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University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 8520562 S m ile y , E d g a r T h o m a s MANGANESE DEFICIENCY AND NUTRITION OF URBAN ACER SACCHARUM AND ACER RUBRUM M ic h ig a n S ta te U n iv e r s i ty University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 Ph.D. 1985 PLEASE NOTE: In all c a s e s this m aterial h a s b ee n film ed in th e b e st p ossible w ay from th e available copy. P roblem s e n c o u n te re d with this d o c u m e n t h av e been identified h ere with a c h e c k mark V 1. G lossy p h o to g ra p h s or p a g e s 2. C olored illustrations, p ap e r or p rin t_______ 3. P h o to g rap h s with d a rk b a c k g ro u n d A. Illustrations a re p o o r c o p y _______ 5. P a g e s with b lack m arks, not original c o p y ______ 6. Print show s th ro u g h a s th e re is tex t on both sides of p a g e ________ 7. Indistinct, broken o r sm all print o n several pag es 8. 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University Microfilms International MANGANESE DEFICIENCY AND NUTRITION OF URBAN ACER SACCHARUM AND ACER RUBRUM By Edgar Thomas Smiley A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Forestry 1985 ABSTRACT MANGANESE DEFICIENCY AND NUTRITION OF URBAN ACER SACCHARUM AND ACER RUBRUM By Edgar Thomas Smiley Maples are the most commonly planted tree species in the United states. One of the most obvious problems with maples in the Great Lakes states is interveinal chlorosis. Foliar required analysis data from healthy urban trees are to make diagnosis of deficiencies and fertilizer prescriptions. Two hundred and ninety-eight urban sugar and red maples in the Great Lakes States were sampled and the and data presented fertilization. as Healthy guides to diagnosis urban trees contained lower than expected concentrations of N and Mn, of A l , Cd, Cu, Fe, Mg and Zn? intermediate levels and high levels of B , Ca, Cr, K, Na and P. Information required to compatibility on the foliar nutrient define of sampling results. The fluctuation periods, affect is assuring of manganese deficiency on fluctuation is not well defined. Patterns in manganese deficient urban sugar and red maples generally the same as those found in forest trees. were In two cases in the patterns were distinctly different. deficient red maples lacked the expected concentration during the season. Manganese increase Phosphorus lacked of the expected end-of-season decrease. The best time to sample foliage August in lower September. Michigan was through mid- Sampling for manganese in deficient trees may be conducted in June or later. Manganese interveinal Reduced deficiency chlorosis was confirmed as the cause of urban sugar growth in manganese deficient only in severe cases. and red maples. trees was detected Three soil factors were found to be related to manganese deficiency of urban sugar and maples, growing and most important was soil pH. in soils with pH values greater than 6.8 visual symptoms of matter manganese maple to 7.0 deficiency. Organic levels between 2 and 5.5% favored manganese uptake sugar maple, and levels between 3 and manganese uptake in red maples. the Sugar red red maples in soils with pH over 6.1 to 6.6 typically had in the of third most important factor. 5.5% favored Soil redox potential was Poorly drained having low redox potentials, had more chlorosis. sites, TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES v LIST OF FIGURES vii INTRODUCTION 1 Literature Review 2 Manganese 2 Manganese Deficiency of Trees 5 Literature Cited 6 Chapter 1 FOLIAR NUTRIENT DIAGNOSIS OF URBAN SUGAR AND RED MAPLES IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION Introduction 9 9 Materials and Methods 13 Results and Discussion 15 Literature Cited 25 Acknowledgements 27 Chapter 2 SEASONAL VARIATION OF FOLIAR NUTRIENTS IN MANGANESE DEFICIENT URBAN SUGAR AND RED MAPLES 28 Introduction 28 Materials and Methods 31 Results 34 Discussion 47 Literature Cited 51 ii Chapter 3 MANGANESE DEFICIENCY OF URBAN SUGAR AND RED MAPLES: A DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM AND SOIL FACTORS INVOLVED Introduction 53 53 Soil Factors Associated with Manganese Deficiencies 53 Manganese Deficiencies of Maples 56 Materials and Methods 59 Sampling Design 59 Sampling Methods 59 Laboratory Procedures 65 Statistical Analyses 67 Results 69 Description of Study Trees 69 Nutrients Related to Chlorosis 69 Chlorosis Ratings 73 Growth Impacts 76 Factbrs Associated with Chlorosis and Manganese 82 Soil Texture 82 Soil Organic Matter 82 Soil Manganese 86 Soil Nitrogen 86 Soil Effervescence 86 Mycorrhizae 91 Soil Oxidation - Reduction Potentials 92 Precipitation 92 Soil pH 97 Multivariate analyses iii 100 Discussion 102 Nutrients Responsible for Interveinal Chlorosis 102 Chlorosis Rating 103 Growth Impacts 104 Factors Responsible for Manganese Deficiency 105 Soil Texture 105 Soil Organic Matter 105 Soil Manganese 107 Soil Nitrogen 107 Soil Effervescence 108 Mycorrhizae 108 Soil Oxidation - Reduction Potential 109 Precipitation 110 Soil pH 111 Why is Manganese Deficiency Common in Urban Areas? 113 Management Recommendations 114 Research Needs 116 Literature Cited 119 iv LIST OF TABLES CHAPTER 1 1. Average foliar nutrient levels in healthy sugar and red maples in selected cities of the Great Lakes region sampled during the mid and late summer of 1982 and 1983. 16 2. Nutrient levels in leaves of healthy sugar and red maples as determined by other authors. 18 3. Preliminary foliar goals for fertilization of urban sugar and red maples sampled in late summer in the Great Lakes region. 22 4. Preliminary guide sugar and red maples. 23 for nutrient diagnosis of CHAPTER 3 5. Summary of tree species samples. 70 6. Foliar element concentrations of urban sugar maple sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 71 7. Foliar element concentrations of urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 72 8. Growth differences between healthy and chlorotic urban trees sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 77 9. Regressions relating soil factors and foliar manganese in urban sugar and red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 85 v List of Tables continued 10. Relation of mycorrhizal infection and foliar manganese concentration in urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes states during late summer 1982. 91 11. Precipitation correlations with average foliar manganese concentrations of sugar and red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 97 12. Unstandardized canonical functions used to separate healthy urban trees. vi discriminant and chlorotic 100 LIST OF FIGURES CHAPTER 1 1. Idealized relation between foliar nutrient levels and tree condition, as adapted from Smith (1 9 6 2 ). CHAPTER 2 2. Fluctuation of nitrogen concentration in healthy to moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. 3. Fluctuation of nitrogen concentration in slight to moderately - severe chlorotic red maples during 1982 and 1983. 4. Fluctuation of phosphorus concentration in healthy to moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. 5. Fluctuation of phosphorus concentration in slight to moderately - severe chlorotic red maples during 1982 and 1983. 6. Fluctuation of potassium concentration in healthy to slight - moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. 7. Fluctuation of calcium concentration in healthy to moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. 8. Fluctuation of iron concentration in healthy to moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. 9. Fluctuation of iron concentration in moderately - severe red maples during 1983. slight to 1982 and List of Figures continued 10. Fluctuation of manganese concentration in healthy to moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. 45 11. Fluctuation of manganese slight to moderately - severe 1982 and 1983. 46 concentration in red maples during CHAPTER 3 12. Photograph of red maple ’October Glory’ leaves with series of chlorosis symptoms. 62 13. Relation of foliar manganese concentration and chlorosis ratings for urban sugar maple sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 74 14. Relation of foliar manganese concentration and chlorosis ratings for urban red maple sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 75 15. Relation of terminal length and foliar manganese concentration in healthy and chlorotic sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 78 16. Relation of terminal length and foliar manganese concentration in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 79 17. Relation of terminal diameter and foliar manganese concentration in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 80 18. Relation of terminal diameter and foliar manganese concentration in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 81 19. Relation of soil organic matter and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 83 viii List of Figures continued 20. Relation of soil organic matter and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 84 21. Relation of 0.1 N phosphoric acid extractable soil manganese and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 87 22. Relation of 0.1 N phosphoric acid extractable soil manganese and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 88 23. Relation of soil nitrogen and to foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 89 24. Relation of soil nitrogen and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 90 25. Relation of measured soil redox potential (pe) and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983- 93 26. Relation of measured soil redox potential (pe) and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 94 27. Relation of summer precipitation and average foliar manganese concentration in sugar maple from 12 sites sampled during late summer 1982 and 1983. 95 28. Relation of summer precipitation and average foliar manganese concentration in red maples from 11 sites sampled during late summer 1982 and 1983. 96 29. Relation of surface soil pH and foliar manganese concentration in healthy and chlorotic sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 98 30. Relation of surface soil pH and foliar manganese concentration in healthy and chlorotic red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 99 ix INTRODUCTION This dissertation is a composite of three manganese The first paper is a general overview of nutrient levels. define deficiencies, revised set of This information is needed excesses and fertilization goals. terminology is presented which guide urban forestry nutrient status of Manganese practitioners in nutrient the deficiency affect manganese or determining is one of the most maples. problems of maples in the upper midwest. paper A The conclusions presented are meant as a practical to about to defines several points relating tree condition to foliar level. on deficiency and mineral nutrition of urban sugar and red maples. maple papers this deficiency on important Little is known fluctuations other nutrients in the tree. The of second examines fluctuations in manganese deficient urban sugar and red determine results maples. These data are necessary optimum sampling periods to achieve in nutrient diagnosis, to comparable both with this research project and for field practitioners. In order to quantitatively define the responsible for manganese deficiency and the impact the deficiency has upon the tree, the final paper manganese deficiency in urban sugar and red maples. 1 factor which studies Literature Review Maples planted are the most widely occuring and trees in urban areas (Giedraitis and Kielbaso, maples in chlorosis the Great which is of 1982). Lakes the often United States One common problem states is attributed to a (Kielbaso and Ottman, most an lack of interveinal of manganese 1976). Manganese Manganese in rocks, iron is a ubiquitous element widely distributed soil, plants and animals. in abundance in the earth's Hodgson, 1962). occuring It is second only to crust (Chapman, 1973, Manganese (Mn) exists in three naturally valences, +2,+3,+4 (Ehrlich, 1981). The trivalent ion is unstable in solution and the quadrivalent ion appears only at environments, compounds environments the extremely are mainly Mn most stable pyrolusite (Dion and Mann, In a basic media, This reaction is low 1946, oxidation of Mn catalyzed by particles (Fujimoto and Sherman, pH. +2 In reducing and in oxidizing compound is J3-Mn02, Mortvedt et al., 1972). +2 by oxygen can the 1948). presence occur. of fine At intermediate oxidation-reduction (redox) potentials many compounds be formed with Mn in any of its three valences may (Bohn, 1970) . In and soil, therefore Mn in the divalent state is quite subject to leaching. Much soil soluble Mn is 3 organically complexed, thus plants (Heintze and Mann, soils 99% not 1947, across the United States of the total readily Page, 1962). oxidation solution Mn state. Manganese in the the soil (Reddy is also in proposed cycle for Mn in soil was Sherman (1948). +4 via A study of A horizon was Most of this was in the minerals and to found that between 84 and complexed (Geering et al., 1969). +2 available fixed and Perkins, by 1976). presented by clay A Fujimoto This cycle shows changes from +2 to redox reactions and related to hydration/dehydration. Absorption of Mn by plant roots phase process characteristic of most plant nutrients (Maas et al., 1968). The initial phase of absorption is rapid, thought to be passive. concentrations controlled is by the typical two by phase, a This is followed at higher tissue slower, moving sustained, metabolically the element farther into the root. Manganese fits well into Viets' (1962) nutrient pools in the soil (Curtin et al., and Ellis, 1979). aqueous solution. 