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8707115

Daka, Kebede

THE MOTIVES OF EASTERN AFRICAN STUDENTS FOR SEEKING
GRADUATE DEGREES AT ANDREWS AND MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITIES

Ph.D.

Michigan State University

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Copyright 1986

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1986

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THE MOTIVES OF EASTERN AFRICAN STUDENTS
FOR SEEKING GRADUATE DEGREES AT
ANDREWS AND MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITIES
by
Kebede Daka

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillm ent of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
Department of Administration and Higher Education
1986

Copyright by
KEBEDE DAKA
1986

ABSTRACT

The Motives of Eastern African Students
for Seeking Graduate Degrees at
Andrews and Michigan State Universities
by
Kebede Daka

The major purpose of this study was to examine self-reported internal and
external motivators of Eastern African students for seeking graduate degrees at
Andrews University (AU) and Michigan State University (MSU).

Five research

questions provided guidelines for the investigation.
A total sample of 83 graduate students representing seven Eastern African
countries at Andrews and Michigan State Universities responded to an open-ended
questionnaire prepared by the researcher. The survey instrument was designed
to obtain demographic data; the environment in which each study was brought up
and schooled;

their

parents'

occupations,

religious

affiliations,

levels

of

education, and income; and self-reported Internal and external motivators and
Influences for seeking graduate degrees overseas.

Descriptive statistics, chi-

square tests, and subgroup means were used to examine the relationship between
demographic characteristics and motivators.
The findings indicated that Eastern African students list the following
reasons as their major internal and external motivators for seeking higher
education overseas:

(a) to develop their potential contributions for better

service to their home countries (32.2%), (b) to obtain advanced training not

KEBEDE DAKA

available at home (28.2%), (c) because of available funds from overseas (19.4%),
and (d) existing plans for training indigenous national leaders (14.5%). The minor
Influences they gave were (a) encouragement from home institutions they had
served for a number of years (6.5%), (b) the desire to obtain training that
reflects the needs of African countries (2.6%), (c) overcoming unfavorable
conditions in their home countries (2.6%), and (d) information given by home
institutions for overseas training (1.6%).
Parents' education influenced the availability of funds from overseas, while
parents' occupations influenced the availability of funds from home institutions.
Eastern African graduate students perceived parents' attitudes to motivate their
daughters for study overseas as negative.
Based

on

the

findings,

appropriate

summaries,

recommendations for further research were presented.

conclusions,

and

/

DEDICATION

To Yerusalem, this dissertation Is dedicated to you for your unfailing love
and dependability during the seven years of my absence prior to our marriage;
for bearing and raising a daughter and crowning my oral defense with a son; for
your sacrifice, your love, your encouragement; and for your sustained support
and your unfailing belief in my competence, for which I have no words to
express. You have always been the best of companions, even though it must have
seemed at times that I had abandoned you.

To my daughter, Lalise, age 4J4, who not only allowed me to type my first
draft in her room at night, but also inspired me to stay late by commenting,
"Daddy, you don't bother me when you type your paper" and falling into deep
sleep while I continued late into the night.

To my son Kanani, who just arrived on time to congratulate me for
completing this dissertation.

To my mother Elike Raga for teaching me the value of hard work to cope
with life; for whetting my appetite for learning far and beyond non-formal
education by providing, at times, what she didn't have; and who rested before she
received a fraction of what she gave.

i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Like every human product, this dissertation is a social endeavor with a
history of indebtedness too long to be listed, too complex and subtle even to be
known by the writer. As Dr. Tuso (1981) put It,
The road that leads to the conclusion of a dissertation and,
indeed, to the conclusion of graduate training itself is narrow, often
long, and a t times torturous. "Specially" for a student from another
land, "with his family," and a non-sponsored student at that, whose
parents and relatives cannot afford to support him financially, there
are added layers of debts. One cannot successfully come to the end
of this road without owing a great deal to many individuals, (p. ill)
Throughout my quest for knowledge, I have been continuously aware of the
support

and

encouragements

I

have

received

from

various persons and

individuals. People have shared unstintly of their means, ideas, time, words of
encouragement, deeds of thoughtfulness, and support.

It is, Indeed, a difficult

task to acknowledge my indebtedness to all those who directly or indirectly
contributed to the completion of this graduate work, especially since many
individuals over the years have given me encouragemnt, inspiration, and tangible
support to achieve my academic dream. To each person who has been a part of
this study, whether Identified by name or not, I express my heartfelt gratitude,
for without you it would not have been completed.
To my doctoral committee, without whom I could not have undertaken the
study, I am deeply indebted. Each committee member deserves special thanks,
for they allowed me to pursue a dream and assisted in giving that dream
substance and reality.

Dr. Max Raines, for extreme interest and creativity, for keeping
faith while acting, and for extensive knowledge he extended as
chair of my doctoral committee; for always finding time to
advise and critique; and for incredible patience and sustained
support.

He provided a light during the many dark moments of

despair. His understanding has been deeply appreciated.
D r. Fred W. Graham, my cognate advisor and committee member, for
his constructive feedback and his availability whenever needed.
D r. Louis F. Hekhuis, committee member, for his providing insightful
suggestions, clarity of thought, and moral support.
D r. Ted Ward, a "rare fish to catch," for assisting me in redefining
my research topic at deeper levels.

Although he left Michigan

State before he saw me finish, his suggestions for research
design were very useful. His endless layers of thought and ideas,
intellectual capacity, and commitment to task will remain a
continuing inspiration to me.
Without the guidance and support of such loving, caring, and dedicated
committee

members,

it

would

have

been

impossible

to

complete

this

dissertation.
To institutions and departments of Michigan State University, I am grateful
for support, employment, and guidance.
To the University for provided financial awards, fellowships, and
loans to help me complete my course work. To departments for
employing met

African Studies Center, Public Safety, and,

particularly, the Africana Library where I worked the longest. In
this regard, my special thanks goes to Mrs. Onuma Ezera,
bibliographer.

ill

To the Sage Foundation for providing a considerable amount of money
for the production of this dissertation. The money obtained from
each source not only has enabled me to broaden my professional
skills, but also permitted me to finish my work under the most
favorable conditions.
To the Office of Research Consultation (ORC) of the College of
Education

for numerous

helpful

comments and suggestions

regarding the design and interpretation of my data as well as
patience with my lack of statistical sophistication.

Special

thanks to Joshua Bagakas and Abdul Habib for putting the data
into a computer and classifying what would otherwise have been
a maze of statistical procedures. They often helped me to see
trees in the forest.
To my long- and short-term friends who, in their own ways, taught me the
real value of sharing, a very speial thanks for being themselves and for their
unforgetable deeds of thoughtfulness, for friendship, fellowship, and sustained
encouragement: D r. and Ms. Bacclocchi, Drs. Bernard and Geeta Lall, Dr. Ivan
Blazen, Dr. Don Jacobsen, D r. Norman Miles, Elder Richard Hammond, Dr.
Caleb Rosado, Elder Reuben Hubbard, Mr. Martin and Mrs. Irene Fishel, Mr.
Esaias Girsha, Mr. Wakbulcho Deressa, Ms. Gosie Gudata, Dr. Tesema Taa and
Ms, Sara Daka, Dr. Mamo Dibaba and Ms. Nona, Dr. Hamdesa Tuso, Dr. Arthur
O. Coetzee, Dr. Edward A . Streeter, Mr. Alfred Perry, Mr. Pyne, Dr. Abraham
Terrian, Dr. Samuel Harris, D r. Walter Douglas, Dr, Roy Graham, Dr.

Ayalew

Kanno and Ms. Yewubdar, Dr. Alemu Beeftu, Mr. Tadesse Daba, Ms. Ayehush
Hundessa, Mr. Ayana and Mr. Yonathan Nephtelem, Mr.
Yalganesh, Ms. Marartu U fa, D r. Solomon Wako, Ms.

Habte Dafa and Ms.

Aster Wolde Yesus, Dr.

Tamesgen Wakwaya, Ms. Tezeta Wolde Gabriel, Mr. Bereket Habtemarlam and

Ms. Lynn, D r. Robert Zamora, Mr. Andemariam Kidanemariam and Ms. Almaz,
Dr. Yacob Fisseha and Ms. Abeba, Mr. Imiru Assefa and Ms. Shitaye, and many
more . . . each piece you contributed made the whole so much better.
To Ms. Barbara Reeves lo r not only typing the final manuscript, but also a
superb job of editing.
To my educational colleagues who have in very individual ways contributed
to this study:

Drs. Gado and Grace Ongwela for paving the way to Michigan

State Unviersity and providing words of encouragement, friendship, and shared
and sustained prayers; Mr. Chongo and Ms. Grace Mundende, Mr. Njeru Murage,
Mr. Denford Musvosvi, Mr. Alex and Ms, Christine Mwakikoti, Mr. James and Ms.
Edith Otieno, Mr. Meshack and Ms. Rachel Sagini, Mr. and Mrs. Patrick
Wovomba, M r. David and Ms. Florence Amponsah, Mr. Joshua and Ms. Abby
Kigeya, Mr. David Matanhlre, Mr. Solomon and Ms. Ellen Lebese, Mr. Robinson
and Ms. Ellen Osoro, Mr. Sipho and Ms. Yaya Mthombeni, and many others . . .
your

courage

and infectious

smiles

in

time

of

struggle

to

cope

with

circumstances in a strange land as an independent student in an academic jungle
has been a source of strength and encoragement.
To

numerous

individuals and institutions who have

made important

foundations to the achievement of this goal.
To the Seventh-day Adventist Institution for teaching me the value of
true education, self-discipline, and, above ail, to depend on God
at all times.
To the Ethiopian Adventist College, Newbold College, Andrews
University, and Loma Linda University for helping me understand
the dignity of work and self-support.

v

To Norwegian Publishing House for providing me with summer johs
without which I would not have been able to complete my
undergraduate study in England.
To Elder Olaf Vetene, manager of Norwegian Publishing Morsk
Bokforlag) for giving me a sponsorship letter without which I
would not have been able to come to the United States for higher
education.
To Terje and R ita 3ohannenssen, for reversing the gear when I almost
gave up to return home after my B.A. They not only taught me
not to accept no for an answer, but did everything possible to see
me continue my graduate studies in America.

My heartfelt

appreciation to them and their extended families for their
support, words of encoruagement, and financial contributin
toward my education both at Newbold College, England, and at
Andrews University in Michigan.
To

Margareta

and

Alicia

encouragement, lots of

Gannon
letters

for

their

and prayers,

compassion,
and

financial

support.
To D r. Ralf and Ms. Vildls Stavnem for their hospitality, kindness,
and concern which made my stay in Norway very pleasant. The
support they gave pushed me extra miles in my graduate studies,
both in Europe and in the USA.
To numerous individuals, families, and friends in Norway for treating
me like their son, for letting me stay and eat in their homes
without cost during the summer seasons when I canvassed in
Norway. To them all, I owe tremendous debt. To O laf Owre and

his mother, Knut Bjerkan and his wife, Dean and Lyndia, Mr. and
Mrs. Torp, Mr. and Mrs. Didriksen, and thousands more.
I endorse the respondents at both Andrews and Michigan State
Universities for filling out my rather time-consuming instrument, without
which this study would have been impossible. My special thanks to Daniel
Lefebo for assisting in data collection a t Andrews.
Above ail else, I thank God for opening the doors, for guiding the way
I should go, for making the crooked ways straight, and for fulfilling the
desires of my heart.

vii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables

xl

List of Figures

xiv

CHAPTER Is

THE PROBLEM

I

Introduction
Statement of the Problem
Historical Setting
Purpose of the Study
Hypotheses
Definition of Concepts
Scope of the Study
Significance of the Study
Delimitation
Limitations
Study Population
Organization of the Study
CHAPTER II:

1
2
4
12
i3
1#
16
16
17
IS
IS
19

PRECEDENTS IN LITERATURE

Theory of Motivation
Summary
Motivation
Motivators
Altruistic Motives
Parental Influence
Environmental and Social Factors that Influence
Academic Motivation
Ethnic Subculture
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Overseas Training
Motivating Forces for Overseas Training

viii

20
20
24
25
27
30
32
33
34
37
39
41

CHAPTER III:

METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN

Introduction
Purpose of the Study
Study Population
Procedure
Objectives
Procedure for Collecting Information
Preliminary Preparation for Data Collection
Development of the Instrument
Pretesting
Anonymity
Timing for Data Collection
Actual Collection for Data
Data Analysis
CHAPTER IV:

PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

Introduction
Hypotheses
Survey Returns
Respondent Demographic Characteristics
Reasons and Influences
Identification of Academic Motivators
Motivations and Demographic Characteristics of Students
Greater Service to Home Country
Better L ife after Graduation
Discover the World
Funds from Overseas
Funds from Home Country
Information Given by Home School
Correspondence with Friends Overseas
Encouragement of Family Members
Motivations and Demographic Characteristics of Parents
Greater Service to Home Country
Creating Professional Networks
Acquiring Marketable Knowledge
Funds from Overseas
Funds from Home Country
Encouragement from Family Members
Existing Plan for Training Indigenous National leaders
Parents' Attitudes Toward Daughters' Education
Summary
Comments from Open-Ended Questions

ix

44
44
44
44
46
46
46
47
48
48
49
49
50
52
53
53
54
55
56
58
61
67
67
69
70
71
72
73
74
74
76
76
78
79
80
84
85
86
87
89
89

CHAPTER V:

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND
RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary
The Purpose
Population
Sampling
Instrument
Data Analysis
Sample Characteristics
Findings
Research Question One
Research Question Two
Research Question Three
Community in Which Raised
High School Location
College Location
Students' Religions
Major Area of Study
Research Question Four
Parents' Religious Affiliation
Parents' Education
Parents' Occupations and Incomes
Research Question Five
Conclusions
Specific Conclusions
Recommendations

92
92
92
92
93
93
94
94
95
95
95
97
97
97
98
98
98
99
99
100
100
101
101
103
104

Appendices

107

Bibliography

123

x

LIST OF TABLES

African Students in the United States, with Percentage
of A ll Foreign Students from 1JW-55 to 1982-33
Number of Eastern African Students in United States’
Colleges and Universities since 195^-55, by Country
Comparison of Needs in Four Theories
Report of Survey Results
Demographic Characteristics
Most Important Reasons for Seeking Higher Education
by University
Most Important Influence for Higher Education Decision Making
Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Degrees of
Importance of Reasons for Seeking Graduate Degrees
Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Degrees of
Agreement on the Importance of Influences for Pursuing
Graduate Degrees Overseas
Means and Standard Deviations o f Degrees of Importance of
Internal (Intrinsic) Motivations for Seeking Graduate Degrees
Means and Standard Deviations of Degrees of Importance of
External (Extrinsic) Motivations for Seeking Graduate Degrees
Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of
Relationship Between Reasons and Demographic
Characteristics of Students
Subgroup Means of Importance of Developing One's
Potential Contribution for Greater Service to Home
Country According to Students' Religion
Subgroup Means of Importance of Living a Better Life
after Graduation According to Students' Religion
Subgroup Means of Importance of Living a Better Life
after Graduation According to Type of Community in Which
Eastern African Graduate Students Were Raised

16

17

18
19

20

21
22

23

24
25

26

27
28
29

Subgroup Means of Importance of Discovering the World
According to Location of College Setting Attended by
Eastern African Graduate Students to Pursue Their First
Degrees (College Education)

70

Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of
Relationship Between Students' Decisions and
Demographic Characteristics

71

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds
According to Students' Religion

72

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Home Country Institutions of Higher Learning According to
Type of Community in Which Eastern African Graduate
Students Were Raised

73

Subgroup Means of Influence of Information Given by Home
School for Possibility of Studying Abroad According to
the Location of the High Schools Students Attended

73

Subgroup Means of Influence of Correspondence with Friends
Overseas According to Major Field of Study

74

Subgroup Means of Motivation of Encouragement of Family
Members According to the Location of the High Schools
Students Attended

75

Subgroup means of Influence of Encouragement of Family
Members According to Location of College Setting Attended
by Eastern African Graduate Students to Pursue Their
First Degrees (College Education)

75

Subgroup Means of Influence of Encouragement from Family
Members According to Students' Religions

76

Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of
Relationship Between Motivations and Demographic
Characteristics of Eastern African Graduate Students' Parents

77

Subgroup Means of Importance of Developing One's Potential
Contributions for Greater Service to Home Country According
to Mothers' Religions

78

Subgroup Means of Importance of Creating Networks with
Professionals in Other Countries According to Fathers' Religions

79

Subgroup Means of Importance of Acquiring More Marketable
Knowledge for Future Careers According to Father's Education

79

Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of Relationships
Between Motivations and Demographic Characteristics of
Eastern African Graduate Students' Parents

81

xii

30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39

40
41

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Overseas According to Mothers' Religions

82

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Overseas According to Fathers* Religions

82

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Overseas According to Mothers' Education

83

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Overseas According to Fathers' Education

83

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Overseas According to Fathers' Occupations

84

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Overseas According to Mothers* Occupations

84

Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from
Home Country According to Mothers' Occupations

85

Subgroup Means of Influence of Encouragement from
Family Members According to Mothers' Religions

86

Subgroup Means of Influence of Encouragement from
Family Members According to Fathers' Religions

86

Subgroup Means of Influence of an Existing Plan for
Training Indigenous National Leaders for Africa at
Universities in the Homeland According to Mothers' Religions

87

Students* Perceptions of Parents’ Attitudes Toward Sons and
Daughters' Education (Item 1), According to Students' Gender

88

Students' Perceptions of Parents' Attitudes Toward Sons and
Daughters' Education (Item 2), According to Students* Gender

89

LIST OF FIGURES

Map of A frica showing location of countries
Map showing locations of specific African countries
Identified in Table 2

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
Human
immemorial.

migration

has

been

an

historical

phenomenon

from

time

The barriers of space, time, and physical geography may have

inhibited but never prevented the movement of people and ideas over the ages.
"Throughout the centuries of human civilization, people have crossed the
boundaries of their own community, nation, and culture in pursuit of knowledge"
(DuBois, 1956, p. 1).
Speculation as to the underlying motivations that inspire and drive human
behavior has long occupied the attention of many psychologists (McClelland,
1955; Bindra, 1959; Young, 1966). Empirical research and extensive observations
confirmed the concept of motivation as a complex force, Incentive, needs,
tension, and achievement or other driving force

mechanism which spurs

individuals or organisms into action and maintains voluntary activities toward
the achievement of a personal goal (Kirkpatrick, 1979).

Theorists have agreed

that motivation refers to a process that guides individual choices among
different things of voluntary activities (Veroon, 1964, p. 6). Deci's (1972) theory
of motivation states that task behavior that permits an individual to feel
competent and self determining is intrinsically motivated behavior. Deci makes
a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic behavior as "pushing" and "pulling"
forces of motivating factors.

The intrinsic rewards are those mediated by the

person him/herself while extrinsic rewards are those externally mediated by
someone else outside of the individual (Wernmont, 1972).
1

2

Within

the

global

perspective,

the

perennial

impulse

that

impels

International students to seek higher education overseas is usually seen In terms
of an extraordinary "push” from home or "pull" from abroad (Boodhoo et al.,
1981).
I t is argued that In a push effect, certain conditions exist In the individual's
homeland which tend to encourage migration. On the other hand, there is a pull
toward Industrialized or developed countries where career prospects are much
more attractive in both economic and Intellectual terms (Sackey, 1978).

The

deciding factor, however, appears to be in the motivation and value patterns of
individuals

themselves, but not to

He in

the environment

because

the

i

environmental

factor

seems to

evoke both migration and non-migration.

Intellectually free people of the world want to go where their needs and
aspirations, their desire to give their best, can best be met.
The focus of the inquiry is an analysis of the phenomena of self reported
internal and external factors that affect student motives for academic choices
among Eastern African graduate students a t Andrews and Michigan State
Universities.
Statement of the Problem
International students are sent to the United States with the hope and
expectation that they will receive advanced training superior to that available in
their homelands and the hope they will return home to share their expertise and
to lead productive work lives that will aid their countries' development.
Needless to say, such expectation is not always borne out. Many foreign students
remain in the United States and never return home on a permanent basis. In the
three year period 1975- 77 , a total of 37,315 foreign students and exchange
visitors adjusted their visa status to that of United States' permanent resident.

3

O f these numbers, 90% were from developing countries in Africa, Asia, North
and South America (Immigration and Naturalization Services Annual Reports,
1975, 1976, 1977).

Many more students, although their exact number is

undocumented, change to working visas first and then move onward to acquiring
United States' permanent resident status. These well-educated human resources
of diversified intellectual capacity who are potentially very mobile

are

paradoxically those who also can make the maximum contributions to their
countries' development, both in private and public institutions.

As such, the

problem is intertwined with concerns of development, and it has attracted the
attention of many scholars In various schools of thought.
While many schools of thought argue that specialized human
capital should be free to migrate anywhere to seek Its highest reward
Iso long as It bears the cost of its own movement), another school
laments that the brain drain impedes the already difficult process of
development, especially in the countries of the Third World. (Card et
al., 1980, p. 2)
One of the major potential threats to the African talent pool has been the
loss of its skilled human resources through the outflow of its trained personnel,
the draining of specialists, minds, and talents to developed countries, the United
States in particular. The acute shortage of qualified and experienced personnel
to accelerate the pace of development in the Third World countries, aggravated
by the outflow of its trained human resources, is recognized as a major
impediment in many developing countries in general and in Africa in particular.
The World Bank and International Development Association (1973) goes on to add
that:
. . . an acute shortage of entrepreneurial, managerial, and
technical skills aggravated by the emigration of trained people,
operates as a severe constraint on job creation in both the public and
private sector, (p. Hi)
From the introduction to this problem, i t is apparent that this phenomenon
—academic motives—that each individual student carry In his/her baggage to the

4

United States has many factors that are associated with the problem. The study
seeks to ascertain some self reported "internal11 and "external" push/pull factors
that have most influence on motives of students who come from developing
countries to pursue higher education and to present recommendations for
decision makers In both developing and developed countries.
Historical Setting
The first American colleges were founded by religious denominations; and
their chief aim was, as Kelly (1940) stated it, to "propagate the species" (p. 29ff).
According to available records, the flow of African students to American
campuses began in 1774 when a couple of students from the Gold Coast (Ghana)
were sent to the College of New Jersey (later Princeton) to be prepared for
missionary labors in their African home (Bond, I960).

