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8613317

McMaster, M ar gar e t (Dolly)

PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE SUPERINTENDENCY AS EXPERIENCED IN
MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS DURING THE PERIOD 1972 THROUGH 1984

Ph.D.

Michigan Staie University

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Copyright 1985
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McMaster, Margaret (Dolly)
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1986

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PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE SUPERINTENDENCY AS EXPERIENCED
IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS DURING THE
PERIOD 1972 THROUGH 1984

By
M a r g a r e t ( " D o l l y 11) McMaster

A DISSERTATION
Submitted t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
1n p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
fo r th e degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department o f E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n
1985

C opyright by
MARGARET ("DOLLY") McMASTER
1985

ABSTRACT
PROBLEMS AFFECTING THE SUPERINTENDENCY AS EXPERIENCED
IN MICHIGAN PUBLIC SCHOOLS DURING THE
PERIOD 1972 THROUGH 1984
By
M a r g a r e t ( " D o l l y " ) McMaster

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e p r o b l e m s e x p e ­
r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n M i c h i g a n b e t w e e n 1972 and 1984 t h a t
a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t t h e i r d i s t r i c t s * which
resulted

1n t u r n o v e r .
R e s e a r c h d a t a g a t h e r e d f o r t h i s s t u d y w e r e d e r i v e d fr om a t w o ­

pro ng ed a p p ro a c h .

Both t h e s t a t i s t i c a l and t h e d e s c r i p t i v e r e p o r t i n g

o f d a t a b e i n g do cu me nt ed w e r e fou nde d in e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e .

The s t u d y

was o ne 1n which s e l e c t e d j o b - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s and t h e i r d e g r e e o f
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s and t u r n o v e r w e r e I n v e s t i ­
gated,

I n v o l v i n g t h e p e r i o d 1972 t h r o u g h 1984.

generating s t a t i s t i c a l

The p o p u l a t i o n u s e d f o r

an aly ses Included t h e t o t a l

M ic hi gan s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

p o p u l a t i o n (521) o f

Of t h e 521 s u r v e y s m a i l e d # 366 (703!) w e r e

returned.
To d e v e l o p s t a t i s t i c a l

a n a ly s e s as w ell as re c e iv e feedback fo r

d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h fr om s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s In t h e f i e l d d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d 1972 t h r o u g h 1984# a s u r v e y I n s t r u m e n t was d e v e l o p e d and used .

M a r g a r e t ( " D o l l y " ) McMaster

The I n s t r u m e n t c o m p r is e d 22 I t e m s c o n s t r u c t e d t o c o m p i l e de mo gr a ph ic
d a t a and d a t a f o r c o n d u c t i n g s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s c o n c e r n i n g p e r c e p t i o n s
of s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a s t o t h e problem a r e a s h a v i n g s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e
e f f e c t s on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s r e s u l t i n g 1n t u r n o v e r .
The m a jo r f i n d i n g s were a s f o l l o w s :
1.

P ro blem s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s had

a s i g n i f i c a n t I n f l u e n c e on r e a s o n s f o r t u r n o v e r .
2.

Board Member E l e c t i o n s ,

In e f f e c t b o a rd Incu mbe nt d e f e a t s ,

had a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t u r n o v e r .
3.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r was found t o be I n d e p e n d e n t o f

problems e x p e r i e n c e d In Ccmmun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s .
4.

P u b l i c P r e s s u r e a p p l i e d th r o u g h S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups had

no s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on t u r n o v e r .
5.

Tu r n o v e r was found t o be I n d e p e n d e n t o f pro ble m s e x p e r i ­

enced 1n S t a f f C o n f l i c t s .
6.

F i n a n c i a l D i f f i c u l t i e s w e r e found t o have no s i g n i f i c a n t

re la tio n sh ip to turnover.
7.

Tu r no ve r was In d e p e n d e n t o f d i f f i c u l t y e x p e r i e n c e d 1n

Management Pr ob lem s.
8.

No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found be tw een

p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e and p e r c e p t i o n s of t h e se ve n
v a r l abl e s .

Dedicated t o :
Anna Col 11ns Newmeyer, Mother,
1n memorlam f o r t h e work e t h i c s and t h e v a l u i n g o f an
e d u c a t i o n s h e I n s t i l l e d 1n me;
Louis Romano, P r o f e s s o r * A d v i s o r , and F r i e n d ,
f o r h i s k i n d n e s s , p a t i e n c e , and p e r s o n a l e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o
his student;
Fred McMaster, Husband and A l l y ,
f o r h i s unw av eri ng s u p p o r t 1n t h e p u r s u i t o f t h i s goal and
h i s u n f l i n c h i n g b e l i e f 1n my a b i l i t y t o a c h i e v e 1 t ;
Dr. Jim C o s t a r and Dr. Lonnie M c I n t y r e , Committee Members,
f o r t h e i r t i m e and a s s i s t a n c e ;
Dr. Dan K ru g e r, Committee Member,
f o r h i s t h o r o u g h n e s s and I n s p i r a t i o n a l comments;
and
Dr. Don E l l i o t t , E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r , MASA,
f o r h i s g u id a n c e and t r u s t .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES...............................................................................................................

vi

LIST OF F I G U R E S ...........................................................................................................

ix

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

THE PROBLEM..................................................................................................

1

I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................................
P u r p o se of t h e Study ..........................................................................
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Problem .......................................................
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms ..........................................................................
Assumptions and D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e St udy ........................
H yp o th e se s and R es e ar ch Q u e s t i o n ..............................................
H y p o t h e s e s ............................................................................................
Demographic Data Re se ar ch Q u e s t i o n .....................................
S e l e c t i o n o f S a m p l e ..........................................................................
S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s .....................................................................
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e D i s s e r t a t i o n ..............................................

1
1
2
8
10
11
11
11
12
12
12

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.............................................................

14

What I s Happening t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ? ................................
Pr oblems A f f e c t i n g S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y E f f e c t i v e n e s s
—and T u r n o v e r .............................................................................
B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s ..............................................
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s ................................................................
Commun1cat1on5/Pub11c R e l a t i o n s ..........................................
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e d a l I n t e r e s t Groups ..........................
S t a f f C o n f l i c t s ..............................................................................
Management Pr oblems .....................................................................
F i n a n c i a l D i f f i c u l t i e s ................................................................
S u m m a r y .....................................................................................................

14

PRESENTATION OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURES

22
22
30
35
41
50
58
67
76

......................................

82

R es e ar ch Design ...................................................................................
P o p u l a t i o n .............................................................................
S t a t e m e n t o f P u r p o s e ..........................................................................

82
83
84

III

Page

IV.

V.

I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n ...................................................................................
Assump tions and D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study .......................
H yp ot he se s Analyzed In t h e Study ..............................................
Demographic Data R ese arc h Q u e s t i o n ..........................................
S t a t i s t i c a l P r o c e d u r e s .....................................................................
D e s c r i p t i v e D a t a ...................................................................................
Data From t h e MASA..........................................................................
S u m m a r y .....................................................................................................

84
85
86
87
87
89
89
91

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF D A T A ..............................................

93

I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................................
P u r p o se o f t h e S t u d y ..........................................................................
S t a t i s t i c a l Methods Used ................................................................
A n a l y s i s o f D a t a ...................................................................................
P r e s e n t a t i o n and A n a l y s i s o f R e s u l t s 1n Terms o f
t h e H y p o t h e s e s ...................................................................................
Demographic Data R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n ..........................................
Study S a m p l e ............................................................................................
The F i n d i n g s ............................................................................................
Demographic Data— D i s t r i c t .......................................................
Demographic Data— S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .....................................
S t a t i s t i c a l A n a ly se s .........................................................................
H y p o th e s e s F i n d i n g s
. . . . . . . .
H y p o t h e s i s 1 .......................................................................................
H y p o t h e s i s 2 .......................................................................................
Hypothesis 3 ,
..............................................................................
H y p o t h e s i s 4 .......................................................................................
H y p o t h e s i s 5 .......................................................................................
H y p o t h e s i s 6 ....................................................................
H y p o t h e s i s 7 .......................................................................................
Demographic Data Re se ar ch Q u e s t i o n ..........................................
D e s c r i p t i v e Data I — Sur vey Responses .................... . . . .
D e s c r i p t i v e Data I I — Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n of
School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s ................................................................
V i g n e t t e s ............................................................................................
S u m m a r y .....................................................................................................

93
93
93
94

SUMMARY# CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

94
95
95
95
95
99
105
107
107
108
108
108
109
109
110
110
117
135
137
168

............................

170

S u m m a r y .....................................................................................................
P u r p o se o f t h e Study .....................................................................
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y ...........................................................
Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e ............................................................
Design o f t h e S t u d y .....................................................................
F i n d i n g s and C o n c l u s i o n s . . . . .
..........................................
F i n a l A n a l y s i s ...................................................................................

170
170
171
172
176
177
167

iv

Page

I m p l i c a t i o n s ...........................................................................................
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u t u r e R ese arch ..............................................
Recommendations ..................................................................................

188
190
192

APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................

19^

A.

COVER LETTER AND SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY .....................................

195

B.

CORRESPONDING STATISTICAL COMPUTATIONS .....................................

201

BIBLIOGRAPHY ..................................................................................................................

213

v

L IST OF TABLES

Time Consumed by S e l e c t e d A d m i n i s t r a t i v e R e s p o n s i ­
b ilities
................................................................................................

26

E n r o l l m e n t V a r i a b l e s 1n Time Consumed by A d m i n i s t r a t i v e
T a s k s .........................................................................................................

26

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' Views Co nce rn in g t h e Im p o r ta n c e o f
S e l e c t e d A d m i n i s t r a t i v e R e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .......................

27

D i s t r i c t E n r o l l m e n t V a r i a b l e s In S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' Task
Im p o r ta n c e R a t i n g s ..........................................................................

27

S t r e s s P o t e n t i a l A s s o c i a t e d With S e l e c t e d Adminis­
t r a t i v e Ta s ks .......................................................................................

28

D i s t r i c t E n r o l l m e n t V a r i a b l e s 1n S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s '
S t r e s s P o t e n t i a l R a t i n g s ............................................................

28

S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y Te n ur e and Q u a n t i t a t i v e C o m p e t i t i o n
1n School Board E l e c t i o n s ............................................................

31

L a s t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t D e p a r t u r e and C o m p e t i t i v e A sp e c ts
o f S c ho ol -B oa rd E l e c t i o n s ............................................................

32

P e r c e n t a g e o f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s Time S p e n t 1n
Verbal C o n t a c t ..................................................................................

38

The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between S e l e c t e d E d u c a t i o n a l Areas
and Community Power S t r u c t u r e s by School D i s t r i c t
S i z e Groups ............................................................................................

46

The R e l a t i o n s h i p Between E d u c a t i o n a l Areas and Four
Community Power S t r u c t u r e s .......................................................

47

C o n t r i b u t i o n s o f S p e c i f i c O r g a n i z a t i o n s 1n S p e c i f i c
I s s u e s .....................................................................................................

48

P e r c e n t a g e o f T e a c h e r s R a t i n g Im port anc e o f S t r i k e
I s s u e s .....................................................................................................

52

vl

Page
P e r c e n t a g e o f T e a c h e r s R a t i n g I m p or ta nc e o f D i g n i t y
a s Cause o f S t r i k e ..................................................................................

53

Degree o f Consensus and V u l n e r a b i l i t y

..........................................

54

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f School D i s t r i c t s According t o t h e
Management Team P a t t e r n s o f School O r g a n i z a t i o n a l
S t r u c t u r e and D i s t r i c t S i z e ............................................................

61

T o t a l E x p e n d i t u r e s f o r E d u c a t i o n R e l a t e d t o GNP#
1970-71 t o 1982-83 ..................................................................................

71

S t a t e o f Michigan F i n a n c i a l and S c h o o l - R e l a t e d Data#
1972-1982 .....................................................................................................

73

Changes 1n T o t a l E n r o l l m e n t and I n s t r u c t i o n a l Expendi­
t u r e s by D i s t r i c t Type# 1969 t o 1976 .........................................

75

S i z e o f D i s t r i c t ...........................................................................................

96

C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f D i s t r i c t .....................................................................

96

T o t al O p e r a t i n g B udg et ..............................................................................

97

SEV P e r P u p il

................................................................................................

98

P e r P u p i l E x p e n d i t u r e s .............................. ...........................................

99

Age o f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ..............................................................................

100

Length o f S e r v i c e 1n P r e s e n t S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y ............................

100

Previous Superintendency Experience

..............................................

101

More Than Two S u p e r i n t e n d e n c e s .......................................................

101

F i r s t Tu r n o v e r ................................................................................................

102

Second Tu r n o v e r

...........................................................................................

102

T h i r d Tu r n o v e r ................................................................................................

103

V o l u n t a r y Versus I n v o l u n t a r y T urn over

.........................................

104

De gre es o f S i g n i f i c a n c e : S u p e r i n t e n d e n t Tu r n ov er and
P e r c e p t i o n s o f V a r i a b l e s ....................................................................

107

S u p e rin ten d e n ts' Perceptions of Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s . .

110

vi i

Page

4.16

C el l Means o f Groups 0 , 1» and 2 o f P e r c e p t i o n s o f
Seven V a r i a b l e s .......................................................................................

Ill

V o l u n t a r y Tu r n o v e r and P e r c e p t i o n s o f V a r i a b l e s Between
Groups 1 and 2 ............................................................................................

115

4.18

Frequency o f Problems R e p o r te d ...........................................................

167

B .1

F i r s t - T u r n o v e r Co mp uta tio ns

202

B.2

S e c on d-T ur no ve r C o m p ut a tio ns ...............................................................

B.3

S t a t i s t i c a l C om p u ta ti o n s: Groups 0» 1# and 2 Means . . . .

2,0

B.4

S t a t i s t i c a l C o m p u ta ti o n s : Group 1

211

B.5

S t a t i s t i c a l C o m p u ta ti o n s : Group 2

252

4.17

................................................................

viii

L IST OF FIGURES

Figure
2 .1

Page
Regions and Number o f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s Responding t o
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e About C u r r e n t C r u c i a l Co nce rns ...................

20

2.2

How S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s Spend T h e i r T i m e ...........................................

36

2 .3

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' Management S t y l e ...............................................

.

56

3.1

G ra p h ic I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e MANOVA T e s t : Repe ated
M e a s u r e .........................................................................................................

86

4 .1

Group 0» 1# and 2 Means o f P e r c e i v e d V a r i a b l e s ...................

112

4.2

V o l u n t a r y Tu r no ve r and Mean P e r c e p t i o n s o f Groups 1
and 2 ..............................................................................................................

116

ix

CHAPTER I

THE PROBLEM
Introduction
"School a d m i n i s t r a t o r s p r o v i d e l e a d e r s h i p f o r o u r n a t i o n ' s most
essential

I n d u s t r y . . . e d u c a t i o n " (American A s s o c i a t i o n o f School

Administrators*

1982* p. 7).

With c a t a c l y s m i c c ha ng e s a f f e c t i n g o u r

s o c i e t y * t h e demands b e in g made on school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e c a u s i n g
t h e r o l e t o become one t h a t 1s p r a c t i c a l l y humanly I m p o s s i b l e t o
fu lfill.

To e q u i p p r e s e n t and f u t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s In Michigan w i t h

t h e n e c e s s a r y s u r v i v a l s k i l l s f o r j o b s a t i s f a c t i o n and l o n g e v i t y * 1 t 1s
I m p e r a t i v e t o I d e n t i f y t h o s e p ro b le m s t h a t have Impeded t h e e f f e c t i v e ­
n e s s o f p r i o r and p r e s e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n t e r m s o f t h e i r a b i l i t y t o
d i r e c t t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r school d i s t r i c t s and t h e r e s u l t i n g t u r n ­
o ve r a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .
P u r p o se o f t h e . S t u d y
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y 1s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan be tw een 1972 and
1984 t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t i v e l y d i r e c t t h e
b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r school d i s t r i c t s and t h a t r e s u l t 1n t u r n o v e r ( vo lu n ­
ta ry o r Involuntary) a t t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e le v el.

1

2

- S i g n i f i c a n c e of_ th e _ P r o b le m
The s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y I s t h e c r u c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n 1n a
s ch ool d i s t r i c t 1n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r q u a l i t y e d u c a t i o n
fo r I t s students.

The r o l e s , c o m p e t e n c i e s , and l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s o f

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e b e in g I n c r e a s i n g l y p r o p e l l e d I n t o e x p e c t a t i o n s !
l e v e l s t h a t a r e humanly I m p o s s i b l e t o f u l f i l l .

Most o f what 1s

p r e s e n t l y known a b o u t l e a d e r s h i p and I t s e f f e c t on s u c c e s s f u l
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l , I n d i v i d u a l , and group goal a t t a i n m e n t s p o i n t s t o t h e
m ou nti ng e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e l e a d e r 1s s i g n i f i c a n t In s e t t i n g t h e l e v e l
o f e x p e c ta tlo n a l performance f o r a l l s u b o r d in a te a c t i v i t y .

T os l and

Hamner (1974) e x p l a i n e d .
L e a d e r s h i p 1s t h e p r o c e s s by which an I n d i v i d u a l I n f l u e n c e s t h e
b e h a v i o r o f a n o t h e r p e rs o n o r group. . . . L e a d e r s h i p o c c u r s when
an i n d i v i d u a l 1s a b l e t o i n f l u e n c e a n o t h e r p e r s o n o r group t o go
beyond t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a c t . Compliance
w i t h d i r e c t i v e s f a l l i n g w i t h i n t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a c t I s admin­
i s t r a t i o n . To move an I n d i v i d u a l o r group beyond t h o s e b o u n d a r i e s
1 s l e a d e r s h i p , (p. 4 2 4 )
L l k e r t (1971) f u r t h e r e v id e n c e d t h e need f o r e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r ­
s h i p by e x p l a i n i n g r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s I n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e g e n e r a l p a t ­
t e r n s o f o p e r a t i o n s o f t h e h i g h e s t - p r o d u c i n g m an age rs t e n d t o d i f f e r
from t h o s e o f t h e ma na ge rs o f m e d i o c r e and l o w - p r o d u c i n g u n i t s by
s howing t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s :
1.
A p re p o n d e r a n c e o f f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s on t h e p a r t o f each
member o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o w a r d a l l o t h e r members, t o w a r d s u p e r ­
v i s o r s , t o w a r d t h e work, t o w a r d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n — to w a r d a l l
a s p e c t s o f t h e j o b . Thes e f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d o t h e r s
r e f l e c t a high l e v e l o f mutual c o n f i d e n c e and t r u s t t h r o u g h o u t t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n . The f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and
t h e work a r e n o t t h o s e o f easy c om pla cen cy, b u t a r e t h e a t t i t u d e s
o f I d e n t i f i c a t i o n w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and I t s o b j e c t i v e s and a
h ig h s e n s e o f I n v o l v e m e n t 1n a c h i e v i n g them.

3

2. T h i s h i g h l y m o t i v a t e d * c o o p e r a t i v e o r i e n t a t i o n t o w a r d t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n and I t s o b j e c t i v e s 1s a c h i e v e d by h a r n e s s i n g e f f e c ­
t i v e l y a l l t h e m a j o r m o t i v a t i o n a l f o r c e s which ca n e x e r c i s e s i g n i f i ­
c a n t I n f l u e n c e 1n an o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s e t t i n g and which* p o t e n t i a l l y *
ca n be a c c o m p a n ie d by c o o p e r a t i v e and f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s .
3.
The o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n s i s t s o f a t i g h t l y k n i t , e f f e c t i v e l y
f u n c t i o n i n g s o c i a l s y s t e m . T h i s s o c i a l s y s t e m 1s made up o f I n t e r ­
l o c k i n g work g r o u p s w i t h a h i g h d e g r e e o f group l o y a l t y among t h e
members and f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s and t r u s t b e tw e e n s u p e r i o r s and
subordinates.
S e n s i t i v i t y t o o t h e r s and r e l a t i v e l y h i g h l e v e l s o f
s k i l l 1n p e r s o n a l I n t e r a c t i o n and t h e f u n c t i o n i n g o f g r o u p s a r e
a l s o p r e s e n t . T he se s k i l l s p e r m i t e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n 1n d e c i ­
s i o n s on common p r o b l e m s . P a r t i c i p a t i o n 1s used* f o r example* t o
e s t a b l i s h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s wh ic h a r e a s a t i s f a c t o r y I n t e ­
g r a t i o n o f t h e need s and d e s i r e s o f a l l members o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n
and o f p e r s o n s f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d t o I t .
High l e v e l o f r e c i p r o ­
c a l I n f l u e n c e o c c u r and h ig h l e v e l s o f t o t a l c o o r d i n a t e d I n f l u e n c e
a r e a c h i e v e d 1n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . C om m un ic at io n 1s e f f i c i e n t and
e f f e c t i v e . T h e r e 1s a flo w from one p a r t o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n t o
a n o t h e r o f a l l t h e r e l e v a n t I n f o r m a t i o n I m p o r t a n t f o r ea c h d e c i s i o n
and a c t i o n . The l e a d e r s h i p In t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n had d e v e l o p e d w h a t
m i g h t w e l l be c a l l e d a h i g h l y e f f e c t i v e s o c i a l s y s t e m f o r I n t e r a c ­
t i o n and m u tu a l In f lu e n c e *
4 . M e a s u r e m e n ts o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e a r e used
p r i m a r i l y f o r s e lf - g u i d a n c e r a t h e r than f o r superimposed c o n tr o l.
To t a p t h e m o t i v e s which b r i n g c o o p e r a t i v e and f a v o r a b l e r a t h e r
t h a n h o s t i l e a t t i t u d e s * p a r t i c i p a t i o n and I n v o l v e m e n t 1n d e c i s i o n s
1s a h a b i t u a l p a r t o f t h e l e a d e r s h i p p r o c e s s .
T h i s k in d o f
d e c l s 1 o n - m a k 1 n g , o f co urs e* c a l l s f o r t h e f u l l s h a r i n g o f a v a i l a b l e
M e a s u r e m e n t s and I n f o r m a t i o n . Moreover* a s I t becomes e v i d e n t 1n
t h e decision -m akin g p rocess t h a t a d d itio n a l In fo rm a tio n o r measure­
m e n t s a r e needed* s t e p s a r e t a k e n t o o b t a i n them. (I n Pugh# 19 *
p. 15)
Models o f e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p *

w h i l e v a r i e d and I n c r e a s i n g l y

complex* h a v e shown common I n d i c e s t h r o u g h t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o g r e s s i o n :
h ig h m o r a l e l e a d s t o h i g h p r o d u c t i v i t y ; good l e a d e r s h i p ( d e m o c r a t i c
leadership#

good human r e l a t i o n s *

consideration*

m o r a l e (and t h u s t o h ig h p r o d u c t i v i t y ) ;

e t c . ) l e a d s t o h ig h

e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p (combining

a concern f o r people w ith a concern f o r t a s k e f f e c t iv e n e s s ) le a d s t o
h ig h m o r a l e a n d / o r h ig h p r o d u c t i v i t y ; e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p h a s t o be

4

t a i l o r e d t o t h e group s i t u a t i o n (e.g., group t a s k , s t r u c t u r e ,
r e l a t i o n s h i p , tim ing, s t r e s s , e t c . )
Cam pbell, B r i d g e s ,

member

(Per row , 1972).

and N yst ra nd (1977) d e l i n e a t e d t h e l e a d e r ­

s h i p r o l e 1n t e r m s o f a b i l i t i e s , r o l e s , and b e h a v i o r :
1. Two a b i l i t i e s , a t l e a s t , c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e l e a d e r . S / h e has
a goa l f o r t h e f u t u r e and a p l a n f o r a c h i e v i n g I t .
In a d d i t i o n t o
t h i s , s / h e r understands t h a t e f f e c t i v e planning f o r th e achievement
o f g o a l s I n v o l v e s t h e p e o p l e who a r e a f f e c t e d by t h o s e g o a l s . The
l e a d e r m a r s h a l s t h e I n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e s e p e o p le t o g e t t h e j o b
done. The l e a d e r I s e x p e c t e d t o f u r n i s h I d e a s .
S / h e 1n t u r n
e x p e c t s t o r e c e i v e I d e a s from h i s / h e r a s s o c i a t e s .
S/he I n s p i r e s
p e o p l e t o c o o p e r a t e 1n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e I d e a s , s o t h a t t h e p u r ­
poses o f e d u catio n a r e served.
2. The I n t e r p e r s o n a l r o l e t h a t has r e c e i v e d t h e mo st a t t e n t i o n
In t h e l i t e r a t u r e 1s t h e l e a d e r r o l e .
As t h e l e a d e r of t h e o r g a n i ­
z a t i o n , t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r g u i d e s and m o t i v a t e s s u b o r d i n a t e s . S / h e
a t t e m p t s t o h a r n e s s t h e e n e r g i e s o f s u b o r d i n a t e s by e f f e c t i n g an
I n t e g r a t i o n bet wee n t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and t h e
m o t i v e s o f t h e I n d i v i d u a l . L e a d e r s h i p p e r m e a t e s a g r e a t many of
th e a d m in istra to r's a c t i v i ti e s .
I t I s e v i d e n t 1n what a p p e a r t o
be c a s u a l e n c o u n t e r s , f o r e xam pl e, when t h e manag er g r e e t s a
s u b o r d i n a t e , a s k s a b o u t h i s / h e r work and c o m p l i m e n t s h i m / h e r on
achievements.
3. C o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e g e n e r a l usag e o f t h e t e r m l e a d e r , we
d e f i n e a l e a d e r a s an a d m i n i s t r a t o r who h a s a m i s s i o n o r a s p e c i a l
s e n s e o f d i r e c t i o n f o r t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and who 1s a b l e t o s e c u r e
t h e c omm itm en ts and e f f o r t s o f s u b o r d i n a t e s 1n s e r v i c e o f t h i s
m i s s i o n , (pp. 2 2 , 176, 268)
Ac cor di ng t o t h i s d e f i n i t i o n , t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r must
p o s s e s s tw o e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s I f s / h e I s t o be r e g a r d e d a s a
leader.

F i r s t , s / h e mu st hav e a s p e c i a l s e n s e o f wher e t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n 1s g o in g , a v i s i o n t h a t e x c i t e s t h e i m a g i n a t i o n and
c h a l l e n g e s t h e b e s t 1n pe opl e.

This noble purpose g iv es people

s o m e t h i n g t o work t o w a r d , s o m e t h i n g t h a t th e y do n o t y e t know how t o
do, and s o m e t h i n g t h a t t h e y w i l l be proud o f when th e y a c h i e v e 1 t
(G ra nge r,

1964).

Such a v i s i o n g i v e s calm p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e h o t

5

I s s u e s o f t h e day and a f f e c t s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e v e r y t h i n g t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t o r does (Ohmann# 1970).

The e s s e n c e o f l e a d e r s h i p #

t h e r e f o r e # 1s "choice# a s i n g u l a r l y I n d i v i d u a l i s t i c a c t 1n which an
a d m i n i s t r a t o r assu mes r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r a c omm itmen t t o d i r e c t an
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o n g a p a r t i c u l a r p a th " (Zale nlk#

1967# p. 59).

This

commitment s t i m u l a t e s and g u i d e s a c t i o n .
The second e s s e n t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t h a t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l
a d m i n i s t r a t o r mu st have 1 f c o n s i d e r e d t o be a l e a d e r 1s t h e a b i l i t y t o
i n f l u e n c e people# t o b in d t h e i r w i l l s 1n t h e a c c o m p l i s h m e n t o f p u r p o s e s
beyond t h e i r own ends (Barnard# 1962).

I f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r has worthy

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s and a s e n s e o f d i r e c t i o n t h a t I s d e s i g n e d t o
g i v e c o n t i n u i t y t o I n d i v i d u a l a c t i o n s o v e r t i m e b u t I s u n a b le t o e l i c i t
t h e r e q u i s i t e e n e r g i e s and c om m itm e nts of o t h e r s # t h e n a l e a d e r h a s n o t
e v o l v e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e above d e f i n i t i o n .

To be a le a d e r # a d m i n i s t r a ­

t o r s must be a b l e t o r e a l i z e t h e i r I n t e n t i o n 1n t h e a t t i t u d e s # va lue s#
and b e h a v i o r s o f t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s .

F u n c t i o n i n g a s a l e a d e r means t h e

a d m i n i s t r a t o r 1s g u i d i n g and s h a p i n g w h a t I n d i v i d u a l s do 1n s e r v i c e o f
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and I t s m i s s i o n .

Again# t h e r e 1s s i g n i f i c a n t common­

a l i t y 1n t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s d e f i n e d h e r e by S a r a s o n (1972).
T i l l m a n and Renc he r (1976)# u s i n g t h e t h e o r e t i c a l work o f Blake
and Mouton# a s w e ll a s o t h e r s i g n i f i c a n t c o n t e m p o r a r y w r i t i n g s # s t u d i e d
t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p ro m i nen c e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o d u c t i o n and
t h e need s o f p e o p l e f a c t o r s 1n t h e o b l i q u e s o l u t i o n o f a h1gh-ach1ev1ng
group o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

The r e s u l t s showed a s t r o n g p r e d i s p o s i t i o n

o f t h e h1gh-ach1ev1ng s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t o c hoose t h e 9#9 m a n a g e r i a l

6

f o r m u l a t i o n (work a c c o m p l i s h m e n t 1s from c o m m i t t e d p e o p l e ; i n t e r d e p e n d ­
e n c e t h r o u g h a "common s t a k e " In o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p u r p o s e l e a d s t o r e l a ­
t i o n s h i p s o f t r u s t and r e s p e c t ) (Blake & Mouton,
ty p ic a l managerial s ty le .

1964) a s t h e i r most

For t h e h1gh-ach1ev1ng group o f s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t s , f o u r p o i n t s o f view w e r e I d e n t i f i e d a s :

(1) a p o i n t o f view w i t h

r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n c e r n o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s f o r p r o d u c t i o n 1n e d u c a ­
t i o n a l e n t e r p r i s e s ; (2) a p o i n t o f view w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n c e r n f o r
t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f e d u c a t i o n a l p e r s o n n e l ; (3) a p o i n t o f view w i t h
r e s p e c t t o t h e c once rn f o r c o o p e r a t i o n among s u b o r d i n a t e s ; and (4) a
p o i n t o f view w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e c o n c e r n f o r t h e need s o f pe o p le .
Based on t h e r e s u l t s a c c u m u l a t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y , T i l l m a n and Rencher
recommended t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c o n s i d e r s t r o n g l y s e l e c t i n g t h e 9,9
managerial le a d e r s h ip s t y l e .

The e v i d e n c e un co vered by t h i s s t u d y

s u g g e s t s t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w i t h t h e 9 ,9 p r o p e n s i t y ha ve a r e a l i s t i c
c o n c e r n f o r o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o d u c t i o n a s w e l l a s an a p p a r e n t i n t e r e s t 1n
t h e n e e d s o f pe ople .
Volp and W l l l o w e r (1977) d i s c u s s e d M a c h i a v e l l i a n b e h a v i o r s o f
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and found h1gh-Mach s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c l a i m i n g t o e x e r t
more I n f l u e n c e t h a n was a t t r i b u t e d t o them by t h e i r b o a r d s and o t h e r
adm inistrators.

H1gh-Mach s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s showed a p r o p e n s i t y t o do

w h a t was " e x p e d i e n t 1' I n o r d e r t o en hance t h e i r i n f l u e n c e .

Highly

M a c h i a v e l l i a n s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s were " o p e r a t o r s , " b u t t h e i r o p e r a t i o n s
f a i l e d t o s e c u r e t h e k in d o r amount of I n f l u e n c e th e y s o u g h t.

The m o s t

s t r i k i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of t h e low-Mach s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was t h e i r e v e r ­
p r e s e n t r e g a r d f o r p e o p l e (hence, 9 ,9 ) .

The low-Machs w e r e v iew ed a s

7

" v i r t u o u s " 1n t h e s e n s e t h a t t h e y made f r e q u e n t r e f e r e n c e s t o honesty*
s i n c e r i t y * ge nu in en e ss* and f a i r n e s s In t h e i r t r e a t m e n t o f s u b o r d i ­
n a tes o r peers.

The low-Mach s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d t h e s e

b e l i e f s w i t h a " h u m a n i s t i c " view o f t h e wo rld .
tio n s t h a t evil

They r e j e c t e d s u g g e s ­

fo r c e s were "out t o g e t t h e su p erin ten d e n t."

By empha­

s i z i n g t h e i r " s e r v i c e " r o l e 1n m e e t i n g t h e e d u c a t i o n a l demands o f board
members* a d m i n i s t r a t o r s * t e a c h e r s * s t u d e n t s * and community groups* t h e
low-Machs m i n i m i z e d t h e t h r e a t o f h o s t i l e e n c o u n t e r s .

They d e p i c t e d

t h e i r c o n s t i t u e n t s a s I n t e r e s t e d * d e d i c a t e d p a r t i e s In v o lv e d 1n school
affairs

(hence*

a g a i n 9*9).

Knowing t h e s e d a t a a s d t e d 1n p r e v i o u s e x c e r p t s from t h e
l i t e r a t u r e * 1 t I s t a n t a m o u n t t o I d e n t i f y t h e pro ble m s o r i n d i c e s t h a t
a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t from e f f e c t i v e l y f u l f i l l i n g t h e
d u tie s of h i s / h e r o f f ic e .

Through g a t h e r i n g c o m p a r a t i v e d a t a t h a t

c e n t e r on b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s * pro bl e m s e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r
board-member e l e c t i o n s * t h e a r e a s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and p u b l i c
r e l a t i o n s * p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h p r e s s u r e from s p e d a l - I n t e r e s t
groups* f r i c t i o n s a r i s i n g from s t a f f c o n f l i c t s (both a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a s
w e l l a s c e r t i f i e d and u n c e r t i f i e d ) *

financial d iffic u ltie s*

general

management d i f f i c u l t i e s * ag e o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s * l o n g e v i t y o f o f f i c e *
and d u p l i c i t y o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p er ie n c e * t h e t a s k o f d e v e l o p i n g
g r a d u a t e t r a i n i n g prog ra ms f o r p u r p o s e s o f a s s i s t i n g t h o s e 1n t h e f i e l d
a s w e ll as p o t e n t i a l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a p p e a r s t o be a c r i t i c a l need.

a
D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
The f o l l o w i n g t e r m s a r e d e f i n e d 1n t h e c o n t e x t 1n which t h e y
a r e used In t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n (Good# 1973 ).
Superintendent of schools.

The c h i e f e x e c u t i v e and a d v i s o r y

o f f i c e r c h a r g e d w i t h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f s c h o o l s I n a l o c a l s cho ol unit#
a s 1n a d i s t r i c t # c i t y # town# o r t o w n s h i p o r In a co un ty o r s t a t e .
Problem.
ti on#

Any s i g n i f i c a n t #

p e r p le x in g # and c h a l l e n g i n g s i t u a ­

real or a r t i f i c i a l .
Turnover.

The l o s s and s u b s e q u e n t r e p l a c e m e n t o f a s u p e r i n ­

tendent.
Te nu re .

The le n g th # u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d I n ye ars# o f a s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t ' s s e r v i c e i n a s i n g l e p o s i t i o n o r s c h o o l s ys te m .
Expedence.

The p r o c e s s o f a human b e i n g I n t e r a c t i n g w i t h a

p h y s i c a l / c u l t u r a l en v iro nm e nt# doin g c e r t a i n t h i n g s and h a v i n g c e r t a i n
t h i n g s happen t o h i m / h e r (1n c o n s e q u e n c e ) .
Public schools.

P u b l i c s c h o o l s r e f e r s t o Michigan p u b l i c

e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s In school d i s t r i c t s t h a t m a i n t a i n
g r a d e s o f k i n d e r g a r t e n th r o u g h t w e l f t h g r a d e s o r f i r s t t h r o u g h t w e l f t h
grades.
School d i s t r i c t .

The a r e a t h a t 1s u n d e r t h e s u p e r v i s i o n o f a

g iv e n s c h o o l boa rd.
School b o a r d .

The school d i s t r i c t agency c r e a t e d by t h e s t a t e #

b u t g e n e r a l l y p o p u l a r l y e l e c t e d # on which t h e s t a t u t e s o f t h e s t a t e o r
commonwealth p l a c e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r c o n d u c t i n g t h e l o c a l p u b l i c
e d u c a t i o n s y s te m s .

9

Leadership.

The a b i l i t y and r e a d i n e s s t o I n s p i r e #

guide#

d i r e c t # o r manage o t h e r s .
Indices.

Any t r a i t s #

f a c t o r s # o r v a r i a b l e s c o n s i d e r e d 1n an

I n v e s t i g a t i o n t h a t # a c t i n g t o g e t h e r o r s e p a r a t e l y # p ro d u c e a g iv e n
result.
A dm inistrative e ffe c tiv e n e s s .

The e x t e n t t o which s a t i s f a c t o r y

r e s u l t s have been produc ed th r o u g h t h e c o n t r o l # d i r e c t i o n # and manage­
me nt e x e r c i s e d by t h e e x e c u t i v e a u t h o r i t y ( s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ) .
Co mmu nicatio ns.

The t r a n s f e r e n c e o f t h o u g h t o r f e e l i n g from

one p e r s o n t o a n o t h e r th r o u g h g e s t u r e # p os tu re # f a c i a l e x p r e s s i o n # t o n e
and q u a l i t y o f voice# a s w e l l as by s p e e c h o r by s e c o n d a r y means su ch
a s w r i t i n g # te le p h o n e # t e l e g r a p h # radio# t e l e v i s i o n # e t c .
Public r e la ti o n s .

An a c t i v i t y c o n c e r n e d w i t h g i v i n g I n f o r m a ­

t i o n t o t h e p u b l i c a b o u t t h e school o r c r e a t i n g good w i l l f o r t h e
school.

A c o n d i t i o n o f mutual u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t s u b s i s t s between

s ch oo l and community.
S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t group ( p r e s s u r e grou p) .

A group o f p e r s o n s

bound by common I n t e r e s t s t h a t a t t e m p t s # by use o f a v a r i e t y o f c o e r ­
c i v e measures# t o I n f l u e n c e o t h e r s t o a d o p t I t s progr ams o r p u rp o s e s .
S taff co n flicts.

A p a i n f u l o r unhappy s t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s

r e s u l t i n g from a c l a s h o r c o n t e s t o f I n c o m p a t i b l e d e s i r e s # alms#
d r iv e s # etc. #

between v a r i o u s I n d i v i d u a l s h i r e d by a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t t o

c a r r y o u t t h e work o f t h e school d i s t r i c t .
V ignette.
c1rcumstance.

A short# l i t e r a r y sk etc h of a p a r t i c u l a r m a t t e r o r

10

Assumptions and D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e _ S t u d v
T h i s s t u d y was l i m i t e d t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f Michigan p u b l i c
s ch ool s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1972 th r o u g h 1984 a s r e p o r t e d
by t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s (MASA) a s w e ll as
d a t a g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h s u r v e y i n g 521 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Mi chigan.
The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s s t u d y was a f f e c t e d by:
1.

The n a t u r e and v a l i d i t y o f t h e m a j o r s o u r c e o f t h e d a t a ,

which was I n :
a.

the confidential

r e c o r d s / f i l e s o f t h e MASA.

b.

f i n d i n g s c o m p i l e d a s a r e s u l t o f s u r v e y i n g a l l 521

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan.
2.

I t d e a l t w i t h s e l e c t e d demo gra phic f a c t o r s common t o a l l

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h a t can be s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d and compared.
3.

I t d e a l t with s e le c te d p roblem atic (jo b - re la te d ) f a c to r s

common t o a l l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h a t can be s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d and
compared.
4.

The s t u d y assumed t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s had r e s pond ed t o d a t a

c o l l e c t i o n by t h e MASA a s w e ll a s t h e s u r v e y us ed 1n t h i s s t u d y w i t h
a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n s 1n t e r m s o f I d e n t i f y i n g prob le m a r e a s ha v in g
s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s w e ll a s c a u s e and
e f f e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s with regard t o t h e i r v o luntary or in v o lu n tary
turnover.

11

H ypoth ese s , a n d Re se ar ch Q u e s ti o n
H ypo the ses
H y p o t h e s i s 1: The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pr oble m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n b o a r d superlntendent relations.
H y p o t h e s i s 2 i The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r bo a rd member e l e c t i o n s .
H y p o t h e s i s . 3 : The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d In communica­
tio n s /p u b lic relations.
H y p o t h e s i s 4 i The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h p u b l i c
p r e s s u r e t h ro u g h s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t gro ups.
H y p o t h e s i s 5 ; The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro bl e m s e x p e r i e n c e d In s t a f f con­
flicts.
H y p o t h e s i s 6 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n f i n a n c i a l
d ifficulties.
H y p o t h e s i s 7 : The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c s ch o ol s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s I s In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n management
pr o bl ems.
Demographic Data R ese arc h Q u e s ti o n
I s t h e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n ­
te n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s * newly
e l e c t e d bo a rd members* commun1cat1ons/publ 1c r e l a t i o n s , p u b l i c p r e s s u r e
a p p l i e d by s p e c i a l

I n t e r e s t groups* s t a f f c o n f l i c t s *

c u l t i e s * o r management pro bl e m s ?

financial d i f f i ­

12

S e l e c t i o n o f Sample
The s am p l e 1n t h i s s t u d y was t h e f u l l p o p u l a t i o n o f a c t i v e
f i l e s a s r e p o r t e d by t h e MASA from 1972 th r o u g h 1982# as w e l l a s t h e
f u l l p o p u l a t i o n o f 521 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan s u r v e y e d 1n 1984.
S t a t l s t 1 c a l - Rrocedu r e s
S e v e r a l s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s w er e c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e t e s t i n g
o f data.

One p r o c e d u r e c ho sen was t h e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t .

In t e s t i n g

t h e data# t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s o f n o n r e l a t l o n s h l p was presumed# and seven
h y p o t h e s e s were t e s t e d .

The fo rm u la f o r c h i - s q u a r e i s

X2 = Z CCo - e ) 2/ e ]
where:
X2 = c h 1 - s q u a r e
o = observed frequency (tu rn o v e r)
e = e x p e c t e d t u r n o v e r (computed)
A s ec ond s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t c ho se n was t h e m u l t i p l e a n a l y s i s o f
v a r i a n c e (MANOVA) u s i n g a two-way MANOVA w i t h one r e p e a t e d m e asu re .
One f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t e d group (G)# and a n o t h e r w i t h i n ( w i t h i n s u b j e c t )
f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t e d t h e seve n problem a r e a s I d e n t i f i e d 1n t h i s s t u d y as
a r e p e a t e d meas ure .
Organization of th e D is se rta tio n
TTie d i s s e r t a t i o n c o m p r i s e s f i v e c h a p t e r s .

C h a p t e r I was an

I n t r o d u c t o r y c h a p t e r t h a t s t a t e d t h e prob lem and gave t h e need for#
purpose# and g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e s of t h e s tu d y .

Chapter I I surveys t h e

13

l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d t o f a c t o r s unde r c o n s i d e r a t i o n 1n t h i s s t u d y .

The

l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w I n c l u d e s Cl) r e s e a r c h a d d r e s s i n g t h e p r o b l e m a t i c
( J o b - r e l a t e d ) f a c t o r s * (2) r e s e a r c h on l e a d e r s h i p e f f e c t i v e n e s s w i t h
r e g a r d t o p e r f o r m a n c e q u a l i t y * (3) s t u d i e s m e a s u r i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
t u r n o v e r as w e l l a s e x a m i n in g t h e c a u s a l f a c t o r s # (4) r e s e a r c h on
p e r c e p t i o n s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w i t h r e g a r d t o p ro b le m s f a c e d a f f e c t i n g
s u bsequent turnover#

and (5) s t u d i e s e x a m i n in g t h e I s s u e s t h a t a f f e c t

ad m in istrativ e effectiveness.

C h a p t e r I I I d i s c u s s e s 1n d e t a i l t h e

I n s t r u m e n t s and p r o c e d u r e s used 1n t h e s tu d y .

C h a p t e r IV c o n t a i n s a

r e p o r t o f t h e f i n d i n g s o b t a i n e d fr om t h e r e s e a r c h .
a summary of t h e s t u d y f i n d i n g s # c o n c l u s i o n s *

Chapter V Includes

I m p l i c a t i o n s and r e f l e c ­

t i o n s * s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h r e l a t e d t o t h i s study# and
r e c o m m e n d a ti o n s f o r a c t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s tu d y .

CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

The re vi e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e 1s d i r e c t e d t o w a r d e x a m i n in g t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a d v e r s e l y
a f f e c t i n g t h e i r a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r school d i s ­
t r i c t s t h a t may r e s u l t 1n t u r n o v e r a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .
I n c l u d e d In t h e re v ie w a r e s t u d i e s c o n d u c te d t h a t document t h e I de n­
t i f i e d c a u s a l f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y I n e f f e c t i v e n e s s 1n
t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e d u t i e s 1n t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e .

Seven

c a u s a l f a c t o r s w e r e I d e n t i f i e d 1n t h i s s t u d y a s p ro b le m s a f f e c t i n g
s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e n e s s and t u r n o v e r :
Board-Superlntendent R elations
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
C o m m u n ic a t io n s /P u b li c R e l a t i o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems
What I s Happening t o S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ?
A c co rd in g t o Gousha C1981)» t h e r e a r e s e v e r a l f a c t o r s (p ro b­
le ms ) a f f e c t i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s In t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e d u t i e s o f

15

t h e i r o f f i c e # t h e r e b y Impeding t h e i r e x e r c i s i n g l e a d e r s h i p .

These

f a c t o r s a r e t h e o u t g r o w t h o f p o l i t i c a l phenomena t h a t have pe rm e at e d
tU

public In s titu tio n s :
F i r s t # " a c c e s s t o go v e rn m e n ta l d e c i s i o n s and I n d e p e n d e n t

r e v i e w " 1s c e n t r a l t o t h e f r u s t r a t i o n s f e l t by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
Second# " e q u a l i t y o f r e p r e s e n t a t i o n # " a s a r e s u l t o f t h e Supreme
C o u r t ' s r e a p p o r t l o n m B n t d e c i s i o n o f t h e 1960s# a new g e n e r a t i o n of
I n d e p e n d e n t s began t o f i l l e l e c t e d p o s t s a c r o s s t h i s n a t i o n .

Third#

" i n d e p e n d e n t p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n " became a r e a l i t y 1n t e r m s o f e x e r t i n g
p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e a s a r e s u l t o f t h e c i v i l r i g h t s movement.

P e o p le

r e a l i z e d power c o u ld be m a n i f e s t e d 1n g ro u p s o p e r a t i n g o u t s i d e o f
traditional

c hann el s#

corporations.

I.e.# p o l i t i c a l

parties#

l a b o r unions# and

Fourth# " l o s s o f d e f e r e n c e " r e f e r s t o t h e p u b l i c ' s

demand t o know# and t h e more t h a t 1s known# t h e l e s s p u b l i c awe and
t r u s t 1n l e a d e r s h i p ; and f i f t h #

" c r i s i s o f c r e d i b i l i t y and a l o s s o f

c o n f i d e n c e 1n I n s t i t u t i o n s and l e a d e r s h i p " r e s u l t i n g 1n doubt# s c r u ­
t i n y # and c h a l l e n g e — a l l o f which a r e f a c i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n r u n n in g
t h e b u sin ess of t h e i r schools.

What 1s h a ppen in g t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

t o d a y I s t h a t t h e I m p o s s i b l e 1s b e in g e x p e c t e d o f them# a s a p t l y
e x p r e s s e d by a b o a rd member who made t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t w h i l e
conducting a s u p e r in te n d e n t search fo r th e d i s t r i c t :

"The s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t does n o t have t o be someone who w a lk s on water# j u s t someone
who knows where t h e r o c k s a r e " (Kaufman#

1981).

N o l t e (1974) wrote#
Any s u r v e y o f school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w i l l show I n c r e a s i n g numbers
w ith in t h i s to p echelon of ed ucational p ro f e s s i o n a ls a re

16

c o m p l a i n i n g . They a r e g r o u s i n g a b o u t h ig h c a s u a l t y r a t e s and a b o u t
fa c to ry -ty p e a c c o u n ta b ility plans t h a t em asculate th e t r a d i t i o n a l
power o f t h e A me ric an s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . A c c u s a t o r y f i n g e r s
o f t e n s t a i n e d by s o u r g r a p e s a r e b e i n g p o i n t e d n o t o n l y a t
a c c o u n t a b l l 1 t y - c o n s c 1 o u s s c h o o l boards* b u t a t t h e c o u r t s * p a r e n t s *
p r e s s u r e groups* p o l i t i c i a n s * p r e s s * p o l i c e and p u p i l s , ( p . 42)
R o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ha ve " o u t ­
s trip p e d " th e c ap a c ity of most In d iv id u a ls t o f i l l

th e m (Volp*

1976).

Gousha (1981) r e f e r r e d t o t h e " c r i s i s o f a u t h o r i t y " a s s t a t e d by
W i l l i a m G r l e d e r o f t h e W as h in g to n P o s t c i t i n g t h e t u r n o v e r r a t e o f
g r e a t c i t y (large*

urb a n s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s ) s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

From 1978

t o 1981* 16 o f 28 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s fr o m t h e g r e a t c i t i e s t e r m i n a t e d
t h e i r tenure.

The a p p a r e n t l e s s o n h e r e I s t h e r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r

t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y ha ve e xpan de d t h e c a p a c i t y o f t h e c h i e f s c h o o l
a d m i n i s t r a t o r t o r e s p o n d to* o r ev en t o a t t e m p t t o a c c u r a t e l y p i n p o i n t *
i n t e r e s t g rou p c h a l l e n g e s t o e d u c a t i o n a l p r a c t i c e s .
environm ental

d is s o n a n c e *

An e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g

r e f e r r e d t o by Gousha a s " l o s s o f d e f e r e n c e , "

has e s c a l a te d superintendency tu rn o v e rs so r a p id ly t h a t t h e jo b m arket
1 s v i r t u a l l y w id e open.

T h i s phenomenon 1s s i g n i f i c a n t 1n t e r m s o f

f i n d i n g s re g a rd in g su p erin ten d e n c y view s o f Job s e c u r i t y .

S t u d i e d by

Brown (1970), j o b s e c u r i t y f o r s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s was d i s c o v e r e d t o
be o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y g r e a t e r I m p o r t a n c e t h a n t o t h o s e 1n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
1n b u s i n e s s .

T h i s need f o r s e c u r i t y e x h i b i t e d by s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t s c an m o s t l i k e l y be e x p l a i n e d by h i g h t u r n o v e r r a t e s r e p o r t e d
nationwide.
Demands o f t h e j o b o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y a r e be com in g l e s s
m a n a g e r i a l and more p o l i t i c a l

In n a t u r e .

If th e ro le of the superin­

t e n d e n t I s becoming m ore p o l i t i c a l * t h e n by d e f i n i t i o n I t 1s becoming

17

more p u b l i c .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t h e n becomes t h e " f r o n t - m a n " (woman)

f o r t h e syst em .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w i l l t a k e t h e p u b l i c h a r a n g u e and

f e nd o f f c r i t i c i s m w h i l e t h e s t a f f r u n s t h e school d i s t r i c t .
p e o p l e , t r y i n g t o do bot h would be a h a r r o w i n g e x p e r i e n c e .

For m o s t
As a r e s u l t

o f t h i s I n c r e a s e d p u b l i c demand, tw o r e l a t e d I s s u e s a r e t h e c a u s e of
much c o n s t e r n a t i o n among s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

F irst,

If superintendents

a r e t o be I n v o l v e d i n t h e p u b l i c a r e n a t o a g r e a t e r e x t e n t , t h e n
someone e l s e I n s i d e m u s t h a n d l e t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e d i s t r i c t .

De leg a­

t i o n o f a u t h o r i t y c a r r i e s a tr e m e n d o u s r i s k In s h i f t i n g power and
a u t h o r i t y away from t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o " I n s i d e c o a l i t i o n s " o f admin­
istrators,
ent.

many o f whom may have g r e a t e r t e n u r e t h a n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d ­

Second, t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e o f t h e s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y I s d e c l i n i n g

1n I m po r ta nc e .
dim inishing.

The a b i l i t y of one i n d i v i d u a l t o make a d i f f e r e n c e 1s
O v e r a l l , I n d i v i d u a l l e a d e r s h i p 1s d i m i n i s h i n g .

The

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r o l e 1n b u i l d i n g and u s i n g " r o l l i n g c o a l i t i o n s " 1s
c r u c i a l t o s u c c e s s 1n t h e s e c o n t e m p o r a r y t i m e s .

Superintendents w ill

be s u c c e s s f u l ,

"leaders fo r c e r ta in

but fo r s h o r t e r periods o f tim e:

s e a s o n s b u t none f o r a l l s e a s o n s " (Hodgklnson,

1979).

Many o b s e r v e r s would a g r e e t h a t s ch oo l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e
"u nder s i e g e . "

Today's s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e o f t e n " o u t s i d e r s " w i t h no

e s t a b l i s h e d s u p p o r t In t h e community, s o r e p l a c e m e n t o f a s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t can be r e l a t i v e l y e asy .

Confl 1 c t management among m l H t a n t l y

c o m p e t in g g ro u p s Im pi n g in g upon t h e s ch oo l d i s t r i c t 1s a c o n te m p o r a r y
a s p e c t o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s j o b a s Dolce (1976) e x p l a i n e d :

18

In t h e c o n t e x t o f u n s t a b l e p o l i t i c a l # econ omi c and s o c i a l
e nvir onm e nt s # t h e c o n te m p o r a r y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s u f f e r s a d d i t i o n a l
d i s a d v a n t a g e s t h a t many p r e d e c e s s o r s d i d n ot . The c o s m o p o l i t a n
n a t u r e o f c u r r e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e g r e a t m o b i l i t y In c han ge s
o f p o s i t i o n s ha ve r e s u l t e d 1n a co st# t h a t 1s t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
"from t h e o u t s i d e " doe s n o t have t h e a d v a n t a g e o f k i n s h i p s # l i f e ­
l o n g f r i e n d s h i p s # and l o y a l t y w i t h i n t h e community and I t s g r o u p s .
Hodgklnson's " I n s i d e c o a l i t i o n s " I s s u e was r e i n f o r c e d by Dolce# who
f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t " l i e s a t t h e I n t e r f a c e between
s o c i e t y ' s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and t h e e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n .

So

whenever t h e r e I s a gap between s o c i e t y and t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n # t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r e c e i v e s t h e mo st s t r e s s . "

D o l c e ' s c o n t e n t i o n was t h a t

I f t h i s a n a l y s i s 1s c o r r e c t # s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w i l l re m a i n u n d e r " s i e g e "
as long as s t r e s s f u l s i t u a t i o n s e x i s t .
Cuban (1976) l i k e n e d t h e s t r e s s t o a J u g g l i n g a c t t h a t m u s t be
p l a y e d o u t on a d a l l y b a s i s w i t h t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a t t e m p t i n g t o
m a i n t a i n a b a l a n c e b e tw een a l l t h e demands and h i s / h e r a b i l i t y t o m e e t
them.
For a l l . . . s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h e r e was a p e r p e t u a l c r o s s f i r e o f
e x p e c t a t i o n s # r e q u e s t s and demands from board members# m i d d l e - l e v e l
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s # p r i n c i p a l s # t e a c h e r s # s t u d e n t s and d i f f e r e n t c i v i c
gr ou ps . With c r i s e s b r e a k i n g d a l l y and enormous demands p l a c e d
upon t h e c h i e f s ' l i m i t e d time# schoolmen w e re o f t e n f o r c e d t o a d o p t
t h o s e t r a d i t i o n a l s t a n c e s and s t r a t e g i e s t h a t had h e l p e d p r e d e c e s ­
s o r s and c o l l e a g u e s t o a v o i d c o n f l i c t w h i l e t r y i n g h a r d t o ma xim iz e
c o n s e n s u s w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . Such c r o s s - c u t t i n g p r e s s u r e s
upon e x e c u t i v e s shoved them I n t o p l a y i n g o u t r o l e s t h a t would g a i n
and r e t a i n s u p p o r t w i t h o u t s a c r i f i c i n g t h e i r c l a i m t o e x p e r t n e s s .
The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t I s n o t u n l i k e t h e J u g g l e r who# In o r d e r t o keep
a dozen o b j e c t s 1n t h e a i r on a windy day# m u s t c o n s t a n t l y move
about# k e e p in g h i s e y e s r o v i n g ; h e may be v e r y u n c e r t a i n t h a t he
h a s t h e w h o l e dozen# b u t h e d o e s n ' t d a r e s t o p t o f i n d o u t l (p. 167)
Cuban's s t u d y f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d t h e work o f Hodgklnson a s
r e p o r t e d h e r e — t h a t b e in g t h e t r a d i t i o n a l I m p o r t a n c e o r I n f l u e n c e of
t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y 1s d i m i n i s h i n g .

Of t h e t h r e e urb a n sch oo l c h i e f s

19

c i t e d 1n h i s study* Cuban found t h a t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r p e r s o n a l
m a n a g e r i a l s t y l e In r e s p o n d i n g t o p r e s s u r e s from a l a r g e e x t e r n a l
e nv iro nm en t* t h e y each had v e r y l i t t l e room t o a d v an c e I n n o v a t i v e
p r a c t i c e s o r d e p a r t s i g n i f i c a n t l y from t h e s t a t u s quo.
C i r c u m s c r i b e d a s t h e y were by t h e comp lex o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e o f
t h e superintendent* th e h i s t o r i c a l v u ln e r a b i l i t y of th e position*
t h e s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r o c e s s o f becoming an e x e c u t i v e * and* f i n a l l y *
by t h e p a r t i c u l a r s e t o f l a r g e r e n v i r o n m e n t a l f o r c e s Im p i n g in g upon
t h e l o c a l s c h o o l system* t h e s ch o ol m an was 1n a p o s i t i o n 1n which
h i s p e r s o n a l i t y # I n t e l l i g e n c e * and s t y l e a p p a r e n t l y b o r e l i t t l e
I n f l u e n c e upon what u l t i m a t e l y hap pen ed , t p . 169)
In a n s w e r t o t h e q u e s t i o n * "What 1s h a p p e n in g t o s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t s ? " 1 t a p p e a r s t h e r e 1s l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e r e g i o n
o f t h e American s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y b e in g s t u d i e d .

In a s t u d y c o n d u c t e d by

Hughes and Gordon (1980)* 150 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w e re s e n t t o s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t s 1n t h e N o r t h e a s t * So u th e a st # North Midwest* South Midwest* t h e
West* and o t h e r l o c a l e s n o t s p e c i f i e d by t h e r e s p o n d e n t s .
r a t e was r e a l i z e d from t h i s su rv e y.

A 77% r e t u r n

The r e t u r n p e r c e n t a g e a l o n e 1s

p ro b a b l y s i g n i f i c a n t 1n t e r m s o f I n t e r p r e t i n g t h e I m p o r t a n c e o f t h e
to p ic t o present superintendents.

F i g u r e 2.1 shows t h e r e g i o n s and

numbers r e s p o n d i n g .
Concluded from t h e Hughes and Gorden s t u d y was t h e i s s u e t h a t
p ro b le m s f a c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s In t h e r e c e n t p a s t a s w e ll a s t h o s e
a n t i c i p a t e d f o r t h e I m m e d ia te f u t u r e a r e t h o s e t h a t m o s t l y have t o do
w i t h e f f e c t i v e l y o p e r a t i n g t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t 1n a h o s t i l e c l i m a t e
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t a x p a y e r r e s i s t a n c e and s t a f f c o n f l i c t .

Community

p r e s s u r e s f o r a c c o u n t a b i l i t y ( c o n c u r r i n g w i t h t h e N o l t e r e f e r e n c e ) and
g ov e rn m e n ta l I n f l u e n c e 1n t e r m s o f s p e c i a l programming demands w e re

20

a l s o c i t e d by r e s p o n d e n t s a s I n h i b i t i n g e f f e c t i v e j o b p e r f o r m a n c e .
B u f f e t e d by f or ce s# economic and s o c i a l # both o u t s i d e and I n s i d e t h e i r
d i s t r i c t s # s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e t r y i n g t o de a l w i t h tr e m e n d o u s demands
upon t h e i r m a n a g e r i a l and c o m m u n ic a ti o n s k i l l s .

" I t may seem a s 1 f

c u r r e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e p r e p a r i n g f o r a s i e g e " (Hughes & Gorden#
1980# p. 2 2 ) .