1950, most difficult oxides; Salcedo With more energy, or a weak extractant, to chelated or complexed; insoluble of Roots may easily absorb divalent Mn in Mn can be removed from cation exchange sites. is theory remove Mn which is: However, it adsorbed, within secondary clay minerals and or Mn in primary minerals. With the 4 majority of the Mn in the A horizon complexed, the amount available to most plants is minimal. Manganese several in enzyme essential leaves systems. nonspecifically In the chloroplasts for the operation of photosystem 1970). Generally, interveinal symptoms chlorosis of of II the symptom (Chapman, persist 1973). and may the include to 1964). leaf by interveinal a If matures more severe cases, chlorosis be followed is (Cheniae, the youngest leaves due will disappear as In it deficiency disruption of chloroplasts (Possingham et al., mild, activates will necrosis. Growth losses are noticed with most crops. In been the United States, manganese deficiencies reported in at least 25 states (Berger, includes ‘ all Wisconsin, of the Minnesota, Pennsylvania, apple, sugar (Chapman, states: Illinois, and New York. crops are: beet Great Lakes cherry, 1962). Ohio, sensitive citrus, oats, raspberry, and 1973). Manganese excess is also a common problem. due Mild to high levels of symptoms are This Michigan, Indiana, Some of the more have soil Mn or low not well pH (Watson, described except This is 1960). for a reduction in growth and uneven distribution of chlorophyll (Chapman, 1973). More severe symptoms consist mainly of interveinal chlorosis/necrosis, necrotic spotting, reduced growth and a distortion in growth. The level of Mn in foliage associated with deficiency 5 symptoms varies greatly with the crop. Chapman (1973) summarized data from 34 crops. The point at which symptoms appear ranges variability, from 2 ppm to over 100 ppm. standard values must be Due to this determined for individual crops. Manganese Deficiency of Trees Manganese history. trees deficiency trees Early deficiency work (Chapman, Southwick, 1939 of and 1973), has an extensive was on high value citrus walnut trees (Braucher 1941, Vanselaw, 1945), and maple trees (Kreag, 1940). Most early research concentrated defining and finding short term solutions to the Applications treatments and of manganese sulfate as on problem. sprays, soil or trunk implants gave temporary remission of symptoms and were widely used. A maples taken resurgence in interest in manganese deficiency occured in the 1970’s. to define solutions Smith sulfate the problem and to (Kielbaso, and Mitchell, again treatment. Many similar proved However, 1979, Kielbaso and 1977). to advise be Injections the steps were short term Ottman, of preferred in 1976, manganese method the method of packing holes in tree's bark and wood with MnS04 had been changed. sometimes of mixed with other nutrients, an encapsulated form (Medicaps). of the MnS04, was put into trees Sprays and soil adjustments were recommended if financially acceptable. pH Literature Cited Berger, K.C. 1962. Micronutrients in the United States. J. Agric. Food Chem. 10:178-181. Bohn, H.L. 1970. Comparisons of measured and theoretical Mn+2 concentrations in soil suspensions. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 34:195-197. Braucher, O.L. and R.W. Southwick. 1941. Correction of manganese deficiency symptoms of walnut trees. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 39:133-136. Chapman, soil. H.D. 1973. Diagnostic criteria Riverside CA. 793p. Cheniae, G.M. 1970. Photosystem II and 02 Rev. Plant Physiol. 21:467-498. for plants and evolution. Ann. Curton, D., J. Ryan and R.A. Chaudhary. 1980. Manganese adsorption and desorption in calcareous Lebanese soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 44:947-950. Dion, H.G. and P.J.G. Mann. 1946. Three-valent manganese in soils. J. Agric. Sci. 36:239-245. Dion, H.G., P.J.G. Mann and S.G. Heintze. 1947. easily reducible manganese of soils. J. Agric. 37:17-22. The Sci. Ehrlich, H.L. 1981. Geomicrobiology. Marcel Deckker Inc. New York NY. 393p. Fujimoto, C.K. and G.D. Sherman. 1948. manganese in soil. Soil Sci. 66:131-146. Behavior of Geering, H.R., J.F. Hodgson, and C. Solans. 1969. Micronutrient cation complexes in soil solution. Soil Sci. Soc. Amer. 33:81-85. Giedraitis, J.P. management. Urban and J.J. Kielbaso. 1982. Municipal tree Data Ser. Rept. 14:1. Heintze, S.G. 1946. Manganese deficiency in peas and other crops in relation to the availability of soil manganese. J. Agric. Sci. 36:277-238. Heintze, S.G. 1957. Sci. 8:287-300. Studies on soil manganese. J. Soil Heintze, S.G. and P.J.G. Mann. 1947. Soluble complexes of manganic manganese. J. Agric. Sci. 37:23-26. 6 7 Hodgson, J.F., R.M. Leach and W.H. Allaway. 1962. Micronutrients in soils and plants in relation to animal nutrition. J. Agric. Food Chem. 10:171-174. Jones, L.H.P. and G.W. Leeper. 1951. Available manganese oxides in neutral and alkaline soils. Plant Soil. 3:154159. Kielbaso, J.J. 1979. Systemic treatment of maple manganese deficiency. In J.J. Kielbaso. Proceedings of the symposium on systemic chemical treatment in tree culture. Mich. State Univ. E. Lansing MI. 357p. Kielbaso, J.J. and K. Ottman. 1976. Manganese deficiency contributory to maple decline? J. Arboric. 1:27-32. Kreag, K.K. 1939. Chlorosis studies in Michigan. Trees Mag. 2:13. Kreag, K.K. 1940. Nature and control of shade tree chlorosis in Lansing Michigan. Proc. Nat. Shade Tree Conf. 16 :32-3 8 . Leach, W . , R. Bulman and J. Kroeker. 1954. Studies in plant mineral nutrition. I. An investigation into the cause of gray speck disease of oats. Can. J. Bot. 32:358368 . Leach, W. and C.D. Taper. 1954. Studies in plant nutrition. II. The absorption of iron and manganese by dwarf kidney bean, tomato, and onion from culture solutions. Can. J. Bot. 32:561-570. Linder, R.C. and C.P. Harley. 1944. Nutrient interrelations in lime-induced chlorosis. Plant Physiol. 19:420-439. Lindsay, W.L. 1979. Chemical equlibria in Wiley and Sons. New York, N.Y. 449p. soils. John Maas, E.V., D.P. Moore and B.J. Mason. 1968. Manganese absorbtion by excised barley roots. Plant Physiol. 43:527530. Maas, E.V., D.P. Moore, and B.J. Mason. 1969. Influence of calcium and magnesium on manganese absorption. Plant Mortvedt, J.J., P.M. Giurdano and W.L. Lindsay. Micronutrients in agriculture. Soil Sci. Soc. Madison W I . 666p. 1972. Amer. Mulder, E.G. and F. C. Gerretsen. 1952. Soil manganese in relation to plant growth. Advan. Agron. 4:221-277. 8 Page, E.R. 1962A. Studies in soil and plant manganese. II.. The relationship of soil pH to manganese availability. Plant Soil. 16:247-257. Page, E.R. 1962B. Studies in soil and plant manganese. III. The availability of higher oxides of manganese to oats. Plant Soil. 17:99-108. Page, E.R., E.K. Schofield-Palmer, and A.J. McGregor. 1962. Studies in soil and plant manganese. I. Manganese in soil and its uptake by oats. Plant Soil. 16:238-246. Possingham, J.V., M. Vesk and F.V. Mercer. 1964. The fine structure of leaf cells of manganese deficient spinach. J. Ultrastruct. Res. 11:68-83. Reddy, M.R. and H.F. Perkins. 1976. Fixation of manganese by clay minerals. Soil Sci. 121:21-24. Smith, E.M. 1976. Manganese deficiency maples. Amer. Nursery. 11, 131. - common in Smith, E.M. and C.D. Mitchell. 1977. Manganese deficiency of red maple. J. Arboric. 3:87-88. Somers, 1.1., S.G. Gilbert and J.W. Shive. 1942. The ironmanganese relation to the respiratory C02 and deficiencytoxicity symptoms in soybeans. Plant Physiol. 17:317-320. Somers, I.I. and J.W. Shive. 1942. The iron-manganese relation in plant metabolism. Plant Physiol. 17:582-602. Taper, C.D. and W. Leach. 1957. Studies in plant nutrition. III. The effects of calcium concentration in culture solutions upon the absorption of iron and manganese by dwarf kidney bean. Can. J. Bot. 35:773-777. Vanselow, A.P. 1945. The minor element content of normal, manganese deficient and manganese-treated English walnut trees. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 46:15-20. Viets, F.G. 1962. Chemistry and availability of micronutrients in soil. J. Agric Food Chem. 10:174-178. Viets, F.G. Jr. and W.L. Lindsay. 1973. Testing soils for zinc, copper, manganese, and iron. In L.M. Walsh and J.D. Beaton. Soil testing and plant analysis. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Madison W I . 491 pp. Watson, G.A. 1960. The effects of soil pH and manganese toxicity upon the growth and mineral composition of hop plant. J. Hort. Sci. 35:136-145. CHAPTER 1 FOLIAR NUTRIENT DIAGNOSIS OF URBAN SUGAR AND RED MAPLES IN THE GREAT LAKES REGION * E. THOMAS SMILEY, JAMES B. HART, Jr. AND J. JAMES KIELBASO Introduction With the growth of the tree nutrition sector of arboriculture diagnosis industry, use of foliar the analysis of nutrient deficiencies will be of for increasing importance. However, information on healthy trees required to make diagnoses and prescriptions is very difficult to locate, or completely unavailable. There levels Sydnor, 1964, have been numerous studies of foliar of forest and nursery grown 1983, Chapman, 1973, Ellis, Guha and Mitchell, Mitchell and Fretz, provide only part 1977, of 1966, (Boyce and 1975, Gerloff et al., Hanna and Smith, the maples nutrient 1978). information Grant, These 1962, studies required for diagnosis since environmental conditions in the forest or nursery in can be quite different from those conditions which street trees grow. * Submitted for publication to the Journal of Environmental Horticulture, Sept. 7, 1984; in revised form April 3, 1985. Published as Michigan Agriculture Experiment Station Journal Article Number 11398. 10 A review inadequate of the literature finds conflicting terminology associated with nutrient (Smith, 1962). The problems associated confusion is analysis compounded with defining quality and by standards the of ornamental plants (Dirr, 1975). The relationship between foliar nutrient level and tree condition may be divided into five zones separated by four concentration points (Figure 1). Trees with nutrient levels in the severe deficiency zone have visually obvious symptoms of deficiency. defined by the Between the symptomatic SDP concentration, The upper boundry of this zone is is and deficiency the point optimum (SDP). or critical the zone of mild deficiency or hidden hunger. In this zone there is an insufficient level of the nutrient, but symptoms. exhibit Trees the tree does not have obvious Trees growth either of these two responses to additions of zones the should nutrient. in the luxury comsumption zone will not respond additions of the adequate amounts. is in deficiency nutrient since they already contain Above the point of excess concentration the zone of mild toxicity. This zone is analogous to the mild deficiency zone in that trees appear healthy are not. The point at which toxicity symptoms apparent is the symptomatic toxicity point nutrient concentrations above this, the severe to toxicity zone. become (STP). the tree will be Visually healthy trees but With in have Mild Deficiency Zone Severe Deficiency Zone Luxury Consumption Zone Mild Toxicity Zone Severe Toxicity Zone Tree Condition Visually Healthy Range Symptomatic Deficiency Point Optimum Concentration Point Foliar Nutrient Level Figure 1. Excess Symptomatic Concentration Toxicity Point Point > Idealized relationship between foliar nutrient level and tree condition, adapted from Smith (1962). 12 nutrient concentrations in the zones of mild luxury comsumption or The curve relation condition. Plants nutrients response mild toxicity. presented between one (Figure have The between This is an idealized nutrient 16 1982), response affected by other nutrients, conditions. 1) essential (Mengel and Kirby, curves. deficiency, and and 19 all of to added tree essential which have nutrients is system pH, and environmental makes the identification of cardinal points difficult. The purposes of this study were to literature on nutrient levels and to determine levels of review the diagnostic nutrients in healthy urban sugar maples saccharum Marsh.) and red maples (Acer rubrum L.). (Acer Materials and Methods Foliage from 131 red maples and 167 sugar maples were collected during July, and 1983. August and early-September of 1982 Samples were collected from street trees in the cities of Stevens Point, Park, Lake Forest, Birmingham, Michigan from East Lansing, State Saginaw, and Rockford, Flint, University Michigan. Illinois; above East Lansing, Ohio 5 to 31 cm (2 to 12 in.) at 1.5 m (4.5 Five lateral from middle one third of the current Chlorosis was year's branch each third, Healthy, crown growth rated at proportionally All was leaves one. higher south. measured. tree were given a More chlorotic rating terminal. of Trees with leaves ratings up to five were for small, sparse, uniformly foliage were not sampled. The 13 zero, indistinct chlorosis cultivar of given necrotic. fifteen values were averaged to provide a rating the tree. into randomly selecting five terminals in terminals with leaves having slight, were facing and rating the worst leaf on each green which were removed rated by visually dividing the thirds horizontally, ft.) branches, all of the current year’s growth, of Agriculture Wooster. All trees had a included Length and Red maple samples were also collected ground level (DBH). the Ann Arbor, Grand Rapids, Lansing, campus Research and Development Center, of park Wisconsin; Highland the street tree collection at the diameter and for chlorotic red maple was 14 identified when possible, statistical analyses. although data were pooled The majority of the red for maples sampled were ’Red Sunset’ and ’October Glory'. Sugar and red maples in the visually healthy a chlorosis rating range were defined as those with of less than 0.5 andan average current season's growthof 25 cm (9.8 inches) or more. Leaves petioles were removed from the lateral branch discarded, distilled water degrees F). a mill nitrogen and determined 1977). and counted, then oven-dried at 70 rinsed degrees C in (158 They were subsequently weighed and ground in Wiley digestion leaves sample, with a 20 total on a mesh screen. phosphorus Technicon were Total colorimetrically Auto-Analyzer with sulfuric acid (Bremner, Kjeldahl II 1965, following Technicon, Determination of total metals (Al, B, Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Ni, Na, Zn) followed digestion with nitric and perchloric acids using a Spectrametrics SMI argon 1965, plasma emission Ellis analyzing et al., duplicate spectrometer 1976). (Blanchar III DC et al., Quality was monitored samples at a rate of 15% and by each batch of 35 samples was referenced to a National Bureau of Standards' specimen. Data were on a dry weight basis. Results and Discussion The within mean sugar maple nitrogen level (Table 