INFORMATION TO USERS
The most advanced technology has been used to photo­
graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm
master. UMI films the original text directly from the copy
submitted. Thus, some dissertation copies are in typewriter
face, while others may be from a computer printer.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send UMI a
complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will
be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyrighted material had to
be removed, a note will indicate the deletion.
Oversize m aterials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re­
produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper
left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal
sections with small overlaps. Each oversize page is available
as one exposure on a standard 35 mm slide or as a 17" x 23"
black and white photographic print for an additional charge.
Photographs included in the original manuscript have been
reproduced xerographically in this copy. 35 mm slides or
6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for
any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for
an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order.

UMI

A ccessing th e World's Information sin c e 1938

300 North Z eeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA

Order N u m b er 8801872

A n analysis o f th e relation sh ip b etw een com m u nity w ork
exp erien ces and selected m easures o f career d evelop m en t o f
M ichigan S ta te U n iv ersity stu d en ts
Smith, Jane S., Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1987

UMI

300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106

PLEASE NOTE:

In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy.
Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark

1. Glossy photographs or pag es______
2. Colored illustrations, paper or print_______
3. Photographs with dark background_____
4. Illustrations are poor copy_______
5. Pages with black marks, not original copy______
6.

Print shows through as there is text on both sides of p a g e _______

7.

Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages _

8. Print exceeds margin requirements______
9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine_______
10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print_______
11. Page(s)____________lacking when material received, and not available from school or
author.
seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows.

12.

Page(s)

13.

Two pages num bered

14.

Curling and wrinkled pages______

. Text follows.

15. Dissertation contains pages with print at a slant, filmed a s received
16.

Other___________________________________________________

.

AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
COMMUNITY WORK EXPERIENCES AND SELECTED
MEASURES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT
OF MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS

by
Jane S. Smith

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Administration and Higher Education
1987

ABSTRACT
AN ANALYSIS OF THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COMMUNITY WORK
EXPERIENCES AND SELECTED MEASURES OF CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY STUDENTS
by
Jane S. Smith

The

purpose

relationship

of

between

this
the

study

was

community

to

work

examine

the

experience

of

Michigan State University students and various measures of
career
values

development,
and

results

skills.

of

different

this
ages,

traditional

and

The

genders,

community

work

all

selection

study also
were

class

non-traditional

included

1981.

field

experience

population

Service-Learning

major

and

examined

different
levels,

whether

for

who

the

those

of

and

in

ethnicity

occupation

students

personal

areas.

participated
the

The
in

experiences

provided

by

MSU

Center between

September,

1977 and June,

An optical scan computer survey card was distributed

yearly to each of the participating students.
The major research question was to determine whether a
correlation

existed

between

the

experience

and

selected

measures of career development.
The
comparison

data
of

were

analyzed

frequency

through

distributions.

calculation
The

and

relationship

between variables was analyzed using analysis of variance,
Chi-Square and Kendall's Tau Correlational

statistics.

A

null hypothesis was established for each set of variables

and accepted or rejected at the .05 level of significance.
The major motivations for student participation were
to gain experience in a career field and to help people.
Younger students became involved to explore career choices,
while

older

career

students

field

and

wanted

develop

to

gain

experience

professional

in

their

contacts.

The

majority of the participants affirmed, changed or questioned
their career choice, and

nearly half of the total affirmed,

changed or questioned their major.
The

experience

support

from

others

broader

knowledge

Participants

was

extremely

for

career

of

gained

career

first

important

decisions
and

job

handexposure

to

and

gaining

providing

requirements.
to

the

world

of

work, increased awareness of job requirements and personal
values, and
Courses

how education serves as preparation to career.

became more

meaningful and

students were

able

to

identify courses which would be more useful to their career.
They were also able to apply coursework to the community,
and

community

noted

in

experience

awareness

to coursework.

of

values and

An

increase was

skills, and

in

self

confidence.
Women

were

more

barriers than were men.

apt

to

cross

The value

of

stereotypic

career

the community work

experience was confirmed, with the importance of the role of
the academic advisor emphasized.

DEDICATION

To my parents, Frank and Marion Schneberger,

who taught me

the value of education and of hard work.

To my children:

Suzan,

Tracy,

Cameron,

Z,

Kimberly,

and

Scott, who provided the encouragement and support along the
way and who taught me to believe in myself.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to extend a most sincere feeling of
appreciation to the

following persons and groups,

who have

devoted their time,

efforts, patience and supportin making

this study possible.
- The

10,352

participated

Michigan

State

University

in community work experiences

students
coordinated

who
by

the MSU Service-Learning Center from 1977 - 1981.
- The 4,308 MSU students who served as

respondents

to

the survey during this period.
- The many student coordinators
pins

between

the

volunteers,

who

served as

the University

linking
and

the

community agencies.
- The
Dolen,

staff

of

Mary Edens,

the

Service-Learning

Center:

Chris

Marilynn VanLake, Sharon Ledebuhr, Jan

Foster, and the Graduate Staff, who provided the author with
continuous

encouragement

and

whose

skill,

hard

work

and

creativity made the programs possible.
- Dr.