I.
N orth E a s t (15)
C onnecticut
Del aware
Maine
M assachusetts
New Hampshire
New J e r s e y
New York
Pennsylvanla
Rhode I s l a n d
Vermont V i r g i n i a

II.
South E a s t (16)
A1 abama
Florida
G e o r g ia
Kentucky
Maryland
M ississippi
North C a r o l i n a
South C a r o l i n a
T e n n e ss e e
W isconsin
West V i r g i n i a

III.
North Midwest (23)
Illin o is
Indiana
Iowa
Michigan
Minn esota
Nebraska
North Dakota
Ohio
South Dakota

IV.
So uth Midwest (22)
Arka nsa s
Co lorad o
Kansas
Loulslana
M is s ou ri
New Mexico
Oklahoma
Texas

V.
West (14)
A riz ona
C alIfornla
Id a h o
Montana
Nevada
Oregon
Utah
Washington
Wyoming

VI.
L o c a le u n s p e c i f i e d
(26)

Figure 2 .1 :

Reg io ns and number o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o
q u e s tio n n a ir e about c u r r e n t c ru c ia l concerns.
(From
Hughes & Gorden# 1980# p. 2 2 . )

21

The l i t e r a t u r e I s r e p l e t e 1n docu men ti ng t h e p r a c t i c a l l y
humanly I m p o s s i b l e demands on c o n te m p o r a r y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

TTie p u r ­

pose o f t h i s s t u d y 1s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p ro b le m s e x p e r i ­
e nce d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan betw een 1972 and 1984 t h a t
adversely a f f e c t t h e i r , a b i l i t y to e f f e c t iv e ly d i r e c t th e business of
t h e i r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s t h a t r e s u l t 1n t u r n o v e r ( v o l u n t a r y o r In v o l u n ­
tary) a t t h i s a d m in istrativ e level.
A g e n e r a l l y a c c e p t e d p r o p o s i t i o n 1s t h a t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y 1s
t h e c r u c i a l a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n 1n a s ch oo l s y s t e m 1n d e t e r m i n i n g
th e opportunity fo r q u a lity education f o r I t s students.

The r o l e s *

c o m p et en c ie s* and l e a d e r s h i p q u a l i t i e s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e b e in g
I n c r e a s i n g l y p r o p e l l e d I n t o e x p e c t a t l o n a l l e v e l s t h a t a r e humanly
Im possible t o f u l f i l l .

Most o f what I s p r e s e n t l y known a b o u t l e a d e r ­

s h i p and I t s e f f e c t on s u c c e s s f u l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l *

I n d i v i d u a l * and group

goal a t t a i n m e n t p o i n t s t o m ou nti ng e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e l e a d e r 1s s i g n i f i ­
c a n t 1n s e t t i n g t h e l e v e l of e x p e c t a t l o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e f o r a l l s u b o r d i ­
nate a c ti v i ty .

Tos1 and Hamner (1974) e x p l a i n e d *

L e a d e r s h i p I s t h e p r o c e s s by which an I n d i v i d u a l I n f l u e n c e s t h e
b e h a v i o r o f a n o t h e r p e r s o n o r group. . . . L e a d e r s h i p o c c u r s when
an I n d i v i d u a l 1s a b l e t o I n f l u e n c e a n o t h e r p e r s o n o r group t o go
beyond t h e b o u n d a r i e s o f t h e p s y c h o l o g i c a l c o n t r a c t . Compliance
with d i r e c t i v e s f a l l i n g w ith in t h e psychological c o n t r a c t Is
a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . To move an I n d i v i d u a l o r group beyond t h o s e
b o u n d a r i e s 1s l e a d e r s h i p , ( p . 424)
The f o c u s 1n t h i s s t u d y 1s t o I d e n t i f y t h o s e problem a r e a s t h a t
i n t e r f e r e with th e In d iv id u a l's (superintendent's) a b i l i t y t o Influence
and d i r e c t t h e b u s i n e s s and p e o p l e I n vo lv e d In t h e school d i s t r i c t and
r e s u l t 1n t h e s u b s e q u e n t t u r n o v e r o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

Seven

22

p r o b l e m a t i c ( J o b - r e l a t e d ) f a c t o r s viewed a s common t o a l l s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t s w er e s e l e c t e d .

The s e l e c t i o n o f t h e s e seven prob le m a r e a s was t h e

r e s u l t o f a p r e l i m i n a r y ov e rv ie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e a s w e l l a s d i s c u s ­
s i o n s h e l d w i t h numerous s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s p r e s e n t l y I n t h e f i e l d .

The

se v e n c a u s a l f a c t o r s I d e n t i f i e d 1n t h i s s t u d y a s p ro b le m s a f f e c t i n g
superintendency e ffe c tiv e n e s s are:
Board-Superlntendent R elatio n s
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Communlcatlons/Publ 1c R e l a t 1 o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems
In t e r m s of w h a t i s hap pe ni n g t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s # t h e f o l l o w i n g re vie w
o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e d t e s t h e s u p p o r t i v e d a t a r e l a t i n g t o t h e seven
I d e n t i f i e d p ro bl e m a r e a s t h a t a r e a f f e c t i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e ­
n e s s 1n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e d u t i e s In t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s t .

Prob lems A f f e c t i n g S u p e r I n t e n d e n c v E f f e c t i v e n e s s
and T urn ove r
Bo ar d-S upe r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s
In 1971 and a g a i n 1n 1982# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w e re aske d t o rank
I s s u e s and c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g them 1n t e r m s o f t h e i r s i g n i f i c a n c e and
t h e e f f e c t o f t h e s e I s s u e s and c h a l l e n g e s 1n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e
duties of the office.

Of t h e t o p 18 I s s u e s / c h a l l e n g e s c i t e d 1n t h e

s t u d y 1n 1982# a d m 1 n 1 s t r a t o r - b o a r d r e l a t i o n s ra nke d s i x t h .

Th ere was

23

no m en ti o n o f t h i s It e m 1n t h e s u r v e y c on d u c te d 1n 1971 (AASA# 1982).
I t c ould be c o n j e c t u r e d t h a t s o m e t h i n g s i g n i f i c a n t h a s t a k e n p l a c e 1n
t h i s a r e n a o v e r t h e y e a r s b e tw ee n t h e s t u d i e s b e in g d i s c u s s e d h e r e .
The i s s u e / c h a l l e n g e o f a d m 1 n 1 s t r a t o r - b o a r d r e l a t i o n s d i d n o t make a
l i s t i n g o f t h e t o p 18 c i t e d In 1971# y e t 1 t n o t o n l y a p p e a re d 1n t h e
1 1 s t o f t h e t o p 18 c o n c e r n s / I s s u e s f a c i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s I n 1982 b u t
was ra nke d s i x t h o v e r a l 1 1
School b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s have long been a t o p i c o f
d i s c u s s i o n among boa rd members# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s # and r e s e a r c h e r s 1n
educational ad m in istratio n .

An a n a l y s i s o f t h e f i n d i n g s from t h i s 1982

s u r v e y a s w e l l a s numerous o t h e r s t u d i e s I n d i c a t e d s e r i o u s t e n s i o n s
b e in g r e p o r t e d b e tw ee n b o a rd s and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n many c o m m u n i t i e s .
An I n d i c a t i o n o f I n c r e a s e d t e n s i o n 1n t h i s a r e a s t e m s from t h e number
o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s who c i t e d b o a r d - r e l a t e d I s s u e s and c h a l l e n g e s a s
c a u s e s f o r them t o l e a v e t h e s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y .

Fifteen percent said

th ey l e f t t h e i r l a s t su perintendency e i t h e r because of " c o n f l i c t w ith
t h e board# t h e p r o s p e c t o f b e i n g f i r e d o r b e i n g f i r e d . "

Concluded h e r e

1s t h a t a b o u t one In s i x c h a n g e s 1n t h e s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y In v o lv e d some
t e n s i o n # p r o b a b l y s ev e re # 1n t h e b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Board members# 1n many d i s t r i c t s #

have become "more I n i t i a t o r y #

l e s s c o m p li a n t# l e s s w i l l i n g t o a cc e pt # w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n # t h e p r o p o s a l s
o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s " (AASA# 1982# p. 61).

Of t h e f a c t o r s a g g r a v a t i n g

t h e e x e r c i s e o f l e a d e r s h i p a s d e s c r i b e d by Gousha (1981)# t h e f a c t o r o f
"Independent p o l i t i c a l
g r e a t e r Influence#

a c t i o n " s p e a k s t o t h e s e t e n s i o n s 1n who c o n t r o l s

boa rd o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

T h i s f a c t o r c i t e s how t h e

24

t r a d i t i o n a l means o f c h a n n e l i n g a c t i o n o r p r e s s u r e a r e t o d a y f r a g ­
mented.

T h e re a p p e a r s t o be a " s c r a m b l i n g f o r I n f l u e n c e " e v i d e n c e d by

many l o c a l s c h o o l b o a rd s m a i n t a i n i n g a p o s t u r e o f r e p r e s e n t i n g a s p e ­
cial

I n t e r e s t group a s w e l l a s t h e i r "own" c o n s t i t u e n c y .
Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s C1981) d i d n o t s e e t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y 1n

a c r i s i s o r te n s i o n - r i d d e n arena as did most a u th o rs I n v e s t i g a t e d f o r
purposes of t h i s study.

O ve ra ll * t h e i r vi ew o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y was

t h a t t h i s o f f i c e 1s t h e d o m in a n t f a c t o r 1n e f f e c t i v e l y c o n d u c t i n g t h e
b u s in es s of t h e school d i s t r i c t .

They p o i n t e d t o t h e e v i d e n c e t h a t

b o a r d s have a u t h o r i t y r e s o u r c e s such a s l e g a l

r i g h t s and t h e r e s p o n s i ­

b i l i t y t o run t h e sch ool* I n c l u d i n g t h e l e g a l r i g h t t o f i r e t h e s u p e r ­
intendent.

Boards a l s o q u i t e f r e q u e n t l y have t h e p o p u l a r s u p p o r t o f

t h e community a s w e l l a s t h e i r I n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l r e s o u r c e s * su ch a s
knowledge o f t h e s c h o o l s and s o c i a l s t a t u s g a i n e d o v e r t i m e .

Rega rd­

l e s s o f t h i s * Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
a l s o hav e r e s o u r c e s .

P e r h a p s m o s t I m p o r t a n t o f t h e s e 1s t h e s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t ' s r e p u t a t i o n a s an " e x p e r t * " p o s s i b l e p o l i t i c a l s u p p o r t from
l o c a l gr ou ps and I n d i v i d u a l s * and* o f t e n t i m e s * c o n f i d e n t i a l a c c e s s t o
Inform ation resources of th e d i s t r i c t .

They did p o i n t out* however*

t h a t d i f f e r e n t b o a r d s do behave d i f f e r e n t l y dep en di n g on t h e i r co m po si­
t i o n and s e t t i n g — urban* suburban* o r r u r a l .
High s o c i o - e c o n o m i c s t a t u s b o a rd s a r e more l i k e l y t o s t a y o u t of
t h e d a l l y a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s t h a n a r e low s o c i o - e c o n o m i c
s t a t u s boards* which t e n d t o view t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a s an
employee. Urban b o a r d s a r e more l i k e l y t o d i s a g r e e w i t h t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t h a n a r e o t h e r boards* b u t t h e y a r e a l s o more l i k e l y
t o e v e n t u a l l y g i v e In. Rural b o a rd s a r e l e s s l i k e l y t o d i s a g r e e
w i t h t h e i r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t * b u t t h e y a r e more l i k e l y t o win 1n
d i s a g r e e m e n t s when t h e y do a r i s e . ( Z i e g l e r A J e n n i n g s * 1981)

25

Cuban (1976) d i d n o t c o n c u r w i t h t h e " d o m in a nt " Image o f t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a s p u t f o r t h by Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s .

In t h e c a s e

s t u d i e s o f b 1 g - c 1 t y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s t u d i e d by Cuban# t h e Image
p o r t r a y e d was one o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y t o l o c a l l y e l e c t e d b oa rd s o f
education.

Competing r o l e demands have s u r r o u n d e d t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y .

Sh e /h e I s t o be c h i e f e x e c u t i v e #

p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r t on e d u c a t i o n #

a d v i s o r t o t h e bo a rd on t h e s t a f f #

and s u p e r v i s o r .

From t h e s e

c o m p e t in g demands of t h e s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y # d i v e r s e v i e w s p e r m e a t e
ex pectations fo r t h i s position.

I f b 1 g - c 1 ty s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e

s u c c e s s f u l 1n p e r s u a d i n g b o a r d s t o r e l y upon them# t h e i r s u c c e s s e s a r e
d i m i n i s h e d by t h e e x p a n s i o n o f t h e b u r e a u c r a c y t h a t a c c o m p a n ie s l a r g e
s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n s 1n urban s e t t i n g s .

The c h a n c e s a r e s i 1m t h a t a b i g -

c i t y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t can a c h i e v e much In t e r m s o f l e a d e r s h i p a n d / o r
Influence o v e ra ll.

An I n c r e a s i n g l y c r i t i c a l

p u b l i c v i e w ( m a n i f e s t e d In

t h e l o c a l l y e l e c t e d s c h o o l board) o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n i n s c h o o l i n g w i l l
c o n t i n u e t o be e x p r e s s e d 1n t e r m s o f high e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y # hence m a i n t a i n i n g t h e e n v i r o n m e n t o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y 1n
the office.
P e rc e p tio n s re g ard in g t h e Importance o f s e l e c t e d a d m i n i s t r a ­
t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s and t h e p h y s i c a l and e m o t i o n a l s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h them w er e r e p o r t e d from 1»154 randomly s u r v e y e d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a s
w e l l a s 133 r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e m o s t p o pu lo us of American s cho ol d i s t r i c t
superintendences.

Duea and B is ho p (1960) d e v e lo p e d T a b l e s 2.1 th r o u g h

2.6 t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s a s t h e y r e l a t e t o s c h o o l b o a r d s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s and a c t i v i t i e s .

Table 2 . 1 . —Time consumed by s e l e c t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .

Random Sample
Males

Task
Absol.
d
Rank1
School b o a rd superintendent
r e l a t i o n s and
activi tie s
Source:

3

Large D i s t r i c t s

Females

No.

Mean
Rank

931

3.03

Absol .
Rank

2

To ta l

M
°*

Mean
Rank

38

2.97

Absol,
1 No.
Rank

Mean
Rank

976

3-05

3

Absol.
Rank

1

M
°‘

Mean
Rank

114

2,18

Duea and Bishop, 1980.

T a b le 2 . 2 . — Enr oll me nt v a r i a b l e s in time consumed by a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t a s k s .
EnrolIment Group
Task

999Ab sol . N Mean
Rank
’ Rank

School b o a r d superintendent
r e l a t i o n s and
activ ities

5

**33 3.51

Source; Cuea and Bis h op , 1980.

1 ,0 00 -4 ,9 99

5 , 0 0 0 - 9 ,9 9 9

10,000-24 ,99 9

A b s o l . Hr, Mean
Rank No- Rank

A b s o l . ..
Mean
Rank No * Rank

Mean
Absol. „
No. „ ,
Rank
Rank

2

408

2 .8 0

1

74

2.19

1

38

2.5 0

2 5 ,0 0 0

+

Absol. „
Mean
d
Rank1 No. Rank

1

13

1.92

Table 2 . 3 . — S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' v ie w s co n cer nin g t h e importance o f s e l e c t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
r e s p o n s i b i 11 t i e s .

Random Sample
r
Task

Males
Rank

School b oa rd superintendent
r e l a t i o n s and
activities
Source:

No.

2

1013

.1 a r n o ...
. . ^
Tl i c t - r i

Famaloc

Mean
j„ .
Ra 1 1 ng

B
Rank

1

3.99

Tnf - a t

No.

Mean
R ating

Rank

No.

38

*i.2*f

2

1051

Rating

Rank

3-99

1

No.

Mean
Rating

123

*1.19

Duea and Bishop, 1980.

Tab le 2 . k . —D i s t r i c t e n r o l l m e n t v a r i a b l e s in s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' t a s k importance r a t i n g s .
En ro llm en t Group
999-

Task
„ .
Rank

School b o a r d su pe r i n t e n d e n t
r e l a t i o n s and
activities
Source:

2

Duea and Bishop,

Mean
D ..
Rating

3-87

1980.

1,000

999

Rank

Mean
Rating

1

4.03

5 , 0 0 0 - 9 ,9 9 9
0

1

Rank

1

10,000-2*1,999

25,000 +

Mean
a ..
R at in g

0 ,
Rank

Mean
_
Rating

B .
Rank

Mean
Rating

*1.31

2

*1.56

2 .5

*t.31

Table 2 . 5 . — S t r e s s p o t e n t i a l a s s o c i a t e d w it h s e l e c t e d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t a s k s .

Random Sample
Males

Task
Rank
School boa rdsuper intendent
r e l a t i o n s and
activities
Source:

3

Females

i,
No.

Mean
_ ,.
Rating

995

3.61

Rank

1

No.

39

Large D i s t r i c t s

Tot al

Rating

3.85

Rank

3

Mean
R ating

No.

3. 62

103*1

Rank

1

No.

Mean
Rat ing

116

4.0 5

Duea and Bishop , 1980.

Ta b le 2 . 6 . —D i s t r i c t e n r o l l m e n t v a r i a b l e s in s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' s t r e s s p o t e n t i a l r a t i n g s .
En ro llm en t Subgroups
999-

Task

School b o a r d superintendent
r e l a t i o n s and
activities
Source:

I ,00 0 -4 ,9 9 9

5 , 0 0 0 - 9 ,9 9 9

a t
Rank

nMean
Rating

nRanki

DMean
_.
Rating

D ,
Rank

Mean
_ ..
Rating

3

3.50

3

3-66

3

3.89

Duea and Bish op , 1980.

10,00 0-2 4,999
„ .
Rank

1

Mean
B ..
Rating

3.83

25,0 00 +
nRanki

1

_Mean
Rating

4.58

29
Duea and B is ho p p o i n t e d o u t t h e need f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t o
" f o r g e e f f e c t i v e w or ki ng r e l a t i o n s " w i t h l a y b o a rd s .

All t o o

f r e q u e n t l y , t h e bulk o f p r e p a r a t i o n f o r t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n
ha s been 1n t h e a r e a s o f b u s i n e s s management, c u r r i c u l u m d e ve lo pm en t,
and s u p e r v i s i o n and p e r s o n n e l c o n c e r n s .

I t h a s been l e f t l a r g e l y t o

t h e p r a c t i c i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s own d e v i c e s 1n d e v e l o p i n g p o s i t i v e
working r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h h i s / h e r s cho ol board.

O bvio u s ly , t h e d a t a

shown 1n T a b l e 2.1 1n t e r m s o f t i m e consumed 1n t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
t a s k a r e a s u g g e s t t h e need t o d e v e l o p and m a i n t a i n a p o s i t i v e w or kin g
environment.

F u r t h e r , T a b l e 2 3 I n d i c a t e s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s view t h e

Importance of a d m i n i s t r a t i v e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s as ranking f i r s t or
second compared o v e r a l l t o t h e i r t o t a l J o b r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s d t e d 1n
t h e s t u d i e s as personnel ta s k s ,

p l a n n i n g and a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e bud get,

program d e v e lo p m e n t and I m p r o v e m e n ts , p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s , s t u d e n t
affairs,

and o t h e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e t a s k s (mos t o f t e n m e n ti o n e d 1n o r d e r

o f f r e q u e n c y w ere o f f i c e r o u t i n e and go v e rn m e n t r e p o r t s , t r a n s p o r t a ­
t i o n , p h y s i c a l p l a n t , s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t, l e g a l a f f a i r s , and a d m i n i s t r a ­
tiv e supervision).
I t may a p p e a r t o t h e r e a d e r t h a t t h e c h a n c e s f o r b e in g a
s u c c e s s f u l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1n t e r m s o f s c h o o l b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t
r e l a t i o n s a r e s l i m o r none.

Gousha (1981) q u o te d a S e p te m b e r 1981 Ph1

D e l t a Kappa a r t i c l e t h a t d e s c r i b e d s u c c e s s f u l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s :
They do, In f a c t , e x i s t and a r e w h i t e m a le , m i d d l e - a g e d , R e p u b l i ­
can, p o s s e s s a Ph.D. 1n e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , own a home 1n
t h e d i s t r i c t , have a l i s t e d t e l e p h o n e number 1n t h e l o c a l d i r e c ­
t o r y , a r e a c t i v e 1n chu rch and s e r v i c e c l u b s , ha ve no n e r v o u s
m a n n e r is m s, and t h e " k i c k e r " 1s a l l e nj oy "good b oa rd s ."

30

The c o n c l u s i o n h e r e 1s t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s c h o o l boa rd 1s t h e
pre d o m in a n t f a c t o r In d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
O ve ra ll # t h e r o l e o f t h e s c h o o l boa rd 1s b e i n g s ee n a s one t h a t
1s becoming I n c r e a s i n g l y p o l i t i c a l — "a r e a c t i v e phenomenon."
a r e more and more becoming I n v o l v e d In a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s .
i n t e n d e n t s a r e f i n d i n g t h e m s e l v e s I n a do u b le bind.
to the p o litic a l

Boards
S upe r­

They ca n g i v e 1n

p r e s s u r e # o r t h e y can

. . . p la y p o l i t i c a l h a r d b a l l and g e t e a t e n a l i v e .
P i c t u r e 1 f one
w i l l # a young boy l i v i n g on t h e b o r d e r b e tw ee n t h e North and t h e
South a t t h e t i m e o f t h e C1v1l War. The young lad# e a g e r t o do
r i g h t by everyone# c h o s e t o wear a b l u e s h i r t and g re y p a n t s and
pro c e ed e d t o end up g e t t i n g s h o t 1n b o t h l (Gousha# 1981)
I f we a r e l e a r n i n g t h r o u g h t h e numerous s t u d i e s r e c e n t l y c o n d u c t e d and
p r e s e n t l y b e i n g c o n d u c te d t h a t t h e demands o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y a r e
becoming l e s s m a n a g e r i a l and more p o l i t i c a l In n a t u r e # t h e n s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s m u s t become s c h o l a r s o f t h e a s p e c t s o f p o l i t i c a l I n f l u e n c e and
ma ne uv eri ng.

As a r e s u l t o f t h i s s h i f t t o w a r d more I n f l u e n c e # t h u s

g r e a t e r power f o r b o a rd s o f e d u c a ti o n # a d e f i n i t e s h i f t seems I m m in en t
fo r th e r o le of th e su p erin ten d en t as well.

Although r e s e a r c h has

i n d i c a t e d t h e i r p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s re m a i n v i r t u a l l y unchanged#
b o a rd s o f e d u c a t i o n to d a y e x p e c t l e s s o f t h e i r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a s
a u t h o r i t a t i v e p r o f e s s i o n a l m e n t o r s b u t more o f them a s s k i l l e d p o l i t i ­
cal n e g o t i a t o r s

(Thomas# 1982).

Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
A g u i d i n g h y p o t h e s i s # used 1n d e v e l o p i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u ­
sions# I s t h a t " I n v o l u n t a r y d e p a r t u r e s a r e a cco mp an ied by more e l e c ­
toral

h e a t t h a n a r e v o l u n t a r y one s."

A f i v e - y e a r s t u d y c o n d u c t e d by

31

Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s (1974), which formed t h e b a s i s f o r t h e p u b l i c a t i o n
Governing A m e r l c a n - S c h o o l s , p r e s e n t e d r e s u l t s f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
departures.

T a b l e 2.7 shows t h a t 1n

a l l d i s t r i c t s t e n u r e 1s n e g a t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f
c o m p e t i t i o n , t h e r a t e o f t u r n o v e r and In c um be nt d e f e a t s . The
h y p o t h e s i s 1s s u p p o r t e d , a l t h o u g h t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r t h e s h e e r
p r e s e n c e o f c o m p e t i t i o n 1s mode st, (p . 68)
When d i s t r i c t s w ere d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e i r m e t r o p o l i t a n s t a t u s , t h e
p a t t e r n h e l d w i t h o n ly one e x c e p t i o n .

In t h e m e t r o p o l i t a n d i s t r i c t s ,

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t l o n g e v i t y was n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c o m p e t i t i o n .
wise,

Other­

th e negative re la tio n s h ip s p e rsiste d .

T a b l e 2 . 7 . — S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t e n u r e and q u a n t i t a t i v e c o m p e t i t i o n 1n
s c h o o l b o a rd e l e c t i o n s .
Presence of:
C o m p e ti ti o n
O ffice turnover
Incumbent d e f e a t s
Source:

Total
-.18
-.26
-.23

Metro
.14
-.12
-.37

Nonmetro
-.33
-.35
-.0 8

Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s , 1974, p. 6 8 .

Without e x ce p tio n , t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e fin d in g s f e l l

1n l i n e

with th e o rig in a l hypothesis s ta t e d here as 1 t r e l a t e s t o Involuntary
d e p a r t u r e s , 1n p a r t i c u l a r .

I n v o l u n t a r y d e p a r t u r e s w e r e acc om pa nied by

more c o m p e t i t i o n and by h i g h e r o f f i c e t u r n o v e r .

A c co rd in g t o t h e

e l e c t o r a l e x p e r i e n c e s by p r e s e n t boa rd members s u r v e y e d In t h i s s t u d y ,
t h o s e s e r v i n g In d i s t r i c t s w i t h I n v o l u n t a r y d e p a r t u r e s more o f t e n had a

32

d e s i r e f o r p o l i c y chang es and engag ed 1n s p e c i f i c I s s u e d i f f e r e n c e s
w i t h t h e i r op p o n e n ts .

These d i f f e r e n c e s more o f t e n r e s u l t e d I n con­

f l i c t 1n t e r m s o f t h e o v e r a l l b o a r d ' s p o l i t i c a l r o l e .

These d i f f e r ­

ences f e l l w ith in t h e range of s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e .

The m o b i l i t y

o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s us ed 1n t h e s t u d y f o c u s e d t h e
o v e r a l l r e s u l t s * " a t t e s t i n g t o t h e b e t t e r t i m e f i t betw een e l e c t o r a l
h i s t o r i e s and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t d e p a r t u r e s . "

Again* t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t i s ­

t i c a l a n a l y s i s s u p p o r t s t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t I n v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r 1s
accompa nied by more e l e c t o r a l h e a t t h a n v o l u n t a r y on e s.

(See Ta b le

2 . 8 .)
T a b l e 2 . 8 . — L a s t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t d e p a r t u r e and c o m p e t i t i v e a s p e c t s o f
s c h o o l - b o a r d e l e c t i o n s (1n p e r c e n t ) .
L a s t F iv e Years

Total

Raw N =

Voluntary
(32)

Involuntary
(19)

V olu n ta ry
(20)

Involuntary
(9)

Competition
1n l a s t
election

No
Yes

26£
1A

17%
S3.

3656
M

0%
100

Office
tu m over

Low
High

55
M_

40
22

81
J2

0
100

Deslre fo r
p o l i c y chan ge

Low
High

63
22

41
52

69
31

16
M

Issue d if f e r ­
e n c e s w it h
o p p o n e n ts

Low
High

64
2£

26
2A

71
22

15
&5

D i f f e r e n c e s on
boa rd r o l e s

Low
High

49
21

32
£2

57
42

21
22

Source:

Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s * 1974* p. 7 0.

33

The work o f Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s r e a f f i r m e d t h e f i n d i n g s o f an
e a r l i e r s t u d y c o n d u c te d a t l e a s t t e n y e a r s p r e v i o u s l y .

That study

I n c l u d e d 117 s cho ol d i s t r i c t s t h r o u g h o u t f o u r c o u n t i e s 1n C a l i f o r n i a
I n v o lv e d o v e r a t e n - y e a r p e r i o d .

The r e s u l t s e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t I n v o l u n ­

t a r y d e p a r t u r e s w ere much more common ( s i g n i f i c a n t l y ) when school board
Incumbents had been o u s t e d 1n p r e v i o u s e l e c t i o n s (Walden* 1967).
T h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was a d d r e s s e d by Lutz
(1982) 1n h i s s t u d y o f b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n In t e r m s o f e l i t e c o u n c i l
versus arena council behaviors.

He o u t l i n e d t h e c o u n c i l s a s f o l l o w s :

E l i t e c o u n c i l s t e n d t o : (1) t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s as s e p a r a t e from
and t r u s t e e s f o r t h e people* (2) re a ch c o n s e n s u s 1n p r i v a t e m e e t­
ings* and (3) e n a c t t h e s e d e c i s i o n s 1n p u b l i c by unanimous v o t e .
Arena c o u n c i l s t e n d t o : (1) t h i n k o f t h e m s e l v e s a s community 1n
c o u n c i l and as d e l e g a t e s o f t h e people* (2) d e b a t e I s s u e s p u b l i c l y
and v i g o r o u s l y * and (3) r e a c h d e c i s i o n s by sp l 1 t - m a j o r 1 t y v o t e s 1n
p u b l i c s e s s i o n s , (p. 16)
Arena c o u n c i l behavior* a c c o r d i n g t o Lutz* I s f o r c e d on school
b o a r d s when t h e r e 1s s u f f i c i e n t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i n a s c h o o l d i s ­
t r i c t r e s u l t i n g 1n s i g n i f i c a n t p o l i t i c a l u n r e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d by
Incumb en t s c h o o l boa rd member d e f e a t and s u b s e q u e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
turnover.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t c a n n o t a v o i d b e i n g a f f e c t e d .

Under t h e s e

c i r c u m s t a n c e s * t h e r e 1s no room f o r t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r o l e t o be one
o f an I m p a r t i a l m e d i a t o r o r a r b i t r a t o r .

Inevitably* th e su p erintendent

becomes p a r t y t o t h e c o n f l i c t * " s u f f e r i n g t h e I n e v i t a b l e s c a r s and
wounds, v i c t o r i e s and d e f e a t s . "

Fur th er m or e * 1n t h e m i l i e u o f u n s t a b l e

p o l i t i c a l * economic* and s o c i a l e n v ir o n m e n ts * t h e c o n te m p o r a r y s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s u f f e r s an a d d i t i o n a l d i s a d v a n t a g e t h a t many p r e d e c e s s o r s did
n o t.

The p u b l i c n a t u r e (Gousha’s " a c c e s s t o g o v e rn m e n ta l

decisions")

34

o f t h e c u r r e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y and t h e I n c r e a s i n g t u r n o v e r 1n change of
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p o s i t i o n s h a s r e s u l t e d In a " c o s t " ; t h a t 1s# t h e s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t "from t h e o u t s i d e " does n o t have t h e a d v a n t a g e o f k i n s h i p s #
l i f e l o n g f r i e n d s h i p s # and l o y a l t y w i t h i n t h e community and I t s g ro u p s
( D o l c e , 1 9 76 ).
Based on t h e d a t a d e r i v e d from two y e a r s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s o f a
p a r t i c u l a r bo a rd o f e d u c a t i o n g iv e n t h e t y p i c a l Incumbent d e f e a t s u p e r l n t e n d e n t t u r n o v e r cycle#

Lutz (1962) t i e d t o g e t h e r t h e phenomenon

o f e l i t e o r a r e n a c o u n c i l b e h a v i o r s o f b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n and s u b s e ­
quent superIntendency v u ln e r a b ility .

The f o l l o w i n g g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

w er e a p p a r e n t :
1.

2.
3.

4.

When t h e school d i s t r i c t 1s h e t e r o g e n e o u s 1n na tu re # t h e
e l e c t o r a t e w i l l v a l u e a r e n a b e h a v i o r 1n t h e i r s c h o o l b o a rd .
a . When# however# t h e boa rd members do n o t v a l u e t h e i r own
a r e n a behavior# t h e c o n f l i c t s w i l l t e n d t o be p e r s o n a l i z e d
and c o n f l i c t w i l l become u n r e a l i s t i c and d i f f i c u l t t o
manage.
b. Under such c i r c u m s t a n c e s # boa rd t u r n o v e r w i l l l e s s l i k e l y
be a r e s u l t o f r e s i g n a t i o n due t o t h e p e r s o n a l c o n f l i c t and
u n h a p p i n e s s o f t h e I n d i v i d u a l bo a rd members.
Given t h e above s i t u a t i o n # I t w i l l be d i f f i c u l t t o e s t a b l i s h a
new e q u i l i b r i u m on t h e board. Board membership w i l l c o n t i n u e
t o ch an ge and c o n f l i c t w i l l c o n t i n u e t o be h ig h .
Under such c o n d i t i o n s # a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t may s u r v i v e 1 f h e / s h e
a. 1s p e r s o n a l l y s u p p o r t i v e o f and v a l u e s t h e a r e n a b e h a v i o r
o f t h e board# t h e p u b l i c debate# and t h e p u b l i c n a t u r e o f
p o l i c y making.
b. re m a in s a l o o f from t h e d i r e c t p o l i c y - m a k i n g p r o c e s s .
c . ke ep s t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r o c e s s a s s e p a r a t e from t h e
policy-making p ro cess.
d. a c t s a s a d e l e g a t e f o r t h e a r e n a boa rd a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e
p o l i c y a s e n a c t e d by t h e b o a r d ' s m a j o r i t y v o t e .
e.
keeps s e p a r a t e from t h e c o u n c i l and does n o t become I d e n t i ­
f i e d w i t h any o f I t s s e p a r a t e f a c t i o n s .
I t 1s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e m o s t l i k e l y e r r o r such an a d m i n i s ­
t r a t o r may make I s t o a t t e m p t a v i g o r o u s d e f e n s e o f a recommen­
d a t i o n p r e v i o u s l y made and p a s s e d by t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e board

35

b u t p r e s e n t l y r e v e r s e d by t h e p r e s e n t m a j o r i t y due t o a s h i f t
i n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e board.
a.
I t 1s n o t u n l i k e l y t h a t such a s i t u a t i o n w i l l de a l w i t h a
previous personnel d e c is io n .
b. The s h i f t w i l l be a l o n g s e c t i o n a l l i n e s and be s e e n a s a
"win" f o r t h e group p r e v i o u s l y In t h e m i n o r i t y and now t h e
new m a j o r i t y .
c . The a d m i n i s t r a t o r s d e f e n s e o f t h e o l d s i t u a t i o n and oppo­
s i t i o n t o t h e new d e c i s i o n w i l l p r o b a b ly be vi ew ed by t h e
new m a j o r i t y a s a d e f e n s e o f and a l i g n m e n t w i t h t h a t oppos­
in g f a c t i o n .
d. As t h a t f a c t i o n I s now In t h e m i n o r i t y * such an e r r o r would
c o s t t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r h i s / h e r j o b . (pp. 17-18)
£ommun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
" F i r s t * s u p e r i n t e n d i n g 1s communicating* and secondly* s u p e r ­
i n t e n d i n g 1s c o n s t r a i n e d by s o c i a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s "
( P i t n e r & Ogawa* 1981* p. 49 ).

The second Issue*

re la tin g to social

and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s * w i l l be c o v e r e d unde r t h e c a u s a l f a c t o r
t o be o u t l i n e d 1n t h i s c h a p t e r a f f e c t i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e n e s s
and t u r n o v e r i d e n t i f i e d a s p u b l i c p r e s s u r e / s p e d a l

I n t e r e s t gr oups .

For p u r p o s e s o f t h i s c a u s a l f a c t o r # then* commun1cat1ons/publ 1c r e l a ­
t i o n s 1s r e v i e w e d 1n t h e l i t e r a t u r e p r i m a r i l y from t h e b a s i s o f o n - t h e job behavior of sup erin ten d en ts.
As t h e c r i t i c a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r of a school d i s t r i c t *

1n t e r m s o f

t h e f a r - r e a c h i n g e f f e c t o f communication# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c o m m unic ate
w i t h a m u l t i t u d e of e l e m e n t s 1n t h e i r s ch ool s y s t e m s and e n vi ro n m e nt s *
both I n t e r n a l l y and e x t e r n a l l y * 1n o r d e r t o i n v e s t i g a t e a s w e ll a s t o
i n f l u e n c e l o c a l o p i n i o n s and p r e f e r e n c e s .

S in c e t h e e n v i r o n m e n t 1s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d a s b e in g dynamic by a l l a c c o u n t s 1n t h e l i t e r a t u r e *
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o m a i n t a i n c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t w i t h v a r y i n g s o u r c e s
of I n f o r m a t i o n .

S i x s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n P i t n e r and Ogawa's (1981) s t u d y

36

w ere o b s e r v e d s p e n d i n g 80% o f t h e i r t i m e 1n d i r e c t I n t e r a c t i o n w i t h
p e o p l e 1n s c h e d u l e d and u n s c h e d u le d meetings# t e l e p h o n e c o n v e r s a t i o n s #
sch o o l/fac ility visitations#

and v a r i o u s c o n f e r e n c e s # a s I l l u s t r a t e d In

Figure 2 .2 .
T ra ve l

C onfe rence
A tt e n d a n c e

Desk Work

V isitations

Unscheduled
Meetings

T e le ph on in g

Scheduled
MeetIngs

Figure 2 .2 :

How s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s spend t h e i r t i m e .
Ogawa# 1981# p. 5 1 . )

(From P t t n e r &

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w e r e unanimous In t h i s s t u d y In naming t h e
a b i l i t y t o c o m m unic at e w i t h p e o p l e a s a r e q u i r e d s k i l l o f t h e p o s i t i o n .
They I n d i c a t e d t h a t a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t m u s t be a b l e t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e
r e c e p t i o n o f i n f o r m a t i o n , a s w e ll a s d e l i v e r d a t a t o s c h o o l board
members# s u b o r d i n a t e s # and community members.

I t appears t h a t t h i s not

o n l y r e q u i r e s t h a t a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p o s s e s s v e r b a l and w r i t t e n communi­
cation sk ills#

but a lso re q u ire s t h a t th e sup erin ten d en t possess th e

a b i l i t y t o g a i n t h e t r u s t and c o n f i d e n c e o f I n f o r m a t i o n s o u r c e s o r an

37

au d ie n c e .

In t h i s communicating* s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s m a i n t a i n a complex

n e tw o rk o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h I n d i v i d u a l s and g r o u p s 1n t h e i r s c h o o l
s y s t e m s a s w e l l a s 1n t h e en v ir o n m e n t.
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s have been found t o c omm unic ate w i t h t h r e e c a t e ­
g o r ie s o f people:

s c h o o l boa rd members* o u t s i d e r s ( p r o f e s s i o n a l peers*

c l i e n t s * community members)* and s u b o r d i n a t e s .

P i t n e r and Ogawa's

s t u d y found s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s p e n t a l m o s t h a l f t h e i r t i m e (50)6) w i t h
subordinates.

They d id n o t I n t e r a c t a s oft e n * o r n e a r l y a s much* w i t h

any o f t h e tw o r e m a i n i n g c a t e g o r i e s o f pe ople .

Verbal c om m u n ic a ti o n

mo s t f r e q u e n t l y (82%) was o f a n a t u r e t h a t i n v o l v e d c o n t a c t w i t h t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and one o t h e r pe rs on.

T a b l e 2.9 o u t l i n e s t y p i c a l

su p erin ten d e n t verbal I n te r a c tio n .
The p u r p o s e s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' c o n t a c t s w e r e d i v i d e d 1n t h i s
study a s:
R e q u e s t s and s o l i c i t a t i o n s

8%

Inform ational

50%

D e c i s i o n making

21%

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l work

21%

Ac cor di ng t o P i t n e r and Ogawa* s u p e r i n t e n d i n g th r o u g h communlc a t i o n 1s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b r e v i t y *

v a r i e t y * and f r a g m e n t a t i o n .

Over 60 p e r c e n t o f a l l t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' w o r k - r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s
l a s t e d l e s s t h a n n i n e m i n u t e s and o n l y 7 p e r c e n t ex ce e ded an hour.
The mall* t e l e p h o n e c a l l s * and m e e t i n g s a c c o u n t e d f o r a l m o s t e v e r y
m i n u t e from t h e moment t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t e n t e r e d t h e o f f i c e In t h e
morn in g u n t i l d e p a r t u r e 1n t h e e v en in g. The end o f one m e e t i n g
f r e q u e n t l y became t h e b e g i n n i n g o f a n o t h e r a s s u b o r d i n a t e s q u i c k l y
s l i p p e d I n t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' o f f i c e s when t h e d o o r s opened.
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s * n o t u n l i k e o t h e r managers* f e l t c o m p e l le d t o do a
g r e a t amount o f work, b u t t h e amount o f t i m e a v a i l a b l e was a c r i t i ­
c a l f a c t o r 1n d e t e r m i n i n g t h e a t t e n t i o n g iv e n t o I s s u e s and

38

pro ble ms . I f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w e re n o t I n t e r r u p t e d by a phone c a l l
o r d r o p - i n me et ing s# t h e y f r e q u e n t l y I n t e r r u p t e d t h e i r desk work t o
a t t e n d t o a v a r i e t y o f m a t t e r s on t h e i r minds. The day became
q u i t e f r a g m e n t e d a s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s moved t o r e s o l v e t h e c u r r e n t
and f u t u r e c o n c e r n s o f t h e d i s t r i c t .
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s changed
t o p i c s and I s s u e s a s e a s i l y a s t h e y changed m e e t i n g s , (p. 54)

T a b l e 2.9.— P e r c e n t a g e o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s t i m e s p e n t 1n v e r b a l
contact.
Percent
INITIATED BY:
Superintendent
A nothe r p a r t y
R egularly scheduled event
M u tu a l ly a r r a n g e d

585B
39
1
2

PARTICIPANTS:
Subordinates
Board
Peers
Cl 1 e n t s
Community
Some c o m b i n a t i o n o f t h e above

49
6
17
5
16
7

LOCATION:
S uperintendent's o ffic e
S u b o rd in ate's o ff ic e
H a ll o r b u i l d i n g 1n d i s t r i c t
C o n fe re n c e o r boardroom
In t h e community
O utside of t h e school d i s t r i c t

46
4
19
17
10
5

NUM3ER OF PARTICIPANTS:
Two
Thr ee
Four
More t h a n f i v e
Source:

P i t n e r and Ogawa# 1981# p. 53.

82
7
3
8

39

The Image conveyed h e r e does n o t conform t o t h a t o f an e xe c u ­
t i v e a s a r e f l e c t i v e planner * I.e.# e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r / l e a d e r
( s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ) r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d i r e c t i n g and l e a d i n g s u b o r d i n a t e
a c t i v i t y t o t h e alms o f q u a l i t y education.

Ac cor di ng t o t h e d e f i n i t i o n

o f e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s h i p a s e s t a b l i s h e d In C h a p t e r I o f t h i s paper# t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t m u s t have a s p e c i a l s e n s e o f where t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n i s
go in g , "a v i s i o n t h a t e x c i t e s t h e I m a g i n a t i o n and c h a l l e n g e s t h e b e s t
1n peo ple .

Such a v i s i o n g i v e s calm p e r s p e c t i v e t o t h e h o t I s s u e s o f

t h e day and a f f e c t s t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f e v e r y t h i n g t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r
does" (Ohmann# 1970).

The c o n t r a d i c t o r y Image conveyed h e r e of t h e

superintendent as th e c r i t i c a l

a d m i n i s t r a t o r o f a school d i s t r i c t

empowered w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f p r o v i d i n g and d e t e r m i n i n g t h e
o p p o r t u n i t y f o r q u a l i t y e d u c a t i o n f o r I t s s t u d e n t s v e r s u s t h e uncon­
n e c t e d r e a c t o r t o I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l I n f l u e n c e s r e s u l t i n g In f r a g ­
m e n t a t i o n l e d P i t n e r and Ogawa t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
a t t e n d p r i m a r i l y t o t h e s t r u c t u r a l a s p e c t s o f s c h o o l s y s t e m s such a s
programs# budgets*

facilities*

and s c h e d u l e s .

In t h i s c o nc lu s io n*

s u p e r i n t e n d i n g was a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a n o t h e r c o n d i t i o n d e f i n e d
as "symbolic leadership# t h e a t t r i b u t i o n of r e s p o n s i b i l i t y fo r o rg an i­
z a t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e ."

The dichotomy l i e s 1n t h e c o n t r a d i c t i o n be tw een

t h e a p p a r e n t n i l e f f e c t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s have on e d u c a t i o n a l I n f l u e n c e 1n
s c h o o l s y s t e m s (g iv e n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t day a s found by P i t n e r and
Ogawa)# and t h e f a c t t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e n j o y s h o r t t e n u r e a n d / o r a r e
f i r e d b e c a u s e t h e s c h o o l board b e l i e v e s t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t h a s a d i r e c t
e f f e c t on t h e school d i s t r i c t ' s pe rf or m an c e.

40

U n f o r t u n a t e l y * school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s have n o t been t r a i n e d t o
f i n d o r c u l t i v a t e t h e c o m m u n ic a ti o n l i n e s and power s t r u c t u r e s 1n l o c a l
c o m m u n i t i e s (Mayer* 1974).

Accord ing t o Kindred* Bagln* and G a l l a g h e r

(1976)* t o u n d e r s t a n d and co m m unic at e w i t h t h e community t h e s ch o ol
s u p e r in te n d e n t should understand t h e s o c io l o g ic a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
t h e p a r t i c u l a r community.
a l l e nv ir on m e nts *

To be a b l e t o c om mu nic ate e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h i n

I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l * a f f e c t i n g t h e school d i s t r i c t *

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s h o u l d be k n o w l e d g e a b l e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p e r t i n e n t
data:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

E x i s t i n g need s and e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e c i t i z e n r y r e g a r d i n g
p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n 1n g e n e r a l a s w e l l a s 1n p a r t i c u l a r t o t h e
local d i s t r i c t .
O p p o r t u n i t i e s and means f o r e f f e c t i n g b e t t e r c o m m u n i c a t i v e and
c o o p e r a t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h v a r i o u s community groups* i n t e r ­
nal and e x t e r n a l .
Im m e d i a t e and l o n g - r a n g e pro b le m s t h a t hav e produced a l t e r a ­
t i o n s and a l t e r c a t i o n s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s c h o o l community.
I d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h o s e I n d i v i d u a l s and g ro u p s who a r e f r i e n d l y
and u n f r i e n d l y t o w a r d s p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n .
Communication c h a n n e l s t h r o u g h which p u b l i c o p i n i o n 1s fram ed
w i t h i n t h e l o c a l community.
N a t u r e o f l o c a l power s t r u c t u r e s and a r e a s o f d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g .
L ea der shi p* l e a d e r s h i p i n f l u e n c e s and t h e number and t y p e s o f
o r g a n i z a t i o n s and s o d a ! a g e n c i e s e x i s t i n g t h r o u g h o u t t h e
s c h o o l community, ( p . 35)
As a r e s u l t o f t h e s h i f t to w a r d g r e a t e r I n f l u e n c e f o r b o a rd s o f

e d u c a ti o n * t e a c h e r u n i o n s ( p a r t i c u l a r l y 1n Michigan)* s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t
g r o u p s / p r e s s u r e groups* e t al.* as r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e and s t u d i e s a r e
I n d i c a t i n g * a d e f i n i t e s h i f t t h e n seems e v i d e n t f o r t h e r o l e o f t h e
superintendency.

I t a p p e a r s t h e p u b l i c to d a y e x p e c t s l e s s o f t h e i r

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a s a u t h o r i t a t i v e * e x p e r t p r o f e s s i o n a l mentors* b u t
e x p e c t s much more o f them a s s k i l l e d p o l i t i c a l n e g o t i a t o r s * l e a d i n g t h e

41

r e a d e r h e r e I n t o t h e n e x t c a u s a l f a c t o r t o be I n v e s t i g a t e d 1n t h i s
s t u d y a f f e c t i n g s u p e r l n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e n e s s and t u r n o v e r .
Pu b 11 c_.Pr_05 s u r e / S p e c i a l
I n t e r e s t Groups
Mass s u p p o r t has a s t r o n g n e g a t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
I n t e n s i t y ( r = -.75).
As t h e p o p u l a t i o n becomes more s u p p o r t i v e o f
t h e p o l i c i e s o f t h e b o a r d , o r g a n i z e d g ro u p s c l e a r l y t h r i v e 1n an
a t m o s p h e r e o f c o n f l i c t between t h e gove rne d and t h e g o v e r n o r s . I t
I s p r o b a b l e t h a t , once t h e l e v e l o f p u b l i c s u p p o r t ha s d e t e r i o r a t e d
t o a l e v e l s u f f i c i e n t t o g e n e r a t e f a i r l y I n t e n s e group a c t i v i t y ,
o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x a c e r b a t e t h e l o s s o f c o n f i d e n c e 1n t h e board.
D e c l i n i n g s u p p o r t and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a c t i v i t y u n d o ub te dly f e e d o f f
each o t h e r . . . . The I n t e r a c t i o n b et w een mass s u p p o r t and
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l I n t e n s i t y , w i t h t h e l a t t e r de p e n d e n t, a c h i e v e d a
b e t a o f .70. With t h e r e v e r s e o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , making mass
s u p p o r t de p e n d e n t, t h e b e t a d e c l i n e d t o .49.
I t Is po ssib le to
a r g u e , t h e n , t h a t both v a r i a b l e s a r e d e p e n d e n t upon ea c h o t h e r b u t
t h a t (g iv e n t h e m a g n i t u d e o f t h e b e t a s ) t h e s t r o n g e r " c a u s a l " l i n k
1s from mass s u p p o r t t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l I n t e n s i t y . ( Z i e g l e r &
J e n n i n g s , 1974, p. 101)
In u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e I n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f I n t e r e s t g ro u p s ,
s u b s e q u e n t p u b l i c p r e s s u r e , and t h i s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

Intensity,

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s to d a y need t o be e q u i p p e d w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l knowledge
and have d e v el ope d a model base d on t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f how
l i v i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x i s t and I n t e r a c t .

As p u r p o r t e d by Hodgklnson

(1979), any l i v i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n c o n t a i n s t h r e e I n t e r e s t gr o u p s ,

linked

1n " d i a l e c t i c a l " ( l o g i c a l ) t e n s i o n w i t h each o t h e r w i t h r e g a r d t o t h e
"product" o f t h e undertaking.

A p a r a l l e l 1s e s t a b l i s h e d be tw een a

c o n v e n t i o n a l b u s i n e s s e n t e r p r i s e and t h e s t r u c t u r e o f t h e t y p i c a l
e d u c a t i o n a l s c h o o l s ys te m.

The t h r e e I n t e r e s t g ro u p s o f a t y p i c a l

b u s i n e s s v e n t u r e a r e s h a r e h o l d e r s ( o w n e r s h i p ) , e mp loy ees o f t h e
s h a r e h o l d e r s ( o r g a n i z a t i o n a l members), and c u s t o m e r s of both e m plo ye es
and s h a r e h o l d e r s ( c l i e n t e l e ) .

These gr o u p s a r e l o g i c a l l y d i s t i n c t ,

and

42

t h e i r I n t e r e s t s a re d i s t i n c t also.

What h o l d s t h e w ho le o f t h e o r g a n i ­

z a t i o n t o g e t h e r 1n a dynamic complex 1s t h e p r o d u c t .
In t h e e d u c a t i o n a l r e a l m o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e * t h i s
t r i a d 1s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by q u a s l - r e p r e s e n t a t l o n a l o w n e r s h i p (ownership)*
t e a c h e r s * a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and s u p p o r t s t a f f ( o r g a n i z a t i o n a l members),
and t h e s t u d e n t s and p a r e n t s o f a p a r t i c u l a r s c h o o l
tele).

d i s tr ic t (clien­

The p r o d u c t I s s o m e t h i n g l o o s e l y I d e n t i f i e d a s e d u c a t i o n .

The

r e a l c r u x o f t h e p ro bl e m f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between two of t h e s e g r o u p s :

ow ne rs hip and membership.

The f i r s t and I n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t o f o w n e r s h i p o f an e n t e r p r i s e
1s t o d e t e r m i n e p o l i c y f o r t h a t e n dea vo r.

A c l a s s i c a l p o s i t i o n In

e d u c a t i o n 1s t h a t t h e " p e o p l e " own t h e s c h o o l s .

R epresentatives of the

"p e o p l e " I n an e d u c a t i o n a l s ys te m (b oa rd o f e d u c a t i o n ) t h e r e f o r e d e t e r ­
mine p o l i c y .

However* t h e rub comes 1n t h a t o w n e r s h i p and membership

l i n e s 1n school s y s t e m s a r e n o t l o g i c a l l y d i s t i n c t 1n s t r u c t u r e o r
Interest.
The c l a s s i c a l p r o c e s s e s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d i v i d e p o l i c y and
e x e c u t i o n o f e s t a b l i s h e d p o l i c y I n t o two d i s t i n c t h a l v e s a s shown below
(Hodgklnson* 1979).

Pol icy
E xe c u tio n

The u pp e r h a l f d e a l s w i t h q u e s t i o n s o f va lue s* p r i n c i p l e s * and
philosophy w h ile t h e low er h a l f a d d re sses I t s e l f t o m a t t e r s of fact*

43

c o n s t r a i n t s * te ch nolo gy * and s o on.

However* 1n e d u c a t i o n a l e n t e r ­

p r i s e s t h e e m p i r i c a l r e a l i t y ca n be i l l u s t r a t e d a s :

"h av i n g both domains I n t e r t w i n e d * I n t e r a c t i n g * I n t r u d i n g upon each
o t h e r " (Hodgklnson*

1979).

Given t h i s c o m p l e x i t y o f modern-day ed uca­

t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s and t h e c o n t r o l o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and I n f o r m a t i o n *
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e f a c e d w i t h t h e need t o up gr ad e t h e i r s k i l l s In t h e
a r e a s o f p o l i c y a n a l y s i s and p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e .

The wh ole a r e n a o f

nq u a s 1 - o w n e rs h 1 p " makes t h e p o t e n t i a l o f s p e c i a l

I n t e r e s t group I n t e r ­

a c t i o n w i t h t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g s t r u c t u r e s o f s c h o o l s y s t e m s t h a t much
more l i k e l y .

By d e c i d i n g t o make t h e m s e l v e s more a c c e s s i b l e * more

v i s i b l e * and more a n x i o u s t o h e a r community vo ices* s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
w i l l be t a k i n g g r e a t e r r i s k s *

b u t t h e d i v i d e n d s may be I n c r e a s e d .

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s who p u r s u e c l o s e r r e l a t i o n s w i t h community gro u p s w i l l
f i n d 1 t t r e m e n d o u s l y t i m e consuming.

Y e t t h e t i m e w i l l be w e l l - s p e n t

1f I t r e s u l t s 1n g r e a t e r s e n s i t i v i t y t o community " w i l l " a s r e f l e c t e d
1n p o l i c y d e v e l o p m e n t aimed a t t h e I n t e r e s t s o f t h e s e s p e c i a l i z e d
gro ups .

To do s o I m p l i e s c o m p l i c a t i n g d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s by

s u b m i t t i n g t o a c c e p t i n g I n t e r f e r e n c e from p o l i t i c a l p r e s s u r e groups.
A l l i a n c e s bet wee n s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and community I n t e r e s t s w i l l
r e s u l t * mo st l i k e l y * 1n compromise.

Here* co mpromise I s view ed a s t h e

44

"heart of p o litic a l

survival."

S t r i k i n g a b a l a n c e b e tw ee n a d m i n i s t r a ­

t i v e autonomy and t h e e m p i r i c a l I n t e r t w i n i n g o f p o l i c y making and
r e s p o n s i v e n e s s t o school bo a rd and c o n s t i t u e n c y d e s i r e s 1s c r i t i c a l

1f

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e t o s u r v i v e 1n t h i s dynamic e n v i r o n m e n t (Hodgktnson#
1979).

C o n f l i c t management v e ry o f t e n among m l H t a n t l y c o m p e t in g

gro u p s Im p i n g in g upon t h e s c h o o l d i s t r i c t 1s a c o n te m p o r a r y a s p e c t of
t h e s u p e r l n t e n d e n c y {Dolce# 1976).
Community-based power s t r u c t u r e s ( s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t groups)
I n f l u e n c e s c h o o l - b o a r d d e c i s i o n s a s d e t e r m i n e d In a s t u d y I n v o l v i n g 180
Texas school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

An I m p e r a t i v e f o r school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

1s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s found 1n a l l power
structures#

r e g a r d l e s s o f s i z e o r de m og ra ph ic s.

According t o T h o r n e l l

(1981)# t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a r e :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

8.
9.

Power s t r u c t u r e s e x e r t power f o r s e l f - i n t e r e s t g o a l s .
Power s t r u c t u r e s c o n t r o l t h e a r e a s o f s o c i a l # economi c and
political life .
Power s t r u c t u r e s 1 members t e n d t o work 1n t h e background
t h r o u g h l o w e r r a n k i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s who hav e dec1s1on-mak1ng
responslbllItles.
Power s t r u c t u r e s w i l l use t h e i r r e s o u r c e s a s r e w a r d f o r t h o s e
who comply w i t h t h e i r o p i n i o n s and a s weapons a g a i n s t t h o s e who
do n o t a c c e p t t h e power s t r u c t u r e s ’ p o s i t i o n s .
Power s t r u c t u r e s a r e n o t a c c o u n t a b l e f o r s o d a ! o r p o l i t i c a l
actions.
Power s t r u c t u r e s t e n d t o p r o t e c t t h e s t a t u s quo.
Power s t r u c t u r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a s s o c i a t e w i t h I n f l u e n t i a l
c l u b s and o r g a n i z a t i o n s wher e t h e y have numerous c o n t a c t s w i t h
o t h e r s o f t h e i r k in d s o a s t o I n f l u e n c e c l u b members t o a s s i s t
1n t h e prom ot ion o f I d e a s t h e y d e s i r e .
Power s t r u c t u r e members r e p r e s e n t a c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f b u s i n e s s
and p r o f e s s i o n a l l e a d e r s 1n t h e community.
Power s t r u c t u r e members a r e c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s
o f t h e community. However# when t h e p u b l i c w e l f a r e on an I s s u e
does n o t p a r a l l e l w i t h t h e i r I n t e r e s t t h e power s t r u c t u r e may
a t t e m p t t o s t r o n g l y I n f l u e n c e t h e f i n a l d e c i s i o n , ( p . 6)

45

Common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f power s t r u c t u r e s c a n be c a t e g o r i z e d
I n t o f o u r t y p e s o f power s t r u c t u r e s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h community l i f e and
s ch oo l o p e r a t i o n s :
1.
2.

3.
4.

M o n o p o l i s t i c — run by s i n g l e gr o u p s o f I n d i v i d u a l s .
M u l t i - g r o u p n o n c o m p e t i t i v e — t h e 1 n f l u e n t 1 a l s and t h e i r
f o l l o w e r s have re a c h e d a high d e g r e e o f a g r e e m e n t a b o u t t h e
k in d o f s c h o o l s t h e y d e s i r e which r e s u l t s 1n a no demand f o r
ch an ge 1n t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e o f t h e school s y s t e m .
C o m p e t i t i v e e l i t e s y s t e m s — tw o o r more gr oup s I n v o l v e d 1n a
regime c o n f l i c t .
D e m o c r a ti c p l u r a l i s m — power t y p o l o g y 1s open t o new p e r s o n s o r
g ro u p s f o r I n p u t a s I s s u e s c h a n g e . (T h o r n e l l # 1981* p. 6)
The power s t r u c t u r e o f a s cho ol community can make o r b r e a k a

pro po se d e d u c a t i o n a l p r o j e c t .

Unfortunately* school s u p e r in te n d e n ts

o v e r w h e l m i n g l y have n o t been t r a i n e d t o f i n d n o r c u l t i v a t e t h e power
s t r u c t u r e s 1n l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s (Mayer# 1974).

T a b l e s 2.10 and 2.11

r e p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s o f f i n d i n g s 1n t e r m s o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een
s e l e c t e d e d u c a t i o n a l a r e a s and community power s t r u c t u r e s a s r e l a t e d t o
sch oo l d i s t r i c t s iz e # as w e l l a s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s found betw een s p e ­
c i f i c e d u c a t i o n a l a r e a s and t h e f o u r t y p e s of community power s t r u c ­
tures.

C le a r l y # s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s can c o n c l u d e from t h e d a t a p u t f o r t h

1n t h e s e tw o t a b l e s t h a t s c h o o l - b o a r d membe rsh ip and f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t
a re s i g n i f i c a n t l y influenced overall#

r e g a r d le s s o f t h e s i z e of t h e

d i s t r i c t o r t y p e o f community power s t r u c t u r e .
T a b l e 2.12#

I l l u s t r a t i n g t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e Z i e g l e r and

J e n n i n g s (1974) study# s p e c i f i e s p a r t i c i p a t i o n e f f e c t s 1n t h e g o v e rn ­
ance o f s p e c i f i c I s s u e s by s p e c i f i c I n t e r e s t groups.