1) was the range of values previously reported (Table 2). The lowest N value reported for a healthy tree (.62%) found in an urban tree. the was The red maple mean was less than majority of reported values although all values were within the range. The mean phosphorus median reported value. (P) levels were close to the The highest value for sugar maple (.33%) was from this study. Slightly higher concentrations in urban lawn trees may relate to higher fertilizers or other soil temperatures, environmental factors. The highest reported concentration of P (.42%) was the average of Ohio nursery The maple in mean urban sugar (2.5%)was over twice the highest documented level nonurban 1969). high ’Schlesinger1 red maples (Smith, 1962). The as potassium (K) levels found in sugar maples (1.09%) (Mader and red maple mean was high (1.8%), one greenhouse experiment (3.7%) Thompson, but not (Boyce as and Sydnor, 1983). Calcium (Ca) in sugar maple averaged 2% in this study. This was higher than most nonurban trees. The cause of these high foliar concentrations is probably the high levels of Ca, especially CaC 03 , located within the rooting zone. this High levels of CaC03 are typical in the subsoils of region. Removal or burial of surface horizons in urban soils due to housing and street construction results 15 16 Table 1. Average foliar nutrient levels of healthy sugar and red maples in selected cities of the Great Lakes region sampled during raid and late summer 1982 and 1983. SUGAR NUTRIENT MAPLES CONCENTRATION MEAN RANGE NO. OF SAMPLE STD DEV % NITROGEN 2.0 .62-2.7 28 .40 PHOSPHORUS .19 .11-.33 28 .06 POTASSIUM 2.5 1.1-3.3 13 .36 CALCIUM 2.0 1.4-2.5 13 .29 MAGNESIUM .39 .21-.86 14 .04 ppm ALUMINUM 70 22-138 16 32 BORON 120 14-336 16 96 CADMIUM .81 .23-2.0 13 .58 COPPER 7.0 .9-14 16 3.2 IRON 146 75-311 27 54 MANGANESE 175 23-396 27 117 NICKEL .84 .04-1.8 12 .55 SODIUM 259 82-452 13 101 ZINC 21 7.4-132 27 23 17 Table 1 continued RED MAPLES NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION MEAN RANGE NO. OF SAMPLE STD DEV % NITROGEN 1.7 1.3-2.6 25 .36 PHOSPHORUS .23 .12-.38 25 .06 POTASSIUM 1.8 .97-2.4 11 .10 CALCIUM 1.4 .90-1.5 11 .05 MAGNESIUM .42 .25-.89 21 .03 16 13 ppm ALUMINUM 30 BORON 97 3.8-522 22 107 .83 .05-5.5 19 1.2 11 5.7-32 20 6.6 IRON 109 32-478 25 89 MANGANESE 138 32-385 25 95 NICKEL 1.1 .25-1.9 16 .50 SODIUM 130 69-311 16 54 28 14-55 CADMIUM COPPER ZINC 6-56 23 12 18 Table 2. Nutrient levels in leaves of healthy tree by other authors. NUTRIENT NITROGEN PHOSPHORUS SPECIES SUGAR MAPLE RED MAPLE .73 1.12-3.09 1.66-1.75 1.9 2.15 2.77-2.85 .06-.17 .10-.12 .12 _ .23 .24 .24 POTASSIUM .39 .52-.58 .60 .66-1.09 .70 — .90 CALCIUM .59-2.12 1.01 - 1.45-1.72 1.81 1.92 2.0 MAGNESIUM .09-.20 .14 .18 .26-.29 - .30 .45 SULFUR .05 .90 — 2.60 2.55-2.68 .07 .22 .42 — .22-.33 .35 — .88-1.6 - 2.5-3.7 1.23 mm .94 .99-1.1 - 1.39 — 1.1-1.6 .12-.17 - .39-.48 .57 .33 .08 SITE SOURCE Forest Forest,SB* Forest Urban Nursery Forest 9 15 7 14 18 4 Forest, SB Forest Forest Greenhouse Nursery Urban Expt.Sta. 15 7 9 2 18 14 11 Forest Forest Expt.Sta. Forest, SB Urban Greenhouse Nursery 9 7 11 15 14 2 18 Forest, SB Forest Greenhouse Forest Nursery Urban Expt .Sta. 15 9 2 7 18 14 11 Forest, SB Expt.Sta. Urban Forest Greenhouse Nursery Forest 15 11 14 7 2 18 9 Forest 9 19 Table 2 continued ppm ALUMINUM 57 92 489 53-64 600 Urban Expt.Sta. Nursery 14 11 18 BARIUM .05 .05 Forest 4 BORON 38 52 62 174 31 57 87-141 Urban Nursery Forest Expt.Sta. 14 18 9 11 CADMIUM .21 - 1.5-2.8 2.2-12.8 Expt.Sta. Greenhouse 11 17 CHLORINE 299 Forest 9 CHROMIUM .38 .36-.38 Expt.Sta. 11 3.6 18 8.5-11 Urban Forest Nursery Expt.Sta. 14 9 18 11 45-56 102-140 181 683 Urban Greenhouse Expt.Sta. Forest Nursery 14 2 11 9 18 9.2-17 Expt.Sta. 11 14 18 2 7 11 9 COPPER IRON - 2487 6 9.8 10 10.6 37 — 156 157 226 LEAD 17 MANGANESE 30 30 89-212 533 805 478-758 444 Urban Nursery Greenhouse Forest Expt.Sta. Forest MOLYBDENUM .05 .06 .05 .02-.15 Forest Expt.Sta. 9 11 SODIUM 78 120 100-490 Urban Expt.Sta. 14 11 21 21-31 Forest Expt.Sta. 9 11 - STRONTIUM 58 63 20 35-94 — 20 Table 2 continued ZINC 13 24 26 42.3 Urban Expt.Sta. Nursery Forest Greenhouse 75-96 45 22.5 49.3-1^7.5 14 11 18 9 17 * Sugarbush trees included in study. # Potted trees grown at pH 5.5 in sand culture. in more calcareous subsoil contacting roots, uptake (Craul, Boron 1982). (B) levels typically reported. in trees thus more Ca with in urban trees were higher than Boron concentrations were very high marginal scorch. Severe toxicity is expected above 400 ppm in sugar maple and above 500 ppm in red maple. High levels have been related to boron contamination (Mader and Thompson, Cadmium soil 1969). (Cd) levels greater than 1 ppm are generally considered undesirable (Mengel and Kirby, 1982). Levels as great as 5.5 ppm in this survey of healthy trees may be due to Cd deposition on streetside tires and lubricating oil. as high soils from vehicle Red maples with concentrations as 12.8 ppm have not exhibited severe toxicity symptoms (Mitchell and Fretz, 1977). Manganese (Mn) levels are known to be highly variable in foliage (Chapman, 1973). Typically, the urban levels were less than those of the forest trees. tree Healthy 21 trees were found with Mn concentrations as low as 23 32 ppm for sugar and red regression than analyses 106 ppm, typically related maples, respectively. However, predict that sugar maples with or red maples with less than 69 be deficient (Chapter 3). mainly Low Mn to high soil pH and high and less ppm will levels organic are matter levels. Sodium levels, notably in sugar twice the level of nonurban trees. maples, averaged This may be attributed to the large amounts of deicing salts used in this region. Levels of were aluminum, not greatly copper, iron, different from magnesium, and zinc previously reported values. To nutrient trials determine for optimum concentration maples would require in determined, the numerous it extensive locations. Once fertilizer could be stated that trees with and those with greater levels will not. are nutrient fertilizaton Thus, the optimum be used as a target level in fertilization Owing to the lack of this information, each optimums levels less than the optimum will respond to may of programs. we have compiled a table of preliminary foliar goals for fertilization (Table 3). These healthy levels were derived by selecting the mean urban trees (Table 1) as a minimum and the plus one standard deviation as the were made if half or more of the values in Table greater than maximum. the mean plus the standard of mean Exceptions 2 were deviation from 22 Table 3. Preliminary foliar goals for fertilization of urban sugar and red maples sampled in late summer in the Great Lakes region. SPECIES RED MAPLE NUTRIENT SUGAR MAPLE Nitrogen 2.0 - 2.4 1.7 - 2.1 Phosphorus .19 - .25 .23 - .37 Magnesium .39 - .43 .42 - .45 % ppm 11 - 18 Copper 7.0 - 10 Iron 146 - 200 109 - 198 Manganese 175 - 292 138 - 233 Zinc 21 - 44 28 - 96 Table 1. In those cases, the higher values from Table 2 were averaged and entered as the maximum. The preliminary guide to the diagnosis of severe toxicity and severe deficiency (Table 4) was a compilation of the extreme values from Tables 1 and 2. assumptions data of The made in the formulation of Table 4 Tables concentrations 1 and 2 included a approaching the range points deficiency and symptomatic toxicity, were that of of meant problems. and that the methods as an aid to the diagnosis of If a tree has SDP, nutrient symptomatic of sample selection and analysis were compatible. is major symptoms severe and a Table 4 nutrient nutrient concentration near the a deficiency problem should be suspected. If a tree has symptoms and a level near the 23 Table 4. Preliminary guide for foliar nutrient diagnosis of sugar and red maples *. NUTRIENT SUGAR MAPLE SDP STP NITROGEN .62 3.1 .90 2.7 PHOSPHORUS .06 .33 .07 .38 POTASSIUM .39 3.3 .35 3.7 CALCIUM .59 2.5 .90 1.6 MAGNESIUM .09 .86 .12 .89 RED SDP MAPLE STP ppm BORON 14 336 3.8 522 IRON 37 311 32 478 MANGANESE 23 805 32 758 ZINC 7.4 132 14 96 * If a tree has symptoms and nutrient concentration near the symptomatic deficiency point (SDP) deficiency problem should be suspected. If a tree has symptoms and concentration near the the symptomatic toxicity point (STP), a toxicity problem should be suspected. Data based on samples from thirteen locations and previously published literature. Concentrations may vary depending on site, other nutrients, and environmental factors. 24 STP, a toxicity mentioned with problem should be the manganese data, suspected. extreme As was values for healthy trees were used to define the SDP, thus, trees may show deficiency symptoms at higher concentrations. Additional define the SDP, research is required to more STP and optimum nutrient for maples and other urban trees. accurately concentraitons Literature Cited 1. Blanchar, R.W., G. Rehm and A.C. Caldwell. 1965. Sulfur in plant materials by digestion with nitric and perchloric acid. Soil Sci. S o c . Am. Proc. 29:71-72. 2. Boyce, E.A. and T.D. Sydnor. 1983. Effect of varying levels of manganese and pH on the growth of three cultivars of Acer rubrum. J. Arboric. 9:233-236. 3. Bremner, 1178 . J.M. 1965. Total nitrogen. Agronomy 9:1149— 4. Chapman, H.D. 1973. Diagnostic criteria for plants and soil. Quality printing, Abilene, TX. 5. Craul, P.J. 1982. Urban forest soils, A reference workbook. State Univ. New York, Syracuse, New York. 6. Dirr, M.A. 1975. Plant nutrition and woody ornamental growth and quality. Hortscience 10:5-7. 7. Ellis, R.C. 1975. Sampling deciduous broadleaved trees for determination of leaf weight and foliar element concentrations. Can. J. For. Res. 5:310-317. 8. Ellis, R., J.J. Hanway, G. Holmgren, and D.R. Keeney. 1976. Sampling and analysis of soils, plants, and waste waters and sludge: suggested standardization and methodology. North Central Reg. Publ. 230. 9. Gerloff, G.C., D.G. Moore and J.T. Curtis. 1964. Mineral content of native plants of Wisconsin. Univ. Wise. Agric. Expt. Stn. Res. Rept. 14. 10. Guha, M.M. and R.L. Mitchell, 1966. The trace and major element composition of the leaves of some deciduous trees II. Seasonal changes. Plant Soil. 24:90-112. 11. Hanna, W.J. and C.L. Grant. 1962. Spectrochemical analysis of the foliage of certain trees and ornamentals for 23 elements. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club. 89:293-302. 12. Harris, R.W. 1983. Arboriculture: shrubs and vines in the landscape. Englewood Cliffs, NJ. 25 care of trees, Prentice-Hall, 26 13. Kielbaso, J.J., H. Davidson, J. Hart, A. Jones and M.K. Kennedy. 1979.Symposium on systemic chemical treatments in tree culture. Braun-Brumfield Inc, Ann Arbor, MI. 14. Kielbaso, J.J. and K. Ottman. 1976. Manganese deficiency - contributory to maple decline? J. Arboric. 1 :2 1 -3 2 . 15. Mader, D.L. and B.W. Thompson. 1969. Foliar nutrients in relation to sugar maple decline. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 33:794-800. 16. Mengel, K. and E.A. Kirby. 1982. Principles of plant nutrition. International Potash Institute, WorblaufenBern, Switzerland. 17. Mitchell, C.D. and T.A. Fretz. 1977. Cadmium and zinc toxicity in seedling white pine, red maple and Norway spruce. Ohio Ag. Res. Dev. Ctr. Res. Cir. 226:21-25. 18. Smiley, saccharura and State. Univ. E.T. 1985. Mineral nutrition of urban Acer Acer rubrum. Ph.D. Dissertation. Mich. 19. Smith, E.M. 1978. Foliar analysis survey of woody ornamentals. Ohio Ag. Res. Dev. Ctr. Res. Cir. 236:30-34. 20. Smith, P.F. 1962. Mineral analysis of plant tissue. Ann. Rev. Plant Physiol. 13:81-108. 21. Technicon. 1977. Individual/simultaneous determination of nitrogen and or phosphorus in BD acid digests. Technicon Industrial Systems, Tarrytown NY (mimeo). 26 Acknowledgements We would like to thank the International Arboriculture and the Morton Arboretum funded research this cooperated and the with tree sampling: Society which, following in people Bill Lawrence, of part, who Ann Arbor MI; Huey Layel, Birmingham MI; Fred Schworer, East Lansing MI; Jerry Allen, Grand Robson, Rapids MI; Lake Flint MI; Floyd Wiersma and Brock LaMarca, Forest IL; Bob Parrott, Wendell Bannister, State Univ.; Reid, Stevens Dr. Highland Park Cool, Lansing Bob Batt, IL; MI; Hal Gary and Dr. Gary Watson, Michigan Davis Sydnor, Ohio State Univ.; Jim Rockford IL; Nino Mauro, Saginaw MI; Mick Simmions, Point WI. Special thanks to Dr. assistance with laboratory analyses. 27 Phu Nguyen for CHAPTER 2 SEASONAL VARIATION OF FOLIAR NUTRIENTS IN MANGANESE DEFICIENT URBAN SUGAR AND RED MAPLES Introduction In the diagnosis of nutrient problems, seasonal fluctuations samples collected designated is important. knowledge of Typically, during a specific time period position on a tree only from a may accurately be compared to a nutrient standard (Tamm, 1951). Seasonal categorized Mitchell, A) An patterns of nutrient fluctuation have into 1966). initial three groups (Ellis, 1975, been Guha and They are: decrease in nutrient level with leaf expansion followed by a steady increase over the growing season; B) A continual increase during the growing season, occasionally with a decrease at the end of the season; C) An initial decrease as leaves expand, period of relative constancy, followed by or slight decrease, a often with a substantial decrease at the end of the season. