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PROFESSIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN IN ADMINISTRATION IN LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES IN MICHIGAN, INDIANA, OHIO, ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, MINNESOTA, AND IOWA M ichigan State U n iversity University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Road. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 PH.D. 1986 PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V . 1. Glossy photographs or pages_____ 2. Colored Illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background A. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy_____ 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of page______ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages 8. Print exceeds margin requirements_____ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine______ 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print______ 11. Page(s)__________ lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s)__________ seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages numbered 14. Curling and wrinkled pages_____ 15. Dissertation containspages with print at a slant, filmed as received 16. Other________________________________________________________________ . Text follows. \ / University Microfilms International PROFESSIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN IN ADMINISTRATION IN LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES IN MICHIGAN, INDIANA, OHIO, ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, MINNESOTA, AND IOWA By Lenore M. Kalenda A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S tate U niversity 1n p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of the requirements fo r the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f Educational Adm inistration 1986 ABSTRACT PROFESSIONAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL FACTORS AFFECTING THE ADVANCEMENT OF WOMEN IN ADMINISTRATION IN LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES IN MICHIGAN* INDIANA* OHIO* ILLINOIS, WISCONSIN, MINNESOTA, AND IOWA By Lenore M. Kalenda Purpose. The purpose o f th is study was to Id e n tify the f a c i l i ­ ta to rs used (ro le models, sponsors, mentors), the p o s itiv e factors perceived* and the b a rrie rs encountered by women adm inistrators th a t may Influence t h e ir career advancement. Additional In vestig atio n cen­ tered on th e ir career asp iratio n s and the support and opportunities fo r advancement they perceived to e x is t In th e small lib e r a l a rts colleg e. Procedure. A survey Instrument was used to c o lle c t th e data. The subjects were 262 women employed 1n m iddle- and upper-level admin­ is t r a t iv e positions 1n 112 undergraduate, Independent lib e r a l a rts colleges 1n seven mldwestern states. General descrip tive s ta tis tic s (frequencies, percentages, means* standard deviations, and rank order) were used. The ch1-square te s t of association was used to determine relatio n sh ip s between two groups of adm inistrators and t h e ir responses to Items on the questionnaire. The response ra te was 72Z. Lenore M. Kalenda Findings. The m ajo rity of the women <77*) held appointments below th a t of dean. The careers o f 63% o f the respondents had been Influenced by one or more ro le models# and 49% had a sponsor who aided th e ir career development. The m ajo rity of women had the b e n e fit of a male or female mentor. Competence was ranked f i r s t as the most Im portant p o s itiv e Influence on career advancement. third# and fourth# were: Other key factors# ranked second# dr1ve/determ1nat1on/pers1stence# appropriate academic credentials# and being In the rig h t place a t the r ig h t tim e / luck. Mentorshlp and sponsorship were ranked s ix th and eighth# respec­ tiv e ly . A ffirm a tiv e action and female networking were not perceived as working e ffe c tiv e ly . Women perceived as "Im portant" b a rrie rs : re s p o n s ib ilitie s of career and family# pay Inequity# having to be more experienced and highly q u a lifie d and having to work harder than t h e ir male counterpart to succeed# being excluded from the "old boy" network# and having less power and Influence than t h e ir male counterpart. Few d ifferen ces In perceptions were found between two groups of adm inistrators. Of those who had not y e t achieved t h e ir highest career goal# 45% s t i l l aspired to a higher position. F1fty-e1ght percent of the respondents perceived th e clim a te and selectio n process a t th e ir college to be supportive o f women aspiring to advance 1n adminis­ tr a tio n . ACKNOWLEDGMENTS My respect and appreciation are extended to Dr. Richard Featherstone fo r his special guidance# help# and support w h ile serving as my advisor and during his tenure as chairman of my doctoral com­ m ittee. I extend my h e a r tfe lt thanks to Dr. Eldon Nonnamaker and the other members of my doctoral committee# Dr. Mel Buschman and Dr. Robert Rentschler# fo r th e ir professional d ire c tio n and assistance# Insight# and general support. A very special thank-you 1s given to Dr. Nonna­ maker fo r his w illin g n ess to assume the chairmanship of my committee and to serve as my d is s e rta tio n d ire c to r. On a professional and personal level# I would lik e to acknowl­ edge the co ntrib utio n made by Dr. Janet Wessel and W illiam Parker# who gave me d ire c tio n and support along th e way. On a personal level# I wish to thank Norman and Marian Kalenda# James and S a lly Skidmore# Gertrude Wlerenga# E lizabeth Fllnchbaugh# and Joan Nelson# who believed In my a b il it ie s and o ffered continuous sup­ port and encouragement. I am p a rtic u la rly g ra te fu l to my parents# Wayne and M arie Kalenda# fo r th a t deep kind o f love# care# and support th a t only parents can give and th a t re s u lts 1n a b e lie f 1n s e lf. and Dad! Ii Thanks# Mom TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... v Chapter I. II. III. IV . INTRODUCTION........................................................................................ 1 Statement o f the Problem .......................................................... Purposes of th e Study .............................................................. D e fin itio n of T e r m s .................................................................. Design o f the S t u d y .................................................................. L i m i t a t i o n s ................................................................................... D elim ita tio n s ............................................................................... Overview of the S t u d y .............................................................. 8 9 10 14 17 17 18 REVIEW UF RELATED LITERATURE...................................................... 19 Introduction ................................................................................... L ite ra tu re Concerning F a c ilita to r s ...................................... L ite ra tu re Concerning B arriers .............................................. S um m ary........................................................................................... 19 19 45 87 DESIGN OF THE S T U D Y ....................................................................... 90 Type of S t u d y .................... P o p u la tio n ....................................................................................... Development and Testing of the Survey Instrument . . . .................................................. C o llectio n o f Data T re a tm e n t and A n a ly s is o f th e D a t a ................................ S um m ary............................................................................................ 90 91 93 97 98 99 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA....................................................................... 100 Introduction ................................................................................... Demographic D a t a ........................................................................... F a c ilita to rs U s e d ....................................................................... P o s itiv e Factors Perceived to Influence Career Advancement .............................................................. B a rrie rs to Career Development .............................................. R elationship Between Type o f Position and Responses . 100 101 109 II! 126 131 148 Page Career Aspirations ...................................................................... Organizational Support .............................................................. S um m ary........................................................................................... 156 163 169 V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS.............. ................. 170 S um m ary........................................................................................... F in d in g s ........................................................................................... C o n c lu s io n s ................................................................................... Recommendations fo r Further Research .................................. 170 172 181 193 APPENDICES............................................................................................................ 195 A. COVER LETTER FOR PILOT T E S T ....................................................... 196 B. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL AND FOLLOW-UP CARDAND LETTER FOR SURVEY........................................................................................... 198 C. SURVEY INSTRUMENT............................................................................ 202 D. COMPLETE TITLES OF NINETEEN BARRIERS INSECTION IIB OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE....................................................................... 209 WRITTEN COMMENTS BY WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS TOQUESTION 59 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE....................................................................... 212 WRITTEN COMMENTS BY WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS TOQUESTION 60 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE....................................................................... 224 WRITTEN COMMENTS BY WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS TOQUESTION 69 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE....................................................................... 234 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 240 E. F. G. iv LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Age o f Respondents................................................................................ 101 2. Ethnic B a c k g ro u n d ................................................................................ 102 3. Highest Degree H e l d ........................................................................... 103 4. F ield of Highest D e g r e e ................................................................... 104 5. T i t l e of Present P osition ............................................................... 105 6. Number of Years 1n Present P o s i t i o n .......................................... 106 7. Number of Years 1n College Adm inistration .............................. 107 8. Present Salary Range ............................................................................ 107 9. Full-Tim e Student Enrollment ........................................................... 108 10. Religious A f f i lia t i o n of In s titu tio n ................................. . . 109 11. Number of Respondents Influenced bya Role Model .................... 110 12. Number of Role M o d e ls ....................................................................... 110 13. In d ivid u a ls Id e n tifie d as Role M o d e ls ....................................... Ill 14. Number of Respondents Whose Careers Were Aided by a S p o n s o r ............................................................................................... 112 Number of Adm inistrators Who Recognized a MaleSponsor and/or a Female S p o n s o r .............................................................. 112 Most Important Influence Exerted by Maleand Female Sponsors 114 17. Number of Male M e n to rs ....................................................................... 116 18. In d ivid u a ls Id e n tifie d as Male Mentors ...................................... 117 19. Most Important Influence Exerted byMy Male Mentor. . . . 118 15. 16. v Page 20. Number of Female M e n t o r s .................................................................. 120 21. In d ivid u als Id e n tifie d as Female M e n t o r s .................................. 121 22. Most Important Influence Exerted by My Female Mentor . . . 122 23. Number of Respondents Sponsoring a Protege ............................. 124 24. Sex of P r o t e g e ...................................................................................... 125 25. Number of Respondents Serving as M e n to r..................................... 125 26. Sex o f M e n te e........................................................................................... 126 27. P o s itiv e Factors Influencing Career Advancement ..................... 127 28. Rank Order o f Mean Scores of P o s itiv e Factors Influencing Career A dvancem ent............................ 129 B arriers to Career Development as Perceived by Women Adm inistrators ................................................................................... 132 Rank Order of Mean Scores of B arriers to Career Advancement as Perceived by Women Adm inistrators 133 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. . . . . B arriers to Career Advancement as Experienced by Women Adm inistrators ................................................................................... 135 Rank Order o f Mean Scores of B a rrie rs to Career Advancement as Experienced by Women Adm inistrators 138 . . . Relationship Between Position Held and Responses to Items 1n Section I B .................................................................. 149 Responses of Full-Tim e and Part-Time Adm inistrators to Items 18, 19, 20, and 2 6 .............................................................. 150 Relationship Between P osition Held and Responses to B arriers 1n Section I I A .................................................................. 152 Responses of Full-Tim e and Part-Time Admln1strators to Item 3 6 ................................................................................................... 153 Relationship Between Position Held and Responses to B arriers In Section I I B .................................................................. 153 vi Page 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. Responses of Full-Tim e and Part-Time Adm inistrators to Items 49 and S 8 ................................................................................... 155 Number o f Respondents Who Had Achieved *The1r Highest Career G o a l........................................................................................... 157 Position o f Highest Career Goal Achieved by Women Adm inistrators ................................................................................... 157 Number of Respondents Wanting to Advance to a Higher P o s i t i o n ............................................................................................... 158 Reasons Given by Respondents For Not Wanting to Advance to a Higher P o s i t i o n ....................................................................... 159 Highest A dm inistrative P osition to Which Respondents A s p i r e ................................................................................................... 161 44. Preparation fo r Career Goals as Indicated by Respondents . 162 45. College Provision and Encouragement to Attend Adminis­ t r a t iv e Workshops as Perceived by Women Adm inistrators . 164 46. 47. Opportunities Made A vailab le to Learn A dm inistrative Techniques as Id e n tifie d by Women Adm inistrators . . . . Perceptions of Respondents Concerning Whether Th eir College Climate and Selection Process Was Supportive vii . 165 . 166 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION In 1964 Bernard Indicated th a t some channels of ascent 1n academia were by way of rank, the a d m in is tra tiv e ladder* or positions of power and Influence with co-workers through e le c tio n to Im portant policy-m aking bodies. She added th a t adm in istration * however* had not been a common avenue to upward m o b ility fo r many academic women. Researchers have found th a t women s t i l l experience d if f ic u lt y advancing by way of the ad m in istrative ladder. Stevenson (1973) surveyed women 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1n B1g Ten u n iv e rs itie s . Among her findings* she found In an In terview of 14 women th a t 10 perceived opportunity fo r advancement to be lim ite d * and fo r some the only (u n a ttra c tiv e ) option appeared to be moving to another In s titu tio n . In 1977* Bauer studied women 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions In continuing education un its 1n Michigan colleges. She found th a t those c u rre n tly employed were In terested 1n* and probably q u a lifie d for* advancement to h ig h er-level positions. However* she found th a t most considered th e p o s s ib ility of such an opportunity In th e ir own in s titu tio n to be nonexistent. 1 2 The federal government has Issued a series of regulations req u irin g th a t equal employment opportunities be a v a ila b le regardless of sex or race. These regulations Include the fo llo w in g s ta tu te s : the Equal Pay Act o f 1968, as amended by the Education Amendments o f 1972 (Higher Education Act); T i t l e V I I of th e C1v1l Rights Act of 1964 as amended by the Equal Employment Opportunity Act o f 1972; Executive Order 11246 as amended by Executive Order 11375; and T i t l e IX of the Education Amendments o f 1972. However, according to S a flllo s - Rothschlld (1978), these a ffir m a tiv e -a c t Ion d ire c tiv e s and p o lic ie s appear to have very H t t l e e ffe c t on a ttitu d e s of employers and managers. Addressing th e Issue of women 1n th e labor force, S a flllo s RothschUd In dicated th a t employers' and managers' a ttitu d e s had not ra d ic a lly changed. Despite the gains made, there was s t i l l a tendency to h ire a woman only when I t was evident she was superior to a l l male candidates. She reported on a study th a t showed: The present generation of graduate and undergraduate students 1n management hold tr a d itio n a l se x-ro le stereotypes th a t a ffe c t th e ir evaluations o f hypothetical Job applicants. They tend to perceive women as applicants fo r c le r ic a l Jobs and men as applicants fo r a d m in is tra tiv e management po sitions, even when both men and women in d ic a te the same Job as p ira tio n s , (p . **28) S afH lo s-R o th s ch lld added th a t In d iv id u a ls already working as employers and managers had more stereotyped views o f women and t h e ir occupational roles than did students. They had been reported to feel th a t "women do not make good supervisors because they cannot appraise the seriousness of a performance problem and because both men and women fe e l uncomfortable w ith a woman supervisor" (p. 428). 3 Forlsha (1981) noted th a t women are perceived d iffe r e n tly from men and thus judged unequal In regard to professional p o te n tia l. At the entry level# women are viewed as less q u a lifie d fo r h ig h e r-leve l po sitions. A recent study by Astln and Snyder (1982) attempted to determine the re s u lts of e ffo r ts to Improve the status of women 1n higher education In s titu tio n s across the country. T h eir study was lim ite d to women fa c u lty and adm inistrators and compared data co llected In 1972 to those gathered 1n 1980. Their data showed th a t women's representation among a ll academic personnel and recent hires did Increase over tim e. The same proportion (143) o f men and women 1n both years Indicated th e ir primary re s p o n s ib ility was th a t of adm in istrator. However# female adm inistrators reported lo w e r-le v e l a d m in istra tive t i t l e s 1n 1980 than did male adm inistrators. The In vestig ato rs concluded th a t academic men and women are trea ted more equally today and th a t the survey data indicated changes 1n a ttitu d e s and b e lie fs are taking place. They claimed th a t men's views about women and a ffirm a ­ tiv e action are less prejudiced today than a decade ago. P relim inary findings o f a current study prepared by the Ameri­ can Council on Education substantiated some of the findings of Astln and Snyder. According to th is study# between 1975 and 1983# women made gains 1n nearly every a d m in is tra tiv e position. But# compared to the o v e ra ll representation 1n higher education# they s t i l l lag behind men 1n th e ir share of top leadership positions (Chronicle tio n # 1985a). Higher Educa­ 4 With th e advent of federal le g is la tio n mandating a ffir m a tiv e action* much overt d iscrim in atio n has diminished. Women today* how­ ever* are vic tim s of more covert* subtle kinds of discrim in atio n th a t may a ffe c t th e ir career asp irations and the organizational clim ate. Saf1llos-Rothsch1ld (1970) Indicated th a t I t has been documented th a t the more women perform w ell and seek upper-level dec1 si on-making posi­ tions* the g reater th e sex d iscrim in atio n ; and the more rank and a u th o rity they achieve 1n the organization* "the more they tend to lose the friendship and respect of t h e ir colleagues* and access to Inform ation" (p. 429). Influence over peers* She continued: Women who want and manage to achieve a high status* experience a "cold war" and must have the psychology o f long distance runners to endure the loneliness th a t comes from re je c tio n s by th e ir col­ leagues. Many ta le n te d and hard-working women have found the psychological cost of high occupational aspirations and achieve­ ments unbearable* and th is has dampened t h e ir ambitions, (p. 429) Sandler (1984) reported th a t as a re s u lt of the a n tidiscrim in atio n laws* major changes have occurred on almost every campus 1n the country* Including th e disappearance* to a large extent* of overt discrim ination 1n o f f ic ia l p o lic ie s and practices. She empha­ sized* however* th a t despite the progress some things have not changed a t a ll. For Instance* regardless of the Increase 1n the number of women 1n a d m in is tra tiv e roles* about 90% o f students attend In s t it u ­ tio ns where the three top ad m in is tra tiv e pos1t1ons~pres1dent» c h ie f academic o ffic e r* and dean— are held by men. And women attending th e 1983 conference of the National Association fo r Women Deans* Adminis­ tra to rs * and Counselors In Houston* Texas* complained of Iso latio n * stress* and lack of power. P articip an ts a t the conference pointed out 5 th a t old a ttitu d e s s t i l l ex is t* and she also Indicated th a t women now face more su btle kinds of discrim in atio n (Perry* 1983). Higher education In s titu tio n s have t r a d itio n a lly depended on those In the fa cu lty ranks as po ten tial policy-making adm inistrators. I t Is now becoming more prevalent to r e c r u it adm inistrators who are tra in e d In management s k ills * as w ell as drawing from the fie ld s of law* business* and government. However* many adm inistrators are s t i l l recru ited from fa c u lty * esp ec ially fo r positions of departmental c h a ir­ person and academic dean. But 1 f women p rim a rily are concentrated In the lower fa c u lty ranks and must w a it longer fo r promotion than th e ir male colleagues* they do not ris e to those ranks from which they can be promoted to a d m in is tra tiv e posts. Women have the rig h t to equal access to a d m in is tra tiv e positions a t a l l lev els . Their chances fo r upward m o b ility may be Impeded by constraints operating w ith in the organiza­ tio n (National P roject on Women 1n Education* 1977). In vestigators have Id e n tifie d many of these b a rrie rs . Men enjoy the b e nefits o f an "old boy" network* an inform al system pro­ vid ing Inform ation to other men as w ell as mentors to th e younger* upward-aspiring male. Women are excluded from th is system and thus are unable to receive job inform ation av aila b le through the network (National P ro ject on Women 1n Education* 1977). In 1981* Stokes surveyed women adm inistrators 1n the s ta te colleges and u n iv e rs itie s In Florida. In her study she Id e n tifie d 23 organizational b a rrie rs encountered by women 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions and also explored th e e ffe c t of these co nstraints on t h e ir 6 positions and also explored th e e ffe c t of these co nstraints on th e ir careers. Some of the su btle b a rrie rs acknowledged by those surveyed: Women indicated they work tw ic e as hard as t h e ir male counterparts; they b elieve they are less In flu e n tia l on decisions made by th e ir superiors; and they fe el th a t 1 t 1s d i f f i c u l t to receive recognition fo r th e ir accomplishments. Karr (1983) studied men and women fa c u lty from B1g Ten Conference In s titu tio n s to determine facto rs th a t Influence career as p iratio n s to a d m in is tra tiv e positions. She found th a t women's a s p ira tio n le v e ls tended to be a H t t l e higher than men's# th a t male professors seemed to fe el th a t women professors make less e ffe c tiv e adm inistrators# and th a t most women agreed th a t the nwh1te-male club1' promoted men over women fo r ad m in istra tive posts. There are In s u ffic ie n t numbers of successful women to serve as ro le models and mentors fo r other women. Women may turn to men as possible mentors 1f they can fin d one w illin g to do I t (National Proj­ ect on Women 1n Education# 1977). Banfleld (1976) Investigated the personal ch aracteristics# train ing # leadership style# rewards# and personal and organizational lim ita tio n s and problems encountered by women In business# local government# and college and u n iv e rs ity ad m in istration 1n southern C a lifo rn ia . She found th a t several respondents Indicated they had male mentors# eig h t women c ite d the lack of successful female ro le models as a problem fo r women# and th e m a jo rity of respondents agreed th a t a protege system and Inform al stru ctu re did e x is t in th e ir organization 7 from which women were excluded and which was detrim ental to them. The subjects generally had asp irations below the top position In the organization . The protege system (or sponsorship) 1s used as much In higher education as 1 t 1s In other fie ld s . Feldman (1974) pointed out* however* th a t a man may not be as w illin g to sponsor a woman. He may use her as an assis tan t but may not necessarily view her as a succes­ sor. Stevenson (1973) In a study of B1g Ten u n iv e rs itie s reported th a t lack of sponsorship by men or women above them helped co n trib u te to the d i f f ic u lt y women had 1n advancing 1n adm in istration . Forlsha (1978) pointed out th a t a woman may not q u a lify fo r an upper-level position 1n more than one way. P otential chairpersons and leaders In other fie ld s ra re ly suddenly appear: They are subtly trained* encouraged* and then f in a l ly promoted through an o f f ic i a l protege system 1n which those who "have made 1t" selec t out and groom s p e c ific proteges. As Epstein (1970) points out* such protege arrangements are d i f f i c u l t to establish between a man and a woman* p a rtic u la r ly I f the woman 1s e ith e r a ttr a c tiv e or young. Thus* those groomed fo r and hence q u a lifie d fo r high positions are generally male. (p . ) I t has been theorized th a t men are not as aware of sex bias as are women. Ferber and Loeb (1973) reported th e existence o f sex bias 1n the academic world. In addition* they reported th a t few er men than women Indicated an awareness o f In e q u itie s 1n fa c u lty pay and rank of equally q u a lifie d men and women. Ralston (1974) Investigated a ttitu d e s of those Involved In the selection process th a t a c t as b a rrie rs to the se lection o f women fo r college presidencies In F lo rid a. She found th a t female adm inistrators 8 are aware of sex d iscrim in atio n toward women. However# the members of the Board of Regents and the Chancellor# as w ell as members of the selectio n committees a t the U niversity of F lorida and the U n iversity of West Florida# as a group# were unaware of sex d iscrim in atio n or sex biases toward women aspiring to top decision-making posts 1n academia. She concluded that# since the Board of Regents made the fin a l se lection of a president# these a ttitu d e s can act as b a rrie rs to th e selectio n o f a woman. Ralston pointed out that# u n til the myths and b a rrie rs are removed# academic women must accept the fa c t th a t they must be more highly q u a lifie d than t h e ir male counterparts In order to hold declslon-making posts 1n higher education. Statement o f the Problem In th e past decade many studies have d e a lt w ith women In ad m in istratio n a t a ll educational levels# p a rtic u la rly elementary and secondary public school adm in istration . Most of the research concern­ ing women 1n higher education ad m in istration has focused on public s ta te colleges and u n iv e rs itie s . There Is a s c a rc ity o f research on women 1n academic adm inistration 1n small lib e r a l a rts colleges. The present study focused on th e status o f women In th e small college organization. management positions? Are women s u b s ta n tia lly represented In academic Is th e small college supportive# and does 1 t provide o p po rtu nities fo r advancement of women 1n adm inistration? Do th e same or s im ila r subtle b a rrie rs found In la rg e r colleges and u n iv e rs itie s r e a lly e x is t 1n these sm aller organizations? To what extent are f a c ilit a t o r s (ro le models# protege systems# and mentoring 9 rela tio n s h ip s ) used? What facto rs Influence career advancement? Answers to these questions can provide a basis fo r recommendations fo r change. This study should provide a b e tte r understanding o f the prob­ lems encountered by women 1n the small college organization so men and women can work together more e ffe c tiv e ly — as equals. The Inform ation w ill be h elp fu l to academic women 1n b e tte r ascertaining the opportunl* tie s a v a ila b le 1n ad m in istratio n 1n th e small college organization when making career choices. The obstacles women encounter and the awareness o f these by both men and women should be the concern o f the educational organizations and thoso employed by them. I t 1s c r i t ic a l th a t these constraints be revealed* fo r Today's u n iv e rs itie s should be the la s t place to to le r a te dis­ crim in a tio n of any sort* e ith e r overt or by the perpetuation o f d e stru ctive social a ttitu d e s through sheer apathy. In fa c t* the u n iv e rs ity 's educational re s p o n s ib ility requires 1t to be p a rticu ­ la r ly s e n s itiv e to such a ttitu d e s . In I t s capacity as a te s t lab fo r Ideas* the u n ive rs ity must m aintain a ceaseless program of s e lf-e v a lu a tio n * for* 1f I t does not* I t risks depriving I t s stu­ dents of choice by passing on such a ttitu d e s unquestioned. (Scott* 1970* p. 4) Purposes of_the_Stulv The central purpose of th is study was to determine 1f the same or s im ila r f a c ilit a t o r s and b a rrie rs th a t Influence the career advance­ ment o f women 1n ad m in istratio n th a t have been Id e n tifie d by women adm inistrators 1n some public colleges and u n iv e rs itie s would also be Id e n tifie d by women 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1n the small* Independ­ ent (p riv a te ) undergraduate lib e r a l a rts colleges 1n seven 'B ig Ten" states: Michigan* Ohio* Indiana* Illin o is * Wisconsin* Minnesota* and 10 Iowa. Second* the study examined the career asp irations of women adm in istrators and th e clim ate* support* and opportunities they per­ ceived as e x is tin g 1n t h e ir In s titu tio n . S p e c ific a lly * th is study attempted to answer the fo llo w in g research questions: 1. What percentage o f women adm inistrators I n these Independent foui^year undergraduate coeducational lib e r a l a rts colleges have used f a c ilit a t o r s (ro le models* protege systems* and mentoring re la tio n s h ip s ) during th e ir careers? 2. What facto rs do these women adm inistrators 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges Id e n tify as th e most Im portant p o s itiv e Influences on t h e ir careers? 3. What facto rs do women adm inistrators In Independent lib e r a l a rts colleges Id e n tify as b a rrie rs to th e ir career advancement and/or career aspirations? 4. Is th ere a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between p a rt-tim e adminis­ tr a to rs (d iv is io n heads and departmental chairpersons) and f u ll- t i m e adm inistrators w ith respect to t h e ir responses to each Item 1n Section IB (P o s itiv e Factors Influencin g Career Advancement) and Sections IIA and IIB (B arriers to Career Development) of the questionnaire? 5. What percentage o f women ad m in istrators 1n lib e r a l a rts col­ leges aspire to h ig h e r-leve l a d m in is tra tiv e positions? i t so, what steps are they taking t o prepare fo r th a t career goal? I f not, what reasons are given fo r not asp irin g to a higher position? 6. What percentage of women adm inistrators 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges perceive t h e ir In s titu tio n as supportive and th a t opportunities e x is t 1n t h e ir In s titu tio n fo r women to move In to h ig h er-level ad m in istra tive positions? D e fin itio n of Terms Academic ad m in istrator. The In d ivid u al who has d ire c t re s p o n s ib ility fo r the management of In stru ctio n * curriculum* or any academic programs w ithin the in s titu tio n . 11 Academic dean. The in divid ual In charge of fa c u ltie s and schools and thus u ltim a te ly academic programs; popularly known as the "middle manager." The person d ir e c tly underneath the central adminis­ tra to rs and to whom departmental adm in istrators are responsible. In some small In s titu tio n s * the terms "academic dean" and "academic v ic e president" are synonymous. Academic department chairperson/departmental head. responsible fo r a p a rtic u la r In s tru c tio n a l program. The person The c h ie f adminis­ tr a to r of the department and th e channel of au th o rity between the fa c u lty and the central ad m in istration (Featherstone, 1972). A ffirm a tiv e action. A term th a t covers governmental agency " e ffo rts to get u n iv e rs itie s to analyze th e ir own employment s itu a tio n , examine the a v a ila b le pool of q u a lifie d women and m in o rity group mem­ bers, broaden th e ir personnel search procedures to encompass previously excluded groups, and set reasonable h irin g goals" (Abramson, 1975, p. 96 ). A ffirm a tiv e action/equal opportu n ity mandates. Those federal re g u la tio n s /s ta tu te s req u irin g th a t equal employment opportunities be made a v a ila b le regardless of sex and/or other reasons. the fo llo w in g : These include The 1963 Equal Pay Act; 1964 T i t l e V I I of the C1v1l Rights Act; 1965 Executive Order 11246; 1967 Executive Order 11246 as amended by Executive Order 11375; 1971 Revised Order number 4; 1972 Amended Equal Pay Act; T i t l e IX of the Education Amendments o f 1972; T i t l e V I I of the C iv il Rights Act as amended by the Equal Employment 12 Opportunity Act o f 1972; and T i t l e IX of the Education Amendments of 1972 as enforced under new regulations o f 1975 (Bauer* 1978). B a rrie rs /c o n s tra in ts . Those fa cto rs operating w ith in the Individual and w ith in th e organization (Including a ttitu d e s and stereo­ types) th a t serve as obstacles to the advancement o f women 1n an In s titu tio n . F a c llIta to r s . 1n the organization. a. Mentor. Factors th a t help advancement of an In divid ual For purposes o f th is study* these Include: A support person. "A wise and tru s ted teacher." One who w ill teach a s k ill or provide the necessary knowledge to perform a p a rtic u la r task. A mentor has an apprentice* a learn er. "A mentor may or may not be able to Influence your career and need not have any p a rtic u la r clo u t 1n th e organization" (Josefowltz* 1980, pp. 93 -95 ). b. Role model. The p a rt played by an In divid ual w ith a p a rtic u la r position or status and who serves as a standard fo r our own behavior (Ralston, 1974). c. Sponsor/protege system. "One who vouches fo r the s u it a b ilit y of a candidate fo r admission." A sponsor has a pro­ tege* "one whose w elfare* tra in in g or career 1s promoted by an In flu e n tia l person." He/she may have l i t t l e to teach you about your Job* "but can help your career by recommending you fo r special projects* by speaking fo r you* by taking you along on assignments. A sponsor focuses on your fu tu re and must have Influence 1n the organization" (Josefow ltz, 1980* pp. 93-94). 13 Liberal a rts colleges and u n iv e rs itie s . Independent (p riv a te ) fo ur-year undergraduate In s titu tio n s having a lib e r a l a rts commitment In addition to providing career-prep aratlo n programs. These Include both Liberal Arts I and I I In s titu tio n s , as c la s s ifie d by the Carnegie Council on P olicy Studies In Higher Education (1976). "Old boy" network. O rig in atin g 1n B r ita in , the term "old boy" refe rred to an alumnus of a preparatory school or public school. The "old boy network" re fe rs to the bonds, the upper-class kinship, estab­ lished among B ritis h public school boys. These bonds were "supposed to operate throughout l i f e 1n social and, p a rtic u la r ly , 1n business and professional l i f e " (Shur, 1980, p. 173). As used today, the term re fe rs to the male network of support and inform ation sharing. Public s ta te colleges and un1vers1t1es/publ1c fo ur-vear In s titu tio n s of higher—education. "An In s titu tio n o ffe rin g fo u r years or more of higher education study and whose p rin cipal governance and fin a n c ia l support are re s p o n s ib ilitie s of p u b lic ly elected or appointed le g is la tiv e bodies a t In s titu tio n a l and s ta te le v e ls " (Bauer, 1978, pp. 8 -9 ). Sex d is c rim in a tio n . "Sex d iscrim in atio n simply means th a t q u a lifie d women are being bypassed fo r Jobs w h ile men w ith lesser q u a lific a tio n s gain employment" (Abramson, 1975, p. 223). S ex-role stereotype. "Displaying or adopting a ll or most of the behaviors tr a d it io n a lly associated w ith one's sex ro le , as deline­ ated by one's c u ltu r e " (Unger & Denmark, 1975, p. 81 9). 14 Sexual harassment. Sexual harassment takes th e form of Innuendos* of sexual remarks* of touching In possessive or sexual ways* and/or of expectations o f sexual favors ( Josefowltz* 1960). S o c ia liza tio n . "The processes through which a person acquires the thought and behavior patterns of his c u ltu re 1' (Unger & Denmark* 1975* p. 81 9). Stereotype. "A b e lie f or a ttitu d e th a t 1s widespread 1n society and o v e rs im p lifie d In content. Generally re s is ta n t to change" (Unger & Denmark* 1975* p. 8 2 0 ). Women adm in lstrators— f u ll. tlm e. Women employed f u l l tim e 1n one of the positions Id e n tifie d 1n the HEP 1985 Higher Education Direc­ to ry and/or the 19B5 Yearbook o f Higher Education and who function 1n an a d m in istra tive capacity more than 50% of the tim e. Women adm inistrators— o a rt tim e. Women employed f u l l tim e 1n a higher education In s titu tio n and who function 1n the capacity of departmental chairperson or d iv is io n head as w ell as fa c u lty member. These positions are Id e n tifie d 1n the HEP !985_H1gher Education Direc­ to ry and/or the 1985 Yearbook o f Higher Education. Design of__the Study The purpose of th is study was to determine th e f a c ilit a t o r s used and b a rrie rs perceived by women adm in istrators 1n the small higher educational organization th a t may Influence t h e ir upward m o b ility and/ or career aspirations. Further In v e s tig a tio n centered on th e ir career as p iratio n s and th e support and oppo rtu nities th a t e x is t 1n th e small co lleg e. 15 Population The population used 1n th is study comprised women holding a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1n fo ur-year coeducational p riv a te lib e r a l a rts colleges In th e 'B ig Ten” states, th a t Is , Ohio, I l l i n o i s , Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Iowa. Michigan, Indiana, The 11st of personnel was lim ite d to those women id e n tifie d 1n th e HEP 1985 Higher Education D irectory, the 1984-85 Yearbook o f Higher Education, and catalogues from selected In s titu tio n s . A ll women 1n m iddle- and upper-level a d m in is tra tiv e positions were contacted and asked to p a rtic ip a te 1n th is In v es tig a tio n . No women ad m in istrators who were members o f a re lig io u s order were included. Procedure The d e scrip tive method of research, using th e survey technique, was employed 1n th is study. "D escriptive studies are p rim a rily concerned w ith fin d in g out 'what 1s,n (Borg & G a ll, 1983, p. 354). "Survey research u t iliz e s a v a rie ty of Instruments and methods to study relatio n sh ip s, e ffe c ts of treatm ents, longitudinal changes, and comparisons between groups” (Borg & G a ll, 1983, p. 354). I t appears th a t d e s c rip tiv e research 1s an appropriate technique to examine those facto rs th a t may a ffe c t upward m o b ility of women 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges as perceived by women adm inistrators. A structured questionnaire was designed by th is In v e s tig a to r based on a review of th e lit e r a t u r e and conversations w ith some women 16 adm inistrators 1n higher education. One of th e sections addressing the problem of career b a rrie rs e s p ec ially used the work of Stokes (1981). A p retest of the I n i t i a l Instrument was made* Involving seven women experienced 1n ad m in istratio n In higher education. A revised Instrum ent was tested 1n a p ilo t study Involving women adm inistrators employed 1n private* fo u r-year lib e r a l arts colleges 1n Pennsylvania. They were asked to complete the questionnaire as w ell as a re a c tio n / comment/suggestion sheet. A cover l e t t e r explained the purpose o f the study and assured th e respondents of c o n fid e n tia lity . Comments s o lic ite d from the p articip an ts* as w ell as a b r ie f analysis of the data* were used to determine the necessary revisions 1n order to Improve the effectiveness of the Instrument. The fin a l questionnaire comprised questions designed to Iden­ t i f y f a c ilit a t o r s (ro le models* protege systems* and mentors) used by women adm inistrators* facto rs they perceived as having a p o s itiv e In fluence on th e ir careers* and career b a rrie rs experienced/encoun­ tered. In addition* questions addressed t h e ir career asp irations and the support* clim ate* and opportunities e x is tin g In th e ir In s titu tio n . Treatment of Data The Inform ation co llected was recorded and processed a t the Computer Center* Michigan S tate U niversity. D escriptive s t a tis tic s (frequencies* percentages* means* standard deviations* and rank order) were used. The ch1-square te s t of association was used to determine relatio n sh ip s between two groups o f adm inistrators— f u ll- t i m e adminis­ tra to rs and p a rt-tim e adm inistrators (d ivis io n heads and departmental 17 chairpersons)— and th e ir responses to c e rta in Items on the question­ n a ire . Limitations 1. The representative population was lim ite d to those women adm inistrators w illin g to p a rtic ip a te In the study. 2. data. The Instrument# a questionnaire# was used to c o lle c t the However# the re s u lts are subject to th e lim ita tio n s associated w ith the use of such data-gather1ng methods and techniques. That Is# sometimes data are overlooked and are needed fo r c la r ific a tio n ; how­ ever# th a t Inform ation cannot be obtained la t e r . The questionnaire provides no Immediate feedback fo r c la r if ic a t io n purposes or 1n-depth probing (Borg & Gall# 1983). D elim itatio n s 1. The study was re s tric te d to a ll m iddle- and upper-level women adm inistrators 1n Independent fo u r-year coeducational lib e r a l a rts colleges In Michigan# Ohio# Indiana# Illin o is # sota# and Iowa. Wisconsin# Minne­ The population did not Include women adm inistrators employed 1n public higher education In s titu tio n s or those 1n a ll-m a le or a ll-fe rn a le In s titu tio n s . 2. The population was d elim ited to those women Id e n tifie d In the HEP 1985 Higher Education D irecto ry# th e 1984-85 Yearbook o f Higher Education# and catalogues from selected colleges. The population did not Include adm inistrators who were members of a re lig io u s order. 