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8603438

K lo p fe n s te in , David E.

THE ASSESSMENT O F THE WHOLE PERSON ADVISEMENT MODEL AMONG
RESIDENTIAL STUDENTS AT SPRING ARBOR COLLEGE

Ph.D.

Michigan S tate University

University
Microfilms
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Copyright 1985
by
Klopfenstein, David E.
All Rights Reserved

1985

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THE ASSESSMENT OF THE
WHOLE PERSON ADVISEMENT MODEL
AMONG RESIDENTIAL STUDENTS
AT SPRING ARBOR COLLEGE

By
David E. Klopfenstein

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Educational Administration
1985

Copyright By

David E. Klopfenstein
1985

ii

ABSTRACT
THE ASSESSMENT OF THE WHOLE PERSON ADVISEMENT MODEL
AMONG RESIDENTIAL STUDENTS AT SPRING ARBOR COLLEGE
By
David E. Klopfenstein

In recent years,

the student development literature

indicates that the wholistic goals of the student affairs
profession have often been accomplished by incidental pro­
gramming.

The need for intentional designs centered on

these complex purposes has taken shape

in student advising

programs which facilitate helping relationships between the
faculty members and the students.

Further,

these satisfying

relationships are shown to impact student retention on the
college and university campus.
This study was designed to evaluate the effective­
ness of such an intentional program of student advising
entitled the Whole Person Advisement Model
model was developed to address,
ment,

(WPAM).

The

via faculty/student, involve­

the complex process of wholistic education.
The fundamental assumption of the WPAM was that

individual college students could manage
community of learners

themselves

in a

that both challenged and supported

them as productive members of that community.

WPAM was

considered to be an intentional moral educational method

David E. Klopfenstein
which utilized personal contracting
areas:

the academic,

personal,

the intellectual,

and the social.

the process of need

in five developmental
the spiritual,

the

Each development area addressed

identification,

resource allocation,

and

outcome evaluation.
Sixty full-time residential students at Spring
Arbor College were randomly selected to participate
post-test only design.
two formal measures.

The evaluation yielded results from
The objective test form of the College

Outcomes Measurement Project
Testing,

and the Defining

with a student survey.

in the

(COMP)

from American College

Issues Test

These

(DIT), were used along

instruments measured the

effects of WPAM regarding the general/moral education
outcomes of Spring Arbor College.
The major finding of the study indicated that:
1)

students who participated

in WPAM did not score

significantly better on COMP than students not
treated with WPAM;
2)

students who participated

in WPAM did not score

significantly better on the DIT than their
counterparts who were not involved with WPAM.
3)

Students who were involved in WPAM appeared to
persist at college at a better rate than
students not having received the treatment.
Those students who received the intervention
persisted

in college at a rate of 76.7% as

compared with

the control group students who

persisted at a 58.3%

rate.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express my appreciation to my doctoral
advisory committee consisting of Dr. Ted Ward,
Raines,

Dr.

L. E. Sarbaugh,

Dr. Max

and particularly to Dr. Lou

Stamatakos who served as chairman of the committee, director
of the dissertation,

and as a helpful whole person advisor.

Sincere thanks go to the administrators,
and students of Spring Arbor College,

faculty,

and especially to Mr.

George Kline of the Office of Institutional Research,
their support and encouragement.

for

My current colleagues and

students also have been an important source of challenge and
support.
I am especially grateful to Dotty, my friend and
wife, who shares with me an active interest in the study of
wholistic development.

Our children, Todd,

Shayne Ann, and

Chad have contributed greatly to us with their love and
1

ives.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter I
THE P R O B L E M ..............................................

1

Introduction and Statement of the Problem .........
1
Purposes of the S t u d y ................................
4
5
Rationale and Need for the S t u d y ..................
Basic Assumptions of the S t u d y .....................
Whole Person Advisement Model Defined ..............
7
Context of the P r o b l e m ..............................
The Problem . . . . .
................................
11
Research Questions
..................................
12
Null H y p o t h e s i s .......................................... 13
Limitations of the S t u d y .............................. 13
Definitions of Terms
................................
14
6

8

Whole Person Advisement Model ..................
14
Student Development ..............................
15
Academic Advisement
...........................
15
R e t e n t i o n ............................................ 15
L e a r n i n g ............................................ 15
Advisor/Counselor ................................
16
Student .
.......................................... 16
Educational Outcomes
...........................
16
................................
16
Outcome Measures
Moral and General E d u c a t i o n ........................16
Research Assumptions
................................
16
Design of the S t u d y ..................................... 17
Population and Sample Selection ................
17
Research Design ..................................
17
I n s t r u m e n t s .......................................... 18
College Outcome Measurement Project . . . .
18
Defining Issues Test
.
..................... 19
Collection of D a t a .................................19
Data A n a l y s i s ........................................19
Organization of the S t u d y .............................. 20

iv

Chapter II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
Introduction

.........................

21

.........................................

21

The I n d i v i d u a l ...................................... 22
The Definition of V a l u e ........................ 23
Values and M o r a l s ............................... 27
Naturalistic Basis of Morality
................
Humanistic Basis of Morality
..................
Ontological Basis of Morality ..................
Values and A t t i t u d e s .......................... 31
Overview of Attitudes Formation and Attitude
C h a n g e ........................................ 33
Student Development and Attitude Change . . . .
Attitude-Behavior Relation
....................
Summary of the Literature Related to the
I n d i v i d u a l ................................... 39

28
29
30

36
37

I n t e r a c t i o n .......................................... 40
Interaction Defined ..............................
Human Development and Learning in
I n t e r a c t i o n ................................... 43
Models Compared ..................................
Organismic V i e w ............................ 45
Organismic-Developmental Psychological
. .
Dialetics and Human Development .........
People in Systems Theory to Practice
...
....................
Social Influence Model
Student Involvement Theory
................
Retention and Advising
.........................
Advising as a Method of I n t e r a c t i o n .......... 60
Advising Defined
................................
Theories and Principles of Human Development
Supporting Student Advising ..................
Cognitive Development Theory, Piaget
.........
Psychosocial Development Theory, Erikson
...
Values and Moral Education in Higher
E d u c a t i o n ...................................... 71
Kohlberg's Cognitive Development Theory . .
Rest's Measurement of Moral Development . .
Kohlberg in U s e .............................77
Heath's Maturation Model
..................
S u m m a r y .......................................... 85

v

40

44

46
47
49
51
53
56
61
65
65
6 8

73
76
78

Chapter III
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . .

87

Research Questions ....................................
87
Null H y p o t h e s e s ..........................................
Research Design
.......................................
89
The I n s t r u m e n t s ..........................................89
8 8

College Outcome Measurement Project
...........
89
Defining Issues T e s t ................................ 92
Testable Hypotheses
..................................
94
The Population Sample
................................
94
Sample Preparation ....................................
94
T r e a t m e n t .................................................95
Collection of D a t a ....................................... 98
Data A n a l y s i s ............................................ 98
S u m m a r y ................................................... 99

Chapter IV
ANALYSIS OF THE D A T A ...................................... 101
Introduction ............................................ 101
Purpose of the S t u d y .................................... 101
Analysis of Experimental Groups
..................... 102
Descriptive Characteristics of the
Treatment Group
................................

102

Class S t a n d i n g s ................................102
Grade Point A v e r a g e ........................... 102
R e t e n t i o n ...................................... 103
Descriptive Characteristics of the
Control Group
..................................

103

Class S t a n d i n g s ................................103
Grade Point A v e r a g e ........................... 104
R e t e n t i o n ...................................... 104
Judgments about the Groups ...........................
Faculty Characteristics
.............................
Results of Hypotheses Testing
......................

104
109
Ill

H O I .................................................. Ill
Secondary Analysis of the First General Null
H y p o t h e s i s ......................................... 112
HO 2
.................................................. 118

vi

Secondary Analysis of the Second General Null
H y p o t h e s i s ........................................ 118
H 0 3 .................................................. 120
S u m m a r y .................................................. 120

Chapter V
SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

..............

125

125
Introduction ...........................................
Summary of the Development of the S t u d y ............. 126
Purpose of the S t u d y ............................... 126
Rationale and Need for the S t u d y ..................127
M e t h o d o l o g y ............................................. 128
T r e a t m e n t ................................................129
Descriptive Findings of the Study
.................. 130
Result of Hypothesis Testing ....................
132
Type II Error Concerns and Educational
E v a l u a t i o n .........................................134
Conclusions and Relevance of the S t u d y ............... 135
Attitude-Behavior Link ...........................
137
I n t e r a c t i o n .........................................137
R e t e n t i o n ........................................... 139
Cognitive and Moral Development
................ 140
Heath Maturational Model ......................... 141
Recommendations for Practice
.........................
Recommendations for Further Research
................

142
144

Appendix A
INTRODUCTION TO THE WHOLE PERSON ADVISEMENT MODEL
Purpose and Assumptions
General and Moral

. . 147

..............................

Educational Goals

...........

147
148

Instructions for The Whole Person Advisement
Model ( W P A M ) ........................................... 150
Part A ................................................150
Part B ................................................153

v ii

Appendix B
WPAM QUESTIONNAIRE

155

Appendix C
ADVISOR QUESTIONNAIRE

..................................

156

List of R e f e r e n c e s ........................................... 159
List of General R e f e r e n c e s .................................. 166

v iii

LIST OF TABLES

Table

2.1

WHOLE PERSON ADVISING MODEL MATRIX

. . . .

84

Table

3.1

INTEGRATION OF SIX COMP COMPETENCIES

TABLE

3.2

RELATIONSHIP OF SIX AREAS OF MEASUREMENT
OF COMP COMPETENCIES TO STATED OUTCOMES OF
SPRING ARBOR COLLEGE .......................

...

93

TABLE

4.1

TREATMENT GROUP BY CLASS STANDING

TABLE

4.2

GRADE POINT AVERAGE FOR TREATMENT
G R O U P ......................................... 102

TABLE

4.3

RETENTION OF THE TREATMENT G R O U P ............ 103

TABLE

4.4

CONTROL GROUP BY CLASS STANDING

TABLE

4.5

GRADE POINT AVERAGE OF THE CONTROL
G R O U P ......................................... 104

TABLE

4.6

RETENTION OF CONTROL G R O U P ................... 104

TABLE

4.7

NORM SCORE OF TREATMENT AND CONTROL
GROUP SPRING ARBOR FRSHMEN COMP PERCENTILE
S C O R E S ......................................... 106

TABLE

4.8

COMBINED SPRING ARBOR GROUPS BY CLASS
.........
STANDING COMP PERCENTILE SCORES

108

FACULTY MEAN SCORES ON TABLE FOR SENIOR
COMP PERCENTILE SCORES .....................

110

TABLE

4.9

. . . .

92

..........

102

103

TABLE

4.10

T-TEST AND F-TEST OF SAMPLE MEAN TOTAL
COMP SCORES (HO 1 ) ........................... 112

TABLE

4.11

COMP SAMPLE MEANS FOR TREATMENT AND
CONTROL GROUPS PLOTTED ON A PERCENTILE
TABLE FOR SENIOR N O R M S ...................... 113

TABLE 4.12

SCATTERGRAM OF TOTAL COMP AND ACT

. . .

TABLE 4.13

SCATTERGRAM OF TOTAL COMP AND GPA

. . . .

TABLE 4.14

QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS AND MEAN RESPONSES

TABLE 4.15

T-TEST AND F-TEST OF SAMPLE P MEAN SCORES
ON DIT (HO 2 ) .................................. 119

ix

. .

. 115
116
117

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM

Introduction and Statement of the Problem
Student Development

in American colleges and

universities promises students and parents,
institutions'

supporters,

that the education provided is

more than purely intellectual development
Cross,

1980).

as well as the

It has been suggested

(Brown,

1980;

that most colleges

today direct only limited efforts toward the notion of total
student development,

and that few colleges

in the country

have intentionally undertaken a systematic and sustained
attempt at providing

"whole person development programs."

Several small church-related colleges such as the Notre Dame
College

in Ohio have offered their students a comprehensive

whole person developmental program (Notre Dame College of
Ohio Student Development Program,
(1980)

indicates,

1978).

student development

on most college campuses
It appears

However, as Brown

in a wholistic sense

is incidental and accidental.

that colleges

in America over the years

have by benign neglect or by lack of creativity adopted a
two-lane approach to education of the students
1981).

The

(Blimling,

increased com p a r t m e n t a 1ization brought on by

increased enrollments and i nte lectualistic approach to
1

]

2
education,

and an increased specialization as well as a

heightened secularization have fostered a great deal of
changes

in the American educational system

(Tinsley,

1955).

Many writers have sounded the alarm that the American educa­
tional system has "all but abandoned responsibility for
moral, ethical or emotional development in favor of admis­
sions standards based on cognitive preparation and an almost
19th century German view that faculty have no responsibility
for the affective development of the student"

(Blimling,

1981, p. 2).
The all too familiar "gap" of the faculty being
concerned with intellectual and cognitive development of the
students, while the student affairs staff are charged with
the responsibility for "the non-intellectual growth concerns
of the student"

is forcefully present.

The need is to return to the early roots of Ameri­
can higher education as expressed in the early institutions
such as Harvard.

There the primary mission of the college

experience was the education of the whole student:
body,

and soul.

mind,

It is noted that wholistic education gen­

erally occurred when small groups of students and faculty,
that is, small communities of learners, were
interaction.

This

interaction provided opportunity for both

cognitive and affective

issues to be addressed by faculty

and students alike and which often provided
behind the community of learners
1982).

in constant

the reason

(Ender, Winslow and Miller,

3
Robert Brown in his monograph "The Return to the
Academy"

(Brown,

1968), began to bridge the gap by calling

for a redefinition and a new understanding of student devel­
opment

in the process of higher education.

The rationale

for the return to the academy and later for new attempts of
advising labeled "developmental advising"
and Miller,

(Winston,

Enders,

1982) was based on the belief that currently

education in our country needed to respond to the historic
goals of American higher education,
the whole student

(Blimling,

namely the education of

1981; Bowen,

1977).

The whole

person education goal, which marked the early institutions
of higher education

in America as well as the church-related

schools of the last fifty to seventy-five years, has notice­
ably gone unmet.

Graduates of small church-related colleges

as well as major universities

in this country constitute a

significant number among the citizens who have experienced
life-long adjustment difficulties such as divorce, mental
health problems,
ism (Blimling,

suicide, white collar crimes,

1981).

and alcohol­

It seems clear that while the level

of technical and content education may be speaking to the
needs of our society,

the guality of moral choice-making

among students of higher education has faltered.
Further,

the survival needs of small church-related

colleges as well as major universities have caused the
academic community to focus on issues of student
Researchers such as Astin

(1977) and

found that student satisfaction

Heath

retention.

(1968)

is based on helpful

have

4
relationships established within the institution with
faculty and significant others.

Astin's work with the

Cooperative Institutional Research Program has indicated
that students make significant decisions based on these
important relationships

(Astin,

1977 & 1984).

It is clear that there is an adeguate need for a
systematic study of the effects of faculty advising for the
purpose of student development.
Purposes of the Study
This study

is designed to investigate the short­

term effects of the Whole Person Advisement Model by
considering the results of a treatment group and a control
group.

Findings and conclusions are expected to serve as a

basis for a further longitudinal study.
will have been involved

Further,

faculty

in both the process and the

evaluation phases of the study therefore providing faculty
exposure to and awareness of this intentional model for
whole person advisement.
More specifically,
1.

the purposes of this study are:

To provide a review of the theory and research
of attitude and moral development,
teraction,

and advising/helping

social in­

in the litera­

ture of educational philosophy and social
psychology and student development

in higher

educat i o n ;
2.

To administer the Whole Person Advisement Model
for a limited period of time,

specifically,

one

academic term.

The Whole Person Advisement

Model is developed from the theory and research
presented
3.

in the review of the literature;

To administer the Whole Person Advisement Model
simultaneously with the current academic advis­
ing system in order to supplement the present
proc e d u r e ;

4.

To provide faculty and counselors with a syste­
matic,

intentional procedure for contributing

to the process of whole person education;
5.

To provide a general model for the assessment
of student learning needs, personal goals and
environmental resources;

6

.

To explore possible correlations between the
two evaluation measures;

7.

To explore the possible relationships between
faculty outcomes,
evaluation,

as measured by the outcome

and student outcomes as measured by

the same instrument;
8

.

To explore the possible relationship between
the Whole Person Advisement Model and student
r ete n t i o n .
Rationale and Need for the Study

Academic advising
of the most

is regarded by educators as one

important aspects of higher education

and McCaffrey,

1981).

Further,

(Miller

the academic advisement

process has been called the cornerstone of student retention

6
(Crockett,

1978).

However,

the actual programs of advise­

ment on campuses are often criticized by students as seeming
to be the last priority for the advisor.
Because of the special needs of students to obtain
help in the making of moral and life choices as well as the
concerns related to retention for both the student and the
institution,

strong interest

in the skills and attitudes of

faculty academic advising activities continues to grow.

The

focus of this interest is to assist in the development of
the totality of students'

interaction with higher education,

not simply upon students'

course of study or institutional

reguirements

(Miller and McCaffrey,

1983).

Basic Assumptions of the Study
There are two basic assumptions which undergird the
purposes of this study.

First,

that for academic advising

to affect both the moral choice-making of the student and to
have a positive retention effect,
velopmental.

the activity must be d e ­

Secondly, an institution may be able to ef f e c ­

tively bring to bear upon student needs those resources that
will assist

in moral choice-making as well as in retention;

but the institution may not be able to reverse all of those
variables which lead to immoral choice-making or attrition
of the student.

That is to say,

there may be many more

reasons for a student to choose a course of action apart
from stated values or to leave the institution than there
are reasons
Therefore,

to make moral choices or reasons to stay.
it is assumed that the best approach to an

7
effective, whole person advisement program is to focus
effort on improving human relationships which will
intentionally provide opportunities
choice-making or for the students'
enrolled.

It is important

for student moral
desire to remain

to note that student personal

moral choice-making and decision to remain or leave the
institution are NOT in any way eguivocated.
be an appropriate moral choice

That is,

it may

for the student to leave the

college.
Whole Person Advisement Model Defined
Crookston

(1972)

viewed advising

"as a teaching

function based on a negotiated agreement between the student
and the teacher in which varying degrees of learning by both
parties

to the transaction are the product".

Crockett

(1978) viewed academic advising as "assisting students

in

realizing the maximum educational benefits available to them
by helping them to better understand themselves and to learn
to use the resources of the institution to meet their
special educational needs and aspirations"

(p. 13).

Both of

these definitions emphasize that guality academic advisement
should be a student-centered, developmental process rather
than a prescriptive,

clerical activity undertaken for the

regulation of institutional
(1979)

rules and expectations.

Grites

refers to advising as a decision-making process

facilitated by communicating an information exchange with an
advisor.

Brown

(1980)

a systemic procedure

has utilized a multi-phase process as

for developmental advising.

The phases

8
explore the areas of potential development,
learners'
goals,

needs, determine goals,

determine

contract for attainment of

and finally assess and record results.

the document Student Development

And finally,

in Post-Secondary Educa­

tion, published by The Commission on Professional Develop­
ment, Council of Student Personnel Association
Education

(COSPA)

(1975)

in Higher

states:

The purpose of student development services and
higher education is to provide both affective and
cognitive expertise in the processes involved in
education.
The specialists providing these services
function in a cooperative-integrative role with the
student who seeks development toward self-direction and
interacts with the faculty members concerned with
academic content to be acquired in this development.
. . . Collectively we use an educational institution to
structure behavioral development so that it occurs in
the most effective and efficient manner.
Education
includes the content of behavior (what is to be
developed by a person) and the process of development
(how and when it is to be acquired), (p. 3)
Context of the Problem
Spring Arbor College

is a Christian liberal arts

college and provides the institutional setting for this
study.

The Spring Arbor concept states the mission of the

institution

in the following manner:

The Spring Arbor Concept
The Spring Arbor concept speaks of a unique idea and
ideal for the Christian liberal arts college.
It calls
for a community of learners who are distinguished by
their serious involvement in the study of the liberal
arts, their total commitment to Jesus Christ as a per­
spective for learning, and their critical participation
in the affairs of the contemporary world.
It demands a
design that shapes a curriculum, builds a campus, and
develops a climate for learning. (Spring Arbor College
Catalogue, 1981-82)
The concept provides both the moral and instruc­
tional basis for learning

in this college environment.

An

9
operational definition of learning in this context
process of being involved with ideas and people.
making of meaning

in the lives of learners.

is the
It is the

Change in

people occurs when facts and theories become useful to the
individual student by creating new thoughts and beliefs,

by

facilitating progressively better new perceptions of the
learner's world view,
personal

and by assisting redirection in the

lives of people and the social life of a college

community.

Critical

thinking is encouraged by a supportive

learning environment which is defined by several
common values.

These values express

important

important notions held

by most of the community of learners and therefore, provide
a normative reference which serves to challenge

individuals

in the encompassing process of the developing life of
learners.
lenge

Such an environment characterized by both chal­

to the

learner and support for the learner,

influences

the character or moral spirit of the student and becomes the
foundation of the making of meaning in the development of
personal skills and attitudes.
The outcome values of the Spring Arbor experience
are expressed
1.

in the Ideal Graduate Statement.

Is prepared to be a
of self-education.
expanding knowledge,

continuing student,

capable

In a world of exponentially
the student must be able

to sort out relevant knowledge and make wise
judgments and must be able to think divergent­
ly, critically and productively.

10
2.

Is adequately prepared
plines

in one or more disci­

to undertake further graduate training,

or to fill another productive role

in our

contemporary world.
3.

Has developed an understanding of heritage; has
discovered the crux of contemporary social and
moral

issues; has acquired the tools of re­

search;

and has improved the skills of communi­

cation.
4.

Has gone through the process of self­
confrontation.
tation,

As a result of this confron­

the graduate will understand more fully

motivations,

aspirations,

capabilities and

goals in life.
5.

Has encountered the Christian faith, has
grasped a portion of its demands for our day;
and has discovered the perspective that life in
Christ can give to all learning,

vocation,

life itself.

the graduate

In this encounter,

and

will have formed a meaningful relationship with
Jesus Christ and with fellowmen.
6

.

Is a person of compassion who cherishes com­
munity among all people,

and expresses

compassion by critically participating
world.

The graduate is sensitive to need,

responsive to opportunity,
pation.

in the

and wise

in partici­

11
7.

In brief,

is a well-integrated person who is

prepared to live a life pleasing to the
Creator,

a life enriching to others,

which is self-rewarding.
Catalogue,

and a life

(Spring Arbor College

1981-82)

These outcome statements reflect a quality of life
for the learner and are the descriptions of the development
of desirable personal attributes of the student for which
the institution has organized.
Learning at Spring Arbor College assumes personal
change and development of the stated outcomes.
context,
empty,

In this

learning is the process of bridging the gap between

factual statements and a grasp of human relationship.

It is when an idea is transferred from the printed page to
the fabric of life.

