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S ^ University Microfilms International AN IMPORTANCE-WEIGHTED APPROACH TO OVERALL AND JOB-FACET SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS By Laurence W. MacQueen A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S tate U niversity 1n p a r tia l f u lf illm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Adm inistration 1986 ABSTRACT AN IMPORTANCE-WEIGHTED APPROACH TO OVERALL AND JOB-FACET SATISFACTION OF TEACHERS By Laurence W. MacQueen The o b jectives of th is study were to (a) determine underlying job s a tis fa c tio n facto rs present among th e jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n per­ ceptions of teachers, (b) assess curren t le v e ls of overall and jo b fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n experienced by teachers, (c) understand the re la tio n s h ip between job s a tis fa c tio n facto rs and overall job s a tis fa c ­ tio n , (d) understand the e ffe c t of jo b -fa c e t Importance on the predic­ tio n of o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n , and (e) assess differences 1n job s a tis fa c tio n between groups of teachers who varied according to selected personal and school-organlzatlon c h a ra c te ris tic s . A m ailed questionnaire enabled c o lle c tio n of teachers' perceptions of s a tis fa c ­ tio n and Importance on 58 d iffe r e n t aspects of teacher work and o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n perceptions. The sample comprised 1,994 randomly selected Michigan teachers, and a response ra te o f 53.8% resulted. Factor-analys1s procedures Id e n tifie d the fo llo w in g job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r s tru c tu re : Factor 1: Teacher-student In te ra c tio n , Factor 2: Teacher resources, Factor 3: Teacher compensation and labor re la tio n s , Factor 4: Teaching assignment, Factor 5: Teacher achievement Laurence W. MacQueen and growth* Factor 6: Teacher workload, and Factor 7: Teacher status. A regression analysis Id e n tifie d th re e s ig n ific a n t predictors of o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n , w ith teacher achievement and growth, teach erstudent In te ra c tio n , and teacher resources combining to account fo r 46.8% of the variance. Four analyses to te s t the e ffic a c y of weighting jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n by fa c e t Importance Included c o rre la tio n s between weighted and unweighted s a tis fa c tio n , a te s t fo r d iffe re n c e s between c o rre la ­ tio n s fo r unweighted and weighted jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n w ith o v e ra ll s a tis fa c tio n , a series of t - t e s t s assessing s a tis fa c tio n differen ces between high importance and low Importance s e ttin g s , regression analy­ ses appraising the p re d ic tiv e power of both unweighted and weighted jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n on o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n , and a moderator regression analysis assessing th e same p re d ic tiv e re la tio n s h ip . Gen­ e r a lly , these analyses In dicated th a t w eighting adds l i t t l e valuable Inform ation. The w r ite r considered d ifferen ces 1n le v e ls of o v e rall and jo b fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n between groups of teachers who varied on 17 personal and school-organization c h a ra c te ris tic s . S1xty-n1ne s ig n ific a n t d if ­ ferences 1n overall and fa c to r s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls were determined. F in a lly , the status of job s a tis fa c tio n fo r Michigan teachers was described. I t was found th a t 17.7% of the teachers surveyed were d is s a tis fie d , 37.5% were n e ith er s a tis fie d nor d is s a tis fie d , and 44.5% were s a tis fie d . To Karen, P a tric k, and K elly 1n appreciation of t h e ir support throughout my doctoral program. Without t h e ir patience and encourage­ ment, achievement of th is and many other goals would not have been possible. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would lik e to acknowledge the contrib ution s of several in d i­ viduals who were very Im portant to the completion of th is study. I am Indebted to Dr. Frederick Ignatovich* who chaired th is study and guided my doctoral program. His p a tie n t advice and hours of assistance char­ a c te riz e his deep commitment to excellence In teaching and research. am also indebted to Dr. Janet Alleman-Brooks, Dr. P h ilip Cusick, and Dr. Sigmund Nosow fo r the encouragement* wisdom* and In te lle c tu a l enthusiasm they shared w ith me over the course of th is In ve s tig atio n . Through my contact w ith these in d iv id u a ls , I have grown and prospered and express my deep appreciation fo r t h e ir e ffo r ts . I TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................... vi Chapter I. II. III. RESEARCH PROBLEM ................................................................................ 1 In tro duction .................................................................................... Problem Statement ....................................................................... Background ........................................................................................ P u r p o s e ............................................................................................ S ig n ifican ce .................................................................................... Nature of the S t u d y ................................................................... 1 4 7 12 13 15 LITERATURE REVIEW ........................................................................... 19 S c o p e ................................................................................................. Review of Teacher S a tis fa c tio n Studies ............................. Job S a tis fa c tio n Defined ........................................................... Theoretical Perspectives ........................................................... Importance-Weighted In t e r a c t io n s t Model ......................... Measuring Job S a tis fa c tio n ...................................................... Chapter Summary ........................................................................... 19 19 42 44 48 56 59 DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y ....................................................................... 61 S am ple................................................................................................. D ata-C ollection Procedures ...................................................... Research Questions and Hypotheses ...................................... S t a tis tic a l Design by Questions .......................................... Question 1: Underlying S a tis fa c tio n Factors . . . . Question 2: S a tis fa c tio n Levels of Michigan T e a c h e rs .................................................................................... Question 3: Factors Accounting fo r Overall Job S a tis fa c tio n ............................................................................ Question 4: Value of Importance Weighting S a tis fa c tio n Scores ........................................................... Question 5: S a tis fa c tio n D ifferences and V ariation s in Teacher/School C h a ra c te ris tic s .............................. 61 65 69 73 73 iv 75 77 78 83 Page IV. FINDINGS.......................................................................................... 91 91 Study Sam ple............................................................................ Findings by Questions ............................................................... 94 Question 1: Underlying S a tis fa c tio n Factors . . . . 94 Question 2: S a tis fa c tio n Levels of Michigan T e a c h e rs ............................................................................ 104 Question 3: Factors Accounting fo r Overall Job S a tis fa c tio n ............................................................................ 131 Question 4: Value of Importance Weighting S a tis fa c tio n Scores ........................................................... 134 Question 5: V a ria tio n 1n Teacher and School C h a ra c te ris tic s and S a tis fa c tio n D ifferences . . . 145 V. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ............................................... 199 Introduction .................................................................................... Conclusions by Questions ........................................................... Question 1: Underlying S a tis fa c tio n Factors . . . . Question 2: S a tis fa c tio n Levels of Michigan T e a c h e rs ............................................................................ 202 Question 3: Factors Accounting fo r Overall Job S a tis fa c tio n . ................................................................... Question 4: Value of Importance Weighting S a tis fa c tio n Scores ........................................................... Question 5: V a ria tio n 1n Teacher/School C h a ra c te ris tic s and S a tis fa c tio n D ifferences . . . Summary of Conclusions ............................................................... Recommendations fo r the Management of Schools. . . . Recommendations fo r Future Research on Job S a tis fa c tio n ................................................................................ APPENDICES............................................................................................................. A. SUMMARY REVIEWS OF 55 TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION STUDIES . B. AUTHORIZATION TO USE THE MICHIGAN PROFESSIONAL REGISTER.................................................................................... C. INITIAL QUESTIONNAIRE PACKAGE D. FOLLOW-UP LETTER FOR NONRESPONDENTS E. VARIABLE CODING S H E E T ............................................................ F. AUTHORIZATION TO USE H0LDAWAY'S QUESTIONNAIRE 199 199 199 206 210 216 222 223 235 242 243 269 .................................................... 271 ....................................... 278 280 .................. 282 REFERENCES............................................................................................................. 284 v LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Teachers and Job S a t i s f a c t i o n ........................................................ 25 2. Sampling Parameters ............................................................................ 66 3. Variables and Procedures Used to Establish Teacher G rou ps..................................................................................................... 86 D escriptive C h a ra c te ris tic s of Teacher Respondents and Th eir Employing School O rg a n iz a tio n s ...................................... 92 Frequency C h a ra c te ris tic s of Teacher Respondents and Their Employing School Organizations ...................................... 93 A Comparison of V a ria b le Frequency Within the O riginal Sample and the Responding Sample .............................................. 94 Job S a tis fa c tio n Factor Eigenvalues fo r a 13-Factor Solution Using Pr1nc1pal-Components Factor Analysis With I t e r a t i o n s ................................................................................ 95 Job S a tis fa c tio n Factor Eigenvalues fo r a Seven-Factor Solution Using Principal-Components Factor Analysis With I t e r a t i o n s ................................................................................ 96 Number of Items, Range of Loadings, and R e lia b ilit y C o e ffic ie n ts fo r Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors . . . . 96 Seven-Factor Varimax Rotated Factor M atrix of JobFacet S a tis fa c tio n Scores A fte r Rotation With Kaiser N o rm a liz a tio n ....................................................................... 98 Comparison of S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between the Holdaway (1978) Study and th e Present Study .......................................... 100 Comparison of S a tis fa c tio n Factor Items Between the Holdaway (1978) Study and the Present Study ..................... 102 Summary of Response D is trib u tio n to Importance and S a tis fa c tio n Items ............................................................................ 105 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. vi Page 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. Job-Facet S a tis fa c tio n Items Generating the Highest Mean Rati n g s ........................................................................................ 109 Job-Facet S a tis fa c tio n Items Generating the Lowest Mean R a t i n g s ........................................................................................ 109 Job-Facet S a tis fa c tio n Items Generating the Highest Percentage of Sample RespondingS a tis fie d .............................. Ill Job-Facet S a tis fa c tio n Items Generating the Highest Percentage of Sample RespondingD is s a tis fie d ...................... 112 Job-Facet Items Generating the Highest Importance Rating Means ........................................................................................ 114 Job-Facet Items Generating the Lowest Importance Rating Means ........................................................................................ 115 P r o file of the Average Respondent's S a tis fa c tio n Levels With Each Job S a tis fa c tio n F a c t o r ............................................... 117 Percentage Frequency D is trib u tio n of Responses to O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n Items and Item Response Means 119 . Percentage Frequency D is trib u tio n of Summated Responses to O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n It e m s ...................................... 119 Stepwise M u ltip le Regression of Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors and O verall Job S a t i s f a c t i o n .............................. 132 Pearson C o rrelatio n C o e ffic ie n ts Between Unweighted and We1ghted-by-Importance S a tis fa c tio n Factor Scores . . . . 135 A Comparison of Pearson C orrelation C o e ffic ie n ts Between Unweighted S a tis fa c tio n Factor Scores C orrelated With O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Weighted S a tis fa c tio n Factor Scores C orrelated With Overall Job S a tis fa c tio n S c o r e s ............................................................................................ 136 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n Between Two Groups of D is s a tis fie d Teachers Who Varied on Importance R a tin g s ............................................................................................ 139 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n Between Two Groups of S a tis fie d Teachers Who Varied on Importance Ratings . vi i 140 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. Moderator Regression Analysis of the E ffe c t of S a tis fa c tio n Factor Ratings, Importance Factor Ratings, and We1ghted-by-Importance Factor Ratings on Levels of O verall Job S a t is f a c t io n ...................................... 143 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Male and Female Teachers . . 147 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers Who Varied onAge . 149 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers Who Varied on A g e ........................................................... 150 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers Who Varied on Career Experience ............................................................................... 153 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers Who Varied on Career Experience .............................. 154 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Married and Not Married T e a c h e r s ..................................... 157 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers Who Varied on Dependent Status ................................................................................ 158 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers With and Without Second J o b s ........................................................................... 160 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers Who Varied on Spouse Employment Status ............................................................... 162 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers Who Varied on Assignment Consistency ................................................................... 163 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From Buildings With Varying Grade Levels ............................................................... 165 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers From Buildings of Varying Grade Levels . . . 166 vi ii Page 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From Small and Large Elementary Schools ............................................................... 169 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From Small and Large Junior High S c h o o ls ............................................................... 170 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From Small and Large High S c h o o l s ................................................. 172 Comparison of Overall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From D is tr ic ts of Varying S i z e s ................................................................................ 173 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers From D is tr ic ts of Varying Sizes .............................. 175 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From D is tr ic ts of Varying Locations ....................................................................... 177 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers From D is tr ic ts of Varying Geographic Locations . 178 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From D is tric ts With Varying Salary L e v e l s ........................................................... 181 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers From D is tr ic ts With Varying Teacher S a la rie s . . 183 Comparison of O verall.Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From D is tr ic ts With Varying Teacher/Student Loads .......................................... 185 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers From D is tr ic ts With Varying Teacher/ Student L o a d s .................... 186 Comparison of O verall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From D is tr ic ts With Varying Per-Pup1l Expenditures .......................................... 187 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers From D is tr ic ts With Varying Per-Pupil Expenditures ........................................................................................ 189 ix Page 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. 59. Comparison of Overall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From D is tr ic ts With Varying M in ority Enrollments .............................................. 191 Comparison of Overall Job S a tis fa c tio n and Seven Job S a tis fa c tio n Factors Between Teachers From B uildings With Varying Achievement Levels ................................................... 193 Report of Scheffe Procedures on ANOVA Comparing Groups of Teachers From D is tr ic ts With Varying Student Achievem ent............................................................................................ 195 S a tis fa c tio n and D is s a tis fa c tio n Response D is trib u tio n on Job Facets C lustering to Form Factors Important to the P redictio n of Overall Job S a t is f a c t io n ..................... 211 D ifferences 1n Overall and Factor S a tis fa c tio n Levels That Accompanied V a ria tio n s 1n Personal or School0rgan1zat1on C h a ra c te ris tic s ....................................................... 218 S a tis fa c tio n Levels fo r the Job Facets C lustering to Form H1gh-Pr1or1ty Factors ........................................................... 227 x CHAPTER I RESEARCH PROBLEM Introduction With the continuing e ffe c t of declining enrollm ent* fis c a l c o n s tra in t, and an ever-growing demand fo r excellence in public schooling, a g reater re lia n c e on school systems' human resources is necessary 1n order to achieve the v ita l missions of public education. This need fo r increased re lia n c e comes a t a tim e when the research suggests the teaching profession may be a t t it u d in a lly u n fit fo r accepting these challenges. The evidence of th is dilemma comes from several sources, including headlines from a recent National Education Association survey concerning teacher a ttitu d e s about t h e ir jobs, revealing th a t "Teachers Are B etter Educated, More Experienced, But Less S a tis fie d Than 1n the Past" (Newsfront, 1982, p. 579). This nationwide survey, published as The Status of the American Public School Teacher, 1980-81, reported th a t "more than one-th1rd of the teachers said th a t they 'probably' or 'c e rta in ly ' would not choose the teaching profession again, up from 18.6% in 1976" (p. 5 7 9). In commenting on th is study, F e is t r it z e r (1983) pointed out th a t "th is is a shocking increase in the number of d is s a tis fie d teach­ ers. Twenty years ago only 11 percent of teachers polled reported they 1 2 c e rta in ly or probably would not choose teaching i f they had 1 t to do over agai n" (p. 2 9 ). Among several reported findings concerning teachers and teach­ ing* the National Commission on Educational Excellence (1983) suggested th a t "the professional working l i f e of teachers is on the whole unac­ ceptable" (p. 22). The concern expressed by th is suggestion was con­ firm ed by comments made by Boyer (1983)* who found th a t "the teacher's world 1s often fru s tra tin g , freq uently demeaning, and sometimes dan­ gerous" (pp. 1 5 4 -5 5 ). Recent findings in both New York and across the nation have presented ad d itio n al evidence of the growing le v e ls of d is s a tis fa c tio n among members of the teaching workforce. Data from a New York Times survey o f 5,702 New York public school teachers revealed th a t 34% of th e respondents "were not so proud to be a teacher" and th a t 47% "would go in to another profession" i f they had to make a career choice a l l over again (Fiske, 1982, p. 52). S im ila r findings were reported in a survey conducted fo r the M etropolitan L ife Insurance Company by Louis H a rris and Associates 1n June 1984 (Keever, 1984). Only 45% of the 1,981 respondents in th is national random sample of school teachers Indicated th a t they would advise a young person to pursue a career in teaching. Studies conducted by the In s t it u t e fo r Social Research a t the U niversity of Michigan have confirmed the d is s a tis fa c tio n s of teachers and have presented a gloomy p ic tu re fo r southeastern Michigan teachers in p a r tic u la r . 3 Teachers are s ig n ific a n tly less s a tis fie d w ith the q u a lity of th e ir w orklives, more apt to fe a r losing t h e ir jobs, and more lik e ly to experience problems w ith t h e ir jobs than are U.S. workers 1n a nationwide sample. These are some of the major findings from our 1979 study of 200 randomly chosen teachers (K—12) in southeastern Michigan. (Cooke, Kornbluh, & Abramls, 1982, p. 637) That southeastern Michigan teachers are s u b s ta n tia lly less s a tis fie d than workers nationwide was q u a n tifie d fu rth e r in a study by Sparks (1979) when he reported th a t " fo r ty -s ix percent of the teachers surveyed were d is s a tis fie d w ith t h e ir job as a whole, and an id en tic a l percentage said th a t, i f they had i t to do a ll over again, they would not choose teaching as a career" (p. 4 47). Sparks attempted to explain the nature of Michigan teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n by asking his sample of teachers a series of ques­ tio ns. His research revealed th a t 54% of the surveyed teachers in d i­ cated i t was somewhat lik e ly th a t they would change occupations 1n the next fiv e years. Seventy percent of the teachers reported frequently or always leaving school ph ysically or em otionally exhausted. Seventy percent of the surveyed teachers also reported th a t they f e l t trapped 1n th e ir present jobs. I t should be recognized th a t school organizations have attempted to respond to the growing le v e ls of teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n through organizational development s tra te g ie s and w o r k -life improvement programs. In several Michigan school d is t r ic t s , w o r k -life improvement programs have been form ulated to meet the s p e c ific challenge presented by teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n (N ik o lo ff & Brown, 1982). Even w ith such programs, however, improving teacher job s a tis fa c tio n has proven to be an elusive and d if f ic u lt - t o - o b t a in goal. 4 Problem Statement In response to the growing le v e ls of teacher job d is s a tis fa c ­ tio n , the general In te re s t of th is researcher was the development of an understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n th a t 1s s u f f ic ie n t ly In s ig h t­ fu l to provide school managers w ith some d ire c tio n s to pursue in t h e ir e ffo r ts to improve teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Im plied by th is In te re s t were four s p e c ific problems evident 1n past teacher job s a tis fa c tio n research. This researcher presumed th a t re so lu tio n of these problems would enable research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n to provide the kinds of re s u lts th a t Inform the development of successful work-improvement programs. The f i r s t problem was Id e n tify in g or devising a measure th a t can be used to provide an up-to-date assessment of perceived le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n teachers have w ith a v a rie ty of Im portant aspects of th e ir work. I t is not s u ffic ie n t to ascertain th a t teachers '•would” or "would not” become teachers again or th a t some percentage of teachers c u rre n tly are d is s a tis fie d with t h e ir jobs. Instead, school managers need to know which aspects or facets of teachers' work are perceived as s a tis fa c to ry and which facets are perceived as sources of d ls s a tis fa c t i on. Second, q u an tifying the degree to which a p a rtic u la r aspect or c lu s te r of work aspects contributes to a teacher's perceived le v e l of o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n is a th e o re tic a l problem area th a t research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n must address in order to provide meaningful in s ig h t to school managers planning work-improvement e ffo r ts . Pursuit 5 of th is problem was accomplished by asking: Which underlying job s a tis fa c tio n facto rs account fo r the la rg e s t amount of variance 1n the o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n experienced by teachers? An unsettled th e o re tic a l debate concerning th e In te ra c tio n between an in d iv id u a l's values and subsequent perceptions of job s a tis ­ fa c tio n provided the th ird problem of in te re s t to th is researcher. In an e ffo r t to demonstrate th e o r e tic a lly and e m p iric a lly more appealing measures of job s a tis fa c tio n , several researchers have found th a t an in d iv id u a l's perceived importance of a job fa c e t (a sing le aspect of a teacher's job, e.g., class size) a ffe c ts th a t fa c et's a b il it y to in f lu ­ ence o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n . I t should be noted th a t other research­ ers in v e s tig a tin g th is question have been unable to qu antify any advantage to a m u ltip lic a tio n process th a t seeks to measure the d if f e r ­ e n tia l contrib ution s to o v e ra ll s a tis fa c tio n made by im portant and unimportant job facets. This w r ite r sought to add fu rth e r in s ig h t into t h i s debate. The fourth problem of in te re s t to th is researcher was under­ standing how le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n vary on the basis of differences in in d ivid u al and organizational c h a ra c te ris tic s of teach­ ers and the school d is t r ic t s and school buildings they serve. The nature of the population o f teachers now serving in our nation's schools 1s d ra m atica lly d iffe r e n t than i t was 10 or 20 years ago. The teaching force is aging, more experienced, more highly educated, and has been subjected to the e ffe c t of an era of decline and a new era of reform. Schools and school d is t r ic t s have been subjected to these same 6 forces and vary s u b s ta n tia lly on a number of c h a ra c te ris tic s th a t may Influence teachers' perceptions of jo b s a tis fa c tio n . Improving our understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n Im plies understanding the environments w ith in which teacher job a ttitu d e s emerge, 1n order to develop managerial s e n s itiv itie s to those facto rs th a t y ie ld v a ria tio n s 1n teacher perceived job s a tis fa c tio n . In summary, four s p e c ific problems a ffe c tin g our understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n were pursued by th is researcher. These problems included (a) id e n tify in g or devising an e ffe c tiv e measure of teacher s a tis fa c tio n with a number of aspects of teachers' work, (b) assessing the re la tio n s h ip between le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n and overall job s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers, (c) assessing the value of a m u ltip lic a tio n process th a t seeks to improve measurement of job s a tis ­ fa c tio n through qu an tifying the in te ra c tio n between job values and perceived le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n w ith various aspects of work, and (d) examining several selected c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers and the school d is t r ic t s and buildings in which they serve to determine 1f these va riab les influence perceived le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . By addressing the problems th a t impede our understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , the re su lts of th is study may f a c i l i t a t e the focusing of management resources and fu tu re research s tra te g ie s on issues th a t most d ire c tly a ffe c t teacher job a ttitu d e s . 7 Background That our current understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n appears lim ite d was suggested by the frequent f a ilu r e of past programs designed to Improve teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . These fa ilu r e s appeared to re s u lt from building work-improvement e ffo r ts on an inadequate understanding of the nature and causes of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . I n i t i a l assessments of s ig n ific a n t work-improvement experiments taking place in four Michigan urban school d is t r ic t s confirmed th is conclu­ sion. In summarizing e v alu a tiv e comments made by school o f f ic i a l s from these d is tr ic ts * a consensus indicated th a t teachers generally are receptive to job s a tis fa c tio n improvement e ffo r ts . However, progress toward implementing improvement procedures is slow, and the accomplish­ ments of work-improvement programs are less than expected. S p ecific in terview comments offered by school o f f ic ia ls respon­ s ib le fo r work-1mprovement programs in each d is t r ic t described the nature of the problem (MacQueen, 1984, p. 1): I can't believe how slow our work-1 mprovement e ffo r ts are progressing. In our d is t r ic t , we have not f u lly achieved the p o te n tia l expected from qual 1 ty -o f-w o rk -l if e procedures. We have only been somewhat successful. Teachers are more re lu c ta n t p a rtic ip a n ts than other employee groups. The non-teaching personnel groups e n th u s ia s tic a lly embrace our work-improvement e ffo r ts . Many of our p rin c ip a ls and teachers view q u a lity of work l i f e as unnecessary, b elieving th a t in most s itu a tio n s teachers already have s u ffic ie n t input means. The most revealing assessment concerning the lim ite d success of the work-improvement endeavors came in comments describing the lack of 8 In te re s t and enthusiasm displayed by a s iza b le number of teachers 1n one p a rtic u la r d i s t r ic t . It 's almost as though the teachers view job s a tis fa c tio n as a demanded frin g e b e n e fit. Some teachers see the value 1n q u a llty o f-w o rk -H fe p a rtic ip a tio n w h ile many see the program as an unnecessary waste of e f f o r t th a t does not serve t h e ir In te re s t. Perhaps we don't have an adequate understanding about what r e a lly causes teachers to be s a tis fie d w ith t h e ir jobs. (MacQueen, 1984, p. 2) I t seemed c le a r th a t the adequacy of our understanding of the nature, causes, and measurement of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n needed Improvement before we could expect to successfully design programs th a t would predictably Improve teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Seashore (1975) concurred w ith th is conclusion about our understanding of teacher job a ttitu d e s . " I t 1s c le a r th a t 1f the present concern w ith the q u a lity of working l i f e 1s going to produce any s ig n ific a n t s o d a ! change, v a lid measures of i t must be developed and used a d ro itly " (p. 124). Our present understanding of job s a tis fa c tio n 1n general, and teacher job s a tis fa c tio n 1n p a rtic u la r, appears lim ite d due to seem­ in gly weak th e o re tic a l considerations of th is concept. Lawler (1973) was c r it ic a l of the th e o re tic a l form ulations underlying the concept of jo b s a tis fa c tio n . Compared to what 1s known about m otivation, r e la t iv e ly l i t t l e 1s known about the determinants and consequences of s a tis fa c tio n . Most of the psychological research on m otivation simply has not been concerned w ith the kinds of a ffe c tiv e reactions th a t people experience 1n association w ith or as a re s u lt of motivated behav­ io r. No well-developed theories of s a tis fa c tio n have appeared and l i t t l e th e o re tic a lly based research has been done on s a tis fa c tio n . (p. 61) 9 Dunn and Stephens (1972) concurred with Lawler’ s observation, In d ic a t­ ing th a t the development of a general theory of employee s a tis fa c tio n s till lie s ahead. Research on educational organizations 1s no fu rth e r developed according to Mlskel e t a l. (1975): "D escriptive, e x p lan atlve, and p re d ic tiv e th e o re tic a l models, and also comparable em pirical In vestig a­ tio ns which s p e c ific a lly r e la te to the work a ttitu d e of educators, are lim ite d 1n number and scope" (p. 38). The re s u ltin g condition of job s a tis fa c tio n research due to an Inadequate th e o re tic a l conceptualization was described by Lawler (1 9 73 ). Due to the lack of a theory s ta tin g causal re la tio n s h ip s , the research on job s a tis fa c tio n has consistently looked simply fo r relatio n sh ip s among variab les. A great deal 1s known about what facto rs are re la te d to s a tis fa c tio n , but very l i t t l e 1s known about the causal basis fo r the re la tio n s h ip s , (p. 63) The e a rlie r-re p o rte d observation from the school o f f ic i a l con­ cerned about the poor progress of e ffo r ts to Improve teacher s a tis fa c ­ tio n 1n his d is t r ic t takes on added meaning. He suggested th a t "perhaps we don't have an adequate understanding about what r e a lly causes teachers to be s a tis fie d w ith t h e ir jobs." Lawler agreed. C le a rly , there 1s room fo r Improving our understanding of job s a tis fa c tio n . research? However, 1s there ju s t if ic a t io n fo r th is kind of Increasing a tte n tio n 1s being paid 1n many countries to Improving the q u a lity of the working experience of employees. (1973) expressed the issue 1n th is manner: Lawler "What happens to people during the work day has profound e ffe c ts both on the In d iv id u a l 10 employee's l i f e and on the society as a whole, and thus these events cannot be Ignored 1f the q u a lity of l i f e 1n a society 1s to be high" (p. 63). Job s a tis fa c tio n was seen by Lawler to be "one measure of the q u a lity of l i f e in organizations" (p. 62). Smith e t a l. (1969) f e l t th a t "the Improvement of s a tis fa c tio n 1s of humanitarian value. . . . S a tis fa c tio n 1s a le g itim a te goal in i t s e l f " (p. 3 ). On a p ra c tic a l le v e l* research Improving our understanding of job s a tis fa c tio n seems ju s t i f ie d 1n th a t i t may lead to enhanced organizational effectiveness. Suresh (1975) argued th a t "job s a tis ­ fa c tio n , though not lin ked conclusively to superior job performance and high le v e ls of p ro d u c tiv ity , should be of concern to management" (p. 25). The ra tio n a le fo r such an argument has been developed from a number of sources and was presented by Lawler (1979): As i t turns out, s a tis fa c tio n 1s re la te d to absenteeism and tu rn ­ over, both of which are very costly to organizations. Thus, there 1s a very " p ra c tic a l" economic reason fo r organizations to be concerned w ith job s a tis fa c tio n , since 1 t can Influence organiza­ tio n a l e ffec tiven ess, (p. 289) A d d itio n a lly , employee health and w e lfa re and employer h ealth re la te d costs may be d ire c tly affected by an Improved understanding of job s a tis fa c tio n . A number of studies have linked job d is s a tis fa c tio n to heart disease and to other Illn e s s es (House, 1974; Jenkins, 1971; Sales & House, 1971). Fr11s (1976) commented on th is hypothesis, in d ic a tin g th a t: Prolonged d is s a tis fa c tio n may produce permanent a c tiv a tio n of biochemical mechanisms, such as p e rs is ten t essential hypertension and Increased heart ra te , or 1 t may be associated w ith abnormal ele v a tio n of blood chem istry, such as serum cholesterol or 11 trig ly c e rid e s . Permanent a c tiv a tio n of these arousal mechanisms may cause stress to the c irc u la to ry system and* as a re s u lt* cause premature death from coronary disease, (p. 596) For teachers 1n p a rtic u la r, an Improved understanding of job s a tis fa c tio n seems p a r tic u la r ly w ell ju s t if ie d . In general, workers from th is v i t a l l y Im portant occupation report s u b s ta n tia lly lower le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n than do workers from other occupations (Cooke, Kornbluh, & Abramls, 1982). Furthermore, Michigan's teachers express lower le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n when compared to teachers nation­ wide (Sparks, 1979). These findings take on added sig n ifican ce when the re s u lts of a study by Greenwood and Soar (1973) are considered. These In ve s tig ato rs examined some re la tio n s h ip s between teacher morale and teacher behavior and concluded t h e ir study by s ta tin g th a t "the s ig n ific a n t r e la tio n ­ ships revealed 1n th is study could generally be summarized as an asso­ c ia tio n between aspects of good teaching and aspects of higher morale" (p. 106). A d d itio n a lly , Knoop and O 'R eilly (1976) concluded from data in th e ir study th a t high job s a tis fa c tio n and perceived school e ffe c ­ tiveness have a p o s itiv e re la tio n s h ip , and Mount and Muchinsky (1978) reported a s im ila r re la tio n s h ip between pro d u ctivity and teacher morale. Through Id e n tific a tio n of facets of a teacher's work th a t have an im portant In fluence on perceived le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n , meaningful work-improvement e ffo r ts may be planned. This p o te n tia l fo r Improving a teacher's work experience through increased understanding of job s a tis fa c tio n provides a compelling ju s t if ic a t io n fo r the kind of 12 research undertaken here. Lawler (1979) phrased the j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r th is kind of research 1n the follow ing manner: Before any p ractical use can be made of the finding th a t job dis­ s a tis fa c tio n causes absenteeism and turnover, we must understand what factors cause and influence job s a tis fac tio n . Organizations can Influence job s a tis fa c tio n and prevent absenteeism and turnover only 1f the organizations can pinpoint the factors causing and Influencing these a f f e c t iv e responses, (p. 289) Purpose Advancing an understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n th a t can Inform school management practice was the primary purpose of th is study. To accomplish t h is purpose and to overcome problems present w ith in past research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , s p e c ific research objectives were established. Through re p lic a tio n and adaptation of previous work, the follow ing objectives were pursued 1n th is study: (a) determining the underlying job s a tis fa c tio n factors present among the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n perceptions of teachers, (b) assessing cur­ rent le v e ls of overall and jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n experienced by teach­ ers, (c) understanding the rela tio n s h ip between job s a tis fa c tio n factors and teachers' overall job s a tis fa c tio n , (d) understanding the e f fe c t of jo b - fa c e t Importance on the prediction of teacher overall job s a tis fa c tio n , and (e) assessing differences 1n job s a tis fa c tio n between groups of teachers who vary according to selected demographic, per­ sonal, and work-environment variables. The study was I n i t i a t e d from an " in te ra c tio n ls t" perspective, which suggests th a t job s a tis fa c tio n 1s a consequence of a complex in terp lay between the teacher and h is/h e r job s itu a tio n . S p e c ific a lly , 13 i t 1s the perceived job s itu a tio n 1n r e la tio n to the in d iv id u a l’s values t h a t 1s the most d ire c t determinant of job s a tis fa c tio n . This researcher sought to t e s t the th e o re tic a l argument as t o whether weighting of s a tis fa c tio n measures by importance (value) provides a s ig n ific a n t increase 1n predicting overall job s a tis fa c tio n when com­ pared with unweighted measures. I f use of a m u lt ip lic a t iv e weighting expression meaningfully approximates the in tera c tio n between an in d i­ vidual's values and current job circumstances, the re s u lt is a powerful explanatory tool fo r b e tte r understanding the sources of job s a tis ­ faction. Informing the conduct of futu re job s a tis fa c tio n research was a secondary purpose of t h is study. In addition to determining the use­ fulness of importance-we1ghting fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores, several other conclusions valuable to the conduct of future s a tis fa c tio n research were pursued. An attempt to confirm the usefulness and a p p li­ c a b il it y of a previously devised job s a tis fa c tio n measure 1n a new s e ttin g with a d if fe r e n t population was made. Further, by examining changes in job s a tis fa c tio n th a t accompany changes in individual and organizational c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers and t h e i r schools, research­ ers interested 1n the e f f e c t an independent v a ria b le has on groups of teachers have a basis fo r matching key variables to establish compar­ able groups. S igni ficance Although understanding teacher job s a tis fa c tio n has been the focus of a large number of studies, several observations and concerns 14 established the s1gn1fIcance of th is study. F ir s t , few studies have de a lt with quantifying the rela tio n s h ip between overall and jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n . In fact* as Holdaway (1978) pointed out 1n a review of te a c h e r-s a tls fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e , "no studies have been encountered th a t de a lt q u a n tita tiv e ly with the relationsh ip between facet and overall s a tis fa c tio n of teachers” (p. 32). By knowing which facets of teach­ ers’ work are most p re d ic tiv e of overall job s a tis fa c tio n , school leaders may be able to focus management resources on those aspects of work th a t would maximize an Improved work l i f e fo r teachers. Furthermore, li m i t a t i o n s of past research on teacher job s a tis ­ fa c tion also contribute to the significance of th is study. Some of these lim it a t io n s Include (a) the s p e c ific nature of many past studies th a t used small samples with l i t t l e a b i l i t y to generalize results, (b) the necessity to frequently measure current le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n to account fo r changes occurring w ith in the occupational environment of teachers, (c) the reliance by past studies of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n on measures th a t are occupationally in s e n s itiv e , and (d) the Importance of v a lid a tin g the effectiveness of previously devel­ oped measures of job s a tis fa c tio n 1n new circumstances with d if fe r e n t subjects. The design of t h is study sought to embrace these concerns in a manner th a t would enhance an understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c ­ tio n and overcome previously Imposed lim ita tio n s . F in a lly , t h is researcher sought to resolve a th e o re tic a l debate on the contribution of an in div id u a l's values toward determining le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n . I f knowing an In divid ual's value fo r a 15 p a r tic u la r job aspect adds meaning to a measure and understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , i t may be appropriate to modify measurement procedures to account fo r th is in te ra c tio n in futu re s a tis fa c tio n research. Nature of the Study In an e f f o r t to b e tte r understand the nature of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , th is researcher used survey research methodology. Use of survey research methodology to explore teacher job s a tis fa c tio n made i t fe a s ib le to select a p r o b a b ilis tic random sample of public school teachers and to c o lle c t data on a large number of variables presumed to be related to teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . The nature of the problem and the sp e c ific research questions guiding t h is study resulted in the use of several research methods including desc riptiv e research, correlatio n research and prediction, and studying differences. D escriptive study methods commonly employ a survey, and the purpose 1s to c o lle c t information t h a t permits the description of c h a ra c te ris tic s held by persons, educational processes, and/or In s titu tio n s . The advantage of descriptive methods fo r th is study was expressed by Borg and Gall (1979), who wrote: "Careful q u a n tita tiv e description by I t s e l f often leads to improved understand­ ing of educational phenomena" (p. 38). Correlation research was used 1n th is study because of the in ve stig ato r's concern with measuring relationships among a large number of variables. S p e c ific a lly , m ultip le c o rre la tio n permitted the 16 researcher to determine the re la tio n s h ip between a combination of variab le s and a single c r it e r io n . A dditionally* m u ltip le regression was used to p redict an In d iv id u a l’s performance on a c r it e r io n v a ria b le by entering h is /h e r scores on a group of pre d ic tiv e variables in to a multi pi e-regression equation. F in a lly * a quasi-experimental design was developed to study differences between groups of in dividuals on t h e ir score-performance fo r selected c r it e r i o n variables. The groups were established based on d i f fe r in g in divid ual* organizational* and environmental c h a ra c te ris tic s t h a t were n a tu ra lly occurring and not subject to the control of the in vestig ato r. A v a rie ty of s t a t i s t i c a l tools were used to determine 1f differences were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t. The research focus and re su ltin g sample of th is study included c u rre n tly employed Michigan K-12 public school teachers. Careful randomized sampling procedures were used to establish a p r o b a b ilis tic random sample of th is population. The conclusions of th is investiga­ tion* therefore* are delim ited to th is population. For purposes of reader c l a r it y * the follow ing terms operation­ a l l y defined by t h is study are presented here: Teacher: Any individual who 1s currently employed and c e r t i f i e d as a public school teacher in the sta te of Michigan and has re s p o n s ib ility fo r d ire c t classroom in structio n of students 1n grades K-12. 