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8503228

K early , P a tr ic ia J e a n

THE RELATIONSHIP O F ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURAL
CHARACTERISTICS TO MODES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT EMPLOYED
BY MICHIGAN SPECIAL EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS

Ph.D.

M ichigan State University

University
Microfilms
International

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Copyright 1984
by
Kearly, Patricia Jean
All Rights Reserved

1984

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THE RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURAL CHARACTERISTICS
TO MODES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
EMPLOYED BY MICHIGAN SPECIAL EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS

by

Patricia J. Kearly

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology
and
Special Education
1984

(c) Copyright by
PATRICIA JEAN KEARLY
1984

THE RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURAL CHARACTERSITCS
TO MODES OF CONFLICT MANAGEMENT
EMPLOYED BY MICHIGAN SPECIAL EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS

by

Patricia Jean Kearly

Previous
suggested

research

that

management

primary

is

most

effectiveness.
relationship
they

most

on

The

conflict

in

the

organizational setting has

reliance on a collaborative approach to conflict
closely related

purpose

of

to

this

long

study

term
was

to

organizational
investigate

the

between special education administrators' perceptions of how
typically

manage conflict and their perceptions of structural

characteristics of the organizations in which they work.
The
survey

general

approach

design.

perceptions

of

self-reported
mailed

to

Education

The

for

major

this research employed a cross-sectional

hypothesis

predicted

that

administrators'

organizational characteristics would be related to their

patterns
the

of

conflict

population

serving

in

of

local or

management.

Directors

and

Survey

packets

Supervisors

of

were

Special

intermediate school districts in Michigan

for the 1982-83 school year.
The
model

theoretical

linking structural characteristics at the organizational level to a

two-dimensional
independent

dependent

model
variables

characteristics

of:

framework for this study was designed as a combined

of

of

conflict behavior (Ruble & Thomas, 1976).
were

identified

as

the

The

organizational

centralization, formalization and district size.

The

variables were identified as the five conflict management modes

collaborating, compromising, competing, accommodating and avoiding.

Results

from

administrators
finding

for

structural
pattern

this

using
the

of

canonical

major

pattern

labeled

between

were

as

based

correlation

hypothesis

"YIELDING".

relationship

study

revealed

"HIGH

Subsequent

POWER"

on

responses

analysis.
a

A

relationship
to

from

31 ^

significant
between a

a conflict management

analyses showed a strong pattern of

a structural pattern termed as "OPEN" to a conflict

management pattern of "CONTRIBUTING" for intermediate supervisors.
The

implications

systems

marked

findings

Systems

characterized
size
by

subjective
are

that

administrators'

perceptions

The

of organizational

were related to their reported patterns of conflict management.

moderate
marked

this study were based on the assumption that

by high degrees of collaboration are most effective.

suggested

structure

from

high
nature

included.

discussed
are given.

were

by

low centralization, moderate formalization and

most closely related to conflict management patterns

degrees

of

collaboration.

Limitations related to the

of the measures and reliability of the MODE instrument
Personnel

preparation

and

policy

implications

are

and recommendations for future research with the combined model

DEDICATION

To Mary Parker Follett

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The
like

a

decision
decision

successful

to

embark

on

a

journey

into

unknown

lands.

The

completion of the sojourn cannot occur without the support and

encouragement
thanks

to undertake the writing of a dissertation is somewhat

to

of special people along the way.

these

special

people

I would like to extend my

who helped me in my journey with their

knowledge, their kindness and their love.

Thanks to my committee members:
Chuck Henley, who gave me guidance and song;
Steve Yelon, who gave me a model of an excellent teacher;
Dick Featherstone, who gave me unconditional support;
Susan Melnick, my dissertation director, who gave me honesty
and insight wrapped in intelligence and wit.
With special thanks to:
Richard Houang, who gave of his time and his statistical
expertise and taught me about dummy variables.
For support in my formative years, thanks to:
Jeannette and Bill Kearly, who gave me the will to achieve;
Doris and Dick Havener, who gave me the vision and the
trust that I could pursue my dreams.
And for kindnesses along the way, thanks to:

Jean Bennett,
Joe Byers,
Juleen Cink, Kahlil Elian, Wynne
Elliott,
Sharon Feiman,
Bill Frey, Laura Hardy, Steve Hayden,
Charlotte Koger,
Christie Koger,
Dayna Koger, Teri Layzell,
Calien Lewis,
Sam LoPresto,
Nancy Maihoff, Chuck Mange, Mike
Meloth,
Merry Morash,
Andy Porter, Mary Purvis, Hank Thierry,
Shirl Weaver, Lois Wetmore, Sue Wright and Chaz and Big Mare in
Bar Harbor.
Most of all, thanks to Katy Moran and Becky Rude for their laughter . . .
and their love.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES

............................................. vii
.....................

ix

Chapter
I.

II.

THE PROBLEM ...............................................

1

Purpose of the S t u d y ..................................
Definition of Terms ....................................
Background of the S t u d y ................................
...........
The Major Research Question and Hypothesis
The Conceptual Framework
..............................
...........................................
Significance
Delimitations and Limitations ..........................
Organization of the Dissertation
.....................

2
3
5
10
11
13
13
14

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................

16

PART I: LITERATURE ON INTERGROUP CONFLICT .............

17

Section 1: The Elusive Definition of Conflict . . . .
Section 2: Historical Views of Organizational Conflict
Section 3: Sources of Conflict in Organizations . . .
Intergroup Differences
............................
Interdependencies ..................................
Asymmetries in Power or Dependence
...............
Ambiguity and Uncertainty ..........................
Other Sources of Organizational Conflict ..........
S u m m a r y .............................................
Section 4: Research on Intergroup Conflict
.........
Major Criticisms of Research on Intergroup Conflict
S u m m a r y .............................................

iv

17
19
24
24
25
26
26
27
28
29
32
34

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE (Cont'd)
PART II: LITERATURE ON O R G A N I Z A T I O N S .................

36

Section 1: Historical Perspectives on Structure . . .
The Classical Rational System Theorists ...........
The Natural System Theorists
.....................
The Open System T h e o r i s t s ..........................
The Open Natural System Theorists .................
S u m m a r y .............................................
Section 2: Research on Organizational Structure . . .
Organizational Structure Defined
.................
Three Organizational Characteristics
............
Centralization
..................................
Formalization
..................................
S i z e .............................................
Studies of Organizational Structure ...............
............
Limitations on the Literature Review
S u m m a r y .............................

36
36
38
42
46
49
50
50
50
50
51
52
52
56
58

PART III:

III.

Page

THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

59

Section 1: A Summary of the Structural Models . . . .
Pondy's Model ....................................
Schmidt & Kochan's Model
.......................
Walton & Dutton's Model
...................
Model S u m m a r y ....................................
Section 2: The Two-Dimensional Model ofRuble & Thomas
Section 3: A Combined Perspective ...................
S u m m a r y ...............................................

60
60
61
61
64
65
68
74

METHODOLOGY ...............................................

75

The Major Research Question and Hypotheses
...........
Design of the S t u d y ....................................
Population of Interest
................................
Instrumentation .........................................
......................................
Centralization
Formalization .........................................
Size of D i s t r i c t ....................................
Modes of Conflict M a n a g e m e n t .......................
Reliability and Validity
..............................
The Aiken & Hage S c a l e s ..............................
The Thomas-Kilmann MODE Instrument
.................
Procedures for Data C o l l e c t i o n .......................
Coding Procedures ......................................
The Statistical Model ..................................
S u m m a r y .................................................

75
77
77
79
80
81
81
82
84
84
87
91
92
93
96

v

Page
IV.

V.

ANALYSIS .......................

97

...........................................
Introduction
................................
Descriptive Statistics
Response R a t e .........................................
R e s p o n d e n t s ...........................................
Directors and Supervisors ............................
Tests of the H y p o t h e s e s ................................
The Test of the Major H y p o t h e s i s ...................
Findings for the Test of the Major Hypothesis . . . .
Tests of the Sub-Hypotheses..........................
Findings for
Sub-Hypothesis 1 .......................
Findings for
Sub-Hypothesis 2 .......................
Findings for
Sub-Hypothesis 3 .......................
Findings for
Sub-Hypothesis 4 .......................
S u m m a r y ...............................................

97
97
97
98
100
106
106
108
111
112
114
116
120
122

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS ...................................

123

S u m m a r y ...............................................
P u r p o s e ...........................................
R a t i o n a l e .........................................
..............................
Research Hypotheses
D e s i g n .............................................
Population of Interest ............................
Data C o l l e c t i o n ..................................
Instrumentation
..................................
Reliability and Validity ..........................
L i m i t a t i o n s ......................................
Conclusions and Implications
........................
Discussion of the F i n d i n g s ........................
C o n c l u s i o n s ......................................
Implications ......................................
Recommendations ......................................
Personnel Preparation ............................
Policy Review
....................................
Future Research
..................................

123
123
124
125
126
126
126
127
128
129
130
131
132
134
136
136
136
137

A P P E N D I C E S ...................................................

139

A.

COVER L E T T E R ...........................................

140

B.

DEMOGRAPHIC SHEET

....................................

142

C.

THE AIKEN & HAGE S C A L E S ..............................

144

D.

THE THOMAS-KILMANN MODE I N S T R U M E N T ...................

147

E.

VALIDITY RATINGS OF THE MEASURES BY
A PANEL OF J U D G E S ....................................

152

R E F E R E N C E S ...................................................

vi

155

LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page
1.

Conceptions of Organizational Conflict .............

23

2.

Summary:
Five Studies of Intergroup Conflict in the
Organization .........................................

34

Summary:
Structural Sources of Conflict in Three
M o d e l s ...............................................

64

Assumptions Underlying the Combined Model of Conflict
B e h a v i o r .............................................

69

Internal Consistencies for the Thomas-Kilmann MODE
Instrument:
A Comparison of Two Studies ...........

89

6.

Descriptive Statistics on the Respondents (N = 407)

99

7.

Descriptive Statistics:
Directors and Supervisors
(N = 3 ^ 2 ) ...........................................

100

Descriptive Statistics on Administrators by Subgroup
(N = 3 4 2 ) ...........................................

102

Descriptive Statistics on Canonical Variables by
Subgroup (N = 3 4 2 ) ..................................

105

Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization
and Reported Size of District (V15) with Modes of
Conflict Management for Michigan Administrators of
Special Education (N = 3 1 4 ) ........................

109

Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization
and Reported Size of District (V15) with Modes of
Conflict Managment for Michigan ISD Directors of
Special Education (N = 6 2 ) ..........................

113

3.

4.

5.

8.

9.

10.

11.

vii

12.

13*

14.

15.

Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization
and Reported Size of District (V15) with Modes of
Conflict Management for Michigan Local Directors of
Special
Education (N = 9 1 ) ..........................

115

Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization
and Reported Size of District (V15) with Modes of
Conflict Management for Michigan ISD Supervisors of
Special
Education (N = 7 7 ) ..........................

118

Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization
and Reported Size of District (V15) with Modes of
Conflict Management for Michigan Local Supervisors of
Special
Education (N = 8 4 ) ..........................

121

Summary:

130

Findings for the Tests of the Hypotheses .

viii

LIST OF FIGURES

Table

Page
1.

Pattern of growth for state supported positions in
special education administration ...................

7

2.

The two-dimensional model of conflict behavior

3.

A multi-level model for envisioning influences on
conflict management in the organizational setting

.

71

The conceptual framework:

.

73

4.

...

A combined perspective

ix

66

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM

The
is
the

a

goal

of

equal educational opportunity for handicapped children

relatively
early

recent

social value in this.country.

It was not until

sixties, when the impact of the Civil Rights movement began to

influence

our

assessments

of

Constitutional

guarantees

for

"equal

opportunity"

and "due process", that as a nation we began to question our

exclusionary

practices

The

social

forces

with regard to the education of the handicapped.

for

characterized

as

one

organizations

dedicated

change
of

have

inherent
to

the

created
conflict

provision

a

period

for

both

of

which

can

be

individuals and

educational

service

to

handicapped youth.
The
need

current state of special education in this country magnifies the

for

special

multiplicity
effective

of

and

period
delivery
for

to
of

demands

legislation
eligible

rapid
in

leaders

and

who

constraints

are capable of dealing with a
in

a

manner

which

constructive to the educational system as a whole.

mid-seventies
offered

education

requiring

students

on

that

is both
In the

special education services be

an individualized basis resulted in a

program expansion.

Additional requirements for service

the "least restrictive environment" and simultaneous demands

procedural

safeguards

and accountability have created new roles and

increasing conflict for special education administrators.

1

2
The

demands

instability
concern

of

have

for

conflict

for

service and accountability in a period of economic

made conflict and its effective management an important

special

education

management

management

differential

outcomes.

and that reliance on various modes may result in
Previous

studies conducted

in

business

and

settings have suggested that (a) structural characteristics of

an

organization

by

administrators

closely

Research in the area of

suggests that people tend to employ a "primary mode"

conflict

industrial

administrators.

may

influence the modes of conflict management employed

in the system, and

associated

with

implications

from

relationship

between

long-term

this

(b) the collaborative mode is most
organizational

research

have

raised

effectiveness.
questions

The

about

the

conflict management and organizational structure in

special education administration.

Purpose of the Study
The

purpose

relationships
special

education

conflict

in

management

may

1978;

study

perceptions

the

of

be

related
the

to

has
the

to identify

conflict

in

and

management

andtheir

organizations

organization

and

was

administrators

of

the

organization

this

between

characteristics

exists

of

structural

that

modes

the

employed by

perceptions

which they work.

suggested

describe

of

the

Research on
of

characteristics

conflict
of

an

environmental conditions in which the organization

(Lawrence & Lorsch,

1967; Meyer & Rowan, 1978; Pfeffer & Salancik,

Scott, 1981) and that primary reliance on certain modes of conflict

management

behavior

(Blake

&

Mouton,

Thomas,

1976).

may be more effective than others over the long term
1964;

Lawrence & Lorsch,

1967; Renwick,

1975a, 1975b;

3

Definition of Terms
For

the

purposes

employed.

These

consistent

with

of

this

definitions
previous

study,

were

the

following definitions were

derived

from the literature and are

research efforts dealing with these particular

constructs.

Administrators
reimbursed
of

of

Special

Education

refers

to

individuals

through the State of Michigan as Directors or Supervisors

special

districts

education

serving

in

local

for the 1982-83 school year.

"Directors"

or

intermediate

school

Where appropriate, the terms

and "Supervisors" will be used to indicate these subsets

of the population.

Conflict
parties

refers
appear

conflict
the

is

other

the

of

to

"the
be

condition

incompatible"

in

which the concerns of two

(Thomas,

1973*

P- 6).

process which begins when one party perceives that

1976, p. 891).

Conflict Management

refers to the five classifications of

conflict-handling behavior (Thomas, 1973).

Competing
to

"...

has frustrated, or is about to frustrate, some concern of

his" (Thomas,

Modes

to

refers

to

behavior in which one party strives

satisfy self concerns at the expense of the other party

(forcing, arguing, pulling rank, etc.).

Collaborating
to

satisfy

refers to behavior in which one party seeks
the

concerns of both self and the other party

(confrontation,

looking

for

new

alternatives,

problem-solving, etc.).
Sharing
both

or

Compromising

parties

settle

refers

for

to

behavior in which

partial

satisfaction

on

incompatible concerns (bargaining, etc.).
Avoiding

refers

to

deliberately

attempts

no

to

attempt

behavior
to

in

which

one

party

sidestep the issue, thus making

satisfy

the

concerns

of

either

party

(withdrawal, delaying, ignoring, passing the buck, etc.).
Accommodating
concedes

a

refers
self

to

behavior

concern

in

in

order

which

one

party

to satisfy the other

party (smoothing, sacrificing, taking pity, etc.).

Structural

Characteristics

of

an

Organization

refers

to

the

constructs of centralization, formalization and size of district.

Centralization

refers

to

the

degree

to

which

power

is

distributed in an organization (Aiken & Hage, 1968).
Sub-constructs:
Participation
distribution

in

Decision-Making

refers

to

the

of decisions dealing with resource allocation

or policy formulation.
Hierarchy

of

Authority

refers

to

the

decisions dealing with performance of tasks.

distribution of

Formalization
procedures

are

refers

to

defined

by

the degree
the

to

which

organization

rules

(Aiken

and

& Hage,

1968).
Sub-constructs:
Job

Autonomy

refers

to the

degree

to

which

job

to

which

job

descriptions are specified for a position.
Rule

Observation

occupants

are

refers

supervised

to the

degree

in conforming to the standards

specified for the position.
Job

Specificity

refers to the degree to which procedures

defining jobs are spelled out.

Size

of District

refers

to

the

number

of

professional

personnel employed by a district.

Background of the Study
The
for

handicapped

social
&

forces for change which have resulted in educational programming

manifest

D.C.

The first traces of these shifting social values began to

themselves

Pennsylvania

both

over the past few decades reflect the shifting

values toward handicapped individuals in American society (Burello

Sage, 1979).

v.

children

Association

Board

our
of

courts

in

the

form

of

198 of 1971)

of

1973)

law (e.g.

The subsequent passage of legislation at
and federal levels (P.L. 94-142, the

ofAll Handicapped Children Act of 1975, and

Rehabilitation Act

case

Retarded Children v. Pennsylvania and Mills

of Education).

the state(P.A.

Education

in

placed

requirements on

Section 504 of The
schools to provide

access to "free appropriate public education" for all handicapped

6
children

regardless

legislation

not

of the severity of the handicapping condition.
only

required

major

changes

in

our

This

programmatic

practices, but also reflected a shift in our cultural value system.
Further

evidence

requirements
were

for

also

principle
services

our

education

included
of

of

in

be

perspective can be noted in the

in the "least restrictive environment” which

this

normalization,

to

emerging

legislation.
this

concept

With
calls

foundations
for

a

placed

in

the

Given these

handicapped

alternative

which: (a) most closely fits their educational needs, and (b)

closely

be

of

provisions,

most

must

the

continuum

made available to all handicapped children.
children

in

educational

reflects the patterns of everyday life in the mainstream of

society.
As

a

result

additional

staff

administrative
programs.
1970-81

the

and

personnel

This
for

of

the

pattern
State

mandates
services,
to

direct

and the subsequent requirements for
school
and

systems
supervise

increased
special

their

education

of growth is depicted in Figure 1 for the years
of Michigan.

Actual numbers show a total of 212

Directors and 229 Supervisors for the 1980-81 school year.

7

300
250
200
150

100
50

1970

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

Directors
Figure 1.

The

was

organizations
to

student
process.
and
were

of

rapid

marked

1981

Supervisors

by

program
a

expansion

which

characterized

the

number of social forces which affected both

and individuals responsible for the service delivery system

handicapped

development

80

Pattern of growth for state supported positions
in special education administration.
(Courtesy
Michigan Department of Education, Special Education
Services Unit.)

period

seventies

79

children.

of

individualized

resulted
School

timelines
required

The

enactment

of

legislation requiring the

educational programs for each handicapped

in increasing demands for procedural safeguards and due
systems

were required to establish specific procedures

for provision of service and appeal.

Additionally, states

to develop mechanisms for accountability and monitoring of

these provisions.
In
through

Michigan
employment

this
of

mechanism

was

established

in the mid-seventies

coordinators at the intermediate district level.

Further demands for standardization and bureaucratic management were

issued
U.S.

as

a

Office

compliance
and

result
of

program administrative reviews conducted by the

Special

with

Standards

of

Education

which

found

Michigan

not fully in

monitoring responsibilites under P.L. 9U-142 (Procedures
for

Monitoring Special Education Programs in the State of

Michigan, September, 1981).
Changes
exerted

a

in
major

children.
created

an

the

ecomomic

inflation

systems

time

in Michigan also

and

double-digit

unemployment

rates

In the late seventies and early

were forced to cut both programs and staff and

maintain

programming.
job

climate

influence on the service delivery system to handicapped

school

education

and

unstable economic situation.

same

greater

political

Spiraling

eighties,
at

the

state

The

uncertainty

and

tension

resulted

in

federal

caused
poor

standards

for special

by declining resources and
staff morale and increasing

concern for job security in many school systems.
The
period

combined
marked

advocacy
rapid

by

role

effect
a

of

high

these various influences has resulted in a

degree of inherent conflict.

The traditional

which special education administrators assumed in years of

program expansion has been overshadowed by demands for bureaucratic

management

and

reductions

have required school administrators to re-evaluate and set new

priorities.
have

accountability.

Differences

Declining enrollments and massive budget

in value orientation and heightened uncertainty

served to increase competition between regular and special education

administrators in the face of declining resources.
Likewise,
constituency,
has

been

many
forces

the

and administrators, as representatives of the organization,

altered.

administrators
for

relationship between parents, as representives of the

change

Prior to mandatory legislation for special education,
were viewed as "champions of the cause".
have

modified

this

role

to

the

The social
degree

that

administrators
established
pattern

may

been

investigations

evidenced
at

efforts

by

in

adversarial

structures

conducted

level,

lobbying

placed

bureaucratic

has

federal

be

in

both

or

qualitative

the
the

roles

form
local

of

in

decisions.

formal

and

defense

This

hearings

state level.

of

and

At the

to modify legislation have resulted in increased

special

education

representatives

in

competition

for

declining dollars.
The

changes

brought

about

by

these

social forces have created a

situation

in which special education administrators have had to deal with

conflict

on

many

organizational
approaching
methods

setting

conflict

may

effectiveness
characteristics
Robbins,

1974,

patterns

of
1967;

perceptions
Thomas

in

these
of

and

that

differential

Thomas,

of

on

conflict

management

in

the

indicates that there are a variety of methods for

effectiveness

1967;

Lorsch,

Research

situations

result

organizational
Lorsch,

levels.

primary

outcomes

reliance on certain

in

terms

(Blake, Shepherd & Mouton,
1976).

The

factors

of

long-term

1964; Lawrence &

which

influence

the

efforts have been associated with the structural

the organization (Hage, 1974, 1980; Hall, 1969, 1982;

1977, 1983; Scott, 1981; Thompson,

1967), an individual's

conflict management (Blake & Mouton,

1961, 1964; Lawrence &

Ruble & Thomas, 1976; Thomas, 1976), with the individual's

of

the

&Pondy,

intent

1977),

of

and

with

area

of

the
the

other

party (Howat & London, 1980,

source and topic of disagreement

(Renwick, 1975a, 1977).
Research
addressed
when

the

factors

conflict

establishing
conflict

in

special education

administration has not

related to patterns of conflict management in a period

and its consequences are most critical.
the

presence

management

The importance of

or absence of a relationship between modes of

employed

by

special

education

administrators and

10
characteristics

of

theorganizations

in

which they work served as the

basis for this research effort.
The
the

findings

from

relationships

management

previous research efforts raised questions about

between

behavior.

What

is

the

relationship

and

between

conflict
structural

of

conflict

which

are

there

relationship between structural characteristics and the modes of

conflict

management

organizational

organization

structure

characteristics

a

an

organizational

employed

which

by

and the strategies for dealing with

special

education administrators?

Is

have been suggested as preferable for overall

effectiveness?

These

questions

served as the basis for

the major hypothesis of this study.

The Major Research Question and Hypothesis
The

major

relationship
of

an

research

in

this study was whether a

and

the

modes

of

conflict management reported by

education administrators employed in these organizations.

predicted

that

characteristics
would

addressed

exists between perceptions of the structural characteristics

organization

special

question

be

of

administrators1

perceptions

centralization,

formalization

It was

of

the

structural

and

size of district

related to the modes of conflict management which they reported

as most typical of theirbehavior.

11
The major hypothesis for this study was:

MAJOR

HYPOTHESIS

characteristics

:

There is a relationship between the structural

of

an

organization

and the

modes

of

conflict

management employed by special education administrators.

Supplemental
district

type

intermediate
Supervisor
derived

analyses were conducted to control for the variables of

and
or

job

local.

depending

to

title.

District

Job

on

titles

types

were defined as either

were defined as either Director or

reimbursement status.

Four

sub-hypotheses were

assess potential differences in response patterns for special

education administrators from the four sub-groups.

The Conceptual Framework
The
two

major

hypothesis

theoretical

organization.

for

approaches
The

this study was based on the synthesis of

to

process

by the

types

participants

in the

sequence of

the

"determined"
conflict
The

a

derived
(Ruble

framework

relationship

from
&

and

the

Thomas,

characteristics.

one

approach

or

that

behavior

management modes

more

suggests

may

employed by

conflict episodes.
that

be

behavior

may

In
be

characteristics which influence inherent

its overt manifestation within the organization.
for

this

study combines these approaches and

between a set of five conflict management modes

two-dimensional
1976)

of conflict behavior in the

suggests

conflict

by organizational

conceptual

predicts

of

structural

potential

study

approach

"determined"

contrast,

the

and

a

process
set

model

of

conflict behavior

of three organizational structural

12

The

investigated

were

derived

from the two-dimensional model of conflict (Ruble & Thomas,

1976;

Thomas,

1973)

model

modes

conflict

which

is

management which

presented

were

in Chapter II.