Eldon

Nonnamaker,

Chairperson

of

the

author's

guidance committee, whose wisdom and encouragement made the
doctoral program a meaningful learning experience.

iii

- Doctors Betty Giuliani, Stanley Stark, Casmer Heilman
and Kay White, who served on the author's guidance committee
and whose suggestions and advice proved invaluable

in

the

doctoral process.
- Carol Larson and Patti Ekstrom who provided excellent
clerical

assistance

manuscripts.

in

typing

the

preliminary

and

final

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES......................................... vii
LIST OF SUMMARY CHARTS................................. xiv
CHAPTER I - INTRODUCTION................................. 1
The Problem............................................ 3
The Program............................................ 5
Purpose................................................ 6
Description of the Study............................... 7
Population........................................... 7
The Instrument....................................... 8
Data Analysis........................................ 9
Theory................................................ 15
Overview of the Study................................. 22
CHAPTER II - LITERATURE REVIEW.......................... 23
The Trait-Factor Theory.............................. 24
The Sociological Model............................... 26
The Personality Approach.............................. 28
The Self-Concept Theory.............................. 32
Recent Studies at Secondary and
Postsecondary Level.................................. 41
Summary............................................... 50
CHAPTER III - DESIGN OF THE STUDY....................... 52
Population............................................
Instrumentation.......................................
Statistical Analysis..................................
Summary...............................................

52
54
57
66

CHAPTER IV - ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS.................... 67
Introduction.......................................... 67
Methods of Data Analysis.............................. 67
Analysis of Demographic Information................... 68
Participants' Perception of the Effect of the
Experience on Academic and Career Areas.............71
Participants' Rating of Services Provided.............76

v

CHAPTER IV - ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS (continued)
Examination of the Relationship Between
Variables by Chi Square and byKendall's Tau......... 79
..........
.79
Academic Requirement
Motivation.........................................82
Effect on Career Plans............................ 84
Effect on Major Selection......................... 85
Importance of Volunteer Experience in
Relation to Career Awareness.................... 87
Importance of Volunteer Experience in
Relation to Career Preparation.................. 90
Use of Skills in the Volunteer Experience.........94
Examination of the Relationship Between Variables
by Analysis of Variance............................. 98
Academic Requirement.............................. 99
Motivation........................................ 102
Effects of Experience............................ 107
a)
On Career Plans........................... 107
b)
On Major Plans............................ 108
c)
On Areas of Career Awareness..............108
d)
On Areas of Career Preparation............Ill
e)
On Collegiate Areas....................... 114
f)
On Personal Areas......................... 118
Comparison of Traditional and
Non-Traditional Programs........................... 125
Volunteer Work Required or Recommended
by Academic Unit............................... 126
Volunteer Experience Affected Career Plans.......126
Importance of Experience in Gaining Broader
Knowledge of Career and Job Requirements.......127
Importance of Experience in Focusing
Career Choices................................. 127
Importance in Gaining First-Hand Exposure
to Work Environment............................ 128
Importance in Becoming Aware of How Education
Experience is Serving as Preparation for
Career.......................................... 128
Importance in Gaining Awareness of
Relationship Between Job Requirements
and Personal Values............................ 128
Use of Skills.....................................129
129
Research...............
Communication and Persausion................. 129
Organizational Management.................... 129
Design and Planning.......................... 130
Information Management....................... 130
Technical and Manual......................... 130
Overall Rating........................................ 131
Summary............................................... 131

CHAPTER V - SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS... 133
Overview of.... the Study............................ 133
134
Summary and.. Conclusions..................
Discussion and Recommendations....................... 137
Recommendations for Future Study..................... 144
APPENDICES
Appendix A:

Questionnaire Used
in 1977-78, 1978-79 and 1979-80.........146

Appendix B:

Questionnaire Used
in 1980-81.............................. 148

Appendix C:...Tables 1-63............................ 152
BIBLIOGRAPHY

215

LIST OF TABLES

Table

Page

3.1

Four Year Review of Student
Participation................................. 54

3.2

Four Year Review of Survey Returns.............56

3.3

Cross Tabulation of "Required by Age"......... 62

C.l

Respondent Involvement by Gender,
1977-81...................................... 152

C.2

Respondent Involvement by Age,
1977-81..........

153

C.3

Respondent Involvement by Class,
1977-81...................................... 154

C.4

Ethnic Origin of Volunteers, 1977-81......... 155

C.5

Respondent Involvement by Terms,
1977-81...................................... 156

C.6

Number of Terms Volunteers
Participated by Year, 1977-81................157

C.7

Respondent Involvement by Number
of Terms, 1977-81............................ 158

C.8

How Respondent Learned About
Opportunity, 1977-81......................... 159

C.9

Source of Academic Recommendation,
1977-81...................................... 160

C.10

Motivation of Volunteer, 1977-80............. 161

C.ll

Motivation of Volunteer, 1980-81............. 162

C.12

Effect of Volunteer Experience
on Career Plans, 1977-81................... ..163

C.13

Effect of Volunteer Experience
on Major Selection, 1977-81.................. 164
viii

C.14

Effect on Rest of University
Experience, 1977-81.......................... 165

C. 15

Rating of Importance of Volunteer
Experience to Career Awareness and/or
Preparation, 1977-81
A. Support From Others for
Career Decisions....................... 166

C .16

Rating of Importance of Volunteer
Experience to Career Awareness and/or
Preparation, 1977-81
B. Broader Knowledge of
Career and Job Requirements............167

C. 17

Rating of Importance of Volunteer
Experience to Career Awareness and/or
Preparation, 1977-81
C. Focused (narrowed) Career
Choices................................. 168

C .18

Rating of Importance of Volunteer
Experience co Career Awareness and/or
Preparation, 1977-81
D. Gained Awareness of
Relationship Between Job
Requirements and Personal
Values.................................. 169

C. 19

Rating of Importance of Volunteer
Experience to Career Preparation, 1977-81
A. Gained First-Hand Exposure
To Work Environment..................... 170

C .20

Rating of Importance of Volunteer
Experience to Career Preparation, 1977-81
B. Become Known to PeopleIn My
Field Who Could Recommend Me
To Potential Employers.................. 171

C. 21

Rating of Importance of Volunteer
Experience to Career Preparation, 1977-81
C. Became Aware of How My
Education Experience is
Serving as Preparation for
Career............................

