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University Miaonlms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor. Ml 48106 8407162 Akao, Samuel Francis BICULTURALISM AND BARRIERS TO LEARNING AMONG MICHIGAN INDIAN ADULT STUDENTS M ichigan State University University Microfilms International Ph.D. 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Copyright 1983 by Akao, Samuel Francis All Rights Reserved 1983 PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V . 1. Glossy photographs or pages______ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background______ 4. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page______ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages 8. Print exceeds margin requirements______ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine______ 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print______ 11. Page(s)____________ lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s)____________ seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages num bered_____________. Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled pages______ 15. copy___ ^ Other____________________________________________________________ _ _ _ _ _ University Microfilms International BICULTURALISM AND BARRIERS TO LEARNING AMONG MICHIGAN INDIAN ADULT STUDENTS By Samuel Francis Akao A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillm ent of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Administration and Curriculum 1983 ABSTRACT BICULTURALISM AND BARRIERS TO LEARNING AMONG MICHIGAN INDIAN ADULT STUDENTS By Samuel Francis Akao The primary purpose of this study was to determine the relation­ ship between biculturalism and barriers to learning among Indian adult students in Grand Rapids, Michigan. One group of Indian adult students and one group of Anglo adult students comprised the final sample of 84 in this study. Self- administered questionnaires were collected over a period of 10 weeks. Twenty-four percent of the sample was contacted for a follow-up inter­ view. Descriptive and inferential statistical analyses were conducted with the .05 level of probability set as the level of statistical sig­ nificance. The biculturalism scores indicated that Indian adult students were moderately bicultural or able to balance both the Indian and Anglo cultures. Biculturalism scores of Indian adult students were negatively related to situational barriers. The data indicated that the development of biculturalism may be a direct key to improving learning among Indian adults. Samuel Francis Akao A profile analysis on learning barriers indicated that situa­ tional, dispositional, and institutional barriers were of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. Significant differences were noted between Indians and Anglos on situational, institu tio n al, and learning barriers as a whole. Indian adult students assigned more importance to situational, in s ti­ tutional, and to learning barriers overall than did their Anglo counterparts. No significant difference was noted between Indian and Anglo adult students on dispositional barriers. Comparisons of specific barriers within each category indicated that factors of distance, lack of time to study, and lack of trans­ portation were of equal importance and of more importance than lack of child care for Indian adult students. In comparison, a ll four situa­ tional barriers were of equal importance for Anglo adult students. Both groups also indicated that, among the dispositional barriers, lack of confidence in their a b ility to learn was of greatest importance. Data revealed that the 12 institutional barriers designated in this study were of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. Finally, relationships between biculturalism, barriers to learning, and demographic characteristics were examined. Recommendations for program improvement in adult education and future research with Native Americans were discussed. For Mom and Dad ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My sincere appreciation is extended to my major professor, Dr. Melvin Buschman, for his guidance and support throughout my doctoral program. Appreciation is also extended to Drs. Joseph Levine, Howard Hickey, Donald Melcer, and James Snoddy for their helpful comments and constructive criticism of my work. My personal, heartfelt thanks go to my friend, Dr. Miquela Rivera, who was patient with me and helped me c la rify ideas, and offered valuable suggestions while I wrote this dissertation. Appreciation is also expressed to Jan Vredevoogd for her statistical guidance and encouragement. Special thanks are expressed to Dr. Michael Connolly, former Director of the Indian Adult Learning Center, and to the Board of Directors of the Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council for their support and permission to conduct the research project at the Center. Thanks are extended to the sta ff of the Center for their help in collecting the research data, especially to the adult students who generously gave of their time to f i l l out the questionnaire. My deepest appreciation goes to my parents and friends for their love and support throughout my graduate study. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES..............................................................................................v iii LIST OF APPENDICES.................................................................................. ix Chapter I. II. III. INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 1 The Problem.............................................................................. Objectives .............................................................................. Definitions of Terms ........................................................... Limitations of the Study .................................................... Overview of the Study ........................................................... 2 4 5 5 6 REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE........................................................ 7 Biculturalism: A Theoretical Perspective ...................... Barriers to Learning ........................................................... Educational Problems Among IndianChildren and Adults . Problems of Indian Students in Michigan Public Schools................................................................................. An Evaluation of the Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids, Michigan ................................................ 7 13 16 METHODOLOGY.................................................................................. 25 The Research Setting ........................................................... An Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids, M ic h ig a n .......................................................................... S u b je c ts ................................................................................. Procedure................................................................................. Administration of the Questionnaire .............................. The Barriers to Learning Follow-Up Interview . . . . Training of Research Assistants .................................... Description of the Measures ............................................ Data Analyses.......................................................................... Demographic Characteristics of Sample .............................. 25 iv 22 23 25 26 27 27 29 30 31 37 39 Page IV. RESULTS......................................................................................... 43 Part I . Measurement of Biculturalism .............................. Part I I . Measurement of Barriers to Learning ............... Degree of Importance of Barriers to Learning . . . . Differences in Barriers to Learning .............................. The Relationship Between Respondents' Ethnicity and Degree of Importance of Barriers to Learning as a Whole.............................................................................. Degree of Importance of Factors Within Each Category of Learning Barriers ..................................... Reasons Given for Learning Barriers and Suggestions for Coping With Reported Barriers .............................. Part I I I . Correlational Analyses ..................................... Relationships Between Biculturalism and Barriers to Learning...................................................................... Relationships Between Barriers to Learning and Demographic Variables .................................................... Relationships Between Bicultural ism and Demographic V ariab les.......................................................................... Part IV. Social D e s ira b ility ............................................. Part V. Reasons for Attending the Center's Adult Education Program ............................................................... 43 45 45 47 78 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .......................... 81 Summary..................................................................................... Demographic Characteristics of Sample .............................. Degree of Biculturalism ........................................................ Degree of Importance of Barriers to Learning ............... Correlational Analyses of Survey Variables ................... Social Desirability ............................................................... Reasons for Attending the Center's Adult Education Program................................................................................. Conclusions and Recommendations ......................................... Implications for Future Research ..................................... 81 82 83 83 88 93 APPENDICES................................................................................................ 99 V. BIBLIOGRAPHY ............................................................................................ v 48 49 58 64 64 68 73 77 94 94 97 143 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Chi-Square Analyses, Frequencies, and Percentages of Demographic Characteristics of Sample by Ethnic Group . . 40 2. Profile Analysis for Ethnic Groups on Learning Barriers . 47 . 3. Results of T-Tests on Learning Barrier Categories and Learning Barriers as a Whole ............................................... 48 4. Means and Rank Order of Individual Learning Barriers 49 . . . 5. Profile Analysis for Ethnic Groups on Situational B a r r ie r s ..................................................................................... 50 6. Repeated-Measure Analyses of Variance Results for Indian Adult Students on Situational Barriers ................... 52 7. Repeated-Measure Analyses of Variance Results for Anglo Adult Students on Situational Barriers ................... 52 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Profile Analysis for Ethnic Groups on Dispositional B a r r ie r s ..................................................................................... 53 Repeated-Measure Analyses of Variance Results for Indian Adult Students on Dispositional Barriers ........................... 55 Repeated-Measure Analyses of Variance Results for Anglo Adult Students on Dispositional Barriers ........................... 55 Profile Analysis for Ethnic Groups on Institutional B a r r ie r s ..................................................................................... 57 Repeated-Measure Analyses of Variance Results for Indian Adult Students on Institutional Barriers .......................... 57 Repeated-Measure Analyses of Variance Results for Anglo Adult Students on Institutional Barriers .......................... 58 Rank Order of Importance and Frequency Distribution of Learning Barriers for Indian and Anglo Adult Student Interviewees ............................................................................. 60 vi Page 15. Reasons Given for Learning Barriers by Ethnic Group . . . . 61 16. Suggestions for Coping With Learning Barriers by Ethnic G ro u p ............................................................................................. 65 17. Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Biculturalism With Barriers to Learning ................................................................... 68 18. Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Situational, Dispositional, Institutional, and Learning Barriers as a Whole With Various Demographic Variables ................... 69 19. Spearman Correlation Coefficients for Situational, Dispositional, Institutional, and Learning Barriers as a Whole With Other Demographic Variables ...................... 72 20. One-Way Analyses of Variance Results for Situational, Dispositional, Institutional, and Learning Barriers as a Whole..................................................................................... 74 21. Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Biculturalism With Various Demographic Variables ................................................ 75 22. Spearman Correlation Coefficients for Biculturalism With Other Demographic Variables ............................................. 76 23. One-Way Analyses of Variance Results for Biculturalism . . . 76 24. Pearson Correlation Coefficients for Social Desirability With Biculturalism and Barriers to Learning ....................... 77 25 . Frequency of the Number of Indian and Anglo Adult Students Who Were Enrolled Fall Semester 1980, by Reasons for Attending Center's Adult Education Program ........................... v ii 80 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Distribution of Biculturalism Scale Scores ........................... 44 2. Profile of Means for Situational, Dispositional, and Institutional Barriers for Anglo and Indian Adult Students..................................................................................... 46 3. 4. 5. Profile of Means for Situational Barriers for Anglo and Indian Adult Students .................................................... 51 Profile of Means for Dispositional Barriers for Anglo and Indian Adult Students .................................................... 54 Profile of Means for Institutional Barriers for Anglo and Indian Adult Students .................................................... 56 v iii LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix Page A. NATIVE AMERICANS AS A POPULATION OF STUDY ........................... 100 B. CONSENT FORM............................................................................... 107 C. COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE .............................................. 109 D. DATA RECORDING SHEET................................................................ 126 E. CORRECTED ITEM-TOTAL CORRELATION AND RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR THE BICULTURALISM INVENTORY ............... 129 F. CORRECTED ITEM-TOTAL CORRELATION AND RELIABILITY OF VARIABLES FOR THE THREE SUBSCALES AND THE BARRIERS TO LEARNING SCALE AS A WHOLE .............................. 131 G. DETAILED RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES OF SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE .............................. 133 H. FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF SUBJECTS' OCCUPATIONS BY ETHNIC GROUP...................................................................... 138 I. FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF PARENTS' OCCUPATIONS BY ETHNIC GROUP...................................................................... ix 140 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION There are 1,420,400 Native Americans in the U.S. (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982a). I t has been estimated that the high school dropout rate for American Indian 14 to 17 year olds is 22% (National Center for Education S tatistics, 1981). This high national dropout rate of Native Americans poses an important problem for the educa­ tional system. In Michigan, specifically, the problem is severe. According to a study of the socioeconomic status of Michigan Indians, about 75% of the household heads surveyed failed to graduate from high school (Governor's Commission on Indian Affairs, 1971). Most of these dropouts had less than a ninth-grade education. Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council (GRITC) reports indicate that many Native American participants in the Council's programs did not complete high school. Many did not go beyond seventh grade. Reading and math were areas of d iffic u lty , and vocational training was limited (GRITC, 1978). The irrelevance of curricula, discrimination in the school systems, cultural value conflicts, and language barriers are frequent reasons given to explain the high dropout rate (Berry, 1968; MacLean, 1973; Wax, 1967). This research investigated various dimensions of the Michigan Indian within the school system. 1 Of primary interest 2 are the extent to which students can function in both the white and native cultures and the major problems that they perceive in the educational system. The Problem Biculturalism is the belief that a person can develop an iden­ tific a tio n with more than one culture and, in the process, acquire a wide range of adaptive competencies and sensitivities (Ramirez, Castaneda, & Cox, 1977; Ramirez, Garza, & Cox, 1980). This a b ility to draw from and balance two cultures may be a significant asset for the Native American to succeed in the Michigan school system. An investigation of biculturalism is important in understanding how American Indian adult students function in the larger society. Although numerous articles have described the level of assimi­ lation, acculturation, or amalgamation of various tribes (Vogt, 1957; Walker, 1972), there are few studies concerning biculturalism of Indian people residing in the United States. Therefore, the fir s t objective of this study was to determine the extent to which Michigan Indians are bicultural. The extent to which minority individuals experience barriers in the educational system may affect the extent to which they adap­ tively function in both cultures and vice versa. I t is important, therefore, to assess the barriers to learning among Indian adult students. The literature on barriers to learning suggests that a variety of obstacles prevent or discourage adults from participating in 3 organized learning ac tivities (Cross, 1979). These barriers include lack of time, transportation problems, high cost of education, lack of interest, lack of confidence in one's a b ility , inconvenient schedules and locations, and lack of interesting courses. Studies about Native Americans also indicate that most of the previously mentioned barriers affect Indian students (Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972; Meriam, Brown, Cloud, Dale, Duke, Edwards, McKenzie, Mark, Ryan, & Spillman, 1928; U.S. Senate, 1969). I t is conceivable, therefore, that these barriers may also pose problems for both Indian and Anglo adult learners currently enrolled in adult education programs. This study was designed to determine the major learning bar­ riers experienced by Indian adult students of the Grand Rapids Indian Adult Learning Center. I t attempts to explain why these factors are experienced as barriers to learning and indicate what the students feel should be done to alleviate them. This study, based on student input, may help to promote positive change and enhance learning. The biculturalism variable in this study explores the role of cultural balance in the learning situation. The relationship between biculturalism and learning barriers may be a key to understanding the learning d iffic u ltie s faced by Native American adult students. With this information, educators could maintain or promote the optimal level of biculturalism in order to maximize learning effec­ tiveness. This study may also be more widely useful to Native American adult education. F irs t, the instructional information may be used in planning adult education or other programs for other adult Native 4 Americans from the target population. Second, the results w ill provide administrators, adult educators, and program developers with a source of information to plan adult education programs for Native Americans in other learning institutions throughout the Grand Rapids area. Finally, the findings w ill be most helpful to adult educators or those in helping professions who plan and teach nonacademic pro­ grams where instruction for Native American adults is required. Objectives The specific objectives of this study were: 1. To determine the degree of biculturalism among Michigan Indian adult students. 2. To indicate the degree of importance of barriers to learning for both Indian and Anglo adult students. 3. To examine differences in barriers to learning between Indian and Anglo adult students. 4. To examine the relationship between respondents' ethnicity and degree of importance of barriers to learning. 5. To determine the degree of importance of factors within each category of learning barriers. 6. To determine why reported factors are barriers to learning and s o lic it students' ideas for appropriate change. 7. To examine the relationships between biculturalism and barriers to learning. 5 Definitions of Terms Indian Adult Students. Those adult students of one-quarter or more Native American ancestry (Connolly, 1980) who are over 16 years of age as of fa ll semester, 1980. Anglo Adult Students. Those adult students of Caucasian ancestry who are over 16 years of age as of fa ll semester, 1980 (Connolly, 1980). Biculturalism. A person's a b ility to participate in and iden­ t if y with more than one culture (Ramirez et a l . , 1980). Barriers to Learning. barriers: 1979). There are three categories of learning situational, dispositional, and institutional (Cross, Situational barriers are those originating from one's lif e situation at some point in time, such as a lack of transportation, lack of time due to home or job responsibilities, geographical iso­ lation, and lack of child care. Dispositional barriers refer to one's attitudes about learning and self-perceptions as a learner; for example, boredom with school or lack of interest in learning, lack of confidence in one's a b ility , or belief that one is "too old" to learn. Institutional barriers are those created by learning institutions or agencies that may pose problems of access for certain groups of learners. These include such things as inconvenient schedules, high cost of education, and inconvenient locations. Limitations of the Study This study was limited to Indian and Anglo adult students over 16 years of age who voluntarily enrolled at the Indian Adult Learning Center prior to the end of the fourth week of September 1980. 6 The study's va lid ity depends on the extent to which adult stu­ dents were able to provide unbiased and honest responses. Therefore, participants were encouraged to be frank. The scope of this study was limited to the Grand Rapids area in the State of Michigan. Generalization was limited accordingly. Overview of the Study Chapter I I reviews and summarizes the literature relevant to this study. Chapter I I I describes the research methodology, while Chapter IV presents the analyses of the data. Chapter V summarizes the study's findings and discusses implications for program-improvement areas and for future research. