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University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8424447 M artin, P a tric k Edward THE FILBERT SITE AND PATTERN RECOGNITION IN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY Michigan State University University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 PH.D. 1984 PLEASE NOTE: In all c a se s this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this docum ent have been identified here with a check mark V 1. Glossy photographs or p a g e s . 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print_____ 3. Photographs with dark backgroun d . 4. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. P ages with black marks, not original copy______ 6. Print shows through a s there is text on both sid es of page_____ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages 8. Print exceeds margin requirem ents______ 9. . Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine______ 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print______ 11. P ag e(s)____________ lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. P ag e(s)____________ seem to be missing in numbering only a s text follows. 13. Two pages n u m b ered ____________ . Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled p ag es 15. O ther________________________________________________________________________ ^ University Microfilms International THE FILBERT SITE AND PATTERN RECOGNITION IN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY By P a t r i c k Edward M artin A DISSERTATION Subm itted to Michigan S t a t e U n iv e r s ity in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e req u irem en ts f o r t h e deg ree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f Anthropology 1984 © Copyright by PATRICK EDWARD MARTIN 1984 ABSTRACT THE FILBERT SITE AND PATTERN RECOGNITION IN HISTORICAL ARCHAEOLOGY By P a tr i c k Edward M artin The F i l b e r t S ite (20CN8) i s a farm and m ill complex lo c a te d on the S t r a i t s o f Mackinac in n o rth e rn Michigan and was occupied d uring th e l a t e e ig h te e n th and e a r l y n in e te e n th c e n t u r i e s . Excavated between 1972 and 1975 by th e Michigan S t a t e U n iv e rsity Museum and th e Mackinac Isla n d S ta t e Park Commission, th e s i t e y ie ld e d a wide v a r i e t y o f s t r u c t u r a l and a r t i f a c t u a l d a ta r e f l e c t i n g a d iv e r s e range o f a c t i v i t i e s . These d a t a , combined w ith an e x te n s iv e documentary s u rv e y , o f f e r i n s i g h t s in to c i v i l i a n and m i l i t a r y l i f e d uring a c r i t i c a l p erio d in th e h i s t o r y o f t h i s im po rtan t re g io n . The F i l b e r t S i te d a ta a r e used as a v e h ic le to examine th e u t i l i t y and v a l i d i t y o f S tan ley S o u th 's a r t i f a c t P a t t e r n s , d e s c r i p t i v e q u a n t i ­ t a t i v e models o f B ritish -A m erican m a te r ia l c u l t u r e . A rtifa c t f re q u e n c ie s from 39 s i t e s and a r c h a e o lo g ic a l c o n te x ts a r e a l s o analyzed by means o f d is c r im in a n t f u n c tio n a n a l y s is to e x p lo re th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith in and between groups. Other examples o f P a t t e r n a n a l y s i s a re examined and two a l t e r n a t i v e groupings o f s i t e s a re e v a lu a te d . S o u th 's P a t t e r n s a r e sup po rted as both d e s c r i p t i v e and a n a l y t i c a l c o n stru c ts. Three t e n t a t i v e hypotheses to e x p la in t h e i r p resen ce and p e r s i s te n c e a r e t e s t e d , and a g eneral f u n c tio n a l e x p la n a tio n i s d is c u s s e d . TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter I I n tr o d u c tio n ................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter I I The P a t t e r n Concept I n tr o d u c tio n ................................................................................................................... 5 ................................................................................ 8 S o u th 's P a t t e r n R ecog nitio n C a ro lin a P a t t e r n ................................................ • . ......................................................... 11 F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n .......................................................................................................... 15 O ther Examples o f P a t t e r n A n a ly sis .................................................................. 18 S u m m a r y .................................................................................................................................31 C hapter I I I The F i l b e r t S i t e : Documentary Summary Methods and Sources Consulted ........................................................................... 32 H i s t o r i c a l N a r ra tiv e ................................................................................................. 33 S u m m a r y .................................................................................................................................61 C hapter IV The F i l b e r t S i t e : A rch aeo lo g ical Summary General D e s c r i p t i o n .......................................................................... 81 C o n t e x t s ................................................................................................................................ 83 S t r u c t u r e One ............................................................................................................... 83 S t r u c t u r e Two ............................................................................................................... 88 .......................................................................................................... 96 S t r u c t u r e Three E a st B a n k ............................................................................................................................ 99 West B a n k .......................................................................................................................... 106 Dam R u i n s .......................................................................................................................... 107 C h r o n o l o g y .......................................................................................................................... 109 Mean Ceramic D a t i n g .................................................................................................... 110 iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Continued M i l i t a r y B uttons . ........................................................................................................ 114 Window Glass .................................................................................................................. 122 P i p e s t e m s ................................... 130 F u nctio nal D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n ................................................................................... 132 S u m m a r y .............................................................................................................................. 138 Chapter V P a t t e r n V a lid a tio n and A n aly sis I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................................................... The T h r e e - P a tte r n Model 141 ........................................................................................ 142 The F o u r - P a tte r n M o d e l ................................... ; ....................................................... 157 Comparison o f A l t e r n a t i v e Models ...................................................................... The F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n : Hypotheses and T e s ts 165 ............................................ 167 Length o f Occupation ................................................................................................. 168 S e l e c t i v e Excavation ................................................................................................. 173 Geographic I s o l a t i o n ................................................................................................. 175 S u m m a r y .......................................................................................................................... 180 Chapter VI Conclusions The Causes o f P a t t e r n V a r ia tio n ....................................................................... 179 S ug gestion s f o r F u r th e r Research ....................................................................... 182 Appendix A A r t i f a c t D e s c rip tio n s ............................................................................................. 184 Appendix B Data F i l e .......................................................................................................................... 270 Appendix C Faunal D a t a ......................................................................................................................274 R eferences C i t e d .............................. 286 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1 S ta n le y S o u th 's A r t i f a c t C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Scheme .............................. 10 2 A r t i f a c t F requencies and C a ro lin a P a tt e r n S i t e s P e r c e n ta g e s , S o u th 's ................................................. 12 3 The C a ro lin a A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n ................................................................ 13 4 A r t i f a c t F requencies and P e r c e n ta g e s , S o u th 's F r o n t i e r P a tt e r n S i t e s ............................. ................................................. 16 5 The F r o n t i e r A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n 17 6 A r t i f a c t F req uencies and P e r c e n ta g e s , Forsm an's E a rly Fur Trade P a t t e r n S i t e s ..................... 19 7 The E a rly Fur Trade P a t t e r n ................................................................... 20 8 A r t i f a c t F requencies and C a ro lin a Slave P a t t e r n P e r c e n ta g e s , Garrow 's S i t e s ................................................. 25 9 ................................................................ The C a ro lin a S lave A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n .................................................. 26 10 Revised C a ro lin a A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n ...................................................... 27 11 Revised F r o n t i e r A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n ...................................................... 28 12 The P u b lic I n t e r a c t i o n P a t t e r n ............................................................... 29 13 Michael Dousman Household, 1820 Census ............................................. 45 14 Michael Dousman Household, 1830 Census ....................... 52 15 Michael Dousman Household, 1840 Census ............................................. 54 16 A r t i f a c t F requencies and P e r c e n ta g e s , 20CN8, S t r u c t u r e One ............................................................................................. 89 A r t i f a c t F req uen cies and P e r c e n ta g e s , 20CN8, S t r u c t u r e Two ............................................................................................. 92 A r t i f a c t F requencies and P e r c e n ta g e s , 20CN8, S t r u c t u r e T h r e e ................................................................................... 94 17 18 19 • A r t i f a c t F req uencies and P e r c e n ta g e s , 20CN8, S t r u c t u r e s ........................................................................................................... 100 vi LIST OF TABLES Continued Table Page 20 A r t i f a c t F req u en cies and P e r c e n ta g e s , 20CN8, N o n -S tru ctu ral and Total S i t e ...............................................................102 21 Mean Ceramic D ate, S t r u c t u r e O n e ................................................................I l l 22 Mean Ceramic D ate, S t r u c t u r e Two .......................................................... 112 23 Mean Ceramic D ate, S t r u c t u r e Three ...................................................... 113 24 M i l i t a r y Button D i s t r i b u t i o n ...................................................................... 121 25 Window Glass D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s .................................................. 123 26 T -T e s ts , Window G lass Thickness by S t r u c t u r e ................................ 126 27 I n i t i a l C o n s tru c tio n Dates Derived from Window G lass ................................................................................................. 128 28 Pipestems by S t r u c t u r e ................................................................................. 131 29 A r t i f a c t D ensity p e r Square Foot o f Excavated 133 F lo o r S p a c e .......................................................................................................133 30 Minimum V essels by Type, S t r u c t u r e One .............................................. 134 31 Minimum V essels by Type, S t r u c t u r e Two .............................................. 135 32 Minimum V essels by Type, S t r u c t u r e Three .......................................... 136 33 CC Index V alu es, u s in g 1814 S c a l e ............................................................138 34 D e s c r ip tiv e S t a t i s t i c s , 39 S i t e s and C ontexts ............................ 144 35 D e s c r ip tiv e S t a t i s t i c s and R e s u lts o f T h r e e - P a tte r n Model D is c rim in a n t F unction A n aly sis ............................................. 149 D e s c rip tiv e S t a t i s t i c s and R e s u lts o f F o u r -P a tte r n Model D is c rim in a n t F unction A n aly sis ............................................ 159 D uration o f O ccup atio n, S i t e s and C ontexts Analyzed by DISCRIMINANT ....................................................................... 170 38 R e s u lts o f ONEWAY, Occupation Length w ith P a t t e r n ................... 173 39 R e s u lts o f CROSSTABS, C ontext w ith P a t t e r n ..................................... 174 36 37 v ii LIST OF TABLES Continued Table Page 40 R e s u lts o f CROSSTABS, I s o l a t i o n w ith P a t t e r n . 41 Lead Ball D i a m e t e r s .......................................................................................... 214 42 S p ecies I d e n t i f i e d a t t h e F i l b e r t S i t e .................................................. 275 43 T otal Meat Provided by Animal Groups by A r e a ......................................284 v iii .............................176 LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1 S t r a i t s o f Mackinac Region ........................................................................ 2 S t r a i t s o f Mackinac c i r c a 1785 .................................... 42 3 S t r a i t s o f Mackinac, 1822 48 4 Base Map, 20CN8 65 5 S t r u c t u r e One, 20CN8 .................................................................................... 70 6 S t r u c t u r e Two, 20CN8 . . . . . ............................................................... 75 7 S t r u c t u r e T hree, 20CN8 ................................................................................ 77 8 Dam Ruins, 20CN 8............................................................................................. 79 9 Window Glass Thickness Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n ............................ . . 4 125 10 S c a t t e r p l o t o f D is c rim in a n t S c o re s , T h r e e - P a tte rn Model 11 S c a t t e r p l o t o f D is c rim in a n t S c o re s , F o u r-P a tte rn Model . . . 12 Ceramics, S t r u c t u r e O n e ................................................................................. 187 13 Ceramics, S t r u c t u r e One and Marked Sherds 14 Ceramics, S t r u c t u r e Three 15 Wine B o t t l e s , Case B o t t l e , P harm aceutical B o t t le s 16 T a b l e w a r e ................................................................................................................202 17 K i t c h e n w a r e ........................................................................................................... 205 18 C o n s tru c tio n Hardware, Door Lock P a r ts ............................................. 208 19 F u r n i t u r e , G u n f lin ts .................................................................................... 211 20 Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n , Small Lead Shot 213 21 S iz e D i s t r i b u t i o n , G u n f lin ts . . ................................... .................................................. ix ...................... ......................................... 152 162 190 194 198 218 LIST OF FIGURES Continued F igure Page 22 Gun P a r t s ................................................................................................................ 221 23 Buckles, Thimble .............................................................................................. 24 B u t t o n s .................................................................................................................... 232 25 S c i s s o r s , Bale S e a l , S i l v e r Ornaments 26 C oins, Keys, P erso nal 27 Tobacco P i p e s ....................................................................................................... 245 28 C o n s tru c tio n Tools ..................................... 248 29 M ill-R e la te d T o o ls , U n id e n tifie d Tools ............................................. 251 30 Farm T o o l s ................................................................................................................ 253 31 Toys, F ish in g G ear, S to rag e 32 S t a b l e , B a r n ............................................................................................................260 33 M iscellaneous Hardware ................................................................................ 262 34 O th er, M il i t a r y O b jects ............................................................................ 265 35 M i l i t a r y B uttons .............................................................................................. 269 228 ............................................. 235 ................................................................................ 240 ................................................................... x 256 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION From i t s e s s e n t i a l l y a n t i q u a r i a n beg in nin gs t o th e o v e r t l y s c ie n ­ t i f i c s ta n c e o f many p r e s e n t p r a c t i t i o n e r s , h i s t o r i c a l arch aeo lo g y in North America has seen tremendous growth and development o ver th e p a s t few d ecad es. No lo n g e r sim ply a "handmaiden to h i s t o r y , " t h e te c h n iq u e s and p e r s p e c tiv e s o f h i s t o r i c a l arc h a e o lo g y a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y being a p p lie d t o b ro ad er q u e s ti o n s o f c u l t u r a l change and a d a p t a t i o n . As t h i s f i e l d o f in q u iry has m a tu re d , i t has borrowed and adap ted te c h n iq u e s and approaches from i t s s i s t e r d i s c i p l i n e s , most n o ta b ly p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e ­ ology and geography. I t has f u r t h e r f o s t e r e d u n ique t h e o r e t i c a l and m ethodological p e r s p e c t i v e s o f i t s own. The p r e s e n t s tu d y w i l l examine one such s e t o f new a p p ro a c h e s , s ti m u l a t e d by o t h e r a r e a s o f i n q u ir y and c h a r a c t e r iz e d by novel te c h n iq u e s and I n s i g h t s . In p a r t i c u l a r , t h i s s tu d y w i ll examine t h e c o n cep t o f P a t te r n R ecognition and A n a ly s is , in tro d u c e d by S ta n le y A. South (1 9 7 7 ). This q u a n t i t a t i v e te c h n iq u e f o r c h a r a c t e r i z i n g and comparing a r t i f a c t assem­ b lag es o f f e r s g r e a t u n r e a l i z e d i n t e r p r e t i v e p o t e n t i a l . Ignored by some because o f i t s o v e r t q u a n t i f i c a t i o n , and by o t h e r s because i t was fu n d a­ m e n ta lly a d e s c r i p t i v e scheme, t h e P a t t e r n co n cep t has seen l i m i t e d u s e . R ather th an s e rv in g a s t h e e x p la n a to r y s p rin g b o a rd South e n v is io n e d , i t seems to have had more e f f e c t 1n s t i m u l a t i n g t h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f new P a t t e r n s , more c o n s t r u c t s t h a t have o n ly l i m i t e d d e s c r i p t i v e v a lu e . The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s tu d y a r e (1) t o e x p lo re t h e P a t t e r n co ncep t as a c l a s s i f i c a t o r y and co m p arativ e t o o l , (2) t o a tte m p t t o v a l i d a t e t h e 1 2 e x i s t e n c e o f one o r more P a t t e r n s a s models o f B ritish -A m erica n m a te ria l c u l t u r e , and (3) to a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y and e x p la in th e causes f o r th e appearance o f d i s t i n c t i v e P a t t e r n s . A f u r t h e r o b j e c t i v e and v e h i c l e f o r th e a n a l y s i s i s th e d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e r e s u l t s o f t h r e e seaso n s o f e x c a v a tio n a t t h e F i l b e r t S i t e (20CN8) in Cheboygan County, Michigan ( F ig u re 1 ) . Supported by th e Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Museum and t h e Mackinac I s la n d S t a t e Park Com­ m is s io n , t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t served p r im a r il y t o p ro v id e in fo rm atio n to guide t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and p u b lic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s l a t e e ig h t e e n t h and e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y s i t e . Typical o f p r o j e c t s su p p o rted by such m i s s i o n - o r i e n t e d a g e n c ie s a s t h e Mackinac I s la n d S t a t e Park Commission, t h e p r o j e c t ' s g o a ls were n o t t h e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a f o r s o c i o c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s , b u t r a t h e r were o r i e n t e d toward th e g e n e r a tio n o f s t r u c t u r a l and a r t i f a c t u a l d a t a . As 1s so o f te n th e c a s e 1n such s t u d i e s in h i s t o r i c a l a rc h a e o lo g y , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s id e r a ti o n s came a f t e r th e p ra c tic a l c o n sid e ra tio n s . Even s o , th e F i l b e r t S i t e p ro v id e s an e x c e l l e n t d a ta base w ith which t o e x p lo re t h e P a t t e r n co n cep t and i t s u s e s . The unique c h a ra c ­ t e r i s t i c s o f th e a r t i f a c t assem blage and h i s t o r i c a l d a ta a f f o r d i n s i g h t s in to th e s i t e ' s s t r u c t u r e and u s e , as well as i t s p la c e in a b ro a d e r c u ltu ra l co n tex t. Beyond th e F i l b e r t S i t e , d a ta were c o l l e c t e d on a number o f o t h e r h i s t o r i c s i t e s from a v a r i e t y o f tem poral and g eo g rap h ical c o n t e x t s . These d a ta a r e used t o t e s t th e v a l i d i t y o f th e P a t t e r n c o n c e p t, and to t e s t a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e p resen ce o f th e P a t t e r n s . 3 F ig u re 1 . S t r a i t s o f Mackinac Region / j X Saint Ignace ( Mackinac Island \ Lake Huron Round Island Michilimackmac Bois Blanc Island I 20CN8 Mill Creek STRAITS OF MACKINAC Cheboygan CHAPTER I I THE PATTERN CONCEPT I n tr o d u c tio n In h i s monumental work A n a ly tic a l A rchaeology, David L. C larke o u tlin e d t h r e e broad o b j e c t i v e s which were o f c e n t r a l i n t e r e s t t o archaeolo gy as a d i s c i p l i n e : F i r s t , t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e fundamental e n t i t i e s t h a t pervade t h e d iv e r s e m a t e r i a l , t h e i r e le m e n ts , s t r u c t u r e s and p a t t e r n s , th e p ro c e ss e s t h a t o p e r a te on them, and th e e f f e c t s o f t h e p ro c e ss e s on th e e n t i t i e s i n t h e dim ensions o f space and tim e . A s tu d y in s t a t i c s and dynamics going beyond p a r t i c u l a r i n s t a n c e s . Second, t h e s e a rc h f o r r e p e a te d s i m i l a r i t i e s o r r e g u l a r i t i e s 1n form , f u n c t i o n , a s s o c i a t i o n , o r developmental sequence amongst th e p a r t i c u l a r e n t i t i e s from every a r e a , p e rio d and environm ent. T h ird , th e development o f h ig h e r c a te g o r y knowledge o r p r i n c i p l e s t h a t s y n th e s i z e and c o r r e l a t e th e m a te r ia l a t hand w h i l s t p o s s e s ­ sin g a high p r e d i c t i v e v a lu e . The development o f i n c r e a s i n g l y comprehensive and in fo rm a tiv e gen eral models and h ypotheses (1968: 21- 22 ). Though c e r t a i n l y n o t ac c e p te d u n i v e r s a l l y , th e s e o b j e c t i v e s have met w ith wide g en eral agreem ent amongst p r a c t i t i o n e r s o f arc h a e o lo g y . C l a r k e 's i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f "fundamental e n t i t i e s , " I . e . a t t r i b u t e s , a r t i f a c t s , a r t i f a c t - t y p e s , assem blag es, c u l t u r e s , and c u l t u r e g ro u p s, sim ply made e x p l i c i t th o s e co n cep ts which were tak en as I m p l i c i t by most arch aeo lo g ists. The " se a rc h f o r r e g u l a r i t i e s " 1s lik e w is e w idely embraced, even i f n o t in th o s e p r e c i s e te rm s. 5 The most c o n t r o v e r s i a l 6 a s p e c t o f C la r k e 's v i s i o n o f arch aeo lo g y i s h i s I n s i s t e n c e on th e q u e s t f o r comprehensive models and h y p o th ese s. As perhaps th e le a d in g B r i t i s h proponent o f th e q u a n t i t a t i v e , o v e r t l y - s c l e n t i f i c movement w ith in th e d i s c i p l i n e , C l a r k e 's p r o p o s i t io n s aroused c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n , both pro and con. Leaving a s id e f o r t h e moment any d is c u s s io n o r judgement o f th e o v e r a l l m e r it s o f h i s work, i t i s c l e a r t h a t t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f funda­ mental e n t i t l e s and t h e s e a rc h f o r r e g u l a r i t i e s a r e b a s ic u n d ertak in g s fo r a ll a rc h a e o lo g ists. C l a r k e 's I n s i s t e n c e on e x p l i c i t d e f i n i t i o n s and an ongoing s e a rc h f o r s y s te m a tic s i m i l a r i t i e s H e a t th e fo u n d atio n o f h is c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a m atu rin g d i s c i p l i n e . I t 1s th e s e p r i n c i p l e s t h a t t h e p r e s e n t stu d y s e e k s t o emphasize and app ly t o a p a r t i c u l a r body o f a r c h a e o lo g ic a l d a t a , w ith hopes o f approaching C l a r k e 's f i n a l o b j e c t i v e , th e re fin e m e n t o f g e n e ra l models o f c u l t u r a l b e h a v io r. W ithin th e l i t e r a t u r e o f h i s t o r i c a l a rc h a e o lo g y , th e c a l l f o r more s c ie n c e , more h y p o t h e s i s - t e s t i n g , and more g e n e r a l i z a t i o n has been heard on ly i n f r e q u e n t l y . I r o n i c a l l y , r e s i s t a n c e to t h e use o f e x p l i c i t h y p o th e tic o -d e d u c tiv e re a so n in g has p a r t l y been due t o t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f documentary s o u rc e s o f ev idence f o r th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o lo g ic a l rem ain s. The e x i s t e n c e o f th e s e s o u rc e s and t h e i r t r a ­ d i t i o n a l use by h i s t o r i a n s has encouraged a somewhat p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c emphasis in t h i s f i e l d o f i n q u i r y . This tendency has been a m p lifie d by t h e m i s s i o n - o r l e n t a t i o n o f many o f t h e a g e n c ie s t h a t a r e th e prim ary sponsors o f h i s t o r i c s i t e s r e s e a r c h , a g e n c ie s t h a t seek to i n t e r p r e t and r e s t o r e s i t e s f o r p u b lic u s e , r a t h e r th an to s tu d y them as arc h a e o ­ lo g i c a l examples o f human b e h a v io r t o be used in b ro ad er s t u d i e s . Due 7 to th e s e and o th e r c ir c u m s ta n c e s , h i s t o r i c a l archaeo log y has continued on a d e c id e d ly m o n - s c i e n t i f i c t r a j e c t o r y . What makes t h i s tendency i r o n i c i s t h a t th e p re se n c e o f documentary l i n e s o f evidence makes th e s e s i t e s p a r t i c u l a r l y amenable to h y p o t h e s i s - t e s t i n g . Often th e a rc h a e ­ o l o g i c a l and documentary so u rces can be co n s id e re d independent sources o f ev iden ce w ith which t o t e s t g en eral p r o p o s i t i o n s , th u s adding a dimension o f v e r i f i c a t i o n which i s n o t a v a i l a b l e to th e s tu d e n t o f p re ­ h i s t o r i c rem ain s. Even i f th e documents a r e n o t t r e a t e d as t o t a l l y independent e v id e n c e , f o r w hatever r e a s o n , th e y a f f o r d a depth o f i n s i g h t t h a t sim ply has no p a r a l l e l in p r e h i s t o r y . The a d d it i o n o f documentary evidence o f te n allo w s th e h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t t o c o n tr o l v a r i a b l e s which a r e n o t c o n t r o l l a b l e f o r th e p re h isto ria n . I t may be p o s s ib l e to s p e c i f y th e d u r a tio n o f an occu­ p a t i o n , th e number o r e t h n i c i d e n t i t y o f th e i n h a b i t a n t s , th e s i t e ' s prim ary f u n c t i o n , o r any number o f o t h e r dim ensions o f v a r i a b i l i t y which can o n ly be i n f e r r e d in a p r e h i s t o r i c c o n t e x t . This i s n o t t o say t h a t such c o n tr o l i s always p o s s i b l e w ith s i t e s o f t h e h i s t o r i c p e r io d , o f c o u r s e , f o r th e documentary re c o rd i s s u b j e c t t o many o f th e same typ es o f gaps as t h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e c o r d . For many p e r i o d s , in many r e g i o n s , and f o r many f u n c t io n a l s i t e t y p e s , documentary evidence may be m issin g o r n o n e x i s t e n t . I t may be f a l s i f i e d , o r m ista k e n . The a u th o rs o f d e s c r i p t i o n s may be misinform ed o r may have m isu n d ersto o d ; th e y may n o t have a c t u a l l y seen o r ex p erien ced th e ev e n ts th ey d e s c r i b e , and i t may have been t o th e a u t h o r 's p erson al advantage to over o r under e s ti m a te a q u a n t i t a t i v e m easure. In s h o r t , t h e r e i s l i t t l e j u s t i f i ­ c a t i o n f o r in v e s t in g e x c e s s iv e dependence on documentary so u rces as 8 opposed to a r c h a e o lo g ic a l ev id en ce. However, t h e i r e x is te n c e can be o f tremendous i n t e r p r e t i v e v alu e to th e c a u tio u s and a s t u t e a n a l y s t , even in an o v e r t l y s c i e n t i f i c i n v e s t i g a t i o n . S o u th 's P a t t e r n R ecog nition One o f th e most i n f l u e n t i a l and c o n s i s t e n t proponents o f th e a p p l i ­ c a t i o n o f q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s in h i s t o r i c s i t e s archaeolo gy has been S ta n le y South. For more th an two decades South has argued t h a t quan­ t i t a t i v e methods hold g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r expanding th e e x p la n a to ry power and a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f h i s t o r i c s i t e s r e s e a r c h f o r b ro ad er a n th r o ­ p o lo g ic a l q u e s ti o n s . He has f u r t h e r su g g ested t h a t p ro g re ss from p a r t i c u l a r i s t i c , s i t e - s p e c i f i c s t u d i e s t o broad g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s can r e s u l t only through q u a n t i t a t i v e and com p arative a n a ly s e s . Perhaps th e most i n f l u e n t i a l o f h i s id e a s has been th e con cep t o f Mean Ceramic Dating (South 1 97 2:7 7). This te c h n iq u e , based on th e assum ption t h a t a r t i f a c t - t y p e s d i s p l a y a unimodal curv e o f p o p u l a r it y over tim e , uses th e r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c ie s o f v a rio u s h i s t o r i c ceram ic ty p es to e s ti m a te th e median o c c u p a tio n d a te o f a h i s t o r i c s i t e component. Though th e te c h n iq u e may be (and has been) employed sim ply as a d a tin g to o l to augment o t h e r so u rces o f c h ro n o lo g ic a l d a t a , i t has bro ad er im portance as a t e s t o f th e unimodal p o p u l a r i t y curve and h orizon s t y l e co ncep ts commonly used by p r e h i s t o r i a n s . The su ccess o f th e te c h n iq u e in e s t i ­ m ating median o c c u p a tio n d a te s f o r components which can be in d ep en d en tly d a te d w ith documents le n d s cred en ce t o th e w idespread a p p l i c a t i o n o f th o se gen eral p r i n c i p l e s 1n th e a rch aeo lo g y o f undocumented and p re h isto ric s ite s . 9 South has sought o t h e r kinds o f p a tte r n e d r e g u l a r i t y in th e a rc h a e ­ olo g ical re c o rd , as w e ll. His more r e c e n t work on th e d e l i n e a t i o n o f P a t t e r n s ex pressed in t h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l rem ains o f B r i t i s h c o lo n ia l America i s o f p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t h e re (South 1977). Beginning w ith an a r t i f a c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme which i s based on h i e r a r c h i c a l l y n e s te d f u n c tio n a l c a t e g o r i e s , South has b rought t o g e t h e r d a ta from a number o f s i t e s and components. Most o f t h e i n i t i a l s i t e s examined were excavated and r e p o rte d by S o u th , though sub seq uent a n a ly s e s in clu d ed a d d it i o n a l s i t e s from d i f f e r e n t r e g i o n s , excav ated by d i f f e r e n t a r c h a e o l o g i s t s . S o u th 's use o f a g e n e ra l taxonomy o f a r t i f a c t s p ro v id e s a c o n s i s t e n t base f o r q u a n t i f i c a t i o n and com parison. Though t h e r e rem ains room f o r d isag reem en t and a d ju s tm e n t in t h e c l a s s i f i c a t o r y c a t e g o r i e s , th e use o f t h i s scheme has g r e a t m e r i t in th e s e a rc h f o r v a r i a b i l i t y and r e g u l a r i t y through tim e and s p a c e , and t h i s has been S o u th 's avowed purpose. The i n i t i a l s t e p in t h i s p ro c e ss in v o lv e s t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f a rtifa c ts . South employs a h i e r a r c h i c a l arrangem ent w ith th e Type a t th e lo w e s t, most p a r t i c u l a r l e v e l . I m p l i c i t in th e d e f i n i t i o n o f Types i s th e c o n s i s t e n t c l u s t e r i n g o f a t t r i b u t e s . The v e r a c i t y o f th e type co ncep t has n o t been a c e n t r a l i s s u e amongst h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s s in c e many, i f n o t most a r t i f a c t s r e s u l t from s ta n d a r d i z e d , i n d u s t r i a l p ro c e ss e s and a s such a r e n o t s u b je c t t o t h e same kinds o f a t t r i b u t e v a r i a b i l i t y as a r e p r e h i s t o r i c a r t i f a c t s which r e s u l t from i n d i v i d u a l ­ ized o r c r a f t a c t i v i t i e s . Types a r e o c c a s i o n a l l y c l u s t e r e d t o g e t h e r i n to in te r m e d ia te c a t e g o r i e s , such as ceram ic Wares, b u t t h e prim ary c a t e g o r i e s used f o r p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t io n a r e t h e C lass and Group (Table 1 ) . C lasses a re Table 1. S ta n le y S o u th 's A r t i f a c t C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Scheme Group Kitchen Group Class Ceramics Wine B o t t le s Case B o ttle s Tumblers P harm aceutical B o ttle s Glassware Tableware Kitchenware Bone Group A r c h it e c t u r a l Group Window Glass N ails Spikes C o n s tru c tio n Hardware Door Lock P a r ts F u r n itu r e Group Arms Group Musket B a l l s , S hot, Sprue G u n flin ts Gunparts C lo thing Group Buckles Thimbles B uttons S c is s o r s S t r a i g h t Pins Hook and Eye F a s te n e rs Bale S eals Glass Beads Personal Group Coins Keys Personal Items Tobacco Pipe Group Tobacco Pipes A c t i v i t i e s Group C o n s tru c tio n Tools Farm Tools Toys F ish in g Gear Stub-stemmed Pipes Colono-Indian P o t t e r y S to rag e Items E th n o b o ta n ic a ls S ta b le and Barn M iscellaneous Hardware Other M i l i t a r y O bjects 11 g e n e r a lly based on a t t r i b u t e s o f form , w h ile th e Groups a r e fundamen­ t a l l y broad f u n c tio n a l c a t e g o r i e s . somewhat a r b i t r a r y and unequal. The com position o f S o u th 's Groups is For i n s t a n c e , th e Kitchen Group in c lu d e s a r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e number o f a r t i f a c t c l a s s e s , w hile o th e r g ro up s, such as th e Tobacco Pipe Group, in c lu d e s on ly a s i n g l e c l a s s . For th e purpose o f a b s t r a c t i n g p a t t e r n s o f r e g u l a r i t y , t h i s i n c o n s is ­ ten cy i s n o t c o n s id e re d s i g n i f i c a n t , f o r th e C lasses and Groups may e a s i l y be m odified a s s i t u a t i o n s w a r ra n t change. Since both C la sse s and Groups a r e b ro a d , general c a t e g o r i e s , in c lu s io n o f in d iv id u a l Types in one C lass o r a n o th e r , one Group o r a n o th e r , i s open to q u e s ti o n . For example, a g l a s s bead might have fu n c tio n e d as an item o f l a d i e s ' c l o t h i n g in one c o n te x t and p ro p e rly be c l a s s i f i e d w ith in t h e G lass Bead C lass and C loth in g Group. s i t e o f th e same a g e , however, At a n o th e r t h a t same ty p e o f bead may have fu n c tio n e d as an item o f t r a d e , used by i t s B r i t i s h owner to a c q u ire f u r s , and may l a t e r have been used by an In d ia n male as a grave o f f e r i n g f o r a dead kinsman. C l e a r l y , t h i s a r t i f a c t should n o t n e c e s s a r i l y be c l a s s i f i e d i d e n t i c a l l y in both c o n t e x t s . However, so long a th e u s e r o f th e scheme re c o g n iz e s t h i s kind o f i n c o n s is te n c y and uses th e system to e x p lo re v a r i a b i l i t y and compare assem b lag es, i t s v alu e i s n o t weakened. The r e c o g n itio n o f d i f f e r e n c e s in Type, C la s s , and Group f re q u e n c ie s between c o n te x ts under comparison begs f o r e x p la n a tio n and draws th e a r c h a e o l o g is t beyond sim ple d e s c r i p t i o n and c a t e g o r i z a t i o n . C aro lin a P a tt e r n A f te r c l a s s i f y i n g and t a b u l a t i n g f r e q u e n c ie s o f a r t i f a c t s from an i n i t i a l sample o f f i v e components (Table 2 ) , S o u th 's i n t e r - s i t e Table 2. A r t i f a c t f re q u e n c ie s and p e rc e n ta g e s, S o u th 's C arolina P a tte r n s i t e s (Source: South 1977:103) Brunswick S25 Group________ Count % Kitchen A r c h ite c tu re F u rn itu re Brunswick S10 Count % Cambridge 96 Count % 22,479 (52.9) 6,795 (51.8) 12,854 (64.6) 4,185 (60.1) 1,208 (56.9) 9,620 (22.6) 4,116 (31.4) 5,005 (25.2) 1,510 (21.7) 344 (16.2) (0 .2 ) 82 (0 .6 ) 35 (0 .2 ) 6 (0 .1 ) 2 (0 .1 ) 83 F t. M oultrie A Count % F t. M oultrie B Count % Arms 1,262 (3.0*) 45 (0 .3 ) 27 (0 .1 ) 39 (0 .6 ) 20 (0 .9 ) Clothing 5,574 (13.1*) 72 (0 .6 ) 1,069 (5 .4 ) 136 (1 .9 ) 69 (3 .3 ) Personal Tobacco Pipes A ctiv ities 71 (0 .2 ) 20 (0 .2 ) 108 (0 .5 ) 4 (0 .1 ) 4 (0 .2 ) 2,830 (6 .7 ) 1,829 (13.9) 349 (1 .8 ) 167 (2 .4 ) 50 (2 .4 ) 578 (1 .3 ) 159 1 1 .2 ) .. 432 (2 .2 ) 916 (13.1*) 425 (20.0*) 42,497 100 13,118 100 19,880 100 6,963 100 ♦values t h a t were su bseq u en tly a d ju s te d by S outh, f a c to re d down to P a tte r n mean values 2,122 100 13 comparison b e g in s. P ercen tag e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n i s used r a t h e r than raw fre q u e n c ie s in o r d e r t o minimize th e e f f e c t s o f very d i f f e r e n t sample s iz e s. Thus, t h e s e a rc h f o r p a tt e r n e d r e g u l a r i t i e s c o n c e n tr a te s on p ro ­ p o r tio n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between formal and f u n c tio n a l c a t e g o r i e s r a t h e r than between a b s o lu t e numbers o f o b j e c t s . South p r e d i c t s t h a t B r i t i s h c o lo n ia l s i t e s in America should e x h i b i t some degree o f s i m i l a r i t y in th e p ro p o rtio n s o f a r t i f a c t C lasses and Groups re c o v e re d . His o r i g i n a l exam ination and d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e C a ro lin a P a t t e r n r e s u l t s from a comparison o f p e rc e n ta g e s from th e s e f i v e s i t e s in North and South C aro lin a (Table 3 ) . Table 3. The C a ro lin a A r t i f a c t P a tte r n * (Source: South 1977:107) Mean % P ercen tag e Range Kitchen 63.1 5 1 .8 -6 9 .2 A r c h ite c tu r e 25.5 1 9 .7 -3 1 .4 F u r n itu r e 0 .2 0 .1 -0 .6 Arms 0 .5 0 .1 - 1 .2 C lothin g 3 .0 0 .6 -5 .4 Personal 0 .2 0 .1 -0 .5 Tobacco P ipes 5.8 1 .8 -1 3 .9 A c tiv itie s 1.7 0 .9 - 2 .7 Group ♦deriv ed from o r i g i n a l s i t e s w ith some v a lu e s a d ju s te d by South S o u th 's comparison d em o n strates a rem arkable degree o f s i m i l a r i t y w ith in t h i s small sam ple. He u ses th e mean p e rc e n ta g e v a lu e s from t h i s sample to d e f in e th e C a ro lin a P a t t e r n , th en compares th e P a t t e r n w ith 14 d a ta from a ro u g h ly contem porary B r i t i s h c o lo n ia l s i t e in Newfoundland c a l l e d Signal H ill a s a " t e s t " o f th e P a t t e r n ' s g e n e r a l i t y . This com­ p a ris o n r e v e a l s a v e r y c l o s e f i t o f th e P a t t e r n and th e Signal H ill assem blage, s tr e n g t h e n i n g th e P a t t e r n ' s c r e d i b i l i t y as a d e s c r i p t i v e model o f r e g u l a r i t y w i th i n B r i t i s h c o l o n ia l American assemblages o f th e e ig h te e n th and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . South draws upon t h e i n t e r n a l c o n s is t e n c y amongst th e a r t i f a c t C lasses in Groups i n h i s C aro lin a P a t t e r n stu d y in o r d e r to p o s i t a g en eral Law o f B eh avio ral B y-Product R e g u la r ity : "The by -product o f a s p e c i f i e d a c t i v i t y has a c o n s i s t e n t freq u en cy r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h a t o f a l l o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s in d i r e c t p r o p o rtio n to t h e i r o rg an ized i n t e g r a ­ t io n " (S ou th, 1977:12 2). The e s se n c e o f t h i s s ta te m e n t l i e s in th e assum ption t h a t a c u l t u r a l system d i s p l a y s an i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t a r r a y o f f u n c tio n a l a r t i f a c t c a t e g o r i e s , an a r r a y t h a t may be a l t e r e d by v a r i a t i o n s in c u l t u r a l b e h a v io r. The d is c o v e ry and e x p la n a tio n o f s p e c i a l iz e d b e h a v io r a n d / o r f u n c tio n s w ith in a c u l t u r a l c o n te x t i s made p o s s i b l e by th e d e c ti o n o f v a r i a t i o n s from modal a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c ie s and p r o p o r t i o n s . Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a r e d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s between " i n t e g r a t e d " a c t i v i t i e s , i d e n t i f i e d in s p e c i f i c i n s ta n c e s by th e a n a ly s t. To r e t u r n t o an e a r l i e r exam ple, i t may be n e c e s s a ry f o r th e a r c h a e o l o g i s t s tu d y in g assem blages from documented f u r t r a d i n g s i t e s to "break o u t" g l a s s beads and o t h e r t r a d e item s from th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system in o r d e r to more f u l l y a s s e s s t h e i r c o n t r ib u t i o n t o th e observed a r r a y o f f u n c tio n a l c a t e g o r i e s . S ince t h e documentary evid ence su g g e sts an "o rg anized i n t e g r a t i o n " between t r a d in g a c t i v i t i e s and c e r t a i n ty p es o f a r t i f a c t s , t h e r e c o g n i tio n o f d eg rees o f v a r i a b i l i t y i s c r i t i c a l to 15 u n d erstan d in g t h e p ro c e ss e s which c r e a t e th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e c o rd . In proposing t h i s "Law," South i s g e n e r a l i z i n g beyond th e p a r t i c u l a r s o f h is o r i g i n a l sample. F r o n ti e r P a t te r n Though some assem blages examined by South conform c l o s e l y to th e C aro lin a P a t te r n a r r a y o f a r t i f a c t p e r c e n ta g e s , o t h e r s do n o t conform. One p a r t i c u l a r group o f t h r e e s i t e s , c h a r a c t e r i z e d as i s o l a t e d from so u rces o f su p p ly , d i s p l a y c o n s id e r a b l e s i m i l a r i t y to one a n o th e r in a d d i t io n to t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e from t h e C a ro lin a P a t t e r n . South uses d a ta from th e s e s i t e s to d e f i n e an a l t e r n a t i v e p a t t e r n which he terms th e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n (T able 4 ) . The prim ary d i s t i n c t i o n between th e Caro­ l i n a and F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s i s t h e in v e r s io n o f t h e r a t i o between Kitchen and A r c h i t e c tu r e Group a r t i f a c t p e r c e n ta g e s . While C a ro lin a P a tt e r n s i t e s e x h i b i t an av erag e o f 62.8% Kitchen Group and 24.0% A r c h i t e c t u r e Group, t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s av erag e 27.6% Kitchen and 52.0% A r c h i t e c t u r e Group (T able 5 ) . South p o s t u l a t e s t h a t a s h o r t e r p erio d o f o ccu p atio n o r t h e r e l a t i v e i n a c c e s s i b i l i t y o f t h e F r o n t i e r P a tt e r n s i t e s m ight e x p la in t h e i n v e r s io n in Group p e r c e n ta g e s , b u t does not t e s t e ith e r ex p lan atio n . R a th e r , he le a v e s th e F r o n t i e r and C a ro lin a P a t te r n s as e s s e n t i a l l y d e s c r i p t i v e models a g a i n s t which to compare s i t e s and c o n t e x t s . The r e c o g n i t io n o f d e v i a t i o n from expected a r t i f a c t p r o p o rtio n s i n d i c a t e s a need f o r e x p la n a tio n and guides a d d i ti o n a l in q u i r y . Though t h e a r t i f a c t p r o p o rtio n s a r e s i m i l a r from s i t e to s i t e w ith ­ in th e P a t t e r n s , South f e e l s i t n e c e s s a ry to a d j u s t some extreme v alu es in c e r t a i n c a s e s when i t ap p ears t h a t s p e c i a l i z e d a c t i v i t i e s a r e 16 Table 4 . A r t i f a c t fre q u e n c ie s and p e rc e n ta g e s , S o u t h 's F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n S i t e (Source: South 1977;155) F t . L ig o n ie r Count i Group F t. P rin ce George Count % S p a ld in g 's S to re Count % 5,566 (2 5 .6 ) 1,679 (22.7) 5,789 (3 4.5) 12,112 (5 5 .6 ) 4,252 (5 7.5) 7,222 (4 3 .0 ) 44 (0 .2 ) 6 (o .i) 51 ( 0 .3 ) 1,820 (8 .4 ) 471 (6 .4 ) 227 (1 .4 ) C lothin g 833 (3 .8 ) 70 (1 .0 ) 51 ( 0 .3 ) Personal 99 (0 .4 ) 9 ( 0 .1 ) 10 ( 0 .1 ) 411 (1 .9 ) 851 (1 1 .5) 2,343 (1 4 .0 ) Kitchen A r c h ite c tu r e F u r n itu r e Arms Tobacco P ipes A c tiv itie s T o ta ls 893 (4 .1 ) 2,633 (26.4*) 1,077 ( 6 .4 ) 21,778 100 9,971 100 16,770 100 ♦ valu es t h a t was s u b se q u e n tly a d ju s te d by South by removal o f Colono In d ia n P o tte r y 17 Table 5. The F r o n t i e r A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n * (Source: South 1977:145) Mean % Percentage Range Kitchen 27.6 2 2 .7 -3 4 .5 Architecture 52.0 4 3 .0 -5 7 .5 Furniture 0.2 0.1-0.3 Arms 5.4 1.4-8.4 Clothing 1.7 0.3-3.8 Personal 0. 2 0.1-0.4 Tobacco Pipes 9.1 1.9-14.0 A ctivities 3.7 0.7-6.4 Group ♦ der ived from t h r e e o r i g i n a l s i t e s with some v a lu e s a d j u s t e d by South r e s p o n s i b l e f o r skewing observed v a lu e s beyond normal v a r i a t i o n . In o r d e r t o a d j u s t f o r extreme v a l u e s , South computes av erages f o r a l l a r t i f a c t c l a s s e s and i n f o u r i n s t a n c e s simply s u b s t i t u t e s t h i s mean valu e f o r t h e obs erved " d e v i a n t " v a l u e . For example, in th e cas e o f Brunswick Town S t r u c t u r e 25, an observed v alu e o f 5574 o r 13.1% in th e Clothing Group i s c o n s id e r e d t o be ex trem e, s i n c e th e mean f o r th e remaining s i t e s i s 3.0%. This s t r u c t u r e i s known from documentary sou rces t o have housed a t a i l o r ' s shop and South b e l i e v e s t h a t t h e high in cid en ce o f t a i l o r i n g m a t e r i a l s , r e s u l t i n g from t h i s s p e c i a l i z e d , non-domestic f u n c t i o n , i s c o n t r i b u t i n g e x c e s s i v e v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n t h i s o th e r w is e c o n s i s t e n t a r t i f a c t Group. T h e r e f o r e , t h e v alu e i s a d j u s t e d down t o th e mean f o r t h e remaining s i t e s . The observed v a lu e s f o r Arms in S t r u c t u r e 25, A c t i v i t i e s in F o r t M o u lt r ie A and A c t i v i t i e s i n F ort 18 M o u ltr ie B a r e l i k e w i s e a d j u s t e d , s i n c e those f i g u r e s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as the r e s u l t s of sp ecializ ed a c t i v i t i e s . This a c t i o n i s u n d e r s ta n d a b le and s u p p o rta b le on one l e v e l , f o r i t removes t h e i n f l u e n c e o f what might be termed i d i o s y n c r a t i c beh av ior from t h i s e x e r c i s e i n b e havioral g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . On th e o t h e r hand, i t i s d e s i r a b l e t h a t any e x p l a n a t o r y scheme have th e power t o e x p l a i n even th e extremes o f v a r i a b i l i t y w i t h i n t h e d ata u t i l i z e d . This i s e s p e c i a l ­ l y t r u e in t h i s i n s t a n c e , f o r t h e a r t i f a c t Groups a r e e s s e n t i a l l y f u n c t i o n a l c o n s t r u c t s and t h e a d ju s t m e n t o f a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s might s e r v e t o mask t h e f u n c t i o n a l v a r i a b i l i t y which 1s t h e focu s o f both c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and a n a l y s i s . T h e r e f o r e , S o u t h 's a r t i f a c t f re que nc y t a b l e s a r e l e f t wit h t h e i r o r i g i n a l , un ad ju ste d values f o r a l l q u a n tita tiv e a n a ly s is in t h i s study. Other Examples o f P a t t e r n A nalys is Other a r c h a e o l o g i s t s a r e employing S o u t h 's a r t i f a c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system t o f a c i l i t a t e i n t e r - s i t e comparison and co n t in u e t h e s e a r c h f o r assemblage r e g u l a r i t y . One o f t h e e a r l i e s t to o f f e r an expansion o f th e P a t t e r n co ncept was Michael Forsman, who used t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system t o c h a r a c t e r i z e a group o f f u r - t r a d 1 n g p o s ts from Western Canada (Forsman 1979; Forsman and Gallo 1979). Forsman was I n i t i a l l y concerned with s t a n d a r d i z i n g th e a v a i l a b l e d a t a from e x c a v a tio n s con­ du cted by v a r io u s i n d i v i d u a l s and I n s t i t u t i o n s f o r a s y n t h e t i c s tu d y o f t h e f u r t r a d e in t h a t r e g io n (Table 6 ) . He found, and d e m o n str a te d , t h a t t h i s s e l e c t e d group o f s i t e s e x h i b i t e d an i n t e r n a l l y c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n o f a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s t h a t was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from e i t h e r t h e C ar o lin a o r F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n (Table 7 ) . Table 6. A r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s and p e r c e n t a g e s , Forsman's Early Fur Trade P a t t e r n S i t e s (Source: Forsman and Gallo 1979:Appendix 1) Rocky Mt. A rtifact House Group________ Count % F t . George Count t Buckingham House Count % Edmonton House Count %~ Sturgeon F or t Count % LeBlanc Post Count i Kitchen 56 0.48 840 3.24 163 11.19 205 11.45 18 0.42 15 1.07 Archi­ tecture 146 1.22 873 3.36 326 22.39 123 6.87 143 3.36 50 3.57 1 0.01 6 0.02 0 2 0.17 2 0.05 1 0.07 235 1.97 832 3.21 77 5.29 197 11.00 143 3.36 33 2.36 Clothing 11,102 93.07 21,018 81.00 612 42.03 739 41.26 2,352 55.17 1,126 80.49 Personal 12 0.10 217 0.84 11 0.76 170 9.49 1,518 35.60 35 2.50 Tobacco Pipes 200 1.67 759 2.92 184 12.64 252 14.07 12 0.28 72 5.15 A ctivities 177 1.48 1,404 5.41 83 5.70 102 5.69 75 1.76 67 4.79 11,929 100.00 25,949 100.00 1,456 100.00 1,791 100.00 F u r n it u r e Arms T o ta ls 0.0 4,263 100.00 1,3999 100.00 20 Mean Percentage Range Kitchen 4.64 0.42-11.45 Architecture 6.79 1.22-22.39 Furniture 0.05 Arms 4.54 1.97-11.00 Clo thing 65.50 41.26-93.07 Personal 8.22 0.10-35.60 Tobacco Pipes 6.12 0.28-14.07 A ctivities 4.14 . CD 1 cn • o A r t i f a c t Group 0 1 o• 1— • Table 7. The Early Fur Trade A r tifa c t Pattern (Source: Forsman and Gallo 1979) 100.00 Total P r o p o r t i o n s o f t h e a r t i f a c t Cla s ses and Groups in Forsman's sample s i t e s div er ged markedly from S o u t h 's P a t t e r n s , y e t d i s p l a y e d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e v a r i a t i o n amongst th em selv es . Forsman d e r i v e d av er ag e v a l u e s and ra nges f o r t h e p r o p o r t i o n s and c a l l e d t h i s a r r a y t h e Earl y Fur Trade P a t t e r n (Forsman 1979). He noted t h a t an i m p o rt a n t cause f o r t h e d i v e r ­ gence o f t h e E a rl y Fur Trade P a t t e r n from th e o t h e r s was th e i n f l a t i o n o f Clothing Group p e r c e n t a g e s due t o t h e i n c l u s i o n o f l a r g e numbers o f g l a s s t r a d e beads. He s t a t i s t i c a l l y compared h i s new P a t t e r n w it h th e C a r o lin a and F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s using K e n d a l l ' s C o e f f i c i e n t o f Concor­ dance T e s t and concluded t h a t i t was indeed s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from th e o t h e r s . Though he d id n o t a t te m p t any formal t e s t s o f h i s t e n t a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s , Forsman sugges te d t h a t t h e Earl y Fur Trade P a t t e r n may have been th e r e s u l t o f t h e r a p i d , e x p l o r a t o r y development o f t h i s e x t r a c t i v e i n d u s t r y with i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c temporary, s p e c i a l purpose s e t t l e m e n t s . 