In p a r t i c u l a r #

t h i s p a p e r 1s c o n c e r n e d w i t h s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r a s 1 t r e l a t e s t o

46

Ta b le 2 . 1 0 . — The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l e c te d e d u c a tio n a l areas and comnunJty power
s t r u c t u r e s by school d i s t r i c t s i z e g ro up s.
0-700
E d u c a tio n a l
Area

701-1, 800

Average
Score

Rank

Average
5 co re

School board
membership

3.7*t

2

3.70

F in a n c i a l s u p p o rt

3.7 6

1

P la n n in g o f
new f a c l 1 [ t i e s

3 .38

S e le c t io n o f
s u p e rin te n d e n t

1 ,80 1 -3 ,9 99

*1,000 o r Ho re

Average
Score

Rank

Average
Score

1

3.57

2

3.93

1

3.35

3

3-73

1

3.7 5

2

5

3 .32

*i

3.1)8

*1

3-36

6

3.66

3

3 .3 0

5

3 .08

5

3.27

5

A th le tic s

3.6 6

*i

3.50

2

3-53

3

3 . *i0

3

S tudent d l s c l p l I n e

3 . Oli

6

3.00

6

2 .8 9

7

3.13

6

School board
e x p e n d !tu re s

2 .9 5

8

2 .9 5

7

2.87

8

3-13

7

C u rric u lu m

2.1*1

11

2.95

8

3,0*1

6

2 .9 0

8

Personnel
(employment and
d is m is s a l)

2 .9 7

7

2.55

9

2 .3 6

12

2.67

10

In s tru c tio n a l
a c c o u n t a b l 11ty

2 .2 5

9

2 .0 0

11

2.61

10

2 .7 5

9

School d i s t r i c t
p u rch a s in g

2 .0 8

12

2 .0 0

12

2 .5 9

11

2.21

12

School d i s t r i c t
re o rg a n iz a tio n

2.17

to

2.12

10

2.63

9

2 . 3 1*

11

S e le c t io n o f
te x tb o o k s

1.72

13

1.92

13

2 .1 8

13

1.75

13

Source:

T h o rn e ll,

196), p . 3.

Rank

Rank

47

T ab le 2 . 1 1 . — The r e l a t i o n s h i p between e d u c a tio n a l areas and f o u r community power
s tru c tu re s .

E d u ca tion a l
Area

M o n o p o lIs t lc
Average
Score

Rank

C o m p e titiv e
E lite
Average
Score

Rank

H u ltlg ro u p
N o n c o m p e titiv e
Average
Score

Rank

Democratic
P lu r a lIs tlc
Average
Score

Rank

School board
membership

3.88

1

4 .4 8

1

3 .75

3

3 .44

2

F in a n c i a l su p p o rt

3.72

2

3.64

3

3.91

1

3 .7 5

1

P la n n in g o f new
fa c llItie s

3.62

3

3.68

2

3.4B

4

3.28

3

S e le c t io n o f
s u p e rin te n d e n t

3 .59

4

3 .56

5

3 .05

6

2.87

7

A th le tIc s

3.53

5

3.60

4

3.78

2

3.22

4

Student d i s c i p l i n e

3.17

6

2 .8 8

8

3.32

5

3 .02

5

School board
e x p e n d itu re s

3.04

7

3.08

6

2 .5 9

9

2.91

6

C u rric u lu m

2.92

8

2.96

7

3 .0 5

7

2.81

8

Personnel
(employment
and d i s m is s a l )

2.76

9

2.84

9

2 .4 0

10

2.34

10

In s tru c tio n a l
a c c o u n ta b l 11t y

2.47

10

2 .4 0

11

2 .7 0

8

2 .44

9

School d i s t r i c t
purch asin g

2.4 0

11

2.2 8

12

2 .2 9

II

1.03

13

School d i s t r i c t
re o rg a n iz a tio n

2 .39

12

2 .5 6

10

2.10

12

2 .04

11

S e le c t io n o f
te x tb o o k s

1.6B

13

1.92

13

2 .08

13

1.91

12

Source:

T h o r n e l l , 1981, p. 4.

48

public p ressu re/sp ecial

i n t e r e s t group I n f l u e n c e .

Therefore* t h e l a s t

column p r o v i d e s t h e p e r t i n e n t d a t a a s t h e y r e l a t e t o t h i s I s s u e .

T a b l e 2 . 1 2 . — C o n t r i b u t i o n s o f s p e c i f i c o r g a n i z a t i o n s 1n s p e c i f i c
Issues.
Type o f O r g a n i z a t i o n

Left-wing
Teachers
Neighborhood
RelIglous
PTA
Service clubs
Labor
C i t i z e n s a d v i s o r y co m m it te e s
Taxpayers
B u s i n e s s and p r o f e s s i o n a l
League o f Women V o t e r s
R ig h t- w in g
P o l i ti c a l party
Source:

Financial
D efeats

Financial
Problems

( 11)
C 8)
( 1)
( 6)
( 9)
c 3)
( 5)
( 2)
( 4)
( 12)
( 7)
( 10)

.41 ( 1)
. 1 2 ( 6)
ft 4t •
- . 0 6 ( 8)
- . 1 9 < 3)
. 1 9 ( 4)
- . 0 3 < 9)
. 1 4 ( 5)
.20 ( 2)
. 0 2 <10)
- . 1 1 ( 7)
. 0 2 ( 11)
- . 0 2 ( 12)

.11
.19
.47
.21
-.18
.35
-.2 9
.41
.30
.05
.21
-.15
* ft

ft

Superintendency
Turnover
( 12)
( 6)
( 5)
( 2)
C 3)
(11)
( 7)
( 4)
• «
i•
- . 0 3 ( 10)
.03 ( 9)
. 0 9 ( 6)
.32 ( 1)

.03
.11
.12
.22
-.21
.03
.09
-.1 8

Z i e g l e r & J e n n i n g s # 1974# p. 115.

Based on t h i s study# Z i e g l e r and J e n n i n g s i s o l a t e d two g e n e r a l
categ o ries of special

I n t e r e s t groups:

F i r s t # t h e r e a r e n o n - i s s u e s p e c i f i c groups* such as PTA's, League
o f Women Voters# and s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n s . These o r g a n i z a t i o n s
p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r t h e ong o in g system# b u t I n j e c t l i t t l e c o n f l i c t
I n t o t h e s y s t e m . They c o n s t i t u t e a r e s o u r c e from which d e c i s i o n ­
m a k e r s may draw 1n t i m e s o f c r i s i s . Then t h e r e a r e I d e o l o g i c a l and
I s s u e - s p e d f 1 c g ro u p s whose r o l e 1s t o I n j e c t c o n f l i c t I n t o t h e
s y s t e m and t o make c o n f l i c t s a l i e n t f o r d e c i s i o n - m a k e r s .
Intense
a c t i v i t y by such o r g a n i z a t i o n s u s u a l l y has an e f f e c t # b u t n o t
n e c e s s a r i l y t h e e f f e c t t h a t such g ro u p s d e s i r e .
The u n a n t i c i p a t e d
c o n s e q u e n c e s o f such g ro u p s may be a r e s u l t o f t h e f a c t t h a t th e y
have t h e I n f l u e n c e t o make an I s s u e s a l i e n t by e x p a n d in g t h e s c o p e
o f c o n f l i c t b u t a p p a r e n t l y have l e s s a b i l i t y t o c o n t r o l t h e outcome
o f a c o n f l i c t o nc e 1 t has d e v e l o p e d , ( p . 117)

49

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s hav e de ve lo pe d some t o o l s t o cop e w i t h t h e
demands and t h r e a t s o f I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l p r e s s u r e g ro u p s a s o u t ­
l i n e d by Cuban (1976) 1n h i s s t u d y o f t h r e e l a r g e urban s c h o o l c h i e f
executives.

They re s p o n d e d t o p r e s s u r e s by s u b t l y and o p e n l y r e d e f i n ­

i n g t h e pr o b le m ; r e f o c u s e d I s s u e s t o a r e a s ha v in g g r e a t e r s c o p e and
m a g n i t u d e , t h e r e b y making t h e I s s u e a p p e a r l a r g e r t h a n a p a r t i c u l a r
group w a nt ed t o t a c k l e ; re d u c e d v e r y comp lex a s w e l l a s ambiguous
I s s u e s I n t o t e c h n i c a l and r o u t i n e m a t t e r s t h a t c o u l d be managed; and
c o o p t a t i o n was a method employed, whereby c r i t i c s 1 s u g g e s t i o n s were
a d o p te d and shaped by a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t o m e e t t h e i r s p e c i f i c a t i o n s .

By

de ny in g t h e c r i t i c s a p l a t f o r m f o r t h e i r c h a r g e s , t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
c o u l d p o i n t p r o u d l y t o t h e i r f l e x i b l e n a t u r e s and w i l l i n g n e s s t o
re fo rm .

F i n a l l y , s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c o u l d d e l a y I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f recom­

m e n d a t i o n s , p l e a d f i n a n c i a l I n s o l v e n c y o r l a c k o f human r e s o u r c e s ,
d e f e r t o o t h e r more p o i g n a n t I s s u e s f a c i n g t h e d i s t r i c t s , o r cho ose t o
I g n o r e a s p e c t s t h e y found re p u g n a n t .

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s no l o n g e r hav e a

c h o i c e ; t h e y m u s t become " p o l i t i c a l a n i m a l s . "

I f t h e y have no power

b a s e a v a i l a b l e on t h e bo a rd , t h e n t h e y need t o c u l t i v a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
( w i t h I n f l u e n t i a l g ro u ps ) w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y - a t - l a r g e , t h e p o i n t
b e i n g , one h a s t o " c o n s c i o u s l y c hoose " t o p l a y t h i s s o r t o f game and
le a rn th e r u le s accordingly.

I t 1s n o t s o m e t h i n g we do a v e r y good j o b

o f i n ou r s c h o o l s o f e d u c a t i o n (Gousha, 1981).
hard school,

(" E x p e ri e n c e keep s a

b u t a fo o l w i l l l e a r n 1n no o t h e r " — Ben F r a n k l i n . )

50

S t a f f . .C onflicts
High on a 1 1 s t o f "stomach t w i s t e r s " c i t e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
were two problem a r e a s I d e n t i f i e d when a s k i n g t h e q u e s t i o n , "What was a
m a jo r problem l a s t week and l a s t y e a r ? "

" L a s t week" r e s p o n s e s r a t e d

s t a f f p ro b le m s a s f i r s t o v e r f i n a n c e s , and " l a s t y e a r " I n d i c a t i o n s
p l a c e d s t a f f c o n f l i c t s second a f t e r f i n a n c e s .

In m o s t I n s t a n c e s t h e s e

a r e a s w e re r e l a t e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n d e a l i n g w i t h t e a c h e r demands
f o r g r e a t e r b e n e f i t s I n t e r t w i n e d w i t h d e c l i n i n g b u d g e t s (Hughes &
Gorden,

1980).

S t a f f c o n f l i c t s m a n i f e s t e d 1n s c h o o l - s t a f f r e l a t i o n s ,

negotiations, s tr ik e s ,

o r o t h e r fo r m s o f t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y rema in

I d e n t i f i e d as Is s u e s /c h a lle n g e s t h a t a re o f s i g n i f i c a n t Importance t o
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ev en o v e r a t e n - y e a r s p r e a d .

Two s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d by

t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s , 1971 and 1982,
c o n t i n u e d t o r a nk s t a f f c o n f l i c t I s s u e s 1n t h e t o p t e n o f t h e 18
Issues/challenges cited.

In t h e 1971 s t u d y , "school s t a f f r e l a t i o n s ,

s t r i k e s , o r o t h e r for ms o f t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y " ra n k e d f i f t h o f t h e t o p
18.

The 1982 s t u d y d t e d " I s s u e s su ch a s n e g o t i a t i o n s ,

r a n k i n g n i n t h 1n 18 c a t e g o r i e s .

s t r i k e s " as

Of t e n r e s p o n s e I s s u e s d e a l i n g w i t h

f u t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y p l a n s , t h e numb er -on e I s s u e d t e d by s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s t h a t would d r i v e them o u t o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s w e r e " I s s u e s such
a s n e g o t i a t i o n s , s t r i k e s and o t h e r fo r m s o f t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y " r a t e d
b e f o r e " c a l i b e r o f p e r s o n s a s s i g n e d t o o r removed from l o c a l b o a rd s o f
e d u c a t i o n " (AASA, 1 982 , p. 4 2 ) .
However,

1 t a p p e a r s from a s t u d y c o n du ct e d by C r e s s w e l l and

Simpson (1976) t h a t t h e s e two I s s u e s , t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y and c a l i b e r o f

51

board-member p e rs o n n e l* a r e s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d 1n t e r m s o f I n c r e a s ­
in g t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y * t h u s r e s u l t i n g 1n I n t e n s i f i e d s t a f f c o n f l i c t .
T h i s s t u d y d e a l s w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t h e s t y l e and p r o c e s s o f
g o v e rn a n c e a f f e c t s l a b o r r e l a t i o n s and how l a b o r r e l a t i o n s f i t i n t o t h e
political

s t r u c t u r e o f school d i s t r i c t gove rnance.

Labor r e l a t i o n s p r o v i d e a mechanism* e s p e c i a l l y t h r o u g h
bargaining processes*

t o change (o r a t l e a s t a l t e r ) t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s

betwee n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e bo a rd e i t h e r 1n t o t a l i t y o r w i t h
I n d i v i d u a l b o a r d members.

C r e s s w e l l and S im ps on 's s t u d y In v o l v e d a

p a r t i c u l a r m l d w e s t e r n d i s t r i c t s e a t i n g two newly e l e c t e d b o a rd members
a t t h e b a r g a i n i n g t a b l e r e p r e s e n t i n g management's team .

(Again* t h e

I s s u e s In t h i s s t u d y c e n t e r on g o v e r n a n c e and t h e e f f e c t o f go ve rn a nc e
on s t a f f c o n f l i c t a r i s i n g from b a r g a i n i n g p r o c e s s e s . )

Since t h e i r

e l e c t i o n * t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e two new boa rd members had been a
"d o m in a n t f e a t u r e " I n m o s t g o v e rn a n c e and s t a f f - c o n f l 1 c t I s s u e s .

The

s i t u a t i o n t h a t de v e lo p e d was s i m i l a r t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d by Ian na con ne
and Lutz (1 9 7 0 ) :
I n d i v i d u a l s who d e f e a t In c u m b e n ts may o r may n o t b e g in w i t h t h e
I n t e n t i o n o f s t r u g g l i n g w i t h t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t . However* s i n c e
t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s t h e key f i g u r e 1n e s t a b l i s h i n g e d u c a t i o n a l
p o l i c i e s and g o a l s t h a t a new member s e e k s t o change* t h e new
member 1s l i k e l y t o f i n d t h a t t h e i r c h i e f op po ne nt 1s t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , (p . 175)
S taff conflict*

1n t h i s d i s t r i c t *

r e s u l t e d In a t e a c h e r s t r i k e .

The f l a m e o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n was f u e l e d by a " p r o v o c a t i v e " s t a t e m e n t made
by one o f t h e tw o newly e l e c t e d board members a t t h e b a r g a i n i n g t a b l e .
T h i s s t u d y documented t h e f a c t t h a t c o n f l i c t was I n t e n s i f i e d and
t r a n s l a t e d I n t o a s t r i k e by t h e t e a c h e r s In o r d e r t o " s a v e f a c e and

52

r e s t o r e t e a c h e r d i g n i t y " a f t e r t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t was made by t h e
newly e l e c t e d board member a t t h e b a r g a i n i n g t a b l e :
Can you e x p l a i n t o me why a school t e a c h e r I s a s u p e r c i t i z e n and
s h o u l d n o t s u f f e r t h e pangs o f I n f l a t i o n ? The r e s t o f us a r e going
t o s u f f e r f o r e v e r . You a r e n o t g o in g t o be wh ole a t my expense.
You t e l l me why a t e a c h e r 1s d i f f e r e n t . You a r e n o t g o in g t o have
t h e t a x p a y e r s c u t and keep y o u r s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g up. You would
be s u r p r i s e d a t some o f t h e p e o p l e I ha ve been t a l k i n g t o on t h e
phone* and I donft t h i n k you would l i k e me t o m e n t i o n names. You
a r e go in g t o g e t j u s t a s hungry a s t h e r e s t o f t h e pe o p le . When
you g e t t h a t th r o u g h y o u r head you w i l l g e t a c o n t r a c t .
Get o f f
and t r y e a t i n g dogfood l i k e t h e r e s t o f t h e p e o p l e h e r e . ( C r e s s w e l l
& Simpson* 1976)
As f a r as t h e t e a c h e r s w e r e concerned* t h e " r e s t o r a t i o n o f d i g n i t y " was
th e m ajor reason f o r t h e r e s u l t i n g s t r i k e a f t e r t h i s Inflammatory
s t a t e m e n t was made.

In a survey* t h e t e a c h e r s w e re a s k e d t o r a t e t h e

I m p o r t a n c e o f s a l a r y v e r s u s t h e d i g n i t y I s s u e a s c a u s e s of t h e s t r i k e .
I t 1s c l e a r from T a b l e 2.13 t h a t w h i l e s a l a r y was Im p o r ta n t * I t was
overshadowed by " r e s t o r i n g t e a c h e r d i g n i t y " a s a c a u s e o f t h e s t r i k e .

T a b l e 2 . 1 3 . — P e r c e n t a g e o f t e a c h e r s r a t i n g I m po r tanc e o f s t r i k e I s s u e s .
Rating
Issue

Dignity
Salary
Source:

Not Very I m p o r t a n t

F a ir l y Important

9%
12

S%
16

C re s s w e l l and Simpson* 1976.

Very I m p o r t a n t
86*
72

53

The d i g n i t y I s s u e became even more p o w e r f u l when t h e a n s w e r s t o t h e
I m p o r t a n c e o f d i g n i t y were d i v i d e d a c c o r d i n g t o w h e t h e r o r n o t a p e rs o n
( t e a c h e r ) p a r t i c i p a t e d In t h e s t r i k e a c t i o n ( T a b l e 2 . 1 4 ) .

T a b l e 2 . 1 4 . — P e r c e n t a g e o f t e a c h e r s r a t i n g Im p o r ta n c e o f d i g n i t y as
cause of s t r i k e .
Rating

Partic1pated
1n S t r i k e
Not Very I m p o r t a n t

F a irly Important

Very I m p o r t a n t

1%
19

2%
19

91%
62

Yes
No
Source:

C r e s s w e l l and Simpson* 1976.

A c o n f l i c t be tw een boa rd m em b ers and a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t I n t e n s i ­
f i e s t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g t o become m u l t i l a t e r a l *
meaning t h e unio n can n e g o t i a t e f o r m a l l y a t t h e t a b l e and I n f o r m a l l y
w i t h board members c o l l e c t i v e l y o r s e p a r a t e l y .

Thus, a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t

can be c a u g h t betw een t h e e r o s i o n o f autonomy r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e con­
t r a c t on one si d e* and t h e e n c r o a c h m e n t o f t h e boa rd In a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
m a t t e r s on t h e o t h e r .

In t r y i n g t o a s s o c i a t e t h e I n t e r a c t i o n o f gov­

e r n a n c e w i t h b a r g a i n i n g , two d i m e n s i o n s seem r e l e v a n t :

(1) d e g r e e o f

c o n s e n s u s 1n t h e g o v e rn a n c e s yst e m and (2) d e g r e e o f v u l n e r a b i l i t y In
t h e gov ern an ce s t r u c t u r e .

I f lo o k e d upon a s I n d e p e n d e n t d i m e n s i o n s .

T a b l e 2.15 I l l u s t r a t e s t h i s ty p o lo g y .

54

T a b l e 2 . 1 5 . — D e g r e e o f c o n s e n s u s and v u l n e r a b i l i t y .

VulnerabU I t y
Consensus
High

Low

High

Medium c o n f l i c t
not p e rs is te n t

Very low c o n f l i c t

Low

High p e r s i s t e n t
conflict

Low p e r s i s t e n t c o n f l i c t

Source:

C r e s s w e l l and Simpson# 1976.

' T h e n a t u r e and l e v e l o f c o n f l i c t 1n b a r g a i n i n g and o t h e r fo r m s
o f g o v e r n a n c e s h o u l d be r e l a t e d t o t h e d e g r e e o f c o n s e n s u s and
v u l n e r a b i l i t y o f t h e s t r u c t u r e " ( C r e s s w e l l & Simpson# 1976# p. 24).
The h y p o t h e s i s I m p l i c i t 1n t h i s c e l l c o n s t r u c t i o n 1s t h a t t h e amount o f
c o n f l i c t m a n i f e s t e d 1n t h e go ve rn a nce a n d / o r b a r g a i n i n g o f a school
d i s t r i c t 1s j o i n t l y d e t e r m i n e d by t h e amount o f c o n s e n s u s and t h e
" p r e s e n c e o f mechanisms t o c o n t r o l o r s u p p r e s s d l s s e n s u s " ( C r e s s w e l l &
Simpson# 1976# p. 25).

Because b a r g a i n i n g 1n s c h o o l s t e n d s t o w a r d a

t h r e e - w a y I n t e r a c t i o n among board# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t # and t e a c h e r s # t h e r e
1s a l i k e l i h o o d o f an I n c r e a s e 1n t h e v u l n e r a b i l i t y 1n t h e o v e r a l l
g o v e rn a n c e s t r u c t u r e .

What t h i s means 1s t h a t t h e r e w i l l H k e l y be

more o p p o r t u n i t y f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n by s m a l l f a c t i o n s (b o a rd members
a n d / o r t e a c h e r s ) 1n t h e u l t i m a t e d e d s l o n - m a k i n g and g o v e rn a n ce
process.

T her efo re # u n l e s s t h e r e 1s an accompanying s h i f t t o l o w e r

v u l n e r a b i l it y # j u s t t h e o n s e t of bargaining#

1n and o f I t s e l f #

s h o u ld

55

l e a d t o more open c o n f l i c t # both 1n l a b o r r e l a t i o n s and t h e r e s t o f t h e
s c h o o l go ve rn a nce p r o c e s s ( C re s s w e ll & Simpson# 1 976 ).
L e a d e r s h i p s t y l e and b e h a v i o r and c o n c o m i t a n t r u l e a d m i n i s t r a ­
t i o n ha v e l o n g been s t u d i e d 1n r e l a t i o n t o c o n f l i c t management.

L lkert

(1961) c o n t e n d e d t h a t o n e ' s s t y l e o f managing ca n ha ve s i g n i f i c a n t
I n f l u e n c e on s u b o r d i n a t e a c t i v i t y w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n .

His pro pose d

p r i n c i p l e o f " I n t e r a c t i o n - I n f l u e n c e " s t r e s s e d t h e need f o r I n d i v i d u a l
p a r t i c i p a t i o n 1n d e c i s i o n making# w i t h g r e a t e r I n v o l v e m e n t a f f e c t i n g a
h i g h e r l e v e l o f group c om mi tm e nt and t a s k o r i e n t a t i o n .

I t was 1n t h i s

v e i n t h a t L l k e r t f o r m u l a t e d a c on tin uu m o f l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s .

L lk e rt's

systems are:
System 1:

E xploitative-A uthoritative

System 2 :

B enevolent-A uthoritative

System 3 :

Consultatlve

System 4:

Partic1patlve-G roup

The f i r s t t w o systems# viewed 1n t e r m s o f " c l o s e d " l e a d e r s h i p
s t y l e # and t h e l a s t two syst ems# l i k e n e d t o t h a t o f "open" management
s t y l e # w er e t h e b a s i s f o r a s t u d y t h a t I n v e s t i g a t e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e tw ee n s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s and t h e f r e q u e n c y o f
g r i e v a n c e s I n i t i a t e d by s e c o n d a r y t e a c h e r s (C a ld w e ll & F l n k e l s t o n #
1977).

The h y p o t h e s e s t e s t e d s o u g h t t o f i n d :

(1) an I n v e r s e r e l a ­

t i o n s h i p betw een t h e p a r t i c i p a t i v e management b e h a v i o r o f t h e s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t and t h e f r e q u e n c y w i t h which g r i e v a n c e s a r e I n i t i a t e d by
s e c o n d a r y t e a c h e r s ; and (2) a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n t h e
e x p l o i t i v e - a u t h o r i t a r i a n management s t y l e of t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e

56
f r e q u e n c y w i t h which g r i e v a n c e s a r e I n i t i a t e d by s e c o n d a r y t e a c h e r s .
The s a m p l e us ed I n t h i s s t u d y In v o lv e d 27 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and 268
s e c o n d a ry t e a c h e r s .
Both r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s e s w e r e a c c e p t e d w i t h a s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i ­
c a l l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e beyond .001.
A p artial c o e ffic ie n t of
c o r r e l a t i o n f i g u r e o f 0.2459 r e p r e s e n t e d a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p
between c l o s e d n e s s and t h e f r e q u e n c y o f g r i e v a n c e s . By a s s u m p t i v e
analogy* t h e r e f o r e * an I n v e r s e r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d b e tw e e n t h e
o p e n n e s s p r o f i l e a t t h e e x t r e m e o p p o s i t e end o f t h e c ont inu um and
t h e f r e q u e n c y o f g r i e v a n c e s . ( C a l d w e l l & F l n k e l s t o n * 1977* p. 12)
Figure 2 3

r e p r e s e n t s t h e l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p between s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s '

management s t y l e and t h e f r e q u e n c y o f g r i e v a n c e s .
High
>u
c

<u
cr

<u
L.

CD
U

c

Id

>

0)
C3

Low
Closed

Open
Management S t y l e

F i g u r e 2 . 3 . — S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' management s t y l e .
F l n k e l s t o n * 1977* p. 1 2 .)

(From Caldwell &

The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e I d e n t i f i e d 1n t h i s s t u d y was c o n f l i c t .
While c o n f l i c t In s c h o o l s has n o t been l a c k i n g ( p a r t i c u l a r l y s i n c e t h e
o n s e t o f c o l l e c t i v e b a r g a i n i n g ) * s c h o o l management h a s been somewhat
l a x 1n p r o v i d i n g a chan ne l f o r c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n .

C ollective

b a r g a i n i n g more t h a n any o t h e r r e a s o n h a s p r o v i d e d t h e I m p e t u s f o r

57

s t a f f s t o d e v e lo p a g r i e v a n c e p r o c e d u r e f o r I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z a t i o n o f
c o n f lic t resolution.

C o n f l i c t * then* 1n school d i s t r i c t s ha s become

more o p e n ly exposed.

I t 1s c r i t i c a l *

then* t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

I n t e r n a l i z e t h e I n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e and c o n f l i c t
r e s o l u t i o n 1n t e r m s o f I n t e g r a t i n g I n d i v i d u a l needs and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
objectives.

In t h i s v e n t u r e o f I n t e g r a t i o n ,

l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e and

mutual s u p p o r t i v e n e s s assume e x t r e m e Im p o r ta n c e ( A rg y r ts * 1964).
C o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n * a s p u t f o r t h by Serg1ovann1* 1s n o t based on
s i m i l a r I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f r a t i o n a l i t y . For example* s i n c e 1 t 1s
assumed t h a t g o a l s a r e n o t g i v e n s b u t n e g o t i a t e d and s i n c e t h e
I n t e r p l a y w i t h i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and bet wee n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and
I t s e n v i r o n m e n t 1s vie w ed a s b a r g a i n i n g * t h e n t h e r a t i o n a l p a t t e r n
o f e s t a b l i s h i n g c l e a r g o a l s and s u b s e q u e n t l y programming I n d i v i d u a l
and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r t o m a x im iz e t h e s e g o a l s I s s u s p e c t .
I n s t e a d * a " s a t i s f i c i n g " image o f p e rs o n and o r g a n i z a t i o n 1s
o f f e r e d a s a s u b s t i t u t e f o r more t r a d i t i o n a l r a t i o n a l Images.
A d m i n i s t r a t o r s do n o t s e e k o p t i o n a l s o l u t i o n s t o t h e pro bl e m s t h e y
f a c e b u t s ee k s o l u t i o n s t h a t w i l l s a t i s f y a v a r i e t y o f demands.
(Serg1ovann1 & C o rb a ll y * 1984* p. 7)
C o n f l i c t g e n e r a l l y 1s t h e r e s u l t o f a c h a l l e n g e t o a g iv e n
p r i n c i p l e o r h i e r a r c h y w i t h i n an o r g a n i z a t i o n .

The mess ag e t o s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t s 1s t h a t c o n f l i c t I s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p o s i t i v e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e
educational o rganization.

The "w ho le so m e ne ss " o f c o n f l i c t depends t o a

l a r g e d e g r e e on t h e l e a d e r s h i p b e h a v i o r o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d procedures encourage c o n f l i c t w ith in acce p tab le
p a r a m e t e r s and p r e s e n t e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w i t h l e v e r a g e f o r
Improvement o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n (C a ld w e ll & F l n k e l s t o n *
1977).

The f o l l o w i n g a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t p e o p le and c o n f l i c t may p r o v i d e

a c l e a r e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s I n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s and be t h e b a s i s of
judging e f f e c t i v e leadership.

58

P e o p le a r e b a s i c a l l y a m b i v a l e n t ; t h e y want s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t o change
and t o s t a y t h e same.
P e o p l e c r e a t e t h e i r own me anings.
P e o p l e ' s r e s i s t a n c e can be v ie w ed a s an e x p r e s s i o n o f t h e i r
I n t e g r i t y * n o t a s a c a s e of t h e i r b e i n g "dumb" o r "b ad " o r " w eak ."
C a r in g can be e x p r e s s e d th r o u g h c o n f r o n t a t i o n n o t j u s t p r o t e c t i o n .
C o n f l i c t can be p r o d u c t i v e .
The d e f i n i t i o n o f I n f o r m a t i o n can be ex panded.
New k i n d s o f I n f o r m a t i o n ca n be a p p r o p r i a t e l y s h a r e d .
Mutual d i a l o g u e In which new I n f o r m a t i o n ( o f t e n n e g a t i v e ) 1s
can l e a d p e o p l e t o make r e a l c h o i c e s .
An outcome o f r e a l c h o i c e 1s a new l e v e l
( J e n t z & Wofford* 1979# pp. 174-75)

shared

o f co mm itm en t and hope.

Management Problems
"You had b e t t e r know how t o manage y o u r t i m e and how t o d e l e ­
g a t e jo bs * 1 f you c a r e a b o u t s u r v i v a l " I s t h e way one s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
r e s po nd ed 1n t h e Hughes and Gorden (1980) s u rv e y .

In o t h e r s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t s urv ey s* knowing how t o e v a l u a t e p e rs on ne l# i m p l e m e n t i n g a
s y s t e m s a pproa ch f o r more e f f e c t i v e d e c i s i o n making* and managing
s c a r c e r e s o u r c e s ( p e o p l e and d o l l a r s ) w ere o t h e r m o s t f r e q u e n t l y c i t e d
management s k i l l s needed by p r a c t i c i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

Superintend­

e n t s vi ew ed t h e j o b a s one r e q u i r i n g t h e same s k i l l s a s t h o s e e x e c u t i v e
managers employ an ywhere 1n t e r m s o f l e a d i n g any comp lex o r g a n i z a t i o n .
L ea der shi p# and I t s companion dec1 si on -m ak ing * w i l l become an
in c re a s in g ly i n t r i c a t e process o f m u l t i l a t e r a l brokerage in c lu d in g
c o n s t i t u e n c i e s b oth w i t h i n and w i t h o u t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n . More and
more d e c i s i o n s made w i l l be p u b l i c d e c i s i o n s ; t h a t 1s* t h e y w i l l
a f f e c t p e o p l e who I n s i s t on b e i n g h e a r d . E d u c a t i o n a l ma na ge rs w i l l
have t o reck on w i t h t h e g ro w in g r o l e o f media a s a f o u r t h arm of
gov e rn me nt a v a i l a b l e f o r us e by t h e p e o p l e who op pose a p a r t i c u l a r

59

d e c i s i o n a s w e l l as t h e p e o p l e who s u p p o r t i t . The I d e a o f a
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l group o f mo ve rs and s h a k e r s who g e t t h i n g s done 1s
o b s o l e t e . . . . T h e b i g g e r t h e p r o b l e m t o be t a c k l e d * t h e m o r e
power 1s d i f f u s e d and t h e more p e o p l e hav e t o be I n v o l v e d . Thus,
d e c i s i o n s become more com ple x and 1 1 1 - d e f l n e d , a f f e c t i n g more
d i f f e r e n t and s o m e t i m e s c o n f l i c t i n g c o n s t i t u e n c i e s . (Serg1ovann1 4
C o r b a l l y , 1984, p. 65)
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' a p p r a i s a l s o f I s s u e s and c h a l l e n g e s a r e b e in g
a f f e c t e d by t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f c h a n g e s 1n t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e e n v i r o n ­
ment o f t h e t i m e s .

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e r e p o r t i n g g i v i n g more a t t e n t i o n

t o day-to-day managerial m a tte rs .

The h i g h e s t r a n k i n g i s s u e s and

c h a l l e n g e s p o i n t e d o u t by t h e 1982 AASA s u r v e y ( f i n a n c i n g s c h o o l s ,
p l a n n i n g and goa l s e t t i n g , a s s e s s i n g e d u c a t i o n a l o u tc o m e s , a c c o u n t a ­
bility /cred ib ility ,

and s t a f f / a d m i n i s t r a t o r e v a l u a t i o n s ) a r e c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h s o c i e t y ' s demand f o r h i g h e r and more f a v o r a b l e I n s t i t u t i o n a l
performance.
They r e f l e c t s o c i e t y ' s c a l l f o r p ru d e n c e , e f f i c i e n c y and s t e w a r d ­
s h i p 1n t i m e s o f d e c l i n i n g r e s o u r c e s .
I n t h e 1980s t h e s e I s s u e s
and c h a l l e n g e s a r e r e f l e c t i o n s o f o u r I n c r e d i b l e b a t t l e w i t h I n f l a ­
tion.
Given t h e n a t i o n ' s e co nomi c u n c e r t a i n t y In t h e e a r l y 1980 's,
1 t 1s l i k e l y t h e s e I s s u e s and c h a l l e n g e s w i l l c o n t i n u e I n t o t h e
d e c a d e o f t h e 19 90 ’s . (AASA, 1 9 8 2 , p. 63 )
A cco rdi ng t o Serg1ovann1 and C o r b a l l y ,
The name o f t h e game, t h e n , 1s a m b i g u i t y and s u r p r i s e and l e a d e r s
have t o l e a d u n d e r u n c e r t a i n , r i s k y c o n d i t i o n s whe re I t ' s v i r t u a l l y
I m p o s s i b l e t o g e t r e a d y f o r " s o m e t h i n g " when you have t o g e t r e a d y
f o r " a n y t h i n g . " J u s t as e f f e c t i v e l e a d e r s know a bo ut and a r e
becoming more c o m p e t e n t 1n co p in g w i t h t h e p o l 1 t 1 c 1 z a t 1 o n o f o u r
I n s t i t u t i o n s — by which I mean t h a t I n s t i t u t i o n s a r e becoming t h e
f o c u s f o r a new k i n d o f p o l i t i c s , I. e ., m o b i l i z i n g p u b l i c o p i n i o n
o r work ing more c l o s e l y w i t h l e g i s l a t i v e b o d i e s a t both t h e s t a t e
and f e d e r a l l e v e l s and o t h e r key c o n s t i t u e n c i e s — t h e y a r e a l s o
l e a r n i n g more a b o u t an e n l a r g e d c o n c e p t o f t h e "management te am ."
( p . 65)
Any a t t e m p t t o s t u d y d e m o c r a t i c , p a r t i c i p a t o r y management o r t h e
management te am c o n c e p t r e q u i r e s a knowledge o f and an a p p r e c i a t i o n f o r

60

t h e r o l e t h a t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e p l a y s 1n t h e t y p e and q u a l i t y o f
d e c i s i o n making.

D e c i s i o n making 1n a s c h o o l d i s t r i c t r e v o l v e s around

th e superintendent.

The management team p a t t e r n o f a s c h o o l ' s

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e may be d e t e r m i n e d by t h e s t y l e o f t h e
s u p e r in te n d e n t's le a d e r behavior.

Numerous l e a d e r s h i p s t u d i e s hav e

a n a l y z e d l e a d e r b e h a v i o r e m a n a t i n g from t h e I n t e r a c t i o n o f c e r t a i n
variables.

McGregor (1960) saw l e a d e r b e h a v i o r e v o l v i n g from t h e

mixing of fo u r b a sic elem ents:
leader;

(2) t h e a t t i t u d e s *

(1) t h e p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s o f t h e

needs* and o t h e r I n d i v i d u a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e

f o l l o w e r s ; (3) t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e * purpos es* and t a s k s ; and
(4) t h e o v e r a l l c l i m a t e o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .
A s t u d y c o n d u c te d o f 49 s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s t h a t w e re members o f
t h e M e t r o p o l i t a n D e t r o i t Bureau o f School St u d i es *

Inc.* a t t e m p t e d t o

d e f i n e t h e management team p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e .
The d a t a from t h e s t u d y I n d i c a t e d f o u r b a s i c management te a m p a t t e r n s
were 1n o p e r a t i o n :
1.

2.

3.

School d i s t r i c t s w he re t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t m e e t s w i t h J u s t one
group t h a t I n c l u d e s a l l t h e management te am members o r t h e t r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s w e r e c l a s s i f i e d a s e m p lo y in g " S i n g l e " manage­
ment team p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e ;
School d i s t r i c t s w he re t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t m e e t s w i t h a group
t h a t I n c l u d e s a l l t h e management te am members o r t h e i r r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e s a s w e l l a s a group t h a t I n c l u d e s J u s t c e n t r a l admin­
i s t r a t o r s w e r e c l a s s i f i e d a s emplo yin g "Dual" management te am
p a t t e r n s o f school o r g a n iz a ti o n a l s t r u c t u r e ;
School d i s t r i c t s where t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t m e e t s w i t h a group
t h a t I n c l u d e s a l l t h e management te am members o r t h e i r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s and one o r more o t h e r g ro u p s t h a t I n c l u d e
d i f f e r e n t s e g m e n t s o f t h e management team members w e r e
c l a s s i f i e d a s " M u l t i p l e " management te am p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e ; and

61
4.

School d i s t r i c t s w h e re t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t does n o t m e e t w i t h a
g ro up t h a t i n c l u d e s a l l t h e management te am members o r t h e i r
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s * b u t m e e t s w i t h one o r more g ro u p s t h a t i n c l u d e
d i f f e r e n t s e g m e n t s o f t h e management team members w er e c l a s s i ­
f i e d a s em pl o y in g " D i v i s i o n a l " management te am p a t t e r n s o f
s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e . (Aukee* 1973* pp. 7 - 8 )
A breakdown o f t h e s u r v e y r e s u l t s from 46 o f t h e 49 d i s t r i c t s

r e s p o n d i n g 1s I l l u s t r a t e d 1n T a b l e 2 . 1 6 .

T a b l e 2 . 1 6 . — C l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f s cho ol d i s t r i c t s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
management team p a t t e r n s o f s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e and d i s t r i c t s i z e .
Management Team
P a t t e r n o f School
S tructure
1.
2.
3.
4.

Fewer Than
6*000 S t u d e n t s

More Than
6*000 S t u d e n t s

14
2
3
1

3
11
8
4

Single
Dual
M ultiple
Divisional

Source:

Total

17
13
11
5

Aukee* 1973* p. 9 .

A m a j o r f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y was f i n d i n g an e x i s t e n c e o f a
r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n t h e p a t t e r n s o f te am management 1n s cho ol
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e d e g r e e and q u a l i t y o f In v o lv e m e n t In
th e decision-m aking process.

The r e s u l t s l e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g

conclusions:
C o n c l u s i o n I : An a p p r a i s a l o f t h e f i n d i n g s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e
" S i n g l e " p a t t e r n of te am management which p r o v i d e d a fo rm al
s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e team h a n d l i n g o f d i s t r i c t - w i d e p ro b le m s and t h e
" M u l t i p l e " p a t t e r n o f team management which p r o v i d e d a fo rm al
s t r u c t u r e f o r t h e team h a n d l i n g o f both t h e d i s t r i c t - w i d e p rob le ms
and t h e s p e c i a l i z e d c o n c e r n s of i t s members came t h e c l o s e s t t o
f a c i l i t a t i n g I m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f t h e management team concept* and

62

were p r e f e r r e d o v e r t h e ' D u a l " and " D i v i s i o n a l " p a t t e r n s o f school
organizational s tru c tu re .
C o n c l u s i o n I I : The " D i v i s i o n a l " team p a t t e r n * which made no
p r o v i s i o n f o r management team I n v o l v e m e n t In s y s t e m - w i d e p r o b l e m s o l v i n g * was found t o be t h e l e a s t s a t i s f a c t o r y o f t h e f o u r team
patterns.
C o n c l u s i o n I I I : The " S i n g l e " p a t t e r n was u t i l i z e d p r i m a r i l y In
s m a l l d i s t r i c t s o f l e s s t h a n 6*000 s t u d e n t s (14 o u t o f 17) w h i l e
t h e " M u l t i p l e " p a t t e r n was used p r i m a r i l y 1n l a r g e d i s t r i c t s o f
6 , 0 0 0 s t u d e n t s o r more (8 o u t o f 1 1 ) . (Aukee* 1973* pp. 22 -2 5)
A f i n a l o b s e r v a t i o n made 1n t h e Aukee s t u d y was an u n d e r l y i n g b e l i e f
t h a t "n eith er the organizational structure*

nor t h e p a r t i c i p a t i v e

s t r a t e g i e s s e l e c t e d a r e a s I m p o r t a n t a s t h e p e r c e p t i o n s h e l d by manage­
me nt team members c o n c e r n i n g t h e l e a d e r ' s t r u e f e e l i n g s a b o u t them and
ab o u t h i s / h e r b a s i c m o t i v a t i o n " (p. 27).
A b ol d p r o p o s a l f o r b r o a d e n i n g t h e l e v e l o f I n v o l v e m e n t 1n
d e a l i n g w i t h a l l management I s s u e s o f a d i s t r i c t recommends t h e I n c l u ­
s i o n o f members o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h i n g s t a f f a t t h e " c a b i n e t "
l e v e l o f a d i s t r i c t ' s o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e I n v o l v e d 1n d e c i s i o n ­
making p r o c e s s e s .

A s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1n t h e s m a l l d i s t r i c t o f W h i t e h a l l *

Michigan* p ro po s e d t h a t l a c k o f c o m m u n ic a ti o n t h r o u g h l a c k o f I n v o l v e ­
m e n t among s c h o o l p e o p l e was p a r t l y r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e t e r i o r a t i n g
t e a c h e r morale* I n c r e a s e d s t r e s s f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , a s w e l l a s a l l
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s 1n a d i s t r i c t .

C a b i n e t m e e t i n g s 1n t h i s d i s t r i c t can be

c o n s i d e r e d a n a l o g o u s t o a c e n t r a l s t e e r i n g c o m m i t t e e m e e t i n g on c e a
week w i t h t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o make d e c i s i o n s a s w e l l a s make
rec o m m en d a ti o n s t o t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

C a b i n e t members a r e p r i v y t o

and d i s c u s s a broa d r a n g e o f t o p i c s I n c l u d i n g bu d g e t a l l o c a t i o n s *
t e a c h e r e v a l u a t i o n * c u r r i c u l u m re v ie w and r e v i s i o n * 1n s er v1 ce

63

programs# s t u d e n t behavior# e t c .
nature.

C a b i n e t d e c i s i o n s a r e o f an a d v i s o r y

No t o p i c 1s o u t o f bounds f o r d i s c u s s i o n .

Originally#

the

p l a n I n c l u d e d o n ly one t e a c h e r from t h e d i s t r i c t # b u t soon t h e
s t r u c t u r e expanded t o I n v o l v e a t e a c h e r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e from each
b u i l d i n g 1n t h e d i s t r i c t due t o t h e b e l i e f t h a t "(1) f a c u l t y members
make g e n u in e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o I m p r o v in g I n t e r n a l c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ; and
(2) 1 t a l l o w e d more g r a s s - r o o t s knowledge i n t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
decision-m aking processes."

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t found t h a t t h e

I n c r e a s e d I n v o l v e m e n t b r o u g h t a b o u t more o p e n n e s s and h o n e s t y from
both s i d e s 1n d e a l i n g w i t h I s s u e s r a n g i n g from I n v o l u n t a r y t r a n s f e r s
due t o d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t # t o m l l l a g e .

A heightened awareness of

I s s u e s and pro bl e m s both gr o u p s f a c e r e s u l t e d I n l e s s t e n s i o n between
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l t e a c h i n g s t a f f .
In s q u e l c h i n g rum ors.

Teachers a s s i s t e d

O ve ra ll # an I n c r e a s e d l e v e l o f t r u s t #

honesty#

and u n d e r s t a n d i n g between t h e two g ro u p s was p e r c e i v e d (Page# 1982).
I n t e r e s t i n g l y # t h e b a s i c p r e m i s e s used a s a b a s i s f o r d e f i n i n g
t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f a s m al l# r u r a l d i s t r i c t such a s White­
h a l l # Michigan# w e re v a l i d a t e d by t h e f i n d i n g s o f a s t u d y s u r v e y i n g t h e
a t t i t u d e s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n s y s t e m s ha v in g a s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n o f
1S#000 o r more (Talmage & O rn s te ln #

1976).

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a s a group

w e re found t o p o s s e s s s i g n i f i c a n t l y more f a v o r a b l e a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d
I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l community I n v o l v e m e n t In s c h o o l I s s u e s when
a d v i s o r y 1n n a t u r e r a t h e r t h a n w he re i m p l i e d power was e v i d e n t 1n
determ ining th e s t a t u s of various Issues.

Most f i n d i n g s r e v i e w e d 1n

t h e l i t e r a t u r e t e n d e d t o p r o f e s s t h a t school s y s t e m s r e g a r d l e s s o f

64

c o m m o n a l i t i e s such a s s i z e , e t h n i c c o m p o s i t i o n , and g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n
a r e s i n g u l a r l y u n iq u e s o c i a l s y s t e m s .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f u n c t i o n s

w i t h i n a g i v e n s o c i a l s ys te m by r e l a t i n g and r e a c t i n g t o a h o s t o f
l o c a l I s s u e s and I n t e r r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e s t h a t may o v e r r i d e any e f f e c t s
of s iz e ,

location,

and/or e th n ic composition.

I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l

g ro u p s a ro und t h e c o u n t r y , r e g a r d l e s s o f de m o g ra p h ic s , want t o be
I n v o l v e d 1n t h e i r s c h o o l s .
During 1974, t h e Commission o f E d u c a t i o n a l Governance un d e r t h e
a u s p i c e s of t h e N a t i o n a l Commission f o r C i t i z e n s i n E d u c a t i o n h e l d
p u b l i c h e a r i n g s around t h e c o u n t r y t o e x p l o r e I s s u e s r e l a t e d t o t h e
q u e s t i o n , "Who C o n t r o l s t h e P u b l i c S c h o o l s ? "
p u b l i c s c h o o l s emerged a s t h e c e n t r a l
1975).

D e c i s i o n making 1n t h e

Issue (W einstein & M itc h e ll,

I n r e s p o n d i n g t o i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l g ro u p s s e e k i n g I n v o l v e ­

me nt 1n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s , s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s would do w e l l t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e i r own a t t i t u d e s , s t u d y t h e s i n g u l a r l y un iq u e a s p e c t s o f
t h e i r own s o c i a l s y s t e m s , and t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s e two g ro u p s work t o
e s t a b l i s h s t r u c t u r e s t h a t w i l l a ll o w t h e e x t e n s i o n o f c o n s t r u c t i v e
I n v o l v e m e n t 1n making and I n f l u e n c i n g d e c i s i o n s .

I t i s a modern-day

I m p e r a t i v e t h a t p e r s o n s from I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l c o m m u n i t i e s be
a l l o w e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e a t both t h e a d v i s o r y and c o n t r o l l e v e l s
( W e i n s t e i n & M i t c h e l l , 1975 ).
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t "A" found t h i s modern-day I m p e r a t i v e t o be t r u e
1n t e r m s o f l e s s e n i n g t e n s i o n both w i t h i n and o u t s i d e t h e s c h o o l
o r g a n i z a t i o n when d e a l i n g w i t h t h e h i g h l y v o l a t i l e i s s u e o f school
c l o s i n g due t o d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t .

At a s c h o o l b o a rd m e e t i n g ,

65

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t "A” pro pos ed t h a t t h r e e s c h o o l s be c l o s e d .
announcement evoked a h o s t i l e r e a c t i o n from t h e community.

This
Rather than

f o l l o w i n g t h r o u g h w i t h t h e p ro p o s a l and p u s h i n g 1 t t h r o u g h f o r a v o t e ,
t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w it h d r e w I t and I n t r o d u c e d a p r o c e s s o f p a r t i c i p a ­
tio n In to th e clo su re decisions.

As t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t e x p l a i n e d :

The community e r u p t e d . . . . I m i s r e a d them and t h o u g h t th e y w ere
ready f o r I t .
I c o u l d h a v e rammed t h e c l o s u r e ( s ) th r o u g h b u t t o o k
a s t e p back I n s t e a d and g o t t h e community In v o lv e d . T h i s way th e y
owned t h e d e c i s i o n and t h e d i s t r i c t end ed up c l o s i n g s i x s c h o o l s
( t w i c e t h e number o f s c h o o l s I n i t i a l l y recommended) by a unanimous
v o t e o f t h e b o a r d . (Relsman, 1981, p. 4)
T h i s p o l i t i c a l l y o r i e n t e d ( b a r g a i n i n g - p r o c e s s ba sed) b e h a v i o r
on t h e p a r t o f S u p e r i n t e n d e n t "A" e n a b l e d s c h o o l c l o s u r e s t o o c c u r w i t h
min imal n e g a t i v e c o n se q u e n ce s.

Conversely,

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 'B" e x p e r i ­

e nce d ongo in g o p p o s i t i o n and c o n f l i c t s i n c e I n i t i a l l y p r o p o s i n g s c h o o l
closings.

Based on an a d v i s o r y c o m m i t t e e ’s r e p o r t and S u p e r i n t e n d e n t

'B'»s own d a t a a n a l y s i s ,

t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t recommended t h a t a h ig h

s c h o o l be c l o s e d a s soon as p o s s i b l e .

T h i s re c om m en da tio n a r o u s e d

s u b s t a n t i a l community r e s i s t a n c e , which was n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y a d d r e s s e d ,
a s S u p e r i n t e n d e n t "B" e x p l a i n e d :
[ A f t e r c u t b a c k s 1n s t a t e f i n a n c e s ] 1 t a p p e a r e d t h a t we would have
t o make Immense c u t s 1n o u r f i n a n c i n g . The boa rd s e t up a co mmit­
t e e (a s 1 t t e n d s t o do) o f t e a c h e r s , s t u d e n t s , and c i t i z e n s t o
s t u d y t h e I s s u e . The c o m m i t t e e I d e n t i f i e d t h e need t o c u t s e v e r a l
m i l l i o n d o l l a r s w o rt h of programs. They s u g g e s t e d c l o s i n g a hig h
s c h o o l which had been e x p e r i e n c i n g d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t . T h i s
d e c i s i o n had t o be made q u i c k l y 1f 1 t was g o in g t o be Im pl em en te d
b e f o r e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r . We had one month t o
d e c i d e which school t o c l o s e . (Relsman, 1981, p. 5)

66

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and a newly a p p o i n t e d s c h o o l c l o s u r e c o m m i t t e e
a n a l y z e d d a t a and h e l d p u b l i c for um s.

He e x p la i n e d * " U s u a l l y I l i k e t o

l e t p e o p l e a r g u e t h e m s e l v e s I n t o e x h a u s t i o n * b u t t h e r e was o n l y one
month f o r t h i s * which 1s n o t v e r y l o n g " (p . 5 ) .
F o l l o w i n g t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s o f f i c i a l recommendation* an
uneasy bo a rd v o t e d 3 - 2 1n f a v o r o f s cho ol c l o s u r e .
c i t i z e n s ' group f i l e d a l e g a l s u i t .
s t a t e sup reme co u rt *
board's d e cis io n .

A disgruntled

The l e g a l b a t t l e pro c e ed e d t o t h e

which u l t i m a t e l y up he ld t h e l e g a l i t y o f t h e

Obviously* t h e c o n t r o v e r s y l a s t e d an e x t e n d e d p e r i o d

o f t i m e and l e f t deep s c a r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e school o r g a n i z a t i o n and
community.
Clearly*

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 'B" behaved t e c h n o c r a t i c a l l y ( r e l i e d on

i n f o r m a t i o n g a t h e r i n g * prob lem s o lv in g * b u r e a u c r a t i c r u l e s and g o a l s ,
and p e r s u a s i o n f o r t h e pu rp o s e o f a c h i e v i n g a common o v e r a l l o b j e c t i v e )
(March & Simon* 1959) t h r o u g h o u t t h e s c h o o l c l o s u r e p r o c e s s .

In vi e w

o f w h a t was c o n s i d e r e d t o be an u r g e n t need f o r Im m e d i a t e s cho ol
c l o s u r e * r a t i o n a l and a n a l y t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s were used 1n r e a c h i n g t h e
initial

recommendation:

These p r o t o t y p l c c a s e s e x e m p l i f y d i f f e r e n t r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from
t e c h n o c r a t i c and p o l i t i c a l a p p r o a c h e s t o s i m i l a r c o n f l i c t s i t u a ­
t i o n s Involving th e public.
These p a r t i c u l a r c a s e s I n d i c a t e an
a d v a n t a g e In be hav ing p o l i t i c a l l y r a t h e r t h a n t e c h n o c r a t i c a l l y 1n
extraorganlzatlonal c o n flic t.
Although t e c h n o c r a t i c b e h a v i o r does
n o t a l w a y s I n t e n s i f y c o n f l i c t and I n c i t e c o n t r o v e r s y * t h i s does
a p p e a r t o be a t e n d e n c y — p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t h e a b s e n c e o f s h a r e d
v a l u e s and 1n s i t u a t i o n s where t h e p u b l i c 1s w i l l i n g t o c h a l l e n g e
o f f i c i a l d e c i s i o n s . (Relsman* 1981* p. 6)
The l i k e l i h o o d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s * members o f a s t r o n g l y
p r o f e s s i o n a l i z e d occu pa tio n* t o be p o l i t i c i z e d c o n f l i c t ma nag ers when

67

con fro n tin g t h e i r c l i e n t s s u g g ests they are e i t h e r w i l l i n g t o and/or
a r e p r e s s u r e d t o co mpromise t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l wisdom 1n o r d e r t o
reso lv e conflict*

I t a p p e a r s c i r c u m s t a n c e s s u r r o u n d i n g s ch ool d i s t r i c t

c o n f l i c t may c a u s e p o l i t i c a l b a r g a i n i n g b e h a v i o r t o be e s s e n t i a l
s ch oo l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

for

Even th oug h s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s may i n i t i a l l y

app roach c o n f l i c t t e c h n o c r a t i c a l l y #

I.e.# gu id e d by t h e i r p r o f e s s i o n a l

opinion# t h e n a t u r e o f c o n f l i c t 1n a p u b l i c a r e n a 1n a s ch oo l s e t t i n g
may f o r c e them t o e n g a g e I n t r a d e - o f f s # compromises# a n d / o r c o o p t a t i o n
(Relsman# 198 1) .
Financial. D i f f i c u l t i e s
In 1971 and a g a i n 1n 1982# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ranked " f i n a n c i n g
s c h o o l s " a s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t c h a l l e n g e o r I s s u e t h e y f a c e d 1n t h e
performance of t h e d u tie s o f t h e i r p o s itio n .

In f a c t #

1n 1982# s u p e r ­

i n t e n d e n t s d t e d " i n a d e q u a t e f i n a n c i n g of s c h o o l s " a s t h e f a c t o r ha vi ng
t h e g r e a t e s t I n f l u e n c e on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s # and one i n e i g h t s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t s b e l i e v e d " f i n a n c i n g s c h o o l s " was t h e s i n g l e Issue#

should I t

become more p r o b l e m a t i c # t h a t would r e s u l t In t h e i r l e a v i n g t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y (AASA# 1982).

"You can be f o r g i v e n many t h i n g s #

but t o f a l l

t o manage f i n a n c e s w i l l c o s t you y o u r j o b " (Hughes & Gorden# 1980#
p. 2 5 ) .
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c o n t i n u a l l y have d t e d t h e need t o de v e lo p
a s t u t e f i n a n c i a l s k i l l s as c r i t i c a l t o t h e i r p ro f e s s io n a l s u r v iv a l.
C e n t r a l t o t h i s needed s k i l l 1s a r e - e d u c a t i o n o f t h e c l o s e r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p t h a t e x i s t s between e d u c a t o r s and e c o n o m i s t s .

R e c o g n i t i o n and

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and t h e

68

f i e l d o f e con om ic s c o n t i n u e s t o be c r u c i a l a s s p i r a l 1ng e x p e n d i t u r e s
f o r e d u c a t i o n c o n t i n u e In t h e f a c e o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s .

"Although

t h e number o f s c h o o l - a g e c h i l d r e n In t h e n a t i o n i n c r e a s e d by 0.6 m i l ­
l i o n d u r i n g t h e 1950's and 13.2 m i l l i o n d u r i n g t h e 1960's* t h e p e r i o d
from 1970 t o 1977 saw a d e c r e a s e o f 3.5 m i l l i o n s t u d e n t s " (Burrup &
B r l m l e y , 1982* p. 37).

Few of t h o s e who w er e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r f i n a n c i n g

e d u c a t i o n seemed t o r e a l i z e t h a t I n f l a t i o n and I t s r e s u l t i n g p r o b le m s
would c o n t i n u e t o keep c o s t s r i s i n g r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e number o f s t u ­
d e n t s 1n a t t e n d a n c e .

The a r g u m e n t t o r e - e d u c a t e e d u c a t o r s 1n t h e

s c i e n c e o f e c o n o m i c s h i g h l i g h t s t h e f a c t t h a t s c h o o l ma nag ers ( s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s ) I g n o r e d t h e o b v i o u s — t h a t b e in g t h a t 1 t c o s t s j u s t a s much t o
he at* l i g h t * and m a i n t a i n s c h o o l b u i l d i n g s a t f u l l c a p a c i t y a s 1 t does
a t 202 t o 302 t o 402 l e s s c a p a c i t y .

At t h e same time* w h i l e e x p e r i e n c ­

i n g t h i s f a l l - o u t from e n r o l 1m e n t - d e c l 1 n e problems* s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
e x p e r i e n c e d an e s c a l a t i o n 1n t h e I n c r e a s e d e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f b a r g a i n i n g
f o r a l l e m p lo y e e s and t h e c o s t o f new s t a t e and f e d e r a l pro gr am s f o r
special

e d u c a t i o n s t u d e n t s t o name a few (Burrup & Brlmley* 1982).

The Im p a c t o f t h e s e e s c a l a t i n g f o r c e s s i d e by s i d e w i t h d e c l i n i n g
e n r o l l m e n t s c an be t h o u g h t o f as fo r m in g a s e r i e s o f binds* each
f u r t h e r e x a c e r b a t i n g t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e o t h e r . These b i n d s m i g h t
be e x p l a i n e d 1n t h e f o l l o w i n g ways:
1. E n r o l l m e n t s d e c l i n e w h i l e I n f l a t i o n c a u s e s c o s t s t o r i s e ;
d e c lin in g e n ro llm e n ts cause per pupil c o s t s t o r i s e s t i l l
higher.
2 . R e s o u rc e s d i m i n i s h w h i l e demands f o r t h o s e r e s o u r c e s I n c r e a s e
b ot h among I n d i v i d u a l s and s u b g r o u p s ; I n c r e a s e d demands s p r e a d
t h e r e s o u r c e s s t i l l t h i n n e r * making t h e demands more v o c a l .
3 . Public confidence decreases w hile p u b lic e x p e c ta tio n s In c re a s e
t h a t I n d i v i d u a l ne ed s be me t; f a i l u r e t o m e e t t h o s e need s
f u r t h e r undermines p u b l i c c o n f i d e n c e .
4 . Local autonomy d e c r e a s e s w h i l e s t a t e and f e d e r a l r e g u l a t i o n s
I n c r e a s e ; t h e r o l e of s t a t e and f e d e r a l a g e n c i e s 1s l i k e l y t o

69
expand s t i l l f u r t h e r a s l o c a l c o m m u n i t i e s pr o v e l e s s a b l e t o
manage e f f e c t i v e l y In t h e f a c e o f a l l t h e above. ( J e n t z &
Wofford, 1979, pp. 11-12)
Doubts and c r i t i c i s m t h e n c o n t i n u e t o I n t e n s i f y a b o u t t h e
q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n a l programming.