17 Overall iob s a t is fa c tio n : A person's a f f e c t iv e reactions to h is/h e r t o t a l work role» as measured by a seven-item summed scale of overall job s a tis fa c tio n . Job-facet s a t is f a c t io n : A person's a f f e c t iv e reactions to p a r tic u la r aspects of h is /h e r job (e.g., pay, supervision, promotion opportunities), as measured by a 58-1tem scale of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c ­ tio n . Interact1on1st perspective: A view t h a t the causes of job s a tis fa c tio n are not in the job or solely 1n the person but l i e In the re la tio n s h ip between them as measured by an Importance-weighted scale of jo b - fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n . Five general research questions guided t h is In ves tig atio n of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Each question resulted In s p e c ific hypotheses and research designs focused on the In ten tion of the Individual questions and are delineated la t e r . The research questions 1ncluded: 1. Are there underlying job s a tis fa c tio n factors 1n the jo b - fa c et s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r a sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers? 2. What current le v e ls of overall and jo b -f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n are expressed by Michigan K-12 public school teachers? 3. Which underlying job s a tis fa c tio n factors account fo r the la rg e s t amount of variance 1n overall job s a tis fa c tio n fo r a sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers? 18 4. Do measures of jo b -fa c e t Importance give useful Informa­ tion* over and above th a t provided by s a tis fa c tio n scores alone, fo r the purpose of estimating overall job s a tis fa c tio n ? 5. Are there differences between groups of teachers defined by nonasslgnable In d iv id u a l, organizational, and environmental character­ i s t i c s on job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and on overall job s a tis fa c ­ tio n scores? The remainder of th is study was organized to answer these questions and to consider both research and school-management Im plica­ tions generated by the re su lts of t h is study. Additional chapters Include a review of l i t e r a t u r e , a description of research methods, a report of results, and a discussion of conclusions and Im plications. CHAPTER I I LITERATURE REVIEW i£ £ £ £ Job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e from business and industry and from school organizations is extensive# and a v a rie ty of d e fin itio n s and findings have emerged. Locke (1975) compiled an extensive review of job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e and reported a minimum estim ate of a r ti c le s on the subject to date a t 3,350. Teacher job s a tis fa c tio n as a research In te r e s t has been evident fo r a long time. Two years a f te r Mayo's prelim inary report on the Hawthorne studies appeared, Hoppock (1935) published the f i r s t Intensive study of teacher job s a tis fac tio n . He used samples th a t included most employed adults in one small town and 500 school teachers from several dozen communities. Although the major developmental research on job s a tis fa c tio n has come from business and in d u s tria l organizations, a lengthy history of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n research began with Hoppock1s study. Review of Teacher S a tisfaction Studies To adequately assess our current understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , f a m i l i a r i t y with a sizable l i t e r a t u r e th a t has emerged over the past 25 years is necessary. This time frame roughly 19 20 approximates the publication date of another 25-year c r i t i c a l review of teacher morale/job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e conducted by Blocker and Richardson (1963). Using insights gained from the Blocker and Richardson review as a s ta rtin g point, th is researcher constructed a systematic review of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e th a t has been published since 1960. To be Included in th is review, a research contribution must have been lis te d in the Education Index, published by the H. W. Wilson Company (Bronx, New York) beginning with Volume 12 (1959-1961) to the present date. The Education Index l i s t s a l l popular education periodicals, jo urnals, and monographs and maintains a l i s t of over 300 submitting publications. The subject Index "Teacher Job S atisfaction" was screened fo r any studies employing a sample of school teachers and using some measure(s) of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . To ensure comprehensive coverage of the research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , the Current Index to Journals in Education was used as a second source of t i t l e s . Published by the Orynx Press (Phoenix, A ri­ zona), th is reference guide 1s related to the Educational Resources Information Center sponsored by the National I n s t i t u t e of Education and covers 780 major educational and education-related journals. Volume I of CIJE was published 1n 1969, and each subsequent issue was reviewed fo r additional t i t l e s meeting the c r i t e r i a fo r inclusion with th is revi ew. Use of th is review procedure generated 55 t i t l e s of studies that sampled teachers in terms of t h e ir expressed le v e ls of job 21 sa tis fac tio n . Although a review of 55 teacher job s a tis fa c tio n studies 1s not an exhaustive search of the subject* the essence and focus of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n research can be suggested on the basis of th is consideration of l i t e r a t u r e . Each study 1s summarized 1n Appendix A and may be c ite d in the fo llo w in g discussion of research on teacher job sati sfaction. The status of our understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n has advanced meaningfully over the past two decades. However* because of the v a rie ty of satisfaction-measurement approaches resu lting from d if fe r in g the o re tic a l models of job s a tis fa c tio n , only te n t a tiv e conclusions about teacher job s a tis fa c tio n have emerged with any consistent support from the li t e r a t u r e . The primary findings suggested by th is review include: 1. Teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n has Increased s u b s ta n tia lly over the past 25 years and has become a matter of serious proportion. 2. A somewhat consistent but siza ble number of variables have been Id e n t if ie d as possible determinants of job s a tis fa c tio n and/or d ls s a tls fa c tio n . 3. Conditions, environments* and c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers and t h e i r workplaces t h a t associate with varying le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n can be described. 4. The e ffe c t of both high and low levels of job s a tis fa c tio n on teacher behavior has not been f u l l y described by teacher job s a tis ­ faction research during t h i s tim e frame. 22 5. Certain th e o re tic a l and problematic shortcomings of past e ffo r ts to measure and explain teacher job s a tis fa c tio n are evident and preclude a f u l l understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Finding 1: Teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n on the ris e . I t was evident from th is review th a t the proportion of teachers expressing a general fe e lin g of d is s a tis fa c tio n with t h e i r occupation has grown during the past 25 years. Although surveys designed to assess the le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n or d is s a tis fa c tio n of teachers have been somewhat infrequent in the past, a trend toward increased le v e ls of d is s a tis fa c tio n 1s discernible. A note of caution is required when considering th is trend, however, due to the widely varying s a tis fa c tio n measures used in studies reporting data on le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Furthermore, the samples used in these studies have shown wide v a ria tio n on such factors as age, level taught, years of teaching experience, and so on. According to data presented in the National Education Associa­ tion's (NEA) report e n t it l e d Status of the American Public School Teacher (1980-81), in 1961 only 11% of the teachers polled said they c e rta in ly or probably would not become a teacher again. This publica­ tio n has been a periodic e f f o r t on the p a rt of the NEA to sample teachers nationwide concerning t h e i r a ttitu d e s toward t h e i r jobs and the teaching profession. Although revisions to the survey Instrument were implemented over the years, a substantial swing in teacher job a ttitu d e s could be detected with publication of the resu lts from the 1978-79 NEA teacher 23 p o ll. According to McGuire (1979)» the study revealed t h a t one-third of those teaching now would not go Into teaching i f they could go back t o college and s t a r t again. In the 1980 e d itio n of the NEA's survey of teachers' a ttitu d e s , 41% of the sampled teachers indicated th a t they would probably not become teachers again. This survey was followed by a 1981 version in which 55% of the teachers sampled said they e ith e r c e rta in ly or prob­ ably would not become teachers again. Both the 1980 and 1981 editions of the survey contained data in dicating th a t over one-th1rd of the sampled teachers were d is s a tis fie d with t h e i r jobs as teachers. Other teachers have confirmed the resu lts of the NEA surveys using d i f f e r e n t samples of teachers. In 1979, Cooke et al. (1982) examined survey data gathered from 200 randomly selected Michigan teachers in grades K-12. The major finding of t h is study revealed th a t "Michigan teachers report more work-related problems and a lower over­ a l l q u a lity of work l i f e than did teachers in a national sample" (p. 637). During t h a t same year, Sparks (1979) sampled le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n 1n southeastern Michigan and found t h a t " f o r t y - s ix percent of the teachers were d is s a tis fie d with t h e i r job as a whole, and an id e n tic a l percentage said th a t, i f they had 1 t to do a ll over again, they would not choose teaching as a c a re e r" (p. 447). To determine why so many female elementary school teachers were d is s a tis fie d with t h e i r teaching careers, Metzger and Wangberg (1981) surveyed 257 female elementary teachers from a va riety of schoold i s t r i c t types. Forty percent of the sampled teachers indicated they 24 would not choose elementary school teaching 1f they had to make t h e ir career choice again. Taking a d if f e r e n t approach to teacher job a ttitu d e s , S a v llle (1981) surveyed 1,468 teachers concerning t h e i r perceptions of job stress. The data reported 1n th is study included the finding th a t 51% of the respondents had experienced a "stress-related" physical Illn e s s during the past four years. S1xty-f1ve percent of the sample consid­ ered teaching a s tressful occupation, and 58% indicated they had s e r i­ ously considered leaving th e profession because of s tre s s -re late d problems on the job. In 1982, The New York Times conducted a statewide survey of teachers 1n New York in an e f f o r t to id e n t if y the prevailing mood of members of th is profession. About 5,700 teachers returned surveys th a t asked fo r t h e i r views on a v a rie ty of topics. F1ske, a Times w r ite r , commented on the study, r e la tin g : Perhaps the most notable response to emerge from the survey was t h a t w h ile tw o -th ird s said they were proud to be teachers, nearly h a lf , 47 percent, said they would go in to another profession 1f they had i t to do over again. The fig u re was even higher, 55 percent, 1n New York C ity . (p. 52) In a study of job s a tis fa c tio n of rural teachers 1n Canada, Haughey and Murphy (1983) found th a t only 22% of the 528 respondents indicated t h a t they experienced some level of s a tis fa c tio n from t h e ir jobs. Several months l a t e r , Louis H arris and Associates conducted the National Survey of the American Teacher, sponsored by the Metropolitan L if e Insurance Company. wrote: In commenting on th is study, K1rst (1984) 25 Teachers receive H t t l e public respect, are d is s a tis fie d with th e ir un iversity preparation* contend t h e i r s a la rie s are too low* and believe they spend too much tim e on adm inistration. . . . A ll of these factors help cause an alarming ra te of teacher turnover. About one-half leave the profession w ith in t h e i r f i r s t f i v e to seven years, (p. 146) Data from the National Survey of the American Teacher (presented 1n Table 1) make c le a r the serious nature of th is problem: Table 1 .— Teachers and job s a tis fa c tio n . Agree Strongly Agree Somewhat D1sagree Somewhat D1sagree Strongly Not Sure # * I love to teach. 78% 18% 3% I have to spend too much time on adminis­ t r a t i v e tasks. 38% 34% 19% 7% # 33% 37% 29% 10% * I would advise a young person to pursue a career 1n teaching. 12% 33% 29% 24% 1% As a teacher, I feel respected in today's society. 10% 37% 31% 21% * The tr a in in g and prep­ aration teachers receive today does a good job preparing them fo r the classroom. 10% 36% 31% 19% 3% 8% 29% 26% 37% * I am usually recognized fo r good performance. My job allows me the opportunity to earn a decent salary. Source: H arris and Associates* National Survey of The American Teacher. *Less than 0.5% 26 That le v e ls of teacher job d iss a tis fa c tio n have continued to Increase In to 1985 was established by reports on two recent teacher s a tis fa c tio n studies. An Educational Research Service (1985) poll of 1,346 teachers nationwide found th a t 51% said they would h e s ita te before recommending a teaching career to a student, while an additional 22% would advise students against entering teaching. A dditio n a lly , a survey of 450 Missouri teachers showed th a t 28% were currently s a t is fie d with t h e i r jobs, compared with 89% who were s a tis fie d when they got t h e i r college degrees (Hoi 1f i e l d , 1985). The re su lts of these several studies combine to form a convinc­ ing p ictu re about the s h i f t 1n teacher job a ttitu d e s over the past 25 years. Although methods, samples, and research stra te g ies varied among these vtudies, a f a i r l y consistent finding emerged, in dicating an Increasing level of teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n . F1nding_2: t io n . I d e n t i f y in g the determinants of teacher job s a tis fa c ­ A large portion of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e over the past 25 years has focused on Id e n tify in g the sources or determinants of job s a tis fa c tio n and/or d is s a tis fa c tio n . Blocker and Richardson (1963) concluded t h e i r 25-year review of teacher morale by sta ting th a t "the adm inistrator appears 1n study a ft e r study as the key person with respect to morale. With v i r t u a l l y the same environmental facto rs oper­ ating, high or low morale can be Induced depending upon the behavior pattern of the c h ie f adm inistrator" (p. 208). Although several other studies reviewed determined a s im ila r conclusion, many other v ariab les 27 have been id e n t if ie d as Important sources of job s a tis fa c tio n and/or d is s a tls fa c tio n . The follow ing series of propositions and accompanying research c ita t io n s were drawn from those studies in the review th a t focused on the determinants of teacher job s a tis fac tio n . The research c it a t io n s are included to reference studies th a t provided clear examples of support fo r the proposition they accompany. Again, caution should be used in reviewing these resu lts as the studies considered offered widely varying methods, measures, and samples. 1. As teachers experience a sense of achievement with t h e ir work, s a tis fa c tio n increases (Adair, 1968; Holdaway, 1978; Serglovanni, 1967; Sweeney, 1981). 2. As teachers receive recognition fo r t h e i r work, s a tis fa c tio n increases (Adair, 1968; Holdaway, 1978; Metzger & Wangberg, 1981; Sergiovanni, 1967). 3. As teachers assume increased re s p o n s ib ility for t h e ir own work, s a tis fa c tio n increases (Erlandson & Pastor, 1981; Sergiovanni, 1967). 4. Interpersonal r e la tio n s with students tend to be a source of s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers (Adair, 1968; Holdaway, 1978; Raschke e t a l . , 1985; Smilansky, 1984). 5. As teachers' professional self-im age increases so does s a tis fa c tio n (Schackmuth, 1979). 6. S alaries tend to be a source of d is s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers (Check, 1971; Holdaway, 1978; L i t t & Turk, 1985; Metzger & Wangberg, 1981; NEA, 1980; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962). 7. Interpersonal re lationsh ips among s t a f f tend to be a source of d is s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers (Raschke e t a l., 1985; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962; Sergiovanni, 1967). 8. Inadequate teaching resources contribute to teacher job d is s a tis ­ fa c tio n (G o ttlie b , 1964; Holdaway, 1978; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962). 28 9. 10. High teacher work load contributes to teacher job d iss a tis fa c tio n (Holdaway* 1978; Medved* 1982; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962; Smilansky, 1984). Large class s ize contributes to teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n (G o ttlie b * 1964; NEA, 1975; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962; S a v ille , 1981). 11. Status of the profession in society contributes to teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n (Haughey & Murphy, 1983; L1 tt & Turk, 1985; NEA, 1975, 1980; Raschke e t a l . , 1985; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962; Sweeney, 1981). 12. Maintaining d is c ip lin e contributes to teacher job d iss a tis fa c tio n (Bienenstok, 1964; Gotti1eb, 1964; NEA, 1975; Perkes, 1968; S a v ille , 1981). 13. Limited opportunity to apply knowledge contributes to teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n (Bienenstok, 1964). 14. Lack of parental concern contributes to teacher job d is s a tis fa c ­ tion (G o ttlie b , 1964; NEA, 1975). 15. Menial tasks and a d m in is tra tiv e busywork contribute to teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n (Check, 1971; Farber, 1984; Greenfield & Blase, 19981; L i t t & Turk, 1985; Raschke e t a l . , 1985; S a v ill e , 1981). 16. Lack of adult contact contributes to teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n (Metzberg & Wangberg, 1981). 17. Student absences contribute to teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n (G reenfield & Blase, 1981). 18. Threat of potential la w s u it contributes to teacher job d is s a tis ­ faction ( S a v i l l e , 1981). 19. Teacher involvement 1n decision making contributes to both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n , depending on the amount (as involvement Increases, so does s a tis fa c tio n ; as Involvement decreases, d is s a tis fa c tio n increases) (Belasco & A lutto, 1972; B utle r, 1961; Grassie & Carrs, 1972; Schackmuth, 1979— studied c e n tr a liz a tio n of decision making). 20. A b il it y le vels of students contribute to both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n , depending on le v e l (as a b i l i t y le v e ls increase, so does s a tis fa c tio n ; as a b i l i t y le vels decrease, dis­ s a tis fa c tio n increases) (Gotti 1eb, 1964). 21. Student in te r e s t le v e ls contribute to both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n , depending on le v e l (as student In te r e s t increases, so does s a tis fa c tio n ; as student in te re s t decreases, 29 d is s a tis fa c tio n Increases) (Greenfield & Blase, 1964; NEA, 1980). 1981; G o ttlie b , 22. The q u a lity of school adm inistratio n/leadership contributes to both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n , depending on level (as principal r e la tio n s and leadership Improve, so does s a tis fa c ­ tio n ; as principal re la tio n s and leadership become poor, d is s a tis ­ fa c tio n Increases) (Adair, 1968; Check, 1971; Cooke e t a l., 1982; Farber, 1984; Holdaway, 1978; Lacy, 1973; L 1 tt & Turk, 1985; Miskel, Fevurly, & Stewart, 1979; NEA, 1975; S a v ille , 1981; Sergiovanni, 1967). 23. Perception of career options contributes to teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n (as perceived options r is e , so does s a tis fa c ­ tio n ; as options decline, d is s a tis fa c tio n Increases) (Medved, 1982; Metzger & Wangberg, 1981). 24. Level of teacher control/freedom 1n the classroom contributes to both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n (as teacher control Increases, so does s a tis fa c tio n ; as control decreases, d is s a tis ­ fa c tio n rises) (B utle r, 1961; Lyons & Goldman, 1972; Raschke e t a l . , 1985). 25. The p r in c ip a l’ s compliance with teacher w ork-related norms con­ trib u te s to both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n (as compliance Increases, so does s a tis fa c tio n ; as compliance decreases, d is s a tis fa c tio n Increases) (H aralick, 1968). 26. Central l i f e In te re s ts contribute to both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n (as In te re s ts focus on the job, s a tis fa c tio n increases; as In te re s ts focus on other aspects of l i f e , d is s a tis ­ fa c tio n increases (Mlskel & Gerhardt, 1974; Miskel, Glasnapp, & H a t le y , 1975). 27. The level of c o n f lic t 1n an organization contributes to teacher s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n (high le v e ls of c o n f l ic t tend to produce high le v e ls of d is s a tis fa c tio n ; low le v e ls of c o n f lic t tend to produce higher le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n ) (Miskel & Gerhardt, 1974). Finding 3: on lob s a tis fa c tio n . E ffe c t of teacher and school-organlzatlon variables Teacher job s a tis fa c tio n research during the past 25 years has displayed less In te r e s t 1n understanding the e ff e c t of teacher c h a ra c te ris tic s and the organizational properties of the 30 schools 1n which they teach on le vels of job s a tis fa c tio n than research from business and Industry. Fraser (1970) pointed out th a t The properties of schools have not been Investigated as moraleinfluencing factors. This 1s surprising, because many studies outside of education have been concerned with the extent to which organizational properties a ffe c t work a ttitu d e s of t h e i r members. (p. 21) The teacher c h a ra c te ris tic s t h a t have been explored most commonly include such variables as teacher age, sex, race, years of teaching experience, degree preparation, m arital status, and fam ily size. Frequently, the re su lts of studies comparing le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n on the basis of these variab le s have been Incon­ s is te n t. Teacher sex and the notion t h a t differences e x is t between male and female teachers 1n terms of t h e ir le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n have received substantial research attention. In 1962, Rudd and Wiseman determined th a t male teachers 1n grammar schools appeared to derive the most s a tis fa c tio n compared to female subjects teaching 1n in fa n t schools. In contrast, Trusty and Sergiovanni (1966) found t h a t female teachers had sm aller need deficiencies compared with t h e i r male coun­ te rp a rts . In th is study, small need defic ie n cies were the equivalent o f s a tis fa c tio n . In t h e i r study of decisional p a r tic ip a tio n , Belasco and A lutto (1972) found th a t female teachers tended to be more s a t is f ie d than male teachers. Lacy (1973) could not confirm t h is conclusion as data 1n his study suggested th a t teacher s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls did not vary on the 31 basis of sex. Miskel and Gerhardt (1974), however, found t h a t female elementary teachers tended to be the most s a tis fie d . By using a comprehensive Interview and survey design on teach­ ers sampled in his study, L o rtle (1975) reported th a t men were less s a t is f ie d with t h e i r work than e it h e r single or married women. Further, L o rtie found th a t men were considerably less c e rta in than women t h a t they would repeat t h e ir decision to teach again. Other studies confirming higher le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n fo r women teachers included those by the NEA (1980, 1981) and by Chapman and Lowther (1982). Although the m a jority of studies considering s a tis fa c tio n differences between male and female teachers have indicated t h a t females tend to be more s a tis fie d , several exceptions in the l i t e r a t u r e are evident, Including recent findings by Galloway e t a l. (1985) suggesting th a t male teachers are more s a tis fie d than females, but on only one dimension (professional autonomy). Teacher age has been examined in a number of studies including Trusty and Serglovanni's (1966) study of teacher need deficiencies. Results reported 1n th is study indicated th a t teachers between the ages of 25 and 35 had the largest need d eficien cies (unmet needs on the job). In a design examining s a tis fa c tio n d ir e c t ly , Perkes (1968) found t h a t job s a tis fa c tio n was greater fo r younger teachers, p a r tic u la r ly beginning teachers. Fraser's (1970) study of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n reported t h a t as the average age of s t a f f Increased, the number of reported s a tis fa c tio n s decreased and the number of d is s a tis fa c tio n s 1ncreased. 32 These Inconsistent findings t y p if y the results of studies pursuing job s a tis fa c tio n differences on the basis of age. Belasco and A lutto (1972) discerned th a t teachers age 38 and above were more s a tis fie d than other age groups. Holdaway (1978) attempted to analyze s a tis fa c tio n differences due to age and discovered th a t teachers under 40 mentioned d is s a tis fa c tio n with salary fa r more frequently than did those teachers over 40. Furthermore, few differences 1n s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls with other job dimensions including a ttitu d e s of society and parents, policy and adm inistration, physical conditions, and a ttitu d e s of students could be detected. F in a lly , Sweeney (1981) concluded his study of teacher s a tis fa c tio n by noting t h a t s a tis fa c tio n increased with age. While closely related to teacher age, years of teaching expe­ rience has been examined as a source of d ifference in le vels of job s a tis fa c tio n among groups varying on th is c r ite r io n . Both Trusty and Sergiovanni (1966) and Perkes (1968) examined experience and produced results id en tical to those obtained when age was the v a riab le being considered. Trusty and Sergiovanni learned th a t need deficiencies were greatest among teachers with 5 to 12 years' experience, while Perkes concluded th a t s a tis fa c tio n was greatest fo r beginning teachers. Fraser (1970) tended to support Perkes by using an a lte r n a tiv e comparison strategy. Fraser discerned th a t schools with greater numbers of beginning teachers reported higher le vels of teacher s a tis fa c tio n . Lacy (1973), in a study of business education teachers, reported th a t job s a tis fa c tio n increased as years of teaching 33 experience accumulated. Finally# Holdaway's (1978) study of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n presented data in d ic a tin g t h a t f i r s t - y e a r teachers experienced the lowest o v e rall s a tis fa c tio n among a number of experi­ ence groups and th a t beginning teachers tended to experience lower le vels of s a tis fa c tio n with more aspects of t h e i r jobs than did teach­ ers with more experience. In terms of race# G o ttlie b (1964) examined teacher race and concluded th a t black teachers tended to express higher le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n than did w h ite teachers. When ra cial c h a ra c te ris tic s of schools were examined# 1 t was found th a t teachers (both white and black) expressed higher le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n in predominantly w hitestudent high schools compared to predominantly black-student schools (Eubanks# 1974). No other research in the review considered racial variables. Only one study in the review presented data considering the e ffe c t of marriage and children on le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . In reference to both characteristics# no differences between groups of teachers distinguished by these variables were detected. Although other important personal teacher variables may a ffe c t s a tis fa c tio n differences between groups of teachers who d i f f e r on such characteristics# differences. few comprehensive research studies have pursued these For those v a riab le s t h a t have received some research attention# the re su lts have frequently been inconsistent# and few cle a r directions fo r school managers have emerged as to how s a tis fa c tio n can be improved fo r these varying groups. 34 The status of research on the organizational properties of schools and t h e ir e ffe c t on teacher job a ttitu d e s 1s no fu rth e r advanced. Variables t h a t have been considered 1n past research Include school building size, school d i s t r i c t size, geographic nature of schools, student racial composition of the school, school le v e l, school wealth, and the a rc h ite c tu ra l and c u r r ic u la r design of schools. In terms of school building s ize , no ideal s ize has been deter­ mined by research on t h is v a riab le. Three studies included 1n th is review presented mixed conclusions. In 1970, Fraser re la ted th a t "in la rg e r schools . . . teachers were more l i k e l y to have considered leaving teaching, to be a n tic ip a tin g withdrawing from the profession and to be a n tic ip a tin g career advancement" (p. 26). Lacy's (1973) s a tis fa c tio n study reported th a t the s ize of high school enrollment had no e ffe c t on s a tis fa c tio n . F in a lly , Farber (1984) concluded from data in his study th a t teachers in midsize schools (600 to 950 students) were less committed to teaching than those 1n smaller schools. In a s im ila r manner to building size, school d i s t r i c t size has received lim it e d research a tte n tio n as an organizational v a ria b le li k e l y to a f f e c t teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . The NEA (1980) reported th a t teachers in systems over 25,000 students were more d is s a tis fie d . The NEA reported a s im ila r finding 1n i t s 1981 study of teacher job a ttitu d e s , in dicating t h a t large c it y school teachers were more dis­ s a tis fie d . No fu rth e r re su lts on t h is v a ria b le were present 1n the studies reviewed. 35 Two studies 1n the review compared the le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n between teachers from d i s t r i c t s of varying geographic natures. Parkhouse and Holmen (1980) discerned t h a t suburban fa c u lty tended to be s a t is f ie d with In t r i n s ic aspects (work, colleagues, and supervision) and d is s a tis fie d with e x trin s ic aspects, including pay. Conversely, 1nner-c1ty teachers were more s a tis fie d with pay and d is s a tis fie d with work, co-workers, and supervision. The NEA (1981) found in a nationwide survey of teachers th a t teachers in large c i t i e s and suburbs were more d is s a tis fie d than teachers from other types of d is tric ts . Racial composition of schools as a fa cto r a ffe c tin g differences in le v e ls of teacher s a tis fa c tio n received lim it e d atten tion by the studies included in t h is review. Eubanks (1974) discovered th a t teachers 1n predominantly white high schools were more s a tis f ie d than teachers in predominantly black high schools. Galloway e t a l. (1985) examined m inority populations in New Zealand schools and determined th a t teachers 1n schools where more than 75% of pupils were of European o rig in reported s ig n if ic a n t ly more job s a tis fa c tio n than teachers in schools with fewer children of European o rig in . School le v e l, the grade-level conste llatio n of schools, was the most frequently studied organizational v a riab le in the studies reviewed. Fraser (1970) reported th a t as one moves from the elementary to the secondary le v e l, the number of diss a tis fa c tio n s reported by teachers increases. increases. A d d itio n a lly , the p o s s ib ility of leaving teaching Several studies consistently found higher levels of teacher 36 s a tis fa c tio n a t the elementary level compared to the secondary level (A lutto & Belasco, 1972; Bentzen, W illiam s, & Heckman, 1980; NEA, 1980). In comparing s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls of teachers a t ju n io r and senior high schools, three additional studies are relevant. Trusty and Sergiovanni (1966) and Perkes (1968) found th a t ju n io r high teachers expressed higher le v e ls of d is s a tis fa c tio n . stress, In assessing teacher Farber (1984) revealed t h a t those teaching a t the ju n io r high school le v e l were "most a t ris k " fo r career burnout (p. 3 2 ). School wealth was measured in d ir e c tly and in only a few studies included in t h is review. Lacy (1973) found th a t teachers with a high level of job s a tis fa c tio n had adequate fin an cia l support and adequate equipment to carry out t h e i r teaching assignments. A dditionally, Lacy reported t h a t as teaching s a la rie s and fring e benefits Increased, so did the level of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Bentzen e t al. (1980) indicated t h a t teachers 1n higher-lncome communities tended to be more s a tis f ie d , the l i k e l y r e s u lt of increased funding a v a ila b le fo r the schools. F in a lly , two studies considered the arch ite ctu ra l and c u rricu­ l a r "openness" and "closedness" of schools as the v a ria b le responsible for differences 1n le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Both Coughlan (1971) and Khan and Traub (1980) found th a t more open schools tended to have more s a t is f ie d teachers. Again, lim ite d in sights have been generated from the resu lts of current research on how organizational properties of schools r e la t e to 37 differences 1n expressed le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Studies were few, and the scope o f variables examined was not comprehensive. With frequently inconsistent findings* r e la t iv e ly few conclusions can be drawn confidently about how organizational properties influence job s a tis fa c tio n . Finding 4: The resu lts of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Perhaps due to the suggestion in reviews of s a tis fa c tio n -p ro d u c tiv ity studies by B ra y fie ld and Crockett (1955) and Vroom (1964) th a t no systematic relationsh ip between job s a tis fa c tio n and worker performance or produc­ t i v i t y exists* researchers in education infrequently have pursued the results of high and low le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n on teacher behavior. The lim it e d number of studies exploring th e re su lts of varying le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n t h a t were included 1n t h is review varied 1n pur­ pose* design* and results. In 1961* B utler studied job s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls of beginning teachers 1n I l l i n o i s . The main fin d in g of t h is study revealed th a t "there is a d ire c t re la tio n s h ip between job s a tis fa c tio n and the retention of beginning teachers" (p. 13). Ten years la t e r , Davison (1971) pursued the re s u lts of s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls expressed by 230 secondary school teachers beginning t h e i r second year of teaching. The main finding of t h is study contrasted with th a t of B utler as Davison concluded th a t "the data showed few of the teachers with minimal work s a tis fa c tio n expressing any strong in te r e s t in leaving t h e i r present posi tio n " (p. 267). 