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O rd e r N u m b e r 8722831

T h e effectiveness o f te a c h e r in serv ice c o m p u te r tra in in g
p ro g ra m s a n d s u p p o r t services; A case s tu d y o f th e ro les o f
selected e d u c a tio n a l agencies in tw o M ic h ig an in te rm e d ia te
school d is tric ts
Egbo, Paul Kofi Ebraju, Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1987

Copyright ©1987 by Egbo, Paul Kofi Ebraju. All rights reserved.

U-M-I

300N.ZeebRcL
Ann Arbor, MI 48106

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THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING
PROGRAMS AND SUPPORT SERVICES: A CASE STUDY OF THE ROLES OF
SELECTED EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES IN TWO MICHIGAN INTERMEDIATE
SCHOOL DISTRICTS
By
P a u l K o f i E b r a j u Egbo

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
f o r t h e d e g r e e of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department

E d u c a t i o n a l Systems Development
of C o u n s e l i n g , E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y and
Special Education
1987

(c)

Copyright

by

PAUL KOFI EBRAJU EGBO
1987
All R ig h ts Reserved

ABSTRACT

THE EFFECTIVENESS OF TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING
PROGRAMS AND SUPPORT SERVICES: A CASE STUDY OF THE ROLES OF
SELECTED EDUCATIONAL AGENCIES IN TWO MICHIGAN INTERMEDIATE
SCHOOL DISTRICTS

By
P a u l K o f i E b r a j u Egbo

The 1980s h a s w i t n e s s e d t h e
for

instructional

United
in
for

States.

Itself

to

Often,

in t h e i r

in

agencies

D istricts.

A

value

of

agencies.

the

two

s e a r c h and

pr i n c i p a l s .

for

interview s with

questionnaires

of

adm inistered

policies
the

training

Interm ediate

School

was

the

to

of

determ ine

e f f e e t 1veness

they rec eiv e

officials

and

public

data gathering

to

services

by s e l e c t e d

objective

and s u p p o r t

The m e t h o d s u s e d

end

and

provided

assessment

training

has been an

of com puters.

Michigan

complementary

classroom te a ch ers'

the

and s u p p o r t

computing

services
in

in

the p h ilo s o p h ie s,

instructional

program s and s u p p o r t
education

of t r a i n i n g

of

schools

acquisition

classroom uses

was a c a s e s t u d y

objectives

In e le m e n ta ry

hardware

the detrim ent

teachers
This

purposes

I n c re a s in g use of computers

were

from

the

document

the agencies

classroom

and

teachers

and
and

Some o f t h e
of

a

state-w ide

M ichigan and t h e
of
and

findings
policy
tenuous

the agencies stu d ie d ,
qualifications

of

computer c o o r d i n a to r ,
between t r a i n i n g
low l e v e l

of

agencies,

and

variety

support

Instructional

uses

The f i n d i n g s
how t e a c h e r
may b e

3)

and t h e

6) t h e

1) The

instructional

absence

computing

c o o r d i n a t i o n between the
2)

the

Im p o rta n ce of

local

the

lack

d istrict

programs

the

position

instructional

of a d e q u a t e

relationship

classro o m needs of te a c h e r s ,
of

need

teachers
for

in th e programs

the agencies

m aterials

and

in

4) t h e
of

to provide

services

for

the
a
the

of t e a c h e r s .
a r e d i s c u s s e d and s u g g e s t i o n s

inservice

Improved.

on

a

involvem ent

of

of t h e s t u d y w ere:

computer

made a s

t r a i n i n g and s u p p o r t

to

services

DEDICATION

To t h e A l m i g h t y God
and His s o n , J e s u s C h r i s t
for t h e i r m ercies

t o t h e memories of
D a v i d E r a k p o b r u k e E g b o , my f a t h e r
and
Amos Kwamena E g b o , my b r o t h e r
who y e a r n e d t o s e e t h i s da wn
b u t d i d not l i v e t o s h a r e t h e Joy

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

To t h o s e
U niversity,
attribute

who know o f my e x p e r i e n c e s

this

to

assistance

L ittle

God

at

work i s

who b r o u g h t

times

Sr.,

W ilbert

G ilbert

Gibbs,

Dr.

the

their

m aterial

critical
Mrs.

period

theirs.

Smith

(D r.)

who v i r t u a l l y

the

entire

Church,

at

thanks

adopted

special

friend

in sp ira tio n during
involved
w riting

in
the

dissertation
to V irginia

tor

mo s t

t o Mr.

Graves

of th e T i t h e M i s s i o n a r y B a p t i s t

deep a p p re c ia tio n

for

and

me a n d made

J.E .

the

the

and t h e c o n g r e g a t i o n

My

Church,

Lansing

support

t h e Rev.

1 may h a v e f a i l e d

my

Prof.

B aptist

others

to

E d g a r Vann

Mt, Zion M is s io n a ry

and a l l

only

Haney,

and

H eartfelt

to

people

Mr. a n d M r s .

and s p i r i t u a l

Thanks a l s o

of

th e Rev.

A.M.E.

o f my p r o g r a m .

State

e v e r y t h i n g was l o s t .

goes to

T rinity

Hondon H a r g r o v e

problems

number

G loria

c o n g re g a tio n of
financial,

a

John Bucknor,

W illiam s,

Michigan

a m ir a c l e which I can

when I t h o u g h t

My p r o f o u n d g r a t i t u d e

at

Rev.

E.C.

my

of

the

Ha wk i n s
Church

to mention.

goes

to

Carol

Bacak,

a

very

her

support,

encouragement

and

most

d ifficult

moments.

was

the

every aspect

of

program for

data a n a ly sis,

and p l a y i n g
"Mama” B a c a k

the
for

this

dissertation

D ev il's
her
iv

typing

advocate.

unusual

She

including
the

entire

Thanks

talent

also

in th e

monotonous h a n d - c o d i n g and m e n ta l a s p e c t s
I
benefit
best

c o n sid e r myself
of the

at

Michigan

I am g r e a t l y

D r . Thomas B a l d w i n ,
their

support,

Dr.

change the

thanks

Dr.

E rling

professor

for

his

also

I

thanks

o f my

and S c h o l a r s

from o f f i c i a l s

go e s p e c i a l l y

Dick E l s h o l z
ISD/REMC,

t o Dr.

my

My a p p r e c i a t i o n
my f a m i l y

back

endurance

of t h e

from N i g e r i a
my f r i e n d ,

home

for

w i t h my f a m i l y a l l

Alexander)

chairman

their

Schools,

concern,

h e l p and c o o p e r a t i o n

Dr.

My

of

I

sincere

Lynn

Allen

M a u r i c e P e l t o n and

F r a n k Bommarito of

Ingham

Judy Hauser

understanding

them.

years.
v

Thanks

tremendous h e lp .

and h a r d s h i p

T u g b o k o r o w e l , who
these

major

of

o f S o u t h Lyon S c h o o l s .

their

deprivation

had

the O ffice

g o e s t o my a g i n g a n d a i l i n g
tor

for

Special

and

support,

of Oakland S c h o o ls ,
H errala

my

e v e n when I

John Osborne and Dr.

must h a v e c a u s e d

Andie

on

S tephen Yelon

Keaton and

of E d u c a t i o n ,

C a r o l Klenow
W alter

the

of th e a g e n c ie s s t u d i e d .

of W aterford

and Dr.

o f some o f

research.

guidance,

and E lda

of th e S t a t e Department

SEHTEC,

Dr.

acknowledge th e tremendous

received

the

r e s o l v e my m y r i a d p r o b l e m s .

Ken E b e r t

Foreign Students

focus

Jorgensen,

to

had

U niversity

encouragement

academic

and e f f o r t s

t o Dr.

t o have

to Dr. Lawrence

Re x Ra y a n d

c h a l l e n g e and

to

State

Indebted

to d r a s tic a lly

interest

fortunate

b a c k g r o u n d s and e x p e r i e n c e s

professors

comm ittee.

very

of d a t a a n a l y s i s *

mother
and

my l o n g

My h o n e s t

thanks

has a c t e d

a s my

and
their

absence
go

to

proxy

TABLE OF CONTENTS

L ist
L ist

o f T a b l e s ................................................................................................ l x
o f F i g u r e s . ...........................................................................................x l

CHAPTER
I.

THE PROBLEM
I n t r o d u c t i o n ...............................................................................................
1
2
S t a t e m e n t o f t h e P r o b l e m ...............................................................
P u r p o s e o f t h e S t u d y ................................................................................ 11
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y . . ..................... . . . . . .
13
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y ................................................................ 2 0
A s s u m p t i o n s .........................................................................
21
G e n e r a l i z a b l 1 i t y and A d a p t a b i l i t y of t h e S tu d y . .
22
Research Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
D e f i n i t i o n s ..................................... * ............................................................... 26
T h e o r e t i c a l F r a m e w o r k ................................................................................ 27
O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e D i s s e r t a t i o n ...........................................
33

II.

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
. . . . . . .
35
T he M i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s R e v o l u t i o n ...................................................... 37
C o m p u t e r A p p l i c a t i o n s ................................................................................ 40
C o m p u t e r s i n E d u c a t l o o n .........................................................
44
R e s e a r c h on I n s t r u c t i o n a l U s e s o f C o m p u t e r s . . . .
50
C o m p u t e r L i t e r a c y a n d T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g ..............................
65
I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g .................................................69

III.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Introduction
................................................................................................72
Study P o p u la tio n . . . . .
..........................................................
72
Instrum entation
* 74
D a t a C o l l e c t i o n .......................................... ................................................75
P r o c e d u r e and C oding Frame f o r D a ta A n a l y s i s . . .
78
D a t a A n a l y s i s ..............................................
.
81
S u m m a r y .............................................................................................................
82

vt

I V.

FINDINGS AND RESULTS OF DATA ANALYSIS
I n t r o d u c t i o n ...............................................................................................
83
F in d in g s from I n te r v ie w s w ith th e A gencies . . . .
84
Research Questions 1 through 4 . . . . . . . . .
.
84
R e s e a r c h Q u e s t I o n 18
83
A n a l y s i s of Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s A d m in is te r e d
t o C l a s s r o o m T e a c h e r s a n d P r i n c i p a l s ................................. 94
R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s 5 a n d 6 .................................................................98
99
Research
Q u e s t i o n .7 .............................................................................
Research
Q u e s t i o n .8 ................................................................................. 10 0
101
Research
Q u e s t i o n .9 ........................
R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n s 10 a n d 13 . . . .
...............................102
Research
Q u e s t i o n 1 1 ( a ) ....................................................................... 104
.............................................. 1 0 5
Research
Question 11(b). . . .
Research
Q u e s t i o n 12............................................................................ 107
Research
Q u e s t i o n 14 .......................................................................... 108
R e s e a r c h - Q u e s t i o n 1 5 ............................................................................ 110
R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n 1 6 ..................................................................... . I l l
Research
Q u e s t i o n 17 .
.................................................
112
Research
Q u e s t i o n 19 ........................................................................... 113
Research
Q u e s t i o n 20 ........................................................................... 114
Research
Q u e s t i o n 22 ......................................................................... 1 1 4
Research
Q u e s t i o n 23........................................................................... 115
Research
Q u e s t i o n 24.
..................................................................... 115
Research
Q u e s t i o n 25 . * ..................................................................... 117
S u m m a r y ..........................................
119

V. DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
I n t r o d u c t i o n ............................................................................................... 1 2 0
F i n d i n g s a n d R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ..................................................... 121
O r g a n i z a t i o n a n d C o o r d i n a t i o n ..........................
121
C o m p u t e r C o o r d i n a t o r s a n d C o m m i t t e e s ................................ 1 3 0
G e a r i n g T r a i n i n g T o w a r d N e e d s .........................................
133
Teacher Involvem ent.
.........................................................
136
Support S e rv ic e s . . . . . .
..................................... . . .
139
P r o b l e m s E n c o u n t e r e d D u r i n g t h e S t u d y ....................................144
S u g g e s t i o n s t o r F u r t h e r S t u d y .........................................................1 4 6

vtl

Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Appendix D
Appendix E
Appendix F
Appendix G
Appendix H
Appendix I
Appendix J
Appendix K
Appendix L
Appendix M
Appendix N
Appendix 0
Appendix P
Appendix Q

I n t e r v i e w S ch e d u le ; Michigan S t a te
D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n ..................... . . .
148
In terv iew Schedule; In term ed iate
S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s .......................................................... 150
I n te rv ie w Schedule: R egional
E d u c a t i o n a l M e d i a C e n t e r s .........................................15 2
In te rv iew Schedule; Software E v a lu a tio n /
T r a i n i n g (TIME) C e n t e r s .............................................. 154
I n t e r v i e w S c h e d u l e : T r a i n i n g Modules
F o r T r a i n e r s ( T M T ) .........................................................156
In te rv ie w Schedule: Local E ducation
Agencies (Local School D i s t r i c t s ) , . . .
157
T e a c h e r Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ................................ . . . . 1 6 0
P r i n c i p a l Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ................................................. 165
I n v e s t i g a t o r ' s L e t t e r to Michigan S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y C o m m i t t e e on R e s e a r c h
I n v o l v i n g Human S u b j e c t s ..................................... 1 7 0
L e t t e r of Approval from M ichigan S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y on C o m m i t t e e on R e s e a r c h
I n v o l v i n g Human S u b j e c t s ..................................... 172
In v e stig a to r's L etters to P rin cip als. . . .
173
I n v e s t i g a t o r ' s L e t t e r s t o T e a c h e r s ........................... 175
I n t r o d u c t i o n L e t t e r from P r o f e s s o r
E r l l n g J o r g e n s e n .......................................................... 177
I n t r o d u c t i o n L e t t e r from Dr. John Osborne,
S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n .............................. 178
L e t t e r from Lansing School D i s t r i c t
O ffic e of E v a lu a tio n S e r v i c e s . . . . . .
179
Three Pages of Softw are E v a lu a tio n
I n v e n t o r y o f TIME C e n t e r s ......................................... 180
The TMT T r a i n i n g M o d u l e s .....................................................1 8 3

B l b i 1 l o g r a p h y .................................................................................................................. 184

v 111

LIST OF TABLES

TABLE

PAGE

1

Tbe S h i f t i n g

2

Projections

3

D istricts

4

M icrocomputers

5

P re -S e rv ic e Requirements

48

6

T e a c h e r s 1 R a t i n g of T h e i r In v o lv e m e n t In t h e
I n t r o d u c t i o n of I n s t r u c t i o n a l Computers

67

T e a c h e r s ' R a t i n g of T h e i r In v o lv e m e n t
Com puter-Related A c t i v i t i e s

97

7.1
7.2
8

9
10
11
12
13.1
13.2

Job Market

14

of M icro com pu ter S a l e s

by M arket

w i t h Computer C o o r d i n a t o r s
in Schools

46

by B r a n d

47

in

Workshop S c h e d u le s O f f e r e d by D i s t r i c t s , and
P r i n c i p a l s ' and T e a c h e r s ' F i r s t P r e f e r e n c e s
D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T e a c h e r s on A w a r e n e s s
D i s t r i c t P o l i c i e s a n d R e s o u r c e s on
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Computing

42

98

of
100

F a c t o r s Wh i c h P r e v e n t T e a c h e r s f r o m S p e n d i n g
More T i me on I n s t r u c t i o n a l C o m p u t i n g

101

Ways T e a c h e r s w e r e I n t r o d u c e d
Computing

102

to

Instructional

Types of I n s e r v l c e T r a i n i n g P r o v i d e d t o
C l a s s r o o m T e a c h e r s by L o c a l S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s

104

T y p e s o f T r a i n i n g T e a c h e r s F e e l Woul d A s s i s t
Them i n I n s t r u c t i o n a l U s e s o f C o m p u t e r s

104

T e a c h e r s ' A sse ssm e n t of t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s of
T r a i n i n g They R e c e i v e d fro m V a r i o u s A g e n c i e s

106

T e a c h e r s ' A ssessm ent of t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s of
S u p p o rt S e r v i c e s They R e c e iv e from V a rio u s
Agencies

106

ix

T e a c h e r s ' A ssessm en t of t h e Adequacy of t h e
Amount o f T r a i n i n g T h e y R e c e i v e d f r o m E a c h
Agency

107

Instructional
Teachers

108

Uses

of C o m p u te r s by C l a s s r o o m

L o c a l D i s t r i c t A s s e s s m e n t o f What C o m p u t e r s
Are Used f o r I n t h e C l a s s r o o m

109

P r i n c i p a l s * A s s e s s m e n t o f What C o m p u t e r s
A r e Us e d f o r I n t h e C l a s s r o o m

109

R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n Amount o f I n s e r v i c e
T r a i n i n g and T e a c h e r s ' P e r c e p t i o n s of t h e
Value of t h e Computer as an I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Tool

111

R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n Amount o f I n s e r v l c e
T r a i n i n g a n d t h e Amount o f T i me T e a c h e r s
S p e n d on I n s t r u c t i o n a l C o m p u t i n g

112

R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n Amount o f I n s e r v i c e
T r a i n i n g and T e a c h e r s ' D e s i r e t o Spend
More Time on I n s t r u c t i o n a l C o m p u t i n g

112

C l a s s r o o m T e a c h e r s ' S u g g e s t i o n s o f Ways
t o G a i n Mor e C o m p e t e n c e i n I n s t r u c t i o n a l
ComputIng

113

T e a c h e r s ' P e r c e p t i o n of t h e Computer as
an I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tool

114

R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Years of T e a c h in g
E x p e r i e n c e and T e a c h e r s ' P e r c e p t i o n s of
t h e V alu e of t h e Computer as an
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tool

116

R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Grade L evel Taught
and T e a c h e r s ' P e r c e p t i o n s of t h e Value
of t h e Computer as an I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tool

116

R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Grade L ev e l T aught
a n d t h e Amount o f T i me T e a c h e r s S p e n d on
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Computing

116

C h i-S q u a re T est Comparing T e a c h e r s ' Ownership
o f a P e r s o n a l C o m p u t e r a n d t h e Use o f
Computers t o r I n s t r u c t i o n

118

x

LIST OF FIGURES

FIGURE
1
2
3
4

PAGE
S i m u l t a n e o u s a n d S e q u e n t i a l Us e o f
D ifferent S trateg ies

31

Computing and T e c h n o lo g y F a l l C o u rse O f f e r i n g s
1986 t o r t h e Months o f S e p t e m b e r and O c t o b e r

87

Regional Software E v a lu a tio n /T ra in in g
(TIME) C e n t e r s

125

Regional Softw are E v a lu a tio n /T r a in in g
(TIME) C e n t e r s

126

xi

CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM
Introduction
The 19 80s w i l l
for the

extensive

instructional

be r em em b ered by e d u c a t i o n a l
introduction

purposes

in sc h o o ls ,

and in o t h e r c o u n t r i e s .
advanced” c o u n trie s,
States

leads

In e d u c a t i o n .
schools

in

The

use of

both

of

th e world

growth

th e United

(1984)

in

the

States

s i m p l y phenomenal and t r e n d s

computers

"most c o m p u t e r -

found t h a t

in computer
number o f

in the

for

in th e U nited S ta te s

In a s u r v e y of n i n e

Dan L e v i n

the r e s t

and

historians

last

Indicate that

the

United

application
computers

five

years

the years

w i t n e s s e v e n more i n t r o d u c t i o n and u s e o f c o m p u t e r s

U.S.

schools.

Data R e t r i e v a l

Company s u r v e y

e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y
a c q u ire d m icrocomputers
o f 50 p e r c e n t

of a l l

schools,

of

schools
for

in the

quoting a

that
U.

40 p e r c e n t

the

S.,

23,000

of computers

in

of

77,000
had

was made u p
Junior

Cosunenting
United

high
on

States

noted:

Mo r e s t r i k i n g t h a n t h e o v e r a l l t o t a l s , t h o u g h ,
is
t h e r a t e a t which t h e s e numbers a r e grow ing.
From
1981 t o
1982
the
number of
schools
with
such
t e c h n o l o g y r o s e b y 33 p e r c e n t a mong h i g h
schools
a n d 49 p e r c e n t
a mong J u n i o r
high
schools.
The
number o f e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l s w i t h c o m p u t e r s n e a r l y
d o u b l e d — u p b y 85 p e r c e n t ( p . 8 9 ) .

1

in

Market

of

i n s t r u c t i o n and t h i s

of e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l s .

introduction

Edward F l s k e

(1983)

stated

high sch o o ls,

s c h o o l s and 20 p e r c e n t
the r a t e

Flake

is

ahead

w ill

For e xam ple,

In

2
Evan B ir k h e a d
computers

<1980)

in U.S.

Two

sim ulation

for

for

skills

to tea ch

in

education

1981).

w ill

become more a n d more

that

schools

life

the

too

situations,

and p r a c t i c e ,

and

too

especially
Lally,

Crossland,
that

In our d a i l y

for

or

1981-1982;

( 2 ) The a n t i c i p a t i o n
pervasive

effective

dangerous

and P e r r y ,

have a r e s p o n s l b l l t y

Increasing

as

d rill

H a s s e l b r i n g and

world of c o m p u ters.

of

in e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y

may b e

(Spring

W a t k i n s a n d Webb,

tor

instruction,

real

1982;

t h e number

been d e m o n s tra te d

that

C ulclasure,

the r e a l

b y 1988

approach s ix m illio n .

Instruction

individualized

of

special

1980;

w ill

(1) Computers have

In p r o v i d i n g

expensive

schools

that

m a j o r r e a s o n s may b e a d v a n c e d

use ot computers
schools;

projects

1981;

computers
lives

preparing students

and
for

Says Edward F i s k e :

Parents, teachers,
adm inistrators,
school
board
members, and o t h e r s seem t o have awakened s u d d e n l y
t o t h e f a c t t h a t com puters a r e becoming
Intrinsic
not o n l y t o t h e Job m ark e t b u t t o e v e r y o t h e r p a r t
of American s o c i e t y a s
w e ll. Because sc h o o ls
are
supposed to
train
kids
t o move
into
the
real
w o r l d , i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e y h a v e a m a n d a t e t o make
sure that students
are com fortable
in using
the
new t e c h n o l o g y ( p . 8 6 ) ,
Such views a r e
Hunter

(1984),

shared
Komoskl

by

(1984),

Statem ent
The s p e e d

with

in to schools has
the c re a tiv e

use

ot

as Guenther

and M egarry

this

(1984),

(1983).

the Problem

which com puters a r e

not been
of

o th e rs such

being

matched by t e a c h e r
relatively

ne w

introduced

competency
technology

in
for

3
instruction.

In th e

many d i s t r i c t s
end

In i t s e l f

rush to

w ithout

careful

who a r e c h a r g e d

them fo r

classroom

Is o n ly b e g in n i n g
efforts

the s k i l l s

for

ot the

tim es,"

and s c h o o l s a c q u i r e d c o m p u ter h a rd w a re a s

teachers

training

"keep a b re a s t

planning

involvem ent

with the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

Instruction.
t o be

for

The m a g n i t u d e of t h e

realized.

of one c o l l e g e t o
computer

or t h e

W riting
provide

Instruction,

an

on t h e
its

using
problem
teacher

students

M a r s h a l l and

of

w ith

Pfeifer

(1984) s t a t e d :
For t h e
students,
computers
are
fun;
for
te a c h e rs, they are th re a te n in g , in tim id a tin g ,
downright em barasslng — an y th in g but fun.
Teachers deserve
training
before they
held accou n tab le for
te a c h in g about hardware
so ftw are (p. 219).
There
are

is

evidence th a t

groping to

about

by t h e

schools.
entire

find

often

wa ys

labels

educators

to

are
and
nationw ide

th e problems

introduction

Popular

1983 e d i t i o n

e d u c a tio n which i t

of s o l v i n g

planless

For e x am p le ,

August,

to date,

the
and

brought

of com p u ters

Into

Computing m agazine d e v o te d

its

the problem of computers

in

"th e next

crisis

in

education."

Says th e m agazine:
Changes a r e t a k i n g p l a c e so r a p i d l y t h a t i t ' s
not
at a ll
c l e a r who's
In c h a r g e .
Are t h e
computer
m anufacturers
and
softw are
publishers
pushing
computers
Into
the
schools?
Or
do
school
adm inistrators,
school
boards,
or
Individual
teachers
have
the
ultim ate
responsibility
for
making d e c i s i o n s a b o u t p u r c h a s i n g and
curriculum ?
T h e f r i g h t e n i n g a n s w e r may w e l l b e t h a t n o
one's
i n c h a r g e ! T h e r e ' s no m a s t e r
p l a n , no o n e a t
the
h e l m - - J u s t i n n o v a t i o n f o r I t s own s a k e ( p . 8 3 ) .

4
The m a j o r
puting range

of concern

from th e

e v a l u a t i o n and
specific

Issues

like

general

selection,

Caissy,

1984;

Blaschke,

1983;

Professor

P u b lish e r's

Joseph

Welzenbaua,

system .
and

for

unplanned
all

expressed

grave concern

schools

"likely
teachers

to

science,
b l o w up

can te a c h

them selves

without

is

and
in

students

must u n d e r s t a n d

the

computer

computerized
the

introduction

ot

States

educational

to

social

introduce

planning.

He

of th e

also

computer

Weizenbaum f e e l s

that

"a F a u s t i a n b a r g a i n "

with

faces."
about

a

Rosenthal,

of

rush

careful

technology
our

name b u t

the a t t i t u d i n a l ,
the

in

to

decried

over e x p lo i t a t io n

engaged

1984;

1950s,

United

ot

W ilson,

first

the

commercial com panies.

the United S ta te s
computers,

of th e

1984;

E lisabeth

the

the

Komoski,

pioneer

of
In

im plications

in

r e v o l u t i o n by

a

c o n cern over

computers

1984;

to

training

1984;

indiscrim inate

levels

He e x p r e s s e d

aesthetic

banks

and

1984;

with

co-designer

accounting system

computers at

Bork,

c o m­

softw are

services,

and t e a c h e r

Weekly.

an i n t e r v i e w

a

as p la n n in g ,

Wagschal,

In

t e c h n o l o g y and

hurried,

1986;

instructional

support

1983;

Rosenthal,

few c r i t i c s ) .

and

softw are,

1984;

Chamberlin,

such

hardw are,

(Lewis,

with

or

in

general

He f e e l s

which

that

before

w ith computers,

functions

and

Is

lim itations

com puters:
But how t o p r o l i f e r a t e c o m p u t e r s i n s c h o o l s , w h e r e
f u l l y h a l f of
a l l math and
science teachers
are
o p e r a t i n g on
emergency
certificates,
and
where

they
of

5
everyone g e n e ra lly admits th a t
than the kids about computers,
f i r s t week? ( s i c ) ( p . 9 5 ) .
H istory

records

that

developed c o u n trie s ,

b y s o me

t h e r e was

great

Interest

1940s and b o i s t e r o u s
of r a d i o ,

and

e d u c a tio n between th e e a r l y
such sen tim en ts
ot such

particular

in a u d io v isu a l
about

tw enties

article,

m erely

of computers

in e d u c a ti o n and th o s e

three

decades

te le v isio n 's

ago.

failure

He

short-lived
always

panacea
period;

In

advances

powers

Often

e d u c a tio n al uses
an

incisive

draws

for

promise

television

three

reasons

in ed u catio n :

S ch o o ls ru sh e d i n t o t h e p u r c h a s e of
s e t s w ith o u t s e t t i n g a s i d e funds for
upkeep

2.

T h e r e wa s n o e f f e c t i v e t r a i n i n g f o r t e a c h e r s
i n t e g r a t e t e l e v i s i o n i n t o sc h o o l programs

3.

A m a j o r i t y of t e a c h e r s were s n o b b is h about
the
quality
of c o m m e rc ia l t e l e v i s i o n and so f a i l e d
to see
the u sefu ln ess
of
t h e medium
in
the
classroom
a direct

analogy to

Instructional

and

convincing

1.

He t r a c e s

the

revolutlonalize

euphoria over th e
held

to
thus

In

lim itless

to

(1984)

between th e p r e s e n t

other

and t h e s i x t i e s .

fads.

Wagschal

and

m aterials

the

television,

sim ilarities

and

t h e magic

have b e e n un founded and t h e

technologies,

vlsonary

had

less
the

t e c h n o l o g y has

as

ot th e

enthusiasm

especially

always

E v e r y ne w

educators

s o lv e e d u c a tio n a l problems

know
after

the United S ta te s

e d u c a tio n has

romances w ith te c h n o lo g y .
been regarded

in

teachers
at least

television
equipment
to

computing:

t wo
for

6
As wa s t h e c a s e w i t h t e l e v i s i o n , m o s t s c h o o l s h a v e
s tr e to h e d t h e i r budgets to
the lim it to
purchase
computer hardw are
and s o f t w a r e .
Therefore,
they
h a v e l i t t l e mone y s e t a s i d e t o r e p a i r a n d m a i n t a i n
t h e m a c h i n e s t h e y h a v e p u r c h a s e d . M o r e o v e r , a s was
tru e in the case
of t e l e v i s i o n , few s c h o o l s
have
been a b le
to
a ffo rd the
large-scale
retraining
efforts
that
w ill
enable
teachers
to
make
computers
an
integral
part
of
classroom
in s tru c t ion.
Gn t h e t h i r d

point,

complain about
about
and

Wagschal

the poor

sa y s he o f t e n

q u a l i t y of

th e dehum anizing impact
about

revolution

the

centralized

threatens

hears

"teachers

Instructional

softw are,

of computers
control

to estab lish

on t h e i r

that

in t h i s

the

users,
computer

nation"

(pp.

352-

353).
Both f e d e r a l
are a lso
and a r e
the

and s t a t e

recognizing the
either

In

1984,

in the U nited

problems c o n f r o n t i n g
E. W l r t h

(D.,

w h ile Rep.

Albert

N ational Educational

States

introduced

Gore,

Jr.

Instance,

funding to schools

teacher

training

for

the

called

that

federal

for

to

stabilize
b ills

(D.,

were

addressing

Rep.

Timothy

Computer L i t e r a c y

Ac t

Tenn.)

the

sponsored

Both b i l l s

computer

called

hardware

and s o f t w a r e e v a l u a t i o n .

G ore's b i l l

education

two

computing.

States

in

C o n g re ss aimed a t

Software A ct.

federal

receive

for

taking action

Instructional

C olo.)

in th e United

p ro b lem of c o m p u ters

making p l a n s or

situation.

Introduced

governments

money a n d t h e s e t t i n g

purchase,

In a d d i t i o n ,

com prehensive p lan n in g

for

by

up of a

Rep.

schools
national

r
educational softw are

corporation

225,

1984,

No.

26,

J u n e 29,

p.

(Publishers

F.

James R u t h e r f o r d ,

programs

of

the

N ational

directed research
under P r e s id e n t

who

efforts
C arter,

on t h e C o m p u t e r

was o n c e h e a d o f
Science

at

Vol.

75).

During th e committee h e a rin g s
Act,

W eekly.

educational

Foundation

th e Department

testified .

Among

L iteracy

and

of

his

also

Education
suggestions

were t h a t :
1.

Federal
efforts
in
computers
or
other
t e c h n o l o g y must
be p l a n n e d .
Past f a ilu r e s
in
ed u catio n al technology
had
less to
do
"with
overestim ating the
power of
ne w t e c h n o l o g i e s
than with un d erestim atin g the e f f o r t
necessary
to
exploit
that
power
effectively
In
the
schools”

2.

Teachers
and
school
adm inistrators
must
Involved in d e te r m i n i n g th e p l a c i n g and uses
computers in sch o o ls

be
of

3. The f e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t
should provide
funding
to "cre ativ e
groups'* f o r
innovative
softw are
p ro d u ctio n — "som ething
that the
educational
m a r k e t p l a c e h a s p r o v e d u n a b l e t o do"
4. The
federal
government
should
establish
an
independent c o rp o ra tio n "to d esig n , b u ild ,
and
m a i n t a i n a modern e d u c a t i o n a l t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n
system th a t e f f e c t i v e l y
links a l l schools
and
colleges to
sources
of
creative
audiovisual
m a t e r i a l s " ( L e w i s , 1984, p p . 3 - 4 )
Sim ilar

concerns have been r a i s e d

by g o v e r n m e n t b o d i e s
R epresentatives

such as th e U.S.

Subcommittee

on

and s u g g e s t i o n s
96th Congress

Science,

made

House o f

Research

and

Technology

( 1 9 7 9 ) a n d t h e N a t i o n a l T a s k F o r c e on E d u c a t i o n a l

Technology

(1986).

of

planning,

Th e N a t i o n a l

inequitable

Task Force

distribution

Identified
of

lack

educational

8
technologies.

Inadequate

problem

cost

of

Task Force
computers

for

c o s t and

poorer

o f c o m p a t i b i l i t y a mong

problems

facing educational

concentrated
for

increased

effectiveness

o b s o l e s c e n c e and l a c k
a s s o me o f t h e

softw are,

alm ost

Instruction.

On t e a c h e r

districts,
technologies,

technology.

entirely

the

on

the

computer

use

The
of

competence,

th e Task F o rc e w ro te :
Many
individual
teachers
were
supplied
with
m icrocom puters w ithout f i r s t being convinced about
th e ir usefulness
or
receiving
even
rudim entary
t r a i n i n g I n t h e i r p r o p e r a p p l i c a t i o n . As a r e s u l t ,
t h e t e c h n o l o g y wa s n o t
u s e d a s i t was
originally
designed to (pp. 3 -4 ).
The n a t i o n a l
more c h r o n i c
that

if

computers

problem s d i s c u s s e d above a p p ear t o be even

In

the

there

was

In

teacher

attention

It deserved

state

planning

School D i s t r i c t s

for

i t was

training
and

attention

leadership,

and p e r s o n n e l

of M ichigan.

M ichigan,

effective

s o me s e r i o u s

State

at

various

poor

did not

Rapids,
for

Michigan

Instance,

Schools,

and

the

state

level.

school d i s t r i c t s

uses

of

Issue

of

the

priority

and

Interm ediate

have

leadership

"Jumped

At t h e c o n f e r e n c e
in L e a rn in g
by t h e

from C lim a x -S c o tts
Schools,

receive

In t h e a b s e n c e of

to have th e

necessary s k i l ls

(MACUL * 8 6 ) a t t e n d e d

Livonia P u b lic

the

receive

f o r Computer U sers

presenters

evidence

i s o n l y b e g i n n i n g now t o

gun" and a r e w e l l a h ea d of o t h e r s .
Michigan A s s o c ia t io n

is

instructional

w hich were f o r t u n a t e

with the

There

of

the
the

i n Grand

Investigator,

Schools,

Ann A r b o r P u b l i c

Oakland
Schools,

9
Portage

Public

D istrict,

Schools,

Shiawassee

Lansing School

D istrict,

Interm ediate

Hanover-Horton

Birmingham P u b l i c S c h o o ls ,

P o n tia c School

Public

gave a cco u n ts

S c h o o ls and o t h e r s ,

approaches

to

computing.

Common t h e m e s

training,
support

the

Integration

m aterials

of

Th e v a s t l y d i f f e r e n t
d istricts
state

level.

As

one

of th e

computer p la n n e r s

She s t r e s s e d

the

include

training

need
for

for

p r e v i e w s and e v a l u a t i o n a t
Identify

of

Instructional

the

teacher

curriculum ,

direction

it,

has been

the

"Ready,

planning

She a l s o

d istrict

ap p ro p riate softw are

different

employed by th e v a r i o u s

put

careful

teachers.

into

lack

presenter

Instructional

w ith

D etroit

and s o f t w a r e e v a l u a t i o n .

approaches

is sym ptomatic

D istrict,

lack of s u f f i c i e n t

computers

and s e r v i c e s ,

Schools,

of t h e i r

problems a s s o c i a t e d
included

School

at

the

motto

of

tire,

which

suggested

level

should
softw are

to help

( C a r o l Klenow,

aim ."

teachers

D irector,

I I CD,

Oakland S c h o o l s ) .
Tied t o
Issu e of
support

the

issue

support
concerns

of te a c h e r

services.

training

One v i t a l

the ev alu atio n

Is

area

and s e l e c t i o n

the

crucial

in

terras

of

softw are.

C o m p u t e r s w o r k on s o f t w a r e m o s t o f w h i c h t h e t e a c h e r
expected

to produce h im self

purchased but even
p ro b lem of
particular

herself.

I f t h e mone y

identifying
application

B r i t a i n and F r a n c e

or

the

softw are

Is

Is r e a d i l y

Whereas

production

not

Softw are has to

is

be

available,

most a p p r o p r i a t e s o f t w a r e

rem ains.

of

In

places

under th e

the

for

a

like
close

10
s u p e r v i s i o n or c o n t r o l
th e United

States

of a government e d u c a tio n agency,

computer

dom inate th e

field.

on t h e U . S .

m arket.

companies and p u b l i s h i n g

This has r e s u l t e d
Much

in a flood

of th e q u a l i t y

softw are a v a ila b le

i n t h e U .S . and o t h e r

suitability

instructional

questioned.

for

Notes Megarry

use

of a

bouses

of s o f t w a r e
lot

countries
have

in

of

the

and t h e i r

been

openly

( 1983):

. . . t h e r e i s a l r e a d y a wide r a n g e of
'e d u ca tio n a l'
s o f t w a r e — a n d much o f
i t i s of d i s m a l
quality,
poorly
documented,
gimmicky and
unim aginative,
s o me o f i t
a c t u a l l y dangerous in
the sense
that
prolonged Inexperienced
use
could
lead
to
the
p e r p e tu a tio n of
m aladaptive s t r a t e g i e s ,
and
the
le a r n in g of e r r o r s (p. 18).
D espite such
softw are,

some

pessim ism about

educational

th e q u a l i t y of

computing

experts

such claim s c o n s t i t u t e a smokescreen for
adm inistrators
the

San

and t e a c h e r s .

Mateo,

C alifornia

co n fid en tly m aintains
in every a re a
the a b i l i t y
that
for
has

this
the

individual

Ko mo s k l

a

for both

ready

of

(1984) d i s a g r e e

computer s o f t w a r e :

the

LeRoy F L n k e l

of

so ftw a re does

exi3t

what

is required

m atrix

television
However,

such o p tim is tic

leave

schools
which
with

is

R ealizing

t o o much t o

C alifornia

teachers.
with

some

(1988)

which i s

reference

com puters and

needs

I n a c t i v i t y by

to classroom needs.

task

teacher,

that

Education

of t h e c u r r i c u l u m and t h a t

is a s p e c ia liz e d

Instructional

of

good q u a l i t y

t o match s o f t w a r e

developed

softw are

that

believe

For ex am p le ,
O ffice

computer

system
matches

classroom

experts
assessment

like
of

11
. . . A l l auch sta te m e n ts
are e ith er
the r e s u lt
of
Im pressionistlc
assessm ents,
based
on
a
f a m ilia r ity with
some
very sm all
percentage
of
to d ay 's educational softw are,
or e l s e t h e
result
of
a
misguided
hope
that
the
present
sm all
percentage
of
excellent
softw are
w ill
s o me h o w
discourage the
continued
proliferation
of
poor
program
(p. 247)
K o mo s k i s h o u l d

know what

executive d ire c to r
Exchange

of

Institu te

he i s

the

t a l k i n g about}

Educational Products

(EPIE)

which

has

been

q u a l i t y of e d u c a tio n a l s o ftw a re s in c e
As o n e t a l k s
b e no

uniform

school

with educators

approach

d istricts,

softw are

others

It

is

forms

support

services

include

expert

that

on

of equipm ent,

and r e p a i r s ,

assistance

therefore,

It

responsibility

of

tor

is

the

equipment

are

Is

of

provided

However,

it

is.

purchase,
equipment

in

Other

physical
maintenance

is

in th e

and o t h e r s .

new t e c h n o l o g y

which he or s h e

task

is a problem ( e .g .

teacher

some

In computer e d u c a tio n

of s o f tw a r e ) ,

this

in

the

teachers

require

scheduling,

the

t h e r e seems t o

evaluation;

in some,

when t h e r e

piece

appears

in Michigan,

evaluation

teachers

arrangem ent

In th e use

assessing

whose r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

advice

u s e of a p a r t i c u l a r

Inform ation

for softw are e v a lu a tio n .

not c l e a r

the

1982.

to softw are

s p e c i a li z e d comm ittees w hile
with stan d ard ized

he i s

for

being

instruction,
given

great

ill-prepared.

Purpose of th e Study
In an e f f o r t
the

instructional

to deal
uses

w ith th e problems

of c o m p u t e r s ,

of t e a c h e r s

numerous

in

associations

12
w ith acronyms

rem iniscent

characterized

the

television

of

heydays

the
of

"alphabet

soup"

educational

h a v e mushroomed a c r o s s M i c h i g a n

radio

associations
Users

such as th e

in Learning

Technology
by t h e
regional

common i n t e r e s t s .

Department

centers:

Lo we r P e n i n s u l a ,
Peninsula,

Wes t

is

selected

Michigan

responsible

TIME,

Technology

center

is at

teachers

tor

the

called

from

(TIME) p r o j e c t

the

i n 1984

northern

C entral
in

Computer

TMT

the

with
part

TIME,

the
Upper

and

the

Consortium

(for T raining

modules

five

of

the

Education

o t h e r TIME

who w o u l d h a v e t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

are

established

Consortium fo r

developing
the

of

there

tor

U n iv e rs ity of Michigan,

for

are

ACCESS, WE CAN, a n d

E ducation

UP M i c r o c o m p u t e r

(SEMTEC). A s i x t h
for T rain ers)

of

TIME-NORTH

S o u th E a ste rn M ichigan

and

Michigan A s s o c ia t io n

in Michigan E d u c a tio n

State

In M ichigan

(MACUL), P r o j e c t

and

(and th e n a t i o n ) .

Some o f t h e s e a r e g o v e r n m e n t a l a g e n c i e s w h i l e o t h e r s
in d iv id u als w ith

which

Modules

Ann

Arbor,

for

training

regions as

trainers

of t r a i n i n g

other

trainers

and t e a c h e r s .
The i n t e r m e d i a t e a n d l o c a l s c h o o l

districts

the reg io n a l

media c e n t e r s

for

and p r o v id e them w ith s u p p o rt

teachers

The p u r p o s e o f t h i s
training

and s u p p o r t

of s e le c te d

study

services

a g e n c i e s and

of t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

a ls o provide

as w ell

Inservlce

training

services.