This two-dimensional

incorporates both a cooperativeness dimension and an assertiveness

dimension
modes

as

of

components
conflict

accommodating,
The

of

five

(c)

of

behavior in

management

competing,

modes

were

are described

three

measured

organizational

(a)

centralization,

(b)

formalization,

and

(c)

the

district.

measured

as

district

with

as

a
a

as

(a)

Thefive

avoiding,

(b)

(d) compromising, and (e) collaborating.
with a forced

developed by Thomas and Kilmann (XICOM,
The

a conflict situation.

choice

ipsative

scale

Inc., 1974).

structural characteristics examined were:

measure of distributed power in the district;
measure of rule specification in the district;

size, the number of professional personnel employed in

The

structures

instrumentation

of centralization and formalization were
developed

by

Aiken

&

Hage (1966), and

district size was measured as a simple count.
The
direction
variables.

conceptual
of

the

Thus,

framework

hypothesized
structural

"determinants"

of

the

suggests

framework

conflict
that

makes

no

assumption

relationship

between

about
the

the causal
two

sets of

characteristics were not strictly viewed as
management behavior or vice versa.
the

Instead,

elements from each of the two sets of

variables may interact in complex ways.

13
Significance
It
this

was

speculated

research

substantive
study

of

could

issues

administrators

have
at

conflict

that

a

the implications which could be drawn from

the potential for application to a variety of
number

management

of levels.

strategies

Information derived from a

employed by special education

could provide information for university training programs

and

practicing

administrators in special education.

of

effective

strategies

generalizable

to

a

for

wider

similar

conflict

population

Increased knowledge

management

might

also

be

of educational administrators who

deal

with

area

could serve as an impetus for future examination of the problems and

potential

problems on a daily basis.

solutions

Finally, research in this

which must be addressed in our educational system in

a period of change and uncertainty.

Delimitations and Limitations
This

study

Supervisors
districts

of
in

strictest

was delimited to include the population of Directors and
special education serving in local or intermediate school

the

State of Michigan for the 1982-83 school year.

sense,

population.

generalizability

Logical

extensions,

is

statistically

however,

may

be

limited
bridged

In the
to

to

this
larger

populations of school administrators.
Limitations
unit

of

imposed

analysis,

constraints

imposed

the
by

by

the design of the study were related to the

subjective
limited

characteristics

of

centralization

the

as

the

individual

treated

as

departments

measures

of

unit

of

nature

resources.

the instruments, and the
Measures of the structural

and formalization were assessed using
analysis.

organizational

within the districts.

of

Individual assessments were

structure for special education

These individual reports should not be

14
construed
these

as

organizational

measures,

but as individual perceptions of

organizational characteristics from the social positions which they

represent.
Secondly,

this

self-report

data.

perceptions

on

conflict
While

study
As

the

this

constructed

such,

part

management

was

as survey research based on

interpretations

are limited to subjective

of

the

participants

about

behavior

and

characteristics

aspects of their

of their districts.

does not invalidate the information collected, it may present

different

information

than

would

objective

measures

of

these

same

constructs.
Ideally,
and

"other

research
party"

management

on

assessments

behavior.
setting

objective

subjective

environmental

as

well

Additionally,

organizational
and

conflict would incorporate objective measures

would

measures

variables.

considerations limited the

employ

a

as

self-reports

studies

of

conducted

longitudinal

design

conflict
in

the

with both

of organizational structures and key

Constraintsimposed

by

time

and

economic

scope of thisstudy.

Organization of the Dissertation
Chapter
study

I

and

provided

interpretations.
social

has presented a brief description of the purpose for this

forces

The
which

a

definition of

background
have

information

terms
has

to

clarify

semantic

described the various

influenced both organizations and individuals

responsible

for

educational service delivery to handicapped students and

established

the

need

between
of

organizational

for

a

better

understanding of the relationships

characteristics

special education administrators.

and conflict management behavior

The major research question and the

15

specific

hypothesis

theoretical

base

under

for

this

investigation
study

has

have

been

been

briefly

stated.

outlined

The

and the

potential significance of this research has been discussed.
Chapter
conflict

II

in

historical

an

of

review

the

literature
This

on

chapter

intergroup

also

reviews

on organizational structure and lends support to
formalization

dimensions.

framework

of

setting.

centralization,

structural

conceptual

a

organizational

perspectives

investigation
relevant

provides

for

this

Finally,
study

and size of district as

this

chapter

presents

the

as a combined model of intergroup

conflict in the organization.
Chapter
study.

It

III

includes

sub-hypotheses
description
employed

in

the

data
and

the research design and methodology for this

statements

derived

of

reliability
also

discusses

from

of

major

hypothesis and the four

the major research question.

population,
collection.

validity

the

the
The

respondents,

and

instrumentation

It provides a
the

is

of these measures are discussed.

procedures

described

and

This chapter

includes a description of the statistical model employed in the data

analysis.
Chapter
chapter

IV

includes

findings

for

is
the
the

a

discussion

tests
V

of

Chapter

conclusions

recommendations

improvement.

the

results

of this study.

The

descriptive statistics and is organized around the

sub-hypotheses.
and

of

the

provides
for

major
a

hypothesis

summary

further

of

the

and

the

four

research with

research and programmatic

CHAPTER II.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Conflict
overall

in

the

organizational setting

organizational

effectiveness has

perspectives and described from various analytical levels.

relationships
due

to

provides
provides

have

organizational structure

viewed

from

attempted

a

review
a

of the

summary of
conceptual

literature
the

to

address

This chapter

on intergroup conflict and also

literature relating

framework

differing

and intergroup conflict

a number of conceptual and methodological problems.

structure.The
combined

between

however,

been

a subject of interest to

philosophical

empirical studies,

It has

relationship to

for

few

time.

been

its

researchers

Very

some

and

to

organizational

for this study is presented as a

perspective which incorporates characteristics of organizational

structure and a two-dimensional process model of conflict behavior.
The chapter is organized in the following manner:

PART I:
Literature on Intergroup Conflict
Section 1: The Elusive Definition of Conflict
Section 2: Historical Views of Organizational Conflict
Section 3: Sources of Conflict in Organizations
Section
Research on Intergroup Conflict
PART II:
Literature on Organizations
Section 1: Historical Perspectives on Structure
Section 2: Research on Organizational Structure
PART III: The Conceptual Framework
Section 1: A Summary of the Structural Models
Section 2: The Two-Dimensional Model of Ruble & Thomas
Section 3: A Combined Perspective

16

17

PART I:

Literature on Intergroup Conflict

Section 1:
The

concept

depending
refer

on

of

the

The Elusive Definition of Conflict

conflict

may

be

focus of interest.

defined

in

a

variety

of ways

When used by psychologists, it may

to incompatible response tendencies within an individual or to role

conflict
(inner

stemming

from

conflict).

individuals

which

sociologists,
internal

to

between

It

it

classes

incompatible

role expectations

also refer to interpersonal conflict between

refer

to

organization

organizations

three

may

of

may occur in the organizational setting.
may

the

perceptions

of

or

conflict

between

groups

When used by
or

subunits

or to more global conceptions of conflict

nations.

conflict

March & Simon (1958) have identified

which

they

refer

to

as

individual,

organizational and interorganizational.
The
social
which

focus
units

is

limited

for

this

study

(individuals

sometimes
scope,

and/or

referred

the

was

restricted to conflict between two

groups) in the organizational setting

to as "dyadic conflict".

literature

reveals

a

lack

of

Even within this
consensus

on

the

definition of intergroup conflict.
One
Kochan,

approach

which is frequently cited in the literature (Schmidt &

1972) defines conflict as:

The overt behavior arising out of a process in
which one unit seeks the advance of its own interests
in its relationships with others. . . .Units are not
in conflict when deliberate interference is absent .
. . the interference must be deliberate and goal
directed by at least one party,
(p. 363).

Under

this

definition,

individual or a group,

(a)

conflict

exists

when one party, either an

attempts to achieve goals of concern to the

18

other
and

party,
(c)

thwart

(b) interferes with the goal attainment of the other party,

makes

a

deliberate

attempt

(either actively or passively) to

the goal achievement of the other party.

appealing
concept

in
of

conflict

that

it

deliberate

which

is

limited

intent

to

overt

While this

definition is

behavior, it includes the

and therefore excludes the possibility of

arises out of misperception, unintended action, or events

beyond the range of control.
Thus, for the purposes of this study, conflict will be defined as:

(T)he condition in which the concerns of
two parties appear to be incompatible" (Thomas, 1973,
p. 6).
. . . (C)onflict is the process which begins
when
one
party
perceives
that the other
has
frustrated,
or is about to frustrate, some concern of
his (Thomas, 1976, p. 891).

This

definition

subjective

emphasizes conflict

perceptions

and

as a process and also recognizes the

the situational context in which

theconflict

occurs.
Research
only
the

on

conflict

in

the

organization has been influenced not

by definitional inconsistencies but also by shifting perspectives on
relationship

following

section

between conflict and organizational effectiveness.
presents

a

The

brief description of the historical views

which have influenced organizational reactions to conflict.

19

Section 2:
Before
dealing

proceeding with a discussion of the most pertinent literature

with

important

conflict

to

note

conflict.

In

theorists

(Weber,

ineffective
rational

Historical Views of Organizational Conflict

in

the

the

incompatible

organizational

mechanical,
1924/1947)
of

closed-system

conflict
sound

perspective,

with

setting,

it

is

first

system of values which have been associated with

application

system

the

was

viewed

management

goal

of
as

the
the

principles.

manifestations

efficient

view

of

attainment

conflict
and

were

classical
result
Under

of
this

were seen as
perceived

as

dysfunctional to organizational effectiveness.
The
nature

human
of

relations

conflict

in

optimal

organizational

1958).

The

gave
which

to

naturally

emphasis

effectiveness

for

conception,

informal

occur

this

while

organizations,

theoretical

credence

theorists,

systems

within

group

of

the

acknowledging

the inherent

also viewed it as detrimental to
(Landsberger, 1958; March & Simon,
based

of

on the work of Mayo (1945),

power, reward and communication

boundaries of the organization.

The

theorists was on conflict minimization and

strategies to resolve and eliminate conflict when it emerged.
Robbins

(1983) has classified these past perspectives on conflict as

the

traditional

view

has

labeled

the

accepts

as

conflict

encourages

an

and

based

broad

work
of

as

and the behavioral view and added a third which he
interectionist view.
a

The interactionist philosophy

natural function of organizational operation and

optimal level of controlled conflict to promote creativity
decision-making.

This philosophy has been noted in the

of a few of the earlier writers who advocated that a moderate degree
conflict

(Follett,
1956).

can

1924,
Much

be

conducive

to

optimal

organizational

performance

1925/1941; Hoffman & Maier, 1961; Litterer,

1966; Peltz,

of the discussion, however, focused on the individual level

20
of analysis with little attention to organizational factors.
The
virtue

interactionist view recognizes conflict as inherent, not only by
of

the

individuals

who

organization
cannot

different

be

make

supported

up

itself.
limited
by

value systems and abilities which characterize
the

This
to

Hall

organization,

view

the

suggests

individual

(1982)

who

individualized

approach

to

organizational

considerations

also by virtue of the

that

the

roots of conflict

level of analysis.

states,

conflict
and

but

"The

is

the

inadequacy

based

very

This view is

on

nature

the
of

of

the

fact

that

organizations

themselves contribute to conflict situations" (p. 152).
From

the interactionist perspective, conflict may be viewed as either

functional

or

dysfunctional

organizational

performance

relationships
clear.
be

between

Pondy

that

adaptibility
conflict

on

its

goal

achievement.

and

organizational

overall

effect

Unfortunately,

on
the

performance are not

has suggested reasons for this lack of clarity may

organizational

are

may

and

conflict

(1967)

the

depending

not

goals

necessarily

have

multiple

of

productivity,

compatible
effects

on

stability

and

with each other and thus,
the

"equilibrium"

of

an

organization.
Burrell
the

& Morgan (1979) have categorized perspectives on conflict in

organization

under

a three-stage typology.

Their "unitary view" of

conflict

is

similar to that of the classical theorists, in that it deems

conflict

to

be

individual
appropriate
the

behavior

potentially

rarely occuring phenomenon which can be attributed to
and

adminstrative

perspective

perceived

a

as

embraced
inherent

positive

which

can

action.

and

should

be

eliminated through

Their "pluralist view" is similar to

by the interactionist philosophy.
within

element

organizational

when

interaction

managed effectively.

Conflict is
and

as

a

Their "radical

21
view"

of

social
in

conflict

classes

general.

force

for

Under

as

as

power

within

change

covertly,
seen

and

focuses

on

the mutual opposition of the

organizations as reflections of societal patterns

this

be

manifested

is seen as a ubiquitous
on the surface or

an undercurrent, within a social system.

Organizations are

stations

may

conflict

overtly

power

which

perspective

through

which

ruling interest groups exercise

options and manipulate the masses through mechanisms of social control.
The

varying

conflict

in

perceptions
The

perspectives

the
of

which

organizational

its

have

characterized conceptions of

setting

have

been

influenced

by

sources (locus) and effects (organizational value).

locus of conflict has been associated with the individual, the group,

the

organization

associated
under

with

certain

or

society

in

general.

The

organizational

value

conflict in the organization has been viewed as negative
conceptions,

while

other

perspectives have incorporated

potentially positive components within the philosophical view.

The
Morgan

two

perspectives

(1979)

have

been

four

classifications.

view

of

this

viewed

as

type

this

be

natural

"systems"

sources

(1983)

and Burrell &

synthesized under a new typology consisting of

perspective conflict is associated with the individual and is

Under

the

Robbins

The "classical" type is similar to the traditional

dysfunctional

relations"

and

by

Robbins (1983) and the unitary view of Burrell & Morgan (1979).

Under

a

presented

is

to

effectiveness.

The "human

the behavioral view of Robbins (1983).

conflict is viewed as negative and is believed to

by-product of group interaction within organizations.
is

pluralistic
of

organizational

similar

conception

type

to

conflict

similar
view
as

The

to the interactionist view of Robbins (1983)
of

Burrell

inherent

&

Morgan (1979).

It recognizes

within

organizational

structure and

22
function

which

may

organizational
conflict
most

is

essentially

outcomes

for

organization
contingencies.
Table 1.

to

the

organizational

either

performance.

similar

associates

have

the

various
serving
A

or

organizational

viewed as neutral.

negative
value

effects

attached

on
with

The "environmental" type is

radical view of Burrell & Morgan (1979) in that it

primary
value

The

positive

locus

of

conflict

with societal factors.

The

attached to conflict is seen as having differential
classes
as

summary

a

of

individuals

reflection
of

in

the society with the

of the prevalent norms and power

this combined perspective is presented in

23

Table 1
Conceptions of Organizational Conflict

Theorist

Typology

Robbins (1983)

traditional

Burrell & Morgan
(1979)

unitary

Combined

classical

LOCUS
ORG VALUE

The

social

moves

provided

human
relations

as

groups
(-) neg

in

of

Table

environmental

organization
(+/-) neutral

1

suggests

that

conflict takes on different values.

eitherfunctional

relationship

systems

radical

society
(+) pos
(-) neg

as the level

from the individual perspective to broader conceptions of

interaction,

viewed

interactionist
pluralistic

individual
(-) neg

summary

analysis

behavioral

its

or

effects to

dysfunctional

Conflict may be

depending

on

the

overall organizational performance and

goal attainment.
In
with

order to assess the conditions under which conflict is associated

positive

establish
following

the

effects
major

section

in the organizational setting, it is necessary to
sources which contribute to conflict creation. The
presents a

summary

contributors to intergroup conflict.

of

the

literature

on

major

24

Section 3:
The
in

variables

the

the

primary

of

individual

emphasis

intergroup

as

the

Robbins (1983) has acknowledged

(psychological)

eleven organizational

variables, but has placed
variables

as

sources

of

Thomas & Schmidt (1976), in a survey sponsored by

Management

Association,

found

that communication failure

highest perceived source of conflict for managers at three

organizational
conflict

on

conflict.

American

rated

which have been suggested as contributors to conflict

organizational setting are many.

influence

the

Sources of Conflict in Organizations

levels.

differently

They also
than

noted that middle managers perceived

managers

at

higher

levels in terms of both

source and amount.
While
(1980)
in

many

sources

of

organizational

conflict may exist, Dessler

has suggested that four factors are prime contributors to conflict

the

organizational

interdependencies
ambiguities.

(a) intergroup

differences,

(b)

and shared resources, (c) authority imbalances, and (d)

Although

organizational

setting

most

setting

are

of the studies dealing with conflict in the
ex post facto in nature, the literature does

suggest that these factors are prime contributors to conflict creation.

Intergroup Differences
Organizations
attributes,
in

are

values,

variables

such

and
as

(Dalton,

1959)

societal

expectations

conflict.

comprised

and

goals.
race

of

individuals

with varying personal

Research has indicated that differences

(Collins,

1946), gender (Kanter,

1977), age

class ( Warner & Low, 1947) are related to differing
and

that

these differences can lead to increased

Additionally, differences in goals or the preferred methods to

25

achieve

goals can lead to increases in interdepartmental conflict (Dutton

& Walton,

1966).

Personality
(Walton

&

conflict
noted

McKersie,
behavior

that

with

variables,
1965),

in

such

as

the

have

also

degree

been

of

authoritarianism

associated with increased

interunit relationships.

Blake

& Mouton (1964)

although individuals employ a hierarchy of styles in dealing

conflict

situations,

habit

will

often

predispose

the

use of a

"dominant style" of response.
In

contrast,

cannot

be

Kanter

contends

individual

Kanter

(1977) has argued that organizational behavior

adequately explained on the basis of

individual differences.

that structural determinants

characteristics

for

are

more relevant than

explaining many types of behavior in the

organizational setting.

"Opportunity,
power and relative numbers (proportions and
social composition)
have the potential to explain a large
number of discrete individual responses to organizations.
Indeed,
except for factors more properly located outside of an
organization’s boundaries,
there appear to be few instances of
important aspects of individual behavior and attitudes that do
not bear a relation to these variables." (Kanter, 1977, p. 246)

Interdependencies

can

Reliance

on

lead

conflict

refer
extent

to

to

this
to

information,
their
and

shared

within

variable

which

two

an

organization.

Walton & Dutton (1969)

as mutual task dependence and define it as "the
units

depend

on

each

other

for

assistance,

compliance, or other coordinative acts in the performance of

respective

tasks."

cooperation,

interdependence
management

resources and task completion by other subunits

they
and

strategy

In their studies of interdepartmental conflict
found

overload
was

that
the

increased.

under

magnitude
However,

conditions
of
the

a

of

selected
findings

high

task

conflict
showed an

26
inconsistent

pattern in the type of conflict management strategy employed

under these conditions (Dutton & Walton,
Pfeffer

&

Salancik

interdependencies

does

(1978)

not

have

about the means or ends.

but

sufficient condition

a

setting.
they

noted

that

the

existence

of

necessarily lead to conflict unless there is

disagreement
not

1966).

Thus, interdependence is necessary

for

conflict

in the

organizational

In order for conflict to emerge, the parties must perceive that

have the "power to interfere" with the other party (Kochan, Huber, 4

Cummings,

1975; Schmidt & Kochan,

1972).

Asymmetries in Power or Dependence
Imbalances
systems

in

authority

and prestige when divergent views or value

exist can create conflict (Seiler,

imbalances

in

the

degree

heightened

conflict

relationships

dependence

exist,
party

individual

dependence

(Aldrich,

asymmetical

weighted

of

in

the

increased.

differences,

but

between

Similarly,

subunits can lead to

1979; Dalton, 1959; Strauss,

the potential

is

1963; Zald, 1963).

1963).

When

degree of power or the degree of task
for

The
are

interference by the more heavily
asymmetries

more

may be associated with

typically

associated

with

the

structure of the organization.

Ambiguity and Uncertainty
The

degree

organization
created
thus
&
to

by

laying

Dutton,
strict

of

has
low

also

ambiguity
been

formalization

or

uncertainty

associated
may

with

which

exists

conflict.

an

Uncertainity

serve to heighten interunit tension,

the groundwork for conflict to emerge (Robbins,
1969).

in

Blau (1955) found a

1983, Walton

high degree of uncertainty to lead

enforcement of rules and high pressure to conform.

Likewise,

27

Kanter

(1977)

restricting

found

the

that

types

managers

attempted to control uncertainty by

of individuals who were allowed to participate in

decision-making and by stressing conformity.

Other Sources of Organizational Conflict
Some
of

of the other major factors which have been suggested as sources

interunit

obstacles,
research

conflict

and

are organizational differentiation, communication

organizational

suggests

that

these

systems

of

factors

are

reward

and evaluation.

The

closely tied to the formal

structures of the organization.
Differentiation
"segmentation

been defined by Lawrence & Lorsch (1967) as the

of the organizational system into subsystems, each of which

tends

to

develop

posed

by

its

different

has

particular

relevant

tasks

environment,

and

attributes inrelation to the requirements

external

environment."

interacted

with

Where

different

units performed
segments

of

the

these units developed significant internal differences.

The

degree

of uncertainty faced by these units was found to be related to the

degree

of

formal

orientation

structure,

differentiation

conflict

but

the

time

orientation,

and interpersonal relations orientation.

greater

upon

the

that

mode

of

the

resulted
actual

conflict

in

a

greater

the environmental
They concluded that

degree

of

potential

degree of conflict created was dependent

management

employed

and

the

method

for

achieving coordination between departments (integration).
A
to

number

intergroup

between

conflict.

departments

differences
(Robbins,

of researchers have suggested poor communications can lead

in
1971*;

This

(Coser,

can

1956),

be

caused

semantic

by knowledge imbalances
ambiguities

arising from

training and the development of specialized vocabularies
Strauss, 1963).

Imperfect channel flow between subunits

28

within

the

organization

(March

&

Simon,

1958) has been also associated

with bias and distortion in communication,
Katz

(1964)

interest-group
prestige

struggles

and

notion

higher

to

over

"hierarchical
the

monetary

rewards"

induced

conflict.

organizationally
this

refers

when

management

they

state,

emphasize

conflict

organizational
as

one

Walton

of

stemming

rewards
the

of

major

from

status,
forms

of

& Dutton (1969) concur with

"the more the evaluations and rewards of

the separate performance of each department

rather than their combined performance, the more conflict" (p. 78).

Summary
In

summary,

conflict
on

within

individual

intergroup

a number of variables have been described as sources of
organizations.

traits

conflict,

and
more

While past research efforts have focused

abilities
recently

as

the

attention

primary

contributors

to

has been directed toward

organizational structural characteristics as determinants of behavior.
The
literature
and
of

major

organizational

have

ambiguity.

of

conflict

discussed

in

the

been identified as interdependencies, assymetrical power
These factors seem to be closely related to three aspects

organizational

organization,

sources

(b)

structure

(a)

power

and

its

distribution

in the

organizational procedures for dealing with uncertainty

and ambiguity, and (c) the social composition of the work group.

29

Section *);
Empirical

research

organizational
spite
by

of

setting

are

methodological

are

reported

self-assessment
these

studies

on

noticeably

conflict
lacking

management

in

in

the literature.

the
In

high interest in this area, research efforts have been hampered

both

which

Research on Intergroup Conflict

and conceptual
are

ex

post

instruments

as

primary

problems.Most of the studies
facto

in

measures

nature

and rely

of behavior.

on

Some of

studies have been referenced in the previous section and others are

more

appropriately

framework
section

for

this

highlight

conducted

on

covered

in

study.
the

conflict

the

section

describing

the conceptual

The five studies which are described in this

major

differences in the research which has been

management

in

the

organizational

setting

and

demonstrate the need for a combined perspective.
The

research

by

conflict

behavior

provides

on

self-assessment

study

attempted

influences
the

mailed

city
in

on

Schmidt

data.

to

survey

an example of an ex post facto study relying
Unlike some other examples provided here, this

assess

conflict

& Kochan (1972) supporting their model of

the

impact

of organizational structures as

management behavior.

approach

to gatherinformation

officals involved in union activities.
an

attempt

interference
behavior.

to

assess

capacity
Their

the

(power

findings

These researchers employed

influence
distribution)

from various types of

Over 200 cities were sampled
of

goal

incompatibility and

as determinants of conflict

provided general support for these factors as

antecedents to perceptions of open conflict.
Lawrence
types

of

approach

&

Lorsch (1967), in their classic study of three different

manufacturing
in

analyzing

firms,
conflict

employed a more macro-analytically based
management

behavior.