38 Greenwood and Soar (1973) sought to understand relationships between teacher morale and verbal teacher behavior. Through a care­ f u l l y designed study of 39 female elementary school teachers, these researchers a rrived a t the follow ing conclusion: I f sm aller amounts of teacher t a lk , greater amounts of pupil-pupil t a l k , and greater teacher acceptance of pupils are seen as aspects of good teaching, the s ig n ific a n t relationships revealed 1n th is study could generally be summarized as an association between aspects of good teaching and aspects of higher morale, (p. 106) Knoop and O'Reilly (1976) measured the job s a tis fa c tio n of 322 randomly selected elementary school teachers from 75 schools in three Canadian urban school d i s t r ic t s , e t a l., 1969). using the Job Descriptive I ndex (Smith School performance was also measured, using Georgo- poulos and Mann's (1962) instrument fo r s ubjectively measuring hospital effectiveness, adapted fo r school use. The results of t - t e s t s in d i­ cated th a t the mean level of job s a tis fa c tio n of teachers in a school was p o s itiv e ly associated with the overall effectiveness of th a t school. Knoop and O'Reilly commented th a t although "the correlatio n s reported . . . are higher than those of s im ila r studies, i t is evident t h a t many other personal and s itu a tio n a l factors also account fo r e f f e c t i v e n e s s " (p. 12). In an e f f o r t to in vestig ate the association between s e lf reported teacher stress and three response correlates of teacher stress including job s a tis fa c tio n , absenteeism, and in ten tion to leave teach­ ing, Kyriacou and S u t c l i f f e (1979) surveyed 218 teachers from medium­ sized schools. These investigators found a negative association between s e lf-re p o rte d teacher stress and job s a tis fa c tio n . 39 A dditiona lly * 1 t was found th a t a p o sitiv e association between s e l f reported teacher stress and in ten tion to leave teaching existed. Although the in vestig ato rs did not comment on the direction of causal­ ity * they suggested t h a t low le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n were associated with higher le v e ls of stress. High stress le v e ls reportedly were associated with In ten tio n to leave teaching. In contrast to these findings, Bridge's (1980) more lim it e d view of the satlsfaction-absenteeism relationship concluded tha t: The re la tio n s h ip between job s a tis fa c tio n and absenteeism among elementary school teachers 1s tenuous. In none of the twelve m u ltip le regression analyses performed in th is study did the shared variance exceed 7%, suggesting th a t job s a tis fa c tio n 1s not a major fa c to r in absenteeism, (p. 53) Other conclusions may have been suggested i f Bridges had advanced a more comprehensive view of the satisfaction-absenteelsm re la tio n s h ip . Bridges made th is suggestion himself; however, the fa c t t h a t his fin ding s were 1n contrast to findings by Kyrlacou and S u t c l i f f e (1979) follows a pattern of Inconsistent findings through research on the e f f e c t varying le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n have on teacher behavior. Finding 5: Shortcomings 1n teacher -fob s a tis fa c tio n research. Our understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n has advanced as a r e s u lt of the Information generated by the studies included in th is review. Certain th e o re tic a l and problematic shortcomings of past approaches, however, have impaired a f u l l understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c ­ tion. In general, lim it a t io n s a ffe c tin g the usefulness of Information generated by these studies have included such problems as the use of 40 small samples, samples drawn from a lim ite d population fo r a s p e c ific purpose t h a t were not well suited fo r constructing generalizations, use of job s a tis fa c tio n measures developed 1n business and In d u s tria l settings th a t may not be s e n s itiv e to unique aspects of teachers and teaching as work, and the Infrequent v a lid a tio n of measures. Furthermore, the v a rie ty of job s a tis fa c tio n measures used among the studies reviewed c o n stitu tes a serious problem when attempting to compare the re s u lts of various studies. For instance, of the 55 studies included in t h i s review, 6 studies used single-1tem measures of ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n , 24 studies used m ultiple-question measures of overall job s a tis fa c tio n ranging from two to six questions, 20 studies asked respondents to r a te s p e c ific aspects of t h e i r job situatio ns 1n terms of level of s a tis fa c tio n fo r anywhere from 10 to 100 d if fe r e n t job facets, and 5 studies asked respondents to id e n tify c ritic a l incidents in teaching and to l i s t aspects of the incidents th a t produced fe e lin g s of s a tis fa c tio n and/or d is s a tis fa c tio n . Another concern l e f t unresolved by the studies reviewed re la te s to the importance of various determinants of job s a tis fa c tio n . Although a v a rie ty of s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n determinants were id e n tif ie d in the review studies, very l i t t l e e f f o r t was directed toward discovering the most meaningful or important determinants. Holdaway (1978) commented on t h is s itu a tio n when he wrote, "Many studies have examined the job s a tis fa c tio n of teachers. . . . No studies have been encountered th a t d e a lt q u a n tita tiv e ly with the re la tio n s h ip between fa c e t and ov e rall s a tis fa c tio n of teachers” (p. 32). In th is 41 review, only two studies pursued t h is relationsh ip: Holdaway (1978) and Golloway e t a l. (1985). F in a lly , studies 1n the review l e f t unresolved a conceptual debate as t o whether job s a tis fa c tio n variables e x is t on a continuum. Lawler (1973) explained one side of the debate when he wrote about Herzberg's tw o-factor theory of job s a tis fa c tio n /m o tiv a tio n : F ir s t , tw o -fa c to r theory says th a t s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n do not e x is t on a continuum running from s a tis fa c tio n through neutral to d is s a tis fa c tio n . Two Independent continua e x is t, one running from s a tis fie d to neutral, and another running from dis­ s a t is f ie d to neutral. Second, the theory stresses t h a t d if f e r e n t job facets Influence feeling s of s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n , (p. 69) Medved (1982) presented the opposing conceptualization of job s a tis fa c tio n , arguing th a t "those factors th a t most often contribute to the s a tis fa c tio n of teachers are also, 1f absent, most often the cause fo r teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n " (p. 555). The f a i l u r e of past studies to reconcile these perspectives probably resulted 1n the use of a wide v a rie ty of job s a tis fa c tio n measures, as evidenced in t h i s review. As th is review considers th e o re tic a l models of job s a tis fa c ­ tio n , some of these shortcomings w i l l be addressed 1n greater d e t a il. For now, Holdaway's (1978) comments seem appropriate as he stated, 'The often s p e c ific nature of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n studies makes the preparation of concise summaries and syntheses very d i f f i c u l t " (p. 32). At th is point, 1t 1s Important to expand the scope of th is review to include research on job s a tis fa c tio n from business and Indus­ t r i a l settings. The major conceptual and methodological developments In job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e have come from these settings. The 42 combined job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e from business* Industry* and edu­ cation has grown s u b s ta n tia lly over the past 25 years. Job S a tis fa c tio n Defined With so much research p u rsuit fo r so many years* job s a tis fa c ­ tio n d e fin itio n s abound. Holdaway (1978) argued th a t some of these d e fin itio n s are abstract; however* "most are operational* being pre­ c is e ly defined by the researcher or In vestig ato r attempting to study job s a tis fa c tio n e m p iric a lly " (p. 5). In general* job s a tis fa c tio n d e fin itio n s emphasize e ith e r an a f f e c t iv e or a behavioral o rie n ta tio n . In the a ffe c t iv e category are such d e fin itio n s as "job s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n are complex emotional reactions to the job" (Locke* 1969* p. 314); "a fe e lin g which has arisen in the worker as a response to the to ta l job s ituatio n" (Dunn & Stephens* 1972, p. 318); "persistent feelings toward discrim­ i n a t e aspects of the job s itu a tio n " (Smith e t a l . , 1969, p. 37); and "the difference between what a person thinks he should receive and what he fe e ls he a c tu a lly does receive" (Porter, c ite d 1n Lawler, p. 64). 1973, In the behavioral category of d e fin itio n s are those such as "a w illin g n es s to remain w ith in the current school organization despite inducement t o leave" (Belasco & Al utto, 1972* p. 44; follow ing the approach of March & Simon, 1958, and Katz & Kahn, 1966); and "readiness t o teach ag a in " ( L o r t i e * 1975* p. 9 1 ), i.e .* read in e s s t o choose te a c h ­ ing again as a career. 43 Vroom 1n 1964 and Locke 1n 1969 both conducted extensive reviews of l i t e r a t u r e concerning job s a tis fa c tio n . Vroom extracted the following d e f in itio n of job s a tis fa c tio n from his review: The terms job s a tis fa c tio n and job a ttitu d e s are t y p ic a lly used Interchangeably. Both r e fe r to a f f e c t iv e orientatio ns on the part of In dividuals toward work roles which they are presently occupy­ ing. P ositive a ttitu d e s toward the job are conceptually equivalent t o job s a tis fa c tio n and negative a ttitu d e s toward the job are equivalent to job d is s a tis fa c tio n , (p. 99) In comparison, Locke's review produced th is d e fin itio n of job s a t ls f a c t io n : Job s a tis fa c tio n 1s th e pleasurable emotional sta te resu lting from the appraisal of one's job as achieving or f a c i l i t a t i n g the achievement of one's job values. Job d is s a tis fa c tio n is the unpleasurable emotional s ta te re s u ltin g from the appraisal of one's job as f r u s tr a tin g or blocking the attainm ent of one's job values or as e n t a ilin g dlsvalues. Job s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n are a function of the perceived rela tio n s h ip between what one wants from one's job and what one perceives 1t as o ffe rin g or e n ta ilin g , (p. 316) Although Important conceptual differences e x is t between many of the popular d e fin itio n s of job s a tis fa c tio n , the terms used frequently describe job s a tis fa c tio n as a complex set of variables rather than a single variable. The notion t h a t an In d iv id u a l's level of s a tis fa c tio n can vary with each aspect of the job has been referred to as jo b -fa c e t sa tis fa c tio n . There are job facets th a t presumably a f fe c t overall job s a tis fa c tio n d i f f e r e n t i a l l y . Vroom (1964) noted th a t: Although we have been r e fe r r in g t o job s a tis fa c tio n as 1f 1 t were a s ing le variab le , most In vestig ato rs have treated I t as a rather complex set of variables. The reasons fo r doing so are q u ite compelling. For example, workers can be found who report th a t they are very s a tis fie d with t h e i r supervisors, In d if f e r e n t toward com­ pany p o lic ie s , and very d is s a tis fie d with t h e i r wages. Which one, 44 or combination of these* represents t h e i r level of job s a tis fa c ­ tion? Is 1t not both th e o r e tic a lly and p r a c tic a lly useful to consider s p e c ific refe re nts fo r s a tis fa c tio n w ithin the work role? (p. 101) Lawler (1973) supported Vroom's observations and used language th a t is well accepted in dealing with the difference between overall job s a tis fa c tio n and Vroom's "variables": I t is important to distinguish between the concepts of fa c et or fa cto r s a tis fa c tio n and o verall job s a tis fac tio n . Facet s a tis fa c ­ tio n re fe rs to people's a ffe c t iv e reactions to p a r tic u la r aspects of t h e i r job. Pay, supervision, and promotion opportunities are frequently studied facets. Job s a tis fa c tio n re fers to a person's a f f e c t iv e reactions to his to ta l work role. (p. 64) To summarize the discussion on defining job s a tis fa c tio n , two points are important. F ir s t , job s a tis fa c tio n has been viewed both as a single global concept, multidimensional concept, the job s itu a tio n ." i.e., "overall job s a tis fa c tio n ," and as a i.e ., " s a tis fa c tio n with various facets of Second, job s a tis fa c tio n has generally been viewed as an outcome, not a determinant. In some early studies (Mayo, 1933; Roethlisberger & Dickson, 1939), job s a tis fa c tio n was treated as a determinant of worker p ro d u c tiv ity , but "most of the l a t e r studies have focused on the determinants of job s a tis fa c tio n i t s e l f . Thus, various conceptual frameworks have been developed to r e la te job s a tis fa c tio n to posited determinants" (Holdaway, 1978, p. 6 ). Theoretical Perspectives To resolve the c o n flic tin g d e fin itio n s of job s a tis fa c tio n and select one d e f in it io n to serve as the basis of th is research required a consideration of th e o re tic a l explanations of the causes of job s a tis ­ faction. As previously indicated (Lawler, 1973; Miskel e t a l . , 1975), 45 the th e o re tic a l formulations underlying the concept of job s a tis fa c tio n are lim ite d . There have been attempts, however, to develop "mlnl-theories" of job s a tis fa c tio n , and a number of conceptual frameworks can be extracted from job s a tis fa c tio n li t e r a t u r e . Locke (1969) implied three views when he wrote, There 1s s t i l l confusion over whether the determinants l i e solely 1n the job I t s e l f (the " in t r in s i c ” view), whether they reside wholly 1n the worker’ s mind (the "subjective" view), or whether s a tis fa c tio n is the consequence of an In te ra c tio n between the worker and his work environment, (p. 309) The struggle to resolve th is confusion was evident in the m ultitude of approaches used to measure teacher job s a tis fa c tio n apparent in th is l i t e r a t u r e review. These views can be examined separately and e n ta il the follow ing frameworks: (a) the "subjective" view, I.e., th a t the determinants of job s a tis fa c tio n reside w ith in the worker; (b) the " in t r in s ic " view, Its e lf; i.e ., t h a t the determinants l i e w ithin the job and (c) the " In te r a c tio n !s t" view, I.e., th a t job s a tis fa c tio n 1s a consequence of a complex In terp lay between the worker and his job s itu a tio n . The "subjective" view of job s a tis fa c tio n 1s exemplified in Maslow’s (1954) "hierarchy of needs" theory. According to Maslow, human needs are arranged in a prepotent ascendancy from s a tis fa c tio n of physiological needs through s e lf-a c tu a liz a tio n . As an individual sat­ i s f i e s his prepotent lower-order needs, the s a tis fa c tio n of other higher-order needs becomes important. Following Maslow, Porter e t al. (1975) suggested t h a t "existence, security, social, esteem, autonomy, 46 and s e lf - a c tu a liz a t io n needs e x is t fo r workers in organizations” (pp. 4 2 -4 3 ). According t o the subjective view, s a tis fa c tio n is achieved when one of the lower-order needs an Individual has is met. however, th is need is no longer seen as motivating. Once s a tis fie d , Both support and challenge to Maslow’ s hierarchy were offered by Porter e t a l., who wrote: There 1s strong evidence to support the view th a t unless the existence needs are s a tis f ie d none of the hlgher-order needs w i l l come in to play. There is also some evidence th a t unless security needs are s a t is f ie d , people w i l l not be concerned with higher order needs (Cofer & Appley, 1964; A lde rfe r, 1972). There 1s, however, l i t t l e evidence to support the view th a t a hierarchy exists once one moves above the security level (Lawler & S u ttle , 1972). Thus, i t is probably not safe to assume more than a two-step hierarchy, with existence and secu rity needs a t the lower level and a l l the hlgher-order needs a t the next le v e l. I t is safe to assume th a t unless the lower-order needs are s a tis fie d , the others w i l l not come In to play 1n any major way. (p. 43) Holdaway (1978) offered an example of the subjective view in an organizational context: "Pay, fo r example, may allow the worker to s a tis fy several needs, including existence needs, security needs, and even esteem needs" (p. 7 ) . In contrast to the "subjective" framework is the " in tr in s ic " framework, which argues t h a t the determinants of job s a tis fa c tio n H e w ithin the job i t s e l f . Herzberg's (1959, 1966) "dual factor" construct argues th a t a dichotomy e x is ts , with In t r i n s ic s a tis fa c tio n factors (achievement, recognition, work i t s e l f , re s p o n s ib ility , advancement, and growth) being d i s t i n c t from e x trin s ic d is s a tis fa c tio n factors (company policy and a dm inistratio n, technical supervision, working 47 conditions, salary, re la tio n s with superordinates, r e la tio n s with peers, status, job secu rity, and personal l i f e ) . Herzberg c a lle d i n t r i n s i c factors the "motivators," while he labeled the e x trin s ic d is s a tis fa c tio n factors the "hygiene factors." The claim was made th a t hygiene factors do not have any motivational force; however, 1f not e f f e c t i v e ly present, they y ie ld d is s a tis fa c tio n . Porter e t al. (1975) supported and challenged Herzberg's twofa cto r explanation. These authors suggested th a t Herzberg's model has stimulated a great deal of empirical research; however, frequent e f f o r t s have been unable to provide q u a n tita tiv e support fo r Herzberg's major tenets. The essence of c r it ic is m challenging Herzberg's formula­ tio n was captured by Porter e t al. when they reported th a t: Aside from the d i f f i c u l t i e s in obtaining consistent empirical support fo r the orig inal tw o -fa c to r dichotomy, problems on the conceptual level a ris e when one attempts to use the theory to understand how jobs should be designed f o r optimal work e ffe c ­ tiveness and employee s a tis fa c tio n . The implementation of the theory in the AT&T studies (Ford, 1969) assumes th a t the presence of the m otivating conditions (i.e ., recognition, achievement, etc.) can p o te n tia lly motivate a l l employees. And indeed, such an assumption is not Inconsistent with published statements of the theory; i t appears 1n fa c t th a t the theory has not yet been elabo­ rated to specify the way 1n which c h a ra c te ris tic s of workers I n t e r ­ act with the presence or absence of the motivators 1n a ffe c tin g worker performance and s a tis fa c tio n — or even 1f such an in te ra c tio n is to be expected. Data reviewed . . . have suggested strongly th a t the c h a ra c te ris tic s of workers must be considered i f the impact of job design on worker a f f e c t iv e and behavioral responses 1s to be f u l l y understood, (p. 299) The t h ir d view 1s the " in te r a c tio n is t" framework, which sug­ gests th a t job s a tis fa c tio n 1s a consequence of a complex in te rp la y between the worker and his job s itu a tio n . The idea t h a t job s a tis fa c ­ tion is the r e s u lt of an in te ra c tio n between the person and his 48 environment 1s not new. In 1939# Roethl Isberger and Dickson wrote th a t workers1 a ttitu d e s toward objects 1n the work environment "can be referred to the r e la tio n between an organism and I t s physical environ­ ment" (pp. 261-62). L lk e r t wrote 1n 1961 th a t "the subordinate's reaction to the supervisor's behavior always depends upon the r e la t io n ­ ship between the supervisory act as perceived by the subordinate and the expectations# values# and Interpersonal s k i l l s of the subordinate" (pp. 94-95). Rosen and Rosen (1955) viewed job s a tis fa c tio n as a consequence of the discrepancy between percepts and value standards. Views s im ila r 1n certa in respects to the above were expressed by K atzell (1964)# Morse (1953)# and Vroom (1964). In summarizing research on the 1nteract1on1st framework of job satisfaction# Locke (1969) c le a rly expressed the need fo r such a view. The causes of job s a tis fa c tio n are not 1n the job nor solely in man but H e 1n the relationsh ip between them. The prediction of job s a tis fa c tio n necessarily requires an In t e r a c t iv e approach— not because 20 or 30 c o rre la tio n a l studies have "proved" 1t> but because of the nature of man and of the evaluation process. (p. 319) Im portance-W eighted.Interactlonlst Model In reference to the problem Id e n tif ie d e a rlie r # I.e.# t h a t we do not have an adequate understanding about what r e a l ly causes teachers to be s a tis f ie d with t h e i r jobs# findings from research exploring the 1nteract1onist framework have suggested a meaningful source of insight. S p ecifically# several researchers have examined the In te ra c tio n between job aspects# worker values# and job s a tis fa c tio n . Mikes and Hulln (1968) suggested t h is focus of research when they wrote: 49 Strong and consistent relationships between employees’ responses to a t t it u d e questionnaires and job behavior have only ra re ly been obtained. I t has been Implied frequently that those aspects of the job which are perceived as more Important by the worker have a greater Influence on the behavioral and overall a f f e c t iv e responses of the worker to his job than do less important aspects. However* most jo b -a t tit u d e questionnaires f a l l to ask employees about aspects regarded as more or less important, (p. 394) The th eoretical argument present w ith in Mikes and Hulin's im p lic a tio n — th a t those aspects of the job t h a t are perceived as more Important by the worker have a greater influence on the behavioral and overall a f f e c t iv e responses of the worker to his job than do less important aspects— was presented by Lawler (1973): A strong th e o re tic a l argument can be made fo r weighting the fa c e ts a tis fa c tio n scores according to t h e i r importance. Some factors do make la rg e r contributions to overall s a tis fa c tio n than others. Pay s a tis fa c tio n , s a tis fa c tio n with the work i t s e l f , and s a tis fa c tio n with supervision seem to have p a r t ic u la r ly strong influences on overall s a tis fa c tio n fo r most people. Also, employees tend to rate these factors as Important. Thus, there is a connection between how Important employees say job factors are and how much job fac­ to rs influence o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n , (pp. 77-78) E a r lie r , Vroom (1964) had suggested a s im ila r th e o re tic a l foun­ dation: The la s t ten years have witnessed the proposal, by a number of d if f e r e n t researchers, of theories regarding the causes of job s a tis fa c tio n which encompass both work ro le and personality variables. In these theories, the s a tis fa c tio n th a t an Individual derives from a work ro le , or more precisely the valence of a work r o le to i t s occupant, 1s assumed to be a function not only of the o b je ctiv e properties of th a t work ro le but also of the motives of the in d iv id u a l. Insofar as people d i f f e r in t h e i r motives, the "optimal" or most s a tis fy in g work ro le w i l l d i f f e r fo r each person. (p. 162) The relationsh ip between how in dividuals value c e rta in aspects of t h e i r jobs and the degree to which these aspects influence overall 50 job s a tis fa c tio n was expressed by Lawler (1973) 1n the follow ing manner: Conceptually, therefore, 1t seems worthwhile to think ous jo b -fa c e t-s a t1 s fa c tio n scores as influencing to ta l 1n terms of t h e i r Importance. One way to express the 1s by defining overall job s a tis fa c tio n as being equal of (fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n x fa c e t importance), (p. 78) of the v a r i­ s a tis fa c tio n relationship to the sum Measures of overall s a tis fa c tio n t y p ic a lly have been obtained by summing Items concerning s a tis fa c tio n with p a r tic u la r aspects of the work situatio n. As Glennon, Owens, Smith, and Albright (1960) pointed out, th is procedure ignores the importance of each item to the respond­ ent. I f importance 1s a meaningful dimension, then the response to each item should be weighted by the Importance of the item to the employee. Waters (1969) pointed out, "While Importance weighting 1s i n t u i t i v e l y appealing, i t must be shown th a t use of importance weight­ ing adds to the prediction of separately measured overall sa tis fac tio n " (p. 519). I t 1s important to note t h a t v e r i f ic a t i o n of th is expressed rela tio n s h ip between Importance of job aspects and overall job s a tis ­ fa c tio n has not been f u l l y achieved. The nature of the re la tio n s h ip between the Importance of a job aspect or element to a person and his degree of s a tis fa c tio n with th a t aspect has been of In te r e s t to In d u s tria l psychologists fo r some years. To date very lim it e d progress has been made 1n th is area. This 1s revealed both by the inconclusive results of studies on th is topic and by the absence of a theory th a t would account adequately fo r a ll the re s u lts obtained. (Mobley & Locke, 1970, p. 463) On balance, the l i t e r a t u r e has suggested t h a t Importanceweighting facet s a tis fa c tio n scores has l i t t l e efficacy. Only two studies have shown t h a t Importance weights add to the prediction of 51 overall s a tis fac tio n . Youngberg, Hedberg, and Baxter (1962) found th a t using importance and s a tis fa c tio n measures together produced b e tte r results than s a tis fa c tio n measures used alone. However* as the authors themselves stated* no outside c r it e r i o n was a v a ila b le against which the methods could be validated. Froellch and Wolins (1960) found th a t Items low in s a tis fa c tio n and high in Importance best defined s a tis fa c ­ tio n as determined by a fa c to r analysis. I t should be noted t h a t other studies used Importance-weighting procedures but f a ile d to report the relationship between the weighted and unweighted t o t a ls (Glennon e t a l . , 1960; Owens, 1965b). On the negative side, a number of studies have attempted to Improve the prediction of ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n by m ultip ly in g the In d iv id u a l’s s a tis fa c tio n ra tin g f o r each job aspect by his/her (or some group's) Importance r a tin g fo r th a t aspect. I t has ty p ic a lly been found t h a t the sum of these weighted scores does not predict ratings of overall job s a tis fa c tio n any b e tte r than the sum of the unweighted s a tis fa c tio n ratings (Decker, 1955; Ewen, 1967; Schaffer, 1953; Waters, 1969). Mikes and Hulln (1968) obtained s im ila r resu lts using turnover as the c r it e r io n . The Ewen (1967) In ve s tig atio n 1s p a r tic u la r ly noteworthy 1n th a t i t established three d i s t i n c t te s ts fo r evaluating the e fficacy of Importance-weighting s tra te g ie s . Based on a careful review of previous l i t e r a t u r e , Ewen described three separate procedures, "to determine whether or not importance measures give useful information, over and 52 above th a t provided by s a tis fa c tio n scores alone, for the purposes of estimating o verall job s a tis fa c tio n " (p. 69 ). The f i r s t procedure suggested by Ewen requires the "computation of c orrelations between t o t a ls arrived a t using d i f f e r e n t ia l weightings and t o t a ls arrived a t using equal (u n it) weights fo r a l l components" (p. 69). The usefulness of th is procedure was f i r s t described by Chi s e ll 1 and Brown (1955), who were concerned with weightings of r a t­ ings of d if f e r e n t aspects of job performance. The c o e f f ic ie n t of c o rre la tio n between the fin a l ratings when the items are equally weighted and the fin a l ratings when they are d i f f e r e n t i a l l y weighted provides the necessary Index. I f the c o e ffic ie n t is very high, then the weighting system adds nothing, whereas 1f the c o e f fic ie n t 1s moderate or low, the weighting system can be said to be contrib u tin g , (pp. 124-25) According to Ewen, a p plication of th is procedure holds fo r weighting job s a tis fa c tio n facets. The second procedure calle d fo r by Ewen suggests the "computa­ tio n of correlations of both the weighted and unweighted t o t a ls with measures of overall job s a tis fa c tio n " (p. 69). by Schaffer (1953) and by Decker (1955). This approach was used I f the weighted to ta l does not y ie ld a s ig n if ic a n tly higher c o rre la tio n with an overall s a tis fa c ­ tio n measure than the unweighted t o t a l , 1 t would properly be concluded th a t weighting by Importance fo r purposes of determining o verall job s a tis fa c tio n has no e ffic a c y (Ewen, 1967). Ewen's t h i r d procedure to t e s t the value of Importance weight­ ing uses a d if f e r e n t approach by establishing hypotheses and te s tin g fo r differences. He explained t h i s approach 1n the following manner: 53 In addition to simply computing correlations between the various t o ta l scores and the overall measures* one may make te s ts of hypotheses which should hold 1 f the to ta ls weighted by the Impor­ tance measures are more In d ic a tiv e of overall job s a tis fa c tio n than the unweighted to ta ls . I t may be hypothesized t h a t people who state th a t a component 1s Important and who are d is s a tis fie d with t h a t component should show greater overall d is s a tis fa c tio n than people who are d is s a tis fie d with the component but who sta te th a t 1 t i s not 1m portant t o them. (p. 69) When the job s a tis fa c tio n data collected by Ewen were subjected to these procedures, he concluded th a t "the results . . . raise doubts regarding the m erits of Including importance measures fo r purposes of weighting components of job s a tis fa c tio n to estimate overall job s a tis ­ faction" (p. 72), a finding consistent with the m ajority of Investiga­ tions on th is concept. Although the arguments fo r use of Importance weights 1n scale construction seem plausible, ample evidence has been presented th a t a measure of job s a tis fa c tio n derived from an importance-weighted m u lti­ p lic a tio n equation does not y ie ld s ig n if ic a n t ly higher correlations with an external c r it e r i o n of ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n than does a simple sum of the job facets alone. At le a s t two basic reasons fo r the f a i l u r e of the weighting strategy have been reported in the lit e r a t u r e . F ir s t , s a tis fa c tio n with the various facets of one’ s work 1s Inherently "self-weighted" by the Importance the facets hold fo r each respondent. Thus, more Important facets are given more extreme responses of s a tis ­ fa c tion or d is s a tis fa c tio n than responses given to unimportant facets. The use of separate weights, therefo re, only adds redundant 1nformatlon (Dachler & H ulln, 1969; Locke, 1969; Mobley & Locke, 1970; Wanous & Lawler, 1972). 54 The second reason fo r the f a i l u r e of weighting s tra te g ies was suggested by Seashore and Taber (1976). The c o rre la tio n of any v a ria b le with a composite scale created from a set of Items tends to be very In se n s itiv e to the weighting scheme th a t 1s used to create the composite i f there are many Items in the composite scale th a t are moderately to highly correlated. Caston and B ria to (1983) argued th a t "under such conditions, even the applic a tio n of zero weights to some of the scale Items would have l i t t l e e ffe c t on the d is tr ib u tio n of the to ta l scale scores or on the b iv a r ia te d is tr ib u tio n of these scores with those of another v a riab le" (p. 340). In view of these two arguments, Caston and B ria to conducted an In ves tig atio n in to the use of fa c e t Importance as a weighting component of job s a tis fa c tio n and determined t h a t "importance weights . . . can contribute a good deal to scaling procedures when a m u ltiv a r ia te frame­ work 1s used t h a t represents the a d d itiv e and m u lt i p li c a t iv e c o n tr i­ butions of work place facets and fa c e t importance to a c r ite rio n " (p. 339), such as overall job s a tis fa c tio n . These investigators pointed out th a t l i t e r a t u r e dealing with importance weighting has f a i l e d t o take advantage of s t a t i s t i c a l l y powerful te s ts a v a ila b le f o r m u ltiv a r ia t e analyses. The most s tra ig h t-fo rw a rd and powerful t e s t fo r the e f fe c t of a v a ria b le on the rela tio n s h ip between two other variables (1 n t h is case, for the influence of importance weights on the contribution of workplace facet s a tis fa c tio n to the development of an overall job s a tis fa c tio n scale) is t h a t of the t e s t fo r "in te rac tio n e ffec ts " in an analysis of variance design. Within the framework of the general lin e a r model, th is technique is known as moderator regression. Using th is procedure one would simultaneously p a r tia l the v a ria tio n of an employment outcome measure In to i t s "main e ffec ts " and "in te rac tio n e ffec ts ." The main e ffe c ts would r e f l e c t the lin e a r contributions of the workplace job facets and t h e i r 55 importance to the outcome measure while the in te ra c tio n e ffe c ts would r e f l e c t the m u lt ip lic a t iv e contributions of facets weighted by Importance. I f the In te ra c tio n e ffe c ts are s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig­ n ific a n t* then one has evidence th a t weighting 1s a useful strategy. I f s ig n ific a n t* such a te s t would in dicate th a t the contributions of job fa c e t sa tis fac tio n s to the employment outcome vary depending on whether the facets themselves are considered important to respondents. Not only could straightforw ard In te rp re ­ ta tio n s of these multi p i ic a t l v e in te ra c tio n terms be made* but the combined Information on the r e la t iv e contributions of the main e f f e c t and In te ra c tio n terms to the outcome measure could be used to create a scale th a t 1s maximally correlated with the outcome measure— hence achieving maximal v a lid it y 1n scale construction, (pp. 3 4 0 -4 1 ) By employing a moderator regression analysis of fa c et and overall job s a tis fa c tio n data obtained from survey responses of 467 registered nurses 1n three large hospitals of a northwestern m etropoli­ tan area* Caston and B ria to reported a s ig n ific a n t gain 1n information 1n terms of accounting f o r the variance 1n ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n scores. Inclusion of Information about the Importance of workplace facets t o workers accounts fo r almost 9 percent additional v a ria tio n in the c r it e r i o n over what could be accounted fo r by fa c et s a tis fa c ­ tio n alone. The In te ra c tio n terms fo r the Importance weighting of fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n by themselves accounts fo r 4% additional v a ria ­ t i o n . (p. 345) I t should be noted t h a t these Investigators also used a t r a d i ­ tio n a l method of determining the usefulness of Importance weighting as outlined 1n past l i t e r a t u r e on t h is concept. The method* Ewen’s (1967) second procedure, c a lls fo r the computation of correlatio n s of both the unweighted and weighted jo b -f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n t o t a ls with overall job s a tis fa c tio n . Caston and B ria to reported the re su lts of th is procedure on t h e i r data: In only one case does a fa c e t in dicator become more v a lid as an In d ic a to r of overall job s a tis fa c tio n when weighted by i t s 56 importance. The increment in th is one case* however* is t r i v i a l . Furthermore* in the great m ajority of the cases where a fa c e t 1s weighted by importance* a decrease in c o rre la tio n is found. (p. 344) By assessing these data through t r a d it io n a l analyses suggested by past importance-weighting l i t e r a t u r e , Caston and B ria to would have been forced to accept the conclusion t h a t importance weighting has l i t t l e effic a cy in predicting overall job s a tis fa c tio n . Through the use of moderator regression, however, a d if fe r e n t re s u lt emerged as expressed by Caston and B riato: "Contrary to previous reports* there­ fore, our evidence shows t h a t the use of a weighting strategy can Increase s ig n ific a n tly the c o rrelatio n between a scale of job facet Indicators and a c r it e r i o n of overall job s a tis fa c tio n " (p. 345). I t is evident from past research th a t the causes of job s a tis fa c tio n are d i f f i c u l t to determine, and findings have been somewhat Inconclusive. I t seems f a i r l y c e rta in , however, th a t the value an Individual assigns to a p a r tic u la r aspect of a job a ffe c ts the degree of influence th a t aspect has on the in d iv id u a l's overall job s a tis fa c tio n . Regardless of how the relationsh ip between jo b -fa c e t Importance and overall job s a tis fa c tio n 1s determined, t h is r e la t io n ­ ship may be the key to unlocking an Improved understanding of what r e a lly causes teachers to be s a tis fie d with t h e i r jobs. Measuring Job S a tisfaction I t 1s noteworthy th a t past measures of job s a tis fa c tio n also contributed to a less-than-adequate understanding of s a tis fa c tio n for 57 teachers. The reason th is 1s tru e results from the development of job s a tis fa c tio n measures on occupations other than teaching. Job s a tis fa c tio n , job a ttitu d e s , and morale are t y p ic a lly measured by means of Interview s or questionnaires 1n which workers are asked t o s ta te the degree to which they li k e or d is lik e various aspects of t h e i r work roles. The degree to which a person 1s s a tis fie d with his job 1s In ferre d from his verbal responses to one or more questions about how he fe e ls about his jo b . (Vroom, 1964, p. 100) Locke (1976) pointed out t h a t "most researchers have followed the lead of Hoppock (1935) 1n using d ir e c t verbal s e lf-r e p o r ts to measure job s a tis fa c tio n " (p. 1334). An Important deficiency of th is approach to measuring s a tis ­ fa c tio n 1s the problem of poor standardization of measures between studies, as Id e n t if ie d by Vroom (1964): Unfortunately, there has been l i t t l e standardization of job s a tis ­ fa c tio n measures. Most Investigators "tailor-m ake" an Instrument fo r the p a r tic u la r population they are studying. There are excep­ tio ns t o t h i s , such as the Brayfleld-Rothe job s a tis fa c tio n scale (B ra y fle ld & Rothe, 1951) and the Kerr Tear B a llo t (Kerr, 1948) both of which have had repeated use. However, Investigators more commonly "adapt" old Instruments or devise new ones to meet t h e ir requirements a t a given time. This practice g re a tly r e s t r ic t s the com parability of d if fe r e n t studies and re su lts 1n r e l a t iv e ly l i t t l e a tte n tio n fo r problems of scaling and of r e l i a b i l i t y or v a lid it y , (p. 100) A s a tis fa c tio n scale th a t has been used 1n numerous studies including samples of teachers is the Job Description Index. Vroom commented on the development of th is scale: Smith and her associates (Smith, 1963; Hulln, Smith, Kendall, & Locke, 1963; Macaulay, Smith, Locke, Kendall, & Hulln, 1963; Kendall, Smith, Hulln, & Locke, 1963; Locke, Smith, Hulln, & Kendall, 1963; Smith ii Kendall, 1963) have recently completed an Impressive program of research on the measurement of job s a tis fa c ­ tion. The product of t h is research, an Instrument ca lle d the Job Description Index, 1s without doubt the most c a re fu lly constructed measure of job s a tis fa c tio n 1n existence today. The developers of the JDI have already obtained data from some 2500 workers and 1000 58 r e tire e s 1n 21 d if f e r e n t plants. The extensive methodological work underlying th is measure as well as the a v a ila b le norms should Insure I t s widespread use 1n both research and practice, (p. 100) Although the Job Description Index was developed with care# the scale f a l l s to consider some of the unique aspects of teaching t h a t may d ir e c t ly Influence the s a tis fa c tio n of teachers with t h e ir occupation. The Job Description Index 1s not the only scale th a t f a l l s to deal s p e c if ic a lly with unique features of the teaching occupation. As recently as 1979* a compilation of "Measures of Occupational Attitudes and Job S a tis fa c tio n ," published by the Educational Testing Service* cite d only one Instance of a scale dealing d ir e c t ly with teacher job s a tis fac tio n . The scale re fe rred to 1s the Purdue Teacher 0p1n1on- naire* which purports to measure teacher morale on the follow ing fac­ tors: Teacher Rapport with P rin c ip a l, S a tis fa c tio n with Teaching, Rapport Among Teachers, Teacher Salary, Teacher Load, Curriculum Issues, Teacher Status, Community Support of Education, School F a c i l i ­ t ie s and Services, and Community Pressures (Bentley & Rempel, 19691972). That a focus on the unique features and aspects of the work associated with teaching 1s j u s t i f i e d was expressed by L o rtle (1975): Other sources of s a tis fa c tio n . . . pale 1n comparison with teach­ ers1 exchanges with students and the fe e lin g th a t students have learned. We would th e re fo re expect t h a t much of a teacher’ s work motivation w i l l ro ta te around the conduct of d a lly tasks— the a c tu a l In s t r u c t io n of students, (p. 104) L o rtie focused on the primacy of teacher-student In te ra c tio n as a source of overall s a tis fa c tio n and suggested a relationsh ip between s a tis fa c tio n and m otivation. 