f t h e model o r , i f t h e y had r e j e c t e d t h e manual w ithout a tte n d in g to i t . Those r e s p o n d e n t s who i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had r e a d p o r t i o n s o f t h e manual ("Yes" t o q u e s t i o n 10) t h e n p r o c e e d e d t o q u e s t i o n 11 and i d e n t i f i e d t h e new and o l d i t e m s t h e y had r e a d a b o u t i n t h e manual (and p o t e n t i a l l y a d o p t e d ) . Moving t o q u e s t i o n 12 , t h e y were a s k e d i f t h e y were c u r r e n t l y a p p l y i n g any o f t h e p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual in t h e i r yard (yes/no resp o n se). I f t h e y r e s p o n d e d "No", t h e y were as k ed t o i n d i c a t e why n o t (open r e s p o n s e ) and t h e n moved d i r e c t l y t o P a r t 2 - R e a c t i o n s t o t h e Manual. all They t h e n co m p le te d t h i s s u b - s e c t i o n and r e m a i n i n g q u e s t i o n s in t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( q u e s t i o n s 15 t o 2 9 ) . U n le s s t h e i r open r e s p o n s e t o q u e s t i o n 12 ( i f any) c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had r e j e c t e d t h e i t e m s t h e y had r e a d a b o u t in t h e ma nu al, i t was assumed t h a t t h e y had a d o p t e d a l l new and o l d i n f o r m a t i o n items. Consequently, th e e x te n t o f adoption score f o r th e se r e s p o n d e n t s was b as ed s o l e l y on i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s . Those r e s p o n d e n t s who i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were c u r r e n t l y a p p l y i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual ("Yes" t o q u e s t i o n 12) p r o c e e d e d 162 t o q u e s t i o n 13 and i d e n t i f i e d t h e new and o l d p r a c t i c e s . T h e i r e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e was b a s e d on b o th i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s a c c e p t e d o r a d o p t e d and p r a c t i c e i t e m s u se d o r imp leme nted . Because t h e s e r e s p o n d e n t s were t h e o n l y on es t o a c t u a l l y a p p l y p r a c t i c e s from t h e ma n ua l, o n l y t h e y co m p le te d q u e s t i o n 14 ( s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h r e s u l t s ) . Re sp on de nt s r e c e i v e d s e v e r a l a d d i t i o n a l questionnaire. items w ith t h e i r A c o v e r l e t t e r was p r e p a r e d t h a t : purpose o f th e survey; (1) e x p l a i n e d t h e (2) i n d i c a t e d who s h o u l d c o m pl et e t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( t h e m s e l v e s , o r a f a m i l y member most f a m i l i a r w i t h t h e m a n u a l ) ; (3) p r o v i d e d an a s s u r a n c e t h a t even i f t h e y had n o t had a c h an c e t o r e a d o r use t h e ma nu al, t h e y c o u l d s t i l l q u e s ti o n s in th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ; answer a number o f (4) a s s u r e d them t h a t t h e i r r e s p o n s e s would be h e l d in c o n f i d e n c e and a l l r e s u l t s would be used collectively; (5) i n d i c a t e d t h e a p p r o x i m a t e ti m e i t would t a k e t o co m p le te t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ( d e t e r m i n e d in t h e p r e - t e s t ) ; (6) i n d i c a t e d a r e t u r n m a i l i n g d a t e (no l a t e r t h a n ) ; and (7) p r o v i d e d a t e l e p h o n e number t o c a l l s h o u l d t h e r e s p o n d e n t have any q u e s t i o n s . The f i n a l form o f t h e c o v e r l e t t e r i s i n c l u d e d i n Appendix C. In an e f f o r t t o p r o v i d e a more t a n g i b l e rew ard o r i n c e n t i v e f o r c o m p l e t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e (beyond t h e i n t a n g i b l e one o f " b e i n g i m p o r t a n t t o t h e s t u d y " ) two i t e m s were o f f e r e d t o r e s p o n d e n t s . One, which was i n c l u d e d w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i t s e l f , was a p a c k e t o f p u b l i c a t i o n s t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s were e n c o u r a g e d t o add t o t h e i r m a nu al s . These p u b l i c a t i o n s we re: "Home V e g e t a b l e Garden D i s e a s e and I n s e c t C o n t r o l " Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y E x t e n s i o n b u l l e t i n E - 7 6 0 ( b ) ; "Home V e g e t a b l e Garden V a r i e t y Recommendations" Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y E x t e n s i o n b u l l e t i n E - 7 6 0 ( a ) ; " W in te r I n j u r i e s t o 163 T r e e s and Sh ru bs in M ichigan" Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y E x t e n s io n b u l l e t i n E - 1343; "1982 S u p p l i e r s o f B e n e f i c i a l Organisms in North America" C a l i f o r n i a D ep art m ent o f Food and A g r i c u l t u r e p u b l i c a t i o n ; and " A v a i l a b l e P u b l i c a t i o n s o f t h e C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e and A gricultural E xp er im en t S t a t i o n " Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y E x t e n s io n p u b l i c a t i o n A .P .R . 23. The s ec on d i t e m was a p r o m i s e t o p r o v i d e a copy o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i f t h e y were d e s i r e d . Dillman (1 97 8: 1 71 ) p r o v i d e s a r a t i o n a l e f o r i n c l u d i n g t h i s t y p e o f re w ar d: One r e a s o n i s an e x p l i c i t a t t e m p t t o rew ard r e s p o n d e n t s in a manner c o n s i s t e n t w i t h so m et h in g t h e y found i n t e r e s t i n g t o d o . We a r e u n d e r no i l l u s i o n t h a t such an o f f e r w i l l have re w ard v a l u e f o r e v e r y r e s p o n d e n t . However, t h e f a c t t h a t r e q u e s t s a r e g e n e r a l l y made by from o n e - h a l f t o t w o - t h i r d s o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s s u g g e s t s t h a t many r e s p o n d e n t s v a l u e t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o s e e t h e survey r e s u l t s . A d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e im p o r ta n c e o f r e s u l t s stem s from t h e f a c t t h a t in s u r v e y s we have c o n d u c t e d w i t h o u t o f f e r i n g c o p i e s o f t h e r e s u l t s , many r e s p o n d e n t s have a s k e d f o r them. Res po nde nt s who wanted s u r v e y r e s u l t s were i n s t r u c t e d t o p u t t h e i r name and a d d r e s s on t h e back o f t h e r e t u r n e n v e l o p e , r a t h e r th a n on the q u e stio n n a ire i t s e l f . T h i s was done t o r e i n f o r c e t h e p r om is e o f confidentiality. Pre-T esting the Q uestionnaire The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p r e - t e s t e d i n S ep te m b er , 1982. While p r e ­ t e s t i n g i s g e n e r a l l y recommended among p o t e n t i a l o r a c t u a l s u r v e y r e s p o n d e n t s (Di ll ma n 1 9 7 8 ) , due t o t i m e c o n s t r a i n t s and t h e r e l a t i v e l y small number o f p o t e n t i a l r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p r e - t e s t e d among members o f t h e o r i g i n a l P r o j e c t PEST C i t i z e n 164 S t e e r i n g Committee. Beca use t h e s e p e o p l e w ere a l r e a d y aware o f t h e p r o j e c t and t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e m a n u a l, and t h e y were homeowners i n t h e t o w n s h i p , i t was f e l t t h a t t h e y would p r o v i d e a d e q u a t e f e e d b a c k on t h e p r e - t e s t . All f o r m e r members o f t h e C i t i z e n S t e e r i n g Committee (n = 9) agreed to p a r t i c i p a t e in th e p r e - t e s t . P r e - t e s t p a c k e t s were p r e p a r e d t h a t i n c l u d e d a l l m a t e r i a l s t h a t would be u se d i n t h e main s u r v e y (q u e s tio n n a ire , cover l e t t e r , p u b li c a ti o n s ) . R a t h e r t h a n mail t h e p a c k e t s , however, t h e y w ere hand d e l i v e r e d and c o l l e c t e d t o f a c i l i t a t e ra p id tu rn -aro u n d time. were e n c l o s e d i n ea ch p a c k e t . A set of p re -te st instructions These i n s t r u c t i o n s d i r e c t e d t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o c o n s i d e r t h e f o l l o w i n g i t e m s when c o m p l e t i n g t h e questionnaire: 1. Are t h e r e any q u e s t i o n s o r i t e m s t h a t a r e d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d ? I f s o , p l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h e s e on t h e questionnaire. 2. Are t h e d i r e c t i o n s c l e a r ? I f n o t , p l e a s e i n d i c a t e d i f f i c u l t i e s on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 3. Does t h e c o v e r l e t t e r p r o v i d e : a. A s u f f i c i e n t in t r o d u c ti o n to th e survey? b. C l e a r d i r e c t i o n s f o r who s h o u l d c o m p l e t e t h e questionnaire? c. C l e a r d i r e c t i o n s f o r how and when t o r e t u r n t h e questionnaire? d. S u f f ic ie n t explanation fo r the enclosed p u b lic a tio n s ? I f n o t , p l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h i s on t h e c o v e r l e t t e r . 4. P l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e i t t o o k you t o c o m p l e t e the q u e s ti o n n a ir e : minutes. R e s u l t s o f t h e p r e - t e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t on w h o l e , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and accompanying m a t e r i a l s were u n d e r s t a n d a b l e and clear. Minor word ch a n g e s were made in s e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s and on t h e cover l e t t e r . The a v e r a g e c o m p l e t i o n t i m e was 30 m i n u t e s . In 165 a d d i t i o n , a number o f a l t e r a t i o n s were made i n t h e way t h a t s e v e r a l v a r i a b l e s were m e a su r e d . These i n c l u d e d : 1. P e s t c o n t r o l on p l a n t g r o u p s in t h e y a r d ( q u e s t i o n 2 ) . In a d d i t i o n t o a s k i n g r e s p o n d e n t s t o i n d i c a t e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e t h e y u sed p e s t i c i d e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s t o h a n d l e p e s t p r o bl em s on s p e c i f i c p l a n t g r o u p s , a " t o o k no a c t i o n " c a t e g o r y was a d de d. T h i s was ba s e d on d i r e c t s u g g e s t i o n s from two p r e - t e s t respondents. 2. Index o f communication b e h a v i o r ( q u e s t i o n 3 ) . While t h e p u r p o s e o f t h i s q u e s t i o n was t o d e t e r m i n e o n l y t h o s e p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e s us ed on a more r e g u l a r b a s i s , f iv e o f the e i g h t p r e - t e s t respondents provided a frequency of use r a t i n g f o r a l l 11 s o u r c e s . S i n c e many o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s were t h e "se ldom" r a t i n g , t h i s c a t e g o r y was d r o p p e d . Using o n l y t h e " f r e q u e n t l y " and "som etime s" r a t i n g s , and w e i g h t i n g them 2 and 1, r e s p e c t i v e l y , t h e r a n g e o f p o s s i b l e in d e x s c o r e s became 1 t o 22. D e l e t i n g S c a l e Items from S em an tic D i f f e r e n t i a l s As m e n ti o n e d p r e v i o u s l y , an a d d i t i o n ^ ] p u r p o s e o f t h e p r e - t e s t was t o o b t a i n a c t u a l d a t a t o e l i m i n a t e s c a l e i t e m s from t h e s e m a n t i c d ifferen tials. The i n t e n d e d outcome was a d i f f e r e n t i a l o f s h o r t e r l e n g t h f o r e ac h a t t i t u d e i t e m t h a t would s t i l l m e asu re o f a t t i t u d e . p r o v i d e an a d e q u a t e The method us ed t o "ec onomize" t h e s c a l e s was a c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e a l p h a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e l i a b i l i t y and an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n s between i t e m s in t h e s c a l e ( t h e e n t i r e p r o c e d u r e i s p r e s e n t e d in Appendix D). The b a s i c a p p r o a c h c o n s is te d o f the follow ing th re e s te p s . 1. Data from e ac h o f t h e f i v e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s n i n e p r e - t e s t r e s p o n d e n t s were a b l e t o c o m p l e t e a l l d i f f e r e n t i a l s ) was p r e p a r e d f o r a n a l y s i s on t h e CDC-6500 co m p ut er a t Michigan S t a t e U niversity. Using t h e p r e p a r e d " S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s R e l i a b i l i t y Program" ( S p e c h t and Hohlen 1 9 7 6 ) , an a l p h a c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e l i a b i l i t y was c a l c u l a t e d f o r e ac h s e m a n t i c (all 166 d ifferen tial. T h i s s t a t i s t i c p r o v i d e s a measure o f t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e s c a l e i n t e r m s o f i t s a b i l i t y t o c o n s i s t e n t l y pr o du ce t h e same s c o r e s from i n d i v i d u a l s . More s p e c i f i c a l l y : R e l i a b i l i t y r e f e r s t o t h e d e g r e e t o which a measure is free of variable erro r. Thus , i f we assume t h a t t h e " t r u e " s c o r e re m a i n s c o n s t a n t ( e . g . , t h a t t h e p e r s o n ' s " t r u e " a t t i t u d e has n o t c h a n g e d ) , a p e r f e c t l y r e l i a b l e i n s t r u m e n t w i l l y i e l d t h e same r e s u l t s on d if f e r e n t occasions. V a r i a b l e f a c t o r s , such a s a p e r s o n ' s mood, t h e t e m p e r a t u r e o r o t h e r w e a t h e r f a c t o r s , t h e t e s t i n g s i t u a t i o n , e t c . , may have d i f f e r e n t e f f e c t s on r e s p o n s e s , t h e r e b y r e d u c i n g t h e i n s t r u m e n t ' s r e l i a b i l i t y . N e e d l e s s t o s a y , t h e lo w e r t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f some measuring in s tr u m e n ts , the l e s s u sefu l i t i s (F ish b ein and Ajzen 1 9 7 5 : 1 0 7 - 1 0 8 ) . And, in a d d i t i o n : The r e l i a b i l i t y o f a t e s t , on t h e o t h e r h an d , i n c r e a s e s a s a f u n c t i o n o f i t s l e n g t h . The b a s i c i d e a i s t h a t random e r r o r s on p a r t i c u l a r i t e m s t e n d t o c a n c e l o u t so t h a t t h e t o t a l s c o r e o b t a i n e d on s u c c e s s i v e i t e m s t e n d s i n c r e a s i n g l y t o be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e common f a c t o r running through th e item s. Thus a s e t o f it em s need n o t a p p r o a c h a p e r f e c t s c a l e , in t h e Guttman s e n s e , i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e r e l i a b l e mea sur em ent s a l o n g a s i n g l e , i n t e r ­ p r e t a b l e dimension. I n t e r p r e t a b i l i t y demands o n l y t h a t some d e g r e e o f ho moge neity o r i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y be p r e s e n t in t h e i t e m s e t . The a l p h a c o e f f i c i e n t i s an in d e x o f t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y r e l i a b i l i t y t h a t t a k e s i n t o a c c o u n t b o th ho moge neity and t e s t l e n g t h (McKennell 1977:195). In itial a l p h a c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e o r i g i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s were: 1. Ha n dl in g p e s t pro ble m s in t h e y a r d (25 s c a l e i t e m s ) : a l p h a = .90610 2. Using p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d (25 s c a l e i t e m s ) : a l p h a = .77780 3. Using a l t e r n a t i v e t o p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d (25 s c a l e i t e m s ) : a l p h a = .85892 4. The s o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual a l p h a = .90640 (24 s c a l e i t e m s ) : 5. The hardward component o f t h e manual a l p h a = .63651 (18 s c a l e i t e m s ) : 167 2. The n e x t s t e p i n v o l v e d a p r o c e d u r e whereby i t e m s were d e l e t e d from t h e s c a l e s . S i n c e r e l i a b i l i t y i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e l e n g t h o f t h e s c a l e , t h e i n t e n t was t o d e l e t e a s u f f i c i e n t number o f i t e m s t o shorten the s c a le s , y e t s t i l l reliab ility . pr o du ce an " a c c e p t a b l e " d e g r e e o f While " a c c e p t a b l e " i s n e c e s s a r i l y a t e n u o u s t e r m , McKennell ( 1 9 7 0 :2 3 7 ) i n d i c a t e s t h a t , "we o u g h t t o be s e r i o u s l y c o n c e r n e d when t h e r e l i a b i l i t y o f o u r m e a s u r i n g i n s t r u m e n t s s i n k below a l e v e l o f , s a y , . 6 t o . 7 . " The p r o c e d u r e us ed t o d e l e t e it em s c o n s i s t e d o f ex am in in g t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s p ro d u ce d between a l l r e l i a b i l i t y program. i t e m s in t h e T h i s common p r a c t i c e p o s i t s t h a t , " I f r e s p o n d e n t s who a g r e e w i t h one s t a t e m e n t a l s o t e n d t o a g r e e w i t h a n o t h e r s t a t e m e n t , one c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e two s t a t e m e n t s a r e i n d i c a t o r s o f a common u n d e r l y i n g a t t i t u d e " ( P i a z z a 1 9 8 0 : 5 8 7 ) . T h e r e f o r e , where t h e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between two s e t s o f s c a l e i t e m s was p o s i t i v e and s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h , t h e y were examined t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e y a p p e a r e d t o be m e a s u r i n g t h e same dim en s io n o f the p a r t i c u l a r a t t i t u d e in q u e stio n . I f t h i s was t h e c a s e , th e n one o f t h e s c a l e i t e m s was d e l e t e d . 3. In t h e f i n a l s t e p , s e l e c t e d s c a l e i t e m s were d e l e t e d from eac h o f t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s and t h e y were t h e n r e - a n a l y z e d u s i n g t h e r e l i a b i l i t y com put er program. semantic d i f f e r e n t i a l The f i n a l form o f ea ch and i t s c o e f f i c i e n t o f r e l i a b i l i t y a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e s 4 . 6 - 4 . 9 . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h M c K e n n e ll ' s (1970) g u i d e l i n e s f o r an a c c e p t a b l e d e g r e e o f r e l i a b i l i t y , f o u r o f t h e s c a l e s w el l ex c e e d e d .7 r e l i a b i l i t y ( h a n d l i n g p e s t pr oblems in t h e y a r d , u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s i n t h e y a r d , t h e 168 T ab l e 4 . 6 . F in a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s used t o measure t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e tow ard h a n d l i n g p e s t pr obl em s on t h e p l a n t s in h i s y a r d S c a l e it e m s Source Positive N e g a ti v e Osgood e t a l . (1957) E v a l u a t i v e d im en s io n Good O ptim istic Happy W illing Voluntary S killful Pleasurable Soothing* Successful Meaningful Positive Important U s e f u l* A ttractive Motivated Easy Leisurely Interesting C u r io u s * R e l a x in g * S atisfying Varied Pleasant* Like Rewarding Bad Pessim istic Sad Unwilling Compulsory Bun gli ng Painful Aggravating Unsuccessful M e a n in g l e s s Negative U ni m po r ta nt Useless Repulsive Aimless D ifficult Ha sty Boring Indifferent Stressful F rustrating Monotonous Unpleasant Disi ik e Unrewarding A c t i v i t y dim en s io n S t a b i l i t y di m ens ion R e c e p t i v i t y dim en s io n Author F in a l number o f i t e m s = 20 R e l i a b i l i t y ( a l p h a ) = .87108 ♦D eleted f o r the f in a l s c a le . Table 4 .7 . F i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s used t o measure t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s a t t i t u d e s tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t p ro b le m s in h i s y a r d S ou rce Osgood e t a l . (1957) E v a l u a t i v e di m ens ion A c t i v i t y dim en si on U n as si g n ed dim en sio n Author _________________ S c a l e i t e m s Positive N e g a ti v e Safe B eneficial M ea nin gf ul * Successful Important Useful A ttractive W ar r an te d Positive B elievable Wise Sufficient Valuable Superior S killful Simple Easy* Inexpensive* Dangers o v e r p l a y e d Necessary* Convenient Good r e s u l t s * C ertain r e s u l t s Under recommended Like F in a l number o f i t e m s = 20 ( eac h s c a l e ) R e l i a b i l i t y ( a l p h a ) = .82531 ( p e s t i c i d e s ) .78443 ( a l t e r n a t i v e s ) ♦D eleted f o r the f in a l s c a le . Dangerous Harmful M e a n in g l e s s Unsuccessful U n im p or ta nt Useless Repulsive Unwarranted N e g a ti v e Skeptical F o o li sh Insufficient W orthless Inferior Bu ngling Complex D ifficult Expe ns ive Dangers u n d e r p l a y e d U n ne ce s s ar y Inconvenient Bad r e s u l t s Uncertain r e s u l t s Over recommended D isi i k e 170 Table 4 .8 . F i n a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s u s ed t o measu re p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e p e s t management i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s c o n t a i n e d in t h e manual S c a l e i terns Negative C haracteristic Positive R e la tiv e advantage Small amount o f r i s k involved B enefits apparent G iv es good r e s u l t s Easy t o a p p l y i n t h e yard C o n v e n i e n t way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr ob lem s* E f f o r t l e s s way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr ob le m s Superior* C om pa tib le w i t h my fe e lin g s about p e s t control S i m i l a r t o what I ' v e done i n t h e p a s t Easy t o u n d e r s t a n d C o m p a tib il i t y Com pl ex it y Trial a b i lit y O bservability G ene ral e v a l u a t i v e Easy t o a p p l y * Cl e a r * P o s s i b l e t o t r y on a smal l s c a l e R e su lts easy t o see B elievable Meaningful Approve Useful Positive Beneficial* Valuable* Comp!ete H el p f u l F i n a l number o f i t e m s = 18 R e l i a b i l i t y ( a l p h a ) = .87819 ♦Deleted f o r th e f i n a l scale. L a r g e amount o f r i s k involved B e n e fits unapparent G iv es bad r e s u l t s D i f f i c u l t t o a p p l y in the yard I n c o n v e n i e n t way t o h a n d l e p e s t pro ble m s L a b o r i o u s way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr oblems Inferior I n c o m p a t i b l e w i t h iny f e e l in g s about p e st control U n l i k e wh at I ' v e done in t h e p a s t D i f f i c u l t to under­ stand D i f f i c u l t t o apply C o n f u s in g I m p o s s i b l e t o t r y on a small s c a l e R esults d i f f i c u l t to see Skeptical Meaningless Disapprove U seless Negative Harmful Worthless Incomplete Hindering 171 Table 4 .9 . F in a l s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s c a l e i t e m s us ed t o measure p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f and a t t i t u d e tow ard t h e har dw are component o f t h e m a n u a l : t h e manual as a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n S c a l e it em s Negative C haracteristic Positive R elativ e advantage C o n t a i n s t o o much inform ation Superior to o th e r publications Easy t o l o c a t e inform ation Easy t o u n d e r s t a n d Compl exi ty Appear anc e D urability G ene ral e v a l u a t i v e I llu s tr a tio n s are m ea n in g fu l Language i s s im p l e Easy t o use Too much d e t a i l M aterial i s o r ­ ganized Too l a r g e Too lon g* Too o r n a t e Rugged Tough* S ufficient Approve Useful H e lp f u l F i n a l number o f i t e m s = 16 R e l i a b i l i t y ( a l p h a ) = .63402 ♦D eleted f o r the f in a l s c a le . Contains too l i t t l e inform ation I n f e r i o r to other publications D if f ic u lt to locate inform ation D i f f i c u l t to under­ stand I l l u s t r a t i o n s are meaningless Language i s complex D i f f i c u l t t o use Too l i t t l e d e t a i l M aterial i s unor­ ganized Too small Too s h o r t Too p l a i n D elicate Fragile Insufficient D is ap p r ov e Useless Hindering 172 s o f t w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l ) , and one ex ce ede d .6 r e l i a b i l i t y ( t h e h ardw are component o f t h e m a n u a l ) . Based on t h e s e f i n a l forms o f t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s , t h e r a n g e and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s f o r ea c h a t t i t u d e s c a l e and t h e p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e manual a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4 . 1 0 . C o nd u ct in g t h e Main Survey Names and a d d r e s s e s o f a l l p o t e n t i a l r e s p o n d e n t s (n = 75) were o b t a i n e d from s a l e s r e c e i p t s . C o n s i s t e n t w i t h D i l l m a n ' s (1978) rec o m me n da ti on s, t h e i n d i v i d u a l ' s c o m p le te name arid a d d r e s s was ty pe d on ea ch c o v e r l e t t e r t o p e r s o n a l i z e t h e s u r v e y . In a d d i t i o n , an i d e n t i f i c a t i o n number was r e c o r d e d on each q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o m o n i t o r r e t u r n s ( t h i s was a l s o n o t e d in t h e c o v e r l e t t e r ) . To a v o i d any adv an c e p r e p a r a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f r e s p o n d e n t s who had n o t a t t e n d e d t o t h e manual a t a l l , a p r e - s u r v e y l e t t e r was n o t u s e d ; i n i t i a l c o n t a c t was made w i t h t h e p a c k e t o f s u r v e y m a t e r i a l s ( c o v e r l e t t e r , q u e s t i o n n a i r e , p u b l i c a t i o n s , stamped r e t u r n e n v e l o p e ) . All m a i l i n g s ( t o and from) were done by f i r s t - c l a s s m a i l . Survey p a c k e t s were i n i t i a l l y m a i l e d o u t on O c to b e r 5, 1982. From t h i s f i r s t m a i l i n g , t h r e e p a c k e t s were r e t u r n e d u n d e l i v e r a b l e and were d i s c a r d e d , and 20 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were r e t u r n e d . A first r e m i n d e r m a i l i n g , which c o n s i s t e d o f a l e t t e r t o aV [ r e s p o n d e n t s ( i n c l u d e d in Appendix C ) , was c o n d u c t e d on O c to b e r 18, 1982. p r o c e d u r e y i e l d e d an a d d i t i o n a l r e t u r n o f n i n e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . This A s ec on d r e m i n d e r m a i l i n g , which i n c l u d e d an a d d i t i o n a l copy o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e o n l y , was c a r r i e d o u t on November 1 , 1982. (A copy o f Table 4.10. Range and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s f o r t h e f i v e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s Se m a nt ic d i f f e r e n t i a l A t t i t u d e s to w ar d h a n d l i n g p e s t pr ob le m s in t h e y a r d , u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d . A t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e s o f t w a r e component o f th e manual. Perceived c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the software component o f t h e manual: R e la tiv e advantage C om patibility Co mplexity Trial a b ilit y O bservability A t t i t u d e to w ar d t h e har dw are component o f th e manual. P e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e hardw are component o f t h e m a n u a l : R e la tiv e advantage Compl exity Appearance D urability Number o f items Range and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f s c o r e s : Ex tr em el y Ex tr em el y negative Neutral positive 20 80 140 18 18 72 126 5 2 2 1 1 5 2 2 1 1 20 8 8 4 4 35 14 14 7 7 16 16 68* 112 2 7 2 1 2 7 2 1 9* 29* 10* 4 14 49 14 7 20/each *Because a number o f s c a l e i t e m s in t h e har dw are s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l were coded d i f f e r e n t l y ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 4 ) t h e s e s c o r e s a r e b a s e d on 5 b e i n g n e u t r a l and a r e t h e r e f o r e a p p r o x i m a t e . 174 t h i s l e t t e r i s a l s o i n c l u d e d in Appendix C . ) T h i s r e m i n d e r was s e n t o n l y t o t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who had n o t y e t r e t u r n e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . F i f t e e n q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were r e t u r n e d a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s m a i l i n g . No a d d i t i o n a l m a i l i n g s w ere done a f t e r t h e s ec o nd r e m i n d e r ; no respondent c a l le d seeking f u r t h e r in form ation. A t o t a l o f 45 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were r e t u r n e d r e s u l t i n g in a r e t u r n r a t e o f 62.5% ( b a s e d on 72 d e l i v e r a b l e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s ) . Of t h e s e r e t u r n e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s , f o u r c o n t a i n e d i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a t o co de . Thu s, a u s e a b l e r e t u r n r a t e o f 57% (41 o f 72) was a c h i e v e d . In a d d i t i o n , f o u r r e s p o n d e n t s r e q u e s t e d a copy o f s u r v e y r e s u l t s when t h e y were a v a i l a b l e . Data A n a l y s i s Data from t h e 41 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s was p r e p a r e d f o r a n a l y s i s on t h e CDC-6500 com puter a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y u s i n g t h e SPSS; S tatistical 19 7 5) . Package f o r t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s program (Nie e t a l . The a n a l y s i s was o r g a n i z e d i n t o t h r e e p a r t s : (1) g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i o n ; ( 2 ) t e s t s o f h y p o t h e s e s ; and (3) m u l t i v a r i a t e relationships. G eneral D e s c r i p t i o n The f i r s t p a r t o f a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t e d o f d e t e r m i n i n g t h e b a s i c d is trib u tio n a l c h a r a c te r is tic s of the data. Response f r e q u e n c i e s and m e a s u r e s o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y (mean, m e d ia n , mode) and d i s p e r s i o n ( v a r i a n c e , s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ) were g e n e r a t e d f o r ea ch o f t h e v a r i a b l e s in t h e s t u d y . In a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g a s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d 175 d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d a t a , t h e s e r e s u l t s were u se d t o answ er s e v e r a l o f t h e e v a l u a t i v e q u e s t i o n s po s ed in P a r t I o f C h a p t e r 3: "Was t h e manual u s e d ? " , "To what e x t e n t was i t us ed ?" and "What a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f manual owners?" T e s t s o f H yp ot h es es The s eco nd p a r t o f a n a l y s i s f o c u s e d on ex am in in g and t e s t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p ro p o s e d in t h e 15 h y p o t h e s e s s t a t e d i n C h a p t e r 3. Because e ac h o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s e x p r e s s e d a r e l a t i o n s h i p between o n l y two v a r i a b l e s , c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s was s e l e c t e d f o r us e b e c a u s e i t a l l o w s " t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o a s s e s s t h e e x t e n t t o which two v a r i a b l e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d by a s i n g l e su mma rizing mea sur e (Nachmias and Nachmias 1976). The h y p o t h e s e s , e x p r e s s e d i n a l t e r n a t i v e e m p i r i c a l and statistical f o rm , a r e p r e s e n t e d i n T a b l e 4 . 