Costs co ntinue t o r i s e .

Both o f

t h e s e s i t u a t i o n s ha ppen in g 1n c o n c e r t c a u s e gro w ing s k e p t i c i s m .
C o nti nu e d h i g h e r wage demands o f a l l employee gro u p s In a m i l i e u o f
b u d g e t c u t t i n g and p u b l i c m i s t r u s t e x e m p l i f i e s t h e f r u s t r a t i o n o f a l l
I n v o l v e d 1n d e c l i n e s i t u a t i o n s .
( b a c k - t o - b a s 1 c s ) a pproa ch.

The r e s u l t 1s a r e t u r n - t o - f u n d a m e n t a l s

F i n a l l y # e x a c e r b a t i o n s r e s u l t i n g from

d e c r e a s e s 1n s t a t e and f e d e r a l f u n d i n g w h i l e demanding I n c r e a s e d
programming In s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n and o t h e r a r e a s l e a v e one w i t h t h e
b e l i e f t h a t e d u c a t i o n 1s 1n f o r a lo n g ro a d t o w a r d r e c o v e r y ( J e n t z &
Wofford, 1979 ).
Crubb and M lc h e ls o n (1974) f u r t h e r r e i n f o r c e d t h e f i n a n c i a l
qu a n d ar y e d u c a t i o n f i n d s I t s e l f 1n a s t h e r e s u l t o f g e o m e t r i c a l l y
I n c r e a s i n g c o s t s c o u p l e d w i t h growing demands p l a c e d on t h e s c h o o l s :
B u t t h e demands p l a c e d on e d u c a t i o n change r a p i d l y . The l a u n c h i n g
o f S p u t n i k 1n 1957 r e s u l t e d In a d e t e r m i n a t i o n t o " c a t c h up"
th r o u g h s c i e n c e e d u c a t i o n .
In t h e m 1d-l 960fs , w i t h t h e c i v i l
r i g h t s movement# we " d i s c o v e r e d " t h e s e c o n d - c l a s s s t a t u s o f blacks#
p r o m p t i n g an e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e r o l e o f e d u c a t i o n 1n a l l e v i a t i n g
both p o v e r t y and d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . The e m p h a s i s s h i f t e d from
d e ve lo pm en t o f a t e c h n o l o g i c a l e l i t e t o G r e a t S o c i e t y p ro gr am s f o r
e c o n o m i c a l l y and e d u c a t i o n a l l y poor.
By t h e end o f t h e s i x t i e s ,
e v a l u a t i o n s o f l a r g e - s c a l e p ro g r a m s r a i s e d d o u b t s t h a t c o m p e n s a t o r y
e d u c a t i o n was c o m p e n s a t i n g ; and so on a c o n t r o v e r s y a r o s e o v e r t h e
p o s s i b l e e f f i c a c y o f such programs# a c o n t r o v e r s y s t i l l much a l i v e .
At p r e s e n t# numerous p r o p o s a l s f o r r e o r g a n i z i n g p u b l i c s c h o o l i n g
c o m pe te f o r a t t e n t i o n , I n c l u d i n g community c o n t r o l o f s c h o o ls #
" f r e e " o r a l t e r n a t i v e s c h o o l s , vou c her p l a n s , g r e a t e r c o n t r o l by
h i g h e r l e v e l s o f government# and no s c h o o l s a t a l l . What u n i t e s
t h e s e p r o p o s a l s 1s o n l y t h a t t h e y a r e a l l # 1n one d im e n s io n o r
an o th er, r a d i c a l — they e i t h e r promise or t h r e a t e n t o thoroughly
t r a n s f o r m p u b l i c s c h o o l i n g . In l e s s t h a n t w o decades# we have

70

moved from s p e c i f i c g o a l - o r i e n t e d demands on e d u c a t i o n th r o u g h
c o m p e n s a to ry e d u c a t i o n t o t h e p r e s e n t s t a g e o f sw e e p in g p r o p o s a l s
f o r s t r u c t u r a l c h an ge , ( p . 1)
Most would p r o b a b l y a g r e e t h a t s u f f i c i e n t r e v e n u e s p r o v i d e t h e
p o t e n t i a l o f I m p l e m e n t i n g sound e d u c a t i o n a l prog rams .
re v e n u e In and o f I t s e l f doe s n o t g u a r a n t e e q u a l i t y .

S ufficient
However* most

would p r o b a b ly a g r e e t h a t I n s u f f i c i e n t r e v e n u e s m o s t c e r t a i n l y make t h e
p r o b a b i l i t y o f poo r e d u c a t i o n a l pro gramming h i g h l y H k e l y .

Probably#

m o s t would a g r e e t h a t sound economic I n v e s t m e n t does n o t a l w a y s r e s u l t
1n a l e s s e r amount b e i n g expended f o r a s e r v i c e o r commodity.

B u si ­

ness# I n d u s t r y # and e d u c a t i o n ha ve l i v e d th r o u g h p ro b le m s r e s u l t i n g
from l e s s - t h a n - s a f e I n i t i a l

I n v e s t m e n t s b e in g made.

"For example#

s c h o o l b o a r d s t h a t employ u n q u a l i f i e d o r I n c o m p e t e n t t e a c h e r s o r r e f u s e
t o keep b u i l d i n g s and e q u i p m e n t 1n good r e p a i r w i t h t h e e x c u s e o f
s a v i n g money# w i l l s o o n e r o r l a t e r r e c o g n i z e such a c t i o n s a s po or
b u s i n e s s and a v i o l a t i o n o f t r u e economy" (Burrup & Brlmley#
p. 50).

1982#

R e i n f o r c e m e n t f o r t h i s econ omi c p r e m i s e was p r o v i d e d by Houser

(1n Yarborough#

1968):

Boards o f E d u c a t i o n ha ve f a i l e d m i s e r a b l y . . . and t o o o f t e n t h e
o n ly c r i t e r i o n o f s u c c e s s was t h a t t h e y k e p t t h e t a x b i l l f o r
e d u c a t i o n low. In t h i s r e s p e c t # and t h i s go es f o r s t a t e l e g i s l a ­
t u r e s a s well# t h e r e ha s n e v e r been a g r e a t e r form o f economic
I d i o c y t h a n t h a t which ha s r e s u l t e d 1n ou r s a v i n g m i l l i o n s o f
d o l l a r s 1n e d u c a t i o n a l e x p e n d i t u r e s 1n t h e sc h o o ls * and t h e n s pe nd ­
i n g h u n d re d s o f m i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s t o mop up t h e f a i l u r e s o f t h e
s c h o o l s y s t e m , (p. 19)
Of a l l t h e a v a i l a b l e m e a s u r e s o f t h e n a t i o n ' s p r o d u c t i v i t y and
t h e s t a t e o f I t s economy# g r o s s n a t i o n a l p r o d u c t (GNP)» m o s t would
agree# 1s t h e m o s t me ani ngf ul# t h e b e s t un derstood* and t h e m o s t o f t e n
used.

I t r e p o r t s t h e m a r k e t v a l u e o f a l l f i n a l goods and s e r v i c e s

71

pr od uc ed w i t h i n a s p e c i f i e d p e r i o d — 1n p r a c t i c e *

a one-year period.

The GNP 1s o f t e n r e f e r r e d t o 1n d e t e r m i n i n g p o t e n t i a l e x p e n d i t u r e
l e v e l s f o r e d u ca tio n*

as well as f o r o th e r s e r v ic e s .

T a b l e 2.17

r e p r e s e n t s t o t a l e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r e d u c a t i o n r e l a t e d t o GNP from 1970-71
t o 198 2-8 3.

T a b l e 2 . 1 7 . — To ta l e x p e n d i t u r e s f o r e d u c a t i o n r e l a t e d t o GNP* 1970-71
t o 1982-83 (amounts 1n b i l l i o n s ) .
E x p e n d i t u r e s f o r E d u c a ti o n
GNP

School
Year

Total
Expenditures

As P e r c e n t a g e
o f GNP

982.4
1#063 .4
1#171.1
1 #306.6
1*412.9
1*528.8
1, 70 0 .1
1,887.2
2,163.9
2 *4 17.8
2*633.1
2*937.7
3*057.5

1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
1974-75
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1976-79
1979-80
1980-81
1981-82
19B2-83

$ 7 6 .7
84.5
89.0
98 .3
109.0
12 1.9
128.9
136.5
143.4
153.6
168.3
19 7.2
2 26.9

7.8
7.9
7.6
7.5
7.7
8.0
7.6
7.2
6.6
6.4
6.4
6.7
7.5

Calendar
Year
1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982

$

Source of d a t a f o r GNP:
and 1983.

£c.Qnomlc_Report o f t h e P r e s i d e n t . J a n u a r y 1979

What p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e GNP s h o u l d be I n v e s t e d 1n e d u c a t i o n ?
Varvue (1969) e s t i m a t e d t h a t 1 t would r e q u i r e a b o u t 8% t o a c h i e v e t h e
e d u c a t i o n a l g o a l s l i s t e d 1n 1960 by t h e P r e s i d e n t s Commission on
N a t i o n a l Goals.

According t o J o h n s (1975)# p r e d i c t i n g t r e n d s 1n 1968#

72

I t was p e r c e i v e d r e a s o n a b l e t o e x p e c t t h a t a t l e a s t 12% o f t h e GNP
would be a l l o c a t e d t o a l l e d u c a t i o n by 1980.

Obviously* from t h e

e x p e n d i t u r e s a s r e p o r t e d 1n T a b l e 2.17* e d u c a t i o n h a s f a i l e d by c l o s e t o
a 50% margin 1n o b t a i n i n g t h e l e v e l o f f u n d in g a s p r e d i c t e d by Jo h n s I
Most c i t i z e n s o f t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s p r o b a b ly r e c o g n i z e e d u c a t i o n
a s " b i g b u s i n e s s * " b u t t h e y o f t e n r e f u s e t o g i v e e d u c a t i o n a high enough
p r i o r i t y In r e c e i v i n g t h e r e s o u r c e s r e q u i r e d .

During t h e m i d - t o l a t e

1970s and I n t o t h e e a r l y 1980s* t a x p a y e r s 1n many a r e a s o f t h e n a t i o n
and 1n p a r t i c u l a r Michigan d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e i r d i s p l e a s u r e w it h t h e
p u b l i c s c h o o l s by r e p e a t e d l y v o t i n g a g a i n s t t a x I n c r e a s e s and bond
Issues.

In many c o r n e r s o f Michigan* t a x r e d u c t i o n became more Impor­

t a n t t h a n p r o v i d i n g f un ds f o r a good s c h o o l program.

The p u b l i c a t

l a r g e a p p e a r s t o be t o t a l l y c o n f u s e d by t h e dlc h ot o m o us phenomena o f
d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s and s u b s e q u e n t s cho ol c l o s i n g s accomp an ied by
c o n t i n u a l l y I n c r e a s i n g c o s t s 1n f u n d i n g e d u c a t i o n a l programs.

Table

2.18 was d e v e lo p e d from d a t a c o l l e c t e d and r e p o r t e d 1n t h e Annual
A n a l y s i s o f Michigan P u b l i c School Revenues and E x p e n d i t u r e s R e p o r t s
from 1972 t o 1982.

The t a b l e h i g h l i g h t s t h e q ua n d ar y found In f i n a n c ­

i n g e d u c a t i o n 1n Michigan t o d a y and c l e a r l y I l l u s t r a t e s how d e c l i n i n g
e n r o l l m e n t h a s happened 1n M ich ig an w h i l e b e in g acc om pa nie d by I n c r e a s ­
ing e x p e n d i t u r e s .
A s t u d y c on d u c te d f o r t h e S o u t h e a s t M ich ig an C ouncil o f
Governments In May 1979 ( B r i s t o l * 1979) I n v e s t i g a t e d s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t s
and f i n a n c i a l t r e n d s i n t h e s t a t e c o v e r i n g t h e p e r i o d from 1969 th ro u g h
1977.

T h i s s t u d y r e p r e s e n t s a r e g i o n a l p i c t u r e o f what t h e s t a t e a s a

Table 2 . 1 8 . — S t a t e o f Michigan f i n a n c i a l and s c h o o l - r e l a t e d d a t a , T97 2—1982a ( a l l d i s t r i c t s ) .

Pupil Membership as of:

9/29/72
9/28/73
9/27/7**
9/26/75.
9/30/77
9/29/78
9/28/79
9/26/80
10/2/81
Totals
*100,939

Source:

2,193,270
2,159,966
2,139,720
2,127,917
2,023,9****
1,965,685
1,910,385
1 ,859,93**
1,792,331

Decline in
Numbers
of Pup i 1s

» » •

(-33,30*0
(-20,2*»6)
(-11,803)
(103,973)
(-58,259)
( 55,300)
(-50,**50
(-67,603)
18.28?
Total ?
decline in
enrollment

Per Pupil
Revenues

Per Pupil
Expenditures

$1,020.70
1 ,25**-82
1 ,**00.59
1 ,**99.51
1,871 .**9
2,093.92
2,3**1.28
2,522.77
2,762.50

$1,172.33
1 ,320.18
1,500.02
1,620.82
1,933.82
2,172.97
2,1*50.37
2,666.09
2,821.26

270.65?

2**0.65?

Total ?
increase in
revenue

Total ?
increase in
expendi ture

Per Pupi I Dollar
Increase in
Expenditures From
Year to Year
•

• ■

+11*7.85
+179.8**
+120.80
+313-00
+239.15
+277.**0
+215.72
+155.17

Public School
Teaching
Posi tions
93,852
9**,221
83,580
92,677
90,312
88,652
87,1*87
8**,0l*l
78,1*1*7
l6.*tl?
Total ?
decrease in
teaching
positions

Michigan State Board of Education, 1972-73, 1973-7**, 1974-75, 1975-76, 1977-78, 1978-79,
1979-80, 1980-81, and 1981-82.

a1976—
77 information not availab le.
^Data r e fle c t a two-year period.

74

whole has e x p e r i e n c e d
and I n c r e a s i n g c o s t s .
types:

n t e r m s o f t h e phenomena o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t

1

School d i s t r i c t s w e re c a t e g o r i z e d I n t o f o u r

(1) m a j o r urban# (2) o t h e r urb a n and n e a r suburban# (3) o u t e r

s u b u r b a n , and (4) r u r a l .

Hie p u r p o s e of t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d f o r t h i s

s t u d y was t o p r e s e n t and I n t e r p r e t t h e I n f o r m a t i o n 1n an e f f o r t t o
e x p l a i n why s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g t h i s phenomenon.

Data

r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e t o t a l e n r o l l m e n t f o r t h e r e g i o n d e c l i n e d 11.356
bet wee n 1969 and 1977.

The t o t a l t e a c h i n g s t a f f d e c l i n e d d u r i n g t h e

p e r i o d a l s o , b u t a t a much s l o w e r r a t e o f 256.

This a f f e c t e d t h e p u p ll-

t e a c h e r r a t i o 1n t h e r e g i o n by r e d u c i n g 1 t fr om 26.4 t o 23.9.

Further

d a t a showed e l e m e n t a r y e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e d a t a much f a s t e r r a t e t h a n
secondary e n ro llm e n t.

E l e m e n t a r y e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e d by 1935, w h i l e

s e c o n d a ry e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e d by 4%.

T h i s was found t o be due t o t h e

" la g g e d e f f e c t " t h a t t h e d e c l i n i n g b i r t h r a t i o had on t h e r e g i o n .
S t u d e n t s born 1n p e r i o d s o f r i s i n g b i r t h r a t e s w e r e e n t e r i n g and
c o m p l e t i n g s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l d u r i n g t h e 1969-70 p e r i o d .
was n o t a c o m p a r a b l e I n f l u x o f s t u d e n t s

1

However, t h e r e

n e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s t o make

up f o r t h e l o s s t o s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s .
In c o n t r a s t t o d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t , p e r p u p i l e d u c a t i o n c o s t s
r o s e s i g n i f i c a n t l y between 1969 and 1976.

All t y p e s o f e x p e n d i t u r e s

I n v e s t i g a t e d In t h i s s t u d y r o s e be tw een 70% and 104%.

S e v e ra l f a c t o r s

w ere examined t o d e t e r m i n e why e d u c a t i o n c o s t s c o n t i n u e d t o r i s e .
o f t h e mo st o b v io u s was I n f l a t i o n .
t h i s p e r i o d b e in g o n l y

6 6

. 6 %,

1

One

But w i t h t h e I n f l a t i o n r a t e f o r

t was a p p a r e n t I n f l a t i o n d i d n o t a c c o u n t

f o r t h e e n t i r e I n c r e a s e 1n e x p e n d i t u r e s .

Average t e a c h e r s ' s a l a r i e s

75

I n c r e a s e d a t a r a t e o f o n l y 50% t o 70%, b a r e l y k e e p in g pa ce w i t h
Inflation,

t h e r e f o r e n o t a c c o u n t i n g f o r much o f t h e I n c r e a s e

1

n costs.

The m o s t I m p o r t a n t c o s t s a p p e a re d t o be t h o s e c o n n e c t e d w i t h p u p i l teacher ratios.

S i n c e t h e c o s t s o f e d u c a t i o n a r e r e p o r t e d on a p e r

p u p i l b a s i s , a s e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e s , s t a b l e o r I n c r e a s i n g c o s t s hav e t o
be s p r e a d o v e r a s m a l l e r number o f s t u d e n t s .

T his h a s t h e e f f e c t o f

r a i s i n g t h e p e r p u p i l c o s t s ( B r i s t o l , 1979).
T a b l e 2.19, develo pe d from d a t a r e p o r t e d In t h i s s t u d y , shows a
g l a r i n g l y dlc hot om ous p i c t u r e I l l u s t r a t i n g t h e phenomenon being
explained

1

n th is section.

T a b l e 2 . 1 9 . — Changes 1n t o t a l e n r o l l m e n t and I n s t r u c t i o n a l e x p e n d i t u r e s
by d i s t r i c t t y p e , 1969 t o 1976.
E n r o l l m e n t Change

Change 1n E x p e n d i t u r e s

D i s t r i c t Type
Numerical
Change

Percent
Change

Major urban

-60,268

-20.9

$ +476.09

+81.6

O t h e r urban &
n e a r sub urb an

-80,438

-21.7

+472.91

+75.3

Suburban

- 3,053

-

.8

+500.22

+83.1

Rural

+19,783

+26.7

+376.24

+81.3

So u r c e :

Numerical P e r c e n t
Change
Change

B r i s t o l , 1979, pp. 19 and 3 5.

The s t a r t l i n g c o m p a r i s o n s a r e even more u n b e l i e v a b l e when
co u p le d w i t h t h e s e f u r t h e r d a t a c o m p il e d r e g a r d i n g o p e r a t i n g e x p e n s e s .

76

which showed I n c r e a s e s o f 98.735, 94.6%, 103.4%, and 95% f o r each o f t h e
d i s t r i c t types, resp ec tiv e ly .
p l a y e d an I m p o r t a n t r o l e

1

M ai n t e n a n c e and o p e r a t i o n o f t h e s c h o o l s

n a d d in g t o t h e prob lem o f I n c r e a s i n g c o s t s .

I n f l a t i o n p l a y e d a m a j o r r o l e 1n r i s i n g u t i l i t y c o s t s .
caused o p e r a tin g expenses t o r i s e .

1

n turn,

Upkeep o f o l d e r b u i l d i n g s proved t o

be more c o s t l y t h a n m a i n t e n a n c e o f new b u i l d i n g s .
be m a i n t a i n e d ,

This,

r e g a r d le s s o f changes

1

B u i l d i n g s must s t i l l

n stu d en t enrollment.

In t r y i n g t o a r g u e t h e p o i n t t h a t e d u c a t o r s need t o become
s t u d e n t s o f eco no mi cs, t h e p o i n t t h a t f i n a n c i n g e d u c a t i o n a t l e s s t h a n
an a d e q u a t e l e v e l I s po or economy makes s e n s e .
I n v e s t m e n t 1n b u i l d i n g s and f a c i l i t i e s ,

With su ch a l a r g e

n e i t h e r t h e n a t i o n n o r Michigan

can a f f o r d t o p r o v i d e t o o l i t t l e r e v e n u e t o p r o t e c t t h a t I n v e s t m e n t ,
However, a n o t h e r I m p o r t a n t p o i n t a s f a r as s ch oo l f i n a n c e 1s c o n c e r n e d
1

s t h a t t h e e d u c a t i o n a l community— b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n , a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,

teachers,

and o t h e r s t a f f members— needs t o n o t e t h a t t h e t a x - p a y i n g

community need s and

1

s demanding more c o m p r e h e n s i v e and o b j e c t i v e ways

t o m e a s u r e o u t p u t o f e d u c a t i o n compared w i t h In p u t.

" W i th o u t such

a c c o u n t a b i l i t y , I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h e t h e o r i e s and p r i n c i p l e s o f econo ­
m is ts t h a t a r e g e n e ra lly followed

1

n f i n a n c i n g e d u c a t i o n may be coun­

t e r b a l a n c e d by t h e a c t i o n s o f s k e p t i c a l t a x p a y e r s " (Burrup & B r l m l e y ,
1 9 8 2 , p. 5 1 ) .
Summary
The re vie w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e was d i r e c t e d t o w a r d e x a m i n i n g t h e
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h a t a d v e r s e l y
a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r sch ool d i s t r i c t

77

t h a t may have f u r t h e r r e s u l t e d
level.

1

n turnover a t t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e

I n c l u d e d In t h e r e v i e w w ere s t u d i e s t h a t documented d a t a p e r ­

ta in in g t o th e Id e n tif ie d causal f a c to rs r e l a t i n g t o th e su p e rln te n dency f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y .
1

Seven c a u s a l f a c t o r s w e r e I d e n t i f i e d

n t h i s s t u d y as problem a r e a s a f f e c t i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e n e s s

and t u r n o v e r :
Board-SuperIntendent R elations
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems
The l i t e r a t u r e c l e a r l y gave e v i d e n c e t h a t w h a t 1s hap pe ni n g t o
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s to d a y

1

s t h a t th e Im possible

1

s b e in g e x p e c t e d o f them.

R ol e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t hav e o u t ­
s t r i p p e d t h e c a p a c i t y o f m o s t I n d i v i d u a l s t o f i l l them.

Demands o f t h e

j o b o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y a r e becoming l e s s m a n a g e r i a l and more p o l i t ­
i c a l 1n nature*

T r a d i t i o n 1n t e r m s o f t h e r o l e o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y I s

d e c l i n i n g 1n I m p o r ta n c e .
ing.

O ve ral l# I n d i v i d u a l l e a d e r s h i p 1s d i m i n i s h ­

Many o b s e r v e r s would a g r e e t h a t s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e u n d e r

s i e g e by m m t a n t l y c o m p e t i n g g ro u p s i m p i n g i n g on s cho ol d i s t r i c t s .
Due t o t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n n a t u r e o f c u r r e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s # t h e y a r e
view ed as o u t s i d e r s and a r e h a v in g a d i f f i c u l t t i m e e s t a b l i s h i n g l o y a l
c o a litio n s w ithin t h e i r d i s t r i c t s .

The l i t e r a t u r e was r e p l e t e 1n

78

doc um en ti ng t h e p r a c t i c a l l y humanly I m p o s s i b l e demands on c o n t e m p o r a r y
superintendents.

Seven problem a r e a s w e r e I d e n t i f i e d a s a f f e c t i n g

superIntendency e f f e c t iv e n e s s

1

n t h e performance of t h e d u tie s

1

n th is

ad m in istrativ e post.

Board-Superlntendent R elations
In a 1982 s t u d y c o n d u c t e d by AASA# b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t
r e l a t i o n s ra n k e d a s t h e s i x t h m a j o r c once rn .

T h i s problem a r e a was n o t

ranked a t a l l 1n a s i m i l a r s t u d y c o n d u c te d t e n y e a r s e a r l i e r .

L itera­

t u r e was d t e d t h a t c o n c l u d e d t h a t t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e s c h o o l bo a rd
t h e predominant f a c t o r

1

1

s

n determ ining t h e success of th e superintendent.

O ve ra ll * t h e r o l e of t h e s c h o o l boa rd 1s b e in g see n a s one t h a t 1s
I n c r e a s i n g l y p o l i t i c a l and becoming more I n v o l v e d
m atters.

1

n adm inistrative

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s then* 1 t was argued* m u s t become s c h o l a r s of

th e asp ects of p o li ti c a l

I n f l u e n c e and man euverin g.

As a r e s u l t o f

t h i s s h i f t t o w a r d more i n f l u e n c e * t h u s g r e a t e r power f o r s c h o o l b o a r d s ,
a d e f i n i t e s h i f t seems Im m in en t f o r t h e r o l e o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a s
w ell.
Board-Member. E l e c t i o n s
A h y p o t h e s i s found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t was t h a t I n v o l u n t a r y
d e p a r t u r e s a r e acc om pa nie d by more e l e c t o r a l h e a t th a n a r e v o l u n t a r y
one s.

Further r e s u l t s d t e d e sta b lis h e d t h a t Involuntary d ep artu res

w e r e much more common ( s i g n i f i c a n t l y ) when s c h o o l boa rd In c u m b e n ts had
been o u s t e d

1

n previous e l e c t i o n s .

79
Commun1cat1ons/Publ 1 c R e l a t i o n s
S u p e r i n t e n d i n g was found t o be c om m u n ic a ti n g .
w e r e found t o co m m un ic at e w i t h a m u l t i t u d e o f e l e m e n t s
s y s t e m s and e n v i r o n m e n t s ,

Superintendents
1

n t h e i r school

both I n t e r n a l l y and e x t e r n a l l y .

As a r e s u l t *

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s m a i n t a i n a c om pl e x n e t w o r k o f r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h I n d i ­
v i d u a l s and grou ps .

Communication a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l was

fo und t o be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b r e v i t y * v a r i e t y * and f r a g m e n t a t i o n .

It

was found t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s hav e n o t been t r a i n e d t o f i n d o r t o
c u l t i v a t e t h e c om m u n ic a ti o n l i n e s and power s t r u c t u r e s
n ities.

1

n l o c a l commu­

Today's p u b l i c e x p e c t s l e s s o f t h e i r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s as

a u t h o r i t a t i v e * e x p e r t p r o f e s s i o n a l m e n t o r s b u t e x p e c t s more o f them a s
skilled political

negotiators.

P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
In u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e I n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f I n t e r e s t groups* s u b ­
s e q u e n t p u b l i c p r e s s u r e , and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l I n t e n s i t y * s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
t o d a y need t o be e q u ip p e d w i t h t h e o r e t i c a l knowledge and have de ve lo pe d
a model base d on t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f how l i v i n g o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n s e x i s t and I n t e r a c t .

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w i l l need t o become more

a c c e s s i b l e * more v i s i b l e * and more a n x i o u s t o h e a r t h e i r community
v oi c es * b u t 1n doin g s o t a k e more r i s k s .

Power s t r u c t u r e s 1n a s cho ol

community can make o r b r e a k a pro po se d e d u c a t i o n a l p r o j e c t .

Superin­

t e n d e n t s no l o n g e r have a c h o i c e ; t h e y m u s t become p o l i t i c a l e n t i t l e s .
I f t h e y have no power b a s e a v a i l a b l e on t h e i r b o a r d s o f e d u c a ti o n * t h e y
need t o c u l t i v a t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f I n f l u e n t i a l g ro u p s w i t h i n t h e

80

commun1ty-at-large.

The p o i n t 1s» one has t o ' C o n s c i o u s l y c hoo se" t o

c o n d u c t b u s i n e s s 1n t h i s manner.
S ta ff C onflicts
Of t e n r e s p o n s e I s s u e s d e a l i n g w i t h f u t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
p l a n s , t h e nu m be r-o ne I s s u e d t e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h a t would d r i v e
them o u t o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n s was I s s u e s such a s n e g o t l a t 1 ons, s t r i k e s ,
and t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y .

A h y p o t h e s i s was t e s t e d and found a s i g n i f i c a n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p bet wee n s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ' management s t y l e s and f r e q u e n c y
of formal g rievances.

I t Is c r i t i c a l th a t superintendents In te rn a liz e

t h e I n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e and c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n

1

n

t e r m s o f I n t e g r a t i n g I n d i v i d u a l ne e d s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l o b j e c t i v e s .
The message t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1s t h a t c o n f l i c t i s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e
p o s itiv e evaluation of th e educational o rganization.

In stitutionalized

p r o c e d u r e s e n c o u r a g e c o n f l i c t w i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e p a r a m e t e r s and p r e s e n t
e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s w i t h l e v e r a g e f o r Improvement o f t h e e du ca ­
t i o n a l organization.
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
In 1971 and a g a i n 1n 1982, s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ranked f i n a n c i n g
s c h o o l s a s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t c h a l l e n g e o r I s s u e t h e y f a c e d .
fact,

In

1n 1982 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d t e d I n a d e q u a t e f i n a n c i n g a s t h e s i n g l e

f a c t o r h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t I n f l u e n c e on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

Recogni­

t i o n and u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n and
t h e f i e l d of e co nomi cs c o n t i n u e s t o be c r u c i a l a s s p l r a l l n g e x p e n d i ­
t u r e s f o r education continue

1

n t h e f a c e o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s and

81

s ch ool c l o s i n g s .

M ich ig an h a s s u f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e d ro p s 1n

s c h o o l e n r o l l m e n t s w h i l e w i t n e s s i n g 80S t o 9035 i n c r e a s e s 1n e x p e n d i ­
t u r e s o v e r a t e n - y e a r p e r i o d from 1972 t o 1982.

The e n t i r e e d u c a t i o n a l

c o m m u nl ty -s c hool boards# a d m i n i s t r a t i o n # t e a c h e r s # and o t h e r s t a f f
members m u s t be a b l e t o show c o m p r e h e n s i v e and o b j e c t i v e e v a l u a t i v e
measures t o th e ta x -p a y in g p u b lic t o j u s t i f y Input.
Management Problems
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s view t h e j o b a s one r e q u i r i n g t h e same s k i l l s
a s t h o s e e x e c u t i v e ma nag e rs employ an yw he re
complex o r g a n i z a t i o n .
managerial m a tte rs .

1

n t e r m s o f l e a d i n g any

Today’s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e g i v i n g more t i m e t o
Hypo the ses s t u d i e s t e s t e d and found s i g n i f i c a n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e tw ee n t h e p a t t e r n s o f team management i n school
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e d e g r e e and q u a l i t y of i n v o l v e m e n t
t h e decision-m aking process.

1

n

I n t e r m s o f who c o n t r o l s t h e sch oo ls #

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s would do w e l l t o s t u d y t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s I n h e r e n t
1

n I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l g ro u p s w i t h i n t h e i r d i s t r i c t s s e e k i n g I n v o l v e ­

me nt

1

n dec1s1on-mak1ng p r o c e s s e s .

As F o s t e r £1984) proposed#

A c r i t i c a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n must evidence a g r e a t concern f o r t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een e x t e r n a l and I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e s # v i e w i n g
s c h o o l i n g as a m e d i a t o r b e tw ee n t h e s e and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n a s a f o r c e
which can s e r v e a n e g a t i v e f u n c t i o n In e x p o s i n g c o n t r a d i c t i o n s and
d i s t o r t i o n s and a p o s i t i v e f u n c t i o n 1 n a t t e m p t i n g t o d e v e l o p an
" o b je c tiv e ly " r a tio n a l b a s is fo r schooling.
The e x t e r n a l
s t r u c t u r e m u s t be c o n s i d e r e d g i v e n t h e q u e s t i o n "do we w is h t o
c o n s t r u c t a more J u s t s o c i e t y ? " Hie I n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e m u s t be
c o n s i d e r e d g i v e n t h e q u e s t i o n " a r e a l l c h i l d r e n g i v e n eq ual
e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t y 1n t h e s c h o o l s ? " This# 1 n t u r n # means
a ba ndoning an I n s t r u m e n t a l l y r a t i o n a l ap pr oa ch t o a d m i n i s t r a t i o n —
how 1 s c o n t r o l m o s t e f f e c t i v e l y e s t a b l I s h e d ? — 1 n f a v o r o f a more
s u b s t a n t i v e r a t i o n a l i t y — what and why do we a d m i n i s t e r ? (p . 167)

CHAPTER I I I

PRESENTATION OF THE DESIGN PROCEDURES

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s c h a p t e r 1s t o d e s c r i b e t h e r e s e a r c h data#
t h e I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n # and t h e p r o c e d u r e s us ed t o c o n d u c t t h i s s t u d y .
The p o p u l a t i o n and s a m p l e s used 1n t h i s s t u d y a r e a l s o I d e n t i f i e d .
I n c l u d e d 1s a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e I n s t r u m e n t used# s t a t e m e n t s o f t h e
r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s t o be answered# and t h e s t a t i s t i c a l methods used f o r
analyzing th e data p e rtin e n t t o t h i s study.
R es e ar ch Design
R es e ar ch d a t a g a t h e r e d f o r t h i s s t u d y were d e r i v e d from a tw o ­
pronged approach.

Both t h e s t a t i s t i c a l and t h e d e s c r i p t i v e r e p o r t i n g

o f d a t a b e in g documented a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s s t u d y w e re founded In
e m p i r i c a l e v id e n c e .

The s t u d y was one 1n which s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s and

t h e i r d e g r e e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e n e s s and
t u r n o v e r 1n M ichig an were I n v e s t i g a t e d I n v o l v i n g t h e p e r i o d 1972
t h r o u g h 1984.

The f a c t o r s w ere:

Board-Super1ntendent R elatio n s
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts

82

83

F in ancial

D ifficu lties

Management Problems
F u r t h e r demogra phic d a t a w e re d e l i n e a t e d and compared a s t o t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p with t h e s e l e c te d fa c to rs .

Population
The p o p u l a t i o n used 1n t h i s s t u d y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f g e n e r a t i n g
s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly s e s Included th e t o t a l p o p u la tio n o f a ll s u p e r in te n d ­
e n t s s u r v e y e d 1n Michigan.
th e superintendency

1

Names and a d d r e s s e s o f p e r s o n s s e r v i n g In

n 521 s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s

t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e w e re s e c u r e d .

A s u r v e y was developed* f i n a l i z e d *

and m a i l e d f i r s t - c l a s s w i t h a p re a d d r e s s e d * f i r s t - c l a s s s ta m p e d r e t u r n
e n v e lo p e t o each o f t h e 521 Michigan s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

Of t h e

521 s u r v e y s ma ile d* 366 (70X) w er e r e t u r n e d and used 1n d e v e l o p i n g t h e
statistical

a n a l y s e s r e p o r t e d 1n C h a p t e r IV.

D e sc rip tiv e data re p o rte d a s fin d in g s of e m p iric a l evidence
w er e d e r i v e d from tw o d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s .

Here t h e p o p u l a t i o n i n c l u d e d

n a r r a t i v e r e s p o n s e s o f Michigan s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t o t a l i n g 111 o f
t h e 521 surveyed* amou nti ng t o a 21% s a m p l e o f t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n
us ed

1

n th e survey m ailing.
The second s o u r c e of d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a I n c l u d e d In t h i s s t u d y

was u n r e l a t e d t o t h e r e p o r t i n g s from t h e s u r v e y .

A s a m p l e o f 63

c o n f i d e n t i a l f i l e s o f t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s
(MASA) was documented from o v e r 125 a c t i v e f i l e s .

These f i l e s r e p r e ­

s e n t open c a s e s o f member s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f MASA o u t l i n i n g p ro b le m s
experienced throughout th e s t a t e .

84

Statem ent o f Purpose
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p ro b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n M ich ig an b e tw ee n 1972 and
1984 t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t i v e l y d i r e c t t h e
b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r s cho ol d i s t r i c t s t h a t r e s u l t

1

n tu rn o v er (voluntary

or Involuntary) a t t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e le v e l.
Instrum entation
To d e v e l o p s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s a s w e l l a s t o r e c e i v e f e e d b ac k
f o r d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a from s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s In t h e f i e l d d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d 1972 t h r o u g h 1984* a s u r v e y I n s t r u m e n t was d e v e l o p e d and
applied.

The I t e m s 1n t h e I n s t r u m e n t w e r e c o n s t r u c t e d from t h e con­

c e p t s found

1

n th e published l i t e r a tu r e *

1

n c o n su lta tio n with c o l­

l e a g u e s * and from c o n v e r s a t i o n s w i t h r e c o g n i z e d a u t h o r i t i e s

1

n the

field.
The I n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i n s 22 I t e m s c o n s t r u c t e d t o c o m p i l e
de mo gra ph ic d a t a a s w e l l a s d a t a f o r c o n d u c t i n g s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s f o r
purposes o f stu d y in g t h e p e rc e p tio n s o f s u p e rin te n d e n ts as t o t h e
prob lem a r e a s h a v i n g t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on t h e i r
e f f e c t i v e n e s s and any s u b s e q u e n t t u r n o v e r a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .
I t e m 22 r e p o r t s o u t d i r e c t comments fr om s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n t h e f i e l d
d e lin e a tin g f a c t o r s In flu en cin g e f f e c t iv e n e s s an d /o r subsequent reasons
a f f e c t i n g t u r n o v e r t h a t t h e y v ie w e d a s b e in g m o s t h e l p f u l t o p r e s e n t
c o lle a g u e s as w ell as f u t u r e s u p e r in te n d e n ts e n te r in g t h e f i e l d .

A

85

to ta l of

111

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s p r o v i d e d t h e s e n a r r a t i v e comments r e p o r t e d

1n t h e f i n d i n g s o f C h a p t e r IV.
Seven v a r i a b l e s (problem a r e a s ) I d e n t i f i e d and used 1n t h i s
s t u d y w e re f i n a l i z e d a f t e r p r e l i m i n a r y r e a d i n g s and d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h
superintendents

1

n th e fie ld as:

Board-Superlntendent R elations
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e d a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems
Assumptions and D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study
T h i s s t u d y was l i m i t e d t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f M ichig an p u b l i c
s ch oo l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1972 t h r o u g h 1984 as r e p o r t e d
by t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s (MASA) a s w e ll as
d a t a g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h s u r v e y i n g a l l 521 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan.
The v a l i d i t y o f t h i s s t u d y was a f f e c t e d by:
1.

The n a t u r e and v a l i d i t y o f t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s o f t h e data*

which w ere (a) t h e c o n f i d e n t i a l r e c o r d s / f i l e s o f t h e MASA and
(b) f i n d i n g s c o m p il e d as a r e s u l t o f s u r v e y i n g a l l 521 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
1n Michigan 1n 1984.
2,

S e l e c t e d p r o b l e m a t i c ( J o b - r e l a t e d ) f a c t o r s common t o a l l

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h a t were s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d and compared.

86

3.

S e l e c t e d de mo gr a ph ic f a c t o r s common t o a l l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

t h a t were s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d and compared.
4.

The s t u d y assumed s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s po nd ed t o d a t a

c o l l e c t i o n by t h e MASA a s w e l l a s t h e s u r v e y de ve lo pe d and a p p l i e d f o r
p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y w i t h (a) a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n s

1

n terms of

I d e n t i f y i n g prob lem a r e a s ( j o b - r e l a t e d ) h a v i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e
I n f l u e n c e on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s

1

n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e d u t i e s In

t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n and (b) a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n s

1

n term s of

c a u s e -a n d - e f fe c t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w ith regard t o t h e voluntary o r
Involuntary causal f a c t o r s leading t o subsequent tu rn o v er a t t h i s
adm inistrative lev el.
.Hypotheses Analyzed In t h e Study
H y p o t h e s i s 1 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 n b o a r d superlntendent r e la tio n s .
H y p o t h e s i s 2 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r b o a r d member e l e c t i o n s .
H y p oth e s1 s _3i The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s I s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro ble m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 n communica­
tio n s /p u b lic relations.
H y p o t h e s i s 4 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h p u b l i c
p r e s s u r e t h r o u g h s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t gro ups.
H y p o t h e s i s 5 t The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 n s t a f f con­
flicts.
H y p o t h e s l s _ 6 ; The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 n f i n a n c i a l
d1 f f l c u l t l e s .

87
-Hypothesis 7 ; The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c sch ool s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 n management
p ro bl e m s .
Demographic Data Re se ar ch Q u e s t i o n
I s t h e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n ­
te n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e o f Michi gan p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s * newly
e l e c t e d board members* c om m u n ic a t 1 o n s / p u b l 1 c r e l a t i o n s * p u b l i c p r e s s u r e
a p p l i e d by s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t groups* s t a f f c o n f l i c t s * f i n a n c i a l d i f f i ­
c u l t i e s * o r management pr o b le m s ?

S t a t is t ic a l Procedures
S e v e r a l s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s w ere c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e t e s t i n g
of th e data.
study.

Two s t a t i s t i c a l

t e s t s w e r e c hose n f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s

One p r o c e d u r e c ho se n was t h e c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t .

In t e s t i n g th e

data* t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s o f n o n r e l a t l o n s h l p was presumed* and t h e
sev e n h y p o t h e s e s were t e s t e d .
X2 =

The fo r m u la f o r t h e c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t was
Z [ ( o - e)2 /e ]

where:
X2 = c h i - s q u a r e
o

= observed frequency (tu rn o v er)

e

= e x p e c t e d t u r n o v e r (computed)
A second p r o c e d u r e cho sen was t h e m u l t i p l e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e

(MANOVA) t e s t u s i n g a two-way MANOVA w i t h one r e p e a t e d me asure.

Two-

way MANOVA 1s d e f i n e d f o r p u r p o s e s o f t h i s s t u d y a s one b e tw e e n f a c t o r *

88

which 1s group (G)» and one w i t h i n f a c t o r ( w i t h i n s u b j e c t ) *

In o t h e r

words a r e p e a t e d m e a s u re w i t h se v e n v a r i a b l e (pr oblem) l e v e l s .

The

goal was t o f i n d o u t t h e main e f f e c t o f t h e be tw e e n f a c t o r (group) and
t h e main e f f e c t o f t h e w i t h i n f a c t o r (pr oblem) and t h e I n t e r a c t i o n
betw een group (G) by prob lem e f f e c t .

A graphic I l l u s t r a t i o n of th e

MANOVA t e s t 1s shown 1n F i g u r e 3 . 1 .

REPEATED MEASURE

PROBLEM

PROBLEM

1

2

PROBLEM
3

✓

nl

.

1

PROBLEM
4

PROBLEM
5

PROBLEM
6

PROBLEM
7

V

t h i n Groi P

r

= Betwe en o r Acr o s s Group 5

f

*7

* 2

*3

*4

*5

*6

*7

0 = G0 “ No t u r n o v e r
1 = G-| = One t u r n o v e r
2 = Q2 = Two t u r n o v e r s
5 ^ . . . X7 = C e l l means c a l c u l a t e d from t h e v a l u e d e s l g n a 1
t l o n s o f 1 th r o u g h 5 r e p r e s e n t i n g :
5 = Most s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t
4 = S ig n ific a n t adverse e f f e c t
3 - Undecided
2 = Least adverse e f f e c t
1 *= No a d v e r s e e f f e c t
Figure 3 .1 :

G r a p h ic I l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e MANOVA t e s t : r e p e a t e d meas ure .

89

D e s c r i p t i v e Data
Two s o u r c e s p r o v i d e d t h e f i n d i n g s o f e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e f o r t h e
d e s c r ip ti v e data reported

1

n t h i s study.

The t w o s o u r c e s we re:

(1) n a r r a t i v e r e s p o n s e s o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t o t a l ­
i n g 111 o f t h e 521 p e r s o n s s u r v e y e d a n s w e r i n g t h e f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t :
" I f you ha ve t h e time* any f u r t h e r d e l i n e a t i o n o f f a c t o r s (p r o b le m s )
I m p a c t i n g y o u r p o s i t i o n a s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w i l l be m o s t h e l p f u l

1

n

r e p o r t i n g r e l e v a n t d a t a r e g a r d i n g t h i s a r e a o f c o n c e r n t o p r e s e n t and
fu tu re superintendents";

and (2) 63 s a m p l i n g s o f t h e c o n f i d e n t i a l f i l e s

o f t h e MASA.
Data from _the MASA
The MASA 1 s an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s e r v i c e o r g a n i z a t i o n p r o m o t i n g
( 1 ) c o n t i n u o u s Im pr ov em e nts o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n *

( 2 ) r e s e a r c h on p u b l i c

s c h o o l s and p r o f e s s i o n a l problems* (3) p r o t e c t i o n and ad va nc e m en t of
t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l I n t e r e s t s o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n * and
(4) p r o f e s s i o n a l s p i r i t and g r o w t h o f I t s members (MASA* n.d.).

For

p u r p o s e s o f t h i s study* d a t a g a t h e r i n g d e a l t p r i m a r i l y w i t h I t e m 3:
p r o t e c t i o n and ad va nce me nt o f t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l I n t e r e s t s o f a d m i n i s t r a ­
t o r s of pu b lic education.
The s t a f f o f MASA p r o v i d e s c o n s u l t a t i o n and a c c e s s t o l e g a l
c o u n s e li n g * where deemed n e c e s s a r y * f o r I t s members on b o a r d a d m l n l s t r a t i v e - s t a f f r e la tio n s Issues.

F i l e s used 1n do cu me nt ing t h e

d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a from MASA w er e de v e lo p e d a s a r e s u l t o f an I n i t i a l
c o n t a c t made by t h e member s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s f o r p u r p o s e s o f r e c e i v i n g

90
assistance

1

n t h e a r e a o f b o a r d - a d m l n l s t r a t l v e - s t a f f r e l a t i o n s , an a r e a

In which d i f f i c u l t y was b e in g e x p e r i e n c e d .
In o r d e r f o r a f i l e t o have been de v e lo p e d , t h e member s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t d e s i r o u s o f a s s i s t a n c e r e l a t i v e t o a prob le m m a t t e r c o n t a c t s
t h e E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r o f t h e MASA.

The E x e c u t i v e D i r e c t o r t h e n a s c e r ­

t a i n s t h e n a t u r e o f t h e prob le m and d e c i d e s t h e n e c e s s a r y a c t i o n t o
t a k e o r recommend.

Legal a d v i c e may be s o u g h t t o t h e e x t e n t deemed

n e c e s s a r y t o a n a l y z e t h e prob le m.
The 63 f i l e s documented In t h e d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h 1n t h i s
s t u d y w e r e cho sen fr om t h e c o n f i d e n t i a l f i l e s o f MASA.

Determination

t o use t h e d a t a c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n a p a r t i c u l a r f i l e and t h e s u b s e q u e n t
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a v i g n e t t e was ba se d s o l e l y on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of
adequate inform ation

1

n o r d e r t o r e l a t e one o f t h e se v e n v a r i a b l e s

(pro ble m a r e a s ) t o t h e e x p e r i e n c e b e i n g r e p o r t e d 1n t h e f i l e .
v ig n e tte s reported,

In t h e

f o l l o w - u p I n f o r m a t i o n may n o t have been a v a i l a b l e

due t o a v a r i e t y o f c i r c u m s t a n c e s :
1.

The s i t u a t i o n may hav e been r e s o l v e d I n t e r n a l l y .

2.

A c a s e may n o t ha ve gone t o c o u r t f o r a v a r i e t y o f r e a s o n s .

3.

A compromise was s t r u c k between t h e p a r t i e s .

4.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n 1n a n o t h e r

d istrict.

The d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d from t h i s s o u r c e In t h e form
o f v i g n e t t e s was f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f I d e n t i f y i n g t h o s e v a r i a b l e s (p r o b ­
lem a r e a s ) h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e f o r p r a c t i c i n g
superintendents.

S i x t y - t h r e e c a s e s were d e t e r m i n e d by t h i s r e s e a r c h e r

t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

1

n te rm s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a frequency of occurrence

91

o f t h e se v e n v a r i a b l e s (problem a r e a s ) by v i r t u e o f t h e d a t a c o n t a i n e d
w1t h 1n t h e f i l e .

A f t e r r e v i e w i n g an I n d i v i d u a l c a s e , a d e t e r m i n a t i o n

based on d e f i n i t i o n was made a s t o t h e v a r i a b l e (pr oblem a r e a ) I d e n t i ­
f i e d a s well as t h e major t h r u s t o r focus of a v a i l a b l e In f o rm a tio n
contained w ith in th e f i l e .

The v i g n e t t e was t h e n l a b e l e d a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e f o l l o w i n g code:
B/S-R

= Board-SuperIntendent R elations

BE

= Board-Member E l e c t i o n s

C/PR

= Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s

P P / S p I = P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
SC

= S ta ff C onflicts

FD

= Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s

MR

= Management Problems

For r e a s o n s o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y , names, names o f school d i s ­
tricts,

l o c a t i o n s , s p e c i f i c d a t e s ( y e a r s ) , and so on, w e r e e l i m i n a t e d .

A ll 63 c a s e s r e f l e c t a t e n - y e a r t i m e f r a m e from 1972 th r o u g h 1982.
Data f o r t h i s s t u d y a r e r e f l e c t e d 1n t a b l e s and f i g u r e s t h a t
a p p e a r 1n C h a p t e r IV.

Data r e l a t e d t o t h e s e v e n v a r i a b l e s (problem

a r e a s ) and t u r n o v e r d a t a a r e s e t f o r t h

1

n t h e s e t a b l e s and f i g u r e s .

C o m p u ta ti o n s r e l a t e d t o f a c t o r and l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e accompany each
t a b l e 1n t h e t e x t .

The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e was s e t a t a l p h a = 0 . 0 5 .
Summary

The p u r p o s e s o f t h i s d e s i g n w ere t o (1) d e t e r m i n e t h e s i g n i f i ­
c a n c e o f i d e n t i f i e d problem a r e a s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n t h e Michigan p u b l i c
school superintendency as they In flu e n c e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f performance

92

a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l and ( 2 ) d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t and s i g n i f i ­
c a n c e o f t h e s e prob lem a r e a s on v o l u n t a r y a n d / o r I n v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r
1

n t h i s position.
Data a r e r e p o r t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y and d e s c r i p t i v e l y 1n C h a p t e r

IV.

S t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s w e r e c o n d u c te d th r o u g h t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e

c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t and t h e two-way MANOVA t e s t .

Data f o r t h e s e t e s t s w ere

c o m p i l e d a s a r e s u l t o f a s t a t e w i d e s u r v e y o f 521 Michigan p u b l i c
s ch ool s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w i t h 366 I n d i v i d u a l s r e s p o n d i n g f o r a 7035 r e t u r n
rata

D e s c r i p t i v e d a t a r e p o r t e d w e re a c q u i r e d t h r o u g h two av enues.

The t w e n t y - s e c o n d I t e m on t h e s u r v e y asked s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t o p r o v i d e
a d d i t i o n a l comments a s t o t h o s e f a c t o r s (pro blem a r e a s ) c a u s i n g them
concern a t t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e le v e l .
e n t s res p on de d t o t h i s Item .

One hundre d e l e v e n s u p e r i n t e n d ­

The second s o u r c e o f d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a was

p r o v i d e d by I n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e c o n f i d e n t i a l f i l e s o f t h e
MASA.
1

S i x t y - t h r e e v i g n e t t e s w ere d e v el op e d t o document problem a r e a s

n which member s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s o u g h t a s s i s t a n c e from t h e i r p r o f e s ­

sional o rg a n iz a tio n s .
C h a p t e r IV c o n t a i n s a p r e s e n t a t i o n and a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a .

CHAPTER IV

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF DATA
Introduction
Thi s c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e s t a t i s t i c a l methods
used* t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n and a n a l y s e s o f t h e d a t a r e s u l t s * and a summary
of th e c h a p te r.
P u r p o se o f t h e Study
The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
pro bl e m s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n M ich ig an between 1972 and
1984 t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t i v e l y d i r e c t t h e
b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r school d i s t r i c t s t h a t r e s u l t In t u r n o v e r ( v o l u n t a r y
o r Involuntary) a t t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e le v e l.
S t a t 1s t 1cal_Methods_Used
S e v e r a l s t a t i s t i c a l p r o c e d u r e s w ere c o n s i d e r e d f o r t h e t e s t i n g
of data.

One method c h o s e n was t h e c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t .

In t e s t i n g t h e

data* t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s e s o f n o n r e l a t i o n s h i p w er e presumed* and seve n
h y p o t h e s e s were t e s t e d .
A second s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t was a l s o used t o a n a l y z e d a t a .

A

m u l t i p l e a n a l y s i s of v a r i a n c e (MANOVA) was a p p l i e d u s i n g a two-way
MANOVA w i t h one r e p e a t e d me asure.

One f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t e d group (G)*

and a n o t h e r w i t h i n ( w i t h i n s u b j e c t ) f a c t o r r e p r e s e n t e d t h e seve n

93

94

problem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) I d e n t i f i e d
measure.

1

n t h i s study as a repeated

The d e s i r e d r e s u l t was f i n d i n g o u t t h e main e f f e c t o f t h e

betw een f a c t o r (G) and t h e main e f f e c t of t h e w i t h i n f a c t o r (p ro ble m s)
and t h e I n t e r a c t i o n betw een group by problem e f f e c t .

Significance

l e v e l w as a l p h a = 0 . 0 5 .
Anal.v.sj.SLOf-Data
The r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s a r e p r e s e n t e d 1n two main t h r u s t s —
statistical
sources:

r e s e a r c h and d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h r e p o r t e d from two

r e s p o n s e s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s u r v e y e d and v i g n e t t e s de v e lo p e d

from t h e a c t i v e f i l e s o f t h e M ich ig an A s s o c i a t i o n of School A d m i n i s t r a ­
t o r s (MASA).
P r e s e n t a t i o n and A n a l y s i s o f R e s u l t s In
Terms o f t h e Hypotheses
I t seems a p p r o p r i a t e h e r e t o r e - e x a m i n e t h e h y p o t h e s e s s t a t e d
1n C h a p t e r I.
1

The f i n d i n g s r e l a t i v e t o t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s a r e p r e s e n t e d

n t h i s chapter.
H y p o t h e s i s 1: The t u r n o v e r o f Michi gan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 n b o a r d s u p e r Intendent re la tio n s .
H y p o t h e s i s 2 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r b o a r d member e l e c t i o n s .
Hy p o t h e s l s _ 3 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c sch ool s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s In d e p e n d e n t of t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1 n communica­
tio n s /p u b lic relations.
H v p o t h e s J s _ 4 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c sch ool s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s I s In d e p e n d e n t of t h e pro bl e m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h p u b l i c
p r e s s u r e t h ro u g h s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t groups.

95
H y p o t h e s i s 5 ; The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s i s In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pr o b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d In s t a f f c o n fllets.
Hy p o t h e s i s 6 ; The t u r n o v e r of Michi gan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s I s In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pr o b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d I n f i n a n c i a l
d ifficu lties.
H y p o t h e s i s 7 : The t u r n o v e r of Michi gan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d In management
pr o bl e m s .
Demographic Data R e s e a r c h . Q u e s t i o n
I s t h e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n ­
t e n d en c y e x p e r i e n c e o f Michigan p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s * newly
e l e c t e d boa rd members# c o m m u n tc a t 1 o n s / p u b l 1 c r e l a t i o n s * p u b l i c p r e s s u r e
a p p l i e d by s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t groups* s t a f f c o n f l i c t s * f i n a n c i a l d i f f i ­
c u l t i e s * o r management p ro b le m s ?
Study Sample
The s a m p l e used 1n t h i s s t u d y was t h e

f u ll population

f i l e s a s r e p o r t e d by t h e MASA from 1972 t h r o u g h 1982* as

ofa c tiv e

well as t h e

f u l l p o p u l a t i o n o f 521 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan s u r v e y e d 1n 1984.
T h e _ F i n d in g s
Demographic Data— D i s t r i c t
T hr oug hout Michigan# 15% o f t h e s cho ol d i s t r i c t s r e p o r t i n g had
a s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t o f 3*000 o r l e s s s t u d e n t s .

The r e m a i n i n g 2535 of

t h e school d i s t r i c t s r e p o r t e d s t u d e n t e n r o l l m e n t s o f 3*001 t o 40*000
and above, w i t h t h e b ul k o f t h e r e m a i n i n g
3*001 t o 10*000 s t u d e n t s ( s e e T a b le 4 . 1 ) .

25%r a n g i n g 1n

s i z e from

96

T able 4 . 1 . — S iz e o f d i s t r i c t .

S tudent Enrollment
0 1 ,0 0 0
1,001- 3,000
3 ,0 0 1 - 4,000
4,001- 5,000
5 , 0 0 1 - 6 ,0 00
6 ,0 0 1 - 1 0 ,0 0 0
1 0 ,0 0 1 - 1 5 , 0 0 0
1 5 ,0 0 1 - 2 5 , 0 0 0
25,001-40,000

Total

Absolute
Fr eq .
99
176
28
2 0

9
21

7
4

Relative
F r e q . (%)
27.0
48.1
7.7
5.5
2.5
5.7
1.9

1.1

2

.5

366

1 0 0 .0

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (%)
27.0
48.1
7.7
5.5
2 .5
5.7
1 .9
1 .1

.5
1 0 0 .0

S i x t y - f o u r p e r c e n t of t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e
s u rv e y r e p o r t e d t h e i r d i s t r i c t s a s b e i n g c l a s s i f i e d a s r u r a l s ch oo l
d istricts.
u rb a n, and

T w enty-eight p e rc e n t design ated t h e i r d i s t r i c t s as sub­
6

% r e p o r t e d b e i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f urb a n school

d istricts

( s e e Tabl e 4 .2 ).

T a b l e 4 . 2 . — C l a s s i f i c a t i o n of d i s t r i c t .

C a t e g o ry
Urban
Suburban
R ural
Not a p p l i c a b l e
Total

Absolute
Freq.

Relative
F r e q . (X)

23
104
236
3

6.3
28.4
64.5

366

1 0 0 .0

.8

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (%)
6.3
28 .7
65.0
missing
1 0 0 .0

97

The t o t a l o p e r a t i n g b u d g e t s r e p o r t e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s u r v e y a p p e a r e d t o be

1

n agreement w ith th e d e sig ­

nations of th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of t h e i r d is tr ic ts #

a s r e p o r t e d In T a b l e

4.3.

T a b l e 4 . 3 . — To ta l o p e r a t i n g b u d g e t.

O p e r a t i n g Bud get
$ 1 - 5 m illion
5-1 0 m i l l i o n
1 0 -2 0
m illion
2 1 -5 0 m i l l i o n
51 m l l H o n - N
Out o f range

Absolute
Fr eq .
213
78
40

6 . 0

6

1 .6

2

.5
1.4

5

Adjusted
F r e q . (%)

58.2
21.3
10 .9

2 2

366

Total

Relative
F r e q . (%)

1 0 0 .0

59 .3
21.7

11.1
6 .1

1.7
missing
m1 s s 1 ng
1 0 0 .0

With 64% o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e p o r t i n g t h e i r d i s t r i c t s a s
r u r a l # t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g o p e r a t i n g b u d g e t s o f one m i l l i o n t o f i v e
m i l l i o n b e in g r e p o r t e d by 58% a p p e a r s t o be a sound c o r r e l a t i o n .
Likewise# f o r t h e 28% r e p o r t i n g s e r v i n g 1n s u b u rb a n d i s t r i c t s # t h e
o p e r a t i n g b u d g e ts o f f i v e m i l l i o n t o t e n m i l l i o n I n d i c a t e a s i m i l a r
correspondence.
C lo s e t o 90% o f t h e d i s t r i c t s 1n M ich ig an r e p o r t e d a s t a t e
e q u a l i z e d v a l u a t i o n (SEV) from $35#00Q t o $149#000# w i t h t h e 90% b e in g
q u i t e e v e n l y d i s t r i b u t e d among t h e r a n g e s o f $3S#000-50»000# $50#00175#000» and $75#001-149#000 ( s e e T a b le 4.4).

I t a p p e a r s t h e r e 1s

98

s i g n i f i c a n t overlap

1

n term s of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of d i s t r i c t (rural*

suburban* u rb a n ) and SEV p e r p u p i l .

T a b l e 4 . 4 . — SEV p e r p u p i l ( i n t h o u s a n d s ) .

SEV P e r Pu p il
$ 35*000 and below
35,0 0 0 -5 0 * 0 0 0
50,001-75,000
75,001 -14 9*000
149*001-N
Out o f r a n g e
Total

Absol u t e
Fr eq .
34
109
106
90

Relative
Fr e q . (%)

21

9 .3
29.8
29.0
24.6
5.7

6

1 .6

366

1 0 0 .0

Adjusted
F r e q . (%>
9.4
30.3
29 .4
25.0
5.8
missing
1 0 0 .0

Per pupil e x p e n d itu re s data re p o rte d h e re a re merely t o a c q u ire
a g e n e r a l r a n g e o f fu nd in g .
term s of re p o rtin g th e data.