59 F a ilu re to consider such a p o te n tia lly powerful Influence on o verall job s a tis fa c tio n as teacher-student In te ra c tio n may have obscured an adequate understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n 1n the past. To resolve t h is s itu a tio n , Holdaway (1978) sought to develop a S a tis fa ctio n with Teaching and Employment Questionnaire, a measure to assess the job s a tis fa c tio n of teachers on p a r tic u la r facets of t h e ir work. Based on extensive In terv ie w s with teachers, Items 1n teacher contracts, a l i t e r a t u r e review, and p i l o t te s ts , he selected f i f t y two items to measure seven job s a tis fa c tio n factors. (Factors Included were (1) Recognition and Status, (2) Students, (3) Resources, (4) Teaching Assignment, (5) Involvement with Adminis­ t r a t o r s , (6) Work Load, and (7 ) S a la ry and B e n e f i t s ) . . . . This diverse content, combined with the fa c t t h a t the Instrument was c a re fu lly developed, in d ic a te th a t the questionnaire can serve as an e x ce lle n t measure in fu tu r e studies. (Hoy & Miskel, 1982, p. 335) Using measures t h a t d ir e c t ly address the unique aspects of the teaching occupation may enable a b e tte r understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c ­ tio n . Chapter Summary To summarize t h is review, 1t 1s evident th a t teacher d is s a tis ­ fa c tion has grown s u b s ta n tia lly over the past 25 years. Although research has made some progress toward an Improved understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , the ris in g le v e ls of d is s a tis fa c tio n press fo r a greater understanding. Numerous determinants of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n have been Id e n t ifie d . The shortcoming of many of these studies seeking to Id e n t if y determinants of job s a tis fa c tio n , however, has been a lack of focus on Id e n tify in g which determinants are most 60 In flu e n t ia l on job s a tis fa c tio n . Past studies seeking t o determine the Important causes of job s a tis fa c tio n turned t h is researcher to an 1nteraction1st framework, which suggests t h a t job s a tis fa c tio n 1s a consequence of a complex in te ra c tio n between the teacher and his/her job s itu a tio n . S p e c ific a lly , i t 1s the perceived job s itu a tio n in r e la tio n to the in d iv id u a l's values th a t 1s the most d ire c t determinant of job s a tis fa c tio n . I t was suggested by the l i t e r a t u r e and remains a presumption of t h is researcher th a t use of a m u lt i p li c a t iv e weighting expression meaningfully approximates the In te ra c tio n between an In d i­ vidual's values and current job circumstances and re s u lts 1n a powerful explanatory tool fo r b e tte r understanding the important sources of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Toward building an Improved understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , th is In vestig ato r devised and implemented a research methodology to t e s t the efficacy of Importance weighting and to c l a r i f y the Important sources of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . CHAPTER I I I DESIGN OF THE STUDY A survey research design was devised 1n an e f f o r t to capture an Improved understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Use of survey research methodology to explore teacher job s a tis fa c tio n made 1t feas­ ib le to s elect a p r o b a b ilis tic random sample of public school teachers and to c o lle c t data on a large number of variables presumed to be re la ted to teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Components of the study design presented here Include the sample# d a ta -c o lle c tio n procedures, research questions and hypotheses, and the s t a t i s t i c a l design fo r each question. ■Samplg The ta rg e t population fo r th is study included a l l curren tly employed and professionally c e r t i f i e d Michigan public school teachers 1n grades K-12. The Michigan State Department of Education maintains a current 11st of th is population on mlcroflsche cards and computer tape. During the 1983 -84 school year, the population of teachers meeting th is d e f in it io n numbered 74,814. Permission to use the computer-tape ver­ sion of the Michigan Professional Register was obtained from the O ffice of Teacher and C e r t if ic a t io n Services, Michigan Department of Educa­ tio n . (See Appendix B.) The Professional Register id e n t if ie s each teacher's employing d i s t r i c t , school building assignment, subject areas 61 62 the teacher 1s c e r t i f i e d t o teach, and a host of work-asslgnment and personal demographic Information. Selection of a large sample was necessary to f a c i l i t a t e fa c to ra n a ly tic procedures Included 1n the design of th is study. I t was determined t h a t a sample of 2 ,00 0 Michigan public school teachers would be the ta rg e t sample size fo r the computer-generated random-sampling procedure. This proposed sample size seemed reasonable in l i g h t of Fletcher's (1972) comments on fa c to r-a n a ly tic procedures: " I f a new instrument must be constructed, i t should be tested with as many sub­ je c t s as possible . . . in as many contexts as possible. In response to the number of subjects, Nunnally suggests no fewer than ten subjects per scale" (p. 274). A s t r i c t adherence to Nunnally's suggestion would require a minimum sample of 650 subjects to accommodate the 65 scale Items th a t c onstitu te the survey device used by t h is In vestigation. Although 2,000 subjects 1s three times the minimum number required fo r fa c to r analysis, sampling experience described in the l i t e r a t u r e review reported sample response rates ranging from 30% to 90% of the I n i t i a l sample. A 33% response rate is necessary to achieve Nunnally's sug­ gested minimum sample size for fa c to r-a n a ly tic procedures. Furthermore, a sample of 2,000 Michigan public school teachers seemed reasonable 1n l i g h t of survey response patterns in past mailedquestionnaire studies reported by the Survey Research O ffic e a t the University of Hawaii. This o f fic e conducts frequent student surveys and has discerned a consistent pattern of returns t h a t transcends 63 differences in survey content# qu ality of Instrument# and so fo rth. They reported: Within two weeks a f t e r the f i r s t mailing# approximately 40 percent of the questionnaires are returned; w ithin two weeks a f t e r the f i r s t follow -up, an additional 20 percent are received# and w ithin two weeks a f t e r the f i n a l follow-up an additional 10 percent are received. There are no grounds fo r assuming t h a t a s im ila r pattern would appear 1n surveys of d if fe r e n t populations. (Babbie# 1973# p. 164) Although a s im ila r response rate in the present study would ensure a s u f f ic ie n t sample size# Babbie pointed out th a t such a return ra te is considered "very good." "I feel th a t a response rate of a t le a s t 50 percent is adequate fo r analysis and reporting. ra te of a t le a s t 60 percent is good. or more is very good" (p. 165). s ize i n i t i a l l y # A response And a response rate of 70 percent By providing fo r an adequate sample th is in ve s tig ato r presumed th a t with survey follow-up a c t i v i t y the necessary minimum response rate could be achieved. The design of the sample used in th is in vestig ation was a s t r a t i f i e d random sample using three variables including teacher assignment# building grade level# and teacher sex. The purpose of using p a r tic u la r variables 1n s t r a t i f y i n g a random sample is to ensure representation of important population c h a ra c te ris tic s w ith in the sam­ ple. Fletcher (1972) explained the j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r s t r a t i fy i n g the sample in a study li k e th is . "To the extent possible when a new instrument is used# the pretest subjects should be l i k e those in the main in ve s tig atio n and as homogeneous a group as possible" (p. 274). Using s t r a t i f i e d random sampling allows fo r data more homogeneous in every stratum than would be found in the whole population. Teacher job 64 s a tis fa c tio n 1s an outcome v a ria b le l i k e l y to be Influenced by teacher assignment* building grade le v e l, and teacher sex. A reduction 1n the v a r i a b i l i t y w ithin each stratum H k e ly w i l l y ie ld s t r a t i f i e d sampling estimators th a t have sm aller variances than the corresponding randomsampling estimator from the same sampling size . The choice of teacher assignment, building grade le v e l, and teacher sex as s t r a t i f y i n g variables to determine the parameters of t h is sample appeared j u s t i f i e d fo r two reasons. In terms of research lo g is tic s , the organization of the population l i s t from the State Department of Education provided easy access to the values of the s t r a t i f y i n g v ariab les fo r each teacher. More Important than researcher convenience, however, these s t r a t i f y i n g variables seemed j u s t i f i e d because each v a riab le should reduce the variance w ith in each s t r a t i f i e d sample c e ll in r e la tio n to perceived teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . The review of l i t e r a t u r e revealed th a t differences in perceived le v e ls of fa c e t and overall job s a tis fa c ­ tio n could be established between groups of teachers varying on b u ild­ ing grade level and sex (Belasco & Alutto, 1972; Chapman & Lowther, 1982; Farber, 1984; Fraser, 1970; Lacy, 1973; Rudd & Wiseman, 1962; Trusty & Sergiovanni, 1966). Additionally? Holdaway (1978) discerned substantial v a ria tio n in le v e ls of facet and overall job s a tis fa c tio n between groups of teachers who varied on teacher assignment. Recog­ nizing these v a ria tio n s 1n the population through a s t r a t i f i e d random sample protects against sample bias by having these c h a ra c te ris tic s 65 represented 1n the sample 1n proportion to t h e i r presence in the popu­ la t io n . Before entering proportions data on the three variables used to s t r a t i f y the sample, c e rta in teacher categories were elim inated from the population 11st to ensure th a t sample subjects a l l had d ire c t r e s p o n s ib ility fo r the classroom in stru c tio n of students. The cate­ gories elim inated from the l i s t included teachers designated as lib ra ry /m e d ia s p e c ia lis ts , counselors, special education teacher con­ sultants, other teachers, superintendents, assistant superintendents, a ll c la s s if ic a t io n s of p rin cip a ls , supervisors, bilingual teachers, and school nurses. By using a computer-generated s t r a t i f i e d random-sampling program, 1,994 Michigan K-12 public school teachers were selected as sample subjects fo r t h is In vestig ation. Table 2 presents a summary of the parameters t h a t characterize the teachers who were randomly drawn fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in th is study. D ata-C ollection Procedures Pursuit of the objectives of t h is research was accomplished through survey research methodology employing a mailed questionnaire fo r sample subjects to complete and return. The questionnaire package was mailed t o each sample subject a t h is/h e r school/work address on A pril 26, 1985, and included the follow ing components: (a) a l e t t e r of Introduction encouraging sample subjects to p a rtic ip a te and providing basic directions on how to p a r tic ip a te 1n the study, (c) a three-page m ultisection questionnaire printed on machine-scorable answer sheets, 66 Table 2 . — Sampling parameters. Variable Frequency % of Sample 790 1,204 39.6% 60.4 Sex of Respondent: Mai e Female Grade-Level Assignment: K1ndergarten Elementary Junior high Senior high Junior/senior high 86 887 412 526 86 4.3 44.5 20.7 26.4 4.3 172 146 125 146 27 58 4 84 48 39 41 116 896 58 34 8.6 7 .3 6.3 7.3 1.4 2 .9 .2 4 .2 2.4 2 .0 2.1 5 .8 44.9 2 .9 1.7 Subject-Area Assignment: Language arts Social science Science Mathematics Foreign language Business education A griculture In d u s tria l arts Music Home economics A rt education Health and physical education Elementary Junior high school/elem. c e r t. Readlng 67 and (c) a postage-paid self-addressed return envelope fo r use 1n returning completed questionnaires. The questionnaire package 1s presented 1n Appendix C. The questionnaire package was mailed bulk ra te under a bulkm ailing permit* and the return-postage envelope carried s u f f ic ie n t postage to be returned 1n f i r s t - c l a s s mall. A follow-up l e t t e r (presented 1n Appendix D) and a second questionnaire package were mailed to a l l sample subjects whose completed questionnaires had not been received by May 21* 1985. This was the extent of survey follow -up due to expense and the close of the academic school year and the re s u ltin g lack of a c c e s s ib ility to subjects a t t h e ir work addresses. The m u ltip a rt questionnaire consisted of the follow ing sec­ tions: (a) Personal Data (Items 1-6), Including questions th a t sought personal demographic Information about the sample subjects; (b) Job Facet S a tis fa c tio n Scales (Items 7-64), the presentation of a m ultitude of job facets to be evaluated both in terms of Importance and current level of s a tis fa c tio n each fa c e t held fo r the sample subjects; Overall S a tis fa c tio n Scale (Items 65-71), (c) Including several general statements concerning sample subjects’ overall evaluation of t h e i r level of job s a tis fa c tio n ; and (d) Comments Section fo r the subjects t o report any comments they may have had regarding any aspect of the research project. A f i f t h component of the data-gathering procedure was the use of a Variable Coding Sheet, presented 1n Appendix E. The purpose of the Coding Sheet was to record data concerning a number of variables 68 th a t r e f l e c t meaningful c h a ra c te ris tic s of a teacher’s workplace. These data were gathered unobtrusively from Information a v a ila b le through Michigan Department of Education documents* including the f o l ­ lowing publications: B u lle tin 1011: Analysis of Michigan Public School Revenues and Expenditures* 1983-84; B u lle tin 1014: Michigan K-12 School D is t r i c t s Ranked by Selected Financial Data, 1983-84; and the Michigan Department of Education Racial Ethnic Census* 1984-85. Questionnaire Sections B and C constituted the heart of th is in vestigation. Section B, Holdaway’s (1978) S a tis fa c tio n with Teaching and Employment Questionnaire, was used as the primary survey instrument fo r th is study. Permission to adapt and use th is instrument was obtained from the author and may be reviewed in Appendix F. This instrument was designed to obtain data r e la t iv e to teachers' percep­ tions of s a tis fa c tio n on 58 d if f e r e n t aspects of teacher work (see Items 7-64* located in Appendix C). (1982), As suggested by Hoy and Miskel th is questionnaire is occupationally s e n s itiv e to the unique aspects of a teacher's work. The purpose of using t h is survey was to obtain data r e la t iv e to the le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n curren tly expressed by a random sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers. A shortcoming of the Holdaway questionnaire was his measure of overall job s a tis fa c tio n . Holdaway sought data on th is concept through the use of a s ing le-item measure* thereby e lim in a tin g the p o s s ib ilit y of te s tin g fo r measure r e l i a b i l i t y . A scale of overall teacher job s a tis fa c tio n preferred by th is in vestig ato r was developed by Miskel (1974) and consists of seven questions (Items 65-71 in Appendix C). 69 This scale displays adequate r e l i a b i l i t y (0.81) and high face v a l i d i t y (Miskel, 1974). To c o lle c t data r e la t iv e to an In div id u a l's le v e ls of Impor­ tance fo r job aspects, m odification of the Holdaway questionnaire created the opportunity fo r a respondent to complete an importance scale and a s a tis fa c tio n scale fo r each aspect of work considered. In stru c tio n s directed subjects to answer two questions about each aspect of work contained 1n the o rig in a l Holdaway questionnaire: (a) "Generally speaking, how important are the follow ing aspects of work to you?" and (b) "Given your present assignment, how s a t is fie d or d is s a tis fie d are you with these aspects?" Again, Appendix C presents the adapted version of the Holdaway questionnaire (Items 7-64). Research Questions and Hypotheses Advancing an Improved understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n t h a t might inform the development of management s trategies aimed a t Improving the s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls of teachers was the purpose of th is study. To a r r iv e a t such an understanding, th is in vestig ato r proposed f i v e general research questions. I t was presumed th a t answering these questions and te s tin g several related hypotheses would produce the kind of Information necessary to overcome deficiencies evident 1n our pres­ ent understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , as discussed 1n the review of l i t e r a t u r e . The follow ing questions and hypotheses were explored in th is study: 1. Are there underlying job s a tis fa c tio n factors 1n the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r a sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers? 70 la . What combination of Individual job facets constitutes the various s a tis fa c tio n factors present w ithin the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores f o r th is sample? lb. How do the various underlying s a tis fa c tio n factors Id e n t if ie d by th is study compare to s a tis fa c tio n factors determined by previous studies using the same jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scale? 2. What current le v e ls of overall and jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n are expressed by Michigan K-12 public school teachers? 3. Which underlying s a tis fa c tio n factors account for the largest amount of variance 1n o verall job s a tis fa c tio n fo r th is sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers? 4. Do measures of jo b -f a c e t importance give useful information, over and above th a t provided by s a tis fa c tio n scores alone, for the purpose of estimating overall job satisfaction? 4a. What is the c o rre la tio n between unweighted and weighted-byimportance job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores? 4b. There w i l l be no difference between correlations when compar­ ing the c o rrelatio n between unweighted s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n to the c o rre la tio n between we1ghted-by-1mportance s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall jo b s a tis fa c tio n . 4c. There w i l l be no difference between the overall s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r a group of teachers who express high importance and d iss a tis fa c tio n on a p a r tic u la r s a tis fa c tio n factor and a group of teachers who express low importance and d is s a tis fa c ­ tio n on the same s a tis fa c tio n factor. 4d. There w i l l be no d ifference between the overall s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r a group of teachers who express high importance and s a tis fa c tio n on a p a r tic u la r s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r and a group of teachers who express low importance and high s a tis fa c tio n on the same s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r. 4e. There w i l l be no difference between the amount of variance accounted fo r in a sample of overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores by knowing the lin e a r contributions of the job s a tis fa c tio n factors and t h e i r importance (main e ffec ts ) compared to also knowing the m u lt i p li c a t iv e contributions of factors weighted by importance (in te ra c tio n e ffec ts ). 71 5. Are there differences between groups of teachers defined by nonasslgnable In d iv id u a l, organizational, and environmental character­ i s t i c s on s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores? 5a. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between male and female teachers. 5b. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers who vary according to the follow ing age ranges: 23-28, 29-37, 38-49, and 50-59 . 5c. There w i l l be no d ifference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between beginning, e a r ly career, mid-career, and la te -c a r e e r teachers. 5d. There w i l l be no d ifference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers who are mar­ ried and teachers who are not married. 5e. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers who are par­ ents responsible fo r dependent children and teachers who have no dependent children. 5 f. There w i l l be no d ifference in s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers who have a second job in addition to teaching and teachers who have teaching as t h e ir only jo b. 5g. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers who have a spouse employed f u l l tim e and teachers who have a spouse not employed f u l l time. 5h. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers who have an assignment consistent with t h e i r tr a in in g and experience and teachers who have an assignment th a t 1s not consistent with t h e ir tr a in in g and experience. 51. There w i l l be no d ifference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between groups of teachers from elementary schools, ju n io r h1gh/m1ddle schools, and high schools. 72 5 j. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n factor scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from small elementary schools and large elementary schools. 5k. There w i l l be no difference in s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from small ju n io r high/middle schools and large ju n io r high/middle school s. 51. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from small high schools and large high schools. 5m. There w i l l be no d ifference in s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from small» medium, and la r g e -s iz e school d i s t r i c t s . 5n. There w i l l be no difference in s a tis fa c tio n factor scores and ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from school d i s t r i c t s located in areas described as metropolitan core, c i t y , town, urban fr in g e , and ru r a l. 5o. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from dis­ t r i c t s with be!ow-average teaching s a la rie s , average-level teaching s a la rie s , and above-average teaching salaries. 5p. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from dis­ t r i c t s with be!ow-average s ta ff/s tu d e n t ra tio s , average-level s t a ff/s tu d e n t r a tio s , and above-average s ta ff/s tu d e n t r a tio s . 5q. There w i l l be no difference 1n s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from dis­ t r i c t s with below-average per-pupil expenditures, average-level per-pupil expenditures, and above-average per-pupil expendi­ tures. 5r. There w i l l be no d ifference in s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from dis­ t r i c t s having a less than 10% m inorlty-student population and d i s t r i c t s having a la rg e r than 10% m inorlty-student populat i on. 5s. There w i l l be no difference in s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n scores between teachers from schools who have le v e ls of student achievement designated as high needs/low achievement, moderate needs/moderate achievement, and low needs/high achievement. 73 Each general research question, follow-up question, and hypothesis considered 1n th is In ve s tig atio n required the development of s p e c ific procedures and s t a t i s t i c a l analyses. A description of these procedures fol 1ows. S t a t is t ic a l Design by Questions Question 1: Underlying S a tis fa ctio n Factors The f i r s t research question explored 1n t h is In vestigation d ea lt with the p o s s ib ilit y th a t there e x is t underlying s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r dimensions w ithin the jo b - f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores of a sample of teachers. S p e c ific a lly , t h is study asked: Are there underlying job s a tis fa c tio n factors in the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r a sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers? Two purposes motivated the Inclusion of th is question in the design of the present In vestig ation. The f i r s t purpose was the development of a parsimonious explanation of the sources of variance among the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores of teachers sampled 1n th is study. Producing such an explanation should help focus s a tls fa c tlo n - Improvement stra te g ies on the more c r i t i c a l sources of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n variance. The second purpose fo r including t h is question had to do with confirming the usefulness and a p p l ic a b il it y of a previously devised job s a tis fa c tio n measure In a new s e ttin g with a d if f e r e n t population. Holdaway (1978) devised a jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scale and set about to id e n tify clusters of s a tis fa c tio n variables. To accomplish th is task, 74 Holdaway used fa cto r analysis and arrive d a t a seven-factor solution th a t hypothetically constituted the underlying dimensions of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Given the problem of erro r variance 1n fa c to r analy­ s is, however* i t is Important to determine i f the fa c to r structure Holdaway id e n tifie d was present among th e jo b - f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores of a sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers. Fletcher (1972) discussed the inherent weakness of fa c to r analysis and offered the follow ing "sp ecific solution" when he wrote: The s p e c ific solution assumes t h a t the fa c to r structure derived from a data m atrix can be generalized only when (1) concepts (s tim u li) in the various separate studies compared are the same, (2) scales (responses) are the same, (3) subjects are drawn from the same population, and (4) measurement contexts are comparable in time and setting. In other words, the researcher using a f a c t o r i ­ al ly complex measure must subject the Instrument to a "new" fa c to r analysis which proves whether the f a c to r ia l composition supposed by the in vestig ato r does, 1n fa c t, hold fo r the new data. (p. 273) Confirmation of Hoi daw ay’ s fa c to r s tru ctu re using t h is solution would lend credence to his explanation of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . The s t a t i s t i c a l design and procedures involved with fa c to r analysis seemed appropriate fo r answering these questions. Kim (1975) discussed the purpose of using fa c to r analysis: The single most d is t in c t iv e c h a r a c te r is tic of fa c to r analysis is I t s data-reduction c a p a b ility . Given an array of c o rrelatio n c o e ffic ie n ts fo r a set of v a riab les, f a c to r -a n a ly tic techniques enable us to see whether some underlying pattern of relationsh ips e x is ts such th a t the data may be "rearranged" or "reduced" to a smaller set of factors or components t h a t may be taken as source v ariables accounting fo r the observed in t e r r e la tio n s in the data, (p. 469) Procedural ly , the jo b - fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores of sample sub­ je c t s from th is study were analyzed using subprograms from the S t a t is ­ tic a l Package fo r the Social Sciences (SPSS) (Nie e t al.» 1975). Using 75 principal-components facto rin g with ite r a tio n s and varimax rotation* three major steps were performed* including (a) the preparation of the c o rre la tio n matrix* (b) the e xtraction of the i n i t i a l factors— the exploration of possible data reduction* and (c) the ro ta tio n to a terminal solution— the search fo r simple and In te rp re ta b le factors. This in ve s tig ato r presumed t h a t the performance of these proce­ dures would generate re su lts s u f f ic ie n t to answer Questions 1 and la. Question la asked: What combination of individual job facets consti­ tutes the various s a tis fa c tio n factors present w ithin the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r t h is sample? Question lb asked: How do the various underlying s a tis fa c tio n factors Id e n tif ie d by th is study compare to s a tis fa c tio n factors determined by previous studies using the same jo b - fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scale? This question required an additional step of s e ttin g up* through visual inspection, the compari­ son between Holdaway's (1978) re s u lts and the results of th is study. Question 2: S a tis fa c tio n Levels of Michigan Teachers The second research question considered in th is In vestig ation asked: What current le v e ls of overall and jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n are expressed by Michigan K-12 public school teachers? To answer th is question, jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n item scores, overall s a tis fa c tio n item scores* and fa c e t importance Item scores were analyzed to determine the basic d is tr ib u tio n a l c h a ra c te ris tic s of each of the variables Included in t h is study. Information on the d is tr ib u tio n , v a r i a b i l i t y * and central tendencies of these variables provided the s t a t i s t i c a l base 76 necessary fo r the selection of subsequent s t a t i s t i c a l techniques required by other questions Included in t h is study. Additionally* th is Information created a detailed description of current le vels of overall and jo b -f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n expressed by Michigan K-12 public school teachers. Procedurally* item scores fo r overall and jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c ­ tio n and fo r fa c e t Importance measures were entered In to SPSS subpro­ grams. Summary s t a t i s t ic s were generated fo r each measure Included 1n th is study. The reporting of these s t a t i s t i c a l procedures was s im p lifie d 1n an e f f o r t to convey a meaningful description of curren tly expressed le v e ls of teacher jo b -f a c e t and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n . Reporting procedures included a summary ta b le of response-frequency percentages and means fo r importance and s a tis fa c tio n fa c e t Items* a l i s t i n g of the ten jo b - f a c e t items generating the largest percentage of sample s a tis ­ fie d and d is s a tis fie d * a l i s t i n g of the ten jo b - fa c e t Items generating the highest and lowest mean importance ratings, a report on the mean performance of the sample subjects 1n terms of le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n on the factor-dlmenslons of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , a percentagefrequency d is tr ib u tio n and mean-response analysis of responses to over­ a l l job s a tis fa c tio n items* and a percentage-frequency d is trib u tio n of summated responses to ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n items describing overall le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n . In combination with a summary of comments from respondents, these reports present a meaningful description of 77 current le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t and o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n of Michigan K-12 public school teachers. Question 3: Factors Accounting fo r Overall Job S atis fa ctio n The t h ir d research question asked: Which underlying s a tis fa c ­ tio n factors account fo r the la rg e s t amount of variance in overall job s a tis fa c tio n fo r th is sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers? The reason fo r Including th is question had to do with a primary purpose of th is In vestig ation— understanding th e re la tio n s h ip between job sat­ is fa c tio n facets and teachers' overall job s a tis fa c tio n . By determin­ ing which jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n dimensions accounted fo r the largest amount of variance 1n overall job s a tis fa c tio n , understanding the important sources of o verall s a tis fa c tio n was possible. The s t a t i s t i c a l procedure used to pursue t h is question was m u ltip le regression. Kim and Kohout (1975) pointed out th a t "m u ltip le regression 1s a general s t a t i s t i c a l technique through which one can analyze the relationsh ip between a dependent or c r it e r i o n v a ria b le and a set of independent or predictor variables" (p. 321). In the case of th is question, the relationship between ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n as the dependent v a ria b le and the job s a tis fa c tio n facto rs as Independent variables was the focus of inquiry. Using the SPSS subprograms, a stepwise m u ltiple-reg ression procedure was used to analyze the e f f e c t the combined Independent variables (the job s a tis fa c tio n factors) had on the dependent outcome v ariab le (separately measured o verall job s a tis fa c tio n ). Stepwise 78 regression means t h a t the Independent v a ria b le th a t explains the great­ est amount of variance 1n the dependent v a ria b le 1s entered f i r s t * the v a ria b le th a t explains the greatest amount of variance 1n conjunction with the f i r s t 1s entered second* and the f in a l v a ria b le th a t explains the le a s t 1s entered la s t. In other words* the v a ria b le th a t explains the g reatest amount of variance th a t 1s unexplained by the variables already 1n the equation is entered a t each step. The Independent v a ria b le th a t 1s entered f i r s t 1s the one with the largest squared p a r t ia l c o rre la tio n with the dependent variable. The results of th is stepwise m u ltip le regression procedure Id e n tif ie d the Important sources o f o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n present w ith in the jo b -f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores from the sample 1n th is study. Question 4: Value of Importance Weighting S a tis fa c tio n Scores The fourth research question considered 1n t h is study asked: Do measures of jo b - f a c e t Importance give useful Information* over and above t h a t provided by s a tis fa c tio n scores alone, for the purpose of estim ating o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n ? This question had as It s purpose advancing the th e o re tic a l debate evident 1n past job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e concerning the effic a cy of weighting jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores by Importance to Improve the prediction of overall job s a tis fa c ­ tion. Procedurally, we1ght1ng-by-1mportance was accomplished by m u lti­ plying each jo b - fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n score by the facet's corresponding Importance score. Determining the e ff e c t of th is procedure and the 79 answer to t h is fourth research question r e lie d on answers to f i v e re la ted questions* each with i t s own analysis. The f i r s t re la ted question (4a) asked: What is the c o rre la tio n between unweighted and we1ghted-by-Importance job s a tis fa c tio n fa cto r scores? Although no s p e c ific decision c r it e r io n was established to evaluate the correlations* past researchers have suggested th a t strong po sitive correlations would in dicate th a t Importance weighting 1s unnecessary (Ewen, 1967). Using SPSS subprograms* the c o rre la tio n between each of seven unweighted job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and the weighted version of these fa c to r scores was produced. The re su ltin g Pearson c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts from th is procedure were Inspected fo r the strength and dire c tio n of relationsh ip in order to comment on th is question. The second re la te d question concerning the effic a cy of Impor­ tance weighting was consideration of Null Hypothesis 4b: There w i l l be no difference between c o rrelatio n s when comparing the c o rrelatio n between unweighted s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c ­ tio n to the c o rre la tio n between weighted-by-importance s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n . By using the data th a t produced the job s a tis fa c tio n factors* exploration of t h is hypothesis attempted t o determine i f the weighted factors form a stronger (more highly correlated) re la tio n s h ip with separately measured overall job s a tis fa c tio n than the re la tio n s h ip between unweighted factors and overall job s a tis fa c tio n . Ewen (1967) claimed th a t 1f we1ghting-by- Importance improves (strengthens) the c o rre la tio n between job 80 s a tis fa c tio n factors and o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n , th is would be proof t h a t weighting has e ffic a c y . To te s t t h is hypothesis, two sets of c o rre la tio n c o e ffic ie n ts were produced. The d ifference between the c o rrelatio n s fo r each of the job s a tis fa c tio n factors and overall job s a tis fa c tio n was calculated and entered Into H o te llin g ’s (1940) Test fo r Significance of Difference Between Two Related Correlations. This t e s t produces a Z-stat1st1c, which was subjected to a o n e -ta ile d te s t of p ro b a b ility with an alpha level of .01. Applying Ewen's (1967) c r it e r i o n suggests th a t any p o sitiv e s ig n ific a n t differences between c o rre la tio n s in d ic a te th a t Importance weighting 1s meaningful. Questions 4c and 4d also related to the Issue of whether or not Importance weighting jo b - f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores has any value 1n terms of predicting o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n . re la ted null hypotheses which read as follo w s: These questions explored Null Hypothesis 4c: There w i l l be no d iffe re n c e between the o v e rall s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r a group of teachers who express high importance and d is s a tis fa c tio n on a p a r tic u la r s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r and a group of teachers who express low importance and d is s a tis fa c tio n on the same s a tis fa c tio n factor. Null Hypothesis 4d: There w i l l be no diffe re n c e between the overall s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r a group of teachers who express high importance and s a tis fa c tio n on a p a r tic u la r s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r and a group of teachers who express low importance and s a tis fa c tio n on the same s a tis fa c tio n factor. Both hypotheses were tested on a l l s a tis fa c tio n factors in an e f f o r t to determine i f the r e la t i v e importance of 81 s a tis fa c tio n factors Influences differences in overall s a tis fac tio n . Rejecting the null hypotheses and finding s ig n ific a n t differences in le v e ls of o verall s a tis fa c tio n between groups would in dicate th a t Importance weighting is meaningful (Ewen, 1967). To establish a high Im portance/dissatisfied group of teachers to compare to a low Im portance/dissatisfied group and to establish a high Im po rtance/satisfied group of teachers to compare to a low Im po rtance/satisfied group, an extreme-groups design was developed. Mean s a tis fa c tio n and importance performance were examined fo r each of the s a tis fa c tio n factors. For both Importance and s a tis fa c tio n , high and low performance were operationalized as respondents who scored oneh a lf standard deviation above or below the mean fo r each factor. This procedure enabled the designation of teacher groups on the basis of high and low performance fo r both the importance and s a tis fa c tio n v a ria b le s . To analyze differences 1n overall job s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls between groups of teachers who varied on importance and s a tis fa c tio n ratings required the use of Student’s t - t e s t s . S p e c ific a lly , a Student’ s t - t e s t was used to compare the overall le v e ls of job s a tis ­ fa c tio n expressed by a group of teachers who rated a p a rtic u la r s a tis ­ fa c tio n fa c to r as highly important and d is s a tis fy in g compared to a group of teachers who rated the same fa cto r as not Important and dis­ s a tis fyin g . The c o ro lla ry to th is expression was also tested using groups of teachers who were s a t is fie d with a fa c to r but varied in terms of importance perceptions. 