1 1 . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , z e r o - o r d e r P e a r s o n c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere u s ed f o r all hypotheses. T h i s p r o c e d u r e y i e l d s a s i n g l e summary s t a t i s t i c — t h e P e a r s o n pr od uc t-m o m en t c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t ( r ) - - t h a t i n d i c a t e s b o t h t h e s t r e n g t h and d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between two v a r i a b l e s . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f r i s q u i t e straightforw ard: I f t h e v a l u e o f r i s c l o s e t o z e r o , we can assume t h e r e i s l i t t l e o r no l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two v a r i a b l e s . I f th e v alue o f r approaches +1.0 o r - 1 . 0 , we can assume t h e r e i s a s t r o n g l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p [ p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , r e s p e c t i v e l y ] (Nie e t a l . 1 9 7 5 : 2 7 9 ) . 2 The P e a r s o n c o e f f i c i e n t can a l s o be s q u a r e d ( r ) t o p r o v i d e a more e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t e d m e as ur e o f t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p . v a l u e s r a n g i n g from 0 t o + 1 . 0 , r ( c a lle d the c o e f f i c i e n t of d e t e r m i n a t i o n ) i s a m e as u r e o f t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f v a r i a n c e i n one With 176 Table 4.11. A l t e r n a t i v e e m p i r i c a l and s t a t i s t i c a l addressed in the study A lte rn a tiv e em pirical hypotheses hypothesis A lternative statistical hypothesis 1. Age w i l l n o t be r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n scores. 2. E d u c a t i o n s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x te n t o f adoption sc o re s . r > 0 3. Socio ec on omi c s t a t u s s c o r e s w i l l be n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t o f adoption sco res. r < 0+ 4. A t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t pr ob le m s on p l a n t s i n t h e y a r d w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t o f adoption sco res. r >0 A t t i t u d e sc o re s f o r using p e s t i c i d e s in th e y a r d w i l l be n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f adoption s co res. r <0 A tti tu d e sco res f o r using a l t e r n a t i v e s to p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e la te d to e x te n t o f adoption scores. r >0 Index o f com munication b e h a v i o r s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t of adoptions co res. r >0 F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual s c o r e s w i l l be n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f adoption sc o re s . r <0 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. Problem o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s . Mass media ch an n e l s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f i r s t y e a r t h a t t h e manual was made a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e ( 1 9 8 1 ) . For s o f t w a r e a t t r i b u t e s : a. R e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t o f adoption sco res. b. C o m p a t i b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t o f adoption sco res. c . T r i a l a b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t o f adoption sco res. d. O b s e r v a b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t of adoption sc o re s . r = 0* r >0 r >0 r >0 r >0 r >0 r >0 t 177 Table 4 .1 1 . Continued A lte rn a tiv e em pirical hypothesis 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. A lternative statistical hypothesi s (continued) d . Compl exi ty s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t o f adoption scores r > 0t+ A t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f adoption sco res. r > 0 For ha rd w ar e a t t r i b u t e s : a. R e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x t e n t of adoption sco res, b. Appe ara nce s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x t e n t of adoption sco res, c. D u r a b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x t e n t o f adoption scores, d. Compl exi ty s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x t e n t o f adoption sco re s. r > 0 r > 0 r > 0 r > 0++ A t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r t h e har dw are component o f t h e manual w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f adoption s co res. r > 0 E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o co n s e q u e n c e s c o r e s . r > 0 * A c c e p t a n c e o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was d e s i r e d i n t h i s i n s t a n c e . +Because o f r e v e r s e c o d i n g , a n e g a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p was e x p e c t e d in t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s . A h ig h c o m p l e x i t y s c o r e i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e manual was p e r c e i v e d a s b e i n g e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d and u s e . 178 v a r i a b l e " e x p l a i n e d " by t h e o t h e r . In a d d i t i o n , t h e l e v e l o f s i g n i ­ f i c a n c e f o r t e s t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s e s i s r e p o r t e d and d e r i v e d from t h e us e o f S t u d e n t ' s t w i t h n - 2 d e g r e e s o f f ree d om (Nie e t a l . 1975 ). I t s h o u ld a l s o be n o t e d a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t , w h i l e t h e u s e o f P ea rs on c o r r e l a t i o n i s b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t d a t a a r e measured on an i n t e r v a l l e v e l , where t h e d i s t a n c e between c a t e g o r i e s i s f i x e d and i n equa l u n i t s , a number o f a u t h o r s have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s t e c h n i q u e may be u se d i f t h e d a t a s a t i s f y o n l y t h e a s s u m p t i o n s o f o r d i n a l l e v e l measurement ( L a b o v i t z 1970, 1972; Acock and M a r t i n 1974; O ' B r i e n 1 9 8 1 ) . However, even th oug h r i s r o b u s t w i t h r e s p e c t t o v i o l a t i n g t h i s a s s u m p t i o n , d i s t o r t i o n r e s u l t i n g in s m a l l e r c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s may n e v e r t h e l e s s o c c u r (Acock and M a r ti n 1974; Warren e t a l . 1977; O 'B r i e n 19 8 1 ). I f o r d i n a l l y measured v a r i a b l e s a r e t o be t r e a t e d a s i n t e r v a l , r e s e a r c h e r s a r e a d v i s e d t o : ( 1 ) us e a s many o r d e r p r e s e r v i n g c a t e g o r i e s a s p o s s i b l e (Acock and M ar ti n 1974; O 'B r i e n 19 8 1 ) ; and ( 2 ) u t i l i z e l i n e a r t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s o r a t l e a s t a d d i t i v e i n d e x e s where p o s s i b l e ( L a b o v i t z 1972; O 'B r i e n 19 8 1) . In t h i s s t u d y , a l l v a r i a b l e s were t r e a t e d and a n a l y z e d a s i f t h e y were measu red a t t h e i n t e r v a l l e v e l . With r e s p e c t t o t h e s u g g e s t e d c r i t e r i a f o r im pr ov ing o r d i n a l m e a su r e s f o r t h i s p u r p o s e , b o th were met a s much a s p o s s i b l e . I t s h o u l d be n o t e d , however, t h a t t h e most s e r i o u s measurement v i o l a t i o n s - - and p o t e n t i a l d i s t o r t i o n — most l i k e l y o c c u r r e d w i t h t h e f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM ( t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s ) , t h e pr o bl em v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n (two c a t e g o r i e s ) , and t h e communication c h a n n e l s and y e a r t h e manual was p u r c h a s e d (two 179 c a t e g o r i e s e a c h ) v a r i a b l e s and h y p o t h e s e s (numbers 8 , 9 and 10, respectively). One f i n a l i s s u e r e g a r d i n g t h i s se cond p a r t o f a n a l y s i s d e s e r v e s me nti on a t t h i s p o i n t . T h i s i s s u e c o n c e r n s t h e problem o f sa m p l in g and r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n : Can s i g n i f i c a n c e t e s t s be a p p l i e d t o n o n p r o b a b i l i t y s am p l es ? As p r e v i o u s l y d e s c r i b e d , a n o n p r o b a b i l i t y sample d e s i g n was u se d in t h i s s t u d y . The d i s s e n t i n g view h o l d s t h a t : Only when p r o b a b i l i t y sa mples a r e drawn from a s p e c i f i e d p o p u l a t i o n can a sample s t a t i s t i c be compared w i t h a s a m p l in g d i s t r i b u t i o n t o a s s e s s i t s l i k e l i h o o d o f o c c u r ­ r e n c e u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s s p e c i f i e d by t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s (Nachmias and Nachmias 1 9 7 6 : 2 9 1 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , s i n c e t h e a s s u m p t i o n o f random sa m p l in g i s o f t e n n o t met in s o c i a l s c i e n c e r e s e a r c h , p r o p o n e n t s o f t h i s view a r g u e t h a t te s t s of significance are inappropriate. The a s s e n t i n g v ie w , which i s a d o p t e d in t h i s s t u d y , i s p r e s e n t e d by Nachmias and Nachmias ( 1 9 7 6 : 2 9 1 - 2 9 2 ) : A d v o ca te s o f s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s , on t h e o t h e r h an d, a r g u e t h a t even when s am p l es c a n n o t be assumed t o be random, t h e t e s t s a r e a u s e f u l d e v i c e g i v e n t h a t any s e t o f d a t a i s s u b j e c t t o me asurement e r r o r and t h i s e r r o r can be assumed t o be random. F u r t h e r m o r e , i t can be assumed t h a t nonrandom s am pl es have been drawn from a h y p o t h e t i c a l p o p u l a t i o n t h a t i n c l u d e s a l l p o s s i b l e s am pl es t h a t c o u l d have been drawn u n d e r e q u i v a l e n t c i r c u m s t a n c e s . F inally, even when t e s t s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e a r e n o t b e i n g used a s a device enabling g e n e r a liz a tio n s to a p o p u la tio n , they are u s e f u l in p r o v i d i n g a s c r e e n f o r r e s u l t s t h a t a r e w o rt h fu rth e r exploration. M u ltiv ariate R elationships The t h i r d p a r t o f a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t e d o f e x p l o r i n g t h e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p between t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n ( t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ) and t h e e n t i r e s e t o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s t h r o u g h t h e us e o f m u l t i p l e regression an aly sis. E s s e n tia lly , m ultiple reg ressio n "explains" the 180 v a r i a n c e o f t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e by e s t i m a t i n g t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h i s v a r i a n c e o f two o r more i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ( K e r l i n g e r and P edh azu r 1 97 3 ). The s p e c i f i c method us ed t o e n t e r t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n t o t h e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n was fo r w a r d ( s t e p w i s e ) inclusion. In t h i s me th od , " t h e o r d e r o f i n c l u s i o n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e r e s p e c t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f each v a r i a b l e t o e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e " (Nie e t a l . 1975:345). More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e t h a t e x p l a i n s t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e i n t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r ia b le with th e in flu e n c e of th e o th e r independent v a r ia b le s s t a t i s t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d i s e n te re d f i r s t ( t h a t i s , th e v a r i a b l e with the l a r g e s t c o e f f i c i e n t of d e te rm in a tio n ). The n e x t v a r i a b l e t h a t e x p l a i n s t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e f i r s t ( a g a i n c o n t r o l l i n g f o r a l l o t h e r s ) i s e n t e r e d s e c o n d , and so forth. The c u m u l a t i v e amount o f v a r i a n c e e x p l a i n e d by t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s can be e v a l u a t e d by e x am in in g t h e c o e f f i c i e n t p o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n (R ) . T h i s f i g u r e , which r a n g e s in v a l u e from 0 t o +1.0, expresses the percentage of to t a l v a r i a n c e a c c o u n t e d f o r by a l i n e a r combination o f th e independent v a r i a b l e s e n t e r e d in t o th e e q u a t i o n ( K e r l i n g e r and Pedh azur 1 97 3 ). In a d d i t i o n , t h e i n c r e m e n t a l v a r i a n c e a c c o u n t e d f o r by ea ch v a r i a b l e added t o t h e e q u a t i o n can be p c a l c u l a t e d by s u b t r a c t i n g ea ch new R v a l u e from t h e p r e v i o u s one (Nie et al. 19 75 ). While t h e e x a m i n a t i o n and t e s t i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o p o s e d in t h e 15 h y p o t h e s e s p r o v i d e d a u s e f u l means f o r d e t e r m i n i n g t h e g e n e r a l a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e model in t h i s f i e l d , t h e y n e v e r t h e l e s s : Somewhat o v e r s i m p l i f y r e a l i t y , o f c o u r s e , by t r e a t i n g each i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s e p a r a t e l y in i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o in n o v a tiv e n e ss [ t h e e x t e n t o f ad o p tio n in t h i s c a s e ] . Many 181 o f t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s a r e i n t e r r e l a t e d w i t h ea ch o t h e r , a s w e ll as w i t h i n n o v a t i v e n e s s " (Rog ers 1 9 8 3 : 2 6 5 ) . Thus , t h e d e c i s i o n t o u s e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n in t h e a n a l y s i s was b a s e d on a d e s i r e t o p r o v i d e a more r e a l i s t i c i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual was a d o p t e d . CHAPTER 5 STUDY FINDINGS Sur vey r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s c h a p t e r and a r e o r g a n i z e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e d a t a a n a l y s i s a p p r o a c h d i s c u s s e d in t h e p r e c e d i n g chapter. Basic d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e d ata f o r a l l v aria b les are presented f i r s t . The s eco nd p a r t o f t h e c h a p t e r d e s c r i b e s t h e r e s u l t s o f t e s t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o p o s e d i n t h e 15 study hypotheses. In t h e f i n a l s e c t i o n , r e s u l t s o f e x p l o r i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual (the d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ) and t h e e n t i r e s e t o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s , using m u ltip le re g r e s s io n , are presented. Ge ner al D e s c r i p t i o n E x t e n t o f Ad o pt io n and I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e Manual Of t h e 41 i n d i v i d u a l s who c o m p l e t e d and r e t u r n e d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , f o u r i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had n o t r e a d o r used any p a r t s o f t h e m a n u a l, 15 i n d i c a t e d r e a d i n g p a r t s o f i t o n l y , and 22 r e p o r t e d b o th r e a d i n g and r e g u l a r l y u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual t o h a n d l e p e s t p ro b le m s i n t h e i r y a r d . Of t h e f o u r who had n o t used t h e manual a t a l l , two r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y had s im p l y p u t t h e manual away and had n o t l o o k e d a t i t s i n c e , one i n d i c a t e d no use b e c a u s e o f a l a c k o f t i m e and s e r i o u s p e s t p r o b l e m s , and t h e f i n a l r e s p o n d e n t 182 183 s t a t e d t h a t , w h i l e he had b r i e f l y skimmed p a r t s o f t h e m a n u a l, he found i t s s i z e t o be " i n c o n v e n i e n t l y l a r g e and o v e r p o w e r i n g . " For t h e s e n o n - u s e r s t h e n , i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t a t l e a s t t h e f i r s t t h r e e were p e r h a p s s t i l l in t h e knowledge s t a g e o f t h e mo de l, w h i l e t h e f o u r t h p r o v i d e d an e x p l a n a t i o n i n d i c a t i n g a r e j e c t i o n d e c i s i o n a t t h i s time. Because o n l y f o u r r e s p o n d e n t s had n o t u s ed t h e ma n ua l, f u r t h e r s u r v e y r e s u l t s f o r t h i s group a r e n o t r e p o r t e d in t h i s chapter. These r e s u l t s a r e , however, p r e s e n t e d in Appendix E. B ef o r e p r o c e e d i n g w i t h a n a l y s i s o f t h e r e m a i n i n g 37 q u e s t i o n ­ naires, i t was f i r s t n e c e s s a r y t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r any o f t h e 15 r e s p o n d e n t s who r e a d p o r t i o n s o f t h e manual o n l y , had a d o p t e d o r rejected i t . As d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 4 , t h i s was a c c o m p l i s h e d by a s k i n g t h e s e r e s p o n d e n t s t o i n d i c a t e why t h e y were n o t c u r r e n t l y u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual (open r e s p o n s e f o r m a t ) , a f t e r i n d i c a t i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s t h e y had r e a d a b o u t . Adoption o r r e j e c t i o n s t a t u s was t h e n d e t e r m i n e d by e v a l u a t i n g t h e s e e x p l a n a ­ tions. I f no e x p l a n a t i o n was g i v e n , i t was assumed t h a t t h e r e s p o n ­ d e n t had a d o p t e d o r a c c e p t e d t h e new and o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s he had read about. Twelve o f t h e 15 r e s p o n d e n t s p r o v i d e d e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r why t h e y were n o t c u r r e n t l y u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e man ual; t h e r e m a in in g t h r e e p r o v i d e d no e x p l a n a t i o n . Of t h e 12 e x p l a n a t i o n s g i v e n , none were j u d g e d s u f f i c i e n t t o i n d i c a t e a r e j e c t i o n d e c i s i o n . The e x p l a n a t i o n s were (number o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n p a r e n t h e s e s ) : l a c k o f ti m e ( 5 ) ; s p e c i f i c p e s t pro bl em s n o t c o v e r e d in t h e manual (fru it t r e e s and f l o w e r s ) ( 2 ) ; a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r w i t h and use t h e p r a c t i c e s ( 2 ) ; r e l y on a commercial s e r v i c e t o h a n d l e p e s t pro ble m s ( 1 ) ; 184 r e n t e r , owner t a k e s c a r e o f p r o p e r t y ( 1 ) ; a n d , none a p p e a r n e c e s s a r y a t t h i s ti m e ( 1 ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , i t was assumed t h a t t h e s e 15 r e s p o n d e n t s had a d o p t e d o r a c c e p t e d a l l t h e new and o l d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s t h e y had r e a d a b o u t in t h e manual. However, b e c a u s e one o f t h e s e a d o p t e r s d i d n o t a c t u a l l y i n d i c a t e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s he had r e a d a b o u t , a d o p t i o n d a t a was a v a i l a b l e f o r o n l y 14 o f t h e s e r e s p o n ­ dents. T h e r e f o r e , e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r a maximum o f 36 c a s e s — 14 a d o p t e r s and 22 a d o p t e r s / i m p l e m e n t e r s . I n f o r m a t i o n and P r a c t i c e s Items U sed. As d e s c r i b e d in C h a p t e r 4 , t h e method used t o m e as u r e t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual a l s o p r o v i d e d a means t o d i s t i n g u i s h o l d from new i t e m s , and c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r in u s e . While t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f manual u s e d a t a on a r e s p o n d e n t by r e s p o n d e n t b a s i s would have been i d e a l f o r d e l i n e a t i n g t h e s e i t e m s , i t was c o n s i d e r e d p r o h i b i t i v e g i v e n t h e l a r g e number o f r e s p o n d e n t s . T h e r e f o r e , d a t a on t h e e x t e n t t o which new and o l d i t e m s were u se d from t h e manual and t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e manual a s a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r a r e p r e s e n t e d f o r a l l r e s p o n d e n t s who us ed t h e manual. R e s u l t s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s r e a d a b o u t in t h e manual a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 1 . O v e r a ll , th e inform ation items were r e a d a b o u t by a l a r g e number o f r e s p o n d e n t s ; t h e t o t a l p e r c e n t a g e o f r e s p o n d e n t s r e a d i n g a b o u t e a c h o f t h e 10 l i s t e d it em s e x c e e d e d 70%. The i t e m r e a d a b o u t by t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s (33 o r 91.7%) was " I d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t p r o b l e m s . " The two i t e m s r e a d a b o u t by t h e l e a s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s (26 o r 72.2% e a c h ) were " P r e v e n t i n g p e s t pro ble m s t h r o u g h p r o p e r p l a n t Ta b l e 5 . 1 . I n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s r e s p o n d e n t s r e a d a b o u t i n t h e manual Inform ation items New i n f o r m a t i o n n % Old i n f o r m a t i o n n % Did n o t r e a d n % T ot al n % The pro ble m s w i t h p e s t i c i d e s 12 33.3 18 50 .0 6 16.7 36 100.0 The p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s o f IPM 20 55.6 9 2 5. 0 7 1 9 .4 36 100.0 P r e v e n t i n g p e s t pr ob lem s t h r o u g h p r o p e r p l a n t s e l e c t i o n and c a r e 17 47.2 13 36.1 6 16 .7 36 100.0 Monitoring a c t i v i t i e s 17 47.2 9 25.0 10 27.8 36 100.0 I d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t problem s 22 6 1 .1 11 30.6 3 8.3 36 100.0 B e n e f i c i a l o r g a n i s m s and t h e i r iden tificatio n 18 50.0 9 25.0 9 25.0 36 100.0 D ec id i n g i f and when t o u s e manage­ ment t e c h n i q u e s 25 69.4 3 8.3 8 2 2 .2 36 100.0 The g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f manage­ ment t e c h n i q u e s and g u i d e l i n e s for th e ir selection 23 63.9 3 8.3 10 27.8 36 100. 0 The d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s and how t o u s e them 24 66.7 8 2 2 .2 4 11.1 36 100.0 The d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f p e s t i c i d e s and methods f o r t h e i r s a f e use 19 5 2 .8 12 3 3 .3 5 13. 9 36 100.0 186 s e l e c t i o n and c a r e " and "The g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s and g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e i r s e l e c t i o n . " In te rm s o f t h e p e r c e i v e d newness o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n , in o n ly one c a s e - - "The p r o bl em s w i t h p e s t i c i d e s " - - d i d a g r e a t e r number o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e it e m r e p r e s e n t e d o l d r a t h e r t h a n new inform ation. For t h e r e m a i n i n g n i n e i t e m s , a g r e a t e r number o f r e s p o n d e n t s who r e a d a b o u t ea ch o f them c o n s i d e r e d t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t o be new. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , " D e c id in g i f and when t o us e management t e c h n i q u e s " was c o n s i d e r e d t o be new i n f o r m a t i o n by t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s (25 o r 69. 4%) . T h i s was f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y by: "The d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s and how t o use them" (24 o r 66.7%); "The g e n e r a l c a t e g o r i e s o f management t e c h n i q u e s and g u i d e l i n e s f o r t h e i r s e l e c t i o n " (23 o r 63. 9%) ; and " I d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t pr o bl em s " (22 o r 61. 1%) . For t h e r e m a i n i n g f i v e i t e m s , e x c l u d i n g "The pr obl em s w i t h p e s t i c i d e s " , i n o n l y two c a s e s — " P r e v e n t i n g p e s t pr obl em s t h r o u g h p r o p e r p l a n t s e l e c t i o n and c a r e " and " M o n i t o r i n g a c t i v i t i e s " - - d i d t h e number o f r e s p o n d e n t s who c o n s i d e r e d them t o r e p r e s e n t new o r i n n o v a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n f a l l s l i g h t l y below 50%. With r e s p e c t t o p r a c t i c e i t e m s r e s p o n d e n t s were r e g u l a r l y u s i n g from t h e manual ( T a b l e 5 . 2 ) , a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e emerged. Whereas a c o n s i s t e n t l y h ig h p e r c e n t a g e o f r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d r e a d i n g a b o u t any one o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s , t h e s e t o t a l s f o r ea ch o f t h e p r a c t i c e i t e m s were more v a r i a b l e . For e x a m p le , o f t h e 10 p r a c t i c e i t e m s l i s t e d , a f a i r number o f r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y were n o t r e g u l a r l y u s i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g p r a c t i c e s : y o u r p e s t management a c t i o n s " "Evaluating (11 o r 50%); " M o n i t o r i n g p l a n t s in t h e T a b l e 5 . 2 . P r a c t i c e i t e m s r e s p o n d e n t s w e r e r e g u l a r l y u s i n g from t h e manual O ld jractice n % Did n o t use n % Tota l 1 P r a c t i c e it em s New p r a c t i c e n % P r e v e n t i n g p e s t pr obl em s t h r o u g h p r o p e r p l a n t s e l e c t i o n and c a r e 11 50.0 6 2 7. 3 5 2 2. 7 22 100.0 8 36.4 5 22.7 9 40.9 22 100.0 I d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t pro blems 13 5 9 .1 7 31.8 2 9.1 22 100 .0 I d e n t i f y i n g b e n e f i c i a l or g an is m s 11 50.0 3 1 3. 6 8 36.4 22 100.0 D ec id in g i f and when t o u s e manage­ ment t e c h n i q u e s 16 72.7 2 9.1 4 18. 2 22 100 .0 Using g u i d e l i n e s t o s e l e c t manage­ ment t e c h n i q u e s 11 50.0 2 9.1 9 40.9 22 100.0 S e l e c t i n g and p r o p e r l y a p p l y i n g a lte rn a tiv e s to p esticid es 16 72.7 2 9.1 4 18.2 22 100.0 S e l e c t i n g and p r o p e r l y a p p l y i n g "appropriate" p e s tic id e s 14 63.6 4 18 .2 4 18 .2 22 100.0 Ha nd li ng p e s t i c i d e s s a f e l y 3 13. 6 14 63.6 5 22.7 22 100.0 E v a l u a t i n g y o u r p e s t management actions 9 40.9 2 9.1 11 5 0 .0 22 100.0 Monitoring p l a n t s in the yard n % 188 yard" (9 o r 40. 9%) ; "Usin g g u i d e l i n e s t o s e l e c t management techniques" (9 o r 40 .9 % ); and " I d e n t i f y i n g b e n e f i c i a l o r g a n i s m s " (8 o r 36.4%). Of t h e r e m a i n i n g s i x p r a c t i c e i t e m s , however, o v e r 75% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were r e g u l a r l y u s i n g any one o f them. And, i t i s a l s o i n t e r e s t i n g t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e i t e m u sed by t h e g r e a t e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s - - " I d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t pr ob lem s" (20 o r 90.9%) — was t h e same i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m r e a d a b o u t by t h e g r e a t e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s . The p e r c e i v e d newness o f a p p l i e d p r a c t i c e s e x h i b i t e d a p a t t e r n q u i t e s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s ; in a l l c a s e s b u t one — "Ha n dl in g p e s t i c i d e s s a f e l y " - - a g r e a t e r number o f r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p r a c t i c e was a new r a t h e r t h a n an o l d one. In f a c t , t h e two p r a c t i c e i t e m s c o n s i d e r e d a s new by t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s — " D e c i d i n g i f and when t o use management t e c h n i q u e s " and " S e l e c t i n g and a p p l y i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s " e a c h ) - - were i d e n t i c a l (16 o r 72.7% t o t h e two " n ew es t" i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s . Data c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r , o r more s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual r e p r e s e n t e d a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r in u s e (and e s s e n t i a l l y i t s r e - i n v e n t i o n ) a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 3 . Of t h e 36 manual " u s e r s " , o n l y two i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e t o t a l number o f i t e m s t h e y had u sed from t h e manual ( i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s t h e y had r e a d a b o u t in t h i s c a s e ) w ere n o t p e r c e i v e d a s new. Th u s, f o r t h e s e two r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e manual d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t an i n n o v a t i o n . For t h e r e m a i n i n g 34 r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e e x t e n t o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r r a n g e d from two t o 17 i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s . W i th in t h i s r a n g e , f r e q u e n c i e s were q u i t e e v e n l y 189 Table 5 .3 . The t o t a l number o f new i t e m s r e s p o n d e n t s r e a d a b o u t and w ere c u r r e n t l y u s i n g from t h e manual T ot al ‘ o f new i t e m s n 0 11 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 2 2 2 1 3 1 n — --- 1 2 - - 1 2 2 2 1 — - - 2 1 3 4 — 2 5.6 2 2 2 5 1 1 2 4 3 1 5. 6 5.6 5.6 1 3. 9 2.8 2.8 5.6 11.1 8.3 2.8 3 4 — 2 2 14 % - - — Total n — 8.3 11.1 — 2 2 5.6 5.6 — — — — - - - - — — — 22 36 100.0 190 d istributed, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t r e - i n v e n t i o n o f t h e manual was q u i t e variable. With r e s p e c t t o t h e two c a t e g o r i e s o f a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , t h e f r e q u e n c i e s o f new i t e m s a d o p t e d and implemented were a l s o q u i t e evenly d i s t r i b u t e d w ith in t h e i r r e s p e c tiv e ranges. For r e s p o n d e n t s who r e a d a b o u t and a d o p t e d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s o n l y , t h e e x t e n t o f th e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r v a r i e d from a minimum o f two i t e m s f o r two r e s p o n d e n t s t o a maximum o f a l l 10 i t e m s f o r one r e s p o n d e n t . The e x t e n t o f t h e t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r f o r t h o s e who a d o p t e d i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s and implemented p r a c t i c e i t e m s r a n g e d from f o u r t o 17 i t e m s . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , 14 (63.6%) o f t h e 22 a d o p t e r s / i m p ! e m e n t e r s r e p o r t e d a d o p t i n g a n d / o r im pl em en tin g 10 o r more new i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s from t h e manual. O v e r a l l t h e n , d a t a from t h e s e t h r e e t a b l e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t : 1. A l a r g e number o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s from t h e manual were "used" by r e s p o n d e n t s . 2. For 18 o f t h e 20 t o t a l i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e it em s in t h e m a n ua l, c o n s i d e r a b l y more r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v e d them a s new o r i n n o v a t i v e , r a t h e r t h a n o l d . 3. The manual r e p r e s e n t e d a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r , r a n g i n g in s i z e ( e x t e n t ) from two t o 17 i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s , f o r 34 o f t h e 36 manual " u s e r s . " 4. The e x t e n t o f r e - i n v e n t i o n r an g ed from two t o 17 i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s . E x t e n t o f Adoption S c o r e s . E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s f o r t h e 36 r e s p o n d e n t s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 4 . As d e s c r i b e d i n C h a p t e r 4, t h e c a l c u l a t i o n o f e ac h r e s p o n d e n t ' s s c o r e was b as ed on t h e t o t a l number o f i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s u se d from t h e m a nu al , w i t h a d j u s t m e n t s made f o r new and o l d i t e m s . S c o r e s r a n g e d from a low o f 13 (3 it em s u s e d ) t o a h ig h o f 434 (20 i t e m s u s e d ) , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t 191 Table 5 .4 . Extent o f adoption scores Number o f i t e m s r e a d / u s e d Range o f s c o r e s 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100 121 144 169 196 225 256 289 324 361 400 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 X - 3 8 15 24 35 48 63 80 99 120 143 168 195 224 255 288 323 360 399 440 n % -- .. 3 1 3 -- 8.3 2.8 8.3 -- 1 1 1 7 1 2 2.8 2.8 2.8 19.4 2.8 5.6 2 1 5.6 2.8 — — -- 1 2.8 4 _8 11.1 22.2 Tot al 36 100.0 — = 211.0 s = 160. 0 r a n g e = 13-434 192 t h e e x t e n t t o which IPM was p r a c t i c e d from t h e manual v a r i e d considerably. Over o n e - t h i r d o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s (13 ) r e c e i v e d s c o r e s g r e a t e r th a n 2 8 8, c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e use o f 17 o r more i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s . And, o f t h e s e r e s p o n d e n t s , e i g h t ( t h e modal f r e q u e n c y ) r e p o r t e d u s i n g a l l 20 i t e m s . Based on t h e r a t i o n a l e employed f o r m e a s u r i n g us e o f t h e manual t h e n , t h e f i v e r e s p o n d e n t s u s i n g 17 t o 19 i t e m s would be d e s c r i b e d a s p r a c t i c i n g IPM t o a g r e a t e x t e n t ; t h e e i g h t r e s p o n d e n t s u s i n g a l l 20 i t e m s would be d e s c r i b e d a s f u l l y p r a c t i c i n g IPM a s p r e s e n t e d in t h e manual. F u r t h e r m o r e , 17 r e s p o n d e n t s (47.2%) r e c e i v e d s c o r e s o f 120 o r l e s s , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e use o f 10 o r f ew er i t e m s . Of t h e s e 17, 14 were n e c e s s a r i l y r e s p o n d e n t s who had r e a d a b o u t and a d o p t e d o r accepted inform ation items only. The r e m a i n i n g t h r e e - - and t h e 19 who r e c e i v e d s c o r e s g r e a t e r t h a n 120 - - were t h o s e who had "used" b o th i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s from t h e manual. Individual C h a r a c te r is t ic s Socioeconomic C h a r a c t e r i s t i e s . S oci oeconomic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c l u d e d t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' a g e , e d u c a t i o n , so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s , income and c u r r e n t employment s t a t u s . i s p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 5 . Data on t h e age o f r e s p o n d e n t s Res p on de n ts who used t h e manual ra n g e d in age from 27 t o 79 y e a r s o l d ; t h e a v e r a g e age was 47. S l i g h t l y more t h a n 50% were y o u n g e r th a n 46, and o n l y t h r e e were o l d e r t h a n 65. O v e r a l l , e d u c a t i o n l e v e l s o f r e s p o n d e n t s were q u i t e h ig h ( T a b l e 5.6). All r e s p o n d e n t s had c o m pl et e d h ig h s c h o o l ; 35 (97.2%) r e p o r t e d p u r s u i n g a n d / o r c o m p l e t i n g some t y p e o f c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g . In a d d i ­ t i o n , a l m o s t 60% i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had co m p le te d a g r a d u a t e d e g r e e . 193 Table 5 .5 . Respondents' age Age 27 36 46 56 > - 35 45 55 65 65 Total n % 6 13 9 5 3 1 6 .7 3 6 .1 25.0 13.9 8.3 36 10 0. 0 x = 47.0 s = 1 3. 0 range = 2 7 - 7 9 Table 5 .6 . Respondents' education level Education le v el n Some g r a d e sch oo l ( g r a d e s 1 t o 8) % — - - Completed g r a d e school — — Some h i g h sch oo l — — ( g r a d e s 9 t o 12) Completed h i g h sch o ol 1 2.8 Some c o l l e g e 6 1 6. 7 Completed c o l l e g e 7 19.4 T e c h n i c a l / t r a d e sch oo l — — Some g r a d u a t e work Completed a g r a d u a t e d e g r e e Total 1 2.8 21 58.3 36 100 .0 194 The r e s p o n d e n t s ' s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s (SES) s c o r e s ( T a b l e 5 . 7 ) were s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e i r hi g h l e v e l s o f e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n ­ me n t; 75% ( 2 7) were c l a s s i f i e d in t h e t o p two SES c l a s s e s . The r e m a i n i n g 25% were d i v i d e d among c l a s s e s I I I and IV (6 and 3, respectively). No r e s p o n d e n t r e c e i v e d an SES s c o r e g r e a t e r t h a n 63 ( C l a s s V). Family income d a t a i s p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 8 . For t h e 33 r e s p o n d e n t s who c o m p l e t e d t h i s q u e s t i o n , f a m i l y incomes ra n g ed from a low in t h e " $ 1 5 , 0 0 0 - 1 9 , 9 9 9 " b r a c k e t t o a h ig h i n t h e " o v e r $60,000" bracket. W it hi n t h i s r a n g e , f r e q u e n c i e s were f a i r l y e v e n l y d i s t r i ­ b u t e d among ea c h o f t h e income b r a c k e t s . From a c o m p a r a t i v e p e r s p e c t i v e , r e s p o n d e n t incomes were q u i t e h i g h . Based on 1980 U.S. c e n s u s d a t a , median g r o s s f a m i l y income was $21 ,503 (U.S. Department o f Commerce 1981 ). Equating th e "$20,000-24,999" b ra c k e t w ith t h i s median income, 75.8% ( 2 5) o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d f a m i l y incomes exceeding t h i s value. And f i n a l l y , w i t h r e g a r d t o c u r r e n t employment s t a t u s o f t h e 36 r e s p o n d e n t s , a m a j o r i t y r e s p o n d e d t h a t t h e y were c u r r e n t l y employed (24 o r 66. 7%) . Seven (19.4%) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were r e t i r e d and t h r e e (8.3%) were f u l l - t i m e homemakers. Only two r e s p o n d e n t s (5.6%) r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y w ere unemployed a t t h e t i m e t h e s u r v e y was conducted. Personality C h a ra c te ris tic s . A ttitu d e scores f o r handling p est pr obl em s in t h e y a r d , u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr ob lem s in t h e y a r d a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 9 . For e ac h a c t i v i t y , a t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s o c c u r r e d in t h e 81 -1 1 0 r a n g e , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o 195 Table 5 .7 . Respondents' socioeconomic statu s Class Range o f s c o r e s n % 11 - 17 14 38.9 II 18 - 31 13 36. 1 III 32 - 47 6 16. 7 48 - 53 3 8.3 I (high) IV V (low) 64 - 77 — Total X Table 5.8 . 36 — 100 .0 = 23.0 s = 14. 0 r a n g e = 11 - 61 R e s p o n d e n t s ' income n % Less t h a n $1 0, 00 0 — — 1 0, 00 0 - 14,999 — — 15,0 00 - 1 9, 99 9 4 12.1 20,000 - 24,999 4 12.1 2 5 , 0 0 0 - 2 9 ,9 9 9 4 12.1 30,000 - 34,999 3 9.1 35,000 - 39,999 2 6.1 40,000 - 44,999 4 12.1 45,000 - 49,999 4 12.1 50 ,0 00 - 5 4 ,9 99 4 12.1 5 5 ,0 0 0 - 6 0 , 0 0 0 1 3.0 o v e r $6 0 ,0 0 0 3 9.1 33 100.0 Income b r a c k e t Total Table 5 .9 . A ttitu d e scores f o r handling pest problems in the y a rd , using p e s tic id e s and using a lte r n a tiv e s to p e s tic id e s as a way to handle pest problems in the yard A t t i t u d e s to w ar d : H an d li n g p e s t pro ble m s n % A ttitu d e scores 20 - 49 ( n e g a t i v e ) 50 - 79 80 (n eu tral) 81 - 110 111 - 140 ( p o s i t i v e ) Total Using p e s t i c i d e s n % Using a l t e r n a t i v e s n % 2 5.6 — — 1 2.8 13 3 6 .1 10 27.8 7 1 9 .4 — — 2 5.6 1 2.8 18 50.0 22 61.1 24 66.7 3 8.3 2 5.6 3 8.3 36 100. 0 36 100.0 36 100 .0 x = 85.0 s = 18.2 r a n g e = 38 - 125 x = 90.0 s = 1 5. 6 r a n g e = 61 - 117 x = 92.0 s = 16 .4 r a n g e = 35 - 123 197 a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e o f m o d e ra te i n t e n s i t y . a t t i t u d e a l s o o c c u r r e d in t h i s r a n g e . Mean s c o r e s f o r ea ch H a nd li n g p e s t pr ob le m s in t h e y a r d e x h i b i t e d t h e l o w e s t mean s c o r e (85 ) - - j u s t s l i g h t l y above neutral - - due t o t h e l a r g e number o f r e s p o n d e n t s (15 o r 41.7%) i n d i c a t i n g a m o d e ra te t o e x t r e m e l y n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e toward t h i s activ ity . Mean s c o r e s f o r u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s were q u i t e s i m i l a r (90 and 92 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) and s l i g h t l y h i g h e r th a n f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b le m s . Alth ou gh more r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d a n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s th a n tow ard u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s , t h e i n t e n s i t y o f t h e 10 r e s p o n d e n t s ' n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s d i d n o t f a l l below t h e 50-79 o r m o d e r a t e l y neg ativ e range. In f a c t , t h e l o w e s t a t t i t u d e s c o r e r e c o r d e d f o r u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s was 61 , compared t o a low o f 35 f o r u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s . And f i n a l l y , t h r e e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d a n e u t r a l a t t i t u d e (80) tow ard t h e s e two a c t i v i t i e s . Communication B e h a v i o r . The two m e as u re s o f communication b e h a v i o r i n c l u d e d t h e in d e x o f communication b e h a v i o r , c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n r e s p o n d e n t s used f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b l e m s , and t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y had been f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual. Data i n d i c a t i n g t h e s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n used i s p r e s e n t e d in T ab l e 5 . 1 0 . O v e r a l l , ea ch o f t h e s o u r c e s was used by no fe w e r t h a n 12 r e s p o n d e n t s (35.3 % ). The t h r e e s o u r c e s u se d by most r e s p o n d e n t s w ere : p a m p h l e t s / m a n u a l s (31 o r 91. 2%) ; p a c k a g e / c o n t a i n e r l a b e l s (29 o r 85 .3 %) ; and f r i e n d s / n e i g h b o r s (25 o r 73.5%). S o u r c e s used by t h e l e a s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n c l u d e d : r a d i o (12 o r 35. 3%) ; t r e e / l a w n / l a n d s c a p e p e r s o n n e l 44. 2%) ; and t e l e v i s i o n (17 o r 50%). (15 o r Table 5 .1 0 . Sources o f in fo rm atio n used fo r handling pest problems in the yard Frequency o f use Information source Frequently n % Sometimes n % Not used n % T ot al Books 10 29.4 13 3 8. 2 11 32.4 34 100. 0 Magazines 6 17.6 16 4 7 .1 12 35.3 34 100. 0 Newspapers 5 14. 7 14 41.2 15 4 4. 1 34 100. 0 P a m p h l e ts /m a n u a ls 17 5 0 .0 14 41.2 3 8.8 34 100.0 Package/container la b e ls 18 5 2. 9 11 32.4 5 14. 7 34 100 .0 Radio 1 2.9 11 32.4 22 64.7 34 100 .0 Television 5 14 .7 12 35 .3 17 5 0. 0 34 100 .0 Cooperative ex tension s e rv ic e personnel 4 11 .8 16 4 7 .1 14 41.2 34 100.0 Garden s t o r e p e r s o n n e l 3 8.8 17 50 .0 14 41.2 34 100 .0 T ree/law n/landscape personnel 4 1 1 .8 11 32.4 19 55.9 34 100 .0 Friends/neighbors 5 14 .7 20 5 8 .8 9 26.5 34 100 .0 n % 199 With r e s p e c t t o f r e q u e n c y o f u s e , t h e two s o u r c e s used " f r e q u e n t l y " by t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s were t h e t o p two s o u r c e s u s ed by most r e s p o n d e n t s o v e r a l l ( i n r e v e r s e o r d e r , ho w ev er ): p a c k a g e / c o n t a i n e r l a b e l s (18 o r 52.9%) and p a m p h l e t s / m a n u a l s (17 o r 50%). The t h i r d most u s ed s o u r c e i n t h e f r e q u e n t l y column was books (10 o r 29 .4%). Thus , t h e t h r e e communication c h a n n e l s used most f r e q u e n t l y were p r i n t e d mass media m a t e r i a l s . A l a r g e r number o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d u s i n g more o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e s " s o m e t i m e s . " However, o f t h e f o u r s o u r c e s us ed w i t h t h i s f r e q u e n c y by t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s , t h r e e r e p r e s e n t e d i n t e r p e r s o n a l com munication c h a n n e l s : f r i e n d s / n e i g h b o r s (20 o r 58.8%); g ar d en s t o r e personnel (17 o r 50%); and c o o p e r a t i v e e x t e n s i o n s e r v i c e p e r s o n n e l (16 o r 47 .1 %) . An in d e x o f com munication b e h a v i o r s c o r e was c a l c u l a t e d f o r e ac h r e s p o n d e n t by summing t h e w e i g h t e d f r e q u e n c y o f us e r a t i n g s ( f r e q u e n t l y = 2 , sometimes = 1) f o r a l l items s e l e c t e d . Possible s c o r e s r a n g e d from one t o 22 and were d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s : low ( 1 - 7 ) ; medium ( 8 - 1 5 ) ; and h ig h ( 1 6 - 2 2 ) . Respondents' sco res ( T a b l e 5 . 1 1 ) r a n g e d from t h r e e t o 17, w i t h a mean o f 9 . 1 . Only two r e s p o n d e n t s (5.8%) r e c e i v e d in de x s c o r e s l a r g e enough t o be c l a s s i f i e d in th e "high" c a t e g o r y . Of t h e r e m a i n i n g 32 r e s p o n d e n t s , 18 (53%) were c a t e g o r i z e d a s e x h i b i t i n g a "medium" and 14 (41.2%) a "low" in d e x o f com munication b e h a v i o r . E x t e n t o f f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM s c o r e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5.12. Over 50% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s who had us ed i t e m s from t h e manual i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g i t . F or t h e 16 r e m a i n i n g r e s p o n d e n t s , t h r e e (8.6%) were v e r y f a m i l i a r 200 Table 5.11. Index o f communication b e h a v i o r s c o r e s Rating Score n % 1 - 7 Low 14 41.2 8 - 15 Med i urn 18 5 3. 0 2 5.8 34 100.0 High 16 - 22 Total x = 9.1 s = 4.0 range = 3 - 1 7 Table 5.12. F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual n % None 19 5 4 .3 Very f a m i l i a r High 3 8.6 Somewhat f a m i l i a r Medium 9 25.7 Heard a b o u t IPM b u t d i d n o t r e a l l y know what i t meant Low 4 11.4 35 100 .0 Response R a t in g Not f a m i l i a r T ot al 201 w i t h IPM, n i n e (25.7%) were somewhat f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM and f o u r (11.4%) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had h e a r d a b o u t IPM b u t d i d n o t r e a l l y know what i t meant. Problem v s . Innovation O r ie n ta tio n . The l a s t i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c f o c u s e d on d e t e r m i n i n g w h e t h e r r e s p o n d e n t s p u r c h a s e d t h e manual a s a r e s u l t o f an " a c t i v e " (a p ro b lem o r i e n t e d ) o r an "un-active" (an i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d ) s e a r c h . Response f r e q u e n c i e s f o r ea c h o f t h e s i t u a t i o n a l shown in T a b l e 5 . 1 3 . s t a t e m e n t s r e s p o n d e n t s s e l e c t e d from a r e Both t h e p ro ble m and i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d s t a t e m e n t s were s e l e c t e d q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y by t h e 36 r e s p o n d e n t s . F i f t e e n r e s p o n d e n t s (40.5%) i n d i c a t e d a p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n t h a t was c o n s i d e r e d t o be i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d . Of t h e r e m a i n i n g 21 r e s p o n d e n t s who s e l e c t e d e i t h e r o f t h e prob lem o r i e n t e d s t a t e m e n t s , 16 (43.2%) s e l e c t e d t h e one most d i r e c t l y f o c u s i n g on t h e manual. Communication Chan nels The communication ch an n e l v a r i a b l e f o c u s e d s p e c i f i c a l l y on how r e s p o n d e n t s f i r s t h e a r d a b o u t t h e manual b e i n g a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e and t h e y e a r t h a t i t was p u r c h a s e d o r r e c e i v e d . 5.14, a ll As r e v e a l e d in T ab l e s o u r c e s e x c e p t one ( r a d i o announcement) w ere r e s p o n s i b l e f o r c r e a t i n g awareness o f th e m anual's a v a i l a b i l i t y . Alth oug h o n l y s l i g h t l y h i g h e r th a n t h e r e s t , t h e g r e a t e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s f i r s t h e a r d a b o u t t h e manual b e i n g a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e t h r o u g h a newsp ape r announcement (10 o r 27 .8%). An eq u al number h e a r d a b o u t t h e m a n u a l ' s a v a i l a b i l i t y t h r o u g h e i t h e r a mail announcement o r a t a P r o j e c t PEST "Walking Tour" (7 o r 19.4% e a c h ) ; t h r e e (8.3%) were a l e r t e d t o t h e manual v i a announcements a t t h e M e r i d i a n Mun ici pal 202 Table 5 .1 3 . Why respondents purchased the manual Reason ( o r i e n t a t i o n ) n % 15 40.5 16 43.2 Always on t h e l o o k - o u t f o r p e s t c o n t r o l p u b l i c a t i o n s and d e c i d e d i t would be u s e f u l t o have ( pr ob lem ) 5 13.5 Re ce iv ed a s a g i f t ( n o t a p p l i c a b l e ) 1 2.7 37 10 0. 0 Heard a b o u t and t h o u g h t i t would be u s e f u l (innovation) I n t e r e s t e d in t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and how i t c o u l d be used in t h e y a r d (pro ble m) To ta l Table 5.14. How r e s p o n d e n t s f i r s t h e a r d a b o u t t h e manual b e i n g av ailab le fo r sale n % Newspaper announcement 10 27.8 Radio announcement — — Communication s o u r c e Mail announcement 7 19.4 P r o j e c t PEST "Walking Tour" 7 19.4 M er id i an Municipal B l d g . / a r e a l i b r a r i e s 3 8.3 Friend/neighbor 6 1 6. 7 Ot her* 3 8.3 36 100.0 Total * P r o j e c t PEST s u r v e y p a r t i c i p a n t ( 1 ) , husband ( 1 ) , p r o f e s s i o n a l m e e ti n g ( 1 ) . 203 B u i l d i n g and a r e a l i b r a r i e s . Thus , 27 (74.9%) o f t h e manual u s e r s f i r s t h e a r d o f i t t h r o u g h one o f t h e above m e nt io ne d mass media communication c h a n n e l s . Only s i x r e s p o n d e n t s (16.7%) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had become aware o f t h e manual t h r o u g h an i n t e r p e r s o n a l s o u r c e ( f r i e n d / neighbor). Compared t o t h e t o t a l f o r a l l mass media s o u r c e s , t h e in te rp e rs o n a l source is q u ite sm all. However, i f t h e i n t e r p e r s o n a l s o u r c e i s compared t o ea ch i n d i v i d u a l mass media s o u r c e , i t becomes much more s i g n i f i c a n t . And f i n a l l y , w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e y e a r t h e manual was p u r c h a s e d o r r e c e i v e d , 35 r e s p o n d e n t s (94.6%) i n d i c a t e d 1981 and two (5.4%) i n d i c a t e d 1982. Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Innovation Two s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s were used t o measure t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' p e r c e i v e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o r a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e s o f t w a r e and hard ware components o f t h e manual. In a d d i t i o n , a t o t a l s c o r e f o r a l l it em s in eac h d i f f e r e n t i a l was c a l c u l a t e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' o v e r a l l a t t i t u d e s to w ar d ea ch component o f t h e manual. A t t r i b u t e S c o r e s f o r t h e S o f tw a r e Component. A ttr i b u te s of the s o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual — t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s - t h a t were measured i n c l u d e d i t s : r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e (5 i t e m s ) ; c o m p a t i b i l i t y (2 i t e m s ) ; c o m p l e x i t y (2 i t e m s ) ; t r i a l a b i l i t y and o b s e r v a b i l i t y (1 i t e m ) . p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 1 5 . (1 i t e m ) ; Scores f o r a l l f iv e a t t r i b u t e s are An e x a m i n a t i o n o f mean s c o r e s f o r t h e f i v e a t t r i b u t e s showed t h a t , o v e r a l l , t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n 204 Table 5.15. A t t r i b u t e s c o r e s f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual R e la tiv e advantage n % Scores 5 - 12 (negative) 13 - 19 (neutral) 20 21 - 28 29 - 35 ----- - - (positive) Total x = 22.4 s = 3.8 9 24.3 5 1 3 .5 22 59.5 1 2.7 37 100 .0 range = 1 6 - 3 3 C om patibilitv n % Scores 2 - 4 5 - 7 8 --- (negative) (neutral) 9 - 11 12 - 14 (positive) Total --- 3 8.1 2 5.4 5 13.5 6 16.2 2 5.4 24 64,9 20 54.1 5 1 3 .5 7 18 .9 37 10 0 .0 37 100.0 x = 9.8 s = 1. 7 range = 7 - 1 4 T rialab ility n % Scores 1 - 3 (negative) 4 5 -7 Co mp le xit y* “n % x = 9.4 s = 2.7 range = 3 - 1 4 O bservability n % 1 2.7 11 29.7 (neutral) 10 27.0 11 29.7 (positive) 26 70.3 15 40.5 37 10 0. 0 37 100.0 Total x = 5 . 4 s = 1. 1 ra n g e = 3 - 7 s = 1. 2 x = 4.2 range = 1 - 6 *A h i g h e r ( p o s i t i v e ) s c o r e c o r r e s p o n d s t o l e s s c o m p l e x i t y . 205 and p r a c t i c e s i n t h e manual was m o d e r a t e l y p o s i t i v e . total Based on t h e number o f p o s i t i v e s c o r e s , t h e o r d e r o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s was: (1) c o m p a t i b i l i t y (29 o r 78.4%); ( 2 ) c o m p l e x i t y (27 o r 73%); (3) t r i a l a b i l i t y (26 o r 70.3%); ( 4 ) r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e (23 o r 62.2%); and ( 5 ) o b s e r v a b i l i t y (15 o r 40.5%). While t h e number o f r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v i n g e ac h o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s n e g a t i v e l y was f a r l e s s , a t r e n d was n e v e r t h e l e s s a p p a r e n t ; o b s e r v a b i l i t y , r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e and c o m p l e x i t y were n e g a t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d by c o n s i d e r a b l y more r e s p o n d e n t s ( 1 1 , 9 and 8 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) t h a n c o m p a t i b i l i t y and t r i a l a b i l i t y respectively). (2 and 1, F i n a l l y , q u i t e a few r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d n e u t r a l r e a c t i o n s to each o f t h e f i v e a t t r i b u t e s , e s p e c i a l l y o b s e r v a b i l i t y (11 o r 29.7%) and t r i a l a b i l i t y (10 o r 27%). A t t r i b u t e S c o r e s f o r t h e Hardware Component. A ttr i b u te s of the har d w ar e component - - t h e manual a s a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n - - t h a t were measured i n c l u d e d i t s : relativ e a d v a n t a g e (2 i t e m s ) ; c o m p l e x i t y (7 i t e m s ) ; a p p e a r a n c e (2 i t e m s ) ; and d u r a b i l i t y (1 i t e m ) . Table 5.16. S c o r e s f o r t h e s e f o u r a t t r i b u t e s a r e shown in Based on mean s c o r e s , t h e manual a s a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n was p e r c e i v e d a s m o d e r a t e l y t o extremely p o s itiv e . F or a l l a t t r i b u t e s e x c e p t one — d u r a b i l i t y - - t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' s c o r e s o c c u r r e d in t h e p o s i t i v e ranges. In f a c t , t h e modal f r e q u e n c y f o r a p p e a r a n c e (21 o r 56.8%) and c o m p l e x i t y (18 o r 48.6%) o c c u r r e d i n t h e e x t r e m e l y p o s i t i v e r a n g e . Based on t h e t o t a l number o f p o s i t i v e s c o r e s , t h e o r d e r o f har dw are a t t r i b u t e s was: ( 1 ) c o m p l e x i t y (32 o r 86. 4%) ; (2) a p p e a r a n c e (27 o r Ta bl e 5 . 1 6 . A t t r i b u t e s c o r e s f o r t h e har dw are component o f t h e manual R e la tiv e advantage n % Scores 2 - 5 (negative) 6 - 8 9 (neutral) 10 - 12 13 - 14 (positive) Total Compl exi ty n % Scores 3 8.1 7 - 17 5 13 .5 18 - 28 6 16. 2 29 12 32.4 30 - 39 11 29.7 40 - 49 37 100. 0 (negative) — — 5 (neutral) — (positive) Total 14 37.8 18 48.6 37 100. 0 00 s = 7.8 r a n g e = 20 - 49 ii • A p pea ran ce — 00 1X 0 H II 1 X s = 2.9 range = 2 - 1 4 1 3. 5 D urability n % n % Scores 1 2.7 1 - 3 (negative) 2 5.4 2 5.4 4 (neutral) 20 5 4 .1 7 1 8. 9 5 -7 (p o sitiv e). 15 40.5 11 - 12 6 1 6 .2 37 100 .0 13 - 14 21 56.8 37 100. 0 (negative) 6 - 9 10 (neutral) (positive) Total x = 12 .3 s = 2.6 range = 2 - 1 4 T ot al s = 1. 1 range = 3 - 7 II 2 - 5 XI Scores 207 73%); (3) r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e (23 o r 62.1%); and (4) d u r a b i l i t y (15 o r 40.5%). The number o f r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v i n g t h e ha rd w ar e a t t r i b u t e s n e g a t i v e l y v a r i e d from a low o f two (5.4%) f o r d u r a b i l i t y t o a high o f e i g h t (21.6%) f o r r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e . Seven r e s p o n d e n t s (18.9%) i n d i c a t e d a n e u t r a l r e a c t i o n f o r a p p e a r a n c e and s i x (16.2%) i n d i c a t e d t h e same f o r r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s (20 o r 54.1%) i n d i c a t e d a n e u t r a l r e a c t i o n f o r durability. On whole t h e n , i t a p p e a r s t h a t from a c o m p a r a t i v e s t a n d p o i n t , w h i l e b ot h components o f t h e manual were p e r c e i v e d p o s i t i v e l y , t h e hard w are component was p e r c e i v e d s l i g h t l y more p o s i t i v e l y t h a n t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e m a n u a l . A t t i t u d e s Toward t h e S o f t w a r e and Hardware Components. all i t e m s in ea ch o f t h e s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s Based on (18 f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component and 16 f o r t h e har dw are c o m p o n e n t) , a t t i t u d e s c o r e s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r ea ch o f t h e components ( T a b l e 5 . 1 7 ) . The d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r each o f t h e a t t i t u d e s were v er y sim ilar. Mean s c o r e s were b o th w i t h i n t h e m o d e r a t e l y p o s i t i v e r a n g e , a l t h o u g h t h e mean s c o r e f o r t h e hardw are component was g r e a t e r t h a n i t s neutral s c o r e by more t o t a l u n i t s t h a n f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component (19 v s . 16 u n i t s ) . In ea ch c a s e , t h e t o t a l number o f p o s i t i v e s c o r e s e q u a l e d 34 (91.9%) and t h e t o t a l number o f n e g a t i v e s c o r e s e q u a l e d t h r e e (8.1%) — b o t h in t h e same m o d e r a t e l y n e g a t i v e r a n g e . However, t h e r a n g e and v a r i a b i l i t y o f s c o r e s was s l i g h t l y g r e a t e r f o r t h e har d w ar e component. Ta bl e 5 . 1 7 . A t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r t h e s o f t w a r e and har dw are components o f t h e manual S o f t w a r e component n % A ttitu d e scores 18 - 44 — (negative) — 16 - 41 8.1 42 - 67 — — 68 28 75.7 69 - 90 6 16. 2 91 - 112 37 10 0 . 0 45 - 71 72 3 (neutral) 73 - 99 100 - 126 (positive) Total Hardware component n % A ttitu d e scores — (negative) 3 (n eutral) (positive) Total x = 88.0 s = 12.4 r a n g e = 61 - 116 T ab l e 5 . 1 8 . — 8.1 — — 19 51.4 15 40.5 37 100. 0 x = 8 7 . 0 s = 13. 7 r a n g e = 45 - 108 The d e g r e e t o which r e s p o n d e n t s f e l t t h e manual had changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and h a n d l i n g p e s t pr o bl em s in t h e i r y a r d Very much so n % Degree o f change Somewhat To a small d e g r e e n % n % Not a t a l l n % T o ta l n % T h i n k in g a b o u t 5 14 .7 23 67.6 3 8.8 3 8.8 34 100. 0 H and li ng 7 20.0 22 62.9 3 8.6 3 8.6 35 100.0 209 Consequences The ch an ge s o c c u r r i n g t o manual u s e r s was t h e l a s t o f t h e measured v a r i a b l e s d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e model. A measure o f d i r e c t c o n s e q u e n c e s was s o u g h t by a s k i n g t h e s e r e s p o n d e n t s t o i n d i c a t e t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e y f e l t t h e manual had changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and a c t u a l l y h a n d l i n g p e s t pr ob le m s in t h e yard. By summing t h e w e i g h t e d r e s p o n s e s from t h e s e two q u e s t i o n s , a co n s eq ue n c e s c o r e was c a l c u l a t e d f o r e ac h r e s p o n d e n t . Res pon se s f o r t h e two co n s eq u en c e q u e s t i o n s a r e shown i n T a b l e 5.18 (see previous p age). F r e q u e n c i e s f o r ea ch q u e s t i o n were a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l an d , o v e r a l l , i n d i c a t e d some d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d change f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f manual u s e r s . The l o w e s t f r e q u e n c i e s f o r each q u e s t i o n o c c u r r e d in t h e " n o t a t a l l " and " t o a small d e g r e e " change categories. By f a r , t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e manual had changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and h a n d l i n g p e s t pr oblems "somewhat" (23 o r 67.6% f o r t h i n k i n g a b o u t and 22 o r 62.9% fo r handling). Five r e s p o n d e n t s (14.7%) i n d i c a t e d a cha ng e o f " v er y much so" f o r t h i n k i n g a b o u t p e s t p r o b l e m s ; seven (20%) i n d i c a t e d t h e same f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t p r o b le m s . The model f r e q u e n c y f o r co n s e q u e n c e s c o r e s ( T a b l e 5 . 1 9 ) was f o u r (20 o r 58. 8%) , i n d i c a t i v e o f a m o d e ra te o r medium d e g r e e o f o v e r a l l ch a n g e . The l a r g e number o f r e s p o n d e n t s r e c e i v i n g t h i s s c o r e was no d o u b t a r e s u l t o f many r e p o r t i n g a change o f "somewhat" ( w i t h a w e i g h t o f 2) f o r ea ch o f t h e co n s e q u e n c e q u e s t i o n s . Th ree r e s p o n d e n t s (8.8%) r e c e i v e d t h e maximum s c o r e o f s i x , c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o a g r e a t deal o f c h a n g e ; two (5.9%) i n d i c a t e d no change t a k i n g place a t a ll (a s c o r e o f 0 ) . The r e m a i n i n g n i n e r e s p o n d e n t s (26.5%) 210 Table 5 .1 9 . Consequence scores Score 0 (no c h an ge ) 1 (low) 2 3 4 5 6 (high) Total n % 2 2 3 4 20 --3 5.9 5.9 8.8 1 1 .8 58.8 34 10 0. 