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and have a type C pattern. A or B pattern. potassium (K) tend to Iron (Fe) usually exhibits a type Calcium (Ca) and manganese (Mn) typically 28 29 exhibit a type B pattern (McHargue and Roy, 1932, Guha and Mitchell, 1966, Lea et al., 1979A and 1979B). Tamm (1951), working with birch in Sweden, found that N and P levels September. of site were fairly or developmental July to stage, would be directly Potassium and Ca levels did change during the July to September period. K from Trees sampled during this period, irrespective comparable. for constant Therefore, samples to be and Ca comparisons should be of time near the collected end of used within shorter period the Periods of constant nutrient levels are most common a season. when physiological changes are at a minimum (Lea et al., 1979A, White, 1954). The usual time that minimum nutrient fluctuation occurs is August to mid-September in temperate climates (Ellis, 1975, Lea et al., 1979A and 1979B). Location in the crown where samples are collected also affects results (Guha and Mitchell, 1966, White 1954, Ellis, 1975). Guha and Mitchell (1966) found that concentrations of Fe varied from the top to bottom of tree. (1975) lower Ellis concentrations reported Mn shaded morphology. sampled Ca at the top than at the base. tree species, the outer-crown foliage, from and foliage (shade-leaves) had a In hardwood (sun-leaves) differ in anatomy and It has been suggested that only sun-leaves be for diagnostic purposes (Leaf, during the proper location 1973). period of minimum fluctuation on the tree should Sampling and result from in the samples 30 reflecting the overall nutrient status of the tree. Manganese numerous deficient cities Ottman, 1976, changes of maples have been reported in the Great Lakes region (Kielbaso Smith and Mitchell, 1977). in and The seasonal manganese in deficient maples are not known, nor are the effects which the deficiency has on changes of other nutrients. The nutrient red goal of this study was fluctuations maples, to determine in manganese deficient and to define appropriate sampling seasonal sugar and periods. Materials and Methods In 1982, 22 red maples Michigan Most 12 sugar maples (Acer saccharum Marsh.) and (Acer rubrum L.) State University trees Chlorosis exhibited was third, manganese zero. the sampling. deficiency symptoms. tree and rating the worst leaf on each Leaves chlorosis foliar on into randomly selecting five terminals in Terminals with healthy, of campus for rated by visually dividing the thirds horizontally, each were selected green leaves were given a having were rated terminal. as slight one. rating indistinct interveinal Leaves with indistinct chlorosis from the edge of the leaf to not closer than mm major rib were of a chlorotic ratedtwo. Leaves 3 distinctly from the edge to within 3 mm of the midrib with some green minor veins, were rated three. If the majority of the leaf was extremely chlorotic, with only the central vein and major veins remaining partially green, more than occasional necrotic spots, made. rated was with a rating of four was Necrotic (dead) or partially necrotic leaves five. The mode of the fifteen chlorosis used to group trees. healthy, moderate, one was three were ratings A mode of zero was defined slight chlorosis, was moderate, no two was as slight to and four was moderate to severe. Three lateral branches were pruned from the facing middle 1/3 of the 8/5, 8/30, 9/28/1982. tree on 5/12, 6/2, south- 6/23, 7/14, The first sample date was two weeks 31 32 after leaf bud break of sugar maples. collected The The last sample was as close to the time of leaf fall as 9/28/82 sample was from the two sugar retained foliage. In 1983, nine possible. maples which of the same sugar maples were similarly sampled on 7/29, 8/26, 9/9, 9/15, and 9/30. Seven of the same red maples were sampled on 9/15. Leaves were removed from the current year’s growth, petioles discarded, dried mesh then rinsed in distilled water, oven- at 70 degrees C, screen, Analyses re-dried were (N,P,Mn,Fe) in and and conducted the (N,P,Mn,Fe,K,Ca) nitrogen ground in a Wiley mill with a in total determined on a digestion with Technicon, 1977). on 1982 the weighed prior study 1983 phosphorus Technicon sulfuric four nutrients six nutrients study. Total (Black Kjeldahl colorimetrically Auto-Analyzer acid analysis. plant and were to 20 II et following al., 1965, Determination of total metals (Ca, Fe, K, Mn) followed digestion with nitric and perchloric acids using a Spectrametrics SMI III DC - argon plasma emission spectrometer (Blanchar, et al., 1965, Ellis et al., 1976). Duplicate samples analyses were were run at a rate referenced to a of 15% National Standards’ specimen run with every 39 samples. and all Bureau of Data are presented on a dry weight basis. The variety of red maple was identified when possible, although data were pooled for statistical analyses. The 33 majority of the red maples sampled were ’Red Sunset1 and 'October Glory'. Statistical using showing areas temporal analyses were by means of paired differences to separate the differences were prepared, of nonsignificant differences pairs. zones were T-Test Tables containing identified. These areas were compared to the graphs of foliar nutrient level. Time periods with fewest significant differences judged to be periods of minimum fluctuation. Results The average chlorosis ratings for sugar maple and red maple were 0.8 and 3.0, respectively. Nitrogen .67%. Concentrations decreased sample The levels in sugar maple varied from 5 -68% through were high in the early season the summer (Figure 2). The was significantly greater than all other to and 5-12-82 samples. late September 1983 N levels was significantly lower than most other summer readings. Nitrogen to .88%. levels in the red maples varied from 6.52% Concentrations were highest at the beginning of the season and decreased gradually to September (Figure 3). There were few significant differences among the mean N concentrations in late June through early August. In sugar maple, early in phosphorus concentrations were high the season and then decreased in early June remain relatively constant in July, with August and the September the exception of the 9/30/83 mean (.33%) which significantly higher than earlier levels period from (Figure 4). June through mid-August there to were was In no highly significant differences among P means. Concentrations of phosphorus in red maples varied from .75% to .12%. Levels began high, decreased in June, and remained fairly constant to September 28 (Figure 5). There were no statistically different means after June 1983 sample was not significantly different means. 34 2. The from 1982 % IN CONC. NITROGEN LEGEND HEALTHY + SLIGHT X SLT-M0D X MODERATE FOLIAR - MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 2. Fluctuation of nitrogen concentration in healthy moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. to NITROGEN C O N C . IN % & X + X X X X ______________ X LE&ENP FOLIAR X X X X — I----- 1----- 1----- 1-----1----- 1----- 1----- 1----- 1----- h MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 3. moderately Fluctuation of nitrogen concentration in slight to - severe chlorotic red maples during 1982 and 1983. + X * SLIGHT SLT-MOD MODERATE MOD-SEV co CONC - IN 80000 PHOSP HO RU S 40000- LEGEND HEALTHY + SLIGHT X SLT-MOD * MODERATE FOLIAR - X X MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 4. moderately Fluctuation of phosphorus concentration in healthy to chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. .60000- C0NC. IN % .80000 FOLIAR PHOSPHORUS .40000- * X * ¥ I * * . 20000- 0 -I--------- 1--------- 1--------- 1--------- 1--------- 1--------- 1--------- 1--------- H MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER DA T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 5. moderately Fluctuation of phosphorus concentration in slight to - severe chlorotic red maples during 1982 and 1983. CO 00 LEGEND SLIGHT + SLT-MOD X MODERATE * MOO.SEV - 39 Sugar constant summer maple level data of (Figure for one year show a potassium in the later 6). There were no relatively part highly of the significant differences between the means. Data from relatively (Figure 1983 on calcium in constant 7). level None of sugar from July the means maple through were show a September significantly different. Iron in sugar maple showed a large degree of variability with concentrations ranging from 60 to 393 ppm (Figure 8). The trend was a moderate level at the start of the season, falling off significantly in June, and then increasing significantly in July and August to greater than the initial concentration. relatively Red to than maple above 220 ppm decreased there in was level Iron means were constant in mid-August through exhibited less mid-September. variability concentrationthan did sugar maples. 32 a of Values ranged 300 ppm,with the majority of values (Figure 9). Values June and remained low a slight increase. iron were until high from less in May, August, when The August and September means were similar. Manganese only to iron. variability in sugar maple was second Concentrations varied from over 300 to less 40 than 30 ppm. August. August constant even (Figure 10). Manganese means increased to from mid-September means were though individual values June to relatively varied greatly Differences between the two years were not significant. Manganese levels in red maples were not as as in sugar maples. with most values Concentrations variable Values ranged from 3 to over 60 less than 30 ppm (Figure were significantly higher at the start ppm 11). of the season, decreased in June and remained fairly constant through September. 3.000- FOLIAR POTASSIUM CONC - IN % 4.000 LEOENO “ HEALTHY + SLIGHT X SLT-MQO 1.000- MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure slight 6. Fluctuation of potassium concentration in healthy to - moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. FOLIAR CALCIUM C O N C . IN % 4.000 LEGEND - HEALTHY + SLIGHT X SLT-MQD l.000- MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 7. moderately Fluctuation of calcium concentration in chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 healthy to and 1983. -P* ro 200 - X “ + - IRON C O N C . IN P P M 400 LEGEND HEALTHY + SLIGHT X SLT-MQD * MODERATE XX FOLIAR - M AY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 8. moderately Fluctuation of iron concentration in chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 healthy to and 1983. CO 300- FOLIAR M X * 200 - IRON CONC . IN P P M 400 + M X lOOf * * X $ - * £ 1 * + MAY JUNE + , JULY 1 1-- AUGUST + + + SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 9 moderately LEGEND SLIGHT + SLT-MOD X MODERATE X MOD-SEV Fluctuation of iron concentration in slight to - severe chlorotic red maples during 1982 and 1983. 300- MANGANESE CONC- IN P P M 400 X ¥ 200f X * x? x x x +x X - ^ * i X — X ± * FOLIAR 100- ! X LEGEND X. X + -t ■ * * X " X ¥ * * “ X + * I---- 1---- 1---- 1---- 1---- 1---- 1---- 1---- 1---- »_ MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 10. Fluctuation of manganese concentration in healthy to moderately chlorotic sugar maples during 1982 and 1983. HEALTHY + SLIGHT X SLT-MOD * MODERATE cn FOLIAR MANGANESE CONC. IN P PM 100 80- 60* cn 4Of X 2°t- i Of- x/ | X | X + * x i 1----- 1----- 1----- 1---- 1 -----1----- 1----- 1 — H----- *MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER D A T E OF S A M P L I N G Figure 11. Fluctuation of manganese concentration in slight to moderately - severe clorotic red maples during 1982 and 1983. LEGEND " SLIGHT + SLT-MOD X MODERATE X MQD-SEV Discussion Nitrogen concentrations in both red and sugar maples showed a decreasing trend (Type C) over the growing season as is typical in other crops and trees (Ellis, 1975, and Mitchell, Roy, 1932, 1966, Oland, Mengel and Kirby, 1982, McHargue and 1963, Smith, 1962). The time of year which maples exhibited the least N changes, time of year to sample was during June, early September. Guha thus the best July, August or Manganese deficiency had little effect on the seasonal pattern. Phosphorusfluctuation was similar in both sugar red maples. June, Concentrations started high, then period C). expected the (Guha and when a significant Mitchell, 1966, in sampling This was the expected pattern for until the end of the season, was decreased leveled off through the end of (Type and P, decrease Oland, 1963). Since the majority of the P loss observed by Oland (1963) was after mid-October, the lack of sampling past September may in account for the lack of a decrease. these manganese. maples, Data was probably due to Early leaf drop low levels of may be compared during the June through September period. With difficult limited data for potassium and calcium to make accurate comparisons. it was Relatively constant levels of potassium have been reported during the summer for sugar maple (Leaf 47 et al., 1979A) and other 48 species (Tamm, 1951, Guha and Mitchell, 1966). A significant decrease in K should be expected at the end of the season (Moore, deficiency of K. 1966, Oland, 1963). Again, manganese may be interfering with the normal Samples withdrawal for K should be comparable when collected during August and mid-September. Calcium Type concentrations did not exhibit the B increase which has been observed in (Guha and Mitchell, al., 1979A). inhibiting 1966, forest trees McHargue and Roy, 1932, Lea et This may be due to initially high Ca levels continued uptake. through mid-September, the expected The period from which showed a plateau, best period for sampling. High Ca levels to high soil pH, which, in part, August should be are related is responsible for the chlorosis. Studies by accumulation of horsechestnut, concentration Guha and Mitchell (1966) show a iron beech continually 1962). A. The to September in During September or remained constant (Guha A Fe and Other studies refer to Fe concentrations increasing in a Type B pattern (Smith, pattern in both red and sugar maples was Type The high degree of variability makes the drawing of a smooth curve difficult. often significant, The June and sycamore. decreased Mitchell, 1966). as from Type best September. period Year-to-year differences reducing the validity of for sampling was in were comparisons. August or early 49 Manganese in forest sugar maple has shown a pattern (Lea et al., urban sugar maples. different pattern. July and May Red maples exhibited a strikingly Concentrations decreased from May This trend was due severe manganese deficiency of the red maples. levels probable 1982). translocation release Concentrations competing the Manganese of stored Mn decreased (Mengel as tissue and foliage Kirby, expanded, Mid-July through Data severely deficient trees should be comparable after Four is the optimum period for a sampling. June. sugar maples had Mn levels greater than ppm and exhibited chlorosis symptoms. due to of Mn to meristematic for a limited supply of Mn. mid-September from much were at a high point early in the season due to preferential and to original Variability in the red maple data was than sugar maple data. B This pattern was evident in never achieved a level as high as the level. less 1979B). Type to the effects of repeated 100 This may have been sampling, removing young leaves which normally function as Mn sinks, the allowing higher concentrations to accumulate in other leaves. With several exceptions, in manganese similar deficient seasonal variation patterns sugar and red maples to the patterns of forest trees. The differences were with phosphorus and manganese. manganese availability was low, were very greatest Since the the pattern lacked the 50 expected increase during the season. severely deficient during the growing comparability. Sampling for Mn trees may be conducted season with reliable fluctuation any time degree of patterns did not exhibit the expected decrease in concentration at the end of Phosphorus a at in the season due to premature leaf drop or physiological disruption related to manganese deficiency. Accepting optimum, urban through the criterion of minimum fluctuation as the best time of the year to sample foliage from sugar and red maples in lower Michigan mid-September. To define severe is August deficiency symptoms, samples may be collected as early as June. Literature Cited Biddulph, 0 and C.G. Woodbridge. 