82 A series of t - t e s t s was required to perform th is analysis. An alpha level of .01 was set to t e s t fo r significance of differences. Performance of t - t e s t s was accomplished by entering the appropriate s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r data In to SPSS subprograms. The fin a l question related to the Issue of Importance weighting considered Null Hypothesis 4e: There w i l l be no difference between the amount of variance accounted fo r in a sample of overall job s a tis fa c ­ tio n scores by knowing the lin e a r contributions of the job s a tis fa c tio n factors and t h e i r importance (main e ffe c ts ) compared to also knowing the m u lt ip lic a t iv e contributions of factors weighted by Importance (in te ra c tio n e ffe c ts ). The s t a t i s t i c a l procedure used fo r te s tin g th is hypothesis was moderator regression. By using th is procedure* the researcher was able to simultaneously p a rtia l the v a ria tio n of overall job s a tis fa c tio n In to "main e ffe c ts " and "inte rac tio n e ffects." The main e ffe c ts r e fle c te d the lin e a r contributions of job s a tis fa c tio n factors and t h e i r Importance to o verall job satis fac tio n * while the In te ra c tio n e ffe c ts re fle c te d the m u lt ip lic a t iv e contributions of factors weighted by importance. Caston and B rlato (1983) pointed out t h a t 1f the in te ra c tio n e ffe c ts are s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t* one has evidence th a t weighting 1s a useful strategy. Two procedural steps were operationalized to determine the outcome of t h is moderator regression analysis. F irs t* the s a tis fa c ­ tion# Importance, and we1ghted-by-Importance s a tis fa c tio n ratings from each of the job s a tis fa c tio n factors were entered in to SPSS subpro­ grams. A stepwise multi pie-regression procedure was used to analyze 83 the combined e f fe c t th a t the job s a tis fa c tio n facto rs had on overall job s a tis fa c tio n by considering 1n three steps the Influence of (a) the s a tis fa c tio n ratings* (b) the combined e f f e c t of the s a tis fa c tio n and Importance ratings, and (c) the m u lt i p li c a t iv e contributions of factors weighted by Importance. A te s t of sign ificance fo r an Increment 1n the proportion of variance of a dependent v a ria b le (Pedhauzer, 1982) was used to s t a t i s t i c a l l y assess the Improved accounting of v a ria tio n 1n overall job s a tis fac tio n due to both the Inclusion of Importance ratings and to the m u lt ip lic a t iv e c ontrib ution of job s a tis fa c tio n factors weighted by Importance. Question 5: S atis fa ctio n Differences and Variations In Teacher/ School Characteristics The f i f t h and fin a l general research question Included 1n th is study asked: Are there differences between groups of teachers defined by nonasslgnable in d iv id u a l, organizational, and environmental char­ a c t e r is t ic s on s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n scores? In pursuit of t h is question, 17 teacher and school- organization variables were used t o e s tab lish d if fe r e n t groups of teachers. The performance of these groups on the s a tis fa c tio n factors and on overall job s a tis fa c tio n was compared to determine i f d i f f e r ­ ences 1n grouping v ariab les were accompanied by s ig n ific a n t differences 1n le v e ls of fa c to r and overall job s a tis fa c tio n . The variables Included were the follow ing teacher and schoolorganlzatlon c h a ra c te ris tic s : teacher sex, teacher age, teacher experience, teacher m arital status, teacher fam ily status 1n terms of 84 dependent children* teacher career status in terms of a second jo b, status of spouse’ s employment, teacher assignment consistency, school le v e l, school building size , school d i s t r i c t size, geographic nature of a teacher's school d i s t r i c t , teacher salary le v e ls , teacher-student r a tio s , d i s t r i c t per-pupil expenditures, the proportion of m inority students w ith in a teacher’ s d i s t r i c t , and student achievement le v e ls by building. J u s t if ic a t io n fo r examining these teacher and schoolorganizatlon c h a ra c te ris tic s was derived from the p o s s ib ility th a t jo b fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n and o verall job s a tis fa c tio n may vary system atically between groups of teachers established by these characte ris tic s . Such knowledge would enable the development of management strategies designed t o improve job s a tis fa c tio n to vary according to the nature and c h a r a c t e r is t ic conditions confronting a p a r tic u la r group of teachers. This p o s s ib ility provided the motivation fo r studies l i k e Fraser's (1970) In ve s tig atio n of the e f f e c t of school size on teacher morale and behavior, Lacy's (1973) study th a t considered the re su lts of salary increases on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , and Eubank's (1974) study th a t examined r a c ia l c h a ra c te ris tic s of schools 1n r e la tio n to teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Selection of the s p e c ific variables was determined 1n three ways, including (a) the c le a r p o s s ib ilit y th a t the v a ria b le could influence some aspect of the teacher job s a tis fa c tio n measure used in t h is study, (b) t h a t the v a ria b le had been examined 1n past research with no c le a r-c u t sustained fin ding , and (c) t h a t the v a ria b le was 85 accurately accessible through e ith e r a s e lf - r e p o r t or through an unobtrusive data source such as State Department of Education records. The f i r s t step in proceeding to examine the job s a tis fa c tio n performance of varied groups of teachers was t o operationally define the teacher groups on the basis of the c h a ra c te ris tic being considered. A null hypothesis was developed to express how each v a ria b le grouping would be tested. Once t h is step was accomplished with a ll 17 grouping variables* s t a t i s t i c a l te s ts fo r differences were selected on the basis of number of groups being compared in each hypothesis. For variables resu lting in two d if f e r e n t groups of teachers* a Student's t - t e s t was used. For variables re s u ltin g in three or more groups* one-way fix e d - e ffe c ts analysis of variance was used. In those instances where three or more groups were being compared with analysis of variance* a Scheffe procedure was used to determine between which groups the difference was occurring. These s t a t i s t i c a l procedures were accomplished by entering mean performance data fo r the job s a tis fa c tio n factors and fo r overall job s a tis fa c tio n from the sampled teachers in to appropriate SPSS sub­ programs. All F-rat1os were tested fo r sign ificance a t an alpha le v e l o f .01. To convey how the various groups were formed* Table 3 l i s t s the v a ria b le involved with each null hypothesis and presents the c r i t e r i a and procedures used to establish the groupings of teachers being tested. 86 Table 3 . — Variables and procedures used to e s tab lish teacher groups. Hypothesis/ Variable Grouping Procedures 5a: Teacher sex Two teacher groups were established on the basis of s e lf-re p o rte d teacher sex Including male teachers and female teachers. 5b: Teacher age Four groups of teachers were established on the basis of age Including groups with the follow ing age ranges: Group 1: 23-28, Group 2: 2 9 -3 7 , Group 3: 3 8 -4 9 , and Group 4: 5 0 -6 9 . Age data were obtained through s e lf - r e p o r t measures. 5c: Career experience Teacher career experience was used to estab­ li s h four d if fe r e n t groups of teachers Includ­ ing beginning teachers (1-5 years experience), e a rly -c a re e r teachers (6-14 years experience), mid-career teachers (15-23 years experience), and la te -c a re e r teachers (24 years and above). Teacher experience data were gathered through a s e lf - r e p o r t measure. 5d: M arital status Two groups of teachers were established on the basis of t h e i r m a rita l status. Group 1 teach­ ers were married w h ile Group 2 teachers were not married. M a rita l status Information came from teacher s e lf-re p o rts . 5e: Dependent children Two groups of teachers were established on the basis of whether or not they were responsible fo r dependent children. Group 1 teachers reported dependent children w h ile Group 2 teachers reported no dependent child re n . 5 f : Second job Teachers were divided In to two groups depend­ ing on t h e ir s e lf-re p o rte d status 1n terms of a second job. Group 1 teachers reported having a second job w h ile Group 2 teachers reported not having a second job. 87 T a b le 3 . — C ontinu ed. Hypothesis/ Variable Grouping Procedures 5g: Spouse employment Teachers were divided In to two groups on the basis of t h e i r spouse's employment status. Group 1 teachers reported th a t t h e lr spouse was working f u l l time while Group 2 teachers reported spouses not being employed f u l l time. 5h: Assignment conslstency Two teacher groups were Id e n t if ie d on the basis of whether or not t h e i r teaching assign­ ment was consistent with t h e ir tr a in in g and experience Including a group with consistent assignments and a group with assignments not consistent with teachers' tr a in in g and expe­ rience. 51: School level Three teacher groups were established on the basis of school-building grade level constel­ la t i o n Including teachers from elementary schools# ju n io r h1gh/m1ddle schools, and high schools. Because of some grade-level v aria­ b i l i t y among school le v e ls , school level was determined from teacher s e lf - r e p o r t Informa­ t io n . 5j : Building s ize Two groups of teachers were established on the basis of elementary school size Including small elementary schools (299 students or less) and large elementary schools (300 stu­ dents and above). School-s1ze data were taken from State Department of Education records. 5k: Building s iz e Two groups of teachers were established on the basis of ju n io r h1gh/m1ddle school size Including small ju n io r high schools (499 stu­ dents or less) and large ju n io r high schools (500 students and above). 51: Bull ding size Two groups of teachers were established on the basis of high school size Including small high schools (999 students or less) and large high schools (1,000 students and above). 88 T a b le 3 . — C o n tin u ed . Hypothesis/ V a ria b le Grouping Procedures 5m: D i s t r i c t s ize Three groups of teachers were established on the basis of s c h o o l-d ls tr lc t size Including small d i s t r i c t s (2,499 students or less), medlum-size d i s t r ic t s (between 2,500 and 9,999 students), and la r g e -s lz e d i s t r i c t s (10,000 students and above). S c h o o l-d ls trlc t e n r o ll­ ment data were gathered from State Department of Education records. 5n: D i s t r i c t location The geographic location of a teacher's school d i s t r i c t was used to establish f iv e d if fe r e n t groups of teachers. The groups included teachers from d i s t r i c t s located 1n metropoli­ tan core areas, c i t i e s , towns, urban fring e areas, and rural areas. All d i s t r ic t s in the s ta te have been assigned to one of these loca­ tio n codes by the State Department of Educa­ t i o n ( P o r te r , 1972). 5o: Teaching sala rie s Three groups of teachers were determined on the basis of low, average, and high teaching s alaries. Teachers 1n the high and low salary groups received s a la rie s on e-h alf standard deviation above and below the mean-average salary fo r the state. Teachers 1n the middle salary group received s a la rie s w ith in one-half standard deviation of the mean. A ll salary data were obtained from State Department of Education records. 5p: S ta ff/s tu d e n t r a ti o Professional s ta ff-to -s tu d e n t r a t i o w ith in d i s t r i c t s was used to establish three groups of teachers. Teachers 1n high student-1oad and low student-load d i s t r i c t s experienced s t a ff-to -s tu d e n t ra tio s one-half standard deviation above or below the state-average s t a f f-to -s tu d e n t r a tio . Students 1n the m id d le -ra tio group experienced ra tio s w ithin one-half standard deviation of the mean. All student-load data were ascertained from State Department of Education records. 89 T a b le 3 . — C ontinu ed. Hypothesis/ V a ria b le 5q: Per-pup1l expenditures Grouping Procedures D is t r i c t per-pup1l expenditure was used to establish three groups of teachers Including teachers from high-spending and low-spending d i s t r ic t s (per-pupH expenditures one-half standard deviation above or below the sta te average) and teachers from average-spending d i s t r i c t s (per-pupH expenditures w ith in oneh a lf standard deviation of the mean). Data were taken from State Department of Education records. 5 r : Percent minority enrollment Two groups of teachers were established on the basis of the percentage of m inority students w ith in t h e i r employing d i s t r i c t . Group 1 teachers were from d i s t r i c t s reporting less than 10% minority student enrollment w h ile Group 2 teachers were from d i s t r i c t s reporting more than 10% m inority student enrollment. Data were taken from State Department of Educ a t l on records. 5s: Achievement Three groups of teachers were drawn from school buildings with varying le v e ls of stu­ dent achievement as measured by the Michigan Educational Assessment Test 1n reading and math 1n grades 4 , 7, and 10. On th e basis of student t e s t performance* the State Department of Education designates an achievement status fo r each school building in the state. Group 1 teachers were drawn from buildings desig­ nated as high needs/low achievement* Group 2 teachers were from buildings designated as moderate needs/moderate achievement* and Group 3 teachers were drawn from buildings desig­ nated as low needs/high achievement (Donovan* 1984). 90 During June 1985 the s t a t i s t i c a l procedures described here were carried out a t the Michigan State U niversity Computer Center. resu lts of these analyses follow 1n the next chapter. The CHAPTER IV FINDINGS The follow ing presentation of findings d e ta ils the re su lts of procedures and s t a t i s t i c a l analyses described e a r l ie r . A fte r reporting the resu lts of the sampling procedure, findings generated 1n response to each general research question and s p e c ific hypotheses w i l l be presented 1n order of t h e i r occurrence 1n th is Investigation. Study-Sampl e The t a rg e t population fo r th is study Included a l l curren tly employed and professionally c e r t i f i e d Michigan public school teachers 1n grades K-12. A computer-generated s t r a t i f i e d random sample of 1,994 teachers was drawn from a population 11st of Michigan teachers number­ ing 74,814. The sample 11st drew teachers on the basis of t h e i r sex, building grade le v e l, and subject-m atter assignment in d ire c t propor­ tio n to which these c h a ra c te ris tic s e x is t among the population of teachers. By using an o rig in a l and one follow -up m ailing, 1,104 sample subjects responded to the survey. t h a t could not be re trie v e d , surveys. Thirty-one surveys were missing data resu lting In a usable return of 1,073 The usable return rate of 53.81% was determined to be accept­ able on the basis of sample c r i t e r i a l i s t e d e a r l ie r . 91 92 C haracteristics of the responding sample are d e ta ile d 1n Tables 4 and 5. I t 1s noteworthy th a t teacher respondents represented a wide v a rie ty of Michigan public school teacher c h a ra c te ris tic s , Including both personal and school-organlzatlon ch a rac te ris tic s . A comparison of c h a ra c te ris tic s between the o rig in a l sample and the responding sample reduced concern about sample bias due to nonreturns. The s i m i l a r i t y between the orig in a l sample and the responding sample on two of the variables used to s t r a t i f y the o rig in a l sample can be examined 1n Table 6. On teacher sex and grade-level assignment, respondlng-sample teach­ ers c le a r ly were s im ila r t o the original-sam ple teachers. Combined with the knowledge th a t a wide v a rie ty of personal and schoolorganlzatlon c h a ra c te ris tic s were represented 1n the responding sample, the s i m i l a r i t i e s described In Table 6 added to the suggestion t h a t the responding sample was f a i r l y representative of Michigan public school teachers. Table 4 . — D escriptive c h a ra c te ris tic s of teacher respondents and t h e i r employing school organizations. C h a ra c te ris tic Mean Range M1 nlmum Teacher age Years experience D i s t r i c t size Building s ize Salary S ta ff/s tu d e n t r a t io Per-pupH spending % minority students 42.926 17.393 21,725.697 699.640 26,941.249 22.876 2,697.012 17.728 46 43 195,935 3,2282 18,520 30 3,751 99 23 1 10 10 17,460 11 972 0 Maximum 69 44 195,935 3,292 35,980 41 4,723 99 93 Table 5 . — Frequency c h a ra c te ris tic s of teacher respondents and t h e i r employing school organizations. C h a racteristic Frequency % of Sample Teacher Sex Male Female 425 648 40% 60% M a rita l Status Married Not married 879 194 82% 18% Dependent Children Yes No 693 380 65% 35% Second Job Yes No 233 841 22% 78% 1,011 62 94% 6% Spouse Works Yes No Not married 646 236 192 60% 22% 18% Building Level Elementary Junior high High school 497 250 326 46% 23% 30% Achievement Status High needs Moderate needs Low needs 91 541 442 8% 50% 41% D i s t r i c t Geoaraphic Nature Metropolitan c it y C1 ty Town Urban frin g e Rural 199 104 145 361 265 19% 10% 14% 34% 25% Assignment Consistency Consi stent Inconsistent 94 Table 6 . — A comparison of v a riab le frequency within the o rig in a l sample and the responding sample. Responding Sample Original Sample Variable Freq. % of Sample Freq. % of Sample 790 1,204 39.6% 60.4% 425 648 39.6% 60.4% 973 455 569 48.7% 22.8% 28.5% 497 250 326 46.0% 23.0% 30.0% Teacher. Sc* Male Female Grade Level Assignment Elementary Junior high/middle High school Findings by Questions Question 1: Underlying Satis fa ctio n Factors The f i r s t question considered 1n th is in ve s tig atio n asked: Are there underlying job s a tis fa c tio n factors 1n the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fac tio n scores fo r a sample of Michigan K-12 public school teachers? To answer t h is question# the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores from the sample respondents were subjected t o fa c to r analysis. an I n i t i a l solution with 13 factors emerged. Through th is procedure# Each fa c to r had to achieve an eigenvalue of 1.00 to be retained as a factor. The 13- fa c to r solution 1s presented 1n Table 7, which includes reports of the eigenvalues# percentage of variance# and cumulative variance fo r each fa c to r. 95 Table 7 . — Job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r eigenvalues fo r a 1 3 -fa c to r solution using prlndpal-components fa c to r analysis with Ite r a tio n s . Factor Elgenvalue Percent of Variance Cumulative Percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 16.29256 3.16087 2.63656 1.93657 1.82771 1.60647 1.48835 1.38208 1.32091 1.22969 1.14657 1.05057 1.00186 28.1 5.4 4 .5 3.3 3 .2 2.8 2 .6 2.4 2.3 2.1 2 .0 1.8 1.7 28.1 33.5 38.1 41.4 44.6 47.3 49.9 52.3 54.6 56.7 58.7 60.5 62.2 An attempt to In te r p r e t the 1 3 -fa c to r solution was made. Because very l i t t l e Item c lu s te rin g took place beyond Factor 7, a seven-factor solution was attempted. On the basis of s im p lic ity and c l a r i t y of jo b -fa c e t patterning# th is solution proved more sa tis fac to ry and 1s reported 1n Table 8. Question la ; Job-facet composition of s a tis fa c tio n fa c to rs . The assignment of fa c to r t i t l e s was an attempt to In t e r p r e t and describe the c lu s te r of jo b -fa c e t Items t h a t formed each factor. The number of jo b -fa c e t Items# range of fa c to r loadings, and the r e l i a b i l ­ i t y c o e ffic ie n t for each fa cto r are presented in Table 9. Three c r i t e ­ r i a were established to determine the jo b -f a c e t composition of each 96 factor. Through the process of applying the c r ite r ia # Question l a — What combination of Individual job facets constitutes the various s a tis fa c tio n factors present w ith in the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores fo r th is sample?— was answered. Table 8 . — Job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r eigenvalues fo r a seven-factor solution using prlndpal-components fa cto r analysis with it e r a t io n s . Factor 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Teacher-Student In te ra c tio n Teacher Resources Teacher Compensation Teaching Assignment Teacher Work Achievement Teacher Workload Teacher Status E1 genvalue Percent of Variance Cumulative Percent 15.75358 2.71390 2.12217 1.38273 1.27152 1.05249 1.01528 62.2 10.7 8.4 5.5 5 .0 4.2 4.0 62.2 73.0 81.3 86.8 91.8 96.0 100.0 Table 9 . — Number of Items# range of loadings# and r e l i a b i l i t y c o e ffic ie n ts fo r seven job s a tis fa c tio n factors. Factor 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Teacher-Student In te ra c tio n Teacher Resources Teacher Compensation Teaching Assignment Teacher Work Achievement Teacher Workload Teacher Status N 6 11 11 3 8 5 3 Range Rel1ab111ty C o e ffic ie n t .5 1 -.7 7 .3 5 -.6 2 .2 9 -.6 2 .6 4 -.7 0 .3 6 -.5 8 .3 8 -.6 6 .5 9-.75 .88523 .86133 .84217 .85028 .82386 .78366 .88058 97 The primary c r it e r i o n used to evaluate fa cto r loadings was a decision ru le requiring th a t fa c to r loadings be greater than 0.40. In the event th a t a jo b -fa c e t Item f a ile d to load on any fa cto r a t or above 0.40, the highest Item loading fo r th a t p a r tic u la r job fa c e t was considered In r e la tio n to the c lu s te r of Items already established w ith in the fa c to r 1n which the high-loading Item occurred. In the event t h a t a jo b -f a c e t Item loaded on more than one fa cto r (two Instances w ith in the present study), the fa c to r w ith in which the high­ est Item loading occurred retained the Item. In both cases, th is c r it e r io n resulted 1n the most logical solution 1n terms of fa c to r composition. Application of these c r i t e r i a resulted 1n an In t e r p r e t­ able seven-factor solution, Question lb; which 1s presented 1n Table 10. Replication of s a tis fa c tio n facto rs. The ques­ tio n — How do the various underlying s a tis fa c tio n factors Id e n t ifie d by th is study compare to s a tis fa c tio n factors determined by previous studies using the same jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scale?— had as a purpose the re p lic a tio n of resu lts obtained by Holdaway (1978). Table 11 begins to reveal the s i m i l a r i t y 1n findings between t h is study and the Holdaway study. Each study arrived a t seven-factor solutions account­ ing fo r nearly Id en tic a l percentages of variance among each sample of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores. 98 Table 10.— Seven-factor varlmax rotated fa c to r m atrix of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores a f t e r ro ta tio n with Kaiser normalization. Job Facets Factor 1: Teacher-Student In te ra c tio n A ttitu d e s of students toward learning General behavior of students in the school Average level of student achievement General behavior of students 1n your classes A b ilit y le v e ls of students taking your classes Your re la tio n s h ip s with students Factor 2: .77397 .76693 .75663 .71795 .66283 .51857 Teacher Resources A v a i la b il it y of audio-visual resources A v a i la b il it y of li b r a r y resources The d is tr ib u tio n of resources w ithin your school A v a i la b il it y of useful advice on teaching problems Your involvement 1n decision-making in your school Your Involvement in decision-making 1n your d is tric t Physical conditions of staffrooms and s t a f f o ffic e s A v a i la b il it y of diagnostic services Opportunities fo r useful in -s e rv ic e education Physical conditions of your classrooms A v a i l a b i l i t y of community f a c i l i t i e s fo r recreation Factor 3: Item Loadings .61701 .59801 .56407 .55569 .44873 .44854 .43614 .41773 .41165 .40218 .34610 Teacher Compensation/Labor Relations Salary you receive The use of s e n io rity in determining s a la rie s Your long-term salary prospects in education The use of education le v e l 1n determining s a la rie s Retirement b enefits provided Teacher/board consultation on working conditions Teacher/board c o lle c t iv e bargaining Methods used in the promotion of teachers Provisions fo r sick leave Methods used to evaluate teachers Provisions fo r sabbatical leave .62121 .60704 .60238 .58370 .48740 .46736 .45118 .38043 .37655 .36332 .29201 99 T a b le 1 0 .— C o n tin u ed . Job Facets Factor 4: Teaching Assignment Your assignment to teach p a rtic u la r subjects Your assignment to teach p a rtic u la r grade le v e ls Schedule of your teaching assignments Factor 5: .583 24 .56870 .54094 .53807 .39859 .38775 .38693 .35862 Teacher Workload Preparation time during the school day Amount of preparation required by your assignment Hours of non-teaching duties assigned per week A v a ila b ility of teachers' aides to a s sis t you Average s iz e of classes you teach Factor 7: .69947 .68400 .63595 Teacher Work Achievement and Growth In te lle c tu a l stim ulatio n in your work Social re la tio n s h ip s in your work Your sense of achievement in teaching Recognition by others o f your work The prospect of teaching as your I1fe-t1m e career O pportunities fo r fu rth e r formal study Your opportunity fo r promotion Your re la tio n s h ip s with other teachers Factor 6 : Item Loadings .65544 .53273 .49832 .38319 .37804 Teacher Status A ttitu d e of society toward education Status of teachers 1n society A ttitu d es of parents towards education .75397 .67703 .59088 Table 1 1 .--Comparison o f s a tis fa c tio n factors between the Holdaway (1978) study and the present study. Factors in Present Study Factors in Holdaway Study Factor Eigen­ value Percent of Variance Eigen­ value Percent of Variance 1. Recognition and Status 13.1 25-3 16.2 28. 1 2. Students 3.0 5.7 2. Teacher Resources 3.1 5.** 3. Resources 2.8 5. b 3. Teacher Compensation 2.6 b. 5 b. Teaching Assignment 2.2 b. 2 b. Teaching Assignment 1.9 3.3 5. Involvement-Administrators 1.9 3.7 5. Teacher Work Achievement 1.8 3.2 6 . Work Load 1.6 3.1 6 . Teacher Workload 1.6 2.8 7. Salary and Benefits 1 .b 2.7 7- Teacher Status 1 .b 2.6 Cumulative percent : 50.1 Note: Data derived from the 13~factor solu tio n . Factor 1. Teacher-Student In teraction Cumulative percent : 1*9-9 101 Although the percentage of variance accounted fo r by the fac­ to rs id e n tifie d 1n each study d iffe re d * Table 12 reveals th a t the fa c to rs freq u en tly consisted of the same items. The s im ila r it ie s between fa c to r content were p a r tic u la r ly evident among the fo llo w in g fa c to rs : Holdaway's Factor 2: Students compared w ith th is study’ s Factor 1: Teacher-Student In te ra c tio n : Holdaway’s Factor 3: Resources compared w ith th is study’ s Factor 2: Teacher Resources: Holdaway's Factor 4: Teaching Assignment compared with th is study's Factor 4: Teaching Assignment: Holdaway's Factor 6 : Workload compared with th is study's Factor 6 : Teacher Workload: Holdaway's Factor 7: Salary and B enefits compared w ith th is study's Factor 3: Teacher Compensation and Labor R ela tio n s : and Holdaway's Factor 1: Recognition and Status com­ pared w ith th is study's Factor 7: Teacher Status. D ifferences among findings between th is in ve s tig atio n and Holdaway's (1978) study were less evident. Holdaway's Factor 5: Involvement w ith A dm inistrators did not emerge as a fa c to r 1n the present study. I t should be noted, however, th a t three out of fiv e jo b -fa c e t Items present w ith in Holdaway's Factor 5 were present w ith in th is study's Factor 2: Teacher Resources. This study's Factor 5: Teacher Achievement and Growth did not emerge as a s a tis fa c tio n dimen­ sion 1n the Holdaway study. Again, a number of jo b -fa c e t items from Factor 5 in th is study appeared 1n Holdaway's Factor 1: Recognition and Status. Upon inspection of the fa c to r structures from both Inves­ tig a tio n s , i t appears th a t the present study generally confirmed the job s a tis fa c tio n s tru c tu re found by Holdaway. 102 Table 1 2 .— Comparison o f s a t i s f a c t i o n f a c t o r Items between the Holdaway (1978) study and the present study. Holdaway fa c t o r s 1. Re cognition and Status Present Study Factors 1. A t t i t u d e o f so cie ty to education A t t i t u d e o f parents to education Status o f teachers in s o c ie ty Re cognition by others Sense o f achievement O v e ra ll s a t i s f a c t i o n Teaching as l i f e - t i m e career I n t e l l e c t u a l s t im u la t io n Social r e la t i o n s h ip s in work Board/teachers co n s u lta tio n s 2. Students A t t i t u d e s o f students toward le a rn in g General behavior o f students In the school Average l e v e l o f student achievement Behavior o f students in your classes A b i l i t y l e v e ls o f students in cla ss Your r e la t i o n s h ip s w it h students 2. A t t i t u d e s o f students to le a rn in g General behavior o f students-sc hool General behavior o f s t u d e n ts -c la s s Average le v e l o f student achievement A b i l i t y l e v e ls o f your students R e la tio n s h ip s w ith students 3. Resources A v a i l a b i l i t y o f l i b r a r y resources A v a i l a b i 1i t y o f a u d io - v is u a l resources A v a i l a b i l i t y o f community f a c i l i t i e s D i s t r i b u t i o n o f resources in school In - s e r v i c e education o p p o r t u n i t ie s A v a i l a b i l i t y o f d ia g n o s tic se rv ic es Ph ysical co n d itio n s o f classrooms Teacher-Student I n t e r a c t i o n Teacher Resources A v a i l a b i l i t y o f a u d io -v is u a l resources A v a i l a b i l i t y o f l i b r a r y resources D i s t r i b u t i o n o f resources in school A v a i l a b i l i t y o f useful advice School decision-m aking involvement D i s t r i c t decision-making involvement Physical c o n d itio n s o f s t a f f r o o m s / o f f i c e s A v a i l a b i l i t y o f d ia g n o s tic se rv ic es I n - s e r v i c e education o p p o r t u n i t ie s Physical co n d itio n s o f classrooms Community r e c r e a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s 3. Teacher Compensation/Labor R e la tio n s S a la ry you re c e iv e S e n i o r i t y In d eterm inin g s a l a r i e s Long-term s a l a r y prospects Education le v e l in determining s a l a r i e s Retirement b e n e f i t s provided Teac her/board c o n s u lt a t io n on work Teacher/board c o l l e c t i v e b arg ain in g Methods used in promotion P rovisio ns f o r s ic k leave Methods used to e v a l u a t e teachers P ro visio ns f o r s a b b a tic a l leave 103 Table 1 2 . - -C o n tin u e d . Holdaway Facto rs A. Teaching Assignment Present Study Factors A. Freedom to s e l e c t teaching methods Ass i gnment to p a r t i c u l a r grade 1evel s Assignment to p a r t i c u l a r subjects Freedom to s e l e c t subje ct m atter Freedom to s e l e c t teaching m a te r ia ls Job s e c u r i t y 5. Involvement With Ad m in is trato rs Assignment t o teach p a r t i c u l a r subjects Assignment to teach p a r t i c u l a r grades Schedule o f your teaching assignments 5. Work Load 6. S ala ry and B e n e fits S e n i o r i t y in determining s a l a r i e s Education in determining s a l a r i e s S ala ry Long-term s a l a r y prospects Retirem ent b e n e fi ts S abbatical leave provisions O p p o rtu n itie s f o r f u r t h e r study Teacher Workload A v a i l a b le p re p a r a tio n time Amount o f re qu ire d p r e p a r a t i o n / c o rr e c t ion Hours o f non-teaching d u tie s per week A v a i l a b i l i t y o f t e a c h e r s ' aides Average s i z e o f classes you teach A v a i l a b l e p re p a r a tio n time Amount o f required p r e p a r a t i o n / c o r r e c t ion Number o f hours taught each week Average cla ss s iz e T im etab lin g o f your classes 7. Teacher Work Achievement/Growth I n t e l l e c t u a l s t i m u l a t i o n w ith work Social r e l a t i o n s a t work Your sense o f achievement in teaching Recognition by o th e rs o f your work Prospect o f teaching a l i f e - t i m e O p p o rtu n itie s f o r f u r t h e r study Your o p p o rtu n ity f o r promotion Your r e l a t i o n s w it h o th e r teachers R e l a t i o n s w i t h in-school adm inis­ tra to rs Involvement in school d e cis io n -m ak in g Admin is t r a t o r s ' expectat ions o f you A v a i l a b i l i t y o f useful advice Physical c o n d itio n s -s ta ffro o m s 6. Teaching Assignment 7. Teacher Status A t t i t u d e o f s o c ie ty towards education Status o f teachers in s o c ie t y A t t i t u d e s o f pare nts towards education 104 Question 2 : S a tis fa c tio n Levels o f Michigan Teachers The second general research question Included 1n th is In v e s ti­ gation asked: What curren t le v e ls of overall and jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c ­ tio n are expressed by Michigan K-12 public school teachers? To answer th is question, frequency d is trib u tio n s and means of the 1,073 respond­ ents w ith respect to both t h e ir le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n and jo b -fa c e t Importance are presented. Table 13 l i s t s a response summary fo r each jo b -fa c e t measure Included 1n the survey. Both Importance and s a tis fa c tio n responses are summarized. To describe curren t le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n among th e sample subjects, the in v e s tig a to r f i r s t examined mean le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n . Assuming normal d is trib u tio n of responses, the th e o re ti­ cal mean score fo r each s a tis fa c tio n scale 1s 4.0. A to ta l of 47 jo b - fa c e t Item s displayed mean s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls g reater than 4.0. ten highest jo b -fa c e t means are lis t e d in Table 14. The Although mean le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n do not express the degree of s a tis fa c tio n being reported by sample subjects, the re s u lts reported here In d ic a te th a t the average sample respondent was w ell s a tis fie d w ith these p a rtic u la r job fa c e ts . Twelve jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scale Items had mean ratings th a t f e l l below the th e o re tic a l mean, In d ic a tin g th a t the average respondent viewed these p a rtic u la r job fa c ets as sources of d is s a tis fa c tio n . jo b -fa c e t items presented in Table 15 each had below-average mean r a ti ngs. The T a b le 13. — S u tm a ry o f response d i s t r i b u t i o n t 's to Im portance and s a t i s f a c t io n o f Responses ite m s . WORKING CONDITIONS P e rc e n ta g e s o f Responses 3 .3 9 50 39 10 1 7. The way In w h ic h te a c h e r /b o a r d c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g In M ic h ig a n 3 .3 7 48 42 8 1 8. 3 .5 6 59 38 3 0 9. 2 .9 8 26 52 17 6 10. The use o f le v e l o f e d u c a tio n 319 35 50 14 1 11. The use o f le n g th o f te a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e s a la r i e s 3 .6 3 68 27 4 0 12. 2.*i2 14 33 34 19 13. 3 .3 8 48 43 8 1 T J V 14. 5 34 13 10 10 12 15 52 4 .1 8 The way In w h ic h c o n s u lt a t io n betw een b o a rd and te a c h e rs c o n c e r n in g w o rk in g c o n d it io n s is c o n d u c te d d u r in g th e s c h o o l y e a r 3 19 13 12 15 16 21 35 3 .5 2 S a la r y you r e c e iv e 9 32 13 6 10 14 16 54 4 .1 9 15 34 15 19 8 5 4 69 4 .9 7 17 36 18 12 6 6 5 71 5 .0 5 R e tire m e n t b e n e f it s p r o v id e d by th e M ic h ig a n T e a c h e rs 1 R et i rem ent Fund 3 20 17 18 16 13 14 40 3 .8 3 P r o v is io n s f o r s a b b a tic a l 8 17 9 41 7 6 12 34 4.11 8 4 3 72 5 .3 3 45 4 .7 5 P r o v is io n s f o r s i c k Is c o n d u c te d in p a r t l y d e te r m in in g s a la r i e s I n p a r t l y d e te r m in in g le a v e le a v e 25 14 36 11 23 8 12 45 5 3 2 6 4 3 75 5 .4 0 21 34 16 28 15. P r o v is io n s f o r m a t e r n it y 3 .3 7 47 45 7 1 16. Number o f h o u rs you te a c h p e r week 25 37 13 II 3 .1 5 39 41 15 5 17. Number o f h o u rs o f n o n - te a c h in g d u t ie s a s s ig n e d 19 24 10 21 12 8 7 53 4 .6 5 3 .5 5 60 36 4 1 18. P r e p a r a tio n tim e a v a l la b le t o you d u r in g th e o f f i c i a l s c h o o l day 14 27 13 5 15 11 16 54 4 .2 4 5 15 10 31 12 10 18 30 3 .7 2 58 4 .6 2 2 .4 9 le a v e TEACHING-RELATED MATTERS 2 .7 6 3 .2 5 27 40 38 48 19 10 16 2 19. 20. Y our o p p o r t u n it y f o r p ro m o tio n E x p e c ta tio n s o f a d m in is t r a t o r s f o r you as a te a c h e r 2 .9 7 31 43 17 9 21. M ethods used In p ro m o tio n o f te a c h e rs 3 .4 0 53 36 8 3 22. The p ro s p e c t o f c la s s ro o m te a c h in g as y o u r l i f e - t i m e c a r e e r 31 14 17 9 9 8 3 15 II 29 14 12 17 29 3.61 24 29 10 10 10 8 9 63 4 .8 6 13 Table 13." C o n t i n u e d . o « ■» a c E — 4) T3 •— 1/1M (Q — > "0 t - — 4) S2IC <0 IA It IA £ kO .' —-D £ c >»*■» t»—j= u -c ct> u a>- i/i e v *-* — 3 1 CL I U 1 |X > V o * - » « > • l 41 > a E — O' w — V> O t> Ix TEACHING-REIATEO HATTERS (C o n tin u e d ) V s o f Responses J *0 VTO W cnr X x * C k~ < v w 2 *)--- P e rc e n ta g e s o f Responses 3.61 66 30 3 1 23. Yo u r lo n g - te r m s a la r y p r o s p e c ts In e d u c a tio n 6 18 13 6 14 17 26 27 3 .4 0 3 .3 9 <*9 1*2 8 1 2 4. M ethods used t o e v a lu a te te a c h e rs 5 24 15 12 15 15 14 44 3 .8 9 3 .3 2 42 49 9 0 2 5. The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f re s o u rc e s w i t h i n y o u r s c h o o l 8 23 15 13 16 14 12 46 4 .0 8 3 .*.6 53 41 6 1 2 6. Y o u r r e la t i o n s h i p s w it h 27 34 12 8 8 6 6 73 5 .2 2 3.71 71* 23 2 0 2 7. Y o u r jo b s e c u r i t y 29 34 13 7 7 4 6 76 5 .3 4 3 .3 8 2.7 45 7 1 28. Y o u r r e la t i o n s h i p s w it h o t h e r te a c h e rs 39 38 9 7 4 2 1 86 5 .9 3 3.01 27 50 21 3 2 9. P h y s ic a l c o n d it io n s o f s ta ffr o o m s and s t a f f o f f i c e s 12 27 14 11 13 12 12 53 4 .3 2 3 .2 3 39 46 13 I 30. A v a i l a b i l i t y o f u s e fu l a d v ic e t o a s s is t you w it h p ro b le m s you e n c o u n te r in te a c h in g 8 23 17 14 15 12 10 48 4 .1 9 3 .2 9 39 52 9 0 3 1. Y our In v o lv e m e n t in d e c is io n - m a k in g In y o u r s c h o o l 8 23 19 10 14 11 14 50 4 .1 0 3 .0 7 29 50 19 2 32. Y our In v o lv e m e n t In d e c is io n - m a k in g in y o u r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t 5 13 17 20 15 13 18 35 3 .5 9 in - s c h o o l a d m in is t r a t o r s TEACHING MATTERS 3.1*3 51 42 7 1 33. Y o u r fre e d o m t o s e le c t s u b je c t m a tte r f o r c la s s e s you te a c h 34 35 11 8 5 4 3 80 5 .6 4 3 .6 3 64 34 1 0 34. Your fre e d o m t o s e le c t te a c h in g m ethods 45 33 9 6 3 3 2 87 5 .9 7 3.«<7 50 46 3 0 3 5. Y our fre e d o m to s e le c t te a c h in g m a t e r ia ls w i t h i n o f a v a i l a b l e fu n d s 28 33 13 8 8 5 5 74 5.31 3.*«0 50 42 6 2 3 6. S ch e d u le o f y o u r te a c h in g a s s ig n m e n ts 21 32 13 II 9 7 7 66 4 .9 7 3.<*3 53 39 5 3 3 7. Your a s s ig n m e n t t o te a c h p a r t i c u l a r g ra d e le v e ls 32 31 11 11 6 4 5 74 5 .3 8 th e c o n s t r a in t T a b le l 3 . “ “ C ontInued. in — - a> ♦—« q U V V— P— — OO ) fg X- Q. E — Ix 6 3 — « £. — V» 2 a. E c «— O «.» 1 0 L. TJ i/i — ft) (0 • m- t-»— nr *j i/l ig cn L. Sfl a> CT* ■v© — 1 7 TEACHING HATTERS (C o n tin u e d ) V s o f Responses — w «A J ^»uV I 10 HI c u— < 5 6 v «■* TJ <0 V oi£OlA «-* z c Z 6 *J *-* JZt) — £ o Q W u- i> T) u- — TJ 3 2 K £ 1 L. Ol— «) — ~ O -Z lfl — Ik P e rc e n ta g e s o f Responses 3 . Mi 55 36 5 3 38. Y our a s s ig n m e n t t o te a c h p a r t i c u l a r s u b je c ts 30 31 10 16 6 5 5 71 5 .3 3 3 .6 6 69 28 3 0 39. A v e ra g e s iz e o f c la s s e s you te a c h 15 22 15 5 13 12 IB 52 6 .1 6 3 .6 5 56 38 6 1 60. Amount o f p r e p a r a t i o n / c o r r e c t i o n a s s ig n m e n t 10 21 19 II 16 13 12 50 6 .1 3 3 .1 3 36 65 16 3 6 1. A v a ila b ilit y o f lib r a r y 20 28 16 12 10 8 7 62 6 .8 6 7 6 66 6.91 3 .7 6 r e q u ir e d b y y o u r te a c h in g re s o u rc e s 62. A v a i l a b i l i t y o f a u d lo - v ls u a l re s o u rc e s 19 29 16 13 10 19 63. A v a i l a b i l i t y o f te a c h e r s ' a id e s t o a s s is t you 10 12 10 30 10 10 19 32 1 6 6. P h y s ic a l c o n d it io n s o f y o u r c la s s ro o m s 13 28 13 9 16 12 10 56 6 .6 o 3 6 5. A v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u b s t it u t e te a c h e r s e r v ic e s when you w is h t o be a b s e n t f o r p r o f e s s io n a l a c t i v i t i e s 26 27 II 13 8 7 II 62 6.81 9 2 6 6. P e rfo rm a n c e o f o n - c a l l s u b s t it u t e c la s s e s when you a re a b s e n t 12 27 16 13 12 12 8 55 6 .6 5 77 22 1 0 6 7. Y our r e la t i o n s h i p s w it h s tu d e n ts 63 66 7 2 3 1 0 96 6 .1 6 3 .8 6 85 16 1 0 6 8. A t t it u d e s o f s tu d e n ts to w a rd s le a r n in g 7 25 19 U 18 Ik 16 51 A .06 3 -77 78 22 0 0 69. G e n e ra l b e h a v io r o f s tu d e n ts 7 30 17 5 17 16 10 56 6 .2 3 3 .5 5 60 36 1) 1 50. A ve rag e le v e l o f s tu d e n t a c h ie v e m e n t 6 31 22 7 17 It 7 59 6 .6 2 3 .1 8 60 61 15 k 51. A b ility 7 32 19 15 16 8 5 58 6 .5 9 3-12 32 51 16 2 .5 8 23 32 27 3 .3 6 66 67 8 3 .2 5 62 66 3-31 61* 65 3 .7 6 II 2 te a c h e rs who te a c h y o u r STUDENT-RELATED MATTERS in th e s c h o o l l e v e ls o f s tu d e n ts ta k in g y o u r c la s s e s Table I3«— Continued. —Ifl x> « u- -o T3 V — — u. — v 0>0 c — >-o 1. — t> — M- V47— J Wife Ut «Q Vt c — < €» « TJ <0 vom — o0>X < 1 «— a. x«n •— l Ik 6 t 's 3 2 1 x i tn V o z c 7 6 5 6 STU0ENT-RELATE0 HATTERS (C o n tin u e d ) o f Responses 75 26 1 0 52. G e n e ra l b e h a v io r o f s tu d e n ts In y o u r c la s s e s 3 .5 0 S'* 62 3 1 53. M ethods used In r e p o r t in g p u p i l s 1 a t t i t u d e s and a c h ie v e m e n ts to p a re n ts 3 .2 7 66 61 12 2 56. A v a i l a b i l i t y o f d ia g n o s t ic s e r v ic e s 2 Ik P e rc e n ta g e s o f Responses 17 63 13 3 12 8 5 73 5 .0 6 II 31* 19 7 15 8 5 66 6 .7 6 8 26 18 15 16 8 13 50 6 .21 2 11 15 8 19 18 27 28 3 .0 7 5 23 26 27 21 2 .7 8 25 20 27 3 .0 9 OCCUPATION-RELATED HATTERS 3 - **0 50 62 7 1 55. S ta tu s o f te a c h e rs in s o c ie t y A t t i t u d e o f s o c ie t y to w a rd s e d u c a tio n 1 5 7. A t t it u d e s o f p a r e n ts to w a rd s e d u c a tio n 1 II 15 5 26 0 5 8. Y our sense o f a c h ie v e m e n t In te a c h in g 17 61 17 6 8 7 5 75 5 .1 2 23 5 59. R e c o g n itio n by o th e r s o f y o u r w o rk 9 29 19 21 9 7 6 57 6 .6 2 66 30 6 60. S o c ia l r e la t i o n s h i p s 17 31* 16 23 6 3 2 67 5.21 37 53 10 0 6 1. I n t e lle c t u a l 10 30 22 15 8 5 62 6 .6 9 2 .9 6 26 69 20 5 6 2. O p p o r tu n itie s f o r f u r t h e r fo rm a l s tu d y ( I . e . , c o ll e g e , o r I n s t i t u t e ) 16 28 16 23 8 6 6 58 6 .8 0 3 .0 6 32 66 18 6 6 3. O p p o r tu n itie s 7 17 17 15 15 16 16 61 3 .8 7 30 68 19 6 66. 16 21 16 16 II II 10 51 6.61 26 3 0 79 19 1 0 373 76 25 1 2 .9 5 28 66 2 .7 5 18 325 369 3 -7 8 3 -03 72 56. In y o u r w o rk s t i m u la t i o n f o r u s e fu l In y o u r w o rk In u n i v e r s i t y , I n - s e r v ic e e d u c a tio n A v a ila b ility o f f a c i li t i e s fin e a r ts , e tc . in y o u r c o m m un ity f o r r e c r e a t io n , 9 11 II 108 3 .7 5 3 109 T a b le 1 4 .— J o b -fa c e t s a t is f a c t io n Item s g e n e ra tin g th e h ig h e s t mean r a tin g s . Mean Rating Item 47 34 28 33 16 37 27 14 38 35 Your re la tio n s h ip with students Your freedom to s e le c t teaching methods Your re la tio n s h ip s with other teachers Your freedom to s e le c t subject m atter Number of hours you teach per week Your assignment to teach p a rtic u la r grades Your job secu rity Provisions fo r sick leave Your assignment to teach p a rtic u la r subjects Your freedom to se le c t teaching m a te ria ls 6.16 5.97 5.93 5 .64 5.40 5 .3 8 5.34 5.33 5.33 5.31 Table 1 5 .— Job-facet s a tis fa c tio n Items generating th e lowest mean ra tin g s . Mean Rating Item 56 55 57 23 8 32 21 19 43 12 63 24 A ttitu d e of society towards education Status of teacher 1n society A ttitu d e s of parents towards education Long-term salary prospects Teacher/board consultation on working conditions Involvement 1n d is t r ic t declslon-making Methods used in promotion of teachers Promotion op portunities A v a ila b ility of teachers' aides Retirement benefits Opportunities fo r useful In -s e rv ic e education Methods used to evaluate teachers 2 .78 3.07 3 .0 9 3.40 3 .5 2 3 .5 9 3.61 3 .72 3 .7 6 3.83 3 .87 3.89 110 A more v is ib le manner 1n which to describe curren t le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n 1 s the presentation of response frequencies fo r jo b -fa c e t scales. 11 jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n Table 16 1s a report of the Items generating the highest percentage of sample responding s a tis fie d out of a ll the jo b -fa c e t measures. "Satis­ fie d " was o p era tio n alize d as any one of three possible survey responses, Including (7) highly s a tis fie d , and (5) s lig h tly s a tis fie d . ( 6 ) moderately s a tis fie d , Not s u rp ris in g ly , th is 11st compares favorably to the 1 1 s t of job facets with high mean s a tis fa c tio n ratings presented e a r lie r . In fa c t, the l i s t s share eigh t common job facets th a t tended to be perceived as sources of s a tis fa c tio n by the average sample respondent. Table 17 presents a s im ila r consideration of jo b -fa c e t s a tis ­ fa c tio n Items generating th e highest percentage of sample responding d is s a tis fie d . Again, th is 11st can be compared to the 11st of 12 jo b - fa c e t Item s th a t had response averages below the th e o re tic a l mean of 4.0. These l i s t s are very s im ila r , common. sharing 10 out of 12 job facets 1n Although other jo b facets produced ra tin g s of s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n , these l i s t s present a f a i r l y consistent description of job fa c ets th a t were perceived as s a tis fy in g or d is s a tis fy in g by the average sample respondent. Ill T a b le 1 6 .