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Biculturalism: A Theoretical Perspective The effects of acculturation and adaptation among ethnic minority groups have been characterized in several ways: conflict, marginality, pathology; functionalism; transcension; biculturalism; or multicul­ tural ism (Ramirez et a l . , 1980). Personality development of minority-group members has been conceptualized according to a model of personality conflict and cul­ tural replacement (Ramirez et a l . , 1980). Assuming there were two incompatible sociocultural systems, i t would be reasonable to conclude that individuals participating as members of the two systems would experience conflict and eventually the values, belief systems, and coping behaviors of one culture would be replaced with those of another. This conflict model also implies that as individuals move toward one of the cultures, they identify more with i t and move away from the other culture, thus replacing the values and lifestyles of one with those of the other. Stonequist (1937) proposed one early conceptualization based on the conflict/replacement model wherein members of minority groups were referred to as "marginal." Stonequist's focal thesis is reflected in the following statement: "The marginal man as conceived in this study is one who is poised in psychological uncertainty between 8 two (ormore) social worlds, reflecting in his soul the discords and harmonies, repulsions and attractions of those worlds." Stonequist mentions three significant stages in the " life cycle" of the marginal man: (a) positive feelings toward the host culture, (b) conscious experience of co n flict, and (c) responses to the con­ f l i c t , which may be prolonged and more or less successful in terms of adjustment. Furthermore, an individual can adopt one of three roles during the third stage: and (c) assimilation. (a) nationalism, (b) intermediation, Nationalism refers to the organization of a collective movement to raise the status of the group. Intermediation refers to bringing the two cultures closer to promote accommodation. Assimilation refers to a largely unconscious process in which social backgrounds eventually fade away. Overall, Stonequist's model deals with cultural co n flict, suggesting that the only "healthy" resolution to this conflict is assimilation into the dominant culture. Another conceptual framework based on the conflict model was posited by psychologist Irving Child (1943), who observed intercultural conflicts in young adult male Italia n Americans in New Haven. Based upon these conflicts, Child suggested three types of conflict reactions: (a) the rebel reaction, (b) the in-group reaction, and (c) the apathetic reaction. The rebel reaction refers to behaviors indicating a desire to achieve complete acceptance by the American majority group and to reject Italia n associations. The in-group reaction refers to behaviors indicating a desire to actively par­ ticipate in and identify with the Italia n group. Finally, the apathetic reaction refers to a retreat from conflict situations and 9 avoidance of strong "rebel" and "in-group" behaviors. In addition, Child considered that an individual's attempt to solve the conflict by adjusting to two cultures and compromising was also an "apathetic reaction." Another subscriber to the conflict/replacement model was Madsen (1964), who wrote "The Alcoholic Agringado" a rtic le describing cul­ tural transfer traumas in acculturating Mexican American males of south Texas. Madsen depicts the Mexican American, caught between two conflicting cultural worlds, turning to alcohol for anxiety r e lie f . A second characterization of the effects of living or operating in two cultures, or more, is that of Functionalism (Ramirez et a l ., 1980). This characterization describes a person who understands networks and social groups within a second culture and can approp­ ria te ly and adaptively interact in various situations with these groups without sacrificing the values of either group. For example, Fitzgerald (1971) described extensive "shuttling" by Maori university graduates as they moved between the European and Maori cultures. Fitzgerald commented on the concepts of social and cultural identity. He described the behavior of his subjects as compartmentalized, being appropriate to either the Maori or European cultures, depending on settling, interaction, and expectations. The Maori subjects managed to function well in European events and a c tiv i­ tie s , while retaining th eir Maori identity. Based on his study, Fitzgerald concluded that acculturation is not a linear process, 10 but a complex set of experiences and behaviors in which individual choice is a c ritic a l determinant. In another study, McFee (1968) concluded that among Blackfeet Indians living on a bicultural reservation, Indian behaviors that had continuing u t ility were not replaced by a white behavioral reper­ to ire. McFee noted that the bicultural reservation provides a variety of situations and roles that promote the use of both Indian and White behaviors. To assess levels of involvement in the two sociocultures, McFee devised measures of Indian orientation and a measure of White orientations. He used a two-dimensional matrix of biculturalism to analyze the data. The vertical axis represented Indian orientation measured by knowledge of Blackfeet language, religious beliefs and lore, and participation in ceremonies, dances, and songs. The hori­ zontal axis represented White orientation measured by behaviors indicative of American mainstream culture. Valentine (1971) also drew conclusions concerning behavioral fle x ib ility in his discussions of biculturation among black Americans. He wrote: The collective behavior and social lif e of the Black commu­ nity is bicultural in the sense that each Afro-American ethnic segment draws upon both a distinctive repertoire of standard­ ized Afro-American group behavior and, simultaneously, patterns derived from the mainstream cultural system of Euro-American derivation, (p. 143) A third characterization of an acculturation effect is that of Transcension (Ramirez et a l ., 1980). Transcension is a process by which individuals are able to w illin g ly acquire a second culture, integrating i t so adaptively into their identity that the boundary 11 of one culture or another is no longer d istinct, but instead d if­ fused; the individuals respond adaptively, depending upon the time or situation or circumstance. This one aspect of biculturation effects is illustrated by Adler (1977), who described the identity of the multicultural man. The multicultural man, according to Adler, is always in transition. Adler contends that values, beliefs, a t t i ­ tudes, and world views are relevant only to certain situations. These components are dynamic, continually evolving and being reformulated through experience. The multicultural person is one who can transcend national and cultural boundaries and identities. Adler notes that this person is psychologically adaptive, understanding interculturally, and has a global view of community. The two characterizations, functionalism and transcendence, taken together in various forms, lead to a discussion of biculturalism or multicultural ism. Ramirez and Castaneda (1974), for example, indi­ cated that bicultural children responding to social and cultural stimuli of specific situations were usually bilingual and spoke English or Spanish spontaneously. These children showed positive attitudes toward both Anglo and Chicano cultures. I t was also found that bicultural children had more fle x ib ility in responding to cer­ tain situations or tasks. The behavior and attitudes of these children were viewed by Ramirez and Castaneda as part of the process of developing a bicultural identity, which, when taken together, describe a bicultural personality. Recently, Ramirez et a l. (1980) discussed a model of fle x i­ b ility , synthesis or unity, and expansion to describe aspects of 12 developing bicultural ism or multicultural ism. The description included the following: (1) individuals learn from the diversity reflected by cul­ tures, situations, environments, other individuals; (2) an individual's behavioral repertoires and perspectives are enhanced by incorporation of knowledge and experiences of people of various experiences and backgrounds; (3) these expanded repertoires provide a basis for a multicultural orientation to life--w illingness and a b ility to adapt situationally; (4) the individual continues to develop a b ili­ ties and perspectives in his or her original culture; (5) growth takes place in various domains of different cul­ tures simultaneously; (6) a resulting orientation that includes an experience of oneself as having incorporated value systems, attitudes, beliefs and world view from various groups and experiences as well as a commitment to openness and further growth. The fle x ib ility of behavior is a f ir s t step in the development; synthesis or unity or fusion of culture and personality, of social and philosophical motivations is another; and commitment to further expansion of one's world and personal growth is another. The last element, commitment to personal growth and mul­ ticultural expansion, is one which distinguishes a person's functioning in multicultural behaviors and those who are functional and have a transcendent or multicultural identity as w ell. (pp. 6-7) Based on this conceptualization of multi cultural ism, Ramirez et al. (1980) examined leader behaviors of Mexican American college students in ethnically mixed task group situations. The findings indicated five dimensions of group leader behaviors, which subjects with greater degrees of multicultural experience used more frequently than subjects with less multicultural experience. These dimensions and behaviors, according to Ramirez et a l . , include the following: (a) taking charge (exhibiting assertive behaviors; assessing group progress), (b) effective communication (elicitin g opinions; c la rify ­ ing statements made by members; clarifying problem being discussed), (c) attempting to reduce interpersonal conflict (mediating; seeking 13 compromise solutions), (d) social sensitivity and personableness (acknowledging contributions of members; addressing members by name), and (e) coping with stress (fewer indications of tension or stress). Significant differences were also noted for subjects with high versus low cognitive fle x ib ility in the category of communication effectiveness (e lic itin g opinions, clarifying statements) and coping with stress. Research has indicated, then, that bicultural ism can be experi­ enced as stressful and debilitating or positive and growth producing. Barriers to Learning As noted in the previous chapter, there are three types of barriers to learning: (Cross, 1979). situational, dispositional, and institutional Situational barriers include environmental problems related to community services and personal situations. Dispositional barriers refer to one's attitudes about learning and self-perceptions as a learner. Institutional barriers are those created by learning institutions or agencies that may pose problems for certain groups of learners. Self-report surveys on educational needs and interests of adults indicate that situational barriers are the obstacles that deter the largest number of learners (Cross, 1979). For many groups, the major barriers identified by survey respondents are lack of time and high cost. Cross noted that about one-third of the respondents viewed cost as the major obstacle to further learning; time was reportedly as strong a factor. These two factors varied in severity 14 but were generally the two most frequently reported barriers to learning. Other situational barriers are lack of child care, usually a problem for between 10 and 20% of potential learners (Hamilton, 1976; Hefferlin, Peterson, & Roelfs, 1975; New York State, 1977; Nurnberger, 1974; Stelzer & Banthin, 1975), and transportation prob­ lems, which are especially lik e ly to plague the elderly (Cross, 1979). The desire-for-social-acceptability factor is one possible explana­ tion why time and money are most often cited as leading barriers instead of more personally demeaning barriers, such as lack of con­ fidence, lack of a b ility , or lack of interest (Cross, 1979). There is probably an underestimation of these dispositional barriers reported in surveys because people do not like to reveal them. For example, people may not want to admit that they lack confidence or the a b ility to do well in school. Cross noted that dispositional barriers were usually mentioned by less than 10% of the respondents. The most frequent reports of dispositional barriers, however, are found among those who are not participating in educational a c tiv i­ ties. In one study of postsecondary education, Nurnberger (1974) found that the only significant discriminators between users and nonusers of educational services were the self-perceptions of the respondents as learners. Nonusers were significantly more lik e ly to cite problems with the enjoyment of studying, feelings of confidence, and knowing what they would like to learn and where to get informa­ tion about their interests. While each survey seems to have its own lis t of possible in s ti­ tutional barriers, there are some common barriers that potential 15 learners complain about most. They are inconvenient locations and schedules and the lack of interesting or relevant courses. Generally, each of these barriers was cited as somewhat of a problem by up to one-fourth of the potential learners (Carp, Peterson, & Roelfs, 1974; Hamilton, 1976; Hefferlin et a l . , 1975; New York State, 1977; Wilcox, Stratford, & Veres, 1975). Relatively few respondents cited lack of information as a barrier, although there was ample evidence that adults did lack information about the new opportunities available (Carp et a l . , 1974). One wonders i f many of the perceived problems with schedules, locations, and courses might have been due to a lack of information about the options that existed. Institutional barriers exist primarily in colleges and univer­ sities: that segment of adult education that was originally devised for full-tim e learners. These barriers are rapidly being removed by colleges seeking to serve adults. The surveys of higher education sponsored by the Commission on Non-Traditional Study (Ruyle & Geiselman, 1974) showed that college programs have become more acces­ sible to working adult students through such changes as scheduling classes when and where working adults can attend, granting credit by examination for noncollegiate learning, and creating more flexib le admissions procedures. Nevertheless, there are s t ill substantial numbers of potential adult learners who cite institutional barriers to their continued education. Public policy decisions may encourage further removal of institutional barriers, but the major challenge for policy makers lies in better understanding of dispositional barriers. Unfortunately, there is s t ill insufficient information 16 about the effective removal of these serious barriers to promote the attainment of equal opportunity (Cross, 1979). Educational Problems Among Indian Children and Adults Several studies have shown that a high rate of Indian students leave school prematurely. A number of factors have been cited as causes of this high dropout rate. For example, Fuchs and Havighurst (1972) indicated that a high school education is considered to be important among Indian parents, but family lifestyles may inhibit school attendance and achievement. Kinship and family obligations frequently require the child to stay home and look after the house or younger siblings while both parents are away. Poverty also contributes to a lack of money for lunch or, especially for the older c h il­ dren attending high school, the lack of money to purchase appropriate clothing. Frequent moves among the more transi­ ent groups, accompanied by school transfers, also contribute to d iffic u ltie s in school, (pp. 115-116) Recently, the f ir s t national study of adult Indian educational needs was conducted (Brod & McQuiston, 1981). The preliminary results indicated that situational barriers were among the major obstacles to continued learning. When State Education Agency (SEA) o ffic ia ls were asked to speculate on the major problems that Indian adult students might encounter in current state adult education programs, they cited problems with transportation (28%), children/child care (23%), transience (15%), and language barriers (5%). The academic achievement of the Indian is also reflected in the numbers who continue their education. Again, situational bar­ riers were noted as major factors in the postsecondary careers of 17 Indian students. In 1968, Bass (1969a) studied 384 American Indian graduates in the Southwest six years after high school completion. He found that 74% of the graduates had entered academic or vocational programs. Of these, 7% completed college while 44% completed technical-vocational training. Two-thirds of the females and three- quarters of the males were employed. Females were usually employed in clerical services, and they reported satisfaction with their jobs. Males were employed in skilled and unskilled jobs, and they reported dissatisfaction. Overall, inadequate finances, m ilitary service, marriage, and pregnancy were cited as the main reasons for failin g to coirrlete postsecondary education. Selinger (1968) interviewed 287 American Indian high school graduates in the Northwest. Of these, he found that about 70% con­ tinued their education and about 50% completed i t . (Note: Figures do not represent a high number of those continuing when the dropout rate before graduation is counted.) Slightly less than one-half of the females and slightly more than one-half of the males were employed, with the majority in low -skill, low-paying jobs. Females discontinued th eir education more because of lack of interest than because of marriage; males because of lack of financial support and lack of interest. The literatu re on school achievement of Indian students also indicated that said students lacked certain tra its , s k ills , disposi­ tions, or attitudes that are required for success in a mainstream educational system. 18 Berry (1968) reviewed a number of self-concept studies and reported that students' perceptions of themselves and their a b ilitie s are a major factor in school achievement. The literatu re suggested that a negative self-image is a cause of the Indian student's aca­ demic failu re. Conversely, a student who has a positive self-image and high self-esteem is lik ely to do well in school (Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972). In one study, Heaps and Morrill (1979) compared the selfconcepts of Navajo to those of white high school students. The data illustrated that, in general, Navajo students f e lt less positive about th eir identity, their moral-ethical se lf, and their social self than their white counterparts. The authors suggested that the d if­ ferences may be due largely to unique cultural differences in moral values and social comparison between the two groups. Martin (1978) found in his examination of self-esteem that at the junior high and high school levels, Indian students exhibited lower self-esteem scores than white students. Fuchs and Havighurst (1972) reported, however, that the self-concept of Indian adolescents is at least as favorable as that of Anglo boys and g irls . Socioeconomic factors as well as ethnic differences were noted as possible explanations for their finding. Related to self-concept is the aspect of self-confidence. In citing the National Study on the perceptions of teachers toward Indian children and youth, Fuchs and Havighurst reported that when teachers were asked to respond to the statement, "In class, Indian children are shy and lack confidence" (p. 194), 50% of the teachers agreed 19 with this statement. Studying the academic achievement of Indian high school students in federal and public schools, Bass (1969b) asked students to mark as true or false the following statements: "I am confident of my a b ility in school" and "I like school" (p. 25). Most of the respondents f e lt these statements were true. centages of responses were 71% and 83%, respectively. The per­ While the evidence is not consistent, i t does appear that many Indian students have a low level of self-confidence and that more research is needed in this area. Low achievement of Indian children has also been attributed to dispositional factors such as lack of motivation, shyness, and men­ tal deficiency (Berry, 1968). The la tte r factor, however, has been discredited by Berry and later by Fuchs and Havighurst (1972). Thus far the barriers cited for academic d iffic u ltie s and failure to complete high school or to continue education are those that fa ll outside the educational institution. I t has been reported that institutional barriers also contribute to educational problems among Indian students. The problems of Indian education were docu­ mented in the literatu re as early as 1928 in perhaps the most important research project ever conducted in regard to Indian affa irs. The study, known as the Meriam Report, found that the educational system had not been responsive to the special needs of Indian stu­ dents up to that date. The findings of this early study included an attack upon the operation of boarding schools, which were seen to be overcrowded, rigid in their schedule of work and study, and d efi­ cient in health and educational services. Teachers were considered 20 poorly trained, and salaries were considered too low to attract better personnel (Meriam et a l . , 1928). The U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Indian Education (1969) sup­ ported the findings of the Meriam Report and indicated that the schooling of Native Americans had not improved much during the inter­ vening 40 years. Quality and effectiveness of instructional prac­ tices were found to be quite unsatisfactory, levels of achievement of Indian students continued well below national norms on achievement tests, and the vast majority of public schools rarely included courses in Indian history, culture, and language in the curriculum. Most textbooks used in schools depicted and perpetuated inaccurate stereotypes about American Indians. Many teachers and administra­ tors believed that Indian students were inferior to white students, and thus they were expected to f a i l . Fuchs and Havighurst (1972) indicated that schools continued to discourage and alienate large numbers of Indian students. In s ti­ tutional barriers such as insensitive, non-Indian teachers, lack of relevance in curriculum experiences, and absence of strong communi­ cation links with Indian parents and communities were found. The perceived problems of Indian adults as reported by SEA o ffic ia ls , according to Brod and McQuiston (1981), included many of the same discontinuities found in the education of younger Native American students, as noted e a rlier. They cited inadequate recruit­ ment channels with Indian communities (44%), a lack of an identi­ fiable community from which to recruit Indian participants (36%), and a lack of a trained sta ff to deal with special problems of Indian 21 adults (33%). Fifteen percent of the SEA o ffic ia ls identified no major problems, while others saw problems with prejudice (13%) and program design (10%). The problems in learning activities among Indian students may be explained further by the middle-class values under which most schools operate. Zintz (1967) cited a number of instances in which cultural values led to conflict. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Harmony with nature as juxtaposed with mastery over nature; Present time orientation rather than future time orienta­ tion; Inclusion of mythology, fear of the supernatural, and sor­ cery rather than a total commitment to a scientific explana­ tion of all natural phenomena; A level of aspiration to follow in the ways of the old people; to cooperate and maintain the status quo rather than to develop a keen sense of competition and climb the ladder of success; To value anonymity and submissiveness rather than individu­ a lity and aggression; To work to satisfy present needs and to be w illing to share rather than always working to "get ahead" and save for the future, (p. 91) Also, there is a difference in styles of learning between the Indian student and the Anglo-oriented school. McKinley, Bayne, & Nimnicht (1970) pointed out: Our own fie ld data indicate that Indian children prefer the style of learning characteristic of th eir culture. Generally, the learner in itiates an extended period of observation and attempts performance only when he feels fa irly certain of his a b ility . Premature bungling attempts are met with teasing, and successful attempts with quiet acceptance. The character­ istics of learning in the American classroom ( i.e . in itia tio n by the teacher, premature public practice, public praise and public correction) are all antithetical to this aboriginal style. . . . Modern American Indian children prefer s e lf­ directed and s e lf-in itia te d projects, ungraded curricula, and learning activities which can be completed with minimal in te r­ action between student and teacher, except when the interac­ tion involves friendly help on an individual basis, (pp. 14-15) 22 I t appears that value conflicts experienced as a result of curricula do contribute to institutional barriers. Until recently, many schools failed to recognize these differences and adjust teaching and curriculum to them. However, until this is done many Indian students may continue to refuse to participate and drop out. Problems of Indian Students in Michigan Public Schools The Michigan Department of Education (1974) reported on two issues of p rio rity in Indian education: (a) lack of educational achievement as evidenced by high dropout rates from secondary schools and comparatively low proportions of the Indian population who are high school graduates and (b) comparatively low proportions of the Indian population who attend, and complete, postsecondary education. On the issue of high school completion, two kinds of d iffic u ltie s were reported: (a) institutional factors and (b) factors related to home environment. Institutional factors were defined in terms of an awareness of and sensitivity to needs of Indian people. Of particular importance were attitudes of teachers and other school administrators, the lack of Indian counseling services and home-school liaisons, and the biased and stereotypic impressions of Indian people presented in history courses and in some textbooks. Home-environment factors related to the students, th eir families, and their peers. Part of this problem was reported as lack of moti­ vation to attend school. I t was suggested that parents should create this motivation at home. Other factors of the home environment were 23 more tangible. Home environment and personal circumstances, for instance, were cited as factors in determining one's accessibility to transportation; the clothes, shoes, and eyeglasses needed; means to secure books and school supplies; and the parental support needed to get along in school. The second basic problem, namely the comparatively low propor­ tion of the Indian population that attends and completes postsecondary education, consisted of two aspects: (a) limited financial resources on the part of Indians to secure a college education and (b) the alienation experienced by Indian people attending postsecondary institutions (Michigan Department of Education, 1974). An Evaluation of the Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids, Michigan Until 1977, the Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council offered adult education through the Grand Rapids Public Schools. Although the edu­ cational needs of the Indian population were great, participation by Indian adult students was poor. The program was limited in scope and failed to meet the pressing needs of the Indian community. The failure of the program was due to such problems as lack of full-tim e staff to serve the students, inadequate fa c ilitie s , lack of trans­ portation and babysitting services, lack of coordination between area adult education and training programs, and lack of materials sensitive to the needs of Indian people. These problems were greatly reduced through the creation of the Indian Adult Learning Center during the 1977-78 school year (GRITC, 1978). The center approach has created a conducive atmosphere to 24 encourage learning and promote academic success for its participants. According to an evaluation of the Indian Adult Learning Center for the 1978-79 school year, students indicated general satisfaction with the program (Office of Curriculum, 1979). The staff identified pro­ gram weaknesses mainly in institutional components of funding, mate­ ria ls , and physical arrangement of the building. The dispositional factor of motivating students also posed a problem. The follow-up survey of the Indian Adult Learning Center was undertaken in part to gather some perceptual data that might lead to the improvement of services provided through the center (Office of Curriculum, 1980). A total of 59 graduates were interviewed. Three key areas were identified from the survey data for improvement of the center. F irst, 40% of the graduates fe lt that more should be offered in vocational training. Second, 44% of the graduates expressed an interest in having more college-preparatory classes. Third, 64% of the graduates cited sta ff as one of the things they liked most about the center, while students loitering and distracting other students while studying was the most frequently cited response of things dis­ liked about the center. In summary, the literature has indicated that biculturalism and barriers to learning may play an important role in the educa­ tional performance and functioning of minority students. Bicul­ tural ism related to factors operating within the student. The barriers-to-learning component focused upon the role of the systemic variables in the education of the Indian adult student. CHAPTER I I I METHODOLOGY This study was designed to assess biculturalism and barriers to learning among participants at the Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids. I t was also designed to determine the relation­ ships between biculturalism and barriers to learning within this population. The Research Setting An Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids, Michigan Based upon data from Kent and Ottawa Counties, the Native American population in Grand Rapids today is estimated at 2,461 (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1982b). Gorwitz and Rosen (1979) viewed the urban Indians in Michigan to be rather diverse in orien­ tation (see Appendix A). The employment outlook of the Grand Rapids Indian community is dismal. Approximately 60% of the people are unemployed and about 225 people are receiving food stamps (Connolly, 1980). The la tte r figure is probably conservative since not all Native Americans identify themselves as Indian or are detectable by appearance, so they go undetected by the Department of Social Services. For many, there are no possibilities of new employment in skilled jobs or advancement in current jobs because of their lack of education (GRITC, 1978). 