172

C. 22

Rating of Services Provided by OVP/SLC,
1977-81
A. Helpfulness of Staff.................... 173

C .23

Rating of Services Provided by OVP/SLC,
1977-81
B. Accurate Job Descriptions............... 174
ix

C.24

Rating of Services Provided by OVP/SLC,
1977-81
C. Adequate Orientation....................175

C.25

Rating of Services Provided by OVP/SLC,
1977-81
D. Adequate Transportation.................176

C.26

Rating of Servcies Provided by OVP/SLC,
1977-81
E. Contact with Student Coordinator....... 177

C.27

Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,
1977-81
A.
Helpfulness of Agency Staff............ 178

C.28

Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,
1977-81
B.
Adequate Supervision....................179

C.29

Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,
1977-81
C.
Adequate Training.......................180

C.30

Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,
1977-81
D.
Meaningful Tasks To Do ................. 181

C.31

Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,
1977-81
E.
Acceptance and Support................. 182

C.32

Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,
1977-81
F.
Recognition of Efforts................. 183

C .33

Overall Rating, 1977-81....................... 184

C.34

Student Perception of Use of Skills
1980-81....................................... 185

C.35

Student Perception of Effect of
Experience, 1980-81........................... 186

C.36

Cross Tabulation of Recommended
or Required by Ethnicity, 1980-81.............187

C.37

Cross Tabulation of Required by
Academic Unit by Age, 1980-81................. 188

C.38

Cross Tabulation of Required by
Adamenic Unit by Class, 1980-81............... 189

x

Cross Tabulation of Recommended
or Required by Academic Unit by
Gender, 1980-81....................

.190

Cross Tabulation of Participants'
Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer
Position by Age, 1980-81...........

,191

Cross Tabulation of Participants'
Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer
Position by Class, 1980-81.........

192

Cross Tabulation of Participants'
Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer
Position by Gender, 1980-81........

193

Cross Tabulation of Participants'
Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer
Position by Race, 1980-81..........

194

Cross Tabulation of Effect of
Experience on Career Plans by Age,
1980-81.............................

195

Cross Tabulation of Effect of
Experience on Career Plans by Class,
1980-81.............................

196

Cross Tabulation of Effect of
Experience on Career Plans by
Gender, 1980-81....................

197

Cross Tabulation of Effect of
Experience on Major Selection by
Age, 1980-81.......................

198

Cross Tabulation of Effect of
Experience on Major Selection by
Class, 1980-81.....................

199

Cross Tabulation of Effect of
Experience on Major Selection by
Gender, 1980-81....................

200

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience in Relation to Support
from Others for Career Decisions
by Age, 1980-81....................

201

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience on Broadening Knowledge
of Career and Job Requirements by
Class, 1980-81.....................

202

xi

C. 52

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience on Broadening Knowledge
of Career and Job Requirements by
Gender, 1980-81.........................

C. 53

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience in Focusing Choices by
Gender, 1980-81......................... .... 204

C. 54

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience in Providing First-Hand
Exposure to Work Environment by
Gender, 1980-81......................... .... 205

C .55

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience to Participant Becoming
Known to People in Field, Who Could
Recommend Him/Her to Potential
Employers by Race, 1980-81.............. .... 206

C. 56

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience to Participants' Becoming
Aware of How Educational Experience
is Serving as Preparation for Career
by Gender, 1980-81..................... . .... 207

C. 57

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience to Participants' Gaining
Awareness of Relationship Between
Job Requirements and Personal Values
by Age, 1980-81.......................... ___208

C .58

Cross Tabulation of Importance of
Experience to Participants' Gaining
Awareness of Relationship Between
Job Requirements and Personal Values
by Class, 1980-81........................ ___209

C. 59

Cross Tabulation of Use of Research
and Investigation Skills in Volunteer
Work by Gender, 1980-81.................. ____210

C. 60

Cross Tabulation of Use of Information
Management Skills in Volunteer Work by
Race, 1980-81............................

C .61

Cross Tabulation of Use of Information
Management Skills in Volunteer Work by
Class, 1980,81...........................

C .62

Cross Tabulation of Use of Information
Management Skills in Volunteer Work by
Age, 1980-81.............................
xii

C. 63

Cross Tabulation of Use of Technical
Manual Skills in Volunteer Work by
Race, 1981-81......................

xiii

214

LIST OF SUMMARY CHARTS
Chart

Page

4.1

Rejection of the Null and Acceptance
of the Alternative Hypothesis Regarding
Motivation and and Demographic Variables.... 106

4.2

Rejection of the Null and Acceptance
of the Alternative Hypothesis Regarding
Importance of Experience in Relation
to Areas of Career Awareness and
Demographic Variables....................... Ill

4.3

Rejection of the Null and Acceptance
of the Alternative Hypothesis Regarding
Importance of Experience in Relation
to Areas of Career Preparation and
Demographic Variables....................... 114

4.4

Rejection of Null and Acceptance
of Alternate Hypothesis Regarding
Effects of Volunteer Experience on
Collegiate Areas and Demographic
Variables................................... 117

4.5

Rejection of Null and Acceptance
of Alternate Hypothesis Regarding
Effects of Volunteer Experience on
Personal Areas and Demographic
Variables................................... 121

4.6

Rejection of the Null and Acceptance
of the Alternate Hypothesis Regarding
Use of Skills in Volunteer Work and
Demographic Variables....................... 124

xiv

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

The selection of an occupation or career represents a
significant milestone in the lives of men and women living
in America today.
which

sets

our

The right of choice is one of the factors

society

apart

from

those

economic

systems

where the state determines what an individual will be and
do.