They classified

30
firms

from

each

successfulness
employed
mean

to

of the organizational types in terms of their degree of

and

achieve

coordination

analyzing
the

the

three

results

for

achieving

effectiveness

their

of

their

conditions

were

for

various

the

unity

a

findings

related

the types of methods

of effort between subunits.

In

of conflict management behaviors, they used

indicated
as

in

They used the term "integration" to

confrontation,

study

confrontation

Additionally,

examined differences

coordination.

categories

of

employed

then

to

smoothing

that

dominant
showed

and

forcing.

The

high performance organizations
conflict

that

management

strategy.

differences in environmental

differences in the degree of differentation

organizational

types,

and

in

turn,

greater

differentiation led to greater intergroup conflict.
Other

research has

assessment
studies

of

have

conflict

in

a

conceptually

management behavior in the

broader

approach to

organization.

These

analyzed conflict behavior as the product of two dimensions

(cooperativeness
(1964),

employed a

The initial work of Blake

& Mouton

with subsequent revisions by Ruble & Thomas (1976), have

resulted

number

and

of

assertiveness).

studies

which examine five different types of conflict

management strategies.
An

example

(1975a)

in

use

conflict

of

departments
Mouton

which

in

(1964)

management

using a micro-analytical approach is offered by Renwick
a Likert-type questionnaire was employed to assess the
management

with

72 employees from various

two large manufacturing firms.

In this study the Blake &

classifications

modes:

were

withdrawal,

confrontation.

The

results

the

source

the

conflict

mode

that

of

strategies

predominated.

of

used to designate the five conflict

smoothing,

compromise,

forcing

and

this study indicated that the topic and

influenced the type of conflict management

Confrontation was reported as a preferred mode

31

around
mode
as

substantive issues, whereas compromise was reported as a preferred
around

a

more

personal topics. Similarly, confrontation was reported

preferred mode around conflicts originating in factual or knowledge

differences,
modes

whereas

around

compromise and smoothing were reported as preferred

sources of conflict more closely associated with individual

personalities or opinions.
Similarly,

Howat

superior-subordinate
built
They

into

the

collected

selected

"other"
the

in

five

a

power

and

research

dependency

on

the

differences are

as a function of organizational position.

information

from

one

supervisor and a randomly

from 113 state service agencies in California.

constructed

as

Likert

scales

to

assess

conflict situation.

both

The
the

The strategies measured were based on

categories suggested by Blake & Mouton (1964).
that

perceptions
of

survey

(1980)conducted

and the dominant conflict management strategies employed by the

concluded

use

where

relationship

were

frequency

London

dyad

subordinate

instruments

&

of

these

concluded

that

use

The researchers

of forcing and withdrawal were positively related to

conflict

frequency and that differential perceptions for

strategies

were

attributions

related

of

intent

to

job

were

position.

The authors

important influences in a

conflict situation.
It

should

management

be

strategy

noted

that a model to predict the choice of conflict

employed

by

subordinates in a superior-subordinate

dyad

is presented in the literature by Musser (1982).

that

high

stakes

dependency
support

are

differences.
this

attributions

model,
of

intent

conflict situation.

inherent

in

Although,

the
Musser

dyad

This model assumes

because of the power and

does not provide any data to

the

presentation

suggests the

and

behavior of the "other"

importance

of

as variables in the

In

contrast

conflict

behavior

methodology

in

a

laboratory

setting

using

developed from the gaming literature.

an

Based on

two-dimensional model developed by Ruble & Thomas (1976), a series of

experimental
assess

games were conducted with 100 male undergraduate subjects to

the

competing,

use

that

five

different

conflict

accommodating,

conflict

unidimensional
choices

of

compromising,

indicated

management

on

cooperativeness

and

a

perceptions

involve

dichotomy.

two-dimensional

assertiveness,

strategies:

and collaborating.

cooperation-competition

based

of

the survey approach, Cosier & Ruble (1981) examined

management

experimental
the

to

model

The results
more

When
which

avoiding,

than

a

given

five

assesses

both

subjects elected to compete only 33%

the time and there was movement toward collaboration over the series.

Additionally,
match

that

reciprocal

behaviors,

where participants shifted modes to

of the "other party", w ere.reported with the highest level of

reciprocal collaboration noted in the last sequence.

Major Criticisms of Research on Intergroup Conflict
The
to

the

major

limitations

measures.
of

the

criticisms

The
major

Renwick,

inherent

in ex post facto studies using self-report

problem of social desirability as a response bias in some
studies

1972)

probability

relating to research in this area are related

of

has

(Blake

been

response

&

Mouton,

pointed
bias

out

1964; Lawrence & Lorsch,

1967;

by Kilmann & Thomas (1977).

The

in some of these major studies has raised

serious questions about the validity of the findings.
Secondly,
unidimensional,
criticized
behavior

as
(Cosier

limitations

incurred

cooperative-competitive
an
&

inadequate
Ruble,

by

studies

dichotomy,

conceptualization

1981;

Ruble

& Thomas,

have
of

employing

a

been seriously

conflict-handling

1976).

The research

33
which

has

that

conflict

Studies
for

been

of

conducted

on the two-dimensional approach has suggested

behavior involves both evaluative and dynamic dimensions.

conflict

analysis

of

which fail to include this two-dimensional approach

conflict

management

in the organizational setting are

viewed as lacking in depth.
Recommendations
instruments
conflict
that

need

in

to

the

in

the

be

literature

developed

organizational

there is a need not only

also a need for coding systems
A

final

suggested
structural
in
in

that

many

can

characteristics

future

setting.

research

that validated
on intergroup

Thomas (1976) has pointed out

for validated self-assessment measures, but
to assess ongoing conflict behavior.
be

sources

for

suggested

drawn from previous research

of

intergroup

which has

conflict are rooted in the

of the organization.

Very few of the studies

the literature have attempted to assess the relationship of variations
organizational

behaviors.
may

criticism

have

characteristics

Additionally,

influence

conflict

not been clearly defined.

the

to

individual

conflict

management

characteristics of the organization which

management behavior at the individual level have

34

Summary
The

five

major

studies which have been presented are summarized in

Table 2:

Table 2
Summary: Five Studies of Intergroup Conflict in the Organization

Researchers

Characteristics of the Study

Schmidt & Kochan

Lawrence & Lorsch

Renwick

Howat & London

Cosier & Ruble

Several
described
the

in

research

Mailed survey, self-assessments.
ORG STR: goal differences, power distribution
and interdependence.
CONFLICT: one dimensional (high/low)
Questionnaire, self-assessments.
Org. Types and Degree of Success
ORG STR: differentiation, integration and
performance.
CONFLICT: one dimensional (forcing, smoothing,
confrontation)
Questionnaire, self-assessments.
ORG STR: not assessed
CONFLICT:
two dimensional (forcing, smoothing,
confrontation, withdrawal, compromise)
Mailed survey, superior and subordinate dyads
with self and other-assessments.
ORG STR:
not assessed
CONFLICT: two dimensional (forcing, smoothing,
confrontation, withdrawal, compromise)
Laboratory observations of "games"
ORG STR:
not assessed
CONFLICT: two dimensional (competing, avoiding,
accommodating, compromising, collaborating)

important conclusions may be drawn from the research studies
this section.
which

First, these studies illustrate that most of

has been conducted on conflict in the organizational

35
setting
survey
cast

has

relied

procedures.
serious

efforts

strongly

influence

these

have

of

imposed

behavior collected through

by possible response bias have
Secondly, previous

indicated that organizational characteristics may

individual conflict management behavior, yet only two
have

Thirdly,

attempted to assess the impact of organizational
research

efforts conducted in both the laboratory

the field indicate that conflict management behavior involves both an

evaluative

(cooperative

unassertive)
the

Limitations

studies

structures.
and

self-assessments

doubt on the validity of these studies.

research

of

on

-

dimension.

impact

of

uncooperative)
None

and

a

dynamic

(assertive -

of these studies have attempted to assess

organizational

characteristics

in

combination

with

a

two-dimensional model of conflict behavior.

Part

I

definition
the

of

on

be

setting,

conflict.

on

the

historical views toward conflict in

sources

of

conflict

rooted

in

the

In

organizational

relating

to

Part

II,

theory

attention will be turned to the
and

research.

The

historical

structural characteristics of the organization

described in the first section and the second section will focus

research

emphasis

conflict,

the organization, and the research which has been conducted

intergroup

perspectives

review of the literature has focused on the elusive

intergroup

of

literature

will

the

organizational

structure
on

of

related

will

be

to dimensions of organizational structure.
given

formalization and size.

to

the

characteristics

of

Special

centralization,

36

PART II:

Section 1:
The

study

of

over

the

developed
inquiry

meriting

Organizational

predict

behavior

concerned,
of

organizational

behavior has only

has

space

emerged

from

which

the

in the sociological literature.

have

this

literature as the set of

been

organizational

postulated to describe or

setting.

It

is

primarily

not with individual behavior, but with the collective behavior
in

environment

and

development

of

Scott’s

review

significant

in

and

thirty years as a distinct field of scientific

relationships

individuals

from

past

theory

and

Historical Perspectives on Structure

organizations

a

concepts

Literature on Organizations

social

in

units

pursuit

of

organizational
(1981)

provides

typology

an

overall

under

a

specific
theory
of

is

defined structure in a given
goals.

A brief review of the

presented which draws heavily

theoretical

perspective

models.

through

This historical

which

research

on

organizational structure may be viewed.

The Classical Rational System Theorists
The

early

characteristics
labor
and

research

in

organizations

concentrated

on

specific

of certain organizational types (e.g. research on factory

unions by Whyte, 1946) and later turned to emphasis on productivity
"scientific

study

of

managing
highly
theorists

the
work

management"
workplace

resulted

based

notions

criticized
laid

administrative

(Taylor,

a

on
by

in
of

subsequent

conceptual

principles

1911, 1947).

the development of principles for
structure

researchers,

foundation

(Barnard,

Taylor’s systematic

1938;

in

and compliance.
Taylor

and

Though

the

early

the development of general
Fayol,

1919/1949;

Gulick &

37

Urwick,

1937;

however,

was

Mooney

&

Reiley,

1939).

The emphasis in these efforts,

on maximizing productivity with no real attempt to describe

generic organizational types and structures.
The

translation

(1906-1924/1946;
theory

had

asserted
structures

and

English

1924/1947)

of

the

writings

of

Max

Weber

and the introduction of Weber’s bureaucratic

a strong impact on views of organizational structure.

that

the ideal organization was

which

contrived

into

rendered

arrangements.

goals

authority;

and
a

division

a

competence;

separation

a

of

system

as

characterized by certain formal

more

effective

than less rationally

He focused on authority relations, formalization

described

procedures;

it

Weber

bureaucracy

labor;

for

a

system

selection

of

as

and

having:
of

a

hierarchy

impersonal

promotion

rules

of
and

based on technical

personal and official property; and a view of

employment as a career by participants.
Based

on

Weber's conceptions of the ideal organization, a number of

researchers

embarked

of

types

diverse

1954;

Merton,

organizations
fundamental

on

of

1963;
were

empirical research dealing with various aspects

organizations
Simon,

viewed

vechicle

(Blau,

1945/1957).

1955, 1957, 1968; Gouldner,

Under the rational perspective,

as closed systems where structure served as a

through

which

organizations

achieved

bounded

rationality.
A
concepts
Parker

more

complex

rooted
Follett

integration,
domination,

in

structure

in

a

discussed

in

the

on

organizational

management

social psychology were evidenced in the

(1924;

which
and

perspective

1925/1941).

entailed

She

discussed the

collaboration

without

conscious

literature,

organization.

Follett's

work

work of Mary

principle

of

the

for

focused on the shared distribution of power
socially

with

Though

need

as a central
not widely

reflects a philosophical

38

stance

apart

from

those of her contemporaries and stands as a precursor

of the natural system perspective to follow.

The Natural System Theorists
The
advent

rational system perspective came under severe criticism with the
of

which

the human relations movement and the work of Elton Mayo (1945)

heavily

influenced organizational thought in the second quarter of

the

century.

one

of three major schools of thought under the natural systems approach.

Scott

has

further

perspective
emphasis

Scott (1981) has classified the human relations movement as

as

on

identified

(a)

elements

common

an acknowledgement

operative

goals

of

to

informal

the

natural system

structure, (b) an

versus stated goals, and (c) an underlying

structural-functional model of analysis.
The
famous

importance

of informal

structure was highlighted in series of

studies carried out at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric

Company
Dickson,

in the late 1920's and early 1930's (Mayo, 1945 j Roethlisberger &
1930).

These

rational

system

view

assembly

workers.

experiments
to

were

determine

The results

originally designed under the

optimum

raised

illumination

levels

for

questions about the traditional

assumptions of worker motivation based solely on economic factors.
The
more

Hawthorne

complex

factors.

models

The

studies

served

as a catalyst for the development of

of socio-psychological motivation based on multiple

classical

notions

of structure were severely scrutinized

and

increasing skepticism about the rationality of heavily formal systems

led

to

the

"Hawthorne

measuring

acknowledgement of informal norms and interactions.

human

In addition,

Effect" was established as a potential source of error in
behavior

due

to

the

factors of novelty, awareness of

participant status, experimental feedback, and attention from observers.

39

The
dealt

second

with

develop

aspect

the

issue

operative

of
of

goals

versus

in

account

of

changes

War

I

pointed out the ways in

can

result

a

the

system

classical view which came into question

goals.

(1915/1949)

become

the

the

development

The

process

by which organizations

stated

goals

was analyzed by Michels

"Iron

Law of Oligarchy".

of

the

within the socialist party in Germany prior to World
which power shifts within the organization

in concomitant shifts in the goal structure, where the means
end.

Under this conception the organization can be viewed as

concerned with self-maintenance to the point where goals may be

distorted or ignored in an effort to survive (Gouldner,
The

thirdelement

natural
of

His

system

analysis.

Malinowski,

which

1959).

characterizes schools of thought under the

perspective is

the underlying structural-functional model

Influences from the field of the social anthropology (e.g.,
1939)

led

the

where it is

that

structural element meets a functional need of the system and thus

of

be

make

Further
issue

Structural-functionalism assumes

explained in terms of its consequences.

differentiation

may

function.

model

that

can

follows

structual-functional

assumed
a

form

to

and

overlapping

linkages

between

complexities

are

of

origins

which

form

is not

of structures within a given system

and

introduced

However, varying degrees

function
when

the

impossible

to define.

focus is shifted to the

adequately addressed under this model of

analysis.
One
by

of

Talcott

through:

the

Parsons

analyze

(1951,

1960) to describe how social systems function

adaptation, goal-attainment,

maintenance).
direct

most complex of the natural system models was developed

This

research,
diverse

but

general
rather

social
a

types of groups.

integration

and latency (pattern

system model was not the product of

lifelong

effort

to

conceptualize and

Parsons acknowledged varying levels of

40
analysis

in

(micro),

the

believed

that

of

a

the

model

which

structural

given

he

(meso)

termed
and

as

the

social-psychological

the ecological (macro) levels.

He

structural differentiation was related to the requirements
function

characteristic

that

and

that

priority

distinguished

on

goal-attainment

organizations

from

was

other

the

social

arrangements.
Another
approach

model

and

which

researchers

(Clark,

1979;

&

Zald

developed
work

by

involved

established

the

character
aspects
the

as

a

guide

Messinger,

1955;

for

a

Perrow,

number

of

later

1961, 1967, 1970,

is the institutional model of organization
1949).

Selznick's most notable empirical

indepth investigation of the governmental agency (TVA)
1930's

to

provide

support

for

the flood ravaged

He asserted that over time each organization develops
structure
of

which

is . related

to

the

nonrational,

functioning and that the need for self-maintenance

overriding

organizational
and

1956;

(1948,

a

becomes

served

Selznick

Valley.

nonformal

has

1963)

Tennessee
unique

shares characteristics with the natural systems

Denton,

an

in

which

function

structure

adapts

to insure its survival.

of all systems.

He further noted that

and changes to meet environmental needs

The strategy of

"cooptation", participation

in

decision-making by those external to the system, is described as a way

of

obtaining

ways

that

environmental

organizational

support
goals

and

are

at the same time as one of the

diverted in an effort to guarantee

survival.
The

natural

organizational
organizational
theorists,

behavior
influences.

workers

Organizational

system

were

structure

theorists
as

the
In

the

motivated

provided
product

of

mechanistic

new
both
view

ways

of

viewing

individual

and

of the classical

purely through economic incentives.

was designed for maximum efficiency, and it was

assumed

that

worker

perspective,
The

workers

focus

on

improving
follow

cooperation

follow.

In the natural system

viewed as responding to multiple incentives.

organizational structure shifted to motivating workers and

morale.

with

were

would

the

organizations

It

was assumed that cooperation and compliance would

development

could

be

of

more

structured

complex
to

theories to predict how

increase

motivation

and

job

satisfaction.
Two
and

of

the

most

decision-making

1957)*

Barnard

individual's
based

on

notable writers to deal with issues of compliance

were Chester Barnard (1938) and Herbert Simon (1945»

pioneered

notions

of

voluntary

compliance

based

an

"zone of indifference" and organizational incentive systems
a

variety

of

inducements.

Likewise,

Simon

(1945,

1957)

recognized

the importance of both material and nonmaterial incentives and

advocated

the

development

authority

as

a

superior

theorists

discussed

system,

and

as

preferred

a

of

means

internalized

compliance

for gaining cooperation.

communication

over

imposed

Both of these

patterns in relationship to the total

Simon provided a rationale for decentralized decision-making
organizational

structure

under

conditions

where

information accessibility is limited by time or proximity.
Other

researchers,

implications
school,

efforts
Y

development

separate
include:

and

drawing

from

the

branches

of

research.

Examples of these

McGregor’s (1950) development of Theory X and

as philosophical conceptions of human behavior; Likert’s (1961)
of

the

"linking

leadership

traits

of

Herzberg’s

needs;

independently

informal group process derived from the human relations

developed

research
Theory

for

working

by

pin"

model

of

supervision;

research on

Stogdill & Coons (1957); Maslow’s (1954) hierarchy
(1966)

two-factor

compliance theory of Katz & Kahn (1966).

theory

of motivation; and the

42

The

natural

between

organizations

relationship

of

arrangements

was

(1960)

systems theorists stressed the commonalities that exist

and

changes
science,

the

&

Kahn

about

other

types

environment

generally

Katz

brought

and

to

ignored
(1966)

the

by

as

of

social

systems.

internal

these

The

organizational

theorists,

with Parsons

the notable exceptions.

The rapid

by knowledge growth and technological advances in

transportation, communication and industry set the stage for the

open systems perspective.

The Open Systems Theorists
The

open

systems

individual

behavior,

exists

an

or

in

the

perspective
group

of

literature.

following

to

the

setting

environmental
Weber

relationship

behavior

or

that in order to understand

organizational structure as it

organizational setting, one must also consider the context

environmental

importance

assumes

in

which

variables

that

behavior

occurs.

The

is not new to the social science

(1924/1947) discussed the rise of capitalism and its

economic
Protestant

development and religious values in the period
Reformation.

Katz

&

Kahn

(1966) noted the

importance

of

the

psychology

of

organizations.

that

of

the writing on open systems theory is incomplete and fails

much

to

connect

open systems view in their explorations of the social

functional

Pfeffer & Salancik (1978) argue, however,

aspects

of

organizations

with

environmental

context.
The
of

orgins of the the open systems perspective as a theoretical area

pursuit has been most closely associated with the biologist Ludwig von

Bertalanffy

(1956).

noted

systems

that

In
in

his development of a general systems theory, he
many

disciplines

are characterized by elements

43

which

are

elements

related
within

type.

in

coupled

interdependent

organisms

systems,
systems

with
1967).

level

has

constructed

been
the

are

flexible

(Buckley,

of

The degree to which

examples

of

tightly

bound,

highly

whereas, social organizations are examples of loosely

parts

many

fashion.

the system are bound together varies according to system

Biological

dependent

an

A

structures and independently functioning

typology
by

of systems according to complexity

Boulding (1956), and he emphasizes that

theoretical models dealing with organizations are rooted in

the lower eschelons of this typology.
Scott
underwent
finally

(1981) has suggested that the models to describe organizations
a

major

made

identifies

its
a

organizational
as

the

shift
way

in the early 1960's as the open systems notion

into

re-emergence

theoretical perspectives.
of

work of the 1960's

Rational,

Open

Systems

rational system

Additionally, he
notions

in

the

and 1970's. He has typed this category
Models

and further

differentiated two

subtypes within the group.
In
of
The

the first subtype, studies primarily focused on formal structures

the organization in relationship to numerous environmental variables.
systems

influences
to

are

viewed

(independent

efficiently

achieve

as

open

and

thus

subject

to

environmental

variables) and are viewed as rationally designed
goals through structural arrangements (dependent

variables).

The units for analysis for these studies were organizations,

rather

individuals,

than

examined

were

examples

of

Pugh

and

and

the

environmental

variables

size (demand), technology and uncertainty.
this

Scott provides

subtype in the studies of Udy (1959), Woodward (1965),

colleagues

Blau (1970, 1974).

most often

(Pugh,

Hickson, Hinings & Turner, 1968, 1969), and

44
Scott's
focus

on

demands

subtype

is

characterized by pragmatic studies which

improving system design by matching organizational structure to
of

referred

a

to

Galbraith
This

second

given
as

environment.

contingency

(1973)•

Swinth

This

theory

(1974)

branch

and

is

of

research

has been

exemplified in the work of

and Lawrence and Lorsch (1967, 1969).

view stresses the relationship between environmental uncertainty and

the

amount of information which the organization must process to adapt to

environmental demands.

Scott states:

"Various structural arrangements,
including rules, hierarchy,
and decentralization,
may be viewed as mechanisms determining
the information processing capacity of the system.
The design
challenge is to select a structural arrangement appropriate for
the information processing requirements of the tasks to be
performed." (Scott, 1981, p. 115)

The

two

variables
exist
I,

subtypes

and

but

internal

structural

structural

characteristics are

by

contingency

notion

available

structural
capacity.

that

causal

links between environmental

characteristics

of the organization

that the direction of determination is unclear.

determined

are

suggest

environmental

to

determination

provide

dependent

influences.

information
may

conception

may

as

Under

variables,

Subtype

II,

the

suggests that a given set of environmental influences

arrangements
This

viewed

Under Subtype

be

be

to

the

selected

to

organization
maximize

its

such that
adaption

could suggest a reciprocal arrangement where

mutually

shared

between

the

organizational and

environmental levels.
In

an

attempt

systems

perspective,

operate

at

level

and

different
the

to

combine

Thompson
levels

institutional

notions
(1967)

(the

of

rationality

proposed that:

with the open

(a) organizations

technologiocal level, the managerial

level);

(b) organizations seek to buffer

45

their

core

rational

technologies

systems

organizations
the

from

environmental

perspective

are

open

influences

and

thus, the

is most applicable at this level; and

systems

(c)

and rely on environmental influences at

institutional level and thus, the natural systems perspective is most

applicable
various

at

this

level.

Thompson argues that within the organization

types of technology may exist and he distinguishes three distinct

technology-types based on the inputs and outputs required.
Etzioni
are

both

issues

(1964) has argued that the rational and natural perspectives

encompassed
of

power

organizations
notions
that

within

a structuralist model which centers on the

and

authority.

He

on

compliance

which

based

has

developed

draws

on

a

typology

some

of Marx (1844/1972) and Weber (1906-1924/1946).

of

of the basic

Etzioni contends

the interests of managers and workers are inherently in conflict and

thus,

the

issue

organizations
which

power

structure

of

control

function.
is

viewed

The

is central

to

distribution

an
of

understanding

of how

power and the bases upon

as legitimate relate to both formal and informal

as well as group interaction, reward systems and organizational

interaction with the environment.
The
1960 's,

rational,
but

open

systems models dominated research efforts in the

the

assumptions

researchers

in

the

non-rational

aspects of organizational functioning under the open systems

perspective

has

perspective

on

1970'sand

created
the

of rationality

anew

relationships

structure, and human behavior.

1980's.

generation
between

have
The

of

been

challenged by

shift

to

theorists

environment,

encompass

and

a

new

organizational

46
The Open Natural System Theorists
The
of

theoretical perspectives which have characterized the literature

the 1970's and 1980 's have placed a heavy emphasis on the influence of

environments
which

on

both the types and the structural forms of organizations

populate

subtypes

them.

within

Aldrich

the

&

Pfeffer

(1976)

environmental approaches:

have

identified two

Subtype I - the natural

selection model and, Subtype II - the resource dependence model.
Subtype
which

I is derived from Darwin's (1859) model of natural selection

was

social

originally

systems,

applied

the

model

to

suggests

adaptable— provide

the

imposed

environment

by

perspective
Campbell
and

is

(1979).

differentiation
for

Subtype
suggests

scanning

the

the

most

earlier

likely

writings

to

survive.