25 26 The Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids provides educational as well as employment opportunities for the Native American population (GRITC, 1978). The Center is housed in Lexington School, which is located near the Indian community. The Center offers an individualized instructional approach to students in ter­ ested in acquiring a high school diploma or a high school equivalency certificate (General Educational Development [GED] te s t). The Center also offers classes in Typing, Bookkeeping, Office Proce­ dures, Indian Culture and Crafts, Food and Nutrition, Career Educa­ tion, Income Tax, and Self-Analysis. In addition, students are encouraged to enroll in vocational training programs to enhance their employability. The Center's staff is predominantly Native American, so language and cultural barriers are somewhat less than those in other public agencies. Many staff members are also from the area and are fam iliar with the lifestyles and opportunities the community provides. Students in the program are provided supportive services such as counseling, transportation, and child care. scheduled Monday through Friday. Classes are The Center's Adult Education program is open to all community members from age 16 or older, regardless of race, income, or residence. Subjects The population consisted of a ll Grand Rapids Indian and Anglo adult students who had enrolled for public school classes by the fourth Friday of September 1980. Approximately 200 adult students were enrolled by the date designated by the Board of Education as 27 the o ffic ia l registration deadline of the Grand Rapids Adult Educa­ tion programs for the 1980 Fall semester. Adult students who had enrolled after the deadline were not included in the sample. Stu­ dents were included only i f they resided in the Grand Rapids area. A lis t of all registered Indian and Anglo adults and their addresses was compiled from the Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council high school and GED enrollment records. Out of the 200 registered adult students, 90 names were randomly assigned to two groups. Forty-five Indian adult students were assigned to one group, and 45 Anglo adult students were assigned to the other group. The remaining 110 names of adult students were divided by the two ethnic groups and were randomly assigned to each of the f ir s t two groups, respectively, as replacements for participants lost in the study due to noncompliance, incorrect listin g s, or absenteeism. The final sample comprised 84 students: 45 Indian adult students and 39 Anglo adult students. Procedure The methods used in conducting the research are described below. Administration of the Questionnaire The questionnaire was administered individually to Anglo and Indian adult students in attendance at the Indian Adult Learning Center. The researcher and Center staff members serving as research assistants administered the questionnaires. was conducted by the researcher. The follow-up interview Since the students were already fam iliar with staff members, this procedure was used to fa c ilita te 28 adequate and accurate responding and to reduce subject mortality among this highly mobile population. Total data collection entailed 10 weeks. Students were contacted before and after classes had begun, as well as during independent study periods. Research assistants informed the subjects that they were assisting the researcher in gathering information on the major problems or barriers to learning among adult students. Subjects were informed that the research could be used by the Center in program planning. They were assured that their responses would be held confidential. A signature was obtained on a consent form from a ll participants by the research assistants. A copy of the form used in this study can be found in Appendix B. The questionnaire was then administered to the subjects, preceded by a cover le tte r (see Appendix C). The questionnaire comprised three measures: the Biculturalism Inventory, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and the Barriers to Learning Scale. The Biculturalism Inventory was admin­ istered only to the Indian adult students in the sample. measures were given to a ll subjects. self-administered. All other The entire questionnaire was In addition to written directions for the scales on the questionnaire, research assistants orally reviewed the direc­ tions with students. They were also available to answer questions about the questionnaire items and to collect the questionnaires from students. Of the 90 questionnaires distributed to students, 88 were returned. Of the 88 questionnaires, 4 answered by Black and Mexican 29 American students were eliminated, leaving a total of 84 usable questionnaires and a return rate of 93.3%. The Barriers to Learning Follow-Up Interview Ten Indian and 10 Anglo adult students were randomly selected from the final sample and assigned to participate in the Barriers to Learning follow-up interview. Because i t would not be feasible to interview all of the Indian and Anglo adult students, this smaller sample was chosen. viewed. Approximately 24% of the total sample were in ter­ All subjects who were asked to participate in the interview agreed to do so. Interviews were conducted individually. Subjects were told to refer to the Barriers to Learning Scale and were asked to choose the five most important barriers from among those on the scale, which they rated "not much of a problem" to "very important problem." They were instructed to mark their responses for the items they selected, beginning with 1_ as the most important barrier or barrier to learning, £ as the second most important barrier, 3^as the third most important barrier, and so on. Each student was asked to state why the particular barrier selected as most important was a problem and to suggest how the barrier might be changed to improve the learning situation. For example: somewhat of a problem for you?" you learn better?" "Why do you think tests are "How would you change tests to help The interviewer recorded the subject's responses on data-recording sheets (see Appendix D). With the consent of the subjects, the interviews were also tape recorded. 30 Although a ll of the 20 Interviews were obtained on tape, there were a few cases in which the subjects were in it ia lly reluctant to have their responses tape recorded. In these cases, the interviewer explained that the tape recorder served as an aid in recording their responses fu lly and accurately and that the recorded information would be held in complete confidence. continue the interview. continuing the interview. Only one subject chose to dis­ The subject did not give a reason for dis­ Another subject was randomly selected as a replacement. Training of Research Assistants Staff members in the Indian Adult Learning Center were recruited to serve as research assistants. The researcher approached the Center's Director about selecting individuals for a research team. The Director asked a few staff members for their participation in the study. The research assistants included two teachers, one school counselor, and one community aide. Individual training sessions were held at the Indian Adult Learn­ ing Center to fam iliarize the research assistants with the question­ naires, directions, and procedures for data collection. The researcher conducted the training sessions. Lists of randomly assigned subjects and copies of class schedules were distributed to each research assistant. Research assistants were instructed to notify the researcher of subjects who could not par­ ticipate so that replacements for subjects could be assigned. Schedules of days and hours when both researcher and research assistants were available to administer questionnaires were also exchanged. 31 The researcher supervised research activities through weekly on-site observations and discussions with research assistants. The researcher was also available for telephone consultation as needed. Description of the Measures Biculturalism Inventory. This questionnaire was developed by Ramirez et a l. (1977) as a biculturalism inventory for Mexican Ameri­ can college students. The questionnaire was also refined and used by Ramirez, Garza, and Cox (1980) in their study on leadership behaviors in interracial small-group situations. The items contained in the questionnaire are based on findings of preliminary investigations and items from related instruments (Ramirez, 1967; Teske & Nelson, 1973). The questionnaire comprises three parts: demographic infor­ mation, personal history, and bicultural participation. Items 31 to 70, questioning personal history and bicultural participation, included areas of socialization background, interpersonal interac­ tions, culture, and language experiences. items on the original questionnaire. There is a total of 88 S p lit-h alf re lia b ility was .7925, indicating rather high s ta b ility . The instrument has been adopted for use in this study as a measure of biculturalism. The researcher f e lt that the use of the new scoring procedure described by Ramirez et a l . (1980) would be most appropriate in determining the biculturalism score for the Indian adult students in this study. Type A items are presented in a Likert-type format ranging from "All Indians" to "All Anglos." The items are scored according to numerical weightings assigned to each response 32 alternative. One point is assigned to a response of "All Indians" or "All Anglos" (alternatives one and fiv e , respectively), two points are assigned to responses of either "Mostly Indians" or "Mostly Anglos" (alternatives two and four), and three points are assigned to responses of "Indians and Anglos about equal." Hence, the higher the score, the greater the degree of biculturalism. include the following: Type A items Items 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 37, and 40. Type B items are arranged in a five-point Likert-type scale ranging from "Very Often" to "Never." The eight Type B items are arranged into four pair combinations, each contrasting the individual's degree of participation in both Anglo and Indian cultures on a given domain. Three points are assigned to a pair combination of either "Very Often" or "Often." Two points are assigned to any pair combi­ nation of "Very Often," "Often," or "Occasionally." assigned to pair responses of all other combinations. consist of the following pairs: One point is Type B items Items 57 & 58, 59 (alternatives one and four), 66 & 68, and 67 & 69. A total biculturalism score is obtained by summing the points awarded for Type A and Type B items. The highest possible score that can be obtained is 36 (highest level of biculturalism): The higher the score, the greater the degree of biculturalism. Since the Biculturalism Inventory was developed as a measure of biculturalism for Mexican American college students and adapted for use in this study, i t was necessary to test the re lia b ility of the items used in the scale. Table A presents the corrected item- total correlation and r e lia b ility coefficients for the Biculturalism 33 Inventory (see Appendix E). The Biculturalism Inventory was admin­ istered only to Indian adult students in this study, with a computed re lia b ility index of .60. Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. This scale was developed by Crowne and Marlowe (1964) to identify individuals who describe themselves in favorable, socially desirable terms in order to achieve the approval of others. The scale is based on items from a number of personality inventories. There is a total of 33 items related to personal attitudes and tra its , with true and false response categories. Half are culturally acceptable but probably untrue; the other half are true but undesirable. One point is scored for each item marked in the socially desirable direction. Group means are computed by summing each student's scores according to their group classifica­ tion, and dividing the total scores of each group by the number of students in the particular group. The scoring range is from 0 (no social desirability) to 33 (high d esirab ility). This measure was included in this study as a check on whether students were giving socially desirable responses relative to bicul­ turalism and barriers to learning. In the present study, items 70 through 102 measured the social desirability factor. The re lia b ility index for the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale was reported at .88 using the Kuder-Richardson 20 formula (Crowne & Marlowe, 1964). All 33 items from the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale were used in the questionnaire. However, item 96, which states, "I never make a long trip without checking the safety of my car," was not 34 included in the computation of the social desirability scores for both subgroups since i t was not applicable to most of the Indian and Anglo adult students in the sample. Barriers to Learning Scale. The researcher developed this scale to measure the degree to which adult students perceive problems with barriers to learning. The items of the scale were derived from the literatu re reviewed by the researcher. The barriers that were most frequently cited in some of the studies conducted by various states are included. Included in this scale are items from an evaluation report on the Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids, Michigan, for the academic year 1978-1979. scales. The scale comprises three sub­ Each subscale is based on one of the three categories of learning barriers described by Cross (1979). The situational barrier subscale includes items that measure environmental problems related to community services and personal situations, such as the lack of child care and transportation and the lack of time due to family responsibilities. The dispositional barrier subscale is a measure of attitudes about learning and one’s self-concept as a learner. Items include those relating to self-confidence, self-concept, se lf-id en tity , and the belief that one is "too old" to learn. The institutional barrier subscale is designed to measure barriers associated with the learning institu tio n , such as learning environment, teaching methods, and materials. Each item for each subscale is rated on a 5-point Likert scale, with 1_ indicating "Not a Problem at All" and 5^ indi­ cating "Very Important Problem." (See Appendix C.) 35 A group mean score for each barrier to learning in each category is determined by summing the response choices for each item on the subscale and dividing by the number of subjects in each group. The most important barrier in that category is determined by the item showing the highest mean score. The scale is scored by categorizing the items according to the three types of learning barriers and summing the responses of each item for each of the three subscales. The total score for each category is then divided by the number of items per category to com­ pute the means for each group. The computed means for institu tio n al, dispositional, and situational barriers of each subject can be summed as a whole and divided by the total number of subjects to determine grand means for each type of barrier to learning. The most important category of learning barrier can then be determined by comparing grand means. The Barriers to Learning Scale comprises items 104 through 124 of the questionnaire. In this study, the 21 items comprising the three types of learning barriers were developed by the researcher, so i t was necessary to test the re lia b ility of the items in the scale. Table B (see Appendix F) shows the corrected item-total cor­ relations and re lia b ility coefficients for the three subscales and for the Barriers to Learning Scale as a whole. The Situational, Dispositional, and Institutional subscales reveal re lia b ilitie s of .54, .70, and .75, respectively. The Barriers to Learning Scale as a whole was shown to have high re lia b ility with an index of .81. 36 Demographic information. Items e licitin g demographic informa­ tion such as age, education, marital status, employment, family income, language spoken, length of current residence, and other areas are included in the Biculturalism Inventory. This information pro­ vides a profile of individuals in the sample while allowing one to examine relationships between demographics, biculturalism, and bar­ riers to learning. Several items were taken from Ramirez et a l . (1977); others were created by the researcher for use in this study. Other area of interest. In addition to the demographic infor­ mation described, item 103 in the questionnaire elicited reasons for attending the Center's Adult Education Program by Indian and Anglo adult students. A very important aspect of developing a program for adult learners is to understand their motives for learning. Follow-up interview information. The purpose of the interview was to gauge the opinions of the students about their major problem areas in learning. I t would also serve as a supplemental measure of their attitudes toward learning, environmental problems, and factors from within the Adult Education Program. The interview elicited information from a subsample of Indian and Anglo adult students on five of their most important learning barriers based on the Barriers to Learning Scale. Items were scored from 1_ to 5;, ]_indicating the most important learning barrier and 5^ indicating the least important barrier. A total score for each learning barrier is derived by summing the points assigned to each response alternative. Five points are assigned to a response of 1_ or most important learning barrier; four points are 37 assigned to a response of 2 or second most important learning barrier; three points are assigned to a response of 3^or third most important learning barrier; two points are assigned to a response of 4 or fourth most important learning barrier; and one point is assigned to a response of 5^or f if th most important learning barrier: The higher the score, the more important the learning barrier. A panel of judges was employed as a check on the data gathered from the interviews. The panel comprised two teachers, a school counselor, and the Director of the Center. interviews were randomly selected. Four of the 20 taped Each judge reviewed one of the four taped interviews and agreed upon the subjects' responses to insure consistent data. Data Analyses The data from the questionnaires were coded, key punched, and processed at the Computer Center at Michigan State University, using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (Nie, Hall, Jenkins, Steinbrenner, & Bent, 1975). To determine the extent to which Indian adult students in the sample were bicultural, an overall scale score was computed by summing the points awarded for the Type A and Type B items. Barriers to learning were examined in a variety of ways. When the means were plotted on the graph, and the points were connected with a lin e, a profile pattern resulted. I f the profile patterns for both groups were similar in shape, they were considered parallel. Profile analysis was used to determine whether the mean profiles were 38 in fact parallel. I f the group means were p arallel, they were exam­ ined to determine whether th eir levels were the same, and whether they were significantly different. (See SPSS—MANOVA subroutine profile analysis of Michigan State University, 1980, for program procedures.) I f the mean profiles were nonparallel, they were examined through repeated-measure analyses of variance to determine differences between barriers. Differences between group means for each category of learning barrier were examined through t-tes ts. T-tests were also used to examine differences between subjects' ethnic-group membership and degree of importance of learning barriers as a whole. Relationships between bicultural ism, barriers to learning, and demographics were examined through Pearson and Spearman correlations and one-way analyses of variance. Demographic variables were classi­ fied according to levels of measurement. The four levels were: nominal, ordinal, interval, and dichotomous. Interval-and dichotomous- level demographic variables were examined through Pearson correlations, while ordinal-level demographics were examined through Spearman cor­ relations. One-way analyses of variance were used to test for any significant difference between survey variables and nominal-level demographic variables. In this document, the results of the corre­ lations and the one-way analyses of variance are presented according to the four levels of demographic variables. The .05 level of proba­ b ility was used to determine significance. Finally, descriptive statistics were used to examine the in te r­ view data. 39 Demographic Characteristics of Sample Table 1 presents a complete breakdown of the demographic infor­ mation by ethnic group. The chi-square test was used in analyzing the data to determine any statistical significance between Indian and Anglo adult students on demographic variables. graphic data are presented in this section. Selected demo­ The detailed results of the analyses of the selected demographic characteristics are pre­ sented in Appendix G. The majority of the Indian adult students (62.2%) were female, and more than one-third (37.8%) were male. The "average Indian adult student" was 19.9 years old, had a ninth-grade education, was unem­ ployed, and had an annual family income of $3,152. of Indian adult students (82.2%) were single. The vast majority Nearly two-thirds of the Indian adult students (64.4%) were enrolled part time, and slightly more than one-third (35.6%) were enrolled fu ll time. The majority of the Anglo adult students were female (56.4%), and less than half (43.6%) were male. The "average Anglo adult student" was 25.2 years old, had a ninth-grade education, was employed, and had an annual family income of $3,645. The majority of the Anglo adult students (51.3%) were single, 25.6% were married, and 20.5% were divorced. Slightly more than half of the Anglo adult students (51.3%) were enrolled fu ll time, and 48.7% were enrolled part time. 40 Table 1 .