Two years later, the

outbreak of the Revolutionary War in 1776 disrupted both Princeton and sea
travel. As a result, " . . . one hundred and eighty-three years elapsed between the
admission of two Gold Coasters to Princeton" (p. 221).

During the following

decades up to the 1960s, a sporadic migration of African students continued,
however, from Sierra Leone in the early 1850s to the 1870s; from Liberia in the
1880s and the 1890s; and from the Congo, South Africa, and Nigeria in the 1900s.
Students from East Africa joined the flow prior to World War II (Ralston, 1972).
Historically, African students who came to the United States during the
colonial period were predominantly for undergraduate studies largely motivated
by an external push behind them for three main reasons. First, colonial powers
controlled African education, relegating It to a low level of priority in their
planned activities to secure and sustain the life of the colonial administration.
During the colonial period the overseas training policies were
determined by the colonial powers. I t was a time when demand for
high-level manpower was low. In Kenya, as Kinyanjui et al. (1980)
pointed out, the orientation to capitalist development greatly

5

influenced policies on overseas training. In 1931, Education Ordinance
stipulated that conditions for such training had to be of European
origin and preferably British nationality. Thus the scheme was
largely designed to serve the interests of the European and, to a
lesser extent, Aslans. The African component of the labour force
was at that time expected to be qualified only at a level that would
enable them to work under European officers. (Maliyamkono et al.,
1982, p. 10)
The same was true of Zambia (Koloko, 1980), Somalia (Adam, 1980), and
Swaziland (Simelane, 1980). On the part of the colonizers, ’’there was no serious
consideration regarding African education until missionaries and Africans
exerted pressures on the colonial administrators?’ (Ralston, 1972, p. 77).
Second, early colonial education was meant to induce the sons and
daughters of traditional African elites to function with the existing colonial
structure upon the completion of their education. I t was the era when students
who came to the United States for the purpose of education were motivated by
their potential advance of social positions when returning to their respective
societies occurring as a result of acquiring education rather than contributing to
the enhancement or development of their societies.
Third, the few colleges and universities, if any, that existed toward the end
of the colonial period in the 1940s and early 1950s were fashioned In affiliation
with ’’parent country” universities, and only lucky individuals could attend the
"parent country" institutions.
In most of the benefitting countries, scholarship schemes for higher
education and training abroad were primarily for training civil

servants.

Furthermore, the selection of students for overseas' training largely reflected
the roles of various groups or classes in the economy.

Thus, the social class

groups holding key positions in the economy tended to be over-represented in
overseas* training programs. The emphasis on liberal arts was in line with the
manpower demands of the period.

More significantly, i t was in the liberal arts

6

that considerable social and poiiticai influences were envisaged.

This is

confirmed by the fact that these educational programs usually took place in the
colonizing country.

Thus most overseas* education of Kenyan, Zambian, and

Tanzanian students, for instance, took place in Britain.
However, the 1960s witnessed the booming of universities on the African
continent. Almost every nation crowned with independence erected a university,
more or less as a symbol of pride In its national sovereignty which could
determine the cultural and intellectual life of its people*
African leaders placed unquestionable and unwavering faith in education as
a vehicle that unlocks the door to modernization (Harbison et al., 1964). This is
distinctly evident in the recommendation evolved a t the conference of African
States in Addis Ababa in 1961 that stated:
Considerable numbers of African individuals should undertake
advanced studies overseas and then an expanded supply of expatriate
staff be provided for new higher institutions, universities, technical
colleges, research institutions and laboratories in Africa. (UNESCO,
1961, p. 6 8 )
This recommendation also stressed that effo rt should be made to reduce
the number of African students who go abroad for undergraduate studies with
some exception of those for whom home institutions cannot provide desired
programs and facilities or space.
favored for various reasons.

Such policy postured by African leaders was

First, sponsoring students abroad, particularly in

the United States, is extremely expensive vis-a-vis educating them a t home.
Second, African education planners want to avoid having to lose their most
promising students to foreign institutions, which might endanger programs in
their own institutions of higher learning. And third, it was believed that having
undergraduate education abroad prolongs ones sojourn, which could conceivably
lead

to cultural

disconnection from home societies and inevitably foster

alienation Oacqz, 1967).

7

A t the same time, American education planners speculated several reasons
as justification for preference for graduate students over undergraduates from
developing countries:

(a) foreign graduate students have less severe problems

adjusting to the American environment than do undergraduates; (b) graduates are
most likely to be satisfied with United States' academic programs; (c) graduates
generally perform on an acceptable academic level; (d) graduates have more
precise educational and professional goals than undergraduates; and (e) graduates
are less concerned than undergraduates with learning about the United States
and its cultures and institutions and less interested in informing Americans about
their own culture (Walton, 1970).
Given this policy of preference by both American and African education
planners for having graduates rather than undergraduates study at American
institutions of higher learning and given that there was a considerable boom in
new institutions of higher learning on the African continent during the postindependence era, the question arises as to why a great volume of students
continues to flow from Africa to United States' schools?

What are the driving

and attracting forces that motivate students to pursue higher education
overseas?

Although no one can be so authoritative as to state with certainty

why this is so, an attem pt was made to suggest some plausible reasons for the
persistence of this pattern.
First, given the lack of adequate access to education In the past and the
current dramatic increase in appetite for modern education demonstrated by
Africans, it may not be possible to accommodate all high school graduates
desiring to pursue higher education, regardless of how many more colleges and
universities are created on the African continent. Consequently, some segment
of the new education-hungry entrants may have to look elsewhere (abroad) for
admission

to colleges or universities.

Second, in some instances, home

8

institutions in Africa may not offer majors in certain fields; in other cases,
facilities may not be adequate or may not even exist to make it possible to
successfully pursue a particular field of study. Third, some students may find it
more difficult to pursue their study in home institutions because of economic
problems, lack of space, and the United States environment offers an alternative
route.

Historically, it has been the case that the American economy has

provided students with an opportunity to work their way through college, a t least
in some part, while studying {Odenyo, 1970).

Fourth, the diversity of the

American academic system and mushrooming of community colleges in the
United States as a result of the egalitarian movement in the 1960s expanded the
capacity of the educational system to accommodate more foreign students. And
fifth , political conditions of some of the countries during certain periods were so
unstable that their educational institutions, particularly those for higher
education, cannot function regularly and efficiently.

In such cases, many

students who can find the means go to other countries, including the United
5tates, in search of an environment which is peaceful and conducive to pursuing
an education.
Since the end of the second World War, the number of foreign students and
scholars in the United states continued to mount and has set a new record every
year.

In 1954-55, when the Institute of International Education first started

publishing statistics on foreign students' enrollment in American universities and
colleges, there were 34,232 foreign students in the USA. In 1969-70, that number
had quadrupled to 134,959. In 1982-83, there were 336,990 foreign students in
United States' colleges and universities (a 984.4% increase in less than three
decades). Tables 1 and

2

and Figure 1 provide additional detail.

9

Table 1
African Students in the United States, with Percentage of A ll Foreign Students
from 1954-55 to 1982-S3

SOURCE:

Year

Total
Foreign
Students

Total
African
Students

Total
Percentag*
of African
Students

1954-55

34,232

1,234

3.6

1956-57

40,600

1,424

3.5

1958-59

47,245

1,515

3.7

1960-61

53,107

1,959

5.3

1962-63

64,705

3.930

7.7

1964-65

83,045

6,144

8.4

1966-67

100,262

6,896

7.2

1968-69

121,362

6,901

5.8

1970-71

144,708

7,607

6 .0

1972-73

146,097

9,592

7.8

1974-75

154,580

12,937

11.9

1976-77

203,070

25,290

12.7

1978-79

263,940

29,560

12.9

1980-81

311,880

36,180

1 2 .2

1982-83

336,990

42,690

12.7

Compiled by the researcher from Open Doors, 1982/83 (report on
international educational exchange).

Table 2
Number of Eastern African Students in United States' Colleges and Universities since 1954-55, by Country

Country

1954
1955

1956
1957

1958
1959

1960
1961

1962
1963

1964
1965

1966
1967

1968
1969

1970
1971

1972
1973

1974
1975

1976
1977

Ethiopia

62

151

145

171

171

226

234

422

459

1046

2050

1700

Kenya

19

17

73

332

697

774

681

523

534

540

870

1190

Malawi

0

0

5

0

0

83

93

73

59

57

58

45

Tanzania

5

12

20

62

214

305

346

297

238

256

350

320

Uganda

4

10

26

40

127

223

239

225

263

262

240

340

Zambia

1

6

7

0

0

83

88

92

61

58

80

210

Zimbabwe

14

14

19

61

221

203

264

200

171

188

260

410

Subtotal:

105

210

295

666

1430

1897

1945

1535

2085

2507

3908

4215

Total Eastern
African stds.:

107

212

297

676

1521

2099

2127

1920

2216

2522

4001

4315

99.0

99.3

98.5

94.0

90.4

91.4

79.9

94.1

99.4

97.7

97.7

% of selected
Eastern African
students above: 98.0

Source: Compiled by the researcher from Open Doors, HE, Annual Report. The countries in this category use
English language either as their official language and language of instruction or as the language of
instruction only.

Figure I. Map of Africa showing
. location of countries

From AFRICA REPORT magazine
publication of the
African-American Institute
Updated September 19S6
African Studies Center
Michigan State University

Figure 2 . Map showing locations of specific African
countries identified in Table 2.

12

Such a dramatic increase every year raises a concern internationally and
nationally as to what motivates the outflow of foreign students to pursue higher
education overseas. Are foreign students who graduate from higher institutions
of learning helping promote national development as Is expected of them, or do
they instead pursue their own agenda and, in so doing, perhaps only indirectly
Influence national development upon return to their home lands?

Are students

who come from developing countries to the United States to pursue graduate
degrees simply doing so to gain access to external rewards (I.e., money, status,
prestige, recognition) or desperately trying to play out strong internal motives,
the fulfillment of commitments leading to goal-direct behavior toward national
development?

So far, no clearly established studies have been done on the

motives of Eastern African students for pursuing graduate degrees overseas.
Research In motivation has been conspicuously lacking in this field, and the
existing literature on African university students is limited in both substance and
graphic scope. "With few exceptions, it has neither breadth nor depth" (Barkan,
1975, p. xliO.
A study which Includes aspirations of African graduate students in
different Institutions of higher learning could potentially explore the goals and
objectives of such students' motives for pursuing graduate degrees overseas.
This is particularly evident with respect to African higher education where
students are adults making adult decisions about personal goals and aspirations.
Purpose of the Study
The general purpose of the study Is to investigate the motives of Eastern
African students for seeking graduate degrees at Andrews and Michigan State
Universities. The specific purposes of the study are the following.

f

13

1.

What are those self-reported internal and external motivating
reasons and influences of Eastern African students for seeking
graduate degrees at Andrews and Michigan State Universities?

2.

To what extent do those self-reported motivating reasons and
influences of Eastern African students for pursuing graduate
degrees a t Andrews and Michigan State Universities occur
regardless of the country of origin and selected demographic
characteristics?

3.

To what extent are selected demographic variables, the
community in which the students were raised and schooled, the
students' religious affiliations, and their major fields of study
related to Eastern African students' academic motivation for
seeking graduate degrees overseas (AU and M5U)?

4.

To y/hat extent are selected variables of the students' parents'
religious affiliations, level of Income, occupation, and level of
education related to Eastern African students' motives to pursue
graduate degrees overseas (AU and MSU)?

5.

To what extent are Eastern African Students’ perceptions about
their parents' attitudes toward motivating their daughters for
higher education overseas reflected?
Hypotheses

Twelve null hypotheses were tested to examine the relationship between
students' demographic characteristics and their motives for seeking graduate
degrees abroad.
Hj

There will be no relationship between the type of community in
which Eastern African students were raised and the students'
motives for seeking graduate degrees.

H2

There will be no relationship between the type of high school
environment which Eastern African students attended and the
students’ motives for seeking graduate degrees.

H3

There will be no significant relationship between the type of
college environment which Eastern African students attended
and the students' motives for seeking graduate degrees.

H(j

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' religious affiliations and the students' motives
for seeking graduate degrees.

H5

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' mothers' religious affiliations and the
students' motives for seeking graduate degrees.

Hg

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' fathers' religious affiliations and the students'
motives for seeking graduate degrees.

H7

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' major fields of study and the students'
motives for seeking graduate degrees.

Hg

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' mothers' levels of education and the students'
motives for seeking graduate degrees.

H9

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' fathers' levels of education and the students'
motives for seeking graduate degrees.

H jq

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' mothers' professional occupations and the
students' motives for seeking graduate degrees.

Hu

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' fathers' professional occupations and the
students' motives for seeking graduate degrees.

H j2

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African graduate parents' level of Income and the students'
motives for seeking graduate degrees.

Descriptive statistics were used to identify the extent of motives for
seeking graduate degrees, while chi square tests and subgroup means were used
to

examine

the

relationship

between

demographic

characteristics

and

motivations.
On the basis of findings, the study attempts to provide a better
understanding of incongruence often found between the goals and objectives of
Eastern African graduate students and those of faculty and administrators,
including implications and recommendations for further research.
Definition of Concepts
The following definitions identify concepts used within this study.
Internal motivators; impulses within an Individual, such as concern,
service, self giving, commitment, dedication, and the like, by
which the individual Is pushed toward a directed goal.

15

Externa! motivators: impulses outside of an individual) such as
bursary incentives, status, prestige, and promotion, by which the
individual is attracted (pulled) toward a directed goal.
Community of up-brlnelng? the environment in which a student was
brought up back home; subdivided into urban (more than 5000
inhabitants) or rural (fewer than 5000 inhabitants).
Parents1 level of income: the rough estimate of yearly income a
students father and mother earn In the home country per year, in
U.S. dollars.
Parents' level of education: the highest level of education or training
a students' father and mother have achieved.
Parents' occupation (profession): the type of work and employment a
student's father and mother hold for a living back home in
Africa,
Current field of study?
the area of study the Eastern African
students were pursuing to achieve graduate degrees (either
Masters' or Ph.D. level) a t the time of the study.
Motivation? a combination of internal and external motivators such
as drive, impulse, incentive, reinforcement, rewards involved in
arousing, directing, and sustaining behavior toward the
achievement of a personal goal.
Motive: a combination of internal and external impulses or attitudes
that arouse, sustain, and regulate behavior toward a directed
goal; something within a person (an Idea, need, organic state,
emotion, etc.) that incites him/her to action.
Eastern African graduate students? those currently enrolled, male
and female, full-tim e students from Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi,
Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe who were pursuing
graduate degrees on the campuses of Andrews and Michigan
State Universities.
Higher education? limited in this study to university level education
leading to Masters' and Ph.D. degrees.
Intrinsic motivators? self-reported externally-incited behaviors or
rewards mediated by someone other than the individual
him/herself, such as status, bursary incentives, promotion, pay,
security, recognition, prestige, materials values, and the like.
Andrews University: a fundamental Christian, higher institution of
learning
operated
by
private
organizations
to
train
denominational
workers
for
national
and international
development, Including students from over 85 different countries
who are pursuing advanced training.

16

Michigan State University; an institution of higher learning operated
by governmental organizations with students representing over
1 0 0 different countries.
Scope of the Study
The present study is limited to the Eastern African countries of Ethiopia,
Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe.

Graduate students

from these countries enrolled as full-tim e students for the academic year 198485

at

Andrews

and

Michigan

State

Universities

were

selected

for

the

investigation based on their common background and culture as well as the
common language of the educational systems in their respective countries. The
two institutions of higher learning, one private and one non-private, are
approximately 150 miles apart in Michigan.
Significance of the Study
Educational goals of graduate students and their reasons for attending
institutions of higher learning are important for a university and a nation as a
whole for many reasons:
1.

to formulate a balanced higher education policy. As more and
more Africans in each generation obtain a taste for college
education, they are increasingly inclined to continue some
serious
intellectual
pursuit
at
the
university
level.
Simultaneously, the demand for trained manpower at higher
levels tends to increase continuously in developing countries. In
order to meet the needs of African graduate students and the
increasing demand for high level-trained manpower, it is
important that a balanced educational policy be formulated.
However, a strategy for higher education cannot be realistically
formulated and developed without consideration of the individual
expectations and aspirations of students and the nation as a
whole. "Failing to consider these elements (factors influencing
students' motives for higher education and the expectations of
the nation for high level trained manpower) may result in the
inefficient utilization of such manpower" (Bardouilie, 1981, p. 2);

2.

to provide a basis for consistency between students' goals and
objectives on one hand and the perception of what college should
offer students on the other. Knowledge about academic motives
of graduate students allows institutions of higher learning to be

17

consistent in their goals as they attem pt to bridge any
incongruence found between students' goals and those of faculty
and administration.
Karman (1974) stressed the Importance of understanding
what students look for in higher education.
He found that
students were primarily concerned with personal development,
decision making ability, and relating courses and disciplines to
contemporary life.
He also learned that faculty had quite
different perceptions of what college should offer students;
3.

knowledge about the academic motives of graduate students
from developing countries is imperative for designing
recruitment strategies. Cross (1981) discussed the issues related
to recruiting adult learners and their motivation for enrolling in
learning activities. Huddleston and Wiebe (1978) stated that an
important aspect of retention and recruitment effo rt is
understanding what motivates both youth and adult learners to
enroll in certain types of institutions and degree programs.
Pomozal (1980) concluded that understanding enrollment is a
crucial factor In designing recruitment strategies;

4.

change in education and in students' motives. Strickgold (1975)
described how students' demographics, attitudes, and motives are
changing. Up until college, students pass through a pipeline that
prepares them in each successive academic year for the next
higher level of learning (academic training). A fte r a college
degree is earned, a student examines his/her personal
development and career goals for pursuing graduate work in a
particular field of study; and

5.

a basis for further research toward understanding the academic
motives o f African graduate students a t higher levels.

Therefore, it is imperative that colleges and universities should assess students'
goals and their reasons for attending particular institutions of higher learning.
Such knowledge could serve institutions to be cognizant of (and consistent in)
their goals and objectives (Chickering, 1969 ) and be sensitive to the incongruence
often found between goals of students and those of faculty and administrators.
According to Smart (1975), faculty and advisors must begin to take students'
goals seriously as they develop educational programs.
Delimitation
The study did not include students from the Sudan, Somalia, Mozambique,
or the surrounding islands because no students from these countries were

IS

represented at Andrews University, although some were represented at Michigan
State University.

The study also excluded male and female undergraduates as

well as post graduate students from both campuses since they did not fit the
criteria and purpose of the study.

Inclusion of data from such sources would

seriously contaminate the resuits and would present a serious response bias.
Limitations
There are certain limitations in the study that need consideration.

First,

the mode of selecting subjects made it difficu lt to generalize beyond those
students from the seven Eastern African countries who studied a t Andrews and
Michigan State Universities.

Even at that rate, the fact that subjects were

obtained from both a private and a public institution makes the sample a biased
cluster sample. Therefore, inferences derived from these results are applicable
only to similar populations.
The data for this study were obtained through an instrument developed
solely for this project.

As In the case with similar surveys, subject responses

may not reflect the true Intensity of depth of achievement motives, perceptions,
and goals behind academic aspirations and expectations at the graduate level. In
addition, subject participation in this study was purely voluntary, totally
dependent upon one's willingness to participate and one's interest in participating
by taking tim e to answer the survey question.
Study Population
The population for the study consisted of all male and female graduate
students from selected Eastern African countries currently enrolled as full-tim e
students pursuing graduate degrees (M .A. or Ph.D.) a t Andrews and Michigan
State Universities.

A total of 87 students (16 from Andrews and 71 from

19

Michigan State) were identified to take part by answering the instrument
administered to them in the summer of 1985.
Organization of the Study
An outline of the study concerning academic motives of a selected group of
international students at Andrews and Michigan State Universities is designed as
follows. Chapter I contains an introduction, statement of the problem, historical
setting, purpose of the study, definitions of concepts, significance of the study,
delimitation, limitations, and organization of the study.
review

of

precedent

literature

and

related

Chapter II contains a

literature

pertinent

to

the

investigation under consideration. Chapter III contains the design of the study,
including methodology, population, and approach to analysis of data. Chapter IV
contains an analysis of data results. Reports of information obtained in relation
to research questions will be reported.

Chapter V presents a summary and

conclusions of the study with recommendations for a model that may be more
useful for education planners of foreign students. Significance and implications
for further research will also be cited, including major findings.

CHAPTER II
PRECEDENTS IN LITERATURE
A study of motivation can lead in two directions:

(a) how to motivate

others to behave and think In predetermined ways (Kolesnik, 1978j Balt, 1982), and
(b) an analysis of the factors that incite and direct an individual’s actions toward
a directed goal (Atkinson

8c

Birch, 1978).

The proposed inquiry followed the

second approach In investigating self-perceived (reported) motivating factors of
Eastern African graduate students on the campuses of Andrews and Michigan
State Universities during the academic year of 198^-85.
In Chapter II, a review of precedent literature and related research
pertinent to the problem under consideration is divided into eight major sections
representing an overview of literature related to:
1.
2

.

theory of motivation,
motivation related to academics,

3.

academic motivators,

U.

altruistic motives for academic achievement,

5.

environmental and social factors influencing academic motivation,

6

.

7.
8

.

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation,
overseas training, and
motivating factors for overseas training.
Theory of Motivation

Before the I 8 th century, any notion of determinism was largely absent for
decisions of behavior. Rationality and free will were the dominant antecedents,

20

21

and concepts such as motives, needs, and desires were given little credence.
However, simple observations of human and animal behavior gave rise to an
increasing realization that there were forces beyond rational will that seemed to
exert control, especially with regard to animal behavior (Bolles, 1967).
Most of the current cognitive theories owe their immediate ancestry to
Lewin (1938) and Tolman (1932).