This

of Hawley (1950) and

a

geographical

is

area

in a biological system, and a

the boundaries of a somewhat fluid system (Aldrich,
1979).

described
more

survival.

as
active

In

the

resource dependence model and it

role

for

organizations

in

their

contrast to the image of environmentally

environment,
necessary

assessing

adaption

environmental

mechanisms

to

demands,

reduce

and

dependence,

power and insure survival. This approach has been manifested in

literature

Salancik,

the conditions and requirements

organizations, this model views the organization as capable of

incorporating
increase

organizations which are most

types and organizational forms, comparable to species

somewhat
and

will be

the

1978; Warriner,

a

maintenance
"selected"

for

II

fit— to

When applied to

This approach requires a classification system for

defining

1979; Freeman,

in

that

systems.

and more recently in the work of Hannan & Freeman (1977)

environmental

method

closest

evident

(1969)

Aldrich

both

the

biological

under a variety of terminologies (Jacobs, 1974; Pfeffer &

1978; Thompson,

1967, Wamsley & Zald, 1973, Zald, 1970).

47
Hannan
imposed

&

on

hinder

their

an

(1977)

organizations

structural
from

Freeman

ability

inertia

have

from

to

adapt

discussed

some

of

the limitations

both internal and external sources which
and

(Burns & Stalker,

which

result in a high degree of

1961; Stinchcombe, 1965).

Speaking

ecological perspective, they argue that these pressures lower an

organizations’s
selection

adaptive

model

consideration

to
to

environmental

flexibility and provide support for the natural

populations
influences

variables

of:

(a)

of

organizations.

Further, they give

on

organizational

structure

competition,

in

the

as a function of limited

resources, and (b) size, as a function of environmental demand.
Coming

from

perspective,
which
p.

a

much

more

micro-analytically

based

open

systems

Karl Weick (1969, 1976) has focused on aspects of organizing

"prove intractable to analysis through rational assumptions" ( 1976 ,

218).

between

He

describes

social

loose

organizations

coupling

as

a

functional relationship

and their environments which increases the

probability of organizational survival.
Further,
filtering

Weick

information

constructing
then

an

adapts.
given

to

may

be

viewed

creating,
survival

from

the

environment

which

is then employed in

image of environmental reality to which the organization

Subjective judgment is thus given in retrospect and meaning

is

action only after it has occured. In this sense, organizing
as

a

system

in which the actors play an active part in

selecting and retaining information about the environment.
of

structures
information
of

defines enactment as an organizational mechanism for

the
of
to

system

the
be

is

dependent

organization

are

upon
capable

the
of

degree
allowing

to

The

which the
variety

in

absorbed into the system and at the same time capable

organizing and reducing this variety through rules and procedures such

that adaption capability is maximized (Weick, 1969, 1979).

48

Meyer
are

&

Rowan

created

and

organizational

operate

form.

institutionalized
into

(1977). in a similar vein, suggest that organizations
on a set of rationalized myths which influence

They state that organizations which exist in highly

and

complex environments must incorporate these myths

their structures

in order to legitimize their activities and enhance

their

ability

environment

to

survive.

This

tendency

for

isomorphism

with

the

could be rationally related to the need to reduce uncertainty

in

exchanges

with

the environment (Aiken & Hage, 1968; Thompson,

or

more naturally related to the enactment of rationalized conceptions of

socially constucted reality (Berger & Luckmann,
The
with

encompassed

picture

of

the

level,

factors.

complexity

subjective
yet

addition,

The

be

a

tailor's

inherent

of

the

enacted
measuring

is

within

complicated
the

At the

by a number of

perspective

related to

both organizational and environmental reality

described

attempting

organizationally
of

further research

definitions
to

in the natural models of organizing, create a
influences on organizational structure.

macro-analytic

have

1967),

concepts included in the open systems perspective, when combined

concepts

complex

1967),

in

a

comprehensive

theoretical model.

In

measurement of loosely coupled elements within
boundaries bears resemblance to the application
tape to the waist of an ameoba.

It would seem

that much thought needs yet to be given to this branch of research.

*»9

Summary
The

typology

studies
into

of

developed

organizational

by

Scott

provides

structure.

It

a conceptual locus for

places this conceptual locus

a general time frame and broadens the conceptual scenery for a given

research
not

study.

only

notions

on
of

The

notions of closed systems and rational action bear

structure
open

but

boundaries

also
and

on

function.

Likewise, contrasting

myth-management

as

mechansims

for a

primary goal of survival bear heavily on the question of functionality.
The
the

theoretical

importance

literature.
assess

in

relation
of

dimensions

have been described illustrate

characteristics

in

the

organizational

of organizational structure as dependent variables

to aspects of the environment.
researchers

structure

as

dependent

variables.

basis

structural

which

At the macro-analytic level a few researchers have attempted

to

number

of

perspectives

have

independent

investigated

variables

in

At the meso-analytic level a
dimensions

relationship

of organizational
to

a

variety of

Most of these meso-level studies assume a rational

for action and acknowledge the influence of environmental variables

as beyond the their scope.

50
Section 2;
The

sheer

structure
and

volume

of

literature

which

relates

to organizational

and the inherent complexities introduced by both methodological

theoretical

The

Research on Organizational Structure

studies

presented

differences

and

formalization
definition

inconsistencies limit the extensiveness of this review.

offer

and

of

highlight

size

a

basis

as

methodological
for

relevant

examination

and
of

theoretical

centralization,

organizational characteristics.

A

organizational structure and a brief overview of the three

organizational

characteristics

of interest precede the discussion of the

research.

Organizational Structure Defined
Organizational

structure

has

been

defined by Blau C197^) as, "the

distributions,

along various lines, of people among social positions that

influence

role relations among these people" (p.12).

not

a

the

unanimously

suggest

agreed

upon

definition

in

While this is

the literature, it does

a division of labor and the need for mechanisms to coordinate and

control efforts aimed at organizational goal attainment.

Three Organizational Characteristics

Centralization
Centralization
organization.

Hage

participation
groups

in

variable
departments

has

in

the
nature
or

been defined as the distribution of power in the

(1980)

defines

it

as

"the

level

and variety of

strategic decisions by groups relative to the number of
organization"
of

power

positions.

(p.
as

65).
an

Thus,

This definition emphasizes the
organizational
while

one

unit

attribute
may

be

across
highly

51

centralized,

another

decentralized.
assessments
(Pugh

et

unit

in

the

Centralization

same

has

organization

been

measured

33).
the

important

and

over

B

is

objective

equal

or

or

to

be

made

1968).

here is the relationship between

Emerson (1962) has emphasized that, "The power of
to, and based upon, the dependence of B upon A" (p.

dependence

resources

resources

point

dependency.

This

Thus,

highly

a l ., 1968) and by subjective measures relying on perceptions of

One

A

through

be

of the locus of authority for decison-making in the hierarchy

respondents in the organization (Aiken & Hage,

power

may

is

goals

goals

influenced by the importance that B places on
controlled

in

by

A and the availability of these

the environment (outside the A-B relationship).

interdependencies

and

shared

resources

reflect aspects of power

relationships in the organization.

Formalization
Formalization
relationships
independent
occupants

are
from

of

has

been

specified
the

positions

in

formalization

relationships

between

&

Dunkerley,

formalization

also

by

carries

the
and

of

extent to which roles and
procedures

the

incumbents

the organization.
serves

positions
1980).

as

rules

personalities

rationality,

(Clegg

defined

and

to

and
who

thus,
serve

are
as

Resting on assumptions of

make

visible

the

proposed

thus serves as a basis for control

Hall (1982) has suggested that the degree of
a

political

meaning in that it reflects an

underlying philosophy about organizational workers.
One

of

the

characteristic
researchers
"written"

is

have

most
the

problematic

variation

aspects

of

research

on

this

in the way it has been measured.

Some

measured formalization with objective measures in which

rules are taken as indicators of formal structure (Pugh et al.,

52

1968).

Others,

subjective

however,

survey

discrepancies

have

approaches

which

measured

(Aiken

&

formalization

Hage,

using

more

1968) which recognize the

may exist between written rules and the actual rules

as they are applied.

Si ze
The

size

dimension
1966 ),

an

of

but

factor

has

been

organizational
most

examined

structure

by

a

(Aldrich,

few

researchers

1972;

as a

Hall & Tittle,

investigators have treated it as a blocking variable or

environmental

variable indicative of demand (Blau & Schoenherr,1971*

Pugh

et

a l .,

such

as

physical capacity (number of beds), inputs or outputs (number of

clients),

1969).

It

discretionary

measure being that

has been measured using different indicators,

resources

(net

assets),

with

the most common

of the number of participants (Kimberly,

1976).

Studies of Organizational Structure
The
is

research

basically

environmental
with

two

of

has been conducted on organizational structures

types.

factors

dimensions

studies,

and

In

some

studies

organizational

structure

as

the

the

structure

dependent

linkages

between

have been examined

variables.

In other

structural characteristics have been examined as determinants of

individual
independent
most

of

which

behavior

with

variables.

extensively

technology, and size.

dimensions
The

include

of organizational structure as the

characteristics
centralization,

which have been researched
formalization,

complexity,

53

In

a

University
1963;

Pugh

sample

of

in

the

assess

series
of

Aston (Pugh, Hickson, Hinings, MacDonald, Turner & Lupton,

et

a l , 1968, 1969)» sets of data were collected from a large

52

mid

diverse work organizations in the Birmingham, England area
1960’s.

five

of

The

dimensions

standardization,
underlying

of studies conducted by Pugh and his associates at the

of

team

developed objective scales- to

organizational

structure:

specialization,

configuration, formalization, and centralization.

contextual

authority

research

and

factors,

line

Three

structuring of activities, concentration

control

of work, were identified as independent

variables with organizations serving as the unit of analysis.
In
1969;
data

subsequent
Hickson,

were

and

combination

and

& Pheysey,
analyzed

variables

Technology,

these

Pugh

further

structural
element

analyses by the Aston group (Pugh, Hickson & Hinings,

as

with

contextual factors as independent and

dependent.

Size

was

assessed

with

as

another

contextual

of

studies

scales

to

showed

on

the

three

measure

size

standardization

Technology,

1969; Inkson, Pugh & Hickson, 1970), the

and

different objective indicators.
element,

workflow

was

assessed

integration.

with

a

Results from

to be strongly correlated with formalization
negatively

other

was included as a contextual

hand,

correlated

showed

only

with
modest

centralization.
correlations

to

structural factors.
Findings
technology

by
were

inconsistent.
replication
(1980).

studies

Aldrich
was

be

as

researchers

treated

General

technology
viewed

other

by

(1972)

as

support
Child

where

the

environmental
for
(1972,

reanalyzed

factors
variables

of

size
have

and
been

the Aston findings were reported in
1973) and Grinyer & Yasai-Ardekani
the

Aston

data

and

argued

that

the primary determinant of structure and that size should
a

dependent

variable.

Other researchers have also found

54

technology

to be a better predictor of organizational structure than size

(Thompson,
from

1967;

Japanese

technology
tasks

Woodward,
factories

as

1965).
have

More recently, researchers using data

argued

that

the

importance of size and

influences on structure may vary depending on the kinds of

performed

by the organization (Marsh & Mannari, 1981; Ouchi,

1977;

Ouchi & Jaeger, 1978).
Hall,

Haas

organizations
and

the

Size,

found

very

structural

employees

dependent
heavily

(1967)

in

their

study

of

75

diverse

weak relationships between organizational size

characteristics

as

on

of

indicator.

was

measured

written documentation.

organizations

neither

the

variables,

classifications

in

Johnson

complexity

and formalization.

as the independent variable, was measured using the total number of

paid

for

&

on

Formalization,
with

five

organizational

one

of the two

indicators which focused

Categorical rankings were established

each of the variables and in some cases subjective

were made by the researchers.

complexity

as

nor

The authors concluded that

formalization were related to size and increases

size

did

not

lead to greater emphasis on formalized

control mechanisms.
Blau
Klatzky,

and

his colleagues (Blau, 1968; 1970; Blau & Schoenherr, 1971;

1970 )

strong

positive

agency

and

jobs

and

were

used

a

state

associations

state levels.

employment security agencies and reported
between

size

and

structure

at both the

Differentiation was indicated by the number of

levels within an organization and written personnel regulations
as objective indicators of formalization.

Size was treated as

contextual variable and number of employees was used as the indicator.

Blau

&

Schoenherr

formalization
to

studied

explained

their

findings

by

suggesting

that

with limited scope of discretion is actually an alternative

centralization

in

exercising social control.

This view is supported

55
by

Child

(1972)

( 1980 )

in

and

their

further

elaborated on by Grinyer & Yasai-Ardekani

discussions

of

professional

qualifications

in

bureaucratic organizations.
Very
Hage

different

(1968)

and

in

strategies

from

three

(196M,

individual

were

aggregated

then

computed

interdependence.

1967*

across

and

These

researchers collected

an

scales were developed to

positions.

Means for each social position were

average

derive

to

were

indicators.
as

Subjective

of structural characteristics and scores

formalization

multiple

interdependence,

1970).

perceptions

into

Centralization
using

were employed by Aiken &

16 social welfare agencies in a large midwestern metropolis in

waves

measure

assessment

their study of organizational structural characteristics

intra-organizational

data

of

evidenced

organizational

score.

measured with Likert-type scales

They
by

an

found

that

organizational

a large number of joint programs, was

related to complexity, innovation and internal communication.
In
from
of

a

the

related

study, Hage, Aiken & Marrett (1971) analyzed the data

16 social welfare agencies using the structural characteristics

centralization,

and

various

found

formalization and complexity as independent variables

measures

that

of communication as the dependent variables.

centralization

communication
horizontal

frequency

interaction

showed

with

a

strong

positive

relationship

They
to

the major flow of communication limited to

between

individuals

of equal status from varied

departments.
Organizational
variables

were

Miskel,

Fevurly

from

a

sample

the

structural

structures

examined
and

in

Stewart

and their relationship to three dependent
a

study
(1979).

of

educational

organizations by

These researchers collected data

of 11H schools using Likert-type questionnaires to assess
properties

of

centralization,

formalization

and

56
complexity.
of

Size,

full-time

The

as a demographic variable, was measured as the number

equivalent

dependent

teachers with schools as the unit of analysis.

variables

for

effectiveness, loyalty

and

Likert-type

Simple

the

scales.

job

this

satisfaction
aggregation

school score for the faculty level.

level

in

were

these

inconsistent

as more effective

but

perceived

school

procedures were used to derive

Responses for the administrative
The results from this study

suggested

were

were

as measured by subjective

schools were not collected.

somewhat

perceived

study

that

characterized

schools

which

were

with less-centralized

decision-making and higher degrees of formalization.

Limitations of the Literature Review
This
to

review

has been limited to a set of representative studies due

methodological

organizational

and

structure. First,

(Blau,

(i.e., nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio).

Pugh et al.,

subjective surveys

(Aiken

intercorrelations

between

were

Secondly,

in some studies was taken from documents or objective records

1968;

structural

literature on

the types

collected

data

the

a variety ofmeasures and with differences in the

of

structural

in

have been

with

the

complexities

characteristics

assessed
data

theoretical

1968) while other studies relied on data from
&

Hage,

the

1968).

objective

Pennings
and

(1973) found low

subjective

measures

of

variables and suggested that different dimensions of structure

being

assessed.

Walton

(1981)

has

cautioned

against

direct

comparisons between studies with different types of structural measures.

and

Theoretical

problems have also been noted in the varying definitions

assumptions

applied

to

dimensions

of

organizational

structure.

Structural

dimensions have been defined and operationalized with numerous

indicators

and

applied

to many different types of organizations.

Under

57

these

conditions,

differently

in

a

structural

organizations

characteristic

may

be

assessed quite

situated in very different environments at

different points in time.
Theoretical
employed
or

to

weighted

measure

for

Hickson

et

in

structure

their

level

Woodward,

complications have also been evidenced in the procedures

depict

various levels of analysis.

aggregation
the

across

1965).

were

employed

to

obtain a single

entire organization (Hage & Aiken, 1967a, 1967b, 1967c;

al., 1969).

of

procedures

In some studies, simple

Other researchers, in recognition of differences

departments within an organization, have restricted

analysis

to

the

department

level

(Khandwalla,

1971*;

58

Summary
The

studies

theoretical

to

results

from

findings
rely

of

structures.
emphasize
these

which

ondiverse

provide

have

been

discusssed

illustrate

both

the

and methodological differences which characterize research on

organizational
selected

which

examples

differences

and

are

These

other

in

studies

from the

literature

were

approach.

The

methodological
tend

to

provide

inconsistent

spread across different levels of analysis and which

measurement

techniques.

These studies

do, however,

a rationale for examination of the organizational characteristics

centralization,

formalization

and

size

as

factors

which

bear

a

relationsip to behavior in the organizational setting.
Part

III

framework
models
model

of
of

conceptual

for

of

this

review

this study.

intergroup
conflict
framework

provides

It includes a summary of the major structural

conflict

behavior

a description of the conceptual

and a description of the two-dimensional

developed

by

Ruble

&

Thomas

(1976).

A

derived from a combined perspective is presented as

the basis for this study.

59

PART III:

The
and

models which have been developed to describe

its outcomes

situation.
others

primary

organization
behavior.
provided

for

place

emphasis

on

intergroup conflict

variousaspects

of the

conflict

Some place primary emphasis on the process of conflict, while

place

there

The Conceptual Framework

and
A

in

are

emphasis

on the structural characteristics of the

the individual characteristics which shape the conflict

synthesized
the

description

literature

by

of

these

two

Thomas (1976).

general models is

He notes that although

many commonalities in the various models from which strategies

conflict

management

are

derived,

a

complex

integrative model of

organizational conflict has yet to be developed.
The
model
is

conceptual

for

viewing

presented

intergroup
briefly

in

framework

three

presented

described.

does

It

design.
prsented

centralization,
combined

study

was based on a combined

sections.

In section one, three major models of

conflict which include aspects of organizational structure are

model

is

this

intergroup conflict in the organizational setting and

two-dimensional

its

for

with

and

summarized.

of
not

conflict

In

the

second

section,

behavior of Ruble & Thomas (1976)

include aspects

the
is

of organizational structure in

In section three, a model for depicting intergroup conflict
in

which

formalization
the

management behavior.

the
and

organizational
size

two-dimensional

as

characteristics

aspects

approach

of

structure

for ■ viewing

of
are

conflict

60

Section 1:

Pondy’s

Model

The

Pondy

conflict
process

(1967)

model

incorporates
and

conflict
of

A Summary of the Structural Models

has

a

(cognition),

directly

(a) latent conflict (conditions),

(c)

felt conflict (affect),

different

asserts

that

into a given

classes

(b) perceived

(d) manifest conflict

and (e) conflict aftermath (conditions).

identifies
but

for intervention

These episodes are depicted as a sequence comprised

five distinct stages:

(behavior),

describing the dynamics of intergroup

series of interlocking episodes in the conflict

implications

situation.

conflict

for

Additionally, Pondy

of conflict phenomena within organizations

the conflict process underlying each of these types is

essentially the same.
Pondy’s

model

competition

for

differences
and

the

this

on

to

the major

resources, (b)

sources of conflict to be (a)
drives

for

autonomy,

and (c)

goals.

The model acknowledges both individuals

context

as contributors to the process.

Within

conflict is viewed as either functional or dysfunctional

its

asserts

relationship to overall organizational effectiveness.

that

although the potential for conflict may exist within

organizational setting, conflict will not emerge unless a decision or

commitment
that

subunit

framework,

Pondy

scarce

organizational

depending

the

in

identifies

"An
set

to

a

gradual

organization's
up

course

of action is taken.

Further, he notes

success hinges to a great extent on its ability

and operate appropriate mechanisms for dealing with a variety

of conflict phenomena" (p. 2 7 0 ).

61

Schmidt & Kochan’s Model
The

model

identifies
rooted

of

three

conflict

types

of

developed

conditions

These

include:

resources;

must
(a)

exist

a

and

conceptualization,

as

&

Kochan

(1972)

It is based on the assumption that

prerequisites to intergroup conflict.

perception

(c)

Schmidt

conflict and relates these to the conditions

in the organizational setting.

three

by

of

goal

interdependent

conflict

incompatibility;
activities.

(b) shared

Under

this

is limited by definition to overt "blocking"

behavior arising from deliberate action.
Given

the

three

preconditions as necessary factors in the conflict

process,

three

types

of

blocking

with

regard

to the sharing of resources is attempted.

II

conflict,

blocking

requirements
attempted
perceive

with

is attempted.

at

both

that

motivation

conflict

to

in

In type

Type III conflict is present when blocking is

have the

engage

In type I conflict,

regard tointerdependencies and mutual task

of these stages.

they

are postulated.

The model assumes that parties must

ability

to

interfere

and that there is

conflict due to perceptions of goal attainment

limitations imposed by a competing subunit (goal incompatibility).

Walton & Dutton's Model
The
&

general

Dutton

(1969)

organizational
in

dealing

which

are

model of interdepartmental conflict developed by Walton

context

are

and

structures

postulated

identified

as having

subunits
as:

and

relationships

in

the

relates these to strategies and consequences

with intergroup conflict.

transactions between
sets

focuseson

within

It includes five sets of variables
a direct

relationship

the organization.

(a) antecedents to conflict,

to

lateral

These variable

(b) attributes of

62
the

lateral

consequences

relationship,
of

the

(c)

management

relationship,

and

(e)

of
the

the

interface,

responses

of

(d)

higher

executives.
They

describe

interunit

conflict

partially

under

inherent

as:

the

considered

particular

in

making

In

joint

management

sources

of

of conflict is

results

lateral

They describe these antecedent

asymmetries, rewards, organizational
ambiguities,

personal

common

characteristics.

resources,
The

authors

largely from factors which originate

relationship

under

consideration

and

(p. 552).
the

interdepartmental

relationship

are also

The ways in which information is exchanged

decisions,

and

major

attitudes

the

structure

between

of

subunits

are

interactions

and

examined and the

relationship is typed as either "integrative" or "distributive".

contrast

flexible

to

and

relationships
structure
theory

relations.

this model.

decision-making,
lateral

of

as

of the participants, conflict potential is

and

conflict

under

although

dissatisfaction,

obstacles,

attributes

antecedents

dependence,

antedate the relationship,"
Three

of

that

control

role

"Manifest

outside

note

mutual

communication

types

departmental

differentiation,

state,

and

the

within

conditions

nine

and

assumes

antecedent

integrative

relationships,

which

are

typed

as open,

positive with manifestations of collaboration, distributive
are

characterized

negative
that

attitudes

by

distorted

information

flow, rigid

with manifestations of conflict.

The

the lateral relationship is first influenced by the

conditions which, in turn, effect the flow of information, the

interaction structure and the interunit trust.
The
management
for

next

component

in

the V/alton & Dutton model is referred to as

of the interface and means strategies used by the organization

dealing with intergroup conflict.

Conflict management strategies are

63
most
the

effective when attention devoted to them most closely corresponds to
degree

1967).

of

differentiation

Lawrence

management
related

and

strategy

Lorsch

between
also

employed

departments (Lawrence & Lorsch,

found

that

the

type

of

conflict

(e.g. forcing, smoothing, confronting) was

to the degree of interunit cooperation and overall organizational

performance.
The

consequences

competition,

of

bargaining,

intergroup

information

decreasing

interaction

between

note

while

of

that

effects

for

depending

some

the

on

conflict

distortion,

units,

and

are

described

as

appeals to superiors,

low trust.

Walton & Dutton

these consequences usually result in negative

organization, others may actually have positive results

the

personalities of the individuals involved and the type

of conflict management strategies employed.
The
low
or

diminish
as

a

developing

conditions
note
a

contextual
for

management.

The

recursive nature of this element

and
and

leading

to

conflict continuation.

Walton &

that this component is perhaps the most problematic

predictive model for intergroup conflict behavior.

acknowledge

conflict

intensity.

feedback loop which can contribute as an additional factor to

further

authors

need

conflict

antecedent

Dutton
in

patterns of superiors to manifestations of conflict and

performance is another important component which can either reinforce

acts
the

response

the

large

number

conflict-reinforcement
structural

sophistication

of
which

potential
are

determinants

rooted

both

in

The
for
the

dimensions of the organization and stress the
of

administrative

response

in

conflict

64

Model Summary
The

three

commonalities.
organization

major
All

models which have been presented share a number of
three include conditions within the structure of the

as sources of conflict.