— J o b -fa c e t s a t is f a c t io n Item s g e n e ra tin g th e h ig h e s t p ercentage o f sample responding s a t i s f i e d . % of Sample S at1sfled Item 47 Your re la tio n s h ip s with students 94% 34 Your freedom to select teaching m a te ria ls 87% 28 Your re la tio n s h ip s with other teachers 86 % 33 Your freedom to se le c t subject m atter fo r classes you teach 80% 27 Your job secu rity 76% 16 Number of hours you teach per week 75% 58 Your sense of achievement 1n teaching 75% 35 Your freedom to s e le c t teaching m aterials with the c o n s tra in t of a v a ila b le funds 74% 38 Your assignment to teach p a rtic u la r grade level s 74% 26 Your re la tio n s h ip s with in-school admln1 s tra to rs 73% 52 General behavior of students in your classes 73% 112 T a b le 1 7 .— J o b -fa c e t s a t is f a c t i o n item s g e n e ra tin g th e h ig h e s t percen tag e o f sample responding d i s s a t i s f i e d . % of Sample D1ssat1sfled Item 56 A ttitu d e of society towards education 74% 57 A ttitu d e of parents towards education 69% 55 Status of teachers in society 64% 23 Your long-term salary prospects 1 n education 57% Board/teacher consultation concerning working conditions 52% 32 Your Involvement in school declslon-making 46% 48 A ttitu d e s of students towards learning 46% 24 Methods used to evaluate teachers 44% 63 O pportunities fo r useful in -s e rv ic e 43% 39 Average s ize of classes you teach 43% 21 Methods used 1n promotion of teachers 43% 12 Retirement ben efits 43% 8 Two findings draw support from the re s u lts reported here. First# i t is evident th a t teachers derived t h e ir g reatest s a tis fa c tio n from those job facets th a t concerned th e work I t s e l f . The job fa c e t generating the highest mean s a tis fa c tio n level and the highest percentage of sample s a tis fie d had to do w ith teachers' relationsh ips w ith students. Furthermore# job facets such as work autonomy# s p e c ific work assignment including subject and grade le v e ls taught# work 113 achievement# and hours of work were frequent and im portant sources of s a tis fa c tio n . The co n sisten tly Id e n tifie d sources of s a tis fa c tio n were job facets d e s c rip tiv e of the work performed by teachers. The second fin d in g supported by these re s u lts has to do w ith the nature of those job facets Id e n tifie d as sources of d is s a tis fa c ­ tio n . With a s im ila r consistency# job facets Id e n tifie d as sources of d is s a tis fa c tio n tended to describe aspects of a teacher's job not d ire c tly involved w ith the work I t s e l f . Instead# the d ls s a tis fie r s were more d e s c rip tiv e of the conditions under which the work of teach­ ers was performed. For Instance# the job fa c e t generating th e lowest mean s a tis fa c tio n le v e l and the highest percentage of sample d is s a tis ­ fie d had to do with societal a ttitu d e s toward education. Job facets such as teacher status# parental attitudes# salary prospects# promotion opportunities# and re tirem e n t b e n efits were frequent and im portant sources of d is s a tis fa c tio n . These aspects of a teacher’ s job re fle c te d th e conditions under which t h e ir work was performed# and such condi­ tio n s , ra th e r than the work its e lf# tended to be perceived as sources of d is s a tis fa c tio n . In ad d itio n to c o lle c tin g s a tis fa c tio n ratings on each job fa c e t included in the survey# Importance ra tin g s were c o lle cte d . To describe jo b -fa c e t Importance le v e ls of sample respondents# mean importance ratin g s fo r each fa c e t were examined. Table 18 presents the ten jo b -fa c e t Items th a t generated the highest mean importance ratings. These ten items constitu ted the most Im portant job facets to the average sample respondent. The ten job facets generating th e lowest 114 mean Importance ratings are presented 1 n Table 19. These survey Items constituted the le a s t Im portant job facets according to the perceptions of sampled teachers. Table 1 8 .— Job-facet Items generating the highest Importance ra tin g means. Mean Importance Rating Item 48 A ttitu d es of students towards learning 3.84 57 A ttitu d es of parents towards education 3 .7 8 49 General behavior of students In the school 3.77 47 Your re la tio n s h ip s with students 3.76 52 General behavior of students 1n class 3 .75 58 Your sense of achievement 1n teaching 3.73 27 Your job se cu rity 3.71 56 A ttitu d e of society towards education 3 .69 39 Average sizes of classes you teach 3.66 34 Your freedom to s e le c t teaching methods 3.63 12 Retirement benefits provided by the Michigan Teachers' Retirement Fund 3.63 115 Table 19.— Job-facet items generating the lowest importance ra tin g means. Mean Importance Rating Item 13 Provisions fo r sabbatical leave 2.42 15 Provisions fo r m aternity leave 2 .49 43 A v a ila b ility of teachers' aides to a s sis t you 2 .5 8 60 Social re la tio n sh ip s in your work 2.75 19 Your opportunity fo r promotion 2.76 59 Recognition by others of your work 2.95 62 O pportunities fo r fu rth e r formal study 2 .96 21 Methods used 1n promotion of teachers 2.97 10 The use of level of education in p a rtly determining s a la rie s 2 .9 8 29 Physical conditions of staffrooms and s t a ff o ffic e s 3.01 I t appears th a t job facets id e n tifie d as highly Im portant describe both the work I t s e l f and conditions under which the work of teachers is performed. For instance, teachers' re la tio n s h ip s w ith students describes th e work i t s e l f , w h ile a ttitu d e s of parents toward education describes a condition under which teachers perform th e ir work. The s ig n ifican ce of th is fin d in g is the suggestion th a t both the work I t s e l f and working conditions appeared im portant to teachers. should be noted, however, th a t facets id e n tifie d as having low It 116 Importance were freq u en tly d e s c rip tiv e of working conditions and seldom described the work It s e l f . Several job facets rated high on Importance or low on Impor­ tance also were Included on the high mean s a tis fa c tio n or d is s a tis fa c ­ tio n li s t s . Job facets common to both l i s t s Include Facet 47: Your re la tio n s h ip s w ith students (high sat1sfaction/h1gh Importance)* Facet 27: Your job secu rity (high sat1sfact1on/h1gh Importance)* Facet 34: Your freedom to s e le c t teaching methods (high sat1sfact1on/h1gh Impor­ tance)* Facet 57: A ttitu d e s of parents toward education (low s a tis ­ fa c tio n /h ig h Importance)* Facet 56: A ttitu d e of society towards education (low s a tis fa c tio n /h ig h Importance)* Facet 12: Retirem ent b enefits (low s a t 1 s fa c tio n /h 1 gh Importance)* Facet 43: A v a ila b ility of teachers 1 aides (low s a tis fa c tio n /lo w Importance)* Facet 19: Your opportunity fo r promotion (low s a tis fa c tio n /lo w Importance)* and Facet 21: Methods used 1n the promotion of teachers (low s a tis fa c tio n /lo w Im portance). Findings concerning le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n expressed by Michigan K-12 teachers are varied. Although a d e tailed fa c e t-b y - fa c e t description has been presented* these findings do not provide fo r a general description of cu rren t le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n fo r M ichi­ gan K-12 public school teachers. In an e f f o r t to describe the average sample respondent 1 n terms of h is /h e r expressed le v e ls of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n , considerations of the seven fa c to rs presented e a r lie r is h e lp fu l. Table 20 g ra p h ica lly p ro file s the average respondent’s s a tis ­ fa c tio n le v e ls w ith each job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r. Based on th is 117 Table 2 0 .— P ro file of the average respondent's s a tis fa c tio n levels with each job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r. SATISFACTION RATING Highly Sat i sf ied 7. Moderately Sati sfied S Iig h tly S a tis fie d Neither Sat is fie d Nor D is s a tis fie d A-- S Iig h tly Di ssat i sfied o or o o o O < QT z z < < H Z LU Moderately D is s a tis fie d O OT 2- O ZD K 00 I Z> o (/) L U DC to to z z LU O G_ — X H O < CJ -J LU or or DC CD X LU > o < © to LO X or < < o o < -J o O Highly Di ssati sfied SAMPLE X = < 1- LU o < x or o o < CO LU < Factor Factor 1 2 4.74 4.26 Factor 3 4.18 o < Factor 4 5.22 ZD H< h— 1/ ) or X X LU X < < < Factor 5 4.86 Factor LU X to o seven out of ten job facets rated highly Im portant were also among the ten highest mean, fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n ratings. The three remaining job facets rated highly im portant were not among the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n Items generating the highest mean fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls . Each of these three facets, however, appears in Table 16, which reports the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n Items generating the highest percentage of sample responding s a tis fie d . These re su lts confirmed the v a lid it y of the conclusion th a t jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores already express th e value an in divid ual assigns to a p a rtic u la r aspect of work. Question 5: V a ria tio n in Teacher/ School C h a ra c te ris tic s and S a tis fa c tio n D ifferences The f i f t h and fin a l general research question included in th is study sought to determine 1f d ifferences 1n in d iv id u a l and organiza­ tio n a l c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers and the schools in which they worked were accompanied by differences 1n job s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls . Data from 19 separate analyses of s a tis fa c tio n differen ces between groups of teachers who varied on 17 in divid ual or school-organlzatlon character­ is t ic s suggested the conclusion th a t differen ces 1n le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n frequently accompanied d ifferen ces in both personal and organizational c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers and the schools 1n which they worked. 217 S ix ty -n in e s ig n ific a n t differences in o v e rall s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls and/or fa c to r s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls were determined to accompany v a ria tio n s in personal or school-organization c h a ra c te ris tic s of groups of teachers. Table 58 summarizes the occurrence of these differences* and c le a r support fo r th is conclusion 1s evident as s ig n ific a n t d if ­ ferences on one or more s a tis fa c tio n facto rs appeared w ith each charac­ t e r i s t i c examined. The sin g le exception was ju n io r high school s ize , w ith no s ig n ific a n t differen ces evident in s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls fo r th is c h a ra c te ris tic , which may be due to t h e ir homogeneous s iz e . In fo rm ative patterns of s a tis fa c tio n differences emerged from these analyses, and several general conclusions about teacher job s a tis fa c tio n were formed. In regard to c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers, i t was found th a t female teachers generally experienced more s a tis fa c tio n with t h e ir jobs than male teachers. The single exception to th is fin d in g was th a t male teachers were more s a tis fie d than female teachers when i t came to teacher workload. Older teachers, age 50 and above, expressed higher le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n with t h e ir work compared to younger teachers. le a s t s a tis fie d . Teachers between the ages of 38 and 49 appeared Late-career teachers (teachers w ith 22 years experi­ ence or more) appeared most s a tis fie d , w hile m id-career teachers (teachers with 13 to 21 years experience) were le a s t s a tis fie d . Mar­ rie d teachers expressed s ig n ific a n tly higher le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n than teachers who were not m arried; however, teachers w ith responsi­ b i l i t i e s fo r dependent children consistently expressed lower le v e ls o f s a tis fa c tio n compared to teachers who did not have such Table 5 8 .— D iffe re n c e s in o v e r a ll and fa c to r s a tis fa c t io n le v e ls th a t accompanied v a ria tio n s c h a ra c te ri s t i c s . C haracter i s t ic Sex Age Experience M a r ita l Status Dependents Second job Spouse employment Assignment consistency School le v e l Elem entary s iz e J r . high s iz e High school s ize D i s t r ic t s iz e D i s t r ic t geography D i s t r ic t s a la ry Student r a t io Expenditures M in o rity students Achievement O v e ra lI S a tis fa c tio n T eacher-Student In te ra c t ion Teacher Resources Teacher Compensation in personal o r s c h o o l-o rg a n iza tio n Teaching Assignment Teacher Achievement Teacher Workload Teacher Status 219 re s p o n s ib ilitie s . Teachers who had second jobs 1n addition to teaching were less s a tis fie d than teachers whose only job was teaching. Finally# fo r teachers placed In an assignment th a t was not consistent w ith th e ir experience and background, low er le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n were evident compared to teachers c o rre c tly placed. S a tis fa c tio n differences th a t accompanied v a ria tio n 1n the organizational c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers’ schools also were Informa­ tiv e . Teachers from elementary schools expressed higher s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls than e ith e r ju n io r high/m iddle school teachers or high school teachers. The exception to th is fin d in g was th a t teachers from both ju n io r h1gh/m1ddle schools and high schools were s ig n ific a n tly more s a tis fie d w ith teacher workload than elementary teachers. Teachers from small elementary schools expressed more s a tis fa c tio n w ith teacherstudent In te ra c tio n than teachers from la rg e elementary schools. This was the only fa c to r 1n which s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls changed as a re s u lt of elementary school size. No differen ces 1n teacher s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls accompanied changes 1n ju n io r h1gh/m1ddle school size. At the high school le v e l, teachers from small high schools expressed higher s a tis ­ fa c tio n w ith teacher workload than teachers from large high schools. V a ria tio n 1n d is t r ic t s ize freq uently accompanied differen ces 1n teacher job s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls . Teachers from small d is t r ic t s expressed s ig n ific a n tly higher le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n than teachers from large d is tr ic ts . Changes 1n the geographic lo c a tio n of school d is t r ic ts also were accompanied by d iffe re n c e s 1n teacher job s a tis ­ fa c tio n le v e ls . The le a s t s a tis fie d teachers were from m etropolitan 220 core d is tr ic ts * w h ile the most s a tis fie d teachers worked in urban frin g e or rural d is tr ic ts . V ariation s in d is t r ic t salary le v e ls were accompanied by s a tis fa c tio n differences. Generally* teachers from h1gh-salary d is t r ic t s were more s a tis fie d than teachers from mediumand lo w -s ala ry d is tr ic ts . Teachers from d is t r ic t s w ith low teacher/ student load expressed higher s a tis fa c tio n with teacher workload than teachers from d is t r ic t s w ith high teacher/student load. D is tr ic ts w ith high per-pupil expenditures tended to have teachers who were more s a tis fie d than did low-spending d is tr ic ts . D is tr ic ts th a t had a minor­ it y student enrollm ent in excess of 10% of the to ta l student population 1n the d i s t r ic t had teacher s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls th a t were s ig n ific a n tly lower than the teacher s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls in d is tr ic ts with sm aller m in o rity student enrollm ents. F in a lly * d is t r ic t s w ith high and mod­ e ra te student achievement le v e ls also had teacher s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls th a t were s ig n ific a n tly higher than the teacher s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls th a t existed 1n d is t r ic t s w ith low student achievement. Several addition al conclusions were drawn from the fin ding s summarized in Table 58. F irs t* i t was concluded th a t the several job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r measures and the measure of o v e rall job s a tis fa c ­ tio n varied in regard to t h e ir s e n s itiv ity toward changes in the teacher and school-organizatlon c h a ra c te ris tic s included in th is study. For instance, s ig n ific a n t differen ces in teacher s a tis fa c tio n w ith teacher achievement and growth accompanied changes 1n 13 d iffe r e n t teacher and school-organization c h a ra c te ris tic s . S ig n ific a n t 221 differences in s a tis fa c tio n w ith teacher status* however, accompanied changes in only fiv e teacher and school-organization c h a ra c te ris tic s . The s e n s itiv ity of teacher achievement and growth as a sat­ is fa c tio n fa c to r measure confirmed the key ro le th a t job facets descrip tive of the "work i t s e l f ” serve 1n understanding teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Teacher status appeared to be a less s e n s itiv e measure of s a tis fa c tio n d ifferen ces and was more d e s c rip tiv e of "work condi­ tio n s ” ra th e r than the "work i t s e lf ." Other s a tis fa c tio n measures th a t were p a rtic u la r ly s e n s itiv e to changes 1n teacher and schoolorganization c h a ra c te ris tic s included o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n , teacher-student in te ra c tio n , and teacher workload. S ig n ific a n t differences in teacher s a tis fa c tio n w ith each of these measures accom­ panied changes in ten or more teacher and school-organization charac­ t e r is t ic s . I t 1s also w orthw hile to note th a t the d iffe r e n t teacher and school-organization c h a ra c te ris tic s varied 1n the number of s a tis fa c ­ tio n fa c to r measures they affected in terms of s a tis fa c tio n differences among teachers. V a ria tio n s in d i s t r ic t student achievement le v e ls were accompanied by s ig n ific a n t s a tis fa c tio n differences on seven job s a tis ­ fa c tio n fa c to r measures. For changes In teacher m a rita l status, spouse employment, school bu ild ing s iz e , and teacher/student load, s a tis fa c ­ tio n differences occurred on one or fewer job s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r measures. These findings supported the conclusion th a t some character­ is tic s exerted a g reater e ffe c t on s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls than others. 222 In ad d itio n to student achievement le v e ls , changes in the fo llo w in g c h a ra c te ris tic s were accompanied by s ig n ific a n t s a tis fa c tio n d ifferences on four or more s a tis fa c tio n fa c to r measures: teacher sex, teacher age, career experience, second job, school grade le v e l, dis­ t r i c t size, d is t r ic t geographic lo ca tio n , salary le v e ls , per-pupil expenditures, m in o rity enrollm ent, and student achievement le v e ls . These c h a ra c te ris tic s appeared to be im portant in understanding how s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls varied between groups of teachers. Summary o f Conclusions In summary, several Im portant conclusions emerged from the present in v e s tig a tio n . There was dim ensionality to the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores of teacher respondents in th is study. In lig h t of past In ve s tig a tio n s , th is dim ensionality suggested a seemingly s ta b le set of jo b -fa c e t c lu sters underlying the concept of teacher job s a tis ­ fa c tio n . Using these jo b -fa c e t c lu sters to p r o file teacher s a tis fa c ­ tio n performance led to the conclusion th a t the average Michigan teacher was s lig h tly more s a tis fie d than d is s a tis fie d . conclusions, however, were supported by th is p ro file . Two addition al F ir s t, Michigan teachers were d is s a tis fie d with a siza b le number of Im portant aspects of th e ir work. Second, a large number of Michigan teachers generally were d is s a tis fie d w ith t h e ir jobs. Through addition al analyses, i t was concluded th a t the more In flu e n tia l sources of job s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers tended to be aspects of the work I t s e l f rath er than aspects found 1n the environment of work. Teacher achievement and growth, teacher-student in te ra c tio n , and teacher resources were found to be the 223 most In flu e n tia l facto rs in the p re d ic tio n of o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n w ith in the present study. Findings from th is study also supported the conclusion th a t importance w eighting jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores has l i t t l e e ffic a c y fo r improving the p redictio n of o v e rall job s a tis fa c ­ tio n from measures of fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n . Further* 1t was concluded th a t importance w eighting adds l i t t l e new inform ation to an understand­ ing of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n th a t is not already present among the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores alone. F in a lly * i t was concluded th a t differences in le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n frequently accompanied d if ­ ferences 1n both personal and organizational c h a ra c te ris tic s of teach­ ers and the schools 1n which they worked. Recommendations fo r the Management of Schools The primary in te re s t m otivating th is in v e s tig a tio n was to advance an understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n th a t can inform school management about d ire c tio n s to pursue in e ffo r ts to improve the q u a lity of the teacher-work experience and bring about higher le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . The findings generated in th is study resulted In a more thorough understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , and a number of im portant recommendations fo r the management of schools are suggested. Perhaps the most im portant recommendation stemming from the re s u lts of th is study 1s th a t school management needs to recognize low teacher morale as a serious problem w ith in our public schools. Fewer than h a lf of the Michigan K-12 public school teachers sampled in th is 224 study expressed fe e lin g s of o v e rall s a tis fa c tio n w ith t h e ir jobs. With substantial portions of the sample responding d is s a tis fie d on a wide range of job facets* these re s u lts combine with suggestions from past studies th a t low le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n r e s u lt 1n serious problems. Some of these problems Include an In a b ilit y to re ta in beginning teachers (B utler* 1961), less e ffe c tiv e teaching behaviors (Greenwood & Soar, 1973)* higher le v e ls of absenteeism and turnover (Lawler* 1979)* Increased le v e ls of s e lf-re p o rte d stress (Kyrlacou & S u tc liffe * 1979)* and the increased ris k of heart disease and other s tre s s -re la te d Illn esses (F rls s , 1971). 1976; Jenkins, 1971; Sales & House, These serious consequences of sustained le v e ls of teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n es tab lis h the Importance of management recognition of the te a c h e r-s a tls fa c tio n problem evident in Michigan public schools. A second Im portant recommendation to emerge from th is Inves­ tig a tio n 1s th a t school management should s e le c t and s tru c tu re job s a tis fa c tio n Improvement s tra te g ie s on the basis of those variables Id e n tifie d as being In flu e n tia l predictors of o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n . Management resources a v a ila b le fo r the Improvement of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n are lim ite d in the public school s e ttin g . I f resources are consumed on s tra te g ie s aimed a t Improving job aspects th a t have little Influence on le v e ls of o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers, 1t 1s lik e ly th a t s u b s ta n tia lly higher le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n w ill not be forthcoming. The aspects of teacher work most In flu e n tia l as sources of o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n were Id e n tifie d 1n th is study and Include 225 Factor 5: Teacher work achievement and growth, Factor 1: Teacherstudent in te ra c tio n , and Factor 2: Teacher resources. Job facets c lu s te rin g to form these fa c to rs should guide the s e ttin g of satisfaction-im provem ent p r io r it ie s . An example of how jo b - satisfaction-im provem ent s tra te g ie s should be p r io r itiz e d demon­ s tra te s the value of th is recommendation. Factor 7: Teacher status did not contribute s ig n ific a n tly to the p red ictio n o f o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n when combined with the six other factors determined in th is study. Facet 56: A ttitu d e of society towards education was a component fa c e t of th is fa c to r. This p articu ­ la r fa c e t e x h ib ite d the low est mean s a tis fa c tio n ra tin g of a ll 58 job facets included in th is study and was rated d is s a tis fy in g to 74% of the sample respondents. C le a rly , th is fa c e t constituted an aspect of work teachers were d is s a tis fie d w ith and should be of concern to man­ agement. In r e la tio n to other fa c e ts , however, a ttitu d e of society towards education did not e x e rt as much Influence on the o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n of teachers. The re s u lts of th is study provided an improved understanding of the re la tio n s h ip between jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores and overall job s a tis fa c tio n . This knowledge should inform management choice and leads to the suggestion th a t resources would be b e tte r spent on Improving job facets such as in te lle c tu a l s tim u la tio n in your work, your sense of achievement 1n work, recognition by others of your work, and a ttitu d e s of students toward learnin g. These facets clustered in the facto rs demonstrated to be in f lu e n t ia l predictors of overall s a tis fa c tio n . 226 Improvements 1n these aspects of teacher work are more lik e ly to Improve perceptions of o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n . As Improvements w ith in these in flu e n tia l dimensions of s a tis ­ fa c tio n begin to occur, i t becomes appropriate and necessary to commit management resources to the improvement of other job facets th a t tend to be perceived as sources of d is s a tis fa c tio n by teachers. Sergiovanni (1967) explained th a t I t does not appear li k e l y th a t one can experience work s a tis fa c tio n w ithout the e lim in a tio n or tempering of the d is s a tis fle rs . D eriv­ ing s a tis fa c tio n from work-centered a c t iv it y assumes th a t one's energies and e ffo r ts are not taxed or depleted by unsatisfactory conditions of work. (p. 81) P r io r it iz in g the commitment of satlsfaction-im provem ent resources on the basis of management knowing which facets of work influence o v e rall job s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls fo r Michigan public school teachers was o p era tio n alize d in the present study. The re s u lt of th is process is the recommendation th a t teacher work achievement and growth* teacher-student in te ra c tio n , and teacher resources become the p r io r ity focus fo r school-management commitments seeking s a tis fa c tio n improve­ ment. W ithin each of these p r io r it y fa c to rs , a fu rth e r ranking of improvement p r io r it ie s was accomplished by examining the s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls associated w ith the various job facets th a t clustered to form these facto rs. Table 59 is a presentation of s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls associated w ith the various job fa c e ts c lu s te rin g to form these p rio r­ it y facto rs. The facets generating the low est le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n among sample respondents were determined to be problem atic and were 227 Table 5 9 .— S a tis fa c tio n le v e ls fo r the job facets c lu s te rin g to form h ig h -p rio rity fa c to rs . Di s s a tls fie d Mean S a tis fa c tio n 62 67 75 57 63 58 30 86 24 9 20 22 27 20 40 7 4 .6 9 5.21 5.12 4.62 4.86 4.80 3 .72 5.93 51 54 59 73 58 94 46 41 35 25 27 4 4.04 4.23 4.42 5.06 4 .59 6.16 64 62 46 48 50 35 53 50 41 54 51 23 25 42 37 39 46 37 35 43 36 32 4.91 4.84 4 .08 4.19 4.10 3 .5 9 4 .32 4.21 3.87 4 .40 4.41 % of Sample Sati s fie d Job Facet % of Sample P r io r ity I : Teacher Work Achievement and Growth In te lle c tu a l stim ulatio n Social re la tio n sh ip s Sense of achievement Recognition of your work Teaching as lif e - t im e career O pportunities fo r study Promotion opportunities R elations with teachers P r io r ity I I : TeacherStudent In te ra c tio n Student learning a ttitu d e s Student behavlor-school Average achievement le v e ls Student behavior-class Student a b il it y le v e ls Relationships with students P r io r ity I I I : Resources Teacher Audio-visual resources Library resources Resource d is trib u tio n Useful advice School decision-making D is t r ic t decision-making Conditions of staffrooms Diagnostic services Useful In -s e rv ic e Conditions of classrooms Community f a c i l i t i e s 228 therefo re designated as p r io r it ie s fo r the commitment of management resources seeking s a tis fa c tio n improvement. Using th is process resulted 1n the fo rm ulatio n of the fo llo w in g satisfaction-im provem ent recommendati ons, presented 1n order of p r io r ity : Recommendation 1: O pportunities should be structured fo r teachers to enable career growth w ith in the teaching profession. That only 30% of the teachers sampled 1n th is study expressed s a tis fa c tio n w ith promotion op p o rtu n ities w ith in teaching established the p r io r ity of th is recommendation. Comments expressed by sample respondents suggested th a t "teaching is a dead-end s itu a tio n " and th a t "the lack of opportunity to grow career-w ise" a ffe c ts morale nega­ t iv e ly . "Career ladder" plans may hold some promise 1n providing meaningful stages to a teacher's career. As a re s u lt of experience and tra in in g , outstanding teachers would have opportunities fo r promotion 1n recognition of th e ir accomplishments 1n teaching. In commenting on career-lad d er plans, Boyer (1983) concurred w ith remarks made by teachers 1n th is study about the value of promotion op po rtu n ities: Two of the most troublesome aspects of the teaching profession are the lack of a career ladder and the le v e lin g o ff of s a la rie s. The iro n y is t h a t to " g e t ahead" in te a c h in g you must le a v e 1 t. . . . The lack of opportunity fo r advancement 1n teaching is in sharp contrast to other professions. . . . Good teachers must be recog­ nized and moved forward w ith in the profession, not outside 1t. (p. 179) 229 Recommendation 2: E ffe c tiv e means fo r recognizing the work of teachers should be established. A s iza b le proportion of the sample respondents expressed d is s a tis fa c tio n regarding the reco gnition they receive 1n t h e ir work. In part, a career-ladder program may provide some of the recognition teachers 1n our schools deserve. More than a d d itio n al pay and career stage 1s Im plied, however, by the kind of recognition sought here. According to Andrew, Parks, and Nelson (1985), "Recognition, both personal and public, is a powerful morale bu ild er. When teachers are valued, they feel good about themselves, about t h e ir work, and about others" (p. 3 9 ). Recommendation 3; O pportunities fo r fu rth e r formal study (i.e ., In u n iv ers ity , college, or in s t it u t e ) should be provided to ensure the continued In te lle c tu a l s tim u la tio n and growth of teachers. In te lle c tu a l s tim u la tio n and o p p o rtu n ities fo r fu rth e r formal study appear to be re la te d aspects of teacher work th a t do not y ie ld high le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n . Engaging teachers 1n meaningful chal­ lenges th a t face t h e ir school d i s t r ic t may provide addition al In t e lle c ­ tual stim u latio n . Helping teachers f a c i l i t a t e maximum achievement on the part of t h e ir students also may be In t e lle c t u a lly stim u latin g . Most teachers, however, could b e n e fit from the challenge provided by continued formal study. Healthy In d ivid u als seek o p p o rtu n ities fo r growth and development. Through these o p p o rtu n itie s , teachers develop competence, c o n fi­ dence, self-esteem , and the fe e lin g th a t they are f u l f i l l i n g t h e ir p o te n tia l. The r e s u lt 1s s a tis fa c tio n w ith s e lf , work, and others. (Andrew e t a l.» 1985, p. 47) 230 Reviving the concept of sabbatical leave may be a p o s itiv e step toward the In te lle c tu a l stim ulatio n and renewal of school teachers. The combined e ffe c t of career ladders, recognition programs, and study op portunities may contrib ute p o s itiv e ly to the s a tis fa c tio n teachers derive from the prospect of teaching as a H f e - t im e career. Each of the recommendations would help estab lish teacher achievement and growth as career foundations. Recommendation 4: School and d is tr ic t-w id e programs to fo s te r Improved student a ttitu d e s toward le arn in g should be established. A substantial proportion of the sample respondents (46%) reported le v e ls of d is s a tis fa c tio n with student a ttitu d e s toward learning. A sense of fru s tra tio n was evident from teacher comments about student learnin g a ttitu d e s . For example, one teacher noted, "I often fe e l a high level of fru s tra tio n when I have classes f u l l of students who do not want to learn." The management of schools, 1n cooperation with teachers, must be concerned w ith the development of serious-minded students who appre­ c ia te the value of learning. In each school, a c lim a te of high expec­ ta tio n must be developed in order fo r p o s itiv e le arn in g a ttitu d e s to become normative. Reward and recognition fo r those students meeting expectations are e s s e n tia l. Careful guidance and counseling fo r those students who are less than en th u siastic about learning also are neces­ sary. A d d itio n a lly , support must be forthcoming from the management of schools th a t upholds the teachers’ high standards and expectations fo r the academic achievement of students. 231 Recommendation 5: P o lic ie s and procedures re s u ltin g 1n Improved general student behavior 1n th e schools should be enacted. Sample teachers expressed higher le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n w ith the behavior of students 1n t h e ir classes than with io r of students w ith in the school. the general behav­ School management must take the lead 1n s tim u la tin g appropriate school behavior on the p a rt of stu­ dents. C le a rly , school behavior of students has Im p lic a tio n s fo r both teacher s a tis fa c tio n and school effectiveness. Order, d is c ip lin e , and a b u sin ess-like atmosphere are features of e ffe c tiv e schools. . . . Rules are f a i r l y enforced and d is c ip lin e procedures are uniform throughout the school. The re s u ltin g sense o f secu rity and order builds re s p o n s ib ility and a sense of pride. (Corcoran & Hansen, 1983, p. 10) Recommendation 6: Programs designed to boost student a b il it y and academic achievement should be Implemented. More than one-th1rd of the teachers sampled reported d is s a tis ­ fa c tio n with average achievement le v e ls of students. A d d itio n a lly , many teachers expressed d is s a tis fa c tio n w ith a b ilit y le v e ls of the students they taught. Past programs designed to boost the academic performance of students have freq uently been associated w ith Improved le v e ls of s t a ff morale. There 1s a p o s itiv e c o rre la tio n between high student achievement and high teacher morale. However, one cannot assume d ire c t causeand-effect re la tio n s h ip s from a p o s itiv e c o rre la tio n . Good morale may cause teachers to put more e f f o r t In to t h e ir work, thereby producing high student achievement; or the high student achievement may cause teachers to fe e l good about themselves and t h e ir work, thereby producing high morale. Regardless of the d ire c tio n of c a u s a lity , ad m in is tra to rs and teachers should s tr iv e to increase 232 both student achievement and s t a f f morale since both are highly desirable q u a litie s 1n any school system. (Andrew e t a l.» 1985, p. 42) Recommendation 7: Dec1 sion-making procedures a t both the d is t r ic t and school-building le v e ls should Incorporate meaningful teacher p a rtic ip a ­ tio n . Fewer than h a lf the teachers sampled 1n th is study expressed le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n w ith t h e ir Involvement 1n decision making. Comments from teachers on th is Issue ranged from ’Teachers are ra re ly asked fo r opinions or suggestions,” to ’’A dm inistrators do not consult or g iv e a u th o r ity to te a c h e rs . . . . as a machine.” school systems, I fe e l d riv e n by our p r in c ip a l, In t h e ir study of teacher morale in ten d iffe r e n t Andrew e t a l. (1985) concluded th a t ”1n the b e tter morale schools, there was g re a te r Involvement of teachers 1n decision making, p a rtic u la rly 1n those m atters th a t a ffe c te d them profession­ a lly : curriculum development, preparing p o licy and student handbooks, and planning s t a f f development programs” (p. 27). In the present study, teacher decision-making Involvement appeared p a rtic u la rly Impor­ ta n t when decisions concerned th e d is trib u tio n of resources w ith in school s. Recommendation 8: Provision fo r the e ffe c tiv e support and guidance of classroom teaching should be estab lished. The a v a ila b ilit y of useful advice on teaching problems and op portunities fo r useful In -s e rv ic e education were resources th a t did not generate very high le v e ls of teacher s a tis fa c tio n . Perhaps some of the most negative comments from sample teachers had to do with t h e ir extreme d is s a tis fa c tio n concerning o p p o rtu n ities fo r useful in -s e rv ic e 233 education. School d is t r ic t s must assume re s p o n s ib ility fo r the contin­ uing education and development of th e ir teachers. Furthermore, teach­ ers must have a close, tru s ted , and expert source of advice on teaching 1f we expect the q u a lity of in s tru c tio n to Improve. Recommendation 9: Provision of appropriate resources required by the In s tru c tio n a l process should take place. Some teacher s a tis fa c tio n w ith the a v a ila b ilit y of resources required by the in s tru c tio n a l process was evident. However, a large enough proportion of the sample teachers expressed d is s a tis fa c tio n 1n th is area to suggest th a t Improvement 1n the a v a ila b ilit y of teaching resources is a p r io r ity . F ru s tra tio n and disenchantment are the lo g i­ cal consequences of asking teachers to do t h e ir work with outdated equipment, textbooks, and inadequate supplies. Recommendation 10: Provision of properly maintained s t a ff and class­ room f a c i l i t i e s necessary fo r e ffe c tiv e teaching should take place. Again, a substantial proportion of the sample teachers in d i­ cated d is s a tis fa c tio n w ith conditions of classrooms and staffrooms. Teacher comments re fle c te d the need fo r a continued commitment on the p art of school management toward th e maintenance of appropriate envi­ ronments fo r the work of both students and teachers. These ten recommendations c o n s titu te a p r io r ity agenda of satisfaction-im provem ent e ffo r ts fo r the management of schools. As Sergiovannl (1967) suggested, however, sources of teacher d is s a tis fa c ­ tio n tend to be re la te d to the work environment and deserve a tte n tio n . School management should seek to temper or e lim in a te any source of 234 teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n Id e n tifie d w ith in the present study as resources perm it. The Improvement agenda suggested by findings 1n th is study compares favorably to Corcoran and Hansen's (1983) description of an e ffe c tiv e school. They wrote* The c r it ic a l conditions th a t m otivate and s a tis fy employees are met 1n e ffe c tiv e schools. There Is a sense of achievement* there Is recognition, the work is not narrowly prescribed* and s t a f f par­ t ic ip a t e in decisions a ffe c tin g t h e ir work. When teachers have such In centives, t h e ir p ro d u c tiv ity Increases and student achieve­ ment r ls e s . (p. 23) A fin a l recommendation stemming from the re su lts of th is study 1s th a t school management should develop s e n s itiv ity to varying le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n th a t accompany c e rta in Individual and schoolorganizatlon c h a ra c te ris tic s of teachers and the schools 1n which they work. For example, 1t was determined th a t beginning and la te -c a re e r teachers reported s ig n ific a n tly higher le v e ls of overall s a tis fa c tio n than m id-career teachers. To t r e a t these three groups of teachers in an Id e n tic a l manner ignores Im portant s a tis fa c tio n differences th a t have been id e n tifie d . D iffe r e n tia l management s tra te g ie s are suggested by the s a tis fa c tio n p ro file s of groups of teachers who vary according to career experience. Other In divid ual and school-organizatlon char­ a c te r is tic s are accompanied by s ig n ific a n t differences 1n s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls and compel a v a rie ty of management strateg ies. 235 Recommendations fo r Future Research on Job S a tis fa c tio n Recommendations fo r fu tu re research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n have been derived from several sources w ith in the present In vestig a­ tio n . F ir s t, recommendations concerning how to measure teacher job s a tis fa c tio n are Im plied by fin d in g s w ith in th is study. Second, short­ comings w ith in the present study lead to recommended Improvements fo r s im ila r research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . F in a lly , re s u lts from the present study suggest several new and meaningful d ire c tio n s fo r fu tu re research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Im portant recommendations concerning th e measurement of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n are im plied by fin ding s w ith in the present study. The f i r s t recommendation is th a t researchers in tere s ted in measuring teacher job s a tis fa c tio n should devise and use data-gather1ng in s tru ­ ments th a t are occupationally s e n s itiv e to teaching. This recommenda­ tio n was i n i t i a l l y offered by L o rtie (1975) when he suggested th a t "other sources o f s a tis fa c tio n . . . pale 1n comparison with teachers' exchanges with students" (p. 104). L o rtie 's suggestion was freq uently confirmed by findings w ith in the present study. Table 8 1s a presentation of the seven-factor varlmax rotated fa c to r m a trix o f jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores. The f i r s t fa c to r to emerge was teacher-student in te ra c tio n , which accounted fo r the la rg e s t amount of variance w ith in the jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores. A d d itio n a lly , th is fa c to r is reported 1n Table 23 as the fa c to r th a t accounts fo r the second la rg e s t amount of variance in ov e rall job s a tis fa c tio n scores. 