1s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
offered

to determ ine

as

teachers

types

by a

teachers*

and a d e q u a c y of t h e v a r i o u s

of

variety

assessment
programs

in

13
their

c la ssro o m use of computers

training

must

intended

start

with

for

some

to look in to th e p o l i c i e s

Instruction.

philosophy,
and g o a l s

Since

it

la

all
also

of th e s e l e c t e d

agencies.
It

is

hoped

any h i a t u s

the study w ill determ ine

between t h e o r y

i d e n t i f y s o me

of t h e

classroom teacher
elicit

that

data

and p r a c t l o e

which w i l l

u tilizatio n

yield

there

and t h a t

problems c o n f r o n tin g

in computer

If

suggestions

the

it

is
w ill

elem entary

in e d u c a tio n
as t o

how

and
such

p r o b l e m s may b e a m e l i o r a t e d .
S i g n i f ic a n c e of the_Studv
S tu d ie s and r e p o r t s
the

are

appearing d a lly

im p o rtan t and i n c r e a s i n g r o l e

social

and

economic l i v e s

A g e . ” For

example,

School P r i n c i p a l s
f u t u r e world
year

2000,

the

of

computers w i l l

people

(NASSP)

projects

major

o f w o r k . Th e a s s o c i a t i o n

28

percent

from 4 p e r c e n t

to

in

the

N ational A ssociation

m anufacturing w ill

as ag ain st

which

provide

i n 1980,

that

suggest

play

In th e

"Inform ation
of

Secondary

changes

in

the

by

the

11 p e r c e n t

of the

Jobs

agriculture

w ill

drop

predicts

that,

3 p e rc e n t and t h a t :

T h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y w i l l f i n d t h e r e m a i n i n g 86
p e r c e n t o f t h e w o r k f o r c e I n t h e s e r v i c e s e c t o r , up
f r o m 68 p e r c e n t i n
1 9 8 0 . Of
the service
sector
Jobs, h a lf w ill r e l a t e to in fo rm a tio n
collection,
management an d d i s s e m i n a t i o n ( p . 1 3 ) .
Table

1

summarizes

association

predicts

the

predictions

of

the

that

w h i l e some J o b s w i l l

NASSP.

The

disappear,

14
TABLE 1: The Shifting Job Market

SOME JOBS THAT HILL BE DISAPPEARING* BY 1 9 9 0 :
% DECLINE IN
EMPLOYMENT

OCCUPATION
Linotype o p e ra to r
Elevator operator
Shoemaklng machine o p e r a t o r s
Farm l a b o r e r s
R ailroad car re p a ire rs
Farm m a n a g e r s
Graduate a s s i s t a n t s
Housekeepers, p r iv a t e household
C h ild care w orkers, p r iv a te household
Maids and s e r v a n t s , p r i v a t e h o u s e h o l d
Farm s u p e r v i s o r s
Farm owners and t e n a n t s
Timber c u t t i n g and l o g g i n g w o rk e r s
Secondary school te a c h e r s

-40.0
30.0
19.2
19.0
17.9
17.1
16.7
14.9
14.8
14.7
14.3
13.7
13.6
13.1

SOME JOBS THAT HILL BE GROWING" UNTIL 1 9 9 0 :
% DECLINE IN
EMPLOYMENT

OCCUPATION
Data P r o c e s s i n g machine mechanics
P araleg al personnel
Computer s y s t e m s a n a l y s t s
Mldwlves
Computer o p e r a t o r s
O f f i c e machine s e r v i c e t e c h n i c i a n s
Tax p r e p a r e r s
Computer program m ers
A e ro -astro n a u tlc engineers
Employment I n t e r v i e w e r s
F a st food r e s t a u r a n t workers
C hildcare a tten d a n ts
V eterlnarIans
Chefs

+157.1
143.0
112.4
110.0
91.7
86.7
77.9
77.2
74.8
72.0
69.4
66.5
66.1
55.0

SOURCE: N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l P r i n c i p a l s ,
H i g h T e c h S c h o o l s . i _ T h e P r l n o l p a l . ,_ s _ P e r s p e c t l v e
( B o s t o n , VA:NASSP), 1 9 8 4 .
"The word i s u s e d by t h e a u t h o r s
In v estig a to r that "declining"

but i t seems t o t h i s
w o u l d b e mo r e a p p r o p r i a t e .

IS
technical

Jobs

In e n e rg y ,

housing r e h a b i l i t a t i o n ,

w a ste management,

Industrial

robotlos,

engineering,

axial

genetic

tomography

( CAT) ,

processes,

bionic

(CAG),

Industrial

m edicine,

com puter-assisted

com puter-assisted graphics
training

laser

hazardous

design

com puterized

(CVT) a n d o t h e r s e r v i c e - r e l a t e d

computer

Jobs

(CAD),

vocational

w ill

increase

dram atlcally.
W h i l e s o me
role

of

the

critics

computer

evidence th a t
Integral
is

part

has

computers

prepare students
1984;

view other

are

for

the

Guenther,

authorities

of technophobia

to d ay 's
is

In

society,

the

understand
therefore

or
fear

use

It

(p.

personally

more

and

has a r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

In

that

which th e y

education

caused

society

w ill

to
live

should

1983;

sheer

Heilman,

s o me

S O ) . He c i t e s

many
a

In

do

not

computer

and

t h e exam ple of t h e

but

of

technology

people

many t e a c h e r s a n d

even today

1976).

people.

o f many p e o p l e w i t h

using

avoid

pervasiveness

frightens

of

help

by te c h n o lo g y t o

com fortable

p r o j e c t o r which he c la im s
oannot

For t h e s e r e a s o n s a l s o ,

"U nfortunately,

feel
It"

an

the

the contact

computer.

more

(Chamberlin,

that

modern

is

becoming

feel

the

technology

the

there

school

the s tr e s s

suggests

i m p o r t a n c e of

1984)* From a p s y c h o l o g i c a l p o i n t

reduce

Chamberlin

the

overestim ated,

th e world

people to
onset

been

of American l i f e *

s tr o n g ly argued th a t

(NASSP,

contend th a t

film

adm inistrators

must depend

on

an

16
"assistant,"

usually a student,

to a c tu a lly operate

It.

Says

C hamberlin:
Many f u t u r i s t s b e l i e v e we a r e p o i s e d o n t b e
brink
o f a new p r o d u c t i o n r e v o l u t i o n t h a t n a y f a r e x c e e d
the f i r s t In d u stria l rev olution
in i t s impact
on
mankind. I t w i l l
take the
cooperative e ffo rt
of
s c h o o l s , i n d u s t r y , and
government t o I n s u r e
that
human b e i n g s a r e p r e p a r e d f o r t h e p r o c e s s ( p . S I ) .
It

Is,

therefore,

purveyors

critical

of knowledge

computers

If

they

that

teachers

In s o o i e t y s h o u ld
are

to

who

are

the

be c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h

effectively

use

them

for

Instructing students.
In itial
In s c h o o l s
them fo r

im petus and s o u r c e

Is as v a rie d

instruction;

considerations,
in the

become a c q u a i n t e d

known t o

our

computer m a n u fa c tu re rs

have

In t h e

elem entary
last

pressure

not-too-far

(Komoski,

they

for

fired

use

by p r o f i t

t o be l e f t

behind

sim ply fa s c in a te d
their

children

to

Is p r o p h e s i e d

to

future,

introduction

which

have a l l

been

of c o m p u te r s

In

1684).

w ith which com puters have been w heeled

years appears to

for adequate p lan n in g .
wanted to ,

eager

(and s e c o n d a r y ) s c h o o ls

three

teachers

machine t h a t

Influenced the

elem entary schools
The h a s t e

parents

with the

lives

of computers

t h e number o f s c h o o l s

"Inform ation Age,” zealous

control

introduction

school boards w ishing not

b y t h e ne w t e c h n o l o g y ,

the

as

of

Even i f

In t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s
have p ro v id ed

little

s c h o o ls and sc h o o l

are disadvantaged

In c o n v i n c i n g p r o p o n e n t s

into

in th e

fac e of

In
1 1 me

d istricts
outside

of th e use of computers

in

17

Instruction
purchase

of

of

computer

t h e need
equipm ent.

instruction

for

thorough

It

appears

p r o g r a m was

If

(B liss

et al,

lives

for the

future,

students

play

if

students

it

is

only lo g ic a l

be

a

are

properly

that

trained

and

made

computers

who d e v e l o p a f e a r

feared

pass such fear

that

technology w ill
t h o s e who
are,
the

likely

frantic,

aware

albeit

training

In 1979,

A ppropriate
Inform ation
on t h e

for

efforts

Instance,

in

on

through
It

is

on

the p art

Educational
which

address

of

planners
explains

the

issue

of

96th Congress

House

of

Science,

Research

"Inform ation
at

which

and

Technologies

specialists

in

from i n d u s t r y and e d u c a t i o n t e s t i f i e d

applications

th e major

w ill,

computing.

on

E d ucation...”

technology

to

th e U.S.

hearings

such as s a t e l l i t e s ,
One o f

late,

feel
danger

students.

of t h e s e p o s s i b i l i t i e s

Subcommittee

held

various

them.

the

of any I n s t r u c t i o n a l

resistance

to use

to

Is a r e a l

their

introduction

in i n s t r u c t i o n a l

R epresentatives
Technology

on t o

lead to

a re supposed

no d o u b t ,

teacher

unplanned

tor

in

prepared

t h o s e who t e a c h

that

also

of
they

role

t o be p r o p e r l y

There

poor a t t i t u d e s ,

in terms

an i n c r e a s i n g

c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h t h e new t e c h n o l o g y .
teachers

successful

not t h e use t o which

and

should

if

the

1986).

indeed computers w i l l

p eo p le's

as

measured only

t h e number o f m a c h in e s a c q u i r e d ,
were put

planning before

television
Issues

of com m unication
and com puters

raised

at

technologies
in

the hearings

education.
was

the

18
n e c e ssity to
teacher

make

"structural

prep aratio n ..."

(p.

carried

and t o

the tr a in in g

on b y

various

i n t e r m e d i a t e and
centers,

local

governm ental

individual

local

and

private

level

various

introduced

i n s e r v l c e programs

sem inars,

peer

coaching

etc.,

effective

utilizatio n

as

programs u s u a l l y
out-of-distrlct
Many

new

Involve

who

are
It

the
is

philosophies
classroom ,

colleges,

school

the

state

of

project,
such

districts

their

of

attain
that

as
have

sharing

teachers

both

during

and

sessions,

varying

inlevels

the

computers

from even

tor

casual

have w ell a r t i c u l a t e d

objectives

for

computer

others

have vague

guidelines

that

in

These
and
of

planning

o r no i n v o l v e m e n t

and

interpretations.

media

in the classroom .

t h e r e was l i t t l e

apparent

TIME

hands-on

services

and

users

regional

c r a s h workshops

of t r a i n i n g

consultants
authorities

including

e v alu atio n sem inars,

of c o m p u te r s

w h i l e some d i s t r i c t s

varied

their

associations

projects,

a me a ns

i n many p l a c e s ,

instruction.
that

new

computers

as th e

such as

softw are

sessions,

teachers

of

to use

d istricts,

agencies such

buildings,

programming c l a s s e s ,

of t e a c h e r s

school

the

stages

system

p r e p a r e them t o r

organizations

MACUL. At

success.

the

249).

In Michigan,
is

in

t o make t h e m " c o m f o r t a b l e " w i t h

educational technologies
roles

changes

of

classroom
observation

and
use
are

w ritten
in
open

the
to

19
The

resulting

teachers

brings

r e l e v a n c e and

effectiveness

services

example,

it

provided

I s known

"computers

that

expected

Bork

warns

continue to

that

realized"

242) and t h a t

instructional
Job

of

absence

various

com petencies

Is

Department

of

groups.

For

relate

for

of

Education

use of th e
1982,

have
for

said,

92).

policy

on
the

concerning
In

as

computer
p.

for

one o f f i c i a l

this

what

Instructional

certificatio n

but,

often

h a s n o t made

easier

should

teachers

faculty are

level

w ill

adequately

w ell-defined

the s t a te

what

Interactive

be

(Bork,

any

to

programs

never

in the

often

in th e classro o m .

"...u n iv ersity

a proposal

sch o o l computer s c ie n c e
State

w ill

agencies

teachers

com puting. There

not

and

courses

training

process"

computing a t

the

various

schools

educational
the

the

th e computer

more b ack w a rd t h a n t h e

Furtherm ore,

by

programs

new t e c h n o l o g y a n d t h e

of

the

training

many c o l l e g e - l e v e l

capabilities

w ithin

the

do

of

coordination,

of

"Teacher

training

of

to use computers

ignore th is

(p.

of the

Issues

In e d u c a tio n "

teachers are
(1984)

pattern

to question

support

called

patchwork

Is

not

high
at

the

yet

a

policy.
The f e a r
resistance
beginning to
most

on

to
set

the p a rt

Instructional
in

hopped

on

educational
computers

observers
by

teachers

i s s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

i n n o v a t o r s and e a r l y

already

of

the

adopters

among t e a c h e r s

bandwagon.

This

Is

may

the

that
is
that
have
tim e,

20
therefore,
referred

for

to

w ell-planned

by

especially

Rogers

the

traditionalist

laggards.

Is a

and t h o s e

who h a v e

as
late

The

the

in

their

to

attract

the e a rly
m ajority

for

those

m ajority

the

television

educational

planners

responsibility

for

preparing

instructional

uses

of

(1 9 8 4 ) g i v e s an ominous b u t

and

and

instructional

s a l u t o r y warning

teachers

Wagschal

(1962)

skeptical

experience

aiding

strategies

and

com puters.

tim e ly warning:

The c o i n c i d e n c e i s
t o o f o r t u n a t e f o r us
to
ignore —
and
too unusual
for
us t o
expect
a
r e o c u r r e n c e . The
coming d e c a d e
may w e l l
be
our
last
chance
— our
wi n d o w
in
time
— for
d e te r m in in g whether computer te c h n o lo g y w i l l
play
a major r o l e
In oure d u c a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t i o n s
or
m erely dom inate
our
d aily lives
(as
television
d o e s ) w h i l e we I g n o r e i t I n t h e s c h o o l s ( p . 2 5 4 ) .
This stu d y
problems e x i s t i n g
training

wa s a i m e d
in

at

the present

and

providing

educational planners,

suggestions

adm inistrators,

D elim itations
investigation

agencies

Involved

support

services

D istricts.

was a

in teach er
in

3)

the

computer

for classroom
may

assist

and t e a c h e r s .
Study

case

study

Michigan

of E d u c a t i o n ,

E ducation Agencies

of

o f some o f

the

l n s e r v i c e computer t r a i n i n g

two

Interm ediate

of

which

of th e

The a g e n c i e s s e l e c t e d

S t a t e Department
C enters,

organization

and t h e p r o v i s i o n of s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s

teachers,

This

i d e n t i f y i n g s o me

for

Interm ediate
the study a re :

and

School
1)

the

2) R e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l Media

School

(school d i s t r i c t s ) ,

D istricts,
5) Computer

4)

Local
Software

21
Evaluation

Centers

T r a i n i n g Modules
The s t u d y
the agencies

and,

for

6) t h e

T rainers

was l i m i t e d

education.

The

agencies,

and

study

lnservice

to

those

precluded

training

of

M ichigan's

(TMT) P r o j e c t .

to

were l i m i t e d

U niversity

training

involved

computer

offered

by

only

with

clubs,
s o me

and

public
private

computer

m a n u f a c t u r e r s and d e a l e r s .
The i n v e s t i g a t i o n
computers

in e le m e n tary sc h o o ls

adm inistrative
are discussed
study.
against

was l i m i t e d

Th e

uses;

was

uses

lim ited

of

of

purely

in secondary sch o o ls

of th e g e n e ra l

also

uses

background

to

of

m icrocomputers

the
as

mainframe p r o j e c t s .

T h e r e was
computers

in

also a lim itatio n
general

ed u cation being
b a c k g ro u n d and

mentioned
literature

by t h e s m a l l

to

education,

G e n e r a l 1z a b l 1 l t y
lim ited

instructional

to the ex clu sio n

instructional

only as p a rt

study

to

instructional

their

uses

only

as

p a rt of

review

tor

the study.

of

number

the

findings

of d i s t r i c t s

for
the

of t h e

uses

of

special
general

study

is

playing

in

studied.

A3SumotIons
In c o n s i d e r a t i o n
society
last

today,

five

In th e

the

of

the ro le

developments

y e a r s and p r o j e c t i o n s

technology

was p r e m i s e d

on t h e

and

its

computers a re

that

have o c c u rre d

of even g r e a t e r

applications,

follow ing

assum ptions:

the

in

the

developments
investigation

22
1) T h a t c o m p u t e r s w i l l p l a y a n I n c r e a s i n g r o l e
in
s o c i a l and
economic
l i v e s of
people
In
the
foreseeable future
2) T hat i f
c r e a tiv e ly used,
computers can
v e r s a t i l e to o l for I n s tru c tio n

be

a

3) That
the
problemsc o n fro n tin g
Instructional
com puting a r e s t a t e - w i d e In M ichigan
4) That a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r s a r e
concerned
enough about th e problem s f a c i n g
instructional
c o m p u tin g t o c o o p e r a t e i n t h e s t u d y and w i l l be
i n t e r e s t e d In I t s f i n d i n g s
5) That a t r i p l e a p p ro a c h of i n t e r v i e w s , q u e s t i o n ­
n a i r e s anddocument s e a r c h t e c h n i q u e s
for
data
collection
would
yield
a
more
lndepth
u n d e rs ta n d in g of th e
problems fa c in g
teachers
in u sin g computers for I n s t r u c t i o n .

G e n e r a l 1z a b l 1 i t v a n d A d a p t a b i l i t y o f t h e F i n d i n g s
Th e f i n d i n g s

of th e

t h e two I n t e r m e d i a t e

Investigation are

School D i s t r i c t s

schools

In

adapted

to o th e r M ichigan I n t e r m e d i a t e

the

those d i s t r i c t s .

generallzable

to

s t u d i e d and e le m e n ta ry

However,

the re s u lts

can

School D i s t r i c t s

follow ing reasons:
1) P r e l i m i n a r y work f o r t h i s s t u d y i n d i c a t e s
that
t h e p ro b le m s o f l n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g and
support
s e rv ic e s for
elem entary
school
teachers are
either Identical
or
very
sim ilar
throughout
M ichigan.
2) The same,
or
s im ila r , agencies
this
study
are
present
in
Interm ediate
School
D istricts
sim ilar functions.

selected
for
all
Michigan
and
perform

3 ) The M i c h i g a n
Department
of
Education
is
concerned
about
the
state-w ide
nature
of
problems r e l a t i n g
to
lnservice
training
and
support se rv ice s
to
the extent
that
I t has
formed l a r g e r
regional units
of
Interm ediate

be
for

23

School D i s t r i c t s
l i k e SEMTEC,
TIME-NORTH,
UP
Microcomputer C onsortium ,
Wes t
Michigan
TIME
and
C entral
TIME t o
address
their
common
problem s.

Research Questions
The t wo
determ ine,
policies,
in

primary
through

interview s

of

teacher

services,

p r o v i d e d by t h e

inservice

selected

1. Are

agencies,

findings

were

were:

computer

factors
included

services
used t o

and
answer

agencies
and

about

and s u p p o r t

to
the

training

perceptions

and

1)

search,

of t h e s e l e c t e d

considered

support

study

document

programs

Factors

training,

R e sp o n se s and

teachers1

training

perceptions.

research

and

lnservice

2)

l n s e r v i c e computer

their

of th e

prog ram s and o r g a n i z a t i o n

m atters

support

Interests

the

services

related

to

policies,

dem ographics.
the

follow ing

questions:
there

regarding

any

state

lnservice

elem entary school

level

training

teachers

policies

or

and s u p p o r t

In t h e

use

guidelines
services

for

of com p u ters

for

i n s t r u c t Ion?
2.

What a r e
studied
school

3.

What

the ph ilo so p h ies
on t r a i n i n g

and

of t h e v a r i o u s
support

services

agencies
for

being

elem entary

teachers?
are

training

the

objectives

program?

of

each

agency's

lnservice

24
4.

What

la

achool

the

level

of competency

extent are

teachers

in tr o d u c ti o n of computers
what

extent

are

and p l a n n i n g of
How w e l l
policies
8.

are

teachers

lnservice
teachers

relating

What f a c t o r s

for

t h e most

Introduced

are

informed

teachers

teachers
training

involved

softw are

in

selection

about

local

d istrict

computing?

f r o m s p e n d i n g more t i m e

common wa ys

by w h ic h

tor

the

teachers

In

of

stated

of

services

these

objectives?

elem entary

effectiveness

programs and s u p p o rt

were

Instruction?

t r a i n i n g a r e p r o v i d e d by

perceptions

about

the

Instruction?

lnservice

the

planning

training?

a g e n c i e s a n d how d o t h e y m a t c h t h e i r
1 1 . What

elem entary

buildings?

such as

to u sin g computers

1 0 . What t y p e s o f

In

presently

Instructional

prevent

using computers
9 . What a r e

to

Involved

In t h e i r

com puter-related a c t i v i t i e s

7.

of

t e a c h e r s by e ac h of t h e a g e n c i e s .

5 . To w h a t

6 . To

expected

the

classroom
lnservice

p r o v i d e d by

the

agencies?
12.

What a r e
of

the

the percep tio n s
amount

agencies?

of

of t e a c h e r s

training

received

about

the

from e ac h

adequacy
of

the

25
1 3 . What a r e t h e
should

types

of t r a i n i n g

for

effective

major

instructional

have

school
use

teachers
of

feel

they

computers

for

I n s t r u c t Ion?
1 4 . What a r e

the

teachers
15.

How

does

teachers

the

about

does

17.

How

by

the

lnservice

relate

value

amount

computing

spend

does

the

of

to

of

In t h e

the

Instructional

the

of

in

perception

of

computer

lnservice

relate

to

as

an

training

in

amount

computing

services

t h e amount

use of computers
of

for

insorvlco

relate

to

s p e n d more t i m e u s i n g t h e c o m p u t e r
1 8 . What s u p p o r t

the

training

tool?

Instructional
teachers

amount

computing

Instructional
How

of computers

presently?

instructional

10.

uses

of

time

Instruction?
training

in

teach ers1 desire
for

to

Instruction?

a r e p r o v i d e d by t h e s e a g e n c i e s

to

elem entary classroom teach ers?
19.

Besides
types

traditional

of

activ ities

g a i n mo r e c o m p e t e n c e
20.

What

are

teachers

the
about

lnservice
teachers

t r a i n i n g what
think w ill

In I n s t r u c t i o n a l

perceptions

of

th e computer as an

are

so me

h e l p them

to

computing?

elem entary
instructional

classroom
tool?

2B
21.

How c l o s e l y d o t h e

perceptions

relating

c o n p u tln g of t e a c h e r s and p r i n c i p a l s
22.

Doe s t h e n u m b e r o t

years

to te a c h e r s 1 percep tio n s
an I n s t r u c t i o n a l
23.

How

does

of

instructional
24.

25.

compare?

of te a c h in g e x p e rie n c e
of

the value

level
the

taught

value

of

relate
the

to

teachers'

computer

as

an

tool?
level

teachers

In t h e u se of c o m p u ters

spend

there

relate

of t h e com puter as

How d o e s g r a d e

Is

Instructional

tool?

grade

perception

to

any

Identification

taught

relate

relationship

as

a

high or

p e rc e n ta g e of q u e s tio n n a ir e s

to

t h e amount
for

between
low

of tim e

Instruction?
a

use school

sc h o o l's
and

the

returned?

D eflnltIons
1 . AGENCY r e f e r s

to

the S tate

Department

In te rm e d ia te School D i s t r i c t ,
R e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l Media

a local

Center

of E d u c a ti o n ,
school d i s t r i c t ,

(REMC)

or a

an
a

Computer

Software E v a lu a tio n /T ra in in g C enter.
2.

INSTRUCTIONAL COMPUTING
classroom teachers

3 . COMPUTER r e f e r s

to

mainframe com puter.

for
a

means t h e

use of

computers

by

teaching stu d en ts.
microcom puter

as

opposed

to

a

27

4.

HIGH COMPUTER USE/LOV

COMPUTER USE

U

as

defined

by

a

school d i s t r i c t .
5.

INSERVICE COMPUTER
sessions

designed

use of computers
sem inars,

TRAINING PROGRAM

refers

for classroom tea ch e rs
in

Instruction

lnservice

courses

and

to

training

to enhance t h e i r

includes

for • c o lle g e

workshopst

credits,

and

computer c o n f e r e n c e s .
6.

SUPPORT SERVICES r e f e r s

to softw are evaluation,

com puter and s o f t w a r e p u r c h a s e ,
s e t - u p and c l a s s r o o m management,
guides,

peer coaching,

training

which a s s i s t s

suggestions
model

or any o th e r
the

teacher

advice

on

for

physical

lessons,

training

service apart

in u sin g computers

from
in

InstructIon.
7.

COMPUTER LAB r e f e r s

to a space s p e c i f i c a ll y

allocated

to

a computer netw ork w ith in a b u i l d i n g .
8 . TIME SPENT USING COMPUTERS FOR INSTRUCTION r e f e r s
amount

of tim e each

student

actually

has an

to

the

opportunity

t o w o r k on a c o m p u t e r e a c h w e e k .
T heoretical
The
theories

conceptual
of

particularly
reslstance.

change
aspects

Framework

framework fo r
and
of

this

diffusion
these

of

study

hinges

innovations

theories

dealing

on
and
w ith

28
D ifferent

change t h e o r i s t s

change p ro c e ss

from t h e i r

w ith assum ptions about
change.

Lindquist

theories

Into

peculiar

individual
model

they

v lll

or

in

heavy

t e s t i n g and
The

Investment

packaging
R

and

planning with

by

D

of

that

Research

innovation

various su b u n its

Rogers and

(Havelock,

1971,

Shoemaker a r e

in

the

often

11,

the Social

I n t e r a c t i o n model,

which Is

that

change

the

in

our

Informal

relationships

channels

for

beliefs,

attitudes

dally

end

For

careful

we

of

the

packaging
5).
with

wh a t

t h e p r e m i s e of
of

Interaction

form

w i t h p e o p l e and c r e a t e

and a c t i o n s .
is

result

lives

in fo rm atio n exchange

I n t e r a c t i o n model

p.

associated

calls

between p e o p le ;

attractive
by

development,

Chapter

model

production,

very

Lindquist

Is

necessary

the a c tiv itie s

which a r e r e s e a r c h ,

and d i s s e m i n a t i o n

rational

Development)

characterized

c o o r d in a tio n between

Planning

Planning
and

to

effecting

with the

R ational

Is

tor

people a re

In r e s e a r c h ,

model

Interaction,

The R a t i o n a l

provided

The

industry

Social

various

Approach a c c o rd in g

change.

if

Inform ation.

(exem plified
emphasizes

change

the

and s t r a t e g i e s

on t h e a s s u m p t i o n

deal

organizations

categorized

P olitical

and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

knowledge

forms.

and

the

but a l l

people or

Planning,

characteristics

Is based

and t h a t

has

models of

perspectives

wha t makes

R ational

Human P r o b l e m - S o l v i n g ,
their

various

(1978)

four:

have provided

formal

and

communication

which sh a p e

our

views,

this

the

Social

h e av ily dependent

reason,

on c o m m u n i c a t i o n :

29
...A t its
most
elem ental lev el
of
conceptuali­
z a t i o n , t h e d i f f u s i o n p r o c e s s c o n s i s t s o f 1 ) a new
ideai
2)
individual
A
who kn o ws
about
the
i n n o v a t l o n i and 3) i n d i v i d u a l
B who d o e s n o t
yet
know a b o u t
the innovation.
The s o c i a l
relation­
s h i p s of A and
B have a g r e a t
deal to say
about
t h e c o n d it io n s under which A w i l l t e l l B about th e
i n n o v a t i o n and
the
results
of
this
tellin g
(R o g e rs , 1962, pp. 1 3 - 1 4 ) .
Rogers

(1962),

gorize adopters
c o n tin u u m of
percent

of

innovativeness:
the adopters

to take risk s
the

at

of t h e

discrete
adopters.

The

adopter

in t h e i r

while the

to adopt

an

skeptical

and a r e c a u t i o u s

of

most

innovation.

Th e

values

but

w ithin
next

norm ally

last

m ajority

mo r e

the

percent

are

usually

an i n n o v a t i o n
suspicious

to avoid a d o p tio n .
past.

the

16

Th e l a g g a r d s a r e

in th e

34

and e a r l y

m ajority c o n sttu te

late

as

they are d e lib e ra te

and would not a d o p t

rooted

them

models

Innovators

laggards are the

of t h e community h a s .

traditional

l o o k up t o

are

the

social

an i n n o v a t i o n b e f o r e

The l a t e

i n n o v a t i o n and would do a n y t h i n g

have

than

communltlea,

innovation.

34 p e r c e n t

They

2.5

percent

good

up t h e

a

w illing

13.5

have

and r o l e

categories.

on

are

They a r e

e a r l y m a j o r i t y ma ke

They would u s u a l l y a d o p t

In a d o p t i n g an

until

leaders

types

These

The n e x t

People

cate­

who c o n s t i t u t e

norm ally

u s e o f ne w i d e a s

a v e r a g e member o f t h e i r

next

who

(1971)

ideal

innovation.

societies.

u su a lly opinion

communities*

percent

with

adopters

four

innovation.

t r y i n g a n y ne w i d e a .

networks w ith in t h e i r

their

into

Innovators

of an

obsessed

early

they are

R ogers and Shoemaker

of an i n n o v a t i o n

" b u f f s ' * who a r e

are

and

They

30
To r e t u r n
S o l v i n g model
between th e

to L in d q u is t's

change models,

theorists

change as

Interest

th e change t a r g e t s
w ill a ffe c t

see

afraid

w ellbeing,

Problem -Solving t h e o r i s t s ,
of change,
conflict
model

Is

support

advocate

of

target

P olitical

the

Shoem aker's
(1977)

It

Is

of

developed

a

educative,

p e r s u a s i v e and

facilltativ e
Innovators

of

the

in the

laggards.

make

to apply

model

such
change

that

if

community
the

change

change

introductory

some

could
early

Zaltman

point
be

—

Du n c a n

of

an
to

This
for

the

and

re-educative,

(see Figure

enough

adopters.

and

sim ultaneous

strategies

facllltatlve

strategies

B a s e d on R o g e r s a n d

for

f o l l o w e d by a more p e r s u a s i v e s t r a t e g y
and

nature

The f o u r t h

people

adopters,

different

strategy
and

Human

which ta k e s

assumes

and

change

security.

which

from th e v a r i o u s m odels.

use

at

or

decision w ill

usual

sequential

example

th e proposed

Intervention

Influential

categories

have

others

ne w i d e a .

In p r a c t i c e
borrowing ideas

that

status

Approach

authoritative

accept

conflict

into c o n sid era tio n .

of p o l i t i c a l l y

is secu red ,

Involving

recognizing the s e n s itiv e

skilled

interests

the

Problem-

o f t h o s e who w a n t t o c o n t r o l

who a r e

their

Human

1).

For

innovation,
attract

the

may

then

late

m ajority

A c c o r d in g t o Z altm a n and Duncani

...It
may
be
desirable
to
be
pursuing
a
f a c l l l t a t l v e s t r a t e g y , making th e i n n o v a t i o n
mor e
r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e , e a s i e r t o u se , and so f o r t h for
e v e r y g r o u p . What m i g h t
be most f a c l l l t a t l v e
for

be

31
one g r o u p nay not
group (p . 167).

I
I

be most

Ea r l y
Adopters

I nnovat or s

facllltatlve

Ea r l y
Ma j or i t y

for

Lat e
Ma j o r i t y

another

Laggards

I
I

I________________________________________________________________ I
;

34

13.5

2.5

34

16

I n c r e a s in g
I n c r e a s in g
<----------------- --------------------------- >
P e rsu a sio n
E ducation

R eeducatlve
S tr a te g y

P e rsu a slv o
S tr a te g y

1
1

<------------------------------------F a c l l l t a t l v e S t r a t e g y ---------------------------------- >
SOURCES; Z a l t n a n and Duncan, 1977, p. 167, Rogers and Shoenaker,
1971, p. 182
FIGURE 1; Simultaneous and S e q u e n t i a l Use

In e v e r y o r g a n i z a t i o n ,

of D i f f e r e n t S t r a t e g i e s

there are

forces

p ro n o te change w hile t h e r e a re co unter
proposed change.
psychological

These

forces

or nay be

organizatInal

technique c a lle d

these

social

structure

be a complex m i x t u r e of

individual

t wo s e t s

of

the

Lewin

(1947)

Force F ie ld A nalysis
goal.

forces

The

first

developed

the

for m anipulating these
Havelock

(1982) a l s o a d v o ca te

change.

a

organlzatInal

opposing fo rc e s toward a d e s ir e d

successful

which r e s i s t

cultural,

factors.

H ersey and B lan c h ard

forces

to

personal,

due t o

or p r o c e s s e s and nay a l s o
and

nay be

which s e r v e

the

task

and t o n o te t h e

Is

(1973),

and

technique

for

to

Identify

relative

strength

32
of th o se

identified

t h e n be e f f e c t e d
forces

under each

by e i t h e r

Duncan ( 1 9 7 7 ) ,
(1974),

Watson

(1980),

Rogers

Identified

(1972),
(1962),

Innovation.
educational

A

Lindquist

those

communication w ith t e a c h e r s
believe

teachers'

principals
of them;

Ideas

are not

e d u c a tio n programs

unw illing
proposed

where
for

m atter;
In

there

lack

The i s s u e
and e x e c u t i n g

or

educational

t e c h n o l o g y and

(1973)

to

1977,

give

found t h a t

to

lack

because

of
they

In

which

Ignorant
continuing

when

failure

teachers

and so

are

where

the

include
needs,

pp.

teachers

requires

Is

the

necessary

64-66),

involvem ent of

innovations

Is

an

w ithout com pensatory arrangem ents

teaohers

of t h e

against

of

situations

Other s i t u a t i o n s

( Z a ltm a n and Duncan,

have

situations

is

rejection

effort

(1971)

relevant

there

i n n o v a t i o n d o e s n o t meet s t u d e n t s '
or e x t r a

Hunt

new I d e a s or a r e

teachers;

of e v a l u a t i o n ,

such as s u b s t i t u t e

and Dahl

which

Morton

and

in r e s is ta n c e
directly

in

d o n 't

to experim ent.

new s k i l l s

time

Mo o r e

by a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

interested

situations

fearful

(1978),

situations
are

Z a l t m a n and

Morton and

and Rogers and Shoemaker

few

could

facu ltativ e

(1973),

(1979)!

w h i c h may r e s u l t

change

change

forces.

in c lu d in g Havelock

PLlon and B e r q u l s t

factors

A desired

stren g th en in g the

or w e ak e ning t h e r e s t r a i n i n g

Numerous w r i t e r s

are

set.

raised

innovation.

teachers
by

many

In

planning

w riters

For example,

classroom teach ers

tend

on

Armsey

to r e s is t

33

ed u catio n al technology

tor sev eral

reasons,

p r i m a r y of which

are:
1. The
conservatism
establIshm ent

of

the

educational

2 . T h e f e a r on t h e p a r t o f t e a c h e r s o f t h e
t e c h n o l o g y w o u l d h a v e on t h e i r r o l e s

effect

3.

The I n e p t i t u d e a n d l o w l e v e l
hardware m an u factu rers

of s e n s i t i v i t y

of

4.

"The m in i m a l
or
non-existent
involvement
te a c h e rs a t every s ta g e of the p ro cess"
(p. 11).

of

Morton and H orton

(1974) c a u tio n e d u c a tio n a l p la n n e rs

that:

M eaningful, l a s t i n g
changes in
the schools
come
a b o u t when t h e
i n n o v a tio n meets a
need and
when
t e a c h e r s have had a p a r t
in t h e p l a n n i n g and
the
im plem entation.
Changes
that
result
from
adm inistrative d ic ta te s are neither e ffe c tiv e
nor
l a s t i n g (p. 14).
It

is

against

these th e o re tic a l

backgrounds

that

this

s t u d y was c o n c e p t u a l i z e d .
QExanizat ion_of th e
In C hap ter

I,

D i s s e r t a t ion

th e g e n e r a l s t a te m e n t and pu rp o se of

s tu d y have been s t a t e d ,

and t h e

sources

substantiate

state

were

and l o c a l

teachers

in

Instruction.
framework fo r
Chapter
the

cited

to

levels
their

The

about

discussed.

national,

problems c o n f r o n t i n g

classroom

use

concludes

concerns

Several

at

effective

chapter

rationale

the

of
with

computers
the

for

theoretical

the study.
II

follow ing

deals

w ith a rev iew of th e

subheadings:

a)

The

literature

under

M icroelectronics

34
R evolution,
Education,

b)

Computer

d ) R e s e a r c h on

A pplications,

c)

Computers

I n s t r u c t i o n a l Uses of

in

Computers,

and e ) Computer L i t e r a c y and T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g .
In C h a p te r

III,

data c o lle c tio n

and

covers the

analysis

t h e d e s i g n of t h e s t u d y and methods fo r
analysis
of

data

are

c o l l e c t e d and

Chapter V is a

d i s c u s s i o n of th e

recommendations

for e ffe c tiv e

instructional

computing.

presented.

findings

teacher

the

IV

findings.

a n d a number

of

inservice train in g

In

Some p r o b l e m s

t h e s t u d y a r e p r e s e n t e d and s u g g e s t i o n s
nude.

Chapter

encountered
for

further

during
research

CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
This c h a p te r
the

literatu re

of th e d i s s e r t a t i o n d e a ls

under

M icroelectronics
c ) Computers

the

follow ing

Revolution)

in Education,

of Computers,

b)

became

reports

apparent

An o v e r w h e l m i n g

projections,

search,

that
of

173 o r

description;

219

27 o r

A pplications)
Uses

al.,

Fletcher

and F i t z g i b b o n ,

1972;

research

m icrocom puters.
and

papers.

position

papers

For example,

obtained

by

project

4

29

or

percent

3 <1.4 p e r c e n t )

dealt

training.

mainframe com puters
1972;

C r o p l e y and G ro s s,
35

or

out

computer

papers;

Only 9

were done

Atkinson,

other

descriptions,

were p o s i t i o n

of which o n ly

and

study.

I n t o t h e c a t e g o r y of

12.3 p e rc en t

with

of

of

project

articles

encountered

dealt

this

dearth

uses

were

i n d i r e c t l y with tea ch e r

1970s and

a

for

Journal a r t i c l e s

fell

conference

Many s t u d i e s

1970;

Is

uses of com puters.

relevant

were r e s e a r c h r e p o r t s
or

search

o p i n io n s ,and

79 p e r c e n t

1 3 .2 p e r c e n t were

directly

of

reviewed

personal

of

there

instructional

instructional

of a t o t a l

The

d ) R e s e a r c h on I n s t r u c t i o n a l

proportion

sources

concerning

a)

and e ) Computer L i t e r a c y and T e a c h e r T r a i n i n g .

on s t u d i e s

primary

subheadings:
Computer

In t h e c o u rs e of th e l i t e r a t u r e
It

w ith a re v ie w of

in th e

1960s

and

(e.g.

M athis

et

Koch, 1973;
1970).

it

Wilson

must be

36
remembered t h a t
had n o t b e e n
proliferate
speed,
cost

perfected at
schools u n til

greater

of

many e l e m e n t a r y
their

the

and d id

today

h a v e made
from

or secondary

local

governments

commercial companies a l s o
schools also
data

tried

computer

c o m p u t e r was t h e n
that

the

sent

back t o

the

low c o s t

Mos t e a r l i e r
of

processing.

delay

pro cessin g reduced
the r e l a t i v e

tor

In

on

used them d id so

by

studies

especially

the s u b je c ts
m ilitary
However,
broadened

in

In r e c e n t

to a

output

et

on t h e
the

the

educators
batch

others

1973,

felt

p.

30).

effectiveness
achievement

language a r t s ,
college students
1983;

taught

and d e s i g n ,

put

from

from

but

(Koch,

on

al.,

Some

centrally

Some

output

were e i t h e r

years su b jects

include a r t

sent

m a th e m a tic s and

(Grady

Some

which s t u d e n t s

of s tu d e n ts

focused

offices,

to schools.

the school.

Instruction

of t h e s t u d i e s

personnel

to

also

central

The

the delay

educational

businesses.

receiving

interest
offset

com puter-ass Isted

students

in

and low

not a ff o r d

services

batch processing

faster

$ 1 0 ,0 0 0 each which

or

on k e y p u n c h c a r d s w h i c h w e r e t h e n

located

felt

offered

to

m inicom puters

schools could

s c h o o ls which

the

of use,

t h e u se of

l e a s i n g computer tim e from sc h o o l d i s t r i c t
u niversities,

not s t a r t

their

Minicomputers c o s t about

o wn. C o n s e q u e n t l y ,

education

1980s. F urtherm ore,

more f l e x i b i l i t y

quite d ifferen t

Instruction.

w h i c h now d o m i n a t e

th e time

reliab ility ,

m icrocomputers

applications
for

m icrocomputers

Grabe,

and
or

1985).

w ith computers

music,

of

have

problem so lv in g ,

37

sim ulation,

as

well

a s wo r d

d a t a b a s e u s e s and so
late

seventies

and

on.

were

for

m entally

Instructing

A lot

In th e

secondary lev el

processing,
of

record

the stu d ie s

eighties

concentrated

at

In

the

the elem entary

and

on t h e

retarded

keeping,

done

use of

or o t h e r w i s e

computers
handicapped

students .
For t h e
that
of

r e a s o n s m entioned above Harlow (1985)

"the d i f f e r e n c e s . . .prevent
much

of

concerning

our

existing

u tilizing

the se rio u s

research

m icrocomputers

secondary classroom s"

(p.

t h e vacuum t u b e
of

what

Is

Revolution,
host

of

the

other

B rltannica

electronic

often

descriptors.