Both held that individuals have cognitive

expectancies concerning outcomes likely to occur as the result of what they do,
and they have preferences among outcomes. That is, an individual has an Idea
about the possible consequences of his/her acts and makes conscious choices
among consequences according to the perceived probability of their occurrence
and their perceived value to the individual. Cofer and Appley (196(f) postulated
that individuals conspicuously calculated the relative pleasures and pains of
various outcomes provided by alternative actions and sought to maximize their
total pleasure.
Their theoretical notions gave rise to at least three important models
which have relevance to organizational behavior:

(a) a model for human

decision-making ^Edwards, 1961), (b) a theory for need achievement, and ^c)
Vroon's expectancy

valence

theory

of

work

motivation.

More

detailed

treatments of these topics can be found in Lawler (1973) and Mitchell (1974L
Maslow (1935) developed the first and one of the most popular motivation
theories which has been considered a revolutionary view of individual motivation.
Because it highlighted individuals1 humanisms rather than the machine-like
qualities emphasized by scientific management and classical schools, McClelland
and associates (1950) focused on needs similar to the higher order of needs
identified by Maslow.

Alderfer (1969) also recognized Maslow's need hierarchy

from another perspective through an empirical test of a new theory of human
needs.

Herzberg and associates1 (1959) view of motivation also complemented

22

that of Maslow and McClelland. Each of these four theories described a specific
set of needs individuals were believed to have, and each differs somewhat in
needs identified (see Table 3).
Table 3
Comparison of Needs in Four Theories
McClelland

Maslow

Alderfer

Psychological

Herzbere

Existence

Safety and
security

Hygiene

Love and
belongingness

Need for
affiliation

Self-esteem

Need for
achievement

Self-actualization

Need for power

The

motivation

hygiene

Relatedness

theory

Growth

(Herzberg,

Motivators

1965)

states

that

job

satisfaction/dissatisfaction are not the obverse of each other; rather they are
best viewed as two separate and parallel continua.

3ob satisfaction is

determined by the feeling an individual has concerning the content of his/her job,
including task achievement, recognition for achievement, intrinsic interest in
tasks, advancement, and occupational growth. These satisfiers serve to provide
for human needs, to exercise one's capabilities or the set plus potentiality of the
brain as an instrument for psychological growth, and are called motivators.
Reinforcement theorists, demonstrating the power of extrinsic rewards In
changing behavior, argue that motivation is basically a non-cognitlve form of
learning In which one's action is shaped by the scheduling of rewards and pursuits

23

(Hamner, 1974). Contesting such radical forms of behaviorism, needs theorists
argued that knowledge of the need state of an individual is essential to
behavioral predictions because much human motivation comes from inner drives
which augment and define the value of external pleasures and pain (Porter, 1961;
Locke, 1976).

Expectancy researchers (Vroon, 1964; Lawler, 1961) posited that

individuals seek to maximize valued outcomes determined by the reward system
of the

organization

as well

as a person's capability

in achieving high

performance.
It has been argued that there are at least three theories of motivation that
determine the choice of effect level.

The first one is the expectancy theory

which suggests that people will choose a level of task effort that results In the
greatest benefit (personal pay off) when compared to other effort levels (Vroon,
1964; Porter et ai., 1968; Graen, 1969; Mitchell, 1974; Wahba & House, 1974;
Lawler,

1973;

Connolly,

1976).

Kopelman

(1976)

suggests

that

people's

expectancies are related to the "reward responsiveness" of the organization.
These results provide strong support for the notion that expectancies do indeed
reflect a subject's perceptions of behavior outcome relationships.
Oldham (1976) found that people with higher self esteem had higher
expectations. Other related studies (Lied et at., 1976; Mitchell et al., 1975; Sims
et al., 1976) reported that people with internal loci of control have higher
expectancies than those with external loci of control. People who are confident
about their ability to influence the world around them see stronger relationships
between what they do and the results of their actions than do people who see
these outcomes occurring as a function of fate or luck.
The second theory of motivation Is the goal.setting theory which argues
that Intentions to work toward a goal-directed behavior are the primary
motivating force of work behavior and effort on a task (Locke, 1976, followed by

Latham et al., 1975, and Steers 6 c Porter, 1974). A number of studies have shown
that having goals results In
(Ivancevlch, 1976, 1977; Lathan
White, Mitchell,

6c

Bell, 1977).

higher performance
6c

than

not having

goals

Yukl, 1976; Terborg, 1976; Umstot e t al., 1976;

London and Oldham (1976) also reported that

harder goals led to better performance.

Other related findings suggested that

assigned goal setting can serve an important motivational functions, especially if
the assigned goals are difficult but attainable.

Goal setting combined with

incentive systems, appraisals, and feedback is the best way to increase and
maintain high levels of performance.
The third motivational theory is the equity theory which argues that
motivation is essentially a social comparison process. According to Adam (1965),
people assess their inputs (effort) to a work situation and their outcomes
(rewards). The theory further states that a person is motivated in proportion to
the perceived fairness of the reward received for a certain amount of effort.
Individuals have decreased motivation to perform

when they perceive an

inequity. Therefore, inequity serves as a motivational force for an individual to
change his/her behavior (it creates tension) and return to a state of equity.
Summary
In the expectancy theory, people tend to work harder when they think that
working hard is likely to lead to a desirable organizational reward. However, the
expected value approach argues that if people knew all the alternatives, all the
outcomes, all the action-outcome relationships, and knew how they fe lt about
the outcomes, they would use a rather complex formula to come up with an
estimate of the best choice of action. However, It is obvious that people don't
have all the above information, nor do they use complex formulas in determining
actions (Behling et al., 1975).

Regarding the goal setting theory, it appears

25

rather convincingly that goal setting is the major source of achievement
motivation for most people. Yet two areas of research need to be done. First,
more knowledge about the psychological process underlying goal setting needs to
be uncovered. L ittle is known about the roles of commitment and acceptance
and their relationship to goal difficulty or goal specificity.

Second, more

research is needed on how external factors such as financial rewards, social
pressure, money, promotion, and others enhance or act independently of the goal
setting process.

Lastly, the equity theory also has its own difficulty.

A

comprehensive literature review done by Goodman (1977) points out some of the
problems with this theory:

(a) very little is known about how people select a

'’comparison other," (b) it is very hardto define inputs and outcomes, (c) there is
little

knowledge

about

how

combinations

of

inputs

and

outcomes

are

accomplished, and (d) it is hard to know when and how these factors change over
time.
Nevertheless,

these

four

theories

represent

the

major

theoretical

approaches to motivation that have dominated the field for the last

10

years.

Except for a few articles on specific motivational issues (Wheaton et al., 1976) on
how ability becomes more important as task difficulty increases and some work
by Chung and Vickery (1976) on the effec t of performance feedback, most of the
work has focused on these topics.

One major exception has been work on the

motivating effects of intrinsic and extrinsic outcomes which will be discussed
later in the chapter under separate heading.
Motivation
Motivation is broadly concerned with contemporary determinants of choice
(direction),

persistence, and vigor

of goal-directed behavior.

The word

motivation is a hypothetical construct which Is but one set of limits in the web

26

of factors determining behavior.

A major difficulty in defining motivation

occurs because the term has no apparent fixed meaning In contemporary
psychology (Atkinson, 1964). It is a vague, imprecise word that means ail things
to all people (drive, need, commitment, prestige, etc.) and raises ail the
horrendous philosophical questions having to do with causes.
Motivation is a complex of forces, drives, tensions, states, or something
within a person and other internal psychological mechanisms that start and
maintain activity toward the achievement of personal goals (Hoy & Miskel, 1978).
I t is a catch-all term to express the direction and force behind an individual's
behavior that incites him/her to action. As Bail (1982) put it, "Motivation is a
process of arousing, sustaining, and directing behavior" (p. 125).
According to Steers (1979), most definitions of motivation include three
components: (a) energizing human behavior, (b) directing or channeling behavior
by providing a goai-orlentatlon for an individual, and (c' maintaining and
sustaining behavior.

Combining components yields the general definition of

motivation as a complex of forces, drives, needs, tension, or other mechanisms
that start and maintain voluntary activities toward achievement.

It means

having a clear and sensible reasons to want to succeed (Page, 1973). In general,
theories have agreed that motivation refers to a process that guides individual
choices among different terms of voluntary activities of personal goals (Vroon,
1964).
Mun (1962) defines motivation as "the dynamics of behavior." In terms of
its derivation, the word motive means to move, to activate. In this sense, it is
anything that initiates activity, whether external or internal.

In psychology,,

however, the terms motivation and motives refer to activation from within an
organism. Sanford (1962) also agreed that a motive is an energizing condition of
an organism that serves to direct that organism toward a certain goal.

For

27

further inquiry, for almost a quarter of a century, Atkinson (1964, 1966,1970) has
directed a very useful research program on human motivation.

His central

findings are especially relevant to education.
Motivation for most human behavior Is discussed from the perspective of
Maslow's (1968, 1970) theory. Speculation as to the forces that inspire and drive
human behavior has long occupied the attention of many psychologists (Maier,
1949;

McClelland,

1955a,

1955b;

Bindra,

1959; Young,

1966).

Extensive

observations and empirical research have concentrated on analyzing the central
determinants and goals of human actions and recognized the concept of
motivation as a driving force. Generally, motivation occurs as a result of a need
or goal which spurs an organism into action.
Kirkpatrick (1979) observed that a need exists when a desire to attain or
acquire something compels a person to act or feel in a certain way. "When needs
are satisfied, the person grows and seeks satisfaction of higher, more complex
needs" (p. 386). Morgan and King (1966) see motivation as a cyclic phenomenon
wherein motive leads an individual to perform an instrumental behavior which in
turn results in the attainment of a goal and achievement of satisfaction. In the
words of Uba (1980), the theory sees humans as perpetually-wanting animals.
McCormick and T iffin (1979) shared the same view that people are typically in
motivational

states,

that human beings rarely reach states of complete

satisfaction except for a short time.
Motivators
As mentioned in the first chapter of this study, a perennial impulse within
global perspectives that compels International students to seek higher education
overseas is usually seen in terms of "push from within" an individual or homeland
or "puli from outside" of the individual or abroad (Boodhoo et al., 1981).

Such

28

"push” and "pull” factors found in literature pertaining to motivation include
advanced training not available in homeland (Hail, 1978} Hans, 1975; Singh, 1976),
ambition for distinction and promotion (Rashdall, 1936; Metraut, 1952), better
employment opportunities after graduate degree is earned (Bardouille, 1981;
Andor, 1983), better way of life (Ashby, 1964), commitment (Atkinson, 1970;
Biggs, 1982), curiosity (Atkinson, 1970), desire for personal advancement (Cieslak,
1955), desire for social upward mobility (Bardouille, 1981; Andor, 1983), desire to
see the world (Metraut,

1952), encouragement

from

parents (Spenner &

Featherman, 1978), foreign scholarships or bursary incentives (Masland, 1967;
Atkinson, 1970; Biggs, 1982), higher prestige of degrees obtained overseas
(Masland, 1967), intellectual enthusiasm (Beal, 1980; Thompson, 1974), intrinsic
and extrinsic interests (Andor, 1983; Biggs, 1982), limited choice of education at
higher level in the homeland (Masland, 1967), material value (Overall, 1982;
Meredith, 1968; Bardouille, 1981), motive to achieve (Reitzes & Mufrah, 1980),
national development objectives (Bardouille, 1981), prestige (Andor, 1983), power
(Mehta, 1969; DeCharms & Muir, 1978\ social and economic upward mobility
(Bardouille, 1981), achieve higher salary or make more money (Astin, 1979),
getting a better job (Wandria, 1977), learn new skills (Beal, 1980), and many more.
Given the above combination of various push and pull (internal and
external) driving forces which influence an individual's decision toward a
determined goal, numerous studies show that internal push forces are better
motivators than external pull motivators.

Students with internal push forces

tend to have higher needs for achievement and are more persistent than students
with external pull forces who tend to give up in the face of frustration or fatigue
(Deci et al., 1975; Mitchell & Nebeker, 1973; Kolesink, 1978).
Internally motivated persons have their own built-in systems of rewards
and punishments.

Their motivation

is

based on

their ability

to sense

29

discrepancies or

mistakes in various perspectives they consider.

These

discrepancies, incongruities in the environment, act as stimulants (Schroder,
1973). For instance, although academically capable, not all students have equal
opportunities nor equal access to available funds to pursue university education.
Family background, the environment within which one is raised, or socio­
economic status may deny many young, able students the chance to go overseas
to pursue their studies.

In spite of the odds against them, however, there are

those individuals whose inner driving forces push them until they achieve their
goals in one way or another. A female who did not have a scholarship and whose
parents and customs failed to support her either morally or financially stated:
I wanted to go to a university, but the family could not afford to
send me, nor did they believe in university careers for girls. Besides,
1 was a useful stockman. So I went back to Adelaide on my own,
determined to get a job in the public library, not because I wanted to
be a librarian, but because the library was near the university.
(White, 1954, p. 166)
As indicated in Chapter I, during the pre-war era, foreign students coming
to the United States for the purpose of education were motivated by the
potential advance of their social positions in their respective societies when they
returned "rather than the intent of contributing to the enhancement of
development in their societies?' (Tuso, 1981, p. 133).

Individuals with high

achievement motivation were interested in excellence for its own sake rather
than for the reward it brings. Perspectives by students are often very straight
forward.
I maintain correspondence with my American contacts . . . . I
was restless because I was constantly anxious to go to the United
States for my higher education . . . . I had one thing and one thing
only in my mind—that come what may, I would obtain a university
degree. I did not think any power on earth could ever stop me from
pursuing this objective. (Gatheru, 1965, p. 73) .
Such frankness causes a concern as to what such individuals will want to do
after obtaining their graduate degrees.

But the post-war era witnessed the

30

arrival of a good many students who were motivated by the desire to achieve
academic excellence so that the knowledge and skills they had received in
America would contribute to the social and economic betterment of their
respective societies.
Altruistic Motives
Foreign students come to the United States (a) in search of better
education

(Scholken, 1968), fb) for scientific technology where quality of

instruction and applied research facilities for science are available (Cleslak,
1955), and (c) to receive education of high status not available at home
(Brubeher, 1976). Several reasons contributed to the outflow of foreign students
from developing countries to American colleges and universities:
1.

limited opportunity for majority. Some fe lt that universities in
Africa as they have developed in the 1960s were hardly more
than white elephants and flashy symbols of modernization—ivory
towers occupied by a minority elite, expensively educated, and
as expensively continuously maintained a t the expense of the
vast majority of the population with whom they have little in
common (Yesufu, 1973, p. 39);

.

limited space. African universities' inability to accommodate all
qualified students forces graduate students to look for other
institutions of higher learning overseas. The few institutions of
higher learning and universities In developing countries cannot
absorb all eligible applicants and others who want the university
education;

3.

rigid entrance screening process. The inability to absorb or
accommodate qualified students into universities forced
administrators of higher learning to develop a policy by which
students are to be accepted for higher degree studies. The
policy enforced rigid entrance qualifications so that only a small
number of students is admitted each year. Those who are
admitted must withstand a most rigorous screening process.
Therefore, many students who aspire to come to the United
States have been denied by African institutions on the basis of
written exams, interviews, or formal preparations;

4.

limited educational facilities. Many technically underdeveloped
nations launched programs of economics and social development
that required trained personnel at higher levels for whom
educational facilities were not immediately available in home

2

31

lands. The pre-eminence of the United States in many technical
and scientific fields made this country an obvious "magnet?1 for
international students to secure such training;
5.

government control. Although African students can go to home
country universities (if they exist) or go overseas if funds are
available, a meaningful choice is considerably more restricted
since most African universities are controlled by the state, and
the primary differences among them are in areas of study. The
result is that potential activists usually decide where to go on
the basis of proximity, opportunity, or course of study rather
than political climate;

.

specialization. Graduate students from overseas come to the
United States In search of higher degrees or specialized forms of
training.
In developing countries with limited ranges of
universities, certain forms of specialization can only be obtained
abroad;

7.

credential of an advanced Western certified status. A great
number of African students whose ability equals or exceeds that
of successful applicants to African universities prefer to study
abroad. Once they get into universities overseas, they are
reluctant to return to Africa without acquiring recognized
degrees since the formal requirements for most high positions
give no credit for incomplete study toward a degree.
Furthermore, a degree or certificate earned in Europe or
America has been and is still regarded as more prestigious than
one acquired locally. It gives its owner prestige and influence
that otherwise would be virtually impossible to obtain at a young
age (Donkor, 1982, p. 78);

.

social and economic upward mobility. Bardouille (1981), who
studied African students' higher education motives, documented
that social and economic upward mobility as a key factor for
pursuing university degrees. As one economist concluded, the
function of education is not to confer skill and, therefore,
increased productivity and higher wages on the worker; it Is,
rather, to certify an individual's trainability and to confer upon
him/her a certain status by virtue of his/her certification. Jobs
and higher wages (Incomel are then distributed on the basis of
this certified status (Thurou, 1980). No doubt, higher education
provides even those with lower socioeconomic backgrounds with
maximum opportunities to bridge the gap between the worlds of
school and place of work, thus providing some degree of upward
mobility and prestige (Thomas, 1979);

9.

scholarships. Since the late 1950s when the United States first
undertook significant assistance to African education, the
number of African students in the United States has continued to
mount, supported by foreign scholarship offers and, to a degree,
by African governments themselves (Masland, 1967).

6

8

32

The provision of scholarships is one of the easiest forms of
assistance, but too often Its value is reduced because the content
is determined more by the donor's convenience than by the needs
of the African nation (Masland, 1967). Although local Institutions
are gaining in status, study abroad has retained its high prestige
value, and the number of students abroad has continued to
mount, supported by foreign scholarship offers as well as by
African governments themselves; and
10.

career opportunities: most of the African students graduating
will enter the world of work immediately on graduation. They
expected their newly acquired university qualifications to be
passports to better employment (Wandrla, 1977). According to
the U. S. Senate Subcommittee on Immigration (1983), the
Issuance of a student visa declares that there are career
opportunities in the prospective student's native country for the
skill that s/he will acquire as a result of studying in the United
States. Although such investigation as to what discipline of study
in the U. S. will guarantee job openings upon students' return to
their homelands is hardly possible, if not a t all, it at least shows
that the realities which increasingly impinge upon an individual as
s/he ascends the educational ladder and approaches entry into
the labor market serve to moderate the dreams of African
graduates (Hanna, 1975).
Parental Influence

In addition to the above reasons for study abroad by African students,
parental influence is a major motivating factor.

A significant proportion of

African students in graduate schools overseas may have parents who would help
them to satisfy the criteria of background information on occupation aspirations
and for resources to nourish their motivation. Most of these parents are highly
educated, occupy professional posts, and appear to be sufficiently interested in
their children's further occupational prospects (Durojaniyi, 19701.

Related

findings confirm this concept.
The encouragement of one's parents and the plans of one's peers
appear to shape ambitions more directly and with greater impact
than any other source. Their effects are stronger than the direct
influence of one's scholastic aptitude or previous academic
achievement, and much stronger than any direct Influence from one's
social origins per se. (Spenner & Featherman, 1978, p. 392)

33

The sons and daughters of elite parents usually get a head start in
educational achievement. Their parents are well educated and may teach their
children to read before they even enter primary school. Child-rearing patterns
emphasizing self-reliance, working toward remote goals, periods of quiet, and
ability to work and play on their own socialize children for schooling. Records
show that the Gisu welcomed education because "to read is to become a
Muganda, a superior man" (Twaddle In Gulliver, 1969, p. 196).

Anderson (1975)

also reported that a Kenyan father whose son was doing badly at his secondary
school wanted him to continue because it "would improve his ability to cope with
life" (3olly, 1966, p. 121).
The emphasis in poorer, illiterate homes, on the other hand, ". . . is on
group activities, Instant obedience, aspiration and satisfaction of short-term
needs, making adjustment to school life more difficult?' (Lloyd, 1966, p. 206).
Parents who lack education do not understand their children's needs to be alone
to study; they expect the children to help with work on the farm, in trade, or
around the house.

"Traditional education opposes schooling because it drives

children away from the farms. Such parents may see education as a good thing,
but may not know how to help their children succeed" (Peil, 1977, p. 196).
Environmental and Social Factors
That Influence Academic Motivation
The academic achievement of a pupil is determined, basically, by two
factors:

(a) his/her will to achieve and (b) his/her ability to achieve. Some of

the environmental and social factors which may have a bearing on students' will
and ability as significant motivators in academic fields are:
1.

the subculture or ethnic community to which a student belongs,
be it race, tribe, linguistic community, or religious group;

2.

a student's social class or stratum;

34

3.

a student's family; and

4.

a student's peer groups.