0 8.8 x = 3.5 Table 5.20. s = 1.4 P l a n t g ro u ps on which p e s t p r o b le m s o c c u r r e d and r e q u i r e d management P l a n t group Problems occurred n % Pro blem s d i d not occur n % Total n % Ornamental/shade t r e e s 28 75.7 9 24.3 37 10 0. 0 Fruit trees 15 40.5 22 59.5 37 10 0. 0 Sh rubs 20 54 .1 17 45.9 37 10 0. 0 FIowers 17 45.9 20 5 4. 1 37 10 0. 0 Lawn 21 56.8 16 43.2 37 100.0 V e g e t a b l e g ar d en 21 56.8 16 43.2 37 10 0 .0 211 r e c e i v e d s c o r e s i n d i c a t i n g a low ( 1 ) t o s l i g h t l y l e s s th a n mo d e ra te (3) d e g r e e o f c ha ng e . D escriptive C h a ra c te ris tic s P e s t C o n tr o l on P l a n t Groups in t h e Y a r d . Res p on d en ts were f i r s t as k ed t o i n d i c a t e t h e p l a n t g ro u ps in t h e i r y a r d t h a t had p e s t pr ob le m s and r e q u i r e d management o v e r t h e p a s t two y e a r s ( 19 81- 82 ) (Table 5 .2 0 , see p re v io u s page). P e s t p ro b le m s r e q u i r i n g management o c c u r r e d most f r e q u e n t l y on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s . Based on an eq u al number o f r e s p o n s e s f o r e a c h , two p l a n t g ro u p s r a n k e d s e c o n d ; t h e lawn and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n . The o r d e r o f im p o r t a n c e f o r t h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e was s h r u b s , f l o w e r s and f r u i t t r e e s . R es p o n d en t s were t h e n a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f time t h e y had used p e s t i c i d e s , a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s o r to o k no a c t i o n when managing p e s t pr ob le m s on t h e p l a n t g ro u p s i n d i c a t e d above. R e s u l t s f o r t h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s who s u p p l i e d t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n a r e p re s e n te d in Tables 5 .2 1 -5 .2 3 . As shown in T a b l e 5 . 2 1 , a m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n d e n t s f o r ea ch o f t h e s i x p l a n t g ro up s i n d i c a t e d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s some p e r c e n t a g e o f the time. While t h e u s e o f p e s t i c i d e s 100% o f t h e t i m e was r e g i s t e r e d f o r ea ch o f t h e p l a n t g r o u p s , most r e s p o n d e n t s u s i n g t h e s e compounds d i d so l e s s t h a n 50% o f t h e ti m e ( e x c e p t on f r u i t t r e e s ) . In a d d i t i o n , a number o f r e s p o n d e n t s a l s o i n d i c a t e d no u s e o f p e s t i c i d e s (0% u s a g e ) f o r e ac h o f t h e p l a n t g r o u p s . Based on p e r c e n t a g e s , 0% u s ag e o f p e s t i c i d e s r a n g e d from a h ig h o f 35.3% f o r v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s t o a low o f 12.5% f o r o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s . Table 5 .2 1 . The percentage o f tim e p e s tic id e s were used to manage pest problems P l a n t gr o up s Usage (%) 0 O rn a m e n t a l / s ha d e t r e e s n % Fruit trees n % Shrubs n % Lawn F low ers n % n % V egetable ga rd en n % 3 1 2. 5 4 33.3 3 1 7 .6 2 15.4 5 29.4 6 3 5. 3 1 - 25 8 33.3 1 8.3 6 3 5 .3 6 46.2 6 35.3 4 23.5 26 - 50 5 20.8 — — 6 35.3 3 2 3. 1 2 11.8 3 17 .6 51 - 75 1 4.2 2 16 .7 — — — — 1 5.9 2 11. 8 76 - 99 2 8.3 — — — — — 1 5.9 1 5.9 100 5 20.8 5 41.7 2 11.8 2 15.4 2 1 1 .8 1 5.9 24 100. 0 12 100.0 17 100.0 13 100.0 17 100. 0 17 100 .0 T ot al — 213 A l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s ( T a b l e 5 . 2 2 ) were used f a r l e s s . For a l l p l a n t g r o up s e x c e p t v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s , w e l l o v e r 60% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d no use o f a l t e r n a t i v e s (0% u s a g e ) ; t h i s f i g u r e was 100% f o r f r u i t t r e e s . When a l t e r n a t i v e s were u s e d , t h e y were t y p i c a l l y u se d l e s s t h a n 50% o f t h e t i m e . The g r e a t e s t t o t a l percentage o f respondents using a l t e r n a t i v e s occurred f o r vegetable g a r d e n s (5 8 .8 % ), a l t h o u g h t h e most v a r i a b i l i t y in us ag e o c c u r r e d f o r ornam ental/shade t r e e s . One r e s p o n d e n t e a c h , r e p o r t e d u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s 100% o f t h e t i m e on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s and s h r u b s . And f i n a l l y , t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f t i m e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y took no a c t i o n in r e s p o n s e t o a p e s t prob lem v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y (Table 5 .2 3 ). For a l l p l a n t g r ou p s e x c e p t o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , o v e r 40% o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had t a k e n no a c t i o n o v e r 50% o f t h e ti m e when c o n f r o n t e d w i t h a p e s t problem ( t h i s f i g u r e was 33% f o r o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s ) . Exce pt f o r two o f t h e p l a n t g r o u p s - - f r u i t t r e e s and s h r u b s — a l l p e r c e n t a g e r a n g e s were r e p r e s e n t e d by a t l e a s t one r e s p o n d e n t . And, b ec a u se t o t a l us ag e o f t h e t h r e e management o p t i o n s needed t o eq ua l 100%, f i g u r e s in t h e 0% us a g e c a t e g o r y c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s whose us e o f p e s t i c i d e s a n d / o r a l t e r n a t i v e s t o t a l e d 100%. S a t i s f a c t i o n with R e s u lt s . Res po n de nt s who i n d i c a t e d t h a t th e y had used o r implemented p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual were as k ed t o i n d i c a t e , by p l a n t g r o u p , how s a t i s f i e d t h e y were w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o f applying the p r a c t i c e s . As shown i n T a b l e 5 . 2 4 , t h e m a j o r i t y o f respondents r e p o r tin g s a t i s f a c t i o n r a ti n g s f o r ornamental/shade t r e e s , s h r u b s , f l o w e r s and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were Table 5 .2 2 . The percentage o f tim e a lte r n a tiv e s to p e s tic id e s were used to manage pest problems P l a n t grou ps Ornamental/ sh ade t r e e s n % Fruit trees n % 18 7 5 .0 12 1 - 25 1 4.2 — 26 - 50 2 8.3 51 - 75 1 76 - 99 100 Usage (%) 0 Total Shrubs FIowers n % n % 12 70.6 9 — 3 17. 6 4 — — 1 5.9 — — 4.2 — — — — — 1 4.2 — — — — 1 4.2 — — 1 24 100.0 12 100. 0 17 100 .0 Lawn Vegetable ga rd en n % n % 69.2 15 88.2 7 41.2 30.8 2 1 1. 8 7 41.2 — — 3 17. 6 — — — — — — — — — — — 5.9 — — — — — — 100.0 13 100.0 17 100. 0 17 100.0 Table 5 .2 3 . The percentage o f tim e no ac tio n was taken to manage pest problems P l a n t grou ps Usage (%) O r n am en t al / sh ad e t r e e s n % F ruit trees n % Shrubs Lawn Flowers n % n % Vegetable gard en n % n % 41.7 4 23.5 3 2 3 .1 3 17. 6 5 29.4 — — — 1 7.7 1 5.9 1 5.9 0 9 37.5 5 1 - 25 3 12 .5 — 26 - 50 4 16 .7 2 16.7 4 23.5 2 15.4 3 17. 6 4 23.5 51 - 75 2 8.3 1 8.3 3 1 7. 6 2 15.4 1 5.9 1 5.9 76 - 99 5 20.8 — — 4 23.5 4 30.8 5 29.4 4 23.5 100 1 4.2 4 33.3 2 1 1. 8 1 7.7 4 23.5 2 11.8 24 100.0 12 100 .0 17 100. 0 13 100 .0 17 100.0 17 100 .0 T ot al Tab le 5 . 2 4 . S a t i s f a c t i o n from u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual P l a n t group S atisfaction level Very satisfied Ornamental/ shad e t r e e s n % Vegetable F ruit trees n % FI owers n % Shrubs n % Lawn n % n % __ 4 40.0 44.4 4 40.0 1 10. 0 1 10. 0 1 5.6 2 28.6 1 10 .0 1 1 6 .7 12 66.7 1 14. 3 5 5 0 .0 3 50.0 D o n 't know 2 11.1 1 1 4 .3 SI i g h t l y satisfied 2 11.1 1 1 4 .3 2 2 0 .0 1 1 6 .7 3 33.3 Not s a t i s ­ fied a t all 1 5.6 2 28.6 2 20.0 1 16 .7 2 22.2 18 100. 0 7 100. 0 10 100.0 6 100 .0 9 100.0 Satisfied T ot al — — — — 4 — — — 10 — 100.0 Ill e i t h e r " s a t i s f i e d " o r "very s a t i s f i e d " with the r e s u l t s . An equa l number o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s above ( p o s i t i v e ) and below ( n e g a t i v e ) a n e u t r a l r e a c t i o n ( " d o n ' t know") f o r f r u i t trees. The l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t i n g " n e g a t i v e " r a t i n g s o c c u r r e d f o r l a w ns . Recommending t h e Manual t o O t h e r s . Of t h e 34 r e s p o n d e n t s who c o m p le te d t h i s q u e s t i o n , 17 (50%) i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had recommended t h e manual t o e i t h e r a f r i e n d , n e i g h b o r o r r e l a t i v e . Addition o f In fo rm atio n . Twent y- sev en (87.1%) o f t h e 31 r e s p o n d e n t s who an s w er ed t h i s q u e s t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y would l i k e to see a d d itio n a l i n f o r m a t i o n added t o t h e ma nu al. Of t h e 20 r e s p o n d e n t s who o f f e r e d s u g g e s t i o n s , 12 i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e empty p l a n t group s e c t i o n s s h o u l d be c o m p l e t e d , seven w an ted a d d i t i o n a l , more s p e c i f i c management i n f o r m a t i o n f o r p e s t s and p e s t pr obl em s a l r e a d y c o v e r e d i n t h e m a n u a l, and one r e s p o n d e n t d e s i r e d more e x p l i c i t i n f o r m a t i o n on a p p l y i n g p e s t i c i d e s . B e s t and L e a s t Li ked A s p e c t s o f t h e Manual. Twenty-eight r e s p o n d e n t s p r o v i d e d one t o s e v e r a l comments ea c h r e g a r d i n g w h at t h e y l i k e d b e s t a b o u t t h e m a n ua l. The m a j o r i t y o f t h e comments c o n c e r n e d a s p e c t s o f t h e h ar d w ar e component o f t h e manual. For e xa m pl e, 17 o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e manner in which t h e m a t e r i a l was o r g a n i z e d and p r e s e n t e d g r e a t l y en h an c ed t h e i r u s e o f t h e m an ual ; f i v e s t r e s s e d t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f u s i n g t h e manual a s a p l a c e t o s t o r e a l l o f t h e i r o t h e r p e s t management m a t e r i a l s . However, a number o f b e s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e manual a l s o f o c u s e d on i t s s o f t w a r e component. Six r e s p o n d e n t s e x p r e s s e d p o s i t i v e re m a rk s a b o u t t h e 218 q u a l i t y and t i m e l i n e s s o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and two i n d i c a t e d a s t r o n g p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e IPM a p p r o a c h t a k e n in t h e manual. Many o f t h e l e a s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e manual were i d e n t i c a l t h o s e b e s t l i k e d by r e s p o n d e n t s . to For t h e 23 r e s p o n d e n t s who i n d i c a t e d what t h e y l i k e d l e a s t a b o u t t h e m a n u a l, hardware a s p e c t s again predominated. Seven commented on t h e empty p l a n t group s e c t i o n s , f o u r e x p r e s s e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e manual was t o o l a r g e a n d , t h e r e f o r e , t o o cumbersome t o e a s i l y u s e , t h r e e r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e p ag es were e a s i l y t o r n and d i f f i c u l t t o t u r n and two f e l t t h a t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e manual was e x t r e m e l y d i f f i c u l t t o u n d e r s t a n d . Comments r e l a t e d t o t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual i n c l u d e d : i n f o r m a t i o n in t h e manual l a c k e d d e p t h on c e r t a i n s u b j e c t s , such a s p e s t i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and management t e c h n i q u e s (4 r e s p o n d e n t s ) and t h e IPM a p p r o a c h was sim p l y t o o c o m p l i c a t e d and ti m e- co n s u m i n g f o r homeowners t o e f f e c t i v e l y p r a c t i c e (2 r e s p o n d e n t s ) . P a r t i c i p a t i o n in P r o j e c t PEST A c t i v i t i e s . As shown in T a b l e 5 . 2 5 , 20 r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had p a r t i c i p a t e d i n one o r more P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s . Of t h e r e m a i n i n g 17 manual u s e r s , 16 i n d i c a t e d no in v o l v e m e n t and one d i d n o t c o m p l e t e t h e q u e s t i o n . Twelve r e s p o n d e n t s (60%) to o k p a r t i n o n l y one p r o j e c t a c t i v i t y ; t h e r e m a i n i n g e i g h t (40%) r e p o r t e d two o r more. The l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s (12 o r 60%) p a r t i c i p a t e d in P r o j e c t PEST by t a k i n g p a r t in t h e o r i g i n a l a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y ( r e c e i v e d t h e p r o j e c t q u e s t i o n ­ naire). C o n v e r s e l y , o n l y two (5%) o f t h e 20 had a t t e n d e d t h e p r o j e c t " k i c k o f f " m e e t i n g in November, 1979. 219 Table 5.25. P a r t i c i p a t i o n in P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s P roject a c t iv it ie s n a. A t t e n d e d t h e p r o j e c t " k i c k o f f " m ee tin g b. P a r t i c i p a t e d a s a p r o j e c t com mittee member c. P a r ti c ip a t e d as a p r o j e c t v o lunteer % d. Re ce iv ed a copy o f t h e p r o j e c t q u e s t i o n n a i r e 4 20.0 e. Attended th e August 1980 "Walking Tour" 3 15 .0 f. Attended th e August 1981 "Walking Tours" 5 25.0 a and d 2 1 0 .0 d and e 1 5.0 d and f 4 20.0 d , e and f 1 5.0 20 100 .0 Total 220 T e s t s o f Hypoth es es The se cond p a r t o f a n a l y s i s f o c u s e d on ex am in in g and t e s t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o p o s e d in t h e 15 s t u d y h y p o t h e s e s u s i n g c o r r e l a t i o n analysis. 5.26 a re th e r e s u l t s P r e s e n t e d in T a b l e of the c o r r e la tio n a n a l y s i s and i n c l u d e : t h e z e r o - o r d e r Pe ar so n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i ­ cient (r); i t s level o f s ig n ific a n c e ( a ) ; the c o e f f i c i e n t of p d e t e r m i n a t i o n ( r ) ; and t h e number o f c a s e s (n) us ed t o c a l c u l a t e t h e coefficients. The n v a r i e d from h y p o t h e s i s t o h y p o t h e s i s b e c a u s e p a i r w i s e d e l e t i o n o f m i s s i n g d a t a was p e r f o r m e d ; t h a t i s , a c a s e was d e l e t e d from t h e c o m p u t a t i o n o f a g iv e n c o e f f i c i e n t when t h e v a l u e o f e i t h e r o f t h e two v a r i a b l e s was m i s s i n g (Nie e t a l . 1 9 7 5 ) . With re s p e c t to the level of s ig n if ic a n c e considered "acceptable" f o r t e s t i n g h y p o t h e s e s , r e s e a r c h e r s t y p i c a l l y use an a l p h a o f . 0 5 , o r .001 (Babbi e 19 8 3) . .01, Because o f t h e e x p l o r a t o r y n a t u r e o f t h i s s t u d y , t h e r e l a t i v e l y sm al l sample s i z e and t h e p o t e n t i a l a t t e n u a t i o n o f a number o f c o e f f i c i e n t s due t o t h e i r u n d er m e as u r em en t , t h e a c c e p t a b l e s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l f o r r e j e c t i n g t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was "relaxed" to .1. However, a s s t a t e d a b o v e , t h e a c t u a l s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l f o r e ac h a s s o c i a t i o n i s reported, s h o u l d t h e r e a d e r wis h t o r e a c h h i s own c o n c l u s i o n s . Individual C h a r a c te r is t ic s So cioeconomic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . H yp ot h es es 1 - 3 in d i c a te the e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s o c io e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s — a g e , e d u c a t i o n , so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s - - and t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e ma nu al. Alth ou gh i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t age would n o t be r e l a t e d t o Table 5 .2 6 . Summary o f z e ro -o rd e r c o rre la tio n s fo r the 15 study hypotheses A lternative statistical hypothesis r Level o f significance (a) Age w i l l n o t be r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f adoption s c o re s . r =0 -.2754f .055 .0758 35 E d u c a t i o n s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t of adoption sc o re s . r >0 .3430* .022 .1176 35 Socioeconomic s t a t u s s c o r e s w i l l be n eg ativ ely r e la te d to e x te n t of adoption s co res. r <0 -.4141* .007 .1715 35 A ttitu d e scores f o r handling p est pro ble m s on p l a n t s i n t h e y a r d w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f adoption s co res. r >0 -.0460 .395 .0021 36 A ttitu d e scores f o r using p e s t i c i d e s i n t h e y a r d w i l l be n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x t e n t of adoption sc o re s . r <0 .030 1035 35 A ttitu d e scores f o r using a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s i n t h e y a r d w i l l be p o s itiv e ly re la te d to ex ten t of adoption sc o re s . r >0 .356 .0042 35 Index o f communication b e h a v i o r s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t of adoption s co res. r >0 .4533* .004 .2055 33 F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual s c o r e s w i l l be n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t of adoption sco res. r <0 .1451 .206 .0211 34 A lte rn a tiv e em pirical hypothesis 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. .3 21 7+ -.0646 ? r Table 5 .2 6 . (Continued) A lte rn a tiv e em pirical hypothesis 9. 10. 11. A 1ternative statistical hypothesis r Level o f significance (a) Problem o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t of adoption sco res. r > 0 .2630* .061 .0692 36 Mass media ch ann el s c o r e s w i l l be p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to the f i r s t year t h a t t h e manual was made a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e (1981). r > 0 .3750* .016 ,1406 33 For s o f t w a r e a t t r i b u t e s : a. R e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e s c o r e s w i l l be po sitiv ely related to extent of adoption sco res. b. C o m p a t i b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o s itiv e ly re la te d to extent of adoption scores. c . Compl exi ty s c o r e s w i l l be p o sitiv ely rela te d to extent of adoption s co res. d. T r i a l a b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o s itiv e ly re la te d to extent of adoption s c o re s . e. O b s e r v a b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o sitiv ely related to extent of adoption s c o re s . ro PO ro r > 0 .0565 .372 .0032 36 r > 0 .1025 .276 .0105 36 r > 0 .0277 .436 .0008 36 r > 0 .2448* .075 .0599 36 r > 0 .1665 .166 .0277 36 Table 5 .2 6 . (Continued) A lte rn a tiv e em pirical hypothesis 12. 13. 15. r Level o f significance (« ) 2 n r > 0 -.0212 .451 .0004 36 r > 0 -.3393+ .021 .1151 36 r > 0 .1355 .215 .0184 36 r > 0 -.0769 .328 .0059 36 r > 0 .0099 .477 .0001 36 A t t i t u d e s c o r e s f o r t h e hard ware component o f t h e manual w i l l be p o s itiv e ly re la te d to e x ten t of adoption s co res. r > 0 -.0617 .360 .0038 36 E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s w i l l be p o s i ­ t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o co n s e q u e n c e s c o r e s . r > 0 .085 .0601 33 Fo r har dw are a t t r i b u t e s : a. R e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e s c o r e s w i l l be p o s itiv e ly re la te d to ex ten t of adoption scores. b. Compl exi ty s c o r e s w i l l be p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to e x te n t of adoption scores. c . Appe ara nce s c o r e s w i l l be p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to e x te n t of adoption scores. d. D u r a b i l i t y s c o r e s w i l l be p o s itiv e ly r e la te d to e x te n t of adoption scores. .2451* +Denotes a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n (p < . 1 ) o p p o s i t e t h e e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n . * r Denotes a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n (p < . 1 ) i n t h e e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n . 223 14. A ttitu d e scores f o r the software component o f t h e manual w i l l be p o sitiv e ly re la te d to extent of adoption sc o re s . A lternative statistical hypothesis 224 e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n , c o r r e l a t i o n r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d a weak, y e t s i g n i f i c a n t , n e g a t i v e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p ( r = - . 2 7 5 4 ) w i t h age a c c o u n t i n g f o r , o r " e x p l a i n i n g " , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7.6% ( r v a r i a n c e in a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . x 100) o f t h e T h e re fo re , i t appears t h a t f o r the age o f r e s p o n d e n t s (manual u s e r s ) in t h i s s t u d y , t h e y o u n g e r t h e r e s p o n d e n t s , t h e g r e a t e r was t h e i r e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between e d u c a t i o n and e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n was in the expected d ir e c tio n ( p o s i t i v e ) and s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .1 (and . 0 5 ) level. The s t r e n g t h o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n was s l i g h t l y s t r o n g e r th a n 2 t h a t f o r a g e , w i t h an r o f .3430 and and r o f . 1 17 6. Thus , r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h more e d u c a t i o n a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t than th o se w ith l e s s e d u c a tio n . Of t h e t h r e e s o c io e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s e x h i b ite d th e s t r o n g e s t l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p with e x t e n t o f adoption ( r = - . 4 1 4 1 ) , a c c o u n t i n g f o r 17% o f t h e v a r i a n c e in t h e d e p e n d e n t variable. In a d d i t i o n , t h e n e g a t i v e r v a l u e and t h e m a g n it u d e o f a l p h a ( . 0 0 7 ) c o n f i r m e d t h e e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p e x p r e s s e d in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s : r e s p o n d e n t s e x h i b i t i n g h i g h e r so ci o ec o n o m ic s t a t u s ( l o w e r s c o r e s ) a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n t h o s e e x h i b i t i n g lo w e r s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ( h i g h e r s c o r e s ) . Personality C h a ra c te ris tic s . The e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e t h r e e a t t i t u d e s and e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n a r e e x p r e s s e d in hypotheses 4 - 6 . As can be s e e n , v i r t u a l l y no l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between r e s p o n d e n t s ' a t t i t u d e s to w a r d h a n d l i n g p e s t pr oblems in t h e y a r d o r u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ( r = - . 0 4 6 0 and - . 0 6 4 6 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s e s were a c c e p t e d in b o th t h e s e c a s e s . 225 On t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i l e a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n was found between r e s p o n d e n t s ' a t t i t u d e s to w ar d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d and e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n ( r = . 3 2 1 7 ) , i t was in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n ( p o s i t i v e ) o f t h e e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p ( n e g a t i v e ) between t h e s e two variables. T h e r e f o r e , r e s p o n d e n t s p o s s e s s i n g a more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e to w ar d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s i n t h e y a r d a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n t h o s e p o s s e s s i n g a l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard t h i s a c t i v i t y . Communication B e h a v i o r . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o p o s e d in h y p o t h e s e s 7 and 8 f o c u s e d on communication b e h a v i o r and t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual. The c o r r e l a t i o n between r e s p o n d e n t s ' in d e x o f communication b e h a v i o r s c o r e s and e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t (a = . 0 0 4 ) , in t h e e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n ( p o s i t i v e ) and m o d e r a t e l y s t r o n g o ( r = .4533; r = .2055). Given t h e r a t i o n a l e used t o c o n s t r u c t t h e i n d e x , t h e s e v a l u e s s u p p o r t t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s who " t y p i c a l l y " use a l a r g e r number o f s o u r c e s f o r i n f o r m a t i o n on h a n d l i n g p e s t pr ob le m s in t h e i r y a r d a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e u s i n g a s m a l l e r number o f s o u r c e s . The c o e f f i c i e n t f o r h y p o t h e s i s 8 — f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual - - was p o s i t i v e ( . 1 4 5 1 ) , o r in t h e o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n o f th e proposed r e l a t i o n s h i p . While a p o s i t i v e r v a l u e would i n d i c a t e t h a t t h o s e r e s p o n d e n t s l e s s f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual had a d o p t e d i t t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n t h o s e more f a m i l i a r w i t h t h i s p e s t management a p p r o a c h , t h e c a l c u l a t e d alpha level ( . 2 0 6 ) p r o h i b i t e d r e j e c t i n g t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s and t h u s reaching t h i s conclusion. 226 Problem v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n . The l a s t h y p o t h e s i s e x am in in g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r (number 9) p r o p o s e d t h a t r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t i n g a p ro ble m o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n would have a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e i n d i c a t i n g an i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d d e c i s i o n . R esults of the c o r r e l a t i o n a n a ly s is supported the r e je c ti o n o f the n u l l h y p o t h e s i s ( a = .0 61 ) and i n d i c a t e d a weak ( r = . 2 6 3 0 ) , y e t p o s i t i v e , a s s o c i a t i o n between a problem o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . Communication Ch annels The a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s f o r communication c h a n n e l s (number 10) p r o p o s e d t h a t a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between mass media c h a n n e l s u s e d t o p u b l i c i z e t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f t h e manual and t h e f i r s t y e a r i t was made a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e ( 1 9 8 1 ) . This r e l a t i o n s h i p was s u p p o r t e d by t h e a n a l y s i s ( r = . 3 7 5 0 ; a = . 0 1 6 ) , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t , f o r t h e most p a r t , r e s p o n d e n t s who p u r c h a s e d t h e manual i n 1981 f i r s t h e a r d o f i t s a v a i l a b i l i t y t h r o u g h a mass media c h a n n e l . Perceived C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the Innovation A t t r i b u t e s o f t h e S o f t w a r e Component. The e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between e ac h o f t h e f i v e s o f t w a r e a t t r i b u t e s and e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n a r e p r e s e n t e d in h y p o t h e s i s 11. V i r t u a l l y no l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e ( r = - . 0 5 6 5 ) o r c o m p l e x i t y ( r = .0 2 7 7 ) and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . While t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r c o m p a t a b i l i t y ( r = - . 1 0 2 5 - - o p p o s i t e i t s e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n ) and o b s e r v a b i l i t y ( r = . 1 6 6 5 ) e x h i b i t e d weak a s s o c i a t i o n s w i t h t h e 227 d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l s ( . 2 7 6 and .1 66 ) p r o h i b i t e d r e j e c t i n g t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s in ea ch c a s e . The o n l y s o f t w a r e a t t r i b u t e t h a t was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual was t r i a l a b i l i t y . T h i s a s s o c i a t i o n , however, was weak a t b e s t , a c c o u n t i n g f o r s l i g h t l y l e s s th a n 6% o f t h e v a r i a n c e in a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . A t t i t u d e s Toward t h e S o f t w a r e Component. As t h e r e s u l t s f o r h y p o t h e s i s 12 show, t h e e x p e c t a t i o n o f a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e s p o n d e n t s ' o v e r a l l a t t i t u d e s to w ard t h e s o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual and e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n was n o t s u p p o r t e d . In f a c t , t h e ma g n it u d e o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ( - . 0 2 1 2 ) i n d i c a t e d e s s e n t i a l l y no l i n e a r a s s o c i a t i o n between t h e two v a r i a b l e s . A t t r i b u t e s o f t h e Hardware Component. With r e s p e c t t o t h e p r o p o s e d r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e f o u r ha rd w ar e a t t r i b u t e s and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ( h y p o t h e s i s 1 3 ) , an a b s e n c e o f any l i n e a r a s s o c i a t i o n was i n d i c a t e d f o r a p p e a r a n c e ( r = - . 0 7 6 9 ) and d u r a b i l i t y ( r = .0099). A weak, a l t h o u g h n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t , p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was shown f o r c o m p l e x i t y ( . 1 3 5 5 ) . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , w hile the r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e and e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t (a = . 0 2 1 ) , i t s d i r e c t i o n was c o n t r a r y ( n e g a t i v e ) t o t h e e x p e c t e d r e l a t i o n s h i p p r o p o s e d in t h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s (positive). C o n s e q u e n t l y , r e s p o n d e n t s who a d o p t e d t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t te n d e d t o p e r c e i v e i t s (hardware) r e l a t i v e advantage more n e g a t i v e l y t h a n t h o s e a d o p t i n g i t t o a l e s s e r e x t e n t . A t t i t u d e s Toward t h e Hardware Component. An a b s e n c e o f l i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n ( r = - . 