21 Forsman's stu d y o f wes tern Canadian f u r t r a d e era s i t e s was not only th e source o f a n o t h e r P a t t e r n , but a l s o r a i s e d doubt about th e v a l i d i t y o f t h e Carolina and F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s as s e p a r a t e e n t i t i e s (Forsman and Gallo 1979:175). Using K e n d a l l ' s Rank C o r r e l a t i o n C o e f f i c i e n t T e s t , Forsman and Gallo f a i l e d t o r e j e c t a n u ll h y p o th e s i s which suggested t h a t th e F r o n t i e r and C a r o l in a P a t t e r n s were u n r e l a t e d . These au th o r s had concluded (1979:173) t h a t t h e d a t a from which S o u t h 's P a t t e r n s were de r iv e d did not meet t h e re q u ire m e n ts o f p a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t i n g , such as t h e assumption t h a t samples a r e drawn a t random from normally d istrib u te d populations. T h e r e f o r e , th e y s e l e c t e d th e nonparametric K e n d a l l ' s Test in o r d e r t o avoid v i o l a t i n g t h e b a s i c p r e r e q u i s i t e s of most p ar am etric t e s t s . While such a c a u t i o u s approach may have p r e ­ vented some problems a t t e n d a n t t o v i o l a t i o n o f t h e d a ta re quire m ents of some t e s t s , i t may well n o t have been w ar ran te d in t h i s i n s t a n c e . By choosing th e c o n s e r v a t i v e approach and u s in g a nonpar ametric t e s t , th ey reduced t h e i n t e r v a l - s c a l e f r e q u e n c i e s and p r o p o r t i o n s found in t h e o r i g i n a l d a t a s e t s t o o r d i n a l - s c a l e r a n k s , ov erlookin g a s u b s t a n t i a l p o r t i o n o f t h e Info r m atio n I n h e r e n t In t h e s e d a t a . For example, t h i s r e d u c t i o n in d a t a c o m plexit y r e s u l t s 1n r a nking t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f each a r t i f a c t Group from 1 t o 8 , and t h e r e f o r e does n o t a llo w the r e s e a r c h e r t o e i t h e r r e c o g n i z e o r I n t e r p r e t t h e magnitude o f t h e d i f ­ f e r e n c e between any two r a n k s . As a consequence, some doubt i s c a s t upon t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e F r o n t i e r and C a r o li n a P a t t e r n s . A more d e t a i l e d examination o f th e P a t t e r n s 1s n e c e s s a r y , using more powerful s t a t i s t i c s and th e f u l l e r in fo rm ation val ue o f I n t e r v a l - s c a l e d a t a . Such an examination w i l l be conducted in a s u bsequent c h a p t e r o f t h i s s tu d y . 22 Another study p u b l is h e d in 1979 which e x e m p lif ie s the p o t e n t i a l uses o f t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system and P a t t e r n co ncept was J e f f r e y T o r d o f f ' s i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between S o u th 's P a t t e r n s and primary de f a c t o r e f u s e (Tor do ff 1979). This examination o f l i m i t e d assemblages from e x c a v a t i o n s a t n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y F o r t S n e l l i n g in Minnesota p ointed o u t s i g n i f i c a n t divergences from th e Car olina and F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s among a r t i f a c t s from t h e Clo thing and Arms Groups. In p a r t i c u l a r , a r t i f a c t s such as small lead s h o t , s t r a i g h t pins and g l a s s beads were d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d in l i m i t e d c o n t e x t s from the O f fic e r 's Quarters. The p r a c t i c e o f f r e q u e n t sweeping o f f l o o r s us in g sand e v i d e n t l y caused t h e s e items t o be d e p o s it e d as primary de f a c t o r e f u s e beneath t h e f l o o r s , and t h e s e d e p o s i t s , taken s e p a r a t e l y from th e remainder o f t h e assemblage, e x h i b i t e d a d i v e r g e n t , " F r o n t i e r ­ l i k e " a r r a y o f f r e q u e n c i e s u n l i k e t h e o t h e r c o n t e x t s o r th e t o t a l s i t e . Tord of f ma intained t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f a r t i f a c t s from t h e s e c o n t e x t s were caused n o t o n l y by t h e s p e c i f i c c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t i e s r e l a t e d t o t h e f u n c t i o n s o f t h e o b j e c t s ( i . e . t a i l o r i n g and small game hunting ) but a l s o by t h e p a r t i c u l a r form o f r e f u s e d e p o s i t . To s up por t t h i s l a t t e r p o i n t , he r e f e r r e d t o s i m i l a r i t i e s with a l i m i t e d c o n t e x t from one o f S o u t h 's o r i g i n a l C arolina P a t t e r n s i t e s , t h e P ublic HouseT a i l o r Shop, S t r u c t u r e 25, a t Brunswick Town, North C a r o l i n a . Within t h e rooms o f t h a t s t r u c t u r e , a very s i m i l a r a r t i f a c t assemblage and r e f u s e type were n o te d , and e x p lain ed as r e s u l t i n g from use o f th e rooms f o r t a i l o r i n g , based on documentary sources and t h e high frequ en cy o f ta ilo rin g objects. Tordoff argued t h a t t h e r e f u s e type i t s e l f might e x p l a i n th e " deviant" a r t i f a c t a r r a y , and t h a t t h e s e p a r a t e examination 23 of c o n te x ts w i t h i n s i t e s was a n e c e s s a r y element o f th e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a b i l i t y and r e g u l a r i t y in a r c h a e o l o g i c a l assemblages. In th e same y e a r , William Lees and Kathryn Kimery-Lees a l s o pub­ l i s h e d a s tudy which u t i l i z e d S o u t h 's P a t t e r n concept (Lees and KimeryLees 1979). This i n v e s t i g a t i o n q u e s ti o n e d th e prop er c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of Colono-Indian c e r a m ic s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e y should be c l a s s i f i e d w ith in t h e Kitchen Group, r a t h e r than t h e A c t i v i t i e s Group where th ey had p r e v i o u s l y been p l a c e d . Using an assemblage from Limerick P l a n t a t i o n in South C a r o l i n a , th e y examined both t h e f re quen cy o f occ urre nc e and c o n t e x t s in which Colono-ceramics were found. They concurred with Lei and Ferguson (1978) t h a t t h e s e ceramics were manufactured by nonI n d i a n s , probably A f r i c a n s l a v e s , and o r i g i n a l l y fu n c t io n e d in a kitc hen s e t t i n g , as d id European ce r a m ic s . F u r t h e r , t h e r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e s e a r t i f a c t s caused t h e Limerick assemblage t o f i t more c l o s e l y th e C arolina P a t t e r n which i t was expected t o e x h i b i t . In a d d i t i o n , t h i s stu dy demonstrated a change in t h e frequency o f use o f t h i s ceramic type over time. L e s l i e Drucker has used S o u t h 's format t o i n v e s t i g a t e socioeconomic s t a t u s a t an undocumented e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y s i t e in South Carolina c a l l e d S p i e r s Landing (Drucker 1981). Comparison o f th e excavated assem­ blage with t h e Ca ro lina P a t t e r n guided t h e i n q u i r y along pr o d u ctiv e l i n e s , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on di v e r g e n c e s from expected a r t i f a c t p r o p o r t i o n s . Drucker assumed t h a t some d iv er g en ce from t h e C ar o li n a P a t t e r n could be expla ined by a d i f f e r e n c e in socioeconomic s ta n d in g between t h i s p r e ­ sumed s la v e dw el li n g and t h e h i g h e r - s t a t u s s i t e s used by South to d e l i n e a t e th e P a t t e r n . While i n d i v i d u a l Group per cen tag es conformed 24 g e n e r a l l y to S o u t h ' s p r e d i c t e d C a r o li n a P a t t e r n r a n g e s , th e o v e r a l l assemblage was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t . This and o t h e r l i n e s of evidence s uppo rt t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s i t e as an Afro-American s la v e d w ell in g. P a t r i c k Garrow, in a paper p r e s e n t e d a t th e S o c ie t y t o r H i s t o r i c a l Archaeology meeting i n New Orleans in 1981, proposed r e c o g n i t i o n o f th e C aroli na Slave A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n (Garrow 1981). This P a t t e r n was based on a r t i f a c t assemblages from S p i e r s Landing (Drucker 1981), Yaughan, and Curiboo (Wheaton, F r i e d l a n d e r , and Garrow 1983) and was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a high percentage o f Kitchen Group o b j e c t s , coupled with a low p e r c e n t ­ age o f A r c h i t e c t u r e Group o b j e c t s (Tables 8 and 9). Garrow sugges te d t h a t t h i s a r r a y o f p r o p o r t i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from e i t h e r t h e C a r o lin a o r F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n , but t h a t t h e C arolina and Slave A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n s should converge in s i t u a t i o n s where Afro-Americans became more a c c u l t u r a t e d i n t o th e dominant Anglo-American culture. Garrow c o n ti nu ed t o examine a r t i f a c t assemblages in terms o f t h e P a t t e r n models. In a s tu d y o f c o l l e c t i o n s from th e a r e a o f t h e proposed Washington D.C. Civ ic C e n t e r , he used S o u t h ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme as a tool to measure c u l t u r a l change over t h e occ upation span o f t h i s urban neighborhood (1982). Before applying th e P a t t e r n models, however, Gar­ row changed some o f t h e Group t o t a l s f o r s i t e s South o r i g i n a l l y used to d e r i v e t h e C ar o lin a and F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s . Garrow's r e v i s i o n s b u i l t upon t h e c o n c lu s io n s drawn by Ferguson (1978) and Lees and Kimery-Lees (1979) r e g a r d i n g th e a p p r o p r i a t e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Colono-Indian ce ram ic s. Garrow s h i f t e d t h e Colono-ceramics from t h e A c t i v i t i e s Group, Table 8. A r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s and p e r c e n ta g e s , Garrow's Ca ro lina Slave P a t t e r n S i t e s (Source: Garrow 1981:65) Group Kitchen 18,813 84.18 4,428 80.01 4,476 70.94 2,275 74.84 2,641 11.82 749 13.54 1,567 24.83 631 20.76 12 .05 4 .07 5 .08 2 .07 5 .02 15 11 .17 6 .20 Clothing 66 .30 20 .36 32 .51 24 .79 Personal 8 .04 1 .02 5 CO Yaughan B (38BK75) Count ©• Curiboo (38BK245) Count Yaughan A (38BK76) Count 2 .07 751 3.36 300 5.42 182 2.88 74 2.43 52 .23 17 .31 32 .51 26 .8 6 22,348 100.00 5,534 99.99 6,310 100.00 3,040 100.02 Architecture F u r n it u r e Activities Totals • Topacco Pipes CM Arms i % . Spiers Landing Count % % 26 Table 9. The Carolina Slave A r tifa c t Pattern (Source: Garrow 1981) Percentage Group_________________________ Mean %______________________ Range Kitchen 77.52 70.94-84.18 A rchitecture 17.74 11.82-24.83 Furniture .07 o00• m1 o Arms .17 .0 2 -.2 7 C lothin g .49 .3 0 -.7 9 Personal .05 .0 2 -.0 8 Tobacco Pipes A ctivities 2 .43-5.42 3.5 .2 3 -.8 6 .48 where South o r i g i n a l l y placed them, t o t h e Kitchen Group, where s u b se ­ quen t r e s e a r c h s uggeste d t h a t th ey were more a p p r o p r i a t e l y c l a s s i f i e d . This a d ju s tm e n t was made f o r F o r t M o u lt r i e , F ort P rin ce George, Spalding s S t o r e , Brunswick Town S t r u c t u r e 25, and t h e Cambridge c e l l a r a t N in e ty - S ix . He f u r t h e r a d j u s t e d t h e t o t a l s from Spaldings S t o r e and t h e Cambridge c e l l a r by s h i f t i n g stub-stemmed pipes from t h e a c t i v i t i e s group t o t h e Tobacco Pipe Group, a s h i f t n o t profound but c e r t a i n l y defensible. These changes in Group t o t a l s a l t e r e d t h e general P a t t e r n a r r a y s somewhat, e s p e c i a l l y as r e g a r d s th e Kitchen and A c t i v i t i e s Groups, s in c e they r e p r e s e n t s h i f t s o f up t o 2583 o b j e c t s , in th e c a s e o f F o r t Prince George, from one Group t o t h e o t h e r . The r e v i s e d P a t t e r n s , as sug gested by Garrow ( 1 982), a r e p r e s e n t e d in Tables 10 and 11. Table 10. Group Revised Carolina A r tifa c t Pattern (Source: Garrow 1981:58) Brunswick S25 Brunswick S10 Count % 22,710 61.77% 9,620 F u r n it u r e Arms Count Cambridge 96 % Count % 6,795 51.80% 12,916 64.97% 26.17% 4,116 31.38% 5,006 25.18% 83 .23% 82 .63% 35 .18% 34 .09% 45 .34% 27 .14% Clothing 1,070 2.91% 72 .55% 1,069 5.38% Personal 71 .19% 20 .15% 108 .54% 2,830 7.70% 1,829 13.94% 379 1.91% 347 .94% 159 1.21% 340 1.71% 36,765 100.00% 13,118 100.00% 19,880 100.00% Kitchen Architecture Pipes A ctivities T o t a ls Table 11. Group F ort P rince George Revised F rontier A r tifa c t Pattern (Source: Garrow 1981:58) F or t Watson S p a l d i n g 's Store Revised % Range Revised Mean Kitchen Count 4,262 % 42.7 Count 627 % 43.8 Count 5,956 % 35.5 35 .5-4 3 .8 40.7 Architecture 4,252 42.6 595 41.6 7,222 43.0 41 .6-4 3.0 42.4 6 .1 19 1.3 51 .3 . 1 - 1.3 .6 471 4.7 128 8.9 111 1.4 1 . 4 - 8.9 5.0 Clothing 70 .7 23 1.6 51 .3 . 3 - 1.6 .9 Personal 9 .1 2 1.0 10 .1 .1 .1 851 8.5 18 1.3 2,344 14.0 1 . 3-1 4.0 7.0 50 .9 20 1.4 909 5.4 . 5 - 5.4 2.4 9,971 100.0 1,432 100.0 16,770 100.0 F u r n it u r e Arms Tobacco Pipes A ctivities T o ta ls 100.0 29 A f t e r proposing r e v i s i o n s t o th e P a t t e r n s , Garrow compared th e P a t ­ t e r n s with d a t a from e x c a v a t io n s a t F o r t Watson, South Ca ro lina (Ferguson 1975), t h e Delaware S t a t e House (Wise 1978), Camden, South Carolina (Lewis 1976), and th e Hepburn-Reonalds House (S7) a t Brunswick Town (South 1977). Wise, in her a n a l y s i s o f m a t e r i a l s reco vere d from th e Delaware S t a t e House, had proposed a new P a t t e r n , c a l l e d th e P ub lic S t r u c t u r e P a t t e r n (1978:119-120). Garrow noted t h a t t h e s i t e s used by Wise to d e r i v e t h i s P a t t e r n and th o s e w i t h i n h i s r e v i s e d F r o n t i e r P a t ­ t e r n e x h i b i t e d very s i m i l a r a r r a y s o f a r t i f a c t p r o p o r t i o n s . He then proposed t h a t t h i s new P a t t e r n should more p r o p e r l y be termed th e Public I n t e r a c t i o n P a t t e r n , s i n c e t h e s i t e s and c o n t e x t s e x h i b i t i n g t h i s p a r ­ t i c u l a r a r r a y o f a r t i f a c t p r o p o r t i o n s can b e t t e r be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p u b l i c a c t i v i t i e s w i th o u t r e f e r e n c e t o a r c h i t e c t u r a l s t r u c t u r e s (Garrow 1982:59). The proposed P ub lic I n t e r a c t i o n P a t t e r n i s p r e se n te d in Table 12 . Table 12. The P ubli c I n t e r a c t i o n P a t t e r n (Source: Garrow 1981:64) Range-Urban________ Range-Rural Percentage-Range Kitchen 4 5.4 - 52.0% 35.5 - 53.8% 35.5 - 52.0% Architecture 42.3 - 48.3% 41.6 - 43.0% 41. 6 - 48.3% 0.4% 0.1 - 1.3% 0.0 - 1.3% Arms 0.0 - 0.5% 1.4 - 8.9% 0.0 - 8.9% C lothing 0.0 - 4.5% 0.3 - 1.6% 0.0 - 4.5% Personal 0.0 - 0.2% .1% 0.0 - 0.2% 1.3 - 14.0% 0. 5 - Tobacco 0 1 0.0 - M • Furniture 4.6% A ctivities 0.6 - 2.0% - 5.4% 1. 0 - 14.0% 0.5 - 5.4% 30 Garrow's a d j u s tm e n ts to t h e o r i g i n a l P a t t e r n s seem sound and w i l l be in c o r p o ra te d i n t o subsequent a n a ly s e s in t h i s s tu d y . His proposed new P a t t e r n s w ill be examined, as w e l l , in t h e l i g h t o f a d d i t i o n a l d ata and new p e r s p e c t i v e s . Summary South and t h e o t h e r s c h o l a r s u t i l i z i n g h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme and e x p l o r in g assemblage v a r i a b i l i t y through t h e P a t t e r n co ncept have c l e a r l y pursued t h e o b j e c t i v e s o u t l i n e d by David C la r k e . They have sought to d e f i n e e s s e n t i a l e n t i t i e s and s t r u c t u r e s in t h i s p o r t i o n o f the archaeological record. They have i d e n t i f i e d r e g u l a r i t i e s i n assem­ blag e form, and, i m p l i c i t l y , f u n c t i o n over time and s pa ce . Finally, th ey have attem pted t o develop general p r i n c i p l e s and models which e x p l a i n th e p r o c e s s e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e r e g u l a r i t i e s which they o bs erv e. While t h i s l a t t e r goal has had equivocal s u c c e s s , t h e former two p r e l im i n a r y s t e p s have been tak en in a d e c i s i v e , purpo se ful manner. The development o f a c o n s i s t e n t , i f not e l e g a n t , c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system has made broad s c a l e comparison n o t only e a s i e r , but more e f f i c i e n t . Without such co m par at iv e and q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s th e r e c o g n i t i o n o f assemblage r e g u l a r i t i e s would n o t be p o s s i b l e . The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f th e C a r o l i n a , F r o n t i e r , and Fur Trade P a t t e r n s have c e r t a i n l y n o t ended th e s e a rc h f o r r e g u l a r i t i e s , b u t r a t h e r have given i t a h e a l t h y b e g i n ­ n ing. These P a t t e r n s , based as th e y a r e on samples t h a t a r e l i m i t e d in number, g e o g r a p h i c a l , and c h r o n o lo g ic a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , have provided v a l u a b l e benchmarks f o r th e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f assemblage v a r i a b i l i t y . It remains t o be seen whether h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s can r e s i s t t h e te m p ta ti o n s t o merely pig eo nh ole c o l l e c t i o n s or t o p r o l i f e r a t e p a t t e r n s . 31 R a t h e r , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s must r e f i n e t h e s e t o o l s and used them to d e f i n e and e x p l o r e t h e u n d e r ly in g c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t cause th e observed r e g u l a r i t i e s and v a r i a b i l i t y in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . CHAPTER I I I THE FILBERT SITE: DOCUMENTARY SUMMARY Methods and Sources Consulted The a u t h o r c a r r i e d o u t a program o f h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h beginning b e f o re f u l l - s c a l e e x c a v a t i o n s s t a r t e d in 1973 and c o n t i n u i n g through a decade. The documents g a th e r e d t o g e t h e r by E l l i s Olson, amateur a r c h a e o l o g i s t and l o c a l h i s t o r i a n , provided a s u b s t a n t i a l base from which t o b e g in , as th ey combined a v a r i e t y o f e s o t e r i c and fundamental s ourc es o f i n f o r m a t i o n , many o f them found in p r i v a t e c o l l e c t i o n s . O l s o n 's d i l i g e n c e and s k i l l must be applauded and h i s e f f o r t s re cog­ nized. Bu il din g on O l s o n 's work, t h e a u t h o r c o n s u lt e d a broad range o f documents, in both p u b lis h e d and m an u sc rip t form. The chronologic al n a r r a t i v e t h a t f o llo w s r e s u l t e d from t h i s s e a r c h . Among th e l i b r a r i e s c o n s u lt e d t h a t held r e l e v a n t c o l l e c t i o n s were t h e Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ( E a s t L a n s in g ) , t h e Ben tly H i s t o r i c a l L ib r a r y (Ann A r bor) , th e Clarke H i s t o r i c a l L i b r a r y (Mt. P l e a s a n t ) , t h e Burton H i s t o r i c a l Col­ l e c t i o n s ( D e t r o i t P u b lic L i b r a r y ) , t h e Huntington L i b r a r y (San Marino, C a l i f o r n i a ) , t h e Western Reserve H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e ty L i b r a r y ( C l e v e l a n d ) , th e S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y o f Wisconsin (Madison), t h e Minnesota H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y Ar chives ( S t . P a u l ) , t h e Chicago H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e ty A r c h i v e s , th e Milwaukee County H i s t o r i c a l S o c i e t y , t h e Michigan S t a t e L i b r a r y ( L a n s i n g ) , t h e Michigan S t a t e Archives ( L a n s i n g ) , and t h e Public Archives o f Canada. 32 33 Manuscript c o l l e c t i o n s , l e t t e r f i l e s , t a x l i s t s , maps, s u r v e y s , w i l l s , census r e c o r d s , and pub li sh ed accounts o f many kinds were c o n s u lte d in t h e a t t e m p t t o ga in i n s i g h t i n t o th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e s i t e and i t s o c c u p a n ts . All r e l e v a n t r e f e r e n c e s were t r a n s c r i b e d o r copied and f i l e d with a c r o s s - i n d e x t h a t i n d i c a t e d th e type o f i n f o r ­ mation, t h e time o f t h e e v e n t o r t o p i c o f i n t e r e s t , and th e c h a r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s o f th e document. Gra duall y an e x t e n s i v e f i l e was b u i l t up, upon which t h e h i s t o r i c a l n a r r a t i v e was based. H istorical Narrative The e a r l i e s t r e f e r e n c e conc er ning th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a m ill in th e Mackinac S t r a i t s a r e a was in a l e t t e r from L ie u t e n a n t Governor P a t r i c k S i n c l a i r t o D ie d r ic k Brehm, Governor Haldimand's aide-de-camp in Quebec, dated October 29, 1779, immediately b e f o r e th e r e l o c a t i o n o f t h e B r i t i s h g a r r i s o n from F o r t Michilimackinac to Mackinac I s l a n d . Since my l a s t l e t t e r s I employ'd f o r t h r e e days from Sun to Sun in examining t h e I s l a n d o f M1ch11imack1nac on which I found a g r e a t q u a n t i t y o f E x c e l l e n t Oak, Elm, Beach & Maple with a c o n s i d e r a b l e vein o f t h e l a r g e s t and f i n e s t Cedar Trees I ev er saw, Thro' which t h e r e i s a run o f w a te r s u f f i c i e n t f o r a Saw M il l . We now mix o f B arrel o f o l d F lo ur (inde ed n o t good) t o t h r e e o f new t o make i t e a t a b l e . t h e General sends in If th e Spring men c a p a b le o f e r e c t i n g & working a Saw and G r i s t mill with some o f th e Dutch Refugee Families from below, I w i l l answer f o r t h e succ es s o f th e scheme, o f A g r i c u l t u r e & make P r o v is io n t o t u r n t o some ac count which might have been u s e l e s s ( S i n c l a i r 1886a:532-533). 34 I t i s c l e a r t h a t S i n c l a i r recognized a need f o r a m i l l and th e concomi­ t a n t development o f an a r g i c u l t u r a l base to pro vide p r o v i s i o n s f o r t h e g a r r i s o n and s e t t l e m e n t . In February o f 1780, S i n c l a i r wrote Brehm o f h i s f u r t h e r plans f o r t h e s e t t l e m e n t on Mackinac I s l a n d . "Our V i l l a g e w i l l be washed on one s i d e by a f i n e Spring which wit h some c a r e may be brought t o tu rn a m i l l a t l e a s t one day in seven" ( S i n c l a i r 1886b:540). Again, i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t S i n c l a i r was concerned about t h e e s t a b l i s h ­ ment o f a m i ll as a n e c e s s a r y element o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t . S i n c l a i r s ' s plans were answered by Brehm in April o f t h e same y e a r , in t h e p r e s e n t s i t u a t i o n o f a f f a i r s , His Excellenc y t h i n k s i t more e s s e n t i a l t o employ your s t r e n g t h in th e immediate Execution o f your Defences th a n t o begin by b u i l d i n g a Saw M i l l , which must t h e r e f o r e be an a f t e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n (Brehm 1886:534). De spite t h e l a c k o f i n t e r e s t o r s u p p o rt on th e p a r t o f the s u p e r i o r s in Quebec, t h e Cormiandants a t Michilimackinac c o n tin u ed t o pursue a means f o r s e t t i n g up a m i l l . In a s t a t e m e n t o f work by P. Durand dat ed October 22, 1780, t h e r e was a d e s c r i p t i o n o f a t r i p ordered by Major DePeyster down t h e r i v e r b e s id e s t h e house o f t h e c h i e f Macquiquiovis t o examine & f i n d t h e p i n e r i e s o f red and w h ite p ine t o make a saw m il l & t o examine t h e d i f f e r e n t s o r t s o f wood and land f o r t h e good o f t h e King (Durand 1886:36). Apparently no m i l l had been e s t a b l i s h e d by June o f t h e f o ll o w in g y e a r , f o r Brehm's s e c r e t a r y , R. Mathews wrote S i n c l a i r The General i s informed t h a t t h e r e i s very good s to n e s f o r M ill s & Grind Stones on t h e I s l a n d , he begs you w i l l g ive him your opinion 35 o f t h e i r Q u a l i t y , and i f p o s s i b l e send him a Sample o f them, as He purposes e r e c t i n g a Wind Mill on t h e I s l a n d , and a t o t h e r P o s t s , he t h e r e f o r e wishes f o r t h e b e s t In fo rm at ion and Remarks (Mathews 1886:488). The recognized need f o r a m ill and t h e concern f o r e s t a b l i s h m e n t was echoed in a l e t t e r from a l a t e r Commandant, Captain Daniel Robertson, t o S e c r e t a r y Mathews i n J une, 1784. "I l i k e w i s e f o r g o t t o inform t h a t t h e r e i s a very advantageous f a l l f o r m i l l s on t h e River T e s s a lo n , and a l a r g e Pine ry a d j a c e n t " (Robertson 1888:420). The Thessalon River was l o c a t e d ap proxima te ly 50 m il e s n o r t h o f t h e S t r a i t s o f Mackinac, in present-day Ontario. This may have been t h e same r i v e r and p in e r y surveyed by Durand i n 1780. By May o f 1793, however, t h e r e had been a change in t h e s t a t e o f a f f a i r s r e g a r d i n g m i l l s , a s Captain William Doyle, Commandant a t F o r t Mackinac, wrote t o L i e u t e n a n t Colonel England, commanding t h e d i s t r i c t a t D e t r o i t , o f t h e "ruionou s s t a t e o f t h e o f f i c e r s and s o l d i e r s b a r ­ ra c k s " and mentioned h i s p l a n s t o u n d er ta k e r e p a i r s . In r e f e r e n c e to th o s e r e p a i r s he w rote " I have a c c o r d i n g l y made a C o n t r a c t f o r a s u f ­ f i c i e n t number o f b o a r d s , Which I must send t o Campbell's Saw Mill f o r , whenever t h e l a r g e b o a ts a r e r e p a i r e d " (Doyle 18 87 :48-4 9) . The n e c e s s i t y o f r e p a i r t o t h e l a r g e boats p r i o r to sending f o r t h e lumber s u g g e sts t h a t t h e saw m i l l was n o t l o c a t e d on Mackinac I s l a n d , as S i n c l a i r had o r i g i n a l l y p la nned, b u t r a t h e r somewhere on t h e mainland. Work on t h e b a r r a c k s was a p p a r e n t l y delayed f o r some t i m e , f o r on th e 6th o f September Doyle a g ain wrote England r e g a r d i n g t h e r e p a i r s . "I propose in a few Days sending t o t h e Saw Mill f o r Plan k, when I s h a l l give t h e Barracks a thorough r e p a i r having r e c e i v e d o r d e r s from His 36 E xcellenc y Major General Clarke t o t h a t purpose" (Doyle 1893:381). Only t h e mention o f th e name Campbell in D oyle's correspondence provided a c l u e as t o t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e m i l l . Robert Campbell was among a group o f t r a d e r s , mer ch an ts, and o t h e r i n h a b i t a n t s "fo r m er ly commodiously s e t t l e d a t t h e Old V i l l a g e o f M i c h i l i mackinac in t h e y e a r 1780" who p r e s e n te d a p e t i t i o n t o t h e Commandant, R obe rtson, in October o f 1783 (Campbell e t al 1888:393-395). This p e t i t i o n s t a t e d t h a t a l l o f th e und ersig ned i n h a b i t a n t s had moved to Mackinac I s l a n d , a t t h e r e q u e s t o f S i n c l a i r , when t h e g a r r i s o n has moved, and had abandoned v a l u a b l e improvements as a r e s u l t . S inclair had promised, and a p p a r e n t l y d e l i v e r e d , comparable land g r a n t s on th e I s l a n d a s i n c e n t i v e t o make t h e move and as p a r t i a l compensation f o r th e ir losses. In 1783, f o llo w i n g t h e T r e a ty o f P a r i s in which t h e B r i t i s h ceded t h e Northwest T e r r i t o r y t o t h e United S t a t e s , t h e s e p e t i t i o n e r s were concerned t h a t th e American government might not acknowledge t h e i r l o o s e l y documented clai m s and asked in t h i s p e t i t i o n t h a t t h e Commandant confirm t h e i r c l a i m s . At l e a s t one o f t h e p e t i ­ t i o n e r s , P i e r r e Grignon, r e c e iv e d a sig ned land g r a n t from S i n c l a i r ( S i n c l a i r 1908:432-434), b u t f o r t h e most p a r t t h e s e deeds have e i t h e r n o t s u rv iv e d o r were per haps n o t i s s u e d . A f t e r a t r i p thr ou gh t h e Northwest T e r r i t o r y in 1796, t o a r r a n g e f o r t h e change o f government from B r i t i s h t o American c o n t r o l , Winthrop S a r g e n t wrote t o t h e S e c r e t a r y o f S t a t e r e g a rd in g land r e c o r d s . W h il st I was a t Michilimackinack S i r I examined t h e Land Records o f t h e I s l a n d which was purchased from t h e In dia ns in 1781 and a f o r ­ mal Deed i s now w it h t h e Commandant - a copy o f which I have th e 37 honour t o t r a n s m i t - By th o s e r e c o r d s i t appe ar s t h e i r Land Trans­ a c t i o n s were sometimes extreme l o o s e - s c a r c e l y a s i n g l y Deed made where a Boundary was e x p r e s s e d , and in many Cases n e i t h e r Boundary nor Q u a n tit y - a t t h e same Time, t h e p r i n c i p a l p a r t o f th e Is la n d app ea rs t o have been g r a n te d away, and t h e P o s s e s s o r s o r Claimants c a n , I b e l i e v e , by o r a l Testimony, very g e n e r a l l y d e f i n e t h e i r L o ts , which were a l l d e r iv e d immediately from L i e u t e n a n t Colonel P. S i n c l a i r , t h e Governour o f t h e I s l a n d ( C a r t e r 1931:457). L i t t l e in fo r m a tio n was rec orded r e g a r d i n g Robert Campbell. His s i g n a t u r e on t h e S i n c l a i r p e t i t i o n was h i s e a r l i e s t ap pearance in t h e documentary r e c o rd and 1 t sug ges ted t h a t he was well e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e Mackinac s e t t l e m e n t by t h e w i n t e r o f 1780-81 when t h e g a r r i s o n was moved. His name appeared a number o f times i n o f f i c i a l documents o f th e 1780;s and 1790's (G ru et 1785, J u l y 20; S t . Martin 1908:497-498; S t . Martin 1910:102). Campbell a l s o was mentioned in a l e t t e r from Ch ar les Morison o f Mackinac t o John Askin i n D e t r o i t dat ed February 10, 1801. "And t h e i c e only c l o s e d t h e 22nd. bell Mr. F r a s e r had t o s t a y a t Mr. Camp­ *s 15 days b e f o r e he g o t over h e r e , which was on t h e 24th Ulto" (Morison 1910:294). This r e f e r e n c e made i t c l e a r t h a t Campbell had a house on t h e mainland n e a r t h e S t r a i t s , as Mr. F r a s e r was f o r c e d t o s t a y t h e r e aw a i tin g s a f e i c e c o n d i t i o n s f o r h i s passage t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t on th e i s l a n d . Following th e B r i t i s h c e s s i o n o f t h e Northwest T e r r i t o r y i n 1796, t h e United S t a t e s government e s t a b l i s h e d th e D e t r o i t Land Commission t o review a l l lan d cl a im s 1n Michigan T e r r i t o r y , which, as S a r g e n t sug­ g e s t e d , were very l o o s e l y documented. The Land Commission c o l l e c t e d 38 i n form ati o n and examined claim s d u r in g 1804 and 1805, r e p o r t i n g to Con­ g r e s s i n J a n u a r y , 1806. The D e t r o i t Land O f fic e was e s t a b l i s h e d by Congress in March, 1807, to f u r t h e r examine th e claims and to r e j e c t or confirm them. This o f f i c e J an uar y 1825. and i t s Board o perated from June 1807 u n t i l The d e t a i l s o f Land O f f i c e o p e r a t i o n s a r e o f l i t t l e con­ ce rn h e r e , ex cep t as th ey r e l a t e to t h e p a r t i c u l a r p r o p e r t y under consideration. Aswas t h e c a s e with t h e m a j o r i t y o f clai m s processed for the T e rr ito r y , P r i v a t e Claim 334 was a cl aim based not on any c l e a r deed o r g r a n t , b u t r a t h e r on occupancy and improvement United S t a t e s t a k e o v e r 1n 1796. Though i t p r i o r to t h e was most l i k e l y a g r a n t o f land made by S i n c l a i r t o Campbell s ubse qu en t to t h e removal o f t h e g a r ­ r i s o n from t h e mainland t o Mackinac I s l a n d , nodeed o r g r a n t has been found, nor was one mentioned in t h e c la im . Robert Campbell di ed in 1808 and on October 19 o f t h a t y e a r , "the l e g a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Robert Campbell, deceased" p r e s e n t e d a claim to t h e R e g i s t e r o f t h e D e t r o i t Land O f f i c e f o r 640 a c r e s , 20 in f r o n t and 31 a c r e s in depth on t h e mainland so uth o f Mackinac I s l a n d . whereon th e s a i d Robert Campbell, f o r many y e a r s p a s t , and u n t i l h i s d e a t h , d i d l i v e and improve, t o g e t h e r with t h e house, m i l l s , and o t h e r improvements th e r e o n e r e c t e d and made, commonly known by t h e name o f Campbell's farm. The s a i d h e i r s o f t h e s a i d Robert Campbell cla im s a i d t r a c t o f lan d by v i r t u e o f long and con tinued p o s s e s s i o n , occupancy, and v a l u a b l e improvements by them, and the s a i d Robert Campbell, under whom th e y c l a i m , made upon s a i d farm (Lowrie 1832:408). This cla im was w i tn e s s e d by Daniel Daly, who added t h a t " f o r t y a c r e s and upwards a r e c u l t i v a t e d " ( i b i d . ) . Michael Dousman was a l s o a w itn e ss to 39 th e c l a im , and s a id " t h a t t h e r e a r e c o n s i d e r a b l e improvements made on th e prem is es , t o w i t , a g r i s t and a saw m i l l , a l a r g e o r c h a r d , and valuable buildings" ( i b i d . ) . The cla im o f Campbell's h e i r s was confirmed on t h e 25th o f October, 1808 with th e r eq uirem en t t h a t they have th e cla im surveyed and f i l e a copy o f t h e survey w ith th e D e t r o i t Land O f f ic e (Lowrie 1832a:408-409). These documents supported th e con­ c l u s i o n t h a t Robert Campbell was t h e owner o f t h e saw m i l l e a r l i e r mentioned by t h e B r i t i s h commandants. Aaron Greeley was t h e Deputy Surveyor d e s i g n a te d by th e Land O f fic e t o survey t h e p r i v a t e cla im s in t h e Mackinac a r e a , and t h e map showing h i s survey o f 1810 i l l u s t r a t e s P r i v a t e Claim Number 334, "confirmed t o th e le g a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Robert Campbell" (Greeley 1810). The Camp­ b e l l cla im was l o c a t e d on t h e so uth er n sh o re o f Lake Huron and a t th e e a s t e r n edge o f a t r a c t o f 11,520 a c r e s which a l s o incl uded th e "Old F o r t o f Michilimackinac" and P r i v a t e Claim Number 335, confirmed to P a t r i c k McGulpin. This l a r g e t r a c t was l a b e l l e d , "Ceded to t h e United S t a t e s by t h e Chippewas a t t h e T r e a ty o f G r e e n v i l l e in t h e y e a r 1795" (ib id .). The T r e a t y G r e e n e v i l l e r e f e r r e d t o a number o f c e s s i o n s o f Indian land s t o t h e United S t a t e s in c l u d i n g The p o s t o f M ichilim ac kin ac , and a l l t h e land on t h e i s l a n d , on which t h e p o s t s t a n d s , and the main land a d j a c e n t , o f which t h e I ndia n t i t l e had been e x t i n g u i s h e d by g i f t s o r g r a n t s t o t h e French o r En glish governments; and a p i e c e o f land on t h e main t o t h e n o r t h o f t h e i s l a n d , to measure s i x m il e s on l a k e Huron, o r t h e s t r a i t between la k e s Huron and Michigan, and t o extend t h r e e miles back from th e w a te r o f t h e lake 40 o r s t r a i t , and a l s o t h e I s l a n d De Bois Blanc, being an e x t r a and v o l u n t a r y g i f t o f t h e Chippewa n a t i o n (Kappler 1972:40). The land "on t h e main land a d j a c e n t " was e v i d e n t l y t h e l a r g e t r a c t which in c lu d e s P r i v a t e Claims 334 and 335, t h e " r e s e r v a t i o n o f th e p o s t a t Michilimackinac" which was o r i g i n a l l y ceded in t h e 1785 t r e a t y o f F o r t McIntosh (Kappler 1 9 7 2 :8 ). This s u p p o s i t i o n was sup por ted by a r e f e r e n c e in t h e P a t e n t i s s u e d t o Campbell's h e i r s in 1811, which d e s c r i b e s P r i v a t e Claim 334 a s c o n t a i n i n g 640 a c r e s , " l o c a t e d a t th e Southwest c o r n e r o f t h e r e s e r v a t i o n a t Old Michilimackinac" (Cheboygan County, L i b e r B:147). Another map o f t h e S t r a i t s o f Mackinac a r e a , from t h e Public Archives o f Canada, was d a t e d 1n p e n c i l , Apr il 25, 1815, but probably was drawn e a r l i e r th a n t h a t d a t e , perhaps i n t h e 1790 's ( P u b lic Archives o f Canada:1815; Fig ure 2 ) . The q u e s t i o n a b l e n a t u r e o f t h i s map's d a t i n g was based p r i m a r i l y on t h e i n c l u s i o n o f F o r t Thessalon on t h e Thessalon River i n O n t a r i o , an e s t a b l i s h m e n t which was only in e x i s t e n c e du rin g t h e 1780' s and 1 7 9 0 's . This map showed a "Saw M il l" l o c a t e d on t h e west bank o f Mill Creek n e a r t h e c r e e k ' s mouth. On March 12, 1819, Robert Campbell's h e i r s s o ld P r i v a t e Claim Num­ b e r 334 to Michael Dousman o f Mackinac I s l a n d f o r $1,000. (Cheboygan County, L ib er 5 2 :5 4 4 ). Dousman was an i n d i v i d u a l o f some n o t o r i e t y in t h e Upper Lakes, and e n t e r p r i s i n g man w it h w id e- reac h in g i n t e r e s t s . Born 1n P i t t s b u r g h , Penn sy lvania in 1771, Dousman came t o t h e Northwest T e r r i t o r y in August, 1796. He s p e n t some weeks i l l 1n D e t r o i t and a r r i v e d 1n Mackinac in October o f t h a t y e a r . Dousman made h i s home in Mackinac and was a c t i v e in t h e f u r t r a d e f o r most o f t h e remainder o f his l i f e . He was a p a r t n e r o f David Stone from D e t r o i t and f o r some time 41 F ig u re 2. S t r a i t s o f Mackinac c i r c a 1785 42 IM 7. it V f #« i: 'v . v - ' . * <{ K * ^ . •i' '» < r’>* y ■ £ «j 'y *•. ■ 43 worked f o r John Jacob A s t o r ' s American Fur Company, as well a s on h i s own a c c o u n t, Importing over $16,000. worth o f goods d u r in g t h e p e r io d 1803-1824 (Mackinac Impost Book 1802-1850). Dousman was commissioned L i e u t e n a n t o f M i l i t i a f o r t h e Mackinac D i s t r i c t 1n 1805 and was a p p o in t e d Marshal o f t h a t D i s t r i c t in 1808 ( C a r t e r 1941:727). During t h e Land Claims Commission h e a r i n g s , he w it n e s s e d numerous c l a i m s i n t h e Mackinac and S a u l t S a i n t e Marie a r e a s , i n c l u d i n g Robert C a m p b e l l ' s , a s well as f i l i n g cla im s on s e v e r a l hundred a c r e s h im s e lf . One o f t h e s e c l a i m s , h i s farm and r e s i d e n c e on Mackinac I s l a n d , was t h e s o u r c e o f c o n s i d e r a b l e f r i c t i o n between Dousman and t h e U.S. Army in 1811 ( I b i d . 370-3 71). The Army claimed t h a t i t was r i g h t l y t h e i r p r o p e r t y and wanted i t f o r t h e wood growing t h e r e . Dousman claimed t h a t t h e wood had l a r g e l y been c u t and t h a t he had made v a l u a b l e improvements, i n c l u d i n g a t w o - s t o r y hous e, a s t i l l - h o u s e , and a m i l l . Dousman u l t i m a t e l y won t h i s argument and h i s cl aim was confirm ed. A major sourc e o f Dousman's n o t o r i e t y was h i s r o l e in t h e 1812 cap­ t u r e o f F o r t Mackinac by B r i t i s h f o r c e s . S u b je c t o f l i t i g a t i o n f o r y e a r s a f t e r t h e i n c i d e n t , Dousman*s r o l e in t h e e v e n t s t h a t l e d t o th e c a p t u r e was n o t c l e a r l y u n d e r sto o d . Before t h e I s l a n d ' s I n h a b i t a n t s , both m i l i t a r y and c i v i l i a n , knew o f t h e d e c l a r a t i o n o f war between Gre at B r i t a i n and t h e United S t a t e s , t h e r e was s u s p i c i o n r e g a r d i n g B r i t i s h a c t i v i t i e s in t h e r e g i o n . Dousman e v i d e n t l y s e t o u t on a t r i p t o S t . J o s e p h ' s I s l a n d , o s t e n s i b l y t o check on h i s t r a d i n g i n t e r e s t s in t h a t area. I t was a l l e g e d t h a t he was i n t e r c e p t e d and c a p t u r e d by a B r i t i s h f o r c e on i t s way t o a t t a c k F o r t Mackinac, a f o r c e which knew o f th e o f f i c i a l s t a t e o f war between t h e two n a t i o n s . Dousman was sworn t o s e c r e c y and s e t a s h o r e on Mackinac I s l a n d w it h d i r e c t i o n s t o s ee to t h e 44 removal o f noncombatants from t h e v i l l a g e , which was very n ea r t h e f o r t . This t a s k was accomplished w i th o u t warning t h e tro o p s o f th e g a r r i s o n and t h e B r i t i s h a t t a i n e d an ov er lo o k in g vantage p o i n t a t t h e r e a r o f t h e fort. The American Commandant s u rr e n d e re d h i s p o s i t i o n w i th o u t a s h o t being f i r e d and Dousman was branded a t r a i t o r by many o f h i s f e l lo w citizens. His a c t i o n s in t h i s i n c i d e n t a p p a r e n t l y prompted t h e B r i t i s h government t o g r a n t him c e r t a i n c o n c e s si o n s du rin g t h e i r occu pa tion o f t h e a r e a , which l a s t e d u n t i l 1814. Dousman provided t h e B r i t i s h g a r r i ­ son with v a r i o u s s u p p l i e s , i n c l u d i n g hay and lumber, and was e v i d e n t l y u n r e s tr ic te d in the p u r s u it o f f u r s . This be hav ior l e f t him open t o numerous c harges o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n w ith t h e enemy f o ll o w in g t h e war and was a so urce o f l a w s u i t s and t h e d e n i a l , from 1816 u n t i l 1819, o f a l i c e n s e t o engage i n t h e f u r t r a d e . Though he was c l e a r e d of t h e a l l e ­ g a t i o n s o f c o l l a b o r a t i o n and h i s r i g h t t o t r a d e r e i n s t a t e d , Dousman s u f f e r e d a c c u s a t i o n s f o r some time and was quick to a f f i r m h is a l l e g i a n c e t o t h e United S t a t e s . I t was c l e a r t h a t h i s t i e s with t h e B r i t i s h were l i t t l e more th an e x p e d i e n t , f o r as soon as h o s t i l i t i e s c e a s e d , he f i l e d claim s w ith t h e B r i t i s h government i n Canada f o r s e r ­ v i c e s he provided and damages t o h i s p r o p e r t y s u f f e r e d dur in g t h e occupati on (Dousman 1815). In 1819, Dousman purchased t h e Mill Creek p r o p e r t y from Campbell's h e i r s , John Campbell and h i s w if e E l i z a b e t h , P e i r r e Pyant and h i s w ife Mary, and James S t e v e n s . During t h a t y e a r , he " f i t ou t" a cooper t o manufacture b a r r e l s (Dousman 1819a) and p e t i t i o n e d Governor Lewis Cass f o r a d e t e r m in a t i o n o f h i s c i t i z e n s h i p and r i g h t s t o engage i n t h e f u r t r a d e , succeeding in r e g a i n i n g h i s l o s t l i c e n s e (Dousman 1819b). He 45 expanded h i s t r a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s , s e l l i n g a v a r i e t y o f goods t o t h e I nd ian Agent a t Mackinac among o t h e r s (Dousman 1819c), and i n v e s t i n g in land in Wisconsin. The United S t a t e s Census o f 1820 r e f l e c t e d something more o f Dousman's commercial a c t i v i t i e s (United S t a t e s Census 1820). His household was l i s t e d as c o n t a i n i n g 24 p e r s o n s , enumerated below. Table 13. Michael Dousman household, 1820 Census 2 f r e e white males under 10 2 f r e e w h ite males between 16 and 18 7 f r e e w h ite males between 18 and 26 6 f r e e w h ite males o f 45 and upwards 2 f r e e w h ite females under 10 1 f r e e white female between 10 and 16 1 f r e e w h ite female between 16 and 26 1 f r e e w h ite female between 26 and 45 1 f r e e c o lo r e d male between 14 and 26 1 f r e e c o l o r e d female between 14 and 26 Of t h e s e , 9 were f o r e i g n e r s , 9 were engaged i n a g r i c u l t u r e , one was engaged in commerce, and one was engaged 1n manufactu re. The term "household" was e v i d e n t l y a p p l i e d r a t h e r b r oadly i n t h i s Census, f o r th e "household" o f Ramsay Crooks, c h i e f ag en t o f t h e American Fur Company a t Mackinac, was l i s t e d as c o n t a i n i n g 207 p e r s o n s , 193 o f them engaged in commerce, 157 o f them f o r e i g n e r s . I t was a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e s e i n d i v i ­ d u a ls did n o t a l l r e s i d e under a common r o o f , but inclu ded most o r a l l o f t h e per sons i n t h e employ o f t h e company, many o f whom may not have even r e s i d e d in Mackinac d u r in g much o f th e y e a r . Such was e v i d e n t l y t h e c a s e w it h Dousman*s "household", f o r h i s fa m ily a t t h a t time 46 numbered on ly 9 , su g g e stin g t h a t t h e o t h e r 15 I n d iv id u a l s l i s t e d were s e r v a n ts a n d /o r employees. Dousman's saw m ill on Mill Creek was noted by James Duane Doty, s e c r e t a r y o f th e Lewis Cass e x p e d itio n through t h e Upper Lakes in June o f 1820. Doty observed t h a t "Off th e upper end o f Bois Blanc ( I s l a n d ) abo ut 10 m iles d i s t a n t on th e main t h e r e i s a saw m i l l " (Doty 1895). The a g r i c u l t u r a l a c t i v i t y ' o f Dousman i s f u r t h e r a t t e s t e d to by h is r e g i s t r a t i o n o f a c a t t l e brand t h a t y e a r w ith t h e C i r c u i t Court (M ichilim ackinac County 1820). During 1821 Dousman concluded more s a l e s t o t h e In d ia n A gent, in c lu d in g 300 f e e t o f lumber (Dousman 1821). In t h i s y e a r he was a l s o awarded th e f i r s t o f s e v e ra l annual War Department c o n t r a c t s to supply , b e e f and o t h e r commodities t o t h e g a r r i s o n a t F o r t Mackinac. This p a r t i c u l a r c o n t r a c t was f o r f r e s h b e e f , t o be f u r n is h e d a t a r a t e o f 10$ p er r a t i o n , 25% h ig h e r than t h e r a t e p aid a t any o t h e r War D epart­ ment i n s t a l l a t i o n t h a t y e a r (U.S. Congress 1822). He was ap p o in ted A s s o c ia te J u s t i c e o f t h e County Court by Governor Cass ( C a r t e r 1942:2052 0 6 ), and was e v id e n t ly g e t t i n g involved in t h e s h ip p in g b u s in e s s , f o r h i s corresp on dence t h a t y e a r in c lu d e s a r e f e r e n c e to a c o n t r a c t f o r th e t r a n s f e r o f goods from one p la c e on t h e la k e s t o a n o th e r . In 1822, Dousman's saw m ill was d e p ic te d on a map o f Lake Huron which was drawn by H.W. B a y fie ld o f th e B r i t i s h Royal Navy (B a y fie ld 1822; F ig ure 3 ) . T his map p laced b u ild in g s on both s i d e s o f M ill Creek, r a t h e r than o n ly on t h e w est s i d e , as was th e c a s e on e a r l i e r maps. co rresp o n d en ce, Dousman complained o f having h i s t r a d e goods and f u r s s t a l l e d due to t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f w in te r t r a v e l in th e Upper Lakes (Dousman 1822). Though h i s goods and f u r s were n o t moving, Dousman In 47 F ig u re 3 . S t r a i t s o f Mackinac, 1822 S U K K T I. 49 h im s e lf t r a v e l l e d r a t h e r w id ely d u rin g th e w in te r o f 1822-23, v i s i t i n g both D e t r o i t and B u f f a lo . He noted in a l e t t e r from D e t r o i t t h a t t h e r e was "much t a l k o f t h e New Company," r e f e r r i n g t o th e newly amalgamated Hudson’s Bay Company and Northwest Company ( i b i d . ) . The r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e s e two firm s i n t o a s i n g l e Hudson's Bay Company c o n c e n tra te d th e i n f lu e n c e and power o f t h e Canadian f u r t r a d e i n t o an e v e r more dominant fo rce. In October o f 1823, Dousman f i l e d a claim w ith th e D e t r o i t Land O f fic e f o r a t r a c t in t h e r e a r o f th e 330 a c r e s which had p re v io u s ly been confirm ed t o R o b ert C am pbell's h e i r s (Lowrie 183b:222-223). An im p re s siv e group o f w itn e s s e s prov id ed te stim o n y su p p o rtin g Dousman's c la im , a n d , c o i n c i d e n t a l l y , o f f e r i n g in fo rm a tio n concerning th e Camp­ b e l l ' s e a r l i e r o c c u p a tio n o f t h i s la n d . Ambrose R. Davenport d e s c rib e d e x te n s iv e meadows which provided q u a n t i t i e s o f hay and su pp orted a l a r g e number o f c a t t l e f o r R obert Campbell. P a t r i c k McGulpin swore t h a t "he r e c o l l e c t s t o have seen R obert Campbell in p o s se s sio n o f th e t r a c t b e fo re mentioned in t h e y e a r 1790" ( i b i d . ) . John Campbell, aged 37, te s tif ie d th a t e v e r s in c e h i s r e c o l l e c t i o n , h i s f a t h e r , R obert Campbell occupied u n t i l h i s d e a th t h e t r a c t o f lan d d e s c rib e d in th e annexed n o t i c e ; t h a t a f t e r h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a th t h i s deponent occupied s a id t r a c t u n t i l h e , t o g e t h e r w ith th e o t h e r h e i r s o f h i s s a id f a t h e r , s o ld th e same to Michael Dousman, s in c e which tim e s a id Dousman has been in p o s s e s s io n o f th e same; th e meadows on t h i s t r a c t have always been c o n s id e re d v ery v a l u a b l e , and t h i s deponent well knows t h a t h is f a t h e r e v ery y e a r c u t l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f hay upon them, and 50 t h i s deponent d i d th e same w hile he was 1n p o s se s sio n o f them (ib id .). Dousman's c la im , extend ing th e t r a c t to i t s o r ig i n a l 640 a c r e s , was confirm ed by th e Land Board on October 22, 1823 ( i b i d . ) . A ta x 1 1 s t f o r M ichilim ackinac County f o r t h a t y e a r showed Dousman as th e h o ld e r o f r e a l p r o p e rty valu ed a t $15,000 and perso nal p r o p e rty valued a t $2,000 (M ichilim ackinac County 1823). In e i t h e r o f th e s e c a t e g o r i e s and in a g g r e g a te , Dousman was by f a r t h e l a r g e s t in d iv id u a l p r o p e rty h o ld e r and ta x p a y e r in t h i s v a s t n o r th e rn d i s t r i c t . He was second o n ly to th e American Fur Company, which h e ld $20,000 worth o f r e a l p r o p e rty and $30,000 worth o f p e rso n a l p r o p e r ty , most l i k e l y 1n th e form o f t r a d e goods and f u r s . The f i n a n c i a l and economic a c t i v i t i e s o f Mr. Dousman co ntin ued apace d u rin g 1824, and he r e c e iv e d h is second c o n t r a c t to supply f r e s h b e e f t o F o rt Mackinac (U.S. Congress 1825). A s in g l e l e d g e r page from 1824 and 1825, e n te r e d a s ev id en ce in a s u i t between Dousman and John L a ir d , showed t h a t Dousman was s e l l i n g lum ber, f l o u r , b a r r e l s , hay and b e e f in th e community, a s well as r e n t i n g a house (M ichilim ackinac County 1828). He remained t h e C ounty's second l a r g e s t p r o p e rty h o ld e r and ta x p a y e r in 1824, b u t h i s a p p r a i s a l s dropped to $11,000 r e a l p r o p e r ty and $1,500 p erso n al p r o p e rty (M ichilim ackinac County 1824). However, t h e bulk o f t h e c o u n t y 's a p p r a i s a l s a l s o f e l l in t h a t y e a r , th e t o t a l value o f r e a l p r o p e rty dropping from $83,100 to $65,462 and th e v a lu e o f p erso n al p r o p e r ty from $57,891 to $29,932. The gen eral economic c o n d itio n s o f t h e tim e m ight have been th e cause o f t h i s d e c l i n e in v a l u e s , b u t o t h e r i n d i c a t o r s d id n o t show a s i m i l a r drop. 51 Perhaps a more Im p o rtan t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e change 1n v alu es was th e appointm ent o f Michael Dousman as ta x a s s e s s o r ( i b i d . ) . In O ctober, 1825, Dousman was a l s o a p p o in te d one o f th e County Com­ m iss io n e rs f o r M ichilim ackin ac County ( C a r te r 1942:900-901). In Decem­ b e r , he was one o f 35 s i g n e r s o f a p e t i t i o n to Congress "by Merchants o f M ichilim ackinac" f o r a l i g h t house t o be b u i l t a t th e e a s te r n end o f Bois Blanc Is la n d a s a n a v ig a tio n a l a i d t o s h ip s t r a v e l l i n g up th e la k e ( C a r te r 1942:836-837). The county ta x l i s t f o r 1826 showed Dousman s t i l l th e second l a r g e s t p r o p e rty h o l d e r and ta x p a y e r (M ichilim ackinac County 1826). He won th e c o n t r a c t t o p ro v id e f r e s h b e e f f o r th e g a r r i s o n t h a t y e a r (U.S. Congress 1827) and h i s corresp on den ce r e f l e c t e d h i s co n tin u ed I n t e r e s t in t r a d e . In a June l e t t e r t o John Lawe in Green Bay he w rote o f le a d and f i s h hooks, th e d i f f i c u l t y o f a c q u ir in g s u f f i c i e n t gunpowder and f l i n t s , and remarked t h a t a v e s s e l had r e c e n t l y made th e t r i p from Buf­ f a l o to Mackinac in j u s t n in e days (Dousman 1826). During t h e l a t e r y e a r s o f th e 1 8 2 0 's and th e e a r l y 1 8 3 0 's , Dousman was employed by t h e American Fur Company, as was h i s e l d e s t so n. H e rc u le s. Following a p e rio d o f employment as a c l e r k a t Mackinac, H ercules was d is p a tc h e d t o P r a i r i e du Chien 1n 1827 (Lockwood 1903) and developed a f l o u r i s h i n g t r a d e f o r th e company in t h a t d i s t r i c t . He q u ic k ly e s t a b l i s h e d a r e p u t a t i o n w ith t h e In d ia n s as a f o r t h r i g h t tra d er. His e x p e r t i s e a s a n e g o t i a t o r made him a v a lu a b le and f r e q u e n t c o n t r i b u t o r t o t r e a t y e f f o r t s in th e Old N orthw est. H e rc u le s, in p a r t ­ n e rs h ip w ith Ramsay Crooks, purchased th e n o r th e rn d i v i s i o n o f t h e Company in 1834 from John Jacob A s to r. This v e n tu re was n e i t h e r 52 p a r t i c u l a r l y s u c c e s s f u l n o r l o n g - l i v e d , b u t H ercules had s u f f i c i e n t l y d i v e r s i f i e d h i s b u s in e s s i n t e r e s t s i n t o r a i l r o a d s and steam ships to allow him to amass a c o n s id e r a b l e f o r t u n e . In 1828, Michael Dousman a g ain secured th e c o n t r a c t to provide f r e s h b eef to F o r t M ackinac, a s he d id in 1829 and 1830 (U.S. Census 1829; 1831; 1832). He a l s o won a c o n t r a c t to sup p ly 30,000 pounds of "good Timothy and C lov er Hay f o r $1.10 p er hundred pounds" to F o rt Mackinac 1n 1830. W ritin g o f an e x c u rsio n to th e m ainland to c u t tim b er in t h e w in te r o f 1830, Mr. M artin Heydenburk rem in isced t h a t "Michael Dousman had a saw-mil a b o u t two m ile s d i s t a n t had themt h e r e " (Wood 1918 ( 1 ) : 4 1 5 ) . from our lo g s and we soon Dousman e v i d e n t l y m ille d th e lum­ b e r , which was th en moved a c r o s s t h e fro z e n S t r a i t s t o be used in th e c o n s tr u c t i o n o f t h e M ission Church on Mackinac I s l a n d . The U.S. Census o f 1830 (U.S. Census 1830) l i s t e d Dousman's house­ hold as c o n ta in in g 19 i n d i v i d u a l s enumerated below. Table 14. Michael Dousman househ old, 1830 Census 1 w h ite male between 10and 15 1 w h ite male between 15and 20 4 w h ite males between 20 and 30 3 w h ite males between 30 and 40 3 w h ite males between 40 and 50 (Dousman should be 58-59) 1 w h ite fem ale between 5 and 10 1 w h ite fem ale between 10 and 15 2 w h ite fem ales between 15 and 20 2 w h ite fem ales between 20 and 30 1 w h ite fem ale between 40 and 50 53 Dousman r e t a i n e d h i s f r e s h b e e f c o n t r a c t f o r 1831 and a ls o c o n tr a c te d to d e l i v e r 23,000 pounds o f tim othy and c lo v e r hay a t $12.50 p er 1,000 pounds (U .S. Congress 1832). His correspondence included r e f e r e n c e s t o r a i s i n g and sh ip p in g p ig s to s e v e ra l o f h i s a s s o c i a t e s in th e reg io n (Dousman 1831). During t h e p erio d 1832 through 1836, Dousman con tin ued to su p p ly f r e s h b e e f t o F o r t Mackinac (U.S. Congress 1833; 1834; 1836), and was Involved 1n sh ip p in g w ith a t le a s e one v e s s e l , th e Nancy Dousman, p ly in g th e la k e s w ith p a ssen g ers and f r e i g h t (La Ronde 1908:349). C o n s i s t e n t w ith a s e r i e s o f e a r l i e r land purch ases in th e Green Bay a r e a , In 1833 he made s i g n i f i c a n t land buys and began d ev e lo p ­ ments in th e new v i l l a g e o f Milwaukee w ith Morgan L. M a rtin , a land s p e c u l a to r and c o u s in o f James Doty ( S t i l l 1948:9, 22, 3 0 ). His a c q u i s i t i o n s Inclu ded s e v e ra l l o t s , upon which he c o n s tr u c te d a w are­ house, a s t o r e , and d w e llin g s . In November, 1834, Dousman sig n ed a " P e t i t i o n to Congress by Owners and M asters o f G re a t Lakes V essels" ( C a r t e r 1945:812-814). This docu­ ment complained o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s o f n a v ig a tio n on Lake M ichigan, e s p e c i a l l y th e g r e a t d i s t a n c e between h arb ou rs on th e w estern s h o re . The p e t i t i o n e r s f u r t h e r p r e d ic te d t h a t 150 v e s s e l s were ex pected to be involved 1n commerce in th e a r e a th e fo llo w in g y e a r . They asked t h a t funds be a l l o c a t e d to dev elop a h arbour a t t h e mouth o f th e Milwaukee R iver. A map o f t h e G r e e n v i l le T re a ty c e s s io n lan d s in th e S t r a i t s o f Mackinac was p rep ared 1n 1834 and shows "Dousman's M ill" on M ill Creek ( E l l i s 1834). Though t h e s c a l e was small and d e t a i l l i m i t e d , i t d e p ic te d t h r e e s t r u c t u r e s a t th e m ill s i t e , a l l on th e w est s id e o f th e stream . 