In this context,

learning concerns the

whole person.
The Problem
The problem of this dissertation

is to determine

the effectiveness of the Whole Person Advisement Model as an
intentional teaching/counseling method of the general and
moral educational outcomes of Spring Arbor College.
Whole Person Advisement Model

The

(WPAM) will be utilized as

supportive to the existing academic advising system.
The major concern of this study is to explore the
effects of the WPAM for a limited time in order to provide
information for the purpose of improving the advising

12
program and establishing a longitudinal study of general/
moral educational outcomes at Spring Arbor College.
Research Questions
The specific exploratory concerns of this study are
summarized

in the following guestions.

Answers to these

guestions were sought through the evaluation of the imple­
mentation over a limited period of time of the Whole Person
Advisement Model.

Two forms of evaluation were used,

College Outcome Measurement Project
Defining Issues Test
1.

(COMP),

1) the

and 2) the

(DIT).

What was the effectiveness of the WPAM as a
method of teaching the outcome goals of the
College?
A.

What is the actual

level of student p e r f o r­

mance and moral judgment

in regard to

Spring Arbor College's stated educational
outcomes,

i.e.,

the Ideal Graduate

Statement?
B.

How do the levels of achievement of the
treatment group as measured by COMP compare
with a control group?

C.

How do the levels of achievement as
measured by COMP compare within the treat­
ment group when
sophomore,

isolating the freshman,

junior and senior scores?

kinds of trends can be analyzed?

What

2.

How do s t u d e n t s ’ scores of the DIT correlate
with the norms of the total COMP score?
A.

How do the DIT scores correlate with the
subtests clarifying values, decision­
making, and communication of the COMP?

3.

Does the WPAM affect student retention?
Null Hypotheses

H O ^ : Students having received the intervention
(WPAM)

do not significantly score higher on

COMP than students not receiving the inter­
vention .
H O : Students having experienced the intervention
2

(WPAM)

do not significantly score higher on

the DIT than students not having experienced
the intervention.
H O : Students having received the intervention
3

(WPAM) do not persist in college at a better
rate than students not having received the
t rea t m e n t .
Limitations of the Study
1.

This study was limited to residential students
at Spring Arbor College,
Michigan.
related,

Spring Arbor,

Spring Arbor College is a churchChristian,

central southern,

liberal arts college

rural Michigan.

in

Therefore,

the findings should not be generalized to all
small church-related colleges.

14
2.

The findings of this study were generalized
only to all of the students of Spring Arbor
College.

However,

the findings may be indica­

tive of whole person learning trends at other
small,

rural,

church-related,

liberal arts

colleges.
3.

The most complete study possible

in this area

of student development would cover an extended
period of time and would sample choice-making
of students who have graduated from the insti­
tution.

The demands of such a study would have

exceeded the fiscal and time limitations of the
re s e a r c h e r .
4.

WPAM

is considered a structural approach to

advising.

Therefore,

the specific content of

the student interaction is not generally
considered.

That

is, the study does not

describe the specific issues in advising but
rather it is intended to study the outcomes of
the advising relationship.
Definition of Terms
Whole Person Advisement Model
The intentional teaching/counseling method of
general and moral education designed to facilitate the
development of students
the college.

in terms of the educational goals of

The Whole Person Advisement Model

(WPAM)

intended to supplement the existing academic advising

is

15
procedure as a system of questions designed to determine
goals and action plans for students as well as provide means
of personal accountability.
Student Development
The process of interaction designed to assist
students to choose what they need or want in order to live
freely in the academic community as socially responsible,
self-directed

individuals.

The theories of human

development focused on the post-secondary student provided a
theoretical

foundation.

Academic Advisement
The process of assisting and guiding students
the planning and choosing of courses and majors

in

in the

pursuit of graduation degrees.
Retention
The continuation or persistency of students

in an

institution of higher education from one academic term to
the next.
Learning
The human process of

interaction that provides the

basis of an operational e p i s t e m o l o g y .

Learning occurs when

the theories and facts become useful to the individual stu­
dent by providing qua itatively different thought patterns
1

and beliefs.

Learning

is the change of the learner's world

view or attitudes and is characterized by critical thinking
and congruent behavior.

16
Advisor/Counselor
A professional faculty member or counselor who has
been assigned specified interpersonal

relationships with the

student.
Student
A full-time residential registered person in the
undergraduate liberal arts church-related college identified
as Spring Arbor College.
Educational Outcomes
The desired goals of the College.

In this study

the goals are referred to as the Spring Arbor Ideal Graduate
S tatem e n t .
Outcome Measures
The instruments used to evaluate the process of the
WPAM.
Moral and General Education
The process of learning designed to assist the
student to become self-directed,

intellectually critical,

socially sensitive, and spiritually awakened
of the academic community.
education

in the context

The goal of moral and general

in a liberal arts college is to provide adeguate

points of student transfer of learning beyond the academic
setting.

It is concerned with the movement of theory

practice.

Further,

into

it encourages reflection of action on

personal values for the purpose of wise choice-making.
Research Assumptions
1.

It was assumed that students participated fully

17
with advisors

in the whole-person advisement

process over the allotted time.
2.

It was assumed that students understood the
evaluation instruments and gave thoughtful
resp o n s e s .

3.

It was assumed that faculty understood the COMP
instrument and responded professionally in
their best interest.
Design of the Study

Population and Sample Selection
Sixty

(60) subjects were randomly selected from

residential students at Spring Arbor College.

The selection

was controlled for equal distribution of years in college,
gender of subjects,
entrance scores.

grade point average,

and college

Subject selection was facilitated by a

systematic selection of alpha lists of residential students
at the College.
Approximately half of the subjects were randomly
assigned to the treatment group and the remaining half of
the subjects were randomly assigned to the control group.
Research Design
The posttest-only control group design provided the
organizational structure for this exploratory study.
design utilized two groups,
while the other did not,
mortality

(Tuchman,

one which experienced the WPAM

thus,

1972).

This

controlling for selection and

No pretests were given to either

group in order to control for simple testing effects and the

18
interaction between

the testing and the treatment,

trolling for threats to test validity.

thus con­

The procedure of the

design was to use the Whole Person Advisement Model for one
college term.

Faculty and counselors

implemented the Whole

Person Advisement Model simultaneously with the traditional
academic advising systems and then were questioned regarding
their actual behavior during the intervention.
Instruments
The assessment was provided by two objective tests,
the American College Testing Program (ACT), objective form
of the College Outcome Measurement Project
short version of the Defining Issues Test
an objective test of moral

(COMP) and the
(DIT).

The DIT is

judgment developed by Dr. J. R.

Rest of the Minnesota Moral Research Project.
College Outcome Measurement P r o j e c t .

The College

Outcome Measurement Project was developed to evaluate cer­
tain kinds of knowledge and skills that undergraduate
students were expected to acquire as a result of general
education

(COMP,

1980).

The knowledge and skills

were those believed necessary for successful
an adult society.

functioning

institutions and

state agencies which had been identified as having

invested

in attempting to identify realistic compe­

tencies and outcomes.
through the process:
ifying values,

in

Those skills and knowledge areas were

isolated by representatives of educational

time and effort

identified

Six

( ) domains were identified
6

communicating,

solving problems,

functioning within social

insitutions,

clar­
using

19
science and technology and using the arts.
form of the instrument was used.

The objective

It is a multiple-choice

format which measures the ability of students to apply
general knowledge and skills to problems and issues commonly
confronted by adults.
Defining

Issues T e s t .

Defining Issues Test which

J. R. Rest developed the

is comprised of six moral dilemma

stories which are similar to the Kohlberg stories
1979).

Also a three-story form is available which

in this study.

(Rest,
is used

The way a subject responds to twelve

statements or issues derived from the stories yields a P
score which represents Principled Morality,
eguivalent to level three

in Kohlberg's paradigm.

interpreted as the relative

"The P is

importance a subject gives to

principled moral consideration
(Rest,

and is roughly

in making moral decisions"

1976).

Collection of Data
The two evaluative

instruments were administered to

the subjects fifteen days prior to the end of the spring
academic term.

Each advisor was reguested to encourage each

subject to participate

in the evaluation session.

Further,

each subject received a written communigue reminding them of
the testing period which was to be three hours

in length.

Data Analysis
Data generated from the evaluative
coded separately.

instruments were

The COMP data was coded and key-punched

for computer analysis by ACT and returned to the

20
investigator.

The DIT material was hand-scored,

P score for each individual questionnaire.

computing a

Descriptive data

(frequencies and percentage of frequencies of response and
means,

standard deviations,

and ranges) were compiled for

the COMP program and the statistical package for social
science

(Nie, Hall, Jenkins,

Ste i n b r e n n e r , & Brandt,

1970)

provided the basis for statistical techniques which were
performed.

For all hypothesis testing,

the .05 level of

significance was adopted as a criterion.
Organization of the Study
Chapter II will consist of a review of the research
and other literature pertinent to personal development and
attitude change of college students.
Chapter III will contain the design of the study
including sample selection,

implementation processes,

and

statistical methodology.
Chapter IV will contain the results of the study as
well as an analysis and interpretation of the results.
Chapter V will consist of a summary of the study's
findings, major conclusions,
recommendat i o n s .

implications of the study,

and

CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Introduction
The selection of related literature

is based on a

psycho-sociological perspective of learning and human de­
velopment.

An elementary assumption of this perspective of

learning and human development
action

(Salkind,

1982).

is the notion of human inter­

These interactions are planned

interdependent relationships between people,

such as an

advisor and a student, and provide the dynamics of this form
of student development.

In a general sense,

this study is

concerned with the influence of such interpersonal

interac­

tions within the context of an educational organization.
The Whole Person Advisement Model

(WPAM)

is utilized as an

intentional educational relationship designed

to promote

student development in terms of specific general education
goals.
The major headings of Chapter II are The Indi­
vidual,

Interaction; Advising as a Method of Interaction;

Retention,

By-Product of Interaction; and Theories of Human

Development Supporting the Student Advising.
The individual section will
related to personal values,

include literature

attitude formation and change,

21

22
and attitude/behavior relationships.

The following

sections of the literature review will focus on the idea of
interaction and selected
general.

theories of human development

in

A brief review of research specifically concerned

with student development relating to advising and retention
will also be presented.

Finally, developmental theories

that directly support the WPAM are discussed.
The Individual
Human values have been the focus of educators since
Aristotle.

At times the picture has appeared well-defined,

while during other periods of history the image of values
and value education has been blurred by the brightness of
other emerging signs and symbols

in the composition of edu­

cation.
In the late 70s and early 80s, student development
educators have again attempted to sharpen the view on human
values

(Brown,

1972,

Eddy,

1976,

Stamatakos,

1980).

The

wholistic approach rooted in the Student Personnel Point of
View

(American Council on Education,

1949) has provided a

broad base from which to further build specific theories of
student development and the practices appropriate to such
development.

Student affairs professionals are urged to

"thoroughly prepare for the task" of value education
(Stamatakos and Stamatakos,

1980).

According to these writers,
education ought to:

student development

23
1.

Study the philosophical and psychological
foundations.

2.

Develop programs that reflect a practical view
of human development and integrate moral/value
consideration with the "cognitive functions of
knowing" and a true "reality of being"

in such

a way that the programs can achieve the desired
goals
3.

(v a l u e s ).

Carefully consider the context

(environment)

in

which the programs are to develop.
4.

Moral programs should persist over time with
special sensitivity to various levels of devel­
opment in the environment.
Stamatakos,

(Stamatakos and

1980)

These guidelines are helpful in that they emphasize
important elements of student development education,

thus

giving clear points of organization and direction for s t u ­
dent programs such as student advising.

Viewing student

advising as developmental and as value education implies
that the student affairs professional

influenced by the

above guidelines will be committed to envisioning them

in

the programs of value education for college students.
The Definition of Value
The meaning of the term "value"
hand, young children know what
them.

On the other hand,

is evasive.

On one

is important or of value to

scholars produce volumes discus­

sing the theory and nature of human values.
Values are often seen as wants and needs.

A value

24
is the measure of satisfaction of a human want
1959).

(Maslow,

The observable preference of people at any given

time can be considered the values of those people.
tastes such as preference for colors,
flavors are values.

styles,

Tastes and opinions

person,

the self

aromas or

Seemingly unimportant perhaps, but per­

sonal tastes provide a view of the personal
values.

Personal

(Ward,

interests and

taken together present the

1979).

Tastes and wants are usually considered superficial
when discussing human values.

However, Maslow believes that

the basic biological and psychological needs are all di­
rected toward the value of "self-actualization"
123).

(Maslow, p.

Whatever a person utilizes as a resource to attend to

the needs will be valued

(Ward,

1979).

Values have also been defined in terms of person­
ality trends,

characteristics of the individual or character

traits as well as an attribute of an object or situation
(DeWit, p.

1956).

These two views of value do not stand as

far apart as it first appears.
to an object or situation,

If a person attaches value

does not the valuing behavior

indicate something of the individual?
Further,

"values can be defined as standards and

patterns of choice that guide persons and groups toward
satisfaction,

fulfillment and meaning"

(Morrell,

1980).

Persons attribute value to whatever is perceived as being
desirable,
welfare.

attractive, good and/or contributing to his
The Cornell Value Study Group purports that

25
"values are not concrete goals of behavior,
aspects of the goals"
general,

(Kluckholm in DeWit,

but rather are
1951, p. 44).

In

values as goals are thought of as abstract quali­

ties of the behaviors of the individual.

A value may then

be defined as:
Something a person carries around within himself,
as "intervening variable," which expresses itself in a
habitual and consistent evaluative (behavior) of and
preference for certain kinds of goals which are per­
ceived as justifiably desirable.
(DeWit, 1951, p.
)
8

Personal choice and behavior as a result of the
choice

is the most obvious window through which to view

human values.

How people behave most often indicates what

people believe or value.
stock

If a man believes that buying

in company A will be good for him, he will do so,

assuming he has the money.
(values)

putting his money

beneficial,
belief.

If the same man believes
in a savings account would be

his behavior will most often indicate such

For those who observe human behavior,

it is obvious

that what people say they value and their behavior may not
always be consistent.

The problem is an universal one.

St.

Paul explained to the Roman Christians that,
My own behavior baffles me.
For I find myself not
doing what I really
want todo but doing what I really
loathe.
Yet surely
if I do things that I really don't
want to do, I am admitting that I really agree with the
Law.
But it cannot be said that "I" am doing them at
all . . . I often find that I have the will to do good,
but not the power.
That is, I don't accomplish the
good I set out to do, and the evil I don't really want
to do I find I am always doing.
Yet if I do things
that I don't really
want to do then it is not, I
repeat, "I" . . . my conscious mind whole-heartedly
endorses the Law, yet I observe an entirely different
principle at work in my nature. (J.B. Phillips, The
Letter to the Christians at Rome, Chapter 7:15-23)

26
St. Paul's dilemma was in regard to the Hebrew Law,
the exhaustive value code for spiritual,
physical behavior.

social,

and

The message the early Christian teacher

was sending was that external values,

such as cultural and

religious codes, are not always reflected

in individual

a c t ions .
Values that are in transition are often indicated
by apparently inconsistent behaviors.

In Paul's case, he no

longer valued the external ritual, but now was obedient to a
new command— love.
Christian value

His message was that the ultimate

(the union of the Creator and the creation—

the kingdom of God) was possible to achieve.

The weight of

external rituals was now lifted by the strength of the human
spirit motivated by internal commitment
style of love,

(faith)

to God's

as modeled in Christ.

The question then becomes, how do persons willfully
make life choices and behave with consistency?

Paul wrote

lengthy letters to his students regarding this question,

the

contents of which make up much of the New Testament.
Philosophers,

as well as theologians,

have always

been concerned with the problems of wise choices and good
behavior.

The relationships between value and individual

will or choice lies at the center of moral philosophy.

Kant

believed that the notion of will was a factor in morality
and in society.

He wrote:

"Whenever a man judges that he

can do a certain thing because he is conscious that he
ought,

he recognizes that he is free, a fact which but for

27
moral law he would never have known"
158).

Being human is expressed

(Kant,

[1788]

1956,

p.

in the behavior of freely

choosing and human freedom of choice has long been associ­
ated with the dignity of persons.
Values and Morals
The idea of good and evil values
ethical considerations.
moral choices,

indicates moral or

Not all values are indicative of

such as tastes and preferences;

however,

moral behaviors— that is, cognitive and overt physical
behaviors— are always associated with human value
view or perception of what

is important).

(one's

For example,

the

Christianity of St. Paul provided him religious reason and
values for moral behavior.
provide the "Naturalistic"

The scientific notions of values
reasons for goodness

(Margenau,

1959), while the humanistic and existentialist concepts of
good provide "self-actualizing"
(Maslow,

reasons for good acts

1954).
Regardless of how the definitions of morality and

ethical values are derived, most value theorists believe
values can be verified or confirmed in a way similar to the
laws of science.
freely chosen.

Similarly,

reasons for moral decisions are

Scientific values are based on postulates to

which the scientist commits himself
Morality
person

(Margenau,

1959).

is then defined on the basis of obedience of the

in terms of the values to which commitment

is made.

28
Naturalistic Basis of Morality
The scientific process starts with a postulate and
a theorem or law which

is derived by analytic means.

The

scientist then checks these laws against experience for
verification or confirmation.

This verification or confir­

mation of science is not a simple look-and-see procedure;
entails an element of choice.
process is similar.

it

The verification of value

The postulate is a command or a direc­

tive to which a person is committed.
According to Margenau
with authorities such as God,
bodies.

(1959), commands originate
a monarch, or legislative

Critics of Margenau believe the command origins to

be outmoded,
commitment"

but agree that "commands must engage
(p. 207).

The naturalistic theorists,

in

believing that values can be derived directly from
scientific and social process, attribute the value
characteristics of the scientific process as the study of
values themselves.

In other words, goodness

committed and 2) seeking the truth,
thought and 4) observations,

supreme value to be survival

3) independence of

5) originality,

tolerating and accepting dissent.

is 1) being

and

6

)

The naturalist holds the

(p. 203).

Values are

instruments of evolution and are observable.
It is appropriate to raise the question of whether
other values might come into conflict with the supreme value
of survival,

considering,

for example,

religious martyrs and

patriarchs who chose to die for faith values and patriarchal

29
values rather than survive.
Masada verified

Were the values of Zealots of

in spite of physical death?

The naturalist does,

however,

provide the basis for

clarification of two different types of values.

Observable

facts are presented as an "is"; values and norms are p r e ­
sented as an "ought."

Margenau sees the factual and norma-

tic nature of values as parallel to the "dichotomy between
the descriptive and the theoretical science"

(Margenau,

1959, p. 207).
Humanistic Basis of Morality
Goodness,
realization.

to the humanist,

is centered

in self-

Maslow derived value principles from the

"wisdom of the body" and the physiological trends toward
homeostasis

(p. 210).

Several humanistic theorists believe

that moral values cannot be derived from biological ones.
These critics of the "wisdom of the body" point out that
there are good and bad choices
survival,

in terms of physical

and the wisdom of the body may not guide the

individual to the self-actualized life.
Therefore,

Maslow responds by going beyond the

basic biological needs to value the human process of inte­
gration, psychological health,
creativity and productivity.

individuation,

autonomy,

Maslow (1959) defines self-

actualization as an expresson of an innate tendency toward
growth— "a pressure toward unity of personality,
spontaneous expression,
seeing the truth.

toward

toward full individuality,

Self-actualization

implies

toward

"good values:

30
serenity,

kindness,

and goodness"

courage,

(Maslow,

p.

honesty,

126).

goals of the self-actualized
scientific observation.
this

. . . but only

love, unselfishness,

He further states that his

individual are derived from

"I do not say

'He ought'

to choose

'Healthy people, permitted to choose,

are observed to choose

this'"

Robert Hartman's

(p.

2

1

1

).

(1959) definition of a good thing

is one which fulfills

its concept applied to the human

person.

the idea,

person

The concept,

the essence of the human

is a composite of natural traits and tendencies which

transcend the natural.

A good person is one in which all

these elements are balanced.
Ontological Basis for Morality
Values are derived
being

(Tillich,

1952).

from the essential structure of

Tillich believes that the element of

being cannot be merely observed,

nor grasped through logical

conceptualization,

but only through intuition of the essence

of being

1952).

(Tillich,

The essence of being is different

from the actuality of a thing that possesses a normative
character

(p.

217).

For Tillich the command nature of value

(the elements of value that one is committed to)
estranged state of existence,

is the

in which man finds himself.

"If man were united with himself and his essential being,
there would be no command"
Man is separated
then as laws.

(p. 195).
from himself and the values appear

The ontologist explains the imperative "form

of moral value by the existential split between essence and

31
existence"

(p. 219).

Tillich states that "only a correct

image of man will lead to a correct knowledge of man's
essential goodness which is the basis of values"

(p.

2

2

0

).

The dynamic of bringing together essence and existence form
insight into the interrelations between process and form,
between individualization and community,
justice.
gist.

between love and

This union is the ultimate goal for the ontolo-

The interlinking force

in the union is love— the

ultimate value.
All three philosophical bases of morality stress
rational components of value formation and expression.
While other components exist for different theorists,
appears that goodness _is because it can be thought.

it
It is

verified because it can be observed in human activity.
Values and Attitudes
Attitudes can be defined as cognitive as well as
affective predispositions toward behavior.
attitudes the same?
however,

They are often used

Are values and

interchangably;

the literature provides clarification on the

distinction between values and attitudes.
the term "attitude"

is used

Cantril

to imply that a general attitude

exists and that it influences specific behavior.
states that "attitudes remind us of values"
10).

indicates

Murphy

(in DeWit, p.

Dewit suggests that values and attitudes be conceived

of as lying at opposite extremes of a specificity-generality
continuum,

so that attitude might be defined as a specific

value and "value" as a generalized attitude

(p.

10).

These

32
attitudes become a case of special value and value is a
standard of judgment for the formation of attitudes or
behavior predisposition.
Still another image to illustrate the relationship
is to consider value as anatomic and attitude as molecular.
That is, values are the building blocks of attitudes.

It is

possible to envision in this analogy that several values in
relationship to one another create a matrix or form which is
called an attitude.

It is appropriate to note here,

judgment of this investigator,

in the

the Value Clarification

approach to value education merely helps the individual
determine the importance and/or relationship of values as
they form larger cognitive structures or attitudes.
Newcomb discusses how attitudes become

integrated

around values and their relationship forms frames of
reference.

He states:

A person's attitudes towards various things are not
insulated from each other.
A mother's attitude toward
bicycles, schools, pasturization of milk, and many
other things are determined by her predisposition to
perceive them in terms of her child's welfare.
The
robber baron, similarly, is predisposed to perceive
people, objects and ideas in relation to his own power
and wealth, so that his attitudes toward them form an
integrated system.
It is these central values,
functioning as a common frame of reference in many
situations, which cement together the various attitudes
into an integrated system. (Newcomb in DeWit, p. 12)
The psychological frame of reference can be considered a
mental structure of thought containing both cognitive and
affective elements.

In essence,

a person's attitudes can be

considered his operational world view.
A value can be defined as a central

(basic)

33
personality trait manifested

in the person's goals which

motivate behavior and supply the individual with a desirable
criterion in regard to various situations.