0 6 1 7 ) was a l s o i n d i c a t e d f o r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p 228 between t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' o v e r a l l a t t i t u d e s to w ard t h e ha rd w ar e component o f t h e manual and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ( h y p o t h e s i s 1 4 ) . Consequences The f i n a l h y p o t h e s i s (number 15) p r o p o s e d t h a t e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual would be p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o c o n s e q u e n c e s c o r e s , o r t h e e x t e n t t o which r e s p o n d e n t s f e l t t h a t t h e y had changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and a c t u a l l y h a n d l i n g p e s t p r ob le m s in th e ir yard. T h i s a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s was a c c e p t e d (a = . 0 8 5 ) , a l t h o u g h t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n was weak ( r = . 2 4 5 1 ; r 2 = .0601). M u ltiv ariate R elationships The t h i r d p a r t o f a n a l y s i s c o n s i s t e d o f e x p l o r i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual and t h e e n t i r e s e t o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ( e x c l u d i n g b o th communication c han ne l v a r i a b l e s and t h e c o n s e q u e n c e v a r i a b l e ) t h r o u g h t h e use o f m ultiple regression an a ly sis. The method s e l e c t e d f o r r e g r e s s i n g t h e 20 i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s on e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n was f o r w a r d ( s t e p w i s e ) inclusion. Based on p r e - s e l e c t e d s t a t i s t i c a l criteria, The v a r i a b l e t h a t e x p l a i n s t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e u n e x p l a i n e d by t h e v a r i a b l e s a l r e a d y in t h e e q u a t i o n e n t e r s t h e e q u a t i o n a t ea ch s t e p . Th u s, t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e which i s ch os en f o r e n t r y i s t h e one which ha s t h e l a r g e s t s q u a r e d p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e (Nie e t a l . 1 9 7 5 : 3 4 5 ) . Using t h e SPSS "Subprogram R e g r e s s i o n " (Nie e t a l . 1 9 7 5 ) , t h e d e f a u l t ( pr e- p r og r am m ed ) v a l u e s f o r t h e t h r e e s t a t i s t i c a l c r i t e r i a u se d t o 229 " s e l e c t " t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s w ere : ( 1 ) n , t h e maximum number o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s t h a t w i l l be e n t e r e d i n t o t h e e q u a t i o n ( d e f a u l t = 8 0 ) ; ( 2 ) F, t h e minimum l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r t h e F r a ti o of reg ressio n c o e f f ic ie n ts th a t the user is w illin g to accept fo r v a ria b le s th a t w ill be i n c l u d e d i n t h e e q u a t i o n ( d e f a u l t = . 0 1 ) ; and ( 3 ) T, t o l e r a n c e , o r t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f t h e v a r i a n c e o f an i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e b e i n g c o n s i d e r e d f o r i n c l u s i o n n o t e x p l a i n e d by t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s a l r e a d y in t h e r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n (d e f a u lt = .001). Based on t h e s e c r i t e r i a , a l l 20 i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s were i n c l u d e d in t h e f i n a l r e g r e s s i o n e q u a t i o n . Results o f the a n a ly sis a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e 5 . 2 7 and i n c l u d e : t h e m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (R); th e s i g n i f i c a n c e le v el o f R ( a ) ; the c o e f f i c i e n t of 2 2 d e t e r m i n a t i o n (R ) ; t h e i n c r e m e n t a l change in R ; and t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l f o r t h e ch an g e i n R (a). a r e c o n t a i n e d in Appendix F.) (A dditional m u ltip le re g re s s io n r e s u l t s The a l p h a v a l u e ( b a s e d on an F r a t i o ) f o r ea ch o f t h e s u c c e s s i v e m u l t i p l e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s ( s e e T a b l e 5 . 2 7 ) , and most im portantly f o r the f in a l R ( .0 1 6 ) , supported r e j e c t i n g the null h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n and t h e l i n e a r c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e 20 i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s was eq ua l (th a t is , R = 0). In a d d i t i o n , to zero t h e ma g ni tu de o f t h e o v e r a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p , a s e x p r e s s e d by R, was e x t r e m e l y s t r o n g ( . 9 5 9 1 3 ) . Using t h e more e a s i l y i n t e r p r e t e d c o e f f i c i e n t o f d e t e r m i n a t i o n (R ) f o r d i s c u s s i o n p u r p o s e s , a p p r o x i m a t e l y 92% o f t h e t o t a l v a r i a n c e o f e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n , f o r t h e 29 r e s p o n d e n t s i n c l u d e d in t h e Table 5 .2 7 . S te p Results o f regressing 20 independent v a ria b le s on e x te n t o f adoption scores* Variable entered R S ignifi­ can c e (a) R2 R2 change Si gn i f i canc e (a) .42307 .022 .17899 .17899 .022 2 Socioeconomic s t a t u s .56893 .006 .32368 .14469 .026 3 Software t r i a l a b i 1i ty .72415 .0 00 .52439 .20071 .003 4 Hardware r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e .77502 .000 .60066 .07626 .043 5 Index o f communication b e h a v i o r .80801 .000 .65288 .05222 .076 6 S o f t w a r e compati b i 1 i t y .82216 .000 .6759 4 .02307 .224 7 Age .83713 .000 .70079 .02484 .201 8 Pesticides a ttitu d e .84517 .000 .71432 .01353 .342 9 H a nd li n g p e s t pro ble m s a t t i t u d e .85234 .001 .72648 .01216 .370 A lternatives to p esticides attitude .86307 .001 .74489 .01841 .269 11 F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM .89508 .000 .80117 .05628 .042 12 Hardware c o m p l e x i t y .89919 .001 .80855 .00738 .4 44 13 Hardware a t t i t u d e .91131 .001 .83049 .02194 .184 14 Hardware a p p e a r a n c e .93070 .001 .86620 .03571 .07 4 15 Hardware d u r a b i l i t y .94518 .000 .89337 .02718 .092 10 230 Problem v s . i n n o v a t i o n orientation 1 Table 5 .2 7 . Step (Continued) V ariable en tered R S ignifi­ cance (a) R2 R2 change S ignifi­ c an c e (a) 15 E d u c a ti o n .95211 .001 .90651 .01314 .218 17 Software r e l a t i v e advantage .95637 .001 .91465 .00814 .328 18 Software com plexity .95777 .003 .91732 .00267 .582 19 Software a t t i t u d e .95906 .007 .91980 .00247 .611 20 Software o b s e r v a b i l i t y .95913 .016 .91993 .00013 .911 *A11 m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n r e s u l t s a r e b a s e d on an n o f 29. 232 a n a l y s i s , was a c c o u n t e d f o r by t h e l i n e a r c o m b in a ti o n o f t h e 20 independent v a r ia b le s . The f i r s t v a r i a b l e e n t e r e d i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s was problem v s . innovation o r i e n t a t i o n , in d ic a tin g t h a t i t explained the g r e a t e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e ( . 1 7 8 9 9 ) in a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . The second v a r i a b l e e n t e r e d - - t h e one t h a t pr od uce d t h e g r e a t e s t i n c r e m e n t in 2 R , in c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h t h e f i r s t - - was s o ci o ec o no m ic s t a t u s , which added s l i g h t l y o v e r 14% t o e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e . V a r i a b l e s e n t e r e d on subsequent s te p s , c o n tr ib u tin g s u b s t a n t i a l l y to explained v a ria n c e , i n c l u d e d : t h e t r i a l a b i l i t y a t t r i b u t e o f t h e s o f t w a r e component (20%); t h e r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e a t t r i b u t e o f t h e ha rd w ar e component ( 7. 6% ) ; and t h e inde x o f communication b e h a v i o r (5 .2 % ). These f i v e v a r i a b l e s a c c o u n t e d f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 65% o f t h e t o t a l e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e (92%). Alth ou gh t h e r e m a i n i n g 15 v a r i a b l e s c o n t r i b u t e d t o e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e in a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , i n d i v i d u a l l y t h e y a v e r a g e d 3% o r l e s s ( e x c e p t f o r f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e m a n u a l ) . To g a i n a p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c a c i e s o f t h e d i f f e r e n t v a r i a b l e s i n t h e e q u a t i o n and t h e i r a b i l i t y t o add t o t h e r e g r e s s i o n , 2 an F - t e s t ca n be a p p l i e d t o t h e i n c r e m e n t a l ch an g e s i n R ( K e r l i n g e r and P ed h az u r 19 73 ). p R ejection of the null hypothesis (incremental R = 0) would i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i n c r e m e n t a l in c re a s e in R e x p l a i n e d by t h a t v a r i a b l e added s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o t h e r e g r e s s i o n ( o n l y a s f a r as statistical s ig n ific a n c e is concerned). I f the a c c e p ta b le alpha level i s a g a i n s e t a t . 1 , t h r e e v a r i a b l e s can be added t o t h e f i v e l i s t e d ab ov e: f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual ( 5. 6% ); t h e a p p e a r a n c e a t t r i b u t e o f t h e ha rd w ar e component (3 .5 % ) ; and t h e 233 d u r a b i l i t y a t t r i b u t e o f t h e ha rd w are component (2 .7% ). This i n c r e a s e d t h e t o t a l amount o f v a r i a n c e e x p l a i n e d by t h e s e e i g h t " s i g n i f i c a n t " v a r i a b l e s t o e x a c t l y 77.2% F in a lly , r e s u l t s of the m u ltip le re g re ssio n a n a ly s is e s s e n t i a l l y " r e f l e c t e d " t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d in t h e c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s . For e x am p le , t h e f i r s t f i v e v a r i a b l e s e n t e r e d - - and t h o s e t h a t c l e a r l y e x p l a i n e d t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e - - were ea ch s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ( b a s e d on z e r o - o r d e r c o r r e l a t i o n s ) . The same was t r u e f o r age and a t t i t u d e s to w ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d ( e n t e r e d on s t e p s 7 and 8 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . On t h e o t h e r h and , v a r i a b l e s t h a t e x h i b i t e d l i t t l e o r no l i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n were e n t e r e d on s u b s e q u e n t s t e p s ( e x c e p t f o r e d u c a t i o n ) ; most n o t a b l y v a r i a b l e s m e as u ri n g t h e h ar d w ar e and s o f t w a r e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e m a n u a l. CHAPTER 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS In t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r , a b r i e f o v e r v i e w o f t h e s t u d y and a summary o f t h e s u r v e y r e s u l t s a r e p r e s e n t e d f i r s t . The s eco nd s e c t i o n i s d e v o t e d t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t were r e a c h e d r e g a r d i n g t h e manual a s a means f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o urban homeowners and t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model a s a means f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r p r o c e s s in g e n e r a l . Based on s t u d y f i n d i n g s and c o n c l u s i o n s , a number o f i m p l i c a t i o n s t h a t o t h e r s m i g h t u s e t o h e l p p l a n and improve t h e i r tr a n s f e r e f f o r t s are discussed. The f i n a l two s e c t i o n s p r e s e n t t h e l i m i t a t i o n s e n c o u n t e r e d i n t h i s s t u d y and recom men dat ion s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h in t h i s a r e a . Summary In r e c e n t y e a r s , i n t e g r a t e d p e s t management (IPM) h as been r e c o g n i z e d and promoted a s a p o t e n t i a l pr ob le m s on u r b an v e g e t a t i o n . s tr a t e g y f o r dealing w ith p e s t While r e s e a r c h s t i l l n e e d s t o be c o n d u c t e d on t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s o f a p p l y i n g t h i s e c o l o g i c a l a p p r o a c h t o managing p e s t p r ob le m s i n u r b an s i t u a t i o n s , an a d d i t i o n a l a r e a o f i n q u i r y t h a t h a s been v i r t u a l l y u n i n v e s t i g a t e d i s t h e 234 235 t r a n s f e r o f IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o a s i g n i f i c a n t ur ban p e s t management d e c i s i o n - m a k e r — t h e urban homeowner. T h i s s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s a r e s p o n s e t o t h a t n ee d . I t was u n d e r t a k e n t o e v a l u a t e a r e c e n t e f f o r t t o t r a n s f e r IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o homeowners in a Michi gan su b u r b a n community; P r o j e c t PEST's P e s t Management Manual — a homeowner's s e l f - h e l p g u i d e t o IPM. A model d e v e l o p e d t o e x p l a i n t h e p r o c e s s by which i n d i v i d u a l s a d o p t new i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s , c a l l e d t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s m o d e l, was u se d as t h e framework f o r e v a l u a t i n g t h e manual. In a d d i t i o n t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e m o d e l ' s u s e f u l n e s s a s a means t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d and p e r h a p s improve o t h e r p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s , a n s w er s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e P e s t Management Manual were sought: 1. Was t h e manual used ? 2. To w h a t e x t e n t was i t us ed ? 3. What c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e manual a f f e c t e d i t s use o r non-use? 4. What a r e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f manual owners? 5. To w ha t e x t e n t d i d t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a f f e c t i t s use o r non-use? manual owners A number o f v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model were s e l e c t e d and m e as ur e s f o r t h e i r u s e in t h i s s t u d y were c o n s t r u c t e d . Usin g a s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d mail q u e s t i o n n a i r e , d a t a w e r e c o l l e c t e d from 41 o f t h e 75 manual owners in P r o j e c t PEST's t a r g e t community - - M e r i d i a n C h a r t e r Township, M ic h i g a n . an alysis consisted of: Data (1 ) d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d a t a ; (2 ) t e s t i n g a number o f h y p o t h e s e s d e r i v e d from t h e m od el , u s i n g c o r r e l a t i o n a n a l y s i s ; and ( 3 ) e x p l o r i n g 236 t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual (the d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ) and t h e e n t i r e s e t o f i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s in th e study using m u ltip le re g re s s io n a n a l y s i s . R esults of th e an aly se s a r e summarized and p r e s e n t e d below. G eneral D e s c r i p t i o n E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e manual: 1. Of t h e 41 manual owners who c o m p le te d t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e , f o u r had n o t us ed t h e manual a t a l l ; 15 had r e a d p a r t s o f t h e manual o n l y ; and 22 had r e a d p a r t s and were c u r r e n t l y u s i n g p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual t o h a n d l e p e s t pro bl em s on p l a n t s in t h e y a r d . 2. Only one o f t h e manual n o n - u s e r s r e j e c t e d t h e manual. The r e m a i n i n g t h r e e were c o n s i d e r e d t o be s t i l l i n t h e knowledge s t a g e o f t h e model. None o f t h e 37 manual u s e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had r e j e c t e d t h e manual. (Sub­ s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s was b as ed on t h e 37 manual u s e r s o n l y . ) 3. A l a r g e number o f t h e 20 i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e from t h e manual were "used" by r e s p o n d e n t s . 4. For 18 o f t h e 20 t o t a l i t e m s , c o n s i d e r a b l y more r e s p o n d e n t s p e r c e i v e d them a s new o r i n n o v a t i v e , th a n old. 5. The manual r e p r e s e n t e d a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r , r a n g i n g i n s i z e ( e x t e n t ) from two t o 17 i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s , f o r 34 o f 36 manual u s e r s . 6. The e x t e n t o f r e - i n v e n t i o n o f t h e manual r a n g e d from two t o 17 i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s . 7. E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s r an g ed from a low o f 13 ( t h r e e i t e m s u s e d ) t o a h ig h o f 434 (20 i t e m s u s e d ) . it em s Individual c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : 8. The age o f manual u s e r s r a n g e d from 27 t o 79 y e a r s o l d ; t h e a v e r a g e age was 47. 9. E d u c a t i o n l e v e l s were q u i t e h i g h : a l l manual u s e r s had c o m p l e t e d h i g h s c h o o l ; 97.2% r e p o r t e d p u r s u i n g a n d / o r c o m p l e t i n g some t y p e o f c o l l e g e t r a i n i n g . 10. The s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s o f manual u s e r s was a l s o h i g h : 75% w er e c l a s s i f i e d in t h e two h i g h e s t soc io ec on om ic 237 s t a t u s c l a s s e s ; t h e r e m a i n i n g 25% w ere c l a s s i f i e d i n t h e m id dl e t o l o w e r m id dle s oc io ec on om ic s t a t u s c l a s s e s . 11. S l i g h t l y o v e r 75% o f t h e manual u s e r s r e p o r t e d a g r o s s f a m i l y income g r e a t e r th a n t h e 1980 U.S. median f a m i l y income o f $ 2 1 , 5 0 3 . 12. Based on mean s c o r e s , manual u s e r s ' a t t i t u d e s to w ard h a n d l i n g p e s t problem s on p l a n t s in t h e y a r d , u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s and u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t problems in t h e y a r d were m o d e r a t e l y positive. 13. The t h r e e s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n used " f r e q u e n t l y " by t h e l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s were p r i n t e d mass media m a t e r i a l s and i n c l u d e d : p a c k a g e / c o n t a i n e r l a b e l s ( 52 .9 % ) ; p a m p h l e t s / m a n u a l s (50%); and books ( 2 9. 4% ). For t h o s e s o u r c e s us ed " s o m e t i m e s " , i n t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n n e l s p r e d o m i n a t e d : f r i e n d s / n e i g h b o r s (58 .8% ); ga rd en s t o r e p e r s o n n e l (50%); and c o o p e r a t i v e e x t e n s i o n p e r s o n n e l (47 .1% ). 14. Based on in de x o f communication b e h a v i o r s c o r e s , manual u s e r s ' communication b e h a v i o r r a t i n g s were: low ( 41 .2 % ) ; medium (53%); and h ig h ( 5. 8 % ). 15. Over h a l f (54.3%) o f t h e manual u s e r s w ere n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e m a n u a l ; 8.6% were ve ry f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM; 25.7% w ere somewhat f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM; and 11.4% i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had h e a r d a b o u t IPM b u t d i d n o t r e a l l y know what i t meant. 16. For p r o bl em v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n , 40.5% i n d i c a t e d a p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n c o n s i d e r e d t o be i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d ; 56.7% i n d i c a t e d a problem o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n . Communication c h a n n e l s : 17. The m a j o r i t y o f manual u s e r s (74.9%) f i r s t h e a r d o f t h e m a n u a l ' s a v a i l a b i l i t y t h r o u g h a mass media communication c h a n n e l ; 16.7% h e a r d o f i t t h r o u g h an i n t e r p e r s o n a l channel. Perceived c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the innovation: 18. Based on mean s c o r e s , p e r c e p t i o n o f ea ch o f t h e f i v e softw are a t t r i b u t e s - - r e l a t i v e advantage, compati­ b i l i t y , c o m p l e x i t y , t r i a l a b i l i t y , o b s e r v a b i l i t y — was m oderately p o s i t i v e . 19. Based on mean s c o r e s , p e r c e p t i o n o f e ac h o f t h e f o u r ha rd w are a t t r i b u t e s — r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , c o m p l e x i t y , a p p e a r a n c e , d u r a b i l i t y - - was m o d e r a t e l y t o e x t r e m e l y positive. 238 20. Based on mean s c o r e s , manual u s e r s ’ a t t i t u d e s tow ard t h e s o f t w a r e and ha rd w ar e components o f t h e manual w ere moderately p o s i t i v e . Cons equ enc es: 21. Over 90% o f t h e manual u s e r s f e l t t h a t t h e manual had changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and h a n d l i n g p e s t pr ob le m s in t h e y a r d t o some d e g r e e . The d e g r e e o f change c a t e g o r y s e l e c t e d by t h e m a j o r i t y o f manual u s e r s ( o v e r 60%), i n ea c h c a s e , was "somewhat." 22. Based on c o n s e q u e n c e s c o r e s , o v e r a l l cha ng e r a t i n g s f o r manual u s e r s w er e: h ig h (8.8 % ); m o d e ra te (5 8.8%); m o d e ra te t o low ( 2 6 .5 % ) ; and no change a t a l l (5 .9 % ). D escriptive c h a r a c te r i s t ic s : 23. The o v e r a l l r a n k i n g o f p l a n t g r o u p s on w hich p e s t pr obl em s o c c u r r e d and r e q u i r e d management was: o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s ; law n; v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n ; s h r u b s ; f l o w e r s ; and f r u i t t r e e s . 24. Most manual u s e r s i n d i c a t e d u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s l e s s t h a n 50% o f t h e t i m e f o r a l l p l a n t g ro u p s e x c e p t f r u i t trees. 25. For a l l p l a n t g r o u p s e x c e p t v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s , w e l l o v e r 60% o f t h e manual u s e r s i n d i c a t e d no us e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s . When a l t e r n a t i v e s were u s e d , t h e y were t y p i c a l l y u s ed l e s s t h a n 50% o f t h e t i m e . 26. For a l l p l a n t g r o u p s e x c e p t o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , o v e r 40% o f t h e manual u s e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had t a k e n no a c t i o n o v e r 50% o f t h e ti m e when c o n f r o n t e d w i t h p e s t p r o b le m s . 27. With r e s p e c t t o s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h r e s u l t s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f manual u s e r s who had a p p l i e d p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual on o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , s h r u b s , f l o w e r s and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were e i t h e r s a t i s f i e d o r very s a t i s f i e d w ith th e r e s u l t s . An eq u al number i n d i c a t e d b o th p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e s a tis fa c tio n ra tin g s fo r f r u i t tr e e s ; the la rg e s t number o f n e g a t i v e r a t i n g s o c c u r r e d f o r la w n s . 28. F i f t y p e r c e n t o f t h e manual u s e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had recommended t h e manual t o e i t h e r a f r i e n d , neighbor or r e l a t i v e . 29. Tw enty-sev en (87.1%) o f 31 manual u s e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y would l i k e t o s e e a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n added to th e manual. Suggestions included: completing the 239 empty p l a n t gr oup s e c t i o n s ; more s p e c i f i c management i n f o r m a t i o n f o r p e s t s and p e s t pr ob le m s a l r e a d y c o v e r e d in t h e m a n u a l; and more e x p l i c i t i n f o r m a t i o n on a p p l y i n g pesticides. 30. B e s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e manual i n c l u d e d : t h e manner in which t h e m a t e r i a l was o r g a n i z e d and p r e s e n t e d ; t h e c o n v e n i e n c e o f t h e manual a s a p l a c e t o s t o r e o t h e r p e s t management m a t e r i a l s ; t h e q u a l i t y and t i m e l i n e s s o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n ; and t h e IPM a p p r o a c h . 31. L e a s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e manual i n c l u d e d : t h e empty p l a n t group s e c t i o n s ; i t s s i z e ( t o o l a r g e and cumbersome); p a g e s were e a s i l y t o r n and d i f f i c u l t t o t u r n ; i t s o r g a n iz a t i o n ; the lack o f depth o f inform ation on c e r t a i n s u b j e c t s ; and t h e IPM a p p r o a c h . 32. Twenty (54%) o f t h e manual u s e r s had p a r t i c i p a t e d in one o r more P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s . The l a r g e s t number o f r e s p o n d e n t s (12 o r 60%) had t a k e n p a r t i n t h e o r i g i n a l a s s e s s m e n t s t u d y ; t h e f e w e s t (2 o r 5%) had a t t e n d e d t h e p r o j e c t " k i c k o f f " m e e t i n g i n November, 1979. T e s t s o f Hy pot hes es 1. Based on z e r o - o r d e r Pe ar so n c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s and a s ig n if i c a n c e level of .1 , a s i g n i f i c a n t degree of l i n e a r a s s o c i a t i o n was c o n f i r m e d in 10 o f t h e 22 r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r o p o s e d in t h e 15 s t u d y h y p o t h e s e s . 2. Seven o f t h e 10 s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s were in t h e expected d i r e c t i o n . The f o l l o w i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s were confirmed: a. b. c. d. e. f. E d u c a ti o n was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual ( r = . 3 4 3 0 ) . S oci oeconomic s t a t u s was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual ( r = - . 4 1 4 1 , a n e g a t i v e s t a t u s s c o r e c o r r e s p o n d e d t o h ig h s o c i o ­ economic s t a t u s ) . D i v e r s i t y ( i n d e x ) o f communication b e h a v i o r was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d to e x te n t o f adoption of the manual ( r = . 4 5 3 3 ) . A pro ble m o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual ( r = .2630). Mass media c h a n n e l s were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e f i r s t y e a r t h a t t h e manual was made a v a i l a b l e f o r s a l e (1 981) ( r = . 3 7 5 0 ) . The p e r c e i v e d t r i a l a b i l i t y o f t h e s o f t w a r e component was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e 240 g. 3. manual ( r = . 2 4 4 8 ) . E x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e d e g r e e o f p e r c e i v e d change ( c o n s e ­ quences) ( r = .2451). Th ree o f t h e 10 s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n s w ere o p p o s i t e t h e i r expected d i r e c t i o n . These r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n c l u d e d : a. b. c. Age was n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual ( r = - . 2 7 5 4 , no r e l a t i o n s h i p was expected). A t t i t u d e s to w ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s a s a way t o h a n d l e p e s t pr ob le m s in t h e y a r d were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual ( r = . 3 2 1 7 ) . The p e r c e i v e d r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e har dw are component was n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual ( r = . 3 3 9 3 ) . M ultiv ariate R elationships 1. All 20 i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s used i n t h e a n a l y s i s were inc luded in th e f i n a l r e g r e s s io n e quation (u sin g forw ard, s t e p w i s e i n c l u s i o n ) and a c c o u n t e d f o r 92% o f t h e v a r i a n c e in e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual. 2. Based on a s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l o f . 1 , e i g h t v a r i a b l e s a c c o u n t e d f o r s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t amounts o f e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e t h a t t o t a l e d 77.2%. These v a r i a b l e s were ( s t e p e n t e r e d / % o f v a r i a n c e e x p l a i n e d ) : p r o b le m v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n ( 1/ 1 8% ) ; so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s (2/14.5%); th e t r i a l a b i l i t y a t t r i b u t e o f th e softw are component (3 /2 0 % ); t h e r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e a t t r i b u t e o f t h e ha rd w ar e component ( 4 / 7 . 6 % ) ; ind ex o f communication b e h a v i o r ( 5 / 5 . 2 % ) ; f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual ( 1 1 / 5 . 6 % ) ; t h e a p p e a r a n c e a t t r i b u t e o f t h e h ar d w ar e component ( 1 4 / 3 . 5 % ) ; and t h e d u r a b i l i t y a t t r i ­ b u t e o f t h e h ar d w ar e component ( 1 5 / 2 . 7 % ) . Conclusions Stu dy c o n c l u s i o n s a r e o r g a n i z e d and p r e s e n t e d in two p a r t s . C o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e P e s t Management Manual a s a means f o r t r a n s f e r r i n g IPM i n f o r m a t i o n t o ur b an homeowners a r e p r e s e n t e d in P art I. S p e c i f i c a l l y a d d r e s s e d i s t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual was 241 u s ed and t h o s e f a c t o r s t h a t w ere found t o be a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s u s e . P a r t I I f o c u s e s on t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model a s a means f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e t r a n s f e r o f p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n t o ur b an homeowners. P a r t I : The Manual Use o f t h e Manual Based on t h e method employed t o measu re use o f t h e ma nu al, i t was d e t e r m i n e d t h a t 37 (90.2%) o f t h e 41 manual owners who had r e t u r n e d u s e a b l e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s had a c t u a l l y us ed t h e manual. Alth o u gh t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f manual u s e r s in t h i s group was e x t r e m e l y h i g h , p e r h a p s t h i s was t o be e x p e c t e d . One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s c o n c l u s i o n would be t h a t c o m p l e t i n g t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e was r e l a t e d t o us e o f t h e ma nua l. Even th o ug h t h e s u r v e y c o v e r l e t t e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t p o r t i o n s o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o u l d be c o m p le te d i f t h e manual had n o t been u s e d , p e r h a p s t h o s e manual owners who d i d n o t r e t u r n t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e (n = 27) had n o t used i t a n d , t h e r e f o r e , f e l t t h a t t h e s u r v e y d i d n o t c o n c e r n them. I f t h i s in d e e d w ere t r u e , t h e n t h e 37 manual u s e r s r e p r e s e n t e d 51.4% o f t h e c u r r e n t 72 manual owners i n M e r i d i a n Township. W it h o u t d i r e c t e v i d e n c e , however, t h i s e x p l a n a t i o n i s o n l y s p e c u l a t i v e . On t h e o t h e r h a n d , i t d oe s r e p r e s e n t a " w o r s t c a s e " s i t u a t i o n ; no f e w e r t h a n 37 manual owners had a c t u a l l y us ed t h e m a n u a l . I n f o r m a t i o n and P r a c t i c e Items U sed. Data r e p o r t e d in T a b l e s 5. 