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Each oversize page is also filmed a s one exposure and is available, for an additional charge, as a standard 35m m slide or in black and white paper format.* 4. Most photographs reproduce acceptably on positive microfilm or micro­ fiche b ut lack clarity on xerographic copies made from the microfilm. Fbr an additional charge, all photographs are available in black a n d w hite standard 35m m slide format.* *For more information about black and white slides or enlarged paper reproductions, please contact the Dissertations Customer Services Department. T T A / I . T Dissertation v J l V l l Information Service University Microfilms International A Bell & Howell Information C om pany 3 0 0 N. Z e e b R oad, Ann Arbor, M ichigan 4 8 1 0 6 8625054 Okafor, David Chuka ADJUSTM ENT O F AFRICAN STU D EN TS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY M ic h ig a n S ta te U n iv e rs ity University Microfilms International 300 N. Zeeb Hoad, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106 P h.D . 1986 PLEASE NOTE: In alt cases this material has been filmed In the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V . 1. Glossy photographs or p ages_____ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background_____ 4. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy______ 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of p a g e _______ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages 8. Print exceeds margin requirements______ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost In spine_______ 10. t/ Computer printout pages with indistinct print______ 11. Page(s)____________ lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s)____________ seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages numbered . Text follows. 14. Curling and wrinkled pages______ 15. Dissertation contains pages with print at a slant, filmed a s received 18. ^ Other______________________________________________________________________ University Microfilms International ADJUSTMENT OF AFRICAN STUDENTS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By David Chuka O kafor A DISSERTATION S ubm itted to Michigan S ta te U niversity in partial fulfillm ent of th e requirem ents for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY D ep artm en t of Educational A dm inistration ABSTRACT ADJUSTMENT OF AFRICAN STUDENTS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY By David Chuka O kafor The general purpose of this study was to exam ine th e adjustm ent processes and experiences of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and sum m er term s o f 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity (MSU). The specific purposes w ere to identify th e adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t MSU and to exam ine th e e x te n t to which th ese problem s w ere re la te d to students' background ch aracter! sties. The sam ple consisted of 210 A frican students from 12 A frican countries. S election was based on th e fa c t th a t chosen countries had to have individual populations of five or m ore students enrolled at MSU during spring and sum m er te rm s, 1985. T he instrum ents used w ere a background inform ation questionnaire and a m odified version of th e Foreign Student Problem s C heck List. M ethodology employed w ere descriptive s ta tis tic s of m ean and standard deviation for each adjustm ent problem to determ ine the nature, scope, and v ariatio n In responses, and chi-square te s ts which also exam ined th e relationship betw een the d eg-ee of d ifficulty of each adjustm ent problem and background c h a ra c te ristic s. David Chuka Okafor R esu lts o f th e analysis in d icated th a t, as a w hole, m o st A frican stu d en ts a t MSU did not ex p erien ce v ery serious ad ju stm en t problem s. N evertheless, a considerable num ber of them c ite d som e very serious problem s in c e rta in areas o f ad ju stm e n t. The a re a s include em otional, p ersonal, and financial asp e c ts of ad ju stm e n t, w hile th e so cia l, a cad em ic, and religious asp ects of adjustm ent gave th e least problem s. The findings of th e study also indicated th a t (a) educational background was found to be associated with d ifficu lty in evaluating tra n sfe rre d course c re d its , having enough m oney fo r school expenses, and feeling hom esick; (b) length o f sta y in th e U nited S ta te s w as found to be re la te d to g ettin g acq u ain ted w ith th e ed ucational system as w ell as g e ttin g used to A m erican food; (c) geographic sub-region w as found to be associated w ith d ifficu lty in g ettin g dollar allo catio n s from hom e co u n try; and (d) source of financial support was found not to be re la te d to high cu m u lativ e grade point a v e ra g e . DEDICATION To my m o th er, D orothy O kafor, and th e a ffe c tio n a te m em ory of my la te fath er, Godwin O kafor, who, through th e ir quality exam ples, w ere m y first teach ers. They tau g h t m e to be honest, diligent, and persevering, fo r nothing w orthw hile in life com es easy. Sim ultaneously, th e y cautioned m e to guard against personal interest th a t underm ines a life of service to m y C reato r as well as to m y fellow human beings. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1 would like to begin th ese acknow ledgem ents by quoting Tuso (l?8l): The road th a t leads to the conclusion of a dissertation, and, indeed, to th e conclusion of graduate training itse lf, is narrow , o fte n long, and a t tim es tortuous. One cannot successfully com e to th e end of th is road w ithout owing a g re at deal to m any individuals. My g re a te st g ratitu d e is due to D r. Ted Ward, ch air of m y guidance co m m ittee and d issertation d irecto r. Words cannot adequately describe th e im pact he has m ade and continues to m ake in my life as my m ajor professor and m en to r. In addition, m y profound appreciation to Dr. Frank F e a r, co m m ittee m em ber, w hose c la rity of thought and constructive suggestions stim ulated my thinking and cre ativ ity ; D r. G eorge F erns, com m ittee m em ber, whose directives and dedication fo r quality academ ic work w ere very helpful in all stages of this research ; and D r. C harles Blackm an, com m ittee m em ber, whose insightful com m ents and brainstorm ing suggestions w ere very useful throughout th e period of this d issertatio n work. I am proud to say th a t they all gave m e the best co n stru ctiv e guidance any doctoral student could ask for. My special ap p reciation to all A frican students at M ichigan S ta te U niversity, p articu larly th o se who willingly p artic ip a te d in the study. My hicjh regard to fiv e N igerian graduate students who voluntarily sacrificed th e ir precious tim e in order to make my d a ta collection a huge success. They are Bessie O kafor, m y wife; Samuel Adeyemo; D are Aworuwa; Samuel Akinseinde; and Onoh Onoh. My profound g ra titu d e to M ichigan S ta te U niversity's O ffice of Intern atio n al S tudents and Scholars and to th e World Evangelical Fellow ship for th e ir assistan c e in providing funds fo r p a rt of th e com pletion of my co u rse work. Special a p p reciatio n is due t o D r. C hikezie A hia for being a sig n ifican t inspiration tow ard m y higher education. Also, m y thanks to the R everend and M rs. W ayne A m sler and to M r. and Mrs. D uane Skinner for th e ir m oral and prayerful en couragem ents during th e m ost d iffic u lt periods of our s ta y in M ichigan. F inally, m y highest regard to my w ife Bessie and our th re e children, Okechukw u, C hiedum , an d N didicm aka, for th e ir co n sisten t endurance, u nderstanding, and sa c rific e s throughout th e period of my acad em ic program . TABLE OF CONTENTS L ist of T ables vii CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION I P u rp o se of th e S tu d / O perational D efinition of C o n cep ts R esearch Q uestions C onceptual F ram ew ork L ength of S tay Exposure A djustm ent Significance of th e Study D efinition of T erm s Population and Sam ple D elim itatio n L im itatio n O rganization of th e Study 3 4 5 6 8 9 II 14 16 16 16 17 17 CHAPTER II: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE 18 Studies on A frican S tudents on A m erican C am puses S tudies on S ta g e -P a tte rn s of International S tudents' A djustm ent Studies on "U" and "W" C urve H ypotheses S tudies on In tern atio n al S tudents’ N atio n alities as a F a c to r in A djustm ent Studies on E d jc a tio n a l A djustm ents of International S tudents Studies on H ealth D ifficu lties of International S tudents Sum m ary CHAPTER 111: DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY Purpose of th e Study P opulation and Sam ple Source of Instrum ents P ilo t T est D ata C ollection T re a tm e n t of D a ta Sum m ary 18 21 24 27 31 38 42 44 44 45 46 48 49 50 50 v CH A PTER IV: R ESU .T S OF THE DATA ANALYSIS R esearch Q uestions C h a ra c te ristic s of th e Subjects in th e Sam ple R esu lts A cadem ic A djustm ent T ests of R elationship R eg istratio n U nderstanding L e c tu re s U nderstand! ng T ext books O ral R ep o rtin g Classroom R ec itin g W riting T erm P apers U sing th e L ibrary U nderstanding E xam ination P rocedures G e ttin g A cquainted w ith th e U nited S ta te s' E ducational System T ran sferrin g C o u rse C re d its C om peting fo r G rades Taking A ppropriate C ourses C ounseling Services Financial A djustm ent T e sts of R elationship G e ttin g D ollar A llocation from H om e C ountry Losing Money Through C u rren cy Exchange G e ttin g Visa E xtended W ithout Spending Much Money H aving Enough M oney fo r School Expenses Finding P a rt-tim e Jo b Perm ission to G e t P a rt-tim e Job O utside th e Cam pus by Im m igration L a v s Finding L ittle Tim e to D o Class Work Because of P a rt-tim e Job Finding A d eq uate Housing Finding E atin g F a c ilitie s W ithin Budget L im itations Personal A djustm ent T e sts of R elationship G e ttin g Used to A m erican Food H ealth F a c ilitie s R eligious A djustm ent T ests o f R elationship Finding H ousing W ithout R acial and R eligious R estrictio n s M aintaining Spiritual V ita lity Finding a F riendly W orship G roup O vercom ing R acial and Religious P re fe re n c e Em otional A djustm ent T ests of R elationship F eelin g H om esick vi 52 52 53 54 55 56 59 60 61 64 65 65 68 60 70 72 75 77 78 78 80 82 84 85 85 88 88 89 91 92 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 99 101 102 103 104 Social A djustm ent Tests of R elationship Being A ccepted in Social Groups O utside the Campus Feeling W elcom e a t Campus Functions Being A ccepted in a Friendly Group Making Personal Friends with A m erican Students Becoming Used to A m erican Value System Making Personal Friends with O ther Foreign Students Having Too Many Social Engagem ents P a rtic ip atin g F reely in A thletics and E xtracurricular A ctivities CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS Sum m ary Purpose of the Study Subjects Methodology Inform ation for Knowledge Base Findings R esearch Q uestion I R esearch Q uestion 2 R esearch Q uestion 3 R esearch Q uestion 4 Conclusions R ecom m endations For Prog-am Im plem entations For F u rth er R esearch 105 107 109 110 ill III 113 113 113 116 120 120 121 122 123 123 126 126 130 131 132 133 135 135 137 APPENDICES 139 BIBLIOGRAPHY 150 vii LIST OF TABLES LI 3.1 4.1 4.2 Number of A frican S tudents in th e U nited S ta te s and Foreign S tudent Population, 1954/55 - 1983/84 15 M jm ber and P erc en tag e of S tudents Involved in th e D istribution and R etu rn of Q uestionnaires According to Four G eographical Sub-Regions 49 P erc en tag e D istribution of Responses According to A cadem ic A djustm ent Item s 55 A ctual L~vels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elatio n ­ ship B etw een Level of A cadem ic A djustm ent D if f ic u lt a n '1 S tudents' Background C h aracteristics 57 4.3 A ctual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elation­ ship B etw een Level of A cadem ic A chievem ent A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents' Background C h aracteristics 58 4.4 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in R eg istratio n According to S tudents' M arital S tatus 5? Subgroup M eans of D ifficulty in R eg istratio n According to Students' G ender 59 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding L ectures According to Financial Support 60 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding L ectu res According to G ender of Students 61 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding L ectu res According to G eographic Sub-Reqion 61 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding Textbooks According to S tudents' Academic C lassification 6? Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding Textbooks According to C um ulative G rade P oint A verage 62 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding Textbooks According to S tudents' M arital Status 63 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 4 .1 1 VIII 4.12 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.20 4.21 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 4.28 Subgroup Means of D iffic u lt/ in U nderstanding Textbooks According to S tudents' Geographic Sub-Region 63 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Oral R eporting According to S tudents' A cadem ic C lassification 64 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Oral R eporting According to G ender of S tudents 65 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in W riting Term P apers According to Students' Academic C lassification 66 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in W riting Term P apers According to C um ulative G rade Point A verage 66 Subgroup Means o f D ifficulty in W riting Term Papers According to S tudents' M arital S tatus 67 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Writing Term P apers A ccording to S tudents' Geographic Sub-Region 67 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Using th e Library According to S tudents' Academ ic C lassification 68 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Using th e Library According to S tudents Environm ent of Upbringing 69 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding Exam ination P rocedures A ccording to C um ulative G rade P oint A verage 70 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in G etting A cquainted with the U nited S ta te s' Educational System According to Students' A cadem ic C lassification 70 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in G etting A cquainted with the U nited S tate s'E d u c a tio n a l System P rocedures According to C um ulative G rade P oint A verage 71 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in G etting A cquainted with the U nited S ta te s' Educational System According to Length of Stay in th e USA 72 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in T ransferring C ourse C redits According to S tudents' Educational Background 73 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in T ransferring C ourse C red its According to S tudents' Academ ic C lassification 73 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in T ransferring C ourse C red its According to C um ulative G rade Point A verage 74 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in T ransferring C ourse C redits According to Length of Stay in th e US 74 ix 4. 29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 4.37 4.38 4.39 4.40 4.41 4.42 4.43 4.44 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in T ransferring C ourse C re d its A ccording to S tu d en ts Environm ent of Upbringing 75 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in C om peting for G rades A ccording to S tu d ents’ A cadem ic C lassificatio n 76 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in C om peting for G rades A ccording to C u m ulative G rade P o in t A verage 76 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Taking A p p ro p riate C ourses A ccording to S tu d en ts' Environm ent of Upbringing 77 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Taking A pp ro p riate C ourses A ccording to S tu d en ts' G eoqraphic Sub-Region 78 P e rc e n ta g e D istrib ution of Responses A ccording to Financial A djustm ent Item s 80 A ctual Levels of S ignificance of Chi-Square T e sts of R elationship B etw een Level o f Financial A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tu d en ts' Background C h a ra c te ristic s 81 A ctual Levels of S ignificance of C hi-Square T e sts of R elationship B etw een Level of Financial A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tu d en ts' Background C h a ra c te ristic s 82 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in G ettin g D ollar A llocation from H om e C ountry A ccording to S ource of Financial Support 83 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in G ettin g D ollar A llocation from Hom e C ountry A ccording to G eographic Sub-Region 83 Subgroup M eans of E x te n t of Problem in C urrency Exchange A ccording to Length of Stay in th e USA 84 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Having Enough Money fo r School Expenses A ccording to S tu d en ts' E ducational Background 86 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Having Enouqh Money for School Expenses A ccording to S ources of Financial Support 86 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Having Enough Money for School Expenses A ccording to L "nnth of Stay in th e USA 87 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Having Enough Money fo r School Expenses A ccording to G eographic Sub-Region 88 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty of Perm ission to G et P art-T im e Jobs O utside th e Cam pus D ue to Im m igration Laws According to M arital S tatu s 89 x 4.45 4.46 4.47 4.48 4.49 4.50 4.51 4.52 4.53 4.54 4.55 4.56 4.57 4.58 4.59 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Having L ittle Tim e to Do Class Work B ecause o f P a rt-T im e Job A ccording to th e O rien tatio n Program R eceived 90 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Having L ittle Tim e to Do Class Work B ecause of P a rt-T im e Job A ccording to G eoqraphic Sub-Reqion 90 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Finding A dequate Housing A ccording to Lenqth of S tay in the USA 91 P e rc e n ta g e D istrib ution of R esponses A ccording to P ersonal A d ju stm en t Item s 92 A ctual Levels of S ignificance of C hi-Square T e sts of R elatio n ­ ship B etw een Level of P ersonal A djustm ent D ifficu lty and S tu d en ts'B ack g ro u n d C h a ra c te ristic s 93 A ctual Levels of S ignificance of C hi-Square T ests of R elatio n ­ ship B etw een Level o f Personal A chievem ent A djustm ent D ifficu lty and S tu d en ts' Background C h a ra c te ristic s 93 Subgroup M eans of D ifficulty in G etting Used to A m erican Food A ccording to L ength of S tay in th e USA 94 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in G etting Used to A m erican Food A ccording to th e O rien tatio n P rogram R eceived 95 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Finding A dequate H ealth C are F a c ilitie s A ccording to th e O rien tatio n Program R eceived 95 P e rc e n ta g e D istribution of R esponses A ccording to Religious A djustm ent Item s 96 A ctual L "vels of S ignificance of Chi-Square T ests of R elatio n ­ ship B etw een Level o f R eligious A djustm ent D ifficu lty and S tudents' B ackground C h a ra c te ristic s 97 A ctual L evels of S ignificance of C hi-Square T e sts of R elatio n ­ ship B etw een Level o f R eligious A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tu d en ts' B ackground C h a ra c te ristic s 98 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Finding a Friendly Worship Group According to S tudents’ A cadem ic C lassificatio n 99 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Finding a F riendly Worship Group A ccording to C um ulative G rade P o in t A verage 100 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Finding a F riendly Worship Group A ccording to G ender 100 xi 4.60 4.61 4.62 4.63 4.64 4.65 4.66 4.67 4.68 4.69 4.70 4.7! 4.72 4.73 4.74 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Finding a Friendly Worship Group According to G eographic Sub-Region 101 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Overcom ing R acial and Religious P re fe re n c e According to S tudents1 A cadem ic C lassification 102 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses According to Em otional A djustm ent Item s 103 A ctual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elation­ ship B etw een Level of Em otional A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents'B ackground C h a racteristics 103 A ctual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T e sts of R elatio n ­ ship B etw een Level of Em otional A djustm ent D ifficulty and Students' Background C h aracteristics 104 Subgroup Means of Feeling Homesick According to Students' Educational Background 104 Subgroup Means of D egrees of Feeling Homesick According to G ender 105 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses According to Social A djustm ent Item s 107 A ctual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elation­ ship B etw een Level of Social A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents' Background C h aracteristics 108 Actual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square Test of R elation­ ship B etw een Level of Social A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents'B ackground C h aracteristics 109 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Being A ccepted in Social Groups O utside th e Campus According to th e O rientation Program R eceived I 10 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Feeling Welcome a t Campus Functions According to th e O rientation Proqram R eceived I 11 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Making Personal Friends with A m erican Students According to Students' Environm ent of Upbringing 112 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Making Personal Friends with A m erican Students According to G ender I 12 Subgroup Means of E x ten t of Problem of Having Too Many Social Engagem ents which In terfere with Studies According to C um ulative G rade P o in t A verage 114 xii '‘.75 4.76 4.77 4.78 4.79 4.80 4.81 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Subgroup Means of E x te n t of Problem of Having Too Many Social E ngagem ents which In te rfe re w ith Studies A ccording to L ength of Stay in th e USA 1 14 Subgroup M eans of E x te n t of Problem of Having Too Many Social E ngagem ents which In te rfe re w ith Studies A ccording to S tudents' E nvironm ent of Upbringing 115 Subgroup M eans of E x te n t of P roblem of Having Too Many Social E ngagem ents which In te rfe re w ith Studies A ccording to th e O rien tatio n P ro aram R eceived 115 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in P a rtic ip a tin g F reely in A th letic s and E x tra c u rric u la r A ctiv ities A ccording to S tu d en ts' E ducational Background 116 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in P a rtic ip a tin g F reely in A th letic s and E x tra c u rric u la r A ctiv ities A ccording to S tudents' E nvironm ent of Upbringing 117 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in P a rtic ip a tin g F reely in A th le tic s and E x trac u rric u la r A c tiv itie s A ccording to th e E ffe ctiv e n ess of th e O rie n ta tio n P rogram R eceived 118 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in P a rtic ip a tin g F reely in A th letics and E x tra c u rric u la r A ctiv ities A ccording to G eographic Sub-Region 118 Ranked M eans of A djustm ent D ifficu lty and P erce n ta g e s of S tudents Who F aced Very Serious A djustm ent Problem s A ccording to A djustm ent A rea 126 Ranked M eans of A djustm ent D ifficu lty and P e rc e n ta g e s of S tu d en ts Who F aced Very Serious A djustm ent P roblem s: The More D ifficu lt P roblem s 127 Ranked Means of A djustm ent D ifficulty and P erc e n ta g e s o f S tu d en ts Who F aced Very Serious A djustm ent P roblem s: The Less D ifficu lt P roblem s 129 R anked M eans of A djustm ent D ifficu lty and P erce n ta g e s of S tu d en ts Who F aced Very Serious A djustm ent Problem s: The L east D ifficu lt P roblem s 130 xiii CHAPTER i INTRODUCTION The influx of stu d en ts across national te rrito rie s has a long historical tra d itio n . The history of study abroad and cross-cultural education in general d ates as far back as th e F o u rth C entury, B.C. While students g ath ered in Egypt, Babylon, and Israel at th e peak of th ese civilizations to study fo r th e priesthood, groups of young m en from various nearby lands c a n e to study a t schools of philosophy and rh eto ric in A thens (C ieslack, 1955). Rome replaced A thens as th e m ajor learning c e n te r of th e world a fte r th e fall of G reece. Students c a n e from all provinces of th e Rom an Em pire to be educated for adm inistrative functions (M etraux, 1952). During th e m edieval period, th e flow of international students was nearly h alte d because in tellectu al inquiry and a e s th e tic ideals w ere debased, but th e Tw elfth C entury ushered in th e rise of modern universities such as those a t Salerno, Bologna, P aris, M ontpellier, and Oxford (Cieslack, 1955). During th e T w en tieth C en tu ry , th e U nited S ta te s em erged as a political and econom ic power with p restige and adm iration from both friends and foes. It was a t this point th a t European universities ceased to be th e sole cen ters of higher learning fo r international students (Tuso, 1981). C onsequently, A m ericans channeled considerable funds Into scien tific technology and applied research. T heir ingenuity and c re a tiv ity immensely enhanced th e quality of academ ic institutions and m ade possible th e developm ent of unique technical research fa c ilitie s, p articu larly for science. All th e se facto rs contributed to m aking th e U nited S ta tes an a ttra c tiv e c e n te r for g reat num bers of international students. I 2 UNESCO's s ta tis tic a l rep ort (1982) showed th a t in 1979 approxim ately 900,000 stu d en ts w ere studying abroad. The breakdown of foreign students distributed in th e five leading host countries is as follows: (a) U nited S tates, 286,340 students or 34.2%; (b) F ran c e, 112,042 students or 13.4%; (c) Soviet Union, 62,942 students o r 7.5%; (d) West G erm any, 57,421 students or 6.9%; and (e) U nited Kingdom, 56,774 stu d en ts or 6.8%. It is estim ated th a t about 185 individual countries rep resen ted by th e se foreign students. According to 1983/84 d a ta , th e countries representing th e highest numbers of foreign stu d en ts in A m erican academ ic institutions as (a) Taiw an, 21,960 students; (b) Iran, 20,360 students; (c) N igeria, 20,080; (d) M alaysia, 18,150; and (e) C anada, w ith 15,150 students in A m erican in stitu tio n s. The s ta te of C alifornia has th e larg est sh are of the to tal enrollm ent w ith 47,246 foreign students, w hile th e s ta te o f Alaska has th e sm allest sh are with Engineering, business, and m at hem atics/com puter 203 foreign science top th e students. list of academ ic fields international students pursue (Open D oors, 1983/84). S tatistics fu rth er in dicate th a t in sp ite of th e current global economic crisis, foreign stu d en t enrollm ent will continue to increase. It is predicted th a t the cu rren t num ber of international students studying in United S tates' colleges and universities could double by 1990 (Newsweek, 1982). In view of th e se fa c ts, international students continue to face numerous and endless adjustm ent problems. D unnett (1981), of th e N ational A ssociation for Foreign Student A ffairs, sta te d : Not only have U.S. institutions of hicjier education been in d ifferen t to th e adjustm ent problem s of foreign students, th ey have also given little atten tio n to such problem s as the relevancy of A m erican educational program s for th e developing world, (p. II) Usually a considerable an o u n t of a tte n tio n is given to new ly-arrived students from abroad: airport greetings by college officials, te a s, receptions, 3 invitations to visit hom es, appearances a t local R o ta ry Clubs, and so fo rth . But when th e cheering has stopped, when th e business of th e s o n e s te r / b a r t e r gets underway, when class assig im en ts are given, quizzes adm inistered, exam inations graded, th e foreign student often feels th a t s/h e is in an unfriendly, alm ost h o stile and uncaring environm ent (Cable, 1974). No m a tte r how sincere and in tellig en t th e foreign stu d ent and no m a tte r how prepared s/he and th e college m ay be, th e problems encountered are m yriad (Connolly, 1967). As one fo re ig i student advisor clearly em phasized, foreign students fa c e an unfam iliar academ ic sy stem , new kinds of exam inations, language, finances, relationships w ith o th er students, housing, and so forth (Putncm , I960). o fte n one of th e biggest obstacles It is suggested th a t impeding sa tisfa c to ry adjustm ent of international students is instructors' lack of aw areness th a t th ey a re dealing with a special kind of human being--one w ith d iffe re n t cultural backgrounds, a ttitu d e s, and special needs (Cable, 1974). Foreign students should be seen beyond a m ere bunch of em pty vessels to be filled w ith inform ation and theories. Their needs cannot be reduced only to tech n icalities such as housing, English proficiency, and visas. F oreigi students belong to rich cultures th a t o ften extend thousands of years behind th em . They need to be understood and rec o g iize d as people whose experience and cu ltu re are crucial in building international dialogue and understanding (Fasheh, 1984). Purpose of the Study The general purpose of th is study is to exam ine th e adjustm ent processes and experiences of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and sum m er term s o f 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. The specific purposes of th e study a re : I. to id en tify th e adjustm ent problems of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and sum m er term s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity; A 2. to exam ine th e ex ten t to which adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity are related to se le c te d dem ographic facto rs: f a n ily incom e (in hom e country), educational background before coming to th e U nited S ta te s, size of f a n ily (in home country), environm ent of up-bringing, length of previous job experience, orientation program s received, and trav elin g experience; 3. to exam ine th e ex ten t to which adjustm ent problems of A frican stu d en ts a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity are related to th eir contem porary experiences and conditions: levels of academ ic achievem ent, academ ic classifications, sources of financial support, personal and social lives, length of stay in th e U nited S tate s, ag e, m arital s ta tu s , gender, and religion: A. to exam ine th e ex ten t to which adjustm ent problems of A frican stu d en ts at Michigan S ta te U niversity are related to th e ir geographic sub-regions; and 5. to o ffe r, on th e basis of th e findings, suggestions and recom m endations th a t will enhance th e alleviation of adjustm ent problem s and d ifficulties of A frican students a t Michigan S ta te U niversity; and insofar as relevant to o th er A frican students a t m ajor United S tates public universities. O perational D efinition of C oncepts Since th e dem ographic variables under investigation a re categ o rized into som e conceptual arrangem ents, i t is essential to establish a baseline of definitions for each concept. For th e purpose of th is study, th e re fo re , th e se concepts are defined as follows: 1. fam ily incom e: th e estim ated annual incom e of the fam ily in the home country; 2. educational background: th e ex ten t of educational training received prior to arrival in th e U nited S tates. It includes prim ary, secondary, and university levels of educational training; 3. size of fam ily: th e num ber of people th a t m ake up th e fam ily in th e home country. This Includes fa th e r, m o th er, and Im m ediate brothers and sisters; A. environm ent of up-bringing: w hether th e environm ent in which one spent th e m ost part of his/her early life was rural with a population of less th an 5000 residents or urban w ith a population of m ore than 5000 residents; 5 5. length of previous job experience: number of months or years one had been em ployed in ni s/her Rome country before com ing to th e U nited S tates; 6. pre-departure o rie n ta tio n : the e x te n t to which pre-inform ation and knowledge ab o u t A m erican culture and system of education played a role on adjustm ent experience; 7. traveling ex p erien ce: the ex ten t of traveling outside one's hom e country Defore com ing to th e U nited S tates; G .C.E.: general c e rtific a te of education, th e equivalent of secondary education; 9. secondary school education; the acknowledged link betw een prim ary and university (college) education; 10. technical education; th e aspect of education which leads to th e acquisition of p ractical and applied skills as well as basic scie n tific knowledge (National Policy on E ducation, 1978-79); and 11. polytechnic edu cation: a post-secondary education th a t prepares students for m iddle-level technical manpower needs. R esearch Questions 1. What is th e n atu re and scope of adjustm ent problems of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and sum m er te rm s of 1985 a t Michigan S ta te U niversity? 