T h i s 1s an a r e a w i t h g r e a t d i v e r s i t y 1n
D i s t r i c t s v a r y g r e a t l y 1n t h e v a r i a b l e s

used* and t o a r r i v e a t a p e r p u p i l e x p e n d i t u r e f i g u r e * some d i s t r i c t s
w i l l I n c l u d e t e a c h e r s a l a r i e s w h i l e o t h e r s do not.

Some d i s t r i c t s

I n c l u d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and o p e r a t i n g expenses* w h i l e o t h e r s may I n c l u d e
one o r none o f t h e s e b u d g e t I te m s .

However* w i t h 65£ o f t h e d i s t r i c t s

r e p o r t i n g p e r p u p i l e x p e n d i t u r e s In t h e r a n g e o f $2*001-3*000* t h e r e
m u s t be a l a r g e p o r t i o n o f Michi gan p u b l i c s ch oo l d i s t r i c t s t h a t use
s i m i l a r c r i t e r i a 1n c a l c u l a t i n g t h i s f i g u r e ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 5 ) .

99

T able 4 . 5 . — Per pupil

Expenditure
$

500-1#000
1,001-1,500
1,501-2,000
2,001-3, 0 0 0
3 ,0 01 -N
Out o f r a n g e

exp en d itures.

Absolute
Freq.
3
9
70
238
42
4
366

Total

Relative
F r e q . (%)

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (%)

.8

2.5
19.1
65.0
11.5
1 .1

1 0 0 .0

.8

2.5
19.3
65.7
1 1 .6

missing
1 0 0 .0

Demographic Da ta— S u p e r l n t e n d e n t s
At t h e t i m e t h e s u r v e y o f Michigan p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t s was c o n d u c te d 1n May 1984, 41.5% of t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e p o r t e d
b e i n g 51 y e a r s o f age o r olde r# c l e a r l y t h e l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e age
r a n g e of Michigan p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s which c o r r e s p o n d s t o
t h e n a t i o n a l p e r c e n t a g e o f 51 y e a r s o f age and above b e in g r e p o r t e d by
AASA 1n 1982 w i t h 45% o f t h e n a t i o n ' s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s b e in g 1n t h i s
ra n g e ( s e e T a b l e 4 . 6 ) .
C lo s e t o o n e - t h 1 r d o f M ich ig an p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
were

1

n th e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s of t h e i r p re s e n t s u p e r in te n d e n c e s # with

a n o t h e r 20% ha vin g s e r v e d betw een f o u r and s i x y e a r s .

Combining t h e s e

two r a n g e s o f l e n g t h o f s e r v i c e # I t a p p e a r s s i g n i f i c a n t t u r n o v e r has
t a k e n p l a c e 1n t h e Michi gan s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y 1n t h e l a s t s i x year s# w i t h
50% o f p r e s e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s h a v i n g been 1n t h e i r p r e s e n t s c h o o l d i s ­
t r i c t s f o r s i x y e a r s o r l e s s ( s e e T a b le 4.7).

100

T a b l e 4 . 6 . — Age o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

Age
30-35
3 6-4 0
41-45
46-50
51-N

Absol u t e
Freq.

1

3.3
11 .7
18.6
24.0
4 1.5
.5
.3

366

1 0 0 .0

12

43
6 8
88

152
2

Out o f r a ng e
Total

R elative
F r e q . (%)

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (%)
3.3
1 1 .8

18.7
24.2
41.9
m issing
missing
1 0 0 .0

T a b le 4 . 7 . — Length o f s e r v i c e 1n p r e s e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y .

Years
0- 3
4- 6
7 -1 0
11-15
16-N
Out o f r a n g e
T ot al

Absolute
Freq .
108
75
59
42
76
6

366

R e l a t l ve
Fr e q . (%)

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (*)

29 .5
20.5
16.1
11.5

30.0
2 0 . 8

16.4
11.7

2 0 .6
1 .6

1 0 0 .0

2 1 .1

missing
1 0 0 .0

F i f t y - s e v e n p e r c e n t o f Michi gan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e 1984 s u r v e y used 1n t h i s s t u d y w e r e h a v i n g t h e i r
f i r s t e x p e r i e n c e 1n a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p o s i t i o n ( s e e T a b l e 4.8).
c l o s e t o 41% r e p o r t i n g a s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e t h e i r

Of t h e

101

p r e s e n t s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y p o s i t i o n * o n l y 1935 had s e r v e d In more t h a n two
superintendences*

a s r e p o r t e d 1n T a b l e 4.9.

Table 4 . 8 . — Previous superintendency experience.
Experience P r i o r t o
P r e s e n t Superintendency

Absol u t e
Fr eq .

Yes
No
Out o f ra n g e

149
7

40.7
57.4
1 .9

366

1 0 0 .0

2 1 0

To ta l

Rel at1 ve
F r e q . (X)

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (35)
41.5
58.5
missing
1 0 0 .0

T a b l e 4 . 9 . — More t h a n two s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e s .
Absol u t e
Fr eq .

More Than Two?

71
266
29

Yes
No
Out o f r a n g e

366

To ta l

Rel at1 ve
F r e q . (SB)
19.4
7 2 .7
7.9
1 0 0 .0

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (%)

2 1 .1

78.9
m is s i n g
1 0 0 .0

The m a j o r f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y was t o f i n d a c o r r e l a t i o n betw een
t h e pr oble m s e x p e r i e n c e d

1

n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y and any t u r n o v e r ( v o l ­

untary or Involuntary) a t t h i s a d m in is tr a tiv e le v e l.

T a b l e s 4.10

t h r o u g h 4.12 r e f l e c t t h e r e s p o n s e s p r o v id e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a n s w e r ­
in g t h e s e c t i o n o f t h e 1984 s u r v e y t h a t aske d them t o i d e n t i f y w h e th e r

102

t h e i r t u r n o v e r had been v o l u n t a r y o r I n v o l u n t a r y .

They w e r e f u r t h e r

a s k e d t o p r o v i d e an e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s t u r n o v e r .

Table 4 . 1 0 . — F i r s t tu rn o v e r.

F 1 r s t T urn ove r

Absol u t e
Fr eq .
151
9
118

V o lu n ta ry
Involuntary
Not a p p l i c a b l e
Out o f r a n g e

68

366

Total

Relative
Fr eq . (56)
41 .3
2.5
32.2
24.0
1 0 0 .0

Adjusted
F r e q . (%)
54.3
3.2
42 .4
missing
1 0 0 .0

T a b l e 4 . 1 1 . ' — Second t u r n o v e r .

Second T ur nov er
Vol u n t a r y
Involuntary
Not a p p l i c a b l e
Out of r a n g e
T ot al

Absol u t e
Fr eq .

Relative
Fr eq. (X)

Adj u s t e d
F r e q . (.%)

70
3
158
135

19.1
43.2
36.9

30 . 3
1.3
6 8 .4
missing

366

1 0 0 .0

.8

1 0 0 .0

103

T a b le 4 . 1 2 . — T h ird t u r n o v e r .

T h i r d Tu r n o v er

Absol u t e
Fr eq .

Voluntary
Involuntary
Not appl 1cabl e
Out o f ra n g e

24
2
156
184

6 .6
.5
42.6
50.3

366

1 0 0 .0

T o t al

R elative
Fr eq . (%)

Adjusted
F r e q . (%)
13.2
1.1
85 .7
missing
100.0

Of t h e 366 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e survey* 151
r e p o r t e d t h e r e a s o n f o r t h e i r f i r s t t u r n o v e r was v o l u n t a r y * w h i l e n i n e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s t a t e d t h e i r t u r n o v e r was I n v o l u n t a r y .

A c o m p a r is o n

between T a b l e s 4.9 and 4.11 shows 71 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s t a t e d t h e y had
s e r v e d 1n more t h a n t w o s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e s .

The r e a s o n p r o v i d e d f o r a

second t u r n o v e r r e p o r t e d by 70 of t h e 71 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s t a t e d t h e
r e a s o n s w ere v o l u n t a r y .

T a b l e 4.12 r e p o r t s p e r s o n s h a v i n g s e r v e d 1n a

f o u r t h s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t o t a l i n g 26, o f whom 24 re sp onded t h e i r t u r n o v e r
was v o l u n t a r y ,

w h i l e tw o r e p o r t e d t h e t r t u r n o v e r was I n v o l u n t a r y .

A

c o n c l u s i o n can be drawn t h a t a c c o r d i n g t o p e r c e p t i o n s a s t o t h e c a t e ­
gory o f t u r n o v e r b e i n g r e p o r t e d , v o l u n t a r y o r I n v o l u n t a r y , s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y v ie w e d t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r moving from one s c h o o l
d i s t r i c t t o a n o t h e r as v o l u n t a r y , a s I n d i c a t e d 1n T a b l e 4.13.

104

T a b le 4 . 1 3 . — V o lu n ta ry v e r s u s I n v o lu n ta r y t u r n o v e r .

Tu r n o v e r

Voluntary

F1 r s t
Second
Th1 rd

151 (94%)
70 (99%)
24 (92%)

Involuntary
’

9 (6%)
1 (1%)
2 (8%)

On an average# 95% o f Michi gan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
re p o rte d t h e i r reason f o r o v e ra ll turnover#
t o be v o l u n t a r y In n a tu r e s

r e g a r d l e s s o f e x p e r ie n c e #

E i g h t y o f t h e 366 r e s p o n d i n g s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t s who s u p p l i e d a d e s i g n a t i o n a s t o t h e c a t e g o ry # v o l u n t a r y o r I n v o l ­
untary# o f t u r n o v e r a l s o p r o v i d e d an e x p l a n a t i o n ( r e a s o n ) f o r t h e i r
turnover.

S i x t y - s e v e n o f t h e 80 v o l u n t a r y r e a s o n s c e n t e r e d on " p r o f e s ­

s i o n a l advancement#" such a s ;
"Move t o a b i g g e r d i s t r i c t . "
"Move t o a more c h a l l e n g i n g p o s i t i o n . "
"More s a l a r y and b e t t e r b e n e f i t s . "
" P r o f e s s i o n a l Imp rovement."
"B etter p o sitio n ."
S i x o t h e r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r e s p o n s e s p r o v i d e d a s back-up f o r
voluntary reasons fo r t h e i r turnover Indicated t h e i r perceptions of the
te rm " v o l u n t a r y " :
" D is a g re e m e n t w i t h Board on d i r e c t i o n o f s cho ol d i s t r i c t . "
"Personal re a s o n s ."
"Lack o f t r u s t # b a s i c p h i l o s o p h i c a l d i f f e r e n c e between m y s e l f
and a m a j o r i t y o f boa rd members."

105

"C onsolidation."
"Went t o an a s s i s t a n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y 1n l a r g e r d i s t r i c t . "
" I was I n t e r i m s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and a permanent s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
was h i r e d . "
Seven s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s re s p o n d i n g t h e i r t u r n o v e r s w e re I n v o l u n t a r y
p r o v id e d t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n s :
"My c o n t r a c t h a s n o t been renewed. Community p r e s s u r e from a
l u n a t i c f r i n g e group r e a c t i n g t o a r e d u c t i o n 1n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
s e r v i c e ha s b r o u g h t f o r t h 100X t u r n o v e r In t h e Board w i t h i n 2 1/ 2 y e a r s . Now some o f t h e l u n a t i c s a r e on t h e Board. T e rm i­
n ating t h e s u p e rin te n d e n t's c o n tra c t Is t h e i r I n s t a n t response
to co rrect all Ills."
"Change 1n Board—5 o f 7 members."
"C onsolidation of d i s t r i c t . "
"Board wanted t o run t h e d i s t r i c t . "
" Pr ob le m s w i t h Board o f E d u c a ti o n .
Board members."

W i t h i n f o u r y e a r s — s i x new

"Non-renewal o f c o n t r a c t by s p l i t Board d e c i s i o n . "
"The l e a v e o f a b s e n c e a l l o w e d me t o r e t u r n t o a n o t h e r j o b
g i v i n g a g r e a t deal o f s e c u r i t y . "
S t a t i s t i c a l Analyses
As s t a t e d In t h e p r e c e d i n g d e s e r t p t l v e - d a t a s e c t i o n , t h e m a j o r
f o c u s o f t h i s s t u d y was t o f i n d a c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t h e pr o b le m s
e x p e r i e n c e d 1n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y and t h e t u r n o v e r , v o l u n t a r y or
voluntary, a t t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e le v el.

Seven v a r i a b l e s w e re I d e n t i ­

f i e d t h a t c a t e g o r i z e d p ro b le m s a f f e c t i n g a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1n t h e p e r ­
fo r m a n c e o f t h e d u t i e s o f t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e o f f i c e .
v a r i a b l e s (pr oblem a r e a s ) a r e :

The se ve n

106

Board-SuperIntendent R elations
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Ccmmun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e d a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w e re ask e d t o ra nk from 5 t o 1 t h e s e s e v e n v a r i a b l e s
t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t i v e l y p e rf o rm t h e d u t i e s
o f t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e post.

The r a n k i n g s c a r r i e d t h e f o l l o w i n g

values:
5
4
3
2
1

=
=
=
=
=

Most s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t
S ig n ific a n t adverse e f f e c t
Undecided
Least adverse e f f e c t
No s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t

Using a c h 1 - s q u a r e c o m p a r is o n b e tw een t u r n o v e r d a t a and s u p e r ­
in te n d e n t rankings of t h e seven v a ria b le s * t h e l e v e l s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e
a r e shown In T a b l e 4.14.

The c h 1 - s q u a r e c o m p a r i s o n s showed a s i g n i f i ­

c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n (X2 = .0482) b e tw ee n t u r n o v e r and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
p e r c e p t i o n s o f a d v e r s e e f f e c t s 1n B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s .
F u r th e r *

a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n (X2 = .0152) was found b et w een

t u r n o v e r and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f a d v e r s e e f f e c t s 1n B oar dMember E l e c t i o n s .

A ve ry s t r o n g r e l a t i o n s h i p was a l s o I n d i c a t e d In

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f a d v e r s e e f f e c t s 1n Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c
Relations*

I n d i c a t e d by a X2 - .0668.

By f a r t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t

a d v e r s e e f f e c t found between t u r n o v e r and one of t h e s e v e n I d e n t i f i e d

107

v a r i a b l e s was t h e match bet wee n t u r n o v e r and Board-Member E l e c t i o n s a t
= .0152.

(R e f e r t o Appendix B f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g s t a t i s t i c a l

c o m p u t a t i o n s used 1n t h e de vel opm ent o f T a b le 4 . 1 4 . )

T a b l e 4 . 1 4 . — D eg ree s o f s i g n i f i c a n c e : s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t u r n o v e r and
perceptions of v ariab les.
Perceptions
Variable

F i r s t Tu r n o v er
T-Test

Board-Superlntendent R elatio n s
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
C om m un lc at lo ns /P ubl1 c R e l a t l o n s
Public P re s s u re /S p e d a l
I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems
N ote:

Second Tu r n o v er
T-Test

.0482
.2283
.7863

.5305
.0152
.0668

.7244
.2772
.5342
.1332

.0853
.5800
.9069
.1008

Alpha = 0 , 0 5 .
Hyp.othes.es_EJ.ndi nqs

HvpothesJsLJ-

The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was
In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro ble m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t
R elations.
.0482.

A c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 w i t h a v a l u e o f

T h e re fo re * t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d .

T h e re was a

s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r
1n Michigan and B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
experiencing t h e i r f i r s t turnover.

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s h e l d f o r

108

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a s ec on d tu r n o v e r » w i t h a l p h a > .05 w i t h a
t - t e s t v a l u e o f .5 30 5.

H v .D 0 th e s.lS L 2

The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was
In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r Board-Member E l e c t i o n s .
A c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 w i t h a v a l u e o f .0152.
f o r e , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d .

T he re ­

T he re was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y

s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r and B oar dMember e l e c t i o n s f o r Michigan s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r second
turnover.

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s h e l d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g

t h e i r f i r s t turnover,

w i t h a l p h a > .05 w i t h a t - t e s t v a l u e o f .2283.

Hypothesis 3
The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was
I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pr oble m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R el a­
tions.

A c h i - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a > .05 f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t and a s ec on d t u r n o v e r .

Therefore, th e null

h y p o t h e s i s h e l d w i t h t - t e s t v a l u e s o f .7863 and .0688 f o r f i r s t and
s ec ond s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r s , r e s p e c t i v e l y .

However, t h e a l p h a =

.0688 d i d I n d i c a t e a s t r o n g t r e n d t o w a r d s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r and
p ro b l e m s 1n Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s , a t l e a s t f o r s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a second t u r n o v e r .

Hypothesis_4
The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c sch oo l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was
In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h P u b l i c P r e s s u r e a p p l i e d

109

t h r o u g h S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups.

A c h i- s q u a r e t e s t rendered alpha

> .05 f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t and a second t u r n o v e r
w i t h t - t e s t v a l u e s o f .7244 and .0853# r e s p e c t i v e l y .
null h y p o th esis held.

Th e re fo re # t h e

The a l p h a = .0853 may I n d i c a t e an I n c l i n a t i o n t o

t h i s problem a r e a a s a f f e c t i n g t u r n o v e r .
Hypothesis 5
The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was
I n d e p e n d e n t o f p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d In S t a f f C o n f l i c t s .

A ch1-square

t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a > .05 f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t and
a s ec ond t u r n o v e r #

w i t h t - t e s t v a l u e s o f .2772 and .5800# r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Therefore# t h e n u ll h ypothesis held.

Hvpothes1s_-6
The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was
I n d e p e n d e n t o f p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d In F i n a n c i a l D i f f i c u l t i e s .

A chi-

s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a > .05 f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a
f i r s t and a s ec ond t u r n o v e r #
respectively.

w i t h t - t e s t v a l u e s o f .5342 and .9069#

Therefore# t h e n u ll h y p o th e sis held.

Although no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s t a b ­
l i s h e d bet wee n t u r n o v e r and p r o b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h F i n a n c i a l D i f f i ­
c u l t i e s # s u p e r in te n d e n ts overwhelmingly s e l e c t e d t h i s v a r i a b l e as
ha v in g t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o f u l f i l l
th e d u tie s of t h e i r office#

r e g a r d l e s s o f e x p e r i e n t i a l background# a s

I n d i c a t e d 1n t h e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s shown 1n T a b l e 4.15.

Of t h e

Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s survey# 49.2%

110

p e r c e i v e d f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s as ha v in g t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e
e f f e c t on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e t r d u t i e s 1n t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
position.

Table 4 .1 5 .— S up e rin ten d e n ts' p e rc ep tio n s of f in a n c ia l d i f f i c u l t i e s .

Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
No s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t
Least adverse e f f e c t
Undeclded
S ig n ific a n t adverse e ff e c t
Most s l g n l f . a d v e r s e e f f e c t
Out o f r a ng e
Total

A b s o l u te
Fr eq .

Rel a t l v e
F r e q . (35)

42
10
8
21
37
248

11.5
2.7
2 .2
5.7
10.1
67.8

366

1 00.0

A dju s te d
F r e q . {%)
35.6
8 .5
6 .8
17.8
31.4
m i s s l ng
100.0

Hypothesis 7
The t u r n o v e r o f M ich ig an p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was
I n d e p e n d e n t o f p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h Management Pro ble m s.

A chi-

s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a > .05 f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a
f i r s t and a s ec on d t u r n o v e r *
respectively.

w i t h t - t e s t v a l u e s o f .1332 and .1008#

T he re fo re # t h i s n u l l h y p o t h e s i s h e ld .

No s i g n i f i c a n t

r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d between t u r n o v e r and management pr oble m s .
Demo.qcapMc_Data_Besearch Q u e st l on
I s t h e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n ­
te n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e o f Michigan p u b l i c s ch ool s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s o f b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s * newly

I ll

e l e c t e d board members# c o m m u n i c a t i o n s / p u b ! 1c r e l a t i o n s # p u b l i c p r e s s u r e
a p p l i e d by s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t groups# s t a f f c o n f l i c t s # f i n a n c i a l d i f f i ­
c u l t i e s # o r management p r o b le m s ?
A two-way MANOVA t e s t was a p p l i e d t o t h r e e g r o u p s :
Group 0 P p r e s e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
Group 1 = Second s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e
Group 2 = Th ree o r more s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e s
t o f i n d o u t t h e main e f f e c t o f t h e be tw een f a c t o r # group (G)# and t h e
main e f f e c t o f t h e w i t h i n f a c t o r s # prob lem (P)# and t h e I n t e r a c t i o n
be tw e e n group (G) by problem (P) e f f e c t .

T a b l e 4,16 r e p o r t s t h e means

o f t h e t h r e e g ro u p s a s t h e y r e l a t e t o each g r o u p ' s p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e
s e v e n v a r i a b l e s (pro blem a r e a s ) .

T a b l e 4 . 1 6 . — C e l l means o f Groups 0# 1# and 2 o f p e r c e p t i o n s o f s e v e n
variables.

V ariable
B oard-Superlntendent R elations
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
Publ1c P re s su re /S p e c ia l I n t e r e s t
Groups
S taff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems

Group 0
Mean

Group 1
Mean

Group 2
Mean

1.926
1.700
2.146

2 .2 8 7
1.969
2.136

2 .0 85
2 .0 2 1
2.085

2.6 61
2.711
3.785
2.152

2.909
2.818
4.151
2.318

2 .6 1 7
2.659
3.851
2 .0 0 0

112

F i g u r e 4.1 p r o v i d e s a more v i s u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how each
group p e r c e i v e d t h e se ve n v a r i a b l e s .

( R e fe r t o Appendix B f o r

corresponding s t a t i s t i c a l com putations.)

4.5

3.5

2.5

2

1

4

3

5

7

6

V a r i a b l e s (Seven Problem Areas)
Group 1 — - -----

Group 0
Test of Significance:

S ou r ce of V a r i a t i o n
Sum_o_f_Squares

Within c e l l s
Constant
Group

Figure 4 .1 :

Group 2

849.41
1237.54
15 .75

Mean
2.9
12637.5
7.8

S1gn1f. o f F

.071

Group 0* 1, and 2 means o f p e r c e i v e d v a r i a b l e s .

113

As sh o wn 1n F1 g u r e 4 . 1 , F = .071 was g r e a t e r t h a n a l p h a - . 0 5 ;
t h e r e f o r e * no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found between
Groups 0# 1* and 2 a s t o t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e v e n prob le m a r e a s
( v a r i a b l e s ) and how t h e y a f f e c t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e d u t i e s a t
t h e i r a d m in istrativ e level.

An F = .071 I n d i c a t e d a s t r o n g d i r e c t i o n a l

ap pr oa ch t o a s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l o f .05* and a c o n c l u s i o n o r a r g u m e n t
ca n be made t h a t each group may have p e r c e i v e d t h e s e v e n problem a r e a s
(variables) d iffe re n tly .

Thus* t h e q u e s t i o n a b o u t a r e l a t i o n s h i p

e x i s t i n g b e tw ee n p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e and p e r c e p t i o n s o f
t h e seve n prob lem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) was a n s w e re d w i t h no s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e in g found.

However* an F = .071 s i g n i f i ­

c an c e d i d I n d i c a t e a c l o s e t o s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l o f r e l a t i o n s h i p t h a t
each group may have p e r c e i v e d t h e s e v e n problem a r e a s d i f f e r e n t l y .
Th e re fo re * p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e may have a f f e c t e d p e r ­
c e p t i o n s t o a d e g r e e (though n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ) o f t h e s e v e n v a r i a b l e s
i d e n t i f i e d 1n t h i s s t u d y which a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p e r ­
form t h e d u t i e s o f t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n .

Further conclusions

can be drawn from F i g u r e 4.1 r e g a r d i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e a s
1t

r e l a t e s t o t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e v e n problem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) :
1.

E xc e pt f o r V a r i a b l e 2 (Board-Member E l e c t i o n s ) * Group 1

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a l w a y s r e s po nd ed h i g h e r 1n t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t o f t h e
d e g r e e o f e f f e c t on t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n g a s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and d e a l i n g
w i t h t h e se ve n problem a r e a s .

T his may have been due t o v a r y i n g

r e a s o n s , such as (1) t h e y w e re 1n t h e i r second s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y and may
have been l e s s l i k e l y t o have made t h e move from t h e i r f i r s t

114

s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y f o r r e a s o n s o t h e r t h a n adv anc em ent ; (2) t h e s o - c a l l e d
"honeymoon” p e r i o d was o v e r 1n t h e secon d s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y # and more may
be e x p e c t e d o f a p e r s o n In t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h a n In a f i r s t s u p e r l n t e n d ency e x p e r i e n c e .

T h e r e f o r e , a l l p r o b l e m s seem s i g n i f i c a n t 1n t e r m s o f

a p r e v i o u s "honeymoon" e x p e r i e n c e .
2.

Group 2 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s #

p e r s o n s h a v in g t h r e e o r more

e x p e r i e n c e s a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l # t e n d e d t o view t h e seve n
problem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) In a more c o n s t a n t p a t t e r n .

A c a lm p e r s p e c ­

t i v e a p p e a r e d e v i d e n t a f t e r y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e In d e a l i n g w i t h p ro b ­
lems a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .

V a r i a b l e s 1# 2# and 3 (B oa rd-

S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s # Board-Member E l e c t i o n s # and C o m m un ic at io n s/
P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s ) a p p e a r e d t o have no d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n on
th e p a r t of th e s e experienced su p e rin te n d e n ts.
3.

Problem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) 4# 5# and 6 ( P u b l i c P r e s s u r e

a p p l i e d t h r o u g h S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups# S t a f f C o n f l i c t s # and F i n a n c i a l
D ifficulties) a ll

received higher perceptual values as to th e s i g n i f i ­

c a n c e o f e f f e c t on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o do t h e i r j o b s e f f e c t i v e l y by s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t s r e g a r d l e s s o f e x p e r i e n t i a l background.

Two o f t h e t h r e e

v a r i a b l e s w ere p r o b a b l y v ie w ed 1n t h i s manner a s a r e s u l t o f t h e
political
4.

a r e n a 1n which t h e y s u r v i v e d .
V a r i a b l e 6# F i n a n c i a l D i f f i c u l t i e s #

received th e g r e a t e s t

s i g n i f i c a n c e v a l u e d e s i g n a t i o n I n t e r m s o f a d v e r s e e f f e c t on s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1 a b i l i t y t o perform t h e d u t i e s of t h e i r o f f i c e .

T h i s was

u n d e r s t a n d a b l e 1n l i g h t o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e and d a t a r e p o r t e d 1n C h a p t e r
II# which d e s c r i b e d t h e M ich ig an p u b l i c s c h o o l s ' f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s o v e r

115

a te n -y e a r period.

The r e p o r t s h i g h l i g h t e d t h e d lc h o to m o u s economi c

phenomena o f d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s and s u b s e q u e n t school c l o s i n g s
accom pa nied by I n c r e a s i n g o p e r a t i o n a l c o s t s e x p e r i e n c e d by a l l s u p e r i n ­
tendents re g a rd le ss of e x p erien tial

background.

A f i n a l a n a l y s i s was made betw een Group 1 (seco nd s u p e r l n t e n d ency— f i r s t t u r n o v e r ) and Group 2 ( t h r e e o r more s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e s — two
o r more t u r n o v e r s ) and t h o s e r e p o r t i n g v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r ( I n v o l u n t a r y
d a t a w e re n o t used due t o so few s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e p o r t i n g I n v o l u n t a r y
r e a s o n i n g be hi nd t h e i r t u r n o v e r ) .

The means f o r Groups 1 and 2 a r e

r e p o r t e d a s t h e y r e l a t e d v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r t o t h e se ve n problem a r e a s
( v a r i a b l e s ) In T a b l e 4.17.

( R e f e r t o Appendix B f o r c o r r e s p o n d i n g

s t a t l s t l c a l com putatlons.)

T a b l e 4 . 1 7 . — V o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r and p e r c e p t i o n s o f v a r i a b l e s between
Groups 1 and 2.

V ariable

Board-Superlntendent R elatio n s
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S ta ff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems

Group 1
Mean
(N=58)

Group 2
Mean
(N=39)

2 .0 8 6
1.655
1.810
2.2 41
1 .8 62
2. 94 0
1.706

1.923
1.897
1.794
2 .0 0 0
2 .0 0 0
2.769
1.615

116

F i g u r e 4.2 p r o v i d e s a v i s u a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f how t h e s e two
g ro ups p e r c e i v e d t h e sev e n v a r i a b l e s (pr oblem a r e a s ) and t h e r e l a t i o n ­
ship t o voluntary turnover.

4
3

2

JL
“2

. *

1

0

.
1

2

3

4

5

6

V a r i a b l e s (Seven Problem Areas)
--

Group 1 —
Test of Significance:

— * -------

Group 2

•

• •

S ou r ce o f V a r i a t i o n — Group 1 (N=58)
Sum o f Sq u a re s

W ith in c e l l s
Constant
Voluntary
V o l u n t a r y & problem
Test of S ig n ific a n c e :

282.15
1888.53
28.45

Mean

S1gn1f. o f F

4.78
1888.53
2 8 .4 5

.01774
.73810

Sou rce o f V a r i a t i o n — Group 2 (N=39)
Sum o f S q u a re s

W it hi n c e l l s
Constant
Vol u n t a r y
V o l u n t a r y A problem

Figure 4 .2 :

* •

182.5

1212.8
17.3

Mean

S1gn1f. o f F

4.68
1212.89
17.39

V o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r and mean p e r c e p t i o n s o f
Groups 1 and 2 .

.06121
.30190

117

As s ho w n 1n F i g u r e 4 . 2 , F = . 0 1 7 7 4 I s 1 e s s t h a n a l p h a = . 0 5 ;
t h e r e f o r e , a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found between
Group 1, v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r s , and t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a s t o t h e seve n
variables.

However, F = .7381 I s g r e a t e r t h a n .05, which l e d t o t h e

c o n c l u s i o n t h a t no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d
between s u b s e q u e n t v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r and t h e problem a r e a s f o r Group 2
superintendents.
As F = .06121 I s g r e a t e r t h a n a l p h a = .05,

no s t a t i s t i c a l l y

s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found bet wee n Group 2, v o l u n t a r y t u r n ­
overs,

and t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s a s t o t h e se v e n v a r i a b l e s .

the N g re a ter,

However, w e re

.061 would be l i k e l y t o I n d i c a t e a s t r o n g e r te n d en c y

to w a r d a c o r r e l a t i o n b e tw ee n t h e v a r i a b l e s .

Further,

F = .3019 1s

g r e a t e r t h a n .05, which l e d t o t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t no s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d b e tw ee n s u b s e q u e n t v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r
and t h e problem a r e a s f o r Group 2 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
D e s c r ip tiv e Data_I--Survev_Responses
D e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h d a t a w e re a c c u m u l a t e d a s t h e r e s u l t s o f
r e s p o n d e n t s t a k i n g enough t i m e t o r e f l e c t on and r e d u c e t o w r i t i n g
a d d i t i o n a l I n s i g h t s g a i n e d th r o u g h t h e i r e x p e r l e n c e ( s ) a s s u p e r i n t e n d ­
ents.

A t o t a l o f 111 e s s a y r e s p o n s e s w e re documented o u t of t h e t o t a l

521 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s u r v e y e d , f o r a 20* l e v e l o f r e s p o n s e on t h i s
p a r t i c u l a r statem ent.

As s t a t e d e a r l i e r , 366 s u r v e y s were r e t u r n e d o u t

o f t h e o r i g i n a l 521 s u r v e y e d , t o t a l i n g a 70* r e t u r n on t h e o v e r a l l
s u rv e y.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s * r e s p o n s e s r e f l e c t e d a w e a l t h o f y e a r s and

work In t h e f i e l d and p r o v i d e d i n v a l u a b l e knowledge f o r p r e s e n t and

118

fu tu re superintendents.

R es p on de nts f u r n i s h e d a n s w e r s t o t h e f o l l o w i n g

statem ent:
I f you have t h e time* any f u r t h e r d e l i n e a t i o n o f f a c t o r s (p ro ble m s)
I m p a c t i n g y o u r p o s i t i o n a s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w i l l be mo st h e l p f u l 1n
re p o r t i n g r e l e v a n t data re g a rd in g t h i s are a o f concern t o p r e s e n t
and f u t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
In t h e f o l l o w i n g pages* r e s p o n s e s a r e q u o t e d v e r b a t i m from t h e r e t u r n e d
surveys.
R es pon de nt

A d d i t i o n a l Response

#1

We a r e t a k i n g g r e a t s t r i d e s f o r c o m p r e h e n s iv e community
I n vo lv e m e nt . The c i t i z e n s * s t a f f and b u s i n e s s r e p r e ­
s e n t a t i v e s h a ve r e s p o n d e d In a h i g h l y p o s i t i v e manner.
Our p ro b le m s a r e mini ma l t o date* and u s u a l l y I n v o l v e a
few s t a f f members who a r e n o t y e t re ad y f o r t h e r a p i d
c h a n g e s and Im pr ovem e nt s t h a t a r e t a k i n g p la c e .

§2

D e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t / f i n a n c i a l c o n c e r n s o r community
r e t r e n c h m e n t a r e t h e g r e a t e s t v a r i a b l e s and t o u g h e s t
problems t o s o l v e .

§3

Most c i t i z e n s hav e no background f o r making f i n a n c i a l *
l e g a l and s o m e t i m e s c u r r i c u l u m d e c i s i o n s * and t h e y do
n o t make t h e m s e l v e s a v a i l a b l e t o r e s o u r c e s and s e m i n a r s
t o become more k n o w l e d g e a b l e which 1s q u i t e u n f o r t u ­
n a t e — I n s t e a d t h e y t e n d t o s h o o t from t h e hip.

#4

I am c o m p l e t i n g my f o u r t h y e a r In my f i r s t S u p e r l n t e n d ency* and f o r t h e p a s t t h r e e y e a r s t h i n g s hav e been
go in g g r e a t . The 1979-81 y e a r s w e r e v e ry d i f f i c u l t
t i m e s f o r our D i s t r i c t . I f I was a s s e s s i n g t h o s e y e a r s
I would hav e g iv e n a #5 r a t i n g o r c e r t a i n l y a #4 t o each
o f yo ur c a t e g o r i e s .
With some m l l l a g e h e l p from t h e
Community we g o t o u r f i n a n c i a l p ro b l e m s worked o u t . The
s i n g l e and m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r which* In my opinion*
t u r n e d o u r D i s t r i c t a ro und was a v e r y p o s i t i v e and
supportive Board-Supertntendent r e la tio n s h ip .
Our
Board w a n t s and e x p e c t s t o s e t p o l i c y and s t a y o u t o f
th e day-to-day a d m in is tra tio n of t h e D i s t r i c t .

S ta ff -S u p e rln te n d e n t r e l a t i o n s a r e very Important.
As I
o b s e r v e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s who l o s t t h e i r jo bs * I f e e l most
n e g a t i v e f e e l i n g o f a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t a r t s from w i t h i n .
Foll ows h i s t o r i c a l p a t t e r n o f e m pi re d e c l i n e s a l s o .
Becoming more d i f f i c u l t g e t t i n g q u a l i f i e d members t o
s e r v e on Boards o f E d u c a ti o n . U n w i l l i n g n e s s o f bo a rd
members t o a t t e n d workshops t o make them more a w a r e of
t h e problems a f f e c t i n g s c h o o l s t o d a y .
The pro bl e m s a r e f u n d a m e n t a l l y a b y - p r o d u c t o f moving
from a r e l a t i v e l y s t a b l e * p r e d i c t a b l e * b u r e a u c r a t i c
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l scheme t o a v o l a t i l e * c o n s u m e r - o r i e n t e d
p o l i t i c a l m i l i e u . One c a n n o t s u s t a i n s c h o o l a l a Max
Weber any l o n g e r .
Change 1n boa rd members h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f a s i g n i f i ­
c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t * b u t " t o t h i s d a t e " t h i s h a s n ’t been
a problem f o r me.
I d i d n o t g i v e a "5" r a t i n g t o s t a f f
c o n f l i c t s * b u t some days I may have g i v e n 1 t a "S."
T h i s 1s a v e r y s p e c i a l school d i s t r i c t .
Wealth has
I n c r e a s e d f o u r f o l d 1n t h e p a s t 12 y e a r s . S u p p o r t 1s
s t r o n g f o r s c h o o l s — s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t gr o u p s c a u s e some
problem b u t n o t s e r i o u s .
I t h i n k j u s t t h e f a c t t h a t we have t o l i v e up t o e xp ec ­
t a t i o n s t h a t p u t us on a p a r w i t h " c o r p o r a t e e x e c u ­
t i v e s * " b u t w h a t we do has t o be done In a " f i s h b o w l * "
p u t s us a t a d i s t i n c t d i s a d v a n t a g e . 1 would g u e s s most
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e ve ry c a p a b l e CEO's* b u t t h a t s p e c i a l
1n t e r e s t / p u b l 1 c p r e s s u r e a lo ng w i t h f i n a n c i a l p r e s s u r e s
g e t s t o mo st o f us. The p u b l i c u n i o n (MEA-MESPA) c e r ­
t a i n l y ch an ge s t h e t i n t o f t h i n g s a s w e l l .
Cl) D e s i r e t o impro ve a ca d e m ic a c h i e v e m e n t ( p r e v i o u s l y
low t e s t a r e a ) and (2) Image o f town and s c h o o l d i s ­
trict.
Lack o f r e l e v a n t and a p p r o p r i a t e c o l l e g e and u n i v e r s i t y
c o u r s e work t o p r e p a r e f o r p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g and d e c i s i o n ­
making 1s a r e a l prob lem t o me. I have found t h a t a
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s e x p e c t e d t o be an In f o rm e d e x p e r t 1n
many d i v e r s e f i e l d s .
In a d d i t i o n * d e a l i n g e f f e c t i v e l y
w i t h e m plo ye es and c i t i z e n s I s v i t a l f o r s u r v i v a l .
T h e re 1s no a p p r o p r i a t e t r a i n i n g a v a i l a b l e 1n t h i s
respect.
I find th a t other superintendents are th e best
resource.

120

#13

I t 1s my b e l i e f a p e r s o n s h o u l d move o r change p o s i t i o n s
every 4 - 8 y e a r s . T hi s do es a l l o w f o r a community t o s ee k
new I d e a s and a l t e r n a t i v e a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e i r educa­
t i o n a l s ys te m.
Every s u p e r i n t e n d e n t h a s h i s o r h e r
s t r o n g p o i n t s . P e r h a p s I would n o t ha ve t h i s f e e l i n g 1f
I had been t e r m i n a t e d from a p o s i t i o n .
My e x p e r i e n c e s
f o r t h e m o s t p a r t have been p o s i t i v e .

#14

Ca) E r n e s t 0. Mel bey— "A S u p e r i n t e n d e n t w i l l be ju d g e d
by t h e p u b l i c on h i s / h e r a b i l i t i e s a s f i n a n c i a l manager
more t h a n a l l o t h e r f a c t o r s combined.11 (b) Board of
E d u c a t i o n members need "1 n s e r v l c e " . . . e i t h e r among
t h e m s e l v e s o r from p e e r s a t t h e S t a t e l e v e l .

#15

Tenure s t a t u s of te a c h e r s .

#16

The e v e r - i n c r e a s i n g amount o f p a p e r -w o rk ( r e p o r t s ) .
O bv io u s ly t h e n e g o t i a t i n g o f c o n t r a c t s w i t h t h e v a r i o u s
union g ro u p s I n c r e a s e s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
However* I do n o t c o n s l d e r Pub! 1c A c t 3 7 9 . . . a l 1 t h a t
bad.

#17

C o n f l i c t s w i t h t e a c h e r un io n l e a d e r s h i p ; recommended t o
Board t o r e a s s i g n hometown p r i n c i p a l — Board ap p ro v e d
5 - 2 ; n e g o t i a t i o n — t e a c h e r c o n t r a c t ; s t r i k e ; work ing
w ithout a c o n tra c t (teachers); ra is in g ex pectations for
s t a f f and s t u d e n t s .

#10

F i n a n c e s : do in g more w i t h l e s s d o l l a r s ; c u t s 1n s t a f f *
e n e r g y s a v i n g p r o j e c t s * t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c u tb ac ks * need t o
do more f o r G i f t e d and T a l e n t e d s t u d e n t s * c o s t of g e t ­
t i n g I n t o c o m p u t e r e d u c a t i o n ; a t h l e t i c b o o s t e r g ro u p s —
p r e s s u r e t o w ln -w ln .

#19

Word o f a d v i c e — A n t i c i p a t e ! I I

#20

The unio n I m p a c t s In a n e g a t i v e way. They p r e s e n t l y
have t o o much p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h o s e doing I n a d e q u a t e j o b s
y e t n o t s u f f i c i e n t l y bad J o b s t o f i r e .
Secondly* t h e y
ha ve I n p u t In a r e a s w he re t h e s e a r e a s o u g h t t o be man­
a ge m e nt c o n c e r n s .

#21

Must be a b l e t o p i c k own t o p l i n e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
I
l e f t #2 j o b b e ca u s e o f a s s i s t a n t who had managed t o g e t
p r e d e c e s s o r f i r e d * b u t d id n o t g e t j o b .
More a l l i e s o f
t h e a s s i s t a n t were e l e c t e d b e f o r e I t o o k o v e r .

121
#22

The b i g g e s t a r e a o f c o n c e r n 1s Board o f E d u c a t i o n t u r n ­
o v e r. Rapid boa rd t u r n o v e r o f t e n l e a v e s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
w i t h a b o a rd w i t h c o n f l i c t i n g p h i l o s o p h i e s o r w i t h I ne x­
p e r i e n c e d b o a rd members t h a t demand a d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e
amount o f t i m e .

#23

S i n c e t h i s 1s my f i r s t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y # 1 do n o t know
how much h e l p any a n s w e r s w i l l be. 1 ha ve found t h a t
t h e mo st I m p o r t a n t t a s k I s 1n t h e a r e a o f co m m u n ic at i o n .
Many of t h e p ro b le m s s t e m from l a c k o f o r t o o much o f
I t . F i n a n c e s and management c o u l d e v e n t u a l l y c r e a t e
a d v e r s i t y # b u t p r e s e n t l y I'm on t h e p r o v e r b i a l
honeymoon.

#24

I am v e ry c o n c e r n e d a b o u t t h e q u a l i t y and p u r p o s e o f
t h o s e s e r v i n g on Boards o f E d u c a ti o n . At l e a s t 1n my
p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n # l o c a l p o l i t i c s hampers t h e boa rd 1n
working to w a r d Im proving o u r s c h o o l s .

#25

I was a c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r In t h i s d i s t r i c t and was asked
t o a p p ly f o r t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y .
A f t e r tw o ye ar s#
s e v e n m l l l a g e e l e c t i o n s and an a n n e x a t i o n e l e c t i o n # I
a sk e d t o be r e a s s i g n e d a s a t e a c h e r n e x t y e a r .
The
boa rd honored my r e q u e s t e ve n though t h e y e x t e n d e d my
c o n t r a c t t o 1987.

#26

F o r t u n a t e l y # my r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t t e n u r e t o d a t e 1n t h i s
f l r s t S u p e r i n t e n d e n c y h a s been Im pa c te d by few a d v e r s e
variables.
Will c o m p l e t e one y e a r 1n J u l y . Most s i g ­
n i f i c a n t p ro b l e m s a r e : l o c a l s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t gr o up s
and S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n s e e k i n g t o r e o r g a n i z e
o r ann ex d i s t r i c t .

#27

S u f f i c i e n t money f o r b u d g e t seems t o e a s e t h e t e n s i o n .

#20

Board s t a b i l i t y h e l p s .
Financial s t a b i l i t y a lso Is a
b i g h e lp .
Board l e a d e r s h i p h a s been v e r y s t r o n g d u r i n g
t h i s p e r i o d . Community 1s k e p t In f o r m e d o f s c h o o l
a c t i v i t i e s # problems# e t c . on a r e g u l a r b a s t s .

#29

I am a p p r o a c h i n g o r r e a l l y h a v e r e a c h e d a r e t i r e m e n t age
and d o n ' t g i v e a damn anymore. But board members r e p r e ­
s e n t i n g f r i e n d s # e t c .# ha ve g i v e n t h e m o s t t r o u b l e .
At
t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f one s t a y a bo a rd member v o t i n g "No"
s a i d # " Y o u 'v e d o n e a h e l l o f a good j o b # a n d I h a t e t o
s e e 1 t e n d t h i s w a y ." I s a i d # " I ' v e d o n e a goo d j o b #
b u t you v o t e d t o t e r m i n a t e me?" Answer— " T h a t ' s a b o u t
t h e s i z e of I t . " Boar ds can be w i t h o u t c o n s c i e n c e .

122

#30

The f o l l o w i n g a r e a s have posed p ro b l e m s t o me a s Super­
intendent:
1. Some poor p r e p a r a t i o n o f t e a c h e r s by c o l l e g e s o f
education;
2 . T e a c h e r Te nure Act;
3. N egotiations;
4 . Decl1n1ng e n r o l l m e n t ;
5 . Board members w i t h v e s t e d I n t e r e s t s ;
6 . Board members who r e f u s e t o be " I n s e r v i c e d " ;
7 . Non-mot1vated s t u d e n t s .
However# I t ' s s t i l l a fun j o b .

#31

W ith ou t q u e s t i o n # t h e g r e a t e s t I m p a c t upon t h e o f f i c e o f
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t In t h e l a s t 10-15 y e a r s has been manage­
ment p ro b le m s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h l a b o r r e l a t i o n s . I n my
opinion # t h i s l a b o r - m a n a g e m e n t c o n f l i c t o f I n t e r e s t has
r e s u l t e d I n a g r e a t d e c l i n e In t h e q u a l i t y o f e d u c a t i o n
f o r M i c h i g a n ' s young p e o p l e .

#32

Unions# p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e MEA l o c a l s # ha ve a t t e m p t e d t o
Im p a c t my t e n u r e when I have t a k e n a s t r o n g s t a n d 1n
n e g o tia tio n s or during s t r i k e actio n s.
Fo cu si ng d i s s a t ­
i s f a c t i o n on t h e c h i e f a d m i n i s t r a t o r t a k e s p r e s s u r e and
f o c u s o f f u n io n a c t i v i t i e s .

#33

Have t o w ear " t o o many h a t s . "

#34

F i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t y I s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t .

#35

The S u p e r ! n t e n d e n c y 1s no l o n g e r a j o b f o r an e d u c a t o r .
The r o l e s h o u ld be f i l l e d by a p e rs o n more e x p e r i e n c e d
In t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a .

#36

S t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e and t h e c h a n g i n g economic c l i m a t e o f
Michigan h a s been t h e b i g g e s t problem.

#37

Finances# c u tb ac k s # r u l e s and r e g u l a t i o n s # N a t i o n a l
reports# e tc .

#38

I am In a v e ry s u p p o r t i v e community. E x c e l l e n t Board#
good a d m i n i s t r a t i o n # s t a f f # v e ry s u p p o r t i v e community—
1 t makes a d i f f e r e n c e . I e n j o y my j o b a s S u p e r i n t e n d ­
ent.

#39

Current r e s t r i c t i o n s # l i m i t a t i o n s t o q u a l i t y educational
programming a r e 1n t h e d e s c e n d i n g o r d e r ,
1. Union— m e d i o c r i t y I s t h e norm of t e a c h i n g .
2 . Tenure— must be rew ork ed .
3. C e r tific a tio n of teachers.

123

#40

The b a s i c problem f o r any S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s t h e change
o f q u a l i f i e d p e o p l e on t h e Board. You a r e b e g i n n i n g t o
s e e s i n g l e Issue* l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e ( b u s i n e s s o r educa­
t i o n ) I n d i v i d u a l s on B oa rd s making m u l t i - m i l l 1 o n - d o l l a r
d e c is io n s concerning t h e f u t u r e of kids.
U nfortunately
many o f them f o r g e t t h a t t h e y a r e on t h e Board f o r k i d s .

#41

New Board members a r e m o s t a p t t o c a u s e p ro b l e m s a s many
f e e l th e y e a r n a d e g r e e a n d / o r c e r t i f i c a t i o n In b u s i n e s s
and e d u c a t i o n . E x p e ri e n c e d boa rd members ha ve c o n f i ­
dence In t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t t h e y h i r e d .
Board t u r n o v e r s
r e s u l t In t u r m o i l .
F i n a n c i a l p r o b le m s m o s t d e v a s t a t i n g .

#42

Community c r e d i b i l i t y 1s m o s t i m p o r t a n t — l e t no one
down. Be a c c u r a t e and f a i r — fo ll o w t h r o u g h .

#43

Have e x p e r t i s e 1n a l l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y *
e s p e c i a l l y fi n a n c e* p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s and c u r r i c u l u m . Be
open* committed and work w it h p e o p l e .

#44

The u n io n h a s v e r y l i t t l e m a t u r i t y and t h e r e f o r e makes
1t d i f f i c u l t f o r us t o p r e d i c t t h e f u t u r e a c t i o n s t h e y
may t a k e b e c a u s e o f p o s s i b l e k n e e - j e r k r e a c t i o n s . The
t e n u r e I n t e r p r e t a t i o n s a r e t e r r i b l e * and we hav e p u t
such a b ur de n on a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t h a t we have some poor
t e a c h e r s we ha ve t o l i v e w i t h .

#45

A f t e r h i r i n g a new s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t h e Board members do
n o t run f o r r e - e l e c t i o n . New Board members hav e d l f f e r e n t p h i l o s o p h i e s and r e p r e s e n t a d i f f e r e n t p o i n t o f
view.

#46

Negot1at1ons/Arb1trat1ons/Gr1evances/C1v1l Rights
charges.

#47

S a l a r y ; Boards need t o keep away from t h e t e n d e n c y t o
p r o v i d e I n a d e q u a t e Improvement t o t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s
s a l a r y . To have a new p e r s o n come In a t a h i g h e r s a l a r y
t h a n h i s p r e d e c e s s o r I n v o l v e s t h i s t y p e o f prob lem.
I
w i l l n o t s t a y 1 f un de rcomp en sa ted .

#48

1.
2.
3.

T e a c h e r s ' l a c k o f c o n c e r n w i t h PR* such a s : home
c o n t a c t s * p a r t i c i p a t i n g 1n a f t e r school h o ur s
activ ities.
Very l i t t l e vocal [ l o c a l ] s u p p o r t f o r w h a t t h e
s c h o o l s " d o" r i g h t .
Nobody seems t o c a r e a b o u t m a j o r i t y s u c c e s s e s * onl y
failures.

124

#49

C o n t i n u a l s t r e s s f a c t o r s and amount o f h o u r s ha ve a
d i r e c t I m pa c t on a f a m i l y — p e r f o r m i n g a p u b l i c s e r v i c e
In a p o l i t i c a l a r e n a a f f e c t s p e r s o n a l l i f e s t y l e and
finances.

#50

School f i n a n c e and t e a c h e r un io ni s m p r o b a b l y c a u s e t h e
mo st pro ble m f o r S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s — both i t e m s c a u s e
c o n s i d e r a b l e s t r e s s and would be i n s t r u m e n t a l f a c t o r s 1f
I l e f t my p r e s e n t p o s i t i o n — Board o f Education* o t h e r
em ployee g ro u p s and p a r e n t s have n o t been d i f f i c u l t t o
deal w i t h . The u n c e r t a i n t y o f money t o f i n a n c e t h e
e d u c a t i o n from y e a r t o y e a r and m i l i t a n t s t a f f a r e t h e
o n l y r e a s o n s I would l e a v e e d u c a t i o n .

#51

High s e n i o r i t y t e a c h e r s w i t h d r a w i n g from t o t a l program
In v o lv e m e n t.

#52

I r e a l l y d o n ' t f e e l t h a t any o f t h e v a r i a b l e s l i s t e d
a f f e c t me a s much a s my own s e l f - i n f l i c t e d p r e s s u r e t o
s e e t h a t a l l f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s cho ol d i s t r i c t a r e
a c c o m p li s h e d on t i m e and s a t i s f a c t o r i l y .

#53

Most l a r g e c i t y S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w i l l t e l l you t h a t
a n y t i m e you m u s t I n t e g r a t e a s c h o o l s y s t e m y o u r t e n u r e
1s l i k e l y t o be v e r y s h o rt * mine was 3 - 1 / 2 t o 4 y e a r s .
I t was a l a r g e s yst em o f 240*000 s t u d e n t s .

#54

The p o s i t i o n o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s p e r c e i v e d d i f f e r ­
e n t l y by t h e v a r i o u s gro u p s 1 t I m p a c t s . The Board
p e r c e i v e s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o do e v e r y t h i n g needed
a l m o s t I m m e d i a t e l y . Boards d o n ' t a l w a y j w an t t o h e a r
t h a t a p o l i c y 1 t has e s t a b l i s h e d e a r l i e r may n o t be
w o rk a b le . They a l s o a t t e m p t t o a d m i n i s t r a t e I n s t e a d o f
b e in g p o l i c y s e t t e r s .
Small to w n s have a way o f making
a s m a l l I n c i d e n t more e a r t h - s h a k i n g t h a n 1 t a c t u a l l y
s h o u l d be when 1 t i n v o l v e s t h e s c h o o l .

#55

The g r e a t e s t p ro b le m s t o d a y a r e t h e Im p a c t o f u nn e ce s ­
s a r y f e d e r a l and s t a t e a u d i t s * r e g u l a t i o n s * e t c . These
seem more n e a r l y d e s i g n e d t o t a k e up t i m e o f t h e s t a f f
t h a n t o l e a d t o any s i g n i f i c a n t Impro veme nt In e d u c a t i o n
u n c o v e r i n g o f n o n - c o m p l l a n c e Items* e t c .

#56

Need more e d u c a t i o n a l e x c e l l e n c e s u p p o r t e d by un io n s.
Less l a b o r a t t e n t i o n . A d m i n i s t r a t o r s need t o be
s t u d e n t s o f human m o t i v a t i o n .

125

#57

Only one Board wan ted t o run t h e show I n s t e a d o f us
wo rk in g t o g e t h e r .
So I l e f t * and t h e y w e re happy.
T w e n t y - f i v e y e a r s a s a s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r — o n l y one
year of tro u b le as s ta te d .

#58

S t a t e r u l e s on f i n a n c e I m p a c t money r e d u c t i o n .
LowIncome h o u s i n g ; m o b i l i t y o f p o p u l a t i o n s ; l a c k o f j o b s .

#59

I n e p t Board members make t h e J o b a c h a l l e n g e .

#60

1.

D e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t 1s o u r m a j o r problem.
The
c l o s i n g o f b u i l d i n g s * t h e moving o f s t a f f from
c l o s e d b u i l d i n g s t o e x i s t i n g b u i l d i n g s 1n t h e d i s ­
t r i c t # t r a n s f e r r i n g o f a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and d e a l i n g
w i t h p e o p l e ' s l o y a l t i e s t o t h e o l d ne ig hborh oo d
s c h o o l h a s been so mewhat d i f f i c u l t . T he re 1s# how­
ever# a v e ry n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on t h e c u r r i c u l u m t h a t
t r a n s p i r e s when you move a t e a c h e r # from an a r e a
t h a t h e / s h e h a s been t e a c h i n g f o r a number o f y e a r s
and 1s q u a l i f i e d by t r a i n i n g and e x p e r i e n c e t o an
a r e a t h a t h e / s h e ha s n o t t a u g h t before# t h r o u g h t h e
s l o t t i n g method o f a r r a n g i n g t e a c h e r s by s e n i o r i t y
t o p o s i t i o n s r e m a i n i n g 1n t h e s cho ol d i s t r i c t .
Thi s
pro ble m 1s p a r t i c u l a r l y t r u e In t h e m i d d l e s ch oo l
w h e re t e a c h e r s had* In t h e past* r e q u e s t e d t o t e a c h
a t t h i s l e v e l be c a u s e t h e y e n j o y e d t h e s t u d e n t s # and
t h e y u n d e r s t o o d t h e i r ve ry complex a d o l e s c e n t behav­
ior.
We ha v e found t h a t high s c h o o l p e o p l e ha ve had
e x t r e m e d i f f i c u l t y 1n a d j u s t i n g t o t h e m i d d l e s cho ol
c h i l d . We have used many m e th od s o f 1 n s e r v 1 c e and
s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t t o deal w i t h t h i s problem.

2.

The s ec ond a r e a o f c o n c e r n 1s c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t and 1s t h e m i d d l e school
problem t h a t I n v o l v e s q u a l i f i c a t i o n v e r s u s c e r t i f i ­
c a t i o n . The s t a t e a l l o w s anyo ne w i t h a K-8 c e r t i f i ­
c a t e t o t e a c h In t h e m i d d l e s c h o o l r e g a r d l e s s o f
a c a d e m i c p r e p a r a t i o n and anyone w i t h a s e c o n d a r y
c e r t i f i c a t e can t e a c h any c l a s s 1n g r a d e s 7 and 8.
T h i s h a s c au s e d us much alarm* and we have had some
d i f f i c u l t y I n making s u r e q u a l i f i e d p e o p l e a r e
t e a c h i n g In t h e a r e a s o f t h e i r e x p e r t i s e .
We
achieved during t h i s p a s t n e g o t i a t i o n s session#
which ended 1n F e b ru a ry f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g s ch oo l
year# new l a n g u a g e t h a t m a n d a t e s t e a c h e r s have two
y e a r s t o a c q u i r e a s u f f i c i e n t a c a d e m ic p r e p a r a t i o n
1n s u b j e c t s t h a t t h e y w i l l be p l a c e d 1n where t h e y
have n o t had t r a i n i n g 1n t h e p a s t . T h i s was a m a j o r
b r e a k t h r o u g h In o u r n e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h t h e MEA-NEA.

126

3.

A f t e r o u r S e n a t o r was r e c a l l e d # we had an u n u s u a l l y
w e l l - o r g a n i z e d c i t i z e n s r e v o l t group 1n o u r s c h o o l
district.
Recently# a t a t r u t h - 1 n - t a x a t 1 o n h e a r i n g
we a p p r e c i a t e d how w e l l t h e c i t i z e n s a g a i n s t t a x e s
w e re o r g a n i z e d .
We have a l w a y s had an o r g a n i z e d
c i t i z e n g ro u p t h a t o p p o s e s t a x e s ; however# t h e num­
b e r s ha ve I n c r e a s e d a f t e r t h e s u c c e s s f u l r e c a l l o f
our S ta te senator.
I t a p p e a r s t h a t t h i s group had
been l o o k i n g f o r a new c a u s e and a p p a r e n t l y our
s c h o o l d i s t r i c t had been t a r g e t e d .
We ha ve n o t
h e a r d t h e end o f t h e d i s g r u n t l e d t a x p a y e r r e v o l t ;
V o t e r s Choice Amendment and o t h e r t y p e s o f l e g i s l a ­
t i o n w i l l e m p h a s i z e t h e p o p u l a r i t y o f t h i s gr oup 1n
t h e s t a t e o f Michigan# and c e r t a i n l y 1n l o c a l commu­
n ities.

4.

F i n a l l y # we c a n n o t d i s m i s s t h e problem t h a t f a c e s
o u t- o f - f o r m u la school d i s t r i c t s .
The s t a t e a i d
f o r m u l a has a very n e g a t i v e e f f e c t on a l l o u t - o f ­
fo rm ula d i s t r i c t s .

#61

I b e l i e v e t h e m o s t I m p o r t a n t a s p e c t 1s m a i n t a i n i n g and
p r o m o t i n g a p o s i t i v e o u t l o o k . Be s o busy h e a d i n g 1n
p o s i t i v e d i r e c t i o n s t h a t you d o n ' t have t i m e t o wallow
In s e l f - p i t y .

#62

I'm t o l d by my s e n i o r c o l l e a g u e s t h a t t h e r e a r e t h r e e
"B's" which an a t t e m p t t o e l i m i n a t e w i l l r e s u l t In t h e
demise o f a p e r f e c t l y w e l 1 - f u n c t i o n i n g S u p e r i n t e n d e n t :
Beans ( h o t lu n c h )
Buses ( t r a n s p o r t a t i o n )
Basketball ( s p o r ts ll)

#63

N e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h a l l MEA a f f i l i a t e d u n i o n s .