The Horatio Alger concept, that success is attainable

to each individual willing to work for it, has become known
as the American dream,

and is part of the foundation upon

which the American value system is built.

The availability

of postsecondary financial aid through government grants and
loans,

and changes in attitude resulting from

movement

have

removed

choice.

Now,

more

additional

than ever,

the women's

barriers

limiting

choice

rests with

the

free
the

individual.
For some college students,

the career decision seems

to be an easy

one while

for others

the determination of

their

work

difficult

and

life's

is

painful.

Those

individuals with a strong sense of self-direction seem to be
acutely aware of their abilities and interests, and have an
innate

understanding

of

the

ways

in

which

their

skills,

aptitudes and value systems will mesh with opportunities in
the world of work.
perceptions.

Success in coursework reinforces

these

Those individuals who are unsure may flounder

aimlessly seeking an appropriate major which will lead them
1

to a future

career.

They may

sample

a wide

variety

of

courses, while searching for an area of interest in which to
concentrate; they may attend lectures or programs presented
by professionals

in various

from family,

friends,

the

and

library

fields;

they may

or professionals;

read

extensively

seek advice

they may

about

individuals

companies in specific areas of concentration;
visit

selected worksites.

Some persons

frequent

may

or

or they may
require

the

assistance of guidance or career counselors who can provide
them with occupational information and personal insights.
By whichever path, or combination of paths,

this knowledge

is achieved and a tentative decision reached, experience in
the real world can provide the opportunity to test the "fit"
of a career choice with reality.
For more than twenty
(MSU)

students have

years, Michigan State

University

participated in exploratory

volunteer

•1

and

service-learning

coordinated
Affairs.
in

16

by

a

experiences

department

of

the

through

a

program

division

of

Student

More than 3,000 MSU students from 150 departments
colleges contributeapproximately

community

service

consumerism,
education,

each year

business,
recreation,

in areas

health, mental
special

300,000

hours

of

such as government,
health,

education,

corrections,

aging,

and

%ervice-learning is defined as the integration of the
accomplishment of a public task with conscious educational
growth (Sigmon, 1979, p. 9). It is the giving of service in
exchange for the learning which this activity can provide.

communications.
the

These

traditional

opportunity

to

experiences

curriculum
work

responsibilities,

at

jobs

specific

and

augment
provide

which

time

and

have

supplement

students
clearly

commitments

of

defined

5-20 hours

per week for one to three terms, and an agreement
agency

to

feedback.

provide

training,

supervision,

with

and

by

the

evaluative

The MSU program, which is the oldest and largest

in the country, is unique because of its interrelationship
with

academic

units,

the

career

counseling

center,

the

constraint,

the

placement office, and community agencies.
The Problem
Especially

during

times

of

fiscal

University must examine all programs in terms of their value
to the

educational

increasing

mission.

frequency,

Questions

whether

this

are

raised,

mission

with

includes

educating the student for life or for the sake of education
alone.

Must education take place in the classroom directed

by an educator, or can it also occur in a community setting
under the guidance of a practitioner?
Historically,

the

outside interference.

classroom has

been

The dissemination of

insulated

from

ideas

been

has

its primary goal:
Ideas existed in a kind of Platonic purity. A
student learned ideas without sullying their
pristine essence
without responding personal­
ly or interpreting them. Measurement of a
student's grasp of ideas consisted of comparing
the student's version with the original as inter­
preted by an older academic, who presumably had
removed his personality and uniqueness from his
understanding of the original text. All students

4
learned the same things, and they learned them in
the same way at the same time (Peterson, 1977,
p. 28).
Students are taught theories, hypotheses,

and ideas by the

score and yet have few opportunities to test these concepts
outside

the

classroom.

Benjamin

Bloom

points

out

in

Taxonomy of Educational Objectives (p. 125):
If the situations described by the objective... are
to involve application... then they must either be
situations new to the student or situations con­
taining new elements as compared to the situation
in which the abstraction was learned... Ideally
we are seeking a problem which will test the extent
to which the individual has learned to apply the
abstraction in a practical way. This means that
the problems should have some relation to the
situations in which he may ultimately be expected
to apply the abstraction.
The purpose

for

learning may

textbooks, papers, and tests.

be

lost

in

the

shuffle

of

A service-learning program,

such as the one available through the MSU Service-Learning
Center attempts

to

integrate

two types

of

learning which

educator Carl Rogers calls affective and cognitive learning.
"On the one hand, there is learning which involves the mind
only (cognitive).
meanings;

It does not involve feeling or personal

it has no

relevance

to

the

whole

person.

In

contrast, there is such a thing as significant experiential
learning (affective)" (Peterson, 1971, p. 5).