( 1 9 8 3 ) t h e demand

exploration

electronics.
Inventors
substitutes
associated

The

that
for
with

to

as

I n f o r m a t i o n Age,

also

other
the

was

elem entary

and

replaced

was t h e

the

precursor

M icroelectronics

t h e Computer
to

Age,

and

in th e development

of m i c r o e l e c t r o n i c s

of

research

the

possible

development

of

o f many
658).
m icro­

encouraged

develop

e l e c t r o n i c components.

sys­

(p.

into

transistor
to

a

Encyclopaedia

for m iniature e le c tro n ic

prompted

invention
it

questions

I n 1947 w h i c h

According

resulted

of t h e u n d e r l y i n g t e c h n i q u e s
Space

in

appliances

referred

t e m s d u r i n g W o r l d War I I

answer

Revolution

of t h e t r a n s i s t o r

In

generalization

36).

The_Ml_croelec t r o n l c a
The i n v e n t i o n

to

contends

sim ilar

Among

m icroelectronics

names
are

38
Harwlck Johnson

of t h e

Radio

Invented th e phase s h i f t

C o rp o ratio n of

oscillator

of t h e Royal Radar E s t a b l i s h m e n t
of Texas

Instrum ents,

Jean Hoerni

and

of

patented
circuit
other

Lehovec
the

the

integrated

made

it

circuit

Sprague

to

1959.

e l e m e n t s by a p h o t o e n g r a v e d
a pattern

t h i s development,

Noyce

(1977)

Integrated

on a

ch ip perhaps a

circuit

s q u a r e now

can embrace

most c o m p l e x p i e c e
(p.

65).

been th e

component

technology.

fastest

in

large

electronics

applications

efficiently

many
by

M icroelectronic

wire

earlier

connectors

experts,

for

that

and

solder

h a s made e l e c t r o n i c

broadening

better

had

the

in 1950”

circuits)

the

inch

and

electronic
are
of

and

more

previously

been

techniques"

658).

made m i n i a t u r i z a t i o n

electronic

than

introduced

different
p.

of an

segment of

perform

1983,

devices

was

on

individual

elem ents

circuit

com pletely

(Encyclopaedia B rlta n n lc a ,

by r e p l a c i n g

to

functions

"An

(integrated

measure

W riting

c o u ld be b u i l t

growing

"They

responsible

accomplished

that

and

f ilm of evaporated

quarter

more e l e c t r o n i c

who

Integrated

transistors

noted th a t

integrated

has s in c e

Company

of th e c o n n e c tio n s .

of eq uip m ent

In 1961 t h e

Semiconductor

The

interconnect

m etal which le a v e s

Kilby

t h e Di a mond O r d n a n c e

E lectric

in

who

Du miner

J a c k S.

of F a i r c h i l d

circuit

possible

G. W. A.

in England,

J a y W. L a t h r o p o f

Fuze L a b o r a t o r i e s ,
Kurt

In 1953,

America

components which

Joints.
equipment

T his,

possible
required

according

t o b e mo r e

to

reliable,

39
t im e and
to cost

labor-saving,

tronics

principal
has

application

the car,

and p e r v a s i v e a p p l i c a t i o n

been

In

computers which

in s c h o o ls ,

In cam eras,

on a s i n g l e s i l i c o n

etc.
chip

on

streets,

Intel

chip

first

United S ta te s

Commodore a n d s i n c e
microcomputers

States

then,

have

p erso n al computers

in

m arket,

at

the

above a l l ,

1977 b y

Apple,

m icroelec­
has

found

In th e

home,

playgrounds,
first

8080

p e rso n al computers

became

As

in

computer

microcomputer
microcomputer

were

Introduced

Radio

Shack

and

t h e memories and c a p a b i l i t i e s

been growing.
first

both

i n 1 9 7 1 a n d made t h e

company p r o d u c e d

i n 1 9 7 4 . Th e

of

turn

produced th e

f e a s i b l e when t h e

in the

In

In a wide r a n g e of a p p l i a n c e s

the o f f ic e ,

United

power a n d ,

less.

One

at

t o consume l e s s

e a rly as

1977

generally av ailab le

on

of
when
the

R o b e r t Noyce w r o t e :

T o d a y 's m ic ro c o m p u te r , a t a c o s t of p e rh a p s
$300,
h a s more c o m p u t i n g c a p a c i t y
than the f i r s t
large
e l e c t r o n i c c o m p u t e r , ENIAC. I t i s 20 t i m e s f a s t e r ,
has a l a r g e r
me mor y, I s t h o u s a n d s
of tim es
more
r e l i a b l e , consumes
the
power
of
a
light
bulb
rather
than
that
of
a
locom otive,
occupies
1/30,000 the
volume and
c o sts 1/10,000
as
much
(Noyce, 1977, p . 6 5 ) .
D espite
experts

phenomenal
predict

that

from h a v in g

run

director

research

of

b e c o m e known
namely,

that

its

in th e

developments s in c e

Noyce's

the m icro electro n ics
course.
at

In

1964,

Fairchild,

electronics

t h e c o m p l e x i t y of th e

revolution

Gordon

as

integrated

is

Moore,

propounded

Industry

estim ate,

what

M oore's
circuit

far
once
has
law,
would

40
continue

to double every year,

and e x p e r t s

p r e d i c t i o n has held

true

years,

t h e memor y o f m i c r o c o m p u t e r s

for

Instance,

f r o m 4K t o

8K t o

16K t o

(Noyce,

32K t o

p.

64K.

256 k i l o b y t e m i c r o c o m p u t e r s a p p e a r

60).

claim th at
In

the

that

last
has

At t h e moment

few
grown

128

and

t o be t h e no rm s.

Computer A p p l i c a t i o n s
James
tant

Du n n a w a y ,

has d e s c r ib e d

man w i t h t h e
engine.

educational

the computer as th e g r e a t e s t

greatest

Me s e e s

a W ashin gto n D.C.

potential

consul­

invention

f o r mankind s i n c e

the

of

steam

th e computer a s :

...T he
20th
c en tu ry 's
most
monumental
tech n o lo g ical advance,
r e v o l u t i o n i z i n g our
lives
in
wa y s
ranging
f r o m how
the
world
now
m anufactures
its
goods,
conducts
business,
restores
artifacts,
and
explores
scien tific
boundaries,
to
how I t
compiles
and
stores
Inform ation,
performs
surgery,
communicates,
c o l l e c t s ta x e s , p ro c e s s e s food, runs i t s a i r l i n e s ,
a n d m u c h , much m o r e ( S t r e a m l i n e d S e m i n a r . Nove mber
1985, p . 1 ) .
His words sum

up t h e p e r v a s i v e n e s s

computers

modern

in

reliab ility ,
Increased

less

uses

declining c o sts.
rea ch of
for

Homes a r e

purposes.

of

accompanied

by

h a s made t h e m i c r o c o m p u t e r w i t h i n

the

and s m a l l

that

acquiring

been

businesses.

on e model c o s t

m icrocomputers

fam ily accounts,

Businesses,

greater
and

have

larger

of

memories,

computers

This

noted

such as keeping

M iniaturization,

power c o n s u m p t i o n ,

individuals

example,

society.

of t h e a p p l i c a t i o n s

b i g and

and

sm all,

Pogrow

o n l y $100

tor

games,

also
use

for

(1983),
(p.

tor

25).
chores

educational

them f o r

records,

41
business

accounts,

low c o s t

and

parents,

the

shows p r o j e c t i o n s

"High"

forecast

growth;

the

category

is

and

colleges

is

p r o v i d e d by
based

"low” a
by a

sales

on

less

In
et

optim istic

view,

equipment such as
machines,
cars,

food

telephones,

cameras,

m achines and

uses

the

future.

playing

processors,

have

sw itc h in g system s,

for

Table

clocks,

States

the

Th e

third

tor

only

electronic

game

computer

components

microwave ovens,

light

2

possible

are

a u d i o and v i d e o e q u ip m e n t,

in

sewing

airplanes,

sw itches,

copying

of a r e a s

in which

of o t h e r d e v i c e s .

and w i l l

Telecom munications

which c om puters

include

mechanical

Pogrow (1983) has c a t a l o g u e d
computers a re

them

of m i c r o c o m p u t e r s ,

replacing

w a tc h e s and

In a h o st

the

(1980).

and

The n um b ers

in a p p l i a n c e s .

or m i c r o p r o c e s s o r s

are

of

an o p t i m i s t i c view of

machines

m icroprocessors

part

al.

as

hardware

th e United

do n o t

direct

such

purposes.

N llles

Delphi P a n e l.

from

groups
and

program m able c o m p u t e r s and

Apart

Sim ilarly,

which use

adm inlstratlve

of computer

1990

pressure

t o make c o m p u t e r s

in s c h o o l s and

instructional

to

of

adm inistrators

have combined

b a s i c equipment

fro m 1975

a n d wor d p r o c e s s i n s .

influence

educational

m anufacturers

both

salaries

found

satellite

a number

play
is

great
relays,

an

Increasing

a fast-grow ing
application.

role

in

area

in

Telephone

r a d i o and t e l e v i s i o n

42
TABLE 2 : P r o j e c t i o n s

of M icro com pu ter

Annual U n i t s Sold
(thousands)
1978
1985
1990
HIGH
Consumer
Educat ion
O ffice

S a le s by Markets

Cumulative U nits
Sold (th o u s a n d s )
1985
1990
7610
650
1865

39,083
2875
1848

17 0
15
40

3050
250
788

8803
538
3450

255"
(225)

4088

12,800"
(12,791)

DELPHI
PANEL

255

1800

5200

6800

23,000

LOW
Consumer
E d ucat ion
O ffice

125
15
85

2424
15 0
60 4

3070
304
1587

11,092
886
4041

3178

4961

15,999"
(16,019)

TOTAL

TOTAL

225

822
74
350
1306"
(1246)

SOURCE: P o g r o w ( 1 9 8 3 ) ,

p.

10,225

55,800"
(43,806)

27

"T hese f i g u r e s a p p e a r t o t h i s a u t h o r t o be I n c o r r e c t
but have been re p ro d u c e d from t h e o r i g i n a l s o u r c e
a l t e r a t i o n . The c o r r e c t f i g u r e s i n
th is a u th o r's
a r e e n c l o s e d In p a r e n t h e s e s .

totals
w ithout
opinion

43
broadcastlng,

videotext,

transm issions
the

use of

computers.

now make i t
excess

of

over v a st

possible

bits/second

w ith
over

the

Pogrow s a y s

store

knowledge

and

blue-collar

in 1980,

U.S.

industry

b e in g used
together

there

by

people

"at

speeds

telephone

to acquire,

w ill

by 1990

that

lines"

rates

the

of

300-1,200

(p.

32).

of

computer

generate,

analyze,
wealth

In m a n u f a c t u r in g ,

on a s s e m b l y

lines.

public secto rs
places

of

robots
Quoting
were

2 3 ,0 0 0 and 2 0 0 ,0 0 0

Teleconferencing

separated

in

second)

w hile only 1,860 ro b o ts

30).

b u s i n e s s and

through

per

ever-growing

be b etw een

(p.

in w idely

the

workers

facsim ile

technologies

inform ation

industry.

B u s i n e s s Wee kT P o g r o w s a y s
sold

these

(56,000 c h a ra c te rs

retrieve

in b u sin e s s

replacing

and

through the a p p lic a tio n

possible

and

that

commonly-used

conventional

t e c h n o l o g y makes I t

mall

a re being e ffe c te d

to transm it

O ffice autom ation

are

distances

56,000 b i t s / s e c o n d

as compared

manage,

electronic

is
to

in
also

bring

through the

use

of com puter and t e l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s .
So p e r v a s i v e a r e
our

lives

that

computers

and

their

applications

Pogrow has n o t e d t h a t :

As a r e s u l t
of
a ll these
existing
and
developing c a p a b i l i t i e s ,
computers a re
not
only
a f f e c t i n g computing;
they are
a ls o changing
the
way we wo r k a n d p l a y , a n d e v e n t h e e c o n o m y i t s e l f .
Computers
and
the
devices
they
control
are,
th e r e f o r e , going
to have
an i n c r e a s i n g
role
in
d e t e r m i n i n g how we l i v e <p. 2 6 ) .

in

44
C o m p u t e r 3__in E d u c a t i o n
Although computer
on-going,
that

application

it

was

the a rr iv a l

brought

the

computer

the

United

college

in

secondary

levels,

purposes,

record

with parents
In

for

a

at

home,

recent

and

At

are

used

all

(1986) found

16 s t a t e s

line

in the

item

source

of

now t r e a t

support.

1985 a n d

i n 1983;

22

fund,

in te n s iv e uses
state-w ide

computers;

or r e g i o n a l

d istribute

states

dem onstration

of

support

m aterials

or

video m a te ria ls

computers

for

instruction,

primary
as

wor d

communication

the

of

are

survey

mo r e t h a n

either

as

and

computing as

compared

to schools.

of Columbia r e q u i r e

The

of th e s t a t e s

28 s t a t e s

survey

showing

of com puters

have

schooLs

such

U.S.

Nebraska,

are

the purpose.

as

the

from

to
are

softw are evaluation;

softw are,

and t h e D i s t r i c t

uses

Forty-three

coordinator

to

and

apart

others

computer

planning

such

Instructional

a state-level
26

chores

other s ta te s

for

budget w hile

financial

and

states

that

all

funds and s u p p o r t

found t h a t

elem entary
t wo

50

I n c r e a s i n g commitment t o e d u c a t i o n a l
are providing

1977

instruction.

of

Colorado,

in

and

for

accounting,

and f o r

been

every school

the

adm inistrative

survey

E le c tro n ic Learning
Pennsylvania,

States.

keeping,

has

th e microcomputer

Into v i r t u a l l y

computers

namely,

processing,

of

In e d u c a t i o n

one
have

w i t h 36

In

funding,

or

experiment

on

involved

In

a n d 29

computer

found t h a t
to

states
books,

On t h e

schools

a

uses
11

of

states

Integrate

45
computers
students

Into

the curriculum ;

computer c o u rs e ,

and t h e D i s t r i c t

some c o m p e t e n c y t e s t

or

all

Oregon i n d i c a t e

states

except

In i n s t r u c t i o n a l

districts

In

with

coordinator.

indicates

O verall,
or

instructional

are

of

n a tio n 's

computers

(Except

those

by

for

for

In

the
that

of

the

schools
Table

b rand and
schools

Arizona,

of

computer

computer c o o r d i n a t o r .

common

in

number

full-tim e

m icrocomputers

Six

interest

percentage

of t h e

includes

4
it
are

t h e number

adm inistrative

and

uses).

taking
uses

requirem ents

for

presented

and t h e

to

to pass

also sta te s

shows t h e

38 p e r c e n t

t h e most

instructional

encourage

3

or

full-tim e

The E l e c t r o n i c
states

all

7 In 1985.

a growing p u b lic

Table

f o l l o w e d b y Commo d o r e .

computers

report

part-tim e

distribution
that

The

each s t a t e
a

have a p a r t - t i m e
shows t h e

27-28).

computing.

school d i s t r i c t s

up from

d e m o n s t r a t e some c o m p e t e n c y

(pp.

of

that

of Columbia r e q u i r e s t u d e n t s

use of com puters

Apple

reported

In e le m e n ta r y and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l s a r e r e q u i r e d

t a k e s o me f o r m o f
states

12 s t a t e s

Learning survey
the

of

teacher

teacher
courses
5.

shows t h a t

education

of computers s e r i o u s l y ;

computer
in Table

issue

also

mo s t

in

some s t a t e s

certificatio n

while

for

This

teachers.

the
have

others
data

is

48
Table

3:

D istricts

STATE
ALABAMA------------ALASKA
ARIZONA
ARKANSAS
CALIFORNIA
COLORADO
CONNECTICUT
DELAWARE
DC
FLORIDA
GEORGIA
HAWA1I
IDAHO
ILLINOIS
INDIANA
IOWA
KANSAS
KENTUCKY
LOUISIANA
MAINE
MARYLAND
MASSACHUSETTS
MICHIGAN
MINNESOTA
MISSISSIPPI
MISSOURI
MONTANA
NEBRASKA
NEVADA
NEW HAMPSHIRE
NEW JERSEY
NEW MEXICO
NEW YORK
NORTH CAROLINA
NORTH DAKOTA
OHIO
OKLAHOMA
OREGON
PENNSYLVANIA
RHODE ISLAND
SOUTH CAROLINA
SOUTH DAKOTA
TENNESSEE
TEXAS
UTAH
VERMONT
VIRGINIA
WASHINGTON
WEST VIRGINIA
WISCONSIN
WYOMING

w i t h Computer C o o r d i n a t o r s

DISTRI CTS

PERCENTAGE
DISTRICTS
W/COMPUTER
COORDINATOR

l3U
5
224
331
1034
178
178
19
1
67
18 6
1
11 6
99 9
30 5
436
314
180
66
283
24
286
525
434
154
646
551
96 6
17
167
597
88
735
141
311
762
613
304
500
40
93
194
141
1093
40
280
143
298
55
432
49

7 7 HI
53
100
31
N/A
30
30
47
100
100
100
100
13
N/A
N/A
26
32
100
3
10
100
40
N/A
69
65
N/A
23
7
47
30
55
11
54
100
3
N/A
N/A
33
9
50
N/A
100
N/A
13
100
36
100
50
N/A
N/A
12

SOURCE: Electronic Learning. October 1986

47
Table
STATE

4: M i c r o c o m p u te r s
TOTAL

1 9 . UUU
ALA
7 000
ALAS
21,215
ARIZ
14)000
ARK
CALIF
115)000
COLO
N/A
CONN
30,000
2, 9 0 3
DEL
2. 100
D.C.
48)873
FLA
GA
8) 0 0 0
HI
2) 5 0 0
4-5)000
IDA
I LL
N/A
23,124
1ND
18,770
1A
12)000
KANS
17)000
KEN
12)717
LA
6) 000
ME
7) 043
MD
MASS
21)075
MICH
N/A
MINN
33,000
MISS
6) 0 00
MO
18)000
MONT
7) 0 00
6) 0 00
NEB
3) 513
NEV
NH
N/A
40,000
N. J .
N. MEX
N/A
90,000
N. Y.
28)000
N.C.
N. DAK
N/A
OH
40,000
OKLA
N/A
OREG
15,000
PENN
50 000
R. I .
3, 9 0 0
S.C.
14)959
S . DAK
5) 0 0 0
TENN
N/ A
54,300
TEX
UT
8, 0 0 0
2) 0 0 0
VT
12,000
VA
WASH
16 1 3 0
W. VA
N/A
WI SC
N/A
6, 3 0 0
WYO

In S c h o o l s by Brand

APPLE
7 5*
90%
49%
25%
70%
96%
60%
93%
43.6%
65%
80%
44%
N/ A
49%
79%
70%
49%
33%
38%
40%
N/A
N/A
90%
25%
54%
62%
30%
91.3%
N/A
52%
N/A
46%
42%
75%
60%
N/A
56.8%
50%
45%
58%
45%
85%
N/A
60%
50%
35%
43%
N/A
80%
83%

COmmuuukl
64

IBM PC
PC JR

25%
40%
10%

y%
5%
2%
8%

13%
13%
30%
8%

20%
6%
40%
7.7%
10%
8%
5%
N/ A
8%
6.8%
5%
10%
8%
2%
14%
N/A
N/A
8%
15%
12%
5%
21%

5%
.5%

5%
1.5%
25%
6.5%
4%
28%
N/ A
10%
9.3%
5%
9%
8%
10%
12%
N/A
N/A
20%
10%
11%

RADIO
SHACK

33.1%
15%
8%
16%
N/ A
17%
3.5%
10%
14%
23%
32%
18%
N/A
N/A
30%
20%
11%
22%

13%
N/A
22.4%
10%
17%
6%
45%

N/A
10%
N/A
8%
17%
5%
3%
N/A
4.5%
15%
1%
9%
4%

N/A
7%
N/A
15.3%
23%
10%
15%
N/A
8.3%
15%
36%
12%

N/A
30%
30%

N/A
10%
10%

N/A

19%
N/A
7%
3%

6%
N/A
5%
3%

N/A
25%
N/A
20.9%
15%

SOURCE: Electronic Learning. October 1986

25%
16%
N/A
7%
4%

OTHERS

.10%
a5

8%
3%
4%

35%
9.1%
10%
7%
N/A
16%
1.4%
10%
18%
28%
18%
16%
N/A
N/A
2%
10%
4%
11%
27%
8.7%
N/A
5%
N/A
9. 8%
3%
10%
9%
N/A
7. 6 %
10%
1%
15%
6%
15%
N/A
10%
40%
16%
1%
7%

48
Table

5: P r e - S e r v i c e R e q u i r e m e n t s

STATES WITH COMPUTER REQUIREMENTS FOR CERTIFICATION
STATE
C a l 1f o r n l a
D i s t r i c t of Columbia
Montana
Texas
Utah
We s t V i r g i n i a
W l s c o n s 1n
Wyoming

COMMENTS
B e g i n n i n g I n 1988
E f f e c t i v e 1983
E f f e c t i v e 1984
E f f e c t i v e 1988
E f f e c t i v e 1988
E f f e c t i v e S e p t . 1985
for p reserv ice
Required fo r r e c e r t i f i c a t i o n
E f f e c t i v e J u l y 1985

STATES THAT ENCOURAGE COMPUTER COURSES FOR TEACHERS
Arkansas
Pennsylvania
Hew J e r s e y
Georgia
V irginia
North C arolina
Nevada

New H a m p s h i r e
Connect ic u t
South Dakota
New Y o r k
Maryland
Washington
N orth Dakota

SOURCE: - E l e c t r o n i c L e a r n i n g . O c t o b e r

1988

49
The u n a v a i l a b i l i t y
through

5

Is

Informed t h i s
usage

figures

of

note.

Investigator

in M ichigan s c h o o ls

be a v a i l a b l e
Of
n o r's

worthy

of

too

is

A s s o c ia tio n has

instructional

education
example,
title

technology,

computers

an

are

replacing

index cards w ith

which l i b r a r y

users

circulation

that

up

level

27).

application

In

L ibraries

across

the country,

for

fam iliar

access
and

are a lso

used

1986,

B1 a n d B 4 ) .

press

<p.

in

found

D etroit

in

E ducational

involvement

computers

subject,

computer d a ta b a s e s

R eference,"

on

also

the

can

says

Force

Gover­

I n s t r u c t i o n and p u r e l y a d m i n i s t r a ­

for

Pogrow (1983)

the N ational

of n a t i o n a l

especially

inform ation
They

a Task

Computers

printing

computer

fact

for

Im portant

of

the

i n f o r m a t i o n and m a t e r i a l s

pp.

Inventory

have

been c o m p le te d and s h o u l d

have

In o th e r ways.

checkpoints.

that

officials

3

just

set

from c la s s ro o m

uses,

However,

in T ables

has

T e c h n o lo g y which shows t h e

tive

Michigan

soon.

interest

Apart

for

that

the

distribution

was,

and t h a t ;

and t e r m i n a l s

a lib ra ry 's

holdings

also

as

act

to access

patrons

the

author

electronic
of

databases

Press, 2

text

Turn

and

for
to

September

database
as

at

security

("L ibraries

Free

and

Is

as

G utenberg's

Whereas
the
printing
pres3
made
possible
the
d i s t r i b u t i o n of l a r g e
numbers of p h y s i c a l
copies
o f t e x t , t h e e l e c t r o n i c d a t a b a s e ma k e s i t p o s s i b l e
to d i s t r i b u t e te x t w ithout having to d i s t r i b u t e

50
m u ltip le physical
paper (p. 37).
Hard c o p i e s
can

be

of a p p r o p r i a t e

printed

speculated

for

that

loaning c e n te rs
hard c o p ie s

copies

the

a form of

pages

Pogrow

w ill

eventually

(p.

R e s e a r c h on I n s t r u c t i o n a l
in th e

re s e a rc h conducted
in th e

1970s

involved

m icrocom puters.
effectiveness
studies

In t h e

Most

of

them

seventies

otherw ise

handicapped

and

w ill

In

this

this
uses

instruction.
In t h e

of

mo s t

computers
as

against
of

the

A number

eighties

of

have d e a l t

have c o n c e n t r a t e d

mor e

m entally retard ed

Fe w s t u d i e s

education
section,

be
for

chapter,

studies

Instructing

students.

the problem of te a c h e r
of c o m p u te r s .

for

to

were

w i t h m i c r o c o m p u t e r s b u t many o f t h e s e
on t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s

to

centers

of m in ic o m p u te rs

of c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d
late

cease

who

Uses of Com puters

instructional

uses

Dunn

38).

Introduction

Into the

database

quotes

become d i s t r i b u t i o n

of e l e c t r o n i c books

As s t a t e d

electronic

from an a c c e s s e d

user.

libraries
and w i l l

—

in th e

have looked

instructional

a number

of th e s e

or

Into
uses

studies

be r e v i e w e d .
In

1971,

Principals

sponsored a

instructional
The s t u d y
courses

the N ational

uses

national

of c o m p u te rs

found t h a t

most

In computer s k i l l s

a computer

A ssociation

functions

of S e c o n d a r y

research

project

School

Into

in s c h o o ls which used

schools

which used com puters

with to p ic s

which ranged

t o programming in a sim p le

the
them.
had

f r o m how

programming

51
language.
practice

Commercial
were a v a i l a b l e

while th ese
students,
at

softw are

programs

u s e of

The s t u d y

computers

such as b io lo g y ,

situation

(CMI) was

was

found

to

instruction;

students'

progress

ready

the next

that

physics,

be

often

punching,

w iring,

c o d in g and

w riting

noted

using

that

teacher

from

instruction"
On

(p.

original

paperwork

o b ta in in g equipm ent,
were

offices,

universities,

business

on

provided

whose

Another a l t e r n a t i v e

the output

any

com puter-

and

recorded

student

were o f f e r i n g

CAI

and

In

with

The s t u d y a l s o

routines

as

of

found
courses

well
The

CMI

was

as

study

"frees

the

Individualized

to

th e s tu d y found t h a t

computer

schools

d istrict

local

computers
was

schools

school

industry

could

lease

processing

in

which were t h e n t a k e n

of t h e a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d

was s e n t

by

governments,

through batch

marked or punched c a r d s

computer a t

there

29).

services

students

purposes

instruction

computer program s.
for

school

and e co n o m ic s,

whether a

schools

and

sim ulation

tested

on

and

although

machine o p e r a t i o n ,

computers

the

integrated

a course.

v o c a t i o n a l and t e c h n i c a l

in key

that

chem istry,

computers

of

rem edial

Computer-managed

and a d v i s e d
level

for

found

d rill

elem entary

m o d elin g and

im proving.

assisted

tor

in

for

language a r t s

to

t h e y were found t o be u s e f u l

was l e s s

the

i n a r i t h m e t i c and
were t a r g e t e d

secondary sch o o ls.

subjects

programs

back t o t h e s c h o o l .

centers

from

On t e a c h e r

and
tim e.
which
to

a

where

training,

52
the study suggested

the t r a in in g

member I n e a c h s c h o o l
two a s s o o n
sem ester
teacher

as

in

term inal"

effectiveness

(Koch,

Gross

students

at

Prim ary Mental

pre-existing
that

the

of

pp.

on t h e

basis

intellectual

skills

of

by s e x .

were

and were

The

programmed

third

the

instruction.

The

posttest

tests,

exam ination*
the

four

FORTRAN

Th e FORTRAN

"conventlnal"

problems,

d u r a t i o n of th e

course while

the

t h e m on r e q u e s t

and a t t e m p t e d

them a t

by

the
In
for

claims
in

computer
by

computer-

and

of

three

a

final

were g i v e n

during

other

of

th e second

consisted

Intervals

were

matched

the

group

p ro b le m s and t e s t s

group a t

Regina

difference

g r o u p was t a u g h t

and

the

15

report

observed

Instruction

on

to co n tro l

instruction,

FORTRAN

a

w ith a sample

men a n d

l a n g u a g e FORTRAN b y c o n v e n t i o n a l

assisted

study

using s u b te sts

differences*

One

a

the p rete st

elim inated

qualify

Saskatchewan

(PMA)

of

one

Programming,

instruction

the s u b je c ts

Test

nA

I n v o l v i n g u s e of a

conducted

U niversity

A bilities

can

to

30-31).

were p r e - t e s t e d

matching

cognitive

(1970)

the

women. The s u b j e c t s

groups

1973,

that

Computer

course

of com puter-ass is ted

Campus. S l x t y - o n e

three

in

or a r e l a t e d

staff

s h o u l d be I n c r e a s e d

programming

conducting a course

C r o p l e y and

o f 73

this

The s t u d y s u g g e s t e d

computer

Computer M a t h e m a t i c s ,
computer

that

possible.

course
for

but

o f a mi n i mu m o f o n e

to

the

two-week

t wo g r o u p s

received

their

own

discretion.

53
All s t u d e n t s
time spent

then wrote a formal e x am in atio n a t

on t h e c o u r s e was a l s o r e c o r d e d

The m a i n f r a m e

computer used

IBM 3 6 0 / 6 7 l o c a t e d
a n d was a c c e s s e d

434 m i l e s

The

for each s tu d e n t.

for th is

s t u d y was a

from t h e s i t e

t h r o u g h t wo IBM

the end.

512K

of t h e e x p erim e n t

2741 t y p e w r i t e r

keyboard

t e r m i n a l s by t e l e p h o n e c o n n e c t i o n .
Analysis
the f i r s t

t wo FORTRAN

s h o we d t h a t
of

the

of v a r i a n c e showed s i g n i f i c a n t

this

explain th at

this

instruction

group

preparation

than did

which

were

application

instruction

"spent

the other

different

cared

disagreed with

longer
t wo

to the

In

fact

that

means

performance

The

investigators

that

t h e p r o g r a mme d

(tim e)

groups."

In

they

formal

Ho w e v e r ,

o t h e r FORTRAN

was a d m i n i s t e r e d
attitudes

Is r e p o r t e d
whether
the

this

problems

required

actual

he

t o t h e CAI g r o u p

toward computer
t o have s a i d

that

learned

not.

statem ent

or

that

the

to

instruction.
he f e l t
One

that

student

com puter-assisted

c h a l l e n g e d h i m t o do h i s b e s t w o r k .

The i n v e s t i g a t o r s

conclude

i n s t r u c t i o n was a s e f f e c t i v e
conventional

of t h e

on

of f o r m a l p r i n c i p l e s .

Only one s t u d e n t

Instruction

much

not extend

determ ine s tu d e n ts '

one

group.

may b e d u e t o t h e

A questionnaire

no

problem s. Examination

d i f f e r e n c e was d u e t o s u p e r i o r

programmed

s u p e r i o r i t y did

differences

that

a s programmed

l e c t u r e method and t h a t

com puter-assisted
Instruction

t h e CAI s t u d e n t s

the experience a ccep tab le em otionally.

and
found

54
Wilson e t
dents

(1970)

studied

In c o m p u t e r - a s s i s t e d

of th e

INDICOM p r o j e c t

M ichigan.

Three

g ra d e s were

students

CAT

I was

and p r a c t i c e
Control

traditional
Group 1

students
Th e

setting

ranked

using

the

on

of

42

In

as

an

(p.

status

the

I . Q . ’s for

E x p e r i m e n t a l G r o u p was

C o n t r o l G r o u p I mean was 109
Group I I

was

107

Achievement Test
before

the

Ov e r t h e
should

However,

battery

experim ent

the experiment

dents

(S.D.

the

t h r e e months,

four
gain
study

four
found

Instruction

by

that

107

and Form W

months
that

or one mon th l e s s

In
both

an

experim ental
was

"dependent

on
Mean

(S.D.

=

10.68);

and

for

Control

of th e

Standard

to a l l

students

of t h e

from F e b ru ary to June,
is

in

Each s t u d e n t

Form X

it

Control

breadw inner."

was a d m i n i s t e r e d

month p e r i o d ,

but

control

- 11*79),

= 10.58).

began,

which ra n

(S.D.

in

Scale

fam ily

received
not

of an

577).

Socioeconomic
of

who

state

possible e ffe c t

Warner

m athem atics.

m athem atics,

interm ediate

Intact

slxty-elght

and

( N= 7 7 ) r e c e i v e d

In

fifth

In

of

students

t h e employment
the

stu­

and

were

English

the r e s u l ts "

the

fourth

The I n v e s t i g a t o r s

selected

school

In b o th

Group I I

In

students

by c o m p u t e r

t o examine

of

In e l e m e n t a r y E n g l i s h

group c o n s is te d

made u p

methods.

"was

attem pt

of

The e x p e r i m e n t a l

C o n t r o l Group

E nglish.

Instruction

subjects.

receiving

the achievement

of t h e W a te rfo rd Township S c h o o ls

groups

the

classroom s.

drill

al.

test
1969*

expected

that

grade eq uivalent
control

than expected;

after

groups

stu­
score.
gained

t h e CAI g r o u p

55
gained

sev en months,

differences
level.

were

for

t h e CAI

students

categores;

the

as

them

program freed
the program
im portant
the

to

teachers
allowed

regular

general

to

get

traditional
d ifficu lty

a

3)

w o r k on

means.

Although

of

f o r d CAI p r o g r a m I n i n i t i a l

pairs

of

school

M etro p o litan Readiness Test

the
core

per

se,

but

efficien tly .

The

treatm ent
not

perm it

was

students

were

than
had

generally

the e ff e c tiv e n e s s

scores.

by
mo r e

felt

that

579).
of

the

Stan­

r e a d i n g was d o n e b y F l e t c h e r

girls

in

positively

method

(p.

of

that

CAI, S tu d e n ts

t h e CAI

teachers

Twenty-five p a irs

first-grade

and

indication

f r o m t h e CAI m e t h o d

evaluation

(1972).

was

slower

In m e e tin g c r i t e r i a ,

A sim ilar

25

by

involved;

o f p a p e r - c h e c k i n g and

language a r t s

feedback

benefited

In

tim e,

tim e did

There

into

enthusiasm

wo r k

intensive

that

perform ance

faster

such s tu d e n ts

Atkinson

more

problems

fell

at

15 m i n u t e s a l l o t e d .

mo r e

chores

.05

completed th e

than th e

time

from th e

classroom .

Improved by t h e i r
able

their

tor

gram m atical

students'

school

save te a c h e rs

use

they

m aintained

as

In l e s s

not

the

the com petition

lesson

The

were a n a ly z e d

that

" f u n g a m e s ; " many s t u d e n t s

program did

perm itted

state

1) S t u d e n t s

core

beyond

th e experiment

Investigators

l e s s o n s and s u p p l e m e n t s
2 ) Th e

significant

p ro g r a m and e n j o y e d

saw

supplement

be

logs during

and t h e

three d is tin c t

t h r e e m o n t h s mo r e t h a n e x p e c t e d .

found t o

Teachers'

t h e end

or

and

of

first-grade

boys

and

were

matched

using

the

The e x p e r i m e n t a l

member

56
of e a c h m atched p a i r

received

sch o o l day In a d d i t i o n
both groups

received.

In J a n u a r y

till

posttests
in June.

to

the

the

week

to a ll

of

four

Achievement T e s t ,

measure

directly

curriculum "

individually

(p.

the

from t h e

of

June,

Primary

which

first

1970.

week
Three

i n May a n d a g a i n
of t h e Form X

I;

the

goals

test
of

of

C alifornia

(COOP) F o r m 12A ( G r a d e

adm instered

equal

and boys g r o u p s

of

apart

f r o m t h e COOP f o r

groups.

each

1,

"designed
the

to

computer

597).

pairs

e a c h sex-

significant

ran

subjects

principal

During t h e e x p e rim e n t,
from t h e g i r l s

o f CAI

c l a s s r o o m work

subtests

C o o p erativ e Prim ary Reading Test
and a n

m inutes

regular

second

These c o n s i s t e d

Spring);

10

The e x p e r i m e n t

were a d m i n i s t e r e d

the Stanford

8 to

group.

difference

The s t u d y a l s o

numbers

and a n a l y s e s

P osttest

in reading
that

were l o s t

w e r e b a s e d on 22

com parisons

matched p a i r s

found

of p a i r s

of g i r l s ,

achievement

found
there
of

boys b e n e f i t e d

that
was

the
more

a
CAI

from

CAI t h a n g i r l s .
I n 1977 B urns and C u l p
lating

invention

assisted
The

at

research

com puter-assisted
programmed

which

individuals1
volunteer

in E n g lish

instruction

major

the

U niversity

instruction
would

was

"Could

effectively

In

four

The

stim u­

computer-

of Texas a t

be d e s i g n e d ,

process?"

enrolled

o u t a s t u d y on

com position through

question

inventive

students

carried

A ustin.

supplem entary
developed,

stim ulate
subjects

second-sem ester

and
most

were

72

English

57
com position c la s s e s .

The

to the

To c o n t r o l

four c l a s s e s .

researchers
lectures

gave

on t h e

each

about

was g i v e n

of

g roup's

While th e c o n t r o l
ideas

treatm ents

the
the

for

the

teacher

four

particular

g r o u p was

were ran d o m ly

topic

of t h e i r

s a me

amount

strategy

of tim e

to

their

The o n l y s o u r c e

for

program I t s e l f

encouragement

if

and t h e

control

they stopped

In th e
to

course.
list

Interact

Ideas

the

one-hour

the experim ental

programmed com puter and t o t y p e

the

t wo

30 m i n u t e s

paper,

of encouragem ent

variability

classes

given

assigned

on a

any
group

with

a

keyboard.

t h e CAI g r o u p came f r o m
g r o u p h a d no

w riting before

additional

the

30

minutes

had e x p i r e d .
The f i n d i n g s
which

used

CAI

comprehensive
Inquiry.

were t h a t
generated

and

Th e

contributes

s ome

evidence

strategies

via

CAI

classroom ,

at

intellectual
concerned:

least

as

attitude

toward

dependent

on

the

or m e t h o d

an

Ideas

conclude
that

and

that

(the)

better

have

pp.

indicated

Instructional

In d iv id u a l’s past
(Wodtke,

1965);

groups

were

mo r e

quality
"This

three

than

occurs

overall
1980,

which
overall

fa r as q u a n ti t y ,

processing,

studies

experim ental

greater

Invention a c tu a lly

(Burns and Culp,

Several

device

are

three

more

exhibited

researchers

individualized

the

of

study

heuristic

what

In th e

little

composition

com prehensiveness,

quality

of

Ideas

are

5-10).
that
device

an
or

experience

Rosenberg

et

in d iv id u a l’s
method
with
al.,

is
that

1967).

58
Thus

it

is

successful

to

be e x p e c te d

experience

favorable a ttitu d e
explore
of

this

instruction
students

in using

toward

possibility)

college

students'
(CAI).

that

a person

c o m p u t e r s would

computers
M athis e t

attitudes

The s u b j e c t s

randomly s e l e c t e d

G e n e r a l P s y c h o l o g y 205
the su b jects

had

pretest

showed t h e y a l l

and
al.

vice

toward

were

at

a

develop

a

versa.

study

47 f e m a l e a n d 17

Florida

a lim ited

To

com puter-assisted

enrolled

State

had e x p e r i e n c e

had

had

(1970) did a

f r o m 108 s t u d e n t s

class

None o f

who h a d

male
in the

U niversity.

w i t h CAI

and

knowledge of

a

general

psychology.
For a

pretest

Investigators
measurement
tense
its
has

been

the sc a le
to

Instrum ent
For

past

tense

for

of

pretest

t o w a r d CAI,

form of t h e
its

B).

Brown

content

t h e Br own

(Form

to

coefficient

used

attitudes

by p l a c i n g

posttest,

reported

reliab ility

students'

u s e d a " f u t u r 1z e d "

(Form A).

original

of

The o r i g i n a l

Brown

an

internal

.89.

Th e " f u t u r i z e d "

reported

by t h e

State

undergraduates

(p.

m o d i f i e d Solomon f o u r - g r o u p d e s i g n
the p r e te s t
experim ental

groups.

Experim ental

while Experim ental

Students

the

I

and C o n t r o l

II

and C o n t r o l
groups

of

investigators
of

.82 for

The s t u d y u s e d

to assess

in th e ex p erim e n tal

scale

version

effect

on t h e p o s t t e s t . T h e r e w e r e t wo c o n t r o l

were p r e t e s t e d
were n o t .

46).

in

consistency

h a v e a K u d e r - R i c h a r d s o n F o r m u l a 20 r e l i a b i l i t y

158 F l o r i d a

future

was u s e d

have

is

attitude

in th e

scale

the

and
1

II

a
of
t wo

groups
groups

were g i v e n

an

59
average

of

45

m inutes

of

t y p e w i t e r - 1 1 ke t e r m i n a l s
computer.
m aterial
used

The c o n t r o l

t h e s a me
further

topics

subgroups

accessed

a quiet

CAI

for

erally

to

A

safe.

attitudes

a

to

of

than they

learning.

whether

one

covered

subjects

were
The

felt

A

that

who

who r e c e i v e d

were

mo r e

they experienced

feel
4)

asked

bored

by e x p e r i e n c i n g

and l e s s

it

to

CAI o r n o t .

as

it
be

fam iliar,

mo r e p o s i t i v e a b o u t

s a w CAI

or

com plicated

who r e c e i v e d

m aterial.

not

Students'

t o o k CAI f o u n d

unfam iliar

m aterial

fast

the hardware did

interesting,

m aterial

be

gen­

the q uestions

program.

6) S t u d e n t s

to

valuable,

3) S t u d e n t s d i d n o t
CAI

which

1) S t u d e n t s

fair,

and t h a t

Influenced

definitive,

fam iliar

t h e y were not

was g o o d ,

5) S t u d e n t s

im m ediately r e le v a n t

who r e c e i v e d

the

CAI o r r e a d i n g m a t e r i a l

of the

ha d e x p e c t e d .

than stu d e n ts

than

m aterial

a n d on w h i c h

a computer

CAI w e r e

more r e l e v a n t ,

The

t h e s t u d y were t h a t :

result

t h a n by r e a d i n g ,

other

that

2) S t u d e n t s h i g h l y

as

read s e le c te d

B conditions.

reading

by t h e c o m p u t e r were r e l e v a n t

isolated

to

IBM

and on w hich t h e y were t o be t e s t e d

weeks.

i m p i n g e on t h e i r

mainframe

was

several

that

and

with

which

class

felt

a

The s e l e c t i o n s

program.

or

in

The f i n d i n g s

text

room.