A ll these are likely to expose a student to certain attitudes, values, and levels of
aspiration.
Ethnic Subculture
The subculture of an ethnic group may have some influence on the
academic motives of a student because it may be instrumental in transmitting
certain ideas and attitudes affecting

motivation and level of aspiration,

personality traits that may bear on academic ability, and linguistic and logical
concepts which mediate the learning process.
Ottenberg (1959) who tried to relate such attitudes to the demography of
Iboland was similar to D atta (1984) who summarized the situation as follows.
Perception of emphasis on individual achievement and Initiative,
a preference for egalitarian leadership, availability of alternative
goals and paths of action, and cultural and social variation due to
incorporation of strangers in local societies produce persons who are
likely to strive for high Income, status, and political power through
their own efforts by manipulation of newly introduced opportunities
in the field of education and economy, (pp. 153-4)
Contrasting the stress in Ibo culture on individual achievement with a
culture that emphasizes traditional values such as stress of ascriptive leadership,
personal sacrifice for group solidarity, submission to established authority, and
rejection of innovation, Datta (1984) concluded the following.
Individuals brought up in such a cultural environment are less
motivated to seek personal achievement outside the traditional
community or even to make use of new opportunities available within
it.
This may explain why the establishment of educational
institutions away from developed areas does not necessarily led to
this full utilization by the communities for whom they have been set
up. (p. 154)
A study by King (1975) in which the utiiizatloh of educational opportunities
has been assessed with reference to primary school enrollment of the Kikuyu,

35

Kipslgls, and Masai also concluded that Masai enrollment lags far behind that of
the other ethnic groups, despite various compensatory measures (such as
provision of boarding facilities and the waving, or a t least lowering, of school
fees in some cases) which have been in force in Masaiiand for several decades.
The author wonders if modern education has any attraction for the Masai except
for a small group, some of whom have intermarried with other ethnic groups.
Similar problems in inducing Isolated ethnic communities, especially nomads, to
send their children to school have been reported from elsewhere in A frica.
There may be something in a cultural system which, other things being
equal, spur those who are exposed to it to move ahead, make use of existing
opportunities, exert themselves, and achieve success, be It In educational or
economic fields.

Attempts have been made variously to measure this "driving

force" of a culture in terms of central concepts. One example is McClelland's
(1955a) concept of achievement motivation or need for achievement. According
to McClelland, people who obtain high scores on achievement motivation are
marked by persistent efforts, aiming at higher but realistically attainable goals
involving competition with a standard of excellence.
McClelland analyzed the need for achievement among various ethnic
communities in Africa.

It was found that the Yoruba ranked high on the list of

high need for achievement, the Masai a little lower, and the Kikuyu and Changa
near the bottom. Followed by McClelland's research on achievement motivation
In African societies, Ostheimer (1978) attempted to measure the need for
achievement among the Changa on Tanzania compared with that of a sample of
school children belonging to the Bondei Moslems, a neighboring people to the
Changa, and a group of Tanzanian Asians, Hindu by religion.

Due to the

inadequacy of standard tests for measuring achievement motivation when applied

36

to African conditions, Ostheimer found negligible differences in the achievement
motivation of these groups.
Taken as a whole, the studies of achievement motivation in Africa remain
Inconclusive. It is possible that traditional cultures transmit to children diverse
values regarding success in life, the possibility of attaining successes through
individual efforts and by making use of existing opportunities such as modern
education and economy, and the areas In which such goals are to be attainable
and to be pursued.

But the effectiveness of the techniques so far devised for

necessary achievement motivation has not been conclusively demonstrated. Thus
the influence of a traditional culture on a child’s will and ability to do well in
school should be not overstressed.

Apart from the fact that not all research

findings in this field are conclusive, it is now very difficult to find traditional
societies entirely isolated and unaffected by social change.

Even if such

societies are identified, personality differences may be no less important than
those between two such communities.
Individuals do not receive their culture passively; they interact
with It and, In the process, may reject or revolt against some of its
element. In all this, the influence emanating from other agencies
such as the social stratum or class, the neighborhood community and
the family cannot be ignored. (Datta, 1984, pp. 158-9)
The environment within which an individual is brought up also has a high
amount of influence on achievement motivation.

Neubaur (1982) attempted to

determine whether or not there are differences between students brought up in
rural and urban areas as far as aggressiveness and achievement motivation are
concerned. Sample subjects were aged between 15 and 18, and they came from
both grammar and vocational training schools in both urban and rural areas.
The investigation indicated that rural youth measure as strong

on

aggressiveness as their urban peer groups. Moreover, there is a higher level of
greater achievement motivation (striving for achievement) In young people from

37

rural areas than in their counterparts from towns or cities. The main reason for
these differences lies in the tendency of parents from rural areas to educate
their children more strictly than urban parents, provoking in the children a more
distinct sense of respect toward authority.
Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation
Two closely related terms, intrinsic and extrinsic, have long been used in
motivational literature to distinguish between general classes of outcomes,
rewards, motives, and needs related to internally- and externally-initiated
behavior.

A careful reading of this literature, however, shows considerable

variance among authors in definitions of these terms and in the way specific
outcomes are classified as one or the other type.
With respect to definition, at least four variations can be found. Seleh and
Grygier 0969), for example, define intrinsic factors as "those directly related to
the actual performance of the job" and extrinsic factors as "those related to the
environment in which the job is being performed" (p. 446).

To Deci (1972),

however, intrinsic rewards are those "mediated by the person himself' (p. 219',
while extrinsic rewards are "externally mediated, e.g., mediated by someone else
other than the employee himself' (p. 218). Slocum (1971) implied that intrinsic
rewards are associated with the satisfaction of higher order needs and stated
firmly that "extrinsic rewards such as pay, promotion, and security are often
primarily associated with satisfaction of the lower order needs as discussed by
Maslow" (p. 312).

Finally, Wernimont (1972) said that "all intrinsic factors are

internal feelings, while extrinsic factors are external situations" (p. 173\
Although many classical theories of work motivation have either explicitly
or implicitly assumed that the effects of intrinsic and extrinsic rewards were
additive (Porter & Lawler, 1968; Vroom, 196(f), recent evidence (Deci, 1971, 1972,

38

1975) suggested an interaction between these two sources of reward. According
to cognitive evaluation, there are two potential effects associated with extrinsic
rewards: (a) as a source of competence information or as a means of behavioral
control and (b) as a source of information, confirming an individual's feelings of
competence, which should increase intrinsic motivation. If extrinsic rewards are
perceived as controlling agents, however, feelings of self determination should
decrease, reducing intrinsic motivation.
Monetary rewards can serve either of these two functions, depending on
how they are administered.

Deci suggested that contingent financial rewards

may be perceived as attempts a t behavioral control; hence, they should decrease
intrinsic motivation.

This effect has been demonstrated in a variety of

situations and experimental tasks (Kruglanski, Aion, & Lewis, 1972; Druglanski et
al., 1975; Plnder, I9 7 6 i Pritchard, Campbell, & Campbell, 1977).

Several

researchers, however, have been unable to replicate the finding that contingent
pay decreases intrinsic motivation (Farr, 1976; Farr, Vance, & McIntyre, 1977;
Hamner & Foster, 1975).

One explanation for failures to find reduction in

intrinsic motivation under contingent pay is simply that the financial incentives
were administered in a manner that did not cause them to be perceived as the
source of control. Alternatively, contingent financial rewards may significantly
affe c t causal aspirations, but such effects may be too small relative to other
potential determinants of locus of control to significantly reduce intrinsic
motivation.
The intrinsic-extrinsic dichotomy has become a topics of Intense debate
among scholars. Most individuals interested In the subject of work motivation
can provide definitions they feel are adequate. However, the controversy arises
because little agreement exists about what things constitute intrinsic and
extrinsic factors.

For example, Dyer and Parker (1975) asked a sample of

39

organizational psychologists to define the words Intrinsic and extrinsic and then
to classify

21

outcomes Into categories of intrinsic or extrinsic rewards or both.

The findings showed little consistency and a lot of confusion characterized the
response.
A number of researchers have indicated that intrinsic factors are better
motivators than extrinsic ones (Mitchell & Nebeker, 1973). Task behavior that
allows an individual to feel competent and self-determining is intrinsically
motivated.

When external rewards are introduced, they may provide evidence

about a person's competence, and the individual may perceive that s/he is
performing the activity for the reward itself.

In either case, the locus of

causality shifts from within the person to the external reward.
extrinsic

outcomes

determination.

can

reduce

both

feelings

of

Consequently,

competence

and

self-

No doubt the debate will continue, and only findings from

additional research efforts will ameliorate the conflict.
Atkinson (1964, 1966, 1970^ directed research for almost a quarter of a
century on human motivation.

According to humanistic psychologists (Maslow,

1968; Rogers, 1969; Combs, 1974), the highest and most desirable motivation is
that which comes from within an individual. "The most critical is the individual
student motive" (Kolesink, 1978, p. 5). Such motivation is said to be intrinsic and
the consequent behavior self-motivated.
Overseas Training
Overseas training is often regarded as complementary to local training
(limiting education abroad to older students, to more advanced levels, to shorter
periods of time, and to persons who have made career starts at homel, mainly
due to lack of training facilities in some disciplines or at appropriate levels.
This is one reason why overseas training is predominantly at graduate and post-

uo
graduate levels. The demand for such training could be maintained by the use of
expatriates, but they are

often expensive and seldom conform

to local

socioeconomic conditions.
The rationale for overseas training should be understood from two
perspectives, that of recipient countries and donor countries.

Recipient

countries send trainees overseas to pursue courses not available locally. Sumra
and Ishumi (1980) have pointed out that the bulk of Tanzanian students abroad
were

studying

science,

particularly

medicine

and engineering,

inadequate training facilities at home in these subjects.
offered largely arts-oriented courses.

reflecting

Local Institutions

In the case of Kenya, the emphasis of

training abroad has shifted to disciplines not available at home. The experience
of Zambia (Koloko, 1980) and Somalia (Adam, 1980) are similar to those of
Tanzania and Kenya, respectively.
Donor countries, on the other hand, see overseas training first and
foremost as an instrument for fostering a sense of international community and
encouraging diplomatic cohesion between two countries. Glimm (1980) observed
that overseas training helps In fostering relations between different peoples and
contributes to their understanding of the problem of economic and socio-cultural
development processes in other parts of the world. The Swedish government saw
this kind of assistance as an expression of international solidarity and an
instrument for spreading Ideas of social equality, ideas that have helped promote
development in Western Europe (Kann, 1980).

Wells and Boogaard (19801 also

indicated that the aim of United States Agency for International Development
training programs include the introduction of attitudes and values asserted to
development goals.
Prior research concerning motives for study abroad revealed a host of
factors proposed to explain why students go abroad. It has been suggested that

some students are trapped by the small size of their national universities; that is,
their records ought to permit them to enter good universities at home, but
facilities simply do not exist.

There are others, particularly those sons of the

local aristocracy or upper class, who see study abroad as either a lark or as a
kind of "finishing school.”

For them, foreign diplomas are marks of social

prestige rather than of academic accomplishment (Bereday et al., 1960).

For

some, ambitions outstrip local facilities; their Interests cannot be met at home,
simply because their subjects are inadequately taught or not taught at all.
Given the decision to study abroad, the choice of country in which to study
is influenced by a student's intellectual and occupational Interests and by his/her
nation's cultural tradition. Cultural tradition often reflects the colonial history
of the various African countries involved.

For example, students from former

British colonies tend to go to the United Kingdom, while Fracophone Africans go
to France, etc. These students usually have some knowledge of the language and
traditions of the former imperial powers and adopt more readily to that country's
universities. Furthermore, because the United States is the world's technological
leader, the proportion of foreign students in technological fields is greater for
the United States than for any other industrial nation (UNESCO, 1968).
Motivating Forces for Overseas Training
Speculation as to the "push" and "pull" forces that inspire and drive human
behavior has long occupied the attention of many psychologists (Bindra, 1959;
McClelland, 1955; Young, 1966).

Extensive observations and empirical research

have concentrated on analyzing the central determinants and goals of human
actions.

An inquiry of motives for overseas study suggests that, before going

abroad, international students balance the reasons for leaving their countries of
origin against the influences that would keep them there.

In other words,

W1

students decide to go abroad only if the net benefit of studying overseas is
expected to be significantly higher than the net benefit of studying in the home
country.
Since the application of Western technology is regarded as highly essential
for the social and economic progress of developing nations, individuals from
developing countries with educational qualifications from Western countries
may, perhaps, have greater employment opportunities and higher standards of
living than those educated and trained a t home.
Almost every study on overseas students explored the factors that
motivate students to go abroad for study. A review of cross-sections of these
studies suggests that students go abroad for a variety of reasons: low quality of
education at home; lack of proper educational and training facilities; complete
absence of some fields of study; wider, better, and superior educational facilities
in developed countries; prestige of foreign training;
employment

and

salary

opportunities

due

to

prospects of higher

overseas

education;

and

discrimination against minority social and political groups in home countries
(Appleyard, 1970; Ruth, 1970a, 1970b; Myers, 1972; Mansingh-Das, 1972; Rao,
1979).
However, researchers have recognized that the attitudes and experiences
that encourage students to study abroad are "pushes?1 from home countries while
others use inducements that "pull" from foreign countries. While some are short­
term stimuli, some are long-term expectations of benefits.

Each individual,

perhaps, has his/her own combination of motives for going overseas to pursue
higher education. Under such circumstances, the right approach to uncovering
motivating factors is to analyze a large number of individual reasons for going
abroad by socioeconomic and attitudinal variables.

Why do people with high educational levels migrate?

Many authors have

tried to answer these questions by analyzing what are usually considered as pull
and push factors. From a motivational point of view, the decision to migrate has
always been affected by comparative considerations. It is the comparison of the
potential migrant's situation in his/her country of origin with the situation of a
person with similar qualifications In the country of destination that enters into
the decision.
The causes of migration apply to all, but they relate in a particular way
and with particular force to those with professional training.

Professional

persons are more migration-prone and more susceptible than other groups to the
pushing and pulling forces that give rise to migration.

The fact that they are

highly trained (educated), whatever their professions, tends to make them less
tightly bound to their home countries.

The special case of push would occur

when a new situation develops in the country of origin which has negative
repercussions in the view of groups with high levels of education. Typical push
incidents in a country of origin might be political crises, military coups,
university crises, racial or political persecutions, and the loss of war or foreign
invaders.

Adams (1968? confirms this, "A first rate African student has been

offered a prominent job in Kenya, but he wanted to stay away longer until the
dust settles after independence. The experience is not uncommon for students
from the 'new' nations" (p. 139).

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY AND RESEARCH DESIGN
Introduction
The methodology and research design for this study are presented in 10
parts: (a) review of the purpose of the study, (b) procedure for identifying and
selecting the study population, (c) procedure for collecting information, (d)
preliminary preparation for data collection, (e) development of the instrument,
(f) pretesting the instrument, (g) anonymity, (h) timing for data collection, ft)
actual data collection, and (j) data analysis.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study was to investigate the motives of Eastern African
students

for

seeking graduate

degrees

at

Andrews

and

Michigan State

Universities during the 1984-85 academic year. Specific purposes were discussed
in Chapter I.
Study Population
The population for the study was limited to all graduate students from
Eastern African countries enrolled as full-tim e students a t Andrews and
Michigan State Universities for the 1984-85 academic year. The Eastern African
countries included Ethiopia, Kenya, Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia, and
Zimbabwe. A total of 87 students from these countries pursuing graduate studies
at the time of inquiry were identified.

O f the 87, 16 were from Andrews

University and 71 were from Michigan State University.

Thirty-eight of these

students were studying for Masters' degrees, and 49 were working toward Ph.D.

44

45

degrees.

Only those enrolled as full-tim e graduate students from the seven

countries mentioned above on both campuses and meeting the criteria for the
study were selected as the sample.
There were a t least five major reasons for excluding undergraduate
students from some Eastern African countries and surrounding islands for
consideration in this investigation.
1.

2

The undergraduate population of African students enrolled both
a t Andrews and Michigan State Universities from the region
under consideration at the time of the study was relatively small
(about five, altogether), and the majority of them were children
or wives of African students pursuing graduate degrees.

. Academic orientation in undergraduate programs differs
substantially from that of graduate programs, and the same is
true regarding students involved in these academic activities.

3.

The review of literature indicated that an overwhelming number
of studies done on foreign students in the United States lump
together undergraduate and graduate students (Tuso, 1981). Thus,
the decision to lim it the scope of the study was based on the
objective of this research to investigate academic motives
particular to Eastern African graduate students.

4.

Not all Eastern and Southeastern African countries were
included in the study because no graduate students from Somalia,
Sudan, Mozambique, and the surrounding islands were
represented at Andrews University at the time the present study
was done, although some were represented at Michigan State
University. A graduate sample from each of the seven countries
selected from the region was represented on both campuses.

5.

The graduate students chosen use English as either their second
or only language, as compared to students in the other countries
and surrounding islands where either Arabic, French, Italian, or
another language is dominant.

The population was divided into two basic parts, according to a ladder of
vertical academic hierarchy.
1.

The first group was comprised of those graduate students
pursuing Masters' degree programs.

2.

The second group was comprised of those graduate students
pursuing Ph.D. degree programs.

46

Procedure
For the data sources, the researcher selected two separate institutions of
higher learning (one private and the other non-private) where a large number of
international students in graduate schools were represented.
1.

Andrews University is one of the largest private institutions of
higher learning operated by the Seventh-day Adventist Church
where international students from over 85 different countries
around the globe come for training a t advanced levels.

2.

Michigan State University is one of the largest non-private
institutions of higher learning with student representation from
over ,110 different countries around the world.

■

Students come to these institutions for advanced training with intentions to
return home, upon completion of the training programs,

to develop their

respective countries in various capacities.
Objectives
The objective for selecting these two separate institutions of higher
learning was based on three clearcut purposes:
1.

not to compare private and non-private nor religiously-oriented
and non-religiously-oriented institutions.
Instead, the major
concern was to investigate academic motives of students for
seeking graduate degrees, regardless of the institutions they
attend or their countries of origin;

.

to investigate individual motives for seeking desired degrees
beyond national boundaries (overseas); and

3.

to extend data sources beyond one university campus. Both
universities f i t very well because a sufficient number of
individuals for a population sample from the countries used for
the study were enrolled on both campuses at the time of the
inquiry.

2

Procedure for Collecting Information
The preliminary procedure for collecting data for
entailed the following arrangements.

this investigation

U7

1.

Prior to acquiring information about students' names, addresses,
and telephone numbers, a written authorization to the
appropriate university authority was required. Foiiowing the
University's standing policy regarding release of confidential
information concerning students for research purposes, a
summary of the proposed research abstract, the questionnaire to
be used, and a cover letter, co-signed by the research director
and researcher, were submitted to D r. Henry E. Bredeck, chair
of the University Committee on Research Involving Human
Subjects (UCRIHS), requesting permission for the release of such
information.

.

Dr. Bredeck's committee reviewed the request, recommended
some changes and suggestions, and returned die request to the
researcher for proper adjustment. A fter correction, the request
was again submitted for consideration.

3.

A fter the UCRIHS approved the request, D r. Bredeck wrote a
letter of approval to conduct the project (see Appendix C).

4.

As a result of that letter, a list containing names, addresses, and
telephone numbers of all male and female Eastern African
graduate students at both Andrews and Michigan State
Universities was obtained.

5.

Sixteen names at Andrews University and 71 at Michigan State
University were identified at the time of the study (a total
population of 87 male and female Eastern African students at
the graduate level).

.

The researcher drove to Andrews University (eight miles south of
Benton Harbor, Michigan1 to contact the 16 people there. People
were contacted by phone, a t their homes, at work/study, and on
campus by the researcher who introduced himself and the
project, with the intent of securing their willingness to
participate.

7.

Identified students a t Michigan State University were also
contacted at apartments, by phone, at work/study, and on
campus. They were told about the research and asked if they
were willing to participate. With positive responses from both
campuses, further arrangements were deemed necessary to carry
out the research project.

2

6

Preliminary Preparation for Data Collection
The preliminary preparation for data collection included development of
the

instrument,

pre-testing

the

instrument,

collection, and actual data collection.

anonymity,

timing

for

data

u

Development of the Instrument
The Instrument used to collect data for the research was the result of
many long hours by several individuals who provided valuable contributions by
deleting irrelevant and inappropriate items and including pertinent materials as
the instrument was refined.
A rough outline of the questionnaire selected from various sources, such as
Amalaha (197*), Dugger (1965), Bardouille (1981), Okediji (1973), Tuso (1981), and
Wolfgang (1979), was included in the instrument to be reviewed by the
researcher’s colleagues. Colleagues examined each area and made several useful
suggestions as to alterations and inclusions.
The questionnaires were revised as a result of suggestions made by
colleagues and were presented to D r. Max Raines, the research director, for his
review of the instrument. He offered valuable suggestions and recommendations
which were adopted accordingly.
A research consultant in the Office of Research Consultation, College of
Education, Michigan State University, then reviewed the instrument to make
sure each question was consistent with current assumptions held in educational
research.

Incorporating her valuable suggestions, the researcher rewrote the

final draft of the questionnaire for use in data collection.
Pretesting
Prior to administering the adjusted questionnaire to the subject population,
15 African students enrolled in graduate school a t Michigan State University
were pretested.

Those 15 selected to participate in the pretest exercise were

chosen on the basis of five major criteria: they
1.

were graduate students from developing African countries,

49

2

.

represented various socioeconomic backgrounds in their
respective societies, including sponsored and non-sponsored
students,

3.

represented various academic fields of specialization,

4.

held academic levels of graduate study to be reflected in the
composition of the study's participants (Masters' and Ph.D.
degrees), and

5.

were not among Eastern African male and female students on
whom the actual data collection was to be carried out.

A fter completion, the pre-test questionnaires were collected, and useful
suggestions, comments, and recommendations were taken into account with
adjustments made accordingly.

The final copy of the instrument was then

printed and stapled into a booklet form for use.
Anonymity
A study of this nature obviously causes some apprehension and sensitivity
concerning confidentiality among those subjects selected to participate in the
research project.

To ensure absolute anonymity, each individual was advised,

both on the cover letter and in directions given with the questionnaire, not to
write his/her name anywhere on the instrument.

Subjects were assured their

names would not appear in the manuscript, either.
Timing for Data Collection
Summer was not the best choice of time to collect data on university
students, particularly due to the fear that many of them might leave campus for
vacation.

But since African students would most likely stay on campus, the

decision was made to try to collect the data during a summer term.
Two steps were taken to investigate the availability of students needed for
the study.
1.

The researcher drove to Andrews University to contact students,
asking if they would be available during the summer quarter.

50

2.

Students at Michigan State University were also contacted to
determine their availability during summer quarter.