Bloom further

defines these terms as follows:
Cognitive: Objectives which emphasize remem­
bering or reproducing something which was
presumably learned as well as objectives which
involve the solving of some intellectual task
for which the individual has to determine the
essential problem and then reorder given
material or combine it with ideas, methods, or
procedures previously learned.

5
Affective: Objectives which emphasize a feeling,
an emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejec­
tion. Affective objectives vary from simple
attention to selected phenomena to complex
qualities of character and conscience... Such
objectives are expressed as interests, attitudes,
appreciation of values and emotional sets or
biases (Peterson, 1971, p. 70).
A study which examines

the relationship

between

the

service-learning experience and selected measures of career
development of participating college students should provide
a measure of the value of a service-learning program
postsecondary institution.
answered

in

this

A number of questions

regard.

Does

the

taking certain courses?

need to be

experience

student select a major or gain insight

into

to a

help

the value

the
of

Is there a growth in interpersonal

and communication skills?

Is there an increase in practical

knowledge which augments and complements theories learned in
the classroom?
awareness

What

and

is

career

analysis

indicates

between

the

the

relationship

decision

that

there

service-learning

making?
is

a

between

career

If

statistical

positive

correlation

experience

and

selected

measures of career development, the value of such a program
at the postsecondary level can be validated.
The Program
The

Service-Learning

University provides

Center

at

Michigan

a broad selection of program choices

requiring varying degrees

of skills,

commitments

participation.

exploring

for

students'

possible

State

careers,

abilities,

confirming

They

tentative

and time
may

be

choices,

seeking skill or personality development or perhaps wanting

6
to meet and work with professionals in a field of interest.
After an interview with a service-learning professional, the
student

is given a descriptive

sheet

on possible

program

involvements and directed to an orientation session provided
by the participating agency representative.
the

program

is

provided

and

commitment are identified.

as

many

as

responsibilities

and

time

Typical involvement consists of

four to five hours per week,
require

An overview of

twenty

although some placements may
hours

per

week.

While

some

students come to the Center on their own, others come at the
suggestion of

friends

or faculty

advisors.

A

number

of

departments actually require a specific number of volunteer
hours

prior

college.
monitored

to admission
Each

by

a

into

specific majors

service-learning
staff

member

assure that each experience

and

will

program
student

or

is

into

a

carefully

coordinator

be of high quality,

to
and

that the overall program will provide a broad spectrum of
career development opportunities.
PURPOSE
The

purpose

of

this

study

will

be

to

examine

the

relationship between the service-learning experience and the
following

measures of career development: career awareness,

career preparation,

career decision making,

major

field

selection, personal values, and personal skills. This study
will also attempt to determine whether the results of this
experience are different for those of different ages, sexes,
class levels,

or ethnicity;

and to compare the results of

the

experience

in

traditional

and

non-traditional

occupational areas.^
The major research question is to determine whether a
correlation

exists

between

the

measures of career development.

experience

level.

The

null

program at

hypothesis

is

relationship exists between the variables".
the null at the

selected

A positive correlation will

help to validate the value of the overall
postsecondary

and

that

the
"no

Rejection of

.05 level of significance would mean that

the alternate hypothesis,

that "a relationship does exist"

would have to be accepted.
DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY
This
quality
examine

of

study

was

individual

student

initiated

in

1978

service-learning

perception

of

the

to

evaluate

programs
effect

of

the

and

to

their

service-learning experiences upon areas of career awareness
and career decision making.
Population
The population which was studied included all students
who participated in service-learning experiences provided by

2

A non-traditional occupation for a woman is defined
as one that is stereotypically considered masculine and a
non-traditional career for a man is one that is stereo­
typically considered feminine.
Research has shown that
perceptions of jobs as masculine or feminine closely
parallel the actual number of males and females employed in
that occupation (Shiner, 1975).
Specific percentages which
make a profession or program non-traditional vary from 79%
of one sex (Carvell, 1980) to 72%. (Hofferth, 1980).

the MSU Service-Learning Center between September, 1977, and
June, 1981.
The Instrument
Members of the staff

of

the Service-Learning

Center

and Social Science Research Laboratory developed the optical
scan computer card survey instrument which was distributed
to

all

students

experience.

who

participated

in

a

service-learning

Students were asked to identify the program in

which they had participated and to answer basic demographic
questions
field.

on

age,

class

level,

sex,

college,

This information provided a profile

on

and

major

individual

participants.
A question was
which

student

the number

in

increased participation would increase the effect.

It was

to

determine

to

terms

whether

important

participated

of

determine

also

the

included on

whether

the

student's

participation fulfilled an academic requirement and whether
or not the information source was through formal or informal
channels.

Other

questions

student's

perception

of

the

involved
effect

of

motivation
the

and

experience

the
on

major field selection, career awareness, career preparation
and course work.
services

of

Service-Learning

community agency.
experience in

Participants were asked to evaluate the

They were

general.

Center

also asked

This survey was

Copy in appendix A.

and

those
to

of

the

evaluate

the

repeated each year

9
for four years (1978-1981).

In 1980,

on personal growth were added.
The

optical

scan

additional questions

(Appendix B).

computer

card

was

mailed

to

each

student who had been placed in a volunteer/service-learning
experience during the academic year.

An explanatory letter

and a stamped, pre-addressed envelope were also included.
The

majority

of

questions

ranking order answers.
box,

required

Several

questions

Participants were

required

choice,

received,

categories

and

in the

answer.

requested to return the completed

they were
read

grouped

scanner

card

When the cards

together by the

by an optical

or

with a lead

a narrative

anonymously to the Service-Learning Center.
were

choice

Students were asked to fill

adjacent to the answer of their

pencil.

multiple

at

program

the

Social

Science Research Laboratory.
Data Analysis
To

analyze

the

data,

frequency

distributions

and

cumulative frequency distributions were determined for each
year,

and

printed

and

plotted

on

a

computer

printout.