#64

U n d e r f i n a n c e d ; l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e s u p p o r t
p e r s o n n e l has a key In s e v e r a l d i s t r i c t s . Management
I n c l u d i n g S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e c a u g h t 1n a v i c i o u s m i d d l e
p o s i t i o n a s a r e s u l t o f c o n f l i c t s betw een B oar ds and
employee g r o u p s .

#65

I have e n jo y e d my work and t h i s community s i n c e 1948.
fin d 1t d i f f i c u l t to co n sid er leaving.

#66

Boards o f E d u c a t i o n l a c k
a r e n a — t o o p o l i t i c a l and
k i d s f o r some— u s e Board
a l l e d u c a t i o n a l p ro b le m s

I

understanding of educational
s e l f - s e r v i n g — no m i s s i o n t o w a r d
o f f i c e f o r own i n t e r e s t — w i t h
we need e n l i g h t e n e d c i t i z e n s t o

127

m eet t h e needs o f e d u c a t i o n — n o t own p e r s o n a l# p o l i t i c a l
d e s i r e s — c o u l d be more d e m is e o f p u b l i c e d u c a ti o n #
Boards o b s o l e t e .
?67

[Two d i f f e r e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f f e r e d t h e f o l l o w i n g
p ie ce of data a s t h e i r re s p o n se .)
BIG DADDY IS DEAD I
School s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e e x p e r i e n c i n g i n c r e a s i n g
f r u s t r a t i o n and f a i l u r e 1n r e p r e s e n t i n g d i s t r i c t a d m i n i s ­
t r a t o r s 1n g a i n i n g e q u i t a b l e and f a i r t r e a t m e n t from
l o c a l b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n 1n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r a c t s .
A dm inistrators a re bearing th e brunt of th e f r u s t r a ­
t i o n s and I n e x p e r i e n c e o f l o c a l b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n
c a u g h t b e tw ee n t h e f i s c a l c o n s t r a i n t s o f I n a d e q u a t e
f u n d i n g and t h e h a r s h demands and t a c t i c s o f w e l l f i n a n c e d and m i l i t a n t u n i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g t e a c h e r s and
s u p p o r t p e r s o n n e l . D e c i d i n g t o " ho ld t h e l i n e " on
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e b e n e f i t s a s t h e o n ly e m plo ye e group t h e y
can s u c c e s s f u l l y d o m i n a t e 1s becoming an a l l t o o f r e ­
q u e n t r e a c t i o n among l o c a l boa rds .
Whereas s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s f o r m e r l y s e r v e d a s t h e unof­
fic ia l negotiator for th e d i s t r i c t 's ad m in istrativ e
p e r s o n n e l In c o n t r a c t c o n c e r n s a s p a r t o f t h e i r l e a d e r ­
s h i p r o l e un de r t h e management te am concept# an I n c r e a s ­
i n g number o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ha ve had t o f o r s a k e any
p r e t e n s e a s t o t h e i r a b i l i t y o r i n t e r e s t 1n p l a y i n g such
a role.
Superintendents fin d 1 t in c re asin g ly d i f f i c u l t
t o d e fe nd t h e m s e l v e s a g a i n s t a r b i t r a r y and c a p r i c i o u s
b e h a v i o r on t h e p a r t o f l o c a l b o a r d s and have l i t t l e
c lo u t remaining t o a s s u re f a i r tre a tm e n t f o r a d m in is tra ­
tors.
In a d d i t i o n t o a c t i v e p o l i t i c a l In v o lv e m e n t In
a t t e m p t i n g t o a t t r a c t and s u p p o r t r e s p o n s i b l e c i t i z e n s
t o s ee k e l e c t i o n and s e r v e on t h e board# l o c a l a d m i n i s ­
t r a t o r s m u s t r e v i e w t h e i r co m m u n ic at i o n o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o
adv ance t h e i r c o n c e r n s and economi c b e n e f i t demands t o
th e board.
A d m in is tra tiv e personnel a re t h e e s s e n t ia l c o n d u it
f o r a c t i o n f o r t h e s u c c e s s o f e v e r y d i s t r i c t . How w e l l
t h e y m e e t t h e i r I n c r e a s i n g l y comp lex demands In m e l d i n g
t h e r u l e s # r e g u l a t i o n s , demands# ord e rs # g r i e v a n c e s #
p a r e n t a l r e q u e s t s and p u p i l a s p i r a t i o n s t r a n s m i t t e d t o
them by t h e board# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t # u n i o n s and community
p r e s s u r e groups w i l l d eterm in e w hether t h a t d i s t r i c t
moves t o w a r d e x c e l l e n c e o r s t u m b l e s In a m o r a s s o f
frustration.
Good b o a rd s o f e d u c a t i o n r e c o g n i z e t h a t t h e q u a l i t y
o f t h e i r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e a d e r s h i p group I s t h e p r i m a r y
d e t e r m i n a n t a s t o t h e q u a l i t y o f I t s program f o r k id s .

120

E xp e ri e n c e d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e l y upon t h i s o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n a l t r u i s m . Many c u r r e n t b oa rd s do n o t have t h e
e x p e r i e n c e o r p e r s o n a l ba ckg ro unds b r o u g h t t o t h e board
t o understand or accept t h i s e s s e n t i a l p o sitio n .
Local a d m i n i s t r a t i v e g r o u p s s h o u l d c o n s i d e r a more
fo r m al ap pro a ch t o p l a c i n g t h e i r economic demands b e f o r e
t h e bo a rd .
I b e l i e v e t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s * b o a rd s o f e d u c a t i o n
and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s would be w e ll s e r v e d 1 f a d m i n i s t r a ­
t o r s r e t a i n t h e s e r v i c e s o f e x p e r i e n c e d and p r o f e s s i o n a l
p e r s o n n e l t o r e p r e s e n t t h e i r I n t e r e s t s 1n su ch d i s c u s ­
sions.
Boards o f e d u c a t i o n and u n i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g t e a c h e r
and s u p p o r t p e rs o n n e l a l l r e l y upon p a i d p r o f e s s i o n a l
a s s i s t a n c e 1n a d d r e s s i n g such q u e s t i o n s .
The educa­
t i o n a l a r e n a 1s a s p e c i a l i z e d e n t e r p r i s e r e q u i r i n g t h e
d e v e lo p m e n t o f a c o t e r i e o f such p r o f e s s i o n a l p e r s o n n e l
t o r e p r e s e n t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e I n t e r e s t s as has already
been a c c o m p l i s h e d by o t h e r p a r t i e s I n c l u d e d w i t h i n t h e
e d u c a t i o n a l f a m i l y . I d e n t i f y i n g such a p r o f e s s i o n a l
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e * w i t h i n t h e f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r c e s o f an
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e group r a n g i n g i n number fr om 5 t o 250*
m i g h t w e l l be wort h t h e s e a r c h .
A d m i n i s t r a t o r s and b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n m u s t a d d r e s s
t h e c r i t i c a l I s s u e o f m a i n t a i n i n g t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p on
a w i n / w i n b a s i s . C i r c u m s t a n c e s ha ve p l a c e d both g ro u p s
In an I n c r e a s i n g l y a d v e r s a r i a l p o s t u r e which m u s t be
a d d r e s s e d 1n new ways. N e i t h e r b o a r d s n o r a d m i n i s t r a ­
t i v e c o a l i t i o n s can win a t t h e e x pe ns e o f t h e o t h e r
p a r t y f o r 1n doing s o they* 1n f a c t * a r e t h e l o s e r s .
The I n t r o d u c t i o n o f p r o f e s s i o n a l management r e p r e s e n t a ­
t i v e s I n t o t h e p r o c e s s on b e h a l f o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r ­
s onnel c o n c e r n i n g t h e i r own economi c w e l f a r e and j o b
c o n d i t i o n s s h o u ld h e l p a s s u r e t h a t both b o a rd s o f e d u c a ­
t i o n and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s a r e c o l l e c t i v e w i n n e r s .
Why t h e ch an ge from t h e p r a c t i c e s o f a d e ca de ago?
The c o m p o s i t i o n o f l o c a l b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n h a s changed
d r a m a t i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e de cad e o f t h e s e v e n t i e s and t h e
f i r s t h a lf of th e e ig h tie s .
C u r r e n t b oa rd s a r e I n c r e a s i n g l y composed o f w e l l meaning c i t i z e n s w i t h l i m i t e d e x p e r i e n c e In c o n d u c t i n g
m a j o r e n t e r p r i s e s and o f t l m e s c o m m i t t e d t o s 1 n g l e - 1 s s u e
v i e w p o i n t s which have s w e p t them t o t h e f o r e f r o n t w i t h i n
t h e i r community. O r d i n a r i l y * a s t h e s c e n a r i o 1s e n a c t e d
a c r o s s o u r S t a t e * t h e one p o i n t t h a t m o s t su ch b o a r d s
a g r e e on 1s t h a t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t has t o go.
S u p e rin ten d e n ts a re b a s i c a l l y carp e tb a g g e rs. W ithin
t h e S t a t e o f Michi gan t h e y have no l e g a l r e c o u r s e t o
c h a l l e n g e a r b i t r a r y and c a p r i c i o u s a c t i o n s by g o v e r n i n g
boards of education.
Such r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e based

p r i m a r i l y upon t r u s t * f a i r n e s s * honesty* I n t e g r i t y *
r e s p e c t and h o n o r a b l e c o ndu ct.
Such v a l u e s ha v e been
l i t t l e e v i d e n c e d by a d i s t r e s s i n g l y I n c r e a s i n g number o f
b o a r d s 1n m e e t i n g t h e i r l e g a l and moral o b l i g a t i o n s t o
t h e i r c h ief executive o ffic e r.
I s 1 t any wonder t h a t s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s can no
l o n g e r r e l y upon t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o r e p r e s e n t t h e i r
I n t e r e s t s w i t h t h e l o c a l boa rd? B1g Daddy 1s Dead!
What o p t i o n s a r e a v a i l a b l e f o r l o c a l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
t o a s s u r e f a i r t r e a t m e n t from t h e boa rd on c o n s i d e r i n g
t h e i r economic w e l f a r e and work ing c o n d i t i o n s ?
R e a l i s t i c a l l y * a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p e r s o n n e l do n o t have
a s t r i k e a s a v i a b l e o p t i o n t o c om mu nic ate t h e i r f r u s ­
t r a t i o n and a n g e r a s t o how t h e y f e e l t h e y a r e bei ng
t r e a t e d by a l o c a l board o f e d u c a t i o n . A d m i n i s t r a t o r s
do n o t need t o s t r i k e .
I f th e a d m in is tra to rs of a
d i s t r i c t r e a c h t h e p o i n t w he re t h e y wish t h e y c o u l d
s t r i k e t o co m m unic ate su ch f e e l i n g s t o an I n s e n s i t i v e o r
I n e x p e r i e n c e d board* t h e l o c a l boa rd o f e d u c a t i o n has
already l o s t .
I su g g est a d m i n i s tr a to r s should ta k e t h e I n i t i a t i v e
t o a s s u r e t h a t c o m m u n ic a ti o n w i t h t h e i r board 1s s o
d i r e c t and s p e c i f i c t h a t 1 t r e s u l t s In a w1n/w1n c o n c l u ­
sion.
I a ls o s u g g e s t t h a t lo c a l boards o f education
t a k e w h a t e v e r a c t i o n 1s a p p r o p r i a t e t o a s s u r e t h a t such
p o s i t i v e I n i t i a t i v e I s w e l l r e c e i v e d . The k i d s w i l l be
t h e r e a l w i n n e r s . [ J a c k A. Mobley* S u p e r i n t e n d e n t *
Owosso P u b l i c S c h o o l s , M ichig an School Board J o u r n a l *
May 1984.]
The a p p a r e n t m i s t r u s t t h a t l o c a l c o n s t i t u e n c i e s have f o r
p u b l i c o f f i c i a l s — s t a r t e d w ith Watergate.
In t h i s d i s t r i c t f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s would have t o
be ra n k e d a s a "50" In c o m p a r i s o n w i t h t h e o t h e r 4 - 3 - 2 - 1
rankings.
I h a v e b e e n h e r e 3 2 y e a r s , 14 a s a p r i n c i p a l * 2 a s a
t e a c h e r and 16 a s S u p e r i n t e n d e n t . T h i s (1983-84) y e a r
h a s been t h e m o s t d i f f i c u l t y e a r . P l e a s e r e a d "B1g
Da dd y's Dead*" Michigan School Board J o u r n a l * May 1984.
Have had a p l e a s a n t e x p e r i e n c e * b u t s t r u g g l i n g w i t h
f i n a n c i a l p ro b le m s In t h e d i s t r i c t y e a r l y . S t u d e n t
pro grams s u f f e r . T a xpay ers o r g a n i z e d t o keep t a x e s
down. Many e l d e r l y r e t i r e d p e r s o n s .
1.
2.

D e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t — p o s s i b l e c on so l 1dat1 on.
D e c l i n i n g community s u p p o r t — f e w e r p a r e n t s o f
school-age ch ild ren .

130

3.
4.
5.

Change 1n t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f t h e Board r e s u l t i n g 1n
c h a n g e s 1n e x p e c t a t i o n s * m i s s i o n s * p hi lo s op hy * e t c .
B urnout— D e s i r e f o r g r e a t e r c h a l l e n g e s .
Lack of r e s o u r c e s t o make t h e j o b r e w a r d i n g and
a t t a i n m e n t o f g o a l s f e a s i b l e — D e c l i n e In funds*
people# r e s o u r c e s # f a c i l i t i e s d e t e r i o r a t i n g #
tra n s p o rta tio n c o sts escalating* etc.

#73

Should de v e lo p e x p e r t i s e In s c h o o l law* n e g o t i a t i o n s #
f i n a n c e a s w e ll a s a r e a s m e ntio ne d 1n s u r v e y .

#74

I ha v e had 11 y e a r s o f b e i n g t h e A s s i s t a n t S u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t In t h e same d i s t r i c t I am now S u p e r i n t e n d e n t . Th a t
made t h e j o b much e a s i e r .

#75

In my opinion# Board o f E d u c a t i o n members have d e c l i n e d
1n t h e l a s t t e n y e a r s . Too many w an t t o be boa rd mem­
b e r s f o r n e g a t i v e r e a s o n s ( c u t ta x e s # t o o many f r i l l s 1n
c u r r i c u l u m # e t c . ) . Once t h e y a r e members# t o o many do
n o t go t o workshops t h a t h e l p them become k n o w l e d g e a b l e
b o a rd members. Th er e a r e a few y e t t h a t ha ve l e a d e r ­
ship# and I am t h a n k f u l f o r t h a t . I t h i n k t h e s m a l l e r
number o f s t u d e n t s * and t h e l a c k o f f i n a n c e s a r e t h e
b i g g e s t p ro b le m s t h a t c a u s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d i f f i c u l t y
1n managing a s ch o ol d i s t r i c t .
Hypocr is y I s v e r y h ig h
a s p e o p l e ack nowled ge e d u c a t i o n 1s i m p o r t a n t b u t do n o t
v o t e f o r m i l l age o r o t h e r f o r m s o f mo net ary re s p o n s e .

#76

F i n a n c e s a r e t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t problem 1n an I n ­
f o r m u l a s cho ol d i s t r i c t w i t h l e s s t h a n a 36 m i l l o p e r a ­
t i o n a l bu dget.
Boards o f e d u c a t i o n a r e t h e second
g r e a t e s t problem 1n any s c h o o l d i s t r i c t .

#77

T e n u r e c a s e s have a l o n g - t e r m Imp act on a d i s t r i c t and
may r e f l e c t on t h e S u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s t e n u r e .
T e a ch e r
c o n tra c t n e g o tia tio n s are another battleground.
The
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s a l w a y s a t a r g e t . The t r i c k 1s t o n o t
become I d e n t i f i e d a s t h e o b s t a c l e t o a s e t t l e m e n t and a
stationary target.
The S u p e r i n t e n d e n t n e v e r h a s a
p o s i t i o n o t h e r t h a n t h e B o a r d 's p o s i t i o n .
Big e g o s
become b ig t a r g e t s . The m e di a H k e s b i g egos. They
( r e p o r t e r s ) a r e v e ry good a t d e f l a t i n g b i g ego s. Be
humble and keep y o u r t w o - y e a r c o n t r a c t renewed.

#78

The d i s t r i c t o f my f i r s t s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y had e x t r e m e l y
d i f f i c u l t f i n a n c i a l p ro b le m s which t h e bo a rd would n o t
or could not ta k e th e necessary s te p s t o c o rre c t.
The
board c h o s e n o t t o " b i t e t h e b u l l e t " 1n hope s t h e problem
would somehow j u s t go away.

131

#79

Loss o f m a jo r e m p lo y e r had a s e r i o u s I m p a c t on s p e n d a b l e
wages In o u r community. T h i s , 1n t u r n , r e s u l t e d 1n a
v e ry poor f i n a n c i a l c l i m a t e , n o t c o n d u c i v e t o e a s y
m llla g e passage.

#80

The q u a l i t y o f c i t i z e n s w i l l i n g t o s e r v e on e l e c t e d
Boards o f E d u c a t i o n h a s changed d r a m a t i c a l l y d u r i n g t h e
p a s t decade. I n s t e a d o f community l e a d e r s , you ha ve
lo u d -m o u th e d community c r i t i c s coming t o t h e f o r e f r o n t .
R e s p o n s i b l e community l e a d e r s a r e u n w i l l i n g t o s u b j e c t
t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e o u t r a g e o u s p e r s o n a l and p r o f e s s i o n a l
a b u s e o f p l a y i n g su ch a v i s i b l e l e a d e r s h i p r o l e .
The
e n t i r e c o n c e p t o f l o c a l c o n t r o l t h r o u g h l o c a l b o a r d s 1s
a h a z a r d In my ju d g e m e nt .

#81

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

#82

A ir Fo rc e began d i s m a n t l i n g 1n 1977, e v e n t u a l l y r e s u l t ­
i n g In 80 s t u d e n t s l o s t .
I n i t i a l m l l l a g e r e q u e s t o f 4.5
m i l l s (new) l o s t 1n J u n e o f 1980—3. 46 new m i l l s
a ppro ve d 1n August, 1980.
Had one bad y e a r (1982-83) o f
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h Board. U n e x p l a i n a b l e . R e l a t i o n s h i p
v e r y good p r e s e n t l y .

$83

S u r v i v a l 1s d e p e n d e n t upon s t r a t e g i c p l a n n i n g — e x c e l l e n t
goal s e t t i n g — k e e p in g t h e Board o v e r - i n f o r m e d .

#84

Number o f f r i e n d s d e c r e a s e s a s number o f e n em i es
Increases.

#85

A d m i n i s t r a t i n g u n io n r e l a t i o n s ; s ch o ol c l o s i n g s a s a
r e s u l t of d e c lin in g e n ro llm e n t; re d u c tio n of fe d e ra l
funds t o e d u ca tio n ; b a la n c in g o f S t a t e ' s budget a t t h e
e x p e n s e o f K-12 e d u c a t i o n .

$86

1.
2.
3.

S t a t e economics pro ble ms .
Going o u t o f f o r m u l a .
Student d e clin e.
Board s p l i t s .
Union g e t t i n g I n t o management.

F i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s due t o t h e g e n e r a l S t a t e
economy d u r i n g p a s t f i v e y e a r s .
An u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e community n o t c o m m i t t e d t o a
c om p re h e n s iv e program o f q u a l i t y .
An u n w i l l i n g n e s s t o pay f o r a c o m p re h e n s iv e program.

Union problems have c a u s e d a g r e a t deal o f u n r e s t .

The b i g g e s t hang-up 1s d e a l i n g w i t h a s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t
group. In m o s t I n s t a n c e s t h e i r c o n c e r n I s f o r s a t i s ­
f y i n g t h e i r needs.
They f a l l t o l oo k a t t h e o v e r a l l
e f f e c t t h e i r demand c o u l d have on t h e t o t a l program.
F i n a n c i a l p ro b le m s a r e para mou nt. D i f f e r e n t e x p e c t a ­
t i o n s betw een Board and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s can be d i s a s ­
t r o u s . S t a f f p ro b l e m s a r e g e n e r a l l y m a n ag e a b le b u t t a k e
c o o p e r a t i v e a t t i t u d e s on t h e p a r t o f a l l c o nc e rn e d.
F i n a n c e s ha ve had t h e g r e a t e s t d i s t r i c t Impact# and t h e y
a r e d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o community a t t i t u d e s .
1.
2.
3.
4.

Absence o f mutual e v a l u a t i o n o f Board by S u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t and v i c e - v e r s a .
Absence of an e f f e c t i v e PR program.
Stress.
Unable t o p l e a s e a l l p e o p l e a t a l l t i m e s .

T e a c h e r u n i o n s and t e n u r e # a lo ng w i t h c o u r t d e c i s i o n s
a g a i n s t Board o f E d u c a t i o n and t a x p a y e r s a r e t h e g r e a t ­
e s t f a c t o r i m p a c t i n g e d u c a t i o n to d a y . S c h o o l s a r e n o t
h e re f o r k id s but f o r o t h e r purposes.
Too bad.
U n r e a s o n a b le demands by B o a r d / s t a f f / c o m m u n i t y —
c o n tin u a lly t o "cut th e c o s t" of education.
D e f i n i t e d e t e r i o r a t i o n In Board member q u a l i t y 1n t e r m s
o f t h e i r g o a l s . T he re has been a movement t o w a r d
p o litic a l orientation# special I n te r e s t representation.
R e p o r t s such a s "A N a t i o n At R isk " ha ve hyped-up t h e
arch-conservatlves.
I p l a n t o move a s o f t e n a s 1s n e c e s s a r y t o r e a c h my
f i n a n c i a l g o a l s . T h i s does n o t e l i m i n a t e g oi n g o u t s i d e
o f e d u c a t i o n . I made t h i s d e c i s i o n f i v e y e a r s ago when
I was a t e a c h e r .
I ha ve been an a t h l e t i c d i r e c t o r #
a s s i s t a n t p r i n c i p a l # p r i n c i p a l # and now a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
t o a c h i e v e my g o a l s . You mu st be w i l l i n g t o be nomadic
t o g e t where you w i l l e v e n t u a l l y be c o m f o r t a b l e .
In t h e urban s e t t i n g # c r i m e and v i o l e n c e 1n t h e a r e a o f
t h e s c h o o l s and 1n t h e s c h o o l s have an a d v e r s e e f f e c t .
S c h o o l s l i k e o t h e r r e s i d e n t s o f urba n a r e a s a r e t h e
v i c t i m s o f urban p o v e r t y and I t s m a n i f e s t a t i o n s .
The n i g h t m e e t i n g s r e a l l y c u t I n t o my f a m i l y H f e .

133

#98

The e n t i r e a r e a of s cho ol f i n a n c i n g ne ed s some a t t e n t i o n .
S c h o o l s m u s t be run b a s i c a l l y a s d i c t a t e d by t h e commu­
n i t y b e c a u s e o f t h e m l l l a g e e l e c t i o n p r o c e s s . The S t a t e
s h o u l d s e t a b a s i c m l l l a g e r a t e » t h e n l e t each community
a sk f o r a d d i t i o n a l 1 f t h e y wish t o have an e n r i c h e d
s ys te m .

#99

We have buzz words l i k e "Q u al i ty * P u b l i c R e l a t i o n s *
Co m m unic at io ns " which mean v e r y l i t t l e t o g e t t i n g t h e
j o b done. Most school d i s t r i c t s do a f i n e j o b 1 n t h i s
a r e a ; however* t h e PRESS ha s g i v e n us a bum r a p and t h e
p u b l i c b e l i e v e s them. The bottom l i n e 1s and a l w a y s w i l l
be, Can o u r p r o d u c t s u r v i v e 1n t h i s s o c i e t y ?

#100

Time needed t o g e t t h e f i n a n c e s needed and n e g o t i a t i o n s
a r e my problem a r e a s .

#101

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o p l a n t o s t a y In a school d i s ­
t r i c t lo n g enough t o g e t t h e j o b done. Some p l a n t o
s t a y o n ly a s h o r t w h i l e and t h e n move on. Some p l a c e ­
ment d i r e c t o r s s t a r t a s k i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1 f t h e y ' v e
d e c i d e d t o l oo k f o r a n o t h e r J o b a l m o s t b e f o r e t h e y know
s o m e t h i n g a b o u t t h e j o b a t hand. A s c h o o l d i s t r i c t
needs c o n t i n u i t y In I t s t o p a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n .
Longer t e r m c o n t r a c t s s h o u l d be p e r m i t t e d and t h e n
S u p e rin ten d e n ts should n o t le a v e u n t i l y e a r s of c o n t r a c t
a r e c o m p le te d .

#102

I b e l i e v e many d i s t r i c t s say t h e y want l e a d e r s h i p * b ut
t o o few know w h a t 1 t 1 s and a r e u n c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h 1 t 1 f
t h e y make such a d i s c o v e r y . " M a in te n a n ce " seems t o be
t h e r e a l o r d e r o f t h e day. U n f o r t u n a t e l y any p e o p l e
b usiness I n e v ita b ly d is a llo w s maintenance— p ro g ress or
r e g r e s s i o n a r e t h e o n l y two a v a i l a b l e o p t i o n s one can
p u rs ue . Most school b o a r d s do n o t seem t o be a b l e t o
grasp t h i s concept.

#103

The l o n g e r a p e r s o n s e r v e s a s a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t * t h e more
d e c i s i o n s t h a t I n d i v i d u a l h a s t o make t h a t a f f e c t o t h e r s
a d v e r s e l y . A Board o f E d u c a ti o n which ha s a h ig h t u r n ­
o v e r a l s o w i l l c a u s e a S u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o ha ve a s h o r t
tenurei
Every Board w a n t s " t h e i r own p e r s o n , " e s p e c i ­
a l l y when t h e m a j o r i t y o f members a r e gone who o r i g i ­
n a lly s e le c te d th e Superintendent.

#104

1.
.

2

3.

D i s t r i c t f i n a n c i a l problems ( s e v e r e ) .
All a d m i n i s t r a t o r s * i n c l u d i n g S u p e r i n t e n d e n t * new t o
positions.
Severe* n e g a t i v e c o n t r a c t p ro b le m s r e s u l t i n g I n a
teacher s trik e .

134

4.
5.
6 .
7.
8 .

R e s i g n a t i o n o f two e x p e r i e n c e d Board members.
Newly e l e c t e d Board members (3) w an ted t o manage t h e
d istrict.
Dec!1n1ng e n r o l l m e n t .
S t a t e w i t h h e l d pr e m is ed f u n d i n g ( 1 9 8 1 - 8 3 ) .
S u c c e s s f u l l y p a s s e d n e c e s s a r y m l l l a g e 1n '83 a g a i n s t
t h r e e Board members' w i s h e s ; s p l i t Board; o t h e r
p ro b le m s r e s u l t e d In my n o n-r en e w al o f c o n t r a c t #
which was okay w i t h me! Second s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s and f i n a n c i a l pr o b le m s
a r e s t i l l tw o m a j o r p ro ble ms .

#105

Lack o f good p e o p l e t o be e l e c t e d t o Board o f E d uc a tio n.
M lllage is s u e s .
U nionization.

#106

My c o n c e r n s a r e a l w a y s c e n t e r e d a ro un d e x t e r n a l " c r a p " —
c o u r t s # l e g i s l a t i o n # f i n a n c e s # community# Board and
s t a f f g i v e me few ( 1 f any) p r o b le m s I c a n ' t manage
effectively.

#107

My g r e a t e s t problem has been w i t h Board members who
s i n c e r e l y t h o u g h t t h e y knew t h i n g s t h e y d i d n o t know. I
have worked w i t h s u p e r i o r boa rd members— had a few who
w e re v e r y poor. I t t a k e s g r e a t e f f o r t t o be a q u a l i t y
Board member— o n ly a few w i l l e x e r t 1 t .

#108

1.

2.

Time s p e n t f i g h t i n g c o u r t s u i t s In s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n
has h i n d e r e d my a b i l i t y t o work In o t h e r a r e a s .
S p e c i a l E d u c a t i o n l a w s a r e v e ry open f o r
I n t e r p r e t a t i o n and l e g a l b a t t l e s .
N e g o t i a t i o n s w i t h c e r t l f l e d / n o n c e r t l f l e d u n i o n s have
t a k e n c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e away from o t h e r h i g h e r p r i ­
o rity educational areas.
(Finances r e s t r i c t e d —
lo n g e r/h a rd e r negotiations).

#109

I e n j o y my work# b u t t h e s t r e s s 1s d i f f i c u l t t o de al
with.

#110

Newspaper r e p o r t i n g .
the negative.

#111

The m o s t d i f f i c u l t t a s k 1s m a i n t e n a n c e o f p o l i t i c a l
e q u i l i b r i u m w h i l e p r o v i d i n g t h e b e s t p o s s i b l e e duc a­
t i o n a l program f o r k id s .

They a l w a y s lo ok f o r and r e p o r t

The p r e c e d i n g d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h d a t a w e r e a c c u m u l a t e d a s t h e
r e s u l t o f r e s p o n d e n t s t a k i n g enough t i m e t o r e f l e c t on and r e d u c e t o
w riting additional

I n s i g h t s g a i n e d th r o u g h t h e i r e x p e r l e n c e ( s ) a s

135

s u p e r in te n d e n ts .

A ll 521 s u p e r in t e n d e n t s w ere ask ed t o resp on d t o t h e

following statem ent:
I f you have t h e time# any f u r t h e r d e l i n e a t i o n o f f a c t o r s (pro blems )
i m p a c t i n g y o u r p o s i t i o n a s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w i l l be mo st h e l p f u l 1 n
re p o rtin g r e le v a n t data reg ard in g t h i s area of concern t o p re s e n t
and f u t u r e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
An a t t e m p t t o f i n d c om m on a li ty from t h e comments o f f e r e d by t h e
111

r e s p o n d e n t s a n s w e r i n g t h e above I n q u i r y was d i f f i c u l t due t o t h e i r

" c o v e r i n g t h e w a t e r f r o n t " 1n t h e i r r e s p o n s e s .

Many r e s p o n s e s h ig h­

l i g h t e d s e v e r a l o f t h e se ve n j o b - r e l a t e d f a c t o r s I d e n t i f i e d In t h i s
study.

However# 1 t was p o s s i b l e t o f i n d p r e v a i l i n g I m p r e s s i o n s t h a t

w e r e s t r o n g l y p h r a s e d t h r o u g h o u t a l l r e s p o n d e n t comments.

Financial

D i f f i c u l t i e s # o v e r a l l Management Problems# B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a ­
t i o n s # and Board-Member E l e c t i o n s a s a r e a s a d d r e s s e d by t h e r e s p o n d e n t s
were more f r e q u e n t l y m e ntio ne d t h a n any o f t h e o t h e r seve n p r o b l e m a t i c
a r e a s used 1n t h i s s tu d y .
tiations#

S t a f f C o n f l i c t s 1n t e r m s o f unionism# nego­

and t e n u r e r e g u l a t i o n s w e r e a l s o f r e q u e n t l y m e n tio ne d by t h e

s u p e rin te n d e n ts responding t o t h i s question.
D e s c r i p t i v e Data I I — Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f
School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s
The p u rp o s e of t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan between 1972 and
1984 t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o d i r e c t t h e b u s i n e s s o f
t h e i r s cho ol d i s t r i c t s and t h e c o n c o m i t a n t t u r n o v e r r a t e a t t h i s adm ln1

s t r a t l v e level.

136

The 63 f i l e s docu menti ng t h e d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s
s e c t i o n o f t h e s t u d y w e r e found w i t h i n t h e a c t i v e f i l e s o f t h e Michigan
A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
contained

1

D eterm ination t o use t h e d ata

n a p a r t i c u l a r f i l e and t h e d e ve lo pm en t o f a v i g n e t t e w e r e

base d s o l e l y on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f a d e q u a t e i n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d
w ithin th e f i l e

1

n o r d e r t o r e l a t e one o f t h e sev e n I d e n t i f i e d problem

a r e a s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
prescribed duties.

1

n t h e performance of t h e i r

In t h e v i g n e t t e s r e p o r t e d * f o l l o w - u p I n f o r m a t i o n

l e a d i n g t o c l o s u r e may n o t have been a v a i l a b l e due t o a v a r i e t y o f
circum stances;
1.

The s i t u a t i o n may have been r e s o l v e d I n t e r n a l l y *

2.

A c a s e may n o t have gone t o c o u r t f o r a v a r i e t y o f reaso ns*

3.

A compromise was s t r u c k between t h e p a r t i e s * o r

4

.

Hie s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a c c e p t e d a p o s i t i o n

1

n another d is t r ic t*

t o name a few.
The d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h p r o v i d e d h e r e 1n t h e form o f v i g n e t t e s
1

s f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f I d e n t i f y i n g t h o s e problem a r e a s h a v i n g t h e

g r e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e 1n c o n t a c t s w i t h MASA f o r p r a c t i c i n g
superintendents.

S i x t y - t h r e e c a s e s were d e t e r m i n e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r

t o be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

1

n t e r m s o f e s t a b l i s h i n g f r e q u e n c y o f o c c u r r e n c e of

t h e se ve n problem a r e a s by v i r t u e o f t h e d a t a c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e
file.

A f t e r r e v i e w i n g an I n d i v i d u a l case* a d e t e r m i n a t i o n base d on

d e f i n i t i o n was made a s t o t h e prob lem a r e a I d e n t i f i e d a s w e l l a s t h e
m a jo r t h r u s t o r f o c u s o f a v a i l a b l e I n f o r m a t i o n c o n t a i n e d w i t h i n t h e
file.

The v i g n e t t e was t h e n l a b e l e d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e f o l l o w i n g c o d e :

137

B/SR

= B o a r d -S u p e r ln te n d e n t R e la t io n s

BE

= Board-Member E l e c t i o n s

C/PR

= C o m m u n ic a t io n s /P u b li c R e l a t i o n s

PP /S pI

= P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups

SC

= S ta ff C onflicts

FD

= Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s

HP

= Management Pr oblems

For r e a s o n s o f c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y *
districts*

r e s p o n d e n t s ' names* names o f school

l o c a t i o n s * s p e c i f i c d a te s * etc. * w e r e e l i m i n a t e d .

All 63

c a s e s r e f l e c t a t e n - y e a r t i m e frame from 1972 t o 1982.
V ignettes
B o a r d - S u p e r 1n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s ;
Case 1

B o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s t r o u b l e s began w i t h t h i s
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a s a r e s u l t o f a b u d g e t d e f i c i t found by t h e
S t a t e a u d i t o r when 1 t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e r e was no p o s s i ­
b i l i t y of a d e fic it.

As p a r t o f a c o s t - c u t t i n g m e a s u r e t h e

p r e v i o u s y e a r t o e l i m i n a t e a $50*000 debt* t h e boa rd c u t
fu n d s f o r t h e i r m i d - y e a r a u d i t i n g s e r v i c e s .

Consequently*

t h e d i s t r i c t used I n c o r r e c t f i g u r e s t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r .
C har ges o f m a l f e a s a n c e w e re f i r e d a t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
from members o f t h e community a t s e v e r a l s u b s e q u e n t s c h o o l
board m e e t i n g s a s w e l l a s from boa rd members t h e m s e l v e s
o v e r t h e n e x t s e v e r a l months.

Su bs e qu en tl y * a move was

undertaken t o t e r m i n a te t h e s u p e r in te n d e n t a s a r e s u l t of
t h e numerous a l l e g a t i o n s o f In c o m p e te n c e r e s u l t i n g from

138

pr o b le m s a r i s i n g a f t e r t h e bu d g e t d e f i c i t was d is co ve re d#
t h e I m p r o p e r l a y o f f o f t h r e e t e a c h e r s who w e re s u b s e q u e n t l y
reinstated#

and a l e s s t h a n " p a s s i n g g r a d e " on t h e s u p e r i n ­

te n d en t's evaluation

1

n t h e a r e a s o f b u d g e t planning#

con­

f l i c t management# o r g a n i z a t i o n # and p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s .
S e v e r a l months l a t e r # t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t was
renewed by a 4 - 3 b o a r d v o t e f o r one y e a r .

School boa rd

members b e l i e v e d a p e rs o n s h o u ld be g i v e n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y
t o Improve# and t h e " t i m i n g " was n o t r i g h t f o r ch an gi ng
adm inistrators.
Case 2

T e n u r e h e a r i n g s and a Supreme C o u r t d e c i s i o n f i n a l l y
r e s o l v e d t h e c o n f l i c t be tw een t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e
s ch oo l board.

Upon f i r i n g t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t #

t h e board

d e n ie d t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t any r i g h t t o b e i n g a s s i g n e d a
teaching po sitio n .

The T e n u re Commission uphe ld t h e a p p e l ­

l a n t t h a t a t e a c h i n g p o s i t i o n was a r i g h t t o which a p p e l ­
l a n t had been d e n i e d .

The M ich ig an Supreme C o u r t r u l e d

t h a t t h e t e r m " t e a c h e r " un de r t h e t e a c h e r t e n u r e a c t can
I n c l u d e a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t who

1

s c e r t i f i e d as a teacher.

T h e r e f o r e # work a s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t can q u a l i f y a p e r s o n
for tenure as a teacher.

However# t h e work a s a t e a c h e r

was t o have been f u l f i l l e d w i t h i n t h e same d i s t r i c t a s any
subsequent a d m in is tra tiv e po sltlo n (s) held since a te ac h e r
n e e d s t o be e v a l u a t e d a s a t e a c h e r In a p a r t i c u l a r d i s t r i c t

139

fo r two y e a r s s a t i s f a c t o r i l y t o achieve tenure.

The s u p e r ­

i n t e n d e n t l o s t a l l a p p e a l s due t o h i s / h e r t e a c h i n g e x p e r i ­
en ce h a v in g be en f u l f i l l e d 1n a n o t h e r d i s t r i c t .

The T e n u re

C om mi ssi on's r u l i n g was t h e r e f o r e r e v e r s e d .
Case 3

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t r e q u e s t e d a s s i s t a n c e from MASA due t o I n d i ­
c a t i o n s t h a t t h e r e would be a " b lo w -u p" on h i s / h e r c o n t r a c t
re n e w a l a t t h e n e x t s ch ool boa rd m e e t in g .

Apparently, 1t

was t h e f i r s t t i m e t h e boa rd would d e a l w i t h an a c t u a l
w ritten contract.

The f i l e I n d i c a t e d t h e s i t u a t i o n was

resolved t o th e apparent s a t i s f a c t i o n of th e superintend­
ent.
Case A

Superintendent requested a legal

Interpretation of his/her

c o n t r a c t w i t h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r boa rd

1

n term s of evaluation,

r e n e w a l / n o n r e n e w a l , and c o m p e n s a t i o n .

In e s s e n c e , t h e

bo a rd d i d n o t f o l l o w any o f I t s t i m e l i n e s f o r a d d r e s s i n g
t h e above a r e a s o f c o n c e r n , and a m e e t i n g was s c h e d u l e d t o
"deal" w ith th e s u p e rin te n d e n t's c o n tr a c t
future.
Case 5

1

n t h e very near

No f o l l o w - u p was a v a i l a b l e on f i l e .

A r e q u e s t f o r a s s i s t a n c e came t o MASA r e l a t i v e t o t h e
d e v e l o p m e n t o f an e v a l u a t i o n I n s t r u m e n t f o r t h e p o s i t i o n o f
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and s u b s e q u e n t l y r e s u l t e d
of t h i s case.

1

n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t

Over a t w o - y e a r p e r i o d , a t e a c h e r - e v a l u a t i v e

I n s t r u m e n t was r e v i s e d by t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u n c i l o f t h e
d i s t r i c t in q u e s t i o n .

(The n o t e s do n o t i n d i c a t e 1f

140

t e a c h e r s w e re In v o lv e d t n t h i s p r o c e s s . )

Numerous I t e m s o f

t h e r e v i s e d t e a c h e r - e v a l u a t l o n form w er e g r i e v e d and w en t
to arbitration.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t q u e s t i o n e d w h e t h e r o r

n o t a r e a s deemed " w r o n g f u l " by t h e a r b i t r a t o r In t h e
t e a c h e r - e v a l u a t i v e In s tru m e n t could

1

n f a c t be a p p l i c a b l e

In a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e v a l u a t i o n s * s p e c i f i c a l l y t h e s u p e r i n ­
ten d en t's,

The Board p r e s i d e n t I n d i c a t e d t o t h e s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t t h a t a m e e t i n g h e l d w i t h a " c o m m i t t e e " o f t h e board
c o u l d p ro b a b l y r e s o l v e " t h e m a t t e r # " and
become an agenda Item.

1

t would n o t

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r e f u s e d t o f o l l o w

t h e boa rd I n c l i n a t i o n on t h e b a s i s t h a t h i s / h e r e v a l u a t i v e
g u i d e l i n e s c a l l e d f o r e v a l u a t i o n b e f o r e t h e e n t i r e bo a rd ;
and second* t h e p r o c e s s would m o s t l i k e l y be vi ew ed a s a
c i r c u m v e n t i o n o f t h e Open M e e t i n g s Act.
t h e bo a rd

1

Areas c o v e r e d by

n te rm s o f t h e i r concern over t h e s u p e r in te n d ­

e n t ' s p e r f o r m a n c e w e re:

boa rd n o t b e in g Informed* board

b e in g maneuvered* some a d m i n i s t r a t o r s n o t b e in g h e l d
a c c o u n t a b l e * p r i o r i t i e s o f i n d i v i d u a l boa rd members n o t
f o ll ow e d* and a "gap" b e tw ee n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t h e t e a c h ­
i n g s t a f f 1n g e n e r a l .

A p p a r e n t l y t h e s i t u a t i o n was

r e s o l v e d a s t h e f i l e I n d i c a t e d t h e same p e r s o n was c o n t i n ­
uing

1

n th e p o s itio n of s u p e r in te n d e n t a f t e r s e v e ra l y e ars

ha d p a s s e d .

141

Case

6

W i t h i n one y e a r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r school d i s t r i c t e x p e r i e n c e d
a t e a c h e r s t r i k e * h e a t e d d e b a t e o ve r a d i s p u t e d t e a c h e r
c o n t r a c t * t h e r e c a l l o f t h e boa rd p r e s i d e n t * an a t t e m p t t o
r e c a l l t h e s e c r e t a r y and t r e a s u r e r * and t h e d i s m i s s a l o f
th e superintendent.

The d i s m i s s a l o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t

was t h e r e s u l t o f c h a r g e s b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t by t h e boa rd t r e a s u r e r a c t i n g a s a " p r i v a t e c i t i z e n . "
However* t h e boa rd v o t e d t o f i n a n c e t h e f i n a n c i a l c o s t o f
th e charges brought a g a in s t th e superintendent.

The

charges f il e d ag ain st the superintendent c ite d f a ilu r e to
a d e q u a t e l y In f o rm t h e boa rd r e g a r d i n g t e a c h e r n e g o t i a t i o n s
and f i n a n c i a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s In t h e d i s t r i c t budget p r o c e s ­
ses.

In a s u b s e q u e n t e l e c t i o n f o l l o w i n g t h e s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t ' s s u sp e ns i on* t h r e e new bo a rd members w e re e l e c t e d .

As

a r e s u l t o f t h e t h r e e new board members b e in g e l e c t e d * t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was r e i n s t a t e d p e ndin g r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e
charges file d .

By f a l l o f t h e n e x t school year# a c o m p l e t e

a u d i t was c o n d u c te d and t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was v i n d i c a t e d
o f any m a l f e a s a n c e

1

n t h e performance of t h e d u tie s of

his/her o ffic e .
Case 7

T h r e e new boa rd members d e f e a t e d a t r i o o f in c um be nts and
a l i g n e d t h e m s e l v e s w i t h a s t r o n g Incumbent* t h e s ch oo l
board p r e s i d e n t .

A p p a r e n t l y what t ook p l a c e In t h i s d i s ­

t r i c t was a power s t r u g g l e between t h e boa rd p r e s i d e n t and
th e superintendent.

A c o m m i t t e e o f t h r e e boa rd members and

142

t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t d e v i s e d a pr o p o s a l t o come t o t h e t o t a l
b o a rd r e g a r d i n g s a l a r y I n c r e a s e s and c o n t r a c t c o n d i t i o n s
fo r central o ffice adm inistrators.

An a r g u m e n t e r u p t e d

b e tw ee n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e boa rd p r e s i d e n t r e s u l t ­
ing

1

n t h e board p r e s i d e n t s t a t i n g p u b l i c l y a l l t h a t was

needed was t h r e e more v o t e s t o t e r m i n a t e t h e s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t's contract.

Also p a r t o f t h e hi d d e n agenda In v o lv e d

blaming th e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r a r e c e n t te a c h e r s t r i k e .
With c o n s i d e r a b l e community Involvement* t h e m e e t i n g t o
" axe " t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t u r n e d I n t o a s t a t e m e n t o f r e b u f f
f o r t h e s ch o ol boa rd p r e s i d e n t .

P e t i t i o n s w i t h o v e r 1*000

s i g n a t u r e s by community members and v a r i o u s employee g ro u p s
s he d new l i g h t

1

n term s of support f o r t h e superintendent.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t d i d p r e v a i l and was g r a n t e d a t h r e e - y e a r
e x t e n s i o n on h i s / h e r c o n t r a c t .
Case

8

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t had d e c i d e d t o t e n d e r h i s / h e r r e s i g n a ­
t i o n e f f e c t i v e t h e end o f h i s / h e r c o n t r a c t * which had one
y e a r t o run.

In a s u r p r i s e move* t h e board d e c i d e d t o

r e l i e v e t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f h i s / h e r d u t i e s and a p p o i n t an
a c t i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w h i l e t h e y c o n d u c t e d an a l l - o u t
su p erin ten d en t search.

The board b o ugh t t h e r e m a i n d e r o f

t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t t o a c h i e v e t h e i r g o a l.
t h e r c o n c e s s i o n s w e r e g r a n t e d by t h e boa rd

1

Fu r­

n t h i s buy-out:

f r i n g e s f o r t h e f o l l o w i n g y e a r I f no new p o s i t i o n was

143

found* no r e c r i m i n a t i o n * t e n u r e a s a t e a c h e r * and r e l e a s e
a t any t i m e from t h e a p p o i n t e d I n t e r i m p o s i t i o n .

Under­

l y i n g t h i s c a s e was a tou ch y s i t u a t i o n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e
Issu e of s u p e r in te n d e n t residency.

The board was d e s i r o u s *

b u t no r e s l d e n c y - r e q u l r e m e n t l a n g u a g e was p r e s e n t

1

n the

superintendent's c o n t r a c t .
Case 3

P r o b l e m s such a s " l a c k o f c o m m u n ic a ti n g b e tw een t h e s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t and some boa rd members and d i f f e r e n c e s I n manage­
m e n t s t y l e " w e re I d e n t i f i e d a s bei ng t h e c a u s a l f a c t o r s
nonrenewal o f t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t .
was t a k e n

1

1

n

This a c tio n

n t h e l a s t y e a r of t h e c o n t r a c t well b e fo re th e

u s u a l 90 -d ay r e q u i r e d t i m e l i n e f o r n o t i c e o f t e r m i n a t i o n .
Case

10

Renewal o f c o n t r a c t was d e n ie d f o r t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1n
th is d istrict.

Even though t h e r e a s o n s w e re k e p t o u t of

t h e p r e s s , t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s e v a l u a t i o n was c o n du ct e d
public.

1

n

G le a n in g from t h o s e pr oc e ed in gs * t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r

t h e nonrenewal a c t i o n stemmed from a low e v a l u a t i v e r a t i n g
c i t i n g t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s I n a b i l i t y t o "p ro m o te harmony
among bo a rd members by r e c o g n i z i n g h o n e s t and o b j e c t i v e
d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n and h i s / h e r I n a b i l i t y t o r e s o l v e
d i f f e r e n c e s by r e a c h i n g c o n s e n s u s t h r o u g h e f f e c t i v e compro­
m is e ."

Legal q u e s t i o n s a r o s e a s t o t h e e n d i n g d a t e o f t h e

e ffe c tiv e contract.

A l a w s u i t was Im m in en t; however* t h e

144

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t found a n o t h e r p o s i t i o n o u t o f s t a t e #

leaving

t h e c o n t r a c t - 1 e n g t h q u e s t i o n a moot p o i n t .

Case 1 ]

A 4-3 v o t e n o t t o renew t h e c o n t r a c t o f t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
r e s u l t e d 1n a r e c a l l d r i v e o f s e v e r a l board members.

The

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was a d v i s e d t o t a k e a l o w - p r o f i l e p o s t u r e

1

n

any and a l l r e c a l l p r o c e e d i n g s .

1

n

One boa rd member s t a t e d

a p u b l i c m e e t i n g t h a t t h e r e a s o n s f o r nonrenewal c o u l d n o t
be made p u b l i c b e c a u s e t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t would n e v e r be
a b l e t o s e c u r e a n o t h e r p o s i t i o n an yw he re ( p a r a p h r a s e d ) .

No

f i l e I n f o r m a t i o n was p ro v i d e d a s t o t h e outco me o f t h i s
case.
Case 12

A s w i ng board member proved t o be a n e m e s i s f o r a s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t 1n a n o t h e r 4-3 v o t e f o r nonrenewal o f c o n t r a c t due
t o I n a b i l i t y t o l e a d t h e d i s t r i c t w i t h "sound judgement#
p o s i t i v e p r o j e c t i o n and c o n s i s t e n c y # " a s s t a t e d by a m a j o r 1

Case 13

ty of t h e board.

Board e l e c t i o n s worked f a v o r a b l y t o r e t a i n t h i s s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t # who was f i r e d e a r l i e r f o r b e in g an " I n a d e q u a t e
leader."

As a r e s u l t o f t h e f i r i n g #

a r e c a l l p e t i t i o n was

h e l d s u c c e s s f u l l y # and a s u b s e q u e n t e l e c t i o n r e p l a c e d a l l
f o u r bo a rd members who o r i g i n a l l y v o te d t o f i r e t h e s u p e r ­
intendent.

145

Case 14

A n o th e r s p l i t boa rd c a l l e d t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t I n t o an
ex ec u tiv e s e s s io n f o r purposes o f d is c u s s in g h i s / h e r
evaluation.

By a 4-3 v o t e t h e bo a rd d i d n o t e v a l u a t e b u t

Instead c a lled fo r th e resignation of th e superintendent
ba sed on t h e l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e o f "managing t h r o u g h I n t i m i d a ­
tion."

T h r e e d i s s e n t i n g b o a r d members b e l i e v e d a power

s t r u c t u r e had been e s t a b l i s h e d In t h e s c h o o l s y s te m f o r
some t i m e , and t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r a n I n t o t r o u b l e when
h e / s h e managed t o work around t h a t s t r u c t u r e r a t h e r t h a n
manage w i t h i n t h e s t r u c t u r e , o r go t h r o u g h t h e board.
Case 15

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t i n i t i a t e d l i t i g a t i o n a g a i n s t h i s / h e r
s cho ol bo a rd a f t e r I t had become known t h a t t h e boa rd had
held I ll e g a l m eetings w ith o u t th e s u p e rin te n d e n t p resent to
d iscu ss te r m in a tio n of h i s / h e r c o n tr a c t.

Apparently, t h e

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was made aware a t a s u b s e q u e n t m e e t i n g by a
bo a rd r e s o l u t i o n n o t t o renew h i s / h e r c o n t r a c t .

However,

t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t d id n o t r e c e i v e w r i t t e n n o t i c e from t h e
boa rd 90 days p r i o r t o t h e end o f t h e c o n t r a c t ; t h e r e f o r e ,
t h e l e g a l r e q u i r e m e n t s w er e n o t met.

This s i t u a t i o n

resolved I t s e l f as th e su p erin ten d e n t served out t h e l i f e
of h is /h e r c o n tra c t.
Case 16

S p l i t d e c i s i o n s and s p l i t b oa rd s ca n be n i g h t m a r i s h f o r
local superintendents.

On a 4 - 3 s p l i t d e c i s i o n t h i s

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was t e r m i n a t e d due t o " l a c k o f l e a d e r s h i p

146

and l a c k o f c o m m u n ic a ti o n .”

T h i s p e r s o n had been s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s and a t e a c h e r In t h e d i s t r i c t f o r
o v e r tw o de cad es.

Board members who v o t e d n o t t o renew t h e

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t s a i d t h e y w an ted t o be " k e p t more
a w a r e o f t h e d a y - t o - d a y I n s t a n c e s " t h a t happened

1

n the

school d i s t r i c t .
Case 17

At a boa rd m e e t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o n t r a c t s w ere d is c u s s e d *
Including th e superintendent's.
th ree-y ear ro ll-o v er contract.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t had a
The bo a rd t o l d t h e s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t h e / s h e was do in g a good job* b u t m o t i o n s w e r e made
as follows:
Extend c o n t r a c t a n o t h e r y e a r ( t h u s a n o t h e r t h r e e - y e a r
run) b u t r e d u c e s a l a r y f a c t o r i n g .

L ost 3-4.

P r o v i d e a r a i s e un d e r t h e p r e s e n t s a l a r y f a c t o r i n g
f o r m u l a b u t n o t renew f o r t h e a d d i t i o n a l y e a r ( t h u s l e a v i n g
a t w o - y e a r run on t h e p r e s e n t c o n t r a c t ) .

Pa sse d 7 -0 .

came t h e t a s k o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o d e t e r m i n e
boa rd wan ted h i m / h e r gone in t w o y e a r s o r

1

1

Now

f the

f the d iff e r­

e n c e s c o u l d be r e s o l v e d .

Case

18

A f t e r s e r v i n g a s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r o v e r 11 ye ars# t h e
bo a rd n o t i f i e d t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t h a t h i s / h e r p e r f o r m a n c e
1

n t h e l a s t f o u r t o s i x months had been vi ew ed a s l e s s t h a n

satisfactory.

The boa rd c i t e d l a c k o f c o n f i d e n c e by some

board members and p r o m i n e n t c i t i z e n s ,

"Surprise" d ecisio n s

147

made by t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t " w i t h o u t p o l l i n g boa rd members*
l a c k of s u b s t a n t i a t i n g e v i d e n c e

1

n making c o n t r o v e r s i a l

d e c i s i o n s * " and an o v e r a l l " l a c k o f t r u s t

1

n th e superin­

t e n d e n t ' s a b i l i t y t o run t h e d i s t r i c t " w er e c i t e d a l s o .
T h i s boa rd a c t i o n t o o k p l a c e s i x months p r i o r t o t h e s u p e r ­
in te n d e n t's c o n tra c t e x p i r i n g .
Case 19

A s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ask e d f o r a s s i s t a n c e from MASA when h e / s h e
was n o t i f i e d o f an e x e c u t i v e s e s s i o n h e l d by t h e board and
t h e i r a t t o r n e y w i t h t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t In a b s e n t i a .

The

boa rd a sk e d t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o t e n d e r h i s / h e r r e s i g n a ­
t i o n e f f e c t i v e t h e end o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t *
which was one y e a r hence.

I n exchange* t h e boa rd would n o t

evaluate th e superintendent th e l a s t year of the contract.
No r e a s o n s a v a i l a b l e f o r r e s i g n a t i o n demands on f i l e .
Case 20

At a r e g u l a r l y s c h e d u l e d boa rd m e e t i n g 1n March* a 4 - 1 2
v o t e was t a k e n n o t t o renew t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t *
which came a s a t o t a l s u r p r i s e .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t had no

I d e a t h e board was even c o n s i d e r i n g nonrenewal o f h i s / h e r
contract.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was q u o t e d

1

n t h e m e dia a s

s a y i n g t h a t had t h e board m e t w i t h h i m / h e r and e x p r e s s e d
w he re t h e r e w ere problems* h e / s h e would ha ve been open t o
t h e i r c r i t i c i s m and would hav e done h i s / h e r b e s t t o r e c t i f y
the situation.

In t h e a b s e n c e o f any I n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e r e

were problems* t h e a s s u m p t i o n was t h a t t h e j o b was b e i n g

148

done a c c e p t a b l y .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t had h e l d t h e t o p p o s t

1n t h i s d i s t r i c t f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y s e v e n y e a r s .

Board

members who v o t e d n o t t o renew h i s / h e r c o n t r a c t f e l t " 1 t
was t i m e f o r a ch ang e. "

Ev e n tu a ll y * t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s

c o n t r a c t was renewed f o r one y e a r o n l y .
Case 21

B e f o r e t h e s ec ond y e a r o f a t w o - y e a r c o n t r a c t * t h e boa rd 1n
t h i s d i s t r i c t aske d f o r t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s r e s i g n a t i o n .
No e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t had been c o n d u c t e d a s
s e t down

1

n t h e t e r m s o f t h e c o n t r a c t be tw een t h e s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t and t h e board.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a c q u i r e d l e g a l

a d v i c e from MASA and a r r i v e d a t a m u t u a l l y a g r e e a b l e s e t ­
t l e m e n t w i t h t h e board.

No r e a s o n s were s t a t e d

1

n the

p r e s s o r board m i n u t e s a s t o t h e c a u s a l i t y be hi nd t h e
board's re q u e s t t h a t th e s u p e r in te n d e n t resign.
Case 22

A poor r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h one o r tw o board members can
r e s u l t In an e q u a l l y d e v a s t a t i n g e x p e r i e n c e a s

1

f a major­

i t y o f t h e board w e re a t odds w i t h I t s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
Such was t h e c a s e 1n t h i s d i s t r i c t *

where two board mem­

bers* fo r m in g a p e r s o n n e l co mmittee* w e re t o recommend t o
t h e r e m a i n i n g board e x t e n s i o n o r nonrenewal o f t h e s u p e r i n ­
ten d en t's co n tract.

S i n c e t h e two members on t h e p e r s o n n e l

c o m m i t t e e w e re h o s t i l e t o t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t * t h e i r r e p o r t
was l e s s t h a n s u p p o r t i v e * c i t i n g c h a r g e s t h a t a d d r e s s e d t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a c t i n g " w i t h o u t bo a rd a p p r o v a l on f i n a n c i a l

149

matters*

f a i l i n g t o in f o r m t h e boa rd r e g a r d i n g m a t t e r s

d e a l i n g w i t h m l l l a g e I s s u e s * f a i l u r e t o f o l l o w th r o u g h on
boa rd d i r e c t i v e s and c o n d u c t i n g i l l e g a l e x e c u t i v e s e s ­
sions."

I r o n i c a l l y * one o f t h e s e two boa rd members a l s o

r e c o r d e d t h e m i n u t e s o f t h e bo a rd m e e t i n g s which a p p a r e n t l y
we re n o t p e ru s e d by t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t b e f o r e d u p l i c a t i o n
and d i s p e r s a l and d i d n o t show t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
f a v o r a b l e l i g h t 1n t h e e y e s o f t h e b o a r d 1n t o t a l .

1

n a
How­

ever* a s t i m e passed* t h e r e m a i n i n g bo a rd members "took
on" t h e m i n o r i t y f a c t i o n o f t h e board.

In t h e meantime*

c o n s i d e r a b l e d u r e s s was f e l t by t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s u p e r i n ­
tendent.
Case 23

Nonrenewal was v o t e d on by t h e boa rd and p a s s e d In January*
a f f e c t i n g t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t which would e x p i r e
t h e fo llo w in g June.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t had been 1n t h i s

p o s i t i o n f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y 18 y e a r s .

Repor tedl y* h e / s h e

was d i s m i s s e d a f t e r s c o r i n g p o o r l y on an e v a l u a t i o n con­
d u c te d by t h e board.

Poor s c o r e s w e r e r a t e d 1n t h e a r e a s

o f " l e a d e r s h i p a b i l i t y and r e l a t i o n s w i t h t h e board* commu­
n i t y and s c h o o l s t a f f . "

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s u b s e q u e n t l y

t h r o u g h MASA a c q u i r e d l e g a l a d v i c e and f o r m u l a t e d a s t a t e ­
ment t o t h e board* s t a t i n g " t e n u r e
guaranteed r i g h t s in c e

1

1

n p o s i t i o n " was a

t had n o t been d e n i e d h i m / h e r

the s p e c i f ic term s of th e co n tract.

1

n

Ev e n tu a ll y * t h e s u p e r ­

i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t was renewed f o r one y e a r .

150

Case 2k

A c o n t r a c t b u y - o u t of ove r $50#000 was I n c u r r e d by t h i s
sc h oo l boa rd

1

n order to term inate th e services of th e tr

superintendent.

Reasons c i t e d f o r w a n t i n g t o t e r m i n a t e t h e

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t c e n t e r e d on " d i f f e r e n c e s o f o p i n i o n and
philosophy w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n "
d istrict.

of t h e

These d i f f e r e n c e s w e r e a p p a r e n t l y I r r e c o n c i l a b l e

t o t h e p o i n t t h e bo a rd was w i l l i n g t o pay f o r e l i m i n a t i n g
them.