O f the total contacted on both campuses, 98% said they would stay around, and
two percent would be moving off campus to seek jobs but could be reached
without any problem.
The tim e for actual data collection was set as the period between the first
half and before the beginning of the second half of summer session, 1985.
original

plan called

for

data collection

The

during the spring of 1985, but

circumstances beyond the researcher's control caused a delay:
1.

delay of authorization for the research by UCRIHS, without
which the project could not be carried out;

.

another dissertation study using African students a t Michigan
State University in progress at the time. Almost all African
graduate students at whom the present study was aimed had been
selected to participate in the other study;

2

3. the end of spring quarter was assessed as an inappropriate time
to collect data because of final examinations, graduation,
vacations, and other activities.
Respondents may not be
expected to respond objectively and constructively to the
questionnaire at that time since too much else was going on in
their lives; and
4.

the summer quarter is short and concentrated. The time chosen
for data collection was considered ideal for this purpose.
Actual Collection of Data

The questionnaire was administered to each subject on both campuses by
the researcher within a period of one week. The instrument was not mailed to
avoid delay and to maximize responses through personal contact with the
subjects.
During the meeting with each individual, the researcher presented the
instrument accompanied by a letter of introduction outlining the purpose of the
study and additional details for anonymity.

Respondents were asked to fill out

the questionnaire while the researcher was there so they could ask questions or

51

seek clarifications. An alternative was filling it out within two or three days so
the researcher could collect it at that time. If they chose the second method,
subjects were asked to call the researcher when they finished for the collection
of the instruments.
Some subjects filled out the questionnaires while the researcher waited,
but the majority filled out the questionnaires at a later time and called the
researcher to pick them up at their homes. Those who were not able to have the
questionnaires ready when the researcher arrived were contacted by phone as
needed until the instruments were filled out and returned. In a few cases where
subjects had misplaced the questionnaires, additional instruments were given to
them by the researcher to encourage

100%

return.

One student helped the researcher distribute the instruments and collect
the data at Andrews University.

Those who filled out the questionnaires

contacted and gave them to the student helper so that the researcher did not
have to go around to each home to collect the data.

A fter the rest were

contacted by phone, the response from Andrews University was 100%.
The response from Michigan State University students was a little less than
100%. Following the acquisition of the list of names, it was discovered that four
students on the list graduated at the end of spring quarter and le ft the country
before they had been contacted. Three more changed their addresses and phone
numbers, making i t impossible to reach them during the summer. To make every
attempt to include all possible students from the region, the researcher waited
until fall quarter for those not possible to trace during the summer and to
include any newcomers to replace those who graduated before the questionnaire
was distributed.

All three students who had been off campus were contacted,

and each filled out the instrument during the fall of 1985. In addition, four new

52

students (one a t Andrews, three at Michigan State) participated during the fa ll of
1985.
As mentioned earlier, responses from Michigan State University did not
total 100%.

O f ail contacted, two students declined from participating for

personal reasons and two le ft the country for research without returning the
questionnaires. The overall response when both campuses were combined was 83
of 87 total returned (95.4%).

The attitudes of students who participated were

generally very understanding, cooperative, friendly, and open.

Every individual

visited by the researcher was hospitable and offered a warm welcome to his/her
home. They were all very encouraging and helpful.
Data Analysis
Responses to the questionnaire by Eastern African graduate students a t
Andrews and Michigan State Universities were collected, coded, and analyzed by
using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS).

Descriptive

statistics were used to obtain the characteristics of the sample and to identify
and find the extent of academic motives of Eastern African graduate students
studying a t Andrews and Michigan State Universities.
Chi-square tests were used to examine the relationship between students'
demographic characteristics and the importance of internal/external motives.
Subgroup means were used to indicate differences in the means between
subgroups of each demographic characteristic having a significant relationship
with motives for seeking graduate degrees. A five percent level of significance
was used in all chi-square tests.
Results of the analysis w ill be shown in the following chapter.

CHAPTER IV
PRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF RESULTS
Introduction
This chapter presents the results of analysis of the data received from S3
respondents to the questionnaire distributed by the researcher to Eastern African
graduate students at Andrews University (AU) in Berrien Springs, Michigan, and
those at Michigan State University (MSU) in East Lansing, Michigan. The reports
include survey returns and respondent characteristics.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the motivations of Eastern
African graduate students for seeking graduate degrees at AU and MSU.
specifically, the research questions were based on the following.
1.

What are those self-reported internal and external motivating
reasons and influences of Eastern African graduate students for
seeking graduate degrees at Andrews and Michigan State
Universities7

2.

To what extent do those self-reported motivating reasons and
influences of Eastern African graduate students for pursuing
graduate degrees at Andrews and Michigan State Universities
occur regardless of the country of origin and selected
demographic characteristics?

3.

To what extent are selected demographic variables, the
community in which the students were raised and schooled, the
students' religious affiliations, and their major fields of study
related to Eastern African students' motivation for pursuing
graduate degrees at AU and MSU?

it.

To what extent are selected variables of the students' parents'
religious affiliations, level of income, occupation, and level of
education related to Eastern African students' motivation for
seeking graduate degrees at AU and MSU?

5.

To what extent are Eastern African graduate students'
perceptions about their parents' attitudes toward motivating
their daughters for higher education overseas reflected?

53

More

54

Hypotheses
Twelve null hypotheses were tested to examine the relationship between
students’ demographic characteristics and their academic motivations for
seeking graduate degrees abroad.
H|

There will be no relationship between the type of community in
which Eastern African students were raised and the students’
motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

H2

There will be no relationship between the type of high school
environment which Eastern African students attended and the
students' motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

H3

There will be no significant relationship between the type of
college environment which Eastern African students attended
and the students' motivations for seeking graduate degrees,

H4

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' religious affiliations and the students'
motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

H5

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' mothers' religious affiliations and the
students' motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

Hg

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African students' fathers’ religious affiliations and the students'
motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

H7

There w ill be no
significant relationship between Eastern
African students' major fields of study and the students'
motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

Hg

There will be no
significant relationship between Eastern
African students' mothers' levels of education and the students'
motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

Hg

There will be no
significant relationship between Eastern
African students' fathers' levels of education and the students'
motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

H jq

There will be no
significant relationship between Eastern
African students' mothers' professional occupations and the
students' motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

H ji

There will be no
significant relationship between Eastern
African students' fathers' professional' occupations and the
students' motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

55

H 12

There will be no significant relationship between Eastern
African graduate parents’ level of income and the students'
motivations for seeking graduate degrees.

Descriptive statistics were used to identify and find out the extent of
motivations for seeking graduate degrees, while chi-square tests and subgroup
means

were

used

to

examine

the

relationship

between

demographic

characteristics and motivations.
Survey Returns
Survey questions returns are reported in Table ft.

Respondents at both

universities were contacted by the researcher to facilitate maximum returns of
collected questionnaires. Over ninety percent (9ft.ft%) of the questionnaires were
returned at MSU, while the return from AU was 100%. This was consistent with
the original population proportion.
Table ft
Report of Survey Returns
School

A

B

C

D

““

E

F

Andrews University

16

0

0

16

16

Michigan State
University

71

2

2

67

67

9ft.366

TOTAL

87

2

2

83

83

95.ft0

KEY:
A = Number of questionnaires distributed
B = Number of questionnaires unable to be collected
C = Number of questionnaires not completed
D a: Number of questionnaires returned
E * Number of usable questionnaires returned
F = Percentage of usable questionnaires returned

1 0 0 .0

56

Two of the respondents from whom the researcher was unable to collect
questionnaires changed addresses after receiving their questionnaires and could
not be reached a t the time of data collection.
returned

incomplete

questionnaires

and

gave

The other two individuals
personal

reasons

for

not

participating in the study.
Respondent Demographic Characteristics
The first two pages and the last page of the questionnaire asked for routine
demographic information so that the overall profile of the respondent group
might be presented as background for the study's results.

Table 5 presents

summary data for demographic characteristics.
Table 5
Demographic Characteristics (N = 83)
Characteristic
University
Andrews
Michigan State

N

%

16 .
67

19.3
80.7
1 0 0 .0

Gender
Female
Male
Missing

9
73
1

1 0 .8
8 8 .0
1 .2
1 0 0 .0

Marital status
Single
Married, both living here
Married, spouse not living here
Missing

36
36
8

3

<>5.0
45.0
1 0 .0

3.6
1 0 0 .0

Home country
Ethiopia
Kenya
Zimbabwe
Malawi
Tanzania
Uganda
Zambia
Missing

25
19
12

9
9
4
4
1

30.1
22.9
14.5
1 0 .8
1 0 .8

4.8
4.8
1 .2
1 0 0 .0

(continued)

57

Table 5, continued
Characteristic
Community in which raised
Rural, population less than 20,000
Small town, population of 20-40,000
Large city, population over 60,000

N

%

49
18
16

59.0
21.7
19.3
1 0 0 .0

Major field of study
Education
Religion
Natural science
Social science
Business
Missing

19
8

34
14
7
1

22.9
9.6
41.0
16.9
8.4
1 .2
1 0 0 .0

Parents' total income in U.S. dollars
Less than $10,000
$10,000-14,999
$15,000-19,999
$20,000-24,999
$25,000 and over
Missing
Students' religion
Christian
Seventh-day Adventist
African religions
Missing Islam
Missing

69
8

83J
9.6

1

1 .2

I

1 .2

1

1 .2

3

3.6
100.0

42
27

50.6
32.5
7.2
2.4
7.2
100.0

6
2
6

Age
2 2 -2 5
2 6 -2 9
30 - 33
34-37
38-41
42-45
Missing

6

23
28
13
7
3
3

7.2
2 7.7
34.9
15.6
7.2
3.6
3.6
1 0 0 .0

It was thought that the data would have the most significance if it came
from

a

group

likely

to

comprise

different countries

with varieties

of

socioeconomic backgrounds, cultures, communities in which respondents were

58

raised, environments in which they attended high school and college, religious
affiliations, and parents' levels of income.
Over 80% of the respondents were from Michigan State University,
representing seven Eastern African countries.

Males responding to the survey

outnumbered female respondents by eight to one.
A ll respondents were over the age of 22 with a majority (62.6%) were
between the ages of 26 and 33.

Over 83% of the students' parents had yearly

incomes of less than $10,000 (U.S. dollars).
The majority of the students (41%) studied in the field of natural science,
with majors in education coming next at 22.9%.

Eighty-three percent of the

respondents listed a religious affiliation, with 51% of them claiming Christianity
and 33% stating they were Seventh-day Adventists.
Reasons and Influences
Academic motives include motivations and influences for seeking graduate
degrees.

In order to find out the most important reasons for seeking graduate

degrees in the United States, East African graduate students were asked to
choose the most important reason and influence to them from a list of 13 reasons
and 11 influences included in this study.

Responses obtained were reported in

Tables 6 and 7 by frequencies and percentages.
As shown in Table 6, the highest proportion of Eastern African graduate
students a t both AU (43.8%) and MSU (35.5%) indicated that their most
important reason for seeking graduate degrees was "to develop one's potential
contribution for greater service to his/her country." The overall proportion for
both universities was 37.2% in favor of this reason as being their most important
motivation.

The next highest proportions of students a t AU (25%) and MSU

(29%) indicated that their most Important reason for seeking graduate degrees

59

was "to get advanced training which was not available in the homeland." In both
universities, 28.2% of the students were In favor of this reason as being the most
Table 6
Most Important Reasons for Seeking Higher Education by University
Mich.State
N
%

Totals
N
%

Reasons

Andrews
N
%

To develop one's potential con­
tribution for greater service
to country

7

*3.8

22

35.5

29

37.2

To get advanced training which
are not available in homeland

4

25.0

18

29.0

22

28.2

To take advantage of available
opportunities

0

0

6

9.7

6

7.7

To acquire more marketable
knowledge for my future career

0

0

5

8.1

5

6.4

To create networks with profes­
sionals in other countries

1

6.3

3

4.8

4

5.1

To develop one's chosen career
and secure a better position

0

0

3

4.8

3

3.8

To fulfill serious commitment
to my lifestyle and career

I

6.3

1

1.6

2

2.6

To overcome unfavorable condi­
tions in the homeland

0

0

2

3.2

2

2.6

To discover the world

0

0

2

3.2

2

2.6

To get training that reflects
the needs of African countries

I

6.3

0

0

1

1.3

To get training that gets bread
and butter for the family

1

6.3

0

0

1

1.3

To live a better life after
graduation

I

6.3

0

0

1

1.3

To get advanced degrees from
overseas

0

0

0

0

0

0

100.3

62

100.0

49

100.0

TOTALS:

16

60

important motivation. For respondents at MSU, reasons of less importance were
"to take advantage of available opportunities" (9.7%) and "to acquire more
marketable knowledge for future career" (8.1%).

The overall least important

reasons were "to get training that reflects the needs of African countries," "to
live a better life after graduation," "to get training that gets bread and butter
for the family," and "to get advanced degrees from overseas."
Table 7
Most Important Influence for Higher Education Decision Making

Influences

Andrews
N
%

Mich.State
N
%

Available funds from overseas

0

12

24.5

12

19.4

The existing plan for training
indigenous national leaders for
African at universities in the
homeland

4

30.8

5

10.2

9

14.5

Dissatisfaction with low pay
without graduate degree

2

15.4

6

12.2

8

12.9

Correspondents with friends
overseas

3

23.1

4

8.2

7

11.3

Encouragement of family members

3

23.1

3

6.1

6

9.7

Recommendation of faculty and
staff members in home country

0

0

6

12.2

6

9.7

Available funds from institutions
of higher learning in home country

1

7.7

3

6.1

4

6.5

Encouragement from the institution
s/he has served for years

0

0

4

8.2

4

6.5

Feeling of remaining behind from
peer group who went overseas

0

0

4

8.2

4

6.5

Information given by home school
for possibility of studying abroad

0

0

1

2.0

1

1.6

Desire to change job

0

0

1

2.0

1

1.6

100.0

49

100.0

62

100.0

TOTALS:

13

0

Totals
N
%

61

Table 7 shows the degree of importance students place on Influences to
seek graduate degrees at both universities.

Factors which influenced students

differed a t the two universities. For those a t Andrews University, the four most
frequently mentioned influences were "the existing plan for training indigenous
national

leaders

"correspondence

for
with

A frica

at

universities

in

the

homelancf*

friends overseas?* (23%), "encouragement

(30.8%),

of

family

members" (23%), and "dissatisfaction with low pay without graduate degree"
(15.4%). For Eastern African graduate students a t MSU, the four most important
influences were "available funds from overseas" (24.5%), "recommendations of
faculty and staff members In the home country" (12%), "dissatisfaction with low
pay without graduate degrees" (12%), and "the existing plan for training
indigenous national leaders for Africa at universities in the homeland1* (10.2%).
The overall least important influences were "information given by home school
for possibility of studying abroad" (1.6%) and "desire to change jobs?' (1.6%).
Identification of Academic Motivators
Academic motivators were identified by measures of importance of each
reason and influence for seeking graduate degrees as perceived by Eastern
African graduate students at both Andrews and Michigan State Universities.
Tables 8 and 9 show the total number of responses, proportions of responses
according to degree of Importance, mean and standard deviation
importance of each reason, and influence, respectively.

of the

Percentages indicate

the proportions of students who perceived the importance of each reason or
Influence according to various degrees of Importance.
According to the means shown in Table 8, there were two very important
reasons students sought graduate degrees:

(a) to get advanced training not

available in the homeland (mean of 4.20) and (b) to develop one's potential
contribution for greater service to his/her country (mean of 3.95).

Table 8
Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Degrees of Importance of Reasons for Seeking Graduate Degrees
Reas cm

N

96, A

%. B

96, C

96, D

96. E

Mean

S.D.

To obtain advanced training not available
in the homeland

82

4.9

0.0

20.7

19.5

54.9

4.20

1.08

To develop potential contribution for greater
service to one's country

80

5.0

1.2

22.5

36.2

35.0

3.95

1.04

To acquire more marketable knowledge for one's
future career

78

11.5

14.1

30.8

25.6

17.9

3.24

1.24

To obtain training that reflects the needs of
African countries

80

17.5

21.2

21.2

20.0

20.0

3.04

1.39

To develop one's chosen career to secure a
better position

79

16..5

11.4

40.5

19.0

12.7

3.00

1.22

To take advantage of available opportunities

78

25.6

12.8

29.5

19.2

12.8

2.81

1.36

To create networks with professionals in
other countries

79

15.2

■22.8

4.18

17.7

2.5

2.70

1.02

To live a better life after graduation

78

17.9

25.6

33.3

16.7

6.4

2.68

1.15

To fulfill serious commitments to one's
lifestyle and career

79

26.6

21.5

25.3

12.7

13.9

2.66

1.37

To get training that gets bread and butter
for one's family

79

32.9

21.5

24.1

10.1

11.4

2.46

1.35

To overcome unfavorable conditions in homelands

79

37.7

15.6

23.4

11.7

11.7

2.44

1.40

To get an advanced degree from overseas

78

34.6

17.9

28.2

12.8

6.4

2.39

1.26

To discover the world

77

32.5

23.4

35.1

9.1

0.0

2.21

1.00

KEY: A = least important, B = somewhat important, C = important, D = very important, E = most important

Table 9
Means, Standard Deviations, and Percentages of Degrees of Agreement on the Importance of Influences for
Pursuing Graduate Degrees Overseas
Influence

N

96, A

96. B

%. C

96. D

96. E

Mean

S.D.

Recommendation of faculty and staff members in
home country

79

15,2

13.9

31.6

26.6

12.7

3.08

1.24

Existing plan for training indigenous national
leaders for African at universities in homeland

59

18.9

18.9

31.1

21.6

9.5

2.84

1.24

Correspondence with friends overseas

77

15.6

20.8

40.3

18.2

5.2

2.77

1.09

Dissatisfaction with low pay without grad, degree

77

29.9

11.7

23.4

23.4

11.7

2.75

1.41

Encouragement of family members

77

24.7

16.9

32.5

14.3

11.7

2.71

1.31

Available funds from overseas

78

28.2

12.8

30.8

19.2

9.0

2.68

1.31

Information given by home school for possibility
of studying abroad

78

20.5

17.9

47.4

14.1

0.0

2.67

1.05

Feeling of remaining behind from peer group

76

19.7

18.4

42J

14.5

5.3

2.67

1.11

Encouragement from institution one has served

78

24.4

20.5

33.3

10.3

11.5

2.64

1.28

Desire to change jobs

77

46.8

19.5

23.4

5.2

5.2

2.03

1.18

Available funds from institutions of higher
learning in home country

76

31.6

32.9

18.4

10.5

6.6

2.00

1.30

KEY: A = very strongly disagree, B = strongly disagree, C = agree, D = strongly agree, E = very strongly agree

64

Seven of the reasons included in this study were perceived as Important
motivators for seeking graduate degrees:

(a) to acquire more marketable

knowledge for a future career (mean of 3.24), (b) to get training that reflects the
needs of African countries (3.04), (c) to develop one's chosen career to secure a
better position (3.00), (d) to take advantage of available opportunities (2.81), (e)
to create networks with professional in other countries (2.70), (f) to live a better
life after graduation (2.68), and (h) to fu lfill serious commitment to one's
lifestyle and career (2.66).

The remaining four motivators were perceived as

somewhat important: (a) to get the training that gets bread and butter for the
family (mean of 2.46), (b) to overcome unfavorable conditions in the homeland
(2.44), (c) to get an advanced degree from overseas (2.39), and (d) to discover the
world (2.21).
According to the means shown in Table 8, there were four major influences
affecting the decisions of Eastern African students to seek graduate degrees: (a)
recommendations of faculty and staff members in the home country (mean of
3.08), (b) the existing plan for training indigenous national leaders for Africa at
universities in the homeland (2.84), (c) correspondence with friends overseas
(2.77), and (d) dissatisfaction with low pay without graduate degrees (2.75).
Five influences included in this investigation that affected the decisions of
Eastern African students to seek graduate degrees were perceived as minor
influences for seeking graduate degrees overseas: (a) encouragement of family
members (mean of 2.7i), (b) available funds from overseas (2.681, (c) information
given by home school services for the possibility of studying abroad (2.67), (d) the
feeling of remaining behind from one's peer group who went overseas (2.67), and
(e) encouragement from the institution one has served for several years (2.64).
Two influences included in the study were not perceived as motivators: (a) the

65

desire to change jobs (mean of 2.03), and (b) available funds from institutions of
higher learning in the home country (2.00).
Tables 10 and II show the means of importance of the more significant
internal and external motivators (means greater than 2.5) as perceived by Eastern
African students as their motivations for seeking graduate degrees in the United
States.

The mean of Importance of the Internal motivators was 3.10 with the

range between 2.66 and 4.20, while the mean of importance of external
motivators was 2.76 with the range between 2.64 and 3.0S.

Results indicated

that Eastern African students were more motivated by internal than external
motivators.
Table 10
Means and Standard Deviations of Degrees of Importance of Internal (Intrinsic)
Motivators for Seeking Graduate Degrees
Motivators

N

Means

S.D.

To get advanced training not available in
the homeland

82

4.20

1.08

To develop one's potential contribution for
greater service to country

80

3.95

1.04

To acquire more marketable knowledge for
one's future career

78

3.24

1.24

To get training that reflects the needs of
African countries

80

3.04

1.39

To develop one's chosen career to secure a
better position

79

3.00

1.22

Dissatisfaction with low pay without
graduate degree

77

2.75

1.41

To create networks with professional in
other countries

79

2.70

1.02

To live a better life after graduation

78

2.68

1.15

The feeling of remaining behind from a peer
group who went overseas for higher education

76

2.67

1.11

66

Table 10, continued
Motivators

N

Means

S.D.

To fu lfill serious commitment to one's
lifestyle and career

79

2.66

1.37

ALL INTERNAL (INTRINSIC) MOTIVATORS

79

3.10

1.20

Table 11
Means and Standard Deviations of Degrees of Importance of External (Extrinsic)
Motivators for Seeking Graduate Degrees
Motivators

N

Mean

S.D.