Answers were divided into positive and negative categories
on a continuum and calculated as percentages.

Calculation

of the means of students' answers to questions was carried
out and a comparison made from year to year.
In addition,
using

contingency

the answers
tables

to questions

employing

cross

were

examined

tabulation

of

catergories of subgroups (i.e.:

gender,

race, class level

and

Square

( 9C’*' )

age)

and

through

the

Chi

statistic.

1.0
Correlations were also determined using Kendall's Tau.
addition, use of a statistical
of

variance

(ANOVA)

allowed

In

technique known as analysis
for

testing

for

systematic

differences.
A null hypothesis was established and examined at the
.05

level

of

significance

independent variables.
hypothesis

was

for each

set

of

dependent

and

For each analysis in which the null

tenable,

it

was

concluded

that

the

independent variable does not affect the dependent variable.
For

each

instance

in

which

the

null

hypothesis

was

not

tenable, then the alternate hypothesis was accepted, and it
was concluded that the independent variable did affect the
dependent variable.
The following null hypotheses were examined using the
Chi

Square

class,

or

and Kendall's
ethnicity

Tau

each

statistic
inserted

with age,
separately

gender,
as

independent variables (IV).
(IV)
has no effect on whether or not
volunteer work was required or recommended
by an academic unit.
(IV)
does not affect the participant's
motivation to apply for a volunteer position.
(IV)
does not affect the effect of the
experience on career plans.
(IV)
does not affect the effect of the
experience on major selection.
(IV)
has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the volunteer
experience in relation to support from
others on career decisions.

the

11
{IV)
has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the
experience in broadening knowledge of
career and job requirements.
(IV)
has no effect on the participant's
perception of the effect of the experience
in focusing career choices.
(IV)
has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the
experience in providing first hand exposure
to the work environment.
(IV)
has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the
experience in the participant becoming known
to people in the field who could recommend
him/her to a potential employer.
(IV)
has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the
experience to the participant becoming
aware of how the education experience is
serving as a preparation for career.
(IV)
has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the
experience to the participant gaining
awareness of the relationship between job
requirements and personal values.
(IV)
has no effect on the use of research
and investigation skills in volunteer work.
(IV)
has no effect on the use of
communication and persuasion skills in
volunteer work.
(IV)
has no effect on the use of
organizational management skills in
volunteer work.
(IV)
has no effect on the use of design
and planning skills in volunteer work.
(IV)
has no effect on the use of
information management skills in volunteer
work.
(IV)
has no effect on the use of
technical skills in volunteer work.

12
The following null hypotheses were examined using the
analysis of variance statistical technique with age, gender,
class level, and ethnicity each inserted separately as the
independent variables (IV).
Whether or not volunteer work was
recommended by an academic unit is the same
for each
(IV)
The nature of the academic unit
requirement being "required by major"
is the same for each
(IV)
The nature of the academic requirement
being "required as part of major" is the
same for each
(IV)
The nature of the academic requirement
or recommendation being "suggested by
advisor" is the same for each
(IV)
The nature of the academic requirement
being "course requirement" is the same for
each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to complete part of a course
requirement is the same for each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
experience to gain independent study/intern­
ship/field experience credit is the same for
each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to gain admission into the major is
the same for each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to gain admission into graduate
or professional school is the same for
each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to explore a possible career choice
is the same for each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to gain experience in a career
field is the same for each
(IV)

13
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to develop professional contacts is
the same for each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to help people is the same for
each
(IV)
The motivation to apply for a volunteer
position to have something to do with leisure
time is the same for each
(IV)
The effect of the volunteer experience on
career plans is the same for each
(IV)
The effect of the volunteer experience on
major plans is the same for each
(IV)
The importance of the volunteer experience
in providing support for others for career
decisions is the same for each
(IV)
The importance of the volunteer experience
in broadening knowledge of career and job
requirements is the same for each
(IV)
The importance of the volunteer experience
in focusing career choices is the same for
each
(IV)
The importance of the experience in gaining
first hand exposure to the world of work is
the same for each
(IV)
The importance of the experience to becoming
known to people in his/her field, who could
recommend him/her to potential employers is
the same for each
(IV)
The importance of the experience in becoming
aware of how education experience is serving
as preparation for career is the same for
each
(IV)
The importance of the volunteer's experience
in gaining awareness of the relationship
between job requirements and personal values
is the same for each
(IV)
The effect of the experience in making some
of the volunteer's courses more meaningful
is the same for each
(IV)

14
The experience affecting the volunteer's
motivation to learn, participate and achieve
in his classes is the same for each
(IV)
The experience affecting the volunteer's
ability to apply coursework knowledge/skills
to the community is the same for each
(IV)
The experience helping the volunteer
identify courses which s/he could take which
would be useful to his/her career is the
same for each
(IV)
The experience affecting the volunteer's
ability to apply community knowledge/skills
to coursework is the same for each
(IV)
The volunteer being forced to better plan
his/her time as a result of participating
in the experience is the same for each
(IV)
The volunteer increasing his/her ability to
be responsible for himself/herself as a
result of the experience is the same for
each
(IV)
The volunteer learning to problem solve is
the same for each
(IV)
The volunteer developing an awareness of
the situational/personal differences in others
as a result of the experience is the same
for each
(IV)
The volunteer increasing his/her acceptance
of the differences in others as a result of
the experience is the same for each
(IV)
The volunteer developing his ability to
cooperate with others as a result of the
experience is the same for each
(IV)
The use of research and investigation skills
is the same for each
(IV)
The use of communication and persuasion
skills is the same for each
(IV)
The use of organizational management skills
is the same for each
(IV)
The use of design and planning skills is
the same for each
(IV)