18 3. Library research Included ERIC and D iss ertatio n Abstracts Inform ation searches and books and p erio d icals on f i l e a t Michigan State U niversity L ibrary; th e Teaching Resources Library* Erickson Hall# Michigan S tate U n iv ersity ; Grand V alley S tate College L ib rary ; Calvin College Lib rary; and Aquinas College Library* as w ell as pub­ lished and unpublished m aterial obtained through In t e r - lib r a r y loan with Aquinas College L ib rary and books and m a te ria ls owned or borrowed by th is In vestig ato r. 0-ver_vlew_Qf_ttie_S±adv Chapter I Introduced the nature of the problem th a t was Inves­ tig a te d . The statement of the problem was given. The purpose and research questions were stated* followed by a d e fin itio n of terms. The design o f th e study and lim ita tio n s and d e lim ita tio n s were outlined. Chapter I I contains a review of the re la te d lite r a tu r e * w ith emphasis on facto rs f a c ilit a t in g women's career advancement (ro le models* protege systems* and mentoring rela tio n s h ip s ) and b a rrie rs perceived to Impede t h e ir advancement (p a r tic u la r ly a ttitu d e s and stereotypes). The design of the study 1s discussed In Chapter I I I . population 1s defined. The The Instrument* a questionnaire. Is described* as are the d a ta -c o lle c tlo n methods employed. Procedures fo r analyzing the data are explained. Chapter IV contains the findings o f the study and an analysis o f data. Chapter V. A summary o f the fin din gs and conclusions 1s presented 1n The chapter concludes w ith suggestions fo r fu tu re research. CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Introduction A survey of the lit e r a t u r e Indicated th a t research pertaining to the status, career asp iratio n s , s o c ia liz a tio n , s tra te g ie s , and prob­ lems o f women employed 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1s su b stan tial. The related lit e r a t u r e examined fo r th is study 1s divided In to two main areas: (1) lit e r a t u r e concerning f a c ilit a t o r s to women's careers 1n ad m in istration— ro le models, mentorshlp, and sponsorship; and (2) con­ s tra in ts In fluencin g women's career advancement 1n ad m in istra tio n — In te rn a l b a rrie rs and external b a rrie rs . This review w i l l serve as a background fo r the research undertaken, as w ell as fo r a comparison to th e findings regarding f a c ilit a t o r s and b a rrie rs a ffe c tin g th e careers of women adm in istrators In sm all. Independent higher education In s t it u ­ tio n s . L1terature_Concern_1ng_Eac_1_l_1_tators Hole. Models Shapiro, H aseltln e, and Rowe (1978) described ro le models as "In d iv id u als whose behaviors, personal s ty le s and s p e c ific a ttrib u te s are emulated by others" (p. 52). There 1s considerable documentation 1n the lit e r a t u r e concerning the Importance of ro le models in career 19 20 development and success. Fisher (1978) explored th e possible facto rs Influencing Michigan female teachers1 as p iratio n s fo r an educational ad m in istration po sition. The p a rtic ip a n ts 1n her study agreed th a t w ithout examples of successful women ad m in istrators (ro le models) women students are u n lik e ly to aspire to ad m in istra tive p o sitions. Gasser (1975) In vestigated the personal and professional c h a ra c te ris tic s of 434 upper- and lo w e r-le v e l women adm inistrators 1n higher education and th e ir career a ttitu d e s . Her study also Id e n tifie d the p o s itiv e and negative c u ltu ra l* personal* professional* and In s t i­ tu tio n a l fa cto rs th a t women perceive as Influencing th e ir advancement to to p -le v e l a d m in is tra tiv e positions. Contact w ith a ro le model was c ite d as a primary p o sitive Influence by about 44% of lo w e r-le v e l and almost 36% o f upper-level adm inistrators. Data from B lckel's (1980) study led her to conclude th a t female ro le models are Im portant fo r women. McNutt's (1979) research focused on the existence and Influence of ro le models 1n the professional liv e s of to p -le v e l women adm in istrators In higher education 1n southern states. The four most In flu e n tia l models were found to be both male and female college teachers* mother, and fa th e r. A large percentage reported t h e ir most In flu e n tia l model to be th e ir teacher or college professor. More respondents Id e n tifie d a female than a male as the most In flu e n tia l ro le model but named more males than females as ro le models. I t was lo g ic a l* according to McNutt* th a t respondents 1n the study Id e n tifie d more males: "Because th ere are more males than 21 females who are college professors, th ere are more male than female models a v a ila b le a t th is le v e ln (p. 105). The ro le models Influenced the adm in istrators In a number o f ways. Respondents Indicated th a t t h e ir ro le models "encouraged them to r e a liz e th e ir c a p a b ilitie s , to have a career and to become an educator" (pp. 101-102). A larg e percentage indicated th a t "the model had displayed s p e c ific c h a ra c te ris tic s or patterns of action which they wished to Im ita te " (p. 101). Although the study "showed the Importance of s ig n ific a n t others" (r e la tiv e s , teachers, frie n d s ) "serving as ro le models, . . . I t revealed l i t t l e s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between th e sex of the model and the model's Influence" (p. 104). Based on her fin d in g s, McNutt recommended th a t professional women be a v a ila b le to serve as ro le models fo r young g ir ls . Her data revealed th a t Adm inistrators who recognized a model decided a t an e a r lie r age these models, g ir ls , as w ell as career decisions e a rly 1n l i f e . female as the most In flu e n tia l ro le to have a career* By observing boys, may be encouraged to make (p. 106) Family support has been c ite d as an Im portant fa c to r 1n career development. Parents can strongly In fluence th e ir daughters' occupa­ tio n a l as p iratio n s and decisions. Dressier (1981) found th a t a m ajo rity of the 55 women adm in istrators In her study had been encouraged by t h e ir parents to pursue t h e ir academic goals. •Varental ro le models and fam ily tra in in g had been sources of m otivation to achieve" (p. 115). D ressier concluded: "An encouraging, supportive fa m ily Is 22 d e fin ite ly an asset to any woman 1n adm in istration . Early parental ro le models continue to be powerful m otivators throughout l i f e " (p. 121). When asked I f they themselves served as ro le models to others# 49 of the 55 women (8935) 1n D ressler's study said "Yes." Many of the women indicated 1 t was a very rewarding experience. The data In McNutt's (1979) s tn ^ Indicated th a t mothers who work are more lik e ly to be nan. 1 as ro le models In fluencin g career choice than mothers who do not work. Douvan (1976) c ite d studies th a t suggested th a t daughters of working mothers had higher career aspira­ tio n s than those whose mothers did not work outside the home. In vestig ato rs have pointed out th a t because o f the lim ite d number of women fa c u lty and administrators# esp ecially those 1n to p level positions# women students do not come In to contact w ith p o te n tia l ro le models (Astln# 1977; Unger & Denmark# 1975). Astln (1977) stated th a t the "absence o f women 1n top ad m in istratio n can create an environ­ ment th a t lacks not only ro le models fo r women who might u ltim a te ly become adm inistrators# but also the unique perspective th a t women might bring to the varied tasks of adm inistering a college” (p. 63). He added th a t 19 out of every 20 freshmen attend a college "In which a ll th ree key ad m in is tra tiv e posts" (presidents# c h ie f academic officers# and deans of a rts and sciences) "are held by men" (p. 63). Women 1n Gasser's (1975) study Indicated th a t a lim ite d number o f women fa c u lty members were a v aila b le to serve as ro le models or mentors during graduate study and e a rly employment. Middle managers 1n B anfleld's (1976) study reported th a t the lack o f successful female 23 ro le models 1s a problem fo r women. "There are so few women models* so each woman has to learn by experience* making mistakes. . . . Early 1n my career* I almost l e f t business because I saw no model I wanted to follow " (p. 9 5 ). F o lle t t e t a l. (I9 6 0 ) commented: I t 1s conceivable th a t the woman student* observing the under­ representation o f women 1n c e rta in careers* Including those of higher academic status* decides th a t c e rta in l i f e choices— fo r Instance* fo r th e higher In te lle c tu a l l i f e — are "fo r men only." (p. 39) There was agreement among th e women 1n Karr*s (1983) study th a t "female students who never experience women In leadership ro les are not lik e ly to develop asp iratio n s fo r ad m in is tra tiv e roles" (p. 182). Karr suggested: Since academic ad m in istratio n Is a n o n -tra d ltlo n a l f ie ld fo r women and a f ie ld In which women lack ro le models* fa c u lty should provide ta lented women w ith as much encouragement as possible. Women* 1n comparison to men* have fewer ro le models and mentors and might be less In clin e d to pursue an a d m in is tra tiv e position w ithout th is type of encouragement, (pp. 186-87) Gappa and Uehllng (1979) commented: Since women c o n s titu te a r e la tiv e ly small proportion o f fa c u lty on most campuses* p o s itiv e ro le models are lik e ly to be 1n short supply fo r women students. . . . The s itu a tio n 1s exacerbated by the fa c t th a t women fa c u lty freq uen tly are lodged 1n lower ranks w ithout tenure and earn less than t h e ir male colleagues 1n every rank; therefore* whether they are viewed as successful ro le models In an academic career by women students is questionable, (p . 33) Three in vestig ato rs a le rte d readers to possible lim ita tio n s of the concept of ro le models In re la tio n to career progress. Shapiro* Haseltlne* and Rowe (1978) focused on women who had decided to enter a profession and the issue of "moving up" In a p a rtic u la r profession. A fte r examining the concept of ro le models* they came to the conclusion 24 th a t ro le models "are* a t best# of lim ite d effectiven ess 1n a s s is tin g women to a c tu a lly gain positions o f leadership# authority# or power" (p. 5 1 ). Shapiro e t a l. claimed th a t female ro le models may be more In h ib itin g than h elpful 1n women’s career advancement. H aseltlne cau­ tioned against searching fo r a ro le model who "exem plifies t o t a l l y the kind o f l i f e one wants to lead"— i t 1s Impossible to fin d th a t p e rfe c t "combination th a t co n stitu tes a desired ro le model fo r a s p e c ific In d iv id u a l" (p. 53). In addition# she contended th a t professional women who have been successful and thereby q u a lify as ro le models became so under e n tir e ly d iffe r e n t circumstances than those facing succeeding generations. She suggested th a t the use of p a rtia l or m u ltip le ro le models— both male and female— may be more appropriate and useful. She concluded th a t Role models# both as general examples of what 1s possible and as models fo r p a rtic u la r tr a its # are Im portant Ingredients In the development of professional Id e n tity and commitment. As a p rescrip tio n fo r "making 1t"— fo r a tta in in g leadership# authority# or power— ro le models are not s u ffic ie n t and 1n some cases may be counter-productive, (p . 54) F o lle t t e t a l. (1980) suggested: Women students often show a lack of defin iten ess and realism about expectations fo r a d u lt roles. Through occupational ro le models# women can gain a broader exposure to the nature o f work ro les and can begin to see themselves as capable of performing w ell 1n jobs often thought unsuitable fo r women, (p . 30) F o lle t t e t a l. c ite d a 1974 In v es tig a tio n by Almqulst 1n which twoth ird s of the undergraduate women who had chosen a masculine occupation knew beforehand a woman In th e chosen occupation. "Almqulst found th a t 25 ro le models# whether male or female# served to stim u la te students1 In te re s ts 1n p a rtic u la r occupational fie ld s " (pp. 30-31). The authors concluded th a t the "myth th a t c e rta in roles are meant fo r men and others fo r women can be d isp e lled through acquaintance w ith ro le models" (p. 3 1 ). The National Science Foundation began a grants program 1n 1982 to Increase the v i s i b i l i t y o f women 1n science and engineering and to encourage them to choose careers 1n those fie ld s . One p h ysicist pointed out th a t p a rtic ip a n ts 1n the program ac t as ro le models. She added th a t because th ere were so few women 1n physics# I t was Im portant to m otivate women to en ter th a t fie ld . Another commented# however# th a t th e re 1s an Increasing number of ro le models to show young women they can succeed 1n science and engineering. Margrete S. Klein# d ire c to r of the National Science Foundation womens program# said th a t even though both o v ert and co vert d iscrim in atio n has lessened throughout soci­ ety# women and m lnorlty-group members s t i l l face assumptions by some w hite male s c ie n tis ts about who 1s competent 1n science or math. . . . By p u ttin g women s c ie n tis ts In to academic departments you're a t le a s t sending th e message to g ir ls In undergraduate programs th a t women can be p h ysicists. ( Engelgau# 1984# p. 6) Mentorshlp and Sponsorship Two s tra te g ie s th a t have been used to gain access to and thus Increase the representation of women In higher education are mentoring and sponsoring relatio n sh ip s. Much has been w ritte n about mentorshlp and sponsorship; however# a review of the lit e r a t u r e also disclosed some Inconsistency 1n th e use of the terms. Although th ere 1s some 26 agreement* the term "mentor" does not mean the same thing to everyone. The re la te d term "sponsor" 1s sometimes used Interchangeably w ith "mentor." Moore and Sal Imbene (1981) claim ed th a t th e term "mentor" has supplanted the terms "sponsor" and "ro le model" In the lit e r a t u r e since the 1970s. These support persons have been c a lle d benefactors* patrons* rabbis* godfathers* counselors* and gurus (Hennlg & Jar dim* 1981; Josefowltz* 1980; Kanter* 1977; Levinson* 1978). Fury (1980) defined a mentor as a close* trusted* and experienced counselor or guide. mentor* as defined by Josefowltz* 93)* a counselor. A 1s a "wise and trusted teacher" (p. A mentor has an apprentice— a beginner* a learn er. A sponsor* on the other hand* 1s "one who vouches fo r the s u it a b ilit y of a candidate fo r admission" (p. 93). A sponsor has a protege* "one whose w elfare* tra in in g or career 1s promoted by an In flu e n tia l person" (p. 93). Yale psychologist Daniel J. Levinson studied th e l i f e cycles o f men In The Seasons o f a Man’s L ife (1978). He explained th a t the mentor 1s not only a teacher* advisor* or sponsor* but much more than these. He believed th a t th e mentor re la tio n s h ip 1s s im ila r to the Intense re la tio n s h ip between two people--pa rents and offspring* spouses* and so on. th re e years. The mentoring re la tio n s h ip la s ts about two to The mentor 1s usually older and has more experience and s e n io rity . Moore and Sal1mbenefs (1981) th in k in g follow ed s im ila r lin e s . They refe rred to mentoring as the "process by which older* more 27 experienced adm inistrators pass on t h e ir accumulated wisdom to younger men who are id e n tifie d as possessing q u a litie s valued by the organiza­ tio n ” (p. S I). The "old boy network" grew out o f th is process. In th e ir examination of the mentoring process through in ten sive In terview s of 35 male and female ad m in istrators 1n higher education 1n Pennsyl­ vania* the authors chose to define the term "mentor" as: an intense# lasting# and profession ally-centered re la tio n s h ip between two In d iv id u a ls 1n which the more experienced and powerful Individual# the mentor# guides# advises* and assists in any number o f ways the career of the less experienced* often younger* upwardly m o b ile p rotege, (p. 53) Josefowltz t 1980) believed function d iffe r e n tia te s "mentor" from "sponsor": A mentor w i l l teach you a s k i ll or provide you w ith th e knowledge necessary to perform an id e n tifia b le task. Mentoring 1s focused 1n th e present. A mentor teaches what you need to know now. A mentor may or may not be able to In flu en ce your career and need not have any p a rtic u la r clo u t 1n th e organization. A sponsor may have very l i t t l e to teach you about your Job* but can help your career by recommending you fo r special projects* by speaking fo r you# by taking you along on assignments. A sponsor focuses on your fu tu re and must have Influence In th e organization, (p . 93) Josefowltz added th a t a mentor can help a person get started and learn the job and th e organization's rules. The sponsor has In fluence 1n the organization and w i l l help his protege get promoted. She explained th a t mentors and sponsors operate a t a l l le v e ls o f th e organizational hierarchy. But more mentoring 1s needed a t the lower lev els * w h ile more sponsoring occurs higher up. The protege has already arrived# has proven h e rs e lf* and needs help to the next le v e l. "Each tim e you reach a new le v e l* you need a mentor to teach you th e ropes* but as soon as you know them* you need a sponsor to help you reach the next le v e l" 28 (p. 94). A c o lle g ia l re la tio n s h ip e x is ts between sponsor and protege. Josefowltz pointed out th a t the same person could serve as both mentor and sponsor. Kanter (1977) found th a t the inform al social network 1n organizations 1s very Im portant and th a t power comes from these social connections. Sponsors ("mentors and advocates upward 1n the organiza­ tio n") are part of such connections. Sponsors are often thought of as teachers or coaches whose func­ tio n s are p rim a rily to make Introductions or to tr a in a young person to move e ffe c tiv e ly through the system. However# there are three other im portant functions besides advice th a t generate power fo r the people sponsored. First# sponsors are often 1n a position to fig h t fo r the person 1n question# to stand up fo r him or her 1n meetings 1f controversy Is raised# to promote th a t person fo r promising opportunities. . . . Second# sponsors often provide the occasion fo r lo w e r-le v e l organization members to bypass the h ie r­ archy; to get In sid e Information# to s h o rt-c 1 rc u lt cumbersome procedures# or to cut red tape. People develop a social re la tio n ­ ship w ith a powerful person which allow s them to go d ire c tly to th a t person# even though th ere 1s no formal Interface# and once there# a social Interchange can often produce formal resu lts. . . . Third# sponsors also provide an Im portant signal to other people# a form of "re fle c te d power." Sponsorship Indicates to others th a t the person 1n question has th e backing o f an In flu e n tia l person# th a t the sponsor's resources are somewhere behind th e In d ivid u a l. (pp. 181-82) Although Kanter said a t a la t e r date th a t sponsors are "also known In ap p ro priately as 'mentors"' (Kanter# 1979# p. 67)# she refe rred to sponsors as mentors# teachers# or coaches. The functions she discussed appear to be more a description# not of mentors but of sponsors as outlin ed by Josefow ltz. This observation was also noted by V1llan1 (1983). According to Levinson (1978)# the mentor may act as a teacher or he may serve as a sponsor using his Influence to help the man enter 29 and advance 1n th e organization. Or he may act as a guide, acquainting his protege w ith the customs, values, and "others" of the organization. Further, he may act as a model whom th e protege can emulate. He can also be a counselor and lend his support 1n tim es of need or stress. The tru e mentor's most Im portant function, however, Is to aid or help the young person's development by b e lieving 1n him, sharing and supporting his dream, and "creating a space 1n which the young man can work on a reasonable, s a tis fa c to ry l i f e stru ctu re th a t contains the dream" (pp. 9 8 -9 9 ). At a recent conference, Bea Orr (1984), then president of the American A llia n ce fo r H ealth, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance, shared her thoughts and experiences on mentoring. She stated, "Mentors teach, advise, open doors, encourage, promote# cut red tape, show the p o litic s and s u b tle tie s o f the Job, and believe In proteges, thus helping them succeed." Orr pointed out th a t mentors have knowledge, s k ills , and power th a t proteges lack and need. them the ropes through the organization. p o te n tia l. tough. They show They help unlock leadership They are the steady hand on the shoulder when things get She stated fu rth e r: Mentors can be door-openers, s trin g p u lle rs , wheel greasers. Because they often have the b e n e fit of an ou tsider's vantage po int, mentors can provide t h e ir proteges w ith hefty doses of in s ig h t and o b je c tiv ity . Mentors can help others conquer th e Inner fe ars, doubts, and second guessing th a t In v a ria b ly are p a rt of personal and professional decision making. She referred to mentors as "career cheerleaders (or c r itic s )." mentor Is someone who spots po ten tial In d ivid u a ls w ith in the A 30 the r ig h t advice a t the rig h t time# as w ell as one who# 1n tim es of challenge or c ris is # o ffe rs something more than words o f encouragement. "Mentors often are able to o ffe r the most help to th e ir proteges 1n tim es o f challenge or crisis-**they# a f te r a ll# are lik e ly to have faced many of the same problems." As women gain competencies and s k i l l and grow profession ally and begin to assume t h e ir own re s p o n s ib ilitie s # "the mentoring relatio n sh ip s re a lig n themselves as peer re la tio n s h ip s ." M1ss1 H a n 's (I9 6 0 ) findings supported O rr's observation: Each of the women who acknowledged t h e ir mentor s t i l l enjoys a v ia b le re la tio n s h ip w ith th a t person. While the "teacher/pupH " aspect of the re la tio n s h ip no longer exists# the mentors and proteges 1n th is study were able to finesse a tra n s itio n to a compeer re la tio n s h ip . They were able to acknowledge t h e ir love fo r one another# and th e richness of th e ir relatio n sh ip continues as a deep frie n d s h ip , (p. 139) Shapiro e t a l. (1978) proposed a "patron system#" which Includes a range of advisors/guides w ith mentors a t one end of th is continuum and "peer pals" a t the other end. Sponsors and "guides" then serve as middle points along the continuum. They defined mentors as th e most Intense and p a te r n a lis tic o f th e types o f patrons described by th is continuum. . . . Sponsors serve as the two-th1rds p o in t. . . . They are strong patrons but less powerful than men­ to rs 1n promoting and shaping the careers of t h e ir proteges, (p. 55) Guides# a t the one-th1rd point# "are less able than mentors and sponsors to f u l f i l l the ro les of benefactor# protector# or champion of t h e ir proteges" (p. 55). They can# however# explain th e system and# as t h e ir primary function# point out p i t f a l l s and shortcuts. The term "peer pals" describes "the re la tio n s h ip between peers helping each 31 other succeed and progress" (p. 56) by acting as sounding boards and sharing Inform ation and s tra te g ie s . How does one estab lish a mentor relatio n sh ip ? believed th a t 1 t ju s t happens. Orr (1984) She f e l t you may be watching someone and fin d th a t she 1s th e kind of person you want on your own s t a ff. Who takes the f i r s t step? She f e l t th a t 1 t has to be the mentor because th e p o ten tia l protege does not fe e l com fortable making th a t I n i t i a l step. Other In ves tig a to rs have advised women not to s i t back and w ait* but aggressively to seek out male mentors (Halcomb* 1980; Moore & Sallmbene* 1981). boy" network. Men have found mentors through t h e ir "old They can be frien d s with or w ithout Influence, Inside or outside the organization* someone along the organizational hierarchy (Josefowltz* 1980). Josefowltz pointed out th a t even 1 f th e boss 1s the mentor* he s t i l l may not be s u ffic ie n tly In flu e n tia l to act as a sponsor. Thus* women may have to look elsewhere. She advised women to make th e ir goals known and to seek v i s i b i l i t y by taking on projects. Finding a mentor 1s e a s ie r, according to Josefowltz* because "1 t 1s easier to ask fo r s p e c ific help than to ask someone to be your advocate . . . to speak on your b e h a lf or t o ask ad vice w ith your c a re e r p lans" (pp. 95-96). With a mentor* then, one can take the I n i t i a t i v e ; w ith a sponsor* one must pave th e way so a sponsor can take the I n i t i a t i v e on one's behal f. Does gender make any difference? According to Fury (i960)* women a t the executive le v e l know " th e y 'll need a ll the help they can get" (p. 44). I f these women fir m ly b elieve th a t they need to develop 32 strong relatio n sh ip s w ith a person who has power and Influence 1n order to succeeds 1 t 1s q u ite probable th a t th a t teacher/sponsor/guide and frie n d w i l l be a man because of th e d is trib u tio n o f power and Influence 1n the business world. The women 1n B lckel's (1980) study concurred. Blckel surveyed women doctoral candidates 1n higher education and student personnel adm in istration . When asked to Id e n tify s tra te g ie s p a rtic ip a n ts most often used or an tic ip a te d using to help th e ir career advancement/ T\% said "develop a sponsorship re la tio n s h ip w ith a professional male" and 6956 Indicated they would "fin d a successful woman to serve as a mentor or sponsor" (pp. 41# 46). Blckel concluded th a t mentors are valuable 1n gaining entrance to and promotion w ith in higher education adminis­ tr a tio n . Women Interview ed expressed th e opinion th a t th e primary purpose fo r having a mentor was to be associated w ith a person powerful enough to aid t h e ir career. Interview ees fu rth e r contended th a t since so few women hold positions of power In higher education ad m in istra tio n / men are often b e tte r suited to serve as mentors. (p . 77) These findings supported th e work o f Josefow ltz (1980). She added/ however# th a t a woman sponsor has some q u a litie s not found In a male sponsor. She can serve as a ro le model. She also understands what I t 1s lik e to be a woman 1n your p o sitio n / fo r she has most c e rta in ly been th e re h e rs e lf. A woman sponsor can r e la te to the p a rtic u la r problems o f women 1n organizations and can sympathize with the m ultitud e of roles women must p r io r it iz e and play. (Josefowltz# 1980# pp. 96-97) Women holding executive positions o f vic e-p re sid en t and higher In a recent W all-S t r_eet_Journal and Gallup organization survey 33 acknowledged th a t men had made an Im portant co ntrib utio n to th e ir careers. Of 722 female executives surveyed# 82% adm itted th a t the In d ivid u al most h elp fu l In th e ir career advancement had been a man. Almost four out of fiv e younger women claimed th a t they had had a male mentor (Rogan# 1984). The men 1n Levinson's (1978) study were almost a l l male mentors. However# Levinson f e l t th a t a "re la tio n s h ip w ith a female mentor can be an enormously valuable experience fo r a young man" (p. 96). He added th a t a woman can also b e n e fit by having a male mentor. He believed th a t women experience less mentoring than men. One of the major problems confronting women# he fe lt# Is the s c a rc ity of female mentors# es p e c ia lly In th e workplace. Those few who may be a v a ila b le are too busy try in g to survive In a male-dominated work world. Orr (1984) has mentored both men and women. She said th a t mentoring has t r a d it io n a lly been a man's a c tiv ity . However# women can be mentors to th e male as w e ll as to the female. The key to I t Is th a t care and respect th a t they have fo r each other. What 1s needed Is th a t special re la tio n s h ip between two people fo r the mentoring relatio n sh ip to work. One strategy recommended by several people 1s to develop Im portant relatio n sh ip s w ith several mentors# both male and female. one of the mentors becomes less In flu e n tia l or powerful# then one can continue w ith th e others (Fury# 1980; Halcomb# 1980). % % I t ' s not a t a ll unusual fo r someone t o have more than one mentor. Each may play a d is tin c t and s ig n ific a n t ro le . One# fo r example# might Im part practical# day-to-day tr a in in g and advice; the other might scout fo r new job oppo rtu nities and provide contacts and recommendations. (Orr# 1984) If 34 Fury (1980) advised th a t women who wish to succeed draw on a number o f a v a ila b le resources— talen ted peers* Knowledgeable frie n d s higher 1n the organization* the women 1n professional networks* mentors or sponsors or good bosses I f they're lucky— to Insure th a t they* th e ir work and th e ir goals become known to those who can help. (p . 47) Hennlg and Jardlm (1981) recommended to those wishing and planning fo r a career and who are a t th e point o f " f i l l i n g In th e space between where you are and where you want to go" to begin to look fo r a coach* a mentor* an advocate* "someone In a more senior management position who can teach her* support her* advise her* c r itiq u e her. To succeed 1n th is she must present h e rs e lf as someone worth Investing In* as someone who can make a return on the help she receives" (p. 162). Alvarez (1979) stated th a t sponsorship 1s viewed as the w i l l ­ ingness to exercise power on behalf of an In d ivid u al or In d ivid u a ls. The "sponsor's power 1s 1n p a rt Independent and 1n p a rt dependent upon the sponsor's social system lo cation Inside or outside the organization and above* a t the same le v e l* or below th a t of th e person being spon­ sored" (p. 38). I t 1s now a "standard observation th a t the eminence of the sponsor d ir e c tly a ffe c ts th e career o f th e former student" (p . 390)* and th ere 1s evidence th a t I t a ffe c ts women more than men. These persons are In a position to give advice 1n career management* to look out fo r and forewarn about p o ten tia l d if f ic u lt ie s * to recommend experiences th a t may la t e r be deemed desirab le fo r promotion* and so fo rth . In short* the sponsor may a c t as a guard1 an an g el, (p. 48) Alvarez suggested th a t among those q u a lifie d fo r a po sition based on m eritorious p rio r performance* the person selected fo r appointment Is most lik e ly to be th e one who has the most extensive degree of sponsorship by those able to Influence (whether ap prop riately or not) the 35 selection process. Strong sponsorship may fu rth e r a career th a t lacks some m e rit as much as high m e rit (based on e ith e r achieved or ascribed fa c to rs ) may fu rth e r a career th a t lacks some sponsorship. However# 1 t Is very u n lik e ly th a t much career advancement Is pos­ s ib le without a f a i r l y good balance between m e rit and sponsorship, (p. 47) In o u tlin in g some s tra te g ie s fo r moving up th e organizational hierarchy# Scott (1979) cautioned: Don't be duped by th e argument th a t professional advancement Is assured by hard work or more education. This 1s not to say th a t hard work and educational cred en tials are unimportant; they are Important. However# many m in o ritie s and women waste Invalu able tim e and money 1n search of th e r ig h t degree or working themselves "to the bone" w ith the hope th a t some superior w ill notice and ju s tly reward them. Unfortunately# much of th e key to professional a b i l i t y Is re la te d to tim ing and how successfully one presents and handles oneself In s tra te g ic s itu a tio n s ; e.g.# committee assign­ ments re la te d to tasks viewed as cru c ia l to the fu tu re of the In s titu tio n , (p . 37) Among the s tra te g ie s S cott recommended# and the one she Indicated as the f i r s t and most Important# was fin d in g a mentor or someone who takes a professional In te re s t In your professional goals. A mentor must be able to both praise and c r i t i c i z e your work# and should be an In d ivid u al who 1s r e la tiv e ly secure 1n h is /h e r self-concept. Because a mentor can be such an Im portant person In your life # you must choose such an Individual c a re fu lly , (p. 37) . . . You should a ls o be aware o f th e f a c t t h a t you cannot have a mentor forever. You must eventually overcome or outgrow your dependence on your mentor and s t a r t re la tin g to him/her as a peer. (p. 38) Scott pointed out th a t your growing Independence 1s an In d ic a tio n of the success o f the mentoring re la tio n s h ip . Sheehy (1976) also argued# "Sooner or la t e r every apprentice must re fu te the absolute power of th e mentor 1f he (or she) 1s to emerge as owner of his own au th o rity" (p. 1 3 4 ). 36 A number of other In vestig ato rs also have emphasized the value and benefits of mentoring and sponsoring relationships* Women appear to need mentors a t crises or turning points In t h e ir careers. One’s success or f a ilu r e a t such tim es g re a tly depends upon whether a mentor 1s present or not. To have a mentor 1s to be among th e blessed. Not to have one Is to be damned to etern al o b livio n * or a t le a s t to a m id-level status. (Halcomb* 1960* p. 13) Kathryn M. Moore* senior research associate a t the Center fo r the Study of Higher Education* Pennsylvania S tate U niversity* has studied the careers o f 3*000 ad m in istrators a t 1*200 higher education In s titu tio n s . Almost 403 admitted to relian ce on a mentor sometime during th e ir career climb, Moore said mentors can help in d iv id u a ls gain v i s i b i l i t y and access to those a t the top. Women interview ed also said th a t having someone to b elieve 1n them was another b e n e fit. Moore said, "Everyone believes th a t having a mentor le t s your career take o ff" ( Chronicle o f Higher Education. 1984* p. 2 9 ). P h illip s (1977) surveyed 331 women 1n business and industry. She also Interview ed 50 women. Throughout her In vestigation * P h illip s used the term "mentor" to Include a l l those s ig n ific a n t others c a lle d sponsor* patron* counselor* guide* advisor* employer* coach* advocate* and so on. Her purpose was to explore th e e ffe c t these s ig n ific a n t others had on the careers o f women 1n business and Industry. Her d is s e rta tio n focused on the concept of "career m entor1ng"~the help given by a mentor to a protege to enable her to reach her goals. Her findings showed th a t the women ranked a career mentor among th e top fiv e c r it ic a l facto rs 1n th e ir career development. Sixty-one percent of the p a rtic ip a n ts Indicated they had one or more career mentors. 37 According to those P h illip s surveyed and Interview ed* mentors help In several trays. The type of help most often reported was encouragement and recognition o f proteges* p o te n tia l, the second most reported function was teaching proteges about t h e ir work and o ffic e p o litic s * s k ills , and other types of tra in in g . Mentors also provided opportunities and re s p o n s ib ilitie s * advice and counsel* help w ith th e ir careers (h irin g * promoting, tra n s fe rrin g ), v i s i b i l i t y * and frien dsh ip. One may conclude th a t career mentors have played a s ig n ific a n t p a rt In the career development of most o f the women 1n th is study. Men­ to rs have by no means been the only fa c to r 1n the women's success* but the mentoring they have received has been an Im portant Ingre­ d ien t 1n th e ir o verall development, (p. 123) The findings 1n V ilia m 's (1983) d is s e rta tio n were s im ila r. She explored the re latio n sh ip s between sponsors* mentors* and mentees 1n educational ad m in istration . In her study* V llla n l d iffe re n tia te d between mentor and sponsor. She defined a mentor as "a supporter and f a c i l i t a t o r of th e r e a liz a tio n o f the Dream . . . teacher" (p . 9 7 ). a wise and tru s ted A sponsor was defined as one who has Influence In th e organization* or fie ld * and helps another's career by focusing on t h e ir advancement . . . may In tr o ­ duce the protege to other upper level people . . . recommend th e protege, This 1s a re la tio n s h ip of u t i l i t y * though I t does not preclude respect and caring, (p. 97) As a re s u lt of th is research* the In v e s tig a to r concluded th a t mentees see a re la tio n s h ip between t h e ir success 1n overcoming external and In te rn a l b a rrie rs and the fa c t they have mentors. The a d m in is tra tiv e career support and encouragement provided the women 1n V U la n l's study by t h e ir mentors was considered the major or "key" co n trib u tio n of th e mentor. Another ro le mentors play 1s th a t 38 of sponsor. The extent to which they do so depends on t h e ir power and Influence 1n th e tr fie ld . Female mentors In dicated doubts about th e ir a b ilit y to sponsor as e ffe c tiv e ly as th e ir male counterparts. Those w ith a d m in is tra tiv e experience were able to aid 1n the development of ad m in is tra tiv e s k ills and career strategies# whereas those w ithout th is experience were not. Mentors have a subtle Influence on t h e ir mentees as ro le models. V llla n l found th a t same gender ro le modeling was a highly s ig n ific a n t Influence. This was f e l t strongly by the mentees and less recognized by th e ir mentors. This 1s not to say th a t having a male mentor Is a disad­ vantage. Everyone agreed th a t 1t depended on the people Involved. (p. 188) Based on p a rtic ip a n ts ' comments 1n V llla n l's study# sponsorship refe rred to help re la te d to obtaining a position or promotion. Func­ tio n s reported Included: Introductions to people In the f ie ld ; p o s itiv e references about the person to others; n o tific a tio n of Job openings; help 1n obtaining job In terview s; outstanding recommendations; placement of person on Im portant committees and projects; and appointment to a new posi­ tio n . (p . 122) Other comments Included: He "went to bat fo r me#" "Instrum ental 1n g e ttin g me a sabbatical#" "c le a rly a sponsor# but he was not a mentor#" "put me 1n contact w ith people#" "p u b lic ly made comments th a t helped my reputation#" "there 1s not the closeness there to c a ll him a mentor" Cp. 123). V llla n l <1983) stated th a t th ere 1s evidence th a t " In s titu tio n ­ a lize d sponsorship and a d m in is tra tiv e tra in in g programs can work. While the mentoring relatio n sh ip appears too unique to mandate# there 39 are Internsh ip and sponsorship programs which are valuable and pos­ sib le" (p. 184). Others have agreed th a t tru e mentoring cannot be structured or in s titu tio n a liz e d (Fury* 1980; Orr* 1984). M1ss1r1an (1980) used Business Week's l i s t of the "top 100 corporate women" 1n the country 1n 1976 1n her study of the mentoring process. Th1rty-f1ve women completed surveys* and IS 1n-depth in te r ­ views were conducted. dream." For M lsslrlan * a mentor Is one who shares "the She believes th e re 1s an emotional Involvement 1n the tru e mentoring relatio n sh ip * a caring re la tio n s h ip th a t extends beyond the u t i l i t y of a sponsoring or career-m odeling re la tio n s h ip . 1s one who promotes. The sponsor I t Is an a d m in is tra tiv e function* one of u t i l i t y . The analysis of her data suggested th a t.th e mentor assumes a number of supportive roles. These roles range In degrees of power. Peers* coaches* and sponsors do not have th e degree of power or Influence mentors (the highest po int on the continuum) have on th e ir proteges. M ls slrlan reported th a t mentoring has been a s ig n ific a n t p a rt o f the career development of successful to p -le v e l women managers. In addi­ tio n * they are becoming mentors themselves. Keogh's (1982) In v e s tig a tio n focused on the extent to which 254 women higher education adm in istrators received sponsorship and whether th is sponsorship was perceived as necessary to th e ir careers, Keogh used Shapiro e t a l.'s conceptual model of sponsoring relatio n sh ip s. Based on the data* the m a jo rity of the p a rtic ip a n ts were found to have one or more of the four types of sponsorship. Seventy-five percent of the women reported having a mentor* 58.8% had a sponsor* 62.4% had a 40 guide* and 76.456 In d icated they had a peer pal* Women having such sponsoring re la tio n s h ip s agreed th a t sponsorship 1s necessary fo r a successful career and 1s needed to obtain e n try -le v e l p o sitio n s and promotions and to achieve s e n io r-le v e l po sitions. They did not agree th a t sponsorship was as re a d ily a v a ila b le to women as to men. A g rea ter number of p a rtic ip a n ts 1n th e study reported th e presence o f a mentor or peer pal than the presence of a sponsor or guide. The mentor and peer pal re la tio n s h ip s represent th e two ends o f th e Shapiro* H as eltln e and Rowe continuum of sponsorship. The conclu­ sion Is drawn th a t being a p a rt o f a peer pal re la tio n s h ip helps to s o c ia liz e th e a d m in is tra to r In to the profession and such a s o c ia l­ iz a tio n process a ttr a c ts th e a tte n tio n o f a p o te n tia l mentor who continues the s o c ia liz a tio n process a t a more Intense le v e l thus leading th e protege to th e a tte n tio n o f other p o ten tia l mentors, (pp. 1 1 3 -1 4 ) The m a jo rity o f women (34) 1n D resslerfs (1981) doctoral study were able to obtain a mentor during t h e ir professional careers. Seventeen mentors were male and four were female. both male and fem ale mentors. played on t h e ir campus. T h irteen women had They acknowledged th a t p o lit ic s was "Learning to play th e game of p o lit ic s has been described as one of th e requirements fo r success 1n any organiza­ tio n " (p. 76). A m a jo rity o f th e women stated th a t they learned to play the p o lit ic a l game through experience and observation. But 9 of th e 55 women In terview ed cre d ite d t h e ir mentors w ith teaching them the game of p o litic s . T h ir ty -th re e o f th e 55 women 1n the study reported having a sponsor. In general* th e ad m in istra to rs In d icated th a t t h e ir sponsors "had contacted In flu e n tia l persons on campus and encouraged 41 consideration of t h e ir ap plicatio ns and expounded on t h e ir many fin e q u a litie s . In some cases small p a rtie s were arranged to Introduce the candidate to Im portant people on th e selection committee” (p. 95). The central purpose of a study by Cherryholmes (1978) was to compare the career asp irations held by male and female p rin c ip a ls . area of in ves tig a tio n concerned mentoring: One Does a mentor play a ro le 1n the liv e s of men and women; are men more lik e ly than women to have a mentor 1n th e ir professional careers who encourages and guides them? The data showed no s ig n ific a n t d ifferen ces between men and women w ith regard to the presence or Influence o f a mentor. The assistance and Influence from mentors was almost id e n tic a l fo r both sexes. She concluded th a t the women 1n her study did not appear to be disadvan­ taged. H llls-N ovoa (1980) studied 181 women adm inistrators 1n public and p riv a te higher education 1n Minnesota. Her research focused on fa cto rs th a t a ffe c t th e career development of women 1n higher education ad m in istra tio n : background factors* perceived in s titu tio n a l influence* career aspirations* and job s a tis fa c tio n . In her questionnaire* “mentor/sponsor" denoted "a career model who has a c tiv e ly guided and promoted your career." M llls-N ovoa's findings on ways mentors/sponsors In fluence ad m in istrators' careers Indicated th a t male mentors/sponsors w ith in the respondent's In s titu tio n "were able to o ffe r more ta n g ib le opportunities* resources and r e fe r r a ls than female mentors/sponsors; whereas female mentors/sponsors seem to have provided more support* direc tio n * etc.* than male mentors" (p. 224). She stated* "This 42 conclusion makes sense 1n li g h t of th e more In flu e n tia l position males tend to hold In the opportunity stru ctu re o f organizations" (p. 224). I t was reported th a t male mentors provided more lim ite d career guidance than th e ir female counterparts. For male and female mentors outside th e In s titu tio n * the most frequently c ite d functions were those of ro le model and sharing of expertise. Males s t i l l were able to provide more tangibles— opportunities* salary* recommendations* and so on. The number o f mentors/sponsors e ith e r w ith in or outside th e In d iv id u a l's In s titu tio n did not Increase w ith a d m in is tra tiv e status as expected. [ In fa c t]* the higher th e a d m in is tra tiv e status* the fewer the number of female mentors/sponsors w ith in the In d iv id u a l's present In s titu tio n . These re s u lts ra is e questions concerning the Importance o f having a mentor/sponsor In career advancement, (p . 279) Her findings also suggested th a t since the fa c to r of educational degree "adds s ig n ific a n tly to the p r e d ic ta b ility of a d m in is tra tiv e status* . . . women In terested 1n advancing 1n higher education ad m in istration should be strongly encouraged to pursue the term inal degree fo r th e ir fie ld ( I. e .* Ph.D.* or Ed.D)" (p. 2 7 9 ). Fury (1980) was cautious. Although she adm itted th a t a good mentor 1s an asset to an In d iv id u a l's career* she contended th a t 1 t 1s s t i l l unproven th a t 1t 1s a p re re q u is ite fo r success. P h illip s (1977) added th a t even though th e re may be a few In d ica tio n s th a t the lack of mentors In the liv e s of some of the women 1n her study had a negative e ffe c t* 1 t cannot y e t be said w ithout question th a t a l l men and women need career mentors. 43 Moore (1984) pointed out some possible p i t f a l l s 1n th e use of a d m in is tra tiv e mentors* As a mentor# "you are try in g to pass on to the next generation the things th a t you value as a leader and a representa­ tiv e of the in s titu tio n . So you want to m aintain In the people you pass I t on to a form of control of th a t leadership s ty le [and] sense of values" (p. 29). She maintained th a t those considerations could create b a rrie rs fo r In d iv id u a ls who are d iffe r e n t from th e mentor and others 1n leadership roles. This 1s es p e c ia lly tru e fo r women and m ln o rltle s . Levinson (1978) mentioned a possible problem women may have with a male mentor: This cross-gender mentoring can be of great value. I t s actual value Is often lim ite d by the tendency# freq uen tly operating 1n both of them# to make her less than she 1s: t o regard her as a t tr a c tiv e but not gifted# as a g ifte d woman whose sexual attra ctiven ess In te rfe re s w ith work and friendship# as an I n t e l l i ­ gent but Impersonal pseudomale or as a charming l i t t l e g i r l who cannot be taken serio usly, (p. 98) There 1s a stereo typ ical b a rrie r women must overcome: the sponsor's probable b e lie f th a t women are less committed to a career. The sponsor may th erefo re not want to tr a in a woman as his successor# p re fe rrin g a man. Women are seen more often as a s s is t­ ants# not as successors. (Josefowltz# 1980# p. 96) The "servant trap " poses another problem w ith mentoring/sponsor­ ing rela tio n s h ip s . "Men are used to seeing women serve them# and they may ask you to do a l l kinds of work th a t 1s more f i t t i n g fo r a much younger person or someone In a lower position" (Josefowltz# 1980# p. 97). Sex Is another p o ten tia l ris k (Halcomb# 1980; M lsslrlan# 1980; Moore & Sallmbene# 1981). Sheehy (1976) addressed th is Issue: 44 Female mentors have been p a rtic u la r ly scarce and when a man becomes In terested 1n guiding and advising a younger woman* th ere 1s u s u a lly an e r o t ic In t e r e s t t h a t goes along w ith I t . . . . The kicker 1s th a t the re la tio n s h ip of guide and seeker gets a ll mixed up with a confusing sexual co n tract, (p . 132) The problems c ite d by women 1n V U la n l's (1983) study Included dominance by the mentor* thus preventing th e mentee from growing; jealousy and charges o f fa v o ritis m ; and o b lig a tio n or lo y a lty to the mentor. The problems were not s ig n ific a n t enough* however* to end th e relatio n sh ip s. Lasden (1985) also c ite d the resentments and fe ars the mentoring re la tio n s h ip may cause among peers and colleagues. Resent­ ment can also develop w ith in one's mentor when the protege/mentee equals or surpasses him. Despite the problems* th ere are b en efits from serving as a mentor. The p a rtic ip a n ts In V U la n l's (1983) In ves tig a tio n d t e d th e fo llo w in g b en efits fo r the mentor: "professio nally h elpful*" "a chance fo r growth," personally rewarding* stim u lating* and s a tis fy in g . Orr (1984) said th a t the rewards of mentoring outweigh the risks. "Because they are w illin g to use, and sometimes ris k , th e ir own Influence and reputations* mentors can put an In d e lib le stamp on the shape of things to come— not only fo r the proteges but also fo r themselves," She f e l t th ere 1s a great deal of s a tis fa c tio n 1n helping proteges. Orr asserted th a t mentors "can profoundly shape the liv e s o f those they help and th e re in l ie s th e g reatest personal s a tis fa c tio n from serving as a mentor." She admitted th is re la tio n s h ip 1s not w ithout It s d i f f ic u lt ie s such as th e tim e commitment* jealousy* and overdependenca Researchers have suggested th a t having m u ltip le 45 mentors can help overcome th is problem. She also f e l t th a t the Im portant ro le mentors play 1n th e professional development o f th e protege 1s many tim es Ignored by educational In s titu tio n s * as w ell as being Ignored or neglected by other professional organizations th a t are looking fo r new lead ersh ip . Developing strong s k i l l s as a mentor causes people to want to work w ith you. I f someone who 1s s ta ffin g a s ize a b le organization wants to a t t r a c t b rig h t and competent people* g e ttin g a rep u tatio n as a r e a lly s k i l l f u l mentor w ill cause th a t to happen. (O rr* 1984) L ite r a tu re Concerning.B arriers The b a rrie rs a ffe c tin g advancement can be categorized as e ith e r In te rn a l or e x te rn a l. Josefow ltz (1980) re fe rre d to them as In te r n a l/ external "roadblocks." In te rn a l roadblocks are those of past s o c ia liz a tio n (le a rn in g what good l i t t l e g ir ls should or should not be and do)* of cu rren t expectations (try in g to be a Superwoman)* and o f d a lly responsi­ b i l i t i e s (handling a fa m ily and a career). The external roadblocks a re encounters w ith prejudice* m anifested In stereotyping and u l t i ­ m ately 1n s o c ie ta l and o rganization al d iscrim in atio n * such as u n fa ir h irin g and promotional practices. These external roadblocks are due to s o c ia liz a tio n as w e ll* but not ours— th e irs . Most men have been s o c ia lize d to stereotype women and to d is c rim in a te a g a in s t them . (p . 