1952. The uptake of phosphorus by bean plants with particular reference to the effects of iron. Plant Physiol. 27:431-444. Black, C.A., F.E. Clark. 9. D.D. Evans, J.L. White, L.E. Ensminger and 1965. Methods of soil analysis. Agronomy Blanchar, R.W., G. Rehm and A.C. Cadwell. 1975. Sulfur in plant materials by digestion with nitric and perchloric acid. Soil Sci. S o c . Am. Proc. 29:71-71. Ellis, R.C. 1975. Sampling deciduous broadleaved trees for determination of leaf weight and foliar element concentrations. Can. J. For. Res. 5:310-317. Ellis, R., J.J. Hanway, G. Holnigren, and D.R. Keeney. 1976. Sampling and analysis of soils, plants, and waste waters and sludge: suggested standardization and methodology. North Central Reg. Publ. 230. Guha, M.M. and R. L. Mitchell. 1966. The trace and major element composition of the leaves of some deciduous trees. II. Seasonal changes. Plant Soil 24:90-112. Kielbaso, J.J. and K. Ottman. 1976. Manganese deficiencycontributory to maple decline? J. Arboric. 1:27-32. Lea, R., W.C. Tierson, D.H. Bickelhaupt and A.L. Leaf. 1979A. Stand treatment and sampling time of hardwood foliage. I. Macro - element analysis. Plant Soil 51:515— 533. Lea, R., W.C. Tierson, D.H. Bickelhaupt and A.L. Leaf. 1979B. Stand treatment and sampling time of hardwood foliage. II. Micro-element analysis. Plant Soil 51 :535 — 550. Leaf, A.L. 1973. Plant analysis as an fertilizing forests. In Soil testing and plant Ed. Walsh, L.M. and J.D. Beaton. Soil Sci. Madison WI. aid in analysis. Soc. Am. McHargue, J.S. and W.R. Roy. 1932. Mineral and nitrogen content of the leaves of some forest trees at different times in the growing season. Bot. Gazet. 94:381-393. Mengel, K. and E.A. Kirby. 1982. Principles of plant nutrition. International Potash Institute. WorblaufenBern, Switzerland. 51 52 Moore, K.G. 1966. Senescence in leaves of Acer pseudopiatanua L. and £ar£he.D,Qsifiaus irigusiLidaiia. Planch. II. Changes in potassium and sodium content in leaves and leaf discs of Acer. Ann. Bot. 30:683-699. Oland, K. 1963. Changes in the content of dry matter and major nutrient elements of apple foliage during senescence and abscission. Physiol. Plant 16:682-694. Smith, E.M. and C.D. Mitchell. 1977. Manganese deficiency of red maple. J. Arboric. 3:87-88. Tamm, C.O. 1951. Seasonal variation in composition birch leaves. Physiol. Plantar. 4:461-469. of Technicon. 1977. Individual/simultaneous determination of nitrogen and or phosphorus in BD acid digests. Technicon Industrial Systems. Tarrytown NY (mimeo). White, D.P. 1954. Variation in the nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium contents of pine needles with season, crown position, and sample treatment. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 18:326-330. CHAPTER 3 MANGANESE DEFICIENCY OF URBAN SUGAR AND RED MAPLES: A DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM AND SOIL FACTORS INVOLVED Introduction Soil Factors Associated With Manganese Deficiencies High soil pH is the factor most frequently associated with manganese (Mn) deficiencies. state that, soil Lucas and Davis (1961) "the availability of Mn is influenced more by reaction than any other plant nutrient." Manganese availability is greatly decreased at pH greater than and 5.5, severe deficiency symptoms occur above 6.5 on mineral soils (Leeper, 19*17). On organic soils the pH at symptoms occur is lower (Lucas and Davis, 1961). soils, the availability of Mn +2 which In most decreased 100 fold for each pH unit increase (Mortvedt et al., 1972). Maas et al. (1968), experimenting with excised barley roots, is found that within the physiological range where Mn soluble higher than (pH<7) absorption peaked at pH=6. This the 5.5 which is generally accepted as is the maximum pH for adequate Mn uptake. In an attempt to predict Mn deficiencies, total soil Mn had almost no significant correlation (Steckel et 1948). This is largely due to the different 53 al., oxidation 54 states and complexes of Mn in the soil. Oxidation-reduction cited as amount (redox) contributing factors in of potentials Mn are often deficiencies. manganese which is extractable from has shown 1957). This is usually credited to the change of valence +2 +4 to +2. The Mn ion is more mobile inthe soil and thus is more easily extracted, leached from the soil. limiting oxygen redox soil been from to be inversely related to The (Copeland, taken up by roots, Soil redox may be decreased through flooding or compaction (Pal or by et al., 1979, Fujimoto and Sherman, 1948). Soil for organic matter (OM) is thought to be development of Mn deficiency (Mulder 1952). There Microorganisms potential, thus and essential Gerretsen, are several hypotheses which explain this. associated with OM may alter the precipitating Mn due to valence redox changes (Geering et al., 1969), or Mn may become organically bound (McBride, Soil reasons 1982). moisture affects the availability transportation uptake. with of 1972). the Mn to The clearly One important factor is roots for subsequent Depression of redox potential is also associated excessive soil water (Fujimoto and Without Mn. for this may be numerous and not all are defined (Mortvedt et al., the of speculation as to reasons, or Sherman, 1948). experiments to quantify observations, several authors have mentioned that deficiencies tend to be associated with low soil moisture 55 levels (Kreag, Gerrestsen, symptoms 1940, 1952, Rich 1956). are 1976). Mortvedt et al., more severe in 1972, Mulder and Others have suggested that moist conditions (Smith, Moisture variability may account for year to year variations of symptoms. Soil microorganisms are known to affect micronutrient availabilities in at least two ways. direct involvement in redox reactions of Microorganisms can oxidize insoluble thus creating changing 1969, Mn02 The first is through Mn+2 to the nutrient. the relatively while not the total amount of Mn present (Geering et al., Ehrlich, 1981). They deficiencies may also have the opposite effect on Mn availability through their consumption of and release of CC^, affecting both the potential. The composition and activity populations are dependent on many factors, moisture content and oxygen levels. to promote pH and of redox microbial including OM, Mycorrhizae are known iron uptake in high lime soils. Dale et (1955) found that iron chlorosis of pines seldom in natural sites. 02 occurred Trees with normal mycorrhizae, high lime locations (pH=7.8) did not When normal mycorrhizae were lacking, al. exhibit even on symptoms. symptoms developed no matter what iron/fertilizer combinations were to the soil. applied Mycorrhizae have not been studied as they relate to Mn deficiency. Competing problems. In cations may worsen existing Mn extensive deficiency experiments with barley roots, 56 Maas et al. (1969) found that magnesium (Mg) significantly depressed the increased absorption present, of Mn of Mn. absorption. Calcium When both Ca and (Ca) Mg were Mn absorbtion was decreased further than with Mg alone. Iron (Mortvedt Low been rate et is also al., known 1972, to reduce Olson and uptake of Carlson, 1949). light intensities and low soil temperatures associated with an increase in deficiency Mn have symptoms due to changes in photosynthetic rates and the movement of Mn in and to roots (Mortvedt et al., 1972). Manganese deficiencies are seldom observed in trees on soils in their natural state (Kielbaso and Ottman, Sherman and Harmer, 1976, 1942). Manganese deficiency of maples High factor soil pH due to profile disruption is the major which has been associated with Mn deficiencies of maples (Kielbaso and levels are also Ottman 1976, Kreag, 1940). Calcium not normally as high in nondisturbed surface soils as has been observed with symptomatic trees. There were two reasons given for this high Ca level. first brought is that subsoils high in Ca have been to the surface explanation for high leaving calcium (Craul, Ca levels 1983). is compounds near the improper surface The exposed The or second drainage, instead of leaching. In urban situations, excessive water may collect 57 due to run-off from sidewalks, streets, and houses (Kreag, 1940). Without leaving Ca proper drainage, behind. Calcium water would could make evaporate soil Mn less available due to pH changes or cation competition. Urban organic soils are thought to have very low matter (Antheunis et al., 1982). levels of This has been associated with manganese deficiency (Kielbaso and Ottman, 1976). Although Mn deficiency is usually associated with high OM levels, nutrient assist low OM levels may reduce root uptake. in the Organic compounds are also maintenance of Mn in (Heintze and Mann, 1947* Shuman, Selection may growth and an known available form 1979). of root stocks for horticultural varieties explain the variation in symptoms between native varietal maples genetically (Brown et unable to al., 1958). absorb A sufficient root and stock amounts nutrients will result in deficiency symptoms Steiner, to of (Berrang and 1980). Selection of root stocks to compensate for nutrient problems has shown some success with red maples (Teuscher, 1956). In summary, have been associated availability. potential, plant with Mn deficiencies which and Mn They are: 1) soil pH, 2) oxidation-reduction 3) genetics, cations. there are generally seven factors organic matter, 6) 4) moisture microorganisms, Soil pH, and to some extent, and 7) levels, 5) competing competing cations have been studied in the case of maple trees. 58 This study had three objectives: the diagnosis of manganese deficiency, of the growth Definition deficiency. of impact the site of manganese factors 1) Confirmation of 2) Quantification deficiency, related to 3) manganese Materials and Methods Sampling Design Managers Minnesota, Ontario, and of Wisconsin, Managers Michigan, Ohio, to participate numbers and were in this research visited. of young sugar maple numbers The Wisconsin; (Acer of trees. and and Rockford, State University campus, in 1983 were, Illinois; Stevens Michigan had All of their cities East Point, State were Point, Illinois; Ohio Wooster; and in Michigan, Grand Rapids, Ann Arbor, Lansing, Forest, areas. sites sampled in 1982 were Stevens Highland Park, to saccharum interested Agriculture Research and Development Center, sampled project. red maples (Acer rubrum L.) in their 13 respondents who were sufficient Michigan in and who responded favorably were again contacted determine There Illinois, programs Canada were contacted in the winter of 1981-1982 invited Marsh.) thirty two urban forestry Flint, and Lansing. Sites Wisconsin; University Lake campus, Saginaw, and the city of East Lansing, Michigan. Sampling Methods Tree healthy trees with managers were asked to locate one sugar and red maples and a second area exhibited small, interveinal chlorosis uniformly chlorotic varieties were not sampled. 59 area in symptoms. leaves, and of which Trees columnar 60 Data collected variety, on-site in 1982 were: species and years since transplant, method of transplanting, history of fertilization, location, diameter, crown shape, chlorosis rating, terminal characteristics. species, diameter, terminal diameter, collected and soil profile In 1983 the data collected on-site were location, length, length, chlorosis rating, terminal and redox potential. for laboratory analysis were Samples foliage, surface soil and, in 1982 only, subsoil. Tree diameter was measured with a Biltmore stick 1.5 meters above the was rated into for thirds soil surface (DBH). green The entire tree chlorosis by visually dividing and rating the worst leaf on selected terminals in each third. at the five crown randomly Terminals with healthy, leaves were given a rating of zero. Leaves having slight indistinct interveinal chlorosis were rated as one. Leaves with indistinct chlorosis from the edge of the leaf to not Leaves of closer rated two. distinctly chlorotic from the edge to within 3 the midrib three. If chlorotic, remaining necrotic (dead) than 3 mm of a major rib were with some green minor the with majority only partially spots, or (Figure 12). a partially of the veins, leaf was the central vein and green, and was leaves made. were An overall chlorosis rating was rated extremely major with no more rating of four necrotic were mm than veins two Necrotic rated five determined 61 Figure 12 Photograph of red maple 'October Glory1 leaves with series of chlorosis symptom. Upper left to right, Rating group 0, Group 1, Group 2. Lower left to right, Group 3, Group 4, Group 5. 