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8603464

O leas, T e lm o B.

THE MINERAL STATUS O F DAIRY CATTLE IN ECUADOR AND IN MICHIGAN

M ichigan S ta te U niversity

University
Microfilms
International

300 N. Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106

Ph.D.

1985

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THE MINERAL STATUS OF DAIRY CATTLE
IN ECUADOR AND IN MICHIGAN
By
Telmo B. O l e a s

A DISSERTATION

Submitted t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
i n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n ts
f o r the degre e of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Animal Science
1985

ABSTRACT
THE MINERAL STATUS OF DAIRY CATTLE
IN ECUADOR AND IN MICHIGAN

By
Telmo B. O l e a s

The m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f d a i r y c a t t l e was s t u d i e d

in f i v e

r e g i o n s in th e Chimborazo p r o v i n c e of Ecuador, and one re g i o n in
Shiawassee c o u n ty , Michigan.
I n o r d e r t o d i a g n o s e m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s , i m b a l a n c e s and
to x icities,
analyzed.

m i n e r a l s in b lo o d serum,

pasture

and s o i l

were

Three farms were sampled in each re g i o n of Ecuador and

one f ar m i n M i c h i g a n .

B l o o d s a m p l e s were c o l l e c t e d from 10

l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows and 10 a n i m a l s u n d e r one y e a r o f age from
each farm.
in

each

P a s t u r e and s o i l sa m ple s were taken from f i v e f i e l d s

farm .

H alf

of

each p a s t u r e

s a m p l e was washed w i t h

d i s t i l l e d w a t e r and t h e o t h e r h a l f was n o t , t o e s t a b l i s h t h e
e x t e n t of s o i l c o n ta m i n a ti o n through m i n e r a l a n a l y s i s .
S e v e r a l m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s f o r b o t h p l a n t s and a n i m a l s
were found i n the r e g i o n s s t u d i e d .
Most o f th e s o i l s needed l im i n g .
n e c e s s a r y f o r c orn and p a s t u r e g r a s s e s .

N itro g en f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s
Phosphorus and potas sium

f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s n e e d e d f o r c r o p s i n m o st o f t h e s o i l s s t u d i e d .
Molybdenum i s needed i n one r e g i o n o f Ecuador and i n Michigan f o r
legume c ro p s .

Zinc i s needed i n Michigan f o r corn c u l t i v a t i o n .

Coppe r f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s n e e d e d f o r l e g u m e s i n a l l t h e r e g i o n s

studied.

S u l f u r i s n e e d e d f o r l e g u m e s i n one r e g i o n i n Ecuador

and i n Michigan.
I t was co n clu d ed t h a t a n im a l s from a l l t h e r e g i o n s s t u d i e d
needed n i t r o g e n ,
s u p p l e m e n ta t io n .

calciu m ,

phosphorus,

so d iu m and c o p p e r

Z inc, manganese and s e le n iu m was d e f i c i e n t for

a n im als i n s e v e r a l r e g i o n s o f Ecuador and i n Michigan.
N em ato des and t r e m a t o d e s e g g s , and c o c c i d i a o o c y s t s were
found i n t h e f e c e s o f a n i m a l s from a l l t h e r e g i o n s i n E c u a d o r ,
bu t n o t i n Michigan.
I n g e n e r a l s o i l s and p a s t u r e s i n E c u a d o r a r e d e f i c i e n t i n
n itrogen,
copper,

phosphorus,
su lfu r,

potassium ,

m anganese

and

c a l c i u m , molybdenum,
selenium .

zinc,

These m in e ra l

d e fic ie n c ie s d r a m a ti c a l ly decrease l iv e s t o c k production.

DEDICATED TO
My f a t h e r , b r o t h e r and s i s t e r s i n Ecuador,
t o t h e memory o f my mother,
and t o
t h e R obert Cook f a m i l y in Michigan.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The a u t h o r

expresses

sin cere

g ratitu d e

to

h i s m ajor

p r o f e s s o r , D r . R o b e r t M. C o o k , w h o s e c o n t i n u o u s

academ ic

g u id a n c e , p a t i e n c e and moral s u p p o r t made t h i s work p o s s i b l e .
G ratitu d e

i s a l s o e x t e n d e d t o t h e o t h e r members o f h i s

g r a d u a t e c o m m i t t e e , Dr. Duane U l l r e y , Dr. J o h n G i l l , Ms. S a l l e e
Anderson and Dr. A l v i n Smucker f o r t h e i r h e l p d u r in g t h e c o u rs e
o f t h i s work, and f o r t h e i r academic guidance.
The m o s t

sincere

g ratitu d e

is

expressed

to

the

S w is s

T e c h n ic a l C o o p eratio n for the f i n a n c i a l su p p o rt p ro v id e d for
graduate school for the research p ro je c t.

S incerest appreciation

i s e x t e n d e d t o Dr. T o n i R i h s o f t h e S w is s T e c h n i c a l C o o p e r a t i o n
f o r h i s s u p p o r t , f r i e n d s h i p and encouragement.
Thanks a re

exten ded

t o INIAP

(N atio n al

In stitu te

A g r i c u l t u r a l and L i v e s t o c k R e s e a r c h ) i n E c u a d o r .
provided

fin an cial

sup p o rt for g rad u ate

school

of

INIAP a l s o
and f o r

the

research p r o je c t.
The a u th o r i s g r a t e f u l t o Dr. Ronald N e l s o n , former chairman
o f t h e A n im al S c i e n c e D e p a r t m e n t , and t o Dr. Mayn ard H o g b e r g ,
chairman of t h e Department of Animal S c i e n c e , f o r the f i n a n c i a l
s u p p o r t through a G raduate Research A s s i s t a n s h i p .
S i n c e r e s t a p p r e c i a t i o n i s extended to th e p r o f e s s o r s o f th e
D e p a r t m e n t o f A n im al S c i e n c e ,

especially

t o Dr.

J.

W illiam

Thomas, Dr. Roy Emery, Dr. Werner B e r g e n and Dr. J o h n Huber f o r
t h e i r h e l p and f r i e n d s h i p .

A l s o , a s p e c i a l t h a n k s t o Dr. Kim

W ilson f o r h i s f r i e n d s h i p and encouragement.
G ratitu d e

i s e x t e n d e d t o t h e g r a d u a t e and u n d e r g r a d u a t e

s t u d e n t s of t h e Department of Animal S c i e n c e ,

e s p e c i a l l y those

i n Dr. R o b e r t Co ok 's l a b o r a t o r y f o r t h e i r h e l p and f r i e n d s h i p .
Very s p e c i a l thanks t o Miss N a t h a l i e Kik, who h e l p e d w ith a l l t h e
a n a l y t i c a l work o f t h i s r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t .
I n Ecuador t h e h e l p c o l l e c t i n g samples of Mr. Thelmo He rvas
and Mr. F a u s t o M e r i n o i s a c k n o w l e d g e d .

T h e i r f r i e n d s h i p and

d e d i c a t i o n t o work i s g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d .

A lso in Ecuador,

thank s a r e exte nded t o t h e p e r s o n n e l o f t h e N u t r i t i o n Department
who made p a r t o f t h e a n a l y s e s .

The a u t h o r i s m o st g r a t e f u l t o

t h e d a i r y f a r m e r s i n E c ua d or and M i c h i g a n i n whose f a r m s t h e
samples were c o l l e c t e d .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
INTRODUCTION

1

LITERATURE REVIEW

3

M i n e r a l S t a t u s o f S o i l - pH, n i t r o g e n , c a l c i u m ,
p h o s p h o r u s , p o t a s s i u m , m agnesium , s u l f u r ,
so d iu m , c h l o r i n e , b o r o n , i r o n , m a n g a n e s e ,
s e l e n i u m , c o b a l t , molybdenum, z i n c , copper.
Soil analysis.

5

M ineral
S tatus
of
Plants
and
Animal
Requirements- Soi 1 - p l a n t and p l a n t - a n i m a l
re la tio n sh ip s.
N itro g en , calciu m ,
p h o s p h o r u s , p o t a s s i u m , so d iu m , magnesium,
c o p p e r an d m o l y b d e n u m , s u l f u r , i r o n ,
manganese, z i n c , c o b a l t , s e le n iu m , io d in e .
Plant analysis.

39

Blood
M i n e r a l s and D e f i c i e n c i e s D i a q n o s i s C a l c i u m and p h o s p h o r u s , m agne sium, so dium ,
p o tas siu m and c h l o r i n e , i r o n , z i n c , copper,
c o b a l t , manganese, se l e n i u m , i o d in e . Blood
analysis.

92

G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l P a r a s i t i s m i n D airy C a t t l e Nematodes, t r e m a to d e s , p r o to z o a . C o n t r o l ,
diagnosis.

103

MATERIALS AND METHODS

109

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

116

M i n e r a l s i n S o i l s - F e r t i l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s in
E c u a d o r . S o i l a n a l y s i s . S o i l pH, o r g a n i c
m a tte r, te x tu r e , n itro g e n , phosphorus,
potassium , c a l c i u m , m agnesium , sodium ,
c o b alt,
i r o n , m an g a n es e, m olybdenum ,
s e l e n i u m , s u l f u r , co pper.

118

N u t r i e n t s i n P a s t u r e s - P a s t u r e management in
Ecuador.
Ash, c ru d e f i b e r , n i t r o g e n ,
c a l c i u m , p h o s p h o r u s , magnesium, p o tassiu m ,
sodium , c o p p e r ,
iro n ,
zin c, c o b a lt,
manganese, molybdenum, se leniu m .

154

v

M inerals
in
B l o o d - C a l c i u m , phosphorus,
m agnesium , sodium and p o t a s s i u m , i r o n ,
c o p p e r , z i n c , manganese, s e l e n i u m , c o b a l t .

189

G astrointestinal P arasites-

212

SUMMARY

221

LITERATURE CITED

225

APPENDIX I
M ethods o f e x t r a c t i o n f o r m i n e r a l s in s o i l s ,
c r i t i c a l r a n g e s f o r m i n e r a l s i n s o i l s , and
s u f f i c i e n c y r a n g e s o f m i n e r a l s i n c o r n and
alfalfa.
T ypical m ineral c o n c e n tra tio n
ru m in a n ts .

I 1 -2

I 3

in blood of

Liming recommendations. N i t r o g e n , phosphorus,
p o t a s s i u m , m anganese and z i n c f e r t i l i z a t i o n
g u i d e s f o r c o rn and a l f a l f a .

I 4-9

I 8

Composition of a t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t .
APPENDIX I I
Average m i n e r a l c o m po sitio n per farm and
o f sample i n s o i l , p a s t u r e s and blood.

type

II

-16

APPENDIX I I I
B o t a n i c a l co m po sitio n of p a s t u r e sa mples.

vi

I l l 1-3

LIST OF TABLES

page
G eographical l o c a t i o n o f the r e g i o n s
s t u d ie d .

110

Experimental d e s ig n s .

112

S o i l pH, organic

m atter, and textu re.

120

S o i l n i t r a t e s , phosphorus, potassium,
calciu m , and magnesium.

126

S o i l sodium, c o b a l t , iro n , manganese,
and molybdenum.

138

S o i l s e l e n i u m , z i n c , s u l f a t e s , and
copper.

146

P astu re
a sh ,
crude f i b e r .

157

crude p r o t e i n ,

and

P a s t u r e c a l c i u m , p h osp h o ru s, sodium,
potassium , and magnesium.

163

P astu re copper, ir o n , z in c , c o b a lt ,
and manganese.

173

P asture molybdenum and selenium .

184

B lo o d serum c a lc iu m , p h o sp h o ru s,
sodium, potassium , and magnesium.

190

B lo o d serum i r o n , c o p p e r ,
manganese, and selenium .

199

z in c ,

Blood serum c o b a lt.

210

Nematodes.

213

Nematodes, trematodes, and c o c c id ia .

215

v ii

LIST OF FIGURES

Page
F i g u r e 1.

S o i l pH

121

F ig u re 2.

So il organic matter

123

F i g u r e 3.

Soil nitrogen

127

F i g u r e 4.

S o i l phosphorus

129

F i g u r e 5.

S o i l p o tas siu m

130

F i g u r e 6.

S o i l c alciu m

132

F i g u r e 7.

S o i l magnesium

134

F ig u r e 8.

S o i l p o t a s s i u m and magnesium a s a
percen t of t o t a l bases

135

F i g u r e 9.

S o i l sodium

136

F i g u r e 10.

Soil cobalt

139

F i g u r e 11.

Soil iron

140

F i g u r e 12.

S o i l manganese

142

F i g u r e 13.

S o i l molybdenum

144

F i g u r e 14.

S o i l se leniu m

147

F ig u re 15.

S o il zinc

148

F i g u r e 16.

Soil su lfu r

151

F i g u r e 17.

S o i l copper

153

F i g u r e 18.

P a s t u r e ash

158

F i g u r e 19.

P a s t u r e c ru de f i b e r

160

F i g u r e 20.

Pasture p ro tein

161

F ig u r e 21. P a s t u r e calcium

164

F i g u r e 22. P a s t u r e phosphorus

166

F ig u re 23.

P a s t u r e maganesium

168

F i g u r e 24.

P a s t u r e sodium

169
v iii

Figure

25. P a s t u r e potassium

171

Figure

26. P a s t u r e copper

174

Figure

27. P a s t u r e i r o n

176

Figure

28. P a s t u r e z in c

178

Figure

29. P a s t u r e c o b a l t

180

Figure

30. P a s t u r e manganese

182

Figure

31. P a s t u r e molybdenum

185

Figure

32. P a s t u r e selenium

187

Figure

33. Blood serum calcium

192

Figure

34. Blood serum phosphorus

193

Figure

35. Blood serum magnesium

195

Figure

36. Blood serum magnesium

196

Figure

37. Blood serum potas si um

197

Figure

38. Blood serum i r o n

200

Figure

39. Blood serum copper

202

F i g u r e 40.

Blood serum z in c

•

204

Figure

41. Blood serum manganese

206

Figure

42. Blood serum selenium

208

Figure

43. Blood serum c o b a l t

221

ix

INTRODUCTION

In 1976 Ecuador had an e s t i m a t e d 1,088,224 m i l k i n g cows t h a t
p r o d u c e d 704 m i l l i o n kg o f m i l k (647 kg o r 1 ,4 2 6 l b / c o w / y e a r )
(M.A.G., Ecuador, 1976).
the

production

of

T h is p r o d u c t i o n i s low when compared t o

the S ta te

Departm ent of A g r i c u l t u r e ,

of

M ichigan

1984),

w h e re

in

1983

( M i c h ig a n

4 04 ,0 0 0 d a i r y

cows

p r o d u c e d 2,507 m i l l i o n kg o f m i l k f o r an a v e r a g e o f 6,2 07 kg
(1 3,8 83 l b ) / c o w / y e a r .
production

is

One o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t c a u s e s f o r low

inadequate m in eral

t o x i c i t y and i m b a l a n c e s .

n u tritio n :

d eficien cies,

A sound m i n e r a l n u t r i t i o n p r o g r a m i s

e a s y t o implement, w i t h minimal work and low c o s t .

The b e n e f i t s

a r e immediate.
The U n iv e r s ity o f F lo r id a i s a lea d er in m ineral research in
L atin America.

S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t io n s have been ca rr ie d out in

d i f f e r e n t c o u n tr ie s

(McDowell e t a l . ,

d e f i c i e n c i e s and t o x i c i t i e s .

1983) to diagnose mineral

In Ecuador (W ils o n , 1975) s o i l s ,

p a s t u r e s and anim al t i s s u e s h a ve been a n a ly z e d in d i f f e r e n t
region s.

C l i n i c a l s i g n s , rep rod uctive problem s,

low production

and lab ora tory s t u d ie s in d ic a te probable m ineral problems.
A lthough s e v e r e

m ineral

d eficien cies

or

to x icities

in

a n im a l s show d r a m a ti c s i g n s , b o r d e r l i n e p r o b le m s, which a r e the
most common, a r e d i f f i c u l t t o d iag no s e by c l i n i c a l s i g n s a l o n e ,
and t h e u se o f c h e m i c a l a n a l y s i s o f s o i l s , p a s t u r e s and a n i m a l
tis s u e s is necessary.

F u rth erm o re , improper m in e r a l n u t r i t i o n

can be confu sed w ith o t h e r n u t r i t i o n a l p r o b l e m s ,
in fectio u s disease

(Underwood,

1981).

p a r a s i t i s m and

2

The o b j e c t i v e s o f t h i s s t u d y were t o d e t e c t p o s s i b l e m i n e r a l
d e f i c i e n c i e s o r t o x i c i t i e s i n t h e C h im b o r a z o r e g i o n o f E c u a d o r
thro ugh the e l e m e n t a l a n a l y s i s of s o i l s , p a s t u r e s and bloo d ; t o
compare t h e s e f i n d i n g s w i t h t h e m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f a d a i r y farm i n
Michigan;
n u tritio n .

and t o p r o v i d e r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r p r o p e r m i n e r a l

LITERATURE REVIEW

The l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w d e a l s w i t h 1)
n u t r i e n t c o n t e n t of p a s t u r e s ;

m in e ra l c o n te n t of

soils;

2)

3)

m i n e r a l s i n b lo o d ;

and 4)

g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t i s m i n ruminants.

T h is r e v ie w t r i e s t o r e l a t e th e m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f t h e s o i l
t o t h e m i n e r a l s t a t u s and p r o d u c t i v i t y of f o r a g e s .

The e f f e c t of

e l e m e n t a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p l a n t s on the m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f c a t t l e
and o t h e r a n im a l s i s d i s c u s s e d , as i s t h e use o f s o i l , p l a n t and
anim al

tissu e

an aly ses

as

a mean o f

d iag n o sin g

m in eral

d e f i c i e n c i e s or t o x i c i t i e s .
The m i n e r a l c o n t e n t o f s o i l s i s compared t o t h e m i n e r a l
r e q u i r e m e n ts o f p l a n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r a g e s f o r ruminants.

The

e x p e c t e d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e s o i l on
c rop y i e l d a re m entioned, as w e l l as th e p o s s i b l e e f f e c t s of
fertilizatio n .
Each m i n e r a l
sections:

1)

found

in p a s tu r e s

3)

in f i v e

c o n te n t of the m in eral in p l a n t s in r e l a t i o n to

s o i l s t a t u s and f e r t i l i z a t i o n ;
forages,

is d iscu ssed

2)

c o n te n t of the m in e ra l in

requirem ents of d a iry c a t t l e

for the m in e ra ls;

4)

d e f i c i e n c i e s or t o x i c i t i e s of the m i n e r a l in ruminants;

5)

s o u r c e s o f t h e m i n e r a l f o r d i e t a r y s u p p le m e n ta tio n .
M inerals

in blood a re f i r s t d isc u sse d

in term s of

and

the

e f f e c t s o f t h e d i e t on t h e i r c o n c e n t r a t i o n . N e x t , b l o o d t e s t s
t h a t c a n be u s e d t o d i a g n o s e d e f i c i e n c i e s o r t o x i c i t i e s a r e
discussed.

When b lood i s n o t a good i n d i c a t o r of t h e s t a t u s o f a

p a r t i c u l a r m i n e r a l , a l t e r n a t i v e means of d i a g n o s i s a r e mentioned.

P a r a s i t i s m i s d i s c u s s e d because v i s u a l and c l i n i c a l s i g n s of
p a r a s i t e i n f e s t a t i o n c a n be c o n f u s e d w i t h m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s .
The c o n t r a r y c a n a l s o o c c u r :
a ttr ib u te d to parasitism .

m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c y s i g n s c a n be

The d e t r i m e n t a l economic i m p l i c a t i o n s

of p a r a s i t i s m in c a t t l e a re m entioned,
c o n tro l are discussed.

and some m e a s u r e s o f

5

M in e r a l S t a t u s o f S o i l
The m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f s o i l s d e p e n d s . o n t h e i r g e o l o g i c a l
form ation.

The p a r e n t m a t e r i a l

co m p o sitio n

of

the

so il

is

p a re n t rock

w eathering,

the s o i l

determ ined

com position of the p a re n t rock.
earth,

of

by t h e

elem en tal

Throughout th e h i s t o r y of the

has' been s u b j e c t e d

m ixing,

i s r o c k so t h e

tran sp o rta tio n

to

d isin te g ratio n ,

and d e p o s i t i o n .

These

f a c t o r s , a lo n g with c u r r e n t c l i m a t e and c ro p p r a c t i c e s , i n f l u e n c e
the abundance and a v a i l a b i l i t y of m i n e r a l e le m e n t s a v a i l a b l e f o r
p l a n t use (Beeson and Matrone, 1976).
P l a n t growth depends on s e v e r a l e n v i r o n m e n t a l v a r i a b l e s such
as t e m p e r a t u r e , m o i s t u r e s u p p l y ,

r a d i a n t en ergy,

c om position of

the atm osphere, gas c o n te n t of the s o i l , s o i l r e a c t i o n , b i o t i c
f a c t o r s s u c h a s d i s e a s e s and weeds and t h e s u p p l y o f m i n e r a l
n u trien t

elem ents.

i m p o s s i b l e t o change.
some p r a c t i c e s
production.

Some o f

these

factors

are

d iffic u lt

I n any g i v e n c l i m a t e , however,

t h a t c a n be a d o p t e d

or

th ere are

to improve a g r i c u l t u r a l

I n s e v e r a l a r e a s of t h e w o r l d , s o i l f e r t i l i t y i s t h e

lim itin g fa c to r for production.

F e r t i l i t y i n t h e s o i l c a n be

improved by s e v e r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l p r a c t i c e s such as c ro p r o t a t i o n ,
c o r r e c t i o n of a c i d i t y , pro per t i l l a g e , and f e r t i l i z a t i o n ( T i s d a l e
and N e lson , 1975).
S o i l pH and the E f f e c t o f Liming
S oil
production.

pH i s one o f t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t

factors

for

crop

D i f f e r e n t p l a n t s p e c i e s and v a r i e t i e s have d i f f e r e n t

s o i l pH r e q u i r e m e n t s , b u t most o f them t h r i v e a t pH v a l u e s c l o s e
to n e u tr a l.

However, p o t a t o e s grow w e l l a t pH 6.0.

The growth of

6

common s c a b i n p o t a t o e s ,

c a u s e d by S t r e p t o m y c e s s c a b i e s , i s

i n h i b i t e d when t h e s o i l pH i s 5.2 o r l o w e r ( A g r i o s , 197 8).

Scab

r e s i s t a n t v a r i e t i e s , however, produce b e t t e r a t a s o i l pH o f 6.5
(Warncke and C h r i s t e n s o n , 1980).
In g e n e r a l , th e recommended pH fo r f i e l d c ro p s i s 6 .5 , and
6.8 fo r a l f a l f a and leg u m es (C h r iste n s o n e t a l . , 1983).

In th e

c a se o f mixed p a s tu r e s , i t i s o fte n d e s ir a b le to favor growth o f
legu m es; c o n s e q u e n t l y a s o i l pH o f around 6.8 i s recommended.
S e v e r a l m ineral i n v e s t i g a t i o n s in Latin America have shown s o i l
pH v a lu e s under 6.0 (Sousa, 1978; McDowell e t a l . , 1982; Tejada,
1 98 4).

In Ecuador

a mean pH v a l u e o f 5.6 was found in th e s o i l

o f n a tu ra l p a stu res a t a l t i t u d e s o f around 3600 m (Wilson, 1976).
When s o i l pH i s n o t in th e d e s i r e d range fo r a s p e c i f i c
c r o p , an amendment i s needed.

Low or a c i d i c pH v a l u e s can be

c o r r e c t e d w ith th e a d d i t i o n o f c a lc iu m and magnesium o x i d e s ,
hydroxides or carbonates.

This p r a c tic e i s known as lim in g.

The

m ost common l im in g m a t e r i a l i s c a lc iu m c a r b o n a te or l i m e s t o n e .
Other m a t e r ia ls are calciu m oxide or lim e, calcium hydroxide or
sla k ed

lim e ,

lim e sto n e s,
carb on ate).
sla g

c a lc iu m and magnesium c a r b o n a t e s or d o l o m i t i c
and m a r ls

silic a te ),

th e s o i l s .

n e u t r a l iz e the s o i l .
(Jordan e t a l . ,
lim e sto n e

d e p o sits

of

c a lc iu m

B y p ro d u cts o f the ir o n and phosphorus i n d u s t r y , or

( c a lc iu m

n e u tr a liz e

( u n c o n s o lid a t e d

a lso

used when a v a i l a b l e

Cement k i l n

to

d u s t s can be u s e d t o

This l a s t byproduct has around 28% calcium

1980),

(R o b ertso n

n e u t r a l iz in g c a p a c ity

are

compared w ith 31% or more c a lc iu m in
et

a l.,

1981a),

(N oller e t a l . ,

and a b o u t t h e

1980).

same

Cement k i l n d u sts

a l s o have a v a r i a b l e c o n t e n t o f p o ta s siu m ,

ranging from 0.40 t o

3.60% ( J o r d a n e t a l . , 1980).
I n g e n e r a l , n i t r o g e n , phosp horus, p o tas siu m , s u l f u r , c a l c i u m
and magnesium i n s o i l s a r e more a v a i l a b l e f o r p l a n t s a t n e u t r a l
or above n e u t r a l pH v a l u e s , w h i l e aluminum, manganese, i r o n , and
boron a r e more a v a i l a b l e a t a c i d pH v a l u e s .

Zinc i s a v a i l a b l e up

t o a pH v a l u e of around 7.0, and copper a t a l m o s t a l l pH v a l u e s ,
except

in

very

a lk a lin e

so ils

(C hristenson

et

a l.,

1983).

Aluminum and m a n g a n e s e i n h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e t o x i c t o t h e
p l a n t s ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 19 75).
so il

has

several

( C hristenson e t a l . ,
1)

lim in g

advantages

L iming o r n e u t r a l i z i n g t h e

for

improved

crop p rod uction

1983), i n c l u d i n g :

reduces

the

a v a ila b ility

o f a l u m i n u m an d

manganese i n t h e s o i l t o l e v e l s t h a t a r e n o t ha rmful t o crops;
2)

lim in g

in creases

the

a v a ila b ility

of

n itro g e n ,

ph osphorus, p o t a s s i u m , magnesium, c a l c i u m , s u l f u r and molybdenum;
3)

l i m e s t o n e s u p p l i e s c a l c i u m t o t h e s o i l and d o l o m i t i c

l i m e s t o n e s u p p l i e s c a l c i u m and magnesium;
4)

l i m i n g p r o m o t e s f a v o r a b l e m i c r o b i a l a c t i v i t y which

r e s u l t s i n an i n c r e a s e d a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s o i l n i t r o g e n and a
d e c r e a s e d l o s s o f g aseous n i t r o g e n from t h e s o i l ;
5)

lim in g prom otes b e t t e r s o i l

s t r u c t u r e and t i l t h

due

p a r t l y t o i n c r e a s e d m i c r o b i a l a c t i v i t y , p a r t l y t o i n c r e a s e d cro p
r e s i d u e s from h i g h e r c r o p y i e l d s and p a r t l y t o chem ical e f f e c t s
of d e c r e a s i n g

hydrogen ion c o n c e n t r a t i o n and i n c r e a s i n g c a lc iu m

and magnesium io n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ; and
6)

l i m i n g promotes l o n g e v i t y o f legume s t a n d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y

a l f a l f a , due to the high calcium requirement of legumes.

I t a lso

in c r e a se s n itrogen f i x a t i o n in the r o o ts.
N itrogen
N i t r o g e n from t h e a i r becomes a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p l a n t s
through f i x a t i o n

by R h i z o b i a

or o th e r

m icro o rg an ism s

a tm o sp h e ric f i x a t i o n by b io c h e m ic a l r e d u c t i o n .

and

Nitrogen is a ls o

f i x e d i n t h e form of ammonia, n i t r a t e s or cy an id es by any o f th e
v a rio u s i n d u s t r i a l p ro c e s s e s fo r the m anufacture of s y n t h e t i c
nitrogen f e r t i l i z e r s
In

the case

of

( T i s d a l e and N e lso n,
legum es,

nitro g en

1975).
fix atio n

by R h i z o b i a

r e p r e s e n t s t h e main s o u rc e on t h e e le m e n t f o r t h e p l a n t .
in a l f a l f a c u l t i v a t i o n ,
used.

Indeed,

f o r example, no n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r

is

To e n s u r e a good n i t r o g e n f i x i n g m i c r o b i a l p o p u l a t i o n , t h e

s e e d i s i n o c u l a t e d a t t h e t i m e o f p l a n t i n g ( T e s a r , 1983).

When

t h e p a s t u r e s a r e mixed g r a s s e s and legumes, t h e legume p r o v i d e s
the necessary n itro g e n to the p a stu re.

Some a d d i t i o n a l n i t r o g e n

comes from t h e manure o f t h e g r a z i n g a n im a l s . T h e r e f o r e , chem ical
f e r t i l i z a t i o n w i t h n i t r o g e n i s unnecessary .
There i s a l o s s o f c lo v e r from c lo v e r - g r a s s p astures h e a v i ly
f e r t i l i z e d w ith n i t r o g e n .

T h is i s p o s s i b l y due to c o m p e t i t i o n

for moisture and n u t r ie n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y potassium.

According to

Donald (1958), c lo v e r i s l o s t because of:
1)

i n c r e a s e d r a t e s of n i t r o g e n a p p l i c a t i o n g i v e i n c r e a s e d

y i e l d s of g r a s s ;
2)

i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s of g r a s s g i v e h ig h e r l e a f a r e a s of

g r a s s d i s p o s e d above t h e c l o v e r - l e a f canopy;
3)

h ig h er l e a f a re a s above th e c l o v e r reduce th e l i g h t

d e n s i t y a t the c l o v e r - l e a f canopy; and
4)

reduced l i g h t d e n s i t y a t t h e c l o v e r l e a f canopy c a u se s

reduc ed growth o f c l o v e r .
In

ad dition

to

p roviding

"free"

n itrogen

to

the

so il,

legumes improve t h e n u t r i t i v e q u a l i t y of t h e p a s t u r e because th e y
u s u a l l y have a h i g h e r p r o t e i n c o n t e n t than g r a s s e s and a r e more
palatable.

Compared t o g r a s s e s , legumes have c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a l l y

h igh c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f c a l c i u m , magnesium, s u l f u r , and f r e q u e n t l y
copper.

They tend t o be lower i n manganese and z in c th an g r a s s e s

(Church and Pond,

1974).

Calcium
A ll

higher p la n t s

re q u ire calcium .

Legumes i n g e n e r a l

e x t r a c t more c a l c i u m from t h e s o i l th an g r a s s e s or c e r e a l s .
thousand

kg o f

a lfa lfa

(1.40% c a l c i u m )

Nine

from one h e c t a r e

t o n s / a c r e ) remove 125 kg of c a l c i u m from th e s o i l .

(4

Nine thousand

f i v e h u n d r e d kg o f c o r n g r a i n (0,03% c a l c i u m ) from one h e c t a r e
(150 b u s h e l s / a c r e ) rem ove 2.85 kg o f c a l c i u m and 10000 kg o f
stover

(0.30% calcium ) from t h e same crop (4.5 t o n s / a c r e ) remove

30 kg o f c a l c i u m ( R o b e r t s o n e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 a ).
i s n o t a common p r o b l e m i n s o i l s .
w ith calciu m s a l t s ,

Calcium d e f i c i e n c y

N evertheless, f e r t i l i z a t i o n

p a r t i c u l a r l y carbonate,

is e s s e n tia l

to

n e u t r a l i z e t h e s o i l pH, t o m a i n t a i n a s u i t a b l e d e g r e e o f b a s e
s a t u r a t i o n of t h e s o i l c o l l o i d s , and t o p r e c i p i t a t e aluminum t h a t
i s t o x i c t o p l a n t s ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).
of calcium

for

the

so il

is

f e r t i l i z e r s are calcium s a l t s

lim ing.

Most o f

The main s o u r c e
the phosphate

(Robertson e t a l . , 1976a).

Calcium d e f i c i e n c y can occur in s o i l s in humid r e g i o n s under

10

c o n d i t i o n s i n which r a i n f a l l exceeds e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n fo r most
of th e year and where b a ses have been d e p l e t e d and s o i l a c i d i t y
h a s d e v e l o p e d (Kamprath and F o y, 19 71).

The a c t u a l l e v e l o f

c a l c i u m i n s o i l i s n o t i m p o r t a n t a s l o n g t h e pH i s w i t h i n an
adequa te range (Robertson e t a l . ,

1976a).

P l a n t s a b so r b c a lc iu m

a s t h e i o n Ca++ i n b a l a n c e w i t h magnesium and p o t a s s i u m .

Too

much of any o f t h e s e t h r e e e le m e n t s may cause i n s u f f i c i e n c i e s of
the o th er

two

(V itosh e t

exchangeable c a lc iu m

a l,

1 9 81).

and p o t a s s i u m

Indeed,
in

the

the

so il

value
is

of

use d t o

d e t e r m i n e t h e need f o r magnesium f e r t i l i z e r ( R o b e r t s o n e t a l . ,
197 6a).
P l a n t a n a l y s i s c a n be u s e d t o h e l p d e t e r m i n e t h e c a l c i u m
s t a tu s of the s o i l .

The p e r c e n t o f c a l c i u m i n c o r n and a l f a l f a

(Table 1.1, Appendix I) r e p r e s e n t s th e " s u f f i c i e n c y range", which
is a le v e l
reported

esse n tial

for

high y i e l d s .

L e v e l s b e lo w t h o s e

im ply th e p o s s i b i l i t y of p r o d u c tio n p ro b lem s, w h ile

t h o s e above r e f l e c t e x c e s s i v e l e v e l s and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of o t h e r
n u trie n t d e fic ie n c ie s.

These s u f f i c i e n c y

lev e ls

c a n be

i n t e r p r e t e d c o r r e c t l y o n l y when t h e sa m ple s a r e c o l l e c t e d in th e
way i n d i c a t e d

in

the

reference

tab les.

Corn s a m p l e s ,

for

example, a r e c o l l e c t e d from t h e e a r l e a f of i n i t i a l s i l k o f the
p l a n t (Robertson e t a l . ,

1976a).

In the c ase of a l f a l f a , the

s u f f i c i e n c y range i s 1.76 t o 3.00% i n t h e top s i x i n c h e s p r i o r t o
i n i t i a l flow ering.

The c a l c i u m c o n t e n t o f t h e w h o l e p l a n t c u t

f o r hay i n e a r l y v e g e t a t i v e s t a t e i s 1.72% (NRC, 1978).
Phosphorus
P hosp horus, w ith n i t r o g e n and p o t a s s iu m , i s c l a s s e d as a

11

major n u t r i e n t e le m e n t.
th ese

three

n u trien ts

S o i l s u s u a l l y r e q u ir e the a d d itio n of
for

comm ercial

production

of

crops.

P h o s p h o r u s d e f i c i e n c y i n s o i l s , p a s t u r e s and a n i m a l s i s one o f
t h e m o st common and c r i t i c a l m i n e r a l p r o b l e m s t h r o u g h o u t t h e
w o rld (Reid and H o r v a th , 1980; McDowell e t a l . , 1983).

The f i r s t

e f f e c t o f p h o s p h o r u s d e f i c i e n c y on t h e p l a n t i s d e c r e a s e d r o o t
growth, which i n t u r n r e s u l t s i n d e c r e a s e d p l a n t growth and lower
y ield s.

P l a n t s w ith adequate phosphorus f e r t i l i z a t i o n m ature

f a s t e r and i n t h e c a s e o f c e r e a l s h a v e g r e a t e r s t r e n g t h i n t h e
stra w .

P a s t u r e s i n g e n e r a l have b e t t e r n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y when

t h e p h o s p h o r u s s u p p l y from t h e s o i l

i s a d e q u a t e ( T i s d a l e and

N elson,

su lfu r

1975).

Phosphorus

-and

and

p o tassium -

f e r t i l i z a t i o n , w i t h o u t n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n , o f mixed p a s t u r e s
f a v o r th e growth of legumes o v e r th e g r a s s e s .
resu lts

in b e t t e r

n u tritio n a l

q u ality :

T his u s u a l l y

higher p r o te in ,

d i g e s t i b l e e n erg y, m i n e r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n and y i e l d (Heady, 1975).
Phosphorus a v a i l a b i l i t y depends on the t o t a l con cen tratio n
o f th e e le m e n t ,

pH,

o r g a n ic m a t t e r ,

c l a y c o n t e n t and c l a y

s t r u c t u r e , s o i l m o i s t u r e , tem p er a tu r e and a e r a t i o n in th e s o i l
(Reid and H o rv a th , 1 9 80 ).
su p p lie d as f e r t i l i z e r

At low s o i l pH v a l u e s , phosphorus

r e a c t s w ith aluminum t o form aluminum

orthophosphate, which i s not a v a i l a b l e for the p la n t .
so il

When the

i s n e u t r a l i z e d w it h lim e b e fo r e phosphorus f e r t i l i z a t i o n ,

aluminum i s p r e c ip it a t e d as aluminum hydroxide (Kamprath and Foy,
197 1).

The a d d i t i o n o f o r g a n ic m a t e r i a l s t o m in e r a l s o i l s

in c r e a se s the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f phosphorus.

S o i l s con tain in g la r g e

amounts o f c l a y w i l l f i x more phosphorus than t h o s e c o n t a i n i n g

12

s m a l l amounts.

C l a y s of t h e 1:1 typ e r e t a i n more phosphorus than

c l a y s o f t h e typ e 2:1.
more p h o s p h o r u s
N e l s o n , 1975).

In g e n e r a l , s o i l s i n warmer c l i m a t e s f i x

than s o i l s

in c o ld e r

clim ates

( T i s d a l e and

I n c r e a s i n g s o i l m o i s t u r e and tem p era tu re i n c r e a s e

t h e r a t e o f d i f f u s i o n of phosphorus t o th e r o o t system (Reid and
H o r v a th ,

1980).

Recommendations f o r phosphorus f e r t i l i z a t i o n a r e made on the
b a s is of the crop considered, organic m atter content of the s o i l ,
phosphorus c o n t e n t of t h e s o i l and removal of phosphorus by the
c ro p (V ito sh and Warncke, 1979).

T a b l e s 1.6 and 1.7 (Appendix I)

show t h e recommendations f o r phosphorus f e r t i l i z a t i o n made by the
E x te n s io n S e r v i c e of M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
C hristenson,

19 80).

The

v alu es

(Warncke and

c a n be used o n l y when t h e

p h o s p h o r u s c o n t e n t o f t h e s o i l h a s been o b t a i n e d by t h e B r a y - 1
e x t r a c t i n g p r o ce d u re (Knudsen,

1980).

Phosphate f e r t i l i z e r s a r e m anufactur ed from phospha te rock.
The b a s i c phosphate compound i n phosp hate rock i s a p a t i t e . Most
of the n a t u r a l l y occurring a p a t i t e i s f l u o r o a p a t i t e or c a lc iu m
p hosphate f l u o r i d e .

Phosphate rock i s t r e a t e d w ith s u l f u r i c a c i d

t o y i e l d o r d i n a r y s u p e r p h o sp h a te w ith 7-9.5% a v a i l a b l e phosphorus
and 8-10% s u l f u r a s c a l c i u m s u l f a t e .

T r i p l e or c o n c e n tr a te d

s u p e r p h o s p h a t e i s m a n u f a c t u r e d by t r e a t i n g p h o s p h a t e r o c k w i t h
phosphoric a cid ,
p h o sp h ates

and c o n t a i n s 19 t o 23% phosphorus.

a v a ila b le

superphosphates,

in

th e

m arket

are

ammonium p h o s p h a t e s and n i t r i c

Among o t h e r
am m oniated
phosphates.

D e f l u o r i n a t e d p h o sp h a te s a r e m a n u f a c t u r e d by h e a t t r e a t m e n t o f
phosphate

rock,

and a r e u s e d f o r

anim al

feeds

( T i s d a l e and

13

Nelson,

1975).

Potassium
Potassium i s one o f th e most abundant e le m e n t s i n th e s o i l ,
b u t t h e f r a c t i o n o f t h e t o t a l p o ta s s iu m i n t h e e x c h a n g e a b le , or
p l a n t a v a i l a b l e , form i s u s u a l l y s m a l l .
p otassium are high.

P l a n t r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r

When t h e e l e m e n t i s i n s h o r t s u p p l y , t h e

f i r s t symptom i s a r e d u c t i o n i n y i e l d s and t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e
crops.

There i s a weakening o f t h e st r a w of c e r e a l s and g r a s s e s

t h a t a r e th en s u b j e c t t o l o d g i n g , and s t a l k breakage in c orn and
sorghum. A u s u a l symptom i n a l f a l f a i s t h e d e c o l o r i z a t i o n of th e
lower l e a v e s .

This i s because p o tassiu m i s a m obile elem ent

which i s t r a n s l o c a t e d t o t h e y o u n g e r m e r i s t e m a t i c t i s s u e s i f a
shortage
p otassium .

occurs.

P lan ts

d iffer

in t h e i r

a b ility

to

use

G ra sses a r e b e t t e r a b l e t o s u r v i v e a t low l e v e l s of

s o i l p o tassiu m th an c l o v e r s and legumes i n g e n e r a l . T h e r e fo r e t o
m a i n t a i n a good legume p o p u l a t i o n i n mixed g r a s s - l e g u m e p a s t u r e s
and meadows, i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o p r o v i d e an a d e q u a t e p o t a s s i u m
f e r t i l i z a t i o n ( T i s d a l e and N e lso n ,

1975).

Potassium i n th e s o i l e x i s t s i n fo ur forms:

1)

m i n e r a l , or

t h e po tassiu m h e l d i n t h e m o l e c u l e s o f f e l d s p a r and mica, which
i s u n a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p l a n t ; 2)

" d i f f i c u l t l y a v a i l a b l e " , or the

p o t a s s i u m i n c l a y s l i k e i l l i t e , v e r m i c u l i t e , and c h l o r i t e ; 3)
e x c h a n g e a b l e p o t a s s i u m , h e l d by e l e c t r o s t a t i c f o r c e s , which i s
v e r y r e a d i l y e x c h a n g e d from t h e s o l i d p h a s e o f t h e
s o l u t i o n by o t h e r c a t i o n s ; and 4)

so il

to

p otassium i n s o l u t i o n , a s the

K+ i o n , which i s t h e fo rm t h a t i s a b s o r b e d by t h e r o o t s ( B a rb e r
e t a l . , 1971).

14

Potassium

a d d ed

to

the

so il

as

fertiliz er

is

read ily

a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p l a n t a t t h e time o f a p p l i c a t i o n , b u t a f t e r some
time t h e p r o c e s s o f " f i x a t i o n " o c c u r s .

This i s t h e entra pment of

t h e p o t a s s i u m i o n i n b e tw e e n t h e l a y e r s o f 2: 1 t y p e c l a y s .
fix e d elem en t i s u n a v a i l a b l e to the p l a n t .

The

The f a c t o r s t h a t

i n f l u e n c e t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f s o i l and ad ded p o t a s s i u m t o l e s s
a v a i l a b l e forms a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g ( T i s d a l e and N e lso n , 1975):
1)

Type and amount o f c o l l o i d s :

more p otas sium th an t h e 1:1 t y p e s .

c l a y s o f t h e 2:1 ty pe f i x

Independent of the c l a y ty p e ,

s o i l s w i t h a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f c l a y w i l l f i x more p o t a s s i u m
than sandy s o i l s .
2)

T em p eratu re:

th ere

is ev id en ce

t h a t changes in

te m p e r a t u r e , such as f r e e z i n g an thawing have some e f f e c t on t h e
r e l e a s e of fix ed potassium .

The same e f f e c t h a s b een o b s e r v e d

with w e t t i n g and d r y i n g o f t h e s o i l .
3)

S o i l pH:

t h e e f f e c t o f s o i l pH p e r s e on p o t a s s i u m

f i x a t i o n i s n o t known.

Lim ing o f s o i l s w i t h c l a y s t h a t a r e

s a t u r a t e d w ith p o tassiu m r e l e a s e s the p otassium to the s o i l
s o l u t i o n by s u b s t i t u t i o n .

P o t a s s i u m f e r t i l i z e r added t o s o i l s

w i t h c a l c i u m io n s a d sorbed t o t h e c l a y i n t e r c h a n g e s c a l c i u m fo r
p o tassiu m on t h e s u r f a c e o f t h e c l a y p a r t i c l e .
s t i l l ex ch a n g ea b le .

T his p otas sium i s

F i x a t i o n of th e exch a n g ea b le po tas sium w i l l

depend on t h e amount and typ e of c l a y and t h e degree of po tassium
saturation.
Potassium f e r t i l i z a t i o n

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s a r e made on t h e

b a s i s o f:
1)

t h e amount o f t h e e l e m e n t rem oved from t h e s o i l by t h e

1.5

c ro p.

Corn s i l a g e

remove

(56 m e t r i c t o n s / h e c t a r e or 25 t o n s / a c r e ) w i l l

220 kg o f K20 f r o m t h e

so il.

A lfalfa

(11 m e t r i c

t o n s / h e c t a r e o r 5 t o n s / a c r e ) w i l l rem ove 250 kg o f K20 from t h e
soil

(Warncke and C h r i s t e n s o n , 1980).
2)

t h e e x c h a n g e a b le amount o f p o tassiu m p r e s e n t i n t h e s o i l

as determined by c h em ic al a n a l y s i s ; and
3)

the te x t u r e of th e s o i l .

Sandy s o i l s

require

less

potassium than s o i l s t h a t have high c o n t e n t s of c l a y .
When enough p o t a s s i u m f e r t i l i z e r i s ad ded t o t h e s o i l i t
w i l l e v e n t u a l l y s a t u r a t e the c l a y p a r t i c l e s .

A l l the e x tr a

p o t a s s i u m w i l l t h e n be i n an e x c h a n g e a b l e form t h a t w i l l n o t
r e v e r t t o th e f i x e d form.

I n some s i t u a t i o n s i t i s d e s i r a b l e to

b u i l d up t h e p o t a s s i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s o i l t o t h e p o i n t of
satu ratio n .

However , i n s o i l s w i t h h i g h c o n t e n t o f 2:1 t y p e of

c l a y , t h e amount needed t o r e a c h s a t u r a t i o n can be so g r e a t i t i s
n o t economical t o do so.
s o i l more f r e q u e n t l y

I n such a c a s e , adding potassium t o the
is

recommended,

not in order

to reach

s a t u r a t i o n , b u t t o h a v e eno ugh e x c h a n g e a b l e e l e m e n t d u r i n g t h e
p e rio d of growth.
planting.

F o r c o r n , p o t a s s i u m i s ad ded a t t h e t i m e o f

I n t h e c a s e o f permanent c ro p s as a l f a l f a , po tassiu m

c a n be added a f t e r t h e f i r s t h a r v e s t i n s p r i n g , and a f t e r t h e
t h i r d h a r v e s t i n l a t e automn i n M i c h i g a n ( H e l s e l e t a l . , 1984).
Recommendations f o r p o t a s s i u m f e r t i l i z a t i o n f o r corn and a l f a l f a
made by t h e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e o f M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
(Warncke and C h r i s t e n s o n , 1980) a r e shown i n T a b l e s 1.6 and 1.7
(Appendix 1) .
The main p o t a s s i u m f e r t i l i z e r i s p otassium c h l o r i d e found in

16

u n d e r g r o u n d d e p o s i t s and i n t h e b r i n e s o f d y i n g s e a s and l a k e s .
The p otas siu m o r e and the b r i n e s a r e found u s u a l l y as m ix t u r e s of
potassium c h lo r id e ,

sodium c h l o r i d e ,

other

sa lts

and c l a y .

R e f i n i n g p r o c e s s e s a r e n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a i n c o n c e n t r a t e d or pure
p o ta s s iu m c h l o r i d e .

Other p o ta s s iu m f e r t i l i z e r s a r e p o ta s s iu m

s u l f a t e , p o tas siu m magnesium s u l f a t e , and p o ta s s iu m n i t r a t e .
Magnesium
The t o t a l magnesium c o n t e n t o f s o i l s i s u s u a l l y h i g h , b u t
r a n g e s from 0.1% i n h i g h l y we athe re d , sandy t r o p i c a l s o i l s , t o 4%
i n s o i l s of s e m ia r id r e g i o n s (Mortvedt and Cunningham, 1971).

As

i n t h e c a s e o f p o t a s s i u m , n o t a l l t h e magnesium i n t h e s o i l i s
a v a i l a b l e f o r the p l a n t .
Magnesium i s absorbed by th e p l a n t s as th e ion Mg++ from th e
s o il solution.

I t i s adsorbed and f i x e d by t h e c l a y p a r t i c l e s in

a way s i m i l a r

to t h a t of potassium .

The amount o f magnesium

abso rbed by t h e p l a n t s depends on t h e amount p r e s e n t , t h e degre e
o f s a t u r a t i o n , and the n a t u r e of o t h e r e x c h a n g e a b le io n s ( T i s d a l e
and N e l s o n ,

1975 ).

The M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y E x t e n s i o n

S e r v i c e (Vitosh e t a l . ,

1981) recommends magnesium f e r t i l i z a t i o n

i f one o f t h e f o l l o w i n g c r i t e r i a a r e met:

1)

t h e e x ch an g eab le

magnesium l e v e l i s l e s s than 37 ppm i n m i n e r a l s o i l s and 75 ppm
i n o r g a n i c s o i l s ; or 2)

when as a p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l b a ses (Ca

+ Mg + K, e x p r e s s e d a s m i l l i e q u i v a l e n t s p e r u n i t o f w e i g h t o f
so il),

potassium

lev e ls

e x c e e d magnesium ; o r

3)

when s o i l

m agnesi um , a s a p e r c e n t o f t h e t o t a l b a s e s , i s l e s s t h a n t h r e e
percent.

Some a u t h o r s recommend a t l e a s t 10% o f magnesium a s

p e r c e n t of the t o t a l b a se s t o p r e v e n t magnesium t e t a n y of a n im a l s

17

f e d magnesium d e f i c i e n t f o r a g e s .

S u f f i c i e n c y r a n g e s shown i n

t a b l e 1.1 (Appendix I) can be used t o a s s e s s magnesium d e f i c i e n c y
i n c o rn and a l f a l f a .
Magnesium i s a m o b il e e le m e n t and i s r e a d i l y t r a n s l o c a t e d
from o l d e r t o y o u n g e r p l a n t p a r t s i n t h e e v e n t o f d e f i c i e n c y .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , symptoms o f t e n a p p e a r f i r s t on t h e l o w e r l e a v e s .
I n many s p e c i e s ,

such as c o rn ,

the d e fic ie n c y r e s u l t s

i n an

i n t e r v e i n a l c h l o r o s i s of t h e l e a f , i n which o n l y the v e i n s remain
green.

I n more advanced s t a g e s t h e l e a f t i s s u e becomes u n if o r m ly

p a l e y e l l o w , t h e n brown and n e c r o t i c ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).
M agnesium

d e ficie n cy

can

be

induced

by

high

potassium

f e r t i l i z a t i o n and in a d e q u a t e lim i n g (Vitosh e t a l . , 1981).
To c o r r e c t

or

prevent

d eficien cies,

a good

source

of

magnesium i s d o l o m i t i c l i m e s t o n e which h a s v a r i a b l e magnesium
co n ten ts.

This

lim e sto n e

to

m aterial

can

lim e a c id s o i l s .

be

used

instead

When a l k a l i n e

of

c alcitic

so ils

need

magnesium, s a l t s such a s potassium-magnesium s u l f a t e can be used
( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).
Sulfur
S u l f u r i s a b s o r b e d by t h e r o o t s a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y a s t h e
su lfate

ion,

SO4 — •

The symptoms o f s u l f u r

s im il a r to those of n itro g e n d e fic ie n c y :

d e fic ie n cy are

uniform c h l o r o s i s of

t h e l e a v e s , d e c r e a s e d g r o w t h and g e n e r a l w e a k n e s s o f t h e p l a n t
( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).
S u l f u r has s e v e r a l f u n c t i o n s i n p l a n t s , among them ( T is d a l e
and N e lson , 1975):
1)

i t i s re q u ir e d for the s y n t h e s i s of s u l f u r c o n ta in in g

18

amino a c i d s , and f o r p r o t e i n s y n t h e s i s ;
2)

i t a c t i v a t e s s e v e r a l enzymes and i t i s a c o n s t i t u e n t of

some v i t a m i n s and enzymes;
3)

i t i s p r e s e n t i n t h e o i l s o f some p l a n t s a s g a r l i c and

o nions and i n c r e a s e s t h e o i l c o n t e n t of p l a n t s l i k e soybeans and
flax;
4)

it

is

required

for

nitro g en

fix atio n

by l e g u m i n o u s

p l a n t s and i s a p a r t o f t h e n i t r o g e n a s e enzyme s y s t e m t h a t i s
a s s o c ia te d with t h i s r e a c t i o n .

S u lf u r i s a l s o a s s o c ia te d with

co ld re s is ta n c e in p l a n t s .
The m ost d i r e c t b e n e f i t o f s u l f u r f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n s u l f u r
d e f i c i e n t s o i l s i s t h e i n c r e a s e i n y i e l d and q u a l i t y o f t h e crop.
I n c r e a s e d p e r s i s t e n c y , w i n t e r h a r d i n e s s and d r o u g h t t o l e r a n c e has
been o b se r v e d i n a l f a l f a a f t e r s u l f u r f e r t i l i z a t i o n
Fox,

1971).

In

cereals

and g r a s s e s

su lfu r

(Beaton and

fertiliz atio n

d e c r e a s e s t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f n i t r a t e s , t h a t may be h a r m f u l t o
rum in ants .

On t h e o t h e r hand, an i n c r e a s e d s u l f u r c o n t e n t i n the

p l a n t a f t e r f e r t i l i z a t i o n decreases the nitro g en to s u l f u r r a t i o
( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1 9 75 ).

A n i t r o g e n t o s u l f u r r a t i o o f 10 :1

is suggested for e f f i c i e n t u t i l i z a t i o n of n o nprotein n itro g e n
(NRC, 1978).

G ra s s e s u t i l i z e s o i l s u l f u r b e t t e r than legumes.

In g r a s s - le g u m e p a s t u r e s t h e g r a s s e s can a b s o r b th e a v a i l a b l e
s u l f a t e a t a f a s t e r r a t e than th e legumes.
so il

l e v e l of t h i s elem ent is m ain tain ed ,

U n l e s s an a d e q u a t e
th e legumes w i l l

d i s a p p e a r from the m i x t u r e ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).
A s o i l t e s t l e v e l o f 6 - 7 ppm o f s u l f u r i s c o n s i d e r e d t h e
t h r e s h o l d t o d i a g n o s e d e f i c i e n c y in the G r e a t Lakes a r e a .

Some

1.9

s o i l s i n M i c h i g a n h a v e s u l f u r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s b e l o w 6 ppm, b u t
s u l f u r f e r t i l i z a t i o n has f a i l e d t o i n c r e a s e c ro p y i e l d s w i t h the
exception of

field

beans

(R obertson e t

a l.,

1 9 76 b ).

It

is

p o s s i b l e t h a t c o n ti n u o u s c ropping of high y i e l d i n g v a r i e t i e s w i l l
e v e n t u a l l y d e p l e t e t h e a v a i l a b l e s u l f u r i n some s o i l s and th en
f e r t i l i z a t i o n w i l l be needed.
There a re s e v e r a l s u l f u r c o n ta in in g
market.

f e r t i l i z e r s on t h e

Most o f them a r e s u l f a t e s o f d i f f e r e n t c a t i o n s , and a r e

r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e to the p l a n t .

With t h e e x c e p t i o n of ammonium,

aluminum, and i r o n s u l f a t e s , s u l f a t e s a l t s have no e f f e c t on s o i l
pH.

E le m e n t a l s u l f u r i s a good s u l f u r f e r t i l i z e r ,

b u t needs t o

be o x i d i z e d t o s u l f a t e b e f o r e b e i n g a b s o r b e d by t h e r o o t s .
v e l o c i t y o f o x i d a t i o n d e p e n d s on t h e p a r t i c l e
te m p e r a t u re and m o i s t u r e of t h e s o i l .
the

so il.

Three

kg o f c a l c i u m

The

s i z e and t h e

Elemental s u l f u r a c i d i f i e s

carbonate

are

necessary

to

n e u t r a l i z e one k ilo g r a m o f e l e m e n t a l s u l f u r ( T i s d a l e and N e lso n,
1975).

Calcium s u l f a t e or gypsum (around 16% s u l f u r ) ,

if finely

ground w i l l u s u a l l y pro d u ce a q u ic k r e s p o n s e w ith most c ro p s .
The same i s t r u e f o r n o r m a l s u p e r p h o s p h a t e t h a t h a s 10-12% o f
s u l f u r c o n t e n t (Beaton and Fox, 1971).
Sodium
Sodium i s e s s e n t i a l f o r t h e g r o w t h o f p l a n t s .
c ro p s have d i f f e r e n t r e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e e le m e n t.

D ifferent
The respo n se

o f c r o p s t o sodium f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s u s u a l l y d e p e n d e n t on t h e
potassium s t a t u s of the s o i l .

W h ea t, f o r e x a m p l e , w i l l show

i n c r e a s e d y i e l d s i n r e s p o n se t o sodium f e r t i l i z a t i o n i f po tas si um
i s low i n t h e s o i l , b u t n o t when p o t a s s i u m i s a d e q u a t e .

When

20

sodium n i t r a t e i s u s e d a s a s o u r c e o f n i t r o g e n , t h e sodium i o n
h e l p s t o m a i n t a i n t h e pH o f t h e s o i l a t a s u i t a b l e high l e v e l , in
c o n t r a s t t o ammonium s o u r c e s whose c o n ti n u o u s use lo wers the s o i l
pH.

Sodium d i s p e r s e s b o t h c l a y and o r g a n i c m a t t e r .

For t h i s

r e a s o n , l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f sod iu m i n f i n e t e x t u r e d s o i l s a r e
undesirable.
so il,

I n s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s , so dium a c c u m u l a t e s i n t h e

i n some c a s e s t o a p o i n t w here p l a n t g r o w t h i s l i m i t e d .

Amendment o f t h e s o i l w ith gypsum and s u f f i c i e n t water t o l e a c h
o u t t h e d i s p l a c e d so d iu m c a n a l l e v i a t e t h i s c o n d i t i o n ( T is d a l e
and N e l s o n , 1975).

I n s e v e r a l a r i d and s e m i a r i d r e g i o n s o f t h e

w o r l d , t h e p r o b l e m i s n o t o n l y so d i u m , b u t t h e a c c u m u l a t i o n o f
to ta l soluble s a lts .

This phenomenon i s known as s a l i n i t y of the

soil

1982).

(Bresler e t a l . ,
C h l o r in e

I t has been d e m o s tr a te d t h a t c h l o r i n e i s e s s e n t i a l f o r p l a n t
growth in s e v e r a l s p e c i e s .

D e f i c i e n c y o f t h e c h l o r i d e i o n can

produce c h l o r o s i s in some a r e a s of t h e p l a n t in some s p e c i e s , and
leaf

bronzing

in o th e r s .

In

tom ato p l a n t s ,

c h l o r i n e d e f i c i e n c y i s d e c r e a s e d r o o t growth.

the e f f e c t

of

Corn i s one of the

c r o p s s u s c e p t i b l e t o c h l o r i n e d e f i c i e n c y ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n ,
1975).

The c h l o r i d e i o n i s h i g h l y s o l u b l e i n w a t e r and l o o s l y

h e l d by t h e c l a y p a r t i c l e s ,

so i t i s e a s i l y l e a c h e d from t h e

s u r f a c e h o r i z o n o f s o i l s a f t e r i r r i g a t i o n or r a i n f a l l .
fertiliz atio n

with potassium m u ria te

should

Potassium

provide

enough

c h l o r i n e f o r the c r o p s (Mortvedt and Cunningham, 1971).
Boron
Boron i s

indispen sab le

for p l a n t s but not for an im als.

21

A l f a l f a i s a c ro p h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e t o boron f e r t i l i z a t i o n , w h i l e
clo v ers

a r e medium r e s p o n s i v e and c o r n and g r a s s e s a r e

r e s p o n s i v e (Robertson e t a l . ,
In

a lfa lfa ,

low

1981a).

boron d e f i c i e n c y

produces

a y ello w ish

to

r e d d i s h - y e l l o w d i s c o l o r a t i o n o f t h e upper l e a v e s , s h o r t nodes and
few f l o w e r s .

Growing t i p s o f a l f a l f a may d i e , w i t h r e g r o w t h

coming a f t e r a new s h o o t i s i n i t i a t e d a t a l o w e r a x i s .