5) I t 1s useful to separate th e b a rrie rs or co n stra in ts 1n th is way. However* 1 t should be remembered th a t 1n p ra c tic e they are not separate* fo r each influences th e oth er. S o c ia liz a tio n can be defined as th e processes through which an In d iv id u a l acquires th e thoughts* standards* tr a d itio n s and behavior patterns o f h is /h e r c u ltu re (Unger 4 Denmark, 1975). S ex-ro le stereotypin g means to display or adopt " a ll or most of the behaviors 46 t r a d itio n a lly associated w ith one's sex ro le , as delineated by one's cu ltu re" (Unger & Denmark, 1975, p. 819). Research has shown th a t "stereotyping begins a t b irth and continues w ith or w ithout the awareness of the parents. fo llo w s o c ia liz a tio n purposely. Some parents Others tr y not to , y e t are not aware th a t they give ambiguous signals" (Josefow ltz, 1980, p. 13). Josefo­ w ltz believed 1 t 1s almost Impossible to fre e oneself completely of the prejudices and stereotypes In s t ille d by s o c ia liz a tio n . "Children quickly categ orize themselves as e ith e r male or female, and r e a liz e the lim ita tio n s of e ith e r ro le" (Gappa A UehUng, 1979, p. 29). The re s u lts o f s o c ia liz a tio n show In the approval g ir ls receive fo r "fem inine behavior" and the approval boys get fo r "mascu­ lin e behavior." This approval begins 1n th e home and 1s reinforced a t school and through the media. Boys are tra in e d to be Independent, take ris k s , explore, and experiment. G irls , on th e other hand, are encour­ aged to be dependent, q u ie t, obedient, c a re fu l, and to expect protec­ tio n from boys (Josefow ltz, 1980). T h eir childhood experiences as male or female are manifested 1n a d u lt behavior by d ifferen ces 1n achievement, a ttitu d e s , and le v e ls of self-esteem . "Thus the woman makes decisions about her fu tu re based not only on the oppo rtu nities a v a ila b le to her, but on her self-concept, expectations of her fu tu re roles and her aspirations" (Gappa & UehUng, 1979, p. 29). Sex-role stereotyping o f women as second-class, passive, noncompetitive, and so on, "g re atly a ffe c ts t h e ir self-esteem 47 and achievement m otivation as w ell as men's a ttitu d e s regarding women's p o ten tia l and roles" (p . 3 0 ). Since boys are taught e a rly 1n l i f e th a t g i r ls are no com petitive match fo r them# those g ir ls who are* somehow threaten a boy's mascul In t t y * . . . I f g1 r l s a r e to be p ro te c te d * made fun of* humored* taken out* but not taken seriously* no wonder men have d i f f ic u lt y accepting women as colleagues. They have always seen them as mothers* s is te rs * daughters* teachers* nurses* se creta r­ ies— support roles. But th ere Is some evidence th a t th is strong s o c ia liz a tio n process Is changing somewhat* as a re s u lt of the women's movement. C e rta in ly th ere 1s more rh e to ric about breaking down stereotypes. However* the most recent research seems to In d ic a te th a t although many men speak 1n terms of e q u a lity of the sexes* they s t i l l ac t In discrim inatory ways. (Josefow ltz* 1980* p. 13) Unger and Denmark (1975)* reviewing a paper presented by Ekstrom* added: The woman's own a ttitu d e s * m otivation* and personality variables are often facto rs th a t prevent her from pursuing higher education. Ekstrom notes th a t 1n high school women students are rewarded fo r being passive* dependent* and avoiding c o n flic t w h ile 1n college aggressiveness* competitiveness* and Independence are rewarded. Thus* she says* a woman 1s constantly b a ttlin g between the old behaviors and th e new. Ekstrom notes th a t th e s o c ia liz a tio n process women receive encourages them to develop p e rs o n a litie s th a t are a t odds w ith those c h a ra c te ris tic s needed fo r obtaining a higher education. In addition* women are taught th a t they are in te lle c t u a lly In fe r io r to men. (p. 643) Schmuck (1975) re fe rre d to the e ffe c t of s o c ia liz a tio n on men and women In her In v e s tig a tio n of school ad m in istratio n : "A strong c u ltu ra l norm e x is ts 1n educational ad m in istra tio n which encourages men to seek managerial positions and discourages women from seeking mana­ g e ria l positions 1n the pu blic schools" (p. 340). She Id e n tifie d three deterrents to women seeking a d m in is tra tiv e posts 1n th e schools: 1. Women's tr a d itio n a l ro le In the fa m ily places re s tric tio n s on t h e ir freedom In careers. 48 2. Also, regardless of m arital status or fa m ilia l status, women have more self-doubts and lack of confidence about t h e ir a b i l i t y to hold an a d m in is tra tiv e po sition. Thus, they are re lu c ta n t to aspire to positions of a u th o rity and re s p o n s ib ility . "One of the most fo r ­ midable b a rrie rs to women's entrance and advancement 1n managerial positions 1s th e ir own lack of self-co n fid en ce, th e ir s e lf-d ep rec atio n , and t h e ir doubts about t h e ir a b ilit y to do a good Job" (pp. 342-43). A frequent response to requests to accept Jobs w ith power and responsi­ b i l i t y 1s, "Who, me?" 3. 'The response of 'Who, me?' 1s c e rta in ly Influenced by women's tr a d itio n a l social position In the society of deferring to men 1n s itu a tio n s Involving social power. Women are not expected to pursue successful leadership careers, and those who s t r iv e fo r positions of Influence and power are considered exceptions" (p. 344). Almost every man or woman school a d m in istra to r Schmuck Interview ed In her study agreed th a t women must be "sm arter, more competent, and more capable" than men 1n order to obtain a d m in is tra tiv e posts. compelled to prove t h e ir worth. Many women f e l t The expectations th a t she must become a Superwoman were self-im posed, as w ell as communicated by men. Her findings led Schmuck to conclude th a t "c le a rly , the tr a d itio n a l ro les o f males and females 1n our society have a d ire c t impact upon women's and men's pursuits o f managerial careers 1n any f ie ld " (p . 34 5). Wolman and Frank (1975) added th a t fem inine s o c ia liz a tio n tra in s women to value p a s s iv ity , helplessness, and show of feelin g s. 49 I f she wishes to succeed 1n th e professions, she must reevaluate these "fem inine” t r a i t s and become. Instead, Independent, as s e rtiv e , and competent. Blckel (1980) asserted th a t " s o c ia liz a tio n patterns of our society are among the primary causes fo r many d i f f ic u l t ie s women experience 1n entering and being promoted w ith in professional ranks" (p. 9). And Abramson (1975) quoted Jo Freeman as lab elin g the s o c ia liz a tio n process "the most Insidious mechanism o f social control y e t devised" (p. 114). Yet Abramson disagreed w ith Freeman: The reason th ere are so few q u a lifie d women, one explanation would have us b e liev e, 1s th a t e a rly s o c ia liz a tio n has fo rever damned women to a secondary and supportive ro le In society. . . . Unfor­ tu n a te ly , the s o c ia liz a tio n theory Is not a completely s a tis fy in g explanation. No one stands s t i l l fo rever, and no woman Is fix e d fo rever by her childhood, (p. 115) As women continue to have experiences In th e world, some s tre s s fu l and unrewarding, they w ill reexamine th e ir fe elin g s about themselves. For those choosing careers 1n th e academic world and elsewhere, by so choosing those careers they also choose behavior th a t "deviates from the d ictates of the s o c ia liz a tio n process" (p . 115). The s o c ia liz a tio n theory, Abramson continued, although an Inadequate explanation fo r the lack o f women working In higher education, "remains remarkably persisten t." I t provides adminis­ tra to rs an excuse fo r why few women wish to be employed In higher education, as w ell as a handy r a tio n a liz a tio n fo r women who "made 1t" when explainin g why so many others have not. Given th is r a tio n a liz a tio n , the fa cts provided by th e working s itu a tio n can be put to use as proof In a s e l f - f u l f i l l i n g prophecy. There are few women 1n permanent career positions In the academic so world; ergo* th ere are few women who want or are capable of gaining positions 1n the academic world; ergo* the s o c ia liz a tio n process has been e ffe c tiv e 1n seeing to 1 t th a t few women want or are capable of gaining positions 1n the academic world; ergo* th ere are few women 1n permanent career positions 1n the academic world. This p a rtic u la r b it of c ir c u la r reasoning neatly does away w ith d iscrim ination* a t le a s t d iscrim in atio n 1n higher education. I t 1s a ll back there 1n e a rly childhood. But 1 t f a l l s to explain a few things. What about those women who want positions In the academic world and cannot get them? And what about those women who have positions In the academic world and are not s a tis fie d th a t they are being f a i r l y tre a te d 1n them? The s o c ia liz a tio n theory simply f a l l s to explain a l l these deviants, (pp. 115-16) Some researchers have conducted studies 1n which the existence of s e x -ro le stereotypes was supported. Among them* Rosenkrantz* Vogel* Bee* Broverman* and Broverman (1968) and Broverman* Vogel* Broverman* Clarkson* and Rosenkrantz (1972) have shown th a t th ere 1s agreement concerning the d iffe r in g t r a i t s of men and women. In te rn a l B arriers M arriag e/fam ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s . Women and men who balance fam ily and career* who Juggle earning a degree a t night w ith work and/or fam ily* whose energies must be spread over several equally Im portant endeavors* are In the bind of c o n s ta n tly having t o choose one over th e o th e r. . . . I f th e attem pt 1s made to do everything equally w ell (The Superwoman or Superman)* the price fo r 1 t 1s paid 1n terms o f exhaustion and no tim e fo r le is u re * fo r relatio n sh ip s* or fo r oneself. (Josefowltz* 1960* p. 125) Many women entering th e workforce are among th e wmult1 commit­ ted." Balancing the tr a d itio n a l commitments to fa m ily and the other commitment to a career has become a cru c ia l issue fo r women w ith th is dual re s p o n s ib ility * according to Josefow ltz. She expressed the opin­ ion th a t marriage and fa m ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s Influence women much more c r i t i c a l l y than th e ir male counterparts. 51 Most husbands tend to pursue th e ir careers Independent of th e ir fa m ily situ atio n s* except perhaps fo r taking fewer ris k s when there 1s a fa m ily to feed. Whether th e ir wives have ch ildren a t age 20 or 35 w ill make r e la t iv e ly l i t t l e d ifferen ce to th e ir careers. For women* I t w i l l make .a l l the d ifferen ce. . . . In other words# her fam ily s itu a tio n w ill d ic ta te her options much more than ever has been the case fo r men. (Josefowltz* I960* pp. 125-26) P alley (1978) surveyed 168 men and 40 women alumni o f the Academic A dm inistration Internsh ip Program of the American Council on Education. They responded to questions concerning career^m obllIty patterns# personal and professional background c h a ra c te ris tic s * and perceptions of discrim in atio n against women based on sex. She found th a t fa m ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s did not appear to in te r fe r e w ith the career m o b ility of men; however# they did so to the detrim ent o f women. Palley a ttrib u te d th is as possibly the re s u lt of sex-ro le s o c ia li­ zatio n -h o m e and fam ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s being p rim a rily th e woman's domain# regardless of whether or not she works outside the home. Palley noted: There was an apparent Inverse re la tio n s h ip between marriage and fam ily o b ligatio ns and a d m in is tra tiv e career m o b ility among women respondents; th e re was no such re la tio n s h ip o f th is v a ria b le to ad m in is tra tiv e career m o b ility apparent fo r the male respondents. The lim itin g ro le of marriage and fa m ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s fo r women becomes apparent, (p . 8) Several married women commented th a t t h e ir career patterns were c u rta ile d by the careers?of th e ir husbands. No men mentioned any career lim ita tio n s due to t h e ir wives' professional goals. However# whatever the cause# 1 t 1s a r e a lit y th a t fam ily responsi­ b i l i t y alte re d career patterns fo r women w ith career goals 1n academic ad m in istratio n In ways 1n which they do not a ffe c t men. I t 1s th erefo re necessary to conclude th a t even I f d iscrim in atio n based on sex 1s not a m anifest function 1n contemporary colleges and u n iv e rs itie s * 1t remains a very co lo rfu l lin k 1n function. (p. 9) 52 Interru pted careers due to pregnancy# fa m ily resp o n s ib ilities # or career moves o f husbands were Id e n tifie d as major b a rrie rs 1n Gasser's (1975) In vestigation . About one-fourth o f the 434 upper-level and lo w e r-le v e l higher education adm in istrators f e l t th a t In a b ilit y to relo c ate and In terru p ted employment due to pregnancy or fa m ily respon­ s i b i l i t i e s were serious b a rrie rs to career advancement. Subjects 1n B anfleld's (1976) study were s p l i t on the question of being equally professionally mobile as a man. B anfleld commented: Whereas 1 t 1s generally agreed th a t professional m o b ility 1s an Im portant fa c to r 1n advancement fo r men In the business world# most subjects agreed th a t th is was not the case fo r women. A woman makes the greatest s trid e s by estab lish in g h e rs e lf w ith in an organ­ iz a tio n and staying where she was known, (p. 92) In Davis's (1978) study# 88.1% o f the respondents admitted th a t the problem of th e tim e demands of both fa m ily and career re s p o n s ib ili­ tie s existed fo r them. More than 60% agreed th a t there were In s u f fi­ c ie n t pregnancy b e nefits and policies# which serves as a lim ita tio n fo r the younger women who wish to combine fam ily and career. Women 1n both B lckel's (1980) and Pacheco's (1982) studies also reported c o n flic t created by the dual re s p o n s ib ility of career and marriage. Likewise# public school superintendents surveyed by O tt (1983) believed th a t fa m ilie s In te r fe r e w ith a woman's career and w ith her Job performance. T y le r (1979) found th a t those respondents who had married and had ch ild ren viewed m arriage as a help and ch ild ren as both a help and a hindrance to career development. Marriage and ch ild ren delayed the achievement of th e ir f i r s t ad m in istrative p o sitio n . 53 Quite d iffe r e n t findings were reported by other In vestigators. Glggleman (1978) Investigated demographic and personal c h a ra c te ris tic s of women adm inistrators and teachers 1n community colleges. She con­ cluded th a t marriage was not a co n strain t to a career In e ith e r admin­ is tr a tio n or teaching fo r these women. I t was found th a t women 1n ad m in istratio n usually come from the ranks of teaching. The only b a rrie rs to ad m in istratio n were found to be th e lim ite d number of a v a ila b le positions and possibly women's lack of desire. Only two married women student personnel adm inistrators In Schlack's (1974) study mentioned th a t "they found I t d i f f i c u l t to mesh t h e ir professional l i f e with t h e ir home l i f e " (p. 9 1 ). The data 1n Fisher's (1978) d is s e rta tio n did not In d ic a te th a t the re s p o n s ib ility of ch ild ren lessened teachers' desire to obtain a d m in is tra tiv e positions. A m a jo rity of the men and women disagreed th a t they had too many fa m ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s to seek an adm inistra­ tiv e position. A m a jo rity of both the men and women disagreed th a t fa m ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s were an obstacle to t h e ir seeking an adminis­ t r a t iv e post (68% men; 55% women). In addition# 66% of the men and 88% of the women agreed th a t a woman can be happily married and be a successful ad m in istrato r a t the same tim e. Douglas (1976) examined demographic c h a ra c te ris tic s and career patterns of women adm in istrators 1n higher education. Her fin din gs led her to conclude th a t "contrary to w idely held b e lie fs . . . women ad m in istrato rs do not have periods of career discontinuance# but Instead m aintain continuous employment and dedication to one 54 In s titu tio n " (p. 4 ). E1ghty-one percent of a l l adm inistrators had no periods of unemployment, but the most frequent reason given fo r "career discontinuance" was fa m ily re s p o n s ib ility . The suggestion has been made th a t because m arried women have the prime re s p o n s ib ility of managing th e household and rearing children# they are not as productive profession ally as men or s in g le female colleagues (Gappa & UehUng# 1979). However# data c o llec ted by Ferber and Loeb (1973) refu ted th is . Hie fin din gs of th e ir study# Involving 278 men and women a t the UrbanaChampalgn campus of the U n iversity of Illin o is # Indicated th a t M a rita l and parental status are not the bars to p ro d u ctivity by women th a t they are often assumed to be. . . . Married women w ith or w ithout ch ildren are no less productive than sin g le ones# y e t appear to experience less success In academic l i f e . (pp. 999# 1001) A la t e r study by Freeman (1977) substantiated the findings of Ferber and Loeb. No d iffe re n c e was found 1n the rates of p u b licatio n between married and s in g le women. Freeman did find# however# th a t m arried men published more than s in g le men. Abramson (1975) pointed out th a t adm in istrators must begin taking risks with women: They must stop assuming th a t marriage# babies# homemaklng# fu tu re d is in te re s t In th e fie ld # unproven research a b ility # and so forth# w ill prevent success fo r a woman. Such considerations# a f te r a ll# are not assumed to prevent success fo r a man. Yet men get married# become fathers# m aintain homes# may lose In te re s t In t h e ir field s# and may never demonstrate research a b ilit y , (p. 230) The expectation o f complete lo y a lty and commitment to the business organization was noted by Kanter (1977). This concern fo r dedication may serve to exclude many women from management positions. "Women have been assumed not to have the dedication of men to th e ir 55 work, or they have been seen to have c o n flic tin g lo y a ltie s , competing p u lls from th e ir other relatio n sh ip s" (pp. 66-67). Women a t Indsco experienced contradictory messages on th e Issue of marriage— th a t fo r some women being sin g le was an advantage and fo r others 1 t was ju s t the opposite. A few were to ld th a t they could not be given Im portant jobs because they were lik e ly to g e t m a rrie d and le a v e . . . . On th e o th e r hand, th ey were als o to ld 1n other circumstances th a t married women cannot be given Im portant jobs because of t h e ir fa m ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s : th e ir ch ildren , 1f they are working mothers; t h e ir unborn ch ild ren and the danger they w ill leave with pregnancy. I f c u rre n tly c h ild le s s , (p . 67) A male manager, a supervisor of many women, confirmed these reports. He said th a t he never even considered asking a m arried woman to do anything th a t Involved tr a v e l, even 1f th is was 1n th e in te re s ts of her career development, and th erefo re he could not see how he could recommend a woman fo r promotion In to management, (p . 67) A recent survey o f executive women In Industry and business substantiated some of the comments made by Kanter. One of the most freq uen tly mentioned b a rrie rs was the a ttitu d e th a t women w i ll run o ff and get m arried. In ad d itio n , "more than h a lf of th e executive women who are divorced say th e ir career played a p art 1n the separation" (H u ll, 1982, p. 29). In a s im ila r study by James Baron he noted, 'Not only 1s being married a disadvantage to a woman In th a t po sitio n , but I t 's an asset fo r a man" (H u ll, 1982, p. 29). between men and women executives 1s m o b ility . An ad d itio n al d ifferen ce Although 33% of the female respondents were asked to re lo c a te , only 21£ had done so (H u ll, 1982). Other In te rn a l b a rrie rs . Gasser (1975) reported th a t less than one-quarter of the respondents In her study had a c tiv e ly sought a 56 h ig h e r-leve l position. Concern about th e ir a b ilit y to handle the c o n flic t and re s p o n s ib ility of the job# and th e b e lie f th a t th e ir a p p lic a tio n would not be seriously considered# kept them from applying fo r advancement. The m ajo rity of respondents (62.9%) In Davis's (1978) study Indicated th a t another problem fo r the woman 1n ad m in istration 1s th a t women do not aspire to h ig h -leve l a d m in is tra tiv e posts as re a d ily as do men and thus do not prepare themselves through tra in in g and education fo r these leadership positions. Davis suggested th a t th is may be due to th e ir e a rly s o c ia liz a tio n . Women executives 1n business and Industry " a ttrib u te th e ir successes to ambition# drive and a w illin g n ess to take risks# and they blame th e ir fa ilu r e s on a male world and t h e ir lack o f confidence 1n 1t" (Hull# 1982# p. 29). A fte r "being a woman#" the most frequently mentioned b a rrie r to success was lack o f confidence. One female execu­ tiv e mentioned she had t o overcome the fe a r she was not as good or strong as her male colleagues because o f lack o f education and being the f i r s t woman. challenge. Another mentioned "myself" as the g reatest career Barbara Franklin# Senior Fellow of Public Management of the U n iversity of Pennsylvania Wharton School# blamed Is o la tio n and upbringing as reasons fo r th is 1nsecur1ty~"Women a re n 't brought up w ith male egos" (Hull# 1982# p. 29). An ad d itio n al po ten tial b a rrle r— caretaking# a problem facing many women today— was the to p ic o f a rep o rt by H ull (1985). 57 Caretaklng—caring fo r aging parents— has t r a d itio n a lly been women's re s p o n s ib ility . E laine Brody* an expert on aging a t th e P hiladelphia G e r ia tric Center* used the phrase "women 1n the middle" to describe middle-aged women torn by the c o n flic tin g re s p o n s ib ilitie s of parent care* c h ild care* ro le o f w ife* and her career. Brody was quoted as saying th at caring fo r parents 1s s t i l l a "gender-assigned task." Thus* even though many women today have f u ll- t im e careers* when parents need help 1 t 1s usually th e woman who must balance marriage* career* and caretaklng. A 1982 federal government study reported th a t 33% of the 6*400 surveyed Indicated they received help from a daughter* w h ile only 17% reported help from a son. Daughters also* more than sons* are more lik e ly to provide those laborious* day-to-day tasks such as transporta­ tion* shopping* housekeeping* and so on (H u ll* 1985). What 1s th e e ffe c t of such re s p o n s ib ility ? H ull (1985) stated* The Issue of parent care comes as many women are stru ggling to make changes 1n t h e ir own work status or try in g to return to work a fte r ra is in g children. But often* caring fo r a parent re s u lts In cut­ tin g down on hours a t work or even q u ittin g Jobs. (p. 21) Some women reported fe e lin g tie d down and f e l t "as though they were missing something In l i f e " (p. 2 1 ). Hull continued: Lost career oppo rtu nities are only one o f the ris k s associated w ith parent care. In most cases* dealing w ith an a ilin g parent also Involves stress* s tra in and emotional hardship. Many women s u ffe r g u ilt and a fe e lin g o f Is o la tio n * p a rtly due to lack o f support from s ib lin g s , (p . 21) One such caregiver Indicated th a t they pat her on th e back and say "good work* I'm g lad I do n't have to do I t " (p. 2 1 ). H u ll in d ic a te d 58 th a t the c o n flic t between career and parent care w ill get worse because the population o f e ld e rly 1s growing. External B arriers Numerous In vestig ato rs have suggested th a t i t 1s d i f f i c u l t fo r women to gain entrance to* advance w ith in * and achieve to p -le v e l posi­ tio n s 1n ad m in istratio n or management due to societal and organiza­ tio n a l b a rrie rs . A few authors have used the general term "sex d iscrim ination " to describe th e b a rrie rs encountered. A number of researchers have Id e n tifie d s p e c ific sex-ro le stereotypes and a t t i ­ tudes as constraints to professional m o b ility and advancement. Women 1n higher education.adm in is tra tio n . Stevenson (1973)* In vestig atin g facto rs re la tin g to th e employment level of 327 women adm inistrators 1n B1g Ten u n iv e rs itie s * found th a t women a ttrib u te d th e ir lack o f advancement to sheer discrim ination * lack o f assertive­ ness* In terru pted careers* the lack o f a sponsor* and fa ilu r e to u n ite to Improve t h e ir s itu a tio n . The facto rs they f e l t contributed to these were s o c ia liz a tio n of both men and women* women's "re je c tio n of re s p o n s ib ility or the a d m in is tra tiv e position* and men's support of other men* not women" (pp. 184-85). They perceived th a t they did not have the open* continuous* and Inform al communication w ith t h e ir supe­ rio rs th a t allows fo r awareness of events* courses of action* and "Influence 1n fin a l decision making" (p. 149), Women are becoming more aware of the need to support each other professionally. Respondents were "almost t o t a ll y lacking 1n th e long­ term genuine concern by a powerful person which re s u lts 1n open doors* 59 optimum development and advancement and 1s c a lle d sponsorship” (p. 149). Some comments re fe rrin g t o employment conditions Included statements to the e ffe c t th a t d iscrim in atio n e x is ts but Is very subtle. Others stated th a t women were not taken seriously and th a t women were not viewed as in d ivid u a ls s u ffic ie n tly capable of assuming managerial posts. Others mentioned th a t a woman needs more a b il it y to advance than a man, a woman must be tw ic e as good as a man to hold an a d m in is tra tiv e po sition, and a woman must work harder. Stevenson noted th a t women In the B1g Ten are not alone 1n t h e ir observation th a t ”1n meetings w ith men, a woman's comments often seem to be only to le ra te d and not r e a lly lis te n e d to or respected” (p. 174). B1g Ten women were also aware of th e ir exclusion from male Inform al a c t iv it ie s (such as luncheons) where ”shop t a lk ” takes place, according to Stevenson. Young (1974) examined th e opinions o f deans and fa c u lty members regarding the effectiveness o f women departmental chairpersons. Among her findings was th a t older persons (combined fa c u lty and deans) In the academic environment may be more accepting o f the female 1n adm inistra­ tio n . There was no s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e , however, between the opinions o f male and female fa c u lty members. Women fa c u lty members viewed th e effectiveness of women chairpersons more p o s itiv e ly than did the men. Schlack (1974) asked women student personnel adm in istrators, "What would you consider your major problem as a woman adm inistrator?" Many (46.656) reported th a t 60 they were not taken serio u sly; thought of as a woman f i r s t and an ad m in istrato r second; not Included 1n th e Inform al* but Im portant decision-making c irc le s ; not considered serio usly as ca re eroriented; seldom considered fo r Jobs outside fem ale-oriented fie ld s ; not considered an equal by male ad m in istrato rs; and o v e rtly discrim inated against In s a la rie s and promotions, (p . 90) SchetUn (1975) Id e n tifie d what she referred to as the "B1g D a d d y /L ittle Woman syndrome." This designation represents the expectation th a t th e woman should play a supportive* nurturant ro le to the a d m in is tra tiv e man. "Boys Ploy." She also encountered what she labeled the As defined by SchetUn* users o f th is ploy redefine as less valuable those tasks th a t are accomplished by a woman* or c re d it the man with her successes. Hoi ion and Gemmlll (1976) conducted a study to estab lish whether and how male and fem ale fa c u lty members d if f e r 1n perceived p a rtic ip a tio n 1n decision making* job Involvement* Jo b-related tension* and o v e ra ll Job s a tis fa c tio n . Three hundred twenty-one community col­ lege fa c u lty members p a rtic ip a te d 1n th e study. Female fa c u lty members reported experiencing less perceived p a rtic ip a tio n In decision making. This appears to support th e proposition th a t "females generally have less power 1n organizations than males" (p. 89). Women also reported s ig n ific a n tly less Influence over t h e ir Job s itu a tio n and greater d i f f ic u lt y 1n g e ttin g t h e ir Ideas across to th e ir superiors than t h e ir male counterparts. Women professionals report* also* being less In flu e n tia l on th e ir superiors' decisions and less freq u en tly consulted by t h e ir superiors than men professionals. However* s t a t is t ic a l s ig n ifican ce 1s not reached In e ith e r case. (pp. 85-86) To explain these differences* the In vestig ato rs suggested th a t possibly 61 overt and covert forms of sex d1scrlm lnatlon might have minimized 1n th is study the p a rtic ip a tio n of female professionals In decision making and might have affected adversely t h e ir job Involvement* job re la te d tension* and o v erall job s a tis fa c tio n , (p. 91) However* the data provided In s u ffic ie n t Inform ation to a r r iv e a t any conclusive fin d in g s r e la t iv e to the In v e s tig a to rs ' te n ta tiv e explana­ tio n s . Davis's 11978) research was designed to determine the charac­ t e r is t ic s and the advantages and problems of the female ad m in istra to r 1n larg e southeastern higher education in s titu tio n s In 1977. She found th a t women did not hold the to p -le v e l a d m in is tra tiv e positions. the most part* they remained 1n middle management. For A number of advan­ tages unique to women adm in istrators were cited * Including the opportu­ n ity to serve as a ro le model fo r other asp irin g fem ale adm inistrators. A number of personal q u a litie s were acknowledged— s e n s itiv ity * calm­ ness* understanding* and a tte n tio n to d e ta il. A number of problems were also perceived fo r the female admin­ is tr a to r . S eventy-five percent of th e respondents f e l t th e fa c t th a t women do not have the same type of network as men ("good old boy" system) to obtain Inform ation on Job and promotional opportunities was o b stru c tive to the advancement o f women In adm in istration . And the "good old boy" network was recognized as a problem by 76 3% o f the p a rtic l pants. Too many stereotypical female ro les was recognized as a problem by almost a ll (90.8%) of the respondents. A m a jo rity (80.2%) o f the respondents agreed th a t th e lim ite d number of top fem ale ad m in istrators provided few ro le models and mentors. Davis suggested th a t "lacking 62 the encouragement and guidance of mentors* many young women f a l l to a tta in the positions or promotions th a t such assistance fosters" (p. 182). S eventy-five percent of the women agreed th a t "women 1n leadership positions have to work tw ic e as hard and do tw ic e as good a Job as t h e ir male counterparts to 'prove' themselves" (p. 182). A m ajo rity o f women (77.6%) concurred th a t opportunities to gain experience are lim ite d * and thus positions req u irin g experience* Including "power" positions* are d i f f i c u l t fo r women to obtain. More than h a lf (56.6%) f e l t th a t women's lack o f experience fo r th e ir a d m in is tra tiv e Jobs Is a problem. Almost as many (55.3%) f e l t th a t I f a woman 1s not "accepted as a colleague by her male associates* she faces serious obstacles which may impede her effectiveness" (p. 185). In addition* 65.8% of the respondents agreed th a t women "must be more accomplished and smarter than men to get the same position" (p. 185). A m a jo rity (85.6%) believed th a t th ere s t i l l are c o n s id e r able salary discrepancies between men and women and th a t a lack of acceptance by some w ith whom women must work 1s a problem. Women recognized th a t a su b tle form of d iscrim in atio n exists* making 1 t d i f f i c u l t fo r women to succeed* according to 69.7% o f the p a rticip an ts. "D eliberate omission"--from Inform ation* exclusion from meetings* from committee assignments— 1s a problem resu ltin g 1n t h e ir lack o f repre­ sentation 1n decision-making a c t iv it ie s o f the In s titu tio n . 63 In a survey of women adm in istrators 1n I l l i n o i s public commu­ n ity colleges* Lenny (1980) attempted to explain the reasons fo r the scarcity of women 1n such positions. In te rn a l and external constraints preventing women from reaching th e ir p o ten tia l were revealed. Women fa ile d to aggressively seek high positions, w aiting Instead to be discovered. Male ad m in istrato rs made l i t t l e e f fo r t to provide opportu­ n itie s through mentoring relatio n sh ip s. In ad d itio n , women did not have access to the "old boy" network. Stokes (1981) surveyed women 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions In F lo rida's s ta te u n iv e rs itie s to Id e n tify the nature and extent of b a rrie rs th a t a ffe c t t h e ir careers; to explore the relatio n sh ip s between these constraints and th e ir professlonal-development needs, a d m in is tra tiv e s ty le , and fu tu re asp iratio n s; and to examine th e e ffe c t of these constraints. lit e r a t u r e . Twenty-three b a rrie rs were selected from the One hundred s ix ty -e ig h t women responded to the survey. Stokes found th a t these constraints th a t hinder the advancement of women were perceived to be q u ite extensive 1n the s ta te un iversity system of Florida. When the responses to "often" and "occasionally encountered" were combined, Stokes found th a t 19 of th e 23 Items were experienced by 50% or more of the respondents. Almost 87% said they occasionally or often had to "work tw ice as hard and expend more energy than the average man 1n order to succeed," w h ile 88.9% agreed th a t "women have less access to power." Almost 87% f e l t th a t "an Informal system of c o lle g ia l re latio n sh ip s fo r Inform ation sharing and decision making excludes women." Another 81.2% found 1 t " d i f f i c u l t to receive 64 recognltlon," 74% Indicated they were "Ignored during Im portant discussions*" and 71.6% Indicated they served as a "mother fig u re." About 6735 f e l t they were "cast as a sex object*" w h ile 60.735 believed "they have been passed over fo r promotion because they are not 'strong enough* too emotional* e tc .' y e t men with s im ila r d is q u a lific a tio n s are s e le c te d ." Additional b a rrie rs experienced by women ad m in istrators as reported by Stokes Included: "less Influence on decision-making*" "less freq uen tly consulted*" and "In terru p ted 1n group discussions." Almost o n e -h a lf (47.9%) reported th a t overt and covert sexual harass­ ment was a problem* and almost 60% reported th a t th e higher women advance* the greater the b a rrie rs to success. Nancy Mllburn* early member of the Committee fo r the Concerns of Women 1n New England Colleges and U n iv e rs itie s * stated* We are beginning to r e a liz e th a t the fu rth e r women ris e 1n higher education* the higher the b a rrie rs to th e ir success become. As women begin to take leading positions* a ll of a sudden men perceive them as real competitors* not Just as women* and they become more th reatening . (S tent* 1978, p. 20) Karr (1983) found th a t 69% of the women 1n her study f e l t th a t men advanced fa s te r 1n ad m in istratio n w ith less experience because they were men. Only 44% o f the men f e l t th a t way. Seventy-four percent of the women believed th a t the "white male club" promoted men over women to a d m in is tra tiv e positions. statement. Only 45% of the men agreed w ith th is A m a jo rity (79%) of the men surveyed believed they were chosen more often than women fo r ad m in is tra tiv e positions. A s ig n ific a n t number of fa c u lty women agreed with the statement th a t 65 women adm in istrators "have less power to make decisions than men" (p. 183). Pulliam (1984) used fie ld w o rk methods to discover how women deans perceive and carry out th e ir a d m in is tra tiv e roles. This type of study provided a close-up view of the behavioral patterns of women adm in istrators. The In v e s tig a to r discovered th a t the deans* as adm inistrators a t In s titu tio n s w ith a d isp rop ortion ately g rea ter number of male adm inistrators* saw themselves as "Is o la tes " or outsiders 1n ad m in istra tio n In t h e ir In s titu tio n s . One of th e facto rs found to Influence th e ir ro le as ad m in istrato r was the stereotypes men col­ leagues held o f women adm in istrators. One ad m in istrato r complained th a t she must contend w ith s e x is t remarks. Another problem mentioned was th e exclusion from th e Informal network formed by male adm inistrators. Men manage through these networks* and some decisions are made in t h is Inform al s e ttin g th a t a ffe c t the female a d m in is tra to rs department or d iv is io n . One female ad m in istrato r said th a t men made decisions outside of meetings and she then had to be " f i l l e d 1n" la te r . As a consequence* the woman ad m in istrato r 1s excluded from th e discussions as w e ll as from th e decision making. Other complaints by p a rtic ip a n ts Included "being Ignored when present a t some meetings" (p. 203) and being excluded from meetings Involving policy and procedures re la te d to the a d m in is tra to rs area. One t r a i t found 1n the a d m in is tra tiv e behavior o f a ll the deans was th a t of "nurturance." W hile the Image of th e dean as a "mother fig u re" 66 was appreciated by some of the staff# other s t a f f members reacted n eg atively. On th e other hand# one researcher found b a rrie rs faced by women managers and executives to be conspicuously lacking 1n th e ir experi­ ences. D ressier (1981) interview ed 55 to p -le v e l women ad m in istrators 1n tw o- and fo ur-year colleges 1n San Diego County# C a lifo rn ia . The women f e l t fem inine In t h e ir roles# f e l t they were taken seriously by men# experienced no sexual harassment# had not been denied promotions due to t h e ir sex# and had been provided equal opportunity to gain a d m in is tra tiv e experlenca In f lu e n t ia l. They perceived themselves as powerful and They had a mentor during t h e ir careers# and a sponsor helped a m a jo rity of the women a tta in th e ir current position. However# one b a rrie r they did c it e was th e existence of th e "old boys' club." As a result# they f e l t they were "excluded from the b en efits o f equal access to Information# support# and resources a v a ila b le through acceptance In the 'c lu b '" (p. 120). Several In vestig ato rs have noted p o s itiv e as w ell as negative fa c to rs a ffe c tin g women's careers. The women 1n Gasser's (1975) study reported th a t few fa c u lty women were a v a ila b le to serve as ro le models or mentors. They c ite d widespread sex discrim in atio n In recruiting # hiring# and promotion practices. They f e l t they were excluded from formal and Inform al "c o lle g ia l associations#" which they believed prevented them from f u lly p a rtic ip a tin g 1n or co n trib u tin g to th el r In s titu tio n . A number o f the p a rtic ip a n ts claimed they "were 'not accepted as peers' by th e ir colleagues" (p. 102). They said they were 67 excluded from "'Inform al communication channels' which could provide the needed support 1n a new position" (p. 102). P o sitive influences included attendance a t management and a d m in is tra tiv e seminars. More than h a lf of a ll respondents p a r t ic i­ pated in these seminars. However* very few women had p a rtic ip a te d 1n a d m in is tra tiv e In ternsh ip programs. A m a jo rity believed th a t w illin g ­ ness to assume ex tra re s p o n s ib ility was a primary fa c to r 1n th e ir career advancement. In s titu tio n a l a ffir m a tiv e action p o lic ie s * however* were c ite d by only a m in o rity of respondents as a primary p o s itiv e In fluence. Plggott's (1979) attempted to Id e n tify the major facto rs th a t Influence the positions* ranks* and s a la rie s o f women adm inistrators 1n North Carolina colleges and u n iv e rs itie s . and u n iv e rs itie s p a rtic ip a te d . Subjects from 45 colleges Data supported the hypothesis th a t women believed they were discrim inated against. More women were employed In Category I I positions (d irecto rs* head lib ra ria n s ) than 1n Category I (presidents* vice-presidents* deans). Very few women held th e posi­ tio n s of president* vice-p resid ent* or dean. Among 245 p articip an ts* th ere were only nine deans of women. Among th e b a rrie rs to advancement as perceived by women adm inistrators* sex d iscrim in atio n received the highest number of responses. Women believed th a t sex d iscrim in atio n e x is ts 1n h irin g and promoting a t th e ir present In s titu tio n . A large percentage o f women were s a tis fie d w ith th e ir present positions; a high percentage did not wish to move from th e ir present lo cale. Key facto rs th a t f a c ilit a t e d 68 advancement 1n careers Included e a rly career planning* proper educational cred entials* and experience. On-the-job tra in in g was ranked the highest among experiences valued by women adm inistrators. Responses 1n th e personal In terview s and to th e questionnaire e lic ite d s im ila r Inform ation. The In v e s tig a to r noted* male chauvinism* not sex discrim ination * was th e p rev ailin g reference to b a rrie rs to advancement. Those Interview ed Indicated th a t chauvinism appears to be more subtle and unconscious than overt sex discrim ination* but the re s u lts are equally devastating, (p. 170) Woods (1979) surveyed 201 women adm inistrators and fa c u lty women 1n two- and fo u r-year public in s titu tio n s 1n Michigan. Her study focused on the personal* educational* and professional c h a ra c te ris tic s o f women adm in istrators and fa c u lty ; facto rs th a t Influenced th e ir career development; and th e Id e n tific a tio n of b a rrie rs and other facto rs they had experienced 1n th e ir career development. The m ajo rity of both fa c u lty women and adm inistrators had no aspirations fo r a h ig h er-level po sition than the one they c u rren tly held In th e ir present In s titu tio n . The m ajo rity of both groups Indicated th a t th e ir present position was t h e ir highest career goal. Factors th a t were d t e d as Influencing t h e ir career development Included contact w ith a career woman* support from a supervisor* acceptance of ex tra re s p o n s ib ility * association w ith professional organizations* and appointment to or Involvement on u n iv e rs ity commit­ tees. A number of fa c u lty and ad m in istrators Indicated th a t a ffirm a ­ tiv e action did not serve as a p o s itiv e Influence 1n th e ir careers. However* th is a ttitu d e was re fle c te d more among Caucasian women than 69 among m ino rity women. The m a jo rity o f both groups* fa c u lty and adm inistrators* did not In d icate th a t th ere were b a rrie rs to t h e ir career development. Blckel (I9 60) Investigated s tra te g ie s fo r and b a rrie rs to employment and advancement Id e n tifie d by women doctoral students 1n higher education and student personnel adm in istration . p a rtic ip a n ts Included 289 women. Study Blckel concluded th a t a greater number of women are now seeking upper-level positions—33% aspired to dean and 43% aspired to vic e-p re sid en t or president w ith in 10 years— than In past surveys. The "old boy" network was Id e n tifie d as a b a rrie r. c u ltie s re s u ltin g from th is network Included: D iffi­ "(1) not having access to inform ation necessary to do th e best job; (2) not being close to persons from whom they could le a rn ; and (3) not being v is ib le to per­ sons who might help them advance 1n th e fie ld " (p. 76). Respondents f e l t "1t 1s q u ite Impossible to penetrate the Inform al stru ctu re which e x is ts 1n most higher educational organizations" (p. 76). However* they were aware of the "Importance of the relatio n sh ip s formed w ith in those Informal systems to t h e ir careers" (p. 76). The respondents perceived themselves as coping w ith more b a rrie rs than men. Respondents reported competency as an Im portant strategy fo r advancement. They suggested gaining and demonstrating competency by obtaining proper c red en t1als--th e highest degree; s p e c ia liz in g ; gaining teaching experience; knowing the f ie ld * Job* and In s titu tio n ; and developing p o litic a l savvy. Another strategy mentioned was developing 70 and m aintaining professional support through p a rtic ip a tio n 1n profes­ sional organizations* developing networking* and obtaining mentors and fem ale ro le models. In her study of to p -le v e l C a lifo rn ia community college women adm inistrators* Moore (1983) found th a t th ere was a trend toward career planning. Women ranked being competent and having d rive as th e most helpful fa cto rs 1n th e ir career development. They ranked having a mentor or sponsor as s ix th . Women _1n_educat1ona1 ad m in istra tio n . The findings from research on women 1n public school ad m in istration have been s im ila r to those on higher education. H arris (1976) reported th a t her data la rg e ly supported the conclusions drawn from previous studies. Almost a ll the executive women described Instances of what they perceived as biased a ttitu d e s toward women adm inistrators. The In v e s tig a to r offered the follow ing as examples: declslon-making by males who excluded th e female executive educator when key Issues were to be decided; . . . s u b tle tie s of seating arrangements and use of t i t l e s : women are spoken to using th e ir f i r s t name* w h ile males are addressed by t i t l e ; . . . sexstereotypes behavior toward th e executive educator In terms o f the kinds of re s p o n s ib ilitie s she 1s assigned by peers, (pp. 54-55) In almost a l l cases* the position o f superintendent was o ffered ; she did not a c tiv e ly seek the p o sitio n . A study by Way (1976) o f 327 public school p rin c ip a ls and program s p e c ia lis ts revealed differen ces In the perception o f male and female respondents on constraints to career advancement. A greater percentage of female adm inistrators f e l t th a t sex d iscrim in atio n was a 71 b a rrie r* whereas a la rg e r percentage of male adm inistrators perceived th a t lack of education* tra in in g * and experience was a b a rr ie r . Capps (1976) surveyed 306 supervisors and 176 assistan t superintendents (both male and fem ale) o f North Carolina public schools. On th e basis o f the data collected* she found l i t t l e evidence to In d ic a te th a t women supervisors wishing to move In to higher le v e ls of ad m in istratio n 1n North Carolina public schools were vic tim s o f sex d iscrim in atio n . Fisher (1978) surveyed a random sample of 400 men and women teachers 1n Michigan. She examined the re la tio n s h ip between the sc arcity of women 1n educational ad m in istratio n and th e a d m in is tra tiv e career asp iratio n s o f women teachers. The study was designed to determine th e facto rs teachers perceived as b a rrie rs to obtaining positions 1n educational ad m in istratio n . According to the findings* "as the re s p o n s ib ility of the a d m in is tra tiv e position Increased* the a s p iratio n le v e l o f women educators decreased" (p. 131). Women’s asp irations appeared to be much less than Indicated 1n other studies. Fisher concluded from the re s u lts th a t a very small percentage of a ll teachers— male and female— had any desire to leave teaching fo r admin­ is tr a tio n . F ifty-sev en percent of the women (compared to 40$ of th e men) agreed w ith the statement th a t men advance fa s te r In adm inistra­ tio n w ith less experience simply because they are men. And s lig h t ly more women (75$) than men (72$) agreed th a t men are more often chosen fo r an a d m in is tra tiv e post than women. 