The B s u b g r o u p s r e c e i v e d

tested

in booths

h a d 45 m i n u t e s

psychology

assigned

in c la s s

was n o t c o v e r e d

but

which

t h e CAI

received

discussed
week.

in
as

randomly

individually

groups

from a g e n e r a l

in th e course

CAI

7)

less

8) S t u d e n t s

CAI

Students
mechanical
who

made

60

more e r r o r s
(r

= -.49)

level.

per

question

which

were

less

was f o u n d t o b e

The r e s e a r c h e r s

favorable

significant

at

to

the

CAI
p<.01

conclude th a t:

C ollege
students generally
have
positive
a t t i t u d e s t o c o m p u t e r s a n d e x p o s u r e t o CAI I n t h i s
study
Increased
their
positiveness.
But
the
magnitude of th e
a t t i t u d e c h a n g e vras d e p e n d e n t
upon
the
kind
of
experience
they
had.
Those
s t u d e n t s who h a d t h e
f a m i l i a r and
r e l e v a n t CAI
p r o g r a m , a n d made
few e r r o r s
while
taking
it,
showed t h e
g reatest increase
In p o s i t i v e n e s s
to
CAI ( p . 5 0 ) .
Three
1982.

surveys

According

s u r v e y s were

were done

to

Stevens

used

to

sim ple m o d ificatio n s
program s were

needed”

teachers,

79

teachers

teachers

at

the

surveyed.

In

educators

and

the

survey

third

In th e

in Nebraska between
<1983/84)

determ ine
of

(p.

53).

1981,
238

714

student
involved

few

of

im portance of
educators.
one

teachers

computer

Stevens

considers

K-12

student
were

88 t e a c h e r

surveyed.

these

alarge m ajority

felt

be c o m p u te r
they

literacy.
were

that

In

less

literacy

laments

that

were

or

lnservlce

L incoln

teachers,

should

them

te a c h computer

student

programs,

227

Nebraska,

surveys,

However,

surveys,

these

In

1982

238 K-12 e d u c a t o r s .

students

to

and

1 9 7 9 , 657 N e b r a s k a

teachers

that

qualified

of

and

f a c u l t y , and

of

surveyed b eliev ed
a

In

Nebraska

1979 and 1981

only

preservice

college

U niversity

"Findings

w h e t h e r ne w

present

1979

than
"This

w ill

be

of those
literate.

them selves

were

t h e 1979 and

1981

positive
were

about

the

teachers

and

Is d i s t r e s s i n g
teachers

when

entering

61
classroom s

during

society!"

(p.

educators

the

54).

showed

so-called

In

1981,

computer

studentteachers

significantly

higher

computer usage than

p<0.05 l e v e l .

teachers

Improvement
over

In

their

the

1979 s u r v e y

In

1982,

educators

computer usage

over

teachers

not

were

com puters.

substantially

effect

Teachers a ls o

felt

that

m oderate change

and what

they teach

teachers

surveyed

that

instructional
agreed th a t
students,

i n 1982

or

computers

their

The

says

43

strategies
of

methodology

of

not

W h i l e 40

in

1982

for

all

were
On

educators

would s t r o n g l y

of

toadopt

they

were u n c o m m itte d .

computers

their

percent

w illing

words,

or were

with

was

percentsaid

"In other

than

percent

blend

were

would

less

those surveyed

they

rest

that

that

would

of

management.

Over s e v e n t y - f i v e
that

in

However,

future role

instructional

instruction

1982 s a i d

change.

study perceived

years.

classroom

teachers.

instruction,

1981

Increase

would c a u s e

G enerally,

computers

this

that

m icrocomputers

disciplines,

Stevens

in

Incom patible w ith m icrocomputers

in

finding,

feel

felt

com puter-assisted

to

the

In t h e i r

those surveyed

unw illing

scores

15

about

computers

techniques.

for

to

in t h e i r

students.

t e a c h i n g was e i t h e r
sure

10

not

changes

slightly

not

next

did

the

).

positive

Teachers

their

significant

expected a s u b s ta n t ia l

the

In

a

of

teacher

In 1979 a t

a l s o showed

attitude-to-com puter
( p<0,05

and

scores

co m pu ter knowledge and
Student

revolution

this
In

influence

62

classroom

Instruction

classroom s"

(p.

Scbim lzzi
lines

and

the cu rricu lu m but

colleges

(1983/84) c a r r ie d

Schimizzl

and

to

did

those
a

universities

with
400

states.

purpose

study

decisions

education

a l r e a d y made

departm ents

implementing
intended

of the

and

microcom puter

to provide c o lleg e s

e d u c a tio n programs

and

m ight be u se d t o p l a n and
(p.

percent

of

teacher
and

results
with

were
teacher

inform ation

their

computer

50
"the

planning

and u n i v e r s i t i e s

implement

250

In t h e

college

The

systems

of

determ ine

system s

programs".

this

education

system s

by t h o s e

school

as a g a in s t

colleges

m athem atics,
He a l s o

which

programs

r e a d i n g and

follow s:

universities

school system s.

m icrocomputers

found t h a t

(55 p e r c e n t

of

and

a re as

had

were

used

t h e m o s t common b r a n d

b r a n d was R a d i o S h a c k

equipment

fo r were

and s o c i a l
of

respectively).

of

sim ilar

and t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m s ,

language a r t s ,

percent

adopted

The r a n k o r d e r

I.e.,

studies.

m icrocomputers

e d u c a t i o n d e p a r t m e n t s and s c h o o l s

a n d 44

Seventy-

a p p ro a ch in h ousing t h e i r

and u n i v e r s i t i e s

u s e d by c o l l e g e

popular

center

33 p e r c e n t

curriculum areas

findings

the c o lle g e s

th e microcomputer

for

survey

was t o

school

for

teacher

school

out­

59).
Some o f S c h i m i z z l ' s

five

of th e stu d y

nationw ide

He t h e n s u r v e y e d

specific

their

out a s tu d y th e b a s i c

departm ents.
The

In

56).

of which were s i m i l a r

dissertation.

not

The

TRS-80 ( c o l l e g e s

was

Apple

next

most

22

percent

63
and

schools

financial

32

problems

constraints
campuses

and

In t h e i r

and

N inety-nine

said

of

would

responsible

schools

the

In

the colleges
felt

that

uses

One-half

schools

were

term inals.

elsew here.

m icrocom puters.

training

of

He a l s o

for

their

and

consortium

of

should

"The m a j o r w e a k n e s s

In m icrocom puter

m icrocom puters"
In g e n e r a l ,
effective

In

appropriateness
educational

(p.

before

the

be a l a c k

were

in

the

be

the

Schimizzl
programs

of comprehensive

and a f t e r

the

of

and

acquisition

of

61).

the

literatu re

Instruction
of

In

the schools

concluded

seemed t o

of
that

Forty-one percent

42 p e r c e n t

of

was o f t e n

faculty

or u n i v e r s i t y .

planning

for

Many

m icrocomputers

of a n e a r b y c o l l e g e

long-range

the

found

or a d m i n i s t r a t o r

microcomputers*

microcomputer

In b o t h s t u d i e s

of

some s o r t

responsibility
that

using

m icrocomputers

t h e y had

of

as
of t h e

96 p e r c e n t

in s c h o o l s

and u n i v e r s i t i e s ,
a

faculty

tim e-sharing

teacher

listed

Both t h e campuses and t h e s c h o o l s

lnservloe

instructional

the

Introduction

s c h o o l s and c o l l e g e s .

programs.

Indicated

m athem atics

for

prepared

recommend

and

they acquired

an i n t e r e s t e d

of

schools

t h e campuses and

on c a m p u s e s

plan before

and

of

against

they

t h e campuses and

Involved

lack

microcomputer

as

percent

Instruction

C olleges

tw o-thirds

m icrocomputers

schools

percent).

the

situation

use

is an

suggests
it

used

of the
Im portant

that

computers

are

creatively.

computer
factor

in

a

The
given

w hich must

be

64
considered.

For exam ple,

the opinion

that

the p re s e n ta tio n
the

lesson

"it

is

paper

Is

if

Forcberl

and M o lfln o

t h e u se of th e

introduction

U ser-frlendliness
easier
of t h e

it

is

to use,

user.

(Programmed

for

computer network which
Illin o is,

and

the

Com puter-Controlled,
a sm all

local

and V i r g i n i a .

Apart

Automatic
its

T I CCI T

effective

for

favorable

Impact

the study

Instructional
on

also

and

of

graph

w ill

im portant;
be t h e

Teaching

base a t

technical

attitude
the

PLATO

O perations)

(Tim e-shared,

serves

the

the U n iv e rsity

Inform ation T elev isio n )

from th e

purpose

to autom atically

(1978) e v a lu a te d

CAI n e t w o r k w h i c h

t wo CAI s y s t e m s ,

Alderman e t

a l.

has

for

138).

t h e more p o s i t i v e
et

the

of

representation,

students

of t h e s y s te m i s

Alderman
Logic

(p.

If

Is m erely

to use a p e n c il

th a n a program which e n a b le s
the graph req u ire d "

and

of g r a p h i c

e d u c a t i o n a l l y more u s e f u l

obtain

computer

of d a t a g r a p h i c a l l y

the

(1986) a re

of

Interactive,
s y s te m which is

schools

in

differences

Arizona
in

the

f o u n d t h e PLATO s y s t e m t o b e mo r e
u s e s and

Instructors

than

that
the

It

a l s o had
TICCIT

more

system .

a l . conclude t h a t:

The a p p r o a c h t a k e n t o I m p l e m e n t i n g t h e s y s t e m s
In
s c h o o ls , fo r example,
would seem
to account
for
much o f
the
results.
The
autonomy
afforded
t e a c h e r s In d e c i d i n g
about th e use
of the
PLATO
s y s t e m seems
a
viable
explanation
for
faculty
a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e s y s t e m . The r e s p o n s i b l i t y
given
s t u d e n t s i n l e a r n i n g on t h e T I C C I T s y s t e m s e e m s a n
i m p o r ta n t r e a s o n b eh in d th e lower c o m p le tio n r a t e s
f o r c o u r s e s u n d e r t h e T I CCI T p r o g r a m . . . I t w o u l d

65
appear th at
computer system s
them selves
neither
guarantee
any
dimension
of
educational
e f f e c t i v e n e s s nor
explain
fu lly the
results
of
such d e m o n stra tio n s (pp. 4 4-45).

Com puter L i t e r a c y and T e a c h e r
The c o m p u t e r r e v o l u t i o n
j a r g o n which Is
concepts,

and

significance
which i s
of

often called
expressions

of p a r t i c u l a r

community.

f a s h i o n a b l e a n d common I n c o m p u t e r
a common d e f i n i t i o n a n d
computer t e c h n o l o g i s t s ,
for

th e uncompromising

computer

literacy

wor d " l i t e r a c y ”
significance

feud

Is t h a t
takes

for

on

best

of views

exem plified

of e x p e rts

1980.

c o n fe re n c e which

held

by
at

in

1985" and

achieving national
A fter

has
It

some

be c o me

has d e fie d

heated debates

Is,

computer

among

One r e a s o n

or what

is

not,

experts,

the

alm ost-sacrosanct

two and a

Its

computer

opinions
Reston,

expressed

V irginia

"N ational

literacy
at

literacy
of

a

De c e mb e r

by th e

N ational

Goals

for

in th e U nited

deliberations

is,

in

Computer

p r i m a r y g o a l was t o s e e k wa ys

computer

h a lf days

on

was s p o n s o r e d

S c i e n c e F o u n d a t i o n wa3 e n t i t l e d
L iteracy

the concept

concept

a specialized,

conference
The

is

and t h e p u b l i c .

o v e r what

and

when m a r r i e d t o t h e wo r d " c o m p u t e r . ”

Th e d i v e r s i t y
perhaps,

educators

words,

meanings

literatu re,

Is g e n e r a t i n g

own

One s u c h c o m p u t e r e s e

to education

Although the

Its

Some o l d

a c q u i r e d new

relevance

literacy ,”

come a l o n g w i t h

com puterese.

have

in t h e com puter

"computer

has

Tra in in g

b y 90

for

S tates.
computer

86

scien tists,
m aterials,
conferees
computer

classroom

teachers,

publishers,
agreed

that

literacy

Is

creators

of

v e n d o rs and governm ent
one of t h e

literacy

is

computer

literacy

means

officials,

keys t o a c h ie v in g

"The r e c o g n i t i o n

computer

educational

that

m ulti-faceted."
different

national

the concept

In

other

things

the

to

of

words,
different

people:
F o r e x a m p l e , t o s o me
a general awareness
of
computers is
s u f f ic ie n t; to
others, a
technical
skill
that
can
only
be
acquired
by
hands-on
e x p e r ie n c e Is mandatory; to s t i l l o t h e r s , s t u d e n ts
must l e a r n t o w r i t e p r o g r a m s t h a t do t h i n g s — s o l v e
d i f f e r e n t i a l e q u a t i o n s or c r e a t e p o e t r y
(Derlnger
and M olnar, 1982, pp. 4 - 5 ) .
The two e x t r e m e v i e w s c o n c e r n i n g c o m p u t e r
be summarized as
view —

is

follow s:

that

The f i r s t

a com puter-literate

ev ery th in g about

computers

components,

computers

how

im plications,
tasks,
(e.g.

Dwyer

1982).

The

computer
tasks.

ethics,

t o how

is

how t o

second

Consequently,

Is c r i t i c a l

for

is

his/her

own
of

the
needs.

user

of
tool

users

computers

production

their

1981;

school
another

person

use computers

and C r i t c h f i e l d ,

knowledge about

meet

operate,

should

uses

and

social

to perform

given

to perform those

tasks

Anderson,

Bork,

1983;
that

h e l p man p e r f o r m

need not

know

technical

thought m aintains

to

may

"comprehensive"

from t h e i r h i s t o r y ,

to program computers

Just

— the

literacy

have d e t a i l e d

certain
technical

or a b o u t programming and t h a t
Individual
This

packages,

to use

th e computer

group m ain tain s
softw are,

and

the

that

wh a t
to
the

programming

87
s h o u l d be

the

(1983) arg u es

responsibility

of a

few

experts.

Megarry

t h e l o g i c o f t h e t wo v i e w p o i n t s t h u s ;

. . . I t wo u l d
be w h o l l y
u n j u s t i f i a b l e to
restrict
d r i v i n g l ic e n c e s t o such would-be
d riv e rs as
can
explain
the
principles
of
the
four-stroke
combustion
cycle,
and
Just
as
Irrational
to
p rev e n t s t u d e n t s from d l s c u s s i n g - t h e e n v iro n m en ta l
impact of
motorized tr a n s p o r t
unless they
could
f i r s t p a s s a Heavy Goods V e h i c l e p r o f i c i e n c y
test
(p. 20).
Th e

argument

for

the

s t r e n g t h e n e d by t h e

tact

of th e microcomputer,
software,
have

and

been

"tool"
that

adm inistrative,

home,

software

for

computer u ser does not

her

own p r o g r a m f o r a p a r t i c u l a r

Instance,

m aintains

c o m p u t e r s when
computer,

it

today,

through
In t h e

awarded a

of

that

we i n c r e a s i n g l y

grant

seventies,
to

the

literacy

programs.

In o r d e r

to computer l i t e r a c y ,

in

the
to

use th e

(p.

learn

Minnesota

days
about

a o o ! l c a t ions
we make

or
or
for
of
the
of
use

8).

the N ational

to

Thus,

(1983),

early

use th e computer;

C o n s o r t i u m (MECC) t o s t u d y t h e

industrial,

need to produce h i s

compelled

"We d o n ' t

houses

applications.

s o f t w a r e . Z a mor a

its applications"

late

publishing

for

a p p l i c a t i o n but can use

unlike

p e o p l e were

c o m p u t e r s and t h a t
of

piece

is

the a r r iv a l

business,

and e d u c a t i o n a l

individual

existing

computers

a growing market

c om pa nie s and

the

adapt an

of

p a rtic u la rly since

t h e r e has been

commercial

producing

view

Science Foundation

Educational

Computing

Impact of p r e c o l l e g e computer
Id en tify various

MECC s u r v e y e d a l l

approaches

6800 g r a d e 7 t h r o u g h

68

12

science,

science,

m athem atics,

and d a t a

processing

business

education,

teachers

in Minnesota

Views fro m t h e s t u d y were s o d i v e r g e n t
elected

to develop a conceptual

I n c o r p o r a t e a s much a s
et

al.,

1980,

objectives

of

p.

headlngs--C ognltlve
study

found t h a t

hardware,

A ffective

the

objectives
and

objectives

outcomes

W ithin

which

"Identify

the

recognize

the

five

definition

feel

tor

fear,

experiences;
a society;
ters,

values

enjoys

or

Anderson,

1982;

t h e b r o a d r a n g e o f what
be p a r t

of com puter

student
to

com puter...;
a

sim ple

develop

(student)
from

does

an
not

computer
of

or p l a y w i t h

compu­

l e a r n i n g , . . ” (pp.

93-96.

1979).

teachers

literacy.

and

of c o m p u t e r i z a t i o n

t o work

W heeler,

the

a

task;

problem;

data

students

but

related

about

values,

for
of

the

and

specific

Intim idation

desires

broad

computers.

modify

e sp e c ia lly com puter-assisted

See a l s o

were

economic b e n e f i t s

and

of

algorithm ;

solving a s p e c ific
anxiety,

impacts

components
of

t wo

softw are

requirem ents

major

program

from knowledge

attitudes,

category

included

under

to

(Johnson

Under t h e c o g n i t i v e ,

ranged

covered

a l g o r i t h m t o a c c o m p l i s h a new,
algorithm

listed

to s o c ia l

each

attem pted

literacy

algorithm s,

applications,

m otivation.

were

and A f f e c t i v e .

programming

processing,

computer

1978.
project

t h e views of a l l "

The

those stu d ied

in

"...T he

framework t h a t

possible

92).

that

computer

This stu d y

shows

surveyed considered

to

69
Im plications

for Teacher T rain in g

Perhaps,
tutes
for

computer

teacher

because

of t h e d i v e r g e n t

literacy,

many p o l i c y

and g o a l s s h o u l d e l u c i d a t e

Council

s t a t e m e n t s and

com puter t r a i n i n g and s t u d e n t

been u n s p e c i f i c and n o n c o m m i t t a l .

1. P o s i t i o n

v i e w s on w h a t c o n s t i ­

statem ent
of Teachers

com petencies

Samples

goals
have

of s u c h s t a t e m e n t s

the p o in t:

by t h e B o a r d o f D i r e c t o r s ,
of M a th e m a tic s

(NCTM),

N ational

1976:

An e s s e n t i a l o u t c o m e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y e d u c a t i o n
13
computer
literacy.
Every
student
should
have
f irs th a n d experiences with
both the
capabilities
and
the
lim itations
of
computers
through
contem porary a p p l i c a t i o n s . Although
the study
of
computers
is
in trinsically
valuable,
educators
s h o u l d a l s o d e v e l o p an a w a r e n e s s of t h e a d v a n t a g e s
of computers
both
in
interdisciplinary
problem
s o l v i n g and as
an I n s t r u c t i o n a l a i d .
E ducational
decision
makers,
Including
classroom
teachers,
should seek
to
make c o m p u t e r s
available
as
an
Integral
part
of
the
educational
program
( M a t h e m a t i c s T e a c h e r . May 1 9 7 8 , p . 4 6 8 ) .
2. Recom mendation by t h e M ic h ig a n S t a t e

Board of E d u c a t i o n :

The S t a t e B o a r d o f
E d u c a t i o n recommends t o
local
b o a rd s of e d u c a t i o n t h a t t h e y r e q u i r e a l l s t u d e n t s
to
co m p lete.O n e-h alf
year
of
"hands-on"
computer e d u c a tio n .
Although alm ost
no
computer
c o u r s e s a r e r e q u i r e d f o r g r a d u a t i o n , 28 p e r c e n t o f
M i c h i g a n s t u d e n t s t a k e a c o u r s e , 86 p e r c e n t o f t h e
Michigan
public
surveyed
favored
requiring
a
course
in
computer
science/literacy
(Michigan
S t a t e Board of E d u c a t i o n , 1984, p . 5 ) .
The s t a t e m e n t s
tence

is

direction
uses

expected
for

the

of c o m p u te r s .

above la c k s p e c i f i c i t y

of a

"computer

training

a s t o what compe­

literate"

of t e a c h e r s

Consequently too,

p e r s o n and

for

lack

instructional

w h i l e some

districts

70

have w ell a r t i c u l a t e d

and w r i t t e n

tives

In

fo r computer use

guidelines

that

Bacak and

Elsholz,

CAN,

Planning

undated).
role

are

places

Computer

involvem ent w ith,

Interpretations

Usage Handbook.

<1982)

demands

feels

that

on h i s

objec­

have

vague

< compare

1984,

A__ D i s t r i c t ___CbWPMtbr

Seidel

different

and

the classroom t o th ers

open t o v a r i e d

Guide:

However,

philosophies

and

WE

C u r r 1<?ul

an

In d iv id u al's

or her

use o f,

and

computers:

. . . A n a d m i n i s t r a t o r In a s c h o o l , or a p o l i c y m a k e r ,
must be a b l e
t o a p p r e c i a t e how c o m p u t e r s c a n
be
used
to,
for
example,
augment
the
existing
d i s c i p l i n e s or
how t h e y m i g h t
aid
in
managing
student
schedules.
However,
it
Is
debatable
whether such I n d iv id u a ls
n e e d t o become
computer
programmers in o rd e r t o a t t a i n t h i s
appreciation.
My g u e s s i s
th a t for
now t h e l a t t e r
Is not
the
case (pp. 23-24).
Sim ilarly,
general

large

appreciation

computers
his

in a

lin e supervisor

the needs

or a

i n t e r e s t 1' ( p .

and

the

from

those

Consequently,

and
vary

role

that

of,

but

say,

Seidel

contingent

sequence
on

a

feels

be t a i l o r e d

"The

a
of

and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n

cu rricu lu m should

would

may n e e d

need

to
of
and

26).

The I m p l i c a t i o n
first

be

order

to determ ine

teachers

inventory,

Individual

emphasis

executive

benefits

secretary.

literacy

of t h e

and

the

would be d i f f e r e n t

a computer

topics

of

In p r o d u c t i o n ,

or h e r n eed s

that

c o r p o r a t i o n an

aware of

adequately

of t h i s

is

that

expected

student

teachers'

needs

if

to teach s tu d e n ts .

teacher

trainers

learning
they a re

outcomes
to

mu s t
in

prepare

71
On t h e p r o b l e m o f
that

If

teachers

of c o m p u te rs

teacher

are to a tta in

for

Instruction,

as of t h e p r e s e n t ,

training,

Bork

a reasonable

(1982)

level

of t h e use

t h e y must be a s s i s t e d

few t e a c h e r s

says

and t h a t

have t h e competency:

Th e p r o b l e m we
face is that
of t r a i n i n g a
large
n u m b e r o f t e a c h e r s t o make e f f e c t i v e I n s t r u c t i o n a l
u se of
th e equipment
they w ill
c o n fro n t in
the
c l a s s r o o m , t h e modern com puter equ ipm en t of
today
and t h e Immediate f u t u r e . I t is a n a t i o n a l problem
a n d o n e t h a t s h o u l d b e me t a s s o o n a s p o s s i b l e
if
we a r e t o a i d o u r t e a c h e r s ( p . 9 3 ) .
Bork a l s o
alone

is

feels

that

conventional

not a d e q u a te

t o meet

the

teacher

inservice

training

ne eds of

teachers

t o be

trained.

training

because th e re are

s i m p l y t o o many t e a c h e r s

U nfortunately

u n i v e r s i t i e s a re not

he b e l i e v e s ,

too,

"...because

mo r e b a c k w a r d t h a n
w ithin

the

the ed u catio n al

the

often

university

s c h o o ls in th e
p ro cess" (p.

92).

use

o f much

faculty are
of

the

help,
often

computer

CHAPTER I I I
RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY
Introduction
This stu d y
to study the
objectives

selected

of

uses

services

Interest.

perceptions

actually

To a c h i e v e

data

It

the

leading

that

about

Intended

their

of

policies,

training

inservice

three

interview s,

such a t r i p l e

to a c le a r e r

understanding

and

were a l s o
the

the relevance

and

uses

techniques

for

to determ ine

services

instructional

T hese were

was f e l t

study sought

and s u p p o r t

in t h e i r

th e s e aim s,

was

inservlce

The t y p e s

teachers

training

data c o lle c tio n .

teacher

it

p r o v i d e d by t h e a g e n c i e s

of cla ssro o m

from th e a g e n c i e s

survey.

for

F irstly,

to determ ine

of com puters.

Secondly,

a d e q u a c y of t h e

focus:

agencies

and g u i d e l i n e s

instructional
support

had a d u a l

they
of

receive

computers.

were p lan n e d

for

document s e a r c h ,
a p p r o a c h would
of t h e

and

yield

problem.

Study P o p u la tio n
Th e a g e n c i e s
1.

selected

for

the stu d y were:

The M i c h i g a n S t a t e D e p a r t m e n t o f E d u c a t i o n

2 . The

Ingham I n t e r m e d i a t e
Interm ediate

School D i s t r i c t

3.

The O a k l a n d

School

D istrict

4.

Regional

5.

The O a k l a n d a n d I n g h a m C o m p u t e r
T rain in g Centers

6.

The L o c a l E d u c a t i o n
Agencies (school d i s t r i c t s )
Lansing,
Oke mos ,
Ma s o n ,
Pontiac,
W aterford,
S o u t h Lyon

E d u c a t i o n a l Media C e n t e r s

Nu mb e r s

13 a n d

17

Software E v a lu a tio n /
of
and

73

B e c a u s e o f t h e r e p e a t e d m e n t i o n o f t h e T r a i n i n g Mo d u l e s
for T rain ers
Ann A r b o r
central
though

(TMT)

during

role,

it

I t was n o t

project

interview s,
was

all

all

uses

selected

are

D istricts

— Ingham

contrasted

instructional
Interm ediate

School

Instructional

computing,

For

D istrict
has

computer t r a i n i n g p r o j e c t s ,
to teacher

Apart

Michigan

well

in

their

made

an

state

for

sim ilar

agencies

D istricts

all

while
early

were s e l e c t e d

to

Oakland

entry
in

Instructional
efforts

Michigan

School

into

several

a s t r o n g c o mm i t m e n t

is

computing,

in t h e s e a r e a s

that

t h e s a me

Interm ediate

or

School

functions.

each I n t e r m e d i a t e School D i s t r i c t ,

school d i s t r i c t s

district,

In

agencies

investigator

leadership

Another c r i t e r i o n

and p e r f o r m I d e n t i c a l

Within

one u r b a n ,

exist

the

In

State

approaches

example,

of

education

from the

which th e

Ingham I n t e r m e d i a t e Sc h oo l D i s t r i c t ' s
a r e not as v l s l a b l e .

primary

Interm ediate

and e x h i b i t s

t r a i n i n g and s u p p o r t

even

to teachers

project,

and Oakland —

computing.

apparent

for study

criteria

form of t r a i n i n g

t wo

very

it

Its

Involved with p u b lic

a n d t h e TMT

w ithin

of

Michigan,

proposal.

of c o m p u te rs .

Department of E d u c a ti o n

felt

Include

share c e rta in

they a re

instructional

U n i v e r s i t y of

and b e c a u s e

decided to

and p r o v i d e one or a n o t h e r
the

the

in t h e o r i g i n a l

These a g e n c i e s
which a r e t h a t

at

three

local

f o r s t u d y and t h e s e r e p r e s e n t

one s u b u r b a n a n d one r u r a l .
t wo b u i l d i n g s w e r e s e l e c t e d

In e a c h l o c a l
for

school

t h e s t u d y on

the

74
basis

of

"High

Use"

or

I n s t r u c t i o n as d e fin e d
Finally,

all

buildings

"Low

by t h e

teachers

and

Use"

of

computers

individual

all

school

principals

at

for

d istrict.

the

selected

were t o be s u r v e y e d .
I n s t r u m e n t a l ion

For t h e
various

purpose of

agencies,

field-tested.
separate

an

Interview

The f i e l d

interview

tests

new sletters,

modules,
to

agency's

role

sources

designed
two

the

principals
and

of

less

and b o t h
ten

agency

interview ees

plans,

training

computing.

test

were

tor

for

teachers

forms were p i l o t - t e s t e d
Suggestions

Indicated

that

to complete,

personal

revised

with

lives.
the

to

the survey.

was
on

and

formats

and which

Consequently,

inform ation

A

from

teachers

com fortable with q u e stio n n a ire

their

as

classroom teach ers

schools

teachers.

tim e and e f f o r t

do w i t h

for a ll

questionnaire

the p ilo t

which ta k e

questionnaires

asked

were d e s i g n e d

of

a r e more

to

to ask

Instructional

of th e s e l e c t e d

principals

less

each

inform ation.

principals

participants

design

of docum ents and p e r t i n e n t

form
for

and

and o t h e r docum ents r e l a t i n g

in

t o be

designed
need to

to

training

the

suggestions

principals

different

was p l a n n e d

of

for

Q uestionnaires
and a l l

the

appropriate

charts,

I n t e r v i e w e e s were a l s o
other

s c h e d u l e was

publications,

organizational

their

It

with o f f i c i a l s

suggested

schedules

(Appendices A th ro u g h F ).
for

Interview s

have
the

obtained

75
from th e

pilot

consultant.
grids

tests

The

and

final

w ith the help

questionnaires

on w h i c h s u b j e c t s

were

or w r i t e

short

questions

(see Appendices G

teachers
about

answers.

per school,

120 t e a c h e r s

asked

of an

educational

consisted

m ostly

to check t h e i r

T here were

very

response
open-ended

an a v e ra g e of

10

t h e s u r v e y p o p u l a t i o n wa s e s t i m a t e d

at

and

and H ) . With

few

of

12 p r i n c i p a l s .
Data C o l l e c t i o n

sity

Because of th e broad

nature

of

it

the p a r tic ip a n ts ,

and a r r a n g e
State

prelim inary

Department

D istricts,

Coordinators
C enters,

of

D istrict

Superintendents,
Evaluation
itself.

Computer

C oordinators,

Curriculum

contacts
not

were

the

t h e p u r p o s e and n a t u r e

t o s e e k c l e a r a n c e and s u p p o r t
enabled

the

investigator

aspects

School
Centers,

School

D istrict

Research

and

In a d v a n c e of t h e s t u d y
made* I n F a l l
until

May

of t h e s t u d y
from them.

the stu d y .

1985

while

1986.

These

opportunity

to o f f i c i a l s

The c o n t a c t s

t h e names,

key p e o p l e t o
of

the

E valuation/T raining

Investigator

to o b tain

t e l e p h o n e numbers of t h e
the d if f e r e n t

well

begin

offered

Media

D irectors,

and o t h e r s

did

prelim inary contacts
explain

Regional

Software

officials

Itself

t wo

at

Interm ediate

t h e Computer

Such I n i t i a l

the study

the

contacts

with o f f i c i a l s

Education,

of

the d i v e r ­

was n e c e s s a r y t o make

interview s

of

D irectors

of t h e s t u d y and

addresses

see w ith regard
They

also

to
and

also
and
to

provided

76
inform ation about

the procedures

the study.

For

s t u d y was

obtained

Initial
of

Instance,

interview ,

formal

In

w ritten

and

calls.

principals,
d istrict

s o me

districts

and

research

teachers

i n t h e s t u d y on
during

a

board

disapproved
the

investigator

applied

U n i v e r s i t y Committee
(UCRIHS) b e f o r e

of

the

on R e s e a r c h

May

and

between

June.

questionnaires
to provide

which com pleted
was

to

May

coordinators

envelope provided

envelope

the d i s t r i c t

had

regulations,

approval

and

In

August

to te a c h e rs

of

I and J ) .
officials

1988

and

while

principals

procedure

with

the sc h o o l's

were d r o p p e d .
most

and t o

investigator.

the

Subjects

In b u lk to th e s c h o o l s

In

the sch o o ls
to the

the

(Appendices

curriculum d ire c to rs
to

of

I n v o l v i n g Human

general

anonymity.

or

questionnaires

The

questionnaires

insure

of

interview s

were c o n d u c t e d w i t h

was t o s e n d t h e m

a large

out

adm inistrators,

the

s tu d y began

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s were a d m i n i s t e r e d
In

the

subm ission

U niversity

and r e c e i v e d

interview s

agencies

the

process

participation

grounds t h a t

of

the year.

the a c tu a l

Face-to-face

the

personal
of

for

after

filling

forms,

proposal,

In keeping w ith Michigan S t a te
the

each part

a lengthy

the

request

F inally,

been o v e r- s u r v e y e d

for

verbally

required

application,

copy of t h e r e s e a r c h

phone

adopt

w h i l e c l e a r a n c e and s u p p o r t

one d i s t r i c t

appropriate d is tr ic t
of a f u l l

to

office

the
and
Into

This

procedure

d istricts,

computer

arranged

to

get

the

return

them

in

the

I n t wo s c h o o l s ,

the

77

questionnaires
schools
up a t

bad t o be d e l i v e r e d

In b u l k by t h e

a later

to

investigator

the p rin c ip a ls

o£

the

f r o m whom h e p i c k e d

them

date.

B ecause of

tim e c o n s t r a i n t s

expressed

d istrict

as a r e s u l t

a slight

d e p a r t u r e h a d t o b e made t o t h i s

The I n v e s t i g a t o r
D istrict

took

to the

Investigator

could
mall

the

fill
them

to

explaining

them out a f t e r
directly

worked as w e l l as t h e

study

investigator

and

principals,
from th e

to the

the

of

guarantees

the purpose of

interview s

was o v e r

letter

from

principals

the

year

and

This

compromise

was a c c o m p a n i e d

by a l e t t e r

procedure.

out

explaining
of

major

the

delivered

and
for

to

sta m p e d and

then

teachers

legitim acy

and

introduction
for

L etters

introduction

professor

These

t h e p u r p o s e of

anonymity.

had a t t a c h e d

Education.

In b u lk

investigator.

briefly

In a d d i t i o n ,

procedure:

w ith a cover

that

original

in v e stig a to r's

Department
served

the

general

The d i s t r i c t

school

Each q u e s t i o n n a i r e s e n t
from t h e

schedule,

O ffice with envelopes,

the schools

school

year

questionnaires

investigator.

the q u e stio n n a ire s
the

of a b usy e n d - o f - s c h o o l

S u p erin ten d en t's

addressed

by one

the

( s e e A p p e n d ic e s K t h r o u g h N).

to

letters

from t h e
letters

Investigator

the

State
also
during

78
P r o c e d u r e and Coding Frame f o r
Inform ation
rized

o b t a i n e d by I n t e r v i e w s

and r e l e v a n t

analysis

Data A n a ly s is

data ex tracted

where t h i s

Q uestionnaire
follow ing c r i t e r i a :
value of computers

was s t u d i e d ,

from

It

for

summa­

statistical

wa s n e c e s s a r y .
items were
Items
tor

hand-coded a c c o rd in g

such as t e a c h e r s '

instruction

rating

were g i v e n t h e

to

the

of

the

follow ing

w eights:
1
2
3
4

=
3
=
3

of no v a l u e
of l i t t l e v a l u e
of m o d e r a te v a l u e
of g r e a t v a l u e

Sim ilarly,

items

involvement

in computer r e l a t e d

1 to

4 w ith 1 3 not
A "yes"

as

concerning

1* T h i s

which

a

response

is

was

through

sco red as

num erical

rating

activ ities

in keeping w ith th e

higher

"favorable"

Involved,

teachers'

is

their

were s c o r e d

4 3 highly

from

Involved.

2 and a "no"

overall

value

of

response

coding

frame

in

associated

with

a

r e s p o n s e and a lower one w i t h a " l e s s

favorable"

response.
Total
item and,
overall

number
in

sone

of

respondents
cases,

(N) d i f f e r s

actually
one

seems

survey population

for

Not a l l q u e s t i o n s
respondent s

were a p p l i c a b l e

from Item

to

or more of t h e

reasons:
1.

to a ll

exceed

to
the

follow ing

79
2.

Respondents

were g i v e n more t h a n one c h o i c e

3. R e s p o n d e n ts were a s k e d t o r a t e
posslbilItles
In

calculating

Inservlce
the

use

inservlce

questionnaire

were

a rotational

basis

unquant i f i a b l e .

computers for

gave

answerssuch

Instruction,

training

only

Schools

were e x c l u d e d

that

on t h e

amount

some

as

month"

which

quantified

for s t a t i s t i c a l
teachers'

In

the

computers

on

were

of t im e a

a week,

a

In
who

responses

i n s t r u c t i o n in
"once

spend

listed

share

because

of

teachers

from th e a g e n c ie s

included.

I t e m 12 o f t h e
as

for

For exam ple,

uses

correctly

r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e amount

t r a i n i n g and t h e amount of t im e t e a c h e r s
of computers

received

scored

the

a number of

class

respondents
cannot

be

uses.

questionnaire

( A p p e n d i x G) was

follow s:
1/2 day
- 3 hours
f u l l day
= 6 hours
1 we e k
= 30 h o u r s
1 s e m e s t o r / t e r m = 40 h o u r s

This

is

b a s e d on

inservlce

training

noon,

full

p.m.

and

with a

full-day
term
or

3

least

is

actual

field

sessions

from

break.

One

f o r a f i v e - d a y week.
based

college

on 2 c o l l e g e
credit

10 w e e k s .

inservlce

Thus

training,

hours
if
this

whereby

half-day

n o rm a lly run from 9 a.m .

day s e s s i o n s

one-hour

practice

about

9a.m .

we e k s e s s i o n s

F o rty hours

credit
a

till

20

week p l u s p r a c t l c u m ,

was c o m p u t e d a s

or

weeks
for

3 half-days

9 hours

4

usually

for a sem ester

reported

12

about

are

h o u r s a we e k f o r

a respondent

to

<3 X 3 ) .

at
of

80
Grade l e v e l

taught

was s c o r e d

K indergarten
G r a d e One
G r a d e Two
Grade Three
Grade Pour
Grade F ive
Grade S ix

= 1
=2
=3
=4
- 5
=6
=7

teaches

v a l u e was u s e d .

For

example,

levels

this

wa s w e i g h t e d a s ( 4

For
ficient
of

2 grade

follow s:

When a t e a c h e r

3 a n d 4,

at

as

the c a lc u la tio n

if

as an

i e n c e was s c o r e d

a teacher

teaches

+5 ) / 2

of P e a r s o n ' s

as

instructional

-

There a re

fewer

session

in t h e m orning and one

t h e y h a n d l e t wo c l a s s e s
grade

middle s c h o o ls

these

teachers

(2)

teachers

of t h e

teaching

value
exper­

(N = 8 )

actually

in the a f t e r n o o n .

of s t u d e n t s

( 1 ) Some t e a c h e r s

were coded as5 . 5 .

coef­

1
2
3
= 4

kindergarten teachers

elem entary schools

6th

4.5.

correlation

tool,

5 years
=
- 1 0 years
«
- 15 y e a r s
=
y e a r s or more

i n most

number of

grade

follow s:
0
6
11
16

their

th e average coding

on t e a c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e a n d p e r c e p t i o n s

the computer

factors;

levels,

(N

in

- 3)

teach grade

t e a c h one
Therefore,

one d a y .
Ls

because

The

explained

levels

5 and

Three of th e d i s t r i c t s surveyed

and t h e r e f o r e ,

elem entary schools.

have

no

6thgrade

small
by

two

6 and so
have

classes

In

81
Th e S t a t e
experience
compares

Department

of

teachers

g a v e t h e mean n u m b e r o f y e a r s

as

15

with

which th e

study

of
data

favorably.
Data A n a l y s i s

Data
subjected

obtained

from the

s t u d y were

t o summary s t a t i s t i c a l

perso n al computer.

analyses

The r e s u l t s

the rese a rc h q u estio n s

26 o t

dissertation.

P earso n 's
determ ine
outlined

correlational

the r e la tio n s h ip s
In Chapter

of s i g n i f i c a n c e .
inservlce

computer as

an

for

teachers'

desire

instruction;
teachers'

perceptions

Instructional

tool;

tool;

grade

level

spend

In

sc h o o l's

of

Identification

23 t h r o u g h

about

tool;

the

spend

of

of

of
the

Inservlce
th e use

of

training

and

th e computer

for

experience

and

teaching

level

of
in

level

amount

value

Inservlce

time u sin g

.05

were:

amount

teachers
of

the

of th e

computer as

taught

and

an

teachers'

of th e computer as an i n s t r u c t i o n a l

taught
of

at

Interest

the value

grade

of t h e v a l u e

use

years

of

perceptions

the

dissertation

amount

t o s p e n d mor e
of

pages

provide

as

of tim e

n u mb e r

at

to

b e t w e e n a number o f v a r i a b l e s

perceptions

Instruction;

128

to

instructional

computers

using a Laser

were c a l c u l a t e d

The v a r i a b l e s

t r a i n i n g and amount

listed

coefficients

1 of t h i s

t r a i n i n g and

and

were t a b u l a t e d

answers to
this

aggregated

and

t h e amount

computers
as

for

a h i g h or

of

time

Instruction;

low u se s c h o o l

teachers
and
and

a
the

82

percentage

of

questionnaires

calculated

to t e s t

returned.

a possible re la tio n sh ip

ow nership of a p e r s o n a l computer
for

A

chi-square

was

between t e a c h e r s '

and t h e t r

use of

computers

Instruction.
Summary
There were

consisted

of

responsible
second

t wo p o p u l a t i o n s

agencies
for

Involved

teacher

for

this

study.

with p u b lic

computer

first

education

and

training.