236 A jo b -fa c e t Item w ith in th is fa c to r was #47: Your re la tio n s h ip w ith students. Data in Table 14 in d ic a te th a t th is sin g le fa c e t generated the highest mean jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n ra tin g (6.16) 1n comparison to a ll other job facets. Furthermore, th is same job fa c et generated the highest percentage of sample s a tis fie d (94%) of a ll the job facets (see Table 16). C le a rly , teacher-student In te ra c tio n 1s an im portant element toward understanding teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Researchers in v e s tig a t­ ing job a ttitu d e s of teachers w i ll l i m i t t h e ir understanding i f they f a l l to use measures th a t consider teacher-student In te ra c tio n . The second recommendation fo r researchers in terested In measuring teacher job s a tis fa c tio n Im plied by fin ding s w ith in th is study has to do with importance weighting jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores. On the basis of four separate analyses Included 1n th is study to determine the e ffic a c y of importance weighting job s a tis fa c tio n scores to improve the p red ictio n of o v e ra ll job s a tis fa c tio n , i t appears th a t weighting adds l i t t l e fa c tio n . to the p redictio n of overall s a tis ­ Because jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores appear to already express the value an in d iv id u a l assigns to a p a rtic u la r fa c e t, gather­ ing data from Importance measures and subsequently weighting fa c e t scores by Importance are not recommended practices 1n fu tu re research concerned w ith the measurement of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Several shortcomings w ith in th is study suggest recommended improvements fo r s im ila r teacher job s a tis fa c tio n research projects in the future. Although the usable return ra te of 53.81% was determined 237 acceptable on the basis of sample c r it e r ia established 1n th is study# other researchers may be able to Improve the ra te of return by surveying teachers a t a d iffe r e n t tim e during the school year. Admittedly# scheduling a survey for teachers to complete during the la s t fiv e weeks of the school year was a shortcoming w ith in the design of the present study. In several Instances# responding teachers pointed out the inconvenience caused by th is survey schedule. From a female elementary school teacher: Gee# I can't t e l l you how many of these surveys (supposedly my name was chosen a t random) I have f i l l e d out helping people lik e y o u rs e lf. This 1s a t e r r ib ly busy tim e of the year to send th is to me. Bad tim ing! From a female elementary school teacher: I t would be a good idea to send these out e a r lie r 1n the year. of the year 1s bad news! End To avoid inconveniencing sample respondents and to Increase the response rate# 1 t 1s recommended th a t teachers be surveyed before the end of the school year. The usable return ra te 1n th is study d iffe re d from the to ta l re tu rn ra te by only 31 surveys. The consistency 1n inform ation missing from these surveys# however# leads to the suggestion th a t m ulti page surveys be assembled 1n booklet form rath er than as several sing le pages. T w en ty-five of the surveys missing data were Incomplete in the same lo ca tio n (side 2 of page 2 of the survey# Items 52-71). The consistency of th is e rro r suggests th a t respondents simply missed seeing these questions. Perhaps 1f the survey had been assembled in booklet form# th is p a r tic u la r section may have been more obvious. 238 The fin a l shortcoming w ith in the design of the present study has to do w ith the s e le c tio n of the in d ivid u al and school-organlzation c h a ra c te ris tic s used to determine groups of teachers fo r difference te s tin g le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n . Although the analyses of s a tis fa c tio n differences between groups of teachers who varied on 17 d iffe r e n t in divid ual or school-organizatlon c h a ra c te ris tic s were meaningful, i t became evident th a t several c h a ra c te ris tic s functioned to describe the same group of teachers. For example, d ifferences in s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls between groups of teachers who varied according to the geo­ graphic nature of t h e ir employing school d i s t r ic t were determined. As i t turned out, m etropolitan core d is t r ic t s displayed the lowest le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . A dditional analyses determined th a t medium-salary d is t r ic t s , d is t r ic t s w ith greater than 10% m inority stu­ dents, d is t r ic t s w ith low student achievement, and d is t r ic t s w ith large student enrollm ents a l l tended to have lower le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Each of these c h a ra c te ris tic s describes m etropolitan core d is t r ic t s , and th e re fo re 1 t is d i f f i c u l t to determine which char­ a c te r is tic 1s most In f lu e n t ia l on the low le v e ls of s a tis fa c tio n e v i­ dent among teachers from these d is tr ic ts . Rather than deciding th a t th is problem resu lted from a shortcoming w ith in the present study, 1t seems more useful to suggest th a t th is and other concerns th a t surfaced Imply several meaningful p o s s ib ilitie s fo r fu tu re research on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Understanding what a ffe c ts teacher job s a tis fa c tio n 1n m etropolitan core d is tr ic t s should receive a high p r io r ity in fu tu re research on 239 s a tis fa c tio n . M etropolitan core d is t r ic t s were Id e n tifie d by findings In th is study as the school systems facing the most severe le v e ls of teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n . Consequently* these systems deserve In ten sive In terv e n tio n and assistance 1n developing work s e ttin g s th a t are more conducive to teacher s a tis fa c tio n . The ro le of research 1n such In terven tio n s should be prominent. Additional research 1s Im plied by the fin ding th a t only 49.9% of the variance 1n jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n scores was accounted fo r by the fa c to r-a n a ly s is procedure used in th is study. I t may be b e n e fic ial to continue to subject the Holdaway (1978) questionnaire to confirma­ tory fa c to r-a n a ly s is procedures. By frequently Introducing new job facets in to the questionnaire, an Improved accounting of jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n may occur, possibly leading to an Improved understanding of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . The a d m in is tra tio n of the survey during the la s t f iv e weeks of the school year also suggests p o s s ib ilitie s fo r fu tu re research. There is the concern th a t teacher job a ttitu d e s during th is portion of the school year are sy ste m a tic ally d iffe r e n t from teacher a ttitu d e s during other portions of the school year. This p o s s ib ility was suggested 1n comments from teachers in the present study. From a male high school teacher: At th is tim e of the school year as we approach summer vacation; students, teachers, and a ll other persons connected with school are tir e d . As a re s u lt of th is , a ttitu d e s and performance le v e ls are below any previous le v e l of the school year. This may be re fle c te d 1n my answers to questions stated here. 240 From a male high school teacher: I th in k my answers would have been d iffe r e n t had I f i l l e d the survey out In the f a l l or w inter. Spring Is a bad tim e of year fo r teachers. Everyone 1s tir e d and 1 t 1s hard to get students to work a t the same le v e l as e a r lie r 1n the year. This obviously a ffe c ts job s a tis fa c tio n . The proposition th a t le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n vary s ig n if i­ can tly from one point during the school year to another c e rta in ly has Im p lic a tio n s fo r the management of schools and c o n stitu tes meaningful t e r r it o r y fo r a d d itio n al research. F in a lly * numerous research p o s s ib ilitie s are evident from many aspects of the present In ve s tig atio n . Establishing an Improved under­ standing of why m id-career teachers experience a s a tls fa c tio n -lo w during th is portion of th e ir career may lead to d if fe r e n tia l treatm ent of th is group of teachers. In Michigan* the average school teacher 1s 1n m id-career* and a study of th is concern would be Im portant. Quanti­ fy in g th e deleterio u s e ffe c ts of sustained low le v e ls of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n on the health of teachers 1s Im perative, owing to the suggestion th a t d is s a tis fa c tio n and coronary and other health risks are re la te d (Fr11s* 1976). Researching an Improved understanding of the In te ra c tio n between a teacher’ s work l i f e and personal l i f e ; th e e ffe c t th a t pre- and In service tra in in g of teachers has on subsequent teacher career s a tis fa c tio n ; and th e re la tio n s h ip between s a tis fa c tio n , other v a ria b le s , and teacher p ro d u c tiv ity a ll c o n s titu te meaningful areas of fu tu r e research. The necessity fo r continued Inquiry In to the nature and causes of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n was best summarized by Gruneberg (1976): 241 What then can studies of job s a tis fa c tio n o ffe r the p ra c ti­ tio n e r. . . ? There 1s no panacea# no magic wand which w i ll transform a lie n ate d In d iv id u a ls In to happy# contented# hardworking# h igh-q u ality# h lg h -q u an tity producers. Studies of job s a tis fa c tio n . . . serve to emphasize th a t to ta c k le the problems o f job s a tis fa c tio n Involves an understanding of what expectations and values in d iv id u a ls have# and an under­ standing th a t such expectations and values can vary from group to group# and between In d iv id u a ls w ith in a group, (p. x1) A P P EN DI CE S APPENDIX A SUMMARY REVIEWS OF 55 TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION STUDIES 244 S tudy: Hoppock, Subjects: Measure: 1960 23 people engaged 1n a v a rie ty of occupations Job S a tis fa c tio n Inquiry Blank No. 5 (Hoppock, 1935) Purpose: The purpose of th is research was to conduct a longitudinal study of the changes 1n reported le v e ls of job s a tis fa c tio n of a group o f 40 In d iv id u a ls o r ig in a ll y surveyed in 1935 and resurveyed In 1959. Findings: Job s a tis fa c tio n increased in 17 of 23 cases. The greatest increases 1n job s a tis fa c tio n were achieved by those who changed jobs. For the only teacher in the sample, the holding power of his teaching position re su lts from being able to have several "second jobs." "I think I have been content to stay because over the years I have devel­ oped a number of p a r t-tim e a c t i v i t i e s which supplement my income con­ s id e ra b ly ." Study: B u tle r , 1961 Subjects: 79 f i r s t - y e a r teachers from the University of I l l i n o i s College of Education Measure: Form U niv e rsity of I l l i n o i s Teacher Graduate Follow-Up Inquiry Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to determine the d is s a tis fa c ­ tions th a t cause beginning teachers to leave the profession. Findings: B u tle r found t h a t "there is a d ire c t relationsh ip between job s a tis fa c tio n and the re te n tio n of beginning teachers." The most s ig n if ic a n t causes of job s a tis fa c tio n or lack of s a tis fa c tio n fo r these teachers are (1) t h e i r feeling s toward the adm inistration of the school, (2) t h e i r feelings of freedom in the classroom or the lack of 1t, (3) whether or not they feel involved 1n school policy making, (4) feelings of freedom to t r y Ideas or the lack of 1t» (5) feelings of being or not being heard with regard to school policy decisions a ffe c tin g teachers. Study: Rudd and Wiseman, 1962 Subjects: 590 teacher graduates from the University of Manchester School of Education Class of 1955 Measure: A single-question measure was used, asking subjects to estim ate t h e ir current level of professional s a tis fa c tio n . In 245 addition* each subject was asked to 11st his/her ch ie f sources of professional d is s a tis fa c tio n . Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to In vestig ate the relationsh ip between q u a lific a tio n s of students on entry to University of Manchester t r a in in g programs* t h e ir performance during tra in in g * and t h e i r subse­ quent success in the teaching profession. Findings: Ninety-one and seven-tenths percent of the subjects had experienced a high measure of s a tis fa c tio n 1n the profession. Men teachers 1n grammar schools appeared to derive the most s a tis fa c tio n compared to female subjects teaching in In fa n t schools. Major areas of d is s a tis fa c tio n Included salaries* poor human re la tio n s among s ta ff* inadequate buildings and equipment* high teaching load, tra in in g Inadequacies, large classes, expressions of personal inadequacy, lack of time fo r c e rta in professional duties* and low status of the professional in society. Study: Bienenstok, 1964 Subjects: 1,349 ju n io r high teachers 1n New York Measure: A questionnaire was developed s p e c if ic a lly fo r t h is study, seeking to Id e n tify the s tra in s associated in ju n io r high teaching. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to determine why teacher turnover is so high a t t h is level and why ju n io r high teaching is r e l a t iv e ly u n a ttra c tiv e. Findings: The holding power of the ju n io r high is p a r tic u la r ly weak among young teachers of both sexes* but more so among men. Forty-two percent of the subjects f e l t th a t beginning teachers received I n s u f f i ­ c ie n t help and support from t h e ir superiors. More than 75% of the subjects considered maintaining d is c ip lin e as a primary source of s tra in and d is s a tis fa c tio n . Low career p re s tig e /s ta tu s , l i t t l e leeway in making professional decisions, and lim it e d opportunity to apply academic knowledge contribute to teacher d is s a tis fa c tio n . Study: G o ttlie b * 1964 Subjects: A to ta l of 89 elementary school teachers from s ix public schools of a medium-sized in d u s tria l community 1n the Midwest were the subjects of t h is research. Measure: Data on job s a tis fa c tio n and other aspects of th is study were obtained through in terview s and a paper-and-pencil questionnaire. 246 Descriptions of the Interview and questionnaire were not reported by the author. Purpose: The primary purpose of th is study was to ascertain d i f f e r ­ ences in the a ttitu d e s of Negro and white elementary school teachers toward Negro and white pupils and toward t h e i r jobs. Findings: The Negro teachers were more s a t is f ie d with t h e ir current teaching positions than were the white teachers. Among reasons fo r the job d is s a tis fa c tio n , Negro teachers l i s t e d large classes, poor equip­ ment, Inadequate supplies, and the lack of proper curriculum, while white teachers emphasized the lack of a b i l i t y of students, t h e ir poor m otivation, d is c ip lin e problems, and parents who were not concerned with the education of t h e ir children. Study: Trusty and Sergiovannl, 1966 Subjects: 233 public school teachers drawn from a suburban Rochester, New York, school d i s t r i c t Measure: A modified version of Porter's (1963) Needs Deficiency Survey was used by th is study. The instrument examines Maslow’ s human needs categories and produces a score th a t represents the d ifference between the degree to which an individual perceives h is /h e r needs being met on the job and how much the individual thinks he/she needs. Purpose: The In te r e s t of th is study was 1n determining differences 1n need d eficien cies of teachers when grouped by age, years of experience, sex, and professional ro le . Findings: I t was found t h a t female teachers perceived sm aller need defic ie n cies than male teachers a t a ll le v e ls of the Maslow hierarchy of needs, with the exception of security. Need d e fic ie n c ie s tended to be greatest fo r the 25-35 age group with s im ila r re s u lts fo r teachers with 5-12 years of experience. The la rg e s t need d e fic ie n cies also appeared among ju n io r-s e n io r high school teachers. Study: Sergiovannl, 1967 Subjects: 127 respondents were selected fo r Interview from 3,382 teachers in Monroe County, New York, school d i s t r i c t s . Measure: This study replicated Herzberg's (1959) c r i t i c a l Incidents approach in which teachers are asked to report Incidents when they f e l t exceptionally good or bad about being a teacher and then t e l l what brought about these fee lin g s . 247 Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was (1) to determine whether or not the facto rs reported by teachers would d is tr ib u te themselves In to mutually exclusive s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n categories and (2) to assess the d is trib u tio n of factors in terms of v a ria tio n s resu lting from subpopulations of teachers established on such factors as sex, tenure status* and school le v e l. Findings: The results of th is study Indicated t h a t achievement* recog­ n itio n , and re s p o n s ib ility were factors th a t contributed predominantly t o teacher job s a tis fa c tio n . Interpersonal r e la tio n s with students and colleagues, supervision-technical* school policy and adm inistratio n, personal l i f e , and fairness-unfairness were factors t h a t contributed predominantly to teacher job d is s a tis fa c tio n . Other factors were b i pol ar. Study: Adair, 1968 Subjects: A random sample of secondary school teachers in a s1x-county area of upstate New York was chosen fo r th is study. Sample size was not reported. Measure: This study rep lic a te d Herzberg's (1959) c r i t i c a l incidents approach 1n which teachers are asked to report incidents when they f e l t exceptionally good or bad about being a teacher and then t e l l what brought about these fee lin g s . Purpose: The purpose of th is study was to determine job factors th a t lead to e ith e r s a tis fa c tio n or d is s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers. Findings: The job factors th a t serve to motivate the individual were d i f f e r e n t factors e n t ir e ly from those that promote d is s a tis fa c tio n . Sense of achievement, successful job performance, finding solutions to problems, and seeing the re su lts of one's own work were the job factors t h a t resulted 1n the greatest number of reported good feelings. Inade­ quacy of school organization and management is the fa c to r responsible for the greatest number of d is s a tis fie d teachers. Study: Perkes, 1968 Subjects: Teachers w ith in selected C a lifo r n ia school d i s t r i c t s a t the ju n io r and senior high school le v e ls were chosen to p a r tic ip a te 1n th is study. Sample size was not reported. Measure: The Purdue Teacher Opinionnalre was used to sample teacher s a tis fa c tio n with various dimensions of t h e ir work. 248 Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to In ve s tig ate ju n io r high school teacher s a tis fa c tio n 1n an e f f o r t to uncover Information th a t might serve as a guide 1n taking steps to am eliorate the ju n io r high s ta ffin g problem and to t e s t some assumptions th a t pervade commentaries on ju n io r high school teachers. Findings: I t was found t h a t ju n io r high school teachers expressed s ig n if ic a n t ly higher le v e ls of job d is s a tis fa c tio n than t h e ir counter­ parts a t the high school le v e l. The major source of d is s a tis fa c tio n a t the ju n io r high level focused on teacher-student in teraction. Teachers who were younger and those with less experience indicated t h a t student behavior was more troublesome. Study: Hornstein, Callahan, Fisch, and Benedict* 1968 Subjects: Data for th is in v e s tig a tio n were collected from 325 primary school teachers who worked in 14 d if fe r e n t school buildings in each of two p a rtic ip a tin g school systems. Measure: Among other concepts measured* teacher job s a tis fa c tio n was assessed in th is study through the use of a survey modeled a ft e r Backman e t a l. (1966). The s a tis fa c tio n portion of the survey considered the teachers' evaluation of the school system* t h e i r s a tis fa c tio n with t h e i r prin cip a l* and t h e i r perception of student s a tis fa c tio n with teacher performance. Purpose: This study investigated the relationsh ip between employees' s a tis fa c tio n and the perceived degree of influence employees e xert on organizational decision making in the public school s e ttin g . Findings: The re su lts indicated th a t higher w lth in -b u ild in g in te rp e r­ sonal influence for teachers and p rin cipals and a reliance on expert power* as opposed to reward, coercive or le g itim a te power, are asso­ ciated with (1) more favorable evaluations of the school system, (2) greater s a tis fa c tio n with the p rin c ip a l, and (3) a tendency to perceive students to be more s a t is fie d with t h e i r teachers. Study: H ara lick , 1968 Subjects: The data for t h is study were obtained from an analysis of the questionnaire responses of 1,250 teachers in 108 North Carolina elementary schools. Measure: In addition to a s1x-1tem measure rating t h e i r prin cip a ls and a thre e -ite m measure of principal autocracy, teachers also responded to a two-item index of overall work s a tis fa c tio n . 249 Purpose: This study focused on the relationship between school p r in c i­ pals and classroom teachers. S p e c ific a lly * the study sought support fo r the argument t h a t teachers' job s a tis fa c tio n would be more posi­ t i v e l y Influenced by the p rin c ip a l's po sitive compliance with the teachers' group norms than by a "democratic" s ty le of leadership. Findings: I t appears from th is study th a t a principal's compliance with s p e c ific work-related norms held by the teachers 1s more Important to teacher s a tis fa c tio n than is the degree of democratic behavior displayed by the p rin c ip a l. Study: Fraser* 1970 Subjects: 315 public school teachers from a s t r a t i f i e d sample of subjects representing schools 1n A ustralia, New Zealand, and the United States Measure: Among other tasks* subjects were asked to specify sources of s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n in t h e ir career as school teachers. Purpose: The primary purpose of th is study was to in vestig ate the re la tio n s h ip between school c h a ra c te ris tic s and teacher reactions. Findings: Each of 11 school c h a ra c te ris tic s was id e n t if ie d as having a s ig n if ic a n t e f f e c t on teacher job s a tis fa c tio n and/or teacher commit­ ment to the organization. These c h a ra c te ris tic s ranged from level of school through average years teaching experience of s t a f f . • Study: • • • • Check* 1971 Subjects: 119 veteran school teachers attending graduate coursework a t the U niversity of Wisconsin-Oshkosh Measure: An 11-item questionnaire r e la tin g to classroom In structio n and the consequent a ttitu d e s and impressions th a t persons in the profes­ sion have toward teaching Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to determine the most fr e ­ quently mentioned sources of d is s a tis fa c tio n and to rank order t h e i r seriousness according to teachers. Findings: The most frequently mentioned and serious problem Id e n t ifie d by subjects was "too much menial task unrelated to actual In stru c tio n ." Second in order of d is s a tis fa c tio n was "salary and benefits." "Poor adm inistration of schools" was the th ird theme of d is s a tis fa c tio n . 250 S tud y: D a v is o n , 1971 Subjects: 230 public secondary school teachers 1n the metropolitan area of B uffalo, New York, who were beginning t h e ir second year of teaching service Measure: Subjects were presented s ix value statements th a t represented s a tis fa c tio n categories fo r teachers and were asked to rate the poten­ t i a l of t h e i r present job in terms of the job's a b i l i t y to provide s a tis fa c tio n in each category. Purpose: To establish the extent to which job s a tis fa c tio n was being r e a liz e d in a teacher's i n i t i a l teaching position and to id e n tify organizational preferences t h a t are viewed as providing greater opportunities fo r career f u l f i l l m e n t were the two objectives of t h is study. Findings: I t was found t h a t few teachers with minimal work s a tis fa c ­ tio n expressed any strong desire in leaving t h e ir present position. When teachers described a preferred organizational s etting, a percep­ tio n of b e tte r students was the prevailin g concern. Study: Cough!an, 1971 Subjects: A sample of 192 teachers from 11 middle-class matched subur­ ban high schools was selected to obtain groups of s im ila r-ty p e teachers operating with comparable subcultural environments. Measure: As one component of a multimeasure questionnaire, teacher job s a tis fa c tio n 1n t h is study was determined by a 125-item, s e lf-r e p o r tin g Inventory c a lle d the School Survey. Constructed to measure the teach­ ers' a ttitu d e s toward s p e c ific aspects of t h e ir work environment, th is Instrument yielded a 1 3 -fa c to r solution to explain teacher s a tis fa c tio n percepti ons. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to analyze the e ffe c ts of organizational stru c tu re and work values on job s a tis fac tio n . Two questions focused the research: How do work values Influence job s a tis fa c tio n in the school? and In what ways does s a tis fa c tio n vary in the r e l a t i v e l y closed and open organizational systems? Findings: The findings suggest th a t teachers are largely in agreement w ith in t h e i r own group regarding t h e i r perceptions of key factors 1n t h e i r work environment Irre s p e c tiv e of personal needs or goals. In the r e l a t i v e l y open school system, (1) the teachers as a group were sig­ n i f ic a n t ly more s a tis fie d with t h e i r system adm inistration, In stru c ­ tio n a l program, and fin a n c ia l incentives; and (2) they were s i g n i f i ­ cantly divided among themselves according to work values with respect 251 to colleague re la tio n s . In the r e l a t iv e ly closed system, the major concerns of the teacher groups were focused upwardly In v e r t ic a l re la ­ tions; s t a f f members were concerned about aspects of the work r e la t io n ­ ship more d ir e c t ly under the influence and control of hierarchical superordi nates. Study: Grassle and Carss, 1972 Subjects: 574 teachers from 14 metropolitan high schools 1n Brisbane, Austral 1 a Measure: Among several measures comprising a comprehensive survey instrument, A1den and Hage’ s S a tis fa ctio n Scale (1967) was used to c o lle c t data regarding teacher s a tis fa c tio n with both work and colleagues. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to examine the relationships th a t e x is t between school structure, i.e., formal a d m in is tra tiv e r e la ­ tionships, and leadership q u a lity on the one hand, and, on the other, teachers’ s a tis fa c tio n with t h e ir work and with t h e ir colleagues, taking in to consideration the o rientatio ns teachers have to teaching as an occupation. Findings: In th is study, i t was revealed t h a t teachers who have a high level of professional o rie n ta tio n toward teaching also w i l l have le vels of s a tis fa c tio n th a t are responsive to organizational stru c tu re and leadership q u a lity . These teachers are more l i k e l y to express s a tis ­ fa c tion with work in a s e ttin g characterized by considerate and th ru s t­ fu l leadership and the opportunity to p a rtic ip a te 1n decisions about policy and programs, and by the absence of a r ig id hierarchy of author­ i t y and detailed organizational constraint. Study: Greenwood and Soar, 1973 Subjects: 39 female elementary teachers in kindergarten through second grade Follow-Through programs located 1n six d if fe r e n t states Measure: To assess teacher morale, subjects completed the Purdue Teacher Opinionnalre, a 100-item s e lf - r e p o r t teacher morale instrument (Bentley & Rempel, 1967). S a tis fa ctio n with teaching is one of ten fa c to r dimensions assessed by the instrument. The Reciprocal Category System (Ober, Wood, & Roberts, 1968) was used to assess teacher commu­ nica tio n. 252 Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to explore relationsh ips th a t might e x is t between teacher morale and c e rta in verbal classroom behaviors recorded by systematic observation. Findings: I f smaller amounts of teacher t a lk , greater amounts of pup 11—pupi1 t a l k , and greater teacher acceptance of pupils are seen as aspects of good teaching, the s ig n ific a n t re lationsh ips revealed in th is study could generally be summarized as an association between aspects of good teaching and aspects of higher morale. Study: Lacy, 1973 Subjects: The data base fo r th is study comprised 240 randomly selected business education teachers (an 80.1% response rate) from Ohio c it y , county, and exempted v ill a g e school d i s t r ic t s . Measure: A job s a tis fa c tio n scale th a t re la te d to teachers' s a tis fa c ­ tio n with t h e ir present teaching positions was devised fo r th is study. Purpose: The purposes of th is study were to determine i f selected factors a ffe c t the job s a tis fa c tio n of business teachers in public high schools in Ohio and to determine whether teachers teaching in nontraditio n a l business education programs are more s a tis f ie d with t h e i r jobs than teachers 1n t r a d it io n a l business education programs. Findings: I t was found t h a t teacher job s a tis fa c tio n 1s affected by a number of factors including the community, frin g e b enefits, school adm inistrators, students in class, teaching load, fin an cial support provided the business education department, helpful supervision, teaching experience, and others. There were no s ig n if ic a n t differences in s a tis fa c tio n le v e ls between t r a d it io n a l and nontraditional business education teachers. Study: Miskel and Gerhardt, 1974 Subjects: 642 Kansas public school teachers (a response ra te of 80%) drawn from 311 of the s ta te 's school d i s t r i c t s Measure: A multi measure survey was developed, including use of the C o n flic t Assessment Questionnaire (Corwin, 1963); the School Organiza­ t io n Inventory (Robinson, 1965); and a 12-item S a tis fa c tio n , Central L ife In tere s ts, and Voluntarism scale. Purpose: The purpose of th is study was to explore two hypothesized relationsh ips: (1) th a t hierarchy of a u th o rity and rules and regulations in conjunction with selected demographic variab le s w i l l be 253 s ig n ific a n t predictors of the c o n f lic t In te n s ity experienced by teachers and (2) t h a t c o n f lic t In ten sity* as moderated by central l i f e In te re s ts and voluntarism w i l l be s ig n ific a n t predictors of the teacher's job s a tis fa c tio n le v e l. Findings: Generally* both hypothesized relationsh ips (hierarchy of autho rity and rules and regulations) were found to be p re d ic tiv e of c o n f l ic t in ten sity. I t was found th a t c o n f lic t t o t a l* voluntarism* and central l i f e in te r e s t were s ig n ific a n t predictors of s a tis fa c tio n . Study: Eubanks, 1974 Subjects: The sample fo r th is study comprised 97 randomly selected teachers (an 80.8% response rate) from the de facto segregated high schools in a large midwestern c it y . Measure: Data were obtained by using an adaptation of a questionnaire devised by S pillane (1966). The questionnaire encompassed a general range of concerns related to job s a tis fa c tio n ; teacher-student re la ­ tions; school status; a tt r ib u t e s essential fo r the success of a teacher; and behavioral, emotional* and social c h a ra c te ris tic s of stu­ dents 1n schools. Purpose: The purposes of th is study were to determine i f there were s ig n if ic a n t differences between (1) the perceptions of teachers 1n black high schools as compared to teachers 1n white high schools and (2) the perceptions of black teachers in black high schools as compared to white teachers 1n black high schools on several variables Including job s a tis fa c tio n . Findings: In terms of job s a tis fa c tio n , i t was found t h a t teachers in white high schools rated s ig n if ic a n tly higher on job s a tis fa c tio n than teachers 1n black high schools. Further, black teachers in black high schools did not d i f f e r s ig n if ic a n t ly from white teachers in black high schools on t h e i r ratings of job s a tis fa c tio n . Study: National Education Association, 1975 Subjects: A nationwide sample of public school teachers (sample size not reported) Measure: 1975 NEA Teacher Opinion Poll Purpose: The NEA conducts periodic assessments of teachers' a ttitu d e s concerning the teaching profession and problems* challenges, and condi­ tions confronting teachers. 254 Findings: In responding to the question, " I f you could make one change th a t would Improve your own morale or professional s a tis fa c tio n as a teacher, what would the change be?" the follow ing percentages of the sampled teachers answered: lower class size, 10.9%; improve curricu­ lum, 9.9%; b e tte r/fe w e r adm inistrators, 9.4%; higher salary, 8.6%; improved d is c ip lin e , 7.4%; b e tte r re lationsh ips w ithin school, 6.5%; greater voice 1n policy determination, 6.3%; professional Improvement, 6.0%; more planning time, 5.3%; more time to teach, 5.2%; support from parents and community, 4.8%; and more status as a profession, 4.1%. Study: Miskel, Glasnapp, and H atley, 1975 Subjects: A random sample of 3,331 Kansas public school teachers produced 2,224 usable returns (a response ra te of 74.3%) fo r analysis 1n t h is study. Measure: A th re e -p a rt survey consisting of four Instruments was admin­ is te red in th is study. Job s a tis fa c tio n was measured with a series of s ix Items s im ila r to "I am somewhat d is s a tis fie d with my job." A f i v e category L ik e rt-ty p e response set enabled subjects to rate t h e ir degree of agreement with each statement. Purpose: The purposes of th is study were to build a th e o re tic a l model fo r job s a tis fa c tio n and to t e s t i t s p re d ic tiv e efficacy using six educator groups. Findings: The findings of the study tend to support the inequity hypothesis; however, the posited Inequity relationsh ips with job s a tis fa c tio n achieved low beta weights, and the amounts of explained variance were low. The strongest support fo r the model was found in re la tio n to the Intervening status of the primary l i f e in te re s t va riab le. With the exception of the scores fo r central o ffic e adm inistrators, th is v a ria b le exhibited a s ig n ific a n t beta weight fo r a ll groups, in d ic a tin g th a t the greater the primary l i f e in te re s ts were in the job, the higher was the level of s a tis fa c tio n . Study: Holdaway, 1978 Subjects: Responses from 801 Alberta public school teachers (a 58% response ra te ) provided the data base fo r th is study. Measure: A new questionnaire was constructed fo r the study, asking teachers to ra te th e ir degree of s a tis fa c tio n with 58 named facets re la ted to t h e i r work and working conditions. 255 Purpose: The main purpose of t h is study was the examination of the relatio n s h ip between o v e ra ll and jo b - f a c e t s a tis fa c tio n of public school teachers 1n order to comment on the value of Herzberg’s formulation concerning s a tls f a c t io n /d ls s a tis f a c t io n and m otivation/ hygiene fa c to rs . Findings: For both the free-response and scaled-response questions# the " In t r in s i c ” facets were most closely re la ted with overall s a tis fa c ­ tion. C orrelation analysis showed t h a t overall s a tis fa c tio n was most highly re la ted to s a tis fa c tio n with achievement# career orientation# recognition# and In t e lle c t u a l stim ulation. Factor analysis revealed a f f i l i a t i o n between overall s a tis fa c tio n and societal attitudes# status# recognition# achievement# career orientations# and in t e lle c t u a l stim ulation. "Working with students" was Included most commonly in the fre e responses as the major source of overall s a tis fac tio n . The study provided general support f o r Herzberg's tw o -factor theory# but only 1n the sense th a t the theory re la te s to overall satisfaction# rather than to motivation. Study: Schackmuth# 1979 Subjects: 219 elementary school teachers (a response rate of 55%) from Valley View Community U nit D i s t r i c t 365# Bolingbrook# I l l i n o i s Measure: Measure not Id e n t if ie d 1n the reporting of th is study Purpose: To examine the occupational ro le of the elementary school teacher 1n the organizational se tting of the elementary school system. Findings: In examining the bureaucratic atmosphere of schools# the study found t h a t as the le v e l of bureaucracy increases# no s ig n ific a n t decrease in teachers' professional self-im age can be expected. More Important# the study presented strong evidence th a t as the professional self-images of teachers increased# the level of work s a tis fa c tio n also Increased. Finally# as the level of bureaucracy 1n the school increased# no s ig n if ic a n t decrease 1n teacher job s a tis fa c tio n could be detected. Study: Miskel# Fevurly# and Stewart# 1979 Subjects: 1>619 teachers (a response ra te of 93%) from one parochial and 11 public schools including schools from rural# suburban# and urban settlngs 256 Measure: A s1x-item Instrument designed to assess teacher overall a ff e c t iv e o rie n ta tio n toward the job (Miskel, Glasnapp, & Hatley# 1975) was used. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to build on the l i t e r a t u r e dealing with school configurations, Interpersonal processes, and performance indicators. Perceived organizational effectiveness, lo y a lty , and job s a tis fa c tio n were employed as dependent v a riab le outcomes approximating organizational performance. Findings: I t was found t h a t more e ffe c tiv e schools, as perceived by teachers, are characterized by more p a r tic ip a tiv e organizational pro­ cesses, less c e n tra liz e d decision-making structures, more formalized general rules, and more professional a c t iv it y . Four variables emerged as s ig n ific a n t predictors of job s a tis fa c tio n , including (1) high fo rm a liz a tio n on general rules fo r teachers, (2) low c e n tr a liz a tio n on decision making fo r in s tru c tio n and curriculum, (3) p a r tic ip a tiv e prin­ cipal leadership, and (4) schools with more experienced principals. Study: Kyriacou and S u t c l i f f e , 1979 Subjects: 218 teachers in 16 medium-sized mixed comprehensive schools 1n England Measure: A s in g le -ite m s e lf - r e p o r t measure of overall job s a tis fa c tio n asked: " O v era ll, how s a tis f ie d are you with teaching as a job?" Purpose: To in v e s tig a te the association between s e lf-rep o rted teacher stress and three response c orrelates of teacher stress: job s a tis fa c ­ tio n , absenteeism, and in te n tio n to leave teaching. Findings: I t was found in t h is study th a t 72.5% of the teachers were very s a t is f ie d or f a i r l y s a t is f ie d with teaching. A negative associa­ tion between s e lf-re p o rte d teacher stress and job s a tis fa c tio n emerged. A d d itio n a lly , 1t was found t h a t a p o sitiv e association between s e lf reported teacher stress and in ten tio n to leave teaching existed. About 24% of the respondents indicated t h a t 1t was f a i r l y or very unlikely th a t they would s t i l l be a teacher 1n 10 years. I t appears th a t conditions of work ra th e r than the experience of teaching (the work i t s e l f ) may provide the sources of stress th a t most strongly contribute to job d is s a tis fa c tio n and in ten tio n to leave teaching. 257 S tudy: M cG uire, 1979 Subjects: A random sample of public school teachers from across the United States (sample size not reported) Measure: The National Education Association 1979 version of the Teacher Opinion Poll Purpose: The National Education Association conducts periodic assess­ ments of teachers' perceptions concerning the teaching profession and problems, challenges, and conditions confronting teachers. Findings: The re su lts of th is study revealed th a t one-th1rd of those teaching now would not go In to teaching 1 f they could go back to college and s t a r t again. Only 60% plan to remain 1n teaching u n til retirem ent. Physical assaults against teachers are up, with 1 1n every 20 teachers having been assaulted on school property during 1978-79. Study: Bentzen, William s, and Heckman, 1980 Subjects: 1,334 teachers from a wide v a rie ty of American public schools, including teachers from elementary, ju n io r h1gh/m1ddle, and senior high schools Measure: A three-question measure of overall s a tis fa c tio n was devised fo r th is study, including (1) "I usually look forward to each working day a t th is school (yes/no)? (2) "Looking back on your expectations before you sta rte d your career, were those expectations f u l f i l l e d (yes/no)?" (3) " I f you had 1t to do over again, would you choose education as a profession (yes/no)?" Purpose: To a r r iv e a t a b e tte r understanding of the adult experience 1n schools, including the experience of teachers, s p e c ia lis ts , li b r a r ia n s , counselors, p rin c ip a ls , and v1ce-princ1pals. Findings: O verall, 1t was found th a t 75% of the teachers agreed with statements t h a t were considered In d ic a tiv e of job s a tis fa c tio n . However, only 12% of a ll the sample teachers agreed strongly with those statements. A s lig h t tendency fo r teachers 1n higher-lncome communities and 1n more suburban communities to express greater s a tis fa c tio n was evident. S a tis fa c tio n v a ria tio n between teachers grouped on the basis of school building level was more apparent. The spread of scores Indicated t h a t elementary were the best s a t is f ie d , followed by ju n io r high and senior high, 1n th a t order. 