72 The purpose o f th e study by Pacheco (1982) was to Id e n tify the b a rrie rs to career advancement as perceived by 342 women p u blic school adm in istrators 1n C a lifo rn ia # as w e ll as to Id e n tify those b a rrie rs perceived as the greatest obstacles to advancement. On th e basis of her findings# Pacheco concluded th a t b a rrie rs e x is t fo r women who wish to en ter and/or advance In educational ad m in istratio n . The most serious obstacles women face were Id e n tifie d as th e absence of an "old boy" network# sponsorship and support systems fo r women# th e lack of geographic m obility# and th e "lack o f awareness of th e p o litic a l maneuvers necessary w ith in the ad m in is tra tiv e stru ctu re " (p . 172). Additional b a rrie rs c ite d In ad dition to those on Pacheco's questionnaire were 1n the category of d iscrim in atio n — discrim ination based on gender# race# and e th n ic ity . The comments "women must work tw ic e as hard" and "women must be tw ic e as good as men" were made freq u en tly 1n her study when respondents were asked to re p o rt any ad d itio n al b a rrie rs to women's entrance In to or advancement In educational ad m in istration . No s ig n ific a n t d ifferen ces were found 1n the perceptions of b a rrie rs among women holding various positions In the a d m in is tra tiv e hierarchy. No c o rre la tio n was found between age of respondents and b a rrie rs perceived# nor w ith years 1n ad m in istratio n . Women did# however# ra te external b a rrie rs (those over which they have no d ire c t co ntrol— those emanating from society and the stru ctu re o f the organization) as more serious b a rrie rs to advancement 1n educational ad m in istra tio n than In te rn a l b a rrie rs (those th a t come from w ith in 73 themselves). The m a jo rity of women In th is study aspired to advance 1n th e ir careers. Both the Inform al and formal organizational s tru ctu re were perceived to hold serious obstacles to women's advancement 1n ad m in istration . O tt's (1983) research was an attem pt to discover I f any patterns of subconscious bias or d iscrim in atio n toward women existed on th e p a rt of public school superintendents th a t might hinder th e ir access to executive positions 1n public schools. Eleven favorable b e lie fs toward women ad m in istrators were expressed* among them: "women have good professional s k ills * are more open In communication than men* and women have good personal c h a ra c te ris tic s " (p. 111). P a rtic ip a n ts believed th ere were no d is tra c tio n s on the job due to women's fem 1n1n1ty~attractiveness* dress* and so on. P a rtic ip a n ts also expressed 29 negative b e lie fs about women. "Women were found to have s k il ls required fo r s t a f f positions but s k ills required fo r lin e positions were perceived as lacking 1n women" (p. 1v). " S k ills required fo r lin e positions are good dec1 si on-making a b ilit y * experience a t le v e ls where one has to cope w ith d i f f i c u l t situ atio n s* and academic preparation fo r ad m in istratio n " (pp. 61-62). P a rtic ip a n ts f e l t women lacked these s k il ls . O tt concluded: "The Inference* therefore* 1s th a t th e b e lie fs regarding professional s k ills o f women coupled w ith the above can keep women 1n s t a f f positions of support and can prevent them from entering the lin e positions" (p. 62). They believed th a t woman's exclusion from the "good old boy" network was detrim ental to her career. They 74 also believed th a t women need to prove themselves more than men and th a t they are not respected pro fessio n ally as much as men. They f e l t th a t women "lack knowledge of the p o lit ic a l aspects o f educational adm in istration " (p. 59). O tt concluded th a t the findings revealed "a pattern of subconscious bias against female applicants fo r adminis­ t r a t i v e p o s itio n s " (p. 6 0 ). Women 1n administration/management outside education. According to Hennlg and Jardlm (1981), In general the stereotype of th e woman executive 1s unfeminine— she Is supposed to be aggressive* masculine* hard* cold and undesirable to men. A proposition developed from such a point of view would s ta te th a t a successful woman cannot be a successful executive and a successful woman executive cannot be a successful woman. Many men— and women— Im p lic itly b elieve t h is . (p . 74) Matteson (1976) examined th e a ttitu d e s held by men and women toward women 1n managerial positions. An a ttitu d e Instrument* women as managers scale* was one of several Instruments administered to 108 management-level employees In health services organizations. The re s u lts Indicated th a t females held more favorable a ttitu d e s toward women 1n management positions. More In te re s tin g ly * the data suggested th at* Irre s p e c tiv e o f age and sex* the more experience a person had th e less p o s itiv e h is /h e r a ttitu d e toward the female as manager. raised some In te re s tin g questions. Matteson Do th e less p o s itiv e a ttitu d e s toward women r e f le c t sex d1 fferences— do women make less e ffe c tiv e managers and thus a ttitu d e s toward them In these ro les are less positive? roles? Or 1s the explanation due to women adopting stereotypic Are les s p o s itiv e a ttitu d e s toward women 1n management roles associated w ith discrim inatory behaviors? Do women who hold less 75 p o s itiv e a ttitu d e s d iscrim in ate against other women as do men? And what 1s the e ffe c t of these a ttitu d e s on behavior? Women middle managers In B anfleld's (1976) study c ite d several problems they encounter th a t are unique to women. H a lf of the respond­ ents reported having to overcome tr a d itio n a l ro le stereotypes. Another problem noted was th e " d iffic u lt y of men 1n adjusting to working w ith women 1n professional roles." Some elaborated* saying "men do not take women seriously"; tw o-th1rds said "a woman has to work tw ic e as hard and perform a t a higher level than a man to prove h e rs e lf" (p. 105). Another problem c ite d was th a t a woman w ith the same q u a lific a tio n s as a man must co n tin u a lly prove she can do the jo b; 1 t 1s assumed th a t the man can do 1 t. One-fourth o f the managers reported th a t success was "very often a combination o f being a t the rig h t place a t the r ig h t tim e and being ready" (p. 95). Others claimed th a t even though th ere were women In the company In responsible positions* the organization imposes a le v e l above which they are not allowed to ris e . B anfleld suggested th a t I t may— as one p a rtic ip a n t suggested— be a r e fle c tio n o f a "subtle pattern fo r keeping women outside th e mainstream o f the established power stru ctu re w h ile meeting the equal opportunity requirements of the law" (p. 105). The m a jo rity of women managers believed an Inform al stru ctu re existed In th e ir organizations from which they were excluded. They agreed t h e ir lack of p a rtic ip a tio n .or Involvement was detrim ental to 76 them* Banfleld concluded th a t th e most form idable obstacle to women managers Involved these tr a d itio n a l se x-role stereotypes. Josefowltz (1980) c ite d some of th e same problems: women have to work harder* women must work harder to receive the same pay* and sexual harassment. In addition* she pointed out th a t women are seen as sex objects— an a ttitu d e so pervasive* so fa m ilia r* so deeply Ingrained In the male c u ltu re . In studying th e organizational clim ate* Kanter (1977) also id e n tifie d stereo typ ical ro le traps Imposed on women— those of ’’mother*” "seductress,” ”pet»" and "Iron maiden.” Women often found I t ea sie r to accept these roles than t o fig h t them. Hennlg and Jardlm (1981) pointed out a basic problem fo r women 1n organizations— the Issue of the " f i t between others' concept o f a p a rtic u la r woman and t h e ir concept of the executive ro le" (p. 70). Because the executive ro le 1s seen by many people (men and women) as an exclu sively male role* no m atter who th e p a rtic u la r woman 1s* she Is f i r s t and foremost regarded as a woman. As a consequence* 1n a l l too many Instances and because of fundamental Id e n tity Issues th ere Is H t t l e perceived f i t between her and the e x e c u tiv e position. This 1s a problem which men 1n organizations never have to face. A man may perceive th a t others f a l l to see him as the r ig h t person fo r a p a rtic u la r Job* but he never faces th e problem th a t he 1s not the person fo r the Job because he 1s a man. She* 1n contrast* has often been "not th e person fo r th e Job” because she Is a woman and l i t t l e consideration has ever been given to the damage done to her self-confidence when she Is forced to confront th e negative f i t . (pp. 70-71) In a 1984 f la il S treet Jo u rn al/Gal 1up survey* 722 female executives holding t i t l e s o f vic e-p re sid en t or higher expressed mixed feelin g s about th e men with whom they worked. Some Indicated they had been helped by men* whereas others Indicated they had been obstructed 77 by male a ttitu d e s or prejudices. Those In d ica tin g t h e ir preference fo r a male boss said th a t men were less emotional* more professional and businesslike* and f a ir e r . Two-th1rds o f the female executives mentioned one or more advantages to being a woman* w h ile four out of fiv e c ite d a number of disadvantages. The most frequently c ite d disadvantage was the prevalence o f male chauvinism. One executive stated th a t 1n upper- le v e l management women were s t i l l not taken seriously and th a t women were considered subservient. Nearly h a lf o f the women stated th a t men 1n the organization tre a te d them d iffe r e n tly — 71$ s ta tin g th a t th is treatm ent was negative and 26$ s ta tin g th a t I t was p o s itiv e . Some of th e women complained th a t women were sometimes bypassed fo r promotions or positions fo r reasons having no re la tio n s h ip to t h e ir q u a lific a ­ tio n s . In reply to the question *Wave you ever f e l t th a t you were being paid less than a male of equal a b ility ? " 70$ answered "yes." When asked 1 f they "had th e Impression th a t your views were not respected as much as a man*s In c e rta in areas*" 60$ re p lie d "yes." When asked I f they had ever "been mistaken fo r a secretary a t a business meeting*" 61$ re p lie d 1n the a ffir m a tiv e ; " f e l t cut o f f from social conversations or a c t iv it ie s among your male colleagues"— 60$; " f e l t you were being patronized by older executives11— 44$. Forty-one percent " f e l t th a t a male subordinate resisted taking orders" from them "because he f e l t threatened by a female boss"; and 41$ f e l t th a t they were being judged more on the basis o f dress and appearance than a man 78 1n t h e ir position would be." T h irty -fo u r percent said "they would lik e more clout"-**that 1s» "they want th e ir jobs and th e ir Influence 1n the corporation to more accurately match th e ir formal t i t l e s " (Rogan, 1984). Former U.N. Ambassador Jeanne K irk p a tric k concluded a f te r serving four years as one House: of the few prominent women 1n th e "Sexism Is a liv e " (Mayer* 1985* p. 1). Some of th e White women s t i l l working 1n the reorganized* post-1984 e le ctio n White House agreed* suggesting th a t women are losing some of th e gains made. Inside th e White House* positions held by women have increased a t the lower ranks. Women have attain ed* however* prominent government positions outside the White House. Many White House women are e x h ila ra te d and pleased with th e ir Jobs. But they also complain of double standards. And Kathy Wilson* a former president of the National Women's P o litic a l Caucus* contended th a t th e re 1s» e s p ec ially w ith in the White House* a "bank t e l l e r syndrome." She added* "Women can be seen* but don't m atter" (Mayer, 1985 * p. 1 ). FTC CommissionerB ailey stated th a t "1 f the President Is n 't believed to support or promote equal opportunity fo r els e w i l l " (Mayer, 1985* p. 25). women* then noone A former White House worker Indicated th a t before the 1984 e le c tio n , they were se n sitive to placing women In high positions. P resently, however, she fe e ls th a t women are allowed to ris e to only a c e rta in le v e l, "but I f they fe e l you're lik e ly to reach your f u l l p o ten tial they go a f te r you" to prevent 1 t (Mayer, 1985, p. 2 5 ). 79 HHS's Secretary Heckler statedt th e r e 's fa r more tolerance of Incompetent males" and added th a t "women s t i l l have to struggle to be taken seriously" (Mayer# 1985# p. 25). Nancy Reynolds# a p o litic a l consultant# "suggests th a t the lack of an 'old g i r l 1 network can leave such women dangerously Iso lated when tro u b le s trik e s " (Mayer# 1985# p. 25). Another White House woman said# "This 1s the most sexist place I'v e ever worked 1n my l i f e . The women are In cre d ib ly o v erq u a lifie d f o r th e kinds o f jo b s th e y 're given" (Mayer# 1985# p. 2 5 ). O rganizational factors (h irin g # employment practices# and so on). Kanter (1977)# studying women In Industry# reported th a t there were differences 1n e x is tin g o p po rtu nities fo r advancement a v a ila b le to women and men w ith in the same organization. She concluded th a t a lack of opportunity to advance# not personality tra its # separates th e men from the women. Kanter pointed out th a t the tremendous e ffe c t of the organization's s tru c tu re on what happens to those w ith in th e organization has been long overlooked. Behaviors and a ttitu d e s have been usually a ttrib u te d to the t r a i t s of women rath er than to th e organizational environment. She stated# "The analysis needs a f u lle r view of the ways 1n which organizational stru ctu re Impacts on In divid uals" (p. 259). "What happens to people In the course of th e ir work 1s determined by the la rg e r se ttin g 1n which 1 t takes place# and th a t setting# 1n contemporary society# 1s lik e ly to be an organization" (p. 2 5 0 ). Kanter proposed a s tru ctu ra l approach or model fo r dealing with problems of sex discrim in atio n and the place o f women In the 80 organization . "Something has been holding women back. That something was usually assumed to be located 1n the d ifferen ces between men and women as In d iv id u a ls " (p. 261). This 1s a standard explanation fo r d is c rim in a tio n and forms the basis fo r an " In d iv id u a l" model o f work behavior. I t adds up to "an assumption th a t th e fa c to rs producing In e q u itie s a t work are somehow c a rrie d in side the In d iv id u a l person" (p. 261). A ffirm a tiv e action d ire c tiv e s have produced pressures fo r change In organizations. Kanter contended, however, th a t these " e ffo rts w i l l not work any b e tte r than yesterday's, as long as In d iv id ­ ual models of behavior and change remain In f u l l force" (p. 261). "In d iv id u al model th in k in g leads women to b e lie v e th a t th e problem lie s 1n t h e ir own psychology, and I t gives the organizations a set of excuses fo r the slow pace of change" (p. 261). But, added Kanter, "responses to work are a fu n ctio n of basic s tru c tu ra l Issues, such as co n s tra in ts Imposed by ro les and th e e ffe c ts o f opportunity, power, and numbers" (p . 2 6 1 ). Higher education In s titu tio n s , being very tr a d itio n a l and con­ s e rv a tiv e o rganization s, have been slow In accepting change. Only a f t e r considerable e f f o r t on th e p a rt o f government did higher educa­ tio n become committed to a ffir m a tiv e action programs and the advance­ ment of women (Kaplan & H e lly , 1984). S ocietal changes may be re fle c te d In a recent study conducted by the American Council on Education, O ffic e of Women 1n Higher Education (W atkins, 1985). A su b stan tial Increase 1n women heading colleges and u n iv e rs itie s was noted. The number of women presidents 81 grew by 93%# or from 148 to 286# between 1975 and 1984. Eight female p resid en tial appointments In 1985 brings the to ta l to 294. The la rg e s t percentage of women# however# head p riv a te In s titu tio n s . According to A lice F. Emerson# president o f Wheaton College# current standards demand th a t women and m in o ritie s be Included In the pool of applicants (Watkins# 1985). She added th a t "the only way more women w ill reach the top 1s by increasing t h e ir numbers 1n th e pool from which top executives are chosen" (p. 33). Even though the numbers of women who are deans and above have increased# Emerson cautioned against complacency. Helen Popovich# president of Florida A tla n tic University# f e l t more needs to be done to get women s ta rte d on academic careers (Watkins# 1985). She added# I am concerned about our a b i lit y to get women In to th e f i r s t a d m in is tra tiv e le v e l—-department chairs. This 1s the most d i f f i ­ c u lt position fo r women to achieve because department chairs are often elected. I t 1s Just not possible to Insure th a t representa­ t iv e numbers of women w il l be selected or elected to the position. I f you are not a department chair# i t 1s very d i f f i c u l t to become a dean. (pp. 1# 33) Astln (1977) suggested th a t several fa cto rs may be operating to l i m i t the representation o f women. Search committees fo r top academic a d m in is tra tiv e posts are t r a d itio n a lly dominated by older fa c u lty men# "many o f whom are u n lik e ly to take any woman candidate seriously" (p. 65). Also# studies have suggested th a t th ere Is a d ifferen ce between the "status aspirations" of men and women. Another possible obstacle Is "the c r it e r ia used fo r selection " (p. 65). Previous a d m in is tra tiv e experience Is often given a great deal o f weight# as w ell as to p -le v e l 82 a d m in is tra tiv e experience by search committees. experience and are thus not seriously considered. Many women lack th is Possibly women may be bypassed fo r positions th a t usually lead to top posts such as deans and department chairpersons. Sandler (1975) contended th a t In s titu tio n s have generally r e lie d on the "old boy" method of re c ru itin g and h irin g : the vast Inform al network o f old school chums* colleagues* drinking buddies* e tc .— a network to which women and m in o ritie s ra re ly have access. The m e rit system has always been a closed m e rit system* fo r larg e portions of the a v a ila b le q u a lifie d pool have been excluded, (p. 409) The government 1s asking th a t a la rg e r pool of q u a lifie d persons have access to th is system. Sandler (1975) described th e "old boy" system as "systematic* de facto* In s titu tio n a liz e d d iscrim in atio n : the 'old boy' network o f re c ru itin g ; th e use of Irre le v a n t c r it e r ia , such as m a rita l and parental sta tu s ; d iffe r e n t standards fo r men and women* e tc ." The old In fo rm a lity of academe 1s r i f e w ith d iscrim ination . M e rit Is simply not enough. The "old boys" seek out young proteges who are then taught th e Inform al ropes o f the profession. The "old boys" Introduce them to other scholars; they nominate th e ir pro­ teges fo r the best scholarships* and they seek Jobs fo r them as w e ll. . . . Women and m in o ritie s are often excluded from the pro­ tege system: no one t e l l s them about th e good jobs or puts 1n th e ir name fo r prestigious openings. Women and m in o ritie s are not "old boys"; they are simply out­ side of the Inform al "prestige" system. I f you ask a w h ite male to recommend persons fo r a p a rtic u la r job* he w ill most H k e ly recom­ mend other w hite males. I f you then ask the same person I f he also could recommend q u a lifie d women and m in o ritie s * he very often can. The p o in t 1s th a t th is person 1s not d iscrim in atin g consciously, he simply omits— a lb e it In a d v e rte n tly — women and m in o ritie s In his thinking about p o ten tia l applicants. Thus* much of the d iscrim in atio n 1n academia 1s not In ten tio n al or d e lib e ra te. R ecruiting new employees through an Inform al network la rg e ly of w hite males 1s only one example of a p ractice or 82 a d m in is tra tiv e experience by search committees. experience and are thus not seriously considered. Many women lack th is Possibly women may be bypassed fo r positions th a t usually lead to top posts such as deans and department chairpersons. Sandler (1975) contended th a t In s titu tio n s have generally r e lie d on the "old bey" method of re c ru itin g and h irin g : the vast Inform al network o f old school chums* colleagues* drinking buddies* e tc .— a network to which women and m in o ritie s ra re ly have access. The m e rit system has always been a closed m e rit system* fo r larg e portions of the a v a ila b le q u a lifie d pool have been excluded, (p. 409) The government Is asking th a t a la rg e r pool of q u a lifie d persons have access to th is system. Sandler (1975) described th e "old boy" system as "systematic* de facto* In s titu tio n a liz e d d iscrim in atio n : the *o!d boy1 network o f re c ru itin g ; th e use of Irre le v a n t c r it e r ia * such as m a rita l and parental sta tu s ; d iffe r e n t standards fo r men and women* e tc ." The old in fo rm a lity of academe Is r i f e w ith d iscrim ination . M e rit Is simply not enough. The "old boys" seek out young proteges who are then taught th e Inform al ropes o f th e profession. The "old boys" Introduce them to other scholars; they nominate th e ir pro­ teges fo r the best scholarships* and they seek jobs fo r them as w e ll. . . . Women and m in o ritie s are often excluded from the pro­ tege system: no one t e l l s them about th e good jobs or puts 1n th e ir name fo r prestigious openings. Women and m in o ritie s are not "old boys"; they are simply out­ side of the Inform al "prestige" system. I f you ask a w h ite male to recommend persons fo r a p a rtic u la r Job* he w il l most lik e ly recom­ mend other w h ite males. I f you then ask the same person I f he also could recommend q u a lifie d women and m in o ritie s * he very often can. The p o in t is th a t th is person 1s not d iscrim in atin g consciously, he simply omits— a lb e it In ad v erten tly— women and m in o ritie s in his thinking about p o ten tia l applicants. Thus* much of the d iscrim in atio n 1n academia Is not In te n tio n a l or d e lib e ra te. R ecruiting new employees through an Inform al network la rg e ly of w h ite males Is only one example of a p ractice or 83 policy which has a systematic and d iscrim inatory Impact on women, Ca covert discrim in atio n rath er than an overt, b la ta n t discrim ina­ t i o n ] . (pp. 4 0 9-1 0) Moore (1984) concluded th a t "colleges and u n iv e rs itie s play a c o n tro llin g , stru c tu rin g ro le 1n the d e fin itio n , duration, and outcome o f a d m in is tra tiv e careers" (p. 14). She found th a t women are pocketed 1n one type of In s titu tio n — the lib e r a l a rts college. In ad dition, women are pocketed 1n c e rta in positions— a t th e bottom o f th e career ladder. Women p rim a rily hold positions of re g is tra rs , lib r a r ia n s , and student a f f a ir s o ffic e rs . were women. Only 19% o f the academic deans 1n her study F in a lly , Moore found th a t Women are pocketed In sectors o f t h e ir colleges and u n iv e rs itie s th a t make them less lik e ly to bu ild a d m in is tra tiv e careers. Fac­ u lty have t r a d itio n a lly been th e pool from which a d m in is tra tiv e ta le n t has been drawn, but women fa c u lty are s t i l l scarce, espe­ c ia lly a t senior le v e ls . Women are p le n tifu l 1n th e c le r ic a l and technical areas, but colleges and u n iv e rs itie s have erected f a i r l y Impermeable b a rrie rs between these areas and th e higher le v e ls of ad m in istra tio n , (p p .1 3-14 ) The number of women holding s e n lo r-a d m ln ls tra tiv e positions has doubled 1n the past ten years. But despite these gains, the g reater proportion of women adm in istrators remain "stuck 1n th e m iddle," according to P a tric ia Rueckel, Executive D irector of the National Association of Women Deans, Adm inistrators, and Counselors ( Chronicle o f Higher Education. 1985b). Bauer (1975) Investigated th e career progress o f women ad m in istrato rs 1n contlnulng-educatlon divisio ns 1n public four-year higher education In s titu tio n s 1n Michigan. during the years 1960 through 1976. She examined t h e ir careers Bauer found th a t the m a jo rity of these women were given a d m in is tra tiv e positions th a t were not In a 84 d ire c t promotional lin e w ith in th e d iv is io n or w ith in the In s titu tio n . These may be dead-end positions from which advancement 1s highly Improbable. In business# Josefowltz (1980) a ttrib u te d the h irin g o f more women now fo r e n try -le v e l positions to a ffir m a tiv e action. However# she contended they remain a t th e lower end o f management. Tokenism 1s the sharp Issue a t the top. One position might be opened a t the top fo r a woman ("the woman’s slot")# but once f ille d # a ll other a v a ila b le positions w i l l be offered to male candidates only. "We already have a woman here" 1s an oft-h eard statement, (p . 211) Responses by p a rtic ip a n ts 1n B lc k e lf s (1980) study re fle c te d anger and fru s tra tio n with s itu a tio n s which have and s t m e x is t w ith in organizational systems. However# also re fle c te d by comments was a sense of perseverance and hopefulness which 1s supported by the fa c t th a t many of these women as p ire to to p -le v e l positions. Women Indicated they were ris in g w ith in the f ie l d but they do not fe e l th is 1s always possible w ith in t h e ir organiza­ t io n a l system s, (p. 79) In Patterson's (1974) study of women fa c u lty 1n colleges and u n iv e rs itie s of Pennsylvania# almost one-th1rd of the respondents c ite d th e organization and ad m in istratio n as a major source of d is s a tis fa c ­ tio n 1n th e ir careers. An area 1n which the response to "equality to status between male and female fa c u lty " was overwhelmingly negative was th a t of the representation o f women 1n adm in istration . also Indicated "with less pronouncement: Respondents th a t even though they were q u alified # women were not promoted as quickly as men" and th a t "women do not asp ire to a d m in is tra tiv e positions" (p. 87-88). The prevalence of se x is t a ttitu d e s and sex d iscrim in atio n 1n higher education was th e theme 1n almost 9 1n 10 (88.43) o f th e disad­ vantages c ite d by the respondents. Women stated th a t they had 65 received promotions more slowly than had men; th a t they performed the same work fo r less pay; and th a t men received p re fe re n tia l treatm ent 1n such areas as class scheduling, summer school contracts, and coaching assignments. They also f e l t th a t they had to work harder than t h e ir male colleagues 1n order to prove th e ir competency; th a t they had been tre a te d condescendingly; and th a t male s u p e rio rity was assumed, (p. 70) Walker's (1981) research focused on the in v e s tig a tio n of the facto rs o f career asp iratio n s, professional s o c ia liz a tio n , and th e c u ltu re of the organization as they a ffe c t the advancement o f women In educational adm inistration. school adm in istrators. She surveyed 128 male and female public Her major hypothesis was th a t no s ig n ific a n t differen ce e x is ts 1n th e managerial effectiveness o f men and women adm in istrators In public schools. Therefore, Walker suggested th a t the d is p a rity 1n th e number of women holding a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1n public schools may a t le a s t be due to d iffe r e n t a s p iratio n s , the e ffe c ts o f mentoring ("the professional s o c ia liz a tio n networking process"), and sex bias e x is tin g 1n the c u ltu re of the organization. Walker's data showed no s ig n ific a n t d ifferen ce 1n th e mana­ g e ria l effectiveness of male and female adm in istrators. She also found th a t the as p iratio n le v e ls o f men and women adm in istrators were not s ig n ific a n tly d iffe r e n t. The data showed th a t both men and women adm in istrators In th e study had "professional s o c ia liz a tio n , networking systems" (mentoring) and did not d if f e r s ig n ific a n tly . The c u ltu re of the organization was also suggested as an in fluencin g fa c to r 1n the promotion o f women adm inistrators. Perceptions o f th e adm inistrators on employment practices w ith in th e school d i s t r ic t were used as a measure of th is . The data indicated 86 th a t the clim a te In which women adm inistrators worked was perceived d iffe r e n tly by women than by men. A s ig n ific a n t number of women Id e n tifie d sex bias In employment practices of the school d is t r ic t . For example, 1n response to th e statement "Men advance fa s te r 1n ad m in istration w ith less experience simply because they are men," 59.4% of the females agreed (p. 115). disagreed. Forty percent of the males responding Approximately 66% of the female adm in istrators agreed th a t "the 'old boys network' (w hite male club) promotes men over women fo r positions In adm in istration " (p. 116). About 69% o f the male adminis­ tra to rs disagreed with th is statement. Walker f e l t th is fin d in g may suggest "the existence of sex d iscrim in atio n 1s a fa c to r explaining the d is p a rity 1n th e number of male and female adm inistrators" (p. 137). Males, In general, were not aware of these sex-b1as p ractices. Kuk (1981) examined th e as p iratio n s of women student a f f a ir s adm inistrators as w ell as the organizational work c lim a te In two- and four-year public and p riv a te higher education In s titu tio n s . The re s u lts Indicated th a t women aspire to h ig h e r-leve l positions. How­ ever, they perceived t h e ir organizational c lim a te to be somewhat weak 1n support of professional development. Capps (1976) found d iffe r e n t as p iratio n le v e ls between men and women supervisors 1n North Carolina public schools. Men exhib ited higher aspirations fo r advancement than females 1n th e study. Men aspired to ad m in is tra tiv e positions, w h ile more than th ree-q u arters of the women entered th e profession w ith teaching as t h e ir goal. Capps 87 noted th a t women waited longer fo r promotions and were generally pro­ moted to s t a f f positions rath er than lin e positions. Women lacked comparable educational backgrounds to those of the men 1n the study. Hale supervisors and a s sis tan t superintendents had more a d m in is tra tiv e experience than female supervisors. Women had more years of teaching experience and experience 1n supervision. Also* data showed th a t women were less mobile geographically than men— tw ice as many men were w illin g to move fo r Job advancement than were women. Thus* Capps found l i t t l e evidence of d iscrim ination . Summary Many of the studies reviewed were d e s c rip tiv e 1n nature* exploring women's perceptions or opinions. The m a jo rity of the research focused on public schools* colleges* and u n iv e rs itie s . A number o f works d e a lt w ith women 1n management In business and Indus­ tr y . A few In vestig ato rs Included p riv a te colleges 1n t h e ir sample. No studies were found th a t lim ite d the In v e s tig a tio n o f women adminis­ tra to rs to sm all* Independent (p riv a te ) colleges. The lit e r a t u r e provided substantial documentation regarding the Importance of ro le models to career development and success. Several authors Indicated th a t the lack of ro le models In to p -le v e l positions or 1n p a rtic u la r fie ld s can n egatively influence women's career asp1 ra tio n s . The m a jo rity of th e lit e r a t u r e reviewed supported th e Idea th a t mentoring and sponsoring re la tio n s h ip s are desirable and valuable experiences fo r women. Only two authors (Fury* 1980; P h illip s * 1977) 68 suggested th a t 1 t 1s y e t unproven th a t having a mentor 1s necessary fo r success. However# confusing the Issue was a lack of agreement on the meaning and use of the terms "mentor" and "sponsor." In the lit e r a t u r e examined# the m a jo rity of the authors a ttrib u te d b a rrie rs encountered by women to s e x -ro le stereotyping In s t ille d by e a rly s o c ia liz a tio n (Blckel# I960; Gappa & UehUng# 1979; Josefowltz# 1960; Schmuck# 1975; Unger & Denmark# 1975; Wolman & Frank# 1975). Experimental studies appeared to support the existence of sex- ro le stereotyping. The lit e r a t u r e provided c o n flic tin g findings concerning the fa c to r of m arriage and fam ily as an In te rn a l b a rrie r to career develop­ ment and advancement. Josefowltz t 1960) and P a lly (1978) agreed th a t balancing career and fa m ily o b lig a tio n s Is a much more c r it ic a l problem fo r women than fo r men. Respondents 1n studies by P a lly (1978)# Davis (1978)# Gasser (1975)# T y le r (1979)# Blckel (1980)# Pacheco (1982)# and O tt (1983) Id e n tifie d marriage and fa m ily re s p o n s ib ilitie s as con­ s tra in ts to women's career development# m obility# and p ro d u c tivity. Work by Kanter (1977) and a recent survey of women managers 1n business and Industry (Hull# 1982) supported th is . However# the data 1n studies by Glggleman (1979)# Schlack (1974)# Fisher (1978)# Ferber and Loeb (1973)# Freeman (1977)# and B anfleld (1976) Indicated th a t marriage and parental o b ligatio ns were not obstacles to women's careers. Other In te rn a l b a rrie rs mentioned In the lit e r a t u r e concerned women's lack of confidence# a s p iratio n level# and caretaklng. 89 Women 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions encounter so cietal and organizational b a rrie rs . There 1s a commonality 1n the lit e r a t u r e regarding the kinds of external b a rrie rs perceived and/or experienced by women adm in istrators and fa c u lty . There appears to be H t t l e d iffe re n c e 1n the types of b a rrie rs c ite d by women working 1n educa­ tio n a l organizations* business and Industry* or 1n government. complaints were s im ila r. The The major problem or most freq u en tly c ite d obstacle was the exclusion from or lack of an "old boy" network (Banfle ld * 1976; B lckel* 1980; Davis* 1978; D ressier* 1981; Gasser* 1975; O tt, 1983; Pacheco, 1982; P ulliam , 1984; Sandler* 1975; Schlack* 1974; Stevenson* 1973; Stokes* 1981; Walker* 1981). Other most freq uen tly perceived co nstraints were less opportu­ n ity fo r p a rtic ip a tio n 1n decision making than male counterparts (Davis* 1978; H arris* 1976; Hollon & Gemmlll* 1976; Lenny* 1980; Pul­ liam* 1984; Schlack* 1974; Stevenson* 1973; Stokes* 1981); women admin­ is tr a to r s not taken serio usly (B anfleld* 1976; Mayer* 1985; Rogan* 1984; Schlack* 1974; Stevenson* 1973); d iscrim in atio n 1n h irin g * sala­ r ie s , and promotion (Davis* 1978; Gasser* 1975; Plggott* 1979; Rogan* 1984; Sandler* 1975; Schlack* 1974); and women relegated to or pocketed In m iddle- or lo w ei'-level management positions (B anfleld* 1976; Bauer* 1975; Chronicle o f Higher Education. 1985b; Davis* 1978; Josefowltz* 1980; Mayer* 1983; Moore, 1984; Plggott* 1979). In only a few studies did th e data In d ic a te an absence of co n strain ts or d iscrim in atio n (Capps, 1976; Dressier* 1981; Woods* 1979). CHAPTER I I I DESIGN OF THE STUDY The cen tral purpose of th is study was to Id e n tify the f a c ilit a t o r s used* the p o s itiv e fa c to rs perceived* and the b a rrie rs encountered and/or perceived by women ad m in istra to rs th a t may In fluence th e ir career advancement. A dditional In v e s tig a tio n focused on t h e ir career a s p iratio n s and th e support and o p p o rtu n ities provided by (o r th a t e x is t In ) the sm aller educational In s t it u t io n . Chapter I Introduced th e problem In vestig ated In th is study. Chapter I I was a review o f lit e r a t u r e re le v a n t to the research. In Chapter I I I th e design o f th is In v e s tig a tio n 1s presented. It Includes an explanation of the population* the survey Instrum ent* and the c o lle c tio n and an alysis of data. Type o f Study The d e s c rip tiv e method of research* using the survey technique* was employed. Borg & G all (1983) stated* 'D e s c rip tiv e studies are p rim a rily concerned w ith fin d in g out 'what 1s'" (p. 354). They added* "survey research u t iliz e s a v a rie ty o f Instrum ents and methods to study re la tio n s h ip s * e ffe c ts o f treatm ent* lo n g itu d in a l changes* and compari­ sons between groups" (p. 405). D es crip tiv e research* then* 1s both an 90 91 ap prop riate and an e ffe c tiv e technique to determ ine those fa c to rs th a t may In flu e n ce women ad m in istrators* upward m o b ility . Population The population was selected from fo u r-y e a r coeducational undergraduate Independent (p riv a te ) lib e r a l a rts colleges 1n seven ("B1g Ten") sta te s : Michigan* Minnesota* and Iowa. Indiana* Ohio* Il l i n o i s * Wisconsin* Names o f these In s titu tio n s were found In th e Education D irecto ry* Colleges a n d -U n iversities 1983-84, the HEP 1985 Higher Education D ire c to ry * and th e 1983 C o lle g e ^ lu & Book— N a rra tiv e D escrip tio n s. The c la s s ific a tio n system used by the AAUP 1n t h e ir Annual Report_on th e Economic S ta tus o f th e Profession (AAUP, 1984) was used to help Id e n tify fo u r-y e a r, a rts colleges. Independent (p riv a te ) undergraduate lib e r a l However, th a t c la s s ific a tio n * Category IIB (General Baccalaureate In s tit u tio n s ) , Included both p u blic and p riv a te colleges. To fu rth e r Id e n tify th e Independent lib e r a l a rts colleges* each s ta te a f f i l i a t e o f th e National Association of Independent Colleges and U n iv e rs itie s was contacted fo r a l i s t and description of t h e ir member colleges. Since th is s t i l l did not provide a precise c la s s ific a tio n of p riv a te lib e r a l a rts In s titu tio n s * 1 t was decided th a t the c la s s ific a ­ tio n system published by th e Carnegie Council on P olicy Studies 1n Higher Education as revised 1n 1976 would be used to Id e n tify those Independent (p riv a te ) fo u r-y e a r lib e r a l a rts colleges. Both Lib eral A rts I and L ib e ra l Arts I I In s titu tio n s were Included 1n th e study. This c la s s ific a tio n Includes a l l In s titu tio n s 92 lis te d 1n th e Education D irectory* Colleges and U n iv e rs itie s * 1976-77 published by the ULS. National Center fo r Education S ta tis tic s . In general* p riv a te In s titu tio n s w ith fewer than 1*500 students 1n 1976 were c la s s ifie d as lib e r a l a rts colleges. A dditional c r it e r ia lis te d by the Carnegie Council Included: L ib eral Arts Colleges I . These colleges scored 1030 or more on a s e le c tiv ity Index developed by Alexander W. Astln or they were Included among th e 200 leading baccalaureate-granting In s titu tio n s In terms of numbers o f t h e ir graduates receiving Ph.D.'s a t 40 leading doctorate-granting In s titu tio n s from 1920 to 1955. . . . The d is tin c tio n between a lib e r a l a rts co lleg e and a comprehensive In s titu tio n 1s not always c le a r-c u t. Some of the In s titu tio n s In th is group have modest occupational programs but a strong lib e r a l a r t s tr a d itio n . Liberal Arts Colleges I I . These In s titu tio n s Include a l l th e lib e r a l a rts colleges th a t did not meet our c r i t e r i a fo r Inclusion In the f i r s t group of lib e r a l a rts colleges. Again* the d is tin c ­ tio n between " lib e ra l arts" and "comprehensive" 1s not c le a r-c u t fo r some of the la rg e r colleges 1n th is group and 1s necessarily p a rtly a m atter of judgment. (Carnegie Council on P olicy Studies 1n Higher Education* 1976* pp. xv1-xv11) One hundred tw elve In s titu tio n s were Included In th is study. Women adm in istrators employed In these lib e r a l a rts colleges In seven states were contacted by mall and asked to p a rtic ip a te 1n the study. The p a rtic ip a n ts were re s tric te d to those adm in istrators Id e n tifie d 1n the HEP 19B5 Higher Education D irectory and the Yearbook o f Hloher Edu­ c a tio n * 1984-85. The 1983-84 D irectory o f Michigan I n s t i t utions o f Higher Education published by the Michigan S ta te Board of Education was also used* as w ell as catalogues from some colleges. A ll m iddle- and upper-level women adm in istrators id e n tifie d In these d ire c to rie s provided a to ta l population o f 390 women. The adm in istrators Included women holding the t i t l e s o f (1) president; 93 (2) chancellor; (3) com ptroller; (4) v ic e -p re s id e n t; (5) a s s is t a n t / associate vice-p resid en t; (6) business manager; (7) dean (academic a f fa ir s /f a c u lty ); (8) dean/d1 rector of a college# division# or program; (9) dean/director of continuing education; (10) d ire c to r of the lib r a r y ; (11) re g is tra r; (12) a d m in is tra tiv e a s sis tan t to the p resi­ dent; (13) dean/d1rector of In s titu tio n a l department head/chalrperson. research; and (14) d iv is io n / Because so few women hold a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1n higher education# 1t was necessary to Include a l l women 1n these positions lis te d 1n the d ire c to rie s . Due to the nature o f the Investigation# women w ith some experience 1n ad m in istratio n were needed; thus the decision was made to s e le c t only those 1n m iddle- and upper-level positions. No members o f a re lig io u s order were Included 1n th is study. Development and_Testing o f the Survey .Instrument In th is study# a survey was conducted using a structured# d1 rect-m all questionnaire. O rllch (1978) summarized th e advantages of such an Instrument: 1. Many In d ivid u als may be contacted a t th e same time# usually through the m all. 2. A questionnaire Is less expensive to adm inister than Is using an Interview technique. 3. Each selected respondent receives Id e n tic a l questions. 4. A w ritte n questionnaire provides a ve h ic le fo r expression without fe a r or embarrassment to th e respondent. 5. Responses are e a s ily tabulated (depending on design of Instrum ent). 94 6. Respondents may answer a t t h e ir own convenience. 7. There 1s no need to select or tr a in In terview ers. 8. Persons 1n remote or d is ta n t areas are reached. 9. In terview er biases are avoided. 10. Uniform data are gathered which allow fo r long-range research Im plicatio ns, (p. 4) Since th ere to c o lle c t the data was no e x is tin g Instrum ent th a t adequately served p e rtin e n t to th is study* one was designedby the In v e s tig a to r (see Appendix C). Content of th e questionnaire was derived from a review of th e lit e r a t u r e and from Inform ation received from a number of women adm in istrators. Section IIA in th e question­ naire also used some questions s im ila r to those Included 1n the Gasser (1975) and Woods (1979) studies. Section IIB * concerning b a rriers* Incorporated some of the questions used by Stokes (1981). The services of a research consultant In th e O ffic e of Research Consultation* College of Education* Michigan S tate U niversity* were obtained to c r itiq u e the f i r s t d r a ft of th e questionnaire. To achieve a v a lid Instrument* the fo llo w in g steps were followed. P retest An I n i t i a l p re te s t of th e Instrum ent was done In October 1964. At the 1984 Conference of the Midwest Association o f College and U niversity Physical Education* seven women who were cu rre n tly serving or had served as adm inistrators completed th e questionnaire and added t h e ir comments* suggestions* and/or reactions. suggestions* some revisions were made. On th e basis o f these Consultations w ith a s t a tis tic s 95 professor 1n th e Counseling and Educational Psychology Department a t Michigan S ta te U niversity and w ith a research consultant resu lted In some ad ditional changes. P ilo t Study Thirty-seven women adm in istrators 1n p riv a te lib e r a l a rts colleges 1n Pennsylvania p a rtic ip a te d 1n a p ilo t study In e a rly December 1984. The questionnaire# a l e t t e r of tra n s m itta l# a response/comment sheet# and a retu rn envelope were mailed to women holding m iddle- and upper-level a d m in is tra tiv e positions. C onfidenti­ a li t y was guaranteed p a rtic ip a n ts — no questionnaires were coded# and names appeared only on th e m ailin g envelopes* Borg & G all 11983) stated th a t 1f "the subjects are taken from a w e ll-d e fin e d professional group . . . often be s u ffic ie n t1' (p. 426). as few as twenty cases w ill Respondents' comments concerning changes or Improvements 1n th e questionnaire were read# as w ell as responses to each Item. The responses were entered In to the computer fo r a b r ie f analysis o f the p re te s t resu lts. Borg and G all stated th a t th is w i l l give you a chance to determine whether the methods you have planned to use fo r summarizing and qu an tifying the data w i l l work s a tis fa c to r ily . Also# the p re te s t re s u lts may suggest ad d itio n al questions to you. For example# I f sharp disagreement Is found 1n the responses to a p a rtic u la r Item of the questionnaire# 1 t may be desirab le to construct ad d itio n al Items th a t w ill help you under­ stand th e reasons fo r th is disagreement, (p. 426) A te s t of In te rn a l consistency was done on Section IIB o f the question­ naire# using Cronbach's alpha c o e ffic ie n t. c o e ffic ie n t was r = .93. The re s u ltin g r e l i a b i l i t y 96 The Instrument and b r ie f analysis were reviewed by the members of the In v e s tig a to r's doctoral guidance committee* as w ell as a research consultant 1n th e O ffic e of Research Consultation* College of Education* Michigan S tate U niversity. The fin a l revision was also reviewed by a consultant a t the Computer Center a t Michigan S tate U niversity fo r computer coding* format* and ta b u latio n of data before fin a l p rin tin g . The Su rvev _Quest1onnai re The survey Instrument contained four sections. Section IA was designed to e l i c i t Inform ation regarding the use of f a c ilit a t o r s (ro le models* protege systems* and mentoring rela tio n s h ip s ) (Item s 1 through 17). In Section IB** respondents were asked to In d ica te the primary p o s itiv e fa c to rs Influencing th e ir careers (Item s 10 through 28). A standard L lk e r t scaling* assigning a scale value to each possible response* was used: 5 = Very Important# 4 = Important* 3 - Undecided* 2 = S lig h tly Important* and 1 = Not Important. Section IIA contained Items pertaining to personal and profes­ sional b a rrie rs (Item s 29 through 39). was used fo r responses: A L lk e r t scale of s ix choices 0 = Not Applicable* 5 = Very Im portant* 4 = Important* 3 = Undecided* 2 = S lig h tly Important* and 1 = Not Impor­ ta n t. Section IIB contained Items pertaining to b a rrie rs encountered in the organization by women ad m in istrators (Item s 40 through 58). 