15
The use of information management skills
is the same for each
(IV)
The use of technical and manual skills
is the same for each
(IV)
THEORY
Psychologists
development
career

and

theorists,

choice

educators,
have

extensively

as

well

investigated

in an effort

the

as

career

question

to understand

of
the

process by which some individuals make their career choice,
so that they will be able to assist others in their career
decision.
go

through

Although many psychologists agree that children
a

intellectual,

series

of

physical

overlapping
and

moral

stages

of

emotional,

development,

widespread disagreement on how the "What do
when I grow up" decision is finally made.

there

I want

is

to be

Although theories

of career development overlap and intertwine in many ways,
they may be categorized

into

four groups:

trait

factor,

sociological, self-concept, and personality approaches.
It was important to have a thorough understanding of
each

of

these

theories

in

order

service-learning

programs

and

to

instrument

by

which

students

could

to

develop

design
evaluate

the

the
survey

them.

summarize these approaches:
Trait Factor: an individual's abilities may
be matched with vocational opportunities;
Sociological:
chance;

career choices are made by

Personality: an individual's personality
factors can be matched with those of persons
already in the chosen field;

To

16
Self-Concept: a person tries to implement his
self-concept through his choice of occupation.
The

trait

factor,

sociological

and personality approaches

will be reviewed more thoroughly in Chapter II.

It is the

self-concept theory which will provide the basis

for

this

study in determining the role which experience can play in
the developmental

process

contends

a

that

as

of career

person

choice.

matures,

he

This

gains

a

theory
greater

awareness of himself and his environment, of what he likes
and what he dislikes, of what he does well and what he does
badly, and what values are meaningful to him. He selects a
career which allows him to fulfill this self concept.

The

service-learning

the

experience

is

intended

to

provide

student with the opportunity to gain an increased awareness
about a specific field, and to determine whether or not he
likes

the

work,

is

capable

of

doing

the

work,

and

is

compatible with those already involved in that field.
The Self-Concept theory grew from the early work of
Buehler
Ginzberg
career

(1933)

and

(1951)
choice

and
is

a

later

involved

Super

(1957).

developmental

extensive
Ginzberg
process

delineated only as a result of understanding

research
believed

which
how

can

by

that
be

internal

and external forces in a person's life act and react upon
each other.

His

basic

assumption was

that

an individual

never reaches the ultimate decision at a single moment in
time but rather makes a series of decisions over a period of
years.

Initially, he believed that this was an irreversible

17
process,

characterized

by

a

series

of

compromises

individual makes between wishes and possibilities.

the

Later he

toned down this notion of irreversibility and changed
concept

of

compromise

to that

of

optimization

the

(Ginzberg,

1963, p. 24).
Basically,
occupational

Ginzberg

decision

fantasy,

periods:

believes

making

that

can

tentative,

be

the

process

divided

into

and realistic.

He

subdivides the tentative period into four stages:
value,
into

capacity,
three

transition and

and

the

exploration,

stages:

of

three
further

interest,

realistic

period

crystallization,

and

specification (Ginzberg, 1963, p. 60).
Ginzberg and his associates
child's

choices

are

arbitrary

note

and

that,

initially,

lack reality;

a

later he

becomes aware of what he likes to do, and then is cognizant
of things he does more skillfully than others.

In time, the

individual realizes that some activities have more intrinsic
or

extrinsic

integrates

value

his

than

likes

and

others.

As

dislikes

the

in

young

relation

values, he begins to implement tentative choices.
this

exploration

whether

paid

(Ginzberg,
college

or

1973).
years,

stage

that

world

volunteer, will
At

this

feedback

point
of

of
be
of

work
of
job

this

feedback

lead

to

the

his

It is in

greatest value
entry

vocational

or

behavior

crystallization

eventually to the specification stage.

to

experiences,

particularly important, according to Ginzberg.
of

adult

early
is

The results
phase

and

Thus, it would seem

18
logical

to assume

that

a

service-learning

experience

can

provide the feedback necessary to assist a student in making
a ca eer choice.
In conceptualizing his theory of career development,
Donald

Super

was

influenced

by

the

self-concept

illustrated in the writings of Carl Rogers,
and

E.

S.

Bordin,

reflection

who

theorized

of an individual's

that

theory

H. D. Carter,
behavior

attempt to

is

implement his

self-descriptive and self-evaluative thought (Osipow,
p.

131).

Charlotte

Buehler's

writing

a

in

1963,

developmental

psychology, which suggested that life consisted of a series
of

distinctive

Ginzberg

had

stages,

concluded

also
that

influenced
choice

of

Super's

work.

occupation

was

result of a compromise between interest, needs,
values,

and

external

reality.

Although

aptitudes,

Super

had

conducting research in the area of career development
many years,

a

been
for

it was his criticism of Ginzberg's conclusion

that led Super to formalize his theory in a statement to the
American Psychological Association in 1953.