These criteria

tend to determine the individual's attitudes toward any one
of these situations and form the basis for the value judg­
ment.

Attitudes may be perceived to have positive or nega­

tive influence

in achieving the desired goal.

The import­

ance of this definition is that it affords a rationale for
the measurement of values.

By determining an individual's

attitude toward a number of situations,

inference about

personal values can be drawn.
Overview of Attitudes Formation and Attitude Change
An attitude is a consistent and organized mode of
thinking,

feeling, and reacting with regard to people,

groups, social

issues or any event in one's environment.

Attitudes are composed of values,
tions, and tendencies to react.

thoughts,

beliefs,

emo­

An attitude is formed when

these components are so interrelated that specific feelings
and reactions become consistently associated with a particu­
lar way of thinking about certain persons or events.
Definite criteria are needed to differentiate atti­
tudes from temporary sets or expectations,
organic states or motives,

dispositions,

unless the concept

is to become

inclusive for explaining any and all non-random modes of
behavior.

The following criteria will serve to make this

di s t i n c t i o n :
1.

Attitudes are not innate.

and

They are acguired

34
during the individual's life history and are
not carried genetically by the organism or in
any kind of inherited substratum or
unconscious.
2.

Attitudes are not temporary states of the per­
son but are more or less enduring once they are
formed.

3.

Attitudes stabilize a relationship between the
person and objects.

It is primarily the

subject-object relationship that makes the
study of attitudes central in social psychol­
ogy.

Stabilized person-object relationships

are the lasting products of interaction between
individual and environment.
4.

The subject-object relationship produces posi­
tive and negative properties.

When a person

forms an attitude he is no longer neutral to­
ward the object in guestion.

He is for some

things and against others.
5.

Attitude formation involves the formation of
categories encompassing a small or large number
of specific items.

(Sheriff,

1969, p. 334-335.

Attitudes are a derivative of human motivation,
initial appearance of which depends upon learning.
motivation develops
learning,

namely,

the

This

from three interrelated principles of

the principles of association,

and need satisfaction.

transfer,

In general, persons learn feelings

35
and reaction tendencies,

two of the components of attitudes,

through association and need satisfaction.

That is, one

learns to fear and avoid people or things associated with
unpleasant happenings,

to like and approach those associated

with pleasurable happenings.
and approaching

By avoiding

in the second, basic needs of pleasure and

comfort are satisfied

(Sheriff,

Thoughts and beliefs,
tudes,

in the first case

are often acquired

1969).
the third components of atti­

in a different fashion.

In fact,

attitudes learned by association and need satisfaction are
characterized

in the early stages of human development by

the learner's

inability to comprehend why he feels and

reacts as he does.

Thus the principle of transfer is intro­

duced, which helps to illuminate how we learn attitudes,
especially the thought-belief components,

from other people.

Attitudes via transfer are learned in essentially the same
way individuals learn meanings of concepts through interac­
tion.

Teachers

(human d e v e l o p m e n t a l i s t s ) can transfer atti­

tudes by suggesting how one should reorganize and integrate
basic ideas.

When a close relationsip exists between an

advisor and learner,

feelings and reaction tendences can

also be transferred along with thoughts and beliefs.
At first glance,

the changing of attitudes might

seem to be a simple matter.

Since attitudes are learned,

should be easy enough to modify their intensity or replace
an undesirable one by learning another.

The role of the

advisor in this process should be easy.

The complicating

it

36
fact, however,

is that attitudes are not as easily modified

or replaced after they are learned.
developed,

Once attitudes are

they become integral aspects of an individual's

personality,

causing or at least affecting the whole style

of behavior. Those attitudes developed in the
through early experiences
tant to change a)

c)

in groups are particularly resis­

if they have been learned early in life,

b) if they have been
transfer,

learned by association as well as by

if they help satify needs,

been integrated

home or

and d) if they

have

into one's personality and style of behavior

(Sheri f f , 19 69).
Student Development and Attitude Change
Social psychlogists are guided by the general rules
cited above
titudes.

(Sheriff,

1969)

in their attempts to change at­

They realize that if attitudes are to be replaced

or their intensity modified,

the new ideas and beliefs that

are to be learned must be very skillfully presented.

If

habitual modes of feeling and reacting are to be altered,
actual social settings or contrived experimental ones must
be so arranged that new ways of responding can be learned.
The interactions and technigues must facilitate learning.
Student development advising

in this context means assisting

in the attitude change process.
themselves

It is helping students free

from attitudes that hinder their growth.

of the enduring and stable nature of attitude,
process

is often difficult and strenuous.

moral choices

Because

the change

Basic values and

that are being challenged require a learning

37
environment that is sensitive and empathic to deeper per­
sonal needs.
In order to gain further insight

into human atti­

tude change, student development education will benefit from
several theories regarding such change.

A number of social

psycholgists have turned their attention to the study of the
human desire to have logically consistent attitudes.
current

This

interest stems from the ideas of Fritz Heider (1959)

who was convinced that people seek balanced or harmonious
relations between their attitude and behavior and are psych­
ologically upset until a state of balance is achieved.
These views are identified
Heider's Balance Theory
(1956),

in consistency theories such as

(1959), Osgood's Congruity Theory

Fessinger's Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Janis and King's Forced Compliance Paradigm

(1957),

(1954), and

Social Judgement Theory of Sheriff and Hoveland

(1961).

Attitude-Behavior Relationship
The assumption among the researchers of attitude
change as well as those who have studied persuasion is that
changing attitude will more than likely change related be­
havior.

A brief review of the history of attitude research

will demonstrate that in the late 1960s the literature em­
phasized the poor predictability of behavior from attitude
(Wicher,

1969).

By the early 1970s the absence of attitude

literature reflected that social scientists regarded the
attitude concept as nonproductive.

However,

recently

attitude-behavior research has gained new momentum.

Schuman

38
and Johnson

(1976)

and Kelman

(1974)

tionship is of moderate strength,
in a non-laboratory context.

report that the rela­

particularly when studied

Further,

Siebold

(1975)

re­

viewed and analyzed a series of persuasion studies showing
attitude-behavior c o r r e spondence.
Fishbein and Azzen

(1975)

in their work entitled

"Attitudes Toward Objects as Single and Multiple Behavioral
Criteria" argued that attitudes toward specific behaviors
provide the best attitude predictors of single-act criteria,
and attitudes toward general tendencies of a behavior pro­
vide the best predictors of repeated observation criteria.
Weigel, Vernon and Tognacii

(1974)

assessed

attitudes toward objects ranging from general,
environment,

to more specific,

such as pure

the Sierra Club.

They later

gave the subjects an opportunity to volunteer for activities
at differing levels of commitment to the Sierra Club.
Attitude-behavior correlations ranged from .06 for the most
general to .68 for the most specific commitments.
These studies often coincide behavior as a conse­
quence of intention to act.

Behavioral

intentional appears

as a linear regression function of attitude toward the act
and normative social
(Fishbein,
(1976)

1967).

influence regulating the behavior

Liska

(1974)

and Schuman and Johnson

have noted the importance of interactions between

personal attitudes and social norms.
subjects opportunities to engage

These studies allowed

in attitude-consistent

behavior while features of the normative environment varied.

39
Many of the above studies lend suport to the attitudebehavior relationship.
Fishbein's
factors

(Lisha,

(Norman,

(1974) model of prediction,

1974)

as well as personal dispositions

1975) all provide

relationship.

Norman

situational

important indication of the

(1975)

found that subjects higher in

affective-cognitive consistency were more likely to act in
accord with their attitudes toward volunteering.

Other

researchers have argued that a higher level of structural
attributes such as attitudinal centrality and intensity
contribute to stronger attitude-behavior relationships
(Brown,

1974; Perry,

1976).

Summary of Literature Related to the Individual
The review of literature in this section is related
to the component entitled individual.

The material

is orga­

nized in regard to:
a)

Philosophical and physiological concerns of
human values.

b)

Attitude formation, change theory and research.

c)

Attitude-behavior correspondence.

The definition of human value was linked with the
psychological concept of attitude.

Attitudes as a cognitive

structure

Review of attitude

implies moral reasoning.

change theory offers

insights as well as raises guestions

regarding the appropriate role of the student development
educator who is involved in moral education or life choice

40
advising.

Further,

recent research offers strong support

for attitude behavior relationships.
In general,
a foundational

student development educators who have

footing in the philosophical and psychologi­

cal issues of value and moral education may then proceed to
advise students by acting as facilitators of attitude change
on the assumption that students'

positive behavior can be

correlated to positive attitudes and vice versa.

The faci­

litation of student change and development through the
advising is a function'of human interaction.
Interaction
This section of Chapter II focuses on human inter­
action as a basis for whole person advising.

The concept of

interaction is understand on an intrapersonal level as well
as on the interpersonal and on the group level of social
system.
tic,

Interaction is discussed in terms of being dialec­

a major element

in organismic developmental thinking.

The psychosocial way of viewing human systems and human
development will then be briefly reviewed.

These components

provide the conceptual context for the student development
issues of advising and retention.
Interaction Defined
Interactionism considers
result of an indispensable,

individual behavior the

continuous interaction between

the person and the situations he encounters
Magnusson,

1976).

This

(Endler and

implies that the individual's

behavior is influenced by significant features of the

41
psychological environment as well as the social organiza­
tion.

Furthermore,

the individual chooses the situation in

which he acts and selects significant situational aspects
which then serve as cues for his behavior.

This interaction

affects the nature of the situation and individual motiva­
tion is understood largely as intrinsic.
The history of interactionism can be traced back
to Aristotle who might be considered one of the earliest
thinkers to be interested
concept of praxis

in the nature of interaction.

is concerned with the individual's

action with time in order to develop knowledge.

The

inter­

Praxis is

one of three ways in which Aristotle presented e p i s t e m o l o g y .
These ways of knowing, Aristotle referred to as theoria,
praxis,
life,

and poiesis,

and they represent the speculative

the practical life,

1980).

Thus,

and the productive life

(Groome,

there are three ways of knowing and being

rat ional.
A theoria way of knowing is the guest for truth by
a contemplative/reflective/non-engaged process.
A
praxis way of knowing is by reflective engagement in a
social situation.
Poiesis as a way of knowing found
embodiment in and arose from "making."
As ways of
knowing they differ primarily in their telos, their
intended outcomes. (Groome, 1980, p. 124)
The concept of interaction is of interest in disci­
plines other than earlier philosophy.
hold symposia on contextual

Current philosophers

interactionism.

Physicists and

biologists also continue to study the nature of material and
life in terms of interaction.
In social psychology,

Kurt Lewin presented the

interactionist perspective which continues to be influential

42
among theorists.

Lewin

(1935,

1951) stressed the interac­

tion between the person and a meaningful environment which
is shown as B = f(P x E).

His Field Theory held that

behavior

(f) of the person

(B)

environment
individual

is a function
(E)

in interaction.

(P) and the

According to Lewin,

is part of the situation,

the

thus his theory pro­

vides the basis of the main elements of current thinking
regarding interactionism

(Endler and Magnusson,

Endler and Magnusson
elements

1976).

(1976) summarize the main

in the current formulation of interactional

psychology:
1.

Behavior is determined by a continuous process
of interaction between the individual and the
situation he encounters.

This

is often refer­

red to as feedback.
2.

The individual

is an intentional,

active agent

in the interaction process.
3.

Cognitive factors are important

4.

The psychological meaning of the situation to
the individual

in interaction.

is an essential determinant of

behavior.
The emphasis on the individual as an intentional
and active agent

in the interaction process

in the current human development approaches
affairs.

This

cific theories,

focus

is also evident
in student

is particularly true of several spe­

such as Perry

(1976), Heath

(1968), and

43
Astin

(1984).

These perspectives

imply that behavior is

purposive and goal-directed.
The emphasis on cognitive factors obviously is the
heart of the cognitive developmental approach
1976) and the organismic model

(Piaget,

Cognitive Social learning perspective

(Kohlberg,

1972).

(Bandura,

Also, the
1974)

suggests mediation on the part of the individual, which
results

in learning.

The emphasis on psychological meaning

of the situation is central to the cognitive developmentalist in that gualitative new ways of understanding and per­
ceiving is the major component of development.

To the

psychosocial d evelopmentalist, the making of meaning
central

is also

in that it is concerned with the questions rising

from the interaction with life situations
(crises).

in time periods

The WPAM is designed to structure

interaction

between advisor and learner by using a system of inquiries
related to the student's life situations.
Questioning of meaning for one's life is supported
by the organismic and dialectical view of human development
and learning.

In order to contrast that view,

three other

models are briefly presented.
Human Development and Learning in Interaction
Neil Salkind
human development.
analytic,

(1981)

suggests

four general models of

They are the m a t u r a t i o n a l , psycho­

behavioral, and the organismic model.

Development

is concerned with "a progressive series of changes that
occur in a predictable pattern as the result of an

44
interaction between biological and environmental factors"
(Salkind,

1981,

p. 2).

Models Compared
The maturational model holds to the basic assump­
tion that the sequence of development

is determined by

biological factors and the evolutionary history of mankind.
The model's research is concerned with the biological
systems which are viewed as variables of growth.
used for study include using cinematic records,
studies,

Methods
co-twin

baby biographies and the normative approach

characteristics).

Arnold Gesell,

a physician/psychologist

was the notable promoter of the maturational model.
area of greatest

impact was

(age

Its

in child rearing and the impor­

tance of biological determinants.
The basic assumption of the psychoanalytic model
that development consists of dynamic,
quential components and that

structural,

and se­

individuals must continuously

deal with the need for the satisfaction of instincts.
research concern of the psychoanalytic model
of instinctual needs on behavior.

the model
studied

The

is the effects

This approach to individ­

ual behavior was established by Freud,
students became theorists,

is

and while many of his

Eric Erikson more fully developed

in terms of social

interaction.

Development

is

through verbal associations and indirect examination

of conflicts.

The model's greatest impact is personality

development and the relationship between culture/society and
b e hav ior .

45
The behavioral model

assumes that human development

occurs according to the laws of learning theory and places
heavy emphasis on the importance of events
ment.

in the environ­

It is most often concerned with the frequency of

behaviors

in its research approach.

and modeling paradigms,

it had impact by developing syste­

matic analysis of behavior,
deviant behavior

and treatment and management of

in therapeutic and educational settings.

Ivan Pavlov, Thorndike,

and Watson are the early theorists,

followed by B. F. Skinner,

Miller and Dollard.

Bandura has modified the model
mediation,

In using conditioning

to include the concept of

a thoughtful or cognitive step

The fourth model,

Albert

in learning.

the Organismic Model, assumes

development consists of the addition and modification of the
psychological structure.
vidual,

The organism,

that

is, the indi­

assumes an active role in the change and is not seen

as simply reactive.
Organismic View
The organismic model provides understanding for
systems thinking

in regard to human interaction.

Stewart

(1973) explains the notion of organismic development by
defining the universal transactional approach or the
organismic-structural-developmental approach.

"By organis­

mic we mean the view of man that sees man as an wholistic,
integrated,

functional organism"

(p. 47).

The person and

the environment are seen in relationship much
the ecologist views organism and environments.

the same as
The

relationship

is identified as transactional.

writes that the term "transactional"

Stewart

(1973)

is important because

it

better connotes the nature of the relationships that exist
between two things acting on each other or against each
other in the sense that they are balanced in some kind of
causal

interconnection

The term structural

(Dewey & Bently in Stewart,

1973).

refers to "the underlying organized

dynamic in universal patterns

that characterize human

behavior,

(Stewart,

especially thought"

1973, p. 44).

Observable behavior is called the content.

The

structure

is understood to be the organization of the

content.

Thus, structure as an abstraction provides deeper,

underlying dynamic sets of patterns that can be character­
istically associated with human behavior

(Stewart,

Organismic-Developmental Psychological Theory,

1973).

Heinz Werner

Werner's view of development specifically illus­
trates the systems theoretical concepts applied to human
development theory.
opment

is rooted

Like Piaget, Werner's theory of devel­

in the discipline of biology,

and both

theorists stress the role that the genetic process plays
in setting the stage for development.

Werner's principle

of orthogenesis has an organic basis and presupposes a
genetic structure that directs the seguence and timing of
de ve lop men t.
However, Werner's views stressed more strongly the
interaction of the individual and the environment.
organismic perspective

His

is sometimes referred to as an

47
interaction model.

Riegel

of interaction on several

(1976) develops Werner's notions
levels.

He presents

four dimen­

sions of developmental change as on the inner-biological
level,

the individual-psychological level,

sociological

level,

the cultural-

and the outer-physical level.

Riegel's

levels were devised to help explain the concept of dialec­
tics of human development.
Dialectics and Human Develop men t.

One basic

assumption in all the organismic/systems theories
development

is that

is a function of an interaction between the

individual and the environment,
an active participant

and that the individual

in the process

(Salkind,

is

1980).

Werner and Riegel assumed several principles of
this interaction in terms of dialectics.
1.

They are:

The unity of and struggle between opposites.
This Hegelian idea holds that contradiction
is present

in all actions.

For example,

the

positive and negative subatomic particles such
as protons and electrons operate

in tandem

to produce different levels of atomic
org an iza ti on.
2.

The transformation of quantitative
qualitative change.

This principle

into
is con­

cerned with organizing the kind of change in
human development.

It suggests that after'a

certain level of quantitative change has

occurred,

a qualitative or structural change

occurs as well.
3.

The negation of a negative.

The third princi­

ple of dialectics reflects the idea that over
time, change occurs and the nature of the
development assumes the traits of

its converse.

This type of interaction is much like subtrac­
ting a negative number from a negative number,
which yields a positive value.

The old struc­

ture is eventually incorporated by the new or
different and the new structure

is also incor­

porated by a newer or different

idea (Wozniak

in S a l k i n d , 1981) .
Werner theorizes that for interaction to progress
from one developmental level to the next,
must first regress.

In other words,

the individual

the organism must re­

turn to a genetically more stable level of functioning
order to progress.

in

This spiral model of development takes

place only through a process of reorganization that involves
reusing previous means and experience for approaching a new
situation.
Advising is seen as helping the student through
the spirals of development by using the practical skills
available

in effective helping relationships.

W P A M , as an

intentional method of interaction, draws on the knowledge
and skills of the helping professions such as counseling.

49
People

in Systems,

Theory to Practice

In the domain of practice,
Cowan

(1979)

People

produced a useful model

in System:

Gerard Egan and Michal
in their book titled

A Model for Development

Service Professions and Education
designed for people

interested

(1979).

in the HumanThe model

in human development

various levels of human systems.

is
in the

The approach utilizes the

general characteristics of systems concept as well as at­
tempts to integrate

information and knowledge relating to

human development.
The major components of the model are derived from
Lewin's field theory:
B = f(P x E)
Egan and Cowan

(1979)

see behavior as a function of

the interaction between persons and environment.

The

theorists adapted the familiar Lewinian eguation to:
HD = f[P <-> S) x (S <-> S)]
The terms read as follows:

"human development

function of the interaction between people
human systems

(S)

is a

(P), and the

in which they are involved,

interaction of the systems with one another"

and of the
(Egan and

C o w a n , 1979 , p. 6).
The guality of human interaction emphasized
practice of helping
viduals'

to enhance development depends on indi­

a) working knowledge and b) skills.

gualitative determinants are not present
action,

in the

If these

in human inter­

they may lead to negative results.

A working

50
knowledge of developmental process may be understood
terms of the principle of isomorphism.

That

viduals could build an implicit psychology
Vallochen,

is,

in

if indi­

(Wegner &

1977) of the isomorphic characteristics that are

present in human interaction at various levels and ages of
life, then the individual's ability to pursue tasks and face
crisis would be enhanced.
A second kind of working knowledge

is the knowledge

of major human organizations or systems that affect people's
lives.

This special knowledge is a type of human ecology.

It includes the social and cultural

institutions such as

families and schools that affect the individual.

Further,

knowledge of how the individual affects the system is help­
ful.

In such a case,

individuals learn how to identify

important values or influential

forces of the systems and

then are able to self-direct their lives in the context of
the social and cultural systems.
Another element of the model

is life skills.

They

are considered to be a specific behaviors or sets of behav­
iors used to facilitate human development.

The theorist

used Webster's notion of skill as a learned power of doing
something competently.

Egan and Cowan

(1979, p. 9) state,

"a combination of working knowledge and life skill,
acguired through systematic education and training is
extremely important

in achieving a sense of competence."

The investigator observed the model does not hold
that skill training

is paramount.

Rather,

skill and

51
knowledge are interrelated
practice are interrelated.
the model

in much the same way theory and
Both inform the other; however,

is identified with organismic approach because it

implies that learning and cognition are fundamental in human
development.

This model suggests that acquiring the working

knowledge and the skills needed to achieve goals and to sup­
port and challenge self, others and systems should not be
left to chance, on the assumption that people pick up such
knowledge and skills

from random experience.

Rather,

such

knowledge and skills should be offered systematically
through formal and informal education.
1979, p.

(Egan and Cowan,

9)

Social Influence Model
Egan

(1975)

clearly illustrates how social inter­

action in the form of helping
influence theory.

is soundly based on social

His references to Berscheid and Walster

(1969), Gergen

(1967), Kelman

Ebbesen

provide empirical ground for the notion that

(1970)

(1967),

and Zimbardo and

the individual helper/advisor both influences and is in­
fluenced in human
participate

interaction.

in such

Apparently,

interactions either

all people

intentionally or

unknow in g l y .
Since the laws of social

influence operate both in

the transactions of everyday life and in helping situations,
it is helpful

to be knowledgeable regarding

interpersonal

interaction from the viewpoint of the principles of social
influence so that advisors can use the principles creatively
instead of becoming victims of individual

crises

(Egan,

52
1975).

Strong

(1968)

has developed a two-phase model of

social helping that has utilitarian value
advising.

The model states

helping/advising process

in student

that the first phase

in the

is to establish an interpersonal

relationship or interaction based on the advisor/learner
perceived characteristics of trust, attractiveness,
petence of the advisor.

and com­

This phase is referred to as the

establishment of an influence or power base.

The power base

is used then to influence the learner to change his atti­
tudes and behavior to mature patterns

(Egan,

1975).

Strong's design of counseling as an interpersonal
influence process was based on Fessinger's
dissonance theory.

The social

(1975)

influence model suggests that

the counselor's attempts to create change

in behavior or

attitude of the learner would cause dissonance
client.

Consequently,

in the

advisees would attempt to reduce

dissonance by one of five possibilities.

They could in fact

change in the direction the helper suggested.
they could discredit the advisor,
issue.

cognitive

or thirdly,

Secondly,
discredit the

Fourthly, the advisee could try to change the coun­

selor's opinion,

or fifthly,

seek other social relationships

that support their own opinion.
Strong's model claims that to enhance the likeli­
hood of the student's accepting the first option,
of behavior and/or attitude,
must be reduced.

Thus,

the advisor as expert,

the change

the second and third options

the degree to which the student sees
attractive,

and trustworthy would

53
reduce the possibility of the learner discrediting the
helper.