2. To w hat e x te n t a re adjustm ent problems of A frican students at Michigan S ta te U niversity related to selected dem ographic facto rs? The sp ecific questions are: 3. 2.1 To w hat e x te n t are adjustm ent problems re la te d to educational backgrounds? 2.2 To w hat e x te n t are adjustm ent problems related to environm ent of upbringing. 2.3 To w hat ex ten t a re adjustm ent problems related to m arital statu s? 2.4 To w hat ex ten t are adjustm ent problems re la te d to gender c h a racteristics? To w hat e x te n t are adjustm ent problem s re la te d to contem porary experiences and conditions of A frican students a t Michigan S ta te U niversity? 6 4. 3.1 To w hat ex ten t are adjustm ent problem s related to sources of financial support? 3.2 To w hat e x ten t are adjustm ent problems re la te d to academ ic classifications? 3.3 To w hat ex ten t are adjustm ent problems related to grade point average? 3.4 To w hat ex ten t are adjustm ent problems re la te d to length of sta y in th e U nited S ta te s? 3.5 To w hat ex ten t are adjustm ent problem s related to o rien tatio n program s received? To w hat e x te n t a r e adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity related to geographic su b re g io n s? Conceptual Fram ew ork The concept of ad justm ent was originally a biological one and was a cornerstone in D arw in's (1859) th eo ry of evolution. In biology th e term commonly employed was ad a p ta tio n . Darwin m aintained th a t only th o se species m ost fitte d to adapt to th e hazards of th e physical world survived. The biological concept of adaptation has been borrow ed by psychologists and renam ed ad ju stm en t. Adjustm ent and ad ap tatio n to g eth er rep resen t a functional prospective for viewing and understanding human and animal behavior. That is, behavior is seen as having th e function of dealing w ith or m astering demands th a t a re m ade upon an individual by his/her environm ent (Lazarus, 1969). The conceptual fram ew ork of th is study will focus on th e relationship among th re e cross-cultural education variables: length of sta y , amount of exposure, and degree of adjustm ent and a ttitu d e change. The theo retical model used fo r this conceptual analysis is th e one developed by A 1-Banyan (1980). C ross-cultural education, like mcny te rm s in social sciences, has no uniform ity of definition. Smith (1956) identified it as "a process of learning and 7 adjusting." In o th er words, cross-cultural education is the reciprocal process of learning and ad justm ent which occurs when individuals sojourn fo r educational purposes in a so cie ty th a t is culturally foreign to them , norm ally retu rn in g to th eir own so ciety a f te r a lim ited period of tim e. Siegel (1956), on th e o th e r hand, used th e concept of interchangeability w ith th a t of acculturation: 'T h e sojourn of foreign stu d en ts in a host country, w hatever special c h a ra c te ristic s it m ay have, is clearly a ccu ltu ratio n ." an instance of what th e anthropologists have labeled Likew ise, H erm an and Schild (I960) described cross-cultural education as "a process ch aracterized by th e change In perception, in evaluation, and in actio n occurring in individuals socialized in one cu ltu re as a resu lt of th e ir sojourn fo r educational purposes in a foreign culture." A ccording to A 1-Banyan (1980), th ese definitions suggest a num ber of ways of viewing th e foreign students' experiences in a cross-cultural co n te x t. He argues th a t (a) th e international stu d en t has an explicit educational purpose. This purpose distinguishes him /her from both th e to u rist and the im m igrant; (b) th e international stu d en t is exposed to th e norms and values of th e host country during his/her stay , since unlike the tourist he is com pelled, as Sm ith (1956) pointed o u t, to reach a point of co-existence with th e host c u ltu re fo r th e duration of his/her stay; and (c) th e host cu ltu re is "foreign" to the visiting stu d en t. This m eans s/he en ters a situation which is new to him /h er, and th e "cultural norms learned a t hom e no longer are relevant to this new situation." To achieve his/her educational objectives, th e foreign student has to develop m ental a ttitu d e s and p attern s of behavior com patible w ith and congruent to th e modes of living in th e new cu ltu re. The foregoing discussion provides th e basis for identifying th re e key variables: length of stay , exposure, and adjustm ent. This leads to em phasis on 8 th e specific relationships betw een th ese variables and changes in a ttitu d e s of foreign students tow ard th e ir traditional cultural values. L ength of S tay The e ffe c t of length of s ta y is considered to have an im portant im pact on a ttitu d e change in tw o fashions: (a) it has a d ire ct im pact on a ttitu d e change, th a t is, th e sim ple fa c t of an individual living in a new cu ltu re over a period of tim e m ay arouse m otivation for re-evaluation based on passive observation alone; and (b) fo r a ttitu d e change to be effe c te d by th e variables of exposure and adju stm en t, th e re m ust be a minimum period of tim e in which th ey m ay o p e ra te . Coelho (1958) m aintained th a t th e duration of foreign educational experience is a cru cially im portant variable in cultural learning, th a t th e student's o rien tatio n s to his/her referen ce groups would show increasingly d iffe re n tia te d responses w ith increasing length of sojourn To illu stra te this fu rth e r, several authors argued th a t th e re are th re e phases involved in a ttitu d e change of foreign students. F irst com es a s p e c ta to r phase during which th e student observes life around him /her, tak in g p art in it superficially but not becom ing activ ely Involved. The second phase is c h aracterize d by an e ffo rt on the part of a student to find a place for h im /herself in th e new environm ent and to define a new and com plex social order w hose stru c tu re is so d ifferen t from th a t of his/her hom e cu ltu re . In th e third phase, th e stu d en t com es to term s with th e new environm ent and establishes sta b le p attern s of behavior. This phase seems to m ark a turning point in adjustm ent from old to new (Beals & Humphrey, 1957; Coelho, 1958; S eitiz e t al., 1963). 9 Exposure Al-Banyan (1980) arg u es th a t, While exposure and adjustm ent obviously are in te rre la te d , th e r e is reason to s e p a ra te th e m an aly tically , a t least to begin w ith. Since adjustm ent logically presupposes exposure and because, unlike adjustm ent, som e am ount of exposure Is au to m atic by v irtu e of th e stu d en t’s m erely being in a host country. With th e assum ption th a t a foreign stu d e n t is s itu a te d betw een and w ithin tw o cu ltu ra l environm ents, one m ay conclude th a t in the new environm ent the stu d en t m ay in ev itab ly have to engage in behaviors inconsistent w ith th e a ttitu d e s and behavioral modes which s/h e has developed in the hom e environm ent, (p. 8) This incongruity b etw een p resen tly required behaviors and previously acquired a ttitu d e s is likely to c r e a te som e d egree of psychological disequilibrium . While th e n atu re of th is disequilibrium is of som e in te re s t, th e concern h ere is w ith its resolution, th a t is, w ith th e o utcom es of th e b eh av io r-attitu d e incongruity and its relev an ce to changes in a ttitu d e . If th e foregoing assum ption is c o rre c t, th e th eo ry of c o g iitiv e dissonance is of significance sin ce th e incongruity betw een in tern atio n al stu d en ts' behavior and th e ir a ttitu d e s is a special case of a dissonant relationship. In A Theory of C ognitive D issonance, F estin g er (1957) sum m arized dissonance th eo ry as follow s: (I) There m ay ex ist dissonant or "non-fitting" relatio n s am ong cognitive elem en ts; (2) th e e x isten c e of dissonance gives rise to pressures to red u ce th e dissonance and to avoid increases in dissonance; (3) m a n ife statio n s of th e o peration of th e se pressures include behavior changes, changes of cognition, and circum spect exposure to new in fo rm atio n and new opinions, (p. 31) D issonance th eo ry holds th a t when an individual's behaviors are incongruent w ith h is/h er a ttitu d e s th e individual will ex p erien ce a psychological disequilibrium called dissonance th a t can be dissolved by various ways. One of th e m ost d ire c t w ays involves sim ply changing a ttitu d e s so th a t th ey a re co n sisten t w ith behaviors (Rosenberg e t a l., I960). re sista n c e fo r a foreign stu d en t. This would seem to be th e p a th of least Since s/h e m ust yield to th e behavioral dem ands of th e new cu ltu re in order to fulfill e ffe c tiv e ly h is/h er prim ary 10 o b jectiv e of being th e re , subsequent dissonance-reducing a ttitu d e changes follow alm ost o u t of n ecessity . To go In th e o th e r d ire ctio n , th a t is, to revise behaviors back to th e ir original co nsistency w ith hom e cultural a ttitu d e s, would be ta n tam o u n t to w ithdraw al and to c o m p artm e n ta llza tio n . In o th er w ords, to s e p a ra te new behaviors and old a ttitu d e s in to u n related sy stem s c e rta in ly would becom e not only an aw kw ard but unnecessary stra in o v er long periods of tim e . A sh ift of a ttitu d e s in a direction co n sisten t w ith behavior gains m om entum , and h ere th e e ffe c ts of exposure a re m ost d ire c t (A l-Banyan, 1980). Considering F estin g er's (1957) assertio n th a t "if a person is trying t o reduce dissonance by changing som e opinion held, th en th a t person will be v ery rec ep tiv e to com m unications a tte m p tin g to influence him /her in th a t d ire ctio n ." Thus, w hile an in tern a tio n al stu d en t's exposure to a new way of life leads to dissonance-arousing situ atio n s, exposure m ay also becom e an e ffe c tiv e m echanism fo r dissonance red u ctio n . The o p p ortunities fo r exposure are num erous. Providing th a t th e stu d e n t does not iso late h im /h erself from th e new surroundings since th e need to establish oneself requires th e student to learn a p p ro p riate a ttitu d e s and behaviors, c e rta in kinds of exposure a re inevitable. u nderstand th e new The stu d en t's need to language, fo r exam ple, leads him /her co n v ersatio n w ith n ativ es of th e host country. to engage in Feelings of loneliness lead th e stu d e n t to read new spapers and m agazines, w atch telev isio n , e tc . The stu d en t m ay be in vited to hom e visits o r social functions. If single, s/h e m ay d a te . In all c a se s, th e re is am ple o p p ortunity fo r th e stu d en t to receiv e larg e doses of an o th e r cu ltu ral w ay of life , ranging from w atching a com m ercial show on television to a d eep personal relatio n sh ip . Social scie n tists in te re ste d In th e a re a of in tern atio n al stu d en t ex p erien ces arg u e th a t foreign experiences se rv e as a c a ta ly tic fo rc e , th a t m any of th o se who have had assured th e ir fcm ilies and II friends b efo re they le ft for abroad th a t they would not s tra y from th eir hom eland values as had o thers who preceded them had conceded, upon returning, th a t they, to o , had changed (Useem & Useem , 1955). A djustm ent In analyzing th e definition of cross-cultural education, th e im portance of viewing an international student from th e perspective of a stran g er was briefly inferred; in this co n tex t, i t becomes essential for th e student to learn the required behavior of th e host country. To achieve educational goals, a new cultural assim ilation becom es inevitable. In other words, once exposed to the new behavioral dem ands of th e host country, a visiting student m ust eith er adjust or withdraw and, assum ing behavioral adjustm ents are m ade, cognitive adjustm ents m ust follow to reconcile new norms with form er ways of thinking. Behavioral guidelines and cognitive maps developed in the home cu ltu re in m any cases prove to be irrelevant or inadequate devices fo r coping with th e changed situation (Al-Banyan, 1980). How does this preceding discussion re la te to a ttitu d e change? There is an argum ent th a t th e form ation and m odification of a ttitu d e s a re closely tied to th e interplay betw een adjustm ent and learning (Smith, 1956). The learning required fo r e ffec tiv e adjustm ent draws a student into e v e r-g re a te r fam iliarity with th e flow of life in the new environm ent. As the student comes to know w hat is necessary fo r effectiv e coping in a host country—and why th a t is so—th e student's cognitive base fo r appraising h is/h er homeland broadens into many th e re to fo re untouched areas. With th ese evaluative cap acities expanded, so also are th e possibilities for a ttitu d e change. K atz and Stolend (1959) listed th e com ponents of an a ttitu d e as a ffe c tiv e , cognitive, and conative. The a ffe c tiv e com ponent re fe rs to th e em otion or 12 feeling a tta c h e d to an a ttitu d e o b ject. This com ponent is th e cen tral asp ect of th e a ttitu d e ; since i t is m ost closely related to th e evaluation of th e o b je c t, it is th e a ffe c tiv e elem ent which d ifferen tiates attitu d in al evaluation and intellectu al appraisal. The cognitive com ponent re fers to a person's knowledge or beliefs (co rrect or in co rrect) about an o b ject. This can v ary from knowledge of som e minimal cue necessary to define th e ob ject to a full and d etailed description of th e object and beliefs about it. The conative com ponent refers to a person's behavioral readiness to respond to an o b ject (K atz & Stolend, 1959). T hese com ponents of attitu d e s a re regarded as both distinctive and in te rre la te d , fo r to ev alu ate an object or symbol of th a t o b ject, som e cognitive processes are necessary. The object must be recognized and m ust be related a t le a st sim ply to o th er o b jects or beliefs (K atz & Stolend, 1959). C onversely, a person m ay have beliefs about various objects and aspects of his/her w orld, but th e se are not a ttitu d es unless an attrib u tio n of good or bad qualities accom panies th e specific beliefs. Sim ilarly, n eith er can belief about nor evaluation of an o b ject be established as a developed a ttitu d e w ithout a concurrent conative com ponent, th a t is, w ithout the individual's experiencing som e degree of impulse to respond behaviorally to th e o b ject. This in terrelated n ess of a ttitu d e com ponent provides a basis for inference concerning a ttitu d e change. T hat is, one m ay conjecture in th e o th er. For instance, a change in the cognitive com ponent brought about by exposure to new inform ation about th e a ttitu d e o b ject m ay m o tiv ate an individual to reev alu ate, i.e,, change his/h er a ttitu d e tow ard th a t o b ject. Or, if changed circum stances require th a t th e person change his/her behavior (conative com ponent) tow ard an o b jec t, th e person m ay ultim ately be m otivated to change both th e a ffe c tiv e and cognitive com ponents of his/h er a ttitu d e tow ard th is o b ject. 13 These re fle c t o ttitu d in al changes th a t were inferred in th e discussion of th e th re e independent variables of th is study and form th e basis of th e th eo retic a l fram ew ork. As a foreign student's s ta y is extended, as s/h e is exposed to m ore asp ects of a new cu ltu re, as s/he adjusts thoughts* feelings, and actions to m eet new environm ental demands, th e student's attitu d in al s tru c tu re is su b jected to powerful inputs. As tim e goes on, th e im pact of exposure and th e dem ands of adjustm ent m ake th eir influence fe lt and a ttitu d e begins to change. It is within th is co n tex t of th e international student's experiences th a t th e design of the conceptual fram ew ork of this study Is built. Al-Banyan's (1980) th eo retic al relationship within th e se variables—length of s ta y , am ount of exposure, d egree of adjustm ent, and a ttitu d e change—follow th is sequence (see F igure I). Exposure to A m erican values and norms Length of s ta y in the U nited S ta tes N v / \ A lteration of a ttitu d e A djustm ent to A m erican cultural environment F igure I: AI-Banyan's (1980) a ttitu d e change sequence. This conceptual schem a is an intervening m odel; th at is to sa y th a t th e tw o variables of adjustm ent and exposure are viewed as intervening variables which would eith er in crease or reduce the relationship betw een th e independent v ariab le, length of stay , and th e dependent variable, a ttitu d e change. This im plies th a t the e ffe c t of length of sta y on an international student’s a ttitu d e s 14 tow ard his/her hom e cultural values would be conditioned by both exposure and adjustm ent. If th e student is frequently exposed to A m erican cultural values and norm s through co n ta cts w ith Am erican people and p articip atio n in A m erican life and becom es b e tte r adjusted during his/her sta y , th e relationship betw een length of s ta y and a ttitu d e change should be stronger; if th e exposure is infrequent and adjustm ent is poor, th e relationship would weaken or disappear. Significance of th e Study Each year a g rea t num ber of A frican students com e to study in A m erican colleges and universities and have a g reat many adjustm ent problem s. S tatistics reveal th a t during th e 1960-61 academ ic year, which was th e epoch of political freedom to most A frican countries, th e num ber of A frican students studying in th e USA was 2,831. During th e 1983-84 academ ic y ear, th is num ber jum ped to 41,690 (Adam , Julian, & Loan, 1983-84). The in crease in numbers of A frican stu d en ts in th e U nited S tate s along with foreign student population growth a r e shown in Table 1.1. The increasing num ber of A frican stu d en ts, th e re fo re , suggests re-exam ination of th e ir adjustm ent problem s and difficulties tow ards reducing th em . On this basis, th e significance of this study derives from the following outcom es: 1. inform ation on the nature and scope of adjustm ent difficulties facing A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity in order to provide p ractical suggestions; 2. additions to th e d a ta base to M ichigan S ta te U niversity's heads of d ep artm en ts, admissions' officials, adm inistrators, in stru cto rs, foreign student counselors and advisors, as well as others in te re ste d in prom otion of th e w elfare of foreign students in g en eral. 15 T ab le 1.1 N um ber of A frican S tudents in th e U nited S ta te s and F oreign S tudent P opulation, 1954/55 - 1983/84 F oreign Students Total A frican S tudents 1954/55 34,232 1,234 3.6 1959/60 48,486 1,959 4.0 1964/65 82,045 6,855 8.4 1969/70 134,959 7,607 5.6 1974/74 154,580 18,400 11.9 1979/80 286,340 36,180 12.6 1983/84 338,890 41,690 12.3 Y ear P ercen tag e Total S ource: A dam , Ju lian , and L aan, Open D oors, pp. 14-15. 3. useful inform ation fo r A frican hom e governm ents and th e ir educational a tta c h e s o v erseas and also for p ro sp ectiv e A frican stu d en ts studying in the U nited S ta te s in order th a t th e y m ay p rep are th em selv es adequately and plan accordingly prior to th e ir arrival here. 4. in creased aw areness, understanding, and level of appreciation for ad ju stm en t problem s facin g A frican students on A m erican cam puses; 5. in creased level of understanding and a c c e p ta n c e of o th e r peoples' cultural uniqueness, th ereb y advancing in tern a tio n al relatio n s and cooperation; 6. additions to th e ex istin g knowledge concerning th e problem s of in tern a tio n al stu d en ts in general; and 7. basis fo r fu rth e r research tow ard reducing adjustm ent problem s of fo reig n stu d en ts. 16 D efinition of Term s D efinitions of m ajor term s in this study are shown below. A cculturation: th e process whereby an individual or a group acquires th e cultural c h a ra c te ristic s of another through direct c o n ta c t and social in tera c tio n . A djustm ent: th e technique whereby an individual responds to changes in his/her environm ent by altering responses to keep behavior appropriate to new environm ental demands. A frican stu d en ts: th o se students currently enrolled a t M ichigan S ta te Uni versity whose country of origin is one of those on th e A frican con tin en t, excluding th e Republic of South A frica (Tuso, 1981). Analysis: breaking up of a whole into its fundam ental component p arts in order to understand th e essential featu res. A ssim ilation: a s ta te in which an individual has com e to accept his/her new cultural environm ent and no longer feels like an outsider (P ru itt, 1978). C ross-cultural education: the reciprocal process of learning and adjustm ent th a t occurs when individuals sojourn for educational purposes in a so c ie ty th a t is culturally foreign to them , norm ally returning to th e ir own society a fte r a lim ited period of tim e (Smith, 1956). Population and Sample The ta rg e t populationof this study consists of all A frican students a t Michigan S ta te U niversity. The scm ple was 210 students from 12 selected A frican countries. The selction of these nations was based on th e fa c t th a t th e sele cted couvtries had to have individual populations of five or m ore students who enrolled during th e spring and summer term s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. Del im itation Since it is not feasible to include every A frican student in th e U nited S tate s in th e study, i t becom es necessary to delim it the study to a sele c te d g*oup of A frican students a t Michigan S ta te U niversity for m anagem ent purposes. 17 1. The subjects of th e s tu d / will be lim ited to a sele cted group of A frican stu d en ts who enrolled during spring and sum m er te rm s, 1985, a t Michigan S ta te U niversity. 2. The inquiry of th e study will be lim ited to inform ation on sele cted dem ographic background and contem porary conditions and experiences of the students. 3. D ie inform ation obtained in th e study wilt be re stric te d by th e n atu re and scope of th e instrum ents employed. L im itation The g enerality of th e study is lim ited because th e research is specifically delim ited to a selected group of A frican students a t one m ajor U nited S tates university. The findings, how ever, can be generalized with caution to al) A frican stu d en ts a t m ajor U nited S ta te s public universities. O rganization of the Study An outline of th e study concerning th e analysis of adjustm ent process in th e case o f A frican stu d en ts at M ichigan S ta te U niversity is as follows. C h ap ter I contains th e background of th e study, th e purpose of th e study, operational definitions of concepts, research questions, hypotheses, conceptual fram ew ork, significance of th e study, definitions of te rm s, delim itations, and lim itations of th e study. C h ap ter II presents a review of related lite ra tu re p e rtin e n t to th e problem under consideration. C hapter ill presents th e m ethodology of the study, purpose of the study, population and sam ple, source of instrum ents, pilot te s t, d ata collection, and tre a tm e n t d a ta . C hapter IV contains th e sta tistic a l results and a discussion o f the findings. C h ap ter V presen ts a sum m ary, conclusions, and recom m endations for program im plem entation and fo r fu rth e r research. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE C hapter II Is divided into seven m ajor sections containing a review of th e lite ra tu re related to this study. The topic areas included in the review are studies on (a) A frican students on A m erican ccrnpuses, (b) s ta g e -p a tte rn s of international students' adjustm ent, (c) "U" and "W" curve hypotheses, (d) international students1 n ationalities as a fa c to r in adjustm ent, (e) educational acflustments o f international students, and (f) h ealth d ifficulties of International stu d ents, as well as (g) a sum m ary. Studi es on A frican Students on Am erican Cam puses Hanson (1972), in his doctoral study a t th e U niversity of M ichigan, sta tis tic a lly analyzed th e d a ta collected in 1961 by th e International In stitu te of Education to determ ine fa cto rs associated with academ ic achievem ent of A frican students in th e U nited S tates. Among personal facto rs, m arital status and country of origin w ere found to be associated with academ ic achievem ent, w hile gender, age, and length of sta y in the U nited S tates w ere not associated with academ ic achievem ent. Among educational fa c to rs, academ ic class, field of study, indecision concerning course selection, courses w ith no fu tu re occupational application, d ifficulty with studies, and self-evaluation of academ ic success com pared to other foreign students w ere found to be related to academ ic achievem ent. Proficiency in English language (i.e., self-assessed) and satisfa ctio n w ith educational program s in th e U ntied S ta te s w ere not found to be 18 19 significant. Financial facto rs w ere found to be unrelated to academ ic achievem ent. F u rth erm o re, size and locations of academ ic institutions w ere found to be related to academ ic achievem ent am ong A frican stu d en ts. In an a tte m p t to identify th e m ajor variables pertaining to scholastic facto rs related to academ ic achievem ent of N igerian students in th e U nited S ta te s, Ohuche (1967) carried out a study of 1882 Nigerian students in th e U nited S tates during th e 1966-67 academ ic year. O f the to tal number, 1426 w ere undergraduates and 456 w ere graduate stu d en ts, th e findings indicated th a t th ere was no sig iifican t difference betw een academ ic achievem ent and previous educational background (as m easured by grades in th e school c e rtific a te exam ination) and source of financial support or location w here undergraduate education was obtained (w hether In th e USA or elsew here). The study indicated, how ever, th a t undergraduates who com pleted the Higher School C e rtific a te (HSC) for two years of additional schooling a fte r secondary school perform ed b e tte r academ ically than those who did not. In another study of A frican students, C lark (1963) surveyed Ghanian students in th e U nited S tates with th e aim of investigating th e ir cross-cultural academ ic experiences. The findings discovered th a t those students w ith governm ent scholarships perform ed b e tte r academ ically than those who did not have governm ent scholarships, th a t m arried students were m ore satisfied with th e ir grades than unm arried students, and th a t those students enrolled in accred ited institutions perform ed b e tte r academ ically than those in non­ ac c re d ite d institutions. The study also revealed th a t those 30 years of age or older w ere m ore satisfied w ith th e ir grades than those under 30 years of age and th a t those students with th e advanced level of th e G eneral C e rtific a te of Education (GCE) o r Its equivalent perform ed b e tte r academ ically than those with 20 few er qualifications. Finally, th e author found th a t those in th e last tw o phases of cultural adjustm ent were m ore successful than those in th e firs t tw o phases. In his study of adaptation by A frican students on A m erican cam puses, P ru itt (1978) found th a t th e m ajor d ifficulties facing A frican stu d en ts included w eather changes, com m unication, discrim ination, depression, tiredness, and hom esickness. With tim e, th e study m aintained, m ost of th ese problems dim inished, although fatig u e and depression w ere persistent problem s. P ru itt (1978) also rep o rted th a t a large num ber of th e A frican students w ere satisfied w ith th eir educational experiences in th e Uni ted S tates, w hile only a few of them fe lt com fortable with th e Am erican value system , dating p ractices, clim ate, friendship, and food. It was indicated th a t N igerians and governm ent-sponsored stu d en ts responded with above-average adjustm ent, while self-supported and Ethiopian students rep o rted below -average adjustm ent. Finally, th e study showed th a t th e m ajority of th e respondents w ere negative tow ard religious p ractices while in th e United S ta te s. Essien (1975) a t Kansas S ta te U niversity investigated th e in teractio n s, perceptions, and a ttitu d e s of m a le N igerian students tow ard th e U nited S ta te s. The resu lts reported th a t m ost of the respondents did not in te ra c t freely w ith A m ericans. However, th e students in tera cted m ore freely with black A m ericans than w ith w hite A m ericans. In general, th e study showed th a t the students had friendly attitu d e s tow ard A m ericans. Fam ily ties among A m ericans, th e study suggested, w ere w eaker in the U nited S tates than in N igeria. Lastly, th e stu d en ts w ere satisfied w ith Am ericans' personal c h a ra c te ristic s. In another study Arubayi (1979) of Kansas S ta te U niversity identified problems as perceived by Nigerian students. identified problem s included financial difficulties. The findings rep o rted th a t Respondents who obtained th e ir undergraduate degrees from universities abroad reported m ore problems, 21 and, except in financial aid , undergraduates had m ore problems than g rad u ates. The study also revealed th a t fem ale students had m ore problems th an th eir m a le counterparts; and Moslem respondents experienced m ore problem s than C hristians in th e a rea s of academ ic records, th e English language, and personal and social activ ities. Finally, Arubayi reported th a t th o se students in th e field of hum anities had m ore problems, while those in v eterin ary m edicine experienced few problems. Students on S tag e-P attern s of International Students' A djustm ent Many social sc ie n tists in th e area of cross-cultural education have w ritte n considerably about "stag c-p attern s" of adjustm ent in foreign cu ltu res. Adler (1975) viewed th e adjustm ent of a sojourner as a transitional experience reflectin g a m ovem ent from a stag e of low self- and cultural-aw areness to a s ta te of high self- and cultural aw areness. The author described five phases through which a sojourner goes during th e adjustm ent process: 1. a co n tac t phase ch aracterized by excitem ent and euphoria during which th e individual views th e new environm ent eth n o cen trically , is m are attu n ed to cultural differences; 2. a disinteg-ation phase m arked by tension, confusion, alienation, depression, and w ithdraw al, during which cultural differences increasingly becom e noticeable and interpersonal prediction is d eflated ; 3. a rein teg ratio n phase which is ch aracterized by a strong rejection of th e second cu ltu re, defensive projection of personal d ifficu lties, lim itation of relationships to fellow nationals, and an ex isten tial choice to regress to e arlier phases or to m ove closer to resolution and personal growth; 4. an autonom y sta g e m arked by Increasing sensitivity, skill and understanding of th e host nationals and cu ltu re , and (perhaps overestim ated ) feelings of expertise); and 5. an independence stag e m arked by a cherishing of cultural d ifferences and relativism ; behavior th a t is expressive, c re a tiv e , m utually tru stin g , and sensitive; and, m ost im portant, increased self- and cultural-aw areness enabling th e individual to undergo 22 fu rth e r life transitions and to discover additional ways to explore human diversity, (p. 13) Significantly, It should be observed th a t A dler's stages have strong resem blance to Oberg*s (I960) stag es. N evertheless, th e self-actualizing nature of A dler's final transitional step indicates th a t the individual who has reached th e final stag e should be b e tte r prepared for a th ird cross-cultural adaptation. In co n tra st, Oberg's stages make no explicit prediction of facilitated adjustm ent in fu tu re cross-cultural experiences. Church (1982) adds th e se com m ents: Stage models of sojourner adjustm ent encounter inherent conceptual and m ethodological difficulties In classifying individuals. Is th e order of stages invariant? Must all stages be passed through or can some be skipped by som e individuals? In order to classify indivickfals, key indicators of each sta g e are needed, indicators th a t m ay vary with th e c u ltu re of origin or be indicative of m ore than one stag e, re fle c tin g superficial adjustm ent in an early stag e but a tru e "com ing-to-term s" with th e new culture in a la te r stag e. Such difficu lties m ust be resolved if stages of adjustm ent are to be predictive and useful for o th er than post hoc, descriptive purposes. (p. 541) In his description of the transitional phenomenon, Oberg (I960) outlined four stag es of th e experience. 1. firs t, a "honeymoon" ch aracterized by fascination, elation, and optim ism lasting from a day to less than six m onths, depending on how soon th e re a lity of everyday coping and com m unication with th e new cu ltu re begins; 2. a second stage c h aracterize d by hostile and em otionallystereo ty p ed a ttitu d e s tow ard th e host country and increased association w ith fellow sojourners; 3. a th ird stag e called a "recovery" stage which is ch aracterized by in creased language knowledge and a b ility to get around in th e new cu ltu re , a b e tte r a ttitu d e tow ard th e host people, and an increased sense of humor; and 4. a fo u rth stag e when adjustm ent is about as com plete as possible, an x iety is largely gone, and new custom s a re accep ted and enjoyed, (p. 177) 23 C ontributing fu rth e r on the topic, Dubois (1956) argued in favor of five phases which she described as th e following: 1. a sp ectato r phase c h aracterize d by psychological detachm ent from th e new ex p erience, things happen to th e visitor which s/he notes as expected, stran g e, or novel, w hile th e experience m ay be in terestin g , exciting, confusing, or even hum iliating, th e visitor is p ro tected from serious distress or m ajor influence since s/he is not yet personally involved in th e new scene; 2. an adaptive phase m arked by ac tiv e involvem ent in the problem of adjustm ent to th e life of th e host country. Adjust!ve stresses becom e prom inent and th e visitor trie s out his/her rep erto ire of adjustive stra te g ie s and ta c tic s . During this tim e, the sojourner first begins to p a rtic ip a te and engage in the netw ork of values, custom s, and habits prevalent in th e host country. A djustm ent stresses, w hether minor or m ajor In in ten sity , are fe lt significantly during this period; 3. a com ing-to-term s phase th a t sets in when adaptive issues raised fo r th e individual during th e preceding phase are brought into an ec^ilibrium . This period m a y b e ch aracterized eith er by m arked positive o r negative a ttitu d e s or by objective judgm ents of th e host country. If the equilibrium is charged w ith negative a ffe c t tow ard th e host country, o v ert criticism s and verbal aggressiveness m ay be m ore freely expressed than in th e earlier phases; 4. a predeparture phase th a t sets in shortly before the sojourner leaves th e host country. The need of returning hom e gains a new ascendancy in th e aw areness of the individual. S/He m ay look tow ard home with a sense of expectancy or apprehension, and s/he m ay a tte m p t to prepare th e way by renew ing co n tacts w ith th e homeland if th ey have been allowed to lapse during th e sojourn abroad. It m ay also be assumed th a t during th is phase, s/h e sees th e host country and th e sojourn period with a somewhat a lte re d perspective; and 5. a readjustm ent phase suggesting th a t upon retu rn to his/her hem e country, th e individual who has studied abroad m ay again face a series of readjustm ents to interpersonal relations, to the social changes th a t m ay have occurred during his/her absence, and to life changes, (p. 66) The transitional process which occurs in the cross-cultural experience is a depth ex perience with significant outcom es. (1975) had th e following to say: Expanding on th is point, Adler 2h The tra n sitio n al process m arks th e grow th and developm ent of personality along w ith a num ber of dim ensions. A t th e perceptual level, i t rep resen ts th e m ovem ent of p erso n ality through a sym biotic s ta te of single re a lity aw areness and a c c e p ta n c e of th e in terdependence of m any re a litie s . E m otionally, th e tra n sitio n m arks th e change from dependence on rein fo rcem en ts to independence, w hile in th e larg est sen se of se lf-c o n c e p t, i t is th e change from m onocultural to an in te rc u ltu ra l frc m e of re fe re n c e . S ignificantly, tran sitio n al experiences can be essential to a working through o f se lfco n cep t. The tensions and crises of change dem and th a t th e individual answer th e confusions of life experiences w ith a re affirm a tio n of his o r h er uniqueness as an individual in relationship to o th e rs, (p. 13) The tra n sitio n al ex p erien ce is, fin ally , a journey in to th e s e lf. Paradoxically, th e m ore one is capable of experiencing new and d iffe re n t dim ensions of hum an d iv ersity , th e m ore one learns of oneself, such learning ta k es place when a person tran scen d s th e boundaries of ego, c u ltu re , and thinking. As in tera ctio n s across b arriers of human e x isten c e in c re a se and as th e world com es clo ser to th e physical re a litie s of "th e global village," b e tte r understanding of exchange experiences will hopefully broaden th e challenges to eth n o cen trism , chauvinism , and nationalism (A dler, 1975). Studies on "U" and "W" C urve H ypotheses The co n cep t o f "U" shaped curves w as originated by L ysgaard (1955) during his stu d y of ad ju stm en t processes of 200 Norwegians who had been in th e U nited S ta te s fo r educational purposes for 0-6 m onths, 6-18 m onths, and 18 m onths and o v er. U sing various item s indexing professional, ed u catio n al, and social ad ju stm en t, Lysgaard found t h a t "good" ad ju stm en t w as rep o rted by th e f ir s t and th ird groups, w hile th e second group was found to be "less well" ad ju sted . The c e n tra l focus of th e co n cep t w as th a t ad ju stm en t is a process over tim e and th a t Acflustment Is f e lt to be easy and successful to begin w ith, th e n follow s a crisis in which one feels less well ad ju sted , som ew hat lonely, and unhappy; finally one begins to feel b e tte r ad ju sted again, becom ing m o re in te g ra te d into th e foreign com m unity. O r, to p u t it d iffe re n tly , th e author suggests th a t adjustm ent as a process over tim e o p e ra te s a t increasingly m ore in tim a te levels of c o n ta c t with 25 th e com m unity v isited. The need for m ore in tim ate c o n ta c t, how ever, m akes itse lf fe lt before one is able to achieve such c o n ta c t and fo r som e tim e; th erefo re, one m ay feel "lonely" and m aladjusted. (p. 47) The "U" curve hypothesis, however, has not been supported by all crosscu ltu ral in v estigators. Selby and Woods (1966), in a study of 68 non-European foreign students a t S tanford U niversity, observed th a t both academ ic and social m orale rise and fall with th e stages of th e academ ic year ra th e r than in a "U" cu rv e. Golden (1973), in his psychiatric study of A m erican junior year abroad stu d en ts, indicated a sim ilar p a tte rn . Becker (1968) found support th a t the "U" curve m ay be m ore relev an t fo r sojourners from Europe th an from developing countries. Sim ilarly, a large scale international study of foreign students in II countries (Hull, 1978; K lineberg & H ull, 1979) broke up th e length of stay fa c to r in to several differen t variables (i.e., num ber of problem s rep o rted , personal depression, loneliness, hom esickness, e tc .), but concluded th a t th e re was alm ost no cross-sectional support fo r th e "U" curve concept. In response to th e adjustm ent processes of sojourners over tim e, Gullahom and G ullahom (1963) proposed an extension of th e "U" curve to a "W" cu rv e, since th e cy cle of adjustm ent in th e host country is followed by a cy cle of read ju stm en t upon th e foreign student's re tu rn hom e. In o th er words, sojourners o fte n undergo a reaccu ltu ratio n process—a second "U" shaped curve in th eir hom e environm ents sim ilar to th e ones experienced abroad (Church, 1982). P icto rially , a "W" shaped curve looks like Figure 2.1. Unlike th e "U" shaped curve, th e "W" shaped curve has been regularly cited as a good way of exam ining th e adjustm ent process. It is one of th e few concepts generally shared by virtually all professionals involved in cross-cultural education, rivaling only "culture shock" as a well known sta rtin g point for 26 High M oderate Low End Middle Beginning A fte r R etu rn H om e Tim e of Sojourn A B C D E F F igure 2,1. F eelings of sa tisfa c tio n w ith sojourn (Brislin, 1981). analyzing sojourners’ experiences (Brislin, 1981). Some in vestigators have given clev er nam es to are as of th e curve w hich sum m arize typical p a tte rn s. adjustm ent T rifonovitch (1977a) nam es point A th e "honeymoon stage" during which e x c ite m e n t and enthusiasm with new ex p erien ces leads to trem endous feelings and s a tis fa c tio n . Point B occurs when "hostility" or "crisis" begins, since sojourners becom e fru s tra te d with th e ir inability to solve problem s in a fam iliar m anner. During th is tim e , criticism tow ard th e host co u n try begins. A t point C , "humor" becom es ev id en t as sojourners begin to ad ju st. They can now laugh a t th e m istak es th ey used to m ake and can a c c e p t new challenges w ith m ore lig h th earted n ess. When th e y reach point D, th e y feel " a t hom e," co m fo rtab le, and ab le to m eet d ay -to -d ay problem s w ith e ffic ie n c y . T rifonovitch suggests th a t p a rt of th e upswing in m ood m ay be due to th e ir e x c ite m e n t ab o u t retu rn in g hom e. A t point E, how ever, "re v erse cu ltu re shock" is experienced. People feel alien ated and confused; th e y should fit in to th e hom e c u ltu re , but do n o t. Friends and re la tiv e s have g o tte n m arried and changed th e ir locations, reo rg an izatio n has tak en place a t w ork, one's neighborhood has had a f a c e lift, and not everyone is in te re ste d in sharing from th e new ideas acquired during th e sojourn. T he re tu rn e e s learn to cope with th e se problem s, how ever, and a t point F have m ade a read ju stm e n t. 27 In view of th e "W" shaped curve hypothesis, K lineberg and Hull (1979) analyzed long-term experiences of foreign students and sojourning professors, and th ey found no evidence for a "W" curve. According to th is study, rep o rted experiences varied g reatly , m arked much m ore by individual differences th an by a set of responses generalizable to m any people. K lineberg and Hull observed th a t th e downswing from point A to point B was not continually evident, which means th a t th e re could not possibly be a move up to point C . Half of the picture is to ta lly elim inated. On differences of opinion regarding th e "W" curve hypothesis, Brislin (1981) suggests th a t it is In terestin g to speculate why Gullahorn and G ullahom (1963) could sum m arize resu lts through th e curve and K lineberg and Hull (1979) could not. One possibility stem s from th e tim e of d a ta collection, according t o B rislin. The firs t study was done in the la te 1950s, th e second in the la te 1970s. Changes sojourners' preparation have taken place. In addition, sojourners a re now b e tte r prepared for adjustm ent d ifficulties and do not experience severe downswings in mood. Since th e 1950s, hosts have becom e m ore accustom ed to sojourners. They m ay not re a c t to sojourner m istakes so intensely and m ay even make minor m odifications to accom m odate th em . F u rth e r, as m ore sojourners travel abroad, th e re are m ore countrym en to consult during d ifficult periods and more professional resources such cs foreign student advisors' o ffices, e tc . (Brislin, 1981). Studies on International Students' N ationalities as a F acto r in A djustm ent A considerable num ber of studies have been ca rrie d out on th e a re a of natio n ality as a fa c to r th a t fa c ilita te s or inhibits, the adjustm ent process. Lysgaard (1955), Scott (1956), and Swell and Davidsen (1961) conducted individual studies on th e adjustm ent experiences of Scandinavian students in the U nited 28 S ta te s . The findings revealed th at th e se students had minimal adjustm ent problem s. In co n trast to th e se findings, B ennett, Passin, and M cKnight (1958), in a study of Jap an ese stu d en ts In A m erica and Japan, observed th a t th e Jap an ese had m ore difficulties adjusting. Sharma (1971) surveyed 748 non-European g rad u ate students in selected universities in th e s ta te of N orth Carolina to identify and analyze problems experienced by th e se stu d en ts. Academ ic, social, and personal problem s were assessed in term s of adjustm ent difficulty and duration. D ifficulties In understanding lectu res, p artic ip atin g in class discussions, and preparing oral and w ritten rep o rts, all language-related, w ere the m ost serious academ ic problem s. The m ost serious personal difficulties concerned hom esickness, housing, funds, food, and companionship with th e opposite sex. Long-term social problems concerned A m erican social custom s, making friends, and being a c cep ted in social a c tiv itie s. G aither and G riffin (1971) on th eir study of international students a t the U niversity of Tennessee observed th a t English proficiency was th e single m ost im portant problem for fo reig i students a t the university. According to the findings of th e study, English constituted 60% of th e students' difficulties followed by finances with 55%. Johnson (1971) using th e sam e d ata collected by G aither and G riffin (1971) found d ifferen t resu lts. A four-choice response was available for each item : "very im portant problem ," "im portant problem," "som etim es a problem ," and "not a problem ." Since a rela tiv e ly small percentage indicated English proficiency as "very im portant," and since th e response for both finances and language did not d iffer significantly from those of dom estic students, he concluded w ith W alton (1967) th a t a foreign stu d en t must be approached as "m ore student than foreign." It m ust be noted, how ever, th a t in th e questionnaire given to dom estic students, 29 th e item "English language proficiency" was changed to read "ability to com m unicate effectiv ely ." A sizeable number of studies has been ca rrie d out not only on the problem s of foreign students in th e U nited S tates as a sub-group, but also on th e basis of individual natio n alities. C ross-cultural education lite ra tu re has indicated th a t although foreign stu d en ts do sh are some common experiences during th e ir adjustm ent process, th e re are also c e r td n adjustm ent problems peculiar to some national groups. R eiff (1972) used a modified questionnaire developed by G aith er and G riffin (1971) to survey a large sam ple of th e foreign students a t the U niversity of G eorgia. He found th a t over half of th e to ta l sam pled identified English language proficiency and finances as mcgor problem s. Analyzing th e resu lts, th e research er com pared responses of Chinese and Indian students a p a rt from those of other in ternational students since th ese tw o nationalities to g eth er form ed one-third of th e foreign students on th e cam pus during th e tim e of th e survey. Com paring th e responses using p ercentages, he found th a t th e C hinese m ost frequently n o ted English language as a m ajor problem , while th e Indians m ost freq u en tly noted finances and dating as m ost d ifficu lt problem areas. Guglielm lno and Parkins (1975) used a m odified version of th e questionnaire developed by R eiff (1972) to survey 210 foreign students a t the U niversity of G eorgia. The p ercen tag e of respondents who identified potential problems was used to id entify th e top five problems most o ften noted by C hinese, Indian, and o th er international students. The Chinese students m ost o ften noted problem s of (a) English proficiency, (b) racial or religious discrim ination, (c) hom esickness, (d) sep aratio n from fam ily in th e hom e country, and (e) unfriendliness of people from th e com m unity. The Indian students, on the other hand, m ost o fte n noted th e following: (a) finances, (b) dating of th e opposite sex, (c) separation from fam ily in the hom e country, (d) hom esickness, and (e) housing. For other 30 respondents, th e top five problem areas w ere (a) finances, (b) lack of good friends, (c) English proficiency, (d) hom esickness, and (e) separation from fam ily. In g eneral, m ore C hinese than Indian students identified th e questionnaire item s as actu al problem s th an e ith e r th e Indians or th e o th er respondents did. Similar studies have focused on identifying the problem s of p articu lar national groups. Using questionnaires and adaptive cap acity scales on th e M innesota M ultiphasic P ersonality Inventory, K la'n e t a l. (1971) found th a t th e g rea t disparity betw een cultural lifestyles caused Asian students a t th e U niversity of Wisconsin particular adjustm ent difficulties, w ith social isolation (often self-im posed) a m ajor problem . Jarrahi-Z adeh and Eichman (1970) surveyed Middle E astern students a t th e U niversity of N orth C arolina and discovered th a t th eir prim ary problem s tended to involve social ad ap tatio n with finances an o ften -n o ted problem area. Church (1982), in his recen t extensive review of cross-cultural education lite ra tu re , pointed o u t th a t studies th a t exam ine differences in th e adjustm ent of sojourners from d ifferen t nationalities o ften make referen ce to "cultural d istance." With this concept in view, m ost w riters assume th a t adjustm ent will be m ore d ifficu lt for visitors coming from hom e cultures th a t a re very d ifferen t from th e host cu ltu re (Beck, 1963; David, 1971; M orris, I960). Em pirical studies have generally supported th is claim (e.g., Hull, 1973). When national origin o r any other variable is exam ined as a d eterm in a n t of sojourner adjustm ent, how ever, i t is im portant to distinguish d ifferen t indices of adju stm en t. Four adjustm ent indices (nature and e x te n t of social in te ra c tio n w ith host nationals, general adjustm ent, a ttitu d e s tow ard th e host co u n try , and sojourner satisfa ctio n ) have been m ost frequently discussed in th e lite ra tu re . The results relatin g national origin to social in tera ctio n and genera! adjustm ent (generally th e num ber of problem s endorsed) a re quite consistent (Church, 1982). 3! Although it Is not possible to rank order all geographical areas or national groups, Canadians and West Europeans a re consistently found to be m ore socially involved w ith U nited S tates' nationals and to rep o rt few er adjustm ent problem s. On th e contrary, stu d en ts from th e F a r E ast a re least involved socially and rep o rt th e g rea te st number of adjustm ent d ifficu lties. Indians, Black A fricans, L atin A m ericans, and M iddle E asterers appear to fall in betw een th ese two extrem es (D eutsch, 1970; F o rsta t, 1951; G altung, 1965; Hassan, 1962; H egazy, 1968; Hull, 1978; Shepard, 1970). Studies on Educational A djustm ents of International Students In th e Darwinian d o ctrin e world of "survival of th e f itte s t," academ ic anxiety becom es an endem ic re a lity of the college experience. The an x iety Is accen tu ated by th e prevailing atm osphere of com petition and Is fu rth e r compounded by personal, financial, so cial, and situational circum stances. Frequently, vulnerable and often ignored victim s of th is experience a re international students. Connolly (1967), in his a rtic le on International students, put it this way, "No m a tte r how sincere and intelligent th e foreign stu d en t, and no m a tte r how prepared he and th e college m ay be, th e problem s encountered by th ese students a re m yriad and enorm ous." During th e process of educational adjustm ent, one of the m ost o ften barriers confronting foreign students is com m unication (English proficiency). C able (1974) w ro te an a rtic le on foreign students in th e Uni ted S tates in which he sta te d th a t com m unication poses a real problem to foreign stu d en ts. He fu rth e r m aintained th a t learning a second language in adulthood c o n stitu te s a g re a t com plication. It involves not only th e m astery of th e language, but also com plex, su b tle, am biguous, irregular paralinguistic featu res such as idioms, hum or, facial and bodily expressions, or th e lack of them (Huang, 1977). Learning 32 to speak, read , w rite , and think in English is an aw e-inspiring ta sk , even fo r stu d en ts who have had ex ten siv e English training before coming to th e U nited S ta te s. Sharm a (1971) studied th e academ ic problems experienced by non-European foreign graduate students enrolled in selected universities in th e s ta te of N orth C arolina. The academ ic difficulties experienced by th e se students w ere arranged according to d eg ree of sev erity from maximum to minimum: 1. p articip atin g in class discussion (maximum severity), 2. giving oral rep o rts, 3. understanding lec tu res, 4. taking ap p ro p riate courses th at satisfy your objectives, 5. taking notes in class, 6. preparing w ritte n reports, 7. taking standardized te s ts such as th e G rad u ate R ecords Exam , 8. w riting essay-type exam inations, 9. understanding th e Am erican educational system , 10. understanding exam ination procedures, 11. com peting w ith A m erican students for grades, 12. m aintaining sa tis fa c to ry academ ic records, 13. understandi ng textbooks, 14. taking objective te sts , 15. using libraries effectiv ely , and 16. g ettin g a d e g ja te c re d it for academ ic work done outside the U nited S tate s (minimum severity), (p. 109) The findings also indicated th a t those identified problem s th a t are on to p of th e list in term s of sev erity took a longer period of tim e to be resolved. The following is a list of academ ic problems arranged according to length of tim e 33 taken in th eir resolution, from maximum to minim um , as experienced by foreign g raduate students: 1. giving oral rep o rts (maximum tim e); 2. p articip a tin g in class discussions; 3. taking notes in class; 4. taking ap p ro p riate courses th a t satisfy your objectives; 5. preparing w ritte n reports; 6. understanding lectures; 7. w ritin g essay-type exam inations; 8. com peting w ith Am erican students for g*ades; 9. understanding th e A m erican educational system ; 10. understanding textbooks; 11. taking standardized te sts such as the G raduate Records Exam, M illar A n alo g y T est, e tc .; 12. m aintaining sa tisfa c to ry academ ic records; 13. understanding exam ination procedures; 14. using libraries effectively; 15. taking ob jectiv e te sts; and 16. g ettin g ad eq u ate c re d it for academ ic work done outside th e U nited S ta te s (minimum tim e), (p. 113) The study fu rth e r revealed th a t personal adjustm ent, source of financial support, field of study, and academ ic classification w ere fa c to rs in academ ic adjustm ent o f th ese foreign g -ad u ate students. Foreign students in th e U nited S tates experience a v arie ty of academ ic d ifficu lties (DuBois, 1956; S elltiz e t a l., 1963). Students from th e M iddle E ast ten d to be m ore severely handicapped in adjusting both, academ ically and socially (Al-Sharm a, 1959; Mills, 1967; Zain, 1965). In another study carried out by H agey (1968), m ore than 69% of th e sam pled students ra te d them selves as less th a n 34 ad eq u ate In English com petence. International students who experience academ ic problems express m ore dissatisfaction with th e ir sojourn (Gezi, 1965). In th eir a rtic le rep o rtin g a study involving Middle E astern stu d en ts, Hagey and Hagey (1974) indicated th a t th e students them selves showed th a t th e Am erican system of education, w ith its com plex reg istratio n procedures, pre­ enrollm ent advising, te stin g m ethods, and th e e n tire s tru c tu re of course requirem ents and prerequisites could c r e a te a m ajor source of difficu lties for foreign students. They w ere freq u en tly unfam iliar with objective te s ts and had considerable d ifficu lty expressing them selves in the English language. Han (1975) investig ated th e goals and problems of F a r E astern graduates a t th e U niversity of Southern C alifornia and a tte m p te d to id en tify problem s th ese stu d en ts encountered. The findings suggested th a t Japanese stu d en ts, in p articu lar, encountered th e m ost problems in th e ir academ ic work and th a t all groups had difficulty with English. Classroom discussions, term papers, group ac tiv itie s, n o te taking, com prehension of lectu res, exam inations, class assignm ents, and obtaining superior grades w ere o th er m ajor facto rs identified as related to English. Some of th e se academ ic difficulties re fle c t th e m u ltip licity of problems facing international students. As one foreign student advisor wisely w arned, "You face an unfcm iliar academ ic sy stem , new kinds of exam ination, new language, finances, relationships with o th e r students, housing, e tc ." (Putnam , I960). Maxwell (1974) suggested th a t tfie all-pervasive problem of th e foreign student is tim e. Students fo r whom English is a second language need to spend m ore tim e coping w ith study assignm ents, reading, thinking, and w ritin g . L ittle tim e is le ft to "play" or relax. International stu d en ts a re also under a s ta te of tension and an x iety during th e ir initial period of s ta y . They a re co n stan tly a tte n tiv e and striv e fo r th e "right" w ay to express them selves. Compounding 35 th e se linguistic and em otional problems are th e academ ic ritu a ls which m ust be learned. — According to Maxwell (1974), professors who u se academ ic jargon and idioms confuse stu d en ts who a re trying to understand new technical term s and to learn to take notes in English. L ecturers w ith idiosyncratic speech p atte rn s (dialect speakers, m um blers, and so on) a re difficult even for nativ e English speakers to understand. M ultiple choice exam inations, especially th o se of