Boron

d e f i c i e n c y and l e a f h o p p e r damage c a n be c o n f u s e d i n a l f a l f a .
L e a f h o p p e r damage shows up a s

a V-shaped y e llo w in g

of

the

a f f e c t e d l e a v e s and may appear on any o r a l l p a r t s of t h e p l a n t .
The g r o w in g t i p i s u s u a l l y n o r m a l and t h e p l a n t may s u p p o r t
abundant flo w e rs .

O f t e n , when t h e s o i l i s d r y and p l a n t g r o w t h

i s r e t a r d e d , both boron d e f i c i e n c y and l e a f h o p p e r i n j u r y oc cur in
t h e same f i e l d .

A c u t e b o r o n d e f i c i e n c y i n c o r n a p p e a r s on t h e

newly-formed l e a v e s as e l o n g a t e d , w a te r y or t r a n s p a r e n t s t r i p e s .
L a t e r , th e l e a v e s become w h ite and d i e .

Growing p o i n t s a l s o d i e

and, i n s e v e r e c a s e s , s t e r i l i t y i s common.

I f e a r s d e v e l o p , they

may show corky brown bands a t th e base of the k e r n e l s (Vitosh e t
a l . , 1981).
In a d d itio n

to

v isu al

diagnosed by s o i l t e s t s .
the s o i l

sym ptom s,

boron s t a t u s

c a n be

A c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f l e s s th a n 1 ppm when

i s e x t r a c t e d w i t h b o i l i n g w a t e r i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f

boron d e f i c i e n c y in t h e s o i l .

C o r r e l a t i o n s of y i e l d r e s p o n s e s t o

boron f e r t i l i z a t i o n based on s o i l t e s t s , however, have been low.
P l a n t a n a l y s i s can a l s o be used t o a s s e s s boron d e f i c i e n c i e s or
to x icities.

The s u f f i c i e n c y r a n g e f o r a l f a l f a ( t o p s i x i n c h e s

p r i o r t o i n i t i a l bloom) i s 31-80 ppm.

For c o r n , t h e s u f f i c i e n c y

22

range

measured

in

(Robertson e t a l . ,

the

ear

leaf

at

first

silk

is

4 - 2 5 ppm

1981a).

Boron a v a i l a b i l i t y in the s o i l

i s g reater when the tex tu re

i s sandy than when th e p r o p o r t io n o f c l a y i s h ig h .
reduces the a v a i l a b i l i t y o f boron.

O v e r lim in g

Boron d e f i c i e n c i e s are more

m a n i f e s t when th e s o i l i s dry and th e p l a n t can n o t e x t r a c t th e
elem ent from i t (T isd a le and N elso n , 1975).
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l compounds and p r e p a r a t i o n s t h a t c a n be
used as f e r t i l i z e r

to c o r r e c t or p r e v e n t boron d e f i c i e n c i e s .

Some of them a r e b o rax, sodium p e n t a b o r a t e and b o r i c a c i d .

Boron

s a l t s c a n be f u s e d w i t h g l a s s t o p r o d u c e a s l o w r e l e a s e o f t h e
s a l t as th e g l a s s d i s s o l v e s .

T his m a t e r i a l i s c a l l e d " f r i t "

( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).
B oron t o x i c i t y

u s u a l l y o c c u r s when b o r o n c o n t a i n i n g

f e r t i l i z e r s for h ig h ly r e s p o n s iv e s p e c i e s l i k e sugar b e e t s are
used a t p la n tin g time f e r t i l i z e r for h ig h ly s e n s i t i v e crops such
a s f i e l d b ea n s.

T o x i c i t y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by y e l l o w i n g o f th e

l e a f t i p , i n t e r v e i n a l c h l o r o s i s , and p r o g r e s s iv e scorching o f the
l e a f margin (Vitosh e t a l . , 1981).

For a l f a l f a , e s p e c i a l l y when

grown on c o a r s e t e x t u r e d , a r id s o i l s , boron s h o u ld be a p p l i e d
a n n u a lly , but not a t seed in g , at a r a te o f one to two kg/h ectare
(H else l e t a l . ,

1984).

Iron
A p l a n t r e q u ir e s a continuous supply of iro n to m ain tain
p r o p e r growth (Brown e t a l . ,

1972).

Iron d eficien cy in s o i l s

is

r e l a t e d t o high pH v a l u e s such as t h o s e found i n a r i d , c a l c a r e o u s
r e g i o n s , a c i d s o i l s w i t h low t o t a l i r o n c o n t e n t , and h i g h s o i l

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f p h o s p h o r u s ( M o r t v e d t and Cunningham , 1971).
I r o n a b s o r p t i o n by t h e p l a n t i s reduced by high c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of
manganese, phosphorus and heavy m e t a l s in th e s o i l .
highly responsive to iron f e r t i l i z a t i o n ,
and c o r n a r e medium r e s p o n s i v e

G ra sses a r e

while a l f a l f a ,

(Robertson e t a l . ,

clover

198 1a).

M i c h i g a n , i r o n d e f i c i e n c y i s n o t common i n f o r a g e s ,

In

b u t some

problems have been o b s e r v e d i n t r e e s , o r n a m e n t a l s and g o l f lawns
( V i t o s h e t a l . , 19 71).
S o i l t e s t s h a v e n o t b e e n a good i n d i c a t o r o f e x t r a c t a b l e
i r o n ( R o b e r t s o n e t a l . , 1 9 8 1 a , Cox and K a m p ra t h , 1972).

Plant

a n a l y s i s i s a l s o d i f f i c u l t t o i n t e r p r e t , b u t can be used t o h e l p
d i a g n o s e t o x i c i t i e s o r d e f i c i e n c i e s when t h e v a l u e s a r e w e l l
above

or

b e lo w

(Appendix I)

the

su fficien cy

(Robertson e t a l . ,

ranges

shown

in

tab le

1 .2

1981a).

V isu a l d e f ic ie n c y symptoms in p la n t s are marked, and show up
f i r s t in the young l e a v e s .

I n t e r v e i n a l c h l o r o s i s d e v e lo p s f i r s t ,

and progresses r a p id ly over the e n t i r e l e a f .

In se v e r e ca ses the

l e a v e s tu rn c o m p l e t e l y w h ite ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).
d e fic ie n c y

symptoms are v e r y s i m i l a r

d e f ic ie n c y (Vitosh e t a l . ,

Iron

t o t h o s e o f manganese

1981).

F e r r o u s s u l f a t e i s t h e m o st commonly u s e d s a l t t o c o r r e c t
iron deficien cies.

I t can be p u t i n t h e s o i l or used as a sp ra y .

Among o t h e r i r o n s o u r c e s a r e f e r r i c s u l f a t e ,
oxide, iron f r i t s .

f e r r o u s and f e r r i c

I r o n c h e l a t e s (FeEDDHA, FeDTPA and FeEDTA)

a r e e f f e c t i v e so u r c e s of i r o n under some c o n d i t i o n s (Mortvedt and
Cunningham,

197 1).

Under a l k a l i n e

sp r a y s a r e recommended (V ito sh e t a l . ,

s o il con d itio n s,
1981).

fo liag e

24

Manganese
According

to

the

E xtension

S ervice

of

M ichigan

S tate

U n i v e r s i t y , manganese i s t h e most common m i c r o n u t r i e n t prob lem i n
Michigan s o i l s

(Vitosh e t a l . ,

1981).

P l a n t s r e q u i r e manganese

i n s m a l l q u a n t i t i e s ; l a r g e amounts a r e t o x i c ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n ,
1975 ).

Manganese d e f i c i e n c y o c c u r s more o f t e n on w e l l - d r a i n e d

s o i l s w ith a n e u t r a l or c a l c a r e o u s r e a c t i o n .

H o w ev e r, o r g a n i c

s o i l s and some m i n e r a l s o i l s w i t h l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s o f o r g a n i c
m a t t e r may e x h i b i t symptoms o f d e f i c i e n c y w i t h a s l i g h t l y a c i d pH
(Murphy and W a l s h , 197 2).

A c id s o i l s w hic h h a v e b e e n l i m e d a r e

more l i k e l y t o be manganese d e f i c i e n t th a n n a t u r a l l y n e u t r a l or
a l k a l i n e s o i l s ( V i t o s h e t a l . , 1 9 81 ).

The m i n e r a l s mag nesi um,

and e s p e c i a l l y c a l c i u m i n t e r f e r e w ith manganese a b s o r p t i o n by t h e
roots.

I r o n ++, b u t n o t i r o n +++, a l s o d e c r e a s e s t h e a b s o r p t i o n of

manganese (Moore, 1972).

Calcium and magnesium io n s n o t o n l y can

p r o d u c e m anganese d e f i c i e n c y by c o m p e t i n g f o r a b s o r p t i o n , b u t
a l s o by r a i s i n g t h e s o i l pH.

M a n g a n e s e 4"1" i s t h e p r e d o m i n a n t

sp ecies in the s o i l s o lu t io n .

T h is ion i s v e r y s o l u b l e a t pH 4,

b u t w i t h each u n i t i n c r e a s e i n pH, i t s
fold

(Lindsay,

s o l u b i l i t y d e c r e a s e s 100

1972).

The s u f f i c i e n c y range fo r m anganese in corn (ear l e a f j u s t
b efore s ilk in g )

i s 20-150 ppm, and f o r a l f a l f a

(top g r o w th -6

in c h e s t o f l o w e r i n g ) i s 30-10 0 ppm (R ob ertson and L u cas, 1981).
In th e p l a n t , manganese i s a r e l a t i v e l y im m obile e le m e n t .
symptoms o f d e f ic ie n c y u s u a l l y appear in the younger l e a v e s .

The
In

broad-leaved p la n t s the symptom i n t e r v e i n a l c h l o r o s i s , which a l s o
occurs

le ss

co n sp icu o u sly ,

i n members o f

th e g r a s s

fa m ily

25

( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n ,

1 9 75 ).

Corn p l a n t s do n o t show marked

symptoms, b u t when c om pared w i t h a n o r m a l l e a f , t h e d e f i c i e n t
l e a f i s l i g h t e r g ree n and has p a r a l l e l , y e l l o w i s h s t r i p e s (Vitosh
e t a l . , 1981).
Mangan ese e x c e s s e s o r t o x i c i t y commonly occur in s t r o n g l y
a c i d or i n w a t e r l o g g e d s o i l s

(Murphy and Walsh, 1972).

of manganese t o x i c i t y a r e n o t v e ry s p e c i f i c .
f o l l o w e d by n e c r o s i s o f l e a v e s ,

leaf

Severe c h l o r o s i s

s p o t s on m a r g i n s ,

s t u n t i n g o f t h e p l a n t a r e t h e u s u a l symptoms.
co n cen tratio n s

in

p lan ts

elem ents, e s p e c i a l l y iron.

may i n d u c e

Symptoms

and

High m anga nes e

d eficien cies

of

other

Reduction i n t h e number of n o d u l e s on

w h i t e c l o v e r r o o t s due t o e x c e s s m a n g a n es e h a s b e e n r e p o r t e d
(Mortvedt and Cunningham, 1971).
M ang an ese s u l f a t e
fertiliz er.

is

t h e m o st commonly u s e d m an g a n ese

O t h e r s o u r c e s o f m an g a n ese a r e o x i d e s , c h l o r i d e s ,

carbonates, c h e la te s
N e l s o n , 1975).

(EDTA), and m a n g a n es e f r i t s

( T i s d a l e and

I n M i c h i g a n , m ang an ese s u l f a t e and manganous

o x i d e h a v e b een e f f e c t i v e t o c o r r e c t d e f i c i e n c i e s .

M a n g an ic

o xid e i s i n s o l u b l e and has pro v ed t o be i n e f f e c t i v e f o r Michigan
so ils.

C h e l a t e d m an ga nes e m a t e r i a l s i n g e n e r a l h a v e n o t been

s a t i s f a c t o r y on o r g a n i c s o i l s and have been l e s s e f f e c t i v e th an
m ang a nes e

su lfate

on m i n e r a l

so ils

(V itosh

et

a l.,

1981).

Manganese t o x i c i t y i n a c i d s o i l s can be c o r r e c t e d by lim in g t o a
pH c l o s e t o n e u t r a l

(Lindsay, 1972).

When a s o i l m an g an ese t e s t i s a v a i l a b l e a f t e r e x t r a c t i o n
w i t h 0.1 N HC1, f e r t i l i z e r c a n be a p p l i e d a t t h e r a t e s shown i n
t a b l e 1.8 (Appendix I ) .

B r o a d c a s t a p p l i c a t i o n i s n o t recommended

26

b e c a u se o f h ig h f i x a t i o n o f manganese in the s o i l .

R e s id u a l

carryover o f a v a i l a b l e manganese f e r t i l i z e r i s u s u a l l y low.

For

t h i s reason, manganese must be a p p lie d every year on a d e f i c i e n t
s o i l (Vitosh e t a l , 1981).

A l f a l f a , c l o v e r , corn and g r a sse s are

crops medium r e sp o n s iv e to manganese f e r t i l i z a t i o n (Robertson and
Lucas, 1 98 1 a ).
Selenium
This e le m e n t i s a p p a r e n t l y n o t needed by p l a n t s , b u t must be
present

in

anim als.

forages
There a re

and c r o p p l a n t s
several

since

is

e ssen tial

for

r e g i o n s i n t h e w o r l d where t h e

a v a i l a b l e s e le n iu m l e v e l s in s o i l s a re s u f f i c i e n t l y high to
produce f o r a g e s c o n t a i n i n g l e v e l s of t h i s ele m e n t t h a t a r e t o x i c
to anim als.

T h e r e a r e o t h e r a r e a s t h a t p r o d u c e p l a n t s t h a t do

not c o n t a i n enough s e l e n i u m t o meet t h e n u t r i t i o n a l re qu ire m e n ts
of anim als

(Kubota and A l l o w a y ,

197 2).

The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f

s e l e n i u m t o p l a n t s i s c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e q u a n t i t y of w a t e r s o lu b le selenium p re s e n t in the s o i l .

Selenium a v a i l a b i l i t y i s

h ig h er in a l k a l i n e s o i l s where t h e s e l e n a t e s predominate than i n
n e u t r a l - t o - s l i g h t l y acid s o i l s .

Liming g e n e r a l l y r e s u l t s i n slow

r e l e a s e of s e l e n i t e s from t h e i r i r o n complexes and p e rm i ts t h e i r
o x id a tio n to th e w ater s o l u b l e s e l e n a t e
197 6).

(Beeson and M a t r o n e ,

The i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and mapping o f s e l e n i u m d e f i c i e n t

a r e a s and a r e a s w i t h e x c e s s i v e l e v e l s o f se len iu m has been made
on t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e l e n i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c r o p s grown on
th o se s o i l s (Kubota and A llaw ay , 1972).
t h i s s u r v e y w ere a l f a l f a p l a n t s .

Most of t h e samples fo r

A r e a s where more t h a n 80% o f

t h e p l a n t s a m p l e s c o n t a i n e d l e s s t h a n 0.05 ppm s e l e n i u m a r e

27

c o n s i d e r e d low i n s e l e n i u m .

When more t h a n 80% o f t h e s a m p l e s

c o n t a i n e d more t h a n 0 .1 ppm s e l e n i u m , t h e a r e a i s c o n s i d e r e d
adequate i n selen iu m .

The s t a t e of Michigan has been i d e n t i f i e d

as a s e le n iu m d e f i c i e n t a r e a (Kubota and A lla w a y , 1972).
In t h e same s o i l , some p l a n t s can a b so r b and accumulate more
selen iu m than o t h e r s .

E v e n i n s e l e n i f e r o u s s o i l s , c l o v e r and

some g r a s s e s do n o t a c c u m u l a t e s e l e n i u m t o l e v e l s t o x i c t o t h e
an im als.

C e r e a l s , some a s t e r s , and s u n f l o w e r a b s o r b m o d e r a t e

q u a n tit ie s of selenium .

P lan ts

t h a t a b s o r b and a c c u m u l a t e

se len iu m r e a d i l y i n c l u d e some s p e c i e s o f A s t r a g a l u s , and s u l f u r
acc u m ulating p l a n t s such as t h e C r u c i f e r a e (Beeson and Matrone,
1976).

The p r e s e n c e o f s e l e n i u m - a c c u m u l a t o r p l a n t s c o n t a i n i n g

more t h a n 50 ppm s e l e n i u m h a s h e l p e d t o i d e n t i f y a r e a s where
se len iu m t o x i c i t y i s a problem (Kubota and A llaw ay , 1972).
F e r t i l i z a t i o n of s o i l w ith se l e n i u m i s no t p r a c t i c e d in th e
Un ited S t a t e s , m a i n l y beca use t h e r e a c t i o n s of se l e n i u m in s o i l s
a r e n o t w e l l u n d e r s t o o d ( M o r t v e d t and Cun ningham , 1971).
the forages are d e f i c i e n t in selen iu m ,

When

a n i m a l s c a n be f e d a

v a r ie ty of selenium supplem ents, or g iv en selenium in je c tio n s
t h a t sometimes a l s o c o n t a i n v i t a m i n E (Marczewski e t a l . ,

1982).

Co b a lt
Cobalt has not been demonstrated to be an e s s e n t i a l elem ent
fo r p l a n t grow th , b u t th e legum e r o o t n o d u le b a c t e r i a system
req uires c o b a lt for the f i x a t i o n

o f atmospheric nitrogen .

The

a v a i l a b l e c o b a lt requirements o f t h i s system c o b a lt are very low.
F ie ld ca ses o f c o b a l t d e f i c i e n c i e s a f f e c t i n g legume growth have
been r e p o r te d in A u s t r a l i a but n o t in th e U n ite d S t a t e s (Kubota

28

and A lla w a y ,

1972).

Areas a r e c o n s i d e r e d c o b a l t d e f i c i e n t when

t h e e l e m e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p a s t u r e s i s t o o low t o m ee t t h e
req u irem en ts of rum inants.

The c o b a l t r e q u i r e m e n t o f d a i r y

c a t t l e i s a b o u t 0.10 ppm i n t h e f e e d (NRC, 1978).
A survey made in the United S t a t e s by the US P la n t , S o i l and
N u tr itio n Laboratory (Kubota and A llaw ay, 1972) o f legumes shows
t h a t th e n o r th e r n p a r t o f th e s t a t e o f M ichigan had sa m p le s
c o n t a i n i n g from 0.05 t o 0.10 ppm o f c o b a l t .

The a u th o r s s t a t e

t h a t g r a s s e s g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n l e s s than 0.10 ppm o f c o b a l t
th ro u g h o u t

th e U n ite d

S ta tes.

Among s e v e r a l

d ecrease c o b a lt a v a i l a b i l i t y from the s o i l ,
are th e c l a s s o f c l a y in th e s o i l and s o i l pH.

fa cto rs

th at

the most important
Some c l a y s l i k e

m uscovite adsorb c o b a l t more s t r o n g ly the o th e rs l i k e b e n to n ite.
R aising the s o i l pH from 5.4 t o 6.4 d ecreases the a v a i l a b i l i t y of
c o b a lt by h a l f (T isd ale and N e lso n , 1975).
C o b a l t i s n o t u s u a l l y ad ded t o f e r t i l i z e r s .

In c o b a lt

d e f i c i e n t a r e a s , c o b a l t i s s u p p l i e d d i r e c t l y t o th e ruminants in
t h e feed ( T i s d a l e and N e lso n , 1975).
Molybdenum
Molybdenum i s one of the most r e c e n tly recognized e s s e n t i a l
p l a n t n u t r i e n t e le m e n t s (R ob ertson e t a l . , 1981 ).

Molybdenum

fu n ctio n s l a r g e l y in the enzyme systems o f nitrogen f i x a t i o n and
n it r a t e red u ctio n .
in c o r p o r a t e

n itr a te

P l a n t s which can n e i t h e r f i x n i t r o g e n nor
in to

th e ir

m e t a b o l i c sy stem b e c a u se o f

inadequate molybdenum become n it r o g e n d e f i c i e n t ( V ito s h e t a l . ,
1981).
Molybdenum d e f i c i e n c i e s in the United S t a t e s occur m ostly on

29

t h e a c i d s a n d y s o i l s o f t h e A t l a n t i c and G u l f C o a s t s , a l t h o u g h
r e s p o n s e s t o f e r t i l i z a t i o n w i t h t h i s e l e m e n t h a v e a l s o b e en
r e p o r t e d i n C a l i f o r n i a and t h e P a c i f i c Northwe st, Nebraska,

and

t h e s t a t e s b o r d e r i n g t h e G re at Lakes ( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1976).
Using

legumes

as

an

in d icato r

plant,

a map o f

molybdenum

c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a s been p r e p a r e d by Kubota
(1976).

In g e n e ra l,

t h e s o u t h - w e s t e r n s t a t e s had sam ple s w i t h a

molybdenum c o n t e n t o f 6 - 8 ppm, t h e n o r t h - w e s t e r n and c e n t r a l
s t a t e s 1 . 5 - 3 . 2 ppm, and t h e e a s t e r n s t a t e s 0 . 3 - 1 . 0 ppm.

Most o f

the

ppm o f

sam p les

m olybdenum ,

c o lle c te d
except

surrounding the

in M ichigan

the

lakes:

h ad a b o u t

so u th -eastern

part

of

b e en

sta te

In t h i s a r e a t h e median

molybdenum c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n le g u m e s was 1.9 ppm.
has

the

t h e s h o r e s o f t h e Saginaw Bay, Lake

H u r o n , Lake S t . C l a i r , and Lake E r i e .

deficiency

0.4

reported

for

onions,

Molybdenum

cabbage,

clo v er,

a l f a l f a , s p i n a c h , l e t t u c e and c a u l i f l o w e r s grown i n M i c h i g a n
( B e r g e r , 1962).
From t h e t o t a l molybdenum c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n s o i l s , o n l y a
fractio n

is

av aila b le

to

the

plant.

The a v a i l a b i l i t y

of

molybdenum i n c r e a s e s l i n e a r l y w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s o i l pH v a l u e s .
Heavy a p p l i c a t i o n s o f p h o s p h a t i c f e r t i l i z e r s w i l l i n c r e a s e t h e
molybdenum up tak e of p l a n t s .

Heavy a p p l i c a t i o n s o f s u l f a t e s , on

t h e o t h e r hand, have a d e p r e s s i n g e f f e c t on a p l a n t ' s uptake.

On

s o i l s w i t h b o r d e r l i n e molybdenum d e f i c i e n c i e s , t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of
e x c e s s i v e amounts of s u l f a t e - c o n t a i n i n g f e r t i l i z e r s may induce a
molybdenum d e f i c i e n c y

in p l a n t s .

Under s u c h c o n d i t i o n s

the

i n c l u s i o n o f molybdenum i n t h e f e r t i l i z e r may be a d v i s a b l e

30

( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1976).
A lfalfa

and c l o v e r a r e medium r e s p o n s i v e t o molybdenum

fertiliz atio n ,

w hile

grasses

(Robertson e t a l . , 1981).

and

corn

are

lo w

responsive

I n c l o v e r , molybdenum d e f i c i e n c y shows

up as a g e n e r a l y e l l o w t o g r e e n i s h - y e l l o w f o l i a g e c o l o r , s t u n t i n g
and l a c k o f v i g o r .

The symptoms a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e c a u s e d by

n i t r o g e n s t a r v a t i o n ( V ito sh e t a l . , 1981).

D e f i c i e n c y symptoms

s h o u l d be c o n f i r m e d w i t h p l a n t t i s s u e a n a l y s i s t o compa re w i t h
th e s u f f i c i e n c y rang e s shown i n t a b l e 1.2 (Appendix I ) .
When molybdenum d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e s u s p e c t e d , l i m i n g t o a
c o n v e n i e n t s o i l pH f o r t h e c r o p i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n may i n c r e a s e t h e
a v a i l a b i l i t y o f molybdenum.

When t h i s i s no t enough, t h e r e a r e

s e v e r a l compounds t h a t c a n be a p p l i e d a s a f e r t i l i z e r t o t h e
so il,

used as f o l i a r

s p ra y s or fo r seed t r e a tm e n t.

The most

commonly u s e d c a r r i e r s o f molybdenum a r e ammonium m o l y b d a t e ,
molybdenum

trio x id e,

(R obertson

et

a l.,

molybdenum f r i t
1981b).

It

has

and

sodium m o l y b d a t e

been d e m o n s tra te d

in

A u s t r a l i a , New Z e a l a n d , and e l s e w h e r e t h a t t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f
molybdenum t o c l o v e r s w i l l in some c a s e s produce y i e l d i n c r e a s e s
e q u i v a l e n t t o t h o s e o b t a i n e d from t h e u s e o f s e v e r a l t o n s o f
lim estone.

Seed t r e a t m e n t i s now p r o b a b l y t h e most common way of

c o r r e c t i n g molybdenum d e f i c i e n c i e s
elsewhere.
molybdenum

i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and

The seed must be soaked i n a s o l u t i o n c o n t a i n i n g t h e
salt

(T isdale

and N e l s o n ,

1976) .

S uppliers

of

molybdenum f o r se ed t r e a t m e n t o f t e n s e l l t h e p r o d u c t in two-ounce
(56 g) packages which w i l l t r e a t enough seed f o r fo ur a c r e s (1.6
hectares).

For

one a c r e

(0.40 h e c t a r e s ) ,

1 / 2 ounce o f

the

31-

compound s h o u ld be d i s s o l v e d in t h r e e t a b l e s p o o n s o f w ater and
mixed with s u f f i c i e n t seed to p la n t the acre.

Using e x c e ss water

can c a u s e th e c h e m ic a l t o p e n e t r a t e and i n j u r e th e s e e d embryo.
The seed-m olydenum m ix tu r e s h o u ld be mixed t h o r o u g h ly and l e t
dry.

I t i s a d v i s a b l e t o u se a s u i t a b l e f u n g i c i d e d u s t to h e l p

dry th e s e e d ( V it o s h e t a l . , 1981).
Zinc
Zinc i s e s s e n t i a l f o r p l a n t growth because i t c o n t r o l s t h e
s y n t h e s i s o f i n d o l a c e t i c a c i d , which d r a m a t i c a l l y r e g u l a t e s p l a n t
growth.

Z in c i s a l s o a c t i v e i n many e n z y m a t i c r e a c t i o n s and i s

n e c e s s a r y f o r c h l o r o p h y l l s y n t h e s i s and c a r b o h y d r a t e f o r m a t i o n
( V i t o s h e t a l . , 1981).
Z in c i s m ost l i k e l y t o be d e f i c i e n t f o r p l a n t s g r o w i n g on
s o i l s w ith c a l c a r e o u s s u r f a c e h o r i z o n s or on l e a c h e d , a c i d , sandy
soils.

Zinc d e f i c i e n c y may a l s o be p r e v a l e n t where th e s o i l i s

high in a v a i l a b l e phosphorus.

I n te r a c tio n s in v o lv in g zinc,

phosphorus and i r o n r e s u l t in poor u t i l i z a t i o n of z in c by p l a n t s
(Kubota and A llaw ay , 1972).

The a v a i l a b i l i t y o f z in c i s c l o s e l y

r e l a t e d t o th e pH l e v e l of t h e s o i l .
pH i n M i c h i g a n
deficiency .

so ils

the

g reater

I n g e n e r a l , t h e h i g h e r the
the

o p p o rtu n ity

for

a

N e v e r t h e l e s s , some c r o p s grown i n a c i d s o i l s h a v e

a l s o responded t o z i n c f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n Michigan (Robertson and
L u c a s , 1981).

Z in c d e f i c i e n c y i n M i c h i g a n h a s b e en r e p o r t e d in

o n i o n s , p o t a t o e s , c a r r o t s , c e l e r y , c o r n , s p i n a c h , l e t t u c e and
s o y b e a n s (Berger, 1962).
Corn i s h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e t o z in c f e r t i l i z a t i o n ,

w h ile

a l f a l f a , c l o v e r and g r a s s e s are low r e s p o n s i v e (R obertson and

32

L u cas,

19 81).

Zinc d e f i c i e n c y symptoms appear f i r s t on the

younger l e a v e s , s t a r t in g with an i n t e r v e i n a l c h l o r o s i s fo llo w e d
by a g reat reduction in the ra te o f sh oot growth.

In many p la n t s

t h i s p rod u ces a symptom known a s " r o s e t t i n g " .

In corn and

sorghum th e symptom has been c a l l e d "w hite bud" ( T i s d a l e and
N e l s o n , 1976).

In c o r n , th e d e f i c i e n c y a p p ea rs as a y e l l o w

s t r i p i n g o f th e l e a v e s .

A reas o f th e l e a f near th e s t a l k may

d e v e lo p a g en era l w h it e - t o - y e llo w d i s c o lo r a t io n .

In s e v e r e

d e f i c i e n c i e s , the p la n t s have shortened internodes and the lower
l e a v e s show a red streak about o n e -th ir d o f the way from the l e a f
m argin.

P l a n t s grow ing i n dark sandy or o r g a n i c s o i l s u s u a l l y

show brown or purple nodal t i s s u e s when the s t a l k i s s p l i t .

This

i s p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e i n th e low er nodes ( V it o s h e t a l . ,
1981).
Z in c s u l f a t e i s t h e m o st commonly u s e d s o u r c e o f z i n c f o r
f e r t i l i z e r s , b u t o x i d e s , c h l o r i d e s , s u l f i d e s and c a r b o n a t e s o f
zinc a re a l s o used.

O r g a n i c compounds s u c h a s z i n c c h e l a t e s

(zinc EDTA and z in c NTA) a r e a bo u t f i v e tim es more e f f e c t i v e th an
e q u i v a l e n t amounts o f z in c found i n o r g a n i c s a l t s
1981).

(Vitosh e t a l . ,

Z in c c a n be a p p l i e d t o t h e s o i l s a t t h e r a t e s shown i n

t a b l e 1.9 (Appendix I ) .

On h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e cro p s such as c o rn ,

28 k g / h e c t a r e

(25 l b / a c r e ) o f z i n c showed good a v a i l a b i l i t y f o r

seven years.

A l s o , a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s o f band f e r t i l i z a t i o n

where a t o t a l o f 28 k g / h e c t a r e

(25 l b / a c r e ) o f z i n c was u s e d ,

rates

and

can

be g r e a t l y

reduced

e l i m i n a t e d (Robertson and Lucas,

in

1981b).

some

instances,

even

33

Copper
Copper i s e s s e n t i a l f o r p l a n t growth
enzymes.

and a c t i v a t i o n of many

A copper d e f i c i e n c y i n t e r f e r e s w i t h p r o t e i n s y n t h e s i s

and c a u s e s a b u i l d u p o f s o l u b l e n i t r o g e n compounds ( V i t o s h e t
a l . , 19 81).
M ineral s o i l s are considered

low i n copper when the t o t a l

c o n t e n t i s l e s s t h a n 6 ppm, w h i l e o r g a n i c s o i l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d
low i n c o p p e r when t h e y h a v e l e s s t h a n 30 ppm o f t o t a l c o p p e r
(Lucas and Knezek,

1 9 72).

Most c o p p e r

d e ficien t

areas

are

a s s o c i a t e d w ith a high o rg a n ic m atter c o n te n t of the s o i l , but
c o p p e r d e f i c i e n c y h a s a l s o b e en fou n d i n m i n e r a l s o i l s i n some
co u n tries.

A v a i l a b i l i t y o f c o p p e r t o p l a n t s i s d e p e n d e n t on

sev eral factors:
the

presence

a lum inum .

amount o f o r g a n i c m a t t e r i n t h e s o i l , pH, and

of m e t a l l i c

ions

As a g e n e r a l r u l e ,

such

as

iron,

manganese,

or

the higher the o rg an ic m atter

c o n t e n t of th e s o i l , t h e l e s s copper i s a v a i l a b l e from t h e t o t a l
copper s o i l c o n t e n t .

I n some c a s e s copper i s r e t a i n e d so t i g h t l y

in the o rg an ic m atter t h a t i t is not p l a n t a v a i l a b l e ; in o th e r
cases,

p lan ts

are

ab le

to

complexes ( T i s d a l e and N e lso n ,

absorb
1976).

copper

the

organic

The s o l u b i l i t y o f copper

m i n e r a l s d e c r e a s e s a s t h e pH o f t h e s o i l
1972).

from

increases

(Lindsay,

The a b s o l u t e l e v e l o f a m i c r o n u t r i e n t i n t h e r o o t i n g

medium o f t h e s o i l may n o t be t h e m o st i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n i t s
r e l a t i o n to p l a n t growth.

More i m p o r t a n t may be t h e amounts of

th e e le m e n ts in r e l a t i o n to each o th e r
197 6).

In the case of copper,

copper a b so rp tio n

by p l a n t s

( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n ,

a lu m in u m i o n s i n t e r f e r e w i t h

(Moore,

197 2).

High l e v e l s

of

34

nitrogen,

phosphorus and z in c i n th e s o i l can a c c e n t u a t e copper

d e f i c i e n c y in p l a n t s

(Lucas and Knezec, 1972).

A l f a l f a i s h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e t o copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n , c o rn,
c l o v e r and sorghum a r e medium r e s p o n s i v e , and g r a s s e s a r e low
responsive

(Robertson e t a l . ,

1981) .

In the U nited S t a t e s ,

copper d e f i c i e n c y i s n o t t h e most common m i c r o n u t r i e n t problem i n
so ils.

In the s t a t e of M ichigan, d e f i c i e n c i e s of copper have

b e en r e p o r t e d f o r o n i o n s , s p i n a c h , l e t t u c e , w h e a t , o a t s ,
carrots

and

(B e rg e r, 1962).

T y p i c a l v i s u a l symptoms o f copper d e f i c i e n c y i n most cro p s
are

ro settin g

of

term inal

leav es,

d i s c o l o r a t i o n o f l e a v e s and f r u i t s
1971).

term inal

die-back,

and

( M o r t v e d t and Cunningham,

I n many p l a n t s , copper d e f i c i e n c y shows up as w i l t i n g or

l a c k o f t u r g o r and d e v e l o p m e n t o f a b l u i s h - g r e e n s h a d e b e f o r e
l e a f t i p s become c h l o r o t i c and d i e .

In g r a in , the le a v e s are

y e l l o w i s h i n c o l o r and th e l e a f t i p s show a d i s o r d e r s i m i l a r t o
f r o s t damage (Vitosh e t a l . ,
When a d e f i c i e n c y

1981).

is

U n i v e r s i t y E x te n s i o n S e r v i c e

su sp ected ,

the

(Robertson e t a l . ,

M ichigan

S tate

1981) recommends

copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n f o r h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e c ro p s grown on o r g a n i c
so ils.
(6

Where t h e s o i l t e s t i s l o w , b e lo w 9 ppm, 6.7 k g / h e c t a r e

lb /acre)

fertiliz e r.

of

copper

recommended a s p a r t

of

a ba nded

On v i r g i n o r g a n i c s o i l s o r where c o p p e r h a s n e v e r

b een u s e d on o r g a n i c
doubled.

are

so il,

Because copper

is

the

recommended r a t e

easily

fixed

and i s

should

be

not e a s i l y

l e a c h e d , f e r t i l i z e r copper t e n d s t o acc umulate i n th e s o i l .

For

t h i s r e a s o n , no e x t r a f e r t i l i z e r copper i s needed on o r g a n i c s o i l

35

a f t e r a t o t a l o f 22.4 k g / h e c t a r e (20 l b / a c r e ) f o r low r e s p o n s i v e
c r o p s and 44.8 k g / h e c t a r e f o r h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e c r o p s h a s been
a p p l i e d , o r t h e s o i l t e s t l e v e l exceeds 20 ppm copper (Robertson
e t a l . , 1 9 8 1).
S o il Analysis
Knowledge o f t h e f e r t i l i t y

l e v e l of t h e s o i l

f o r optimum p r o d u c t i o n o f c r o p s .

is essen tial

E lem ental a n a ly s is of s o i l

h e lp s to d ia g n o s e n u t r i e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s or t o x i c i t i e s for the
plant.

I n a d d i t i o n , b a s e d on s o i l a n a l y s i s , t h e s c i e n t i s t can

make r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s on t h e amounts o f f e r t i l i z e r n e ede d f o r
maximum y i e l d s o f a c r o p , s u g g e s t s o i l management p r a c t i c e s and
p r e d ic t resp o n ses to d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s of f e r t i l i z a t i o n .

Soil

t e s t s e r v i c e s a r e o f f e r e d t o t h e farmer a l m o s t everywhere in t h e
w o r l d , e i t h e r by government owned or p r i v a t e l a b o r a t o r i e s .
Sampling-

A good r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sampling i s th e b a s i s f o r a

good s o i l t e s t .

A poor sample i s worse than none a t a l l , because

i t w i l l produce m is le a d in g

v alu es

that w ill

lead

t o wrong

recommendations.
For g e n e r a l r o t a t i o n c r o p s , s o i l t e s t s s h o u l d be done a t
l e a s t once e v e r y t h r e e y e a r s .

Where l a r g e amounts of f e r t i l i z e r

a r e use d, sa m p le s s h o u l d be take n e v e r y y e a r . Taking sample s o i l s
from t h e e n t i r e f ar m i s a good p r a c t i c e .
in

the o f f

season.

Knowing t h e

so il

T h i s c a n be done b e s t
test

resu lts

recommended f e r t i l i z e r m a t e r i a l s r e q u i r e d f o r a l l
farm w i l l

make t h e

e ffic ie n t,
m icronutrients

use of b o th f e r t i l i z e r

p articu larly
(Shicluna,

when

1983).

the

and t h e

f i e l d s on th e
an d l i m e m ore

fe rtiliz e r

co n tain s

36

S o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n a farm a r e u s u a l l y g r e a t l y v a r i e d .
A s a m p l e s h o u l d be t a k e n i n e v e r y a r e a t h a t i s from 2 t o 10
hectares

(5 t o 10 a c r e s ) i n s i z e .

Areas t h a t v a ry i n appearanc e

( c o l o r o f t h e s o i l , f o r exam ple), s l o p e d r a i n a g e , s o i l t y p e s , or
p a s t t r e a t m e n t s h o u l d be sampled s e p a r a t e l y .

S m all a r e a s t h a t

can n ot be t r e a t e d s e p a r a t e l y by lime and f e r t i l i z e r a p p l i c a t i o n s
m ight w e l l

be o m i t t e d

from t h e

sam ple.

F ifteen

to

twenty

d i f f e r e n t l o c a t i o n s i n a f i e l d s h o u l d be sampled w ith a s o i l tu be
a t t h e p lo w d e p t h o f 15 t o 20 cm (6 t o 9 i n c h e s ) i n o r d e r t o make
a composite sample.

As a l a r g e r amount of f e r t i l i z e r

is applied

i n the row, c a r e f u l a t t e n t i o n must be g i v e n t o sampling between
v i s i b l e rows ( T i s d a l e and N e lso n , 1976).
Sa m ple

preparation-

Once t h e s a m p l e h a s a r r i v e d a t t h e

l a b o r a t o r y , i t s h o u l d be d r i e d , g r o u n d and s i e v e d .

M oist s o i l

s a m p l e s c a n be d r i e d by p l a c i n g t h e op en s a m p l e c o n t a i n e r i n a
d ry in g rack or c a b i n e t .

I f a l a r g e volume o f m o is t sa m p le s a r e

re c eiv e d , a r t i f i c i a l drying is advised.

S p e c ia l drying c ab in ets

e q u i p p e d w i t h e x h a u s t f a n s e x p e d i t e a i r movement and m o i s t u r e
lo ss.

If heat is necessary,

sh o u l d no t exceed 36° C.

th e tem p era tu re of the c a b in e t

Samples s h o u l d be c ru shed u n t i l a major

p o r t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e w i l l p a s s a 10-mesh (U.S. No. 10, 2 mm
s i e v e opening) s i e v e
E x tr a ctio n d iffe r e n t

(Eik e t a l . ,

1980).

D i f f e r e n t e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s are used in

la b o r a to r ie s.

In th e same l a b o r a t o r y ,

d ifferen t

e x t r a c t i n g s o l u t i o n s a r e em ployed fo r each m in e r a l or group o f
m in era ls.

The p r o p o r t i o n o f s o i l sam p le w e ig h t or volum e to

e x t r a c t i n g s o l u t i o n volum e and th e tim e o f sh a k in g or s t i r r i n g

37

a l s o d i f f e r s d i f f e r e n t m i n e r a l s or group of m i n e r a l s

(Grava,

1980).
The c h o ic e o f e x t r a c t i n g s o l u t i o n and method o f e x t r a c t i o n
is c r i t i c a l fo r the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of the r e s u l t s .

The c h o i c e

depends on t h e c l a s s and ty pe o f s o i l , and, most i m p o r t a n t l y , o f
t h e c o r r e l a t i o n o f l a b o r a t o r y a n a l y s i s w ith t h e c ro p r e s p o n s e i n
the f i e l d .

B ra y (1948) p r o p o s e d t h a t a good s o i l t e s t s h o u l d

meet th e f o l l o w i n g t h r e e c r i t e r i a :
1)

the e x tr a c t a n t should e x tr a c t a l l or a p r o p o r tio n a te

p a r t of t h e a v a i l a b l e form o r forms o f a n u t r i e n t from s o i l s with
v a ria b le properties;
2)

t h e amount o f n u t r i e n t e x t r a c t e d s h o u l d be measured w ith

r e a s o n a b l e acc u ra c y and speed; and
3)

t h e amount o f n u t r i e n t e x t r a c t e d s h o u l d be c o r r e l a t e d

w i t h t h e growth and r e s p o n se of each c ro p t o t h a t n u t r i e n t under
various conditions.
There a r e no u n i v e r s a l methods f o r e x t r a c t i o n f o r a l l ty p e s
of

so ils,

different

and d i f f e r e n t
geographical

procedures
areas.

In

should
the

be

follow ed

in tro d u ctio n

of

in
the

Recommended Chemical S o i l T e s t Pro c ed u re s f o r t h e North C e n t r a l
R e g io n o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s , Dahnke (1980) s t a t e s :
cau tio n to rea d ers of t h i s b u l l e t i n :

"A word o f

A s o i l t e s t i s o n l y as

s u c c e s s f u l and u s a b l e f o r a r e g i o n a s t h e d e g r e e t o w h ich i t i s
c o r r e l a t e d and c a l i b r a t e d f o r t h e s o i l s and c r o p s o f t h e a r e a .
The p r o c e d u r e s d e s c r i b e d i n t h i s b u l l e t i n a r e e s p e c i a l l y s u i t e d
to our r e g io n .

Do n o t assume t h a t t h e y w i l l work i n y o u r a r e a

w i t h o u t doing t h e n e c e s s a r y r e s e a r c h ."

There a r e s e v e r a l c hem ic al methods of a n a l y s i s t h a t can be
u s e d f o r e a c h m i n e r a l a f t e r t h e e x t r a c t i o n p r o c e d u r e , and a l l
s h o u l d p r o d u c e t h e same r e s u l t s w i t h i n r e a s o n a b l e l i m i t s .
c h o i c e depends on f a c t o r s such as c o s t ,
and s a f e t y .

The

tim e , e a s e of o p e r a t i o n ,

Some o f t h e t e c h n i q u e s now em p lo y ed f o r e l e m e n t a l

a n a l y s i s a r e u l t r a v i o l e t and v i s i b l e s p e c t r o s c o p y (Cheng and
P ratter,

1979), s p e c t r o f l u o r i m e t r y

ab so rp tio n

(Schenk,

and e m i s s i o n s p e c t o p h o t o m e t r y

1979),

(C hristian,

atom ic
1 9 79 ),

p lasm a e m iss io n s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y , i n d u c t i v e l y c o u p l e d p l a s m a
d i s c h a r g e (Barnes, 1979), and n e u tr o n a c t i v a t i o n a n a l y s i s (Ehmann
and J a n g h o r b a n i ,

1979).

39

Mineral S ta tu s o f P la n ts and Animal Requirements
S o i l - P l a n t and Plant-Animal R e la tio n sh ip s
P l a n t s o b t a i n m ost o f t h e i r n u t r i e n t s from th e s o i l .

The

a v a i l a b i l i t y o f elem en ts in the s o i l s o l u t i o n i s one o f the main
f a c t o r s th a t determine the presence and con cen tratio n o f m in era ls
in p la n t t i s s u e .
The a d d itio n o f a p la n t n u tr ie n t to the s o i l may or may not
change th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i s n u t r i e n t in th e t i s s u e s o f th e
p l a n t s t h a t grow on t h a t s o i l .

The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a n u t r i e n t

e le m e n t i n a p l a n t o f t e n te n d s t o r i s e a lo n g a sig m o id c u r v e as
th e a v a i l a b l e s u p p ly o f t h a t e le m e n t in th e s o i l i s in c r e a s e d
from a v e r y low l e v e l t o superabundance.

Thus, when th e f i r s t

increments o f a n u tr ie n t elem ent are added to a d e f i c i e n t s o i l ,
crop growth may be increased without an ap p re c ia b le in c re a se in
the c o n cen tra tio n o f t h i s elem ent in p la n t t i s s u e s .

With further

a d d i t i o n s o f t h i s e le m e n t t o th e s o i l , both c ro p growth and th e
t i s s u e c o n cen tra tio n o f the elem ent in crea se.
a d d itio n s o f the e lem en t,

With s t i l l further

i t s con cen tra tion reaches a " c r i t i c a l

v a l u e " , or th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n in th e p l a n t t i s s u e r e q u ir e d fo r
optimum growth o f the p la n t.
d ifferen t

sp ec ies

and

This c r i t i c a l l e v e l v a r ie s due to

v a r ie tie s,

and may a l s o

vary

among

d i f f e r e n t temperature, m oisture, and l i g h t c o n d itio n s , as w e l l as
with d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f supply o f other n u tr ie n ts .

A dditions of

th e e le m e n t t o th e s o i l above t h o s e n e c e s s a r y t o p r o v i d e th e
c r i t i c a l v a l u e o f t i s s u e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h i s e le m e n t c a u se
o n ly minor in c r e a se s or even d ecreases in crop growth, but they
may lea d to further in c r e a se s in the concen tration o f the elem ent

40

in th e crop.

The e f f e c t o f a d d i t i o n o f a n u t r i e n t f e r t i l i z e r

upon t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h i s n u t r i e n t i n t h e f e r t i l i z e d c r o p
may, t h e r e f o r e , r a n g e from no i n c r e a s e i n t h e n u t r i e n t i n t h e
p lan t,

even

though pronounced

increases

in crop y i e l d

are

o b ta in e d , to in c r e a s e s in the c o n c e n tr a tio n of the n u t r i e n t in
the c ro p w i t h o u t any i n c r e a s e in c ro p y i e l d (Allaway, 1971).
Some elem en ts such as boron are e s s e n t i a l for p la n t s but not
fo r a n i m a l s .

Some o t h e r s such as s e le n iu m are e s s e n t i a l fo r

anim als but not for p la n t s .

Furthermore, a h e a lth y crop in which

a l l the n u tr ie n t requirements have been met may not be s u f f i c i e n t
in term s o f m in e r a l c o m p o s it io n fo r th e growth o f a n im a ls .
o th e r c a s e s ,

In

p l a n t s can a ccu m u late c e r t a i n e le m e n t s such as

selenium or molybdenum th a t are not harmful for t h e ir growth, but
t h a t can be t o x i c t o th e a n im a ls .

In o th e r w ords, p l a n t s have

d i f f e r e n t requirements than animals for m in erals.
N itrogen
Nitrogen

content

fertilizatio n d e fic ie n t

of p la n ts in r e l a t i o n to s o i l

statu s

and

A p p lica tio n of nitrogen f e r t i l i z e r s to a n itro g e n

so il

freq u en tly

resu lts

i n an i n c r e a s e

in the

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t o t a l p r o t e i n i n t h e c r o p p r o d u c e d , and s i n c e
the f e r t i l i z e d crop u s u a l l y produces a h ig h er y i e l d , th e t o t a l
p r o t e i n p r o d u c e d p e r h e c t a r e may be s u b s t a n t i a l l y
( A l l a w a y , 1971).

increased

Under t h e same e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s , t h e

l i m i t f o r p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a c ro p i s t h e g e n e t i c s of t h e
plant.

I n g e n e r a l legumes c o n t a i n h ig h er p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

th an g r a s s e s or c e r e a l s .

The p r o t e i n c o m p o s i t i o n , i n t e r m s o f

amino a c i d s , i n th e p l a n t i s a l s o g e n e t i c a l l y c o n t r o l l e d , and i t

i s u n l i k e l y i t w i l l be changed by f e r t i l i z a t i o n . The e f f e c t s of
n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n on p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n and q u a l i t y i n
p l a n t s can be summarized as f o l l o w s (Thompson e t a l . ,
1)

1960),

The amount o f p r o t e i n produced per h e c t a r e of l a n d w i l l

be s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d by u s e o f n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r s on
nitrogen d e fic ie n t s o i l s .
2)

The c o n c e n t r a t i o n of p r o t e i n w i l l be i n c r e a s e d somewhat

under t h i s c o n d i t i o n , b u t n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n w i l l n o t b r i n g
t h e p r o t e i n l e v e l o f l o w - p r o t e i n cro ps such as r i c e t o t h e l e v e l
found i n wheat o r legumes.
3)

The n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y o f t h e p r o t e i n i s g e n e r a l l y

u n a f f e c t e d by n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
P r o t e i n q u a l i t y i n terms of amino a c i d com position i s no t o f
p rim a ry importanc e f o r ru m in a n ts , s i n c e t h e microorganisms i n t h e
rumen a r e c a p a b l e o f s y n t h e s i z i n g t h e amino a c i d s r e q u i r e d by the
a n im a l.
N o r m a l l y , 75% or more of t h e n i t r o g e n i n th e p l a n t i s in t h e
form o f p r o t e i n .

H o w ev e r, a n y t h i n g t h a t i n t e r f e r e s w i t h t h e

p r o t e i n s y n t h e s i s p r o c e s s , such as a s h o r t a g e of en ergy w i t h i n
t h e p l a n t , may c a u s e an a c c u m u l a t i o n o f n o n p r o t e i n n i t r o g e n
compounds.

The compounds t h a t a c c u m u l a t e u n de r c o n d i t i o n s o f

slowed p r o t e i n s y n t h e s i s i n c l u d e n i t r a t e s , f r e e amino a c i d s , and
amides (Allaway, 1971).
N itrates

in

forages-

Heavy a p p l i c a t i o n o f n i t r o g e n

f e r t i l i z e r o r m anur e and s e v e r e d r o u g h t o r o t h e r f a c t o r s w hich
reduce p l a n t m e ta b o lism w i l l tend t o cause some a c c u m u la tio n of
nitrates.

Under normal c o n d i t i o n s ,

f o r a g e s and p a s t u r e s do n o t

c o n t a i n o v e r 0.5% n i t r a t e s .

O c c a s i o n a l l y p l a n t s w i l l c o n t a i n as

much a s 5% n i t r a t e s on a d r y b a s i s .
lam bsquarter

Pigweed (A m a r a n t h u s s p . ) ,

(Che nopodium s p . ) , ragweed (Ambrosia sp.) and o t h e r

weeds may acc um u late v e r y h igh l e v e l s of n i t r a t e b u t g e n e r a l l y
com prise a s m a ll p e r c e n t of the d i e t .

N itr a te s are norm ally

r e d u c e d s u c c e s s f u l l y t o n i t r i t e s , t o n i t r o u s o x i d e and t h e n t o
ammonia i n th e rumen.

Numerous s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t c a t t l e can

s a f e l y consume n i t r a t e s e q u i v a l e n t t o no more t h a n 2% o f t h e
t o t a l d r y m a t t e r of t h e r a t i o n , o r a p p r o x i m a t e ly 44 g o f n i t r a t e
per

100

kg

of

body

w eight.

If

the

n itra te

co n ten t

is

s u f f i c i e n t l y h i g h , and c o n v e r s i o n t o ammonia i s s l o w , t h e n a
major p a r t o f t h e n i t r a t e i s reduced t o n i t r i t e , and some of the
n itrate

and n i t r i t e

may e n t e r

the blood stream .

N itrate

is

e x c r e t e d i n t h e u r i n e b u t n i t r i t e may d i s p l a c e t h e ox yg e n from
some

of

th e

h em o g lo b in

methemoglobinemia.
th eir

blood

of

th e

blood

re su ltin g

in

Animals c a n t o l e r a t e some met h e m o g l o b i n i n

w ithout

harm ,

and

they

possess

an

enzyme,

m e t h e m o g l o b i n r e d u c t a s e , f o r c o n v e r t i n g m e t h e m o g l o b i n back t o
hemoglobin.

Methemoglobin l e v e l s n o r m a l l y must approach 60 t o

90% o f t h e h e m o g l o b i n t o be l e t h a l .

C a t t l e fed high l e v e l s of

n i t r a t e s o v e r a lo n g p e r i o d of tim e ten d to a d a p t to th e lower
o xygen-carrying

c ap acity

of the

blood

by i n c r e a s i n g

c o n c e n tr a ti o n of e r y t h r o c y te s in the b lo o d .
n itrates

the

Toxic l e v e l s of

( o v e r 2% o f t h e d i e t ) may r e s u l t i n p e a k l e v e l s o f

methemoglobin about f o u r h ours a f t e r f e e d i n g .

Labored b r e a t h i n g ,

f r o t h i n g a t t h e mouth, and a brownish t o b l u i s h - g r e y c o l o r of th e
non-pigmented s k i n and mucous membranes a r e symptoms of n i t r a t e

43

to x ic ity .

P regn an t cows may a b o r t when th e o x y g e n - c a r r y in g

c a p a c i t y o f th e b lo o d i s s e r i o u s l y red uced (H illm a n , e t a l . ,
1983).
Nitrogen

s o l u b i l i t y in p l a n t s -

feed is r e a d ily s o lu b le .
attack ed

in the

P a r t of the p r o t e i n in the

H ighly s o l u b l e p r o t e i n i s q u ic k ly

rumen by b a c t e r i a l

s i m p l e r compounds and t o ammonia.

enzymes and d e g r a d e d t o

When t h i s r e l e a s e d ammonia

exceeds t h e c a p a c i t y o f rumen b a c t e r i a t o use i t t o make p r o t e i n
t h e r e i s an i m m e d ia te l o s s o f p a r t o f t h e d i e t a r y n i t r o g e n v i a
excretion

in the u r in e .

D irect cut grass s ila g e s

and h i g h -

m o i s t u r e c o rn and sorghum s i l a g e s o f t e n c o n t a i n more th a n 60% of
w a t e r - s o l u b l e p r o t e i n , and t h i s i s n o t u t i l i z e d v e r y e f f i c i e n t l y
by ru m in a n ts on a l l - s i l a g e d i e t s .

Some c o n c e n t r a t e f e e d s have a

high p e r c e n t a g e o f s o l u b l e crude p r o t e i n , which makes them l e s s
s u i t a b l e f o r f e e d i n g w ith s i l a g e s th a n o t h e r c o n c e n t r a t e s ;

e.g.,

most b y - p r o d u c t f e e d s have more s o l u b l e p r o t e i n th an c o rn g r a i n .
On t h e o t h e r h a n d , t h e s o l u b i l i t y o f p r o t e i n i n c o r n o r o t h e r
g r a i n s t h a t h a v e b e en f e r m e n t e d i n m o i s t s t o r a g e i s i n c r e a s e d
(NRC, 197 8).
N itrogen requirements o f dairy c a t t l e -

A major component of

animal t i s s u e s and organs i s p r o tein .

A ll c e l l s

s y n t h e s i z e p r o t e i n fo r p a r t or a l l

of th e ir

w ithout p r o te in s y n th e s is l i f e could not e x i s t .

in the animal
life

c y c l e and

P ro te in turnover

i s rapid in the c e l l s , e s p e c i a l l y for those in e p i t h e l i a l t i s s u e
such as

in th e

in te stin a l

tra ct.

C o n s e q u e n t ly ,

p r o v id in g

r e p la c e m e n t p r o t e i n from th e d i e t i s e s s e n t i a l to meet t h e s e
t u r n o v e r r e q u ir e m e n ts in a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g fo r growth and

44

other productive functions.

The p e r c e n t of p r o t e i n r e q u i r e d in

t h e d i e t i s h i g h e s t f o r young g r o w i n g a n i m a l s .
grad u ally

I t declin es

u n t i l m a t u r i t y when o n l y enough p r o t e i n t o m a i n t a i n

body t i s s u e s i s r e q u i r e d .

P r o d u c t i v e f u n c t i o n s such a s pregnancy

and l a c t a t i o n i n c r e a s e t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s b e c a u s e o f i n c r e a s e d
o u t p u t o f p r o t e i n i n p r o d u c t s o f c o n c e p t i o n and i n m i l k and
because of

an i n c r e a s e d m e t a b o l i c r a t e

a s s o c ia te d w ith

the

p r o d u c t i v e f u n c t i o n (Church and Pond, 1974).
I n t h e l a c t a t i n g cow, p r o t e i n i s e x c r e t e d i n m i l k .

The

p r o t e i n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f m i l k from H o l s t e i n cows i s around 3.22%
( C e r b u l i s and F a r r e l l ,

197 5).

A cow p r o d u c i n g 30 kg o f m i l k

s e c r e t e s 0.97 kg o f p r o t e i n a d a y . T h a t cow's d i e t m u st r e p l a c e
th at protein,
urine,

h air,

m aintenance.

as w e l l as r e p l a c e the p r o t e i n l o s t in f e c e s ,
etc.

and a l s o p r o v i d e t h e p r o t e i n r e q u i r e d f o r

The NRC (1978) r e p o r t e d t h e p r o t e i n

requirem ent

f o r a 600 kg (1300 l b ) cow p r o d u c i n g 30 kg (66 l b ) o f m i l k w i t h
3.5% f a t c o n t e n t p e r d a y a t a r o u n d 2.95 kg p r o t e i n p e r d a y .

If

t h i s cow e a t s 20 kg (45 lb) o f d r y m a t t e r a day, t h e r a t i o n needs
t o be 14.75% p r o t e i n t o meet her r e q u ir e m e n ts .
N itrogen

content

of

c o n c e n tra tio n s of p r o te in .

forages-

Forages have v a r i a b l e

In a g iven g r a s s ,

the degree of

m a t u r i t y i s t h e main f a c t o r a f f e c t i n g p r o t e i n c o n t e n t .

Orchard

g r a s s (D a c t y l i s g l o m e r a t a ) f o r e x a m p l e ( E ly e t a l . , 1 9 5 3 ), had
24.8% p r o t e i n when c u t e a r l y in t h e se ason , and 12.4% when c u t a t
a l a t e stage of m atu rity .

F i r s t c u t , su n c u r e d a l f a l f a hay i n

i t s e a r l y v e g e t a t i v e s t a t e has around 24% p r o t e i n .

This p r o te in

c o n t e n t d e c r e a s e s t o 16% when a l f a l f a i s c u t a t mid-bloom, and to

45

13% when i t i s cut when mature (NRC, 1978).

Corn s i l a g e does not

change much in c o m p o s itio n w ith m a t u r ity e x c e p t dry m atter
con ten t.

S i l a g e made from corn c u t a t a s o f t dough s t a g e had

7.4% p r o t e i n , 7.4% when c u t a t a medium-hard dough s t a g e , and
7.3% when c u t a t a t an e a r l y d e n t s t a g e o f m a t u r it y (C o lo v o s e t
a l.,

1970 ).

In M ic h ig a n , d a ta from 1 975-1976 show t h a t corn

s i l a g e s had an a v e r a g e o f 8.3% p r o t e i n .

S i l a g e made from corn

cu t e a r l y in the season had 12% p r o te in and 21% dry m atter, w h ile
s i l a g e made from corn c u t l a t e in th e s e a s o n a f t e r th e f i r s t
f r o s t s in November had 8.7 p r o te in and 49.2% dry matter (Hillman
and Fox, 1977).
Nitrogen

d e f i c i e n c y i n r u m in a n ts -

While f o r nonruminants

t h e amino a c i d c o m p ositio n of t h e p r o t e i n i s v e r y i m p o r t a n t , f o r
r u m in a n ts b a c t e r i a l s y n t h e s i s p r o v i d e s t h e e s s e n t i a l amino a c i d s
t h a t a r e d e f i c i e n t in t h e r a t i o n . Ruminants a r e l i k e l y t o s u f f e r
f i r s t from i n s u f f i c i e n t amount o f p r o t e i n i n the d i e t r a t h e r th an
s u f f e r i n g from i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y or imbalance o f amino a c i d s ,
or l o w - q u a l i t y p r o t e i n , a s non-rum in ants do.

In g e n e r a l, p r o te in

d e f i c i e n c y i n r u m i n a n t s h a s t h e same e f f e c t a s i t d o e s i n non­
rum inants.

P ro tein

d ep riv atio n

symptoms

are

non-specific,

r e s e m b l in g t h o s e seen i n p a r t i a l or t o t a l s t a r v a t i o n .