97 Questions In th is section were based on the work o f Stokes (1981)# as w ell as Inform ation selected from re la te d lit e r a tu r e . incorporated a L1kert-type scale: This section S = Almost Always* 4 = Frequently* 3 = About H a lf the Time* 2 = Infrequently# and 1 = Never. Two open- ended questions (Item s 59 and 60) asked fo r an Id e n tific a tio n of the greatest b a rrie r encountered and fo r recommendations fo r change. A ll scale values were omitted on the questionnaire to avoid Influencin g th e respondents. Section I I I addressed career asp irations and th e c lim a te / support/opportunities fo r advancement respondents perceived to e x is t 1n t h e ir organization. Finally# Section IV requested personal# educa­ tio n a l* and professional Inform ation. Before processing th e data* four ranges (based on mean scores) were a r b it r a r ily established to distinguish among the degrees o f Impor­ tance of the Items In Sections IB# IIA * and IIB : 3.5 and higher = Very Important# 3.49-2.50 = Important# 2.49-1.50 = Moderately or S lig h tly Important* and below 1.49 = Not Important. C o llectio n o f .Data On March 20* 1985* 390 questionnaires were mailed to th e women adm inistrators described e a r lie r . A l e t t e r of tra n s m itta l explaining the study# requesting p a rtic ip a tio n * and assuring complete anonymity and c o n fid e n tia lity ; a return self-addressed* stamped envelope; and a m ailin g label accompanied th e Instrument. C o n fid e n tia lity and anonymity were guaranteed p a rtic ip a n ts — no questionnaires were coded# and names appeared only on th e m ailing envelopes. The m ailin g label 98 was to be f i l l e d out and returned by those wishing a copy of the re s u lts . A fo llow -up card was sent to a ll adm inistrators as a reminder a week la te r . A second fo llow -up le t t e r * Including a second copy of the questionnaire* was m ailed to a l l adm inistrators during th e week of A p ril 22-26# 1985. O rllch (1978) recommended a s im ila r sequence to Insure the greatest response rate. (See Appendices B and C fo r copies of the le t t e r of tra n s m itta l* follow -up card and le t te r * and survey Instrum ent used 1n th e study.) Two hundred eig hty-tw o usable questionnaires were returned fo r a response ra te of 72£. Seventeen questionnaires* though returned* were unusable— some women had moved; others were on sabbatical* re tire d # 111* or no longer 1n the po sitio n . Treatment and-Analysis o f the.-Data Processing was handled a t the Computer Center a t Michigan S tate U niversity. When th e questionnaires were returned* data were tra n s fe rre d from the questionnaires to a data-cod1ng sheet. The data were entered on a disk and were then entered on th e system on a permanent f i l e a t the Michigan S tate U niversity Computer Laboratory# Data Entry D ivisio n . Data were keyed 1n f i r s t and then v e r ifie d . A research consultant from the O ffic e of Research Consultation In Michigan S tate U niversity's College of Education advised 1n th e preparation of the programs fo r data analysis. The S ta tis tic a l Package fo r the Social Sciences (SPSS) was used to analyze the data. 99 General d e s c rip tiv e s t a tis tic s (frequencies* percentages* mean* and standard deviation) were used to describe each v a ria b le Included In the study. The rank order s t a t is t ic was used to arrange Items according to th e ir Importance. To answer Research Question 4* the ch1-square te s t of association was applied* with an alpha lev el of .05. The responses to the open-ended questions were reported verbatim. A te s t of In tern al consistency (Cronbach's alpha) was run on Sections IB* IIA * and IIB of the fin a l questionnaire. r e l i a b i l i t y c o e ffic ie n t was r = .89. The re s u ltin g The c o e ffic ie n t In d icates th a t the questionnaire can be considered a r e lia b le instrument. Summary Included In th is chapter was a discussion of the procedures followed 1n th is study— th e selectio n o f th e In s titu tio n s and the population o f women adm inistrators* the development and te s tin g of the Instrument* and data c o lle c tio n . The chapter concluded w ith an explanation of the s t a t is t ic a l methods used In analyzing the data. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA In tro d u ctio n The purpose of th is study was to Id e n tify the f a c ilit a t o r s used and p o s itiv e facto rs and b a rrie rs perceived by women adm in istrators 1n the small higher education organization th a t may Influence th e ir careers; to examine t h e ir career asp iratio n s; and to determine the clim ate* support* and o p p o rtu n ities they perceive as e x is tin g 1n th e ir In s titu tio n . sections: The data reported 1n th is chapter are presented 1n seven (1) demographic data* (2) f a c ilit a t o r s used* (3) p o s itiv e fa cto rs perceived to Influence career advancement* (4) b a rrie rs to career development* (5) re la tio n s h ip between type of position and responses* (6) career aspirations* and (7) organizational support. Responses were received from 282 ad m in istrators In Independent lib e r a l a rts colleges 1n Michigan* Ohio* Indiana* Illin o i s * Iowa* Wisconsin* and Minnesota. Those responding to the survey broadly represented th e tr a d itio n a l a d m in is tra tiv e positions found In higher education In s titu tio n s . the questionnaire; Some respondents did not answer every Item on Therefore* the to ta l number of responses to each Item may vary* and thus the numbers In dicated 1n the respective tables may be d iffe r e n t. 100 101 Demographic Data The population of th is study comprised 282 women 1n m iddle- and upper-level a d m in is tra tiv e positions In lib e r a l a rts colleges. Tables 1 through 10 present a summary of the demographic data on th e adm inistra­ to rs . Age o f Respondents Respondents were asked to c la s s ify themselves by age. The age d is trib u tio n of those who p a rticip ate d 1n th is study 1s shown 1n T a b le 1. Table 1 .— Age of respondents. Age 25 & under 26-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55+ Code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Total Number Percent 1 11 23 48 50 44 35 70 .4 3 .9 8 .2 17.0 17.7 15.6 12.4 24.8 282 100.0 Mean = 5.6 8 4 . Approximately 70® of th e women were 40 years and older. Respondents 1n th is study were s im ila r 1n age to those In Gasser's (1975) and Woods's (1979) studies. E1ghty-two percent of upper-level ad m in istrato rs In Gasser's study were over age 40; 50.4® o f lo w e r-le v e l 102 adm inistrators were over age 40. Almost 70S of women adm inistrators 1n Woodsfs study were 40 years and older. The la rg e s t group o f women adm inistrators In th is study* almost one-fourth# were In th e 55+ age bracket. Ethnic Background Table 2 presents a summary of the ethnic background o f the p a rticip ants. N1nety-s1x percent of the p a rtic ip a n ts were Caucasian; less than 235 were Hispanic; 2.15 were of other races. Two p a rtic ip a n ts were black. Table 2 .— Ethnic background. Ethnic Group Number Black Caucasian Hispanic Other3 Total Note: Percent 2 268 4 5 .7 96.1 1.4 1.8 279 100.0 Three In d ivid u a ls did not respond. ^Includes Jewish# American Indian* Aslan* and Chinese. Highest Degree Presently Held Table 3 shows th a t the doctorate had been achieved by 37.45 of the women. degree* T h irty -n in e percent of the p a rtic ip a n ts held the m asters and 15.75 had earned the bachelor's degree. 103 Table 3 . — Highest degree held. Degree B. A ./B .S . M. A./M.S. Ed. S. Ph.D. Other3 Total Note: Number Percent 44 110 2 105 20 15.7 39.1 .7 37.4 7.1 281 100.0 One Individual did not respond. aIn c lu d e s th e M.S.W.# M.Ed.# Ed.D.# C.P.A.# M aster of Music# and Master of D iv in ity degrees. F1eld _of_H1qhest Degree Table 4 presents th e f ie ld 1n which th e highest degree had been earned. The ta b le shows th a t 24.1% of the adm inistrators had received th e ir highest degree 1n a rts and le tte rs # and almost 24% had earned th e ir highest degree 1n education. This may r e f le c t the Importance of the lib e r a l a rts a t these In s titu tio n s . I t may also In d ica te th a t these women had followed a tr a d itio n a l route in to ad m in istration from fa c u lty positions. These findings are d iffe r e n t from those of Gasser (1975) and Woods (1979). Almost 50% of the adm inistrators employed 1n public and p riv a te In s titu tio n s who p a rtic ip a te d 1n Gasser's study held t h e ir highest degree 1n education. Woods reported th a t 92.1% of the adminis­ tra to rs 1n th e two- and fo u r-ye ar Michigan public In s titu tio n s surveyed had earned th e ir highest degrees 1n education. 104 Table 4 . — F ie ld of highest degree. F ield Arts & le t te r s Buslness/management Education Health sciences Natural sciences & mathematics Social sciences Other3 Total Note: Number Percent 66 13 65 13 25 39 53 24.1 4 .7 23.7 4.7 9.1 14.2 19.3 274 100.0 E igh t In d ivid u a ls did not respond. aInc1udes lib r a r y science* human ecology* communication* educational adm inistration* social work* home economics* nursing* health/physical education* recreation* journalism * law* and hospital d le te tlc s . T i t l e o f Present Position The position t i t l e s of the respondents are shown 1n Table 5. At the tim e of th is study* one woman was serving as president of a lib e r a l a rts college* ten women held th e position of vice-p resid ent* and four women were employed as assis tan t or associate v1c&-pres1dent. In 1981* Stokes found no women serving as president and only two serving as vic e -p re s id e n t In nine u n iv e rs itie s 1n the S tate U n iversity System of Florida. Woods (1979) found no woman president but found one woman serving as vic e -p re s id e n t 1n fo u r-year p u b lic In s titu tio n s 1n Michigan. In Gassets 1975 study* 24 p a rtic ip a n ts held th e position of v ic e -p re s id e n t and two served as president 1n public and p riv a te fo u ryear colleges. Almost 11% of th e respondents In th is study held th e 105 position of dean or higher. The m a jo rity o f women surveyed (76.6SE) held positions below th a t of dean. Table 5 . — T i t l e of present p o sitio n . T itle Presldent Comptroller V ice-president Ass1stant/assoclate v1ce-pres1dent Business officer/m anager Dean (academic a f f a ir s /f a c u lt y ) Dean of a college/program A dm inistrative a s s is ta n t to president D irecto r of continuing education D irecto r of a department/program D irecto r o f H b rary/h ead lib r a r ia n Reg1strar Academic d ivisio n head Department chalrperson/head Other3 Total Number Percent 1 1 10 4 2 4 8 8 6 21 31 33 33 84 36 .4 .4 3.5 1.4 .7 1.4 2 .8 2 .8 2.1 7.4 11.0 11.7 11.7 29.8 12.8 282 100.0 aXncludes d1rector/dean of students/student services, associate dean, as sis ta n t/a s s o c ia te academic dean, dean o f women, In s titu tio n a l research, a th le tic d ire c to r, d ire c to r o f teacher education, associate d ire c to r, and d ire c to r o f a rts and sciences center. Years 1n Present Position Approximately tw o -th ird s of th e women had been In t h e ir current position s ix or fewer years (Table 6). The mean (3.879) In d icates th a t the average number of years women had held t h e ir present position was approximately fo u r years. Almost 15% of the women had been In the same position fo r 15 or more years. 106 Table 6 .— Number of years 1n present po sitio n . Years 1 year 2 years 3 years 4- 6 years 7 - 9 years 10-14 years 15+ years Code Number Percent 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 38 51 28 64 34 25 42 13.5 18.1 9 .9 22.7 12.1 8.9 14.9 282 100.0 Total Mean = 3.879 Median = 3.875 Years 1n College Adm inistration The to ta l years In college ad m in istratio n varied from less than one ye ar (.4%) to more than 15 years (17.9%)* as shown 1n T a b le 7. The la rg e s t percentage of women (23.9%) had served in a d m in is tra tiv e posi­ tio n s four to s ix years. A m a jo rity of the respondents (73.6%) had been adm in istrators four or more years. Present Salary Range The salary ranges of respondents are presented In Table 8. One-fourth of the respondents earned less than $20*000. percent of the women earned under $30*000. The la rg e s t group of adm inistrators (36%) earned between $20*000 and $25*000. fourth of the women earned $30*000 or more. S1xty-one Almost one- 107 Table 7 .— Number of years In college ad m in istratio n . Years Less than one year 1 year 2 years 3 years 4 - 6 years 7 - 9 years 10-14 years 15+ years Code Number Percent 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 12 30 31 67 45 44 50 .4 4.3 10.7 11.1 23.9 16.1 15.7 17.9 280 100.0 Total Mean = 4.543 Note: Median = 4.485 Two In d ivid u a ls did not respond. Table 8 .— Present salary range. Salary Range Less than $12#000 $12#000-$14 #999 $15 *000-$19 p999 $20 »000-$24,999 $25 »000-$29 #999 $30,000-$34,999 $35*000 or more Code 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Kean = 4.439 Note: Median = 4.190 Four In d iv id u a ls did not respond. Number Percent 3 10 57 100 41 34 33 1.1 3 .6 20.5 36.0 14.7 12.2 11.9 278 100.0 108 Full-Tim e Student Enrollment As shown In Table 9# 95.455 of the respondents were employed 1n a small college organization— th a t Is* In s titu tio n s w ith student enrollments under 2*000. Table 9 .— F u ll-tim e student enrollm ent. Number Percent Under 1*000 1*000-1,999 2*000-3,999 4*000-4,999 5*000+ 147 121 10 1 2 52.3 43.1 3 .6 .4 .7 Total 281 100.0 Enrollment Note: One In divid ual did not respond. Religious A f f ilia t io n o f In s titu tio n As reported In Table 10* 55.655 of the In s titu tio n s maintained a P rotestant a f f ilia t io n * 26.255 were Roman Catholic* 16.555 had no r e l i ­ gious a f f ilia t io n * and 1.8% reported other re lig io u s a f f ilia t io n s . 109 Table 10.— Religious a f f i l i a t i o n of In s tit u tio n . Number A f f ilia t io n None Protestant Roman Catholic Other Total Note: Percent 46 155 73 5 16.5 55.6 26.2 1.8 279 100.0 Three In d ivid u a ls did not respond. F a c ilita to r s Used Research Question I t What percentage o f women adm inistrators 1n these Independent fo ur-year undergraduate coeducational lib e r a l a rts colleges have used f a c ilit a t o r s (ro le models# protege systems# and mentoring relatio n sh ip s) during t h e ir careers? The p a rtic ip a n ts were asked to respond to 17 items 1n the f i r s t section of the questionnaire re la tin g to f a c ilit a t o r s Influencing career asp iratio n s and advancement. Responses are presented as fr e ­ quencies# and open-ended statements are reported verbatim. The researcher has reported comments to open-ended Items which were ty p ic a l of a ll the comments made. The data are summarized 1n Tables 11 through 25. Item _1 Respondents were asked to In d ica te whether a ro le model had been an In flu e n tia l fa c to r 1n th e ir career development and aspirations. Almost tw o -th ird s (62.8X) answered "yes”; 37.235 said "no#” as shown 1n T ab le 11. 110 Table 11.— Number of respondents Influenced by a ro le model. Response Yes No Total Number Percent 177 105 62.8 37.2 282 100.0 Item 2 Table 12 presents the number of ro le models respondents In d i­ cated they had had. Of the 177 women who reported th a t a ro le model had Influenced t h e ir career development and asp iratio n s, 25.4% reported having one ro le model, 36.7% had two ro le models, 17.5% had th ree ro le models, and 203% reported having had four or more ro le models. Table 12.— Number of ro le models. Role Models Number Percent One Two Three Four or more 45 65 31 36 25.4 36.7 17.5 20.3 177 100.0 Total Ill -Item 3 Respondents were asked to Id e n tify the 1nd1v1dual(s) who had served as ro le models. In d iv id u a l. Some o f the 177 women Id e n tifie d more than one The responses are summarized 1n Table 13. College ad m in istrato rs and college In s tru c to rs were d t e d as ro le models by the greatest number of women (49.4% and 51.1%# re sp ective ly). Friends or colleagues served as ro le models to 40.9% o f the 177 women responding to th is Item. "Others” mentioned by respondents Included counselors; a m inister# priest# or re lig io u s lead er; coaches; social workers; a neighbor; public fig u re s ; g reat In d iv id u a ls throughout h is to ry ; and women reported 1n the lit e r a t u r e . Table 13 .— In d iv id u a ls Id e n tifie d as ro le models (N = 177). In divid ual College adm in istrator College In s tru c to r Elementary and/or high school adm inistrator Elementary and/or high school teacher Friend and/or colleague R ela tive Others Total® Note: One In d ivid u a l did not respond. af1gures due to m u ltip le responses. Number Percent 87 90 9 22 72 32 21 49.4 51.1 5.1 12.5 40.9 16.2 11.9 333 189.1 112 Item 4 Table 14 presents th e number of women who Indicated whether or not th e ir careers had been aided by a sponsor. evenly divided: The group was almost 49.3X said "yes" and SO.1% said "no." Table 14.--Number of respondents whose careers were aided by a sponsor. Response Yes No Total Note: Number Percent 138 142 49.3 50.7 280 100.0 Two In d ivid u a ls did not respond. Item 5 Of the 138 women who acknowledged having a sponsor* 70 of them (51.1%) Indicated they had male sponsors* 30 (21.9X) indicated they had female sponsors* and 37 (277) Indicated they had both male and female sponsors. (See Table 15.) Table 15 .— Number of adm inistrators who recognized a male sponsor and/or a female sponsor. Gender of Sponsor Male Female Both Total Note: One In d ivid u al did not respond. Number Percent 70 30 37 51.1 21.9 27.0 137 100.0 113 Items_6_ and 7 The p a rtic ip a n ts were asked to In d ic a te the most Im portant thing th e ir male and/or female sponsor had done fo r them. summarized 1n Table 16. Hie responses are The researcher combined comments th a t were ty p ic a l of a ll the comments made by those responding to these two Items. Some respondents gave m u ltip le responses to these two Items. Providing recommendations or le t t e r s o f recommendation was the most often c ite d Influence exerted by both male and fem ale sponsors (34.9% and 38.8%» resp ectively). This was follow ed by encouragement and support— c ite d by 21.7% o f the respondents having a male sponsor and 20.9% of those having a female sponsor. Confidence 1n respondent's a b ilit y and p o ten tia l was a most im portant influence c ite d by 13.2% of those having a male sponsor and by 9.0% of those having a female sponsor. Respondents (9.4%) indicated th a t male sponsors were able to h ire ' promote* and advance them. Only 4.5% of the respondents c ite d th is as the most Important thing t h e ir female sponsor had done. Item 8 Respondents were asked to In d ica te the number of male mentors they had had or cu rre n tly had. The data are shown In Table 17, Of the 263 women responding to th e question* 61,2% (161 women) reported having one or more male mentors. Table 16.—Most important influence exerted by male and female sponsors. Type o f Influence Male Sponsor (106 responding) Female Sponsor (67 responding) Number Percent Number Percent Recommended/nominated me fo r position/prom otion/ advancement; wrote le tte rs of recommendation 37 34.9 26 38.8 Encouraged me; provided support 23 21.7 14 20.9 Confidence in my a b ilit ie s , ta le n ts ; believed in me; recognized my p o te n tia l; backed me 14 13.2 6 9.0 Hi red/promoted/advanced me; offered position 10 9 .* 3 4.5 8 7.5 8 11.9 8 7.5 7 10.4 7 6.6 4 6.0 Delegated/made a v aila b le important, increased res p o n s ib ilitie s 6 5.7 Developed my self-confidence * 3.8 1 1.5 Trained In fie ld opportunities; prepared me by involving me in his/her work 3 2.8 1 1.5 3 2.8 1 1.5 Vouched fo r my professional qualifications/perform ance capabilities;accomplishments; made name/capabi1itie s known to others; "brags" fo r me; strongly influenced advancement Provided advice/help/assistance/guidance; gave d ire c tio n , made suggestions—p ra c tic a l, career, academic, e tc . Opened doors, made op portunities/projects/introductions a v a ila b le ; put me in touch w ith in flu e n tia l people, interviews Challenged me, set high standards; gave me op p o rtu n ities/ re s p o n s ib ilitie s th at forced me to sharpen my s k ills and talents — — Table 16.— Continued. Type of Influence Male Sponsor (106 responding) Female Sponsor (67 responding) Number Percent Number Percent Valued my ideas, style 2 1.9 2 3.0 Included me/my ideas in high-power groups/projects 1 .9 1 1.5 Listened 1 .9 1 1.5 Appointed me to committees, panels, professional organi­ zations, positions; provided opportunities to be in flu e n tia l 1 .9 1 1.5 Guidance on "good old boy" attitu d es 1 .9 1 1.5 Involved me in professional'organizations outside my d iscip lin e 1 .9 — — Gave me v i s i b i l i t y inside and outside organization 1 .9 — — Role model — — 2 3.0 Encouraged professional involvement — — 2 3.0 Friendship — — 1 1.5 Showed me how to be strong and s t i l l be a woman — — 1 1.5 Gave me strength, courage, knowledge, inspiration — — 1 1.5 Improved my image among facu lty — — 1 1.5 Set teaching standards — — 1 1.5 Provided opportunities fo r personal growth — — 1 1.5 87 130.0 Total^ 131 123.2 a (ncludes responses from those who named both a male and a female sponsor. ^Figures due to m ultiple responses. 116 Table 17.— Number of male mentors. Male Mentors Number None One Two Three Four or more Total Note: Percent 102 78 44 16 23 38.6 29.7 16.7 6.1 8.7 263 100.0 Nineteen In d ivid u a ls did not respond. The p a rtic ip a n ts were asked to id e n tify the in d iv id u a l(s ) they had had or cu rre n tly had as male mentors. Some of the 161 women who recognized male mentors Id e n tifie d more than one In d iv id u a l. responses are presented 1n Table 16. The Three-fourths of the group Id e n tifie d a male colleague or frie n d w ith in the college serving as th e ir mentor* 40.4% Id e n tifie d a colleague or frie n d outside the college* and 17.4% id e n tifie d a r e la t iv e as t h e ir male mentor. 117 Table 18.— In d iv id u a ls Id e n tifie d as male mentors (N = 161). Number Ind1v1dual C olleag ue/friend 1n the o rg an izatio n / col 1ege Percent 122 75.8 C olleague/friend outside the o rg an izatio n / c o l1ege 65 40.4 R e la tive 28 17.4 215 133.6 T o ta la Note: Nineteen In d iv id u a ls did not respond. aF1gures due to m u ltip le responses. Item 10 Respondents were asked to s ta te the most Im portant th ing t h e ir male mentor(s) had done fo r them. Item are shown 1n Table 19. th is Item. The responses to th is open-ended One hundred forty-seven women responded to Some c ite d more than one Im portant Influence. The most freq uen tly mentioned Influence was encouragement and support, c ite d by 35.4% of the respondents. The second most freq u en tly c ite d Influence exerted by male mentors was advice and counsel (21.8%). Of those Id e n tify in g a male mentor. 10.2% Indicated th a t th e mentor had provided help. aid . assistance, and Inform ation. Other Im portant things (or types of Influences) th a t male mentors had done fo r t h e ir mentees are also shown 1n Table 19. Table 19*—Most important influence exerted by my male mentor (N = 147). Type o f Influence Number Percent Encouragement/support; understanding; praise; backed me, my ideas 52 35.4 Advice, counsel, suggestions, insight—on advancement, strategies for pursuing a career, handling situ atio n s, thorny problems 32 21.8 Help, aid , assistance— in obtaining grants, w ritin g , le tte r s , how to do things, future plans; learn in present position; guidance, help in f i r s t year of jo b , as new fa c u lty , during doctoral studies. Providedin fo rmation, knowledge; information source— inside information, technical information. Taught me the ropes; taught me adm inistrative s k ills 15 10.2 Helped me develop, build self-confidence, respect 11 7-5 Listened 10 6.8 8 5.4 Confidence/belief In me, my expertise, a b ilit ie s , p o te n tia l; believes in me Sounding board—fo r Ideas, fru s tra tio n s . Exchanged ideas. ta lk s —about new ideas, a lte rn a tiv e s , implications Discussion, 8 5-4 P o litic a l advice; in s titu tio n a l p o litic s ; advice on Internal p o litic s ; p o litic a l s tra teg ies, who has clout; insight into p o litic a l maneuvering 8 5.4 Recommended me; recommended me fo r positions 4 2.7 Table 19.—Continued. Type of Influence Number Percent Made me feel equal to men; d id n 't tre a t me d iffe re n t from male colleagues; treated/accepted me as a professional equal 1» 2.7 Provided opportunities; opportunities to expand a b ili t ie s , for increased resp o n s ib ility 3 2.0 Set a good example 2 1.k Provided feedback; positive reinforcement 2 1 .* Sharing; sharing concerns 2 \,k Evaluator of decisions 1 .7 Respected me, my ideas 1 .7 Included me on important committees 1 .7 Praised my a b ilit ie s to important administrators I .7 Inspiration 1 .7 Promoted me 1 .7 167 113.7 To tal3 a Figures due to m u ltip le responses. 120 X te n L lI Table 20 presents th e number of female mentors respondents had had or cu rre n tly had. Of the 246 women responding to th is item# 132 (53.5%) reported having one or more female mentors. Table 2 0 .— Number of female mentors. Number Female Mentors None One Two Three Four or more Total Note: Percent 114 68 34 7 23 46.3 27.6 13.8 2 .8 9.3 246 100.0 T h ir ty -s ix In d ivid u a ls did not respond. Item 12 The women adm inistrators were asked to Id e n tify the In d iv id ­ u a l^ ) they had had or c u rre n tly had as female mentors. Some of the 132 women who recognized female mentors Id e n tifie d more than one in d i­ vid ual. The responses are shown 1n Table 21. Almost th re e -fo u rth s o f the group Id e n tifie d a female colleague or frie n d w ith in th e college as th e ir mentor# 46.5% Id e n tifie d a colleague or frie n d outside the co l­ lege# and 10.6% Id e n tifie d a r e la tiv e as mentor. 121 Table 2 1 .— In d iv id u a ls Id e n tifie d as female mentors (N = 132). Number Percent C olleague/friend 1n the o rg an izatio n / col 1ege 97 73.5 C olleag ue/friend outside the o rg an izatio n / col 1ege 64 46.5 R ela tive 14 10.6 175 132.6 Ind1v1dual T o ta la Note: Th1rty-s1x in d iv id u a ls did not respond. aF1gures due to m u ltip le responses. Item 13 Table 22 presents a summary of the most Im portant thlng(s) respondents' female mentor(s) had done fo r them. seven women responded to th is open-ended Item . One hundred tw entySome of the women offered m u ltip le responses about t h e ir mentor's Influence. The most frequently mentioned Influence was th a t of encouragement and support* c ite d by 54.38 of the women. Women having male mentors also c ite d th is Influence most frequently (35.48). The second most freq uen tly c ite d Influence exerted by female mentors was th a t of advice (16.18). This was also the second most c ite d Influence th a t male mentors were seen as exerting (21.88). Of those Id e n tify in g a female mentor* 11.08 Indicated th a t the most Im portant th in g th e mentor had done fo r them was to be a lis te n e r . Other Im portant things (or types of Influences) Table 2 2 .—Host important influence exerted by my female mentor (N - 127). Type of Influence Encouragement/support, understanding, p raise, in terest in —me, my e ffo rts ; my decisions, work, research, teaching, career, Ph.D.; my strengths, a b ilit ie s ; backing o f new ideas Number 69 Percent 54.3 Advice; advice on—career; career advancement; career moves; how internal structure of college works, guidance 23 18.1 Listened 14 11.0 8 6.3 Helped me believe in myself; gain, develop my confidence; helped me think o f myself as important 7 5.5 Provided information; career and network information 7 5.5 Sharing; sharing problems, ideas, in te re s ts , goals, fru s tra tio n s , plans, observations 6 4.7 Sounding board 5 3<9 Offered suggestions, ideas; assisted on formulation o f ideas; c la r if ic a ­ tion o f ideas; person on whom to te s t ideas, plans 5 3.9 4 3.1 Taught me— important/necessary s k ills ; research techniques; what I need to know about my job; expected behavior in academe. Training— in the organization and profession; provided assertiveness s k ills in dealing with others. Taught me the ropes. Helped me set p r io r itie s and organize and manage e ffe c tiv e ly P o litic a l information; gave perspective on college p o litic s ; information on women in the organization, sexual p o litic s ; advice on in-house p o litic a l s itu a tio n s , issues Table 2 2 .—Continued. Type of Influence Number Percent Practical help, pointers 3 2.4 Confidence in me, my a b ilit ie s ; believed in me 3 2.4 Talk, discuss—mutually important ideas; honest, o b jective; talked sense to me 3 2.4 Strategy help; recommended strateg ies; tested strategies 3 2.4 Set example; provided standards 2 1.6 Role model 2 1.6 Constructive c ritic is m 2 1.6 Networking 2 1.6 Feedback; positive reinforcement 2 1.6 Helped me develop professionally 1 .8 Shoulder to cry on 1 .8 Showed me how to be strong and s t i l l be a woman 1 ,8 S ta b ilizin g force 1 .8 Provide opportunity fo r growth 1 .8 Inspiration fo r character development 1 .8 In te lle c tu a l stim ulation 1 .8 177 139.5 Total9 a Figures due to m u ltip le responses. 124 th a t female mentors had done fo r th e ir mentees are also summarized 1n Table 22. A comparison of Tables 19 and 22 In d icates th a t Influences exerted by male and female mentors were q u ite s im ila r. Item 14 Respondents were asked 1 f they had sponsored or were c u rre n tly sponsoring a protege. The responses are tabulated 1n Table 23. those responding to th is Item* Of 123 (45.6%) answered "yes'1; 147 (54.4%) said "no." Table 2 3 .— Number of respondents sponsoring a protege. Response Yes No Total Note: Number Percent 123 147 45.6 54.4 270 100.0 Twelve In d ivid u a ls did not respond. Item 15 Of th e 123 women who Indicated they had sponsored or were c u rre n tly sponsoring a protege* 5.7% said th a t th e ir protege was male* 59*3% responded th a t t h e ir protege was female* and 35.0% sponsored both male and female proteges. (See Table 2 4 .) 125 Table 2 4 .--S e x of protege. Sex Number Percent Male Female Both 7 73 43 5 .7 59.3 3 5 .0 123 100.0 Total 1XSHL .16 The women adm inistrators were asked 1f they had served or were c u rren tly serving as a mentor to someone. 1n Table 25. The responses are presented Of those responding to th is Item* 159 women (62.4%) answered "yes"; 96 women (37.6%) said "no." Table 2 5 .— Number of respondents serving as mentor. Response Yes No Total Note: Number Percent 159 96 62.4 37.6 255 100.0 Twenty-seven In d ivid u a ls did not respond. Item 17 Of the 159 women who Indicated they had served or were c u rre n tly serving as a mentor to someone* 5,7* Indicated th e ir mentee 126 was male, 50.3% said th e ir mentee was female, and 44.0% had mentored or were mentoring both a male and a female. (See Table 2 6 .) Table 2 6 ,— Sex o f mentee. Sex Male Female Both Total Number Percent 9 60 70 5 .7 50.3 44 .0 159 100.0 P o s itiv e f actors Percei ved. to _In fluence Career Advancement Research Question 2 : What fa cto rs do these women adm inistrators 1n lib e r a l arts colleges Id e n tify as the most Im portant p o s itiv e Influences on t h e ir careers? P a rtic ip a n ts were asked to In d ic a te th e extent to which c e rta in facto rs had been p o s itiv e Influences on th e ir career advancement. Ten facto rs th a t had previously been Id e n tifie d In th e lit e r a t u r e as p o s itiv e Influences were Included 1n the 11st. response options: Very Important# Important# Undecided# S lig h tly Important# and Not Important. coded as fo llo w s: P a rtic ip a n ts had fiv e Response options were num erically Very Im portant = 5# Im portant e 4# Undecided =3# S lig h tly Im portant = 2# and Not Im portant a 1. specify other fa cto rs not on th e 11st. The respondents could The responses to questionnaire Items 18 through 27 are presented as frequencies 1n Table 27. Table 2 7 .— Positive factors influencing career advancement. Factor 18. A ffirm ative action/equal opportunity policies Very Important (5) 6.23 Not Important 0 ) N (3) S Iig h tly Important (2 ) 11.73 21.23 41.03 273 Important Undecided (4) 19.83 19. Appropriate academic credentials 53.5 34.8 1.1 7.8 2.8 282 20. Being in the rig h t place a t the rig h t tim e/luck 40.1 36.2 8.2 11.1 3-9 279 21. Competence 69.8 29.1 1.1 — — 281 22. Drive/determ ination/ persistence 54.4 35.2 5.3 3.9 1.1 281 23. Experience in admini stratio n 15-1 40.5 12.2 17.2 15.1 279 5.1 10.9 15.6 16.7 51.6 275 15.8 32.4 11.2 15-5 25.2 278 26. Sponsorship (being a protege) 9.8 24.9 14.3 22.3 28.3 265 27. Support and encouragement of a mentor 19.3 36.1 6.7 10.8 26.8 269 24. Female networking 25- P o litic a l savvy 128 In th e Very Im portant category* th ree fa c to rs had a 50* or higher response ra te : "Competence" (69.8*)* "D rive /d eterm in atio n / p e rs is te n c e " (5 4 .5 * )* and "A ppropriate academic cred en tials " (53.5*). In the Im portant category* th e fo llo w in g fa c to rs had the highest response rate : "Experience 1n ad m in istratio n " (40.5*)* *Be1ng 1n th e rig h t place a t the rig h t tim e/lu ck " (36.2*)* and "Support and encouragement of a mentor" (3 6 .1 * ). Forty-one percent of th e respondents In dicated th a t "A ffirm a­ tiv e action" was Not an Im portant Influence* and 51.6* rated "Female networking" as Not Important. A mean and a standard deviatio n (S.D.) were obtained fo r each of the ten facto rs In th is section* based on the numerical coding. The facto rs are presented 1n rank order from the highest mean score to th e low est 1n Table 28. Before processing the data* fo u r ranges were a r b it r a r ily established to distinguish among th e degrees o f Importance of the facto rs. These ranges were as fo llo w s : 3.5 and higher «= Very Important* 3.49-2.50 = Important* 2.49-1.50 = Moderately or S lig h tly Important* and below 1.49 = Not Im portant. "Competence" was perceived to be the greatest p o s itiv e Influence on respondents' career advancement. was categorized as Very Important. With a mean o f 4.69* "Dr 1ve/determ 1nat1on/pers1stence" was ranked second w ith a mean o f 4.38 and was also considered a Very Im portant p o s itiv e fa cto r. 1t The standard deviations fo r these two factors (.487 and .841, resp ectively)* s ig n ifie d th a t th e re was high 129 agreement among respondents about these Items as very Im portant career 1nfluences. Table 2 8 .— Rank order of mean scores of p o s itiv e facto rs Influencin g career advancement. Factor Rank Mean S.D. 1 21. Competence 4.69 .487 2 22. Dr1ve/determ 1nat1on/persistence 4 .3 8 .841 3 19. Appropriate academic c red en tials 4 .2 8 1.02 4 20. Being 1n th e r ig h t place a t the r ig h t tim e/luck 3.9 8 1.14 5 23. Experience 1n ad m in istration 3.23 1.32 6 27. Support and encouragement of a mentor 3 .0 9 1.53 7 25. P o litic a l savvy 2.98 7.46 8 26. Sponsorship (being a protege) 2.65 1.38 9 18. A ffirm a tiv e action/equal opportu­ n ity pol 1c1es 2 .2 9 1.34 Female networking 2.01 1.25 10 24. "Appropriate academic cred en tials " ranked th ird (mean ** 4.28)* and "Being 1n the r ig h t place a t th e rig h t tim e /lu c k " ranked fourth w ith a mean o f 3.98. Even though the means show th a t both items f e l l 1n the range of Very Important* the standard deviations (1.02 and 1.14* 130 resp ectively) Indicated th a t th ere was no high agreement about these Items as Important fa c to rs . Four Items ("Experience*" "Support of a mentor*" " P o litic a l savvy*" and "Sponsorship") were categorized as Im portant fa cto rs w ith mean scores ranging from 2.65 to 3.23. ( .1 3 2 , 1.53* Again* th e standard deviations 1.46* and 1.38* resp ectively) Indicated th a t th ere was no high agreement among respondents concerning these Items as Im portant fa c to rs . "A ffirm a tiv e action" and "Female networking" were ranked la s t— ninth and tenth* resp ectively—-and were considered Moderately Im portant facto rs. Woods (1979) found th a t th e m ajo rity of women In tw o- and four-year colleges 1n Michigan Indicated th a t a ffir m a tiv e action did not serve as a p o s itiv e Influence 1n t h e ir career development. Nineteen respondents lis te d other facto rs th a t they f e l t had had a p o s itiv e Influence on t h e ir career advancement. Typical comments Included: Having a w ell-dev el oped s e t of 1deals/v1s1on. My own drive— ambition* not to stay the same whether 1 t 1s place or career. Acceptance by fa c u lty . Personal desire to achieve. Long hours/hard w o rk/w illIn gness to share resources* a b ilit y to get along with colleagues. Understanding superiors who r e a liz e th a t women are Important. Caring about students--hav1ng tim e fo r them w h ile doing a good Job teaching and ad taln lstrating . Support and encouragement of spouse. 131 Having a fam ily th a t also values .my career. Female friends who are equals who 11sten/adv1se/prov1de th e proverbial shoulder* e tc . In it ia t iv e # o r ig in a lity and "overtime" hours. Perceptions of people and a b i lit y t o work w ell with others. Always had strong support and encouragement from adm inistrators. High self-esteem# sense of s e lf-w o rth . B a r r i e r s t o C a r e e r D evelopm ent Research Question 3 : What facto rs do women adm inistrators In Independent lib e r a l a rts colleges Id e n tify as b a rriers to th e ir career advancement and/or career aspirations? In Section IIA of the questionnaire# p a rtic ip a n ts were requested to Id e n tify the degree to which 11 fa c to rs had been b a rrie rs to t h e ir careers. The fa cto rs lis te d were abstracted from th e l i t e r a ­ tu re p ertaining to b a rrie rs Influencin g women's career advancement. Six response options were provided and were num erically coded as f o l­ lows: Very Im portant = 5* Im portant = 4# Undecided = 3# S lig h tly Im portant = 2# Not Im portant = 1* and Not Applicable *» 0. The responses to questionnaire Items 29 through 39 are presented as f r e ­ quencies In Table 29. No Item e lic it e d a high response ra te In th e categories Very Important# Important* or S lig h tly Important. With the exception of Item 31— "D em and/responslbllIties of both career and fam 11y"~the highest response ra te (30% to 50%) fo r a ll Items f e l l In the category Not Important. Table 2 9 .— B a rrie rs to career development as perceived by women a d m in is tra to rs . F acto r Not A p p lIc a b le (0) Very Im p ortan t (5) Im p ortan t Undecided (4 ) (3 ) S l ig h t ly Im p ortan t (2 ) Not Im p ortan t (1 ) N 29. A g e --to o young 24.2% 4.8% 9-2% 5-9% 7-0% 49.1% 273 30. Age— too o ld 2 7 .9 5 .4 8 .9 6 .4 3 .6 4 7 .9 280 31- O em a n d s /resp o n s lb ll1 t i e s o f both c a re e r and fa m ily 1 8 .0 2 0 .9 23 -4 3 .2 14 .7 19 .8 278 D e m a n d s /re s p o n s lb ilItie s o f aging p a re n ts 2 7 .8 6 .6 1 1 .0 1 .8 11 .7 4 1 .0 273 In te rru p te d employment due to pregnancy 42.1 3 .7 7 .4 1 .5 5 .5 3 9 .9 271 Term inated employment due to husband's c a re e r move 4 6 .5 8 .5 7 .4 1 .5 1.8 3 4 .3 271 Unable to tak e advantage o f a p ro ­ m otion th a t would re q u ire moving 34.1 9 .8 II.6 4 .0 4 .7 3 5 .9 276 I n s u f f i c i e n t p u b lic a tio n s a n d /o r research 1 7 .5 1 3 .5 1 5 .6 6 .5 16 .4 3 0 .5 275 Lack o f e f f e c t i v e fem ale n e tw o rk in g / support from o th e r women 11 .9 1 3 .0 1 3 .7 9 .4 1 1 .6 4 0 .4 277 38. Lack o f sponsor/m entor r e la tio n s h ip s 1 7 .8 1 0 .9 1 3 .0 6 .9 9.1 4 2 .4 276 39. Tenure/prom otio n quotas f i l l e d 3 5 .7 5 .8 5.1 5.1 3 .6 4 4 .8 277 32. 33. 3 *. 35. 36. 37. 133 A mean and a standard deviation (S.D.) were obtained fo r each of the 11 factors# based on the numerical coding. These fa c to rs are presented In rank order from the highest mean score to the lowest In Table 30. The same range th a t was established fo r questionnaire Items 18 through 27 (p o s itiv e fa c to rs ) was used w ith b a rrie r Items 29 through 39. Table 3 0 .— Rank order of mean scores of b a rrie rs to career advancement as perceived by women adm inistrators. Rank 1 2 3 Mean S.D. Demands/responslb1lIties of both career and fam ily 2.568 1.858 In s u ffic ie n t publicatio ns and/or research 2.127 1.703 Lack of e ffe c tiv e female networking/ support from other women 2.116 1.640 Factor 31. 36. 37. 4 38. Lack of sponsor/mentor relatio n sh ip s 1.877 1.642 5 35. Unable to take advantage of a promo­ tio n th a t would req u ire moving 1.525 1.700 Dem ands/responsibilities of aging parents 1.469 1.517 6 32. 7 29. Age— too young 1.410 1.404 8 30. Age— too old 1.368 1.451 9 39. Tenure/promotion quotas f i l l e d 1.162 1.398 10 34. Terminated employment due to husband's career move 1.144 1.598 In terru pted employment due to pregnancy 1.033 1.340 11 33. 134 One 1tem--"Demands/respons1b1l1t1es of both career and fam ily"— was considered to be an Im portant b a rr ie r w ith a mean score of 2.568. Four Items—-numbers 36# 37# 38# and 35—-were categorized as Moderately or S lig h tly Im portant b a rrie rs to advancement w ith mean scores ranging from 1.525 to 2.127. The remaining s ix Items— numbers 32# 29# 30# 39# 34# and 33— were considered Not Im portant barriers# with mean scores ranging from 1.033 to 1.469, The standard deviations fo r a ll Item s 1n th is section Indicated th a t th ere was no close agree­ ment among respondents on th e Importance of these b a rriers. Section XIB of the questionnaire consisted o f 19 conditions representing b a rrie rs to women's career advancement and/or aspirations. These b a rrie rs were selected a fte r reviewing the lit e r a t u r e regarding the experiences o f professional women and from comments made by women adm in istrators. The respondent was requested to In d ic a te the degree to which she had experienced each b a rrie r. Five response options were provided and were num erically coded as fo llow s: Almost Always = 5# Frequently = 4# About H a lf the Time = 3# In fre q u en tly = 2# and Never = 1. The respondents1 experiences are presented as frequencies in Table 31. When responses fo r Almost Always and Frequently encountered/ experienced were combined# 3 of the 19 b a rrie rs had a 40% or higher response rate. Thus# 42.5% had "been paid less than th e male admin­ is t r a t o r of equal a b ility # " 42.3% "had to be more experienced and/or highly q u a lifie d than t h e ir male counterpart In order to succeed#" Table 31-— Barriers to career advancement as experienced by women adm inistrators. Fre­ quently (4) About Half the Time (3) 1n fre quently (2) 19.4? 18.3? 39.6? 11.2? 278 8.6 15-4 13.2 41.4 21.4 280 21.0 18.9 14.6 21.4 24.2 281 43. Had to be more experienced and/or highly q u alified than male counter­ part to succeed 19.0 23.3 11.1 23-3 23.3 279 44. Been ignored or found i t d i f f i c u l t to p a rtic ip a te during meetings/ discussions 6.1 13.6 16.1 38.9 25.4 280 45. Been judged more on basis of appear­ ance and dress than male adminis­ tra to r 6.5 16.2 10.8 36.5 30.0 277 46. Been placed in nurturant role of mother 2.2 14.0 9-3 41.6 33.0 279 47. At meetings, my input has been discounted/ignored 1.4 7.1 10.4 48.2 32.9 280 48. Male colleagues and subordinates have treated me d iffe r e n tly from male administrators 7.9 16.8 23.3 35.1 16.8 279 B arrier3 40. Excluded from an informal networking system—"old boy" network 41. Decisions made through th is network which excludes me resu lt in my being " f ille d in" la te r 42. Had to work much harder than male counterpart to succeed Almost Always (5) 11.5? Never N (1) Table 3 1 .—Continued. Almost Always (5) Fre­ quently (4) 8.9 19.6 18.9 31.1 21 .4 280 5.8 11.9 17.3 39.7 25.3 277 51. My ideas, opinions, views not respected or considered as seriously as those of men 7-2 11.1 20.4 37.6 23.7 279 52. Often interrupted in group discussions 3.6 6.9 8.3 56.0 25.3 277 53- Not consulted as often as men on decisions, policy 9.6 16. 4 18.9 36.1 18.9 280 54. As 1 have advanced, barriers to success have become greater 9.7 18.6 14.3 31.4 26.0 258 55* D iffic u lty being accepted as profes­ sional equal by male counterparts 6.1 13.6 19.4 33.3 27.6 279 56. Viewed as too emotional, passive or too tough, aggressive and thus not considered fo r promotion 5.6 7.5 13.1 33.3 40.4 267 57. Sexual harassment 1.4 2.5 2.9 32.5 60.7 280 2 k .It 18.1 13.7 20.4 23.3 270 B arrier9 49- Regardless of p o s it io n /title , had less pow er/clout/authority/influence than male counterpart 50. D iff ic u lt to receive recognition for accomplishments 9 8 . Been paid less than male administrator aComplete t i t l e s are given in Appendix D. About H alf the Time (3) In fre ­ quently (2) Never N (1) 137 and 39.956 "had to work much harder than t h e ir male counterpart 1n order to succeed." Respondents also reported th a t they Almost Always or Frequently had been "excluded from an Inform al networking system Involving In fo r ­ mation exchange* s o d a ! a c t iv it ie s and conversations* and decision making ('old boy* network) (30.956); th at* "regardless of position or t i t l e * " they "had less power/cl o u t/a u th o rity and less influence than t h e ir male counterpart" (26.5%); th a t as they "have advanced 1n admin­ is tra tio n * the b a rrie rs to success have become greater* making 1 t more d i f f i c u l t to advance fu rth er" (28.3%); and th a t they "have not been consulted as often as men on m atters Involving c r i t ic a l decisions or m atters of policy" (26%). In th e Never encountered category* responses ranged from 1156 to 61%. Two Items had the highest response ra te . Most ra re ly experienced were "Sexual harassment (sexual remarks* innuendos* touching* etc.) has been a problem fo r me" (60.7%) and " I fe el th a t I have been viewed as too emotional and too passive to be a leader* or conversely too tough and aggressive when In power and thus not seriously considered fo r promotion even though men w ith those d is q u a lific a tio n s have been selected" (40*4%). T h irty -th re e percent of the respondents also reported th a t they Never experienced being "placed 1n the n u rturant ro le of mother to whom males bring personal problems and seek com fort and support"; 32,9% Never f e l t th a t th e ir "Input has been discounted/ignored and tre a te d more lik e an In te rru p tio n than a serious co n trib u tio n to the ongoing 138 discussion"; and 309S Never experienced being "Judged more on th e basis of appearance and dress than th e male a d m in is tra to r. A mean and a standard d e via tio n (S.D.) were obtained fo r each o f the 19 b a rrie rs based on the numerical coding. These b a rrie rs are presented 1 n rank order from th e highest mean score to th e low est 1 n Table 32. The same scale of numbers estab lish ed fo r Item s 1n the previous two sections o f th e q u estio n n aire (IB and IIA ) was used fo r Items 40 through 58. Table 3 2 .