the "best answer" ty p e, a re probably th e m ost difficult exam fo rm at for foreign students, as th ey have rarely had practice taking th is kind of course exam before. Shyness and fe a r of acting inappropriately may discourage foreign stu d en ts from approaching in stru cto rs, asking for help or for ex tra tim e to com plete exam s. Cable's (1974) view on international students' educational adjustm ent is th a t since th e stu d en ts have diverse backgrounds in form al academ ic training, ab ilities, and nativ e environm ents, and given the m ultiplicity of A m erican educational in stitutions which tra in foreign stu d en ts, th e re is obviously no one, sim ple approach th a t will be applicable to all. The author argues th a t the in stitu tio n , liberal m ajor university, small private a r ts college, or com m unity/junior college m ust face squarely this reality: Foreign students pose real and d ifferen t problem s to each in stru cto r, th a t som e, perhaps m any Instructors, a r e not cab le of handling, and th a t th e success or failu re of th e se students m ay be in large m easure re la te d to th e quality and kind of instructions they receive, (p. 40) C able went on to say th a t one of th e m ajor problems facing International stu d en ts In th eir educational adjustm ents is th ey in stru cto rs’ lack of aw areness th a t are dealing w ith a special kind of human being, one w ith d ifferen t backgrounds, a ttitu d e s, in te re sts, and special needs. Foreign stu d en ts o ften have a d ifficu lty a rtic u la tin g precisely w hat th e y feel is lacking in a classroom , but 36 frequently com plain of an in stru cto r's seem ing lack o f com m itm ent, fa c u lty unaw areness of in tern atio n al stu d en ts' fears and tim id ity , and tea c h e rs' inability to establish rapport w ith th e s e stu d en ts. Kalhne (1976) pointed out th a t i t is ra re ly recognized th a t A m ericans learn less about people who visit them th an th e people who are doing th e actual visiting. He m ade th is point c learer w ith th is s ta te m e n t: A fricans, fo r exam ple, n o t uncommonly have a risto c ra tic and nobility h eritag es. This is occasionally recognized on cam puses, but in th e large urban spraw ls In which m any of the large urban A m erican universities e x ist, A fricans a re usually tre a te d th e way laborers and g h etto blacks are usually tre a te d ; th eir insistence on a reasonable degree of d e fere n c e is quite o ften tak en as som e variety of fau lty co n tac t w ith re a lity , paranoia, or o th er indication of psychopathology, (p. 38). C able (1974) indicated th a t fa c e -to -fa c e m eetings w ith in stru cto rs (professors) and stu d en ts, w hether in a sem inar room or a co ffee shop, give an in ternational student a feeling of recognition. environm ent, th e stu d en t is a known quantity. In th is m ore in tim ate The anonym ity of th e large le ctu re hall is "another arena" to one who is already unsteady and unsure. The author also s ta te d th a t th ese students a re pleased when an in stru cto r tak es th e tro u b le to learn and c o rre c tly pronounce th eir nam es. Like all students, foreign stu d en ts a p p rec ia te recognition both in and o u t of classroom s. Kahne (1976) a sserte d th a t ch ara c te riz in g and stereo ty p in g international stu d en ts as a bunch of individuals who have com e to A m erican academ ic in stitutions to pick up som e in tellectu al groceries does im pede students' academ ic o b jectiv es as well as th e ir educational developm ent. Huang (1977) on his a rtic le on cam pus m ental health expressed the view th a t m ultinational cam puses in developed nations should be seen as a vehicle understanding and appreciation of one an o th er. He contended th a t fo r global 37 [t is as fallacious to accep t the notion th a t people can be brought tog eth er by physical proxim ity alone as it Is to argue th a t human n ature is basically good and unselfish. The fa c t is physical proxim ity can te a r people fa rth e r and fa rth e r a p a rt unless effo rts are m ade to prevent th is and to fa c ilita te m utual understanding and good w ill. F ailure to win friends on a m ultiracial, m ultinational ccm pus today is to co u rt d istru st, big o try, greed fo r profit, and lust for conquest in this world today and tom orrow , (p. 218) On the academ ic achievem ent of international students, Thompson (1951), in exam ining th e academ ic records of 681 foreign students a t Ohio S ta te U niversity, found th a t 240 earned degrees a t various levels (30 received Bachelors1 degrees, 148 M asters' degrees, and 62 D octor of Philosophy degrees), while 203 of th e to tal number w ere still in th e process of earning degrees. As a resu lt of this inquiry, he concluded th a t th is ra te of success of international students was im pressive and rem ark ab le, notw ithstanding d ifficulties which th ey had encountered. th e language and cultural He fu rth er indicated th a t a t no tim e had th e grade point averages (GPA) of foreign g raduate students been recorded below 3.32 (B = 3.00). Studies done during succeeding years indicated even b e tte r academ ic perform ances by student sojourners. An a tte m p t has been m ade to com pare th e academ ic perform ance of foreign students in th e U nited S ta te s w ith th a t of th e host country students. P o rter's (1962) study a t th e U niversity of Washington supported th e view th a t international stu d en ts achieved at higher levels than th e ir A m erican co u n terp arts. M estenhauser (1961) reported th a t although th e foreign stu d en ts' academ ic achievem ent a t some institutions of higher learning has been of "uneven quality," by and larg e th ese students' achievem ent was b e tte r th an th e ir A m erican co u n terp arts. C ieslak’s (1955) study has this to say, "The academ ic perform ance of foreign students as a group in A m erican colleges and universities com pares very favorably w ith th a t of A m erican students," Of th e 92 academ ic institu tio n s which responded to questions regarding th e academ ic perform ance of 38 foreign students In com parison to th a t of th e ir A m erican co u n terp arts, 53 said th a t i t was about th e sam e, 32 indicated th a t it was "b e tte r th an th e general sch o lastic average," and seven reported th a t It was "below the general scholastic average" (Cieslak, 1955). Studies on H ealth D ifficulties of International Students Extensive studies have been carried out m ainly by health professionals on the causes and consequences of health abnorm ality am ong international students. N ickelly, Sugita, and O tis (1964) conducted a study on "Adjustm ent and M ental H ealth A ttitu d es in Foreign Students" a t th e U niversity of Illinois. According to th e findings of th e study, during a th re e -y e a r period th e number of foreign stu d ents who visited th e U niversity M ental H ealth C linic was double the num ber o f A m erican students in proportion to th e ir enrollm ent. The study indicated th a t over 80% o f the foreign student p atien ts m entioned "som atic" com plaints such as headache, insom nia, fatig u e, m uscular pains, and gastro-intestinal discom fort. The research fu rth er sta ted th a t the number of foreign student p atien ts diagnosed as having a "psychophysiological reaction" was about tw ice th e av erag e for all student p atien ts seen during th e sem e period of tim e. Ward (1962) hypothesized w hat he called "foreign student syndrom e." This concept argues th a t th e som atic com plaints of foreign students are ch arac terize d by vague physical com plaints, a passive w ithdraw ! a ttitu d e , and a general dishevelled appearance. Ward's thesis which has considerably influenced subsequent investigations fu rth er asserts th a t international students ten d to so m atize th eir problems in order to avoid w hat he referred to as "loss of face" and to p erm it them psychotherapy. to a tte n d clinics fo r medical reasons ra th e r th an 39 L a te r, Selby and Woods (1966), Ichikawa (1966), and Zunin and Rubin (1967) accen ted th e som atic phenomenon in attem p tin g to analyze neuropsychiatric disorders among foreign stu dents. The stress on the so m atic phenomenon and neuropsychiatric disorders led Zunln and Rubin (1967) and Rouben (1967) to a ttrib u te such behavior to stresses brought on by cultural shifts with difficulties in com m unication, academ ic achievem ent, finances, and social behavior. Selby and Woods (1966), on th e other hand, saw university aspects as contributing foreign students' em otional problem s. As a re su lt, th e se last tw o authors called fo r a b e tte r understanding of th e e ffe c ts of the university m ilieu upon in ternational students. R ice (1974), in his study of foreign students' health cen ter visitations a t th e U niversity o f N orthern Colorado, found th a t over 78% of all international stu d en ts sa n p le d had visited the health c en ter less than five tim es during th e academ ic year. These findings, he rep o rted , seem ed to show th a t in tern atio n al stu d en ts in general w ere not overly excessive in health c en ter v isitatio n . The au th o r, however, indicated th a t th e re does appear to be a substantial group (nearly 22%) who do excessively visit th e c e n te r. It is this group th a t is responsible for higher foreign student visitation ra te s and for perhaps th e generalized assum ption form ulated by university h ealth cen ter officials. R ice fu rth e r revealed th a t, for th e m ost part, previous studies regarding foreign students' so m atization and general health problems has had th re e w eaknesses which have tended to m ake any external validity highly dubious. The th re e weaknesses were th e following: (a) m any of the studies w ere ca rrie d out in high pressure universities w here th e very m ake up of th e international stu d en t body m ight not be congruent with th a t of all foreign students studying in th e U nited S ta te s; (b) research has intended to focus on one or tw o geographical foreign groups, thus excluding th e foreign ;student body as a whole fo r th e basis 40 of com parison; and (c) m ost of the investigations have taken place wholly w ithin one in stitu tio n . T h erefo re, one would have to question w hether such behavior m ight not be a product of a particular environm ental press and thus not rep rese n tativ e of a universal international student population. In support of R ice's (1974) view , tw o other h ealth experts have th is to say, Most foreign student research pertaining to health c e n te rs has been conducted in the form of c a se studies which have not only focused on a very small num ber but have co n cen trated only on th e excessive neuropsychiatric v isito r. (Jarrahi-Z adeh and Eichm an, 1970, p. 82) In a sim ilar c o n te x t, C ole, Allen, and G reen (1980) exam ined fiv e h ealth c e n te r records in search of evidence to support th e "foreign student syndrom e" concept. However, th ey failed to find any evidence in support of such a claim . They concluded th e ir investigation with th e se words, "It is possible th a t W estern physicians m ay have m isin terpreted and labeled as pathological the normal behavior of m em bers from o th er cultures." Fum ham and T rezise (1983), w hile studying th e m ental health of foreicyi stu d en ts, id entified th re e m ajor facto rs contributing to th e health d ifficulties of international students in general. These a re (a) th e re are stresses th a t confront anybody living in a foreign culture such as racial discrim ination, language problem s, accom m odation d ifficu lties, sep aratio n reactions, d ietary restrictio n s, financial stre ss, m isunderstanding, and loneliness; (b) th e re a re d ifficulties th a t face all la te adolescents and young people w hether th ey are studying a t hom e or abroad as th is is a tim e of considerable vulnerability when a young person atte m p ts to becom e em otionally independent, self-supporting, productive, and a responsible m em ber of so ciety; and (c) th e re a re academ ic stresses when stu d en ts are expected to work very hard, o fte n under poor conditions, w ith com plex m a te ria ls. It is, th e re fo re , not surprising th a t m any foreign stu d en ts su ffer poorer m ental health th a t nativ es, as they o fte n su ffer additional stress. 41 F u rth erm o re, Rouben (1967), In his a rtic le on Middle E astern stu d en t on A m erican cam puses, argued th a t English language proficiency problem?, speed reading and com prehension of m aterial co n ten t can becom e a big problem to th e new ly-arrived student who is not used to speed reading and com prehension. This incom petence usually leads to overwork, inadequate sleep, lack of recreational ac tiv itie s, self-d e fe a tin g feelings, depression, and eventually th e realizatio n of em inent failu re. The author m aintained th a t foreign students’ em otional crisis can resu lt from academ ic failu re. An international student is m ore afraid of academ ic failu re than his/her A m erican c o u n terp art. This, he s ta te d , is because an in ternational stu d en t has to account for his/her academ ic achievem ent to th e academ ic advisor, th e im m igration o ffice, th e home governm ent or sponsor, th e p aren ts, and to h im /h erself. Studies have shown th a t a disastrous "loss of face" c o n stitu tes a leading cau se of suicide cm ong foreign students (Seiden, 1966). The disastrous consequences fo r foreign students' acad em ic failu re is described this way, The in tern atio n al student micjit be an accom plished scholar or a recognized professional in his own country. But his present academ ic failure could spell doom. He m ay not be ab le to sustain th e sham e and hum iliation if he w ere sent back with his educational aspirations unfulfilled. (Huang, 1977, p. 217). In an a tte m p t to address the issue of how to reduce health adjustm ent difficu lties of student sojourners on A m erican cam puses, Williamson (1982), in her a rtic le on im pedim ents to h ealth c are for foreign stu d en ts, indicated th a t i t is a common error by persons in a dom inant c u ltu re to stereo ty p e o th ers, th a t is, expecting th a t all international students think, believe, and behave in the sam e m an n er, she pointed out th a t th e old "they all look alike" m e n tality g reatly o b stru cts th e e ffe c tiv e provision of individualized and adeq u ate h ealth c a re serv ices to th e se stu d en ts. wi Williamson (1982) fu rth er asserted th a t the au to m atic assum ption th at one's beliefs and attitu d e s tow ard providing health c a re serv ices to foreign students are co rrect and superior (ethnocentricism ) should be c o rrected in order to establish a rap p o rt with foreign clien ts. Sim ilarly, M iller and Harwell (1983) sum m arized th eir study on health problem s of international students at the U niversity o f Toledo by advising th a t m ajor effo rts need to be m ade to ed u cate foreign students about th e im portance of personal health, health c are services in A m erica, and th e use of m edicine. Only as these students experience good h ealth will they becom e com fortable in th e ir academ ic environm ent w hile in the U nited S tates. Summary This ch ap ter was a review of th e lite ra tu re concerning A frican students on A m erican cam puses, sta g e -p a tte rn s of adjustm ent, "U" and "W" curve hypotheses, nationality as a fa c to r in adjustm ent, educational adjustm ents of international students, and studies on health d ifficu lties of international stu d en ts. A djustm ent processes of A frican students in the U nited S tates is a vital a re a th a t m erits em pirical investigation in order to m inim ize cultural alienation which is a common phenomenon to all international stu d en ts, p articu larly th o se from non-European countries. T herefore, since th e studies done on A Frican stu d en ts in th e U nited S tates are both scant and underdeveloped, i t becam e im peratively necessary to review re la te d lite ra tu re on international students in general w ith a prim ary focus on th e ir cross-cultural adjustm ents. The review has, th e re fo re , revealed th e m agnitude of adjustm ent problem s confronting foreign students. It also showed th a t in sp ite of th ese numerous and 43 ad v erse circum stances of cultural adjustm ent, internatfonal students In th e U nited S tates have stead ily m aintained im pressive academ ic achievem ent. CHAPTER III DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY The desfgn and m ethodology of this study Included th e following m ajor a reas: (a) purpose of th e study, (b) population and sam ple, (c) source of instru m en ts, (d) pilot te s t, (e) d ata collection, and (f) tre a tm e n t of d ata. Purpose of the Study The general purpose of this study is to exam ine th e adjustm ent processes and experiences of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and sum m er term s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. The specific purposes of th e study a re : 1. to id en tify th e adjustm ent problems of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and sum m er te rm s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity; 2. to exam ine th e ex ten t to which adjustm ent problem s of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity a re related to sele c te d dem og-aphic facto rs: fam ily incom e (in hom e country), level of education acquired before coming to th e U nited S ta te s , size of fam ily (in hom e country), environm ent of up-bringing, length of previous job experience, orien tatio n program s received, and trav el Ing experi ence; 3. to exam ine th e ex tent to which adjustm ent problem s of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity a re related to th e ir contem porary experiences and conditions: levels of ocadem ic ach iev em en t, academ ic classifications, sources of financial support, personal and social lives, length of s ta y in the U nited S ta te s, ag e , m arital s ta tu s , gender, and religion; 4. to exam ine th e ex ten t to which adjustm ent problems of A frican stu d en ts a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity a re related to th e ir geographic sub-regions; 5. to o ffe r, on th e basis of th e findings, suggestions and recom m endations th a t will enhance th e alleviation of adjustm ent problem s and difficulties of A frican stu d en ts a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity, and insofar as relevant to o th e r A frican stu d en ts a t m ajor U nited S ta tes public universities. 45 The findings of 10 sta tistic a l te sts of relationship betw een 10 background ch ara cte ristic s of th e respondents and levels of difficu lty in adjustm ent w ere repoted in this study. The ch aracteristics w ere (a) educational background, (b) source of financial support, (c) academ ic classification, (d) grade point av erag e, (e) length of sta y In th e United S tates, (f) environm ent of upbringing, (g) effectiv en ess of o rientation program received, (h) m arita l s ta tu s , (i) gender, and (j) geog*phic-cultural sub-region. Population and Sam ple Shelby and Woods (I960), Sanders (I960, and Ford (1969), to m ention but a few , have indicated th a t foreign students in the U nited S ta te s, irresp ectiv e of th e ir countries of origin, pass through a process of adjustm ent to som e degree. In view of th is, th e ta rg e t population of this study consisted of all A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. The s a n p le of the study w ere 210 A frican students a t Michigan S ta te U niversity. The countries selected for th e study w ere 12 of th e 31 d ifferen t A frican nations. Selection was based on the fa c t th a t p artic ip a tin g countries had to have individual populations of five or m ore students enrolled during the spring and summ er term s of 1985 a t Michigan S ta te U niversity. The l2 c o u n trie w ere: Botswana, Egypt, E thiopia, Ghana, Kenya, L iberia, N igeria, Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia, Swaziland, and Zimbabwe (see Appendix A for the geogm phical locations of th ese countries). There w ere tw o g*oips of A frican students not Included in the study: (a) those who had sp en t less than six m onths in th e U nited S tates during th e tim e of the study and (b) th o se who were taking courses in English language proficiency as a requirem ent during th e period of th is research investigation. Inform ation 46 about A frican stu d en ts a t Michigan S ta te U niversity as re la te d to this study was obtained through th e assistan ce of MSLTs foreign students' o ffice. Source of Instrum ents The tw o m ajor in strum ents used in this study w ere (a) a dem ographic questionnaire con stru cted by the research er persona! in order to be congruous to th e purpose of th e study and (b) a m odified version of th e Santos' (1959) Foreign Student Problem C heck List to identify adjustm ent d ifficu lties of th e stu d en ts. During th e instrum ent developm ent sta g e of th e research , th e in vestigator thought of using a standardized problem check list such as th e Michigan International S tudent Problem Inventory by P o rter (1962) or M ooney's (1950) Problem Check List since th e ir validity and reliability have been te ste d . In addition, using e ith er of th ese check lists would Involve less tim e and e ffo rt on th e p a rt of th e research er than c re a tin g his own. However, th e r e was question as to w hether eith er of th e check lists would be valid and congruous for th e purpose of th e study. On this basis, th e decision was m ade to u se a m odified version of th e Santos (1959) check list because it was considered m ore ap p ro p riate and efficacious for this kind of em pirical inquiry. All 63 item s m aking up th e questionnaire for th is study w ere closed-ended in n atu re. The item s w ere con stru cted so th a t th e maximum tim e spent in responding to th e questions would not exceed 35 m inutes (see Appendix D fo r th e item s). Hillway (1956) suggested th a t In order to obtain personal inform ation from th e su b jects, dem ographic item s should possess th e following c h a ra c te ristic s: (a) th e inform ation m ust be brief, (b) th e Inform ation must be otherw ise inaccessible to th e investig ato r, (c) th e subject inquired about m ust be im p o rtan t enough to ju stify th e tim e and e ffo rt involved, (d) th e questions m ust secure factu al d ata, 47 (e) each item m ust be expressed in understandable and fam iliar term s, (f) th e questionnaire m ust be arran g ed in a logical seqqence so as to ta k e only a minimum of the respondent's tim e , and (g) c le a r instructions m ust be included. Babbie (1973) sim ilarly em phasized th a t the questionnaire item s should be p recise and relev an t so th a t each respondent knows ex actly w hat th e research er w an ts in response. H e noted th a t in th e in te re st of being unambiguous, precise, and relev an t, th e in v estig ato r should avoid long and com plicated item s in order th a t respondents should re a d item s quickly, understanding th e ir in te n t, and se le c t or provide answ ers w ithout d ifficulty. On th e Foreign Student Problem C heck L ist, P e te rs and Farw ell (1959) indicated th a t check lists a re valuable when well con stru cted because th e y lead to thoughts about choices for answ ering item s th a t respondents m ight have overlooked had th ey not been presented. The authors also pointed out th a t check lists are p articu larly v aluable for those individuals who have a d ifficu lt tim e expressing them selves in th e ir own words. P eters and Farw ell suggested, how ever, th a t check lists should be carefully and appropriately worded to ensure understanding on th e p a rt of respondents. The m odified version of the Foreign Student Problem C heck List used in th is study was based on S antos' (1959) check list which, in tu rn , was based on P eterso n and N eum eyer's (1948) problem check list. The m odification was done because of th e new level of aw areness about th e needs and problems of global stu d en ts in the U nited S ta te s w ith particular referen ce to students from A sia, A frica, th e M iddle E a st, and L atin A m erica. Initially, P eterso n and N eum eyer had 28 item s in th eir check list. Eleven of th e se item s w ere classified as academ ic problem s, seven as financial problem s, and te n as social or personal problems. Respondents could check each 48 item as being v ery im p o rtan t, Im portant, or m inor im portance, or of no im portance. Santos' (1959) check list consisted of 39 item s which w ere so arranged th a t related item s w ere grouped according to problem a re a s. Each item could be checked as being very g re a t trouble, tro u b le, little trouble, or no trouble. The problem list for th is study has th e sam e 39 item s which w ere m odified for the purpose of this study. questions. The item s w ere classified according to re la te d The classifications w ere as follows: item s 1-13 w ere grouped as academ ic problem s, Item s 14-22 as financial problem s, item s 23 and 24 as personal problem s, item s 25-28 as religious problem s, item s 29-31 as em otional problem s, and item s 32-39 as social problem s. These classifications, how ever, w ere not labeled as such in th e questionnaire. Respondents could check each item as being a m ost serious problem, less serious problem , le a st serious problem , or not a problem . A Cronbach's reliab ility co efficien t for th is gjestio n n aire was 0.88, indicating th a t the questionnaire was consistent fo r this p artic u lar sam ple (see Appendix E). Pilot Test For th e purpose of ensuring minimum e rro r and bias on th e instrum ent used for th e study, th e instrum ent was pilot te ste d on six A frican stu d en ts at M ichigan S ta te U niversity for its appropriateness and validity. Suggestions and recom m endations from this pilot testin g w ere given considerable a tte n tio n in finalizing th e in stru m en t. The Investigator forw arded th e questionnaire and a sta te m e n t of the purpose of th e research to th e chairperson of th e C o m m ittee on th e R ights of Human Subjects for clearan ce a t MSU. This clearan ce was necessary since the 49 study involved human subjects. Approval was granted to adm inister th e In strum ent. D ata C ollection On June 29, 1985, six research assistants distributed th e questionnaires using th e hand-delivery and pick-up m ethod. The questionnaire was accom panied by a special le tte r co-signed by th e research er’s dissertation d irecto r and th e re se arc h er. This le tte r explained th e purpose of the study and instructions for com pleting the questionnaire. R espondents w ere advised not to w rite th eir names on th e questionnaire in order to m aintain th eir anonym ity (see Appendix B fo r a copy of th e le tte r). C om pleted questionnaires w ere picked up on July 3, 1985. According t o Babbie (1973), th e hand-delivery and pick up m ethod of distribution yields a higher r a te of retu rn w hile also reducing costs. As shown in Table 3.1, of the 210 questionnaires distributed, 186 w ere com pleted and returned which gave a to tal retu rn of 89%. K erlinger (1973) recom m ended a response ra te of a t least 85%, and W ierman (1975) suggested th a t 75% should be th e minimum r a te of retu rn . T able 3.1 Num ber and P ercen tag e of Students Involved in the D istribution and R etu rn of Q uestionnaires A ccording t o Four G eographic Sub-Regions Geographical Sub-Region Q uestionnaires D istributed N orth A frica Q uestionnaires R eturned Number P ercentage 76 64 84 West A frica 63 56 89 East A frica 47 44 94 Southern A frica 24 22 92 210 186 89 TOTALS: 50 T reatm ent of D ata D ata from each of th e six problem areas (academ ic, financial, personal, em otional, religious, and social), to g eth er tra n sfe rred to com puter laboratory form s. w ith dem ographic d a ta , w ere These w ere key-punched, verified, and analyzed through th e use of th e S tatistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) a t Michigan S ta te U niversity. Since th e problem check list had four possible levels of adjustm ent difficu lty for each item , w eights of I, 2, 3, and 4 w ere assigned individually to checks m ade for th e spaces representing not a problem , least serious problem, less serious problem , and most serious problem . D escriptive s ta tis tic s of m ean and standard deviation for each adjustm ent problem w ere used to determ ine the n atu re, scope, and variation in responses. C hi-square te s ts w ere used to exam ine th e relationship betw een th e degree of d ifficu lty of adjustm ent problems and 10 background c h a ra c te ristic s. D ata w ere p resen ted in tables in C h ap ter IV showing th e num ber of cases, percentag es of frequencies, m eans, stan d ard deviations, and actual significant levels of chisquare te sts . Summary The study w as aim ed at exam ining th e adjustm ent processes and experiences of A frican students who enrolled during th e spring and sum m er te rm s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. P articip an ts in th e study w ere 210 stu d en ts from 12 d ifferen t A frican countries. Each country had a population of five or m ore students enrolled fu ll-tim e a t MSU a t th e tim e of th e study. The m easuring instrum ent used was a m odified version of an instrum ent used by Santos (1959) in his study of th e problems faced by international students a t Indiana U niversity. The questionnaire was distributed by six research assistants using th e hand-dellvery and pick-up technique. R eturns yielded a 51 com bined response r a te of 89%. The d a ta co llected w ere key-punched and v erified so as to o b tain d escriptive and inferential s ta tis tic s. CHAPTER IV RESULTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS The general purpose of this study was to exam ine th e adjustm ent processes and experiences of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and sum m er term s o f 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity (MSU). The specific purposes w ere to identify th e adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t MSU and to exam ine th e e x te n t to which th e adjustm ent problems w ere related to students' background ch a ra c te ristic s. Among th e background c h aracteristics were 10 sele c te d variables as s ta te d in C h ap ter III, th e findings of which a re rep o rted in this c h ap ter. These variables include educational background, source of financial support, academ ic classifications, grade point av erag e, length of sta y in th e U nited S ta te s, environm ent of upbringing, o rie n ta tio n program received, m arital sta tu s, gender, and geographic sub-region. R esearch Questions 1. What are th e nature and scope of adjustm ent problem s of A frican stu d en ts enrolled during th e spring and sum m er term s of 1985 a t Michigan S ta te U niversity? 