Recommendations of faculty and staff*
members in the home country

79

3.08

1.24

The existing plan for training indigenous
national leaders for A frica at universities
in the homeland

59

2.84

1.24

To take advantage of available opportunities

78

2.81

1.36

Correspondence with friends overseas

77

2.77

1.09

Encouragement of family members

77

2.71

1.31

Available funds from overseas

78

2.68

1.31

Information given by home schools for the
possibility of studying abroad

78

2.67

1.05

Encouragement from the institution one has
served for many years

78

2.64

1.28

ALL EXTERNAL (EXTRINSIC) MOTIVATORS

76

2.76

1.23

Tables 10 and 11 show the means of importance of the more significant
internal and external motivators (means greater1than 2.5) as perceived by
Eastern African graduate students as their motivations for seeking graduate

67

degrees in the United States. The mean of Importance of the internal motivators
was 3.10 with the range of between 2,66 and 4.20, while the mean of importance
of external motivators was 2.76 with a range of between 2.64 and 3.08.

The

results indicated that Eastern African students were more motivated by internal
motivations than by external motivators.
Motivations and Demographic Characteristics of Students
Chi-square tests were used to examine the relationship between students'
demographic characteristics and motivations for seeking graduate degrees at
Andrews and Michigan State Universities. An actual significant level of equal to
or smaller than 0.05 indicated that there was a significant relationship between
motivation and demographic characteristics. Table 12 shows the actual levels of
significance of the relationship between reasons for seeking graduate degrees
and students' demographic characteristics.
Greater Service to Home Country
As shown in Table 12, motivation for developing one's potential contribution
fo r greater service to home country was related to students' religion.

The

subgroup means shown in Table 13 indicated that Eastern African graduate
students whose religion was Seventh-day Adventist (mean of 4.27) expressed
higher motivation to develop their potential contribution for greater service to
their home countries than did other Christian students (mean of 3.98) and those
whose religions were African (2.60).

63

T able 12
Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of Relationship Between Reasons
and Demographic Characteristics of Students
Reasons

A

B

C

D

E

To get advanced training not
available In the homeland

.81

.45

.66

.28

.76

To get advanced degrees from overseas

.75

.42

.57

.57

.38

To take advantage of available
opportunities

.41

.69

.98

.39

.48

To fulfill serious commitment to
one's lifestyle and career

.09

.62

.37

.17

.80

To develop one's potential contribution
for greater service to one's country

.48

.25

.09

.01**

.45

To develop one's chosen career to
secure a te tte r position

.93

.91

.28

.20

.42

To create networks with professionals
in other countries

.67

.26

.44

.30

.97

To overcome favorable conditions
in the homeland

.15

.61

.08

.75

.32

To get training that reflects the
needs of African countries

.59

.81

.26

.66

.61

To get the training that gets bread
and butter for the family

.24

.54

.70

.19

.43

To live a better life after graduation

.02**

.09

.40

.0 2 **

.19

To acquire more marketable knowl­
edge for one's future career

.08

.14

.64

.28

.17

To discover the world

.75

.43

.0 1 **

.54

.97

* = .05
* *
* * *

=
=

.01
.001

KEY: A = significance of community in which raised, B = significance of home
school location, C = significance of college location,. D = significance of student's
religion, E = significance of student's major.

69

Table 13
Subgroup Means of Importance of Developing One's Potential Contribution for
Greater Service to Home Country According to Students' Religion
Religion

N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

41

3.98

0.99

Seventh-day Adventist

26

4.27

0.87

5

2.60

1.67

72

3.99

1.07

African
TOTALS:

Better L ife after Graduation
The results shown in Table 12 indicated that motivation for living a better
life after graduation was related to community of upbringing and religion. The
subgroup means shown in Table 14 indicated that students who were Christians,
Including Seventh-day Adventists (combined means of 2,77) perceived living a
better life after graduation as a more important motivation for seeking graduate
degrees than did those students who were of African religions (mean of 2.20).
Table 14
Subgroup Means of Importance of Living a Better Life after Graduation
According to Students' Religion
Religion

N

Christian
Seventh-day Adventist
African
TOTALS:

Mean

S.D.

40

2.80

1.29

26

2.73

0.96

5

2.20

0.84

71

2.73

1.15

As shown in Table 15, the subgroup means indicated that students brought
up in rural areas (means of 2.85) perceived living a better life after graduation as

70

more important motivation for seeking graduate degrees as compared to students
brought up in small towns (mean of 2.69) or iarge sized cities (2.19).
Table 15
Subgroup Means of Importance of Living a Better L ife after Graduation
According to Type of Community in Which Eastern African Graduate Students
Were Raised
N

Mean

S.D.

Rural, population under 20,000

46

2.85

1.12

Small town, population up to 40,000

16

2.69

0.95

Large city, population over 60,000

16

2.19

1.33

TOTALS*

78

2.68

1.15

Community in Which Raised

Discover the World
Another

motivation

related

to

one

of

the

selected

demographic

characteristics was to discover the world. Results shown in Table 12 indicated
that the motivation of discovering the world was related to location of college.
The subgroup means shown in Table 16 indicated that students who attended
colleges located in small towns (mean of 2.40) perceived discovering the world as
a more important motivation for seeking graduate degrees than those who
attended colleges located in either rural areas or large sized cities (combined
mean of 2.16).
Table 16
Subgroup Means of Importance of Discovering the World According to Location
of College Setting Attended by Eastern African Graduate Students to Pursue
Their First Degrees (College Education)
College Location

N

Mean

S.D.

Rural, population under 20,000

14

2.14

1.03

Small town, population up to 40,000

15

2.40

1.30

Large city, population over 60,000

48

2.17

0.91

TOTALS:

77

2.21

1.00

71

A total of 11 influences on decision for seeking graduate degrees were
included in this study. Table 17 shows the actual significant levels of chi-square
tests of

relationship between

these influences and students' demographic

characteristics. Six of the influences were found to be related to some of the
demographic characteristics.
Funds from Overseas
Results of Table 17 indicated that the influence of the availability of funds
from overseas on a student's decision to seek a graduate degree overseas was
Table 17
Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of Relationship Between Students'
Decisions and Demographic Characteristics
D

E

A

B

C

Available funds from overseas

.44

.37

.07

.01 **

.12

Available funds from institutions of
higher learning a t home country

.0 2 * *

.56

.07

.20

.82

Information given by home school
for possibility of studying abroad

.11

.01**

.07

.70

.60

Correspondence with friends overseas

.60

.45

.15

.16

Encouragement of fam ily members

.30

.01 **

.01 **

.01**

.17

Recommendations of faculty and staff
members in home country

.49

.34

.19

.19

.38

Dissatisfaction with low pay without
graduate degree

.78

.66

.75

.75

.66

Encouragement of the institution one
has served for many years

.92

.15

.14

.14

.25

The feeling of remaining behind from
a peer group who went overseas

.77

.25

.31

.31

.15

The existing plan for training
indigenous national leaders for
A frica a t universities in the homeland

.27

.48

.64

.64

.74

Desire to change jobs

.26

.70

.09

.09

.08

Reasons

* = .05,

* * = .01,

.0 0 * * *

* * * a .001

KEY: A = significance of community in which raised, B = significance of home
school location, C s significance of college location, D = significance of student's
religion, E = significance of student's major.

72

related to that student's religion. The subgroup mean shown in Table 18 indicated
that Eastern African students who were non-Seventh-day Adventist Christians
(mean of 3.07) were more strongly Influenced by the availability of funds from
overseas than those students who were of African religions (mean of 2.50) and
those who were Seventh-day Adventists (2.00).
Table 18
Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds According to Students'
Religion
Religion

N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

41

3.07

1.27

Seventh-day Adventist

25

2.00

1.16

6

2.50

1.38

72

2.65

1.32

African
TOTALS:

Funds from Home Country
Results shown in Table 17 indicated that the influence of availability of
funds from institutions of higher learning in the home country on one's decision
to seek a graduate degree was related to the type of community in which a
student was raised.

The subgroup means shown In Table 19 indicated that

students raised in small towns (mean of 2.80) were more strongly Influenced by
the availability of funds from their home country than those students brought up
in large sized cities (2.38) or those raised in rural areas (2.07).

73

Table 19
Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from Home Country
Institutions of Higher Learning According to Type of Community in Which
Eastern African Graduate Students Were Raised
N

Mean

S.D.

Ruralt population under 20,000

45

2.07

0.96

Small town, population up to 40,000

15

2.80

1.61

Large city, population over 60,000

16

2.38

1.31

TOTALS:

76

2.28

1.21

Community in Which Raised

Information Given by Home School
Results shown in Table 17 indicated that the influence of information given
by home schools for the possibility of studying abroad on one's decision to seek a
graduate degree was related to the location of the high school the student
attended.

The subgroup means shown in Table 20 indicated that students who

attended high schools located in small towns (mean of 3.00) were more strongly
influenced by the information given by their schools on the possibility of studying
abroad than were those students who attended high schools located in rural areas
(mean of 2.5) or in large cities (1,89).
Table 20
Subgroup Means of Influence of Information Given by Home School for Possibility
of Studying Abroad According to the Location of the High Schools Students
Attended
Location of High School

N

Mean

S.D.

Rural, population under 20,000

33

2.55

1.00

Small town, population up to 40,000

27

3.00

0.68

Large city, population over 60,000

IS

1.89

0.96

TOTALS:

78

2.55

0.98

7k

Correspondence with Friends Overseas
The

results

shown

in

Table

17 indicated

that

the

influences

of

correspondence with friends overseas on students' decisions to seek graduate
degrees was related to the students' major fields of study. The subgroup means
shown in Table 21 indicated that those who studied religion as a major (mean of
3.71) were strongly influenced in their decisions to seek graduate degrees by
correspondence with friends overseas. Those students who studied education as a
major (mean of 3.17) were next in terms of the strength of this influence.
Students who studied business, social science, or natural science as majors were
less strongly influenced by correspondence with friends overseas (means of 2.86,
2.62, and 2.36, respectively).
Table 21
Subgroup Means of Influence of Correspondence with Friends Overseas According
to Major Field of Study
Mean

S.D.

18

3.17

1.10

7

3.71

1.50

Natural Science

31

2.36

0.80

Social Science

13

2.62

I.Ofc

Business

7

2.86

1.22

TOTALS:

76

2.76

1.02

Major Field of Study

N

Education
Religion

Encouragement of Family Members
The

results

shown

In

Table

17

indicated

that

the

influence

of

encouragement from family members was related to the location of the high
school and college students attended and their religions (those of the students,

75

their mothers, and their fathers).

Results shown in Table 22 indicated that

students who attended high schools located in rural areas (mean of 2.94)
perceived that encouragement of fam ily members was a more important
influence in pursuing their graduate degrees than did those students who
attended high school in small towns (mean of 2.56) or large cities (2.53).
As shown in Table 23, subgroup means indicated that students who attended
college in rural areas (mean of 3.29) perceived that encouragement of family
members was a more important Influence in seeking their graduate degrees than
did students who attended college in small towns (2.85) or large cities (2.47).
Table 22
Subgroup Means of Motivation of Encouragement of Family Members According
to the Location of the High Schools Students Attended
Location of High School

N

Mean

S.D.

Rural, population under 20,000

33

2.94

1.54

Small town, population up to 40,000

27

2.56

1.01

Large city, population over 60,000

17

2.53

1.23

TOTALS:

77

2.71

1.31

Table 23
Subgroup Means of Influence of Encouragement of Fam ily Members According to
Location of College Setting Attended by Eastern African Graduate Students to
Pursue Their First Degrees (College Education)
N

Mean

S.D.

Rural, population under 20,000

17

3.29

1.57

Small town, population up to 40,000

13

2.85

1.57

Large city, population over 60,000

47

2.47

1.06

TOTALS:

77

2.71

1.31

ColleKe Location

76

The subgroup means shown in Table 24 indicated that students who were
Seventh-day Adventists (mean of 3.27) perceived the influence of encouragement
from family members as more important in influencing their decisions for
seeking graduate degrees than did those students who were Christians (2.49) or of
African religions (2.00).
Table 2k
Subgroup Means of Influence of Encouragement from Family Members According
to Students' Religions
Religion

N

Christian
Seventh-day Adventist
African
TOTALS:

Mean

S.D.

39

2.49

1.17

26

3.27

1.43

5

2.00

1.22

70

2.74

1.33

Motivations and Demographic Characteristics
of Parents
The relationship between reasons for seeking graduate degrees and parents'
religions, education, occupations, and incomes was examined by using chi-square
tests. The results are shown in Table 25.

The results indicated that greater

service to home country, creating professional networks, and acquiring more
marketable knowledge for future careers were related to parents' demographic
characteristics.
Greater Service to Home Country
As shown in Table 25, motivation in developing one's potential contribution
for greater service to home country was related to mother's religion. As shown
in Table 26, subgroup means indicated that students whose mothers were
Seventh-day Adventists (mean of 4.24) expressed higher motivation in developing

Table 25
Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of Relationships Between Motivations and Demographic
Characteristics of Eastern African Graduate Students' Parents
Reason

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

To obtain advanced training not available in homelands

.32

.18

.08

.18

.37

.92

.08

To obtain an advanced degree from overseas

.58

.78

.38

.73

.85

J8

.36

To take advantage of available opportunities

.31

.26

.50

.94

1.00

.28

.30

To fulfill serious commitments to lifestyle and career

.29

.14

.32

.47

.75

.13

.39

To develop one's potential contribution for greater
service to country

.01**

.12

.53

.73

.10

.68

.17

To develop one's chosen career to secure a better position

.23

.67

.74

.37

.59

.34

.66

To create networks with professionals in other countries

J2

.01**

.18

.63

.84

.50

.46

To overcome unfavorable conditions in the homeland

.53

*84

.58

.49

.61

.37

.61

To get training that reflects needs of African countries

.28

.12

.12

.87

.60

.17

.57

To get training that gets bread and butter for the family

.50

.24

.58

.45

.85

.30

.89

T o live a better life after graduation

.21

.25

.79

.38

.36

.41

.86

To acquire more marketable knowledge for future career

.31

.21

.82

.05*

.46

.38

.71

To discover the world

.41

.25

.82

.72

.92

.72

.95

KEY: A = mother's religion, B = father's religion, C = mother's education, D = father's education, E = mother's
occupation, F = Father's occupation, G = parents' income; * = .05,
** = .01,
*** = .001

78

one's potential contribution for greater service to country than did students
whose mothers belonged to other Christian religions (mean of 3.93) and those
whose mothers claimed African religions (3.00).
Table 26
Subgroup Means of Importance of Developing One's Potential Contributions for
Greater Service to Home Country According to Mothers' Religions
N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

43

3.93

0.99

Seventh-day Adventist

25

4.24

0.89

African

5

3.00

2.00

TOTAL:

73

3.97

1.07

Mother's Religion

Creating Professional Networks
The results shown in Table 25 indicated that motivation in creating
networks with professional in other countries was related to fathers' religions.
The results shown in Table 27 indicated that the importance of creating networks
with professionals In other countries was a very low motivation (mean of 1.78) for
seeking graduate degrees.

However, the degrees of importance

motivation differed according to fathers' religions.

of this

Subgroup means indicated

that those students whose fathers were Christians and Seventh-day Adventists
(means of 2.78 and 2.71, respectively) were somewhat motivated by the
possibility of creating professional networks, as opposed to those students whose
fathers were of African religions (1.78).

79

Table 27
Subgroup Means of Importance of Creating Networks with Professionals In Other
Countries According to Fathers' Religions
Father's Religion

N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

40

2.78

1.03

Seventh-day Adventist

21

2.71

0.64

African

9

1.78

1.09

TOTAL:

70

2.63

0.98

Acquiring Marketable Knowledge
Results shown in Table 25 indicated that acquiring more marketable
knowledge for future careers was related to fathers' education. Results shown in
Table 28 indicated that students whose fathers completed high school education
(mean of 3.50) or elementary school education (3.35) were more strongly
motivated by acquiring marketable knowledge for seeking graduate degrees than
those students whose fathers had no formal education (mean of 3.26), who
completed college education (3.20), Junior high school (3.10), or junior college
(3.00).
Table 28
Subgroup Means of Importance of Acquiring More Marketable Knowledge for
Future Careers According to Fathers' Education
N

Mean

S.D.

No formal education

27

3.26

1.48

Elementary education

23

3.35

1.11

Junior high school

10

3.10

0.57

High school

4

3.50

1.29

Junior college

9

3.00

1.73

College and above

5

3.20

0.45

78

3.24

1.24

Father's Education

TOTAL:

80

The results of chi-square tests of relationship between importance of
Influences and parents' religions, education, occupations, and incomes are shown
in Table 29. These results indicated that the availability of funds from overseas
and local Institutions, encouragement of family members, and the existing plan
for training national leaders in homelands were related to parents' background
characteristics.
Funds from Overseas
Results shown in Table 29 indicated that the influence of availability of
funds from overseas was related to mothers' religions and education and to
fathers' religions, education, and occupations.

The relationship between the

influence of availability of funds from overseas and fathers' religions was
different from that of students' and mothers' religions. Subgroup means shown in
Table 30 indicated that students whose mothers were Christians were more
strongly influenced by the availability of funds from overseas than those students
whose mothers were Seventh-day Adventists or of African religions.

Table 29
Actual Significant Levels of Chi-square Tests of Relationships Between Motivations and Demographic
Characteristics of Eastern African Graduate Students' Parents
Reason

A-

Available funds from overseas

.0 2 **

Available funds from institutions of higher learning
in the home country

B

C

D

E

.01**

.03*

.05*

.12

.0 2 **

.91

.34

.23

.03*

.38

.04*

.48

.54

Information given by home school for possibility of
studying abroad

.58

.87

.22

.26

.46

.70

.27

Correspondence with friends overseas

.66

.28

.50

.17

.35

.39

.27

Encouragement of family members

.0 2 **

.0 0 * * *

.05*

.12

.37

.68

.32

Recommendation of faculty and staff members in home
country
.08

.23

.23

.60

.60

.06

.31

Dissatisfaction with low pay without graduate degree

.71

.66

.17

.22

.81

.98

.30

Encouragement of institution served for years

.11

.28

.95

.44

.57

.99

.60

Feeling of remaining behind from peer group

.55

.66

.21

.34

.19

.21

.53

Existing plan for training indigenous national
leaders for African at universities in homeland

.0 2 **

.10

.23

.37

.52

.56

.58

Desire to change job

.98

.35

.44

.97

.48

.65

.45

F

G

KEY: A = m other's religion, B = father's religion, C = m other's education, D = father's education, E = m other's
occupation, F = F ather's occupation, G = parents' income; * = .05, ** = .01, *** = .001

82

Table 30
Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from Overseas According
to Mothers' Religions
Mother's Religion

N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

43

3.00

1.25

Seventh-day Adventist

24

2.00

1.14

African

6

2.50

1.38

TOTAL:

73

2.63

1.30

Table 31 indicates that students whose fathers were non-Seventh-day
Adventist Christians (mean of 3.08) were more strongly influenced by the
availability of funds from overseas than those students whose fathers were either
Seventh-day Adventists or members of African religions (combined mean of 1.99).
Subgroup means shown in Table 32 Indicated that students whose mothers
had elementary educations (mean of 3.36) were more strongly influenced by the
availability of funds from overseas than those students whose mothers had junior
high (3.00), high school (2.67), or no formal (2.24) education, with the last
category being the least influenced.
Table 31
Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from Overseas According
to Fathers' Religions
N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

39

3.08

1.24

Seventh-day Adventist

21

1.95

1.07

African

10

2.00

1.25

TOTAL:

70

2.59

1.30

Father's Religion

83

Table 32
Subgroup Means of Influence of Availability of Funds from Overseas According
to Mothers? Education
Mother's Education

N

Mean

S.D.

No formal education

42

2.24

1.25

Elementary education

25

3.36

1.25

3unior high school

5

3.00

1.22

High school

6

2.67

1.03

78

2.68

1.31

TOTAL:

Subgroup means shown in Table 33 indicated that students whose fathers
had junior college educations (mean of 4.00) were most strongly influenced by
the availability of funds from overseas than were those students whose fathers'
education was a t junior high (mean of 2.91) or elementary (2.65) levels. Students
whose fathers had high school educations (1.00) were less influenced by the
availability of funds from overseas than those whose fathers had college and
above (2.40) or no formal (2.41) education.
Table 33
Subgroup Means of Importance of Availability of Funds from Overseas According
to Fathers' Education
Father's Education

N

Mean

S.D.

No formal education

27

2.41

1.34

Elementary education

23

2.65

1.23

Junior high school

11

2.91

1.14

High school

3

1.00

0.00

Junior college

9

4.00

1.12

College and above

5

2.40

0.89

78

2.68

1.31

TOTAL:

84

Subgroup means shown in Table 34 indicated that students whose fathers
were employed by organizations (mean of 2.74) and peasant farmers (2.69) were
somewhat influenced by the availability of funds from overseas, as compared to
those students whose fathers were self employed (2.55).
Table 34
Subgroup Means of Importance of Availability of Funds from Overseas According
to Fathers* Occupations
Father's OccuDation

N

Mean

S.D.

Employed by organization

28

2.74

1.30

Self employed

31

2.55

MS

Peasant farmer

16

2.69

1.62

TOTAL

75

2.64

1.31

Funds from Home Country
Results shown in Table 29 indicated that the influence of availability of
funds from institutions of higher learning in the home country was related to
mothers* education and occupations. Subgroup means in Table 35 indicated that
students whose mothers had completed high school (mean of 2.83) and junior high
school (2.60) were more influenced by the availability of funds from overseas
than were those students whose mothers had completed elementary (2.32) or no
formal (2.13) education.
Table 35
Subgroup Means of Importance of Availability of Funds from Home Country
According to Mothers' Education
Mother’s Education

N

Mean

S.D.