The growth

o f t h e p r o t e i n d e p l e t e d animal may be g r e a t l y slowed.
a ltera tio n s

in

D e p e n d i n g on t h e

the

sk eletal

Profound

t i s s u e s may be e n c o u n t e r e d .

s e v e r i t y of the d e f ic ie n c y

state,

varying

deg rees of r e t a r d a t i o n of e p ip h y s e a l or c o s t a l c a r t i l a g e c e l l
p r o l i f e r a t i o n w i l l be f o u n d .

C a r t i l a g e i s a c r i t i c a l index of

t h e n u t r i t i v e s t a t u s o f t h e organism ( F o l l i s , 1958).

C a t t l e fed

46

p ro tein d e fic ie n t d ie ts w ill

show s l o w g r o w t h , r e d u c e d f e e d

i n t a k e and d e c r e a s e d p r o t e i n c o n t e n t i n t h e org an s and s k e l e t a l
m uscle.

Low a l b u m i n and u r e a i n t h e b l o o d i n d i c a t e p r o t e i n

d eficien t

d iets.

d e ficien t

cows.

M ilk p ro d u c tio n
Growth o f

the

is decreased

fetu s is

in

im paired

protein
and body

c o n d i t i o n i s d e p re s s e d i n cows fed p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n t d i e t s f o r an
extended p e r i o d .

I n a d d i t i o n , p r o t e i n d e f i c i e n t a n i m a l s have low

immune and t r a n s p o r t p r o t e i n s i n t h e i r blo o d and reduced hormone
s e c r e t i o n s t h a t may p r e d i s p o s e them t o i n f e c t i o u s and m e t a b o l i c
d i s e a s e s (NRC, 1978).
C a t t l e on p a s t u r e a r e n o t l i k e l y t o s u f f e r from s e v e r e
p ro te in d eficien cy .

D u r i n g a d r y p e r i o d when t h e p a s t u r e s a r e

o l d and s c a r c e , however th e p r o t e i n l e v e l o f p a s t u r e g r a s s may be
t o o low t o s u s t a i n a good g r o w t h o r m i l k p r o d u c t i o n . R y e g r a s s
( L o l ium m u l t i f l o r u m ) ,
c o n c e n tra tio n as

for

ex am p le, can

have

a p ro tein

low a s 4.0% d r y b a s i s (Crampton and H a r r i s ,

1969). Mixed p a s t u r e s of legumes and g r a s s e s u s u a l l y have p r o t e i n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h i g h e r th a n 10%. Corn s i l a g e ,

with an a v e r a g e of

8.3% p r o t e i n , i s n o t enough t o m e e t t h e p r o t e i n r e q u i r e m e n t s o f
h i g h p r o d u c i n g d a i r y cows,

w h ic h n e ed a r a t i o n o f a b o u t 15%

pro tein

part

during

the

first

of

the

lactatio n .

R ations

c o n t a i n i n g 14% p r o t e i n a r e needed by 100 kg (220 lb) c a l v e s . The
p r o t e i n r e q u i r e m e n t d e c r e a s e s f o r 300 kg c a l v e s ,
r a t i o n s w i t h 11% p r o t e i n (NRC, 1 978).

w h ich need

Good t o medium q u a l i t y

a l f a l f a , 15 t o 20% p r o t e i n , may s a t i s f y th e p r o t e i n re q u ir e m e n ts
of most a n im a ls.

47

Calcium
Calcium

content

fertilizatio n -

in p l a n t s in r e l a t i o n to s o i l

Calcium i s a lw a y s

present

in

status

green

and

p lan ts.

U s u a l l y t h e legumes c o n t a i n more c a l c i u m t h a n do g r a s s e s .

G ra in

c r o p s a r e g e n e r a l l y lower i n c a l c i u m th a n a r e f o r a g e c r o p s ,

and

i s o f t e n n e c e s s a r y t o add a c a l c i u m s u p p l e m e n t t o t h e d i e t s o f
cattle

t h a t a re being fed r a t i o n s high

forage.

in g ra in

and low i n

The c a l c i u m c o n t e n t o f an y on e p l a n t s p e c i e s d o e s n o t

c h a n g e v e r y much when c a l c i u m i s ad ded t o t h e s o i l .

T herefore,

t h e l e v e l o f c a l c i u m i n t h e s o i l h a s few d i r e c t e f f e c t s on t h e
n u tr itio n a l q u a lity of p lan ts.

But t h e a d d i t i o n o f c a l c i u m ,

in

t h e form of l i m e s t o n e , t o an a c i d s o i l f r e q u e n t l y makes i t e a s i e r
t o grow leguminous p l a n t s , l i k e a l f a l f a , which a r e o f t e n h igh in
p r o t e i n and e s s e n t i a l m i n e r a l s (U.S. P l a n t ,

S oil,

and N u t r i t i o n

Lab. S t a f f , 1965).
Calcium con ten t in fo r a g e s-

T y p ical calciu m c o n cen tra tio n s

i n g r a s s e s r a n g e from 0.4 t o 0.8%, b u t i t c a n be l o w e r t h a n 0.3%
l

and h ig h er

than 1.0 %.

A lfa lfa

c a lc iu m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s are

u s u a l l y between 1.2 and 2.3%, but some samples can be higher than
2.5% or lower than 0.60% (Church and Pond, 1974).

In Michigan in

1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 6 , corn s i l a g e had an a v e r a g e c a lc iu m c o n t e n t o f 0.28%
(Hillman and Fox, 1977).

Ear corn samples analyzed in Penn S tate

from 1969 t o 1973 had an a v e r a g e o f 0.05% c a lc iu m and s h e l l e d
corn sa m p le s 0.03% (Adams, 1975).

Soybean m eal has a c a lc iu m

c on cen tration o f around 0.36% (NRC, 1978).
Calcium conten t in forages remains q u ite con sta n t with the
stage

o f m a t u r ity or w ith

the

season o f

th e y e a r .

In th e

48

Southern P l a i n s r e g i o n of t h e U nited S t a t e s , c a l c i u m c o n t e n t of
p e r e n n i a l g r a s s e s r a n g e d from 0.33% i n J a n u a r y and A u g u s t t o
0.43% i n A p r i l
Calcium

(Beeson and Matrone, 1976).
r e q u i r e m e n ts o f d a i r y c a t t l e -

A 600 kg (1300 lb)

cow producing 30 kg (66 lb ) o f m i l k w ith 3.5% f a t c o n t e n t per day
r e q u i r e s a b o u t 100 g o f c a l c i u m , o r 0.5% o f t h e d i e t when e a t i n g
20 kg (44 l b ) o f d r y m a t t e r , d a i l y .

A 200 kg (440 l b ) H o l s t e i n

h e i f e r needs about 21 g c a l c i u m , o r 0.40% of t h e d i e t when e a t i n g
5.2 kg o f d r y m a t t e r , p e r d a y (NRC, 1978).

A n i m a l s c onsum in g

legumes or mixed p a s t u r e s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o s u f f e r from c a l c i u m
deficiency.

However, i f the d i e t c o n s i s t m a i n l y o f g r a s s e s , corn

s i l a g e and g r a i n , su pp le m e nta ry c a l c i u m may be needed t o meet t h e
requirements.
C alcium

req u irem en ts

are

calcu lated

phosphorus r e q u i r e m e n ts f o r d a i r y c a t t l e .

in r e l a t i o n

to

The r a t i o o f c a l c i u m

t o phosphorus i n bone i s about 2:1 i n o l d e r a n im a l s and somewhat
l o w e r i n young a n i m a l s .
1.3:1.0.

In m ilk th e r a t i o

is approxim ately

Except fo r p rep artu m r a t i o n s , a high r a t i o of c a lc iu m

to phosphorus is f a r l e s s c r i t i c a l fo r rum inants than i t i s for
l a b o r a t o r y a n im a l s .

However, a c a l c i u m t o phosphorus r a t i o below

1:1 can reduce performance.

Growth r a t e and feed u t i l i z a t i o n of

c a l v e s have been s a t i s f a c t o r y w ith c a l c i u m t o phosphorus r a t i o s
r anging from 1:1 t o 7:1 (NRC, 1978).

For l a c t a t i n g cows, c a l c i u m

t o p h o s p h o r u s r a t i o s o f 1 : 1 , 1 : 4 , and 8 :1 p r o d u c e d no c h a n g e i n
m i l k p r o d u c t i o n (Smith e t a l . , 1 9 66).

I n l o n g term e x p e r i m e n t s

w ith p r e g n a n t h e i f e r s b e t t e r a b s o r p t i o n o f both e le m e n ts o c c u r r e d
w ith a 2:1 c a lc iu m t o phosphorus r a t i o

(Manston, 1967).

49

Calcium

deficiency

phosphorus n u t r i t i o n

is

in

rum inants-

A d e q u a t e c a l c i u m and

d e p e n d e n t ‘u p o n t h r e e

facto rs:

a

s u f f i c i e n t s u p p l y o f each e l e m e n t , a s u i t a b l e r a t i o between them,
and t h e p r e s e n c e o f v i t a m i n D (Maynard and L o o s l i , 196 9).

The

m o st o b v i o u s symptoms o f s e v e r e c a l c i u m d e f i c i e n c y a re r i c k e t s
and o s t e o m a l a c i a .
w hich

is

R i c k e t s i s a d i s e a s e o f t h e growing s k e l e t o n

ch aracterized

by a d e c r e a s i n g

co n cen tratio n

of

h y d r o x y a p a t i t e i n t h e o r g a n i c m a t r i c e s o f c a r t i l a g e and bone.
O s te o m a l a c i a i s r i c k e t s in the a d u l t and, s i n c e c a r t i l a g e growth
has

ceased,

is

a

sk eletal

d isease

in

ad u lts

which

is

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d e c r e a s e d c o n t e n t o f h y d r o x y a p a t i t e i n bone
m a t r i x ( F o l l i s , 1958).
prevents

normal

I n young c a l v e s , a c a l c i u m - d e f i c i e n t d i e t

bo ne g r o w t h and r e t a r d s g e n e r a l g r o w t h and

development. The bones o f a f f e c t e d c a l v e s a r e low i n c a lc iu m and
p h o s p h o r u s and f r a c t u r e

spontaneously.

I n m a t u r e cows,

the

f e e d i n g o f r a t i o n s low i n c a l c i u m o v e r a long p e r i o d o f time may
cause

a d ep letio n

of

calcium

and p h o s p h o r u s

in

the

bones,

r e s u l t i n g i n f r a g i l e , e a s i l y f r a c t u r e d b o n e s and r e d u c e d m i l k
y i e l d (NRC, 1978).

With an adeq uate phosphorus i n t a k e (80 t o 100

g / d a y ) , d a i r y cows f e d 200 g c a l c i u m / d a y and v i t a m i n D (300000
IU /day)

showed b e t t e r

rep ro d u ctiv e

r e c e i v i n g 100 g c a l c i u m / d a y .

p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n cows

The v a r i a b l e s m e a s u r e d i n t h i s

experiment were c o m p l e t i o n of u t e r i n e i n v o l u t i o n , days t o f i r s t
o v u l a t i o n , and days t o f i r s t p o s t - p a r t u m e s t r u s (Ward, 1971).
Milk

fever-

Dry cows fed e x c e s s i v e amounts of c a l c i u m a re

l i k e l y to d e v elo p m ilk fe v e r ( p a rtu rie n t p a re sis) a t c a lv in g .
T h i s m e t a b o l i c d i s o r d e r i s c a u s e d by a d i s t u r b a n c e i n c a l c i u m

50

m etabolism m a n i f e s t e d by a marked d ro p i n b l o o d serum c a l c i u m a t
p a r t u r i t i o n or soon t h e r e a f t e r

(NRC, 1978).

Several p re v e n tiv e procedures to a v o id p a r t u r i e n t p a r e s i s
have been t r i e d .

The f i r s t and most i m p o r t a n t p r a c t i c e t o f o l l o w

i s t o p r o v i d e t h e d r y cow w i t h a d i e t w e l l b a l a n c e d i n e n e r g y ,
p r o t e i n and v i t a m i n s .

Abrupt r a t i o n changes and e x c e s s i v e weight

i n c r e a s e s sh o u l d be a v o id e d .

I f c o rn s i l a g e t h a t i s r e l a t i v e l y

high i n energy i s t h e main i n g r e d i e n t of t h e d i e t ,

i t sh o u l d not

be p r o v i d e d ad l i b i t u m t o t h e cows, t o p r e v e n t from becoming
ex cessiv ely fa t.

Adequate f i b e r

t o m a i n t a i n rumen m o t i l i t y

s h o u l d be p r o v i d e d (Olson, 1979).
C alcium

sources-

T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l p r o d u c t s t h a t can be

used as so u r c e s o f c a l c i u m f o r d a i r y c a t t l e .

Limestone (calcium

c a r b o n a t e ) h a s a r o u n d 38% c a l c i u m , bone m e a l s from 20 t o 30%,
o y s t e r s h e l l f l o u r a r o u n d 36%, m o n o c a l c i u m p h o s p h a t e 16%, and
d i c a l c i u m phosphate 22% (Hillman e t a l . , 1983).

Cement k i l n d u s t

c o n s i s t i n g o f a r o u n d 27% c a l c i u m , c a n a l s o be u s e d a s a c a l c i u m
s o u r c e f o r a n im a l s r a t i o n s (Jordan e t a l . ,
L im estone has been p ro p o se d

1980).

as a b u f f e r i n g ,

or more

a c u r a t e l y a s an a l k a l i n i z i n g , a g e n t f o r r u m i n a n t s i n o r d e r t o
improve t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f d i g e s t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n

(Wheeler and

N o l l e r , 1976; W h ee le r, 1980a and b; Wheeler e t a l . , 1981b, c and
d; B a s s , 1982).

Cement k i l n d u s t s h a v e b e e n u s e d f o r t h e same

p u r p o s e ( W h e e l e r , 1979; W h e e l e r and O l t j e n , 1979; Ward e t a l . ,
1979; N o l l e r e t a l . ,
Wheeler e t a l . ,

1981a).

1980; Bush e t a l . ,

1981; W h e e l e r ,

1981;

51

Phosphorus
Phosphorus
fertilizatio n -

c o n t e n t o f p l a n t s i n r e l a t i o n t o s o i l s t a t u s and
P h o s p h o r u s i s o f c r i t i c a l i m p o r t a n c e t o many o f

th e l i f e p r o c e s s e s o f both p l a n t s and a n im a ls.

When th e s o i l i s

d e f i c i e n t i n p h o s p h o r u s , c e r t a i n p l a n t s p e c i e s may c o n t a i n t o o
l i t t l e of t h i s e l e m e n t t o meet t h e req u ire m e n t o f t h e animal t h a t
e a ts the p l a n t
1965).

(U.S. P l a n t ,

S o il,

and N u t r i t i o n Lab.

S taff,

I n g e n e r a l , low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of a v a i l a b l e phosphorus in

the s o i l

resu lt

in p l a n t s with

i n s u f f i c i e n t am ounts o f

e le m e n t t o meet th e r e q u i r e m e n ts of a n im a l s .
o f phosphorus f e r t i l i z a t i o n

the

The s u c c e s s f u l use

t o c o r r e c t phosphorus d e f i c i e n c y in

g r a z i n g a n im a l s i s de pendent upon the s o i l and th e p l a n t s p e c i e s
involved.

On some s o i l s , a d d i t i o n o f phosphorus f e r t i l i z e r s w i l l

no t b r i n g about i n c r e a s e s i n th e phosphorus c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in the
p l a n t grown, e v e n t h o u g h s u b s t a n t i a l i n c r e a s e s i n y i e l d may be
noted. Where mixed p a s t u r e s c o n t a i n i n g both g r a s s e s and legumes
a r e f e r t i l i z e d , t h e i n c r e a s e i n p e r c e n t of legumes in t h e m ix ture
resu ltin g

from p h o s p h o r u s

fertiliz atio n

may h a v e

im portant

e f f e c t s on t h e a n i m a l s g r a z i n g t h e p a s t u r e , i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e
e f f e c t on t h e phosphorus c o n c e n t r a t i o n in th e p a s t u r e p l a n t s .
general,

In

d e c i s i o n s c o nce rn in g use of phosphorus f e r t i l i z e r s a r e

b a s e d upon t h e e x p e c t e d r e s p o n s e i n c r o p p r o d u c t i o n .

Where

l i t t l e or no r es po n se i n p l a n t growth can be e x p e c te d , phosphorus
s h o u l d be s u p p l e m e n t e d d i r e c t l y t o t h e a n i m a l s ' d i e t s t o m eet
t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n ts (Allaway, 1972).
Phosphorus

co n c en tr a tio n

in fo rag es-

T yp ical phosphorus

con cen tra tio n in g r a sse s i s 0.2 to 0.3%, but i t can be lower than

52

0.2% and h i g h e r th an 0.4%.

I n a l f a l f a , phosphorus c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

a r e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n g r a s s e s , u s u a l l y 0.2 t o 0.3%, and t h e y
c a n be l o w e r t h a n 0.15% and h i g h e r t h a n 0.7% (Church and Pond,
1 974).

C o rn s i l a g e s a m p l e s i n M i c h i g a n i n 19 75-1976 had an

a v e r a g e 0.29% p h o s p h o r u s c o n t e n t d r y b a s i s
1 9 77 ).

E a r c o r n i n P e n n s y l v a n i a , from 1969 t o 1973, had an

average of
1975).

( H i l l m a n and F o x ,

0.28% p h o s p h o r u s ,

and s h e l l e d c o r n 0.31% (Adams,

Soybean o i l meal has a phosphorus c o n t e n t o f about 0.75%

(NRC, 1978).
Phosphorus c o n te n t
m atu rity

and

to

Southern P l a i n s

the

in p l a n t s

season of

region of

the

is

related

year.

to the p l a n t s '

G rasses

from t h e

t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s had an a v e r a g e

phosphorus c o n t e n t o f 0.34% i n A p r i l , when t h e p l a n t s were young
and r a i n f a l l was 72 mm (2.83 i n ) , and 0.10% i n F e b r u a r y when t h e
rain fa ll

was 26 mm (1.03 in )

and t h e p a s t u r e s were d r y and

dormant due t o t h e w i n t e r (Beeson and Matrone, 1976).
Phosphorus

r e q u i r e m e n ts

of d a i r y c a t t l e -

A 600 kg (1300

l b ) cow, p r o d u c i n g 30 kg (66 l b ) o f m i l k w i t h 3.5% f a t c o n t e n t a
day, r e q u i r e s around 70 g of phosphorus d a i l y .

I f t h e dry m a t t e r

i n t a k e o f t h i s cow i s 20 kg (44 l b ) , t h e r a t i o n s h o u l d be 0.35%
phosphorus.

A 200 kg (440 lb ) h e i f e r e a t i n g 5.2 kg o f dry m a t t e r

a day r e q u i r e s 14 g o f p h o s p h o r u s o r a b o u t 0.27% o f t h e r a t i o n
(NRC, 1978).

Phosphorus r e q u ir e m e n ts of l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows a re

n o t u s u a l l y met by f o r a g e s o r g r a i n s a l o n e , so t h e s e a n i m a l s
g e n e r a l l y r e q u i r e e x t r a s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n of t h e element.
Phosphorus

d e f i c i e n c y i n r u m in a n ts-

Symptoms of phosphorus

d e f i c ie n c y in rum inants are n o n - s p e c i f i c , except perhaps for

53

osteophagia

(craving

concentrations.

for

bones)

and

subnormal

blood

serum

Once t h e serum phosphorus v a l u e s have d e c l i n e d

i n a n im a l s fed phosphorus d e f i c i e n t d i e t s , a d e c l i n e i n a p p e t i t e
and feed e f f i c i e n c y i s o b s e r v e d .

Animals s t a r t showing s i g n s o f

d e p ra v e d a p p e t i t e , o r p i c a , c r a v i n g abnorm al m a t e r i a l s such as
bones, wood, and s o i l .

T h is symptom, however, i s n o t s p e c i f i c t o

p h o s p h o r u s d e f i c i e n c y , s i n c e i t h a s b e en o b s e r v e d i n a n i m a l s
s u f f e r i n g from l a c k o f sodium and p o tas siu m ,

and sometimes when

p r o t e i n o r e n e r g y a r e d e f i c i e n t i n t h e d i e t (Underwood, 1981).
With phosphorus d e f i c i e n c y ,
low and they become f r a g i l e .

t h e m i n e r a l c o n t e n t o f t h e bones i s
A p p e t i t e d e c l i n e s , growth r a t e i s

r e t a r d e d , and feed u t i l i z a t i o n e f f i c i e n c y i s reduced.
phosphorus d e f i c i e n c y ,

In chronic

t h e anim al sometimes becomes s t i f f in the

j o i n t s (NRC, 1978).
One o f t h e most im p o r t a n t e f f e c t s of phosphorus d e f i c i e n c y
i s on r e p r o d u c t i o n .

F e r t i l i t y prob lem s were o b s e r v e d i n a d a i r y

herd when t h e h e i f e r s were fed a d i e t i n s u f f i c i e n t in phosphorus.
The d i e t c o n s i s t e d o f a l f a l f a ,
pasture.

c o r n s i l a g e and l e g u m e - g r a s s

I t was e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e a n i m a l s w ere e a t i n g from 70

t o 80% o f t h e i r p h o s p h o r u s r e q u i r e m e n t .

When t h e a n i m a l s were

o f f e r e d f r e e c h o ic e d i c a l c i u m p h o s p h a t e , r e p r o d u c t i v e p a ra m eter s
i n t h e herd improved.

S e r v i c e s p e r c o n c e p ti o n d e cr ea se d from 2.8

t o 1 . 3 , t h e 30 day c o n c e p t i o n r a t e i n c r e a s e d from 33 t o 73%, and
th e 60 t o 90 day c o n c e p t i o n r a t e i n c r e a s e d from 36 t o 76%.

T heir

a v e r a g e b l o o d serum c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f phosphorus i n c r e a s e d from
3.9 mg/100 ml b e f o r e s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n

to

6.0 mg/100 ml when

d i c a l c i u m p h o s p h a t e was a v a i l a b l e a t a l l t i m e s (Morrow, 1969).

54

In A u s t r a l i a

(Scharp,

superphosphate

to

the

1979),
drinking

ad d itio n

of

water

an i n f e r t i l e

of

d eflu o rin ated
herd

i n c r e a s e d t h e f i r s t s e r v i c e p r e g n a n c y r a t e from 36.5 t o 63.2%,
t h e mean c a l v i n g t o c o n c e p t i o n i n t e r v a l d e c r e a s e d from 109 days
to

85 d a y s

and

the

n u m b e r o f cows c u l l e d

i n f e r t i l i t y f e l l from 15 t o 5.

each y e ar

for

Other experiments have f a i l e d to

i m p r o v e f e r t i l i t y by p h o s p h o r u s s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n ( C a l l e t a l . ,
1978; C a r s t a i r s e t a l . , 1980; C a r s t a i r s e t a l . , 1981; De Boer e t
a l . ,1 981).
Sources o f p hosp horus-

Among s e v e r a l so u r c e s o f phosphorus

f o r r u m in a n ts , t h e most commonly used a r e bone m e a l s , monocalcium
and d i c a l c i u m

phosphates,

d e flu o rin ated

def lu o r in a te d superphosphate,
p h o sp h a te s (Hillman e t a l . ,

phosphate

rock,

and m o n o s o d i u m a n d d i s o d i u m

1983).

A l l t h e s e s o u r c e s have high

phosphorus a v a i l a b i l i t y f o r ru m in ants.
The s t a r t i n g m a t e r i a l f o r a lm o s t a l l
f ee d ph o sph a tes i s pho sp ha te rock.

ch em ically processed

T h is m a t e r i a l c o n t a i n s 13 t o

14% p h o s p h o r u s and 3 t o 4% f l u o r i d e (Thompson, 1980 ).

Fluoride

i s t o x i c t o a n i m a l s ( S u t t i e and K o l s t a d , 1977; H i l l m a n , 1979;
S u t t i e , 1980; Ammerman, 1980; Shu p e, 198 0), c a u s i n g d e n t a l and
s k e l e t a l l e s i o n s and, i n s e v e r e c a s e s , a d v e r s e l y i n f l u e n c e s t h e
p r o d u c t i v e performance of d om estic a n im a l s .

Because of t h i s , t h e

A s s o c i a t i o n o f American Feed C o n t r o l O f f i c i a l s (AAFCO, 1979) s e t
s t a n d a r d s f o r s a f e l e v e l s of f l u o r i d e in fee d p h o s p h a t e s .

Since

1952, any p r o d u c t s o l d t o t h e f e e d i n d u s t r y a s " d e f l u o r i n a t e d
phosphate" has t o have a phosphorus t o f l u o r i n e r a t i o of a t l e a s t
100:1 (Thompson, 1 9 8 0 ).

55

P o ta ssiu m
Po ta ssium

c o n te n t of p l a n t s in r e l a t i o n to s o i l s t a tu s

fertilizatio n -

In r e l a t i o n

to other

n u trie n ts,

and

potassium

is

r e q u i r e d i n f a i r l y l a r g e amounts by both p l a n t s and a n im a l s (U.S.
P lan t,

S o il,

potassium

and N u t r i t i o n Lab. S t a f f ,

in the

so il

concen tratio n in crops.

has a d i r e c t

i n c r e a s i n g t h e y i e l d o f t h e c ro p.
are

used

The l e v e l o f

e f f e c t on t h e p o t a s s i u m

Potassium f e r t i l i z a t i o n in c re a s e s the

potassium c o n te n t of the p l a n t ,

fertiliz er

19 65).

to

b u t h a s a g r e a t e r e f f e c t on
When l a r g e amounts o f n i t r o g e n

increase

y ield s,

large

p o t a s s i u m a r e r e m o v e d from t h e s o i l by t h e c r o p .

amounts

of

When t h e s o i l

i s f e r t i l i z e d w ith n i t r o g e n w ith o u t p r o p o r t i o n a l i n c r e a s e s in
potassium , the potassium c o n te n t of fo rag e s tends to decrease.
I n g e n e r a l , h e a v y p o t a s s i u m f e r t i l i z a t i o n d e c r e a s e s magnesium
c o n t e n t in p a s t u r e s (B o lto n , 1978; Penny e t a l . ,

1980; Penny and

Widdowson, 1980).
Potassium c o n t e n t i n f o r a g e s -

There i s a l a r g e v a r i a t i o n of

the p o t a s s i u m c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s , due t o p otassiu m f e r t i l i z a t i o n
and

so il

sta tu s.

G rasses

ty p ic a lly

c o n ta in

1.2 t o

2.8%

p o ta s siu m , w ith low v a l u e s o f l e s s t h a n 1.0% and high v a l u e s of
more t h a n 3.0%.

Potassium c o n c e n tra tio n

in legumes u s u a l l y

r a n g e s from 1.5 t o 2.2%, w i t h v a l u e s fo u n d l o w e r t h a n 0.4% and
h i g h e r than 3.0% (Church and Pond, 1974).
M ichigan

Corn s i l a g e samples in

i n 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 6 a v e r a g e d 1.04% p o t a s s i u m on d r y m a t t e r

b a s i s ( H i l l m a n and F o x , 1 977).

Ear c o r n i n P e n n s y l v a n i a , from

1969 t o 1973, had an a v e r a g e o f 0.49% p o ta s siu m , and s h e l l e d corn
0.42% (Adams, 1975).

Soybean o i l meal has a po tassiu m c o n t e n t of

56

a b o u t 2.21%.

B r e w e r s g r a i n s h a v e a v e r y low p o t a s s i u m c o n t e n t :

a b o u t 0.09% o f t h e d r y m a t t e r

(NRC, 19 78).

Young, v e r y l u s h

f o r a g e s i n h i g h l y f e r t i l i z e d s o i l s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e t r e a t e d with
p o t a s s i u m ) i n c o o l w e a t h e r may be e x t r e m e l y h i g h i n p o t a s s i u m ,
o ften

about th ree

p e rc e n t of

the

dry m a tte r .

P otassium

c o n c e n t r a t i o n d e c r e a s e s w i t h a d v a n c i n g m a t u r i t y of f o r a g e s and
can be reduced f u r t h e r by l e a c h i n g of mature s t a n d i n g f o r a g e s in
humid a r e a s (NRC, 1978).
Potassium

requirements

of

dairy

c attle-

The potassium

req u ire m e n t f o r d a i r y cows i s a b o ut 0.8% o f t h e dry m a t t e r in th e
r a t i o n (Dennis e t a l . ,

1976; Erdman e t a l . ,

1980).

Other a u t h o r s

recommend 0.8 t o 1.0% f o r l a c t a t i n g d a i r y a n i m a l s (Underwood,
1981).

A p p a r e n t l y t h e r e q u i r e m e n ts a r e s i m i l a r f o r o t h e r d a i r y

cattle

(NRC, 1978).

Potassium d e f i c i e n c y and t o x i c i t y i n r u m in a n ts r e l a t i v e l y s e v e r e p o ta s s iu m d e f i c i e n c i e s
dry m atter of the r a tio n )

Symptoms of

(0.06 and 0.15% of the

i n l a c t a t i n g cows i n c l u d e a marked

d e c re a se in feed i n t a k e , reduced w eight g a in s , d ecreased m ilk
production, p ica,

l o s s of h a ir g l o s s i n e s s , decreased p l i a b i l i t y

of h i d e s , lower plasma and m i l k p o t a s s i u m , and h i g h e r h e m a to c r i t
readings.

W ith b o r d e r l i n e p o t a s s i u m d e f i c i e n c y (0.45-0.55% o f

t h e dry m a t t e r of t h e r a t i o n ) , t h e most n o t i c e a b l e s i g n i s lower
feed consumption (NRC,

1978).

Excess p otassiu m in the d i e t i s d e t r i m e n t a l fo r a n im als.
B u l l c a l v e s fe d 6% p o ta s s iu m added t o t h e d i e t had d e c r e a se d feed
i n t a k e and d e c r e a s e d w eight g a i n s .
which p r o d u c e d

no c l i n i c a l

The maximum d i e t a r y potas sium

effect

was

b e tw e e n

2.8

and

7%

57

(Neathery e t a l . ,

1980).

High l e v e l s of potassium i n th e d i e t of

r u m i n a n t s d e c r e a s e magnesium a b s o r p t i o n which c a n r e s u l t

in

magnesium t e t a n y ( S u t t i e and F i e l d , 1969; F i e l d , 1970a and b;
G r e e n e e t a l . , 1 9 8 3 a , b , and c ) .
Potassium

sources-

potassium fo r rum inants

The m o st commonly u s e d s o u r c e o f
is

potassium

ch lo rid e,

but

o th er

p o tassium s a l t s such as a c e t a t e , c a r b o n a t e and b i c a r b o n a t e can be
used (Neathery e t a l . ,

1980).

Potassium b i c a r b o n a t e can a l s o be

u s e d a s a b u f f e r i n g a g e n t t o p r e v e n t low m i l k f a t syndrome i n
l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows (Emery and Brown, 1961; S t o u t e t a l . ,
to p r e v e n t l a c t i c a c i d o s i s in beef c a t t l e
a llev ia te
feedlots

(Horn, 1 9 7 9 ), o r t o

t h e e f f e c t s o f s h i p p i n g on c a l v e s
(Hutchenson e t a l . ,

1972),

transported

to

1984).

Sodium
Sodium

c o n ten t

fe r tiliz a tio n -

in p l a n t s in r e l a t i o n to s o i l

statu s

and

In sodium d e f i c i e n t s o i l s , sodium f e r t i l i z a t i o n

in c r e a se s crop y i e l d s and r a is e s the sodium concen tration o f the
p la n t .

This e f f e c t i s p a r t i c u l a r l y c le a r when potassium i s a l s o

d e f i c i e n t in the s o i l .

Sodium conten t in rye g r ass was increased

from 0.15 to 0.20%, a s lo n g as 7.5 y e a r s a f t e r th e l a s t sodium
a p p l i c a t i o n (B o lto n and Penny, 1978).

I t would be d i f f i c u l t ,

h o w ev er, to add sodium to s o i l s in amounts s u f f i c i e n t t o r a i s e
th e

so d iu m c o n t e n t o f

r e q u ir e m e n ts o f a n i m a l s .

f o r a g e s e n o u g h t o m eet t h e

so d iu m

T h is i s b e c a u se s o i l s h ig h in sodium

are v e r y poor s o i l s fo r p l a n t grow th.
r e s p o n s i b l e fo r th e low f e r t i l i t y

An e x c e s s o f sodium i s

and u n d e s i r a b l e p h y s i c a l

p r o p e r t i e s o f th e " a l k a l i s o i l s " o f dry r e g i o n s (U.S. P l a n t ,

58

S o il,

and N u t r i t i o n

fe rtiliz a tio n

Lab.

decreases

S taff,

the

1965).

Heavy

potassium

sodium c o n c e n t r a t i o n

in p l a n t s

(Underwood, 1981 ).
Sodium

content in forages-

F o r a g e s , and f e e d s i n g e n e r a l ,

have low sodium c o n t e n t s . Sunflower (He l i an t h u s sp.) meal i s one
o f t h e few f e e d s w i t h a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h so dium c o n t e n t (1.30%)
(NRC, 197 8).

Legumes i n P e n n s y l v a n i a from 1969 t o 1973 had an

a v e r a g e so d iu m c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 0.024%, g r a s s e s 0.014%, c o r n
s i l a g e 0.005%, e a r c o r n 0.007%, and s h e l l e d c o r n 0.003% (Adams,
1975).

So y b e a n o i l m e a l h a s a so dium c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f a b o u t

0.31% (NRC, 1978 ).
Sodium

requirem ents

of

d airy

c attle-

The NRC (1978)

e s t i m a t e o f t h e sod ium r e q u i r e m e n t o f l a c t a t i n g cows i s 0.18%
(0.46% so d iu m c h l o r i d e ) o f t h e d r y m a t t e r i n t h e r a t i o n .

For

n o n l a c t a t i n g d a i r y c a t t l e t h e e s t i m a t e d sodium r e q u i r e m e n t i s
0.10% (0.25% so d iu m c h l o r i d e ) o f t h e d r y m a t t e r i n t h e r a t i o n
(NRC, 19 78).
Sodium

deficiency

and

to xicity

in

ru m in a n ts -

d e f i c i e n c y can g r e a t l y d e c r e a s e t h e performance o f c a t t l e .

Sodium
The

d e f i c i e n c y i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a d e c l i n e i n sodium c o n c e n t r a t i o n
in t h e s a l i v a and u r i n e and an i n c r e a s e i n t h e potas sium l e v e l s
in th ese f l u i d s

(Loosli,

1978).

When a d i e t s e v e r e l y d e f i c i e n t

i n sod iu m i s f e d t o d a i r y cows an i n t e n s e c r a v i n g f o r s a l t and
p i c a , m a n i f e s t e d by l i c k i n g and c hew ing v a r i o u s o b j e c t s , can
o c c u r w i t h i n two weeks.

O t h e r symptoms, w h ic h may n o t d e v e l o p

f o r s e v e r a l months (the l e n g h t of time take n i s r e l a t e d t o l e v e l
of m ilk p ro d u c tio n ),

i n c lu d e d ecrea se d or l o s s of a p p e t i t e ,

59

u n t h r i f t y haggard a p p e a ra n c e ,

l u s t e r l e s s eyes,

decreased m ilk p ro d u ctio n ,
growing a n i m a l s ,
sh iv erin g ,
death.

and r a p i d

reduced g a in s ).

incoordination,

rough h a i r c o a t ,

l o s s of w eight

(or

in

T e r m i n a l symptoms i n c l u d e

weakness,

card iac arrythm ia,

and

With adeq uate s a l t s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n cows r e c o v e r q u i c k l y

and c o m p l e t e l y (NRC, 1978).
C a t t l e a r e a b l e t o t o l e r a t e a r e l a t i v e l y high l e v e l o f s a l t
i n t h e d i e t , e s p e c i a l l y when w a t e r i s r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e .

In

c o n t r a s t , t h e s a l t c o n t e n t i n water r e q u i r e d t o produce t o x i c i t y
i s much l o w e r t h a n t h e c o n t e n t r e q u i r e d i n f e e d .

The amount o f

s a l t t h a t can be t o l e r a t e d by l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows has n o t been
c le a r l y established.

However, i t i s su g g e s t e d t h a t s a l t

(sodium

c h l o r i d e ) n o t exceed f i v e p e r c e n t of t h e t o t a l d r y m a t t e r i n t a k e
(NRC, 197 8 ).

S a l t p o i s o n i n g c a n o c c u r when a n i m a l s de p en d on

s a l i n e w a t e r s o u r c e s , o r when a s u d d e n c h a n g e t o s a l i n e w a t e r
from f r e s h w ater has o c c u r r e d .

Excessive ingestion follow ing a

p e rio d of s a l t d e p r i v a t i o n has r e s u l t e d in d e a th s of c a t t l e .
P o is o ning has o c c u r r e d as a r e s u l t o f e x c e s s i v e s a l t i n p r e p a r e d
fee d.

C e n t r a l n e rv o u s system and d i g e s t i v e t r a c t derangement a r e

the f e a t u r e s o f a c u t e s a l t p o i s o n i n g i n c a t t l e (S a nd als,
Sodium

sources-

1578).

The m o st common and c h e a p e s t s o u r c e of

sodium f o r ru m in ants i s sodium c h l o r i d e , b u t o t h e r s a l t s such as
sodium c a r b o n a t e or sodium b i c a r b o n a t e can a l s o be used. Sodium
b i c a r b o n a t e i s used a s a b u f f e r i n g a g e n t t o p r e v e n t low m il k f a t
synd rome i n d a i r y cows (Emery and Brown,

1961; Emery e t a l . ,

1964).

in

Sodium c h l o r i d e

c a n be i n c l u d e d

the

concentrate

form ula a n d /o r fed t o the a n im a l s ad l i b i t u m in a b l o c k of s a l t

60

o r i n g r a n u l a r fo rm i n a m i n e r a l

feeder.

Cows consume more

g r a n u l a r o r l o o s e s a l t t h a n b l o c k s a l t , bu t the i n t a k e s o f b l o c k
s a l t a re ad eq u a te t o meet th e needs o f l a c t a t i o n

(NRC, 1978).

T race m i n e r a l s , such as i o d i n e , z i n c , manganese, i r o n , c o p p e r,
c o b a l t , and sometimes se l e n i u m a r e u s u a l l y added t o t h e s a l t f o r
d a iry

c a ttle

or o th e r

types of an im als.

V oluntary s a l t

consumption by c a t t l e i s v a r i a b l e , b u t l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows have
an a v e r a g e c o n s u m p t i o n o f 45 g p e r d a y .

Dry cows and h e i f e r s

consume from 15 t o 30 g o f s a l t p e r day (Crampton and H a r r i s ,
1969 ).

T h e s e f i g u r e s s h o u l d be t a k e n i n c o n s i d e r a t i o n when

c a l c i u m and phosphorus s o u r c e s a r e added t o s a l t f o r ad l i b i t u m
consumption by the a n i m a l s .
Magnesium
Magnesium c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p l a n t s i n r e l a t i o n t o s o i l s t a t u s
and f e r t i l i z a t i o n -

Magnesium f e r t i l i z a t i o n tends t o i n c r e a s e t h e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f mag nesium i n f o r a g e s .

Y ie ld s of re sp o n siv e

c r o p s a l s o i n c r e a s e a f t e r magnesium f e r t i l i z a t i o n t o magnesium
d eficien t s o ils

( B o l t o n and P e n n y , 1978).

On c e r t a i n c o a r s e -

t e x t u r e d s o i l s , t h e u s e o f magnesium f e r t i l i z e r s o r d o l o m i t i c
lim estone

has been

c o n c e n tr a tio n in th e

effectiv e
grass.

in

T his

s u c c e s s f u l on f i n e r t e x t u r e d s o i l s .

i n c r e a s i n g t h e magnesium
p rac tic e

has been

less

G r a s s e s t e n d t o h a v e low

magnesium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n p e r i o d s o f a c t i v e growth, e s p e c i a l l y
in

the

sp rin g

fertilizatio n

(S co tt,

19 72)

and

after

heavy

potassium

(Allaway, 1971).

Magnesium c o n ten t in fo ra g e smore magnesium than do g r a s s e s .

Legumes n e a r ly always co n ta in

Although the magnesium l e v e l s in

61

p l a n t s can be i n c r e a s e d m o d e r a te ly by add ing magnesium t o the
s o i l , the magnesium l e v e l in g r a sse s i s s t i l l below th a t in most
le g u m e s ,

e v e n when th e g r a s s e s a r e grown on a s o i l

h ig h in

a v a i l a b l e magnesium (U.S. P la n t , S o i l , and N u tr itio n Lab. S t a f f ,
1965).

Magnesium c o n t e n t in g r a s s e s r a n g e s from 0.12 t o 0.26%,

w ith v a l u e s found lo w e r than 0.1% and h ig h e r than 0.3%.

In

leg u m es th e t y p i c a l magnesium c o n c e n t r a t i o n ra n g e s from 0.3 to
0.4%, w it h v a l u e s found lo w e r than 0.1% and h ig h e r than 0.6%
(Church and Pond, 1974).

Corn s i l a g e samples in Michigan had an

average magnesium c o n ten t o f 0.24% during the years 1975 and 1976
(Hillman and Fox, 1977).

In P en nsylvan ia during the years 1969

t o 1 9 7 3 , ear c o rn had a v e r a g e 0.12% magnesium, and s h e l l e d corn
a l s o had 0.12% magnesium on a dry m atter b a s i s

(Adams, 1975).

Soybean o i l meal has an average magnesium con ten t o f 0.30% (NRC,
1978) .
Magnesium

requirements

of

dairy

c attle-

The magnesium

re q u i r e m e n t o f d a i r y c a l v e s on a d i e t of m il k r e p l a c e r and c a l f
s t a r t e r c o n c e n t r a t e mix i s 0.07% o f t h e d ry m a t t e r of the r a t i o n .
Growing h e i f e r s and b u l l s , m a t u r e b u l l s and d r y p r e g n a n t cows
r e q u i r e 0.16% magnesium on a d r y m a t t e r b a s i s .

The magnesium

r e q u i r e m e n t o f l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows i s 0.20% o f t h e r a t i o n ' s dry
m atter.

Under c o n d i t i o n s c onducive t o g r a s s t e t a n y (i.e. most of

t h e f e e d comes from l u s h , h i g h l y f e r t i l i z e d p a s t u r e s i n c o o l
seas on s) i n h ig h p rod u cin g l a c t a t i n g cows, 0.25% o r more d i e t a r y
magnesium i s s u g g e s t e d (NRC, 1978).
Magnesium d e f i c i e n c y and t o x i c i t y in ruminants-

Animals fed

magnesium d e f i c i e n t d i e t s show a s t i f f g a i t and gradual l o s s o f

62

condition
d eclin e

for

several

weeks,

in m ilk y i e l d .

w ith o u t l o s s of a p p e t i t e or a

T his c o n d itio n

c a n be f o l l o w e d

by

r e c o v e r y i f some form o f magnesium i s p r o v i d e d , o r by t e t a n y and
death.

T his c o n d it i o n

magnesium t e t a n y

is

u su ally

(Underwood,

known a s g r a s s

1 9 81).

Experim ents

t e t a n y or
show t h a t

m o r t a l i t y i s o f t e n h i g h , e v e n when t h e a n i m a l s a r e r e c e i v i n g
d i e t s t h a t a r e o n l y m a r g i n a l l y d e f i c i e n t i n magnesium and where
growth o f t h e s u r v i v o r s may approach t h a t o f t h e c o n t r o l a n im a l s .
P l a s m a magnesium l e v e l s a r e d e p r e s s e d m a r k e d l y by magnesium
d e fic ie n cy (Scott,

1972).

Animals showing sumptoms of magnesium

t e t a n y s h o u l d be g i v e n p a r e n t e r a l magnesium i m m e d i a t e l y .

To

p r e v e n t a r e c u r r e n c e o f t h e c o n d i t i o n , a n i m a l s s h o u l d be f e d a
d i e t h i g h e r i n mag nesium.

U su a lly a fo llo w -u p treatm ent th a t

c o n s i s t s of 60 g of magnesium ox ide p e r day

f o r a t l e a s t a week,

and t h e n w i t h d r a w n g r a d u a l l y , i s g i v e n t o t h e a n i m a l s t h a t had
grass tetany

(Merck, 1979).

Magnesium t o x i c i t y i s not known to be a p r a c t i c a l problem in
dairy c a t t l e .

Male H o ls t e in c a l v e s s t a r te d showing diarrhea with

magnesium (as magnesium o x id e ) l e v e l s h ig h e r than 0.7% o f the
d i e t ( Q u illia m e t a l . , 1980 ).

In an o th er e x p e r im e n t, H o l s t e i n

b u l l c a l v e s had diarrhea but not reduced weight g ain s when fed a
d i e t con tain in g 1.0% magnesium as magnesium oxide.

L e v e ls o f 2.0

and 4.0% magnesium produced d ia r r h e a and reduced w e ig h t g a i n s
(Gentry e t a l . , 197 8).
Magnesium
magnesium fo r

sou rcesrum inan ts

The most commonly used s o u r c e o f
is

magnesium o x i d e .

in c lu d e magnesium s u l f a t e and magnesium carbonate.

Other

sou rces

Magnesium in

63

dolomite is poorly utilized (Thompson, 1978).

Magnesium o x i d e , a t a l e v e l o f a p p r o x im a t e ly 0.5% o f th e
d i e t , a l o n g w ith sodium or p o ta s siu m b i c a r b o n a t e , i s used a s an
a l k a l i n i z i n g agent to p reven t low m ilk f a t syndrome in l a c t a t i n g
d a ir y cows (Emery e t a l . , 1965; J e s s e e t a l . , 1981 ).
Copper and Molybdenum
Copper

and molybdenum con ten t in p l a n t s in r e l a t i o n to s o i l

s t a t u s and f e r t i l i z a t i o n -

Copper and molybdenum c o n cen tra tio n in

p l a n t s i s r e s p o n s i v e t o f e r t i l i z a t i o n w ith t h e s e two e l e m e n t s .
P la n t s p e c ie s

vary c o n sid e r a b ly

M it c h e ll e t a l .
v a r ia tio n s

in t h e i r

uptake o f co p p er.

(1956), quoted by Hodgson e t a l .

from 1.7 t o 12.3 ppm o f copper

(1962), observed

in c l o v e r ,

w h ile

g r a sse s growing with the c lo v e r varied o n ly from 2.0 to 4.3 ppm.
In A u s t r a lia and New Zealand the a d d itio n o f copper f e r t i l i z e r to
s o i l s has been e f f e c t i v e in meeting the needs o f both the p la n t
and th e g r a z in g a n im a l.

On some copper d e f i c i e n t s o i l s o f th e

United S ta te s a p p lic a t io n s o f copper f e r t i l i z e r s have increased
p l a n t growth w it h o u t p r od u cin g a marked change in t h e copper
con ten t o f the p l a n t s , and anim als grazing th ese p l a n t s may s t i l l
s u f f e r from copper d e f i c i e n c y (U.S. P l a n t , S o i l , and N u t r i t i o n
Lab. S t a f f ,

1965).

k g /h e c ta r e

(a b o u t

C opper
1 .8

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f copper

fe r tiliz a tio n

lb /a c r e )

r e su lte d

in le g u m e s ,

at

a ra te

in

of

2

in c r e a se d

g r a s s e s and weeds in a

permanent p a s t u r e near A berdeen, E n glan d.

The a v e r a g e copper

c o n c e n t r a t i o n w it h o u t f e r t i l i z a t i o n was 4.84 ppm, and 5.69 ppm
a f t e r copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n (Forbes and Gelman, 1981).
Molybdenum con ten t in legumes in the United S t a t e s goes from

64

an a v e r a g e o f 6 ppm i n t h e w e s t t o a r o u n d 0.5 ppm i n t h e E a s t .
The p a t t e r n

roughly p a r a l l e l s

so il

c h a n g e s from n e u t r a l

to

a l k a l i n e ( o f te n c a l c a r e o u s ) s o i l s i n t h e w e ste r n U nited S t a t e s t o
p r e d o m i n a n t l y a c i d s o i l s i n t h e e a s t (Kubota, 1976).
fertiliz e rs

a re m o s t ly used in a c id

molybdenum.

In a c i d s o i l s molybdenum f e r t i l i z e r becomes r a p i d l y

u n a v a ila b le to the p l a n t ,

so ils

that

Molybdenum

so t h e r e i s l i t t l e

are

low i n

danger of high

molybdenum c o n t e n t in f o r a g e s f e r t i l i z e d with t h e e le m e n t under
these conditions.

There a r e , however, some a c i d s o i l s w ith high

m olybdenum c o n c e n t r a t i o n s .

When t h e s e

molybdenum becomes a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e p l a n t .

so ils

are

lim ed,

In these cond itio ns,

l e g u m e s i n p a r t i c u l a r , c a n c o n t a i n t o x i c am ounts o f molybdenum
(Hodgson e t a l . , 1 9 6 2).
Copper and molybdenum c o n t e n t i n f o r a g e s -

Copper c o n t e n t in

g r a s s e s goes from around 4 t o 8 ppm, w ith v a l u e s found lower than
3 ppm and h i g h e r

t h a n 10 ppm.

In a l f a l f a ,

ty p ical

copper

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s a r e from 6 t o 12 ppm, w ith v a l u e s found lower th an
4 ppm and h ig h e r

than 15 ppm (Church and Pond,

197 4).

Corn

s i l a g e in Michigan in 1975 and 1976 had an average copper conten t
o f 9 ppm (Hillman and Fox, 1977). Soybean o i l meal has an average
copper c o n t e n t o f around 40 ppm (NRC, 1978).

In P e n n s y l v a n i a

from 1969 t o 19 73, c orn s i l a g e had an a v e r a g e copper c o n t e n t o f
8.1 ppm.

V alu es as low as 2.0 ppm o f copper were a l s o found.

In

t h e same s t a t e , ear corn had an a v e r a g e o f 4.7 ppm c o p p e r , and
s h e l l e d corn 3.6 ppm (Adams, 1975).

In B r it i s h Columbia, Canada,

legum e hay had 7.2 ppm copper on th e a v e r a g e , g r a s s hay 4.5 ppm,
and co rn s i l a g e 4.5 ppm (M iltm ore e t a l . ,

1970).

In A l b e r t a ,

65

Canada, copper c o n t e n t s i n f o r a g e s were h i g h e r :

12 ppm i n g r a s s

r o u g h a g e , 11 ppm i n le g u m e r o u g h a g e , and 12 ppm i n g r a s s legum e
roughage (Redshaw e t a l . ,

1978).

Molybdenum i n g r a s s e s

ranges

from 0.5 t o

3.0 ppm, w i t h

v a l u e s fo u n d l o w e r t h a n 0.4 ppm and h i g h e r t h a n 5.0 ppm.

In

a l f a l f a , molybdenum c o n c e n t r a t i o n s v a r y from 0.5 t o 3.0 ppm, w i t h
v a l u e s fo u n d l o w e r t h a n 0.2 ppm and h i g h e r t h a n 5.0 ppm (Church
and P o n d, 1 974).
calcareo u s,

I n some a r e a s , e s p e c i a l l y when t h e s o i l s a r e

p astu res

can h a v e e x t r e m e l y h i g h m olybdenum

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , r a n g in g from 20 t o 100 ppm (Underwood, 1981).
Copper

requirements

of d airy c a t t l e -

Copper req u ir e m e n ts

a r e d e p e n d e n t on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , s u c h a s t h e molybdenum and
s u l f a t e i n t a k e o f t h e a n i m a l s and w h e t h e r o r n o t t h e a n i m a l i s
grazing.

Grazing a n i m a l s seem t o have h i g h e r copper req u ir e m e n ts

t h a n n o n g r a z i n g a n i m a l s (NRC, 1 9 7 8 j.

Under some c o n d i t i o n s , 4

ppm of copper i n th e d i e t a r e enough t o meet the r e q u i r e m e n ts of
dairy c a t t l e ,

b u t 10 ppm o r more a r e n e e d e d when t h e f o r a g e s

c o n t a i n h i g h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f molybdenum or o t h e r i n t e r f e r i n g
s u b s t a n c e s (NRC, 1 9 78 ).

C a t t l e g r a z i n g p a s t u r e s w i t h a r o u n d 10

ppm copper and 1.6 ppm molybdenum showed symptoms of hypocupremia
(G i v e n s and H o p k i n s , 1978). S u p p l e m e n t a t i o n o f c o p p e r , t h r o u g h
c o p p e r i n j e c t i o n s , t o g r a z i n g H o l s t e i n h e i f e r s w i t h low c o p p e r
b lo o d plasm a c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n c r e a s e d th e l e v e l s of copper in
b l o o d a l t h o u g h g r o w t h was n o t a f f e c t e d d u r i n g t h e f o u r - m o n t h
p e r i o d o f t h e e xp erim en t (Givens e t a l . ,

1981).

I n an e f f o r t t o a c c o u n t f o r s u b s t a n c e s t h a t i n t e r f e r e w i t h
copper a v a i l a b i l i t y ,

S u ttle

and M c L a u c h la n

(1976), in G re at

66

B rita in ,

developed

an e q u a t i o n

to c a l c u l a t e

tru e copper

a v a i l a b i l i t y (TA Cu), as f o l l o w s :
l o g TA Cu = - 0 . 0 0 1 9 Mo - 0.0755 S - 0.0131 Mo X S - 1.153
Mo and S i n t h e a b o v e e q u a t i o n a r e t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f
molybdenum (ppm) and s u l f u r
ration.

(g /k g )

in the dry m a tte r of the

The c a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s o f t r u e copper a v a i l a b i l i t y a r e

m u l t i p l i e d by the copper c o n t e n t o f t h e r a t i o n and compared with
d i e t a r y requirem ents of a v a i l a b l e copper t h a t are as fo llo w s:
0.48 ppm f o r g r o w i n g c a t t l e w i t h l i v e w e i g h t s o f 100 t o 200 kg,
0.42 ppm f o r g r o w i n g c a t t l e w i t h a l i v e w e i g h t o f 400 kg, and
0.41 ppm f o r d a i r y cows (Givens and Hopkins, 1978).
T h e r e i s n o t good a g r e e m e n t on w h at i s a s a f e c o p p e r - t o molybdenum r a t i o

in the d i e t of ru m in an ts. T his is p r o b a b ly

because o t h e r f a c t o r s b e s i d e s molybdenum i n t e r f e r e w i t h c o p p e r
m etab o lism , i n c l u d i n g s u l f a t e s and p r o t e i n and whether o r n o t th e
a n im als are g ra z in g . G razing an im als a re l i k e l y to have h ig h er
c o p p e r r e q u i r e m e n t s t h a n n o n g r a z i n g c a t t l e . Some a u t h o r s h a v e
suggested

a copper

t o m olybdenum r a t i o

of

2:1,

some 4 : 1

(Underwood, 198 1). Under some c i r c u m s t a n c e s , h y p e r c u p r e m i a has
been o b se r v e d even w i t h h i g h e r copper t o molybdenum r a t i o s , such
as i n G re a t B r i t a i n w ith a 6.5:1.0 r a t i o

( G i v e n s and H o p k i n s ,

1978).
Copper

deficiency

and

toxicity

in

r u m in a n ts-

Copper

d e f i c i e n c y in ru m in a n ts r e s u l t s i n reduced growth or weight l o s s ,
u n th riftin ess,
deficien cy,
observed:

and d e c r e a s e d m i l k p r o d u c t i o n .

often

(but n o t

severe diarrhea;

in v ariab ly )

the

I n an e x t r e m e
fo llo w in g

ra p id weight l o s s ;

are

c e s s a t i o n of

67

g r o w t h ; ro u g h h a i r c o a t ; a c h a n g e i n h a i r c o a t c o l o r , which may
become f a d e d , b l e a c h e d , g r a y i n g , d i r t y - y e l l o w i s h

(for w hite

h a i r ) , or brownish (for b l a c k h a i r ) ; a change in h a i r t e x t u r e ;
s w e l l i n g a t t h e end o f t h e
pasterns;

leg bones,

e s p e c i a l l y above the

f r a g i l e bones o f t e n r e s u l t i n g i n m u l t i p l e f r a c t u r e of

r i b s , femur o r humerus; s t i f f j o i n t s t h a t may r e s u l t i n a "pacing
g a i t " i n o l d e r c a t t l e ; d e p r e s s e d o r d e l a y e d e s t r u s and r e d u c e d
r e p r o d u c t i o n ; d i f f i c u l t y i n c a l v i n g and r e t a i n e d p l a c e n t a ;

birth

of c a l v e s w ith c o n g e n i t a l r i c k e t s ; " f a l l i n g d i s e a s e " or sudden
d e a t h due t o a c u t e h e a r t f a i l u r e ;

and a n e m i a .

Som etim es t h e

b l a c k h a i r a r o u n d t h e e y e s l o s e s p i g m e n t and d e v e l o p s a g r a y s p e c t a c l e d appe ara nce t h a t i s a p p a r e n t l y i s s p e c i f i c f o r copper
deficiency .

With i n a d e q u a t e c o p p e r i n t a k e , p e r f o r m a n c e may be

s u b n o r m a l when t h e r e a r e no o b v i o u s d e f i c i e n c y symptoms o t h e r
th an n o n s p e c i f i c u n t h r i f t i n e s s

(NRC, 1978).

A c c o r d i n g t o Ward (1978), c o p p e r d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e produced
by fo u r c l a s s e s of f e e d s :
above 100 ppm; 2)
less;

3)

1)

high molybdenum f e e d s ,

generally

low copper t o molybdenum r a t i o f e e d s :

2:1 or

c o p p e r d e f i c i e n t f e e d s , b e l o w 5 ppm; and 4)

p r o t e i n f e e d s , t h o s e 20 t o 30% p r o t e i n i n f r e s h f o r a g e form.

high
The

a u th o r s p e c u l a t e s t h a t t h e l a t t e r s i t u a t i o n p r o b a b l y r e s u l t s from
h i g h e r l e v e l s of s u l f i d e produced from s u l f u r amino a c i d s d u rin g
rumen f e r m e n t a t i o n .
Sheep are v e r y s u s c e p t i b l e t o copper p o i s o n i n g and h o r s e s
r e l a t i v e l y t o l e r a n t t o high copper l e v e l s in the d i e t .

B o v in es,

in g e n e r a l , can t o l e r a t e h ig h e r amounts o f copper than sh eep
w i t h o u t s h o w in g s i g n s o f t o x i c i t y .

The amount o f c o p p e r

68

n e c e s s a r y t o c a u s e p o i s o n i n g d e p e n d s a l s o on t h e r e l a t i o n o f
copper t o i n t e r f e r i n g s u b s t a n c e s such as molybdenum and s u l f a t e s .
I t i s e s t i m a t e d t h a t c a t t l e can s a f e l y t o l e r a t e 70-100 ppm copper
c o n t i n u o u s l y and h i g h e r l e v e l s f o r s h o r t p e r i o d s s u c h a s a few
weeks (NRC, 1978).
When e x c e s s i v e

copper

is

c o nsum ed,

c a ttle

are a b le

to

a c c u m u l a t e e x t r e m e l y h i g h am o un ts i n t h e l i v e r b e f o r e o b v i o u s
symptoms o f t o x i c i t y a p p e a r .

The t o x i c i t y symptoms a r e due t o

t h e sudden l i b e r a t i o n of l a r g e amounts o f copper from t h e l i v e r
t o t h e b lo od c a u sin g a h e m o l y t i c c r i s i s .
by c o n s i d e r a b l e

h em olysis,

This i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d

j a u n d i c e , m ethem oglobinem ia,

h e m o g l o b i n u r i a , g e n e r a l i z e d i c t e r u s , w i d e s p r e a d n e c r o s i s , and
o f t e n d e a t h (NRC, 1978).
C h r o n i c c o p p e r p o i s o n i n g may o c c u r i n f ar m a n i m a l s from
n a t u r a l g r a z i n g c o n d i t i o n s where t h e c o p p e r c o n t e n t s
herbage are e x c e s s iv e ,

in the

o r a r e n o r m a l b u t a b n o r m a l l y low

molybdenum and s u l p h u r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s ; from e x c e s s i v e consumption
o f c o p p e r - c o n t a i n i n g s a l t l i c k s ; or from t h e unwise use o f copper
d r e n c h e s (Underwood, 19 81).
Copper

sources-

Cupric s u l f a t e ,

form CuS04.5H20 c o n t a i n i n g 25% c o p p er ,

u s u a l l y the pentahydrate
i s t h e most commonly used

form o f c o p p e r s u p p l e m e n t f o r r u m i n a n t s .

Most t r a c e m i n e r a l

s a l t s c a r r y c o pper, b u t u s u a l l y a t th e low l e v e l o f about 0.03%
of the s a l t m ixture.