— Rank order of mean scores o f b a rrie rs to career advancement as experienced by women ad m in istra to rs. Rank B a r rie r 3 Mean S.D. 1 58. Been paid les s than male a d m in is tra to r 3.000 1.518 2 43. Had to be more experienced and/or highly q u a lifie d than male counterp a rt to succeed 2.914 1.469 42. Had to work much harder than male counterpart to succeed 2.911 1.487 40. Excluded from an Informal networking system— "o ld boy" network 2.806 1 .2 1 0 48 . Male colleagues and subordinates have tre a te d me d if f e r e n t ly than male ad m in istrato rs 2 .6 3 8 1.176 49. Regardless of po s1t1on /t1tle» had les s po w er/clo u t/au th o r1ty/1n flu en ce than male counterpart 2.636 1.263 2 .6 1 8 1.236 3 4 5 6 7 53. Not consulted as o fte n as men on decisions* p o lic y 139 Table 3 2 .— Continued. Rank 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 54. 41. 51. 55. 44. 50. 45. B a rrie r 3 Mean S.D. As I have advanced* b a rrie rs to success have become g reater 2.547 1.314 Decisions made through th is network which excludes me re s u lt 1 n my being " f i l l e d In " la t e r 2.482 1.227 fty Ideas* opinions* views not respected or considered as seriously as those o f men 2.405 1.171 D if f ic u lt y being accepted as profes­ sional equal by male counterparts 2.373 1.195 Been Ignored or found 1 t d i f f i c u l t to p a rtic ip a te during meetings/discussions 2.361 1.174 D i f f i c u l t to receive recognition fo r accompl1 shments 2.332 1.148 Been judged more on basis of appear­ ance and dress than male adm in istrator 2.329 1.241 15 46. Been placed 1n nurturant ro le of mother 2.108 1.081 16 52. Often In terru p te d In group discussions 2.076 .966 17 56. Viewed as too emotional* passive or too tough* aggressive and thus not considered fo r promotion 2.045 1.159 At meetings* my Input has been dis­ counted/ignored 1.961 .921 Sexual harassment 1.514 .794 18 19 47. 57. aCcmplete t i t l e s are given In Appendix D 140 No Item In Section IIB of the questionnaire was considered Not Im portant (below 1.49) by the respondents. A ll 19 Items In varying degrees o f seriousness were confirmed as b a rrie rs to career advancement fo r women In higher education ad m in istratio n . Very Im portant category. No Item f e l l In to the E ight Items were categorized as Im portant b a rrie rs to advancement w ith mean scores ranging from 2.547 to 3.000. The remaining 11 Items f e l l In to th e Moderately or S lig h tly Im portant category# with mean scores ranging from 1.514 to 2.482. Item 58— nAs an adm inistrator# I feel th a t I have been paid less than the male a d m in istra to r o f equal a b llIty " --h a d the highest mean ra tin g of 3.000# which In dicates th a t th is Item was one of the more Im portant b a rrie rs fo r the respondents. The standard deviation of 1.518 shows th a t th ere was a wide range 1n terms of the exten t to which the respondents experienced th is b a rrie r. Other Items categorized as Im portant b a rrie rs Included: Item 43— " I have f e l t th a t I had to be more experienced and/or highly q u a lifie d than my male counterpart In order to succeed” (M = 2.914); Item 42— " I have f e l t th a t I had to work much harder than my male counterpart 1n order to succeed” (M = 2.911); and Item 40— ”1 fe el th a t I have been excluded from an Inform al networking system Involving inform ation exchange# social a c t iv it ie s and conversations# and decision making ('o ld boy' n e tw o rk )” (M = 2.8 0 6 ). Respondents also reported th a t "male colleagues and subordi­ nates tre a te d them d iffe r e n tly than they tre a te d male adm inistrators" (2.638)# ranked f i f t h ; th a t "regardless of po sition or t i t l e # they had 141 less power/cl o u t/a u th o rity and less In fluence than th e ir male counter­ part" (2.636), ranked s ix th ; th a t they "have not been consulted as often as men on m atters Involving c r i t ic a l decisions or m atters of policy" (2.618), ranked seventh; and th a t as they "have advanced, b a rrie rs to success have become greater" (2.547), ranked eighth. The standard deviations fo r these Items again Indicated a v a ria tio n 1 n terms of the exten t to which respondents experienced the b a rrie r. Three Items In the Moderately or S lig h tly Im portant category d e a lt w ith p a rtic ip a tio n 1n discussions or meetings: 47. Items 44, 52, and The standard deviations fo r Items 52 and 47 Indicated close agree­ ment among respondents on these two Items. I t appears from the data th a t conditions concerning women's In put, co n trib utio ns, and p a rtic ip a ­ tio n 1 n meetings or group discussions were not considered serious b a rrie rs by these respondents. Item 57—"Sexual harassment"— f e l l 1n th e M o d erately/S lig h tly Im portant range and had the low est mean (1 3 1 4 ). The standard deviation (.794) Indicated high agreement among respondents on th is b a rr ie r . ItetH-53 Respondents were requested to Id e n tify the greatest b a rrie r to the advancement o f women 1 n ad m in istra tio n th a t they perceived a t th e ir In s titu tio n . One hundred e ig h ty -s ix women responded to th is question. Some women gave m u ltip le responses. b a rrie rs . Others Indicated th e re were no Representative comments are presented here. l i s t of comments appears In Appendix E .) (The complete 142 F irs t* only lack of ta le n t. Second* fa m ily /c h ild re n e s p ec ially and th a t I s n 't r e a lly a b a rrie r* Just a slowing down tem porarily. The good o le boy a ttitu d e s of the top ad m in istration th a t women should stay a t home and the man supports them. Th eir perception of women 1 n general— the a ttitu d e Is In d ir e c tly brought In to play a t the le a s t expected times. Very l i t t l e turnover of personnel. No place to advance to ! Women are too busy working— not p o litic a l enough— women set low goals fo r themselves. Lack o f Inform ation. The ad m in istration 1s very secretive. Often decisions are made on obscure or hidden data. I do not know where 1 stand. The wcmen who are my superiors support th is system. The "old guard's" fe e lin g th a t wcmen are In fe r io r to men. Cl) A p a te r n a lis tic att1tu d e --"b e good and you w il l be fin e — we w i l l li k e you." (2) Due to the In s titu tio n 's fin a n c ia l stress* pay scales are dreadful fo r a ll * but women take an even g reater Ineq­ u ity . The In s titu tio n already 1s top heavy 1n upper-level adm inistrators. That th e major a d m in is tra tiv e posts have always been held by men. The thinking 1s so entrenched--1f/when th ere 1s an opening* even though gender 1 s excluded from q u a lific a tio n s * the decision makers autom atically th ink 1 n terms of a man. Prejudice combined w ith tig h t control by two or th ree males of basic Inform ation needed to plan or propose. A personal a ttitu d e of In f e r io r it y . The organization of the college. A group o f about e ig h t In d iv id ­ uals make a ll decisions. The re s t of us are very seldom even Informed o f the decisions. I am th e token female ad m in istrator. given the " re a l" re s p o n s ib ility . Women are too " flig h ty " to be The perception th a t women should not be 1n a u th o rity positions— a B ib lic a l In te rp re ta tio n . Membership In th e sponsoring churches' denomination and th e reluctance of men to be led by women In th a t denomination. This might be a ll rig h t. 143 The ole boy network 1 s t o t a ll y male here. The top s ix positions are a ll male, and the leadership s ty le Is m a le -c h a ra c te ris tic . Women have no place. S u ffic ie n t experience— higher education 1s not g u ilty of sex d iscrim in atio n . Business, however, 1s much more so. Female adm inistrators are over-concentrated 1n support s t a f f roles such as lib r a r ia n , re g is tr a r and treasurer. These positions deserve more recognition and are undervalued. A ll-m ale tr a d itio n . In a b ilit y to perceive women as being f u lly competent as leaders. In s e n s itiv ity to problems of women: personal, professional, c u rric u la r. Sex Is not a fa c to r 1n departmental or d ivisio n a l ad m in istration but seems to be In the cen tral adm in istration . Male a ttitu d e s . President and academic dean w ith Jifl commitment to advancement of women or to h o lis t ic education or to minimal equity. T rad itio nal/con ven tio nal male-dominated In s titu tio n . Salary— fe e lin g we're earning a second salary so don't need as much. Women's a ttitu d e s about themselves— underconfidence, t im id ity — th a t have been engrained by conservative church background. I fin d th a t most male colleagues can adjust to a strong female colleague (given tim e) and w ill accept women colleagues. Dealing w ith those who act out stereotypes, they w ill respond 1 n kind. Other women who have been fir m ly entrenched 1n m iddle-low er ad m in istratio n who frequently behave unprofessionally and d is lik e the newer group of females. The trustees and ad m in istratio n want to get rid o f people a t 55 and o ffe r you l i t t l e 1 n e a rly retirem en t— no one can advance a fte r th is tim e. They want to get a younger person and pay them much less than the low s a la rie s we make. P atriarch al philosophy of conservative church-related co lleg e. The "good old boys" network. Male stereotypes about c e rta in Jobs: presidents. finance, development, v ic e - 144 There are no women 1n the ad m in istration . current president. I perceive none— It 's amazingly open. agol The b a rrie r 1s th e That was not tru e 15 years Not enough positions; C atholic male dominance. Aggressive* powerful men; fin a n c ia l problems which a ffe c t everyone equally. Not being taken seriously because I am a woman—-being considered too aggressive. That women have to prove t h e ir a b i l i t i e s to advance* and possibly do more than others. Lack o f positions to move In to (small school* small a d m in is tra tio n ). Anyone* male or female* who takes on substantial re s p o n s ib ilitie s fo r c h ild care 1 s going to be professio n ally disadvantaged. Budgeting problems. Increasing the number o f women probably Is not possible when s t a f f 1s being c u t. Bias against women on p a rt of president. T ra d itio n I P atronizing a ttitu d e of male adm inistrators. Lack o f educational preparation and/or a d m in istra tive experience. A general mindset th a t men make adm inistrators and women do not. Expectation th a t women must be able to do a Job b e tte r than a man 1 n order to gain s im ila r recognition/acceptance— m arital status may be a fa c to r where m arried women are given more opportunity than singl e. Other women who hamper the image of professional women by constant negativism—whining and complaining. Women 1n power who are not w illin g t o support other women and women colleagues who do not want or are undecided about what they want but are s t i l l u n w illin g to support women who do want to advance In adm in istration . The president seems to be uncomfortable w ith women 1n power. 145 In a b ilit y to face Idea th a t th e In s titu tio n practices de facto discrim ination# although giving verbal assent to eq u ality of treatment# attitu d e# etc. President cannot work w ith women. So few positions In to which one £fln advance; small pr_1_vate_col_l_ege. Not being a member of the re lig io u s order th a t founded and s t i l l runs th e co lleg e. Not academically q u a lifie d . In a church-related In s titu tio n # men are viewed as th e primary leaders. Sexism In h irin g and re te n tio n . The greatest b a rrie r 1s connected w ith women adm inistrators a t th e top who do not th in k wcmen subordinates equal to male subordinates. Item .60 Respondents were asked fo r recommendations to e lim in a te th e b a rrie rs th a t hinder women a t t h e ir In s titu tio n . seven women offered recommendations. One hundred f i f t y - The researcher has reported recommendations th a t were ty p ica l of a l l recommendations made. (The complete 11st of comments appears 1n Appendix F . ) Constantly develop 1deas/ph1losophy by keeping up 1n professional and lib e r a l a rts reading# discussions# conventions# courses# etc.# and develop s p ir it u a lly . Have the men do an awareness course— a c tu a lly I*m not very o p ti­ m is tic ! H irin g more wcmen a t equal s a la rie s . Education of the president. That women take course work dealing w ith a d m in is tra tiv e responsi­ b ilitie s . 146 Perseverance; constantly ra is in g the consciousness o f men; questioning openly decisions* p o lic ie s and procedures. R e e la s s lflc a tio n of positions 1n such a way th a t th ere Is a c le a r path to advancement. Also* h irin g more females fo r top po sitions. Become less passive and l e t 1t be known th a t you are In terested 1n adn1 n1 s t r a ti on. B e tte r, more open communication of Inform ation (fin a n c ia l, planning, p o lic y ). More a c tiv e Involvement and assertiveness by women. Regular Inform ation sessions; more d e lin e atio n o f ro les . Removing some top adm inistrators. F1 re the college president (th is Is no jo k e ). Increase the number of women as fa c u lty and as ad m in istrato rs so women have voting c lo u t. Change philosophical viewpoint of president of co lleg e. Representation o f women on the p res id e n t's executive committee. Persistence; making my presence known u n til th ey're so used to me they fo rg e t about my femaleness. Get more women In to adm inistra­ t iv e o ffic e a t higher lev els . To In s tit u te a mentoring system . . . to h ire more females. Faculty statu s fo r a ll female lib r a r y s t a f f who need to deal w ith teachers as academic peers. Leave before yo u're stuck. U nio n/facu lty control of ad m in istrative h irin g . A d iffe r e n t president. In a small In s titu tio n , the c h ie f execu tive's comfort 1 n dealing with women Is c ru c ia l. H ire more women fa c u lty and s t a f f . We're working on a ffir m a tiv e action— cu rren t o ffic e r Is Inadequate because of other positions. More c le a r ac co u n ta b ility 1n d iffe r e n t positions— Job review— th is way we can be Judged by our m erits, not as "women." 147 We c u rre n tly have a woman president* w ell received and respected by a l l . Her success w ill open doors fo r women. Open lin e s of communication. Recognition of competence Is a strong fa c to r herej th erefo re* continuation o f a job w ell done 1 s the best recommendation. We need to work hard* be competent* be fle x ib le * and lea rn th e system. I t also helps to th in k lik e a male. Perhaps continuing to "play th e game" o f "backing o ff" as soon as men feel threatened. Provision fo r p a rt-tim e tenure trac k employment. I t has been enormously h e lp fu l. In my own case* Adm inistrators and fa c u lty should be kept aware of the need fo r a la rg e r number o f women 1 n key positions. Educate the men I I am tre a te d as a daughter or a grand-daughter, but ra re ly a colleague. Womens network of support. I'd lik e to see a commitment to academic and career development and hope resources (d o lla rs * Ideas* mentors* sponsors* e tc .) could be created and provided fo r such a program. A ccreditation agencies must examine more clo sely b la ta n t forms of organizational p o litic s which are so e f fe c tiv e ly hidden during tim es of review. Even those against whom prejudice Is focused are re lu c ta n t to expose those who "pay th e b i l l s . " Act1 ve recruitm ent to Increase the number of women In to p -le v e l adm in istration . Encouraging women w ith p o ten tial to become educationally prepared. Having th e few who are a d m in is tra tiv e do a noticeably good Job breaks down b a rrie rs . Must behave* dress* and speak In a professional manner. Serlously— 1eave. Get more competent* powerful women on the board. colleagues fo r change. H ire more q u a lifie d women. Pressure from Attitude-awareness seminar. 148 Develop clim a te where honesty 1 s possible. I don't know how s p e c ific a lly # other than encouraging and try in g to p ractice th is . Female networking. F i l l 1n fo r a male ad m in istrato r on his leave of absence; apply fo r employment as openings occur In ad m in istration . A ttra c t more outstanding fem ale fa c u lty to tenure trac k positions (In clu d in g Incentives th a t aid accomplishment of th e ir dual ro les— e.#g.# c h ild care# ample m aternity leave policies# and schedules th a t do not eat In to evening hours and weekends). More women on th e search committees and Interview ing process. Become more assertive# learn the language of power and how to play p o litic s . I t can be a d ir ty game— women need to know th e rules. R elationship Between Tvne of Position and Responses Research Quest1on_4i Is th e re a s ig n ific a n t re latio n sh ip between p a rt-tim e adm inistrators (d iv is io n heads and departmental chalrpepsons) and f u ll- t i m e adm inistrators w ith respect to t h e ir responses to each Item In Section IB (P o sitive Factors Influencing Career Advancement) and Sections IIA and I IB (B arriers to Career Develop­ ment) of the questionnaire? To determine on which Items w ith in th re e sections of the questionnaire the two groups differed# the chi-square te s t of association was applied. The re s u lts of the te s t on Items 1n Section IB are presented In Table 33. As th is ta b le shows# w ith Items 18# 19# 2 0 # and 26# th ere was a s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between position held and respondents' perception of the Importance of these Items. In other words# being a p a rt-tim e ad m in istrator (a d ivisio n head or departmental chairperson) or a f u ll- t i m e ad m in istrator d etermined t h e ir perception on these s ig n ific a n t Items. 149 Table 3 3 .— Relationship between position held and responses to Items 1 n Section IB. Item Ch1-Square Val ue df S1gn1f. of Ch1-Square 18. A ffirm a tiv e action/equal opportunity p o lic ie s 11.197 4 .024* 19. Appropriate academic c red en tials 19.316 4 .0007* 20. Being 1n the rig h t place a t the rig h t tim e/luck 10.390 4 .034* 21. Competence 2.171 22. Dr1ve/determ1nat1on/pers1stence 4.587 4 .332 23. Experience 1n adm inistration 7.169 4 .127 24. Female networking 6.309 4 .177 25. P o litic a l savvy 3.253 4 .516 26. Sponsorship (being a protege) 11.384 5 .044* 27. Support and encouragement of a mentor 3.915 5 .561 .337 *S1gn1fleant a t the .05 alpha le v e l. Table 34 shows the responses of the two groups to Items 18* 19* 2 0 * and 26. A g reater percentage of p a rt-tim e adm inistrators rated Item 18 ("A ffirm a tiv e action") as Very Im portant (11.6%) than did f u ll- t im e adm inistrators (2.5%). This Item was also rated Not Im portant by 35% o f the p a rt-tim e adm inistrators and by 45% of the f u ll- t im e adminis­ tr a to rs . 150 Table 3*t.— Responses of f u ll-tim e and p a rt-tim e adm inistrators to Items 18* 19* 20* and 26. Item Position Full time N % Not Impor­ ta n t S lig h tly Impor­ ta n t 73 45.3 39 34 .8 Unde­ cided Impor­ ta n t Very Impor­ ta n t 36 22.4 18 1 1 .2 30 18.6 4 2.5 22 19.6 14 12.5 24 21.4 1 1 .6 19 11.5 2 1 .2 62 37 .6 74 44.8 1 .9 36 30.8 77 65.6 7.3 60 36.6 75 45.7 18 P art time N % Full time N 8 % 4 .8 N % 0 0 N 3 % 1 .8 N 8 % N 13 19 P art time Full time 3 2 .6 14 8.5 12 11 7 .0 17 14.8 9 .6 42 36.5 37 3 2 .2 40 25.6 27 17.3 26 16.7 42 26.9 20 1 2 .8 35 32.1 32 29.4 12 1 1 .0 24 6 2 2 .0 5 .5 20 P art Time Full time % 26 P art time N % More p a rt-tim e adm inistrators (65.8K) rated Item 19 ("Approp­ r ia t e academic cred entials") as Very Im portant than did f u ll- t im e adm in istrators (44.8X). No p a rt-tim e adm in istrators rated th is item as Not Important* and only 2.6K rated 1 t S lig h tly Important* A greater percentage of f u ll- t im e adm inistrators perceived Item 20 ("Being 1n th e r ig h t place a t th e r ig h t tim e") as Very Im portant 151 (45.7%) and Im portant (36.6%) than did p a rt-tim e adm in istrators (3Z2% and 36.5%# r e s p e c t iv e ly ). More f u ll- t im e ad m in istrato rs (12.6%) than p a rt-tim e adminis­ tr a to rs (5.5%) rated Item 26 ("Sponsorship") as Very Im portant. About 27% o f the f u ll- t im e group rated th is Item as Important# compared to 2 2 % of the p a rt-tim e group of ad m in istrators. Table 35 presents th e re s u lts of th e ch1-square te s t on th e Items In Section IIA o f th e questionnaire. One Item# number 36# showed a s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between position held (p a rttim e or f u ll- t im e ad m in is tra to r) and respondent's perception of th e Importance of th is b a rrie r. Table 36 shows th e responses of the two groups to Item 36. A g reater percentage of p a rt-tim e ad m in istrato rs perceived th is b a rrle r^ " In s u fflc le n t publications and/or research"— as Very Im portant (19.8%) and Im portant (19.8%) than did f u ll- t i m e adm in istrators ( 8 . 8% and 1 2 . 6 %, re s p e c tiv e ly ). The re s u lts of the ch1-square te s t on Items 1 n Section IIB of the questionnaire are presented In Table 37 . Two Items (numbers 49 and 58) showed a s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between position held and respondent's encounter or experience w ith these b a rrie rs . In other words# those In p a rt-tim e a d m in is tra tiv e positions (d iv is io n heads and departmental chairpersons) and those in f u ll- t i m e adm inistra­ t iv e positions d iffe re d on how freq uen tly they experienced these bar­ r ie r s . 152 Table 35.--Relat1onsh1p between po sition held and responses to b a rrie rs 1 n Section IIA . Item Ch1-Square Val ue df S lg n lf. o f Ch1-Square 29. Age— too young 1.350 5 .929 30. Age— too old 7.434 5 .190 31. Demands/responslbll1t1es of both career and fam ily 6.770 5 .238 Demands/responslbll1tie s o f aging parents 10.340 5 .066 Interru pted employment due to pregnancy 2.878 5 .718 Terminated employment due to husband's career move 4.007 5 .548 7.993 5 .156 18.847 5 . 002* 5.650 5 .341 Lack of sponsor/mentor re la ­ tionships 3.992 5 .550 Tenure/promotion quotas f i l l e d 5.984 5 .307 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. Unable to take advantage of a promotion th a t would requ ire moving In s u ffic ie n t publications and/ or research Lack of e ffe c tiv e female net­ working/support from other women *S1gn1fleant a t the .05 alpha le v e l. 153 Table 36 .— Responses of fu ll-tim e and p a rt-tim e adm inistrators to Item 36. Not Appl1cable Position Full time P art time Not Impor­ ta n t S lig h tly Impor­ ta n t Undec 1 ded N 33 2 0 .8 59 37.1 21 % 13.2 7.5 N 15 12.9 25 2 1 .6 24 20.7 5.2 % 12 6 Impor­ ta n t Very Impor­ ta n t 20 1 2 .6 14 23 19.8 23 19.8 8 .8 Table 37 .— Relationship between position held and responses to b a rrie rs 1n Section IIB . Ch 1-Square Val ue df 40. Excluded from an informal net­ working system— "old boy" network 3.121 4 .537 41. Decisions made through th is network which excludes me re s u lt 1 n my being " f i l l e d 1 n" la t e r 6.758 4 .149 6.370 4 .173 43. Had to be more experienced and/or highly q u a lifie d than male counterpart to succeed 7.327 4 .119 44. Been Ignored or found 1 t d i f f i ­ c u lt to p a rtic ip a te during meetings/discussions 4.905 4 .297 45. Been judged more on basis o f appear­ ance and dress than male adm inistrator 7.912 4 .094 46. Been placed In nurturant ro le of mother 3.886 4 .421 Barrier® 42. Had to work much harder than male counterpart to succeed S lg n lf. of Ch1-Square 154 Table 37. — Continued. Chi-Square Val ue df 6.037 4 .196 48. Male colleagues and subordinates have tre a te d me d iffe r e n tly frcm male adm inistrators 4.406 4 .353 49. Regardless o f p o s it io n /t it le , had 1 ess power/cl ou t/au th o r 1t y / 1 n f 1 uence than male counterpart 10.134 4 .038* 2.742 4 .601 2.659 4 .616 4.250 4 .373 53. Not consulted as often as men on decisions, policy 2.582 A .629 54. As 1 have advanced, b a rrie rs to success have become greater 5.926 4 .204 55. D if f ic u lt y being accepted as pro­ fessional equal by male counterparts 7.913 4 .094 56. Viewed as too emotional, passive or too tough, aggressive and thus not considered fo r promotion 2.501 4 .644 57. Sexual harassment 2.653 4 .617 15.728 4 .003* B arrier® 47. At meetings, rry Input has been dlscounted/lgnored 50. D i f f i c u l t to receive recognition fo r accomplishments 51. My Ideas, opinions, views not respected or considered as s e ri­ ously as those of men 52, Often In terru p ted 1n group dis­ cussions 58. Been paid less than male adminis­ tr a to r aCcmplete t i t l e s may be found 1n Appendix D. *S1gn1fleant a t the .05 le v e l. S lg n lf. of Ch1-Square 155 The responses of the two groups to Items 49 and 58 are shown In Table 38. Table 38.— Responses o f fu ll-tim e and p a rt-tim e adm inistrators to Items 49 and 58. Item Never Pos1tlon In fr e ­ quently About H alf the Time Fre­ quently Almost A1 ways N % 27 16.6 60 36.8 28 17.2 35 21.5 13 N % 33 28.2 27 23.1 25 21.4 20 12 17.1 10.3 Full time N % 27 16.7 32 19.8 26 16.0 38 23.5 39 24.1 P art time N % 36 33.3 23 21.3 11 1 0 .2 11 1 0 .2 27 25.0 Full time 8 .0 49 P art time 58 Eight percent of the f u ll- t im e adm inistrators and 10.33! of the p a rt-tim e adm in istrators encountered Item 49 Almost Always. In the Frequently category* 21.53! of the f u ll- t im e and 17.1% of the p a rt-tim e group experienced th is Item. Seventeen percent of th e f u ll- t im e group and 21% of the p a rt-tim e group experienced th is Item About H alf the Time. More p a rt-tim e adm inistrators (28.2%) than f u ll- t i m e adm inistra­ to rs (16.6%) Never experienced th is Item. A greater percentage of f u ll- t im e than p a rt-tim e adm inistrators experienced Item 58. Twenty-four percent o f the f u ll- t im e group and 25% of the p a rt-tim e group encountered th is Item Almost Always. In the 156 Frequently category* 23.5% of the f u ll- t i m e group encountered th is Item# compared to 10 .2 % of the p a rt-tim e group; and 16% o f the f u l l ­ tim e adm inistrators compared to 10 % of the p a rt-tim e adm inistrators experienced th is Item About H a lf th e Time. About 17% o f the f u ll- t im e adm in istrators Never experienced th is Item# whereas 33.3% of the p a rttime adm inistrators Never experienced th is b a rrie r. Career Aspirations Research Question 5 ; What percentage o f women adm in istrators 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges aspire to h ig h e r-leve l a d m in is tra tiv e posi­ tions? I f so* what steps are they taking to prepare fo r th a t career goal? I f not# what reasons are given fo r not as piring to a higher position? The p a rtic ip a n ts were requested to respond to s ix Items In Section I I I of the questionnaire pertain in g to th e ir career aspira­ tio n s. Responses are presented as frequencies 1n Tables 39 through 44. Item 61 Respondents were asked to In d ic a te whether they had achieved th e ir highest career goal. As shown In Table 39# 127 (46%)re p lie d "yes," 147 (53.3%) said "no*" and 2 (.7%) were "undecided." Item 62 Table 40 presents th e positions women Id e n tifie d as th e career goal they had achieved. Of the 127 women who Indicated they had achieved t h e ir highest career goal# 1 (. 8%) had achieved a presidency* 5 (4.1%) had achieved a vice-presidency# 9 (7.3%) had reached the position of dean* 3 (2.4%) had become an associate or and 45 (36.6%) had reached the position of d ire c to r. assistan t dean* 157 Table 3 9 . — Number of respondents who had achieved th e ir highest career goal. Response Number Percent Yes No Undeclded 127 147 2 46.0 53.3 .7 276 1 0 0 .0 Total Note: S ix In d iv id u a ls did not respond. Table 40.—-P osition o f highest career goal achieved by women adm inistrators. Position Number Presldent V ice-president Dean A sso ciate/assistant dean D1rector Other Total Note: Percent 1 .8 5 9 3 45 60 4.1 7.3 2 .4 36.6 48.8 123 1 0 0 .0 Four In d iv id u a ls did not respond. F o rty-n ine percent sp ecified other positions as t h e ir highest achieved goal. These Included positions as d iv is io n head/chair# reg is­ tra r# d ire c to r of academic programs# departmental chairperson# special a s sis tan t to president# f u ll professor# a d m in is tra tiv e assistant# and business manager. For 85.4% o f the women# the position they had 158 achieved and which represented t h e ir highest career goal was a po sition below the le v e l of dean. Item 63 P a rtic ip a n ts were asked 1 f they wanted to advance to a higher position. Tlie responses are shown In Table 41. Of the 147 women who In dicated they had not y e t achieved th e ir highest career goal (Table 39)* 63 (44.7%) Indicated they s t i l l wanted to advance to a higher position. fu rth e r. Tw enty-three (163%) said "no#” they did not want to advance F 1 fty -f1 v e (39%) were "undecided." Table 41 .— Number of respondents wanting to advance to a higher p o s it 1on. Response Yes No Undecided/don't know Total Note: Number Percent 63 23 55 44.7 16.3 39 .0 141 1 0 0 .0 S ix In d iv id u a ls did not respond. .Item 64 To ascertain why women adm in istrators did not wish to advance to a higher position 1 n higher education* respondents were asked to c it e fa cto rs or reasons fo r th a t decision. 1n Table 42, The reasons a re enumerated 159 Table h2 . — Reasons given by respondents fo r not wanting to advance to a higher p o sitio n . Number Response Percent Do not want added re s p o n s ib ilitie s and tim e commitment 5 21.7 Too close to retirem ent 5 21.7 S a tis fie d w ith /p re fe r present position 4 17.4 Too much h a ssle/p o l 1 tic s 1n adm inistration 4 17.4 Wish to eventually return to teaching or counseling 4 17.4 Too many home re s p o n s ib ilitie s 3 13.0 S carcity of positions 2 8.7 11 47.8 38 165.1 Other T o ta la aF1gures due to m u ltip le responses. Of th e 23 women who said they had no higher career aspirations* 21,7? Indicated th a t they did not want the added re s p o n s ib ilitie s and tim e commitment* and 21.78 said th a t they were too close to retirem ent. Others (17.48) were s a tis fie d w ith th e ir present position* 17.48 f e l t th ere was too much hassle or p o litic s 1 n adm inistration* and 17.48 Indicated th a t they would lik e to eventually return to teaching or counselIng. Forty-seven percent of th e women gave other reasons fo r not wanting to advance fu rth e r. Reasons th a t were representative of a ll those offered are presented here. 160 May want to go In to p riv a te p rac tice . Would have to fu rth e r my education— not too cost e ffe c tiv e a t th is tim e. Other career opportunities are also a ttr a c tiv e . I t would requ ire returning to school fo r an advanced degree. Financial considerations— may have to leave higher education. Would not f i t w ith in the "old boy" network. Possible s h if t to clergy ro le . Have a nice balance between teaching and adm in istration . Leave the f ie ld . Looking fo r career change of d ire c tio n . I t ' s always given to men. Keep blood pressure low. Want to own a business. May wish to move back In to industry. Not a question of p o sition— I'd rath er be a t another In s titu tio n where I could d s supported In te lle c t u a lly and p o lit ic a ll y . Item 65 P artic ip a n ts were asked to Id e n tify th e highest a d m in is tra tiv e position to which they aspired. 43. The responses are presented 1n Table Of the 63 women who Indicated th a t they s t i l l wanted to advance fu rth e r (see Table 41)» 15% aspired to the position of college president and 2535 aspired to the p o sition of vice-p resid ent. Almost two-th1rds (73%) of these women aspired to positions of dean or higher. percent ot the respondents sp ecified other positions. Twenty These Included 161 the positions o f chaplain* f u ll professor* d ivisio n chair* d ire c to r of a la rg e r lib ra ry * and d ire c to r a t a la rg e r school or move to a corpo­ r a te sector. Table 43.— Highest adm inistrative position to which respondents aspire. Number Pos1t1 on College president V ice-president Dean A ssistant/associate dean D1rector Other Total Note: Percent 9 15 14 15.0 25.0 23.3 6 1 0 .0 4 6.7 12 2 0 .0 60 1 0 0 .0 Three in d ivid u a ls did not respond. I±em_6_£ Table 44 presents th e steps respondents Indicated they were taking to prepare fo r t h e ir highest career goal. Some of the 63 respondents who Indicated th a t they wished to advance fu rth e r (Table 41) gave m u ltip le responses. The primary strategy mentioned by 68.3* of the respondents was th a t of Increased Involvement 1 n college projects and/or committee work. The second most c ite d strateg y (56.7X) was attendance a t management/administrative tra in in g workshops and/or seminars. T h irty -tw o percent Indicated th a t they were working on an advanced degree* and 1% said they were p a rtic ip a tin g In an Internship. 162 Table 44.— Preparation fo r career goals as Indicated by respondents. Type of Preparation Number Percent Increased involvement In In s titu tio n a l p ro jects , committee work 41 68.3 Attend management/administrative tra in in g worksh ops/sem1na r s 34 56 .7 Working toward an advanced degree 19 3 1 .7 4 6.7 17 20.3 115 191.7 P a rtic ip a te 1n/applying fo r an Internsh ip Other T o ta la aF1gures due to m u ltip le responses. Tw enty-eight percent of the respondents mentioned other steps they were taking. These Included: Training 1n re la te d ad m in istration . A dm inistrative experience 1n Washington, D.C. Research and c u rric u la r planning. Moving to another in s titu tio n . Making contacts and consulting outside the in s titu tio n . W ritin g —-pub! 1sh1ng~scholarly e ffo r ts . Working on my own to learn about organizations or ad m in istratio n — reading jo u rn a ls , asking questions, try in g to acquire less naivete. Change jobs fo r broader experience. Being v is ib le — In te ra c tin g cross-departm entally. Read the Chronicle, other a d m in is tra tiv e m a te ria ls ; communicate with colleagues regarding career. 163 Learning the Job above me. Being th e best. Remaining a t one In s titu tio n fo r over fiv e years. Possibly experience 1n teaching. O rganizational Support Research Question 6 ; What percentage o f women ad m in istrato rs 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges perceive th e ir In s titu tio n as supportive and th a t op p o rtu n ities e x is t 1 n t h e ir In s titu tio n fo r women to move In to h ig h e r-le v e l a d m in is tra tiv e positions? Three Items In Section I I I of the questionnaire pertained to organizational support. Responses to these Items are presented as frequencies 1n Tables 45 through 47. Respondents were given an opportunity to add fu rth e r comments. The researcher has reported comments th a t are representative o f a ll those made. Item 67 P a rtic ip a n ts were asked I f t h e ir college provided or encouraged women to attend a d m in is tra tiv e tra in in g workshops or seminars. responses are shown 1 n Table 45. The Almost 60% of the respondents f e l t th a t th e ir In s titu tio n s provided and/or encouraged women ad m in istrators to attend management tra in in g workshops; 28.1% said "no," and 1 2 . 8 % were "not s u re .” 164 Table 45.— College provision and encouragement to attend ad m in istra tive workshops as perceived by women ad m in istrators. Response Number Percent Yes No Not sure 162 77 35 59.1 28.1 Total 274 1 0 0 .0 Note: 1 2 .8 E igh t In d ivid u a ls did not respond. Ite m 68 The o p po rtu nities made a v a ila b le by colleges to learn a d m in is tra tiv e techniques as id e n tifie d by the respondents are presented 1n Table 46. The 162 adm in istrators who f e l t th a t th e ir In s titu tio n provided and/or encouraged women to attend tra in in g programs (see Table 45) responded t o th is question. Some respondents c ite d more than one type of opportunity as being a v a ila b le . An overwhelming m a jo rity (95%) c ite d "off-campus conferences and/or workshops" as an opportunity to lea rn a d m in is tra tiv e techniques. "F le x ib le work schedule to attend classes" was c ite d by about 50% of the respondents* and "on-campus conferences and/or workshops" was men­ tioned by 46%. Only 15% Indicated th a t t h e ir college had established a formal program fo r a d m in is tra tiv e development. 165 Table A 6.--O pportunities made a v a ila b le to learn ad m in istra tive techniques as Id e n tifie d by women adm inistrators. O pportunltles Off-campus conferences/workshops Number Percent 153 95.0 F le x ib le work schedule to attend classes 80 49.7 On-campus conferences/workshops 74 46.0 Released time to attend classes 50 31.1 Sabbatl cal 44 27,3 On-the-job tra in in g 40 2 4 .8 Formal program established by college fo r ad m in istra tive development 24 14.9 9 5 .6 474 294.4 Other T o ta la aF1gures due to m u ltip le responses. S ix percent mentioned other opportunities provided by th e ir colleges. These Included the follow ing: Funds fo r continuing education. Generous budget and allowance of tim e fo r me to pursue. A ll these things are done to a degree. A dm inistrative leaves fo r a ll adm inistrators. Maintain a lib r a r y of professional lit e r a t u r e . Am 1n an ad m in istra tive Internship a t present. Allowed to subscribe to professional magazines. 166 R otating ch airs to give a l l a d m in is tra tiv e o p p o rtu n ity. Exchange In tern sh ip fo r fa c u lty who are in te re s te d 1n In v e s tig a tin g adnlnl s t r a t i on as a possible career move. Encouragement only. S u ffic ie n t funding fo r useful programs. May also atten d co lleg e classes a t reduced t u it io n . Item 69 To as certa in 1 f th e c lim a te * or environment* and th e s e le c tio n process 1n these selected lib e r a l a rts colleges was one of encouragement and support fo r women a s p irin g to advance In a d m in is tra tiv e positions* p a rtic ip a n ts were asked fo r th e ir perceptions concerning th is issue. The responses are shown 1n Table *»7. F 1 fty -e1 g h t percent o f the respondents f e l t th a t the environment and s e le c tio n process a t t h e ir co lleg e was supportive o f women wishing to advance 1n a d m in istra tio n . T h ir ty -e ig h t percent f e l t 1 t was not. Four percent were not sure. Table ^7.--P e rc e p tio n s o f respondents concerning whether t h e ir co lleg e c lim a te and s e le c tio n process was supportive. Response Number Percent Yes No Not sure 153 100 10 5 6 .2 3 8 .0 3 .6 Total 263 100.0 Note: Nineteen in d iv id u a ls did not respond. 167 P a rtic ip a n ts were given th e opportunity to comment on the Issue. N1nety-f1ve p a rtic ip a n ts responded. are presented here. Representative comments (The complete l i s t of comments appears In Appendix G.) Support 1s not y e t strong# but 1 t 1s th ere. They t a lk out of one side of th e ir mouths and act out of the other— no women 1n senior ad m in istra tive positions. I f re lig io u s . I t Is n 't supportive fo r anyone# but the bias Is overwhelmingly male. W ill promote a woman to a higher position# then create a higher a d m in istra tive position and h ire a man. Women hold Jobs such as "a d m in is tra tiv e assistant#" looking good on a ffir m a tiv e action reports but no real power Jobs. Women always get these g lo r ifie d s e c re ta ria l Jobs but no higher positions. For women who are nuns# yes. department c h a ir. For non-nuns# no higher than Up to/through the mlddle-management level a t any ra te . I answer yes because I do not perceive a negative clim ate. No o v e rt encouragement noticed. I t Is beginning. There 1s no o f f ic ia l position against It# but 1 t seldom happens. This would change w ith a change In president. The re lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n of th is p a rtic u la r college has supported th e eq u ality of men and women fo r the past 350 years. Department heads are chosen by the ad m in istratio n . women have been passed over and men chosen. Males are viewed as "having th e answers." Not 1n the central ad m in istration . But I t ' s not discouraging e ith e r . Often capable 168 Was a woman's college u n til la t e 60's— women have always held a d n ln ls tra tiv e posts. Our president Is a woman— th a t helps! Too many mixed signals— I c a n 't be sure. Too many "good old boys." I t 's subtle. The committees are supposed to do th e work— a c tu a lly I t ' s a ll done 1n "good old boy" groups. N either 1s 1 t negative— more noncommittal. Depends on which lev el o f ad m in istratio n you're ta lk in g about— highest levels# no; lower levels# yes. The cu rren t ad m in istratio n a c tiv e ly seeks female applicants (re c ru its them). Not a t th e present tim e. are. I t depends on who the top ad m in istrators I t 's mixed— th ere are# as everywhere# men 1n key positions who have a hard tim e r e a liz in g th a t i t ' s 1985# but the general c lim a te Is very favorable. Recently a woman was appointed president. d iffe re n c e . She has made a T h e o re tic a lly yes# pragm atically no. B ette r than I t used to be. I t is yes and no— recently appointed a female v ic e-p re sid en t fo r a d m in is tra tiv e a f fa ir s — but seem to apply double standards fo r men and women. For the most p a rt. Yes fo r lower positions since searches are done. There's much ta lk but no real support. This 1s a very strong yes. In a church-related In s titu tio n # men are viewed as th e primary leaders. A q u a lifie d "yes." 169 Women do advance, but I perceive 1 t 1s due to th e ir d rive and 1n1t1 a tlv e . Too many male chauvinists. I f the woman 1s w ell q u a lifie d and w ith in th e co nstraints o f the number of positions open. I believe the new adm inistration 1s p o s itiv e . Sometimes— the token woman. Facts b e lle U p service. Summary This chapter contained th e data compiled from a survey of 282 women adm in istrators In selected fo ur-year undergraduate. Independent lib e r a l a rts colleges 1n seven mldwestern states. The findings as applied to s ix research questions were presented. The population was described through demographic data. General descrip tive s t a t is t ic s (frequencies, percentages, means, standard deviations, and rank order) were used to describe each v a ria b le 1n each of the four sections of the questionnaire. The re la tio n s h ip between two groups o f ad m in istrators and t h e ir responses to Items 1n Sections IB, IIA , and IIB of the questionnaire were analyzed through the c h isquare te s t. Responses to open-ended questions 1n th e form of comments made by the adm in istrators were Included to am plify and c la r i f y part l c u l a r Issues. A summary of the fin d in g s, conclusions, and recommendations fo r fu rth e r research are presented 1n Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter contains a review of th e purpose of th e study, a summary of the procedures employed to c o lle c t the data, a summary of th e research findings and conclusions and discussion. The chapter concludes w ith recommendations fo r fu rth e r research. Summary This study was conducted to Id e n tify th e f a c ilit a t o r s used and p o s itiv e fa c to rs and b a rrie rs perceived by women adm in istrators 1n the sm aller higher education In s titu tio n th a t may Influence th e ir career advancement; to examine th e ir career as p ira tio n s ; and to determine the c lim a te , support, and o p po rtu nities they perceive to e x is t 1n t h e ir In s titu tio n s . The lit e r a t u r e was reviewed 1n the fo llo w in g two major areas: 11) lit e r a t u r e re la te d to f a c ilit a t o r s to women's careers In ad m in istra tio n — ro le models, mentors, and sponsors; and (2) In tern al and external b a rrie rs In fluencin g women's career development In ad m in istration . Six research questions were considered 1n th is study: 170 171 1. What percentage of women adm in istrators 1n these Independent fo ur-year undergraduate coeducational lib e r a l a rts colleges have used f a c ilit a t o r s (ro le models* protege systems* and mentoring re la tio n s h ip s ) during th e ir careers? 2. What facto rs do these women adm in istrators In lib e r a l a rts colleges id e n tify as th e most im portant p o s itiv e Influences on t h e lr careers? 3. What fa c to rs do women adm in istrators 1n Independent lib e r a l arts colleges Id e n tify as b a rrie rs to th e ir career advancement and/or career aspirations? 4. Is th ere a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between p a rt-tim e adminis­ tra to rs (d iv is io n heads and departmental chairpersons) and f u ll- t im e adm inistrators w ith respect to t h e ir responses to each Item 1n Section IB (P o s itiv e Factors In fluencin g Career Advancement) and Sections IIA and XIB (B arriers to Career Development) of the questionnaire? 5. What percentage of women ad m in istrators 1n lib e r a l a rts co l­ leges aspire to h ig h e r-le v e l a d m in is tra tiv e positions? I f so* what steps are they taking to prepare fo r th a t career goal? I f not* what reasons are given fo r not asp irin g to a higher poslt1 on? 6. What percentage o f women adm in istrators In lib e r a l a rts colleges perceive t h e ir In s titu tio n as supportive and th a t oppo rtu nities e x is t 1n t h e ir In s titu tio n fo r women to move In to h ig h e r-leve l ad m in istrative positions? Hie population o f th is study comprised 282 women 1n m iddle- and upper-level a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1n four-year* undergraduate* coeducational lib e r a l a rts colleges In Michigan* Ohio* Indiana* Illin o is * Iowa* Wisconsin* and Minnesota. A researcher-designed survey Instrum ent was used to c o lle c t the fo llo w in g types of Inform ation: Section IA— f a c ilit a t o r s (ro le models* sponsors* and mentors) used; Section IB— p o s itiv e facto rs Influencin g career advancement; Sections IIA and IIB — barr1ers to career development; Section I I I — career asp iratio n s and organizational c lim a te ; and Section IV— demographic data. In addition* the 172 questionnaire s o lic ite d remarks and comments from p a rtic ip a n ts . The r e l i a b i l i t y c o e ffic ie n t (r = .89) Indicated th a t th e questionnaire as designed could be considered a r e lia b le Instrument. The data analysis Included frequencies* percentages* means* standard deviations* and rank order s ta tis tic s . The re la tio n s h ip • between two groups and t h e ir responses to Items 1n the questionnaire was analyzed using the chi-square te s t o f association. .Eludings 9emoqraphlc_P_ata 1. Almost 70® of the women were 40 years and older. The la rg e s t group o f women 1n th is study* 25®* were 1n th e 55+ age bracket. 2. N1nety-s1x percent of the adm inistrators were Caucasian. 3. The doctoral degree was held by 37.4® of the women. Th1rty-n1ne percent of the adm inistrators held th e master's degree* and 15.7® held the baccalaureate degree. 