63 by averaging all 15 ratings (Messenger, 1984). A chlorosis rating of less than 0.5 was considered mean healthy. If the rating was greater than 0.5 the tree was considered chlorotic. This distinction was used for group separations in the statistical procedures. Five of the branches were pruned from the middle one crown facing south. growth Length of third current year's was measured from the terminal bud to last year's terminal bud scale scars. In 1983, the diameter of the terminal was also measured at the proximal end, but not over swollen areas. Surface deep cores soil was sampled with ten 2.5 cm dia. x 15 cm from Hoffer Soil around the tree (Elano between the dripline and approximately half the distance to trunk of the tree in a random with equal number of Xenia, samples Ohio). a Sampler the Corp, using from each Cores were pattern, side of taken the an tree (Ruark et al., 1982, SCS, 1972). Soil profile and subsoil samples were collected in 1982 using a bucket auger (AMS, American Falls, ID 83211). Descriptions weremade at 15 cm intervals to cm a unless encountered. characteristics layer At obstructive each interval were noted: to the root a depth of 90 growth was following soil soil color including value and chroma using Munsell color charts (Soiltest, Evanston, IL, 60202); soil texture - determined by hand using method described by Thien (1979); gravel - noted if it made up 64 more than 15? of soil volume; effervescence - detected by addition of one drop 10% HC1; roots - if tree roots were present in sample;structure grained; films mottles - present,massive - ifpresent in sample; were present on stones or 1975). A soil analysis from were present. following sample was soil orsingle films - if aggregates collected for the deepest interval in which clay (USDA, laboratory tree roots In 1983, surface soil samples were analyzed the same procedures for texture, effervescence and gravel. Soil classified 1982. oxidation-reduction into one of two groups Soils classified 1975). (redox) with as a reduced, value potential was at each soil depth > 4 and chroma < 2 all others were oxidized in were (USDA, In 1983, surface soil redox measurements were made using three platinum micro electrodes (3.95 x .644 mm), an Ag/AgCl reference electrode (Jensen Washington 98444), and Instruments, an Orion Research Specific Ion Meter Model 407 (Quispel 1947, Tacoma, Ion-analyzer McKenzie and Erickson 1954). Electrodes were acid-cleaned before use. Soil redox potential was calculated using the equation: Eh = 242 mv + corrected meter reading where Eh is equal to the soil redox potential in mv and Sarup, 1938). using the formula: pe = Eh/59.2 Empirical pe values were (Puri determined 65 where pe is equal to the negative log concentraiton. Values for pe + pH of the were electron the simple addition of pe and pH for each sample tree. Precipitation data were collected from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Climatological Data reports of stations closest to the study sites. Summer totals were the sum of June, July and August values. Laboratory Procedures Foliage petioles samples discarded, degrees C were rinsed in distilled water, leaves counted and oven dried at the same day they were removed from the 70 tree. Subsequently, leaves were ground in a Wiley mill with a 20 mesh screen cups or acid-washed glass vials. and and stored in sealed 60 ml weighed dried, bags prior to analysis. plastic Samples were Soil samples souffle re-dried were air passed through a 1 mm screen, and stored in paper prior to analysis. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen and total phosphorus of plant tissue and Technicon sulfuric soils was colorimetrically determined Autoanalyzer acid II (Black, following 1965, Determination of total metals (Al, Na, Zn) perchloric 1976, digestion Technicon, on a with 1977). B, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mn, followed digestion of subsamples with nitric and acids (Blanchar et al., Sommers and Nelson, 1972). 1965, Ellis et al., Concentrations were 66 determined using a Spectrametrics SMI III DC-argon plasma emission spectrometer (Dahlquist and Knoll, 1978). Soil samples (w:v), shaken at through were extracted with 0.1N 150 rpm for 20 minutes, and then Whatman #1 filter paper (Salcedo 1979, Salcedo et al., Soil using wet 1979, Whitney, filtered and Warncke, 1980). organic matter was colorimetrically determined a method developed by Sims and Haby (1971) based on combustion of organic matter sulfuric acid (Black, The 1:10 colorimetric organic 1965, Graham, readings were withdichromate 1948, Walkeley, converted to in 1947). percent matter using a regression equation generated by a comparison of forty samples which were wet-combusted. regression produced was Y = -.315 + 12.29 x equal predicted to combustion and x percent is equal organic to where matter actual The Y from is wet colorimetric absorbance reading. Soil pH was measured using an Orion Model 901 analyzer equipped with a combination electrode. mixed one-to-one shaken at Arbor,MI). minutes 150 with deionized water rpm for 20 minutes The particles and Ion- Soil was continuously (Ederbach Corp, Ann were allowed to settle for 10 and the supernatant slurry was measured (Black, 1965). In stained (1982). 1982 root samples werecollected, cleaned and using the method described by Kormanik and McGraw Mycorrhizal infections were then evaluated and 67 classified Service according to a slightly scheme infected, where Class 2: 6-25?, 75?, Class 5:76-100? The 1983 Class 1 is 0-5? root length of McGraw, 1982). were collected from 0 depth. Roots were washed, methods described by Phillips and measurements USDA Forest Class 3: 26-50?, Class 4: 51- (Kormanik and samples modified to 15 cm cleaned and stained using the Hayman (1970). Root and percentage of root length infected determined using the grid method (Schenck, were 1982). Statistical Analyses Trees were rejected from analyses if one or more of the following conditions were found: 1) greater than 25? of bark missing from trunk 2) tree in the shade of adjoining trees 3) tree missing primary leader or a major portion of the crown. Analysis computer located Statistical performed Sciences Results of data was conducted on the CDC Cyber in procedures using version the and MSU Computer data 8.3 (MSU, 1981, Nie of statistical analysis were when probability levels were less than, percent Laboratory. manipulations the Statistical Package for et judged 750 were the al. Social 1975,). significant or equal to, five (.05) unless indicated otherwise. Results were 68 judged highly significant if probability levels were less than, or equal to, one percent (.01). Statistical tests used were: 1) Student’s T-Test for comparison of two group means; 2) Analysis of variance for categorical, ordinal, and interval data with separation of means using Scheffe’s procedure;3) Analysis of covariance to differentiate the covariate from the main effects; Simple correlation coefficients for interval and *4) ratio using regression techniques; 5) Multiple linear regression for interval and ratio data; separation 6) Discriminant analysis for of groups by interval and ratio values (Nie et al., 1975, White and Mead, 1971). Seventy-five percent of the data were used to define the discriminant function and the remaining 25% were used to test the function. Results Description of study trees Two the hundred and ninety-eight trees were sampled summers of 1982 and 1983 (Table ranged from 5 cm to 31 cm DBH, 5). Tree in diameters with a mean of 14 cm. maples were mainly 'Red Sunset' and 'October Glory', Red they were combined for analysis. Data on transplanting, date and of transplanting, history of fertilization method of were not available from most tree managers. Nutrients related to chlorosis Chlorotic sugar maples had a significantly lower concentration of Mn, and higher concentration of N, Ca and Cu than healthy trees (Table 6). significantly lower concentrations of maples (Table 7). Chlorotic red maples had concentrations N and Al as compared of to Mn, higher healthy red Other nutrients (P, K, Mg, Fe, Zn, Na, B, Cd, Cr) showed no significant differences. 69 70 Table 5. City and State Summary of tree species sampled. Red maples Sugar maples 1982 Stevens Point WI 1 13 Highland Park IL 4 12 Rockford IL 4 10 30 0 Grand Rapids MI 5 12 Lansing MI 0 12 Flint MI 0 15 22 12 7 10 Stevens Point WI 10 10 Lake Forest IL 10 10 9 10 10 10 8 23 11 8 OARDC Wooster OH MSU E. Lansing MI Ann Arbor MI 1983 Saginaw MI E. Lansing MI MSU E. Lansing MI Birmingham MI Total 131 167 71 Table 6. Foliar element concentration of maples sampled in the Great Lakes states summer 1982 and 1983. Healthy # .ement mean S.D. sugar late Chlorotic n % N * urban during mean S.D. n % 1.81 .46 55 1.97 .37 80 P .21 .08 55 .21 .09 80 K 2.74 .32 19 3.03 83 31 .43 .16 28 .39 .15 44 2.08 .33 19 2.69 1.4 33 Mg Ca * ppm ppm Mn** 211 156 53 62 81 79 Fe 152 56 53 151 54 79 Zn 17 17 51 20 10 79 Cu** 6.7 3.2 32 9.9 5.3 45 Na 268 116 27 298 110 45 Al 65 31 32 82 55 46 B 122 90 32 207 360 45 Cd .70 .52 28 .65 .63 44 Cr 1.1 0.8 30 2.1 CO • on 44 # S.D. = Standard deviation, included in analysis. n = number of trees * Significant difference (p=.05) between means of healthy and chlorotic trees. ** Highly significant difference (p=.01) between means of healthy and chlorotic trees. 72 Table 7. Foliar element concentration of urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes States during late summer 1982 and 1983. Healthy # sment mean S.D. Chlorotic n mean S.D. n % % 1.76 .36 40 1.95 .49 76 P .24 .08 40 .26 .11 76 K 2.69 .39 14 5.30 18 43 Mg .42 .16 26 .42 .15 34 Ca 1.42 .32 14 1.57 .31 43 N * ppm ppm Mn** 132 82 41 26 51 79 Fe 114 82 41 143 81 79 Zn 34 16 39 36 17 77 Cu 11 6.4 25 9.7 4.3 34 Na 131 57 25 241 344 34 Al** 34 22 25 56 39 34 B 82 97 27 118 61 36 Cd .81 1.1 22 .57 .61 36 Cr 1.3 0.9 21 1.2 0.6 30 # S.D. = Standard deviation, included in analysis. n = number of trees * Significant difference (p<.05) between means of healthy and chlorotic trees. ** Highly significant difference (p <.01) between means of healthy and chlorotic trees. 73 Chlorosis ratings The correlation concentrations and between the mean chlorosis rating sugar maples was r =-.52. was r =-.70. When foliar manganese (CR) for For red maples the correlation the logarithm of Mn (MNL) rating, correlation increased to r = -.72 for sugar maple and r mean foliar concentration the was compared to the the = -.86 for red maple (Figures 13 chlorosis and 14). The regressions which relate these variables are CR = -3.7 MNL + 8.0, CR = -3.1 MNL + 6.25 for sugar and red maples, respectively. There were 14 red maples (11%) which had over 32 Mn and were chlorotic. ppm Seven trees had more than 75 ppm Mn and were chlorotic. Fifty-four more than (32%) sugar maples were chlorotic and 23 ppm Mn. Thirty trees were chlorotic had with over 45 ppm Mn and 14 were chlorotic with over 100 ppm Mn. PPM MN C O N C E N T R A T I O N o o O 2.40( tf>0 0 © © _ Gfe) © I 0 oP © l.sodL 0 „ ® o© o © © o © 00 % © ©0 © © © 1.20D- O © © ° 8® 0©S O© © O © o _ o © © © © % o % © ® 0 © <%) fflffl © © © © © <#> © © © ©o © © .600- LOG 10 FOLIRR 3 .00O1 + 1.000 + + 2.000 + + 3.000 + + 4.000 + 5.000 TREE AVERAGE CHLOROSIS RATING iig ur e 13. R e l a t i o n of fol ia r m a n g a n e s e c o n c e n t r a t i o n and c h l o r o s i s ratings for urba n sugar m a p l e s a m p l e d in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 2 -40( 1.80( cn 1 .2 0 0 * % * t & .600- * * * * PPM LOG 10 FOLIfiR * * * * UN CONCENTRATION 3.000l + 1.000 + + 2.000 + + 3.000 + + 4.000 + 6.000 TREE AVERAGE C HL OR OS IS R A T I N G f i g u r e 14. R e l a t i o n of fol iar m an ga ne se c o n c e n t r a t i o n and chlorosis ratings for urban red maple sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 76 Growth impacts Growth forms. differences were Necrotic related leaves observed in four on upper branches different were always to lower Mn levels in samples fron the middle the crown. of The mean Mn concentration in sugar maples with necrotic leaves was 25 ppm; necrotic red maples had a mean of 7 ppm. Healthy terminals red maples a significantly than chlorotic trees (Table 8). had the opposite relation, growth than linear relation sugar had maple longer Sugar maples with healthy trees having less chlorotic trees. A significant negative existed between length and foliar Mn (Figure 15). Red maples exhibited a in weak positive relation (Figure 16). Healthy sugar maple terminals had smaller diameters (mean = 4.8 mm) than chlorotic trees (mean = 5.5 mm). maples had similar diameter means of 3.7 mm and 4.0 mm for chlorotic (Table 8). for healthy The majority of the healthy red maples had diameters between 3 and 5 mm, numerous Red with chlorotic trees having both more growth and less growth (Figure 17). Sugar maples exhibit the same pattern with of the between majority 3.5 healthy trees and 6.5 mm (Figure 18). having Sugar diameters maple diameter was not correlated with Mn concentration. maple there was a significant inverse twig In red relation (r=-.25). 77 Table 8. Growth differences between healthy and chlorotic trees sampled in selected cities of the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. Growth Form Healthy # mean S.D. n. Chlorotic mean S.D. n. Sugar Maple Terminal length (cm)* 24 12 55 31 16 80 Terminal diameter (mm)* 4.8 .93 22 5.5 1.2 33 Leaf weight (g d.w.) .61 .22 54 .60 .16 78 Red Maple Terminal length (cm)* 26 13 40 20 11 79 Terminal diameter (mm) 3.7 .52 14 4.0 .98 43 Leaf weight (g d.w.)* .33 .10 39 .26 .09 79 # S.D. = Standard deviation, included in analysis. n = number of trees * T-test results indicate a significant difference (p<.05) between means of healthy and chlorotic trees. TERMINAL LENGTH IN CM 100 80- O 60- gP © o © % © CO 40-m ©CD □ © ©o 20 © © © © © © © © O© 8 - □ ~ © 00 © fi. □ $ C® © © © © © + % LEOEND © HEALTHY m CHLOROTII © © © 0©0 □ + 100 © © + 200 + + 300 400 500 F O L I A R MN IN P PM fi gu re 15. R e l a t i o n of termi na l leng th and fol iar m a n g a n e s e concentration in healthy and chlorotic sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. IN CM LENGTH TERMINAL '“*-4 LO LEGEND ♦ HEALTHY X CHLOROTl! 125 250 375 500 F O L I A R MN CON C. IN PPM fi gu re ib. R e l a t i o n of terminal length and foliar ma nganes e concentration in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. DIR. GROWTH IN MM 10 ■ f t 00 TERMINRL o * % * LEQENO * HEALTHY H— 100 + X CHLOROTI H -- 200 + H -300 F O L I A R MN IN P PM + H -400 + 500 Figure 17. Relation of terminal diameter and foliar manganese concentration in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. TERMINAL DIR. OROWTH IN MM 10 8f Q dP It ® p ® J 0 o 2T m □ m O © © ED © □ I m © © o o ' QftQ o © ID 00 © © 0 i g o m © HEALTHY a CHLOROTI + 100 + + 200 + + 300 400 500 F O L I A R MN IN P P M f i g u r e ltf. R e l a t i o n of ter mina l dia me te r and fo li a r ma ng a n e s e concentration in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 82 Leaves from chlorotic red maples were lower in weight were no significantly than from healthy trees (Table 8). There statistical differences between leaf weights of healthy and chlorotic sugar maples. Factors Associated With Chlorosis and Manganese Soil texture After accounting for pH differences using an analysis of covarience, texture was not related to foliar Mn concentration in sugar or red maple. Soil organic matter Organic matter levels ranged from 0.4$ to 9.9$ with a mean of 5.6$ for 291 samples. sugar chlorotic maples were on soils with over 5.5$ 0M with a of 5.6$ (Figure 19). 