1 and 5 . 2 s u g g e s t t h a t e ac h o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s were u s ed by a l a r g e number o f manual u s e r s . Based on t h e t o t a l number o f 242 u s e r s r e a d i n g a b o u t e ac h o f t h e 10 i n f o r m a t i o n it em s ( s e e T a b l e 5 . 1 ) , i t a p p e a r s t h a t s p e c i f i c p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n was s o u g h t most f r e q u e n t l y ; t h a t i s , i n f o r m a t i o n on i d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t p r o bl em s and t h e t y p e s and u s e s o f a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t i c i d e s . These were f o l l o w e d c l o s e l y by t h e more g e n e r a l t o p i c s o f t h e p ro b le m s w i t h p e s t i c i d e s , t h e p r i n c i p l e s and o b j e c t i v e s o f IPM and p r e v e n t i n g p e s t p r ob le m s t h r o u g h p r o p e r p l a n t s e l e c t i o n and c a r e . In a d d i t i o n t o r e a d i n g a b o u t i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s , 22 (61%) o f 36 manual u s e r s r e p o r t e d a p p l y i n g p r a c t i c e s in t h e i r y a r d on a r e g u l a r b a s i s ( s e e Ta b l e 5 . 2 ) . selectively. O v e r a l l , p r a c t i c e i t e m s were used a b i t more A g a in , how ever, ba se d on t h e t o t a l number o f u s e r s a p p l y i n g e ac h o f t h e 10 p r a c t i c e i t e m s , s p e c i f i c p e s t management t e c h n i q u e s p r e d o m i n a t e d ( i d e n t i f y i n g p e s t s and p e s t p r o b l e m s , d e c i d i n g i f and when t o use management t e c h n i q u e s , s e l e c t i n g and a p p l y i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t i c i d e s ) . In f a c t , t h e o r d e r o f t h e s e t o p f o u r p r a c t i c e s r e p r e s e n t i m p o r t a n t components o f t h e IPM d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s : (1) c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f y t h e p e s t a n d / o r pr ob le m ; ( 2 ) d e c i d e i f a c t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y a n d , i f i t i s , which management t e c h n i q u e ( s ) i s / a r e a p p r o p r i a t e ; and (3) s e l e c t and a p p l y t h e a p p r o p r i a t e management t e c h n i q u e ( s ) ( a l t e r n a t i v e s to p e s tic id e s and/or p e s tic id e s ). Beca use manual u s e r s w ere a l s o a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e w h e t h e r t h e i n f o r m a t i o n o r p r a c t i c e s t h e y had us ed r e p r e s e n t e d new o r o l d i t e m s , d a t a from t h e s e two t a b l e s a l s o p r o v i d e d a g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e on t h e p e r c e i v e d newness o f i t e m s u se d from t h e manual. As t h e r e s u l t s showed, f o r 18 o f t h e 20 i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s , c o n s i d e r a b l y more u s e r s p e r c e i v e d them a s new r a t h e r t h a n o l d . C o n s e q u e n t l y , from 243 t h e s t a n d p o i n t o f t h e s e u s e r s , t h e manual c o n t a i n e d a s u b s t a n t i a l amount o f new o r i n n o v a t i v e p e s t management m a t e r i a l . With r e s p e c t t o i n d i v i d u a l i t e m s , i t was a l s o n o te d t h a t a s i m i l a r p a t t e r n e x i s t e d f o r b o th i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s . In f a c t , upon c l o s e r i n s p e c t i o n , i t a l s o a p p e a r e d t h a t t h i s p a t t e r n e x h i b i t e d a good d ea l o f s u b s t a n t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e ; t h a t i s , i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s we m ig ht have e x p e c t e d t o be p e r c e i v e d a s e i t h e r new o r o l d were in d e e d p e r c e i v e d a s s uc h. For exam ple , as s t a t e d in C h a p t e r 3 , one o f t h e new es t a s p e c t s o f t h e manual was t h e method f o r d e c i d i n g i f and when t o use management t e c h n i q u e s ( u s i n g t h e " I n j u r y A c ce p t an ce L e v e l s " c h a r t ) . While t h e f a c t t h a t t h i s ite m was o b j e c t i v e l y new r e a l l y made l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e , i t was n e v e r ­ t h e l e s s t h e " ne w es t" i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m ( b a s e d on "new" r e s p o n s e f r e q u e n c i e s ) and one o f t h e "new es t" p r a c t i c e it em s used by respondents. pesticides. The same r e a s o n i n g c o u l d be a p p l i e d f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s t o Because t h e manual f o c u s e d q u i t e h e a v i l y on p r o v i d i n g t h i s m a t e r i a l , we m ig ht have e x p e c t e d u s e r s who had r e a d a b o u t and a p p l i e d a l t e r n a t i v e s t o have p e r c e i v e d them, f o r t h e most p a r t , as new. And, in f a c t , t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n was e s s e n t i a l l y c o n f i r m e d ; t h e m a t e r i a l on a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s was c o n s i d e r e d t o be t h e se con d " n ew es t" i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m and one o f t h e "new es t" p r a c t i c e i te rns . Only one i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m was c o n s i d e r e d t o be " o l d " by more manual u s e r s t h a n new. The one " o l d " i n f o r m a t i o n it e m was t h e pr ob le m s w i t h p e s t i c i d e s ; t h e " o l d " p r a c t i c e i t e m was handling p e s t i c i d e s s a f e l y . From t h e s e two i t e m s , i t seems t h a t many u s e r s were a l r e a d y aware o f t h e p o t e n t i a l r i s k s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h 244 p e s t i c i d e s a n d , p e r h a p s , to ok t h e a p p r o p r i a t e p r e c a u t i o n a r y s t e p s when u s i n g them. These r e s u l t s would a p p e a r t o be r e a s o n a b l e , gi v e n t h e p e s t c o n t r o l p r o f i l e p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r 1. And, i f we c o n s i d e r t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s had t o make a d e l i b e r a t e e f f o r t t o a c q u i r e t h e m a nu al , i n d i c a t i n g some d e g r e e o f a w a r e n e s s and i n t e r e s t in p e s t management, th e n i t would a l s o be r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t t h e y p o s s e s s e d some d e g r e e o f f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h t h e s e two i t e m s . E x t e n t o f A doption and I m p l e m e n t a t i o n . In a d d i t i o n t o t h e g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e on u s e o f i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s d e s c r i b e d a b o ve , use o f t h e manual was a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e number o f i t e m s ea ch i n d i v i d u a l a c t u a l l y u s e d . C o n s i d e r i n g o n l y new i t e m s a d o p t e d and im ple m ent ed, d a t a in T a b l e 5 . 3 r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e manual d i d in d e e d r e p r e s e n t a t e c h n o l o g y c l u s t e r o f some ma g ni tu de f o r t h e m a j o r i t y o f manual u s e r s . Only two o f t h e 36 u s e r s - - b ot h r e a d i n g a b o u t i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m s o n l y - - i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e manual d i d n o t r e p r e s e n t an i n n o v a t i o n f o r them. For t h e r e m a i n i n g 34, t h e e x t e n t o f t h e c l u s t e r ( o r r e - i n v e n t i o n o f t h e ma nual) v a r i e d c o n s i d e r a b l y from a low o f two i t e m s t o a h ig h o f 17 i t e m s . Considering the t o t a l number o f i t e m s u s e d from t h e m a n u a l, e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s i n d i c a t e d o v e r a l l u s e o f t h e manual and e s s e n t i a l l y IPM ( s e e T a b l e 5 . 4 ) . The r a n g e o f s c o r e s was q u i t e v a r i a b l e , from a low o f 13 (3 i t e m s u s e d ) t o a h i g h o f 434 (20 i t e m s u s e d ) . However, t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i n s c o r e s was b u i l t - i n t o some e x t e n t b e c a u s e i n f o r m a t i o n u s e r s c o u l d o n l y i n d i c a t e a maximum o f 10 i t e m s , w h e r e a s i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e u s e r s c o u l d i n d i c a t e a maximum o f 20 items. In f a c t , o n ly t h r e e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e u s e r s i n d i c a t e d u s i n g l e s s t h a n 10 t o t a l items. Alth ou gh p e r h a p s i n e v i t a b l e , u s e r s 245 who r e a d a b o u t and a p p l i e d p r a c t i c e s d i d u t i l i z e more o f t h e manual a n d , h enc e (on w h o l e ) , p r a c t i c e d IPM t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n t h o s e u s e rs only reading about inform ation items. The most r e v e a l i n g f i n d i n g drawn from t h i s t a b l e was t h a t f o u r r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y had us ed 19 i t e m s , w h e r e a s e i g h t in d ic a te d using a l l 20 i t e m s from t h e manual. me asu re men t r a t i o n a l e , C onsistent with the t h e s e manual u s e r s would be d e s c r i b e d as p r a c t i c i n g IPM " t o a v e r y g r e a t " and " f u l l " e x t e n t , r e s p e c t i v e l y , a s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e m a n u a l. While t h e r e i s no way t o c o n f i r m o r d i s p u t e t h e s e f i g u r e s , t h e y do seem somewhat u n r e a l i s t i c gi ve n t h e sc o p e o f t h e ma nua l. Beyond t h i s i n t u i t i v e d o u b t , t h e r e i s one c i r c u m s t a n c e t h a t m i g h t have c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e s e r e s u l t s . A lthough r e s p o n d e n t s w ere a s k e d t o i n d i c a t e o n l y t h o s e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s t h e y had a c t u a l l y u s ed from t h e m a n ua l, a c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f p r e - t e s t respondents provided answers to a l l item s. Concerned t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n s m i g h t have i m p l i e d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s were t o r e s p o n d t o ea c h o f t h e 10 r e s p e c t i v e i t e m s , an e x p l i c i t s t a t e m e n t was added t o ea ch q u e s tio n p o in t in g o u t t h a t they should respond only to th o se items t h e y had u s e d from t h e ma n ua l. While o n l y s p e c u l a t i o n , t h i s may have c o n t r i b u t e d to th e s e high e x t e n t o f adoption s c o r e s . Individual C h a r a c te r is tic s So cio ec on om ic C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . R e s u l t s f o r t h e so c io e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f manual owners a l o n e would seem t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were i n n o v a t o r s o r e a r l y a d o p t e r s ; e d u c a t i o n a l a t t a i n m e n t , s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s and income w e r e , on a v e r a g e , q u i t e h i g h . T h i s m i g h t a l s o h e l p e x p l a i n why e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n s c o r e s were 246 h i g h . A d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h i s c o n c l u s i o n comes from t h e f a c t t h a t , as s t a t e d in C h a p t e r 3 , t h i s s t u d y t o o k p l a c e r e l a t i v e l y soon (2 y e a r s ) a f t e r t h e manual was i n t r o d u c e d . campaign c o n d u c t e d t o a d v e r t i s e t h e manual Based on t h e p u b l i c i t y ( s e e C h a p t e r 2 ) , i t would n o t be u n r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t more t h a n 75 i n d i v i d u a l s had been aware o f t h e m a n u a l . Because a d o p t e r c a t e g o r i e s a r e b a s e d on t h e r e l a t i v e t i m e o f a d o p t i o n , and i n n o v a t o r s and e a r l y a d o p t e r s r e p r e s e n t a small p e r c e n t a g e o f t o t a l a d o p t e r s , viable conclusion. t h e n t h i s m i g h t be a I t s h o u ld be n o t e d , how eve r, t h a t o v e r a l l s o c i o ­ economic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f M e r i d i a n Township homeowners a r e g e n e r a l l y q u i t e h ig h ( s e e Lambur e t a l . 1 98 2 ) . Consequently, th e re m i g h t a l r e a d y be a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e number o f i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s in t h e s t u d y community. In a d d i t i o n , b ot h e d u c a t i o n and so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r in t h e e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n ; b o th o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s " i n c r e a s e d " a s d i d e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e ma nu al. When combined w i t h t h e o t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s i n r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , s o c i o e c o n o m i c s t a t u s p r o v e d t o be a s t r o n g e x p l a n a t o r y v a r i a b l e , a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e s ec on d l a r g e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e in a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ( 14 .5 % ) . l i t t l e to the re g re ss io n equation. However, e d u c a t i o n added On t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i l e no r e l a t i o n s h i p was e x p e c t e d between age and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , a s i g n i f i c a n t ( a l t h o u g h weak) n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d . Th u s, t h e y o u n g e r t h e u s e r , t h e g r e a t e r t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n . One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p may have been t h a t t h e l a b o r i n t e n s i v e n e s s o f IPM ( a s p r e s e n t e d in t h e ma nual) was more a p p e a l i n g t o y o u n g e r manual u s e r s . And, a s f o r e d u c a t i o n , age d i d n o t c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y in 247 t h e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s , even th oug h i t was e n t e r e d much e a r l i e r in the equation. P e r s o n a l i t y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Based on mean s c o r e s , manual u s e r s ' a t t i t u d e s to w ard ea ch o f t h e t h r e e p e s t management a c t i v i t i e s were m o d e r a t e l y p o s i t i v e ( s e e T ab l e 5 . 9 ) . More s p e c i f i c a l l y , f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t p r ob le m s in t h e y a r d , t h e a l m o s t even d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p o s i t i v e and n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s c o r e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was no d e f i n i t e t r e n d f o r manual u s e r s ; a p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% e x h i b i t e d a f a v o r a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n and 50% an u n f a v o r a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n to w ar d t h i s a c t i v i t y . R e s u l t s o f t h e c o r r e l a t i o n and r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s a l s o i n d i c a t e d a l a c k o f l i n e a r a s s o c i a t i o n between t h i s v a r i a b l e and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , b o th s i n g l y , and i n c o m b i n a t i o n w i t h t h e o t h e r i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s . Th u s, v i r t u a l l y no s u p p o r t was fo un d i n t h i s s t u d y f o r t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ' o r i e n t a t i o n s to w ar d t h e g e n e r a l a d o p t i o n a c t i v i t y en h an c e t h e p r e d i c t i o n a n d / o r e x p l a n a t i o n o f adop­ t i o n b e h a v i o r , a s p r o p o s e d by Pampel and van Es (1977) and T a y l o r and M ill e r (1978). Conversely, th e se r e s u l t s appear to lend su p p o rt to the c o n te n tio n t h a t a general a t t i t u d e i s a poor p r e d i c t o r / e x p l a i n e r of a s p e c ific behavior. A d e f i n i t e p o s i t i v e t r e n d e x i s t e d f o r a t t i t u d e s to w a r d u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s and p e s t i c i d e s t o h a n d l e p e s t p r o bl em s in the yard. pesticides. While t h i s was e x p e c t e d f o r a l t e r n a t i v e s , i t was n o t f o r In f a c t , manual u s e r s ' a t t i t u d e s tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s e x h ib ite d a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s itiv e c o r r e l a ti o n with adoption behavior, w h e r e a s t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tow ard t h e us e o f a l t e r n a t i v e s d i d n o t . ( N e i t h e r c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e in t h e re g r e s s io n a n a l y s i s , however.) In l i g h t o f t h e s e r e s u l t s , i t appears 248 t h a t p e r h a p s t h e p r a c t i c e o f IPM i s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y d e p e n d e n t on an " e i t h e r / o r " s t a n c e r e g a r d i n g p e s t i c i d e s and a l t e r n a t i v e s , as s u g g e s t e d in t h e s t u d y h y p o t h e s e s . In o t h e r w o r d s , a p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s does n o t mean t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l w i l l n o t c o n s i d e r a n d , u l t i m a t e l y us e an IPM ap p r o a c h f o r h a n d l i n g p e s t pr obl em s in t h e y a r d . On t h e c o n t r a r y , manual u s e r s w i t h more p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w ard t h e use o f t h e s e compounds t e n d e d t o use t h e manual t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t th a n t h o s e w i t h l e s s p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e s to w ard t h i s a c t i v i t y . Communication B e h a v i o r . R esults regarding the sources of i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t manual u s e r s c o n s u l t e d f o r p e s t management inform ation e s s e n t i a l l y c o rro b o ra te d those r e p o r te d in o th e r s t u d i e s . P r i n t e d mass media m a t e r i a l s , such a s p r o d u c t l a b e l s and pa m p h le ts and m a n u a ls , w ere us ed most f r e q u e n t l y . Interpersonal channels (fa c e - t o - f a c e co m mu nic at ion ) p r e d o m i n a t e d t h e s o u r c e s t h a t were used "sometimes" and i n c l u d e d c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h f r i e n d s and n e i g h b o r s , g a r d e n s t o r e p e r s o n n e l and C o o p e r a t i v e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e p e r s o n n e l . When t h e s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n u se d were combined i n t o an i n d e x , t h e m a j o r i t y o f u s e r s (94.2%) w ere r a t e d a s e x h i b i t i n g a medium t o low in de x o f communication b e h a v i o r . However, t h i s v a r i a b l e showed one o f t h e s t r o n g e s t c o r r e l a t i o n s w i t h a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ( r = . 4 5 3 3 ) and e x p l a i n e d a f a i r amount o f v a r i a n c e (7.6%) in t h e dependent v a r i a b l e . Th us , i n d i v i d u a l s u s i n g a l a r g e r number o f i n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e s , which would seem t o i n d i c a t e a more a c t i v e i n t e r e s t in p e s t management in g e n e r a l , d i d i n d e e d u s e t h e manual t o a greater extent. 249 Over 50% o f t h e manual u s e r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e y were n o t f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e ma n ua l; t h e r e m a i n i n g u s e r s r e p o r t e d some d e g r e e o f f a m i l i a r i t y ( s e e T ab l e 5 . 1 2 ) . Interestingly, w hile not s i g n i f i c a n t , the c o r r e l a ti o n c o e f f i c i e n t in d ic a te d a s l i g h t l y p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s v a r i a b l e and a d o p t i o n behavior. And, t h e u s e r s ' f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM was one o f t h e e i g h t v a r i a b l e s found t o s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o n t r i b u t e t o e x p l a i n e d v a r i a n c e in e x te n t of adoption. Alth ou gh t e n t a t i v e , t h e s e r e s u l t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t manual u s e r s who were l e s s f a m i l i a r o r n o t a t a l l f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM b e f o r e p u r c h a s i n g t h e manual te n d e d t o use more i t e m s from i t . Even though t h e o p p o s i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p was e x p e c t e d , t h e s e r e s u l t s a r e p e r h a p s more l o g i c a l i f we c o n s i d e r t h a t u s e r s l e s s f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM m i g h t have n e c e s s a r i l y r e l i e d more on t h e manual a s a s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s on t h i s ap p r o ac h t o p e s t management th a n t h o s e who were a l r e a d y f a m i l i a r w i t h IPM. Problem v s . I n n o v a t i o n O r i e n t a t i o n . R esults of the c o r r e l a ti o n and m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s c o n f i r m e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t manual u s e r s who s p e c i f i c a l l y s o u g h t o u t t h e manual f o r p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n (a pro ble m o r i e n t a t i o n ) would have used i t t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t t h a n t h o s e i n d i c a t i n g an i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t e d p u r c h a s e d e c i s i o n ( t h e manual would s im p l y be u s e f u l t o h a v e ) . In f a c t , t h i s v a r i a b l e a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e l a r g e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e in a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r ( a p p r o x i m a t e l y 18%), a l t h o u g h t h e f a c t t h a t i t was d ic hot om ou s may have c o n t r i b u t e d t o i t s a b i l i t y t o e x p l a i n v a r i a n c e in t h e d e p e n d e n t variables. 250 Communication Channels Survey r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f u s e r s who p u r c h a s e d t h e manual i n 1981 f i r s t b ec a u se aware o f i t t h r o u g h a mass media communication c h a n n e l . In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e l a t i v e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e s o u r c e s was a l s o r e v e a l e d : t h e t h r e e most e f f e c t i v e s o u r c e s were news pap er an n ou nc e m en ts , r a d i o announcements and t h e P r o j e c t PEST "Walking T o u r . " C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e Manual The S o f t w a r e Component. Even th oug h t h e m a j o r i t y o f manual u s e r s p o s i t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d ea c h o f t h e f i v e a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e s o f t w a r e component - - t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s in t h e manual — t r i a l a b i l i t y was t h e o n l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t showed a s i g n i f i c a n t and p o s i t i v e l i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n w i t h a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . In f a c t , from an e x p l a n a t o r y p e r s p e c t i v e , t h i s v a r i a b l e a c c o u n t e d f o r t h e g r e a t e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e in us e o f t h e manual (20%). One e x p l a n a t i o n f o r why t r i a l a b i l i t y was t h e o n l y s o f t w a r e a t t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r m ig h t be t h a t i t r e p r e s e n t s one o f t h e a t t r i b u t e s most c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o a c t u a l use o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s i n t h e manual. Alth oug h any manual u s e r c o u l d s p e c u l a t e on t h e d e g r e e t o which IPM was p o s s i b l e t o t r y on a small s c a l e , p e r h a p s t h o s e who a c t u a l l y u s ed more i t e m s from t h e m a n u a l, p a r t i c u l a r l y p r a c t i c e i t e m s , were l e s s s p e c u l a t i v e i n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s t o t h i s attribute. T h i s r e a s o n i n g c o u l d a l s o be a p p l i e d t o t h e o b s e r v a b i l i t y a t t r i b u t e , from a t l e a s t t h e c o r r e l a t i o n r e s u l t s . Although n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , t h e c o e f f i c i e n t f o r o b s e r v a b i l i t y was s t r o n g e r t h a n t h a t 251 o f t h e r e m a i n i n g t h r e e a t t r i b u t e s and i n d i c a t e d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n ­ s h i p w i t h use o f t h e ma nu al. T h i s l i n e o f r e a s o n i n g may a l s o h e l p t o e x p l a i n why r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e , c o m p a t i b i l i t y and c o m p l e x i t y , w h i l e p o s i t i v e l y p e r c e i v e d by a m a j o r i t y o f u s e r s , w ere n o t d i r e c t l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u s e o f t h e ma n ua l. P e r h a p s on a c o n c e p t u a l l e v e l , t h e o v e r a l l i d e a o f IPM a p p e a r s t o o f f e r a d v a n t a g e s a s a way t o manage p e s t p r o b l e m s , i s c o m p a t i b l e w i t h p e o p l e s ' f e e l i n g s a b o u t managing p e s t s and i s r e l a t i v e l y e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d f o r most i n d i v i d u a l s . I f t h i s were t r u e , a s i t a p p e a r e d t o be in t h i s s t u d y , t h e n t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s would not n e c e s s a r i ly e x h i b i t a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n with adoption behavior. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , w h i l e t h e c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e s e t h r e e a t t r i b u t e s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t , t h e d i r e c t i o n f o r r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e and c o m p a t i b i l i t y i s n e v e r t h e l e s s n o t e w o r t h y . In l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t a t t i t u d e s tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , i t mi ght have been r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t u s e r s would n o t have c o n s i d e r e d p e s t i c i d e s t o r e p r e s e n t a r i s k , a n d , t h e r e f o r e , would have p e r c e i v e d IPM a s o f f e r i n g no g r e a t d e a l o f r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e o v e r t h e s e compounds. And, b e c a u s e a t t i t u d e s a r e i n f l u e n c e d , in p a r t , by p a s t e x p e r i e n c e s and b e h a v i o r s , we m i g h t have a l s o e x p e c t e d a low d e g r e e o f c o m p a t i b i l i t y . While t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s are extrem ely t e n t a t i v e , th e negative d ir e c tio n o f the c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s o f f e r some e v i d e n c e t o a t l e a s t c o n s i d e r them plausible. Based on t h e o v e r a l l p o s i t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e f i v e attrib u tes, i t was n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t u s e r s ' a t t i t u d e s to w ar d t h e 252 s o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual were a l s o p o s i t i v e . While i t was presumed t h a t t h e i r a t t i t u d e s toward t h e manual would p e r h a p s be one o f t h e s t r o n g e s t v a r i a b l e s e x p l a i n i n g a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , d a t a from t h i s s t u d y do n o t s u p p o r t t h i s c o n t e n t i o n . In a d d i t i o n , t h e same e x p l a n a t i o n s and c o n c l u s i o n s p r e s e n t e d above would a p p l y t o t h i s variable. Considering the s ig n ific a n c e o f the c o e f f i c i e n t , i t could be c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e i d e a o f IPM was a p p e a l i n g t o m o s t u s e r s , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y p r a c t i c e d i t . Conversely, i f we c o n s i d e r t h e i r a t t i t u d e s tow ard u s i n g p e s t i c i d e s , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e c o e f f i c i e n t ( n e g a t i v e ) would a p p e a r c o n s i s t e n t . The Hardware Component. R esults f o r the fo u r a t t r i b u t e s of the h a r d w a r e component - - t h e manual i t s e l f a s a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g t h e p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n - - e x h i b i t e d a t r e n d s i m i l a r t o t h a t f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component. While we c o u l d c o n c l u d e t h a t o v e r a l l , u s e r s w ere f a v o r a b l y o r i e n t e d t o t h e manual a s a means f o r p r e s e n t i n g o r tran sferrin g IPM i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s , when r e l a t e d t o u s e , a somewhat d i f f e r e n t p i c t u r e emerged. For e x am pl e, t h e m a n u a l ' s r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e was s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to adoption b e h a v io r, but in a n e g a tiv e d i r e c t i o n . Conse­ q u e n t l y , t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s who u s ed more i t e m s from t h e manual p e r c e i v e d i t t o be r e l a t i v e l y i n f e r i o r t o o t h e r p e s t management p u b l i c a t i o n s and t o c o n t a i n e i t h e r t o o l i t t l e o r t o o much i n f o r ­ m ation. U n f o r t u n a t e l y , co d i n g o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i t e m p r o h i b i t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y determ ining the d ir e c tio n o f a neg ativ e response. However, b a s e d on d a t a from two o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e q u e s t i o n s ( a d d i t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e b e s t and l e a s t l i k e d a s p e c t s o f t h e m a n u a l ) , i t m ig h t n o t be u n r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t t o o l i t t l e 253 i n f o r m a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e empty p l a n t group s e c t i o n s , was a t y p i c a l response. Even th ou gh t h e s e u s e r s c o n s i d e r e d t h e manual t o be l e s s a d v a n t a g e o u s t h a n o t h e r p u b l i c a t i o n s , t h e y still t e n d e d t o p e r c e i v e i t t o be r e l a t i v e l y w e ll o r g a n i z e d , w r i t t e n in s i m p l e l a n g u a g e , and e a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d and us e — o r a p u b l i c a t i o n low i n c o m p l e x i t y . not s ig n ific a n t). ( T h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p was p o s i t i v e b u t In f a c t , t h e m a n u a l ' s c o m p l e x i t y was t h e a t t r i b u t e most p o s i t i v e l y r a t e d by a l l manual u s e r s . C o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g u s e r s ' a t t i t u d e s to w ard t h e h ard w are component were e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e o f f e r e d f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component; t h e m a j o r i t y o f manual owners p o s s e s s e d a f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e manual a s a means t o p r e s e n t p e s t management (IPM) i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e s r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e y had u se d i t . Conseq uen ce s Conclusions re g a rd in g th e d i r e c t consequences o f using th e manual a r e f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d : o v e r a l l , manual u s e r s had changed t h e i r way o f t h i n k i n g a b o u t and h a n d l i n g p e s t p r ob le m s on t h e p l a n t s i n t h e i r y a r d ; and t h e d e g r e e o f cha nge was r e l a t i v e l y g r e a t e r f o r t h o s e i n d i v i d u a l s u s i n g more i t e m s from t h e ma nua l. However, t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s s h o u l d a l s o be viewed a s e x t r e m e l y t e n t a t i v e b e c a u s e : t h e y were b as ed on t h e i n d i v i d u a l u s e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n s , which c o u l d have r e s u l t e d i n s o c i a l l y d e s i r a b l e r e s p o n s e s ; (2 ) most u s e r s i n d i c a t e d a r e l a t i v e l y " s a f e " d e g r e e o f change (s o me w h at ); and (3) t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e ch an g e was n o t s p e c i f i e d in t h e q u e s t i o n — (1) 254 w h i l e assumed t o be p o s i t i v e l y o r i e n t e d t o t h e m a n ua l, i t c o u l d j u s t a s e a s i l y have been n e g a t i v e . D escriptive C h a ra c te ris tic s A lth o ug h n o t c o r r e l a t e d w i t h a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , a number o f c o n c l u s i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e manual w ere drawn from r e s p o n s e s t o t h e s e q u e s t i o n s and i n c l u d e d : 1. I n d i v i d u a l s who u sed p r a c t i c e s from t h e manual a p p e a r e d , in g e n e r a l , t o be s a t i s f i e d w i t h t h e r e s u l t s . S u r p r i s i n g l y , s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s were r e p o r t e d f o r a l l s i x p l a n t g r o u p s , even though t h e manual o n l y c o n t a i n e d s p e c i f i c p e s t management t e c h n i q u e s f o r o r n a m e n t a l / s h a d e t r e e s , lawns and v e g e t a b l e g a r d e n s . 