4. The greatest percentage of women had received t h e ir highest degree 1n the fie ld s of a rts and le tte r s (24.1®) and education (23.7®). Fourteen percent had earned t h e ir degree 1n th e social sciences* 9® In natural science and mathematics* 5® 1n business* and 5® In the health sclences. 5. of dean. The m ajo rity of women (76.6®) held appointments below th a t Almost 5® were serving as vic e-p re sid en t or assistant/asso­ c ia te v ic e-p re sid en t. One woman held the position of president. 173 6. Approximately two-th1rds of th e adm inistrators had been 1n th e ir cu rren t positions s ix years or less. About 15% had been 1n the same position 15 years or more. 7. Almost th re e-fo u rth s (73.635) of the respondents had had four or more years of experience as adm inistrators. 8. Out of a range of less than $12*000 to $35*000+* the la rg e s t group of adm inistrators (3635) earned between $20*000 and $25*000. One-fourth of the women earned less than $20*000. Almost one-fourth (24.1%) earned £30*000 or more. 9. N1nety-f1ve percent of the adm inistrators were employed 1n colleges with a student enrollm ent under 2*000. 10. Over h a lf (55.6%) o f the lib e r a l a rts In s titu tio n s 1n th is study had a P rotestant a f f i l i a t i o n . Twenty-six percent were a f f i l i a t e d with the Roman Catholic church* and 17% had no re lig io u s a f f i l i a t i o n . F a c ilit a t o rs Used ( Role Models* Protege Systems. Mentoring Relationships) 1. The careers of almost tw o -th ird s (62.8%) o f the women had been Influenced by one or more ro le models. Thirty-seven percent of the respondents reported having no ro le m odel(s). 2. Of those who reported a ro le model had Influenced t h e ir career* 25% had had one ro le model* 37% reported having had two* 18% reported having had three* and 20% Indicated they had had four or more ro le models. 3. Host frequently* women id e n tifie d th e fo llo w in g In d ivid u a ls as ro le models: college In stru cto rs (51%) and co lleg e ad m in istrators 174 14935). Forty-one percent pointed out th a t t h e ir model had been a frien d or colleague* 185 reported th a t the model had been a re la tiv e * and 13% Id e n tifie d the model as t h e ir elementary and/or high school teacher. 4. Forty-nine percent of the women had a sponsor who aided th e ir career development. F ifty -o n e percent did not have the b e n e fit of a sponsor. 5. F ifty -o n e percent of those having a sponsor had male spon­ sors* 2235 had female sponsors* and 27% had both. 6. The most freq uen tly c ite d im portant Influences exerted by male and female sponsors were th e fo llo w in g : providing recommendations (male sponsor— 35%* female sponsor— 39%)* providing encouragement and support (male sponsor— 2235, female sponsor— 2135)* and having confidence 1n the ad m in istrato r's a b i l i t i e s and po ten tial (male sponsor— 13%, female sponsor— 9%). More male sponsors (9%) were able to h ire and promote than were female sponsors (5%). 7. S1xty-one percent of th e adm inistrators had th e b e n e fit of one or more male mentors; 39% did not. 6. Seventy-six percent of those having a male mentor Id e n tifie d a male colleague or frie n d w ith in the college as th e ir mentor. Forty percent Id e n tifie d a male colleague or frie n d outside the In s titu tio n as th e ir mentor, and 17% Id e n tifie d a r e la tiv e as mentor. 175 9. The most freq uen tly c ite d Im portant things provided by male mentors were: (22%); encouragement and support (35%); advice and counsel and assistance# teaching# and Inform ation (10%). 10. F ifty -fo u r percent of the adm in istrators had one or more female mentors; 46% had none. 11. Of those acknowledging a female mentor# 74% Id e n tifie d as mentor a frie n d or colleague w ith in the college# 49% Id e n tifie d a frie n d or colleague outside the college# and 11% id e n tifie d a r e la tiv e as mentor. 12. The most Im portant things provided by female mentors as d t e d by respondents were: encouragement# support# and understanding (54%); advice and guidance (18%); w illin g n ess to be a lis te n e r (11%); and teaching and tra in in g (6%). 13. F o rty -s ix percent of th e women sponsored proteges; 54% did not sponsor. 14. F ifty -n in e percent of those who served as sponsor Indicated th e ir protege was female# and 6% indicated th e ir protege was male. T h ir ty -f iv e percent sponsored both male and female proteges. 15. S ix ty -th re e percent of the women had served as mentor to others; 38% had not. 16. Of those who had served (or were c u rre n tly serving) as mentors# 50% In dicated t h e ir mentee was female# 6% Indicated th e ir mentee was male# and 44% mentored both males and females. 176 P o s itiv e Factors Perceived to In flu e n c e Career Advancement 1. "Competence" was categorized by mean score as a Very Im portant fa c to r and was ranked f i r s t as the most Im portant p o s itiv e Influence on career advancement, 2. "Dr1ve/determ Inat1on/pers1stance," "appropriate academic cred en tials*" and "being 1n the rig h t place a t the rig h t tim e /lu c k " were categorized as Very Im portant facto rs and were ranked second* th ird * and fo urth* resp ectively* by mean scores as p o s itiv e Influences. 3. Four Items* categorized as Im portant factors* were ranked f i f t h through eighth by mean scores: "experience 1n ad m in istration *" "support and encouragement of a mentor*" " p o litic a l savvy," and "spon­ sorship (being a p ro te g e )." 4. "A ffirm a tiv e action" was considered by respondents to be a S lig h tly Important fa c to r (o r In fluence) 1n career advancement. 5. Female networking* ranked la s t* was categorized as a S lig h tly Important career In flu en ce. B a rrie rs t o Career Development 1. Of 11 personal and professional b a rriers* one item — "D em ands/responsibilities of both career and fam ily"— was considered to be an Im portant b a rrie r to career advancement* Four Items were categorized by mean scores as S lig h tly Im portant b a rrie rs : " In s u ffi­ c ie n t publications and/or research*" "Lack o f e ffe c tiv e female network­ ing/support from other women*" "Lack of sponsor/mentor relation ship s*" and "Unable to take advantage of a promotion th a t would re q u ire 177 moving." S ix b a rrie rs were considered Not Im portant: ttemands/respon­ s i b i l i t i e s of aging parents#" "Age— too young#11 "Age—to o old#11 ♦Tenure/promotion quotas f ille d # 11 te rm in a te d employment due to husband^ career move#" and "In terru p ted employment due to pregnancy." 2. Women ad m in istrators confirmed th e 19 Items 1n Section IIB of the questionnaire as b a rrie rs to career advancement. The b a rrie rs ranked 1n seriousness from Im portant to Moderately Im portant by mean scores. a. No b a rrie rs were rated 1n th e Very Important range. b. Eight Items were ranked as Im portant b a rrie rs to advancement: Item 58— "Been paid less than male ad m in istrato r"— was rated the most serious b a rrie r; Item 43— "Had to be more experienced and/or highly q u a lifie d than male counterpart to succeed"--was the second most Im portant obstacle; Item 42— "Had to work much harder than male counterpart to succeed"— was ranked the th ir d most Im portant b a rrie r; Item 40— "Excluded from an Informal networking system— 'old boy1 network"— was ranked fourth as an Im portant b a rrie r; Item 48— "Male colleagues and subordinates have tre a te d me d iffe r e n tly from male ad m in istrators11— ranked f i f t h ; Item 49— "Regardless of pos1t1on/t1tle# had less pow er/clo ut/ author1ty/1nfluence than male counterpart"— was ranked s ix th ; Item 53— "Not consulted as often as men on decisions# policy"— ranked seventh; and Item 54— "As I have advanced# b a rrie rs to success have become greater"— ranked eighth. 178 c. The remaining 11 Items were ranked as Moderately or S lig h tly Im portant b a rrie rs and Included such b a rrie rs as "My Ideas# opinions# views not respected o r considered as serio usly as those o f men"; " D if f ic u lt y being accepted as professional equal by male counterparts"; " D if f ic u lt y to rece ive recognition fo r accomplishments"; and "Often In te rru p te d 1n group discussions." d. Conditions In vo lvin g women's input# contributions# and p a rtic ip a tio n In meetings or group discussions were not considered serious b a rrie rs by respondents. e. Item 57— "Sexual harassment"— ranked 19# was th e b a rrie r le a s t encountered by respondents 1n th is study. fia].a.t1.Qn£hlp_B,e.taaen Type o f P osition and Responses Perceptions o f p o s itiv e fa c to rs and encounters w ith b a rrie rs were examined from the perspective of women holding two d iffe r e n t po sitions— those who were p a rt-tim e a d m in is tra to rs (d iv is io n heads and departmental chairpersons) and those who were f u ll- t i m e ad m in istra to rs. The chi-sq uare te s t of association was applied w ith an alpha le v e l of .05 . 1. A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip was found between p a rt-tim e and f u l l - t i m e a d m in is tra to rs and t h e ir perception o f the Importance of four p o s itiv e fa c to rs In flu e n c in g career advancement: " A ffirm a tiv e action /eq ual opportunity p o lic ie s " (.024)# "Appropriate academic c re d e n tia ls " (.0007)# 'Being 1n th e r ig h t place a t th e r ig h t tim e /lu c k " (.0 3 4 )# and "Sponsorship (being a protege)" (.0 4 4 ) . 179 2. A s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip was found between position held (p a rt-tim e ad m in istrator and f u ll- t i m e ad m in istrato r) and respondents' perceptions o f th e Importance of b a rrie r 36—"Insuff1c1 ent publicatio ns and/or rese arch " (.0 0 2 ). 3. Two b a rrie rs — 49—"Regardless of p o s it io n /t it le , had less p o w e r/c lo u t/a u th o rity /In flu e n c e than male counterpart" (.036) and 58— "Been paid less than male adm in istrator" (.003)— showed a s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between position held and the frequency of each group's encounter with these two b a rrie rs . _Career_AsD_tcat1 ons 1. Forty~s1x percent of th e women had achieved t h e ir highest career goal* and 5335 had not. 2. Of those position achieved by 3. Of those who had reached t h e ir highest career goal, the 8535 was below the lev el of dean. who had not y e t achieved t h e ir highest career goal, 4535 s t i l l aspired to a higher po sitio n , 16% did not, and 39% were undecided. 4. Reasons given fo r not wishing to advance to a higher position were: no desire fo r added re s p o n s ib ilitie s and tim e commitments (22%), too close to retirem en t (22%), s a tis fie d w ith present position (17%), too much hassle 1n ad m in istration (17%), wish to return to teaching/counseling (17%), too many home re s p o n s ib ilitie s (13%), and s c arcity of positions (9%). 5. Of those s t i l l wishing t o advance fu rth e r In adm inistra­ tio n , 73% aspired to positions of dean or higher. F ifte e n percent 180 aspired to the p o sition of college president* 258 aspired to a v ic e ­ presidency* and 2335 aspired to be dean* Ten percent wished to become an a s sis tan t or associate dean* and 78 wanted to become a d ire c to r. 6. The s tra te g ie s being used by women to prepare fo r th e ir career goal Included: Increased Involvement 1n in s titu tio n a l projects* committee work (688)* attendance a t a d m in is tra tiv e tra in in g workshops (578)* work toward an advanced degree (328)* and p a rtic ip a tio n 1n an Internship (7 8 ). O rganizational Support 1. F ifty -n in e percent of th e respondents indicated th a t th e ir college provided and/or encouraged women to attend a d m in is tra tiv e tr a in in g workshops* 288 said "no*" and 138 were "not sure." 2. Those who f e l t th e ir college encouraged women to attend tra in in g workshops Id e n tifie d a number of opportunities made a v a ila b le to them to lea rn a d m in is tra tiv e techniques: off-campus conferences (c ite d by 958)* fle x ib le work schedule to attend classes (508)* on-campus conferences (468)* released tim e to attend classes (318)* sabbatical (278)* on-the-job tr a in in g (258)* and formal co lleg e program (1 5 8 ). 3. F ifty - e ig h t percent of th e women perceived th e c lim a te and selectio n process a t th e ir college to be supportive o f women asp irin g to advance 1n adm in istration . and 48 were not sure. T h ir ty -e ig h t percent f e l t I t was not* 101 Conclusions The re s u lts of the data analysis appear to p o in t to the follow ing conclusions: 1. Almost a l l (96X) o f the women adm in istrators 1n' th is study were Caucasian. M in o rity women are not w ell represented 1n m iddle- and upper-level a d m in is tra tiv e positions In these selected lib e r a l a rts colleges 1n th a t th ere were only two black women 1n th is population. 2. Many women were serving 1n a d m in is tra tiv e positions w ithout the term inal degree. The Ph.D. degree and the M.A./M.S. degree were held by about th e same percentage o f women adm inistrators. The business/management degree has not ye t been 1n evidence as an Im portant degree fo r an a d m in istra to r 1n a lib e r a l a rts college. The Ph.D. and M.A./M.S. degrees appear to be s u ffic ie n t cred en tials fo r women In ad m in istratio n . I t may not be necessary to have an earned doctorate 1n order to obtain a m iddle- or upper^level a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1n th e lib e r a l a rts college. The data from Dressler's (1981) study showed th a t women have been serving 1n to p -le v e l a d m in is tra tiv e positions w ithout the doctoral degree. She concluded th a t 1 t Is not necessary fo r a woman to have th is degree In order to a tta in upper-level posi­ tio n s 1n higher education. I t may be advisable to have the doctorate* however* to f a c i l i t a t e advancement. The present study showed th a t women perceived appropriate academic cre d e n tia ls to be Important. 3. The g reatest number o f women earned t h e ir highest degree 1n the fie ld s o f a rts and le t te r s and 1n education. other fie ld s were represented as w e ll. However* a number of The data showed no c le a r 182 p attern In types of d eg rees/field s o f study needed by adm inistrators 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges. One would expect to fin d a predominance of degrees 1n a rts and le tte rs # but th e data In th is study showed many women with degrees 1n technical areas# as well# and not many 1n educational ad m in istration . This raises some In te re s tin g questions. What advice should be given to the woman going In to ad m in istration 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges? Who makes th e best ad m in istra to r— th e one w ith the academic degree or the one w ith a degree 1n educational adm inistra­ tion? Would 1 t be b e tte r to have an academic degree w ith an Internship and management tra in in g ? 4. The m ajo rity of women adm in istrators In these lib e r a l a rts In s titu tio n s did not hold the h ig h e r-le v e l a d m in is tra tiv e positions. For th e most part# they were concentrated In th e middle or lower le v ­ els. The number of women ad m in istrato rs a t the dean's le v e l and higher was low. In the to ta l population o f 282 adm inistrators# only 11J6 had achieved positions o f dean or above. president. One woman was serving as college Apparently# 1 t 1s d i f f i c u l t fo r women to obtain positions 1n upper-level management a t these lib e r a l a rts colleges. The data confirmed the findings o f an In v e s tig a tio n by Sandler (1984). She In dicated th a t even though th ere may be an Increase of women 1n higher education adm inistration# close to 90% o f students attend In s titu tio n s where men hold the top three posts o f president# c h ie f executive o f f i ­ cer# and dean. Plggott (1979)# Woods (1979)# and Stokes (1981) also found few women 1n the top a d m in is tra tiv e positions* 183 5. experience. The women 1n th is study had had considerable a d m in is tra tiv e F ifty percent of the respondents had had seven or more years' experience. I t should be noted* however* th a t many of th e respondents had been 1n th e ir cu rren t position about the same number of years as they had been In ad m in istration . This could suggest th a t th ere 1s l i t t l e or no career progress in ad m in istratio n a t these col leges. 6. Role models had been in flu e n tia l 1n th e career development and asp irations of almost two-th1rds of the women adm in istrators 1n these selected lib e r a l a rts colleges. 7. College adm in istrators and college In s tru c to rs were Id e n tifie d as ro le models by the greatest number of women acknowledging having a ro le model. 8. Both male and female sponsors played an In flu e n tia l ro le 1n the career development of approximately 503 of the women adm inistra­ to rs . Feldman (1974) indicated th a t men may not be w illin g to sponsor a female protege. And Epstein (1970) f e l t th a t 1 t might be d i f f i c u l t to establish sponsoring relatio n sh ip s between males and females. This apparently was not a problem fo r women 1n th is study— 51)6 id e n tifie d a male as sponsor* and 273 had both male and female sponsors. 9. Influences. Male and female sponsors exerted s im ila r types of P rim a rily , they provided recommendations* encouragement and support* and confidence 1n th e ir protege's a b ilit ie s . However, more male than female sponsors were in a position to h ire and promote. 184 10. Male and female mentors served as valuable resources fo r the m a jo rity of the women 1n th is study. 11. Male and female colleagues and/or frien ds w ith in the college served as mentors to approximately th re e -fo u rth s of those respondents acknowledging having a mentor. 12. Both male and female mentors Influenced the career devel­ opment of women adm inistrators 1n s im ila r ways. P rim a rily * these mentors provided encouragement and support* advice and assistance* understanding and lis te n in g * and teaching and tra in in g . There Is a h is to ric a l tr a d itio n of mentoring* and mentoring 1s a process th a t 1s found In the development of female adm inistrators. I t Is a w e ll- developed process and one th a t apparently Is accepted and 1s working fo r these women. 13. A greater percentage of women 1n th is study served as mentors than as sponsors. Almost tw o -th ird s (62.4%) had served or were c u rren tly serving as mentor to a male and/or female mentee. A little less than h a lf the women 1n th is study (46%) had sponsored or were c u rre n tly sponsoring a male and/or female protege. 14. The key fa cto rs f a c i lit a t in g career progress fo r women 1n th is study were ’’Competence*" "Dr1ve/determ1nat1on/pers1stence*n and "Appropriate academic cred en tials." "Competence" was ranked as the most Im portant fa c to r aiding career advancement. N inety-nine percent of the respondents rated "Competence" as an Im portant to Very Im portant p o s itiv e career Influence; 90% rated "Dr1ve/determ1nat1on/pers1stence" 185 as Im portant t o Very Im portant; and 08X rated "Appropriate academic cred en tials " as Important to Very Im portant. I t should be noted th a t mentorshlp and sponsorship were ranked six th and eighth* respectively* as p o s itiv e career Influences. As reported e a r lie r * women 1n th is study had been Involved to q u ite an extent 1n supportive relationships. I t was reported th a t 138 respond­ ents Indicated th a t they had a sponsor who aided th e ir careers (Table 14), 161 women reported having one or more male mentors (Table 17), and 132 reported having one or more female mentors (Table 20). In addi­ tio n * 123 women Indicated they had served or were c u rre n tly serving as a sponsor (Table 23), and 159 women had served or were cu rre n tly serv­ ing as a mentor (Table 25). Although sponsorship and mentorshlp were categorized as Im portant factors* the ranking Indicated th a t respond­ ents valued* or rated higher* th e ir own e ffo r ts and those In d iv id u a lly acquired ta le n ts * a b ilit ie s * and c re d e n tia ls above the aid or help o f In flu e n tia l others. them. Women were using sponsors and mentors to help By becoming sponsors and mentors themselves* they were In d ic a t­ ing th a t these are Im portant resources; they are valuable 1n working toward th a t career goal. However* I t 1s not the major resource. major resource comes from themselves* not others. The The data Indicated th a t women f e l t the most c r it ic a l fa cto rs In advancement were th e ir own In d ivid u al e ffo r ts and a b ilit ie s . These findings supported th e work o f other In vestig ato rs. fa c to r of competence came out 1n Hennlg's (1961) work. The The women 1n her study claimed th a t a woman could advance through th e ranks of 186 management "only 1f she were more competent a t her current Job# a t th e job above her and a t th e job below her than any man av aila b le " (p. 125). Women personnel adm inistrators 1n Schlack's <1974) In v e s tig a tio n were asked: In flu e n tia l "In your Judgment# what do you consider to be the most facto rs fo r being 1n your current position?" (p. 91). The m ajo rity of the p a rtic ip a n ts f e l t they had th e ir positions because of th e ir s k ill# q u a lific a tio n s # and a b ilit ie s . In her study of career sponsorship# Mann (1980) reported th a t th e most Im portant fa c to rs 1n respondents' career advancement were being competent# having approp­ r ia t e academic credentials# and being In the rig h t place a t the rig h t tim e. 15. A ffirm a tiv e action was not perceived as an Im portant fa c to r In career advancement. Colleges may have Implemented a ffirm a ­ tiv e action programs# but these programs are not seen as working 1n th e real world. Other facto rs found In women's own a b ilit ie s were seen as more e ffe c tiv e . The fa c t th a t many of these women had been 1n adminis­ tr a tio n and In th e ir current position about the name number o f years may In d ic a te no opportunity fo r career progression In t h e ir In s t it u ­ tio n . However# 1 t may also In d ic a te a lack of effectiveness of a f f i r ­ m ative action p o lic ie s . 16. Female networking was not considered an Im portant fa c to r 1n career advancement. For a ll the p u b lic ity female networking has received# one would expect a more p o s itiv e response. However# network­ ing was ranked la s t among p o s itiv e fa c to rs In fluencin g career advance­ ment by the women 1n th is study. 187 17. B arriers do e x is t fo r women 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges. Women Indicated th a t these b a rrie rs e x is t In varying degrees of s e ri­ ousness. The most serious b a rrie rs th e women 1n th is study faced Involved pay In equ ity* having to be more experienced and highly q u a li­ fie d and having to work harder than t h e ir male counterpart to succeed* and being excluded from the "old boy" network. Women ad m in istrato rs were tre a te d d iffe r e n tly from male adm inistrators* had less power and In fluence than t h e ir male counterpart* and were not consulted as often as men on m atters o f policy. The data reported here supported some of th e previous research 1n th is area. As a re s u lt of t h e ir findings* Astln and Snyder tl9 82) concluded th a t th ere s t i l l 1s a discrepancy In salary between men and women 1n higher education. Women ad m in istrators 1n these selected lib e r a l a rts colleges reported th a t they were paid less than male adm inistrators of equal a b i l i t y . Two-th1rds o f the respondents 1n Davis's (1978) study agreed th a t women "must be more accomplished and smarter than men to get the same positions." Fo rty-tw o percent of the lib e r a l a rts ad m in istrators 1n th is study reported a s im ila r experience (Item 43* Table 3 1 ). Josefowltz (1980) pointed out th a t women have to work harder than men and must work harder to receive the same pay. A high percentage of adm in istrators (87J5) 1n Stokes's (1981) study reported th a t women "have to work tw ic e as hard." S eventy-five percent o f the women 1n Davis's (1978) research c ite d th e same b a rrie r. The findings of the present study indicated th a t th is was also a concern fo r women 188 adm in istrators 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges. Forty percent reported th a t they Almost Always or Frequently had to "work much harder than th e ir male counterpart 1n order to succeed" (Item 42# Table 3 1 ). A number of researchers (Blckel# 1980; Davis# 1978;- Dressier# 1981; Lenny# 1980; Stokes# 1981) reported th a t women ad m in istrators c ite d th e "old boy" network as a b a rrie r. Almost one-th1rd (3156) of the respondents 1n the present study had also experienced th is b a rrie r Almost Always or Frequently during t h e ir careers. Sexual harassment was the b a rr ie r experienced by th e fewest women adm in istrators 1n these selected lib e r a l a rts colleges. researchers reported s im ila r findings. Other The m a jo rity o f women 1n Dressler's (1981) study Indicated th a t they never experienced sexual harassment. Stokes (1981) reported th a t overt and covert sexual harassment was one of the ra re ly experienced b a rrie rs by women adm inistrators 1n F lo rid a . With the exception o f one Item— "Demands/responslbll1t1es of both career and fam ily"— no personal or professional b a rrie rs were perceived as serious obstacles to career advancement. One would conclude a fte r reading through th e lit e r a t u r e th a t such Items as "Terminated employment due to husband's career move#" "Interrupted employment due to pregnancy#" and "Unable to take advantage o f a promotion th a t would req u ire moving" would be serious b a rrie rs 1 f women are tie d to husband# home# and fa m ily . However# according to the data# th is was not a problem w ith these women. This fin d in g may be unique to the present study because Inform ation on m a rita l and fa m ily status was 189 not collected. The women 1n th is study were older* which may also explain why these were not s ig n ific a n t b a rriers. 18. Additional b a rrie rs t o those lis te d on the questionnaire are present 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges and serve as obstacles to advancement. The greatest b a rrie rs respondents f e l t existed a t th e ir In s titu tio n s were concerned w ith a lack of shared Inform ation* open communication; the p a triarch a l a ttitu d e of a conservative churchre la te d co lleg e; no commitment to advancing women— minimal equity; lack of positions 1n a small school; and a lack o f q u a lifie d women. In tern al b a rrie rs such as women’s a ttitu d e s about themselves— feel 1ngs of In f e r io r it y and lack of confidence— were lis te d . Other b a rrie rs concerned h is to ric a l* tr a d itio n a l male a ttitu d e s — p a te rn a lis tic * patronizing a ttitu d e s . 19. Respondents offered a number of recommendations to e lim i­ nate the b a rrie rs a t th e ir In s titu tio n s . These Included the fo llo w in g : Establish open lin e s of comm unication/Information; positive* ac tive recruitm ent o f women fo r ad m in istratio n and fa c u lty ; p a rt-tim e tenure trac k employment; pay equity; awareness and attltude-change tr a in in g / consciousness ra is in g ; es tab lish women's networking; and more c le a r ly defined jo b descriptions* Job review* and acco u n ta b ility so women are Judged on t h e ir m erits. Other recommendations made were: a s sertiv e­ ness and professional tra in in g * b e tte r representation o f women on the president's executive committee; closer exam ination/evaluation o f the college by accrediting agencies; and a commitment to career aevelopment and mentor/sponsor programs. A dditional suggestions Included: Get 190 powerful women on the board; have more women on search committees and Involved 1n th e In tervie w in g process; get a president who recognizes th e ta le n ts and a b ilit ie s o f women; and obtain the c red en tials . 20. Regardless of the type o f position— f u ll- t im e adm inistra­ t o r or p a rt-tim e ad m in istrator (department head and departmental c h a lrperson)~a s t a t is t ic a lly s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip was found between these positions and perceptions o f very few p o s itiv e facto rs and bar­ r ie r s In fluencin g career advancement. The p o sitive fa c to rs were a f f i r ­ m ative actio n , appropriate academic c re d e n tia ls , being In the rig h t place a t the r ig h t tim e, and sponsorship. The b a rrie rs were " In s u ffi­ c ie n t p u blicatio ns and/or research," "Regardless of p o s it io n /t it le , had les s power/cl o u t/a u th o r ity /1nf 1uence than male counterpart," and "Been paid less than male ad m in istrator." 21. A l i t t l e less than h a lf (46%) of th e women 1n th is study had achieved t h e ir highest career goal. The positions reached by 85% of these women were below the lev el o f dean. tio n le v e l be explained? How can th is low aspira­ Perhaps they were an old er, more tr a d itio n a l group o f women, fo r women have not been accepted In managerial roles fo r very long, nor have they been w ell represented 1n doctoral programs u n til recently. tr a tio n I t may also r e fle c t some disenchantment w ith adminis­ (see Item 23). 22. F o rty -fiv e percent o f th e women who had not achieved t h e ir career goal s t i l l aspired to higher a d m in is tra tiv e positions. The m a jo rity (73%) o f these women had career goals higher than most of those who had already achieved th e ir desired p o sitio n , asp irin g to 191 positions or dean or higher. Forty percent aspired to positions of e ith e r college president or vice-p resid ent. fin din gs o f Blckel (1980). The data supported th e F o rty-th ree percent of the women 1n her study aspired to positions of president and vice-p resid en t. However* according to the fin din gs of Woods (1979)* the m a jo rity of adm inistra­ to rs 1n her study* most of whom were program directors* did not wish to advance to a po sition higher than the one they presently had. 23. The primary reasons fo r not wanting fu rth e r career advancement were: not wanting the re s p o n s ib ilitie s and tim e commit­ ment* too close to retirem ent* s a tis fie d w ith present position* too much hassle 1n adm inistration* and may wish to retu rn to teaching/ counseling. Another reason a few women mentioned (which tie s In w ith the Importance of proper cred en tials) was the cost* time* and energy Involved 1n having to fu rth e r t h e ir education. may r e fle c t the age of the respondents. was 40 years of age and older. were 50 years and older. Some of these reasons About 70£ of the population More than o n e-th ird (3716) o f th e women They might also have been In d ic a tin g th a t ad m in istration 1s not th a t desirable a career fo r everyone. As one woman put I t * " I am r e a lly aggravated by the concept th a t bright* In te llig e n t women ought to be upwardly mobile. tra c k to be em otionally devastating. I have found th e upward L ife 1s too short I I'm try in g to move downward and enjoy l i f e again." 24. The primary s tra te g ie s used by women In these lib e r a l a rts colleges to prepare fo r th e ir career goal were Increased involvement In college projects and committees* and attendance a t a d m in is tra tiv e 192 tra in in g workshops. They may have been doing th is fo r v i s i b i l i t y . They may also have f e l t they needed th e exposure to management tech­ niques they could take back to t h e ir p a rtic u la r s itu a tio n . th ir d were working toward an advanced degree. Almost one- This statement 1s consistent w ith one of the perceived p o s itiv e fa cto rs influencin g career advancement— ’’Appropriate academic cred en tials "— ranked th ir d In Importance by respondents. 25. A m ajo rity 159%) o f th e p a rtic ip a n ts f e l t th a t th e ir college provided and/or encouraged women to attend a d m in is tra tiv e tr a in in g workshops or seminars. 26. An overwhelming m a jo rity (95%) of the ad m in istrators c ite d off-campus workshops or seminars as the primary opportunity to learn a d m in is tra tiv e techniques. (This was also c ite d as one ot the steps or s tra te g ie s they were taking to reach th e ir career goal.) I t was not c le a r whether the women were p a rtic ip a tin g because they thought I t was a career f a c i l i t a t o r or because the co lleg e was encouraging or providing th is . Since th is was c ite d as one of the major steps or stra te g ie s they were taking to reach th e ir career goal* 1 t 1s perhaps th e former. 27. More than o n e-h alf (58%) o f th e women adm in istrators 1n these selected lib e r a l a rts colleges perceived th a t the environment and selectio n process a t t h e ir college was supportive of women aspiring to advance 1n ad m in istration . wise. Yet more than one-th1rd (38%) f e l t other­ Th1rty-e1ght percent 1s a substantial number of women who f e l t th ere was a lack of organizational support. W ritten comments by the 193 respondents were mixed. A few said th a t support was beginning* com­ ing; others Indicated th a t th e re was H t t l e o v ert encouragement* th a t I t was noncommittal. A number of women Indicated th a t support was lacking a t the higher le v e ls o f ad m in istration . S t i l l others perceived a general lack of support. Recommendations fo r Further Research This study demonstrated th a t c e rta in fa c to rs a ffe c t the advancement of women 1n ad m in istra tio n 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges. number of Issues were raised th a t need to be studied 1n depth. A The follow ing recommendations are o ffered fo r fu rth e r research. 1. R eplicate th is study on a national basis. The problems studied are not lim ite d to these selected lib e r a l a r ts colleges; a study n a tio n a lly may determine the extent of agreement w ith th e findings of th is study. 2. A study 1s needed to explore 1n depth the career aspira­ tio n s o f women In lib e r a l a rts colleges. 3. Another In te re s tin g study would be a comparison of male and female ad m in istrators In lib e r a l a rts colleges to determine any d i f f e r ­ ences 1n as p iratio n s and 1n p o s itiv e facto rs and b a rrie rs a ffe c tin g th e ir career advancement. 4. A study could be done o f women In lo w e r-le v e l adm inistra­ t iv e positions to ascertain whether the findings are s im ila r to those 1n th e present study. 194 5. An In-depth study 1s needed on th e effectiven ess of a ffir m a tiv e action 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges— I t s e ffe c t on women's careers and as p ira tio n s . 6. Further research Is needed to explore 1n depth th e c re d e n tia ls and tra in in g c r it ic a l to access to and advancement w ith in adm inistration In lib e r a l a rts colleges. 7. A study could be done to determine the career m o b ility o f women adm in istrators. What Is th e e ffe c t on th e husband's career? To what exten t are the spouses of these women ad m in istrato rs moving to accommodate t h e ir wives' career advancement? 8. This study showed th a t women 1n lib e r a l a rts colleges had used mentors and sponsors. An 1n-depth study of mentorshlp and spon­ sorship would be useful to determine the Influence of these re la tio n ­ ships on career asp irations and career progression. 9. An In te re s tin g study might be to assess any changes th a t can be made 1n th e colleges th a t can e ffe c tiv e ly lead to equity fo r women working 1n these organizations. Perhaps an 1n-depth study of a program 1n place could be made to determine I t s effec tive n es s. APPENDICES APPENDIX A COVER LETTER FOR PILOT TEST 196 197 AQUINAS M COLLEGE December 3, 1984 Dear Colleague: I am a full-time faculty member at Aquinas College as well as a doctoral Btudent in higher education administration at Michigan State University. As ,a past departmental chairperson, I have for many years been interested in the problems facing women in administration. I am in the process of gathering material for my doctoral dissertation concerning factors affecting the advancement of women in administration in liberal arts colleges. I believe the results of this study will provide data that may help women assess the aids and barriers influenc­ ing women's careers in higher education administration. You are being invited to participate in a pre-test of the questionnaire. As an administrator in a private institution, you are the kind of person with the perceptions and experiences I need to explore those factors affecting women in administration. The purpose of this pre-test is to discover any potential problems with the questionnaire. Your responses to the items on the questionnaire and subsequent comments/reactions will help me make the necessary changes prior to the actual study. Your assistance is essential to the success of this study. I realize that this is a very busy time of year for you. However, it should take only about 15 minutes of your time. All information will be kept in the strictest confidence. ' Please take thoBe few minutes to complete the questionnaire and return it in the enclosed, stamped envelope by December 18, 1984. Sincerely, Lenore Kalenda GRAND RAPIDS, MICHIGAN 49500 (616)45*8281 APPENDIX B LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL AND FOLLOW-UP CARD AND LETTER FOR SURVEY 198 199 March 2 0 , 1985 /QUINAS M COLLEGE Dear Colleague> I am a full-time faculty member at Aquinas College aa veil as a doctoral student in higher education administration at Michigan State University. As a past departmental chairperson, I have for many years been interested in the problems facing women In administration. I am in the process of gathering material for my doctoral dissertation concerning factors affecting the advancement of women in administration in liberal arts colleges. I believe the results of this study vill provide data that may help women assess the aids and barriers influencing women's careers in higher education administration. You are being invited to participate in this study. As an administrator in a private institution, you are the kind of person with the perceptions and experiences 1 need to explore those factors affecting women in admini­ stration. Since there are so few women in administrative positions in liberal arts colleges in the midwest, your participation is essential to the success of this study. I assure you that all information will be kept in the strictest confidence and at no time vill individuals be identified. The results of this study will be presented in aggregate form. Due to the limited number of women in certain administrative positions, the mention of a position and nature of the institution could possibly identify an individual. As the investigator, no such references in the analysis of data vill be made if such a possibility of identification exists. Your completion of the enclosed questionnaire constitutes your consent to participate in this study. I shall be glad to send you a summary of the results of thiB research. Just place your name and address on the enclosed mailing label and return it under separate cover. I realize the heavy demandB upon your time. However, It Bhould take only about twenty minutes of your time. Please take those few minuteB to com­ plete the questionnaire and return it in the enclosed, stamped envelope by April 5 , 1 9 8 5 . May I, In advance, thank you for your cooperation. Sincerely yours, Lenore Kalends Enclosurest Questionnaire Return Envelope GRAND RAPIDS. MICHIGAN 495«> Unable to take advantage of a promotion that would require moving..........................................................................( ) TT ( ) ( ) ( ) ( > ( ) TT T T T T ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) I ) ( ) ( > { ) TT { ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( > ( ) ( > ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) < > ( ) t ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( > ( ) ( ) < ) () ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) P ro fe s sio n a l/In stitu tio n a l Barriers: 36. 37. 38, 39, In s u ffic ie n t publications and/or research Lack of e ffe c tiv e female networking/support from other women Lack of sponsor/mentor relationships Tenure/promotion quotas f i l l e d ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) (> SECTION I I . B. ________ ____________ Ihe following have been cited as b arriers to further advancement and/or career aspirations for women in adm inistration. To what degree do the following best describe your experiences during your career in a lib e ra l arts in s titu tio n ? Please check the one most appropriate response for each statement._______________ / 40. I feel that I have been excluded from an Informal networking system Involving Information exchange, social a c tiv itie s and conversations, and decision making f o l d boy" network)............................................. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) Decisions made through th is informal network (locker room, luncheon, e tc .) from which 1 have been excluded, often affected my department and resulted 1n my being " f ille d In" la t e r ................ ......................... ( ) ( ) ( ) { ) ( ) . I have f e l t that 1 had to work much harder than my ■ale counterpart In order to succeed............................ < ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 43. I have f e l t that 1 had to be more experienced and/or highly q u alified than my male counterpart in order to succeed............................................................................. ( ) ( ) (> { > ( ) I have sometimes been Ignored or found i t d if f ic u lt to p a rtic ip a te during Important meetings/discussions { ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) 41. 42 44. A 206 rsS 45. 1 fe e l that 1 have been judged more on the basis of appearance and dress than the male a d m in is tra to r,,.. 46. I have been placed In the nurturant ro le of mother to whom males bring personal problems and seek comfort and support................................................................. 47. At meetings my Input has been discounted/ignored and treated more lik e an In terruption than a serious contribution to the ongoing discussion.......................... 48. I fe e l th a t male colleagues and subordinates have treated me d iffe r e n tly than they treated male adm inistrators....................................................................... 49. Regardless of ipy position or t i t l e , I have f e l t that I had less power/clout au th ority and less influence than n\y male counterparts..................................................... 50 . a , 1 have found i t d i f f i c u l t to receive recognition fo r my accomplishments..................................................... 51. I feel that my ideas, opinions and views have not been respected or considered as seriously as those of men........................................................................... 52. I have often been interrupted in group discussions. 53. I fe e l that I have not been consulted as often as men on matters involving c r it ic a l decisions or matters of p o lic y ................................................................. 54. As 1 have advanced in adm inistration, I feel the b a rriers to success have become g reater, making i t more d i f f i c u l t to advance fu rth e r................................... 55. I feel th a t I have had d if f ic u lt y in being accepted as a professional equal by my male c o u n te rp a rts ..,.. 56. 1 fe e l th at 1 have been viewed as too emotional and too passive to be a leader, or conversely too tough and aggressive when 1n power and thus not seriously considered fo r promotion even though men with those d is q u a lific a tio n s have been s e le c t e d ..... 57. Sexual harrassment (sexual remarks, Innuendos, touching, e t c ,) has been a problem fo r me..................... 58. As an adm inistrator, I feel that I have been paid less than the male adm inistrator of equal a b ilit y . 59. What is the greatest b a rrie r to the advancement of women 1n administration that you perceive at your present in s titu tio n ? Include any not on th is questionnaire. 207 60. What recommendation would you make to break down and elim inate the b arriers which hinder women a t your present In s titu tio n ? SECTION H I , Career aspirations and organizational clim ate/support. response(s), 61. Have you achieved your highest career goal? t )1 Yes ( ) No 62. I f yes, what position Is/was ft? { ) President ( ) Dean { ) Vice-President ( ) Assistant/Associate Dean I f you answered "yes" to question 61, __________ Please check the appropriate ( ) D irector ( ) Other, please specify; skip items 63 through 66. 63. I f you answered "no" to question 61, do you want to advance to a higher position in higher education? ( ) Yes ( ) No ( ) Undecided/don't know 64. I f no, why not? (Check a ll that apply.) ( f"tfo not want added re s p o n s ib ilitie s and ( ) Too much h a s s le /p o litic s In time commitment. adm inistration. ( ) S a tis fie d w ith /p re fe r present position. ( ) Wish to eventually return to ( ) S carcity of positions. teaching or counseling. ( ) Too close to retirem en t. ( ) Other, please specify: ( ) Too many home re s p o n s ib ilitie s . ______________________________ 65. I f you answered "yes" to question 6 3 , what Is the highest adm inistrative position to which you aspire? ( ) College President ( )Assistant/Associate Dean ( ) Vice-President ( ) D irector ( ) Dean ( ) Other, please specify:___________________ 66. I f you answered "yes"to question 6 3 , what steps are you taking to prepare for th a t career goal? (Check as many as appropriate) ( ) Attend management/administrative tra in in g workshops/seminars. ( ) Increased involvement in in s titu tio n a l pro jects, committee work, ( ) P a rtic ip a te 1n/applying for an Internship. ( ) Working toward an advanced degree. ( ) Other, please specify: ____________________________________________________ 67. Has your present college provided or encouraged women to attend any management/administrative tra in in g workshops or seminars? { ) Yes ( ) No ( > Not sure 68. I f you answered “yes" to the previous question, tu n itie s to learn adm inistrative techniques: ( ) F le x ib le work schedule to attend ) ) classes. ( ) Formal program established by ) ) college fo r adm inistrative development. ) ( ) Off-campus conference/workshops. check the appropriate oppor­ On-campus conferences/workshops. On-the-job tra in in g . . Released time to attend classes. Sabbatical. Other, please specify: 208 69. Do you perceive th at the climate/environment and selection process at your present college Is one of encouragement and support for women aspiring to advance In adm inistrative positions? ( ) Yes ( ) No Comments: SECTION IV I background Data. 70. Present age. ________ __________ ____________ Please check the most appropriate response. I ( ) 25 or under ( ) { ( ) 26-29 30 -34 35-39 ) ( ) 40-44 ( ) 45-49 71. Ethnic background. ) Black ( ) Caucasian ( ) Hispanic ( ) Other, please specify: 72. Highest degree presently held: ) BA/BS ( ) MA/MS ( ) Ed.S. 73. 74. 75. 