54 In 1835, Dousman's s o n s, George and T a lb o t, moved to Milwaukee to look a f t e r t h e i r f a t h e r ' s growing I n t e r e s t s 1n t h a t c i t y and to e s t a b ­ l i s h them selves in b u s in e s s (Buck 1890:73-74, 131). They o p e ra te d a l a r g e farm in Waukesha County, o u t s i d e th e c i t y , and had i n t e r e s t in th e o p e r a tio n o f a sawmill and a g r i s t m i l l 1n Milwaukee. T h e ir prim ary o c c u p a tio n s in th o s e e a r l y y e a r s , buying, s t o r i n g , and sh ip p in g g r a in from t h e i r warehouses n e a r th e h a rb o u r, earned George t h e a p p e l l a t i o n " le a d in g fo rw ard er o f h i s day" (Holton 1906:256, 258, 260). A "memorial to Congress by th e I n h a b i ta n ts o f M ichilim ackinac" seek in g an a p p r o p r i a t i o n f o r th e c o n s tr u c t i o n o f two p i e r s to p r o t e c t th e h arbo ur a t t h a t p la c e was sig n ed by Michael Dousman and a number o f o t h e r s , in c lu d in g J.M. Lewis, m a ste r o f th e Nancy Dousman ( C a r te r 1945:1030-1031). L ie u te n a n t Benjamin Poole o f th e T hird A r t i l l e r y Regiment, U.S. Army, surveyed a proposed road r o u te from Saginaw t o Mackinac in 1839 (P oo le 1839). The n o r th e rn term in u s o f t h i s r o u te reached Lake Huron a t th e e a s t s i d e o f M ill Creek and th e map showed "Dousman's Saw M ill" on th e e a s t bank. The 1840 f e d e r a l census l i s t s Michael Dousman's household as con­ t a i n i n g elev en p e r s o n s , enumerated below. T able 15. Michael Dousman h ou seho ld , 1849 Census 4 w h ite males between 20 and 30 1 w h ite male between 30 and 40 2 w h ite males between 40 and 50 (Dousman would be 68-69) 1 w h ite fem ale between 10 and 15 1 w h ite fem ale between 20 and 30 1 w h ite fem ale between 40 and 50 55 The P o p u latio n Schedule l i s t e d one person engaged 1n commerce, none in a g r i c u l t u r e , m an u factu re, e t c . E v id e n tly , i f Dousman was employing o t h e r s in th o se o c c u p a tio n s , th ey were enumerated In s e p a r a te house­ h o ld s . In 1841, Dousman c o n tr a c te d w ith L ie u te n a n t John Phelps to f u r n i s h and d e l i v e r f u e l to F o rt Mackinac (U.S. Congress 1842). He was to p rov ide 300 co rd s o f firew ood a t a r a t e o f $3.45 p e r c o r d , a p r ic e t h a t was double th e going r a t e o f War Department c o n t r a c t s a t D e t r o i t t h a t year. In 1842, Dousman won th e c o n t r a c t to p ro vide s tra w t o th e g a r r i ­ son "as r e q u ire d " a t a r a t e o f $15 p er ton (U.S. Congress 1843). Dousman's w ife o f 35 y e a r s , J a n e , d ied in Mackinac in May o f 1842 (King 1843). On A p ril 26 o f t h e fo llo w in g y e a r , h i s d a u g h te r , Nancy, d ie d in Milwaukee, o n ly t o be follow ed in d eath on May 1 by her b r o t h e r , P r e s l e y , aged 29. News o f h i s c h i l d r e n s ' d e a th s reached Michael w hile he was t r a v e l l i n g th ro ug h D e t r o i t two weeks l a t e r , and he was s t r i c k e n w ith g r i e f , f a l l i n g n e a r d eath h im s e lf (Dousman, M., 1843). A f te r re c o v e rin g from th e s e blows to h i s f a m ily , Dousman seemed to throw h im s e lf i n t o h i s farm in g , t r a d i n g , and s p e c u l a tio n w ith renewed v ig o r. He won th e c o n t r a c t f o r hay and stra w a t F o r t Mackinac and F o rt Brady, in S a u l t S a in te M arie, d u rin g 1843 (U.S. Congress 1844). T a lb o t Dousman w ro te t o h is o l d e r b r o t h e r , H e rc u le s , in F ebru ary, 1844, com plaining o f t h e i r f a t h e r ' s com pulsive work h a b i t s . C o n s is te n t in th e s i b l i n g s ' correspondence was th e b e l i e f t h a t H ercules had g r e a t e r i n f lu e n c e o ver M ichael, perhaps s in c e he was th e o l d e s t and most e s ta b li s h e d o f th e c h i l d r e n . I wish F a th e r cou ld be induced to c l o s e h i s b u s in e s s and leav e Mackinaw. He ap p ears t o t h i n k i f he does n o t work he w ill s t a r v e . 56 and th e more he works th e more he l o s e s — I b e lie v e i f you could see him you would in d u ce him t o c l o s e up every th in g and l i v e a t e a se th e b a la n c e o f h i s days (Dousman, T .C ., 1844). At t h e same tim e T a lb o t was seek in g to slow h is f a t h e r down, Michael was awarded c o n t r a c t s w ith th e War Department t o p ro vid e 100 cords o f firew ood t o t h e Indian Agency a t Mackinac a t $2.50 p e r c o rd , and hay and s tr a w f o r F o r t Mackinac through 1845 and 1846 (U.S. Congress 1845). In a l e t t e r from Michael t o H ercules d ated J u ly 13, 1844, po sted in Milwaukee d u rin g a b u s in e s s t r i p , th e f a t h e r announced "I have looked Close t o my B u sin ess a t Mackinac" (Dousman, M., 1844). L a te r t h a t y e a r he was awarded a c o n t r a c t f o r a y e a r ' s firew ood f o r F o r t Mackinac and th e f r e s h b e e f c o n t r a c t f o r t h a t I n s t a l l a t i o n (U.S. Congress 1846). from slow ing down, he was a c c e l e r a t i n g h i s a c t i v i t y . Far Bear in mind, th e s e t r a n s a c t i o n s a r e gleaned from s c a t t e r e d s o u r c e s , n o t Dousman's l e d g e r s o r o t h e r b u s in e s s r e c o r d s , and s u r e l y r e f l e c t o n ly a p o r tio n o f h is commercial a c t i v i t i e s . On O ctober 3 , 1844, Michael Dousman, 74 y e a r o ld widower, was bound over a t $2,000 bond on ch arg es o f " a s s a u l t w ith i n t e n t to commit rap e upon t h e w ife o f John Knapp" (M ichilim ackinac County 1844). A messy l i t t l e b u s in e s s , t h i s , r e p l e t e w ith d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f s e v e ra l In ­ c i d e n t s d u rin g which o ld Michael d id send h i s s e r v a n t John o f f on d u t i e s elsew h ere w h ile he pursued th e l o v e ly Emily, o f f e r i n g such enticem ents as a new p a i r o f shoes i f s h e 'd s i t on h i s l a p , and w o rse, cu lm in atin g in some p h y s ic a l abuse upon h e r person a f t e r r e f u s i n g t o r o l l in th e hay. The m a t t e r was made somewhat more i n t e r e s t i n g by th e testim o n y o f an e y e w itn e s s , who had s e c r e t e d h im s e lf beneath Mrs. Knapp's bed, in th e one i n s t a n c e , and in t h e haymow, in th e o t h e r . A la s , th e u l ti m a t e 57 outcome o f t h i s a f f a i r i s unknown to th e a u t h o r , as exam inations o f c o u r t re c o rd s f a i l e d t o re c o v e r th e s e tt l e m e n t . Dousman c o n tin u e d t o c o n t r a c t f o r hay and s traw f o r F ort Mackinac d u rin g 1846 and 1847, a t $16 and $15 per t o n , r e s p e c t i v e l y (U.S. Con­ g r e s s 1847). Much o f h i s correspondence d uring th e s e y e a r s d isc u s s e d th e s u c c e ss e s o f h i s sons in sh ip p in g and w arehousing, as well as th e o p e r a tio n o f a farm and m ill in th e Milwaukee a r e a (Dousman, M., 1847a, 1847b). Michael Dousman re m a rrie d on September 28, 1847 a t Mackinac. He m arried 30 y e a r o ld E liz a McLeod o f Mackinac, g iv in g h is own age as 60 (G ruet 17 85-:116). In A pril o f 1848, Dousman w rote h is w ill in Milwaukee, le a v in g a token $100 t o H e rc u le s , h i s house in Mackinac and $5,000 to h i s w ife E liza. The rem ainder o f h i s e s t a t e was to be d iv id e d among John B. Dousman, George D. Dousman, T a lb o t C. Dousman, and E liz a Jane W olcott (Dousman, M., 1848a). S h o r tly t h e r e a f t e r , Dousman w rote h is e l d e s t son, t e l l i n g him o f th e w i l l , adding t h a t " l i f e i s v ery u n c e r ta in " (Dousman, M., 1848b). Another l e t t e r from Michael t o H e rc u le s, d ated November 26, 1849, s t a t e d " I have s o ld ov er 200 B a re ls F lo u r t h i s Sumer, n o t l e s s than $5" (Dousman, M ., 1849). The 1850 f e d e r a l census was th e f i r s t to enumerate d e t a i l e d i n f o r ­ mation on a g r i c u l t u r e and m an u factu rin g . Michael Dousman was l i s t e d in M ichilim ackinac County w ith 100 a c r e s o f improved la n d , 536 a c r e s o f unimproved la n d , a farm a p p r a is e d a t $10,000 cash v a lu e , implements a p p ra ise d a t $101, 2 h o r s e s , 26 m ilch cows, 2 working oxen, 2 o th e r c a t t l e , 11 sw ine, t o t a l v alu e o f l i v e s t o c k $800, 200 b u sh els o f o a t s , 100 b u sh els o f I r i s h p o t a t o e s , $200 worth o f o rch ard p ro d u c ts , 400 58 pounds o f b u t t e r , 30 to n s o f hay (U.S. Census 1850). He does n o t appear in th e p o p u la tio n sch ed u les f o r M ichilim ackinac County, nor in Milwau­ k ee, so enumeration o f h is household i s im p o ssib le . An 1852 survey o f th e S t r a i t s o f Mackinac showed c o n s id e ra b le d e t a i l , in c lu d in g t h e c l e a r i n g f o r t h e old Mackinaw Road on th e main­ l a n d , and b u ild in g s on Mackinac I s l a n d , but in clu d ed n e i t h e r b u ild in g s nor dam on M ill Creek (Macomb, Raynolds, and P o t t e r 1852). A l a t e r map based on some o f t h e same su rv ey b u t p u b lish e d in 1854, showed a b u ild in g on th e e a s t bank (Kearney and Macomb 1854). On August 22, 1854, James Duane Doty, Dousman's lawyer and old f r i e n d w rote t o John Jacob A s to r, a lo n g -tim e mutual b u s in e s s a s s o c i a t e in New York, "Michael Dousman d ie d when I was 1n Milwaukee and made me one o f h i s e x e c u to r s . I am compelled t o go t o Mackinaw imm ediately to ta k e an in v e n to ry o f h i s p r o p e r t y , e t c . " (Doty 1854). Dousman's w ill was e n te re d in t o p ro b a te in Mackinac on October 11, 1854. I t was con­ t e s t e d f i r s t by T a lb o t and l a t e r by th e widow E l i z a , on b e h a lf o f h er minor dau g h ter E l i z a b e th . The e s t a t e was s e t t l e d only a f t e r le n g th y litig a tio n . The e x e c u to rs o f Dousman's e s t a t e s o ld P r iv a t e Claim 334 to W illiam W. Wendell f o r $400 in 1856 (Cheboygan County, L ib e r 52 :5 4 9 ). The p r o p e rty was sub divid ed and p o r ti o n s o f 1 t s o ld a number o f tim es d u rin g th e rem ainder o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y . In th e f i e l d n o te s o f a survey o f th e Duncan, A lpena, and Ausable River S t a t e Road, l a t e r known as t h e Old Mackinaw Road, surveyed by David S. O liv e r In 1862, were no ted th e fo llo w in g o b s e rv a tio n s o f th e Mill Creek a r e a . "Thro o ld c l e a r i n g to bank o f Stream then ce N67W 1 chain a c r o s s stream -Banks 12 f t . high alm ost p e r p e n d ic u la r and rocky a t Old M ill s i t e " ( O liv e r 1862). 59 During t h e l a t t e r h a l f o f th e n in e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , Mackinac I s la n d became I n c r e a s i n g ly p o p u la r a s a summer v a c a tio n s p o t. One summer v i s i ­ t o r p u b lish ed a d e s c r i p t i v e acco un t o f a t r o u t f i s h i n g e x c u rsio n to M ill Creek in August o f 1867. Though p r i m a r i l y im pressed by th e te n a c io u s I n s e c ts he e n c o u n te re d , " th e s e t r i b e s o f Buzz and Hum," t h i s o b s e rv e r d id le a v e an i n t e r e s t i n g acco un t o f t h e m ill s i t e . We made o u r way up t h e stream a b o u t h a l f a m i le , where t h e r e had fo rm erly been a saw m ill, t h e ru in e d dam o f which s t i l l o b s tr u c te d th e c h an n el. I t was e v id e n t t h a t no t r o u t w ith th e use o f h i s f i n s would s t a y h e r e . There had f o rm e rly been a c le a r e d s p o t o f land ab ou t t h e m i l l , b u t i t was f a s t growing up i n t o f o r e s t a g ain (G.P. Putnam & Sons 1 868:73). In 1881 a crew o f workmen who were p r e p a rin g a r a i l r o a d grad e and b rid g e to c r o s s M ill Creek reco v ere d a b r a s s o r copper plaque b e a rin g an in sc rip tio n : Here l i e t h t h e Body o f John Annan L ate Corpl in th e 2nd B a ttn 60th Regt Who d e p a rte d t h i s 1 i f feby 10 Anno domini 1771 aged 51 y e a r s (H.R. Page & co . 1 884:102). A check o f B r i t i s h m u ster r o l l s from F o r t M ichilim ackinac from t h i s tim e p e rio d re v e a le d t h a t a Corporal John Annan d id Indeed d i e on th e d a te i n d ic a te d on th e p la q u e . The o b j e c t has long s in c e d isa p p e a re d and t h e r e a r e no known photographs o f i t , b u t t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f i t s being a fra u d i s very low, s in c e t h e p u b l i c a t i o n o f t h e f in d p r e d a te s t h e p u b lic r e l e a s e o f t h e Muster Roll in fo rm a tio n in England. 60 A number o f f u r t h e r t r a n s a c t i o n s re g a rd in g th e h i s t o r y o f P r iv a t e Claim 334 took p la c e in t h e e a r l y y e a r s o f th e tw e n t i e t h c e n tu ry . Beginning w ith 1902 and c o n tin u in g through th e n ex t tw enty y e a r s , th e owners o f th e p r o p e rty so ld o f f and le a s e d p o r ti o n s to th e Petoskey Mackinac Lime Company and i t s a g e n t s . This company f u r t h e r le a s e d to W i ll i s Y. D u rre ll o f C in c in n a ti t h e r i g h t s to a l l lim esto n e and c l a y ly in g on o r under t h e s u r f a c e o f th e p r o p e r t y , t o open and " to o p e r a te one o r more q u a r r ie s o r p i t s , have s i d e t r a c k s , and such b u ild in g s as a r e n e c e s sa ry w ith m achinery, e t c . , t o q u a r r y , m ine, and s h ip s a id lim esto n e and c la y " (Cheboygan County, L ib e r 2 4:374; L ib e r 5 2 :5 61 ). This mining o p e r a tio n has had a tremendous e f f e c t on t h e lan dscape in th e general s i t e a re a and i t s e f f e c t on t h e p h y s ic a l remains o f th e e ig h te e n th and n in e te e n th c e n tu ry o c c u p a tio n s have y e t t o be f u l l y a s s e s s e d . One l a r g e q u arry p i t c u ts i n t o t h e high b l u f f o v erlo o k in g t h e s i t e , as do a number o f s m a lle r p i t s s c a t t e r e d alon g t h e b l u f f edge to th e e a s t . In a d d i­ t i o n , t h e r e i s a c u t t h a t e a r l i e r c o n ta in e d a r a i l r o a d sp u r on th e west s id e o f t h e stream . An a f f a d a v i t was f i l e d in t h e Cheboygan County C ourthouse, e v i d e n t ­ ly in r e l a t i o n t o an ow nership d i s p u t e , on November 11, 1916, by Angeline B e n n e tt, aged 85 (Cheboygan County, L ib e r 6 4 :44 1). Mrs. Ben­ n e t t and h er husband C h a rle s l i v e d on P r i v a t e Claim 334 " f o r upwards o f 50 y e a r s , " beginning s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e c l o s e o f th e C iv il War a s te n a n t s o f th e Wendell f a m ily . She d e s c rib e d a man named Young who had e r e c te d a house and m anufactured lim e on t h e prem ises f o r two y e a r s p r i o r to her occupancy. She and h e r husband c o n tin u e d t o l i v e 1n th e house e r e c te d by Young u n t i l a b o u t 1911, when t h e house burned and they were fo rc e d t o move else w h ere. 61 During t h e m iddle y e a r s o f t h i s c e n t u r y , th e g r e a t e r p o r tio n o f P r iv a t e Claim 334 r e v e r t e d to S t a t e ownership and was in c o rp o ra te d in to th e Hardwood S t a t e F o r e s t , under t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n o f th e Department o f N atural R esources, F o r e s t r y D iv is io n . In 1975 th e p r o p e rty was t r a n s ­ f e r r e d to th e Mackinac Is la n d S t a t e Park Commission f o r in c lu s io n in i t s p u b lic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n program. Summary The s u b j e c t p r o p e r ty was ceded to th e U.S. government by th e Chippewas in th e T r e a ty o f G r e e n v i l l e , 1795. Since i t was p a r t o f a "R eserv atio n " su rro u n d in g th e abandoned B r i t i s h F o rt M ichilim ack in ac, and s in c e John Annan, a B r i t i s h Corporal was e v id e n tly b u rie d on th e p r o p e r t y , i t a p p e a rs t h a t t h e B r i t i s h used t h i s a r e a , i f only f o r p ro ­ c u rin g firew ood. P a t r i c k S i n c l a i r ex pressed a s tr o n g need f o r a m ill and f o r th e development o f a g r i c u l t u r e 1n t h e a r e a , and th u s probably g ra n te d t h i s land to Robert Campbell as compensation f o r h i s l o s s e s when th e F o rt was moved. Campbell occupied t h e la n d a t l e a s t as e a r l y as 1790, o p e r a tin g a saw m ill, g r i s t m i l l , and farm . When Campbell d ied in 1808, h is son John co n tin u ed to o p e r a t e a t l e a s t t h e farm , s e l l i n g o u t to Michael Dousman in 1819. Dousman was an e a r l y t r a d e r and e n t r e p r e n e u r , involved in th e f u r t r a d e , was a government c o n t r a c t o r f o r hay, lum ber, b e e f , and o t h e r com­ m o d i ti e s , and a lan d s p e c u l a t o r . T ogether w ith h is c h i l d r e n he became in vo lved in s h ip p in g and w h o le s a lin g . He d id n o t r e s i d e a t th e Mill Creek s i t e , b u t r a t h e r l iv e d a t h i s farm on Mackinac I s l a n d . The docu­ m entary re c o rd d id n o t i n d i c a t e j u s t how th e m ill and mainland farm were o p e ra te d . 62 Local h i s t o r y p laced t h e c l o s i n g o f th e m ill a t 1839, but o t h e r documents su g g est t h a t i t ra n perhaps in to th e 1 8 5 0 's . The s i t e was in a ru in o u s s t a t e by t h e end o f th e C iv il War, an o b s e rv a tio n which s u p p o rts th e argument f o r e a r l i e r c l o s u r e . CHAPTER IV THE FILBERT SITE: ARCHAEOLOGICAL SUMMARY P r o je c t H is to r y and F ie ld Research Methods In th e summer o f 1972, Dr. Lyle M. S to n e, a r c h a e o l o g i s t w ith th e Mackinac Is la n d S t a t e Park Commission, was approached by t h r e e lo c a l amateur a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w ith a r t i f a c t s from a s i t e n e a r Mackinaw C ity . E l l i s and Mary Olson and M argaret L e n t i n i , a l l o f Cheboygan, had d i s ­ covered a s i t e on M ill Creek, ap p ro x im ately t h r e e m ile s e a s t o f Mackinaw C ity . Working o ver t h e a r e a w ith a metal d e t e c t o r , th e Olsons and L e n tin i recov ered a v a r i e t y o f a r t i f a c t s in c lu d in g b u t t o n s , gun p a r t s , n a i l s , t o o l s , u t e n s i l s and c e ra m ic s. A c u rs o ry exam ination o f th e c o l l e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d a l a t e e ig h t e e n th c e n tu ry and e a r l y n in e te e n th c e n tu ry occu p atio n f o r t h i s s i t e , and s tim u la te d i n t e r e s t on th e p a r t o f th e Park Commission. Stone d i v e r te d a small crew from h is ongoing e x c a v a tio n s a t F o r t M ichilim ackinac t o conduct l im i t e d t e s t e x c a v a tio n s d u rin g th e f i r s t two weeks o f August. Under th e f i e l d s u p e rv is io n o f J e r r y Galm, th e s e e x c a v a tio n s were in ten d ed t o a s s e s s th e c h a r a c t e r and c o n d itio n o f t h e s i t e . Galm's t e s t p i t s were l o c a te d a t th e n o rth w est and s o u th e a s t c o rn e rs o f a b u ild in g r u in which was v i s i b l e on th e ground s u r f a c e , a b u ild in g l a t e r d e s ig n a te d S t r u c t u r e One (F ig u re 4 ) . A f i v e f o o t by te n f o o t t e s t u n i t was a l s o excav ated n in e ty f e e t e a s t o f t h e b u ild in g r u in in o r d e r to a i d 1n t h e d e te r m in a tio n o f th e s i t e ' s s p a t i a l l i m i t s . Excavation w ith in t h e b u ild in g r u in re v e a le d s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l and recov ered a q u a n t i t y o f a r t i f a c t s . The e a s t e r n t e s t u n i t y i e l d e d only a small number o f ceram ic sh erd s and was i n t e r p r e t e d a s ly in g n e a r th e 63 64 F ig u re 4 . Base Map, 20CN8 BASE MAP 20CN8 1973,1974,1975 Seasons Structure One o* tn Structure Three Structure Two 0 10 20 1 ___I_ _» ss sow Possible Structure? 30 40 ■ ■ 66 o u t e r edge o f th e s i t e . J u s t o v e r 5,000 o b j e c t s were recovered in 1972 by Galm and th e am ateurs from Cheboygan, and were d e p o s ite d in th e c o l l e c t i o n s o f th e Mackinac I s la n d S t a t e Park Commission. E l l i s Olson, a h i s t o r y t e a c h e r in th e Cheboygan school system , con­ tin u e d h i s r e s e a r c h on th e s i t e th ro ug h th e fo llo w in g months o f 1972 by g a th e r in g an im p ressiv e a r r a y o f documentary r e s o u r c e s . O ls o n 's d i l i g e n c e r e s u l t e d in t h e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s l o c a l i t y as th e s i t e o f a farm and m ill complex e s t a b l i s h e d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e R ev o lu tio n ary War and o p e ra te d u n t i l t h e m id -n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . He was a b le t o i d e n t i f y two p r i n c ip a l owners o f t h e p r o p e r t y , R obert Campbell and Michael Dousman, and le a r n e d t h a t th e m ill had s u p p lie d lumber to th e B r i t i s h Army a t F o r t Mackinac. The com bination o f s u b s t a n t i a l docum entation and th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l ev id en ce r e v e a le d thro ug h e x cav atio n convinced Stone and th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f t h e Mackinac I s la n d S t a t e Park Commission t h a t t h i s s i t e deserv ed f u r t h e r a t t e n t i o n . The a u t h o r , th e n a Graduate Research A s s i s t a n t a t The Museum, Michigan S t a t e U n iv e r s i t y , was h i r e d as p r o j e c t s u p e r v i s o r f o r th e 1973, 1974, and 1975 f i e l d seasons under t h e d i r e c t i o n o f Dr. Stone and , l a t e r , Dr. Donald Heldman. A r t i f a c t a n a l y s i s and f u r t h e r documentary r e s e a r c h was conducted d u rin g t h e i n te r v e n in g academic y e a r s w hile e n r o l le d in th e Ph.D. program, Department o f A nthropology, Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s it y . The 1973 f i e l d season began June 11 and ended August 25. Excava­ t i o n was c a r r i e d o u t by seven s t u d e n t workers from Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , f i v e C en tral Michigan U n i v e r s i t y s tu d e n ts e n r o l le d in a f i e l d methods c o u rse ta u g h t by t h e a u t h o r , th e Olsons and Mrs. L e n tin i 67 from Cheboygan, and e i g h t Michigan A rchaeo log ical S o c ie ty members who v o lu n teered from one t o two weeks o f t h e i r tim e. Fieldwork began w ith the removal o f a t h i c k co v er o f s cru b v e g e ta tio n which in clu d ed numerous wild h a z e ln u t b ush es. The p re se n c e o f th e s e p l a n t s , o r i g i n a l l y m i s i d e n t i f i e d by a v i s i t o r as c u l t i v a t e d European f i l b e r t s (Cory!us a v e il a n a ) , le d Stone t o c a l l t h i s t h e F i l b e r t S i t e . A c l o s e r examina­ tio n c o r r e c t l y i d e n t i f i e d th e p l a n t s as n a t i v e North American beaked h a z e ln u ts ( Cory1us C o r n u ta ) , commonly found as second-growth cover in t h i s r e g io n . The s i t e name has been r e t a i n e d by t h i s a u th o r f o r th e sake o f c o n s is t e n c y , though i t has been c a l l e d th e Campbell Farm, th e Dousman Farm, and t h e M ill Creek S i t e by v a rio u s o t h e r s . Once th e s i t e was c l e a r e d , a l i n e o f s i x permanent c o n c r e te bench­ marks was s e t in p l a c e alo ng th e Old Mackinac Road a t a compass b e a rin g o f N 67 W. This b a s e l i n e was used to e s t a b l i s h a g r id o f te n f o o t by ten f o o t Squares o v e r th e s i t e a r e a and to m ain tain h o r iz o n ta l c o n tr o l f o r th e e x cav atio n and r e c o rd in g o f a r c h a e o lo g ic a l f e a t u r e s . The bench­ marks c o n s is t e d o f l a r g e n a i l s s e t in c o n c r e te p i l l a r s and were l a t e r t i e d in w ith an e l e v a t i o n provided by a N ational Oceanic and Atmospheric A d m in istra tio n su rv ey team t h a t was r e c o rd in g la k e l e v e l s , thus e s ta b lis h in g v e r tic a l c o n tro l. The prim ary g o a ls o f t h e 1973 f i e l d season were: 1) c o n t in u a t i o n o f ex c a v a tio n w ith in S t r u c t u r e One; and 2) expanded t e s t i n g f o r ad d itio n al f e a tu r e s . Excavation was accom plished , in most i n s t a n c e s , 1n ten f o o t sq u are u n i t s i d e n t i f i e d by t h e g r id i n t e r s e c t i o n lo c a te d a t th e southw est c o r n e r o f t h e u n i t . b a s is o f lo c a l c o n d i t i o n s . Techniques o f e x c a v a tio n v a r ie d on th e Most u n i t s were excavated w ith sharpened 68 m ason's tro w e ls in 0 .3 f o o t a r b i t r a r y l e v e l s . Whenever n a tu r a l o r man- made la y e r i n g o f d e p o s i t s was d e t e c t e d , th e a r b i t r a r y l e v e l s were abandoned in fa v o r o f th e n a tu r a l o r c u l t u r a l d e p o s it s as u n i t s o f e x c a v a tio n . All s o i l was screen ed through 0.25 inch hardware c l o t h and s o i l w ith in s t r u c t u r e s o r f e a t u r e s was o f te n f u r t h e r passed through window s c re e n t o i n s u r e maximum re c o v e ry o f small a r t i f a c t s o r e c o f a c t s . Excavation was expanded to a l i n e 0 .5 f e e t from each g r id l i n e w ith in excavated u n i t s , r e s u l t i n g in th e r e t e n t i o n o f 1 .0 f o o t t h i c k b alk s between a d j a c e n t s q u a r e s . This p r a c t i c e r e s u l t e d in th e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f p o r tio n s o f th e s t r a t i g r a p h l c re c o rd o f d e p o s i t s . The v e r t i c a l and h o r iz o n ta l l o c a t i o n s o f s i g n i f i c a n t a r t i f a c t s and f e a t u r e s were reco rd ed on s c a l e drawings o f each excavated l e v e l . P rose d e s c r i p t i o n s o f each u n i t were reco rd ed on t h e r e v e r s e s i d e o f th e s e le v e l s h e e t s , n o tin g procedu res and m a t e r i a l s en co u n tered . Each le v e l w ith in each e x c a v a tio n u n i t was given a u nique c a t a l o g number to i d e n t i f y a l l a r t i f a c t s recov ered w ith in i t . In a d d i t i o n t o th e le v e l s h e e ts and d raw in g s, both b lack and w h ite and c o l o r photographs were tak en to re c o rd th e p ro c e ss and r e s u l t s o f e x c a v a tio n . All s i t e docum entation was p laced on f i l e w ith th e Mackinac I s l a n d S t a t e Park Commission. The 1973 season r e v e a le d ap pro xim ately 50% o f t h e ground p la n o f S tr u c t u r e One, a b u i ld i n g r u in m easuring f o r t y f e e t by tw enty f e e t . B u i l t o f wood w ith s i l l s l a i d on a c la y pad, th e s t r u c t u r e had a c e l l a r beneath th e west end and a l a r g e , H-shaped double h e a r th in i t s c e n t e r (F ig u re 5 ) . The p re se n c e o f burned wood and a r t i f a c t s su gg ested t h a t t h i s s t r u c t u r e had burned in t h e e a r l y decades o f th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . A wide v a r i e t y o f dom estic and a r c h i t e c t u r a l a r t i f a c t s were recovered and th e b u i l d in g was t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as a r e s i d e n c e . 69 F ig u re 5. S t r u c t u r e One, 20CN8 STRUCTURE ONE 20CN8 1972 Excavation 40W 10S 10S Legend II Humus Ctav on Plan Sand Wood OO C8 Rocks Umastona 50W 10N 10N Charrod Wood Plaster and Chinking Stag 20N 10E OE 10W 20W 30W 40W 20N 50W Cross section ON Line rodMn 71 To a c h ie v e th e second g o a l , a s t r a t i f i e d random sampling s t r a t e g y was employed. A f t e r e s t a b l i s h i n g a 120 f o o t by 120 f o o t g r id ov er th e e a s t bank s i t e a r e a , t h e g r id was d iv id e d I n to s t r a t a t h a t each en clo sed t h i r t y - s i x te n f o o t by te n f o o t u n i t s , numbered 01 t o 36. A tab le of random numbers was c o n s u lte d t o s e l e c t u n i t s f o r e x p lo r a to r y e x c a v a tio n w i th in each o f t h e s e f o u r s t r a t a . This procedure was u t i l i z e d in o r d e r t o sample th e s i t e and t o l o c a t e f e a t u r e s o f i n t e r e s t to th e p r o j e c t s p o n s o rs . S y stem atic sampling was s u b se q u e n tly abandoned and e f f o r t s were d i r e c t e d toward g a th e r in g d a ta u s e fu l f o r even tual r e c o n s t r u c t i o n and p u b lic i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s i t e . The sampling s t r a t e g y r e s u l t e d in t h e d isc o v e ry o f a second b u il d i n g r u i n , d e s ig n a te d S t r u c t u r e Two, e a s t o f t h e f i r s t . This r u i n , m easuring t h i r t y f e e t by f i f t e e n f e e t , was o r ie n te d roug hly n o r t h / s o u t h , a t a r i g h t a n g le t o S t r u c t u r e One. Most o f th e s t r u c t u r e ' s f l o o r plan was excavated d u rin g t h e 1973 s e a so n , r e v e a lin g a somewhat l e s s s u b s ta n ­ t i a l b u ild in g w ith a d i f f e r e n t a r t i f a c t assem blage. A g r e a t e r p ro p o r­ t i o n o f a r t i f a c t s en c o u n te re d were t o o l s and t r a d e ite m s , le a d in g t o an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f S t r u c t u r e Two as a workshop and s to r e h o u s e , r a t h e r th an a r e s i d e n c e . A t h i r d r u i n was o bserved on th e w est bank o f th e c re e k l a t e In th e f i e l d se a so n . A v a ila b le tim e and funds allow ed o n ly a minimal examina­ t i o n o f S t r u c t u r e Three in 1973. A two f o o t by te n f o o t t r e n c h was excavated n e a r t h e s o u t h - e a s t e r n c o rn e r o f t h e b u i l d i n g , t h e o u t l i n e of which was v i s i b l e on t h e ground s u r f a c e . T his b u ild in g was c l e a r l y s i m i l a r t o S t r u c t u r e One in I t s l a y o u t , w ith a c e n t r a l h e a r th and a c e l l a r d e p r e s s io n under t h e w est end. A r t i f a c t s reco v ere d i n d i c a t e d a 72 p r im a r i l y dom estic f u n c t io n f o r t h e s t r u c t u r e and a d a t e s l i g h t l y l a t e r than th e occu patio n o f S t r u c t u r e One, perhaps 1820-1840. During th e 1973 f i e l d s e a so n , a t o t a l o f tw e n ty -fo u r te n f o o t sq uare u n i t s , one f i v e by te n f o o t u n i t , and one two by te n f o o t u n i t was e x c a v a te d , o r 2 ,4 70 sq u are f e e t . At t h e c l o s e o f th e s e a so n , a l l u n i t s were b a c k f i l l e d a f t e r l i n i n g u n f in is h e d u n i t s w ith b lack p l a s t i c s h e e t in g . Sod was r e p la c e d where p o s s i b le and g r a s s seed was sown to s ta b i l i z e surface s o i l s . Over 17,000 o b j e c t s were c a ta lo g u e d from th e s e a s o n 's work. Guided by th e f i n d i n g s o f t h e 1973 e x c a v a ti o n s , p la n s were made to c o n tin u e fie ld w o rk in t h e summer o f 1974, and a crew o f f i v e s tu d e n t s was h ir e d t o work under t h e a u t h o r 's s u p e r v is io n from June 17 through August 23. The prim ary g o a ls o f t h i s f i e l d were were: 1) c o n tin u e e x c a v a tio n o f S t r u c t u r e One; 2) co nd uct e x p l o r a t o r y e x c a v a tio n s in a r e a s n e a r th e ru in e d dam in s e a rc h o f s t r u c t u r a l remains o f th e m ill o r m i l l s in d i c a te d by documentary r e s e a r c h ; 3) begin e x c a v a tio n o f t h e dam in o r d e r t o d eterm in e i t s age and mode o f c o n s t r u c t i o n ; 4) begin broad e x c a v a tio n o f S t r u c t u r e Three. The c o n tin u e d e x c a v a tio n o f S t r u c t u r e One in clu d ed reop en ing t h r e e u n i t s which were n o t com pleted in 1973 and new e x c a v a tio n in f o u r a d d i­ tio n a l u n its . C o n sid e ra b le s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l was e n c o u n te re d , In c lu d in g f l o o r s , s i l l s , j o i s t s , h e a r t h s , and t h e c e l l a r o f th e b u ild in g (F ig u re 5). A l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f dom estic and a r c h i t e c t u r a l a r t i f a c t s were c o l l e c t e d , as w e l l . E x p lo rato ry e x c a v a tio n s n e a r th e dam r e v e a le d no ev id en ce o f m ill s tru c tu re s . On t h e e a s t bank, sh allo w s o i l s y ie ld e d on ly s c a t t e r e d 73 t w e n tie th c e n tu r y a r t i f a c t s . West bank e x c a v a tio n s d i s c l o s e d a t h i c k d e p o s it o f tw e n tie th c e n tu r y f i l l o v er th e remains o f th e dam, f i l l which e v i d e n tl y r e s u l t e d from a lim e sto n e mining o p e r a tio n o f th e e a r l y p a r t o f th e c e n tu r y . Examination o f th e dam r e v e a le d a wooden c r i b c o n s tr u c te d o f heavy hewn tim b e r s , f i l l e d w ith g l a c i a l b o u ld ers and faced w ith planks on t h e upstream s id e (F ig u re 8 ) . Excavation in S t r u c t u r e Three was l i m i t e d t o two te n f o o t square u n i t s a t th e s o u th e a s t c o r n e r o f t h e r u i n . Remains o f wooden s t r u c t u r a l f a b r i c o f t h e b u i l d i n g and a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f a r t i f a c t s were re c o v e re d . The 1974 f ie ld w o rk r e s u l t e d 1n o v e r 1,200 sq u are f e e t o f ex c a v a tio n and produced a p p ro x im a te ly 5,700 c a ta lo g e d o b j e c t s and sam ples. Though m ill b u ild in g s were n o t l o c a t e d , c o n s id e r a b le new ev id en ce re g a rd in g th e dam and S t r u c t u r e s One and Three was c o l l e c t e d . The 1975 f i e l d season was i n i t i a t e d w ith two o b j e c t i v e s : 1) f u r ­ t h e r a tte m p ts toward p in p o in tin g th e l o c a t i o n o f th e m ill b u i l d i n g ( s ) ; and 2) a d d i t i o n a l e x c a v a tio n o f S t r u c t u r e s One and Three. With th e s e g o a ls in mind, i n v e s t i g a t i o n began on June 16 and ended August 24 w ith a crew o f s i x s t u d e n t s . During th e c o u rse o f th e summer, s e v e r a l Michigan A rch aeo lo g ical S o c ie ty members v o lu n te e r e d t h e i r l a b o r , a s d id two arch aeo lo g y s tu d e n ts from G re a t B r i t a i n . The work f o r c e was g e n e r a l l y d iv id e d ev enly between e x c a v a tio n o f known s t r u c t u r e s and th e se a rc h f o r m ill b u i l d i n g s . The e x p lo r a to r y e f f o r t s proved l a r g e l y f r u i t l e s s : m ill b u ild in g s were en c o u n te re d . no rem ains o f Nine ten f o o t sq uare u n i t s and two f i v e by te n f o o t u n i t s were excav ated t o t h i s end, sp read on both s id e s o f th e stream below th e dam. No s t r u c t u r a l remains were n o te d , though a 74 F ig u re 6. S t r u c t u r e Two, 20CN8 40E 40E STRUCTURE TWO 20CN8 10 &> O Feet 10S 30E Legend q O q g>0 © 0 o © '•* 0 >• * ° * oO • ' c> © O Q ° o° *• • o • G> •: * o o o,°G ° Os CV rs■C? ■■ •G U O. ■ ° 0 &■ Q p°° Humus Clay . . 20E Sand Wood Cd Rocks Limastooe Chaired Wood i Piaster and CMnUng 20E Slag Ash 0 <8> ^3 0 ^---* necont l.aili H em Glacial Cobtoios C> & N c> o 10E o Cd Rocks Limestone 10S Charred Wood Plaster and Chinking Slag 0 9.0 ® 130W Ash © Recent Backfill Glacial Cobbles 78 F ig u re 8 . Dam r u i n s , 20CN8 130W 120W 110W 100W 90W BOW Legend 0 L Huwwi cm M V oo Wood Mill Creek <5 Mocks & Umeeione -5 5 Chsnsd Wood Plsslar and CMW B ♦_ A* Msoant SocMi *"h QtocM CokfeWo 100s 100S DAM RUINS 20CN8 110s fa * T // ••••••••• 8 S % // 120W 80 minor c o n c e n tr a t i o n o f a r t i f a c t s , in c lu d in g a r c h i t e c t u r a l remains such as l o c k s , was l o c a te d n e a r t h e stream d i r e c t l y e a s t o f S t r u c t u r e Three. These o b j e c t s co uld e a s i l y have o r i g i n a t e d in S t r u c t u r e T hree, however, r a t h e r than a s e p a r a t e b u i l d i n g . S everal s h o v e l-w id th t e s t t re n c h e s were opened a d ja c e n t to th e dam on th e w est bank. These t r e n c h e s r e v e a le d a l a r g e d e p o s it o f dark s o i l below th e so d , mixed w ith c l a y , s a n d , g r a v e l , and o c casio n al a r t i f a c t s . The e x t e n t and co n fo rm atio n o f t h i s f i l l d e p o s it s tim u la te d an h y p o th e t­ i c a l i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e f e a t u r e as t h e f i l l e d c e l l a r o f a m ill b u ild in g . The more th a n f i v e f o o t dep th o f t h i s f e a t u r e , plumbed in a s i n g l e e x c a v a tio n u n i t in 1974, su g g ested t h a t ex c a v a tio n by hand l a b o r would r e q u i r e e x c e s s iv e tim e , so 1 t was d ecided t h a t t h e f e a t u r e would be p a r t i a l l y ex cav ated w ith heavy equipm ent. To t h i s end, th e Mackinac I s la n d S t a t e Park Commission h ir e d a com bination f r o n t load er/b ack h o e f o r e i g h t h o u rs. Four hours were occupied s t r i p p i n g t o p s o i l and exposing t h e e x t e n t o f t h e f e a t u r e . At t h a t tim e , t h e e n t i r e a r e a was sh o v el-sh av ed and t h e f e a t u r e was photographed and drawn. The a d d i t i o n a l f o u r hours o f machine tim e were then used to remove th e bulk o f th e obviou sly-m ixed t w e n ti e th c e n tu r y f i l l o f t h e f e a t u r e . A f t e r t h e machine was f i n i s h e d , t h r e e te n f o o t sq u are u n i t s were e s t a b l i s h e d and e x c a v a tio n c o n tin u e d by hand. Only th e rem ains o f th e dam were e n c o u n te re d ; no b u ild in g fo u n d a tio n s were e v i d e n t . The up­ stream p lan k f a c i n g o f t h e dam was exposed t o a w idth o f n e a r l y f i f t y f e e t , b u tte d i n t o s t e r i l e beach sand and lim e sto n e bedrock (F ig u re 8 ) . Excavation in S t r u c t u r e One c o n tin u e d 1n and n e a r t h e southw est c o rn e r o f th e r u i n , r e s u l t i n g in t h e n e a r l y com pleted exposure o f th e 81 b u i l d i n g 's f l o o r p la n . A r t i f a c t c o l l e c t i o n s were c o n s i s t e n t w ith m a t e r i a l s recov ered in p rev io u s work, confirm ing a l a t e e ig h te e n th and e a r l y n i n e te e n t h c e n tu r y r e s i d e n t i a l occup atio n o f th e b u ild in g . The e x c a v a tio n o f S t r u c t u r e Three was expanded by opening f o u r ten f o o t sq u a re u n i t s on th e e a s t end o f th e r u i n . Both s t r u c t u r a l and f u n c t io n a l ev id ence r e s u l t e d from t h i s work, y i e l d i n g new in fo rm atio n r e g a rd in g th e c o n s t r u c t i o n and use o f th e b u i l d i n g . A double h e a rth chimney base was exposed, w ith f ir e b o x e s fa c in g e a s t and w est (F ig u re 7 ). The e a s t - f a c i n g f i r e b o x , o f f s e t from t h e c e n t e r l i n e o f th e b u ild in g and e v i d e n t l y added sometime a f t e r o r i g i n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , had a c u rio u s opening in th e masonry a t t h e back, j u s t above t h e h e a r t h . S c a tte r e d th ro u g h o u t t h e e a s t room were l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f s l a g , a s h , r i v e t b la n k s , and ir o n s c r a p , le a d in g t o an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s room 's use as a workshop o r small s c a l e sm ith y. The a r t i f a c t s c e r t a i n l y supported such an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and t h e p e c u l i a r h e a rth masonry l i k e l y allow ed a i r t o be fo rc e d in t o th e f i r e by means o f a b ello w s. The 1975 e x c a v a tio n s exposed o ver 2,700 sq u are f e e t o f a r e a and y ie l d e d n e a r l y 17,000 ca ta lo g u e d o b j e c t s and sam ples. These f o u r s e a ­ sons o f work (1972, 1973, 1974, 1975) r e s u l t e d in n e a r l y 6,400 square f e e t o f e x c a v a tio n and y i e l d e d n e a r l y 45,000 c a ta lo g u e d o b j e c t s and sam ples. General D e s c rip tio n The F i l b e r t S i t e (20CN8) i s l o c a te d ab o u t t h r e e m ile s e a s t o f Mackinaw C i t y , in Cheboygan County, Michigan (F ig u re 1 ) . The s i t e s t r a d d l e s M ill Creek ap p ro x im ately 75 y a rd s upstream from th e c r e e k 's o u t l e t i n t o Lake Huron. Lying to th e south o f U.S. 23, th e s i t e i s c u t 82 by a s i n g l e r a i l r o a d t r a c k o f t h e Michigan C en tral R a ilro a d which runs p a r a l l e l t o t h e highway. A l a t e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y roadway, used u n t i l th e c o n s tr u c t i o n o f U.S. 23 1n th e 1 9 3 0 's , known l o c a l l y as th e Old Mackinac Road, a ls o c r o s s e s th e s i t e a t e s s e n t i a l l y th e same o r i e n t a t i o n as th e highway and t h e r a i l r o a d . The Old Mackinac Road 1s lo c a te d toward t h e so u th ern edge o f th e s i t e . The F i l b e r t S i t e r e p r e s e n t s t h e rem ains o f a farm and m ill complex t h a t was c o n ta in e d w i th i n a t r a c t o f lan d I d e n t i f i e d as P r i v a t e Claim Number 334 In t h e l e g a l d e s c r i p t i o n . I t 1s n o t known a t t h i s tim e w hether t h e r e a r e c u l t u r a l remains 1n o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e P r i v a t e Claim, s in c e no d e t a i l e d e x p l o r a t o r y su rv ey has been co nd ucted. The p r e s e n t s tu d y concerns o n ly th o s e rem ains found a d j a c e n t t o Mill Creek n e a r t h e roads and r a i l r o a d g r a d e . Though o t h e r rem ains r e l a t e d t o and contem­ p o rary w ith th e s e r u i n s may be fo u nd , 1 t 1s o n ly t h i s l i m i t e d l o c a l i t y t h a t w i l l be c o n s id e re d h e re . The s i t e l i e s on a w ave-cut t e r r a c e a t an averag e e l e v a t i o n o f 615 f e e t above mean s e a l e v e l . T his 1s l i k e l y a g l a c i a l Lake N1p1ss1ng wave t e r r a c e and 1s backed on t h e s o u th by a s t e e p wave c l i f f which r i s e s to a p p ro x im a te ly 650 f e e t above mean sea l e v e l . Devonian age Bo1s Blanc lim e sto n e o u tc ro p s a r e found a t t h e s i t e , e s p e c i a l l y 1n t h e c r e e k bottom and along I t s banks. M111 Creek has c u t down thro ug h t h e m an tle o f c la y and g l a c i a l t i l l t o t h e lim e s to n e , le a v in g s te e p banks on bo th s i d e s o f th e s tre a m . These lim e sto n e o u tc ro p s were l i k e l y a c r i t i c a l f a c t o r 1n t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h i s s i t e f o r s e t t l e m e n t , f o r th e y provided co n v e n ie n t anchoring p o in ts f o r t h e c r i b dam used t o s t o r e w ater and power th e m 1 ll(s ) t h a t were e s t a b l i s h e d t h e r e . The o u tc ro p s a l s o a t t r a c t e d mining 83 and q u a rry in g a c t i v i t y in th e l a t e n in e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t ie t h c e n tu ­ r i e s , a c t i v i t i e s which in some i n s ta n c e s b u rie d and in o t h e r s pro bably o b l i t e r a t e d p o r t i o n s o f t h e rem ains o f t h e e a r l i e r o c c u p a tio n . Topsoil i n t h i s l o c a l i t y i s g e n e r a l l y sandy loam. V e g e ta tio n con­ s i s t s o f a m ix tu re o f c o n if e ro u s and deciduous s p e c i e s , in c lu d in g elm, c e d a r , b i r c h , and a s p e n . The c r e e k b a n k .a r e a s where lim e s to n e i s exposed s u p p o rt dense s ta n d s o f c e d a r . In open a r e a s , shrub growths o f h a z e ln u t and hawthorn a r e fo u n d , alo n g w ith s c a t t e r e d a p p le t r e e s . The s i t e a r e a has long been used by fish erm en and campers a t t r a c t e d t o t h e s tre a m . Stone cam p fire r i n g s and c a s t o f f t e n t pegs b e l l e some o f t h e r e c e n t u ses o f t h e a r e a . P a r t l y because o f t h i s r e c r e a t i o n a l u s e , p o r ti o n s o f t h e s i t e a r e c l e a r o f clim ax v e g e t a t i o n and s u p p o rt only g r a s s e s and weeds. C ontexts Excavation a t t h e F i l b e r t S i t e r e v e a le d and focu sed upon t h e r u in s o f t h r e e b u ild in g s and a wooden c r i b dam l o c a te d on M ill Creek (F ig u re 4). In a d d i t i o n , e x p l o r a t o r y e x c a v a tio n s re c o v e re d a r t i f a c t s from a r e a s o u t s i d e th e s t r u c t u r e s on both s i d e s o f t h e s tre a m . D iscu ssio n and a n a l y s i s o f t h e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l ev id en ce i s o rg a n iz e d on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e c o n te x ts : S t r u c t u r e One, S t r u c t u r e Two, S t r u c t u r e T h re e , dam, n o n - s t r u c t u r a l a r e a s on t h e e a s t bank o f t h e s tr e a m , and n o n - s t r u c t u r a l a r e a s on t h e w est bank o f t h e s tream . S t r u c t u r e One The f i r s t o f t h r e e b u ild in g r u i n s t o be d i s c o v e r e d , S t r u c t u r e One was a l s o t h e l a r g e s t and most s u b s t a n t i a l o f t h e b u i ld in g s when i t was 84 s ta n d in g ( F ig u re 5 ) . E xcavation r e v e a le d th e m ajor p o r tio n o f t h i s wooden b u ild in g which was f o r t y f e e t long and twenty f e e t wide, o r ie n te d w ith i t s long a x i s p e r p e n d i c u l a r to th e flow o f Mill Creek, I t s w estern end a t th e bank o v erlo o k in g th e s tream . P o r tio n s o f t h e wooden s i l l o f t h e b u ild in g were lo c a te d I n t a c t near th e n o r t h e a s t c o r n e r and were I d e n t i f i e d by t h e United S t a t e s F o r e s t S e rv ic e F o r e s t P ro d u cts L a b o rato ry 1n Madison, Wisconsin as w h ite p in e (Plnus s t r o b u s ) . The s i l l was l a i d on a prepared pad o f s t e r i l e y ello w c l a y which extend ed t h e le n g th o f t h e n o r th w a l l. The c l a y pad was e v i d e n t l y used t o p ro v id e a l e v e l p la tfo r m f o r th e s t r u c t u r e ' s b a s e , because t h e b u il d i n g was c o n s tr u c t e d on a s u r f a c e which slop ed g e n tly toward t h e n o r th . T h is I n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e f u n c tio n o f th e c la y pad was p a r t i a l l y borne o u t by t h e ab sen ce o f a pad beneath th e upslope o r so u th wall o f t h e b u i l d i n g . a i d in w a te r d r a in a g e . The c l a y pad may a l s o have fu n c tio n e d to Large g l a c i a l co b b les were en cou ntered a t o r n e a r t h e c o r n e rs o f t h e s t r u c t u r e and lo c a te d a t i r r e g u l a r I n t e r v a l s along t h e w a l l s , a p p a r e n tl y t o p ro v id e a d d i ti o n a l su p p o rt f o r th e s i l l s . The c o n s tr u c t i o n o f t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f t h i s b u ild in g was I n d i ­ c a te d by t h e l a r g e q u a n t i t y and v a r i e t y o f c l a y ch in k in g found w ith th e s t r u c t u r e , some frag m en ts mixed w ith g r a v e l , o t h e r s b earin g th e im pres­ s io n s o f g r a s s mixed in f o r tem p erin g . The ch in k in g was I n i t i a l l y somewhat e n ig m a tic , because I t s form was I n c o n s i s t e n t from one fragm ent to th e n e x t. Some p i e c e s were e q u i l a t e r a l t r i a n g l e s 1n c r o s s - s e c t i o n , b e a rin g th e im p ressio n s o f two rounded lo g s on two s id e s and a f l a t ­ t e n e d , p l a s t e r e d a n d /o r whitewashed wall s u r f a c e on th e t h i r d s id e . Other samples d is p la y e d t h e im p ressio n s o f sawn lum ber, hewn lum ber, and 85 riv e d l a t h , b u t t h e s e im pressio ns tended t o be arrang ed 1n u n d ecip h er­ a b l e p lan es o f o r i e n t a t i o n . I t was u n c l e a r j u s t what kind o f c o n s tr u c t i o n was r e p r e s e n t e d , o th e r th an some log c o n s tr u c ti o n w ith in tern a l p la s te rin g . Only a f t e r numerous d e s c r i p t i o n s were c o n s u lte d and remains o f n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y s t r u c t u r e s such as t h e B id dle House on Mackinac I s la n d were examined d id t h e mode o f c o n s t r u c t i o n become e v id e n t . This b u ild in g was o f a common French-Canadian ty p e c a l l e d poteaux s u r s o le o r p o s ts in a s i l l . T h is ty p e o f c o n s tr u c t io n in v o lv e s a s i l l and heavy u p r ig h t fram in g . The spaces between t h e u p r ig h t s were f i l l e d w ith s h o r t h o r iz o n ta l s e c t i o n s o f l o g , sometimes hewn s q u a re , sometimes l e f t 1n th e ro un d, and chinked w ith c l a y . The h o r iz o n ta l members were g e n e r a l ly tenoned on t h e ends and s l i d I n to grooves c u t i n t o th e f a c e s on th e up­ rig h ts. In t h e 1820 d e s c r i p t i o n o f a group o f b u ild in g s to be e r e c t e d by John Dousman and George M itc h e ll f o r t h e use o f George Boyd, Ind ian Agent on Mackinac I s l a n d , t h i s ty p e o f c o n s tr u c t i o n was c l e a r l y sp e c ifie d . The p la n s c a l l e d f o r t h e " p o s ts o f t h e b u ild in g to be elev en f e e t high" and " f i l l e d 1n w ith wood and m o rtar" (Dousman and M itch ell 1820). I t was a p p a r e n tl y j u s t such a com bination o f rounded and hewn s u r f a c e s which r e s u l t e d i n t h e observed a r r a y o f ch in k in g c h a r a c t e r i s ­ t i c s from S t r u c t u r e One. The c e n t r a l chimney o f S t r u c t u r e One was an i n t e r e s t i n g s t r u c t u r a l fe a tu re . Upon e x c a v a t i o n , t h e mound which had been noted in th e c e n t e r o f th e b u ild in g was found t o c o n s i s t l a r g e l y o f c l a y In I t s upper le v e ls. The masonry s t r u c t u r e o f two f ir e b o x e s was I n t a c t to a h e i g h t o f two f e e t , l a i d up o f lim e s to n e m ortared t o g e t h e r w ith c l a y . The 86 h e a r th base was formed o f lim e sto n e s la b s arran g ed In a r e c t a n g le ap prox im ately s i x f e e t by te n f e e t , w ith a f ir e b o x fa c in g each end o f th e b u i l d i n g , b u tte d back t o back on th e c e n t e r l i n e o f th e s t r u c t u r e . A t h i c k d e p o s it o f ash and a r t i f a c t s was found ly in g on t h e h e a rth in each fire b o x . Loose lim e sto n e fragm ents found in th e upper l e v e l s above th e i n t a c t masonry s u g g e st t h a t th e stonework o r i g i n a l l y extended f u r t h e r up th e chimney th an i t does a t p r e s e n t , b u t t h e r e c l e a r l y was n o t s u f f i ­ c i e n t s to n e 1n ev id en ce t o have r e p re s e n te d t h e rem ains o f a f u l l masonry chimney. R a th e r , th e heavy d e p o s it o f c l a y found o v e rly in g th e masonry s u g g e sts t h a t t h i s s t r u c t u r e had a c a t t e d chimney, made o f c la y l a i d wet o ver a wooden framework. This was .a common p r a c t i c e in con­ s t r u c t i o n o f th e e i g h t e e n t h and n in e te e n th c e n t u r i e s in th e Upper G reat Lakes, and was w ell d e s c r ib e d by David Thompson o f th e Hudson's Bay Com­ pany, w r i ti n g o f a house b u i l t in p re s e n t- d a y Montana in 1809, o u r Chimneys were made o u t o f s to n e and mud ru d e ly worked f o r about s i x f e e t 1n h e i g h t and e ig h te e n inches t h i c k , th e r e s t o f l a y e r s o f g r a s s and mud worked round s tr o n g p o les i n s e r t e d In t h e s to n e work, w ith c r o s s p i e c e s , and th u s c a r r i e d up t o ab o u t f o u r f e e t above th e r o o f (Barbeau 19 45 :1 1). Wooden f l o o r i n g was found through a g r e a t p o r tio n o f th e b u il d i n g . Laid p a r a l l e l t o t h e long a x i s , th e f lo o r b o a r d s were i d e n t i f i e d as w h ite p in e (Pinus s t r o b u s ) . R e g u la rly spaced sh allo w d e p re s s io n s were r e v e a l e d , upon l i f t i n g a s e c t io n o f f l o o r i n g , t o be sh allow tre n c h e s i n t o which were s e t t h e f l o o r j o i s t s . Though th e j o i s t s were n o t well enough p re se rv e d to d eterm in e t h e i r o r i g i n a l d im ension s, a fragm ent from 87 one j o i s t was i d e n t i f i e d as n o r th e rn w h ite c e d a r (Thuja o c c id e n ta l i s ) , w hile a n o th e r was i d e n t i f i e d as hemlock (Tsuga c a n a d e n s i s ) . There was a c e l l a r beneath t h e w estern room o f S t r u c t u r e One, c l e a r l y e v id e n t as a d e p re s s io n even b e fo re e x c a v a tio n . Wooden f l o o r i n g and o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l d e b r i s , such as ch in k in g and p l a s t e r , had c o lla p s e d i n t o th e c e l l a r h o l e , alo ng w ith a v a r i e t y o f a r t i f a c t s . Excavation r e ­ v ealed a r e l a t i v e l y sh allo w c e l l a r , ex ten d in g on ly f i v e f e e t below th e le v e l o f th e h e a r th and t h e wooden f l o o r o f th e room above. measured 14 The c e l l a r f e e t in t h e n o r th /s o u t h dimension and n in e f e e t e a s t / w e s t . I t had a w h ite p in e f l o o r l a i d on c e d a r f l o o r j o i s t s t h a t were s e t in sh allo w t r e n c h e s . The hole was o r i g i n a l l y ex cavated I n to c l a y , l i k e l y th e so u rce o f th e c l a y f o r t h e pad b eneath t h e n o rth s i l l . One v e r t i c a l p o s t, m easuring ro u g h ly t h r e e Inches s q u a r e , was noted 1n th e n o rth w est corner. S everal frag m en ts o f h o r i z o n t a l l y l a i d s l a b s , w ith th e bark s id e s fa c in g o u t , remained on th e n o r th s i d e o f th e c e l l a r e v i d e n t ly rep resen tin g th e w a ll. S c a tte r e d th ro u g h o u t t h e b u ild in g were burned and c h a r re d b o a rd s, m elted window g l a s s , and o t h e r burned and scorched a r t i f a c t s . The bulk o f th e o b j e c t s re c o v e re d from t h i s s t r u c t u r e were found o n , j u s t above, o r j u s t beneath th e wooden f l o o r i n g . I t ap p ears v e ry l i k e l y t h a t th e b u ild in g burned w