-C h i-s q u a re analyses, frequencies, and percentages o f demographic c h a ra c te ris tic s o f sample by e th n ic group. Indians (n«45) ChiSquare Slg. Of Chi-Sq. Age Ages 16-19 Ages 20-24 Ages 25-29 Ages 30-39 Ages 40-49 No response 11.77595 .02 Sex Male Female No response .10136 Student Status F u ll-tim e Part-tim e No response .99692 Variable S ubject's R eligious A f f i l i a ­ tio n (Present) Catholic Protestant Native American Other None No response 9.03742 2.59801 Residence 1n Grand Rapids Under one year 1 to 5 yssrs 5 to 10 years 10 to 20 years Over 20 years No response 7.73027 Residence in Current Home Under one year 1 to 5 years 5 to 10 years 10 to 20 years Over 20 years No response 9.40080 Community in Which Subject Was Reared Rural Urban Semi-rural Semi-urban No response Location in Which Subject Was Reared Michigan Foreign country U.S. other No response 1.34244 .22235 R elative Frequency 1 Absolute Frequency 29 11 3 2 0 64.4 24.4 6.7 4.4 O 16 7 5 6 5 41.0 17.9 12.8 15.4 12.8 17 28 37.8 62.2 17 22 43.6 56.4 16 29 35.6 64.4 19 20 48.7 51.3 17 8 4 0 10 6 37.8 17.8 8.9 0 22.2 13.3 10 15 0 1 7 6 25.6 38.5 0 2.6 17.9 15.4 19 10 2 0 7 7 42.2 22.2 4.4 0 15.6 16.6 3 15 0 3 7 11 7.7 38.5 0 7.7 17.9 28.2 2 29 13 1 4.4 64.4 28.9 2.2 2 19 18 5.1 48.7 46.2 0 6 9 22 7 1 0 13.3 20.0 48.9 15.6 2.2 1 8 2 16 12 2.6 20.5 5.1 41.0 30.8 12 20 7 4 0 2 26.7 44.4 15.6 8.9 0 4.4 5 22 2 7 3 12.8 56.4 5.1 17.9 7.7 12 27 2 3 1 26.7 60.0 4.4 6.7 2.2 9 22 3 5 23.1 56.4 7.7 12.8 42 1 2 93.3 2.2 4.4 37 1 1 94.9 2.6 2.6 Relative Frequency X .75 .32 .06 S ubject's R eligious A f f i l i a ­ tio n (Past)® Catholic Protestant Native American Other None No response Residence in Michigan 5 to 10 years 10 to 20 years Over 20 years No response Anglos (n*39) Absolute Frequency .27 .10 .05 .72 .89 41 Table 1 . —Continued. Indians (n«45) Variable ChiSquare Permanent Home o f Subjects Michigan Foreign country U.S. other No response 3.57143 Place o f Father's B irth Michigan U.S. midwest U.S. other Foreign country No response 6.97176 Place o f Mother’ s B irth Michigan U.S. midwest U.S. other Foreign country No response 5.47803 Father Living Yes No No response 0 Mother Living Yes No No response 3.72557 Language(s) Spoken by Subjects English English and some other language No response 2.07263 Language(s) Spoken a t Home by Subjects English English and some other language No response 0 Father's Language English English and some other language Other language only No response 5.14604 Mother's Language English English and some other language Other language only No response 7.62381 Language(s) Usually Spoken a t Home by Parents English English and some other language No response S ubject's Education 1 to B 9 to 11 No response .05891 .33704 Sig. o f Ch1-Sq. Anglos (n*39) Absolute Frequency R elative Frequency X Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency X 40 0 0 5 88.9 0 0 11.1 32 1 2 4 82.1 2.6 5.1 10.3 38 2 1 2 2 84.4 4.4 2.2 4.4 4.4 25 3 7 2 2 64.1 7.7 17.9 5.1 5.1 38 0 4 2 1 84.4 0 8.9 4.4 2.2 30 2 7 0 76.9 5.1 17.9 0 32 12 1 71.1 26.7 2.2 27 11 1 69.2 28.2 2.6 43 2 95.6 4.4 31 8 79.5 20.5 39 86.7 39 100.0 4 2 8.9 4.4 0 0 43 95.6 38 97.4 2 4.4 1 2.6 26 57.8 30 76.9 15 3 1 33.3 6.7 2.2 5 4 12.8 10.3 29 64.4 35 89.7 14 2 31.1 4.4 3 1 7.7 2.6 41 91.1 37 94.9 4 8.9 2 5.1 5 40 11.1 88.9 7 32 17.9 82.1 .17 .07 .14 1.0000 .05 .15 1.0000 .08 .02 .81 .56 42 Table 1 .—Continued. Indians (n*45) Variable ChiSquare Sig. o f CM-Sq. Absolute Frequency Anglos (n-39) Relative Frequency t Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency % Father's Education8 1 to 8 9 to 11 High school Bachelor's degree Graduate degree No response 7 11 6 0 0 21 15.6 24.4 13.3 0 0 46.7 15 2 10 1 2 9 38.5 5.1 25.6 2.6 5.1 23.1 Mother's Education8 1 to 8 9 to 11 High school Some college No response 5 9 15 0 16 11.1 20.0 33.3 0 35.6 6 9 14 1 7 20.5 23.1 35.9 2.6 17.9 4 4 1 3 26 7 8.9 8.9 2.2 6.7 57.8 15.6 3 16 1 3 12 4 7.7 41.0 2.6 7.7 30.8 10.3 1 27 2 15 2.2 60.0 4.4 33.3 4 26 2 7 10.3 66.7 5.1 18.0 4 17 13 4 7 8.9 37.8 28.9 8.9 15.5 6 12 12 6 3 15.4 30.8 30.8 15.4 7.7 37 2 6 82.2 4.4 13.3 20 10 8 1 51.3 25.6 20.5 2.6 1 2 11 0 0 28 28.2 0 0 71.8 6 8 2 4 2 6 1 2 8 15.4 20.5 5.1 10.3 5.1 15.4 2.6 5.1 20.5 S ubject's Occupation White c o lla r Blue c o lla r Housewife Mother Unemployed o r none No response 12.39B40 .01 Father's Occupation8 White c o lla r Blue c o lla r Unemployed or none No response Mother's Occupation White c o lla r Blue c o lla r Housewife Unemployed or none No response 1.64922 M arita l Status Single Married Divorced-separated No response 10.17121 .65 .01 Ethnic Background o f Spouse8 White Mexican American Indian No response 40 2.2 4.4 4.4 88.9 Annual Family Income8 Under $3,000 $3,000-4,999 $5,000-5,999 $6,000-7,499 $7,500-9,999 $10,000-14,999 $15,000-24,000 $25,000 and over No response 10 8 3 2 2 6 1 1 12 22.2 17.8 6.7 4.4 4.4 13.3 2.2 2.2 26.7 frequ en cy too small fo r v a lid chi-square an alysis. 2 CHAPTER IV RESULTS For the purposes of reporting analyses of the research data, this chapter is divided into five parts: (a) measurement of bicul- turalism, (b) measurement of barriers to learning, (c) the correla­ tional analyses, (d) social d esirab ility, and (e) reasons for attending the Center's Adult Education Program. The analysis has been conducted to determine the degree of biculturalism and barriers to learning among respondents and the relationships between these variables. Part I . Measurement of Biculturalism Since students who answered all items would receive high scores and those who did not answer all items would receive low scores, i t was necessary to find the average biculturalism score for Indian adult students. This was done by dividing the biculturalism scores by the number of Type A and Type B items. A breakdown of bicultural­ ism scores based upon 34 Indian adult students may be seen in Figure 1. Biculturalism scores were grouped together at intervals of .33. The lowest possible score would thus fa ll between 1.0 and 1.33, with the highest between 2.67 and 3.0. Hence, the higher the score the greater the degree of biculturalism. Within this study of 34 Indian adult students, the scores ranged from 1.17 to 2.58. 43 Most of the FREQUENCY 44 BICULTURALISM SCORES Figure 1: Distribution of Biculturalism Scale scores. 45 Indian adult students scored between 2.0 and 2.33, and 2.34 and 2.66. The sample mean was 2.10. Since the lowest average biculturalism score that could be obtained in this study was 1 and the highest was 3, the mean biculturalism score of 2.10 indicates that the 34 Indian adult students were moderately bicultural. Part I I . Measurement of Barriers to Learning Degree of Importance of Barriers to Learning Profile analysis was employed to determine whether the patterns of group means for the learning barriers were p a ra lle l, and i f so, whether they were at the same level. I t was also used to determine whether the group means were significantly different across learning barriers. The results are shown in Table 2. As can be seen, the group means across each category of learning barrier for Indian and Anglo adult students are parallel. Significant differences exist between group means for the categories according to ethnic groups. Figure 2 shows a higher pat­ tern of group means for the learning barrier categories for Indian adult students than for Anglo adult students. Multivariate tests indicate that learning barriers are significantly higher in degree of importance for Indian adult students than for Anglo adult stu­ dents. Univariate F-tests indicate no significant differences between institutional and dispositional barriers, nor between dispositional and situational barriers among Indian and Anglo adult students. 46 5.0 -------------- ANGLOS IN D IA N S > 'A MEAN SCORE 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 i Figure 2: — i -------------------- »- A B SITUATIONAL BARRIERS D ISPOSITIO NAL BARRIERS INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS P ro file o f means fo r s itu a tio n a l, d is p o s itio n a l, and in s titu tio n a l b a rrie rs fo r Anglo and Indian a d ult students. 47 The results indicate that situational, dispositional, and in s titu ­ tional barriers are of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. Table 2 .—Profile analysis for ethnic groups on learning barriers. F 1. • 7.583 .01 Test for differences between learning barriers 4.952a .01 Test for differences between in s ti­ tutional and dispositional barriers to learning 1.653 Test for differences between situa­ tional and institutional barriers to learning 1.929 .17 A. B. o Test for differences between ethnic groups CM • 3. .256a 00 2. Test for nonparallel profiles for ethnic groups Sig. of F aAn approximate F is reported. Differences in Barriers to Learning T-tests were conducted to determine whether there were any sig­ nificant differences between group means for each category of learning barriers and learning barriers as a whole. in Table 3. The data are presented Comparisons of group means for the learning barrier categories indicate that the group means for situational and in s ti­ tutional barriers are significantly higher for Indian adult students 48 than for Anglo adult students. There is no significant difference between group means on dispositional barriers. Table 3 .—Results of t-tests on learning barrier categories and learning barriers as a whole. Variable Indians N X SD tValue Sig. of t Anglos N X SD Situational barriers 45 1.5444 .473 -2.24 .03 39 1.3098 .485 Dispositional barriers 45 1.6278 .679 -1.53 .13 39 1.4410 .428 Institutional barriers 45 1.7461 .479 -2.25 .03 38a 1.5126 .461 Learning barriers as a whole 45 1.6395 .401 -2.56 .01 38a 1.4260 .350 a0ne case was missing data for this variable. The Relationship Between Respondents' Ethnicity and Degree of Importance of Barriers to Learning as a Whole The differences between respondents* group membership and degree of importance of barriers to learning are significant. A comparison of group means for learning barriers as a whole indicate that Indian adult students designated more importance to learning barriers as a whole than did Anglo adult students. 49 Degree of Importance of Factors Within Each Category of Learning Barriers The means and rank order of specific barriers are presented in Table 4. Table 4 .—Means and rank order of individual learning barriers. Anglos Indians Mean Rank Order Maa_ Mean Rank Order Situational Barriers Time to study Distance Transportation Child care 1.850 1.700 1.600 1.100 1 1 1 2 1.378 1.324 1.351 1.216 1 1 1 1 Dispositional Barriers Confidence Self-image Interest in learning Personal desire to learn Age 1.977 1.674 1.674 1.581 1.116 1 2 2 2 3 1.769 1.462 1.333 1.308 1.333 1 2 2 2 2 Institutional Barriers 6ED tests Lectures Subjects Class discussion groups Books Length of time Individualized instruction Class schedule A place to study Cost Teacher Location 2.325 2.100 1.875 2.200 1.725 1.875 1.675 1.425 1.375 1.325 1.300 1.250 1 1.914 1.714 1.857 1.371 1.800 1.429 1.486 1.629 1.429 1.314 1.229 1.286 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 50 Figure 3 exhibits the pattern of group means for situational bar­ rie rs. The results of profile analysis in Table 5 indicate that the patterns of group means for situational barriers are nonparallel. To determine the degree of importance of factors for the category, situational barriers were examined through repeated-measure analyses of variance. The results are shown in Tables 6 and 7 according to ethnic group. Significant differences are noted between situational barriers overall for Indian adult students. There are no s ig n ifi­ cant differences noted between situational barriers overall for Anglo adult students. Repeated measures of analyses of variance of specific barriers for the category indicate that factors of distance from home to Learning Center, lack of time to study, and lack of trans­ portation are of equal and greater importance, respectively, than lack of child care for Indian adult students. All four situational barriers are of equal importance for Anglo adult students. Table 5 .—Profile analysis for ethnic groups on situational barriers. Test for nonparallel profiles for ethnic groups aAn approximate F is reported. Multivariate Fa S'iy. Of F 3.837 .01 51 5.0 > _______ ANGLOS INDIANS MEAN SCORE 2.5 L 2.0 1.5 1.0 .5 - A B c D TIME TO STUDY DISTANCE FROM HOME TO LEARNING CENTER TRANSPORTATION TO LEARNING CENTER CHILD CARE SERVICE SITUATIONAL BARRIERS Figure 3: P ro file o f means fo r s itu a tio n a l b a rrie rs fo r Anglo and Indian a d u lt students. 52 Table 6 .—Repeated-measure analyses o f variance re s u lts fo r Indian a d u lt students on s itu a tio n a l b a rrie rs . M ultivari­ ate Fa Overall Test for Differences Between Situational Barriers Univari­ ate F 13.662 Sig. of F .001 Tests for Differences Between Various Situational Barriers: A. B. C. Time to study and distance from home to Learning Center Distance from home to Learning Center and transportation Transportation and child-care service 1.962 .17 .030 .86 18.897 .001 An approximate F is reported. Table 7 .--Repeated-measure analyses of variance results for Anglo adult students on situational barriers. Multivari­ ate Fa Overall Test for Differences Between Situational Barriers Univari­ ate F Sig. of F .26 1.389 Tests for Differences Between Various Situational Barriers: A. B. C. Time to study and distance from home to Learning Center .109 .74 Distance from home to Learning Center and transportation .075 .79 1.295 .26 Transportation and child-care service a An approximate F is reported. 53 The mean profiles of the two groups on dispositional barriers are illustrated in Figure 4. As shown in Table 8, the results of profile analysis indicate that the group means for dispositional barriers form a nonparallel pattern. There are significant d iffe r­ ences between dispositional barriers overall for Indian and Anglo adult students. The results may be seen in Tables 9 and 10. The lack of confidence in a b ility is of greater importance than poor self-image, lack of interest, lack of personal desire, and age for both Indian and Anglo adult students. Table 8 .—Profile analysis for ethnic groups on dispositional barriers. Test for Nonparallel Profiles for Ethnic Groups Multivariate Fa Sig. of F 2.522 .05 aAn approximate F is reported. Figure 5 shows the pattern of group means for institutional barriers. The results presented in Table 11 indicate nonparallel patterns of group means for ethnic groups on institutional barriers. There are significant differences between institutional barriers overall for both Indian and Anglo adult students, though repeatedmeasure analyses of variance show no significant differences between specific institutional barriers. and 13. The results are shown in Tables 12 Therefore, a ll 12 institutional barriers are of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. 54 5.0 ANGLOS MEAN SCORE 2.5 IND IA N S 2.0 1.5 1.0 A C O N FID EN C E IN O N E 'S ABILITY B SELF-IMAGE U INTEREST IN LEARNING v PERSONAL DESIRE TO LEARNING c AGE DISPOSITIONAL BARRIERS Figure 4: P ro file o f means fo r d is p o s itio n a l b a rrie rs fo r Anglo and Indian a d ult students. 55 Table 9 .—Repeated-measure analyses o f variance re s u lts fo r Indian a d u lt students on d is p o s itio n a l b a rrie rs . Multivari­ ate Fa Overall Test for Differences Between Dispositional Barriers Univari­ ate F 15.185 Sig. of F .001 Tests for Differences Between Various Dispositional Barriers: A. B. C. D. Confidence in one's a b ility to learn and self-image 7.857 .01 .056 .81 Interest in learning and personal desire to learn 1.602 .21 Personal desire to learn and age 18.526 .001 Self-image and interest in learning a An approximate F is reported. Table 10.--Repeated-measure analyses of variance results for Anglo adult students on dispositional barriers. M ultivari­ ate Fa Overall Test for Differences Between Dispositional Barriers Univari­ ate F Sig. of F .05 2.663 Tests for Differences Between Various Dispositional Barriers: A. B. C. D. Confidence in one's a b ility to learn and self-image 4.629 .04 Self-image and interest in learning .802 .38 Interest in learning and personal desire to learn .046 .83 Personal desire to learn and age .020 .89 aAn approximate F is reported. 5 .0 ANGLOS INDIANS MEAN SCORE 3 .5 3 .0 2.5 2.0 1.5 on o> 1.0 A G.E.D . TESTS OR EXAMS B LECTURES c D E SUBJECTS CLASS DISCUS­ SION GROUPS BOOKS F LENGTH OF TIM E G IN D IVID UALIZED INSTRUCTION H CLASS SCHEDULE J A PLACE TO STUDY COST K TEACHER L LOCATION OF LEARN­ IN G CENTER INSTITUTIONAL BARRIERS Figure 5: Profile of means for institutional barriers for Anglo and Indian adult students. 57 Table 11.--P ro file analysis for ethnic groups on institutional barriers. Test for Nonparallel Profiles for Ethnic Groups Multivariate Fa Sig . Of F 3.482 .001 aAn approximate F is reported. Table 12.—Repeated-measure analyses of variance results for Indian adult students on institutional barriers. M ultivari­ ate Fa Overall Test for Differences Between Institutional Barriers Univari­ ate F 4.961 Sig. of F .001 Tests for Differences Between Various Institutional Barriers: A. GED tests or exams and class discussion groups .404 .53 Class discussion groups and lectures .550 .46 C. Lectures and subjects .281 .60 D. Subjects and length of time to complete education .468 .50 Length of time to complete education and books .913 .35 Books and individualized instruction .034 .86 Individualized instruction and class schedule 1.413 .24 Class schedule and a place to study 2.772 .10 B. E. F. G. H. I. A place to study and cost .140 .71 J. Cost and teacher .082 .78 K. Teacher and location of Learning Center .030 .86 aAn approximate F is reported. 58 Table 13.—Repeated-measure analyses o f variance re s u lts fo r Anglo a d u lt students on in s titu tio n a l b a rrie rs . Multivari­ ate Fa Overall Test for Differences Between Institutional Barriers Univari­ ate F 3.043 Sig. of F .01 Tests for Differences Between Various Institutional Barriers: A. GED tests or exams and class discussion groups .057 .81 Class discussion groups and lectures .238 .63 C. Lectures and subjects .854 .36 D. Subjects and length of time to complete education .017 .90 1.000 .32 Books and individualized instruction .109 .74 Individualized instruction and class schedule .024 .88 Class schedule and a place to study .609 .44 I. A place to study and cost .030 J. Cost and teacher • VLO .86 0-7 .0 / K. Teacher and location of Learning Center .031 .86 B. E. F. G. H. Length of time to complete education and books aAn approximate F is reported. Reasons Given for Learning Barriers and Suggestions for Coping With Reported Barriers Twenty follow-up interviews were conducted to determine reasons why subjects f e lt there were various barriers in their learning situa­ tion and how they would change the barriers to improve learning. The 59 interview data were examined through descriptive statistics. The specific learning barriers are presented from most to least important. The results are presented in Table 14. When rank ordered by importance, the top learning barriers for Indian adult student interviewees are (a) class discussion groups, (b) GED tests, (c) lectures, (d) transportation and length of time to complete education and (e) subject content areas. When asked why these barriers were barriers to learning, Indian adult student interviewees reported that they were shy about speaking in front of a group of people, they f e lt GED tests were d iffic u lt, they lacked interest in lectures, they had no available means of transportation, they had class requirements that extended the length of time to complete their education, and they had subjects that were not interesting. (See Table 15 for comparisons given for learning barriers by ethnic group.) When rank ordered by importance, the top learning barriers for Anglo adult student interviewees are (a) books, (b) subject content areas and GED tests, (c) interest in learning and confidence in one's a b ility (d) personal desire to learn, and (e) class schedule and child care. The most frequently cited reasons for learning barriers by Anglo adult students were the following: easy or hard books, d iffic u lt to comprehend courses, d iffic u lt sections of the GED test, lack of interest in academic program, lack of self-confidence due to d i f f i ­ culty in courses, no personal desire to learn due to family T a b le 1 4 . — Rank o rd e r o f Im p ortan ce and fre q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n o f le a r n in g b a r r ie r s f o r In d ia n and Anglo a d u lt s tu d e n t in te rv ie w e e s . In d ia n s L earnin g B a r r ie r s Anglos Rank O rder fo r Group Respondents Ranking as One o f th e Most Im p o rta n t % T o ta l Score L e a rn in g B a r r ie r s Rank O rder fo r Group T o ta l Score Respondents Ranking as One o f th e Most Im p o rta n t 7 0 .0 % 7 0 .0 Books 1 18 19 5 0 .0 S u b je c ts 2 16 5 0 .0 17 4 0 .0 GED t e s t s 2 16 4 0 .0 4 12 4 0 .0 I n t e r e s t in le a r n in g 3 14 4 0 .0 4 12 3 0 .0 Co n fid en ce in o n e 's a b i l i t y 3 14 3 0 .0 Class d is c u s s io n groups 1 26 GED t e s ts 2 L ectu re s 3 T ra n s p o rta tio n Length o f tim e S u b jec ts 5 9 3 0 .0 Perso n al d e s ir e t o le a r n 4 9 4 0 .0 * S e lf-im a g e 6 7 2 0 .0 Class sched ule 5 8 3 0 .0 Time to study 6 7 2 0 .0 C h ild c a re 5 8 2 0 .0 C onfidence in o n e 's a b i l i t y 7 6 3 0 . 0a L o c a tio n 6 7 3 0 .0 * Books 7 6 2 0 .0 Length o f tim e 7 5 1 0 .0 Teacher 8 5 1 0 . 0a D is ta n c e 7 5 1 0 .0 A p la c e to stu d y 9 4 2 0 .0 T r a n s p o rta tio n 8 4 2 0 .0 * 8 4 1 0 .0 9 3 2 0 .0 * 1 0 .0 C h ild c a re 10 3 2 0 .0 Teacher L o c a tio n o f L earn in g C e n te r 10 3 2 0 .0 Time to stu d y In d iv id u a liz e d In s t r u c t io n 10 3 2 0 .0 L e c tu re s 9 3 C lass schedule 10 3 2 0 .0 Age 9 3 1 0 .0 I n t e r e s t in le a r n in g 11 2 1 0 .0 A p la c e to stu d y 9 3 1 0 .0 D is ta n c e 12 1 1 0 .0 C lass d is c u s s io n groups 10 2 1 0 .0 P ersonal d e s ir e to le a r n 12 1 1 0 .0 I n d iv id u a liz e d In s t r u c t io n 11 1 1 0 .0 Age 0 S e lf-im a g e 0 Cost 0 Cost 0 P e r c e n t a g e o f responses f o r th e s e v a r ia b le s may be h ig h e r o r lo w e r th an p rec ed in g o r subsequent v a r ia b le s due to t o t a l score r e c e iv e d . 61 Table IS .—Reasons given f o r le arn ing b a rrie rs by e th n ic group. Anglos Indians S itu a tio n a l B a rrie rs : S itu a tio n a l B a rrie rs : Time to Study Time to Study . Job re s p o n s ib ilitie s and oth er In te re s ts . . Not enough time to study due to re s p o n s ib ili­ tie s a t home. . Household chores and ra is in g c h ild re n . Finding tim e to study Is h e ctic sometimes. . Too many d is tra c tio n s and noise In te rfe re w ith study tim e. There Is less tim e to study when I have a question to ask the teacher and she’ s helping somebody e ls e . I t takes about 20 minutes to w a it f o r the teacher to get back to me. Distance Distance . Too fa r . Not motivated 1n the morning. d i f f i c u l t to walk long distance. I t 's . 1 liv e way over on S ixth S treet which 1s about three and o n e-h alf m iles from the Center. Transportation T ransportation . Just w a itin g fo r the bus. Takes too much tim e. . I d o n 't have a car and I H ve a distance away. I could take the bus but you have to w a it and get a schedule. . Lack o f tra n sp o rta tio n a t n ig h t. . No way to get to the store o r school. I have a car but d o n 't have license plates o r Insurance. . I e ith e r walk o r take a c it y bus. I c a n 't get up e a rly enough In the morning to catch a bus and get to class on tim e. . I d o n 't d riv e . I d o n 't have a ca r. I usually walk. C hild Care C hild Care . I t ' s hard to fin d a good b a b y s itte r. . Hy mom 1sb a b ysittin g f o r me. I want her to gradu­ a te , too. I feel lik e I'm preventing her from coming to school. . H e ll, 1 have a school-age daughter, and I have to be in school a h a lf an hour before she does, so the re fore I have to leave anywhere from 15, maybe 20 minutes ahead to get to school on tim e. Hy daughter sh o u ld n 't be l e f t alone and I t ' s impor­ ta n t th a t she gets to school when she's supposed to . D isposition al B a rrie rs : D isposition al B a rrie rs : Confidence 1n One's A b ilit y to Learn Confidence In One's A b ilit y to Leam . Lack o f confidence to learn d i f f i c u l t subjects. . Occasional thoughts about not being able to learn new GED m a te ria l. . I t ' s hard f o r me to le arn . . Because sometimes I c a n 't comprehend what I'm supposed to be le a rn in g . . D if f ic u lt y In some courses caused s e lf-d o u b t. . No In te re s t 1n classes. Self-Image Self-Image . Poor posture. I t ' s ju s t how you would appear to everybody e lse . What people th in k about you might a ffe c t how you learn and what you le arn . . I would lik e to dress nice I f I could. I th in k looks 1s Im portant. Dressing nice doesn't make a d iffe re n ce in learning but 1 t makes you fe e l good about y o u rs e lf. A ll I every had was second­ hand clothes ever since I was l i t t l e , and I get sick o f them. . None reported. In te re s t in Learning In te re s t 1n Learning . When I d o n 't have any in te re s t in c e rta in sub­ je c ts , I d o n 't re ta in what I learned. . . . . Personal Desire to Leam Personal Desire to Learn . There a re n 't enough teachers o r teacher's aides to help In Independent study. Sometimes I d o n 't study. I have to be In the mood to study. . Busy schedule In oth er areas o f l i f e . Family and jo b are more im portant. . Bad mood and pressure from teachers. . When I'm pressured to do my school work I d o n 't have the de sire to le a m . When I'm doing some­ th in g I lik e o r when I d o n 't fe e l pressured to do school work, I do have the de sire to le a m . . Teachers d o n 't support o r praise students enough. I d o n 't p a r tic u la r ly care f o r the subjects. D is lik e classes. Lack o f In te re s t In academic program. Problems w ith assignments. Teacher 1s not a v a ila b le to give assistance. 62 Table 15.