4.8$. 5.5$ The majority of Most OM healthy The mean for healthy sugar maple was chlorotic red maples were on soils with with a mean of 6.5$ (Figure 20). trees was mean significantly less at The 4.7%. over mean for No red maples were found in soils with OM levels lower than 3$. A significant (Table 9). linear relation was found for both species IN P P M 500 400- FOLIAR MN CONC- 300- 00 200 - 100 - to LEGEND O HEALTHY □ CHLORQTB 0 2 4 6 8 S O I L O R G A N I C M A T T E R IN P E R C E N T figure 19. Relation of soil organic matter and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. IN P P M 50G 40G- FOLIAR MN CONC. 300-* 00 -pi 200 - * * 100 X % * * 0 - * * * * * ♦ * ** * LEGEND ♦ HEALTHY X CHLOROT m H______I 0 2 * ¥ * x *** M j* **: 4 6 O R G A N I C M A T T E R IN P E R C E N T 8 10 Figure 20. Relation of soil organic matter and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 85 Table 9. Regressons relating soil factors and foliar manganese in urban sugar and red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. Soil Factor Regression Sig. * r2 n Sugar maple pH Mn=-248 pH + 1848 HS .59 129 pH log Mn=-.863 pH + 78.3 HS .54 129 pe Mn=38.2 pe + 12.9 HS .23 47 Organic Matter Mn=-26.8 OM + 263 HS .16 129 Nitrogen Mn=-.03 N + 197.7 HS .10 127 Extract. Mn Mn=-.36 EMN + 140 NS <.01 122 pH log Mn=-,743 pH + 6.4 HS .48 119 pH Mn=-89.4 pH + 662 HS .38 119 Organic Matter Mn=-15.9 OM + 155 HS .12 119 pe Mn=11.4 pe + 28.8 HS .11 44 Nitrogen Mn=-.01 N + 100.1 HS .06 119 Extract. Mn Mn=.62 EMN + 23 HS .10 115 Mycorrhizae Mn= .57 M + 62.2 NS <.01 24 Red Maple * Statistical significance, NS = not significant, S = significant at p<.05, HS = highly significant at p<.01. 86 Soil manganese Concentrations 234 of soil manganese ranged from ppm air dry soil. maples Both healthy and 13 chlorotic to sugar were found on soils with less than 70 ppm Mn. On soils with greater than 70 ppm Mn only healthy sugar maple were found (Figure 21). On soils with greater than 110 ppm Mn only linear maple healthy red maple were found (Figure 22). relation between soil Mn and foliar Mn was not significant while, The for for red maple sugar it was highly significant (Table 9). Soil nitrogen Total soil nitrogen (SN) levels ranged from 101 ppm to over 5000 negative foliar ppm. There correlations manganese Generally, as between for soil were both N highly total soil tree increased, species foliar significant nitrogen and (Table 9). Mn decreased (Figures 23 and 24). There between was also a highly significant correlation soil organic matter and total soil nitrogen. The regression OM = 349 + .00085 SN explains 35% of the variability (n=280). Soil effervescence Sugar maples on effervescent soils had a mean Mn concentration of 56 ppm (no table). Those on foliar soils IN P P M 500 O 400- O MN CONC- O © © © 300- FOLIAR o o O o O 200 © OS) © o o © © - © 00 © © © © © 100 <§> © - (3 Pei o- + + 20 + □ © <$)©, □ % □ □ © a 40 © © a© □ LEGEND © HEALTHY 0 CHL0RGTI © □ — i----- 1------1------1------ 1--- 60 S O I L MN IN P P M 80 100 Figure 21. Relation of 0.1 N phosphoric acid extractable soil manganese and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. IN P PM 500 400* 4* MN CONC. 300$ * * 200 * - X oo * 00 * FOLIAR 4> *x** 100 X 4* 4* 4> ♦ r - * 4«iji * 4> X LEGEND * HERLTHY X CHLQROTI 4« X X x + 100 S O I L MN IN P PM H -- 150 + H— 200 + 250 Figure 22. Relation of 0.1 N phosphoric acid extractable soil manganese and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 500 400 © O D % 300-- © <§D © © © MN IN P P M & © 200 FOLIAR -- © © © 00 LO ©© □ 03 © 0 © m 0 1000 m 3 of 0© (TS0 2000 m 0 m ©a,® 100- 0 Of0 ® 0 ©® m m 0 © 3000 0 LEGEND © HEALTHY 0 CHL0R0TI I ) 13 00 0GP 4000 0 5000 6000 T O T A L S O I L N I T R O G E N IN P PM Figure 23. Relation of soil nitrogen and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 300- MN IN P P M 400- UD O - 100 - FOLIAR 200 LEGEND * HEALTHY X CHL0R0TI 0 1000 4000 5000 6000 T O T A L S O I L N I T R O G E N IN P PM F i g u r e 24. R e l a t i o n of soil n it r o g e n and fol ia r ma ng a n e s e in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. 91 without ppm reaction Mn. Red had a significantly higher mean of maple means were similar, effervescent group having 33 ppm and the with 169 the non-effervescent group 59 ppm Mn. The while mean the pH of effervescent soils mean pH of was non-effervescent 7.1 (n=86) soils was significantly lower at 6.8 (n=150). Mycorrhizae The levels of mycorrhizae present on subsoil roots of sugar maples were all relatively low. Manganese means were similar for all mycorrhizal groups (Table 10). Red maples had mycorrhizal infection levels from 0 to 45% (n=24). between There percent of were roots no significant infected, or the correlations density of infection, and foliar manganese. Table 10. Relation of mycorrhizal infection to foliar manganese concentration in urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982. Mycorrhizal group Ave. Foliar Mn Cone. in ppm Number of samples 1 67 5 2 165 9 3 108 2 4 193 1 92 Soil oxidation - reduction potential In 1982 reduced, seven all trees were on these were soils chlorotic. classified Redox as potentials measured in 1983 ranged from -182 mv to +413 mv (pe = -3.1 to 7.0). pe of 3.1 , mean of Healthy sugar maples were on soils with a mean chlorotic trees had a 1.2. Healthy significantly higher red pe, significantly maples having were a mean on of lower soils 4.1 of while chlorotic trees had a mean of 1.3. Significant foliar Mn positive correlations existed between and pe in both sugar and red maple (Table Generally, as 9). pe increased so did foliar Mn (Figures 25 and 26). Precipitation Precipitation the 15 study areas. correlated with there a Areas was with varied from 200 to 302 cm per year Total precipitation foliar Mn levels (Table strong correlation was low rainfall tended concentrations (Figures 27 and 28). 11). with to have was for not However, summer lower rain. Mn MN IN P P M 400- V£> CO - FOLIAR 200 LEGEND ❖ HEALTHY A CHLOROTI A 4 2 6 S U R F A C E S O I L E M P I R I C A L PE 10 i.igure 25. Relation of measured soil redox potential (pe) and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. MN IN P P M 400- (O -p> - FOLIAR 200 LEOENO *X***4 h.X = --------- 1----------- 12 6 S U R F A C E S O I L E M P I R I C A L PE ♦ HEALTHY X CHL0R0TI 10 Figure 2b. Relation of measured soil redox potential (pe) and foliar manganese in healthy and chlorotic urban red maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. IN P P M RVE. FOLIRR MN C0NC. 400- 15 25 35 45 S U M M E R P R E C I P I T A T I O N IN CM Figure 27. Relation of summer precipitation and average foliar manganese concentration of sugar maples in 12 cities sampled during late summer 1982 and 1983. MN C O N C . IN P P M RVE. FOLIAR 400- 200 - v£> CTi 15 25 35 S U M M E R P R E C I P I T A T I O N IN CM Figure 28. Relation of summer precipitation and average foliar manganese concentration of red maples in 11 cities sampled during late summer 1982 and 1983. 97 Table 11. Precipitation correlations with average foliar manganese concentrations of sugar and red maple. Sugar Maple Simple Corr. r 2 Sig .* Season Red Maple Simple corr. r Sig. Fall -.20 .04 NS -.27 .08 NS Winter -„52 .27 S -.38 .14 NS Spring -.22 .05 NS -.23 .05 NS Summer .68 .47 HS .58 .34 S Total .27 .07 NS .25 .06 NS * Statistical significance, NS = not significant, S = significant at p<.05, HS = highly significant at p<.01. Soil pH Surface pH was the soil variable correlated with foliar Mn (Table 9). foliar Mn decreased. of 7.15 most strongly With increasing pH, Chlorotic sugar maples had a mean pH (n=79) while healthy trees had lower mean of 6.66 (n=55). a significantly The majority of the chlorotic sugar maples grew on soils with pH greater than 6.8. sugar maples were chlorotic below 6.8 while Few some were and 6.08 healthy above (Figure 29). Red (n=79,40) maples had mean pH values of for chlorotic and healthy trees, 7.04 respectively. The majority of the chlorotic red maples were on soils pH 6.6 and above (Figure 30). of IN P P M 500 400- FOLIAR MN CQNC. 300- 200 - V£> CO 100- LEGEND O HEALTHY D CHLOROTII I 5.500 6.000 6.500 7.000 7.500 8.000 S O I L PH fi gu r e 29. R e l a t i o n of surface soil pH and f o l i a r m a n g a n e s e concentration in healthy and chlorotic sugar maples sampled in the Great Lakes region during late summer 1982 and 1983. IN P P M 500 400- FOLIAR MN C0NC. 300- * 200 0.5) trees. For sugar maple the point was 106 ppm Mn and for red maples it was 69 ppm M n . These numbers were substantially higher than the previously defined symptomatic deficiency points (SDP). This was due to the method by which the SDP was defined, using the low end of healthy tree values. there is only one SDP for a given tree, population trees were chlorotic between found trees these chlorotic. be studied for were values, less than found with trees ppm above were Mn 106 either red even if not symptomatic. maples with less accurately define the optimum, of Mn, 23 No healthy and few ppm. In healthy or All sugar maples with less than 106 ppm Mn may deficient, true the range for the was 23 to over 100 ppm. with While than The same may be 69 ppm Mn. or critical, concentration controlled fertilizer-type experiments would to be conducted. To have 105 Growth impacts Manganese deficiency significant growth in most crops and yield losses (Ahmed 1953, Haas, 1932, Ohki et al., 1977). upper results and in Twyman, In maples, necrotic terminal leaves were associated with low levels manganese. Depending of on the severity of the deficiency, some or all of the leaves on the upper branches were lost due to the deficiency. Lateral branches were longer and thicker in chlorotic sugar maples. Chlorotic red maples had thicker branches than healthy red maples. shorter and Chlorotic red maples also had smaller, lighter weight leaves. in Increases indoleacetic acid (IAA) activity (Taylor et al. coupled with nonspecific 1952) may in replacement coenzyme reactions or (Mulder Mg in and Manganese concentrations were red than in sugar affected by Fe maple. several Gerretsen, be responsible for the higher growth sugar maple. less Mn 1968) rate in considerably Therefore, trees did have reduced growth, while severely moderately affected trees had growth increases. The long term effect on growth needs to be studied over a greater time period with planting and removal growth ring analysis, or height measurements. studies are conducted, and overall growth rates. Until these it is impossible to quantify impact of varying degrees of deficiency on tree data, the longevity 106 Factors responsible for manganese deficiency Soil texture The importance deficiency has been of soil texture demonstrated (Jones, 1983, Rich, 1956, Reddy Teuscher, 1956). this study, given pH. and by in many and manganese researchers Perkins, 1976, The reason that it was not prominent in was the lack of diversity of texture at a More extensive sampling of soils of similar pH differing textures may result in identification of organic matter concentrations range from .4 to preferred texture groups. Soil organic matter Soil 10? in temperate region mineral soils (Brady, mean in humid, temperate areas is 4?. 1974). The Urban soils in this study reflected this range with a higher mean of 5.6?. Chlorotic relatively levels maples long (Christensen et al., been often on soils The presence of associated with Mn with high OM deficiency 1950, Clark, et al,, 1957, Jones and 1951, Rumple et al., probablereason available most high levels of OM. have Leeper, were for this organic - Mn is 1967A and B). the The most of less et al., 1969, formation complexes (Gerring Hentze, 1957, McBride, 1982). The level of soil OM at which Mn solubility was 107 greatly reduced varies with soil pH (Takkar, 1969). Takkar (1969) found available Mn was lowest at 4% or above for "neutral" (pH 7.5-8.0) and 2% or above for soils (pH 7.7-8.2). calcareous The majority of chlorotic maples this study were on soils with OM levels over 5.5%. should be considered prior to mulching. of high originally may aggravate or create et al., 1957). a chlorosis rate problem There should be no problem if the is acid and/or contains low levels of OM. mulches readily neutral or basic organic materials since these materials soil This pH and/or OM should not be mulched with available, (Clark, Soils in Wood chip slowly increase OM levels and decrease pH which tends not to increase chlorosis at a problems (Watson and Himelick, work in progress, Fraedrich and Ham, 1982). Chlorosis and low foliar Mn levels were also found on several trees with low OM. organics assist Research has demonstrated that in maintaining Mn in an (Heintze and Mann, 1947, matter Shuman, 1950). Organic provide sufficient Mn on these 1979, Trocme ideal advantageous soils. exchange, nutrients. Mn were Organic of moisture would of complexformation, retention, For sugar maple, found in trees and form al., to mulches low OM . soil organic matter level amounts et levels may have been too low would be highly recommended in cases The available provide cation mineralization of acceptable levels of foliar on soils with between 2 and 5.5% 108 OM. The range for red maple was between 3 and 5.5% OM. The higher the OM level, the lower the optimum pH. Soil manganese The correlation between soil Mn and foliar Mn was weak. There have been numerous studies on different methods extracting soil uptake (Boken, Medersk, Mn 1958, to improve correlation Hammes and Berger, 1959, Randall, et al., 1976). with 1960, of plant Hoff and The method used in this study was selected due to its success in northcentral soils (Randall Salcedo which DPTA et al., et al., should 1979, Whitney, has been used successfully an in 1980, Gough 1980, Viets and Lindsay, testing, 1980). 