h ile i t was o c c u p ie d , cau sin g a wide v a r i e t y o f o b j e c t s to be found in ro u g h ly th e l o c a t i o n s where th e y would have been u se d , an a r t i f a c t d i s t r i b u t i o n p a t t e r n which has been c a l l e d prim ary de f a c t o r e f u s e (South 1977:297). A t o t a l o f 18,299 o b j e c t s and samples was reco v ere d from S t r u c t u r e One. This d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t s a d e n s it y o f 2 2 .9 o b j e c t s p e r sq u are 88 f o o t o f ex cavated f l o o r sp a c e . The a r t i f a c t s have been c l a s s i f i e d acco rdin g to S ta n le y S o u t h 's scheme in o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e comparison w ith o t h e r s i t e s and t o a llo w assessm en t o f h is F r o n t i e r P a tt e r n model. Even a c a s u a l p e r u s a l o f Table 16 r e v e a l s t h a t o v er 93% o f th e o b je c t s recov ered a r e c l a s s i f i e d w ith in th e Kitchen and A r c h ite c tu r e Groups. Three a r t i f a c t c l a s s e s make up th e bulk o f t h e f i n d s : c e ra m ic s, window g l a s s and n a i l s acco u n t f o r a p p ro x im a te ly 90% o f th e c a ta lo g u e d o b j e c t s . The s u b j e c ti v e im p ressio n l e f t by th e a r t i f a c t s i s o f a dom estic f u n c tio n f o r t h i s s t r u c t u r e . The r e l a t i v e l y high p r o p o rtio n o f Kitchen Group a r t i f a c t s and dom estic Items such as b u t t o n s , s t r a i g h t p in s and p erso n al o b j e c t s s u g g e s ts t h a t S t r u c t u r e One was a fa m ily r e s id e n c e . S t r u c t u r e Two Located j u s t t o t h e e a s t o f and o r i e n t e d a t a r i g h t a n g le to S t r u c t u r e One, S t r u c t u r e Two m easures t h i r t y f e e t in le n g th and f i f t e e n f e e t in w idth ( F ig u re 6 ) . The r u in i s r e p re s e n te d by a c l u s t e r o f wood, lim e sto n e s la b s and c l a y . L in ea r arrangem ents o f boards o r beams were noted in e x p l o r a t o r y e x c a v a tio n u n i t s and were p e d e s ta le d a s dig gin g p roceeded. As t h e d is c o v e r y o f a r t i f a c t s and more wood prompted expan­ s io n in t o a d j a c e n t s q u a r e s , t h e r e g u l a r r e c t i l i n e a r shape o f t h i s b u ild in g became e v i d e n t in p l a n , and t h e s t r u c t u r e was co m p letely e x c a v a te d . The w e s te rn s i l l o f th e s t r u c t u r e was l a r g e l y i n t a c t , r e s t i n g on t a b u l a r blo cks o f lim e s to n e . At a p p ro x im a te ly s ix f o o t i n t e r v a l s , s e c t i o n s o f f l o o r j o i s t s were en co un tered which o r i g i n a l l y ran a c r o s s th e w idth o f t h e b u i l d i n g . Wood samples from th e j o i s t s and s i l l s were i d e n t i f i e d as w h ite pine (Pinus s t r o b u s ) . Table 16. GROUP A r tifa c t Frequencies and Percentages, 20CN8, Structure One COUNT % Tumbler Pharmaceutical Glassware Tableware Ki tchenware Total Kitchen 587 5,900 66 99 0 31 7 6,690 36.5 Total A r c h ite c tu re F u rn itu re % Buckl es Thimbles Buttons S c is s o r s S t r a i g h t Pins Hook and Eye Bale Seal Glass Beads 10 5 135 6 13 1 1 106 T otal Clothing 277 1.5 Personal A r c h ite c tu re Window Glass N ails and Spikes C o n stru ctio n Hardware Door Lock P a r ts COUNT Clothing Kitchen Mine and Case B o ttle s Ceramics GROUP 8,647 1,679 23 9 10,358 15 366 39 38 Total Arms 433 0 3 42 Total Personal 45 0.25 Tobacco Pipes 287 1.6 56.6 0.08 Arms B a l l s , Shot G u n flin ts Gun P a r ts Coins Keys Personal 2.4 Continued GROUP COUNT A c tiv itie s C o nstructio n Tools Farm Tools Toys F ishing Gear Stub-Stemmed Pipes A boriginal S torage B otanical Horse Tack M iscellaneous Hardware Other M il i ta r y O bjects Total A c t i v i t i e s Grand Total 33 2 3 12 0 58 29 12 2 33 0 2 187 18,299 91 This may well have been a frame s t r u c t u r e , f o r no chin kin g was re c o v e re d , even though v i r t u a l l y th e e n t i r e f l o o r a r e a o f th e b u ild in g was e x c a v a te d . Nothing beyond t h i s n e g a tiv e evid en ce was rev ealed r e g a rd in g th e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e o f th e b u i ld i n g . On th e c e n t e r l i n e o f th e long a x i s and 11-12 f e e t from th e so u th end o f t h e b u i l d i n g , a r e c ta n g u ­ l a r d e p o s i t o f hard y e llo w c l a y and lim e sto n e s l a b s was n o te d . This was th e r u in o f a crude h e a r t h ; no cou rsed masonry was e v i d e n t , b u t s e v e ra l o f th e lim e sto n e s l a b s were l a i d on edge around t h e p e rim e te r o f th e c la y d e p o s i t . This may w ell r e p r e s e n t an even sim p le r form o f c a t t e d chimney and s to n e f i r e b o x th an t h a t seen 1n S t r u c t u r e One. The c o l l e c t i o n o f o b j e c t s from t h i s r u in numbered 5 ,1 5 8 , c o n s id e r ­ a b ly few er than found in S t r u c t u r e One and o n ly o n e - h a lf as d e n se ly d i s t r i b u t e d (1 1 .5 o b j e c t s p er sq u are f o o t o f f l o o r space in S t r u c t u r e Two v e rsu s 22.9 o b j e c t s p e r sq u are f o o t o f f l o o r space in S t r u c t u r e One). Not o n ly were t h e a b s o lu t e f re q u e n c ie s and d e n s i t i e s o f a r t i f a c t s v ery d i f f e r e n t , b u t a l s o th e p e rc e n ta g e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a r t i f a c t c l a s s e s were q u i t e d i s s i m i l a r between t h e two r u in s (T ables 17 and 19). While t h e p e rc e n ta g e o f A r c h i t e c t u r e Group a r t i f a c t s i s roug hly e q u i v a l e n t between t h e two s t r u c t u r e s , th e d e n s i t y p e r sq u are f o o t o f excavated f l o o r space 1s ro ug hly h a l f as g r e a t in S t r u c t u r e Two. The K itchen Group p e rc e n ta g e s were h a l f as g r e a t in S t r u c t u r e Two, th e Tobacco Pipe and A c t i v i t i e s Group p e rc e n ta g e s were d o u b le , and th e C lo th in g Group jumps from 1.5% in S t r u c t u r e one t o 14.4% 1n S t r u c t u r e Two. There were c l e a r l y some f u n c tio n a l d i f f e r e n c e s between th e s e contem porary b u i l d i n g s , d i f f e r e n c e s which may p a r a l l e l th e s t r u c t u r a l Table 17. GROUP A r tifa c t Frequencies and Percentages, 20CN8, Structure Two COUNT % GROUP COUNT C lothing Kitchen Ceramics Wine and Case B o ttle s Tumbler Pharmaceutical Glassware Tableware Kitchenware 644 221 37 30 1 11 8 Total Kitchen 952 Buckles Thimbles Buttons S c is s o r s S t r a i g h t Pins Hook and Eye Bale Seal Glass Beads 2 1 31 1 5 3 0 702 Total C lothing 745 18.5 A r c h ite c tu re Personal Window Glass N ails and Spikes C o n stru ctio n Hardware Door Lock P a r ts 1,855 1,156 6 2 Total A r c h ite c tu re 3,018 F u r n itu r e 2 58.5 0.04 Arms B a l l s , Shot G u n flin ts Gun P a rts 75 16 5 Total Arms 96 1.9 Coins Keys Personal 1 2 0 T otal Personal 3 Tobacco Pipes 244 Continued GROUP COUNT A c tiv itie s C o n stru ctio n Tools Farm Tools Toys F ish ing Gear Stub-Stemmed P ipes A boriginal Storage B otanical Horse Tack M iscellaneous Hardware Other M il i ta r y O bjects 13 1 0 4 0 18 16 27 1 17 0 0 Total A c t i v i t i e s 97 Grand Total 5,158 Table 18. GROUP A r tifa c t Frequencies and Percentages, 20CN8, Structure Three COUNT % GROUP COUNT Clothing Kitchen Ceramics Wine and Case B o ttle s Tumbler Pharmaceutical Glassware Tableware Kitchenware 2,389 138 2 211 3 6 3 Total Kitchen 2,752 Buckles Thimbles Buttons S c is s o r s S t r a i g h t Pins Hook and Eye Bale Seal Glass Beads 4 1 55 1 11 3 0 39 Total Clothing 114 36.5 A r c h ite c tu re Personal Window Glass N ails and Spikes C o n stru ctio n Hardware Door Lock P a r ts 2,723 1,604 4 0 Total A r c h ite c tu re 4,331 F u rn itu re 8 57.4 0.11 Arms B a l l s , Shot G u n flin ts Gun P a rts 72 16 12 Total Arms 100 1.2 Coins Keys Personal 0 3 12 Total Personal 15 Tobacco Pipes 192 Continued GROUP COUNT A c tiv itie s C o n stru ctio n Tools Farm Tools Toys F ishing Gear Stub-Stemmed P ipes A boriginal S to rag e B otan ical Horse Tack M iscellaneous Hardware Other M ili t a r y O bjects 9 6 0 5 1 0 11 15 0 0 0 0 Total A c t i v i t i e s 44 Grand Total 7,556 96 d i f f e r e n c e s noted i n th e d is c u s s io n o f s t r u c t u r a l d e t a i l s . The s u b je c ­ t i v e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s s t r u c t u r e sug gested a f u n c tio n such as a s to re h o u s e and workshop. S t r u c t u r e Three Only one b u ild in g r u in was d isco v e red on t h e w est s id e o f Mill Creek, and only a b o u t 40% o f th e f l o o r a re a o f S t r u c t u r e Three was exca­ v ated d u rin g t h e 1973-1975 f i e l d seaso n s. Excavation was lim it e d t o th e e a s t end o f th e s t r u c t u r e and th e c e n t r a l chimney mound. A f t e r a t h i c k c o v e r o f v e g e ta tio n was removed, S t r u c t u r e Three looked v ery much l i k e S t r u c t u r e One; a s l i g h t l y r a i s e d r e c t a n g l e f o r t y f e e t long and tw enty f e e t w ide, a mound lo c a te d roughly in i t s c e n t e r , and a d e p re s s io n in t h e west end (F ig u re 7 ) . Excavation confirm ed some o f th e s i m i l a r i t i e s between th e s t r u c t u r e s but re v e a le d s e v e ra l d i f f e r e n c e s as w e l l . For i n s t a n c e , exam ination o f th e e a s t end o f th e b u ild in g re v e a le d a n e a r l y i n t a c t s i l l and rem ains o f a n o th e r log o r beam t h a t had f a l l e n inward p a r a l l e l to th e s i l l . Between th e two wooden members t h e r e was a heavy d e p o s it o f c l a y c h in k in g . The a t t i t u d e o f t h e s e wooden elem ents and ch in k in g su gg ested t h a t t h i s end o f th e s t r u c t u r e , a t l e a s t in t h e lower c o u r s e s , was o f p ie c e s u r p i e c e , o r h o r iz o n ta l log c o n s t r u c t i o n , r a t h e r th an t h e poteaux s u r s o le c o n s t r u c t i o n seen in S t r u c t u r e One. There were no f u r t h e r c lu e s t o th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s u p e r s t r u c t u r e in d ic a te d d u rin g e x c a v a tio n . Very l i t t l e f lo o r i n g was e v i d e n t , and was found only 1n th e w estern room, n e a r th e h e a r t h . Some c la y was noted 1n th e a re a around th e s o u th e a s te r n c o r n e r o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , e v i d e n t l y rem aining from a c l a y pad on which th e s i l l r e s t e d . 97 In th e upper l e v e l s , t h e chimney mound in t h i s s t r u c t u r e was very s i m i l a r to t h a t noted in S t r u c t u r e One; c la y mixed w ith o c casio n al lo o se sto n es in th e upper l e v e l s , then lim e sto n e m ortared w ith c la y . Once th e two f o o t high i n t a c t p o r tio n o f th e masonry was exposed, a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e became a p p a r e n t. The w e s t-f a c in g h e a r t h , m easuring roughly n ine f e e t s q u a re , was b u i l t on t h e c e n t e r l i n e o f th e long a x is o f th e b u ild in g . The h e a r th which faced I n to t h e e a s t e r n room was o f f s e t to th e s o u th , a g a i n s t t h e so uth w a l l , and was lo c a te d b e s id e t h e w estern h e a r t h , n o t backed d i r e c t l y a g a i n s t 1 t as was t h e c a s e 1n S t r u c t u r e One's double h e a r th . The e a s t e r n h e a r t h was s m a lle r in s i z e , ap p ro x im ately f i v e f e e t by e i g h t f e e t , and appeared to have been added a f t e r th e c o n s tr u c t i o n o f th e l a r g e r , w estern h e a r t h . The masonry was d i s t i n c t l y s e p a r a t e , not i n t e r l o c k e d , and t h e w estern h e a r th had a f i n i s h e d s u r f a c e on th e south s i d e , in c lu d in g a l a r g e v e r t i c a l s l a b o f lim e sto n e . The e l e v a ti o n s o f th e h e a rth s u rf a c e s were n e a r ly i d e n t i c a l , b u t th e presen ce o f f lo o r i n g in f r o n t o f t h e w est h e a r th and I t s absence on th e e a s t makes th e f l o o r l e v e l s in t h e two rooms app ear to be v ery d i f f e r e n t . The v e r t i c a l d i s ­ t r i b u t i o n o f a r t i f a c t s In th e e a s t room s u g g e st t h a t t h e r e may have been o n ly a d i r t f l o o r in t h i s room, f o r a r t i f a c t s were found to a depth o f more than a f o o t below th e h e a r th le v e l in sandy d e p o s its mixed w ith c l a y , a s h , and c h a r c o a l. The s o i l d e p o s it s in th e e a s t room proved I n t r i g u i n g . A rtifa c t d e n s i t i e s were high and th e ty p es r e p re s e n te d were somewhat d i f f e r e n t than from o t h e r p a r t s o f th e s i t e . S o il s were f o r th e most p a r t dark and sandy, w ith ch a rc o a l s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t and c o n c e n tra te d in th e 98 a r e a j u s t n o rth o f t h e h e a r t h . This a r e a 1n th e e a s t e r n h a l f o f th e room, n o rth o f th e h e a r t h , c o n ta in e d a heavy d e p o s it o f c la y and th r e e lin e a r fe a tu re s. A veraging f o u r f e e t in le n g th and f i v e f e e t In width when re c o g n iz e d , t h e s e f e a t u r e s appeared as sh allow tre n c h e s o r tr o u g h s , lin e d with c la y and f i l l e d w ith ch arco al and as h . They were o r ie n te d 1n p a r a l l e l with t h e lon g a x i s o f t h e b u il d i n g and a heavy d e p o s it o f s la g m a te r ia l and co rro d ed ir o n was found j u s t beyond th e e a s t end o f th e fea tu re s. A contem porary b lack sm ith su g g ested t h a t th e y m ight have been used to temper iro n r o d s , d ip p in g t h e h o t i r o n i n t o th e t r e n c h f i l l e d w ith powdered c h a r c o a l . Another i n t e r e s t i n g , and p ro b ab ly r e l a t e d a s p e c t o f t h i s room and i t s h e a rth was th e d i s c o v e ry o f an opening 1n th e masonry back o f th e f ir e b o x a t th e c e n t e r , a p p ro x im a te ly s i x inches above th e h e a r th s u r ­ face. While i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e masonry in t h i s are a had sim ply d e t e r i o r a t e d , th e v i s u a l e f f e c t was unambiguous; t h e r e was a d e l i b e r ­ a t e l y c o n s tr u c te d h o le a t th e r e a r o f th e f i r e b o x . When c o n s id e re d in com bination w ith t h e l i n e a r f e a t u r e s , s l a g , charco al and ash d e p o s i t s , and th e a r t i f a c t u a l c o l l e c t i o n from t h i s room (which inclu ded r i v e t s , ir o n and b ra s s s c ra p and t o o l s ) , t h e opening was I n t e r p r e t e d as an a i r passage f o r a s m ith y 's b e llo w s , used t o s to k e a f i r e on t h e h e a r t h . The p resen ce o f a s m i t h 's f o r g e would a l s o h elp t o e x p la in th e a p p a re n t absence o f wooden f l o o r i n g in t h i s room. The west h e a r th was l a r g e r and faced i n t o a room t h a t s t i l l con­ t a i n e d remnants o f w h ite p in e f l o o r i n g . A s i n g l e u p r ig h t p o s t , s p e c ie s u n i d e n t i f i e d , a p p ro x im a te ly t h r e e Inches sq uare in c r o s s s e c t i o n , was noted a t th e so u th w estern c o r n e r o f t h e f ir e b o x masonry. This was 99 e v i d e n t l y one o f t h e u p r i g h t p o le s used to form th e framework f o r th e c a t t e d c la y chimney which o r i g i n a l l y extended up from th e masonry beyond th e b u i l d i n g 's r o o f . Both f ir e b o x e s in t h i s s t r u c t u r e c o n ta in e d t h i c k d e p o s its o f a s h . Numerous a r t i f a c t s w ere reco v ere d from th e s e ash l a y e r s , in c lu d in g n a i l s , tobacco p i p e s , and g l a s s b o t t l e s . A t o t a l o f 7,556 o b j e c t s and samples was c a ta lo g u e d from S t r u c t u r e T h ree, ap p ro x im ately 2 3 .6 o b j e c t s p e r s q u are f o o t o f excavated f l o o r sp ace. The g en eral a r r a y o f A r t i f a c t Groups and C la sse s was much l i k e th e c o l l e c t i o n from S t r u c t u r e One (T ab les 18, 1 9 ) , w ith no im mediately a p p a r e n t d iv e rg e n c e s o f any m agnitude. The s u b j e c t i v e im pression l e f t by t h i s assemblage was one o f bo th r e s i d e n t i a l and workshop f u n c t io n s . E a st Bank Over 1,600 sq u are f e e t o f a r e a o u t s i d e th e s t r u c t u r a l remains on th e e a s t s id e o f M ill Creek saw e x c a v a tio n d u rin g 1973, 1974, and 1975. In g e n e r a l , t h e s e a r e a s were ex cav ated as p a r t o f th e e x p lo r a to r y exam ination o f th e s i t e . I n i t i a l e x p lo r a t o r y u n i t s were chosen in 1973 by r e f e r e n c e t o a s t r a t i f i e d random sample. As s t r u c t u r a l rem ains were found, th e sampling frame was m o d ified to a s y s te m a tic o r i e n t a t i o n , examining a r e a s between and beyond th e known rem ains. In p a r t i c u l a r , e x c a v a tio n was d i r e c t e d toward re c o v e ry o f ev id en ce o f th e f u l l range o f a c t i v i t i e s t h a t had o c c u rre d d u rin g t h e s i t e ' s o c c u p a tio n , and evidence o f th e m ill o r m i l l s known through documentary r e f e r e n c e s t o have been o p e ra te d t h e r e . The e x p l o r a t o r y work proved both rew arding and f r u s t r a t i n g . On th e one hand, i t f a i l e d t o expose s t r u c t u r a l remains o f th e m ill o r m i l l s . Table 19. A r tifa c t Frequencies and Percentages, 20CN8, Excavated Structures S tru c tu re S tru ctu re S tru c tu re Group______________________________ One_____________Two____________Three Count % Count % Count % Kitchen Ceramics Wine and Case B o t t l e s Tumbler P harm aceutical Glassware Tableware Ki tchenware 5,900 587 66 99 0 31 7 T otal Kitchen 6,690 644 221 37 30 1 11 8 36.5 952 2,389 138 2 211 3 6 3 18.5 2,752 36.5 A r c h it e c t u r e Window Glass N ails and Spikes C o n s tru c tio n Hardware Door Lock P a r ts T otal A r c h i t e c t u r e F u r n it u r e 8 ,646 1,679 23 9 10,358 15 1,855 1,156 6 2 56.6 0.08 3,019 2 2,723 1,604 4 0 58.5 0.04 4,331 8 57.4 0.11 Arms B a l l , Shot G u n f lin ts Gun P a r ts 366 39 38 T otal Arms 433 75 16 i; 2 .4 96 12 16 12 1.9 100 1.2 C lo th in g Buckles Thimbles Buttons S c is s o r s S t r a i g h t Pins Hook and Eye Bale Seal G lass Beads 10 5 135 6 13 1 1 106 T otal C loth in g 277 2 1 31 1 5 3 0 702 1.5 745 4 1 55 1 11 3 0 39 14.4 114 1.5 101 Table 19. Continued S tr u c t u r e S tru c tu re S tru ctu re Group______________________________ One_____________Two____________Three Count % Count % Count % Personal Coins Keys P ersonal 0 3 42 T otal Personal 45 0.25 287 1 .6 Tobacco Pipe 1 2 0 3 244 0 3 12 0.06 4 .7 15 0 .2 192 2 .5 A c tiv itie s C o n s tru c tio n Tools Farm Tools Toys F ish in g Gear Stub-stemmed Pipes A b orig inal S torage B o tan ical Horse Tack M iscellan eo us Hardware Other M i l i t a r y O bjects T otal A c t i v i t i e s Grand Total 33 3 3 12 0 58 29 12 2 33 0 2 187 18,299 13 1 0 4 0 18 16 27 1 17 0 0 1.0 97 5,158 9 6 0 5 1 0 11 15 0 0 0 0 1.9 44 7,556 0 .6 102 Table 20. A r t i f a c t F requencies and P e rc e n ta g e s, 20CN8, N o n - s tr u c tu ra l and Total S i t e Group__________________________ E ast Bank_______ West Bank_____ Total S i t e Count % Count % Count % Kitchen Ceramics Wine and Case B o t t l e s Tumbler P harm aceutical Glassware Tableware Kitchenware 672 159 5 50 23 4 2 T otal Kitchen 915 248 66 0 111 3 4 1 39.4 433 9,853 1,171 110 501 30 53 21 4 7 .5 11,742 34.29 A rch itectu re Window Glass N a ils and Spikes C o n s tru c tio n Hardware Door Lock P a r t T otal A r c h ite c tu r e F u r n itu r e 712 453 0 0 1,116 2 182 192 1 3 50.2 0.09 378 14,119 5,084 34 14 4 1 .5 19,251 56.23 1 28 0.08 1 0 1 543 77 64 2 684 0 1 3 1 0 0 0 1 22 8 232 8 30 8 1 851 Arms Ball and Shot G u n f lin ts Gun P a r ts 29 6 8 T otal Arms 43 2 .5 2.04 C loth ing Buckles Thimbles Buttons S c is s o r s S t r a i g h t Pins Hook and Eye Bale Seal Glass Beads 6 0 8 0 1 1 0 3 T otal C lothing 19 0 .8 6 * 1,160 3.39 103 Table 20. Group Continued East Bank Count Total !S ite West Bank % Count % Count % Personal Coins Keys Personal 3 0 5 Total Personal 8 69 Tobacco 0 0 7 4 8 66 0 .3 7 78 0.23 3 .0 21 813 2.37 2 .3 A c tiv itie s C o n s tru c tio n Tools Farm Tools Toys F ish in g Gear Stub-stemmed Pipe A borig in al S to rag e B o tan ical Horse Tack M iscellaneous Hardware Other M il i t a r y 2 1 3 1 0 42 5 46 0 0 0 0 Total A c t i v i t i e s 90 Grand Total 2,321 0 0 0 3 0 12 30 8 1 9 0 0 3 .7 63 911 57 11 6 25 1 115 81 108 4 59 0 2 6.9 469 34,237 1.37 104 On th e o t h e r , t h i s n e g a t i v e evid en ce was v a l u a b l e , f o r i t lim ite d th e a l t e r n a t i v e l o c a t i o n s f o r th e m i l l . In a d d i t i o n , i t sug gested p o s s ib l e l o c a t i o n s where su bseq uen t a c t i v i t i e s might have o b l i t e r a t e d s t r u c t u r a l ev id en ce o f th e m i l l . This was th e c a s e p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e a r e a j u s t sou th and w est o f S t r u c t u r e One, where a very r e g u l a r r e c t a n g u l a r c u t had been removed from t h e lim esto n e bedrock exposed in th e e a s t bank (F ig u re 2 ) . I t appeared e a r l y in t h e p r o j e c t t h a t t h i s m ight be a l i k e l y l o c a t i o n f o r a m ill b u i l d i n g , b u tte d i n t o th e rocky c reek bank and c re e k bed. C onsequently, s e v e ra l u n i t s were excavated in and around t h e c u t bank w ith n e a r l y uniform n e g a tiv e r e s u l t s . V i r t u a l l y no e i g h t e e n t h o r n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y a r t i f a c t s were reco v ere d w ith in th e c u t and no s t r u c t u r a l rem ains were en co u n tered . T his n e g a tiv e ev id en ce was tem pered, however, by e x c a v a tio n through a r a i s e d mound j u s t to th e e a s t o f th e c u t bank, so uth o f S t r u c t u r e One. The upper two f e e t o f t h i s mound were made up o f broken lim e sto n e w ith v ery few a r t i f a c t s . Beneath t h i s l a y e r o f s to n e was a b u rie d sod zone r i c h w ith e i g h t e e n t h and n in e te e n th c e n tu r y a r t i f a c t s , contem porary and c o n s i s t e n t w ith th o s e reco v ere d from S t r u c t u r e One n e a rb y . The mound o f s to n e d e b r i s had c l e a r l y been d e p o s ite d a to p t h i s midden well a f t e r th e o c c u p a tio n o f S t r u c t u r e One, p ro bably d u rin g t h e l a t e r n i n e te e n t h cen ­ t u r y , when lim e sto n e was mined on th e s i t e . Thus, i f t h e m ill o r m i l l s had been l o c a t e d in t h i s e a s t bank a r e a , l a t e r mining a c t i v i t y , r e p r e s e n te d by t h e mound o f lim e sto n e r u b b le , may have o b l i t e r a t e d s t r u c t u r a l rem ains. I t i s a p p r o p r i a t e a t t h i s tim e t o n o te a l s o t h a t an u n r e fe r e n c e d , u n s u b s t a n ti a te d lo c a l h i s t o r y o f t h e re g io n s t a t e s t h a t Dousman's m ill 105 was d ism an tled and some o f t h e p a r t s reused in th e Cheboygan are a about 1860 (Ware 1 8 7 6:4 1-42 ). A m i l l s t o n e found by E l l i s Olson a t M eyer's Creek was a l l e g e d l y used a t both l o c a t i o n s ; M ill Creek as well as Meyers Creek. The im p o rtan t p o in t h e re i s th e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a l l o r some p a r t o f th e m ill b u i l d in g o r b u ild in g s were removed p u r p o s e f u lly . I t needs a l s o t o be co n s id e re d t h a t M ill Creek e x p e rie n c e s a heavy S pring r u n o f f . D ischarge d a ta were c o l l e c t e d by th e United S t a t e s Geo­ l o g i c a l Survey in t h e mid 1 9 5 0 's , p r i o r t o th e c o n s tr u c ti o n o f a dam upstream in Dingman's Marsh (U nited S t a t e s G eological Survey 1974). An av erage d is c h a rg e d u rin g th e t h r e e y e a r measurement p e rio d was 2 .4 cu b ic f e e t p e r seco nd , y e t t h e flow measured in th e e a r l y Spring was from 10.0 t o 13.0 c u b ic f e e t p e r second. A heavy r u n o f f , co n fin ed by th e narrow rocky banks a t th e s i t e , could have scoured o u t th e lower remnants o f a m ill b u ild in g o r b u i l d i n g s . When t h i s c o n s id e r a ti o n i s combined w ith th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e m ill having been salv a g ed f o r use e lse w h e re , and th e d e s t r u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f lim e sto n e q u a r r y in g , i t 1s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t no s u b s t a n t i a l m ill s t r u c t u r e s were found. One p o s s i b l e a d d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e was enco un tered l a t e in th e 1975 f i e l d season in u n i t 140S80W. This u n i t was l o c a te d south and, t h e r e ­ f o r e , upstream o f t h e dam r u i n s , on th e high bank o v erlo o k in g M ill Creek. A small L-shaped i r r e g u l a r i t y on th e s u r f a c e a t t r a c t e d a t t e n t i o n and e x c a v a tio n r e v e a le d a l i n e a r f e a t u r e c o n s i s t i n g o f wood, c h a r c o a l, and s ta i n e d s o i l ( F ig u re 2 ) . The f e a t u r e had t h e appearance o f a burned s i l l , but th e l a c k o f a s s o c i a t e d a r t i f a c t s and th e need to c o n tin u e ongoing ex c a v a tio n else w h ere on t h e s i t e le d th e f ie ld w o rk e r s t o abandon t h i s p o ssib le s tr u c tu r e . 106 West Bank On th e west s i d e o f th e c r e e k , o v er 1,900 s q u are f e e t o f ground was excavated o u ts id e t h e immediate a re a o f S t r u c t u r e Three (F ig u re 2 ) . Of t h i s t o t a l over 1,200 squ are f e e t were opened in th e a r e a o f th e dam. Those ex cav atio n s w i l l be d isc u s s e d below. Beyond t h e dam e x c a v a tio n s , most work on th e w est bank was e x p l o r a t o r y , d i r e c t e d toward th e reco v ery o f in fo rm atio n re g a rd in g th e m ill and o t h e r s i t e f u n c t i o n s . U n its were excavated on th e Old Mackinaw Road, low down in th e f lo o d p l a i n o f th e c r e e k , and on t h e s lo p in g banks between S t r u c t u r e Three and th e c re e k in s e a rc h o f th e m ill b u i l d i n g , t o no a v a i l . A r t i f a c t s reco v ere d from th e s e ex cav atio n u n i t s g e n e r a l l y p a r a l l e l and complement th e assem blage from S t r u c t u r e Three. Three u n i t s were excavated t o th e w est o f S t r u c t u r e Three in s e a rc h o f a r t i f a c t s a n d /o r f e a t u r e s . The two a d ja c e n t f i v e by te n f o o t u n i t s , 5S210W and 5S220W, r e v e a le d o n ly s c a t t e r e d a b o r i g in a l s to n e d e b ita g e and a larg e tre e f a l l . The w esternm ost u n i t , 10S260W, was opened over a s u r f a c e d e p re ss io n which piqued i n t e r e s t as a p o t e n t i a l f e a t u r e . Exca­ v a tio n re v e a le d a l a r g e c i r c u l a r h o le , seven f e e t wide a t th e s u r f a c e narrowing t o a f l a t f o u r f o o t wide bottom c u t t h r e e f e e t i n t o th e lim e ­ s to n e bedrock. The f e a t u r e c o n ta in e d e a r l y tw e n t i e t h c e n tu r y a r t i f a c t s , such as a l e a t h e r shoe s o l e , a g r a n i t e ware b a s i n , and a q u a n t i t y o f f i s h bone and s c a l e s . I t ap p ears l i k e l y t h a t t h i s was a hole o r i g i n a l l y opened as a well o r p r iv y , o r perhaps as a t e s t h o le f o r th e lim e sto n e d e p o sits. In any c a s e , i t serv ed a s a co n v e n ie n t r e p o s i t o r y f o r a small q u a n t i t y o f tw e n tie th c e n tu ry t r a s h , p ro bably l e f t by workers a t th e lim e sto n e q u a rry in g o p e r a tio n nearb y. 107 Dam Ruins The upstream s i l l tim b er o f a c rib b e d dam was v i s i b l e spanning th e bed o f Mill Creek when th e s i t e was f i r s t d isc o v e re d in 1972, as were p o r tio n s o f two o f t h e downstream tim b ers (F ig u re 8 ) . No ex cav atio n was attem p ted u n t i l 1974, when th e e a s t e r n end o f th e dam was exposed and a c le a n p r o f i l e was c u t on t h e w estern bank. In a d d i t i o n , two u n i t s (90S110W and 90S120W) were opened in an a tte m p t to rev eal something o f th e dam's i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e . The e a s t e r n o f t h e s e two u n i t s was l o c a te d on th e s lo p in g bank j u s t downstream from th e main s t r u c t u r e o f th e dam. lim e sto n e bedrock and l i t t l e e l s e . E xcavation exposed th e In 90S120W, on ly th e w estern f i v e by te n f o o t segment was ex cav ated in 1974, t o a depth o f c a . s ix f e e t below th e ground s u r f a c e . The s o i l s appeared t o be th o ro u g h ly mixed, w ith t w e n t ie t h c e n tu r y a r t i f a c t s s c a t t e r e d th ro u g h o u t. The c l e a r im pression l e f t was t h a t t h i s a r e a had been f i l l e d , probably u sin g heavy equipm ent, d u rin g th e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n tu r y . In 1975, an a tte m p t was made t o f u r t h e r examine th e w est end o f o f th e dam. S everal narrow t r e n c h e s were c u t through t h e t o p s o i l to d e t e r ­ mine th e a r e a l e x t e n t o f t h e f i l l d e p o s i t . These t r e n c h e s r e v e a le d a l a r g e a r e a , measuring 25x35 f e e t , f i l l e d w ith d ark sandy s o i l mixed w ith g r a v e l , san d , c l a y , and g l a c i a l c o b b le s . Since 90S120W, dug in t h e p r e ­ vio us y e a r , had i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s d e p o s i t was as much as s i x f e e t d eep, i t seemed re a s o n a b le to employ power equipment to e x p lo re t h i s featu re. Toward t h a t end, a backhoe w ith a f r o n t end lo a d e r was employed f o r e i g h t hours work. Four hours were s p e n t removing t o p s o i l to expose th e 108 f u l l are a o f t h e d e p o s i t . Next th e e x c a v a tio n crew shovel-shaved th e e n t i r e f e a t u r e f o r mapping and photography. Then, th e machine removed an a d d i ti o n a l two f e e t o f th e f i l l , w h ile t h e crew noted c a r e f u l l y any s u s p ic io u s a r t i f a c t s o r p o s s i b l e s t r u c t u r a l f e a t u r e s . A f te r th e machine was f i n i s h e d , te n by te n f o o t ex cav atio n u n i t s were e s t a b l i s h e d and more o f th e dam's s t r u c t u r e was exposed by hand. Excavation to u n d is tu r b e d s u b s o il s and bedrock r e v e a le d t h a t th e dam extended beyond th e 120U g r id l i n e . Because th e season was coming t o a c l o s e , t h e r e c t a n g u l a r g r id system was abandoned and a s i x f o o t wide, te n f o o t long t r e n c h o v er th e dam's upstream f a c e was opened beyond th e 120W l i n e . Even a t t h e com pletion o f t h i s t r e n c h , on th e f i n a l day o f e x c a v a tio n , t h e extrem e w estern end o f th e dam was n o t exposed. Subse­ quent ex c a v a tio n in 1979 re v e a le d th e end o f th e dam, j u s t beyond th e end o f th e 1975 t r e n c h . The dam was p r i m a r i l y a wooden c r i b , ro u g hly 35 f e e t long and app rox im ately 20 f e e t w ide, l a i d up o f a l t e r n a t i n g w h ite pine c r o s s ­ tim b ers and f i l l e d w ith heavy g l a c i a l c o b b le s . The e a s t e r n end o f th e dam was a b u tte d I n to lim e sto n e bedrock, t h e s i l l s l a i d in narrow tre n c h e s c u t i n t o t h e ro c k . The w estern end o f t h e c r i b was a l s o anchored in to lim e sto n e bedrock. Beyond th e w est end o f t h e c r i b a l l t h a t was exposed through e x c a v a tio n was th e upstream w h ite p in e plank f a c i n g , which o r i g i n a l l y covered th e e n t i r e w a te r f a c e . I t probably a l s o covered th e exposed a i r fa c e on t h e downstream s id e o f th e dam, though none o f th e downstream fa c in g has s u rv iv e d . T his s lo p in g v e r t i c a l fa c in g gave th e dam 109 s t r u c t u r e a r e l a t i v e l y impermeable s u r f a c e to p r e v e n t w a te r from flow ing through and eroding th e f i l l . Downstream from t h e main c r i b , remains o f tim b e rs p r o j e c t i n t o th e creek bed a t r i g h t a n g le s t o th e flo w , p a r a l l e l to th e c r i b . I t is l i k e l y t h a t th e s e tim b e rs su p po rted a wooden plank a p ro n , c o n s tr u c te d to p re v e n t w ater t h a t flow ed ov er t h e dam from washing o u t th e c reek bed below th e dam. No evidence o f a s l u i c e , s p ill w a y , o r o t h e r s t r u c t u r a l elem ents were n o te d . No a r t i f a c t s were reco vered to a f f o r d i n s i g h t i n to th e d a te s o f c o n s tr u c t io n o r use o f t h i s dam. The p resen ce o f h ig h , narrow lim esto n e banks a t t h i s p o i n t on M ill Creek makes f o r an optim al s i t u ­ a t i o n f o r a dam, o f f e r i n g s o l i d an ch orin g p o i n t s as w ell as a bedrock creek bottom t h a t r e s i s t s e r o s io n . S ince no o t h e r dam r u in s were en c o u n te re d , i t may be assumed t h a t t h i s s t r u c t u r e , o r a n o th e r a t th e same l o c a t i o n , serv ed th e Campbell and Dousman m i l l s th ro u g h o u t t h e i r o p e r a tio n a l h i s t o r y . Chronology A c r i t i c a l t a s k in th e I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s i t e s i s th e exam ination o f c h ro n o lo g ic a l ev id e n c e . The d e s c r i p t i o n o f s t r u c t u r a l and a r t i f a c t u a l m a t e r i a l s i s put I n to p e r s p e c t iv e o n ly a f t e r th e temporal o r d e r in g o f e v e n ts r e s p o n s ib le f o r t h e fo rm atio n o f th e a r c h a e o lo g ic a l r e c o r d . A prim ary a c t i v i t y o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , and o f te n an end in i t s e l f , th e c o n s id e r a t io n o f chronology ta k e s on a p a r t i c u l a r c h a r a c t e r in h i s t o r i c s i t e s arc h a e o lo g y . The com bination o f documentary ev idence w ith s t r i c t l y a r c h a e o lo g ic a l methods o f c h ro n o lo g ic a l o r d e rin g 110 g ives t h i s u n d e rta k in g an added dimension t h a t I s la c k in g in p r e h i s t o r i c arch aeo lo g y , each ty p e o f ev idence a c t i n g as a check on th e o t h e r . The r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t o c c u p a tio n and p a r t i c u l a r p h y s ic a l c h a ra c ­ t e r i s t i c s o f t h e F i l b e r t S i t e has l i m i t e d th e use o f s t r a t i g r a p h y to a minor r o l e . I n s t e a d , te c h n iq u e s more p e c u l i a r t o h i s t o r i c s i t e s a r e to be u t i l i z e d , methods t h a t combine documentary and a r c h a e o lo g ic a l ev id en ce. In p a r t i c u l a r , Mean Ceramic D atin g , a te c h n iq u e developed by S ta n le y South, w i l l be u s e d , as w i l l an exam ination o f o t h e r d a te a b le a r t i f a c t s , such as window g l a s s , m i l i t a r y b u t t o n s , and p ip estem s. Mean Ceramic Dating Founded on th e c o n cep t o f t h e h o r iz o n , a r t i c u l a t e d by W illey and P h i l l i p s (1 9 5 8 ), t h i s te c h n iq u e was In tro d u ced by S ta n le y South as a means o f e s tim a tin g t h e median o c c u p a tio n d a te o f an undocumented a r c h a e o lo g ic a l s i t e (South 1972; 1977). Simply s t a t e d , t h i s te c h n iq u e c a l c u l a t e s a m iddle o c c u p a tio n d a t e by w eig h tin g sherd co u n ts w ith th e known middle m an u factu rin g d a te o f each p o t t e r y t y p e , summing th e p ro ­ d u c ts and d iv id in g by t h e t o t a l sh erd c o u n t. The te c h n iq u e i s w idely used t o e s tim a te o c c u p a tio n d a te s and t o c a l c u l a t e d a te s on s p e c i f i c c o n te x ts f o r com p arative p u rp o ses. I t i s t h i s l a t t e r use t h a t i s o f i n t e r e s t h e re . Mean Ceramic Dates have been c a l c u l a t e d f o r each o f t h e t h r e e s t r u c t u r a l c o n te x ts in o r d e r t o a s s e s s t h e i r r e l a t i v e a g e s . The raw d a ta and c a l c u l a t i o n s a r e shown below in t a b u l a r form (T ables 21, 22, and 2 3 ). I t must be remembered t h a t t h i s te c h n iq u e i s a p p lie d sim ply as a com parative t o o l , as an e s ti m a t e o f o c c u p a tio n d a t e . The r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e e s tim a te may be made q u e s tio n a b le by any o f number o f f a c t o r s . Table 21. Mean Ceramic Date, Structure One Median Date Sherd Count Whiteware, #2 1860 0 0 I r o n s to n e , #3 1857 0 0 Canton P o r c e la in , #5 1815 99 179,685 Overglaze P ainted P o r c e la in , #7 1808 25 45,200 T r a n s f e r - P r in te d P earlw are, # ' s 10/11 1818 437 794,466 Polychrome P ainted P earlw are, #12 1805 168 303,240 Annular P earlw are, #13 1805 32 57,760 Light Yellow Creamware, #15 1798 3,469 6,237,262 Blue P ain ted P earlw are, #17 1800 289 520,200 Overglaze P ain ted Creamware, #18 1788 1 19,668 Blue and Green Edged P earlw are, #19 1805 235 424,175 Undecorated P earlw are, #20 1805 961 1,734,605 T r a n s f e r - P r in te d Creamware, #23 1790 3 5,370 Debased "S cratch Blue" Stoneware, #24 1780 32 56,960 Decorated D elftw are, #49 1750 95 166,250 5,922 10,667,601 Ceramic Type ( S o u th 's Type #) MCD = 10,667,601 = 1801.4 5,922 Product Table 22. Ceramic Type ( S o u th 's Type #) Mean Ceramic Date, Structure Two Median Date Sherd Count Product Whiteware, #2 1860 28 52,080 I r o n s to n e , #3 1857 0 0 Canton P o r c e la in , #5 1815 40 72,600 Overglaze P ainted P o r c e la in , #7 1808 3 5,424 T r a n s f e r - P r in te d P earlw are, # ' s 10/11 1818 15 27,270 Polychrome P ain ted P earlw are, #12 1805 25 45,125 Annular P earlw are, #13 1805 1 1,805 L ig h t Yellow Creamware, #15 1798 336 604,128 Blue P ain ted P earlw are, #17 1800 10 18,000 Overglaze P ain ted Creamware, #18 1788 2 3,576 Blue and Green Edged P earlw are, #19 1805 20 36,100 Undecorated P earlw are, #20 1805 97 175,085 T r a n s f e r - P r in te d Creamware, #23 1790 1 1,790 Debased "S cratch Blue" Stoneware, #24 1780 3 5,340 Decorated D elftw are, #49 1750 10 17,500 591 1,065,823 MCD = 1,065,823 = 1803.4 59T- Table 23. Ceramic Type (S o u th 's Type #) Mean Ceramic Date, Structure Three Median Date Sherd Count Product Whiteware, #2 1860 214 398,040 I r o n s to n e , #3 1857 72 133,704 Canton P o r c e la in , #5 1815 10 18,150 Overglaze P ainted P o r c e la in , #7 1808 1 1,808 T r a n s f e r - P r in te d P earlw are, # ' s 10/11 1818 898 1,632,564 Polychrome P ainted P earlw are, #12 1805 103 185,915 Annular P earlw are, #13 1805 98 176,890 L igh t Yellow Creamware, #15 1798 405 728,190 Blue P ain ted P earlw are, #17 1800 105 189,000 Overglaze P ain ted Creamware, #18 1788 0 0 Blue and Green Edged P earlw are, #19 1805 91 164,255 Undecorated P earlw are, #20 1805 55 99,275 T r a n s f e r - P r in te d Creamware, #23 1790 0 0 Debased "S cra tc h Blue" Stoneware, #24 1780 0 0 Decorated D elftw are, #49 1750 0 ________ 0 2,052 3,727,791 MCD = 3,727,791 = 1816.7 2,052 114 For i n s t a n c e , th e s o r t i n g o f p e a r lw a re , creamware, and whiteware a t th e le v e l o f small sh e rd s i s an ex trem ely s u b j e c t i v e and t r i c k y u n d e rta k in g , a t b e s t. The p r o p o r tio n o f sh e rd s c l a s s i f i e d in each o f th e s e ware c a t e g o r i e s pro fo un dly a f f e c t s th e Mean Ceramic Date e s ti m a t e . So long a s t h e r e s e a r c h e r i s c o n s i s t e n t , however, such s o r t i n g problems should n o t hamper th e co m p arative use o f th e Mean Ceramic Date e s t i m a t e , even though t h e a b s o lu te v a lu e s may be q u e s tio n a b le . S t r u c t u r e s One and Two ap p ear to be roughly contem porary, jud ging by th e Mean Ceramic Date e s t i m a t e s , 1801.4 and 1803.4 r e s p e c t i v e l y . There a r e , as w e l l , fragm ents o f s i n g l e v e s s e l s t h a t were reco v ere d from both s t r u c t u r e s , f u r t h e r i n d i c a t i o n o f con tem po ran eity. These o b serv a­ t i o n s should be c o n t r a s t e d w ith th e s i t u a t i o n in S t r u c t u r e T hree, w ith a Mean Ceramic Date e s ti m a t e o f 1816.7. This l a t e r d a te e s tim a te r e s u l t s from th e p resen ce o f s i g n i f i c a n t p r o p o rtio n s o f some o f t h e l a t e r ceram ic t y p e s , such as t r a n s f e r - p r i n t e d p e a rlw a re , whitew are and i r o n ­ s t o n e , and i n d i c a t e s a l a t e r o c c u p a tio n p e rio d f o r t h i s s t r u c t u r e . While th e Mean Ceramic Date e s ti m a te o f f e r i n s i g h t i n t o th e r e l a t i v e ages o f th e s t r u c t u r e s , th e y must be combined w ith o th e r c h ro n o lo g ic a l i n d i c a t o r s to I n c r e a s e co n fid en ce 1n t h e i r v e r a c i t y . M i l i t a r y Buttons Of 232 b u tto n s re c o v e re d , a t l e a s t 41 a r e m i l i t a r y uniform b u tto n s , and t h e r e a r e l i k e l y more, s in c e U.S. Army a r t i l l e r y u n i t s wore p la in b ra s s b u tto n s between 1796 and 1802, as d id o t h e r u n i t s a t o t h e r tim e s , b u tto n s i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from th o s e used by c i v i l i a n s . M ilita ry b u t­ to n s can be o f use in u n r a v e lin g chro no log y, s in c e uniform changes were well documented. T h e ir c h ro n o lo g ic a l v alu e i s somewhat d im in ish e d , 115 however, in a n o n - m i l i t a r y c o n te x t such as t h i s one. That they a re p r e s e n t in such numbers a t th e F i l b e r t S i t e i s something o f a mystery in itse lf. In a d d i t i o n , some doubt i s c a s t upon th e c h ro n o lo g ic a l a t t r i ­ b u tio n o f th e b u t t o n s , f o r i t has n o t been e s ta b l i s h e d t h a t th ey were worn by s o l d i e r s on a c t i v e d u ty . T h e re f o re , th e d a te s d uring which th e b u tto n s were in use by t h e Army may n o t be th e d a te s in which th ey were worn and l o s t o r d is c a rd e d a t Mill Creek. N o tw ith stan din g t h e s e problem s, th e b u tto n s can c e r t a i n l y be o f some use in t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s i t e ' s h i s t o r y and u s e . To b e g in , t h e documentary re c o rd o f f e r s some i n s i g h t in to reason s f o r t h e i r p resen ce on t h e s i t e . In a g en eral s e n s e , F ra n c is Paul P r u c h a 's book con cern ing th e r o l e o f t h e m i l i t a r y in th e s e tt l e m e n t o f th e Northwest T e r r i t o r y , Broadax and Bayonet (1 9 6 7 ), p o in ts o u t t h a t many, i f n ot m o st, o f th e s k i l l e d m echanics, black sm ith s and m illw r ig h ts in th e re g io n came v ia th e Army. The c r i t i c a l im portance o f sawn lumber and m ille d g r a i n f o r t h e m i l i t a r y in an a re a as i s o l a t e d as th e S t r a i t s o f Mackinac i s e a s i l y u n d e rs to o d , and i t would n o t be s u r p r i s i n g to le a r n t h a t th e m i l i t a r y commanders o f F o r t Mackinac provided such s k i l l e d la b o r to a p r i v a t e m i l l e r in o r d e r to f a c i l i t a t e th e p ro d u ctio n o f needed m a t e r i a l s . In f a c t , Prucha p o in te d o u t s e v e ra l such I n c i d e n t s a t o t h e r p o s ts in t h e r e g i o n . A s e a rc h o f e a r l y n in e te e n th c e n tu ry du ty r o s t e r s by Keith Widder, an h i s t o r i a n w ith th e Mackinac I s la n d S t a t e Park Commission, proved f r u i t l e s s , however (Widder 1977). I f s o ld ie rs were a s sig n e d such d u t y , i t was e v i d e n t l y n o t o f f i c i a l l y recorded by th e ir su p e rio rs. 116 There w ere, o f c o u r s e , more casu al n o tes r e g a rd in g v i s i t s by s o l d i e r s t o p ick up lumber, such as Captain D o y le 's correspondence o f 1793, quoted e a r l i e r , where he r e f e r s to sending to C am pbell's m ill f o r lumber to r e p a i r th e b a rra c k s a t F o rt Mackinac. F urtherm ore, th e use o f th e s i t e as a la y o v e r f o r ov erlan d t r a v e l e r s i s im plied by both th e Benjamin Poole map o f 1839, showing Dousman's M ill as th e n o rth e rn t e r ­ minus o f a road from Saginaw, and th e l e t t e r from C h arles Mori son to John Askin o f F eb ru ary , 1801, quoted above, which says t h a t a Mr. F ra s e r was fo rc e d to s t a y a t Mr. C am pbell's f o r 15 d a y s , w a itin g f o r fa v o ra b le i c e c o n d itio n s to c r o s s t o Mackinac I s l a n d . Use o f t h e s i t e as a ju m p in g -o ff p o in t f o r t r a v e l to and from th e f o r t and s e tt le m e n t on Mackinac I s la n d could a t l e a s t p a r t l y e x p la in th e presen ce o f m i l i t a r y b u tto n s on th e s i t e . Another i n d i r e c t e x p l a n a t i o n , combined w ith P ru c h a 's e a r l i e r o b s e r ­ v a t i o n s , adds an a d d i t i o n a l way to e x p la in th e b u t t o n s ' p re se n c e . During some o f h is most a c t i v e t r a d in g y e a r s , 1816 to 1819, Michael Dousman was denied a f u r t r a d in g l i c e n s e by th e U.S. Government due to h i s a l l e g e d c o m p lic ity 1n th e B r i t i s h s e iz u r e o f F o rt Mackinac d uring th e War o f 1812. Testimony to h i s co n tin u ed a c t i v i t y d u rin g th e tim e in which h is l i c e n s e was revoked i s found in t h e Mackinac Impost Book (Mackinac Impost Book 1802-1850), th e re c o rd o f ta x e s paid on merchan­ d i s e shipped in t o th e p o r t . During t h e p e rio d 1816 through 1819, Dous­ man r e c e iv e d tw elve shipm ents which in clu d ed t a x a b l e item s valued a t $ 1 8 ,9 3 1 .8 9 , as well as o t h e r goods which were e v i d e n t l y n o t ta x e d . Included in th e s e shipm ents were s e v e ra l unenumerated "p ack ag es," as 117 well as s ilv e r w o r k s , tw in e , s h o e s , to b a c c o , q u a n t i t i e s o f powder, s h o t, and l e a d , n e t t h r e a d , s n u f f , wine and s p i r i t s , n a i l s , s h e e t and bar i r o n , c o f f e e and t e a . A l e t t e r from Matthew I r w in , F a c to r a t t h e U.S. Fur F acto ry a t Green Bay, to Colonel Thomas L. McKenney, S u p e rin te n d e n t o f th e Indian t r a d e , in 1819, l i s t e d a number o f B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s a c t i v e l y engaged in th e f u r t r a d e in d i r e c t c o m p e titio n w ith t h e U.S. Government. Irw in d is c u s s e d a p a r t i c u l a r ploy used by John Jacob A s t o r 's American Fur Com­ pany, and o t h e r s , t o avoid t h e p r o h i b i t i o n on B r i t i s h c i t i z e n s engaging in th e t r a d e . I t appears t h a t t h e p erso n s s e n t by Mr. A sto r t o o t h e r p la c e s to t r a d e w ith In d ia n s were B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s ; and , when 1 t happened t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l p erso n having ch arg e o f t h e goods was c u lp a b le in h i s conduct in t h e Late War, in t h a t c a se a d is c h a rg e d s o l d i e r was procured a t Mackinac to accompany t h e goods, who would a f f e c t t o have t h e agency o f them, w h i l s t a l l o t h e r s , even th e boat-man, were B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s . S im ila r co nd u ct has been ob served by th e house o f David Stone & C o ., a t Mackinac; one o f t h e p a r t n e r s o f which (Michael Dousman) p i l o t e d t h e B r i t i s h armament t o Mackinac d u rin g t h e L ate War (Irw in 1876:277-278). The use o f d isc h a rg e d o r even s e rv in g American s o l d i e r s t o l e g i t i m i t i z e t r a d e v e n tu re s co uld e x p la in t h e p re se n c e o f m i l i t a r y uniform b u tto n s a t M ill Creek, f o r a t l e a s t some p a r t s o f th e uniform s were th e person al p r o p e rty o f th e s o l d i e r s . In f a c t , a l l o f t h e s e e x p l a n a tio n s p ro b ab ly worked 1n com bination to b rin g s o l d i e r s t o t h e s i t e . But i t seems l i k e l y t h a t lo n g -term 118 employment and o c c u p a tio n a s m i l l e r s , c o o p e r s , o r t r a d e r s pro bab ly was th e prim ary re a so n f o r th e p resen ce o f th e b u tto n s in t h e assem blage, n o t any o f f i c i a l m i l i t a r y a c t i v i t y . As t o t h e c h ro n o lo g ic a l u t i l i t y o f th e b u t t o n s , i t should f i r s t be noted t h a t t h e r e a r e e i g h t b a s ic ty p e s r e p r e s e n t e d , a l l m anufactured and iss u e d d u rin g t h e l a t e e ig h t e e n t h and e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s . There 1s a s i n g l e B r i t i s h b u t t o n , made o f b r a s s in two p i e c e s , p l a te d w ith s i l v e r (F ig u re 35 g ) . The b u tto n b e a rs t h e Arabic numeral H16" w ith in a broken c i r c l e and was i s s u e d t o an o f f i c e r o f t h e 16th Regiment o f F oot, a u n i t which s erv ed in America between 1767 and 1782, b u t was n o t s t a t i o n e d a t Mackinac (Dunnigan 1 9 7 5 :5 ). F u rth erm ore, none o f th e B r i t i s h o f f i c e r s s t a t i o n e d a t F o r t Mackinac d u rin g th e l a t e e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y had been w ith t h e 16th Regiment (Dunnigan 1974). The 16th Regi­ ment b u tto n was found in S t r u c t u r e Two. The second b u tto n ty p e i s known t o some c o l l e c t o r s a s t h e " f r o g ­ legged" e a g l e , as can e a s i l y be u n d ersto o d ( F ig u re 35 a ) . This c a s t pew ter b u tto n was Is s u e d t o c a v a l r y and i n f a n t r y u n i t s between 1792 and 1798 (Campbell 1 9 6 5 :2 ). Two examples o f t h i s b u tto n were re c o v e re d , both from S t r u c t u r e One. The n e x t b u tto n ty p e r e p r e s e n te d was Iss u e d to t h e 1 s t A r t i l l e r y Regiment between 1802 and 1810 (Campbell 1 9 6 5 :3 ). Made o f a s i n g l e p ie c e o f b r a s s ( F ig u r e 35 1, j , n , o ) , t h e s e b u tto n s b e a r an I n s i g n i a which d e p i c t s an e a g l e perched upon a cannon w ith a drum and a s ta c k o f can n o n b a lls on t h e ground below. T his ty p e o f b u tto n was m anufactured by a number o f Army c o n t r a c t o r s and c o n s e q u e n tly t h e r e i s some v a r i a t i o n in th e i n s i g n i a . In some I n s t a n c e s , t h e cannon p o in ts l e f t , in o t h e r s 119 1 t p o in ts r i g h t ; most o f t h e b u tto n s b e a r th e legend "1 Regt" below th e d e s ig n , w h ile one b e a r s th e sim ple numeral "1". There a r e a ls o two s i z e s , 20 and 15mm d i a m e te r , presumably f o r d i f f e r e n t a p p l i c a t i o n s . Of te n specim ens, n in e were reco v ere d in o r near S t r u c t u r e One, th e te n th found abo ut twenty f e e t e a s t o f S t r u c t u r e Three. The n ex t b u tto n t y p e , 1n term s o f a g e , i s th e s c r i p t "I" b u tto n , o f c a s t pewter (F ig u re 35 e , f ) Issu ed t o I n f a n t r y u n i t s between 1812 and 1815 (Campbell 1 9 6 5 :2 ). B earing a f o l i a t e d s c r i p t " I " above e i t h e r an empty oval o r an oval c o n t a i n i n g a s t a r , t h i s b u tto n a l s o i s found 1n two s i z e s . Of th e s i x specimens found th u s f a r a t t h e F i l b e r t S i t e , f o u r were reco v ere d from S t r u c t u r e One and t h e o t h e r two from S tr u c tu r e Two. The s c r i p t "A" b u t t o n , a o n e - p ie c e b ra s s b u t t o n , r e p la c e d th e e a r l i e r a r t i l l e r y b u tto n s in 1813-1814 (Campbell 19 65 :3). One o f th e examples reco v ere d a t M ill Creek b e a rs th e f o l i a t e d "A" above an oval c o n ta in in g th e numeral " 1 " , w h ile t h e o t h e r two d i s p l a y t h e numeral "3" w ith in t h e oval ( F ig u re 25 k ) . The numbers r e f e r t o th e regim ent o f th e w e a re r; t h e r e were t h r e e such reg im e n ts d u rin g t h e War o f 1812. All t h r e e examples were found i n S t r u c t u r e One. In 1814, t h e t h r e e a r t i l l e r y regim en ts were re o rg a n iz e d In to a Corps o f A r t i l l e r y and a new b u tto n was is s u e d which looked much l i k e th e o ld 1 s t Regiment b u tto n s (Campbell 1 9 6 5 :3 -4 ). In use u n t i l 1821, th e s e b u tto n s b o re t h e e a g le a to p a cannon m o t i f , w ith th e word "CORPS" below (F ig u re 31 1 , m). Six o f t h e 15 specimens were reco v ere d from S t r u c t u r e One, w h ile t h e rem aining n in e were found in S t r u c t u r e Three. 120 From 1815 t o 1821, e n l i s t e d men In th e I n f a n t r y u n i t s wore a pew ter b u tto n b earin g an e a g l e h o ldin g a s h i e l d , w h ile th e o f f i c e r s wore a s i m i l a r b u tto n made o f s i l v e r - p l a t e d b r a s s (Campbell 1965:3). Both v e r s io n s o f t h i s b u tto n were reco v ere d a t th e F i l b e r t S i t e , th e o f f i ­ c e r ' s ty p e d is p la y in g a s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t and p r e v io u s ly unknown d e s ig n , w ith t h e e a g le fa c in g r i g h t r a t h e r th an l e f t , and w ith th e legend "REGT" below (F ig u re 35 b , c , d ) . Of f i v e exam ples, t h r e e were found 1n S t r u c t u r e One, one 1n S t r u c t u r e T h ree, and one had no p ro ven ien ce re c o rd e d . The f i n a l ty p e o f m i l i t a r y b u tto n was pro bably is s u e d between th e 1 83 0's and 1902, and was .known as a " s t a f f " b u tto n (Dunnigan 197 5 :9). T his tw o-p iece b r a s s b u tto n b e a rs an e a g le w ith spread wings g ra sp in g arrow s and a l e a f y b ran ch , surrounded by a c i r c l e o f s t a r s (F ig u re 35 h). The s i n g l e example from th e F i l b e r t S i t e was reco vered from S t r u c t u r e Three. Though t h e r e i s c o n s id e r a b le o v e r la p in th e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f b u tto n ty p e s among t h e s t r u c t u r e s (T able 2 4 ) , th e g eneral tendency a g re e s w ith th e Mean Ceramic Date e s t i m a t e s . S t r u c t u r e s One and Two appear contem­ p o ra ry and S t r u c t u r e Three ap p ears t o d a te somewhat l a t e r . S tru c tu re Three c o n ta in s no b u tto n s t h a t were 1n use b e fo re 1812, w h ile th e m a j o r i t y o f t h e b u tto n s found 1n S t r u c t u r e s One and Two were 1n use b e fo re t h a t d a t e . 121 T able 24. M i l i t a r y Button D i s t r i b u t i o n S t r u c t u r e One Dates o f O f f i c i a l Use 2 "Froglegged" e a g l e 1792-1798 7 1 s t Regiment 1802-1810 4 S c r i p t "I" 1812-1815 3 S c r i p t "A" 1813-1814 6 "CORPS" 1814-1821 3 Eagle w ith s h i e l d 1815-1821 25 Total S t r u c t u r e Two 1 16th Regiment o f Foot 1767-1782? 2 1 s t Regiment 1802-1810 S c r i p t "I" 1812-1815 _1 4 Total S t r u c t u r e Three 1 S c r i p t "I" 1813-1815 9 "CORPS" 1814-1821 1 Eagle w ith s h i e l d 1815-1821 1 " s t a f f " b u tto n 1830-1902? 