In copper d e f i c i e n t a r e a s ,

s h o u l d c o n t a i n 0.5 t o 1.0% c u p r i c s u l f a t e
which i s e q u i v a l e n t t o 0.125 t o 0.25% co pper.

s a l t lic k s

(Underwood,

1977);

I f t h e d i e t of th e

d a i r y cow i n a h y p o t h e t i c a l copper d e f i c i e n t a r e a c o n t a i n s 5 ppm

69

c o p p e r , and t h e cow i s e a t i n g 20 kg (44 l b ) o f d r y m a t t e r a d a y ,
a d a i l y i n t a k e o f 45 g of a t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t with 0.25% c o pp er,
w i l l r a i s e i t s copper i n t a k e i n t h e t o t a l d i e t t o an e q u i v a l e n t
o f around 10 ppm c opper.

T h is i n t a k e i s p r o b a b l y a dequate under

m o st c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
O t h e r c o p p e r c o n t a i n i n g compounds t h a t c a n be u s e d f o r
ru m in ants i n c l u d e c u p r i c c a r b o n a t e , c u p r i c c h l o r i d e and c u p r i c
n itrate,

b u t copper i n t h e s e forms i s g e n e r a l l y l e s s a v a i l a b l e

f o r t h e anim al (Ammerman and M i l l e r , 1978).

I n j e c t a b l e forms of

copper used f o r copper d e f i c i e n c y t h e r a p y a r e copper g l y c i n a t e ,
copper c a l c i u m e d e t a t e
gluconate

( e t h y l e n e d i a m i n e t e t r a a c e t a t e ) , and copper

(Underwood 1977).

Copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n o f p a s t u r e s w i t h 5 t o 7 kg o f c o p p e r
s u l f a t e p e r h e c t a r e (4 t o 6 l b / a c r e ) r a i s e s t h e copper c o n t e n t i n
t h e f o r a g e s t o l e v e l s h i g h enough t o p r e v e n t d e f i c i e n c i e s .

In

sane a r e a s s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s i n t o t a l herbage p r o d u c t i o n a r e
c o i n c i d e n t a l l y a c h i e v e d (Underwood, 1977).
Sulphur
S u lp h u r

content

fertilizatio n -

in p la n ts in r e l a t i o n to s o i l

status

and

S u l f u r i s e s s e n t i a l f o r both p l a n t s and a n im a l s .

S u l f u r d e f i c i e n c y i n p l a n t s i s e s p e c i a l l y common i n t h e g r a y
wooded s o i l s o f c o o l ,

tem perate re g io n s .

Many o f t h e s o i l s

d e v e l o p e d from v o l c a n i c m a t e r i a l s i n n o r t h e r n C a l i f o r n i a and in
t h e P a c i f i c Northwest a r e d e f i c i e n t i n s u l f u r

(U.S. P l a n t ,

and

use

N u tritio n

Lab.

S taff,

1965).

The

of

S oil,

o rd in ary

s u p e r p h o s p h a te , which c o n t a i n s 11-12% s u l f u r , p r o b a b l y a v o i d e d
su lfu r

d eficien cies

in th e se a re a s .

T rip le

or c o n c e n t r a t e d

70

s u p e r p h o s p h a te , i n c o n t r a s t , has a l m o s t no s u l f u r

(0 t o 1%), and

i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t i t s use may r e s u l t in s u l f u r d e f i c i e n c i e s in
s u s c e p t i b l e c r o p s such as legumes.
When s u l f u r f e r t i l i z e r s a r e a d d ed t o a s u l f u r - d e f i c i e n t
so il,

in creased

crop

y ield s

and

in creased

to ta l

su lfu r

co n ce n tra tio n in the p l a n t norm ally r e s u l t .

I n c r e a s e s in p r o t e i n

c o n cen tratio n are a l s o f re q u e n tly observed.

But t h e r a t i o o f the

s u l f u r amino a c i d s t o o t h e r amino a c i d s w i t h i n th e t r u e p r o t e i n
f r a c t i o n i s g e n e r a l l y unchanged.

S u l f a t e , l i k e n i t r a t e , may

acc umulate i n p l a n t t i s s u e s under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s , b u t u n l i k e
n i t r a t e e x c e s s s u l f a t e s i n p l a n t s a r e n o t t o x i c f o r th e anim al.
The o n l y c o n c e r n w i t h h i g h l e v e l s o f s u l f a t e

in fo rag e s for

r u m i n a n t s i s i n t h e c a s e o f c o p p e r d e f i c i e n c y p r o d u c e d by h i g h
l e v e l s o f molybdenum.

S u l f a t e s can enhance th e d e f i c i e n c y .

I n o r g a n i c s u l f u r , l i k e s u l f a t e , c a n be u s e d by t h e b a c t e r i a i n
t h e rumen o f a n i m a l s t o p r o d u c e s u l f u r c o n t a i n i n g amino a c i d s .
So, e v e n when a h i g h l e v e l o f s u l f a t e i s p r e s e n t i n f o r a g e s , i t
u s u a l l y o n ly im proves the n u t r i t i o n a l q u a l i t y of the fo rag e
(Allaway,

1971).

S u lfu r

con ten t

in

fo ra g es-

T y p ic a l s u l f u r c o n t e n t in

g r a s s e s g o e s from 0.15 t o 0.25%, w ith v a l u e s found low er than
0.1% and h ig h e r than 0.3%.

In a l f a l f a

the s u l f u r c o n t e n t i s

h igh er, t y p i c a l l y ranging t y p i c a l l y from 0.3 to 0.4%, with v a lu e s
found low er than 0.2% and h ig h e r
1974).

than 0.7% (Church and Pond,

Corn s i l a g e i s r e l a t i v e l y low in s u l f u r .

1975-1976,

In Michigan in

corn s i l a g e samples had an average s u lfu r conten t of

0.11% (H illm a n and F ox, 1 977).

In P e n n s y l v a n ia from 1969 to

71

1973, t h e a v e r a g e s u l f u r c o n t e n t o f e ar c o rn was 0.13%, and 0.14%
f o r s h e l l e d c o rn (Adams, 1975).

Soybean o i l meal has an a v e r a g e

o f 0.49% s u l f u r (NRC, 1978).
Sulfur

requirements

of d a iry c a t t l e -

U n l i k e nonr um in ants,

w hic h t h a t h a v e a s p e c i f i c r e q u i r e m e n t f o r s u l f u r c o n t a i n i n g
amino a c i d s , r u m i n a n t s c a n make u s e o f i n o r g a n i c s u l f u r i n t h e
ration.

B a c t e r i a and p r o t o z o a i n t h e rumen c a n s y n t h e s i z e t h e

s u l f u r - c o n t a i n i n g amino a c i d s r e q u i r e d by th e ruminant s t a r t i n g
from i n o r g a n i c s u l f u r .
in

relatio n

n itro g en

to

the

to s u l f u r

S u l f u r r e q u i r e m e n ts a r e o f t e n c a l c u l a t e d
nitro g en
ratio

co n cen tratio n

of 10:1 t o

appropriate for d airy c a t t l e .

in

the d i e t .

12:1 i s s u g g e s t e d

A
as

The e s t i m a t e d s u l f u r re q u ir e m e n t

f o r l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows i s 0.20% i n t h e a v e r a g e d i e t ; t h a t f o r
n o n l a c t a t i n g d a i r y c a t t l e i s c a l c u l a t e d from the minimum p r o t e i n
re q u ir e m e n t with a n i t r o g e n t o s u l f u r r a t i o of 12:1 (NRC, 1978).
Sulfur

deficiency

and

toxicity

in

r u m in a n ts-

In

the

p r a c t i c a l f e e d i n g o f d a i r y c a t t l e , a s u l f u r d e f i c i e n c y i s m ost
lik ely

t o o c c u r when c o n s i d e r a b l e ad ded n o n p r o t e i n n i t r o g e n

and/or corn s i l a g e

a re fed

(NRC,

197 8 ).

In th e s e c a se s

the

d e f i c i e n c y i s n o t s e v e r e , s i n c e th e o t h e r i n g r e d i e n t s o f t h e d i e t
p r o v i d e scsne s u l f u r f o r t h e anim al.
S u l f u r d e f i c i e n c y symptoms i n d a i r y c a t t l e a r e no t s p e c i f i c ,
e s p e c i a l l y when t h e d e f i c i e n c y i s no t s e v e r e . S u l f u r i s e s s e n t i a l
f o r t h e th e s y n t h e s i s of m i c r o b i a l p r o t e i n , and th u s fo r optimum
f e r m e n t a t i o n o f s u b s t r a t e s ( Q u i s p e , 198 2).
d i s r u p t e d w ith s u l f u r d e f i c i e n t d i e t s .
dry m atter d i g e s t i b i l i t y ,

Rumen m e t a b o l i s m i s

This r e s u l t s i n d e c r e a s e d

decreased dry m atter

intak e,

and

72

decreased m ilk production of d a iry c a t t l e
1 9 7 3 a , b and c ) .

(Bouchard and Conrad,

The r e q u i r e m e n t s o f t h e a n i m a l f o r i n o r g a n i c

su lfu r,

and t h e e f f e c t s o f a d e f i c i e n c y a r e n o t w e l l

(Foil is ,

1958).

known

The maximum amount of s u l f u r t h a t can be t o l e r a t e d by c a t t l e
i s not w e ll defined.

I t i s su g g e ste d t h a t t h e maximum s h o u l d be

l i m i t e d t o a b o u t 0.35% p e r c e n t o f t h e d i e t w i t h no more t h a n
0.20% coming from added s u l f a t e s u l f u r .
can

to lerate

a higher

lev el

of

i n g r e d i e n t s th an from added s u l f a t e
Sulfur

sources-

Apparently, d a iry c a t t l e

su lfu r

from

n atu ral

feed

(NRC, 1978).

S e v e r a l s o u r c e s , such as sodium s u l f a t e ,

p o t a s s i u m s u l f a t e , magnesium s u l f a t e ,

ammonium s u l f a t e ,

and

c a l c i u m s u l f a t e , a r e e f f e c t i v e in meeting t h e s u l f u r re q u i r e m e n t
of rum inants.
efficien tly

E l e m e n t a l s u l f u r i s a l s o u t i l i z e d b u t much l e s s

(NRC, 1978).

Iron
Iron

content

fertilizers-

in

plants

in r e l a t i o n to

soil

statu s

and

I r o n u p t a k e by t h e p l a n t from t h e s o i l d e p e n d s t o

l a r g e e x t e n t on t h e p l a n t s p e c i e s and v a r i e t y .

A l f a l f a and c o rn ,

f o r exam ple, t a k e more i r o n from t h e s o i l th a n soybeans, and w i l l
pr oduce good y i e l d s i n s o i l s t h a t a r e i r o n d e f i c i e n t f o r soybeans
(T isd ale

et

a l.,

1985).

In

iron

d e fic ie n t

so ils,

iron

f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s l i k e l y t o i n c r e a s e c ro p y i e l d s , b u t n o t t h e ir o n
c o n c e n t r a t i o n in t h e p l a n t (Allaway, 1971).
Iron content of forages-

Iron l e v e l s in forages are u s u a lly

high enough t o meet t h e re q u ir e m e n ts of d a i r y a n i m a l s .

Typical

i r o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n g r a s s e s i s 50-100 ppm, w i t h v a l u e s found

73

than 45 ppm and h ig h e r than 200 ppm.

lo w e r

A lfa lfa 's

ir o n

co n c en tr a tio n ranges from 50 to 200 ppm, with v a lu e s found lower
th an

30 ppm and h ig h e r than 300 ppm (Church and Pond, 1974).

Corn

s i l a g e in M ich igan in 1975 and 1976 hadan a v e r a g e o f 214

ppm ir o n i n th e dry m a tte r (H illm a n and Pox, 19 77).

Ear corn in

P en n sy lv a n ia from 1969 to 1973 had an average o f 94 ppm ir o n , and
s h e l l e d co rn 69 ppm (Adams, 1975).

Soybean o i l m eal has an

average iron con ten t o f 130 ppm (NRC, 1978).
Iron requirements of d a ir y c a t t l e -

An i r o n l e v e l o f 100 ppm

i n t h e d r y d i e t s h o u l d be adeq uate f o r a l l needs o f c a l v e s up to
t h r e e m o n th s o f a g e ;
c attle

(NRC,

19 78).

w i t h 50 ppm s u f f i c i e n t f o r o t h e r d a i r y
About

30 t o

40 ppm i n

the

d iet

in

the

p r o d u c t i o n of v e a l w i l l p r o v i d e s u f f i c i e n t i r o n t o p r e v e n t l o s s
o f p e r f o r m a n c e from a s e v e r e d e f i c i e n c y and s t i l l m a i n t a i n t h e
p a l e v e a l c o l o r ( M i l l e r , 1981).
Iron

deficiency

and

toxicity

in

rum in a n ts-

Since most

f o r a g e s have a d e q u a te l e v e l s of i r o n , i r o n d e f i c i e n c y seldom
o c c u r s i n d a i r y c a t t l e u n l e s s as a r e s u l t of s e v e r e l o s s o f blood
cau se d by p a r a s i t i c i n f e s t a t i o n s or d i s e a s e .

Young a n im a l s a r e

s u s c e p t i b l e t o i r o n d e f i c i e n c y when they a r e fed e x c l u s i v e l y on
m ilk

t h a t i s low i n i r o n

c o n t e n t o f abo ut 0.5 m g / l i t e r

(NRC, 1978).

Cows m i l k h a s an i r o n

(Thomas, 1970).

Even though some f e e d s c o n t a i n a h ig h p e r c e n t a g e o f i r o n ,
t o x i c i t y d oes n o t appear t o be an im p o rtan t p roblem f o r d a i r y
c a ttle .

The e f f e c t s o f ir o n t o x i c i t y , which are n ot s p e c i f i c ,

in c lu d e lower feed in ta k e, le s s e n e d weight g a in s , and lower m ilk
p r o d u c t io n .

L im ite d d a ta s u g g e s t t h a t s o l u b l e ir o n compounds

74

such as s u l f a t e s a r e more t o x i c than i r o n i n n a t u r a l f e e d s t u f f s
(M iller,

1981 ).

It

is

believed

that

cattle

g en erally

can

t o l e r a t e 1000 ppm d i e t a r y i r o n under most c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y
i f the iron is

from n a t u r a l fee d s o u r c e s and adequ a te l e v e l s

other m inerals

a r e s u p p l i e d (NRC,

Iron

sources-

such

as

ferrous

1978).

The a v a i l a b i l i t y

compounds v a r i e s enormously.
su lfate

of

of iro n in d i f f e r e n t

G e n e r a l l y i r o n i n s o l u b l e compounds
and

ferric

citrate

are

much more

a v a i l a b l e t o c a t t l e th an i n f e r r i c ox ide or i r o n p h y t a t e ( M i l l e r ,
1981).

Feed g ra d e

interm ediate

ferrous

a v aila b ility

carb o n ates

range

from

(Ammerman and M i l l e r ,

low

1978).

to
An

im p o rta n t source of i r o n , as w e ll as of o th e r m in e r a ls i s s o i l .
S o i l i n t a k e o f g r a z i n g a n i m a l s can be a s h i g h a s 10% o f t h e d r y
m a t t e r i n t a k e , and ev en h i g h e r under some c o n d i t i o n s such as high
s t o c k i n g r a t e or a r a i n y seas on (Healy, 1974).
Manganese
Manganese
fertilizatio n -

content in p la n ts in r e l a t i o n to s o i l
As i n t h e c a s e o f i r o n , m an ga n es e

status

and

co ntent

in

p l a n t s i s g e n e r a l l y n o t r e s p o n s i v e t o manganese f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
I n m an ga n es e d e f i c i e n t s o i l s , and w i t h c r o p s s e n s i t i v e t o low
l e v e l s o f a v a i l a b l e m an ganese i n t h e s o i l s u c h a s a l f a l f a and
s o y b e a n s , m an g a n es e f e r t i l i z a t i o n w i l l p r o b a b l y i n c r e a s e t h e
y i e l d o f t h e c r o p b u t w i l l h a v e l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e m ang an ese
c o n t e n t o f t h e p l a n t (Allaway,
M anganese

content

1971).
in

forages-

v a r i a b i l i t y i n t h e i r manganese c o n t e n t .

Fo rages show a g r e a t

G ra ss es have a manganese

c o n c e n t r a t i o n ran g in g from 40 t o 200 ppm, w i t h v a l u e s found lower

75

than 30 ppm and h ig h e r than 250 ppm.

T y p i c a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n in

a l f a l f a r a n g e s from 25 t o 45 ppm, but v a l u e s low er than 20 ppm
and h ig h e r than 100 ppm are a l s o found (Church and Pond, 1974).
A vera ge manganese c o n c e n t r a t i o n in corn s i l a g e i n M ich igan in
19 7 5 - 1 9 7 6 was 33 ppm (H illm a n and Fox,

197 7).

Ear corn in

P e n n s y l v a n ia from 1969 t o 1973 had a manganese c o n t e n t o f 7.3
ppm, and s h e l l e d c o rn 4.8 ppm (Adams, 1975).

Soybean o i l m eal

has an average manganese conten t o f 31 ppm (NRC, 1978).
Manganese

r e q u i r e m e n ts

of

dairy

c attle-

The su g g e ste d

m an g a n ese d i e t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t i s 40 ppm i n t h e d i e t on a d r y
m a t t e r b a s i s (NRC, 1978).
in

the

d iet

se e m t o

High l e v e l s of c a l c i u m and phosphorus

in te rfe re

w i t h manganese a b s o r p tio n ,

i n c r e a s i n g the re q u ir e m e n t f o r i t i n t h e d i e t .

Some a u t h o r s have

recommended an i n c r e a s e o f t h e m ang a n es e c o n t e n t i n t h e d i e t t o
70-95 ppm t o ta k e c a r e of reduced manganese a b s o r p t i o n caused by
high

calcium

in tak e

(H id iro g lo u ,

1979);

how ever,

th is

recommendation i s s t i l l c o n t r o v e r s i a l .
Manganese
deficiency

is

d e f i c i e n c y and t o x i c i t y i n

rum inants-

linked

reduced

to

silen t

heats,

Manganese

conception,

a b o r t i o n s , reduced b i r t h w e ig h t, i n c r e a s e d p e r c e n t a g e of m ale
o f f s p r i n g , p a r a l y s i s , and s k e l e t a l damage i n d a i r y cows ( P u l s ,
1981). Symptoms o f e x p e r i m e n t a l m a n g a n es e d e f i c i e n c y a r e w e l l
documented (Underwood,

1977 and 1981; M i l l e r ,

1981; H i d i r o g l o u ,

1979; Thomas, 1 9 7 0 ), b u t s e v e r e d e f i c i e n c i e s do n o t seem t o be
p r e v a l e n t w ith p r a c t i c a l

d iets.

It

is

very p o s s ib le

th at

b o r d e r l i n e d e f i c i e n c i e s w i t h n o n s p e c i f i c s i g n s a r e w idespread,
e s p e c i a l l y i n a n i m a l s whose d i e t s a r e b a s e d on c o r n s i l a g e and

76

corn.

T h e s e d i e t s a r e v e r y l i k e l y t o c o n t a i n l e s s t h a n 40 ppm

manganese, t h e e s t i m a t e d req u ire m e n t.
Manganese s o u r c e s -

Manganese s u l f a t e , c h l o r i d e , c a r b o n a t e ,

d i o x i d e , and p o tas siu m permanganate a r e a l l v e ry a v a i l a b l e forms
o f manganese f o r ru m in ants (Ammerman and M i l l e r ,

1978), and can

be i n c l u d e d i n t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t s and r a t i o n s .
Zinc
Zinc

con ten t

fe r tiliz a tio n -

in

p la n ts

A number o f

con ten t o f natu ral fe e d s .
a c id s o i l .
p la n ts.

in r e l a t i o n to

general

fa cto rs

so il

statu s

a ffect

th e

and
z in c

Zinc i s more a v a i l a b l e to p la n t s in an

Thus, l im i n g te n d s t o lo w er t h e z in c c o n t e n t o f th e

S in c e l im i n g u s u a l l y i n c r e a s e s crop p r o d u c t i o n , z in c

con ten t may be lower on some o f the b e tte r managed farms.

Often

the zin c con ten t o f forage p la n ts d e c li n e s somewhat with m aturity
o f th e p l a n t .
co n ten t

is

L ik e w ise ,

lo w e r

some in fo r m a tio n s u g g e s t s t h a t th e

in a dry c l i m a t e

(M ille r ,

1979).

Z in c

f e r t i l i z a t i o n , h o w ev e r, i s e x p e c t e d t o have a b ig g e r e f f e c t on
y i e l d o f th e f o r a g e than on i t s z in c c o n c e n t r a t i o n (A lla w a y ,
1971).
Zinc

con ten t

in fo rag es-

In g e n e r a l,

are good s o u r c e s o f z i n c ( M i l l e r , 19 79).

high p r o te in feed s

G r a s se s have a z in c

c o n c e n t r a t i o n ra n g in g from 20-80 ppm, w ith v a l u e s found low er
th a n

15

ppm and

h ig h e r

than

100

ppm.

A lfa lfa 's

z in c

con cen tration ranges from 12 to 35 ppm, with v a lu e s found lower
than 10 ppm and h ig h e r than 50 ppm (Church and Pond,

1974).

During the years o f 1975 and 1976, corn s i l a g e in Michigan had an
average zin c con ten t o f 37 ppm (Hillman and Fox, 1977).

Ear corn

in P en n sylv an ia from 1969 to 1973 had an average zin c con ten t of

77

27 ppm, and s h e l l e d c o r n an a v e r a g e o f 25 ppm (Adams, 197 5).
Soybean o i l m e a l h a s an a v e r a g e z i n c c o n t e n t o f 48 ppm (NRC,
1978).
Z inc

r e q u ir e m e n ts

of

d a ir y

c a ttle -

The estim ated zinc

requirement for dairy c a t t l e i s 40 ppm in the d i e t .

The t o x i c i t y

th r esh o ld i s estim ated to range from 500 to 1500 ppm.

According

t o M i l l e r (19 7 9), th e req u ire m en t o f 40 ppm o f z i n c in th e d i e t
p rov id es a modest margin of s a f e t y ,

s in c e in some c a s e s anim als

consuming d i e t s w ith 40 ppm or more o f z i n c have improved t h e i r
perform ance a f t e r z in c s u p p le m e n t a t io n .

N e v e r th e le ss , i t is

b e l i e v e d th a t t h i s l e v e l i s adequate for normal c a t t l e under most
or a l l p r a c t i c a l feed in g c o n d itio n s ( M i l le r , 1979).
Zinc

d e f ic ie n c y and t o x i c i t y in ruminants-

Weak hoof horn

w ith i n c r e a s e d s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o i n t e r d i g i t a l d e r m a tit is , fo o t
r o t , and

reduced c o n c e p t i o n r a t e a r e some o f th e symptoms o f

zin c d e f ic ie n c y in c a t t l e .

The e f f e c t o f the d e f ic ie n c y i s more

se v e r e on male f e r t i l i t y than on fem ale f e r t i l i t y .
m a tu r a tio n i s s e v e r e l y a f f e c t e d .
in c lu d e

reduced

g r o w th

p a r a k e r a to sis (P u ls, 1981).

r a te,

Spermatozoan

V ery common symptoms a l s o
reduced

feed

in ta k e ,

and

As with s e v e r a l o f the other m ineral

d e f i c i e n c i e s , a s e v e r e z in c d e f i c i e n c y d o e s n o t appear t o be a
m ajor p r a c t i c a l

p r o b le m

in g e n e t i c a l l y

normal ru m in an ts.

However, th e e x t e n t o f b o r d e r l i n e d e f i c i e n c i e s in p r a c t i c a l
s it u a t i o n s i s u n certa in .

A key r ea so n fo r t h i s u n c e r t a i n t y i s

the la ck of good d ia g n o s t ic procedures for d e te c tin g a b o r d e r lin e
d e f i c i e n c y , e s p e c i a l l y under f i e l d c o n d itio n s ( M i l l e r , 1970 and
1979) .

78

Zinc t o x i c i t y i n c a t t l e i s uncommon due t o t h e h igh l e v e l s
n e c e s s a r y t o produce p o i s o n i n g :

a t l e a s t 500 ppm o f z in c i n t h e

d i e t (NRC, 197 8 ).
Zinc

sources-

Zinc oxide i s the most commonly used s o u rc e

o f z i n c f o r t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t s and r a t i o n s
f o r r um in a n ts.

Zinc s u l f a t e and zin c c h l o r i d e a r e a l s o r e a d i l y

a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e s of z in c ( M i l l e r , 1979).
C o b a lt
C ob alt

c o n ten t

fe r tiliz a tio n -

in p l a n t s in r e l a t i o n t o

so il

statu s

and

Both p l a n t s and animals require c o b a l t for t h e ir

normal f u n c t i o n .

The n i t r i f y i n g b a c t e r i a in th e n o d u le s o f

legumes require c o b a l t for adequate nitrogen f i x a t i o n (Kubota and
A llaw ay, 1972).
crops

such

as

fe r tiliz a tio n

There i s a l s o some ev id en ce th at other nonlegume
co tto n

have

(T isd a le e t a l . ,

h ig h er

y ie ld s

1985 ).

a fter

c o b a lt

The "amount o f c o b a l t

required for optim al p l a n t growth i s n e v e r t h e le s s very s m a l l , and
in some areas o f the world the concen tration o f c o b a l t in fo ra ges
i s not s u f f i c i e n t to meet the requirements o f anim als (Hodgson e t
a l.,

1 9 62 ).

In th e U n ite d S t a t e s th e low er A t l a n t i c C o a s t a l

P la i n i s a ge n e ra l region o f e x c e e d in g ly low s o i l c o b a l t .

Some

sandy s o i l s o f g l a c i a t e d r e g i o n s in th e N o r t h e a s t and in the
Great Lakes s t a t e s are a l s o low in c o b a lt .

Forages grown in the

r e g i o n s m en tioned h a ve a c o b a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n to o low t o meet
a n im a l's r e q u ir e m e n ts (Kubota and A l l a w a y , 1972).

Even though

c o b a l t f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s l i k e l y to in crea se c o b a lt conten t o f the
crop s, the use o f c o b a l t f e r t i l i z e r s i s not a common p r a c tic e to
c o r r e c t d e f i c i e n c i e s for anim als (Kubota and A llaw ay, 1972).

79

C obalt

content of forages-

Legumes g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n more

c o b a l t than do g r a s s e s , b u t ev en legumes a r e d e f i c i e n t i n c o b a l t
for g razin g

an im als

i n some a r e a s

N u t r i t i o n Lab. S t a f f , 1965).

(U.S. P l a n t ,

S o il,

a nd

G r a s s e s and a l f a l f a t y p i c a l l y have

a c o b a l t c o n t e n t o f 0.08-0.25 ppm i n t h e d ry m a t t e r , w ith v a l u e s
fo u n d h i g h e r t h a n 0.30 ppm, and i n d e f i c i e n t a r e a s , l o w e r t h a n
0.08 ppm (Church and Pond, 197 4 ).

Corn s i l a g e h a s an a v e r a g e

c o b a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 0.06 ppm, s h e l l e d c o r n 0.04 ppm, and
soybean o i l meal 0.10 ppm (NRC, 1978).
C obalt requirements of d a iry c a t t l e component o f

v itam in

microorganism s.

B12,

which

is

C o b a l t i s an e s s e n t i a l
syn th esized

by ru m e n

The minimum c o b a l t re q u ir e m e n t of d a i r y c a t t l e

i s a b o u t 0.10 ppm (NRC, 1978).
C o b a l t d i f i c i e n c y and t o x i c i t y i n

r u m in a n ts-

G enerally, a

c o b a l t d e f i c i e n c y becomes e v i d e n t o n l y a f t e r a n im als have been on
a d e f i c i e n t d i e t f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e , and t h e n p r o g r e s s e s
s l o w l y a s v i t a m i n B12 s t o r e s i n l i v e r and o t h e r t i s s u e s a r e
depleted.

C a t t l e do n o t s t o r e s i g n i f i c a n t amounts of c o b a l t i n

u s a b l e forms;

t h u s v i t a m i n B12 s y n t h e s i s d e c l i n e s v e ry q u i c k l y

when d i e t a r y c o b a l t i s in ad e q u ate (NRC, 1978).
The most co n sp icu o u s e a r l y f e a t u r e o f a c o b a l t d e f i c i e n c y i s
decreased

a p p etite

and

feed

con su m p tio n

resu ltin g

in

l i s t l e s s n e s s , r e t a r d e d growth or weight l o s s , and d e c r e a s e d m il k
production.

O t h e r symptoms, e s p e c i a l l y w i t h an e x t r e m e and

ex te n d ed d e f i c i e n c y , can i n c l u d e e m a c ia tio n or w a stin g of th e
m u s c u l a t u r e , p a l e n e s s of t h e s k i n and raucous membranes, m usc ular
in c o o rd in a tio n , a stum bling g a i t ,

ro u g h h a i r c o a t ,

and h i g h

80

m o r t a l i t y r a t e among c a l v e s (NRC, 1978).
The p o s s i b i l i t y o f l i v e s t o c k po iso n in g caused by an e x c e s s
of c o b a l t in the n a t u r a l herbage of f e e d s t u f f s
remote (Young,

1979).

is ex trem ely

C a l v e s fed e x c e s s i v e c o b a l t show reduced

a p p e t i t e , l e s s g ro w th , d e c r e a s e d w a ter c o n su m p tio n , rough h a i r
c o a t , l a c k o f m u s c u l a r c o o r d i n a t i o n , i n c r e a s e d h e m o g l o b i n and
packed c e l l volume, and e l e v a t e d l i v e r c o b a l t compared t o c o n t r o l
a n im a l s .
lev el;

Ten ppm i n t h e d ry d i e t i s g e n e r a l l y a cc ep ted as a s a f e
h o w e v e r , t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e t o i n d i c a t e t h a t 20 ppm

would produce any a d v e r s e e f f e c t s (NRC, 1978).
C o b a lt

sou rces-

The c a r b o n a t e ,

c h lo r id e ,

s u l f a t e and

n itr a te

forms o f c o b a l t h ave been proposed a s s a t i s f a c t o r y

d ie ta r y

sou rces

of

th e

m in e ra l.

B ecause o f

its

d e sir a b le

p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , c o b a l t c a r b o n a te i s f r e q u e n t l y th e
c o b a lt source o f c h o ice in the feed industry.

C ob alt p e l l e t s are

u s u a l l y made w it h c o b a l t o x id e and c l a y (Ammerman and M i l l e r ,
1978).
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l ways o f t r e a t i n g o r p r e v e n t i n g c o b a l t
deficien cy

in rum inants.

D renching w ith c o b a l t c h l o r i d e or

s u l f a t e i s e f f e c t i v e f o r a b o u t 3 weeks.

B u l l e t s or p e l l e t s of

c o b a l t i c o x id e g i v e n o r a l l y t h a t lo dg e i n t h e r e t i c u l o - r u m e n a r e
e f f e c t i v e for a t l e a s t 3 years.

T reatm ent of t h e p a s t u r e w ith 1

t o 5 kg o f c o b a l t s u l f a t e p e r h e c t a r e i s e f f e c t i v e f o r a t l e a s t
one y e a r .
be u s e d :
m o st

Subcutaneous i n j e c t i o n of hydroxycobalamine can a l s o
2 mg i n i t i a l l y and t h e n 1 mg p e r month.

common p r a c t i c e

to

prevent

co b alt

By f a r , t h e

deficien cy

is

the

i n c o r p o r a t i o n of c o b a l t i n th e fo rm u la s of t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t s a t

81

a r a t e o f 0.004 t o 0.01% o f t h e s a l t
p r a c tic e is follo w ed

( P u l s , 1981) .

This l a s t

e v e n when t h e r e i s no e v i d e n c e o f c o b a l t

d e f i c i e n c y i n t h e unsupplemented r a t i o n s

(Underwood, 1981).

Selenium
S elen iu m

content

fertilizatio n -

in p la n ts in r e l a t i o n to s o i l s ta tu s

and

Selenium i s a p p a r e n t l y n o t needed by p l a n t s .

But

i t m u st be p r e s e n t i n p l a n t s s i n c e i t i s e s s e n t i a l f o r a n i m a l s .
P l a n t s d i f f e r i n t h e i r uptake of a v a i l a b l e s e le n iu m accord ing to
s p e c i e s , s t a g e o f g r o w t h , and t h e s e a s o n .

C e r t a i n s p e c i e s of

A s t r a g a l u s a b s o r b more se l e n i u m than do o t h e r p l a n t s growing in
the

same

m u sta r d ,

so il.

P lan ts

such as

the

cru cifers

(ca b bage and

f o r example) and onions which r e q u i r e l a r g e amounts of

s u l f u r a b s o r b i n t e r m e d i a t e a m o u nts o f s e l e n i u m .

G r a s s e s and

g r a i n c r o p s a b s o r b l o w - t o - m o d e r a t e amounts o f se l e n i u m ( T is d a l e
e t a l . , 1 9 8 5).

F o r t h e m o st p a r t , s e l e n i u m - a c c u m u l a t o r p l a n t s

a r e n o t ones t h a t a r e p r e f e r r e d by g r a z i n g a n im a l s .

However, the

s e l e n i u m t a k e n by t h e s e p l a n t s and r e t u r n e d t o t h e s o i l in t h e i r
o r g a n i c r e s i d u e s i s much more a v a i l a b l e t o t h e common c r o p and
p a s t u r e p l a n t s th an o t h e r se l e n i u m compounds. T h e r e f o r e , a c y c l e
o f p l a n t s u c c e s s i o n i n which s e v e r a l y e a r s ' growth o f s e l e n i u m a c c u m u la to r p l a n t s i s f o l l o w e d by t h e growing o f fo r ag e g r a s s e s
and c e r e a l s can r e s u l t in t o x i c l e v e l s of s e l e n i u m i n t h e common
f o r a g e s and c e r e a l s
1 9 65 ).

(U.S. P l a n t , S o i l , and N u t r i t i o n Lab. S t a f f ,

Selenium c o n c e n tr a tio n

selenium f e r t i l i z a t i o n .

in

forages

is

responsive

to

S e le n ite s are p re fe rre d to s e le n a te s

b e c a u s e t h e y a r e s l o w e r a c t i n g and t h u s l e s s l i k e l y t o p r o d u c e
e x c e s s i v e l e v e l s of s e l e n i u m in p l a n t s th an t h e r a p i d l y a v a i l a b l e

82

s e l e n a te s (Tisdale e t a l . ,

1985).

Selenium f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s n o t ,

however, a common method t o p r o v i d e se l e n i u m t o a n i m a l s d e f i c i e n t
in the m ineral.
Selenium

content of forages-

The se l e n i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n

f o r a g e s and g r a i n i s d e p e n d e n t on t h e s e l e n i u m l e v e l s i n t h e
so il.

A s u r v e y c a r r i e d o u t i n 1957 showed t h a t f o r a g e s ( m a i n l y

a lfa lfa )

from some

selenium .

areas

in

A pproxim ately

the

U nited

80% o f

the

S tates

are

low

in

sam ples of the a re a

su rro u n d in g t h e G r e a t Lakes c o n t a i n e d l e s s t h a n 0.05 ppm s e le n iu m
(Kubota and A lla w a y ,

1972). In some o t h e r a r e a s in t h e c e n t e r o f

t h e c o u n t r y t h e s e l e n i u m c o n t e n t i n t h e f o r a g e s s a m p l e d was
h i g h e r t h a n 0.1 ppm.

F i n a l l y i n some l o c a l i z e d s p o t s i n S o u t h

Dakota, North Dakota, and Wyoming, s e l e n i u m - a c c u m u l a t o r p l a n t s
were fo u n d w i t h c o n c e n t r a t i o n s h i g h e r t h a n 50 ppm (Kubota and
A llaw ay, 1972).
Selenium
d o c u m e n te d ,

requirements of d a iry c a t t l e the re q u ire m e n t

approxim ately

0.1 ppm,

the

for

selenium

exact

lev el

c h e m i c a l form o f s e l e n i u m and t h e
enhancing f a c t o r s
lip id s,

proteins,

in the d i e t ,
amino

acids,

Although n o t w e l l
by r u m i n a n t s

depending

is

upon t h e

l e v e l s of i n t e r f e r i n g

or

i n c l u d i n g v i t a m i n E, s u l f u r ,
and

several

m icroelem ents

(NRC, 1978) .
Selenium d e f i c i e n c y and t o x i c i t y -

Acute se l e n i u m d e f i c i e n c y

can cause w hite musc le d i s e a s e , d i a r r h e a , muscle s t i f f n e s s ,

and

o c c a s i o n a l l y recumbency, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n p a r t u r i e n t cows ( s i m i l a r
t o m i l k f e v e r s y n d r o m e ).

Sudden d e a t h due t o c a r d i a c f a i l u r e

w i t h no p r i o r s i c k n e s s c a n a l s o be c a u s e d by a c u t e s e l e n i u m

83

deficiency.

M a r g i n a l se l e n i u m d e f i c i e n c y can r e s u l t in r e t a i n e d

p l a c e n t a s , a b o r t i o n s , r e d u c e d f e r t i l i t y , d e c r e a s e d growth r a t e
and d e c r e a s e d immune r e s p o n s e ( P u l s , 1981).
Selenium t o x i c i t y , which o c c u r s under p r a c t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s
in s e v e r a l a re a s of th e w o rld , is o f te n c l a s s i f i e d as a cu te or
c h r o n i c a l k a l i d i s e a s e . The l o w e s t t o x i c l e v e l i s a p p r o x i m a t e ly 3
t o 5 ppm, t h e e x a c t amount d e p e n d i n g upon t h e p r o t e i n , s u l f u r ,
and a r s e n i c l e v e l s

(higher amounts of each reduce the t o x i c i t y )

o f t h e d i e t and on t h e c h e m i c a l form o f s e l e n i u m .

A pparently,

th e n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g o r g a n i c s e l e n i u m of p l a n t s i s much more
t o x i c t h a n t h e i n o r g a n i c form.

The range between the req u irem en t

and t o x i c l e v e l s i s 30 t o 5 0 - f o l d .
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by d u l l n e s s ,
labored

resp iratio n ,

respiratory fa ilu re .

Acute s e le n iu m p o i s o n in g i s

s lig h t atax ia,

diarrhea,

lethargy,

r a p i d weak p u l s e ,
and d e a t h

due t o

Signs o f c h r o n i c se l e n i u m t o x i c i t y ( a l k a l i

d ise ase ) in c lu d e lam eness, lo s s of v i t a l i t y , lo s s of a p p e t i t e ,
em aciation,
neph ritis,

loss

of

sore f e e t,

h air

from t h e

tail,

liv e r

c irrh o sis,

and deformed, c ra cked and e l o n g a t e d hoofs

(NRC, 1978) .
Selenium

sources-

Sodium s e l e n i t e and sodium s e l e n a t e a r e

good s o u r c e s of se l e n i u m f o r rum in ants .

Sin c e 1979, t h e Food and

Drug A d m i n i s t r a t i o n has g r a n t e d a p p r o v a l f o r o r a l s u p p l e m e n ta t io n
t o s h e e p , d a i r y and b e e f c a t t l e
dairy c a t t l e ,

(Ammerman e t a l . ,

198 0). Fo r

s e l e n i u m can be added t o a l e v e l n o t t o exceed 0.1

ppm s e l e n i u m i n t h e com plete r a t i o n (Marckzewski, 1982). The most
u s u a l and c o n v e n i e n t way t o a d m i n i s t e r se l e n i u m t o d a i r y a n im a l s
i s through th e t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t or m i n e r a l mix.

Selenium s a l t s

84

( s e l e n a t e o r s e l e n i t e ) can be i n c l u d e i n t h e t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t
f o r m u l a t i o n a t a r a t e o f 25 t o 75 ppm o f s e l e n i u m and f e d f r e e
c h o ic e or 40 g per day p e r mature cow ( P u l s , 1981).
O ccasionally,

selenium

in jectio n s

a n im a l s under c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s .

are

recommended f o r

Newborn c a l v e s may r e c e i v e a

s i n g l e i n j e c t i o n o f 5 mg o f s e l e n i u m f o r t h e p r e v e n t i o n o f white
musc le d i s e a s e .

Cows may be i n j e c t e d with a commercial p r o d u c t

t h r e e weeks p r e p a r tu m , and a g a i n a f t e r c a l v i n g .
may be g i v e n ev en when the d i e t

These i n j e c t i o n s

c o n t a i n s t h e recommended amounts

o f added s e l e n i u m (Marckzewski, 1982).
Iodine
Iodine

content

fertilizatio n -

in

p la n ts in r e l a t i o n to s o i l

status

and

I o d i n e i s r e q u i r e d by a n im a l s b u t not by p l a n t s .

Even so, p l a n t s w i l l acc um u late a p p r e c i a b l e amounts of i o d i n e in
t h e i r t i s s u e s i f i t i s p r e s e n t i n an a v a i l a b l e form i n t h e s o i l ,
and io d in e from p l a n t s i s one o f t h e i m p o r t a n t s o u r c e s o f io d in e
in anim al r a t i o n s .

P l a n t s low i n i o d i n e a r e m o st o f t e n fou nd

growing on g e o l o g i c a l l y young s o i l s and i n a r e a s o f low r a i n f a l l .
I t appears t h a t the c y c le of io d in e

in n a tu r e

in v o lv es

the

v a p o r i z a t i o n o f i o d i n e compounds from t h e s e a , t h e i r t r a n s p o r t
i n l a n d by w i n d , and t h e i r d e p o s i t i o n on l a n d by r a i n f a l l

(U.S.

P l a n t , S o i l , and N u t r i t i o n Lab. S t a f f , 1965).
Iodine
extrem ely

content
v ariab le,

in
and

feedsit

Iodine c o n te n t in forag es is

d e p e n d s n o t o n l y on t h e

iodine

c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e s o i l b u t a l s o on t h e p l a n t s p e c i e s and
se ason of t h e y e ar (Underwood, 1981).

A l f a l f a hay samples had an

a v e r a g e i o d i n e c o n t e n t o f 0.82 ppm and c o r n s i l a g e 0.52 ppm i n

85

Illin o is.
average

Hay and c o r n s i l a g e s a m p l e s from M a r y l a n d had an

iro d in e c o n te n t of

(Hemken e t a l . , 197 2).
se a a r e r i c h

1.87 and 1.64 ppm,

resp ectiv ely

A l l e d i b l e m a t e r i a l s o b t a i n e d from t h e

i n i o d i n e , compared with s i m i l a r m a t e r i a l s o b t a i n e d

from f r e s h water or from t h e l a n d .

The e d i b l e f l e s h of s e a - f i s h

and s h e l l - f i s h may c o n t a i n 0.3 t o 3.0 ppm i o d i n e on a f r e s h
b a s i s , compa red w i t h 0.02 t o 0.04 ppm f o r f r e s h w a t e r - f i s h and
with i n t e r m e d i a t e v a l u e s f o r f i s h which spend p a r t o f t h e i r l i f e
i n t h e s e a and p a r t i n f r e s h w a t e r (Underwood, 1981).

P astures,

and c r o p s i n g e n e r a l , grown a t h i g h a l t i t u d e s t e n d t o be low i n
iod in e,

and en d em ic g o i t e r h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d i n t h o s e a r e a s

(Kubota and A lla w a y , 1972).
Iodine

r e q u i r e m e n ts

of

dairy

cattle -

The i o d i n e

req u ire m e n t o f l a c t a t i n g cows and dry p r e g n a n t cows i s 0.50 ppm,
and i s 0.25 ppm f o r b u l l s ,

h e i f e r s and c a l v e s .

I f the d i e t

c o n t a i n s a s much a s 25% o f s t r o n g l y g o i t r o g e n i c f e e d on a d r y
basis,

i o d i n e p r o v i d e d s h o u l d be i n c r e a s e d by two times or more

(NRC, 1978).
Iodine

deficiency

and

d e fic ie n c y in d a iry c a t t l e
stillb irth ,

toxicity
resu lts

a b o r t i o n s and h a i r l e s s

in

ru m in a n ts-

Io d in e

in re p r o d u c tiv e f a i l u r e ,
o r weak young.

Another

symptom i s su p p r e s s e d e s t r u s w i t h r e s u l t a n t i n f e r t i l i t y
1981).

(Puls,

One o f f i r s t symptoms o b s e r v e d i s an e n l a r g e m e n t o f t h e

t h y r o i d g l a n d s ( g o i t e r ) i n s l a u g h t e r e d c a t t l e or newborn c a l v e s
(NRC, 1978).
I o d i n e d e f i c i e n c y c a n be c a u s e d n o t o n l y by low i o d i n e
co ntent

in

the

d iet,

but

also

by c h e m i c a l s

in

feeds

that

86

likely to occur (Miller, 1974).

G enerally

the

p e r c e n t a g e o f magnesium a b s o r b e d

m a t e r i a l l y a f f e c t e d by t h e amount consumed.

is

not

L ik ew ise, magnesium

c o n t e n t o f t i s s u e s i s n o t e l e v a t e d with e x ce ss i n t a k e .

Rather,

h o m e o s t a s i s i s m a i n t a i n e d by t h e e x c r e t i o n o f e x c e s s magnesium
v ia urine.

More t h a n a t r a c e o f magnesium i n u r i n e i n d i c a t e s

a d e q u a t e magnesium t o m e e t t h e a n i m a l ' s n e e d s .
urine

magnesium

in d icates

eith er

V e r y low u r i n e

a d eficien cy

or

a b arely

a d eq u a te i n t a k e ( M i l l e r , 1974).
A n a l y s i s o f f o r a g e f o r magnesium, n i t r o g e n and p o tas siu m can
a id in d ia g n o s in g th e l i k e l i h o o d of a g r a s s te ta n y problem ;
however,

these

are

far

less

reliab le

than u rin e

and se ru m

magnesium a n a l y s e s ( M i l l e r , 1974).
Sodium, P o ta ssium and C h l o r in e
Normal c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n b lood serum a r e around 300 mg/100
ml f o r s o d i u m , 14 t o 18 mg/100 ml f o r p o t a s s i u m , and a r o u n d 360
mg/100 ml f o r c h l o r i n e (Ch u rch, 197 6).

Serum c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f

t h e s e t h r e e e l e m e n t s i s n o t a good i n d i c a t o r o f t h e a d e q u a c y o f
t h e d i e t or t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s o f t h e an im al ( M i l l e r , 1974).
I n humans, se ru m sodium i s p a t h o l o g i c a l l y
d e h y d ra tio n ,

sod iu m

in to x ic a tio n ,

increased

in

ad re n o co rtica l

h y p erfunctioning, c o r tic o s te r o id therapy, b rain in ju ry , b rain
hemorrhage and e n c e p h a l i t i s .

I t i s d e c r e a s e d by s e v e r e sw eating

w i t h o u t a d e q u a t e sodium i n t a k e ,

by l o s s o f d i g e s t i v e

ju ices

(through d i a r r h e a or v o m it i n g ) , and because of b u r n s , e xpansion
of the e x t r a c e l l u l a r
pneum onia,

severe

flu id

renal

due t o w a te r

tu b u lar

in ju ry ,

in to x ic atio n

or

ad ren o co rtical

87

i n t e r f e r e w i t h i o d i n e a b s o r p t i o n by t h e a n i m a l .

C ru ciferous

p l a n t s c o n t a i n v a r i a b l e amounts o f g o i t r o g e n s o f t h e g o i t r i n type
which i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e p r o c e s s o f hormonogenesis in th e t h y r o i d
gland.

Many p a s t u r e p l a n t s , such a s c l o v e r , c o n t a i n cyano g e n etic

g l y c o s i d e s t h a t a r e g o i t r o g e n i c (Underwood, 1981).

Soybean o i l

meal i s m i l d l y g o i t r o g e n i c (Hemken, 1970).
I o d i n e p o i s o n i n g c a n r e s u l t from e x c e s s i v e i o d i n e i n t a k e ,
e s p e c i a l l y from medicated f e e d s .
(EDDI)

is

E th y len ed iam in e d ih y d rio d id e

s o m e t i m e s add ed t o t h e r a t i o n

in excess of io d in e

d i e t a r y r e q u i r e m e n t s t o p r e v e n t f o o t r o t and s o f t t i s s u e lumpy
jaw,

and a s an e x p e c t o r a n t i n t r e a t m e n t o f m i l d r e s p i r a t o r y

in fectio n s.

Signs of

iodine

to x icity

include

lacrim ation,

c o r y z a , c o n j u n c t i v i t i s , c o u g h i n g , h a i r l o s s , and e x o p h t h a l m u s
( H i l l m a n and C u r t i s , 1980).

O t h e r symptoms o b s e r v e d i n c a l v e s

a r e b r o n c h o p n e u m o n i a and squamous m e t a p l a s i a o f t h e t r a c h e a l
epithelium .

The t h y r o i d s o f t h e a n im a ls s u f f e r i n g from t o x i c i t y

had l a r g e f o l l i c l e s , a f l a t e p i t h e l i u m , and l a r g e amou nt s o f
co llo id

(Mangkoewidjojo e t a l . , 1980).

Iod ine

sources-

Sodium and p o ta s siu m

io d id e

are w e l l

u t i l i z e d a s s o u r c e s o f o f i o d i n e but l a c k p h y s i c a l s t a b i l i t y .
C alciu m i o d a t e , d i i o d o d it h y m o l and pentacalcium orthoperiodate
are l e s s water s o l u b l e , have greater p h y sic a l s t a b i l i t y and are
sim ila r

t o so d iu m and p o t a s s i u m

io d id e

in a v a i l a b i l i t y .

D i i o d o s a l i c y l i c a c id i s r e a d i l y absorb ed by rum inants but i s
excreted with l i t t l e r e l e a s e of iodine from the c y c l i c str u c tu r e.
I n j e c t a b l e forms o f io d ize d o i l s have been e f f e c t i v e in supplying
s u p p le m e n t a l

io d in e

to

sh ee p

(Ammerman and M i l l e r ,

1978).

88

E t h y l e n e d i a m i n e d i h y d r i o d i d e can a l s o be u s e d a s a s o u r c e o f
io d i n e

( M i l l e r and Swanson, 1973).

T rac e m i n e r a l s a l t s u s u a l l y

c o n t a i n 0.007 t o 0.01% i o d i n e (NRC, 1978).
P lan t A n aly sis
Plant

analysis

for

soil

fertility

evaluation-

Plant

a n a l y s e s a r e b a s e d on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t t h e amount o f a g i v e n
elem ent

in

p articu lar

a plan t

is

an i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e s u p p l y o f

n u t r i e n t and a s s u c h

is d i r e c tl y

q u a n t i t y of the n u t r i e n t in the s o i l .
elem ent w i l l

lim it

the p l a n t 's

related

th at

to the

S i n c e a s h o r t a g e o f an

growth,

other

e l e m e n t s may

a c c u m u l a t e i n t h e c e l l s a p and show h i g h t e s t s , r e g a r d l e s s o f
supply.

F o r e x a m p l e , i f c o r n i s low i n n i t r a t e , t h e p h o s p h o r u s

t e s t may show h i g h .
adequate

nitrogen

T h i s i s no i n d i c a t i o n , h o w e v e r , t h a t i f
were s u p p l i e d

p h o s p h o r u s w o u ld be a d e q u a t e
analysis
fertility .

provides

some u n i q u e

to

th e corn

(T isdale e t a l . ,
advantages

to

the

supply

1975).
evaluate

of

P lant
so il

The n u t r i e n t c o n t e n t o f t h e p l a n t i s a r e f l e c t i o n of

the s o i l ' s a v a i l a b l e n u t r ie n t s t a t u s :

the p l a n t 's a b i l i t y to

ab so r b a n u t r i e n t i n t h e e s t a b l i s h e d environm ent i s r e f l e c t e d by
the p l a n t n u t r i e n t c o n c e n t r a t i o n a t any one time.

By comparison,

a s o i l t e s t does n o t always p r o v i d e a measure of t h e s o i l - p l a n t
in te rac tio n .

On

the

other

hand,

so il

tests

for

some

m i c r o n u t r i e n t s a re e i t h e r n o n e x i s t e n t or no t w i d e l y adap ted for
u n i v e r s a l use
Sampling-

(Jones,

1972).

As a g e n e ra l p r i n c i p l e for any type of sampling,

sa m p le s for p l a n t a n a l y s i s s h o u ld be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f th e
p op u la tio n of p la n t s in the f i e l d under study.

There are s e v e r a l

89

c riteria

t o m eet i n o r d e r t o i n t e r p r e t t h e r e s u l t s o f p l a n t

analyses.

P l a n t a n a l y s i s l a b o r a t o r i e s p r o v i d e i n s t r u c t i o n s on

t h e p l a n t p a r t t o s e l e c t , number o f p a r t s t o c o l l e c t , number o f
p lan ts

to

sam ple,

and t im e o f s a m p l i n g

(Jones,

1 9 72 ).

The

C o o p e r a t iv e E x te n s io n S e r v i c e of M ichigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
p r o v i d e s g u i d e s on t h e p a r t o f t h e p l a n t t o s a m p l e ,
sam pling,

tim e of

and t h e a c c e p t a b l e o r s u f f i c i e n c y n u t r i e n t r a n g e s

r e q u i r e d fo r high p r o d u c tio n of s e v e r a l c ro p s (V ito sh e t a l . ,
1981).
Dust

or

so il

co n tam in atio n

can

change

the

m in eral

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e , e s p e c i a l l y i t s i r o n and m an ga nese
content.

When t h e p a r t s o f t h e p l a n t s a m p l e h a v e b e en c l o s e t o

t h e ground and t h e r e i s s o i l c o n t a m i n a ti o n , o r when t h e r e i s too
much d u s t on t h e l e a v e s , washing of the sa m ple s may be n e c e s s a r y .
There i s no g e n e r a l agreement on which washing p r o c e d u r e s h o u l d
be used.

Some l a b o r a t o r i e s recommend such means as h y d r o c h l o r i c

a c i d s o l u t i o n s , d e t e r g e n t s , EDTA, wiping o f smooth l e a v e s with a
damp c l o t h ,

or com binations of

th e s e methods.

When a c i d s ,

d e t e r g e n t s o r o t h e r s o l u t i o n s a r e u se d t o wash t h e s a m p l e s ,
r i n s i n g w i t h d i s t i l l e d o r d e i o n i z e d w a t e r m u st f o l l o w ( J o n e s ,
197 2).

I n c o n t r a s t , when f o r a g e s a r e a n a l y z e d t o a s s e s s t h e

n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s of a n im a l s s o i l or d u s t c o n ta m i n a ti o n sh o u l d
n o t be removed i n o r d e r t o p r o v i d e a b e t t e r

id e a of what th e

an im al i s consuming.
D ry in g ,

g r i n d i n g and a s h i n g -

p r e f e r a b l y i n a f o r c e d a i r oven.
drying a re p r e fe rre d

Fresh sa m ple s s h o u l d be d r i e d

R e l a t i v e l y low t e m p e r a t u r e s f o r

(45 t o 60° C) t o a v o i d v o l a t i l i z a t i o n o f

90

o r g a n i c compounds.
cu ttin g

faces

S tain less

in m i l l s

used

p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o n ta m i n a ti o n .

steel

s c r e e n s and t o o l

steel

to g rin d sam ples red u ce the

The mesh s i z e o f th e s i e v e chosen

i s u s u a l l y 1 mm, which a c h i e v e s good homogenization of t h e sample
( J o n e s , 1972; F i c k e t a l . , 197 9).
The a s h i n g p ro c e d u r e of th e sample i s chosen in view of t h e
m ineral

t o be a n a l y z e d .

Dry a s h i n g

is

necessary for

boron

a n a l y s i s s i n c e t h i s e l e m e n t i s v o l a t i l i z e d d u r i n g wet a s h i n g
( J o n e s , 1972 ).

Wet a s h i n g i s u s e d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f e l e m e n t s

t h a t a r e v o l a t i l e a t h ig h te m p e r a t u r e s such as s e le n iu m .

Dry

a s h i n g p r o v i d e s good p r e c i s i o n and i s an e a s y , r a p i d d i g e s t i o n
m eth od r e q u i r i n g

m inim al a n a l y s t a t t e n t i o n .

b e n e f i t i s t h a t t h i s method i s r e l a t i v e l y
co n tam ination.

An a d d i t i o n a l

f r e e from r e a g e n t

V a r i o u s d i g e s t i o n r e a g e n t s a r e u s e d f o r wet

ashing in clu d in g n i t r i c ,

p erchloric, s u lfu ric ,

h y d r o f l u o r i c and

h y d r o c h l o r i c a c i d s , and hydrogen p e ro x i d e .

The main a d v a n t a g e of

th is

ele m e n tal

m ethod

is

v o latiliza tio n
tem perature.

th at
because

elim in ates

the

d ig estio n

takes

place

lo ss

by

a t a low

I t s m ain d i s a d v a n t a g e s a r e t h a t i t i s s u b j e c t t o

rea g en t contamination,
atten tio n

it

i s t e d i o u s and r e q u i r e s c a r e f u l o p e r a t o r

( P e r k i n , 1 982).

S p e c i a l c a r e s h o u l d be t a k e n when

p e r c h l o r i c a c i d i s used i n t h e r e a c t i o n m i x t u r e , s i n c e t h i s a c i d
forms e x p l o s i v e m ix t u r e s w ith o r g a n i c m a t t e r .

I n t h i s c a s e the

s a m p l e s h o u l d be p r e d i g e s t e d f i r s t w i t h o t h e r a c i d s u n t i l t h e
organic m atter is oxidized com pletely.
A nalytical
av aila b le

techniques-

S ev eral a n a l y t i c a l techniques are

for m in eral a n a ly s is .

The d i f f e r e n t m e t h o d s t a k e

91

a d v a n t a g e o f t h e p h y s i c a l and c h e m i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
elem ent or e lem en ts an aly zed .

In s e v e r a l l a b o r a t o r i e s atom ic

a b s o r p t i o n and e m i s s i o n t e c h n i q u e s a r e t h e method o f c h o i c e
(U llrey,

1977).

Several

e l e m e n t s c a n be a n a l y z e d w i t h t h e

p r e p a r a t i o n by

atomic a b s o r p t i o n . The method i s

and

to

sen sitiv e

low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

e le m e n t s such a s ph o sphorus, s u l f u r ,
d iffic u lt

to

measure

(Perkin,

same s a m p l e

fast,

accurate

1 976).

Some

n i t r o g e n , and s e l e n i u m a r e

by a t o m i c a b s o r p t i o n . P h o s p h o r u s

commonly a n a l y z e d by c o l o r i m e t r i c p r o c e d u r e s (Fick e t a l . ,

is

1978).

N i t r o g e n i s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e K j e l d h a l p r o c e d u r e , and s e l e n i u m
c a n be a n a l y z e d f l u o r i m e t r i c a l l y

( W h e t te r and U l l r e y , 1978) .

S u l f u r can be a n a l y z e d i n d i r e c t l y th rough atomic a b s o r p t i o n , by
m easu rin g barium a f t e r th e p r e c i p i t a t i o n o f th e s u l f a t e s w ith
barium c h l o r i d e
Several

(P e rkin , 1982).

elem ents

can

be d e t e r m i n e d

a t o n c e by p l a s m a

e m iss io n s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y , i n d u c t i v e l y c o u p le d plas ma d i s c h a r g e
( B a r n e s , 1 9 7 9 ) , and n e u t r o n a c t i v a t i o n (Ehmann and J a n g h o r b a n i ,
19 79).

These

methods

are

fast

and s e n s i t i v e .

T heir

d i s a d v a n t a g e i s t h e h ig h c o s t o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t s a c q u i r e d .

main

92

Blood M i n e r a l s and D e f i c i e n c i e s D ia g n o sis
C l i n i c a l and p a t h o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s o f t h e a n i m a l a r e
e s s e n tia l d iag n o stic to o ls for a l l

m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s and

t o x i c i t i e s , a l t h o u g h t h e i r v a l u e v a r i e s w i t h t h e e l e m e n t and with
the s e v e r i t y of the d e fic ie n c y or t o x i c i t y in q u e s tio n .

M ild

m in e ral d e f i c ie n c i e s or ex ce sse s a re e s p e c i a l l y d i f f i c u l t to
i d e n t i f y b e c a u s e t h e i r e f f e c t s on t h e a n i m a l a r e f r e q u e n t l y
i n d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e from t h o s e r e s u l t i n g fr o m s e m i s t a r v a t i o n o r
underfeeding,

from p r o t e i n

p a rasitism .