A summary of these elements for the

three models is presented in Table 3:

Summary:

Table 3
Structural Sources of Conflict in Three Models

MODELS

Pondy

Schmidt &
Kochan

Walton &
Dutton

SOURCES OF CONFLICT
Differentiation
Differing goals
Power
Drive for Autonomy
Asymmetrical Power
Interdependencies
Shared Resources
Mutual Task Dependence
Reward Systems
Rules
Ambiguities
Communication Problems
Intergroup Differences
Role Dissatisfaction

This
related

X

X

X

X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

X
X
X

summary suggests that the elements from the three models can be
to

organization,
as

X

structural
the

rules

differentiation,

the

power

distribution in the

and procedures to deal with uncertainty as well

the intergroup differences which characterize the individuals who work

in the organization.

65

Section 2:
In
model
on

contrast
of

The Two-Dimensional Model of Ruble & Thomas
to

the

intergroup

behavior

revision

and

of

conflict described by Ruble & Thomas (1976) focuses

its

an

models summarized in the previous section, the

consequences

earlier

model

in

a

conflict

situation.

It is a

developed by Blake & Mouton (1964) which

identifies two relevant dimensions in the analysis of conflict behavior.
Thomas

(1976)

competition"
reflecting
limited
have

in

that

a

unidimensional

"cooperation

vs.

approach to the study of conflict behavior is inadequate for
the

complexities involved in human perception.

conceptualizations

been

1969 )

contends

criticized
favor

of

of a conflict issue as a "win-lose" situation

(Blake
a

He notes that

&

Mouton, 1964; Blake et al., 1964; Hall,

two-dimensional

model

which

encompasses

both

evaluative and potency (dynamism) distinctions.
Based
1957),

the

(good

vs.

on

model assumes that individuals tend to attach both evaluative
bad)

assessments
dimensions
attempt

semantic differential research (Osgood, Suci & Tannenbaum,

of

and

dynamic

conflict

are

(active

behavior.

identified

as:

vs.

The

passive)

two

connotations

analytically

to

independent

(a) assertiveness, defined as a party's

to satisfy one's own concerns; and (b) cooperativeness, a party's

attempt to satisfy the concerns of the other party.
This
management

two-dimensional
modes:

(unassertive,
collaborating

model

avoiding

cooperative),

is

used

to

identify

five

conflict

(unassertive, uncooperative), accommodating
competing

(assertive,

uncooperative),

(assertive, cooperative), and compromising (intermediate on

both dimensions).

66

The

two-dimensional model of Ruble and Thomas (1976) is presented in

Figure 2:

Collaborating

Competing

Compromising

Accommodating

Avoiding
Uncooperative

Cooperative
Cooperativeness

Figure 2.

One

of

the

important

collaboration
strategy.

al.,

This

mode

of

this model is the preference for

cooperative) as a dominant conflict management
has

been

related

to

a

1964; Follett, 1925/1941; Lawrence & Lorsch,

Support

for

studies

conducted

designs

have

cooperative

number

of

positive

outcomes by researchers using various terminologies (Blake

Walton & McKersie,

conflict

assumptions

(assertive,

organizational
et

The two-dimensional model of conflict behavior.
Ruble & Thomas, 1976.

1967; Thomas, 1976;

1965).
the

model

has

been

offered by several studies.

Two

by

Ruble

and

Thomas (1976) using different research

provided support for the statistical independence of both a
dimension

behavior.

and an assertiveness dimension with assessments of
In the first study, 150 subjects worked in dyads and

67
rated

the

conflict

responded

to

completed

a

generalized
model

a

other.

Consistent

organizational

of

in

results

(Renwick,

other

response
supporting

Additionally,

context

the

party and also

In the second study, 65 subjects

differential

obtained.

in

behavior

semantic differential.
semantic

were

conducted

management

research

1972 )

and

the laboratory (Cosier & Ruble,

to

behavior

of

a

the two-dimensional
conducted

in

experimental

the

research

1981) have provided support

for the model.
Thomas
the

and

two-dimensional

parties

in

groundwork
They

Pondy

a

behavior
"intent
focuses

on

of
of
on

to

include

the

the

subjective

"other"

perceptions

between

They refer to their "intent" model as

ongoing

elements

meanings

which

parties

attach

to the

and the influence of bias in perception of the

Rooted in attribution theory, this line of research

individual
to

reciprocal

a theory of conflict management among principal parties.

other".

perceptions
discuss

model

conflict situation.

for

focus

(1977) have extended the basic notions underlying

of

the

perceptions
conflict
model

and

the

relationship

management behavior.
and

the

of

these

Thomas and Pondy

role of time lag in effective

conflict management.
The

two-dimensional

conjunction
with

the

presented

with

the

has

not,

however,

been

evaluated

in

important structural attributes more closely associated

organizational
in

model

level

of

analysis.

The conceptual framework

section to follow will attempt to combine perspectives

and describe the rationale upon which this study was based.

68

Section 3:
The
study

conceptual

framework which served as the basis for this research

derived

from a combined perspective which linksdimensions of

was

organizational
behavior

of

predicted

structure
Ruble

that

characteristics
employed

to

the

a
an

model

of conflict

The major hypothesis of the study

relationship would

exist

between the

structural

organization and the modes of conflict management

administrators
is

two-dimensional

and Thomas (1976).

of

by

perspective
major

A Combined Perspective

described

as

in
a

those organizations.

The

combined

multi-level model and is based on eight

assumptions which have been derived from the literature on conflict

and

organizational

the

conclusion

conflict

structure.

that

a

management

organization

at

relationship
employed

and

organization

These assumptions provided the basis for

level.

exist

between the modes of

by individuals at a given level within

perceptions
that

would

of structural

characteristics

of

an
the

These underlying assumptions are presented

in Table 4.
The
employed
in

the

overall
by

conflict

assessment
serve

the

of
as

human
the

unit

behavior. At
of

analysis

the

terminology

and

micro-analytic

Individual

management modes are examples of behavior at this level.
level

Structural

organizations or

sub-groups

level

characteristics most

associated with psychological variables are examined.

meso-analytic
analysis.

perspective incorporates

Hage (1980) in identifying three distinct levels of analysis

individuals
closely

combined

At the

serve as the units of

characteristics of an organization are examples of

sociological variables identified at this level.

69

Table 4
Assumptions Underlying the Combined Model of Conflict Behavior

1.

Conflict is inherent within the structure of an
organization
(Hall, 1982; Schmidt & Kochan, 1972;
Walton & Dutton, 1969).

2.

The degree to which conflict is functional to the
organization is dependent upon its relationship to
organizational effectiveness (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967;
Robbins, 1983).

3.

Individuals tend to employ a "primary mode" of conflict
management (Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967; Renwick, 1975a).

4.

Parties involved in a conflict situation attach both
evaluative and dynamic connotations to assessments of
conflict behavior (Blake & Mouton, 1964; Ruble & Thomas,
1976; Thomas, 1973).

5.

Employment of collaboration (high on assertiveness and
high on cooperativeness) as a primary mode of conflict
management in the organizational setting is most closely
related to long-term organizational effectiveness (Blake,
& Mouton, 1964; Lawrence & Lorsch, 1967; Renwick, 1972).

6 . Organizations are loosely-coupled symbol processing

systems which influence and are influenced by the
environments and perceptions of the environment in
which they exist (Meyer & Rowan, 1977; Scott, 1981,
Weick, 1976).
7.

Organizational structural characteristics in looselycoupled systems vary at different levels and locations
within the organization (Aiken & Hage, 1968; Thompson,
1967).

8 . Structrual characteristics of the organization exert

a greater degree of influence on individual behavior
in the organization than any single individual
characteristic (Kanter, 1977).

70

At

the

macro-analytic

sociological

included

as influences which exert significant effects on behavior at the

relationship
different
of

the

of

contextual

variables

competitive

labor

markets

or

societal

populations or sub-populations of organizations.

school

attitudes

on

Thus, a study

of community attitudes (environmental variables) to

measures

organizations)

are

Research at the macro-analytic level might explore the

relationship

public

or

most

associated

level.

environmental

characteristics

closely

individual

with

level,

would

of

be

an

effectiveness
example

of

(a

sub-population

of

research at the macro-analytic

level of analysis.
This
in

multi-level

the

organizational

differential
different
further
within
both

capacities

levels
assumes

levels.
the

behavior.
primary

model

that
It

macro
The

mode

and

setting assumes a rational basis for action given
to

process

locations

information from the environment at

within

reciprocity

of

the

organization.

The

model

influence exists both between and

does not assume however, that the multiple factors at
and

model
of

for envisioning conflict management behavior

meso-analytic

levels

exert

equal

influence

on

gives preference to collaborative interaction as a

conflict

management behavior for all levels.

depiction of this multi-level model is presented in Figure 3 .

A visual

71

THE MACRO-ANALYTIC LEVEL
(Environments of Organizations)
(Populations of Organizations) /_
(Sub-pops of Organizations)
/

/

Environmental Variables
(i.e. societal attitudes
or economic conditions)
THE MESO-ANALYTIC LEVEL (Organizations)
(Groups) /_
(Sub-groups)/
Organizational

Variables

(i.e. structural or functional
characteristics of orgs.)
THE MICRO-ANALYTIC LEVEL

(Individuals)

Individual Variables
(i.e. con. man. modes)

Figure 3*

A multi-level model for envisioning influences on
conflict management in the organizational setting

72

This

multi-level

conceptual

framework

perspective
which

was

provided

formulated

the

foundation

for

the

for the present study.

The

three

organizational characteristics of centralization, formalization and

size

were

identified as

literature.
the

As

size

independent
(Blau

factor

in

business and

variable

at

the

have

meso-analytic
1972).

variables

in

the

organizational

noted previously, a number of researchers have examined

&Schoenherr,

researchers

important

1971;

argued

level

industrial

macro-analytic
Pugh

that

et

al.,

organizations

as

an

level indicative of demand
1969)•

However,

other

size is more appropriately related to the

of analysis as a structural characteristic (Aldrich,

To complicate matters further, research in Japanese factories has

suggested

that

organizations
present

the

importance of size may vary depending on the type of

involved

study,

size

meso-analytic

level

formalization

and

(Marsh
was

Mannari,

deemed to

and
size

&

of

be

the three
district

1981; Ouchi,
more

closely

variables
were

of

viewed

as

1977).

For the

related

to the

centralization,
organizational

structural characteristics at the meso-analytic level of analysis.
The

literature

management
(Ruble
level.

&

modes

which

1976)

literature

characteristics
combined

management modes.

intergroup conflict identified the five conflict

contained in two dimensional model of conflict behavior

Thomas,
This

on

as

as

important

variables

at the micro-analytic

also suggested the importance of organizational

contributors
organizational

to

conflict

structures

but did not offer a model
with

the

five

conflict

73
The

conceptual

includes

only

acknowledges
These

with
at

the

three

sub-groups

managerial

organizational

each

of

and

served as the basis for this study

micro

levels

of

analysis.

It

also

sub-levels contained within the meso-analytic level.
are

(1960).

managerial

preference

meso

which

identified

as

the

institutional

level,

the

level and the technological level using terminology associated

Parsons
the

framework

The present study examined dimensions of structure

level

using

characteristics

for
the

collaboration

individual
at

as

that
a

perceptions as estimates of

level.

The framework assumes a

primary conflict management mode at

three meso-analytic sub-levels.

A visual depiction of this

model is presented in Figure H.

Dimensions of Structure
MESO-ANALYTIC
LEVEL OF ANALYSIS
(Organizations)
(Sub-groups)

/
/
/

Institutional - top admin __ /
Managerial - middle admin _/
Technological - staff _____ /

1. Centralization
2. Formalization
3. Size
Conflict Management
Behavior
/!

/
Competing

Collaborating

!/

Compromising
Avoiding

MICRO-ANALYTIC (Individuals)
LEVEL OF ANALYSIS

(Dimension 2: Assertiveness)

Accommodating
/

(Dimension 1: Cooperativeness)

Figure 4.

The conceptual framework:

A combined perspective

Summary

This

review

of the literature has provided a historical perspective

on

conflict in the organizational setting and described the major sources

of

conflict

which

organization.
been
model

are

rooted

Pertinent

in the structural characteristics of the

research

studies

on

intergroup conflict have

presented providing a rationale for examination of a two-dimensional
of conflict behavior in combination with structural characteristics

associated with the meso-analytic level of analysis.
The

discussion

perspectives
typology

were

differences
the

by

in approach.

which

in Chapter III.

provided
structure

Scott (1981).

a

review
which

of

draws

the

historical

heavily

from a

Research studies on organizational

presented with emphasis on methodological and theoretical

conceptual

methodology

also

organizational

developed

structure

for

on

has

A combined perspective which provided the basis

framework

of

this

study

has been described.

The

was adopted for examination in this study is presented

CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This
study.

chapter
It

includes

sub-hypotheses
design.

The

procedures
The

presents

description

statements

tested

and

population

of

gives
of

the

a

of

the methodology for this

major

hypothesis and the four

description of the general research

interest

is

defined

and

the operational

employed for identification and data collection are presented.

instrumentation

estimates

a

for

is

these

reviewed

measures

and

the

reliability

are discussed.

and

validity

The chapter closes with a

description of the statistical model employed in the data analysis.

The Major Research Question and Hypotheses
The

purpose

relationship
education

administrators

was

to

identify

and

describe

the

and

the

structural

characteristics

of

the

As pointed out in Chapter II, research

has suggested that certain structural characteristics of the

organization

may

relationships.
collaboration,
to

study

in which they work.

conflict

related

this

between the modes of conflict management employed by special

organizations
on

of

influence

The
as

the

literature
a

long-term

primary

behavioral
also

conflict

suggests

outcomes
that

of

conflict

reliance

on

management mode, is more closely

organizational effectiveness than primary reliance

on other conflict management strategies.

75

76
The

major

research

relationship

exists

organization

and

education

the

question

between
modes

characteristics

the
of

administrators.

addressed in this study was whether a
structural

characteristics

of

an

conflict management employed by special
It

was

predicted

that

structural

would be related to modes of conflict management employed

by special education administrators.

The major premise is presented below:

MAJOR HYPOTHESIS
:
There is a relationship between the structural
characteristics
of an organization and the modes of conflict
management employed by special education administrators.

It
local)
conflict
control

was

further

and

job

hypothesized

position

management

(director

behavior.

for these variables.

that
and

district type (intermediate and
supervisor)

Supplemental

might

influence

analyses were conducted to

Four sub-hypotheses were formulated and are

stated below:

SUB-HYPOTHESIS
1
: There
is a
relationship between
the
structural
characteristics of an organization and the modes of
conflict
management employed by intermediate directors of
special education.
SUB-HYPOTHESIS
2
: There
is a
relationship between
the
structural
characteristics of an organization and the modes of
conflict
management employed
by local directors of special
education.
SUB-HYPOTHESIS
3
: There
is a
relationship between
the
structural
characteristics of an organization and the modes of
conflict
management employed
by intermediate supervisors of
special education.
SUB-HYPOTHESIS
4
: There
is a
relationship between
the
structural
characteristics of an organization and the modes of
conflict
management employed
by local supervisors of special
education.

77

The Design of the Study
The

general

survey

design

approach
(Babbie,

for

this research employed a cross-sectional

1973).

Survey

packets

individuals

in

Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

and

the

four

analysis

three

sub-hypotheses

of

all

were

tested

The major hypothesis

using

canonical correlation

for

assessing

complex

interrelationships

between

The constructs examined as the independent variables were the

structural

size

to

This multivariate procedure was selected because it is a

technique

variables.

mailed

the population and the information was analyzed using the

(CA).

powerful

were

characteristics

district.

The

of

dependent

centralization, formalization, and
variables were the modes of conflict

management employed by special education administrators.

The Population of Interest
The
as

population

"administrators

study,

of interest for this research was broadly identified
of

special

education".

For

the

purposes of this

the population was delimited and defined as individuals reimbursed

through

the

Education

State

serving

of
in

Michigan
local

or

as

Directors or Supervisors of Special

intermediate

school

districts for the

1982-83 school year.
It

was

identified
Unit

originally
through

of

the

indicated

that

supervisors)
year.

It

that

the

population

members would be

data collected by the Teacher Certification Services

Michigan

Department

a

of

total

comprised
was

planned

later

the

441

of

Education.

individuals

(212

Available
directors

figures
and

229

population of interest in the 1981-82 school

determined

that

although

population

totals for

78

directors
recorded

and
by

supervisors

the

reimbursed

through

the

State are routinely

Unit, names of individuals in this population frame were

not available.
A

listing

published

of

the

population

members was obtained from a document

by the Statewide Communication and Dissemination System (SCADS)

entitled

SPECIAL

EDUCATION ADMINISTRATORS IN MICHIGAN,

A

of

names were identified under various titles as potential

total

462

1982-83 EDITION.

members of the population and the mailing was sent on March 8, 1983On

March

individuals

30th

not

gathered

from

compiled

and

DISTRICT.

a

subsequent

included

in

mailing

the

was

original

made

mailing.

to

44 additional

These names were

a document entitled: 1982-83 SPECIAL SERVICES DIRECTORY as
distributed

These

by

the

WAYNE

COUNTY

INTERMEDIATE

SCHOOL

administrators were primarily local supervisors serving

in the Detroit area who were not listed in the SCADS document.
Together
the

survey

a
as

returned

with

employed

as

total

were
of

of

81%.

members

statements

of the population.

Four packets were

indicating that the individuals were no longer

education

cutbacks,
502

received

total of 506 individuals were asked to respond to

potential

special

administrative
a

grand

administrators

death).

individuals

in

the

district

(i.e.

These four names were dropped, leaving

in the population frame.

Usable responses

from 407 of these individuals for an overall response rate

Subsequent

analyses

were based on the information provided by

these 407 respondents.
It

was

mailing
rate,
a

dates
thus

record

noted

deemed

that

for

plausible

that

the

three-week differential in the

these two groups might have an impact on the response

introducing bias into the study.
of

the

response

order

To assess this possibility,

was kept for all respondents.

It was

31 of the 44 individuals from the second mailing participated

79
in

the study for a response rate of 75% for that subgroup.

rate

was

taken

to

indicate

that

no

significant

This response

differences existed

between subgroups due to the effects of history.

Instrumentation
Subjective
variables

measures

were

identified

selected

as

formalization

the
and

organizational
respondents

for

structural

structures

as

variables

management

employed
of

by

they

"typical

of

perceived

of

these

as

the

education

behavior"

dependent

The independent variables were

were

identified
special

and

centralization,

The subjective perceptions of these

assessment

were

independent

characteristics

size of district.

dependent

the

for this study.

constituted

self-reports

both

by

the

individual

characteristics.

five

modes

of

administrators.

constituted

The

conflict
Subjective

assessment of the five

conflict management modes.
The
study

selection

subjective

measures

for

all variables in this

was made to avoid theoretical and methodological problems in making

comparisons

between

organizational
relied
have

of

on

Hage,

characteristics

objective

relied

on

1968).

consistently

fundamentally different measures.

measures

subjective
Comparative

low

Similarly,
studies
measures.
employed

on

of structure (Pugh et

analyses

intercorrelations

of
by

al.f 1969), others

these same structures (Aiken &
other

between

researchers

the

have

shown

two different types of

1981).

the literature on intergroup conflict has shown that most
intergroup

Findings
have

has shown that although some studies have

measures

measures (Pennings, 1973; Walton,

The literature on

shown

from
that

conflict
studies

management
where

differential

rely

assessments
perceptions

on

self-assessment
by

"others" were

related

to

power

80

differences

or

attributions

of

intent

(Howat & London, 1980, Thomas & Schmidt,
The

selection

variables
was

of

based

internal

These

subjective

1976).

versus

objective

measures

the

need

perception
The
from

for

the

in

which

literature

were

following
this

It

consistency of approach and an interest in

and

selected

as

were

identified

for

sections

study.

the study were

have been used in previous research.
appropriate

and relatively free from

social desirability as a response bias (Kilmann & Thomas,

used

the

and cognition in relationship to conflict management

instruments

measures

The

for

interest to this study was both conscious and cautious.

on

behavior.
derived

of

may have influenced the results

1977).

present descriptions of the instrumentation

Reliability and

validity for these measures are

dscussed in the sections which follow.

Centralization
Measurement
accomplished
The

scale

of

with

Authority.

The

a)

The

structural characteristic of centralization was

nine-item
two

scale developed by Aiken & Hage (1967).

sub-constructs

as

indicators of the degree of

Participation in Decision-Making, and b) Hierarchy of

four

items

under

the Participation in Decision-Making

rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from "never” to "always".
five

Likert

items

scale

instrument
agencies.
it

a

included

centralization:

were

the

more

"superior"

under

Hierarchy of Authority were rated on a four-point

ranging from "definitely false" to "definitely true".
was

originally

Minor

word

appropriate
in

place

used

in

the

1960's

with

social

This

service

changes were incorporated into this scale to make
for
of

an educational organization (e.g. reference to
"supervisor")

and

to

avoid

gender

references (e.g. reference to "him/her" in place of "him").

specific

81

Formalization
The
1968)

formalization

and

consisted

structural

Autonomy,

A

a)

total

also developed by Aiken & Hage (1966,

sub-constructs

Job Autonomy, b)

of

as

indicators

of

this

Rule Observation, and c) Job

thirteen items were included (5 items for Job

2 items for Rule Observation, and 6 items for Job Specificity).

items

in

this scale were rated on a four-point Likert scale ranging

from

"definitely

made

in

(Dewar,

was

of three

dimension:

Specificity.

All

scale

this

false"

scale

Whetten,

organization

to "definitely

based

true". Minor modifications were

on recommendations offered in the literature

& Boje, 1980) and to adapt it for use in an educational

(e.g.

reference to "district" instead of "the organization"

and consistent reference to self rather than "people" or "everyone").

Size of District
Measurement
respondents

for

district.
between

As
size

indicator

of

size of

district

the

number

of

Scott
and

has

it

performance.

The

was

because

selected

centralization

professional

question

personnel employed by the

have

used

number

of

participants as the

for

it

is

assessing size of district for this study
most

formalization

closely

related

to the concepts of

than other possible indicators of this

construct and it is less complicated by boundary issues (Kimberly,
The

rationale

characteristic
major

factors.

most

typically

rather
First,

asking

tends to reflect both capacity and actual level of

method

and

a single

noted (1981), most studies of the relationship

structure

because

was

for defining
than
as

regarded

an

sizeof

district

environmental

as

a

1976).

structural

variable was based on two

noted

in Chapter II, although size has been

as

contextual

a

variable

rooted

in

the

82

environment
should

(Scott,

more

that

demand

defined

as

result.

be

size

is a

researchers

regarded

(Aldrich, 1972;

organization's
that

some

appropriately

organization
argument

1981),

Hall

&

contextual

have

reasoned

that size

as a structural property of the
Tittle,
variable

1966).

Secondly,

the

measuring demand for an

services or products can be logically reversed to suggest
(driven

the

by

a

number of factors) may be more appropriately

environmental

variable

with size as the organizational

For example, legislative factors and societal attitudes may more

accurately

reflect

from

perspective,

this

However,

the concept of demand at the macro-analytic level and
size

would

be viewed as a dependent variable.

at the meso-analytic level size may be viewed as an influence on

individual

behavior

would

viewed

be

individual
reasoning

level

in
as

as

which

the
an

independent

the

served

organization.

dependent

as

the

Form this perspective, size

variable
variable.

basis

with
It

behavior
was

this

at
line

the
of

for defining size as a structural

characteristic for the present study.

Modes of Conflict Management
The

measure

management

employed

Thomas-Kilmann
consists

identified

of

MODE
30

Each

management

modes:

avoiding.

assessment

special

instrument

forced

statement.

and

by

for

choice

statement

of

education

the

administrators

(XICOM Inc., 1974).
items

comprised

modes of conflict

of

was

the

The MODE instrument
an

"A"

and a "B"

represents one of the five possible conflict

competing, collaborating, compromising, accommodating

Minor

modifications

in the original format were made to

eliminate gender specific references.
The
forced

MODE
choices.

instrument

was

designed

as an ipsative scale relying on

Respondents were instructed to choose the statement from

83
the

"A-B11

behavior

pair

in

party.

The

ipsative
The

mode

most

situations

dependent.
one

which

accurately

where
nature

instrument

reflects

their typical mode of

their wishes differ from those of another
of

was

the

scale

renders the five scores as

designed to force respondents to select

over another in a given pair where each has a comparable degree

of social desirability (Kilmann & Thomas, 1977).
The
for

instrument is scored simply

each

conflict

by

totaling the number of responses

management mode as

listed

in the

scoring

key.