258 S tu d y: B rid g e s . 1980 Subjects: The sample for th is study comprised 488 elementary teachers working in 36 schools. Measure: The Job D escriptive Index developed by Smith. Kendall.and Hulin (1969) was used to measure job s a tis fa c tio n . Purpose: The major purpose of th is study was to determine the re la tio n s h ip between job s a tis fa c tio n and teacher absenteeism. Findings: The relationsh ip between job s a t is fa c tio n and absenteeism among elementary school teachers 1s tenuous. In none of the 12 m u ltip le regression analyses performed in t h is study did the shared variance exceed 7%. suggesting th a t job s a tis fa c tio n is not a major fa c to r in absenteei sm. Study: Khan and Traub. 1980 Subjects: Eighty-seven teachers who s ta ffe d s ix schools of a southern Ontario, Canada, school d i s t r i c t were respondents in th is study. Measure: The A ttitude Toward Teaching Scale was adapted fo r th is study from work done by Shaw and Wright (1967). This scale purports to measure teacher s a tis fa c tio n in terms of work load, the teaching pro­ cess, and the value of teaching as a career. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to assess differences 1n teachers' a ttitu d e s toward education in general, teaching as a profession (job s a tis fa c tio n ), pupils, and educational Innovations between schools th a t d iffe re d s ystem atically 1n openness of educational program and openness of a rch ite ctu re . Findings: I t was concluded th a t those teachers who conducted a more open program and/or who taught in an a r c h it e c t u r a lly open school had s ig n if ic a n t ly more p o sitiv e a ttitu d e s (including s a tis fa c tio n ) than those teachers who conducted a less open program and/or who taught in a school th a t was e ith e r a r c h ite c tu r a lly closed or a mixture of open and closed arch itectu res. Study: National Education Association, 1980 Subjects: 1,738 public school teachers p a r tic ip a tin g in a random sample of teachers from across the United States Measure: NEA's 1980 Nationwide Teacher Opinion Poll 259 Purpose: To continue the periodic assessment of teacher job sentiments Findings: T h i r t y - f i v e percent of the sampled public school teachers were d is s a tis fie d with t h e i r current jobs as teachers. Forty-one percent would probably not become teachers again. A higher percentage of male teachers than female teachers were d is s a tis fie d . Secondary teachers were more d is s a tis fie d than elementary teachers. Teachers who taught 1n school systems with over 25,000 students were a l i t t l e more l i k e l y than other teachers to be d is s a tis fie d with t h e ir jobs. Public a ttitu d e s toward schools, media treatm ent of education, student a t t i ­ tudes toward learning, and salary exerted a negative e f f e c t on job s a tis fa c tio n according to the m ajority of poll respondents. Study: Parkhouse and Holmen, 1980 Subjects: Forty-nine physical education fa c u lty in three in n e r-c ity and three suburban Los Angeles area high schools made up the sample in th is study. Measure: The Job Descriptive Index (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969) was used in th is study to measure job s a tis fa c tio n . Purpose: The purpose of th is study was to determine whether fa culty in suburban and 1nner-city schools d iffe re d with respect to job s a tis fa c ­ tio n . Findings: The resu lts of th is study led to the suggestion th a t impor­ ta n t differences e x is t between i n t r i n s i c and e x t r in s ic job s a tis fa c ­ tion. Suburban faculty were s a t is f ie d with i n t r i n s i c aspects (work, colleagues, and supervision) and d is s a t is f ie d with the e x t r in s ic compo­ nent of pay. Conversely, the 1nner-c1ty subjects reported s a tis fa c tio n with pay and d is s a tis fa c tio n with work, co-workers, and supervision. Study: National Education Association, 1981 Subjects: Public school teachers from across the United States; sample size was not reported. Measure: NEA»s 1981 Nationwide Teacher Opinion Poll Purpose: To continue the periodic assessment of teacher job sentiments. Findings: More than one-third (37%) of the sampled teachers were d is s a tis fie d with t h e ir jobs. A greater proportion of men (42%) than 260 women (33%) were dissatisfied# and teachers 1n large c i t i e s and suburbs were more d is s a tis fie d than other teachers. F o rty -fiv e percent of the sampled teachers said they probably would not become a teacher 1f they could s t a r t over again. Study: Davis# 1981 Subjects: 246 public school physical education teachers 1n F a ir f ie l d County# Connecticut Measure: A job s a tis fa c tio n survey was used In t h is study e n t it le d JOBSAT, which was developed a t the University of Michigan I n s t i t u t e fo r Social Research by Quinn and Shepard (1974). Purpose: The purpose of t h i s study was to expand job s a tis fa c tio n l i t e r a t u r e to include a description of the sources of v a ria tio n in the overall job s a tis fa c tio n of physical education teachers. Findings: Dimensions found to predict job s a tis fa c tio n Included (1) e s p r it (morale) of the teacher’s group; (2) professional commitment of the individual physical educator; (3) consideration leader behavior of the physical education program leader; and (4) disengagement (nonin­ volvement) behavior of the teacher's group (negative c o rre la tio n ). Seventy percent of the variance 1n job s a tis fa c tio n could be explained by these four predictor variables. Study: Saville# 1981 Subjects: Responding to t h is study were 1»468 teachers 1n the Clark County (metropolitan Las Vegas) school d i s t r i c t s . Measure: A questionnaire developed by S a v ille l i s t i n g 49 potential sources of stress fo r teachers was used. Purpose: To ascertain how stressful teachers perceived t h e i r profession to be was the primary focus of th is study. Findings: F ifty -o n e percent of the sample reported experiencing stressphysical Illn e s s during the past four years. Twenty-four percent reported s tre s s -re la te d psychological Illnesses. S ix t y - f iv e percent of the sample considered teaching a stressful occupation# and 58% indicated t h a t they had seriously considered leaving the profession because of s tre s s -re la te d problems. The eight most Important sources of stress to emerge from the study Included overcrowded classrooms# th re a t of law­ suit# student violence# paperwork# d1 sagreement with principals# In v o l­ untary transfers# d is c ip lin e , and loss of personal time. 261 S tu d y: Erlandson and P a s to r* 1981 Subjects: 150 high school teachers drawn from ten high schools selected to represent d if fe r e n t geographic regions of the United States Measure: Higher Order Need Strength Measure B (Hackman & Oldham* 1974) was used as the measure 1n th is study. Purpose: To analyze the presence and f u l f i l l m e n t of hlgher-order need strengths among high school teachers. Findings: About tw o -th irds of the sampled teachers possessed a predom­ inance of hlgher-order need strengths (needs f o r p a r tic ip a tio n in decision making* challenge* freedom and independence* etc.) over lowerorder need strengths (high pay* frin g e benefits* job security* etc.). The most strongly expressed need strength for teachers was the desire to take on re s p o n s ib ility fo r one's own goals and to see these goals through to completion. I t was found th a t schools do a b e tte r job of s a tis fy in g lower-order needs than they do s a tis fy in g hlgher-order needs. Study: Greenfield and Blase, 1981 Subjects: Teachers 1n one division of a large, predominantly white* suburban high school in New York Measure: 900 single-spaced typed pages of f i e l d study data collected during one academic year Purpose: To id e n tify and analyze some of the fr u s tra tio n s and d i f f i ­ c u lt ie s faced by classroom teachers. Findings: In terms of teacher job s a tis fa c tio n , i t was found t h a t the fo llo w in g facto rs were the primary contributors toward teacher dissat­ is fa c tio n : paperwork and preparation; student absences; in terferen ce from other teachers, parents, and supervisors; and emotional fa tig u e, stagnation, boredom* and loss of enthusiasm fo r t h e i r work. Student apathy and job r e p e titio n were the major contributors to loss of moti­ vation and d is s a tis fa c tio n . Study: Sweeney, 1981 Subjects: 1,295 teachers from 23 of the 33 Iowa high schools with a student population of 1,000 or more 262 Measure: A l3-1tem questionnaire using a seven-point L lk e r t scale provided teachers with the opportunity to In d ic a te the extent to which they desired and were receiving s a tis fa c tio n 1n each of f i v e Maslowtype categories. The categories Included security* social* esteem* autonomy* and s e lf-a c tu a l iz a tlo n . Purpose: The study was designed to examine the needs of secondary school teachers and the events and conditions t h a t r e la t e t o job s a t ls f a c t i on. Findings: In terms of teacher s a tis fa c tio n , the sm aller the need deficiency* the greater the s a tis fac tio n . The areas of greatest dis­ s a tis fa c tio n included esteem and sel f-actu al 1zat1 on. Teachers f e l t a lack of prestige and accomplishment 1n t h e i r jobs. A dditionally* teacher s a tis fa c tio n did not appear to be re la ted to gender and appeared to increase with age. Who teachers teach appeared to a f f e c t s a tis fa c tio n (teachers working with high-abll 1 ty -le v e l students reported higher le v e ls of s a tis fac tio n ). Study: Metzger and Wangberg* 1981 Subjects: Respondents 1n t h is study were 257 female elementary school teachers from a large urban system 1n the South, a rural system 1n the Midwest* and two suburban systems 1n the West. Measure:A job s a tis fa c tio n measure was developed s p e c if ic a lly fo r th is study focusing on working conditions and female career options. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to determine reasons why so many female elementary teachers are d is s a tis fie d with t h e i r teaching careers. Findings: Forty percent of the sampled teachers Indicated th a t they would not choose elementary teaching 1f they had t o make t h e ir career choice again. Two factors emerged as the primary sources of d is s a tis ­ fa c tio n , including unfavorable working conditions (low salary, minimal professional recognition, lack of adult contact* etc.) and changing perceptions of female career options. Study: Cooke, Kornbluh, and Abramls, 1982 Subjects: Two hundred randomly chosen K-12 southeastern Michigan public school teachers were sampled 1n th is study. Measure: S a tis fa c tio n was measured by a 90-m1nute Interview s im ila r to th a t used in the National Quality of Employment Survey (1977) and a 263 questionnaire focusing on the school d i s t r i c t s in which respondents worked. An overall and a s p e c ific jo b -fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n measure were included. Purpose: The purpose of th is study was to compare the work liv e s of teachers with those of a national sample of workers surveyed in 1977 by the I n s t i t u t e fo r Social Research a t the University of Michigan. Findings: I t was found th a t the general level of s a tis fa c tio n fo r Michigan teachers was s ig n if ic a n t ly lower than s a tis fa c tio n le vels reported by e ith e r the national sample as a whole or by c ollegeeducated workers in the national sample. This finding also was true fo r s p e c ific aspects of work l i f e . Study: Medved, 1982 Subjects: Seventy teachers from a small midwestern suburban school d i s t r i c t were sampled in t h is study. Measure: A questionnaire was constructed s p e c ific a lly fo r th is study and attempted to duplicate Herzberg’s (1959) approach through a survey format. Purpose: The purpose of th is study was to ascertain i f the factors important to job s a tis fa c tio n are also Important to d is s a tis fa c tio n when absent. Findings: The main fin ding of th is study led to the conclusion th a t those fa c to rs th a t most often contribute to the s a tis fa c tio n of teach­ ers are also, i f absent, most often the cause fo r teacher d is s a tis fa c ­ tio n . Study: Wangberg, Metzger, and Levitou, 1982 Subjects: A random sample of 255 female elementary school teachers (a 65% response rate) was drawn from four school systems representing varying national demographic, socioeconomic, and geographical charac­ te ris tic s . Measure: A ten-item L ik e rt-ty p e questionnaire focusing on teacher job expectations, s a tis fa c tio n s , perceptions of working conditions, per­ ceived career importance, and career options was used in t h is study. Purpose: I t was the purpose of t h is study to help determine the extent of female elementary teachers’ job d is s a tis fa c tio n and to investigate the factors re la ted to t h is d is s a tis fa c tio n . 264 Findings: The findings from t h is study led to the suggestion th a t female elementary school teachers are currently experiencing a s ig n ific a n t amount of job d is s a tis fa c tio n . This d is s a tis fa c tio n appears to be a function of working conditions as well as general perceptions of career options. Study: Chapman and Lowther, 1982 Subjects: Respondents were 542 teaching c e r t i f i c a t e recipients from the U niversity of Michigan between 1946 and 1976 who taught continuously since t h e i r graduation and who were currently employed f u l l - t i m e as a teacher. Measure: The University of Michigan Survey of Graduates with Teaching C e r t if ic a t e s (1980) was used as the primary survey Instrument. Career s a tis fa c tio n was defined as the mean response on a s a tis fa c tio n scale composed of two items: (1) "How s a tis fie d are you with your curren t employment?” and (2) "Overall* how s a tis fie d are you with the progress you have made in your professional career?" Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to in vestig ate the c o rrelate s of teachers' career s a tis fa c tio n using a conceptual scheme of i n f l u ­ ences on career s a tis fa c tio n derived 1n part from Holland (1973) and Super and H all (1978). Findings: The re s u lts were consistent with e a r l i e r research. Personal c h a ra c te ris tic s * s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s , the value assigned to selected c r i t e r i a of success, and th e actual accomplishments in those areas were s ig n if ic a n t ly re la te d to the level of teachers' career s a tis fa c tio n . Study: Chapman, 1983 Subjects: The sample comprised 289 elementary and 148 high school teachers who graduated from three Indiana public u n iv e rs itie s and who taught as a f i r s t job a f t e r graduation and who are curren tly employed as teachers. Measure: The study used the College Alumni Questionnaire (Hutcheson & Chapman, 1978), which c o lle c ts information on graduates' current employment, s a tis fa c tio n with th a t employment, and ratings of t h e i r educational experience. 265 Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to In vestig ate the extent to which teachers1 career s a tis fa c tio n 1s related to selected s k ills * values, and professional accomplishments of those teachers. Findings: A fte r differences due to age, sex, and Income had been removed, s a tis fa c tio n of high school teachers was related s ig n ific a n tly to t h e i r s e lf -r a t e d s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s . For elementary teachers, career s a tis fa c tio n was re la te d s ig n ific a n tly to the Importance they assigned to selected c r i t e r i a of professional success. Study: Haughey and Murphy, 1983 Subjects: Responding to t h is study were 528 rural school teachers (a 46% response rate ) from 242 small, remote schools 1n B ritis h Columbia, Canada. Measure: An adaptation of Holdaway's (1978) S a tis fa c tio n with Work and Employment Conditions Questionnaire was used in t h is study to gain teacher perceptions about s a tis fa c tio n with various work facets. A s ln g le -ite m measure of overall s a tis fa c tio n was used as part of the survey. Purpose: The purpose of th is in vestig ation was to discover the extent to which rural teachers were s a tis fie d with the q u a lity of t h e ir work life . Findings: Only 22% of the respondents Indicated th a t they were moder­ a te ly or highly s a t is f ie d with t h e ir jobs. A major source of d is s a tis ­ fa c tio n id e n t if ie d by the study was society’ s perception of teaching. Study: Smilansky, 1984 Subjects: T h ir t y - s i x female elementary school teachers were chosen from four schools 1n an urban se tting in Is r a e l . Measure: A nine-item measure of s a tis fa c tio n with various aspects of teacher work was used 1n t h is study. A single-1 tern measure of overall job s a tis fa c tio n also was used. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to examine elementary school teachers’ work s a tis fa c tio n and reports of jo b -r e la te d stress, and to ascertain the r e la tio n of these two variables to both external factors (fe e lin g s of others about teachers) and in ternal factors (perceived general l i f e s a tis fa c tio n and s e l f - e f f i c a c y ) . 266 Findings: Teachers 1n t h is sample Indicated th a t t h e i r work Involved a r e l a t iv e ly high level of s a tis fa c tio n and a medium level of stress. Both s a tis fa c tio n and stress were associated with teachers' feelings about the process of teaching, including t h e i r In te ra c tio n with pupils and the work load Involved. Study: Farber, 1984 Subjects: Respondents were 365 public school teachers from d i s t r ic t s 1n Westchester, Putnam, and Dutchess Counties 1n New York. Measure: Teacher respondents completed a L1kert-type Teacher A ttitude Survey, which 1s a modified version of the Maslach Burnout Inventory (1981). Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to assess the sources and extent of s a tis fa c tio n , stress, and burnout in suburban teachers. Findings: Stresses were re la ted to excessive paperwork, unsuccessful a d m in is tra tiv e meetings, and the lack of advancement opportunities in teaching. Although the m ajority of teachers surveyed had not lessened t h e ir Involvement 1n t h e i r work and were s t i l l committed to teaching, 20-25% appeared vulnerable to burnout, and 10-15% appeared to be already burned out. Study: Sutton and Huberty, 1984 Subjects: Ten elementary, ju n io r high, and high school teachers in a public school s e ttin g and ten teachers of the severely handicapped 1n a p riv a te school setting were surveyed. Measure: Respondents completed the Wilson Stress P r o f il e fo r Teachers (Wilson, 1979). A ll teachers were asked to In d ic a te how s a tis fie d they were with t h e i r jobs. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to explore possible differences 1n stress between regular and special education teachers. Findings: The resu lts of t h is study Indicated t h a t there were no s ig n if ic a n t differences between the groups 1n sources of stress or 1n how they coped with stress. The special education teachers tended to show s lig h t ly more s a tis fa c tio n with t h e i r jobs than did the regular education teachers. 267 S tudy: L ow ther, S ta rk * and Chapman* 1984 Subjects: This study Involved 302 f u l l - t i m e school teachers and 285 persons prepared as teachers but working f u l l - t i m e 1n other occupa­ tions* a l l of whom had graduated from the U niversity of Michigan between 1946 and 1976. Measure: Data came from a questionnaire developed by the authors to c o lle c t Information about graduates' current employment* s a tis fa c tio n with th a t employment* l i f e s a tis fa c tio n * and a ttitu d e s about various aspects of t h e ir educational and work experience. Purpose: The purpose of t h i s study was t o compare perceptions of career school teachers with persons prepared as teachers but working in other occupations regarding selected aspects of t h e i r work l i f e . Findings: The re su lts indicated th a t teachers can be d iffe r e n tia te d from nonteachers on v a ria b le s such as job lock-1n, prospects fo r advancement* I n i t i a l commitment to teaching, and job and l i f e s a tis fa c ­ tio n . Study: Raschke, Dedrick, S tra th e , and Hawkes, 1985 Subjects: Sampled 1n t h i s study were 230 elementary teachers (a 76.7% response rate) from school d i s t r i c t s of various sizes 1n the central Midwest. Measure: The survey consisted of a f iv e - p a r t questionnaire i n i t i a l l y developed by Dedrick, Hawkes, and Smith (1981) and addressed s p e c ific Issues re la ted to elementary teacher stress. A portion of the survey Instructed respondents to rank 11 Items according t o how they contrib­ uted to job d is s a tis fa c tio n . A dditiona lly * open-ended survey questions allowed respondents f u r th e r opportunity t o express t h e ir le v e ls of work s a tis fa c tio n . Purpose: This In ve s tig atio n was designed to Id e n t ify s p e c ific factors th a t elementary teachers deemed most responsible fo r t h e i r job s a tis ­ fa c tion and d is s a tis fa c tio n . Findings: Conditions making favorable contributions to job s a tis fa c ­ tio n included the I n t r i n s i c b enefits th a t accrue from working with children, working with other professionals 1n t h e i r schools, summer vacations* student progress, and freedom to Implement teaching s tra te ­ gies. Excessive paperwork and nonteaching duties were cite d as the two major concerns of teachers. 268 S tud y: L 1 t t and T urk* 1985 Subjects: Responding to the questionnaire 1n t h is study were 291 Connecticut public high school teachers (an 81% response rate) from ru ra l* suburban, and urban school settings. Measure: As part of a comprehensive questionnaire, job s a tis fa c tio n was measured using the Job Diagnostic Survey developed by Hackman and Oldham (1974). A job s a tis fa c tio n score was produced by summing the scores on a l l Items. Purpose: The purpose of t h is study was to Id e n t ify sources of stress and d is s a tis fa c tio n th a t may induce teachers to leave teaching. Findings: Variables found t o predict job stress and d is s a tis fa c tio n Included Inadequate salary, low status of the teaching profession, and too much paperwork. Student behavior/d1sc1 pi 1ne did not emerge as an Important predictor of s tre s s /d is s a tis fa c tio n . Teacher-perceived ro le variables and perceptions of the principal also were found to be Impor­ ta n t sources of s tre s s /d is s a tis fa c tio n fo r teachers. Study: Galloway e t a l . , 1985 Subjects: Respondents were 292 teachers (a response rate of 82%) from a portion of New Zealand’ s sta te primary schools. Measure: An adaptation of Holdaway’ s (1978) S a tis fa c tio n with Teach­ ing and Employment Questionnaire was used 1n t h is study. Purpose: Three purposes focused t h is study: (1) t o Id e n tify the sources of s a tis fa c tio n and d is s a tis fa c tio n 1n a sample of New Zealand primary school teachers, (2) to In v e s tig ate the relatio n s h ip between overall s a tis fa c tio n and fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n , and (3) to compare both the overall s a tis fa c tio n and fa c e t s a tis fa c tio n reported by selected groups of teachers. Findings: In terms of o verall s a tis fa c tio n , 80% of the respondents reported themselves as very or f a i r l y s a t is f ie d with t h e ir jobs. The resu lts were broadly consistent with the tw o -fa c to r theory of job s a tis fa c tio n . Frequently rated sources of s a tis fa c tio n seemed to come from In t r i n s ic aspects of the job, while d is s a tis fa c tio n arose when conditions of employment were seen as Inadequate, or when external factors reduced the teacher’ s sense of self-esteem. APPENDIX B AUTHORIZATION TO USE THE MICHIGAN PROFESSIONAL REGISTER 269 270 STATE OF MICHIGAN D E P A R T M E N T O F EDUCATION Lsnsmg. Michigan 4B909 STATE BOARD O F EDU C A TIO N DR GLMECINDO SALAS P re n d e n i JOHN VkATANEN. JR V u e P re n d e m ANNETTA MILLER S eereian PHILLIP E Rl'NKEL Superintendent of Public Instruction DR EDML'ND F VANDETTE T rra u ftt CARROLL M HLTTON S A S B l D tle ta tf BARBARA DLMOICHELLE BARBARA ROBERTS MASON NORMAN OTTO STOCKMEYER. SR GOV JAMES J BLANCHARD E j- O ffin o March 22, 1985 Laurence W. MacQueen Research Assistant Michigan State University 517 Erickson Hall East Lansing, Ml 48824 Dear Mr. MacQueen: This will acknowledge your recent letter regarding authori­ zation to use the professional personnel register for research purposes. Our staff has reviewed your request, and feel it would be appropriate to use the register tape for the research described in your letter. Sincerely yours, I . Teacher Certification TJS/dm c: Dr. Fred Ignatovick sultant APPENDIX C I N I T I A L Q U E S T I O N N A I R E PACKAGE 271 272 M I C H I G A N S T AT E U N I V E R S I T Y COLLEGE Of EDUCATION DEPARTMENT Of EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION ERICKSON HALL A p ril 26, EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 4U24-I0M 1985 Dear Michigan School Teacher: The purpose o f t h is l e t t e r is to encourage your p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a very important research p r o je c t . The focus o f th is d is s e rt a tio n research seeks to improve our understanding o f the sources o f s a t is f a c t io n and d is s a t is fa c t i o n p u b lic school teachers experience with t h e i r jobs and I hope you can help with th is study. Enclosed, please find a questionnaire th at consists o f several sections. Each section contains questions v i t a l l y important to the purpose o f th is study and is accompanied by s p e c i f ic d ir e c tio n s . I t should take approximately 20 to 30 minutes to complete the e n t i r e questionnaire. You w i l l n otice th at the questionnaires are i d e n t i f i e d by code numbers. The code numbers are necessary so th at questionnaires may be grouped fo r meaningful data an aly sis. You, as an in d i v i d u a l , w i l l not be i d e n t i f i e d . N eith er you, your d i s t r i c t , nor your school w i l l be i d e n t i f i e d in the reporting o f the re sults o f th is study. This study is based on a c a r e f u l l y selected random sample o f teachers such as you. Therefore , your re turning the questionnaire is esse ntial f o r the study. A prepaid postage return method has been included fo r your convenience. You may rest assured th a t only the highest pro fessional and e t h ic a l standards w i l l be followed through th is study. With ap p rec iation , Larry MacQueen, Graduate Researcher Michigan State U n iversity IMPORTANT: Please complete BOTH sides o f sheets (1 ) and (2 ) o f the q uestion n aire and l i s t any comments you may have on sheet ( 3) . Enclose a l l three q u e stio n n aire sheets f o r re tu rn in the accompanying p ostag e-p aid envelope. Thank you f o r your p a r tic ip a tio n in th is study. M S U it «n AJjtrmatwn A ctio n /E q u *l Opportunity Institution 273 • SATISFACTION WITH TEACHING AND EMPLOYMENT QUESTIONNAIRE Return to: Larry M acQ ueen, 517 Erickson Hall, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1034 S u rv e y C o d e SHEET N U M B E R 0 234 — Please do not bend or fold D o N o t W r ite H e re | | | | .[ © o® ©©©©©©o © o© ® © © © © © ® SU RVEY FO RM S - ® o © © © © © © © © © o ® ©©©©©©© D o N o t W rite H ere SECTION A . PERSONAL D A TA Please mark all survey answers BY U S IN G A N U M B E R -T W O PENCIL. DO N O T USE ink, ballpoint or felt-tip pens. Avoid making stray marks on the answer sheets and reserve written comments for Section D. Thank you. Print your age and number of years teaching experience you have (counting the present year as a full year) in the appropriate boxes below. M ark your age and years of teaching experience in the scanned area below the boxes. 1a Age © © ® Years of teaching experience ©© ©o © ® © © © © © ©I© In order to answer the follow ing questions, blacken the circle immediately to the left of the response you choose. 2. W h a t is your sex? O 3. M arried O Single Yes O Yes Not married O No ON o Is your m ajor teaching assignm ent consistent w ith your training and experience7 O Yes 6. O Do you have a second jo b in addition to fu ll tim e teaching? O Yes 5. No A re you a parent responsible fo r any dependent children7 O 4. Female Does your spouse w o rk fu ll tim e 7 O 3b. O W h a t is yo ur cu rre nt marital status7 0 3a Nlale O No W h ich o f the fo llo w in g best describes the predom inant grade-level range o f the students you teach in your curra nt assignm ent7 0 Elementary students 0 Ju n io r H igh M iddle S chool students 0 H igh S chool students 11 111 11111 111 I I I I I 11 I 1111 I I I 11 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I • 27** SECTION B. JOB FACET S A TISFA C TIO N DIRECTIONS: This section asks you to report your feelings about the importance and satisfaction each of the following aspects of work hold for you. Using your num ber-two pencil, please blacken the number of the importance descriptor (left-hand side of the survey) and the number of the satisfaction descriptor (right-hand side of the survey) that best represent your answers to the following tw o questions: (A n s w e r b o th q u e s tio n s fo r e e c h a s p e c t o f w o rk I. Given your present assignment, how satisfied or dissatisfied are you with these aspects? Generally speaking how important are the following aspects of work to vou7 7 “ 6 5 4 - v e r y im p a n a n t — 3 2 * Im p o rta n t S lig h t ly I m p o r t a n t 1 « N o t Im p o r ta n t Please avoid m aking stray m arks o n t h f i SU RVEY SHEETS - H ig h ly S a t is f ie d - M o d e r a t e ly S a t is f ie d ■* S l i g h t l y S a t is f ie d 4 ■= N e ith e r S a t i s f i e d n e r D i s s a tis fie d 3 - \ s iig h in D i s s a tis fie d ~ D is s a t is f ie d 1 ■* H ig h ly D is s a tis h e d W O R K IN G C O N D ITIO N S © © ® O 7. T he w as ,n w h i c h te a c h e r o o a r d c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a in in g is 7 © © © 0 © © © © © © © c o n d u c t e d tn M fC .r,iu c -. © © © © 8 T h e w a v m w h t c h c o n s u lta tio n b e tw e e n b o a r d a n d te a c h e rs ... 8 © © c o n c e r n in g w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s is c o n d u c t e d d u r in g t h e s c h o o l y e a r © ® © © 9 S a la r y y o u r e c e iv e ............................................................................................................................... © ® © © 10 T h e u s e o * le v e l o 4 e d u c a t i o n in © © 11 p a r t l y d e t e r m i n i n g s a la r ie s T h e u s e o f l e n g t n o f te a c h in g e x p e r ie n c e m ................... ...................... . 9. © © © ® © © 10 . © © © © © © n o © © © © e Q © o p a r t l y d e t e r m i n i n g s a la rie s © © © © 12 R e t ir e m e n t b e n e f i t s p r o v id e d b y T e a c h e rs t h e M ic h i g a n 12 © © © © © © © R e tir e m e n t F u n d © © © © 13. P r o v is io n s f o r s a b b a t ic a l l e a v e .................................................................................................... 13 © © © © © © © © ® © © 14 P r o v is io n s f o r s ic k l e a v e 14 © © © © © © © © © © © 19 P r o v is io n s f o r m a t e r n i t y l e a v e ................................ 15 © © © © © © © © © © © 16 N u m b e r o f h o u r s y o u te a c h p e r 16 © © © © © © © © © © © 17 N u m o e ' o f h o u r s o f n o n - t e a c h i n g d u t i e s a s s i g n e d ....................................................... 17 to yo u per w ee k © © © © ® © © © © © © 18 © © © © © © © © © © © © © © o o o o © w e e k .............................. Preparation tim e available to you during the o fficial school day .. 18. © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © TE A C H IN G -R ELA TED M A TTER S © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © o 19 Y o u r o p p o r t u n i t y t o r p r o m o t i o n .................................................................. © 20 E x p e c t a t io n s o f a d m in i s t r a t o r s f o r y o u a s a t e a c h e r ................................. © o © ........................................................ .. .1 9 . 20. 21 M e t h o d s u s e d in p r o m o t i o n o f te a c h e r s 22 T h e p r o s p e c t o f c l a s s r o o m t e a c h in g a s y o u r l if e t i m e c a r e e r . ..2 1 22 23 Y o u r l o n g - t e r m s a la ry p r o s p e c t s in e d u c a t i o n ............................................. 23 © © © © © Al*4®!lS c i i D ■Du^ S* Jt>u **4»M*N 5 2 a I m J5 - .?■ S to j ui ifl Q ® q *I»4®'IS OGGGGGO GO GOO GOOOO OOOGG 0 GOOOO GG0QGGG 00 000 00000 o o o o o © o o o o o ©GO©000 00 ©00 00000 ©00©0 © ©000© ©0000©© ©0 ©0© © O © © © ©©00© © ©0000 0000000 00 ©00 00000 © G O © © 0 0000© 0000000 ©0 ©00 ©0000 0©©©© 0 ©0000 ©000000 OO OO0 00000 OOOGO O o o o o o — CN CO CO CO NT if) CO CO CO 43. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i 11111 8 r - co CN M cn N O O tO r» CQ (D CO CO CO t o Q ^ 51 a> N 50 in N 49 vr N 48 t*»U«l»»S *14®IH t o cn * - 47. |*s l£> If) a» x 46 “ S 'o to 5 u ii u it 44 ii 42 ? i to z 41 — a> ©00© .©©©© .©OOO | © 000 x I Lf\ ©O0©| © ©©©I a CM * o 0© 0© ,?i ttl H ( S 0OOO ?■?' 1? 11 K O 'OGOO ii 1 z iQ O O 0 Q (0 CC U l I s i t 2£ 11 1 ss .G * 2 - S S S u sI 5 5 9* y p i i i s t < 2 O ! 1 = < 2 I a U K 5 2 e I i X o z < U i a 6 'X I S is p I s ^ ? feg - * =i ) l i i s i i i I I I I I I 111 f I f III Hi 5«ss; 0OOOG S (N IN N W ri CO to B 5 S ?! GG0OOOO OO OGO IS 0 0 0 0 0 Q0 ©0 ©GO 0 0 0 0 0 0000© 0 00000 00000(30 00 00© 00000 ©OGOO o 00000 0000000 00 ©00 0O0O0 00000 © ©0000 1 "•.£?. >I i.I1i/J iuciivUtU|A.*A GOOOO OOOOO O 276 Given your present assignment, how satisfied or dissatisfied are you with these aspects? Generally speaking, how important are the following aspects of work to you? 4 = V e ry Im p o rta n t 3 = Im p o rta n t 2 - 1 = P lease do n o t be n d or fo ld S lig h t iy i m p o r t a n t 7 = H i g h ly S a tis fie d 6 & M o d e r a t e l y S a tis fie d 5 = S l i g h t l y S a tis fie d 4 s N e it h e r S a t is f ie d n o r D is s a tis fie d 3 = S l i g h t l y D is s a tis fie d 2 = M o d e r a te ly D is s a tis fie d 1 s H ig h ly D is s a tis fie d SURVEY FO RM S - N o t Im p o rta n t 1 | | G e n e r a l b e h a v i o r o f s t u d e n t s in y o u r c la s s e s 52 53 M e t h o d s u s e d in r e p o r t i n g p u p i l s 53. a t titu d e s a n d X 2 «A Z e f ■ X 52 | t 1 • IA > 0 © © o © © © © | 1 5 • v> £ s. © © X • £ £ % (A 1 £ 1 ® 2 a X © © © © © © © © O © o © © © © © a c h i e v e m e n t s t o p a r e n ts 0 © © O 54 ... A v a ila b ilit y o f d i a g n o s 't c s e r v ic e s 54 © © o O C C U P A T IO N -R E L A T E D M A T T E R S © © © © © © © © © 65 S t a t u s o ! t e a c h e r s in s o c i e t y ................................. . 55 © © © © O 66 A t t it u d e o ! s o c ie ty to w a r d s e d u c a tio n . 66 © © G © © © 57. A t t it u d e s o f p a r e n ts to w a r d s e d u c a tio n 57 © © © © © © © © © © o 68 Y o u ! s e n s e o l a c h i e v e m e n t in te a c h in g 58 © © © 0 © G © © o 69 R e c o g n itio n b y o t h e rs o f y o u r w o 'k 59 © © © © © © 0 © © © o 60 S o c ia l r e l a t io n s h i p s i r y o u r w o r k .60 © © © © © © 0 © © © © 61 I n t e l l e c t u a l s t i m u l a t io n in y o u r w o r k 61 © © © © © © © © © o 62. O p p o r t u n it ie s f o r f u r t h e r f o r m a 1 s t u d y 62. © © © © o © © o 63 © © © © © © © o © © l i . e , in u n i v e r s i t y . . c o lle g e o r in s t it u t e ' © © © © 63 O p p o r t u n it ie s f o r u s e f u l in - s e r v ic e e d u c a t i o n 3 © © © 64 A v a i la b i l i t y o f f a c il i t i e s m y o u t c o m m u n i t y f o r r e c r e a t io n f i n e a r ts ...64 e tc © © © © 3 © © © © © © © S E C T IO N C. O V E R A L L S A T IS F A C T IO N D irectio ns: Please circle the number of the descriptor that best represents your feelings about the following statements. 5 «=■ S t r o n g ly A g r e e V) © © © © © © © © © A g re e 3 = N e u tra l 2 * D is a g r e e 1 - S t r o n g ly D is a g re e ! s s © = I i o c 4 © © © © Z s : 9 O V) © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © © 65 A s t e v a lu a t e m y f u t u r e a s a n e d u c a t o r . 1 f e e l m y le v e l o f s a t is f a c t i o n w i ll in c r e a s e 66 1 a m s o m e w h a t d i s s a t i s f i e d w i t h m y jo b 67. I f 1 c a m e i n t o e n o u g h m o n e y s o t h a t 1 c o u l d liv e c o m f o r t a b ly w i t h o u t w o r k i n g 68 1 o f t e n t h i n k o f c h a n g i n g |O b s. 69 M y jo b a s a n e d u c a t o r g iv e s m e a g r e a t d e a l o f p e r s o n a l s a t is f a c t i o n 70. 1 a m s a t is f ie d w i t h m y jo b 71. M o s t o t h e r e d u c a t o r s a r e m o r e s a t is f ie d w i t h t h e i r j o b s t h a n 1 a m 1 w o u l d q u i t m y jo b 277 SHEET N U M B E R SECTION D. C O M M E N T S ■• * 1 D o N o t W r ite Here Do you have C O M M E N TS on any of the above matters? □□□□ S U R V E Y CODE _________ Check here if you would like to receive an abstract of the results of this research project when complete. Please return this survey as soon as possible in the envelope provided for this purpose. Thank you very much for your participation. APPENDIX D FOLLOW-UP LETTER FOR NONRESPONDENTS 278 279 M I C H I G A N S T AT E U N I V E R S I T Y COLLEGE OF EDUCATION DEPAETMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION EUCKSON HALL EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 4U24K54 May 21, 1985 Dear Michigan School Teacher: Two weeks ago, you were mailed a survey package inviting your participation in an important research project on teacher job satisfaction. To date, your comp­ leted survey has not been received and the purpose of this letter is to remind you how important your participation is to the success of this research. If your original survey materials are in return mail, please disregard this notice and dispose of these survey materials. In the event that your survey materials did not reach you or that they have been misplaced, a second set of materials is included in this package. Enclosed, you will find a questionnaire consisting of several sections. Each section contains questions vitally important to the purpose of this study and is accompanied by specific directions. It should take approximately 20 to 30 minutes to complete the entire questionnaire. You will notice that the questionnaires are identified by code numbers. The code numbers are necessary so that questionnaires may be grouped for meaningful data analysis. You, as an individual, will not be identified. Neither you, your dist­ rict, nor your school will be identified in the reporting of the results of this study. This study is based on a carefully selected random sample of teachers such as you. To be certain that your thoughts and feelings on teacher job satisfaction are part of this study, please return your completed questionnaire in the prepaid postage return envelope included in this package by June 4, 1985. You may rest assured that only the highest professional and ethical standards will be followed throughout this study. With appreciation, Larry MacQueen, Graduate Researcher Michigan State University j Important: PleaAe complete BOTH i i d u o{ ih e e ti ( I ) and (2) o{ the questionnaire i and H i t any commenti you may have on ih eet (3). Encloie a l l thn.ee queitionnaire ih eeti ion. return In the accompanying poitage-paid envelope. Thank you ion your participation in t h i i itudy. MSU iim A //ir m s tiv t A c tto n /E q u n l O p p o rtu n ity h u titu tio n APPENDIX E VARIABLE CODING SHEET 280 S heet toiim be* X £ j S u rv e t Code ©G®©© ® • D o N o t W 'lte Here I S e c tio n E. V a ria b le C o d in g 72 F u ll-T im e S tu d e n ts ' D is tric t 73. TTTT •„ O Vi?G C wc r c wo A _ o' o vi. 1_ \i- >i- i. FTSD Q 74. c. Vi- - t -i- . I 1 I B u ild in g I r* GG© ©©© ? C 1 J GCGG© I X © 0 © © ©© X0 I © L L •_ is -G. D is tr ic t A v e ra g e T e a c h e r S a la ry DATS I 'T> .T-v VOv"h _/'"T oO - T't 'Tv0- t0 T -c. O c ::-: : C-' C ’ Vi. F u ll-T im e S tu d e n ts F T S -B ljjjj 75. I D is tr ic t S ta fl S tu d e n t R a tio D P S SR m V 76. C u rre n t Or. COEPP G v. vi- w L-' s_. -i. 78 I I Pe* P u p il I C _ ;. I I w C P e ’ c e n t M .n o n ty S tu d e n ts O G -b m Vi ’ v». w O V^,' s_ v: O vL A O G. © «!. C C_ \_ ' .L O 7 9 . D is tric t G e o g ra p h ic N a tu re C' ll . D is tric t M E A P S ta tu s c 77. p m s -i* V*. B u n a - ig G ’ ade Leve: S tr u c tu r e O 80. Ex p Vi.- '0 s i' 81. S e x o f R e s p o n d e n t o © v t’ T- G (7 ■ I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I II I I I I II I I I I I I I I I II 281 APPENDIX F AUTHORIZATION TO USE HOLDAWAY'S QUESTIONNAIRE 282 283 TH E U N IVER SITY OF ALBERTA D ep a rtm en t o f E d u ca tio n a l A d m in istra tio n EDMONTON. ALBERTA. CANADA T6G 2CS TELEPHONE 432 5241 27 September 1984 Mr. L. W. MacQueen Research Assistant Middle Cities Education Assoc. 517 Erickson Hall Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48824 U.S.A. Dear Mr. MacQueen: Thank you for your letter of 18 September. I am pleased to read of your interest in the area of teacher satisfaction and to know that my questionnaire is still deemed to be useful. It has been used in a modified way in other studies in the U.S., Australia, and New Zealand, as well as Canada. I have enclosed two copies of the, questionnaire as well as a copy of the final report. Would you please send me a bank draft or money order for $10.00 in Canadian funds to cover expenses, payable to The University of Alberta. I shall be pleased to receive a copy of any relevant material that you produce. With best wishes for your project and studies. Yours sincerely, E. A. Holdaway Professor REFERENCES REFERENCES Adair, J. W. (1968, January). Keeping teachers happy: Improving s a la rie s and frin g e benefits may be less Important than news­ paper headlines suggest. American School Board Journal, 155, 28-29. A ld e rfe r, C. P. (1972). Existence, relatedness, and growth: Human needs i n organizational s e ttin g s . New York: Free Press. Andrew, L. D . , Parks, D. J., & Nelson, L. A. (1985). Adm inistrator's handbook fo r improving fa culty morale. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappan. Babbie, E. R. (1973). Survey research methods. Wadsworth. Belmont, CA: Belasco, J. A ., & A llu t to , J. 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