Further,

by increasing the learner's level of

activity and involvement

in the helping process,

it was

assumed that the degree of issue discrediting would be lower
(E g a n , 1975).
The learner's perception of the helper's attrac­
tiveness

is based on assumed similarity to and compatibility

with as well as just plain liking for the helper
1968).

The meaning of trustworthiness

is based on the

ad visor/influencer's a) reputation for honesty,
r o l e , c) sincerity and openness,
for personal gain

(Strong,

1968).

and d)

This element

b) social-

lack of motivation

The third characteristic

needed for an influence or power base
petence.

(Strong,

is expertness or com­

is apparently based on the client's

perception that the helper has a working knowledge and a set
of valuable skills and abilities to actually help the
advisee

(Egan,

1982).

The helper uses personal

influence

grounded in the student's perception of the helper to col­
laborate with the client to act and think in a more mature,
less self-destructive manner.
Student

Involvement Theory
Alexander Astin

(1980) has developed a theory of

student development based upon his extensive
American college students.

His desire

research of

is to present a

practial view which will give some continuity to the current
literature and various disciplines regarding student
d e v e l opm en t.

54
The theory of involvement
definition of involvement:

is built on Astin's

"Quite simply,

student

involve­

ment refers to the amount of physical and psychological
energy that the student devotes to the academic experience"
(Astin,

1980, p. 297).

While Astin claims to recognize the

value or the intrinsic nature of involvement,
stresses the observable or behavioral.
what this individual thinks or feels,
ual does, how he or she behaves,
involvement"

his theory

"It is not so much
but what the individ­

that defines and identifies

(p. 298).

The basic elements of involvement theory are:
1.

"Involvement refers to the investment of
physical and psychological energy
objects"

(p.

298).

in various

The nature of this inter­

action can be on various system levels of
student life.
2.

"Regardless of its object,
along a continuum:

involvement occurs

that is, different students

manifest different degrees of involvement
given object,

in a

and the same student manifests

different degrees of involvement
objects at different times"

(p.

in different
298).

This

postulate seems to suggest the notion of
egualfinality expressed
general systems theory
3.

in Erikson

(1950)

and

(1968).

"Involvement has both quantitative and quali­
tative features"

(p. 298).

In other words,

55
student development can be measured

in both the

observable behavior and the value of qualita­
tive domains.
The

last two elements of Astin's involvement theory are

directly
ment.

related to the learning and educational environ­

They are:
1.

The amount of student learning and personal
development associated with any educational
program is directly proportional

to the quality

and quantity of student involvement
program,
2.

(p.

in that

298)

The effectiveness of any educational policy or
practice

is directly related to the capacity of

that policy or practice to increase student
involvement,

(p.

298)

Astin suggests that the value of the involvement
theory is that it bridges the gap between the prevailing
families of theories that focus on the development outcomes
and those theories

that are more

individualized

in focus.

Exposure to people or ideas, according to Astin,
does not provide that student with the desired development.
Rather,

the active participation of the student in learning

interactions

facilitates

tured relationships,

the development.

In such struc­

the faculty become more aware of stu­

dent activity and less self-aware of teacher activity.

With

this intentional focus on the learning process and the m o t i ­
vation of the student,

the learner's time and energy become

56
significant

resqurces

Student-facuity
ment,

in the educational community.

interaction,

residential life,

involvement

in student gover n­

and academic advising,

means to implement Astin's

involvement theory

are practical
(1980).

In the advising relationship this collaboration of
student and faculty manifests
tion.

However,

not only is the advising

possibly terminated,

interests

interac­

when the relationship is not viewed by the

student as helpful,

institution.

itself in continuing

interaction

but the student may choose to leave the

Retention of students for the students'

best

is obviously important to all educational

institutions.
Retention and Advising
Retention is a major concern for educational insti­
tutions

in that about 40 percent of entering freshmen in

baccalaureate-granting
(Noel,

1978).

institutions never achieve a degree

Studies regarding the causes of this phenome­

non have increased

in number and intensity

cades largely due to institutions'
numbers

concern of decreasing

oftraditional college-age students
A

review of selected

in the last d e ­

(Ott,

1978).

literature of retention is

now

presented along with that of advising because of the appar­
ent linkage that exists
Advising

(Crockett,

is regarded by this

of interaction between the
and retention
actions

1978; Habley,

1981).

investigator as a specific form

individual and the institution,

is a by-product of mutually satisfying

(Crockett,

1978).

inter­

57
Lenning and others
literature

in terms of types of student retention issues,

correlates of retention,
retention.

(1980) report on the research

and action strategies to improve

It appears that retention or student persistence

can be assessed

in terms of completion of a degree, comple­

tion of a program,

or finishing a term or a course.

Reten­

tion may also be understood as persistence to attain a
personal goal.
One type of retention study is designed to de­
termine the characteristics and attitudes that are common
among students who persist and among those who drop out.
Researchers have studied both

individual students and

institutional correlates of retention
1980).

Further,

(Lenning and others,

a number of theories have been postulated

regarding the interaction and fit between students and their
institutions as important

in explaining retention and

attrition.
A second type of retention study focuses on the
practical application of retention strategies and their
effectiveness

in improving retention.

Strategies are

considered

to be single-faceted as well as multi-faceted

approaches

to retention— admissions and recruiting, advis­

ing, counseling,
views,
opment,

early warning and prediction,

extracurricular activities,
curricular development,

learning and academic support,
tional policy change.

exit inter­

faculty and staff devel­

financial aid,
orientation,

housing,

and organiza­

58
Multiple-action programs were found to be the most
successful.

Three general areas are identified regarding

the multi-faceted strategies.

They are:

1.

Academic stimulation and assistance

2.

Personal future building by helping

individual

students to clarify their values, goals,

and

directions
3.

Involvement experiences directed at students

Among the types of retention activites for which
examples are provided,
ness,

are the following:

learning support centers,

programs,

faculty aware­

expanded orientation,

peer

and academic advising.
Astin's

(1975,

1977) national study of dropouts

suggests a number of practical suggestions regarding reten­
tion.

He writes regarding his own suggestions,
For the most part, these recommendations argue for
finding ways to increase student involvement:
living
on campus rather than commuting, working on campus,
participating in extracurricular activities, and
improving academic performances through counseling,
honors programs, research, and other special academic
programs.
(Astin, 1977)
Astin's studies show that efforts to increase the

student's

involvement will not only enhance

the s t u d e n t ’s

ability to remain in the institution but will also influence
the quality of the interaction with influence on the stu­
dent's personality,
tion;

in short,
Ramist's

behavior, career progress,

and satisfac­

on student development.

(1981)

review on the research on college

student attrition and retention reports on the demographic,

59
academic, motivation,

and personal characteristics of stu­

dents who are likely to drop out.

Also the effects of the

college environment related to persistence are presented.
St ud ent s’ reasons for dropping out include academic matters,
financial difficulties, motivational problems,
siderations,

dissatisfaction with college, military service,

and full-time jobs.

The evidence

does make a difference
maturity,

interests,

John Farmer
retention,

indicates that college

in improvement in self-image,

competence,

(1980),

in a manual relating to student

focuses on the legal responsibility of Florida
The work is

in that it presents a section of questions

ing essential student
Further,

social

and employment.

community colleges with regard to retention.
helpful

personal con­

identify­

information regarding student needs.

the manual considers retention concerns

in terms of

administrative understanding of and commitment to retention
programs such as course scheduling,
advising,

career planning,

placement,

admissions,

counseling,

and registration.

This research focuses on the relationship of students'

goals

and dropping out of the institution.
As an example of a specific study,
in cognitive mapping

Keyser's

(1980) work

illustrates student learning goals and

styles and the institution's sensitivity.

In order to help

teachers and students assess the preferred cognitive styles
of individual

learning,

Mount Hood Community College

duced and tested the use of cognitive mapping
tation program.

intro­

in its orien­

As a test of the effectiveness of this

orientation course,

the rates of retention of students

taking the course were compared with those of students who
did not take the course.

The study revealed that the treat

ment group achieved a higher retention rate than did the
non-treatment group.
Tinto

(1975)

appears to have developed a possible

conceptual approach that integrates the student with the
institution along several dimensions,
social.

the academic and the

A great deal of study regarding the fit of the

student and the institution has been done
Pervin,

Reik & Dalrymple,

1968; Nasatir,

(Chickering,

1966; Gurin, Newcomb,

1969; Cope & Hewitt,

The point of these studies

1966

& Cope,

1971; and Spady,

1971).

is the importance of enhancing

the social, academic, and intellectual integration of s t u­
dents,

and of students and faculty,

in order to improve

retent ion .
The literature has emphasized, among other procedures,
the importance of advising as a linkage to retention
(C r o c k e t t , 1978 ) .
Advising as a Method of Interaction
Historically,

academic advising has been an ever­

present part of American higher education.

Faculty and

students have almost always dealt with the interaction that
assisted the students

in realizing the greatest efficiency

and effectiveness of the educational institution.
advising has been recognized as a means
Currently,

advising

Academic

to that end.

is generally viewed as an integral

61
part of the higher education process and not as a minor
support service.

There appears to be a genuine concern for

individual student growth and development
of higher education.

Also,

in the institution

there is greater student choice

of curriculum and careers with an increased

interest on the

part of the student regarding academic preparation and
career concerns
Crockett

(Crockett,

(1978)

1978).

reports,

"Increased student retention

is an important by-product of an advising program— a by­
product that enhances

the educational process"

New Directions for Student S erv i c e s , 1978).

(Crockett

in

Acadmic

advising can help students develop more mature educational/
career goals, which seems to be a strong factor in student
retention

(Crockett,

1978).

Advising Defined
Acadmic advising should help the student realize ma x i ­
mum educational benefits

(Crockett,

1978).

Advising can

accomplish this by:
1.

Helping students clarify personal goals and
values.

2.

Helping students understand the nature of
higher education.

3.

Providing accurate
tional options,

information about educa­

requirements,

policies,

and

p r o c edu res .
4.

Helping students plan educational programs
consistent with their interests and abilities.

62
5.

Assisting students

in a continual monitoring

and assessment of the educational progress.
6.

Integrating the resources of the institution to
meet students'

needs.

Academic advising . . . can be a powerful institu­
tional influence on student growth and development.
It
can also enrich the educational program of any college
or university and interpret that program more effec­
tively to students.
Helping students to use the re­
sources of the institution to implement an academic
plan that leads to desired career/life goals can be a
powerful retention force. (Crockett in New Directions
of Student S e r v i c e s , 1978, p. 30, 31)
Miller and McCaffrey

(1982)

suggest four basic

characteristics to developmental, academic advising:
1.

Academic advising should be based on develop­
mental principles that are used to help create
a wholistic effect.

Intellectual and personal-

emotional aspects of development are to be
co n s i d e r e d .
2.

A developmental model of advising must incor­
porate systematic training for those individ­
uals responsible for the advisement process.

3.

The establishment of an academic support group,
including faculty and academic administrators,
is important to the developmental model of
a d v i sem ent .

4.

The recognition that human development occurs
through cycles of differentiation and integra­
tion is essential

Ender, Winston,

to developmental advising.

and Miller

(1982)

indicate that

63
other writers emphasize the importance of understanding
academic advising

in terms of student development.

They

refer to redefinition of academic advising as "a decision­
making process facilitated by communication and information
exchange with the advisor"

(Grites,

1979).

Also advising is

seen as the integration of institutional academic goals with
students'

life goals

(Walsh,

1979).

(1972) suggests that advising

Further, Crookston

is a teaching function whereby

the advisor facilitates the rational process
ing the environmental and interpersonal

in understand­

interaction as well

as behavior awareness and evaluation skills.
Ender, Winston,

and Miller

(1982)

suggest the fol­

lowing characteristics of developmental advising:
1.

Developmental advising
one-step act.

is a process,

not a

Advising in this sense is an

accumulation of personal contacts with direc­
tion and purpose.
2.

Developmental advising

is concerned with human

growth.

all the important as­

This includes

pects of growth,
career,
3.

such as cognitive,

physical,

affective,

and moral growth.

Developmental advising is goal-related.
are collaboratively established

Goals

in terms of the

institutional purpose and the individual per­
sonal growth plan.
4.

Developmental advising requires establishment
of caring human relationships.

A personal

64
relationship between advisor and advisee is
important.

Both parties take responsibility

for sustaining the relationship but the advisor
must take primary responsibility for its
initial establishment.
5.

Advisors serve as adult role models and
mentors.

The advisor embodies the image of a

scholar as well as the philosophy of the
institution.
6.

Developmental advising is the link between
academic programs and student affairs.

7.

Developmental advising utilizes all campus and
community resources.

Advisors will not possess

all the expertise needed to collaborate student
growth and development.

However,

advisors can

be aware of vast human and programmatic re­
sources available to the student.
Within the context of a developmental approach to
student advising,

the WPAM draws from several specific

theories of student development.

The content areas or areas

of growth are an adaptation of the self-systems
(1968) model of student maturation.

Also,

from Heath's

the human values

components of the WPAM are adapted from Heath's

(1980) model

of dimensions of growth.

The interact ionistic context of

Ender, Winston and Miller

(1982)

Heath's

(1968,

along with the content of

1980) model are integrated

into a practical

65
method of advising by utilizing the principles and skills of
Egan and Cowan

(1976).

Following are several specific theories that sup­
port the content areas of the WPAM.
Theories and Principles of Human Development
Supporting Student Advising
Cognitive Development Theory,

Piaget

It is often implied that no other psychologist has
had as profound an impact on the understanding of the devel­
opment of human acguisition and use of knowledge as Piaget
(Salkind,

1981).

He actually created his own branch of

ep is temology, the science of knowledge and how it is ac­
quired, which was called genetic epistemology
1950).

The term "genetic"

(Piaget,

refers to the developmental p ro ­

gression from one level of human growth to the next.

He was

interested in studying the way in which knowledge changes
over the course of indivudal
Development,

life-span development.

for Piaget,

is a broad process that

results in the addition, modification,

and reorganization of

cognitive and psychological structures

(Salkind,

1981).

Piaget describes four factors that define development.

They

are:
1.

Maturation, which
change.
change

is the process of biological

It is the basis for neurological
that occurs and affects the cognitive

str uct ur es.
2.

Experience,

the context

in which cognitive

66
growth occurs.

For development to proceed,

individual must be active
roundings.
physical,
3.

in and with his sur­

The environment
social,

the

is viewed as both

and psychological.

Social transmission,
in which information,

the process of interaction
attitudes,

and cultural

customs are transmitted from one group to
another.
4.

Eguilibration,
tegration.

a process of motivation and in­

This

is learning,

in that eguili­

bration is the unifying force of the other ele­
ments of development.

Learning to Piaget is

seen as the acguisition of skill and informa­
tion,

and development is the broad general

human process through which learning takes
place

(p. 187).

Piaget presents four stages of cognitive and intel­
lectual development— the sensorimotor stage,
tional stage,

the concrete operational stage,

operational stage.
age-related,
range.

the preoperaand the formal

While these stages of development are

Piaget stresses that these ages are a normative

Further,

he emphasizes that the content of the stage

is important rather than the age of the individual.
In general,
from 0-2 years.

the first stage, sensorimotor,

ranges

It is represented by reflexive reactions of

the child and the coordination of those reflexes.
phase of the stage

The final

is the discovery of new meaning and

67
repetition of behavior and experimentation on cause and
effect situations.
The preoperational stage is based on elementary
thinking and is the onset of language systems,

egocentric

reasoning and perception limited reasoning.
The concrete operational stage, generally ranging
from 7-11 years,

is characterized by experiential based

reasoning and the ability to solve concrete problems.

Human

communication through conversation becomes operative and
logical thinking develops.
Formal operations are characterized by the formula­
tion and testing of hypotheses,
deductive thought.

abstract reasoning,

and

On this level, thought is no longer

perception limited.
Piaget can be summarized generally

in the following

manner:
1.

Piaget and organismic theorists stress the role
of the individual as an active,

not reactive

or ga n i s m .
2.

Development

is a broad process that results

the addition, modification,

in

and reorganization

of cognitive and psychological structures.
3.

A cognitive structure

is a unit of mental

organization that is flexible and can be
changed gu an t i t a t i v e l y , but more

importantly,

guali tat iv e l y .
4.

Development occurs via assimilation,

68
accommodation,

and adaptation.

Accommodation

is the process of modifying already existing
cognitive structures to satisfy demands of a
changing environment.

Assimilation is the

process through which the individual
incorporates experiences

into existing

cognitive structures.
5.

Egocentrism is a preoccupation with one's own
point of view, which is characteristic of all
developmental stages.

6.

Development occurs as a progression as a result
of the individual's striving

Psychosocial Development Theory,

for equilibrium.

Erikson

Another family of de ve lop m e n t a l i s t s , namely the
psychosocial d e v e l o p me nta li sts , focus on what people
experience

in the process of human growth.

It assumes the

psychological and social events provide the content of the
developmental experience.
utilized

The notion of stages

is also

in psychosocial thought as well as in cognitive

development;

however,

stages

for the psychosocial school are

understood as a period of time in the life span during which
a person faces and resolves psychological and social

issues.

These times of challenge are referred to as developmental
crises and are dealt with by the use of developmental coping
skills.

These areas of transitions are referred

developmental

to as

tasks or vectors.

Erik Erikson developed a theory of psychosocial

69
development across the life of human beings.

The theory is

based on the epigenetic principle which has parallel con­
cepts with the genetic notions of other organismic theories
such as Piaget and Werner.
The epigenetic principle states:
1.

Each pair of psychosocial tasks had its stage
of ascendance when physical,

cognitive,

emo­

tional, and social developments permitted its
coming to a crisis or decision,
2.

Each stage had its precursors which implies a
series of stages that are qualitatively dif­
ferent from the earlier stage.

These stages

extend across the life-span.
3.

Behavior becomes differentiated to form unique
elements or parts of a functioning whole.

He postulates eight stages of the life cycle, each
stage being characterized by a crisis.
these crises

is not sexual

analytic thinkers'
social.

views;

in nature as was other psycho­
rather, he saw them as being

Psychosocial crisis

time of turmoil,

Erickson's view of

is defined as not necessarily a

"but rather a turning point,

a crucial

period of increased vulnerability and heightened potential"
(Erikson,

1976, p. 5).

These crises or tasks were seen as

issues to be resolved at their given point of ascendancy so
as to develop ego identity.

Further,

stages were cumulative and related.
prepares the next,

he emphasized that the
He states,

as one step leads to another;

"Each crisis
and each

70
crisis lays one more cornerstone for the adult personality"
(Erikson,
evolved

1958, p. 254).

An ego strength or a virtue

from thepositive resolution of

strength orvirtue

is seen as an

each stage.

The

active guality in human

personality and implies restraint and courage.
The eight stages are determined by the content of
the environment and are shaped by questions the individual
is seeking to answer in the interaction with the environ­
ment.

Because of the epigenetic principle,

the stages are

age-related but are not considered age-specific.

The stages

are often identified by the psychosocial outcome,

such as,

(1950):
Stage

1

Basic Trust versus Mistrust.

During this

time the person is concerned with the
question,
Stage

2

"Can I trust the world?"

Autonomy versus Shame and Doubt.

During

this time the

person is concerned with

the question,

"Can I control my own

b e hav ior ?"
Stage

3

Initiative versus Guilt.
time the individual
question,

During this

is concerned with the

"Can I become independent of my

parents and explore my limits?"
Stage

4

Industry versus Inferiority.
time the person
question,

During this

is concerned with the

"Can I master the skills neces­

sary to survive and adapt?

71
Stage

5

Identify versus Role Confusion.
this time the person
the question,
beliefs,

Stage

6

is concerned with

"Who am I?

feelings,

During

What are my

and attitudes?"

Intimacy versus Isolation.

During this

time the person is concerned about the
question,

"Can I give fully of myself to

another?"
Stage

7

Generativity versus Stagnation.
this time a person
question,

During

is concerned with the

"What can I offer succeeding

generations?"
Stage

8

Ego-integrity versus Despair.
this time a person

During

is asking "Have I

found contentment and satisfaction
through my life's work and play?"
Value and Moral Education in Higher Education
An educated person should be able to consider and
judge evidence, examine assumptions, evaluate and
prefer one thing over another and know why, and have
values that are his own and that are developed logi­
cally and rationally.
Higher education must play a
role in this development. (M c B e e , 1980, p. 1).
This statement
material

is made

in introducing much of the

that was generated at a symposium on "Higher

Education's Responsibility for Moral Development," entitled
the Floyd-Jones Symposium.

This 1979 meeting again signaled

the reoccurring emphasis on the development of values in
students.

Our society has viewed the college,

along with

72
the church and the family, as an important means

in this

proces s .
The teaching of values
debated.

in college seems to be often

The basic concensus regarding the institution's

responsibility appears to be ever present.

At these times

in our society when there is a minimal concensus regarding
this issue,

the methods of such an endeavor are discussed,

often with great vigor.

Curriculum issues are raised,

such

as the merits of a course dealing with moral and ethical
content or a process that is modeled by faculty and admini­
stration and seeks student participation.
William J. Bennet
Education,

(1980),

now Secretary of

argued that the demonstration of principles

rather than the teaching of principles

is what matters.

"It

is not the curriculum but the character of the teacher that
counts"

(McBee,

1980, p. 4).

moral education

Others suggest that value and

is not simply a matter of one or the other

but rather a concern for both example and precept.
Much of the current research on moral develoment
focuses on the student's conceptions of what justice means.
Building on the theories of Piaget
(1958),

(1932)

and Kohlberg

researchers are attempting to measure

the cognitive

structures that exist related to moral development.
research approaches are most often used:
ment Interview
Defining

(Kohlberg, Gibbs,

Colby,

Issues Test developed by Rest
Lickona

Two

the Moral Judge­
1979),

and the

(1979).

(1980) notes that the majority of attempts

73
to educate for value develoment have occurred recently at
the junior high level and high school
educational

levels.

Research on

interventions designed to influence the level of

moral reasoning of college students has been relatively
infrequent.
Kohlberg's views can aid in working with college
students especially

in understanding the transitions that

occur between late adolescence and young adulthood.
Gilligen

(1979)

in developing Kohlberg's theory notes that

moral development does not coincide with the sequence of
formal education even though it is associated with the
development of thinking.
Thinking threatens rather to derail moral judgment
altogether.

The notable achievement of the adolescent mind

is the capacity for reflective thought,

the ability to

include,

the activity of

among the facts of experience,

thinking itself.
to examine

When thought thus turns inward and begins

its own c o n t r u c t i o n s , it calls into question

knowledge formerly taken for granted,
knowledge of good and evil.
confront

2

To think about morality is to

the problem of judgment and thereby to discover the

inevitable
p.

including the

limitations of knowledge itself

(Gilligen,

1978,

.)

Kohlberg's Cognitive Development Theory
Kohlberg has presented a cognitive developmental
theory of moral development based on the notion that ethical
principles which flow from a person's

ideological

74
commitments are the result of sequential development
socialization and cognition

(Kohlberg,

1969).

in

Kohlberg

maintains that moral development occurs through conflict and
reorganization.