Responses

under

each conflict management mode are varied over items such

that

first

choice (A) responses and six second choice (B) responses

are

six

possible.

preference
obtained
limited
the

This design controls for the possibility of a response set

for
for

to

either
each

30,

conflict

the

of

"A"

or

the

five

"B"

over

modes,

the thirty items.
but

total number of items.

management

Scores are

the total score is always
Possible scores for each of

modes range from 0 to 12 with an expected score

of 6 for each of the five modes.

8H

Reliability and Validity

The
of

reliability

consistency

can

provide

measure
forms
of

of

a measure is generally identified as the degree

or dependability of that measure.

Reliability procedures

estimates for the stability between two administrations of a

(test-retest reliability) or estimates of equivalence between two
of

a

measure.

Reliability procedures for a single administration

an instrument typically address the internal consistency of the scale,

the degree of relationship between items in the measure.
Validity,
which

the

varying

of

measures

what

it

was

designed to measure.

For

the instrument is the degree to which it is able to identify

degrees

of

theory.

evaluation

rigorous

other hand, is generally defined as the degree to

scales designed to assess abstract theoretical constructs, the

underlying
outside

the

instrument

perceptual
validity

on

procedure

the

construct

The

external

procedure
for

is

in

question

validation
generally

determining

and

relate

it to the

of the instrument by some
considered

validity

to

be the most

estimates for measures of

this type.

The Aiken & Hage Scales
Internal
scales
the

reliability estimates for both the Aiken & Hage

of centralization and formalization were conducted with the aid of

RELIABILITY

University
This

consistency

developed

for

SPSS

through

Computer Laboratory (SPSS-6000 Supplement,

procedure

internal

procedure

utilizes

consistency

in response.

and

Cronbach's

coefficient

Michigan State

1981, pp. 12 - 23).

alpha

as a measure of

provides an estimate of error due to variation

85

The
using

reliability

the

very

individual

good

range

formalization
scale,

a

items

coefficients
as

( a =

scales.

in

the unit of analysis and estimates were in the
*70

to

.85)

for

both

the centralization and

For the nine items included in the

standardized

included

obtained for this study were obtained

item alpha of .83 was obtained.

the

centralization
For the thirteen

formalization scale a standardized item alpha of

.75 was obtained.
These

findings
by

Scales.

These researchers examined the original data collected by Hage &

al.,

(1980) in their examination of Aiken & Hage

in 1964, 1967, and 1970 from 16 social service organizations and an

additional

data

organizations.
these

and

of

ranged

reliability

Whetten

was
and

(1974)

used

as

from

72

manpower

the unit of analysis in

validilty estimates were sought for

characteristics

for

organizations,

rather

than

subscales had relatively small numbers of items (i.e., items

from

2

sensitivity

data

by

For this reason they examined each subscale and argued that

the

estimates

collected
organization

these

individuals.
because

set
The

studies

perceptions

the

et

generally consistent with reliability findings

reported

Aiken

Dewar

were

for

to
of

Rule

Observation

variation

would

reliability.

be

to

6

for

increased

and

Job Specificity), the
yield

Reliability coefficients for the Aiken & Hage

ranged from very good ( ot= .70 to .85) to excellent
manpower

data

conservative

reliabilities

were

( a > .85).

For

consistently lower but adequate,

with the exception of the Job Specificity subscale (a = .45).
The
et
all

al.,

of

the Aiken & Hage scales was also examined by Dewar

(1980).

The researchers

calculated the median correlation for

items within a given subconstruct (the interitem correlation) and the

median
all

validity

correlation

other

between

subconstructs

all items measuring a given subconstruct and

(the

off-diagonal

correlation).

Because the

86
number
made

of
to

items

were

off-diagonal

discriminant
having

the scales varied from two to six, adjustments were

standardize to a six-item scale (Ferguson,

correlations
the

in

interitem

correlations

were

used

to

Items within a scale

convergent

correlation

correlation.

The interitem

used to determine estimates of convergent validity and

validity.

adequate

1966).

is

and

discriminant

greater

than

With regard to these scales, the

determine

estimates

of

are traditionally viewed as
validity
the

if

median

the

median

off-diagonal

researchers state:

"Theoretically,
some of these constructs and subconstructs
are expected to be associated,
and this should increase the
off-diagonal coefficients relative to the interitem ones.
In
such cases,
there are no clear-cut empirical criteria for
assessing convergent and discriminant validity.
The best one
can do is examine the face validity of these items, which
should give some clues as to whether items appear to have been
mislabeled
and should
probably be placed in other scales or
should be omitted altogether." (Dewar et a l ., 1980, p. 123)

Based

on

their

centralization
formalization
and

measures

Dewar

were

et al., (1980) concluded that the

both

reliable

and

valid,

but

the

subscales did not appear to have high degrees of convergent

discriminant

examination.

findings,

The

validity

when placed under the scrutiny of statistical

researchers offered suggestions for improvement (i.e.,

consistent

reference

relabeling

of

to

self

rather

than

"people"

or "everyone" and

the subscale "job codification" to "job autonomy").

These

recommended changes were incorporated for the present study.
Validity
of

instrument

can

be

involved

and

the

degree

of

validity verification.

statistical sophistication

required

for

for

subscales included in these measures render validity estimations

the

adequate

assessed in a number of ways depending on the type

The small number of items

87

based

on adjusted statistical calculations as highly questionable.

these

conditions,

selected
these

as

the

measures.

Hage

Scales

"strongly
panel

reliance
most
The

on

evaluation

reasonable
face

by

a

panel

of

Given

judges was

method for assessing the validity for

validity of each of the items in the Aiken &

was rated by four judges on a Likert-type scale ranging from

agree"

(+2)

to "strongly disagree" (-2).

The findings of the

indicated strong support for the face validity of the measures with

ratings

of

1.97

for

Formalization scale.

the

Centralization

scale

and

1.48

for

the

The findings are reported in Appendix E.

The Thomas-Kilmann MODE Instrument
The

Thomas-Kilmann

described
the

as

Instrument

(XICOM

Inc.,

1974)

has been

a forced-choice ipsative scale which was designed to assess

five conflict management modes identified as reflectors of intergroup

conflict
in

MODE

30

behavior.
(A-B)

conflict
one

pairs.

management

of

the

choice

The instrument is comprised of 60 statements arranged

two

which

represents
ipsative
response

the
scale

Each
modes.

represents

the

For

that

rejecting

keyed

example,

"competing"

"accommodating" mode.
is

is

under

one of the five

Individuals respond to each pair by picking

statements.

representing

simultaneously

statement

an item might offer an "A"

mode

and

a "B" choice which

The essential characteristic of an

by choosing one of the statements (e.g., an "A"
the
the

"competing"
other

mode),

statement

the

(e.g.,

respondent

is

the "B" response

representing the "accommodating" mode).
The
score

is

instrument

is ipsative and it was constructed so that the total

always 30 when summed across the five subscales.

characteristic

renders

the

thus

of

subscale

if

four

the

five

This ipsative

subscale scores as linearly dependent;
scores

were

known, the fifth could be

88

derived
on

and in this sense is not free to vary.

any one mode automatically lowers the number of points possible on the

other

modes.

Interpretations

intraindividual
individuals
to

In addition, a high score

be

comparison

receiving
in

terms

and

do

not

absolute

for

an

equal

of

these

component

scales

are

subscales.

limited

to

For example, two

equal score on a given subscale cannot be said
of

how

reflect

they respond because the scores are not
the

intensity of feeling attached to the

choices.
Establishing
instruments
imposed

reliability

and

validity

estimates

is very difficult (Mehrens & Lehmann,

198^4).

for

ipsative

The limitations

by the very nature of the instrument design restrict the kinds of

interpretations

which

scales

came

about

scales

which

were

control

for

social

can

be

because

made.

The

development of forced choice

of dissatisfaction with the more traditional

unable

to

avoid

desirability

neutral

as

a

responses

response

and adequately

bias (Zavala, 1965).

Additionally,

the more traditional measures allow for response to be high

(or

low)

on

many or all of the subscales.

perceived

by

some

closely

parallels

The forced choice measure is

researchers as more realistic (valid) because it more
real-life

situations

where difficult choices must be

made.

Reliability

estimates

obtained

conflict

management

contained

within the measure.

using

the

alpha

were

were

this study for each of the five

calculated

for

the

five

subscales

Internal consistency reliability estimates

SPSS RELIABILITY procedure to calculate Cronbach's coefficient

Reliabilities
These

modes

in

obtained
were

findings

for
in

were

the

each
low

somewhat

of

the

to
lower

five

modes

(12

items each).

moderate range with a mean of .50.
than

previously

reported

alpha

89

coefficients
studies
5

with

reported

by

the

authors (Kilmann & Thomas,

1977) in their

graduate students from the University of Pittsburgh.

Table

presents a comparison of the internal consistency reliability estimates

for both studies.

Table 5
Internal Consistencies for the Thomas-Kilmann MODE Instrument:
A Comparison of Two Studies

Present Study
Modes

Competing
Collaborating
Compromising
Avoiding
Accommodating
MEAN

(N = 407)

.68
.46
.48
.45
.43
.50

Thomas-Kilmann Study
(N = 86)

.71
.65
.58
.62
.43
.60

90
These
fair

reliability

to

poor

statistically
findings
an

range
show

ipsative

that

adequate

degree

an

the

MODE

instrument

of internal consistency.

not
These

a scale and the small number of

items per subscale.

of these

possibilities in mind, one would

not expect by random

to

characteristics

find
and

a

relationship between organizational structural

modes

of

conflict

management

as measured by this

unless the constructs of interest were reliably assessed.

glance,

this

circular

argument

logic.

mangement
thus

does

of

alone

study

indicating

typically be regarded as in the

consistent tool or they may be more closely related to the

nature

both

chance

would

may, in fact, indicate that the measure is less than adequate as

internally

With

estimates

may

However,

seem
if

tautological

one

assumes

in

that

it

At first
suggests a

that assessment of conflict

modes is not dependable (reliable) with the MODE Instrument and

subject to a high degree of variation, then there would be no reason

to

assume that the predicted relationship for this study would be found.

In

summary,

suggest

the limitations imposed by the design of the MODE instrument

that

traditional

reliability estimates may be inappropriate for

adequate evaluation of the internal consistency of the scale.
Two

major

discussed

in

examination
describe
this

validity
the

of

the

the

literature.

Kilmann & Thomas (1977) report extensive

substantive

stepwise

scale.

issues related to the MODE Instrument have been

validity of

procedures

which

the

MODE

Instrument and

were employed in the design of

The authors present comparative data on three other conflict

instruments

with emphasis on social desirability as a "built-in" response

bias.

authors

The

have

argued

in support of the MODE Instrument as a

more valid measure of conflict management behavior.
In
Thomas

their
(1977)

description

of

the

instrument

construction,

Kilmann &

discuss the structural validity of the instrument format.

91
The

underlying

the

five

modes

Radcliffe
scale

theory

(1970),

should

scales.

purposefully

average

to

-i/(n-1)

designed

to

assure

Kilmann

amount)

of

and

exhaustive.

According to

where n equals the total number of

intercorrelation

(proportional

(total

exclusive

average intercorrelation of scores on an ipsative

equal

modes.

frequency

mutually

the

be

The

between

are

upon which the instrument was based suggests that

an

for

average

the

MODE

Instrument

intercorrelation

was

of -.25

& Thomas argue that assessment of the relative

amount),

mode

rather

reliance

is

than

the

consistent

absolute
with

frequency

the

validity

requirements of the theoretical foundation.
Statistically

derived

have

beenpresented

have

been

were

not

and possible explanations for the moderate

discussed.
included

reliability

reliability estimates for the MODE instrument

Statistical interpretations of construct validity

in

estimates

findings

the

design of this study because of the moderate

obtained

and

the

limitations

imposed

by

the

ipsative nature of the scale.
Evaluation
method

for

twelve

items

ranging
validity
to
mode
the

agree

apanel of four judges was included as an additional

assessing
on

the

the

face validity of the instrument.

Each of the

five subscales were rated with a Likert-type scale

from "strongly agree" (+2) to "strongly disagree" (-2).
rating
range

(.84).
face

by

for

the instrument as a whole was in the strongly agree

(1.24) with the lowest subscale rating for the competing

The findings are reported in Appendix E and lend support to

validity

instrument.

The face

of

the

items for the five modes assessed by the MODE

92
Procedures for Data Collection
The

data

collection process was accomplished by mailing packets to

all individuals identified in the population.

1)
2)
3)
4)
5)

a cover letter describing the scope and purpose of the study
a demographic data sheet including a question on district size
the Aiken & Hage Scales of Centralization and Formalization
the Thomas-Kilmann MODE instrument
a post-paid pre-addressed envelope for data return

The
a

These packets included:

first

second

mailing was made on March 8, 1983 to 462 individuals with

mailing

to

an

additional

44 individuals on March 30, 1983.

Follow-up

procedures with the non-respondents were carried out by mailing

post-card

reminders

procedure.
sample
bias

approximately

Follow-up

of

phone

two

calls

weeks

were

after the initial mailing

conducted with a simple random

ten (10) continued non-respondents to assess the potential for

in the non-responding sample.

documented

with

no

evidence

Responses from these individuals were
of

confounding

through

bias

in

the

non-responding group.

Coding Procedures
The
through

data
the

Sciences

for

this

computer

(Nie

study

program

et a l ., 1975).

using

flag

procedures

Aiken

& Hage Scales.

for

were

analyzed with procedures available

SPSS,

Statistical Package for the Social

Missing data were coded as dummy variables
demographic

information and for data on the

In instances where significant amounts of data were

not supplied, the cases were dropped and treated as non-respondents.
Missing
to

raw

because

data
of

values from the Thomas-Kilmann MODE instrument were assigned
using
the

a

random number table.

ipsative

nature

of

This procedure was selected

the instrument and because missing

93

values

were

Missing

extremely

values

were

few

(27 out of a total number of 15,210 items).

assigned

to 19 individuals with a maximum of three

per case using "IF” statements in the program file.

The Statistical Model

The

statistical

canonical

correlation

multivariate
in

model

complex

models
ways.

CA

and

that

correlation

(Finn,

For

characteristics

set

were

is

deriving

1974).

constituted

analysis

of

the

(CA).

CA

a

method

of

one

of

a

family

of

linear

for assessing two sets of multiple

combinations

from each of the sets such

(R c ) between the linear combinations is maximized
this

study,

the

centralization,

three

the

organizational

formalization

variables of the first set.

four

is

designed to assess multiple variables which interact

variables
the

selected for data analysis in this study was

and

structural

size of district

The variables of the second

five conflict management modes identified in the

Ruble & Thomas model of conflict behavior.
In

the

identified:

Ruble
(a)

accommodating;
these

modes

has

number

scores

as

dependent
the

Thomas

model, five conflict management modes were

collaborating;

and

maximum

&

(e) avoiding.
been

of

described

(b)

compromising;

(c)

competing;

(d)

However, the instrument used to assess
as

an

ipsative

measure in which the

points is set, rendering the five conflict management

linearly

dependent.

Under

conditions

where

a

linearly

relationship exists within a set of canonical variables, one of

variables must be deleted to conduct the analysis (Marasculo & Levin,

1983).

94
The

conceptual

"collaborating"
effectiveness
management

is
and

mode

that

Thus,

and

suggested

that

the

strategy

of

most closely associated with long-term organizational
a strategy of "avoiding" as a dominant conlflict

would

effectiveness.
competing

framework

be

least beneficial for long-term organizational

the

four

accommodating

modes

were

of

collaborating, compromising,

designated

as

the

variables of the

second set.
CA
each

was

set

the

used

of

first

variables.

set

formalization
would

be

paired

could
and

the

with

canonical

to establish weights defining the linear functions for
For example, weights defining the variables of

be

depicted

-.24

for

as

.07

for centralization,

.88 for

size. This linear combination of variables

first canonical variate from the first set and it could be
a

linear

combination of the four variables from the first

variate

of

the second set.

and

derives

CA generates combinations of many

such

pairs

linear combinations from each set in such a way

that

the correlation between the two linear combinations accounts for the

maximum amount of the relationship between the two sets.
The
to

the

maximum number of canonical correlations for a data set is equal
number

Successive

pairs

uncorrelated
correlation
from
to
.05

zero

of

variables
may

with
for

the
each

using

approximate

be

in

the smaller set (in this case three).

generated so that the first set of variates is
second

set

set of canonical variates.

of canonical variates is tested for departure

Wilk's Lambda ( A ) .
the

The canonical

chi-square

This test statistic is transformed

distribution and a significance level of

was selected to estimate the probability that the correlation occured

simply by chance.
The
canonical

square

of

variates

the

canonical

(equivalent

correlation

( R 2) between a set of
c

to the eigenvalue) is an estimate of the

95
shared

variation

between

number

the

of

two

linear combinations of the composite

variables.

A

researchers

(Cooley & Lohnes,

1971; Pedhazur,

19S1)

suggested that if the proportion of shared variance (Rc ) for

2

a

have

pair

of

canonical

variates

is

estimated

to

be less than .10, the

finding should be treated as not meaningful.
Where

CA

standardized

establishes

are

weights

should

generated.
be

interpretational
from

used

process
the

Tatsuoka
to

(See

raw-score

multiplying

each

element

variable.

The

standardized

correlations

canonical

correlation

of

significance,

weights for the multiple variables from the set of canonical

variates

obtained

a

are

printed

(1971) notes that these standardized
make

NOTE).
weights

meaningful

comparisons

in

The standardized coefficients are
for

the

canonical

variates

by

by the standard deviation of the corresponding

as

coefficients
part

of

the

for

significant

canonical

SPSS output for the CANCORR

program.

NOTE:

the

Pedhazur
(1982) has argued that underlying structure
coefficients
are
sometimes
preferable to standardized
coefficients
for
interpretational
purposes.
Structure
coefficients are defined as the correlations of the original
variables and the canonical variates.
These underlying
structure coefficients may be obtained by multiplying the
correlation matrix
for the canonical variate times the
standardized weights of the canonical variate.
For the
interested reader,
an indepth theoretical discussion
is
presented by Pedhazur for the interpretation of structure
coefficients.

96
In
of

the

.88

for formalization would reflect the relative contribution of that

variable
either

example given in this discussion, a standardized coefficient

to

the

plus

indicate

linear composite.

or

the

minus

and

vary

The standardized coefficients may be
from

zero

direction of the relationship.

to

one.

As a general rule of thumb,

weights of .30 or less are not treated as meaningful
The
a

given

linear

combination.

coefficient

contribution

of

weights

very

are

multiple
CA

(Pedhazur, 1982).

coefficients reflect the relative importance of the variables in

standardized

of

The signs merely

of

the example presented previously, the

.88 for formalization reflects the relative

that variable to the linear composite.
similar

regression.
where

In

the

to

The standardized

regression coefficients (Beta weights) in

In actually, multiple regression is a special case

set of variables for one set of variates is reduced to

one.

Summary
This
procedures
the

four

chapter
which

presented

The
and

the

overall

were employed for this study.

sub-hyppotheses

identified.
presented

has

rationale

the

have
for

been

design

stated and the population has been

assessment

of

the constructs has been

and

validity

discussed.

The

coding procedures have been reviewed and the statistical

selected

included

A description of

reliability

model

been

operational

The major hypothesis and

instrumentation has been described.
has

and

and limitations have been

for this study has been described.

will present the results of this investigation.

The following chapter

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS

Introduction
Chapter

IV

investigation.
reports

the

provides

a

summary

of

the

results

from

this

It presents the descriptive statistics for this study and
results

of

the tests for the major hypothesis and the four

sub-hypotheses.

Descriptive Statistics

Response Rate
The

subjects

administrators
school

for

of

special

districts

distributed

to

individuals

were

combined

this

study

were

education

defined

serving

in

as

the population of

local or intermediate

in Michigan for the 1982-83 school year.

Mailings were

462 potential members of the population and 44 additional

total

later
of

506

identified

and included in a second mailing.

individuals

were

A

identified and responses were

solicited from all potential members of the population of interest.
A
these,
81?.

total
407
It

incomplete
the

of

502 individuals were included in the survey group.

Of

valid responses were returned for an overall response rate of
should
data

philosophical

also be noted that three (3) packets were returned with
and two (2) others were returned with letters explaining
reasons

for

not

included in the overall response rate.

97

responding.

These

cases were not

98

Respondents
The
SPSS

descriptive data for this study were obtained through use of the

subprogram

respondents
reported

is

presented

state

reported

state

Directors

school

Table

for

reimbursement
84%

or

Descriptive

in

reimbursment

administrators,

local

FREQUENCIES.

6.

their
as

information

Of

the

407

the 407 respondents,

166

positions

on

as Directors and 183

Supervisors.

A

total

of

342

of the respondents, reported reimbursement as either

Supervisors

and

affiliation

districts.

These

with

either intermediate or

342 administrators were thus defined as

the responding population of interest.
In
to

Chapter III it was noted that follow-up procedures were conducted

assess

for

possible

non-respondents.
sample

of

Follow-up

ten

of

the

systematic

difference

variable.

Of

longer

they

The

functions
district
they

they
who

were

responses
speculation

calls

the

two

the

were
to

respondents

made

groups

four

the

served

indicated

that

and the

to a simple random

determine

if there was any

caused by an extraneous

ten,one was on extended medical

and

that

between

non-respondents

remaining

believed

phone

between

these

employed,

packet.

differences

leave, one was no

they had not received

the

four indicated that they did not respond because
information
(i.e.,

one

sought was not appropriate for the
was

an

attorney

for a large urban

was reimbursed as a Supervisor; three others indicated that

consultants
provided
that

by

and
these

did

not

supervise other individuals).

individuals

did

not

The

provide a basis for

significant differences existed between the respondents

and the non-respondents.

99

Table 6
Descriptive Statistics on the Respondents (N = 407)

GENDER (V4)

RACE (V5)

Male
273
Female
133
Missing
1

AGE (V6)
Under 31
31 - 35
36 - 40
41 - 45
46 - 50
51 - 55
56+
Missing

6
61
83
90
64
63
36
4

DISTYPE (V8)

White
379
Black
22
Other
3
Missing
3

ISD
164
Local 232
Other
9
Missing 2

EDUC (V7)

TITLE (V10)

BA
MA
MA+15
MA+30
EdS
Doct
Missing

Asst Supt
Dir
Asst Dir
Supv
Coord
Other
Missing

2
47
74
136
88
57
3

REIMB (V9)
Dir
166
Supv
183
Neither
55
Missing
3
ADM RESP (V11
24
144
14
123
35
65
2

Full
343
High
21
Half
13
Low
26
None
2
Missing
2

100

Directors and Supervisors
A

total

of

Supervisors
cases

through

were

dropped

intermediate
were

or

administrators
in

individuals

because

district

Table

identified

as

presented
8.

identified

type

was

Directors or
Seven of these

reported as other than

(i.e. "neither" was checked or both ISD and Local

Descriptive
are

were

self-reported reimbursement status.

local

checked).

presented

administrators

349

statistics
in

The

for

the

remaining

Table 7 and breakdowns by subgroup are

general

pattern

presented

for

the

Table 7
Descriptive Statistics: Directors & Supervisors (N = 342)

Male
Female

White
319
B1 ack
19
Other
3
Missing
1
EDUC (V7)

AGE (V6)
Under 31
31 - 35
36 - «0
41 - 45
46 - 50
51 - 55
56+
Missing

4
51
69
76
54
57
30
1

BA
MA
MA+15
MA+30
EdS
Doct

REIMB (V9)

DISTYPE (V8)

RACE (V5)

228
114

342

as the responding population of interest was very

similar to that of the respondents as a whole.

GENDER (V4)

342

1
36
64
117
78
46

ISD
Local

150
192

Dir
Supv

ADM RESP (V11

TITLE (V10)
Asst Supt
Dir
Asst Dir
Supv
Coord
Other

160*
182*

18
132
13
120
15
44

Full
High
Half
Low
None

* Totals reflect only those administrators reporting
ISD or Local as Distype (V8)

317
12
8
4
1

101

Breakdowns
Directors,
and

for the four subgroups identified as ISD Directors, Local

ISD Supervisors and Local Supervisors are presented in Table 8

reveal

some differences by subgroup.

The overall representation for

gender

was

67% male and 33% female.

within

the

subgroups, however, with female representation highest at the

Local

Supervisor level (45%) and lowest at the ISD Director level (20%).

Minority
(13%)
7%

Representation by gender was skewed

representation

was

also

highest at the Local Supervisor level

and markedly lower for all other subgroups (1% for ISD Supervisors,

for Local Directors, and 3% for ISD Directors.

slightly

older

than

Supervisors

and

Directors tended to be

tended to have higher educational

levels.
Job
23%

titles

reported

of

central

the

Local

correct
reporting

title
office

title

involvement.

for

74% of

"Other".

correct

and

13%

At

title

At the local level however, only 3% of

that

the

Supervisor was reported as the

respondents

at

as

roles

the ISD level with 18%

the local level, only 58% reported Supervisor as

with 19% reporting "Other",

reporting

For ISD Directors,

as Assistant Superintendent suggesting a high degree

Directors reported this title.

the

suggests

for the four sub-groups were varied.