12 Total E ast Bank 1 Eagle w ith s h i e l d 1815-1821 West Bank 1 1 s t Regiment 1802-1810 122 Window Glass S everal a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have e x p lo re d th e u t i l i t y o f window g l a s s as a so u rce o f c h r o n o lo g ic a l in fo rm a tio n w ith in n in e te e n th c e n tu r y c o n te x ts (Chance and Chance 1974; Grosscup and M il l e r 1969; Moir 1983; Roenke 1978; Walker 1971; Wentworth 1979). The common co n c lu s io n a r r i v e d a t by a l l o f th e s e a u th o r s was t h a t th e t h ic k n e s s o f g l a s s window panes ap p ears t o have f l u c t u a t e d ov er tim e and t h a t measured samples from a r c h a e o lo g ic a l c o n t e x t s m ight a id in d a tin g episod es o f c o n s tr u c t i o n a n d /o r window re p la c e m e n t. In g e n e r a l , t h e th ic k n e s s o f window g l a s s seems t o have in c r e a s e d d u rin g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , p o s s ib ly because window pane s i z e s in c r e a s e d d u rin g t h i s tim e , due to changes in th e m a n u f a c tu r e r 's c a p a b i l i t i e s and t h e s t y l e s o f windows u t i l i z e d in co n stru c tio n . Over 14,000 fragm en ts o f window g l a s s c o l l e c t e d in e x c a v a tio n were c a ta lo g e d and measured t o t h e n e a r e s t .001" w ith a m icrom eter. Measure­ ments were s y s t e m a t i c a l l y tak en a t t h e m idpoint o f each f ra g m e n t, one measurement p e r frag m en t. Simple remeasurement o f s e v e ra l c a t a l o g u n i t s by th e a u th o r v e r i f i e d th e c o m p a r a b ility o f r e s u l t s o b ta in e d by th e s e v e ra l s tu d e n t la b workers who to o k th e o r i g i n a l measurements. g i b l e v a r i a t i o n 1n r e s u l t s was n o te d . N e g li­ C atalog u n i t s were grouped t o g e t h e r i n t o t h e m ajor i n t e r p r e t i v e c o n te x ts o f t h e s tu d y ; S t r u c t u r e One, Two and T h ree, n o n - s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s , and th e t o t a l s i t e . T ab ular p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e raw d a ta and a n a l y s i s fo llo w s The d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s s u g g e s t t h a t th e t h i c k n e s s o f windows 1n S t r u c t u r e s One and Two a r e s i m i l a r , and t h a t S t r u c t u r e Three has t h i n n e r g l a s s panes. The freq u en cy d i s t r i b u t i o n o f window g l a s s grouped in 123 T able 25. Window G lass D e s c r ip tiv e S t a t i s t i c s S tru c tu re One S tru ctu re Two S tr u c t u r e Three Other Areas Total S ite Mean .060" .063" .052" .061" .059" Range .213 .099 .241 .111 .244 S tan d ard D ev iatio n .014 .014 .012 .013 .014 - K u rto s is 9.187 .793 93.707 1.754 13.563 Skewness 1.602 .757 5.771 .862 1.816 V alid O b serv atio n s 8,507 2,004 2,709 1,387 14,607 in i n t e r v a l s o f .005" (.0 3 0 - .0 3 4 " = Category 1) f o r each c o n t e x t d i s ­ p la y s more c l e a r l y t h e s i m i l a r i t i e s between S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, and th e d iv e rg e n c e o f S t r u c t u r e Three (F ig u re 9 ) . The r e a d e r w i l l n o te th e v ery d i f f e r e n t shape o f t h e cu rve f o r S t r u c t u r e T h ree, e s p e c i a l l y th e h ig h e r r e l a t i v e f r e q u e n c ie s in C a te g o rie s 4 and 5 and th e lower f re q u e n ­ c i e s in C a te g o rie s 7 throu gh 14. The c o n c lu s io n drawn a f t e r exam ination o f t h e s e d a ta i s t h a t S t r u c ­ t u r e s One and Two were l i k e l y c o n s tr u c te d a t o r n e a r th e same tim e , s in c e i t ap p ears t h a t window panes o f t h e same th ic k n e s s were used in t h e two s t r u c t u r e s . A T - t e s t a p p lie d to samples drawn from th e s e s t r u c t u r e s confirm s t h a t t h e r e Is no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between th e d istrib u tio n s. On t h e o t h e r hand, S t r u c t u r e T h r e e 's window g l a s s does a p p e a r t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t in i t s th ic k n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n . T - t e s t s comparing S t r u c t u r e T h r e e 's window g l a s s t o each o f th e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s and t o th e whole s i t e c o l l e c t i o n confirm t h i s o b s e rv a tio n (T able 2 6 ). 124 F ig u re 9. Window G lass T hickness Frequency D i s t r i b u t i o n Window Glass 30 Structure One Structure Two Structure Three Other Relative Frequency (Percent) 25 20 15 10 5 0 Category 0.050 0.040 0.030 1 2 3 4 5 0.060 0.070 6 8 7 Thickness (Inches) 0.080 9 10 11 0.090 12 13 0.100 14 Table 26. N o f Cases* T-Tests, Window Glass Thickness by Structure Mean S td . Dev. T Value -2 .4 3 1,021 9.17 660 .000 - .2 6 966 .797** 9.40 319 .000 1.46 319 .144** 8.28 393 .000 S tr u c tu r e One 835 .060" .013 S tr u c tu r e Two 188 .062" .014 S tr u c tu r e One 801 .060" .014 S tr u c tu r e Three 266 .052" .009 S tr u c tu r e One 835 .060" .013 Other 133 .060" .013 S tr u c tu r e Two 197 .063" .014 S t r u c t u r e Three 266 .052" .009 S tr u c tu r e Two 188 .062" .014 Other 133 .060" .013 S tr u c tu r e Three 266 .052" .009 Other 129 .061" .011 * 10% sample drawn f o r each run ** f a i l t o r e j e c t HQ (u 1 = u2) a t .01 le v e l Freedom Prob. .015** 127 T hat S t r u c t u r e T h r e e 's window g l a s s i s d i f f e r e n t seems c l e a r enough. I t remains t o p ro vide an e x p la n a tio n f o r th e observed d i f ­ fe re n c e in t h i c k n e s s . The p rev io u s r e s e a r c h e r s , mentioned above, have su gg ested t h a t th i c k n e s s o f window g l a s s tended t o in c r e a s e d u rin g th e n in e te e n th c e n tu r y . This assum ption su g g e sts t h a t th e c o n s tr u c t i o n o f S t r u c t u r e Three p r e d a te s S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, s in c e th e window g l a s s i s g e n e r a l l y t h i n n e r , both in th e o v e r a l l means and in th e freq u en cy o f th e th i n n e r group i n t e r v a l s . Randall M o ir's p r e s e n t a t i o n to th e S o c ie ty f o r H i s t o r i c a l A rchaeology 1n J a n u a ry , 1983, o f f e r e d a l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n form ula which could be used t o e s t a b l i s h th e I n i t i a l d a t e o f c o n s tr u c t i o n o f a s t r u c ­ t u r e , based upon t h e mean t h ic k n e s s o f window g l a s s from t h a t s t r u c t u r e . Using M o ir's r e g r e s s i o n fo rm u la, I n i t i a l c o n s tr u c t i o n d a t e s f o r each o f th e t h r e e s t r u c t u r e s were c a l c u l a t e d (Table 2 7 ). The a p p l i c a t i o n o f M o ir's form ula su g g e sts t h a t th e i n i t i a l con­ s t r u c t i o n o f S t r u c t u r e Three p r e d a te s t h a t o f S t r u c t u r e One and Two by tw enty y e a r s o r more. These o b s e rv a tio n s run c o u n te r t o t h e chronology d e riv e d from o t h e r a r t i f a c t s , m ost n o ta b ly th e c e ra m ic s. Both t h e Mean Ceramic Dates and t h e r e l a t i v e chronology based on p r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e o f c e r t a i n ty p e s s u g g e s ts t h a t S t r u c t u r e Three i s c l e a r l y more r e c e n t th an S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, and t h a t th o s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e e v i d e n t l y contem­ p o r a r i e s o f one a n o t h e r . o p p o s ite i s t r u e . ways. The window g l a s s ev iden ce s u g g e s ts t h a t th e This s i t u a t i o n m ight be e x p la in e d in a v a r i e t y o f 128 Table 27. I n i t i a l Construction Dates derived from window glass _______________________ Mean C o ntest I n i t i a l Date S tru ctu re One .060" (1.524 rnn) 1841.1 S tru c tu re Two .063" (1.6002mm) 1847.5 S tru ctu re Three .052" (1.3208 mm) 1823.9 Other Areas .061" (1.5494 mm) 1843.2 Total S ite .059" (1.4986 mm) 1838.9 Formula: (S ource: I n i t i a l C o n s tru c tio n Date a 8 4 .22 x mean + 1712.7 Moir 1983) F i r s t , i t may be t h a t t h e o b s e r v a tio n s o f Chance, Roenke, M oir, and th e o th e r s a r e p e c u l i a r o n ly t o c e r t a i n r e g io n s o r m a rk e ts, due to o r i g i n a l s o u rc e s o f su p p ly . The i n i t i a l work o f t h e Chances and Roenke c o n c e n tr a te d on th e P a c i f i c Northwest r e g i o n , and t h e i r r e s u l t s could be i n v a l i d when p r o je c t e d t o o t h e r r e g i o n s . T h is c o n c lu s io n seems u n l i k e l y , however, f o r Moir u t i l i z e d samples drawn from bo th t h e deep South and th e N o r t h e a s t, and h i s a n a l y s i s su g g e ste d t h a t t h e r e g r e s s i o n formula h eld t r u e f o r a broad a r e a o f su p p ly . Another p o s s i b l e e x p la n a tio n 1s t h a t S t r u c t u r e s One and Two u nd er­ went s i g n i f i c a n t m o d i f i c a t i o n l a t e in t h e i r o c c u p a tio n p e r io d . The a d d i t i o n o r rep lacem en t o f windows w ith newer g l a s s m ight have skewed th e r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s , e s p e c i a l l y 1 f samples were s e l e c t i v e l y drawn from d e p o s it s which d e riv e d from th e a r e a s o f a d d i t i o n o r r e p l a c e ­ ment. T his e x p la n a tio n seems u n l i k e l y , f o r t h e freq u en cy d i s t r i b u t i o n s 129 show none o f t h e b im o d a lity one would e x p e c t had windows been re p la c e d . F u rth erm o re, t h e c o l l e c t i o n s were d e r iv e d from n e a r - t o t a l e x c a v a tio n , so no sam pling b i a s should be e v i d e n t . A t h i r d , a d m itte d ly s p e c u l a t i v e , e x p la n a tio n m ight be co n sid e red which i n c o r p o r a t e s some o f t h e documentary evid ence re g a rd in g th e use and u s e r s o f t h e s i t e , a s w ell as o t h e r a r c h a e o lo g ic a l ev id en ce. The Mean Ceramic Dates and o t h e r a r t 1 f a c t u a l ev id ence s u g g e s ts t h a t S tr u c ­ t u r e Three was c o n s tr u c t e d more r e c e n t l y t h a t S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, perhaps even a f t e r t h o s e s t r u c t u r e s ceased t o be u t i l i z e d . A rtifa c tu a l and s t r u c t u r a l ev id en ce s u g g e s ts t h a t S t r u c t u r e Three was u t i l i z e d by a b la c k s m ith . The h i s t o r i c a l documents show t h a t Michael Dousman a c q u ire d t h e s i t e in 1819, and 1n June o f t h a t y e a r w rote o f " f i t t i n g o u t a cooper" t o make b a r r e l s f o r h i s b u s in e s s o f sh ip p in g f l o u r , f i s h and, p e rh a p s , s p i r i t s . I f S t r u c t u r e Three was t h e c o o p e r ’ s shop, e s t a b l i s h e d by Dousman 1n 1819, i t m ight well be ex pected t o c o n ta in window g l a s s which was newer, and hence t h i c k e r , th an t h a t found 1n S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, which e v i d e n t l y d a t e t o t h e e a r l i e r Campbell ownership o f t h i s s ite . I t should be n o te d , however, t h a t Dousman was an a c t i v e merchant who bought and s o ld a l l manner o f goods. Among th e item s ap p e a rin g 1n t h e Mackinac Impost Book a r e b i l l s o f shipm ent t o Mr. Dousman In c lu d in g "25 f e e t " o f g l a s s in 1815 and "10 f e e t " o f g l a s s i n 1816. I t 1s assumed t h a t t h e s e r e f e r e n c e s i n d i c a t e s q u are fo o ta g e o f window g l a s s . Though Dousman's l e t t e r s and b i l l s s u g g e s t t h a t he s o ld a wide range o f goods t o a v a r i e t y o f c l i e n t s , t h e r e a r e no known s a l e s o f g l a s s , so 1 t i s presumed t h a t t h e s e , and perhaps o t h e r sh ip m e n ts , were f o r h i s own 130 use. I t could be t h a t t h i s g l a s s was s to r e d by Dousman and perhaps even by th e m erchant who shipped i t to him, and used in c o n s tr u c t i o n long a f t e r i t s m an u factu re. This e x p l a n a ti o n , th e n , r e s t s on th e assum ption t h a t th e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t tim e la g between m anufacture and u se. Of th e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s , t h e f i r s t seems most p l a u s i b l e , su g g e stin g t h a t th e tr e n d s in t h i c k n e s s change observed in o t h e r re g io n s should n o t be g e n e r a liz e d t o t h i s r e g io n . In p a r t i c u l a r , i t ap pears t h a t M o ir's r e g r e s s i o n form ula sh o u ld n o t be a p p lie d h ere w ith o u t f u r t h e r t e s t i n g . I t may well be t h a t t h i s s i t e i s m erely an anomaly and t h a t o t h e r s i t e s w ill y i e l d d a ta which more c l o s e l y conform to th e p r e d ic te d t h ic k n e s s norms. U ntil such e v id e n c e i s examined, however, th e form ula should be used only w ith c a u t i o n . Pipestems Since J .C . H a r r i n g t o n 's f i r s t r e c o g n i tio n t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s in th e averag e bore d ia m e te rs o f samples o f c l a y pipestem s provided an i n d i c a ­ t i o n o f temporal d i f f e r e n c e s (1 9 5 4 ), h i s t o r i c a l a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have used pipestem s as c r i t i c a l t o o l s in r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f s i t e chronology. The i n s i g h t s o f Moreau Maxwell and Lewis B info rd were a p p lie d to c o l l e c t i o n s from F o rt M ich iH m acklnac, along w ith some o t h e r s i t e s , when th ey expanded on H a r r i n g t o n 's e a r l i e r work and d e riv e d a r e g r e s s i o n form ula t h a t d e s c rib e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between bore d iam eters and tim e (Maxwell and B inford 1961:107-109; B inford 1 9 6 2 :1 9-21 ). In sub sequ ent a r t i c l e s , s e v e ra l a d d i t i o n a l a u th o r s sought t o r e f i n e t h i s form ula in o r d e r to improve s i t e age e s ti m a t e s based on pipestem samples (B inford 1972; Hanson 1971; Heighton and Deagan 1972). A common o b s e rv a tio n by th e s e and o th e r w r i t e r s s u g g e s t s t h a t t h i s fo rm u la ic approach to pipestem d a tin g has very l i m i t e d u t i l i t y f o r c o l l e c t i o n s from n in e te e n th c e n tu r y c o n t e x t s , l a r g e l y due t o changes 1n th e m anufacture and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f th e p ip e s . Thus, t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e r e g r e s s i o n formula does not appear a p p r o p r ia t e f o r t h e assem blage from t h e F i l b e r t S i t e . In f a c t , th e form ula was a p p l i e d and th e r e s u l t i n g d a t e s c l u s t e r e d 1n th e 1750's and 1 7 6 0 's , c l e a r l y I n a c c u r a t e f o r t h e assem blage in which t h e p ip es were found. However, th e ex am in atio n o f pipestem b o re d ia m e te rs ag g reg ated by s t r u c t u r a l c o n te x t i s s u g g e s t i v e o f d i f f e r e n c e s between th e s t r u c t u r e s , d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t may w ell be e v id e n c e o f t h e age d i f f e r e n c e s I n d ic a te d by o t h e r m easures. T ab le 28 I l l u s t r a t e s t h e s e d a t a , showing t h e break­ down o f pipestem s by c l a s s I n t e r v a l and s t r u c t u r a l c o n te x t. T a b le 28. P ipestem s by S t r u c t u r e Bore Diameter S t r u c t u r e One S t r u c t u r e Two 4/64" 5/64" 6/64" 7/64" T otal 142 89 1 0 232 (62.2%) (38.4%) 0 144 1 105 Grand Total 481 90 (62.5%) S t r u c t u r e Three 50 (34.7%) (0.4%) 4 (2.8%) 40 56 8 (38.1%) (53.3%) (7.6%) 132 Once a g a i n , S t r u c t u r e One and Two e x h i b i t s tr o n g s i m i l a r i t i e s on c h r o n o lo g ic a l m easu res, w h ile S t r u c t u r e Three ap p ears d i f f e r e n t , w ith a h ig h e r p e rc e n ta g e r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in th e l a r g e r bore c l a s s i n t e r v a l s . These d a ta a r e c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e o t h e r c h ro n o lo g ic a l measures t h a t i n d i c a t e co n tem po ran eity between S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, and a d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e r u in s and S t r u c t u r e Three. F un ctio n al D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n The comparison o f assem blages d e riv e d from s t r u c t u r a l c o n te x ts and c l a s s i f i e d u sin g S o u t h 's scheme can o f f e r i n s i g h t i n t o th e o r i g i n a l f u n c t io n s o f t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s . e v i d e n t in s e v e ra l ways. V a r i a b i l i t y amongst th e s t r u c t u r e s 1s F i r s t , t h e r e a r e c h ro n o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s su g g ested in t h e d i s c u s s io n abo ve, w ith S t r u c t u r e s One and Two e v i d e n tl y contem porary, and S t r u c t u r e Three somewhat more r e c e n t l y occupied. Second, th e d e n s i t y o f a r t i f a c t s p e r squ are f o o t o f excavated f l o o r space v a r i e s c o n s id e r a b ly (T able 2 9 ). In t h i s m easure, S t r u c t u r e s One and Three a r e q u i t e s i m i l a r , d e s p i t e t h e i r a p p a r e n t age d i f f e r e n c e s , and S t r u c t u r e Two 1s c o n s i s ­ te n tly d iffe re n t. O verall d e n s i t y , in c lu d in g a l l a r t i f a c t g ro u p s, i s roug hly equal in S t r u c t u r e s One and T h ree, ap p ro x im ately tw ice as dense as in S t r u c t u r e Two. S im ila r r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e e v id e n t 1n th e Kitchen and A r c h i t e c tu r e Groups, t h e two l a r g e s t c a t e g o r i e s o f a r t i f a c t s , as well as th e F u r n itu r e and P erson al Groups. An I n v e rs e r e l a t i o n s h i p i s seen In th e C lo th in g Group, where S t r u c t u r e Two has a c o n s id e ra b ly h ig h e r d e n s i t y th an S t r u c t u r e s One and T hree. This s i t u a t i o n can be ex p lain ed by r e c o g n iz in g t h a t t h e C lo th in g Group in c lu d e s g l a s s beads and t h a t S t r u c t u r e Two y i e l d e d 702 n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l small beads. In 133 Table 29. A r tifa c t Density per Square Foot o f Excavated Floor Space Structure Structure Structure A r t i f a c t Group_______________ One__________________ Two_______________ Three Kitchen A rchitecture 8.4 2.1 8.6 12.9 6. 7 13.5 Furniture .02 .004 .03 Arms .5 .2 .3 C lothin g .3 1.7 .4 Personal .06 .007 .05 Tobacco Pipes .4 .5 .6 A ctivities .2 .2 .1 22 .9 11.5 23.6 Total t h i s i n s t a n c e , t h e r e i s l i t t l e re a s o n t o s u s p e c t t h a t t h e s e beads found t h e i r way i n t o t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l assemblage o f S t r u c t u r e Two by way o f d i r e c t use as c l o t h i n g i t e m s , b u t r a t h e r more l i k e l y th e y were s t o r e d t h e r e in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t r a d e . The low d e n s i t i e s o f K it c h e n , F u r n i ­ t u r e , and Personal Group a r t i f a c t s s u g g e s t s o t h e r th an domestic functions f o r t h i s s tr u c t u r e . Another measure o f f u n c t i o n a l v a r i a b i l i t y i s d e r i v e d from t h e ceramic assemblages from t h e t h r e e s t r u c t u r e s . There i s c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a b i l i t y i n ceramic t y p e s p r e s e n t , v e s s e l ty pes p r e s e n t , and number o f v e s s e l s p r e s e n t (Tables 30, 31 and 3 2 ) . In t h i s ex am in ati o n , a v e r ­ s io n o f t h e ceramic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system proposed by George M i l l e r (1980) i s u s e d , r a t h e r than t h e system employed by South. The 134 Table 30. Minimum Vessels by Type; Structure One CERAMIC TYPES Plates Cups CC ware Edged Deep Bowls 4 VESSEL TYPES Shallow Bowls Other 3 1 P ainted (crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e Two) Printed 1 2 5 2 1 (v as e? ) 3 3 8 6 4 3 15 3 (mortar, f lo w e r bowl, unknown) 1 3 1 Stoneware (crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e Two) Redware (crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e Two) 6 (mug, v a s e , 2 pitchers, jar?) 10 21 3 10 1 (h andle) 1 1 (bottle) 1 1 1 7 6 2 D elft Porcelain 9 5 5 Banded Total 2 (cream pitchers) Total 10 13 Grand Total = 61 v e s s e l s (10 crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e Two) 61 135 Table 31. Minimum Vessels by Type; Structure Two CERAMIC TYPES Plates Cups Deep Bowls VESSEL TYPES Shallow Other Bowls Total CC ware Edged 1 1 Banded P a i n te d (crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e One) 2 Printed 3 3 8 1 1 1 1 Delft Porcelain (crossmend w/ S t r u c t u r e One) Stoneware (crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e One) 1 (bottle) Redware (crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e One) Total 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 8 3 1 Grand Total = 15 v e s s e l s (10 crossmend w / S t r u c t u r e One) 15 136 Table 32. Minimum Vessels by Type; S tructure Three CERAMIC TYPES Plates Cups Deep Bowls VESSEL TYPES Shallow Bowls Other 1 ( sa u c e r ? ) CC wares Edged 1 Banded Printed ♦(possible crossmend w/Structure One 4 11 1 7 7 P ainted Total 8 1 Porcelain 6 10 4 6 2 (tureen, unknown) 3 2 (saucer, pitcher) 16 2 (2 t u r e e n s / chamber p o t s , unknown) 38 1 2 1 1 Stoneware Redware 1 (mug) Yellow ware Total i9 io is 10 Grand Total = 7 1 v e s s e l s * may simply be d u p l i c a t i o n o f p a t t e r n 1 (unknown) 1 2 (salter?) 2 10 71 137 s i m p l i c i t y o f M i l l e r ' s system, which lumps t o g e t h e r t h e undecorated f i n e ea rthen wa re s (creamware, p e a r l w a r e , whiteware, and I ro n s to n e ) under th e r u b r i c cream -colore d (CC) a s d id th e merchants who marketed th e c e r a m i c s , has tremendous appeal and u t i l i t y f o r t h i s predominantly n i n e ­ t e e n t h c e n t u r y assemblage. A major p a r t o f t h i s appeal 1s t h e removal o f s e v e re s o r t i n g problems which oc c u r when a tte m p t in g t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e creamware, p e a r lw a re , w hi tew ar e, and I r o n s t o n e a s small s h e r d s . In a d d i t i o n , 1t 1s a c l a s s i f i c a t i o n which 1s more c o n s i s t e n t with t h a t used by th e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p r o d u c e r s , s e l l e r s , and u s e r s o f t h e c e r am ics. Through comparison o f t h e s e ceramic assem blages, s e v e r a l th in g s become a p p a r e n t . F i r s t , S t r u c t u r e s One and Two e x h i b i t a number o f crossmended v e s s e l s , r e c o n fi r m in g t h e con tem poraneity o f t h e s e s t r u c ­ tures. However, t h e s e two s t r u c t u r e s must have been q u i t e d i f f e r e n t 1n u s e , f o r t h e ceramic assemblages a r e ver y d i f f e r e n t , d e s p i t e th e shared vessels. S t r u c t u r e Two has c o n s i d e r a b l y fewer v e s s e l s and a much more l i m i t e d range o f t y p e s r e p r e s e n t e d . S t r u c t u r e s One and Three, on th e o t h e r hand, d i s p l a y s i m i l a r numbers and v a r i e t i e s o f both v e s s e l s and ceramic t y p e s . D es p ite t h e ev idence t h a t t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s a r e o f d i f f e r e n t a g e s , t h e r e a r e two a p p a r e n t crossmends o f t r a n s f e r - p r i n t e d v e s s e l s . These crossmends may r e p r e s e n t only d u p l i c a t i o n o f p a t t e r n r a t h e r than a c t u a l v es sel c r o s s ­ mends, b u t 1n e i t h e r c a s e s u g g e s t a t l e a s t some o v e r la p o f occu pa tion t im e s . The s i m i l a r i t i e s noted i n ceramic d i s t r i b u t i o n s s u g g e st s i m i l a r i ­ t i e s 1n f u n c t io n f o r t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s and a d i f f e r e n c e between them and S t r u c t u r e Two. 138 To c o n t in u e t h i s comparison o f ceramic as semblages, CC Index Values were c a l c u l a t e d f o r each o f t h e s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s , us ing t h e 1814 s c a l e and th e te c h n iq u e d e s c r i b e d by M i l l e r (1980:11 -1 2). The t a b u l a r r e s u l t s (Table 33) show c l e a r l y th e h i g h e r values in S t r u c t u r e s One and Three, which c o n t r a s t with t h e low v a lu e s f o r S t r u c t u r e Two. Table 33. CC Index Value, using 1814 Scale Structure Structure Structure One____________________ Two________________ Three Plates 1.9 1.3 2 .6 Cups 2.7 1.5 2.5 Bowls 1.8* 1.8* 2.3 * In cludes s i x crossmends enumerated i n both s t r u c t u r e s Summary The emerging p i c t u r e o f s i t e development and use over time s u g g e s ts t h a t S t r u c t u r e s One and Two were b u i l t f i r s t , probably by Robert Camp­ b e l l and h i s f a m i l y , d u r in g t h e e a r l y t o m id-1 780's . S t r u c t u r e One was a s u b s t a n t i a l d w e l l i n g house and S t r u c t u r e Two was a somewhat l e s s imposing workshop and warehouse. Both b u i l d i n g s were 1n use up u n t i l and, l i k e l y beyond t h e time o f Campbell's d e a th in 1808. Robert Camp­ b e l l ' s s on , John , occupied t h e s i t e and c u t hay t h e r e a f t e r h i s f a t h e r ' s d e a t h , u n t i l t h e p r o p e r t y was s o ld t o Michael Dousman in 1819. I t appear s l i k e l y t h a t S t r u c t u r e s One and Two had ceased t o be u s e fu l by t h e time o f Dousman's purchase o f th e s i t e , f o r t h e y c o n ta in e d few a r t i f a c t s which could c l e a r l y p o s t - d a t e t h e change 1n ownership. S t r u c t u r e Three, on t h e o t h e r hand, has a s i g n i f i c a n t number o f o b j e c t s PLEASE NOTE: Page 139 i s la c k i n g in number o nly. No t e x t i s m is s i n g . Filmed as r e c e i v e d . UNIVERSITY MICROFILMS INTERNATIONAL. 140 d a t i n g a f t e r 1819 and was l i k e l y e i t h e r e r e c t e d by Dousman o r , a t l e a s t , Improved and used by him. S t r u c t u r e Three e v i d e n t l y f u n c t io n e d as both a dwel lin g and a smithy a n d / o r a c o o perage. The a r t i f a c t assemblage r e f l e c t s both types o f f u n c t i o n s and c l e a r l y i n d i c a t e s an o c c u p a tio n ex tending well beyond S t r u c t u r e s One and Two 1n t i m e , I n t o t h e 1 8 4 0 's . No s t r u c t u r a l e v i d e n c e o f a m i l l was l o c a t e d , exploration. d e s p ite extensive The r u i n s o f a dam were i n v e s t i g a t e d and o f f e r i n d i r e c t evidence f o r t h e u s e o f t h e s i t e a s a m i l l s e a t , as do t h e m i l l - r e l a t e d a r t i f a c t s r e c o v e r e d ; t h e l a r g e s a w - s e t , saw b l a d e , and m i l l b i l l ( F ig u r e 29 a , b, h ) . Subsequent t o t h e major o c c u p a tio n o f t h e s i t e , l im e s t o n e q u a r r y i n g was done in t h e v i c i n i t y . This a c t i v i t y a t l e a s t p a r t i a l l y a l t e r e d t h e e a r l i e r r em ains, as i n t h e c a s e o f t h e heavy f i l l d e p o s i t on t h e west bank a t t h e dam, and may well have o b l i t e r a t e d o t h e r elements o f t h e historic s ite . 141 CHAPTER V PATTERN VALIDATION AND ANALYSIS Introduction The preceding d e s c r i p t i o n and d i s c u s s i o n o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a ta from t h e F i l b e r t S i t e i l l u s t r a t e s some o f t h e ways t h a t S o u t h 's c l a s s i ­ f i c a t i o n scheme can be u t i l i z e d . As a c o n s i s t e n t system o f f u n c t i o n a l a r t i f a c t c a t e g o r i e s , t h e scheme i s u s e f u l f o r i n t r a - s i t e comparisons and th e d i s c o v e r y o f f u n c t i o n a l v a r i a b i l i t y between s t r u c t u r e s a n d /o r a c tiv ity areas. I t p r o v id e s a c o n v e n i e n t form at f o r d a ta o r g a n i z a t i o n and q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s . The P a t t e r n c o n c e p t , however, i s a l s o in te n d ed f o r b r oader i n t e r ­ s i t e comparison and g e n e r a l i z a t i o n . In e s s e n c e , S o u t h ' s P a t t e r n s a r e o f f e r e d as normative models o f segments o f B r i t i s h Colonial American material c u ltu re . The i n t e n t o f t h e models i s not simply t o provide pigeo nh oles f o r i n d i v i d u a l as sem blages , but r a t h e r t o f a c i l i t a t e and s t i m u l a t e t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s t h a t make assem­ b l a g e s a l i k e a n d / o r d i f f e r e n t from one a n o t h e r . To t h o s e ends, i t is im p o rta n t t o examine c r i t i c a l l y t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e models, t o e x p l o r e t h e i r s t r e n g t h s and weaknes ses, and t o r e f i n e t h e models in t h e l i g h t o f new i n s i g h t s and new d a t a . Up u n t i l t h i s t i m e , most o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n s and uses o f th e P a t t e r n s , by South and by o t h e r s , though q u a n t i t a t i v e in t h e s en se t h a t th ey depend on numerical r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s and p r o p o r t i o n s , have been e s s e n t i a l l y s u b j e c t i v e and n o n q u a n t i t a t i v e in nature. Re sea rch er s have p o in te d o u t t h e g r o ss s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f ­ f e r e n c e s between t h e P a t t e r n s , s u g g e s t i n g t h a t i n d i v i d u a l s i t e s or 142 c o n t e x ts " f i t " i n t o one P a t t e r n o r a n o t h e r . L i t t l e e f f o r t has been made to measure d i f f e r e n c e s between th e P a t t e r n s , o r t o v a l i d a t e t h e i r e x i s ­ tence as d i s t i n c t i v e measures o f c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s . Forsman and Gallo (1979) a tt e m p te d t o r e c o g n iz e t h e l e v e l o f d i f f e r e n c e between th e P a t t e r n s , but th e u s e o f o r d i n a l - s c a l e ranking o f a r t i f a c t Groups se rio u s ly r e s t r i c t e d th e u t i l i t y o f t h e i r conclusions. Drucker (1981) performed a Chi-sq uared t e s t t o measure t h e g o o d n e s s - o f - f i t between th e S p i e rs Landing s i t e and t h e C ar o li n a P a t t e r n , but d id n o t a tte m p t t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e between t h e P a t t e r n s th em se lves . The T h r e e - P a t t e r n Model I t i s d e s i r a b l e , t h e n , t o examine t h e named P a t t e r n s as c u l t u r a l models and t o measure t h e i r v a l i d i t y and ac cu rac y as d i s t i n c t d e s c r i p ­ tive e n titie s . Since t h e s e a r e q u a n t i t a t i v e models, c h a r a c t e r i z i n g c u l t u r a l s t a t e s in term s o f a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s and p r o p o r t i o n s , q u a n t i t a t i v e s t a t i s t i c a l measures a r e t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e means o f assessing v a lid ity . The purpose o f t h e a n a l y s i s i s t o e x p lo r e t h e i n t e r n a l homogeneity o f t h e P a t t e r n s and th e degree o f d i f f e r e n c e between them. To t h i s en d, a l l o f t h e o r i g i n a l , u n ad ju sted a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s from S o u t h ' s t e n s i t e s , Forsman's s i x s i t e s , and Garrow's e i g h t s i t e s were coded and e n t e r e d as a d a t a f i l e in t h e Univac 1100/80 system i n s t a l l e d 1n Michigan Technological U n i v e r s i t y ' s Academic Computing S e r v i c e . S o u t h ' s u n a d j u ste d f r e q u e n c i e s were u s ed , but t h e s h i f t s o f K itchen, A c t i v i t i e s , and Pipe f r e q u e n c i e s sug ges ted by Ferguson (197 8), Lees and Kimery-Lees (1979), and Garrow (1982) were incorporated. In a d d i t i o n , a r t i f a c t d a t a from th e F i l b e r t S i t e , Montgomery's Tavern (M ar tin 1977), Grand Porta ge (Woolworth 1975), and 143 F o r t Watson (Ferguson 1975) were e n t e r e d f o r compar ative purp ose s. The raw d a t a f i l e may be found in Appendix B. In most i n s t a n c e s , e n t i r e s i t e assemblages were e n t e r e d as s i n g l e c a s e s , as t o t a l assemblages were r e p o r t e d in t h e p u b l is h e d s o u rc e s . In th o s e i n s t a n c e s where t h e d a t a were r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e and comparison seemed d e s i r a b l e , c o n t e x t s from w i t h i n s i t e s were e n t e r e d as c a s e s in a d d i t i o n t o t h e t o t a l s i t e assemblage. For i n s t a n c e , S o u t h 's o r i g i n a l s tu d y (1977) in cl uded c o n s i d e r a b l e d e t a i l on a r t i f a c t c o l l e c t i o n s from i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c t u r e s and c o n t e x t s a t Brunswick Town, and d i f f e r e n t i a t e d between t h e major components a t F o r t M o u l t r i e . t h e s e c o n t e x t s were r e t a i n e d as d i s t i n c t c a s e s . In t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y , The F i l b e r t S i t e d a t a were a l s o coded in s e p a r a t e s t r u c t u r a l and n o n - s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s , as well as t h e t o t a l s i t e assemblage t o f a c i l i t a t e i n t r a - s i t e comparison. As a r e s u l t o f t h e s e coding judgm ents, t h i r t y - n i n e s i t e s and c o n t e x t s were made a v a i l a b l e f o r a n a l y s i s . The redundancy i n h e r e n t in coding both assemblages and sub-as semblages was r ec ogn ized a t th e o u t s e t and judged a c c e p t a b l e f o r p r e s e n t p u r p o s e s , s i n c e P a t t e r n c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was g e n e r a l l y based o n ly on t h e t o t a l s i t e assemblages. The i n i t i a l s t e p o f t h e v a l i d a t i o n p r o c e ss was an examination o f t h e b a s ic d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e d a t a s e t . The subprogram CON- DESCRIPTIVE o f t h e S t a t i s t i c a l Package f o r t h e Social Science (SPSS) was used t o g e n e r a t e t h e s e s t a t i s t i c s , r e s u l t s o f which a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in Table 34. Since S o u t h ' s o r i g i n a l work and v i r t u a l l y a l l subsequent p u b lish ed r e s e a r c h using t h e P a t t e r n con ce pt r e l i e d on p r o p o r t i o n a l d a t a to c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e P a t t e r n s , t h i s stu d y followed p r e c e d e n t . Raw Table 34. D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s , 39 S i t e s and Contexts Mean Standard Er ror Standard Deviation Ki tchen .441 .037 .232 A rchitecture .315 .028 Furniture .002 Arms Vari ance K urto sis Skew­ ness .054 -.531 0.324 .178 .032 -1.192 - .0 2 8 .000 .002 .000 16.921 3.692 .021 .005 .030 .001 3.326 2.010 Clothing .136 .040 .252 .063 3.379 2.090 Personal .014 .009 .058 .003 33.418 5.671 Tobacco Pipe .048 .007 .041 .002 .263 1.208 A ctivities .024 .004 .026 .001 7.370 2.357 f r e q u e n c i e s were c o n v e r t e d t o per c e n ta g e s f o r a l l s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s . The use o f p e r c e n t a g e s , r a t h e r than simple a r t i f a c t c o u n t s , aid ed in t h e pr o c e ss o f comparison because gross d i f f e r e n c e s in assemblage s i z e were minimized. I t was, a f t e r a l l , t h e p r o p o r t i o n a l oc curre nc es o f a r t i f a c t Types and Groups t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e P a t t e r n s , r a t h e r than t h e abso­ l u t e number o f o b j e c t s . C o n c e ntr ating on per c e n ta g e s pr ev en ted s i t e s with l a r g e c o l l e c t i o n s from overwhelming th e v a r i a b i l i t y express ed in th e s m a l l e r s i t e s . There i s , however, a p o t e n t i a l problem i n h e r e n t in t h e use o f p er cen ta g e d a t a in s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s . P r o p o rtio n a l d a t a tend to a r r a y themselves in a binomial d i s t r i b u t i o n , r a t h e r than t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n d e s i r e d f o r par a m e tri c s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t i n g (Zar 1974:185). One s o l u t i o n t o t h i s problem i s to t ra n s f o rm th e v a r i a b l e v a l u e s t o c r e a t e a d i s t r i b u t i o n t h a t more n e a r l y approximates n o r m a li t y . Commonly used t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s i n c l u d e c a l c u l a t i o n of th e a r c s i n e , and v a r io u s 145 logarithm ic transform ations. S t a t i s t i c a l and mathematical o p in io n remains d i v i d e d on t h e i s s u e o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n ; t h e r e a r e staun ch sup­ p o r t e r s o f each v a r i e t y o f t r a n s f o r m a t i o n , and t h e r e a r e th o s e who r e j e c t t h e concept o u t r i g h t . Because o f the s p e c i a l n a t u r e o f percentage d a t a and t h e r e l a t i v e l y high k u r t o s i s and skewness sc o re s seen on t h e F u r n i t u r e , P e r s o n a l , and A c t i v i t i e s Group v a r i a b l e s in t h e i n i t i a l d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s (Table 34) a n a t u r a l l o g a r i t h i m t r a n s f o r m a t i o n was a p p l i e d t o t h e d a t a s e t . All d e s c r i p t i v e and a n a l y t i c a l s t a t i s t i c s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r both th e untra nsfo rm ed and tra nsform ed v e r s i o n s o f t h e d a t a f i l e and were compared f o r t h e i r r e l a t i v e i n t e r p r e t i v e v a l u e . I t was decided t h a t th e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s added no a d d i t i o n a l dimensions t o t h e d a t a s e t , but r a t h e r dim inish ed some o f t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h e untransformed d a t a , p a r t i c u l a r l y in t h o s e c a s e s where v a r i a b l e v a l u e s were very s m a l l . In n o n - te c h n i c a l te r m s , t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s seemed t o m a nipulate and f o r c e the d ata. T h e r e f o r e , untransformed value s were used in a l l subsequent analysis. The n e x t s t e p was a s e r i e s o f t e s t s t o dete rm in e t h e v a l i d i t y o f the o rig in al P a tte rn s . Questions asked o f t h e s e d a t a were: 1) how s i m i l a r were t h e s i t e s w i t h i n t h e P a t t e r n s , 2) how d i f f e r e n t were t h e P a t t e r n s from one a n o t h e r , 3) what v a r i a b l e s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r th e observed s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s , 4) could a d d i t i o n a l s i t e s be c l a s s i f i e d on t h e same v a r i a b l e s 1n a meaningful way? I t was decided t h a t d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s , us in g t h e SPSS subprogram DIS­ CRIMINANT, was th e most a p p r o p r i a t e te c h n iq u e f o r t h i s i n q u i r y . 146 D i s cri m in ant a n a l y s i s was de sign ed t o c a l c u l a t e th e e f f e c t s o f a group o f i n t e r v a l o r r a t i o s c a l e independent v a r i a b l e s ( in t h i s i n s t a n c e , a r t i f a c t Group p e r c e n ta g e s ) on a nominal s c a l e dependent v a r i a b l e (Pattern c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ) . Simply p u t , th e technique measures th e d i f f e r e n c e s between groups o f o b s e r v a t i o n s and p o i n t s o u t th e v a r i a b l e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e most s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o de te rm in ing t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e groups. In a d d i t i o n , t h e r o u t i n e a s s i g n s u n c l a s s i f i e d o b s e r v a t i o n s t o groups on th e b a s i s o f t h o s e im port ant v a r i a b l e s . In a d d i t i o n to t h e a b i l i t y t o answer t h e b a s i c q u e s ti o n s being asked o f t h e d a t a , d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s was c o n s id e re d p a r t i c u l a r l y a t t r a c t i v e because i t has been d e s c r i b e d as a s t a t i s t i c a l l y r o b u s t te c h n i q u e . This q u a l i t y allowed t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o r e l a x t h e r e q u i r e ­ ments o f n o r m a lity and random samples somewhat (Nie e t al 1975:435 f 2 ) , require m en ts t h a t were d i f f i c u l t t o meet with th e p r e s e n t d a t a s e t . The s e l e c t i o n o f t h i s t e c h n i q u e a l s o supported t h e d e c i s i o n t o u t i l i z e th e untransformed p e r c e n ta g e v a l u e s . The subprogram DISCRIMINANT m a t h e m a ti c a l ly d e f i n e s l i n e a r combina­ t i o n s o f ind ependent v a r i a b l e s t h a t maximize d i s c r i m i n a t i o n between ca s e s ( s i t e s or c o n t e x t s ) w i t h i n t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f a dependent v a r i a b l e (P atterns). In so d o i n g , DISCRIMINANT d e r i v e s mathematical f u n c t i o n s t h a t maximize t h e s t a t i s t i c a l d i f f e r e n c e between t h e c l a s s i f i e d gr oups. Unless t h e r e s e a r c h e r s p e c i f i e s a d e s i r e d number o f f u n c t i o n s , t h e sub­ program d e r i v e s N-l f u n c t i o n s where N = t h e number o f n o m i n a l - s c a l e groups r e p r e s e n t e d . The reas on behind t h i s might b e s t be conceived by r e c o g n iz i n g t h a t one mathematical f u n c t i o n i s r e q u i r e d t o d e s c r i b e a l i n e t h a t e x p l a i n s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between two p o i n t s in ge om etric al 147 sp ace; two f u n c t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d to d e s c r i b e a plane s u r f a c e de f in e d by t h r e e p o i n t s in s p a c e , and so on. T h e r e f o r e , two f u n c t i o n s a r e r e q u i r e d to e x p l a i n the s p a t i a l d i s p e r s i o n o f t h r e e groups of e n t i t i e s or c a s e s . The d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s a r e de r iv e d in s tep w is e f a s h i o n , e n t e r i n g v a r i a b l e s i n o r d e r o f t h e i r e x p l a n a t o r y power in combination with th ose v a r i a b l e s a l r e a d y s e l e c t e d . The s e l e c t i o n proce ss ends when a d d i t i o n a l v a r i a b l e s f a i l to add e x p l a n a t o r y power. The subprogram s p e c i f i e s th e p e r c e n ta g e o f v a r i a n c e in t h e sample e xplained by each of th e de r i v e d f u n c t i o n s . In a d d i t i o n , s t a n d a r d i z e d d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s a r e c a l c u l a t e d f o r each v a r i a b l e on each f u n c t i o n . Com­ pa r is o n o f t h e s e c o e f f i c i e n t s allows t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o i d e n t i f y t h e r e l a t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n s o f each v a r i a b l e t o t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g power o f the f u n c t i o n s . Once t h e computation o f t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s i s com plete, DISCRIMINANT c a l c u l a t e s s c o re s on th e f u n c t i o n s f o r each o f t h e ca s e s and a group mean, c a l l e d t h e c e n t r o i d , f o r each o f th e groups. These sc o re s allow t h e ca s e s and groups to be p l o t t e d in mathematical spa ce . The subprogram d e p i c t s t h e boundaries between groups and th e d i s t r i b u ­ t i o n o f ca s e s in r e l a t i o n t o one a n o t h e r . L i n e a r d i s t a n c e s on th e s c a t t e r p l o t o f p o i n t s p r i n t e d by th e r o u t i n e r e p r e s e n t t h e mathematical d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e c a s e s and gro up s. This g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e makes discrim inant a n aly sis p a r t ic u la r l y a t t r a c t i v e , fo r i t aids considerably in th e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s . DISCRIMINANT a l s o c l a s s i f i e s a l l grouped ca s e s on th e b a s i s o f th e d e r iv e d f u n c t i o n s . The p er cen tag e o f c a s e s p r o p e r l y c l a s s i f i e d , t h a t i s , grouped m a t h e m a ti c a l ly in th e same way t h a t th ey were grouped on the 148 dependent v a r i a b l e , provides a measure o f th e success o f th e f u n c tio n s in d i s c r i m i n a t i n g between groups. Limited s p a t i a l d i s p e r s i o n o f cases w i t h i n each group and l i m i t e d o v e r l a p of groups i n d i c a t e s t h a t the v a r i a b l e s and f u n c t i o n s used measure some s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e groups e f f e c t i v e l y . A f t e r th e a n a l y s i s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of grouped c a s e s , i t i s p o s s i b l e to e n t e r p r e v i o u s l y u n c l a s s i f i e d ca s es o r ca s e s t h a t were not used in th e d e r i v a t i o n o f t h e f u n c t i o n s . DISCRIMINANT c a l c u l a t e s score s f o r t h e s e "new" ca s es based on t h e f u n c t i o n s and a s s i g n s them to appro­ p r i a t e groups. These c a s e s a r e a l s o p l o t t e d t o g e t h e r with the c l a s s i f i e d c a s e s , allo w in g both a v i s u a l and mathematical comparison o f their sim ilarities. In the i n i t i a l a n a l y s i s , two f u n c t i o n s were derived to e x p la in th e s e p a r a t i o n o f t h r e e g rou ps; th e C a r o l i n a , F r o n t i e r , and Earl y Fur Trade Patterns. The v a r i a b l e s s e l e c t e d in th e ste pwise a n a l y s i s were th e K itchen, A r c h i t e c t u r e , F u r n i t u r e , and Tobacco Pipe Groups. Characteris­ t i c s o f t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s a r e p r e s e n t e d in Table 35, t o g e t h e r with t h e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model. Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t a r e t h e s t a n d a r d i z e d ca non ic al d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s , which show t h a t th e f i r s t f u n c t io n was most s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t e d by t h e Kitchen Group v a r i a b l e , while th e second f u n c t i o n was d e f in e d p r i m a r i l y by th e A r c h i t e c t u r e Group. All th e grouped ca s e s were c l a s s i f i e d c o r r e c t l y by th e f u n c t i o n s , sug g estin g t h a t t h e s e were r e l a t i v e l y d i s t i n c t groups and t h a t th ey could be e f f e c t i v e l y d i s c r i m i n a t e d by t h e s e v a r i a b l e s and mathematical f u n c t i o n s . In th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s t a g e , th e t w e n t y - th r e e ungrouped s i t e s and 149 Table 35. D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s and R e s u l ts o f ThreeP a t t e r n Model Dis cr im inan t Function Analysis Frontier Standard Mean Deviation Fur Trade Standard Mean Deviation Ca ro lina Standard Mean Deviation Kitchen 37.26 8.83 4.64 5.28 59.98 6.87 Architecture 47.41 6.05 6.80 7.85 23.82 5.04 F u r n it u r e 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.20 0.22 Arms 2.6 5 3.69 4.53 3.37 0.86 1.07 Clothing 1.28 1.71 65.50 22.22 4.45 4.52 Personal 0.1 6 0.20 8 .22 13.86 0.21 0.17 Tobacco Pipe 7.24 5.26 6.12 5.84 6.40 5.14 A ctivities 2.79 2.34 4.14 1.98 4.05 4.74 R e s u lts o f T h r e e - P a t t e r n Model Dis cr im in an t Function Analysis Function Eigenvalue Percent of Variance Cumulative Percent Canonical C orrelation 1 25.54 84.49 84.49 .9810 2 4.6 9 15. 