A d ep re ssio n

d eficien cy
in

or

from

ap p etite ,

w ith

in te stin a l
resu ltin g

u n d e r n u t r i t i o n , i s a common symptom o f a l l m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s ,
as

it

is

w ith d e f i c i e n c i e s

of o th er

esse n tia l

n u trien ts

(Underwood, 1981).
When t a k e n i n c o n j u n c t i o n w i t h c l i n i c a l and p a t h o l o g i c a l
o b s e r v a t i o n s , a p p r o p r i a t e c h em ic al a n a l y s i s and b i o l o g i c a l a s s a y s
o f t i s s u e s and f l u i d s of a n i m a l s a r e v a l u a b l e a i d s i n t h e e a r l y
d e t e c t i o n of m i n e r a l a b n o r m a l i t i e s i n l i v e s t o c k .
v alu ab le

in

d istin g u ish in g

b e tw e e n

various

They a r e a l s o
functional

and

s t r u c t u r a l d i s o r d e r s of m i n e r a l o r i g i n , t h e c a u s e s o f which a r e
d i f f i c u l t t o i d e n t i f y on t h e b a s i s o f c l i n i c a l e v i d e n c e a l o n e .
The d i a g n o s t i c s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s u c h b i o c h e m i c a l d a t a a r i s e s
p r i m a r i l y from t h e f a c t t h a t a d i e t a r y d e f i c i e n c y o f a m i n e r a l i s
sooner or l a t e r r e f l e c t e d in subnorm al c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of the
m i n e r a l in c e r t a i n t i s s u e s and f l u i d s (Underwood, 1981).
The ch oice o f t i s s u e or f l u i d for a n a l y s is v a r ie s with the
mineral under i n v e s t i g a t io n .
o b v io u s

a d v a n ta g e s

b e c a u se

B lood, u rin e , s a l i v a and hair have
of

th e ir

a c c e ssib ility

w ith o u t

93

s a c r i f i c e o f th e a n im a l.
d iffic u ltie s ,

a lt h o u g h

Body t i s s u e sa m p lin g p r e s e n t s more
s im p le

techniques are now a v a i l a b l e .

liv e r

and

ta il

bone

b io p s y

Whole b lood , blood serum or plasma

i s more employed for s t u d ie s in m ineral n u t r it io n than any other
t i s s u e or f l u i d o f th e body b e c a u se i t i n v a r i a b l y r e f l e c t s , in
some asp ect o f i t s com position, the mineral s t a t u s o f the animal,
and can be obtained e a s i l y and and fr e q u e n tly without harm to or
d e a th o f th e a n im a l.

I t can a l s o be r e a d i l y t r a n s p o r t e d and

s t o r e d fo r su b s e q u e n t a t t e n t i o n .

The normal v a l u e s or normal

range o f c o n c e n t r a t i o n s in th e b lo o d o f h e a l t h y farm a n im a ls
c o n s u m in g

sa tisfa c to r y

d ie ts

are

known f o r

m o st o f

th e

n u t r i t i o n a l l y important m in e ra ls, making p o s s i b l e comparison with
v a l u e s found in th e b lo o d o f d o m e s tic l i v e s t o c k under stu d y
(Underwood, 1981).
The m i n e r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n b lood i s ,
high i n d i v i d u a l
mechanisms.
other

anim al

however, s u b j e c t t o

v a r i a t i o n and t o t h e c o n t r o l o f h o m e o s t a t i c

I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e m i n e r a l c o n t e n t i n f o r a g e s and
feeds,

which

vary

to

a great

e x ten t,

tissu e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f f u n c t i o n a l forms o f e s s e n t i a l t r a c e e le m e n t s i s
u s u a l l y m a in ta in e d w i t h i n narrow l i m i t s ( M i l l e r , 1975).
E x p e r i m e n t a l l y , some m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s can be r e l a t i v e l y
easy to i d e n t i f y .

How ev er, u n d e r f i e l d c o n d i t i o n s , d i a g n o s i n g

e v e n a c u t e d e f i c i e n c i e s i s f r e q u e n t l y n o t e a s y , and b o r d e r l i n e
d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e f a r more d i f f i c u l t t o d e t e c t .
a f f e c t so many a n i m a l s ,

Because th ey

b o r d e r l i n e d e f i c i e n c i e s a r e o f much

g r e a t e r importance ( M i l l e r , 1974).
To diagnose n u t r i t i o n a l mineral problems, a l l the a v a i l a b l e

94

i n f o r m a t i o n s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d .

T h is

in clu d es

anim al

perf o rm ance, feed i n t a k e , c l i n i c a l and p a t h o l o g i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s ,
s o i l a n a l y s i s , f o r a g e and f e e d a n a l y s i s , and t i s s u e a n a l y s i s .
Even t h e n , d i a g n o s i s i s o f t e n d i f f i c u l t ( M i l l e r , 1974).
Calcium and Phosphorus
C a l c i u m and p h o s p h o r u s c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n b l o o d and i n t h e
a n im a l's m etab o lism

is

c o n tro lle d

by t h e

in te rac tio n

of

p a r a t h y r o i d hormone and c a l c i t o n i n w ith t h e a c t i v e m e t a b o l i t e of
v i t a m i n D3, 1 , 2 5 - d i h y d r o x y c h o l e c a l c i f e r o l (Underwood, 1981).

The

h o m e o s ta ti c or p h y s i o l o g i c a l mechanisms r e g u l a t i n g serum c a l c i u m
a r e more e f f e c t i v e

than those

m inerals

1974).

(M iller,

f o r p h o s p h o r u s o r m o st o t h e r

When t h e r e

is

a failu re

of

the

h o m e o s ta ti c mechanism, such as i n m il k f e v e r , serum c a l c i u m g e t s
v e r y low.

Normal serum c a l c i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s about 10 mg/100

m l , w i t h a r a n g e o f 9 t o 12 mg/100 ml (C hu rch , 1 976).

When a cow

i s a f f e c t e d by m i l k f e v e r , se ru m c a l c i u m l e v e l s d r o p t o 3 t o 7
mg/100 m l, t h e a v e r a g e being 5 mg/100 m l.

Signs u s u a l l y appear

when t h e serum c a l c i u m f a l l s t o 7 mg/100 ml o r l o w e r (Merck,
1979).
Normal phospho rus b lood serum c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n a d u l t c a t t l e
i s 4 t o 6 mg/100 m l , and somewhat h i g h e r , 6 -8 mg/100 m l , i n v e r y
young a n im a l s

(Underwood, 1981).

According t o Underwood (1981),

t h e f i r s t known r e s p o n se t o a d i e t a r y d e f i c i e n c y of phosphorus i s
a f a l l i n t h e i n o r g a n i c ph osphate l e v e l o f t h e blood plasma and a
w ith d r aw a l of c a l c i u m and phosphorus from r e s e r v e s i n t h e bones.
Accompanying t h i s d e c l i n e i s a r i s e i n pl asma ph o sp h a tas e and a
s m a l l r i s e i n se rum c a l c i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s , t o 13 o r 14 mg/100

95

ml.

A f t e r a few weeks o r months on a p h o s p h o r u s - d e f i c i e n t d i e t ,

the con cen tratio n s f a l l

t o 2-3 mg/100 m l,

and c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of

1-2 mg/100 ml have been r e c o r d e d i n m i l k i n g cows s u f f e r i n g from
severe deficiency

(Underwood, 1981).

C a l c i u m and p h o s p h o r u s d e f i c i e n c i e s c a n be d i a g n o s e d by
b l o o d a n a l y s i s co m b in ed w i t h f e e d a n a l y s i s and o b s e r v a t i o n o f
c lin ical

and p a t h o l o g i c a l

signs.

A d e fic ie n c y of calcium ,

phosphorus, o r v i t a m i n D can r e s u l t i n bone d e m i n e r a l i z a t i o n , and
t h u s i n a d e c r e a s e o f a s h i n t h e bon e.

I f bones a re a v a i l a b l e

f o r a n a l y s i s , t h e r e f o r e , bone ash v a l u e s can a l s o be used t o h e l p
d iag n o s e d e f i c i e n c i e s

( M i l l e r , 1974).

Magnesium
The n o r m a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f magnesium i n b l o o d se rum o f
c attle

is

around

1.8 t o

3.0 mg/100 ml

(Church,

1 976).

Low

c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f magnesium i n p a s t u r e s r e s u l t s i n a d e c l i n e o f
serum magnesium.
potassium

and

T h i s may a l s o be w o r s e n e d by h i g h l e v e l s o f
n itro g en

in

the

p astu re,

a b s o r p t i o n from t h e g u t i s th en impaired.

b e c a u s e magnesium

T h is c o n d i t i o n i s more

l i k e l y t o occur a t t h e b egin ning o f s p r i n g when th e p a s t u r e s a r e
growing r a p i d l y .
drops.

As hypomagnesemia d e v e l o p s , t h e serum magnesium

U s u a l l y when t h e se rum magnesium i s b e l o w 1.0 o r 1.5

mg/100 m l , c l i n i c a l symptoms o f magnesium t e t a n y a r e o b s e r v e d
(Merck, 1979 ).

S u b n o r m a l se rum c a l c i u m (5 t o 8 mg/100 ml) i s

u s u a l l y a l s o c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f magnesium t e t a n y (Merck, 1979).
Serum magnesium a n a l y s i s i s one o f b e s t i n d i c a t o r s o f the
magnesium s t a t u s o f c a t t l e .

Low serum magnesium in a s u b s t a n t ia l

p r o p o r t io n o f th e a n im a ls s u g g e s t s t h a t a t e t a n y o u tb re a k i s

96

insufficiency
agents,

(Addison's d i s e a s e ) ,

m ed icatio n with d i u r e t i c

and d i a b e t i c k e t o s i s (Geigy, 1975).

The se ru m c h l o r i d e

lev el

i n humans

increased a f t e r p r o tr a c te d dehydration,
a cid o sis

(L ightw ood and A l b r i g h t

a lk a lo sis,

after

co rtico stero id s.

head

in ju ries

is

p a th o lo g ically

i n r e n a l h y p e rc h l o r e m ic

ty p es),

in

resp irato ry

and d u rin g tr e a tm e n t w ith

I t i s d e c r e a s e d by s e v e r e s w e a t i n g w i t h o u t

ad eq u a te c h l o r i n e i n t a k e , by l o s s o f d i g e s t i v e j u i c e s ( e s p e c i a l l y
g a stric ju ice),
flu id ,

by b u r n s ,

by e x p a n s i o n o f t h e e x t r a c e l l u l a r

by i n i n j u r y t o t h e r e n a l t u b u l e s ,

in su fficien cy ,

in a d re n o c o r tic a l

because of m ed ica tio n w ith c e r t a i n

d iu retic

a g e n t s , i n r e s p i r a t o r y a c i d o s i s and o c c a s i o n a l l y i n d i a b e t i c
k e t o s i s accompanied by d i u r e s i s
The se rum p o t a s s i u m
.in cre ased

by r a p i d

h em olysis,

(Geigy,

lev el

1975).

i n humans i s p a t h o l o g i c a l l y

in fu s io n of potassium s a l t s ,

by a c u t e

tissu e

breakdow n,

in

in m assive

ad ren o co rtical

i n s u f f i c i e n c y , by r e n a l f a i l u r e accompanied by o l i g u r i a or a n u r i a
and

by u n t r e a t e d

d iab e tic

k eto sis.

It

is p a th o lo g ic a lly

d e c r e a s e d by in a d e q u a t e potassium i n t a k e or a b s o r p t i o n ,

by l o s s

o f d i g e s t i v e j u i c e s , i n a d r e n o c o r t i c a l h y p e r f u n c i o n i n g due t o
hyperaldosteronism
therapy),

(C ushing's syn d ro m e),

or

co rtico ste ro id

by kidney d i s e a s e accompanied by p o l y u r i a ,

because of

m e d i c a t i o n w i t h d i u r e t i c a g e n t s , by r e n a l t u b u l a r a c i d o s i s , by
F a n c o n i's

sy n d r o m e ,

and by d i a b e t i c

k e to sis

during

in su lin

t r e a t m e n t (Geigy, 1975) .
Changes o f sodium, c h l o r i d e and po tas siu m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n
r um in ants due t o p a t h o l o g i c a l metab olism a r e no t w e l l documented.

97

I t i s exp ected , n e v e r t h e l e s s , th a t th ese changes would be s im ila r
to those observed in humans.
Serum sodium, p o ta s s iu m and c h l o r i d e a r e no t good i n d i c a t o r s
o f t h e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s o f r u m in a nts.

The a n a l y s e s of s a l i v a

and fee d f o r sodium and p o tas siu m l e v e l s a r e more u s e f u l measures
o f t h e s t a t u s o f t h e s e two m i n e r a l s

in c a t t l e .

Due t o wide

v a r i a t i o n s , h a i r , u r i n e and f e c a l sodium h ave low r e l i a b i l i t y as
a d i a g n o s t i c measure ( M i l l e r , 1974).
Iron
Normal

iron c o n c e n tra tio n

ug/100 ml (Church, 1976).

i n b l o o d se rum i s a r o u n d 150

I r o n o c c u r s i n b l o o d a s hemoglobin i n

t h e e r y t h r o c y t e s and a s t r a n s f e r r i n i n t h e p l a s m a i n a r a t i o o f
n e a r l y 1000:1.

The l e v e l s of hemoglobin in t h e b lo o d v a ry w ith

n u t r i t i o n a l l e v e l , pregancy and l a c t a t i o n s t a t u s , a l t i t u d e ,
h e alth

of th e anim al

(Underwood,

and

1977). For e x a m p le , th e

h e m a t o c r i t v a l u e of sh eep kept i n a h y p o b a ri c chamber f o r 32 days
a t 348 mm Hg o f p r e s s u r e ( e q u i v a l e n t t o 6200 m of a l t i t u d e ) , rose
t o 37.3 c om pared w i t h t h e m e a s u r e d v a l u e o f 27.1 f o r c o n t r o l
a n i m a l s k e p t a t a p r e s s u r e o f 6 2 0 -64 0 mm Hg ( P h i l l i p s ,

1969).

Serum i r o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n in s t e e r s m a i n t a i n e d a t an a l t i t u d e of
around 3000 m was 1123 ug/100 ml (Wilson, 1975).
Blood a n a l y s i s i s n o t a good i n d i c a t o r of t h e i r o n s t a t u s of
anim als,

e s p e c i a l l y f o r ru m in ants which a r e u n l i k e l y to s u f f e r

from s e v e r e i r o n d e f i c i e n c y .

C a l v e s fed e x c l u s i v e l y on m i l k f o r

s e v e r a l weeks may d e v e l o p i r o n d e f i c i e n c y a n em ia (NRC, 1978).
N evertheless,
sen sitiv e

low h e m o g l o b i n and h e m a t o c r i t v a l u e s a r e n o t

i n d ic a to r s of the e a r l y

sta g e s of iro n d e fic ie n c y

98

because

they

d ep leted .

do n o t

T heir

occur

use

u n til

storage

is m ainly

lim ite d

c o n f i r m a t i o n of a c u te i r o n d e f i c i e n c y

iron

is

sev erely

to d ia g n o s is

(M iller,

1974).

and

Analysis

o f t h e d i e t may be o f v a l u e i n d i a g n o s in g i r o n d e f i c i e n c y b e fo r e
c l i n i c a l symptoms ap p ear.
Zinc
The normal o r adeq uate serum z in c l e v e l i n c a t t l e i s 70 t o
140 ug/100 m l, t h e d e f i c i e n t l e v e l i s 20 t o 40 ug/100 m l, t h e low
b o r d e r l i n e l e v e l i s 50 t o 60 u g / 1 0 0 m l , and t h e t o x i c l e v e l i s
520 t o 7500 u g / 1 0 0 ml ( P u l s ,

1 981).

Plasm a zin c

is quickly

reduced in an im als fed a s e v e r e l y d e f i c i e n t d i e t .

How ever,

i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b i l i t y o f plasma z in c l e v e l s i s h igh compared to
d i f f e r e n c e s c a u s e d by a m a r g i n a l d e f i c i e n c y ,
factors

and d i s e a s e s

affect

these

lev els,

and many o t h e r
so a b o r d e r l i n e

d e f i c i e n c y h a s much l e s s e f f e c t on t h e l e v e l s o f p l a s m a z i n c
(M iller,

1974).

S ince
nonspecific,

c lin ica l

sy m p t o m s o f b o r d e r l i n e d e f i c i e n c y a r e

and g i v e n t h e i n d i v i d u a l v a r i a b i l i t y

i n plas ma or

se ru m z i n c ( M i l l e r , 1 9 7 4 ) , p r o b a b l y t h e b e s t way t o d i a g n o s e a
d e f i c i e n c y i s through a n a l y s i s o f t h e d i e t ,

combined w ith blood

a n a l y s i s and o b s e r v a t i o n of c l i n i c a l symptoms.
Copper
Adequate copper l e v e l s i n blood serum i n c a t t l e a r e i n the
range o f 80 t o 150 ug/100 m l, d e f i c i e n t l e v e l s a r e 6 t o 70 ug/100
m l, m a r g i n a l o r b o r d e r l i n e d e f i c i e n t l e v e l s a re 55 t o 80 ug/100
m l , h i g h l e v e l s a r e 250 t o 400 u g / 1 0 0 m l , and t o x i c l e v e l s a r e
400 t o 1100 ug/100 ml ( P u l s , 1981).

Copper p o i s o n i n g c a u se s th e

99

c o n c e n tr a ti o n of copper in th e

liv e r

and b l o o d t o i n c r e a s e .

Blood serum copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of 500 t o 2000 ug/100 ml have
been o b s e r v e d d u r in g th e h e m o l y t ic c r i s i s of copper p o is o n in g
(Merck, 1979).
Since

the

liv er

is

a n a ly s is of the l i v e r

the

organ

where c o p p e r

is

stored,

i s a good i n d i c a t o r o f c o p p e r s t a t u s .

However, because o f t h e c o m p a r a t i v e e a s e i n t a k i n g sa m p le s, blood
p lasm a copper i s o f t e n t h e measurement used.

A b e t t e r measure of

copper s t a t u s i s c e r u l o p l a s m i n a c t i v i t y i n serum ( M i l l e r , 1974).
As w ith th e o t h e r m i n e r a l s , d i a g n o s i s o f copper s t a t u s i s
b e t t e r made by a c o m b in a tio n o f o b s e r v i n g c l i n i c a l symptoms,
animal performance,

and response to supplem entation,

and taking

biochem ical measurements.
C o b a lt
According to P u l s

(1981), a d e q u a t e c o b a l t b l o o d se rum i n

r u m i n a n t s i s 0.04 t o 0.06 u g / 1 0 0 m l , m a r g i n a l o r b o r d e r l i n e
d e f i c i e n t i s 0.025 t o 0.035 u g / 1 0 0 m l , and d e f i c i e n t i s 0.004 t o
0.02 ug/100 ml.

Measurement o f c o b a l t in serum i s d i f f i c u l t due

t o t h e low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s p r e s e n t .

B a r f o o t and P r i t c h a r d (1980)

r e p o r t a wide v a r i a t i o n o f human serum c o b a l t v a l u e s depending on
the t e c h n iq u e used.
ug/100 ml.

The v a l u e s r e p o r t e d range from 0.003 t o 110

Using f l a m e l e s s atomic a b s o r p t i o n s p e c tr o p h o to m e tr y

t h e a u t h o r s m e a s u r e d an a v e r a g e o f 0.12 t o 0.20 u g / 1 0 0 ml i n
se ru m o f h e a l t h y a d u l t human b e i n g s .

McAdam and O ' D e l l (1982),

a l s o u s i n g atomic a b s o r p t i o n , measured c o b a l t and o t h e r m i n e r a l s
in

the

plasm a of

g estatio n .

d airy

cows

during

a whole

lactatio n

and

At t h e f o u r t h week a f t e r c a l v i n g p l a s m a c o b a l t was

100

b e tw e e n 8 and 9 u g / 1 0 0 m l; t h e n i t d r o p p e d t o v a l u e s b e t w e e n 5
and 6 u g / 1 0 0 ml i n t h e t e n t h t o t h e 2 2 t h week, and r o s e a g a i n t o
v a l u e s between 7 and 8 ug/100 ml from t h e 28th t o 46th week.

The

se rum c o b a l t v a l u e s were s i m i l a r f o r young cows ( f i r s t - c a l f
h e i f e r s ) and mature cows (two or more c a l v i n g s ) , and f o r a n im a ls
f e d p l a i n s a l t and t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t c o n t a i n i n g 0.007 c o b a l t .
The g e n e r a l a v e r a g e f o r a l l

t r e a t m e n t s t h r o u g h o u t l a c t a t i o n was

7.6 u g / 1 0 0 m l .
Due t o t h e a n a l y t i c a l d i f f i c u l t i e s and t h e v a r i a t i o n of the
v a l u e s r e p o r t e d , se ru m a n a l y s i s i s p e r h a p s n o t t h e b e s t way t o
d i a g n o s e c o b a l t d e f i c i e n c i e s in c a t t l e . The a n a l y s e s o f v i t a m i n
B12 i n b l o o d ,

liv e r

and rumen f l u i d

d e te rm in e c o b a l t s t a t u s .

c a n be good m e t h o d s t o

Since c o b a l t d e f i c i e n c y i s a r e g i o n a l

problem , c o b a l t a n a l y s i s i n t h e s o i l and i n p a s t u r e s i s a h e l p f u l
guide t o t h e a n i m a l ' s c o b a l t s t a t u s ( M i l l e r , 1974).
Manganese
Normal manganese l e v e l s in b lood serum o f c a t t l e a r e around
2 t o 3 u g / 1 0 0 ml

(Ch u rch,

1976).

Puls

(1981) c o n s i d e r s

0.5

u g / 1 0 0 ml a m a r g i n a l o r b o r d e r l i n e m ang an ese c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n
b lo o d serum, and 0.6 t o 3.0 ug/100 ml a dequate .
The m a n g a n es e c o n t e n t o f m o st body t i s s u e s i s r e m a r k a b l y
resistan t

to change b ecause of

redu ction occurs
a n im a l s ( M i l l e r ,

in the
1974).

liv e r,

low i n t a k e .
bone,

H ow eve r,

some

and h a i r o f d e f i c i e n t

M onitorin g feed l e v e l s seems t o be t h e

b e s t d i a g n o s t i c a i d f o r d e t e r m i n i n g m an g a n ese s t a t u s i n c a t t l e
( P u l s , 1981).

101

Selenium
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n of s e l e n i u m in an a n i m a l 's blood i s a good
in d ic a to r of e ith e r

s e l e n i u m d e f i c i e n c y or a d e q u a c y .

Blood

plas ma l e v e l s o f 1 t o 5 ug/100 ml i n d i c a t e se len iu m d e f i c i e n c y ;
s e l e n i u m s h o u l d be added t o t h e d i e t .
u g / 1 0 0 ml i s d e s i r a b l e .

A b lood l e v e l o f about 10

B l o o d l e v e l s o f a b o u t 20 u g / 1 0 0 ml o r

h i g h e r i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e a n i m a l i s r e c e i v i n g t o o much s e l e n i u m
and t h a t a t o x i c s i t u a t i o n may e x i s t (Marczewski e t a l , 1982).
A n a l y s i s o f g l u t a t h i o n e p e r o x i d a s e and m e a s u r e m e n t o f t h e
selenium c o n te n t of

t h e d i e t c a n a l s o be used t o e s t a b l i s h

s e l e n i u m s t a t u s and t h e a d e q u a c y o f t h e d i e t f o r t h e t h e a n i m a l
(M iller,

1974).

Iodine
A dequate

io d in e

co n ten t

in b lo o d serum o f c a t t l e

is

c o n s i d e r e d t o be 15 t o 40 u g / 1 0 0 m l , d e f i c i e n t t o be 3 t o 10
ug/100 m l, e x c e s s i v e t o be 90 t o 300, and c h r o n i c a l l y t o x i c t o be
200 t o 1500 ug/100 ml ( P u ls ,

1981).

Feed i o d i n e i s n o t w i d e l y u s e d i n d i a g n o s i n g a d e f i c i e n c y
p r o b l e m , e s p e c i a l l y when g o i t r o g e n s a r e i n c l u d e d i n t h e d i e t .
P r o b a b l y t h e b e s t d i a g n o s t i c h e l p i s a k n o w le d g e o f t h e a r e a ,
since

iodine d e fic ie n c y

is

a problem in

lo calized

regions.

I o d i n e d e f i c i e n t a r e a s a r e known f o r most p a r t s of t h e w o r l d , and
a r e mapped w ith t h e h e l p o f c l i n i c a l o b s e r v a t i o n s and s t a t i s t i c s
o f g o i t e r o c c u r r e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y i n humans (NRC, 1970).
Blood A n a l y s i s
Blood i s t h e most w i d e ly used t i s s u e f o r s t u d i e s in m i n e r a l
nutrition.

I t r e f l e c t s t h e m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f t h e a n i m a l , and can

102

be o b t a i n e d f r e q u e n t l y and e a s i l y w i t h o u t harm t o t h e a n i m a l
(Underwood,

1 9 8 1).

The

normal

values

or

normal

range

of

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e b l o o d se ru m o r p l a s m a o f h e a l t h y f ar m
a n i m a l s c on su m ing s a t i s f a c t o r y d i e t s a r e known f o r m o st o f t h e
n u t r i t i o n a l l y i m p o r t a n t m i n e r a l s f o r comparison w ith t h o s e i n the
b lo o d o f a n im a l s under s t u d y (Church, 1976; P u l s , 1981; Underwood
1977 and 1981) .
Most o f t h e b l o o d m i n e r a l a n a l y s i s a r e made i n p l a s m a o r
s e r u m , and t h e r e s u l t s a r e e q u i v a l e n t .

C a r e m u st be t a k e n t o

a void hemolysis o f red blood c e l l s (Fick e t a l . , 1979).
A v a rie ty

of a n a l y t i c a l

te c h n iq u e s a re used fo r

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of m i n e r a l s i n b lo od .

the

The most commonly used a re

flame atomic a b s o r p t i o n f o r most o f t h e m i n e r a l s , c o l o r i m e t r y f o r
phospho rus, and f l u o r i m e t r y f o r se len iu m .

Since manganese l e v e l s

i n plas ma or serum a r e below t h e d e t e c t i o n l i m i t s o f flam e .atomic
a b s o r p t i o n , f l a m e l e s s a t o m i c a b s o r p t i o n i s u se d i n t h i s c a s e
( U l l r e y , 1977).

F l a m e l e s s atomic a b s o r p t i o n can a l s o be used to

d ete rm in e c o b a l t (Barfoot and P r i t c h a r d ,

1980).

Techniques t h a t

p e r m i t t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f s e v e r a l e le m e n t s a t once a r e used i n
some l a b o r a t o r i e s .

These i n c l u d e n e u tr o n a c t i v a t i o n (Ehmann and

J a n g h o r b a n i , 1979); p l a s m a e m i s s i o n , and i n d u c t i v e l y c o u p l e d
plas ma d i s c h a r g e s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y (Barnes, 1979).

103

G a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l P a r a s i t i s m i n D airy C a t t l e
A knowledge

of

the

degree

of

parasite

in festatio n

is

necessary to diagnose m ineral or n u t r i t i o n a l d e f i c ie n c i e s in
c a t t l e , since

symptoms of p a r a s i t i s m can o f t e n be c on fused w ith

n u t r i t i o n a l problem s (Underwood, 1981).

P a r a s itiz e d anim als, for

e x a m p l e , a r e e i t h e r more s u s c e p t i b l e t o c o p p e r d e f i c i e n c y , o r
c o p p e r d e f i c i e n t a n i m a l s a r e more s u s c e p t i b l e
( P u l s , 1981).

to p a ra s itis m

Anemia, e m a c i a t i o n , poor h a i r c o n d i t i o n , and o t h e r

symptoms due t o p a r a s i t i s m can be c o n f u s e d w i t h c o p p e r , i r o n o r
o t h e r m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s or t o x i c i t i e s .
be t r u e :

The c o n t r a r y can a l s o

symptoms o f m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c i e s can be a t t r i b u t e d t o

parasitism .
The m o st common sto m ac h worms o f c a t t l e

a r e Haemonchus

p l a c e i , O s t e r t a g i a o s t e r t a g i and T r i c h o s t r o n g i l u s a x e i .
species

belong

tr e m a t o d e s ,

to

the

class

of

the

nematodes.

These

Among t h e

F a s c i o l a h e p a t i c a i s t h e most i m p o r t a n t p a r a s i t e o f

d o m e s t i c r u m i n a n t s and t h e m ost common c a u s e o f l i v e r

fluke

d i s e a s e i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s and o t h e r t e m p e r a t e a r e a s o f t h e
w o rld .

The p r o t o z o a n s E im eria z u e r n i i and E im eria b o v i s a r e th e

s p e c i e s o f c o c c i d i a most o f t e n a s s o c i a t e d w ith c l i n i c a l c a s e s o f
co c c id io sis in c a t t l e

(Merck, 1979).

Nematodes
I n 198 0, t h e r e w ere a p p r o x i m a t e l y 10.9 m i l l i o n d a i r y cows
and 4.2 m i l l i o n d a i r y r ep la ce m e n t h e i f e r s

in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s .

A l t h o u g h s u r v e y s show a h i g h p r e v a l e n c e o f n e m a to d e i n f e c t i o n
n a t i o n w i d e i n a d u l t d a i r y cows, m o st show low worm b u r d e n s and
egg c o u n t s o f l e s s t h a n 10 e p g .

The q u e s t i o n o f w h e t h e r l o w -

104

l e v e l nematode i n f e c t i o n s reduce m i l k p r o d u c t i o n i n c o m m e r c i a l
d a i r y cows i s c o n t r o v e r s i a l .

The e f f e c t s o f p a r a s i t i s m in a d u l t

cows appear t o depend p a r t l y on r e g i o n a l d i f f e r e n c e s in p a s t u r e
v e r s u s d r y l o t management .
t h a t both c l i n i c a l

T h e r e i s more c o n s i s t e n t a g r e e m e n t

and s u b c l i n i c a l

p arasitism

resu lt

in

s u b s t a n t i a l economic l o s s e s in th e r a i s i n g of d a i r y re p la c e m e n t
h eifers.

H eavy worm b u r d e n s and h i g h egg c o u n t v a l u e s c a n be

found i n p a s t u r e d d a i r y c a l v e s and y e a r l i n g s which may approach
the l e v e l s

fo u n d i n h e a v i l y p a r a s i t i z e d young b e e f a n i m a l s .

A n th e lm in tic c o n t r o l of t h i s c ateg o ry of anim als r e s u l t s

in

i m p r o v e d w e i g h t g a i n , and t h e r e i s e v i d e n c e t h a t d a i r y h e i f e r s
p r o t e c t e d from s u b c l i n i c a l p a r a s i t i s m may produce s i g n i f i c a n t l y
more m i l k i n t h e i r f i r s t l a c t a t i o n compared t o u n t r e a t e d c o n t r o l
a n i m a l s (American Assoc. V et. P a t h o l o g i s t s , 1983).
Trematodes
In

c a ttle ,

the

liv e r

flu k es

F ascio la

h ep atica

and

F a s c i o l o i d e s magna a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e condemnation of 1 t o
1.5 m i l l i o n

liv e rs

annually

at

slaughter

inspections.

In

a d d itio n to th ese l o s s e s , re p o rts in c re a s in g ly in d ic a te th a t
i n d i r e c t l o s s e s due t o f a s c i o l a s i s d u rin g t h e a n i m a l 's growth and
p r o d u c t i o n p h a s e s may be f a r g r e a t e r .

I n d ire c t lo s s e s include

r e d u c t i o n i n a v e r a g e d a i l y weight g a in and lower fee d c o n v e r s i o n
r a t i o s in the f e e d l o t ,

reduced m i l k p r o d u c t i o n in d a i r y c a t t l e ,

and r e d u c e d h e r d p e r f o r m a n c e i n c o w - c a l f o p e r a t i o n s (American
Assoc. V et. P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

1983).

Protozoa
C o c c i d i o s i s due t o E i m e r i a s p . i s a common d i s e a s e o f t h e

105

g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l t r a c t o f r u m in a n ts .
are

t h e m o st p a t h o g e n i c o f

the

E im eria z u r n i i and Eh b o v i s

14 s p e c i e s

fou nd i n c a t t l e .

V i r t u a l l y e v e r y a n im al becomes i n f e c t e d with one or more E im eria
sp e cie s during i t s l i f e t i m e .

The d i s e a s e i s i n s i d i o u s and i s

o f t e n d i a g n o s e d o n l y a f t e r t h e a n i m a l show c l i n i c a l s i g n s o f
d i a r r h e a , d e b i l i t a t i o n , or r e f u s a l o f feed.

C o c c i d i o s i s i s most

c l i n i c a l l y i m p o r t a n t in f e e d l o t s , among young d a i r y a n i m a l s , and
i n o t h e r s i t u a t i o n s whe re y o u n g , u n e x p o s e d s t o c k a r e p l a c e d i n
c o n ta m in a te d ,

confined areas

(American Assoc. Vet. P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

1983) .
Control
The m o s t w i d e l y
chemotherapy.
in c a t t l e :

used m easure of p a r a s i t e

At p r e s e n t ,

is

6 a n t h e l m i n t i c s a r e approved f o r use

th iab en d azo le,

p h e n o t h i a z i n e and m o r a n t e l .

c o n tro l

lev am iso le,

co umaphos,

haloxon,

T h ia b e n d a z o l e ( s o l d under th e brand

names of T h ia b en , B o v i z o l e , P o l i v a l , e tc .) and l e v a m i s o l e ( a l s o
known a s T e t r a m i s o l e , R i p e r c o l , L e v a s o l e , T r a m i s o l , e t c . ) h a v e
high d e g re e s o f e f f i c a c y a g a i n s t a d u l t g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l nematodes
and some l a r v a e , and t h e y a r e t h e most w i d e ly used.
com parable

in e f f ic a c y .

Levam isol

is

also

M o r a n te l i s

activ e

against

lungworms. M i l k from cows t r e a t e d w ith coumaphos does no t have to
be w i t h d r a w n fro m s a l e ; h o w e v e r , m i l k from cows t r e a t e d w i t h
o t h e r a n t h e l m i n t i c s m ust be w i t h d r a w n f o r a s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d
a f t e r th e cows a r e t r e a t e d .

New a n t h e l m i n t i c s r e c e n t l y approved

o r i n t h e p r o c e s s o f a p p r o v a l by t h e FDA a r e t h e b e n z i m i d a z o l e
d e r i v a t i v e s a l b e n d a z o l e , f e n b e n d a z o l e , and o x f e n d a z o l e , and
i v e r m e c t i n (American Assoc. V et. P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

1983).

106

There i s no f l u k i c i d a l drug a v a i l a b l e i n t h e U n ited S t a t e s
t h a t i s f u l l y approve d f o r use in l i v e s t o c k by t h e Food and Drug
A d m inistration.

At one t i m e , h e x a c h l o r o e t h a n e was w i d e l y use d

o n c e o r t w i c e a y e a r f o r c o n t r o l o f f a s c i o l a s i s i n c a t t l e and
sm all

ru m in an ts.

h ex ach lo ro eth an e

D eclared
was

rem oved

a

p o ten tial

from

the

carcin o g en ,

m arket

in

1979.

A l b e n d a z o l e , a b r o a d - s p e c t r u m a n t h e l m i n t i c s t i l l bein g t e s t e d ,
was s u b s e q u e n t l y approved f o r emergency use a g a i n s t
and E\ magna i n c a t t l e and sheep.
l i m i t the p o t e n t i a l
e c o n o m ic l o s s e s .

hepatica

R e s t r i c t i o n s on use , however,

e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h i s

drug

in

reducing

I t i s n o t f o r use i n l a c t a t i n g a n i m a l s , t h e

w i t h d r a w a l p e r i o d i s 180 d a y s , i t i s n o t f o r u s e i n t h e f i r s t 45
days o f g e s t a t i o n , and i t can o n l y be o b t a i n e d from v e t e r i n a r i a n s
who a r e

responsible

for

m aintaining

p r e - and p o s t t r e a t m e n t

reports.

Albendazole is e ff ic a c io u s a g a in st a d u l t

h epatica in

c a t t l e and sh e ep , b u t a l i k e h e x a c h lo r o e th a n e has l i t t l e e f f e c t on
i m m a tu r e f l u k e s (American A s s o c . V e t . P a t h o l o g i s t s , 1 9 83 ).

In

o t h e r c o u n t r i e s , however, t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l f l u k i c i d e s a v a i l a b l e
for c a t t l e

in clu d in g rafoxanide,

b r o t i a n i d e and n i t r o x y n i l .

These compounds can a l s o k i l l immature f l u k e s (Merck, 1979).
C o ccid io sis

can

be p r e v e n t e d

c o n d i t i o n s when a n i m a l s ,
c on fin em en t.

by m a i n t a i n i n g s a n i t a r y

e s p e c i a l l y th e young,

are

kept in

The prim ary u s e f u l n e s s of a n t i c o c c i d i a l drugs i s t o

a r r e s t f u r t h e r s p r e a d of i n f e c t i o n among a n im a l s .

C ertain s u lf a

d rug s and amprolium a r e the o n l y drugs p r e s e n t l y approved f o r use
(American Assoc. Vet. P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

1983).

Chemotherapy k i l l s a d u l t worms and i s e f f e c t i v e in t r e a t i n g

107

c l i n i c a l l y a f f e c t e d a n i m a l s , b u t i t does no t n e c e s s a r i l y p r o v i d e
lo n g -te rm
R einfectio n

b e n efits

may o c c u r

Optimum p r e v e n t i v e
several

of p re v e n tin g

natu rally .

the

in te rv al

grazing

co n tam in atio n .

b e tw e e n

c o n t r o l programs i n v o l v e

approaches:

anth elm intics,

in

p astu re

m anagement,

treatm ents.

i n t e g r a t i o n of

strateg ic

u se

of

and use o f t h e h o s t ' s a b i l i t y t o a c q u i r e immunity

The s t r a t e g y

is

(American Assoc. Vet. P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

1983):
1)

t o p r e v e n t t h e b u i l d u p of dangerous numbers o f i n f e c t i v e

s t a g e s on p a s t u r e s by re ducing c o n ta m i n a ti o n with f e c a l eggs or
la r v a e a t c r i t i c a l periods;
2)

t o r e d u c e a c q u i s i t i o n o f i n f e c t i o n s by a n t i c i p a t i n g

p e r i o d s d u r i n g which l a r g e numbers of l a r v a e a r e l i k e l y t o occur;
and
3)

t o remove s u s c e p t i b l e a n im a ls from h e a v i l y contaminated

p a stu re before these periods.
The e s s e n t i a l r e q u i r e m e n t of i n t e g r a t e d , p r e v e n t i v e c o n t r o l
is the p r o v i s i o n of "safe" p a s tu re fo r s u s c e p t i b l e anim als a t
a p p r o p r i a t e tim es (American Assoc. Vet. P a t h o l o g i s t s , 1983).
D ia g n o sis
The c l i n i c a l

sig n s

asso ciated

w ith

g astro in testin al

p a r a s i t i s m a r e s h a r e d with many d i s e a s e s and c o n d i t i o n s ; however,
p r e s u m p t i v e d i a g n o s i s b a s e d on h i s t o r y and sypmtoms i s o f t e n
j u s t i f i e d and i n f e c t i o n can u s u a l l y be confirmed by t h e pr e s e n c e
o f eggs i n f e c a l m a t t e r .

I n e v a l u a t i n g t h e c l i n i c a l importance

o f f e c a l e x am in a tio n i t i s im p o r tan t t o c o n s i d e r t h a t th e number
o f e g g s p e r gram o f f e c e s i s n o t an a c c u r a t e i n d i c a t i o n o f t h e

108

number o f a d u l t worms.

N e g a t i v e c o u n t s can be found d e s p i t e t h e

p r e s e n c e of a l a r g e number o f immature worms, due t o s u p p r e s s i o n
o f egg p r o d u c t i o n by immune r e a c t i o n o r p r e v i o u s a n t h e l m i n t i c
treatm en t

and

v a ria tio n

d i f f e r e n t worms.

in

the

egg -p ro ducin g c a p a c ity of

On t h e o t h e r hand,

eggs i s d i f f i c u l t and i m p r a c t i c a l .
the

m ost

d irect

m ethod

of

s p e c if ic i d e n t i f i c a t i o n of
Postmortem ex am in a tio n s a r e

id en tify in g

and

q u a n titiz in g

g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t i s m s (Merck, 1979).
At p r e s e n t t h e r e a r e no immunologic t e c h n iq u e s a v a i l a b l e f o r
p r a c t i c a l use in antemortem a sse ss m e n t of t h e e x t e n t o f nematode
p arasitism .

plasm a

pepsinogen

tests

for

d iag n o sis

of

o s t e r t a g i a s i s have been used e s s e n t i a l l y as a s u r v e y m o n ito rin g
to o l,

b u t s u c h t e s t s a r e m o st u s e f u l when a n i m a l s a r e b e i n g

t e s t e d r e p e a t e d l y o v e r an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d .
in d icates

that

sero lo g ic al

procedures

Recent e x p e rie n c e

may h a v e

value

for

d i a g n o s i s o f F. h e p a t i c a and F. magna i n f e c t i o n s , com pa red w i t h
t im e c onsum in g

fecal

exam inations.

There

are

no r e l i a b l e

antemortem p a r a s i t o l o g i c d i a g n o s t i c methods f o r c e s t o d e s or th e
im p o rtan t

protozoans

Pathologists,

1983).

in

an im als

(Am erican

A ssoc.

V et.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

S a m p l e s were t a k e n from t h r e e f a r m s i n e a c h o f f i v e m i l k
p r o d u c i n g r e g i o n s a r o u n d Riobamba ( a l t i t u d e 2,754 m, 1 ° 40' S,
78° 39' W) t h e c a p i t a l o f t h e Ch im bo ra zo p r o v i n c e i n E c u a d o r .
The r e g i o n s s a m p l e d w ere t h e most i m p o r t a n t i n m i l k p r o d u c t i o n
f o r t h e c i t y , and r a n g e d i n a l t i t u d e fro m a r o u n d 3 ,0 0 0 m (9,8 40
ft)

t o 4000 m ( 1 3,12 0 f t ) .

The r e g i o n s c h o s e n c o r r e s p o n d t o

d i f f e r e n t g e o l o g i c a l f o r m a t i o n s on t h e s l o p e s o f t h e Ande s.
Average t e m p e r a t u r e s i n t h e r e g i o n s range from 6 t o 11° C (43 t o
52° F) t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r . F r o s t i n t h e m o r n i n g s i s common a t
these a lt i tu d e s .
mm (40 i ) .
1979).

P r e c i p i t a t i o n ranges from 400 mm (16 i) t o 1200

The d r y s e a s o n l a s t s from J u l y t o S e p t e m b e r (Ter&n,

Most o f t h e farms had some form of i r r i g a t i o n a t th e time

t h e sam p le s were t a k e n ( J u l y t o September 1982).

One d a i r y farm

i n t h e U nited S t a t e s , l o c a t e d in Shiawasee coun ty i n t h e S t a t e of
M i c h i g a n , was a l s o s a m p l e d f o r c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e f a r m s i n
Ecuador.

T a b l e 1 shows t h e names of t h e r e g i o n s , t h e i r a l t i t u d e

above s e a l e v e l , and t h e i r approximate g e o g r a p h i c a l c o o r d i n a t e s .
B l o o d se ru m s a m p l e s were t a k e n on e a c h farm from t h e t a i l
v e i n or a r t e r y o f 10 a d u l t m i l k i n g cows and 10 a n im a l s under one
y ear of age.

A p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 ml o f b l o o d were c o l l e c t e d from

each an im al i n t e s t t u b e s w i t h o u t c o a g u l a n t .

Blood sam p le s were

l e f t s t a n d i n g a t room t e m p e r a t u r e from 4 t o 10 h o u r s p r i o r t o
centrifugation.

The t e s t t u b e s with b lood were t h e n c a r r i e d

to

t h e l a b o r a t o r y where t h e y were c e n t r i f u g e d and t h e b l o o d s e ru m
was

separated.

Blood

serum
109

was

stored

frozen

in

p lastic

no
T able 1.

A l t i t u d e above se a l e v e l and approximate g e o g r a p h i c a l
coordinates
o f f i v e r e g i o n s from t h e
Chimborazo
p r o v i n c e o f Ecuador and one r e g i o n i n Shiawasee c o u n ty ,
Michigan (1)

REGION

ALTITUDE
ABOVE SEA
LEVEL

NAME

LONGITUDE

m

LATITUDE

degrees-min-sec

1

ECUADOR

Chambo

2900

S

1°40'30 "

W 78°30'33

2

ECUADOR

San Juan

3200

S

1 °3 0 126 "

W 78°40'46

3

ECUADOR

San Andr&s

3600

S

1°29'5 7 '1

w 7 8 ° 4 0 ' 15

4

ECUADOR

Guamote

3200

S

1°50'4 2 ''

w 78°40'16

5

ECUADOR

Quimiac

3000

S

1°30'42 "

w 78°30'16

6

MICHIGAN

L ain sbu rg

(1)

N,S:
North,
meters

240

South l o n g i t u t e ;

N 42 °57' 3 3 ' 1
W:

West

w 84°19'51
latitude;

m:

111

con tain ers.

Serum was thaw ed a t

room t e m p e r a t u r e p r i o r

to

analysis.
F i v e composite sa m ple s o f p a s t u r e s and s o i l s were take n from
each farm.

S o i l and p a s t u r e s a m p l e s were c o l l e c t e d from e a c h

f i e l d (2 -5 h e c t a r e s ) by w a l k i n g i n z i g - z a g l i n e .

A t o t a l o f 20

t o 50 sa m ple s were c o l l e c t e d from each f i e l d .
S o i l s a m p l e s w e r e t a k e n w i t h a s o i l p r o b e a t a d e p t h o f 15
t o 20 cm.

Samples were a i r d r i e d a t room t e m p e r a t u re .

Dry s o i l

s a m p l e s were t h e n c r u s h e d u n t i l a m a jo r p o r t i o n o f t h e s a m p l e
p a s s e d a 10-mesh (U.S. No. 10) s i e v e .
P astu re

sam p les

were

taken

a p p r o x i m a t e ly 20 cm from t h e ground.

by

hand

at

a h eig h t

of

H a l f o f each p a s t u r e sample

was washed w i t h d i s t i l l e d w a t e r t o a s s e s s s o i l c o n t a m i n a t i o n .
P a s t u r e s a m p l e s were d r i e d i n f o r c e d a i r o v e n s a t 6 0 ° C and
ground t o a p a r t i c l e s i z e o f a p r o x i m a t e l y 1 mm.
Grab sa m ple s of f e c e s f o r p a r a s i t e a n a l y s i s were t a k e n from
e a c h a n i m a l t h a t was b l e d . F e c e s s a m p l e s were k e p t i n p l a s t i c
b a g s and r e f r i g e r a t e d u n t i l t h e y were a n a l y z e d w i t h i n 24 h o u r s
after co llection.
A s p l i t p lo t design

(G ill,

1 9 7 8 a f b and c) was u s e d t o

a n a l y z e t h e r e s u l t s ( T a b l e 2 ) , and t h e c o n t r a s t s among a l l t h e
means of t h e r e g i o n s were t e s t e d w ith a B o n f e rr o n i t t e s t ( G i l l ,
1 9 7 8 a , Games,

1 9 77).

The SPSS ( S t a t i s t i c a l P a c k a g e f o r

the

S o c i a l Sciences) program was used i n t h e computer p r o c e s s i n g of
t h e d a t a (Nie e t a l . , 1975; H u l l and N i e , 1 981).
S o i l samples were t a k e n , p r e p a r e d and a n a l y z e d a cc o rd in g t o
t h e p r o c e d u r e s recommended f o r t h e N o r t h C e n t r a l R e g io n o f t h e

112

T ab le 2.

S t a t i s t i c a l d e s i g n s f o r th e a n a l y s i s o f s o i l ,
and blood d a t a (1)

pasture,

SOIL
Degrees of freedom

Source o f v a r i a t i o n
REGION
FARMS/REGION
SAMPLES/FARM/REGION

5
10
72

TOTAL

87

Farms r e g i o n i s t h e e r r o r term f o r
sam ples/farm /region
is
the
error
farm s/region

region,
term

and
for

PASTURE AND BLOOD
Degrees o f freedom
Source o f v a r i a t i o n

PASTURE

BLOOD

REGION
FARMS/REGION
TYPE OF SAMPLE
REGION X TYPE
FARMS/REGION X TYPE
SAMPLES/FARM/REGION/TYPE

5
10
1
5
10
130

5
10
1
5
10
288

TOTAL

161

319

Farms/region
is
the
error
term
for
region,
and
s a m p l e s / f a r m / r e g i o n / t y p e p l u s f a r m s / r e g i o n X type i s t h e
e r r o r term f o r f a r m s / r e g i o n , t y p e , and fo r the i n t e r a c t i o n
r e g i o n X typ e
(1)

G i l l , 1978a, b and c

1.13

United S t a t e s ( B u l l e t i n No. 499, 1980).
with Bray-1 s o l u t i o n (Knudsen, 1980).

Phosphorus was e x t r a c t e d
C alcium , magnesium, sodium

and p o t a s s i u m w ere e x t r a c t e d w i t h IN ammonium a c e t a t e o f pH 7.0
( C a rs o n ,

1 9 8 0 ).

manganese,

Co p pe r

zinc

and

was e x t r a c t e d

co b alt

were

with

IN HC1.

extracted

with

Iron,

0.1 N HC1

(Whitney, 1 98 0 ). Molybdenum was e x t r a c t e d w i t h Tamm's r e a g e n t :
ammonium o x a l a t e s o l u t i o n a t pH 3.3 ( R e i s e n a u e r , 1965).

S ulfur

was e x t r a c t e d w i t h m o n o c a l c i u m p h o s p h a t e s o l u t i o n (500 ppm P)
( E ik , 1980).

N i t r a t e s w ere e x t r a c t e d w i t h a s a t u r a t e d s o l u t i o n

o f c a lc iu m hydroxide (Carson, 1980).

T o t a l s e l e n i u m in t h e s o i l

was d e t e r m i n e d a f t e r w e t d i g e s t i o n w i t h n i t r i c and p e r c h l o r i c
a c i d (Whetter and U l l r e y , 1978).
Pasture

sam ples

w ere

taken,

prepared

and a n a l y z e d

in

accordance w i t h t h e p r o c e d u r e s o f t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f F l o r i d a (Pick
e t a l . , 1979).

H a l f o f t h e f r e s h p a s t u r e sample from each f i e l d

was washed w i t h d i s t i l l e d w a t e r t o a s s e s s s o i l c o n t a m i n a t i o n .
Selenium c o n t e n t was d e te r m in e d a f t e r wet d i g e s t i o n with n i t r i c
and p e r c h l o r i c a c i d ( W h e t te r and U l l r e y , 197 8). To m e a s u r e t h e
amou nt s o f o t h e r m e t a l s i n t h e p a s t u r e s ,

s a m p l e s were a s h e d

o v e r n i g h t a t 600° C and t h e ash d i s s o l v e d with h y d r o c h l o r i c a c id
(Fic k e t a l . , 1979).
Blood serum sam ple s were d e p r o t e i n i z e d with t r i c h l o r o a c e t i c
a c i d (Fick e t a l . ,
wet d i g e s t i o n
p e rc h lo ric acid

1979).

of

the

Selenium c o n t e n t was determined a f t e r
w h o le serum sa m p le w ith n i t r i c

(W hetter

and U l l r e y ,

1978).

and

To d e t e r m i n e

man ganese c o n t e n t , t h e se rum s a m p l e s were mixed 1:1 w i t h w a t e r .
Ten serum s a m p l e s were p o o l e d f o r c o b a l t a n a l y s i s .

Ten ml o f

114

serum were f r e e z e d r i e d and a s h e d a t 600° C o v e r n i g h t . T h e s e
a s h e s were d i s s o l v e d w i t h HC1, c h e l a t e d w ith l - n i t r o s o - 2 - n a p h t h o l
and e x t r a c t e d with c h lo r o f o r m .

A fter ev ap oration to dryness, the

s a m p l e s were r e d i s s o l v e d w i t h 0.5 ml c h l o r o f o r m f o r
analysis

(Barfoot and P r i t c h a r d ,

cobalt

1980).

The pH o f s o i l s was d ete rm in ed by suspending 5 g o f s o i l in
5 ml o f water (McLean, 1980).

T e x tu r e o f s o i l s was dete rm ined by

t h e Bouyoucus method (Bouyoucos,

1951).

Organic m a t t e r i n s o i l s

was measured as carbon a f t e r o x i d a t i o n w ith p otassium dich rom ate
by t i t r a t i o n w i t h f e r r o i n i n d i c a t o r ( S c h u l t e , 1980).

N itrate

c o n t e n t i n s o i l s was d e t e r m i n e d w i t h t h e p h e n o l d i s u l f o n i c a c i d
method (Carson, 1980).
su lfate

content

su lfates.

The t u r b i d i m e t r i c d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f barium

(Eik,

1980)

was

used

for

the

an aly sis

of

The ash , c ru d e p r o t e i n and crude f i b e r c o m p ositio n of

t h e p a s t u r e s was d e t e r m i n e d a c c o r d i n g
procedures.

t o t h e A.O.A.C.

(1975)

P h o s p h o r u s i n s o i l s , p a s t u r e s and b l o o d se rum was

m e a s u r e d c o l o r i m e t r i c a l l y a s p h o s p h o m o l y b d i c a c i d a t 600 nm
( H a r r i s and P o p a t , 1 9 5 4 ).

Selenium c o n te n t in s o i l s , p a s tu r e s

and b l o o d se rum was d e t e r m i n e d f l u o r i m e t r i c a l l y
U l l r e y , 1 9 78).

( W h e tte r and

Molybdenum c o n t e n t i n s o i l s and p a s t u r e s , and

c o b a l t and manganese c o n t e n t in s o i l s ,

p a s t u r e s and b l o o d serum

was de te rmined by f l a m e l e s s atomic a b s o r p t i o n s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y
(Perk in, 1981).
blood

serum

A l l o t h e r m e t a l c o n t e n t s in s o i l s , p a s t u r e s and
were

d eterm in ed

u sin g

ato m ic

a b so rp tio n

s p e c t r o p h o t o m e t r y w i t h an a i r - a c e t y l e n e f l a m e ( P e r k i n , 1982).
P a r a s i t e egg c o u n t s were d e t e r m i n e d by t h e d i r e c t f l o t a t i o n
m ethod

(Cox a n d T o d d ,

1 9 6 2 ). F a s c i o l a h e p a t i c a e g g s were

115

determined usin g a f l u k e ov a s e d i m e n t a t i o n te c h n iq u e
a l . ,1 9 5 4 ) .

(Dennis e t

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

T his c h a p t e r of r e s u l t s and d i s c u s s i o n i s d i v i d e d i n t o fou r
parts:
3)

1)

m in erals

in

so ils;

m i n e r a l s i n blo od ; and 4)

2)

n u trie n ts

in

pastures;

g a stro in te stin a l parasites.

The l e v e l s of m i n e r a l s found by s o i l a n a l y s i s i n the p r e s e n t
i n v e s t i g a t i o n were co m pa red w i t h l e v e l s a t w hich t h e r e i s a
p o s s i b l e re s p o n se of a c ro p t o f e r t i l i z a t i o n , whenever t h e r e was
in fo rm atio n

av aila b le

on

th is

in

the

lite ra tu re .

The

i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f o r a g e p r o d u c t i o n o f t h e l e v e l o f m i n e r a l s found
i n t h e s o i l s , a s w e l l a s t h e e f f e c t o f s o i l pH, t e x t u r e , and
org an ic

m atter

co n ten t,

are

discussed.

Where a p p r o p i a t e ,

recommendations f o r f e r t i l i z a t i o n a r e made.
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

fo u n d

in

th is

study of n u t r i e n t s

in

p a s t u r e s a r e c o m pared t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a n i m a l s f o r t h e s e
nutrients.

Whenever th e p a s t u r e s do n o t p r o v i d e adeq uate amounts

of a given n u tr ie n t,

recommendations f o r s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n of the

d i e t a r e made. When t h e c r o p i s r e s p o n s i v e t o f e r t i l i z a t i o n , o r
when t h e l e v e l o f an e le m e n t can be i n c r e a s e d thro ugh a d d i t i o n of
t h e e le m e n t t o the s o i l ,

suggestions for f e r t i l i z a t i o n are a ls o

made.
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

of m in e ra ls

in blood

fou n d i n t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t i o n a r e c om pared t o v a l u e s c o n s i d e r e d n o r m a l i n t h e
lite ra tu re

review ed.

When t h e m i n e r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n t h e

a n im als t e s t e d in t h i s stu d y does no t f a l l

w i t h in th e range

c o n s i d e r e d t y p i c a l , a n d /o r t h e d i e t i s i n a d e q u a t e , s u g g e s t i o n s on
how t o p r e v e n t a d e f i c i e n c y a r e made.
116

F i n a l l y , f e c a l egg c o u n ts f o r g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l p a r a s i t e s a r e
d i s c u s s e d because t h e d e t r i m e n t a l e f f e c t s o f p a r a s i t i s m on animal
p ro d u ctio n

resem ble

deficien cies.

the

d etrim en tal

e ffects

of m in eral

Suggestions for p a r a s i t e c o n tr o l in th e a re a s

s t u d i e d a r e made.

118

M inerals in S o ils
F e r t i l i z a t i o n P r a c t i c e s i n Ecuador
I n E c u a d o r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e r e g i o n s where t h e p r e s e n t
in v estig atio n
fertilized .

was c a r r i e d

out,

pastures

g enerally

are

However, c r o p r o t a t i o n i s a common p r a c t i c e .

not
After

a p e r i o d of y e a r s , g e n e r a l l y four t o s i x , o f d e d i c a t i n g t h e l a n d
to p a s tu re ,

the s o i l

i s plow ed,

d i s i n f e c t e d and f e r t i l i z e d ,

u s u a l ly in p r e p a r a tio n fo r p o ta to c u l t i v a t i o n .

In t h i s case

around 136 kg o f N, 400 kg o f P205, and 136 kg o f K20 a r e a p p l i e d
p e r h e c t a r e (120 l b o f N, 360 l b P205, and 120 l b o f K20 p e r
acre).

A f t e r one t o f o u r y e a r s of use f o r growing the a l t e r n a t e

crop, the land is retu rn e d to p a stu re .
rye-grass

A m ixture of bian n u al

(L o l i u m m u l t i f l o r u m ) and w h i t e c l o v e r

r e p e n s ) i s t h e most commonly used p a s t u r e seed.
sp .) , orchard

grass

(D a c t y l i s

(T r i f o l i u m

Fescue (F e s t u c a

g l o m e r a t a ) , tim othy

(Phleum

p r a t e n s e ) , red c l o v e r (T r i f o l i u m p r a t e n s e ) , and o t h e r s p e c i e s a r e
used o c c a s i o n a l l y .

Some f a r m s grow a l f a l f a , and i n some c a s e s

o a t s , r y e o r w h e a t a r e r a i s e d t o be u s e d f o r g r e e n c h o p f o r t h e
a n im a l s .

I n most o f t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s no c hem ic al f e r t i l i z e r

a p p lie d to the s o i l ,

b u t th e farm er

is

ta k e s advantage of the

r e s i d u a l f e r t i l i t y from t h e p r e v i o u s c ro p.

On some o t h e r farms,

p a s t u r e s a r e permanent. On t h e s e farms t h e s o i l i s plowed and t h e
m i x t u r e o f g r a s s and leg u m e s e e d i s p l a n t e d e v e r y f o u r t o s i x
years, g e n e r a lly without s o i l

fertilizatio n .

Sinc e t h e anim als

a r e g r a z i n g on t h e p a s t u r e , m o st o f t h e i r manure r e v e r t s t o t h e
field .

In M ic h ig a n , in c o n t r a s t , f i e l d s used f o r growing co rn

and a l f a l f a ,

the

m ain

crops

grown f o r

anim al

forage,

are

119

f e r t i l i z e d e v e r y y e a r w i t h n i t r o g e n , p h o s p h o r u s and p o t a s s i u m ,
and o c c a s i o n a l l y m i c r o e l e m e n t s s u c h a s b o r o n , molybdenum and
copper.
S o il Analysis
M i n e r a l a n a l y s i s of p a s t u r e s and s o i l s i s a v e r y u s e f u l t o o l
t o diagn o se d e f i c i e n c i e s or e x c e s s e s i n f o r a g e s f o r a n im a l s .

In

g e n e r a l , low l e v e l s o f a p a r t i c u l a r e l e m e n t i n t h e s o i l w i l l
r e s u l t i n t h e growth o f v e g e t a t i o n low i n t h a t e le m e n t .