2. To w hat ex ten t a re th e adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity related to selected dem ographic facto rs? 3. To w hat ex ten t are the adjustm ent problem s related to contem porary experiences and conditions of A frican students a t Michigan S ta te U niversity? 4. To w hat e x te n t are th e adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity re la te d to geographic sub-regions? 52 53 C h a ra cte ristics of the Subjects In th e Sam ple The following a re som e of th e c h a ra c te ristic s of th e subjects in th e sam ple. There w ere a to ta l of 186 respondents included in this study, of which 76.9% w ere m ale and 23.1% w ere fem ale. As to th e ag e of respondents, 60.2% w ere 32 years of age or younger and 39.8% w ere 33 years of age or older. As to m arital sta tu s, 33.9% w ere single, 45.7% w ere m arried with spouses h ere, and 19.9% w ere m arried w ith spouses in th eir hom e co u n tries. One respondent, how ever, did not indicate his/her m arital statu s. In term s of religion, 2.7% w ere A frican trad itio n al religionists, 28.5% w ere M oslem, 65.1% w ere C hristian, and 3.8% had o th er religions. In term s of geographical sub-regions of respondents, 34.4% w ere from N orth A frica, 31.1% w ere from West A frica, 23.7% from East A frica, and 11.8% from Southern A frica. As to subjects' environm ent of upbringing, 30.6% w ere raised in rural se ttin g s, 31.2% w ere raised in small tow ns, and 38.2% w ere raised in large c itie s. R e g a rd n g educational backgrounds of respondents prior to th eir arrival in th e USA, 42.5% obtained educational train in g less th an th e Bachelor's degree, 43.0% obtained Bachelor’s deg-ees, and 14.5% obtained M aster's d egrees. In term s of stu d en ts’ length of em ploym ent in hom e countries before com ing to th e USA, 45.7% had been employed for less than th re e years, 23.7% had been em ployed fo r th re e to five years, and 30.6% had been em ployed for m ore than five years. Concerning subjects' sources of financial support, 11.8% w ere being supported e ith e r through scholarships or grad u ate assistants hips by M ichigan S ta te U niversity; 28.0% w ere being supported e ith e r by fam ily or through personal e ffo rt; 11.8% w ere being supported by th e U nited S tates governm ent; 12.9% w ere being supported by p riv a te agencies, organizations, o r foundations; and 35.5% w ere being supported by th e ir home governm ents. 54 Regarding respondents' lengths of s ta y in th e U nited S ta te s, 38.1% had been h ere for less than two years, 32.8% had been h ere for tw o to four years, and 29.0% had been here for m ore than five y ears. On students' academ ic classifications, 21.0% w ere undergraduates, 28.5% w ere enrolled in M aster's degree program s, and 50.5% w ere doctoral students. Finally, in term s of cum ulative grade point av erag e of respondents, 7.5% had 0-2.84 GPAs, 29.0% had 2.85-3.24 GPAs, and 63.4% had GPAs betw een 3.25 and 4.00. R esults The resu lts of d a ta analysis are reported according to each adjustm ent a re a . T hree types of tab les a re p resented for th e purposes of in terp re ta tio n of th e re su lts. They are (a) ta b le s of percentage distribution of responses according to fo u r levels of d ifficulty: (I) not a problem , (2) least serious problem , (3) less serious problem , and (4) m ost serious problem; (b) tab les of actual levels of significance; and (c) tab les of m eans and standard deviations of subgroups when c h l-sg ja re s ta tis tic s are significant a t th e level of significance {*=*< ) of 0.05. The p ercentage distribution of responses indicates th e proportion of stu d en ts who w ere facing a p articu lcr problem according to each level of d ifficu lty . The m eans and standard deviations indicate th e overall average problem in each problem a re a and th e variability of responses. The range of m eans for 39 adjustm ent problem item s is from 1.47 to 2.94 which generally indicates that A frican stu d en ts a t Michigan S ta te U niversity do not fa c e very serious adjustm ent problem s. N evertheless, som e serious problems w ere c ite d in c e rta in areas of adjustm ent. relationship d iffic u lty . 0.05 level. betw een stu d ents' The actu al probability is the probability of no background c h a ra c te ristic s and adjustm ent A s ta r (*) in d icates th a t th e relationship is sig iific a n t a t t h e ^ s 55 A cadem ic A djustm ent A total of 13 are as of academ ic adjustm ent problems w ere considered in th is study. Table 4.1 shows th e p ercentage distribution of responses, m eans, and standard deviations for each ite m . A to ta l of 186 stu d en ts responded to 13 item s re la te d to academ ic adjustm ent problem s. The lowest and highest m eans of academ ic adjustm ent d ifficu lty w ithin the 13 areas of academ ic adjustm ent w ere Table 4.1 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses A cco rd n g to A cadem ic A djustm ent Item s (n= 186) Item Number and N o n e 1(%) 2(%) 3<%) 4(%) Mean S.D. 25. R egistration 58.1 17.7 11.3 12.9 1.79 1.08 26. U nderstanding lectu res 66.1 17.7 10.2 5.9 1.56 0.90 27. U nderstanding textbooks 67.2 19.9 11.3 1.6 1.47 0.76 28. Giving oral reports in class 51.6 26.9 13.4 8.1 1.78 0.96 29. R eciting in class 50.5 25.8 14.0 9.7 1.83 1.00 30. W riting te rm papers 53.2 24.2 14.5 8.5 1.77 0.96 31. Using th e library 58.6 24.7 12.4 4.3 1.62 0.86 32. U nderstanding exam ina­ tion procedures 55.9 19.4 11.8 12.9 1.82 1.08 A cquainted w ith U.S. educational system 36.6 23.1 19.4 21.0 2.25 1.16 T ransferring course cred its 43.0 18.8 13.4 24.7 2.20 1.23 35. C om peting fo r grades 58.8 19.9 10.8 15.6 1.88 1.12 36. Taking ap p ro p riate courses 44.1 20.4 22.6 12.9 2.04 1.05 G e ttin g ad eq u ate counseling services 43.0 26.9 13.4 16.2 2.04 Ml 52.4 22.0 13.7 11.9 1.85 1.02 33. 34. 37. ALL ITEMS: 56 1.47 and 2.25, resp ectiv ely . The relativ ely low range of means indicates th a t, generally, m ost A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity faced less serious problem w ith academ ic adjustm ent. As a whole, 52.4% of respondents indicated th a t they did not fa c e any academ ic adjustm ent problems. stu d en ts (11.9%) rep o rte d th a t they encountered very However, som e serious academ ic adjustm ent problem s. As shown in T able 4.1, th e variation in m eans of difficulty in various academ ic adjustm ent areas indicates th a t students faced d ifferen t degrees of d ifficu lty in d ifferen t areas of academ ic adjustm ent. Some d ifficult adjustm ent problems cite d w ere unfam iliarity with th e U nited S tates' educational system (m ean of 2.25), not g ettin g adeq u ate evaluation of tra n sferred cred its (mean of 2.20), not g etting ad eq u ate counseling services (2.04), and taking courses th a t w ere not app ro p riate to the needs of one's hom e country (2.04). The less difficult problems include com peting for grades w ith A m erican students (mean of 1.88), rec itin g in th e classroom (1.83), understanding exam ination procedures (1.82), course reg istratio n (1.79), and delivering oral rep o rts (1.78). Students faced the least d ifficu lty in using th e library (1.62) and understanding lectu res (1.56) and textbooks (1.47). Tests of relationships. The results of chi-square te s ts of relationship betw een d ifficu lty level of 13 academ ic adjustm ent problems and students' 10 background c h arac te ristics a re presented in Tables 4.2 and 4.3. A to tal of 30 te s ts indicated th a t th e re w ere significant relationships betw een levels of difficu lty of academ ic adjustm ent and background ch aracteristics a t a level of significance of 0.05. The results w ere discussed according to problem are a s. 57 T able 4.2 A ctual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T ests of R elationship Between Level o f A cadem ic A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents' Background C h aracteristics Item // and N am e E ducat. Bckqrnd. Financial Support A cadem ic Grd. P t. Average C lassif. 25. R egistration .57 .51 .78 .61 .11 26. Understand) ng lectures .59 .02* .09 .13 .65 Understandi ng textbooks .10 .49 .05* .00*** .10 Giving oral rep o rts in class .89 .58 .01** .14 .20 29. R eciting/class .38 .74 .09 .50 .40 30. W rit, term prs. .23 .06 .03* .03* .10 31. Using library .12 .13 .00*** .07 .44 32. U nderstanding exam , prcds. .18 .09 .42 .00*** .45 A cquainted w/ U.S. educ. sys. .19 .16 .00*** .00*** .00*** Transferring course credi ts .01* .52 .00*** .00*** .05* C om peting for grades .41 .80 ,00*** .00*** .18 Taking approp. courses .09 .96 .84 .27 .21 G ettin g ade­ q uate counsel­ ing services .84 .78 .30 .06 .06 27. 28. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. * ** *** = significant a t ^ = 0.05 = significant a t = O.Ot = significant a t- gmT =0.001 Length of Stay 58 T able 4.3 A ctual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elationship Between Level of A cadem ic A djustm ent D ifficu lty and S tudents' Background C h aracteristics Item // and Nam e Environ./ Upbring. O rien tat. Program M arital S tatus Gender Geograph. Sub-Rgn. 25. R egistration .55 .99 .01** .04* .07 26. U nderstanding lectu res .63 .16 .15 .05* .03* U nderstanding textbooks .32 .27 .05* .12 .01** Giving oral rep o rts in class .19 .17 .85 .00*** .13 29. R eciting/class .17 .20 .97 .08 .23 30. W rit, te rm prs. .14 .70 .01** .99 .04* 31. Using library .02* .74 .39 .24 .55 32. U nderstanding exam , prcds. .49 .55 .08 .51 .91 Acquainted w/ U.S. ed u c. sys. .28 .89 .39 .08 .29 T ransferring course cred its .03* .09 .06 .37 .11 C om peting for g a d e s .30 .18 .13 .33 .27 Taking approp. courses .01** .16 .54 .28 .02* G e ttin g ade­ q uate counsel­ ing services .62 .49 .13 .92 .42 27. 28. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. * ** *** = significant a t <=~^ = 0 .0 5 = significant a t o < = 0.01 = significant a t o < =0.001 59 R eg istratio n . The overall mean of 1.79 fo r reg istratio n adjustm ent d ifficu lty indicates th a t, In general, m ost A frican stu d en ts do not face serious problems in this a re a . However, som e students (12.9%) Indicated th a t th ey faced very serious problem s in reg istratio n . C hi-square te s ts showed th a t th e re w ere relationships betw een reg istratio n adjustm ent d ifficu lty and m arital statu s as well as stu d en ts’ gender. Tables 4.4 and 4.5 show th e subgroup m eans of re g istra tio n adjustm ent d ifficu lty according to m arital sta tu s and gender of the stu d en ts. T able 4.4 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in R egistration A ccording to S tudents' M arital S tatus M arital S tatus n Mean S. P . Single 63 1.66 0.95 M arried (spouse living here) 85 1.73 1.01 M arried (spouse living in hom e country) 37 2.19 1.37 185 1.79 1.08 TOTALS: Table 4.5 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in R egistration A ccording to Students G ender Gender n Mean S .P . F em ale 43 1.72 1.03 143 1.81 1.10 186 1.79 1.08 M ale TOTALS: The subgroup m eans according to m arital s ta tu s in d icate th a t m arried stu d en ts w ith spouses living in th e ir hom e countries (m ean of 2.19) faced g re a te r d ifficu lty in reg istra tio n than m arried students with spouses living here (mean of 60 1.73) o r single stu d en ts (1.66). The subgroup m eans according to gender in d ic a te th a t m ale students (mean of 1.81) had m ore problem s with reg istratio n th a n fem ale stu d en ts (1.72). U nderstanding lectu res. The overall m ean of d ifficulty in understanding lectu res w as 1.56, indicating, generally, th a t m ost A frican students did not fa c e serious problem s in understanding lectu res. Only 5.9% indicated th a t th ey faced very serious problems in th is a re a . C hi-square te s ts showed th a t financial support, gender, and geographic sub-region w ere related to difficu lty of understanding lectu res. T able 4.6 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Understanding L ectu res A ccording to Financial Support Source of Financial Support n Mean S.D. MSU scholarship/assistantship 22 1.14 0.35 Fam ily/personal support 52 1.58 0.10 United S tates governm ent 22 1.59 1.10 P riv a te agency/organization/foundation 24 1.29 0.55 H om e governm ent 65 1.77 0.93 TOTALS: 186 1.56 0.90 Subgroup m eans according to students' sources of financial support shown in T able 4.6 in d ic ate th a t those students who received hom e governm ent financial support faced g re a te r difficulty in understanding lectures (mean of 1.77) than did those stu d en ts who received financial support from o th er sources (1.45). 61 Table 4.7 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Understanding L ectu res A ccording to G ender of Students Gender n Mean S.D. F em ale 43 1.67 1.09 143 1.52 0.83 186 1.56 0.90 M ale TOTALS: The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.7 in d icate th a t fem ale students (mean of 1.67) faced s li^ itiy g re a te r difficulty in understanding lectu res than m ale students (1.52). Table 4.8 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty G eographic Sub-R egon U nderstanding L ectures G eographic Sub-Reqion n Mean S.D. N orth A frica 64 1.53 0.80 West A frica 56 1.63 1.02 East A frica 44 1.34 0.64 Southern A frica 22 1.91 1.20 186 1.56 0.90 TOTALS in A ccording to The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.8 indicated th a t stu d en ts from Southern A frica (mean of 1.91) faced g re a te r problems in understanding lectu res than students from E ast A frica (1.34), N orth A frica (1.53), or W est A frica (1.63). U nderstanding textbooks. The overall m ean of 1.47 of th e d ifficu lty in understanding textbooks was th e sm allest m ean among th e m eans of difficulty of the 39 problem areas included in the study. In general, th is indicates th a t 62 understanding textbooks was not a t all a problem for m ost A frican students. However, 1.6% of them indicated th a t understanding textbooks was a very serious problem for them . F u rth er te s ts showed th a t students' academ ic classification, grade point average, m arital sta tu s, and geographic sub-region w ere re la te d to d ifficu lty in understanding textbooks. Table 4.9 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Understanding Textbooks A ccording to Students' A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. Bachelor's degree can d id ate 39 1.72 0.92 M aster's degree can d id ate 53 1.57 0.86 D octoral can d id ate/o th er 94 1.32 0.57 186 1.47 0.76 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.9, subgroup m eans in d icate th a t d ifficulty in understanding textbooks was g re a te r for undergraduate students (mean of 1.72) th an fo r M aster's candidates (1.57) or doctoral students (1.32). Table 4.10 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty C um ulative G rade P oint A verage in U nderstanding Textbooks A ccording to G rade Point Averaqe n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 1.64 0.84 2.85 - 3.24 54 1.87 0.95 3.25 - 4.00 118 1.27 0.55 186 1.47 0.76 TOTALS 63 As shown In T able 4.10, subgroup m eans Indicate th a t students w ith lower cum ulative grade point averages (less than 3.24) had g re a te r difficu lty in understanding textbooks (mean of 1.82) th an did stu d en ts w ith higher cum ulative grade point averages (m ean of 1.27). T able 4.11 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in U nderstanding Textbooks A ccording to Students1 M aritai S tatus M arital S tatus n Mean S.D. Single 63 1.59 0.73 M arried (spouse living h ere) 85 1.38 0.72 M arried (spouse living in hom e country) 37 1.49 0.87 185 1.47 0.76 TOTALS: The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.11 indicate th a t single students (mean of 1.59) faced g re a te r d ifficu lty in understanding textbooks than m arried students (1.41). T able 4.12 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in U nderstanding Textbooks A ccording to Students1 G eographic Sub-Region G eographic Sub-Region n Mean S.D. N orth A frica 64 1.59 0.75 West A frica 56 1.38 0.78 E ast A frica 44 1.32 0.56 Southern A frica 22 1.68 0.99 186 1.47 0.76 TOTALS: 64 As shown in T able 4.12, subgroup m eans indicate th a t Southern A frican students (mean of 1.68) had g re a te r d ifficulty in understanding textbooks th a n stu d en ts from E ast A frica (1.32), West A frica (1.38), o r N orth A frica (1.59). By combining sub-regions, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t N orth and Southern A frican students (mean of 1.61) had g re a te r difficulty in understanding textbooks th an E ast and W est A frican students (1.35). Oral repo rtin g . The overall m ean of d ifficulty in oral rep o rtin g was 1.78, indicating th a t, in gen eral, m ost A frican students did not face serious problem s in oral reporting. However, 8.1% of the students reported th a t th ey had very serious problems In oral reporting. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t stu d en ts' acad em ic classificatio n and gender w ere related to difficu lty in oral rep o rtin g . Table 4.13 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Oral R eporting A ccording to Students' A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. B achelor's d ecree can d id ate 39 2.23 1.22 M aster's degree can d id ate 53 1.64 0.79 D octoral can d id ate/o th er 94 1.67 0.89 186 1.78 0.96 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.13, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t undergraduate stu d en ts (mean of 2.23) seem to face g re a te r d ifficu lty in oral rep o rtin g than g rad u ate stu d en ts (1.66). 65 Table 4.14 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Oral R eporting A ccording to Gender of Students G ender n Mean S .P . F em ale 43 2.23 1.21 143 1.64 0.83 186 1.78 0.96 Male TOTALS: The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.14 indicate th a t degree of difficulty in oral reporting differed according to respondents' gender. Fem ale students (mean of 2.23) had g re a te r d ifficu lty in oral reporting than m ale students (1.64). Classroom recitin g . The overall m ean of difficulty in classroom recitin g of 1.83 indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not face serious problems in classroom rec itin g . However, 9.7% rep o rted th at th ey had very serious problems in classroom recitin g . F u rth er sta tistic a l te s ts showed no significant relationship betw een level of d ifficulty in classroom recitin g and students' background c h a ra c te ristic s. W riting te rm papers. The overall m ean of difficulty in w riting te rm papers of 1.77 indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students had no serious problem s in w riting term papers. However, 8.5% of the respondents rep o rted th a t they encountered very serious problems in w riting term papers. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t stu d en ts' academ ic classificatio n , grade point av erag e, m arital s ta tu s, and geographical sub-region w ere related to difficulty in w riting term papers. 66 Table 4.15 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in W riting Term P apers A ccording to S tudents' A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S .P . B achelor's degree can d id ate 3? 2.15 1.18 M aster's degree candi d ate 53 1.74 0.86 D octoral candi d a te /o th e r 94 1.47 0.91 186 1.78 0.98 TOTALS: As rep o rted in Table 4.15, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t doctoral stu d en ts (mean of 1.68) faced few er problems in w riting te rm papers than M aster's students 0.74) or undergraduate students (2.15). U ndergraduate students had th e g re a te st d ifficu lty in w riting term papers. Table 4.16 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in W riting Term P apers A ccording to C um ulative G rade P oint A verage G rade Point A verage n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 2.21 0.89 2.85 - 3.24 54 2.00 1.99 3.25 - 4.00 118 1.62 0.90 186 1.77 0.98 TOTALS The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.16 in d icate th a t th e re w as a relationship betw een d ifficulty in w riting term papers and cum ulative grade point av erag e. The low er th e cum ulative GPA, th e higher th e difficu lty in w riting term papers. Students in the lowest range pf cum ulative GPA faced g re a te r d ifficu lty in w riting term papers (mean of 2.21) th an students in th e 67 medium and h i p e s t ranges of cum ulative GPA (means of 2.00 and 1.62, respectively). Table 4.17 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in W riting Term Papers A ccording to Students' M arital S tatus M arital S tatus n Mean S.D. Single 63 1.73 0.95 Married (spouse living h ere) 85 1.82 1.00 Married (spouse living in hom e country) 37 1.76 0.98 185 1.78 0.98 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.17, th e subgroup m eans indicate th e re was a relationship betw een d ifficu lty in w riting term papers and stu d en ts' m arital statu s. R esults in d ic ate th a t m arried students with spouses living h ere (mean of 1.82) faced g re a te r d ifficu lty in w riting term papers than m arried students w ithout spouses (1.76) and single students (1.73). Table 4.18 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in W riting Term Papers A ccording to Students’ G eographic Sub-Region G eographic Sub-Reqion n Mean S.D. N orth A frica 64 1.98 1.03 West A frica 56 1.66 1.01 East A frica 44 1.50 0.79 Southern A frica 22 2.00 0.98 186 1.77 0.98 TOTALS: 68 Table 4.18 shows d ifferen t subgroup means which in d icate th a t Southern A frican students (mean of 2.00) and N orth A frican students (1.98) faced g re a te r p ro b lem s in w ritin g term papers than West A frican students (1.66) o r E ast A frican students (1.50). Using th e lib rary . The overall mean of 1.62 fo r d ifficu lty In using th e library indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not have serious problems in using th e library. Only 4.3% of the respondents indicated th a t th ey encountered very serious problem s. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t students* academ ic classification and environm ent of upbringing w ere related to th e ir d ifficu lty in using th e library. Table 4 .19 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Using the Library According to Students' A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. Bachelor's degree can d id ate 39 2.13 1.08 M aster's d ecree can d id ate 53 1.57 0.80 D octoral can d id ate/o th er 94 1.45 0.71 186 1.62 0.86 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.19, th e subgroup m eans indicate decreasing d eg ree of d ifficu lty in using th e library as academ ic classification moves to higher levels. U ndergraduate students (mean of 2.13) had g reater difficulty in using th e library th an both M aster's (1.57) and doctoral candidates (1.45). 69 Table 4.20 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Using th e Library According to Students Environm ent of Upbringing Environm ent of Upbrinqlng n Mean S.D. Rural village 57 1.63 0.92 Small town 58 1.85 0.90 Large city 71 1.44 0.75 186 1.62 0.86 TOTALS: The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.20 indicate th a t th e re w ere d ifferen t deg*ees of d ifficu lty in using the lib rary for d ifferen t environm ents of upbringing. Those stu d en ts who w ere brought up in small towns (mean of 1.85) faced g re a te r d ifficu lty in using th e library than either the stu d en ts brought up in rural villages (1.63) or those brought up in large c ities (1.44). U nderstanding exam ination procedures. The overall m ean of 1.82 of d ifficu lty in understanding exam ination procedures indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students face few serious problems in understanding exam ination procedures. However, 12.9% reported th a t they encountered very serious problem s in understanding exam ination procedures. F urther te sts showed th a t cum ulative grade point av erag e was related to d ifficulty in understanding exam ination procedures. As shown in T able 4.21, th e subgroup m eans varied slightly across the th re e subgroups. Students with cum ulative grade point averages below 3.24 (mean of 2.15) foced g re a te r d ifficu lty in understanding exam ination procedures th an those w ith cum ulative GPAs of higher than 3.24 (1.63). 70 T able 4.21 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in U nderstanding A ccording to C um ulative G rade P oint A verage Exam ination P rocedures G rade Point Average n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 2.14 1.10 2.85 - 3.24 54 2.15 1.14 3.25 - 4.00 118 1.63 1.01 186 1.82 1.08 TOTALS G etting acqu ain ted with th e U nited S tates' educational system . The overall m ean of 2.25 of d ifficu lty in getting acquainted with th e U nited S ta te s' educational system was the highest w ithin academ ic adjustm ent a reas. The low m ean indicates th a t, in g eneral, m ost A frican students did not face m any serious problems in g ettin g acquainted w ith th e U.S. educational system . However, re lativ e to problem s in o th er a re a s of academ ic ad ju stm en t, th is was th e m ost serious problem faced by A frican students w ith 21% of them indicating th a t they confronted very serious problem s in getting acquainted with th e U nited S ta te s' educational system . F u rth er s ta tis tic a l te sts indicated th a t students' academ ic classificatio n , cum ulative GPA, and length of sta y in th e USA w ere re la te d to th e ir d ifficu lty in g e ttin g acquainted w ith th e United S ta te s' educational system . Table 4.22 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in G ettin g Acquainted w ith th e U nited S tates' Educational System A ccording to Students' Academ ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. B achelor’s d e y e e can d id ate 39 2.87 1.24 M aster's deg*ee can d id ate 53 2.17 1.12 D octoral can d id ate/o th er 94 2.03 1.06 186 2.25 1.16 TOTALS: 71 The subgroup m eans shown in T able 4.22 in d icate th a t the d ifficu lty level A frican students fa c e in g ettin g acquainted with th e U nited S ta te s' educational i system decreases as th eir levels of academ ic classification move to hicjier levels. U ndergraduate stu d en ts (m ean of 2.87) faced g re a te r difficu lty in g ettin g acquainted with th e U nited S tates' educational system than did M aster's (2.17) or doctoral students (2.03). Table 4.23 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in G ettin g A cquainted with the U nited S ta te s' Educational System P rocedures A ccording to C um ulative G rade Point A verage Grade Point Averaqe n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 2.86 1.35 2.85 - 3.24 54 2.57 1.22 118 2.03 1.05 186 2.25 1.16 3.25 - 4.00 TOTALS As shown in Table 4.23, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t ihose students w ith lower cum ulative grade point averages foced g re a te r d ifficu lty in g ettin g acquainted with th e U nited S ta te s' educational system than those stu d en ts with higher cum ulative GPAs. The subgroup m eans shown in T able 4.24 in d icate decreasing d ifficu lty in g ettin g acquainted w ith th e U nited S tates' educational system as length of sta y in the USA increases. S tudents who had been in the USA for less th an one year (mean of 2.79) faced m uch g re a te r difficu lty than those students who had been h ere fo r m ore th an fiv e years (1.60) in g ettin g acquainted w ith th e U nited S ta te s' educational system . 72 Table 4.24 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty In G ettin g A cquainted w ith th e U nited S ta te s' Educational System According to Length of S tay in th e USA L enqth of Stay in the USA n Mean S.D. Less than one year 33 2.79 I.II 1-2 years 38 2.55 1.11 2-3 years 32 2.47 t.16 3-4 years 29 2.07 1.13 4-5 years 29 t .72 1.03 More than five years 25 1.60 0.96 186 2.24 1.16 TOTALS: Transferring course credits. The overall m ean of 2.20 of difficu lty in tra n sferrin g co u rse cred its from hom e country educational institutions to M ichigan S ta te U niversity indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not fa c e many serious problem s in tran sferrin g course cred its. However, 24.7% (the highest in academ ic adjustm ent) indicated th a t they encountered very serious problems related to tran sferrin g course cred its. C hi-square te sts showed th a t students' educational background, academ ic classification, cum ulative grade point average, length of sta y in the USA, and environm ent of upbringing w ere re la te d to d ifficu lty in tran sferring course cred its. As shown in T able 4.25, subgroup m eans indicate th a t students with d ifferen t educational backgrounds faced d ifferen t degrees of difficu lty in tra n sferrin g course c re d its. Those who g rad u ate from polytechnic colleges (mean of 3.24) faced th e g re a te st difficu lty in tran sferrin g course cred its as com pared to students w ith o th er qualifications. G raduates of te a c h e r and technical train in g institu tio n s and secondary school graduates (means of 2.31 and 2.41, respectively) encountered the few er d ifficu lt problems, w hile holders of the 73 Table 4.25 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in T ransferring C ourse C red its A ccording to Students' Educational Background Educational Background n Mean S.D. G .C.E. o r secondary equivalent 10 1.90 1.20 T eacher train in g /tech n ical training 13 2.31 1.32 Secondary school 37 2.41 1.26 P olytechnic college 17 3.24 1.15 B achelor's decyee 80 2.01 1.21 M aster's d ety ee 27 1.96 1.02 184 2.20 1.24 TOTALS: G eneral C e rtific a te of Education (GCE, m ean of 1.90), Bachelor's degrees (2.01), and M aster's degrees (1.96) encountered the least difficu lt problem s in tra n sferrin g course c re d its. T able 4.26 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in T ransferring C ourse C red its A ccording to Students' A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. B achelor's degree can d id ate 39 2.95 1.28 M aster's degree can d id ate 53 2.00 1.22 D octoral can d id ate/o th er 94 2.00 1.11 186 2.20 1.23 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.26, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t undergraduate stu d en ts (mean of 2.95) faced g re a te r difficu lty in tra n sferrin g course cred its th an did g raduate students (2.0). 