51 100.00 .9079 S ta ndardiz ed Canonical D i s cri m in ant Function C o e f f i c i e n t s Function 1 Function 2 1 .00063 -.45838 A rchitecture .52599 .96215 Furniture .50248 -.32559 -.48305 -.16840 Kitchen Tobacco Pipe 150 c o n t e x t s were c l a s s i f i e d and t h e r e s u l t a n t s c a t t e r p l o t i s p r e se n te d in Figure 10. The s c a t t e r p l o t s u g g e sts t h a t t h e s e a r e i n t e r n a l l y homo­ genous groups o r s i t e s and c o n t e x t s , s i m i l a r t o one a n o t h e r w i th in the groups d e s p i t e t h e i r geogr aphic and c h r o n o l o g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s . The s i t e s c l a s s i f i e d Ea rly Fur Trade by Forsman appear to be most l i k e one an o th e r and d i f f e r e n t from t h e bulk o f s i t e s in th e sample. This may have p a r t i c u l a r s i g n i f i c a n c e in l i g h t o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e Clothing and Arms Group v a r i a b l e s , two o f th e most numerous c a t e g o r i e s o f a r t i f a c t s on t h e s e s i t e s , were n o t used in e i t h e r th e a n a l y s i s or c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s t a g e s o f t h i s s tu d y . The Earl y Fur Trade P a t t e r n s i t e s were d i s c r i m i n a t e d w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s , which made up an average o f ap prox im a te ly 70% o f t h e i n v e n t o r i e s from th o s e s i t e s . This may be e x p la in e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e use o f p r o p o r t i o n a l d a t a ; high v a l u e s on Clothing and Arms g u a r a n te e low v a lu e s on o t h e r v a r i a b l e s , such as Kitchen and A r c h i t e c t u r e . T h e r e f o r e , even i f DISCRIMINANT does n o t use Clothing and Arms in t h e d e r i v a t i o n o f f u n c t i o n s or c l a s s i f i c a ­ t i o n o f s i t e s , t h o s e v a r i a b l e s have an i n d i r e c t e f f e c t on t h e outcome o f th e a n a l y s i s . The s i n g l e ungrouped c a s e t h a t was a s s ig n e d t o t h e Earl y Fur Trade P a t t e r n group was t h e c o l l e c t i o n from i n s i d e S t r u c t u r e 25 a t Brunswick Town, South C a r o l i n a . This c o n t e x t , which was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by South as a t a i l o r shop, e x h i b i t e d high p r o p o r t i o n s o f t a i l o r i n g items and c o r r e s ­ pondingly low p r o p o r t i o n s o f Kitch en , A r c h i t e c t u r e , and o t h e r item s. T h e r e f o r e , i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s should c l a s s i f y t h i s c o n t e x t t o g e t h e r with o t h e r s d i s p l a y i n g low Kitchen and A rchitecture values. I t should be noted t h a t on th e s c a t t e r p l o t t h i s 151 Figure 10. S c a t t e r p l o t o f D is c rim in a n t S c o r e s , T h r e e - P a t t e r n Model 152 Scatterplot o f Discriminant Scores, Three-Pattern M odel Frontier ★ 27 18 3134 S 32 “ 33 Fur T rade 29 f6 34 7128 30 10 13 -2 * ,S 24 37 -2 22 23 20 32 Carolina 22 36 35 Legend 26 Classified Sites 26 Unclassified Sites Canonical Discriminant Function 2 26 ★ C entroid -8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 Canonical Discriminant Function 1 Sites and Contexts 1 20C N 8 Structure I 14 Brunswick 25 Front 27 Spalding's Store 2 20C N 8 Structure II 15 Brunswick 25 Rear 28 Bright's P o st/M o n tg o m ery 's Tavern 3 20CN 8 Structure III 16 Brunswick 25 Inside 29 G rand Portage 4 20C N 8 East Bank 17 Brunswick 10 W hole 30 Signal Hill 5 20C N 8 W e st Bank 18 Brunswick 7 W hole 31 D elaw are State H ouse A 6 20C N 8 W h o le Site 19 Brunswick 7 Rear 32 D elaw are State H ouse B 7 Rocky M ountain H ouse 20 Brunswick 7 Front 33 D elaw are State H ouse C 8 Fort G eorge 21 Brunswick 7 M idden 34 C am d en Toft 8 9 Buckingham H ouse 22 Fort M oultrie A 35 Y aughan A 10 E dm onton H ouse 23 Fort M oultrie B 36 C uriboo 11 Sturgeon Fort 24 C am bridge 96 37 Y aughan B 12 Francois LeBlanc Post 25 Fort Prince G eorge 38 Spiers Landing 13 Brunswick 25 W hole 26 Fort Ligonier 39 Fort W atson 153 c o n t e x t was s p a t i a l l y s e p a r a t e from t h e r e l a t i v e l y t i g h t c l u s t e r o f Early Fur Trade P a t t e r n s i t e s , in a marginal p o s i t i o n . I t should a l s o be noted t h a t s e v e r a l o t h e r s i t e s t h a t a r e known to have served as f u r t r a d e p o s t s , such as Grand P o r t a g e , F ort P rin ce George, B r i g h t ' s P o s t , and S p a l d i n g ' s S t o r e , were n o t c l a s s i f i e d with t h e s e s i t e s , nor do they l i e nearby on t h e p l o t . The d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s f a i l e d to c l a s s i f y " p ro p e rly " known f u r t r a d i n g s i t e s because t h e v a r i a b l e s measured did not a ll o w such s i t e f u n c t i o n s t o be d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . S o u t h 's c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme did not i n c l u d e f u n c t i o n a l a r t i f a c t c a t e g o r i e s t h a t would measure o r recognize t h i s t y p e o f a c t i v i t y i n an a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . The a r t i f a c t c a t e ­ g o r i e s from t h i s scheme t h a t were most i n d i c a t i v e o f f u r t r a d i n g , th e Arms and Clothing Groups, d id not lend themselves to unambiguous i n t e r ­ pretation. This s i t u a t i o n was noted in t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f th e Brunswick Town t a i l o r i n g shop c o n t e x t with th e Ea rly Fur Trade P a t t e r sites. An examination o f raw a r t i f a c t f r e q u e n c i e s and e x c a v a ti o n summaries from Forsman's (1979) o r i g i n a l a r t i c l e o f f e r e d a c l u e t o a p o s s i b l e cause f o r t h e s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t i e s noted among t h e Earl y Fur Trade P a t ­ t e r n s i t e s , and t o t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s from o t h e r f u r t r a d i n g s i t e s i n t h e sample. The dominance o f t h e Cloth ing Group v a l u e s in t h e s e s i t e s was a f f e c t e d n o t only by high co unts in t h a t c a t e g o r y , but a l s o by very low c ounts on t h e Kitchen and A r c h i t e c t u r e Groups. Forsman's d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e o r i g i n a l e x c a v a tio n s suggested t h a t con­ s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n in c o l l e c t i o n and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was e v i d e n t in project reports. The s i t e s were excavated over more t h a t a de cade, by 154 d i f f e r e n t r e s e a r c h e r s and i n s t i t u t i o n s , w ith no u n i f y i n g o b j e c t i v e s o r proce du res. Because a t l e a s t some o f t h e s i t e s were excavated with i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e f u r t r a d i n g company as th e s o l e o r primary g o a l , and q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a were n o t g e n e r a l l y c o l l e c t e d , i t may well have been cons id e re d e x p e d i e n t n o t t o c o l l e c t or r e cord q u a n t i t i e s o f such mundane items as n a i l s , window g l a s s , o r p l a i n , undecorated c e r am ic s. Since t h e o r i g i n a l e x c a v a t i o n r e p o r t s a r e not r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , t h i s s u g g e stio n i s t o t a l l y s p e c u l a t i v e , and t h e r e f o r e i s o f f e r e d only t e n t a ­ tively. However, such a b i a s in d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y du r in g a time when much h i s t o r i c a l ar ch ae olog y was done by p r e h i s t o r i a n s , would n o t be s u r p r i s i n g . I f such were t h e c a s e , i t might well ac count f o r th e marked d i f f e r e n c e s t h e s e s i t e s e x h i b i t in comparison with o t h e r known fu r trading s i t e s . The C ar o lin a P a t t e r n i s r e p r e s e n t e d by a r e l a t i v e l y t i g h t c l u s t e r o f ca s e s d i s p l a y i n g l i t t l e s p a t i a l d i s p e r s i o n and no o v e r la p w ith th e other Patterns. In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s i t e s o r i g i n a l l y c l a s s i f i e d as Caro­ l i n a by South, th e subprogram a s s ig n e d two a d d i t i o n a l c o n t e x t s from Brunswick Town's S t r u c t u r e 25, one c o n t e x t from Brunswick Town's S t r u c t u r e 7 , B r i g h t ' s Post/Montgomery's Tavern, and t h e f o u r documented s l a v e d o m i c i l e s , two components from Yaughan, and one each from Curiboo and S p i e r ' s Landing, t o t h e C a r o lin a P a t t e r n group. All o f t h e C ar o li n a P a t t e r n s i t e s a r e d i s t i n g u i s h e d by high s c o r e s on Function 1, d e f i n e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e Kitchen Group v a r i a b l e , and low s c o re s on Function 2, de f in e d p r i m a r i l y by t h e A r c h i t e c t u r e Group v a r i a b l e . This r e l a t i o n s h i p i s not e n t i r e l y a simple i n v e r s e r a t i o between t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s , 155 however, f o r t h e F u r n i t u r e and Tobacco Pipe Groups a l s o c o n t r i b u t e to th e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s , a l b e i t to a more l i m i t e d e x t e n t . The F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n , as de f in e d on t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s , i s s l i g h t l y more d i f f u s e t h a n th e o t h e r P a t t e r n s , with t h r e e s c a t t e r e d marginal s i t e s . S o u t h ' s f o u r F r o n t i e r s i t e s a r e found r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o g e t h e r on t h e s c a t t e r p l o t , as a r e el ev en o f t h e a d d i t i o n a l s i t e s and c o n t e x t s c l a s s i f i e d by t h e subprogram. The t h r e e o u t l i e r s , Grand P o r ta g e , F or t Watson, and S t r u c t u r e Two a t t h e F i l b e r t S i t e , a r e s u f f i ­ c i e n t l y c l o s e on t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s c o r e s t o w a r r a n t c l a s s i f i ­ c a t i o n as F r o n t i e r , y e t a r e d i f f e r e n t enough t o be plac ed a t t h e margins o f th e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n r an ge. F o r t Watson, f o r I n s t a n c e , sc ored very high on Function 1 and r e l a t i v e l y low on Function 2, p l a c i n g i t c l o s e to th e C aroli na P a t t e r n r a n g e . F o r t Watson's s t a t u s as a R evolutionary o u t p o s t , occupied f o r a s h o r t time and c o n t a i n i n g on ly minimal, temporary s t r u c t u r e s , makes t h e s e s c o r e s u n d e r s t a n d a b l e . I t i s somewhat s t r i k i n g , however, t h a t t h e s i t e should ap pea r so "domestic" and c l o s e t o t h e C ar o lin a s i t e s , d e s p i t e i t s m i l i t a r y use and f r o n t i e r c h a r a c t e r . This s i t u a t i o n w i l l be ex plored i n more d e t a i l below. The second o u t l i e r , Grand P o r ta g e , sc ore d r e l a t i v e l y low on both f u n c t i o n s , and was p l o t t e d a t th e margin o f t h e F r o n t i e r range c l o s e s t t o t h e Earl y Fur Trade r an ge. The documented h i s t o r i c f u n c t i o n o f Grand Porta ge as a f u r t r a d e e n t r e p o t c o r r e l a t e s wit h t h i s p o s i t i o n . However, i t a l s o r a i s e s t h e q u e s t i o n o f p r op er P a t t e r n and c u l t u r a l c l a s s i f i c a ­ t i o n ; why has t h e subprogram judged t h i s documented f u r t r a d i n g p o s t to be more l i k e t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s th an i t i s l i k e contemporary and 156 g e o g r a p h i c a l l y proximal f u r t r a d i n g s i t e s ? This I s s u e w i l l a l s o be pursued below. The t h i r d o u t l i e r i s S t r u c t u r e Two from th e F i l b e r t S i t e . The d i f f e r e n c e s between S t r u c t u r e Two, th e o t h e r s t r u c t u r e s , and t h e t o t a l s i t e assemblage a t F i l b e r t have been d i s c u s s e d in th e previo us c h a p t e r . This s t r u c t u r e d i s p l a y s r e l a t i v e l y obvious f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s in form and a r t i f a c t as se m blag e, and i t i s t h o s e d i f f e r e n c e s which cause i t t o s c o r e low on Function 1 and ver y high on Function2. The same c h a r a c ­ t e r i s t i c s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h i t from t h e remainder o f t h e F i l b e r t S i t e a l s o d i s t i n g u i s h i t from t h e t h e o t h e r F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s . The non­ domestic f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s t r u c t u r e , as workshop a n d / o r warehouse, p lace i t a t t h e margin o f t h e F r o n t i e r r a n g e , r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from F ort Watson, f o r i n s t a n c e , w it h i t s h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n o f Kitchen and o t h e r domestic a r t i f a c t s , coupled w i th minimal A r c h i t e c t u r e o r F u r n i t u r e i terns. In g e n e r a l , t h e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model appeared t o be an e f f e c t i v e means o f d e s c r i b i n g v a r i a t i o n among t h i s sample o f s i t e s and c o n t e x t s . The d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s dem onstrated t h a t t h e t h r e e P a t t e r n s could be d i s c r i m i n a t e d on th e b a s i s o f f o u r independent v a r i a b l e s , th e p e r c e n t a g e s o f K it c h e n , A r c h i t e c t u r e , F u r n i t u r e and Tobacco Pipe a r t i ­ f a c t s in t h e asse mblag es . While t h e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model d i d n o t e f f e c t i v e l y d i s t i n g u i s h a l l s i t e s known t o have served as f u r t r a d i n g s t a t i o n s , t h e r e were few o t h e r di vergences from expected c l a s s i f i c a ­ tions. When such d iv e r g e n c e s d i d a p p e a r , t h e v a r i a b l e s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e d iv e r g e n c e were i d e n t i f i e d and w i l l d i r e c t e x p l a n a t i o n o f the v ariation. F ur the rm ore , an i n t e r e s t i n g d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s i t e s was noted 157 on t h e s c a t t e r p l o t o f d i s c r i m i n a n t s c o r e s ( F i g u r e 1 0 ) , a ro ughly l i n e a r arrangement o f s i t e s rang ing from t h e most extreme F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s t o t h e most extreme C ar o li n a s i t e s . In an i n t u i t i v e , s u b j e c t i v e a s s e s s m e n t, t h i s l i n e a r a r r a y appeared to r e p r e s e n t and a x i s of d o m e s t i c i t y , an i n t e r p r e t a t i o n t h a t w i l l be e v a l u a t e d in t h e s tu d y . The F o u r - P a t t e r n Model The same a n a l y t i c a l e x e r c i s e was performed us in g a m odifi ed P a t t e r n scheme, proposed by P a t r i c k Garrow (1982) and Cara Wise (1978 ). In t h i s i n s t a n c e , t h e d a t a s e t was analyzed a f t e r adding t h e modified c l a s s i f i ­ c a t i o n s proposed by Garrow and Wise: Interaction P atterns. C a r o l i n a , S l a v e , and Public C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f grouped s i t e s was d e r i v e d from Garrow's r e p o r t on t h e Washington D.C. C iv ic Cen ter P r o j e c t (1982) and t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s were c a l c u l a t e d on f o u r P a t t e r n s , Garrow's p l u s t h e E a rly Fur Trade P a t t e r n . As noted in Ch apter I I , Garrow's modified P a t t e r n scheme in clu d ed r e v i s i o n s o f S o u t h ' s o r i g i n a l c o n s t r u c t and a d d i t i o n a l s i t e d a t a . The P u b lic I n t e r a c t i o n P a t t e r n he proposed i n c o r p o r a t e d S o u t h ' s F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n and W is e 's P u b lic S t r u c t u r e P a t t e r n . Garrow saw s u f f i c i e n t s i m i l a r i t y among t h e assemblages o f s i x s i t e s o r i g i n a l l y inclu ded in t h e s e P a t t e r n s t o j u s t i f y c l a s s i f y i n g them t o g e t h e r . The s i t e s in q u e s ti o n were F o r t P r in c e George, S p a l d i n g ' s S t o r e , F o r t Watson, t h e Delaware S t a t e House, Camden T o f t 8 , and S t r u c t u r e 7 a t Brunswick Town. Garrow sugg es ted t h a t t h e p u b l i c f u n c t i o n s se rved by a l l o f t h e s e s i t e s caused t h e i r s i m i l a r a r t i f a c t a r r a y s . One should n o te t h a t Garrow dropped F o r t L i g o n i e r from c o n s i d e r a t i o n when he i n c o r p o r a t e d S o u t h 's 158 F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n i n t o t h i s new P a t t e r n . No e x p l a n a t i o n was o f f e r e d , nor was t h e s i t e r e c l a s s i f i e d i n t o one o f th e o t h e r P a t t e r n s . Garrow's Revised C ar o lin a P a t t e r n was based l a r g e l y on s h i f t s of Colono-ceramics from th e A c t i v i t i e s Group to t h e Kitchen Group. Signal H il l was dropped from S o u t h 's o r i g i n a l group o f f i v e C a r o li n a P a t t e r n s i t e s because Garrow o b j e c t e d t o t h e e s t i m a t i o n o f th e number o f n a i l s o r i g i n a l l y p r e s e n t , a number n o t reco rd ed by t h e e x c a v a t o r s . Garrow a l s o e l i m i n a t e d both c o n t e x t s from F o r t M o u lt r i e because t h e s h i f t o f Colono-ceramics from A c t i v i t i e s t o Kitchen made t o o g r e a t a change in th e o v e r a l l a r t i f a c t a r r a y . T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e c o n t e x t s were dropped from c o n s i d e r a t i o n , and n o t r e c l a s s i f i e d . Dropping t h e extremes o f v a r i a b i l i t y i n an e x e r c i s e In c l a s s i f i c a ­ t i o n and e x p l a n a t i o n i s u n j u s t i f i e d . I f t h e assemblages from F o r t L i g o n i e r , F o r t M o u lt r i e , and Signal H i l l were n o t t o be c o n s id e r e d because th ey d i d n o t f i t t h e model a s c o n ceiv ed , an a l t e r n a t i v e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n should have been o f f e r e d . I f t h e goal o f t h e r e v i s i o n was e x p l a n a t i o n , t h e extremes o f v a r i a t i o n should have been included in t h e a n a l y s i s , n o t simply dropped. Three f u n c t i o n s were d e r i v e d In th e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s , because f o u r P a t t e r n s were d e s c r i b e d . The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e f u n c t i o n s a r e l i s t e d in Table 36, t o g e t h e r w it h t h e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s . Note t h a t ov er 99% o f t h e v a r i a n c e in t h e sample was e x p l a i n e d by F unctions 1 and 2; Function 3 added only minimal e x p l a n a t o r y power. The Kitchen and A r c h i t e c t u r e Groups were t h e f i r s t two v a r i a b l e s s e l e c t e d , as th e y were i n t h e t h r e e - P a t t e r n model. In t h e f o u r - P a t t e r n model a n a l y s i s , t h e Tobacco Pipe Group was s e l e c t e d l a s t . The s t a n d a r d i z e d ca nonical 159 Table 36. D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s and R e s u lt s o f FourP a t t e r n Model D i s c rim i n a n t Function Analysis Fur Trade S td . Dev. Mean C aroli na Std . Mean Dev. Pub!ic Interaction Std. Mean Dev. Kitchen 4.6 4 5.28 56.74 7.1 8 46.18 5.59 77.49 5.81 A r c h i­ tecture 6.80 7.85 26.40 4.50 43.68 2.11 17.74 6.12 Furniture 0.05 0.06 0.33 0.25 0.3 0 0.44 0.07 0.01 Arms 4.5 3 3.3 7 1.15 1.58 2.00 3.2 2 0.17 0 .10 Cloth in g 65.50 22.22 6.35 6.34 1.53 1.62 0.49 0.22 Personal 8 .22 13.86 0.29 0.22 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.03 Tobacco Pipe 6.12 5.84 7.50 6.06 4.61 4.51 3.53 1.31 A ctivities 4. 14 1.98 1.25 0.45 1.64 1.62 0.48 0.28 Slave Std. Dev. Mean R e s u l t s o f F o u r - P a t t e r n Model D i s c rim in a n t Function Anal ysis Function Eigenvalue Percent of Variance Cumulative Percent Canonical Correlation 1 26.75 73 .01 73..01 .9818 2 9.83 26.82 99.82 .9527 3 .06 .18 100..00 .2464 S ta n d a r d iz e d Canonical D is c rim in a n t Functions C o e f f i c i e n t s Function 1 Function 2 Function 3 Kitchen .93593 - .4 170 6 .02628 A rchitecture .28375 1.07925 .01379 Tobacco Pipe - .0 07 74 -.52 02 8 .99772 160 d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s show t h a t the Kitchen Group was th e dominant v a r i a b l e in Function 1, th e A r c h i t e c t u r e Group was dominant in Function 2, and the Tobacco Pipe Group was dominant in Function 3. Though d i s c r i m i n a n t s c o r e s were c a l c u l a t e d f o r a l l t h r e e f u n c t i o n s , only th e s c o re s on t h e f i r s t two f u n c t i o n s were used in g e n e r a tin g th e s c a t t e r p l o t o f c a s e s , s i n c e t h e g r a p h ic a l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n had only two dimensions (F ig u re 1 1 ) . The s c a t t e r p l o t o f s c o r e s f o r th e F o u r - P a t t e r n model ( F ig ure 11) r e s u l t e d in a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f c a s e s s i m i l a r t o t h a t which was r e p r e ­ sente d f o r t h e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model, with some s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . As was t h e ca s e in t h e e a r l i e r a n a l y s i s , t h e assemblage from w i t h i n S t r u c t u r e 25 a t Brunswick Town was c l a s s i f i e d with th e E a rly Fur Trade P a t t e r n group. As n o te d p r e v i o u s l y , t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was not s u r p r i s i n g , s i n c e t h e s t r u c t u r e o r i g i n a l l y fun ctio n e d as a t a i l o r i n g shop and thus c o n t a i n e d high p r o p o r t i o n s o f g l a s s beads and small l ead shot. Garrow's Revised C a r o l i n a P a t t e r n a l s o d is p l a y e d r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e from t h e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model r e s u l t s . Though Garrow c o n s id e re d Signal H i l l o v e r l y " a d j u s t e d " by South, DISCRIMINANT c l a s s i ­ f i e d i t w i t h i n t h e C a r o l i n a r a n g e , as i t d i d F o r t M o u lt r i e , c o n t e x t B, two s i t e s dropped from c o n s i d e r a t i o n by Garrow. On t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a r i a b l e s in t h i s a n a l y s i s , t h e s e s i t e s were e v i d e n t l y not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e o t h e r C arolina P a t t e r n s i t e s , but were r a t h e r very s i m i l a r t o them, j u d g i n g by t h e i r p o s i t i o n s not f a r removed from th e P a t t e r n c e n t r o i d on t h e s c a t t e r p l o t ( F ig u r e 11). c l a s s i f i e d as C a r o l in a was Grand P o r ta g e . One f u r t h e r s i t e This c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was 161 F ig ure 11. S c a t t e r p l o t o f D is c rim in a n t S c o r e s, F o u r - P a t t e r n Model 162 Scatterplot of Discriminant Scores, Four-Pattern M odel 8 e - £6 « ,3 n £t Public 4 Interaction 4 27 -Id _ .2 39 * 3134 25 5 3332 U 3 2h H 2 14^ Fur Trade ' • ' Carolina 7128 -2 «N It) 30 . 17 13 * l - f(/) - 24 K h 10 -2 37 « « M - 4 1- «J 38 ★ Legend - 6 1- 26 1 c 4-4 {J Z S ,a v e *t 36 35 Classified Sites -j -6 ei Unclassified Sites ★ Centroid -9 -8 -6 -4 I___________ I -2 0 2 4 6 8 9 -8 Canonical Discriminant Function 1 Sites and Contexts 1 20CN 8 Structure I 14 Brunswick 25 Front 27 Spalding's Store 2 20CN 8 Structure II 15 Brunswick 25 Rear 28 Bright's P o st/M o n tg o m e ry 's Tavern 3 20CN 8 Structure III 16 Brunswick 25 Inside 29 G rand Portage 4 20CN 8 East Bank 17 Brunswick 10 W h o le 30 Signal Hill 5 20CN 8 W e st Bank 18 Brunswick 7 W h o le 31 D elaw are State H ouse A 6 20CN 8 W h o le Site 19 Brunswick 7 Rear 32 D elaw are State H ouse B 7 Rocky M ountain H ouse 20 Brunswick 7 Front 33 D elaw are State H ouse C 8 Fort G eo rg e 21 Brunswick 7 M idden 34 C am d en Toft 8 9 Buckingham H ouse 22 Fort M oultrie A 35 Yaughan A 10 E dm onton H ouse 23 Fort M oultrie B 36 C uriboo 11 Sturgeon Fort 24 C am bridge 96 37 Yaughan B 12 Francois LeBlanc Post 25 Fort Prince G eorge 38 Spiers Landing 13 Brunswick 25 W hole 2 6 'Fort Ligonier 39 Fort W atson 163 worthy o f n o t e , f o r t h e r e v i s i o n o f C a r o l i n a P a t t e r n a t t r i b u t e s by Garrow r e s u l t e d in t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s wes tern Lake S u p e r io r f u r t r a d i n g s t a t i o n with t h e C a r o lin a P a t t e r n group, r a t h e r th a n with th e Fur Trade s i t e s o r w i t h t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s , as i t was in th e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model. Garrow's C a r o l i n a Slav e P a t t e r n was d e f i n e d with f o u r documented s la v e d o m ic iles as i t s t y p e s i t e s . This P a t t e r n and i t s s i t e s f e l l a d j a c e n t to t h e C a r o l i n a P a t t e r n on t h e s c a t t e r p l o t and was not f a r removed from i t on e i t h e r d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n . Three ungrouped s i t e s were c l a s s i f i e d wit h t h e Slav e P a t t e r n group; F o r t M o u l t r i e , c o n t e x t A, t h e f r o n t y a r d a r e a o f S t r u c t u r e 7 from Brunswick Town, and B r i g h t ' s Post/Montgomery's Tavern a t Arkansas P o s t. Context A from F o r t M o u ltr i e r e p r e s e n t s t h e American midden d e p o s i t d a t i n g r ou ghly 1775-1794 (South 1974). Judging by th e simple pr opor­ t i o n s o f a r t i f a c t s i n t h i s assemblage, t h e c o n t e x t was n o t r a d i c a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h e C a r o l i n a P a t t e r n s i t e s , and i t s s c o r e s on th e d i s ­ c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s p la ced i t n e a r t h e boundary with t h a t group. The f r o n t y a r d a r e a from Brunswick Town's S t r u c t u r e 7 was l a b e l l e d a " d e v ia n t" example by South (1977:154) and drew h i s a t t e n t i o n . He e x p la i n e d t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h i s c o n t e x t and o t h e r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e s t r u c t u r e p r i m a r i l y in terms o f v a r i a b i l i t y in r e f u s e d i s p o s a l , and c h a r a c t e r i z e d i t as e s s e n t i a l l y C a r o li n a P a t t e r n in c h a r a c t e r . In t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , th e c o n t e x t l i e s a d j a c e n t t o t h e C a r o l i n a / S l a v e P a t t e r n boundary, but i t s d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n s s c o r e s c a t e g o r i z e i t s o l i d l y w i t h i n t h e Slave P a t t e r n group. 164 The l a s t ungrouped s i t e c l a s s i f i e d I n t o t h i s P a t t e r n by t h e subprogram was B r i g h t ' s Post/Montgomery's Tavern from Arkansas P o st. Excavated by t h e a u t h o r in 1971, t h i s s i t e assemblage was dominated by t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y t a v e r n component and might well be c h a r a c ­ t e r i z e d as "su per-dom est ic" (Martin 1978). The Kitchen Group a r t i f a c t s made up 82% o f t h e as se m blag e, while t h e A r c h i t e c t u r e Group accounted f o r o n ly 16%. Food and beverage s e r v i c e was c l e a r l y t h e primary a c t i v i t y revealed in the a r t if a c t u a l record. That t h e s e t h r e e c o n t e x t s were c l a s s i f i e d w i t h i n t h e Slave P a t t e r n on t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a r i a b l e s s u g g e st s more ab o u t t h e o r i g i n a l Slave P a t t e r n s i t e s th a n a b o u t t h e s i t e s added by DISCRIMINANT. I t s u g g e sts t h a t t h e s e s i t e s serv ed r e l a t i v e l y l i m i t e d domestic f u n c t i o n s and t h a t t h e i r I n h a b i t a n t s d i d n o t engage 1n o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s , such as c r a f t s p e c i a l i z a t i o n , m a n u f a c tu ri n g , o r commerce w i t h i n t h e i r p l a c e s o f residence. A s a t i s f y i n g e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s s i t u a t i o n l i e s beyond th e scope o f t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . I t 1s c l e a r , however, t h a t t h e l a b e l C a r o l in a Slav e P a t t e r n i s i n a p p r o p r i a t e , s i n c e s t r o n g s i m i l a r i t i e s have a l s o been r ecognized on s i t e s n o t i n h a b i t e d by s l a v e s . The observed d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e C a r o lin a and Slav e P a t t e r n s i t e s were n o t caused by e t h n i c o r s o c i a l s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s , a s t h e l a b e l s Imply, b u t r a t h e r by some f u n c t i o n a l v a r i a t i o n , perhaps t h e degree o f p h ys ic a l s e p a r a t i o n o f domestic and non-domest1c a c t i v i t i e s w i t h i n a s e t t l e m e n t . Garrow's P u b l i c I n t e r a c t i o n P a t t e r n , d e f i n e d on r e v i s i o n s o f S o u t h ' s F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s and W is e 's P u b l i c S t r u c t u r e P a t t e r n , d i s p l a y e d a t i g h t c l u s t e r o f p o i n t s on t h e s c a t t e r p l o t ( F ig u r e 11 ). 165 C l a s s i f i e d w i t h i n t h i s P a t t e r n by DISCRIMINANT, b u t l y i n g somewhat s e p a r a t e on t h e p l o t , were F ort L ig o n l e r (a s i t e p r e v i o u s l y dropped by Garrow), t h e r e a r and midden a r e a s from Brunswick Town S t r u c t u r e 7 and a l l o f t h e c o n t e x ts from t h e F i l b e r t S i t e . While i t was c l e a r t h a t a l l o f t h e s e s i t e s and c o n t e x t s shar e assemblage s i m i l a r i t i e s , t h e a t t r i b u t i o n o f caus e t o th e s e r v i c e o f p u b l i c f u n c t i o n s was a t l e a s t unwarranted and c e r t a i n l y u n t e s t e d . That p u b l i c f u n c t i o n s were c a r r i e d o u t in some o f t h e s e l o c a t i o n s ca nnot be d e n ie d . However, t h e r e has been no demonstrated r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e p r o p o r t i o n s o f Kitchen and A r c h i t e c t u r a l a r t i f a c t s r e p r e s e n t e d in an assemblage and t h e p r e s e n c e o f p u b l i c a c t i v i t i e s . On t h e c o n t r a r y , i f p u b l i c f u n c t i o n s were r e f l e c t e d i n t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , one would have expected t h e subprogram t o have c l a s s i f i e d Montgomery's Tavern w i t h i n t h i s P a t t e r n , s i n c e i t s documented uses i n clu d ed p o l l i n g , and th e muster o f m i l i t i a , as well a s t h e expected housing and f e e d in g o f v i s i t o r s (Martin 1978). F u rth er, the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the F i l b e r t S ite contexts w i t h i n t h i s P a t t e r n s uggested t h a t something o t h e r than p u b l i c i n t e r ­ a c t i o n made t h e s e assemblages s i m i l a r , f o r th e F i l b e r t S i t e showed l i t t l e e v i d e n c e , e i t h e r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l nor documentary, o f I n t e n s e public use. Comparison o f A l t e r n a t i v e Models Both t h e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model and F o u r - P a t t e r n model r e p r e s e n t c l u s t e r s o f s i t e s a n d / o r c o n t e x t s t h a t e x h i b i t assemblage s i m i l a r i t i e s . In both models, t h e c l u s t e r s a r e r e l a t i v e l y t i g h t and homogeneous. Garrow's model r e s u l t s 1n d e n s e r , t i g h t e r c l u s t e r s th an does S o u t h ' s , b u t , as sug ges ted abov e, t h e F o u r - P a t t e r n model ru ns a somewhat h ig h e r 166 r i s k o f m isclasslfylng s i t e s , or a t l e a s t o f misrepresenting t h e i r functional c h a r a c te r is tic s . The proposed P ublic I n t e r a c t i o n and Slave P a t t e r n s were judged t o be I n a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e l a b e l s n o t e f f e c t i v e l y r e f l e c t i n g th e c u l t u r a l v a r i a b i l i t y t h a t was observed in t h e ar ch aeo ­ l o g i c a l and documentary r e c o r d s . S o u t h ' s choice o f l a b e l s f o r h i s P a t t e r n s may be c r i t i c i z e d , as well a s may Forsm an's, though South sugges te d from t h e s t a r t t h a t t h e P a t t e r n l a b e l s , l i k e t h e P a t t e r n s th e m s e lv e s , were c o n v e n ie n t d e v ic e s t o d e s c r i b e a v a i l a b l e d a t a , t o be modified o r abandoned as new in form ation made them o b s o l e t e . The P a t t e r n s were n o t in te n d e d as s t a t i c models to be r e p l i c a t e d o r d i s c o v e r e d , b u t r a t h e r a s t o o l s t o f a c i l i t a t e compari­ son and e x p l a n a t i o n . The T h r e e - P a t t e r n model a ppears more a t t r a c t i v e a t t h i s t i m e , s i n c e i t does n o t a t t e m p t t o d i s t i n g u i s h s u b c u l t u r a l v a r i a n t s (as in t h e Slave P a t t e r n ) o r g r o s s b e havioral g e n e r a l i t i e s (as in t h e P u b lic I n t e r a c t i o n P a t t e r n ) . R a th e r , i t p rovid e s d e s c r i p t i v e models o f c u l t u r a l v a r i a b i l i t y over time and space which r e q u i r e e x p l a n a t i o n . The t e m p t a t i o n t o p r o l i f e r a t e P a t t e r n s which d e s c r i b e t h e e n t i r e range o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s must be r e s i s t e d . I t i s more f r u i t f u l to seek e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e r e g u l a r i t i e s noted in S o u t h 's o r i g i n a l concep­ t i o n s , e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e I n t e r r e l a t i o n s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s , and e x p l a ­ n a t i o n s f o r t h e observed v a r i a b i l i t y . The e x i s t e n c e o f r e g u l a r l y c o - o c c u r r i n g range s o f v a l u e s on f u n c t i o n a l a r t i f a c t groups has been dem onstrated. S t a n l e y S o u t h 's P a t ­ t e r n s do, in f a c t , d e s c r i b e r e g u l a r i t y 1n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d . The cause o r ca uses o f t h e observed r e g u l a r i t y remains t o be deter mined. 167 The F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n : Hypotheses and T e s ts Of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t f o r th e p r e s e n t s tu d y i s th e F r o n t i e r Pattern. This i s t h e b r o a d e s t , most ge ner al o f S o u t h 's P a t t e r n s , d e s c r i b i n g s i t e s from a r e l a t i v e l y wide geo gr ap hic and c h r o n o lo g ic a l range. The F i l b e r t S i t e c o n t e x t s were c l a s s i f i e d as F r o n t i e r by the d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s , along w i th a number o f o t h e r s i t e s t h a t do n o t e x h i b i t any obvious shared s i m i l a r i t i e s . They a l l d i s p l a y s i m i l a r p r o p o r t i o n s o f f u n c t i o n a l a r t i f a c t c a t e g o r i e s , but s h a r e no o t h e r iiranediately a p p a r e n t a t t r i b u t e s . The d i s c o v e r y and e x p l i c a t i o n o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s should o f f e r I n s i g h t s i n t o th e n a t u r e o f f r o n t i e r l i f e and help t o ju dge t h e degree t o which f r o n t i e r r e g i o n s s h a r e d i s ­ t i n c t i v e c u l t u r a l and b e h avioral a d a p t a t i o n s . In h i s o r i g i n a l r e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n , South proposed t e n t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e d i s t i n c t i v e r a t i o s between c e r t a i n a r t i ­ f a c t c a t e g o r i e s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e Kitchen and A r c h i t e c t u r e groups. I t i s t h e I n t e r p l a y o f t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s , sometimes r e s u l t i n g in t h e r e v e r s a l o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s as seen in t h e C a r o l in a P a t t e r n , t h a t r e s u lts in the F ro n tier P attern . When we q u e s t i o n t h e cause o f t h i s r e v e r s a l , an I n c r e a s e in by -p ro duct s a s s o c i a t e d with a r c h i t e c t u r e in f r o n t i e r s i t u a t i o n s can be s u g g e s t e d . This might r e s u l t from a s h o r t e r o ccupation p e r io d f o r each a r c h i t e c t u r a l u n i t on t h e f r o n t i e r th a n in t h e s e t t l e m e n t s n o t In t h e f r o n t i e r , thus i n c r e a s i n g t h e A r c h i t e c t u r e Group a r t i f a c t s 1n r e l a t i o n t o secon­ dary midden d e p o s i t s o f Kitchen Group a r t i f a c t s . 168 An a l t e r n a t i v e can be p o s t u l a t e d r e g a r d in g a d e c r e a s e in Kitchen Group a r t i f a c t s in r e l a t i o n t o A r c h i t e c t u r e Group a r t i f a c t s r e s u l t i n g from t h e remoteness o f t h e f r o n t i e r from t h e source of supply (South 1977:146). In a summary a r t i c l e p u b lish ed l a t e r , South f u r t h e r emphasized t h e importance o f t h e A r c h i t e c t u r e Group. The F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n could per haps b e s t be termed an A r c h i t e c t u r a l A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n t o r e f l e c t t h e v a r i a b l e d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i t from th e C ar o li n a P a t t e r n s i n c e a s i m i l a r high a r c h i t e c t u r a l r a t i o i s o f t e n found i n s i d e t h e a r e a o f a r u in e d s t r u c t u r e compared with t h e Caro­ l i n a P a t t e r n u s u a l l y seen t o p r e v a i l 1n t h e y a r d around t h e s t r u c t u r e (South 1978:230). Though he proposed t h e s e a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s , South d id n o t a t t e m p t t o r e f i n e o r t e s t them. The P a t t e r n s remained e s s e n t i a l l y d e s c r i p t i o n s with no e x p l a n a t o r y power. The t e n t a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s proposed by South were e v a l u a t e d by r e f e r e n c e t o t h e F i l b e r t S i t e an d, t o some e x t e n t , t h e o t h e r s i t e s and c o n t e x t s in t h e d a t a s e t used f o r t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s . Rephrased somewhat, t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s were o f f e r e d as h y p o t h e se s. Length o f Occupation Hypothesis 1. th e The d i s t i n c t i v e a r t i f a c t assemblages r eco g n ized as F r o n t i e r , Fur Tra de , and C a r o li n a P a t t e r n s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f th e l e n g t h o f tim e t h a t t h e s i t e s d i s p l a y i n g t h e P a t t e r n s were occupied. The examination and t e s t i n g o f t h i s h y p o th e s i s began w it h th e c o l l e c t i o n o f d a t a on t h e l e n g t h o f o c c u p a t io n f o r each o f t h e s i t e s and 169 c o n t e x t s in t h e sample. In most i n s t a n c e s , p u b lis h e d e s t i m a t e s were a v a i l a b l e , based on h i s t o r i c a l a n d / o r a r c h a e o l o g i c a l evidence (Table 37). F i l b e r t S i t e S t r u c t u r e s One and Two were a s s o c i a t e d with th e Camp­ b e ll oc cu pat ion o f t h e s i t e , and S t r u c t u r e Three was a s s o c i a t e d with th e Dousman o c c u p a ti o n . The n o n - s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s were a s sig n ed a valu e r e f l e c t i n g t h e e n t i r e h i s t o r i c o c c u p a t i o n , as was t h e t o t a l s i t e assem­ blage (Table 3 7 ) . A f t e r d a t a c o l l e c t i o n , t h e exam ination o f time as an im po rt an t causal v a r i a b l e began w i t h r e a n a l y s i s us in g d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n analysis. An I n d i c a t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e - i m p o r t a n c e o f occ upation l e n g t h in d eter m in in g P a t t e r n was noted when t h e SPSS subprogram DISCRIMINANT s e l e c t e d l e n g t h o f o c c u p a ti o n alon g w ith t h e Kitchen and A r c h i t e c t u r e a r t i f a c t groups as i m p o r t a n t d i s c r i m i n a t i n g v a r i a b l e s . Length o f occu­ p a t i o n was s e l e c t e d l a s t and t h e s t a t i s t i c s g en er ated s u g g e s t t h a t i t was n o t so powerful a d i s c r i m i n a t o r as t h e Kitchen o r A r c h i t e c t u r e Groups, but was n o n e t h e l e s s u s e fu l i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between t h e Patterns. In o r d e r t o f u r t h e r t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t P a t t e r n member­ s hip was r e l a t e d t o l e n g t h o f o c c u p a t i o n , a one-way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e t e s t was used t o d i s c o v e r i f a r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d and 1 f 1 t was s ta tis tic a lly sig n ifican t. The SPSS subprogram ONEWAY was u s e d , a r o u t i n e s u i t a b l e f o r examining t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a n o m in a l- s c a l e f a c t o r , such a s P a t t e r n , and a s i n g l e i n t e r v a l - s c a l e continu ous v a r ia b le , length o f occupation. All s i t e s in t h e sample were as s ig n e d P a t t e r n membership on t h e b a s i s o f t h e e a r l i e r d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s , i n c l u d i n g both t h e s i t e s c l a s s i f i e d by South and Forsman, and t h o s e c l a s s i f i e d m a t h e m a t i c a l l y by t h e a n a l y s i s . Table 37. Duration o f Occupation, S i t e and Contexts Analyzed by DISCRIMINANT Occupation Date Duration o f Occupation 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I ca. 1785-1819 34 Martin 1973-1975 20CN8 S t r c u t u r e I I c a . 1785-1819 34 Martin 1973-1975 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I I I c a . 1819-1845 26 Martin 1973-1975 20CN8 East Bank c a . 1785-1845 60 Martin 1973-1975 20CN8 West Bank c a . 1785-1845 60 Martin 1973-1975 20CN8 Whole S i t e c a. 1785-1845 60 Martin 1973-1975 Rocky Mountain House 1799-1821 22 Forsman and Gallo 1979 F ort George 1792-1800 8 Forsman and Gallo 1979 Buckingham House 1792-1800 8 Forsman and Gallo 1979 Edmonton House 1810-1813 3 Forsman and Gallo 1979 Sturgeon F or t 1776-1780 4 Forsman and Gallo 1979 Francois LeBlanc Post 1769-1778 9 Forsman and Gallo 1979 Brunswick 25 Whole 1732-1776 44 South 1977 Brunswick 25 Front 1732-1776 44 South 1977 Brunswick 25 Rear 1732-1776 44 South 1977 Brunswick 25 I n s id e 1732-1776 44 South 1977 Brunswick 10 Whole 1728-1776 52 South 1977 Brunswick 7 Whole 1734-1776 42 South 1977 Brunswick 7 Rear 1734-1776 42 South 1977 Brunswick 7 Front 1734-1776 42 South 1977 Site/Context Reference Table'37. S i t e / C o n t e x t ______________________ Occupation Date Continued Duration o f Occupation_________Reference______________ Brunswick 7 Midden 1734-1776 42 South 1977 F ort Moultrie A 1774-1794 19 South 1974 F o r t M ou ltrie B 1780-1782 2 South 1974 Cambridge 96 1783-1820 37 South 1977 F o r t P rince George 1753-1769 16 Combes no da te Fort Ligo nier 1758-1766 8 Grimm 1970 S palding' Store 1763-ca. 1783 20 Lewis 1969 B rig h t's Post/ Montgomery's Tavern ca. 1805-1840 35 Martin 1977 Grand Portage ca. 1769-1803 35’ Woolworth 1975 Signal Hill 1800-1860 60 J e l k s 1973 Delaware S t a t e House A 1788-1807 19 Wise 1978 Delaware S t a t e House B 1788 1 Wise 1978 Delaware S t a t e House C 1742-1788 46 Wise 1978 ca. 1758-1819 61 Lewis 1976 Yaughan A 1745-1795 50 Garrow 1982 Curiboo 1745-1800 55 Garrow 1982 Yaughan B 1784-1826 40 Garrow 1982 S p ie rs Landing 1790-1830 40 Drucker 1981 F or t Watson 1780-1781 .3 Ferguson 1975a, 1975b Camden To ft 8 ^ 172 The t e s t r eco g n ized a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e v a r i a b l e s ; r e s u l t s a r e summarized in Table 38. Table 38. R e s u l t s o f ONEWAY, Occupation Length with P a t t e r n Analysis o f Variance Degrees o f Freedom Sum o f Squares Mean Square Between Groups 2 4,189 2,094 Within Groups 36 10,895 303 Total 38 15,084 F Proba­ b ility 6.921 .0029 D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s , TIME Mean Standar d D ev iation Standard Error Frontier 30.6 20.4 5.3 .3-65.0 1 9 .4 -4 1 .9 Fur Trade 14.0 14.6 5.5 3.0-44.0 .5 - 2 7 . 5 C ar o lin a 42.6 15.4 3.7 2.0-65.0 34.7-50.6 Range 95% Confidence Limits These r e s u l t s s u g g e s t t h a t le n g t h o f o c cupation was a t l e a s t a c o n t r i b u ting facto r to Pattern d iffe re n tia tio n . A f u r t h e r t e s t , known as l e a s t - s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e , a v a i l a b l e with ONEWAY, was employed to compare each o f t h e P a t t e r n s t o one a n o t h e r on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r l e n g t h o f o c c u p a tio n . This a p o s t e r i o r i t e s t sug ges ted t h a t t h e Fur Trade P a t t e r n was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from both t h e F r o n t i e r and C arolina P a t t e r n s a t t h e .05 l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e . I t d i d n o t , however, r e c o g n iz e a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between t h e F r o n t i e r and C a r o lin a P a t t e r n s a t 173 that level. When t h e t e s t was r e r u n us in g a .10 s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l , th e F r o n t i e r and C a r o li n a P a t t e r n s were judged s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t based on l e n g t h s o f o c c u p a t i o n , as were each o f th e o t h e r p a i r s o f P a t t e r n s . While le n g t h o f occ up ation i s c l e a r l y an i n f l u e n t i a l v a r i a b l e in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g th e a r t i f a c t P a t t e r n s , i t does n o t ap pea r to provide a s u f f i c i e n t e x p l a n a t i o n by i t s e l f . The evidence t h a t i t i s more e f f e c ­ t i v e in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g Fur Trade s i t e s from th e F r o n t i e r and C arolina P a t t e r n s i t e s i s i n s t r u c t i v e , however. On t h a t v a r i a b l e , F r o n t i e r and C a r o li n a assemblages a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d i s t i n g u i s h and s h a re o v e r la p p in g ranges o f v a lu e s (Table 3 7 ) . I t should be r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e Ca rolin a and F r o n t i e r assemblages were a r r a y e d in c l o s e mathematical pr oxim ity by t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s , seemingly along an a x i s . V a r i a t i o n in l e n g t h o f o ccupation might well c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h a t a r r a y of asse m blag es , perhaps i n combination with one or more a d d i t i o n a l variables. This p o s s i b i l i t y w i l l be ex plored below, in subseq uen t analyses. S e l e c t i v e Excavation Hypothesis 2. The d i s t i n c t i v e a r t i f a c t assemblages r ecognized as t h e F r o n t i e r , Fur Trade, and C a r o lin a P a t t e r n s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f sampling e r r o r , bro ugh t ab o u t by b ia s e d and s e l e c t i v e e x c a v a t io n o f s t r u c t u r a l r u i n s and l i m i t e d e x c a v a tio n o f n o n - s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s . I t has been sug ges ted by South (1978:230) and o t h e r s t h a t th e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n might more a p p r o p r i a t e l y be termed t h e A r c h i t e c t u r a l A r t i f a c t P a t t e r n , because i t i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by such high p r o p o r t i o n s of architectural a r tif a c ts . The s u g g e s tio n t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n has been 174 caused by s e l e c t i v e e x c a v a ti o n c o n c e n t r a t i n g on s t r u c t u r a l remains was t e s t e d by r e f e r e n c e to t h e s i t e s and c o n t e x t s p r e v i o u s l y d i s c u s s e d . All th e assemblages in th e c u r r e n t sample were coded to i n d i c a t e whether they r e p r e s e n t e d a s t r u c t u r a l o r a n o n - s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t of e x c a v a tio n . For t h e p r e s e n t a n a l y s i s , whole s i t e assemblages and s t r i c t l y n o n - s t r u c t u r a l assemblages were combined in a s i n g l e c a te g o r y to be compared with s t r u c t u r a l r u i n s . A Chi-squared t e s t was run using th e SPSS subprogram CROSSTABS, producing a two-by-two continge nc y t a b l e comparing c o n t e x t o f e x c a v a ti o n with P a t t e r n (Table 39 ). Table 39. R e s u l t s o f CROSSTABS, Context with P a t t e r n Pattern Context • Non- S tr uc tu ral Frontier Fur Trade C ar o li n a 8 6 13 27 76.5% 69.2% 53.3% Structural 85.7% 7 12 30.8% 46.7% Column T o t a l s 7 15 38.5% Raw Chi-Squared Row T o t a ls 17.9% 17 43.6% 3.09 with 2 d egrees o f freedom Significance .2132 Cramer's V .2815 39 100 . 0% 175 These r e s u l t s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c o n t e x t o f e x c a v a t io n ( s t r u c t u r a l v e r su s n o n - s t r u c t u r a l ) and P a t t e r n membership i n t h i s sample. The emphasis on s t r u c t u r a l r u i n s f o r e x c a v a ti o n was n o t a s u f f i c i e n t e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e appearance o f t h e d istin c tiv e Patterns. Geographic I s o l a t i o n Hypothesis 3. The d i s t i n c t i v e groups o f a r t i f a c t p r o p o r t i o n s r ec ogn ized as t h e F r o n t i e r , Fur Trade, and C a r o lin a P a t t e r n s a r e a f u n c t i o n o f t h e r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n o f s i t e s from c u l t u r a l c e n t e r s and s o u rc e s o f s upply . This h y p o th e s is was d i f f i c u l t t o t e s t because t h e measure o f r e l a ­ t i v e i s o l a t i o n was an i l l u s o r y co n c e p t. The as signment o f v a l u e s f o r i s o l a t i o n was co m plicated by such f a c t o r s a s change in t r a n s p o r t a t i o n - technology du rin g a s i t e ' s o c c u p a t i o n , s h i f t s o f n a t i o n a l b o u n d a r i e s , wi th concom itant r e s t r i c t i o n s on t r a v e l and commerce, and changes in c o r p o r a t e management t h a t a f f e c t e d t h e flow o f goods and s e r v i c e s . For example, t h e F i l b e r t S i t e was occupied both b e f o r e and a f t e r t h e i n t r o ­ d u c ti o n o f stea mships i n t o t h e Upper Great Lakes. A simple measure o f s t r a i g h t l i n e o r w a t e r r o u t e d i s t a n c e between Mackinac and D e t r o i t would n o t r e f l e c t t h e s i g n i f i c a n t change in r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n o f t h e s i t e brought a b o u t by t e c h n o l o g i c a l change. In o t h e r c a s e s , t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f s i t e s toward c u l t u r a l c e n t e r s changed from one c i t y t o a n o t h e r , and even from one n a t i o n t o a n o t h e r , c o m p l ic a tin g t h e measurement o f isolation. To s o l v e t h i s problem, a simple o r d i n a l - s c a l e measure o f i s o l a t i o n was d e v i se d . This measure r ec ogn ized t h r e e l e v e l s o f r e l a t i v e 176 isolation: a t o r n e a r a p o p u la t io n c e n t e r a n d / o r so u rce o f supply ; r e l a t i v e l y i s o l a t e d ; very i s o l a t e d . An a d m i t t e d l y s u b j e c t i v e measure, t h i s was n o n e t h e l e s s u s e fu l f o r t e s t i n g t h e h y p o th e sis t h a t i s o l a t i o n was an im p o rta n t f a c t o r in t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f P a t t e r n membership. A Chi-squared t e s t was run in o r d e r to examine t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between i s o l a t i o n and P a t t e r n membership. The r e s u l t i n g t h r e e - b y - t h r e e co nt in gency t a b l e and a s s o c i a t e d s t a t i s t i c s a r e p r e s e n te d in Table 40. Table 40. R e s u l t s o f CROSSTABS, I s o l a t i o n with P a t t e r n P attern Isolation Close Frontier Fur Trade C a r o l in a 6 1 8 40.0% Medium 2 0 2 2 . 2% Far 5 38.5% Column T o t a l s .0096 Cramer's V .42497 * 7 40.5% 9 77.8% 24.3% 6 2 15.4% 13 35.1% 17 37* 46.2% 18.9% 13.36 w i th d egrees o f freedom Significance 53.3% 15 0 7 13 35.1% Raw Chi-squared 6.7% Row T o t a l s two s i t e s n o t coded due t o i n s u f f i c i e n t d a t a 45.9% 100 . 0 % 177 I t was e v i d e n t t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n and P a t t e r n membership, as i n d i c a t e d by th e Chi-squar ed v a l u e . The s t r e n g t h o f t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s tim a te d by Cramer's V, a measure t h a t may vary in val ue between .0 and 1 . 0 . The value r e s u l t i n g from t h i s a n a l y s i s , .42497, i n d i c a t e d a r e l a t i v e l y weak, a l b e i t s i g n i f i c a n t , r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f i s o l a t i o n and Pattern. By r e f e r e n c e t o t h e conting en cy t a b l e (Table 4 0 ) , i t was noted t h a t Fur Trade P a t t e r n s i t e s were n e a r l y a l l judged t o be f a r removed from s o u rc e s o f s u p p ly , w h i l e t h e C a r o li n a P a t t e r n s i t e s tended t o be found c lo se r to centers o f population. The most v a r i a b l e group o f s i t e s was t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n group , a r r a y e d over t h e f u l l range o f r e l a t i v e iso latio n categories. These o b s e r v a t i o n s s u g g e st t h a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e between C a r o l in a and Fur Trade s i t e s might well be e x p la in ed by d i f f e r e n c e s in r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n , but t h a t t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s could n o t be e f f e c t i v e l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d in such a way. Summary The prec ed in g a n a l y s e s have dem onstrated t h a t S o u t h 's P a t t e r n co ncept has s u b s t a n t i a l u t i l i t y as a means o f d e s c r i b i n g and comparing h i s t o r i c a l asse mblage s. They have f u r t h e r dem onstrated t h a t t h e Fur Trade, F r o n t i e r and C a r o l in a P a t t e r n s a r e d i s t i n c t i v e models o f B r i t i s h American m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , and t h e r e f o r e r e f l e c t d i s t i n c t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v io r . Three hypotheses o f f e r e d t o e x p l a i n th e e x i s t e n c e of t h e P a t t e r n s have been t e s t e d by r e f e r e n c e t o a d a ta base c o n s i s t i n g o f t h i r t y - n i n e s i t e s and c o n t e x t s drawn from a v a r i e t y o f geographic and temporal 178 contexts. The e x p l a n a t i o n r e l a t e d t o s e l e c t i v e e x cav atio n was s o l i d l y rejected. The e x p l a n a t i o n r e l a t e d to d i s t a n c e from sou rces o f supply was t e n t a t i v e l y a c c e p t e d , with t h e understanding t h a t i t did not c a r r y s u b s t a n t i a l e x p l a n a t o r y power in t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n c a s e s . The e x p l a n a t i o n based on l e n g t h o f o ccu p atio n was c l e a r l y th e s t r o n g e s t and most u s e fu l o f t h e hypothese s examined, though i t f a i l s t o stand alo ne in th e o p inion o f t h i s a u t h o r . CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS The Causes o f P a t t e r n V a r i a t i o n S ta n l e y S o u t h 's P a t t e r n s have been shown t o have u t i l i t y f o r d e s c r i b i n g and comparing asse m blag es . The c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme has proved u s efu l f o r p r e s e n t i n g and a n a ly z in g d a t a from t h e F i l b e r t S i t e . The P a t t e r n s have f u r t h e r been v a l i d a t e d as d i s t i n c t i v e , p a t t e r n e d models o f m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e . Three a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e i r d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r have been t e s t e d , and two o f t h e s e e x p l a n a t i o n s have r e c e i v e d q u a l i f i e d sup­ port. Both l e n g t h o f o c c u p a tio n and d i s t a n c e from s our ce s o f supply appear t o have s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on t h e p a t t e r n e d a r r a y o f a r t i f a c t proportions t h a t c h a r a c te r iz e the P a tte rn s . To conclude t h i s s t u d y , 1 t seems a p p r o p r i a t e t o move beyond th e r e l a t i v e l y r ig o r o u s a n a l y s i s and t e s t i n g i n t o a more ge neral r e f l e c t i o n on t h e cause s o f v a r i a t i o n seen w i t h i n and between t h e assemblages examined. The d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s made i t c l e a r t h a t v a r i a ­ t i o n in t h e r e l a t i v e p r o p o r t i o n s o f Kitchen and A r c h i t e c t u r e Group a r t i f a c t s had a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t h e c l u s t e r i n g o f assemblages i n t o Patterns. The one way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e t e s t and i t s a s s o c i a t e d s t a t i s t i c s o f f e r e d convincing ev idence o f t h e i n f l u e n c e o f o ccu p atio n l e n g t h on t h a t same P a t t e r n c l u s t e r i n g . Less c o m p ellin g , but i n f l u e n ­ t i a l s u p p o rt was given t o t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t I s o l a t i o n may have played a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e i n t h e d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f p a t t e r n e d groups o f s i t e s . 