Director
for

or

Supervisors

Assistant
may

be

10% reporting Coordinator
Director.

This pattern

more varied at the local

level.
The

majority

administrative
7.7
10.6

of administrators from all subgroups reported full-time

responsibility.

Years

in

the present position averaged

years and total number of years of administrative experience averaged
years with the highest means reported for ISD Directors, followed by

Local Directors, Local Supervisors and ISD Supervisors.

102
Table 8
Descriptive Statistics on Administrators by Sub-group

N = 3^2

ISD DIR
(n = 64)

LOCAL DIR
(n = 96)

ISD SUPV
(n = 86)

LOCAL SUPV
(n = 96)

UC.WL'E.n
Male
Female

51
13

80%
20%

73
23

76%
24%

51
35

59%
41%

53
43

55%
45%

RACE
White
B1 ack
Other

62
2
0

97%
3%
0%

89
5
2

93%
5%
2%

85
1
0

99%
1%
0%

83
11
1

87%
12%
1%

AGE
Under 31
31-35
36-40
41-45
46-50
51-55
56+

0
5
10
16
15
11
7

0%
8%
16%
25%
23%
17%
11%

0
14
18
20
18
15
10

0%
14%
19%
21%
19%
16%
10%

3
18
17
20
12
12
4

3%
21%
20%
23%
14%
14%
5%

1
14
24
20
9
19
9

1%
15%
25%
21%
9%
20%
9%

EDUCATION
BA
MA
MA+15
MA+30
EdS
Doct

0
2
5
33
14
10

0%
3%
8%
52%
22%
16%

0
8
10
31
29
18

0%
8%
10%
32%
30%
19%

0
12
21
28
17
8

0%
14%
24%
33%
20%
9%

1
14
28
25
18
10

1%
15%
29%
26%
19%
10%

TITLE
A-supt
Dir
A-dir
Supv
Coord
Other

15
43
3
0
0
3

23%
67%
5%
0%
0%
5%

3
80
3
0
2
8

3%
83%
3%
0%
2%
9%

0
1
2
64
4
15

0%
1%
2%
74%
5%
18%

0
8
5
56
9
18

0%
8%
5%
58%
10%
19%

ADMIN RESPONSIBILITY
Full
62 96%
High
1
2%
Half
1
2%
Low
0
0%
None
0
0%

88
5
1
2
0

92%
5%
1%
2%
0%

79
4
2
0
1

92%
5%
2%
0%
1%

88
2
4
2
0

92%
2%
4%
2%
0%

YEARS IN PRESENT POSITION
Mean
9. 1

8. 5

YEARS OF ADMINISTRATIVE EXPERIENCE
Mean
13.6
11.9

6. 5

7- 2

8. 4

9. 5

103
Descriptive
standard

deviations

sub-groups.
for

both

These
for

statistics
on

the

generated to determine means and

of interest to the study for the four

examined for differences by title and position

organizational
are

also

variables

Groups were

findings

were

characteristics and conflict management modes.

reported

in Table 9.

Means and standard deviations

variables of centralization and formalization were computed from

responses

ranging

Participation
Subscales

in

value

from

one to four with the exception of the

in Decision-making subscale which ranged from one to five.

and

items

were recoded where appropriate so that a high score

reflected a high degree of the given construct.
From
viewed

the

as

low

perceptions
to
was

be

can be seen that centralization was generally

of this construct.

markedly

the

it

for Directors with ISD Supervisors reporting the highest

moderately

standard
in

figures

high

different

deviations

at

population

The degree of formalization was perceived

and consistent across the four sub-groups.

Size

for intermediate

high

the ISD level.

and local districts with
These figures represent the

skew

distribution produced by respondents from the Detroit

area.
Scores
to
the
an

be

on

highly

the

five conflict management modes appear on the surface

consistent

across groups and across modes.

The design of

instrument limits possible scores to a range from zero to twelve with
expected score of six for all subscales.

figures

shows

employed

"compromising"

conflict

management

to

be

mode

The pattern presented by the

reported

as

the

most frequently

and "competing" to be reported least

frequently as the dominant conflict management strategy.
Additional
number
of

11.7

of

runs

years
(s.d.

were

conducted to assess differences by gender and

in administration.
=

5.7)

years

Males (n = 228) reported an average

in administration while females (n = 114)

104
reported

an

Differences

average
by

of

8.4

(s.d.

=

5.2)

years

in administration.

gender on reported frequency of conflict management modes

were negligible.
Out
in

of

the canonical correlation analysis.

reported
in
the

342 administrators, a total of 314 individuals were included

the

size

was

of district prevented inclusion of the 28 additional cases

calculations.

possibility

individuals.
found

groups.

for

Based
for

Missing values on the variable of

Outputs from the SPSS runs were examined to assess
systematic
on

differences

in

the responses of these

the figures produced by each procedure, no basis

speculation

that

systematic differences existed between

105

Table 9
Descriptive Statistics on Canonical Variables by Sub-group

N = 342

var.

ISD DIR
(n = 64)
mean

Cent
Form
Size

1.4
2.6
82.

Collab
Compro
Compete
Accom
Avoid

6.9
7.6
4.4
4.9
6.2

s.d.

.41
•33
59.

2.1
2.1
2.7
2.3
2.1

LOCAL DIR
(n = 96)
mean

s.d

ISD SUPV
(n = 86)
mean

LOCAL SUPV
(n = 96)

s.d.

1.5
2.6
450.

.42
.41
389.

1.9
2.6
97.

.54
.42
53.

6.4
7.6
4.3
5.1
6.6

2.2
2.2
2.7
2.1
2.1

6.6
7.8
3-9
5.2
6.4

2.0
2.3
2.7
2.0
2.4

mean

s.d.

1.7
2.6
1682.

.51
.30
2926

6.7
7.8
4.2
5.0
6.3

2.7
2.0
2.7
2.0
2.3

106

Tests of the Hypotheses

The Test of the Major Hypothesis
The

major

relationship

research
exists

organization

and

education

question

between

the

modes

the
of

administrators.

characteristics

would

be

addressed

in this study was whether a

structural

characteristics

of

an

conflict management employed by special
It

was

related

to

predicted

that

structural

modes of conflict management most

typically used by these administrators.
Canonical
appropriate
between
tests

statistical

model

for

CCA)

was

identified

as

the

assessing the degree of relationship
All statistical

were conducted with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences

State

program

CANCORR

University.
three

second

canonical

and

set,

(Nie et

CA

variables

characteristics,
the

analysis

these two sets of random variables (Finn, 1974).

(SPSS)

the

correlation

the

correlation

a l ., 1975) on the Cyber 750 at Michigan

was used to identify the standardized weights for
in

the

the

first

set,

the organizational structural

standardized weights for the four variables in

conflict
(R2 )
c

management
between

the

modes, such that the squared
two

sets

of

variates

was

maximized.
The
Wilk's

appropriate

for

statistic

for

this

study was identified as

Lambda ( A ) with degrees of freedom equal to twelve, the number of

variables
set.

test

in

the

first

set times the number of variables in the second

The joint test for nullity of all canonical correlations was tested
departure

from zero to reveal possible relationships between the two

sets of variables.

107
The
for

traditional

departure

test

the

was

research

from

form

where the null hypothesis is tested

zero at the .05 level of significance was adopted to

major hypothesis. Thus, for this study, the null hypothesis

H

rejected with confidence only if the obtained test statistic exceeded

the upper 95 percentile point

The

major

hypothesis

on the distribution.

for

the

study

is restated here in the null

form:

MAJOR HYPOTHESIS
: There is no relationship between the structural
characteristics
of an organization and the modes of conflict
management employed by administrators of special education.

Thus, H

and H

for the major hypothesis took the following form:

H :
o

R

Hi:

Rc ^ 0

c

= 0

The test statistic was expressed as:

«

Aj— n (1— A*)
i-j

The

test

freedom
equals

statistic
where

the

equals

number

transformation,
approximated.

p

follows a chi-square distribution with pq degrees of

the

of

the

number of variables in the first set and q

variables
distribution

in

the
of

second
the

set.

test

With Bartlett's

statistic

can

be

108
Bartlett's Transformation is:

x*=-mlog,.A,

where:

m = [A/— 1 — (p+q+1)/2j

Findings for the Test of the Major Hypothesis
The
Table

findings

10.

342)

due

The

table

for

the

was

found

The
to

from the test of the major hypothesis are presented in

number
missing

shows

of

valid cases for this test was 3 m

values on the variable of reported district size.

that a canonical correlation of .219* P = .03 was found

firstcanonical variate.
to

(92% of the

The obtained

chi-square value of 22.6

be significant with 12 degrees of freedom, suggesting that

this finding did not occur by chance.
The

standardized coefficients or canonical variates representing the

relative

importance

reported.
and

These

typically

nature

of

the

interpretational

of

the variables in the linear combination are also

standardized

vary

from

zero

relationship
purposes,

coefficients
to

one.

may be either plus or minus
The signs merely indicate the

between variables
algebraic signs

may

in
be

the

two sets.

reversed

for

For
all

variables

within a pair of canonical variates by multiplying each element

by

one.

minus

Interpretation

forms (Marasculo & Levin,

1983).

is not altered by use of these reflected

109

Table 10
Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization and Reported Size of
District
(V15)
with
Modes
of
Conflict Management for Michigan
Administrators of Special Education
(N = 314)

Number

1

Squared
Canonical
Canonical
Correlation
Correlation
.04814

.219

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the Second Set
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation
YIELDING

* p < .05

.28
-.44
.00
-.83

Wilk's
Lambda

Chi-Square

D.F.

.92945

22.612

12

Sig.

.031»

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the First Set
Centralization
Formalization
Size
(V15)

HIGH POWER

-.99
.16
.26

110

The
that

standardized

was

measured

found
by

special

this

in these organizations.

the

(-.9 9 )

compromising

(-.1)4)

relationship

between

finding

from

from

the
the

for

between
equals

and

variables
the

canonical

the

first
second

set and accommodating (-. 83 ) and

these variables is in

compromising.

The variables which most

first canonical variate were

set.

thatthe higher the centralization,

accommodating

the pattern of relationship

study and the modes of conflict management reported by

influenced

centralization

present

between structural characteristics of an organization as

administrators

directly

so

coefficients

The signs indicate that the
the same direction (positive)

the higher the expected degree

of

Another way to express the relationship

can be shown in the reflected form as follows where ^

canonical

variate

for

the

second

variate for the first set and R

set

and

A
X

equals the

equals the correlation between

the two sets of variables:

A
Y= -.28 Collab

+ .44 Compro

-

.00 Compete

- .16 Form

-

.26 Size

+ .83 Accom

and:

A
X

= .99 Cent

and:
Rc=

The
and

.219

interpretation

procedural

process.

First,

examined

to

between
expressed

the

steps
the

of canonical correlation analysis is complicated
suggested

pattern

see which

variable

Morash

(1979) were employed in the

of relationship between the two sets were

variables

two variates.

by the

by

Labels

contributed
were

then

weights for the two

most
given

to the correlation
to

the

pattern

canonical variates.

For

111

the

relationship

major

expressed in the canonical variates for the test of the

hypothesis,

pattern
were

of

"HIGH

"YIELDING"

selected

POWER"

(centralization) was strongly tied to a

(accommodating

and

compromising).

These labels

as the common-sense terms which best represent the pattern

depicted by the linear combination for this overall test.
As
the
As

noted

earlier, the squared canonical correlation (R2 ) indicates
c

proportion
a

rule

of

of

thumb,

Pedhazur,

1982)

treated

as

correlation
hypothesis

shared variation between the two canonical variates.

have

a number of statisticians (Cooley & Lohnes, 1971;
suggested

not meaningful.

was

that

For

if

this

R 2 < .10, the finding may be
test,

the

squared

canonical

low (R 2 = .048) suggesting that although the test of the
c

achieved

statistical significance, the meaningfulness of this

finding is questionable.

Tests of the Sub-hypotheses

It

wasfurther

speculated

that

differences by

district

type

(intermediate

and local) and job position (director and supervisor) might

in

act as influences on

some

this

way

speculation, sub-hypotheses

represented
Directors;
SPSS
tests.

by

To test

were formulated for the four subgroups

these administrators: Intermediate (ISD) Directors; Local

Intermediate

program

conflict management behavior.

CANCORR

(ISD)

Supervisors;

and Local Supervisors.

The

was used to generate the results for each of these

In the sections to follow, each sub-hypothesis is restated in the

null form and the findings are discussed.

112

Findings for Sub-Hypothesis 1

Sub-Hypothesis 1 is restated here in the null form:

SUB-HYPOTHESIS 1:
There is no relationship between the structural
characteristics
of an organization and the modes of conflict
management employed by intermediate directors of special education.

The test of Hfl and H^ took the following form:

The

Hi :

R

c

H

of valid cases for this test was 62 (97% of the 64

missing

district.
was found
13.00

R, = 0

findings from the test of Sub-Hypothesis 1 are presented in Table 11.

Thenumber
to

H0 :

values for

The
for

two

cases

on

cases) due

the variable of reported size of

table shows that a canonical correlation of .388, p = .37
the

firstcanonical

was non-significant

with

12

variate. The obtained chi-square
degrees offreedom,suggesting

this finding could have occured by chance.

of

that

113

Table 11
Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization and Reported Size of
District
(V15) with Modes of Conflict Management
for Michigan ISD
Directors of Special Education
(n = 62)

Number

1

Squared
Canonical
Correlation

Canonical
Correlation

.04814

.388

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the Second Set
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation

-.48
.58
-.43
-.16

Wilk’s
Lambda

Chi-Square

D.F.

Sig.

.79753

13.009

12

.368

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the First Set
Centralization
Formalization
Size (V15)

.81
.51
-.05

1111

Findings for Sub-Hypothesis 2

Sub-Hypothesis 2 is restated here in the null form:

SUB-HYPOTHESIS 2:
There is no relationship between the structural
characteristics
of an organization and the modes of conflict
management employed by local directors of special education.

The test for Ho and Hi took the following form:

H0 :

R

Hi :

R

= 0

c

£

c

0

The

findings from the test of Sub-Hypothesis 2 are presented in Table 12.

The

number

to

missing

district.
was

found

18.85

was

this
times.

of valid cases for this test was 91 (95% of the 96 cases) due
values
The
for

for

five

cases

on the variable of reported size of

table shows that a canonical correlation of . 3!*5» P = .09
the

first canonical variate. The obtained chi-square

non-significant

with

12

of

degrees of freedom, suggesting that

finding could have occured by chance in approximately one out of ten

115

Table 12
Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization and Reported Size of
District
CV15) with Modes of Conflict Management for Michigan Local
Directors of Special Education
(N = 91)

Number

1

Squared
Canonical
Correlation
.11941

Canonical
Correlation

.346

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the Second Set
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation

Note:

.79
.89
.13
.90

Wilk's
Lambda

Chi-Square

D.F.

.80418

18.851

12

Sig.

.092

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the First Set
Centralization
Formalization
Size (V15)

.21
.06
-.99

Standardized coefficients are presented in the reflected
form .

116

Findings for Sub-Hypothesis 3

Sub-Hypothesis 3 is re-stated here in the null form:

SUB-HYPOTHESIS 3;
There is no relationship between the structural
characteristics
of an organization and the modes of conflict
management
employed
by
intermediate
supervisors
of special
education.

The test for H 0 and H x took the following form:

Ho :

Rc = 0

Hi :

R / 0
c

The

findings from the test of Sub-Hypothesis 3 are presented in Table 13.

The

number

to

of valid cases for this test was 77 (90% of the 86 cases) due

missing

values

for

nine

cases

on the variable of reported size of

district.

The table shows that a canonical correlation of .439. P = .007

was

for

found

the

first canonical variate.

The obtained chi-square of

27.39 was significant with 12 degrees of freedom.
Examination
relationship
The

variables

canonical
the

of

the

standardized

coefficients

show the pattern of

between the two sets of variables for these ISD supervisors.
which

most

direcly

influenced

the finding in the first

variate were centralization (-.92 ) and formalization (.48) from

first set and collaborating (.72) and competing (.41) from the second

set.

The

signs

indicate

formalization

together are

characterized

by

that
relatedto

high collaboration and

low

centralization

patterns
moderate

and

moderate

of conflictmanagement
competition.

These
/V

findings

may be expressed mathematically to show the relationship where Y

117
A

equals

the

canonical

canonical

variate

for

the

second

variate for the first set and R

set

and

X

equals the

equals the correlation between

the two sets of variables:

A
Y

=

.72

=

-.92

Collab + .00 Compro + .41 Compete - .32 Accom

and:

A
X

Cent

+ .48 Form

+ .33 Size

and:
Rc=

The
canonical

.439

variable weights
variate suggested

moderate

formalization.

represent

the

collaborating
squared
than

for the pattern in the

the term "OPEN" withlow centralization
The

assertiveness
in

the

first set of thefirst

second

term

dimension
set

of

"CONTRIBUTING"
expressed

was

selected

and
to

by competing and high

the first canonical variate.

The

canonical correlation for the first canonical variate was greater

.10 (R 2 = .193) suggesting that the findings were both statistically
c
significant and meaningful.

118

Table 13
Canonical
Analysis of Centralization,
Formalization and
Reported Size of
District with Modes of Conflict Management for Michigan ISD Supervisors of
Special Education (n = 7 7 )

Number

Squared
Canonical
Canonical
Correlation
Correlation

Wilk's
Lambda

.19302
.12626

.68537
.84931

1
2

.439
.355

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the Second Set
Variate:
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation

2nd

.72

.54
-.19
-.87
-.03

.41
-.32

CONTRIBUTING

27.390
11.842

D.F.

Sig.

12

.007**
.066

6

St . Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the First Set

1st

.00

Chi-Square

COOPERATIVE

Centralization
Formalization
Size (V15)

1st

2nd

-.92
.48
-33

-.09
•36
-.84

OPEN

SMALL

•• P < .01
Note:

Standardized Coefficients are presented in their reflected
form

119

Table
The

13 includes findings for the second pair of canonical variates.

chi-square

reach

a

for

statistically

canonical

analysis

second

was
is

of

second

canonical variate pair failed to

level

.126,
often

canonical

interpretations

the

significant

correlation

correlation
for

value

(R2
c

(p

>

=

.066), but the squared

.10).

Given

that canonical

difficult to interpret, the coefficients

variate

should

meaningfulness

for

cautiously
this

examined

particular

for

subgroup

of

administrators.
Examination
second

of the standardized coefficients for the two sets in the

canonical variate show a different pattern of relationship for the

composite

variables.

way

the first and second

that

number

of

possible

variables

in

variables

which

canonical

variate

competing

(-.87)

indicate

that

competing
"SMALL"
district

the

and
was

CA

generates

canonical
smaller

most
were
and
smaller

to

canonical variates are independent and the
variates
the

directly
size

is

influenced
of

district

district

to

the

the

finding

number of

(-.83)

is
with

relative

in the first set and

negatively

The signs

associated

collaborating.
weight

The

for the second

(.5*0 in the second set.

size

correlated

reflect the

limited

twosets (in this case three).

collaborating

positively

used

of

these linear combinations in such a

The

with
terms

of reported size of

and the term "COOPERATING" was used to reflect collaborating and

low competing.

120

Findings for Sub-Hypothesis *1

Sub-Hypothesis 4 is re-stated here in the null form:

SUB-HYPOTHESIS 4:
There is no relationship between the structural
characteristics
of an organization and the modes of conflict
management employed by local supervisors of special education.

The test for H0and Hjtook the following form:
Ho :

Rc = 0

Hi : Rc ^ 0

The

findings from the test of Sub-Hypothesis 4 are presented in Table 14.

The

number

to

missing

of valid cases for this test was 84 (88 % of the 96 cases) due
values

for

twelve cases on the variable of reported size of

district.

The

table shows that a canonical correlation of .318, p = .34

was

for

the

13-36

found
was

first canonical variate.

non-significant

with

12

degrees

The obtained chi-square of
of freedom suggesting that

meaningful conclusions cannot be gathered from this finding.

121

Table 14
Canonical Analysis of Centralization, Formalization and Reported Size of
District (V15) with Modes of Conflict Management for Michigan Local
Supervisors of Special Education (n = 84)

Number

1

Squared
Canonical
Canonical
Correlation
Correlation
.10169
.318

St. Coef. of Canonical Var.
of the Second Set
Collaboration
Compromise
Competition
Accommodation

1.08
-.05
.20
-.72

Wilk’s
Lambda

Chi-Square

D.F.

Sig.

.84533

13.358

12

.344

St. Coef. for Canonical Var.
of the First Set
Centralization
Formalization
Size (V15)

.14
-.19
1.00

122

Summary

This

chapter

statistics

has

for

this

characteristics
presented

for

Supervisors

of

and

study.

the

the

sub-hypotheses

presented

the

findings and

Tables

were

the

presented

descriptive
to

describe

respondents and descriptive information was also

four subgroups of ISD Directors, Local Directors, ISD

Local
were

Supervisors.

reviewed

and

The
the

major hypothesis and the four
findings for

each

test

were

di scussed.
The

test

for

statistically

to

MajorHypothesis

significant

relationship
POWER"

the

between
modes

(p

=

organizational

of this

.03).

study was

The finding

characteristics

found to be
suggested

a

described as "HIGH

of conflict management characterized by high degrees of

"YIELDING" (accommodating and compromising).
Tests

of

significant

the

four

finding

were mixed with a statistically

Sub-Hypothesis 3 (p = .007) and non-significant

findings

for

findings

suggested that the predicted relationship between organizational

structural

the

for

Sub-Hypotheses

remaining

Sub-Hypotheses.

characteristics

inconsistent

and

modes

of

Interpretation

conflict

of

management

these

was

across the subgroups with ISD Supervisors reporting patterns

between

these variable sets which were very different from those reported

by

other subgroups.

the

suggested

that

centralization,
most

closely

competing).

The pattern of relationship for ISD Supervisors

organizational
moderately
related

to

high

structures

characterized

formalization

patterns

and

as "OPEN" (low

moderate size) were

of "CONTRIBUTING" (collaborating and

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This

chapter

description
and

of

presents

the

conclusions

recommendations

general
and

for

the

of

of

the

research design.

personnel

administration

with

summary

implications

education
area

a

are

are

preparation

provided.

study

and

includes

a

The findings are reviewed
discussed.
in

the

Two
area

specific

of

special

Additionally recommendations in

policy

are

offered for consideration.

recommendations

for

further

research

with

The chapter closes

wider

populations of

administrators.

Summary

Purpose of the Study
The

purpose

relationship
employed

was

between

by

structural

special

this

by

perceptions

study

was

perceptions
education

characteristics

predicted

typical"

of

of

of

to

identify

conflict

administrators

and

describe

management
and

the

strategies

perceptions

of

the organizations in which they work.

It

that the patterns of conflict management reported as "most
the

of

administrators
organizational

in this study would be related to their
structure in the organizations where they

were employed.

123

124
Rationale
The

role

dramatically

of
since

mid-seventies.
special

been
for

have

special

the

The

education

education

the

enactment

legal

of

requirements

programming

placed

education

and

administrator
federal

for

has

legislation

procedural

changed
in

safeguards

the
in

the rising concern for excellence in

many demands on administrators.

This problem has

exacerbated by a period of economic instability and a rising concern
excellence

conflict

and

accountability

in

education as a whole.

Effective

management by special education leaders was viewed as a critical

link to overall administrative leadership.
Previous
suggested

research

that

management

primary

is

effectiveness

conflict

Based

on

element

improvement

in

in

the

closely related

primary

management

essential

conflict

organizational setting has

reliance on a collaborative approach to conflict

more

than

strategies.

on

reliance

to
on

long-term
other

organizational

conflict

management

this assumption, investigation of the patterns of

by special education administrators was viewed as an
for

the

understanding
delivery

and

system

making

designed

recommendations
to

for

serve

handicapped

in

industrial

students.
Other

research

efforts conducted

organizations

have

suggested

that

organization

may

influence

the

relationships.
inherent
influences
than

any

suggested

Secondly,

within
may
single
the

characteristics

the

fact

structural
behavioral

structure

outcomes

of

of

the

conflict

and

that

organizational

exert as much if not more influence on behavior

individual

factor.

existence

of a

and

characteristics

literature has suggested that conflict is

organizational
in

primarily

Although
relationship

previous
between

research

has

structural

modes of conflict management employed by individuals

125
organization,
in

formal

the literature.

offer

a

attempts

to establish this pattern are not evident

This study was an attempt to combine perspectives and

description

of

conflict management behavior which acknowledges

organizational influences.