No formal education

40

2.13

1.18

Elementary education

25

2.32

1.18

Junior high school

5

2.60

1.34

High school

6

2.83

1.47

76

2.28

1.21

TOTAL:

85

Subgroup means in Table 36 indicated that students whose mothers were
employed by organizations (mean of 2.70) were more strongly influenced by
availability of funds from their home countries than those students whose
mothers were self-employed (2.75) and housewives (2.03). Those whose mothers
were housewives were less encouraged than those whose mothers were selfemployed.
Table 36
Subgroup Means of Importance of Availability of Funds from Home Country
According to Mothers' Occupations
Mother's Occupation

N

Mean

S.D.

Employed by organization

10

2.70

1.42

Self employed

31

2.28

0.92

Housewife

34

2.03

1.29

TOTAL

73

1.40

1.18

Encouragement from Family Members
Results shown in Table 29 indicated that the influence of family members
was related to mothers' religions and education and to fathers' religions.
Subgroups means shown in Table 37 indicated that those students whose mothers
were Seventh-day Adventists (mean of 3.36) perceived that the influence of
encouragement from family members was very important, as compared to those
students whose mothers' religions were Christian (2.49) or African (2.40).

86

Table 37
Subgroup Means of Influence of Encouragement from Family Members According
to Mothers’ Religions
Mother's Religion

N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

41

2.49

1 .1 0

Seventh-day Adventist

25

3.36

1.44

African

5

2.40

1.52

TOTAL:

71

2.79

1.31

Subgroup means shown in Table 38 indicated that encouragement from
family members influencing decisions to seek graduate degrees was higher for
students whose fathers were Seventh-day Adventists fmean of 3.59) than for
those whose fathers were Christian (2.41) or of African religions (2.77).
Table 38
Subgroup Means of Influence of Encouragement from Family Members According
to Fathers' Religions
Father's Religion

N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

37

2.41

1.07

Seventh-day Adventist

22

3.59

1.44

African

9

2 .2 2

1 .2 0

TOTAL:

68

2.77

1.33

Existing Plan for Training Indigenous
National Leaders
Results shown In Table 29 Indicated that the influence of existing plans for
training indigenous national leaders for Africa at universities in the home
country was related to mothers' religious affiliations. Subgroup means shown in
Table 39 show that students whose mothers' religions were African (mean of

87

3.80) perceived the Influence of an existing plan for training indigenous national
leaders for Africa at universities In the homeland as very important in
influencing their decisions to seek higher education, as compared to those
students whose mothers' religions were Seventh-day Adventist (mean of 2.91) or
Christian (2.71).
Table 39
Subgroup Means of Influence of an Existing Plan for Training Indigenous National
Leaders for African a t Universities In the Homeland According to Mothers'
Religions
Mother's Religion

N

Mean

S.D.

Christian

41

2.71

1 .1 2

Seventh-day Adventist

23-

2.91

1.44

African

5

3.80

0.84

TOTAL:

69

2 .8 6

1.14

Parents' Attitudes Toward Daughters' Education
Two items were included in the questionnaire in order to determine Eastern
African graduate students' perceptions of their parents' attitudes toward
motivating their daughters toward higher education. The items were as follows.
1.

Suppose your parents Have two daughters and two sons with
simitar qualifications and can only send two of them to school.
Which two of them would your parents send overseas?

2.

If you parents can only pay school fees for one child overseas,
will they readily pay for the first child?

Responses to these two items related to gender of students were reported in
Tables 40 and 41.
Chi-square tests indicated that there were no significant differences in
patterns of responses between female and male students regarding their parents'
attitudes toward daughters and sons' higher education overseas. The greatest

38

proportion of both female (83.3%) and male (43.4%) students perceived that their
parents would send their two oldest children, irrespective of gender, for higher
education overseas. Assuming that it is equally likely that the first child would
be a female or male, parents would send more sons (67.3%) than daughters
(32.7%) for higher education overseas.
Table 40
Students' Perceptions of Parents' Attitudes Toward Sons and Daughters'
Education (Item 1), According to Students' Gender
Female

Male

Total

a

%

£

%

£

%

Send two girls

0

0 .0

I

1.5

1

1.4

Send two boys

1

16.7

25

37.9

26

36.1

Send one boy and one girl

0

0 .0

12

18.2

12

16.7

Send two oldest

5

83.3

28

42.4

33

45.8

TOTAL:

6

8.3

66

91.7

72

1 0 0 .0

s 3.88, degree of freedom = 3, significance = .28

Table 41 shows the perceptions of female and male students of their
parents’ attitudes if they were only to send one child for higher education
overseas. Chi-square tests indicated that there were no significant differences
in perceptions according to students' gender.

89

T a b le 41

Students' Perceptions of Parents' Attitudes Toward Sons and Daughters'
Education (Item 2), According to Students' Gender
Female

Male

Total

n

%

ff

%

a

%

Send a boy

0

0 .0

7

1 2 .1

39

61.9

Send a girl

3

60.0

36

62.1

7

Send either

2

40.0

15

25.9

17

TOTAL:

5

7.9

58

92.1

83

11.1

27.0
1 0 0 .0

s 0.95, degree of freedom = 2 , significance = 0 ..62

Again, perceptions of parents' attitudes indicated that greater numbers of
parents would send their sons for higher education overseas (75.4%) rather than
their daughters ^24-696).

The two results indicated that parents were less in

favor of sending their daughters overseas for higher education.
Summary
This chapter has presented research questions, null hypotheses, methods of
statistical

analysis, and results.

Results reported were related to the

identification and extent of academic motives? the relationship between Eastern
African students' demographic characteristics and motivation, influences, and
career aspirations; and Eastern African

students' perceptions

of

parents'

attitudes toward motivating their daughters for higher education overseas. The
next

chapter

presents

the

summary

of

this

research,

conclusions,

and

recommendations.
Comments from Open-Ended Questions
Eastern African graduate students were asked to comment on (a) what
encourages African graduate students to pursue graduate degrees overseas, and

90

(b) what discourages African graduate students to continue graduate degrees
overseas. The responses to the two questions follow.
Those items that encouraged African graudate students to pursue overseas
degrees were:
1.

finance:
—availability of funds, scholarships, private sponsorships,
graduate assistantships, and available work opportunities
—better facilities, technological advancement, specialization in
graduate studies programs, variety of career program
choices, reputable libraries and universities, qualified
faculty and staff in various fields, and better training in less
tim e duration
—chance for better jobs after completion of graduate degrees
overseas
—easy accessabillty
of
university
entrance procedures
academically (not financially) from home countries
—stable university programs

2

.

career:
—better qualifications and better achievement in the field of
study, expectation of better employment after graduation,
scholastic venture, and achievement of expected goal in life
—commitment and dedication in pursuing lifelong dreams, to
make contributions effectively as a result of training at
higher level
—desire for productive and useful knowledge and interest in
academic achievement and to learn advanced skills related
to career specialization
—exposure to outside world, curiosity about outside life;
expectation of higher salary, life style, higher position,
greater prestige that overseas degrees confer; and to
achieve international recognition for employment with
international organizations

3.

inavailability:
—lack of incentives from institutions back home for higher
education
unstable university programs in developing countries

91

—scarcity of quality education and facilities a t higher levels
back home
—political Instability in African countries spur educated African
students to seek higher education elsewhere abroad
Those items that discouraged Eastern African students from seeking
graduate degrees overseas were:
1.

expense:
—high cost of education, of living standards; Inability to get
grants expensive to support fam ily while at school
—financial deposit requirements to obtain 1-20 forms
—"the cost of education is so high that I wonder i f what a person
pays to educate himself can ever be earned back after one
completes his/her studies"
—"as for me, it was poverty; but I told poverty not to stand in
my way

2

.

family:
—extended
fam ily
responsibilities
and
commitment,
responsibility of married life (difficult to stay home with
children and no time for fam ily, either)
—fam ily ties, especially for women from developing countries;
separation from fam ily members for a long period of time
—fam ily size: mobility becomes almost impossible for some
fam ily members—some are forced to leave some family
members at home (some students have to prove they have
enough money to sustain their families while abroad, and the
majority of them are poor while sponsorship is rare for both
husband and w ife a t a time)

3.

curriculum
—a few students commented on lack of courses that were
directly related to the needs of developing countries

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The Purpose
The purpose of this study was to inquire into the motives of Eastern
African students for pursuing graduate degrees a t Andrews (AU) and Michigan
State Universities (MSU).

More specifically, the study asked the following

questions.
1.

What are those self-reported internal and external motivating
reasons and influences of Eastern African students for seeking
graduate degrees at Andrews and Michigan State Universities?

2.

To what extent do those self-reported motivating reasons and
influences of Eastern African students for pursuing graduate
degrees at Andrews and Michigan State Universities occur
regardless of the country of origin and selected demographic
characteristics?

3.

To what extent are selected demographic variables, the
community in which the students were raised and schooled, the
students' religious affiliations, and their major fields of study
related to Eastern African graduate students' motivation for
pursuing graduate degrees?

k.

To what extent are selected variables of the students' parents'
religious affiliations, level of income, occupation, and level of
education related to
Eastern African graduate students'
motivation for seeking graduate degrees?

5.

To what extent are Eastern African
graduate students'
perceptions about their parents' attitudes toward motivating
their daughters for higher education overseas reflected?
Population

The population for this study was limited to graduate students from
Eastern African countries enrolled as full-tim e students a t Andrews and

92

93

Michigan State Universities for the academic year of 1984-83.

A total of 83

students (16 from AU, 67 from MSU) responded to the questionnaire. Thirty-six
of these were studying for Masters' degrees, and 47 worked toward Ph.D.
degrees.
Sampling
The designed instrument, an open-ended questionnaire, was distributed by
the researcher to all Eastern African graduate students at AU and MSU during
the summer of 1985.

This method of distribution was chosen to facilitate a

higher response than would be probable if the instrument were mailed to
respondents. The sample excluded undergraduates, part-tim e, and post-graduate
students from the region.

It was fe lt that the response from such individuals

would contaminate the results of the investigation.
A fter one week, respondents were contacted by the researcher in person,
by telephone, in their homes, and at work to collect the instrument. Of the total
of 87 questionnaires distributed, two were returned incomplete, two respondent
could not be traced, and 83 usable questionnaires were filled In and collected by
the researcher.
Instrument
A total of 119 questions with space for open-ended responses were designed
to collect the data. The questionnaire included demographic questions; parents'
religious affiliation, education, professional occupations, and levels of income;
students' community of up-bringing, schooling, reasons for going overseas to
pursue graduate degrees and the influences that affected their decisions to do so,
the most important reasons and influences they perceived as motivators, sources
of funds, major fields of study, and perceptions regarding their parents' attitudes
toward providing equal opportunities for females in the family. A t the end of

94

the

Instrument,

students

were

asked

to

list

what

they thought would

encourage/discourage Eastern African students to pursue graduate degrees
overseas.
Data Analysis
Responses to the questionnaire were coded and analyzed by using the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). Descriptive statistics were
used to obtain the characteristics of the sample and to identify the extent of
academic motives of Eastern African graduate students studying a t Andrews and
Michigan State Universities.

Chi-square tests were used to examine the

relationship between students* demographic characteristics and the importance
of academic motives. Subgroup means were used to indicate differences in the
means between

subgroups of each demographic characteristics

significant relationships with academic motives.

that had

A five percent level of

significance was used in ail chi-square tests.
Sample Characteristics
Sixteen graduate students from AU and 67 from MSU (a total of 83), all
from Eastern African countries, responded to the questionnaire. O f these 83, 9
were female and 73 were male. One student did not specify gender. Thirty-six
students were single, and 44 were married, with three not specifying their
marital status.

Seven countries were represented in the sample:

25 from

Ethiopia, 19 from Kenya, 9 from Malawi, 9 from Tanzania, 4 from Uganda, 4
from Zambia, and 12 from Zimbabwe (one student did not identify country of
origin). Subjects' ages ranged from 22 to 45, with the majority falling between
26 and 31.

The majority identified themselves as Christian, with a very few

claiming African religions and Islam.

95

Findings
This section presents the findings of this research based on the results of
data analysis presented in Chapter IV. Findings will be presented according to
each research question.
Research Question One
The majority of Eastern African graduate students at Andrews and
Michigan State Universities indicated that there were two major motivators for
students to seek graduate degrees in the United States:

(a) to develop one’s

potential contribution for greater service to country, and (b) to get advanced
training not available In the homeland. There were also three minor motivators:
(a) to take advantage of available opportunities^ (b) to acquire more marketable
knowledge for a future career, and (c) to create networks with professionals in
other countries.
As for Influences, the availability of funds from overseas became the major
factor which influenced Eastern African students to seek graduate degrees in the
United States. There were five minor factors which influenced their decisions:
(a) the existing plan for training indigenous national leaders at homeland
universities, fb) dissatisfaction with low pay without graduate degrees, (c)
correspondence with friends overseas, (d) encouragement of family members, and
(e) recommendations of faculty and staff members in the home country.
Other factors included in this study were not important in motivating or
influencing Eastern African graduate students to seek graduate degrees in the
United States.
Research Question Two
Results suggest that Eastern African

students

were

motivated

and

influenced to seek graduate degrees in the United States by several reasons and

96

influences.

Two major reasons were rated as very important;

(a) to get

advanced training not available in the homeland, and (b) to develop one's
potential contribution for greater service to country.
rated as important;

Seven motivators were

(a) to acquire more marketable knowledge for future

careers, (b) to get training that reflects the needs of African countries, (c) to
develop one's chosen career to secure better positions, (d) to take advantage of
available opportunities, (e) to create networks with professionals in other
countries, (f) to live a better life after graduation, and (g) to fulfill serious
commitments to one's lifestyle and career. The remaining motivators were rated
as somewhat important: (a) to get training that gets bread and butter for the
fam ily, (b) to overcome unfavorable conditions in the homeland, (c) to get
advanced degrees from overseas, and (d) to discover the world.
As for ratings of influence for seeking graduate degrees in the United
States, Eastern African graduate students agreed that the following were major
and minor influences:

(a) recommendations of faculty and staff members in the

home country, (b) the existing plan for training indigenous national leaders at the
university in the homeland, (c) correspondence with friends overseas, (d)
dissatisfaction with low pay without graduate degrees, (e) encouragement from
family members, (f) availability of funds from overseas, (g) information given by
home schools for the possibility of studying abroad, (h) a feeling of remaining
behind from peer groups overseas, and (i) encouragement from the institution one
has served for years.

However, respondents disagreed on two factors as being

major or minor influences on their decisions:

(a) desire to change jobs and <b)

availability of funds from institutions of higher learning In the home country.
When comparing the importance of internal and external motivators,
Eastern African graduate students rated internal motivators as more important
than external motivators.

97

Research Question Three
This question examined the extent to which five selected demographic
character!stlcs--community in which students were raised, location of their high
schools, location of their colleges, their religious affiliations, and their major
fields of study—related

to Eastern

African

graduate students' academic

aspirations.
Community in Which Raised
The importance of living a better life after graduation and the influence of
available funds from institutions of higher learning in one's home country were
related to the communities in which respondents were raised. Students brought
up in rural areas or small towns had higher aspirations for living better lives
after graduation than those brought up in large cities. Students raised in small
towns were more influenced by available funds from their home country
institutions of higher learning in their decisions to seek graduate degrees in the
United States than were those students brought up in large cities or rural areas.
High School Location
The influences of information given by one's home school for the possibility
of studying abroad and encouragement from family members were related to the
location of respondents' high schools. Students whose high schools were located
in small towns were more influenced by the information given by their home
schools for the possibility of studying abroad than were students whose high
schools were located in rural areas. Students whose high schools were located in
large cities were least influenced by home school information.

Also, students

whose high schools were located in rural areas were more influenced by the
encouragement of family members than were those whose high schools were
located in small towns or large cities.

98

College Location
The

importance

encouragement

from

of

discovering

family

members

the
were

world

and

related

to

the
the

influence

of

location

of

respondents' colleges. Students whose colleges were located In small towns had
higher aspirations for discovering the world than those whose colleges were
located in either rural areas or large cities, and they were also more influenced
by encouragement from their family members.
Students' Religions
The importance of developing one's potential contribution for greater
service to country, the importance of living a better life after graduation, and
the influences of availability of funds from overseas and encouragement from
family members were related to students' religion. Those whose religions were
Christian

(including Seventh-day Adventist) showed higher aspirations for

developing their potential contributions far greater service to their countries and
for living better lives after graduation than did students of African religions.
Students who were non-Seventh-day Adventist Christians were more
influenced by the availability of funds from overseas than were students of
African religions, but they were least influenced by the availability of funds
from overseas. Students who were Seventh-day Adventists were more influenced
by encouragement from family members in their decisions to seek graduate
degrees in the United States than were other Christian students or those from
African religions.
Major Area of Study
Correspondence with friends overseas was related to students' major areas
of study. Those who were studying religion were most highly influenced in their
decisions to seek graduate degrees in the United States by correspondence with

99

friends overseas, followed, in order, by those majoring in education, business,
social science, and natural science.
Research Question Four
To investigate the extent to which selected variables related to Eastern
African graduate students' academic motivation (aspirations), their parents'
religious affiliations, levels of education, occupations, and income were
examined.
Parents' Religious Affiliation
The importance of motivation and influences of developing one's potential
contribution for greater service to home country, creating networks with
professionals

in

other

countries,

availability

of

funds

from

overseas,

encouragement of family members, and existing plans for training national
leaders were related to parents' religious affiliation.
Students whose mothers were Christians, including Seventh-day Adventists,
had higher aspirations for developing one's potential contribution for greater
service to home country than did those students whose mothers were of African
religions.

Students whose fathers were Christians, including Seventh-day

Adventists, had higher aspirations for creating networks with professionals in
other countries than did those students whose fathers were of African religions.
It was found that students whose parents were Christians were more
influenced in their decisions to pursue graduate degrees in the United States by
the availability of funds from overseas than were those students whose parents
were Seventh-day Adventists or of African religions.

Students whose parents

were Seventh-day Adventists were more influenced by encouragement from
family members than were students whose parents were of other Christian or
African religions.

Finally, students whose mothers were of African religions

100

were greatly Influenced by existing plans for training indigenous national leaders
for Africa a t universities in the home country than were those students whose
parents were Christians, including Seventh-day Adventists.
Parents* Education
The importance of motivation and influences In acquiring more marketable
knowledge for future careers and availability of funds from overseas and from
institutions of higher learning In the home countries were related to parents'
education.

Students whose fathers had completed high school were more

strongly motivated by the acquisition of more marketable knowledge for their
future careers than were other students. Those whose mothers had completed
elementary school or whose fathers had completed junior college were more
strongly influenced by availability of funds from overseas than other students.
Students whose mothers had completed high school were more influenced by
availability of funds from institutions of higher learning in their home countries
than other students.
Parents1 Occupations and Incomes
Influences of funds from overseas and from institutions of higher learning
in the home country were related to parents' occupations, while parents' incomes
was not related to any motivators or influences. Students whose parents were
employed by organizations were found to be more influenced by the availability
of funds both from overseas and from institutions of higher learning in the home
country, compared to students whose parents were self employed or peasant
farmers.

101

Research Question Five
In order to determine Eastern African graduate students' perceptions of
their parents' attitudes toward motivating their daughters for higher education
overseas, possible relationships between students’ genders and the perceptions of
their parents' attitudes toward the education of their daughters were first
examined. Results indicated that there was no relationship between the pattern
of perceptions and the gender of the students.

Based on the assumption that

first-borns are equally likely to be boys or girls and that "either a boy or a girl"
was ecfially likely to be a boy or a girl, I t can then be concluded that 75% of
Eastern African parents were In favor of sending their sons overseas for higher
education rather than their daughters.'
Conclusions
Conclusions based on the findings of the present inquiry can only be stated
as tentative. With the limitations of the study in mind, the following conclusions
seem appropriate.
The present study revealed that there were 10 relatively important internal
motivators (drives) which motivated Eastern African students to seek graduate
degrees in the United States:

(a) to get advanced training not available in the

homeland, (b) to develop one’s potential contribution for greater service to
country, (c) to acquire more marketable knowledge for future careers, (d) to
obtain training that reflects the needs of African countries, (e) to develop one's
chosen career to secure a better position, (f) to live a better life after
graduation, (g) dissatisfaction with low pay without a graduate degree, (h) to
create networks with professionals In other countries, (i) the feeling of remaining
behind from a peer group that went overseas, and (k) to fulfill a serious
commitment to one’s lifestyle and career.

102

The choice of internal motivators is consistent with the theory posited by
expectancy researchers (Vroon, I96(f; Lawler, 1951) that individuals seek to
maximize valued outcomes determined by the reward system of an organization
as well as a person’s capability in achieving high performance. The results of the
present study also support the goal setting theory (Locke, 1976) that argues that
intention to work toward a goal-directed behavior is the primary motivating
force of work behavior and effort on a task.
Specific internal motivators found in this study were also consistent with
findings from other studies: (a) advanced training not available in the homeland
(Hall, 1978; Hans, 1975; Singh, 1976), (b) ambition for distinction and promotion
(Rashland, 1936; Metraut, 1952), better employment opportunities after graduate
degree is earned (Wandria, 1977; Bardouille, 1981; Andor, 1983), desire for personal
advancement (Cieslak, 1955), limited choice of education at a higher level in the
homeland (Marshland, 1967), and national development objectives (Bardouille,
1981).

An earlier study done by Donkor (1982) indicated that degrees or

certificates earned in Europe or American were and still are regarded as more
prestigious than those acquired locally.

However, the findings revealed by the

present study did not support this claim.
The present study revealed that there were eight relatively important
external motivators (drives) that motivate Eastern African students to seek
graduate degrees in the United States: (a) recommendations of faculty and staff
members in the home country, (b) existing plans for training indigenous national
leaders a t universities in the homeland, (c) taking advantage of available
opportunities, (d) correspondence with friends overseas, (e) encouragement of
family members, (f) availability of funds from overseas, (g) information given by
home schools for the possibility of studying abroad, and (i) encouragement from
institution one has served for years.