74 Table 4.27 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in T ransferring C ourse C red its A ccording to C um ulative G rade P oint A verage G rade Point A verage n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 2.71 2.27 2.85 - 3.24 54 2.80 1.22 3.25 - 4.00 118 1.86 1.12 186 2.20 1.23 TOTALS The subgroup m eans presented in Table 4.27 indicate th a t students with lower cum ulative grade point averages (less than 3.24 w ith a m ean of 2.79) encountered m ore difficu lt problems in tran sferrin g course cred its th an did those students w ith higher cum ulative GPAs (more than 3.24 w ith a m ean of 1.86). Table 4.28 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in T ransferring C ourse C red its A ccording to Length of S tay in th e USA Length of S tay in th e USA n Mean S.D. Less than one year 33 2.48 1.35 1-2 years 38 2.37 1.17 2-3 years 32 2.25 1.39 3-4 years 29 2.14 1.19 4-5 years 29 1.86 1.03 More than five years 25 1.96 1.21 186 2.20 1.24 TOTALS: 75 The subgroup m eans shown in T able 4.28 in d icate th a t the degree of difficulty in tran sferrin g course credits decreases as th e length of s ta y in th e USA increases. However, th e degree of difficu lty increases for those students whose length of s ta y exceeds five years. T able 4.29 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in T ransferring C ourse C red its A ccording to Students Environm ent of Upbringing Environm ent of Upbringing n Mean S.D. Rural village 57 2.37 1.28 Small town 58 2.52 1.22 Large c ity 71 1.80 1.12 186 2.20 1.23 TOTALS: The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.29 in d icate th a t th e re w ere differen ces in the deeyee of difficulty in tra n sferrin g course cred its for d ifferen t environm ents of upbringing. S tudents who w ere brought up in small towns (mean of 2.52) faced g re a te r d ifficu lty than those who w ere brought up in rural villages (2.37) or those brought up in large cities (1.8). Com peting for grades. The low overall mean of 1.88 of difficulty in com peting for grades with A m erican students indicates th a t, in general, A frican stu d en ts faced little d ifficu lty in com peting for grades. However, 15.6% of the respondents reported th a t they encountered very serious problems in com peting for g-ades. F u rth er te s ts showed th a t students' academ ic classification and cum ulative grade point average w ere related to difficu lty in com peting for grades. 76 Table 4.30 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty In C om peting for G rades A ccording to Students' A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. B achelor's degree can d id ate 39 2.56 1.21 M aster's degree can d id ate 53 1.74 1.06 D octoral candi d ate/o th er 94 1.68 1.02 186 1.88 1.12 TOTALS: The subgroup m eans shown in Table 4.30 indicate th a t undergraduate stu d en ts (mean of 2.56) faced g re a te r difficu lty in com peting fo r grades with A m erican students th an did M aster's (mean of 1.74) or doctoral (1.68) students. The resu lts in d icate th a t th e higher th e level of study, th e lesser th e difficu lty in com peting for grades. Table 4.31 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in C om peting fo r G rades A ccording to C um ulative G rade P o in t A verage G rade Point A veraqe n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 2.57 1.22 2.85 - 3.24 54 2.24 1.18 3.25 - 4.00 118 2.64 1.01 186 1.88 1.12 TOTALS As shown in Table 4.31, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t those students whose cum ulative grade point averages w ere highest (3.25 to 4.00 w ith a m ean of 2.64) fa c e d g re a te r d ifficu lty in com peting for grades th an th o se students whose 77 cum ulative GPAs w ere lowest (0.00 to 2.84 w ith a m ean of 2.57) o r in th e m iddle (2.85-3.24 w ith a m ean of 2.24). Taking app ro p riate courses. The relativ ely high overall m ean of 2.04 of d ifficu lty in taking ap p ro p riate courses th a t satisfy personal, professional, and national developm ent objectives indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students faced relativ ely m ore problem s in th is a re a as com pared to o th er academ ic adjustm ent a re a s. Of th ese stu d en ts, 12.9% indicated th a t th ey encountered very serious problems in taking appropriate courses. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t environm ent of upbringing and geog-aphic sub-region w ere re la te d to difficu lty in taking ap p ro p riate courses. T able 4.32 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Taking A ppropriate C ourses A ccording to S tudents’ Environm ent of Upbringing Environm ent of Upbrinqinq n Mean S.D. Rural village 57 2.44 1.13 Small town 58 1.93 1.02 L arge c ity 71 1.82 1.03 186 2.04 1.09 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.32, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t students who w ere brought up in rural villages (mean of 2.44) faced g re a te r d ifficu lty in taking ap p ro p riate courses as com pared to students who were brought up in small towns (1.93) o r in larg e c itie s (1.82). 78 Table 4.33 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Taking A ppropriate C ourses A ccording to Students' G eographic Sub-Region G eographic Sub-Region n Mean S.D. N orth A frica 64 2.00 1.24 West A frica 56 1.89 1.19 East A frica 44 2.20 1.42 Southern A frica 22 2.23 1.25 186 2.04 1.32 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.33, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t E ast and Southern A frican students (mean of 2.21) faced g re a te r difficu lty in taking ap p ro p riate courses th a n N orth (2.00) or West (1.89) A frican students. Counseling se rv ic es. The relativ ely high overall m ean of 2 .0 4 of difficu lty in g ettin g ad eq u ate counseling services indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican stu d ents faced relativ e ly m ore problems in this a rea than in o th er academ ic adjustm ent a rea s, w ith 16.7% reporting th a t th ey encountered very serious problem s in g ettin g ad eq u ate counseling services. F urther sta tistic a l te sts, how ever, did not show any significant relationship betw een th e 10 background ch a rac te ristics and d ifficu lty in g ettin g adequate counseling services. The resu lts indicate th a t all students faced th e sam e kinds of problems in g ettin g ad eq u ate counseling services w ith the sem e deg-ees of difficulty, regardless of th eir background c h a ra c te ristic s. Financial A djustm ent A to tal of nine areas of financial adjustm ent problems w ere considered in th e study. Table 4.34 illu strates th e percentage distribution of responses, m eans, 79 and stan d a rd deviations for each ite m . A to tal of 186 stu d en ts responded to nine item s re la te d to financial adjustm ent problems. The low est and highest m eans of financial adjustm ent difficulty within th e nine areas of financial adjustm ent w ere 1.75 and 2.9b, respectively. The relativ ely low range of m eans indicates th a t, generally, m ost A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity faced few serious problem s in financial adjustm ent. As a whole, 40.97% indicated they did not face any financial adjustm ent problem s. N evertheless, som e students (27.76%) reported th a t they encountered very serious financial adjustm ent problem s. As shown in T able 4.34, the variation in m eans of difficu lty in various financial adjustm ent areas indicates th a t students faced d ifferen t degrees of d ifficu lty in d ifferen t areas of financial adjustm ent. Some d iffic u lt adjustm ent problem s w ere c ite d in th e areas of finding p art-tim e jobs (mean of 2.94), insufficient money fo r school expenses (2.82), and perm ission to find out outside th e cam pus because of im m igration laws (2.75). Less difficult problems include g e ttin g dollar allocations from home country (mean of 2.63), curren cy exchange (2.14), and finding little tim e to do class work due to p a rt-tim e job (1.95). Students foced least d ifficu lty in finding eatin g fa c ilitie s w ithin one's budget lim itation (mean of 1.93), extending visa w ithout spending much money (1.77), and finding ad eq u ate housing w ithin one's budget lim itation (1.75). 80 Table 4.34 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses A ccording to Financial A djustm ent Item s (n = 186) item Number and N am e K%) 2(%) 3(%) 4<%) Mean S.D. 3a Dollar allocation 31.9 15.7 9.7 42.7 2.63 1.32 39. C urrency exchange 48.6 11.9 16.2 23.2 2.14 1.25 40. Extending visa 57.0 18.8 14.0 10.2 1.77 1.04 41. School expenses 25.8 12.4 16.1 45,7 2.82 1.26 42. P a rt-tim e job 22.6 10.8 17.2 49.5 2.94 1.23 43. P a rt-tim e job p erm it 32.8 5.9 14.5 46.8 2.75 1.34 44. L ittle tim e for class work 51.1 16.7 [8.8 13.4 1.11 0.95 45. A dequate housing 53.2 25.3 14.5 7.0 1.75 0.95 46. Eating fa cilities 45.7 26.9 16.1 11.3 1.93 1.04 40.97 13.24 13.62 27.76 1.99 1.17 ALL ITEMS: Tests of relationship. The resu lts of chi-square te s ts of relationship betw een d ifficu lty level of th e nine financial adjustm ent problems and students’ 10 background c h ara cteristics are presented in Table 4.35 and 4.36. A to tal of II te s ts indicated th at th ere w ere significant relationships betw een th e level of difficulty in financial adjustm ent and background c h a ra c te ristic s at th e level of sig iifican ce of 0.05. The results will be discussed according to problem area s. 81 T able 4.35 A ctual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T ests of R elationship B etw een Level of Financial A djustm ent D ifficu lty and Students1 Background C h a ra c te ristic s E ducat. Bckqrnd. Financial Support Academ ic G rd. P t. C lassif. Average Dollar allocation .44 .03* .26 .86 .22 Currency exchcnge .97 .32 .88 .10 .00*** Extending visa .29 .34 .78 .14 .26 School expenses ,0 0 * * * .01** .17 .99 .02* P a rt-tim e job .64 .43 .32 .25 .16 P art-tim e job perm it .36 .29 .16 .36 .77 L ittle tim e fo r class work .86 .51 .16 .07 .19 A dequate housing .76 .73 .59 .85 .00*** Eating facilities .26 .10 .30 .92 .75 Item if and N o n e 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. * = ** = *#* - significant a t = 0.05 significant at-s-c = 0.01 sicpificant a t <*< = 0.001 Length of S tay 82 Table 4.36 Actual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T ests of R elationship Betw een Level of Financial A djustm ent D ifficulty and Students' Background C h a ra c te ristic s E nviron,/ Upbrinq. O rient a t. P ro a'am M arital Status G ender Geograph Sub-Rqn. Dollar allocation .85 .80 .83 .87 .00 * * * Currency exchange .92 .15 .72 .08 .06 Extending visa .34 .19 .08 .64 .18 .06 .42 .41 .05* Item ff and N o n e 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. School expenses 1.0 P a rt-tim e job .24 .56 .23 .41 .25 P a rt-tim e job p erm it .80 .19 .05* .64 .51 L ittle tim e for class work .97 .00*** .40 .58 .03* Adec^iate housing .43 .90 .08 .24 .80 E ating facilities .88 .07 .21 .82 .22 * = *** = significant a t significant a t 0.05 s 0.001 G ettin g dollar allocation from hom e country. The relativ e ly high overall m ean of 2.63 suggests, in general, th a t m ost A frican students faced serious problem s in g e ttin g dollar allocations from th eir hom e countries. In term s of percentages , 42.7% of them reported th a t th ey faced very serious problem s re lated to g e ttin g th e ir dollar allocations. Chi-square te s ts showed th a t source of financial support and geographical sub-region w ere re la te d to level of d ifficu lty in g e ttin g dollar allocations from hom e countries. 83 Table 4.37 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in G ettin g D ollar A llocation from Hom e C ountry A ccording to Source o f F inancial Support Source of Financial Support n Mean S.D. MSU scholarship/assistantship 22 2.63 1.44 F am ily/persona I support 52 2.96 1.27 United S tates governm ent 22 1.68 1.09 Pri vote agency/organi zati on/ foundation 24 2.91 1.35 Home governm ent 65 2.62 1.25 TOTALS: 186 2.63 1.32 As shown in Table 4.37, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t students who w ere self-supporting o r received financial support from th eir fam ilies (m ean of 2.96) and those who w ere supported by p riv ate agencies, organizations, or foundations (2.91) faced g re a te r d ifficulty in g ettin g th e ir dollar allocations, w hile students who received M ichigan S ta te U niversity scholarships or assist ant ships (2.63) and th o se w ith home governm ent scholarships (2.62) faced less d ifficu lty . Those stu d ents who received financial support from th e U nited S tates governm ent (1.68) faced the least difficulty in g e ttin g th e ir dollar allocations. T able 4.38 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in G ettin g Dollar A llocation from Hom e C ountry According to G eographic Sub-Region G eographic Sub-Reqion n Mean S.D. N orth A frica 64 2.39 1.24 West A frica 56 3.21 1.19 East A frica 44 2.40 1.42 Southern A frica 22 2.32 1.25 186 2.63 1.32 TOTALS: 84 As presented in T able 4.38, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t West A frican students (mean of 3.21) faced much g re a te r d ifficulty in g ettin g dollar allocations from th eir hom e countries than any o th er A frican students (2.38). Losing money through currency exchange. The low overall m ean (2.14) of th e ex te n t of problems re la te d to losing money through currency exchange suggests, in general, th a t m ost A frican students did not face serious problem s in th is a re a of adjustm ent. H owever, 23.2% of th e respondents rep o rted facing very serious problems in cu rrency exchange. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t only length of stay in th e USA was re la te d to e x te n t of problem in currency exchange. T able 4.39 Subgroup Means of E x ten t of Problem in C urrency Exchange A ccording to Length o f S tay in th e USA Lenqth of Stay In th e USA n Mean S.D. Less than one year 33 1.56 0.97 1-2 years 38 2.16 1.26 2-3 years 32 2.66 1.38 3-4 years 29 2.48 1.09 4-5 years 29 1.79 1.18 More than five years 25 2.28 1.31 186 2.14 1.25 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.39, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t th e re was no regular p attern in th e relationship betw een length of sta y in th e USA and th e e x te n t of currency exchange problems faced by students. The results suggest th a t those students who stayed in the USA betw een two and fiv e years (mean of 2.57) faced m ore difficu lt problem s in currency exchange, while th o se students 85 who stayed m ore than five years (2.28) o r betw een one and fiv e years (2.16) faced less difficult problems. Those students who stayed betw een four and five years (1.79) and those who stayed less than one year (1.56) faced th e least difficu lt problem s in currency exchange. G ettin g visa extended w ithout spending much money. The low overall m ean of 1.77 of d ifficu lty in getting one's visa extended w ithout spending much m oney indicates, in general, th a t m ast A frican students faced few serious problem s. H owever, 10.2% reported th a t th ey faced very serious problems in this a re a . F urther te sts showed no significant relationship existed betw een th e 10 background c h a ra cte ristics and difficu lty in getting one's visa extended; th a t is, m ost students faced th e s a n e degree of difficulty in g ettin g visas extended w ithout spending much m oney regardless of th eir background c h a ra c te ristic s. Having enough money for school expenses. The relativ ely high overall m ean of 2.82 of difficulty in having enough m oney fo r school expenses indicates th a t, in general, A frican stu d ents faced serious problems of financial adjustm ent. In term s of percentage, 45.7% reported th e y faced very serious problems in having enough m oney fo r school expenses. C hi-square te sts showed th at educational background, source of financial support, length of sta y in th e USA, and geographic sub-region w ere re la te d to degree of difficulty in having enough m oney fo r school expenses. 86 Table 4.40 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Having Enough Money fo r School Expenses A ccording to Students' Educational Background Educational Background n Mean S.D. G.C.E. or secondary equivalent 10 2.30 1.25 T eacher training/technical training 13 2.85 1.41 Secondary school 37 3.60 0.73 Polytechnic college 17 3.00 1.12 Bachelor's degree 80 2.64 1.31 M aster's detyee 27 2.48 1.28 184 2.82 1.26 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.40, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t students who com pleted secondary education (mean of 3.60) faced very serious problem s in having enough m oney fo r school expenses, while those who com pleted polytechnic (3.00) and te a c h e r or technical training (2.85) faced few er problem s. Those who com pleted Bachelor's degrees (2.64), M aster's degrees (2.48), and GCEs or secondary equivalents (2.30) faced th e few est problem s. Table 4.41 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Having Enough Money for School Expenses A ccording to Source of Financial Support Source of Financial Support n Mean S.D. MSU scholarship/assistantship 22 3.27 1.28 Fam ily/personal support 52 3.27 1.07 United S tates governm ent 22 2.32 1.36 P riv a te agency/organization/foundation 24 2.67 1.31 Home governm ent 65 2.53 1.22 TOTALS: 186 2.82 1.26 87 As shown in T able 4.41, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t stu d en ts who w ere self- o r fam ily-supported or those receiving financial support from Michigan S ta te U niversity (mean of 3.27) faced g re a te st difficu lty in having enough m oney fo r school expenses, while those students who received financial support from p riv a te agencies, organizations, or foundations (mean of 2.67) and from hom e governm ents (2.53) faced less difficulty. Students supported financially by th e U nited S ta te s governm ent (2.32) had the least d ifficu lty in having enough m oney fo r school expenses. Table 4.42 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Having Enough Money for School Expenses A ccording to Length of S tay in th e USA Lenqth of S tay in th e USA n Mean S.D. Less than one year 33 2.12 1.29 1-2 years 38 2.87 1.33 2-3 years 32 2.84 1.19 3-4 years 29 3.34 0.97 4-5 years 29 2.62 1.21 More th an fi ve years 25 3.24 1.17 186 2.82 1.26 TOTALS: As presented in Table 4.42, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t those stu d en ts who had stayed in th e USA betw een th re e and four years (m ean of 3.34) and m ore th an five years (3.24) faced th e g re a te st difficu lty in having enough m oney fo r school expenses, w hile those who had stayed betw een one and th re e years (2.86) and betw een four and five years (2.62) faced less difficulty. Those who had stay e d in the USA for less than one year (2.12) had th e few est problem s in having enough money fo r student expenses. 88 Table 4.43 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Having Enough Money fo r School Expenses According to G eographic Sub-Region G eotyaphic Sub-Reqion n Mean S .P . N orth A frica 64 2.80 1.17 West A frica 56 3.07 1.19 East A frica 44 2.75 1.38 Southern A frica 22 2.36 1.36 186 2.82 1.26 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.43, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t W est A frican stu d en ts (mean of 3.07) faced th e g re a te st d ifficulty in having enough m oney fo r school expenses, w hile N orth A Frican (2,80) and E ast A frican (2.75) students faced less d ifficu lty . Southern A frican students (2.36) had th e le a st difficu lty w ith this problem. Finding p a rt-tim e jobs. The high overall mean of 2.94 of difficu lty in finding p art-tim e jobs ind icates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students faced serious problems in this a re a . In term s of percentage, 49.5% rep o rted th a t they encountered very serious problem s. relationship existed betw een the F u rth er te s ts showed th a t no significant 10 background c h a ra c te ristic s te ste d and d ifficu lty in finding p a rt-tim e jobsj th a t is, m ost students faced th e sem e d e g 'e e s of d ifficu lty in finding p a rt-tim e jobs regardless of th eir background c h a ra c te ristic s. Perm ission to get p a rt-tim e jobs outside the campus by im m igration laws. T he re la tiv e ly high overall m ean of 2.75 of difficulty on perm ission to get p a rttim e jobs outside th e campus indicates th a t, in general, A frican students had 89 serious problems of financial adjustm ent in this a re a . In term s of p ercen tag e, 46.8% reported th a t th ey had very serious problems in not being allowed to get p a rt-tim e jobs outside th e campus due to im m igration laws. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t m a rita l sta tu s w as related to th e degree of difficulty on perm ission to get p a rt-tim e Jobs outside th e cam pus due to im m igration laws. Table 4.44 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty of Perm ission to G et P art-T im e Jobs O utside th e C am pus Due to Im m igration Laws A ccording to M arital Status M arital Status n Mean S.D. Single 63 3.02 1.26 M arried (spouse living here) 85 2.48 1.34 M trried (spouse living in hom e country) 37 2.97 1.34 185 2.76 1.33 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.44, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t single students (mean of 3.02) had very serious problems of not being allowed to get p a rt-tim e jobs outside th e cam pus due to im m igration laws, while m arried stu d en ts with spouses in th e ir hom e countries (2.97) had few problems, and m u rie d students w ith spouses living h e re had th e few est problem s. Finding little tim e to do class work because of p a rt-tim e job. The relativ ely low overall m ean of 1.95 of finding little tim e to do class work because of one's p a rt-tim e job suggests th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not fa c e any serious problem s in this a rea. However, som e students (13.4%) reported very serious problem s in finding little tim e to do class work because of p a rt-tim e jobs. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t orientation program s received and geographic sub-regions w ere related to difficu lty in finding little tim e to do class work because of p a rt-tim e jobs. 90 Table 4.45 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Having L ittle Tim e to Do Class Work B ecause of P art-T im e Job A ccording to th e O rientation P rogram Received O rientation Program n Mean S.D. Inadequate 32 2.28 1.37 Somewhat helpful 74 1.97 1.01 Very helpful 20 1.80 l.ll 186 2.02 1.13 TOTALS: As illu strated in Table 4.45, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t students who regarded the orientation program as inadequate (mean of 2.28) had g re a te r d ifficulty in finding enough tim e to do class work because of p a rt-tim e jobs, while students who considered the program somewhat helpful (1.97) had less difficulty, and those who viewed th e program as very helpful had th e least d ifficu lty in finding tim e to do class work because of p a rt-tim e jobs. Table 4.46 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Having L ittle Tim e to Do Class Work Because of P art-T im e Job A ccording to G eographic Sub-Region Geocyaphic Sub-Reqion n Mean S.D. N orth A frica 64 1.84 1.00 West A frica 56 2.02 1.10 East A frica 44 2.14 1.25 Southern A frica 22 1.68 1.17 186 1.95 l.ll TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.46, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t E ast A frican stu d ents (mean of 2.14) faced g -e a te r difficulty in finding tim e to do class work 91 because of p a rt-tim e jobs than any o th er A frican students (combined m ean of 1.85). Finding adequate housing. The low overall mean of 1.75 of difficu lty indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students faced few serious problems in finding adequate housing w ithin th e ir budget lim itations. However, seven percent cited finding adequate housing as a very serious problem . C hi-square te sts showed th at length of s ta y in the U nited S tates related to the deg-ee of d ifficu lty in finding adequate housing. Table 4.47 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Finding A dequate Housing According to Length of Stay in th e USA Lenqth of S tay in the USA n Mean S.D. Less than one year 33 1.76 1.17 1-2 years 38 1.61 0.76 2-3 years 32 1.63 0.79 3-4 years 29 2.00 1.20 4-5 years 29 1.76 0.79 More th an five years 25 1.84 0.94 186 1.75 0.95 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.47, th e subgroup m eans suggested th a t students who had stayed in the USA from th re e to four years (mean of 2.00) rep o rted g re a te r d ifficu lty in finding adequate housing, while students who had stayed for m ore than four years (1.80) and less than one year (1.76) reported less difficulty, and th o se who had stayed for one to th re e years (1.61) cited th e least difficulty in finding ad eq u ate bousing w ithin th eir budget lim itations. 92 Finding eatin g fa cilitie s within budget lim itations. The low overall m ean of 1.93 of difficulty in finding eatin g fa c ilitie s within one's budget lim itations indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not face serious problem s in finding eatin g fa cilities within budget lim itations. N evertheless, 11.3% rep o rted th a t they faced very serious problem s. F urther te sts showed no significant relationship betw een th e 10 background c h aracteristics and difficu lty in finding ea tin g facilities; th a t is, m ost A frican students faced th e sam e degree of d ifficu lty In finding eatin g fa c ilitie s w ithin th eir budget lim itations regardless of th e ir background c h a ra c te ristic s. Personal A djustm ent Two areas of personal adjustm ent problems w ere included in this study. Table 4.48 shows th e p ercen tage distribution of responses, m eans, and standard deviations for each ite m . A to tal num ber of 186 students responded to th e two item s related to personal adjustm ent problem s. The low est and highest m eans of personal adjustm ent difficulty w ithin the two areas of persona! adjustm ent w ere 2.09 and 2,10, respectively. The relativ e ly low range of m eans indicates th a t, generally, m ost A frican stu d en ts a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity, faced few serious problem s on personal adjustm ent. As a whole, 41.9% indicated th a t th ey did not encounter personal adjustm ent problem s. N evertheless, som e students (14.25%) rep o rted having very serious personal adjustm ent problems. T able 4.48 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses A ccording to Personal A djustm ent Item s (n = 186) Item Number and N am e !(%) 2(%) 3(%) 4(%) Mean S.D 47. A m erican food 4013 21.5 27.4. 10.8 2.09 1.05 48. H ealth fa cilitie s 43.5 20.4 18.3 17.7 2.10 1.15 ALL ITEMS 41.9 20.95 22.85 14.25 2.10 1.10 93 As shown in T able 4.48, th e tw o m eans of difficu lty in the tw o personal ad justm ent item s w ere alm ost id en tical, indicating th a t, in general, m ost A frican stu d en ts faced th e tw o adjustm ent problems w ith th e sa m e degree of difficu lty. Tests of relationship. The resu lts of chi-square te s ts of relationship betw een d ifficu lty levels of th e tw o personal adjustm ent problem s and students* 10 background c h a ra c te ristic s are presented in Tables 4.49 and 4.50. A to tal of th re e te sts indicated th a t th ere were significant relationships betw een level of difficulty of personal adjustm ent and background c h a ra c te ristic s a t a level of significance of 0.05. The results will be discussed according to problem areas. Table 4.49 Actual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T ests of R elationship B etw een Level o f Personal A djustm ent D ifficulty and Students1 Background C h a ra c te ristic s item ff and N cm e 47. 48. ** E ducat. Pckqrnd. Financial Support A cadem ic G rd, P t. C lassif. A verage Length of S tay Am erican food .41 .12 .71 .28 .01** H ealth facilities .33 .73 .25 .07 .51 = sig iific a n t a t * ^ = 0.01 Table 4.50 Actual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elationship B etw een Level of Personal A chievem ent A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents1 Background C h aracteristics item // and N o n e E nviron./ O rien tat. M arital Upbri nq. Pro tra m Status Gender Geocyaph. Sub-Rqn. 47. A m erican food .64 .01** ,10 .58 .53 48. H ealth fa cilitie s .84 .02* .23 . .46 .26 * ** = = sityiifleant a t *=< = 0.05 significant a t <=< = 0.01 94 G ettin g used to A m erican food. The overall m ean of 2.09 of d ifficu lty In g ettin g used to A m erican food indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not face serious problems in this c re a . N evertheless, som e stu d en ts (10.8%) indicated th a t th ey encountered very serious problems in g ettin g used to A m erican food. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t th e re w ere relationships betw een d ifficu lty in g etting used to A m erican food and length of stay in th e U nited S tates as well as the orien tation program the student received. Tables 4.51 and 4.52 illu stra te th e subgroup m eans of difficulty In getting used to A m erican food according to length of s ta y in the USA and o rien tatio n program received. Table 4.51 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in G ettin g Used to A m erican Food A ccording to Length of Stay in th e U5A Length of Stay in th e USA n Mean S.D. Less than one year 33 2.15 1.18 1-2 years 38 2.37 1.13 2-3 years 32 2.28 0.92 3-4 years 29 1.97 1.02 4-5 years 29 1.83 0.80 More th an five years 25 1.76 1.13 186 2.09 1.05 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.51, subgroup m eans indicate th a t students who had stayed in the USA for one or tw o years (mean of 2.33) experienced g re a te r d ifficu lty in g etting used to A m erican food th an those who had stay ed for tw o to th re e years (2.13) o r those who had stayed for th re e to four years (1.80). 95 T able 4.52 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in G e ttin g Used to A m erican Food A ccording to th e O rien tatio n P rogram R eceived O rientation Program n Mean S.D. Inadequate 32 2.31 0.97 Somewhat helpful 74 1.99 1.07 Very helpful 20 2.30 1.26 186 2.12 1.08 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.52, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t students who considered th e o rien tatio n program s they received as adequate (mean of 2.31) and th o se who regarded th eir o rien tatio n program s as very helpful (2.30) rep o rted th a t th ey faced g -e a te r d ifficu lty In g e ttin g used to A m erican food th an those who considered th e program som ew hat helpful (1.99). H ealth fa cilitie s. The overall m ean of difficu lty in finding ad eq u ate health c a re fa cilities was 2.10, indicating th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not face very serious problems in finding ad eq u ate health c are fa c ilitie s. However, som e students (17.7%) rep o rted very serious problems in finding adequate health c are fa c ilities. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t o rien tatio n program s received was re lated to d ifficu lty in finding adequate health c a re facilities. Table 4.53 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Finding A dequate H ealth C are F acilities A ccording to th e O rien tatio n Program R eceived O rientation Program n Mean S.D. Inadequate 32 2.72 1,17 Som ewhat helpful 74 1.82 1.07 Very helpful 20 1.90 1.07 186 2.06 1.15 TOTALS: 96 As shown in Table 4.53, th e subgroup m eans indicates th a t students who considered th e ir o rie n ta tio n program s inadequate (mean of 2,72) encountered g re a te r problems in finding adeq u ate health c are facilities than did stu d en ts who said th e ir orientation program s w ere very helpful (1.90) or those who regarded it as som ew hat helpful (1.82). Religious A djustm ent A to ta l of four areas of religious adjustm ent problem s w ere included in the study. Table 4.54 shows th e percentage distribution of responses, m eans, and stan d ard deviations for each ite m . A to tal of 186 stu d en ts responded to four item s related to religious adjustm ent problems. The low est and highest m ean of religious adjustm ent d ifficulty w ithin the four areas of religious adjustm ent w ere 1.65 and 1.91, resp ectiv ely . The relativ ely low range of m eans indicates th a t, generally, m ost A frican stu d en ts a t Michigan S ta te U niversity faced few serious problem s on religious adjustm ent. As a whole, 57.3% reported th a t they did not encounter any religious adjustm ent problems. Table 4.54 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses A ccording to Religious A djustm ent Item s (n = 186) l(%) 2(%) 3(%) 4<%) Mean S.D. Housing w ithout restrictio n s 57.0 20.4 11.3 11.3 1.77 1.04 M oi ntai hi ng spi ri tual v ita lity 55.4 19.9 14.5 10.2 1.80 1.04 51. A friendly w orship group 64.5 16.1 9.7 9.7 1.65 1.00 52. Rocial and religious p referen ces 52.2 19.4 12.9 15.6 1.91 1.13 57.3 19.0 12.1 11.6 1.78 1.05 Item Number and Nam e 49. 50. ALL ITEMS 97 As shown in T able 4.54, th e variation in th e m eans of d ifficu lty in various religious ad justm ent are as indicates th a t students had d ifferen t degrees of d ifficu lty in d ifferen t areas of religious adjustm ent. Slightly difficult adjustm ent problems cited w ere overcom ing racial and religious p referen ce (mean of 1.91) and m aintaining spiritual v ita lity in campus life (1.80), w hile th e least difficulty rep o rted were renting housing w ithout racial or religious restrictio n s (1.77) and finding a friendly worship group of one's own religion (1.65). Tests of relationship. The results of chi-square te s ts of relationship betw een th e d ifficu lty level of four religious adjustm ent problems and students' 10 background ch a ra c te ristic s are presented in Tables 4.55 and 4.56. Table 4.55 Actual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elationship Between Level o f Religious A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents' Background C h aracteristics Financial Support Academ ic G rd. P t. Average C lassif. Housing w ithout restrictio n s .61 .76 .10 .96 .60 M aintaining spiritual v ita lity .15 .95 .43 .07 .50 A friendly worship group .71 .13 .01** .00*** .47 Racial and religious p referen ce .08 .14 .02* .55 .32 Item if and N cm e 49. 50. 51. 52. * = #* = *** = E tiica t. Bckqrnd. Length of S tay significant a t ^ = 0.05 significant a t ■=>< = 0.01 slcyiificant a t «=* = 0.001 A to tal of five te sts indicated th a t th e re w ere significant relationships betw een th e level of d ifficulty in religious adjustm ent and background 98 c h ara cteristics a t a level of significance of 0.05. The results will be discussed according to problem are as. Table 4.56 Actual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T e sts of R elationship B etw een Level of Religious A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents’ Background C h a racteristics O rient a t. Program M arital Status Gender Geograph. Sub-Rqn. Housing wi thout .13 restric tio n s .74 .29 .10 .11 M aintaining spiritual v ita lity .57 .42 .21 .33 .69 A friendly worship group .42 .24 .20 .03* .04* R acial and religious p referen ce .44 .67 .59 .35 .10 Environ./ Upbrinq. Item if and N o n e 49. 50. 51. 52. * = significant a t = 0.05 Finding housing w ithout racial and religious restric tio n s. The low overall m ean o f i.77 in d icates, in general, th a t m o st A frican students faced few serious problem s finding housing w ithout racial or religious re strictio n s. However, H.3% indicated th a t th e y faced very serious problems in finding housing. C hi-sqpare te sts showed th a t th ere w ere no significant relationships betw een th e 10 background c h a ra c te ristic s and th e level of difficulty students faced in finding housing w ithout racial or religious restrictio n s; th a t is, regardless of th eir background c h a ra c te ris tic s, m ost A frican students faced this problem with th e s a n e level of d ifficu lty 99 M aintaining spiritual v itality . The low overall mean of 1.80 indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not find very serious problem s in m aintaining spiritual v itality in campus life. However, 10.2% of them rep o rted th a t th ey faced very serious problems in this a re a . F u rth er te s ts showed no sig iific a n t relationship betw een all 10 background c h aracteristics and degree of d ifficu lty in m aintaining spiritual v itality in cam pus life; th a t is, regardless of th e ir background, m ost A frican students faced this problem w ith th e sam e degrees of difficulty. Finding a friendly w orship group. The low est overall m ean of 1.65 am ong religious adjustm ent problems indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students had few problem s in finding friendly worship groups of th eir own religions. H owever, 9.7% rep o rted th a t th ey faced very serious problems in this adjustm ent a re a . F u rth er te sts showed th a t academ ic classification, cum ulative grade point av erag e, gender, and geographic sub-region w ere related to th e degrees of d ifficu lty stu d en ts had in finding friendly workshop groups of th eir own religions. T able 4.57 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Finding a Friendly Worship Group According to Students1 A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. Bachelor's degree can d id ate 39 2.03 1.29 M aster's degree can d id ate 53 1.57 0.93 D octoral can d id ate/o th er 94 1.53 0.88 186 1.65 1.00 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.57, th e subgroup m eans indicates th a t undergraduate stu d en ts (mean of 2.03) faced g re a te r difficulty in finding friendly worship groups than did g rad u ate stu d ents (1.54). 100 Table 4.58 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Finding a Friendly Worship G ro ip According to C um ulative G rad e P oint A verage Grade Point A verage n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 2.21 1.37 2.85 - 3.24 54 2.00 1.18 3.25 - 4.00 118 1.42 0.77 186 1.65 1.00 TOTALS As shown in Table 4.58, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t students w ith lower cum ulative grade point averages faced g re a te r difficu lty in finding friendly worship groups th an did those with higher cum ulative GPAs. The m eans of detyee of d ifficu lty fo r students with cum ulate GPAs of less than 2.84, of betw een 2.85 and 3.24, and of g reater than 3.25 w ere 2.21, 2.00, and 1.42, respectively. Table 4.59 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Finding a Friendly Worship Group According to G ender Gender n Mean S.D. F em ale 43 1.86 1.23 Male 143 1.58 0.92 186 1.64 1.00 TOTALS: The subgroup m eans, as presented in Table 4.59, indicate th a t fem ale students (mean of 1.86) faced g reater difficulty in finding friendly w orship groups th an did m ale students (1.58). 101 Table 4.60 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Finding a Friendly Worship Group A ccording to G eographic Sub-Region G eoqraphic Sub-Region n Mean S.D. N orth A frica 64 1.83 1.02 West A frica 56 1.45 0.93 East A frica 44 1.54 0.95 Southern A frica 22 1.82 1.18 186 1.65 1.00 TOTALS: The subgroup m eans, as shown in Table 4.60, indicate th a t N orth and Southern A frican stu d en ts (means of 1.83 and 1.82, respectively), faced g re a te r difficulty in finding friendly worship groups than did E ast and W est A frican students (1.54 and 1.45, respectively). Overcom ing racial and religious preference. The low overall m ean of 1.91 of d ifficulty in overcom ing racial and religious preference indicates th a t, in g eneral, m ost A frican stu d ents did not face serious problems in th is a re a of adjustm ent. H owever, 15.6% reported th a t th ey faced very serious problem s in overcom ing racial and religious p reference. The m ean and percen tag e in d icate th a t overcom ing racial and religious preference was th e g reatest problem am ong all religious adjustm ent problems included in th is study. F urther te s ts showed th a t only academ ic classification was re la te d to th e difficu lty in overcom ing racial and religious preference. 102 Table 4.61 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in O vercom ing Racial and Religious P re fe re n c e According to Students* A cadem ic C lassification A cadem ic C lassifications n Mean S.D. Bachelor's degree can d id ate 39 2.44 1.27 M aster’s degree candidate 53 1.57 0.93 D octoral can d id ate/o th er 94 1.90 1.10 186 1.92 1.13 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.61, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t undergraduate students (mean of 2.44) faced th e g re a te st d ifficu lty in overcom ing racial and religious p referen ces, while doctoral students (1.90) faced less d ifficu lty , and M aster’s students (I-57) faced th e le a st difficu lty in overcom ing racial and religious p references. Emotional A djustm ent A total of one area of em otional adjustm ent problems was considered in this study. Table 4.62 shows th e percentage distribution of responses, m ean, and stan d ard deviation for each ite m . A to tal of 186 students responded to th re e item s related to em otional adjustm ent problem s. The ra th e r high m ean (2.69) indicates th a t, generally, m ost A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity f e lt hom esick. As a whole, 35.5% of th e students said th ey encountered th e problem of feeling hom esick. However, som e students (23.1%) rep o rted thot th e y did not fa ce th e serious problem of feeling hom esick. 103 Table 4.62 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses According to Emotional A djustm ent Item (n = 186) Item Number and N am e !(%> 2(%) 3(%) 4(%) Mean S.D. 55. 23.1 22.0 19.4 35.5 2.67 1.18 Feeling hom esick T ests of relationship. R esults of chi-square te s ts of relationship betw een d ifficu lty levels of one em otional adjustm ent problem and stu d en ts' 10 background c h ara cteristic s are presented in Tables 4.63 and 4.64. A to tal of tw o te sts indicated th a t th e re were sig iific a n t relationships betw een level of d ifficulty of em otional adjustm ent and background c h a ra c te ristic s a t a level of significance of 0.05. Table 4.63 Actual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T ests of R elationship B etw een Level of Em otional A djustm ent D ifficulty and Students’ Background C h aracteristics Item # and N am e 55, * ** *** Feeling hom esick E ducat. Bckgrnd. Financial Support A cadem ic G rd. P t. C lassif. A verage Length of S tay .02* .28 .34 .58 - significant a t «< = 0.05 = sig iifica n t a t «=< = 0.01 = significant a t c < =0.001 .34 104 T able 4.64 Actual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T ests of R elationship B etw een Level o f Em otional A djustm ent D ifficu lty and Students' Background C h aracteristics Item //a n d N am e 55. *** Feeling hom esick = Environ./ O rien tat. M arital Upbrinq. Program Status Gender Geog*aph. Sub-Rcr>. .84 .00*** .13 .23 .27 significant a t « < = 0.001 Feeling hom esick. The overall mean of 2.67 of difficu lty in feeling hom esick indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students did not fa c e any serious problems in this a re a . N evertheless, som e stu d en ts (35.5%) said th e y had very serious problem s of feeling hom esick. C hi-square te s ts indicated th a t educational background and gender w ere related to the degree of feeling hom esick. Table 4.65 Subgroup Means of F eeling Hom esick According t o Students' Educational Background Educational Background n Mean S.D. G.C.E. o r secondary equivalent 10 2.40 1.08 T eacher train in g /tech n ical training 13 2.77 1.17 Secondary school 37 3.05 0.10 P olytechnic college 17 3.06 1.30 Bachelor's degree 80 3.50 1.14 M aster's deg*ee 27 2.60 1.39 184 2.67 1.18 TOTALS: 105 As shown in T able 4.65, subgroup m eans indicate th a t students who com pleted Bachelor's degrees before coming to th e U nited S tates (mean of 3.50) rep o rted th e g re a te st d ifficu lty in overcom ing feelings of hom esickness, w hile stu d en ts who com pleted polytechnic (3.06) or secondary education (3.05) rep o rted less difficu lty . S tudents who com pleted te a c h e r or technical training (2.77) as well as th o se who com pleted M aster's degrees (2.60) and G eneral C e rtific a te s of Education or th eir equivalent (2.W) c ite d th e least d ifficu lty in overcom ing feelings of hom esickness. Table 4.66 Subgroup Means of D egrees of Feeling Hom esick According to G ender Gender n Mean S.D. Fem ale 43 3.30 1.01 143 2.48 1.42 (86 2.67 1.34 Male TOTALS: As illu stra te d in Table 4.68, subgroup m eans suggested th a t fem ale stu d en ts (mean of 3.30) experienced g reater d ifficulty in overcom ing feelings of hom esickness than did m ale students (2.48). Social Adjustm ent A to tal of eight areas of social adjustm ent problem s w ere exam ined in this study. Table 4.67 shows th e percentage distribution of responses, m eans, and stan d ard deviations fo r each ite m . A total of 186 students responded to eight item s re la te d to social adjustm ent problem s. T he lowest and highest m eans of social adjustm ent d ifficu lty w ithin the eight areas of social adjustm ent w ere 1.54 and 2.17, respectively. The relativ ely low range of m eans indicates th a t, generally, m ost A frican stu d en ts a t Michigan S ta te U niversity faced few serious 106 problem s on social adju stm en t. As a w hole, 48.9% indicated th a t th ey did not face any social adjustm ent problem s. N otw ithstanding, som e stu d en ts 00.8%) said th a t they had experienced very serious social adjustm ent problems. As illu strated in Table 4.67, th e variation in the m eans of difficu lty in various social adjustm ent a reas indicates th a t students encountered d iffe re n t d e y e e s of difficulty in d ifferen t areas of social adjustm ent. Some difficu lt adjustm ent problems w ere rep o rted in th e a re a of A m erican value system (mean of 2.17), being accep ted in social groups outside the campus (2.16), and m aking personal friends with A m erican students (2.09). Less difficulty adjustm ent problem s w ere cited as feeling w elcom e at campus social functions (1.84), being ac ce p ted in a friendly social group (1.84), and m aking personal friends of o th er foreign students (1.73). Students encountered the least difficulty in p articip atin g fre ely in ath letics and e x tra cu rricu lar a c tiv itie s on cam pus (1.68) and having to o m any social engagem ents which in te rfe re with studies (1.54). 107 Table 4.67 P ercen tag e D istribution of Responses A ccording to Social A djustm ent Item s (n = 186) l(%) 2(%) 3<%) 4<%) Mean S.P. Being accep ted outside campus 39.2 25.3 16.1 19.4 2.16 1.15 Feeling w elcom e at campus functions 45.7 31.2 16.7 6.5 1.84 0.93 Being accep ted in a friendly group 51.1 26.9 13.4 8.6 1.80 0.98 Friendship w ith A m erican students 40.9 24.2 20.4 14.5 2.09 1.09 60. A m erican value system 36.6 28.5 16.7 18.3 2.17 1.12 61. Friendship w ith o th e r foreign students 55.9 24.2 11.3 8.6 1.73 1.07 Too m any social engagem ents 61.3 25.8 10.8 2.2 1.54 0.77 P articip atin g freely in ath letics 61.3 25.8 10.8 2.2 1.54 0.77 60.8 18.8 12.4 8.1 1.68 0.98 Item Number and N o n e 56. 57. 58. 59. 62. 63. ALL ITEMS: T ests of relationship. The results of chi-square te s ts of relationship betw een d ifficu lty levels of eight social adjustm ent problems and 10 students' background ch a ra c te ristic s a re presented in Tables 4.68 and 4.69. 108 Financial Support A cadem ic G rd. P t. Average C iassif. Being accep ted outside campus .29 .29 .58 .17 .27 Feeling wel­ com e at cam ­ pus functions .21 .08 • CD .37 * Being accep ted in a friendly group .73 .33 .61 .69 .11 Friendship w ith A m erican students .49 .78 .19 .31 .19 A m erican value .18 system .84 .36 .95 .55 Friendship with o th er f orei gn students .25 .40 .35 .50 .09 Too many socl al engagem ents .29 .73 .37 ,00*** .05* P articip atin g fre e ly in ath letics .03* .12 .83 .57 .80 Item # and Ncrne 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. # *#* = = Length of S tay 00 —j E ducat. Bckqrnd. '-j Table 4.68 A ctual Levels of Significance of Chi-Square T ests of R elationship Between Level of Social A djustm ent D ifficu lty and Students’ Background C h a racteristics significant a t ^ = 0.05 significant a t «< = 0.001 A to ta l of 12 te s ts indicated th a t th e re w ere significant relationships betw een th e levels of difficulty in social c h a ra c te ristic s a t the 0.05 level of significance. according to problem area s. adjustm ent and background The resu lts will be discussed 109 T able 4.69 A ctual Levels of Significance of C hi-Square T ests of R elationship B etw een Level o f Social A djustm ent D ifficulty and S tudents' Background C h a racteristics Environ./ Upbring. O rient a t. Procram M arital Status Gender Geograph. Sub-Rqn. Being accep ted outside campus .19 .05* .26 .81 .15 Feeling wel­ com e a t cam ­ pus functions .09 .05* .26 .33 .35 Being accepted in a friendly group .40 .42 .41 .06 .21 Friendship w ith Am erican students .04* .79 .26 .04* .25 A m erican value system .13 .21 .32 .10 .46 Friendship w ith oth er forei gn students .34 .83 .35 .66 .92 Too m any social engagem ents .05* .02* .16 .48 .84 P articip atin g fre e ly in ath letics .00*** .04* .37 .78 .04* Item // and Nam e 56. 57. 58. 59. 60. 61. 62. 63. * *** = significant a t •=< = 0.05 significant a t = 0.001 Being accep ted in social groups outside th e cam pus. The overall m ean of 2.16 of d ifficu lty on being accep ted in social groups outside th e cam pus indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students faced serious problems in this are a . H ow ever, som e students (19.4%) indicated th a t th ey experienced very serious no problem s in being accep ted in social groups outside th e cam pus. C hi-stfiares te s ts showed th a t th e re w ere relationships betw een difficu lty in being accep ted in social groups outside th e ccmpus and educational background, cum ulative grade point average, length of sta y in th e U nited S ta te s, environm ent of upbringing, orientation program received, gender, and geographic sub-region. Table 4.70 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Being A ccepted in Social Groups O utside th e Campus A ccording to th e O rientation Program Received O rientation P ro tram n Mean S.D. Inadequate 32 2.75 1.11 Somewhat helpful 74 2.01 LI 3 Very helpful 20 t.90 1.21 186 2.18 1.18 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.70, th e subgroup m eans suggest th a t students who considered the o rien tatio n program s they received as inadequate (mean of 2.75) had g re a te r d ifficu lty in being accepted in social groups outside th e cam pus than did stu d en ts who regarded the program s as som ew hat helpful (2.01) o r those who considered it as very helpful (1.90). Feeling w elcom e a t cam pus functions. The low overall m ean of 1.84 of d ifficu lty in feeling welcom e a t cam pus functions indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican stu d en ts did not face serious problems in feeling w elcom e a t cam pus functions. N evertheless, 6.5% reported (h a t th ey encountered very serious problem s in this area. C hi-square te s ts showed th a t the effectiv en ess of th e orien tatio n program s received by students was re la te d to th e ir difficu lty in feeling w elcom e a t campus functions. Ill Table 4.71 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in Feeling W elcome at A ccording to th e O rien tatio n Program R eceived Campus Functions O rientation Procram n Mean S.D. Inadequate 32 2.00 0.88 Somewhat helpful 74 1.82 0.93 Very helpful 20 1.70 0.80 186 1.85 0.90 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.71, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t stu d en ts who considered th e o rien tatio n program s th ey received as inadequate (mean of 2.00) faced g re a te r d ifficu lty in feeling w elcom e a t cam pus functions th an did th o se students who considered th e ir o rien tatio n program s som ew hat (1.82) or very (1.70) helpful. Being accep ted in a friendly croup. The low overall m ean of 1.80 of d ifficu lty in being accep ted in a friendly group indicates, in general, th a t m ost A frican students did not face serious problem s in being accep ted in friendly groups. However, 8.6% rep orted th a t they encountered very serious problem s. Subgroup com parisons showed no sig iific a n t relationship existed betw een th e 10 background c h a ra c te ristic s and degree of difficulty in being a c c e p te d in a friendly group; th a t is, regardless of students' background c h a ra c te ristic s, m ost of them faced this problem with sim itar degrees of difficulty. Making personal friends with A m erican students. The low overall m ean of 2.09 of d ifficu lty in making personal friends w ith A m erican students indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican stu d en ts did not have serious problem s in th is a re a o f social adjustm ent. N evertheless, th e re w ere som e students (14.5%) who rep o rted th a t th ey faced v ery serious problems in m aking personal friends w ith 112 A m erican stu d en ts. F u rth e r te s ts showed th a t environm ent of upbringing and gender w ere re la te d to th e degree a f difficulty in m aking personal friends w ith A m erican stu d en ts. Table A.72 Subgroup M eans of D ifficu lty in Making Personal Friends w ith A m erican Students According to S tudents' Environm ent of Upbringing Environm ent of Upbrinqinq n Mean S.D. Rural village 57 2.16 1.01 Small town 58 2.21 1.07 Large c ity 71 1.93 1.16 186 2.09 1.09 TOTALS: As rep o rted in Table 4.72, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t students who w ere brought up in small towns (mean of 2.21) faced g re a te r difficu lty in making personal friends w ith A m erican students than did th o se who w ere brought up in rural villages (2.16) o r in large c itie s (1.93). T able 4.73 Subgroup Means of D ifficu lty in Making Personal Friends w ith A m erican Students A ccording to G ender G ender n Mean S.D. F em ale 43 2.33 1.25 143 2.01 1.03 186 2.09 1.09 Male TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.73, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t fem ale students (m ean of 2.33) faced g re a te r difficu lty in m aking personal friends w ith A m erican stu d en ts th a n did m ale students (2.01). 1 13 Becoming used to A m erican value system . The low overall m ean of 2.!7 o f d ifficu lty in becom ing used to th e A m erican value sy stem in d icates th a t, in gen eral, m ost A frican stu d en ts did not face serious problem s in th is a r e a of social ad ju stm en t. H ow ever, 18.3% rep o rted th a t th e y had v ery serious problem s in this a re a . C hi-square te s ts showed th a t th e re w ere no significant relationships betw een th e 10 background c h a ra c te ris tic s and d eg ree of d iffic u lty in becom ing used to th e A m erican value sy stem . That is, reg ard less of students’ background c h a ra c te ris tic s, th e y fa c e d th is problem w ith an equal d egrees of d ifficu lty . Making personal friends w ith o th e r foreign stu d e n ts. The low overall m ean of 1.73 of d ifficu lty in m aking personal friends with o th e r foreign stu d en ts indicates th a t, in g en eral, m ost A frican stu d en ts did not fa c e serious problem s in th is a re a o f social ad ju stm en t. H ow ever, 8.6% rep o rted t h a t th e y faced very serious problem s in th is a re a . C hi-square te s ts showed th a t th e re w ere no sig n ifican t relationships betw een th e 10 background c h a ra c te ris tic s and d eg ree of d ifficu lty in m aking personal friends w ith o th er foreign stu d e n ts. T hat is, reg ard less o f stu d en ts' background c h a ra c te ris tic s , th e y fa c e d th is problem w ith equal degrees of d iffic u lty . Having to o m any social engagem ents. The low overall m ean of 1.5^ fo r th e e x te n t of th e problem of having too m any social engagem ents which in te rf e r e w ith studies in d icates th a t, in general, m ost A frican stu d en ts faced few serious problem s in th is a re a of social adjustm ent. in d icated th a t th e y had v ery serious problem s. Only 2.2% o f 1he respondents C hi-square te s ts showed th a t cu m u lativ e grade point a v e rag e, length of s ta y in th e U n ited S ta te s , environm ent of upbringing, and o rie n ta tio n program receiv ed were, re la te d to th e e x te n t of th e problem of having too m any social engagem ents which in te rfe re w ith stu d ies. 114 Table 4.74 Subgroup Means of E x ten t of Problem of Having Too Many Social Engagem ents which In te rfere w ith Studies A ccording to C um ulative G rade P oint A verage G rade Point A verage n Mean S.D. 0.00 - 2.84 14 1.29 0.61 2.85 - 3.24 54 1.80 0.74 3.25 - 4.00 118 1.45 0.78 186 1.54 0.77 TOTALS As shown in Table 4.74, subgroup m eans indicate th a t students who had betw een 2.85 and 3.24 cum ulative grade point averages (m ean of 1.80) rep o rted g reater problems in having too m any social engagem ents which in te rfe re w ith studies than did stu d en ts who had betw een 3.25 and 4.00 cum ulative GPAs (1.45) or th o se whose cum ulative GPAs were betw een 0.00 and 2.84 (1.29). Table 4.75 Subgroup Means of E xtent of Problem of Having Too Many Social Engagem ents which In te rfere with Studies According to Length of Stay in th e USA Lenqth of S tay in th e USA n Mean S .P . Less than one year 33 1.33 0.60 1-2 years 38 1.40 0.64 2-3 years 32 1.59 0.71 3-4 years 29 1.76 0.91 4-5 years 29 1.59 0.78 More th an fiv e years 25 1.64 0.10 186 1.54 0.77 TOTALS: 115 As illu strated in T able 4.75, subgroup m eans in d icate th a t stu d en ts who had been in th e U nited S ta te s for th re e or four years experienced th e g -e a te st problem (mean of 1.76) o f having to o many social engagem ents which in te rfe re with students th an did stu d ents who had been h ere fo r m ore than fiv e years (1.64), fo r four to five years (1.59), fo r tw o or th re e years (1.59), for one or two years (1.40), and fo r less th an one year (1.33). Table 4.76 Subgroup Means of E x ten t of Problem of Having Too Many Social Engagem ents which in te rfe re w ith Studies A ccording to Students' Environm ent of Upbringing Environm ent of Upbringing n Mean S.D. Rural village 57 1.79 0.92 Small town 58 1.41 0.65 Large c ity 71 1.44 0.69 186 1.54 0.77 TOTALS: As shown in Table 4.76, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t students who w ere brought up in rural villages (mean of 1.79) experienced th e g re a te st problem of having too m any social engagem ents which in te rfe re with th e ir studies as com pared to stu d en ts who w ere brought up in large c ities (1.44) o r in small towns (1.41). Table 4.77 Subgroup Means of E xtent of Problem of Having Too Many Social Engagem ents which In te rfe re with Studies A ccording to th e O rientation P rogram R eceived O rientation Program n Mean S.D. Inadequate 32 1.94 0.88 Somewhat helpful 74 . 1.61 0.89 Very helpful 20 1.35 0.59 186 1.65 0.86 TOTALS: (16 As shown in T able 4.77, th e subgroup m eans in d icate th a t students who considered th e o rien tatio n program s th eir received as inadequate (mean of 1.94) reported g re a te r problem s in having too many social engagem ents which in te rfe re with studies th an did students who said th e ir orien tatio n program s w ere somewhat helpful (1.61) o r those who regarded it as very helpful (1.35). P articip atin g fre e ly in ath letics and ex tracu rricu lar activ itie s. The low overall m ean of 1.68 of d ifficu lty indicates th a t, in general, m ost A frican students encountered few serious problems in particip atin g freely in ath letics and ex tracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s. serious problem s. N evertheless, 8.1% reported th a t th ey had very C hi-square te sts showed th a t educational background, environm ent of upbringing, orientation program s received, and geographic subregion w ere related to th e level of difficulty in p articip atin g freely in ath letics and e x tracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s. Table 4.78 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in P articip atin g F reely in A th letics E xtracurricular A ctiv ities According to Students1Educational Background Educational Background n Mean S.D. G.C.E. o r secondary equivalent 10 1.70 1.16 Teacher train in g /tech n ical training 13 1.46 0.78 Secondary school 37 1.92 1.06 Polytechnic college 17 1.53 0.52 Bachelor's degree 80 1.73 1.03 M aster's degree 27 1.33 0.79 184 2.68 0.98 TOTALS: and 117 As shown in Table 4.78, subgroup m eans indicate th a t students who com pleted secondary education before com ing to th e U nited S tates (mean of 1.92) had th e g re a te st d ifficulty in p artic ip a tin g fre e ly in ath letics and e x tra cu rricu lar activ itie s, while students who com pleted Bachelor's degrees (1.73) or G eneral C e rtific a te s of Education or equivalent (1.70) rep o rted less difficulty. Students who com pleted polytechnic training (1.53), te a c h e r o r technical training (1.46), and th o se who com pleted M aster's decyees (1.33) c ite d the least d ifficu lty in p articip atin g fre e ly in a th le tic s and e x tracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s. T able 4.79 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in P a rticip atin g F reely in A thletics and E x tracu rricu lar A ctiv ities According to Students' Environm ent of Upbringing Environm ent of Upbrinqinq n Mean S.D. Rural village 57 2.09 1.18 Small town 58 1.54 0.80 Large city 71 1.47 0.83 186 1.68 0.98 TOTALS: As illu strated in Table 4.79, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t students who were brought up in rural villages (mean of 2.09) had g re a te r difficulty in p articip atin g fre e ly in ath le tic s and ex tracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s than did students who w ere brought up in small towns (1.54) or those who w ere brought up in large cities (1.47), 118 Table 4.80 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in P articip atin g F reely in A th letics and E x tracu rricu lar A ctiv ities A ccording to th e E ffectiveness of th e O rientation Program R eceived O rien tatio n Proqram n Mean S.D. Inadequate 32 2.09 1.20 Somewhat helpful 74 1.60 0.91 Very helpful 20 1.20 0.41 186 1.66 0.97 TOTALS: As Illu strate d in Table 4,80, th e subgroup m eans suggest th a t students who considered th e o rien tatio n program s th ey received as inadequate (mean of 2.09) had m ore d ifficu lty p articip atin g freely in a th letics and e x tracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s than did those who described th e program as somewhat helpful (1.60). Those students who described th e program as very helpful (1.20) had th e least d ifficu lty in this a re a of social adjustm ent. Table 4.81 Subgroup Means of D ifficulty in P articip atin g F reely in E x tracu rricu lar A ctiv ities A ccording to G eographic Sub-Region A th letics G eoqraphic Sub-Reqlon n Mean S. P . N orth A frica 64 1.47 0.85 West A frica 56 1.57 0.85 E ast A frica 44 2.07 1.19 Southern A frica 22 1.77 0.97 186 1.60 0.98 TOTALS: and As shown in Table 4.81, th e subgroup m eans indicate th a t students from E ast A frica (mean of 2.07) experienced g re a te r difficulty in p articip atin g fre e ly 119 in a th le tic s and ex tracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s, while students from Southern A frica (1.77) experienced less difficulty. Students from West A frica (i.57) and those from N orth A frica (1.47) experienced th e least difficu lty in particip atin g freely in ath letics and ex tracu rricu lar a c tiv ities. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The influx of students across national te rrito rie s has a long historical trad itio n . The history o f study abroad and cross-cultural education in general d ates as far back as th e F ourth C entury, B.C. While students gathered in Egypt, Babylon, and Israel a t th e peak of th e se civilizations to study for the priesthood, groups of young m en from various nearby lands cam e to study a t schools of philosophy and rh e to ric in A thens (C ieslack, 1955). Rome replaced A thens as th e m ajor learning c e n te r of th e world a fte r th e fall of G reece. During th e T w entieth C entury, th e U nited S tates em erged as a political and econom ic power with p restige and adm iration from both friends and foes. It was a t this point th a t European universities ceased to be th e sole c en te rs of higher learning fo r international students (Tuso, 1981). C onsequently, A m ericans channeled considerable funds into scie n tific technology and applied research . Their ingenuity and c re a tiv ity im m ensely enhanced th e quality of academ ic institutions and m ade possible the developm ent of unique technical research facilities, p articu larly for scien ce. All th e se facto rs contributed to m aking th e United S tates an a ttra c tiv e c e n te r for g reat num bers of international stu d en ts. UNESCO's sta tistic a l rep o rt (1982) showed th a t in 1979 approxim ately 900,000 stu d en ts w ere studying abroad. S tatistics fu rth e r in d icate th a t in sp ite of the cu rren t global econom ic crisis, foreign student enrollm ent will continue to increase. It is predicted th a t the cu rren t num ber of international students 120 121 studying in U nited S ta te s' colleges and universities could double by 1990 (Newsweek, 1982). In view of th e se fa c ts , in tern atio n al students continue to f a c e num erous and endless ad justm ent problem s. D unnett (1981), of th e N ational A ssociation for Foreign Student A ffairs, s ta te d : Not only have U.S. institu tio n s of higher education been in d iffe re n t to th e adjustm ent problem s of foreign stu d e n ts, th ey h av e also given little a tte n tio n to such problem s as th e relevancy of A m erican educational program s fo r th e developing w orld, (p. II) It is suggested s a tis fa c to ry th a t ad justm ent of o fte n one of in tern atio n al th e biggest stu d en ts is ob stacles in stru c to rs' im peding tack of aw areness th a t th e y a re dealing w ith a special kind of hum an being, one w ith d iffe re n t cu ltu ral backgrounds, a ttitu d e s , and special needs (C able, 1974). Foreign stu d en ts should be seen beyond a m ere bunch of em pty vessels to be filled w ith inform ation and th eo rie s. Their needs cannot be reduced only to te c h n ic a litie s such as housing, English proficiency, and visas. Foreign stu d en ts belong to rich cu ltu res th a t o ften ex ten d thousands of years behind th e m . They need to be understood and re c o g iiz e d as people w hose ex perience and c u ltu re are cru cial in building in tern atio n al dialogue and understanding (Fasheb, 1984). Purpose of the Study The general purpose of this stu d y is to exam ine th e ad ju stm en t processes and ex p erien ces o f A frican stu d en ts enrolled during th e spring and sum m er te rm s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. The sp ecific purposes of th e stu d y a re : 1. to id e n tify th e ad ju stm ent problem s of A frican stu d en ts enrolled during th e spring and sum m er te rm s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te University* 2. to exam ine th e e x te n t to which adjustm ent problem s of A frican stu d en ts a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity a r e re la te d to s e le c te d dem ographic fa c to rs: f a n ily incom e (in hom e co u n try ), educational background b efo re com ing to th e U nited S ta te s , s iz e 122 of fam ily (in hom e country), environm ent of up-bringing, length of previous job ex perience, o rien tatio n program s received, and travel ing experi ence; 3. to exam ine th e e x te n t to which adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity a re related to th e ir contem porary experiences and conditions: levels of academ ic achievem ent, academ ic classifications, sources of financial support, persona! and social lives, length of sta y in the U nited S ta tes, a g e , m arital sta tu s , gender, and religion; 4. to exam ine the ex ten t to which adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity are related to th e ir geocyaphic sub-regions; and 5. to o ffe r, on th e basis of th e findings, suggestions and recom m endations th a t will enhance th e alleviation of adjustm ent problems and d ifficulties of A frican students a t Michigan S ta te U niversity, and Insofar as relev an t to o th e r A frican stu d en ts a t m ajor U nited S tates public universities. Subjects The ta rg e t population of this study consisted of all A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. co u n tries. The sam ple was 210 students from 12 A frican The selection of th ese nations was based on th e fa c t th a t countries had to have individual populations of five or m ore students enrolled a t Michigan S ta te U niversity during th e spring and sum m er term s of 1985. The following w ere some c h a ra c te ristic s of th e subjects in th e sam ple. T here w ere a to tal of 186 respondents included in this study, of which 76.9% w ere m ales and 23.1% w ere fem ales. As for th e age of respondents, 60.2% w ere 32 years of age or younger and 39.8% w ere 33 years or age or above. As to m arital sta tu s, 33.9% w ere single, 45.7% w ere m arried with spouses living h ere in th e United S ta te s, and 19.9% w ere m arried w ith spouses living in th eir hom e countries. 123 M ethodology The research instrum ent used in th is study was a g jestio n n aire which contained closed-ended questions. The questionnaire w as adm inistered by six research assistan ts using a hand-delivery and pick-up m ethod. P rior to the adm inistration of th e questionnaire, a pilot te s t was conducted to ensure minimum erro r and bias in th e in stru m en t. The descriptive s ta tis tic s of m ean and standard deviation fo r each adjustm ent problem w ere used to determ ine th e n atu re, scope, and variatio n in th e responses. C hi-square te s ts w ere used to exam ine th e relationship betw een d egrees of difficulty of adjustm ent problem s and 10 background c h a ra c te ris tic s. D a ta w ere presented in tables showing num ber of cases, percentages of freq u en cies, m eans, standard deviations, and actual significance levels of ch is q ja r e te s ts . Inform ation fo r Knowledge Base Based on th e findings of this study, background c h a ra c te ristic s such as m arital s ta tu s, gender, academ ic classificatio n , environm ent of up-bringing, and geog-aphic sub-region w ere found to be associated w ith difficu lty in academ ic ad ju stm en t, w hile length o f s ta y in th e U nited S ta te s, educational background, source of financial support, and o rien tatio n program s received w ere not associated with d ifficu lty in academ ic ad ju stm en t. With th e exception of gender, th e se findings are sim ilar to those found by Hanson (1972) in his doctoral study on acad em ic achievem ent o f A frican students on A m erican cam puses. The author found th a t am ong personal fa c to rs, m arital statu s and co u n try of origin w ere associated w ith academ ic achievem ent. H e also found th a t among educational fa c to rs, acad em ic classificatio n , field of study, courses w ith no fu tu re occupational ap p licatio n , difficulty with studies, and self evaluation of 124 academ ic success com pared to o th e r foreign stu d en ts w ere related to academ ic achievem ent, w hile financial facto rs w ere found to be un related to academ ic ach iev em en t. Regarding cum ulative grade point average and source of financial support o f A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity, th is study revealed th a t th e re is no significant relationship betw een cum ulative grade point average and source of financial support. The findings also confirm ed th e results of th e study by Ochuche (1967) on academ ic achievem ent of N igerian students in th e U nited S ta te s. His study showed th a t th e re was no significant relationship betw een academ ic achievem ent and source of financial support. According to th e findings of th e present study, fe m a le A frican students a t MSU had m ore academ ic, social, and personal adjustm ent problems than th e ir m ale co u n terp arts. These findings a re sim ilar to th o se found by Arubayi (1979) in his study on identified problems perceived by N igerian students enrolled in the regents' system of Kansas. On financial adjustm ent difficu lties, th e resu lts of this study showed th a t A frican stu d en ts a t MSU, particularly those from W est A frican countries, experienced sev ere financial difficulties. These resu lts are also sim ilar to those rep o rted in Arubayi's (1979) study of N igerian students. A ccording to th e findings of his study, financial d ifficulties w ere am ong th e problem s m ost o ften identified by th e respondents. F u rth erm o re, his study rep o rted th a t undergraduate students encountered m ore problems than g rad u ate stu d en ts. The sem e resu lts w ere found in th e present study concerning undergraduate and g rad u ate A frican stu d ents a t Michigan S ta te U niversity. Hom esickness was found to be among th e m ore serious problems faced by A frican students a t MSU. This confirm s th e findings of P ru itt (1978) who rep o rted in his study th a t th e m ajor difficulties encountered by A frican stu d en ts 125 U nited S tates included hom esickness, verbal com m unication, depression, and w eather changes. Simitar results w ere also reported in th e study done by Sharm a in 1971 in which he exam ined adjustm ent problems of foreign, non-European g rad u ate students in N orth C arolina universities. According to th e findings of this study, A frican students a t MSU had problem s in g ettin g acquainted with th e U nited S tates' educational system . Hagey and Hagey (1974) rep o rted sim ilar results. The authors concluded th a t th e A m erican system of education was a m ajor d ifficulty confronting foreign stu d en ts in th e U nited S tates. Another academ ically -related problem cited by A frican students a t MSU was in th e area of obtaining counseling services. Idowu (1985), in his study on counseling N igerian students in U nited S tates' colleges and universities, rep o rted th a t students failed to seek professional help and th a t less than tw o percen t of th e N igerian student population had ever had co n tact w ith counseling c en ters. Both of th ese findings indicated th a t Nigerian students in p articu lar and A frican students in general w ere having adjustm ent problems related to obtaining counseling services. The findings of the present study also reveal th a t m arried stu d en ts with spouses rn th e U nited S tates experienced few er adjustm ent problems than did m arried students w ith spouses in hom e countries. Similar results w ere reported by P ru itt (1978) who found th a t a m ajority of m arried students indicated th a t having a spouse in the United S ta te s was very useful in providing needed em otional support and encouragem ent during th e period of th e adjustm ent process. He also found th a t A frican students in the U nited S tates had problem s in g ettin g p art-tim e jobs as well as obtaining job perm its from im m igration au th o ritie s. O ther results of the P ru itt study suggested th a t p re-departure knowledge about th e U nited S tates had positive e ffe c ts on th e adjustm ent process 126 of A frican students. These findings w ere supported by th e resu lts of th e p resent study. Findings R esearch Q uestion I; What Is the n atu re and scope of the adjustm ent problems of A frican students enrolled during th e spring and summer term s of 1985 a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity? A total of 186 A frican students who were studying a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity during th e spring and sum m er term s of 1985 responded to 39 item s re la te d to th e ir adjustm ent problem s. A four-point L ikert scale was used to m easure th e degree of d ifficulty of each adjustm ent problem: (I) not a problem, (2) lea st serious problem , (3) less serious problem, and (4) m ost serious problem. Table 5.1 Ranked Means of A djustm ent D ifficulty and P ercentages of Students Who Faced Very Serious A djustm ent Problem s According to A djustm ent A rea A djustm ent Area Mean % Emotional 2.67 35.5 Personal 2.10 14.3 Financial 1.99 27.8 Social 1.88 10.8 A cadem ic 1.85 11.9 Religious 1.78 11.6 The low m eans of adjustm ent difficulty shown in Table 5.1 indicate th a t, in g eneral, m ost A frican students who w ere studying a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity did not experience serious adjustm ent problems in all th e sele cted areas of ad ju stm en t. However, th e r e w ere sam e students who faced very serious problems in each adjustm ent a re a . The m eans also indicate th a t A frican 127 students faced g re ate r d ifficulty in th e a re a s of em otional, personal, and financial problem s. They experienced lesser difficulty Tn the a re a of social, academ ic, and religious problem s. Responses to individual item s related to som e adjustm ent problem s w ere also analyzed. The problem s w ere then rearranged into th re e groups according to ranks of m eans of degree of difficu lty of each problem . T hirteen problems w ere classified into each of th e th re e groups: m ore difficult problem s, less d ifficu lt problem s, and least difficult problem s. Table 5.2 Ranked Means of A djustm ent D ifficulty and P ercentages of Students Who F aced Very Serious A djustm ent Problem s: The M ore D ifficult Problem s item N am e and Number Mean % 42. Finding p a rt-tim e job 2.94 49.5 41. Having enough m oney for school expenses 2.82 45.7 43. G e ttin g p a rt-tim e job p erm it 2.75 46.8 55. Feeling hom esick 2.67 35.5 3a G ettin g dollar allocation from home country 2.63 42.7 33. G ettin g acquainted w ith U.S. educational system 2.25 21.0 34. T ransferring course cred its 2.20 24.7 60. Becoming used to A m erican value system 2.17 18.3 56. Being accep ted in social groups outside campus 2.16 19.4 39. Losi ng m oney through currency exchange 2.14 23.2 4a Finding health care fac ilities 2.10 17.7 59. M aking personal friends w ith A m erican students 2.09 14.5 47. G ettin g used to A m erican food 2.09 10.8 128 There were variations in the m eans of degrees of difficulty of various adjustm ent problem s, indicating th a t A frican stu d en ts experienced d iffe re n t deg-ees of d ifficu lty w ith d ifferen t kinds of adjustm ent problem s. Among th e m ore difficult problem s shown in Table 5.2, students experienced higher d ifficu lty in finding p a rt-tim e jobs, having enough money for school expenses, g ettin g p a rt-tim e job perm its, feeling hom esick, and getting dollar allocations from th eir hom e co u n tries. However, th ey experienced lower difficulty w ith g ettin g acquainted with th e U.S. educational system , tran sferrin g course cred its, becom ing used to the A m erican value system , being accep ted in social g-oups outside th e cam pus, losing money through currency exchange, finding h eatth c a re fa c ilitie s, m aking personal friends with A m erican students, and g e ttin g used to A m erican food. Among th e lesser d ifficu lty problem s shown in T able 5.3 th a t A frican stu d en ts experienced high difficulty with w ere g ettin g counseling services, taking ap p ro p riate courses,having little tim e fo r class work due to p art-tim e jobs, finding eatin g fa cilities within th eir budget lim itations, overcom ing racial and religious preferen ces, and com peting w ith A m erican students for grades. H ow ever, th ey experienced low difficulty in feeling w elcom e a t cam pus functions, re c itin g in class, understanding exam ination procedures, m aintaining spiritual validity, being accep ted in friendly groups, and reg istratio n . 129 Table 5.3 Ranked Means of A djustm ent D ifficu lty and P ercen tag es of Students Who F aced Very Serious A djustm ent Problem s: The D ifficu lt Problem s Item N am e and Number Mean % 37. G ettin g counseling services 2.04 16.7 36. Taki ng a ppro pri at e co urs es 2.04 12.9 44. Having little tim e fo r class work 1.95 13.4 46. Finding e a tin g fa c ilitie s w ithin budget lim itations 1.93 11.3 52. Overcoming racial and religious preferences 1.91 12.9 35. C om peting w ith A m erican stu d en ts for grades 1.88 15.6 57. Feeling w elcom e a t campus functions 1.84 6.5 29. R eciting in class 1.83 9.7 32. U nderstanding exam ination procedures 1.82 12.9 50. M aintaining spiritual v ita lity 1.80 10.2 58. Being accep ted in a frien d ly group 1.80 8.6 25. R egistration 1.79 12.9 As shown in Table 5.4, among th e least d ifficu lt problems th e A frican stu d en ts experienced were high difficulty in presenting oral rep o rts, finding housing w ithout racial and religious restric tio n s, g ettin g th e ir visas extended w ithout spending much m oney, w ritin g term papers, finding ad eq u ate housing, and m aking personal friends with o th er foreign students. They experienced th e least d ifficu lty in p articip atin g freely in ath le tic s, and ex tracu rricu lar activ ities, finding friendly worship groups, using th e library, understanding lectu res, having too m any social engagem ents, and understanding textbooks. 130 Table 5.4 Ranked Means of A djustm ent D ifficu lty and P ercentages of Students Who F aced Very Serious A djustm ent Problem s: The L east D ifficult Problem s Item N am e and Number Mean % 28. P resenting oral reports 1.78 8.1 49. Finding housing w ithout religious restrictio n s 1.77 11.3 40. G e ttin g visa extended 1.77 10.2 30. W riting term papers 1.77 8.5 45. Finding adequate housing 1.75 7.0 61. M aking personal friends w ith o th er foreign stu d en ts 1.73 8.6 63. P articip atin g freely in ath letics 1.68 8.1 51. Finding a friendly w orship group 1.65 9.7 31. Using th e lib rary 1.62 4.3 26. U nderstanding lectu res 1.56 5.9 62. Having too many social engagem ents 1.54 2.2 27. U nderstanding textbooks 1.47 1.6 R esearch Q uestion 2: To w hat e x te n t a r e th e adjustm ent problems of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity related to sele cted dem ographic fa c to rs? T here w ere 10 background c h a ra c te ristic s included in this study, five of which w ere environm ent classified of as dem ographic upbringing, educational facto rs: gender, m arital background, and statu s, effectiv en ess of o rien tatio n program . Chi-square te sts w ere used to exam ine the relationship betw een those dem ographic fa c to rs and th e degrees of difficulty of all 39 adjustm ent problem s. These te sts showed th a t gender was re la te d to difficulty in reg istratio n , 131 understanding le ctu re s, presenting oral rep o rts, finding adequate worship groups, feeling hom esick, and m aking personal friends w ith A m erican students. M arital sta tu s was found to re la te to difficulty in reg istratio n , understanding textbooks, w riting term papers, and g e ttin g p a rt-tim e jo b perm its. Environm ent of upbringing was found related to difficulty in using th e library, tra n sferrin g course cred its, taking ap p ro p riate courses, m aking personal friends with A m erican stu d en ts, having to o m any social engagem ents, and p artic ip atin g freely in ath letics and extracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s. Educational background was found to be re la te d to difficulty in tra n sferrin g course cre d its, having enough m oney fo r school expenses, feeling hom esick, and p articip a tin g freely in ath letics and e x tracu rricu lar a c tiv itie s. One's o rie n ta tio n p ro y a m received was found to be related to difficu lty in g ettin g used to A m erican food, finding health c a r e fa c ilitie s, having little tim e for class work due to p a rt-tim e job, being accep ted in Social groups outside th e cam pus, feeling w elcom e a t cam pus functions, having to o m any social engagem ents, and p artic ip atin g freely in ath letics and ex tracu rricu lar a c tiv ities. R esearch Q uestion 3: To w hat e x ten t a re th e adjustm ent problems related to contem porary experiences and conditions of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity? There w ere four background ch ara c te ristic s included in th is study which w ere classified as contem porary experiences and conditions of A frican students a t M ichigan S ta te U niversity. These facto rs were source of financial support, academ ic classification, length of stay in th e U nited S tates, and cum ulative grade point av erag e. C hi-scfjare te sts showed th a t source of financial support was related to d ifficu lty in understanding lectu res, getting dollar allocations from one's home country, and having enough money fo r school expenses. The academ ic 132 classification o f students was found to be re la te d to difficu lty in understanding textbooks, presenting oral reports, w riting term papers, using the library, g e ttin g acquainted w ith th e U.S. educational system , tran sferrin g course c re d its, com peting w ith A m erican students from r f s h wm m •+-iV " s v i* *s ■•- ''P^v^pfcCjj:': -.«v$}v<»* »• .^tfcO M O R O S i ZAMBIA ntVNiQU iBOTSW ANA ^ SWAZILAND %-A60^ An" ^ ^ NOTE: Upper Volta is now called Burkina Fasso. Map of A frica source: Maps on File. 1983. iV**■';■? APPENDIX B INSTRUCTION LETTER FOR QUESTIONNAIRE 808 G Cherry Lane East Lansing, Michigan 48823 Dear Fellow African: I am an African graduate student in the Department of Educa­ tional Administration at Michigan State University. You would share the view that African students face numerous adjustment problems during their study in the United States which tend to obstruct their chances for success. I have already spoken to many of you about my doctoral disser­ tation which attempts to identify the adjustment difficulties of African students currently enrolled at Michigan State University, and to make on the basis of the findings necessary recommendations toward eliminating them. I was impressed to note that most of you whom I spoke to expressed the need for such a study and assured of their maximum cooperation. The enclosed questionnaire is conveniently designed in multiple choice questions, so that it would not take very much of your time to complete. The aim of this research is purely academic and not political. The information you provide will be treated confidentially, and you will remain anonymous. A copy of my dissertation will be placed in the Michigan State University library so that any interested individual can have the access to read the findings. For this common cause, may I request your assistance in com­ pleting the questionnaire at your earliest convenience. Your kind help and cooperation will be greatly appreciated. sincerely yours David Chuka Okafor An African Graduate Student Disseration Director Professor in the Department of Educational Administration 140 APPENDIX C LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM MSU COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS M IC H IG A N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y U N IV E R SIT Y C O M M IT T E E O N R ESE A R C H IN V O L V IN G EA ST LAN SIN G • M IC H IG A N • 4RH24 H U M A N SU B JE C T S (U C R IH S) 23S A D M IN IS T R A T IO N BU ILD IN G (517) J55-21S6 May 6, 1985 Dr. Ted Ward Educational Administration Dear Dr. Ward Subject: Proposal Entitled, "Identify the Adjustment Difficulties of African Students Currently ________ Enrolled at Michigan State University"_____ I am pleased to advise that I concur with your evaluation that this project is exempt from full UCRIHS review, and approval is herewith granted for conduct of the project. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to May 6, 1986. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to my attention. future help, please do not hesitate to let me know. Sincerely, Henry E. Bredeck Chairman, UCRIHS David Chuka Okafor 141 M SU it an A ffir m a tiv t A ctio n /E q u a l O p p o rtu n ity In ililu tio n If I can be of any APPENDIX D INSTRUMENTS CONTAINING PERSONAL BACKGROUND DATA AND FOREIGN STUDENT PROBLEMS' CHECKLIST P le ase answ er by checking ( v ) one of the follow ing questions about yourself. Do not add your nam e. These answ ers will rem ain anonym ous. I. 2. 3. Age (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) Less th an 22 years of age 23-27 years 28-32 years 33-37 years 38 or m ore years of age (a) (b) F em ale M ale G ender M arita] sta tu s (a) (b) (c) (d) 4. Single M arried (spouse here w ith you) M arried (spouse in hom e country) O ther Home country (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (c) (d) (e) (f) u m ake use of M SUs counseling services? (a) (b) (c) (d) Never used th e services D on't have knowledge of the services Only when in serious problem Very o ften 146 22. In w hat kind of housing have you lived during m ost of your sta y in the USA? (a) (b) (c) (d) 23. N am e your m ost fa v o rite leisure tim e a c tiv ity in the U nited S ta te s. (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) 24. O ff-cam pus ap artm en t or room D orm itory M arried student U niversity a p artm en t O ther R eading or w riting le tte rs P articip atin g in sports or sp e c ta to r a t a th le tic events Traveling W atching television or listening to m usic and radio A ttending p artie s and social events O ther With whom do you a sso ciate m ost frequently outside class? (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) With A m erican students With foreign students fexcluding A fricans) With A m erican stu d en ts as well as other nationalities With fellow A frican students O ther (PLEASE CONTINUE ON THE NEXT PAGE.) 147 Foreign S tudent Problem s C hecklist DIRECTIONS: This is a checklist of problem s com m only faced by foreign stu d en ts while studying in the U nited S tates, The list includes problem s of studying, selecting courses, adjusting to new environm ents, money, relatin g to o th e r people, social life, h ealth , and religion. Please read th e list carefu lly and pick out the problems th a t you consider m o st serious, less serious, le a st serious, and n o t a problem . Put a check (X ) on th e appropriate spaces provided a t the end of each item . N ot a Problem L east Serious Problem Less Serious Problem Most Serious Problem 25. G etting reg istered 25 26. U nderstanding lectu res 26 27. U nderstanding textbooks 27 28. Giving oral rep o rts in class 28 29. R eciting or speaking in class 29 30. W riting term papers 30 31. Using th e library 31 32. U nderstanding exam ination procedures 32 33. G ettin g acquainted with the Am erican ed u cational system 33 34. G etting adequate evaluation of tra n sfe rre d cred its 34 35. C om peting with A m erican stu d en ts fo r grades 35 36. Taking appropriate courses th a t satisfy personal, professional, and national develop­ m en t needs 36 148 N ot a Problem L east Serious Problem Less Serious Problem Most Serious Problem 37. G etting adequate counseling services 37 38. G ettin g dollar allocation from hom e country 38 39. Losing money through currency exchange 39 40. G etting visa extended when need arises 40 41. Having enough money for school expenses 41 42. Having hard tim e finding p a rt-tim e job 42 43. N ot being allow ed to work p a rt-tim e outside th e cam pus by im m igration law 43 44. Finding little tim e to do class work because of p a rttim e job 44 45. Finding adequate housing within budget lim itations 45 46. Finding eatin g fa c ilities within budget lim itations 46 47. G etting used to A m erican food 47 48. Finding adequate health care services and hospitalization fa cilities 48 49. Finding housing w ithout racial or religious restric tio n s 49 149 N ot a Problem L east Serious Problem I Less Serious Problem Most Serious Problem 50. M aintaining sp iritu al v ita lity in cam pus life 50 51. Finding a friendly w orship group of own religion 51 52. O vercom ing ra c ia l and religious p re fe re n ce 52 53. Falling in love w ith an A m erican o r a n o th er foreign stu d e n t 53 54. Finding su itab le d a te s 54 55. F eelin g hom esick 55 56. Being a c c e p te d in social or re c re a tio n a l groups aw ay from cam pus 56 57. F eeling w elcom e a t cam pus functions 57 58. Being a c c e p te d in a friendly group 58 59. Making personal friends w ith A m erican stu d en ts 59 60. Becoming used to th e A m erican value system 60 61. Making personal friends w ith o th e r foreign stu d e n ts 61 62. G ettin g too m any social in v itatio n s which in te rfe re with studies 62 63. 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