1979, Another be tested is the use of a DPTA soils (Curtin et al., al., 1976, Salcedo and Warncke method extractant. calcareous, western et al., 1980, Shuman et 1973). With more extensive appropriate method of predicting deficiency from soil tests should be achievable. The lack of correlation between soil tests and foliar levels may also lead to the conclusion that the problem is not with the amount of Mn present, availability for uptake (Page et al., but with the 14:1, was 1962). Soil nitrogen The mean C:N ratio found in urban soils, somewhat in higher than the more typical 10:1 or 12:1 agricultural soils (Brady, 1974). found This indicates that 109 typical urban nitrogen. soils do not contain excessive The levels negative correlation between soil N of and foliar Mn may not be an antagonistic nutrient interaction but correlation a reflection of the strong negative between soil organic matter and foliar Mn. Soil effervescence Effervescence is in the soil (USDA, found on an indication of calcium 1975). carbonate Chlorotic trees were more often effervescent soils. This is probably due to chemisorption and precipitation of Mn at CaCO^ surfaces as well as formation of MnCO^ (rhodocrosite) availability of Mn (Jones, 1957, McBride, not a one-to-one correlation between reducing the 1979). There was effervescence and chlorosis due to differences in pH, pe and 0M (Christensen et al., 1950). Mycorrhizae The not relation between mycorrhizae and foliar Mn significant. samples, Conditions Mycorrhizal levels were low in was all probably due to disadvantageous soil conditions. found in urban soils which have a negative impact on mycorrhizae are high levels of phosphorus, high pH, (Ojala 1983, extremes, et high (Craul, 1982). al., Slankis, 1974) temperature bulk density, and water content extremes 110 Soil oxidation - reduction potential Theoretically, redox potential should be one of factors most important This is due to the changes in solubility of Mn with redox changes (Lindsay, It affecting uptake of the manganese. 1979). was hypothesized that healthy trees would be found on soils with low redox potentials since this would favor the formation case. of Mn+2 (Bohn, 1970). This was not Healthy trees were found in soils with high potential. potentials reactions resulted lower Evidently, either were not controlling the relatively the measured relevant redox solubility (Quispel, 1947) or since low redox potentials +2 in more mobile Mn , the total amount of Mn was due to leaching (Tiller, lower, the 1963). If total Mn was this should have been obvious in the Mn extraction results, but it was not. The been value questioned of redox potential measurements has as reduction reactions generally accepted should they relate to (Bohn, that 1968 data specific and from be used qualitatively rather than Most research indicates that higher redox related to lower soil moisture levels McKeague, 1964, Erickson, 1954). McKenzie et al., oxidation- 1969). redox long It is measurements quantitatively. potentials (Copeland, 1960, are 1957, McKenzie and Viewing these results in a soil moisture perspective, it can be seen that healthy trees were often on sites which were relatively well drained. found more 111 With borderline pH level (6.6-7.0), was redox, thus drainage, of great importance with red maple. potential, The higher and thus the better the drainage, chances of the tree being healthy. same trend. However, the the greater Sugar maple showed the pH was a more dominant factor. Precipitation Effects of precipitation on nutrient uptake have been demonstrated (Barrow 1979). et With maples al., 1969, Brickelhaupt in this study it was et al., found higher rainfall was associated with higher foliar Mn. theory for the increase in foliar Mn with increased that One rain was that high soil moisture levels cause a lowering of the redox, which oxides. in turn causes a reduction of manganese This theory was rejected since the redox was exactly opposite. data Healthy trees tended to be on sites with higher redox potentials. The alternative hypotheses were: in rainfall tended to lower pH leaching basic ions, to roots in well drained soils via and 2) that more Mn was via greater mass flow of water in drained soils (Barber, drained transported moist, well 1981). Both of these hypotheses are supported by the redox and summer rain optimal 1) that an increase data. Therefore, conditions for maples were high rainfall and well soils. For trees suffering from Mn deficiency, higher levels of moisture than normal are required due to 112 their inefficient utilization of water ( Kozakiewicz and Ellis, 1967). Soil pH High soil pH is usually associated (Christensen et al., Page, 1962A approximately stronger and 50% relation 1950, B). In Mulder and with Gerretsen, this study, pH that found by 1952, accounts for of the data variability. than chlorosis This Rich was (1956) a in experiments with peanuts. The importance of pH was confirmed with multiple linear regressions and discriminant analysis. Numerous soil variables were included in an attempt to find a regression which could predict foliar manganese levels. regressions important contained independent surface variable. soil pH All of as This was the the most followed in importance by the soil organic matter and redox potential. Correlations with redox. were negative with pH and OM Therefore, and positive trees grew better in soils of relatively lower pH, lower OM and higher redox. The regression which related foliar manganese to pH was used to determine symptomatically high pH. Sugar maple on soils above 7.0 should exhibit symptoms and below 7.0 should red The not. predicted tenths For maple the value was 6.1. symptomatic pH for sugar maple was one or two of a pH unit higher than expected from examination of the data (Fig. 29). The red maple symptomatic point is 113 half a pH unit lower than expected (Fig. 30). Reasons for the decrease in availability of Mn increasing pH have been widely researched (Lindsay, McBride, 1983). 1982, Page, 1962 A and B, Basically, there are three the availability of Mn. matter, Since 1979, Schwab and Lindsay, reactions which affect Manganese is complexed by organic manganese oxides are formed, formed. with and rhodocrosite is all values of pe + pH in this study were below 15, manganese solubility should be mainly controlled by rhodocrosite Schwab and and organic Lindsay, disassociation availability 1983). is dependent more Mn available. to complexes on pH; Therefore, (McBride, With rhodocrosite, the lower the pH it was rhodocrosite by soil especially as it complexes. The physical processes of translocation nutrients the theorized that Mn urban maples is controlled affects 1982, and pH organic to the root system also play an important of role in Mn uptake when pH is not excessively high. One practical application of this has been demonstrated by Hacskaylo and Struthers (1959) and Messenger (1984). Acid treatment of soil to reduce the pH did improve in several treating treatment. treated oaks. Messenger red maples but does not present results A and reports of significant improvement should occur acid treatment if soil OM is not reduced level (1984) color if poor drainage the with below the optimum has not caused injury roots or prevented nutrient flow to the roots. to the 114 Why is manganese deficiency common in urban areas? There are at least two situations in which red maples prosper (Fowells, 1965, floodplains where soils to Teuscher, 1956). First, on trees are usually in neutral to acid pH with strong reducing potentials (low pe values) due high Patrick, tree watertable (DuLaune 1972). does Reduced Mn not +2 suffer from et al., 1983, Gotoh and is readily available so the deficiency despite extreme organic matter levels and neutral pH values. The second forest sites. slightly is moderately Typically, acidic potentials. that case these surface Surface well-drained, sites have soils of medium textured, soils (Fowells, acidic to moderate redox soil pH values would be low enough manganese unavailability was not a Sugar maple moist evolved, or adapted to, a wide variety of high fertility, 1965). problem. moist and well drained Optimum pH was reported between 5.5 and 7.3 (Fowells, 1965, Spurway, naturally preferred soils are therefore, to 1941). be The of low to medium pH, high pe, moderate OM. Manganese pH, deficient urban sites were typified by moderately levels. neutral enough low Manganese pH redox and intermediate was high not readily available since decreased Mn activity, to reduce Mn, to redox was not high OM the low and considerable amounts of Mn were organically complexed. By construction of basements, sidewalks and streets 115 with associated compaction of removal, the addition, soil, man has inversion altered and the soil environment so that it is unsuitable for certain species of This is prevalent in the trees. more States due to calcareous subsoils. Great Prior to development, many surface soils in this region were acidic to acidic and Removing subsoils calcareous and neutral to the 0 horizon, reducing other spreading subsoils over the surface, lateral than slightly alkaline. surface layers, and then restricting drainage has created a surface soil with higher normal pH and has slowed the leaching process could the Lakes reduce the pH. manganese which These processes have brought about problems and may limit growth of other species. Management recommendations To manage chlorosis problems, moisture should all be considered. these is soil pH. values greater symptoms. Red soil pH, OM and The most important of Sugar maples growing in soils with pH than maples 6.8 to 7.0 will generally in soils with pH over 6.1 have to 6.6 should also exhibit symptoms. The simplest means of preventing the problem perform soil tests for pH prior to planting. is to If the pH is above the symptomatic level, maples should not be planted. This would be the most economical evaluation and decision process for the planting of street trees. If the pH is 116 near the symptomatic level, further testing is advised if maples If the soil has are highly desired. 05.5%) or, drained, very low (<3%) OM, either high or if the soil is poorly planting should be avoided. Actions may be taken prior to construction or to improve soil quality. should be considered. Again pH, planting OM and soil moisture If the natural profile and drainage patterns can be maintained, problems should not be severe. If profile is to be altered and soil imported, be similar in texture, 5.5%). A drainage low pH (<6), it should and medium OM system should be installed if (3there will be discontinuities in soil texture, or if the area is poorly drained. Well drained soils in low moisture areas will require irrigation. If trees are established and exhibiting treatments which reduce soil pH should be of soil organic mulching between or matter should other treatments. be symptoms, useful. Levels considered before Organic matter levels 3 and 5.5% favor manganese uptake in maples. The higher the OM level, the lower the optimum pH. Established trees in soils with low OM levels (0-3%) will be aided the incorporation of organic matter into the soil. with an Soils high levels 05.5%) should be sparingly mulched with acidic especially been by form slowly available organic if the pH is borderline (6-7). planted hardened of in surfaces a poorly drained soil, adjacent to trees should matter, If trees have runoff be from directed 117 away and excessive watering should be avoided. Trees well may drained soils or areas of low rainfall in need additional water. Since it avoidance of is unlikely that the the problem will be recommendations followed people who install maples in urban areas, by on numerous there is a need for more research. Research needs Additional long term, applied research is required low cost answers to the manganese to find deficiency problem, which require little or no knowledge of landscape installation or maintenance. The ideal solution is to identify naturally varieties of conditions. maples These tolerate varieties soil A project with this goal has been at the Morton Arboretum. identify adverse varieties should be marketed in areas with poor urban soils. started which existing They are attempting to of sugar and black maple native to calcareous soils which are not Mn deficient. If improved varieties the varieties may be improved. cannot be found, current This improvement could take form of improved rootstocks grafted to sugar and maple scions. Grafting red maple to silver maple has shown promise (Teuscher, also failed be 1956). given more consideration. to reveal significant Mycorrhizae roots should Although this differences red related study to 118 mycorrhizae, there was a slight correlation indicate potential for improvement. alkaline soils species may which may A search of maples i n # result in discovery could which be inoculated on of mycorrhizal maples prior to leaving the nursery. Soil treatments which enhance root growth or improve soil chemical factors should also be tested. be diredted followed toward by define mulch fertilization incorperation affected various with Efforts may treatments, manganese, mulch or the of nutrient reservoirs in the soil next trees. Experiments will also be required the maximum safe level of OM which can be to to applied to maples at given pH levels. At a more basic level, more research is needed determine the interrelation in leaves between Mn, Cu and deficiency symptoms. are We need to know if symptoms cuticular study. thickness as it relates to The question Mn also needs The answer may explain the lack of efficient water use in Mn deficient plants, necrosis of upper leaves, and vertical differences in symptoms observed in Finding or This would help explain why foliar sprays and some implants are not always effective. the Al, due to a shortage of Mn, or toxicity of soluble N other nutrient. of N, to the soil test procedure which can maples. correctly predict foliar Mn levels would be useful and should not be difficult. Once relations are established, soil testing for Mn may more accurately predict deficiencies. Literature Cited Adams, F.1965. Manganese. In Black, C.A., D.D. Evans, J.L. White, L.E. 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