A m u t u a l l y a g r e e a b l e c o n c l u s i o n was a r r i v e d a t In

t h i s c a s e between t h e boa rd and t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
Case 25

A f t e r s e r v i n g a s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r o v e r e i g h t ye ars# t h e
boa rd c i t e d a " d e t e r i o r a t i o n o f c o n f i d e n c e In t h e s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t ' s l e a d e r s h i p a s w e l l a s s t a f f and s t u d e n t d i r e c t i o n
and moral a "

The boa rd a sk e d f o r a l e t t e r o f n o t i c e t o

r e t i r e a t t h e end o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t s i n c e
t h e y had no l e g a l g ro un ds t o t e r m i n a t e h i m / h e r b e f o r e t h e
ending d a te of t h e c o n tra c t.

Case 26

" W i l l f u l v i o l a t i o n " o f t h e t e r m s of t h e c o n t r a c t was c i t e d
a s c a u s e f o r nonrene wal of t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t .
Appa ren tl y# t h e r e had been a v e r b a l a g r e e m e n t t h a t t h e
superintendent#

when hired # would move I n t o t h e d i s t r i c t as

soon a s h i s / h e r home was s o l d .

By t h e end o f t h e s ec on d

y e a r t h e move had s t i l l n o t been a c c o m p l i s h e d .

Discrepan­

c i e s e x i s t e d bet wee n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e boa rd a s t o
t h e length of th e co n tra ct.

The y e a r p r i o r t o boa rd a c t i o n

151

taken

1

n nonrenewal of t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t *

the

bo a rd moved t o e x t e n d a l l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ' c o n t r a c t s f o r two
years.

T his m e a n t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t b e l i e v e d h i s / h e r

c o n t r a c t would c o n t i n u e f o r one more y e a r p a s t t h e b o a r d ' s
decision t o term inate.
Case 27

No f o l l o w - u p was a v a i l a b l e on f i l e .

In t h e second y e a r s e r v i n g a s t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1n t h i s
d i s t r i c t * t h e bo a rd renewed h i s / h e r c o n t r a c t f o r one y e a r
1n J u l y .

By t h e f o l l o w i n g October* t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t had

s t i l l not received a w ritte n co n tract.

H e /s h e c a l l e d MASA

q u e s t i o n i n g w h e t h e r o r n o t t e n u r e was now g r a n t e d

1

n the

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s p o s i t i o n s i n c e t e n u r e had been de n ie d
v e r b a l l y o n ly by bo a rd a c t i o n t o renew t h e c o n t r a c t f o r one
year.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was a d v i s e d t h a t t h e t e n u r e

d e n i a l was s t i l l

c a r r i e d o v e r from t h e p r e v i o u s y e a r ' s con­

t r a c t through In te n t.

Fu r th er *

r e s p o n s i b i l i t y t o see t o

1

1 t 1s t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s

t th a t a contract

1

s d e v el ope d

and p r e s e n t e d t o t h e boa rd f o r t h e i r approv al o r d i s a p ­
proval .
Case

28

In March* t h e board v o t e d t o e x t e n d t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s
c o n t r a c t * l e a v i n g h i m / h e r t h r e e y e a r s t o run on t h e
e x istin g contract.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a p p a r e n t l y d id n o t

r e d u c e t h e b o a rd a c t i o n t o w r i t i n g
c o n t r a c t f o r t h e i r approval.

1

n t e r m s o f a fo rm al

(MASA a t t o r n e y I n t e r p r e t e d

t h e o f f e r o f a c o n t r a c t needed t o be re s p o n d e d t o by t h e

152

superintendent

1

n te rm s of a w r i t t e n agreement p re sen ted t o

them* t h e board.)

Sub se quen tl y*

t h e bo a rd v o t e d In J u l y t o

r e s c i n d t h e i r a c t i o n o f t h e March m e e t i n g f o r a t h r e e - y e a r
e x t e n s i o n o f t h e c o n t r a c t and v o t e d I n s t e a d t o d i r e c t t h e
superintendent to present a w ritte n co n tract fo r t h e i r
perusal f o r a two-year ex ten sio n of th e c o n t r a c t.
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s ;
Case 29

As a r e s u l t o f a ch ang e 1n t h e make-up o f t h e s cho ol board
a f t e r boa rd e l e c t i o n s * t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was e x p e r i e n c i n g
new d i f f i c u l t i e s c e n t e r i n g on an a p p a r e n t new board p o s t u r e
t o term inate h is /h e r contract.

Th re e bo a rd members (newly

e l e c t e d ) and one " sw ing " b o a rd member p r o v i d e d o v e r t u r e s a s
t o t h e i r I n c l i n a t i o n t o " f i n d a way o u t " o f t h e p r e s e n t
superintendent's contract.

O p in io n s from t h e s cho ol boa rd

a t t o r n e y w e r e r e q u e s t e d by s e v e r a l bo a rd members.

They

w e r e a d v i s e d t h e y w e re bound by t h e t e r m s o f t h e s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t * and* f u r t h e r , t h e y w er e o v e r s t e p p i n g
t h e i r policy-making role.
e n t s t r i f e ensued:

Considerable board-superlntend­

The a s s i s t a n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t r e s i g n e d

due t o h e a l t h r e a s o n s ; a c o m m i t t e e o f "The 3" was fo rm ed t o
look a t a p o s s ib l e ap p o intee f o r th e a s s i s t a n t 's p o s itio n ;
and a l o g o f d i s t r i c t a d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t i v i t y was r e q u e s t e d
by t h e bo a rd

1

n v io la tio n of th e a d m in is tra tiv e master

agreement* t o name a few.

153

Case 30

B o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s c a n change d r a m a t i c a l l y a s a
r e s u l t o f bo a rd e l e c t i o n s h a v i n g t h e t o t a l e f f e c t o f
c o m p l e t e l y c h a n g in g t h e c o m p le x io n and p o s t u r e o f a board.
In t h i s c a s e t h e e l e c t i o n o f two new boa rd members and a
change

1

n t h e o f f i c e r s t r u c t u r e on t h e boa rd worked t o t h e

c o n t i n u a n c e and e nh an c e m en t o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ’s
c o n t r a c t r a t h e r t h a n t h e t e r m i n a t i o n o f same, a s was t h e
in d ic a tio n before th e e le c tio n .
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e d a l _ I n t e r e s t G ro u ps ;
Case 31

All seve n s c h o o l bo a rd members a s w e ll a s t h e s u p e r i n t e n d ­
ent

1

n t h i s d i s t r i c t w e r e d e f e n d a n t s and su ed I n d i v i d u a l l y

f o r $ 1 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 e a c h , due t o c h a r g e s t h e y knowingly and
w i l l f u l l y d e n i e d a c c e s s o f t h r e e c h i l d r e n , from t h e same
f a m i l y , t o s p e c i a l e d u c a t i o n p ro g r am s f o r l e a r n i n g d i s a ­
bilities,

No f o l l o w - u p I n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e 1n t h e

file.

Case 32

I n j u n c t i v e r e l i e f was s o u g h t by t h e l o c a l c i t i z e n r y from
t h e c o u r t s a g a i n s t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h i s d i s t r i c t , who
recommended t h e board e l i m i n a t e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a s a r e s u l t
o f two m l l l a g e d e f e a t s .

I n j u n c t i v e r e l i e f was de n ied.

A

s u b s e q u e n t m l l l a g e was upheld s o l e l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f
r a i s i n g re v e n u e t o fund t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f sch ool c h i l d r e n
1n t h e d i s t r i c t .

The m l l l a g e pa s s e d .

A rec all election

was h e l d t o r e c a l l f i v e board members who v o t e d t o

154

e l i m i n a t e b u s in g.

The r e c a l l move f a i l e d by a 2 t o 1

m a r g in .

Case 33

A t h l e t i c fu n d s can become a very e m o t i o n a l I s s u e / as hap­
pened

1

n t h i s s i t u a t i o n with a fu ll-b lo w n I n v e s tig a tio n

I n i t i a t e d by community members# which
boa rd I n v e s t i g a t i o n .
candy s a l e s #
ment.

1

n t u r n p rom pt ed a

D i s c r e p a n c i e s w e r e a l s o found 1n

which w e re c o n d u c t e d by t h e a t h l e t i c d e p a r t ­

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t came under a t t a c k a s a r e s u l t o f

be in g p e r c e i v e d a s h o l d i n g s u p e r v i s o r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
l e s s than accountable.

Case 3^

Apparently# a t many board m e e t i n g s o n - g o i n g a t t a c k s w e r e
b e i n g made by c i t i z e n s upon t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

This

e n v i r o n m e n t c a n o f t e n c a u s e b o a rd members t o p e r c e i v e t h e i r
superintendent

1

n a n e g a t i v e l i g h t and may I n t e n s i f y a s t h e

a tta c k s continue.

MASA a d v i s e d t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f s ev ­

e r a l o p t i o n s t o Im p l em e n t

1

n an e f f o r t t o n e u t r a l i z e t h e

h e a t from c e r t a i n s e g m e n ts of t h e community.
Advise boa rd p r e s i d e n t a s t o h i s / h e r o p t i o n s in d e a l i n g
w i t h t h i s t y p e of c o n f r o n t a t i o n a t boa rd m e e t i n g s by:
a.

h a v i n g c i t i z e n s w r i t e t h e i r c o m p l a i n t s and s u b m i t
them t o t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o h e / s h e c o u l d p r e p a r e
responses;

b.

board members c o u l d l i s t e n and n o t re s p o n d I n a
p u b lic meeting;

155

c.

o nly t h e boa rd p r e s i d e n t c o u l d re s p o n d ;

d.

1

t would be h e l p f u l t o have c i t i z e n s make s u p p o r t ­

i v e comments t o t h e boa rd a b o u t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
T h i s would n o t be o r g a n i z e d by t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

No

f o l l o w - u p was a v a i l a b l e on t h i s f i l e .
Case 35

P u b l i c p r e s s u r e r e s u l t i n g from n e g a t i v e media c o v e r a g e
brought about a quick d e c li n e
had 1n i t s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

1

n t h e c o n f i d e n c e t h e board

F o l l o w i n g media c o v e r a g e o f a

s t u d y c o n d u c te d by t h e t o t a l s ch oo l d i s t r i c t by an o u t s i d e
agency* t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was a sk e d t o r e s i g n .

T h i s was

w i t h i n t h e same month t h e s t u d y f i n d i n g s w e re p r i n t e d
t h e l o c a l newspaper.

1

n

C ited as reasons fo r asking f o r the

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s r e s i g n a t i o n w e re l a c k o f l e a d e r s h i p s k i l l
and an I n a b i l i t y t o make d e c i s i o n s .

Staff.. Conflicts;
Case 36

A l a w s u i t was f i l e d a g a i n s t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1n t h i s
d i s t r i c t f o r $1 0 0 , 0 0 0

I n d i v i d u a l l y on two c o u n t s ( t h u s

$2 0 0 , 0 0 0 p l u s da mages), and h e / s h e was named a s a co­
d e f e n d a n t w i t h t h e l o c a l I n t e r n a t i o n a l Union o f O p e r a t i n g
E n g i n e e r s f o r a l l e g e d l y v i o l a t i n g t h e school d i s t r i c t ' s
c o l l e c t i v e - b a r g a i n i n g a g r e e m e n t due t o t h e t e r m i n a t i n g o f a
m a i n t e n a n c e e m plo ye e who was a b s e n t from work f o r a p p r o x i ­
m a t e l y one y e a r .

T h e re a p p e a re d t o be some d i s c r e p a n c y 1n

t h e c a s e a s t o w h e t h e r an a c c i d e n t s u s t a i n e d c a u s i n g t h e

156

m a i n t e n a n c e e m plo ye e t o be a b s e n t from work f o r a p p r o x i ­
m a t e l y one y e a r was Jo b r e l a t e d .
Case 37

A tenured te a c h e r requested a d i s a b i l i t y leave fo r t h r e e
months.

H i s / h e r l e a v e was d e n i e d , and h i s / h e r l e t t e r t o

t h e boa rd view ed and a c c e p t e d a s a l e t t e r o f r e s i g n a t i o n .
Whereupon t h e t e n u r e d t e a c h e r r e t u r n e d a f t e r t h r e e months
and was d e n i e d r e - e n t r y I n t o t h e d i s t r i c t a s an employee.
A s u i t was f i l e d by t h e t e a c h e r , naming a s p r i m a r y d e f e n d ­
ant th e superintendent of th e d i s t r i c t .

The Te n ur e Commis­

s i o n d e n ie d t h e ap peal on t h e b a s i s t h e p l a i n t i f f ( t e n u r e d
t e a c h e r ) f a i l e d t o f i l e t h e c o m p l a i n t w i t h i n 30 days o f t h e
d e c i s i o n by t h e c o n t r o l l i n g board.

In f a c t , t h e c o m p l a i n t

was n o t f i l e d u n t i l s e v e n months a f t e r t h e a l l e g e d v i o l a ­
t i o n of t h e t e a c h e r ' s t e n u r e r i g h t s by t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
C i v i l s u i t a c t i o n was t h r e a t e n e d by t h e t e n u r e d t e a c h e r ' s
attorney.

The f i l e does n o t c o n t a i n any d a t a p e r t a i n i n g t o

a c1 v1l su it.
Case 38

In t h e m id - 1 9 7 0 s, a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was a c c u s e d by s e v e r a l
c o a c h e s o f b e i n g i n t o x i c a t e d w h i l e c o n d u c t i n g a m e e t in g .
T h i s a l l e g a t i o n was p l a c e d

1

n w ritin g t o t h i s superintend­

e n t w i t h c o p i e s t o each boa rd member.

Counsel was s o u g h t

from MASA b e f o r e t h e s p e c i a l e x e c u t i v e boa rd m e e t i n g
r e q u e s t e d by t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
h id d e n agenda.

A p p a r e n t l y , t h e r e was a

No f o l l o w - u p on t h i s s i t u a t i o n was

157

a v a i l a b l e 1n t h e f i l e .

Next I n f o r m a t i o n c e n t e r s on t h e

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s r e c o m m en da tio n f o r r e l e a s e o f an e lem en­
t a r y p r i n c i p a l and b e in g named a s t h e p r i m a r y d e f e n d a n t
a subsequent d v l l - a c t i o n law su it.

1

n

Many months l a t e r #

a f t e r b e in g " t o r p e d o e d " by t h e boa rd a t e v e r y meeting# a
c as h s e t t l e m e n t was a g r e e d t o f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r o f t h e
s u p e rin te n d e n t's contract.
Case 39

C1v1l s u i t was b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r n o t
r e i n s t a t i n g an e m plo ye e t o h i s / h e r o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n a f t e r
r e t u r n from a m e d i c a l (pr egnancy) l e a v e .

C o u r t found no

basis for th e s u it.
F i n a n c i a l _D i f f i c u l t i e s :
Case 40

R e s i g n a t i o n o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f t h i s d i s t r i c t was
p r i m a r i l y t h e r e s u l t o f l o c a l media hounding f o l l o w i n g
" l e a k s " from an unknown s o u r c e r e g a r d i n g q u e s t i o n a b l e
fin a n c ial decisions
accounting.

1

n te rm s of s u p e r in te n d e n t expense

L a t e r media c o v e r a g e a l l b u t v i n d i c a t e d t h e

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r n o t much more t h a n " e x c e s s i v e poor
judgment."
Case 41

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t was n o t renewed due t o t h e
board " e x e r c i s i n g a l l I t s economic o p t i o n s " 1n l o o k i n g a t
a d m in is tra tiv e reorganization.

I t a p p e a r e d t h e boa rd was

l o o k i n g a t co m b in in g a p r i n c i p a l p o s i t i o n w i t h t h e

158

superintendency.

The p r e s e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was n o t

q u e s t i o n e d a b o u t h i s / h e r l i k e l i h o o d o f a c c e p t i n g such a
p o s i t i o n , nor was t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t In v o l v e d

1

n the

potential reorganization.
Case k l

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s , more and more, f a c e c h a l l e n g e s t h a t
f o c u s upon t h e b u d g e t a r y p r o c e d u r e s and p o l i c i e s I m p l e ­
mented 1n t h e i r d i s t r i c t s .

The l o c a l p r o s e c u t i n g a t t o r n e y

c o n d u c te d an I n v e s t i g a t i o n o f p o s s i b l e i r r e g u l a r i t i e s In
th e d i s t r i c t 's financial

processes.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was

e x o n e r a t e d o f any c r i m i n a l I n t e n t ; however, s e v e r a l
s t a t u t e s were I n v o l v e d

1

n th e " i r r e g u l a r i t i e s " of t h i s

situation:
1.

MSA 28.758 (1) "No o f f i c e r o r em ployee of any g o v e rn ­
me nta l agency a s d e f i n e d In t h i s s e c t i o n s h a l l p u r c h a s e
o r c a u s e t o be p u r c h a s e d any goods, w a re s , o r merchan­
d i s e o f any d e s c r i p t i o n w h a t s o e v e r 1 n t h e name o f o r on
t h e c r e d i t o f such gov e rn m e nta l agency f o r any o t h e r
p u r p o s e t h a n f o r use o r r e s a l e In t h e r e g u l a r c o u r s e o f
t h e o f f i c i a l b u s i n e s s o f such gov e rn m e nta l agency; o r
s e l l o r o f f e r f o r s a l e goods, w a r e s , o r m e r c h a n d i s e
p u rc h a se d 1 n t h e name o f o r on t h e c r e d i t o f such
g o ve rn m e nta l agency, a t any p r i c e o t h e r t h a n t h e p r i c e
a t which such goods a r e o f f e r e d g e n e r a l l y t o t h e p u b l i c
by such gov ernme ntal agency.
"For t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s a c t i o n , ' g o ver nm en ta l
agen cy ' s h a l l be d e f i n e d t o mean any and a l l b r a n c h e s
o r d e p a r t m e n t s o f t h e s t a t e go v e rn m e n t; any and a l l
b r a n c h e s o r d e p a r t m e n t s o f t h e gove rnm en t o f any
c o u n t y , c i t y , v i l l a g e , school d i s t r i c t , t o w n s h i p , o r
o t h e r m u n i c i p a l c o r p o r a t i o n 1 n t h e s t a t e ; and any com­
m i s s i o n , board, o r o t h e r s i m i l a r body o r g a n i z e d t o
a s s i s t 1 n t h e c o n d u c t o f t h e g o v e rn m e nt al o r p r o p r i e ­
t a r y f u n c t i o n s o f t h e s t a t e o r l o c a l government.
"Any p e rs on who s h a l l v i o l a t e any o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s
o f t h i s s e c t i o n , s h a l l be g u i l t y o f a misde mea no r,
p u n i s h a b l e by Im p r i s o n m e n t 1 n t h e c ounty J a i l n o t more
t h a n 90 day s o r by a f i n e o f n o t more t h a n J 1 0 0 , o r by

159

2.

3.

both such f i n e and Im p r i s o n m e n t 1 n t h e d i s c r e t i o n of
the c o u rt.”
MSA 28.759 "All o f f i c i a l books, p a p e r s , o r r e c o r d s
c r e a t e d by o r r e c e i v e d In any o f f i c e o r agency o f t h e
S t a t e o f M ichig an o r I t s p o l i t i c a l s u b d i v i s i o n s , a r e
d e c l a r e d t o be p u b l i c p r o p e r t y , b e l o n g i n g t o t h e p e o p l e
o f t h e S t a t e o f M i c h i g a n . . . . Any p e r s o n who s h a l l
w i l l f u l l y c a r r y away, m u t i l a t e o r d e s t r o y any of such
books, p a p e r , r e c o r d s , o r any p a r t o f t h e same, and any
p e rs o n who s h a l l r e t a i n and c o n t i n u e t o h ol d p o s s e s s i o n
o f any books, p a p e r s o r r e c o r d s , o r p a r t s t h e r e o f ,
b e l o n g i n g t o t h e a f o r e s a i d o f f i c e s and s h a l l r e f u s e t o
d e l i v e r up such books, p a p e r s , r e c o r d s , o r p a r t s
t h e r e o f t o t h e p r o p e r o f f i c e r h a v in g c h a r g e o f t h e
o f f i c e t o which such books, p a p e r s , o r r e c o r d s be lon g
upon demand b e i n g made by su ch o f f i c e r o r , 1 n t h e c a s e
o f t h e d e f u n c t o f f i c e , t h e Michigan H i s t o r i c a l Commis­
s i o n , s h a l l be g u i l t y o f a mis de me an or, p u n i s h a b l e by
I m p r i s o n m e n t 1 n t h e s t a t e p r i s o n n o t more t h a n t w o
y e a r s o r by a f i n e o f n o t more t h a n $ 1 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 :
MSA 7.545 " I t s h a l l be u n la w fu l f o r any p e r s o n t o
r e f u s e t o make t h e r e t u r n r e q u i r e d by t h i s a c t ; o r t o
make, o r t o a i d , a b e t o r a s s i s t a n o t h e r In making, any
f a l s e o r f r a u d u l e n t r e t u r n o r f a l s e s t a t e m e n t 1 n any
r e t u r n r e q u i r e d by t h i s a c t , w i t h t h e I n t e n t t o d e f r a u d
t h e s t a t e o r t o evade t h e payment o f t h e t a x , o r any
p a r t t h e r e o f , imposed by t h i s a c t ; o r f o r any p e r s o n t o
a i d , a b e t o r a s s i s t a n o t h e r 1 n any a t t e m p t t o evade t h e
payment of t h e t a x , o r any p a r t t h e r e o f , Imposed by
t h i s a c t ; . . . . Any p e r s o n v i o l a t i n g a n y o f t h e
p r o v i s i o n s o f t h i s a c t s h a l l be g u i l t y o f a mis demeanor
and, on c o n v i c t i o n t h e r e o f , s h a l l be f i n e d n o t more
t h a n $1 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 o r i m p r i s o n e d n o t e x c e e d i n g one y e a r 1 n
t h e c o u n ty j a i l o r p u n i s h e d by both f i n e and I m p r i s o n ­
ment, a t t h e d i s c r e t i o n o f t h e c o u r t f o r each and e ve r y
v io latio n of the a c t. . . . ”

Apparently,

t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s began a s a " w i t c h h u n t" on

t h e p a r t o f two board members who w ere s e e k i n g t e r m i n a t i o n
of t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

In a s u b s e q u e n t boa rd m e e t i n g , a

5 - 2 v o t e was c a s t t o e x o n e r a t e t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t , r e t a i n
h i m / h e r In t h e same p o s i t i o n , and e s t a b l i s h t i g h t e r
b u d g e t i n g p r a c t i c e s In l i n e w i t h Michigan School Ac counting
statutes.

160

Case 43

F i n a n c i a l p ro b le m s proved t o be a n e m e s i s f o r t h i s s u p e r i n ­
tendent.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was s u sp e n d e d and t h e n s u b s e ­

q u e n t l y f i r e d due t o c h a r g e s by t h e boa rd o f s e l f - d e a l i n g
and f i n a n c i a l I r r e g u l a r i t i e s
dure s .

1

n term s of budgetary proce­

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t f i l e d a c i v i l s u i t c h a r g i n g t h e

boa rd w i t h n o n c o m p ll a n ce w i t h h i s / h e r c o n t r a c t t e r m s t h a t
d e a l t w i t h due p r o c e s s r i g h t s

1

n th e situ a tio n of release

or te rm in a tio n of the s erv ice s of th e superintendent.

The

s u i t a l s o asked f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p u n i t i v e damage s e t t l e ­
ment t o be a s s e s s e d a g a i n s t each I n d i v i d u a l bo a rd member.
Management P r o b l e m s ;
Case 44

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t i n t h i s d i s t r i c t was named a s a co ­
defendant

1

n an a c c l d e n t a l - d e a t h c a s e o f a c h i l d who dashed

from t h e dri ve w a y o f h i s / h e r home I n t o t h e p a th of an on­
coming t r u c k t h a t was s c h o o l - d 1 s t r i c t p r o p e r t y .

No f o l l o w -

up was a v a i l a b l e on f i l e .

Case 45

Students were charged by school personnel with drinking
w h i l e members o f an i n t e r s c h o l a s t i c a t h l e t i c team and w ere
s u b s e q u e n t l y s u sp en de d fr om t h e te am and a l l s t a t e and
local com petitions.

As a r e s u l t * t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was

named a s c o - d e f e n d a n t In a l a w s u i t f i l e d by t h e p a r e n t s of
t h e s t u d e n t s In q u e s t i o n * c o n t e s t i n g t h e s u s p e n s i o n which
resulted

1

n t h e i r removal from t h e team* c i t i n g I r r e p a r a b l e

damage t o t h e i r a t h l e t i c c a r e e r s .

The s u i t c l a i m e d damages

161

o f $5 0 0 ,0 0 0 p lu s $ 2 5 ,0 0 0 f o r I n t e r e s t and a tto r n e y f e e s .

An I n j u n c t i o n was s o u g h t by t h e f a m i l i e s and was o b t a i n e d .
Ac co rd in g t o t h e f i l e ,

s i n c e t h e end o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r

a t h l e t i c s e a s o n i n q u e s t i o n had come and gone, t h e l a w s u i t
became a moot i s s u e .
Case A6

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1n t h i s d i s t r i c t was c h a r g e d In a
l a w s u i t w i t h a s s a u l t and b a t t e r y o f a c h i l d o f t h e s ch ool
d istrict.

H e /s h e was 1n t h e f i r s t y e a r o f a t w o - y e a r

contract.

W it h in t h e n e x t s e v e r a l months t h e s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t ' s Jo b d e s c r i p t i o n was changed d r a s t i c a l l y .

The admin­

i s t r a t i v e a s s i s t a n t was r e a s s i g n e d by t h e bo a rd and g iv e n
a l l o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s d u t i e s w i t h no change

1

n title.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s u b m i t t e d h i s / h e r r e s i g n a t i o n e f f e c t i v e
a t t h e end o f t h e t w o - y e a r c o n t r a c t .
Case ^7

Named 1n a summons from a U.S. D i s t r i c t C o u r t , t h i s s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t was c h a r g e d w i t h d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .

Court a c tio n

was d e c l i n e d by t h e Michigan C1v1l R i g h t s Commission and
t h e Equal Employment O p p o r t u n i t y Commission.

Discrim ina­

t i o n c h a r g e s c e n t e r e d on a m a t e r n i t y l e a v e and t h e "Board's
a r b i t r a r y d e c i s i o n n o t t o award s i c k - l e a v e b e n e f i t s " ;
t h e r e f o r e , t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s u i t was f i l e d .
I n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e .

No f o l l o w - u p

162

Case

^ 8

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was named a c o - d e f e n d a n t 1n a l e g a l s u i t
s te m m in g from an I n j u r y s u s t a i n e d by a c h i l d In an e le m e n ­
ta r y physical education c la s s .
was a v a i l a b l e

Case ^*9

1

No f o l l o w - u p I n f o r m a t i o n

n the file .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was c h a r g e d a s a c o - d e f e n d a n t 1n a
l a w s u i t r e s u l t i n g from “a c u t e and s e r i o u s p s y c h o l o g i c a l
d i s o r d e r and I l l n e s s " s u f f e r e d by a s t u d e n t who was In a
c l a s s r o o m where t h e t e a c h e r was s h o t by h i s / h e r e s t r a n g e d
s pou se.

No f o l l o w - u p I n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e In t h e

file.
Case 50

C1v1l r i g h t s c o m p l a i n t s c e n t e r on t h e c a r e e r o f t h e s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t from t h i s d i s t r i c t .

C har ges o f s e x u a l h a r a s s m e n t

w e re b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t by an e m plo ye e
the central adm inistration office.

1

n

The employee was s e e k ­

i n g j o b s e c u r i t y and a m on e ta ry remedy from t h e s u i t .
Su bs eq uen tl y* o v e r t h e n e x t y e a r t h e boa rd and t h e s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t c o u l d n o t come t o a g r e e m e n t on t h e t e r m s o f h i s / h e r
upcoming c o n t r a c t .

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o u g h t employment

elsewhere.

C ase 51

A l i b e l s u i t was b r o u g h t a g a i n s t a community member by t h e
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and s c h o o l boa rd In t h i s d i s t r i c t .

A

c i t i z e n had made c e r t a i n a l l e g a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g t h e
c h a r a c t e r of t h e superintendent* as well a s charges
r e g a r d i n g b u d g e t I n c o n s i s t e n c i e s which r e f l e c t e d a d v e r s e l y

163

on t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s a b i l i t y t o run t h e d i s t r i c t .

Also,

c a u s i n g t h i s a c t i o n was t h e community members' d i s p e r s a l o f
l i t e r a t u r e t o t h e community t h a t was v ie w ed a s " s c u r r i l o u s "
t o b o a rd members and t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

The s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t and members o f t h e bo a rd view ed t h e f H e r ( s ) a s d e l e t e ­
r i o u s t o t h e i r m111 a ge e l e c t i o n e f f o r t s .

The c o u r t r u l e d

a g a i n s t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and t h e board b u t d i d n o t hold
them l i a b l e f o r r e i m b u r s i n g c o s t s t o t h e d i s t r i c t I n c u r r e d
1n l e g a l
Case 52

f e e s p a i d f o r by t a x p a y e r monies.

A l a w s u i t f i l e d named t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a c o - d e f e n d a n t a s
t h e r e s u l t o f I n j u r i e s s u s t a i n e d by an e l e m e n t a r y c h i l d
w h i l e p l a y i n g on p a r t i c u l a r pla y g ro u n d eq ui pm e nt.

The c a s e

was d i s m i s s e d a s no n e g l i g e n c e was pro ve n.
Case 53

S u p e r I n t e n d e n c y problems# though t h e y may r e s u l t 1n con­
f l i c t w i t h s c h o o l - b o a r d members# can b e gin t h r o u g h t h e
p e r c e i v e d use of b u d g e t p r o c e d u r e s .
t h i s Instance.

Such 1s t h e c a s e 1n

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a l l o w e d and s i g n e d

c h e c k s from an " u n l a w f u l fund ($10#000)" t o buy l u n c h e s f o r
h i m / h e r s e l f # f e l l o w a d m i n i s t r a t o r s # t o buy f l o w e r s f o r
p e r s o n a l f r i e n d s # s p e c i a l r e c o g n i t i o n s # and f u n e r a l f l o w e r
expenses as w e ll.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was a l s o c h a r g e d by

t h e a tto rn e y f o r th e school d i s t r i c t # c la im in g t h e s u p e r in ­
t e n d e n t was o v e r p a i d f o r s e v e r a l y e a r s due t o an e r r o r 1n
t h e u s e of a c o m p u t a t i o n a l f o r m u l a t o e s t a b l i s h s a l a r y

164

ran g es.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ' s c o n t r a c t was n o t renewed.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t found new employment.
Case 5k

L i t i g a t i o n posed a prob lem f o r t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t i n b e in g
named a s a d e f e n d a n t 1n a c 1 v 1 l - r 1 g h t s s u i t c l a i m i n g t h e
su p erin ten d en t In te rf e re d with th e c i v i l

rig h ts of a

t e a c h e r who was on a m e d ic a l l e a v e and was s e e k i n g r e i n ­
s ta t e m e n t In to t h e te a c h in g ranks of t h e d i s t r i c t .

Rein­

s t a t e m e n t was de n ie d pen din g r e q u i r e d p s y c h i a t r i c e x a m i n a ­
t i o n by a p s y c h i a t r i s t d e s i g n a t e d by t h e d i s t r i c t .

No

f o l l o w - u p I n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e on f i l e .
Case 55

In t h e e a r l y and mid-1970s* l a w s u i t s w e r e b e in g f i l e d In
s e v e r a l d i s t r i c t s c e n t e r i n g on t h e m a t e r n 1 t y / s 1 c k - l e a v e
Issue.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t In t h i s d i s t r i c t was I n v o l v e d 1n

one such c a s e .
Case 56

L i t i g a t i o n was b r o u g h t a g a i n s t t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a s t h e
r e s u l t o f an I n j u r y s u s t a i n e d by a h ig h s c h o o l y o u th who#
as a r e s u l t o f b e l o n g i n g t o an e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r club# was
a sk e d t o do some work n o r m a l l y p e r f o r m e d by a m a i n t e n a n c e
employee.
sight.

Case 57

The s t u d e n t s u s t a i n e d an I n j u r y c a u s i n g l o s s o f

Follow-up I n f o r m a t i o n was n o t a v a i l a b l e on f i l e .

A p r i n c i p a l who was demoted and r e a s s i g n e d a s a c l a s s r o o m
t e a c h e r f i l e d s u i t a g a i n s t t h e s c h o o l boa rd and s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t 1n t h i s d i s t r i c t .

The s u i t c h a r g e d t h e p r i n c i p a l

165

had n o t been s e r v e d w i t h any w r i t t e n s t a t e m e n t s c o n c e r n i n g
s p e c i f i c a c t s o f m a l f e a s a n c e o r m is c o n d u c t.
s o u g h t and r e c e i v e d I n j u n c t i v e r e l i e f .

The p r i n c i p a l

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t

and board w ere o r d e r e d t o comply w i t h p r o c e d u r a l r e q u i r e ­
m e nts as e s t a b l i s h e d by law and w e r e f u r t h e r o r d e r e d t o
a p p e a r b e f o r e t h e c o u r t t o show c au s e .

Apparently* t h i s

p rin c ip a l spread d e le te rio u s inform ation about th e su p erin ­
t e n d e n t around t h e community.

Sub se que ntl y* t h e p r i n c i p a l

was demoted b u t won I n j u n c t i v e r e l i e f a s s t a t e d .
Case

58

Two l a w s u i t s had been f i l e d a g a i n s t t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
The f i r s t a l l e g e d a c i v 1 l - r 1 g h t s v i o l a t i o n by t h e s u p e r i n ­
te n d e n t * who r e f u s e d t o r e t a i n a 7 0 - y e a r - o l d t e a c h e r whose
c e r t i f i c a t i o n was n o t c u r r e n t *
appointed t o t h e p o s itio n .

and a c e r t i f i e d t e a c h e r was

The s ec ond s u i t r e s u l t e d 1n an

I n j u r y c a s e o f a h ig h school s t u d e n t who s u f f e r e d damage t o
a hand 1n an I n d u s t r i a l a r t s c l a s s .

No f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n

was a v a i l a b l e 1n t h e f i l e a s t o t h e outcome o f t h e s e two
cases.

Case 59

T h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o u g h t h e l p and a s s i s t a n c e from MASA a s
t h e r e s u l t of peremptory n o t i f i c a t i o n of p o s s i b l e l i t i g a ­
t i o n due t o a problem 1n a f o r m e r d i s t r i c t o f which h e / s h e
was f o r m e r l y t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .

Apparently* t h e s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t ' s p r e v i o u s board t o o k a c t i o n f o r t e r m i n a t i o n o f a
teach er's services.

However* t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was 1n

166

e r r o r In f o l l o w i n g e s t a b l i s h e d p r o c e d u r e by f a l l i n g t o
properly n o tify th e te a c h e r w ith in th e s ta t u to r y tim e lim ­
its.

The boa rd was o r d e r e d t o pay t e n s o f t h o u s a n d s o f

d o l l a r s 1n back pay and was c o n t e m p l a t i n g s u i n g t h i s s u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t f o r t h a t amount o r any amount a r r i v e d a t th r o u g h
a negotiated settlem ent.

No f o l l o w - u p was a v a i l a b l e on

file.
Case 60

As a r e s u l t o f a s e n i o r s k i p day* a f e m a l e s t u d e n t was
r a p e d when s e v e r a l o f t h e group l e f t t h e o r i g i n a l

party.

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a l o n g w i t h s e v e r a l s t a f f members w ere
c h a r g e d w i t h n e g l i g e n c e I n n o t p r e v e n t i n g harm t o t h e
fem ale student.

No f u r t h e r I n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e on

f i l e a s t o t h e outcome o f t h e s u i t .
Case 61

I n a n o t h e r l i t i g a t i o n s u i t * t h i s s u p e r i n t e n d e n t was sued as
a c o - d e f e n d a n t 1n t h e c a s e o f a s t u d e n t who was m o r t a l l y
wounded by b e in g s t r u c k by a c a r a f t e r b e in g dropped o f f
from t h e s c h o o l bus.

The s u i t c h a r g e d n e g l i g e n c e 1n t h e

s e l e c t i o n of t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s i t e f o r disembarking s t u ­
dents.

The s u i t f i l e d a sk e d $1*000*000 1n damages p l u s

c o u r t costs.
Case 62

A not he r l a w s u i t naming t h e s u p e r i n d e n t a s a c o - d e f e n d a n t
stemmed from an I n j u r y s u s t a i n e d by an e l e m e n t a r y s t u d e n t
w h i l e b e in g " f o r c e d " t o f u l f i l l an e x e r c i s e r e q u i r e m e n t 1n

167

a physical education c la s s .

N e g li g e n c e and Im p r o p e r

a s s i g n m e n t o f a t e a c h e r who was n o t " c o m p e t e n t ” 1n t h i s
a r e a of I n s t r u c t i o n w e r e d t e d a l l e g a t i o n s 1n t h e l a w s u i t .
No f o l l o w - u p was a v a i l a b l e on f i l e .
Case

63

A l a w s u i t was f i l e d naming t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a s co­
d e f e n d a n t In an I n j u r y s u s t a i n e d by an e l e m e n t a r y s t u d e n t
p a r t i c i p a t i n g In a gym a c t i v i t y on a gym ba r.

C harges

c e n t e r e d on u n r e a s o n a b l e r i s k o f harm and n e g l i g e n c e 1n
p roviding Inadequate supervision.

No f o l l o w - u p was a v a l l -

a b l e on f 11 e.
The d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h p r o v i d e d h e r e 1n t h e form o f v i g n e t t e s
was f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f I d e n t i f y i n g t h o s e problem a r e a s h a v i n g t h e
g r e a t e s t f r e q u e n c y of o c c u r r e n c e 1n c o n t a c t s w i t h MASA f o r p r a c t i c i n g
superintendents.

T a b l e 4.18 p r o v i d e s t h e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n of

problem a r e a s I d e n t i f i e d 1n t h e 63 c a s e s from t h e a c t i v e f i l e s o f MASA.
T a b l e 4 . 1 8 , — Frequency of problems r e p o r t e d .

I d e n t i f i e d Problem Area
Board-Superlntendent R elations
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups
S taff C onflicts
Financial D i f f i c u l t i e s
Management Problems
P e r c e n t a g e h a s been rounded o f f .

Number o f
Cases

Frequency
D istribution

28/6 3
2/6 3
0/63
5/6 3
4/6 3
4/6 3
20/63

463
33
—
83a
63 a
53 a
333

168

The d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a r e p o r t e d from t h e two sour ces * (1) s u rv e y
r e s p o n s e s and (2) t h e v i g n e t t e s de v e lo p e d from t h e MASA f i l e s * s u p ­
ported t h e s t a t i s t i c a l

e v i d e n c e r e p o r t e d 1n t h i s c h a p t e r # p a r t i c u l a r l y

1n t h e a r e a o f B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s .

Most f r e q u e n t l y (46%)#

c o n t a c t s w e r e made t o MASA f o r a s s i s t a n c e 1n t h e a r e a o f B oar dSuperlntendent R elations.

Management P r o b le m s w e r e m e n ti o n e d a l m o s t a s

f r e q u e n t l y 1n r e s p o n s e s from t h e s u r v e y I n q u i r y a s w e re comments on
Board-Superlntendent R elations.

The s ec on d m o s t f r e q u e n t need of

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s f o r c o n s u l t i v e s e r v i c e s from MASA a p p e a r e d t o be 1n t h e
a r e a o f Management P ro ble m s (20%).

.Summary
In t h i s c h a p t e r sev e n h y p o t h e s e s and a demo gra phi c d a t a
q u e s t i o n s t a t e d 1n C h a p t e r I w e re ree xam in e d and s t a t e d 1n t h e form of
n u ll hypotheses f o r t e s t i n g .

Seven r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s e s w ere p r e s e n t e d

and analyzed# as w e l l a s t h e de mo gr a ph ic d a t a q u e s t i o n by t h i s w r i t e r
1n l i g h t o f t h e e v i d e n c e c o l l e c t e d .

Demographic d a t a c o l l e c t e d from a

s u r v e y o f 521 Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s w e re a l s o p r e ­
sented,

These d a t a r e p r e s e n t e d r e s p o n s e s from 366 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t who

r e t u r n e d t h e su rv e y.
A c h 1 - s q u a r e c o m p a r i s o n was used t o I n v e s t i g a t e t h e se v e n
hypotheses.

The s t a t i s t i c used t o m e a s u re t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e d a t a

was t h e t - t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .
based on t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d .

H ypoth ese s 1 and 2 w er e r e j e c t e d #

Hypo the ses 3 t h r o u g h 7 w ere acce pted*

ba sed on t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e f i n d i n g s .

While no s i g n i f i c a n t

169

r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d In t e s t i n g H y p o t h e s i s 6# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
o v e r w h e l m i n g l y s e l e c t e d t h e v a r i a b l e 1n t h i s h y p o t h e s i s a s ha v in g t h e
m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o f u l f i l l t h e d u t i e s
of th e ir o ffic e .
A two-wa y MANOVA t e s t was used t o I n v e s t i g a t e t h e de mo gr a ph ic
data question.

The s t a t i s t i c used t o m e a s u re t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e

d a t a was t h e F - t e s t o f s i g n i f i c a n c e .

The q u e s t i o n a s t o p r e v i o u s

s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e c h an gi ng p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e pr ob le m s
e x p e r i e n c e d w h i l e 1n o f f i c e was r e j e c t e d w it h F = .0 7 1 .
D e s c r i p t i v e d a t a w e re r e p o r t e d from t h e f o l l o w i n g two s o u r c e s :
(1) 111 s urv e y r e s p o n d e n t s ' a n s w e r s t o an e s s a y q u e s t i o n and (2) 63
c a s e s c i t e d from t h e a c t i v e f i l e s o f MASA r e p o r t e d 1n t h e form o f
vignettes.
C h a p t e r V 1s de v o te d t o a c o n c i s e summary o f t h e r e s e a r c h
c o n c l u s i o n s , I m p l i c a t i o n s , and s u g g e s t i o n s o f q u e s t i o n s f o r f u r t h e r
study.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS

T h i s f i n a l c h a p t e r 1s de v o te d t o a summary o f t h e s t u d y , a
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h e d a t a c o l l e c t e d , and
recommendations and I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .
Summary
P u r p o se o f t h e Study
1.

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h o s e a d m i n i s ­

t r a t i v e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s I n Michigan between
1972 and 1984 t h a t a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t i v e l y
d i r e c t t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e i r s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s t h a t r e s u l t e d 1n t u r n o v e r
( v o l u n t a r y or I n v o l u n t a r y ) a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .
2.

Seven v a r i a b l e s (pro blem a r e a s ) w e r e I d e n t i f i e d a f t e r a

p r e l i m i n a r y re vie w o f p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s a s w e l l a s from d i s c u s s i o n s w i t h
s u p erin ten d en ts p resen tly in th e f i e l d .

The s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s a r e :

Board-Superlntendent R elations
Board-Member E l e c t i o n s
Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s
Public P re s su re /S p e d a l

I n t e r e s t Groups

S t a f f Conf1 l e t s

170

171

F in a n c ia l D i f f i c u l t i e s

Management Problems
3.

C l o s e l y a l l i e d w i t h t h e p u r p o s e of t h i s s t u d y was t o

a s c e r t a i n 1f any one o r more o f t h e problem a r e a s c ou ld be s i n g l e d o u t
a s t h e c o n s t a n t f a c t o r which c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d o f p r i m a r y c a u s a l i t y
1n t h e t u r n o v e r r a t e a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .
4.

The s t u d y a d d i t i o n a l l y s o u g h t t o d e t e r m i n e 1 f s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e s c o u ld be found In s u p e r i n t e n d e n t p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e d e g r e e
o f a d v e r s e e f f e c t o f t h e pro ble m a r e a s due t o p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n t e n d e n c e
experience.
5.

D e s c r i p t i v e d a t a w e re documented from tw o s o u r c e s ;

(a) t h e

s u r v e y m a i l e d t o 521 Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s In May 1984
( s e e Appendix A) and (b) 63 c a s e s p u l l e d from t h e a c t i v e f i l e s o f t h e
Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s (MASA), r e p o r t e d 1n t h e
form o f v i g n e t t e s .

The p u rp o s e h e r e was t o p r o v i d e r e c e n t s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t r e a c t i o n s t o t h e I d e n t i f i e d problem a r e a s a s w e l l a s t r y i n g t o
a s c e r t a i n t h e p r i m a r y problem a r e a ( s ) I d e n t i f i e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n
t h e i r p u r s u i t o f p r o f e s s i o n a l a s s i s t a n c e from MASA p e r s o n n e l a n d / o r
legal counsel.
L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e Study
1.

T h i s s t u d y was l i m i t e d t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f Michigan p u b l i c

s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1972 th r o u g h 1984 a s r e p o r t e d
by t h e MASA a s w e l l as d a t a g a t h e r e d th r o u g h s u r v e y i n g 521 s u p e r i n t e n d ­
e n t s 1n Michigan In May 1984.

172

2.

The v a l i d i t y o f t h e s t u d y was a f f e c t e d by t h e m a j o r s o u r c e s

of the data.
3.

T h i s s t u d y d e a l t w i t h s e l e c t e d d e m o gr a phic f a c t o r s t h a t

c o u l d be s t a t i s t i c a l l y a n a l y z e d and compared.
4.

This study d e a l t w ith s e l e c t e d p ro b le m a tic (J o b -re la te d )

f a c t o r s common t o a l l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h a t c o u ld be s t a t i s t i c a l l y
a n a l y z e d and compared.
5.

T hi s s t u d y assumed t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s re sp ond ed t o d a t a

c o l l e c t i o n by t h e MASA a s w e ll a s t h e s u r v e y c o n duct e d f o r t h i s s t u d y
w i t h a c c u r a t e p e r c e p t i o n s 1n t e r m s o f I d e n t i f y i n g problem a r e a s ha v in g
s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a s w e l l a s c a u s e and
e f f e c t r e la tio n s h ip s , with regard t o t h e i r voluntary o r Involuntary
turnover.
Review o f t h e L i t e r a t u r e
A review o f l i t e r a t u r e f o r t h i s s t u d y c o n s i s t e d o f an a n a l y s i s
o f t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d by Michigan p u b l i c school
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e l a t e d t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and s u b s e q u e n t
turnover a t t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e lev el.

Most i n v e s t i g a t o r s ha ve a g r e e d

t h a t what 1s hap pen ing t o s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t o d a y 1s t h a t t h e I m p o s s i b l e
1s b e i n g e x p e c t e d o f them.

R ol e e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e p u b l i c school

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t have o u t s t r i p p e d t h e c a p a c i t y o f m o s t I n d i v i d u a l s t o
f i l l them.

Demands o f t h e j o b o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y w e re found t o be

l e s s m a n a g e r i a l and more p o l i t i c a l

1n n a t u r e .

T r a d i t i o n , 1n t e r m s o f

t h e r o l e o f t h e s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y , was found t o be d e c l i n i n g 1n Impor­
tance.

Overall,

Individual

l e a d e r s h i p was found t o be d i m i n i s h i n g .

173

Many I n v e s t i g a t o r s a g r e e d t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e un de r s i e g e from
m 1 l 1 t a n t l y c o m p e t in g g r o u p s e n c r o a c h i n g on I n t e r n a l a f f a i r s o f school
districts.

Due t o t h e c o s m o p o l i t a n n a t u r e o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y

today# s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e view ed a s o u t s i d e r s and a r e h a v i n g t o work
c o n s c i o u s l y and d i l i g e n t l y 1n e s t a b l i s h i n g l o y a l c o a l i t i o n s w i t h i n
th e ir districts.

The l i t e r a t u r e was r e p l e t e 1n t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t

p r a c t i c a l l y humanly I m p o s s i b l e demands a r e be ing p l a c e d on c o n te m p o r a r y
superintendents.
Major f i n d i n g s from p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s o f p r o b l e m a t i c ( j o b r e l a t e d ) f a c t o r s I n f l u e n c i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s and t u r n o v e r
a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l a r e d i s c u s s e d 1n t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s .
Board-suoerlntendent r e l a t i o n s :
1.

The q u a l i t y o f t h e school b o a rd I s a p r e d o m i n a n t f a c t o r 1n

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s u c c e s s and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t .
2.

School b o a r d s a r e becoming I n c r e a s i n g l y p o l i t i c a l and a r e

becoming more In v o lv e d 1n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s # t r a d i t i o n a l l y viewed.
3.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s mu st become s c h o l a r s o f t h e a s p e c t s of

p o l i t i c a l I n f l u e n c e and m a ne u v e ri n g .
4.

A d e f i n i t e s h i f t in power and I n f l u e n c e I s t a k i n g p l a c e 1n

th e ro le of the superintendent.
Board-member e l e c t i o n s ;
1.

In v oluntary departures#

1n c o m p a r is o n t o v o l u n t a r y ones#

were found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y accompanied by e l e c t o r a l " h e a t . "
2.

I n v o l u n t a r y d e p a r t u r e s w e r e found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y

r e l a t e d t o b o a r d - in c u m b e n t d e f e a t s .

174

C o m m u n ic a tio n s/p u b lic r e l a t i o n s ;

1.

S u p e r i n t e n d i n g was found t o be communicating.

2.

Communication a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l was found t o be

c h a r a c t e r i z e d by b r e v i t y # v a r i e t y # and f r a g m e n t a t i o n .
3.

I t was found t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e u n s k i l l e d and

u n t r a i n e d 1n c u l t i v a t i n g and I d e n t i f y i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s and
power s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e i r d i s t r i c t s .
4.

Today's s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e e x p e c t e d t o be s k i l l e d p o l i t i ­

cal n e g o t i a t o r s r a t h e r than t h e expert# t h e au th o rity #

in educational

m atters.
Public p re s s u re /s p e c la U n t e r e s t . g r o u p s ;
1.

To deal e f f e c t i v e l y w i t h t h e I n t e r r e l a t e d n e s s o f I n t e r e s t

groups# s u b s e q u e n t p u b l i c p r e s s u r e #

and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

Intensity#

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o become a s t u t e 1n t h e o r e t i c a l knowledge o f how
l i v i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n s e x i s t and i n t e r a c t .
2.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o be more a c c e s s i b l e # v i s i b l e # and

w i l l i n g t o h e a r community v o i c e s .
3.

I n c r e a s e d a c c e s s i b i l i t y and v i s i b i l i t y w i l l be acc ompanied

by I n c r e a s e d r i s k s .
4.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s hav e no c h o i c e ; t h e y c o n s c i o u s l y need t o

become p o l i t i c a l e n t i t l e s .
5.

I f no power b a s e ca n be e s t a b l i s h e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o r

t h e i r boards# t h e y need t o " c o n s c i o u s l y ch o os e " t o c u l t i v a t e r e l a t i o n ­
s h i p s w i t h I n f l u e n t i a l gro ups I n t e r n a l l y and w i t h i n t h e c o m m u n i t y - a t large.

175

S taff c o n flic ts :
1.

Of t e n I s s u e s * s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c i t e d n e g o t i a t i o n s * s t r i k e s *

and t e a c h e r m i l i t a n c y a s t h e num be r-o ne I s s u e t h a t would d r i v e them
from t h i s p o s i t i o n .
2.

A s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found betwee n s u p e r i n t e n d ­

e n t s ' management s t y l e s and f r e q u e n c y o f fo rm al g r i e v a n c e s .
Financial d i f f i c u l t i e s ;
1.

Two m a j o r s t u d i e s c o n d u c te d by t h e American A s s o c i a t i o n of

School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s (AASA) In 1971 and 1982 found s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
rank e d f i n a n c i n g s c h o o l s as t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t c h a l l e n g e t h e y f a c e .
2.

In 1982* s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s c i t e d I n a d e q u a t e f i n a n c i n g a s t h e

s i n g l e f a c t o r h a v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t I n f l u e n c e on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
3.

Over a t e n - y e a r p e r i o d fr om 1972 t o 1982* Michigan p u b l i c

s c h o o l s s u f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e accomp an ied by 80% t o
90% I n c r e a s e s In e x p e n d i t u r e s .
4.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o become s t u d e n t s 1n t h e f i e l d o f

e c o n o m i c s In o r d e r t o l e g i t i m i z e t o t h e t a x p a y i n g p u b l i c t h e d l c h o t o mous r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n d e c l i n i n g e n r o l l m e n t s and I n c r e a s i n g e x p e n d i ­
tures.
M an a ge m en t,p r ob le m s :
1.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s view t h e J o b a s one r e q u i r i n g e x e c u t i v e

m a n a g e r ia l s k i l l s p r e v a l e n t 1n l e a d i n g any complex o r g a n i z a t i o n .
2.

S i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e found b e tw ee n p a t t e r n s o f

te am management 1n s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e d e g r e e and
q u a l i t y o f In volv e m e nt in t h e d e c1 s i on-making p r o c e s s .

176

3.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s can I n c r e a s e t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s by

s t u d y i n g and t h e n u s i n g t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e s ( I n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l )
I n h e r e n t 1n t h e i r d i s t r i c t s s e e k i n g I n v o l v e m e n t 1n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
processes.

r_es1gn_of_ t h e . Study
R esearch d a t a g a t h e r e d f o r t h i s s t u d y w ere d e r i v e d from a tw o­
pronged a pproa ch.

Both t h e s t a t i s t i c a l and t h e d e s c r i p t i v e r e p o r t i n g

o f d a t a b e in g documented* a s a r e s u l t o f t h i s study* w e r e founded 1n
e m p i r i c a l e v id e n c e .

The s t u d y was one 1n which s e l e c t e d p r o b l e m a t i c

( j o b - r e l a t e d ) f a c t o r s and t h e i r d e g r e e of r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s u p e r l n t e n d ency e f f e c t i v e n e s s and t u r n o v e r w ere I n v e s t i g a t e d * I n v o l v i n g t h e p e r i o d
1972 th r o u g h 1984.

F u r t h e r de mo g ra p hi c d a t a w ere d e l i n e a t e d and

compared a s t o t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h t h e s e l e c t e d f a c t o r s .
The p o p u l a t i o n used f o r t h e p u r p o s e of g e n e r a t i n g s t a t i s t i c a l
a n a l y s e s I n c l u d e d t h e t o t a l p o p u l a t i o n o f a l l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s u rv e y e d
(521) 1n Michigan.

Of t h e 521 s u r v e y s m a i l e d ,

a t o t a l o f 366 (7035)

were r e t u r n e d and u s e d 1n d e v e l o p i n g t h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s .
D e s c r i p t i v e d a t a w ere r e p o r t e d from t w o s o u r c e s :

(1) n a r r a t i v e

comments from 111 o f t h e 521 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s u r v e y e d and (2) a s ample
o f 63 c o n f i d e n t i a l

f i l e s o f t h e MASA documented from o v e r 125 a c t i v e

files.
To d e v e l o p s t a t i s t i c a l

a n a l y s e s a s w e l l a s t o r e c e i v e feed bac k

f o r d e s c r i p t i v e r e s e a r c h from s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s i n t h e f i e l d d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d 1972 t h r o u g h 1984* a s u r v e y i n s t r u m e n t was d e v elo pe d and used.

177

The I t e m s 1n t h e I n s t r u m e n t w er e c o n s t r u c t e d from c o n c e p t s found 1n t h e
p u b l i s h e d l i t e r a t u r e # 1n c o n s u l t a t i o n w i t h c o l l e a g u e s # and from c on ve r­
s a t i o n s w i t h r e c o g n i z e d a u t h o r i t i e s 1n t h e f i e l d .

The I n s t r u m e n t

c o n s i s t e d o f 22 I t e m s c o n s t r u c t e d t o c o m p i l e demogra phic d a t a f o r
d e s c r i p t i v e p u r p o s e s and d a t a f o r c o n d u c t i n g s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s f o r
p u r p o s e s of s t u d y i n g t h e p e r c e p t i o n s of s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a s t o t h e
problem a r e a s ha v in g t h e mo st s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t s on t h e i r
e f f e c t i v e n e s s and any s u b s e q u e n t t u r n o v e r a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .
F i n d i n g s and C o n c l u s i o n s
H y p o t h e s i s 1 ; The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n b o a r d superlntendent r e l a t i o n s .
Findings.
o f .0482.

A c h i - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 w i t h a v a l u e

T h e re fo re # t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d .

T h e re was a

s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw ee n s u p e r t n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r
1n Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s and B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s f o r
su p erin ten d en ts experiencing t h e i r f i r s t turnover.

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s

h e l d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r sec on d t u r n o v e r # w i t h a lp h a
< .05 w it h a t - t e s t v a l u e of . 5 3 0 5 .
Conclusions.

Based on t h e e v i d e n c e d t e d above# H y p o th e s is 1

was r e j e c t e d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r f i r s t tu r n o v e r # e r g o
l e s s experience a t t h i s a d m in is tr a tiv e le v e l.

T h i s f i n d i n g was c o n s i s ­

t e n t w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e d t e d 1n C h a p t e r I I .

Ac co rd in g t o t h e

l i t e r a t u r e # t h e q u a l i t y of t h e s cho ol boa rd 1s a p r e d o m i n a n t f a c t o r 1n
d e t e r m i n i n g t h e s u c c e s s and e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
l i t e r a t u r e f u r t h e r p o i n t e d o u t t h a t school b o a r d s a r e becoming

The

178

I n c r e a s i n g l y p o l i t i c a l and more I n v o l v e d 1n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m a t t e r s .

A

lo g ical explanation f o r t h i s circum stance of s i g n i f i c a n t r e la tio n s h ip
found betw een f 1 r s t - e x p e r 1 e n c e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and p ro b l e m s 1n b o a r d s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s may s i m p l y be t h e r e s u l t o f a l a c k o f e x p e r i ­
en ce 1n wo rk in g a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .

However* t h e n u l l

h y p o t h e s i s h e l d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a s ec on d t u r n o v e r *
w i t h a l p h a < .05 w i t h a t - t e s t v a l u e o f .5305.

E x p e r i e n c e may be

a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h i s f i n d i n g 1n t h a t p e r s o n s s e r v i n g In t h e i r second*
t h i r d * or f u r t h e r s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y have l e a r n e d how t o work th r o u g h o r
around p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s .
H y p o t h e s i s 2 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s cho ol s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro bl e m s e x p e r i e n c e d a f t e r b o a r d member e l e c t i o n s .
Findings.
v a l u e o f .0152.

A c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 w i t h a t - t e s t
Therefore, th e null

h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d .

Th ere

was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p be tw een s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
t u r n o v e r and Board-Member E l e c t i o n s f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g
t h e i r second t u r n o v e r .

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s h e l d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r f i r s t t u r n o v e r * w i t h a l p h a < .05 w i t h a t - t e s t v a l u e
of .2283.
Conclusions.

Based on t h e e v i d e n c e d t e d above* H y p o t h e s i s 2

was r e j e c t e d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r second t u r n o v e r *
e r g o more e x p e r i e n c e d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e d t e d 1n C h a p t e r I I .

T h i s f i n d i n g was c o n s i s t e n t
A cco rdi ng t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e *

I n v o l u n t a r y d e p a r t u r e s w ere found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y accomp an ied by
e l e c t o r a l "heat *" a s compared t o v o l u n t a r y ones.

The l i t e r a t u r e

179

f u r t h e r found t h a t I n v o lu n ta r y d e p a r t u r e s w ere s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o

board-incumbent d e fe a ts .

A c o n c l u s i o n may be drawn t h a t s c h o o l - b o a r d

c a n d i d a t e s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y run on n e g a t l v e - l s s u e bases* p o i n t i n g o u t
d i s p l e a s u r e w i t h t h e s t a t u s o f t h i n g s * and a s C h a p t e r I I c i t e d * t h e
dism issal*

removal In some manner* o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t a p p e a r s t o be

t h e q u i c k f i x t o p e r c e i v e d pr o bl e m s by p a r t i c u l a r s e g m e n t s o f t h e
community.

However* t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s h e l d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e i r f i r s t tu r n o v e r * w i t h a l p h a < .05 w i t h a t - t e s t
s t a t i s t i c o f .2283.

Less e x p e r i e n c e may be t h e s a v i n g g r a c e f o r

I n e x p e r i e n c e d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n t h e manner 1n which t h e y a r e p e r c e i v e d
by t h e i r b o a r d s and t h e e l e c t o r a t e - a t - l a r g e * w i t h l o w e r e x p e c t a t i o n
l e v e l s f o r t h e pe rfo rm an c e o f I n e x p e r i e n c e d s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
H y p o t h e s i s 3 i The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n communica­
tio n s /p u b lic relations.
iilnd.1 ngs.