That

is, a person develops morally in an

invariant order as he interacts with the primary forces of
his environment.
Kohlberg's Moral Stages
A.

(Kohlberg,

1969) are:

Preconventional Level
At this

level,

the person is responsive to

cultural rules of good and bad,
wrong.

However,

right and

the individual at this level

interprets these rules in terms of the achieve­
ment of gratification

(hedonistic consequences)

or in terms of the avoidance of pain or punish­
ment.

The preconventional level

is divided

into two stages:
Stage 1 - The punishment and obedience orienta­
tion:

The physical consequences of behavior

determine whether it is good or bad regardless
of the human meaning of the behavior itself.
Stage 2 - The
tion:

instrumental relativist orienta­

Correct behavior consists of that which

satisfies one's own needs.
B.

Conventional Level
At this level, duty to the family,
or the nation

the group,

is valued highly and is the

determining factor

in decision-making.

There

is a high degree of social conformity marked by
personal

loyalty to and personal

with the social order.
divides

identification

The conventional level

into two stages:

boy/nice girl orientation:

Stage 3 - Good
Good behavior

is

here defined as that which pleases others,
perhaps helps others,

but certainly wins the

approval of others.
Stage 4 - Law and order orientation:
behavior consists of doing one's duty,
proper respect for authority,

Correct
showing

and maintaining

the given social order for its own sake.
Postconventional Level
At this level,

there is a clear definition of

moral values and moral principles distinct and
separate from the authority of others—
individuals,
divided

groups,

nations.

This level is

into two stages:

Stage 5 - The social-contract legalistic
orientation:

Here, correct behavior is defined

according to individual rights.

These rights

are developed by the whole society.
Stage

6

- The universal ethical principle

orientation:

Correct behavior becomes a

decision of conscience

in accord with self­

chosen ethical principles.
are universal,

These principles

comprehensive,

consistent,

and

76
abstract.

They are principles of justice,

reciprocity and equality of human rights,

and a

respect for the dignity of human beings as
individuals.
Rest's Measurement of Moral Devel o p m e n t .

Cognitive

developmental psychology holds certain assumptions about
the relationship of physical and social objects and their
importance on social,
opment.

emotional,

cognitive,

and moral devel­

Kohlberg defines cognitive structure as putting

things together or relating events,
active connecting process,

and this relating

is an

not a passive connecting of

events by external association and repetition.

(Kohlberg,

1968, p. 349)
Morality, according to Kohlberg, has to do with the
cognitive process by which one analyzes,

interprets,

makes decisions regarding social problems.
Rest,

and

According to

the developmentalist views cognitive structure as the

grid by which affective experiences are interpreted.
affective experiences, viewed cognitively,
for future

commitments (Rest,

These

become the basis

1974).

For Kohlbert and Rest,

there are delineated

levels

or stages of personality development and ideological devel­
opment which follow the cognitive stages.

Higher stages

assume a more complex set of problems and incorporate the
earlier stages.
in that

The higher stages are considered "better"

individuals who function at the higher stage level

are able to deal with more complex problems and see a wider

77
range of implications for their actions.
development

theory of moral development

The cognitive
is based on the

notion that ethical principles which flow from a person's
ideological commitment are the result of sequential
development
Further,
occurs

in socialization and cognition

(Kohlberg,

1969).

the theorists maintain that moral development

through conflict and reorganization.

That

is, a

person develops morally as he interacts with the forces of
his or her environment.
Rest
(DIT)

(1974) has devised the Defining Issues Test

that is derived from Kohlberg's theory.

The test

compares favorably with Kohlberg's tests, with a
correlation

(Rest,

1976).

. 6 8

It is a highly structured,

multiple-choice format which

is time-saving and minimizes

scoring bias.
Kohlberg in U s e .

The direct application of

Kohlberg's theory to higher education creates some d i f ficul­
ties.

College faculty and student developmentalists have

little explicit moral content upon which to rely.

Because

Kohlberg's research has been an analysis concerning the
stages of moral development,
is central to the theory.

the process of how one reasons

Thus moral education for Kohlberg

does not mean that one actually learns to act ethically.
general,
moral

the educator

issues

In

is left with conducting discussions on

in such a way that students are personally

cha l l e n g e d .
The theorist

is aware of these issues and purports

78
that cognitive moral development
creation of human justice.

is only a function of the

The development of justice

depends upon a community that incarnates it as a principle
of human interaction.
Kohlberg and his colleagues have set up "just
communities"

in several high schools.

These units are

comprised of about fifty participants.

The participating

students are afforded a large degree of self-governance in
order to learn an appreciation of democratic procedures and
to develop a sense of community

(Munson,

1979).

Kohlberg

assumes the centrality of moral rationality as a precondi­
tion for moral conduct

in that an individual seldom chooses

a good act that he or she does not know.

Further, he holds

that while drives and feelings are powerful motivators

in

moral behavior, without moral cognition these human elements
would not be understood.

They can only be recognized,

interpreted, and given meaning through cognitive structures.
Kohlberg's theory suggests that rationality has
priority

in human experience.

However,

the role of cogni­

tion in giving meaning to experience is not necessarily
adequate to control an individual's action.

The theory does

not attempt to discuss the interaction of the individual
with experience
feeling,

in the sense of unity between thought and

reflection and action,

or reason and will.

Heath's Maturation Model
Douglas Heath
College,

provides

(1968), professor at Haverford

theoretical

information as well as

79
increasing amounts of longitudinal data that is important in
this investigator's opinion.
vide structure
development,

Heath's maturation

for the notions of systems theory,

and human interaction.

ideas pro­
cognitive

Thus the Heath model

used to integrate many of the important ideas presented
the literature review.

Further,

is

in

the Heath model provides

helpful structural components for the design of Whole Person
Advis i n g .
Maturity.

Heath

(1968) presents a model of mat u ­

rity in which wholistic understanding of the complex process
of student development

is emphasized.

The maturation model

of Heath is not to be confused with the mechanistic notion
of "built-in" or naturalistic maturation.
suggests that growth occurs

Rather, he

in four areas of the individual

in which maturity of thought can be empirically
distinguished from immaturity.
Heath defines the process of psychological func­
tioning of the mature person from the findings of the factor
analysis approach to his research data.

Upon the results of

the empirical study he has structured his model.
he claims,

"is a classification map,

The model,

a working set of

categories which order the principal hypotheses which other
theorists claim distinguish mature from immature persons"
(H e a t h , 19 77, p .

6

The model
nents of the

).
identifies

four self-systems or compo­

individual and five dimensions of maturity.

To become more mature involves the development of a) the

80
intellectual,

b) values,

sonal

1968).

(Heath,

c) self-concept,

and d)

An individual develops

interper­

in each of

these self-systems along five dimensions of maturation,
developing from less to more skill, control and competence,
effectiveness and ability.
The five dimensions are:
1.

Symbolization,

or the ability to represent

experience
2.

Allocentricism, or other-centeredness

3.

Integration

4.

Stability

5.

Autonomy

For the purpose of this study,

Heath's four self­

systems have been redefined into five growth areas.
spiritual area has been labeled to represent
the moral character of the individual.

The

the essence of

It builds on Heath's

value self-system which focuses on moral and ethical devel­
opmental concerns.
The personal area

includes the Eriksonian notion of

life crisis and particularly identity issues.

This area

builds on Heath's identity self-system while the interper­
sonal self-system emphasizes the social
others.

The developmental

focus

interaction with

is grounded

in social

influence and helping concepts.
The intellectual area centers on an individual's
capacities as a thinker and as a learner which emphasizes
the cognitive developmentalist and epistemological concerns.

81
The academic area has been added to H e a t h ’s scheme to
specify the specific

institutional concerns related to whole

person advising.
Next,
considered

the five dimensions of human development are

in the context of activites which can enhance

development.

According to Heath, maturation or development

of the self-systems occur
Symbolization.
experience

in words,

in five dimensions.

The ability to represent one's

numbers,

pictures, music,

enhances adaption immeasurably.
observed

They are:

and gestures

A sense of praxis

is

in that one can retrospectively learn from one's

past, simultaneously monitor one's current activities, and
anticipate the conseguences of future experience by:
1.

Clarifying expectations about how a person is
to become more psychologically healthy or
mature.

2.

Providing models of goals.

3.

Contrasting,

4.

Teaching a person how to reflect about the

confronting,

and challenging.

process of his or her own growth.
The human value of honesty is associated with
symbolization

(Heath,

1982).

Allocentricism.

Healthy growth moves away from

egocentrism and narcissism to other-centeredness and
empathic understanding.
1.

Growth occurs when one:

Creates a climate of trust that encourages

82
nondefensive and open personal relationships
with peers and persons
2.

in authority.

Expects a person to be responsible for the
growth of other persons.

3.

Provides the opportunity to learn the skills
necessary for caring and for corporate,
cooperative learning.

4.

Provides opportunities for a person to assume
alternative roles.

The human value of compassion is associated with
allocentricism

(Heath,

I ntegration.
sistently integrated.

1982).
A maturing person becomes more con­
One's cognitive skills and knowledge

become more differentiated and organized; one thinks more
relationally and hierarchically.

This is facilitated in

situations where one:
1.

Encourages consistently the active involvement
of a person in the process of learning.

2.

Provides reflected-on experiential forms of
learning.

3.

Confronts a person with complex and contextual
problems that require synthesis as well as
analysis,

induction as well as deduction.

The human value of integrity
integration

(Heath,

Stabi1 ity.

is associated with

1982).
A healthily growing system becomes more

83
stable,

though not rigid,

complexity.
1.

at different levels of integrative

Stability is enhanced when one:
Encourages the anticipatory rehearsal of new
adapt a t i o n s .

2.

Reguires constant externalization of what is
learned and its correction by action.

3.

Allows a person to experience the conseguences
of his or her decisions and acts.

4.

Appreciates and affirms strengths.

The human value of commitment
stability

(Heath,
Autonomy.

is associated with

1982).
Personality theorists agree that a

healthily growing person becomes more self-regulating, more
in control of his or her own motives and talents,

and more

independent of external expectations and controls.

This is

facilitated when one:
1.

Expresses a realistic faith in a person's
capacity to be responsible for himself.

2.

Encourages a person's assumption of respon­
sibility for his own growth early and
cons istently.

3.

Progressively reduces structure and expecta­
tions to provide tests of a person's maturity
to be autonomous.

4.

Educates for transferability by testing and
applying what

is learned

in one situation to

increasingly dissimilar ones.

84
The human value of courage is associated with
autonomy

(Heath,

1980).

In combining the growth dimensions and the
self-systems of the Heath model,

one can produce a matrix

(Table 2.1) which provides hypotheses or questions which can
help define areas of change

for whole person advising.

TABLE 2.1
WHOLE PERSON ADVISING MODEL MATRIX

<
CJ

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J

M

cc

D

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j

W

J

h
M

s:
D
C

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M

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J

cn

m
CJ

O

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H

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^

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Growth Areas

INTEGRITY
(I n t e g r a t i o n )
COMMITMENT
(S t a b i it y )

Human

COMPASSION
(Allocentricism)

Values

HONESTY
(Symbolizat i o n )

1

COURAGE
(A u t o n o m y )

This matrix,
area,

are

included

along with work sheets

in the Appendix.

of whole person advising
displayed.

represented

The growth areas

for each growth

Also the general model
in a cube design

is

are shown on the face of the

85
cube while the developmental structural components are shown
on the side.
The developmental component of context
with the complex interrelated conditions

is concerned

in which the

individual exists or in which some interaction occurs.
content component
understood,

includes

the crises of

the topics or matter to be
growth.

Thirdly,

the conflation

is thebringing together into a complete whole,
making

The

or

the

of meaning for the developing individual.
The roles of the

advisor are reflected on

side of the model as counselor,

instructor,

the top

and evaluator.

Summary
Several philosophical and psychosocial perspectives
were reviewed for the purpose of providing a firm basis for
the understanding of the individual relevant to value and
moral

learning.

Student advising as presented in WPAM is

directed towards the goal of assisting the student in the
process of making value choices

in current life situations

within the context of higher education goals.

Good choices

can be defined by several philosophical bases such as the
naturalistic,
morality.

the humanistic, or the ontological basis for

The WPAM assumes the ontological view as a philo­

sophical basis in that the purposeful interaction of advis­
ing finds meaning in terms of the common values of the
institution.

Further,

the WPAM matrix was presented which

will provide the basis for student advising.

The matrix

juxtaposes the growth areas of whole person advising with

86
five basic human values which correspond with Douglas
Heath's five dimensions of student maturing.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
AND THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The general problem of this study was to explore
the effectiveness of the Whole Person Advisement Model
(WPAM)

as an intentional teaching/counseling method of the

general and moral educational outcomes of Spring Arbor
College.

Data were collected from randomly selected,

dential students and divided
treatment group.

resi­

into the control group and a

A third source of data was generated

from

all full-time faculty and advisors.
Research Questions
The following research questions were formulated to
give organizational

structure in accomplishing the purposes

of this study.
1.

What was the effectiveness of the WPAM as a
method of outcome goals of the College?
A.

What

is the actual

level of student

performance and and moral

judgment

in

regard to Spring Arbor College's stated
educational outcomes,

i.e.,

the Ideal

Graduate Statement?
B.

How do the levels of achievement of the

87

88
treatment group as measured by COMP compare
with a control group?
C.

How do the levels of achievement as
measured by COMP compare within the treat­
ment group when isolating the freshman,
sophomore,

junior and senior scores? What

kinds of trends can be analyzed?
2.

How do students'

scores of the DIT correlate

with the local norm of the general education
outcome as measured by the COMP?
A.

How do the DIT scores correlate with the
subtests clarifying values,

decision­

making, and communication of the COMP?
3.

Does the WPAM affect student retention?
Null Hypotheses

H O ^ Students having received the intervention
(WPAM)

do not significantly score higher on

COMP than students not receiving the inter­
vention .
H O o Students having experienced the intervention
(WPAM) do not significantly score higher on the
DIT than students not having experienced the
intervention.
HO

3

Students having received the intervention
(WPAM) do not persist in college at a better
rate than students not having received the
treatment.

89
Research Design
The posttest-only control group design provided the
organizational structure

for this exploratory study.

This

design utilized two groups; one which experienced the WPAM
while the other did not,
mortality

(Tuckman,

thus controlling for selection and

1972).

group in order to control

No pretests were given to either
for simple testing effects and the

interaction between the testing and the treatment,
trolling for threats to test validity.

thus con­

The procedure of the

design was to use the Whole Person Advisement Model for one
college term.

Faculty and counselors

implemented the Whole

Person Advisement Model simultaneously with the traditional
academic advising systems.
Instruments
The assessment was facilitated by the objective
tests of American College Testing Program (ACT, College
Outcome Measurement Project
Test,

[COMP]).

The Defining Issues

an objective test of moral judgment development devel­

oped by Dr. J. R. Rest of the Minnesota Moral Research
Project,

provided the second measure.
College Outcome Measurement P r o j e c t .

The Summary

Report of Research and D e velopment, (1981) of the American
College Testing Program indicated that in 1976 the College
Outcome Measurement Project was organized to design,
develop, validate and distribute assessment
procedures

tools and

that would measure and evaluate certain kinds of

knowledge and skills that undergraduate students were

90
expected to acquire as a result of general education.
knowledge and skills
sary for successful

The

identified were those believed neces­
functioning

in adult society by repre­

sentatives of institutions and state agencies which American
College Testing knew had invested time and effort

in at­

tempting to identify realistic competencies and outcomes.
American College Testing program staff took the suggestions
of these academicians and did an extensive review of the
literature and then worked with institutional representa­
tives to identify proposed categories

for the over 500

outcomes statements that were generated.
were identified through this process:

Six

6

communicating,

ing problems,

clarifying values,

institutions,

using science and technology,

arts.

( ) domains
solv­

functioning with social
and using the

Over one hundred and fifty institutions participated

in the field testing of the three instruments designed as a
result of the project.
Examination,
Questions

The

instruments were the Composite

the Objective Test,

and the Activity Inventory.

in the Composite Examination and the Objective

Tests are based on realistic stimulus materials drawn from
the adult public domain such as television documentaries,
recent magazine articles,

ads,

short stories,

music, discussions and news casts.

art prints,

Both print and nonprint

stimuli are used and the response formats varied
answer,
Test

to multiple-choice,

to self-report.

(a multiple choice format)

directly the ability of students

used

from short

The Objective

in this study measured

to apply general education

91
and skills to problems and

issues commonly confronted by

adults.
Research conducted by American College Testing
Program during the field testing phase of the project
produced a number of significant findings
1.

(ACT,

1981).

Student performance on the COMP test battery
appeared to be unrelated to simple maturation
and related to the educational programs of the
participating

2.

institutions.

The COMP test battery measures abilities not
measured directly by college grades or
content-specific tests.

3.

COMP test battery appears to measure abilities
relevant to functioning adult roles in society.

4.

The Objective Test provides a quick and
inexpensive way to estimate how groups of
participants will perform on the Composite
Examination.

Since
cate,

it was recognized that people do not communi­

clarify values,

without some content

or solve problems
involved,

(process skills)

and likewise,

these process

skills are central to effective functioning within social
institutions,
technology,

using the arts and using science and

a two-dimensional matrix was developed to repre­

sent more realistically the integrated manner in which the
six

( ) competencies are likely to exist within
6

This COMP matrix is:

individuals.

92
TABLE 3.1
INTEGRATION OF SIX COMP COMPETENCIES

Using Science
and Technology

Functioning within
Social Institutions

Using
the Arts

Communi­
cating

Solving
Problems

Clarify­
ing
Values

This matrix is reflected
the COMP instruments.

in the scoring mechanism of each of

The total score represents the scores

on each sub-set of the test after the amount of inter­
relationships have been factored out.

Table 3.2 shows the

relationship of the six areas of measurement

in COMP to the

stated outcomes of Spring Arbor College.
Defining Issues T e s t .
Defining

Issues Test which

J. R. Rest developed the

is comprised of either three or

six moral dilemma stories which are similar to the Kohlberg
stories

(Rest,

1979).

The way a subject responds to twelve

statements or issues derived from the stories yields a P
score which represents Principled Morality,
equivalent to level three

and

is roughly

in Kohlberg's paradigm.

"The P is

interpreted as the relative importance a subject gives to
principled moral consideration
(Rest,

1976).

in making moral decisions"

The short form is used

in this study.

Rest summarizes over a hundred studies

that used

93
TABLE 3.2
RELATIONSHIP OF SIX AREAS OF MEASUREMENT IN COMP
TO STATED OUTCOMES OF SPRING ARBOR COLLEGE

COMP Outcome

SAC Ideal Graduates Outcomes

Communicating

communication skills

Solving Problems

self-education, critical thinking,
approach to inquiry

Clarifying Values

self-confrontations, making wise
judgments, understanding moral
issues, religious meaning

Functioning within
Social Institutions

critically participating in the
contemporary world, understanding
of social issues

Using Science and
Technology

developing research skills,
preparation in one or more
disciplines

Using Arts

understanding heritage,
well-integrated (mature adult)
serious involvement with liberal
arts study

the DIT and states "To my knowledge,
represents

this body of research

the most thorough investigation of the norma-

logical network of relationships yet conducted of the moral
development construct and no other measure of moral judge­
ment has demonstrated such consistent reliability and
validity,

involving so many different

many different populations"
These studies have
(Rest,

1974)

(Rest,

investigators with so

1977, p.l).

included cross-sectional studies

and longitudinal studies

(Rest,

1975).

Corre­

lation studies have been done with the Defining of Issues
Test, with

I.Q.

and with comprehension

(Rest, Turiel,

Kohlberg,

1969; Coder,

(Keasey and Keasey,

1975)

1974;

and with formal operations

Kuhn,

1973).

Testable Hypotheses
1.

That there is a relationship between the
vention

2.

(WPAM)

and the scores of the COMP.

That there is a relationship between the
intervention

3.

inter­

(WPAM)

and the score of the

That there is a relationship between the

DIT.
inter­

vention and retention rates.
The Population Sample
The population of this study included full-time
residential students at Spring Arbor College,
Michigan.

The researcher obtained an alphabetized computer

listing of all students residing
residence halls

groups.

in Spring Arbor College

in that winter semester of 1982.

list one hundred and twenty
selected.

Spring Arbor,

(120)

From this

names were randomly

These names were randomized

into two equal

The two groups were then studied for equal distri­

bution of subjects

in regard to number of years

gender of the subject,

grade point average,

in college,

and American

College Testing college entrance scores.
Sample Preparation
The investigator proceeded to contact each subject
using two methods.

The first contact was via a written

invitation to participate

in an exploratory study focusing

on student choices and academic advising.

The second method

of contact with the subject was through the resident

95
assistant

in the residence hall.

They made personal contact

and reminded the subjects that they had been invited to
participate

in this special study at the college.

Second, a group meeting was organized to bring all
of the subjects who had volunteered for the program together
with faculty members and counselors who would act as their
advisors.

The purpose of the meeting was to introduce once

again the idea of the whole person advisement model.
stration of the materials and a short

Demon­

introduction to the

philosophy and purposes associated with the special program
were presented.

After the short presentation,

a question

and answer session was held, at which time subjects had an
opportunity to express concerns about the methodology or the
purposes of the study.

Faculty and counselors were also

encouraged to dialogue and raise questions about the process
and purposes.
At the conclusion of the meeting,

students were

invited to select a faculty member to act as their advisor.
The advisors who were selected by the students did not have
to be the students'

assigned academic advisors.

be noted that in some cases,

however,

It should

the students did

choose their academic advisors to act as the WPAM advisors.
Following the organizational meeting,

the

investigator took the requests of the subjects and organized
the requests with faculty and counselor advisors.
The Treatment
Each advisor was provided with a list of advisees

96
determined by random assignment.

The student and faculty

member agreed to meet at least once a week

for one academic

term with each session having a duration of approximately 45
minutes.
The advising process utilized WPAM

(Appendix A) to

create dialogue between the student and faculty member
regarding the student's values and personal goals.
developmental approach,

In this

the student was encouraged to ask

questions and determine appropriate resources and behavior
needed to respond to whole person needs.
also established

Accountability was

in the interaction.

The treatment provided an intentional facultystudent

interaction

in which both persons freely challenged

with questions the personal values and behavior of the
student.

Further, both faculty and students were encouraged

to support the interaction by both being active in the
process.
The initial sessions were designed to help the
advisee determine specific areas for personal growth, while
the later sessions were
faculty-student

intended to provide time for

interaction related to accountability.

contract approach presented

The

in WPAM provided a structure for

personal accountability.
Follow-up contact was

initiated with the advisors

in order to determine advisor behavior that characterized
the intervention.

A survey was administered to each advisor

to facilitate this descriptive activity.

Appendix C

97
contains additional

information regarding

comments received by advisors
essence,

the survey and

in regard to WPAM.

In

advisor behavior in regard to the treatment is

described

in the following paragraphs.
All the advisors met regularly with their advisees

for the prescribed times during the intervention.