T h is i n

tu rn w i l l produce a d e f i c ie n c y in a n im a ls fed w ith t h a t p l a n t
m aterial.

The same p r i n c i p l e a p p l i e s t o e x c e s s e s o f m i n e r a l s .

M i n e r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n the s o i l does n o t alw ays c o r r e l a t e w e l l
w ith t h e m i n e r a l c o n t e n t i n the p l a n t or with t h e m i n e r a l s t a t u s
of

the an im al.

T his

i s m a i n l y due t o t h e v a r i a t i o n

a b i l i t y of d i f f e r e n t p l a n t sp e cie s,

in the

or even d i f f e r e n t v a r i e t i e s

of t h e same s p e c i e s , i n e x t r a c t i n g m i n e r a l s a l t s from s o i l s , and
t o h o m e o s t a t i c m ec hanism s i n t h e a n i m a l s

(Underwood,

1981 ).

P l a n t t i s s u e a n a l y s i s , combined w i t h s o i l a n a l y s i s , i s u s e d by
the s o i l s c i e n t i s t s t o d iagn o se t h e m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f t h e s o i l s
(J o n e s, 1972).
S o i l pH
S o i l s from t h e r e g i o n s o f E c u a d o r and M i c h i g a n ( T a b l e 3,
F ig u r e 1),

r a n g e d from 5.78 t o 6.71 pH. Out o f a t o t a l

samples from i n d i v i d u a l f i e l d s ,

11%

o f 88

were in t h e range o f 5.00-

5.49 pH, 17% from 5.50 t o 5.99, 26% from 6.00 t o 6 .4 9 , 26% from
6.50 t o 6 .9 9 , 9% fr om 7.00 t o 7 .4 9 , 9% from 7.50 t o 7 .9 9 , and 1%
from 8.00 t o
sig n ifican t

8.49.
(p > . 0 5 ) ,

The d i f f e r e n c e

among r e g i o n s

was n o t

b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e among f a r m s w i t h i n

Table 3.

S o i l pH, o r g a n i c m a t t e r , and t e x t u r e from f i v e r e g i o n s i n th e Chimborazo
p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g i o n i n Shiawasee c o un ty , Michigan (1)

pH

TEXTURE

ORGANIC
MATTER
%

SAND
%

CLAY
%

X

X

X

REGION (2)

N

X

1

ECUADOR

15

6.71 (0.33)

3.8 (1.61)

56 (3.47)

2

ECUADOR

15

6.30 (0.33)

10.6 (1.61)

52 (3.47)

3

ECUADOR

15

5.78 (0.33)

10.9 (1.61)

66 (3.47)

4

ECUADOR

15

7.17 (0.33)

4.9 (1.61)

5

ECUADOR

15

6.58 (0.33)

6

MICHIGAN

13

5.97 (0.36)

(SEM)

(SEM)

(SEM)

SILT
%
(SEM)

19ab (1.42)
l 5abc (1.42)

X

(SEM)

25 (2.64)
33 (2.64)

(1.42)

24 (2.64)

60 (3.47)

10c
l 4bc

(1.42)

27 (2.64)

8.1 (1.61)

65 (3.47)

llc

(1.42)

24 (2.64)

2.3 (1.73)

55 (3.73)

22a

(1.53)

23 (2.94)

NS
NS

**
*

S i g n i f i c a n c e of F (3)
Region
Farm /region
(1)
(2)
(3)

NS
**

*
**

NS
NS

N, X, SEM: number of o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d e r r o r s of means
Region means w i t h i n a column w ith o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t ( p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < .01; *: p < .05

REGION

F ig u r e 1 .

S o i l pH in f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e of Ecuador and
one r e g io n (6 ) i n S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

122

regions

was h i g h l y

sig n ifican t

(p < . 0 1 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t among s o i l pH and c a l c i u m i n t h e s o i l s was 0.393.
Liming i s n o t a common p r a c t i c e f o r p a s t u r e c u l t i v a t i o n in
Ecuador.

From t h e f i e l d s t e s t e d , 26% had l e s s t h a n 6.0 pH and

may need l im in g f o r b e t t e r f o r a g e p r o d u c t i o n .

The recommended 01

f o r a l f a l f a c u l t i v a t i o n i s 6.8 ( C h r i s t e n s o n e t a l . , 1983).

In

t h e c a s e of mixed p a s t u r e s , a pH o f 6.8 would f a v o r t h e growth o f
legumes and improve t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e sward.

I n c r e a s e d legume

growth augments d ry m a t t e r y i e l d n o t o n l y o f t h e legume b u t a l s o
of the g r a s s e s ,

b e c a u s e more n i t r o g e n i s a v a i l a b l e t o them.

T a b l e 1.4 (Appendix I) shows t h e l i m i n g recommendations based on
so il

pH made by t h e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e o f M i c h i g a n S t a t e

U n iv ersity .
li m i n g .

S o i l pH i s n o t , h o w e v e r , t h e b e s t c r i t e r i u m f o r

Limestone r e q u i r e m e n ts of t h e s o i l a re b e s t e s t i m a t e d by

t h e Shoemaker, McLean and P r a t t ' s method (McLean, 1980).
Organic M a tte r
Organic m a t t e r s u p p l i e s n u t r i e n t s t o th e s o i l ,

contributes

t o i t s ion exchange c a p a c i t y and improves i t s s t r u c t u r e ( S c h u l t e ,
1980).

A knowledge o f th e o r g a n i c m a t t e r c o n t e n t i s h e l p f u l in

estim atin g

the

catio n

exchange

s u p p l y i n g power of t h e s o i l

capacity

and

the

n itrogen-

( T i s d a l e and N e l s o n , 1975).

m a t t e r c o n t e n t o f Ecuador and Michigan s o i l s

Organic

(Table 3, F i g u r e 2)

r a n g e d from 2.3% i n r e g i o n 6 i n M i c h i g a n t o 10.9% i n r e g i o n 3 i n
E c u a d o r , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s
farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s

(p C . 0 5 ) and among

(p < .10) was s i g n i f i c a n t .

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t s o i l s i n E c u a d o r had a h i g h e r o r g a n i c
m atter co n tent

than s o i l s

i n M i c h i g a n b e c a u s e a n i m a l s were

(%)

MATTER
ORGANIC
SOIL

I m
m

p

REGION

F ig u re 2 .

S o i l o r g a n ic m atter in f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e
of Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h iaw assee County, M ich igan .

123

m

1.24

g r a z i n g on them a l l year and t h e r e was a g r e a t e r a c c u m u l a t i o n of
m anure.

Another

p o ssib le

ex p lan atio n

for

the d if f e r e n c e

in

o r g a n i c m a t t e r c o n t e n t i s t h a t t h e Ecuadorean s o i l samples ta k e n
from g r a s s - l e g u m e p a s t u r e s may have c o n t a i n e d more r o o t s than th e
Michigan sa m p le s, which were take n from between t h e rows of c ro p s
i n a l f a l f a and c orn f i e l d s .

D e s p i t e t h e h i g h e r v a l u e s found, i t

i s p o s s i b l e t h a t o r g a n i c m a t t e r in t h e Ecuadorean r e g i o n s sampled
had l e s s chance of being m e t a b o l i z e d by p l a n t s than the o r g a n i c
m a t t e r i n t h e M i c h i g a n s a m p l e s , b e c a u s e o f t h e r e l a t i v e l y low
tem peratures p r e v a i l i n g
(6 t o 11° C).

in t h e s e p a r t s of Ecuador a l l

year

I n M i c h i g a n , s a m p l e s w ere t a k e n i n t h e month o f

September, when t e m p e r a t u re s were r e l a t i v e l y high.
S o i l s a r e c o n s i d e r e d o r g a n i c when t h e y h a v e an o r g a n i c
m a t t e r c o n t e n t g r e a t e r than 20% (Wrancke and C h r i s t e n s o n ,

1980),

so t h e s o i l s a n a l y z e d from E c u a d o r and M i c h i g a n f a l l

in the

c a t e g o r y of m i n e r a l s o i l s .
T ex ture
S o i l s from t h e r e g i o n s sampled i n Ecuador were m o s t l y sandy
loam, w h i l e t h e s o i l s from Michigan ranged from sandy c l a y loam
t o sandy loam (Table 3).
sig n ific an tly
(p > . 0 5 ) .

among

Sand and s i l t p e r c e n t a g e d i d no t d i f f e r

regions

or

among

C lay percentage d i f f e r e d

farms

w ithin

among r e g i o n s

regions

(p < .0 1 ) ,

ranging from 10% i n r e g i o n 3 o f Ecuador t o 22% i n t h e s o i l s from
Michigan.

The d i f f e r e n c e in c l a y p e r c e n t a g e among farms w i t h i n

r e g i o n s was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t

(p < .0 5 ).

N itr o g e n
The n i t r o g e n s t a t u s of t h e s o i l depends on s e v e r a l f a c t o r s .

125

Organic m a t t e r c o n t e n t i s one.

Organic s o i l s g e n e r a l l y c o n t a i n

more n i t r o g e n t h a n m i n e r a l s o i l s .

The t y p e o f c r o p p r e v i o u s l y

grown on t h e s o i l a l s o h a s an e f f e c t , s i n c e a l f a l f a and o t h e r
legumes c o n t r i b u t e n i t r o g e n t o t h e s o i l .

Other i m p o r t a n t f a c t o r s

i n c l u d e p r e v i o u s n i t r o g e n a p p l i c a t i o n , m anure a p p l i c a t i o n , and
e n v i r o n m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s under which the p r e v i o u s c r o p was r a i s e d
(for example d r o u g h t o r p e s t s w i l l d e c r e a s e t h e y i e l d of a legume
c r o p and t h e r e f o r e t h e n i t r o g e n s u p p l y f o r t h e n e x t c r o p .

The

r a t e o f f e r t i l i z a t i o n depends on th e n i t r o g e n r e q u i r e m e n ts o f t h e
crop

to produce

the

p o ten tial

or d e s i r e d

y ield ,

n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t of t h e s o i l (Vitosh e t a l . , 1979).
from E c u a d o r and M i c h i g a n
among s o i l

m in us

the

I n th e s o i l s

( T a b l e 4, F i g u r e 3) t h e d i f f e r e n c e

n itro g en co ntents

i n t h e r e g i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t

(p < . 0 5 ) , and t h e d i f f e r e n c e among f a r m s w i t h i n r e g i o n was n o t
(p > .05) .
N i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s n e c e s s a r y f o r c o rn p r o d u c t i o n and
for p a s t u r e s i f the sta n d s c o n s i s t of o n ly g r a s s .

For mixed

p a s t u r e s , or f o r a l f a l f a , n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r i s n o t needed when
t h e r e i s a good p r o p o r t i o n o f l e g u m e s i n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n and
m anure

is

reverted

to

the

field s.

Indeed,

heavy

nitrogen

a p p l i c a t i o n t o g r a s s - c l o v e r p a s t u r e s r e s u l t s i n a l o s s of c l o v e r
from t h e a s s o c i a t i o n due t o c o m p e ti t io n f o r l i g h t ,

m o is tu r e and

n u t r i e n t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y p otas sium (Donald, 1958).
The

M ich ig an

S ta te

U n iv e rsity

E x ten sio n

S erv ice

recommendations f o r n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z a t i o n o f c orn a r e shown i n
T a b l e 1.5 (Appendix I ) .

Table 4.

N i t r a t e s , phosphorus, p otassium , c a l c i u m , and magnesium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n s o i l s
from f i v e r e g i o n s i n t h e Chimborazo p r o v i n c e o f Ecuado r and one r e g i o n I n
Shiawasee county, Michigan (1)
NITRATENITROGEN
ppm

REGION(2)

X

N

(SEM)

POTASSIUM
ppm

PHOSPHORUS
ppm
X

(SEM)

X

(SEM)

CALCIUM
ppm
X

(SEM)

MAGNESIUM
ppm
X

(SEM)

1

ECUADOR

15

11.9 (2.11)

25.7 (10.9)

514

(94)

3303 (318)

804a (39)

2

ECUADOR

15

12.8 (2.11)

10.2 (10.9)

229

(94)

3045 (318)

814a (39)

3

ECUADOR

15

10.6 (2.11)

38.5 (10.9)

384

(94)

1938 (318)

586a (39)

4

ECUADOR

15

6.0 (2.11)

15.2 (10.9)

383

(94)

2774 (318)

635a (39)

5

ECUADOR

15

16.8 (2.11)

13.6 (10.9)

531

(94)

3230 (318)

691a (39)

6

MICHIGAN

13

15.9 (2.27)

61.6 (11.7)

175 (101)

1704 (342)

308b (42)

*
NS

NS
**

NS
**

NS
**

**
NS

S i g n i f i c a n c e of F (3)
Region
Farm /region
(1)
(2)
(3)

N, X, SEM: number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d e r r o r s of means
Region means w i t h i n a column w ith o ut a common s u p e r s c r i p t a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < .01; *: p < .05

24
22

20

18
16
14
12
10
8
6

4
2

0
REGION
! 3.

S o i l n i t r a t e - n i t r o g e n in f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo
o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in Shiaw assee County, M ichigan.

128

Phosphorus
D if f e r e n t p l a n t s p e c ie s have d i f f e r e n t requirem ents for
phosphorus.

A s o i l t e s t o f 1 0 -2 0 ppm i s c o n s i d e r e d l o w , 20-30

ppm medium a n d

30-50

R eco m m end atio n s f o r

ppm h i g h

for

fe rtiliz a tio n

corn

(M eints,

a r e made on t h e

1982).

basis

of

n u t r i e n t r e m o v a l by t h e c r o p , e x p e c t e d c r o p y i e l d , a n d , i n t h e
c a s e o f p e r m a n e n t c r o p s s u c h a s a l f a l f a , m a i n t e n a n c e o f a good
f e r t i l i t y l e v e l in the s o i l .

The M i c h i g a n

S tate U n iv ersity

E x te n s i o n S e r v i c e recommendations f o r p h o s p h o r u s f e r t i l i z a t i o n
f o r corn and a l f a l f a a r e shown i n t a b l e 1.6 and 1.7 (Appendix I ) ,
respectively.
S o i l s from r e g i o n s 2, 4 and 5 from Ecuador (Table 4, F ig u re
4 ) , had a l o w p h o s p h o r u s c o n t e n t f o r c o r n c u l t i v a t i o n , r e g i o n 1
had a medium c o n t e n t , and r e g i o n 5 had a high c o n t e n t .

Region 6,

in Michigan, had a v e r y h ig h phosphorus c o n t e n t , p r o b a b l y due to
recent f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
the re g io n s

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among

(p > - . 0 5 ) ,

b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e among f a r m s w i t h i n

r e g i o n was s i g n i f i c a n t ( p < . 0 1 ) .
Potassium
For c o r n c u l t i v a t i o n , a s o i l p o t a s s i u m t e s t o f 0 -2 5 ppm i s
c o n s i d e r e d v e r y l o w , 25 t o 75 l o w , 75-1 2 5 medium, 1 2 5 -1 7 5 h i g h ,
and a b o v e 175, v e r y h i g h ( M e i n t s , 1982).

R e g io n 6 i n M i c h i g a n

had an a v e r a g e o f 175 ppm o f p o t a s s i u m i n t h e s o i l .
regions

1 to

5 in

Ecuador

a ll

contained

S o i l s from

a b o v e 175 ppm o f

p o t a s s i u m ( T a b l e 4, F i g u r e 5 ) , p r o b a b l y due t o t h e i r v o l c a n i c
o r i g i n . There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e i n po tas siu m c o n t e n t
of s o i l s among r e g i o n s (p > . 0 5 ) ,

b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e among farms

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
1

2

3

4

5

6

REGION

e 4.

S o i l phosphorus i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in S h ia w a ssee County, M ichigan.

600

500

W A
400

300

130

SOIL

POTASSIUM

(p p m )

/ // // /.'

200

100

0
REGION

F ig u r e 5 .

S o i l p o ta s siu m i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h ia w a ssee County, M ichigan.

131

w i t h i n r e g i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t

(p < . 0 1 ) .

P h o s p h o r u s and p o t a s s i u m f e r t i l i z a t i o n a r e n e c e s s a r y f o r
optim al p a stu re p ro d u ctio n .
(W a r n c k e a n d C h r i s t e n s o n ,

The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r a l f a l f a
19 8 0 )

c a n be f o l l o w e d

for

the

f e r t i l i z a t i o n of mixed p a s t u r e s t o f a v o r th e growth of legumes.
The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s

for

annual phosphorus

and p o t a s s i u m

f e r t i l i z a t i o n f o r a l f a l f a a r e shown i n t a b l e 1.7 (Appendix I ) .
Recommendations f o r p h o s p h o r u s and p o t a s s i u m f e r t i l i z a t i o n f o r
co rn a r e shown i n t a b l e 1.6 (Appendix I ) .
Calcium
Calcium ,

a l t h o u g h e s s e n t i a l f o r p l a n t s and a n i m a l s ,

seldom i n a d e q u a t e i n t h e s o i l f o r c ro p r e q u i r e m e n ts .

is

Testing for

c a l c i u m c o n t e n t i n s o i l s i s u s e f u l t o a s s e s s magnesium s t a t u s i n
t h e s o i l ( R o b e r t s o n e t a l . , 1 9 7 6 a ).

When t h e pH o f t h e s o i l i s

adequate for p l a n t grow th, the c alciu m c o n te n t of the s o i l is
l i k e l y t o be s u f f i c i e n t due to the low r e q u i r e m e n ts of t h e c ro p s
(Robertson e t a l . ,

1976a).

In the p re s e n t

in v estig atio n ,

c alciu m c o n te n t in s o i l s

ranged from around 1700 and 1900 ppm i n r e g i o n s 6 i n Michigan and
3 i n E c u a d o r t o 2700 t o 3300 i n t h e o t h e r r e g i o n s o f E c u a d o r
(Table 4, F i g u r e 6).
was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

The d i f f e r e n c e among t h e means o f r e g i o n s
(p > . 0 5 ) ,

b u t th e d i f f e r e n c e among means of

farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t

(p <C.01).

Magnesium
According t o V i t o s h e t a l .

(1981), c r i t e r i a f o r recommending

magnesium f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n M i c h i g a n a r e :

1)

the exchangeable

magnesium l e v e l i s l e s s t h a n 37.5 ppm (75 l b / a c r e ) ; o r 2)

the

REGION

F ig u r e 6 .

S o i l c a lc iu m i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in S h ia w a ssee County, M ichigan.

133

eq u iv alen ts

o f p o t a s s i u m e x c e e d magnesium;

or

3)

the s o i l

magnesium a s a p e r c e n t o f t o t a l b a s e s ( c a l c i u m + magnesium +
potassium ) is l e s s th an 3 p e rc e n t.

None o f t h e s e c r i t e r i a a r e

met i n t h e s a m p l e s t a k e n i n E c u a d o r .

Magnesium a s a p e r c e n t o f

t o t a l b a s e s was s l i g h t l y below 3.0 in r e g i o n 6 (Figure 8).

I t is

p o s s i b l e t h a t r e s p o n s i v e c r o p s su c h a s c o r n w i l l b e n e f i t from
magnesium f e r t i l i z a t i o n

in

the

area

stu d ied

in M ichigan.

Magnesium c o n t e n t i n t h e s o i l s ranged from 308 ppm in r e g i o n 6 i n
M i c h i g a n t o 814 ppm i n r e g i o n 2 i n E c u a d o r ( T a b l e 4, F i g u r e 7).
The d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 1 ) , b u t t h e
d i f f e r e n c e among farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s was n o t ( p > . 0 5 ) .
Sodium
Under most p r a c t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s a n im a l s b e n e f i t from sodium
supp lem en tatio n to the d i e t .

Some p l a n t s p e c i e s a l s o b e n e f i t

from sodium f e r t i l i z a t i o n , depending on t h e adequacy o f potassium
i n t h e s o i l , b u t f o r a g e s p e c i e s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o s u f f e r from
sodium d e f i c i e n c y .

Sodium becomes i m p o r t a n t when n i t r a t e s a r e

u s e d a s a n i t r o g e n f e r t i l i z e r , b e c a u s e sodium n i t r a t e h e l p s t o
m a i n t a i n t h e s o i l pH, w h i l e c o n tin u o u s use o f t h e ammonium s a l t
l o w e r s t h e pH i n t h e s o i l .

I n t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , sodium i n s o i l s

(Table 5, F i g u r e 9) ranged from 131 ppm i n r e g i o n 5 i n Ecuador to
252 ppm i n r e g i o n 4 i n E c u a d o r .

S o i l s from M i c h i g a n , r e g i o n 6,

had an a v e r a g e o f 166 ppm so dium .

The d i f f e r e n c e i n sodium

c o n c e n t r a t i o n among r e g i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t (p C . 0 5 ) , b u t t h e
d i f f e r e n c e among farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s was no t ( p > . 0 5 ) .
C o b a lt
C o b a l t i s needed by th e legume r o o t n o du le b a c t e r i a system

900 —
r~
I

1i

800 H
i

I
j
600 -Ji

j

500 -

300 -

400 -4

i
I
i

200
100

-

-

M

m m

i f '%

m m ,

m m
m m

m

^ ^ s ill

a

A m

w m

A m

A m

4M

Wm

W m

W A>

A A WA wM Zm Am
t o

Wj/4
A A f/M
AAA
y/ zy/A & ////A
W ///A Wz/ z/ a W /Z/ft vtzzzza
xaaaa w m
w m W a a & >m m m
w m
WM ww / amS .Vwz/zzmA wV/zAmzz\ WvzzmZA
w W A W //-A
AaA //A wW a
vw
m w
m
\zZ///A.
0 '/m
Y 'W a w m

v/A /Z aW/AW\

W /W ' -- w m
w m w
m
m
m m
W/AZ?
V/'-A/A
tzW-A
V /Am//A
w W ym m
m m w m

REGION

F ig u r e 7.

S o i l magnesium i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

134

MAGNESIUM

i

SOIL

(p p m )

700 -j

135

PERCENT

OF CA

+ K +M G

5 -r

„

!V\1
F ig u r e 8 .

REGION
POTASSIUM

1*771

MAGNESIUM

S o i l p o ta s siu m and magnesium a s a p e r c e n t o f t o t a l b a s e s in f i v e
r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n
(6) i n S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

260
240 -

220

-

SOIL

SODIUM

(p p m )

200
IS O H

160 140 120

-

100

-

80 60 40 20

-

1

2

3

4

5

6

REGION

F ig u r e 9 .

S o i l sodium i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v i n c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

137

f o r t h e f i x a t i o n o f a tm o sp h e ric n i t r o g e n .

S o i l s are suspected to

be c o b a l t d e f i c i e n t when t h e y h a v e l e s s t h a n 5 ppm o f t o t a l
c o b a l t c o n t e n t or when legumes grown on them have l e s s t h a n 0.07
ppm c o b a l t

(Kubota and A l l a w a y ,

requirem ent of d a iry
C o b alt

content

in

c attle

the

1972 ).

is

sam ple

about
so ils

The minimum c o b a l t
0.10 ppm (NRC,

(Table

5,

1978).

Figure

10),

e x t r a c t e d w i t h 0.1 N HC1, r a n g e d from 0.67 ppm i n r e g i o n 6 i n
M i c h i g a n t o 2.53 ppm i n r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r .

The d i f f e r e n c e

among r e g i o n s (p < .05) and among f a r m s w i t h i n r e g i o n (p < .01)
was s i g n i f i c a n t .
Iron
The amount o f

ex tra ctab le

iron

in s o i l

d e p e n d s on t h e

t e x t u r e , p r o f i l e and d r a i n a g e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s o i l .

In

M i c h i g a n (Mokma e t a l . , 1 9 79 ), t h e p l o w l a y e r o f w e l l - d r a i n e d
loam and sandy loam s o i l s had 54 ppm i r o n , and t h e plow l a y e r of
w e l l - d r a i n e d loamy sand and sand s o i l s had 48 ppm i r o n .
d r a i n e d s o i l s of t h e

Poorly

same t e x t u r e s had h i g h e r e x t r a c t a b l e

119, 145 and 150 ppm r e s p e c t i v e l y . S o i l i r o n i s l e s s
f o r p l a n t s a t high s o i l pH v a l u e s (Robertson e t a l . ,

iron:

av ailab le
1981a).

In th e p r e s e n t s t u d y (Table 5, F i g u r e 11), s o i l s from r e g i o n
6,

in M ichigan,

had an a v e r a g e i r o n c o n t e n t o f 89 ppm.

h i g h e s t v a l u e fo u n d
the

sam p les

were

ch aracteristics

was i n r e g i o n
taken

from

and

significant.

plow

lay er.

A ll

D rainage

r a n g e d from w e l l d r a i n e d t o somewhat p o o r l y

d r a i n e d in th e f i e l d s sam pled.
(p < . 0 5 )

the

2 o f E c u a d o r : 269 ppm.

The

among

farm s

The d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s

w ith in

regions

(p < .0 1 )

was

Table 5.

Sodium, c o b a l t , i r o n , manganese, and molybdenum c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n s o i l s from
f i v e r e g i o n s i n t h e Chimborazo p r o v i n c e of Ecuador and one r e g i o n i n Shiawasee
county , Michigan (1)
SODIUM
ppm

X

N

1

ECUADOR

15

133 (16)

2 . 53a

2

ECUADOR

15

193 (16)

2.00ab (0.32)

269a

3

ECUADOR

15

134 (16)

4

ECUADOR

15

5

ECUADOR

15
13

(SEM)

IRON
ppm

REGION (2)

6 MICHIGAN

X

COBALT
ppm
(SEM)

X

(0.32)

MOLYBDENUM
ppm

MANGANESE
ppm
(SEM)

X

X

(SEM)

114 (13)

0.05 b (0.04)

(29)

65 (13)

0 . 26a (0.04)

1.29ab (0.32)

225ab (29)

66 (13)

0.2 8a (0.04)

252 (16)

2 . 18ab (0.32)

139ab (29)

78 (13)

0 .1 6b (0.04)

131 (16)

1 . 48ab (0.32)

109b

54 (13)

0 . 23a (0.04)

60 (14)

0.52a (0.05)

166 (17)

0.67 b

(01.34)

182ab (29)

(SEM)

89b

(29)
(31)

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F (3)
Region
Farm /region
(1)
(2)
(3)

*
NS

*
**

*
**

NS
**

**
**

N, X, SEM: number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d e r r o r s of means
Region means w i t h i n a column w ith o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t ( p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < . 0 1 ; *: p < . 0 5

2.4

-

2.2

-

2

-

1.8

-

1. 6

-

1.4 -

1 .2

-

10.8

-

0.6

-

139

SOIL

COBALT

(p p m )

2 .6 -r~

0.4 -

0.2

-

1

2

3

4

5

6

REGION

F ig u r e 10. S o i l c o b a l t in f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

280 —
t
260 240 -

200

-

180 -

140 -

160 -

120

-

100

-

140

SOIL

(p p m )

-

IRON

220

80 60 40 20

-

1

2

3

4

5

6

REGION

F ig u r e 11 . S o i l ir o n i n f i v e r e g io n s ( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador
and one r e g io n (6) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

141

Manganese
S o i l man ganese a v a i l a b i l i t y i n s o i l s d e c r e a s e s when t h e
s o i l s a r e n o t w e l l d r a i n e d or when th ey h a v e a h i g h pH (Robertson
and L u c a s , 1 9 8 1a ).

M anganese c o n t e n t i n s o i l s t e s t e d i n t h i s

i n v e s t i g a t i o n (Table 5, F i g u r e 12) ranged from 54 ppm i n r e g i o n 5
t o 114 ppm i n r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r .
M ichigan,

S o i l s from r e g i o n 6,

had an a v e r a g e o f 60 ppm m a n g a n e s e .

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s (p > . 0 5 ) ,
regions d i f f e r e d

in

T h e r e was no

b u t farms w i t h i n

(p < .01).

Manganese f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s recommended f o r r e s p o n s i v e c ro ps
when t h e s o i l t e s t (0.1 N HC1 e x t r a c t a b l e manganese) g i v e s v a l u e s
b e l o w 20 ppm; t h e pH o f t h e s o i l a l s o m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d when
fertiliz atio n

i s recommended.

I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t the s o i l s

t e s t e d in t h i s stud y do n o t need manganese f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
A l f a l f a , g r a s s e s and c o r n a r e medium r e s p o n s i v e c r o p s t o
m an g an ese

fertiliz atio n

fe rtiliz a tio n

(V itosh

et

a l.,

19 81).

r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s made by t h e

U n i v e r s i t y E x te n sion S e r v i c e

(Vitosh e t a l . ,

M anganese

M ichigan S t a t e
1981) a r e shown i n

t a b l e 1.8 (Appendix I ) .
Molybdenum
Molybdenum i s e s s e n t i a l
functions,
R hizobia

to p l a n t s .

Among i t s

i t h a s a p a r t i n t h e enzyme n i t r a t e

for

f i x a t i o n of n itro g e n .

other

re d u c ta se of

A lthough e s s e n t i a l

for

a n i m a l s , molybdenum i s of i n t e r e s t i n n u t r i t i o n a l s t u d i e s m a in ly
b e c a u s e o f i t s i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h s u l f u r and c o p p e r .

Molybdenum

a v a i l a b i l i t y i n c r e a s e s a t h i g h e r s o i l pH v a l u e s ( R o b e r t s o n e t
a l.,

198 1b).

The c r i t i c a l

lev el

(T able 1.2,

A p p e n d ix I) o f

120

110

-

100

-

SOIL

80 70 60 50 142

MANGANESE

(p p m )

90 -

40 30 -

20

-

10

-

1

2

3

4

5

6

REGION

F ig u r e 12 .

S o i l manganese i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

143

molybdenum i n t h e s o i l

( e x t r a c t e d w i t h ammonium o x a l a t e a t pH

3.3) i s 0 .0 4 - 0 . 2 0 ppm (Cox and K a m p ra th , 1972).
Molybdenum in sampled s o i l s (Table 5, Figure 13) ranged from
0.05 ppm in r e g io n

1 i n Ecuador t o 0.52 ppm in r e g io n 6 in

Michigan. S o i l s from region 4 in Ecuador had a molybdenum conten t
of 0.16 ppm.

S o i l s from the other r eg io n s stu d ied in t h i s study

had a molybdenum c o n t e n t ab ove 0.20 ppm, which i s th e c r i t i c a l
le v e l.

A lfa lfa

is

a c r o p h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e t o molybdenum

f e r t i l i z a t i o n and b e n e f i t s from tr e a tin g seed with molybdenum in
s o i l s d e f i c i e n t in t h i s elem ent.

I t i s p o s s i b l e th a t a l f a l f a and

legumes in gen eral grown on s o i l s with a molybdenum con ten t below
or w i t h i n the c r i t i c a l l e v e l , such as t h o s e from r e g io n 1 and 4
in Ecuador, w i l l respond to molybdenum f e r t i l i z a t i o n .

I t is a lso

p o s s i b l e th a t molybdenum in the s o i l w i l l become more a v a i l a b l e
to the p la n t a fte r lim ing in the f i e l d s th a t need pH ammendment.
For molybdenum in s o i l s , there was a s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e
among r e g i o n s (p < . Q 1 ) , a s w e l l as among farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s
(p < .0 1 ).

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t betw een s o i l

pH and

molybdenum in s o i l s was -0.443.
Selenium
The s e le n iu m c o n t e n t o f most s o i l s l i e s betw een 0.1 and 2
ppm.

The maximum c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f s e l e n iu m found in s e v e r a l

thousand s o i l samples in the United S t a t e s was under 100 ppm, and
th e m a j o r it y o f th e s e l e n i f e r o u s s o i l s a n a ly z e d c o n t a in e d an
a v e r a g e o f l e s s than 2 ppm s e le n iu m (NRC, 1983).

S e le n iu m i s

more a v a i l a b l e to p la n t s when the pH o f the s o i l i s high (T isd ale
e t a l . , 1985).

Based on feed a n a l y s i s , the s o i l s o f the S ta te of

0.6

SOIL

0.4- -I

0.3 -

144

MOLYBDENUM

(p p m )

0.5 -

0.2 -I

0.1

-

1

2

3

4

5

6

REGION

F ig u r e 1 3 .

S o i l molybdenum i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

1.45

Michigan a r e c l a s s i f i e d as s e l e n i u m d e f i c i e n t .

Approxim ately 80%

o f a l l f o r a g e and g r a i n from M i c h i g a n c o n t a i n e d l e s s t h a n 0.05
ppm s e l e n i u m (Kubota and A lla w a y , 1972).
S o i l s a m p l e s ( T a b l e 6, F i g u r e 14) from r e g i o n 4 i n E c u a d o r
had an a v e r a g e s e l e n i u m c o n t e n t of 0.09 ppm.

Samples from r e g i o n

3 i n Ecuador had an a v e r a g e se len iu m c o n t e n t o f 3.41 ppm.

Soils

from r e g i o n 6 i n Michigan c o n t a i n e d 0.41 ppm o f se le n iu m .

There

was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s (p > . 0 5 ) ,

b u t farms

w i t h i n r e g i o n s d i f f e r e d i n se l e n i u m c o n t e n t ( p < . 0 1 ) .
Zinc
The c r i t i c a l l e v e l f o r zinc in s o i l s ran g e s from 1.0 t o 7.5
ppm (Table 1.2, Appendix I ) .
for

p lan ts

leached,

in s o i l s

acid,

prevalent

w ith c a lc a r e o u s su rfa c e h o rizo n s or

sandy

where t h e

Zinc i s more l i k e l y t o be d e f i c i e n t

so ils.
so il

is

Z in c
high

deficiency
in

av ailab le

may a l s o

in
be

phosphorus.

I n t e r a c t i o n s i n v o l v i n g z i n c , phosphorus and i r o n r e s u l t in poor
u t i l i z a t i o n o f z in c by p l a n t s

(Kubota and A l l a w a y ,

1972).

Zinc

d e f i c i e n c i e s have been i d e n t i f i e d in M ichigan in navy b e a n s,
e s p e c i a l l y the S a n ila c v a r i e ty .
to

zinc

response

fe rtiliz a tio n ,

Corn i s a c ro p h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e

w hile g rasses

(Robertson and Lucas,

1981b).

and a l f a l f a

show low

Recommendations f o r zin c

f e r t i l i z a t i o n a r e shown i n t a b l e 1.9 (Appendix I ) .
Z in c i n s o i l s s a m p l e d r a n g e d from 3.7 ppm i n r e g i o n 6 i n
M i c h i g a n t o 12 ppm i n r e g i o n 2 i n E c u a d o r ( T a b l e 6, F i g u r e 15).
The a v e r a g e z i n c c o n t e n t i n s o i l s from r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r was
6.5 ppm, and i n r e g i o n 4 i n E c u a d o r 5.1 ppm.

The a v e r a g e pH o f

s o i l s from r e g i o n 4 i n Ecuador was 7.2, t h u s i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t

Table 6.

Selenium, z in c , s u l f a t e s , and copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n s o i l s from f i v e r e g i o n s
i n t h e Chimborazo p r o v i n c e o f E c u a d o r and one r e g i o n i n S h i a w a s e e c o u n t y ,
Michigan (1)
SELENIUM
ppm
X

REGION(2)

(SEM)

ZINC
ppm
X

(SEM)

SULFATESULFUR
ppm

COPPER
ppm

X

(SEM)

X

(SEM)

1

ECUADOR

15

0.64

(0. 74)

6.5

(1.92)

8C

(5. 06)

312a

(1.60)

2

ECUADOR

15

0.32

(0. 74)

12.0

(1.92)

46a

(5. 06)

138°

(1.60)

3

ECUADOR

15

3.41

(0. 74)

9.0

(1.92)

63a

(5. 06)

130°

(1.60)

4

ECUADOR

15

0.09

(0. 74)

5.1

(1.92)

18c

(5. 06)

231ab

(1.60)

5

ECUADOR

15

0.18

(0. 74)

9.5

(1.92)

170bc

(1.60)

6

MICHIGAN

29b (5. 06)
7c (5. 44)

27d

(1.72)

**
**

**
*

13

0.41

(0 . 79)

3.7

(2.07)

S i g n i f i c a n c e of F (3)
Region
Fa rm /region
(1)
(2)
(3)

NS
**

NS
**

N, X, SEM:
number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d e r r o r s of means
Region means w i t h i n a column w i th o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < . 0 5 )
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t ; **:
p < .01; *:
p < .05

(p p m )

3.5

2.5 -

-

1.5 147

SOIL

SELENIUM

2

0.5 -

77WA
1

2

4

3

5

6

REGION

F ig u r e 14 .

S o i l s e le n iu m i n f i v e r e g i o n s (1~5) i n th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h ia w a sse e County, M ichigan.

(p p m )
ZINC
SOIL

148

1

2

3

4

5

6

REGION

F ig u r e 1 5 .

S o i l z in c in f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f
Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

150

z in c f e r t i l i z a t i o n w i l l

i n c r e a s e t h e y i e l d of r e s p o n s i v e c ro p s

such as c orn i n t h i s r e g i o n .

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e

among r e g i o n s (p > . 0 5 ) , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e among f a r m s w i t h i n
r e g i o n were s i g n i f i c a n t (p C . 0 1 ) .
Soil Sulfates
The t h r e s h o l d l e v e l s b e lo w w h ic h s u l f u r f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s
f r e q u e n t l y recommended in t h e G r e a t Lakes a r e a i s between 6 t o 7
ppm (12 t o 14 l b / a c r e ) o f s u l f a t e - s u l f u r

in the s o i l .

Several

f i e l d s i n Michigan had been found t o have s u l f u r c o n c e n t r a t i o n s
below t h e l e v e l s mentioned,

but s u l f u r f e r t i l i z a t i o n f a i l e d to

cause an i n c r e a s e i n c ro p y i e l d s .

Legumes a r e more r e s p o n s i v e t o

s u l f u r f e r t i l i z a t i o n than o t h e r c ro p s (Robertson e t a l . ,

1976b).

S u l f u r c o n t e n t o f t h e s o i l was 7 ppm i n r e g i o n 6 i n Michigan
and 8 ppm i n r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r .

The o t h e r r e g i o n s i n E c u a d o r

had a v e r a g e s u l f u r v a l u e s above 18 ppm (Table 6, F i g u r e 16).

It

i s p o s s i b l e t h a t some s u l f u r f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s needed in re g i o n 1
and 6.

The p r o c e d u r e recommended by t h e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e o f

M ichigan

S tate

fe rtiliz e

U n iv ersity

(Robertson

et

a l.,

1976b)

is

to

t e s t s t r i p s a c r o s s t h e f i e l d a t a r a t e o f 22 t o 44

k g / h e c t a r e (20 t o 40 l b / a c r e ) .

I f t h e r e i s an i n c r e a s e i n y i e l d

o f t h e c r o p i n t h e s t r i p s t e s t e d , t h e n a l l t h e c r o p s h o u l d be
f e r t i l i z e d w ith s u l f u r .
The d i f f e r e n c e s o f s o i l s u l f a t e c o n t e n t among r e g i o n s and
farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s were s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .01).

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t of s o i l pH and s o i l s u l f u r was -0.295.
CQE g e r

The

c ritic a l

lev el

(Table

1.2 A p p e n d ix

I)

for

copper

^07569

REGION

F ig u r e 16 .

S o i l s u l f a t e - s u l f u r in f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e
o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in Shiaw assee County, M ichigan.

1.52

c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n o r g a n i c s o i l s measured a f t e r e x t r a c t i o n w i t h 1.0
N HC1 ra nges from 9-20 ppm (Whitney, 1980).

S o i l s in region 6 in

M i c h i g a n ( T a b l e 6, F i g u r e 17) had t h e l o w e s t c o p p e r c o n t e n t o f
t h e s i x r e g i o n s sampled f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n (2.7 ppm).
1 i n E c u a d o r had t h e h i g h e s t c o p p e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n

Region

(31.2 ppm).

Co p per c o n t e n t i n r e g i o n 6 i n M i c h i g a n i s b e l o w c r i t i c a l l e v e l
range.

S o i l s from r e g i o n s 2 and 3 i n E c u a d o r had 13.8 and 13.0

ppm c o p p e r , and t h e r e f o r e were a l s o low i n copper.
a re w ith in th e range of c r i t i c a l
fertiliz atio n

is

(p

among

.01)

and

p o ssib le.
farm s

These v a l u e s

l e v e l , w h e re a r e s p o n s e t o

The d i f f e r e n c e
w ith in

regions

among r e g i o n s
(p

.01)

was

significant.
Crops, e s p e c i a l l y legumes, grown i n s o i l s from r e g i o n s 2, 3
and 6 may b e n e f i t from copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n .

32
30
28
26
24
22
20

18
16
14
153

12
10

8
6
4

2

0
REGION

17

S o i l copper i n f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e
o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

154

N u trien ts in Pastures
P astures Management in Ecuador
P a s t u r e s s t u d i e d in Ecuador are g e n e r a l l y a s s o c i a t i o n s o f
g r a s s e s and legumes.

Preferred s p e c ie s for pasture are ryegrass

(Lolium m u ltiflo ru m ) and white c lo v e r (T r ifo liu m repens) .
le ss

fre q u en tly c u lt iv a t e d s p e c i e s

(D a c t y l i s g l o m e r a t a ) , f e s c u e s

in c lu d e

orchard

(F e s tu c a s p . ) , tim o th y

p r a ten se ) and red c lo v e r (T\ p r a ten se ).

Other
grass
(Phleum

Some farms grow a l f a l f a

(M edicago s a t i v a ) , and in some c a s e s o a t s (Avena s a t i v a ) , rye
(S e c a le c e r e a l e ) , or wheat (Triticum sp.) for greenchop. Some o f
the

weeds commonly found among th e c u l t i v a t e d

sp e c ie s

are

d a n d e l i o n (Taraxacum o f i c i n a l e ) , c h ic o r y (C hicorium i n t i b u s ) ,
th istle s

(C irsiu m s p . ) , dock s (Rumex s p . ) , p l a n t a i n s (P la n t a g o

s p . ) , grama (Paspalum s p . ) , sw ee t v e r n a l g r a s s

(Anthoxantum

odoratum) and v e l v e t g r a ss (Holcus la n a tu s).
D airy c a t t l e a r e k e p t p e rm a n en tly on p a s t u r e .

The r o t a t i o n

o f t h e h e r d from p a s t u r e t o p a s t u r e i s p r a c t i c e d on a l l f a r m s .
The s i z e o f t h e l o t s wh e re t h e a n i m a l s a r e k e p t from 1 t o 5 d a y s
d e p e n d s on t h e s i z e o f t h e h e r d , i s from 1 t o 5 h e c t a r e s (2.5 t o
12 a c r e s ) .

Grazing l o t s a r e fenced with barbed w ire.

Depending

on t h e a l t i t u d e of the farm, r o t a t i o n s a re completed i n 45 t o 90
days.

Average te m p e ra tu re s a t h ig h e r a l t i t u d e s a re lo w e r, th e

p a s t u r e grows more s l o w l y ,

and r o t a t i o n s t h e r e f o r e t a k e l o n g e r .

At 3000 m (9800 f t ) t h e a v e r a g e t e m p e r a t u r e i s a b o u t 12 ° C, and
t h e r o t a t i o n s a r e c o m p l e t e d i n a b o u t 60 d a y s .

For e a c h 200 m

(650 f t ) i n c r e a s e in a l t i t u d e , a 1° C d e c r e a s e i n t e m p e r a t u re i s
e x p e c t e d (Ter&n, 1979).

155

A lm ost a l l d a i r y c a t t l e in th e r e g i o n s s t u d i e d are e i t h e r
H o l s t e i n F r i e s i a n s or c r o s s e s o f H o l s t e i n s w ith n a t i v e b r e e d s .
In d e e d , a lm o s t a l l th e d a i r y c a t t l e are b l a c k and w h it e .

Few

farms have Brown S w iss, J e r se y , or other breeds.
Dairy anim als are maintained alm ost e x c l u s i v e l y on pasture.
V ery few farms g i v e th e a n im a ls g r a i n a t th e tim e o f m i l k i n g .
S a l t i s provided to a l l anim als, but tra c e m ineral s a l t i s seldom
u sed .

Some farm ers o c a s s i o n a l l y g i v e bone ash t o a n im a ls as a

so u r c e o f ph osp horus; d i c a l c i u m p h o sp h a te or o th e r phosphorus
sources are seldom used.
in th e farm s t o r e s ,

S e v e r a l mineral mixtures can be found

but farm ers do n o t use them on a r e g u la r

b a sis.

S in c e s e v e r a l o f th e a r e a s s t u d i e d are d e f i c i e n t in

io d in e ,

t h i s m ineral i s provided to the anim als in io d ized s a l t

or mixed with m o la sse s.
D a ir y fa rm ers a re c o n s c io u s o f th e need fo r m in e r a l
s u p p le m e n t a t io n fo r th e c a t t l e , but e i t h e r th e proper m in e r a l
m ixtures or in g r e d ie n ts are not a v a i l a b l e , or the market p r ic e i s
to o h ig h .

S p e c ific

r eq u ire m en ts f o r ,

m icrom inerals are not w e l l understood.

or p r o b l e m s w i t h ,

The common dairy farmer

la c k s a good guide on mineral n u t r it io n for dairy c a t t l e .
Ash
The amount o f m ineral elem en ts as a group in feed or animal
tissu e

is

d e ter m in e d by burning o f f

th e o r g a n ic m a tter

and

weighing the r e sid u e , which i s c a l l e d ash. The fig u r e a r riv ed at
by a sh d e t e r m i n a t i o n

of

a sp e c ific

feed

is

used

in

th e

c o n v e n t i o n a l fe e d a n a l y s i s as one v a r i a b l e in computing the
n itr o g e n f r e e e x t r a c t v a lu e for th a t fe e d .

The ash from a fe e d

156

may a l s o

be u se d

as

a startin g

point

for

determ ining

the

c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f t h e s p e c i f i c e l e m e n t s p r e s e n t (Maynard and
L oosli,

1969).

Mean a s h c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s

( T a b l e 7, F i g u r e 18) r a n g e d

from a r o u n d 11 t o 14% i n t h e f i v e r e g i o n s s t u d i e d i n E c u a d o r .
Mean a s h c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s from M i c h i g a n was 5.6%.

Mean a s h

c o n c e n t r a t i o n d i f f e r e d among r e g i o n s (p < . 0 5 ) , t y p e o f s a m p l e
(p < .0 1 ),

and farms w i t h i n re g i o n ( p < . 0 1 ) .

The i n t e r a c t i o n of

typ e o f sample and r e g i o n was no t s i g n i f i c a n t (p > . 0 5 ) .
Mean ash c o n t e n t o f a l l sam ples was 11.5% when th e p a s t u r e s
were washed w i t h d i s t i l l e d w a t e r , and 12.6% when t h e y were n o t
washed.

T h is d i f f e r e n c e in ash c o n t e n t i s an i n d i c a t i o n o f s o i l

c o n ta m i n a ti o n .

Grazing a n i m a l s i n g e s t s o i l a l o n g w i t h h e r b a g e

and t h i s

ingested s o i l

c a n be a s o u r c e o f e l e m e n t s f o r

the

an im als.

S o i l t y p e , s t o c k i n g r a t e , e a r t h w o r m p o p u l a t i o n , and

management a l l a f f e c t t h e amount of s o i l i n g e s t e d (Healy, 1974).
S o i l i n g e s t e d can be a s u b s t a n t i a l p a r t o f t h e dry m a t t e r i n t a k e .
Measurements in Southwest England i n d i c a t e s o i l i n t a k e s from 3 t o
6% o f

the

to tal

dry m a tte r

in tak e

t i t a n i u m as an i n d i c a t o r , F r i e s e t a l .

(Thornton,

1 9 74 ).

U s in g

(1982) found t h a t t h e s o i l

i n g e s t i o n o f d r y cows and y e a r l i n g h e i f e r s from M a r y l a n d and
M ichigan

was a r o u n d 2.4% o f t h e d r y m a t t e r

a n i m a l s were k e p t on p a s t u r e .

i n t a k e , when t h e

A d d itio n o f s o i l to th e d i e t of

n on pre gnant, n o n l a c t a t i n g cows a p p a r e n t l y d i d n o t have any e f f e c t
on t h e a b s o r p t i o n o f o t h e r n u t r i e n t s fr om t h e d i e t
1977).

(M iller,

1.57

T able 7.

P a s t u r e a s h , crude p r o t e i n , and crude f i b e r from f i v e
r e g i o n s i n t h e Chimborazo p r o v i n c e o f Ecuador and one
r e g i o n i n Shiawasee c o u n ty , Michigan (1)
ASH
% DM

CRUDE
PROTEIN
% DM

CRUDE
FIBER
% DM
X

REGION (2)

N

X

(SEM)

X

1

ECUADOR

30

1 3 . 7a

(1.02)

14.0 (1.33)

35.4 (1.38)

2

ECUADOR

30

1 2 . 7 ab (1.02)

15.4 (1.33)

29.2 (1.38)

3

ECUADOR

30

1 1 . 5ab (1.02)

10.4 (1.33)

35.1 (1.38)

4

ECUADOR

30

14.5 a

(1.02)

13.6 (1.33)

32.9 (1.38)

5

ECUADOR

30

1 1 . 2ab (1.02)

14.7 (1.33)

35.0 (1.38)

6

MICHIGAN

12

5 . 6 bc (1.33)

14.0 (2.11)

30.0 (2.18)

(SEM)

(SEM)

WASHED

81

11.5

(0.26)

13.2 (0.48)

34.0 (0.35)

NON-WASHED

81

12.8

(0.26)

14.1 (0.48)

32.6 (0.35)

NS
**
NS
NS

*
**
**
NS

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F (3)
Region
F a rm /re g io n
Type o f sample
Type X r e g i o n
(1)
(2)
(3)

*
**
**
NS

N, X, SEM:
number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d
e r r o r s o f means
Region means w i t h i n a column w i th o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t
a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < . 0 5 )
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < . 0 1 ; *: p < . 0 5

(% DM)
ash
pasture

158

1

[S 3
F ig u r e 18.

2

WASHED

3

4

5

6

region
NON-WASHED

Ash i n washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples in f i v e r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 )
in th e Chimborazo. p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

159

Crude F i b e r
Crude f i b e r i n the d i e t of ruminants i s n e c e s s a r y f o r p r o p e r
digestion.

A minimum crude f i b e r c o n t e n t of 17.3% o f t h e d i e t i s

suggested

by t h e NRC (1978)

percentage.

to m aintain

a normal

m ilk

fat

I n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n p a s t u r e s had a c r u d e f i b e r

c o n t e n t r a n g i n g from 29.2% i n r e g i o n 2 i n E c u a d o r t o 35.4% i n
r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r ( T a b l e 7, F i g u r e 19).

Region 6 in M ichigan

had an a v e r a g e o f 30.0% crude f i b e r i n t h e p a s t u r e s .
s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s

(p < . 0 5 ) ,

r e g i o n s (p < . 0 1 ) , and t y p e o f s a m p l e (p < . 0 1 ) .
had an a v e r a g e o f 34.0% f i b e r

There was a
farms w i t h i n

Washed s a m p l e s

and n o n - w a s h e d s a m p l e s

32.6%,

p r o b a b l y because some s o i l co n ta m in a tio n .
Nitrogen
N i t r o g e n in p a s t u r e s , e xp re ss ed as p e r c e n t p r o t e i n ,

ranged

from an a v e r a g e o f 10.4 i n r e g i o n 3 i n E c u a d o r t o 15.4 i n r e g i o n
2 i n E c u a d o r ( T a b l e 7, F i g u r e 20).

The a v e r a g e i n r e g i o n 6 i n

Michigan f o r c o rn s i l a g e and a l f a l f a samples was 14.0% p r o t e i n .
The d i f f e r e n c e s
in te rac tio n

among r e g i o n s ,

ty p es of

were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

sam ple,

(p > . 0 5 ) .

T h e r e was a

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s (p
amount o f n i t r o g e n i n s o i l s

and t h e

.01).

The

was p o o r l y c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e

amount o f n i t r o g e n i n p a s t u r e s (r = - 0 .0 4 3 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n c r u d e f i b e r and p r o t e i n i n p a s t u r e s was 0.261.
L a c t a t i n g cows, depending on t h e i r l e v e l o f m i l k p r o d u c t i o n ,
r e q u i r e from 13 t o 16% p r o t e i n in t h e d i e t .

Growing h e i f e r s and

b u l l s r e q u i r e 12% p r o t e i n i n t h e r a t i o n , and d r y p r e g n a n t cows

crude

fiber (3» DM)

50

pasture

160

rvXl WASHED
F ig u r e 19.

NON-WASHED

Crude f i b e r in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples in f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) i n
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

(% DM)
protein
pasture

161

G 53
F igu re 20.

WASHED

NON-WASHED

Crude p r o t e i n in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples in f i v e
r e g i o n s ( 1 - 5 ) i n th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n
(6) i n S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

162

11% (NRC, 1978).

P a s t u r e s from r e g i o n 3 i n E c u a d o r may n o t h a v e

enough p r o t e i n t o s u s t a i n adequate growth or m i l k p r o d u c t i o n of
d a i r y a n im a l s .

High producing cows i n a l l t h e a r e a s s t u d i e d may

need p r o t e i n s u p p l e m e n ta t io n .
Calcium
Calcium c o n t e n t of th e p a s t u r e sa m p le s ranged from 0.40% i n
region

2 t o 0.76% i n r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r .

Average c alciu m

c o n t e n t i n r e g i o n 6 i n M i c h i g a n was 0.66% o f t h e d r y m a t t e r
( T a b l e 8, F i g u r e 21). T h e r e was n o t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e
(p > . 0 5 ) among r e g i o n s , t y p e o f s a m p l e , o r i n t h e i n t e r a c t i o n
between t h e two, b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e
was

significant

(p O O l).

among

farms

w ithin

region

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between

c a l c i u m i n p a s t u r e s and c a lc iu m i n s o i l s was 0.026.
C a l c i u m r e q u i r e m e n t s a r e c a l c u l a t e d by m u l t i p l y i n g t h e
p h o s p h o r u s r e q u i r e m e n t by a f a c t o r t h a t c a n r a n g e fr om 1 t o 7.
The b e s t a b s o r p t i o n o f both e le m e n ts has been a c h i e v e d when t h e
r e l a t i o n o f c a l c i u m t o p h o s p h o r u s i s a r o u n d 2:1 (NRC,
C alcium -to-phosphorus r e l a t i o n
order,

1978 ).

i n r e g i o n 1 t o 6 was i n t h i s

2 .5 , 1.7 , 2 .0 , 1.8, 2.8 and 2.8.

L a c t a t i n g cows h a v e a

high phosphorus r e q u i r e m e n t, so phosphorus sup p le m e n ts a r e o f t e n
added t h e d i e t . When such s u p p l e m e n ta t io n o c c u r s , i t i s p o s s i b l e
t h a t c a l c i u m a l s o n e e d s t o be ad d ed t o t h e d i e t t o m a i n t a i n a
pr o p e r c a l c i u m - t o - p h o s p h o r u s r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Phosphorus
Mean p h o s p h o r u s c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s r a n g e d from 0.21% i n
r e g i o n s 3 and 5 t o 0.30% i n r e g i o n 1 o f Ecuador.

Mean phosphorus

c o n t e n t o f p a s t u r e s i n r e g i o n 6 i n M i c h i g a n was 0.24% ( T a b l e 8,

Table

8.

Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, po tassium, and magnesium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n the dry
m a t t e r o f washed and n on-w ashed p a s t u r e s a m p l e s from f i v e r e g i o n s i n t h e
Chimborazo p r o v i n c e o f E cu a d or and one r e g i o n i n S h i a w a s e e c o u n t y , M i c h i g a n
( 1)
CALCIUM
% DM
(SEM)

PHOSPHORUS
% EM

SODIUM
% DM

POTASSIUM
% DM

MAGNESIUM
% DM

X

X

X

(SEM)

0.30 (0.03)

0.018b

(0.003) 3.07 (0.25)

0.26 (0.03)

0.40 (0.12)

0.24 (0.03)

0.018b

(0.003) 2.22 (0.25)

0.24 (0.03)

30

0.42 (0.12)

0.21 (0.03)

0.020ab (0.003) 2.03 (0.25)

0.20 (0.03)

ECUADOR

30

0.50 (0.12)

0.27 (0.03)

0 . 033a

(0.003) 2.68 (0.25)

0.29 (0.03)

5

ECUADOR

30

0.58 (0.12)

0.21 (0.03)

0.021ab (0.003) 2.68 (0.25)

0.21 (0.03)

6

MICHIGAN

12

0.66 (0.09)

0.24 (0.05)

0 . 018b

(0.004) 1.70 (0.38)

0.24 (0.05)

WASHED

81

0.56 (0.04)

0.24 (0.01)

0.021

(0.001) 2.30 (0.10)

0.30 (0.01)

NON-WASHED

81

0.52 (0.04)

0.25 (0.01)

0.022

(0.001) 2.63 (0.10))

0.32 (0.01)

NS
*
NS
NS

NS
**
NS
NS

*
**
NS
NS

REGION(2)

N

X

1

ECUADOR

30

0.76 (0.12)

2

ECUADOR

30

3

ECUADOR

4

X

(SEM)

(SEM)

(SEM)

S i g n i f i c a n c e of F (3)
Region
Fa rm /region
Type of sample
Type X re g i o n
(1)
(2)
(3)

NS
**
*
NS

NS
**
NS
NS

N, X, SEM: number of o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d e r r o r s of means
Region means w i t h i n a column w i th o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t ( p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < . 0 1 ; *: p < . 0 5

1
0.9 -

DM)

0.6
0.5

pasture

0.7 -

(X

-

calcium

0.8

m
\

I

0.4 0.3 0.2

-

0.1

-

0

i

hi
i
m

m

3

IV \1 WASHED
F igu re 21 .

4

real on

5

6

NON- WASHED

Calcium in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) i n th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
Sh iaw assee County, M ichigan.

165

F igure

22).

The d i f f e r e n c e

s i g n i f i c a n t (p > . 0 5 ) .

among r e g i o n a l m e a n s was n o t

The d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n means o f washed

and nonwashed samples was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t
in teractio n

of

type

of

sam ple

w ith

(p > .0 5 ),

region

nor was the

(p > . 0 5 ) .

The

d i f f e r e n c e among f a r m s w i t h i n r e g i o n s was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t
(p

.0 1 ).

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e t w e e n p h o s p h o r u s i n

p a s t u r e s and s o i l s was 0.317.
L a c t a t i n g cows, depending on t h e i r l e v e l o f m i l k p r o d u c t i o n ,
r e q u i r e from 0.31 t o 0.40% p h o s p h o r u s i n t h e r a t i o n .

Growing

h e i f e r s and b u l l s , and d ry p r e g n a n t cows r e q u i r e 0.26% phosphorus
i n t h e d i e t (NRC, 1978).

Phosphorus s u p p le m e n ta tio n i s o f te n

n e c e s s a r y f o r h i g h p r o d u c i n g c o w s, and e v e n f o r d r y cows and
growing a n im a ls i f t h e y a r e consuming f o r a g e s low in phosphorus
s u s h a s t h o s e i n r e g i o n s 2, 3 and 5 o f E c u a d o r , and i n r e g i o n 6
i n Michigan.
Calcium and phosphorus a r e u s u a l l y s u p p l i e d t o t h e a n im als
a s p a r t o f t h e g r a i n mix.

G r a z i n g a n i m a l s t h a t do n o t r e c e i v e

c o n c e n t r a t e sh o u l d be p r o v i d e d w ith m i n e r a l s i n a m i n e r a l f e e d e r .
C a l c i u m and p h o s p h o r u s s o u r c e s may be mixed w i t h t h e

trace

m i n e r a l s a l t in a p r o p o r t i o n c a l c u l a t e d t o meet th e r e q u i r e m e n ts ,
based on t h e s a l t consumption o f t h e a n im a l s .
Magnesium
The s u g g e s t e d magnesium r e q u i r e m e n t of d r y p r e g a n a n t cows,
and g r o w i n g h e i f e r s and b u l l s i s 0.16 p e r c e n t o f t h e d i e t ;

it

i n c r e a s e s t o 0.20-0.25% p e r c e n t o f t h e d i e t of l a c t a t i n g cows fed
s u b s t a n t i a l am ounts o f p r e s e r v e d f o r a g e s a n d / o r c o n c e n t r a t e s
(NRC, 1978).

Magnesium c o n t e n t i n t h e p a s t u r e samples t e s t e d in

0 .4

phosphorus

(% DM)

0.35

J

0.3

0.25

0.2

-

0.15 -

pasture

^ 4 .

M

0.1

i
ii

f

\

*

!

0.05 H

m

r \X l WASHED

F ig u r e 2 2 .

s ii

I

%*

r//y

Km

vsm s s i

ii

lion

N
s
3

1

NON-WASHED

Phosphorus in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h ia w a ssee County, M ichigan.