179 180 Beyond t h e s e r e s u l t s , however, t h i s s tu d y has s t i m u l a t e d some more general Impressions r e g a r d i n g t h e u n d e r ly in g causes f o r the observed v a r i a b i l i t y and p a t t e r n i n g in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e cord o f t h e s e s i t e s . The marked d i f f e r e n c e s o f t h e Fur Trade P a t t e r n s i t e s have been e v i d e n t in a l l a n a l y s e s and t e s t s . They were more g e o g r a p h i c a l l y i s o ­ l a t e d , occupied f o r s h o r t e r t i m e s , and d i s p l a y e d r a d i c a l l y d i v e r g e n t a r t i f a c t assem blages. While e i t h e r i s o l a t i o n o r le n g t h o f occupation might ac count f o r t h e i r d i f f e r e n c e s , t h i s a u t h o r cannot r u l e out th e p o t e n t i a l i n f l u e n c e o f sampling e r r o r , d i s c u s s e d b r i e f l y in Chapter V. This o b s e r v a t i o n i s a d m i t t e d l y s u b j e c t i v e , f o r t h e o r i g i n a l e x c a v a ti o n r e p o r t s have n o t a l l been c o n s u l t e d . However, t h e ex ce ed ingly s c a n t c o l l e c t i o n s o f A r c h i t e c t u r e Group a r t i f a c t s such as n a i l s and window g l a s s r e p o r t e d by Forsman do n o t a g r e e with some contemporary d e s c r i p ­ t i o n o f f u r t r a d e p o s t s in w este rn Canada. The co n c lu s io n t h a t some items were simply n o t c o l l e c t e d can n o t be r u l e d o u t a t t h i s time. Though t h e F r o n t i e r and C a r o l in a P a t t e r n s d id ap pe ar t o be d i s t i n c t i v e in th e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s , t h e r e was o v e r l a p between t h e s e groups on both t h e l e n g t h o f o ccupation and i s o l a t i o n measures, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e s e P a t t e r n s were n o t so d i f f e r e n t from one a n o t h e r as th ey were d i f f e r e n t from t h e Fur Trade P a t t e r n . The a r r a y o f d i s c r i m i n a n t s c o re s on t h e T h r e e - P a t t e r n model s c a t t e r p l o t ( F ig u r e 10) i s a l s o s u g g e s t i v e , f o r i t p l a c e s t h e s i t e s and c o n t e x t s in mathematical space t o p o r t r a y t h e i r s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s . The C ar o li n a and F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s ap pear t o be a r ra n g e d in a l i n e a r a li g n m e n t, and t h e c e n t r o i d s o f t h o s e two P a t t e r n s a r e c l o s e r t o one a n o t h e r than e i t h e r i s to t h e Fur Trade c e n t r o i d . When one looks a t t h e c a s e s a t t h e o p p o s it e ends o f t h i s l i n e a r a r r a y , some i n t e r e s t i n g r e l a t i o n s h i p s 181 become e v i d e n t . The f o u r most extreme ca s e s In th e C arolina group a r e t h r e e o f th e documented s l a v e d o m i c ile s and a t r a d i n g h o u s e / t a v e r n . These s i t e s s h a r e a dominantly domestic f u n c t i o n . Though commerce was c e r t a i n l y c a r r i e d on a t B r i g h t ' s P o s t , t h e domestic o r i e n t a t i o n o f Montgomery's Tavern dominates th e assemblage, with Kitchen Group a r t i ­ f a c t s making up 82% o f t h e assemblage, and thus i t has been c h a r a c ­ t e r i z e d as " super d o m e s t i c . " At t h e o p p o s i t e p o le o f t h i s al ignm ent a r e found such c o l l e c t i o n s as a l l o f t h e F i l b e r t S i t e c o n t e x t s , with S t r u c t u r e Two as t h e most ext rem e, F o r t L i g o n i e r , and two o f t h e c o n t e x t s from t h e HepburnReonalds House ( S t r u c t u r e Seven) from Brunswick Town. In c o n t r a s t with th e extremes a t t h e o t h e r po le o f t h e a r r a y , t h e s e s i t e s and c o n t e x t s can be c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s r e f l e c t i n g b r o a d e r , more v a r i e d f u n c t i o n s . While some domestic a r t i f a c t s appeared in S t r u c t u r e Two a t t h e F i l b e r t S i t e , t h e i r p r o p o r t i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower th an in t h e C arolina Pattern s i t e s . Even t h e obvious d o m i c i l e s , such as S t r u c t u r e One a t F i l b e r t , c o n ta i n e d enough non-domestic o b j e c t s t o make t h e assemblage t a k e on a d i f f e r e n t c h a r a c t e r . I t ap pea rs t o t h i s a u t h o r t h a t s i t e f u n c t i o n , o r perhaps d i v e r s i t y o f f u n c t i o n s , i s a more c r i t i c a l f a c t o r in d ete rm in ing assemblage ch aracteristics. Though d u r a t i o n o f oc cu pati o n and i s o l a t i o n have been r eco g n ized as i n f l u e n t i a l f a c t o r s , t h e rang e o f a c t i v i t i e s c a r r i e d out a t t h e s i t e may be more I mpor tant. The F i l b e r t S i t e was occupied as long as t h e lo n g e s t - o c c u p i e d Caro­ l i n a P a t t e r n s i t e , y e t i t s assemblage i s more l i k e t h a t from S p a l d i n g ' s S t o r e , F o r t L i g o n i e r , and F o r t P r in c e George than i t Is l i k e o t h e r longoccupied s i t e s . The F i l b e r t S i t e was occupied both b e f o r e and a f t e r the 182 a r r i v a l o f stea mships i n th e Upper Lakes, and both bef or e and a f t e r th e opening o f t h e Erie Canal. These events caused profound changes in th e deg re e o f i s o l a t i o n t h a t t h i s s i t e endured, y e t th e assemblages from th e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n , S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, ar e not fundamen­ t a l l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e l a t e r c o n t e x t , S t r u c t u r e Three. For t h e s e r e a s o n s , d i v e r s i t y o f f u n c t i o n and degree o f d o m e s t i c i t y seem to be im port ant ca usal v a r i a b l e s in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h e F r o n t i e r P a t t e r n s i t e s from th e C a r o l i n a P a t t e r n s i t e s . The observed a r r a y o f s i t e s and c o n t e x t s r e s u l t i n g from t h e d i s c r i m i n a n t f u n c t i o n a n a l y s i s i s i n c r e a s i n g l y a p p e a li n g as an a x i s o f d o m e s t i c i t y and remains to be explo red in a s y s t e m a t i c manner. Sugge stions f o r F u r t h e r Research Several p o t e n t i a l l i n e s o f f u r t h e r i n q u i r y have become a p p a r e n t dur in g t h e co u r s e o f t h i s s tu d y . The most obvious f i r s t s te p in v o lv es t h e expansion o f t h e d a t a bas e. Re sea rch er s from around t h e c o u n tr y a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y employing S o u t h ' s P a t t e r n scheme and t h e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r pu rsu in g s i m i l a r a n a l y s i s with more s i t e s a r e promising. An i n c r e a s e in sample s i z e would a l l o w f o r more r e l i a b l e e s t i m a t e s o f v a r i a b i l i t y , as well as more dependable t e s t s o f ca usal hypothes es. Such an i n c r e a s e might a l s o al low t h e r e c o g n i t i o n o f h e r e t o f o r e " i n v i s i b l e " p a t t e r n i n g in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d , caused by te m p o r a l, c u l t u r a l , geo graphical o r functional v a r ia tio n . Another a n a l y t i c a l approach o f some p o t e n t i a l valu e would r e q u i r e r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s e l e c t e d a r t i f a c t c l a s s e s in o r d e r to r e f l e c t known c u l t u r a l a n d / o r f u n c t i o n a l v a r i a b i l i t y more e f f e c t i v e l y . For example, g l a s s beads might be c l a s s i f i e d in a Trade Goods Group, along with 183 s i l v e r ornaments and o t h e r known t r a d e items in an a n a l y s i s t h a t sought t o maximize t h e s e g r e g a tio n o f s i t e s with a known o r susp ec te d t r a d i n g function. A r t i f a c t s p r e s e n t l y t r e a t e d in th e A c t i v i t i e s Group a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y amenable t o such r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n t o r eco g n ize s p e c i a l i z e d functions. An approach t h a t holds g r e a t p o t e n t i a l f o r i n t r a s i t e a n a l y s i s is th e i n c r e a s e d use o f t h e P a t t e r n co ncept f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n a l s t u d i e s . S p a t i a l a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a t i o n from P a t t e r n norms o f f e r s a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t s i n t o f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , d i s p o s a l p r a c t i c e s , and th e i n t e r n a l v a r i a t i o n w i t h i n and between c o n t e x t s . The P a t t e r n scheme o f f e r s a c o n s i s t e n t form at upon which t o base such comparisons. The most f r u i t f u l avenue f o r co ntinued r e s e a r c h , however, l i e s in the area of functional analyses. More i s t o be gained by framing t e s t ­ a b l e hypothese s based on f u n c t io n a l e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r v a r i a b i l i t y between h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t s than w i l l ev e r be le a r n e d from th e p r o l i f e r a t i o n o f "new" P a t t e r n s based on s u b j e c t i v e r e n d e r i n g s o f quan­ t i t a t i v e data. Leaning on t h e i n t e r p l a y and i n s i g h t s a f f o r d e d through i n t e g r a t i o n o f h i s t o r i c a l and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a , t h i s ty p e o f study promises t o inform a r c h a e o l o g i s t s working in a l l temporal and geographic realms about th e meaning and t h e u t i l i t y o f a b s t r a c t d e s c r i p t i v e models o f c u l t u r a l v a r i a b i l i t y . I t i s her e t h a t h i s t o r i c a l ar ch ae ology w ill make i t s most im port an t c o n t r i b u t i o n t o a s c ie n c e o f c u l t u r e . APPENDIX A ARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS 184 APPENDIX A ARTIFACT DESCRIPTIONS The f o llo w in g i s a d e s c r i p t i v e c a t a l o g o f a r t i f a c t s reco vered in ex c a v a tio n s a t t h e F i l b e r t S i t e in th e y e a r s 1972-1975. S ta n le y S o u t h 's a r t i f a c t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme i s used t o provid e c o n s i s t e n t o r g a n i z a ­ tion. The a r t i f a c t c o l l e c t i o n and a l l s i t e r e c o r d s a r e c u r a t e d by t h e Mackinac I s l a n d S t a t e Park Commission, Lansing, Michigan, and a d u p l i c a t e s e t o f n o t e s and r e c o r d s i s mai ntain ed by t h e a u t h o r . Kitchen Group Ceramics Exceeded in number on ly by window g l a s s f r a g m e n t s , t h e 9,853 ceramic s herd s r e covere d in t h e 1972-1975 e x c a v a ti o n s were c e r t a i n l y t h e most v a r i a b l e group o f a r t i f a c t s c o l l e c t e d . These a r t i f a c t s were t r e a t e d in Chapter IV as i n d i c a t o r s o f c h r o n o lo g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s between s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s (Tables 2 1 - 2 3 ) , and a s i n d i c a t o r s o f s t a t u s and f u n c t i o n a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n (Tables 3 0 - 3 2 ) . In t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e ceramic types and v e s s e l s r e p r e s e n t e d were enumerated and d e s c r i b e d . Examples o f t h e major t y p e s from S t r u c t u r e s One and Three were i l l u s t r a t e d , both t o show t h e ty p e s and v e s s e l forms, and t o a ll o w some v i s u a l comparison o f t h e two sub-as semblages on t h e b a s i s o f ce ram ics. The ceramic c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system used by South in t h e Mean Ceramic Date e s t i m a t i o n was used h e r e , even though n e i t h e r t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n l a y ­ o u t nor t h e numbering o f v e s s e l s followed t h i s o r d e r . The o r d e r i n g in th e Figure la y o u t was des igned t o maximize t h e space usag e, while v es sel 185 numbering was s t r i c t l y by chance, as groups o f v e s s e l s were s o r t e d in th e l a b o r a t o r y . For a general d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e temporal and morphological c h a r a c ­ t e r i s t i c s o f t h e ceramic t y p e s , t h e r e a d e r should c o n s u l t Noel Hume (1969:98-145). Whiteware ( S o u t h ' s Type #2) No c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e whiteware v e s s e l s were r e c o g n i z e d , though 349 sher ds were c l a s s i f i e d a s whitew ar e. The d i f f i c u l t y o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g t h i s ware from t h e o t h e r cr ea m -c olored ear th en w ar es was mentioned in Chapter IV, b u t bears r e p e a t i n g h e r e . At t h e le v e l o f small s h e r d s , t h e s e wares were e x trem ely d i f f i c u l t , i f n o t im p o s s ib le , to s o r t. I t i s only because t h e p resence o r absence o f whiteware has ch r o n o lo g ic al s i g n i f i c a n c e t h a t such s o r t i n g was a tt em pted h e r e . •Ironstone ( S o u th ' s Type #3) Seven i r o n s t o n e v e s s e l s were r eco g n ized from a sample o f 92 s h e r d s . All were recovered on t h e west s i d e o f Mill Creek. Two i r o n s t o n e v e s ­ s e l s , a small s a u c e r , and a l u s t e r - p a i n t e d cream p i t c h e r , r e p r e s e n t e d by 72 s h e r d s , were found i n S t r u c t u r e Three. The remainder o f t h e v e s s e l s i n c l u d in g a small bowl marked "JOHNSON BROS" ( F ig u r e 1 3 s ) , were rec ov er ed from t h e mixed f i l l d e p o s i t s ov er t h e we st end o f t h e dam ruins. The o t h e r v e s s e l s were t h r e e s a u c e r s and a t h i c k p l a t t e r . P o r c e l a i n ( S o u t h ' s Type #5) A minimum o f t e n b l u e - p a i n t e d p o r c e l a i n v e s s e l s were re c o g n iz e d . Of t h e s e , f i v e were bowls ( F ig u r e 1 3 f , g , i ) , one was a cup ( F ig u r e 13h), and f o u r were e i t h e r vases o r , more l i k e l y , cream p i t c h e r s ( F ig ure 13k). 186 F ig ure 12. Ceramics, S t r u c t u r e One 187 •ft/, uijm/ 188 Overglaze P a in te d P o r c e l a i n ( S o u t h ' s Type #7) Two o v e r g l a z e p a i n t e d v e s s e l s were n o t e d , one a bowl and the o t h e r a deep, handled mug o r p i t c h e r ( F ig u r e 1 3 j ) . A t o t a l o f 200 p o r c e l a i n she rd s was rec over ed from a l l c o n t e x t s . T r a n s f e r - P r i n t e d Pearlware ( S o u th ' s Types #10 and #11) Fourteen hundred eig h ty -tw o s h e rd s o f t r a n s f e r - p r i n t e d pea rlw ar e r e p r e s e n t a minimum o f f i f t y - f o u r v e s s e l s . The dominant c o l o r was b l u e , but b l a c k , r e d , g r e e n , brown and polychrome v e s s e l s were seen as w e l l . The c l a s s i c Willow P a t t e r n was found p r i m a r i l y i n S t r u c t u r e One, on a p l a t e ( F ig u r e 12a) and on bowls ( F ig u r e 12 e) . Other b lu e t r a n s f e r - p r i n t e d v e s s e l s from S t r u c t u r e One inc luded s hallow bowls ( F ig u r e 12b, d ) , two deep bowls ( F ig u r e 12c, f ) , and a s t r a i g h t - s i d e d mug (Figu re 12g), which probably read "A P r e s e n t f o r Edward." T r a n s f e r - p r i n t e d wares dominated t h e assemblage from S t r u c t u r e Three, comprising 38 o f 71 i d e n t i f i e d v e s s e l s . Six p a t t e r n s of blue t r a n s f e r - p r i n t i n g a r e i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 14a-h and Figure 14k. F igures 141, n , and q i l l u s t r a t e brown t r a n s f e r - p r i n t s , and F ig u re 14o and p a r e b l a c k - p r i n t e d d e s i g n s . Figure 14s i s p r i n t e d in red with a green rim d e s ig n . Polychrome P ainted Pear lw are ( S o u t h ' s Type #12) Three hundred t h i r t y t h r e e s h e r d s , r e p r e s e n t i n g a minimum o f s i x ­ t een v e s s e l s o f t h i s ware were r e c overe d. P r i m a r i l y bowls and c ups , examples o f t h e s e v e s s e l s from S t r u c t u r e One a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 12i-k. Polychrome handpainted v e s s e l s from S t r u c t u r e Three a r e i l l u s ­ t r a t e d in Figure 14t-v and x. These v e s s e l s a l l e x h i b i t f l o r a l m o t i f s 189 F ig u re 13. Ceramics, S t r u c t u r e One and Marked Sherds 190 iHIBROI 191 in brown, b l u e , g r e e n , y e llo w and b l a c k , ex ce pt f o r one cup with a d o t and c r o s s e d l i n e d es ig n ( F ig u r e 14v). Annular Pear lw are ( S o u t h ' s Type #13) Five a n n u l a r v e s s e l s were r e p r e s e n t e d by 135 s h e r d s . One example from S t r u c t u r e One, a d a r k brown cup with a c r o s s - h a t c h e d rim , i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 13n. A deep bowl with a marbled d e s ig n from S t r u c t u r e Three i s seen in Fig ure 14bb. L i g h t Yellow Creamware ( S o u t h ' s Type #15) Four thousand s i x hundred and n i n e t y s i x undec orat ed creamware s h e r d s r e p r e s e n t a minimum o f s i x t e e n v e s s e l s , t h e most common o f which were bowls. There were a t l e a s t f o u r deep bowls o f t h e t y p e i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig ure 13a, and a t l e a s t t h r e e p l a i n s hallow bowls ( F i g u r e 13c) . There were two s h allo w bowls w ith a f l u t e d des ig n on t h e i n t e r i o r ( F ig u r e 13b, e) and a s i n g l e cream p i t c h e r with a Le eds- type beaded rim ( F ig u r e 13 c) . Two p l a t e s were r e p r e s e n t e d by Royal P a t t e r n r i m s h e r d s , and a t l e a s t f o u r small p l a i n cups were n oted. V irtu a lly a l l of these v e s s e l s were r e c o v e re d i n o r n e a r S t r u c t u r e One. Blue P a i n te d Pear lw are ( S o u t h ' s Type #17) P a i n te d i n c o b a l t b lu e under t h e g l a z e , t h i s ware was seen on 460 s h e rd s r e p r e s e n t i n g a t l e a s t seven v e s s e l s , a l l bowls and cups . The examples from S t r u c t u r e One were p r i m a r i l y Chinese scenes on cups ( F ig u r e 121) , sh all ow bowls ( F ig u r e 12m), and a deep bowl Fig u re 12n). In S t r u c t u r e T h r e e , t h e d e s ig n s were more o f t e n f l o r a l , though seen on t h e same v e s s e l forms ( F ig u r e 14w, y - a a ) . 192 Overglaze P ai nt ed Creamware ( S o u t h ' s Type #18) Expressed on o n ly f o u r sher ds from a s i n g l e shallow bowl, t h i s ware was d e f i n i t e l y a minor p a r t o f t h e ceramic assemblage. The v e s s e l was reco vered from S t r u c t u r e s One and Two, and was o r i g i n a l l y p a in te d with flowers in r e d , l e a v e s i n g r e e n . Only t h e "ghost" images o f th e p a i n t i n g remain, b a r e l y v i s i b l e in Figu re 12h. Blue and Green-Edged P ea rlwar e ( S o u t h ' s Type #19) Three hundred s e v e n ty seven s h e rd s o f edged ware were re cognized. Obviously, t h i s ware was u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d , f o r only t h e rim fragments bea r t h e d i a g n o s t i c d e s i g n s . All p l a t e s , t h e r e were a t l e a s t t e n b l u e - edged v e s s e l s ( F ig u r e 14cc, dd) and f i v e green-edged ( F ig u r e 13o). Undecorated Pearlware ( S o u t h ' s Type #20) Of 1,202 s h e r d s , none could be c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d as a v es sel s e p a r a t e from t h e p ea r lw a re t y p e s such as t h e edged wares. That i s to s a y , t h e r e were no i d e n t i f i a b l e p l a i n , undecorated p ea rlw ar e v e s s e l s re cognized. T r a n s f e r - P r i n t e d Creamware ( S o u t h ' s Type #23) Only s i x s herd s o f t h i s ware were r e c o v e r e d , r e p r e s e n t i n g two vessels. The f i r s t , r eco g n iz ed on t h r e e s h e rd s from S t r u c t u r e One, was a cup with a b r i c k - r e d p r i n t o v e r a b r i g h t y e ll o w opaque g l a z e . The second was a deep bowl from S t r u c t u r e Three with a dark red p r i n t o v e r a c l e a r g l a z e ( F ig u r e 1 4 i , j ) . 193 Figure 14. Ceramics, Structure Three 194 195 Debased " S cr atch-B lue " Stoneware ( S o u t h ' s Type #24) Two v e s s e l s o f t h i s type were seen i n 36 s h e r d s , both from S t r u c t u r e One. Both v e s s e l s ap pe ar t o be cream p i t c h e r s o r vases (F ig ure 131 , m), though n e i t h e r i s r e s t o r a b l e . Decorated Delftware ( S o u t h ' s Type #49) Only two c l e a r l y i d e n t i f i a b l e d e l f t w a r e v e s s e l s were recognized in 105 s h e r d s , both v e s s e l s from S t r u c t u r e One. p l a i n white m o r t a r ( F ig u r e 13p). The f i r s t was a r e s t o r a b l e The second was an unusual v e s s e l , a p p a r e n t l y a flow er bowl with a p e r f o r a t e d to p ( F ig u r e 13q). Pai nted in blue and y e l l o w , t h i s v e s s e l was p a r t l y burned b u t enough o f t h e design was a p p a r e n t t o have i t i d e n t i f i e d as a m i d - e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y English piece. N in e ty - n in e f i n e ear the nw ar e s h e rd s were burned and u n i d e n t i f i a b l e . The remaining 277 s h e rd s were d e r i v e d p r i m a r i l y from s a l t g l a z e d s t o n e ­ ware and c l e a r l e a d - g l a z e d redware v e s s e l s , l a r g e l y u n i d e n t i f i a b l e . One stoneware b o t t l e ( F ig u r e 13r) and a stonew are crock were r e c o g n iz e d , as were two redware bowls, though no d i a g n o s t i c f e a t u r e s were n oted. Two r e f i n e d yellowware v e s s e l s were re c o rd e d from S t r u c t u r e Three as w e l l ; a mug and a sal t e r , each r e p r e s e n t e d by a s i n g l e s h e rd . Wine B o t t l e s / C a s e B o t t l e s These two c a t e g o r i e s , t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y by South, were combined in t h i s study s i n c e both c a t e g o r i e s were g e n e r a l l y used f o r wine and s p i r i t s , and t h e ca s e b o t t l e c a t e g o r y was a p p a r e n t l y r e p r e s e n t e d by a s i n g l e example. 196 Made o f dark g r e e n g l a s s , 1,171 fragmen ts were r e c o v e r e d . i n t a c t nor r e s t o r a b l e examples were c o l l e c t e d . t i v e i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 15a. N e ith e r The l a r g e s t r e p r e s e n t a ­ C y l i n d r i c a l , s t r a i g h t - s i d e d and s t r o n g - s h o u l d e r e d , t h i s b o t t l e was manufactured using a sand p o n t i l (Jones 1971:69). A v a r i e t y o f l i p f i n i s h e s were r e p r e s e n t e d in t h i s c o l l e c t i o n , a l l hand f i n i s h e d , and none p a r t i c u l a r l y d i a g n o s t i c ( F ig u r e 15b- g). The s i n g l e c a s e b o t t l e was seen in two f r a g m e n ts , a base and a s h o u ld e r (Figure h, i ) . With a sq uare c r o s s - s e c t i o n and f l a t s i d e s , t h i s ty p e o f b o t t l e was packed i n t o wooden boxes with s q u a re s u b d i v i ­ s io n s f o r shipment, and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y c o n t a i n e d g i n . Tumblers One hundred t e n fra gm en ts o f c l e a r g l a s s tumblers were r e c o v e r e d , ap proxim a te ly h a l f rim fragments and h a l f body f ra g m e n ts . These f r a g ­ ments were g e n e r a l l y t o o small t o a llo w f o r measurement o f v e s s e l s i z e , and no bases were r e c o v e r e d . All were s t r a i g h t - s i d e d , w i th a s l i g h t , f i r e - p o l i s h e d t h i c k e n i n g a t t h e rim. One example e x h i b i t e d a r ib b e d c r o s s - s e c t i o n and one o t h e r bore remnants o f an engraved d e s i g n . Pharmaceutical B o t t l e s Five hundred one fragmen ts o f pharmac eu tica l ty p e b o t t l e s were c o l l e c t e d dur in g e x c a v a t i o n . Manufactured o f c l e a r , l i g h t gree n and aqu a - c o lo re d g l a s s , t h e forms o f only t h r e e b a s i c t y p e s were r e c o g n iz e d . The f i r s t o f t h e s e , i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 1 5 j , may n o t p r o p e r l y be c l a s s e d as p h a r m a c e u t i c a l , f o r b o t t l e s o f t h i s wide-mouthed form were o f t e n used t o p r e s e r v e f r u i t , and may have seen o t h e r uses as w e l l . Octagonal in shape and l i g h t green in c o l o r , t h i s b o t t l e e x h i b i t e d t h e 197 Figure 15. Wine B o ttle s , Case B o ttle , Pharmaceutical B ottles 198 199 r in g - s h a p e d p o n t i l mark c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e use o f a blow pipe as a p o n t i l rod (Jones 1 971 :69-7 0) . This specimen was found in S t r u c t u r e Three and was t h e o n ly example o f i t s ty p e . A second ty p e o f pharmaceutical b o t t l e r e p r e s e n t e d by a n e a r l y complete specimen from S t r u c t u r e Two was t h e T u r l i n g t o n b o t t l e , a con­ t a i n e r made f o r t h e a r c h e t y p a l p a t e n t medicine ( F ig u r e 15k). Described as " f i d d l e - s h a p e d , " t h i s c l e a r g l a s s b o t t l e was blown in a tw o-piece mold and bears t h e embossed l a b e l "BY THE KING'S ROYAL PATENT GRANTED TO" on one s i d e , "ROBT TURLINGTON FOR HIS INVENTED BALSAM OF LIFE" on the o th er. Upon one edge was embossed t h e d a t e "JAN 16 1754" and on th e o t h e r "LONDON." Though t h i s type o f b o t t l e was w id ely c o p ie d , t h i s specimen appeared to have t h e r e q u i s i t e a t t r i b u t e s o f th e o r i g i n a l mid­ eighteenth century a r t i c l e . Fragments o f as many a s f i v e s i m i l a r . b o t t l e s were found a s w e l l . A t h i r d t y p e , r e p r e s e n t e d by a t l e a s t f o u r b o t t l e s , was found only in th e e a s t h e a r t h a r e a o f S t r u c t u r e Three. C y l i n d r i c a l b o t t l e s with a long neck and weak s h o u l d e r , t h i s ty pe was a l s o em p o n ti lle d with a blowpipe ( F ig u r e 151). The b o t t l e s o f t h i s t y p e were a l l made o f an a q u a - c o lo r e d g l a s s , and have n o t been enco un tere d in an e x h a u s t iv e l i t e r a t u r e search. Glassware Only f o u r o b j e c t s rec overe d could be p r o p e r l y c l a s s i f i e d in th e Glassware c l a s s . One fragment o f a c l e a r g l a s s f o o t rim o f a stemmed ve s s e l was found in S t r u c t u r e Two. Three fragments o f a p r e ss e d g l a s s ve s s e l o f unknown form were re co ve re d from S t r u c t u r e Three. 200 Tableware The Tableware c l a s s inc luded p a r t s o f two pewter and t h r e e s i l v e r spoons (F ig ure 16a, b ) . One small s i l v e r spoon handle found in S t r u c t u r e One bore t h e engraved i n i t i a l s "TAC", presumably owned by some member o f th e Campbell f a m i l y , though no one with those i n i t i a l s is known t o t h i s a u t h o r ( F ig u r e 16b). One r a t h e r en igmatic o b j e c t was a t h i n s h e e t o f s i l v e r w ith a b r a s s w ire e y e l e t and th e engraved I n i t i a l l e t t e r s o f t h r e e l i n e s o f words; "S & G . . " "CUT..." and " B I R . . . " ( F ig ure 16c). Though t h e o b j e c t was u n f a m i l i a r , i t appeared t o be a s l e e v e o r f e r r u l e from a t a b l e u t e n s i l , and t h e l e t t e r s may well r e f e r t o a c u t l e r y company in Birmingham, England. A s i n g l e p a r t o f an iro n c a n d l e s n u f f e r was a l s o c o l l e c t e d ( F ig u r e 16d). Twenty-five knives o f v a r i o u s types were found, s c a t t e r e d through a l l archaeological co n te x ts. They were a l l c l a s s i f i e d as t a b l e w a r e , though i t was extrem ely l i k e l y t h a t many o f them fu n c tio n e d as t r a d e ite m s. Three c a s e k n i f e t y p e s , one with a p ie r c e d b r a s s h a n d le , be ar a m a k e r 's mark from S h e f f i e l d , England (Birk 19 75:79-91), an "L" surmounted by a c r o s s ( F ig u r e 1 6 e - g ). were t h e most common t y p e s on t h e s i t e . These s t r a i g h t - b a c k e d c a s e knives Two e a r r e d c l a s p k n i f e f r a g ­ ments were p r e s e n t , a ty pe o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d with French c o n t a c t ( F ig u r e 16h). A s i n g l e c l a s p k n i f e was marked with th e stamped name "ROWE" (F ig u r e 1 6 i ) . E ig h t t w o - tin e d f o r k s were c o l l e c t e d from t h e s i t e and d i s p l a y l i t t l e v a r i a b i l i t y in form. The only d i f f e r e n c e s v i s i b l e were in t h e hand le ty pe ( ta n g o r s c a l e ) and whether t h e s h a f t was s t r a i g h t or Figure 16. Tableware Ill ZOZ 203 b u lg in g . A tan g h a n d l e t y p e i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 1 6 j; th e s c a l e ty p e is i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig u re 16k. Two examples r e t a i n e d t h e i r bone han dle s c a l e s ( F ig u r e 161, m). Two f i n a l t a b l e w a r e items were p o r t i o n s o f b r a s s c a n d l e s t i c k s . The f i r s t , u n i l l u s t r a t e d , was an unadorned c i r c u l a r base fragment, re co ve re d in S t r u c t u r e One. The second was a sq uare upper rim (Figu re 16n). Kitchenware The most common a r t i f a c t i n t h i s c l a s s were k e t t l e l u g s , t h e c o nnection between a k e t t l e and i t s b a i l . Two ty pe s were r e p r e s e n t e d among t h e s i x lugs r e c o v e r e d ; an ornamental i r o n ty pe (F ig ure 1 7a), and a very simple f o l d e d s h e e t b r a s s ty p e ( F ig u r e 17b). Three pot hooks ( Fig ure 17c) and a s i n g l e f l a t t e n e d t i n cup ( F ig u r e 17d) were re c o v e re d . The f l a t t e n e d main body o f a t i n t e a k e t t l e was found in S t r u c t u r e Three, n e a r t h e w e s te rn h e a r t h ( F ig u r e 17e) . Ad ditional kitch en war e a r t i f a c t s i n c l u d e a fragment o f a c a s t iro n k e t t l e , two fragmen ts o f t i n p o t l i d s , a p e r f o r a t e d t i n s i e v e , a p o r t i o n o f a b r a s s k e t t l e r im , and a w i r e k e t t l e b a i l . A r c h i t e c t u r e Group Window Glass Window g l a s s was t r e a t e d a s a c h r o n o l o g ic a l i n d i c a t o r In Chapter IV above and, as s uc h, w i l l r e c e i v e only c u r s o r y a t t e n t i o n h e r e . Fourteen thousand s i x hundred and seven fragments were measured, rang in g 1n t h i c k n e s s from .025 inch es t o .255 I n c h e s . By f a r t h e bulk o f th e c o l ­ l e c t i o n measured between .030 and .099 i n c h e s . The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h i c k n e s s c a t e g o r i e s allowed f o r t h e temporal s e p a r a t i o n o f th e s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s on t h e s i t e . F ig u re 17. Kitchenware 205 206 Nails and Spikes These two c a t e g o r i e s , t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y by South, were lumped t o g e t h e r f o r t h i s s t u d y , p a r t l y due t o t h e heavy c o r r o s i o n w itness ed on most examples. Five thousand e i g h t y f o u r examples were c o l l e c t e d . q u a n t i t i e s have been n o te d ; no f u r t h e r measurements were ta k e n . Only All n a i l s c o l l e c t e d from t h e major h i s t o r i c component were o f hand-wrought and e a r l y c u t t y p e s . C o n s t ru c t io n Hardware Included in t h i s c a t e g o r y were t h i r t e e n hinges o f v a r i o u s t y p e s . Most were heavy iro n s t r a p h i n g e s , some w ith d e c o r a t i v e f i n i a l s 18a, d ) . ( F ig u r e There were t h r e e examples o f "T-shaped" hing es ( F ig u r e 18b) and two "H-shaped" hin g es ( F ig u r e 18c) . l i k e l y used on doors o r s h u t t e r s . These twelve hin ges were a l l One small r e c t a n g u l a r hinge ( F ig u r e 18g) was o f a s i z e more a p p r o p r i a t e f o r a c a b i n e t . Five i r o n p i n t l e s were r e c o v e re d . All were "L-shaped" and made t o be d r iv e n i n t o a door jamb t o s u p p o rt a door by t h e l a r g e s t r a p hinges seen above (F ig ure 18e, f ) . Three l a r g e screws f o r a t t a c h i n g hin ges were r e c o v e r e d , as was a s i n g l e i r o n keyhole p l a t e , a l a r g e s t a p l e , and two fragments o f lead window kames f o r h o lding g l a s s panes in p l a c e . F i n a l l y , f o u r doo r c a t c h e s were re c o v e re d . They were made t o be d r i v e n i n t o t h e jamb and c a t c h t h e l a t c h ; an example i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig ure 18h. Door Lock P a r ts P o r tio n s o f t e n s t o c k lo cks were c o l l e c t e d . A complete example from o u t s i d e S t r u c t u r e Three i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n Fig ure 1 8 j . P a r t s o f two 207 Figure 18. Construction Hardware, Door Lock Parts 208 209 l a r g e padlocks were r e c o v e r e d ; a complete example from an e x p l o r a t o r y u n i t nea r t h e c r e e k below S t r u c t u r e Three i s i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 18i. F u r n i t u r e Group This c o l l e c t i o n i s comprised l a r g e l y o f t a c k s , drawer p u l l s and escutcheon f rag m en ts . P o r t i o n s o f t h r e e b r a s s drawer p u l l s and es cu tche on s were r ecovere d ( F ig u r e 19c, d ) . Eighteen dome-headed d e c o r a t i v e b r a s s t a c k s and s i x small i r o n t a c k s were c o l l e c t e d as w e l l . In a d d i t i o n , a s i n g l e c h e s t o r c a b i n e t lock was re co ver ed (F ig ure 1 9 a ) , a s was a small padlock with a hinged door t o co v e r t h e keyhole ( F ig u r e 19b). Arms Group B a l l s and Shot A t o t a l o f 543 l e a d b a l l s and s h o t was r e covere d d u r in g e x c a v a t i o n ; 437 o f t h e s e were c o n s id e r e d whole and m eas ura b le . By f a r t h e m a j o r i t y , 428 specimens, were small b i r d s h o t measuring between .105 and .232 inches in d i a m e t e r . A fre q u en cy d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s i z e s e x h i b i t s a major mode between .125 and .155 in ch es ( F i g u r e 20). The n in e l a r g e r c a s t l e a d b a l l s rang e from .416 t o .634 inches in d ia m e te r and some o f them a r e s l i g h t l y deformed thr ou gh use (Table 41 ). Only t h e l a r g e s t t h r e e o f t h e s e b a l l s a r e o f a s i z e a p p r o p r i a t e f o r m i l i t a r y u s e , t h e remainder more l i k e l y c a s t f o r use in s m a ll - b o r e r i f l e s o r fowling p i e c e s . 210 Figure 19. F urnitu re, G unflints 112 212 Figure 20. Frequency D is trib u tio n , Small Lead Shot 35 Small Lead Shot 30 Relative Frequency (Percent) 25 20 15 10 5 0 I *i i i i i i i i i i i----------1— r* -’ i t — i— .100.110.120.130-140.150.160.170.180.190.200.210.220.230.240.250 Diameter (Inches) 214 T a b le 41. Frequency Lead Ball Diameters Diameter ( in c h e s ) 1 .416 1 .424* 1 .479* 1 .497 1 .556 1 .559 1 .585* 1 .590 .635* * deformed through use G u n f l in t s Seventy-seven g u n f l i n t s and g u n f l i n t fragm en ts were r e covere d in e x c a v a t i o n , 52 o f which were measurable in a t l e a s t one dimension. The g u n f l i n t s were c l a s s i f i e d usin g t h e system d e v ise d by Stone f o r t h e F o r t Michilimackinac c o l l e c t i o n s (1974:247) and expanded by Martin to d e s c r i b e a c o l l e c t i o n from Arkansas Post (Martin 1977:58). The Stone system r eco g n ized t h r e e S e r i e s o f f l i n t s , based on p hys ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t r e f l e c t method o f m anu facture : b l a d e - s p a l l , and s p a l l . blade, These c a t e g o r i e s were u s e f u l in d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g g u n f l i n t s d e r i v e d from e a r l y and middle e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y c o n t e x t s , but d i d not i n c l u d e t h e d i s t i n c t i v e En glish b lad e g u n f l i n t s I n tr o d u c e d l a t e in t h a t c e n t u r y . The p r e s e n t a u t h o r merely added a f o u r t h S e r i e s d e s i g ­ n a t i o n t o accommodate t h o s e En glish f l i n t s (Martin 1977) and t h a t f o u r p a r t system was u t i l i z e d t o d e s c r i b e t h e F i l b e r t c o l l e c t i o n . 215 S e r ie s A French Blade G u n f l in t s These f l i n t s were manufactured using t h e d i s t i n c t i v e honey- colored f l i n t o f t h e Sein e and Cher r i v e r v a l l e y s , and were produced by s t r i k i n g long narrow b la d e s from a c o r e with a poi nt ed i r o n hammer. The blades were broken i n t o segments and trimmed t o t h e i r f i n a l shape by means o f secondary f l a k i n g . Only one m eas ura ble example and one fragment o f t h i s S e r i e s were re c o v e re d . The m eas ura ble example e x h i b i t e d heavy wear, but conforms t o S t o n e ' s Type V, with a b e v e l l e d edge, a f l a t f a c e p a r a l l e l t o t h e bed, no back f l a k e , and a squ ar ed back edge. This specimen measured 15.9 mm in wid th, 16.6 mm in l e n g t h , and 4 . 9 mm in t h i c k n e s s . S e r i e s B Blad e- S pal l G u n f l i n t s ( F ig u r e 19g) These f l i n t s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e pr ese nce o f two d i s t i n c t f l a k e s c a r s on t h e f a c e , o r upper s u r f a c e , one s c a r o r i e n t e d l en g th w is e and one o r i e n t e d a c r o s s t h e back edge. The main, l o n g i t u d i n a l s c a r g e n e r a l l y c a r r i e s t h e bulb o f p e r c u s s i o n l e f t by th e blow t h a t s t r u c k t h e s i n g l e C l a c t o n i a n s t y l e f l a k e t h a t i s th e g u n f l i n t . W itthoft (1970:47) has s uggested t h a t such f l i n t s r e p r e s e n t t h e f i n a l few f l a k e s s t r u c k from a c o r e ex hausted in t h e manufa cture o f English blad e gunflints. One example o f t h i s t y p e was r e c o v e r e d , made o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c dar k En glish Brandon c h e r t . I t showed r e l a t i v e l y heavy wear and use w ith a f i r e s t e e l , and measured 25 mm in w i d t h , 2 7.5 mm in l e n g t h , and 10.5 mm in t h i c k n e s s . 216 S e r i e s C Spall G u n f l i n t s ( F ig u r e 19 f , k) These f l i n t s , l i k e S e r i e s B, were formed from a s i n g l e , wedgeshaped C la c to n ia n s t y l e f l a k e . They g e n e r a l l y e x h i b i t a smooth, s l i g h t l y convex fa ce and a f l a t bed and a r e t h i c k e s t a t t h e back edge, t a p e r i n g t o t h e t h i n f r o n t edge. There a r e no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in form, so s u b d iv i s i o n s o f t h e S e r i e s a r e g e n e r a l l y based on t h e c o l o r o f t h e raw m a t e r i a l . However, no co nvincing c a s e has been made to a t t r i b u t e c u l t u r a l o r c h r o n o l o g ic a l s i g n i f i c a n c e t o t h e c o l o r d i f f e r e n c e s , some o f which a r e ex trem ely s u b t l e and could co nce ivab ly c o - o c c u r w i t h i n a s i n g l e specimen. S iz e c a t e g o r i e s , on t h e o t h e r hand, may be used t o d i f f e r e n t i a t e c a t e g o r i e s o f weapons. T h e r e f o r e , an a t t e m p t was made to r e c o g n iz e s i z e c a t e g o r i e s w i t h i n th e S e r ie s C and D gunflints. Fi gure 21 d i s p l a y s t h e dimensions o f t h o s e f l i n t s measurable in le n g t h and w idth. e ith e r Series. There a r e no r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t s i z e c a t e g o r i e s w ith in The S e r i e s C Spall f l i n t s a r e more v a r i a b l e in both l e n g t h and w id th , as well as being g e n e r a l l y l a r g e r . The S e r ie s D Eng­ l i s h b lad e f l i n t s e x h i b i t a much t i g h t e r , more uniform d i s t r i b u t i o n , and a r e g e n e r a l l y s m a l l e r than t h e s p a l l f l i n t s . Most o f t h e S e r i e s C f l i n t s a r e h e a v i l y worn and many show evidence o f use w it h a s t r i k e - a - l i g h t o r f i r e s t e e l . Twenty-five r e c o g n i z a b l e examples were re co ver ed t h a t could be measured in a t l e a s t one dimen­ sion. The S e r i e s C f l i n t s av er ag e 25.5 mm in w id th , 23.0 mm in l e n g t h , and 7 . 7 mm in t h i c k n e s s . 217 Figure 21. Size D is trib u tio n , G unflints Gunflints Series A — French Blade Series C — Spall Series D — English Blade E E ■o § Length (m m ) 219 S e r i e s D English Blade G u n f l i n t ( F ig u r e 19h, i , j ) This group o f f l i n t s , added t o S t o n e ' s o r i g i n a l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , i n c l u d e s f l i n t s manufactured by a tech n iq u e developed in England and d e s c r i b e d by W i t t h o f t (1 970:4 6). These f l i n t s were made o f dark grey to b lac k f l i n t and e x h i b i t t h e "demi-cones" o f p e r c u s s i o n which r e s u l t e d when t h e i n d i v i d u a l segments o f t h e o r i g i n a l b lad e were s e p a r a t e d . Twenty-four examples were measurable in a t l e a s t one dimension. They average 19.4 mm i n w i d th , 20.3 mm in l e n g t h , and 6 . 4 mm in t h i c k ­ ness. The v a r i a t i o n i n s i z e i s more l i m i t e d than in t h e S e r ie s C f l i n t s ( F ig u r e 21) and i t i s l i k e l y t h a t a l l o f t h e S e r i e s D f l i n t s were i nte nded f o r use in small r i f l e s o r fowling p i e c e s . Gun P a r ts S i x t y - f o u r i d e n t i f i a b l e gun p a r t s and frag ments were re co ve re d in •the 1972-1975 e x c a v a tio n s and r e p r e s e n t a wide range o f t h e f u n c t i o n a l p o r t i o n s o f m uzzle-loading weapons. They have been d e s c r i b e d w i t h i n t h e i r f u n c t i o n a l g r o u p s, with s e l e c t e d examples i l l u s t r a t e d . Locks and Lock P l a t e s ( F ig u r e 22a, b, c) Five gun locks were r e c o v e r e d , some r e p r e s e n t e d o n ly by th e lock p l a t e , one s t i l l l a r g e l y assembled. This most i n t a c t example ( Fig ure 22a) s t i l l c a r r i e s t h e harraner, f r i z z e n and s p r i n g s . I t i s 169 mm long and c a r r i e s t h e engraved mark "GRICE" 1n a curv e on t h e lo ck p l a t e behind th e hammer. Char le s Hanson i l l u s t r a t e s a n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l example which he d e s c r i b e s as a "Montreal t r a d e r ' s gun" (1 970:6 5). His d i s c u s s i o n o f t h i s gun s u g g e s ts t h a t i t was made by William Grice o f Birmingham, pro bab ly between 1770 and 1780, and i s an e a r l y example o f th e Northwest gun, made f o r t h e f u r t r a d e (Hanson 1970:15-16). Fig ure 22. Gun P a r t s 221 222 The lo ck p l a t e I l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 22b i s probably a l s o from a Northwest gun, manufactured by t h e William Wilson Company o f London sometime between 1731 and 1833 (Hanson 1970:17). Wilson was a major s u p p l i e r o f guns f o r t h e Hudson's Bay Company, and t h i s lo ck p l a t e bears th e la b e l "WILSON" below t h e f l a s h pan, and i s 170 mm long. The t h i r d i l l u s t r a t e d lo ck p l a t e (Fig ure 22c) i s c o n s i d e r a b l y s m a l l e r (132 mm long) and was perhaps used on a p i s t o l . I t i s unmarked and l a r g e l y u n d eco r ated . Two a d d i t i o n a l l o c k p l a t e s were r e c overe d. The f i r s t o f t h e s e was e v i d e n t l y a l s o used on a small r i f l e o r fpwling p i e c e , i s 145 mm long and e x h i b i t s no v i s i b l e d e c o r a t i o n . The second example i s somewhat l a r g e r , 166 mm long, and i s more curved than any o f th e o t h e r lock p la te s recovered. There a r e no v i s i b l e m aker's marks o r d e c o r a t i o n s on t h i s specimen. Lock P a r t s Less d i a g n o s t i c p a r t s o f gun lock s re co ver ed i n c lu d e two f r i z z e n s , t h r e e main s p r i n g s , two f r i z z e n s p r i n g s , f i v e t r i g g e r s , f i v e hammers and one s e a r . T r i g g e r Guards ( F ig u r e 22 d , e , f , g) P a r t s o f a t l e a s t f o u r t e e n b r a s s t r i g g e r guards were reco v ere d . Some were h e a v i l y d e c o r a te d w ith engraving (F ig ure 22d e , f ) wh ile some d i s p l a y e d d e c o r a t i v e touch es c a s t as i n t e g r a l p a r t s o f th e f u n c t io n i n g piece. Though few can be s p e c i f i c a l l y i d e n t i f i e d as to maker o r age, v i r t u a l l y a l l examples were types commonly found on t r a d e guns, p a r t i c u ­ l a r l y t h e v a r i e t i e s known as Northwest guns. One example ( F ig u r e 22g) 223 has an engraved snowflake on t h e bow o f t h e g u ard, a desig n seen on e i g h t e e n t h ce n t u r y t r a d e guns made by t h e Wilson Company in London (Hamilton 1968:15,21) Ramrod Guides ( F i g u r e 22h, i ) Four ramrod g uid es o r tu be s were found. These items f u n c tio n e d to s t o r e t h e wooden ramrod in p la c e beneath t h e gun b a r r e l when th e ramrod was n o t in use. Three o f t h e f o u r examples were made o f s h e e t b r a ss with a r ibb ed s u r f a c e , a d i s t i n c t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e Northwest gun (F ig u r e 22h). The f o u r t h example was s m a l l e r , c a s t o f b r a s s , and p e r ­ haps saw use on a p i s t o l ( F ig u r e 2 2 i ) . Sid e P l a t e s (Figur e 2 2 j , k, 1 , m) Attached t o t h e l o c k p l a t e wit h b o l t s running through t h e wooden s t o c k , m e t a l l i c s i d e p l a t e s helped t o anchor and s u p p o r t t h e f i r i n g mechanism, and se rved d e c o r a t i v e purposes a s w e l l . s i d e p l a t e s were rec o v e re d in e x c a v a t i o n s . P a r t s o f ten b r a s s Some o f t h e s e c a s t b r a s s o b j e c t s bore engraved d e s ig n s ( F ig u r e 2 2 j , 1 ) , w h il e o t h e r s were e s s e n t i a l l y unornamented. One i d e n t i f i a b l e s i d e p l a t e from a m i l i t a r y weapon was recovered ( F ig u r e 22k). This fragment o f a s i d e p l a t e has been burned, b u t shows c l e a r l y a convex o u t e r s u r f a c e and d i s t i n c t i v e shape seen on a number o f B r i t i s h m i l i t a r y muskets o f t h e e i g h t e e n t h c e n t u r y (D arling 1970:38, Figure 3 0 ) . One i n t a c t s i d e p l a t e ( F ig u r e 22m) and t h r e e fra gm en tar y examples a r e o f a type known as "dragon" s i d e p l a t e s . These s e r p e n t i n e forms commonly graced t h e s to c k s o f Northwest guns dur in g t h e e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h century. The i l l u s t r a t e d example d i s p l a y s a d e t a i l e d s u r f a c e c a s t in high r e l i e f , and t h e head o f t h e s e r p e n t on th e second example i s a l s o 224 c a s t in r e l i e f . The s e r p e n t ' s t a i l on th e t h i r d example i s , however, engraved r a t h e r than c a s t , an a t t r i b u t e t h a t may i n d i c a t e manufacture b e f o re 1785 (Noel Hume 1969:218). Bu tt P l a t e s (Figu re 22n) P a r t s o f two c a s t b r a s s b u t t p l a t e s were r e c o v e re d . These o b j e c t s a r e p l a i n and unadorned, w ith squared holes l e f t by t h e small n a i l s which e v i d e n t l y a t t a c h e d them t o t h e wood gunstocks ( F ig u r e 22n). Ba rrel Reamer ( F ig u r e 22o) One unusual o b j e c t made o f t u b u l a r b r a s s has been t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as a b a r r e l reamer ( F ig u r e 22o). With a s q u a re hole in th e blocked s m a l l e r end, t h i s o b j e c t t a p e r s t o a maximum d iam eter o f ap pr oxi m ate ly 18 mm. The l a r g e , open end t e r m i n a t e s in a s e r i e s o f an g u la r t e e t h c u t with sharp beveled edges. The a r t i f a c t has t h e look o f i n d i v i d u a l c o n s t r u c t i o n , r a t h e r th an t h a t o f a mass-produced item. The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h i s o b j e c t as a to o l r e l a t e d to f ir e a r m s 1s s p e c u l a t i v e , t o be s u r e , b u t t h e f i n i s h and " f e e l " o f t h e a r t i f a c t a r e c o n s i s t e n t with such a u s e , even though no s i m i l a r examples a r e known to the author. The a r t i f a c t could n o t w i t h s t a n d heavy use w ith hard m a t e r i a l s , such as one might ex p ect in d r i l l i n g o r c u t t i n g e i t h e r wood o r m e t a l. R a th e r , i t seems more s u i t e d t o c l e a n i n g a c y l i n d r i c a l tube clogged with some r e l a t i v e l y s o f t , y e t r e s i s t a n t m a t e r i a l . Ramrod Tips ( F ig u r e 22p) Three t u b u l a r b r a s s ramrod t i p s were r e c o v e r e d , a l l o r i g i n a l l y mounted on wooden s h a f t s . Two specimens c o n t a i n e d fragm en ts o f th e wooden s h a f t s , p r e s e r v e d by th e copper s a l t s t h a t lea ch ed from th e 225 brass. The wood samples were i d e n t i f i e d by s t a f f members a t t h e F o r e s t Products- La bora to ry, Madison, Wisconsin, as beech (Fagus g r a n d i f o l i a ) in t h e f i r s t specimen, and both white pine (Pinus s tr o b u s ) and hard maple (Acer s p . ) in t h e second. All t h r e e t i p s f l a r e from t h e open end t h a t held t h e wooden s h a f t t o a wider c i r c u l a r t i p with a concave s u r f a c e (Figure 22p). All measure 11.16 mm in d i a m e t e r , o r .44 c a l i b e r , and th us were used in r e l a t i v e l y small bore weapons. B a r r e l s and Breech Plugs Four fragmented gun b a r r e l s were r e c o v e r e d , along with t h r e e breech plugs. The bore o f t h r e e o f t h e s e specimens measures roughly 19 mm o r .75 c a l i b e r . The f o u r t h example i s a double b a r r e l e d muzzle l oa di ng p er c u s s i o n weapon 61 mm long . Down t h e m i d l i n e between t h e b a r r e l s i t i s marked "REAL TWIST" and "MICH." with remnants o f a d d i t i o n a l l e t t e r i n g now i l l e g i b l e . This p i e c e o b viously p o s t d a t e s th e major o c c u p a t i o n , and was found a t t h e edge o f t h e c r e e k j u s t below th e dam r u i n s . Thumb P l a t e Escutcheons P a r t s o f t h r e e b r a s s thumb p l a t e escu tch eo ns were c o l l e c t e d , none o f them b earing any d i a g n o s t i c a t t r i b u t e s . Gun Worms Two small corkscrew gun worms were r e c o v e r e d . These o b j e c t s were o r i g i n a l l y used t o e x t r a c t wadding from a weapon a f t e r a m i s f i r e . Powder Measure ( F ig u r e 19e) A s i n g l e carved bone powder measure was re co ver ed from S t r u c t u r e Three. I t was ap proxima te ly 76 mm long and has a c o n ical hollow in th e 226 l a r g e r end. The s m a l l e r end i s a l s o hollowed o u t , with t h r e e r e c t a n g u ­ l a r openings spaced around t h e p e r i p h e r y and a small c i r c u l a r h o le in t h e t i p , presumably f o r s uspens ion. The s u r f a c e o f the a r t i f a c t was d e c o r a te d with a s e r i e s o f engraved l i n e s running around th e circumference. C lo t h in g Group Buckles Excavation y i e l d e d twenty-two buckles o f a v a r i e t y o f shapes and sizes. Two l a r g e i r o n buck les e x h i b i t a marked curve in c r o s s s e c t i o n and have been i d e n t i f i e d as shoe buck les ( F ig u r e 23a) . Another d i s t i n c ­ t i v e c a t e g o r y i s t h e p l a i n "harness " buckle ( F ig u r e 23b, c ) ; simple r e c t a n g u l a r iro n frames w ith a moveable i r o n tongue . o r may n o t have f u n c t i o n e d as elements o f hor se t a c k . These buck les may T h e ir r e l a t i v e frequency o f o c c u r re n c e i n domestic c o n t e x t s a t F i l b e r t have le d to t h e i r i n c l u s i o n in t h e Cloth ing Group, r a t h e r than th e A c t i v i t i e s Group with i d e n t i f i a b l e ha r n e ss and t a c k . Ten examples were r e c overe d. One medium-sized o r n a t e i r o n buckle d i s p l a y e d remnants o f s i l v e r p l a t i n g ( F ig u r e 23d). Another a ppears t o be e i t h e r s o l i d s i l v e r o r a h e a v i l y p l a t e d a l l o y ( F ig u r e 2 3e). This buckle fragment b e a r s an impressed m ak er 's mark "TW" i n a r e c t a n g l e . The mark has n o t been con­ c l u s i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d , though a s i l v e r s m i t h named Thomas Willmore of Birmingham, England used a s i m i l a r mark i n t h e 1780's and 1790's ( B a n i s t e r 1970:93). Three medium-sized r e c t a n g u l a r b r a s s b u c k l e s , presumably f o r b e l t s , a l s o e x h i b i t o r n a t e s u r f a c e d e c o r a t i o n s ( F ig u r e 2 3 f , g, h ) . One simple c a s t b r a s s specimen has a b r a s s c r o s s b a r , u n l i k e th e o t h e r r e c t a n g u l a r 227 Figure 23. Buckles* Thimble cm 229 examples, which had i r o n c r o s s b a r s ( F ig u r e 2 3 i ) . A s i n g l e oval c a s t b r a s s buckle was r e c o v e r e d , wit h remnants o f s i l v e r p l a t i n g ad her ing to i t s s u r f a c e (Figure 2 3 j ) . A s i n g l e small w h i t e b r a s s b u c k le , perhaps a knee buckle o r small s t r a p bu ck le, was r e covere d ( F ig u r e 23k). Two e lo n g a t e d i ro n r e c t a n g u ­ l a r buckles o f unknown use were c o l l e c t e d as well ( F ig u r e 231). Thimbles All but one o f t h e e i g h t t h im b le s r ec over ed were de r iv e d from s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s , f i v e from S t r u c t u r e One. These items were a l l o f one p iece b r a ss c o n s t r u c t i o n w i th c i r c u l a r i n d e n t a t i o n s co ver ing th e main body o f t h e o b j e c t and r e c t a n g u l a r i n d e n t a t i o n s on t h e cap. One example has been p e r f o r a t e d , pr obab ly with a n a i l o r f i l e , f o r su spension (F ig ure 23m). Thimbles a l t e r e d i n t h i s way have been found -in Native American b u r i a l s and were e v i d e n t l y d e s i r a b l e t r a d e goods (Cleland 1972:184-185; M ain f o r t 1979:363). Buttons At l e a s t 41 o f t h e 232 b u t t o n s r eco v ere d were made f o r m i l i t a r y use and have been d i s c u s s e d i n Chapter IV. The remaining 181 b u tto n s were manufactured o f b r a s s , w h ite b r a s s , pew ter , bone, s h e l l , and some combi­ nations of those m a te r ia ls . The b u t t o n s a r e n o t a c c e s s i b l e f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and measurement, b u t a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f th e c o l l e c t i o n was photographed and o f f e r s u f f i c i e n t i n form ati on on t h i s ca t e g o r y o f a r t i f a c t s . The bulk o f t h e n o n - m i l i t a r y b u tt o n s were manufactured o f c a s t b r a s s with a wire eye e i t h e r c a s t in p l a c e o r s o l d e r e d on t h e back. 230 Approximately h a l f o f t h e s e b r a s s b u tto n s were undecorated, with a p l a i n p o li s h e d f a c e ( F ig u r e 24g). Several bore stamped marks on th e r e a r , such as s t a r s , g a r l a n d s , and slo gans l i k e "LONDON IMPERIAL" (Figure 24g) and "STANDARD COLOUR" ( F ig u r e 24h). Almost e q u a l l y common as th e p l a i n b r a s s b u t to n s were t h o s e w ith embossed o r impressed d e s ig n s on t h e fac e (F igure 2 4 a - f ) . There was a s m a l l e r number o f white b r a s s b u t t o n s , uniformly un d e c o r a te d , o f only two t y p e s . The f i r s t had a w ire eye c a s t in p l a c e ( F ig u r e 2 4 i ) , and t h e second had f o u r holes f o r a ttachm en t (F ig ure 2 4 j ) . Three ty p e s o f pewter b u t t o n s were r e p r e s e n t e d . c a s t , eye and a l l , i n one p ie c e ( F ig u r e 24k, 1 ) . The f i r s t was The second was a l s o c a s t but had f o u r h o le s f o r a ttach m en t ( F ig u r e 24m). The l a s t was a simple pewter d i s k w it h a s i n g l e hole i n th e c e n t e r , and was probably covered in f a b r i c when o r i g i n a l l y used ( F ig u r e 24n). Of a form s i m i l a r t o t h i s l a s t pewter b utton were s e v e ra l simple bone d i s k s with a s i n g l e c e n t r a l p e r f o r a t i o n ( F ig u r e 24q). There was a l s o a s i n g l e bone b u t t o n wit h a b r a s s eye i n s e r t e d i n t o th e c e n t r a l hole ( F ig u r e 2 4 t ) , as well as tu r n e d bone b u t to n s w it h f o u r and f i v e ho les ( F ig u r e 2 4 r , s ) . One f o u r - h o l e bone b u t to n had a b r a s s c o vering crimped ov er t h e f a c e ( F ig u r e 24p). The f i n a l two ty p e s were r e p r e s e n t e d by s i n g l e specimens. One was a s h e l l d i s k w it h t u r n e d c o n c e n t r i c r i n g s d e c o r a t i n g t h e f a c e and a b r a s s eye i n s e r t e d th ro u gh t h e c e n t r a l p e r f o r a t i o n (Figure 24u). The f i n a l ty pe was found n e a r t h e n o r t h e r n margin o f th e s i t e and was worn by a worker on t h e Grand Rapids and I n d i a n a p o l i s R a ilr o a d . Made o f two p ie c e s o f b r a s s crimped t o g e t h e r , t h i s b u tto n d a t e s t o th e l a t e r y e a r s o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( F ig u re 24o). Fig ure 24. Buttons 233 Scissors Eig ht p a i r s o f s c i s s o r s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d in th e F i l b e r t c o l l e c t i o n , ranging from 69 mm t o 175 mm in l e n g t h . Most a r e s l i g h t l y ornamented and have oval f i n g e r h o l e s , whil e t h e l a r g e s t example i s devoid of d e c o r a t i o n and has a c i r c u l a r f i n g e r h o l e ( F ig u r e 2 5 a - e ) . All have numerous p a r a l l e l s from e i g h t e e n t h and e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n tu r y contexts. S t r a i g h t Pins All o f t h e t h i r t y s t r a i g h t p in s r e covere d were o f t i n n e d b r a s s with a s pir al-w ou nd head. This a r t i f a c t ty p e was commonly made in th e e i g h t e e n t h and n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y ( T y le c o te 1972). All b u t one example came from w i t h i n th e s t r u c t u r a l r u i n s . Hook and Eye Eig ht fragments o f b r a s s w ir e have been i d e n t i f i e d as p o r t i o n s o f hook and eye f a s t e n e r s . No d i a g n o s t i c a t t r i b u t e s have been no te d. Bale Seal A s i n g l e b a l e s e a l was r eco v ere d from w i t h i n S t r u c t u r e One. This o b j e c t i s a c i r c u l a r l e a d d i s k 23 mm in d i a m e t e r and f i t s S t o n e ' s S e r ie s A, Type 1 c l a s s (Stone 1974:281). I t 1s one h a l f o f a s e a l , c a s t in le a d with a s i n g l e knob o r p o s t , which was o r i g i n a l l y clamped t o a n o t h e r d i s k with a ho le t h a t ac c e p t e d t h e p o s t . The f a c e o f t h e p r e s e n t s p e c i ­ men be ar s t h r e e r oug hly engraved numbers o r l e t t e r s , now u n d e c ip h e r a b le ( F ig u r e 2 5 f ) . This a r t i f a c t l i k e l y s e a l e d a bundle o r package o f goods, such as a b a l e o r b o l t o f c l o t h , and i s commonly found on s i t e s o f th e p eriod in t h i s r e g i o n . 