The

and p r i n c i p a l s

who

inservlce

p o p u l a t i o n was c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s

The

were s u r v e y e d .
In

order

to

obtain the

of th e problem of t h i s
data c o lle c tio n :
The i n s t r u m e n t s
and r e v i s e d .
descriptive

interview s,
for

the

statistical

and d i s t r i b u t i o n

test

study,

document

of c o r r e l a t i o n

search,

understanding
were used
and

for

survey.

and s u r v e y were p r e t e s t e d

were a g g r e g a t e d

analyses

on I t e m s

possible

th ree approaches

interview s

Data c o l l e c t e d

coefficients

fullest

and s u b j e c t e d

to

to determ ine the

frequency

of t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s .

P earson’s

were c a l c u l a t e d

and a c h i - s q u a r e

was p e r f o r m e d t o e x p l o r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s

b e t w e e n a number

of var t a b l e s .
The r e s u l t s
Chapter

IV w h i l e

and s u g g e s t i o n s
further

research.

of

the

Chapter V
for

data

analyses

are

Is a d i s c u s s i o n

teacher

inservlce

presented

of t h e

training

In

findings
and

for

CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS AND RESULTS OF DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
This c h a p te r
of th e d a ta
headings:

ot the d is s e r ta tio n

analysis
(a)

(b) A nalysis

and

Findings
of

priate

to

arising
on t h e

presented

Q uestionnaires

interview s,
each

and

In th e c o u rs e
interview

follow ing

with the

Agencies,

adm inistered

Classroom

in terv iew schedules

agencies

of th e

to

< c ) S u mma r y .

separate

of the

with the r e s u l t s

under th e

froo Interview s

T each ers and P r i n c i p a l s ,
In th e

is

deals

were used

interview s

but

s c h e d u l e were p ursued

and

appro­

questions

not

necessarily

to o b tain a

fuller

understanding.
Two s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s
to

take

Office

part

in t h e

— L a n s i n g and P o n t i a c — d e c l i n e d

study.

of E v a lu a tio n S e rv ic e s

over-surveyed
Appendix

O ).

coordinating
Investigator

on

computers

In

principals

and

the

official

ot

participated.

School

that

teachers

the

school

D istrict
had

been

year

(see

official

responsible

for

computing

granted

the

a n i n t e r v i e w a n d was g i v e n q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

the

instead

the

instructional

A pparently,

ot the

stated
during

Pontiac,

the sc h o o ls.

portion

The L a n s i n g

the q u e stio n n a ire s

teachers

proved

futile.

study,

a total

and s e v e r a l

never

attem pts

Consequently,

for

of

school

four

eight schools

local

reached
to

the

of

reach
survey

d istricts

six,

and

Apart

f r o m r e d u c i n g t h e number o f d i s t r i c t s
83

Instead

for

twelve

84
and t h e number of t e a c h e r s
these re fu s a ls

did

results

stu d y as

the agencies

in

the

listed

Questions

is

Q uestion

order

at

from

of th e

and

possible

26 e x c e p t

with

the

throughout

the

the

the data

research questions

21 on c o m p a r i n g t e a c h e r s '

discussed

f o l l o w e d by

18 a r e p r e s e n t e d

Interview s

the study,

the study.

first,

As much a s
of th e

for

I n t e r v i e w s and document

presented

p a g e s 23 t h r o u g h

1 t h r o u g h 4,

"Findings

is

findings

of d a ta a n a l y s i s .

presented

planned

not a d v e r s e ly a f f e c t

A summary o t t h e
search at

originally

of

that

Is
the

Research

together

under

A gencies."

Research

and p r i n c i p a l s '

responses

data

presentation

where

applicable.
Findings

from I n te r v ie w s

Research Q uestions

1 through

w ith th e Agencies

4

P o l i c i e s , g u i d e l i n e s , p h i l o s o p h i e s , o b j e c t i v e s and
o rg an iz atio n ot
the agencies
and t h e i r
training
programs
Findings
Interview s
various

agencies

with o f f i c i a l s
indicate

p o l i c y on i n s t r u c t i o n a l
Th e

Michigan

D istricts
percent

there

I s no d e f i n i t i v e

computing or e d u c a tio n a l

State

recommendations t o

that

and document s e a r c h e s

local

Department
d istricts

but c u rric u lu m d e c isio n s

of lo c a l d i s t r i c t

budgets

of
and
are

at

the
state

technology.

E ducation

ma k e s

Interm ediate

School

l o c a l l y made 3 l n c e 70

come f r o m l o c a l

taxes.

86
There a re

no s t a t e d

Instructional

for

level.

objectives

requirem ents

computing but

certificatio n
secondary

state

for

the

teachers

of

Consequently)

teacher

state

tor

Is

teachers

hoping to

computer

training

in the

require

science

there are also

tor

at

the

no s t a t e - l e v e l

Instructional

uses

of

com puters.
The

regional

( TIME) c e n t e r s ,
th e Regional

project

at

training

trainers

The

teachers

classroom

It

train

other

to tr a i n

TIME r e g i o n )

Its

In

project

trainers
at

first

Instructional

Modules

In becoming t r a i n e r s .

least

two

claimed

and

for

for

50 t r a i n e r s

to have

provide

that

and c la s s r o o m

years.

(TMT)

p e o p l e who

Intended

By t h e

of

trainers

Trainers

trains

ot

uses

not d i r e c t l y

Is

the

s o me f o r m

p ro v id e workshops

but

(ISDs),

(REMCs),

provide

In th e

teachers

w ill

the

all

of M ichigan does

TMT was e x p e c t e d

study,

School D i s t r i c t s

(LEAs)

T raining

U niversity

for

Interested

for

E valuation/T raining

Media C e n t e r s

The TIME c e n t e r s

teachers.

Software

Interm ediate

Agencies

training

computers.
and

the

Educational

Local E ducation
inservlce

Computer

are
these

teachers.

(10 from each
time

already

of

this

trained

200

tra iners.
Interm ediate
part

of

public

incorporate

a

School D i s t r i c t s

school
number

Education Agencies)

but

(ISDs) a re a

adm inistration
of
as

local

school

one o f f i c i a l

" e x e r c i s e a u t h o r i t y by p e r m i s s i o n "

In

over

structural

M ichigan.
districts

put
local

it,

ISDs
(Local

ISDs

districts.

only

86

In

instructional

In p l a n n i n g

inservlce

dem onstrations
ISDs a l s o
Figure
Fall

carry

out

1988 t e a c h e r

th e Oakland

in

REHC

Inservlce

media

into

the

to see

teachers

inservlce
such as

to

and

offer

b u t by

by

ot

of

to

school
in

ot

esta­
provide

districts.
a number

ISDs,

in

the

the

ISD,

REMC

t h e REMC

I SD a n d

It

of
most

Oakland where t h e

Is

the

some f o r m o f
nature

is

product-oriented

graphics

fits
often

To c o o r d i n a t e

REMCs h a v e a n a d v i s o r y g r o u p
interview ed

responsibility
computing l i e s

for

with the

Includes

and

their

agree

training

functions,

and

and d e s i g n ,

activities

agencies

inservlce

of t h e i r

production.

instructional

the

published

A c t 55

those

television

the

from

t h e REMC a s a s e p a r a t e a g e n c y .

computer

analysis,

teachers.

(REMCs) w e r e

while

such as

those

structure

training

The

local

schedule

perforin
softw are.

offerings

local

approxim ate

with

T h e REMCs a l s o
for

for

M ichigan P u b lic

In a r e a s

coincide

and

School D i s t r i c t .

counties,

boundaries

overall

difficult

training

services

up o f

c a s e s t h e y do n o t .
boundaries

training

E d u c a t i o n a l Media C e n t e r s

REMCs a r e made
areas

teachers,

Septem ber and O c to b e r

1970 u n d e r

instructional

for

local d i s t r ic t s

co m pu ter h a rd w a r e and

Inservlce

Interm ediate

Regional

ISOs a s s i s t

training

of a v a i l a b l e

2 shows t h e

blished

computing,

REMC
skills

computers
d istrict

in

level

in each d i s t r i c t .
that

teacher
local

in

the

training

district.

final
In

87
SEPTEMBER
D ate(s)

Time

22
23

8:30am-5:30pu
4 - 6 :30pm

25

3:30-5;30pi

30

4-8pm

Course Name

Locat i on

Physi cs Workshop
Using THE FACTORY
and o t h e r s of t wa r e
t o t eaoh problem
solving: Application
of Computers In t he
Curriculum
Introduction to
Desktop P u b l i s h i n g
I n t e g r a t i o n of Com­
p u t i n g I n t o t h e Sec­
ondary Language Arts
and S o c i a l St udi es
Classroom - A MinlConference

MLAB, OS
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FREE

Rm 325,OS

FREE

Rm 315, OS

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Fee

OCTOBER
1
2
2

9a*~3:30pi
1 : 30-4pm
4-8 pm

6,7,8,9
9am~noon
13, 14, 18
3 : 3 0 - 6 : 30pm
1 6 , 2 3 , 2 8 , 30 9am-noon
20,24,29,3
l:30-4pm
21
22

3: 30-5;30pi
l-4pm

23

4-8 pa

2 9 , 3 0 , 1 1 / 3,
6 and 10

4-6:30pi

Meet t h e Macintosh
IBM PC-An I n t r o .
Computing for Middle
School Computing
Teachers - A MlnlConference
Lotus 1- 2- 3
AppleWorks
Lotus 1-2-3 Advanc.
Word Pr o c e s s i n g
wi t h WordStar
PageMaker-An I n t r o .
Using t h e I n t e r ­
a c t i v e Vtdeodlsk
I n t e g r a t i o n of Com­
p u t i n g Int o t he Mid.
School Curri cul um A Mini-Conference
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SOURCE; Oakland Schools, ETC, Volume 4, No. 1, Sept /Oct 1986.
Fi g u r e 2: Computing and Technology F a l l Course Of f e r i n g s 1986
for t h e Months of September and October

88
Even

where

there

Interm ediate
Center

or

is

has

to

teacher
d istrict

local
Is

Instruction.

studied

w ritten

and

classroom .

sequences as
different

to

Instruction at
levels

3 to

T hree of

of

and

computer

d istricts

have

elem entary
level

is

fact
Is

of

in

local

computers
d istricts

have

w ritten
in

the

w ritte n scope
about

and

teachers

local

all

Center,

effort

instruction

be ta u g h t

the elem entary

this

them t o use
four

Media

d istrict.

to provide

the

the

and

computers

at

education.

Computer

concentrated

on g r a d e

6.

Three

of th e

local

which have a d v i s o r y
instruction.

Two

e l e m e n t a r y and
involves

is

to enable

what s h o u l d

grades

local

The o b j e c t i v e

training

for

of t h e

the

appreciate

philosophies,

objectives
Three

by

training.

skills

for classroom

goals

from

Educational

where th e g r e a t e s t

Inservlce

w ith the e s s e n t ia l

have

a Regional

d istricts

inservlce

computer

assistance

Software E v a lu a tio n /T ra in in g

local d i s t r i c t
computer

tor

be a r t i c u l a t e d

Responses show t h a t
the

need

School D i s t r i c t ,

a Computer

t h e need

that

a

districts

functions

on

these

have

of

secondary

adm inistrators,

coordinators.

One d i s t r i c t

representatives

on i t s

One d i s t r i c t
have p a r t - t im e

have computer
the uses

teachers
also

of computers

for

committees

for

separate

education.

has

committees

Committee

membership

and

computer

community and

student

computer com m ittee.

has a f u l l - t i m e

coordinators

computer c o o r d i n a t o r ,

a n d one h a s n o n e ,

the

Job

t wo
being

89
p e r f o r m e d by t h e A s s i s t a n t
Personnel.
for

One d i s t r i c t

elem entary,

interest,

has

and

coordinators are

Superintendent

for

classroom

teach in g background,

teachers

worked a s

u n i v e r s i t y and has e l e c t r o n i c s
th e computer c o o r d i n a to r
a coordinator
found t h a t
teachers

schools.

who

Three

experience,
coordinator
processor
I n one

activ ities

In

qualifications

Instructional

has a
at

such

d istricts.

who

Is

The s t u d y

are

classroom

also

programs

training

The

a

qualities.

computing

o f more i n s e r v l c e

or

d istrict,

adm inistrator

leadership

one

o r h a v e t e a c h i n g b a c k g r o u n d s a r e more e f f e c t i v e

t h e r e was e v i d e n c e

and

Im plications

of th e computer c o o r d in a to r

w ill

in
as

support
of

the

be d i s c u s s e d

next c h a p te r.
In t h r e e

are

a data

as a hobby.

coordinators

coordinating d i s t r i c t

in th e

w ith

Is a d i s t r i c t

b e c a u s e of her

computer

secondary

The o n l y f u l l - t i m e

has

C u r r i c u l u m and

two c o m p u t e r c o o r d i n a t o r s ,

one

In c o m p u te r s .

for

of

responsible

parents

are

d istricts

for

used

arrangem ent

of
—

the

as

local

d istricts,

computer

instruction,

computer a i d e s .

computer

hardware

Network/Computer

C lassro o m Computers

(2).

classroom
while

Two t y p e s
were

Lab

(One d i s t r i c t

of

reported

(3)

and

uses

teachers
in

physical
by

a co m b in atio n of

18

The
support
services
t e a c h e r s by t h e a g e n c i e s

provided

to

the

Stand-alone

both).
Research Question

one,

classroom

90
Flndinga.
In 1984
established

th e M ichigan

the

Technology

project

and d i v i d e d

regions

are

groups

the
of

of

o r more

is

for

areas.

curriculum areas

and s h a r e s

regions

form

Trainers

ot

A six th center

(TMT)

at

support se rv ice s
of t r a i n i n g

the

modules

such

responsibility

special

because

expected to

of

Inventory

deal

w ith,

computer-,

language-,

so as

be

to

the

to

interm ediate d i s t r i c t

needs.

modules

9)*

(se e Appendix

the

its
other

what

Is
In

th e T r a i n i n g Modules

for

of

Michigan,

from a l l

audiences

modules

building,

provides

development

TIME r e g i o n s .

are

or s o f t w a r e - s p e c i f i c

applicable

in

and

a r e shown

of th e d e s ig n and

the heterogenous

Is

education,

In v e n to r y showing
an

trainers

one

(SEMTEC)

m o d u l e s d e v e l o p e d b y TBIT a r e r e s o u r c e m a t e r i a l s
and,

for

Consortium

o f TIME,

form

for

of c o m p u te rs .

SouthEastern

U niversity

In t h e

(ISDs)

evaluates softw are

an

These

evaluation

such inform ation with

of

Three pages

Appendix P.

TIME r e g i o n s .

School D i s t r i c t s

science,

region

(TIME)

example, th e

Education

Each

available.

5

classroom uses

For

m athem atics,

the

Into

in th e

problem s o lv in g .

In

Education

M ichigan E d u c a tio n

charged w ith the

Technology

responsible

of

f o r t h e p u r p o s e of s o f t w a r e

curriculum

Michigan

state

teachers

E a c h TIME r e g i o n

In

Department

Interm ediate

which form c o n s o r t i a
and t r a i n i n g

State

tor

The

trainers

trainers
not

audience-,

but are

local

are

designed

district

TMT

has

developed

Trainers

are

free

14

to pick

or
such

Ideas

91
from

different

modules

to

create

their

own

training

packages.
F u n d i n g f o r t h e TIME p r o j e c t
n o r's

discretionary

Department
project

ot

was

In

year and o f f i c i a l s

second

fo r a 3rd

project

is

that

computing.

These

which

provide

money d i r e c t l y
under S e c tio n

has

the

98 f u n d i n g .

the

$28

It

State

study,

federal

State

Department

for

ot S tate
per

for

of

Instructional
Ai d

Act

student
also

provides

funds

about

political

for

provides

instructional

also

it

next c h a p te r .

extra

for

the

hoped t h a t

ne w

The D e partm ent

d istricts

and a d m i n i s t e r s

In th e

disbursem ent

about

the

the

created

incentives

activities*
to

of

gover­

A p oint worth n o tin g

project,

other

include

com puter-related

it

tim e

be d i s c u s s e d

f r o m t h e TIME
provides

teachers,

year.

by t h e

from

Its

Education

funds

grants

By t h e

b o u n d a rie s which w i l l
Apart

and

Education.

would be funded
t h e TIME

funds

was p r o v i d e d

computing

m inigrants

to

math and s c i e n c e

computer p r o j e c t s .
There

is

an a d v i s o r y com m ittee f o r

the

S t a t e Department

for

e a c h TIME r e g i o n .

t h e TIME p r o j e c t

o t E d u c a t i o n and an a d v i s o r y
At t h e

state

level,

there

M i c r o c o m p u t e r N e t w o r k C o m m i t t e e . Two D e p a r t m e n t
officials

act

as

Through th e

liaisons

between th e

d istricts

committee
is

also

of E d u c a t i o n

s t a t e - s p o n s o r e d M ichigan S ta te w id e

have

access

to

a

t wo c o m m i t t e e s .

co m m unications Access t o R e so u rc e s Network
local

at

the

(M -Star)

national

Tele­

project,
D iffusion

92
Network

which

satellite

dissem inates

once a month.

can be e x p e n siv e becau se
for

the p ro je c ts

has a rra n g e d
trainers

Adopting

via
ideas

in t r a i n e r s

However,

the

state

to bring

in

for such p r o je c ts .

d istricts

School D i s t r i c t s

in

a number

specialist

assistance

m atters

of c u r r i c u l u m p l a n n i n g .

d istricts

such s p e c i a l i s t s

in p la n n in g

for

softw are

can

preview

of l o c a l

(REMC).

Computer

d istricts
training

d istricts.
follow ing

For

for

They

In one

specialized

They

ISDs p a y

ISDs s t u d i e d

also

regularly

the

the

Oakland

support

programs;

for

studied,
Center

various

services

S pecial E ducation.
programs

vendors

I SDs

to discuss

ISD

where

negotiate

E d u c a t i o n a l Media
from

local

Inservlce
for

has o p e ra te d
OakTech f o r
In a d d i t i o n ,

Business

in

local

teachers.

of t h e

ISDs p r o v i d e s p e c i a l i z e d

ACCESS f o r

they a s s i s t

h a rd w a r e and s o f t w a r e

coordinators

example,

which

consultants

for classroom use.

th e Regional

instructional

and P r o j e c t

districts

as

Secondly,

m aterials.

w i t h i n a n ISD m e e t
needs.

act

to

provide

t o r h a r d w a r e and s o f t w a r e

d istricts.

Is done th ro u g h

local

they

e v a l u a t i o n and one of t h e

purchasing arrangem ents w ith
on b e h a l f

and

softw are

has a d e m o n s tra tio n c e n te r
teachers

to

First,

inservlce tra in in g

p r e v i e w and s e l e c t

teachers

(ISDs) p ro v id e su p p o rt

of ways.

have

ISD h a s

bringing

the s t a t e .

do not

this

work"

t o p a y up t o 9 6 , 0 0 0 f o r a d i s t r i c t

subject-area

also

that

some o f t h e p r o j e c t

I t may r e q u i r e

from o u ts id e

Interm ediate
local

"programs

Education

local
the
K-12,
the
and

93
V ocational
manuals
their

Training*

Finally

on s p e c i f i c

softw are

I SDs

Issue

packages

new sletters

to.

and

help teachers

in

c l a s s r o o m wor k*
Th e R e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l

sition

and

dissem ination centers

m aintain c o lle c tio n s
and t o

Media C e n t e r s a r e

preview.

of s o f t w a r e

They

softw are

buildings.

REMCs p r o v i d e

buildings

on a v a i l a b l e

purchases

from v e n d o r s .

audiovisual m aterials

local

D istricts

studied,

arrangem ents

with

A ssociations

t h e PTA f o r

on t h e i r

that

direct

The l o c a l
for

facilitate

of books and

that

and

one

is

its

school

Ot t h e

Whereas

However,
are

of
4

the
local

purchasing

Parent/Teacher

hardware p urchase
almost

their

softw are

behalf.

computer

entirely

com puter p u r c h a s e b e c a u s e of
for

and

such arrangem ents

d istricts.

dealers.

studied,

funds a v a i l a b l e

computers

have

(PTAs) s u p p l e m e n t

the d i s t r i c t s

d istricts

libraries

make h a r d w a r e

by l o c a l

t wo

as
and

b y t h e REMC w h o s e r o l e a n d t h a t

o fte n confused

d istricts

local

such

d istricts

in t h e s t u d y r e p o r t e d

interview s

ISD a r e

with

schools.

it

coordinated

to

They m a i n t a i n

w ith vendors

actually

t o work

h a rd w a r e and s o f t w a r e and

for

from o th e r

They

m aterials
local

acqui­

schools.

teachers

for

purchase arrangem ents
appears

local

ot

inform ation

Two o f t h e d i s t r i c t s
School

for

make c o p i e s

p u b lic -d o m a in computer

Interm ediate

for

Ideal

in t h r e e

dependent

of
on

Inadequate d i s t r i c t

computer program.
d istricts

instruction

studied

Introduced

b e t w e e n 1978 a n d 1 9 8 2 .

m icro­

In one,

the

94
i n t r o d u c t i o n c a me t h r o u g h a n i n t e r e s t e d
one by a

school

librarian,

and

in

a third

g ro u p of e l e m e n t a r y s c h o o l t e a c h e r s .
the

fourth

d istrict,

m icrocomputers

was

the

effected

by

repaid
to

purchase

t h e bank

interest

at

one s t u d i e d

collection
computing
for

for

teachers

distribution

distributes
softw are

w hile

sheets,

packages

pressure
case

high

his

in

school
money

program

That d i s t r i c t

project
is

and
led

th e only

computer c o o r d i n a t o r .
studied

two p u b l i s h
teachers.
w orksheets,

m aintains
to

own

instructional

local

new sletters

One l o c a l
and

its

d istrict

manuals

for

to classroom te a c h e rs.

findings

have

support

services

training

and

studied.

These fin d in g s

the su b ject

in

Instructional

of h is

books r e l a t i n g

to classroom

idea

These

are

level.

districts

J o u r n a ls and

for

The s u c c e s s

which has a f u l l - t i m e

of

of

zealous

m icrocom puters

the d i s t r i c t

by a

who p e r s o n a l l y b o r r o w e d

i n t wo y e a r s .

One o f t h e l o c a l

a

principal;

In an u n u su a l

Introduction

community e d u c a t i o n d i r e c t o r
from a bank t o

school

ot

im plications

on

provided

by

and rec o m m e n d a tio n s

the
the
based

Inservlce
agencies
on

them

the next c h a p te r.

A nalysis

of Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

A d m i n i s t e r e d t o C l a s s r o o m Teacher_s_and P r i n c i p a l s
A total

of

100 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

elem entary classroom
giving a re tu rn

rate

teachers
of

were a d m i n i s t e r e d

of which

77 p e r c e n t .

77

Of t h o s e

were

to

returned

returned,

two

95
were not u s a b l e

tor data

J o i n t l y by two
answers

to

teachers

principals

Internally.

(72%) o t

th ey use computers
T w e n t y - t h r e e or
have p e rs o n a l

taking school
responded

an

computers a t

computers

the

home;

home

home,

be

the

were s e n t

to

tlve

said

21 (28%) d o

not.

teachers

reported

52 o t t h e m ( 6 9 . 3 % )
p o l i c y on

ot the six

teachers
total

about
that

have

six
23

may,

are

principals

allowed

teachers

to

teaohers

indicate

that

opportunity
own .

not allowed

per

who
take

personal

not

take

alm ost

75

to

However,

school

c o m p u t e r home I n t h e s i x m o n t h s p r e c e d i n g
have
chapter.

that

no t e a c h e r

im plications

hands-on

one

to take

computers

school
percent

have

school

computers

s c h o o ls which a llo w t e a c h e r s

indicated

school.

have

school

in the next

do

teachers

o t 33 t e a c h e r s

therefore,

on t h e i r

teachers are

These fin d in g s

they

the

in computing

that

surveyed

home I n t h e s i x m o n t h s p r e c e d i n g

figures
do

home a n d t wo o f t h e

cussed

grossly

had

and

teachers

experience

to

who

ot

tact

the

about school

that

average

computers a t

reported

ot

w hile

home w h i l e

were a sked

computers

Considering

the

tilled

resp o n d en t's

questionnaires

Instruction

home a n d r e p o r t e d a

taken school

of

tor

Indicated

computers

considered

classroom teachers

30.7 p e rc en t

P rincipals

study,

w ere one

on whloh t h e

were

Eight

These

o t which s i x were r e t u r n e d .

Fltty-tour

computers

and one

some q u e s t i o n s

inconsistent

not.

analysis.

to

had

borrow
taken

a

the study.

which w i l l

be

dis­

96

R e s e a r c h _ Q u e s 1 1 on 6
To w h a t e x t e n t w e r e t e a c h e r s i n v o l v e d i n
planning
th e in tr o d u c ti o n ot computers in t h e i r b u i ld in g s ?
Research Question 6
To w h a t e x t e n t a r e t e a c h e r s p r e s e n t l y
com puter-related a c tiv i tie s ?

involved

in

Elndlngs
G enerally,
moderately
computers

teachers

involved
in t h e i r

in

they

Table 7.1

is a

Research

Question

6

involvement

in

Indicate that

(64.2%)

However,

a slightly

they

are

in

and

software s e le c tio n .

feel

responses

with

out

in m atters
of

or

were
ot

percent
6

shows

to

this

responses

their

activ ities.

higher percentage
highly

32.8

Involved. Table

deals

left

they

introduction

summar y o f t e a c h e r s *

the planning

either

that

However,

their

com puter-related

purchase

feel

were no t

which

teachers

the

(44.8%).

of t e a c h e r s

question.

felt

planning

buildings

ot the te a c h e rs sa id
the d i s tr ib u tio n

surveyed

The

to

present
figures

of

hardware

Inservlce

(63.5%).

of t e a c h e r s

moderately

(54.4%)

Involved

in

97
TABLE 6 : T e a c h e r s * R a t i n g o f T h e i r I n v o l v e m e n t I n t h e
I n t r o d u c t i o n of I n s t r u c t i o n a l C om puters

No,

( Ns 5 8 )
of Teachers

Highly Involved
M oderately Involved
S l i g h t l y Involved
Not I n v o l v e d

TABLE

7.1:

M oderately
Involved

57

16(28.1)

15(26.3)

11(19.3)

15(26.3)

53
52

10(18.9)
10(19.2)

6(11.3)
12(23.1)

3( 5 . 7 )
10(19.2)

34(64.2)
20(38.5)

10(19.2)

4( 7 . 7 )

33(63.5)

52

5(

On t h e s a m e

9.6)

p l a n n i n g of
the

q u e stio n s above,

teachers

Introduction

of

were m o d e r a te l y

com puters.

Inservlce,

Involvement

S lightly
Involved

In

Highly
Involved

(P e rc e n ta g e s a re In p a re n th e s e s
ro u n d e d t o one d e c i m a l p l a c e . )

that

13.8
44.8
8.6
32.8

8
26
5
19

T e a c h e r s ' R a t i n g of T h e i r In v o lv e m e n t
Com puter-Related A c t i v i t i e s

Software
S e l e c t Ion
Hardware
Purchase
SchedulIng
Planning
Inservlce

feel

-3 L .

all

principals

or n o n - in v o lv e m e n t

and have been

principals

or h i g h l y

On h a r d w a r e

Not
Involved

surveyed

Involved

purchase

and

were e v e n ly d i v i d e d
of t e a c h e r s .

in the

as

the
to

98
As a
teachers

further

In

probe of

com puter-related

In serv lce schedules

offered

first

by t e a c h e r s

principals.

and

scheduling

after-school
teachers

during

workshops.
choices

and

When

of

computer

after

choices,

school
57

after-school,

ranked

a n d summer

three

TABLE 7 . 2 :

groups

give

types

of

districts

was
made

d istricts

release
t wo

tim e

have
to

to

summer

rank

their

six

who

two gave r e l e a s e

time

and

first

of

for

the

choice.

release

workshops as

a r e summarized

the

workshops

three

n o n e made e v e n i n g w o r k s h o p s a f i r s t
the

of

four

were r e q u e s t e d

workshops as

teachers

the

while

scheduling,

Involvement

In serv lce schedule
of

Three

r e s p o n d e d c h o s e summer w o r k s h o p s ,
one,

school

Inservlce

hours

principals

workshop

of

All

evenings.

of

activities,

choices

school

level

by l o c a l

compared w ith th e

reported

the

Given th e

tim e,
first

option.

six

option,

s a me
chose
while

The r e s p o n s e s

In T a b l e 7 . 2 .

Workshop S c h e d u l e s O f f e r e d by D i s t r i c t s , and
P r i n c i p a l s 1 and T e a c h e r s ' F i r s t P r e f e r e n c e s

Workshop
Schedule

A fter-School
Evening
R e l e a s e Ti me
Summer
Saturday

No. o f D i s t r i c t s
O ffe rin g Schedule
(Na 4)

4
4
3
2
-

1st P reference
P r in c ip a ls I Teachers
(N=8 )
1
( N=75)
1
1

6 ( 8%)

-

-

2
3
-

57 (76%)
6 < 8%)
1 ( 1%)

of

99
The

disparities

In

Table

7.2

c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h o s e who p l a n
those

f o r whom t h e y a r e

planned

w i l l be d i s c u s s e d

in th e

Rgaearch S u c t i o n

7

next

Indicate

lack

of

i n s e r v l c e w o r k s h o p s and

(teachers).

The I m p l i c a t i o n s

chapter.

How w e l l
are
teachers
Informed
d istrict
policies
relating
to
computlng?

about
local
Instructional

Find Inga
Often,
resources

school a d m in istra to rs

about

a re unaware.
available

districts

and

To

t h o s e who a r e

measure

In t h e i r

which of th e

total

which

items

teachers'

districts,
in

Table

have w ith reg a rd

t h o s e who

8

teachers

training.

a r e aw are of

a re aware
sequence,
hand,

ot

and s u g g e s t e d

in t h is

A comparison
Indicate

that

not

activities
that

use

that

of

what

to

indicate

The

item is

computers

75
for

received

42.7 p e rcen t

and l e s s o n s .

Is

their

computing.

objectives,

they a re

them

aware t h a t

philosophy while
and

acquire

to use

questionnaire

Indicates

goals

Indicated

and

who h a v e o r h a v e n o t

d istrict

district

20 p e r c e n t

activ ities

views

Th e d a t a

asked

Instructional

or do

in s t r u c t i o n as well as those
Inservlce

awareness

they a re

to th is

use

expected

t h e y were

to

number o f r e s p o n d e n t s

Includes

make p o l i c i e s

48

of

percent

scope
On t h e

and
other

unaware of d i s t r i c t

area.
of q u e s t i o n n a i r e
teachers

responses with

from d i s t r i c t s

inter­

which have

the

100
Items above

Indicated

of t h e

who r e s p o n d e d

20%

which e i t h e r
stages
Items

of

do n o t

very high awareness
"d o n 't

have su ch

d e v e lo p in g them.

listed

above

rely

o f t h e m w h i l e most

know" come f r o m

Item s or a r e a t
All

on

the

form ative

districts

which

have

the

contact

persons

in

each

key

th e d is s e m in a tio n of

d istricts

building

for

inform ation.

TABLE 8 :

D i s t r i b u t i o n o f T e a c h e r s on A w a r e n e s s o f D i s t r i c t
P o l i c i e s a n d R e s o u r c e s on I n s t r u c t i o n a l Co mputing

<N=75)
No._ o f T e a c h e r s

Pollcv/R esource

What
time

48.0
48.0
48.0
42.7
20.0

36
36
36
32
16

Goals and O b j e c t i v e s
Scope and Sequence
Suggested A c tiv itie s /L e s s o n s
Philosophy
D o n ’ t Know

Research Question

_as_

8

fac to rs prevent
t e a c h e r s from sp e n d in g
in u sin g computers for I n s t r u c t i o n ?

more

Findings
About

59 p e r c e n t

use computers

for

choice but about
are

too

other

reasons

instruction
48 p e r c e n t

few c o m p u t e r s ,

things

t o do

of te a c h e rs

more o f t e n
of

these

40.7 p e rc e n t

in s c h o o l,

of s c h e d u lin g .

indicated w illingness

The d a t a

w hile

if

they

indicated

that

about

had

that

there are

to
the

there

too

many

31 p e r c e n t

gave

Is summarized

in Table

9.

101
Five of th e s i x
staff

t o u s e c o m p u t e r s more

principals
lack

principals

gave

the sm all

of s u f f l o l e n t

services

and

often

for

Instruction.

number o f

training,

a n d two

t o o , many o t h e r

things

f a c t o r s which p re v e n t
Instructional

s u r v e y e d would l i k e

their

staff

computers,

The

In

six

four

gave l a c k of
t o do

their

gave

support

school

as

f r o m s p e n d i n g m o r e t i m e on

computing.

TABLE 9 : F a c t o r s f f h l c h P r e v e n t
T i me on I n s t r u c t i o n a l

T e a c h e r s F r o m S p e n d i n g More
Computing

No.

<N=54>
of T e a c h e rs
29
22
17
13
12
8
2

Too f e w C o m p u t e r s
Too Many O t h e r T h i n g s t o Do
Scheduling
Lack o f S u f f i c i e n t T r a i n i n g
Lack of S o f t w a r e
Lack of S u p p o rt S e r v i c e s
Other

48.1
40.7
31.5
24.1
22.2
14.8
3.7

R esearch Q uestion 9
What a r e t h e
m o s t common wa y s
by w h i c h
teachers
were
Introduced
to
using
computers
for
i n s t r u c t Ion?

Findings
A
were

introduced

district
while

m a jo r ity of te a c h e r s
to

instructional

inservlce.

12.1 p e rc e n t

computers a t

home.

< 7 0 . 7 %)

ISD
of

Ab o u t

computing

inservlce

teachers

indicated

ranked

through
second

were s e l f - t a u g h t

10 p e r c e n t

that

they
local

(17.2%)

on

personal

of te a c h e rs

reported

102
that
other

th e y were
means

com paniest
teachers
TABLE 1 0 :

Introduced
which

Instructional

Include

computer

(see Table

to

courses

clubs,

and

peer

Introduced

by

coaching

computer
by

to

other

Instructional

(N=58)
of T each ers

NO,
Inservlce

_a_
70.7
17 . 2
12.1
5.2
5.2
0.0
10.3

41
10
7
3
3
0
6

Home C o m p u t e r
Course
Center

Research Q uestion

offered

10).

Ways T e a c h e r s w e r e
Computlng

Local D i s t r i c t
ISD I n s e r v l c e
S e l f - t a u g h t on
REMC I n s e r v l c e
Formal C o lle g e
S tate T raining
Other

computing th ro u g h

10

What t y p e s o f
inservlce tra in in g
Is p rovided
by
t h e a g e n c ie s and
how d o t h e y
match t h e i r
stated
o b ject Ives?
Research Question

13

What a r e
the types
of t r a i n i n g
school
feel
they
should
have
for
effective
computers for I n s t r u c t i o n ?
(T hese two
research questions
ease of co m p ariso n .)

are

presented

teachers
use
of
together

for

Findings.
Part
"Findings
local

of

Research Question

from I n te r v ie w s

school

districts

10 was

dealt

with the A gencies."
are

ultim ately

with

under

However,

since

responsible

for

103
d raw in g up o b j e c t i v e s

and

quantified

their

In Table

d ata about

11. A ll th e

teachers

In

introduction

training

programming

studied

provide

BASIC

first,
the

second and

third

type of t r a i n i n g

their
the

t o Logo. T ea c h e rs

Instructional

teachers

option,

which t h e y
uses

chose

follow ed

ranked

6th

picked

introduction

evaluat io n .

parts,

a n d Lo g o

were ask ed
in

order

feel

option,

and 1 3 .3

of

Almost

provide
for

reported

choose

a

their

Im portance

of

them

in

27 p e r c e n t

of

as

their

computers

first

( 24%)

as a f i r s t

24 p e r c e n t

percent

they

languages

to

14.7

an

training

would a s s i s t

while

to

covers

a n d how

the d i s t r i c t s

(14.7% ). Programming

c l a s s r o o m management,

which

management

to softw are

presented

four d i s t r i c t s

introduction to

(4%). For a se c o n d

Is

Introductory

of com puters.

classroom

by

softw are evaluation

options

teachers,

provide tr a in in g

computers

T hree of t h e
In

for

of t r a i n i n g

elem entary classroom tea ch e rs but
general s h if t

Inservlce

component

also

utilization.

In

to

their

All d i s t r i c t s

to softw are

types

d istricts

overview of com puters,
function.

planning

and

option

of te a c h e r s

percent

indicated

chose

softw are

104
TABLE 1 1 :

Types of I n s e r v l c e T r a i n i n g P r o v i d e d
T e a c h e r s by L o cal School D i s t r i c t s

to Classroom

(N=*4)
Number o f
Looal_ Dis t r i c t s

%_

100
100
75
75
50
25
—
-

4
4
3
3
2
1
—

I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Computers
In tro d u c tio n to Software
Programming"
Word P r o c e s s i n g
E t h i c s and S o c i a l I m p l i c a t i o n s
C l a s s r o o m Ma n a g e m e n t
Record Keeping
D a t a b a s e Usage
Other

—

"T he p r o g r a m m i n g l a n g u a g e s commonly u s e d by a l l
d i s t r i c t s f o r t r a i n i n g a r e BASIC a n d L o g o .

TABLE 1 2 : T y p e s o f T r a i n i n g T e a c h e r s F e e l Woul d A s s i s t
In I n s t r u c t i o n a l Uses of Computers

1st

Choice

( N= 7 6 )
2nd C h o i c e

20(26.7)
18(24.0)
11(14.7)
9(12.0)
8(10.7)
3( 4 . 0 )
2( 2 . 7 )
1( 1 . 3 )

11(14.7)
3< 4 . 0 )
10(13.3)
8(10,7)
18(24.0)
7( 9 . 3 )
4( 5 . 3 )

( P e r c e n t a g e s a r e In p a r e n t h e s e s
according to f i r s t ch o ic es.)

and ra n k in g

C l a s s r o o m Management
I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Computers
Software E valu atio n
Word P r o c e s s i n g
In tro d u c tio n to Software
Programming
D a t a b a s e Usage
Other

Research Q uestion

3rd Choice
7( 9 . 3 )

—

9(12.0)
10(13.3)
9(12.0)
11(14.7)
5( 6 . 7 )
3( 4 . 0 )

“

is

U fa)

What a r e t h e
p e rc e p tio n s of elem en tary
te a c h e rs about th e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of th e

them

classroom
Inservlce

105
r

training
programs
agencies?
Research Question

provided

by

the

various

11(b)

f f hat a r e t h e
percep tio n s of elem entary
classroom
teachers about
the e ffe c tiv e n e ss
of t h e
support
s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d by t h e v a r i o u s a g e n c i e s ?
Findings
T eachers were asked t o r a t e
and t h e s u p p o r t

they re c e iv e

the tr a in in g

from

s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s a s of g r e a t
rated

it

"of l i t t l e

Responses have been summarized

a n d 1 3 . 2 u n d e r t wo c a t e g o r i e s

a s of l i t t l e

The s t r i k i n g

fact

In T a b le s

— t h o s e who r a t e d

o r no v a l u e .
a b o u t t h e two t a b l e s

Is t h a t

m ajority

the

support

training

from l o c a l d i s t r i c t s

and

(53

t h a t most t r a i n i n g

and

support

occur at

level.

o n l y one t e a c h e r r e p o r t e d
support se rv ic e s.

It

ot

services

This confirm s

for

Is a l s o

instructional
Important

on TIME c e n t e r

the

items,

or 9 1 . 4 % f o r t r a i n i n g

52 o r 8 9 . 7 % f o r s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s . )

local

or

o r m o d e r a t e v a l u e a n d t h o s e who

questionnaire

the

or

13.1

training

responded to th ese

receive

as

value,"

58 t e a c h e r s who
rated

received

the various agencies

"of g re a t v a l u e , " "of moderate v a l u e , "
" o f no v a l u e , "

they

the

a

they
and

finding

computing

to note

that

t r a i n i n g a n d s i x on

106
TABLE 1 3 . 1 : T e a c h e r s ' A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s o t
T r a i n i n g They R e c e i v e d fro m V a r i o u s A g e n c i e s

Of L i t t l e
o r No V a l u e

Of G r e a t o r
M oderate Value
43(81.1)
10(83.3)
4(68.7)
2(40.0)

63
12
6
5
1

Local D i s t r i c t
ISD
College
REMC
TIME C e n t e r

10( 1 8 . 9 )
2( 1 6 . 7 )
2( 3 3 . 3 )
3( 6 0 . 0 )
1(100.0)

( P e r c e n t a g e s a r e In p a r e n t h e s e s and a r e b ased
o f t e a c h e r s who r a t e d e a c h a g e n c y . )

TABLE 1 3 . 2 :

on t h e number

T e a c h e r s ' Assessment of t h e E f f e c t i v e n e s s of
S u p p o r t S e r v i c e s They R e c e i v e fr om V a r i o u s
Agencies

_N
Local D i s t r i c t
ISD
REMC
College
TIME C e n t e r

Of G r e a t o r
Moderate Value

Of L i t t l e
o r No V a l u e

36(69.2)
6(40.0)
2(22.2)
2(26.0)

16( 3 0 .8 )
9( 6 0 . 0 )
7( 7 7 .8 )
6( 7 6 . 0 )
6(100.0)

62
16
9
8
6

( P e r c e n t a g e s a r e i n p a r e n t h e s e s a n d a r e b a s e d on t h e number
o f t e a c h e r s who r a t e d e a c h a g e n c y . )

In g e n e r a l ,
services

they

teachers

receive

fa v o ra b ly followed
rated

those received

Training

from

by t h o s e

rated

t h e t r a i n i n g and

their

local

provided

d istricts

by ISDs

fr o m t h e Computer S o f t w a r e

(TIME) C e n t e r s

least

favorably.

support

while

most
they

Evaluation/

107
On t h e

same s c a l e

Looal d i s t r i c t
valuable to
services
either

and

used

1SD l n s e r v l c e s

teachers

while

o r no v a l u e

Research Q uestion

and

they rate d

p r o v i d e d b y REHCs,

little

for teachers,

C olleges,

principals

support

rated

services

t r a i n i n g and

as

support

a n d TIME C e n t e r s a s

of

to te a c h e rs.