--Continued. Indians Anglos Age Age . None reported. . H e ll, b a s ic a lly , i t ' s because I'v e been out o f school f o r several years. T h irty years is a long time to be out o f school. I'm try in g to get myself back in to the h a b it o f learning to study and le arn ing to apply my mind in things th a t I haven't done 1n a long tim e. In s titu tio n a l B a rrie rs : In s titu tio n a l B a rrie rs : GEO Tests . Need more time to study. . I th in k t h e y 'll be hard, and I might not pass them. There may be something I might have fo rg o tte n about. . I t ' s kind o f frig h te n in g not knowing whether I'm going to pass o r not. I t ' s embarrassing, to o , i f you d o n 't pass. . I t ' s hard f o r me to take exams because I get jumpy in sid e . Lack o f understanding in in te r ­ p re tin g graphs and maps. . I d o n 't know. I t ' s hard. GED Tests . Tests are not easy. Can't study a t home. . I'm not very good in some subjects. . Not being prepared to answer 20 coamon sense questions on the science te s t. . I'm a fra id I ' l l f a i l . I know I'm not very smart. Lectures Lectures . The main problem is having to look up a t a teacher and being distra cte d by a group o f students. I was a fra id to in te rru p t the teacher and ask questions. I may be self-conscious and the group might th in k I'm dumb i f I asked questions. . No in te re s t in le ctu res. . Lectures are boring because there 1s no student p a rtic ip a tio n . . The teacher goes on and on about one s p e c ific th in g . The student loses in te re s t when teacher gives too many d e ta ils . The group doesn't in te ra c t as much as they should. Students d o n 't get a chance to p a rtic ip a te . . I d o n 't lik e le c tu re s . I ju s t d o n 't lik e them. You're not allowed to t a lk . Subjects Subjects . D is in te re s t in general high school subjects. M aterial is not retained. . 1 have a lo t o f problems w ith math. Uhen 1 was a kid I never did my math . . . so i t ' s my own fa u lt th a t I'm not good a t matn. . I d o n 't know anything about government, p o li­ t ic s , or anything lik e th a t. I ju s t d o n 't keep up w ith anything lik e th a t. . I'm not very good in math and English. Can't comprehend some o f 1 t. . I d o n 't lik e h is to ry and English. They're real hard, too. . I found i t d i f f i c u l t in math. . Math Is a problem. Lack o f background 1n math. . I d o n 't understand the subjects. D irections are not c le a r In English book. Lack o f assistance from teacher. Class Discussion Groups Class Discussion Groups . I d o n 't lik e to ta lk in fro n t o f a bunch o f people. I might say something wrong o r something. Every­ body might s ta r t laughing. . I'm shy and i t takes a l l Indian people a w hile to open up. . A person loses in te re s t when the teacher makes the students switch from group to group. . I'm kind o f a shy person and i t ' s kind o f hard forme to get up in a room where I d o n 't know these people. But i f I'm s it t in g around w ith a bunch o f frie n d s , i t ' s a lo t easier. . D iffe re n t people might ta lk about something you might not know about o r have experienced, and you have to s i t there f o r a whole hour ju s t lis te n in g to these people. I t ' s a waste o f time and boring. . I ju s t d o n 't lik e ta lk in g in fr o n t o f other people. . Because I d o n 't lik e to t a lk in fr o n t o f other people, esp ecially i f I d o n 't know them. . Teachers are o fte n enthused and want to get the kids Involved. There is no way they can budge them In to i t because th e y 're too shy o r they d o n 't want to p a rtic ip a te . Some teachers get mad when students d o n 't t a lk . I t ' s not mandatory th a t they p a rtic ip a te , so they ju s t s i t there looking lik e duamies. I f 1 got myself in th a t p o s itio n I w ouldn't lik e i t . Teachers won't come out and say i t in the open. At le a s t here they d o n 't. At other schools, teachers say th e y 're not going to teach i f students won't even coop­ era te . 63 Table 15.—Continued. Indians In s titu tio n a l B a rrie rs (continued): Anglos In s titu tio n a l B arriers (continued): Books . Need easier books. Not enough books. There are only basic high school books. No lib r a r y . . Textbooks too d i f f i c u l t to read. Books . Too many books. Don't know what books to bring each day. . Nath book 1s so simple. I t ’ s boring. I mean i t is so t e r r ib ly simple th a t you make very, very dumb mistakes on i t . I d o n 't know whether th is is to make you use your mind and th in k before you act o r what. But I fin d th a t when I'm working on something th a t is a l i t t l e more complicated. I'm more apt to put more o f my mind in to i t . . They're e ith e r too easy o r too hard. . Some books are d i f f i c u l t f o r me to understand. . H isto ry textbook Is hard to do. . D if f ic u lt to understand w ithout explanation from teacher. D irections are not c le a r o r precise enough in some books. . No answers to questions 1n books. length o f Time . Too many required classes. Time is a fa c to r. . Too long. D iff ic u lt y w ith assignments and work re s p o n s ib ilitie s . . Not old enough to take GED te s ts . Length o f Time . I'm Involved in the WIN Program and my problem is w ith my WIN worker. He keeps on t e llin g me he wants to put me in another program. He wanted to p u ll me out o f my studies in the middle o f Decem­ ber. I d o n 't lik e being pressured. I t makes me nervous, then I have a rough tim e studying. Being pressured f o r time is what i t b o lls down to . Ind ivid ualize d In s tru c tio n In d ivid u a lize d In s tru c tio n . D irections in books d o n 't explain anything. confuse you. . No s e lf-d is c ip lin e . You might be studying and someone comes in and s ta rts ta lk in g and you d o n 't want to t e l l him to go away because he's your frie n d . . No problem, except when I get stuck on d i f ­ f i c u l t assignments. Class Schedule . Fatigue was a problem when I was going to school and working a t the same tim e. Evening classes were basic high school courses. There's only inde­ pendent study a t n ig h t. . I t ' s hard to get up in the morning. I'm not used to the e a rly morning class schedule. They Class Schedule . Inconvenient class schedule. . Morning classes—Schedule is so varied th a t you d o n 't know which book to take. . Schedule c o n f lic t between classes f o r school and classes fo r Vocational R e h a b ilita tio n . A Place to Study . i t is d i ' f i c u l t to study when other students ere ta lk in g and laughing. . Everybody's always ta lk in g . Can't study. A Place to Study . I t ' s too q u ie t. Cost Cost . None reported. . None reported. Teachers Teachers . In s tru c tio n provided by teachers 1s too general; they d o n't provide in s tru c tio n 1n specialized areas o r a t advanced le v e ls . . They th in k o f themselves. Certain ones do. There is one teacher I r e a lly lik e . I lik e th is person a lo t . But we come to school fo r three hours and he wants to leave a f t e r on ly an hour fo r his own s a tis fa c tio n . That I s n 't r ig h t , and he does th a t a l l the tim e. Location . The Center is located too fa r away from where I liv e . . I t ' s not a bad place. The fa c t is th a t I liv e so fa r away. Location . Because I liv e so fa r away. . N e ll, i t ' s not re a lly a problem fo r me, but 1 th in k i t is a problem f o r some o f the people who liv e f a r away. They d o n 't have buses to bring the kids to school. . I th in k i t ' s a hassle f o r them to walk over here. . I t is over a m ile from where I liv e and there is no d ire c t busline anywhere near. 64 responsibilities and pressure from teachers, inconvenient class schedule, and lack of child care. Table 16 presents the suggestions for coping with learning barriers by ethnic groups. Part I I I . Correlational Analyses To help explain the extent of learning barriers among Indian and Anglo adult students, i t was important to determine the relation­ ships between biculturalism, barriers to learning, and demographic variables. Pearson correlations, point-biserial correlations, and one-way analyses of variance were employed to determine whether the relationships and differences found between the variables in this study were s ta tis tic a lly significant. Relationships Between Biculturalism and Barriers to Learning I t can be seen from Table 17 that a low but s ta tis tic a lly sig­ nificant negative correlation exists between biculturalism and situa­ tional barriers. I t appears that the higher the biculturalism scores of Indian adult students, the lower the importance of their situa­ tional barriers. No relationships exist between dispositional, institu tio n al, learning barriers as a whole, and degree of bicul­ turalism. 65 Table 16.—Suggestions f o r coping w ith le a rn in g b a rrie rs by ethnic group. Indians S itua tion al B a rrie rs : Anglos S itu a tio n a l B a rrie rs : Tine to Study Time to Study . I would fin d a rid e to the Learning Centeron a d iffe re n t nigh t when I'm not busy. . 1 th in k I 'd make out atime schedule f o r a day. . I have two teenage ch ild re n 1n school and another one in elementary school, and they bring th e ir school work and we make i t a fa m ily a f f a ir . . . we a l l get our school work out and s i t around the ta b le and s ta rt "q u ie t tim e ," our study tim e. He study together a t le a s t three times a week—some­ times every n ig h t i f we have a lo t o f work to do. And I help them out and they help me o u t. . Provide two teachers f o r each cla ss. One teacher would be responsible f o r teaching the class and the other would be responsible f o r adm inistering the te s ts . Distance Distance . Attend classes once o r twice a week ra th e r than fo u r o r fiv e times a week. Do class assignments at home. . I would work on my assignments a t home and come to school when I need help. Transportation Transportation . Buy a car o r move clo ser to Learning Center. Join a car pool. . I intend to save money and get my car on the road. . I 'd look in to the bus schedule. The bus would be my only option. . H ill obtain car and license in order to get to school. . Buy a car. Take a bus. Ask a frie n d f o r a rid e . Child Care Child Care . Hire an olde r woman who has raised a few c h il­ dren o f her own. . Child Care Service Program should be sta ffe d by considerate and experienced mothers who can pro­ vide proper care f o r ch ild re n . . I would get a re lia b le person to take care o f the c h ild . . . I would ask one o f my neighbors th a t I know would be w illin g to take care o f my daughter and see th a t she goes to school, while 1'm on my way to school. . The Department o f Social Services should provide tra n sp o rta tio n f o r it s c lie n ts . D ispositional B a rrie rs : D isposition al B a rrie rs : Confidence in One's A b ilit y Confidence in One’ s A b ilit y . Ask s t a f f fo r assistance in improving s e lfconfidence. . Improve reading s k ills and consult w ith a teacher when in need o f help. . Think p o s itiv e and be e n th u sia stic. . Need to complete assignments in order to improve confidence. . Teachers are a va ila b le to help students. . E nroll in classes th a t are in te re s tin g . Self-Image Self-Image . None. . Buy new clothes. .None reported. In te re s t in Learning In te re s t in Learning . In d iv id u a liz e the courses o r subjects to the in te re s ts o f students. . Program should provide a wide range o f books. . Students should learn on th e ir own. . D iffe re n t class p ro je c ts . Do volunteer work 1n lo cal government o r v i s i t a State Senator. . Teachers should use one book a t a tim e. 66 Table 16.—Continued. Indians D ispositional B arriers (continued): Anglos D isposition al B a rrie rs (continued): Personal Desire to Learn Personal Desire to Learn . Concentrate more on le a rn in g . Find a q u ie t room in the Center to study. . Take fewer courses. Need more time to improve desire to le arn . . I d o n 't know. . Complete homework a t school. Get help from teachers. . Teachers should be more supportive. Teachers should le t students know how w ell they are doing. A student must be asse rtive and comnunicate h is / her fe e lin g s to the teacher. Age Age . None reported. . For me, i t ' s ju s t a process o f re tra in in g myself to study and to concentrate on what I'm doing. In s titu tio n a l B a rrie rs : In s titu tio n a l B a rrie rs : GED Tests 6ED Tests . . . . Take a class on GED te s ts . Take a course on te s tin g and a class on graphs. Continue to study. Find out which te s t Is scheduled and prepare fo r i t more thoroughly. . Study more and gain self-co nfid ence . . Study more a t Center. . Don't te s t students on subjects they already know. . Prepare myself more. Do more research. . Teachers should explain the d ire c tio n s and rules fo r takin g the 6ED te s ts . Lectures Lectures . Lectures should be e ith e r tape recorded or videotaped and made a va ila b le f o r student use. . A le ctu re should not be conducted when the whole class has no in te re s t in i t . . None. . Teachers should more a c tiv e ly Involve students 1n class p a rtic ip a tio n . Teachers should c a ll on In d ivid u a ls. . I f I were le c tu rin g , I would probably stop every once in a w hile and ask questions to make sure people are lis te n in g , o r get them involved in the conversation. Subjects Subjects . Expand course o ffe rin g s . In d iv id u a liz e each course. Basic courses should be a va ila b le also. . Take a math course and be self-m o tivated . . I would read more about the subject and 1 would ask my h is to ry teacher to c le a r things up. . Read more in the area o f English. In math, I need someone to show me how to do i t o r how to go about i t sometimes. . Reduce the amount o f course work. . Study more. I would p a rtic u la r ly study more about the m etric system. . Ask a teacher to explain a problem. . Workbooks should be w ritte n in p la in English. Class Discussion Groups Class Discussion 6roups . Teachers should give students a l i s t o f topics to ta lk about in discussion groups, and s tu ­ dents could select the to p ic s . . I t takes time f o r people to get to know each o th er. People should get to know each other one a t a time u n til the whole group gets to know each other. . Improve vocabulary and learn to speak b e tte r. . I would not lis te n or attend class to par­ tic ip a te in group discussions. . I would p a rtic ip a te in group discussions only when I'm asked to answer a question. . None. . Divide the class in groups o f two o r three s tu ­ dents and then give them questions and le t them w rite down the answers—th e ir fe e lin g s about the to p ic s . Let each group discuss th e ir thoughts. Raise questions and then go around and ask each o f the groups to answer them. 67 Table 16.—Continued. Indians In s titu tio n a l B arriers (continued): Anglos In s titu tio n a l B a rrie rs (continued): Books Books . O ffer a l i s t o f books a va ila b le so th a t stu ­ dents can se le ct m aterials according to th e ir own needs and in te re s ts . I f lockers were provided f o r student use, i t would help to cut down on the number o f book replacements. A lib r a r y is needed. . Do more reading. . Ask teachers f o r help and d ire c tio n s . . Read more o fte n and look up words th a t I d o n 't know In the d ic tio n a ry . . Let teachers know i f books are too easy o r too hard. . Ask a teacher f o r suggestions. Provide workbooks. . Leave books a t Center and then w ouldn't fo rg e t to bring them to cla ss. . Questions should be w ritte n more c le a rly in books and answers should be provided. . Improve te s ts f o r assessing math and reading s k ills o f a d u lt students entering program. length o f Time Length o f Time . None. . I would lik e to work on other subjects a t the Center during weeknights when classes are not scheduled. . Continue to work and prepare f o r GED te s ts . . Would work a t own pace. C all my vocational re h a b ilita tio n counselor to fin d out about what I can do to stay and f in is h the program. Ind ivid ual In s tru c tio n In d ivid u a l In s tru c tio n . Put up a p a r titio n o r post signs designating areas fo r studying and s o c ia liz in g in the s tu ­ dent lounge. Have in s tru c to rs supervise s tu ­ dents. Have teachers keep the noise down in the independent study room. . Ask a teacher fo r help on d i f f i c u l t assignments. . D irections in workbooks should be c le a rly w ritte n . Class Schedule Class Schedule . Provide tra n sp o rta tio n to s k il l o r vocational center on weeknights. . Buy an alarm clock. . O ffe r more evening classes. . Teachers need to t e l l students what th e y 're going to do each day and what books to bring . . Talk to school counselor about scheduling problems. A Place to Study A Place to Study . Study at home. . Ask teachers to help keep study areas q u ie t. . Allow students to lis te n to music w hile studying In the classroom. Cost Cost . None reported. . None reported. Teacher Teacher . Require higher education f o r teachers. More specialized in s tru c tio n . More teachers. . I talke d to the counselor and he to ld me to ta lk w ith the teacher, and 1 already d id . They know everything. They want more money but they d o n 't want to do more work. A lso , 1 th in k students should speak up. T e ll i t lik e 1 t is . That's one th in g I lik e about th is school. lo catio n Location . None. . Go to a d iffe re n t Center clo se r to home. P refer Indian Adult Learning Center because o f CETA component. Likes s t a f f and other students. I could go to another school but 1 d o n 't want to do th a t. I lik e the program. I lik e the teach­ e rs. I lik e the people. School buses should be provided. The lo c a tio n 1s convenient fo r most o f the people attending the program. I t is inconvenient fo r some people, but w e 'll learn to adjust to the s itu a tio n . 68 Table 17.—Pearson correlation coefficients for biculturalism with barriers to learning. Variable N r Sig. of r Situational barriers 34 -.2872 .05 Dispositional barriers 34 .0420 .41 Institutional barriers 34 -.0957 .30 Learning barriers as a whole 34 -.1249 .24 Relationships Between Barriers to Learning and Demographic Variables Pearson correlations were computed between categories of learning barriers and demographics to determine the relationships among Indian and Anglo adult students. The results are shown in Table 18. As shown in Table 18, the correlations indicate a trend in the direction of a negative relationship between time of residence in current home and situational barriers among Indian adult students: The shorter the time of residence in their current home, the greater the importance of their situational barriers. I t also appears that student status is positively related to situational barriers. This relationship suggests that more fu ll-tim e Indian adult students assigned more importance to situational barriers than did part-time Indian adult students. A low but s ta tis tic a lly significant positive correlation between age and situational barriers among Anglo adult students exists: The older the Anglo adult students, the greater the importance of situa­ tional barriers. 69 Table 18.—Pearson co rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts fo r s itu a tio n a l, d is p o s itio n a l, in s titu t io n a l, and learning b a rrie rs as a whole w ith various demographic v a ria b le s. Tvpe o f B arriers to Leamino Variable Indians Anglos Sig. o f r N N S itu a tio n a l B arriers Age Sex* Student status8 Residence in Michigan Residence 1n Grand Rapids Residence in current home Father liv in g * Mother liv in g * Language(s) spoken by subjects* Language!s) usually spoken a t home by parents* Language(s) spoken a t home by subjects* Subject's education Father's education Mother's education 45 45 45 44 44 43 44 45 43 45 45 45 24 29 ..0313 .0414 .2443 .0289 .1509 -.2737 -.0049 .2677 -.0286 .0538 -.1934 -.0241 -.0723 -.0583 .42 .39 .05 .43 .16 .04 .49 .04 .43 .36 .10 .44 .37 .38 39 39 39 39 39 39 38 39 39 39 39 39 30 32 D ispositional Barriers Age Sex* Student status* Residence in Michigan Residence in Grand Rapids Residence in current home Father liv in g * Mother liv in g * Language(s) spoken by subjects* Language(s) usu ally spoken at home by Barents Language(s) spoken a t home by subjects* S ubject's education Father's education Mother's education 45 45 45 44 44 43 44 45 43 45 45 45 24 29 .2884 -.2136 -.1491 .2864 .2108 -.3078 .2958 -.0491 -.0868 .0103 .1196 -.1517 -.1830 -.1099 .03 .08 .16 .03 .09 .02 .03 .37 .29 .47 .22 .16 .20 .29 39 39 39 39 39 39 38 39 39 39 39 39 30 32 .0006 -.2381 -.0625 .0495 .0021 -.1475 .0488 38 38 38 38 38 38 37 40 •A W 38 38 38 38 29 31 38 38 38 38 38 38 37 38 38 38 38 38 29 31 In s titu tio n a l B arriers Age Sex* Student status* Residence in Michigan Residence in Grand Rapids Residence in current home Father liv in g * Mother Iiv in g * , Language(s) spoken by subjects Language(s) usually spoken at home by parents Language(s) spoken a t home by subjects* Subject's education Father's education Mother's education 45 45 45 44 44 43 44 •r nj -•W 49U 43 45 45 45 24 29 -.1654 .1225 .2054 -.3567 -.0982 -.1980 .50 .06 .34 .38 .50 .17 .38 M« •tu .15 .21 .09 .01 .32 .16 Learning B a rrie rs as a Whole Age Sex8 Student status Residence in Michigan Residence in Grand Rapids Residence in current home Father liv in g * Mother liv in g * Language(s) spoken by subjects Language(s) usually spoken a t home by parents Language(s) spoken a t home by subjects* S ubject's education F ather's education Mother's education 45 45 45 44 44 43 44 45 43 45 45 45 24 29 .1752 -.1989 -.0130 .1926 .1783 -.3378 .1838 .0617 -.1262 .0757 .0731 -.2369 -.1686 -.1770 .13 .10 .47 .11 .12 .01 .12 .34 .21 .31 .32 .06 .22 .18 _ Sig. o f r .2721 .1099 -.0121 .1008 .0860 .0040 -.1201 .2351 .05 .25 .47 .27 .30 .49 .24 .08 -.1505 .2340 -.0206 -.1165 -.3501 .18 .08 .45 .27 .03 -.1617 -.0859 .0460 -.1078 .0032 .2408 -.2885 -.0493 .16 .30 .39 .26 .49 .07 .04 .38 .1424 -.1692 .3521 .0928 -.0444 .19 .15 .01 .31 .41 .1810 -.1302 -.0413 -.0905 -.0285 .1353 .1533 .14 .22 .40 .29 .43 .21 .18 01 •w t 4 CA 4 T -.1361 -.0648 -.0500 -.0045 -.0897 .21 .35 .38 .49 .32 .1593 -.0285 -.0193 -.0163 .0552 .1534 -.0904 .2385 .17 .43 .45 .46 .37 .18 .30 .08 -.0746 .0088 .1397 -.0551 -.2260 .33 .48 .20 .39 .11 aFor dichotomous-level demographic v a ria b le s , p o in t-b is e ria l c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts are reported. 70 There is a somewhat low but s ta tis tic a lly significant negative correlation between mothers' education and situational barriers: The higher the level of education of Anglo mothers, the lower the impor­ tance of situational barriers of Anglo adult students. Pearson correlation coefficients for dispositional barriers indicate low, but s ta tis tic a lly significant, positive correlations between age, time of residence in Michigan, and dispositional bar­ riers among Indian adult students. These correlations suggest that older Indian adult students, along with those Indians who have lived in Michigan for a longer period of time, tended to report a greater degree of importance for their dispositional barriers. As with situational barriers, a low relationship exists between time of residence in current home and dispositional barriers for Indian adult students: The shorter the time of residence in their current home, the greater the importance of dispositional barriers. A s ta tis tic a lly significant correlation exists between subject's educational level and dispositional barriers for Anglo adult students: The higher the level of education of Anglo adult students, the greater the importance of dispositional barriers. Only one of the correlations for the institutional barriers is sta tis tic a lly significant. This significant relationship exists between the level of education among Indian adult students and their degree of institutional barriers: The higher the level of education of the Indian adult students, the lower the importance of their institutional barriers. 71 Pearson correlations were also computed between learning bar­ riers as a whole and various demographic variables. A somewhat low, though s ta tis tic a lly significant, negative correlation exists between time of residence in current home and learning barriers as a whole among Indian adult students: The shorter the time of residence in their current home, the greater the importance of their learning barriers as a whole. Spearman correlation coefficients for learning barrier categories and learning barriers as a whole may be seen in Table 19. A somewhat low, though s ta tis tic a lly significant, positive correlation exists between father's language(s) and dispositional barriers among Anglo adult students: The more English is spoken by fathers of Anglo sub­ jects, the greater the degree of importance of dispositional barriers of Anglo adult students. A s ta tis tic a lly significant positive corre­ lation exists between Anglo adult students' annual family income and dispositional barriers: The higher their annual family income, the greater the importance of their dispositional barriers. Before all three categories of learning barriers and learning barriers as a whole were examined through one-way analyses of variance by all other demographic variables, i t was noted that few Indian adult students indicated Native American as either their present religion (n = 4) or past religion (n = 2); therefore, the response choice was dropped. The variables on religion then comprised three categories: Catholic, Protestant, and none. The variables of past and present religion are based on the three categories. 72 Table 19.--Spearman correlation coefficients for situational, dispositional, institutional, and learning barriers as a whole with other demographic variables. Type of Barriers to Learning Variable Indians N Anglos r S1'9- of N r of Situational Barriers PI ace of father1s bi rth PI ace of mother' s bi rth Father's language(s) Mother's language(s) Annual family income 43 44 44 45 33 -.0963 .0252 .1856 .2162 -.2194 .27 .44 .11 .08 .11 37 39 39 39 31 .0606 .2275 -.1506 -.1108 -.2813 .36 .08 .18 .25 .06 Dispositional Barriers PI ace of father' s bi rth PI ace of mother' s bi rth Father's language(s) Mother's language(s) Annual family income 43 44 44 45 33 -.1579 -.0498 .0602 .0192 -.0980 .16 .38 .35 .45 .29 37 39 39 39 31 .1134 .0071 .3349 .1687 .3830 .25 .48 .02 .15 .02 Institutional Barriers PI ace of father' s bi rth PI ace of mother' s bi rth Father's language(s) Mother's language(s) Annual family income 43 44 44 45 33 -.1749 -.0100 .1337 .1891 -.1512 .13 .48 .19 .11 .20 36 38 38 38 30 .3018 .1761 .1347 -.0742 -.2558 .04 .15 .21 .33 .09 Learning Barriers as a Whole Place of father's birth PI ace of mother' s bi rth Father's language(s) Mother's language(s) Annual family income 43 44 44 45 33 o 'im -.0486 .1682 .1903 -.2445 .07 .38 .14 .11 .09 36 38 38 38 30 . 