2. A p p r o x i m a t e l y 50% o f t h e u s e r s viewed t h e manual f a v o r a b l y enough t o recommend i t t o a n o t h e r p e r s o n . 3. A c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f u s e r s (20 ) were i n t e r e s t e d in seeing a d d itio n a l i n f o r m a t i o n added t o t h e ma nua l. Suggestions i n c l u d e d c o m p l e t i n g t h e empty p l a n t group s e c t i o n s and a d d i n g t o t h e ones a l r e a d y c o v e r e d in t h e manual. 4. A c o n s i d e r a b l e number o f u s e r s to o k t h e t h e y l i k e d b e s t and l e a s t a b o u t t h e manual. ti m e t o e x p r e s s what For b o th i t e m s , t h e m a j o r i t y o f comments c o n c e r n e d a s p e c t s o f t h e hardw are component o f t h e m a nu al ; f e w e r a l l u d e d t o t h e s o f t w a r e component. Interestingly, many o f t h e b e s t l i k e d a s p e c t s were i d e n t i c a l t o t h e l e a s t l i k e d aspects ( s e e C h a p t e r 4 f o r s p e c i f i c comments). 255 P art I I : The Model In a d d i t i o n t o u s i n g t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model t o e v a l u a t e t h e manual by d e t e r m i n i n g t h e e x t e n t t o which i t was used and i d e n t i f y i n g s p e c i f i c f a c t o r s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t s u s e , a s e c o n d a r y p u r p o s e o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n was t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e model was a p p l i c a b l e f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e t r a n s f e r o f p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n t o urban homeowners. T h i s was a c c o m p l i s h e d by " t e s t i n g " 15 h y p o t h e s e s d e r i v e d from t h e model. While i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o p a s s judgment based on one r e l a t i v e l y small c a s e s t u d y , i t was c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model i s a p p l i c a b l e , t o a d e g r e e , f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g t h e t r a n s f e r o f p e s t management i n f o r ­ ma tio n t o ur b an homeowners. This conclusion was ba se d on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between " g e n e r i c " v a r i a b l e s and t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n . G e n e r i c v a r i a b l e s a r e t h o s e t h a t were n e i t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y m o d i f i e d o r s p e c i f i c a l l y d e v e l o p e d f o r t h i s s t u d y and i n c l u d e d : a g e , e d u c a t i o n , s o ci oe c on om ic s t a t u s , communication b e h a v i o r , prob lem v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n , communication c h a n n e l s and a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n ( a l l f i v e f o r t h e s o f t w a r e component and o n l y r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e and c o m p l e x i t y f o r t h e har dw are co m p on en t). Correlation r e s u l t s f o r t h e s e 13 v a r i a b l e s r e v e a l e d t h a t : 1. E d u c a t i o n , so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s , communication b e h a v i o r , problem o r i e n t a t i o n , and s o f t w a r e t r i a l a b i l i t y were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r , and communication c h a n n e l s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o a w ar en es s o f t h e m a n ua l, in t h e e x p e c t e d d i r e c t i o n . 2. Age and ha rd w ar e r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e were s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d to adoption behavior o p p o site th e expected direction. 256 3. Software r e l a t i v e ad v antage, c o m p a t i b i l i t y , com plexity, and o b s e r v a b i l i t y , and ha rd w are c o m p l e x i t y were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e la te d to adoption. From t h e s e r e s u l t s , i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b l e s p r o v i d e d t h e " s t r o n g e s t " evidence f o r t h i s conclusion. Thr ee c a u t i o n s s h o u l d a l s o be p o i n t e d o u t r e g a r d i n g t h i s conclusion. F i r s t , t h e model c h a r a c t e r i z e s t h e a c c e p t a n c e and use o f new i d e a s and p r a c t i c e s , o r t h e a d o p t i o n o f i n n o v a t i o n s . Alth o ug h t h e i d e a o r p r a c t i c e need o n l y be p e r c e i v e d a s new t o be c o n s i d e r e d an in n o v a tio n , a s e r io u s v i o l a t i o n o f t h i s c r i t e r i o n might ren d er the model u s e l e s s . Seco nd , t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e used in a l l o t h e r a p p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e model has been t h e ti m e o f a d o p t i o n . In t h i s s t u d y , t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e manual was adopted over a tw o-year p e rio d . In a d d i t i o n , measurement o f t h e e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n i n c l u d e d us e o f b o th new and o l d i t e m s ( a l t h o u g h a l l b u t two i n d i v i d u a l s p e r c e i v e d t h e manual t o c o n t a i n some new m a t e r i a l ) and c o n s i d e r e d a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n t o r e p r e s e n t equa l components o f u s e . T h i r d , w h i l e so c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s and e d u c a t i o n were q u i t e h ig h f o r manual u s e r s ( i n d i c a t i n g t h a t p e r h a p s we were d e a l i n g w i t h more i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s ) , i t s h o u l d be n o te d t h a t o v e r a l l so c io e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f community homeowners a r e q u i t e h ig h anyway ( s e e Lambur e t a l . 1 98 2 ) . Consequently, th e re m i g h t a l r e a d y be a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e number o f i n n o v a t i v e i n d i v i d u a l s ( b a s e d on t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s anyway) i n t h e community. A second c o n c l u s i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e model was t h a t i t o f f e r e d a u s e f u l framework f o r s p e c i f i c a l l y e v a l u a t i n g t h e manual a n d , more g e n e r a l l y , f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e t r a n s f e r e f f o r t . Alth ou gh u s e o f t h e manual need ed t o be m o d i f i e d t o r e f l e c t a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , 257 i t n e v e r t h e l e s s p r o v i d e d a di m ens ion t o us e t h a t would n o t have been pursued. The two components o f an i n n o v a t i o n and t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an i n n o v a t i o n a l s o p r o v i d e d me an in g fu l c r i t e r i a t o a c t u a l l y e v a l u a t e t h e manual. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e g e n e r i c v a r i a b l e s t a k e n from t h e mod el, i t a l s o p r e s e n t e d a r a t i o n a l e f o r s e l e c t i n g and m o d i f y in g a number o f o t h e r v a r i a b l e s t h a t would have been o t h e r w i s e i g n o r e d . And, f i n a l l y , even th ou gh a number o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s w ere n o t confirmed, d e s c r i p t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s provided a w ealth of inform ation to b e t t e r understand the p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s f e r e f f o r t . Im plications A lt ho ug h ba s e d on o n l y one r e l a t i v e l y small c a s e s t u d y , a number o f i m p l i c a t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g t h e t r a n s f e r o f p e s t management i n f o r ­ m a tio n t o ur b an homeowners can be drawn from t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n . It s h o u l d a l s o be n o t e d , how eve r, t h a t b e c a u s e t h e s t u d y d e s i g n s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d t h e d e g r e e t o w hich t h e r e s u l t s and c o n c l u s i o n s ca n be g e n e r a l i z e d t o b r o a d e r s i t u a t i o n s »- e x c e p t p e r h a p s f o r t h o s e most d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e model — t h e s e i m p l i c a t i o n s s h o u l d be t r e a t e d cautiously. 1. Because IPM i s a framework t h a t some homeowners a r e w i l l i n g t o u s e , in whole o r i n p a r t , and a good p o r t i o n o f i t i s new f o r them, p e r h a p s more co m p re h e n s iv e IPM m a t e r i a l s - - s i m i l a r t o t h e manual - - s h o u l d be d e v e l o p e d f o r ur b an homeowners. 2. Even though homeowners may have p o s i t i v e a t t i t u d e s tow ard the use o f p e s t i c i d e s in th e y a r d , they s t i l l IPM. seem w i l l i n g t o t r y Thus , t h e n o t i o n t h a t IPM a p p e a l s t o o n l y t h o s e t h a t h o l d 258 u n f a v o r a b l e o r i e n t a t i o n s to w a r d t h e us e o f t h e s e compounds may n o t be tru e. 3. E f f o r t s t o pr om ot e IPM t o ur b an homeowners s h o u l d c o n ­ c e n t r a t e more on i t s u s e and ou tc o m e s , r a t h e r t h a n on i t s o v e r a l l r e l a t i v e advantage. While t h e i d e a o f IPM i s a p p e a l i n g and u n d e r ­ s t a n d a b l e t o many homeowners, i t s u s e i s d e p e n d e n t upon t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e y can a c t u a l l y implement t e c h n i q u e s and view t h e i r outc ome s. 4. The P e s t Management Manual o f f e r s one example t h a t o t h e r s m i g h t use t o d e v e l o p IPM m a t e r i a l s f o r ur ba n homeowners. While n o t recommending i t s i n d i s c r i m i n a t e d u p l i c a t i o n , a number o f i t s p o s i t i v e q u a l i t i e s w e r e : i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n and p r e s e n t a t i o n o f m a t e r i a l ; i t s c l e a r and u n d e r s t a n d a b l e l a n g u a g e ; i t s c o n v e n i e n c e a s a p l a c e t o s t o r e o t h e r p e s t management m a t e r i a l s ; and t h e q u a l i t y and t i m e l i n e s s of the inform ation. On t h e o t h e r h an d, i t s n e g a t i v e q u a l i t i e s we re: i t s l a c k o f p e s t management i n f o r m a t i o n ( t e c h n i q u e s ) on a wide v a r i e t y o f p e s t s and p ro b le m s f o r a l l p l a n t g r o u p s in t h e y a r d ; and i t s s i z e ( t o o l a r g e and cumbersome). 5. The i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model o f f e r s a framework t h a t can be u s ed t o h e l p p l a n and improve t h e t r a n s f e r o f p e s t management ( i n c l u d i n g IPM) i n f o r m a t i o n t o ur ba n homeowners. I f the i n f o r m a t i o n i s "new" fr om t h e homeowners' p e r s p e c t i v e , t h o s e i n v o l v e d in t r a n s f e r e f f o r t s c o u l d b e n e f i t from w h at t h e model has t o o f f e r . Examples c o u l d i n c l u d e : f o c u s i n g i n i t i a l tran sfer e ffo rts a t early a d o p t e r s t o " l e g i t i m i z e " t h e i n n o v a t i o n and promote i t s a d o p t i o n , r a t h e r t h a n a t i n n o v a t o r s who m i g h t more c o n v e n i e n t l y a d o p t i t b u t help l i t t l e in p ro m o t in g i t ; u s i n g mass media t o c r e a t e i n i t i a l a w a r e n e s s o f an i n n o v a t i o n and i n t e r p e r s o n a l c h a n n e l s t o in d u c e i t s 259 a d o p t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ; r e a l i z i n g what t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an i n n o v a t i o n a r e and how t h e y m i g h t a f f e c t i t s a d o p t i o n ; and u n d e r ­ s t a n d i n g t h a t i n n o v a t i o n s may be a d o p t e d b u t n o t i m m e d i a te l y im p le m e n te d , and a l t e r e d o r " r e - i n v e n t e d " when t h e y a r e im plemented. Study L i m i t a t i o n s As in any e x p l o r a t o r y i n v e s t i g a t i o n , f o r e s e e n and u n f o r e s e e n lim ita tio n s are often confronted. L i s t e d below a r e t h o s e t h a t were en countered in t h i s stu d y . 1. Because o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y small number o f p o t e n t i a l study r e s p o n d e n t s (n = 7 5 ) , a n o n p r o b a b i l i t y sa m p l in g a p p r o a c h was u s e d , which s e v e r e l y l i m i t e d t h e a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a l i z e s t u d y f i n d i n g s t o o th er populations or s e tt in g s . 2. C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e community may a l s o l i m i t g e n e r a l i z - a b i l i t y o f r e s u l t s and t h e r e s u l t s t h e m s e l v e s . As n o t e d p r e v i o u s l y , t h e s o c io e c o n o m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f community homeowners were q u i t e h i g h , which m ig ht have a f f e c t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e s e and p e r h a p s o t h e r v a r i a b l e s and a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . 3. The smal l number o f u s e a b l e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s and t h e l a r g e number o f v a r i a b l e s l i m i t e d t h e a b i l i t y t o d e t e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e d a t a . Most o f t h e s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s were q u i t e weak a n d , f o r most o t h e r s , a l m o s t no l i n e a r c o r r e l a t i o n was f o u n d . To c h ec k t h i s , n o n p a r a m e t r i c c o e f f i c i e n t s were c a l c u l a t e d b u t no s i g n i ­ f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were n o t e d . And, w h i l e s m a l l e r c o e f f i c i e n t s were e x p e c t e d f o r t h o s e v a r i a b l e s t h a t were n o t t r u l y i n t e r v a l ( pr o bl em v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n , f a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM and communication 260 c h a n n e l s ) , two o f t h e t h r e e were l a r g e enough t o be s i g n i f i c a n t ( p r o b le m v s . i n n o v a t i o n o r i e n t a t i o n and communication c h a n n e l s ) . The small number o f r e s p o n d e n t s a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s ; f o r t h e most p a r t , t h o s e v a r i a b l e s w i t h s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a ti o n c o e f f i c i e n t s also explained the la r g e s t amount o f v a r i a n c e in a d o p t i o n b e h a v i o r . C o n s e q u e n t l y , many " t e n t a t i v e c o n c l u s i o n s " were e x p r e s s e d . 4. Because t h e d e c i s i o n t o u n d e r t a k e t h i s s t u d y was made a f t e r t h e manual had been i n t h e hands o f homeowners, t h e a b i l i t y t o d e t e c t change o v e r ti m e by p r e - and p o s t - m e a s u r e m e n t was s a c r i f i c e d . This c o n d i t i o n most n o t a b l y a f f e c t e d t h e a t t i t u d e and co n s eq ue n c e variables. 5. The l e n g t h o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and some o f t h e q u e s t i o n s w i t h i n i t may have a f f e c t e d r e t u r n r a t e s . Two o f t h e t h r e e u n u s e a b l e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were n o t c o m p le te d b e c a u s e i t was " t o o l o n g and com plicated." In r e t r o s p e c t , one way t h a t t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o u l d have been s h o r t e n e d would have been t o f o c u s model. The r e a s o n on fe w e r i t e m s from t h e i t l o o k e d c o m p l i c a t e d was p r o b a b l y because o fthe semantic d i f f e r e n t i a l s ( a l t h o u g h t h e y can be co m p le te d r a t h e r q u i c k l y onc e t h e d i r e c t i o n s a r e r e a d ) . Aside from e l i m i n a t i n g t h e s e , and u s i n g a d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e m e a s u r e , p e r h a p s more i t e m s c o u l d have been d e l e t e d from them. t o some e x t e n t , i t 6. While t h e While t h i s m ig ht have s a c r i f i c e d r e l i a b i l i t y m i g h t have been o f f s e t by a h i g h e r return ra te . p r o c e d u r e used t o m e asu re use o f t h e manual p r o d u c e d good q u a n t i t a t i v e r e s u l t s , much q u a l i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n was lo st. T h i s was p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e when d e s c r i b i n g ea ch i n d i v i d u a l ' s e x t e n t o f a d o p t i o n o f t h e manual. A lth o ug h t h e p r o c e d u r e a l l o w e d us 261 t o d e t e r m i n e t h e mix o f i n f o r m a t i o n and p r a c t i c e i t e m s u s e d , much i n t e r p r e t a t i v e imp act was g iv e n up by n o t knowing s p e c i f i c a l l y what t h o s e i t e m s were and how t h e y were a c t u a l l y u s ed . Recommendations f o r F u t u r e Resea rc h 1. A d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h ne ed s t o be c o n d u c t e d on t h e i n n o v a t i o n - d e c i s i o n p r o c e s s model w i t h i n t h e c o n t e x t o f p e s t management i n f o r ­ ma tio n t r a n s f e r . Alth o ug h t h e model a p p e a r s t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e t r a n s f e r o f p e s t management (IPM) i n f o r m a t i o n a s an i n n o v a t i o n , t h i s was b as ed m o s t l y on t e n t a t i v e e v i d e n c e in t h i s s t u d y . A sid e from a small sample s i z e which a f f e c t e d t h e m a gn itu d e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s , a l t e r i n g t h e d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e and t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g s o ci o ec o no m ic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e community may have d i s t o r t e d t h e r e s u l t s . C o n s e q u e n t l y , a d d i t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s need t o be c o n d u c t e d in l e s s a t y p i c a l s e t t i n g s u s i n g t h e ti m e o f a d o p t i o n a s t h e d ep en d e n t v a r i a b l e t o r e a l l y v a l i d a t e t h e model. 2. More r e s e a r c h i s needed on what IPM means t o , and how i t i s b e i n g p r a c t i c e d by ur ba n homeowners. Given t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l and i n h e r e n t l y dynamic a p p r o a c h t h a t IPM r e p r e s e n t s , p e r h a p s a more q u a l i t a t i v e r e s e a r c h o r i e n t a t i o n would be more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m e a s u r i n g i t s u s e by ur b an homeowners. be t h r o u g h o b s e r v a t i o n and p e r s o n a l The b e s t way t o do t h i s would interview s. T h i s a p p r o a c h would n o t o n l y a l l o w us t o b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d what IPM means t o urban homeowners, b u t would a l s o y i e l d v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n f o r a t t e m p t i n g to q u a n tif y i t s use. APPENDICES APPENDIX A F r o n t Cover and T a b l e o f C o n t e n t s o f t h e P e s t Management Manual PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL 263 TC-l TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS___________________________________ AK BACKGROUND OF PROJECT PEST BG THE FOCUS OF YOUR MANUAL: Pesticide Use: A BRIEF SKETCH______ How Perspectives Have Changed ................... MF 2 What Are the Problems with P esticides? ......... ................................. 3 Problem #1 Problem #2 Problem #3 Creating Health Hazards ......................... Promoting Pest Resistance ................... Reducing Helpful Organisms . . . . ............... A A 5 What i s I P M ? .................................................................................................................................................... 6 What Are the P rin cip les o f I P M ? .......................................................................................................6 Principle #1 Keeping Numbers of Pests Low is More Practical than Trying to Completely Eliminate Them . . . 6 Principle #2 You Live, Work and Manage Your Pests Within Ecosystems ..................................... 7 Principle #3 More Than One Management Technique Will P ro­ vide a Better Chance of Success ............. 7 Principle #A You Must Be Willing to Consider Revising Your Decisions of How Much Plant Injury You Will 8 "Accept" ........................................ What are the O bjectives o f an IPM Program ? ............................... 8 Objective #1 Try to Prevent or Minimize Your Pest Problems ........................................ 8 Objective #2 Establish Your Own Monitoring Program . . . . 9 Objective #3 Establish Your Own Injury Acceptance Levels for P e s t s ........................................ 9 Objective #A Select and Use the "Best" Management Techniques ..................................... 9 ......................... 10 Objective #5 Evaluate Your Actions The Challenge of I P M .............................................. 10 HOW TO USE THE MANUAL__________________________________________________ HT Five Steps to Using the M a n u a l ....................................2 Step 1: Become familiar with the plants and other organisms in your y a r d .......................................... 2 Step 2: Establish your monitoring program .................. 3 Step 3: Select management techniques ....................... 3 Step A: Evaluate your actions after practicing management techniques .......................................... 3 Step 5: Continue monitoring .................................. 3 Using the Manual: An E x a m p l e ...................................... A MONITORING ___________________________________________________________ MO What i s the Purpose o f M o n ito r in g ? ..................................................................................................1 ....................................................................................................................... 1 Why Should I Monitor? What do I M o n ito r? ..................................................... 2 264 TC-2 Monitoring Item #1: Plant Condition ........................ 2 Chart 1 PLANT CONDITION RATING .......................... 3 Monitoring Item #2: Abundance of Pests and Plant Damage . . 5 Chart 2 PEST & PLANT DAMAGE ABUNDANCE RATING ........... 6 Monitoring Item #3: Management Activities ................. 7 When do I M o n ito r ? ..................................................... 7 How do I Monitor? ..................................................... 8 Question #1 Am I re a lly faced with a sig n ific a n t p ro b lem ? ........... 8 Taking Readings with the Injury Acceptance Levels Chart . 9 Interpreting Your Readings ............................... 9 Question #2 Which management techniques w ill be most appropriate — i f a n y ? ..............................................10 Chart 3 INJURY ACCEPTANCE LEVELS ........................ 11 Am I S a tisfie d : Evaluating Your A c t i o n s ............................ 12 Monitoring Record Forms .......................................... 12 MONITORING FORMS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES___________________________________________________ MT Preventative Techniques .......................................... .......................................... (1) Plant Selection (2) Plant Management .......................................... ................................... Selecting Control Techniques Question #1 Have I co rrectly id e n tifie d the cause o f the problem? , . Question #2 Have 1 co rrectly id e n tifie d the plant whichhas the p e st p r o b le m ? ..................................... Question #3 Do I know the p e s t's l i f e c y c l e ? .................... Question #4 Have 1 considered and decided whether the damage i s now serious enough to apply control techniques, or can I expect i t to become serious enough la te r on? .......... Control Techniques .............................................. (3) Manual Pest C o n t r o l ..................................... (4) Mechanical Pest Control ................................. (5) Biological Pest Control ................................. (6) Chemical Pest Control ................................... ................ Guidelines for Selecting Management Techniques SAFETY 1 2 2 2 3 3 A 4 5 5 5 5 5 6 ______________________________________________________________ PESTICIDES Pesticides and Safe,Use Pesticide Classifications and Formulations Dormant Oils: What They Are And How They Are Used What Is On The Pesticide Label? Factors Affecting Pesticide Activity Protecting the Environment Protecting Man - Using Pesticides Safely First Aid For Pesticide Poisoning 265 TC-3 EQUIPMENT Equipment For Pest Control What You Should Know About Safe Chain Saw Operation PEST INFORMATION AND STRATEGY SELECTION Pests: An Introduction To Their Identification LAWNS Quick Pest Reference Guide INSECTS DISEASES WEEDS VERTEBRATES PLANT SELECTION PLANT MANAGEMENT FLOWERS VEGETABLE GARDENS Quick Pest Reference Guide INSECTS DISEASES ENVIRONMENTAL VERTEBRATES CHEMICAL PEST CONTROL SMALL FRUITS SHRUBS FRUIT TREES NUT TREES ORNAMENTAL/SHADE TREES Quick Pest Reference Guide INSECTS DISEASES ENVIRONMENTAL VERTEBRATES PLANT SELECTION PLANT MANAGEMENT CHEMICAL PEST CONTROL APPENDIX PLANT SELECTION PLANT MANAGEMENT BIOLOGICAL PEST CONTROL ________________ 266 TC-4 IDENTIFICATION REFERENCE MATERIAL GLOSSARY MISCELLANEOUS APPENDIX B The P e s t Management Manual O wn er' s Sur vey Q u e s t i o n n a i r e project PE ST ’s PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL OWNE&’S SUBTIT Project PEST is co-sponsored by The Liaison for Inter-Neighborhood Cooperation (LINC) and Michigan State University, Departments of Resource Development, Entomology and Forestry 267 268 Project PEST'S Pest Management Manual Owner's Survey This questionnaire deals with the current status of the Pest Management Monuol. It is organized into four sections: A HANDLING PEST PROBLEMS IN THE YARD B REACTIONS TO HANDLING PEST PROBLEMS IN THE YARD C THE PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL D BACKGROUND INFORMATION The following definitions are given to help in answering the questions: Pest: Any insect, disease, animal, weed, or other living thing that you believe has caused problems on the plants in your yard. Pesticides: Chemical substances used to control, destroy, or prevent damage from pests. Alternatives to pesticides: Non-chemical/pesticidal substances or means to control, destroy, or prevent damage from pests. SECTION A HANDLING PEST PROBLEMS IN THE YARD First, we would like to ask you several questions about pest problems you have had and methods you used to handle them. O -l Thinking back over this year and last, did you have pest problems that required management on any of the plant groups listed below? (Circle numbers that apply) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Q-2 ORNAMENTAL/SHADE TREES FRUIT TREES SHRUBS FLOWERS LAWN VEGETABLE GARDEN OTHER (specify)___________________________ For the plant groups circled in <5-1, please estimate the percentage of time you used pesticides, alternatives to pesticides, or took no action when handling pest problems on those plants. Percentage of time you used: Pesticides I + ORNAMENTAL/SHADE TREES . . . _________ + Alternatives + Took No Action = 100% ________ ♦ _______ = 100% = 100% 2 FRUIT T R E E S + + 3 SHRUBS + + = 100% 4 FLO W E R S + + = 100% 5 LAWN + + = 100% 6 VEGETABLE G A R D E N + + = 100% + + = 100% 7 OTHER (specify) . . 