12

What a r e
the
p e r c e p t i o n s of
classroom
about the
adequacy
of
the
amount
of
re c e iv e d from each of th e a g e n c ie s?

teachers
training

Findings
The p r o c e d u r e s
above were a l s o
provided
TABLE 1 4 :

used

applied

for
to

Research Q uestions
this

question.

10 and

13

The s u m m a r y

Is

In T able 14.
T e a c h e r s ' A s s e s s m e n t o f t h e A d e q u a c y o f t h e Amount
of T r a i n i n g They R e c e i v e d fro m Each Agency

JL
Local D i s t r i c t
ISD
REMC
College
TIME C e n t e r

55
15
9
7
6

Mor e T h a n
Enough
-

-

1(14.3)

Enough
20(36.4)
4(26.7)
2(22.2)
-

1(20.0)

( P e r c e n t a g e s a r e In p a r e n t h e s e s and a r e b a se d
o f t e a c h e r s who r a t e d e a c h a g e n c y . )

on t h e

Not
Enough
35(63.6)
11(73.3)
7(77.8)
6(86.7)
4(80.0)
number

108
Table
tion

14

a b o v e shows t h a t

of te a c h e r s

from a l l

rated

rated

th e a g en c ie s as not
Research Q uestion

a larger

t h e amount o f t r a i n i n g

of t h e a g e n c i e s as

P rincipals

generally,

they

propor­
received

Inadequate.

t h e amount

of t r a i n i n g

p r o v i d e d by a l l

enough.

14

What a r e t h e m a j o r I n s t r u c t i o n a l
by t e a c h e r s p r e s e n t l y ?

uses

of

computers

Findings
Table
puters

1 5 . 1 shows t h a t

for d r i l l

<51.9%) and
districts

and

tutorial

reported

practice,
(44.4%).

teachers

(79.6%) use

f o l l o w e d by p r o b l e m
Table

15.2

as th e c la ss ro o m uses

p r in c ip a ls 1 responses to
Table

most

is

c o m­

solving

what

local

of com puters

while

t h e same q u e s t i o n a r e s u m m a r i z e d

15.3.

TABLE 1 5 . 1 :

Instructional
Teachers

Uses of Computers

No.
D r i l l and P r a c t i c e
Problem Solving
Tutorlal
Programming'
Word P r o c e s s i n g
Sim ulatIon
Record Keeping
Accessing Database
Other""

by C l a s s r o o m

( N= 5 4 )
of T e a c h e rs

-3 L .
79.6
51 . 9
44.4
37 . 0
24.1
16.7
7.4
3.7
1.9

43
28
24
20
13
9
4
2
1

"The l a n g u a g e u s e d f o r c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n
“ ' I n c l u d e s ga me s a n d g r a p h i c s .

is

Logo.

in

109
TABLE 1 5 . 2 :

L o c a l D i s t r i c t A s s e s s m e n t o f What C o m p u t e r s Are
Used f o r In t h e C l a s s r o o m

No .

<N=4)
of Teachers

D r i l l and P r a c t i c e
T utorial
P r o g r a m m i n g 1"
Word P r o c e s s i n g
Simulat ion
Problem Solving
Record Keeping
A ccessing Database
Other —

4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2

100.0
100. 0
75.0
75.0
75.0
50.0
50.0
50.0
50.0

"The l a n g u a g e u s e d f o r c l a s s r o o m I n s t r u c t i o n i s Logo.
“ " I n c l u d e s games, g r a p h i c s , and I n t e g r a t i o n w i t h
currIculum .

TABLE 1 5 . 3 :

P r i n c i p a l s ' A s s e s s m e n t o f What C o m p u t e r s A r e
Us e d f o r I n t h e C l a s s r o o m

<N=6)
No. o f P r i n c i p a l s
D r i l l and P r a c t i c e
Problem S olving
Programmlng“
Word P r o c e s s i n g
Sim ulat ion
T utorlal
Record Keeping
Accessing Database
Other

5
5
5
4
4
3
1
-

reported

A comparison of th e t h r e e
local

districts

83.3
83.3
83.3
86,7
66.7
50.0
16.7
-

-

“ T h e m o s t common l a n g u a g e s
a n d BASIC.

all

_3L

report

-

by p r i n c i p a l s a r e

tables

tutorial

a b o v e shows t h a t

uses

of c o m p u t e r s ,

logo

while
less

110
than h a ll
and t h a t

ol

the

teachers

w hile th re e

principals

reported

processing

and

percent

ol

c la im to use them lo r

this

ol the d i s t r i c t s

and

the

computers

uses

sim ulation,

teachers

ol

only

24.1

respectively

lour

ol the
lor

percent

use

them

purpose
six
wor d

and
lor

16.7
those

purposes.
While t h e use o l
high with te a c h e rs ,
that
ol

computers

o n l y 50 p e r c e n t

teachers

use them l o r

this

principals

reported

that

programming,

o n l y 37 p e r c e n t

This d i s p a r i t y

is

R esearch Quest ion

lor

further

problem so lv in g
ol d i s t r i c t s

purpose.

of te a c h e r s

discussed

reported

While 8 3 .3

computers

are

ranks

percent

used

re p o rte d doing

in Chapter

lor
so.

V.

IS

How d o e s
the
amount
of
inservice
training
in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l computing r e l a t e
to the
perception
of te a c h e r s about th e v a lu e of th e computer as
an
in stru c tio n a l tool?

K indtngs
A

positive co rrelatio n

variables

in

this

of

q u e s t i o n which

.05 l e v e l

which

shows

variables.

The d a t a

no

. 2 1 was

Is not s i g n i f i c a n t

relationship

Is p r e s e n t e d

found between

in Table

between
16.

the

at

the

the

t wo

Ill
TABLE 1 6 :

R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n Amount o f I n s e r v l c e T r a i n i n g
and T e a c h e r s ' P e r c e p t i o n s of t h e Value of
the
Computer a s an I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tool

<N°74)
Mean
23.42
3.12

Amount o f T r a i n i n g
V alue of t h e Computer

Research Question

S

Cov

36.39
.70

r

5.30

.21

16

How d o e s
the
amount
of
inservlce
training
I n s t r u c t 1io n a l computing r e l a t e
t o t h e amount
tim e t e a c h e r s spend
In th e use
of computers
I n s t r u c t 1o n ?

In
of
for

Findings
For t h i s
coefficient
alpha

=

of

.05

relationship
teachers

research question,
.30

was

level.
between

found
Thus,
the

r e c e i v e and t h e i r

teachers

who

Instructional
instruction

receive
computing

(see Table

which Is
the

amount

study
of

tend

use

found

at

for

the

direct

a

Inservlce

Inservlce
to

correlation

significant

u se of co m p u ters
more

17).

a positive

t r a InIng

Instruction;

training

computers

more

In
for

112
TABLE 1 7 : R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n Amount o f I n s e r v l c e T r a i n i n g
a n d t h e Amount o f Time T e a c h e r s S p e n d on
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Computing

<N=61)
Mean
Amount o f T r a i n i n g
Time on
Instructional
Computlng

Research Question

S

Cov

r

31.26

40.61

47.81

.30

3,79

3.90

17

How d o e s
the
a mo u n t
of
Inservlce
training
in
I n s t r u c t i o n a l computing r e l a t e to t e a c h e r s ' d e s i r e
to
spend
mor e
time
using
the
computer
for
Instruction?
Findings
The c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t
this

research question

level.

Therefore,

a mo u n t o f
desire
data

no

r e l a t i o n s h i p was

In T a b l e

at

the alpha

found

instructional

on

= .06

between

teachers received

mor e t i m e on

is presented

. 1 2 w h i c h was f o u n d

Is not s i g n i f i c a n t

Inservlce train in g

to spend

of

and

the
their

computing.

The

18.

TABLE 1 8 : R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n Amount o f I n s e r v l c e T r a i n i n g
a n d T e a c h e r s ' D e s i r e t o S p e n d More Time on
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Computing

Mean
Amount o f T r a i n i n g
D e s i r e f o r More
C o m p u t e r Time

S

( N=5i >
Cov

29.24

41.02

1.61

.49

23.35

r
.12

113
R e s e a r c h Q u e s t i o n 19
Besides t r a d i t i o n a l in s e rv ic e
t r a i n i n g , what
are
s o me t y p e s o f a c t i v i t i e s t e a c h e r s t h i n k w i l l
help
them to
gain
Mor e
competence
in
instructional
computIng?
Findings
About

88 p e r c e n t

more I n d i v i d u a l

attend

while

would

nearly

conferences.

would l i k e

surveyed

hands-on experience

Seventy-two p e rc en t
teachers

of t e a c h e r s

45

prefer

A total

new sletters,

of

books,

in using
peer

percent

feel
the

coaching

want

need

computer.
by

other

opportunities

55.2 p e rc e n t
Journals,

they

ot

teachers

and m a g a z in e s

computers

t o b e made a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m ( s e e T a b l e

TABLE 1 9 :

C l a s s r o o m T e a c h e r s ' S u g g e s t i o n s o f Ways t o G a i n
More C o m p e t e n c e I n I n s t r u c t i o n a l C o m p u t i n g

No.
I n d i v i d u a l T i me on C o m p u t e r
Peer Coaching
A ttending Conferences
N ew sletters
Books a b o u t Co m p u ti n g
Journals/M agazines
Computer Club Membership
Computer Committee Membership
Other

(N°68)
of T e a c h e rs
51
42
26
13
10
9
5
3
-

to

19).

_3L_
87.9
72.4
44.8
22.4
17.2
15.5
8.6
5.2
-

on

114
Research Q uestion

20

What a r e t h e
p ercep tio n s ol elem entary
classroom
teachers about
th e computer
as an
instructional
tool?
Findings
T each ers were asked
instruction

on

through

great

of

"ol

teachers

a

1-4

to ra te
scale

ranging

v a l u e , ” Table

surveyed

the

rated

computer as a to o l
Irom

20 s h o w s t h a t
the

computer

m oderate or g re a t v a lu e as an i n s t r u c t i o n a l

TABLE 2 0 :

Teachers' Perception ol
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tool

No.
01
Of
01
01

G reat Value
Moderate Value
L i t t l e Value
No V a l u e

Research Q uestion

"of

no

86.7
as

ol

value"
percent

either

ot

tool.

t h e Computer as an

of T eachers
20
48
7
3

_3L
26.7
60.0
9.3
4.0

22

experience
ol teaching
Doe s t h e n u m b e r
ol years
r e l a t e to te a c h e r s '
ol
perceptions ol
the value
i
n
s
t
r
u
c
t
i
o
n
a
l
t
o
o
l
?
t h e com puter a s an
Findlnas
A correlation

ol

03 was f o u n d b e t w e e n n u m b e r o l y e a r s

ol te a c h in g

experience

value ol

com puter as an

the

significant

at

the alpha

and t e a c h e r s 4

perceptions

Instructional

= .05 l e v e l

t o o l which

(Table

21).

ol

the

is

not

Thus,

no

115
relationship
teachers'

was

found

perception

instructional

between

of th e

teaching

value of

experience

th e computer

and

as

an

tool.

Research Question

23

How d o e s g r a d e
lev el taught
p e r c e p t i o n of
the value
of
In stru c tio n a l tool?

re la te to
teachers'
th e computer
as
an

Findings
A
between

positive

t h e t wo v a r i a b l e s

not s i g n i f ic a n t
is

presented

grade

correlation

level

at

coefficient

in t h i s

the alpha

= .05 l e v e l .

No r e l a t i o n s h i p

taught

perception

co m pu ter as an I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Research Q uestion

. 0 8 was

found

r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n w hich Is

in Table 22.
and

of

of

The r e l e v a n t
was
the

data

found

between

value

of

the

tool.

24

How d o e s g r a d e l e v e l
taught r e l a te to the
amount
of tim e t e a c h e r s sp e n d i n t h e u s e of c o m p u te r s t o r
I n s t r u c t ion?

Findings
A calculated
tor

correlation

coefficient

th e above r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n

alpha

= .05 l e v e l

relationship
teachers

(Table

between

23).

grade

which

s p e n d on I n s t r u c t i o n a l

. 4 0 was

is s i g n i f i c a n t

Thus t h e
level

of

study

taught

computing.

found a
and

the

found
at

the

direct
time

116
TABLE 21: R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n Y e a r s o l T e a c h i n g E x p e r i e n c e
and T e a c h e r s ' P e r c e p t i o n s o t t h e V alue o t t h e
Computer a s an I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tool

( N= 7 5 )
Y rs. ot Teaching E xperience
V alue o t t h e Computer

Mean

S

3.17
3.11

.98
• 69

Cov
-.02

r
-.03

TABLE 2 2 : R e l a t i o n s h i p B e t w e e n G r a d e L e v e l T a u g h t a n d
T e a c h e r s ' P e r c e p t i o n s o t t h e V alue o t t h e Computer
as an I n s t r u c t i o n a l Tool

( N= 7 0 )
Mean
Grade Level Taught
V alue o t t h e Computer

TABLE 2 3 :

S
1.73
.64

3.77
3.13

Cov

r

.09

.08

R e l a t i o n s h i p Between Grade L evel Taught and t h e
Amount o t T i me T e a c h e r s S p e n d on I n s t r u c t i o n a l
Comput i n g

Mean
Grade L evel Taught
T i me on I n s t r u c t i o n a l

Computing

3.98
4.87

<N=42)
Cov
S
1.60
3.70

2.36

.40

117

ReacarQh Question 25
la
there
any
relationship
between
a
sc h o o l's
I d e n t if ic a t io n as
a high
or
low u se
school
of
Instructional
computers
and
the
p e rc e n ta g e of
questionnaires returned?
Findings
This

q u e s t i o n was

the e x p e c ta tio n th a t
more

involved

in

questionnaires
this

notion

variables
to

fill

teachers
the

than

those

just
and

In th e r e s e a r c h d e s ig n w ith

In " h l g h - u s e " s c h o o l s

study

was f l a w e d

than
out

included

and

would

In " l o w - u s e "

because th ere

h igh or
return

low use

turn

would be
In

schools.
appears

questionnaires.

However,

to

In t e a c h e r s '

more

be

mo r e

w illingness

Other

variables

include:
( 1 ) The l a c k o f u n i f o r m d e f i n i t i o n
u s e a mong d i s t r i c t s

of h i g h or

( 2 ) The a t t i t u d e

to the

of a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

( 3 ) The t i m i n g

of the stu d y

(4)

Individual

te a c h e r's a ttitu d e

(5)

Individual
the study

te a c h e r's

Consequently,
warrant
whole,

pursuing
total

this

return

p e r c e n t and t h a t
principals

return rates

In

questionnaires.

for

schedule

at

t h e t im e of

d i d not show any p a t t e r n

high

further.

the
74.5

l o w u s e s c h o o l s wa s 7 9 . 6 p e r c e n t .

Three

category

use sc h o o ls

On

to

was

each

for

study

toward surveys

research question
rate

low

returned

completed

118
The

data gathered

Interest,

namely,

what

suggested

an a d d i t i o n a l

Is th e r e l a t i o n s h i p

Instruction?

test

To e x p l o r e t h i s

was p e r f o r m e d

of

between t e a c h e r s 1

o w n e r s h i p of a p e r s o n a l c o m p u ter and t h e i r
for

question

use of

relationship,

computers

a

chi-square

(see Table 24).

TABLE 2 4 : C h i - S q u a r e T e s t C o m p a r i n g T e a c h e r s ' O w n e r s h i p
o t a P e r s o n a l C o m p u t e r a n d t h e Us e o f C o m p u t e r s
for In stru c tio n
1
1
1
1
Us e
| D o n ' t Us e 1
1
1
1
1
1
!
1 16 ( 1 6 . 6 ) 1
Own
7 ( 6.4)1
1
1
1
D o n 11 Own I 38 ( 3 7 . 4 ) 1
14 ( 1 4 . 6 ) 1
I
1
1

The
at

the

.11 c h i - s q u a r e v a l u e
.06

alpha

level,

relationship

between

computer and

their

number o f r e a s o n s

that

is,

I

P(C hi-Sq.)

I

3.84

was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

the

study

ownership

of computers

would a p p e a r

.11

calculated

teachers'
use

Chi-Sq.

for

to account

tor

of

found
a

no

personal

instruction.
this:

1. A t e a c h e r
may own a
personal
computer
but
b e c a u s e of t h e s c h o o l
s c h e d u l e or g r a d e
level
tau g h t, such a
t e a c h e r may n o t u s e
computers
for i n s t r u c t i o n
2.

A t e a c h e r may u s e c o m p u t e r s f o r I n s t r u c t i o n b u t
may n o t c o n s i d e r a
com puter's u t i l i t y a t
home
worth th e investm ent

3.

If school p o lic y allow s te a c h e rs to tak e school
computers
home ,
a
teacher
may c o n s i d e r
it
u n n e c e s s a r y t o buy a p e r s o n a l c om puter

A

119
4.

A home c o m p u t e r may h a v e b e e n p u r c h a s e d f o r
a
s p o u s e ' s work
and
not fo r
its
instructional
benef its

The i m p l i c a t i o n s
vlce

training

are

of t h e s e

discussed

findings

in

the

for

next

teacher

inser­

chapter

ot

the

d i s s e r t a t ion*
Summary
This c h a p te r

has d e a lt

with the an aly ses

of d a t a

that

was o b t a i n e d d u r i n g

the study.

T here were t h r e e s o u r c e s

the d ata

interview s

with th e

obtained:

document

search,

and q u e s t i o n n a i r e s

agencies

adm inistered

of

studied,

to

teachers

and p r i n c i p a l s .
I n t e r v i e w and document
presented

earlier

responses

of

in c e r t a i n

in

the c h ap ter,

teachers

areas

search data

data

follow ed
to

from th e t h r e e

sources

were

of

study,

the e x p lo ra to ry

nature

statistics

was

tool

coefficients
test

major

of c o r r e l a t i o n

done to e x p l o r e

the

ot

questionnaire

the

relationships

of

item s,

compared.

analysis.

were c a l c u l a t e d

and

by a n a l y s e s

and p r i n c i p a l s

Because of

the

were s y n t h e s i z e d

s u mma r y
P earso n 's

and a c h i - s q u a r e

b e t w e e n a number

of

var t a b l e s .
In C h a p t e r
cussed,

V,

the

recommendations

inservice
approached,

training

and

findings
made

as

support

a n d . Im plicatIons

for

ot the
to

study w ill

how

teacher

services
further

may

be

dis­

computer
be

better

study suggested.

CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
IntroductIon
The p u r p o s e o t t h i s
t r a i n i n g and su p p o rt
education agencies

s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e t y p e s

services

i n two

provided

Interm ediate

M ichigan to e le m e n ta ry c la ss ro o m
computers

tor

Instruction.

determ ine te a c h e rs '
adequacy ot

would l e a d
which

to

uses

A

ot the
support

ot computers.

the

It

l d e n t 1t l c a t i o n

elem entary

classroom

utilizatio n

of computers

which c o u ld

form

for

uses

ot

purpose

was

to

etfactiveness

and

services

o t s o me

for

their

the study

ot the

confront

Instruction,

the basis

in

was h o p e d t h a t

teachers

ot

In t h e i r

parallel

and

public

School D i s t r i c t s

teachers

perceptions

such tr a in in g

instructional

by s e l e c t e d

ot

problems
in

their

and p r o v i d e

recommendations

data

as to

how

su c h p ro b le m s m ight be a d d r e s s e d .
Th e s t u d y was
questions

relating

designed

to seek

to

philosophies,

programs of th e a g e n c ie s
The s t r u c t u r a l
were a l s o

looked

the

Educational
D istricts,

studied

and p r o c e d u r a l
into since

education a d m in istratio n
were

the

State

links

Michigan.
of

C enters,
Education

between

specific

objectives

computing.
agencies

form p a rt

of p u b l i c

The a g e n c i e s
the

Interm ediate

studied
Regional
School

Agencies and th e Technology

120

and

the

Education,
the

to

instructional

the agencies

Department

Media
Local

in

In

answers

in

121
Michigan E d u ca tio n

( TIME)

centers.

th e programs of th e v a rio u s
n a i r e and
teachers'

relationships

Teachers'

evaluation

a g e n c i e s was d o n e b y

between

a number

of

question­

of v a r i a b l e s

in

r e s p o n s e s were a l s o e x p l o r e d .

This c h a p te r
c u s s io n of th e

of t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n

findings

encountered

by t e a c h e r s
in the

services
may

course

s u g g e s t i o n s ma d e f o r

to a

dis­

of t h e s t u d y and rec o m m e n d a tio n s

t o how t r a i n i n g a n d s u p p o r t
of computers

is devoted

of

further

for

instructional

be Improved*
the study

Some

are

as
uses

problems

presented

and

study.

F i n d l n g s _and_RecommendatIons
1.

O r g a n i z a t i o n and C o o r d i n a t i o n
The s t u d y

exact

role

found t h a t

of computers

there

Is

in e d u c a t i o n and so l o c a l

have to g r a p p le w ith th e problem s
objectives
(a)

for

no s t a t e - w i d e

instructional

policy

districts

o t d r a w in g up p o l i c i e s

c o m p u t i n g on t h e i r

on

and

own.

D iscussion
Public education

local

taxes

and

so

curriculum decisio n s
level.

This

fact

in Michigan
It

Is

a r e made

Is c l e a r l y

Michigan C i t i z e n s : A B lu e p r in t

not
at

is

surprising
the

made I n
tor

funded l a r g e l y

local

leadership

the

State

state-w ide

Department
by

final
d istrict

Education

Ac U. s n. w h i c h i s a

document g u i d i n g e d u c a t i o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n
However,

that

school

B etter

through

of

carrying

in Michigan

Education
out

lor
major

today.

provides

policies

and

122
guidelines

laid

legislature.

down b y t h e S t a t e

In B lu e p r in t

for

the S ta te

Board of E d u c a t i o n

follow ing

in te n tio n s about

Board of E d u c a t i o n or

A c t i o n w h i c h was a p p r o v e d
i n 1984,

th e board s t a t e d

computer te c h n o lo g y :

T h e S t a t e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n , b a s e d on t h e
recom mendations of th e Technology R e fe re n t
Group, s h a l l :
Acquire
existing
school
district
and/or
Interm ediate/R egional
Educational
Hedla
Centers
(REMC) p l a n s
in
order
to
develop
and
provide
planning
models
for
school
district
and
intermediate/REMC u se .
Develop a s ta te w id e
human r e s o u r c e b a n k
composed
of
Department
of
E ducation,
intermediate/REMC,
university
and
local
personnel
to
serve
as
resources to
local
d istricts,
interm ediate
and
REMC d i s t r i c t s .
Serve as a re s o u rc e c e n te r
educators
to
review
and
softw are.

for th e use of Michigan
preview
Instructional

D e f i n e mi ni mum c o m p e t e n c i e s f o r t h o s e s t u d e n t s who
c h o o s e employment In t h e
f i e l d of tech n o lo g y
tor
computer
awareness,
and
for
high
school
com pletion.
S e t s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e c e r t i f i c a t i o n of t e a c h e r s of
computer l i t e r a c y and computer s c i e n c e , as w ell as
s t a n d a r d s for c e r t i f i c a t i o n of a l l te a c h e r s In th e
u s e of c o m p u te rs .
Provide
access
to
training
for
teachers
c l a s s r o o m a p p l i c a t i o n of
computer te c h n o lo g y ,
well as access to
tra in in g for a d m in istra to rs
e d u c a t i o n a l management a p p l i c a t i o n s .
Evaluate the
the s ta te .

levels

of

computer

literacy

in
as
in

w ithin

Recommend
to
the
Governor
and
L egislature
a
p ro p o sa l for funding computer s o f tw a r e ,
training,
a n d e q u i p m e n t <p. 1 3 ) .

the
by
the

123
The

study

puting at
reasons

the

for

found t h a t
local

this

w illingness

of

d istricts
cannot

local

of

the

level

officials

to

of

its

States

for

call

for

state

and

local

state

levels

The s t a t e m e n t s
indicative
action.

the ro le

not

the

training

and s o f t w a r e
<TMT)

trainer-training
f i v e TIME

the

state

In

the

At

out

for

is

d istrict

to

include

program.
in

the

the
at

action.
are

also

be In

state

education

Technology

In

reponse

to

five centers

of

which have t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
uses

ot

T r a i n i n g Modules

U niversity

the

in

state-level

direct

Instructional
The

United

a definitive

are

The

O fficials

for

The
a

the

the d u ties

Education
need

There

m odules and t r a i n s

regions.

one of

approaches

moment.

intentions.

evaluation.
at

of

the

resources

one

efforts.

of th e

(TIME) p r o j e c t

teachers

project

local

above c a l l

at

TIME c o v e r i n g t h e e n t i r e
(or

technology

of computers should

exist

board's

while

computing

Board

realization

Michigan E d u ca tio n
ot

State

But t h e s t a t e m e n t s

which does

of

Obvious

s e e th e need f o r s t a t e - l e v e l

by t h e

of th e

p o l i c y on w h a t

part

support

lim ited

specialist

homogeneity of

c o m­

of f u n d s and

stretching

Instructional

need

w idely.

coordinator,

processing

to computer

state

Invest

is

Im portance a tta c h e d
and t h e

vary

For example,

one w h i l e a n o t h e r
data

Instructional

availability

has a f u l l - t i m e

d istrict

coordination

the

computing.

studied

afford

district

include

In i n s t r u c t i o n a l

approaches' to

time

ot

the

for

Trainers

Michigan

trainers
of

computers,

tor

3tudy,

prepares
all

of

the

the
TIME

124
project

was

In i t s

s e c o n d y e a r a n d many o l

t h e TIME

centers

had done c o n s i d e r a b l e work In s o f t w a r e e v a l u a t i o n w h i l e
had

developed

surpassed
In s p i t e
efforts

training

target

modules

of t r a i n i n g

have

not

studied

appears

claim s

the study

been t r a n s l a t e d

In I n s t r u c t i o n a l

and

50 t r a i n e r s

of th e s e seeming g a in s ,

training
area

its

14

into

to

have

by 400 p e r c e n t .

found t h a t
effective

these
teacher

c o m p u t i n g . T h e TIME p r o j e c t

to

be

hampered

TMT

by

the

In t h e

follow ing

problem s:
1.

E a c h o f t h e TIME

a r e a and o f f i c i a l s

are

some o f t h e r e g i o n s

regions

not even agreed

3 and

4).

effectiveness

of th e

TIME c e n t e r s

how

in th e

they

fact

were

of

teachers'

9),

as

assessment

to

of

of th e

receive

from

reported

TIME

centers

and

services

as of

little
of

or

This

they

all
All

of

and r a t e d

Its

Again,
the

In

support
teachers

TIME

principals

o r no v a l u e .

center

one

only 6

rated

to

only

value.

the agencies,

is

programs

11(a)),

source,
no

the

computing

Inservlce

effectiveness

no v a l u e .

little

or

belong

who r e s p o n d e d

instructional

as a

little

they

tr a in in g as

Is very d o u b tfu l.

of th e

of

affairs,

t h e m r e p o r t e d a TIME

center

services

center

of

(Research Question

a TIME

program

state

58 t e a c h e r s

none of

agencies

reported

training

the

on t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s

the various

teacher

of

introduced

(Research Q uestion
as a source;

that

With t h i s

geographic

on t h e b o u n d a r i e s

n o r t o w h i c h r e g i o n s o me c o u n t i e s

(see Figures

evident

covers a v ast

support

rated

TIME

1 KALAMAZOO
VALLEY ISD
2 INGHAM ISD
3 OAKLAND ISD
4 SAGINAW
COUNTY ISD
5 MARQUETTEALGER ISD
* UNIVERSITY OF
MICHIGAN

SOURCE:

Oakland

FIGURE 3 :

Interm ediate

Regional
C enters

School

D istrict

Software E v a lu a tio n /T ra in in g

(TIME)

126

REGIONAL
SOFTWARE/TRAINING CENTERS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

K a l a m a z o o Val l e y ISO
I n g h a m ISD
Oakland S c h o o l s
S a g i n a w C o u n t y ISD
M a r q u e t t e - Al g e r ISD
T h e Uni versi t y
o f Mi c h i g a n

SOURCE: M t c r o L l n e s . Vol
FIGURE 4 :

Regional
Centers

1,

No 2,

Wes t M i c h i g a n TIME R e g i o n

Software E v a lu a tio n /T ra in in g

(TIME)

127
2. Local d i s t r i c t s
work o f

the

exceeded

Its

TIME

50 t r a i n e r s ,

centers.

found

t o t h e amount

such

of

(b)

O fficials
hare

or

are trained

of th e

th e y have

vast

areas

U niversity

of M ichigan,

Involved

TIME

at

TMT

moved

to

five

to

no o t h e r

In;

(d)

university

of

for

the

(a)

Most

and so
to

there
teacher

that

60

other

Jobs

as

(c)

TIME r e g i o n s

operate

have

stated

technical d irec to rs;

Trainers

which

Apart

means

from

the

In t h e s t a t e

Is

i n t h e TIME p r o j e c t .

Recommendations
E v e r y good t e a c h i n g / l e a r n i n g

philosophy
learner.

or c l e a r

Brandt and

level

(e.g.

Instructional
With r a t h e r

the
goals

Tyler

or

the

as

objectives

at

at

of

69 o f

districts

by

this

the

goals
system
to

level.
State

dissertation,

determ ine

a
the

E ducation)

t h o s e by

to

with

such

the classroom

such as

page

that

t h e y move f r o m t h e

Department

vague s t a t e m e n t s

for

to be a c h ie v e d

<1983) m a i n t a i n

State

Board of E d u c a t i o n c i t e d
difficult

p ro g ram must b e g i n

goals e v en tu ally

b e c o m e mo r e a n d m o r e s p e c i f i c

is

to

oenters:

tim e th e y can d e v o te

trainers

each

the

the

o t 200 I n s t e a d

classroom teach ers

computer c o o r d in a to r s
for

the

of

full-tim e

computer t r a i n i n g ;

(b)

claim s

follow ing reasons

study

are also

directly

TMT

from

the

trainers

of

Although

to b en efit

a total

Ineffectiveness

percent

appear

mandate by t r a i n i n g

apparent

Is a lim it

do not

It

common

128
c o m p e te n c ie s and t r a i n i n g
uses

teachers

In the

Instructional

ot com puters.
There

is

a real

and c o n c e r t e d

ellort

computing a t

the

and u r g e n t

form th e

basis

state

lor

skills

are

What c o m p e t e n c i e s
skills?

What

different

resolved at

the

need

instruction,
various

expected

t h e TIME

between th e

are

level?
such

expected

In

need t o

be

that

appears

t o be

the

highly

are

this

C enters

is

partly

uses

a re aware

ol

computers

in

their

by

activities

of

Education,

D istricts,

the

local

with regard

responsible

computers.

the

school

lor

and p r o v i d in g su p p o rt
ol

the

ol communication

School

and t e n u o u s

in t r a in in g

the classroom

need,

and

necesary.

b e i n g made

The l i n e s

Interm ediate

com puting. This

ol e f f o r t s

levels

S t a t e Department

inform al

in

wh a t

to teach

in t h e u se o l

t o meet

d istricts

teachers

student

elem entary

m atters

at a l l

teachers

Media

replication

the

lor

For e x a m p le f

teachers

These a re

R egional E d u ca tio n a l

instructional

of

although e f f o r ts

centers,

are

objectives

at

poorly coordinated.

and c o o r d i n a t i o n

would

computers

officials

agencies stu d ied

at best,

instructional

level.

to tr a in

and

In

in e d u c a ti o n which

re-organization

Although e d u c a tio n a l

w ell-coordinated

state

overdue.

students

areas?

state

is

ol

a

w ell-articulated

district

applications

A structural

the great

ol

are

subject

A

on c o m p u t e r s

training

expected

lor

training

level.

local

outcome and t e a c h e r

need

on t e a c h e r

p h i l o s o p h y and p o l i c y

are,

lor

Whereas

to
the
lor
it

129
could be
regions

argued
with

for softw are
the

large

service

that

large consortia

specific

curriculum

evaluation,

population
makes

training.

Now t h a t

been done,

It

of th e

ineffective

the

would be

unit

at

Interm ediate

that

over th e

School
have

D istricts
forged

reduce

computing

replication

agencies.
C enters

For

dissem ination

of

The

providing

local

functions

can

support

and

ideal

d istricts.

agencies

if

use.

encourage
the

for

It

are

the

Is

evident

Interm ediate
Media

Centers

network

which
w ill

by

E ducational

the

the
Media

collection
for

local

perform such

and
school

functions

w ith v id eo and a u d io m a t e r i a l s .

be extended

to computer

s o f t w a r e and

in
Such

other

m aterials.

T h e 14 t r a i n i n g m o d u l e s now p r o d u c e d b y t h e
at

ot

technology

specialization

m aterials

REMCs p r e s e n t l y
schools

e v a l u a t i o n has

reorganization

Regional

centers

educational

A

to

teacher

activ ities

communication

and

have

for

school d i s t r i c t s ,

can

example,

are

regions

t o an e d u c a t i o n a l

dependable

TIME

of th e re g io n s

School D i s t r i c t s .

local

the

cost-effective

and t h e R e g i o n a l E d u c a t i o n a l

a

instructional

are

TIME

more e f f i c i e n t

were t r a n s f e r r e d

years,

as

groundwork of s o f tw a r e

TIME r e g i o n s
the

areas

the sheer sizes

s o me

them

such

the U n iv e rs ity
expected

of M ic h ig a n were d e s i g n e d

to

train

other

trainers

Consequently,

t h e modules p r o v i d e a g e n e r a l

of th e major

issues

in ed u catio n al

for
and

TMT p r o j e c t
trainers

who

teachers.

o v e r v i e w o t some

computer t r a i n i n g

(see

130
A p p e n d i x Q ) . The n e x t
specific

modules

logical

for

Minnesota E d u ca tio n a l
It

teachers'

classroom

Technology,
is a great

need
with

their

effect

needs

enrich

1982).

TIME

instructional

Congress

this

of

talent

in

it

has

been

Computer C o o r d i n a t o r s
Th e p o s i t i o n a n d

coordinators

are

computing program.

the

state

especially

to
of
and

there
to

be

in

the

T his would l o g i c a l l y

have

universities

of o th er

view points

The S t a t e

uni­

House

reason alone,

instructional
and

that

Research

to

include

they e v e n tu a lly

The i n v o l v e m e n t

computing.

a p p r o a c h and

when

( I n t e r v i e w w i t h TMT o f f i c i a l s ,
2.

For

project,

of te a c h e rs

the

the

not r e l e v a n t

Science,

of e n c o u r a g i n g

the q u a lity

pooling

this

on

other u n iv e r s itie s

the

in th e c la ssro o m .

by

98th

own t e a c h e r p r e p a r a t i o n p r o g r a m s t o

computer

also

(U.S.

of t r a i n i n g m o d u le s.

the d e sire d

like

by num erous a u t h o r i t i e s

needs

Bork,
for

more

C o m p u t i n g C o n s o r t i u m (MECC) m o d u l e s .

Subcommittee

1979;

development

applications

in e d u c a t i o n a l computing a re

R epresentatives

Involved

specific

has been su g g e ste d

v e r s i t y .c o u rs e s

s t e p would be t o d e v e l o p

the a ctu al
go t o

universities
computer
of

found t o be q u i t e

wo r k
w ill

training

experts

of P e n n s y l v a n i a

August,

adapt

has

in
tried

successful

1986).

and Committees
qualifications

essential

t o an

of d i s t r i c t

effective

computer

instructional

131
<a ) D i s c u s s Lon
The

s t u d y made

the

follow ing

findings

at

the

local

lev el:
G enerally,
level

are

and t h e
study

important

quality
also

effective
and

computer c o o r d i n a to r s a t

of

teacher

support

found

if

(2)

to

that

they

instructional

are

very

selected

study,

coordinating

skeptical

official

little

and

about

instruction at
This

was

the

compared

d istrict.

another

computer c o o r d in a to r
had a l s o b e e n a

with
sm all

had

studied.

coordinator

has

interest

Instructional

in

a

no " c o m p u t e r

mor e

teachers

co n d itio n the

who i s
is

a

in
wo r d

d istricts

charged
very

he

The

with

qualified

is

also

as

tools

very
of

levels.

in J u s t i f y i n g

the

district

instructional

rural

in

affluent

d istrict,

worked as a

yet

are

Interested

computers

less

fact

although

has s e t

up one

computer programs

another

district

and

is a ls o

In

where

s c ie n c e '1 background

computing,

that

neighboring

computer a n a l y s t ,

te a c h e r and

instructional
In

receive.

and s e c o n d a r y s c h o o l

his

high school

enviable

d istricts

in

or

However,

of

was v e r y d e f e n s i v e

computing as

t h e most

computing

the elem entary

training

i n one o f t h e

person

value

inservlce

classroom

latter

programmer.

happening

In

the

d istrict

coordinators

im portant;

instructional

computer a n a l y s t

the

local

teachers

or have b e e n ,

In

"i n s t r u c t i o n a l " is

the

services

knowledgeable

computing.

for

computer

computer

(1) they a re ,

the

but

the
he
of
the
the
has

a classroom

132
teacher,
suggest

h e was
that

A ssistant

t o be v e r y

of an I n s t r u c t i o n a l

d istrict

h a d no

Superintendent

overseeing

instructional

one p a r t - t i m e

indication

during

an

role

of

th e computer c o o r d in a to r

second choice
competence
also

In

found

d istricts

of t h e

surveyed,
when

that

the

and P e r s o n n e l

was

t h e hope

realization

which use key t e a c h e r s

ofh i r i n g
year.

of t h e

im portant

In I n s t r u c t i o n a l

computing.

made p e e r
ways

computing

communication

the

but

to suggest

instructional

to

th e 1986-87 sch o o l

72.4 percent

asked

to

computer c o o r d i n a t o r .

computing w ith

is

teachers

may b e I m p o r t a n t

for C urriculum

coordinator

T h is seems

computer c o o r d i n a t o r

This

Of t h e

effective.

a te a c h in g background

effectiveness
One

found

to gain

(Table

Is

greatly

as b u ild in g

coaching

9 ) . The

a

mo r e
study

enhanced

in

contacts.

<b ) Recommend a t i o n s
Ideally,
time

every

instructional

affluent

d istrict

from

studied

could
the

for

have one p a r t - t i m e

part-tim e

to

coordinator

approach e s p e c ia lly

be c r i t i c a l
should

School

have

is

Sm aller

as

or

less

D istrict.

This a p p ea rs

with
One

— one
to

for
be

t h e t wo c o o r d i n a t o r s
above,

an i n s t r u c t i o n a l

teaching

full­

coordinator

From t h e d i s c u s s i o n
that

a

have one

coordinators

secondary grades.

are a ls o classroom te a c h e rs.
appears

should

coordinator.

Interm ediate

had two

e l e m e n t a r y an d one
a good p r a c t i c a l

district

computer

districts

assistance

school

background

what

computer
as

this

133
e n a b l e s b i n or b a r
to understand

to

tbelr

appears ad v isab le

problems.

to

likely

of th e

to be d i f f e r e n t .

members o f
as
Is

levels

this

It

Instructional

suggested

in

tor

that

instructional

" c o n ta c t-te a c h e r" through

building

of the

d istrict

computer c o o r d in a to r s

Interm ediate

committee so t h a t
assistance

School

D is tric t's

th e y can b rin g t h e i r

from th e

as

trainers

should

whom I n f o r m a t i o n

as
are

a mong t e a c h e r s .

b e t w e e n t h e c o m p u te r c o m m i t t e e and t e a c h e r s
Local

computing

and a s

It
for

t o have t e a c h e r s

involvement

every

committee

the secondary lev e l

is ad v isab le

of

and

the arrangem ent,

computer com m ittees

promotes a se n se

also

of te a c h e r s

instructional

and a n o t h e r

t wo

tb e needs

Whatever

have one

th e elem entary lev e l
the goals

appreciate

have

can be

It
a

relayed

in th e b u i ld in g .

s h o u l d be
advisory

problems

m e mb e r s
board

to,

or

and se e k

I SD.

3 . G e a r i n g T r a i n i n g Toward Needs
There
ted to
(a)

is evidence

teacher

that

training

Is

not a d e q u a t e l y

rela­

needs.

PLsQuasina
The s t u d y

i n g p r o v i d e d by
teachers
(Research

feel

found a d i s p a r i t y betw een th e ty p e s
local d i s t r i c t s
t h e y need

Questions

programming ranked

for

10
3rd

p r o v i d e d by l o c a l d i s t r i c t s ,

the

types

classroom uses

and
In

and

the
it

13).
type
ranked

For
of

of t r a i n ­

of
of

training
computers

example,

lnservlce

while
training

6th as a f i r s t

choice

134
among t e a c h e r s

(Tables

11 a n d

four d i s t r i c t s

provide

training

i n BASIC a n d Lo g o

no t e a c h e r

reported

u s i n g BASIC f o r

(Table

11),

12).