234 Figure 25. Scissors, Bale Seal, S ilv e r Ornaments 236 Beads The bead c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system de vise d by Kenneth and Martha Kidd (1970) has been used t o d e s c r i b e t h i s group o f a r t i f a c t s . The Kidd s y s ­ tem has a number of q u a l i t i e s t h a t make i t u s efu l f o r t h i s purpose, among them t h e use o f t r a n s m i t t e d l i g h t to d e t e c t c o l o r s , i n f i n i t e e x p a n d a b i l i t y , and s t r o n g i n t e r n a l c o n s i s t e n c y . I t has a l s o been w id ely a p p l i e d and thus has g r e a t compar ative v a l u e . The Kidd system c l a s s i f i e s t u b u l a r and w ir e wound beads s e p a r a t e l y , s u b div id in g each group i n t o Clas se s based on manufacturing t e c h n i q u e s , and f u r t h e r s u b d iv id in g on t h e b a s i s o f c o l o r . For d e t a i l s o f bead manufacture o r th e Kidd system o f c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , t h e r e a d e r should con­ s u l t Kidd and Kidd (1970 ). Tube Beads Class I - Simple Tube Beads Bead Number Ia9 - Large, opaque, B r i t e Mint Green, one example Bead Number I a l 9 - Medium, c l e a r , B r i t e Navy, 32 examples Bead Number Ia22 - Small, t r a n s l u c e n t , Dark Rose Brown, 24 examples Bead Number Ic9 - Small, c l e a r , Apple Green, one example ( f l a t t e n e d on two s i d e s ) Bead Number I f 5 - Large, c l e a r , Amethyst, s i x s i d e s , two examples Bead Number I f 6 ( ?) - Large, c l e a r , L ig h t Gray, e i g h t s i d e s , f o r t y f a c e t s , round, one example Class I I - Tube Beads, Reformed by Heating and R o ll in g Bead Number IIa41 - Small, c i r c u l a r , opaque, Ro bin's Egg Blue, 641 examples 237 Bead Number I Ia56 - Sm all, c i r c u l a r , c l e a r , B r i t e Navy, f i v e examples Bead Number IIa61 - Small, c i r c u l a r , c l e a r , Dark Rose Brown, f o u r examples Class I I I - Tube Beads, M u l t i - l a y e r e d Bead Number I I I a l 3 ( ? ) - Small, c l e a r , Light Gray o u t s i d e l a y e r , t r a n s l u c e n t O y s te r White c o r e , ten examples Bead Number I l l f l - La rg e, c l e a r , L ig h t Gray o u t s i d e l a y e r , t r a n s ­ l u c e n t Oyster White c o r e , f a c e t e d , f o u r examples Bead Number I I I f 2 - La rg e, c l e a r , U ltra m a rin e o u t s i d e l a y e r , t r a n s ­ l u c e n t L ig h t Aqua Blue c o r e , f a c e t e d , t h r e e examples Class IV - Tube Beads, M u l t i - l a y e r e d , Reformed by Heating and Rol ling Bead Number IV all - Sm all, c i r c u l a r , c l e a r Lig ht Gray c o r e , opaque Oys ter White m idd le l a y e r , n i n e t y examples Wire-wound Beads Class I - Simple Monochrome Wire-wound Beads Bead Number WIb7 - La rg e, ro und, c l e a r , Amber, f o u r examples Bead Number WIb8 - La rg e, ro und, c l e a r , Maple, one example Bead Number WIbl6 - Large, ro und, c l e a r , B r i t e Navy, f i v e examples Bead Number WIbl7(?) - Large, ro und, c l e a r , Dark Rose Brown, one example Bead Number WIcl - Sm all , o v a l , opaque White, two examples Bead Number WIcl - Large, o v a l , opaque White, two examples Bead Number WIc5 - La rg e, o v a l , c l e a r , Maple, f o u r examples Bead Number W Ic l2(7) - Large, o v a l , opaque, Turquoise , two examples 238 Bead Number WIcl3(?) - Large, o v a l , c l e a r , Dark Rose Brown, one example Bead Number WId4 - Large, donu t, c l e a r , Amethyst, one example Clas s I I - Shaped Monochrome Wire-wound Beads Bead Number WIIc3 - C l e a r , Pale Blue, e i g h t f a c e t s , one example Bead Number WIIcl2 - C l e a r , B r i t e Navy, e i g h t f a c e t s , one example Class I I I - M u l t i - l a y e r e d Wire-wound Beads Bead Number WIIIa3(?) - Large, round, c l e a r , Ruby o u t s i d e l a y e r , opaque White c o r e , one example P er sona l Group Coins ( F ig u r e 26a, b) Four c o in s were r e covere d in t h e 1973-1975 e x c a v a ti o n s a t t h e F ilbert Site. Three o f t h e s e a r e o f Spanish c o l o n i a l o r i g i n and d a t e from t h e major h i s t o r i c occ upat io n o f t h e s i t e , while t h e f o u r t h i s a modern American c o i n , pr obably l o s t by a fisher man. The f i r s t two specimens a r e n e a r l y i d e n t i c a l , though one example i s s l i g h t l y more worn and th us p a r t i a l l y u n r e a d a b le . Both c o in s a r e Spanish c o l o n i a l s i l v e r h a l f r e a l , minted i n Mexico C it y . The most l e g i b l e example was minted in 1790 ( F ig u r e 2 6 a ) ; t h e o t h e r c o i n ' s d a t e is not readable. Both a r e 17 mm in d ia m e te r and bea r a b u s t o f Char le s I I I below t h e legend "CAROLUS.III.DEI.GRATIA.", w ith t h e d a t e below t h e bust. On th e r e v e r s e s i d e a r e t h e p i l l a r s o f Hercules with t h e crowned s h i e l d o f C a s t i l e and Leon, and t h e legend "HISPAN.ET.IND.R.M.F.M.". The t h i r d specimen i s a b i t p ie c e c u t from an e i g h t r e a l co in a l s o minted in Mexico C i t y . The l a s t two d i g i t s , "06", of t h e d a t e a r e 239 Figure 26. Coins, Keys, Personal 240 1 -A VP # ^ ^0 w 241 v i s i b l e ( F ig u r e 26b), as i s a p a r t o f a b u s t o f Charles IV, i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h i s c o in was minted in 1806. The pre se nce of t h e s e Spanish s i l v e r coins i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , con­ s i d e r i n g t h e dominance o f th e Spanish m int system dur in g t h e c o l o n i a l and e a r l y Federal e r a s . The f i n a l co in i s a Mercury type United S t a t e s dime, dat ed 1934. Keys ( F ig u r e 26o, p) E ight keys were rec overe d in e x c a v a t i o n , a l l from w i t h i n o r nea r the s t r u c t u r a l r u i n s . These a r e heavy i r o n keys , l a r g e l y u n d i a g n o s t i c , f o r use in door lo cks o r l a r g e p a d l o c k s , such as th o s e i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig ure 18i and j . Personal ( F ig u r e 2 6 c - n , q) S o u t h 's d e s c r i p t i o n s o f Personal c l a s s a r t i f a c t s in c l u d e s a wide v a r i e t y o f ite m s, from th e p u r e ly d e c o r a t i v e and i n d i v i d u a l to t h e mun­ dane and f u n c t i o n a l . Among t h e items so c l a s s i f i e d from t h e F i l b e r t S i t e a r e a small pewter pendant ( F ig u r e 26c) and one s i d e o f a p a i r o f b r a s s c u f f l i n k s ( F ig u r e 26d). A tw o - p ie c e c a s t b r a s s watch key i s ornamented with r a i s e d des ig ns ( F ig u r e 2 6 e ) . The item i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig ure 26f has been t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d as t h e b o l s t e r f o r a handle on a c a r r y i n g c as e o f some s o r t , and i s formed from a b r a s s d i s k with an i r o n loop p r o j e c t i n g through i t . Six ir o n mouth harps were found, i n c l u d i n g t h e example i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure 26g. This o b j e c t had n o t been f i n i s h e d , as i t has an obvious s u r p l u s o f i r o n rod on one end. The pr ese nce o f a l i k e l y f o r g e and smith a t t h e s i t e , along with numerous r i v e t e d and welded o b j e c t s , lends 242 credence t o t h e s p e c u l a t i o n t h a t t h i s mouth harp may have been manufac­ t u r e d , a l b e i t in c o m p l e t e l y , on t h e s i t e . A p o r t i o n o f a s t r a i g h t r a z o r ( F ig u r e 26h) i s one o f t h r e e reco vered from t h e s i t e . The b r a s s r i n g with p a s t e " jew els" i l l u s t r a t e d ( F ig u r e 2 6 i ) i s one o f two i d e n t i c a l examples found, alon g with f i v e o t h e r r i n g s and frag ments o f s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t d e s ig n . Four i r o n s t r i k e - a - 1 i t e s o r f i r e s t e e l s were r e c o v e re d . Three examples were o f t h e rounded o r oval shape i l l u s t r a t e d by th e fragment in Figure 2 6 j . The f o u r t h and only i n t a c t example was r e c t a n g u l a r ( F ig u r e 26k). P o r t i o n s o f two bone t o o t h b r u s h e s were r e c o v e r e d . The example i l l u s t r a t e d i n F ig u re 261 shows t h e i r r e g u l a r l y spaced d r i l l holes t h a t e v i d e n t l y held b r i s t l e s . A c i r c u l a r c a s t l e a d d i s k with a sq u are c r o s s - s e c t i o n e d h o le r u n ­ ning through from edge t o edge has been i d e n t i f i e d as a c lo ck pendulum ( F ig u r e 26m). Fourteen fra gm en ts o f bone combs, such a s t h e example i l l u s t r a t e d i n Figure 26n, were r e c o v e r e d . Three i r o n i c e c r e e p e r s were found, a l l s i m i l a r in form ( F ig u r e 26q ). These o b j e c t s , des ig ne d t o be s t r a p p e d t o a shoe f o r s t a b l e walking on i c e , were made o f i r o n b a r s t o c k . A d ditional items c a t e g o r i z e d as per so n al In clude d a small b r a s s tu b e o f unknown u s e , f o u r m i r r o r f r a g m e n t s , a shoe heel p l a t e , a g r a p h i t e p e n c i l , a segment o f small b r a s s c h a i n , s e v e r a l p a s t e " j e w e l s , " and t h r e e small b r a s s j e w e l r y f ra g m e n t s . 243 Tobacco Pipe Group A t o t a l o f 813 p i p e fragments were re co ve re d in t h e 1972-1975 exca­ vations a t the F i l b e r t S i t e . All b u t s i x were made o f white b a l l - c l a y . One i n t a c t ( F ig u r e 27c) and one f ra g m e n ta r y pewter pipe were c o l l e c t e d , as was th e h e a v i l y g la z e d b i t end o f a d a r k grey c l a y pipestem (Figur e 27k). Two small fragments o f ca rv ed and p o l i s h e d r e d c a t l i n i t e pipes and a s i n g l e fragment o f a brown Micmac-type pi pe were c o l l e c t e d , as w ell. Of t h e b a l l - c l a y p i p e s , o n l y a small number were a t t r i b u t a b l e to makers o r s p e c i f i c p e r i o d o f m a n u f a c tu re . . One n o t a b l e e x c e p tio n was t h e pipe marked "BANNERMAN" "MONTREAL" ( F ig u r e 27a) on t h e stem and "TD" on th e bowl. This p i p e , found i n an e x p l o r a t o r y p i t a t t h e f a r s o u th ­ e a s t e r n edge o f t h e s i t e , was manuf actured a f t e r 1858 (Walker 1971) and c l e a r l y p o s t d a t e s t h e major o c c u p a tio n o f t h e s i t e . Other marked pipes i n c l u d e f i v e examples wit h a r a i s e d "T" on one side of the s p u r , a r a i s e d "D" on t h e o t h e r , and "TD"w i t h i n a c ar to u ch e on th e bowl f a c i n g t h e smoker ( F i g u r e 27d). Two examples o f t h e same form, b u t with l e t t e r s "WG" were a l s o r e c o v e r e d ( F i g u r e 2 7 e ) . specimen marked "WM" was a l s o c o l l e c t e d . A single None o f t h e s e l a t t e r examples can be a t t r i b u t e d with any c e r t a i n t y t o a maker, b u t a l l t h r e e ty p e s a r e r e g u l a r l y found in l a t e e i g h t e e n t h and e a r l y n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y contexts. A number o f d e c o r a t e d p ip e s a r e incl uded i n most common t h i s c o l l e c t i o n , th e ty p e i l l u s t r a t e d in Fig u re 27b, with stem fragments shown in Figure 27g and h. A minimum o f s i x examples o f t h i s ty pe were r e c o v e r e d , n e a r l y a l l o f them from t h e w es te rn h e a r t h o f S t r u c t u r e Three. F ig u re 27. Tobacco Pipes 245 246 Other d e c o r a t i v e d e s ig n s i n c l u d e a combination o f r i b b i n g and s t a r s (F igur e 27f) and simple f l u t i n g . One stem fragment e x h i b i t s f l o r a l d e c o r a t i o n (F ig ure 27i ) and t h e r e a r e two b i t ends of white b a l l - c l a y . One b i t specimen has an expanded t i p ( F ig u r e 2 7 j ) , while th e o t h e r t i p has been dipped in a c l e a r g l a z e . A c t i v i t i e s Group C o n s tru c tio n Tools Quite a v a r i e t y o f t o o l s were c l a s s i f i e d in t h i s Group. Included were elev en f i l e s , s i x o f them f l a t b a s t a r d f i l e s ( F ig u r e 2 8 a ) , two h a l f round f i l e s (F ig ure 2 8 b ) , and t h r e e t r i a n g u l a r f i l e s . Two gouges were c o l l e c t e d , one o f them l a r g e with a s ocketed handle ( F ig u r e 28c) and one small with a r a t - t a i l e d handle ( F i g u r e 28 d ) , both r ec over ed from S t r u c ­ t u r e Two. 28e) . Two backsaw b l a d e s were exca va ted in S t r u c t u r e Three (Figu re A s i n g l e plan e b i t was r eco v ere d from S t r u c t u r e Two ( F ig u r e 2 8 f ) . Five awls were c o l l e c t e d from S t r u c t u r e s One and Two ( F ig u r e 28g, h ) , and a s i n g l e s c r e w d r i v e r with o n e - a n d - a - q u a r t e r t w i s t was found in S t r u c t u r e Two (F ig ure 2 8 i ) , a s was a segment o f a d r i l l b i t (Figu re 28 j ) . A n a i l p u l l e r made from a f i l e was found in S t r u c t u r e Three (Fig ure 28k), and a n o t h e r was rec over ed in S t r u c t u r e One. Two punches were found in S t r u c t u r e One ( F ig u r e 281, m), as was a f r o e blad e (Figure 28n), and a s t r a i g h t dr aw knife ( F ig u r e 28o). Other c o n s t r u c t i o n t o o l s in c lu d e d e i g h t w h e t s t o n e s , two c h i s e l s , two wedges, a plumb bob ( F ig u r e 2 9 j ) , and t h i r t e e n u n i d e n t i f i e d t o o l s ( Fig ure 2 9 i , k - n ). 247 Figure 28. Construction Tools 249 A group o f t o o l s b e lie v e d to be r e l a t e d to m i ll i n g f u n c tio n s were a l s o c l a s s i f i e d in t h i s Group. Among them were a l a r g e saw s e t w ith so ck eted handle ( F ig u re 2 9 a ) , a s m a lle r saw s e t fragm ent (F ig u re 2 9 c ), and a fragm ent o f a l a r g e saw b lad e (F ig u re 29b). This to o th ed p o r tio n o f a s t r a i g h t b lad e came from a r e c i p r o c a t i n g , up-and-down sawmill o f th e ty p e common in t h e l a t e e ig h t e e n t h and e a r l y n in e te e n th c e n t u r i e s , p r i o r t o th e w idesp read use o f c i r c u l a r saws. The to o l i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 29d was made o f ro d s to c k and was i d e n t i f i e d by an 86 y e a r old m i l l e r as a to o l used t o l a c e t o g e t h e r l e a t h e r b e l t s f o r t r a n s m i t t i n g power from th e main s h a f t s t o a u x i l i a r y machines in th e m i l l . Three t o o l s made from rod s t o c k and reworked s t r a p ir o n were i d e n t i f i e d as t o o l s f o r s c ra p in g o u t t h e v a l l e y s in a m i l l s t o n e when th e y became clogged (F ig u re 29e, f , g ) . The o b j e c t i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 29h was . t e n t a t i v e l y i d e n t i f i e d a s a m ill b i l l , a wedge-shaped hammer used " p e r io d ic a ll y t o d r e s s t h e f a c e o f t h e m i l l s t o n e s . Farm Tools Among t h e farm ing t o o l s r e p r e s e n te d were te n s c y th e b la d e f r a g ­ m ents. S ev eral showed evid ence o f r e p a i r , such as a r i v e t e d b r a s s p atch (F ig u re 3 0 a ), and a tw o - p a r t r i v e t e d iro n p atch (F ig u re 3 0 c ). One f r a g ­ ment bore an im pressed m ak er's mark, as y e t u n i d e n t i f i e d , "HALL", a t th e c o r n e r o f t h e a tta c h m e n t to th e s n a th (F ig u re 3 0 d ). The s i n g l e Iro n hoe reco v ere d a l s o showed ev id en ce o f r i v e t e d r e p a i r (F ig u re 3 0 e ). A s in g le axe head was re c o v e re d from mixed d e p o s i t s and was not i l l u s t r a t e d . 250 Figure 29. M ill-R e late d Tools, U n id en tified Tools 251 252 Figure 30. Farm Tools 253 254 Toys A s in g l e le a d w h izzer was re c o v e re d from S t r u c t u r e One (F igu re 3 1 a ) , as were a s to n e m arb le ( F ig u re 3 1 b ), and a c la y m arble (F ig u re 3 1 c ). Two o th e r c la y m arbles were reco v ere d from th e e a s t bank, o u ts id e th e s t r u c t u r a l r u i n s . A small p o r c e la i n d o l l ' s teacu p o f modern v in ta g e was recov ered from mixed d e p o s i t s on t h e e a s t bank. F ish in g Gear Among th e f i s h i n g Item s re c o v e re d were a c y l i n d r i c a l le a d w e ig h t, probably a n e t w eigh t (F ig u r e 3 1 d ), tw enty hooks o f v a r io u s s i z e (F ig u re 31e, f ) , and t h r e e harpoons (F ig u re 3 1g , h, 1 ) . These l a t t e r item s may have o r i g i n a l l y f u n c tio n e d t o g e t h e r a s a l e i s t e r s p e a r , w ith th e o b j e c t i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 311 a tt a c h e d in th e c e n t e r and th e o t h e r two harpoons f la n k in g i t on e i t h e r s i d e o f a s h a f t . One o f t h e two s i m i l a r harpoons was made on ro d s t o c k , w h ile t h e o t h e r was made on a f i l e . These two were found t o g e t h e r in S t r u c t u r e Two, and th e t h i r d p ie c e was reco vered from S t r u c t u r e One. Stub-Stemmed Pipes T reated s e p a r a t e l y by S o u th , t h e s e p ip e s were grouped t o g e t h e r w ith th e o t h e r tobacco p i p e s . A boriginal Items This c l a s s o f a r t i f a c t s was o r i g i n a l l y dubbed C olono-Indian P o t te r y by South, and was d e v ise d t o re c o g n iz e t h e Im p ortant use o f a b o r i g in a l a n d /o r s lav e -m an u factu red p o t t e r y in t h e s o u th e rn c o a s t a l c o l o n i e s . Since Colono-wares were n o t o f c r i t i c a l I n t e r e s t , o r even p r e s e n t , a t F i l b e r t , t h i s c a te g o r y was m o d ified t o in c lu d e any a b o r ig in a l a r t i f a c t s . 255 Figure 31. Toys, Fishing Gear, Storage 257 A t o t a l o f 103 c h e r t f l a k e s and c o re fragm ents was r e c o v e re d , made l a r g e l y on E a s tp o r t banded c h e r t . Eleven a b o r ig in a l p o t t e r y sh erd s were found, seven e x h i b i t i n g cord -m arking . Three o f th e s e sh erd s bore d e c o r a tio n , such as d ra g -a n d ja b im p re s sio n s , and o b liq u e tw is te d - c o r d marks t h a t a r e d i a g n o s t i c o f Late Woodland c u l t u r a l a f f i l i a t i o n s in t h i s r e g io n , d a tin g p o s t A.D. 1300 (Holman 1977). That such m a t e r i a l s should be p r e s e n t on t h i s s i t e i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g , s in c e th e L ate Woodland Juntunen s i t e was l o c a t e d b u t a few m iles away on Bois Blanc I s l a n d , and a b o r ig in a l h a b i t a t i o n o f t h e c o a s t a l a r e a s o f t h e S t r a i t s i s w e l l documented. A f i n a l a b o r i g in a l item was a mat n e e d le , made o f bone, p o in te d a t each end, w ith a p e r f o r a t i o n in t h e c e n t e r (F ig u re 3 4 j ) . S to rag e Items Something o f a c a t c h a l l c a t e g o r y , t h i s c l a s s o f a r t i f a c t s in clu d ed ov er one hundred fragm en ts o f b a r r e l hoops, many w ith r i v e t s i n t a c t (F ig u re 3 1 j ) . These item s were extrem ely d i f f i c u l t to q u a n t i f y because o f t h e i r s t a t e o f c o r r o s i o n , and were found in v i r t u a l l y a l l arc h a e o ­ lo g ic a l co n tex ts. A fragm ent o f a b r a s s s p i g o t lo c k (F ig u re 3 1 k ), th e t u b u l a r p o r tio n o f a s p ig o t (F ig u re 311) were found in S t r u c t u r e One. key (F ig u re 31m) was reco v ere d in S t r u c t u r e Two. A b r a s s s p ig o t 258 B otanical The only b o ta n ic a l specimens c o l l e c t e d were wood samples from s t r u c t u r a l c o n t e x t s , and a fragm ent o f a ramrod. These samples were i d e n t i f i e d by t h e United S t a t e s F o r e s t S e rv ic e F o r e s t P roducts Labora­ t o r y in Madison, W isconsin, and were d is c u s s e d in th e a p p r o p r ia te p o r tio n s o f th e t e x t . By and l a r g e , t h e s t r u c t u r a l rem ains were o f w h ite p in e , c e d a r , s p r u c e , and hemlock, w h ile t h e ramrod fragm ents were o f beech and hard m aple. S ta b le and Barn, o r Horse Tack L ab elled both ways by S o u th, t h i s c l a s s o f o b j e c t s o v e r la p s some­ what w ith th e farm t o o l s , b u t has been t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y h e re . Five h o rse shoes o f v ary in g s i z e s and co nform ation were recovered ( F ig u re 3 2 a - c ) . A sprung s i n g l e t r e e eye marked "TH BAKER" was reco vered by c o l l e c t o r s w ith a metal d e t e c t o r (F ig u re 3 2 d ), as were most o f th e h o rse s h o e s, and no prov en ience was re c o rd e d . Two ir o n currycombs were a l s o recov ered from t h e e a s t bank a r e a (F ig u re 3 2 e ). M iscellaneous Hardware This a r t i f a c t c l a s s in clu d ed s i x sc re w s, s i x ir o n r i n g s , f i v e ch ain l i n k s , s i x b o l t s ( F ig u re 3 3 g ), t h r e e n u t s , f o u r w as h e rs , f i f t e e n f r a g ­ ments o f b r a s s and ir o n w i r e , f o u r u n i d e n t i f i a b l e c a s t Iro n fra g m e n ts , two s p r i n g s , two p ie c e s o f iro n rod s t o c k , two frag m en ts o f s l a t e , one ir o n g e a r , and te n u n i d e n t i f i e d iro n o b j e c t s (F ig u re 33a, d - f ) . Other D escribed by South as a c a te g o ry r e f l e c t i n g s p e c i a l i z e d a c t i v i t i e s , t h i s c l a s s o f o b j e c t s was th e most d i f f i c u l t t o q u a n t i f y . For example, 259 Figure 32. Stable, Barn 260 261 Figure 33. Miscellaneous Hardware 262 .-f •?' „?Y- V 17 263 s la g and c l i n k e r s were In c lu d e d , a s a r t i f a c t u a l evidence o f s m ith in g , b ut were noted on a p r e s e n c e /a b s e n c e b a s is r a t h e r than being counted. F urtherm ore, i t was n o t co n s id e re d d e s i r a b l e to q u a n t i f y such items as s c ra p b r a s s and le a d s p l a t t e r s , b u t r a t h e r n o te p re se n c e /a b s e n c e . A m ajor component o f t h i s c l a s s o f a r t i f a c t s was Items made f o r th e fu r tra d e . Included were e i g h t b r a s s t i n k l i n g cones (F ig u re 3 4b ), a s i n g l e b r a s s b e l l ( F ig u re 3 4 c ), and t h r e e Iro n arro w p o in ts (F ig u re 34d, e). In a d d i t i o n , e ig h te e n s i l v e r o b j e c t s r e l a t e d to th e f u r t r a d e were c o l l e c t e d , and were i l l u s t r a t e d w ith th e C lo th in g Group a r t i f a c t s (F ig u re 2 5 ). Among t h e s e s i l v e r t r a d e item s was a small d o u b le -b a rre d c r o s s , hinged in t h e c e n t e r w ith a p ie c e o f w ir e , which may r e p r e s e n t a r e p a i r (F ig u re 25g). P a r t o f a d e c o ra te d brooch marked "NR" (F ig u re 25h) was made by N a rc is s e Roy in Montreal in th e e a r l y y e a r s o f th e • n in e tee n th c e n tu r y (Quimby 1966:99, 198). Two small s i l v e r t r i a n g l e s were e v i d e n t l y c u t from a brooch, hinged t o g e t h e r w ith s t r i p s o f s i l v e r and were o r i g i n a l l y a t ta c h e d a t to p and bottom (F ig u re 2 5 i ) . Several small c i r c u l a r rib b o n brooches were reco v ere d (F ig u re 2 5 j , k ) , as were t h r e e ty p es o f e a r r i n g s (F ig u re 2 5 1 -n ). A s i n g l e f is h - s h a p e d p en d an t, c u t from an armband, was p e r f o r a t e d f o r su sp en sio n (F ig u re 25o). Four fragm ents o f carved and p o lis h e d c a t l i n i t e pro bab ly a l s o were r e l a t e d to f u r t r a d i n g a c t i v i t i e s , as were t h e two t r a p p a r t s i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 33b and c . 264 F ig u re 34. O th e r, M i l i t a r y O bjects 265 T1' 3?|& ' f ,v u >til iii 266 O b jects r e f l e c t i n g th e sm ith in g a c t i v i t i e s t h a t took p la c e on t h i s s i t e in c lu d e d s la g and c l i n k e r s , iro n r i v e t s (F ig u re 3 3 h ), b r a s s r i v e t s (F ig u re 3 3 i ) , and a q u a n t i t y o f b r a s s s c ra p and a r t i f a c t s (F ig u re 33 j-1 ). A s i n g l e r e c t a n g u l a r s t i c k o f c h a lk , commonly used by metal w o rk ers, was found i n S t r u c t u r e Two. A s i n g l e fragm ent o f s l a t e w ith c o n c e n tr i c c i r c l e s s c r i b e d i n to i t s s u r f a c e served some unknown f u n c tio n (F ig u r e 33m). A tw o -p ie c e iro n a r t i f a c t was e v i d e n t l y a mold f o r c a s t i n g a s q u a re o b j e c t o f some s o r t (F ig u re 33n, o ) . The g en eral shape o f th e molded p ie c e t h a t would come from t h i s mold was r a t h e r l i k e t h a t o f a b r a s s buckle found on th e s i t e and i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig ure 2 3 i , though th e s i z e was s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t . Q u a n t i t i e s o f s c r a p and s p l a t t e r e d le a d were fo u nd , probably r e s u l t i n g from s h o t m an u factu re. One fragm ent o f b a r l e a d , i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 33p, was a l s o found. Four a d d i t i o n a l item s o f unknown f u n c tio n were in c lu d e d in t h i s c la ss. A b i - l o b e d , p e r f o r a t e d le a d o b j e c t i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 34a. A b r a s s d i s k w ith a r e c t a n g u l a r c e n t r a l p e r f o r a t i o n and two s e t s o f stamped l e t t e r s re a d in g "TT" i s i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 3 4 f . A small b r a s s o b j e c t t h a t c an n o t be i d e n t i f i e d i s I l l u s t r a t e d 1n F igu re 34g. A p o in te d iro n o b j e c t w ith a heavy d e p o s it o f s la g m a t e r i a l , found in mixed d e p o s it s n e a r t h e dam r u i n s , i s d e p ic te d in F ig u re 34k. M ilita ry A r tifa c ts A b r a s s h a t p l a t e was reco vered on t h e e a s t bank n e a r S t r u c t u r e One by th e lo c a l c o l l e c t o r s who d isc o v e re d th e s i t e . Bearing an o r n a te embossed d e s ig n and a number o f ro yal symbols and s lo g a n s , t h i s h a t p l a t e o r i g i n a l l y adorned th e headgear o f a B r i t i s h s o l d i e r o f th e p erio d 267 1800-1814 (F ig u re 3 4 1 ). M i l i t a r y h i s t o r i a n B rian Dunnigan has su gg ested t h a t i t belonged to a s o l d i e r o f th e 10th Royal Veteran B a t t a l i o n , one o f th e u n i t s t h a t c a p tu r e d F o rt Mackinac in 1812 (Dunnigan 1975:10). A g ild e d pew ter e a g le was reco v ere d from th e c e l l a r f i l l o f S tr u c ­ t u r e One (F ig u re 3 4 h ). This o b j e c t was o r i g i n a l l y mounted in t h e c e n t e r o f a l e a t h e r r o s e t t e cockade on t h e h a t o f a U.S. Army r e g u l a r o r m i l i t i a s o l d i e r d u rin g t h e p e rio d 1800-1821 (Campbell and Howell 1963: 10 ). Found n e a rb y , w ith fragm ents o f l e a t h e r ad h erin g t o t h e i r s u r f a c e , were f o u r le n g th s o f t i g h t l y c o i l e d b r a s s s p rin g (F ig u re 341). These appear to have been p a r t o f a c h in s t r a p f o r a h a t , p rob ab ly t h e h a t t h a t bore t h e cockade e a g l e . The most numerous m i l i t a r y a r t i f a c t s were uniform b u t t o n s . D iscus­ sed a t le n g th as c h ro n o lo g ic a l i n d i c a t o r s 1n Chapter IV, examples o f a l l th e recog nized ty p e s a r e i l l u s t r a t e d in F ig u re 35. 268 F ig u re 35. M i l i t a r y Buttons 269 APPENDIX B DATA FILE APPENDIX B DATA FILE Key Column 1 S i te /C o n te x t Column 2 S t r u c t u r a l C ontext (0 = Whole S i t e , 1 = S t r u c t u r a l Ruin 2 = O ther) Column 3 Kitchen Group Column 4 A r c h i t e c tu r e Group Column 5 F u r n itu r e Group Column 6 Arms Group Column 7 C lothing Group -Column 8 Personal Group Column 9 Tobacco P ipe Group Column 10 A c t i v i t i e s Group Column 11 Total A r t i f a c t s ( l e s s bone) Column 12 D uration o f Occupation Column 13 D istan c e from Supply C enter (0 = At o r n e a r , 1 = Medium 2 = Iso lated ) 270 271 #1 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e II 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I I I 20CN8 E a st Bank 20CN8 West Bank 20CN8 Whole S i t e Rocky Mountain House F o r t George Buckingham House Edmonton House Sturgeon F o r t F ra n c o is LeBlanc P o st Brunswick 25 Whole Brunswick 25 F ro nt Brunswick 25 Rear Brunswick 25 In s id e Brunswick 10 Whole Brunswick 7 Whole Brunswick 7 Rear Brunswick 7 F ro nt Brunswick 7 Midden F o r t M o u ltrie A F o r t M o u ltrie B Cambridge 96 F o r t P rin c e George F o r t L ig o n ie r S p a ld in g 's S to re B r i g h t 's P o s t/ Montgomery's Tavern Grand P ortage Signal H ill Delaware S t a t e House A Delaware S t a t e House B Delaware S t a t e House C Camden T o f t 8 Yaughan A Curiboo Yaughan B S p ie rs Landing F o r t Watson #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 1 1 1 2 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 2 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 6,690 952 2,752 915 433 11,739 56 840 163 205 18 15 22,710 686 8,427 1,537 6,795 3,702 1,582 784 387 4,802 1,349 12,916 4,262 5,566 5,956 29,612 10,358 3,019 4,331 1,165 378 19,251 146 873 326 123 143 50 9,620 332 3,423 1,206 4 ,116 3,953 2,300 252 513 ' 1,510 344 5,006 4,252 12,112 7,222 5,766 15 2 8 2 1 28 1 6 0 3 2 1 83 4 35 10 82 18 6 3 3 6 2 35 6 44 51 9 443 90 100 43 2 684 235 832 77 197 143 33 1,262 2 43 804 45 12 4 4 0 39 20 27 471 1,820 227 201 0 0 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 4,299 14,188 1,142 519 380 966 18,813 4,428 4,476 2,275 627 3,045 6,413 982 440 335 824 2,641 749 1,567 631 595 0 0 0 1 3 0 12 4 5 2 19 44 57 0 3 4 1 5 15 11 6 128 272 #7 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e II 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I I I 20CN8 E ast Bank 20CN8 West Bank 20CN8 Whole S i t e Rocky Mountain House F o rt George Buckingham House Edmonton House Sturgeon F o rt F ran co is LeBIanc P o st Brunswick 25 Whole Brunswick 25 F ron t Brunswick 25 Rear Brunswick 25 I n s id e Brunswick 10 Whole Brunswick 7 Whole Brunswick 7 Rear Brunswick 7 F ro n t Brunswick 7 Midden F o r t M o u ltrie A F o r t M o u ltrie B Cambridge 96 F o r t P rin c e George F o r t L ig o n ie r S p a ld in g 's S to re B r i g h t 's P o s t/ Montgomery's Tavern Grand P o rtag e S ignal H ill Delaware S t a t e House A Delaware S t a t e House B Delaware S t a t e House C Camden T o f t 8 Yaughan A Curiboo Yaughan B S p ie rs Landing F o rt Watson #10 #8 #9 277 745 114 19 6 1,160 11,102 21,018 612 739 2,352 1,126 5,574 11 96 3,312 72 24 8 3 4 136 69 1,069 70 833 51 121 45 3 15 8 7 78 12 217 11 170 1,518 35 71 0 1 12 20 4 1 0 1 ' 4 4 108 9 99 10 14 287 244 192 69 21 813 200 759 184 252 12 72 2,830 53 1,212 260 1,820 374 119 130 25 167 50 379 851 411 2,344 76 187 97 47 100 63 469 177 1,404 83 102 75 67 347 22 201 91 159 96 27 5 11 299 284 340 50 893 909 29 2,445 652 32 34 36 0 66 20 32 24 23 15 36 4 0 0 0 8 1 5 2 2 973 2,762 40 24 28 16 751 300 182 74 18 45 720 23 6 6 41 52 17 32 26 20 18,302 6,158 7,559 2,321 911 34,222 11,929 25,949 1,456 1,791 4,263 1,399 42,497 1,110 13,438 7,232 13,118 8,183 4,047 1,181 944 6,963 2,122 19,880 9,971 21,778 16,770 35,828 34 34 26 65 65 65 22 8 8 3 4 9 44 44 44 44 52 42 42 42 42 19 2 37 16 8 20 35 10,866 24,828 2,223 1,027 792 1,848 22,348 5,534 6,310 3,040 1,432 - 35 60 19 1 46 61 50 55 40 40 .33 t— * #12 OOOON 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e II 20CN8 S t r u c t u r e I I I 20CN8 E ast Bank 20CN8 West Bank 20CN8 Whole S i t e Rocky Mountain House F o r t George Buckingham House Edmonton House Sturgeon F o rt F ran co is LeBlanc P o st Brunswick 25 Whole Brunswick 25 Front Brunswick 25 Rear Brunswick 25 In s id e Brunswick 10 Whole Brunswick 7 Whole Brunswick 7 Rear Brunswick 7 Front Brunswick 7 Midden F o r t M o u ltrie A F o r t M o u ltrie B Cambridge 96 F o r t P rin c e George F o rt L ig o n ie r S p a ld in g 's S to re B r i g h t 's P o s t/ Montgomery's Tavern Grand P ortag e Signal H ill Delaware S t a t e House A Delaware S t a t e House B Delaware S t a t e House C Camden T o ft 8 Yaughan A Curiboo Yaughan B S p ie rs Landing F o r t Watson #11 HHOOOOOOOOOOOIMrOrONNNNWMNNM 273 APPENDIX C FAUNAL DATA APPENDIX C FAUNAL DATA These d a ta were an aly zed by Henry M. M il l e r w hile he was a g ra d u a te s tu d e n t in Anthropology a t Michigan S t a t e U n iv e r s ity and th e r e s u l t s were p re se n te d in a p a p e r a t th e 10th Annual Meeting o f th e S o c ie ty f o r H i s t o r i c a l Archaeology (1 9 7 7). E x cerp ts from t h a t paper a r e p re se n te d h e re . M ille r was a b le t o i d e n t i f y 1,095 o f t h e 8,020 bones re c o v e re d , o r 13.6% o f th e c o l l e c t i o n . S i x t y genera o r s p e c ie s were p r e s e n te d . Table 42 l i s t s th e s p e c i e s , number o f elem ents i d e n t i f i e d , p erc e n ta g e o f th e c l a s s , th e minimum number o f i n d i v i d u a l s r e p r e s e n te d f o r th e t o t a l s i t e and th e e a s t and w est c r e e k bank c o n te x t s . Both lo c a l w ild s p e c ie s and d o m e stic a te s were p r e s e n t , r e p r e s e n t i n g f i s h i n g , h u n tin g , t r a p p in g , and -husbandry s u b s i s t e n c e p r a c t i c e s . M ille r f u r t h e r c a l c u l a t e d th e a v a i l a b l e meat w eigh ts based on m in i­ mum number e s tim a te s (T able 4 3 ) . Mammals provided t h e bulk o f th e meat d i e t , w hile a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r tio n was d e riv e d from f i s h . Domestic mammals, p a r t i c u l a r l y c a t t l e and sw ine, c o n tr ib u te d more than 60% o f th e a v a i l a b l e m eat, w h ile w ild mammals o f f e r e d o v er 23% and f i s h provided over 13%. Chickens, w ild fowl and t u r t l e s combined make up th e rem aining 3%. M ille r p o in ted up d i f f e r e n c e s in th e assem blages d e riv e d from th e two s id e s o f M ill Creek and su gg ested t h a t th e y r e f l e c t e d change over tim e , s in c e th e west bank a r e a tended t o be occupied l a t e r , a n d /o r s t a t u s d i f f e r e n c e s , s in c e th e e a r l y o ccupants were o w n e r/o p e ra to rs and th e l a t e r occupants were t e n a n t s . 274 Both assem blages c o n ta in e d over 60% Table 42. Species I d e n t i f i e d a t th e F i l b e r t S i t e (Source: M ille r 1977) Species________________ WESTERN AREA EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL Min. N of % of N of Bones_____ Class_____ Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. Mammal 113 22.3 4 109 31.4 3 4 2 .5 1 Sus s c ro fa 100 19.8 8 77 22.1 6 23 14.5 2 10 1.9 1 10 2.8 1 Canis f a m i l i a r i s (Dog) 4 .7 1 4 1.1 1 F e lis domestica 3 .5 1 3 .8 1 18 3 .5 3 16 4 .6 2 2 1. 2 1 Ursus amerlcanus (Black Bear) 9 1.7 2 9 2.5 2 C astor canadensis (BeaverJ 11 2 .1 3 11 3.1 3 TPTg]------Oyis a r i e s (Sheep) T c i n t y ----------------- Odocoileus v irg in ia n u s ( W h ite -ta ile d Deer) 275 Bos ta u ru s (Cow") Table 42. Continued N of Species________________________ Bones WESTERN AREA EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL Min. % of N of Class______ Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. Manvnal Lynx ru fu s (Bobcat) 2 .3 1 2 .5 Procyon l o t o r (Racoon) 5 .9 2 4 1.1 Vulpes fu lv a (Red Fox] 11 2.1 3 9 2.5 4 .7 Martes americana (Marten") 22 4 .3 4 17 4 .8 Lepus americanus (Snowshoe Hare) 145 28.7 22 52 14.9 12 2.3 2 5 1.4 4.4 7 1.3 3 3 .8 2.5 Martes pennanti (F is h e r) Ondatra z ib e th ic u s (Muskrat") Mustela v is io n (Mink) r\3 1.2 .7 1 3.1 93 58.8 14 Table 42. Continued SITE TOTAL EASTERN AREA Min. N of % of N of Species________________________ Bones____ Class______ Ind. N of Bones % of Class WESTERN AREA Min. N of Ind. N of Bones 1 2 1.2 1 % of Class Min. N of Ind. Mammal Marmota monax (Woodchuctc] 3 .5 2 B larin a brevicauda (S h o rt-T a il Shrew) 4 .7 2 4 2.5 2 C i t e l l us t r i d e c (Ground S q u ir r e l) 2 .3 1 2 1.2 1 M icrotus pennsvlvanius (Meadow Vole) 1 .1 1 1 .2 1 Synaptomys cooperi (Bog Lemming) 1 .1 1 ‘ 1 .2 1 18 3 .5 3 13 3.7 2 5 3.1 1 Gall us g a l l u s (Chicken) 35 16.5 6 30 19.7 4 5 8 .4 2 Anas acu ta ( P i n t a i l Duck) 4 1.8 1 4 2.6 1 Tamias s t r i a t u s (ChipmunF) 1 .2 Bird Table 42. Continued N of Species________________________ Bones WESTERN AREA EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL Min. % of N of Class______ Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. Bird 2 .9 1 1.3 1 Anas p la try h in e s * (M allard) 7 3.3 2 4 .6 2 35 16.5 3 14.4 Anserformes (Duck) 3 1.4 Aythya americana (Redhead Duck) 3 1.4 2 1.9 2 Aythya a f f i n i s (Ringnecked Duck) 1 .4 1 .6 1 Aix sponsa TWood Duck) 1 .4 1 .6 1 Lophodytos c u c u lla tu s (Hooded Merganser) 1 .4 1 .6 1 Anas sp. (Duck) ♦ p o s sib ly Black Duck 278 Anas d is c o r e s (Blue-Winged Teal) 13 22.0 3 5.0 Table 42. Continued EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL N of Species________________________ Bones Min. % of N of Class______ Ind. N of Bones WESTERN AREA % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. Bird Mergus merganser (Common Merganser) 1 .4 1 .6 1 Mareca americana (Widgeon) 2 .9 1 1.3 1 Branta canadensis (Canadian Goose) 1 .4 1 .6 Bonasa umbel1us (Ruffed Grouse) 22 10.4 5 10.5 2 6 10.1 E c to p is te s m ig ra to riu s (Passenger Pigeon) 67 31.7 10 30.2 5 21 35.5 Gavla immer (Loon) 2 .9 2 .6 1 1 1.6 A c c ip ite r g e n t i l i s (Goshawk) 1 .4 1 .6 1 H a lia e e tu s leucocephalus (Bald Eagle) 3 1.4 1 1.9 1 ro ic 1 Table 42. Continued EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL N of Species________________________ Bones Min. % of N of Class______ Ind. N of Bones WESTERN AREA % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones 1.9 1 2 % of Class Min. N of Ind. Bird 5 2.3 2 Buteo sp. (Hawk) 1 .4 1 Bubo v irg in ia n u s (G reat Horned Owl) 1 1.4 1 Botarus le n tig in o s u s (American B i t t e r n ) 1 .4 1 .6 1 Podilymbus podiceps (P ie d - B ille d Grebe) 2 .9 2 .6 1 Megaceerle alcyon (B elted K in g fish er) 1 .4 1 Corvus corvus (Raven) 5 2.3 2 1.9 1 Hydropogne c a s p ia (Caspian Tern) 1 .4 1 .6 1 3.3 1 1 1. 6 1 1 1. 6 1 1. 6 1 1 1. 6 1 2 3.3 1 280 Buteo jamanicus (Red-Tailed Hawk) 1 Table 42. Continued Species_____________________ N of Bones WESTERN AREA EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL Min. % of N of Class______ Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. Bird Colaptes a u ra tu s (Yellow Shafted F lic k e r) 2 .9 2 1.6 R a llid a e sp. (RaTTT 1 .4 1 1. 6 ro oo Fish Coregonus sp. (W hitefish) 115 33.1 25 27.9 15 47 45.1 10 S tiz o s te d io n vitreum (Walleye) 125 36.0 14 38.6 9 31 29.8 5 Acipenser fu lv e sc e n s (Sturgeon) 63 18.1 3 23.4 2 6 5.7 1 S a lv e lin u s namaycush (Lake Trout) 13 3.7 4 4.1 3 3 2.8 1 Catostomus sp. (Sucker) 16 4 .6 6 2.8 4 9 8 .9 2 Tabie 42. Continued EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL Species N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class WESTERN AREA Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. Fish 3 .8 2 2 .8 1 1 .9 1 M icropterus dolomieui (Smallmouth Bass) 5 1.4 2 2 .8 1 3 2.8 1 M icropterus salmoides (Largemouth Bass) 7 2.0 2 3 1.2 1 4 3.8 1 Emys blan din gi (Brandings t u r t l e ) 15 48.3 2 12 52.1 1 3 37.5 1 Chrysemys p ie t a (P ain ted T u r tle ) 14 45.1 3 11 47.8 2 3 37.5 1 1 3 .2 1 1 12.5 1 282 Moxostoma sp. (Redhorse Sucker) R e p tile Graptemys sp. (Map T u r tle ) Table 42. Continued Species WESTERN AREA EASTERN AREA SITE TOTAL M1n. N of % of N of ____________________ Bones____ Class______ Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. N of Bones % of Class Min. N of Ind. Amphibian Rana sp. (fro g ) 1 100.0 1 1 100.0 ro Mollusc C ra s so s tre a v i r g i n i c a (O yster) Total number I d e n t i f i e d bones 1 oo oo 1 1,095 100.0 1 100.0 ____ 765 330 Table 43. T otal Meat Provided by Animal Groups by Area (S ource: M ille r 1977) Total S i t e E astern Area Western Area Meat (lb s .) % of Total Meat (lb s .) % of T otal Meat (lb s .) Domestic Mammals 2355.00 60.91 1755.00 60.59 600.00 61.85 Domestic B irds 13.44 .34 8 .9 6 .30 4.48 .46 Total Domestic 2368.44 61.25 1763.96 60.89 604.48 62.31 Wild Mammals 897.1 23.20 747.3 25.81 149.80 15.44 % of Total Wild B irds 79.00 2 .0 4 53.35 1.84 25.65 2 .6 4 Fish 519.00 13.42 330.30 11.40 188.70 19.45 2 .7 0 .07 1.30 .04 1.40 .14 Total Wild 1497.80 38.73 1132.25 3 9.09 365.55 37.67 Total Meat 3866.24 99.98 2896.21 99.98 970.03 99.98 T u rtle 285 dom estic an im als, b u t d i f f e r e n c e s appeared in th e p ro p o rtio n s o f wild mammals and f i s h . F ish seemed to become i n c r e a s in g l y im p ortant over tim e, as th e w est bank assem blage c o n ta in e d a g r e a t e r p ro p o rtio n o f f i s h remains (Table 43). T his o b s e rv a tio n had p a r t i c u l a r s ig n i f i c a n c e to M i l l e r , s in c e th e r e l i a n c e on f i s h was even g r e a t e r than e i t h e r th e French o r B r i t i s h components a t F o rt M ich ilim ack in ac, analyzed by C leland (1970). M i l l e r 's a n a l y s i s sug gested t h a t a g r e a t e r d i v e r s i t y o f s u b s is t e n c e a c t i v i t i e s was p r a c t i c e d by th e c i v i l i a n in h a b i t a n t s a t F i l b e r t , and t h a t perhaps t h e M ichilim ackinac d a ta r e p re s e n te d a more s p e c i a l iz e d s e t o f a c t i v i t i e s , p r a c t i c e d by a l i m i t e d segment o f th e p o p u la tio n . Of a d d itio n a l i n t e r e s t were M i l l e r 's o b s e rv a tio n s re g a rd in g th e v a r i a t i o n in presen ce and absence o f s e le c t e d body p a r t s among c e r t a i n sp ecies. Swine were r e p r e s e n te d by v i r t u a l l y a l l e le m e n ts, w h ile th e c a t t l e bones p r e s e n t were g e n e r a l l y from low q u a l i t y c u ts such as s k u ll and c e r v ic a l v e r t e b r a e , m etap o d ials and hoof elem en ts. Though M il l e r was unaware o f t h e documentary evid en ce a t t h e tim e , t h i s s i t u a t i o n was p e r f e c t l y c o n s i s t e n t w ith Dousman's s e r i e s o f annual c o n t r a c t s t o p ro ­ v id e f r e s h b e e f f o r t h e g a r r i s o n a t F o r t Mackinac, and M il l e r c o r r e c t l y hypothesized t h a t b e e f was being s o ld . REFERENCES CITED 286 REFERENCES CITED B a n i s t e r , J u d ith ( e d i t o r ) 1970 English s i l v e r h a ll m arks. Iowa. 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L ib e r B:147. 1819 W arranty d eed, from John Campbell, h i s w ife E l i z a b e th , P i e r r e Pyant and Mary, h i s w if e , and James S te v e n s , le g a l r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s o f Robert Campbell, d e c e a se d , t o Michael Dousman, Mackinac I s l a n d . Cheboygan, M ichigan. L ib e r 52:544. 1856 Warranty deed, e x e c u to r s o f Michael Dousman, d e c e a s e d , to W illiam W. Wendell. Cheboygan, M ichigan. L ib e r 52:549. 1902 W arranty d eed , Thomas Quinlan and w ife to P etoskey Mackinac Lime Company. Cheboygan, M ichigan. L ib e r 24:374. 1912 L ease, Petoskey Mackinac Line Company, to W i l l i s Y. D u r r e l l , C i n c i n n a t i. Cheboygan, Michigan. L ib e r 52:561. 1916 A f f a d a v i t , Angeline B e n n e tt. 64:441. C la rk e , David L. 1968 A n a ly tic a l a rc h a e o lo g y . Cheboygan, M ichigan. Methuen, London. L ib er 288 Cl el an d , C harles E. 1970 Comparison o f t h e faun al rem ains from French and B r i t i s h re f u s e p i t s a t F o rt M ich ilim ack in ac: a study in changing s u b s i s t e n c e p a t t e r n s . Canadian H i s t o r i c S i t e s : O ccasional Papers in Archaeology and H is to ry 3 :7 -2 3 . 1972 The Mathews s i t e (20CL61), C lin to n County, Michigan. Michigan A rc h a e o lo g is t 18 (4 ):1 7 5 -2 0 8 . Doty, James Duane 1854 Doty to John J . A s to r , August 22. H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty o f W isconsin. L i b r a r y , Harvard U n i v e r s it y . 1895 J.D . Doty P ap ers, S t a t e O rig in a l in Baker O f f i c i a l j o u r n a l , 1820- Of an e x p e d itio n w ith Cass and S c h o o l c r a f t , t o Lake S u p e rio r and th e so u rces o f t h e Mis­ s i s s i p p i . Wisconsin H i s t o r i c a l C o l l e c t io n s 13:163-219. Dousman, John, and George M itch ell 1820 C o n s tru c tio n c o n t r a c t w ith George Boyd, In d ia n Agent a t Mackinac, November 29. Green Bay and P r a i r i e du Chien P a p e rs, In d ia n A f f a i r s 7 2 : Item 23. Dousman, Michael 1815 Dousman t o S i r G. Drummond, w ith su p p o rtin g a f f a d a v i t s , August 8 . P u b lic A rchives o f Canada, Record Group 8 , Volume 189. 1819a Dousman t o John Lawe, Green Bay, June 11. P a p e rs , Chicago H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty . 1819b Dousman t o Lewis C ass, T e r r i t o r i a l Governor, October 30. Michiqan P io neer and H i s t o r i c a l C o l le c t i o n s o f 1908 36: 416-419. 1819c B i l l t o In d ia n D epartm ent, Mackinac. W isconsin Manu­ s c r i p t s C, Green Bay and P r a i r i e du Chien P a p e rs, Indian A f f a i r s 7 2 :1 3 . S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty o f W isconsin, Madison. 1821 B i l l t o In d ia n D epartm ent, Mackinac. 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Dousman, March 23. H ercules L. Dousman P a p e rs, S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty o f W isconsin. 1847b Dousman t o H ercules L. Dousman, August 12. H ercules L. Dousman P a p e rs, S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty o f W isconsin. 1848a L a st w i l l and t e s ta m e n t. H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty . 1848b Dousman to H ercules L. Dousman, May 29. Hercules L. Dousman P a p e rs, Minnesota H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty . 1849 Dousman to H ercules L. Dousman, November 26. Hercules L. Dousman P a p e rs, S t a t e H i s to r i c a l S o c ie ty o f Wisconsin. Copy in t h e Milwaukee County 4 - Dousman, T a lb o t C. 1843 T.C. Dousman to H ercules L. Dousman, April 27. H ercules L. Dousman P a p e rs, Minnesota H i s t o r i c a l S o c ie ty . 1844 T.C. Dousman to H ercules L. Dousman, February 18. H ercules L. Dousman P a p e rs, Minnesota H i s to r i c a l S o c ie ty . Doyle, W illiam 1887 Copies o f papers on f i l e in th e Dominin A rchives a t Ottawa, Canada: P e r ta in i n g t o t h e y e a r 1793. Michigan P io neer and H i s t o r i c a l C o lle c tio n s 12:48-49. 1893 Copies o f papers on f i l e in th e Canadian Archives a t O ttaw a. Michigan P io n eer and H i s t o r i c a l C o lle c tio n s 23:381. D rucker, L e s l i e 1981 Socioeconomic p a t t e r n i n g a t an undocumented l a t e e i g h t e e n t h c e n tu r y lowcounty s i t e : S p ie rs Landing, South C a r o lin a . H i s t o r i c a l Archaeology 15 (2 ):5 8 -6 8 . Dunnigan, B rian Leigh 1974 P ersonal communication. 290 1975 Durand, P. 1886 M ilesto n es o f th e p a s t : m i l i t a r y b u tto n s and i n s ig n ia from Mackinac. Mackinac H is to ry 2 ( 3 ) . The Haldimand P apers: p e r t a i n i n g to th e y e a r 1779. Michigan P io neer and H i s to r i c a l C o lle c tio n s 10:366. E l l i s , A.G. 1834 S urv ey s, o f c e s s io n s by th e Chippewas, n ear M ich ilim ack i­ n a c , made a t th e T re a ty o f G r e e n v i l l e , in th e y e a r 1795. The Papers o f Henry Rowe S c h o o l c r a f t , 1782-1878. L ib ra ry o f C ongress, Washington, D.C. Ferguson, Lei and 1975 Archaeology a t S c o t t ' s Lake, e x p l o r a t o r y r e s e a r c h , 1972, 1973. I n s t i t u t e o f Archaeology and A nthropology, U n iv e r s ity o f South C a r o lin a , Research M anuscript S e r ie s 68 . 1978 Looking f o r th e "Afro" in C olono-Indian p o t t e r y . The Conference on H i s t o r i c S i t e s Archaeology Papers 12:68-86 Forsman, Michael 1979 A r t i f a c t p a t t e r n r e c o g n i t io n and com parison. P a t t e r n and meaning: an idea l e a f l e t o f the*C onference on H isto ric" S i t e Archaeology 1 ( 3 ). Forsman, M ichael, and Joseph G. Gallo 1979 Approaches to f u r t r a d e arc h a e o lo g y . In Archaeology in A lb e r ta , compiled by J.M. H i l l e r u d . A rchaeolo gical Survey o f A l b e r t a , Occasional Paper 14:159-192"]! Garrow, P a t r i c k H. 1981 I n v e s t i g a t i o n s o f Yaughan and Curiboo P l a n t a t i o n s . Paper p re se n te d a t t h e annual m eeting o f th e S o c ie ty f o r H i s t o r i c a l Archaeology, J an u ary 1981. New O rlean s, L o u is ia n a . Garrow, P a t r i c k H ., e d i t o r 1982 A rch aeo lo g ical i n v e s t i g a t i o n s on th e Washington, D.C. C iv ic C en ter s i t e . Department o f Housing and Community Development, Government o f th e D i s t r i c t o f Columbia, W ashington, D.C. G reeley , Aaron 1810 Survey o f th e I s la n d o f M ichilim ackinac (Mackinac) in August 1 8 1 0 . . .su rv e y o f th e Is la n d o f Bois Blanc performed September 1 0 th , 1 1 th , & 1 2 th , 1 8 1 0 . . . (and) survey o f a t r a c t on th e main (la n d ) in c lu d in g th e o ld F o rt M ic h il i m a c k in a c .. .M anuscript map, N ational A rch iv es, Record Group 49, Michigan Number 10. 291 Grosscup, Gordon L ., and George L. M ille r 1969 Excavations a t Walker Tavern, Cambridge S t a t e H i s to r i c a l P ark, 1968. Ms. on f i l e Michigan H is to r y D iv is io n , Department o f S t a t e . G ruet, James 1785 No. 1 r e g i s t e r o f th e P o st o f M ich ilim ack inac. R e g is te r o f Deeds, Mackinac County, S t . Ig n ace, Michigan. Hamilton, T.M. 1968 E arly In d ia n t r a d e guns: 1625-1775. Museum o f th e G reat P l a i n s 3. C o n trib u tio n s o f th e Hanson, C harles E. 1970 The N orthwest gun. Nebraska S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l S o ciety P u b l ic a ti o n s in A nthropology 2 ( r e p r i n t o f th e 1955 e d itio n ). Hanson, Lee H. J r . 1971 Kaolin p ip e stem s— b o rin g in on a f a l l a c y . Conference on H i s t o r i c S i t e s Archaeology Papers 4 ( 1 ) :2 - 1 5 . H a rrin g to n , Jean C. 1955 Dating stem fragm ents o f s e v e n te e n th and e ig h te e n th c e n tu r y c l a y p ip e s . A rch aeo lo g ical S o c ie ty o f V ir g in ia Q u a r te rly B u l l e t i n 9 ( 1 ) . H eighton, Robert F . , and K athleen A. Deagan 1972 A New form ula f o r d a t in g k a o lin p ip estem s. Conference on H i s t o r i c S i t e Archaeology Papers 6 (2):220-22?T! Holman, M argaret 1977 Personal communication. H olton, Edward D. 1906 Commercial h i s t o r y o f Milwaukee. C o lle c tio n s 4:253-289. Irw in , Matthew 1876 Green Bay f u r t r a d e . 7:277-278. J o n e s, Olive 1971 Wisconsin H i s t o r i c a l Wisconsin H i s t o r i c a l C o lle c tio n s Glass b o t t l e push-ups and p o n t i l marks. Archaeology 5 :6 2 -7 3. K appler, Charles J . 1972 Indian t r e a t i e s 1778-1883. H isto ric a l I n t e r l a n d , New York. Kidd, K .E ., and M.A. Kidd 1870 A C l a s s i f i c a t i o n system f o r g l a s s beads f o r th e use o f f i e l d a r c h a e o l o g i s t s . Canadian H i s to r i c S i t e s , Occasional Papers in Archaeology and H is to r y 1:46-89. 292 King, J . P . 1843 King t o L t. J.W. P h e lp s, S a u l t S te . M arie, January 5. Michael Dousman P a p e rs, 1806-1852, Burton H i s to r ic a l C o l l e c t i o n , D e t r o i t P u b lic L ib r a r y . Kearney, L ie u te n a n t Colonel James, and C aptain J.N . Macomb 1854 S t r a i t s o f Mackinac. S t a t e H i s t o r i c a l S o ciety o f Wiscon­ s i n , GX9088, M15, 1854, S. LaRonde, John T. de 1908 Personal n a r r a t i v e . 7 :345-365. Wisconsin H i s to r i c a l C o lle c tio n s Lees, W illiam , and Kathryn Kimery-Lees 1979 The F unction o f C olono-Indian ceram ics: i n s i g h t s from Limerick P l a n t a t i o n , South C a r o lin a . H is to r i c a l Archaeology 1 3 :1-13 . 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Ms. on f i l e , Mackinac Isla n d S t a t e Park Commission. 1977 An I n q u ir y in t o th e l o c a t i o n s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Jacob B r i g h t 's t r a d i n g house and W illiam Montgomery's ta v e r n . Arkansas A rchaeo lo gical Survey Research S e r ie s 11. Mathews, R. 1886 The Haldimand P apers: p e r t a i n i n g to th e y e a r 1781. Michigan P io n eer C o lle c tio n s 10:488. Maxwell, Moreau S . , and Lewis R. Binford 1961 E xcavation a t F o r t M ich ilim ackin ac, Mackinaw C ity , M ichigan, 1959 season . P u b ! ic a tio n s o f th e Museum, Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , C u ltu r a l S e r ie s 1 ( 1 ) . M ichilim ackinac County 1820 C i r c u i t Court r e c o r d s . D e s c rip tio n s o f brands f o r c a t t l e as used by Michael Dousman E sq u fre. Record Group 71-116, Lot Number 1, B l, F I , S t a t e A rchives o f Michigan. 1823 Tax L i s t . Record Group 71-116, B2, F13. o f M ichigan. 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Wisconsin H i s t o r i c a l P rucha, F ra n c is Paul 1967 Broadax and b ay o n et; t h e r o l e o f th e United S t a t e s Army in th e development o f th e N orthw est, 1815-1860" U n iv e r s ity o f N ebraska, L in co ln . P u b lic A rchives o f Canada 1815 A C h art o f t h e S t r a i g h t s o f S t . M ary's and M ich ilim ack i­ nac, c o n ta in in g t h e w ater communication between th e g r e a t la k e s o f S u p e r io r , Huron and M ichigan. C olonial O ffic e Records, Q132. Putnam, G.P. 1868 Mackinaw. York. Putnam's Magazine, 2 ( n . s . ) . G.P. Putnam, New 295 Quimby, George I . 1966 Indian c u l t u r e and European t r a d e goods. W isconsin, Madison. U n iv e r s ity o f R obertson, Daniel 1888 Haldimand P apers: p e r t a i n i n g to th e y e a r 1784. P io n e e r and H i s t o r i c a l C o lle c tio n s 11:420. 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I n s t i t u t e o f Archaeology and Anthropolo qy , U n iv e r s ity o f South C a r o lin a , A nth rop olog ical jjtu~3ieTT . ----------- ------------- 1977 Method and th e o ry in h i s t o r i c a l a rc h a e o lo g y . P r e s s , New York. 1978 P a t t e r n r e c o g n it io n in h i s t o r i c a l arc h a e o lo g y . A n tiq u ity 43 (2 ):2 2 3 -2 3 0 . S t i l l , Bayrd 1948 Milwaukee, th e h i s t o r y o f a c i t y . S o c ie ty o f W isconsin, Madison. Academic American S ta te H isto ric a l S t . M a rtin , Adhemar 1908 1725-1821: r e g i s t r y o f m arriag es in th e p a r i s h o f M ichilim a c k in a c . Wisconsin H i s t o r i c a l C o lle c tio n s 18:469-513. 1910 1695-1821: r e g i s t e r o f baptism s o f th e m issio n o f S t. Ignace de M ichillm ackinac. W isconsin H i s t o r i c a l C o lle c t i o n s 19:1-148. 296 T o rd o ff, J e f f r e y P. 1979 Some o b s e r v a tio n s on th e q u a n t i t a t i v e r e l a t i o n s between S ta n le y S o u th 's a r t i f a c t p a t t e r n s and "prim ary de f a c to " r e f u s e . H i s t o r i c a l Archaeology 13:38-47. U.S. Congress 1822 E xecutive P a p e rs, Number 41, Seventeenth C ongress, F i r s t S e s s io n , Volume 3. War Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r in t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D.C. 1825 Executive Documents, Number 56, E ig h te e n th C ongress, Second S e s s io n , Volume 3. War Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r i n t i n g O f f ic e , Washington, t).C. 1827 E xecutive P a p e rs, Number 131, N in eteen th Congress, Second S e s s io n , Volume 6. Mar Department C o n tr a c ts . Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D.C. 1829 House Documents, Number 105, Tw entieth C ongress, Second S e s s io n , Volume 3. War Department C o n tra c ts! Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D.C. 1831 House E x ecu tiv e Documents, Number 73, T w e n ty -F irst Con­ g r e s s , Second S e s s io n , Volume 3. War Department C o n tra c ts" Government P r in t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D.C. 1832 House E x e cu tiv e Documents, Number 8 9 , Twenty-Second Con­ g r e s s , F i r s t S e s s io n , Volume 3. War Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r i n t i n g O f fic e , Washington, D C . 1833 E xecutive Documents, Number 118, Twenty-Second Congress, Second S e s s io n , Volume 3. War Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r i n t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D.C. 1834 E xecutive Documents, Number 99, Twenty-Third C ongress, Second S e s s io n , Volume 4. War Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r i n t i n g O f f ic e , Washington, D.C. 1836 E xecutive Documents, Number 248, Twenty-Fourth C ongress, F i r s t S e s s io n , Volume 6. War Department C o n tra c ts ! Government P r in t i n g O f f ic e , Washington, D.C. 1842 House Documents, Number 34 , Twenty-Seventh Congress, Second S e s s io n , Volume 2. War Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r in t in g O f f i c e , Washington, D.C. 1843 House Documents, Number 68, Twenty-Seventh C ongress, T hird S e s s io n , Volume 3. War Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r in t i n g O f f ic e , Washington, D.C. 1844 House Documents, Number 42 , Twenty-Eighth C ongress, F i r s t S e s s io n , Volume 3. Mar Department C o n t r a c t s . Government P r in t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, D.C. 297 1845 House Documents, Number 44, Twenty-Eighth Congress, Second S e s sio n , Volume 2. War Department C o n tracts'. Government P r in t i n g O f f i c e , Washington, t).C. 1846 House Documents, Number 51, Twenty-Ninth Congress, FTrst S e s s io n , Volume 3. Mar Department C o n t r a c t s . 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