1531 .1630 .1607 .0347 -.0544 .19 .17 .17 .42 .39 _ « b W W 1 Because there were several subjects (n = 33) in the sample who were unemployed, the variable of subjects' occupation represents stu­ dents who were classified according to nonworking and working groups. Due to the small number of cases for the occupational categories according to Reiss et a l . (1961), the variables of father's occupation 73 and mother's occupation were recoded. The father's occupation variable was recoded to blue-collar and white-collar categories. The categories reflect socioeconomic status as measured by the father's occupation. The mother's occupation variable is based on two categories: non­ working and working. As shown in Table 20, one-way analyses of variance reveal no sig­ nificant differences between situational, dispositional, and in s titu ­ tional barriers, learning barriers as a whole, and demographic variables among Indian adult students. Permanent home was a nominal variable, with only one category, and therefore could not be included in the analyses for the Indian adult students. A significant difference exists between location of community in which subject was reared (Michigan, Canada, United States, Other) and institutional barriers among Anglo adult students. A significant difference exists between subject's occupation and learning barriers as a whole among Anglo adult students. Alternately, working and nonworking Anglo adult students d iffe r significantly on learning barriers as a whole. Relationships Between Biculturalism and Demographic Variables Pearson correlations were computed to investigate relationships between biculturalism and various demographic variables. are shown in Table 21. The results No significant relationships exist between biculturalism and demographic variables. 74 Table 20.—One-way analyses o f variance re s u lts f o r s itu a tio n a l, d is p o s itio n a l, in s titu t io n a l, and learning b a rrie rs as a whole. Type o f B arriers to Learninq Variable Indians N Anglos F Sig. o f F N F Sig. o f F S itu a tio n a l B arriers Present re lig io n 35 .17 .85 32 2.03 .15 Past re lig io n 36 2.10 .14 25 .28 .76 35 .39 .68 Location o f cornnunity in which subject was reared 45 .61 .55 39 1.05 .36 Conmunity in which subject was reared 44 .69 .56 39 .28 .84 Subject's occupation 36 1.99 .17 35 3.84 .06 Permanent home fa th e r's occupation 28 .53 .47 30 .80 .38 Mother's occupation 38 .62 .44 36 .08 .78 M arital status 45 3.00 .06 39 .20 .82 .23 D ispositional B arriers Present re lig io n 35 1.70 .20 32 1.53 Past re lig io n 35 1.03 .37 25 2.10 .15 35 1.33 .28 Permanent home Location o f cornnunity in which subject was reared 45 .45 .64 39 .16 .85 Conmunity in which subject was reared 44 .42 .74 39 .77 .52 S ubject's occupation 38 .61 .44 35 2.09 .16 Father’ s occupation 28 .10 .75 30 0 .99 Mother's occupation 38 .21 .65 36 .98 .33 M arita l status 45 .81 .45 39 .94 .40 In s titu tio n a l B arriers Present re lig io n 35 1.22 .31 31 .82 .45 Past re lig io n 36 2.35 .11 25 1.80 .19 34 1.07 .36 Location o f conmunity in which subject was reared 45 .39 .68 3B 4.90 .01 Permanent home Conmunity in which subject was reared 44 .69 .57 38 .49 .70 S ubject's occupation 38 .53 .47 2.43 .13 Father's occupation 28 .07 Am .O U 34 on W .01 .0 4 Mother's occupation 36 .24 .63 35 .01 .91 M arita l status 45 .53 .60 38 1.75 .19 .22 Learning B arriers as a Whole Present re lig io n 35 1.35 .28 31 1.60 Past re lig io n 36 2.60 .10 25 1.26 .30 34 .64 .53 Permanent home Location o f conmunity in which subject was reared 45 .84 .44 38 1.45 .25 Conmunity in which subject was reared 44 1.01 .40 38 .07 .98 S ubject's occupation 38 .44 .51 34 4.50 .04 Father’ s occupation 28 .31 .58 30 .22 .65 Mother's occupation 38 .13 .72 35 .26 .61 M arita l status 45 1.80 .18 38 1.12 .34 75 Table 21.--Pearson correlation coefficients for biculturalism with various demographic variables. Variable r N Significance of r Age 34 -.0313 .43 Sexa 34 -.1020 .28 Student status9 34 .0553 .38 Residence in Michigan 33 -.0577 .38 Residence in Grand Rapids 33 .1650 .18 Residence in current home 32 .1452 .21 Father living3 33 .0154 .47 Mother living3 34 -.0909 .31 Language(s) spoken by subjects3 33 -.1944 .14 Language(s) usually spoken at home by parents3 34 Language(s) spoken at home by subjects3 34 -.0397 .41 Subject's education 34 .1895 .14 Father's education 18 -.2220 .19 Mother's education 22 .3453 .06 ... aFor dichotomous-level demographic variables, point-biserial correlation coefficients are reported. Spearman correlation coefficients were also computed for bicul­ turalism. The results are presented in Table 22. A s ta tis tic a lly significant negative correlation exists between father's language(s) and biculturalism: The more English is spoken by fathers of Indian ancestry, the higher the degree of biculturalism of Indian adult students. Alternately, the less English is spoken by fathers of Indian ancestry, the lesser the degree of biculturalism of Indian adult students. 76 Table 22.--Spearman correlation coefficients for biculturalism with other demographic variables. Variable N r Significance of r Place of father's birth 33 .1354 .23 Place of mother's birth 34 .1701 .17 Father's language(s) 33 -.3910 .01 Mother's language(s) 34 -.1947 .14 Annual family income 26 -.0553 .40 One-way analyses of variance were employed to test for any sig­ nificant differences between biculturalism and demographic variables. The results are presented in Table 23. Table 23.--One-way analyses of variance results for biculturalism. Variable N F 2.78 .06 Past religion 30 29 4 1A H• H 1 .02 Location of community in which subject was reared 34 .39 .68 Community in which subject was reared 33 .21 .89 Subject's occupation 30 .00 .95 Father's occupation 22 .18 .68 Mother's occupation 31 .34 .57 Marital status 34 1.18 .32 Present religion Significance 77 I t might be noted that there is a significant difference between past religion and biculturalism. Part IV. Social Desirability In this study two fa ir ly sensitive topics, biculturalism and barriers to learning, were investigated. socially desirable responses. The topics may e lic it This aspect was examined to determine whether social desirability was a factor in responses to bicultural­ ism and barriers to learning variables. Pearson correlation coef­ ficients for social desirability are shown in Table 24. Table 24.—Pearson correlation coefficients for social desirability with biculturalism and barriers to learning. Indians Variable N Anglos r Sig. of r r Sig. of r 39 .1065 .26 .01 N Biculturalism 34 .0693 .35 Situational barriers 45 -.2381 .06 Dispositional barriers 45 .1637 .14 39 .3769 Institutional barriers 45 fS .CKIDJ r\n .U3 OO ou O/l/IO Learning barriers as a whole 45 .0815 .30 38 .3072 The social desirability scores of the Anglo adult students correlate significantly with the degree of importance of their dispositional barriers and learning barriers as a whole: The higher the social desirability scores of the Anglo adult students, the greater the importance of their dispositional barriers: also, m .03 78 the higher their social desirability scores, the greater the importance of their learning barriers as a whole. No significant relationships exist between social desirability scores, biculturalism, and barriers to learning among Indian adult students. Part V. Reasons for Attending the Center's Adult Education Program To gain an understanding of the students' motivations for learn­ ing, i t was necessary to determine the reasons why students were enrolled in the Center's Adult Education Program. Students were asked to select as many of the 11 stated reasons listed on the questionnaire as were appropriate. Table 25 shows the most frequent reasons for learning by Indian and Anglo adult students. The most frequent reasons for participating in adult education by Indian adult students were (a) to complete a high school/GED level education, earn a degree (91.1%); (b) to prepare for a job (68.9%); (c) to be better informed, gain basic knowledge and skills (64.4%); (d) to f u l f i l l a job requirement, improve or advance in current job (60.0%); (e) to make friends, learn about people, do something new (55.6%); and (f) to achieve personal satisfaction, personal happiness (53.3%). The most frequent reasons for learning by Anglo adult students were (a) to complete a high school/GED level education, earn a degree (89.7%); (b) to prepare for a job (79.5%); (c) to be better informed, gain basic knowledge and skills (76.9%); (d) to achieve personal sat­ isfaction, personal happiness (71.8%); (e) to improve income (61.5%); 79 (f) to f u l f i l l a job requirement, improve or advance in current job (59.0%); and (g) to make friends, learn about people, do something new (53.0%). 80 Table 25.—Frequency of the number of Indian and Anglo adult students who were enrolled Fall semester 1980, by reasons for attending Center's Adult Education Program. Ethnic Group Reasons for Attending Center's Adult Education Program Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency % Indians (n = 45) 1. To complete a high school/GED level education, earn a degree 2. To prepare for a job (or new job) 3. To be better informed, gain basic knowledge and skills 4. For a job requirement, improve or advance in current job 5. To make friends, learn about people, do something new 6. For personal satisfaction, personal happiness 7. To improve income 8. To study own culture 9. To deal more effectively with personal or family problems 10. To learn more about how to solve com­ munity problems, or to bring change in the community 11. Other reason 41 31 91.1 68.9 29 64.4 27 60.0 25 55.6 24 19 17 53.3 42.2 37.8 11 24.4 9 7 20.0 15.6 35 31 89.7 79.5 30 76.9 28 24 71.8 61.5 23 59.0 21 53.8 14 35.9 11 8 7 28.2 20.5 17.9 Anglos (n = 39) 1. To complete a high school/GED level education, earn a degree 2. To prepare for a job (or new job) 3. To be better informed, gain basic knowledge and skills 4. For personal satisfaction, personal happiness 5. To improve income 6. For a job requirement, improve or advance in current job 7. To make friends, learn about people, do something new 8. To deal more effectively with personal or family problems 9. To learn more about how to solve commu­ nity problems, or to bring change in the community 10. To study own culture 11. Other reason NOTE: Adult students could indicate as many reasons as were applicable. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The primary purpose of this study was to determine the rela­ tionship between biculturalism and barriers to learning among Indian adult students in Grand Rapids, Michigan. Specifically, the objectives addressed by the research project were as follows: 1. To determine the degree of biculturalism among Michigan Indian adult students. 2. To indicate the degree of importance of barriers to learning for both Indian and Anglo adult students. 3. To examine differences in barriers to learning between Indian and Anglo adult students. 4. To examine the relationship between respondents' ethnicity and degree of importance of barriers to learning as a whole. 5. To determine the degree of importance of factors within each category of learning barriers for both Indian and Anglo adult students. 6. To determine why reported factors are perceived as barriers to learning and to s o lic it students' ideas for appropriate change. 7. To examine the relationships between biculturalism and barriers to learning. 81 82 The final sample comprised 84 adult students. Of the 84 adult students, 45 were Indian adult students and 39 were Anglo adult students. Questionnaires were administered and collected over a period of 10 weeks. The questionnaire was self-administered. In addition, approximately 24% of the sample was contacted for a follow-up interview. The data were coded, key punched, and processed at the Computer Center at Michigan State University using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (Nie et a l. , 1975). Descriptive and inferential statistics were used in analyzing the data, and the .05 level of probability was adopted to determine significance. Demographic Characteristics of Sample The majority of the Indian adult students (62.2%) were female, and more than one-third (37.8%) were male. The "average Indian adult student" was 19.9 years old, had a ninth-grade education, was unem­ ployed, and had an annual family income of $3,152. the Indian adult students (82.2%) were single. The majority of There were more Indian adult students (64.4%) enrolled part time than were enrolled fu ll time (35.6%). The majority of the Anglo adult students (56.4%) were women, and less than half (43.6%) were male. The "average Anglo adult student" was 25.2 years old, had a ninth-grade education, was employed, and had an annual family income of $3,645. of the Anglo adult students (51.3%) were single. The majority Anglo adult students 83 were fa irly equally divided between full-tim e and part-time enroll­ ment. Degree of Biculturalism The biculturalism scores indicated that the Indian adult stu­ dents were moderately bicultural. This may be explained in terms of the subjects' pattern of historical development. The literatu re sug­ gests that people who exhibited high scores on the Biculturalism Inventory have had exposure to Anglo and Indian sociocultural systems throughout most of their lives; alternately, people who had low biculturalism scores were reared in one culture and later exposed to a second culture. These patterns are similar to those identified for Mexican American college students (Ramirez et a l . , 1980). While previous studies have tended to view minority-group members as being caught between two conflicting cultures (Child, 1943; Madsen, 1964; Stonequist, 1937), this study indicated that Native Americans can and do participate in the mainstream Anglo culture without replacing their Indian life s ty le and values. McFee's (1968) description of the Blackfeet Indians also supports this observation. Degree of Importance of Barriers to Learning In terms of the degree of importance of learning barriers, the results of profile analysis indicated that situational, disposi­ tional, and institutional barriers were of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. The literature on the barriers to learning indicates that the importance of dispositional barriers is 84 probably underestimated in the surveys because people are reluctant to report barriers such as lack of interest or lack of confidence in their a b ility (Cross, 1979). While the data in this study indicated that situational, disposi­ tional, and institutional barriers were of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students, these barriers may not be of par­ ticu lar importance. All means for the learning-barrier categories were below 2.0 for both Indian and Anglo adult students. The low means for these barriers indicated that their importance was rather low, since the range of possible scores was 1 to 5, with low scores indicating "Not a Problem at All" to "Somewhat of a Problem." These barriers may be of less importance to these students for several reasons: These barriers may be affected by the flexib le learning environment of the Learning Center, individualized instruction, supportive services such as counseling and child care, and emphasis upon student decision making and responsibility. Comparisons of barriers to learning revealed significant d if ­ ferences between Indian and Anglo adult students on situational and institutional barriers, with these barriers of greater importance for Indian adult students than for Anglo adult students. No sig­ nificant difference was noted between Indian and Anglo adult students on dispositional barriers. A comparison between subjects' group membership on degree of barriers to learning indicated a greater degree of importance for learning barriers as a whole for Indian adult students than for Anglo adult students. 85 Significant differences were noted between specific learning barriers in each category of learning barrier. Repeated-measure analyses of variance comparisons of specific barriers for the situa­ tional category indicated that factors of distance from home to Learning Center, lack of time to study, and lack of transportation were of equal importance, and of greater importance than lack of child care for the Indian adult students. The order of importance for child care can be explained by the large number of single Indian adult students who indicated a response choice of "Not a Problem at A ll." The literature on Indian educational problems suggests that most of the previously mentioned barriers are experienced by Indian adult students (Bass, 1969a; Brod & McQuiston, 1981; Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972; Selinger, 1968). In comparison, all four situa­ tional barriers were of equal importance for Anglo adult students. These findings parallel those of other studies reporting similar leading situational barriers of potential learners (Cross, 1979; Hamilton, 1976; Hefferlin et a l . , 1975; New York State, 1977; Nurnberger, 1974; Stelzer & Banthin, 1975; Wilcox et a l . , 1975). The findings on dispositional barriers indicated that, for Indian adult students, the lack of confidence in their a b ility was of greater importance than poor self-image, lack of interest, and lack of personal desire to learn; also, the la tte r three barriers were of greater importance than age. These findings support pre­ vious studies that indicate that lack of confidence in a b ility is a problem among Indian students (Bass, 1969b; Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972). The findings also indicated that, for Anglo adult students, 86 the lack of confidence in their a b ility was of greater importance than the remainder of the five dispositional barriers previously mentioned. The information on confidence from the interviews sug­ gests a possible explanation for these findings. The information gathered indicates that both Indian and Anglo adult students may find i t d iffic u lt to gain confidence in their a b ility without courses that are interesting or without the help and encouragement from teachers to overcome problems with class assignments. The literature has noted that self-concept is a major factor in determining failure and success in school. Studies indicate that many Indian students have a negative self-concept in comparison to th eir white peers. However, i t has been determined in the present study that the factor of self-image was of equal importance for Indian and Anglo adult students. One possible explanation for this finding is that a few teachers may have expected Indian and Anglo adult students to be inadequate learners because, in part, many had low incomes and limited social mobility, and they were probably viewed as low achievers and pupils who lack the a b ility to learn. As a result, the students may have performed less well in school and reported less-positive self-image. I t was found that all 12 institutional barriers were of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. The subjects cited problems with GED tests, lectures, subject content areas, class discussion groups, books, length of time, individualized instruction, class schedule, a place to study, cost, teacher, and location. These and similar barriers were among the several problem 87 areas cited for Indian school children and adult students in other studies (Brod & McQuiston, 1981; Fuchs & Havighurst, 1972; McKinley et a l . , 1970; Meriam et a l . , 1928; U.S. Senate Subcommittee, 1969; Zintz, 1967). The findings in this study also reflect many of the same systemic problems cited in previous research (Carp et a l . , 1975; Hamilton, 1976; Hefferlin et a l . , 1975; New York State, 1977; Wilcox et a l ., 1975) and in related studies concerning the educational needs of the Native American population in Grand Rapids, Michigan (GRITC, 1978; Office of Curriculum, 1979, 1980) and throughout the state (Michigan Department of Education, 1974). To gain a better understanding of the reported learning barriers, students were asked to rank five of their most important learning barriers and to explain why these barriers were problems in learning. From the interview data, the following barriers were ranked from most to least important by the Indian adult students: (a) class discussion groups, (b) GED tests, (c) lectures, (d) transportation and length of time to complete education, and (e) subjects. I t is worth noting here that a ll except transportation are institutional barriers. These data support the finding that all institutional barriers were of equal importance for Indian adult students. One might speculate that dispositional barriers were not reported by Indian adult students because they were less socially acceptable. The interview data also offered major reasons for these barriers. Indian adult students reported that they were shy about speaking in front of a group of people, they fe lt GED tests were d iffic u lt, they lacked interest in lectures, they had no available means of 88 transportation, they had class requirements that extended the length of time to complete th eir education, and they had subjects that were not interesting. The most important learning barriers reported by the Anglo adult students, in order of p rio rity , were: (a) books, (b) subjects and GED tests, (c) interest in learning and confidence in one's a b ility , (d) personal desire to learn, and (e) class schedule and child care. The major reasons for the most important learning barriers as reported by Anglo adult students were the following: Books were either too easy or too hard, subjects were d iffic u lt to comprehend, certain sections of the GED test were d iffic u lt, there was lack of interest in academic program, there was lack of self-confidence due to d iffic u lty in courses, there was no personal desire to learn due to family responsibilities and pressure from teachers, the class schedule was inconvenient, and there was a lack of child care. Correlational Analyses of Survey Variables To investigate the determinants of learning barriers, correla­ tions were computed between the bicultural variable and barriers to learning variables. Only the institutional barriers variable cor­ related significantly with biculturalism: The greater the degree of biculturalism of the Indian adult students, the lower the impor­ tance of their situational barriers. This finding suggests that biculturalism may be a highly significant asset for the Michigan Indian to succeed in the Michigan school system. 89 The results of the correlational analyses and one-way analyses of variance, based upon data from the two ethnic groups, identified the variables related to barriers to learning. The correlations indicated that there was a low relationship between time of residence in current home and situational barriers among Indian adult students: The shorter the time of residence in their current home, the greater the degree of importance of their situational barriers. There was also a low relationship between student status and situational barriers, with more full-tim e Indian adult students indicating a greater degree of importance for situational barriers. I t also appeared that age was related to situational barriers among Anglo adult students: The older the Anglo adult students, the greater the importance of situational barriers. One possible explanation for the low relationships is that some of the items included on the question­ naire were not appropriate for analysis, or the wrong questions were asked of subjects in this study. There was also a rather low relationship between mothers' education and situational barriers among Anglo adult students: The higher their mothers' level of education, the lower the importance of their situational barriers. This may best be explained by their mothers' belief in the value of education and their supportive role in encouraging their children to pursue their own education and to cope with their situational barriers. The relationship between age and dispositional barriers indi­ cated that older Indian adult students assigned more importance to dispositional barriers than did younger Indian adult students. Older 90 Indian adult students who had experienced low achievement and feelings of failure in the school system during childhood and adolescence may have reported low self-confidence as a learner, poor selfimage, and negative attitudes about learning. The time of residence in current home was related only slightly to dispositional barriers among Indian adult students. The relation­ ship seems to indicate that Indian adult students who had lived in their current home for a relatively brief period of time attributed more importance to dispositional barriers. I t was further revealed that time of residence in Michigan was related to dispositional bar­ riers. This relationship suggests that individuals who had lived in Michigan for a longer period of time indicated a greater degree of importance for their dispositional barriers. A past history of bad experiences in public schools and poor living conditions in the com­ munity in which Indian adult students were reared may have affected the degree of importance of their dispositional barriers. A slight relationship was found between subjects' education and dispositional barriers among Anglo adult students. This finding may reflect an increased awareness of dispositional barriers and their importance to Anglo adult students as they become more educated. Somewhat low relationships were also noted between fathers' language(s), annual family income, and dispositional barriers among the Anglo adult students: The more English is spoken by Anglo fathers, the greater the importance of dispositional barriers of Anglo adult students. On the other hand, the fathers of the Anglo adult students may have had negative attitudes toward learning and 91 poor self-perceptions as learners. This may have affected the way in which Anglo adult students perceived their dispositional barriers. The relationship between annual family income and dispositional barriers indicated that higher-income learners reported a greater degree of importance of dispositional barriers. A possible explana­ tion for this finding is that higher-income learners may have more education; consequently, the higher the educational level, the greater their awareness of dispositional barriers. The data indicated that only the level of education of Indian adult students correlated with the degree of importance of institu ­ tional barriers: The higher the level of education, the lower the importance of their institutional barriers. This may be expected since people who have had more experience in organized learning activities are more lik e ly to know where to go for information about educational programs and how to deal with institutional barriers. The time of residence in current home was related to learning barriers as a whole among Indian adult students. This finding is consistent with other findings in this study, which suggested that the time of residence in current home was related to situational and dispositional barriers. The data indicated that enrollees who are newcomers to the community may be unfamiliar with the program's supportive services (e .g ., counseling, transportation for adults attending vocational programs outside the Indian Adult Learning Center, babysitting) that could be used to deal with specific obstacles in learning. 