103

Specific external motivators found in the present investigation were
consistent with findings of earlier studies concerning (a) encouragement from
parents (Spenner & Featherm an, 197S) and (b) foreign scholarships or incentives
(Marshland, 1977} Atkinson, 1970} Biggs, 1982). The present inquiry also revealed
that Eastern African graduate students indicated that internal motivators had
greater influence than external motivators on their decisions to seek graduate
degrees at Andrews and Michigan State Universities. Since internal motivators
are related to inner drives, the results of this study confirm the argument of
need theorists (Porter, 1961} Locke, 1976) that knowledge of the need state of an
individual is essential to behavioral predictions since much human motivation
comes from inner drives that augment and define the value of external pleasures
and pain.
Specific Conclusions
1.

Eastern African students who were Seventh-day Adventists or
whose high schools or colleges were located in small towns
indicated, more than did other groups, that they were
encouraged and influenced by family members in making their
decisions to seek graduate degrees a t Andrews and Michigan
State Universities.

2.

Eastern African students brought up in small towns or whose
mothers had completed high school or whose parents were
employed by organizations Indicated they were influenced by the
availability of funds from institutions of higher learning in their
home countries.

3.

Eastern African graduate students who were Christians (other
than Seventh-day Adventists) or were employed by organizations
indicated they were influenced by the availability of funds from
overseas.
Eastern African graduate students who majored in religion,
education, or business were influenced by correspondence with
friends overseas.

5.

Eastern African students who were Christians, including
Seventh-day Adventists, were influenced by the motivation of
developing their potential In order to give better service to their
home countries.

104

6.

Eastern African students whose fathers completed high school
were motivated by more marketable knowledge.

7. Eastern African graduate students whose fathers were
Christians, Including Seventh-day Adventists, were motivated by
the creation of networks with professionals from other countries.
.

Eastern African graduate students brought up in rural areas were
motivated by living better lives after graduation, and those
whose colleges were located in small towns were motivated by
the intention of discovering the world.

9.

The study also revealed that Eastern African students perceived
their parents' attitudes toward the education of the daughters
overseas as negative, compared to that of their sons.

8

Recommendations
Based on the findings of this study, the following recommendations for
program implementations and further research are suggested.
1.

This study revealed that although 83% of Eastern African
graduate students' parents' annual income was less than $ 1 0 , 0 0 0
per year, encouragement of family members, friends, and
employers seem to influence students' decisions to seek graduate
degrees. Encouragement of institutions of higher learning in
Eastern African countries--morally, financially, and otherwise—
should get more attention in order that those students w ill be
continuously motivated in their academic pursuits abroad.
Information centers should be established a t institutions of
higher learning or in school districts to provide guidelines needed
by graduate students in their decisions for graduate work
overseas.

2.

The findings of this study indicated that Eastern African
graduate students were willing to acquire appropriate knowledge
and skills to serve their home countries. Andrews and Michigan
State Universities' curricula and program planners should keep in
mind the kind of skills and training Eastern African graduate
students need that are directly related to the needs of
developing countries.
Home governments and institutions of
higher learning in Eastern A frica should have properly trained
personnel who are experts in facilitating students' motives for
higher education by providing appropriate counseling related to
kinds of training needed for countries' development, choice of
universities, sources of funds available overseas or at home, and
continuing communication while students are overseas to keep
them apprised of current developments, problems, and needs and
to encourage them in any way possible until they complete their
overseas* training programs.

105

3.

This study indicated that Eastern African graduate students were
influenced by both internal and external drives in their decisions
to seek graduate degrees at Andrews and Michigan State
Universities.
However, it is difficult to be explicit about
internal and external motives of graduate students who go
overseas to seek graduate degrees. For instance, a person whose
motive for seeking a graduate degree was to prepare hlm/herself
for better service w ill, no doubt, get a better position, higher
salary, prestige, and promotion, which are all external rewards.
The literature review Indicated that Internal motivations are
more effective than external ones.

EXTERNAL

EXTERNAL
ACADEMIC
MOTIVATORS
INTERNAL

INTERNAL,

Suggestions for future research are presented as follows.
1.

Further study should be carried out by using samples obtained
from other universities (private and non-private) so that the
results of the present study can be confirmed or disconflrmed by
using larger and more representative samples from developing
countries.

2.

A study over a long period of time is required to inquire what
will happen to student motives over a period of time while in
graduate schools Overseas or after graduate students have
achieved their perceived motives.

106

3.

Further study is required to determine the "true" attitude and
reasonsof parents of Eastern African graduate students
regarding their daughters* education in home countries and
overseas. What motivates daughters of Eastern African students
and what does not motivate them (culture, customs, etc.V? Why
do we have so many male and so few females in graduate schools
overseas? The findings of further studies will help to improve
programs for Eastern African graduate students, in particular,
and African students, in general.

4.

Finally, a study needs to be done that examines the whole
question of who makes the decision for a student to pursue a
field of study abroad. For whose benefit will the study be? And
under what circumstances will students complete their studies
overseas?

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

CORRESPONDENCE WITH DR. BARDOUILLE,
COORDINATOR, MANPOWER RESEARCH UNIT,
UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

M ICHIGAN STATE U N IV ERSITY
EAST LANSING * MICHIGAN • 4M M -I034

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

Feb. 22, 1985

ERICKSON HAIL

Dr. Raj Bardouille
Coordinator
Manp o w e r R e s e a r c h Unit
U niversity of Zambia
P.O.Box 32379
Lusa k a
D ear Dr. Bardouille:
I a m a student from E t h iopia studying at Michigan State University In the
Department of Hlger E d u cation A dministration.
Currently I a m In the process
of designing a proposal for m y doctoral dissertation o n Academic Motives of
Eastern A f r i c a n G r a duate Students In selected A m e r i c a n Universities.
In m y search for related documents related to A f r i c a n students achievement
motives I came across of two sources.
O ne Is Amalah's (1974) Academic
Achi e v e m e n t M o t ives of Fifth Grade on Nige r i a n High School S t u d e n t s . The
second, w h i c h is the m o s t significant contribution to the understanding of
A f ri c a n students' higher e d u cation motives so far, Is your study on University
of Zambia S t u d e n t s 1 Career E x p e c t a t i o n s . Unfortunately, y o u r dissertation is
not available h e r e in the United States, a nd I only read the Working Document
Manp o w e r R e s earch Report of it.
Is there a possibility of securing a copy of your dissertation?
I w i l l be more
than ha p p y to pay the cost.
A t the same time I kindly request your permission
to use the Instrument y o u used for your questionnaire.
I would be greatful
if y o u let m e k n o w at your convenience.
I a m w i l l i n g to share w i t h y o u m y findings w h e n I a m done if y ou are interested.
Thanking y o u in advance for y o u r cooperation, I remain awaiting your reply.

ards,

Kebe d e Daka
1647 K S p a r t a n Village
East Lansing, M i c h i g a n 48823

107
M S U ii ^ n A f f in r t a t i v t A c tio n /E q u a l O p p o r tu n ity f m t it u t in n

APPENDIX B

CORRESPONDENCE FROM
THE UNIVERSITY OF ZAMBIA

THE

UNIVERSITY

OF

ZAMBIA

LUSAKA CAMPUS
P.O. Box 32379,
LUSAKA. ZAMBIA.
Telephonei 219624
Telegrams: UNZA LUSAKA.
TELEX; Z A 44370

Our.

12th March,

Reference:

1985.

Mr. Kebede Daka
1647K Spartan V i l l a g e
East Lansing
Michigan 48823
U.S.A.
Dear Mr. Daka,
Thank you f o r your l e t t e r of 22nd February, 1985
i n q u i r i n g about r e l e v a n t reading m a t e r i a l on academic
m o t i v a t i o n o f A f r i c a n gra duate studen ts.
My work you r e f e r r e d to is not p a r t o f any graduate
wo**k.
I am a f r a i d , I do not have anything more regarding
thus except my r e p o r t you a lr e a d y have.
You may con su lt
J. Barkan's (1975) book on An A f r i c a n Dilemma.
This
study analyses c a r e e r e x p e c ta tio n s of graduates from
Ghana, Uganda and Tanzania.
I am s o r r y , I am not of much help to you.
L ittle
research in t h i s area on A f r ic a n graduates has been
done.
I am sure, your research w i l l add to the scanty
m a t e r i a l in t h i s area.
Wish you good luck in your re se arch .
I w i l l be
happy t o comment on your q u e s t i o n n a i r e design i f you
want me t o do so.
Best wishes.
Yours s i n c e r e l y ,
0

0

piR. B a r d o u i l l e ,

108

APPENDIX C

LETTER GRANTING APPROVAL TO
CONDUCT RESEARCH ON HUMAN SUBJECTS

M ICH IG A N STATE U N IV ER SITY
UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING

EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824

HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS)
238 ADMINISTRATION BUILDING

'

(SIT) 355-2186

June 6, 1985

Mr. Kebede Daka
1647 K Spartan Village
East Lansing, Michigan

48823

Dear Mr. Daka:
Subject:

Proposal Entitled, "Academic Motives of Eastern
African Graduate Students at Andrews and Michigan
___________State Universities"__________
__________
____
I am pleased to advise that I concur with your evaluation that this
project is exempt from full UCRIHS review, and approval is herewith
granted for conduct of the project.
You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year.
If
you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions
for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval prior to June 6, 1986.
Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the
UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change.
UCRIHS must also be notified
promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.)
involving human subjects during the course of the work.
Thank you for bringing this project to my attention.
future help, please do not hesitate to let me know.
Sincerely,

Henry E. Bredeck
Chairman, UCRIHS
HEB/jras
cc:

Dr. Max Raines

109

M S U it an A ffirm a tio n A ctio n /E q u a l O p p o rtu n ity Im titu lk m

If I can be of any

APPENDIX D

QUESTIONNAIRE WITH
DIRECTIONS AND COVER LETTER

M IC H IG A N STATE U N IV ER SITY
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 41(14-1034

DEPARTMENT O P EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION

May, 1985

ERICKSON HALL

Dear Fellow Eastern African Students:
X am pleased that the majority of you with whom I have spoken about my doctoral
dissertation on the Motives of Eastern African Students for Seeking Graduate
Degrees at Andrews And Michigan State Universities have shown keen interest and
have indicated to co-operate.
Since you are currently graduate students here on both campuses of Andrews and
Michigan State Universities you are in a position to assist m e to complete my
academic requirements by completing the questionnaire. Your participation is
based on voluntary and there will be no penalty for not participating nor any
Influence on your study program.
You don't have to answer any question that
you object.
The research is purely academic and
not political.
All the information you
provide will be kept confidential.
You do not have towrite your name anywhere
on the questionnaire, and your name will not appear in the manuscript.
This is
to assure you of anonomity with respect to any personal data and opinion which
will be obtained.
Realizing the the completing of a questionnaire can be a nuisance, particularly
for graduate students with such a tight and hectic schedule, the questionnaire is
designed in multiple choice format, and will not take you more than 10 minutes of
your time.
I value your input and hope that you will be able to spare few minutes
of your time within the next three days to fill out the questionnaire.
A copy, of
my dissertation will be placed in the Andrews and Michigan State Universities
libraries so that any interested individual can read the findings.
Thank you in advance

for your time and co-operation.

Dr. Max Raines
Dissertation Director
Professor, Educational Administration

Kebede Daka
An African Graduate Student

110
3/V U ii um Affirmutiw Aclitm/Eyuu! Opportunity tnuUulitin

SURVEY

DIRECTIONS
I.

PLEASE ANSWER EACH OF THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS TO THE BEST
OF YOUR KNOWLEDGE

2.

THERE IS NO RIGHT OR WRONG ANSWERS. AN HONEST EXPRESSION
OF YOUR JUDGMENT IS THE CORRECT A N Sw lR l

3.

YOUR RESPONSE WILL BE KEPT CONFIDENTIAL. INDIVIDUALS WILL

hJoTBE IDENTIFIED WITH THElft RESPONSES.-----KEEPING THESE THREE THINGS IN MIND, RESPOND TO THE ITEMS BY
DOING THE FOLLOWING:
a.

Read each statement as many times as you wish.

b.

Decide which one of the given choices will best answer the question.

c.

Indicate your choice by placing a check mark (v*) on the line given to
the left side of the statement.

d.

Please indicate your answer for each and every item.

e.

Please double check to see that you have checked a response for each
and every item.

f.

A t the end write any comment, suggestion, and remarks you wish to
bring to the attention of the questionnaire.

g.

Return the completed instrument as directed.

Ill

University:
a)
b)

Andrews University
Michigan State University

Gender:
a)

Female

b)

Male

Marital Status:
a)

Single

b)

Married and my wife/husband is here with me at the
university

c)

Married and my wife/husband is at home in Africa

If married and have child/children, where are they now?
a)

Ail are back in Africa with relatives

b)

Some are back home in Africa and some are here

c)

AH are here at the university with me

Where is your home country?
a)

Ethiopia

b)

Kenya

c)

Malawi

d)

Tanzania

e)

Uganda

f)

Zambia

g)

Zimbabwe

The type of community in which you were brought up in your home country
W ^S !

a)

Rural area with population less than 2,000

b)

Small town with population up to 4 0,0 00

c)

Large size city with population of more than 60,000

Where did you complete your undergraduate degree?
a)

In non-African country

b)

In Africa, but outside of my own country

c)

In my own country

What type of school did you attend to pursue your high school education?
a)

Government school (non-private)

b)

Private school (non-government)

c)

Boarding School

d)

Day School

What type of school did you attend to pursue your undergraduate degree?
a)

Government school (non-private)

b)

Private school (non-government)

c)

Boarding School

d)

Day School

The high school you attended was located in:
a)

Rural area with population less than 2,000

b)

Small town with population up to 40,COO

c)

Large size city with population of more than 60,000

The college you attended was located in:
a)

Rural area with population less than 2,000

b)

Small town with population up to 40,000

c)

Large size city with population of more than 60,000

P lease indicate th e HIGHEST level of education com pleted by your m other
al

No formal School

b)

Elementary Education (completed grades

c)

Junior high school (completed grades

d)

High school (completed grades

e)

Junior College (completed grades 13 to M)

f)

Bachelor's Degree

g1

Master's Degree

h)

Doctorate Degree

9

7

1

to 6 )

and 8 )

to 12)

Please indicate the HIGHEST level of education completed by your father
a) No formal School
b) Elementary Education (completed grades I to 61
c) Junior high school (completed grades

7

and 8 )

d) High school (completed grades 9 to 12)
e) Junior Coliege (completed grades 13 to M)
_____

f) Bachelor's Degree
g) Master's Degree
h) Doctorate Degree

Please indicate the professional occupation of your mother
a)
_____

Government employee

b) Private sector employee
c) Religious organization employee

____

d) Self employee
a)

Other, please specify

___________________

115

15.

16.

Please indicate the professional occupation of your father
a)

Government employee

b)

Private sector employee

c)

Religious organization employee

d)

Self employee

e)

Other, please specify_____________________________

Please Indicate the level of your parent’s income per year in $US dollars
a)

Less than $10,000

b)

From $10,000 to $14,999

c)

From $15,000 to $19,999

d)

From $20,000 to $24,999

e)

Over $25,000 per year

17.

My religious affiliation is_______________________ :____________

18.

My mother’s religious affiliation is _________________________________

19.

My father's religious affiliation is _________________________________

116

Students from overseas come to the United States to pursue advanced training
for various reasons. Below is a list of reasons often given by students for going
abroad for graduate studies, for EACH reason please CHECK the one that
expresses your opinion
20. To get advanced training not
available in the homeland
21.

B

C

2

3

5

3

5

3

5

To obtain advanced degrees from
overseas

22. To take advantage of available
opportunities

D

E

23. To fu lfill a serious commitment to
one's life-style and career

2

3

4

5

24. To develop potential contributions
for greater service to one's country

2

3

U

5

3

k

5

25. To develop one's chosen career to
secure a better position
26. To create networks with professionals
in other countries

2

3

k

5

27. To overcome unfavorable conditions
in the homeland

2

3

tt

5

28. To get the training that reflects
the needs of African countries

2

3

k

5

29. To get the training that gets bread
and butter for the family

2

3

ft

5

30. To live a better life after graduation

2

3

ft

5

31. To acquire more marketable knowledge
for my future career

2

3

ft

5

32. To discover the world

2

3

ft

5

33. Other, please specify________________
KEY: A = least important, B = not important, C = important, D = very
important, E = most important
3ft.

If you were invited to select THE MOST IMPORTANT REASON from the above list,
_____„________________________________________
which one would it be?

117

Below is the list often given students as major influence for their decision to
come to the United States for higher education. To what extent do you AGREE
or DISAGREE with EACH of the foilowing?
A

B

C

D

E

35. Available funds from overseas

1

2

3

4

5

36. Available funds from institutions
of higher learning a t home country

1

2

3

4

5

37. Information given by home schools
for possibility of studying abroad

1

2

3

4

5

38. Correspondance with friends overseas

1

2

3

4

5

39. Encouragement of the family members

1

2

3

4

5

40. Recommendations of faculty and staff
members in the home country

i

2

3

4

5

41. Dissatisfaction with low pay without
graduate degrees

1

2

3

4

5

42. Encouragement from the institution
one has served for years

1

2

3

4

5

43. The feeling of remaining behind from
peer groups who went overseas

1

2

3

4

5

44. The existing plan for training
indigenous national leaders for
Africa at universities in the
homeland

1

2

3

4

5

45. Desire to change job

I

2

3

4

5

46. Other, please specify
KEY: A = very strongly disagree, B = strongly disagree, C = somewhat agree,
D = strongly agree, E = very strongly agree
47.

If you were invited to choose the SINGLE MOST IMPORTANT INFLUENCE
FOR YOUR DECISION to come to study abroad, which one would it
be?

118

How did you find out about this university?
48.

■

From my parents

49. _____

From my colleagues

50.

From counseling offices a t home universities

51. _____

From foreigners working inmy homeland

52. ______

Never
States

heard about thisuniversity before I came to the United

How do you finance your education currently?
53. _____

I am on a full scholarship

54. _____

I am on a partial scholarship

55. _____

I have a graduate assistantship

56. _____

Friends and relatives contribute to get through my studies

57. _____

I am totally on my own

58. _____

Other, please specify________________________________

To what extend did you depend on the following sources for your financial
support when you started your graduate program? Please indicate your partial or
total dependence on the sources of finance which apply to you
Extent of Dependence
T otallv

Partially

59. The government of your country

_______

_________

60. Foreign agency

_______

_________

61. Religious organization_____________________ _______

_________

62. Graduate assistantship

_______

_________

63. Personal finance

_______

_________

64. Other, please specify

_______

_________

Toward what degree (s) are you working now?
65. ______

Master'sdegree

66. ______

Doctoraldegree

119

67.
68

.

What Is your major field of study? ____________________________
In which department________________________________

How related are the courses you are taking to your career goal?
69. _____

Totally unrelated

70. _____

Not related

71. _____

Somewhat related

72. _____

Totally related

What is your plan after you complete your graduate studies? A fter completion
of my studies I may remain in the United States for short/long term, because of
the following reasons:
73. _____

Political and social unrest in my country

74. _____

Family ties here in the United States

75. _____

Pressure from husband/wife to stay here in the United States

76. _____

To support the other family member to complete my study

77. _____

To make some money before I return to my country

78. _____

I have no obligation to return home since 1 am on my own

79. _____

I have not made up my mind yet

A fter completion of my studies I will return to my country, mainly because of
the:
80. _____

Inability to adopt to the life style of American society

81. _____

Pressure I receive from the United States Immigration
Department

82. _____

Pressure I receive from famlles and relatives at home in
Africa

83. _____

Pressure I receive from organizations and sponsoring
institutions

84. _____

Pressure I receive from organization and sponsoring
Institutions

120

Are you currently on leave from a job to which you will return?
85. _____
86

. _____

no
yes

I f I had my preference to do what I wanted after graduation,
87. _____
88

. _____

I would stay here In this country
I would stay in Europe

89. _____

I would go somewhere other than Africa

90. _____

I would go home in no time

If s/he had a choice, my husband/wife would,
91. _____

Go somewhere other than returning to Africa

92. _____

Stay here in the United States

93. _____

Definitely go home to my country

I find the life style in this country,
94. _____

Not attractive at all

95. _____

Somewhat attractive

96. _____

Attractive

97. _____

Very attractive

Having been in this country, earning money as a student is:
98. _____

Much more difficult here than In my country

99. _____

Less difficult here than in my country

100. _____

About the same here or In my country

101.

Very easy here than in my country

_____

Were you employed as a full-tim e employee while pursuing your Bachelor's
degree?
102. _____

No

103. _____

Yes

121

Did you work full-tim e following the completion of your Bachelor's Degree and
before embarking on a Master's Degree?

106.

104. _____

No

105. _____

Yes

If you answered yes to the above question, how many years?__________

Did you work full-tim e following the completion of your Master's degree and
before embarking on doctoral studies?

109.

107. _____

No

108. _____

Yes

If yes to the above question, for how many years?__________

Did you work in rural or urban areas?
110.

Rural

111.

Urban

112.

Both rural and urban

Suppose your parents have two daughters and two sons with equal ability and can
only send two of them to school, which two would your parents send overseas?
113.

______

Two

girls

114.

______

Two

boys

115.

______

One

girl andone boy

116.

______

Two

oldesIrrespective of sex

If your parents can only pay school fees for one child overseas will they readily
pay for the first child:
117.
118.
119.

_____

I f she is a daughter
If he is a boy

How old are you?_
THIS IS THE END. THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION VERY
KINDLY. OOOPS! D O N T FORGET YOUR COMMENTS AT THE END!

122

YOUR SUGGESTIONS, COMMENTS, AND REMARKS ARE HIGHLY APPRECIATED
A.

WHAT ENCOURAGES AFRICAN GRADUATE STUDENTS TO PURSUE
GRADUATE DEGREES OVERSEAS?

B.

WHAT DISCOURAGES AFRICAN GRADUATE
PURSUE GRADUATE DEGREES OVERSEAS?

A

STUDENTS

B

IF NEEDED, YOU MAY USE THE BACK SIDE OF THIS PAGE

NOT

TO

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