76. ( ) Ph.D. ( ) 50-54 ( ) 55+ ( ) Other, please specify: F ie ld /d is c ip lin e o f highest degree. ) Arts & Letters ( e .g ., Languages, L ite ra tu re , Philosophy). ) Business/Management ) Education ) Health Sciences (Medicine, Nursing) ) Natural Sciences & Mathematics ) Social Sciences ( e .g ., Psychology, Sociology) ) Other: T it l e of present p o sitio n . ) President ) Comptroller ) Vice-President ) Assistant/Associate Vice-President ) Adm inistrative Assistant to the President ) Business Officer/Manager ) Dean (Academic A ffa irs /F a c u lty ) Years in present p o sitio n . ) 1 year or less ( ) 3 years ) 2 years ( ) 4-6 years ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ( ) ) ) ) ) Dean of a College/Program ) D irector of Continuing Education ) D irector of a Department/Program ) D irector of the Library/Head Librarian Registrar Academic Division Head Department Chairperson/Head O th e r:______ ________ ( ) 7-9 years ( ) 10-14 years Total number of years In college adm inistration. ) 1 year or less ( ) 3 years ( ) 7-9 years ) 2 years ( ) 4-6 years ( ) 10-14 years { ) 15 years or more ( ) 15 years or more 77. Present salary range. ' ) less than (12,000 ( ) 115,000-119.000 ( ) 125,000-129,000 { ) $35,000 or more ) $12,000-114,999 ( ) $20,000-529,000 ( ) $30,000-$34,000 78. The fu ll-tim e student enrollment In ) under 1,000 ( ) 2,000-2,999 ) 1,000-1,999 ( ) 3,000-3,999 my school is : () 4,000-4,999 ( ) 5,000 or over 79. Religious a f f i l i a t i o n of my In s titu tio n : ( ) None ( ) Protestant ( ) Roman Catholic Thank you to r your p a rtic ip a tio n ! Please return th is form to: Ms. Lenore Kalenda 2919 Pioneer Club Road, S.E. Grand Rapids,Hfchlgan 49506 APPENDIX D COMPLETE TITLES OF NINETEEN BARRIERS IN SECTION MB OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE 209 210 B arriers Listed In Section I IB o f the Questionnaire AO. t fe el th at I have been excluded from an Informal networking system involving information exchange, social a c t iv it ie s and conversations, and decision making ("old boy" network). A l. Decisions made through th is informal network (locker room, luncheon, e tc .) from which 1 have been excluded, often affected my department and resulted In my being " f ill e d in" la t e r . A2. i have f e l t th a t I had to work much harder than my male coun­ te rp a rt In order to succeed. A3- I have f e l t th at I had to be more experienced and/or highly q u a lifie d than my male counterpart in order to succeed. AA. I have sometimes been ignored or found i t d i f f i c u l t to p a r t ic i­ pate during important m eetings/discussions. A5. I fe el th at I have been Judged more on the basts o f appearance and dress than the male ad m in istrato r. A6. I have been placed in the nurturant ro le o f mother to whom males bring personal problems and seek comfort and support. A7- At meetings my input has been dIscounted/ignored and treated more lik e an in te rru p tio n than a serious co ntrib utio n to the ongoing discussion. A8. I fe el th at male colleagues and subordinates have treated me d iffe r e n tly than they treated male adm inistrators. i»9. Regardless o f my position or t i t l e , I have f e l t th at I had less p o w er/clo u t/au th o rity and less Influence than my male counter­ p a rts. 50. I have found i t d i f f i c u l t to receive recognition fo r my accomp1i shments. 51. I fe el th at my ideas, opinions, and views have not been respected or considered as seriously as those o f men. 52. I have often been interrupted in group discussions. 53. I fe el th at I have not been consulted as often as men on matters involving c r it ic a l decisions or matters o f p o ltc y . 5A. As i have advanced In ad m in istra tio n , I fe el the b a rrie rs to success have become g re a te r, making i t more d i f f i c u l t to advance fu rth e r. 21 1 55. I fe e l th at I have had d i f f i c u lt y In being accepted as a profes­ sional equal by my male counterparts. 56. I feel th at I have been viewed as too emotional and too passive to be a leader, or conversely too tough and aggressive when In power and thus not seriously considered fo r promotion even though men with those d is q u a lific a tio n s have been selected. 57- Sexual harassment (sexual remarks, innuendos, touching, e tc .) has been a problem fo r me. 58. As an ad m in istra to r, I fe el th at I have been paid less than the male adm inistrator of equal a b i l i t y . APPENDIX E WRITTEN COMMENTS BY WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS TO QUESTION 59 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE 212 213 Quest Ion; What is the greatest b a rrie r to the advancement of women In ad m in istratio n th a t you perceive a t your present In s titu tio n ? Include any not on th is questionnaire. Comments; F irs t* only lack of ta le n t. Second* fa m ily /c h ild re n e s p ec ially and th a t I s n 't r e a lly a b a rrie r— ju s t a slowing down tem porarily. The good o le boy a ttitu d e s o f the top adm inistrators. Women should stay a t home and the man supports them. Their perception of women 1n general— the a ttitu d e Is In d ir e c tly brought In to play a t the le a s texpected tim es. "Steady state"— not much h irin g and few positions and tenure track slo ts are a v a ila b le — few new ones being created. Prim arily# women fa c u lty ; I th in k men may have more problems than women. Try advancement of re lig io u s over la y personnel fo r a study. In wrong f ie ld fo r lib e r a l arts* home economics. Very l i t t l e turnover of personnel. No place to advance to I Very few women here. Women are too busy working— not p o litic a l enough. fo r themselves. Women se t low goals Opportunity to demonstrate competency. Not being tre a te d equally. Have made major s trid e s In past two years— h a lf of the senior adm inistrators are wanen. Lack of Inform ation— the ad m in istration 1s very secretive. Often decisions are made on obscure or hidden data. I do not know where I stand. The women who are my superiors support th is system. The "old guards" fe e lin g th a t women are In fe r io r to men. Numbers o f q u a lifie d women who want to li v e In Is o la te d /ru ra l town. Socioeconomic area 1n which the In s titu tio n 1s located 1s u n a ttra c tiv e to sin g le women and renders 1 t u n lik e ly th a t the spouse o f a woman who moved here to take a job could also fin d professional employment. Poverty of the In s titu tio n would make I t d i f f i c u l t fo r a married female ad m in istrator to support her fa m ily . I t ju s t is n 't a place which w ill a t tr a c t many women a t a l l . 214 The "old boy" network. (1) A p a te rn a lis tic a ttitu d e — "be good and you w i l l be fin e . We w i ll lik e you." (2) Due to the In s titu tio n 's fin a n c ia l stress* pay scales are dreadful to r a ll * but women take an even greater In eq u ity. Too few positions 1n the in s titu tio n . Host positions are not h ie ra rc h ic a l; th e re fo re promotion* advancement Is not a big fa c to r except 1n area of fa c u lty work. The In s titu tio n already Is top-heavy In upper-level adm inistrators. As stated on the attached* other women have something to do w ith I t . But also* men hold th e power positions and women are not taken seriously or given the opportunity to perform. B a rrie r 1s not being a nun. Female nun has few b a rrie rs . A physically disabled woman 1s not viewed as female— she 1s viewed as sexless (see sociological lit e r a t u r e ) . In a b ilit y to work fo r a female CEO. Women not In terested . (I'm not personally In terested In being f u ll- t im e ad m in istrato r. I p refer teach ing .) That The major a d m in is tra tiv e posts have always been held by men. The th in kin g Is so entrenched— 1f/when there 1s an opening* even though gender 1s excluded from q u a lific a tio n s , th e decision-makers automati­ c a lly th in k 1n terms of a man. Prejudice combined w ith t ig h t control by two or th ree males of basic Inform ation needed to plan or propose. Very small college = few number of women 1n In s titu tio n . seen functioning 1n declslon-making ro les less o ften . So women are A personal a ttitu d e of In f e r io r it y . The organization o f the college. A group of about e ig h t In d ivid u a ls make a ll decisions. The re s t of us are very seldom even informed of the decisions. So few o f us. I am the token female ad m in istrator. given the " re a l" re s p o n s ib ility . Women are too " flig h ty " to be 215 A new college president fir e d my sponsor and does not take female adm inistrators seriously. In addition* the president 1s a poor judge of a d m in istra tive a b ilit y of both men and women. Antagonism of male fa c u lty members to women 1n adm in istration . Female academic dean 0ld-boy1sm— nothing o v ert. No an ticip ated openings 1n th e few a v a ila b le spots. My sex and the perception th a t women should not be In a u th o rity positions— a B ib lic a l In te rp re ta tio n . The fa c t th a t they are women. The answers are included 1n th is questionnaire. Membership 1n the sponsoring church's denomination and the reluctance of men to be led by women 1n th a t denomination. This might be a l l r1 ght. The ole boy network 1s t o t a ll y male here. The top s ix positions are a ll male* and the leadership s ty le Is m a le -c h a ra c te ris tic . Women have no pi ace. In my present position I have been given a central and In flu e n tia l opportunity to contribute. This 1s la rg e ly due to one person* the dean* th a t Includes me In so many ways. He Is a good person to work with and fo r. That most women have simply not been here long enough to advance to the upper ranks (d lv . c h a irs ). S u ffic ie n t experience— higher education Is not g u ilty of sex d iscrim in atio n . Business* however* Is much more so. Female adm inistrators are overconcentrated In support s t a f f roles* such as lib ra ria n * re g is tra r* treasu rer. These positions deserve more recognition and are undervalued. A ll-m a le tr a d itio n . In a b ilit y to perceive women as being f u lly competent as leaders. In s e n s itiv ity to problems o f women: personal* professional* c u rric u la r. Sex 1s not a fa c to r 1n departmental or d ivisio n a l ad m in istratio n but seems to be In the central ad m in istration . 216 They are not hlghly-enough q u a lifie d fo r the Job. None on the d ivisio n le v e l. However* president# dean# and a l l board members (except two) are m ale...an d w ill continue to be I None— At th e moment a l l o f our top ad m in istrato rs are women! President# academic dean# dean of students* a d m in is tra tiv e d irec to r* business manager. Few problems; small co lleg e; I'v e been here th e longest and f u l l professor th e longest* Male a ttitu d e s . President and academic dean w ith .qa commitment to advancement of women or to h o lis t ic education or to minimal eq u ity. Male a ttitu d e s . Misogyny a t the top. Furthermore* ours 1s a unionized campus. As department chair* I am not considered (thank God) a supervisor and* therefore# am not tr u ly "1n lin e " fo r a d m in is tra tiv e advancement. I t 1s In a very Iso lated geographic region# so women who are strongly oriented to career development 1n higher education are not a ttra c te d here 1n the f i r s t place. Lack o f competency 1n science or computers— th e places where th ere have been th e most openings. Lack o f q u a lifie d candidates. T ra d itio n a l— conventional male-dominated In s titu tio n . Females not e lig ib le fo r presidency a t present tim e. S alary— Feeling w e're earning a second salary so don't need as much. No women adm inistrators (except fo r two d ivisio n a l chairpersons# o f whom I am one). Women's a ttitu d e s about themselves--underconfIdence* t im id ity — th a t have been Ingrained by conservative church background. I fin d th a t most male colleagues can ad just to a strong female colleague (given tim e) and w i l l accept women colleagues. Dealing w ith women who a c t out stereotypes# they w ill respond 1n tim e. 217 There are c u rre n tly some positions held by nuns th a t should be held Dy more e ffe c tiv e personnel— men or women. In e ffe c tiv e women give other women a bad reputation (men d o n 't seem to have th is problem)* Other women who have been fir m ly entrenched 1n m iddle-low er ad m in istratio n who freq uen tly behave unprofessionally and d is lik e th e newer group of females. This Is a women's college where cu rren tly the In te rim Jobs and a l l major ad m in istrato rs are women. The new president w il l be a male and mainly 1n my opinion because 1t is f e l t he w i ll be b e tte r able to deal with the "good old boys" where fund ra is in g Is concerned. Conservative nature of the In s titu tio n . The trustees and o ffe r you l i t t l e tim e. They want the low s a la rie s ad m in istra tio n want to get r id of people a t 55 and 1n e a rly retirem en t. No one can advance a f te r th is to get a younger personnel and pay them much less than we make. Upper a d m in is tra tio n 's desire fo r representation b y /fo r same men. P a trla rc h lc a l philosophy of conservative church-related co lleg e. Now th a t we have two women as vice-presidents# I sense th a t th e men fe el they have f u l f i l l e d t h e ir "quota" of female adm in istrators. The "good old boys" network. Male stereotypes about ce rta in Jobs: presidents. finance# development* v ic e - Males 1n th e position of h irin g and they tend t o h ir e males fo r the " r e a l11 a d m in is tra tiv e jobs and females fo r the less-responsible positions or tr a d itio n a l fem ale-role positions. Four out of top f iv e positions are male. Women uninterested. There are no women In the ad m in istration . president. No major one. One's own s k ill a b i l i t y . None r e a lly . The b a rrie r 1s th e current 218 I perceived none— 1 tf s amazingly open. That was not tru e 15 years ago I Not enough po sitions; C atholic male dominance. None— our campus Is becoming strongly fe m in ist. "Old Boys Club." Aggressive^ powerful men; fin a n c ia l problems which a ffe c t everyone equally. No woman has ever advanced to lev el of vice-p resid ent* so th e long­ standing tr a d itio n of placing males 1n th a t position (or positions) must be acknowledged. Not being taken seriously because I am a woman— being considered too aggressive. C hauvinistic adm inistrators. That women have to prove t h e ir a b ilit ie s to advance* and possibly do more than others. Lack of positions to move In to (small school* small ad m in is tra tio n ). Anyone* male or female* who takes on substantial re s p o n s ib ilitie s fo r ch ild care is going to be professio n ally disadvantaged. Few openings; few q u a lifie d women. Budgeting problems. Increasing th e number of women probably 1s not possible when s t a f f 1s being cu t. I don't see b a rrie rs fo r women a t my In s titu tio n very often. Sometimes men have b a rrie rs here, tool For example* 1n the th re e-y ear h isto ry of fa c u lty assembly* there have been ne male o ffic e rs . I can't say th a t th ere are any s ig n ific a n t b a rrie rs a t my In s titu tio n . The ad m in istration 1s making a real e f f o r t to h ire and promote women. I have Just been promoted to acting v.p. fo r adm inistration* The b a rrie rs I presently feel are personal— e.g.» being a sin g le parent of a f i v e y e a r ol d. No real b a rrie rs here. Scarcity of upper-level positions. Th eir (women's) own lack of assertiveness. 219 Few women q u a lifie d fo r higher positions. Bias against women on p a rt of president. You can only go so high— the top goes only to one. T ra d ltlo n l Don't th in k of women as po ten tial top leaders. Patronizing a ttitu d e of male adm inistrators. Our committee stru ctu re brings the senior fa c u lty In to key decision­ making posts more than younger fa c u lty — and more of our women are a t the Iow-sen1or1ty spots 1n 1985. Our organization 1s not w ell structured I t s e l f to advance anybody other than by the choice of the CEO* who would not have chosen a woman* I don't th ink. Also# we have no method o f advancement (no "steps") and no way to obtain a d m in is tra tiv e experience w ith in the organization# no sponsorshl por mentorlng— no commitment to _development_Qf__women (or men either# re a lly ) 1n these roles. There has been a l i t t l e advantage taken o f th e A .C .E .-N .I.T . w ith d e le g a te s sen t a couple of tim e s . No follow-up# though. We have a new C.E.0 coming 1n# and 1 t 1s hoped he w ill make many changes. None a t th is tim e. None. My present In s titu tio n 1s so tin y th a t I expect th e b a rrie rs are there fo r both sexes. The biggest b a rrie r 1s» however# th a t the community expects a man to be out hu stling fo r contributions and attending to th e pres id e n tia l tasks ( I th in k ). Since women must work harder and produce more than t h e ir male counter­ parts# professional ego th re a t 1s heightened. Defensiveness and t e r r i ­ t o r ia l rig h ts become more Im portant than a sense of professional commu­ n ity . None. The hardest b a rrie r fo r me was f i r s t s ta rtin g out as an ad m in istrato r and being the only female. I feared I would not gain t h e ir respect and confidence. Not aware of e x istin g b a rrie rs here. 220 Being a woman. Having th a t career w ith less status (e.g.» llb r a r la n shlp). Husband's -type of work* fa m ily 's fin a n c ia l status* married statu s. H is to ric a l perspective o f "prejudice against women" In a d m in is tra tiv e / academic leadership positions* C lin ic a l p ractice 1s not viewed as experience by colleagues on rank and tenure; th erefo re* those years seem lik e wasted time 1n academia. Lack o f educational preparation and/or ad m in istra tive experience. The other adm inistrators are a l l men* do not want women colleagues. The nursing d iv is io n 1s a l l female. They value home/husbands more than work. A general mindset th a t men make adm inistrators and women do not. No real b a rrie r. Ph.D. requirement when such credential 1s not essential to do th e work. We are a small In s titu tio n and th erefo re have a lim ite d number of ad m in is tra tiv e positions a v a ila b le . I b elieve the lim ite d opportunity fo r advancement combined w ith v e s tig ia l a ttitu d e s regarding sex roles creates a b a rrie r fo r women here. Expectation th a t women must be able to do a job b e tte r than a man 1n order to gain s im ila r recognition/acceptance—-m arital status may be a fa c to r where married women are given more opportunity than s in g le . Other women who hamper th e Image of professional women by constant negativism* whining and complaining. Women In power who are not w illin g to support other women and women colleagues who do not w ant/or are undecided about what they want— but are s t i l l u n w illin g to support women who do want to advance In adm inistration. The president seems to be uncomfortable with women 1n power. None c u rre n tly —-but foresee strong dominant male leadership In new adm inistration. Male sexism. Too small to have many ad m in is tra tiv e positions. Therefore* what few positions there are go to men* and th ere a re n 't enough positions so they can have a few token women adm inistrators. 221 Lack of doctoral preparation. In a b ilit y to face Idea th a t th e In s titu tio n practices de facto d is c rim in a tio n although g iving verbal assent to e q u ality of treatment# a ttitu d e # etc. Recognition of the position more so than anything; being male or female does not make a d iffe re n c e 1n th is area. Perception of key people In In s titu tio n th a t "there are too many women” 1n key ro les . A competent woman here w ill advance. I d o n 't th in k there are r e a lly any great b a rrie rs . The size of both fa c u lty and s t a f f 1s decreasing# not increasing. President cannot work with women. I d o n 't th in k th e re 1s any great b a rrie r. So few positions In to which one .can advance; small p riv a te c o lleg e. Not being a member of th e re lig io u s order th a t founded and s t i l l runs the co lleg e. Preconceived notions th a t to p -le v e l adm inistrators (other than th e nuns who operate the co lleg e) ought to be male. In my case I t depends more s u b s ta n tia lly on my In te lle c tu a l stances as a fe m in is t of color and my radical p o litic s . I t 1s c le a r to me th a t those women who tow the 1 Ine are not respected more but get more rewards. Do not perceive any b a rrie rs . A v a ila b ility of tr u ly q u a lifie d women. (1) Women themselves probably; (2) lack o f In s titu tio n a l economic resources. Lack of c re d e n tia ls (term inal degree) by most women managers— preventing them from advancing in to v ic e -p re s id e n tia l post th a t requires a term inal degrea We are a small In s titu tio n . There are not many layers through which one can advance. Not academically q u a lifie d . 222 I f not covered by across-the-board pay scale, there tends to be d iscrim ination of women e s p e c ia lly in ad m in istratio n . Placed 1n beginning po sition th a t w il l not advance/be e lig ib le fo r tenure and promotion. A ll adm in istrators (president, dean, a s sis tan t dean, tre a s u re r, r e g is tr a r , e t c .) are males. A ll d ivisio n chairmen are males. In a church-related In s tit u tio n , men are viewed as th e primary leaders. The small proportion of tenured women from which to s e le c t and who wield s ig n ific a n t In flu en ce. Women have never held th e top th re e a d m in is tra tiv e positions here; th e r a tio n a le 1s lack o f q u a lific a tio n s a t t h is le v e l. I am a t a women's college now, so th e re i s n 't th is problem. The men 1n ad m in istratio n . Present male-dominated ad m in istra tio n — few openings fo r women 1n the foreseeable fu tu re . I see none. Limited a v a ila b ilit y of q u a lifie d women with appropriate c re d e n tia ls . The leadership c r is is 1n society a t la rg e 1s re fle c te d here. A ctu ally none— as you can t e l l , I am w ell s a tis fie d . T ra d itio n a lly males have f i l l e d ro les 1n the areas of deans, presidents, and provosts and those are th e only positions l e f t fo r me to move In to a t th is co lleg e. None except c re d e n tia ls . D on't honestly see b a rrie rs re la te d to sex. The fa c t th a t they are not males. I have not been a t the in s tit u tio n long enough to answer many of these questions. The a ttitu d e s o f the present men a t th e highest a d m in is tra tiv e le v e ls and probably also the board of tru s te e s , who are almost a l l men. Males have been here much longer. 223 None. The ambitions of other women. The greatest b a rrie r 1s connected w ith women adm inistrators a t th e top who do not th in k women subordinates equal to male subordinates. Image of females and nursing. P a te rn a lis tic a ttitu d e of c h ie f ad m in istra tive o f fic e r . None. T ra d itio n a l a ttitu d e s . They have never been th ere. Inform al and u n o ffic ia l stru ctu re ; preponderance of males 1n secured positions of Importance; women don’t stay long enough to move In to those positions (people have e ith e r been here "forever" or they come and go w ith in th ree to four ye a rs ). I would be guessing 1 f I answered th is . Lack of s u ffic ie n t funds to accomplish some of my goals fo r the In s titu tio n . No ad m in istra tive help (c le r ic a l and te c h n ic a l). Sexism 1n h irin g and re te n tio n . The re lig io u s order which operates th e school tends to f i l l these positions w ith t h e ir members. This Is a women's order a t a women's co lleg e. The ad m in istration 1s a ty p lc a lly female. Undecided. R e la tiv e ly new 1n p o sitio n . The women are not q u a lifie d . They lack academic c re d e n tia ls — distinguished p u b lic atio n records* e tc . Lack o f confidence In s e lf . A ll major a d m in is tra tiv e posts held by men. commitment among them to bring 1n women. Not strong enough L i t t l e opportunity fo r advancement— co lleg e usually seeks outside candidates fo r the le v e ls above me. Other adm inistrators and mainly one male. APPENDIX F WRITTEN OOMMENTS BY WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS TO QUESTION 60 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE 22k 225 Question: What recommendation would you make to break down and elim in ate the b a rrie rs which hinder women a t your present In s titu tio n ? ■tomnieats: Constantly develop 1deas/ph1losophy by keeping up In professional and lib e r a l a rts reading* discussions# conventions# courses* etc.# .and develop s p ir it u a lly . Change of a ttitu d e s or tra in in g fo r women when they are 1n power positions— 1t goes to th e ir heads and they are worse than men. P o sitive reinforcem ent to men when they h ire women— our expectations need to be r e a lis t ic — 1 t 1s not a ll men's f a u lt . Get new adm inistrators. I f we want to advance* we have to go to another in s titu tio n # which 1s d i f f i c u l t unless one wants to uproot husband and ch ildren . Have the men do an awareness course— a c tu a lly I'm not very opt1m1st1cI H irin g more women a t equal s a la rie s . There should be more women hired— c o rre c tly I would guess th a t we are th re e -fo u rth s males. Include more competent women 1 Education of the president. That women take course work dealing w ith ad m in is tra tiv e re s p o n s ib ili­ t ie s . Continual p u rsuit of "new blood" o f women on the fa c u lty and adminis­ tr a tio n . Our r a tio o f women/men 1s s t i l l sm all. Perseverance; constantly ra is in g th e consciousness o f men; questioning openly decisions* p o lic ie s and procedures. I do not know. R e c la s s ific a tio n of positions 1n such a way th a t there Is a c le a r path to advancement. Also h irin g more females fo r top positions. I t 's th e "chicken or the egg"; women won't advance u n til they hold more power positions* but they won't get those w ithout advancement. Taking th e power frcm th e men 1s th e answer— but I d o n 't know how. 226 What 1s necessary 1s consciousness ra is in g . I do not b elieve th a t most d iscrim in atio n 1s d e lib e ra te : I fin d ra th e r an a ttitu d e of surprise th a t women are competent. I also fin d th a t men do appreciate ideas etc. which women express and then are given c r e d it fo r them. How to deal w ith the problem w ithout becoming a "nag" Is of g reat Impor­ tance. Sex equity in sa lary. Become les s passive and l e t 1 t be known th a t you are in terested In ad m in istration . This Is not a problem! Reeducate some of the male adm inistrators (p a tro n iz in g ). I f we could search u n til we fin d the r ig h t female fo r the Job (m ajor adm in istrators)* then th e successes of such women would overcome the entrenched thinking. Obviously* easier said than done (not to mention reverse d is c rim in a tio n ). When being considered fo r a prom otion/position* gender should not enter in to the decision. Usually i f a female 1s m arried* her salary 1s not as high as a male counterpart. Better* more open communication o f inform ation (fin a n c ia l* planning* p o lic y ). More a c tiv e Involvement and assertiveness by women. Regular Information sessions; more d elin eatio n of ro le s . No women 1n nonteaching a d m in is tra tiv e positions to a s s is t those In teaching ad m in istra tive po sitions. Removing some top adm inistrators. F1re the college president (th is Is no Joke). Increase th e number of women as fa c u lty and as ad m in istrators so women have voting clo u t. Change philosophical viewpoint of president of co lleg e. Keep pushing* with good humor. I fe el th ere are few* 1 f any* b a rrie rs a t my In s titu tio n . 227 T rea t me as a colleague who has Just as valuable contrib utio ns to make as any man. L e t's be open minded on both sides. Representation o f wcmen on th e p resid en t's executive committee. There are too many conservative men 1n th is fa c u lty . We need to h ire more open-minded men* and more women who are a s s e rtiv e . Educate more women 1n th e ir denomination. Persistence; making my presence known u n til th ey're so used to me they fo rg e t about my femaleness. Get more women In to a d m in is tra tiv e o ffic e a t higher le v e ls . There are none here— now— fo r persons In my p o sitio n . To In s t it u t e a mentoring s y s te m ...to h ire more females. There are few b a rrie rs th a t need "breaking down"; 1n fa ct* th a t a ttitu d e 1s a bigger problem. Faculty status fo r a ll female lib r a r y s t a f f who need to deal w ith teachers as academic peers. Faculty development 1n women's studies: More women's studies In cur­ riculum . (A dm inistration Is less of a problem; fa c u lty and students are more conservative and s e x is t here than 1n most places.) Since s a la rie s of In d iv id u a ls are not known* 1 t 1s d i f f i c u l t to determine 1 f th e re 's a real d iffe re n c e . Leave before you're stuck. I'm a fra id we'd had to reprogram the minds o f our "old guard" before any recommendation would be seriously considered. Uni o n /fa c u lty control of a d m in istra tive h irin g . B elieve they have the opportunity fo r advancement. The academic stru ctu re appears f a i r l y open. In th e a d m in is tra tiv e s t a f f th e re are b a rriers* but these are a ttltu d ln a l of one or two key a d n ln ls tra to rs and are gradually looking up. A d iffe r e n t president. In a small In s titu tio n * the c h ie f executive's comfort 1n dealing with wcmen Is c r u c ia l. H ire more wcmen fa c u lty and s t a f f . 228 We're working on a ffir m a tiv e actio n — current o ffic e r 1s Inadequate because or other po sitions. More c le a r a c c o u n ta b ility 1n d iffe r e n t positions— job review— th is way we can be judged by our m erits* not as "women." I d o n 't r e a lly feel th ere are any strong b a rrie rs . The " In te rn a l" In s titu tio n * though not p erfect* r e a lly has no s ig n if i­ cant b a rrie r. The tru s te e s tru c tu re would have to put women 1n power positions to produce the changes necessary to reduce external b a rrie rs . We need some In s titu tio n a l research to show what happens to women here. Also we need the sunshine law. We c u rre n tly have a woman president* w ell received and respected by a l l . Her success w ill open doors fo r women. A major a ttitu d e change and possibly younger adm inistrators. Open lin e s of communication. P o s itiv e seeking out of women to serve as ad m in istrato rs (very l i t t l e turnover 1n those positions* though). New president. Awareness* which Is being worked on. The e n tir e managerial clim ate needs to be Informed and refreshed. Get a new president. Change your sex. Improved fin a n c ia l conditions. Recognition o f competence is a strong fa c to r here; th erefo re* continuation o f a Job well done 1s the best recommendation. We need to work hard* be competent* be fle x ib le * and le a rn th e system. I t also helps to th in k li k e a male. Perhaps continuing to "play th e game" of "backing o ff" as soon as men fe el threatened. To allow more roan fo r upward m o b ility In a planned way. 229 Frankly# I see no such b a rrie rs . Provision fo r p a rt-tim e tenure trac k employment. has been enormously h e lp fu l. In my own case 1 t Adm inistrators and fa c u lty should be kept aware of th e need fo r a la rg e r number o f wcmen 1n key po sitions. Since th is college has Just gone coed# th ere are more (many more) female adm inistrators and fa c u lty than male. The b a rrie rs are In a ttitu d e s of c e rta in faculty# not r e a lly adminis­ tra to rs . Also would recommend more pay e q u ality. Educate the men! I am tre a te d as a daughter or a grand-daughter# but ra re ly a colleague. Women1s network o f support. Impossible with cu rren t leadership. There arenf t any. Change tr a d itio n — tr y 1t» you111 lik e 1 t (and we a r e ). Be e x c e lle n t a t Job and savvy. Who knows? I'd lik e to see a commitment to academic and career development and hope resources (dollars# Ideas# mentors# sponsors# etc.) could be created and provided fo r such a program. Some males have a bias. can be broken down. Frequent committee work w ith females so bias Committee work (AAUP). Actually# none. I b e liev e a q u a lifie d woman would be appointed to a d m in is tra tiv e positions 1f openings were there. Women have been appointed. The board o f d irec to rs' president Is a woman a t le a s t h a lf the tim e. A ccreditation agencies must examine more clo sely b la ta n t forms o f organizational p o litic s which are so e ffe c tiv e ly hidden during tim es of review. Even those against whom prejudice 1s focused are re lu c ta n t to expose those who "pay the b i l l s . 11 230 Walt I t out u n til the la s t of th e "old boys" groups r e t i r e — of course, long before th a t one hopes th a t th e ir numbers would have decreased to a com fortable le v e l— perhaps "old boys" Is n 't the r ig h t word— I mean males who f in a lly don't take women seriously and can't r e a lly work with them. Not a problem. Be confident. Respect Is gained by how you view or see yo urself. sure o f y o u rs e lf and stand up fo r y o u rs e lf. Be Get as much formal education and experience, Including computer lite r a c y and work ex tra hard to win confidence o f your employer and colleagues. Get Involved 1n committee projects. More women 1n positions who don't subconsciously feed the stereotype. I.e ., being too em otional, using pregnancy and female disorders as reason fo r absences, leaves, etc. None. Speak w ith a u th o rity . Spout fa c ts , names, s t a tis tic s . Active recruitm ent to Increase the number o f women 1n to p -le v e l admin­ is tra tio n . Encouraging women w ith po ten tial to become educationally prepared. I'm leavin g. No other choice. Having th e few who are adm in istrators do a noticeably good Job breaks down b a rrie rs . A change of adm inistration. Must behave, dress, and speak In a professional manner. B etter communication. Work on confronting a ttitu d e s of sexual bias which m ight not be obvious. Example: This summer w h ile student help 1s not a v a ila b le , several s t a f f people have been asked to answer Incoming c a lls (work as switchboard o p e ra to r/re c e p tio n is t). All the s t a f f asked to do th is were women— no v ia b le reason fo r not including male s t a f f was given! Support of women by top adm in istration . For women to receive education on assertiveness and professional behavior and avoid the misplaced feminism a ttitu d e s displayed. 231 S e rio u s ly --!e a v e . Get more competent* powerful women on th e board. colleagues fo r change. Pressure from More cooperation and d is p e llin g of the Image the women fa c u lty have In nursing— tro u b le makers. H ire 1n new male or female adm inistrators. Only tim e w ill break down the b a rrie rs . W hile we have male adm inistra­ to rs whose wives stay home* they w i l l never understand women who have fa m ilie s and work* too. Pursue graduate education* become f u lly q u a lifie d * engage 1n scholarly a c t iv it ie s . (1) H ire more q u al1 fled women. (2) Attltude-awareness seminar. Develop clim a te where honesty 1s possible— I don't know how s p e c ific a lly * other than encouraging and try in g to p rac tice th is . Our In s titu tio n has a f a i r l y good record of "Intentions*" the policy 1s rig h t* y e t financing needed to a t tr a c t women where most needed Is Inadequate. I am not convinced th e b a rrie rs are not changes In th e concept of the p o sitio n rath er than In the s e ' of the o f fic e r . Increase s a la rie s . People need to look a t a b ility # not gender. I t 's a very slow process because a ttitu d e s are hard to change. Here as 1n most places patience and communication are v it a l. Showing profes­ sionalism and competence by In it ia t in g things has worked fo r me. Don't assume promotion; work on developing s k ills which tra n s fe r. p a tie n t but voice concerns. Be That the s is te rs who are adm inistrators don't allow convent p o litic s to d ic ta te college p o licy. I Just d o n 't have any suggestions fo r breaking down blind preju dice. Greater commitment on the part of the college to women's studies and women's organizations. Encourage other women to speak up. 232 I do not fe e l my In s titu tio n has many b a rrie rs to women advancing from w ith in . I do th in k Job searches fo r v-p candidates lean heavily to men. I would not know how to break th is down. P a rtic ip a te w ith worthwhile ideas and suggestions. Honest e f f o r t to begin more women 1n tenure trac k positions. Female networking. F i l l 1n fo r a male ad m in istrator on his leave of absence; apply fo r employment as openings occur In adm in istration . A ttra c t more outstanding female fa c u lty to tenure trac k positions (Inclu din g Incentives th a t aid accomplishment of th e ir dual roles— e.g.» c h ild care* ample m aternity leave p o licie s* and schedules th a t do not eat In to evening hours and weekends). In some respects* 1 t 1s a hindrance—-there are not many women among the fa c u lty or adm inistrators. More women on the search committees and Interview ing process. To rny knowledge* wcmen are tre a te d as equals 1n th is small college. We haven't any hera are women. A ll major adm inistrators (Including president) Get a president who recognizes ta le n ts of women In adm in istration . W illingness on the p a rt of adm inistrators to spread leadership on committees more and w illin g n ess on the p a rt of women to take those ro les. Women must seek th e c re d e n tia ls ; must gain the professionalism — The re s t 1s t r i v i a l . Again* I fe e l w ell s a tis fie d w ith perception o f women a t our In s titu tio n on a professional le v e l. I don't know what to suggest. B asically* I have been tre a te d f a ir ly * but th e re 1s an undercurrent th a t reminds me th a t I am a woman...1n other words* not destined fo r advancement. Equal pay. None. Greater percentage of wcmen and they are "lis te n e d t o ." Advertise Job openings nationwide and make the pay a ttr a c tiv e . 233 H ire fewer Methodist m inisters as ad m in istrato rs. Positions 1n ad m in istration : job descriptions more c le a r ly defined. Open* honest evaluation and discussion of perceptions. Do a good jo b . The president of our college 1s a woman— advancement requires academic c re d e n tia ls ; being a female 1s not a b a rrie r. This Is a rel 1g1ous-run In s titu tio n . We need more laymen as w ell as women 1n adm inistration to provide a balance. H ire more females who are competent and enthu siastic* Become more a s s e rtiv e , learn the language of power and how to play p o litic s . I t can be a d irty game— women need to know the ru les. Develop tr u s t among themselves and work as a group. Professional-development p o lic ie s developed and Implemented. R ecruit more students and more funding. No problems here th a t I 'v e seen. More women Involved 1n ad m in istra tive policy decision making 1 More Involvement 1n networking between both sexes. B elieve 1n y o u rs e lf. This In s titu tio n b e tte r than many as fa r as respect fo r cu rren t female fa c u lty . Need more female fa c u lty and adm inistrators. Those concerned most need to make selves heard stronger. More opportunity fo r fa c u lty dialogue—open exchange of ideas and concerns. Don't b elieve th e re are b a rrie rs except fo r one person who 1s being pushed. APPENDIX G WRITTEN COMMENTS BY WOMEN ADMINISTRATORS TO QUESTION 69 ON THE QUESTIONNAIRE 23*t 235 Question: Do you perceive th a t the clim ate/environm ent and se lection process a t your present college 1s one of encouragement and support fo r women as p irin g to advance In ad m in istra tive positions? .Comments; I t 1s coming— we have more women now than we had two years ago* but s t i l l not enough. I f re lig io u s . I t 's a weak no* since th e re Is no proof. I do not b elieve women here are paid as highly as th e tr male colleagues. Support 1s not y e t strong* but 1 t 1s th ere. They ta lk out of one side of t h e ir mouths and act out of the other— no women In senior a d m in istra tive positions. I t I s n 't supportive fo r anyone* but the bias 1s overwhelming male. W ill promote a woman to higher position* then create a higher adminis­ tr a t iv e po sitio n and h ire a man. Probably about as good as would be normal fo r a form erly a ll-m a le school. Women hold jobs such as "a d m in is tra tiv e assistant*" looking good on aff1 rm atlve action reports* but no real power jobs. Women always get these g lo r ifie d s e c re ta ria l jobs but no higher positions. For women who are nuns* yes; fo r non-nuns* no higher than department chal r. D i f f i c u l t to t e l l . In general (n o t some In d ivid u al a d m in istra to rs). Up to/through the mlddle-management le v e l a t any ra te . I answer yes because I do not perceive a negative clim ate. Not overt encouragement noticed. I t 1s beginning. Encouraged to do so 1f money 1s a v a ila b le 1n budget. There Is no o f f ic i a l po sition against 1t» but I t seldom happens. 236 This would change w ith a change 1n president. The re lig io u s a f f i l i a ­ tio n of th is p a rtic u la r college has supported th e e q u a lity of men and women fo r the past 350 years. Department heads are chosen by the adm in istration . have been passed over* and men chosen. Often capable women No women 1n top lev el now# none to be in next round. Males are viewed as "having the answers." I t Is very small. There a re n 't many positions lik e mine a v a ila b le . am one of three d ivisio n ch airs. I I must add here th a t a t th is In s titu tio n * department chairs carry f u ll teaching loads. Hie only powerful position held by a woman Is academic dean. But too few women In pipeline* b a rrie rs to h irin g more (mostly unconscious). Not 1n th e central adm inistration. But I t ' s not discouraging e ith e r . But not to th e highest ad m in istra tio n (1.&* the fa c u lty 1s a woman. dean). The president of Top two positions are held by men* but women f i l l many of the other ad m in istra tive positions. Was a woman's college u n til la t e 60's— women have always held adminis­ t r a t iv e posts. Our president 1s a woman— th a t helps! Too many mixed signals— I c a n 't be sure. Too many "good old boys." It 's subtle— The committees are supposed to do th e work; a c tu a lly It 's a ll done 1n "good old boy" groups. Because of th e type (form erly a l l - g i r l s number of women as respond d iffe r e n tly of college I am at* I tend to be more p o s itiv e school and s t i l l predominantly female w ith larg e fa c u lty ). I f I were somewhere else* I th in k I would to some o f your questions. N either 1s 1 t negative— more noncommittal. 237 There are none. Depends on which le v e l o f a d m in is tra tio n you're ta lk in g about— highest le v e l Si no; lower levels# yes I I am fo rtu n a te th a t I have an academic dean who values women and t r i e s to support and encourage women. Recently# th e woman c h a ir o f math department was asked to serve as v ic e -p re s id e n t fo r academic a f f a ir s (dean of fa c u lty ) during sabbatical of male v ic e -p re s id e n t I The cu rren t a d m in is tra tio n a c tiv e ly seeks fem ale ap p lican ts (r e c ru its them). I th in k women are as li k e l y to be encouraged and supported as anyone. I cannot answer th is question on a "yes” o r "no" basis. The top a d m in is tra to rs seem to value th e services of some women# but l i t t l e opportunity e x is ts fo r advancement to the top w ith in th e In s tit u tio n . I don’t see b a rrie rs fo r women a t my in s tit u tio n very often. Sometimes# men have b a rrie rs here# to o l For example# 1n th e th re e year h is to ry of fa c u lty assem. # th e re have been jic male o ffic e r s . Elsewhere— no women 1n c a b in e t-le v e l p o sitio n s . Not a t the present tim e; I t depends on who th e top ad m in istrato rs are. I am r e a lly aggravated by the concept th a t bright# In t e llig e n t women ought to be upwardly mobile. I have found th e upward tra c k to be em otionally devastating. L if e 1s too sh ortl I'm tr y in g to move downward and enjoy l i f e again. I t ' s mixed. There are# as everywhere# men 1n key p o sitio n s who have a hard tim e r e a liz in g th a t I t ' s 1985— but the general c lim a te 1s very fa vo rab le. L i t t l e such encouragement fo r men or women; le s s fo r women.... More and more q u a lific a tio n s are recognized. There 1s one high ad m in is tra to r who r e a lly d is lik e s i l l women. But o n ly _________ ? There's a woman who's the dean o f fa c u lty now. Recently a woman was appointed p res id e n t. She has made a d iffe re n c e . Being an engineering school# and engineering f i e l d dominated by men# recruitm ent a t T.S .U . 1s more fa vorab le fo r men than women. 238 T h e o re tic a lly , yes; p ra g n a tlc a lly , no. B e tte r than 1 t used to be. Increasingly so. I t 1s changing slowly. Not sure. There are few women aspiring to such positions here. Because o f lim ite d positions, no one Is p a rtic u la rly "encouraged," but I believe women are even less encouraged because of the 1ob/r o le s they presently hold. I t 1s yes and no—-recently appointed a female v ic e -p re s id e n t fo r a d m in is tra tiv e a f fa ir s — but seem to apply double standards fo r men and women. For the most p a rt. Women In power who are not w illin g to support other women and women colleagues who do not w ant/or are undecided about what they want, but are s t i l l u n w illin g to support women who do want to advance 1n adm in istration . Yes fo r lower positions since searches are done. No fo r v.p. positions since th ree hand picked (a ll men) In th is la s t year. Work load fo r a l l adm inistrators Is horrendous, however, and co n sti­ tu tes a real drawback fo r a person w ith a fa m ily . We've had a changeover 1n ad m in istratio n , and I th in k now we w i l l be more encouraged to advance. I t ' s here but not made widely known. Don't assume promotion w ith in /d evelo p s k i l l s which tra n s fe r/b e p a tie n t but voice concerns, I have more common sense plus "smarts" than anyone here. You must understand, though, th a t th is In s titu tio n 1s an anomaly. 1s owned, run, and operated a t th e highest le v e ls by s is te rs . G enerally. There's much ta lk but no real support. This 1s a very strong yes. It 239 Up to v .p . le v e l* yes. Beyond th a t* no. Depends on who you are and what you teach. In a church-related In s titu tio n * men are viewed as the primary leaders. A q u a lIfle d "yes." Women do advance* but I perceive 1t 1s due to t h e ir drive and I n i t i a ­ tiv e . Too many male chauvinists. I f the woman 1s w ell q u a lifie d and w ith in th e co n straints of the number of positions open. System seems to give preference to women and m in o ritie s . For me, given my sponsor— fo r most women* no. But th ere are not many q u a lifie d women. Undecided. A ll cabinet members Including In te rim president are women. other adm inistrators are women. Also* many Except fo r economic rewards. This 1s tru e not only a t th e college* 1t 1s c h a ra c te ris tic o f our rural geographical area. One-half o f fa c u lty : nuns. My knowledge of th is 1s very lim ite d . I b e liev e the new ad m in istration Is p o s itiv e . Sometimes = the token woman. I t seems to * although I'm new here. Not necessarily* but hot. Facts b e lle U p service. L i t t l e opportunity fo r advancement fo r men or women. For some—yes. BIBLIOGRAPHY 240 BIBLIOGRAPHY Abramson, Joan. The In v is ib le Woman. Publishers, 1975. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass A lvarez, Rodolfo. ’’In s titu tio n a l Discrim ination 1n Organizations and Th eir Environments." In D iscrim ination Jn Organizations, pp. 2 -4 9 . Edited by Rodolfo A lvarez, Kenneth G. Lutterman, and Associates. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 1979. American Association o f U n iversity Professors. 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