T h o s e who t e a c h a n y l a n g u a g e a t
t e a c h Lo g o ( T a b l e
ranked

2nd among t e a c h e r s

which t e a c h e r s
p o l i c y makers
the

15.1).

four

reported

purpose.

that

t h e m o s t common l a n g u a g e

Again,

while

three

the s ix p rin c ip a ls

and

reported

16.7 p e rc e n t

use them to r

these

The s t u d y
is

lim ited

correlation
level
for

training
computers

level
solving

use

for

district

t wo o f

the

computers

for

officials

instruction
15.1,

respectively

Logo,

15.2

and

classroom te a c h e rs,

reported
is

of c o m p u te r s

and

four

of

for

wor d

only

24.1

c la im they

levels

( p < .05

3

instructional

through

) was a l s o
of

also

the

instruction
are

amount

of

positive

use

time

of

grade

computers

a correlation

(Research Q uestion
of p r a c t i c a l

A

computing

found between

fo u n d b e t w e e n t h e amount

and

low c o r r e l a t i o n s

6.

time t e a c h e r s

(R esearch Q uestion 24);

received
for

use

in g e n e ra l

and t h e amount

) was

only

four d i s t r i c t s

the

instruction.

purposes.

grade
.40

instruction

( p < .06

the

of

in

of te a c h e r s

found t h a t

to

taught

teachers

of th e

languages

6 t h a mong

BASIC ( T a b l e s

p r o c e s s i n g and s i m u l a t i o n by
percent

ranked

used

Logo a n d

of the

as an a c t i v i t y

While t e a c h e r s and d i s t r i c t

reported

three

w hile problem

computing;

that

this

15.3).

it

while

elem entary school

and p r i n c i p a l s

instructional

d istricts

principals

the

Sim ilarly,

use com puters,
on

Again,

of

lnservlce

teachers
16).

significance

.30

use

However,
and

may

136
be e x p l a i n e d
teachers
for

by o t h e r

who h a v e r e c e i v e d

Instruction.

who

indicated

Instruction
training
teachers

At t h e s a m e t i m e ,
to

gave th e re a so n

who

The s t u d y f o u n d t h a t

lnservlce

w illingness

(see

w h i l e s o me
receiving

findings:

Table

9).

who

use

24.1 p e rc e n t
use

computers

Thesef in d in g s
arenot

do

teachers
more

not te a c h w ith

for

insufficient

Indicate

getting

all

computers

of

fo r not d oing so as

need t r a i n i n g
teachers

training

not

that

enough

of

it

computers

are

use computers

for

training.

(b) RecommendatIons
If

teachers

instruction,
their

u se of c o m p u te r s

i d e n t i f y and
teachers
direct

agree

In

of

Interest
computers

programs s k i l l s
instructional
example,
for

duties

meet

instruction-related

must be r e l e v a n t
Therefore,

prio ritizatio n
uses

of

computers

those needs.
sustained

is

build

to
w ill
and

in

the

into

is a

him or
skill

Instruction
such

of

in

need

to

needs

of

order

to

A n o t h e r way i n

her

to

which

instructional

inservice

be b e n e f i c i a l
to

chores

of th e

the

training
tea ch e r's

personally.

which t e a c h e r s
students

as p r e p a r in g

to

d istrict

classroom teachers

may b e

wo r d p r o c e s s i n g
direct

receive

and

on a

which

to

In t h e c l a s s r o o m .

the classroom
to

m otivated

they

principals

training

teachers'

both

t o be

the tra in in g

policy-m akers,

uses

are

can
and

lesson

For
use
for

plans,

136
teats,

classroom

m aterials

and

records,

or

for

correspondence.
Whereas
teachers

It

is

In t h e

advisable

uses

of computers

short

term ln s e r v lc e t r a i n i n g

those

teachers

instruction.
which has

who a c t u a l l y

Apart

the

it

for

exploring

if

adeptness

is

essential

s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d

to

technology

language

value

In

such as

interest

the

all
the
at
for
Logo

in

younger

geometry and

problem

in a language such

as

Instructional

of

uses

by e l e m e n t a r y c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s .

4. Teacher

Involvement

Teachers
In

computer
generate

Is d o u b t f u l

instruction,

to use th e

to

BASIC o r P a s c a l
computers

efforts

have

from a

for

ab ility

c h i l d r e n and has
solving,

in th e long term to t r a i n

feel

instructional

left

out

of t h e d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g

computing

and

In

planning

process
lnservlce

training.
< a ) D i s c u s s Ion
In th e
tation,

theoretical

s o me

innovation

factors

were

framework p o r t i o n
which

discussed.

communication r e s u l t i n g
teachers

that

lack of

interest

continuing

may

their

in

Induce

These
the

education

e v a l u a t i o n on t h e p a r t

ne w

Ideas

programs
of

on

Im portant;
by
for

teachers;

the

of
of

ignorance

or

teachers;
for

lack

to

part

principals;

need

disser­

resistance

Include:

feeling

Ideas are not
In

of t h i s

lack
fear

new s k i l l s

of
of
or

137

extra

effort

such

as

by

teachers

substitute

without

compensatory

teachers;

and

the

arrangem ents

sheer

fear

of

t e c h n o l o g y b y some t e a c h e r s .
The s t u d y

found t h a t

out

in the p la n n in g

Is

strongly

of

lnservlce

confirmed

by

overwhelming p r e f e r e n c e
to have

been

taken

computer

training

While a b o u t
w illingness

often

if

that

that
to

(Table

this

Ireland,

of

two

teachers1
not

by

local

surveyed

indi­

instruction

mor e

major

few c o m p u te r s

things

for

feeling.

B r e n d a n Ma c k e y

<48.1%)

second c o n s t r a i n t

t o do

and
In

Indicates

I n s t r u c t i o n as an a d d -o n s u b j e c t
One m a j o r s o u r c e
training

know e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t

technical

constraints

teachers

ap proach which i n s i s t s

details,

social

program com puters,
type

too

lnservlce

a n a l o g number s y s t e m s ,
how t o

This

scheduling appears

tor

the

The

teach.

in th e

p e r s o n must

history,

9).

view computer

they a lre a d y

literate"

7.1).

where

teachers

use computers

t o o many o t h e r

The “ c o m p r e h e n s i v e "

their

to

there are

f e e l i n g may b e

left

consideration

of th e

were t h a t

teachers

feel

agencies.

the choice,

(40.7%)

those

Into se rio u s

(Table

7.2

lnservlce

t h e y had

there are

school

for

of t e a c h e r s

training

Table

59 p e r c e n t

cated

expressed

63 p e r c e n t

has

of the

strategy
that

the

Recounting
(1987) w rote:

"computer

digital

and e t h i c s ,

potential
their

itself.

computers

operation,

Im plications

a

add-on

for

from
and
to

creating

experience

In

138
F i r s t was t h e m o s t f u n d a m e n t a l e r r o r o f a l l — o n e
of s t r a t e g y . In i n t r o d u c i n g t h e t e c h n o l o g y t o
our
t e a c h e r s , and In t h e i r
Introducing It
to
their
students,
we s t a r t e d
w ith
a
study
of
the
technology
itself
(computer
fam iliarization,
number s y s t e m , l o g i c c i r c u i t s , p r o g r a m m i n g , e t c . )
and, alm ost
as
an
after-thought
(or,
perhaps,
a f t e r we h a d l o s t a
lot
o f t e a c h e r s ) we
then
introduced a p p lic a tio n s
which
we f e l t
would
be
r e le v a n t (p. 74).
This

is an e x p e rie n c e

that

teacher

computer t r a i n e r s

should

ponder s e r i o u s l y .
(b) Recommendations
The i s s u e
oomputers
w ill

by t e a c h e r s

Is h i g h l y d e p e n d e n t

continue

However,

raised

to

for

be a

problem in

u s e d by most

schools

instructional

computing at

Shoemaker
Duncan

(1971),

(1977),

Pllon

Morton

involvement

of

It

teachers

in

Involvement
is

crucial

teachers

the

computer

appears

to

such as

Rogers

(1973),

(1974)

all

Rogers

and

(1979),

Zaltman

and

Zaltman e t a l .

(1972),

and

target

the

in th e

It

is

need

necessary

In m a t t e r s

such

as th e sc h e d u lin g

would p r e f e r

scheduled during t h e ir

to

hardware

of

the

participate

working hours

purchase,
of

than

lnservlce

the

process.

to

program.
in

for

change

as

success

for

level.

such

the

it

future.

be a d v i s a b l e

m atters

to

few

lab/netw ork

(1962),

stress

be a r g u e d w h e th er

too

and so

foreseeable

the elem entary

th e change

might

the

and B e r g q u is t

Havelock

Morton and

While

studied

theorists

there are

on f u n d s a v a i l a b l e ,

cost-effectiveness,

Change

that

involve
their
lnservlce

E vidently,
training

in s c h e d u l e s which

139
call

for

sacrifice

of t h e i r

n o n - c l a s s r o o m tim e or

w h i c h e n c r o a c h on t h e i r

holiday

plans.

schedules

"add-on"

feeling

about

rein fo rce the

computer

effect,

the

integrate

instruction.

goal

of t e a c h e r

computer

For exam ple,

units

effectively

taught

of

curriculum .

as

part

processing

Emphasis
the

areas

a variety

of s u b je c t

"we d o n ' t

its

applications"
Support

use

uses

areas

(p.

where

a

integrated

of

a s Zamora

we make

of

to
the

language

Into sev eral

and s o c i a l

programs sh o u ld

because,

c a n be

concepts

part
of

to

curlculum .

Issues re la tin g

part

science

th e computer;

studies.

be t o

enable

Instruction

In

(1983) has put

use of

it

through

8).

Services

T ea ch e rs need
rials

be

to view th e computer as a to o l

It,

5.

training

have

"add-on”

of computers

should be,

can

of

prog ram s s h o u l d be

studies

usage can be

particularly

of t e a c h e r

teacher

m inimize the

of t e c h n o l o g y and
or

types

which t e a c h e r s

the e x is tin g

of s o c i a l

technology are,
Word

into

Th e l a t t e r

on h i s t o r y a n d e t h i c s

c u r r i c u l u m and d a t a b a s e
curricular

training

instruction

such as th e development
the uses

To f u r t h e r

schedules

from l o c a l and

a variety

of s e r v i c e s

other agencies

and s u p p o r t

In t h e i r

mate­

instructional

of com puters.

(a) D iscu ssio n
Teacher
which

training apart,

teachers

require

from

there are e sse n tia l
their

local

services

districts

and

140
In te rm e d ia te School
computers.

For exam ple,

School D i s t r i c t s ,
local

D istricts

school

arrangem ents

the study

Regional

d istricts
with

In t h e i r

Instructional

found t h a t

Educational

make

Media

C enters

on b e h a l f

districts

do t o a s s i s t

Th e
Issue
for

Interm ediate

ISDs

m aintains

Its

own

Instructional

the

publish

d istricts

also
and

local

w rites

and

such m a te r ia ls

useful

to

Ko mo s k i e t

(1986).

part

studied

not a l l
of

the

teachers'

and

use,
One

books
while

of

the

idea

on
t wo

local
sheets,

manuals to c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r s .

their

all

access

hours

home,

Journals

55.2 percent

In

not

o u tsid e school

buildings

of

studied

of

teachers

instructional

local

ditrlcts

find

uses

provide

of
such

classroom te a c h e rs .

The i s s u e o f

al.

school

packages

d istricts

distributes

Instructional

However,

the

departments

softw are

school

new sletters.

found t h a t

m aterials

local

for

The s t u d y a l s o

computers.

which

local

specialized

on s p e c i f i c

collection

computing

d istricts

w orksheets,

their

and m anuals

One o f

and

schools.

teachers.

s t u d i e d and

new sletters

teachers.

School D i s t r i c t s

and

purchase

of

M e n t i o n h a s a l s o b e e n made o f s o f t w a r e e v a l u a t i o n
TIME c e n t e r s ,

of

Interm ediate

hardw are and s o f tw a r e

computer vendors

uses

has

allow

have t h i s
year

such

to school

computers

been ra is e d

Wh ereas most
teachers
policy.
as

to

by

teachers

experts

like

school d i s t r i c t s

and

take school

Consequently,

In th e

by

evenings

computers
for
and

a

go o d
during

141
holidays,

school

and com puter
open a c c e s s

labs.

but

for,
a l.

school

that

their

the

children

computer

purchase
district

beyond

associations
any

of,

This

businesses

study

gainfully

Dunna wa y

select
for

uses

feels
to

of

softw are

the

He a l s o

w illing

that

one

which
school

volunteer

community i n v o lv e m e n t does n o t

generally

assistance

between
vendors

purchase.
local

used

of

organize

schools

found

also

as

in computer

or

access

ownership

For e x am p le ,

teachers

are

free

local

programs

be

for

financial

partnership

m anufacturers

would

parents
but

and

help p aren ts

learning

products.

where

that

Dun n a wa y ( 1 9 8 5 ) h a v e

home c o m p u t e r s .

sessions

computer a id e s
go

sc h o o l's

on t h e i r

their

some

of s c h o o l s .

m anufacturers

orientation

Is a m ajor c o n c e rn of

Involve p aren ts

sch o o ls could

which s u p p o rt

with

computers.

(1 9 8 6 ) and

th e need t o

closets

which goes

of making p e o p le t a k e

in th e computer programs
suggests

in school

Komo s k l e t a l . m a i n t a i n

and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

suggested

unused

of s e c u r i t y

computers

has th e e f f e c t

Komoskl e t

sit

The p r o b l e m

to school

adm inistrators
actually

computers

by

Parent-Teacher

Th e s t u d y
businesses

beyond

purchase

did
or

not

find

computer

arrangem ents

b e t w e e n t h e m a n d s o me o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l a g e n c i e s .
(b) Recommendations
For b u d g e ta r y
continue

to have

final

reasons,

local

decisions

school

In m a t t e r s

d istricts

w ill

such as hardware

142
purchase but
the

the suggested

educational

I SDs c o u l d c o n t i n u e t o a s s i s t

d istricts

through

hardware

and

a d v ic e and

softw are

so ftw a re programs

for

softw are evaluation
pooling

together

t h e TIME

educational
be

Since

in

an

applications

centralized

m an uals and t h e i r

sh o u ld be e n c o u ra g e d .

funded

such

that

t wo o f

teachers

is

of

growing,

state-w ide

by

th o s e done

by

reference

distribution

ISDs a n d

like

the

worksheets
to

may n o t

teachers
be

able

REMCs c o u l d

does not a u t o m a t i c a l l y

make m o r e

studied

the

such as

teachers,

technology

idea s h e e ts ,

d istricts

the

use of school

have such a p o l i c y but

had b o r r o w e d

preceding

inducements

the

w ill

the schools

attract

number

be

such d i s t r i c t s .

of open a c c e s s

in those schools
months

W h i l e some

publications,

to a s s i s t

A policy
tee

w ith

m atrix.

instructional

to a ffo rd

such as

easy-to-use

The p u b l i c a t i o n o f n e w s l e t t e r s ,
and

the

of

affluent

p u rchasing arrangem ents

softw are evaluations

centers

C alifornia

s m a l l e r and l e s s

com panies.

should

technology u n its

a school

study.

training

computer

However,a

guaran­

computers;
no t e a c h e r
in the

six

combination

of

i n wo r d p r o c e s s i n g

skills

may

t h e r e b y m a k i n g t h e m mo r e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h

through

unthreatening

personal

hands-on

experlence.
The s u c c e s s f u l
of

the d i s t r i c t s

d istricts

with

use of p a re n ts

studied

lim ited

makes
funds.

it

as computer a id e s
an a t t r a c t i v e

Furtherm ore,

i n one

option

although

for

equity

143
of a cc ess
study,

to computers

parent

may n o t

involvement

be a b l e

is

not a

direct

may p r o v i d e

to affo rd

no g e n e r a l m o d e l
and l o c a l

is

their

concern

access

the

have t o be d e t e r m i n e d

logistics

by l o c a l

for

and

concessions

staff

tim e,

to educators.

such arrangem ents.
prepare students
Investigator

Also,
for

feel

ob tain the support

direct

benefit

for

In summary,
state-w ide

fo r such a program

on

d istricts

programs.

is a lso

constituted

are

from t h e i r

training

training

specialized
The
computing

is

units

that

schools

and b u s i n e s s

should

not

in

the

uses

eventually

ma k e s

be

this

Im possible

local businesses

study

in

to

in th e computer

of c o m p u ters

found a g r e a t

planning
that

efforts.
of

the

the

need

computing

.has

their

local
It

teacher

be

would

lnservlce

to

suggested

regions

a

as p r e s e n t l y

districts

is

for

which

t h e TIME r e g i o n s

for

benefit
that

the

transferred

to

ISDs.

position

of a

important

at

recommended t h a t

fact

of

employers.

felt

at

purchasing

the

too la rg e

programs

give s p e c ia l

instructional

guide school
It

to

hardware,

should take advantage

T raining

local

w ill

D istricts

it

this

policy

and

of major

programs of s c h o o ls .

schools

situations.

industry

that

who

However,

all

C o m p u t e r c o m p a n i e s h a v e b e e n known t o d o n a t e
softw are,

this

parents

own home c o m p u t e r s .

being proposed here

d istricts;

to

of

the

coordinator
local

for

d istrict

every school d i s t r i c t

instructional
level

and

should have a t

it

is

least

144
one p a r t - t i m e

coordinator.

computer c o o r d i n a t o r s
this

Is

crucial

It

Is

sh o u ld have

to

their

also

recommended

that

a te a c h in g background

understanding

of

as

teachers'

problem s.
Teacher
the

lnservlce tra in in g

Instructional

t r a in in g should
suggested
directed

at

In

provided

for

the short

term,

teachers

Instruction.
Involved

n eeds of t e a c h e r s .

be

that

It

all

local

such tr a in in g

teachers

with support

the

w orksheets

uses

computers.
local

and so
The

forth

lnservlce

computer programs of s c h o o ls

and

it
should

their

the

term
Is
be
for

be f u l l y
training
classroom

new sletters,
Instructional

c o o p e r a tio n between

businesses

long

teachers

ISDs p r o v i d e

for

toward

use computers

In s o f tw a r e e v a l u a t i o n ,

Idea s h e e t s ,

and

scheduling

d i s t r i c t s and

in the

teachers,

who a c t u a l l y n e e d t o

such as

and t h a t

companies

While

Is h i g h l y recommended t h a t

in m atters

of

s h o u l d be d i r e c t e d

computer

Instructional

Is a ls o su g g e ste d as a p o s s ib le

opt I o n .
Problems E ncountered During th e
A number of p r o b l e m s w e re e n c o u n t e r e d
this

study.

Many

w ith s c h o o ls.
that

they w ill

sim ilar

of th e s e

Some o f
serve

problems.

In t h e c o u r s e

were r e l a t e d t o d o ing

these are
to

Study

presented

help other

of

research

h e r e w i t h t h e hope

researchers

in

avoiding

145
One o f t h e
schools

is

Issues

that

such

schools
from th e

constitute
the

and

universities

t u r n i n g a wa y
example,

cooperation
from l a r g e

d istricts

that

a s many
it

explained
during

local

projects

relatively

the

It
widely

is
in

certain

also
their

their

com fortable

from

w ith so

important

as

easy

to

can.

of
For
the

i n many s c h o o l

d istricts

away

Lansing School

D istrict

In s p i t e

because

district

schools

had

which

process

of t h e

requirem ents,

to note th at

accessibility

saw

for

efforts

participation
adm inistrators

been

over-surveyed

instance,

s o me w e r e v e r y d e f e n s i v e a n d ,

some

after

an

attitudes
i n s ome

r e s e a r c h as

While

project

adm inistrators

and t h e i r

For

this

programs.

with the

many

(Appendix O ),

research projects.

computer

and s t u d e n t s

obtain

proposal.

district

some a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

also

a l e n g t h y and b u r e a u c r a t i c

refused

to

may

schools

it

they

was

year

exposed

research

every research

the school

institutions,

sense

d e v i s e wa y s

institutions,

that

in th e

have been

Researchers

Whereas

school a d m in is tra to rs

of a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

s t u d y was

school d i s t r i c t s

institutions.

may

or

i n to m eeting th e d i s t r i c t ' s

in the

or

be an a d v a n ta g e

universities

t o MSU h a d

evaluating
put

to

Inundate the

while

close

or

research

a major o b s t a c l e .

research projects

is

other

p r o x i m i t y may a p p e a r

research

In d o i n g r e s e a r c h w i t h

th e p ro x im ity of such schools

to u n iv e r s itie s
close

to th in k about

vary
toward

d istricts

an e v a l u a t i o n

adm inistrators
initial

I n one d i s t r i c t ,

of
felt

discussion,
a coordinator

146
a c t i n g as a
this

type

discuss

gatekeeper
of problem

the study

proposal

vital

the study

the

study.
good

teachers

and

grading,

this

Itself

schools because

did

study

around
time

to

of t h e

research

involving

schools.

Is th e

report

year-end a c t i v i t i e s .
study

involving

the year

end

adm inistrators
out

were begun

not beg in u n t i l

bad tim e of
it

fillin g

conduct a

are

cards,
It

in th e P a l l
May,

to

of t h e

1986.

do r e s e a r c h

school

Involved

year

with

appears

schools

that

between

it

is b e st

late

of
This
In
when

testing,

g r a d u a t i o n and a h o st

Pall

of
to
and

Spring,
S u g g e s t i o n s _Lor F u r t h e r
T his s t u d y has examined th e

training
public

p r o g r a m s and s u p p o r t

education agencies

i n two I n t e r m e d i a t e
follow -up
ISDs.

A way

lead-in

w riting

in p lan n in g a stu d y

for

is a p a r t i c u l a r l y

early

have a

even b e fo re

Although c o n ta c ts

other

Is t o

the

Is com pleted.

Timing i s

1986,

frustrated

The f i n d i n g s

possible areas
1.

for

teacher

services

of t h e
further

lnservlce

selected

to elem entary classroom

teachers

of

this

offered

computer

by

School D i s t r i c t s

is a r e p l i c a t io n

Study

in M ichigan.
study

study suggest

In o t h e r
the

A

logical
Michigan

follow ing

study:

C o o rd in a tio n between
e le m e n ta ry and
secondary
s c h o o l I n s t r u c t i o n a l com puter program s and
the
im p licatio n s th e re o f for teacher tr a in in g

as

147
2.

In d iv id u a l te a c h e r s ' approaches to
Integratlng
computers
Into
the
curriculum
aimed
at
developing
a
possible
model
for
computer
i n t e g r a t ion

3.

S o f t w a r e e v a l u a t i o n models and t h e i r
v a lu e s for cla ssro o m uses

4.

The TMT M o d u l e s a n d how t h e y may b e a d a p t e d
s p e c i f i c t r a i n i n g s i t u a t i o n s in s c h o o l s .

practleal
for

A P P E N D I C E S

A P P E N D I X

A

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:
MICHIGAN STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

148
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES

I n te r v ie w Schedule
1.

State

Department

of E d u c a t i o n

2.

O rganizational

3.

O r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r t show ing l i n e s of r e l a t i o n s h i p
b e t w e e n t h e SDE, S t a t e B o a r d o f E d u c a t i o n , t h e I D S ' s ,
t h e REMC' s, C o m p u t e r T r a i n i n g C e n t e r s a n d L o c a l
D lstrlets .

4.

Who i s r e p o n s i b l e
m atters?

5.

How a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s f o r t e a c h e r c o m p u t e r l n s e r v l c e
and s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s s h a r e d b etw een t h e s e a g e n c i e s ?

6.

Are t h e r e A d v i s o r y C o m m i t te e s w h ic h i n c l u d e
t e a c h e r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ?

7.

S t a t e P o l i c i e s / G u i d e l i n e s on i n s t r u c t i o n a l
a. Philosophy
b . Goals and O b j e c t i v e s
c . Scope and Sequence
d . Any c o n g r e s s - m a n d a t e d p o l i c i e s ?

8.

What d o e s SDE f e e l I t s p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s a n d r e s p o n s i ­
b i l i t i e s r e l a t i n g t o t e a c h e r c o m p u te r t r a i n i n g and
support se rv ic e s are?

9.

Doe s SDE h a v e a n y p o l i c y on t h e f o l l o w i n g ? :
a . Hardware p u rc h a se
b. Software purchase
c . Computer co m petency f o r t e a c h e r s
d. Computer com petency f o r s t u d e n t s
e . E q u i t y i s s u e s ( e . g . u r b a n v s . r u r a l , SES d i f f e r e n c e s )

chart

for

of t h e

(SDE)

SDE

instructional

com puter-related

classroom
computing

149
10.

How d o e s SDE t r a n s l a t e l e g i s l a t i v e g u i d e l i n e s ,
recommendations, mandates, r e s o l u t i o n s , e t c . , In to
a c tio n at the lo c a l le v e l?

11.

What i s t h e
training?

12.

What s u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s a r e p r o v i d e d
to i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?

13.

Future plans

history

14. Q u e s tio n s a r i s i n g

of the

SDE I n i n s t r u c t i o n a l

from i n te r v ie w

computer

by t h e SDE r e l a t i n g

A P P E N D I X

B

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:
INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL DISTRICTS

150
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES
I n t e r v i e w -Schedule
1.

ISD

2.

Number o f s c h o o l

3.

S t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between
C e n te r and d i s t r i c t s

4.

Role of
mat t e r s

5.

R o l e o f ISD v i s - a - v i s d i s t r i c t s i n m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g
to I n s t r u c t i o n a l computing:
a . Hardware/Software purchase
b . Type of c o m p u t e r s r e c o m m e n d e d / m a n d a t e d
c . S o f t w a r e e v a l u a t i o n and p u r c h a s e
d. Purchase arrangement with c o m p a n y /d istrib u to r
I.
hardware
I I . softw are
e . Drawing up o b j e c t i v e s f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g
£* D e c i d i n g on s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s

6.

ISD p o l i c y o n i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o m p u t i n g
a. Philosophy
b . G oals and O b j e c t i v e s
c . Scope and Sequence
d . Computer Committee
I.
membership
II. resp o n sib ilities
e . Any C o m p u t e r C o o r d i n a t o r o r D e p a r t m e n t ?
f . How ISD p e r c e i v e s I t s r o l e I n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g

7.

How I s

8.

Any ISD p o l i c y on who s h o u l d be r e s p o n s i b l e
i n s t r u c t i o n In s c h o o l s ?
a . Classroom tea ch e r?
b . Computer a i d e ?
c . Computer t e a c h e r ?
d. Other ( s p e c i f y )

9.

ISD
a.
b.
c.

d istricts

ISD v l s - a - v i s

school

c o o r d i n a ti o n between

ISD,

REMC,

districts

Training

In c u r r i c u l u m

ISD a n d d i s t r i c t s

achieved?

for

h i s t o r y in computer ln s e r v lc e t r a i n i n g
Date of e a r L l e s t l n s e r v l c e
Type o f f i r s t l n s e r v l c e
Type o f c o m p u t e r s I n i t i a l l y u s e d f o r t e a c h e r

computer

inservice

151
d.

Source of funding for te a c h e r
i.
federal grant
II.
s ta te grant
I I I . corporate grant
Iv.
l o c a l l y g e n e r a te d funds
v.
other

training/lnservlce

10. Types of l n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g
a . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Computers
b. Programming (la n g u a g e s used)
c. In tro d u c tio n to Software
d. Software E v aluation
e . Word P r o c e s s i n g
f . Record Keeping
g. D a t a b a s e Usage
h . C l a s s r o o m Management
1. C o n t e n t A r e a A p p l i c a t i o n s
j . In te g ra tio n Into Curriculum
k. S o c i a l I m p l i c a t i o n s and E t h i c s
1. O t h e r ( s p e c i f y )
1 1 . Whi c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r a t e g i e s
lnservlce training?
a . A f t e r s c h o o l workshops
b. Evening workshops
c . Summer w o r k s h o p s
d . S a t u r d a y workshops
e. College course
f . Other ( s p e c i f y )
1 2 . Who i n i t i a t e s

a r e used f o r

teacher

ISD w o r k s h o p s ?

1 3 . What o p t i o n s a r e u s e d f o r ISD t r a i n i n g
( e . g . h e l d a t t h e ISD, d i s t r i c t l e v e l ,

sessions?
building)

14.

S u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s p r o v i d e d by ISD
a* Does ISD m a i n t a i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f J o u r n a l s a n d / o r
books r e l a t i n g to I n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
b . Does ISD p u b l i s h a n y n e w s l e t t e r r e l a t i n g t o
I n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
c . Does ISD d i s t r i b u t e a n y I n s t r u c t i o n a l u n i t s , I d e a
s h e e ts , le sso n s, e t c . , r e l a t i n g to i n s t r u c t i o n a l
computIng?

15.

What a r e t h e I S D ' s p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t :
a . S u c c e s s e s In t e a c h e r com puter t r a i n i n g
b. Problems r e l a t i n g to te a c h e r computer t r a i n i n g

16.

Future plans

17. Q u e s t i o n s a r i s i n g

from i n t e r v i e w

A P P E N D I X

C

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:
REGIONAL EDUCATIONAL MEDIA CENTERS

152
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES

In terv iew Schedule
1.

REMC

2.

Number o f C o u n t i e s

3.

S t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n REMC,
C e n t e r s and Local D i s t r i c t s

4 . R o l e o f REMC v i s - a - v i s
matters

school

ISD,

districts

Training

in curricu lu m

5 . R o l e o f REMC v i s - a - v i s d i s t r i c t s I n m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g
i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing:
a. Hardware/software purchase
b . Type o t c o m p u t e r s r e c o m me n d e d / ma n d a t e d
c. Software ev alu atio n
d. Purchase arrangement with co m p an y /d istrib u to r
i .
Hardware
11. S o f t w a r e
e . D r a w i n g up o b j e c t i v e s f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g
f . D e c i d i n g on s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s
6.

REMC p o l i c y on i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o m p u t i n g
a. Philosophy
b . Goa l s and O b j e c t i v e s
c . Scope and Sequence
d . Computer Committee
I.
membership
II. responsibilities
e . Any C o m p u t e r C o o r d i n a t o r or D e p a r t m e n t ?
f . How REMC p e r c e i v e s i t s r o l e I n t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g

7.

How i s

8.

Any REMC p o l i c y on who s h o u l d b e r e s p o n s i b l e
computer i n s t r u c t i o n in sc h o o ls?
a. Classroom teacher
b. Computer a i d e
c . Computer t e a c h e r
d. Other ( s p e c i f y )

c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n REMC a n d d i s t r i c t s

9 . REMC h i s t o r y I n c o m p u t e r l n s e r v l c e
a . Date of e a r l i e s t l n s e r v l c e

training

to

achieved?
for

153
b.
c.

Ty p e o f f i r s t I n s e r v l c e
Ty p e o f c o m p u t e r s I n i t i a l l y

used

for

teacher

training

10.

Types of i n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g
a . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Computers
b. Programming ( l a n g u a g e s u s e d )
c. In tro d u ctio n to Software
d. Software E valuation
e . Word P r o c e s s i n g
f . Record Keeping
g. D a t a b a s e Usage
h . C l a s s r o o m Ma n a g e me n t
1. C o n t e n t Ar e a A p p l i c a t i o n s
J. In teg ra tio n into Curriculum
k. S o c i a l I m p l i c a t i o n s and E t h i c s
1. O t h e r ( s p e c i f y )

11.

Whi c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r a t e g i e s
Inservlce training?
a . A fte r sc hool workshops
b. Evening workshops
c . Summer Wo r k s h o p s
d. S a t u r d a y workshops
e. College course
f . Other ( s p e c i f y )

12.

Who i n i t i a t e s

13.

What o p t i o n s a r e u s e d f o r REMC t r a i n i n g s e s s i o n s ?
( e . g . h e l d a t REMC, d i s t r i c t l e v e l , i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g )

14.

S u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s p r o v i d e d by REMC
a . Does REMC m a i n t a i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f J o u r n a l s a n d / o r
books r e l a t i n g t o I n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
b . Does REMC p u b l i s h a n y n e w s l e t t e r r e l a t i n g t o
I n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
c . Does REMC d i s t r i b u t e a n y i n s t r u c t i o n a l u n i t s , i d e a
sheets, lessons, e t c . , r e l a ti n g to In s tru c tio n a l
c o mp u t i n g ?

15.

What a r e t h e REMC' s p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t :
a . Successes in te a c h e r computer t r a i n i n g ?
b. Problems r e l a t i n g to t e a c h e r computer t r a i n i n g ?

16.

Future plans

17.

Questions

are

used

for

teacher

REMC w o r k s h o p s ?

arising

from I n t e r v i e w

A P P E N D I X

D

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:
SOFTWARE EVALUATION/TRAINING ( TIME) CENTERS

154
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES

In terview Schedule
1. TIME CENTERS
2 . Number o f C o u n t i e s
3. S t r u c t u r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p between T r a i n i n g C e n t e r s ,
ISD, a n d L o c a l D i s t r i c t s
4. Rol e of C e n t e r v i s - a - v l s s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s
mat t e r s

REMC,

in c u rr ic u lu m

5. Rol e of C e n t e r v i s - a - v l s d i s t r i c t s In m a t t e r s r e l a t i n g
to i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing:
a. Hardware/Software purchase
b . Type o f c o m p u t e r s r e c o m m e n d e d / m a n d a t e d
c. Software e v a lu a tio n
d. Purchase arrangement with c o m p an y /d istrib u to r
I.
Hardware
II. Software
e . Dr a wi n g up o b j e c t i v e s f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g
f . D e c i d i n g on s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s
6. C e n t e r ' s p o l i c y on I n s t r u c t i o n a l c o m p u t i n g
a . Philosophy
b . G o a l s a nd O b j e c t i v e s
c . Scope and Sequence
d . Co mp u t e r C o m m i t t e e / B o a r d
I.
membership
II. responsibilities
e . How C e n t e r p e r c e i v e s I t s r o l e i n t e a c h e r

training

7. How I s c o o r d i n a t i o n b e t w e e n C e n t e r a nd d i s t r i c t s
achieved?
8.

How i s C e n t e r

funded?

9. Ty p e s o f i n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g
a . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Computers
b. Pr ogr ammi ng ( l a n g u a g e s u s e d )
c . I n t r o d u c t i o n to Software
d. S o f tw a re E v a l u a t i o n
e . Word P r o c e s s i n g
f . Record Keeping

155
g.
h.
1.
J.
k,
1*

D a t a b a s e Usage
C l a s s r o o m Ma n a g e me n t
C o n t e n t Area A p p l i c a t i o n s
In teg ra tio n into Curriculum
S o c i a l I m p l i c a t i o n s and E t h i c s
Other ( s p e c i f y )

10.

Wh i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r a t e g i e s
inservlce training?
a . A f te r sc h o o l workshops
b. Evening workshops
c . Summer w o r k s h o p s
d. S a t u r d a y workshops
e. College course
f. Other ( s p e c i f y )

11.

Who i n i t i a t e s

12.

S u p p o r t m a t e r i a l s p r o v i d e d by C e n t e r
a . Doe s C e n t e r m a i n t a i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f j o u r n a l s a n d / o r
books r e l a t i n g t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
b . Doe s C e n t e r p u b l i s h a n y n e w s l e t t e r r e l a t i n g t o
i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
c . Doe s C e n t e r d i s t r i b u t e a n y i n s t r u c t i o n a l u n i t s , i d e a
sh e ets, lessons, e t c . , r e l a t i n g to I n s tru c tio n a l
comput i n g ?

13.

What a r e t h e C e n t e r ' s p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t :
a . S u c c ess es in t e a c h e r computer t r a i n i n g ?
b. Problems r e l a t i n g to t e a c h e r computer t r a i n i n g ?

14.

Future

15.

Questions

Center

used

for

teacher

workshops?

plans
arising

are

from i n t e r v ie w

A P P E N D I X

E

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE!
TRAINING MODULES FOR TRAINERS (TMT)

156
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES

In te rv ie w Schedule
1 . T r a i n i n g Mo d u l e s

for T rainers

2 . What I s t h e TMT p r o j e c t ?
a . How a n d when I t s t a r t e d
b. Purpose
3. R e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n TMT a nd o t h e r TIME r e g i o n s
a . What t r a i n i n g d o e s TMT o f f e r t e a c h e r s ?
b . Any d i r e c t s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s t o c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s ?
4.

Sources

of f u n di ng

5.

How a r e

objectives

a nd c o n t e n t

c h o s e n f o r TMT m o d u l e s ?

6 . Ar e m o d u l e s s o f t w a r e s p e c i f i c ?

If so,

wh a t s o f t w a r e ?

7 . What i s TMT' s c o n n e c t i o n w i t h t h e U n i v e r s i t y of
Michigan?
8. Ar e TMT m o d u l e s u s e d
9.

What

for

i s TMT' s d e f i n i t i o n

t e a c h i n g U of M s t u d e n t s ?
of computer

1 0 . How i s p r o g r a m m i n g h a n d l e d
1 1.

literacy?

In the modules?

How a r e TMT m o d u l e s d i s s e m i n a t e d ?

1 2 . What d o e s TMT v i e w a s e f f e c t i v e t e a c h e r
I n s t r u c t i o n a l c o m p u t i n g ? Any m o d e l s ?
13.

training

I n f o r m a t i o n on M i n n e s o t a E d u c a t i o n a l C o m p u t i n g
C o n s o r t i u m , F l o r i d a p r o j e c t and o t h e r s

14. Q u e s t i o n s

arising

from I n t e r v i e w

In

A P P E N D I X

F

INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:
LOCAL EDUCATION AGENCIES
(LOCAL SCHOOL DI STRI CTS)

157
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES

Interview Schedule
1.

School D i s t r i c t

2.

Number o f E l e m e n t a r y S c h o o l s

3.

Teacher/Student

4.

Per P u p i l

5.

D i s t r i c t P o l i c y on I n s t r u c t i o n a l c o m p u t i n g
a. Philosophy
b . Goals and O b j e c t i v e s ( T h e o r e t i c a l E x p e c t a t i o n s )
c . Scope and S e q u e n c e
d . Computer Commi t tee
i .
membership
11. r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s

7.

Computer C o o r d i n a t o r
a. Full tim e /P a rt time?
b. Background

8.

I n s t r u c t i o n a l uses of co mputers
a . D r i l l and P r a c t i c e
b. T u to r ia l
c . S i m u l a t 1 on
d . D a t a b a s e Us a g e
e. Problem Solving
f . Word P r o c e s s i n g
g. Record Keeping
h. Programming
1. O t h e r U s e s ( s p e c i f y )

9.

Who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r
a. Classroom teacher
b . Computer a i d e
c . Computer t e a c h e r
d. Other ( s p e c i f y )

10.

Ratio

Expenditure

P h y s i c a l Arrangement
a. Network/computer lab
b. I n d i v i d u a l c l a s s r o o m
c. Combination

computer

instruction?

158
11.

Hardware
a . Number o f c o m p u t e r s I n D i s t r i c t
b . Breakdown by s c h o o l
c. Student/Computer r a t i o
d. Purchase p o lic y
e . Ty p e o f c o m p u t e r s r e c o m m e n d e d / m a n d a t e d b y D i s t r i c t
t. Purchase arrangement with c o m p a n y /d istrib u to r

12.

D i s t r i c t h i s t o r y in i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing
a . Mainframe p r o j e c t s
b . Who i n i t i a t e d i n t r o d u c t i o n o f c o m p u t e r s ?
c . Date of e a r l i e s t p u r c h a s e of micro com put er
d . Date of f i r s t i n s e r v i c e
e . Who o r g a n i z e d f i r s t i n s e r v l c e - - 1SD? SD? B u i l d i n g ?
f . Ty p e o f c o m p u t e r s I n i t i a l l y u s e d f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g
g . T y p e o f c o m p u t e r s now u s e d f o r t e a c h e r t r a i n i n g

13.

Types of i n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g
a . I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Computers
b . P r o g r a m m i n g ( e . g . BASIC)
c. In tro d u c tio n to Software
d . Word P r o c e s s i n g
e . Record Keeping
f . D a t a b a s e Usage
g . C l a s s r o o m Ma n a g e me n t
h. S o c i a l I m p l i c a t i o n s and E t h i c s
i . Other ( s p e d f y )

14.

Whi c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s t r a t e g i e s
inservlce training?
a . A f t e r s c h o o l workshops
b. Evening workshops
c . Summer w o r k s h o p s
d. S a t u r d a y workshops
e. College course
f . R e le a s e time workshops
g. Other ( s p e c i f y )

15.

Software
a . Who i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r s o f t w a r e e v a l u a t i o n a n d
s e l e c t ion?
b . Any r e c o m m e n d e d s o f t w a r e ?
c . Any m a n d a t e d s o f t w a r e ?
d . D i s t r i c t p o l i c y on s o f t w a r e s e l e c t i o n
e . Does D i s t r i c t p r o v i d e t r a i n i n g f o r s p e c i f i c p i e c e s o f
software?
g . Has D i s t r i c t d e v e l o p e d a n y mo d e l l e s s o n s o r
a c t i v i t i e s t h a t match s o f t w a r e with D i s t r i c t
ob J e c t i v e s ?
h . Do i n d i v i d u a l s c h o o l s r e c e i v e a n y D i s t r i c t f u n d s f o r
software purchase?

are

used

for

teacher

159
16.

Support m a t e r i a l s p ro v i d e d by D i s t r i c t
a . Does D i s t r i c t m a i n t a i n a c o l l e c t i o n o f J o u r n a l s
a n d /o r books r e l a t i n g to i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
b . Doe s D i s t r i c t p u b l i s h a n y n e w s l e t t e r r e l a t i n g t o
i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
c . Does D i s t r i c t d i s t r i b u t e a n y i n s t r u c t i o n a l u n i t s ,
idea s h e e t s , worksheets, e t c . , r e l a t i n g to i n s t r u c ­
t i o n a l computing?

17.

What a r e t h e D i s t r i c t ' s p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t ;
a . Successes in i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing
b. Problems r e l a t i n g to i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing

18.

Future

19.

Questions

plans
arising

from i n t e r v i e w

A P P E N D I X

G

TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

160
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES
F . TEACHER
1.

Do y o u u s e c o m p u t e r s t o r c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n ?
n o ______ ( g o t o q u e s t i o n
y e s ______ ( g o t o q u e s t i o n 2 )

9)

2.

What i s t h e a v e r a g e a mo u n t o f t i m e y o u r c l a s s s p e n d s
u s i n g c o m p u t e r s e a c h we e k ? _____________________________________

3.

How l o n g h a v e y o u b e e n u s i n g c o m p u t e r s

4.

I f y o u h a d t h e c h o i c e , w o u l d y o u s p e n d mo r e t i m e u s i n g
computers for i n s t r u c t i o n ?
yes
n o ______

5.

I f YES, w h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s p r e v e n t ( s ) yo u
f r o m s p e n d i n g mo r e t i m e i n u s i n g c o m p u t e r s f o r I n s t r u c t i o n ?
t o o f e w c o m p u t e r s ______
l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t t r a i n i n g ,
t o o many o t h e r t h i n g s t o do.
o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) _____

for

instruction?

l a c k o f s o f t w a r e ______
l a c k of s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s
s c h e d u l i n g ______

Who d i r e c t s t h e c l a s s c o m p u t e r s e s s i o n s ?
s e l f ______
a i d e ______
computer te a c h e r
other (please specify)
7.