167

t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r i m e n t r a n g e d from 0.20% i n r e g i o n 3 t o 0.26% i n
reg io n 1 o f Ecuador.

A v e r a g e magnesium c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s i n

r e g i o n 6 i n Michigan was 0.24% (Table 8, F i g u r e 23).

Differences

among r e g i o n s , t y p e s o f s a m p le s, and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between th e
two were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ( p > . 0 5 ) .

The d i f f e r e n c e among

w ithin

(p < . 0 1 ) .

r e g i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t

farms

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t between magnesium i n p a s t u r e s and s o i l s was 0.228.
Magnesium s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n t o t h e d i e t o f c a t t l e

in the

r e g i o n s s t u d i e d seems u n n e c e s s a r y , e x c e p t when l a c t a t i n g cows a re
consuming a high amount o f c o n c e n t r a t e s , s i n c e magnesium c o n t e n t
in c orn g r a i n i s low er than in f o ra g e s

(Adams, 1975).

I t is

worth n o t i n g , however, t h a t magnesium oxide in the d i e t h e l p s t o
p r e v e n t low m i l k f a t syndrome i n d a i r y cows (Emery e t a l . ,

1965).

Sodium
I n p a s t u r e s , sodium c o n t e n t ranged from 0.018% i n r e g i o n s 1
and 2 o f E c u a d o r and r e g i o n 6 i n M i c h i g a n , t o 0.33% i n r e g i o n 3
in Ecuador

( T a b l e 8,

Figure

24).

The d i f f e r e n c e

i n sodium

c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s among r e g i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 5 ) , as
was t h e d i f f e r e n c e among f a r m s w i t h i n r e g i o n s (p < . 0 1 ) .

The

d i f f e r e n c e among t y p e s o f s a m p l e s and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t y p e s
w i t h r e g i o n s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

(p > . 0 5 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t between sodium i n s o i l s and i n p a s t u r e s was 0.288.
The NRC (1978) e s t i m a t e of the sodium req u ire m e n ts of c a t t l e
i s 0.18 p e r c e n t o f t h e r a t i o n dry m a t t e r f o r l a c t a t i n g cows, and
0.10% f o r o t h e r

types of d a iry c a t t l e .

This requirem ent is

o b v i o u s l y n o t met by t h e sodium c o n t e n t o f p a s t u r e s a l o n e , so the
a n i m a l s ' d i e t s ne ed s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n .

When t h e a n i m a l s r e c i e v e

(%

DM)

0.5

0.2 i

posture

magnesium

0.3 -

± m
1

2

KZ3 WASHED

F igu re 2 3 .

3

4

5

6

reg io n

V 7 7 ,\ NON-WASHED

Magnesium in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
Shiaw assee County, M ichigan.

0.0 5

0.03 H

pasture

sodium

(% DM)

0.04 -

0.02

-

0.01

-

1
r \X l
F ig u r e 24.

2
WASHED

3

4

5

6

reg io n
NON-WASHED

Y7Z^X

Sodium in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) i n
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

170

c o n c e n t r a t e , so dium c h l o r i d e i s i n c l u d e d i n t h e g r a i n m i x t u r e ,
u s u a l l y a t a r a t e o f 1% o f t h e g r a i n m i x t u r e .

G razing a n im a ls

t h a t do n o t r e c e i v e c o n c e n t r a t e need t o be o f f e r e d s a l t , a l o n g
w ith o t h e r m i n e r a l s , i n m i n e r a l f e e d e r s i n the f i e l d .
s a l t i n t a k e by c a t t l e

is v a ria b le ,

consume on t h e a v e r a g e

Voluntary

b u t l a c t a t i n g d a i r y cows

45 g p e r d a y .

Dry cows and h e i f e r s

consume from 15 t o 30 g o f s a l t p e r day (Crampton and H a r r i s ,
19 69).

T h i s i n t a k e s h o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d when d e t e r m i n i n g t h e

p e r c e n t a g e o f each m i n e r a l t o be i n c l u d e d i n the m in e r a l mix.
P o ta ssiu m
P o t a s s i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p a s t u r e s r a n g e d from 1.70% i n
r e g i o n 6, i n M i c h i g a n , t o 3.07% i n r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r ( T a b l e 8,
F i g u r e 25). I n p a s t u r e s , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s among r e g i o n s and t h e
i n t e r a c t i o n o f r e g i o n w i t h t y p e o f s a m p l e were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t
(p > . 0 5 ) .

The d i f f e r e n c e

sig n ifican t

(p < .0 1 ),

potassium
(p < .0 5 ).

among f a r m s w i t h i n

region

was

as was t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e a v e r a g e

c o n t e n t o f washed and no n-w ash ed p a s t u r e

sam ples

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n p o t a s s i u m i n

p a s t u r e s and in s o i l s was 0.268.
The p o ta s s iu m r e q u i r e m e n t of d a i r y c a t t l e i s 0.8 t o 1.0% o f
t h e d i e t ' s d r y m a t t e r (NRC, 1978; Underwood, 1981).

The f o r a g e s

a n a l y z e d i n t h i s s t u d y have enough potas si um to meet t h e a n i m a l s '
r e q u i r e m e n ts , but i f g r a i n i s supplem ented to th e r a t i o n t o t a l
p o t a s s i u m i n t h e d i e t may be b e lo w t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n t s .
g r a i n has around 0.35% p otassium (NRC, 1978).

Corn

potassium
pasture

r ^ \l

F ig u r e 25 .

WASHED

N O N -W A S H E D

P o ta ssiu m i n washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

] 72

Cogger
The minimum e s t i m a t e d copper re q u i r e m e n t f o r d a i r y c a t t l e i s
10 ppm (NRC, 19 78). C o p p e r r e q u i r e m e n t s m u st be c a l c u l a t e d i n
relatio n

t o t h e molybdenum c o n t e n t o f t h e f e e d ,

to in su re a

minimum 2:1 r a t i o o f copper t o molybdenum.
Pastures

i n r e g i o n s 2 and 3 i n E c u a d o r and r e g i o n 6 i n

M i c h i g a n had 4 .6 , 4.7 and 5.5 ppm o f c o p p e r ( T a b l e 9, F i g u r e 26).
Copper i n p a s t u r e s from r e g i o n s 1, 4 and 5 i n E c u a d o r was 9 .3 ,
7 .8 a n d 6.8 ppm.

A ll

these

v alu es

a r e b e l o w t h e minimum

r e q u i r e m e n t o f 10 ppm, a l t h o u g h t h e c o p p e r t o molybdenum r a t i o
was i n a l l th e c a s e s g r e a t e r th an 2:1.
The d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s

(p < . 0 5 ) ,

w i t h i n r e g i o n s (p < . 0 1 ) , was s i g n i f i c a n t .

and among f a r m s

The d i f f e r e n c e s among

ty p e s o f sa m ple s and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between type and r e g i o n were
not s i g n i f i c a n t ( p > . 0 5 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n

copper i n p a s t u r e s and i n s o i l s was 0.322.
To p r e v e n t c o p p e r d e f i c i e n c y i n c a t t l e , 0.5 t o 1.0% c o p p e r
su lfate

(0.125 t o 0.250% c o p p e r ) may be added t o t h e s a l t

c o p p e r d e f i c i e n t a r e a s (NRC, 1978; Underwood, 1 981).

in

The t r a c e

m i n e r a l s a l t used i n r e g i o n 6 i n Michigan a t t h e time of sampling
had o n l y 0.03% c o p p e r .
the

to tal

copper

T h i s p e r c e n t a g e i s n o t enough t o r a i s e

con cen tratio n

s u g g e s t e d by t h e NRC (1978).
a ll

the

six

reg io n s

in

the

d iet

to

10 ppm,

as

I t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t a n i m a l s from

studyed

co u ld

b en efit

from c o p p e r

supplementation v ia the tra c e mineral s a l t .
The s u f f i c i e n c y range o f copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n i s 6 t o 20 ppm
f o r c o r n , and 11 t o 30 ppm f o r a l f a l f a ( T a b l e 1 . 2 , A p pe nd ix 1).

Table

9.

Copper, i r o n , z i n c , c o b a l t , and manganese c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n th e dry m a t t e r of
washed and n on -w ashed p a s t u r e s a m p l e s from f i v e r e g i o n s i n t h e Ch imborazo
p r o v i n c e of Ecuador and one re g i o n m Shiawasee county, Michigan (1)
COPPER
ppm

REGION(2)

X

N

(SEM)

IRON
ppm
X

(SEM)

ZINC
ppm
X

(SEM)

COBALT
ppm
X

(SEM)

MANGANESE
ppm
X

(SEM)

1

ECUADOR

30

9.3 (0.9)

221 (55)

41 (6)

0.25 (0.02)

35 ( 7)

2

ECUADOR

30

4.6 (0.9)

138 (55)

40 (6)

0.15 (0.02)

36 ( 7)

3

ECUADOR

30

4.7 (0.9)

106 (55)

31 (6)

0.20 (0.02)

48 ( 7)

4

ECUADOR

30

7.8 (0.9)

357 (55)

38 (6)

0.18 (0.02)

42 ( 7)

5

ECUADOR

30

6.8 (0.9)

108 (55)

41 (6)

0.26 (0.02)

27 ( 7)

6

MICHIGAN

12

5.5 (1.5)

44 (80)

28 (9)

0.15 (0.03)

46 (12)

WASHED

81

6.5 (0.3)

145 (15)

39 (2)

0.19 (0.01)

37 ( 2)

NON-WASHED

81

6.6 (0.3)

205 (15)

34 (2)

0.22 (0.01)

40 ( 2)

*
**
NS
NS

*
**
**
NS

NS
**

*
**
NS
NS

*
**
NS
**

S i g n i f i c a n c e of F (3)
Region
Fa rm /regio n
Type of sample
Type X r e g i o n
(1)
(2)
(3)

*

NS

N, X, SEM: number of o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d e r r o r s o f means
Region means w i t h i n a column w ith o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t ( p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < .01; *: p < .05

10
9 -

copper (ppm )

-

7 -

pasture

8

4 -

6

-

5 -

3 2

-

1

-

0 -

WASHED

F ig u r e 2 6 .

Copper i n washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
S h ia w a ssee County, M ichigan.

175

Even though the samples for t h i s i n v e s t i g a t io n rep resen t e n t ir e
p la n t s th a t are l i k e l y to have a lower elem ent c o n cen tra tio n than
th e p l a n t ' s p a r t s s u g g e s t e d

in th e t a b l e ,

th e ir

low copper

c o n t e n t may be an i n d i c a t i o n o f low copper a v a i l a b i l i t y in th e
so il.

A lso ,

th e copper c o n t e n t

in

th e s o i l

(T ab le 6 ) ,

as

d i s c u s s e d above i s lo w . Copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n may i n c r e a s e the
copper c o n t e n t in th e p a s t u r e , and p o s s i b l y im prove th e crop
y ie ld ,

e s p e c ia lly

of

a lfa lfa

and legu m es

th a t

are

h ig h ly

re sp o n siv e to copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
The r e c o m m e n d a t i o n o f t h e E x t e n s i o n S e r v i c e o f M i c h i g a n
S t a t e U n i v e r s i ty to c o r r e c t p o s s i b l e copper d e f i c i e n c i e s is a
band a p p l i c a t i o n of 6.7 kg o f copper per h e c t a r e (6 l b / a c r e ) per
y e a r , u n t i l 18 kg (40 lb ) of copper has been a p p l i e d or u n t i l th e
s o i l t e s t i s o ve r 20 ppm copper (Robertson e t a l . ,

1981c).

Iron
According to the NRC (1978), an iron l e v e l o f 100 ppm in the
dry matter o f the d i e t should be adequate for a l l needs o f c a l v e s
t o 3 months o f a g e , and 50 ppm s u f f i c i e n t fo r a l l o t h e r d a ir y
c a ttle .

In p a s t u r e s , th e ir o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n ranged from 45 ppm

in region 6 in Michigan to 357 ppm in region 4 in Ecuador (Table
9, Figure 27).
100 ppm.

A l l regions in Ecuador had an iron co n ten t above

The d if f e r e n c e among regions (p < .05) and among farms

w ith in reg ion s (p < .01) was s i g n i f i c a n t .

Non-washed samples had

s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i r o n , 205 ppm, than washed s a m p le s , which
contained 145 ppm ( p < . 0 1 ) ,

in d ic a tin g s o i l contam ination.

The

e f f e c t o f i n t e r a c t i o n o f ty p e o f sam p le w ith r e g io n was not
sig n ific a n t

(p > . 0 5 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n o f i r o n

in

so ils

pasture

iron (ppm)

500

S 3 !

F ig u r e 27 .

WASHED

N O N -W A S H E D

Iron in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

177

( e x t r a c t e d w i t h 0.1 N HC1) t o t h a t i n p a s t u r e s was - 0 . 0 2 .
c o r r e l a t i o n of i r o n i n s o i l s

The

t o pH i n s o i l s was -0.153.

An i r o n c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f 45 ppm i n t h e f o r a g e s o f r e g i o n 6
i s n o t enough t o m e e t t h e a n i m a l s ' r e q u i r e m e n t s .

H o w ev e r, a

t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t was fed t h a t p r o v i d e d s u f f i c i e n t i r o n f o r t h e
animals.

Trace m i n e r a l s a l t s have around 0.2 % i r o n (Table 1 . 10,

Appendix I).
Zinc
The e s t i m a t e d z i n c r e q u i r e m e n t o f d a i r y c a t t l e
(NRC, 1978).

i s 40 ppm

Z in c i n p a s t u r e s ( T a b l e 9, F i g u r e 28) r a n g e d from

28 ppm i n . r e g i o n 6 i n M i c h i g a n t o 41 ppm i n r e g i o n s 1 and 5 i n
E c u a d o r . A n i m a l s from r e g i o n

6 i n M i c h i g a n and r e g i o n

3 in

E c u a d o r may b e n e f i t from z i n c s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n v i a t h e t r a c e
m ineral s a l t .
There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s (p > . 0 5 ) ,
b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e among farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s (p < . 0 1 ) and among
ty p es of sam ples

(p < .05) was s i g n i f i c a n t .

The i n t e r a c t i o n

between ty pe of sample and r e g i o n was not s i g n i f i c a n t
C o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s were as f o l l o w s :

(p > . 0 5 ) .

0.024 between z in c in

s o i l s and i n p a s t u r e s , 0.004 b e tw e e n z i n c i n p a s t u r e s and pH i n
s o i l s , - 0 . 0 8 6 b e tw e e n z i n c i n p a s t u r e s and p h o s p h o r u s i n s o i l s ,
and 0.066 between z in c i n p a s t u r e s and i r o n i n s o i l s .
The s u f f i c i e n c y range o f zinc f o r c o rn i s 20-70 ppm f o r corn
and 21-70 ppm f o r a l f a l f a .

Average zin c c o n t e n t i n c o rn sam p le s

i n r e g i o n 6 was 23 ppm, i t was 31 i n a l f a l f a . The e x t r a c t a b l e
z in c l e v e l i n th e s o i l s in t h i s r e g i o n was a l s o low, as d i s c u s s e d
above.

Corn i s a c ro p h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e t o z in c (Robertson and

80

(ppm)
zinc

40 30 20

-

10

-

178

5 0 -i

pasture

7 0 -I

1

2

4

3

5

6

reg io n
CSS

F ig u r e 2 8 .

WASHED

V Z7X

N O N -W A S H E D

Zinc i n washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S hiaw assee County, M ichigan.

179

L u c a s , 1 9 8 1 b ) , so i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t z i n c f e r t i l i z a t i o n w o u ld
improve the y i e l d s i n t h i s r e g i o n .
To t r e a t a d e f i c i e n t s o i l , a band a p p l i c a t i o n a t p l a n t i n g
t i m e o f 3.4 t o 4.5 kg o f

inorganic

z in c or

0.6 t o 0.9 kg o f

o r g a n i c z i n c ( c h e l a t e ) p e r h e c t a r e (3 t o 4 l b / a c r e o r 0.5 t o 0.8
lb/acre)

i s recommended.

Where z in c i s b r o a d c a s t ,

r a t e s sh o u ld

be i n c r e a s e d . F o r h i g h l y r e s p o n s i v e c r o p s , 28 k g / h e c t a r e (25
l b / a c r e ) of z i n c showed good a v a i l a b i l i t y f o r s e v e n y e a r s .

Also,

after

o f 28

several

kg/hectare

years

of banding

(25 l b / a c r e )

zin c,

h a s b e en u s e d ,

when a t o t a l

r a t e s c a n be g r e a t l y

r e d u c e d , and i n some i n s t a n c e s e v e n e l i m i n a t e d ( R o b e r t s o n and
Lucas, 1981b).
Cobalt
In pastu res

c o b a l t con ten t ranged from 0.15 ppm in region 6

in M ichigan t o 0.26 ppm i n r e g i o n 5 in Ecuador (T able 9, F ig u r e
29). R e g io n a l means o f c o b a l t c o n t e n t in p a s t u r e s (p < .05) and
means in farms w i t h i n
d ifferen t.

r eg io n s

(p < .01)

were

sig n ific a n tly

The d i f f e r e n c e among means o f type of sample and the

i n t e r a c t i o n were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

(p > . 0 5 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t between c o b a l t in s o i l s and in pastures was 0.052.
The c o b a l t r e q u i r e m e n t o f d a i r y c a t t l e i s 0.10 ppm o f t h e
d i e t ' s d r y m a t t e r (NRC, 19 7 8 ).

T h i s r e q u i r e m e n t seems t o be met

by t h e f o r a g e s a n a l y z e d i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

Trace

m in e ra l s a l t s , how ever, a lm o s t alw ays in c lu d e c o b a l t in t h e i r
fo r m u la s , u s u a l l y a t a r a t e o f 0.003 t o 0.005% o f t h e m ix t u r e , in
order to p rev en t p o s s ib l e d e fic ie n c ie s .

5

180

pasture

cobalt (ppm )

4 -t

1

2

3

4

5

6

reg io n
IV q

F ig u r e 29 .

WASHED

U Z7X

N O N -W A S H E D

C obalt i n washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

181

Manganese
The m a n g a n es e

requirem ent of c a t t l e

h a s n o t b een w e l l

d e f i n e d b u t t h e su g g e s t e d manganese d i e t a r y requ irem ent i s 40 ppm
(NRC, 1978).

Manganese c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s i n r e g i o n s 1, 2 and 5

i n E c u a d o r was 35, 36 and 27 ppm.

I n r e g i o n s 3 and 4 i n E c u a d o r ,

and r e g i o n 6 i n Michigan, a v e r a g e manganese c o n t e n t in p a s t u r e s
was 48, 42 and 46 ppm (Table 9, F i g u r e 30).

These f a c t s i n d i c a t e

a p o s s i b l e m ang a nes e d e f i c i e n c y i n r e g i o n s 1, 2 and 5.

The u s e

o f a m anganese c o n t a i n i n g t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t s h o u l d p r e v e n t a
d e fic ie n c y of t h i s
m ineral

sa lt

e lem e n t in the a n im a ls.

(Table

I . 10,

A ppendix I)

A ty p ic a l trace

contains

around

0.2%

m a n g a n e s e , which i s enough t o m eet t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f d a i r y
a n im a l s under most p r a c t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s .
T h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n s (p < .05)
and among farms w i t h i n r e g i o n s (p

.01).

The i n t e r a c t i o n among

r e g i o n s w i t h t y p e o f s a m p l e was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .0 1). The
d i f f e r e n c e among t y p e s of samples was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

(p > . 0 5 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c e n t b e tw e e n m anga nes e i n p a s t u r e s and
s o i l s was 0.065.

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t among manganese in

p a s t u r e s and pH v a l u e in s o i l s was -0.323.
Molybdenum
Molybdenum i s im p o r t a n t i n animal n u t r i t i o n because of i t s
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h c o p p e r and s u l f u r .

D iffe re n t authors suggest

copper-to-molybdenum r a t i o s ran gin g from 4:1 t o 2:1 i n t h e d i e t
o f ru m in a n ts to a v o id m olybdenum-induced copper d e f i c i e n c y in
r u m i n a n t s (Underwood, 1981).
I n p l a n t s , molybdenum i s e s s e n t i a l fo r n i t r o g e n f i x a t i o n and

pasture

manganese

(ppm )

80

i^ s l

F ig u r e 30.

WASHED

N O N —WASHED

Manganese i n washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
Shiaw assee County, M ichigan.

183

n i t r a t e r e d u c t i o n . The p r e s e n c e o f 0.1 t o 2.0 ppm o f molybdenum
i n t h e e&r l e a f o f i n i t i a l s i l k i n t h e c o r n p l a n t and 1.0 t o 5.0
ppm i n t h e t o p s i x i n c h e s o f t h e a l f a l f a p l a n t p r i o r t o i n i t i a l
f l o w e r i n g i s an i n d i c a t i o n of s u f f i c i e n t amounts o f molybdenum i n
the s o i l

(Cox and Kamprath, 1972).

In the p r e s e n t ex p erim e n t,

v a l u e s r a n g i n g from 0.18 ppm

( r e g i o n 6 i n M i c h i g a n ) t o 1.93 ppm ( r e g i o n 3 i n E c u a d o r ) were
f o u n d f o r molybdenum i n p a s t u r e s

( T a b l e 10,

Figure

31).

The

molybdenum c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s from t h e o t h e r r e g i o n s i n Ecuador
r a n g e d from 0.54 ( r e g i o n 1) t o 1.74 ppm ( r e g i o n 5).
i n s o i l o f r e g i o n 1 was a l s o lo w .

Molybdenum

I t is p o ssib le th a t pastures

can b e n e f i t from molybdenum f e r t i l i z a t i o n i n r e g i o n s where s o i l
molybdenum i s

low .

In re g io n s

where s o i l

m olybdenum

is

r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , such as i n r e g i o n 6, l im i n g would p r o b a b l y make
s o i l molybdenum more a v a i l a b l e t o t h e p l a n t s .

The E x t e n s i o n

S e r v i c e o f Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y has p u b l i s h e d a p r a c t i c a l
g u i d e s on molybdenum and o t h e r m i n e r a l s f e r t i l i z a t i o n

(Robertson

e t a l . , 1981b).
The d i f f e r e n c e s among r e g i o n s , t y p e s o f s a m p l e , and t h e
in teractio n

were n o t s i g n i f i c n t

co n ten t

p astu res

in

sig n ifican tly

from

(p < . 0 1 ) .

molybdenum i n s o i l s

(p > .0 5 ).

farm s

w ith in

Mean molybdenum
reg io n

d iffered

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n

and p a s t u r e s was 0.86.

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n s o i l pH and molybdenum c o n t e n t i n p a s t u r e s
was -0.106.

c o e f f i c i e n t between s o i l pH and molybdenum i n s o i l s

was - 0 . 4 4 3 .

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n s o i l pH and

molybdenum in p a s t u r e s was -0.106.

184

T able 10.

Molybdenum and se lenium c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e d ry
m a t t e r o f washed and non-washed p a s t u r e samples from
f i v e r e g i o n s i n t h e Chimborazo p r o v i n c e o f Ecuador and
one r e g i o n i n Shiawasee c o u n ty , Michigan (1)
MOLYBDENUM
ppm

SELENIUM
ppm
X

REGION (2)

N

X

(SEM)

(SEM)

1

ECUADOR

30

0.54 (0.37)

0.46 (0.06)

2

ECUADOR

30

1.10 (0.37)

0.55 (0.06)

3

ECUADOR

30

1.93 (0.37)

0.41 (0.06)

4

ECUADOR

30

1.09 (0.37)

0.51 (0.06)

5

ECUADOR

30

1.74 (0.37)

0.53 (0.06)

6

MICHIGAN

12

0.18 (0.58)

0.19 (0.10)

WASHED

81

1.12 (0.09)

0.46 (0.02)

NON-WASHED

81

1.27 (0.09)

0.48 (0.02)

NS
**
NS
NS

NS
**
NS
NS

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F (3)
Region
F a r m /r e g io n
Type o f sample
Type X r e g i o n
(1)
(2)
(3)

N, X, SEM:
number of o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and s t a n d a r d
e r r o r s o f means
Region means w i t h i n a column w i t h o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t
a r e d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t (p < .0 5 ); **: p < . 0 1 ; *: p < . 0 5

2.8 -j

2 .6 -j

2.2

-

2

-

1.8 H
1.6 H
1.4 185

posture

molybdenum

(ppm )

2 .4 -j

k \;

0.8 H

0.6

0.4 H
0.2 H

1

2

3

4

5

6

region
iX X I

F ig u r e 31 .

WASHED

N O N -W A S H E D

Molybdenum in washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam p les from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

186

Selenium
Selenium r e q u i r e m e n t o f rum inants i s not w e l l d e f i n e d , b u t
t h e NRC (1978) s u g g e s t s 0.10 ppm.

The amount r e q u i r e d depends on

t h e c h e m i c a l form o f s e l e n i u m and t h e l e v e l s o f i n t e r f e r i n g o r
enhancing f a c t o r s in th e d i e t ,

i n c l u d i n g v i t a m i n E,

su lfu r,

l i p i d s , p r o t e i n s , amino a c i d s , and s e v e r a l m ic r o e le m e n ts .
The c r i t i c a l l e v e l a t which ru m in ants s t a r t showing s i g n s o f
s e l e n i u m d e f i c i e n c y seems t o be a r o u n d 0.05 ppm i n t h e d i e t
(Kubota and A l l a w a y ,
a n i m a l s may be a s
factors.

1972 ).

low a s

The l e v e l o f s e l e n i u m t o x i c t o
3 to

5 ppm.

d e p e n d i n g on s e v e r a l

The c h e m i c a l form f e d h a s an e f f e c t on t h e l e v e l o f

to x icity :

t h e n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g o r g a n i c s e l e n i u m fou n d i n

p l a n t s i s a p p a r e n t l y much more t o x i c t h a n t h e i n o r g a n i c form
(NRC, 1978).

T o x i c i t y can a l s o be a f f e c t e d by c om position o f the

d i e t , p a r t i c u l a r l y p r o t e i n , s u l f u r , and a r s e n i c .

These n u t r i e n t s

reduce selenium t o x i c i t y (NRC, 1978).
In

the

present

study

selenium c o n c e n tra tio n

( T a b l e 10,

Figure

32)

the

low est

i n p a s t u r e s was fo u n d i n r e g i o n 6 i n

M i c h i g a n (0.19 ppm) and t h e h i g h e s t i n r e g i o n 2 o f E c u a d o r (0.55
ppm).

Selenium c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p a s t u r e s i n th e o t h e r r e g i o n s in

E c u a d o r r a n g e d from 0.41 t o 0.53 ppm.

A ll

th ese v a lu e s are

w i t h i n the range o f minimum r e q u i r e m e n ts (0.10 ppm) and l e s s than
t o x i c i t y l e v e l s (3 t o 5 ppm) g i v e n by t h e NRC (1978).
The d i f f e r e n c e s among r e g i o n s , t y p e s o f s a m p l e , and t h e
in teractio n

were

co n ten t

p astu res

in

sig n ifican tly

not

sig n ifican t

(p <C.01).

from

farm s

(p > .0 5 ).
w ith in

Mean s e l e n i u m
reg io n

d iffered

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n

0.9 H

(ppm)

0.8 -1

0.7 -

0.5 0.4 -*

187

pasture

selenium

0.6 -J

0.3 -i

0.2

-

^

1

8

2

3

4

5

6

region
K 3

F ig u r e 32.

WASHED

N O N -W A S H E D

Selenium i n washed and non-washed p a s t u r e sam ples from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
S hiaw assee County, M ichigan.

188

s e l e n i u m i n s o i l s and i n p a s t u r e s was - 0 .1 2 8 .

The c o r r e l a t i o n

c o e f f i c i e n t b e tw e e n s e l e n i u m i n p a s t u r e s and pH i n s o i l s was
0.2 3 7 .

189

M i n e r a l s in Blood
M in e r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n in b lood i s in g e n e r a l r e g u l a t e d by
h o m e o s t a t i c m echan ism s ( M i l l e r , 197 5).

M e ta b o lic p r o f i l e s of

d a i r y cows u s e d t o a s s e s s n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s h a v e shown l i t t l e
r e l a t i o n between c a lc iu m and phosphorus i n ta k e and c o n c e n tr a ti o n
o f th e same m in e r a l s i n b lood (Parker e t a l . ,
1970, B low ey e t a l . ,

1975; A l l e n e t a l . ,

1970; Payne e t a l . ,
1976; R ow lands and

P o c o c k , 1976; Adams e t a l . , 1978; Lee e t a l . , 1978; K r o n f e l d e t
a l . , 1982; R o u s s e l e t a l . , 198 2).

N e v e r t h e l e s s , b lo o d a n a l y s i s

i s a f a v o r e d m ethod t o d i a g n o s e m i n e r a l
because of

its

im p o rta n t,

sin c e

a c c e s ib ility
b lo o d

n u t r i e n t s i n th e body,

is

an d e a s e

n u tritio n

p ro b lem s

of h a n d lin g .

t h e m ain s y s te m f o r

M ore

tr a n s p o rt of

d e fic ie n c ie s or excesses of a p a r t i c u l a r

n u t r i e n t may be r e f l e c t e d in i t s c o n c e n t r a t i o n in th e b lo o d .
Calcium
A n im a ls c o n su m in g d i e t s

low i n c a l c i u m , o r d i e t s w i t h a

c a lc iu m - to - p h o s p h o ru s r a t i o o f l e s s th an 1:1 w i l l d e v e lo p s ig n s
o f c a lc iu m d e f i c ie n c y such as d e p re ss e d feed i n t a k e , reduced r a t e
o f g a i n , re d u c e d m i l k p r o d u c t i o n and o s t e o m a l a c i a b e f o r e t h e
c a lc iu m c o n c e n tr a ti o n in b lo od i s reduced (Underwood, 1981).
T a b l e 11 shows t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f c a l c i u m , p h o s p h o r u s ,
so d iu m ,

p o t a s s i u m and m agnesium i n t h e b l o o d serum o f d a i r y

a n im a ls t e s t e d in th e p r e s e n t ex p erim en t.

T a b le 1.3 (Appendix I)

shows t y p i c a l m in e r a l c o n c e n tr a ti o n i n b loo d plasm a o r serum of
ru m in a n ts .
T he t y p i c a l

ra n g e o f serum c a l c i u m

c o n c e n tra tio n

r u m i n a n t s i s 9.0 t o 12.0 m g/100 ml (C hurch, 197 6).

in

Except fo r

Table 11.

Calcium, phosphorus, sodium, potassium and magnesium concentrations in the
blood serum of calves and dairy cows from five regions in the Chimborazo
province of Ecuador and one region in Shiawasee county, Michigan (1)

CALCIUM
mg/100 ml
REGION(2)

N

X

(SEM)

SODIUM
mg/100 ml

PHOSPHORUS
mg/100 ml
'X

(SEM)

X

(SEM)

POTASSIUM
mg/100 ml
X

(SEM)

MAGNESIUM
mg/100 ml
X

(SEM)

1

ECUADOR

60

9.47 (0.40)

7.55 (0.74)

477 (22)

25 (1.36)

3.04 (0.20)

2

ECUADOR

60

8.76 (0.40)

6.90 (0.74)

443 (22)

23 (1.36)

3.00 (0.20)

3

ECUADOR

60

8.57 (0.40)

6.25 (0.74)

526 (22)

26 (1.36)

2.96 (0.20)

4

ECUADOR

60

8.64 (0.40)

6.47 (0.74)

432 (22)

26 (1.36)

2.44 (0.20)

5

ECUADOR

60

9.96 (0.40)

6.57 (0.74)

485 (22)

23 (1.36)

3.47 (0.20)

6

MICHIGAN

20

8.14 (0.69)

5.52 (1.29)

380 (39)

20 (2.35)

2.13 (0.35)

COWS

160

8.88 (0.12)

4.62 (0.34)

474 ( 5)

24 (0.28)

2.93 (0.05)

CALVES

160

9.16 (0.12)

7.35 (0.34)

460 ( 5)

24 (0.28)

2.92 (0.05)

NS
**
NS
NS

NS
**
**
*

NS
**
*
**

NS
**
NS

*
NS
NS
NS

S i g n if ic a n c e o f F (3)
Region
F arm /region
Type of animal
Type X re g io n
(1)
(2)
(3)

N, X, SEM: number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and sta n d a rd e r r o r s o f means
Region means w ith in a column w ith o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a re d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < . 0 1 ; *: p < .05

191-

r e g i o n s 1 and 5 i n E c u a d o r (T a b le 11, F i g u r e 3 3 ), a v e r a g e serum
c a lc iu m l e v e l s in th e r e g io n s s t u d i e d i n Ecuador and i n M ichigan,
w ere b e lo w 9.0 m g /10 0.

A l l a v e ra g e v a lu e s w ere, n e v e r t h e l e s s ,

a b o v e 8.0 m g/100 m l. T h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among
re g io n s

(p > . 0 5 ) .

The d i f f e r e n c e

among t y p e s o f a n i m a l s

(p > .05) and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t y p e w i t h r e g i o n (p > .05) w ere
n o t s i g n i f i c n t e i t h e r , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n fa rm s w i t h i n
r e g io n was h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t

(p < .0 1 ).

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between serum c a lc iu m and serum
p h o s p h o r u s was 0.332;

b e tw e e n serum c a l c i u m

and c a l c i u m

in

p a s t u r e s i t was 0 .5 0 9 ; b e tw e e n serum c a l c i u m and p h o s p h o r u s i n
p a s t u r e s i t was 0.074.
Phosphorus
Serum phosphorus l e v e l s ranged from 5.52 mg/100 ml in r e g io n
6 i n M ichigan t o 7.55 mg/100 ml i n r e g io n 1 i n Ecuador (Table 11,
F i g u r e 3 4 ), b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n a l m eans was n o t
s ig n ific a n t (p > .0 5 ).

A l l th e v a l u e s found a r e w i t h in th e range

c o n s id e re d normal f o r ru m in a n ts , which i s 4-9 mg/100 ml (Church,
1976).

S eru m p h o s p h o r u s

s i g n i f i c a n t l y h ig h er

in

c a lv e s

( 7 .3 5 m g /1 0 0 m l)

was

(p < .01) t h a n i n cows (4.62 m g/100 m l ) .

Phosphorus v a l u e s of 4-6 mg/100 ml in cows, and 6-8 mg/100 ml in
young a n i m a l s , h a v e b e e n o b s e r v e d i n b l o o d p l a s m a (Underwood,
1981).

The d i f f e r e n c e among farms w i t h in r e g io n s was s i g n i f i c a n t

(p < . 0 1 ) , a s was t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f t y p e o f a n i m a l w i t h r e g i o n
(p < .05).

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between serum phosphorus

and p a s t u r e phosphorus was 0.210.

12 -i-------- -

SERUM

192

CALCIUM

( m g /1 0 0

m t)

11 H

1

2
ZZ3

F ig u r e 33 .

3
COWS

4.

5

6

REGION
E S I CALVES

Calcium in th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h ia w a ssee County, M ichigan.

9

SERUM

7 -

s

i
6

FSI

v

S3

-

5

z

V s
/,

4 H

z s
3

2 H

P7K
K N

K

z $
V

/>
V.
S

VS.
"V

M X
z X
_ _

1771 COWS
F ig u r e 3 4 .

i

\

193

PHOSPHORUS

( m g / 100

ml)

6 -i

YV / ' X
R3Si9N
C Sl

II

CALVES

Phosphorus i n the b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
Shiaw assee County, M ichigan.

194

Magnesium
The normal c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f magnesium in th e b loo d serum of
c a ttle

i s a ro u n d 1.8 t o 3.0 m g/100 ml (C h u rch , 1 9 7 6 ).

p resent in v e s tig a tio n a l l

In th e

v a l u e s were w i t h in o r s l i g h t l y above

th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n s c o n s id e r e d norm al

(T able 11, F ig u r e 35). The

m eans o f r e g i o n s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y ( p < . 0 5 ) , b u t m u l t i p l e
c o m p a r is o n s o f a l l r e g i o n a l means ( B o n f e r r o n i 's t t e s t ) showed
n o n sig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e s

(p > . 1 0 ) .

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e o f serum magnesium among farm s w i t h in r e g io n nor among
ty p e s o f a n im a ls (p > .05).
was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t e i t h e r

The i n t e r a c t i o n o f re g io n w ith type
(p > .05).

No s ig n s o r h i s t o r y o f magnesium t e t a n y were o b se rv e d in any
o f t h e fa rm s s t u d i e d .
m agnesium o x i d e

in

Cows i n r e g i o n

th e c o n c e n tr a te

6 w ere p r o v i d e d w i t h

t o p r e v e n t low m i l k - f a t

syndrome.
Sodium and P otassiu m
N orm al c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n t h e b l o o d p l a s m a o f c a t t l e a r e
a r o u n d 300 m g/100 ml f o r so d iu m ,
p o t a s s i u m (C h u rch , 1 9 7 6 ).

and 14 t o 18 m g/100 ml f o r

I n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , sodium

and p o t a s s i u m l e v e l s i n b l o o d p l a s m a w ere h i g h e r t h a n w h at i s
c o n s id e re d normal (Table 11, F ig u r e s 36 and 37).

I t is p o ssib le

t h a t a t h ig h a l t i t u d e th e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e s e two e le m e n ts i s
in c re a sed ,

as r e p o r t e d by W ilson (1975).

A nim als in th e r e g io n s

s t u d i e d looked h e a l t h y , so i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t t h e s e h ig h e r than
n o rm a l sodium and p o t a s s i u m c o n c e n t r a t i o n s

i n serum a r e n o t

p a th o lo g ic a l.
There was no t a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e among r e g i o n a l means

4 -

SERUM

195

MAGNESIUM

( m g / 100

m l)

5

1

2
IT T !

F ig u r e 35.

3
COWS

4

5

6

REGION
1 V \1 CALVES

Magnesium in th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
Shiaw assee County, M ichigan.

X

600

SERUM

SODIUM

( m g /1 0 0

m !)

500 H

400

3 0 0 ->

200

-

100

-

0
1

2
ZZl

F ig u r e 36.

3
COWS

4

5

6

REGION
S 3
CALVES

Sodium i n th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

30 -r

28 -

SERUM

POTASSIUM

( m g /1 0 0

m l)

26 24 -

22

-

20

-

18 16 14 12

-

10

-

8

-

6

-

4 2

-

1

2
[7 7 1

F ig u r e 37.

3
COWS

4

5

6

REGION
[ < 3 3 CALVES

P o ta ssiu m i n th e b lood serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

198

f o r sodium and p o t a s s i u m i n seru m (p > .0 5 ) , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e
among farm s w i t h in r e g io n s and th e i n t e r c t i o n of type o f anim al
w ith re g io n were h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 1 ) .

Young a n im als had

a s l i g h t l y h ig h e r sodium c o n c e n t r a t i o n in b lo od serum than a d u l t s
(p < .0 5 ) .
The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between serum sodium and p a s t u r e
sodium was -0 .2 1 4 , and th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between serum
p o tassiu m and p a s t u r e p o tassiu m was -0.135.
r e c e i v e d s a l t s u p p le m e n ta tio n .

A l l a n im a ls s tu d ie d

Serum c o n c e n tr a ti o n o f sodium and

p o tassiu m i s n o t a good i n d i c a t o r o f th e adequacy o f the d i e t in
m eeting th e need f o r t h e s e m i n e r a l s o r o f th e n u t r i t i o n a l s t a t u s
o f th e anim al ( M i l l e r , 1974).
I ro n
The c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f i r o n , c o p p e r ,

z i n c , m a n g a n e s e , and

se le n iu m in b lo o d serum i s shown i n T a b le 11.

I r o n c o n c e n tr a ti o n

ranged from 325 ug/100 ml in M ichigan t o 446 ug/100 ml in re g io n
3 i n E c u a d o r ( T a b le 1 2 , F i g u r e 38).

T y p ic a l iro n c o n c e n tra tio n

i n b l o o d p l a s m a i s a ro u n d 150 u g /1 0 0 ml a t s e a l e v e l (C hurch,
1979).

B l o o d 's

iro n c o n te n t

is

in c re a se d as a r e s u l t of

i n c r e a s e d e r y t h r o p o i e s i s due t o t h e r e d u c e d a t m o s p h e r i c oxygen
p ressure.

H e m a t o c r i t c o u n t i n s h e e p e x p o s e d f o r 32 d a y s t o low

p r e s s u r e (348 mm Hg) s i m i l a r t o t h a t found a t 6200 m of a l t i t u d e ,
was 37; i n t h e c o n t r o l (640 mm Hg) t h e h e m a t o c r i t c o u n t was 27
(P h illip s e t a l.,

1969).

R e l a t i v e l y high v a l u e s fo r serum ir o n

fo u n d i n M ic h ig a n (240 m a b o v e s e a l e v e l ) a r e p r o b a b l y due t o
p a r t i a l h e m o ly sis o f red b lo o d c e l l s .
The means o f r e g io n s d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y

(p > .0 5 ),

Table 12.

Iron, copper, zinc, manganese and selenium concentrations in the blood serum
from calves and dairy cows from five regions in the Chimborazo province of
Ecuador and one region in Shiawasee county, Michigan (1)

IRON
ug/100 ml
REGION(2)

X

N

(SEM)

COPPER
ug/100 ml
X

(SEM)

1

ECUADOR

60

443 (22)

83 (7)

2

ECUADOR

60

426 (22)

3

ECUADOR

60

4

ECUADOR

5
6

ZINC
ug/100 ml
X

(SEM)

MANGANESE
ug/100 ml
X

(SEM)

SELENIUM
ug/100 ml
X

(SEM)

184 (12)

4 .4 8 a

(0.60)

2.62 (1.26)

73 ( 7)

171 (12)

1 .0 1 b

(0.60)

2.72 (1.26)

446 (22)

86 ( 7)

167 (12)

2 . 26ab (0.60)

7.81 (1.26)

60

392 (22)

72 ( 7)

171 (12)

0 .7 7 b

(0.60)

4.09 (1.26)

ECUADOR

60

408 (22)

84 ( 7)

164 (12)

2 . 64ab (0.60)

5.90 (1.26)

MICHIGAN

20

325 (39)

90 (13)

164 (20)

3 .4 5 ab (1.04)

11.65 (2.36)

160

404 ( 7)

87 ( 2)

COWS
CALVES

160

430 ( 7)

74 ( 2)

169 ( 3)
172 ( 3)

2.21
2.40

(0.09)

5.80

(0.18)

(0.09)

5.87 (0.18)

S ig n if ic a n c e o f F (3)
Region
F arm /region
Type o f animal
Type X re g io n
(1)
(2)
(3)

NS
**
*
**

NS
**
**
NS

NS
**
NS
*

*
**
NS
**

*
**
NS
**

N, X, SEM: number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , means and sta n d a rd e r r o r s of means
Region means w ith in a column w ith o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a re d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
NS: n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t (p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < .01; *: p < .05

500

3 0 0 -j

-

100

-

200

200

SERUM

IRON

( u g /1 0 0

m !)

400 H

0
1

2

£23 cows
F ig u r e 38.

3

4
REGION
E 3J

5

6

calves

Iron in th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

201

b u t t h e r e was s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a t i o n among fa r m s w i t h i n r e g i o n
(p < .01) and between ty p e s o f anim al
of

ty p e w ith

c o rre la tio n

re g io n

w as a l s o

c o e ffic ie n t

b e tw e e n

(p < .0 5 ).

sig n ific a n t
iro n

in

The i n t e r a c t i o n
(p > . 0 1 ) .

serum

and

iro n

The
in

p a s t u r e s was -0.082.
Copper
Normal copper c o n c e n tr a ti o n in th e blood o f h e a l t h y a n im a ls
ranges

f ro m

50

to

150

u g /1 0 0

ml

( U n d e rw o o d ,

1 977 ).

A

c o n c e n t r a t i o n under 50 ug/100 ml i s c o n s id e re d an i n d i c a t i o n of
d e f i c i e n c y . H o w e v e r, a n i m a l s w i l l show s i g n s o f d e f i c i e n c y and
le s io n s

when f e d c o p p e r d e f i c i e n t d i e t s

c o n c e n tra tio n

fa lls

in th e

b lo o d .

T h is

lo n g b e fo r e copper
is

p r o b a b l y due

to

h o m e o s ta tic mechanisms ( M i l l e r , 1974), and to th e i n t e r a c t i o n of
molybdenum and s u l f u r w ith copper ( M i l l s , 1960).

I n f a c t , when

sheep were fed a d i e t w ith su p p le m e n ta ry molybdenum a n d /o r s u l f u r
t h e i r b lo o d copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n c r e a s e d (B rem ner, 197 6).

In

o th e r c a s e s , a n im a ls i n which th e copper l e v e l in b loo d i s under
50 u g /1 0 0 ml do n o t show s i g n s o f d e f i c i e n c y
1 9 7 6 ).

(M ills e t a l . ,

P u l s (1981) c o n s i d e r s n o rm a l serum c o p p e r l e v e l s t o be

80 -150 u g /1 0 0 m l , d e f i c i e n t l e v e l s t o be 6 -70 u g /1 0 0 m l, and a
m a rg in a l o r b o r d e r l i n e d e f i c ie n c y to be 55-80 ug/100 m l.
I n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , b l o o d p la s m a c o p p e r v a l u e s
were w i t h in th e range c o n s id e re d normal e x c e p t in re g io n s 2 and 4
i n Ecuador, where l e v e l s a v erag e d 73 and 72 ug/100 ml (Table 12,
F ig u re 39).

These l e v e l s can be c o n s id e re d m a r g i n a l l y d e f i c i e n t .

A n im a ls from r e g i o n s 1, 3 and 5 had 83, 86, and 84 u g /1 0 0 m l o f
serum c o p p e r .

T h e s e v a l u e s a r e on t h e low s i d e o f t h e r a n g e

110 -r

100

Va
V

r y
/

j/

80

V
70

f t

X

_

60

\|

\

7V

'/

/ j

S

I
30

20

-'V

/

Vs

0

II a

V.

z

V

/N o

z \_

/.
/

a

.

/>
/

1

v

\

&

/\\

6
Z 23

F ig u r e 39.

"X

/

/\

A
10

/ \

V,

50
40

Z /\N
7 /\\

COWS

REGION
K 3
CALVES

Copper i n th e b lood serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

202

SERUM

COPPER

( u g /1 0 0

m l)

90

203

c o n s id e re d norm al.
serum v a l u e :

A nim als from r e g io n 6 had th e h i g h e s t copper

90 u g /1 0 0 m l.

At t h e tim e o f s a m p l i n g t h e s e

a n i m a l s w ere r e c e i v i n g a t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t c o n t a i n i n g 0.03%
copper.

Copper c o n t e n t i n s o i l s and in p a s t u r e s was a l s o a t th e

low o r d e f i c i e n t l e v e l s i n t h e a r e a s s t u d i e d .

T h i s seem s t o

c o n firm a g e n e r a l copper d e f i c i e n c y and to i n d i c a t e th e need fo r
copper s u p p le m e n ta tio n i n t h e d i e t o f th e a n im a ls in th e r e g io n s
s t u d i e d , and a l s o th e need fo r copper f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
R e g io n a l means d i d n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y

(p > . 0 5 ) , b u t

th e d i f f e r e n c e among farm s w i t h in r e g io n was d i f f e r e n t ( p < . 0 1 ) .
C a l v e s had lo w e r p l a s m a c o p p e r t h a n cows (p < .0 1 ) .

T h is i s

c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e o b s e r v a t i o n o f B in g le y and D ufty (1969) t h a t
c a l v e s had low er copper l e v e l s in b lo o d th a n t h e i r m oth ers.

The

c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between serum copper and p a s t u r e copper
was 0.260, and th e c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between serum copper
and p a s t u r e molybdenum was -0.077.
Zinc
Z in c

c o n c e n tra tio n

in

b lo o d

p lasm a

in

Ecuador

and

in

M ichigan ranged from 164 t o 184 ug/100 ml (Table 12, F ig u r e 40).
These v a l u e s a r e h ig h in r e l a t i o n t o what i s c o n s id e re d a normal
ran ge:

8 0 -1 2 0 u g /1 0 0 ml (C h u rch , 1 9 7 6 ). P u l s (1981) c o n s i d e r s

n o rm a l serum z i n c l e v e l t o be 7 0 -140 u g /1 0 0 m l , and t h e t o x i c
le v e l

to

se n sitiv e

range

fro m

520 t o

7500 u g /1 0 0 m l.

to z in c c h an g e s in d i e t .

B lo o d

z in c

is

R e p e a te d o b s e r v a t i o n s o f

plasm a z in c l e v e l s under 40 ug/100 ml a r e an i n d i c a t i o n o f s e v e r e
d e fic ie n c y (M ills e t a l . ,

1967).

T h e re was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e

among r e g i o n a l means

ml)
SERUM ZINC (ug/100

-

rv]

-

-

V/ a

\

z \

-

/

-

V.

' / - * n

\

V
//I

'S..

-

Y'

H
-

v ,

u

-

1

204

200
190
180
170
160
150
14 0
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

-

M

-

\i

-

m

VIV

h

OM

—

m

1771

F ig u r e 40.

V

Z V

COWS

Z Z

zz

REGION
K S
CALVES

Zinc i n th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

205

n o r among t y p e s o f a n im a l (p
farm m eans w i t h i n

.0 5 ) , b u t t h e d i f f e r e n c e

r e g i o n s was s i g n i f i c a n t

(p

among

. 0 1 ) . The

i n t e r a c t i o n o f t y p e o f a n im a l w i t h r e g i o n was a l s o s i g n i f i c a n t
(p

.0 5 ) .

The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f i c i e n t b e tw e e n seru m z i n c and

p a s t u r e z in c was 0.107.
Manganese
T y p ic a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s o f manganese in b lo o d p lasm a o r serum
a r e i n t h e r a n g e o f 2 -3 u g /1 0 0 ml (C h u rch , 1 9 7 6 ). P u l s
c o n sid e rs

0.5

u g /1 0 0

ml

to

be

a m a rg in a lly

(1981)

su ffic ie n t

b o r d e r l i n e manganese c o n c e n t r a t i o n in b lo od serum or p la s m a ,
0 .6

to

3.0 u g / 1 0 0

ml

t o be a d e q u a t e .

or
and

D a ta fro m s e v e r a l

i n v e s t i g a t i o n s show t h a t th e l e v e l o f manganese found i n b lo o d
v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y a c c o rd in g t o th e a n a l y t i c a l te c h n iq u e used.
C o n c e n tra tio n s found i n c a t t l e b lood range from 0.5 t o 27 ug/100
m l, b u t most v a l u e s f a l l between 1 t o 3 ug/100.
c o n c e n tra tio n s

decrease,

but

v ery

slo w ly ,

Blood manganese
in

response

to

manganese d e f i c i e n c y i n th e d i e t (H id iro g lo u , 1979).
I n th e p r e s e n t e x p e rim e n t, serum manganese ranged from 0.77
t o 4.48 ug/100 ml (Table 12, F ig u re 41).
d i f f e r e n c e (p < .05) among r e g i o n s .

There was a s i g n i f i c a n t

The d i f f e r e n c e among fa r m s

w i t h i n r e g i o n s (p < . 0 1 ) , and t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f r e g i o n s w i t h
ty p e

of

a n im a l

(p < .01)

were s i g n i f i c a n t

(p < .0 1 ) .

Serum

manganese l e v e l s fo r cows and c a l v e s d id n o t d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y
(p > . 0 5 ) .

L e v e l s u n d e r o r c l o s e t o 1 u g /1 0 0 ml i n r e g i o n 2 and

4 i n d i c a t e a p o s s i b l e d e f i c ie n c y . P a s tu r e manganese, a s d is c u s s e d
a b o v e , was a l s o low in some o f th e re g io n s s t u d i e d . Manganese may
be s u p p l i e d

to

th e a n im a ls in th e tr a c e m in e ra l s a l t .

The

8

6

-

5 -

SERUM

206

MANGANESE

( u g /1 0 0

m l)

7 -

1

2
^
17 7 1

F ig u r e 4 1 .

3

4

5

6

REGION
COWS

CALVES

Manganese i n th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in t h e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6 ) in
Sh iaw assee County, M ichigan.

207

c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between manganese in

serum and manganese

i n p a s t u r e s was -0.122.
Selenium
B lo o d 's s e le n iu m c o n t e n t v a r i e s w ith i n ta k e .

Serum se le n iu m

o f b e e f s t e e r s i n M i c h ig a n was 4.4 u g /1 0 0 m l when t h e d i e t had
0.085 ppm s e l e n i u m , and i n c r e a s e d t o 6.5 and 7.3 u g /1 0 0 ml when
th e a n im a ls' feed c o n ta in e d
(U llrey e t a l . ,

0.206 and 0.294 ppm o f s e l e n i u m

1977).

B lo o d p l a s m a s e l e n i u m l e v e l s o f 1 t o 5 u g /1 0 0 ml i n d i c a t e
d e fic ie n c y .

A b l o o d l e v e l o f a b o u t 10 u g /1 0 0 ml i s d e s i r a b l e .

B lo o d p l a s m a l e v e l s o f a b o u t 20 u g /1 0 0 ml i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e
anim al i s r e c e i v i n g to o much se le n iu m and t h a t a t o x ic s i t u a t i o n
may e x i s t (Marczewski e t a l . ,

1982).

P la s m a s e l e n i u m i n E c u a d o r r a n g e d from 2.62 t o 7.81 u g /1 0 0
ml f o r c a t t l e n o t f e d a s e l e n i u m s u p p l e m e n t . The a v e r a g e f o r
M ic h ig a n c a t t l e

was 11.65 u g /1 0 0 ml when t h e

a n im a ls

w ere

supplem ented w ith a t r a c e m in e r a l s a l t c o n ta in i n g 20 ppm se len iu m
i n t h e form o f sodium s e l e n i t e

( T a b le 12, F i g u r e 42).

p la s m a

a n im a ls

se len iu m

c o n te n t

d i f f e r e d (p < .0 5 ).

from

in d i f f e r e n t

B lo o d
reg io n s

D i f f e r e n c e s among fa rm s w i t h i n r e g i o n s and

t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f r e g i o n w i t h ty p e o f a n im a l w ere s i g n i f i c a n t
(p < .0 1 ).
stu d ie d

It
in

is

E cuador

p o ss ib le
are

th a t

a n im a ls

d e fic ie n t

in

from

th e

se le n iu m

reg io n s
and

need

s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n , e v e n th o u g h p a s t u r e s from t h o s e r e g i o n s had
a p p a r e n t l y a d equate s e le n iu m c o n te n t.

20

SERUM

SELENIUM

( u g /1 0 0

m l)

19
18
17
16
15
14
13

12

11
10
9

6
7
6
5
4
3

2
1

0
1

2
[7 7 1

F ig u r e 4 2 .

3
COWS

4

5

6

REGION
( V \ I CALVES

Selen iu m i n th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g i o n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

209

C o b a lt
C o b a l t l e v e l s i n b l o o d a r e v e r y lo w , and t h e r e p o r t s o f
c o b a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n v a r y c o n s i d e r a b l y depending on th e method o f
a n a l y s i s used.

I n human b l o o d , v a l u e s a s h ig h a s 110 u g /1 0 0 ml

an d a s lo w a s 0 .0 0 3 u g / 1 0 0 ml h a v e b e e n r e p o r t e d .
fla m e le ss
P ritc h a rd

a to m ic

a b so rp tio n

U sin g

s p e c t r o p h o m e t r y , B a r f o o t and

(1 9 8 0 ), f o u n d 0.12 t o 0.20 u g /1 0 0 ml i n human b l o o d

serum .

McAdam and O 'D e l l (1 9 8 2 ), u s i n g a l s o a to m ic a b s o r p t i o n ,

found

7.5 ug/100 ml o f c o b a l t i n th e b lo o d plasm a o f d a i r y cows.
B lo o d serum c o b a l t v a l u e s ra n g e d from 0.72 i n r e g i o n 5 i n

E c u a d o r t o 1.39 u g /1 0 0 ml i n r e g i o n 1 i n E c u a d o r.

A n im a ls i n

M ichigan had 1.23 ug/100 ml c o b a l t in th e b loo d serum (Table 13,
F i g u r e 43 ).

They w ere r e c e i v i n g c o b a l t s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i n t h e

t r a c e m in e r a l s a l t (50 ppm).

There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e

among r e g i o n s , and th e i n t e r a c t i o n o f r e g io n w ith type o f anim al
was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t e i t h e r (p > . 0 5 ) .

C a lv e s had a s i g n i f i c a n t l y

h ig h e r serum c o b a l t c o n c e n t r a t i o n th an cows (p < .05).

210

T able 13.

C o b a lt c o n c e n t r a t i o n in th e blood serum o f c a lv e s and
d a i r y cows from f i v e r e g io n s in th e
Chimborazo
p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n in Shiawasee
c o u n ty , M ichigan (1)

REGION (2)

2

1

3

4

5

6

ECUADOR ECUADOR ECUADOR ECUADOR ECUADOR MICHIGAN
N

5

5

6

6

6

2

X

1.39

0.78

1.05

1.20

0.72

1.23

(0.26)

(0.26)

(0.24)

(0.24)

(0.24)

(0.42)

1

2

SEM
ANIMAL

COWS

CALVES

N

15

15

X

1.16

0.89

(0.09)

(0.09)

SEM

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f F (3)
Region
Type o f anim al
Type X r e g io n

NS
*
NS

(1) N:
number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s ; X:
means;
SEM:
sta n d a r d
e r r o r s o f means
(2) Region means w i t h i n a row w ith o u t a common s u p e r s c r i p t a re
d i f f e r e n t (p < .05)
(3) NS:
n o n - s i g n i f i c a n t ( p < . 0 5 ) ; **: p < .01; *: p < .05

3 -r
2.8

-

2.6

-

SERUM

COBALT

( u g /1 0 0

m l)

2 .4 -

2.2

-

2

-

1. 8

-

1. 6

-

/

1 .4 -

1. 2

-

1

-

0.8

-

0.6

-

0 .4 -

A

:v\

Yk

/V

0.2

-

v\

17
/

V.

/■

/

pr
/

v\\

V

A
Z

7

x
z

/

/.

v \

\

6

1771
F ig u r e 4 3 .

REGION
COWS

IVsl

CALVES

C obalt i n th e b lo o d serum o f c a l v e s and d a ir y cows from f i v e r e g io n s
( 1 - 5 ) in th e Chimborazo p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one r e g io n (6) in
S h iaw assee County, M ichigan.

212

G a stro in te stin a l P a ra site s
D airy c a t t l e

are

in te rn a l p a ra site s .

commonly

in fe c te d

w ith

a

v a rie ty

of

S e v e r a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have d em o n strated

t h a t e v e n low p a r a s i t i s m i n young a n i m a l s r e s u l t s i n d e c r e a s e d
g r o w th and l a t e r

in d e c re a se d m ilk p ro d u c tio n

(G ib b s,

1982;

Adrichem and Shaw, 1977a & b).
The m ain e n d o p a r a s i t e s

in

c a ttle

are

n e m a to d e s

w orm s), t r e m a t o d e s ( l i v e r f l u k e s ) and c o c c i d i a .
O s te rta g ia

o ste rta g i

is

one

of

th e

m ost

(ro und

The nem atode

p a th o g e n ic

and

e c o n o m ic a lly d e t r i m e n t a l p a r a s i t e s in tem p era te re g io n s such as
th e S t a t e o f M ichigan and Ecuador.

The o p tim a l te m p e ra tu re fo r

th e d e velop m ent o f O s t e r t a g i a 's l a r v a e in th e p a s t u r e ran g e s from
15 t o 25° C.

The o p tim a l te m p e ra tu re fo r s u r v i v a l o f th e l a r v a e

i s much l o w e r :

b e tw e e n 0 and 15° C.

H igh t e m p e r a t u r e s a l l o w

r a p i d d e velopm ent b u t a s h o r t s u r v i v a l p e rio d ;

low te m p e ra tu re s

slow d e velopm ent b u t i n c r e a s e th e s u r v i v a l tim e ( S c h i l l h o r n van
Veen,

1981).

F a s c i o l a h e p a t i c a i s th e most im p o rta n t trem atode

i n f e s t i n g d o m e s t i c a n i m a l s and t h e m o st common c a u s e o f l i v e r
f l u k e d i s e a s e (M erk, 197 9).
h e p a tic a

had

h ig h e r

m ilk

D a i r y cows i n f e c t e d w i t h F a s c i o l a
p ro d u c tio n

when

tre a te d

w ith

h e x a c h lo ro e th a n e th an d id n o n - t r e a te d i n f e c t e d a n im a ls (R andell
and B r a d le y , 1980).