The Research Hypotheses
The

major

relationship

exists

organization
education

research

and

between
modes

administrators.

organizational
district

the

question
the
of
It

would

show

a

structural

characteristics

of

an

conflict management employed by special
was predicted that the perceptions of the

characteristics

size

addressed in this study was whether a

of

centralization,

relationship

to

the

formalization
primary

and

pattern of

conflict management reported by administrators in these districts.

The major premise was as follows:

MAJOR HYPOTHESIS
:
There is a relationship between the structural
characteristics
of an organization and the modes of conflict
management employed by special education administrators.

It
local)
conflict
assess

was

further

and

job

position

management
for

subgroups

possible
were

hypothesized

that

(director

behavior.
differences

Four
in

district type (intermediate and

and

supervisor)

sub-hypotheses
these

four

might

influence

were formulated to

subgroups.

The four

defined as Intermediate (ISD) Directors, Local Directors,

Intermediate (ISD) Supervisors, and Local Supervisors.

126

The Design of the Study
The
survey

general

approach

design.

Survey

this research employed a cross-sectional

packets

were

Statistical

Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

four

analysis

sub-hypotheses

(CA).

the

three

and

size

conflict

were

analyzed

tested

with

using

the

aid

of

the

The major hypothesis
canonical correlation

The constructs examined as the independent variables were

structural
of

was

to all individuals in the

and

the

information

mailed

population

and

the

for

characteristics

district.

management

The

of centralization, formalization,

dependent

described

variables

were

four

modes of

as collaborating, compromising, competing

and accommodating.

The Population of Interest
The
as

populationof interest for this research

"administrators

study,

of

special education".

was broadly identified

For

the

purposes of this

the population was delimited and defined as individuals reimbursed

through

the

Education

State

serving

of
in

Michigan
local

or

as

Directors or Supervisors of Special

intermediate

school

districts for the

1982-83 school year.

Data Collection
On

March

8,

1983 packets containing the survey materials were sent

to

462

individualsidentified under various titles as potential members

of

the

population.

additional
the

On

March 30th a subsequent mailing was made to 44

individuals not included in the original mailing.

A record of

response order was kept for all respondents because of the three-week

differential

in

the

mailing

dates

for these two groups.

It was noted

127
that

31 of the 44 individuals from the second mailing participated in the

study

for

was

a

taken

response rate of 75% for that subgroup.

to

indicate

that

This response rate

no significant differences existed between

subgroups due to the effects of history.
A
as

grand

total of 506 individuals were asked to respond to the survey

potential

members of

inappropriate
responses

leaving

were

response

rate

the
a

total

received
of

population.

from

81%.

Four

names were dropped as

of 502 individuals in the frame.
407

of

Subsequent

Usable

these individuals for an overall

analyses

were conducted on the 342

directors and supervisors identified in these 407 respondents.

Instrumentation
Subjective
were
as
size

selected
the

measures for both the independent and dependent variables
for this study.

structural

of

The independent variables were identified

characteristics

district.

The

subjective perceptions of these organizational

structures

as

constituted

assessment of these characteristics.

of

they

of centralization, formalization and

were

perceived

by

the

individual

respondents

The Aiken & Hage Scales

Centralization and Formalization were used to assess these constructs.

Size was measured as a simple count reported by the respondents.
The

dependent

management

employed

Thomas-Kilmann
five

variables

MODE

different

by

conflict

as

education

(XICOM,

Inc.,

the modes of conflict
administrators.

The

1974) was used to assess

management modes identified as: collaborating,

competing,

instrument

an

ipsative

accommodating,
scale

desirability

as a response bias.

as

dependent

linearly

identified

special

Instrument

compromising,
is

were

and

thus,

which

and

avoiding.

The

MODE

attempts to control for social

The design renders the five mode scores
one

had to be dropped to conduct the

128
statistical

analysis.

technique

of

would

least

be

The

"avoiding"

conceptual

framework

suggested

that

a

as an dominant strategy for conflict management

beneficial

for

long-term organizational effectiveness,

thus this mode was not included in the canonical correlation analysis.

Reliability and Validity of the Measures
Reliability
good

range

Scale

and

for

with
and

these

rated

estimates

for

standardized

the Aiken & Hage Scales were in the very
item alphas of .83 for the Centralization

.75 for the Formalization Scale.

Face validity estimates

scales were conducted by a panel of judges where each item was

on a Likert-type scale ranging from strongly agree (+2) to strongly

disagree
very

(-2).

high

Validity

ratings for the both of these scales were also

with ratings of 1.97 for the Centralization Scale and 1.48 for

the Formalization Scale.
Reliability
moderate

to

instrument
response

estimates

low
was

with

originally

bias

and

items

respondent.

The

items

subscale

per

procedures
place

a

for
mean

the
of

Thomas-Kilmann MODE Instrument were
.50

designed
were

ipsative

to

to

of

five

scales.

The

to have equal appeal to the

the scale and the small number of

question

for evaluation of this measure.

limitations

the

reduce social desirability as a

constructed

nature

bring

across

the

traditional

reliability

The low reliability estimates

on

the

implications

which

can

be

drawn

from the

ratings

for

thisinstrument were evaluated by a panel of

findings.
Validity
judges
Hage
in

using
Scales.

the

a

Likert-type

as

similar to that used for the Aiken &

The face validity rating for the instrument as a whole was

strongly

instrument

scale

agree

to agree range (1.24) indicating support for the

a valid measure.

Interestingly the lowest validity rating

129
by

the

panel of judges was for the

competing mode (.84) which

showed the

highest degree of reliability (.6 8 ).

Limitations
For

the

purposes of this study, the subjects were the Directors and

Supervisors

of

Special

intermediate

school

perspective

this

districts
group

information

gathered

population

parameters.

administrators

Education in

may

in

system.

populations

of

be

this

one

Extensions

school

the

is

level

school year.

perspective,

limited
this

administration

logically

bridged

or

From one

and thus

statistically

of
be

in local

aspopulation

another

may

serving

1982-83

viewed

study

From

represent

educational

for

Michigan

the

to the

group

of

within

an

to

larger

administrators and to middle level administrators

in other types of organizations.
Limitations
reliance

on

characteristics
the

specified
was

this

perceptual

Thomas-Kilmann

and

for

data
level

restricted

MODE

study

are

related

measures

and

low reliability estimates for the

Instrument.

For

to the unit of analysis,

this

study,

structural

were assessed with the individual as the unit of analysis
were
in
to

treated as measures of organizational structure at a
the

organization.

subjective

perceptions

for

management behavior.

both

structural

characteristics

and

not

the findings, but they do suggest that different findings

invalidate

conflict

Secondly, the survey information

These limitations do

might have been noted with objective measures of these same constructs.

130

Conclusions and Implications

The
on

the

conclusions

and

recommendations for this study have been based

findings for the Major Hypothesis and the Four Sub-Hypotheses for

this study.

A summary of these findings is presented in Table 15.

Table 15
Summary: Findings for the Tests of the Hypotheses

Hypothesis

Major:
All Admin.

N

Findings

314

The null hypothesis was rejected, P = .03
R = .05
The relationship for the first cv related a
structural pattern of "HIGH POWER" to a conflict
management pattern of "YIELDING".

Sub 1:
ISD Dir.

62

The null hypothesis was retained, p = .36

Sub 2:
Local Dir.

91

The null hypothesis was retained, p = .09

Sub 3:
ISD Sup.

77

The null hypothesis was rejected, p = .007
R = .19

-

The relationship for the first cv related a
structural pattern termed as "OPEN" to a
conflict management pattern of "CONTRIBUTING".
The second cv was non-significant, p = .066.

Sub 4:
Loc Sup.

84

The null hypothesis was retained, p = .34

131

Discussion of the Findings
The
the

analysis

data

accounted

predicted
low

of this study indicates that systematic differences in
for

the

finding

for

the

Major

Hypothesis.

The

relationship was found to be statistically significant, but the

canonical

correlation

meaningfulness.

The

distinct

of

pattern

made

test

the

for

finding

suspect

Sub-Hypothesis

3,

in

terms of its

however,

showed

a

relationship between structural characteristics and

conflict management behavior for the subgroup of ISD Supervisors.
The

pattern

structural
pattern

which

pattern

of

high

was

evidenced

by

the

overall

test

related a

of high centralization (.99) to a conflict management
accommodating

(.83)

and moderate compromising (.44).

These patterns were labeled as "HIGH POWER" and "YIELDING".
The

pattern

structural

pattern

formalization
pattern
and

a

pattern

evidenced

(.48)

marked

labeled
in

management

pattern

competing.

a

the

test

by

very low centralization

moderate

size

for

ISD Supervisors related a

(.33)

(-.92), moderate

to a conflict management

high collaborating (.72) and moderate competing (.41)

low

flexibility

assertiveness

and

by

somewhat
was

marked

by

degree
as

system
was

dimension

of

"OPEN"

accommodating
to

marked
labeled
depicted

(-.32).

The structural

reflect the potential for input and

by
as
by

these

structures.

"CONTRIBUTING"
high

The
to

conflict

reflect

the

degrees of collaborating and

132

Conclusions
The
there
and

findings

is

a

this

study

supported

the Major Hypothesis that

relationship between perceptions of organizational structure

perceptions

administrators
this

for

of
of

pattern

of

how

organizational

special

education.

conflict is handled by Michigan
The findings also suggested that

relationship was most strongly evident for the subgroup

of ISD Supervisors.
These
the

findings

perceptions

administrators.
see

further

questions as to what differentiated

ISD Supervisors from those of the other subgroups
the

demographic data was undertaken

if consistent differences could be

noted in the variables measured.

A

Examination

of

at

than

at

the

the

degree of attachment to the central system for

local

information

on the variable of centralization.

as

local
as

size

of

speculation
district

was
and

based

on

descriptive

"Supervisor" was reported

correct title for 74% of the administrators at the ISD level, but

58%
the

titles,

This

regarding

the

job

level.

information

only

to

the ISD level for Supervisors of Special Education may have

different

Supervisors

as

of

review of the data led to the conclusion that the degree of "loose

coupling"
been

of

raised

of

the administrators at the local level reported "Supervisor"

correct
level

title.

(13%)

Thirteen percent (13%) of the Supervisors at the

reported titles as "Director" or "Assistant Director"

compared to only three percent (3%) at the ISD level.

conclusion

that

reimbursement

This led to the

status for Supervisors may not adequately

reflect the actual role performed in the district.
It
very

was

large

further
districts.

noted

that most local Supervisors were employed in

The large standard deviation for reported size of

133
district
area.

indicated the skewing introduced by individuals from the Detroit
This

factor

may

have influenced the non-significant finding for

Supervisors at the local level.
The

variable

Directors

than

reported

for

tended

to

fairly

high

less

finding

of

Supervisors.

This

generally viewed as lower for

finding suggested that Directors

as involved in decision-making and as holding

Supervisors,

especially

organizational

management
is

was

Supervisors with the highest level of centralization

themselves

for

perceptions

centralization

degrees of authority for special education, whereas this was

true

conflict

for

ISD

see

of

structure

at the

ISD

level.

Thus,

were related to perceptions of

most markedly at middle administrative levels.

consistent

This

with previous research by Thomas & Schmidt (1976)

in their survey with managers from business organizations.
The
of
that

patterns

of relationship between administrators' reported modes

conflict management and perceptions of organizational structure showed
where

reported

systems were

a

pattern of

accommodating

and

centralization,
reported

a

viewed
conflict

compromising.

moderate

pattern of

as

highly centralized, administrators

management
However,

marked by a high degree of
in systems

marked

by

low

formalization and moderate size, administrators
conflict

management

marked

by high degrees of

collaboration and moderate competition.
The
more

organizational

effective

over

the

literature has suggested that systems tend to be
long term when collaboration is evidenced as a

primary

conflict management strategy.

suggest

that

influence

administrators'

patterns

of

organizational

structure

effectiveness.

With

perceptions

conflict
are

The findings from this study would
of

management
related

to

organizational

structure

and

views

therefore

overall

of

organizational

this as an assumption, a number of implications for

134
change

can be drawn which relate to special education administration at a

variety of levels.

Implications

The

findings

training
These

policy

implications

high
it

and

from

this

in
are

study

the

have

strategic

reasonable

for

area of special education administration.

based

on

the assumption that systems marked by

degrees of collaboration are most effective.
seems

implications

Given this assumption,

to promote the development of systems characterized

by organizational structures where collaboration is most prevalent.
The

pattern

collaboration
characterized
and

(c)

that

of organizational structure defined by this study where

was
by:

the
(a)

dominant
low

moderate

size.

information

flow

conflict

centralization,

management

strategy

was

(b) moderate formalization,

This pattern has been labeled as "open" to show
and

participation

in

decision-making

are

encouraged.
The

implications

administration
mechanisms

for

are

for

significant.

teaching

decision-making

and

collaboration.

Secondly,

of

personnel

preparation

Training

prospective

in

programs

special education
need

to establish

administrators to value and employ

conflict management strategies which lead to greater
administrators need to recognize the potential

organizational structures as influences on the behavior of individuals

within

the

administrators

system.

Training

programs

must

structure

findings
and

on

providing

with skills as change agents to improve the quality of the

organizational system of service delivery (Havelock,
The

focus

1973).

also provide a basis for examination of organizational

policy

at

both

state and federal levels.

The system of

135
attitudes
which

toward

handicapped

suggested

that

contribution

to

resulted

the

in

formalized

organizational
federal

The

development
which

levels

legislative

on

were

considerations

capable of greater

mandates for

procedural

service have

systems which

compliance

which

economic

are highly

and due process.

characterize

operations

Thus, the

at

state and

are presently marked by high levels of centralization and
As

quantity

and

individuals

of

focus

structures

formalization.
the

handicapped

society.

and

individuals

of

a result, the special education system has focused on
service, and only recently has attention begun to shift

to an emphasis on the quality of service.
The

combined

suggests

perspective

which

served as the basis for this study

that levels within the system of service delivery have important

impacts

on

other levels within the system.

preferable

at

levels

of

administration,

structural

characteristics

at

state

direction

all

If the collaborative mode is

for

future

efforts

and

then

federal

an

examination of

levels

may

provide

to improve the system of service delivery

for handicapped youth.
The
degree

findings

of

formalization

formalization
which

focus

education
mandatory

has

this
at

resulted

study
all

in

suggest that changes to reduce the

levels

should

be

to

in

initiate special

mandatory

of

the

compliance

education

compliance

handicapped.
could

considered.

High

requirements for paperwork and procedure

individuals on the quantitive aspects of

Legislation
resulted

from

and
A

lead

to

services in this nation has

shifting

decrease

service delivery.

in

greater

attitudes
the

toward

the

requirements

for

reliance

on

normative

compliance and increasing emphasis on the quality of service delivery.

136
Recommendations

Personnel Preparation
Based

on

recommendations
have

been

special

the

area

shift

implications

drawn

from

this

study,

The

major

first is related to training in relation to

effectiveness.

education

Personnel preparation programs in the area

administration should include skill development in

of conflict management and decision-making.

in

two

for training programs in special education administration

formulated.

organizational
of

the

methods,

This may require a

from the traditional lecture approach, to emphasis on

simulation, internship and the development of mentoring models.
The
process

second

recommendation is related to training in relation to the

of change.

education

Personnel preparation programs in the area of special

administration

organizational
management.

theory

should

include

provide

participants

and

Applications

might

include

content

on

with

systems

and

skills in system

system problem identification,

strategy development, intervention and evaluation of effectiveness.
These
vision.
with
but

the
also

programmatic

recommendations

reflect the need for leaders of

In this rapidly changing society, we must provide administrators
knowledge and tools for meeting not only the letter of the law,
the

intent.

In order to be effective, these individuals will

need skills as problem-solvers and agents of change.

Policy Review
In
suggest

the

area

that

of

the

relationship

to

delivery

special

in

the

policy,
quality

the implications from this research study
of

special

educational

service

and

its

structures which characterize the system of service
education

need

to

be

carefully

reviewed.

The

137
establishment
from

the

of

federal

recommended
process
field

appropriate

to

for
and

review

a

this

issue.

a National Task Force) are

It is further recommended that the

service
of

levels.
areas

rehabilitation,

should

between

address

systems

These

individuals

including:

organizational

and business and industry.

transition

of

Requests for Proposals

include participation by recognized leaders from the
direct

development

(e.g.,

development

cross-section

administration,
management

or

address

include

represent

policy

level

mechanisms

should

special

education

sociology,

conflict

This interdisciplinary approach to
areas

and

of

funding

interagency

cooperation,

incentives

for

overall

organizational effectiveness.

Future Research
The
between

findings

from

this study have suggested that the relationship

organizational structure and modes of conflict management is most

apparent

at middle levels of management in systems where coupling between

administrative

levels

is strongest.

administrators

should

be conducted to

in

other

within

geographic

public

locations

educational

organizations

may

reveal

Further research

with middle level

see if this pattern is consistent

and for regular education administrators

systems.
more

Research

about

on

other populations of

the influence

of organizational

structure on individual behavior in the system.
Secondly,
conflict

management

investigated
for

utility
behavior

of

the
in

by other researchers.

explaining

should
and

the

a

combined

the

model

organizational

for examination of
setting should be

This combined model has the potential

variety of behaviors at the individual level.

Efforts

address other variables (e.g., the degree of technology, the topic

source

of

conflict, time,

etc.)

as additional

influences on the

138
process

of

conflict

management.

Factors

at

the

environmental level

should also to be identified and incorporated into the model.
Efforts
measures,

to
as

respondents.
ongoing

well

this combined model should incorporate objective

as

subjective

Additionally,

conflict

information

assess

the

behavior

in

perceptions

development

of

on

the

part

strategies

to

of

the

assess

the organization could provide meaningful

about the factors which influence administrative behavior and

organizational decision-making.
The
be

adequately

account
to

complexities

assessed by

within patterns of human behavior cannot

simplistic

methods

the many factors which influence action.

which

do not take into

Support should be given

research efforts dealing with organizational conflict which attempt to

assess

both

longitudinal
management
in

inherent

a

quantitative
design.
has

rapidly

development

of

and

qualitative

Research

important

in

the

aspects

of

behavior

in

a

area of organizational conflict

implications for individuals and organizations

changing society.
strategies

organizational effectiveness.

for

This

research

positive

should be aimed at the
change

and

evidence

of

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

COVER LETTER

140

CODE NUMBER
M IC H IG A N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y
EAST LANSING •MICHIGAN •48824-10L4

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION •DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING,
EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

In the Fall of 1981, the faculty In special education administration at Michigan
State University submitted a grant proposal to the federal government for support
of personnel preparation and research in special education administration. The
research component of this grant proposal specifically addressed the issue of
conflict management as one of the critical issues of concern to the field.
We realize that in these times of declining resources and increasing demands for
accountability and procedural safeguards, administrators are under a great deal of
pressure on a variety of levels. Under these conditions, conflict, is an inevitable
part of organizational life. It is our belief that school districts vary in the
ways in which policies and procedures for dealing with problems are established and
carried out in the system. We are interested in understanding how special education
administrators deal with conflict in districts with very different organizational
characteristics.
Enclosed you will find a packet of materials which we would like you to fill out
and return at your earliest convenience. All materials have been coded with an
identifying number for computer analysis. Please be assured that your responses
will be treated as confidential information.
For your convenience, we have also
included a post-paid return envelope.
We hope that you will take a few minutes from your busy schedule to respond to
these materials.
The information that ONLY YOU can provide may help all of us in
the field to learn more about organizational settings in which conflict is most
effectively managed. By working together to become more effective, we can provide
the best possible education for those handicapped individuals whom we serve.

Dr. Charles E. Henley, MSU Prof.

Dr. Charles V. Mange, MSU Prof.

Patricia J. Kearly, Research Coordinator

141

APPENDIX B

DEMOGRAPHIC SHEET

142

CODE NUMBER

DEMOGRAPHIC DATA SHEET
DIRECTIONS: PU> m respond to the follow ing ite a s by c irc lia g the auaber which rep resen ts your response.
GENDER:

1 « an le

2 * feaale

RACE:

l >Mhi t e

2 * black

A6E:

1 * ander 31
2 ■ 31 to 35
3 > 34 to 40

3 ■ other

4 ■ 41 to 45
5 * 44 to 50
4 * 51 to 55

7 * 56 or over

1

2

1

2

3

1

2

3

4

3

4

1 2

3

4

3

4

1 2

3

HIGHEST EDUCATHNAL LEVEL:
1 * Bachelors
2 * M asters
3 * M asters Pins 15
DISTRICT TYPE:

4 * M asters P las 30
5 * Ed Special 1st
4 ■ Doctorate

1 * io teraed iate

2 * local

3 ■ other

MY DISTRICT RECEIVES REIMBURSEMENT FOR MY POSITION AS A:
1 ■ D irector of Special Education
2 ■ Supervisor of Special Education
3 ■ neither
JOB TITLE:

SPECIAL EDUCATNN
ADMINISTRATIVE
RESPONSIBILITY:

1*
2»
3*
4*
5*
4■

1 2

Assoc/Asst/Regional Supt
D irector of Special Education
A ssistan t D irector of Special Education
Supervisor of Special Education
Coordinator of Special Education
Other (Specify)

1•
2*
3>
4*
5■

f u l l- t iae
le ss tbaa f u l l - t ia e , acre than h a lf-tia e
h a lf-tia e
le ss tbaa b a lf - tia e ( aore than none
none

DIRECTIONS: Please specify for the f o lia tin g ite a s .
YEARS IN PRESENT POSITION:
TOTAL NUMBER OF YEARS OF ADMINISTRATIVE EXPEDIENCE IN EDUGATIIN:
TOTAL NW8ER OF YBWS OF TEACHIN6 EXPERIENCE:
NUMBER OF FULL-TIME PROFESSIONAL PERSOMEL EMPLOYED BY YOUR DISTRICT 1982-63:

143

3

7

APPENDIX C

THE AIKEN & HAGE SCALES

PLEASE NOTE:
Copyrighted materials in this document
have not been filmed at the request of
the author. They are available for
consultation, however, in the author's
university library.
These consist of pages:
145-146 __________
148-151

University
M icro film s
International
3 00 N. ZE E B RD .. A N N A R B O R . M l 4 8 1 0 6 (313) 761-4700

APPENDIX D

THE THOMAS-KILMANN MODE INSTRUMENT
XICOM, INC.,

147

1974

APPENDIX E

VALIDITY RATINGS OF THE MEASURES BY
A PANEL OF JUDGES

152

VALIDITY RATINGS OF THE MEASURES BY
A PANEL OF JUDGES

Validity
made

by

graduate

a

a

panel

students

University
Aiken

ratings

&

and

for the instruments included in this research were

of

four

from

one

judges.

the

The

College

consumer.

The

of

panel

was comprised of three

Education

at

Michigan

State

face validity of items for both the

Hage Scales and the Thomas-Kilmann MODE Instrument were rated on

Likert-type

scale

ranging

from

"strongly

agree"

(+2) to "strongly

disagree" (-2).
The

procedure

and

a

description

the

constructs

and

instructed

to

rate

question.

Judges

included

a description of the purpose of the process

of the design of the scales.
sub-constructs

were

given.

Definitions for each of
Individual judges were

each item for its ability to assess the construct in
independently

rated each of the items and scores were

averaged for each scale/subscale.
The
highly

findings
valid

indicated

with

ratings

Formalization.

The

Similarly,

the

findings

supportive

of

of

Ratings

The

1.24.
results

that the Aiken & Hage Scales were viewed as
of

1.97

for

Centralization

and

1.48 for

results of these ratings are reported in Table E.1.
for

the

Thomas-Kilamnn

MODE

Instrument were

the face validity of the instrument with an overall rating

of

for each of the subscales are reported in Table E.2.

these

ratings indicate support for the face validity of

the measures utilized in this study.

153

Table E.1

Face Validity Ratings for the Aiken & Hage Scales by Subscale

Formalization
Subscales

Mean x Items

Mean

Auton
RuleOb
JobSp

1.80
2.00
1.03

9.0
4.0
6.9

Full Scale

x
x
x

5
2
6
13

Table E.2
Face Validity Ratings for the Thomas-Kilmann
MODE Istrument by Subscale

Modes of Conflict Management
Subscales

Mean

Collaborating
Compromising
Competing
Accommodating
Avoiding

1.58
1.38
.84
1.19
1.22
1.24

Full Scale

154

CO
•

1
1
I
Centralization
1
1
I
Subscales
Mean
1
1
2.00
I
Partic
!
Hier
1.95
1
1
1
1
I Full Scale
1.97
1
1

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