92 The one-way analyses of variance indicated that significant d if­ ferences existed between barriers to learning and demographic vari­ ables among Anglo adult students. A significant difference was found between location of community in which subject was reared and in s ti­ tutional barriers. I t is quite possible that the degree of impor­ tance of institutional barriers reported by Anglo adult students may be due to the environment in which they were reared, such as rural, urban, semi-rural, and semi-urban areas. The degree of inaccessi­ b ility of educational opportunities and limited experiences in organized learning activities may have contributed to the degree of importance of institutional barriers. Correlations were also computed between biculturalism and demographic variables. A significant relationship was found between fathers' language(s) and biculturalism: The more English is spoken by the fathers of Indian ancestry, the higher the degree of bicul­ turalism of Indian adult students. I f one considers the use of the English language as a criterion for participation in the majority culture, Indian adult students may have been influenced most by the extent to which their fathers spoke English and their fathers' degree of biculturalism. Accordingly, the extent to which Indian adult students spoke English may reflect their degree of biculturalism. There was also a significant difference between past religion and biculturalism. The reader should be cautious in concluding that past religion affects biculturalism. I t is possible that the extent to which the Indian adult students were bicultural might be a function of the environment in which they were reared. Native 93 Americans who were reared in an urban setting have been exposed to different communities or have associated with people of different cultural backgrounds. On the other hand, Native Americans who were brought up on a reservation have been influenced by their communi­ ties and the people they have associated with there. The lack of significant correlations and differences between biculturalism and demographic variables may be attributed to the small sample of Indian adult students. Social Desirability An attempt was made to determine whether students gave socially desirable responses to items on the Biculturalism Inventory, the Situational, Dispositional, and Institutional subscales, and the Barriers to Learning Scale as a whole. The literature has reported that the importance of disposi­ tional barriers is probably underestimated because survey respond­ ents may tend to give socially desirable responses to sensitive topics. Significant relationships were noted between social desira­ b ility scores of Anglo adult students and the degree of importance of their dispositional barriers and learning barriers as a whole. Anglo adult students who scored higher on the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale reported a greater degree of importance for dis­ positional barriers and learning barriers as a whole. These findings indicated that dispositional barriers were of equal importance for Anglo adult students. 94 Reasons for Attending the Center's Adult Education Program The final question in this investigation entails reasons for attending the Center's Adult Education Program. The most frequent reasons given for participating in adult education by Indian adult students related to completing a high school/GED level education, gaining basic knowledge and s k ills , preparing for a job, making friends, and achieving personal satis­ faction. These reasons for learning reflect the ideas of a rather young group of Indian adults, many of whom have never held a job. The most frequent reasons given for attending the Adult Edu­ cation Program by Anglo adult students included completing high school/ GED, preparing for a job, gaining basic knowledge and s k ills , achiev­ ing personal satisfaction, and improving income. High school educa­ tion and job-related responses that were given by Anglo adult stu­ dents can be expected, since these students were primarily young, blue-collar workers with less than a high school education. Conclusions and Recommendations On the basis of the findings in this study, the following recommendations are made for improving the Adult Education Program at the Grand Rapids Indian Adult Learning Center and for the develop­ ment of the learning situation of Indian adult students as well as Anglo adult students. 1. I t is recommended that the project director, in conjunc­ tion with the Office of Curriculum Planning and Evaluation, thoroughly review and enhance the academic components, as well as the cultural 95 component of the program that are essential to promoting bicul­ turalism, the a b ility to draw and balance two cultures, which may be a significant asset for adult Indians in coping with institutional and other learning barriers, and in succeeding in the school system. 2. I t is recommended that the project director, in conjunc­ tion with the Office of Curriculum Planning and Evaluation, continue to address not only the systemic barriers to learning, but the situa­ tional and dispositional barriers as well. All three categories of learning barriers were found to be of equal importance for Indian and Anglo adult students. 3. I t is recommended that the program management develop strategies to address specific factors, according to their degree of importance within each category of learning barriers. For example, time management could be offered to Indian adult students and other students who may have some problems in effective scheduling. The Executive Director of the Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council and project should consider the continuation of a Self-Analysis course and other alternative means for addressing the dispositional barriers such as lack of self-confidence, poor self-image, lack of interest in learning, and lack of personal desire to learn. In addition, the administrative personnel should continue to support the position of the Adult Education Counselor in order to help meet the academic and personal needs of Indian and Anglo adult students. Class dis­ cussion groups, lectures, and individualized instruction were listed among the 12 institutional barriers that were of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. Perhaps one alternative 96 means of transmitting subject matter would be to tape course lec­ tures and make these available to adult students. could be developed on audio cassettes. Entire courses GED tests or exams were also found to be of equal importance for both Indian and Anglo adult students. A mini-course could be offered to fam iliarize students with the nature of the contents of the GED test and its general format. Such a course could also deal with students' anxiety about tests. 4. I t is recommended that the project director, in con­ junction with the Office of Curriculum Planning and Evaluation, identify the needs of new adult students. Indian adult students who have been living in their current home for a shorter length of time reported a greater degree of importance for learning barriers as a whole. 5. I t is recommended that the project director and sta ff continue their efforts to inform incoming Indian and Anglo adult students about the program options and supportive services. Further­ more, staff should continue to contact prospective candidates and continue to encourage th eir participation in the programs. 6. I t is recommended that the project director, in conjunc­ tion with the Office of Curriculum Planning and Evaluation, conduct an assessment of the educational needs and interests of older Indian and Anglo adult students. Older Indian adult students assigned more importance to dispositional barriers, and older Anglo adult students designated more importance to situational barriers. The program's 97 supportive services (e .g ., counseling and transportation) should be more sensitive to the needs of older Indian and Anglo adult students. 7. I t is recommended that the project director and s ta ff, in conjunction with the Office of Curriculum Planning and Evaluation, thoroughly review the Center's curriculum for the purpose of develop­ ing a continuous monitoring system to measure students' progress in the Basic Language Arts Skills Component, Reading and Math Component, Pre-GED Component, and GED Component. In the interviews, both Indian and Anglo adult students indicated that subjects such as math and English were d iffic u lt to understand. In addition, some of these students experienced d iffic u lty in certain sections of the GED test. Implications for Future Research The following are some possible areas for future research resulting from this study. 1. A replication of this study should be made using a larger sample of Indian and Anglo adult students in another setting in order to further investigate relationships between bicultural­ ism, barriers to learning, and demographic characteristics. The small size of the sample in this study may account for the lack of significant relationships and differences between survey variables and demographic variables. 2. This study might also be replicated for similar learning centers in the United States to determine i f the characteristics and factors that contributed to the Indian and Anglo adult students' barriers to learning at the Adult Indian Learning Center are held nationally. 98 3. Further research should be conducted to identify the characteristics of high and low bicultural individuals among Indian adult students and to determine their extent of learning barriers. 4. There is need for further research to identify the char­ acteristics of the Indian adult students who complete their educa­ tional objectives and to determine the factors that contributed to the achievement of these objectives. 5. While this study did not identify historical-development patterns and other factors such as bicognitive orientation among the bicultural individuals, an investigation of these aspects in addi­ tion to the biculturalism variable could provide further insight about the development of biculturalism and its role in learning effectiveness among Native Americans and other minority groups. APPENDICES APPENDIX A NATIVE AMERICANS AS A POPULATION OF STUDY 100 NATIVE AMERICANS AS A POPULATION OF STUDY Historical Background There are primarily three Native American tribes in Michigan. They are the Chippewa, Ottawa, and Potawatomi. from the Algonquian stock. These tribes stem This stock is defined as "a family of people who speak an original language or any of the languages and dialects that were derived from it" (Kubiak, 1970, p. 23). The name Algonquian is derived from the word Algomequin, an Algonkin word meaning "people across the river." The expanse of land upon which the Algonquian lived was once considered to be the largest of all areas occupied by a North American stock. Their tu rf extended from the Rocky Mountains east to Labrador and from the uppermost part of Manitoba south to North Carolina. Historical records indicate that the Indians of Michigan are descendants of the Ojibwa tribe of Canada. As they moved westward from their settlement on the Atlantic coast north of the St. Lawrence River about 600 years ago, they made stops over an extended period down the St. Lawrence area where Montreal, Canada, now stands, again on Lake Huron, then Sault Ste. Marie, and fin a lly at La Point, Wisconsin. Other settlements at Fon Du Lac and on Lake Superior have also been recorded. The Ojibwa separated into three large groups as they reached Michilimackinac. One group stayed near Michilimackinac and became known as the Ottawas or "traders." The second, the Potawatomi, or "those-who-make-or-keep-a-fire," moved along Lake Michigan. The third division, the Ojibwa (Chippewa) or 101 102 "to-roast-till-puckered-up," stopped at Sault Ste. Marie for a long period after the separation. The three groups had so much in common that they banded together to form "the Three Fires" for mutual pro­ tection. The f ir s t contact between the White man and a Michigan tribe occurred between Samuel de Champlain and the Ottawas in 1615 on the eastern or northern shores of the Georgian Bay (Kinietz, 1965). The number of contacts between Michigan tribes and Europeans was minimal until after 1660. During this time the Huron, Ottawa, Potawatomi, Chippewa, Miami, and Menominee were the residents of Michigan. At the same time, visiting tribes included the Sioux, Cree, Kickapoo, Fox, and Sauk (Kinietz, 1965). The Ottawa, Chippewa (Ojibwa), and the Potawatomi comprise the three largest tribes residing in Michigan today (Michigan Commission on Indian A ffairs, n .d .). I t should be noted that the early Chippewa were called Ojibwa by neighboring tribes. Through the influence of the British and French, they became known as Chippewa (Kubiak, 1970). In the past, a ll tribes of Michigan lived in villages and camp­ sites that were usually located on terrain near a riv e r, stream, or lake. The reasons for this are obvious: The waterways served as the main mode of transportation, as well as a good source of food (Kubiak, 1970). Economic lif e consisted mainly of hunting, trapping, fishing, and agriculture. The Chippewa depended primarily on hunting, trap­ ping, and fishing activities with large summer villages and small winter hunting camps occupied by extended family units. In contrast, 103 the Ottawa usually lived in large villages that were moved regularly. Their economic lif e consisted of agriculture, hunting, and fishing. Men went out from the villages to hunt both in the summer and winter and to trade in the summer as well. Perishable goods were exchanged. The Potawatomi mainly depended on agriculture and hunting in both summer and winter. During the summer they stayed to hunt near the village and returned at night. The winter hunt called for the removal of the entire village to hunt in a new territo ry as a unit. Each tribe was usually divided into smaller units or "clans." The clans were usually named after some animal, plant, or bird. The Ottawas, however, were identified by such names as star, water, thunder, and mountain. Clothing was simple; the main articles con­ sisted of moccasins, leggings, breechcloth, and robe. The f ir s t Europeans to encounter and influence the Indians were the French. The Indians soon replaced many of their old weapons, tools, and utensils with items of iron and brass. By the mid-18th century, as the Indians had more exposure to the Europeans, they assimilated even more of the European culture. Kubiak (1970) reported that there were approximately 25,000 Chippewa in 1764. 28,000. In 1794, there were 15,000, and by 1951 about In 1658, the Potawatomi population was estimated at 3,000. Their population gradually increased to 3,400 by 1820. reported no estimates for the Ottawa. Kubiak 104 The Contemporary Michigan Indian and Education Presently, Michigan's Indian population, according to the Michigan Department of Civil Rights, is estimated at 34,000 (Gorwitz & Rosen, 1979). There are also the five federal reservations: Bay M ills, Hannaville, Keweenaw, Saginaw, and Sault Ste. Marie which have about 5,000 individuals on their ro lls. An estimated 8,000 to 13,000 Indians live in rural areas of the state, including rural areas of the Upper Peninsula and the northern Lower Peninsula. Another 10,000 to 12,000 Indians are con­ centrated in the Detroit area, and 5,000 to 8,000 in other industrial cities. These statistics indicate that the state's Indians are dis­ tributed fa irly evenly between urban and rural areas, with about one in ten living on a reservation. The median age is 24.5 years com­ pared to 28.3 years for the general population (Gorwitz & Rosen, 1979). Many Indians living in cities are not concentrated in one area, but are dispersed throughout the city. Many urban Indians have in ter­ married and do not consistently identify themselves as Indians. Their background is heterogeneous, varying socially, culturally, and r e l i ­ giously (Gorwitz & Rosen, 1979). Most published statistics are derived from reservation and rural Indians, and they are easily and consistently identified (Gorwitz & Rosen, 1979). I t is , therefore, d iffic u lt to determine how many Indians in any area have unmet needs. Thus, this study is focused on 105 the Indian adults at the Indian Adult Learning Center in Grand Rapids. As noted ea rlie r, the Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council records show that 70 to 75% of the clients in the Council's programs had not completed high school and that many of them had not completed school beyond the seventh grade. Recently, the Adult Education Program found that many of the current participants were experiencing reading d iffic u ltie s and had no functional use of math. of the Indian adult was miniscule. Vocational training There were only a few Indians with an education beyond high school. While there were many Indian adults with educational needs, very few participated in the c ity wide Grand Rapids Adult Education programs (GRITC, 1978). The unemployment rate for Native Americans is also two and one-half times higher than the overall unemployment rate for the general population in Grand Rapids. The Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council records indicate that 86% of the Native Americans served are unemployed. Almost all served (98%) are either at or below the poverty level (GRITC, 1980). The inequities listed above play a large role in adding to the continuous cycle of inadequate education, unemployment, and poverty among Indians. The dropout rate of 60% from the Grand Rapids Public Schools indicates that the cycle is not being broken (GRITC, 1978). During the 1977-1978 school year, the Grand Rapids Inter-Tribal Council established the Indian Adult Learning Center to deal with problems that discourage Indian adults from participating in various programs for adults. The Center is continuing to refine and expand 106 into certain problem areas that have been identified in the f ir s t few months of operation (GRITC, 1978). There are two important areas in dealing with educational and employment problems of Indian adults: and culture-fair testing. participation in the program The Indian Adult Learning Center has designed programs to get the Indian adult population to take advan­ tage of vocational training or complete their GED test. The Center is also concerned with developing better diagnostic and achievement tests sensitive to the Indian population (GRITC, 1978). having the programs is not enough. However, I t is also important to know how to best use the programs to better serve the clientele. The inclu­ sion of biculturalism and barriers to learning in this study may provide this type of information. APPENDIX B CONSENT FORM 107 CONSENT FORM The research assistant from the Learning Center has explained to me the reason for being contacted and the general purposes of the study being conducted. I understand that i f I participate in the study I am free to quit participating at any time with no conse­ quences to me. I also understand that the information I give to the research assistant in this study w ill be treated with s tric t confi­ dence and that my name w ill not be used in the findings of the study. I f I want to find out about the results of the study, I may ask through the Indian Adult Learning Center GED Program. I understand that this study may not directly benefit me but may help the Program to better plan educational services and further understand students' views on the school situation. 108 Participant Date Research Assistant Date APPENDIX C COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE 109 COVER LETTER AND QUESTIONNAIRE Dear Student, I am a graduate student in adult education conducting a research project among adult students. As part of the completion of this project, I need your help in fillin g out a questionnaire. The infor­ mation you provide w ill not only help me, but w ill also be of help to the Lexington program in improving services provided by the center. The information you provide w ill be held in strictest confidence. All answers w ill be reported in group form. No names w ill be used in the study. Later, the results of the study w ill be given to the director of the center for your further information. I hope you w ill be able to participate in this project. I t would be extremely helpful to me in completing my project. Thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely, Samuel Akao Michigan State University SA/mjb 110 Ill Part I Here are a few questions about you and your family. these questions as completely as you can. 2. 1. Age___________________ Sex: M____ Please answer F____ 3. Ethnic background _____________________________________________ 4. School you now attend (or GED Equivalency Program) _______________ 5. Student status: 6. What is your present religion, i f any? __________________________ full-tim e part-time What is your past religion, i f any? _____________________________ 7. How long have you lived in Michigan? ____________________________ In Grand Rapids? _______________________ In your current home? __________________ 8. Where would you consider your permanent home? ____________________ 9. Where did you spend the f ir s t 15 years of your life ? _____________ I f more than one place, explain. ________________________________ 10. How would you describe the place (c ity , town, community, reservation) where you were raised? (a) rural (b) urban (c) semi-rural (d) semi-urban 11. Where was your father born? State__________ Country_____________ 12. Where was your mother born? State__________ Country_____________ 13. Is your father s t ill living? Yes No_____ 14. Is your mother s t i l l living? Yes No_____ 15. What language(s) does/did your father speak? _____________________ 16. What language(s) does/did your mother speak? _____________________ 17. What language(s) do you speak? _________________________________ 112 18. What language do/did your parents speak at home? __________ 19. What language do you usually speak at home? _______________ 20. What is the highest grade in school which you completed? ___ 21. Parents' education: What is the highest grade in school which your father completed? __________________ What is the highest grade in school which your mother completed? __________________ 22. What is your occupation? ________________________________ 23. Father's occupation: ( I f retired, indicate former occupation) 24. Mother's occupation: ( I f retired, indicate former occupation) 25. Marital status: single married widowed divorced/separated 26. I f you are married, what is the ethnic background of your husband/wife? _______________________________________ 27. What is your approximate total family income last year? Under $3,000 $3,000-4,999 $5,000-5,999 $6,000-7,499 $7,500-9,999 $10,000-14,999 ____ $15,000-24,999 ____ $25,000 and over Part I I Put a check ( / ) in the blank next to the answer which best describes your own background, for each of the following questions. 28. The approximate ethnic composition of the high school I attended was: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos 113 29. The ethnic composition of the neighborhood in which I grew up was: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 30. At present, my close friends are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 31. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ______________________________________ _ The ethnic background of the people I have dated is: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 34. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _____________________________________________ In high school, my close friends were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 33. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _____________________________________________ In elementary school, my close friends were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 32. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ________________________ _ The people with whom I have established close and meaningful rela­ tionships have been: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _____________________________________________ 114 35. When I am with my friends, I attend functions where the people are: (Check all that apply) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 36. At most of the functions I attend with my friends, the people are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 37. Indian history only Mostly Indian history Indian history and Anglo history, MostlyAnglo history Anglo history only None of the above about equal In school I learned about: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 40. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ______________________________________ When I was a child, my parents taught me about: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 39. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ______________________________________ My parents' close friends are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 38. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ______________________________________ Indian history only Mostly Indian history Indian history and Anglo history, MostlyAnglo history Anglo history only None of the above about equal My childhood friends who visited in my home and related well to my parents were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ______________________________________ 115 41. I f you work, your close friends at work are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 42. I f you work, the people where you work are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 43. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _________________________________________ Never in the service I enjoy going to gatherings at which the people are: (check all that apply) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 45. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _________________________________________ Do you work In the service my close friends were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 44. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _________________________________________ All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _________________________________________ The people who have influenced me in my education have been: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _________________________________________ 116 46. When I study with others, I usually study with: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 47. In the job(s) I have had, my close friends have been: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 48. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _______________________________________________ As a child, I learned to pray or recite Indian lore in: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 50. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _______________________________________________ In your religious training at home, school, church or elsewhere, the people who taught and participated with you were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 49. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _______________________________________________ Never study with others The native language only Mostly the native language The native language and English, about equal Mostly English English only In junior high or high school, did you participate in any organized athletic and/or recreational activities such as football, cheerleading, etc.? Yes No (a) I f yes, lis t the activitie s_________________________ (b) I f yes, the other members of the team or activity were: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ___________________________ 117 51. Do you now participate in any organized athletic and/or recreational activities? (Bowl with a league, play intramural sports, etc.?) Yes No (a) I f yes, lis t the ac tivitie s________________________________ (b) I f yes, the other members of the team or activity are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 52. When I write personal materialsuch as le tte rs , stories, poems, or other such items, I write in: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 53. Only Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos Only Anglos Other (specify) ________________________________ When I am involved in group discussions where I am expected to participate, I prefer a group made up of: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 55. The native language only Mostly the native language The native language and English, about equal Mostly English English only Other (specify) _____________________________________________ When I discuss personal problems or issues, I discuss them with: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 54. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos,about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) ___________________________________ All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos Only Anglos _________________________________________ Other (specify) Who were the people (e .g ., teachers, religious workers, employers, co-workers, friends) who influenced you in your life ? (Do not include relatives) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos Only Anglos Other (specify) _________________________________ 118 56. The teachers and counselors with whom I have had the closest rela­ tionships have been? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. All Indians Mostly Indians Indians and Anglos, about equal Mostly Anglos All Anglos Other (specify) _____________________________________ Part I I I Put a check ( /) in the blank next to the answer which best describes your participation in your own culture as well as in Anglo culture. 57. How often have you been invited to and/or attended functions which were predominantly Indian in nature? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 58. How often have you been invited to and/or attended functions which were predominantly Anglo in nature? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 59. Extensively Frequently Occasionally Seldom Never Extensively Frequently Occasionally Seldom Never In the community where you grew up, how often did you participate in the following groups? (Check all that apply): 1. Anglo Americans 2. Mexican Americans (Chicanos) 3. Black Americans 4. Native Americans 5. Asian Americans 6. Latino Americans 7. Filipino Americans 8. Others (specify) Always Frequently Occasionally _____ _____ _____ _____ ____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ _____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Seldom Never 119 60. How important was i t to your parents that you learn to speak English well? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 61. How important was i t to your parents that you learn to speak in the native language well? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 62. Always Most of the time Occasionally Seldom Never Your parents encouraged you to feel proud that you are an American: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 64. Very important Important Slightly important Not very important Not important at all Your parents encouraged you to feel proud of your heritage: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 63. Very important Important Slightly important Not very important Not important at all Always Most of the time Occasionally Seldom Never How often do you watch, read, or listen to each of the following when Anglo-oriented programs or materials are provided? 1. 2. 3. 4. Television Movies Radio Magazines & newspapers_____________ 5. Novels/Books 6. Music Very Often Often Occasionally Seldom Never ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ 120 65. How often do you watch, read, or listen to each of the following when Indian-oriented programs or materials are provided? Very Often 1. 2. 3. 4. Television_____________ ____ Movies_________________ ____ Radio______________________ Magazines & Newspapers ____ 5. Novels/Books___________ ____ 6. Music ____ 66. ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Very often Often Occasionally Seldom Never Very often Often Occasionally Seldom Never About how often do you v is it in the homes of Indians? (Do not include relatives) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 69. ____ ____ ____ Seldom Never About how often do you invite Anglos to your home? (Do not include relatives) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 68. Occasionally About how often do you v is it in the homes of Anglos? (Do not include relatives) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 67. Often Very often Often Occasionally Seldom Never About how often do you invite Indians to your home? (Do not include relatives) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Very often Often Occasionally Seldom Never 121 Part IV Listed below are a number of statements concerning personal attitudes and tra its . Read each item and decide whether the statement is true or false as i t pertains to you personally. T = True F = False 70. Before voting I thoroughly investigate the qualifications of all the candidates. 71. I never hesitate to go out of my way to help someone in trouble. 72. I t is sometimes hard for me to go on with my work i f I am not encouraged. 73. I have never intensely disliked anyone. 74. On occasion I have had doubts about my a b ility to succeed in lif e . 75. I sometimes feel resentful when I don't get my way. 76. I am always careful about my manner of dress. 77. My table manners at home are as good as when I eat out in a restaurant. 78. I f I could get into a movie without paying for i t and be sure I was not seen, I would probably do i t . 79. On a few occasions, I have given up doing something because I thought too l i t t l e of my a b ility . 80. I like to gossip at times. 81. There have been times when I f e lt like rebelling against people in authority even though I knew they were right. 82. No matter whom I'm talking to, I'm always a good listener. 83. I can remember "playing sick" to get out of something. 84. There have been occasions when I took advantage of someone. 85. I'm always w illing to admit i t when I make a mistake. 86. I always try to practice what I preach. 87. I don't find i t particularly d iffic u lt to get along with loud­ mouthed, obnoxious people. 122 _ 88. I sometimes try to get even, rather than forgive and forget. _ 89. When I don't know something I don't at all mind admitting i t . 90. I am always courteous, even to people who are disagreeable. 91. At times I have really insisted on having things my own way. 92. There have been occasions when I f e lt lik e smashing things. 93. I would never think of letting someone else be punished for my wrongdoings. 94. I never resent being asked to return a favor. 95. I have never been irked when people expressed ideas very different from my own. 96. _ 97. I never make a long trip without checking the safety of my car. There have been times when I was quite jealous of the good fortune of others. 98. I have almost never fe lt the urge to te ll someone o ff. 99. I am sometimes irrita te d by people who ask favors of me. 100. I have never f e lt that I was punished without cause. 101. I sometimes think when people have a misfortune they only got what they deserved. 102. I have never deliberately said something that hurt someone's feelings. 103. What are your reason(s) for attending the Center's GED Program? (Check as many as apply) 1. To make friends, learn about people, do something new. 2. To complete a high school/GED level education, earn a degree. 3. To be better informed, gain basic knowledge and s k ills . 4. To study own culture. 5. For personal satisfaction, personal happiness. 6. To deal more effectively with personal or family problems. 7. To learn more about how to solve community problems, or to bring about change in the community. 8. For a job requirement, improve or advance in current job. 9. To improve income. 10. To prepare for a job (or a new job). 11. Other reason (please specify) ________________________ 123 Part V Barriers to Learning Scale Below are listed some areas which sometimes present problems for students trying to learn. How much of a problem is each of the following for you? (Please circle your response on the scale next to each item.) EXAMPLE: Class attendance requirements 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 104. Length of time 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 4 Somewhat Rather of a Important Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem 105. Teacher 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 4 Somewhat Rather of a Important Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem 106. Confidence in one's a b ility 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 107. Class schedule 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 108. A place to study 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 109. Lectures 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 124 110. Self-image: How you think yourself to be-appearance, personality, character, etc. 1_______ 2________ 3________ 4_________ 5 Not a Not Much Somewhat Rather Very Problem of a of a Important Important at All Problem Problem Problem Problem 111. Distance from home to Learn­ ing Center 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 112. GED tests or exams 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 4 3 Somewhat Rather of a Important Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem 113. Time to study 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 4 3 Somewhat Rather Important of a Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem 114. Interest in learning 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 115. Subjects (con­ tent areas: reading, w rit­ ing, math, English, etc.) 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem lib . Class discussion groups i O c 0 A Not Much Somewhat Not a of a Problem of a Problem Problem at All Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 1 I 117. Books 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 118. Individualized instruction (in ­ dividual lessons from teacher, programmed in­ struction, etc.) 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 125 119. Transportation to and from Learning Center 1_______ 2________ 3________ 4__^_______5 Very Not a Not Much Somewhat Rather Important Important Problem of a of a Problem Problem Problem Problem at All 120. Location of Learning Center 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 4 3 Somewhat Rather Important of a Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem 121. Age 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 4 Somewhat Rather Important of a Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem 122. Personal desire to learn 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 4 3 Somewhat Rather Important of a Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem 123. Cost (fees, books, sup­ plies, trans­ portation) 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 3 Somewhat of a Problem 4 Rather Important Problem 5 Very Important Problem 124. Child-care services 1 Not a Problem at All 2 Not Much of a Problem 4 3 Somewhat Rather Important of a Problem Problem 5 Very Important Problem APPENDIX D DATA RECORDING SHEET 126 DATA RECORDING SHEET Subject___ Interviewer Date 1. ______ Barrier Why? _ How? Barrier Why? _ How? o . __________ Barrier Why? _ How? 127 128 Barrier Why? _ How? Barrier Why? _ How? APPENDIX E CORRECTED ITEM-TOTAL CORRELATION AND RELIABILITY COEFFICIENTS FOR THE BICULTURALISM INVENTORY 129 Table A.--Corrected item-total correlation and r e lia b ility coefficients for the Biculturalism Inventory. Scale Item Corrected Item-Total Correlation A1 pha I f Item Deleted Bicultural Inventory (a = .60) Type A Items Ethnic composition of high school Ethnic composition of neighborhood Close friends Elementary school friends High school friends People with whom I have relationships Parents' close friends Friends related well to parents .30413 .08666 .35893 .09596 .19571 .49020 .58039 .17862 .57595 .60037 .55216 .59970 .59038 .50356 .50847 .59095 .21121 .58424 -.16132 .64259 .24655 .57836 .47798 .53897 Type B Items Did you participate with Anglos/did you participate with Native Americans Functions predominantly Indian in nature/functions pre­ dominantly Anglo in nature Do you v is it the homes of Anglos/do you v is it the homes of Indians Do you invite Anglos to your home/do you invite Indians to your home APPENDIX F CORRECTED ITEM-TOTAL CORRELATION AND RELIABILITY OF VARIABLES FOR THE THREE SUBSCALES AND THE BARRIERS TO LEARNING SCALE AS A WHOLE 131 Table B.--Corrected item-total correlation and r e lia b ility of variables for the three subscales and the Barriers to Learning Scale as a whole. Scale Item Stati stics for Barriers to Learning Subscales Corrected Alpha Item-Total I f Item Correlation Deleted S tatisties for Barriers to Learning Scale as a Whole Corrected Alpha Item-Total I f Item Correlation Deleted Barriers to Learning Scale (a = .81) Situational Barriers (a = .54) Distance from home to Learning Center Time to study Transportation Child care .47030 .15152 .54275 .21086 .33401 .62852 .24931 .55501 .25320 .47980 .33537 .37312 .80988 .79726 .80533 .80477 Dispositional Barriers (a = .70) Confidence in one's abi1ity Self-image Interest in learning Age Personal desire to learn .54510 .43148 .47773 .35168 .50954 .61784 .67225 .64961 .69596 .63647 .43070 .37357 .55165 .40952 .30277 .80021 .80337 .79557 .80160 .80689 Institutional Barriers (a = .75) Length of time Teacher Class schedule A place to study Lectures GED tests or exams Subjects Class discussion groups Books Individualized instruction Location of Learning Center Cost .39461 .32585 .43344 .21655 .40425 .34740 .55138 .48556 .55218 .59124 .11298 .22159 .73756 .74527 .73356 .75483 .73707 .74981 .71567 .72630 .71659 .71718 .76110 .75419 .21040 .28449 .41868 .27901 .42569 .27917 .58079 .40898 .55470 .46717 .26886 .16285 .81136 .80745 .80092 .80771 .80042 .81289 .79064 .80140 .79256 .79979 .80808 .81248 APPENDIX G DETAILED RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES OF SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE 133 DETAILED RESULTS OF THE ANALYSES OF SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SAMPLE Age The sample in the present study ranged from ages 16 through 49. To analyze these data using chi-square, the sample was divided into five age groups: and ages 40-49. ages 16-19, ages 20-24, ages 25-29, ages 30-39, The results of chi-square analysis by sex were sig­ nificantly different (X^ = 11.77595, p < .02). The percentages indicated that there were more Indian adult students (64.4%) than Anglo adult students (41.0%) between the ages of 16-19 years. There were also more Indian adult students (24.4%) than Anglo adult students (17.9%) between the ages of 20-24 years. However, there were more Anglo adult students (12.8%) than Indian adult students (6.7%) between the ages of 25-29 years, and more Anglos (15.4%) than Indians (4.4%) were in the 30-39 age group. of Anglo The adult students (12.8%) were between 40-49 years A segment of age. average age of Indian adult students was 19.9. The average age of the Anglo adult students was 25.2. The medians for Indian and Anglo adult students were 18.3 years and 21.0 years, respectively. Sex No significant differences were found between Indian and Anglo 2 adult students and sex (X = .10136, p < .75). Out of the 85 adult students in this study, 54 (61.4%) and 34 (38.6%) were men. werewomen A percentage breakdown of subjects by sex 134 135 indicated that the majority of the Indian adult students (62.2%) were female as compared to slightly more than half of the Anglo adult students (56.4%). In proportion to each ethnic group, males accounted for a larger percentage among the Anglo adult students (43.6%) than among the Indian adult students (37.8%). Student Status Students were asked to indicate whether they were enrolled on a full-tim e basis or a part-time basis during the Fall semester 1980. As a whole, the majority of adult students (56.8%) were enrolled on a part-time basis. The results of chi-square analysis indicated that ethnic groups 2 did not d iffe r significantly with student status (X = .99692, p < .32). A closer examination indicated that nearly two-thirds of the Indian adult students (64.4%) were enrolled part-time, and slightly more than one-third (35.6%) were enrolled fu ll-tim e. Among the Anglo adult students, fu ll-tim e enrollment (51.3%) and part-time enrollment (48.7%) were fa irly evenly divided. Education There were no relationships between ethnic background and educa­ tion levels of subjects (X^ = .33704, p < .56). I t can be noted that more Indian adult students (88.9%) had completed some high school than Anglo adult students (82.1%). More Anglo adult students (17.9%) had completed less than a high school education than Indian adult students (11.1%). 136 The mean grade level of Indian adult students was 9.62 compared to 9.59 for Anglo adult students. was 9.00. For both ethnic groups the mode The median values were 9.75 for Indian adult students and 9.69 for Anglo adult students. Occupation To examine the occupation variable by ethnic groups, subjects employed outside the home were grouped according to two categories: blue collar and white collar. The white-collar category comprised the following major occupational groups: gerial, (c) c le rica l, and (d) sales. (a) professional, (b) mana­ The major occupational groups that comprised the blue-collar category were craftsmen, operatives, service workers, and laborers (see Table C in Appendix H for a com­ position of occupations). Both blue-collar and white-collar job classifications are taken from a study on occupations and social status by Reiss, Duncan, Hatt, and North (1961). Chi-square analysis indicated that the occupation variable was The data indicated that more Anglo adult students held bluecollar jobs (41.0%) than white-collar jobs (7.7%). On the other hand, Indian adult students were evenly distributed between blue-collar jobs (8.9%) and white-collar jobs (8.9%). The majority of the Indian adult students (57.8%) and about one-third of the Anglo adult students (30.8%) were unemployed or reported none (see Item 25 of the ques­ tionnaire) . 137 A detailed listin g of parents' occupations is presented in Table D in Appendix I . Marital Status The results of chi-square analysis indicated that there were 2 significant differences in marital status by ethnic group (X = 10.17121, p < .01). The majority of the adult students were single. More of the Indian adult students (32.2%) than Anglo adult students (51.3%) were single. Among those who were married, more Anglo adult students (25.6%) than Indian adult students (4.4%) were married, and more Anglo adult students (20.5%) than Indian adult students (13.3%) were divorced. Annual Family Income Because of the small number of cases in each income group and because of the way the intervals were arranged, i t would not be very meaningful to collapse the income groups or to analyze these data using chi-square. From the data presented in Table 1, annual family income is seemingly unrelated to ethnic background. The average annual family income for the Indian group was $3,152, whereas the average annual family income for the Anglo group was $3,645. The median on annual family income was $2,313 for the Indian group and $3,250 for the Anglo group. APPENDIX H FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF SUBJECTS' OCCUPATIONS BY ETHNIC GROUP 138 Table C.--Frequency and percentage o f s u b je c ts ' occupations by e th n ic group. Subject's Occupation Professional Indians (n=45) Anglos (n=39) Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency % Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency % 1 2.2 1 2.6 1 2.6 4 10.3 7.7 20.5 Managerial Clerical 3 6.7 Sales Craftsmen Operatives 1 2.2 Service workers 2 4.4 3 8 Laborers 1 2.2 1 2.6 Housewife Mother 1 2.2 1 2.6 3 6.7 3 7.7 26 57.8 12 30.8 1 2.6 4 10.3 Private household workers Farmers and farm managers Farm laborers Unknown Unemployed or none Multiple occupations No response 7 15.6 APPENDIX I FREQUENCY AND PERCENTAGE OF PARENTS' OCCUPATIONS BY ETHNIC GROUP 140 Table D.--Frequency and percentage o f parents' occupations by eth n ic group. Occupation Father's Occupation Professional Indians (n=45) Absolute Relative Frequency Frequency * Anglos (n=39) Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency % 1 2. 2 1 2.6 2 4.4 3 7.7 Craftsmen 8 17.8 5 12.8 Operatives 3 6.7 15 38.5 Service workers 3 6.7 3 7.7 Farmers and farm managers 1 2.2 Farm laborers 1 2.2 Laborers Housewife 9 20.0 3 7.7 Unknown 5 Unemployed or none 2 11.1 4.4 4 2 10.3 5.1 3 7.7 Managerial Clerical Sales Private household workers No response 10 22.0 Table D.--Continued. Occupation Indians (n=45) Absolute Frequency Relative Frequency % 2 4.4 Anglos (n=39) Absolute Relative Frequency Frequency % Mother's Occupation Professional Managerial Clerical 1 2.2 Sales 2 5.1 2 5.1 1 2.6 1 2.6 Craftsmen 1 2.2 Operati ves 6 13.3 8 20.5 Service workers 8 17.8 4 10.3 Private household workers 1 2.2 2 4.4 13 28.9 12 30.8 2 4 4.4 1 2.6 8.9 11.1 6 2 15.4 Farmers and farm managers Farm laborers Laborers Housewife Unknown Unemployed or none No response 5 5.1 BIBLIOGRAPHY 143 BIBLIOGRAPHY Adler, P. S. Beyond cultural identity: Reflections on cultural and multicultural man. In R. W. Brislin (Ed.), Culture learning: Concepts, applications, and research. Hawaii: University Press of Hawaii, 1977. Bass, W. P. The American Indian high school graduate in the Southwest. Albuquerque, N.M.: Southwestern Cooperative Educational Labora­ tory, 1969. (a) Bass, W. P. Analysis of academic achievement of Indian high school students in federal and public schools: A progress report. 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