C o c c id ia i n f e s t a t i o n i n c a t t l e i s t y p i c a l l y

a d i s e a s e o f young a n im a ls between the ages o f one t o two months
and one y e ar when th e y a r e r a i s e d i n c o n fin e d l o t s .
R e s u l t s o b ta in e d in th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f f e c a l egg
c o u n t s a r e shown i n T a b l e s 14 and 15.

A n im a ls from r e g i o n 6 i n

M ichigan d id n o t show s ig n s o f i n f e s t a t i o n , p ro b a b ly due to being

T able 14.

Region

Mean worm burden in fe c e s o f d a i r y c a t t l e from f i v e re g io n s in th e Chimborazo
p r o v in c e o f Ecuador and one re g io n in Shiawasee co u n ty , Michigan
Haemonchus

Oesophagostomum

O s te rta g ia

mean
No. epg

mean
No. epg

mean
No. epg

mean
No. epg

No.

mean
epg (1)

COWS
CALVES

0
0

0
0

4
1

325
200

2
1

100
300

1
1

100
100

3
2

330
200

2 COWS
2 CALVES

0
3

0
130

0
9

0
490

0
6

0
350

0
5

0
220

1
9

100
400

COWS
CALVES

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

1
0

100
0

0
0

0
0

1 COWS
1 CALVES

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
1

0
100

2 COWS
2 CALVES

0
1

0
600

1
1

300
100

0
0

0
0

1
0

100
0

1
2

200
100

Farm

1 ECUADOR

1
1

3
3
2 ECUADOR

3 ECUADOR

(1)

T ric h o s tro n g y lu s

Cooperia

Type of
animal

3
3

COWS
CALVES

0
—

0
—

2
—

150
—

—

—

0

1
—

100
—

2
—

100
—

1
1

COWS
CALVES

1
0

100
0

1
0

100
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

2 COWS
2 CALVES

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

3
3

0
1

0
100

1
2

100
200

0
2

0
100

0
0

0
0

0
2

0
100

COWS
CALVES

0

No. = number of positives out of 10 animals; mean epg =
positives

mean eggs per gram among

Table 14.

Region

(Cont'd.) Mean worm burden in feces of dairy cattle from five regions in the
Chimborazo province of Ecuador and one region in Shiawasee county, Michigan

Farm

Type of
anim al

C ooperia

Haemonchus

Oesophagostomum

O ste rta g ia

mean
No. epg

mean
No. epg

mean
No. epg

mean
No. epg

No.

mean
epg (1)

T ric h o s tro n g y lu s

4 ECUADOR 1
1

COWS
CALVES

0
0

0
0

0
4

0
175

0
2

0
100

0
0

0
0

0
4

0
150

2
2

COWS
CALVES

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

1
1

100
100

0
1

0
200

0
2

0
150

3
3

COWS
CALVES

0
0

0
0

1
0

100
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

2
1

100
100

1
1

COWS
CALVES

2
1

50
50

3
3

100
120

0
0

0
0

0
1

0
50

2
0

100
0

2
2

COWS
CALVES

0

0
—

0
—

0
-

0
—

0

0

—

—

0
—

0
—

0
0

0
0

2
2

200
200

0
1

0
200

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

5 ECUADOR

3 COWS
3 CALVES
6 MICHIGAN 1
1
(1)

COWS
CALVES

—

0
—

No. = number of positives out of 10 animals; mean epg = mean eggs per gram among
positives

Table 15.

Region

Mean nematodes, coccidia and Fasciola hepatica burden in feces of dairy cattle
from five regions in the Chimborazo province of Ecuador and one region in
Shiawasee county, Michigan

Farm

1 ECUADOR

Type of
animal

Nematodes
mean
No. epg

range

F a s c i o la
h e p a t ic a

C o c cid ia
mean
No. epg

number o f
p o sitiv e s

range

COWS
CALVES

5
3

520
470

100-1400
100-1000

0
0

0
0

2
2

COWS
CALVES

1
9

100
1330

700-2000

2
3

100
170

100- 100
100- 300

0
0

3
3

COWS
CALVES

1
0

100
0

1
5

100
500

100-1900

0
0

2 ECUADOR 1
1

COWS
CALVES

0
1

0
100

5
0

840
0

400-1700

0
0

2
2

COWS
CALVES

4
1

175
600

100- 300

7
1

770
100

100-1700

0
0

3
3

COWS
CALVES

2

300

300- 300
—
-

0
—

1
1

COWS
CALVES

0
2

0
100

100- 100

0
3

0
470

100-1100

0
0

2
2

COWS
CALVES

0
0

0
0

0
3

0
430

100-1000

0
0

3
3

COWS
CALVES

2
3

100
300

2
2

150
250

100- 200
200- 300

0
0

3 ECUADOR

(1)

—

—

100- 100
100- 500

0
—

0
0

—

—

0
—

No. = number of positives out of 10 animals; mean epg = mean eggs per gram among
positives

215

1
1

Table 15.

Region

(Cont'd.) Mean nematodes, coccidia and Fasciola hepatica burden in feces of
dairy cattle from five regions in the Chimborazo province of Ecuador and one
region in Shiawasee county, Michigan

Farm

Type of
animal

Nematodes
mean
No. epg

F a s c i o la
h e p a tic a

C o c cid ia
mean
No. epg

range

number of
p o sitiv e s

range

1
1

COWS
CALVES

0
9

0
200

100- 400

0
0

0
0

3
10

2
2

COWS
CALVES

2
3

150
270

100- 200
100- 600

0
1

0
100

0
0

3
3

COWS
CALVES

2
1

150
100

100- 200

0
1

0
100

5
1

1
1

COWS
CALVES

8
6

90
80

50- 150
50- 150

0

0

0
0

2
2

COWS
CALVES

0
—

5

200

100- 400

4
—

3
3

COWS
CALVES

2
3

200
300

3
0

130
0

100- 200

0
0

6 MICHIGAN 1
1

COWS
CALVES

0
0

0
0

0
0

0
0

4 ECUADOR

5 ECUADOR

(1)

0
—

—

“

100- 300
200- 500

—

—

—

—

0
0

No. = number of positives out of 10 animals; mean epg = mean eggs per gram among
positives

217

t r e a t e d w ith t h i a b e n d a z o l e two months b e f o r e
Ecuador,

farms from a l l

th e

fiv e

s a m p lin g .

In

r e g i o n s s t u d i e d had some

nematode i n f e s t a t i o n . A l l the anim als in Ecuador were on pasture
a l l yea r around, e x c e p t th e c a l v e s i n farm t h r e e o f r e g io n o n e.
Farms one and two from r e g io n one had th e h i g h e s t number o f
a n im a ls whose f e c a l sa m p le s had nematode e g g s p r e s e n t and th e
h ig h e s t mean egg per gram count.
In s e v e r e c l i n i c a l c a s e s , f e c a l c o u n ts of O s t e r t a g i a eggs
u s u a l l y e x c e e d 1000 (Armour, 1970).

F e c a l egg c o u n t s a l o n e ,

h o w e v e r , do n o t p r o v i d e t h e b e s t method o f p a r a s i t e i n f e c t i o n
d i a g n o s i s . F a c t o r s such a s c l i n i c a l s i g n s , se a s o n o f th e y e a r ,
g r a z i n g h i s t o r y , pl asma p e psin o gen, serum albumen and packed c e l l
volume p e r c e n t a g e , and r e s u l t s o f p o s t - m o r t e m e x a m i n a t i o n m ust
o f t e n be c o n s i d e r e d t o a c c u r a t e l y a s s e s s t h e s e v e r i t y o f nematode
i n f e c t i o n (Armour, 1970).

In the herds s tu d ie d ,

t h e p r e s e n c e of

nematode eggs i n s e v e r a l a n i m a l s , and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e a n im a l s
were g r a z i n g a l l y e a r a r o u n d , i n d i c a t e s t h e need o f p r e v e n t i v e
measures and p e r i o d i c t r e a t m e n t .
C occidia oocy sts

were p r e s e n t

in s e v e r a l

of the

fecal

sa m ple s o f t h e a n im a l s s t u d i e d i n Ecuador (Table 15), b u t n o t i n
numbers high enough t o i n d i c a t e an a c u t e i n f e s t a t i o n .
F a s c i o l a h e p a t i c a eggs

(according t o q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s )

were f o u n d i n t h e f e c e s o f a n i m a l s on f a r m s one and t h r e e o f
r e g i o n f o u r , and on f a r m two i n r e g i o n f i v e i n E c u a d o r ( T a b l e
15).

At t h e s e f a r m s , t h e a n i m a l s were g r a z i n g on wet p a s t u r e s

near c r e e k s or swamps, and a q u a t i c p l a n t s were p r e s e n t .

In these

c a s e s , p r e v e n t i v e management p r a c t i c e s and a n t i f l u k e t r e a t m e n t

218

are n e c e ss a r y .
Nematode i n f e s t a t i o n ,
i s more s e v e r e ,

e s p e c i a l l y i n young a n im a l s where i t

c a n be p r e v e n t e d by t h e p r o v i s i o n o f c l e a n

p a s t u r e s , e i t h e r i n t h e form o f newly p l a n t e d l o t s o r p a s t u r e n o t
g r a z e d by c a t t l e i n t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r (Armour, 19 74).

T his i s

seldom p o s s i b l e , however, and under p r a c t i c a l c o n d i t i o n s t h e use
of a n th e lm in tic s is necessary .

For e f f e c t i v e p a s t u r e r o t a t i o n

and t r e a t m e n t of t h e a n i m a l s , a knowledge o f t h e r a i n p a t t e r n s i s
n e c e s s a r y because t h e i n f e s t a t i o n o f nematodes i n t h e a n im a l s i s
c l o s e l y r e l a t e d t o weather ( S c h i l l h o r n van Veen, 1976).
In th e a r e a s s t u d i e d in E cuad or, th e r a in y s e a s o n (around
400 mm o f rain /year) l a s t s from around October to A p r il.
case o f O s te r ta g ia ,

In the

tran sm issio n occurs during the rainy season

when the la r v a e grow b e tte r on the p a stu re, and the anim als then
show symptoms o f th e i n f e s t a t i o n a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e dry
season .

T r a n s m is s io n i s low d u r in g th e dry s e a s o n .

A n im als

s h o u ld be t r e a t e d a t th e b e g in n in g o f th e dry s e a s o n , when th e
p a s t u r e s are a l r e a d y d r y , and th en moved t o c l e a n p a s t u r e s .
c le a n

p a stu res

are

If

not a v a i l a b l e ,

a new t r e a t m e n t w i t h

a n t h e l m i n t i c four or s i x weeks a f t e r

the f i r s t tr e a tm e n t i s

a d v is a b le (Armour, 1970; S c h illh o r n van Veen, 1976). In Michigan,
i f the grazing anim als cannot be moved to c le a n pastures a f te r a
f i r s t treatment during a dry period in the summer, the treatment
s h o u ld be r e p e a te d a t th e end o f th e g r a z in g s e a s o n , around
November (S c h illh o r n van Veen, 1976).
In th e U n ite d S t a t e s t h e r e are s i x a n t h e l m i n t i c s approved
fo r

u se in c a t t l e :

th ia b e n d a z o le ,

le v a m iso le ,

coumaphos,

219

h alo x o n ,

p h en o th iazin e

lev am iso le

have

high

and m o r a n t e l .
degrees

T h iabendazole

efficacy

o t

ag ain st

an d

ad u lt

g a s t r o i n t e s t i n a l nematodes and some l a r v a e , and they a r e t h e most
w i d e ly used.

M o r a n t e l i s co mparable i n e f f i c a c y .

a l s o e f f e c t i v e a g a i n s t lungworms.

L ev a m iso le i s

The remaining t h r e e compounds

are g e n e r a l l y l e s s e f f i c a c i o u s , b u t have s p e c i f i c use s.
an th elm in tics

recen tly

approved or

a p p r o v e d by t h e FDA a r e

in

iv erm ectin

New

the p r o c e s s of being

and

the

benzim idazole

d e r i v a t i v e s a l b e n d a z o l e , f e n b e n d a z o l e , and o x f e n d a z o l e (American
Assoc. Vet. P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

1983).

The i n t e r m e d i a r y h o s t o f F a s c i o l a h e p a t i c a i s t h e lymnaeid
s n a i l (Lymnaea sp.) which l i v e s i n a q u a t i c e n v ir o n m e n ts.

Control

m e a s u r e s f o r E\ h e p a t i c a a r e d e s i g n e d t o r e d u c e t h e number o f
f l u k e s in t h e h o s t a nim al and t o reduc e t h e s n a i l p o p u l a t i o n in
t h e environm ent (Merck, 1979).

Whenever p o s s i b l e , c a t t l e sh o u l d

not g r a z e in p a s t u r e s c o n t a i n i n g swamps or ponds or near c r e e k s ,
where t h e s n a i l s grow.
anim als,

Hay from such p a s t u r e s can be fed t o the

since d e s ic c a tio n

parasite.

k ills

the

m etacercaria

of

the

M o l l u s c a c i d e s , such as copper s u l f a t e , can be used to

c o n tro l the s n a i l p o p u latio n .
H e x a c h l o ro e t h a n e was one o f t h e most common t r e a t m e n t s used
f o r F a s c i o l a i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s u n t i l 1979 when t h e Food and
Drug A d m i n i s t r a t i o n rem o ve d i t from t h e m a r k e t a s a p o t e n t i a l
c a r c in o g e n .

S in c e t h e n , t h e r e i s no f l u k i c i d a l drug a v a i l a b l e i n

the Un ited S t a t e s t h a t i s f u l l y approved f o r use i n l i v e s t o c k by
t h e Food and Drug A d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
anthelm intic s t i l l

A l b e n d a z o l e , a broad-sp ec tru m

b e ing t e s t e d , has been approved f o r emergency

220

u s e a g a i n s t F. h e p a t i c a and F. magna i n c a t t l e and s h e e p i n some
states

(American A s s o c . V e t . P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

countries,
c a ttle

however,

1983).

In o th er

there are s e v e ra l flu k ic id e s a v a i la b l e for

s u c h a s r a f o x a n i d e , b r o t i a n i d e and n i t r o x y n i l .

These

compounds can a l s o k i l l immature f l u k e s (Merck, 1979).
C o ccid io sis

can

be p r e v e n t e d

by m a i n t a i n i n g s a n i t a r y

c o n d i t i o n s when t h e a n i m a l s , e s p e c i a l l y t h e y o u n g , a r e k e p t i n
confinem ent.

S u l f a d r u g s and a m p r o l i u m c a n be u s e d t o p r e v e n t

f u r t h e r i n f e c t i o n (American Assoc. Vet. P a t h o l o g i s t s ,

1983).

SUMMARY

The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p
p lan ts,

of

the m in e ral

statu s

of

so ils,

and a n i m a l s was i n v e s t i g a t e d i n f i v e r e g i o n s o f t h e

C h im b o r a z o p r o v i n c e o f E c u a d o r and i n one r e g i o n i n S h i a w a s e e
c o u n ty , Michigan.

There were s e v e r a l m i n e r a l d e f i c i e n c y problem s

a f f e c t i n g p l a n t and an im al p r o d u c t i o n .

No t o x i c e x c e s s e s of the

m i n e r a l s s t u d i e d were d e t e c t e d .
F ertilizatio n
L iming o f t h e s o i l s i s n e e d e d i n most r e g i o n s f o r o p t i m a l
legu m e p r o d u c t i o n .

R e g i o n s 1 and 4, where t h e pH was c l o s e t o

n e u t r a l , do n o t r e q u i r e l im i n g .
N itrogen
production.

fe rtiliz a tio n

is

needed

f o r c o r n and g r a s s

A l f a l f a and mixed g r a s s - l e g u m e p a s t u r e s do not need

nitrogen f e r t i l i z a t i o n .
Most o f t h e s o i l s o f t h e r e g i o n s s t u d i e d had low t o medium
phosphorus c o n t e n t .

Phosphorus f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s needed i n t h e s e

areas for forage production.

I n g e n e r a l s o i l s from r e g i o n 6 had

a high phosphorus c o n t e n t .

However, phosphorus f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s

n e e d e d i n some f i e l d s o f r e g i o n 6 f o r m a i n t e n a n c e o f p e r m a n e n t
c r o p s such a s a l f a l f a and g r a s s - l e g u m e p a s t u r e s .
P otassium

c o n ten t

in

so ils

was h i g h

in a l l

reg io n s.

P o ta ssiu m f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s needed, n e v e r t h e l e s s , f o r maintenance
o f permanent c ro p s such as a l f a l f a and g r a s s - l e g u m e p a s t u r e s .
T reatment of s e e d s with molybdenum w i l l p r o b a b l y i n c r e a s e
grass-legume p a stu re y i e l d s
was lo w .

in r e g i o n 1 , where s o i l molybdenum

I n r e g i o n 6 s o i l molybdenum was r e l a t i v e l y h i g h , b u t
221

222

molybdenum c o n c e n tr a tio n in the forages was low.

In t h i s region ,

l im in g th e s o i l w i l l p r o b a b ly i n c r e a s e th e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f
molybdenum for legumes.
Zinc f e r t i l i z a t i o n i s needed i n r e g i o n 1 and in r e g i o n 6 f o r
c o rn c u l t i v a t i o n . Zinc c o n t e n t i n t h e s o i l and i n f o r a g e s was low
in these regions.
Copper i n t h e s o i l s from r e g i o n s 2, 3, 5 and 6 was low.
P a s t u r e copper was low i n a l l r e g i o n s e x c e p t r e g i o n 1.
p articu larly

legum es,

Forages,

grown i n t h e s e r e g i o n s w i l l p r o b a b l y

b e n e f i t from c o p p e r f e r t i l i z a t i o n . A l s o , c o p p e r f e r t i l i z a t i o n
w i l l i n c r e a s e copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n f o r a g e s , p r o b a b l y enough t o
meet animal r e q u i r e m e n t s .
S ulfur

fertiliz atio n

is

improved f o r a g e p r o d u c t i o n .

needed

in

region

1 and 6 f o r

S o i l s u l f u r i n t h e s e r e g i o n s was

low.
Magnesium f e r t i l i z a t i o n may be needed fo r co rn and o th e r
responsive crops in reg io n 6.
Calcium, sodium,

cobalt,

i r o n , manganese and se l e n i u m were

fo u n d t o be p r e s e n t i n a d e q u a t e a m ou n ts i n t h e s o i l s t e s t e d , so
f e r t i l i z a t i o n w i t h t h e s e m i n e r a l s i s p r o b a b l y n o t needed.
Mineral Supplementation for Animals
N itr o g e n s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i s needed in r e g i o n 3 f o r improved
animal p r o d u c t i v i t y .

H ig h -producing cows i n a l l t h e r e g i o n s w i l l

a l s o need e x t r a n i t r o g e n t o meet t h e i r re q u i r e m e n ts .
Calcium i n p a s t u r e s was found t o e x i s t in adeq uate amounts
in a l l the r e g io n s s t u d i e d .
need c a l c i u m s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n .

High p r o d u c i n g cows, h o w e v e r , may
Calcium s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n may a l s o

223

be needed where t h e a n i m a l s a r e e a t i n g h i g h - g r a i n r a t i o n s .
Phosphorus s u p p le m e n t a t io n fo r c a t t l e

i s needed in a l l

r e g io n s , e s p e c i a l l y for high producing cows.
Magnesium c o n t e n t i n f o r a g e s from a l l t h e r e g i o n s s t u d i e d
was found t o be adequate t o meet a nim al r e q u i r e m e n t s .

Lactating

cows fed h i g h - g r a i n r a t i o n s may need e x t r a magnesium t o p r e v e n t
low m i l k - f a t syndrome.
P o ta ssiu m c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n f o r a g e s from a l l r e g i o n s was
found t o be ad eq u ate t o m eet an im al r e q u ir e m e n ts .

A n im als on

h igh -grain r a tio n s , however, may need e xtra potassium.
Sodium s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i s needed f o r a l l c a t t l e i n a l l

th e

reg io n s studied.
I r o n s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i s needed f o r c a t t l e i n r e g i o n 6 . I r o n
can be p r o v i d e d t o t h e a n im a l s i n the t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t .
Zinc c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n f o r a g e s from r e g i o n s 1 and 6 was low.
Animals i n t h e s e r e g i o n s need z i n c s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n in t h e t r a c e
m i n e r a l s a l t i n o r d e r t o meet t h e i r r e q u i r e m e n ts .
M anganese s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i s n e e d e d i n r e g i o n s 1, 2 and 5.
F o r a g e s from t h e s e r e g i o n s had a m an g a n es e c o n t e n t t o o low t o
meet t h e manganese re q u ir e m e n t o f d a i r y c a t t l e .

Manganese s a l t s

can be p r o v i d e d t o t h e s e a n i m a l s in t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t .
Selenium c o n t e n t i n t h e b l o o d serum o f a n im a l s from a l l t h e
r e g i o n s s t u d i e d , e x c e p t r e g i o n 6 , was b e l o w 10 ug / 1 0 0 m l , w h ic h
i s considered a d e s i r a b l e l e v e l .

Animals from t h e s e r e g i o n s w i l l

p r o b a b l y b e n e f i t from s e l e n i u m s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n i n t h e t r a c e
mineral s a l t .
C o b a l t and molybdenum were found i n t h e f o r a g e s in amounts

224

ad eq u a te t o meet a nim al r e q u i r e m e n ts .

In c lu s io n of c o b a l t s a l t s

i n t h e t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t w i l l n o t produce t o x i c e f f e c t s i n the
anim als.
Copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n blood serum was low o r m a r g i n a l i n
a l l t h e r e g i o n s s t u d i e d . Copper c o n c e n t r a t i o n i n p a s t u r e s was
also

below th e

requirem ent of

10 ppm i n t h e r a t i o n . C op p er

s u p p l e m e n ta t io n i s needed f o r th e a n im a ls in a l l

the regions

s t u d i e d . Copper s u l f a t e may be added t o t h e t r a c e m i n e r a l s a l t a t
a rate

of

0 .5 t o

1.0% o f

the m ix tu re.

The u s e o f c o p p e r

f e r t i l i z e r w i l l r a i s e t h e copper c o n t e n t of f o r a g e s and p r o b a b l y
improve t h e i r y i e l d .
P a r a s i te Control
Nematode e g g s w e r e fo u n d i n t h e f e c a l s a m p l e s o f a n i m a l s
fro m a l l t h e r e g i o n s s t u d i e d , e x c e p t r e g i o n 6 . R e l a t i v e l y h i g h
num bers o f c o c c i d i a o o c y s t s were fo und i n t h e f e c e s o f a n i m a l s
from r e g i o n s 1, 2 and 3. F a s c i o l a h e p a t i c a eggs were found i n t h e
feces

from a n i m a l s

in

regions

4 and

5. C h e m o t h e r a p y a n d

p r e v e n t i v e measures o f p a r a s i t e c o n t r o l a r e needed i n t h e r e g i o n s
m e n tio n e d .

L it e r a t u r e Cited
AAFCO.
1979.
O ffic ia l p u b licatio n .
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b u f f e r e d c o n c e n t r a t e m i x t u r e s f o r d a i r y cows. J . D a iry S c i .
55:130.
S o u s a , J.C . 1978. I n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s among m i n e r a l l e v e l s i n
s o i l , f o r a g e , and animal t i s s u e s on ranches i n n o r t h e r n Mato
G rosso, B r a z il.
Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n .
U. o f F l o r i d a ,
G ainesville.
S u t t i e , J.W. 1980. N u t r i t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f f l u o r i d e t o x i c o s i s .
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S u t t i e , J.W. a n d D.L. K o l s t a d .
1977.
E f f e c ts of d i e t a r y
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D airy S c i . 60:1568.
S u t t i e , N.F. and M. McLaughlan. 1976. P r e d i c t i n g t h e e f f e c t s of
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T e j a d a , R. 1984. E v a l u a t i o n o f t h e m i n e r a l s t a t u s o f c a t t l e in
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S c i . 53:1107.

Im prenta d e l
Mich. S t a t e U.

M e t a b o l i s m o f i r o n and m an g a n ese.

J. D airy

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Thompson, D.J.
1980.
fluoride to x ic ity .

I n d u s tria l con sideratio ns
J . Anim. S c i . 51:767.

related

to

Thompson, J . F . , C .J. M o r r i s and R.K. G e r i n g . 1960. The e f f e c t
o f m i n e r a l s u p p l y on t h e amino a c i d c o m p o s i t i o n o f p l a n t s .
Qual. P l a n t . Mater. Veg. 6:261.
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W.G. H o e k s t r a , J.W. S u t t i e , H.E. G a n t h e r a n d W. M e r t z
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T rac e E lem en t M e tab o lism in A n im a ls-2 .
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T i s d a l e , S.L. and W.L. N e l s o n .
1975.
S o i l F e r t i l i t y and
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1985.
S o il
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Selenium s u p p l e m e n t a t i o n o f d i e t s f o r sheep and beef
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1979.
E f fe c t of
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An e x a m in a tio n o f th e
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in

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Cement k i l n d u s t i n f i n i s h i n g lam b d i e t s .
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W a r n c k e , D.D. a n d D.R. C h r i s t e n s o n .
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F e rtiliz e r
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J . D airy S ci.
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Cement k i l n d u s t
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in
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Recommended C h e m i c a l S o i l T e s t
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a
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Ph. D.
D i s s e r t a t i o n , Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , E a s t Lansing.

APPENDIX I

1 -1

Table I . l .

N itrogen, phosphorus, potassium , calcium , maganesium,
and s u lfu r in s o i l s ;
method o f e x tr a c t io n and
s u f f i c i e n c y con cen tration range for a l f a l f a and corn
SUFFICIENCY RANGE (2)

ELEMENT

EXTRACTING SOLUTION (1)

CORN (3)

ALFALFA (4]
%

NITROGEN

Ca(OH)2 s a t u r a t e d

2 .7 6 - 3 .5 0

3 .7 6 - 5 . 5 0

PHOSPHORUS

0.025N HC1 in 0.03N NH4f

0.25-0.50

0 .2 6 - 0 .7 0

POTASSIUM

IN NH4OAC pH 7

1 .7 1 - 2 . 5 0

2 .0 1 - 3 . 5 0

CALCIUM

IN NH4OAc pH 7

0 . 21 - 1 .0 0

1 . 7 6 - 3 .0 0

MAGNESIUM

IN NH4OAc pH 7

0.16-0.60

0 .3 1 - 1 . 0 0

SULFUR

Ca(H2P 0 4 ) 2 ,

0 . 1 6 - 0 .5 0

0 .3 1 - 0 . 5 0

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

P 500

ppm

Recommended Chemical S o i l T e s t P r o c e d u r e s f o r the
C e n t r a l Region (N. Dakota Exp. S t a t i o n )
Vitosh e t a l .
(1981)
Ear l e a f sample of i n i t i a l s i l k
Top s i x in ch e s sampled p r i o r t o i n i t i a l f l o w e r i n g

Nortt

1 -2

T able 1 . 2 .

ELEMENT

I r o n , manganese, molybdenum, z i n c , c o p p e r , and c o b a l t
i n s o i l s ; method o f e x t r a c t i o n , range i n c r i t i c a l
l e v e l and s u f f i c i e n c y c o n c e n t r a t i o n range f o r a l f a l f a
and c orn
EXTRACTING
SOLUTION

RANGE IN
CRITICAL
LEVEL (1)

SUFFICIENCY RANGE (2)
CORN (3)

ALFALFA (4)

ppm
21-250

31-250

MANGANESE

0.1N HC1

20-150

31-100

MOLYBDENUM

(NH4 )2C 20 4 ,

0 . 1- 2 .0

1

OJ.
0

0.1N HC1

o**•
o

IRON

1.0-5.0

pH 3.3
ZINC

0 . IN HC1

1.0-7.5

20-70

21-70

COPPER

1.0N HC1

9-20

6 -2 0

11-30

COBALT (5)

TOTAL

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

5.0

Cox and Kamprath (1972)
V i t o s h e t a l . (1981)
Ear l e a f sample o f i n i t i a l s i l k
Top s i x i n c h e s sampled p r i o r t o i n i t i a l flow erin g
Kubota and Allaway (1972)

0.07

1-3

T able 1 . 3 .

T y p i c a l m i n e r a l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s i n blood
serum of ru m in a n ts ( 1 )

CALCIUM

PHOSPHORUS

SODIUM

plasma

POTASSIUM

MAGNESIUM

mg/ 1 0 0 ml
9.0-12.0

4-9

300

14-18

1.8-3.0

IRON

COPPER

ZINC

MANGANESE

SELENIUM

2-3

10 -20

ug/ 1 0 0 ml
80-120

5-10

100

COBALT (2)

0 . 3 5 - 6 . 3 0 ug/ 1 0 0 ml

(1)
(2)

Church (1971)
Koch e t a l . (1951)

or

1-4

T ab le 1 .4 .

K ilogram s
e s tim a te d
o f a 23 cm
s o i l pH t o

o f lim e sto n e p e r h e c ta r e r e q u ir e d , as
from s o i l pH and t e x t u r e , to r a i s e th e pH
plow la y e r to pH 6 .5 ; add 1680 kg to r a i s e
6 . 8 (1)

S o il pH Range
T e x tu re o f-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Plow Layer
4 .5 - 4 .9
5 .0 -5 .4
5 .5 - 5 .9
6 .0 - 6 .4
Kg o f lim e sto n e per h e c ta r e
C lay and s i l t y c la y

17930

15130

12330

7850

C lay loams or loams

15130

12330

8970

6160

Sandy loams

12330

8970

7850

4480

Loamy sands

8970

7850

6160

3360

Sands

7850

6160

4480

1680

(1)

T rasform ed to

m e tr ic u n i t s

from C h ris te n s o n

et a l.,

1983

Table 1.5.

Nitrogen fertilizer guides for corn (1)

Y ie ld G o a l/h e c ta re
S h e lle d
corn kg/ha
Corn s i l a g e
1000 kg/ha ( 2 )

1700-2550

2550-3390

3400-4240

4250-5090

2 2 .4 -3 1 .4

3 3 .5 -4 2 .6

4 2 .7 -5 3 .8

5 3 .9 -6 7 .3

5100-5950

5960-6830

P re v io u s c ro p
or manure
a p p lic a tio n
Legume and 22000
kg m anure/ha

0

56

112

168

224

Good legume

11

45

101

157

213

269

Manure 22000
k g /h e c ta re

34

67

123

179

235

291

No legum es,
no manure

78

112

168

224

280

336

(1)
(2)

Transform ed to m e tric u n its from Warncke and C h ris te n s o n , 1980
F o r su d a n g r a s s , su d a x , and s i m i l a r c r o p s , u se n i t r o g e n r a t e s c o m p a ra b le t o s i l a g e
p r o d u c tiv ity

1 -5

0

T able 1 .6 .

Annual phosphorus (P205) and p o tassiu m (K20) recom m endations fo r co rn grown on
m in e ra l s o i l s ( 1 )
Y ie ld G o a l/h e c ta re

S h e lle d
co rn kg/ha
Corn s ila g e
1000 kg/ha ( 2 )
T e s t Level
ppm
0102030405060-

9
19
29
39
49
59
69
70

0- 49
50- 74
75- 99
100-124
125-149
150-174
175

2550-3390
2 2 .4 -3 1 .4

84
56
28
28
28
28
0
0

3400-4240

4250-5090
5100-5950
4 2 .7 -5 3 .8
5 3 .9 -6 7 .3
3 3 .5 -4 2 .6
Phosphorus recom m endations, kg P 2 0 5 /h e c ta re

5960-6830

140
84
56
28
28

196
168
140
112
84
56
28

112

84
56
28
28
28

0
0

112

0
0

168
140
112

84
56
28
28

0

0

P otassium recom m endations, kg K 20/ha, on sandy loams and loamy sands
168
224
280
336
336
112
168
224
308
280
84
112
252
224
168
56
56
112
196
168
0
28
112
56
140
0
84
0
0
56
0

0

0

0

0

P otassium recom m endations, kg K20 / h a , on loam s, c la y loams and c la y s
168
224
448
336
448
112
168
224
392
336
56
112
168
224
280
0
112
56
224
168
0
0
112
56
168
0
0
0
112
56
0
0
0
0
56

0 - 49
50- 74
75- 99
100-124
125-137
138-149
150-162
163
0
0
0
(1) Transform ed to m e tric u n its from Warncke and C h ris te n s o n , 1980

0

0

1 -7

T ab le 1 .7 .

Annual
phosphorus
(P 2O5 ) an<^
p o tassiu m
(K20 )
recom m endations
fo r a l f a l f a grown in m in e ra l s o i l
(1)

Y ie ld , 1000 k g/ha
T e s t le v e l
ppm

6 .7 - 8 .9

1 3 .6 -1 7 .9

Phosphorus recom m endations, kg P 205 / h e c t a r e
84
56
28

0- 9
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50

9 .0 -1 3 .5

0
0
0

112

140

84
56
28

112

0
0

84
56
28
0

P o tassiu m recom m endations, kg K2o /h e c ta r e on
sandy loams and loamy s o i l s
0 - 24
25- 49
50- 74
75- 99
100-124
125-149
150-174
175-200
200

336
280
224
168
112

392
336
280
224
168

56

112

448
392
336
280
224
168

0
0
0

56

112

0
0

56
0

P o tassiu m recom m endations, kg K2° / h e c t a r e on
loam s, c la y loams and c la y
0 - 24
25- 49
50- 74
75- 99
100-124
125-149
150-174
175
(1)

T ransform ed
1980

112

448
336
224
168

56

112

560
448
336
224
168

0
0
0

56

112

0
0

56

336
224
168

to m e tric u n i ts from Warncke and

0

C h ris te n s o n ,

T able 1 .8 .

Manganese recom mendations fo r band a p p li c a t io n fo r re s p o n s iv e c ro p s grown on
m in e ra l and o rg a n ic s o i l s (1 )
Manganese (0. 1 N HC1 E x tra c tio n )
MINERAL SOILS

S o il
te s t
ppm Mn

Response

Mn-kg/ha

Below 5

P ro b ab le

5-10

Above pH 6 .5

ORGANIC SOILS

pH 6 .0 - 6 .5

Above pH 6.4

pH 5.8--6 .4

Response Mn-kg/ha

Response

Mn-kg/ha

Response

Mn-kg/ha

9

P ro b ab le

7

C e rta in

18

C e rta in

13

P robable

7

P o s s ib le

4

C e rta in

13

P ro b ab le

9

11-20

P o s s ib le

4

None

0

P ro b ab le

9

P o s s ib le

4

21-40

None

0

None

0

P o s s ib le

4

None

0

Above 40

None

0

None

0

None

0

None

0

(1)

Transform ed t o m e tric u n i ts from V ito sh e t a l . , 1981

1-9

T ab le 1 .9 .

Zinc recom m endations f o r band a p p l i c a t i o n on m in e ra l
and o rg a n ic s o i l s ( 1 )
Zinc fo r M in e ral and O rganic S o ils (0 .1 HC1 E x tr a c tio n )

S o il
te s t
ppm
z in c
Below 2

pH 6 .7 to 7 .4

Below pH 6 .7

Response Z n-kg/ha

Response Z n-kg/ha

R esponse Z n-kg/ha

C e r ta in

5.6

P ro b a b le

3 .4

P o s s ib le

2.2

3-5

P ro b a b le

3.4

P o s s ib le

3.4

None

0

5-10

P ro b a b le

3 .4

P o s s ib le

2.2

None

0

11-15

P o s s ib le

2.2

None

0

None

0

Above 15

None

0

None

0

None

0

(1)

Above pH 7 .5

Recommended r a t e s a re fo r in o rg a n ic s a l t s such a s z in c
s u l f a t e ; use o n e -f o u rth t h i s r a t e fo r c h e la te d m a t e r i a l s .
T ransform ed to m e tric u n i ts from V ito s h e t a l . , 1981

1 -1 0

T ab le I . 10.

C om position and in g r e d ie n ts o f a t r a c e m in e ra l
( 1)

G uaranteed a n a ly s is

s a lt

I n g r e d ie n ts
%

Z in c , m in.

0.350

z in c o x id e

M anganese, m in.

0.200

manganous o x id e

I r o n , m in.

0.200

f e r r o u s c a rb o n a te , f e r r o u s s u l f a t e

C opper, m in.

0.030

copper oxide

C o b a lt, m in.

0.005

c o b a lt c a rb o n a te

I o d in e , m in.

0.007

c alciu m io d a te

S elen ium , m in.

0.002

sodium s e l e n i t e

S a l t , m in.

96.000

sodium c h lo r id e

S a l t , max.

98.500
red ir o n o x id e (fo r c o lo r o nly)
m in e ra l o i l
a n e th o l

(1)

Hardy S a l t C o ., S t . L o u is , MO 63166.

APPENDIX I I

II-l

CALCIUM

SERUM
mg/ 1 0 0 ml
REGION FARM

COWS

YOUNG

1
2

7.83
11.07

8.78

3

10.21

10.04

9.70

9.23

1
2

9.69
8.39

3

8.20

9.12
8.84
8.33

8.76

8.76

8.99
9.23
7.33

10.07
7 .4 1
8 .37

8.52

8 .62

8.13
7.76
8.71

9.70
9.43
8.13

8.20

9.09

9.86
9.26
9.87

10.06
9.73
10.98

9 .66

10.26

7.57

8.71

AVG

7.57

8.71

GEN. AVG.

8.88

9 .1 6

1

AVG
2

AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

PASTURES
% DM
AVG

SOILS
ppm

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
0.61
0.61
1.16

0.58
0.58
1.05

0.79

0.73

0.32
0.34
0.48

0.30
0.36
0.57

0.38

0.41

0.62
0.36
0.35

0.55
0.28
0.31

0.44

0.38

0.52
0.57
0.62

0.42
0.33
0.50

0.57

0.42

0.36
0.57
0.79

0.51
0.36
0.94

0.57

0 .6 1

0.70

0.61

8.14

0.70

0.61

0.65

1704

9.02

0.56

0.52

0.54

2688

8.88

9.47

8.76

8.57

8.64

9.96

3226
3201
3484
0.76

3303
3067
2792
3276

0.39

3045
2640
1824
1351

0.41

1938
3593
2225
2505

0.49

2774
4035
2773
2881

0.59

3230
1704

3

II-2

PHOSPHORUS
SERUM
mg/ 100 ml
SION FARM
1

1
2

3
AVG
2

8.72

5.73

8.97
7.55

0.30
0.24
0.32

0 .36
0.24
0.32

0.28

0.31

0.22

12.4
10.1

54.7
0.30

25.7

3

7.37
6.66

7.14

5.93
6.96
4.18

8.12

5.69

6.81

1

4.77

6.05

2

6.21

8.02

3

6.50

7.25

5.83

7.10

4.53
6.81
6.17

5.30
7.94

0.22

8.66

5.84

7.30

4.62

6.43

4.62

6.43

5.52

0.25

0.24

61.6

5.99

7.35

6.67

0.24

0.25

26.7

1
2

AVG
1
2

3
AVG
6

6.38

7.08

7.44
5.84
8.13

AVG

5

10.11

WASHED N-WASHED AVG

6.88

3

4

5.73
9.67
3.74

AVG

SOILS
ppm

1
2

AVG
3

COWS YOUNG

PASTURES
% DM

1
2

6.90

5.77
6.55
6.25

6.47

6.57

0.18
0.29

0.22
0.20

12.0
12.2

0 .31

6 .5

0.23

0.24

0.29
0.17
0.17

0.28
0.15
0.18

0.21

0.20

0.28
0.23
0.26

0.34
0.24
0.27

0.25

0.28

0.15
0.25

0.18
0.23
0.25

0.21

0.22

0.25

0.24

0.24

10.2

72.5
16.3
26.6
0.21

38.5
15.7
12.0

17.9
0.27

15.2
5.1
4 .6
31.2

0.21

13.6
61.6

3
AVG
M. AVG.

II-3

SODIUM

SERUM
mg/ 1 0 0 ml
5ION FARM

COWS YOUNG
486
542
407

504
511
411

478

474

456
473
406

473
442
409

445

441

438
542
550

516
568
545

510

543

473
464
453

466
345
394

463

402

457
504
534

488
494
435

498

472

395

365

AVG

395

365

1. AVG.

474

460

1

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

PASTURES
% DM
AVG

SOILS
ppm

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
157
126
117

0.020

0.021

0.015
0.019

0.016
0.018

0.018

0.018

0.018
0.017
0.014

0.021

0.016

0.019

0.023

0.021

167

0.022

110

0.016

0.023
0.017

0.020

0.020

0.030
0.029
0.036

0.036
0.033
0.034

0.032

0.034

0.017
0.018
0.029

0.014
0.014
0.032

0.021

0.020

0.018

0.019

380

0.018

0.019

0.018

166

467

0.021

0.022

0.022

168

477

443

526

432

485

0.018

133
168
190
219

0.019
0.017
0.018

193

126
O'. 020

134
252
211

293
0.033

252
113
144
135

0.021

131
166

3

II-4

POTASSIUM

REGION FARM

COWS

YOUNG

1
2

22

3

22

24
30
23

24

26

24
20
20

23
29
19

22

24

34
24
26

24
25

28

24

25
24
30

24
29
26

27

26

23
22
22

24
25
23

22

24

19

20

AVG

19

20

GEN. AVG.

24

24

1

AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

28

SOILS
ppm

PASTURES
% DM

SERUM
mg/ 100 ml
AVG

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
426
381
735

3.00
2.30
3.47

3.26
2.37
4.07

2.92

3.23

2.31
1.76

2.17
2.12

240
245

1.88

3.18

200

1.98

2.49

2.03
2.24
1.83

1.77
2.23

2.03

2.01

2.38
2.03
2.83

2.21

2.41

2.92

2.31
2.44
2.45

2.87
3.18
2.76

2.40

2.94

1.76

1.66

20

1.76

1.66

1.71

175

24

2.31

2.64

2.47

373

25

23

22

26

26

23

3.07

2.23

514

229
364
301
486

2.02
2.02

384
372
327
450

3.30
3.25
2.66

383
381
352
859

2.67

531
175

3

II-5

MAGNESIUM

SERUM
mg/ 100 ml

PASTURES
% DM

REGION FARM

COWS

YOUNG

1

2.94
2.98
3.85

3.31

0.27

0.33

2.21

0.22

0.22

2.95

0.25

0.24

3.26

2.83

0.25

0.26

3.06
2.51
3.13

3.05
3.04
3.24

0.21
0.20

0.21

0.30

0 .3 1

2.90

3.11

0.24

0.25

3.48
3.29
2.63

3.41
2.49
2.44

0.23

0.22

0.20

0.16

0.18
0.17

3.13

2.78

0.20

0.19

1
2

2.82
2.26

3.02
2.49

0.25
0.22

3

2.21

1.86

0.31

0 .3 1
0.25
0.38

2.43

2.46

0.26

0 .31

3.01
3.12
3.68

3.80
3.72
3.47

3.27

3.67

2.01

2.24

AVG

2.01

2.24

GEN. AVG.

2.93

2.92

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

AVG

3.04

3.00

2.96

2.44

SOILS
ppm

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
815
838
758
0.26

0.23

804
793
778
873

0.24

814
654
580
471

0.19

568
569
650
687

0.29

635

0.15

0.16

0.20

0.22

0.24

0.29

0.20

0.22

0.21

0.18

2.13

0.21

0.18

0.19

308

2.93

0.23

0.24

0.23

644

3.47

612
695
768
0.21

691
308

3

II-6

IRON
SERUM
ug/ 1 0 0 ml
REGION FARM

COWS YOUNG
462
522
444

388
489
356

476

411

418
388
361

558
411
423

389

464

507
451
423

383
440
469

460

431

433
313
404

368
392
444

383

401

385
336
323

438
516
448

348

467

297

353

AVG

297

353

J. AVG.

404

430

1

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

PASTURES
ppm
AVG

SOILS
ppm

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
167
134
185

358
318
165

162

280

77
78
157

98
138
277

104

171

202

64
74

195
50
51

113

98

364
311
201

702
295
268

292

422

61
124
95

90
131
145

94

122

44

45

325

44

45

45

89

417

145

206

175

170

443

426

446

392

408

141
239
166
221

182
194
268
343

137

269
239
176
259

106

225
188
99
131

357

139
127
120

80
108

109
89

3

II-7

COPPER
SERUM
ug/ 1 0 0 ml
SION FARM
1

3

4

4 .0
5.2
4 .2

3.2
4 .0

13.6

6.8

16.0

4 .5

4 .6

6.1

5.0
4 .0

5.1
3.7
4 .2

5.0

4.3

66

8.2

5 .9
8 .7

9 .4
5.8
9 .1

7 .6

8.1

6.4

6.5
7.6
7.4

6.4

7 .2

5.8

5.2

110

86

92

75

80

1
2

66

53
91

3

80

68

75

71

1
2

96
83

3

112

85
70
73

97

76

1
2

73
67

3

100

48
79

80

64

83

73

86

72

28.6
35.2
29.7

9.9
9.3

31.2

11.8

4.6

13.8
12.3
14.3
12.4

4 .7

13.0
21.3
26.5
21.5

7.8

23.1

1
2

73

68

4 .8

102

8.0

3

97

73
94

90

78

95

85

95

85

90

5.8

5.2

5.5

2.7

87

74

80

6 .5

6.6

6.6

17.1

AVG
6

9.2

3

AVG
5

9 .5

66

72

AVG

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
11.1
6.6

68

99

AVG

AVG

SOILS
ppm

10.9
5.7
11.9

1
2

AVG
2

COWS YOUNG

PASTURES
ppm

1
2

84

17.2
20.4
13.6
6.8

17.0
2.7

3
AVG
AVG.

II-8

ZINC
SERUM
ug/ 1 0 0 ml
REGION FARM

COWS YOUNG

PASTURES
ppm
AVG

135
187
219

168
193

180

187

205
161
137

180
186
159

167

175

196
152
151

177
147
183

166

169

152
133
192

175
158
215

159

183

178
174
178

142
158
158

176

152

163

153

AVG

163

153

158

GEN. AVG.

169

172

171 .

1

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

I

201

184

171

167

171

164

SOILS
ppm

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
55
34
42

45
24
49

4 .6
4 .6

44

39

29
56
48

32
34
44

44

37

26
38
29

26
38
29

31

31

49
26
37

50
19
44

38

38

38
65
49

28
36
26

51

30

6

28

6

28

17

3 .7

39

34

37

7 .7

10.2

41

6 .5
15.9
9 .9
10.1

40

12.0

7 .5
8 .5
10.9
31

9 .0
5 .6
4 .9
4 .8

38

5 .1
10.6

14.4
3 .5
41

9 .5
3.7

2

3

II-9

MANGANESE
SERUM
ug/ 1 0 0 ml
JION FARM
1

7.23
1.65
3.41

5.69
5.13
3.76

4.10

4.86

0.96
0.95
0.67

0.98
1.52
0.95

0.86

1.15

1
2

4.28
4.52

3

0.88

2.03
0.92
0.90

3.23

1.28

0.58
0.93
0.63

0.85
0.95
0.66

0.71

0.82

1.90
1.37
1.93

1.31
4.33
4.99

1.73

3.54

3.54

3.35

3.54

3.35

2.21

2.40

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

COWS YOUNG

1
2

PASTURES
ppm
AVG

SOILS
ppm

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
30
39
28

43
43
29

32

38

24
27
54

34
30
50

35

38

48
58
36

35
54
58

47

49

60
27
42

54
25
45

43

41

19
39
18

19
56
14

25

30

46

45

3.45

46

45

46

60

2.30

37

40

38

73

4.48

1.01

2.26

0.77

2.64

91
107
144
35

114
53
77
64

36

65
65
31
102

48

66

99
63
71
42

78
59
61
43

27

54
60

3
AVG
«. AVG.

1 1 -10

SELENIUM

SERUM
ug/ 1 0 0 ml
REGION FARM

COWS

YOUNG

1

1.07
3.20
4.40

1.19
3.00
2.83

2.89

2.34

3.75
1.31
4.76

1.31
2.49
2.72

3.27

2.18

8.29
8.77
7.40

3.22
3.22
15.98

8.15

7.47

1
2

6.52

3

4.56

5.31
1.90
4.26

4.36

3.82

4.86
3.94
8.99

3.60
5.43
8.56

5.93

5.86

9.73

13.58

AVG

9.73

13.58

GEN. AVG.

5.72

4.91

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

2.01

SOILS
ppm

PASTURES
ppm
AVG

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
0.42
0.59
0.35

0.50
0.47
0.47

0.45

0.48

0.66

0.35
0.51

0.59
0.39
0.82

0.51

0.60

0.48
0.35
0.41

0.33
0.49
0.37

0.42

0.40

0.45
0.60
0.47

0.43
0.64
0.48

0.51

0.52

0.43
0.50
0.66

0.40
0.47
0.73

0.53

0.54

0.21

0.17

11.65

0.21

0.17

0.19

0.41

5.32

0.46

0.48

0.47

0.85

2.62

2.72

7.81

4.09

5.90

0.20

0.54
1.18
0.46

0.64
0 .4 5
0.46
0.06

0.55

0.32
5.72
4 .2 1
0.30

0.41

3.41
0.06
0.06
0.14

0 .5 1

0.09
0.39
0.07
0.08

0.53

0.18
0.41

3

11-11

COBALT
SERUM
ug/ 1 0 0 ml

SOILS
ppm

PASTURES
ppm
AVG

COWS

YOUNG

1

1
2

2.52

3

1.00

1.17
1.71
0.17

1.76

1.01

0.87
1.38
1.13

0.44
0.11

1.13

0.27

0.38
0.77
1.63

1.14
1.38
0.99

0.93

1.17

0.64
1.40
1.62

0.95

1 .7

2.1

1.12

1.2
2.1

1 .5
2.3

1.22

1.19

1 .7

2.0

1.06
0.33
1.07

0.90
0.42
0.53

2.2

2 .5
2 .5

2.9
3.1
2.7

0.82

0.62

2.4

2.9

1.56

0.91

1 .5

1.4

AVG

1.56

0.91

1.23

1 .5

1 .4

1 .5

0.67

GEN. AVG.

1.16

0.89

1.02

1 .9

2.2

2.1

1.72

AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

AVG

WASHED N-WASHED

REGION FARM

1.39

0.70

2.7

2.4

1.8
2.8

2.1

3 .3

2 .4

2.6

1.4
1.3

1.6

2.00

1.2

1.5
1.9

1.58
2.43

1.3

1.7

2.2

1.9
2.3

1.28

1.8

1.49

2.4
1 .5
1.05

1.50
1.20

0.72

2.0

2.0

1.46
2.73
3.40
2 .5

1.5

2.53

2.00

1.11
2.0

1.29
2.63
2.28
1.63

1.8

2.18
1.71
1.53
1.19

2.6

1.48
0.67

3

1 1 -1 2

MOLYBDENUM
PASTURES
ppm
REGION FARM WASHED N-WASHED

SOILS
ppm
AVG

0.53
0 .5 7
0.36

0.73
0.64
0.41

0.49

0.59

1.09
0 .7 1
1.14

0.87
1.64

0.98

1.21

0.67
2.94
2.49

0 .5 0
3.19
1.76

2.03

1.82

0.86

1 .1 3 '

0.89
1.33

0.88

1.03

1.15

1.83
1 .8 1
0 .7 5

2.56
0 .5 2
2.98

1.47

2.02

0.19

0 .1 7

AVG

0 .1 9

0 .1 7

0 .1 8

0.52

GEN. AVG.

1 .1 2

1 .2 7

1.20

0.24

1

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

0.05
0.04
0.05
0.54

0.05
0.33
0.26
0.19

1.12

1.10

0.26
0.17
0.30
0.37

1.93

0.28
0.14
0.15
0.19

1.44
1.09

0.16
0.36
0.18
0.15

1.74

0.23
0.52

3

1 1 -1 3

PASTURES

ASH (% DM)

CRUDE FIBER (% DM)

REGION FARM WASHED N-WASHED AVG
1

13.8
13.1

13.7
16.2
13.2

13.0

14.3

1
2

11.3
10.7

3

12.8

12.4
11.9
17.1

11.6

13.8

14.1
10.7
9 .6

14.3

11.5

11.5

1
2

14.5

3

13.0

19.0
12.9
14.6

13.4

15.5

1
2

9 .9
12.3

11.5

3

10.2

11.7

10.8

11.6

5.0

6.2

5.0

6.2

1
2

3
AVG
2

AVG
3

1
2

3
AVG
4

AVG
5

AVG
1
2

12.2

12.8

13.7

12.7

10.8

9 .5
11.5

14.5

11.6
11.2

WASHED N-WASHED AVG
39.4
33.6
34.5

37.9
31.5
35.8

35.8

35.1

27.9
30.4
34.6

24.2
27.6
30.5

31.0

27.4

33.7
33.9
37.3

32.5
35.0
38.4

35.0

35.3

32.8
34.6
34.7

29.8
32.9
32.4

34.0

31.7

37.4
34.3
36.3

34.4
33.6
34.0

36.0

34.0

29.4

30.7

29.4

30.7

35.4

29.2

35.1

32.9

35.0

3
AVG

5.6

30.0

1 1 -1 4

PASTURE
PROTEIN (% DM)

SOIL NITRATENITROGEN (ppm)

REGION FARM WASHED N-WASHED AVG
I

14.0
9 .4
16.6

16.0
1 0.7
1 7.1

13.3

14.6

16.7
13.6
13.0

18.4
14.4
1 6 .5

14.5

16.4

1
2

11.7
9 .1

3

10.1

12.7
9 .3
9 .8

10.3

10.6

1
2

14.1

3

12.3

16.8
12.4
14.3

12.7

14.5

12.6

13.8
18.5

13.5
13.5
16.1

15.0

14.4

14.1

14.0

AVG

14.1

14.0

14.0

15.9

I. AVG.

13.2

14.1

13.7

12.3

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

AVG
4

AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

11.6

9.9
12.1

13.8
14.0

11.9
10.9
12.7
15.0

15.4

12.8

18.3
6.0

7 .5
10.4

10.6
8.0

4.2
5.9
1 3.6

6.0

14.8
20.4
15.3
14.7

16.8
15.9

3

1 1 -16

SOIL TEXTURE
% DM
SAND

CLAY

46
58
63

21
20

16

22
21

56

19

25

53
55
48

11

17
17

36
28
34

52

15

33

1
2

61
72

11

27
20

3

66

9
9

66

10

24

56
61
62

14
14
13

30
26
25

60

14

27

56
69
69

14

30

10

9

20
22

65

11

24

55

22

23

AVG

55

22

23

GEN. AVG.

59

15

26

REGION FARM
1

1
2

3
AVG
2

1
2

3
AVG
3

AVG
4

1
2

3
AVG
5

1
2

3
AVG
6

1
2

SILT
32

25

3

1 1 -1 7

SOIL

REGION FARM
1

1
2
3

pH ORGANIC NITRATEMATTER NITROGEN
% DM
PPM
6.64
6.60
6.88

3 .1
4 .5
3 .8

9 .9
12.1
13.8

6 .7 1

3.8

11.9

6 .1 8
6 .5 5
6.16

13.5
7.6
10.8

10.9
12.7
15.0

6.30

10.6

12.8

6.05
5.86
5.43

9 .5
10.2
12.8

18.3
6 .0
7 .5

5.78

10.9

10.6

7 .1 8
6 .9 6
7.36

3 .1
6 .1
5 .5

8 .0
4 .2
5.9

7.17

4 .9

6 .0

6.33
5.52
7.90

9 .7
12.0
2 .5

14.8
20.4
15.3

6 .5 8

8 .1

16.8

5.97

2.3

15.9

AVG

5.97

2.3

15.9

GEN. AVG.

6.43

6.9

12.3

AVG
2

1
2
3

AVG
3

1
2
3

AVG
4

1
2
3

AVG
5

1
2
3

AVG
6

1
2
3

APPENDIX I I I

B o t a n i c a l c o m p o s i t i o n s i p a s t u r e s f r o a f i v e r e g i o n s is t h e C h i a b o r a z o p r o v i n c e e l E c u a d o r a n d o e e r e g i o n in S h i a a a s s e e c o u n t ) , M i c h i g a n

ALFALFA

RE6I0N

FARM

CORN

FESCUE

ITALIAN
RYEGRASS

KIKUYO
6RASS

SAMPLE

NEEDLE

OATS

ORCHARD PERENNIAL
RYE6RASS

RYE

SWEET
VERNAL

VELVET
6RASS

WHITE
CLOVER

WEEDS

percent of fresh saople

1
2
3
4
5

82
S3
90
88
94

3
10

t
2
3
4
S

3

90
87

4
98

1
2
3
4
5

98
99
99
83
9

4
24
8
12

9
13
2

i
7
to

3

100
86

4

6
2
2
1

1
29

IS
24

30

-III

Table III.I.

T i t l e 111.1 .

(C o at'd .)
N iehlgii

B otaaical

ALFALFA

REGION

FARM

SAMPLE

2

1

1
2
3
4
5

3

1
2
3
4
S
1
2
3
4
5

CORN

FESCUE

ITALIAN
RTE6RASS

KIKUTO
6RASS

NEEDLE

OATS

ORCHARD PERENNIAL
RYE6RASS

RTE

SWEET
VERNAL

VELVET
6RASS

county.

WHITE
CLOVER

WEEDS

p e r c e a t of f r e s h s a a p le
5

22

4

5

4

4

32

56

7

1

25

15

60
100

too
17
25

22
II
90
100
i
5

42
60

45

6

S
8
to
2

5
86

4
2

85
5

2
4

3

2
92

50

2

43

3
2

100
93
1

3

III-2

2

c o a p o s i t i o a ef p a s t u r e s f r o a f i v e r e g i o n s ia th e C h ia b o ra z o p r o v i a c e of Ecuador aad one r e g i o a is S h ia w a s s e e

(Coat'd.)
Michigan

Botaaical

ALFALFA

REGION

FARM

SAMPLE

3

1

1
2
3
4
5

2

3

CORN

FESCUE

ITALIAN
RYEGRASS

KIAUYO
GRASS

NEEDLE

OATS

ORCHARD PERENNIAL
RYEGRASS

RYE

SWEET
VERNAL

VELVET
GRASS

WHITE
CLOVER

65
70

6

4

7

4

6

county,

WEEDS

percent of fresh saaple

t oo
4

t
2
3
4
5
t
2
3
4
5

c o a p o s i t i o a o f p a s t u r e s f r o a f i v e r e g i o n s in t h e C h i a b o r a z o p r o v i n c e o f E c u a d o r a n d o n e r e g i o n in S h i a w a s s e e

15
83
4
52
80

12
39
2D

10
90
100
7
94

20
21
95
86

30

3
3
5
3
75
17

14
9

85

5
to

-III

Table III.I.

Table III.I.

(Coat'd.)
Michigan

Botaaical

ALFALFA

REGION

FARM

SAMPLE

4

1

1
2
3
4
5

3

CORN

FESCUE

ITALIAN
RYEGRASS

R ix u r o

NEEDLE

OATS

ORCHARD PERENNIAL
RYEGRASS

RYE

SWEET
VERNAL

VELVET
GRASS

WHITE
CLOVER

63
12

4
2

2
1
3

53
4

12
10

6RASS

county,

WEEDS

percent of fresh saaple

27

69

2
3
27
25
25

t
2
3
4
5

4
52
54

49

4

3
12

2

21

6

6

3

5

40

1
2
3
4
S

9

86

1

22
62
46

4
2

70

41

2
82
1
10
41
30
36
8
3
55
4
7
4
13

III-

2

c s a p o s i t i o n o f p a s t u r e s f r o a f i v e r e g i o n s la t h e C h i a b o r a z o p r o v i n c e o f E c u a d o r a n d o a e r e g i o a in S h i a v a s s e e

Table III.I.

(Coet'd.)
Michigan

Botaaical

ALFALFA

c o m p o s i t i o n o f p a s t u r e s f r o a f i v e r e g i o n s io t h e C h i a b o r a z o p r o v i n c e o f E c u a d o r a n d o a e r e g i o n is S h i a m a s s e e

CORN

FESCUE

ITALIAN
RTE6RASS

KIKUYO
6RASS

t

I

1
2
3
4
S

30
34
57
tl
to

1
2
3
4
S

2
12
50

t
2
3

100
tOO
tOO

4

22

77

5

24

74

I

too

2
3
4

tOO

5
6

OATS

ORCHARD PERENNIAL
RYEGRASS

RYE

SWEET
VERNAL

VELVET
6RASS

WHITE
CLOVER

8
10
5
4
36

2
5
8
4
13

2
39
38
3
35

40
34

1

WEEDS

p e rc e n t of f r e s h sample

SAMPLE

3

NEEDLE

county,

tOO
tOO

too
100

50
7
78

55
33
40
SO
91

5

1

M

2
21
t
10

V

•9

I

2