These

sessions varied in duration from thirty minutes to one and
one half hours.

All the advisors used the question

technique presented

in WPAM most or all of the time during

their advising sessions.

The focus on the college general

education goals was also strongly emphasized

in the model.

All but one of the advisors used WPAM to ask students to
think about his or her personal goals
Graduate Statement.
active listening,

in terms of the Ideal

In regard to a concern related to

the faculty members strongly agreed that

WPAM assisted them to intentionally listen to the students.
The second major element of WPAM is the behavioral
contract component.

All the faculty advisors utilized the

contract

form to provide needed structure,

students

in organizing and planning in accord with students'

goals for development.

Several advisors actually contracted

specific personal behaviors
support of the students'

to assist

they would perform with or in

plans.

Examples of faculty

contracted behavior were reading a chosen book, attending a
concert together with students,

or participating

wellness program

Most important,

(Appendix C).

did utilize the contract form with the students

in a
the advisors
in

98
attempting

to assist the implementation of students'

developmental goals.
All the faculty members
encouraged

indicated that WPAM

them to interact with the advisees

the students'

in terms of

interests and goals rather than "signing off"

the registration form.

Finally, most of the advisors

reported they continued to use WPAM after the study was
comple t e d .
Collection of Data
Upon the completion of the whole person advisement
model project,

two evaluative

to the subjects.

instruments were administered

This occurred fifteen days prior to the

end of the spring academic term.

Each advisor was reguested

to encourage each subject to particiate
session.

Further,

in the evaluation

each subject received a written communi­

que reminding them of the testing period.
scheduled to be three hours
Of the original

The periods were

in length.

randomly-selected subjects,

approximately fifty percent completed the assessment phase.
Data Analysis
Data generated from the two evaluative
were coded separately.

instruments

The COMP data was coded and key­

punched for computer analysis by ACT and returned to the
investigator.

The DIT material was hand-scored computing a

P score for each individual questionnaire.

Descriptive data

(frequencies and percentage of frequencies of response and
means,

standard deviations,

and ranges) were compiled

for

99
the COMP program.
science

The statistical package for social

(Nie, Hall, Jenkins, S t e i n brenner, & Brandt,

1970)

provided the basis for statistical technigues which were
performed.

For all hypothesis testing,

the point

of significance was adopted as a criterion.

.05 level

Further study

of the relationship between the COMP and the DIT was com­
pleted using correlational

technigues.

Additional statis­

tical methods were used to study the effect of the WPAM
between and among the treatment and control groups.

Secon­

dary analysis was also performed by developing a treatment
level score from the treatment group's individual report of
the personal effectiveness of the intervention.

The treat­

ment level score was compared to the outcome scores to
determine personal subjective views of the treatment and
objective scores of the instruments.
Summary
The general problem of this study was to
investigate the effectiveness of the Whole Person Advisement
Model as an intentional method for general and moral educa­
tion outcomes of Spring Arbor College.
Data was gathered from randomly selected residen­
tial students and divided
treatment group.

Further,

into the control group and a
additional data was generated

from a third group consisting of all full-time faculty.
The COMP and DIT were used to systematically gather
the data.

Retention data was secured from the Office of the

Registrar,

Spring Arbor College.

100
In summary,

the intervention WPAM was administered

and the subjects were tested.

The data was analyzed using

the appropriate statistical tests for correlation and
significant relationship.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE DATA
Introduction
The primary data presented

in this chapter was

gathered via an investigation using two testing instruments,
the College Outcome Measurement Project
Issues Test

(DIT).

(COMP) and Defining

Additional data which provided the

treatment level analysis were also gathered from the
treatment group.

Results of the testing provide both

information regarding the experimental groups as well as the
data for hypothesis testing.
Purpose of the Study
The study had two purposes.

This research was

designed to study the short-term effects of the intentional
method of student development by using the post-test only
control group approach.

The findings and conclusions are

expected to serve as a basis for further longitudinal study
regarding student choice-making and institutional concerns
for student retention.
The second purpose was to involve faculty in both
the process of the model as well as the evaluation phase of

101

102
the study,

thus providing structured interaction for the

faculty and students.
Analysis of Experimental Groups
Descriptive Characteristics of the Treatment Group
A total of 35 residential students comprised the
treatment group.
male students.

Fifty-one percent were female;

49% were

The data which follows in Tables 4.1-4.6 was

descriptive of the groups prior to treatment.
The distribution of class standing

is displayed in

Table 4.1.

TABLE 4.1
TREATMENT GROUP BY CLASS STANDING
Relative Frequencies

Absolute Frequencies
Freshmen
14
9
Sophomores
-Juniors
—
7
5
Seniors
Total —
35

40.0%
25.7%
2 0 .0%
14.3%
1 0 0 .0%

Basic academic grade

information for the treatment

group is shown in Table 4.2.

TABLE 4.2
GRADE POINT AVERAGE FOR TREATMENT GROUP
Minimum Score
Maximum Score
Mean Score
Standard Deviation
Median Score
Mode Score

1.79
4.00
2.84
.53
2.85
2.54

103
The mean grade point average of the treatment group
was 2.84.

The mean grade point average for the Spring Arbor

total student body was 2.81.
Retention,
individuals

i.e.,

the enrollment of the actual

in the following semester,

among the treatment

group was as follows:

TABLE 4.3
RETENTION OF THE TREATMENT GROUP
Relative Freguencies

Absolute Freguencies
Retained
Not Retained
Graduated
Total

23
7
5
35

65.7%
2 0 .0%
14.3%
1 0 0 .0%

Descriptive Characteristics of the Control Group
A total of 25 resident students comprised the
control group.

Sixty-four percent or 16 were female and

thirty-six percent or 9 students were male.
The class standing distribution is displayed in
Table 4.4.

TABLE 4.4
CONTROL GROUP BY CLASS STANDING
Absolute Freguencies
Freshmen
Sophomores
Ju niors
Sen iors
Total

15
5
3
2
J5

Relative Freguencies
60%
20%
12%
8%
100%

104
Basic academic grade

information for the control

group is shown in Table 4.5.

TABLE 4.5
GRADE POINT AVERAGE OF THE CONTROL GROUP
1.79
3. 69
2. 79
.58
2.89
1.81

Minimum Score
Maximum Score
Mean Score
Standard Deviation
Median Score
Mode Score

The grade point average of the control group had a
mean score of 2.79.

The mean grade point average for the

Spring Arbor total student body was 2.81.
Retention,

i.e.,

the enrollment of the actual

vidual in the following semester,

indi­

among the control group

was as follows:

TABLE 4.6
RETENTION OF THE CONTROL GROUP
Relative Freguencies

Absolute Freguencies
Retained
Not Retained
Graduated
Total

14
10
1
25

56%
40%
4%
100%

Judgments about the Groups
For the purpose of this study,

the size of the

sample provides helpful data regarding the Whole Person
Advisement Model process.

However,

the small sample size

105
size limits the possibilities for developing generalizations
regarding all Spring Arbor College residential students.
The sample was drawn randomly from Spring Arbor College
full-time students and controlled only for resident and
non-resident status of the student, on the assumption that
collegiate residence living

is a persuasive social and

psychological environmental

influence upon students'

le ar n i n g .
The random distribution of individuals into the
groups by class standing appeared similar in that the number
of freshmen were nearly half the total number of both the
treatment group and the control group.

This randomization

of class standing was dissimilar to the total student body
in terms of the higher proportion of freshmen represented in
the groups.

Because of the percentage of freshmen present

in the groups,

descriptive data was presented regarding

Spring Arbor freshmen's performance of the College Outcomes
Measurement Project

(COMP)

scores

and control group (Table 4.7).
3 class levels, Table 4.8

in reference to treatment

In relation to the remaining

is presented

in order to compare

the Spring Arbor College freshmen with national norms of
college

freshmen.
A local percentile table for the COMP was construc­

ted based on all freshmen tested to display Spring Arbor
College student scores against national norms as determined
by ACT.

Table 4.7

illustrates the freshmen scores in the

treatment group and the control groups plotted on a

106
TABLE 4.7
NORM SCORES OF TREATMENT AND CONTROL GROUP
SPRING ARBOR FRESHMEN COMP PERCENTILE SCORES

Total
S core

Func t . 1q
Soc. Inst.

Using
S c ience

Using
the Arts

Coojsiur.i*
c .i t lnfi

So l v i n g

Clcrii.

Pere.rn-

— L 7

8

—

•60

30

---10

D e s c r i p t i o n of

the 3806

Men

F r e s h m e n in the

1981

Re Ic r o n :o Cr o u p

A g e Range
921 Ag e 19 or b e l o w

63'. ’
-I’jovn
Area of Interest
<*42 5ocl.il Sciences
?42 N a t u r a l / 3 i e l . Sciences
Z 1 » Ar ts .'Human i 1 1i s

A CT Compos ill- karpe
32 be l o w 10
13'. 2,-27

5*•Age —
10

22

8'1

32 Age 23 or above
ACT C o m p o s i t e (or equivalent
for SAT Total! score:, a v a i l a b l e
i c r 29/8 stu:icatfl.
Hear. 19.6

K2

1 0 - 1.

13- 15

172. It-la
]g'

(2 28-30
12 over 30

19 2;
2?-2<.

Median range 19- 21

0 = means

for

freshman

in treatment group

<> = means

for

freshman

in control

group

107
percentile table for 3806 freshmen at 25 institutions as
tested by ACT.

The table shows the total COMP score and the

percentile scores of the COMP subtests.
The control group sample of freshmen compares
favorably with freshmen

in the reference group in entering

levels of proficiency on skills measured by COMP.

The

treatment group sample appears somewhat weak

in these skills

as measured by COMP.

freshmen at

The sample of combined

Spring Arbor College appear as well prepared as other fresh­
men generally participating
Further,

in COMP.

combined groups by class standing plotted

on a senior reference group norm on a percentile table for
4493 seniors at 45 institutions

tested by ACT is shown in

Table 4.8 to further describe the Spring Arbor sample in
comparison to national norms.
The groups were also similar to the college
population

in male-female

ratio.

Likewise,

the grade point

average of the research groups was similar to the student
body with the treatment group mean of 2.84,

the control

group mean of 2.79 and the student body mean of 2.81.
Although the GPA levels between the groups were similar, a
secondary analysis was performed to study GPA as a possible
confounding variable related to the treatment and COMP
scores

(HO 1.2).
Another possible confounding variable which was

analyzed was the students'
determined by the ACT.

college entrance scores as

Students'

previous academic

10 8
TABLh’ 4.8

C O M B I N E D SPRING ARBOR GROUPS
B Y CLASS STANDING

C O M P PERCENTILE SCORES

90

70

L

COM
SJOTLiTS l-o AND TGfAl iCL*«L

1 = freshmen
2 = sophomores
3 = ju n io r s

109
achievement
students'
of COMP

(ACT scores)

was studied in relationship to

ability to score on the general education measure

(HO 1.1).
Faculty Characteristics
All full-time faculty members were administered the

COMP.

Each faculty member was given the opportunity to

identify him/ herself or to respond anonymously.

Fifty-

seven percent or 20 individual faculty identified their
responses and 43% responded anonymously.
Senior Reference Group norms,

Compared with

the 20 identified faculty

obtained a mean total score at the 77th percentile.

The

mean for the 15 unidentified faculty was at the 49th
percentile as shown

in Table 4.9.

The range of the total score was extremely wide,
from the 13th percentile to the 97th percentile.

Twelve of

the faculty scored within the 85th and 99th percentiles.
However,

seven of the faculty scored between the 13th and

the 25th percentiles on Senior Reference norms.
it appears

As a group,

that some of the faculty tested obtained scores

substantially lower than might be expected
According to ACT

(1982),

there

(ACT,

1981).

is an inadequate number of

faculty who have taken COMP to provide comparisons with
faculty at other institutions.

However,

faculty who have

taken the test have typically obtained total scores at or
above the 70th percentile on Senior Reference norms
1981) .

(ACT,

The relat ionship between faculty's ability to score

on COMP and students'

COMP performance was not studied

in

110
TABLE 4.9
FACULTY MEAN SCORES
PLOTTED ON A PERCENTILE TABLE
FOR SENIORS
COMP PERCENTILE SCORES

Per cea-

Total
Score

11 lea

F u a c t . 1b
Soc. ln<C.

U* l n |
Sci ence

Uf t n *
t he Ar t «

Comuni eating

Sol vi ng

Clarlf.

Probletan

Value*,

P e r c c n11 If s
100

-9*
•90

71

I

11

•
1

■S
6

s»

Ml
45

«I
MS
41

40

t)
«)

17

II

11

% 0

st
71

70

SI

II
14 •

11

SI

13
1

«!•

I

S

7

S

»

0 = means for 20 identified faculty
<> = means for 15 unidentified faculty

Ill
this exploratory

investigation.

is presented as descriptive

However,

the faculty data

information which was revealed

in the administration of COMP to the full-time faculty.
Results of Hypotheses Testing
The first null hypothesis led to three more specif­
ic secondary hypotheses concerning possible relationships
between variables and confounding

factors present in the

st u d y .
HO 1 :

Students having received the intervention
(WPAM) do not significantly score higher
on COMP than students not treated with
WPAM.

The t-test analysis yields a value that does not
exceed the corresponding entry value,

therefore,

the test

indicates no significant difference in the mean total scores
(Table 4.10).
The outcome scores of the COMP are also displayed
in Table 4.11 to illustrate the relative relationship be­
tween treatment and control group scores.
The T-value shows as a minus value because the
formula calls for the treatment group value to appear first.
Further,

the F-value

calculated value

is not significant.

Even though the

is close to the entry value,

ability between the groups

the vari­

is not large enough

in comparison

with the variability within the groups to justify the infer­
ence that the population from which the different groups
were sampled are not the same.

In other words,

the

112

TABLE 4. 10
T-TEST AND F-TEST OF SAMPLE MEAN
TOTAL SCORES ON COMP (HO 1)

Variable

Number
Of Cases

Mean

Standard
Error

Standard
Deviation

Treatment
Group 1

35

174.00

14.034

2.372

Control
Group 2

25

175.96

15.084

3.017

Pooled Variance Estimate

F
Value

2-tail
Prob.

1.16

.687

T
Value
-0.78

Separate Variances

Degrees
of
Freedom
58

variability between group means

2-Tail
Prob.

T
Value

Degrees
of
Freedom

.438

-0.77

49.49

is not large enough to

conclude that there is a statistically significant
difference present in the data.

Therefore the null

hypothesis was accepted.
Secondary Analysis of the First General Null Hypothesis
In order to more carefully examine the relation­
ships between the treatment and the outcomes,
analysis was performed

secondary

to gain an understanding of the rela­

tive relationships and possible confounding

factors.

A m o d­

erately strong correlation was found between ACT and total
COMP and moderate correlation was found between GPA and

113
TABLE 4.11
COMP SAMPLE MEANS FOR
TREATMENT GROUP AND CONTROL GROUP
PLOTTED ON A PERCENTILE TABLE
FOR SENIOR NORMS

Pcrccn-

Total
S c o rc

Fuact * In
Soc . I n s t .

«I

1/sLnc
ScJoncc

I' sin I
t h e _Ar.ts

Cocrcunl-

Sol vi ng

C*»r;i.

71

JJ.

1

(I

«)

<)
Ml
•I

I7;

tI

57

It

II

13

57
S t

i i

17

0 - means for treatment group
<> - means for control group

A'

114
COMP.

While

it appeared that the treatment had no signifi­

cant effect on the outcome scores, previous achievement and
current academic success seem to have been related to stu­
dents'

ability to score higher on COMP.
HO 1.1;

Students'

ACT scores do not correlate

significantly with total C O M P .
The Pearson's r was determined to investigate this
hypothesis.

A correlation of r = 0.67 was found.

.05 level of significance,
exist,

At the

a very strong relation does

therefore the null hypothesis was not accepted.

scattergram of total COMP and ACT scores

A

is shown in Table

4.12.
HO 1.2:

S t u d e n t s ’ GPAs do not correlate signifi­

cantly with total C O M P .
The correlation

(r) is .484,

indicating a strong

correlation between GPA and total COMP.

The table of levels

of significance indicates that a value of r = .484 is
significant at the

.05 level of significance.

the null hypothesis was not accepted.
total COMP and GPA scores
HO 1.3:

Therefore,

A scattergram of

is shown in Table 4.13.

Students'

treatment level scores do not

correlate significantly with total C O M P .
In an attempt to further understand the possible
effects of WPAM
variables,

in relationship to other confounding

such as student satisfaction,

secondary analysis

was attempted by the use of treatment level scores.
Treatment

level scores were derived from a questionnaire

115
TABLE 4.12

S C ATT ERG RA M OF TOTAL COMP A ND ACT

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116
TABLE 4.13

SCATTERGRAM OF TOTAL COMP AND GPA
152.*12.15

234.25

256.35

27145

382.55

322.65

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117
administered to the treatment group

(Appendix B).

The

questionnaire provided opportunity for the student to
respond on a five-point scale concerning the student's
opinion regarding

the WPAM.

The questionnaire contained 6 items.

Table 4.14

presents the items and the mean response values to each
item.

The response scale valued 1 as "definitely agree" and

5 as "no agreement" with the item.

TABLE 4.14
QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS
AND MEAN RESPONSES

Item

Mean

in personal decisions

2.33

2.

Contract structure of WPAM helpful

2.61

3.

Reported behavioral change due to WPAM

2. 55

4.

Agreement with scriptural assumption

1.11

5.

WPAM faculty advisor helpful

2.22

6.

WPAM should be utilized for all
freshmen and transfer students

2.43

1

.

WPAM helpful

The treatment level score is a mean value calcu­
lated from the scaled responses with five being the lowest
(unfavorable)

and one being the highest

value used as the treatment level score
3 was neutral and was assigned

(favorable).
is 2.431.

The

The value

to the control group.

The correlation between

the treatment level and the

118
COMP score was moderately weak

(r = .28).

Likewise,

the

correlation between the treatment level and the DIT revealed
a weak correlation

(r = .22).

The relationship between the

treatment level score and retention was also weak
At a significance

level of .05,

relationships were significant.
hypothesis

(r = .22).

none of the

Therefore,

the null

(HO 1.3) was accepted.

A second general null hypothesis and several spe­
cific hypotheses explored possible relationships between the
intervention and the Defining
HO 2 :

Issues Test

(DIT) score.

Students having experienced WPAM do not
significantly score higher on the DIT than
students not having experienced the
intervention.

The second general null hypothesis was tested with
the T-test as was the first general null hypothesis and was
accepted on the basis of no significance difference between
the mean scores.

The data related to the hypothesis

shown on Table 4.15.
one-tail test at the

is

The corresponding table value for a
.05 level is approximately

1.67.

The

t-test value does not exceed the corresponding value,
therefore the null hypothesis

is accepted.

Secondary Analysis of the Second General Null Hyothesis
HO 2.1:

Students'

significantly c o r r e l a t e .

COMP and DIT scores do not

The correlation between COMP and

DIT scores was moderately strong
•01).

Therefore,

(r = .37, significance =

the null hypothesis was not accepted.

119

TABLE 4.15
T-TEST AND F- TEST OF SAMPLE P MEAN SCORES
ON DIT (HO 2)

Variable

Number
Of Cases

Mean

Standard
Deviation

Standard
Error

Treatment
Group 1

35

20. 51

7.155

1. 209

Control
Group 2

25

19. 40

6.371

1. 274

Pooled Variance Estimate

Separate Variances

F
Value

2-tail
Prob.

T
Value

Degrees
of
Freedom

1.26

.559

0.62

58

HO 2.2:

Students'

2-Tail
Prob.

T
Value

Degrees
of
Freedom

.536

0.63

55.14

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with COMP subtest communication

(COM).

The

correlation between these scores showed a weak relationship
(r = .29, significance = .04).

Therefore,

the null

hypothesis was not accepted.
HO 2.3:

Students'

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with COMP subtest decision-making
relationship between these scores
(r = .29, significance = .04).

(SP).

is considered

Therefore,

The

to be weak

the null

hypothesis was not accepted.
HO 2.4:

Students'

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with COMP subtest clarifying values

(C U ).

The

120
correlation value is r = .30 with a significance at the .03
level.
weak.

Here again the relationship is considered moderately
Therefore,

the null hypothesis was not accepted.

The third general null hypothesis studies the rela­
tionship between the intervention and the retention rates of
students at Spring Arbor College.
HO 3:

Students having received the intervention

(WPAM) do not significantly persist in college at a better
rate than students not having received the treatment.
Non-graduating Students who received the treatment
persisted in college at a rate of 76.7% compared with the
control group students who persisted at a rate of 58.3%.
This represents a 18.4 percentage point spread
tion rate of students receiving the treatment.

in the reten­
Further,

23.3% of the treatment group did not persist in comparison
with a 41.7% attrition rate for the control group.

Fourteen

and three tenths percent graduated from the treatment group,
while 4% graduated from the control group.
Even though the chi sguared value fell short at the
.05 level by only .64,

the study appears to indicate a

possible positive relationship between the treatment and the
improved retention rates.

Therefore,

the null hypothesis

was not accepted.
Summary
The descriptive characteristics of the groups re­
vealed the distribution across class standing to be rather
consistent between the groups.

Within both groups the

122
treatment group and the control group did not show a
significant difference.

ACT and GPA scores did relate

significantly with total COMP scores.

Secondary analysis

was performed using a created treatment level score which
was generated from students'

scaled responses to an

questionnaire regarding the treatment.

There was little

evidence that the treatment was effectively measured because
of confounding variables for which the study did not
c o n tro l .
HO 1 :

Students having received the intervention
(WPAM) do not significantly score higher
on COMP than students not treated with
WPAM.

The t-test analysis yielded a value that did not
exceed the corresponding entry value,

therefore the null

hypothesis was accepted.
HO 1.1:

Students'

ACT scores do not correlate

significantly with total C O M P .
HO 1.2;

Students'

GPAs do not correlate signifi­

cantly with total C O M P .
Both of these secondary null hypotheses were not
accepted.

At the .05 level of significance,

both

relationships were significant.
HO 1.3:

Students'

treatment level scores do not

correlate significantly with total C O M P .
This secondary null hypothesis was accepted.
The second hypothesis questioned the relationship

123
between the treatment and moral judgment of the student as
measured by DIT.
HO 2 ;

Students having experienced WPAM do not
significantly score higher on the DIT than
students not having experienced the
i ntervention.

The t-test yielded a value which did not exceed the
corresponding table value,

therefore the null hypothesis was

acce p t e d .
The subtest scores of the COMP and the DIT show
possible moral and value development correlational
relationships.
moral judgment

There is moderately weak correlation between
(P score)

and students'

ability to score in

the communication, decision-making, and clarifying values
subtests,

indicating a possible relationship in those areas

of general education and moral judgment.
HO 2.1;

Students'

COMP and DIT scores do not

significantly c o r r e l a t e .
The secondary null hypothesis was not accepted
because at the

.05 level of significance,

significant relationship
HO 2.2:

indicated.

Students'

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with COMP subtest communication
HO 2.3:

there was a

Students'

(COM).