F o r wha t

I n s t r u c t i o n a l p u r p o s e s do y o u u s e c o m p u t e r s ?
(p lea se check a l l th a t apply)

programming ( e . g . Logo)
r e c o r d k e e p i n g ______
wor d p r o c e s s i n g ______
s i m u l a t i o n ______
other (please specify)

d r i l l a n d p r a c t i c e __
a c c e s s 1ng a d a t a b a s e
tutor ial
problem solving.

y o u t e a c h p r o g r a m m i n g , wh a t l a n g u a g e ( s ) d o you u s e ?
o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) __
BASIC__
L o g o _________

8.

If

9.

I n g e n e r a l , how w o u l d y o u r a t e
i n s t r u c t Ion?
o f no v a l u e __________________
of m o der ate v a l u e

the value

of computers

of g r e a t

for

o f l i t t l e v a l u e _____
v a l u e ______

181
10.

11.

Ha ve y o u h a d a n y I n s e r v l c e
I n s t r u c t ion?
yes
(go t o 11)
How w e r e you I n t r o d u c e d

training
n o ______

In u s i n g computers
(go t o

to using computers

for

22)
for

Instruction?

l o c a l d i s t r i c t i n s e r v l c e ______
ISO I n s e r v l c e ______
REMC I n s e r v l c e ________ .
S t a t e T r a i n i n g C e n t e r _______
f o r m a l c o l l e g e c o u r s e ______
s e l f - t a u g h t on home c o m p u t e r _
other
( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) _____________________________________________
12.

F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s p l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h e a mo u n t o f
t i m e o f i n s t r u c t i o n a l c o m p u t e r I n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g you h a v e
r e c e i v e d . ( P l e a s e w r i t e t h e n u mb e r o f t i m e s y o u r e c e i v e d
tralnlng)

ll/2day|full
1
t
I
I
I
I
1
..............
I
I
1L o c a l D i s t r i c t
I I SD
I
I
1R e g i o n a l Me d i a C e n t e r 1
___1 .
1
IState T raining Center!
IColleee
1
1

13.

we e k
1
I
I
.......

1 1 semester/
term
1
I
1
1

I n g e n e r a l wh a t t y p e o f t r a i n i n g d i d you r e c e i v e
follow ing agencies? (check a l l th at apply)
Local
Distrlet

1

dayll
1
I
I
1
1
1
1

1 I n t r o d u c t I o n t o _C.QWP.ute r a
I P r o g r a m m i n g ( e . g . BASI C)
IIntroductIon to Software
I Word P r o c e s s i n g
IRecord Keeping
D a t a b a s e Us a g e
1C l a s s r o o m Ma n a g e me n t
IO t h e r ( P l e a s e s D e c l f . v ) -

from th e

State
I SD REMC T r a i n i n g Co 1l e g e
Center

I
I
I
1
1
1
1
1

162
14.

I f you l e a r n e d p r o g r a m m i n g a t a n y of t h e f o l l o w i n g
a g e n c i e s p l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h e l a n g u a g e you were t a u g h t .

1
1
1
I
I Lotto
1 BASIC
1 other.(Please

15.

specif?)

1
1 State I
|
1
I Local
ISD|REMCITralnlng!Collegel
1D i s t r l e t
I
1 Center I
1
1
I I
1
1
1
.... 1
1
1
1
1 1
1
1
t
1
t
i
l
1
1

I n g e n e r a l how w o u l d y o u r a t e t h e a mo u n t o f t r a i n i n g
r e c e i v e d from each of t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s ?
not

1

enough

I enough

you

mo r e t h a n e n o u g h

1____________

L L o c a l Di s t r i c t
1 I SP
1_REMC_
J_SiSLte_Tr a l n l n g

_L
Center

J_ C o .llo g .ft.

16.

I n g e n e r a l how w o u l d you r a t e t h e v a l u e o f t h e t r a i n i n g
r e c e i v e d from e ach of t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s t o your
c l a s s r o o m wo r k ?
no
value

1

IL o c a l D i s t r i c t

L IS P,

LBEMC_
I S t a t e Tr a i n i n g C e n t e r
I C o l l e g e __________________

little
value

moderate
value

you

great
value

163
17.

I n g e n e r a l how w o u l d y o u r a t e t h e s u p p o r t y o u g e t f r o m t h e
f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s In your use of c o m p u t e r s f o r I n s t r u c t i o n ?
t
no
I value

little
value

moderat e
value

great
value

J_______

1
IL o c a l D i s t r i c t
US D

1BE4KL
IState Training Center
[College

18.

_______________

How wo u l d y o u r a t e y o u r i n v o l v e m e n t i n p l a n n i n g
i n t r o d u c t i o n of co mp ut ers in your s c h o o l ?
highly involved
s l i g h t l y I n v o l v e d ______

19.

the

m o d e r a t e l y I n v o l v e d ______
n o t I n v o l v e d ______

Ra te your Involvement
in your school
computer-related a c t iv i t ie s .

NOW I n t h e

following

moderately
1n v o l v e d

slightly
1n v o l v e d

not
1n v o l v e d

f highly
I Involved

X

L h a r . d wa r e p u r c h a s e I
_Ls_of t w a r e s e l e c t I o n I
Ischeduling
X
[planning InservlceI
20.

In which of t h e f o l l o w i n g do you t h i n k
involved?
(check a l l t h a t a pply)
h a r d w a r e p u r c h a s e ______
s c h e d u l l n g ______
other (please specify)

21.

you s h o u l d

software
planning

be

s e l e c t 1 on.
1n s e r v 1c e

B e s i d e s t r a d i t i o n a l i n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g , In which of t h e
f o l l o w i n g ways d o y o u t h i n k y o u c o u l d g a i n mor e I n f o r m a ­
t i o n r e l a t i n g t o i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
(check a l l th a t apply)

b o o k s a b o u t c o m p u t i n g ______
J o u r n a l s / m a g a z i n e s _____
newsletters
a t t e n d i n g c o n f e r e n c e s _____
membership In computerc l u b s
m e m b e r s h i p on c o m m i t t e e s _
i n d i v i d u a l t i m e on a c o m p u t e r
p e e r c o a c h i n g _____
o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ________________________________________________

164
22.

Wh i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g d o e s y o u r d i s t r i c t
t o t h e use of co mpu ter s t o r i n s t r u c t i o n ?
philosophy
s c o p e and s e q u e n c e

23.

g o a l s a n d o b j e c t i v e s _____
suggested a c t iv i t ie s / l e s s o n s

What t y p e o f i n s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g d o y o u t h i n k y o u wo u l d
p r e f e r t o a s s i s t you In i n s t r u c t i o n a l u s e s o f c o m p u t e r s ?
( i n d i c a t e y o u r 1 s t , 2nd, and 3r d c h o i c e s )

In tro d u c tio n to Computers
Introduction to Software
Word P r o c e s s i n g
C l a s s r o o m Manage ment
24.

have r e l a t i n g

P r o g r a m m i n g ( e . g . B AS I C ) _
S o f t w a r e E v a l u a t i o n ____
D a t a b a s e U s a g e _____
O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ___________

Out o f t h e f o l l o w i n g p o s s i b i l i t i e s
3rd c h o i c e f o r t r a i n i n g :

rank your

1st,

2nd a n d

After school workshops
E v e n i n g w o r k s h o p s _____
Summer w o r k s h o p s
S a t u r d a y w o r k s h o p s _____
College course
R e l e a s e t i m e w o r k s h o p s _____
O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ____________________________________________
25.

Do y o u own a p e r s o n a l

26.

Do y o u e v e r

27,

What g r a d e

28.

How l o n g h a v e y o u b e e n t e a c h i n g a t
0-5 y r s

29.

computer?

take a school
level

c o m p u t e r home?

do you p r e s e n t l y

6 - 1 0 y r s _____

y e s _____

no

yes

no

teach?
the elementary

11-15 y r s

16 y r s

level?
or

mor e

I f you do n o t us e c o m p u t e r s f o r c l a s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n
p l e a s e l i s t y o u r ma j o r r e a s o n s f o r n o t u s i n g t hem:

A P P E N D I X

H

PRINCI PAL QUESTIONNAIRE

165
A STUDY INTO
TEACHER INSERVICE COMPUTER TRAINING PROGRAMS
AND SUPPORT SERVICES
F . PRINCI PAL
1.

What i s t h e a v e r a g e a m o u n t o f t i m e e a c h g r a d e
u s i n g c o m p u t e r s e a c h we e k i n y o u r s c h o o l ?
k i n d e r g a r t e n ____________
3 r d _______
4 t h ________

1 s t _____
5 t h _______

level

spends

2 n d _________
6 t h ________

2.

How l o n g h a s y o u r b u i l d i n g b e e n u s i n g c o m p u t e r s
I n s t r u c t i o n ? ______________________

for

3.

I f y o u b a d t h e c h o i c e , w o u l d y o u l i k e t h e t e a c h e r s on y o u r
s t a f f t o s p e n d mo r e t i m e u s i n g c o m p u t e r s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n ?
y e s ______
n o ______

4.

I f YES, w h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s p r e v e n t ( s ) y o u r s t a f f
f r o m s p e n d i n g mo r e t i m e i n u s i n g c o m p u t e r s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n ?
t o o f e w c o m p u t e r s ______
l a c k o f s o f t w a r e ______
l a c k of s u f f i c i e n t t r a i n i n g
l a c k o f s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s ___
t o o many o t h e r t h i n g s t o d o ______
s c h e d u l i n g ______
o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ________________________________________________

5.

Who d i r e c t s t h e c l a s s c o m p u t e r s e s s i o n s ?
c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r ______
a i d e ______
c o m p u t e r t e a c h e r ____
o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) _____________________________________________

6.

F o r wh a t
school?

i n s t r u c t i o n a l purposes are computers
(plea se check a l l th a t apply)

p r o g r a m m i n g ( e . g . Lo g o ) .
r e c o r d k e e p i n g ______
wo r d p r o c e s s i n g ______
s l m u l a t i o n ______
other (please specify)
If

programming
L o g o ______

used

In your

d r i l l and p r a c t i c e
accessing a database.
t u t o r l a l ______
p r o b l e m s o l v i n g ______

i s t a u g h t , wh a t l a n g u a g e ( s ) a r e u s e d ?
BASIC______
other (please specify)

I n g e n e r a l , how w o u l d y o u r a t e t h e v a l u e
i n s t r u c t ion?
o f no v a l u e __________________
o f m o d e r a t e v a l u e ______________

of computers

for

o f l i t t l e v a l u e _____
o f g r e a t v a l u e ___________

168
8.

How was y o u r s t a f f
I n s t r u c t ion?

introduced

to using computers

for

1SD i n s e r v l c e ______
l o c a l d i s t r i c t i n s e r v l c e ______
REMC I n s e r v l c e
S t a t e T r a i n i n g C e n t e r ______
formal c o lle g e course
s e l f - t a u g h t on home c o m p u t e r
other
( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ____________________________________________
1 0 . F o r t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s p l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h e a mo u n t o f
t i me of i n s t r u c t i o n a l c omput er i n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g your
s t a f f h a s r e c e i v e d . ( P l e a s e w r i t e t h e n u mb e r o f t i m e s t h e y
received train in g )
l / 2 d a y | f u l l day
1
I
1
1
1
1L o c a l D i s t r i c t
1
1
1
i
1 I SD
{ R e g i o n a l Me d i a C e n t e r
1
IS tate T raining Center
1
1C o l l e g e
1
1

11 we e k
1
1
1
l
1
1
1

1 1 . Wh i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g d o e s y o u r d i s t r i c t
t h e use of co mpu ter s f o r i n s t r u c t i o n ?
P h il osophy
s c o p e and s e q u e n c e

1 semester/
term

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
!

1

have r e l a t i n g

to

g o a l s a n d o b j e c t i v e s _____
s u g g e s t e d a c t i v i t 1e s / l e s s o n s __________

1 2 . I n g e n e r a l wha t t y p e o f t r a i n i n g d i d y o u r s t a f f r e c e i v e
from the fo l lo w in g a g e n c ie s? (check a l l t h a t a p p ly )
Local
Dlstrlet

1

I LiLtg-Qduc t 1 on t o C o m p u t e r s
P r o g r a m m i n g ( e . g . BASI CS
IIn tro d u ctio n to Software
IWord P r o c e s s i n g
IR e c o r d K e e n i n g
I Pat abase__U_sage
I C l a s s r o o m Ma n a g e me n t ___
{Other ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y )

State
I SD REMC T r a 1n i ng C o l 1 e g e
Center

167
13.

I £ p r o g r a m m i n g was l e a r n e d a t a n y o t t h e f o l l o w i n g
a g e n c i e s p l e a s e i n d i c a t e t h e l a n g u a g e t h a t wa s t a u g h t

I

Loca 1
D lstrlet

State
I SD REMC T r a i n i n g
Center

College

1
I Loeo

1 BASIC.
other

14.

(Please specify)

What t y p e o f I n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g w o u l d you p r e f e r
s t a f f in i n s t r u c t i o n a l uses of c o m pu ter s?
( i n d i c a t e your 1 s t , 2nd, and 3rd c h o i c e s )
I n t r o d u c t i o n to Computers
Introduction to Software
Word P r o c e s s i n g
C l a s s r o o m Manage ment

15.

1
I
1
1
I
1
1

1 not
1
1
1
1
Center 1
I

your

P r o g r a m m i n g ( e . g . BAS I C) _
S o f t w a r e E v a l u a t i o n ____
D a t a b a s e U s a g e _____
O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) __________

I n g e n e r a l how w o u l d y o u r a t e t h e a mo u n t o f t r a i n i n g
s t a f f r e c e i v e d from e ach of th e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s ?

Local D i s t r i c t
ISO
REMC
State Training
College

16.

for

enough

1
I

1 enough
t
1
......
1
1
1
I

your

I mo r e t h a n e n o u g h
t
1
l_
.1...

I n g e n e r a l how w o u l d y o u r a t e t h e v a l u e o f t h e t r a i n i n g
s t a f f r e c e i v e d from e a c h of t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s ?

I
ILocal D i s t r i c t
LISP
REMC
IS ta te T raining Center
I C o l l e g e __________________

no
va 1 ue

little
value

moderat e
v a l ue

1
1
1
1
1
1
1

your

great
value

168
17.

I n g e n e r a l how w o u l d y o u r r a t e t h e s u p p o r t y o u r s t a f f g e t s
from t h e f o l l o w i n g a g e n c i e s In t h e use of co mp ut ers for
I n s t r u c t Ion?

I
I
no
I little
I moderate
I great
I
I value
I value
I
value
I value
J__________________________ I__________ I____________ I______________ I___
I L o c a l D i s t r i c t _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ I_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ |_ _ _ _
I I SP________________________ I___________ 1______________I________________|____
i ff BMC_____________________ I__________ I____________ I______________ I___
I S t a t e T r a i n i n g C e n t e r l ____________!______________ I________________1____
[ C o l l e g e ___________________ I___________ I______________ I________________I____

18.

How wo u l d y o u r a t e t h e I n v o l v e m e n t o f t e a c h e r s
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of computers in your school?
h i g h l y I n v o l v e d ______
s l i g h t l y I n v o l v e d ______

19.

m o d e r a t e l y I n v o l v e d ______
n o t i n v o l v e d ______

Rate t h e Involvement of t e a c h e r s in your
following com puter-related a c t i v i t i e s .
I highly
I Involved

In p l a n n i n g

moderately
1n v o l v e d

school
silghtly
Involved

NOW i n

the

not
Involved

I_____________

hardware purchase I
I s o f t w a r e s e l e c t Ion I
1s c h e d u l l n g
[planning Inservlce

20.

I n w h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g d o you t h i n k
Involved?
(check a l l th a t apply)
h a r d w a r e p u r c h a s e ______
s c h e d u l l n g ______
other (please specify)

teachers

should

software selection,
planning Inservlce.

be

169
21.

B e s i d e s t r a d i t i o n a l I n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g , In which of the
f o l l o w i n g wa y s d o y o u t h i n k y o u r s t a f f c o u l d g a i n mo r e
In f o rm a tio n r e l a t i n g to i n s t r u c t i o n a l computing?
(check a l l th a t a pply)

books ab ou t c om pu t i n g
j o u r n a I s / m a g a z i n e s _____
newsletters
a t t e n d i n g c o n f e r e n c e s ___
membership in computerc l u b s
m e m b e r s h i p on c o m m i t t e e s
I n d i v i d u a l t i m e on a c o m p u t e r
p e e r c o a c h i n g _____
o t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ______________________________________________
22.

Out o f t h e
3rd c h o i c e

f o l lo w in g p o s s i b i l i t i e s rank your
for t r a i n i n g for your s t a f f ;

1st,

2nd a n d

After school workshops
E v e n i n g w o r k s h o p s _____
Summer w o r k s h o p s
S a t u r d a y w o r k s h o p s _____
College course
R elease time workshops
O t h e r ( p l e a s e s p e c i f y ) _____________________________________________
23.

Are t e a c h e r s a l l o w e d
yes
n o _____

24.

I f y e s , i n t h e l a s t 6 m o n t h s how many i n d i v i d u a l t e a c h e r s
on y o u r s t a f f h a v e t a k e n a s c h o o l c o m p u t e r home a t l e a s t
o n c e ? _____________________

25.

How l o n g h a v e y o u r b e e n a n a d m l n i s t a t o r
s c h o o l ? _________________________

at

your

26.

How l o n g h a v e y o u b e e n a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r
level?

at

the elementary

0-5 y r s

to

6 - 1 0 y r s _____

take school

computers

1 1 - 1 5 y r s _____

home?

16 y r s

present

or m o r e _

A P P E N D I X

I

INVESTI GATOR' S LETTER TO MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS

170
723 S. F r a n c i s A ve.
L a n s i n g , Mich. 48912
May 1 5,

1 986

ChaIrraan
UCRIHS
238 A d m i n i s t r a t i o n B u i l d i n g
Michigan S t a te U n iv e rs ity
E a s t L a n s i n g , Mi ch. 48824
De a r

Sir,

I
am a p p l y i n g
for
"expedited"
review
of
my
doctoral
d is s e r ta tio n research proposal
e n t i t l e d " Th e
Effectiveness
of T e a c h e r I n s e r v l c e Computer T r a i n i n g Pr og r ams and
Support
S e r v i c e s ; A Study
of
the
Role
of
Selected
Educational
A g e n c i e s I n t wo M i c h i g a n I n t e r m e d i a t e S c h o o l D i s t r i c t s . "
1.

BRI EF ABSTRACT

The r e s e a r c h w i l l I n v o l v e t h e s t u d y o f p o l i c i e s , g u i d e l i n e s ,
g o a l s and o b j e c t i v e s of t e a c h e r l n v s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g programs
and t h e s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s
p r o v i d e d by t h e a g e n c i e s
outlined
In t h e
Research Design
p o r t i o n of
the proposal
which
Is
enclosed.
Teachers
and
principals'
perceptions
of
the
a d e q u a c y , v a l u e and e f f e c t i v e n e s s of t h e i n s e r v l c e
training
and s u p p o r t t h e y
r e c e i v e from th e
selected agencies
will
a l s o be s t u d l e d .
For t h e p u r p o s e of
the study, face-to -face interviews
will
be c o n d u c t e d
with selecte d
top o f f i c i a l s
of t h e
agencies
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r computer u s a g e In i n s t r u c t i o n in
elementary
s c h o o l s . Documents s t a t i n g p o l i c i e s and g u i d e l i n e s w i l l a l s o
be
requested
and
studied
(please
see
Do c u me n t
Search/
Interview Schedules enclosed).
At e a c h
of
the
local
school
districts,
t wo
elementary
s c h o o l s w i l l be s t u d i e d t h r o u g h t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of s u r v e y
questionnaires to
teachers
and p r i n c i p a l s .
Teachers'
and
principals'
questionnaires
will
deal
with
similar
inform ation but adapted to s u i t each c ateg o ry (see P r i n c ip a l
and T ea c h e r q u e s t i o n n a i r e s
e n c l o s e d ) . To i n s u r e
anonymity,
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s w i l l be s e n t i n
bulk to the schools
through
the
local
school
administration
but
will
be
returned
i n d i v i d u a l l y by
the
subjects
to
the
Investigator
in
a
stamped
self-addressed
envelope.
Responses
will
be
aggregated
so
that
no
Individual's
responses
will
be
I d e n t 1f l a b l e .

171

Written consent for
the study
has been
o b t a i n e d from t h e
S t a te Department
of
Education
while
verbal
consent
and
cooperation is being obtained
from D i r e c t o r s of
Elementary
E d u c a t i o n / C u r r i c u l u m D i r e c t o r s a n d t h e Computer C o o r d i n a t o r s
a t t h e d i s t r i c t l e v e l . In a d d i t i o n , each q u e s t i o n n a i r e
will
I n c l u d e an i n t r o d u c t o r y l e t t e r s t a t i n g t h e a i m of t h e s t u d y .
It is
hoped
that
the
study w ill
problems c o n f r o n t i n g
the
elementary
computer u t i l i z a t i o n for i n s t r u c t i o n
will yield
suggestions
as to
how
a m e l 1o r a t e d .
2.

identify
some
of
the
classroom
teacher
in
and e l i c i t d a t a
which
th e s e problems
may b e

EXEMPTION FROM FULL COMMITTEE REVIEW
AND EXPEDITED REVIEW

The p r o p o s e d r e s e a r c h f a l l s u n d e r c a t e g o r i e s l A t 1C, I E , 2C,
2H, a n d
21 o f
U n i v e r s i t y Committee
on R e s e a r c h
Involving
Human S u b j e c t s g u i d e l i n e s .
I wo u l d a p p r e c i a t e
s t a r t the research

an e a r l y re v ie w
immediately.

so as

to

e n a b l e me

Thank you.
Yours s i n c e r e l y
Paul Kofi

Egbo

( S t u d e n t No. 0 8 3 6 7 6 6 )
( P h o n e No. 3 7 2 - 2 7 4 1 )

to

A P P E N D I X

J

LETTER OF APPROVAL FROM MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS

172

MICHIGAN STATE UNIV ERSITY
UNIVERSITY COMMUTES ON RESEARCH INVOLVING

EAST U N S IN ti * MICHIGAN • < m 4 -(0 L S

HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS)
» > ADMINISTRATION BUILDING
(JIT) J J M I t S

May 23, 1986

Mr, Paul Kofi Egbo
723 S. F r a n c i s Avenue
Lansing, Michigan 48912

t ■

Dear Mr. Egbo:
Subject:

P r o p o s a l E n t i t l e d , "The E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f Tencher
I n s e r v i c e Computer T r a i n i n g Programs and Support
S e r v i c e s : A Study of the Role of S e l e c t e d Educationa l
___________Agencies i n Two Michigan IntorniedinLe School l U s t r l c L s "
I am ple a s e d t o a d v i s e t h a t because of the n a t u r e o f (lie proponed r e s e a r c h ,
i t was e l i g i b l e f o r e x p e d i t e d review. This p r o c e s s has been completed, the
r i g h t s and w e l f a r e of the human s u b j e c t s ap pear t o be nd(>i|iialr)y p r o t e c t e d ,
and your p r o j e c t I s t h e r e f o r e approved.
You a r e reminded t h a t UCRIHS approval Is v a l i d f o r one ,rn I eudnr veur.
II you
plan t o c o n t i n u e t h i s p r o j e c t beyond one y enr, p l e a s e umbo p r o v i s i o n s foro b t a i n i n g a p p r o p r i a t e UCKJI1S approval p r i o r lo May 21, l')M7.
Any changes i n p r o cedure s i n v o l v i n g human s u b j e c t s must be reviewed by the
UCRIHS p r i o r t o i n i t i a t i o n of llie change. HUM IIS must a l s o be t mi f t i e d
promptly of any problems (unexpcr.l ed s i d e o f f e r i s , remp I a i nl s , e l . r . )
in v o l v i n g human s u b j e c t s d u r i n g the co u r se of tin? work.
Thank you f o r b r in g i n g t h i s p r o j e c t to our a t tent. ion.
f u t u r e h e l p , p l e a s e do n o t h e s i t a t e t o l e t us know.

If we can be of any

Sincerely,
U -* c

Henry E. Uredeck
Chairman, UCRIHS
HEB/jms
cc:

Dr. E r l i n g J o rg ens en

-

A P P E N D I X

K

I NVESTI GATOR' S LETTERS TO PRINCI PALS

173
723 S. Francis Ave.
Lansing, MI, 48912
May 15,

1986

Dear P r i n c i p a l ,
The a t t a c h e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e a l s
with a study in to
teacher
I n s e r v i c e computer
training
and s u p p o r t
services.
Please
d i s t r i b u t e t h e m t o t h e t e a c h e r s on y o u r s t a f f . You w i l l a l s o
f i n d o n e s u r v e y m a r k e d "PRINCIPAL" f o r y o u t o f i l l
out.Your
f r a n k r e s p o n s e s and
th o se of
your s t a f f
to each
question
w i l l be
u s e f u l in
making
s u g g e s t i o n s as
t o how t o
plan
fu tu re in se rv lc e tr a in in g for te a c h e rs.
R e a l i z i n g how b u s y t e a c h e r s a r e , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e h a s
been
d e s i g n e d In
such a
way t h a t i t
should
tak e only
a
few
m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e . Your r e s p o n s e s w i l l b e a g g r e g a t e d
with
oth ers for
a n a l y s i s and
no
individual responses
w ill
be
i d e n t i f i a b l e . To
Insure complete
an o nym ity, your
name
or
school is
not requested
and t h e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s have
been
s e n t in b u lk t o your s c h o o l .
P lease note th e
l e t t e r s f r o m my a c a d e m i c
a d v i s o r and
Dr.
J o h n O s b o rn e o f t h e S t a t e D e p a r tm e n t and be a s s u r e d t o o t h a t
the
project
has
been
cleared
with
the
appropriate
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s In y o u r d i s t r i c t .
I would
be
grateful
if
q u e s t i o n n a i r e and p l a c e i t
Thank you f o r

your

you
w ill
kindly
complete
your
In t h e e n v e l o p e I have p r o v i d e d .

assistance.
Yours s i n c e r e l y ,
P a u l K. Egbo
<I n v e s t l g a t o r )

174
723 S. Francis Ave.
Lansing, MI. 48912
May 2 8 ,

1986

Dear P r i n c i p a l ,
The e n c l o s e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e s d e a l
with a study In to
teacher
I n s e r v l c e computer
training
and s u p p o r t
services.
Please
d i s t r i b u t e t h e m t o t h e t e a c h e r s on y o u r s t a f f . You w i l l a l s o
f i n d o n e s u r v e y m a r k e d ' PRI NCI PAL' f o r you t o t i l l o u t . Your
f r a n k r e s p o n s e s and t h o s e
of your s t a f f
w i l l be u s e f u l
in
making s u g g e s t i o n s a s
t o how t o
plan fu tu re Inservlce
for
t eachers.
R ealizing
how b u s y
teachers
and
principals
are,
the
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s have
been d esigned
I n s u c h a way
that
it
s h o u l d t a k e o n l y a few m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
it
has been a rran g ed
w i t h your
school d i s t r i c t
t h a t you may
wish to com plete I t a f t e r
t h e s c h o o l y e a r e n d s . However,
I
wo u l d b e g r a t e f u l I f you w i l l k i n d l y m a l l y o u r s t o me I n t h e
a t t a c h e d s t a m p e d , s e l f - a d d r e s s e d e n v e l o p e by J u n e 30, 1 9 8 6 .
All
responses
w ill
be a g g r e g a t e d
for
analysis
and
no
individual
responses
w ill
be
Identifiable.
To
insure
c o m p l e t e a n o n y m i t y , y o u r name or s c h o o l I s n o t r e q u e s t e d and
t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s have been s e n t t o your s c h o o l in b u l k .
Please note the
l e t t e r s f r o m my a c a d e m i c
a d v i s o r and
Dr .
Jo h n Osborne of t h e S t a t e D e p a rtm e n t of E d u c a t i o n and p l e a s e
be a s s u r e d t o o t h a t t h i s
p r o j e c t has been c l e a r e d w ith
the
a p p r o p r i a t e a d m i n i s t r a t o r s i n y o u r d i s t r i c t . I f you h a v e a n y
q u e s t i o n s , p l e a s e f e e l f r e e t o c o n t a c t me a t ( 5 1 7 ) 3 7 2 - 2 7 4 1 .
T h a n k you f o r

your a s s i s t a n c e .
Yours s i n c e r e l y ,
P a u l K. Egbo
(Invest igator )

A P P E N D I X

L

INVESTIGATOR'S LETTERS TO TEACHERS

175

723 S . F r a n c i s Av e .
L a n s i n g , MI . 4 S91 2
May 1 5 ,

1986

Dear T e a c h e r ,
The a t t a c h e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e a l s
with a study in to
teacher
i n s e r v l c e c o m p u t e r t r a i n i n g a n d s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s . Your f r a n k
responses
to
each
question
w ill
be
useful
In
making
s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o how t o p l a n f u t u r e I n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g
for
teachers.
R e a l i z i n g how b u s y t e a c h e r s a r e , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e h a s
been
d e s ig n e d in
such a
way
that It
should
take only
a
few
m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e . Your r e s p o n s e s w i l l b e a g g r e g a t e d
with
o th e rs for
a n a l y s i s and
no
indiv id u al responses
w ill
be
i d e n t i f i a b l e . To
in su re complete
anonymity, your
name
or
sc h o o l Is
not re q u e ste d
and t h e
q u e s t i o n n a i r e s have
been
sen t in bulk t o your s c h o o l.
I
would
be
grateful
q u e s t i o n n a i r e and p l a c e
your p r i n c i p a l .
T h a n k you f o r

if
it

you
w ill
kindly
complete
In
th e e n v elo p e I have given

your a s s i s t a n c e .
Yours s i n c e r e l y ,
P a u l K. Egbo
(Investlgator)

the
to

176

723 S. F r a n c i s Ave.
L a n s l n g , M I . 4891 2
May 28,

1986

Dear T e a c h e r ,
The a t t a c h e d q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e a l s
with a study in to
teacher
i n s e r v i c e c o m p u t e r t r a i n i n g a n d s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s . Your t r a n k
responses
to
each
question
w ill
be
useful
In
making
s u g g e s t i o n s a s t o how t o p l a n f u t u r e I n s e r v l c e t r a i n i n g
for
teachers.
R e a l i z i n g how b u s y t e a c h e r s a r e , t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e h a s
been
d e sig n ed in
s u c h a way t h a t i t
should
take only
a
few
minutes to com plete. Furtherm ore,
i t ha3 been a r r a n g e d
w ith
your d i s t r i c t t h a t
y o u may
wish to co m plete i t a f t e r
the
s c h o o l y e a r e n d s . However, I
would be g r a t e f u l i f you
w ill
k i n d l y m a i l i t t o me i n t h e a t t a c h e d
stamped, s e l f - a d d r e s s e d
e n v e l o p e by J u n e 3 0 , 1 9 8 6 .
All
responses
w ill
be
aggregated
for
analysis
and
no
individual
responses
w ill
be
identifiable.
To
Insure
c o m p l e t e a n o n y m i t y , y o u r name o r s c h o o l i s n o t r e q u e s t e d a n d
th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s have been se n t t o your sch oo l in b u lk .
It
at

t h e r e a re any q u e s t i o n s ,
(517) 372-2741.

Thank you f o r

please

feel

free

to co n tact

your a s s i s t a n c e .
Yours s i n c e r e l y ,

P a u l K. Egbo
(Investlgator)

me

A P P E N D I X

M

INTRODUCTION LETTER FROM
PROFESSOR ERLING JORGENSEN

177

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
LIFELONG EDUCATION PROGRAMS • KELLOGG CENTER

EAST LANSING * M ICHIGAN ■ 4M M

Hay 9* 1906

S e le c te d Michigan E ducators in Ingham and Oakland C o u n ties, R egional E d u catio n al
Media C enters and th e S ta te Department o f E ducation.

Dear C olleague:
This l e t t e r w i l l in tro d u c e Mr. Paul Egbo, a d o c to ra l stu d e n t in th e C ollege o f
E ducation, M ichigan S ta te U n iv e rs ity . Mr. Egbo is stu d y in g the in tro d u c tio n
and u se o f computers in th e elem entary classroom . He i s p a r t ic u la r l y in te r e s te d
in th e r o le o f v a rio u s elem ents o f school a d m in is tra tio n ond o f o th e r ag en cies
involved in a s s i s t i n g te a c h e rs who use computers fo r in s tr u c tio n .
Your a s s is ta n c e in h is c o lle c tio n o f .data w i ll be g r e a tly a p p re c ia te d . His
re s e a rc h d esig n c a l l s f o r in te rv ie w s w ith s e le c te d a d m in ista to rs and responses
t o a q u e s tio n n a ire by p r in c ip a ls and te a c h e rs in s e le c te d sch o o ls.
Thank you f o r your a s s is ta n c e .
S in c e re ly ,

E riin g SJJ
S j j Jo rg een
n se n , J?
t/rro
o ffesso
esso r
E ducational Systems Design
RJ/Jm

A P P E N D I X

N

INTRODUCTION LETTER FROM
DR. JOHN OSBORNE, STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION

178

STATE OF MICHIGAN

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION mre «*«»«* «d« at,bn_
NO R M A N O T T O XT OTKMEVER. SR.
U « J I9 H t0 ,

m iv iig in

R D O I/9

/>riWr#rt
Iffl*
BARBARAA
KnnW
ryiflfRrIS MA*>N
BAH HA* A l > 1 I M l M > n i r i l E

nilLUB E. RUKKIl

3«prriM*n4«ftl

of fuMfe iMUKliM

H ay 9 # 1 9 8 6

D O R O T H Y BE

IrruiRfff
OR. CDMIINO T. VANOETTE

M\ttH /W
.-c+wr

C A R f t o r i. At III11 I O N
C'Hf RR Y |A(O fiMA

ANNETTA MILLER
I HIV, M i l l * I n i A N t l l A M I I
I t OtImm

S e l e c t e d M ic h ig a n E d u c a t o r s I n Ingham and O akland C o u n t i e s and
R e g io n a l E d u c a t i o n a l Media C e n t e r s

D ear C o l l e a g u e t
T h is l e t t e r w i l l s e r v e t o I n t r o d u c e H r. Fnul Egho, n d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t
i n th a C o l l e g e o f E d u c a t i o n , M ic h iga n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y . H r. Egho i s
s t u d y i n g t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n an d u s e o f c o m p u te rs In e l e m e n t a r y c l a s s ­
rooms. lie i s p a r t i c u l a r l y I n t e r e s t e d i n t h e r o l e o f v a r i o u s e l e m e n ts
o f s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and th e r o l e w hich o t h e r a g e n c i e s p la y In
a s s i s t i n g t e a c h e r s who u se c o m p u te r s For I n s t r u c t i o n .
I would a p p r e c i a t e a n y a s s i s t a n c e w hich you c o u l d p r o v i d e Mr. Fgbo a s
he c o n d u c t s h i s d a t a c o l l e c t i o n .
I t l a my u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h a t h i s
re s e a r c h design c a l l s f o r in te r v ie w s w ith s e le c te d a d m in is t r a to r s a s
w e l l a s s e c u r i n g r e s p o n s e s t o a q u e s t i o n n a i r e from p r i n c i p a l s and
te a c h e r s In s e l e c t e d s c h o o ls .
I w ould l i k e t o ta k e t h i s o p p o r t u n i t y t o th a n k you For y o u r a s s i s t a n c e
In t h i s p r o f e s s i o n a l u n d e r t a k i n g .
I f you have a n y q u e s t i o n s r e g a r d i n g
t h i s s t u d y p l e a s e f e e l f r e e t o c a l l me a t ( S I 7) 373-lflOfl.

Jo hn O sh o m o , I'h.D,
H lc h lg n n D epartm ent on f E d u c a tio n
J O :u b

A P P E N D I X

O

LETTER FROM LANSING SCHOOL DISTRICT
OFFICE OF EVALUATION SERVICES

179

La n s in d

s c h o o l d is t r ic t

o frie i o r

C V AC UAtfBN K R V I B C a

s o o v . itM Awcr
UM K H

0, M tC N IQ A M 41193

June 19, 1905

He. Paul Egbo
723 5 . F rancis Avenue
Lansing, HI 4B912
Dear Mr. Egbo:
In regard to your research study t i t l e d , "The E rrprtlvetiess of
Teacher In serv lce Ctmputec T raining Prngrnmn and s n n ’n r t S etvlcnst
A Study of the Role or Self’ctr'd R di tea 1:1nnn I A i |'- |i r 'i > ,n hi Two
Mldtlgnn Interm ediate JVlinnl D lnt-rlcls", tlio rcqiw’nl- lo rmrlWTfc
the study In th e Lnnning School D is tr ic t lias _____ boon approved,
X has not been approved.
The following consents apply to your study:
I t was the ju d gm en t n f llm Conini hl r o t h a t h a u n t ir| n l n f f h a v e
already conpleted sev eral q u estio n n aires nhout cunpni
use an
p a rt of d i s t r i c t programs. Thank you for your in te r e s t in the
L a n s in g Schools.
I f you have any questions or need ad d itio n al Jnfotiinl inn, please
c o ntact me (374-4347).
you.

Vo-)^j»vvsa-rO
Pat Petersen
Evaluation S p e c ia lis t
PP/mlc
cc:

Research Review C cnnlttee Marbecs

A P P E N D I X

P

THREE PAGES OF SOFTWARE EVALUATION INVENTORY
OF TIME CENTERS

180

NETWORK SOFTWARE INVENTORY - 4/J/06

Key to Field Descriptors for Software Inventory
C enter - Site entering Information:
1. 5EMTEC
2. South Central Regional
3. TIME North

4. Upper Peninsula Consortia
5. West Michigan Region
£. University of Michigan

Location - Center(s) having on-site software:
1. SEMTEC
2, South Central
3* TIME North

Region

4. Upper Peninsula Consortia
5. West Michigan Region
6 , University of Mlciiiysn

Brand - Computers which support software:
1. At Apple
2.AT: Atari

S* O; Other
rt. T: TR5 01)

3. C: C ninm o dore
4 . I: IBM

7. V: VIC
lU J P : I ' Ll

Modes - Specie! Features uf software:
1. A: Animation

4. S: Sound

2 . G: G r a p h ic s

S. T: Text.

3. I: Integrated

6. O: Ulltor

Storage - Type(s) of storage tlevice(s):
1. CA: C assette
2. C: Cartridge
3. D: Diskette
Printer - (Y) for yes, (N) for no
Grades - Appropriate usage level:
1. PS: Pre-school
2. LE: Lower Elementary (1-3)
3- UE: Upper Elementary (4-5)

a. MS: Middle School (r,-0)
5. HS: High School (9-12)
6 . Nat applicable

181

P urpo se - In te n t of s o ftw a re use:
1. A: A ssessm ent
2. AD: A d m in istra tiv e task
3. D: Drill
4. E: E n rich m en t
5. G: Game

6.
7.
0.
9.

P:
R:
S:
T:

Problem Solving
R em ed ia tio n
Sim ulation
T utorial

M anage - (Y) for in s tru c tio n a l m a n agem en t com ponent or (N) for no
A u th o r - (Y) for a u tho rin g c a p a b ilitie s or (N) fo r no
t

D ocum ent - s o f tw a r e d o cum en tation :
1. P: P ro gram
2. Ti T e x t
3. B: B ath
S u b je c t - G e n e ra l a cad em ic or a p p lic a tio n areaCs):
1. AD: A d m in istratio n serv ice s
2. C : C o m p u te r L ite ra c y
3.ESL: English as a second la n gu age
4. F: F o reig n L an gu ag e
5. FA: F in e A rts
6 . H: H ealth
7* I: in s tru c tio n a l M an ag em en t

0.

L: L ang uage A rts
M: Matii
MD: Media
1 1 . PE: Physicnl E d u catio n
12 . P.: R eading
S: Soinnne
J 3.
14. SS: Sucinl S cience
9.
ID.

Topic - S pecific a ca d e m ic or a p p lic a tio n area(3):

Spec Ed - Special E d u c a tio n a p p lic atio n s:
Voc Ed - V ocational E d u c a tio n a p p lic atio n s:

R eview - E v a lu a tio n R ating:
A. Highly recom m ended for preview
B. R ecom m en d ed for p rev iew
C . Not recom m ended for p review
E v a luation - Source of ev alu a tio n :
1. C: E v a lu a tio n by C e n t e r
2. C A : CA P rev ie w Guide
3. D: D igest of S o ftw a re R eview s
4. M:
M icro sift
5. T: Tess

6.
O: Only the B est
7.
S: S o ftw a re R e p o rts
0. ME: MINN. List
9. MA: MACUL
10.
E: EPIE

182

FACE TO, OOOOl
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S h ilo h

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A P P E N D I X

Q

THE TUT TRAINING MODULES

183
THE TMT TRAINING MODULES

The TMT s e r i e s
a major a s p e c t

c o n s i s t s o f 14 m o d u l e s , e a c h w h i c h a d d r e s s e s
of e d u c a tio n a l computing:
1.
2.
3.
4*
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

T r a i n i n g Methods
The P r o c e s s o f D i s t r i c t P l a n n i n g
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Methods
A p p lic a tio n s Concepts
The P r o c e s s of S o f t w a r e E v a l u a t i o n
Hardware C o n f i g u r a t i o n
Basic Technical S h ills
I n s t r u c t i o n a l Ma n a g e m e n t
S o ftw are Design
Computers in t h e C u r r ic u lu m
C om puter-M ediated Communication
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e Uses
F u t u r e I ma g e s
The C o m p u t e r a n d M e d i a S e r v i c e s

Each module c o n t a i n s :
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*

SOURCE: TMT B r o c h u r e ,

an overview
goals
tra in in g leader p re re q u isite s
competency l i s t
issues n a rra tiv e
actIvlty lists
a c t i v i t y cards
b la c k lin e m asters
fee d b ac k forms

1987

B I B L I O G R A P H Y

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( 1 9 7 8 , A p r i l ) . "PLATO a n d TI CC1T: An E v a l u a t i o n o f
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Forget

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Harlow,
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