269 2 0 -3 From the list below plea se se le c t those a c tiv itie s or sources you norm a lly use to obtain information on handling pest problems and indicate how frequently you use them. Frequency of Use (Circle numbers that apply) FREQUENTLY SOMETIMES Printed material from: I 2 2 M A G A Z IN E S ........................................................................... I 1 BOOKS 2 3 NEWSPAPERS 2 .......................................................................I 4 P A M P H LE TS /M A N U A LS ...................................................... I 2 5 PACKAGE/CONTAINER L A B E L S ...................................... I 2 Watching or listening to: 6 R A D IO ....................................................................................... I 2 7 T E L E V IS IO N ........................................................................... I 2 Conversations with: 8 COOPERATIVE EXTENSION SERVICE PERSONNEL ....................................................................... I 2 9 GARDEIJ STORE P E R S O N N E L .......................................... I 2 10 TREE/LAWN/LANDSCAPE SERVICE PERSONNEL .......................................................................I 2 11 FRIENDS/NEIG HBORS 2 I (PLEASF. CONTINUE) 270 SECTION B REACTIONS TO HANDLING PEST PROBLEMS IN THE YARD In this section we would like to get your reoctions to several topics regarding handling pest problems in your yard. The instructions below opply for completing questions 4,5. and 6. Instructions We would like you to indicate your reoctions or feelings toward the topic at the top of the page as they relate to a list of word pairs found beneath it. Each pair is separated by 7 lines. To indicate your reaction, place an "X" on one of the lines for each word pair according to the following guidelines: I Example word pair: If you feel the topic is: GOOD ___: 2 3 : 4 : 5 6 7 :____: ___: ____ BAD a. very closely related to either word, place on "X" on line I or 7; b. quite closely related to either word, place an "X" on line 2 or 6; c. only slightly related to either word, place an "X" on line 3 or 5; d. neutral, completely irrelevant, or equally associoted with either word, place an "X" on line 4. Even though some word pairs may be the same for different topics, do not try to remember how you checked others. You need not worry or puzzle over individual word pairs - it is your first reaction or feeling to each pair as it relates to the topic that is important. Also: Please be sure to register your reaction for all word pairs under each topic - do not omit any. Place an "X" on one line only for each word pair. 271 0 -4 Please indicate your reactions or feelings toward the following topic. (Directions on page 3) HANDLING PEST PROBLEMS ON THE PLANTS IN MY YARD I 2 3 4 5 6 7 PLEASURABLE PAINFUL DIFFICULT EASY HASTY LEISURELY POSITIVE NEGATIVE OPTIMISTIC PESSIMISTIC VOLUNTARY COMPULSORY BUNGLING SKILLFUL SATISFYING FRUSTRATING MEANINGLESS MEANINGFUL VARIED MONOTONOUS SAD HAPPY UNSUCCESSFUL SUCCESSFUL MOTIVATED AIMLESS DISLIKE LIKE WILLING UNWILLING ATTRACTIVE REPULSIVE BAD GOOD REWARDING - UNREWARDING UNIMPORTANT IMPORTANT INTERESTING BORING 272 5 Q-5 Please indicate your reoctions or feelings toward the following topic. (Directions on page 3) USING PESTICIDES AS A WAY TO HANDLE PEST PROBLEMS IN MY YARD I 2 : 3 it : : 5 : 6 : 7 USEFUL : USELESS WORTHLESS s REPULSIVE ___: ATTRACTIVE SUPERIOR ___: INFERIOR NEGATIVE ___: POSITIVE BENEFICIAL ___: HARMFUL SUCCESSFUL ___: UNSUCCESSFUL UNIMPORTANT t CERTAIN RESULTS ___: UNDER RECOMMENDED s BUNGLING ___: SKILLFUL DANGERS UNDERPLAYED ___: DANGERS OVERPLAYED UNWARRANTED ___: WARRANTED WISE ___: FOOLISH INCONVENIENT s SUFFICIENT ___: DANGEROUS t SAFE SKEPTICAL s BELIEVABLE SIMPLE t COMPLEX DISLIKE s LIKE VALUABLE IMPORTANT UNCERTAIN RESULTS OVER RECOMMENDED CONVENIENT INSUFFICIENT 273 0 -6 Please indicate /our reactions or feelings toward the following topic. (Directions on page 3) USING ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES AS A WAY TO HANDLE PEST PROBLEMS IN MY YARD WARRANTED DANGERS OVERPLAYED SUCCESSFUL INFERIOR NEGATIVE CONVENIENT UNWARRANTED DANGERS UNDERPLAYED UNSUCCESSFUL SUPERIOR POSITIVE INCONVENIENT DISLIKE LIKE DANGEROUS SAFE SIMPLE ATTRACTIVE BUNGLING COMPLEX REPULSIVE SKILLFUL SUFFICIENT INSUFFICIENT BELIEVABLE SKEPTICAL WORTHLESS VALUABLE BENEFICIAL HARMFUL FOOLISH USEFUL CERTAIN RESULTS UNIMPORTANT UNDER RECOMMENDED WISE USELESS UNCERTAIN RESULTS IMPORTANT OVER RECOMMENDED 274 7 SECTION C THE PEST MANAGEMENT MANUAL Now we would like to ask you some questions about the Pest Manogcment Manual. Even if you have not hnd a chance to read or use the manual you will still be able lo answer a number of the questions in this section, providing much useful information. Questions in this section are organized into two parts: PART I - PURCHASE AND USE INFORMATION PART 2 - REACTIONS TO THE MANUAL PART I - PURCHASE AND USE INFORMATION Q-7 How did you first hear about the manual being available for sale? (Circle one number) 1 2 3 U 5 6 7 Q -8 When did you purchase or receive the manual? (Circle number) 1 2 Q-9 NEWSPAPER ARTICLE/ANNOUNCEMENT RADIO ANNOUNCEMENT MAIL ANNOUNCEMENT AT A PROJECT PEST "WALKING TOUR" AT THE MERIDIAN MUNICIPAL BUILDING/AREA LIRRARIES FROM A FRIEND/NEIGHBOR OTHER (specify)___________________________________ 1981 1982 Please select the one statement that most nearly describes your reason for purchasing the manual. (Circle number) 1 2 3 I HEARD ABOUT THE MANUAL AND THOUGHT IT WOULD BE USEFUL. I WAS INTERESTED IN THE INFORMATION AND HOW I COULD USE IT IN MY YARD. I AM ALWAYS ON THE LOOK-OUT FOR PEST CONTROL PUBLICATIONS AND DECIDED IT WOULD BE USEFUL TO HAVE. I DIDN'T PURCHASE THE MANUAL. IT WAS GIVEN TO ME AS A GIFT. Q - 10 Have you read ony parts of the manual? (Circle number) I r-2 YES NO Could you briefly explain why? PLEASE SKIP TO SECTION D ON PAGE 16 275 8 Q - ll The manual contains a large amount of information on a variety of topics. When first reading the manual you may hove come upon both new and old information. For those items below, which you have read about, please indicate whether they represented mostly new or old information for you. (Please respond only to those items you have read about in the monuaiT Type of Information (Circle numbers that apply) Information in the Manual I THE PROBLEMS WITH PESTICIDES (In "Manual Focus" section) . . . . NEW INFORMATION I 2 THE PRINCIPLES AND OBJECTIVES OF INTEGRATED PEST MANAGEMENT (IPM) (In "Manual Focus" section)..........................................................I 3 PREVENTING PEST PROBLEMS THROUGH PROPER PLANT SELECTION AND CARE (In "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees" and "Appendix" sections)..................................... I k MONITORING ACTIVITIES (In "Monitoring/Records" s e c tio n )............................................. I 5 IDENTIFYING PESTS AND PEST PROBLEMS (In "Pest Information and Strategy Selection", "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees" and "Appendix" sections) . . . 6 BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS AND THEIR IDENTIFICATION (In "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees" and "Appendix" sections) . . . . 7 DECIDING IK AND WHEN TO USE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES (In "Monitoring/Records" s e c tio n )......................... 8 THE GENERAL CATEGORIES OF MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES AND GUIDELINES FOR THEIR SELECTION (In "Management Techniques" section) 9 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES AND HOW TO USE THEM (In "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees" and "Appendix" sections)..................... 10 THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF PESTICIDES AND METHODS FOR THEIR SAFE USE (In "Safety", "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens" and "Ornamental/Shade Trees" section s)................. 11 OTHER (specify) 12 OTHER (specify) 13 OTHER (specify) OLD INFORMATION 276 G-12 Arc- you currently applying any practices from the manual to help handle pest problems in your yurd? (Circle number) I YES1 -2 NO PLEASE CONTINUE WITH Q-13 ON THE NEXT PAGE ►Could you briefly explain why? PLEASE SKIP TO PART 2 ON PAGE 12 277 to 0 -1 3 The manual also contains many practices to help handle pest problems in the yard. You may have considered some, or all, of these practices to be new or old. For those practices below, which you now regularly use, please indicate whether they represent mostly a new or old proctice for you. (Please respond only to those practices that you use from the manual) Type of Practice (Circle numbers that apply) Practices in the Manual NEW PRACTICE I PREVENTING PEST PROBLEMS THROUGH PROPER PLANT SELECTION AND CARE (In "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees" and "Appendix" sections)...................................... I 2 MONITORING PLANTS IN THE YARD (In "Monitoring/Records" section) . . I 3 IDENTIFYING PESTS AND PEST PROBLEMS (In "Pest Information and Strategy Selection", "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees” and "Appendix" sections)......................................I k IDENTIFYING BENEFICIAL ORGANISMS (In "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees" and "Appendix" sections)......................................I 5 DECIDING IF AND WHEN TO USE MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES (From INJURY ACCEPTANCE LEVELS chart in "Monitoring/Records" section) . I 6 USING GUIDELINES TO SELECT MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES (In "Management Techniques" s e c tio n )..................................... I 7 SELECTING AND PROPERLY APPLYING ALTERNATIVES TO PESTICIDES (In "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens", "Ornamental/ Shade Trees" and "Appendix" section s)..................................... I 8 SELECTING AND PROPERLY APPLYING "APPROPRIATE" PESTICIDES (In "Safety", "Lawns", "Vegetable Gardens" and "Ornamental/Shade Trees" s e c tio n s )................ 9 HANDLING PESTICIDES SAFELY (In "Safety" s e c tio n )..................... 10 EVALUATING YOUR PEST MANAGEMENT ACTIONS (In "Monitoring/Records" section) 11 OTHER (specify). 12 OTHER (specify). 13 OTHER (specify). OLD PRACTICE 278 II Q-14 Considering all practices indicated in Q-13 and the plant groups on which you are currently applying them, how satisfied are you with the results? Satisfaction with results (Circle numbers that apply) NOT VERY DON'T SLIGHTLY SATISFIED SATISFIED SATISFIED KNOW SATISFIED AT ALL 1 ORNAMENTAL/SHADE TREES . . . 2 3 4 5 2 FRUIT T R E E S ..................................... 1 2 3 4 5 3 S H R U B S ..................................................1 2 3 4 5 4 F L O W E R S ......................... .................... 1 2 3 4 5 5 L A W N ......................................................1 2 3 4 5 6 VEGETABLE G A R D E N .....................1 2 3 4 5 2 3 4 5 7 OTHER (specify) . . 1 1 (PLEASE CONTINUE) 279 12 PART 2 - REACTIONS TO THE MANUAL Now we would like to get your reoctions to several topics regarding the Pest Management Manual. Question 15 and 16 are presented In the same format as questions 4, 5, and 6. Please indicate your reoctions or feelings toward each topic as they relate to the list of word pairs found beneath it. You may want to referpack to the Instructions on page 3 before doing so. Also: Please be sure to register your reoction for all word pairs under each topic - do not omit ony. Place an "X" on one line only for each word pair. Q-15 Please indicate your reoctions or feelings toward the following topic. (Directions on page 3) THE MANUAL AS A MEANS FOR PRESENTING PEST MANAGEMENT INFORMATION I USEFUL TOO SMALL ILLUSTRATIONS ARE MEANINGFUL 2 3 4 5 6 7 USELESS TOO LARGE ILLUSTRATIONS ARE MEANINGLESS EASY TO USE DIFFICULT TO USE DISAPPROVE APPROVE LANGUAGE IS SIMPLE HELPFUL DIFFICULT TO LOCATE INFORMATION SUFFICIENT MATERIAL IS ORGANIZED CONTAINS TOO MUCH INFORMATION TOO PLAIN SUPERIOR TO OTHER PUBLICATIONS DIFFICULT TO UNDERSTAND RUGGED TOO MUCH DETAIL LANGUAGE IS COMPLEX HINDERING EASY TO LOCATE INFORMATION INSUFFICIENT MATERIAL IS UNORGANIZED CONTAINS TOO LITTLE INFORMATION TOO ORNATE INFERIOR TO OTHER PUBLICATIONS EASY TO UNDERSTAND DELICATE TOO LITTLE DETAIL 280 13 Q-16 Please indicate your reactions or feelings toward the following topic. (Directions on page 3) THE PEST MANAGEMENT INFORMATION AND PRACTICES CONTAINED IN THE MANUAL I 2 3 A 5 6 7 LABORIOUS WAY TO HANDLE PEST PROBLEMS POSITIVE SIMILAR TO WHAT I'VE DONE IN THE PAST LARGE AMOUNT OF RISK INVOLVED EASY TO APPLY IN THE YARD SKEPTICAL POSSIBLE TO TRY ON A SMALL SCALE HINDERING BENEFITS APPARENT COMPATIBLE WITH MY FEELINGS ABOUT PEST CONTROL COMPLEX GIVES GOOD RESULTS DISAPPROVE EASY TO UNDERSTAND USELESS EFFORTLESS WAY TO HANDLE PEST PROBLEMS NEGATIVE UNLIKE WHAT I'VE DONE IN THE PAST SMALL AMOUNT OF RISK INVOLVED DIFFICULT TO APPLY IN THE YARD BELIEVABLE IMPOSSIBLE TO TRY ON A SMALL SCALE HELPFUL BENEFITS UNAPPARENT INCOMPATIBLE WITH MY FEELINGS ABOUT PEST CONTROL SIMPLE GIVES BAD RESULTS APPROVE DIFFICULT TO UNDERSTAND USEFUL MEANINGFUL MEANINGLESS INCOMPLETE COMPLETE RESULTS EASY TO SEE RESULTS DIFFICULT TO SEE 281 Q-17 The approach presented in the manual for handling pest problems in the yard is called Integrated Pest Management (IPM). Were you familiar in any way with IPM before purchasing or receiving the manual? (Circle number) I NO r - 2 YES t^-Please select the one statement that best describes your fam iliarity with IPM before purchasing or receiving the manual. (Circle number) 1 I WAS VERY FAMILIAR WITH IPM 2 I WAS SOMEWHAT FAMILIAR WITH IPM 3 I HAD HEARD ABOUT IPM BUT DIDN’T REALLY KNOW WHAT IT MEANT Q-18Would you say that the manual has chonqed your thinking about handling pest problems in your yard. (Circle number) 1 2 3 4 VERY MUCH SO SOMEWHAT TO A SMALL DEGREE NOT AT ALL If you care to, please comment on your answer. 0 -1 9 Would you say that the manual has changed the way you handle pest problems in your yard? (Circle number) 1 2 3 it VERY MUCH SO SOMEWHAT TO A SMALL DEGREE NOT AT ALL If you care to, please comment on your answer 282 15 Q-20 Have you recommended the manual to other people? (Circle number) I 2 C NO YCS To whom? 0 -21 Would you like to see additional information added to the manual? (Circle number) I 2 C NO YES What type of information would you like to see added? Q-22 What did you like best about the manual? Q-23 What did you like least about the manual? 283 16 SECTION D BACKGROUND INFORMATION Finally, we would like to ask you several background questions about yourself to help interpret the results. All information is strictly confidential and will never be identified with your name. Q-24 Your present age:________ YEARS Q-25 Are you presently: (Circle number) 1 2 3 4 EMPLOYED UNEMPLOYED RETIRED FULL-TIME HOMEMAKER Q-26 Please describe your usual occupation. retirement.) TITLE: _______ (If retired, describe the usual occupation before ______ _______________________ KIND OF WORK YOU DO: Q-27 What is your family income bracket (before taxes)? (Circle number) 1 2 3 4 5 6 LESS THAN $10,000 10,000- 14,999 15,000- 19,999 20,000 - 24,999 25,000 - 29,999 30,000 - 34,999 7 35,000- 39,999 8 40,000-44,999 9 45,000-49,999 10 50,000 - 54,999 11 55,000 - 60,000 12 OVER $60,000 Q-28 Which is your highest level of education? (Circle number) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SOME GRADE SCHOOL (Grades 1 to 8) COMPLETED GRADE SCHOOL SOME HIGH SCHOOL (Grades 9 to 12) COMPLETED HIGH SCHOOL SOME COLLEGE COMPLETED COLLEGE TECHNICAL/TRADE SCHOOL SOME GRADUATE WORK COMPLETED A GRADUATE DEGREE Q-29 Please indicate any of the following Project PEST activities that you have participated in. (Circle numbers that apply) 1 ATTENDED THE PROJECT "KICKOFF" MEETING (Meridian Municipal Building, November, 1979) 2 PARTICIPATED AS A PROJECT COMMITTEE MEMBER 3 PARTICIPATED AS A PROJECT VOLUNTEER (Distributed and Collected Project Survey Questionnaire, March, 1980) 4 RECEIVED A COPY OF THE PROJECT QUESTIONNAIRE (Survey of Pest Problems in the Yard, March, 1980) 5 ATTENDED THE AUGUST 1980 "WALKING TOUR" (Michigan State University Campus) 6 ATTENDED THE AUGUST 1981 "WALKING TOURS" (Michigan State University Campus) 7 NOT APPLICABLE APPENDIX C Cover L e t t e r and F i r s t and Second Reminder L e t t e r s Used i n t h e P e s t Management Manual O wn er' s Survey Cover L e tte r “project pest:” 1 5 U| m um , Liz Leistikow 6247 Endenhall East Lansing, MI 48823 October 6, 1982 Pest Management Manual Owner's Survey Purpose of the Survey As you may know, the Idea for your Pest Management Manual came from Project PEST's original township-wide p est control survey conducted in March, 1980. In th a t survey, a large number of homeowners indicated th a t a manual would be a preferred way to obtain information th a t would a s s is t them with th e ir pest control problems. The Pest Management Manual was w ritten to meet th is need, but since i t s completion we have not had the opportunity to learn whether 1 t has been useful fo r homeowners lik e yourself. Because you are a manual owner, we would lik e you to share your opinions by completing the enclosed Pest Management Manual Owner's Survey. How to Help We would lik e you to e ith e r complete the questionnaire y o u rself, or have a family member most fam iliar with the manual f i l l 1 t out. In case you have not had a chance to read or use the manual, we want to assure you th a t there are a number of questions you can answer th a t w ill provide us with much useful Information. In appreciation for your help we have enclosed several publications th a t you may wish to add to your manual. Please be assured th a t your responses w ill be held 1n the s t r i c t e s t confidence. All resu lts w ill be used c o llectiv ely (not Individually) to Insure your personal privacy. You may have noticed th a t the questionnaire has an id e n tific a tio n number; th is is for mailing purposes only. Your name will never be placed on the question­ naire or i t s re s u lts . How to Return the Questionnaire Our questionnaire will probably take about 30 minutes to complete. Please f i l l the questionnaire in , place i t in the return envelope, and drop i t in the mail no la te r than October 13. 19521 I f you would lik e a copy of* the r e s u lts , simply w rite "copy of r e s u lts ” on the back of the return envelope and p rin t your name and address below 1 t. Please do not put th is Information on the questionnaire i t s e l f . We would lik e to thank you 1n advance and to encourage you to c a ll us 1f you have any questions a t 353-6787 (8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Monday through Friday). Sincerely, 'TKuAaJl Michael Lambur Project Coordinator I A MERIDIAN T O W N S H IP FED ERA TED H O M E O W N E R S A SSO C IA T IO N I 284 DEPARTMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY, RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT & FO RESTRY altarnative approaches to arban pest mana|ement ■ u n n y or bmxtbcs btblowut. an samux in m u i rati u n v n iin ft lanon. an aaaae amMiartr 285 F ir s t Reminder L e tte r msi^ “project peet:” mtumtm or im o c b c i twniantwrt. m l A r u i i i im o o ic w u n u i m . n e m u r a t i g n n u n i • L i m a m <■>< ie*«m 7 October 18, 1982 Dear Manual Owner, Ju st recently a questionnaire seeking your opinion about Project PEST’s Pest Management Manual was mailed to you. I f you have already completed and returned i t please accept our sincere thanks. I f not, please do so today. Since completion of the manual we have not had the opportunity to learn whether I t has been useful for homeowners like yourself. Therefore your response 1s extremely Important so th a t the resu lts will accurately re fle c t the opinions of manual owners. Even 1f you have not had a chance to read o r use the manual, we want to assure you th a t there are a number of questions you can answer th at w ill provide us with much useful Information. I f by some chance you did not receive the questionnaire, or i t was misplaced, please c a ll me a t 353-6787 (8:00 a.m. to 5:00 p.m. Monday through Friday) and I w ill put one In the mall fo r you. Sincerely, Michael Lambur Project Coordinator ML/sw A MERIDIAN T O W N S H IP FEDERATED H O M E O W N E R S ASSOCIATION DEPARTMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY. RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT & FO RESTRY alternative approaches to arban pest management 286 Second Reminder L e tte r "project pest:” November 1, 1982 Dear Manual Owner, Last month I wrote to you seeking your opinion on Project PEST's Pest Management Manual. As of today we have not y e t received your completed questionnaire. I am w riting to you again because of the significance each questionnaire has to th is study. Because the manual was w ritten to a s s is t homeowners with th e ir p est control problems, 1t Is important th a t the opinions of each manual owner be registered for the study re s u lts to be tru ly rep resen tativ e. Even i f you have not had a chance to read or use the manual, there are s t i l l a number of items in the questionnaire you can answer th a t w ill provide us with much useful Information. As mentioned 1n our previous l e t t e r , we need you to e ith e r complete the questionnaire y o u rself, or have a family member most fam iliar with the manual f i l l i t out. In the event th a t your questionnaire has been misplaced, a replacement 1s enclosed. Your cooperation is greatly appreciated. Cordially, Michael Lambur Project Coordinator A MERIDIAN T O W N S H IP FEDERATED H O M E O W N E R S A SSOCIATION DEPARTMENTS OF ENTOMOLOGY, RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT A FO RESTRY alternative approaches to nrban pest management ■ u n o R o r u a o rm c i n n u n n r , m i a t d h u . a a o o i m m u m . w c n u i v t a t i s a r T B w in m L i m n , m U U 4 «nT>ia*«ra? APPENDIX D The P r o c e d u r e Used f o r D e l e t i n g S c a l e Item s From Sem an tic D i f f e r e n t i a l s APPENDIX D The P r o c e d u r e Used f o r D e l e t i n g S c a l e Ite m s From Se ma nti c D i f f e r e n t i a l s The p r o c e d u r e u s ed f o r d e l e t i n g s c a l e i t e m s from ea ch o f t h e f i v e semantic d i f f e r e n t i a l s involved th e a n a l y s i s o f th e in t e r i t e m covariation. T h i s w i d e l y us ed p r o c e d u r e i s b as ed on t h e r a t i o n a l e t h a t " I f r e s p o n d e n t s who a g r e e w i t h one s t a t e m e n t a l s o t e n d t o a g r e e w i t h a n o t h e r s t a t e m e n t , one c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h e two s t a t e m e n t s a r e i n d i c a t o r s o f a common u n d e r l y i n g a t t i t u d e " (Piazza 1980:587). The s p e c i f i c measure o f c o v a r i a t i o n u s ed was t h e P ea r s on pr od uct-moment correlation co efficien t. Where t h e c o e f f i c i e n t between two s c a l e it e m s was h ig h and p o s i t i v e , and t h e y a p p e a r e d t o go t o g e t h e r on logical g r o u n d s , one o f them was c o n s i d e r e d f o r d e l e t i o n . The procedure i s o u t l i n e d in the follow ing s t e p s . Step 1 : S i n c e t h e p r e - t e s t was ba s e d on a sample s i z e o f o n l y n i n e , i t was acknowledged t h a t t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e s e sample c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s re p r e s e n t e d dependable e s t i m a t e s o f t h e i r p o p u l a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s was s u s p e c t . To a l l e v i a t e t h i s p r ob le m , o n l y t h o s e c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 5 l e v e l were c o n s i d e r e d . ( f o r n = 9) In e s s e n c e t h e n , ea ch c o e f f i c i e n t was t e s t e d a g a i n s t t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n r was in f a c t z e r o . I f the computed r was l a r g e enough t o r e j e c t t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , t h e n t h a t p a r t i c u l a r r was a c c e p t e d a s i n d i c a t i n g t h e p r e s e n c e o f a t l e a s t some 287 288 degree o f c o r r e l a t i o n . Since s i g n i f i c a n t r v alues a re r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e in s t a t i s t i c t e x t s , t h i s s t e p was c a r r i e d o u t by si mp ly comp ari ng t h e computed c o e f f i c i e n t s w i t h a t a b l e for r at v a l u e . Thus , .0 5 w i t h a sample s i z e o f thes ig n ific a n t value n i n e was .566 ( G a r r e t t and Wood- worth 1 9 6 0 : 2 0 1 ) ; o n l y t h o s e c o e f f i c i e n t s t h a t ex ce ed ed t h i s v a l u e were c o n s i d e r e d i n t h e s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s i s . Step 2 : The c o r r e l a t i o n m a t r i x p ro d u ce d in t h e r e l i a b i l i t y a n a l y s i s was u se d t o o b t a i n a l i s t o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s and c o r r e s p o n d i n g s c a l e i t e m s f o r each s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l . The t o t a l number o f s i g n i f i c a n t c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r ea ch d i f f e r e n t i a l w ere : 1. H a n d li n g p e s t pro bl em s on p l a n t s in t h e y a r d = 28 2. Using p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d = 25 3. Using a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s in t h e y a r d = 41 4. Software component o f t h e manual = 48 5. Hardware component o f t h e manual = 17 All i t e m s were examined and where two i t e m s were j u d g e d t o be m e a s u r i n g t h e same d i m e n s i o n , one was d e l e t e d . In some c a s e s , however, an it em was d e l e t e d s o l e l y on i n t u i t i v e g r o u n d s . d i f f e r e n t i a l a r e p r e s e n t e d in T a b l e D . l . The s c a l e i t e m s from each T ab l e D . l . S c a l e i t e m s d e l e t e d from s e m a n t i c d i f f e r e n t i a l s S em a n ti c d i f f e r e n t i a l S c a l e i t e m s a c t e d upon* H a nd li n g p e s t pr ob le m s on p l a n t s in th e y ard S o o th i n g / P l e a s u r a b l e R el ax i n g / P l e a s u r a b l e Pleasant/A ttractive C urious/Interesting Useful/Im portant Using p e s t i c i d e s / a l t e r n a t i v e s to p e s t i c i d e s in th e y ard Necessary/W arranted Easy/Convenient Good r e s u l t s / S u c c e s s f u l Meaningful/Useful Inexpensive/ — S o f t w a r e component o f t h e manual Valuabl e / H e l p f u l Cl e a r / E a s y t o u n d e r s t a n d C o n v e n i e n t way t o h a n d l e p e s t problems/Easy to a p p l y in t h e y a r d S u p e r i o r / G i v e s good r e s u l t s Easy t o a p p l y / E a s y t o apply in th e y ard B e n e fic ia l/B e n e fits apparent Hardware component o f t h e manual Too l o n g / C o n t a i n s t o o much inform ation Tough/Rugged ♦ L i s t e d by t h e i r p o s i t i v e a d j e c t i v e o r p h r a s e o n l y . +D e l e t e d s o l e l y on i n t u i t i v e g r o u n d s . t+r for pesticide d if f e r e n tia l/r for altern ativ es d iffe re n tia l. r .892 .798 .813 .889 — . 9 0 2 / . 7 3 7 ++ .890/.741 .949/.762 - /.725 — Scale item deleted Soothing R e l a x in g Pleasant Cu rio u s Useful+ Necessary Easy Good r e s u l t s Meaningful Inexpensive .906 .781 Valuable Clear .72 8 .844 C o n ve ni en t Superior — .85 8 --- Easy t o a p p l y 1" B eneficial^ Too lo n g Tough+ APPENDIX E Survey R e s u l t s f o r Manual Non-Users APPENDIX E Survey R e s u l t s f o r Manual Non-Users Individual C h a r a c te r is t ic s Soc i oeconomi c C h a r a c t e r i s t i cs 1. Age: 2. E d u c a ti o n : n 1 1 1 1 Age 25 35 38 72 E d u c a ti o n l e v e l Completed c o l l e g e Some g r a d u a t e work Completed a g r a d u a t e d e g r e e 3. Socioeconomic s t a t u s : 4. Income: 5. Employment s t a t u s : SES C l a s s I (high) I IV (low) IV SES Scor e 11 15 50 57 Income l e v e l L es s t h a n $1 0 ,0 0 0 3 0 , 0 0 0 - 3 4 ,9 99 5 0 ,0 0 0 - 54 ,9 99 2 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 Employment s t a t u s Employed F u l l - t i m e homemaker n 3 1 Personality C h arac teristics 6. A t t i t u d e tow ard h a n d l i n g p e s t pro ble m s in t h e y a r d : A ttitu d e score 72 } s l i g h t l y negative 77 107* Positive 290 1 , 291 7. A ttitu d e toward using p e s tic id e s to handle pest problems in the yard: A ttitu d e score 49 68 } n e g a t i v e n 1 1 1 1 83 ^ n e u t r a l 99 - p o s i t i v e 8. A t t i t u d e to w ar d u s i n g a l t e r n a t i v e s t o p e s t i c i d e s t o h a n d l e p e s t prob lem s i n t h e y a r d : A ttitu d e score 90 - . 107 positive 116 n 1 1 1 Communication B eh a v i o r 9. S o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n used f o r managing p e s t p r ob le m s : Information source __________ F requency o f use________ Frequently Sometimes Not used 2 1 Books Magazines Newspapers Pamphlets/manuals Package/container la b e ls Radio Televi sion Cooperative exten sio n s e rv ic e personnel Garden s t o r e p e r s o n n e l T r e e /1 aw n /1a nds ca pe personnel Friends/neighbors 10. • • • • 3 J low g } medium 1 • 1 1 « • • 1 1 2 • • • • • • 4 1 • • • • • • 1 1 Index o f communication b e h a v i o r s c o r e s : Score n 2 3 3 3 2 3 2 « • • • • • • 1 • • • 3 3 2 292 Problem v s . 11. Innovation O rie n ta tio n Why r e s p o n d e n t s p u r c h a s e d t h e manual: Reason ( o r i e n t a t i o n ) Heard a b o u t t h e manual and t h o u g h t i t would be useful (innovation) I n t e r e s t e d in t h e i n f o r m a t i o n and how i t c o u l d be u se d in t h e y a r d ( p ro ble m ) Re ce iv ed a s a g i f t ( n o t a p p l i c a b l e ) n 1 2 1 Communication Ch an ne ls 12. How r e s p o n d e n t s f i r s t h e a r d a b o u t t h e manual b e i n g a v a i l a b l e for sale: Communication s o u r c e Newspaper a r t i c l e / a n n o u n c e m e n t Mail announcement At a P r o j e c t PEST "Walking Tour" 13. n 2 1 1 When r e s p o n d e n t s p u r c h a s e d t h e manual: Year 1981 1982 n 3 1 D escriptive C h a ra c te ris tic s 14. P l a n t g ro u p s on which p e s t pro ble m s o c c u r r e d and how t h e y were managed: Plant group P e s t pr o bl em s Management method {%) Yes No P e s t i c i d e s A l t e r n a t i v e s No a c t i o n O r n a m e n t a l/ sh ad e t r e e s F ruit trees Shrubs F lowe rs Lawn Vegetable g ar d en 15. 3 3 2 3 3 10 0. 0 30.0 0.0 0.0 100. 0 0.0 1 3 0.0 10 0 .0 0.0 • 0.0 0.0 100. 0 0.0 70.0 0.0 1 1 2 1 1 • • • • • P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n P r o j e c t PEST a c t i v i t i e s : A c t i v i t y ________________________________ n A t t e n d e d t h e 1981 "Walking Tour" 1 No in v o l v e m e n t 3 • • • APPENDIX F Additional M u ltip le Regression A n alysis R esu lts \ Table F . l . F in a l u n s t a n d a r d i z e d r e g r e s s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r t h e 20 independent v a ria b le s C oefficient (B) Significance* (a) Problem v s . i n n o v a t i o n orientation 96 .4 69 7 .098 2 Socio ec ono mic s t a t u s -4.8216 . 189 3 Software t r i a l a b i l i t y 78 .6 069 .028 4 Hardware r e l a t i v e a d v a n t a g e 19 .0485 .249 5 Index o f com munication b e h a v i o r 11.5103 .105 6 Software c o m p a ti b i li t y -45.9563 .087 7 Age 0 .8 36 2 . 708 8 P esticides a ttitu d e 3 .1 6 97 .072 9 H a n d li n g p e s t pr ob le m s a t t i t u d e -1.3873 .380 9.5287 .008 135.7975 .037 42. 1851 .013 -32.3716 .021 S te p 1 10 Variable entered A lternatives to p esticid es attitu d e 11 F a m i l i a r i t y w i t h IPM 12 Hardware c o m p l e x i t y 13 Hardware a t t i t u d e 14 Hardware a p p e a r a n c e 51 .9 59 8 .028 15 Hardware d u r a b i l i t y 65.4248 .082 16 Education 27 .7 92 7 .263 17 Software r e l a t i v e advantage -3.4373 .822 18 Software complexity 14.9282 .490 19 Software a t t i t u d e -4.4782 .627 20 Software o b s e r v a b i l i t y 2 . 985 7 .911 ■1033.7991 .116 Constant *Based on an F r a t i o . 293 LIST OF REFERENCES LIST OF REFERENCES Acock, A.C. and J . D . M a r t i n . 1974. The un derme asuremen t c o n t r o v e r s y : s h o u l d o r d i n a l d a t a be t r e a t e d a s i n t e r v a l ? S o c i o l o g y and S o c i a l Re s ea rc h 5 8 ( 4 ) : 42 7 -4 3 3. A j z e n , I . and M. F i s h b e i n . 1977. A t t i t u d e - b e h a v i o r r e l a t i o n s : a t h e o r e t i c a l a n a l y s i s and r e v i e w o f e m p i r i c a l r e s e a r c h . Psych o­ l o g i c a l B u l l e t i n 8 4 ( 5 ) : 88 8 -9 1 8. A n d r e a s e n , A.R. 1968. A t t i t u d e s and consumer b e h a v i o r : a d e c i s i o n model. Pages 4 9 8 - 5 1 0 , P e r s p e c t i v e s in consumer b e h a v i o r , e d i t e d by H.H. K a s s a r j i a n and T . S . R o b e r t s o n . Glen vi ew, 1 1 1 . : S c o t t , Foresman and Company. B a b b i e , E.R. 1973. Survey r e s e a r c h meth od s. w or th P u b l i s h i n g Company, I n c . Bel mon t, C a l i f . : Wads­ B a b b i e , E.R. 1983. 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