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with COMP subtest decision-making
HO 2.4:

Students'

(SP).

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with COMP subtest clarifying values

(C U ).

124
These secondary null hypotheses were not accepted.
While these relationships were not strongly correlated,
nevertheless they were statistically significant at the

.05

level.
The third hypothesis

investigated the effects of

the treatment upon retention.

This study revealed that the

treatment appeared to relate to the persistence of students
in the following academic term.

Eighteen and four tenths

percentage points difference between the treatment and
control group indicated that the treatment did enhance
retention of students
HO 3 ;

in this exploratory study.

Students having received the intervention
(WPAM) do not significantly persist in
college at a better rate than students not
having received the trea t m e n t .

This null hypothesis was not accepted.

The

difference in percentage of retention rates between the
treatment and control groups appears to indicate evidence
of a positive relationship between intervention and the
improved retention rates,

even though the statistical

significance difference falls short of the chi sguared
table value by .64.

index

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Introduction
The Whole Person Advising Model

(WPAM) was an at­

tempt to create interaction between students and faculty for
the purpose of enhancing student maturation and development.
The nature of human maturation as characterized by the
theorists and researchers of human development provided the
structural

framework for the model.

maturation were the students'
tives and goals.

The content elements of

personal and academic objec­

Faculty advising was the method of inter­

action utilized to achieve the purposes of WPAM.

Advising

was viewed as fundamental to the process of student devel­
opment and maturing.
Student

involvement

in the process of higher edu­

cation is key to student satisfaction and cognitive devel­
opment

(Astin,

continued

1984).

Beyond student satisfaction and

interest in remaining

in college,

students

perceived that they had control of or were intrinsically
motivated to manage their own lives

(Weimer,

1979).

Several of the results of this study which were
discussed
However,

in Chapter IV were not statistically significant.
the data indicated

that WPAM did appear to have a

125

126
positive impact on student retention.

In this final

chapter, a brief review of the study development and the
results of research are presented.

A discussion regarding

the conclusions and relevance of the literature of this
study is also presented.

The chapter is concluded with

recommendations for practice and recommendations for further
research.
Summary of the Development of the Study
Purpose of the Study
Chapter I contained the overview and purposes of
the study.

This study investigated the effects of the Whole

Person Advisement Model.
More specifically,
1.

the purposes of this study were:

To provide a review of the theory and research
of attitude and moral development,
interaction and student advising

social

in literature

of educational and social psychology and
student development
2.

in higher education.

To administer the Whole Person Advisement Model
for the limited period of time,
one academic term;

specifically,

3.

To administer the Whole Person Advisement Model
simultaneously with the current academic advis­
ing system;

4.

To provide faculty and counselors with syste­
matic,

intentional procedures for contributing

to the process of whole person education;
5.

To provide a general model for the assessment
of student learning needs, personal goals and
environmental resources;

6.

To determine possible correlational relation­
ships between the College Outcome Measurement
Project

(COMP)

and the Defining

Issues Test

(DIT);
7.

To explore the possible relationship between
faculty advising and student outcomes;

8.

To explore the possible relationship between
the Whole Person Advisement Model and student
retent i o n .

Rationale and Need for the Study
After a review of the related literature,

it was

determined that a need existed for a study of an intentional
method of whole person advising.

The following observations

supported the need for such a study:
1.

Academic advising has been regarded as one of
the most important aspects of higher education,
however,

it often lacks intentionality in

programming.

128
2.

Human development
teraction.

is a function of human in­

Academic advising has long been

considered an important opportunity for
faculty-student interaction.
3.

Student moral and value development is facili­
tated in the helping relationship that could be
available in the advising process.

Advising

can be used in student attitude change.
4.

Student wholistic choice-making or involvement
in life of higher education in general

is ap­

propriate content matter for faculty advising
rather than limiting interaction to only insti­
tutional requirements.
5.

Student retention in higher educational
tutions is facilitated by student
in the educational process.
ment and psychological

insti­

involvement

Student involve­

interaction are viewed

as different terms reflecting the same
ph e n o m e n o n .
Methodology
The research methods and design of the study were
presented in Chapter III.

A random sample of Spring Arbor

College residential students was selected.

The design of

the study required the students to be divided
group and a treatment group.

into a control

The post-test only design was

used to control for pre-test effects since the study was
completed

in a relatively short time period.

The problem of

129
the investigation was to study the effectiveness of the
Whole Person Advisement model as an intentional method of
general and moral educational outcome at Spring Arbor
C o l leg e .
Treatment
The WPAM intervention involved the students of the
treatment group through assigned faculty advisors.

The

advisors were volunteers and were briefed on the purpose and
simple procedures of WPAM.

Each student and faculty member

agreed to meet together at least once a week during the ten
weeks of the project.

During the meetings the student's

personal growth plans were discussed by engaging in q u e s ­
tions related to the areas of individual growth.

Value

issues regarding those areas of development provided the
relevant questions for discussion.

Individual plans were

established, objectives were created, and expectations
regarding accountability were agreed upon.

The students and

advisor agreed upon times for follow-up for the purpose of
support and accountability.
The nature of the treatment was characterized by
regularly scheduled meetings between faculty and advisees.
Advisors'

consistently used the model

in regard to the

question-asking procedures and the behavioral contracts.
Further,

faculty indicated active listening

in the advising

process with special emphasis related to students'
and goals.

interests

Intentional effort was made on the part of the

130
advisors to assist their advisees

in relating personal goals

to the Spring Arbor general educational goals.
The research design provided for post-test of the
WPAM process utilizing the College Outcome Measurement
Project

(COMP)

and the Defining Issues Test

(DIT).

Sixty

students participated in the study, with a treatment group
sample number of 35 and a control sample number of 25.
Several statistical procedures
T-test, F-test,

including the

and Pearson Correlation were used to

determined relationships among the variables of the study.
The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences was used to
compile the data and a number of hypotheses were tested.
Further,

several secondary analyses were developed to ex­

plore more deeply the effects of the treatment.
Descriptive Findings of the Study
A total of 60 students participated in this ex­
ploratory study.

The subjects were randomly chosen from

residential students
College.
group.
men.

in the 1982 Winter term at Spring Arbor

Thirty-five individuals comprised the treatment
Women constituted 51% of the group, while 49% were

Within the treatment group,

were sophomores,

40% were freshmen,

25.7%

20% were juniors, and 14.3% were seniors.

The mean grade point average for the treatment group was
2.84.
Retention rates for the treatment group indicated
76.7% of the non-graduating students were enrolled

in the

131
following semester, while 23.3% of the subjects had not
enrolled that term at Spring Arbor College.
The number of subjects

in the control group was 25.

Sixty-four percent were women and 36% were men.
control group there were 60% freshmen,
juniors,

and 8% seniors.

Within the

20% sophomores,

12%

The mean grade point average of

the control group was 2.79.
Retention rates for the control group indicated
58.3% of the non-graduating students were enrolled in the
following semester at Spring Arbor College.

Forty-one and

seven tenths percent of the control group were not enrolled
at Spring Arbor College the following semester.
Furthermore,

the groups were described by academic

majors and ACT mean scores.

The treatment group ACT mean

was 20.8 and the ACT mean for the control group was 18.9.
Freshmen were viewed separately in terms of the outcome
measures as determined by the COMP.

This analysis indicated

that the freshmen in the treatment group scored higher on
the subtest entitled communication than the freshmen in the
control group scored on the same subtest.
All thirty full-time faculty were also exposed to
the COMP in the process of creating awareness of WPAM.

The

faculty results of the COMP provided several parenthetical
descriptive characteristics.
was extremely wide,
percentile.

The range of faculty scores

from the 13th percentile to the 97th

Twelve of the faculty scored within the 85th

and 99th percentiles on the Senior reference norms.

Seven

132
of the faculty scored between the 13th and 25th percentiles.
As a group,

it appears that some faculty tested obtained

scores substantially lower than might be expected

(ACT,

1981).
Results of Hypothesis Testing
The first null hypothesis led to three more
specific secondary hypotheses concerning possible relation­
ships between variables and confounding factors present

in

the study.
HO 1 :

Students having received the intervention
(WPAM) do not significantly score higher
on COMP than students not treated with
WPAM.

HO 1 .1:

Students'

ACT scores do not correlate

significantly with COMP.
HO 1 .2:

Students'

GPAs do not correlate s ignif i-

cantly with COMP.
HO 1.3:

Students'

treatment level scores

(T R E M L U )

do not correlate significantly with COMP.
Each of the hypotheses was tested.

Concerning HO 1

the T-test was used to determine significant differences
between the mean scores.

Neither the T-test nor the F-test

indicated a significant difference and therefore the results
of the testing could not be used to support whether the dif­
ference was by chance or by intervention.
HO 1.1 and HO 1.2 were tested by using the ProductMoment Correlation Coefficient

(Pearson r).

Both correla-

133
tions yielded evidence of moderate correlations between the
variables.

Both of the null hypotheses were not accepted.

The correlation between treatment level and the
COMP (HO 1.3) was weak and was determined not to be
significant,

therefore,

the null hypothesis was accepted.

The second null hypothesis and several more specif­
ic hypotheses

investigated

the relationships between the

treatment and the DIT score.
HO 2 :

Students having experienced WPAM do not
significantly score higher on the DIT than
students

not having experienced the inter­

vention .
HO 2.1 :

Students'

COMP and DIT scores do not sig­

nificantly correlate.
HO 2.2 :

Students'

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with subtest communication
(C O M ).
HO 2.3 :

Students DIT scores do not significantly
correlate with subtest decision-making
(SP).

HO 2.4 :

Students'

DIT scores do not significantly

correlate with subtest clarifying values
(CV) .
The second general null hypothesis was explored by
utilizing the T-test which provided data indicating no sig­
nificant difference between the mean scores of the groups
and was accepted.

134
Each of the secondary hypotheses was tested using
the Product-Moment Correlation and each correlation yielded
a moderately positive relationship.

Therefore, each

secondary null hypothsis was not accepted.
The third general null hypothesis studied the rela­
tionship between the interventon and the retention rates of
students at Spring Arbor College.
HO 3 :

Students having received the intervention
(WPAM)

did not significantly persist in

college at a better rate than students not
having received the t r e a t m e n t .
Non-graduating students who received the interven­
tion persisted in college at a rate of 76.7% as compared
with the control group students who persisted at a 58.3%
rate.

This represents a 18.4 percentage point spread in

the retention rate of students receiving the treatment and
those in the control group.

Further,

23.3% of the treatment

group did not persist at Spring Arbor College in comparison
with a 41.7% attrition rate for the control group.

The

difference of percentage between the treatment and control
groups retention rates

indicated a possible positive outcome

regarding the intervention and the student retention rate at
Spring Arbor College.
Type II Error Concerns and Educational Evaluation
In an attempt to avoid Type II error,
cluding that the intervention made a difference

that is, con­
in the

tested mean scores of the treatment group and the control

135
group when

it did not,

researchers are generally encouraged

to adhere to conservative standards of interpretation.
ever,

H o w­

"a rigorous approach may tend to be counterproductive

in an educational setting
the result of many complex
1981, p.

188).

in which learning outcomes can be
factors"

(Isaac and Michael,

Differences between the means of groups

in

education evaluation are often low (Isaac and Michael,
1981).

In that this explorative

investigation had rela­

tively small sample sizes, which might further compound the
situation,

and desiring not to make the error that the

treatment made no difference, when in fact it did, the
investigator interpreted the correlational values somewhat
1 iberally.
The interpretation of the results will be used to
inform continued use of WPAM.

The investigator,

being bound

to the results of the study, was of the belief that the
limited time period of intervention and relatively small
samples influenced the outcomes of the study.
several

However,

important notions can be highlighted beyond these

limits to improve WPAM as a viable method of student
d e v e l op m e n t .
Conclusions and Relevance of the Study
The third general research guestion regarding the
effects of the treatment of the Whole Person Advising Model
(WPAM) upon retention provided the basis for the major
conclusion of the study.
1.

WPAM appeared to have a positive effect on the

136
retention rate of students in the treatment
group.
This conclusion is supported by the data of the study as
well as the literature regarding involvement theory and
interaction psychology.
A secondary conclusion is that the study did not
indicate significant relationship between the treatment and
general education outcomes as measured by the COMP nor the
treatment and moral judgment of the student

(DIT).

However,

the analysis did how show a strong positive relationship
between the two measures.
2.

The COMP and DIT do have a positive
correl a t i o n .

Further,

the subtests of COMP measuring communica­

tion process skills, decision-making process skills,

and

clarifying values process skills also correlate with the
DIT.
3.

The process skills of COMP appear to
the elements of moral judgment being

be some of
measured

by D I T .
4.

ACT and GPA scores are indicators of
education outcomes and moral

Finally,

general

judgment.

it is concluded that these two measures of

student learning do positively correlate with the COMP.
indicated by the study, COMP and DIT also have a strong
positive correlation.

As

137
The conclusions and relevance of the study are now
discussed regarding the related literature.
Attitude-Behavior Linkage
WPAM is an intentional method of facilitating
student attitude change

in regard to their personal

and the process of higher education.

identity

The methodology was

supported by the work of social scientists who in recent
years have again studied the attitude-behavior relationship.
Schuman and Johnson

(1976)

and Keman (1974)

indicated that

in the non-laboratory context the attitude-behavior link
moderately strong.

is

WPAM utilized the non-laboratory setting

of student advising to study the attitude-behavior link.
Its purpose was to provide student and faculty involvement
in the formation of students'

personal goals and attitudes.

The outcomes of this study appear to provide sup­
port for such research in that students who received the
treatment showed some, but not statistically significant,
gain in their reported behavior change.

The moderate

correlation of the DIT with the subtest of the COMP,
communication,

decision-making,

i.e.,

and clarifying values seems

to indicate some support for the work of Schuman and Johnson
(1976)

and Kelman

(1974).

Interaction
In the literature regarding interaction, writers
purport that the student's behavior is influenced by sig­
nificant features of

interaction between the individual and

the situation he encounters

(Endler and Magnusson,

1976).

138
Furthermore,

the literature suggests that when the individ­

ual chooses situations in which he acts,

he believes he

affects the nature of the relationship and then the stu­
dent's behavior is understood as intrinsic or attitudinal
(Endler and Magnuson,

1976).

WPAM provided students with an

interaction with faculty to choose a personal course of ac­
tion.

This study revealed that students who were involved

in personal choice making appeared to score on the process
measure subtest of COMP (COM)

slightly better than students

who did not receive the interaction.

In this limited sense,

the study supports the literature regarding interaction and
intrinsic motivation for personal action.
Further,

the continuous but brief period of time of

the study offered positive information to the students
the course of the interaction.

in

WPAM relationships provided

the opportunity to reflect with a faculty member about stu­
dents'

intentions,

thus fulfilling the demands of the major

elements of interactionism as indicated by Endler and
Magnusson

(1976).
1.

They are:

Behavior is determined by a continuous process
of interaction.

2.

The individual

is an intentional, active agent

in the interaction process.
3.

Cognitive factors are important in interaction.

4.

The psychological meaning of the situation to
the individual
behavior.

is an essential determinant of

139
The WPAM was designed to facilitate these factors
in terms of educational outcomes.

The study did not

generally support the literature of interaction in that the
results were not statistically significant regarding the
desired outcomes of interaction.

However, the apparent

effect of the interaction upon student retention (which
could be viewed as a process rather than a product) was
clearly supportive.

Further,

the process elements of COMP,

that is, subtests communication, decision-making, and
clarifying values, did

indicate some moderate support for

the literature.
Retention
Astin's

(1984) definition of involvement, namely

the amount of physical and psychological energy that a
student devotes to the learning environment seems to be
consistent with the literature regarding human interaction.
Astin's work

is concerned with the how of interaction,

rather than the what or content of interaction,
ferred to as involvement.
the how of interaction.
strongly support Astin
(1974)

and is re­

WPAM clearly provides a m e thod—
The retention rates of the study

(1973,

1975,

regarding student retention.

1984) and Chickering
The literature on

student involvement indicated that freguent interaction with
faculty is more strongly related to student satisfaction
with the collegiate experience than any other type of in­
volvement

(Astin,

1984).

The percentage of Spring Arbor

students who persisted the following semester after the

140
study would

indicate strong support of Astin's work.

treatment group,
term.

In the

18.4% more students enrolled the following

That is, there was a 18.4 percentage point gain in

the number of treatment group members who did not leave,
compared with the control group members.

Additionally,

all

of the senior members of the treatment group graduated,
while 2% of the possible 4% of the control group seniors
graduated.

In the area of student involvement,

the results

of this study strongly support the literature and will be
utilized in the continuing advising system of students at
Spring Arbor College.
Cognitive and Moral Development
Most evidence of the student involvement research
indicates a strong support for the concept of involvement as
an important element in the learning process

(Astin,

1984).

While this investigation did not reveal gains in the total
COMP score of the treatment group, the secondary analysis
indicated that poorly prepared students,
scores,

in terms of ACT

tended to show greater gain in the

those students who had higher ACT scores.

COMP scores than
The analysis of

the COMP subtests further indicated that some of the gain in
the total COMP score was a result of scores

in the

submeasure entitled clarifying values and communicating.
Kohlberg

(1972) and Morrill

(1979)

indicate that moral de­

velopment occurs when students are called upon to reason or
ask guestions regarding moral

judgment.

The study failed to

substantiate WPAM as a method of moral development as tested

141
by DIT.

However,

secondary analysis of the treatment did

provide some indication that most students found the inter­
action with faculty in personal decision-making helpful and
would suggest WPAM for other students.
Heath's Maturation Model
"A maturing person becomes more able to represent
experiences symbolically"

(Heath,

1968, p.

275).

Heath

suggests that honest awareness of one's personal values
legitimate outcome of liberal education.

This study at­

tempted to provide a view of the outcomes of maturing.
subtest of COMP labeled clarifying values
related with the intervention.

is a

The

is moderately cor­

Thus WPAM as a method of in­

teraction seems to facilitate the process of symbolization.
"A maturing person becomes more allocentric"
(Heath,

1968, p.

275).

Heath supported this goal of liberal

education by building on Piaget and Dewey's

ideas of an in­

dividual being able to project himself into the thoughts of
others.
ment,

While WPAM did not specifically address this ele­

this study revealed that the treatment group members

were characterized by having a strong relationship between
their involvement in WPAM and the subtest communication.
"A maturing person becomes progressively more
integrated"

(Heath,

1968, p.

276).

The COMP total score and

the DIT yielded no indication that WPAM assisted student
integration of values.
The final two goals of liberal education according
to Heath

(1968) of becoming more stable and more autonomous

142
were not directly supported by this study.
sense of becoming more

However,

in the

in control of their own lives, s t u ­

dents who received WPAM apparently indicate greater satis­
faction with higher education by choosing to persist in
their relationship with the college.
Recommendations for Practice
As a result of the process and the findings of the
this investigation,

the following recommendations are

offered:
1.

The study and the literature indicate that
intentional

involvement of students in the

academic process appears to be instrumental
student retention.

in

WPAM should be continued as

a special effort to involve students in the
academic environment of Spring Arbor College.
2.

WPAM should especially be utilized with
attrition-prone students.

Often such students

have little direct interaction in campus activites and are academically marginal.

The struc­

ture of the advisement model will provide the
needed support for such students.
3.

Freshmen and transfer students can be involved
quickly in the Spring Arbor environment via
WPAM.

The model provides

interaction with

faculty as well as an opportunity for student
value clarification and self-direction at an
important time of personal

transition.

The WPAM design provides a method of student
decision-making which will enable senior
students to structure career and life goals.
This type of faculty-student interaction would
appear to be highly supportive in a time of
personal transition.
The WPAM provides an intentional method of
moral education by utilizing faculty-student
involvement providing informal and personal
interaction.

Such interaction has great

potential for mentoring and social influence
upon the student's attitudes and behavior.
Spring Arbor College's goal of integration of
faith and learning and living is intentially
addressed

in the advising model.

The study indicates that the DIT does have a
positive correlation with the general education
measure COMP.

Considering this relationship,

it would be less costly to use the DIT measure
as an assessment tool regarding general
educational goals as well as student skills
such as decision-making,

clarifying values,

and

communication process skills.
In general,

the practial decision to use WPAM

would need to consider cost benefits regarding
time spent for faculty in the process versus
retention and/or learning gains experienced by

the students.

The model appears to have

required more time than the standard academic
advising system.
to Astin

(1985),

learning.

This time factor, according
is a vital element in student

However, because more time spent in

advising seems to be a change from the current
methods,

special attention should be given to

faculty expectations.

Further assessment

regarding gain in learning or retention should
be administered after WPAM has been used for
several academic years,

giving the model time

to season.
Recommendations for Further Research
This study was successful in investigating the
short-term effects of an intentional

method of whole person

advising.

of the literature and

As a result of the review

the results of this study,

a number of additional questions

were raised which call for further study:
1.

The literature on involvement

(Astin,

1984)

suggests that personal involvement in decision­
making and time on task facilitates student
satisfaction and growth.

Additional study

should address the effects of WPAM over an
extended time frame.

Further, because this

study was limited by a small sample size, a
longitudinal study should indicate a larger
number of students.

In regard to the literature on interaction as
well as the results of the faculty COMP scores,
further study should address the effects of
WPAM on faculty learning and teaching.

That

is, do faculty teach differently if they are
involved in an intentional

interaction such as

WPAM with students or other faculty?

Would

faculty tend to score higher on general
educational measures such as COMP if they
participated

in WPAM?

This study did not investigate the quality of
faculty/student involvement.

Ethnographic

information regarding the characteristics that
describe effective faculty WPAM advising would
be beneficial.

That is, what do effective

advisors do to assist in improving student
general education outcomes?

This research

question can be studied in terms of the related
literature of attitude-behavior linkage,
interaction psychology,

and adult development.

Further, consideration for additional study
could be directed towards the literature on
personality traits and the effectiveness of
WPAM upon students and faculty.
Involvement theory suggests student satisfac­
tion and intrinsic motivation regarding learn­
ing and attitude-behavior linkage.

This study

146
provided a view of faculty/student

involvement

and the results of such involvement.

Further

study should be conducted regarding studentpeer involvement utilizing WPAM as an inten­
tional method of student development.
5.

Further study should be developed to investi­
gate the effects of the WPAM on students who
are identified as n o n - p e rsisters, such as those
students having limited involvement in the
college environment.

This question directs

attention to specific groups of students who by
virtue of low ACT and/or GPA scores do not tend
to do well with general education outcomes, as
this study revealed.

Retention research sup­

ports the notion that students who are not
satisfied will not persist
1981).

in college (Astin,

APPENDIX A

APPENDIX A

INTRODUCTION TO
THE WHOLE PERSON ADVISEMENT MODEL
Purpose and Assumptions
Several basic notions of human growth are fundamen­
tal to the WPAM and are derived from the literature related
to the individual and interaction.

First, human development

is an active process and involves people

in relationship.