A c h 1 - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 f o r

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t o r secon d t u r n o v e r .
v a l u e s o f .7863 and .0680 were computed* r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The t - t e s t
Th eref or e* t h e

n u l l h y p o t h e s i s h e l d f o r f i r s t and second s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r .
However* t h e c h 1 - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c o f .0688 f o r s e c o n d - t u r n o v e r
s u p e rin te n d e n ts did I n d ic a te a s tro n g trend toward superintendency
t u r n o v e r and proble ms In Commun1cat1ons/Publ1c R e l a t i o n s .
Conclusions.
was a c c e p t e d .

Based on t h e e v i d e n c e d t e d above* H y p o t h e s i s 3

T u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was

In d e p e n d e n t of p ro b le m s e n c o u n t e r e d 1n t h e a r e a o f C o m m u n ic a t io n s /
Public Relations.

T h i s f i n d i n g a p p e a r s t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e

180

l i t e r a t u r e d t e d 1n C h a p t e r IX.

The l i t e r a t u r e d i d n o t a d d r e s s pr ob ­

le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n t h i s a r e a by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n t e r m s o f s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r b u t r a t h e r 1n t e r m s o f o n - t h e - j o b b e h a v i o r o f
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and r e s u l t i n g a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e f f e c t i v e n e s s 1n t h i s
area.

While p ro b le m s a r e p r e v a l e n t 1n t h i s a r e a 1n t e r m s o f w e a k n e s s e s

found 1n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e f u n c t i o n i n g * t h e y a r e n o t o f a m a g n it u d e t o
p r e c i p i t a t e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y tu r n o v e r * v o l u n t a r i l y o r I n v o l u n t a r i l y .
.H ypoth esi s 4 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michi gan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s i n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d w i t h p u b l i c
p r e s s u r e th r o u g h s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t groups.
Findings.

A c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 f o r

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t and a secon d t u r n o v e r * w i t h t - t e s t
s t a t i s t i c s o f .7244 and .0853* r e s p e c t i v e l y .

Th e re fo re * t h e n u l l

h y p o t h e s i s h e l d f o r f i r s t and s ec ond s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r .

How­

ever* t h e c h i - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c o f a l p h a = .0853 may I n d i c a t e an I n c l i ­
n a t i o n t o t h i s problem a r e a as a f f e c t i n g t u r n o v e r f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
e x p e r i e n c i n g a s ec ond t u r n o v e r .
Conclusions.
was a c c e p t e d .

Based on t h e e v i d e n c e c i t e d above* H y p o t h e s i s 4

Tu r no ve r o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was

In d e p e n d e n t o f p r o b l e m s e n c o u n t e r e d 1n t h e a r e a o f P u b l i c P r e s s u r e
a p p l i e d t h r o u g h S p e c i a l I n t e r e s t Groups.

T h i s f i n d i n g a p p e a r s t o be

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e d t e d 1n C h a p t e r I I .

The l i t e r a t u r e d id

n o t a d d r e s s p ro b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n t h i s a r e a by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n
t e r m s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r b u t r a t h e r 1n t e r m s o f s k i l l s and
a t t i t u d e s needed t o be de v e lo p e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n d e a l i n g w i t h

161

p ro b l e m s t h a t a r i s e 1n t h i s a r e a o r u s i n g c u r r e n t s k i l l s a s a p r e v e n t a ­
t i v e s t r a t e g y when p ro b le m s o c c u r I n t h i s a r e a .
The I n c l i n a t i o n t o w a r d t h i s problem a r e a and s u b s e q u e n t
t u r n o v e r f o r secon d s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e s * a s s u p p o r t e d by t h e
t - s t a t 1 s t 1 c o f .0853* may be e x p l a i n e d a s a r e s u l t o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
moves from one d i s t r i c t t o a n o t h e r u s u a l l y In v o l v e d moving t o a l a r g e r
district.

Th ere fo re * a more comp lex o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e n v i r o n m e n t w i t h

c o n c o m i t a n t complex power s t r u c t u r e s would l i k e l y be t h e c a s e .
H y p o t h e s i s 5 ; The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s I n d e p e n d e n t of t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n s t a f f c on fl le ts .
Findings.

A c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 f o r

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t and a sec on d t u r n o v e r * w i t h
t - s t a t 1 s t i e s o f .2772 and .5600* r e s p e c t i v e l y .

T he re fo re *

th e null

h y p o t h e s i s was a c c e p t e d f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t u r n o v e r .
Conclusions.
was a c c e p t e d .

Based on t h e e v i d e n c e c i t e d above* H y p o t h e s i s 5

Tu r nover o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was

I n d e p e n d e n t o f p ro b l e m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n s t a f f c o n f l i c t s .

This fin d i n g

a p p e a r s t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e c i t e d 1n C h a p t e r I I .

The

l i t e r a t u r e d i d n o t a d d r e s s t h i s a r e a 1n t e r m s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
t u r n o v e r b u t r a t h e r 1n t e r m s o f management s t y l e s * which w e r e found t o
affect s ta ff relations significantly.

Ac cor di ng t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e *

s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found betw een t h e management s t y l e s of
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e f r e q u e n c y of formal g r i e v a n c e s b e in g f i l e d .
While s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d i d n o t s e e t h i s prob le m a r e a b e in g a c a u s a l
f a c t o r 1n t h e i r r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r t u rn o v e r* t h e l i t e r a t u r e d i d p o i n t

a

182

o u t t h a t t h i s was t h e problem a r e a most o f t e n d t e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
t h a t would d r i v e them from t h e i r o f f i c e .
An o b s e r v a t i o n c o u l d be made h e r e t h a t w h i l e a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n c o u l d n o t be found bet wee n t h i s prob le m a r e a
and s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y tu r n o v e r # n e g o t i a t i o n s # s t r i k e s #

and t e a c h e r

m i l i t a n c y a r e h i g h l y v o l a t i l e I s s u e s h a v i n g high p u b l i c v i s i b i l i t y .

A

q u e s t i o n comes t o mind a s t o w h e t h e r p ro b le m s In b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t
r e l a t i o n s and b o a r d - c a n d l d a t e n e g a t l v e - l s s u e p l a t f o r m s a r e n o t t h e
r e s u l t o f p r o b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a r e a due t o I t s
I n t e n s e p o l i t i c a l and pub! 1c -v 1s 1b 1l 1t y c i r c u m s t a n c e .

The o l d

" c h i c k e n o r t h e egg" q u e s t i o n comes t o mind.
H y p o t h e s i s 6 : The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s 1s In d e p e n d e n t o f t h e p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n f i n a n c i a l
dlfflcul tie s .
Findings.

A c h i - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .OS f o r

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t and a s ec ond t u r n o v e r # w i t h
t - s t a t 1 s t i e s o f .5342 and .9069# r e s p e c t i v e l y .

T he re fo re # t h e n u l l

h y p o t h e s i s h e l d and was a c c e p t e d .
Conclusions.
was a c c e p t e d .

Based on t h e e v i d e n c e d t e d above# H y p o t h e s i s 6

T u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was

In d e p e n d e n t o f p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n F i n a n c i a l D i f f i c u l t i e s .

T hi s

f i n d i n g a p p e a r s t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e 1n C h a p t e r I I .
The l i t e r a t u r e did n o t a d d r e s s t h i s problem a r e a 1n t e r m s o f t u r n o v e r
o f s u p e r in te n d e n ts but r a t h e r In te rm s o f t h e I n f lu e n c e t h a t f i n a n c i a l
d i f f i c u l t i e s had on s u p e r i n t e n d e n t e f f e c t i v e n e s s .
literatu re#

According t o t h e

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a c r o s s t h e n a t i o n s u r v e y e d In 1971 and

183
a g a i n 1n 1982 ran ke d f i n a n c i n g s c h o o l s a s t h e mo st s i g n i f i c a n t c h a l ­
l e n g e t h e y f a c ed .

In t h e 1982 study* 1n p a r t i c u l a r * s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

c i t e d i n a d e q u a t e f i n a n c i n g of s c h o o l s a s t h e s i n g l e f a c t o r h a v i n g t h e
g r e a t e s t I n f l u e n c e on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

T h i s f i n d i n g was c o n s i s t e n t

w i t h t h e d a t a r e p o r t e d 1n C h a p t e r IV, which s p e c i f i c a l l y c i t e d Michigan
p u b l i c s ch o ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e i r c o n c e r n s r e g a r d i n g f i n a n c i a l
difficulties.
While no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was e s t a b l i s h e d bet wee n
t u r n o v e r and p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ,

Michigan

p u b l i c s ch ool s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o v e r w h e l m i n g l y s e l e c t e d t h i s v a r i a b l e as
ha v in g t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o f u l f i l l
th e d u tie s of t h e i r office*

r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r e x p e r i e n t i a l background

a s I n d i c a t e d 1n T a b le 4.15 o f C h a p t e r IV.

Almo st h a l f (49.2$) o f t h e

Michigan p u b l i c s ch oo l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o t h i s s u rv e y
p erceived f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a s having t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t adverse
e f f e c t on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e d u t i e s o f t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
position.
H y p o t h e s i s 7 ; The t u r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c school s u p e r i n ­
t e n d e n t s I s I n d e p e n d e n t o f t h e pro ble m s e x p e r i e n c e d In management
pr o bl e m s .
Findings.

A c h 1 - s q u a r e t e s t r e n d e r e d a l p h a < .05 f o r

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s e x p e r i e n c i n g a f i r s t and a s ec ond t u r n o v e r * w i t h
t - s t a t 1 s t i e s o f .1332 and .1008* r e s p e c t i v e l y .
h y p o t h e s i s h e l d and was a c c e p t e d .

T he re fo re * t h e n u l l

No s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was

e s t a b l i s h e d between t u r n o v e r and management pro b le m s .

184

Conclusions.
was a c c e p t e d .

Based on t h e e v i d e n c e c i t e d above* H y p o t h e s i s 7

Tu r n o v e r o f Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s was

In d e p e n d e n t o f p ro b le m s e x p e r i e n c e d 1n management p r o b le m s .

This f i n d ­

i n g a p p e a r s t o be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e 1n C h a p t e r I I .

The

l i t e r a t u r e d i d n o t a d d r e s s t h i s problem 1n t e r m s o f s u p e r 1 n t e n d e n c y
t u r n o v e r b u t r a t h e r I n t e r m s o f management s k i l l s and s t y l e s found t o
be c o n n e c t e d w i t h p ro b l e m s a r i s i n g 1n t h i s a r e a and s k i l l s needed t o
work e f f e c t i v e l y 1n t h i s a r e a of s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y p e r f o r m a n c e .

In f a c t *

s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s w e r e found betw een p a t t e r n s o f
team management s t y l e s In s c h o o l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s and t h e
q u a l i t y o f In v o lv e m e n t 1n d e c l s l o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s .

School s u p e r i n ­

t e n d e n t s need t h e same m a n a g e r i a l s k i l l s found p r e v a l e n t In an e xec u­
t i v e p o s i t i o n 1n l e a d i n g any comp lex o r g a n i z a t i o n .
Demographic Data Res ear ch Q u e s t i o n : I s t h e r e a s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e o f
Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and t h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e
v a r i a b l e s o f b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s * newly e l e c t e d board
members* c o m m u n i c a t i o n s / p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s * p u b l i c p r e s s u r e a p p l i e d
by s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t groups* s t a f f c o n f l i c t s * f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s ,
o r management problems ?
Findings.

A two-way MANOVA t e s t was a p p l i e d t o t h r e e g ro u p s o f

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s (Group 0 = p r e s e n t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s * Group 1 = secon d
s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e s # and Group 2 = t h r e e o r more s u p e r i n t e n d ­
ency e x p e r i e n c e s ) t o f i n d o u t I f p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e had a s i g n i f i c a n t
e f f e c t on t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e sev e n problem a r e a s and t h e i n f l u ­
e n c e o f t h e s e p ro b le m s on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o e f f e c t i v e l y p e rf o rm t h e
d u ties a t t h i s a d m in is tra tiv e level.

T a b le 4.16 p r o v i d e d t h e c e l l

means f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s * and F i g u r e 4.1 I l l u s t r a t e d t h e s e r e s u l t s a s

185

r e p o r t e d 1n C h a p t e r IV.

An F - s t a t 1 s t 1 c o f .071 was found* which 1s

g r e a t e r t h a n a l p h a = .05.

T h e re fo re *

t h e de mo gra phic q u e s t i o n was

a n s w e re d 1n f i n d i n g no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between
Groups 0* I* and 2 a s t o t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e se ve n prob le m a r e a s
( v a r i a b l e s ) and how t h e y I n f l u e n c e d t h e i r a b i l i t y t o p e r f o r m t h e d u t i e s
a t th e ir adm inistrative level,
Conclusions.

r e g a r d l e s s o f e x p e r i e n t i a l background.

Based on t h e f i n d i n g s d t e d above, t h e demo­

g r a p h i c d a t a q u e s t i o n was a ns w e re d w i t h no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t
r e l a t i o n s h i p found betwee n p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e and
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e s e v e n problem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) I d e n t i f i e d I n t h i s
s t u d y f o r Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
F - s t a t 1 s t 1 c of .071 I n d i c a t e d ,

However, an

1n t h i s w r i t e r ' s e s t i m a t i o n ,

a strong

d i r e c t i o n a l a p p ro a c h t o a s i g n i f i c a n c e l e v e l o f a l p h a = .05, and t h e
a r g u m e n t can be made t h a t each group may have p e r c e i v e d t h e se ve n
prob le m a r e a s d i f f e r e n t l y .

T h e r e f o r e , e x p e r i e n c e c o u l d p o s s i b l y have

a f f e c t e d p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e problem a r e a s t o some e x t e n t , though n o t
significantly.

The o l d a d ag e , " E x p e r i e n c e 1s t h e b e s t t e a c h e r , " l o s e s

ground i f p r e v i o u s s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e x p e r i e n c e 1s found t o have no
b e a r i n g on p e r c e p t i o n s , which s u b s e q u e n t l y s h o u l d l e a d t o a s p e c i f i c
b e h a v i o r o r changed b e h a v i o r 1n t h e manner 1n which s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
app ro a ch d e a l i n g w it h pr oble ms when t h e y a r i s e .
F u r t h e r c o n c l u s i o n s can be drawn from t h e i l l u s t r a t i o n p r o v i d e d
1n F i g u r e 4 .1 a s r e p o r t e d 1n C h a p t e r IV:
1.

E xc ep t f o r V a r i a b l e 2 (Board-Member E l e c t i o n s ) , Group 1

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a lw ay s r e s p o n d e d h i g h e r 1n t h e i r a s s e s s m e n t a s t o t h e

186

d e g r e e o f e f f e c t on t h e i r f u n c t i o n i n g 1n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e s e v e n problem
areas.

T h i s may be due t o v a r y i n g r e a s o n s :

(a) t h e y a r e 1n t h e i r

second s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y and may have been l e s s l i k e l y t o ha ve made t h e
move from t h e i r f i r s t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y f o r r e a s o n s o t h e r t h a n a d v a n c e m e n t / p r o m o t l o n / l a r g e r d 1 s t r 1 c t / m o r e pay* o r <b> t h e s o - c a l l e d "honey­
moon" p e r i o d 1s o v e r 1n t h e s ec o nd s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y and more may be
e x p e c t e d o f a p e r s o n 1n t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h a n 1n a f i r s t s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y
experience.

Most p r o b le m s a r e now s e e n a s s i g n i f i c a n t I n t e r m s o f a

"honeymoon" e x p e r i e n c e .
2.

Group 2 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s *

p e r s o n s h a v in g t h r e e o r more

e x p e r i e n c e s a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l , t e n d e d t o view t h e s e v e n
problem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) 1n a more c o n s t a n t p a t t e r n .

A c a lm

p e r s p e c t i v e a p p e a r e d t o be e v i d e n t a f t e r y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e 1n d e a l i n g
w i t h t h e p ro b le m s c o n s o n a n t w i t h t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l .

This

c o n c l u s i o n was s u p p o r t e d by t h e e v i d e n c e , which showed t h e i r r a n k i n g of
V a r i a b l e s 1, 2 , and 3 ( B o a r d - S u p e r l n t e n d e n t R e l a t i o n s , Board-Member
E l e c t i o n s , and Commun1cat1ons/Publ 1c R e l a t i o n s ) .

They a p p e a r e d t o h a v e

no d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n o f p e r c e p t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e d
superlntendents.
3.

Problem Areas 4 , 5 , and 6 ( P u b l i c P r e s s u r e / S p e d a l I n t e r e s t

Groups, S t a f f C o n f l i c t s , and F i n a n c i a l D i f f i c u l t i e s ) a l l r e c e i v e d
h i g h e r p e r c e p t u a l v a l u e s as t o t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f I n f l u e n c e on t h e i r
a b i l i t y t o do t h e i r j o b s e f f e c t i v e l y r e g a r d l e s s o f e x p e r i e n t i a l
background.

A c o n c l u s i o n can be a rg ue d t h a t t h i s I s p r o b a b l y due t o

t h e p u b l i c , and t h e r e f o r e p o l i t i c a l , a r e n a 1n which t h e y s u r v i v e .

187
4.

V a r i a b l e 6* F i n a n c i a l D i f f i c u l t i e s ,

s i g n i f i c a n t v a l u e r e g a r d l e s s o f e x p e r i e n t i a l background.

received t h e h ighest
T h i s was

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e p o r t e d 1n C h a p t e r I I , which d e s c r i b e d
t h e Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l f i n a n c i a l s t a t u s o v e r a t e n - y e a r period* as
w e l l a s t h e d a t a p r o v i d e d 1n T a b l e 4.15 o f C h a p t e r IV* which showed
t h a t 49.25E o f t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s u r v e y c i t e d
f i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s a s h a v i n g t h e m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t a d v e r s e e f f e c t on
t h e i r a b i l i t y t o pe rf or m t h e d u t i e s o f t h e i r p o s i t i o n .
Final Analysis
As t h e r e s e a r c h e r d e l v e d d e e p e r i n t o t h e s t a t i s t i c a l

results*

a n o t h e r q u e s t i o n was r a i s e d a s t o w h e t h e r a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p
e x i s t e d b e tw ee n v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r and s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s * p e r c e p t i o n s o f
t h e seven problem a r e a s .

T a b l e 4.17 and F i g u r e 4.2,

1n C h a p t e r IV*

provided t h e r e s u l t s .
Findings.

No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p was found

betw een Groups 1 and 2 a s t o a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r
and t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s * a s a g r o u p , o f t h e se ve n problem a r e a s .
Conclusions.

T h i s f i n a l a n a l y s i s was a t t e m p t e d t o t r y t o

un c over any u n d e r l y i n g c a u s a l
turnover.

f a c to r s a c tin g as prompters t o voluntary

So few s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e s u r v e y I n d i c a t e d

I n v o l u n t a r y r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r tu r n o v e r * t h i s l a s t a n a l y s i s was
a t t e m p t e d In o r d e r t o f i n d one o r more problem a r e a ( s ) t h a t c o u l d have
r e l a t e d t o v o l u n t a r y t u r n o v e r Iri such a way a s t o r a i s e a d o u b t o r
q uestion as t o the perception of voluntary versus Involuntary reasons
for turnover.

None was fo und 1n t h i s a n a l y s i s .

188

Im p lic a tio n s

The f i n d i n g s o f t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d 1n t h i s s t u d y would a p p e a r
t o have bro a d I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r Michigan p u b l i c s c h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
1n t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o deal w i t h p ro b l e m s c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h i s a d m i n i s t r a ­
t i v e l e v e l # a s w e l l a s 1n d e a l i n g w i t h t h e demand f o r p e r f o r m a n c e 1n
t h i s p o s i t i o n 1n school d i s t r i c t s t h r o u g h o u t Michigan.
1.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s 1n Michigan need t o be made aw are of t h e

I m p o r t a n c e o f b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s and t h e i n f l u e n c e t h i s
a r e a h a s on s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e n e s s * s u c c e s s * a n d / o r t u r n o v e r a t
th i s ad m in istrative level.

E x p e r ie n c e does a p p e a r t o p la y a r o l e 1n

a f f e c t i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a d v e r s e l y 1n t h i s a r e a f o r s e c o n d - e x p e r i e n c e
superintendents.
2.

E l e c t o r a l h e a t a n d / o r newly e l e c t e d boa rd members c a n pl a y

an I m p o r t a n t r o l e 1n s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y tu r n o v e r *
experienced sup erin ten d en ts.

p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r more

I f th e y a r e t o s u r v i v e In cu mb en t d e f e a t s *

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s m u s t f i n d t h e means t o I n s u l a t e t h e m s e l v e s from t h e
us ual n e g a t i v e - I s s u e p l a t f o r m s c a u s i n g board-member t u r n o v e r .
3.

The l i t e r a t u r e s t r o n g l y s u g g e s t e d t h e need f o r keen

c o m m u n i c a t i v e s k i l l s 1n t h e t o p e x e c u t i v e s * s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s * 1n any
school d i s t r i c t s .
4.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e In a v u l n e r a b l e p o s i t i o n In m o s t school

d i s t r i c t s a s a r e s u l t o f t h e i r o v e r a l l s h o r t d u r a t i o n 1n t h i s
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n 1n school d i s t r i c t s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t a t e .

Due

t o t h i s v u l n e r a b i l i t y and v ie w ed a s an " o u t s i d e r * " s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need

189

c o n s c i o u s l y t o c h oo se t o e s t a b l i s h l o y a l c o a l i t i o n s w h e r e v e r p o s s i b l e *
even o u t s i d e t h e boa rd s t r u c t u r e *
5.

I f need be.

S t a f f c o n f l i c t s c a u s e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s tr e m e n d o u s g r i e f * and

a s t h e l i t e r a t u r e p o i n t e d out* t h i s 1s t h e a r e a most o f t e n c i t e d by
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a s w h a t would d r i v e them from t h e i r p o s i t i o n s s h o u l d
p ro b l e m s 1n t h i s a r e a I n t e n s i f y .
public v i s i b i l i t y (negotiations*

T h i s a r e a 1s accomp an ied by high
teacher strikes*

teacher m ilitancy)

and may be a c a u s a l f a c t o r 1n t h e de v e lo p m e n t o f n e g a t i v e p l a t f o r m
I s s u e s which r e g i s t e r e l e c t o r a l d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e s t a t u s quo.
6.

F i n a n c i a l d i f f i c u l t i e s c a u s e t h e g r e a t e s t c o n c e r n and

prob lem f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s t h r o u g h o u t Michi gan and t h e n a t i o n .
However* t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e problem 1s n o t d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o
superIntendency turnover.
7.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o be a w a r e t h a t t h e i r management

s t y l e s and management s k i l l s , o r t h e l a c k o f t h e l a t t e r * a r e s i g n i f i ­
c a n t l y t i e d t o t h e q u a l i t y o f d e c i s i o n making t h a t goes on w i t h i n t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n * a s w e l l a s t h e l e v e l of employee d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i n
t h e s ch oo l
8.

district.
An o v e r r i d i n g q u e s t i o n comes t o t h i s w r i t e r ' s mind— t h a t

problems a r i s i n g as t h e r e s u l t of p u b lic p r e s s u r e / s p e c i a l I n t e r e s t
gro u p s , s t a f f c o n f l i c t s * f i n a n c e s * management Is su e s * and c o m m u n ic a ti o n
p r o b l e m s may be t h e c a t a l y s t ( s ) f o r r e s u l t i n g b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t
r e l a t i o n s " f a l l - o u t " a n d / o r b o a r d - i n c u m b e n t d e f e a t s * which w e re t h e two
problem a r e a s r e s u l t i n g 1n s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t s on s u p e r I n t e n d e n c y

190

turnover.

The q u e s t i o n I s r a i s e d onc e a g a i n , "Which came f i r s t ,

the

c h i c k e n o r t h e egg?"
9.

E x p e ri e n c e a p p e a r s t o have some e f f e c t on s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s *

p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e p ro b le m s t h e y f a c e .

T h i s s h ou ld be t h e c a s e 1 f we

g a i n knowledge and wisdom from e x p e r i e n t i a l background.

However, t h e r e

a p p e a r s t o be some c a u s e f o r c o n c e r n on t h e p a r t o f t h i s w r i t e r t h a t a
s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l o f r e l a t i o n s h i p was n o t found betw een e x p e r i e n c e and
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e pro bl e m s i n f l u e n c i n g e f f e c t i v e n e s s a t t h i s a d m i n i s ­
t r a t i v e level.
10.

Of t h e 366 r e s p o n d e n t s r e t u r n i n g t h e s u r v e y , o f whom 149

(41%) r e p o r t e d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e and 71 o f t h a t number (48%) r e p o r t e d
ha v in g s e r v e d 1n more t h a n t w o s u p e r l n t e n d e n d e s , a f r a c t i o n o f t h e
t o t a l of t h e 259 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s r e p o r t e d a r e a s o n f o r t u r n o v e r a s
I n v o l u n t a r y as opposed t o v o l u n t a r y .

F o u r t e e n o f t h e 259 r e s p o n d e n t s

a c c o u n t e d f o r I n T a b l e s 4.10 th r o u g h 4.12 1n C h a p t e r IV s a i d t h e i r
r e a s o n s f o r t u r n o v e r had been I n v o l u n t a r y ,

f o r a 5.4% r e s p o n s e .

A

s e r i o u s q u e s t i o n 1s r a i s e d a s t o t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
concerning causal f a c t o r s as they r e l a t e t o voluntary versus Involun­
t a r y r e a s o n s f o r t h e i r movement from one d i s t r i c t t o a n o t h e r .
11.

T h i s q u e s t i o n 1s r a i s e d In l i g h t o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a

f o un d from t h e n a r r a t i v e r e s p o n s e s c o m p i l e d from t h e s u r v e y and t h e
c a s e s r e p o r t e d 1n t h e form o f v i g n e t t e s from t h e f i l e s o f MASA.
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u t u r e Re se ar ch
The f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t a number o f p o s s i b l e a r e a s
f o r t h e conduct o f f u t u r e re s e a r c h :

191

1.

The s e v e n problem a r e a s ( v a r i a b l e s ) I d e n t i f i e d 1n t h i s

s t u d y r e f l e c t tr e m e n d o u s c o m p l e x i t y and c o u l d p r ob a bl y s u p p o r t a s tu d y
o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y e f f e c t i v e n e s s and t u r n o v e r on an I n d i v i d u a l b a si s *
v a r i a b l e by v a r i a b l e .
2.

The s urv e y ca n be Improved upon, p a r t i c u l a r l y 1n t h e a r e a

o f a match between r e a s o n s f o r t u r n o v e r and t h e q u a l i t a t i v e p e r c e p t i o n s
o f t h e pr obl em are as*
3.

a s p e r c e i v e d by s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .

Problem Areas ( v a r i a b l e s ) 1* 2* 3* and 7 a p p e a r t o hav e

some c om m o n a li ty o f p e r c e p t i o n * as I l l u s t r a t e d 1n F i g u r e 4.1* and c o u l d
be t h e b a s i s o f f u r t h e r s t u d y a s a g r o up .
4.

Problem Areas ( v a r i a b l e s ) 4, 5* and 6 r e c e i v e d h i g h e r

v a l u e s a c r o s s a l l g ro u p s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s In t h e i r p e r c e p t i o n s of
a d v e r s e I n f l u e n c e s on t h e i r e f f e c t i v e n e s s a t t h i s a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l e v e l
and c o u l d be t h e b a s i s o f f u r t h e r s t u d y t a k e n a s a g r o up .
5.

Somehow t h e " c h i c k e n o r t h e egg" q u e s t i o n need s t o be

a d d r e s s e d 1n t e r m s o f an a n a l o g y t o wha t problem may have s u r f a c e d
f i r s t p r i o r t o b o a r d - s u p e r l n t e n d e n t r e l a t i o n s p ro b le m s a n d / o r b o a r d in cum bent d e f e a t s .
6.

Superintendents1 p e rc ep tio n s concerning t h e i r reasons fo r

t u r n o v e r , v o l u n t a r y o r I n v o l u n t a r y * need t o be ma tc hed w i t h b o a r d members’ p e r c e p t i o n s o f t h e d e s i g n a t i o n o f r e a s o n s .

192

Recommendations

I t 1s t h e goal o f t h i s w r i t e r t h a t t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y
c a n a s s i s t 1n s e r v i n g a s t h e I m p e tu s f o r e m p h a s i s f o r s u p e r i n t e n d e n t
t r a i n i n g programs* be t h e y p r e s e r v i c e o r 1nserv1ce* a s f o l l o w s :
1.

A t t e n t i o n s h o u ld be g i v e n t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f t l m e -

management s k i l l s t h a t r e f l e c t an a w a r e n e s s o f t h e I m p o r t a n c e and
s t r e s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s 1n t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t h a t
compete f o r I n c r e d i b l e t i m e and e n e r g y .
2.

Budget p l a n n i n g and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and t h e i r I n t e r c o n n e c t ­

e d n e s s w i t h t h e t h e o r i e s and p r a c t i c e 1n t h e f i e l d o f ec o n o m i cs need t o
be a m a j o r p a r t o f any t r a i n i n g program* e s p e c i a l l y a t t h i s time* when
u n d e r s t a n d i n g s and s k i l l s a r e ne ede d 1n managing e n r o l l m e n t d e c l i n e s
and school c l o s i n g s t h a t a r e acc ompanied by I n c r e a s e d o p e r a t i o n a l
costs.
3.

Tremendous e m p h a s i s 1n a c o u r s e c a l l e d ,rThe S u p e r l n t e n d -

ency" s h o u l d be p l a c e d on o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and p o l i t i c a l

s k i l l s necessary

f o r e f f e c t i v e w o r k in g r e l a t i o n s h i p s w i t h b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n .
4.

Management s k i l l s and l e a d e r s h i p s t y l e s need t o be

a d d r e s s e d In t e r m s o f t h e d e f i n i t e I n f l u e n c e t h e y have on o r g a n i z a ­
t i o n a l p e r f o r m a n c e and employee s a t i s f a c t i o n .
5.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o be t a u g h t t h e s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y f o r

c u l l i n g o u t t h e s o d a ! and p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s w i t h i n t h e i r communi­
t i e s t h a t a r e Im p i n g in g on t h e c o n t r o l of t h e b u s i n e s s o f t h e d i s t r i c t .
6.
by c o n f l i c t *

I f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e t o s u r v i v e an e n v i r o n m e n t p e r m e a t e d
a p e r c e p t i o n must e v o l v e among them t h a t r e c o g n i z e s t h a t

193

c o n f l i c t I s e s s e n t i a l t o t h e p o s i t i v e e v o l u t i o n o f an e d u c a t i o n a l
organization.
7.

Modern o r g a n i z a t i o n a l t h e o r y d e s c r i b e s an e n v i r o n m e n t t h a t

demands a c c e s s 1n d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g p r o c e s s e s t h r o u g h p a r t i c i p a t o r y man­
a ge m e nt p r a c t i c e s .

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need s k i l l s 1n t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f

I n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d procedures t h a t encourage c o n f l i c t w ith in a cc e p tab le
parameters.
8.

Last* and m o s t s i g n i f i c a n t *

recen t national educational

r e p o r t s and s t u d i e s have d e f i n e d t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y a s t h e f o c a l p o i n t
fo r in s tru c tio n a l leadership.

T h i s d e f i n i t i o n 1s dl c hot om ous t o much

o f w ha t t h i s p a p e r o u t l i n e d 1n t e r m s o f b o a rd o f e d u c a t i o n e x p e c t a ­
tions.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s need t o r e - e d u c a t e b o a r d s o f e d u c a t i o n 1n l i g h t

o f t h e s e new d i r e c t i o n s f o r improved s ch oo l e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

The r o l e of

t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t 1s now s h i f t i n g from s o l e l y t h a t of a s k i l l e d p o l i t ­
i c a l n e g o t i a t o r t o one c e n t e r i n g on s c h o o l Improvement by v i r t u e o f
1 n s t r u c t 1 o n a l - l e a d e r s h 1 p d i r e c t i o n s p r o v i d e d s p e c i f i c a l l y by s u p e r i n ­
tendents.

APPENDI CES

19**

APPENDIX A
COVER LETTER AND SUPERINTENDENT SURVEY

195

196

May 11, 1984

Superintendent

Dear Dr.
At t h i s tim e o f y e a r , t h e e n c l o s e d s u r v e y is u n d o u b t e d l y an item
f u r t h e s t from t h e mind. However, from my v a n t a g e p o i n t , a d o c t o r a l
d i s s e r t a t i o n time s c h e d u l e is h i g h l y u n p r e d i c t a b l e , p a r t i c u l a r l y when
one i s employed f u l l - t i m e .
The t o p i c o f my p a p e r d e a l s w i t h problems Impa ct ing t u r n o v e r /
t e r m i n a t i o n a s e x p e r i e n c e d by Michigan s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d u r i n g t h e
p e r i o d 1972-198**. T h i s In v o lv e s an a r e a o f d i r e c t i n t e r e s t t o you,
I'm s u r e .
I beg yo ur i n d u l g e n c e f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y f i f t e e n (15) m i n u t e s o f
your ti m e t o respond t o t h e e n c l o s u r e and r e t u r n same In t h e s e l f a d d r e s s e d , stamped e n v e l o p e t o d a y . P l e a s e a s s i s t me in t h e f i n a l
s t e p toward a t t a i n i n g my Ph.D. d e g r e e . The number c o d in g found on
t h e e n v e l o p e and s u r v e y i s s o l e l y f o r t h e p u rp o s e o f a re m in de r m a i l ­
ing s h o u ld an a d e q u a t e number o f s u r v e y s n o t be r e t u r n e d w i t h i n t h e
time a l l o t m e n t . All i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d w i l l be ha ndl ed w i t h t h e
u tm ost c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y .
I f you would l i k e a copy o f t h e r e s u l t s / f i n d i n g s from d a t a
a n a l y s e s , c hec k t h e a p p r o p r i a t e box on t h e s u r v e y . Thank y o u ,
s i n c e r e l y , f o r you r ti m e and h e l p in t h i s e n d e a v o r . PLEASE COMPLETE
AND RETURN NO LATER THAN MAY 23, 198**.
A ppreciatively yours,

Ma rg ar e t (Dolly) McMaster
A ssista n t Principal
Maltby Middle School
**7**0 Bauer Road
B r i g h t o n , Michigan **8ll6
1 - 3 1 3 - 2 27 -3 60 1, E x t . 522
DM/bas

197

PLEASE C IRCLE THE APPROPRIATE HUMBER UNDER EACH LETTERED READING
AND, I P NECESSARY, P I L L IN THE BLANK THAT BEST A P P L IE S TO TOUR
C IR C U H ST A N C E (S),
D IS T R IC T DATA
A.

S IZ E OP D IS T R IC T t

01.
02.
03.
04.
03.
06.
07.
05.
09.
10.
11.
B.

URBAN
SURBURBAN
RURAL
NOT A PPLIC A BLE

1 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .0 0 - 5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .0 0
5 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 1 .0 0 - 1 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .0 0
1 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 1 . 0 0 - 2 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 0 . OD
2 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 1 .0 0 - 5 0 ,0 0 0 ,0 0 0 .0 0
5 0 , 0 0 0 , 0 0 1 , 0 0 ______________(PLEA SE SUPPLY APPROXIMATE FIG U R E )
HOT A PPLICA BLE

STATE EQUALIZED VALUATION (S E V )/P E R P U P IL :
01.
02.
03 .
04.
05.
06.

E.

(PLEA SE SUPPLY APPROXIMATE P I CURE)

TOTAL OPERATING BUDGET:
01.
02.
03.
04 .
05.
06.

D.

0 - 1000
1001 - 3 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 - A0 0 0
4001 - 3000
3001 - 6000
6001 - 1 0 ,0 0 0
1 0 ,0 0 1 - 1 3 ,0 0 0
1 5 ,0 0 1 - 2 5 ,0 0 0
2 5 ,0 0 1 - 4 0 ,0 0 0
4 0 ,0 0 1 NOT A PPLICA BLE

C LA SS IFIC A T IO N OP D IS T R IC T !
01.
02.
03.
04.

C.

( K - I Z POPULATION}

3 5 , 0 0 0 . 0 0 AND BELOW
3 5 ,0 0 1 .0 0 - 5 0 ,0 0 0 .0 0
5 0 ,0 0 1 ,0 0 - 7 5 ,0 0 0 .0 0
7 5 ,0 0 1 .0 0 - 1 4 9 ,0 0 0 .0 0
1 4 9 , 0 0 1 . 0 0 - _____________________(PLEA SE SUPPLY APPROXIMATE FIG U R E)
NOT A PPLICABLE

EXPENDITURE PER P U P IL :

01.
5 0 0 .0 0 - 1 ,0 0 0 .0 0
02.
1 ,0 0 1 .0 0 - 1 ,3 0 0 .0 0
0 3 . 1 ,5 0 1 .0 0 - 2 ,0 0 0 .0 0
0 4 . 2 ,0 0 1 .0 0 - 3 ,0 0 0 .0 0
05.
3 , 0 0 1 . 0 0 - _______________ (PLEA SE IN D IC A TE YOUR EXPENDITURE)
06.
NOT A PPLICABLE
SUPERINTENDENT PERSONAL DATA
P.

A CE:
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.

30 36 41 46 51 NOT

35
40
45
50
________ (P L E A S E G IV E YOUR ACE I P OVER 5 1 )
A PPLICABLE

198

C.

LD K TH OF SERVICE (PRESENT D IST R IC T ) i
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.

B.

0 - 3
4 - 6
7 - 1 0
11 - 15
16 (PLEASE INDICATE EXACT NUMBER CW SPACE PROVIDED)
NOT APPLICABLE

S UP ERI NTENDENCE EXPERIENCE PRIOR TO TOUR PRESENT PO SIT IO N :
01.
02.

TES
MO

I F T E S , UNCTO OF PRIOR EXPERIENCE: ______________
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.
I.

CLASSIFICATION OF D IS T R IC T :
01.
02.
03.
04.

J.

0 - 3
4 - 6
7 - 1 0
11 - 15
16 - ________ (PLEASE INDICATE EXACT NUMBER OF TEARS BEYOND 1 6 )
NOT APPLICABLE

URBAN
SUBURBAN
RURAL
NOT APPLICABLE

I HAVE SERVED MORE TUAN T W SUPERINTENDENCIES:
01.
02.

TES
NO

I F T E S , LENGTH OF PRIOR EXPERIENCES;______________
03.
04.
05.
06.
07.
08.

0 - 3
4 - 6
7 - 1 0
.11 - 15
16 (PLEASE INDICATE EXACT NUMBER OF TEARS BEYOND 1 6 )
NOT APPLICABLE

REASON FOR TURNOVER/TERMINATION OT SUPERINTENDEHCY
K.

F IR S T SUPER1HTEHDENCT:
01.
02.
03.

VOLUNTARY
INVOLUNTARY
NOT APPLICABLE

EXPLANATION FOR TURNOVER/TERMINATION ___________________________________

L.

SECOND SUPER INTENDENCY!
01.
02.
03.

VOLUNTARY
INVOLUNTARY
NOT APPLICABLE

EXPLANATION FOR TURNOVER/TERMINATION

199

K.

THIRD SUPERINTENDENCY (IP APPLICABLE)I
01.
02.
03.

VOLUNTARY
INVOLUNTARY
NOT A PPLICABLE

EXPLANATION POR TURNOVER/TERMINATION

N.

HE HAVE SUFFERED PROH D ECLINING ENROLLMENT OVER THE PA ST TEN TEARS
RESULTING IN STUDENT LOSS AMOUNTING TO*
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.

1 0 0 - 3 0 0 STUDENTS
3 0 1 - 5 0 0 STUDENTS
5 0 1 - 7 0 0 STUDENTS
7 0 1 - 1 , 0 0 0 STUDENTS
1 , 0 0 1 - ______________(P L E A S E IN D IC A TE APPROXIMATE AMOUNT)
MOT A PPLICA BLE

THE TEAR OF GREATEST STUDENT ENROLLMENT D EC LIN E HAS ___________________
AND AMOUNTED TO A DROP TO _______________ I N T H IS TEAR ALONE.
0.

HE HAVE ATTEMPTED TO R A IS E INCREASES IN REVENUES THROUGH H ILLA CE
ELECTIONS OVER THE PAST TEN YEARS AND HAVE HAD (C IR C L E THE APPROPRIATE
NUMBER) SUCCESSFUL HILLAGE CAMPAIGNS IN ORDER TO R A IS E SORELY HEEDED
REVENUES:

01 . 1
02 . 2
03.
04.
05.
06.
P.

3
4
5 OR MORE
NOT APPLICA BLE

OVER THE PA ST TEN YEARS WE HAVE HAD (C IR C L E THE A PPROPRIATE NUMBER)
H ILLA C E R EJEC TIO N S BY THE ELECTORATE;
01.
02.
03.
04.
05.
06.

1
2
3
4
5 OR MORE
HOT A PPLIC A BLE

PLEA SE ID E N T IFY THE FOLLOWING SEVEN VARIABLES THAT ADVERSELY AFFECT TOUR
A B IL IT Y TO F U L F IL L THE D U TIES O F YOUR O F F IC E OF SUPERINTENDENT. PLACE A
NUMBER 5 TO A NUMBER J . IN THE BLANK RATING EACH VARIABLE IH THE FOLLOWING
L I S T WITH A # 5 CARRYING THE GREATEST IMPACT TO A #1 HAVING THE LEAST
IM PA CT:
5
4
3
2
I

~
-

MOST S IG N IF IC A N T ADVERSE EFFECT
SIG N IF IC A N T ADVERSE EFFEC T
UNDECIDED
LEAST ADVERSE EFFEC T
NO S IG N IF IC A N T EFFECT

PRESEN T SUPERINTENDEDCYI

(V A R IA B LES)

BOARD-SUPERINTENDENT RELATIONS
BOARD MEMBER ELECTIONS
COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS
PU B LIC P R E S SU R E /SP E C IA L IN TER EST CROUPS
STA FF CONFLICTS
FINA N C IA L D IF F IC U L T IE S
MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

200

PR IO R SUPERINTENDENCY!
( I F YOU ARE SERVINC IN A SECOND SU PERIN ­
TENDENCY, PLEASE RANK ORDER EACH VARIABLE FROM i t o 1 AS HAVING
THE GREATEST TO THE LEAST IMPACT UPON THE CASUAL1TY FOR YOUR
TURNOVER/TERM INATION.)
5
4
1
2
1

- MOST SIG N IF IC A N T ADVERSE EFFECT
- SIG N IF IC A N T ADVERSE EFFECT
- UNDECIDED
- LEAST ADVERSE EFFECT
- NO SIG N IF IC A N T EFFECT

BOARD-SUPERINTENDENT RELATIONS
BOARD MEMBER ELECTIONS
COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS
PU B LIC PR E S SU R E /SP E C IA L IN TER EST CROUPS
STA FF CONFLICTS
FIN A N C IA L D IF F IC U L T IE S
MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS
PR IO R SUPERINTENDENCY EX PER IEN C E:
( I F MORE THAN TWO EXPERIENCES
IN A SUPERINTENDENT P O S IT IO N , PLEASE RANK ORDER EACH VARIABLE FROM
5 t o _1 AS HAVING THE GREATEST TO THE LEAST IM P A C T .)
5
1
3
2
1

-

HOST S IG N IF IC A N T ADVERSE EFFECT
SIG N IF IC A N T ADVERSE EFFECT
UNDECIDED
LEAST ADVERSE EFFECT
NO S IG N IF IC A N T EFFECT
BOARD-SUPERINTENDENT RELATIONS
BOARD MEMBER ELECTIONS
COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS
PU B LIC PR E S SU R E /SP E C IA L IN TEREST CROUPS
STA FF CONFLICTS
FIN A N C IA L D IF F IC U L T IE S
MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

I F YOU HAVE THE T I H E , ANY FURTHER DELINEATION OF FACTORS (PROBLEMS) IMPACT­
ING TOUR P O S IT IO N AS A SUPERINTENDENT W ILL BE MOST HELPFUL IN REPORTING
RELEVANT DATA REGARDING T H IS AREA OF CONCERN TO PRESENT AND FUTURE SUPER­
INTENDENTS .

PLEASE FORWARD THE RESULTS OF THIS STUDY WHEN AVAILABLE,

APPENDIX B
CORRESPONDING STATISTICAL COMPUTATIONS

201

202

Tabl e B . l , — F i r s t - t u r n o v e r c o mp u t a t i o n s .

Count
Row P e t
Col P e t
Tot Pet

No
Signif.
Effect

Least
Adverse
Effect

Unde­
cided

Signif.
Adverse
Effect

Host S i g n i f .
Adverse
Effect

Row
T o t al

BOARD- SUPERINTENDENT RELATIONS

V o lu n ta r y

Involuntary

Column t o t a l

31
47-7
100.0
44.9

15
23.1
93.8
21 .7

4
6.2
100.0
5.8

5
7.7
100.0
7.2

10
15.4
76.9
14.5

65
94 .2

0
0
0
0

1
25.0
6 .3
1.4

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

3
75.0
23.1
4.3

4
5.8

31
44.9

16
23.2

4
5.8

5
7.2

13
18.8

69
100.0

S i g n i f . = .01(82

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 9.5 7 5 5 4 , d f =

BOARD-MEMBER ELECTIONS

Voluntary

38
62.3
97.4
59.4

10
16. 4
100.0
15.6

4
6.6
100.0
6.3

5
8.2
83.3
7.8

4
6.6
8 0 .0
6 .3

61
95. 3

Involuntary

1
33.3
2 .6
1.6

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

1
33.3
16.7
1.6

1
33-3
20.0
1.6

3
4.7

39

10
15.6

it
6.3

6
9.4

5
7.8

64
100.0

Column t o t a l

6 0 .9

Raw c h i - s q u a r e « 5 . 6 3 3 2 9 , d f = 4 , S i g n i f . = . 2283

203

Tabl e B , 1 . - - C o n t i n u e d .

Count
Row Pe t
Col Pe t
Tot Pet

No
Signif.
Effect

Least
Adverse
Effect

Undecided

Signif.
Adverse
Effect

Most S i g n i f .
Adverse
Effect

Row
Total

COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS

Voluntary

32
50.0
97.0
47.8

14
21.9
93-3
20.9

8
12.5
100.0
11.9

8
12.5
8 8 .9
11.9

2
3.1
100.0
3.0

64
9 5 .5

involuntary

1
33 .3
3.0
1.5

1
33.3
6.7
1.5

0
0
0
0

1
33.3
11.1
1.5

0
0
0
0

3
4 .5

33
49 .3

15
22 .4

8
11.9

9
13.4

2
3.0

67
100.0

Column t o t a l

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 1.72435, d f = 4, S i g n i f . = .7863
PUBLIC PRESSURE/SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS
12
18.8
9 2 .3
17.9

8
12.5
88.9
11.9

64
95.5

100.0
17.9

4
6 .3
100.0
6.0

1
33 .3
3.4
1.5

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

1
33.3
7.7
1.5

1
3 3 .3
11.1
1.5

3
4 .5

29
4 3 .3

12
17.9

4
6.0

13
19.4

9
13.4

67
100.0

V o lu n ta r y

28
43.8
96.6
41.8

Involuntary

Column t o t a l

12
1 8 .8

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 2 . 0 6 1 8 7 , d f =

S i g n i f . * ,7 2 k1*

20*!

Tabl e B. 1 . — Cont i nued.

Count
Row Pet
Col Pet
Tot Pet

No
Signif.
Effect

L e a st
A dverse
.
Effect

|a ,
c id e d

Signif.
Adverse
Effect

Most S i g n i f .
Adverse
Effect

Row
To ta l

STAFF iCONFLICTS

V o lu n ta r y

33
52.A
97.1
A9-3

13
20.6
92.9
19.A

5
7.9
100.0
7.5

10
15.9
90.9
1A.9

Involuntary

1
25.0
2.9
1.5

1
2 5 .0
7.1
1.5

0
0
0
0

I
25 .0
9.1
1.5

3A
50.7

1A
20,9

5
7.5

Column t o t a l

1 6

11
.A

2
3 .2
6 6 .7
3.0

63
9A.0

1

A
6.0

2 5 .0

33.3
1.5
3
A .5

67
100.0

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = *1.09959, d f = A, S i g n i f . = .2772
FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES

V o lu n ta r y

Involuntary

Column t o t a l

22
3*1.9
100.0
33-3

8
12.7
100.0
12.1

3
A.8
100.0
A.5

10
15.9
90.9
15.2

20
31.7
90 .9
30.3

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

I
33.3
9.1
1.5

2
66 .7
9.1
3.0

3
A.5

22
33-3

8
12.1

3
A .5

11
16.7

22
33 .3

66
100.0

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 3.l*t286, d f = A, S i g n i f . = .53A2

63
9 5 .5

205

Tabl e B . l . — Cont i nue d.

Count
Row Pe t
Col Pe t
Tot Pet

No
Signif.
Effect

Le a s t
Adverse
Effect

Unde­
cided

Signif.
Adverse
Effect

Most S i g n i f .
Adverse
Effect

Row
To ta l

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS

Voluntary

37
57.8
9^.9
55 .2

15
23.^
100.0
11.k

6
9.*t
100.0
9.0

k
6 .3
100.0
6 .0

2
3.1
66 .7
3.0

6*i
9 5 .5

Involuntary

2
6 6 .7
5.1
3.0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

1
3 3 .3
33-3
1.5

3
A.5

39
5 8.2

15
11.k

6
9 -0

k
6.0

3
k.S

67
100.0

Column t o t a l

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 7 .0 5 0 7 5 , d f = k , Si g n i f . = .1332

206

Tabl e B . 2 . — S e c o n d - t u r n o v e r c o mp u t a t i o n s .

Count
Row Pet
Col Pet
Tot Pet

No
S ignificant
Effect

Least
Adverse
Effect

Undecided

Row
T o t al

BOARD-SUPERINTENDENT RELATIONS

Voluntary

3k
11.3
97.1
73-9

2
*i.5
100.0
*•.3

Involuntary

1
50 .0
2.9
2.2

0
0
0
0

35
76.1

2
*<•3

Column t o t a l

8
18.2
88.9
\7A

kk
9 5 .7

1

2
k.3

5 0 .0

11.1
2.2
9
1 9 -6

*(6
100.0

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 1 .2 67 82 , d f = 2, S i g n i f . = .5305
B0ARD-MEMBER ELECTIONS

Voluntary

Involuntary

Column t o t a l

33
76 .7
100.0
73.3

2
k.7
66.7
k.k

8
18.6
8 8 .9
17.8

*»3
95-6

0
0
0
0

1
50.0
33.3
2.2

1
50 .0
11.1
2.2

2
k.k

33
7 3 .3

3
6.7

9
20.0

ks
100.0

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 8 . 3 7 2 0 9 , d f - 2 , S i g n i f . = . 0152

207

Ta bl e B . 2 . — C on ti n u e d .
Count
Row Pet
Col Pet
Tot Pet

No
Significant
Effect

Least
Adverse
Effect

. Undecided

Row
Total

COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS

V o lu n ta r y

Involuntary

Column t o t a l

33
75.0
100.0
71.7

6
13.6
85 .7
13.0

0
0
0
0

1
5 0 .0
14.3
2.2

33
71.1

7
15.2

5
11.4
83 .3
10.9

44
9 5 .7

1

2
4 .3

5 0 .0

16.7
2.2
6
13.0

. 46
100.0

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = 5 . 3 5 1 7 3 , df = 2, S i g n i f . = .0688
PUBLIC PRESSURE/SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS

V o lu n ta r y

Involuntary

Column t o t a l

26
5 7 .8
100.0
55.3

7
15.6
100.0
14.9

12
26 .7
85 .7
25 .5

45
95.7

0
0
0
0

0
0
0
0

2
100.0
14.3
4.3

2
4.3

26
5 5 .3

7
14.9

14
29.8

47
100.0

Raw c h i - s q u a r e * 4 . 9 2 3 8 1 , d f = 2 , S i g n i f . = . 0853

208

Tabl e B . 2 . — Cont i nue d.

Count
Row P e t
Col P e t
Tot P e t

No
Significant
Effect

Least
Adverse
Effect

Undecided

_
_ ° w.

STAFF CONFLICTS

Voluntary

30
68.2
96.8
65.2

5
11.4
100.0
10.9

9
2 0 .5
90.0
19.6

44
95 .7

Involuntary

1
50 .0
3.2
2.2

0
0
0
0

1
50 .0
10.0
2.2

2
4.3

31
6 7 .4

5
10.9

10
21 .7

46
100.0

Column t o t a l

Raw c h i - s q u a r e » 1.08 930, d f = 2, S i g n i f . = ,5800
FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES

Voluntary

Involuntary
Column t o t a l

20
4 2 .6
95 .2
40.8

4
8.5
100.0
8.2

23
48.9
95.8
46.9

47
9 5 .9

1
50 .0
4.8
2.0

0
0
0
0

1
50 .0
4.2
2.0

2
4.1

21
4 2 .9

4
8.2

24
49.0

49
10 0 .0

Raw c h i - s q u a r e = . 1 9 5 4 8 , df = 2 , S i g n i f . « . 9059

209

Tabl e B . 2 . - - C o n t i n u e d .

Count
Row Pet
Col P e t
Tot Pet

Voluntary

Involuntary
Column t o t a l
Raw c h i - s q u a r e =

No
S ignificant
Effect

Least
Adverse
Effect

35
7 9 .5
9 7 .2
76.1

6
13.6
100.0
13.0

3
6.8
75.0
6.5

it it
95.7

1
5 0 .0
2.8
2.2

0
0
0
0

1
50 .0

2
it.3

36
78 .3

6
13.0

58838, d f = 2 , S i g n i f . ® .1008

Undecided

Row
Total

2 5 .0

2.2

8.7

it6
100.0

210

Tabl e B . 3 . — S t a t i s t i c a l c o mp u t a t i o n s : Groups 0 , 1, and 2 means.

Factor

Group
Group
Group
For e n t i r e

Code

Mean

0
1
2
sample

S.D.

N

95% Conf.

BOARD-SUPERINTENOENT RELATIONS
1.24783
1.74145
1.92655
177
2.28788
1.43329
66
1.93553
2.08511
1.67519
1.39611
47
2.03448
290
1.32013
1.88191

Interval

2.11166
2.64022
2.49502
2.18706

B0ARD-■MEMBER ELECTIONS
Group
Group
Group
For e n t i r e

0
1
2
sample

1.70056
2 .0 2 1 2 8

1.07959
1.20217
1.17009

1.81379

1.12835

1 .9 6 9 7 0

177
66
47
290

1.54042
1.67417
1.67773
1 .6 8 3 3 8

1.86071
2.26523
2.36483
1.94420

1.98402
1.88167
1.73970
2 .0 0807

2.30977
2.39106
2.43051
2.26090

COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS
Group
Group
Group
For e n t i re

0
1
2
sample

2.1468 9
2.136 36
2.08511
2.13448

1.09799
1.03606
1-17639
1.09379

177
66
47
290

PUBLIC PRESSURE/SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS
Group
Group
Group
For e n t i r e

0
1
2
sample

2.66102
2.9090 9
2.6170 2
2.71034

1.23781
1.22446
1.18969
1.22780

177
66
47
290

2.47740
2.60808
2.26772
2.56844

177
66
47
290

2.527 35
2.484 42
2.27104
2.57965

3.15195
3.04811
2.875 52

3.57203
3.87125
3.44506
3.72092

3.99859
4.431 78
4.257 07
4.0377 0

1.98712
2.04492
1.64302

2.317 97
2.59145
2.35698
2.29630

2.84463
3.21010
2.96633
2 .8 5 2 2 5

STAFF CONFLICTS
Group
Group
Group
For e n t i r e

0
1
2
sample

2.71186
2.81818
2.65957
2.72759

1.24386
1.35770
1.32331
1.27998

2 .8 9 6 3 8

FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES
Group
Group
Group
For e n t i r e

0
1
2
sample

3.78531
4,15152
3.85106
3.87931

1.43780
1.14007
1.38279
1.37044

177
66
47
290

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS
Group
Group
Group
For e n t i r e

0
1
2
sample

2.05254
2.31818
2.0000 0
2.16552

1.11519
1.11160
1.21584
1.13158

177
66
47
290

2.03473

211

Tabl e B . * . — S t a t i s t i c a l c o mp u t a t i o n s : Group 1 (N = 5 8 ) .

Factor

; Code

Mean

S.D.

N

35% Conf.

Interval

BOARD-SUPERINTENDENT RELATIONS
Voluntary
1
Involuntary 2
For e n t i r e sample

.47832

2 .0 8 6 2 1

1

* .0 0 0 0 0

1 .7 3 2 0 5

2.18033

1.53306

58

3
61

1.69750
-.30265
1.78769

2.*7*91
8 .3 0265
2.57296

1.36566
-1.83781

1.9**68
8.*0558

1 .*31*3

2. 0*398

1.52975
-1 .**6125
1.55872

2.0909*
6.12792

B0ARD-MEMBER ELECTIONS
Voluntary
Involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

1.65517
3.33333
1.73770

1.10106
2.08167
1.19585

58
3
61

COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS
Voluntary
involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

1.8103*1
2 .3 3333
1.83607

1.06716
1.52753
1.08290

58
3
61

2.113*1

PUBL IC PRESSURE/SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS
Voluntary
Involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

2. 2*138
3.33333
2.29508

l.*5*70
2.0816 7
1.*18710

58
3
61

1 .8 5 8 8 9

-1.83781
1.91*22

2.62387
8.50**8
2.67595

STAFF CONFLICTS
Voluntary
Involuntary

I
2

For e n t i r e sample

1.86207
2.66667
!.90l6*t

1.19132
2.08167
1.23*130

58
3
61

1 .5 * 8 8 3
-2 .50**8

2.17531
7.83781

1.58552

2.21776

2.*90*1
3.232*5
2.58681

6 .1 0 0 8 8

FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES
Voluntary
1
Involuntary 2
For e n t i r e sample

2 .9 *828
*».66667

1.7*1137
.57735

58
3

3.03279

1 .7*133

61

3.*0615
3.*7876

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS
Voluntary
I
Involuntary 2
For e n t i r e sample

1.70690
2.33333
1.73770

1.02613
2.309* 0
1.09395

58
3
61

1-43709
- 3 .* 035 *
1.*5753

1.97670
8.07020
2.01788

212

Tabl e B . 5. — S t a t i s t l e a l

Factor

Code

c o mp u t a t i o n s : Group 2 (N = 3 9 ) .

Mean

S.D.

N

95$ C o n f.

Interval

BOARD-SUPERINTENDENT RELATIONS
Voluntary
Involuntary

1.92308

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

3 .0 0 0 0 0

1 .13287
2.828*3

39
2

1.5558*
-22.*12*1

2.29031
28.*12*1

1.97561

1.21*2*

*1

1 .59235

2.35887

B0ARD- MEMBER ELECTIONS
V o lu n ta r y
Involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

1 .897**
3.50000

1.33367
.70711

39
2

1.*6511
- 2 .8 5 3 1 0

2.32976
9 .8 5310

1.97561

1.35070

*1

1.5*928

2.*01 9*

COMMUNICATIONS/PUBLIC RELATIONS
V o lu n ta r y
Involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

1.79*87
3.50000

1.05580
.70711

39
2

1.*5262
-2.85310

2 .1 3712
9-85310

1.87805

1.09989

*1

1.53088

2.22522

PUBLIC PRESSURE/SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS
V o lu n ta r y
tnvoluntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

2.00000
*.50000

1.27733
.70711

39
2

1.5859*
-1 .8 5 3 1 0

2.*1*06
10.85310

2.12195

1.36373

*1

1 .69151

2.552* 0

STAFF CONFLICTS
Voluntary
Involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

2.00000
2.50000

1.33771
2.121 32

39
2

1.56636
-16.55931

2.*336*
21.55931

2.02*39

1.35070

*1

1.59806

2.*50 72

FINANCIAL DIFFICULTIES
V o lu n ta r y
Involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

2.76923
2.50000

1.677*3
2.12132

39
2

2.225*7
-16.55931

3.31299
21.55931

2.75610

1.6700*

*1

2.22897

3.28323

MANAGEMENT PROBLEMS
V o lu n ta ry
Involuntary

1
2

For e n t i r e sample

1.61538
2.50000

.90657
2.12132

39
2

1.32151
-16.55931

1.90926
21.55931

1.6585*

.96*62

*1

1.35*07

1.96301

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213

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