Second, whole person learning assumes that people are m o t i ­
vated for their reasons,
institution.
a student,

not the reasons of the collegiate

That is, a teacher or advisor can not motivate

rather the faculty member creates an environment,

a learning environment, where the student motivates himself
to learn and to develop physically,
ally, psychologically,

socially,

ual student growth should occur
these various areas.

intellectually,

and spiritually.

emotion­
Individ­

in a dynamic balance in

When the growth process

itself is

congruent with the demands and limitations of the past and
immediate psychological and observable environment,

and the

expectations and hopes of a person's faith in eternal and
spiritual unity are organized

into a meaningful

human development can be understood

image,

in the context of per­

sonal motivation directed towards freedom to know.

147

then

To know

148
know himself and to make meaning of past and current experi­
ences facilitates wise and just future action.

Knowing in

this sense is characteristic of a rational and moral being,
the desired outcome of any human development plan.
Third,

the model assumes that human development oc­

curs most often when the nature of the social
characterized by both challenge and support
Fourth,

interaction is

(Sanford,

1966).

the idea of interaction implies a social level of

human organization which is seen as community.

The signifi­

cant commitment of the community is goals and values that
are held in common by most
community,

in fact,

individuals.

Learners

in the

identify themselves as a social group by

their common commitment to these accepted goals of the
community.
Fifth,

the model

is set within the context of a

small church-related college,

Spring Arbor College.

The

educational goals of the College provide the assumed common
learning values held by the learners and advisors.
General and Educational Goals
The outcome values of the Spring Arbor experience
are expressed
1.

in the Ideal Graduate Statement:
Is prepared to be a continuing student, capable
of self-education.

In a world of exponentially

expanding knowledge the student must be able to
sort out relevant knowledge and make wise judg­
ments and must be able to think divergently,
critically and productively.

149
2.

Is adequately prepared in one more more disci­
plines to undertake further graduate training,
or to fill another productive and rewarding
role in our contemporary world.

3.

Has developed an understanding of heritage;
has discovered the crux of contemporary social
and moral issues; has acquired the tools of
research;

and has improved the skills of

communication.
4.

Has gone

through the process of self­

confrontation.
tation,

As a result of this confron­

the graduate will understand more fully

motivations,

aspirations,

capabilities and

goals in life.
5.

Has encountered the Christian faith, has
grasped a portion of its demands for our day;
and has discovered the perspective that Life
Christ can give to all learning,

vocation and

life itself.

the graduate

In this encounter,

in

will have formed a meaningful relationship with
Jesus Christ and with fellowmen.
6.

Is a person of compassion who cherishes com­
munity among all people, and expresses compas­
sion by critically participating
The graduate

is sensitive to need,

to opportunity,
7.

In brief,

in the world.
responsive

and wise in participation.

is a well-integrated person who is

150
prepared to live a life pleasing to the
Creator,

a life enriching to others and a life

which is self-rewarding.

(Spring Arbor College

C a t a l o g , 1981-82)
Instructions for The Whole Person Advisement Model (WPAM)
Part A
Within the context of the learning environment,

the

WPAM is designed as an intentional reflective/active method
of moral education.

In Part A, the question grid guides the

student and advisor in their reflective interactional roles
by helping the student

identify appropriate learning needs

by asking a series of questions.
framework

These questions form a

for advisor-student dialogue and are designed to

assist the student
learning.

in determining the nature of his or her

Essentially,

the students are being aided in

their choices of what they want to know, and how they are
going to learn it.
The question grid

(epistemological generator) uti­

lizes five types of questions which are concerned with 1)
definition,
ethical,

2)

identification,

3) practice or utility,

4)

and 5) philosophical and spiritual.
The grid is constructed by placing the self-content

area against five basic human values that correspond with
the five dimensions of development
rity model.
1.

in Heath's

(1980) m a t u ­

The five correspondent values are:
Honesty
Maturing persons become increasingly able to

represent their experiences accurately and
honestly through the first developmental di­
mension of symbolization.

There is a more

accurate sense of self-awareness of their own
personal values and an authentic basis for
interpersonal

relationships.

Compass ion
The second dimension is allo c e n t r i c i s m .

Matur­

ing person's thoughts become less organized by
their own individual needs and emotions.
students'
objective,

The

thoughts become more realistic,
logical,

and analytical.

They in­

crease in their ability to take the other per­
son's point of view and become more skillful

in

their ability to understand how others think of
them.

Their personal goals become more focused

on others and their relations are more
collaborative and cooperative.
Integrity
The third dimension

is integration.

Integrity

refers to integration as an intellectual dif­
ferentiation as complexity increases.
becomes more rational and syncratic.

Thought
At this

stage of maturity the individual self-concept
becomes more congruent with that which others
think of him or her.

Persons'

social behaviors

are apparently more consistent with what they
believe their values to be.
Commi tment
Becoming more stable

is the fourth dimension.

Stability is designated by intellectual skills
which allow the person to become more stable
and resistant to disruption by stress.

Mature

persons can recover their own intellectual
efficiency rapidly when their thinking is
disrupted by stress.

Individuals are able to

develop a stronger, more clearly defined sense
of identity and their ideas about themselves,
their values,

and their relationships appear

stable and enduring.

Mature

individuals value

commitment.
Courage
The dimension of autonomy is characterized in
the maturing person such that the individual's
intellectual skills become more free to be used
creatively in more dissimilar situations from
those environments
learned.

in which the skills were

In the transfer of learning,

uals become more

individ­

in control of themselves and

their self views are not altered readily by the
views that others have of them.

Students who

exercise autonomy are courageous enough to de­
fend their own values and are not dependent

153
upon others for reinforcement.

When courage is

valued, dialectic interaction is facilitated,
and growth and development are enhanced.
(Heath,

1981)

Part B
Part B of the WPAM is the active component of the
model.

WPAM is developed to address the complex process of

wholistic education via personal growth contracting.
assumption

The

is that individuals can and will motivate and

manage themselves in a community of learners that challenges
and supports them as productive members of that community.
The nature of the Spring Arbor College community is indi­
cated on the page entitled "Managing Yourself,

Plan for

Whole Person Development."
The actualization of personal growth is facilitated
with the use of worksheets.
for each self-content area,
spiritual,

personal,

The model

includes a worksheet

namely, academic,

and social.

intellectual,

Each sheet provides a

definition of the area and suggests some possible skill
areas associated with that particular self-content.

The

worksheets provide the opportunity for the advisor to be a
collaborator in the interaction,

but still further,

allows

for commitments to the contract from both the advisor and
the student.

The student

is encouraged to move from the

reflective phase of the model

into the active phase by

agreeing to establish objectives,

determine how and when the

154
plan will be actualized,
terms of time, efforts,

and to consider the expense in
and materials.

Both advisor and student are encouraged to be
active in this process and the appropriate social modeling
of such commitments by the faculty advisor is considered to
»

be highly supportive to the student's commitment.
example,

For

advisor and student might agree to a mutual com­

mitment such as physical

fitness.

More often,

however,

the

advisor and student interaction would be characterized by
dialogue and assessment regarding personal goals.
The model of transition displayed

in WPAM (p. 2)

depicts the elements of student development emphasizing the
goals of learning and the planning and support of student
growth.

In effect,

the model

illustrates the relationships

of the various components of learning in an attempt to de­
fine the nature of the learning environment.
Page three illustrates the possible roles that are
enacted in educational interaction.

They are the counselor,

the instructor and the administrator.

The structural e l e ­

ments of human development build on the learning context,
then interact with content or substantive issues and lastly
seek to gain conflation or integration.

The five growth

areas of student development provide the value content
areas.

WHOLE PERSON ADVISEMENT

Name _________
Advisor _
Date

Student Development
1982

PART A

Managing Yourself
P l a n for
Whole Person Development

S p r i n g A r b o r C o l l e g e ' s c o m m i t m e n t to B i b l i c a l p r i n c i p l e s for living
is f o u n d a t i o n a l for p e r s o n a l and c o m m u n i t y growth .
T herefo re, I
a g r e e to s y s t e m a t i c a l l y c o n s i d e r the S c r i p t u r a l m a n d a t e as basic
input in the p r o cess of a p l a n for myself.

P r a y e r and m e d i t a t i o n are some w a y s for me
i n f l u e n c e as I plan and live ray life.

to a n t i c i p a t e God's

I b e l i e v e my d e v e l o p m e n t is a result of m y o w n r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ,
but h a p p e n s becau se I a m c o m m i t e d to o t h e r p e o p l e s .
O t h e r s are
s i g n i f i c a n t to me as they c h a l l e n g e and s u p p o r t me in all d i m e n ­
sio ns of my life.

L e a r n i n g is p o s s i b l e in all a r e a s of life and is o f t e n e x p e r i e n c e d
as c h a l l e n g e s .
To learn, I mu st be w i l l i n g to change.

L o v e is exper i e n c e
support.
To love,

As
as

in r e l a t i o n s h i p s in w h i c h I r e c e i v e and give
I must be w i l l i n g to forgive.

I l e a r n and love and teac h and a m loved/ I w i l l
I b e c o m e what God i n te nds me to be.

1

i n f l uenc e o t h e r s

MODEL OF TRANSITION
In d ivid u a l Student P o te n tial
In s titu tio n a l:
Ate a division
department or
(xrogruu 71

SELF DATA
-Academic Planning
-CoAjteK Planning
- God's W ill

—

PLAN

SPRING ARBOR IDEAL
GRADUATE
[Personal A ttrib u te s ]

SELF-EDUCATION
S k ills and A ttitu d e s
-uiise judgement
-th in k d iv e rg e n tly

-c A itic a l, pAoductively
INSTITUTIONAL

AWARE AND UNDERSTANDS
-s o c ia l and moral issues

DEVELOPMENTAL

SELF-DISCOVERY
-s tre n g th
-weakness
-m otivatio n s
-goals i n l i f e

PATTERN

SUPPORT SYSTEMS
-Curriculum
-Counseling
-College Expectations
-Academic SuppoAt

CHERISHES COMMUNITY

-sen sitive to need
-Aesponsive to opportunity
-w ise in particip atio n
ENCOUNTERED THE CHRISTIAN

FAITH
Minimum College Standards

PREPARED IN ONE OR MORE
DISCIPLINES

In briefi a w e ll-in te g ra te d person who is prepared to liv e a l i f e pleasing to our C reator,
a l i f e enriching to others and oneseife

Content
S t ru c t ur e and R o l e s of

CONTENT

STRUCTURE

W h o l e P e rs o n L e a r n i n g

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Questions

that m i gh t be imp ort ant

as I p l a n m y life,

to me

fa it h and l e a rn i n g

Ask y o u r s e l f :
(1)

W h a t is a ca de m i c h o n e s t y

in m y life?

That is, take the h u m a n v a l u e h o n e s t y and b u m p it into the a c a d e m i c g r ow t h
area.
S o. . . Wh a t is a c a d e m i c h o n e s t y ?
or; take the v a l u e c o m p a s s i o n and
b u m p it into the a r e a of g r o w t h o f p er son al.
T he n a s k the q u e s t i o n w h a t
is pe rso nal c o m p a s s i o n for me? O r _____ta ke the v al u e of c oura ge and b u m p
it into the s p i r i t u a l a r e a a nd a s k q u e s t i o n s 1,
2, 3, A, and 5.
(2)
(3)
(A)
(5)

H o w d o e s it l oo k in m y l ife ?
W h a t must I do to a c c o m p l i s h it?
Is s pi r itua l c o u r a g e i m p o r t a n t to me?
W h y or w h y n o t is it o f v a l u e or i m po r t an c e ?
QUESTION GRID

1

. W h a t is

2

.

H o w does

?
it l o o k in m y l i fe ?

3.

Wh at

thing shoul d

A.

Is this val ue n e c e s s a r y

5.

Why

(Definition)

( I de n t ific ati on)

I do to a c c o m p l i s h the v al ue?

is it imp ort an t ?

for me?

(Practical)

(Ethical)

( P h i l o s o p h i c a l a nd Spiritual)

3

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Growth Areas

HONESTY

COMPASSION

INTEGRITY

COMMITMENT

C O U R AG E

Q,* I

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PART B

academic

plan

W o ik Sheet

A ca d e m i c :

T he q u a l it y o f

in the o rd e r l y s t ru c t ur e
relat i o n s h i p s .
Skill areas:
r e s e a r c h skills.

.;roed

between

I.

Establish
Objectives
(What)

the c o m m u n i t y of
and

s ys t e ms of t h e

c u r r i c u l u m desi gn,

II.

Program
(How)

s c h o l a r s as e x p r e ss e d
teaching/learning

t e a c h i n g skills,

III.

study skills,

Schedule
(When and
by when)

IV.

B udg et
(How
much)

MAJOR(S); MI NOR( S) ; E L EC TI VES
Have

CORE
lave

Need

Grade

9 Hours
Need

Grade

3

CORE 2 0 0 Living Issues

3

CORE 3 0 0 Biblical History & Literature
(CPLA 100; CP L A 2 1 0)

3

CORE 4 0 0 The Christian in Contem porary
World

C O M M U N IC A T IO N SKILLS
Eng 101 College W riting
Spe 100 Oral Commun.

P H Y S IC A L FITNESS
pecj101PersonalFitness

2________

B A N K COURSES

24 - 32 Hours

(See catalog for allowed courses) (6 -8 hours from each division)
H U M A N IT IE S :

N A T U R A L SCIENC ES:

PHI L O S O P H Y -R E L IG IO N :

S O C IA L SCIENC ES:

P E T IT IO N S /S P E C IA L A C T IO N S

SUMMARY
Date U p d a te d .
Total Transfer & Exam Hours
Total Hours Completed at SAC
Total Hours Yet Needed for G raduation
Need

Need

Need

C ore

M ajor

________

M in o r

________

Com m

M ajor

________

Elem .

________

S u p p o r t _________

Educ.

________

E le c t .

________

F i t n e s s _______
Bank

M in or

U p p e r D iv is io n H o u r s — H ave :

________
_______

N e e d : _________

C a t a l o g E v a l u a t e d U n d e r : ________C e r t i f y i n g — Y es O

No Q

E x p e c t e d D a t e o f G r a d u a t i o n : _____________________
+ C o d e le tte r s a f t e r t h e co urse n u m b e r a n d / o r t i t l e :
T = T r a n s f e r r e d in co urse o r e q u i v a l e n t
R = R e q u ire d course
* If a cour se is lis ted in m o r e t h a n o n e area, use ( ) a r o u n d th e
lo urs for t h e se con d li s ti n g so t h a t t h e y d o n o t g e t c o u n t e d in rh<’
o t a l ho urs t w ic e (c.q

P$v 10 0 used f - . r eii;rr;rt-o :

• a1 .-'

4= If a c o u r s e t r a n s f e r r e d in m e e t s a sp ecif ic c o u r s e r e q u i r e m e n t
at S A C , t h e e q u i v a l e n t sh ee t w i l l list it as a s p e c ific cour se. If
t h e e q u i v a l e n t sh ee t in d ic a te s d e p a r t m e n t c r e d i t (P h i lo s o p h y
c r e d i t ) , it does n o r m e e t a s p e c ific c o u rs e r e q u i r e m e n t un l e ss so
a p p r o v e d b y t h a t d e p a r t m e n t . Q u e s ti o n s c o n c e r n i n g e q u i v a l e n t ' !
h ' i n s t i t u t i o n a l a n d b a n t c o u r s e s s h o u l d be r e f e r r e d t n t h e

SECONDARY CERTIFICATION

ELEMENTARY CERTIFICATION
Either a or b:
a. Two academic minors
b. One academic major

1. Academic Major
2. Academic Minor
3. Secondary Professional Education Courses

Elementary Education Minor
Elementary Professional Education Courses
(See catalog for approved majors and minors.)

SECONDARY PROFESSIONAL

27 hours

• have need grade

ELEMENTARY EDUCATION MINOR

20 hours

iave need grade
4

Psy 100 In tro , to Psychology

_____
.—

M a th 330 M odern M ath

4

Psy 100 In tro , to Psychology

4

Edu 210 E du ca tio n a l P sychology

__

3

______

11

Eng 37 0 C h ild re n ’s L ite ra tu re

Edu 200 F o u n d , o f A m e r. E duc.

3
2-3

— F.dn ,

_____

approval o f Teacher Ed. Depc. is re q u ire d
---------------------

to use courses n o t liste d here.

S p rr. M erhods

. Edu 4 3 0 Gen. M etho ds — P rofessional Sem.
Edu 4 5 0 D ir. T chg. — Professional Semester
T o ta ls

Edu 360 In s tru c tio n a l T e ch n o lo g y
A r t 2 4 0 A r t E du catio n
M us 2 3 0 Mus. fo r Classroom T chrs.
B io 2 2 0 N a tu re S tu d y
G eo 221 Physical G eography
Edu 364 In tro . E a rly C h ild h o o d
Edu 365 C u rrie. 8c M ethods E a rly C h ild .
Edu 366 Social F oun d. E arly C h ild .

____
Nlotc:

T o ta ls

Y o u ca n n o t use the same course fo r an academ ic
m a jo r o r m in o r and fo r the E lem entary E du catio n
m in o r.

ELEMENTARY PROFESSIONAL
rave

need

29 hours

grad e

3

Psv 261 C h ild D evelopm ent

3

Edu 2 0 0 F oun d, o f A m e r. Edu.

5

F.du 3 50 T chg. Rdg. and Lang. A rts - F..

4
3
11

Edu 4 2 0 Tchg. Soc. Sci., Sci., and M a th - E
_ —

Edu 4 1 0 Sem inar - Professional Semester
Edu 4 5 0 D ir. Tchg. - Professional
Semester
T otals

•Cote:

See T e a c h e r E d u c a tio n fo r p re re q u is ite s an d
sequences fo r th e ab o ve courses.

Dates worksheet copies sent to student:

INTELLECTUAL PLAN
Work Sheet

Intellect:
The p o w e r of p e r s o n a l p e r c e pt i o n or thought e x p r e s s e s
in the a bi li ty to c h oose , to u n de r s t a n d p e o p l e and things in a
m or e than o r d i n a r y c o m p r e h e n s i o n of their re la ti o ns h i p, laws,
and meanings.
The s u m of m e n t a l p ow e r s by w h i c h k n o w l e d g e is a cg'lired retained and u n d e r s t o o d.
It is d i s t i n g u i s h e d from the
senses,
Skill

e m o ti on and v o l i t i o n .
arefs:

c r e a t i v e a nd

critical

thinking,

thought o rg a n i -

z a i :o n .

E s ta b l is h
objectives
(What)

fi.

P ro g r a m
(How)

III.

S c he d u l e
(When and
by when)

IV.

Budget
(How
much)

S PI R I T U A L PLAN
W o r k S he e t

S pi ri t :
The d iv i n e i n f l u e n c e of God u p o n His c h i l d r e n a:: e x p r e s s e d
in c r e at i v e , a n i m a t e d p o w e r of p e rs o n ho o d .
A state of mind and
principle
S ki ll

life

areas:

e l op m e n t ,
I.

of

and women.

meditation,

creative

Establish
objectives
(What)

in m e n

appreciation,

a es t h et i c s,

faith d e v ­

worship.
II.

Program
(How)

III.

Schedule
(when and
by when)

IV.

LuC;
(r!ou
mr-

PERSONAL PLAN
Work Sheet

Person:
An individual h a v i n g r igh ts and r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and
e x p r e s s i n g them u ni q u e l y t h rou gh the p h y si c a l body, e m ot i o n al and
v ol it i o n a l charact er.
T h e p e r s o n a l i t y is o f t e n a m as k whi ch
hi de s or p r otec ts the v it a l c r e a t i v e s pi ri t o f the i n d ivi dua l.
The sun total of wa ys in w h i ch an i n d iv i d u al r e ac t s to and
i nt era cts with others.
.Skill areas:

personality adjus tment/d evelopm ent ,

p h ysic al

\:e 1 l n e s s .

!.

E st a blis h
'objectives
(what)

II.

Program
(How)

III.

Schedule
(When and
by when)

IV'. Budge t
(How
much)

SOCIAL PLAN
Work Sheet

Social:

The

relationships

by w h i c h p e rson s b e co m e a c c e p t e d m e m b e r s

of g ro u ps by e x p r e s s i n g b e h a v i o r and a t t i t u d e s
that are h e l d

S kill a reas :
care er, family,

E s t ab l i s h
objectives
(What)

that

r ep r es e n t v a l ue s

in common.
interpersonal
church.

skills,

II.

c o m m u n i t y d e v e l o p m e n t,

P ro g r am
(How)

III.

S c h ed u l e
(When and
by when)

IV.

Budget
(Hov
tnuc;.

APPENDIX

APPENDIX B

WHOLE PERSON ADVISING MODEL
WPAM
QUESTIONNAIRE
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2

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3

4

5

1.

WPAM helped you in personal
decision-making.

1 2

3

4

5

2.

The contract structure
was helpful to you.

1 2

3

4

5

3.

There was change
during WPAM.

1 2

3

4

5

4.

I agree with the assumption that
scripture should be considered
in my life choices.

1

3

4

5

5.

My WPAM advisor was helpful.

1 2

3

4

5

SAC should use WPAM for all
freshmen and transfer students.

1 2

3

4

5

6

.

in WPAM

in my behavior

155

2

APPENDIX C

APPENDIX C

Presented below is the survey used to determine the
actual behaviors and opinions of the 12 WPAM advisors.

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Average
Response
During the time when Whole
Person Advising (WPAM) was
implemented, I tended to use
the questioning technique
presented in the model in
my interaction with my
advisees.

1

2

3

4

5

1. 37

I asked the student to think
about his or her personal
goals in terms of the Ideal
Graduate Statement.

1

2

3

4

5

1.85

During the time of WPAM, the
model assisted me to inten­
tionally listen to the
student.

1

2

3

4

5

1.12

156

157
4.

WPAM encouraged me to
interact with the advisee
in terms of the student's
interests and goals (rather
than"signing off" the
registration fo r m ) .

1

5.

I used the contract form to
provide the needed structure
for students to organize and
plan in accord with goals for
development.

1 2

3

4

5

1.87

I participated in specific
contracted activities with
or in support of the
s t u d e n t ’s plan.

1 2

3

4

5

2.00

I met with my advisees for
the prescribed 3-5 meetings
per month.

1 2

3

4

5

1.62

I tended to continue to use
the WPAM approach to student
advising after the project
was completed.

1

3

4

5

2.25

6

.

7.

8

.

9.

2

2

3

4

5

1.0

Please provide additional
comments or observations
regarding the WPAM project.

Additional comments made by WPAM advisors were
characterized by the following comments:

"The most difficult aspect of WPAM was to initially
involve the students.
After the process was
started, they seemed to be well-motivated."
"The biggest problem with the project was the short
duration.
If there had been more time given to
this type of advising, we would see great benefits.
WPAM has good potential."
"The approach was demanding but was worth it!"
"WPAM is a unique approach to student advising and
provides opportunities to relate closely with
students on their terms."

158
"Even after the program was completed, I use the
model.
In fact, I used it this morning."
One hundred percent of the WPAM advisors supported
the on-going whole person advising program at Spring Arbor
College.

The model

is currently being utilized with each

transfer and sophomore student at the College.

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