His book, The

Psychology of Careers, was published in 1957.
Super's

theory

suggests

that

a

person

strives

to

implement his self-concept by selecting a career he views as
the one most likely to permit him self-expression (Super, p.
85).

He views career choice as a developmental process.

Vocational

behaviors

and

decisions

are

a

result

of

the

particular stage of life development in which that person is
at

the time.

He

identifies

two

major

stages

of

career

19
development;

exploratory and establishment.

Decisions are

evaluated and modified by the following process:
crystallization,

specification,

formation,

implementation,

and

stabilization (Super, p. 177-184).
Super notes that curriculum in the early years of high
school and college is exploratory in content and purpose.
Students try out different subjects which require different
ability
learning

levels,
about

and

appeal

themselves

(Super, 1957, p. 85).

to
and

different

interests,

occupational

thus

opportunities

He observes that many students, even

those in graduate or professional school, still need a great
deal

of orientation

fields of work.

to

themselves and their

prospective

Believing that part-time and vacation jobs

are primarily a means of earning money rather than a means
•of exploration and orientation, Super recommends a volunteer
or paid
intended

experience,
field

opportunity

of

(Super,

related
interest,
p. 88).

to an occupation
to

provide

this

and

in

the

exploratory

Super describes the value of

experience in the exploratory stage as follows:
...It provides youth with an opportunity
to develop mature work habits ... to
mix with adults ... try out adult roles
and test the reality of his self-concept
... only if part-time or vacation work
experience has some bearing on the
student's vocational aspirations and
plans, does it provide him with the
opportunity to test his aptitudes,
interests, and skills to find out
whether or not he likes that kind of
work.... He learns about some of the
kinds of situations in which that
type of work is carried on, some of
the kinds of people, equipment,

20
activities and problems associated
with that type of work (Super, p. 89).
The service-learning experience is designed to provide
the college student with a unique opportunity to participate
in a real-life work situation in the career environment of
his

choice.

relationship

This

study

between

that

will

attempt

experience

to

and

measure
the

the

student's

career awareness and development.
Various studies have been undertaken in recent years
in the attempt to evaluate and measure the effect of career
decision intervention on students' programs at institutions
at

the

secondary

and

post secondary

level.

particular note for purposes of this study.

Some

are

of

Heck and Weible

(1978) examined first year college students' perceptions of
career choice based on exploratory field experiences.

They

noted that participants gained increased knowledge of self
and an in-depth knowledge of a career.

In examining

the

impact upon career choice

of high school juniors, involved

in an experimental career

education project,

concluded

that the

program was

equally

Baird

(1979)

beneficial

for

persons of different races, parents' occupation levels, and
sexes, and that persons of all career maturity levels were
affected in a positive and consistent manner.
A number of research studies have included evaluation
of

Experience-Based

Monkowski

(1979)

Career

examined

the

Education
final

(EBCE)

projects.

year of the Lincoln,

Nebraska public school program focusing on student outcomes,

21
parent

evaluation,

and community

sites.

Stead

and

others

(1977) conducted a similar study of the Appalachian Maryland
EBCE

program

with

results

indicating

that

students

who

participated in the project made substantial gains in career
skills and career decision making.

Rask (1977) examined the

effect of an internship program on rural gifted and talented
students, while Bonnet and Richert

(1980)

studied a career

exploration course of the Indianapolis Public Schools which
combined classroom learning and

community experience.

In

both studies, results indicated that students perceived the
experience as a successful one in providing an increase in
career awareness and skills.
At
compared

West
the

Virginia

University,

effectiveness

of

Markiewicz

the use

of

(1979)

Holland's

Self

Directed Search, a decision making program, and a vocational
tour on the career development of high school students.

He

found that the results were different

for males than for

females.

With the rise of the women's

movement,

increase

in

the

non-traditional

number

of

occupations,

both
a

men

and

number of

and

the

women

in

studies have

focused on sex differences in career decision making.
paper presented
Science,
"exposure"
research

to the

Hanson
to
with

this finding.

(1975)

Conference
observed

non-traditional
academically

In a

for Educating Women
that

women

fields.

gifted females

need

Jackson's

in

more
(1980)

concurred with

22
Many studies have been conducted on various facets of
career

decision

making

in

a

wide

variety of

specific

populations.

Few programs exist today at the postsecondary

level

offer

which

opportunities

as

the

wide

those

spectrum

which

Service-Learning Center.

are

of

career

available

related

through

the

Therefore, this study, carried out

over a four year period,

should provide

information which

has not been available heretofore.
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY
In

Chapter

II,

literature

theories of human development,
making and recent studies

of

secondary and postsecondary
detailed

description

of

is

reviewed

regarding

theories of career decision
the

effect

students.
the

sample,

of

experience

In Chapter

on

III,

a

instrumentation,

statistical hypotheses, and experimental design is provided.
An analysis of the results is contained in Chapter IV, while
conclusions

and

implications

included in Chapter V.

for

further

research

are

CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Theories of career development overlap and intertwine
in many ways.
who have

Over a seventy-five year period, individuals,

studied

the

their own theories,
theorists.

One

subject

of

careers,

have

building upon the research

cannot

understand

or

developed
of earlier

appreciate

any

one

concept without having a thorough knowledge of each of the
others.

In

addition,

an

understanding

spectrum of career development

theories

of

was

the

broad

necessary

in

order to develop the service-learning programs for Michigan
State University students. This knowledge was also essential
in preparing the survey questions with which to analyze and
evaluate
selected

the

relationship

measures

of

between

career

these

experiences

development

of

and

student

participants.
The theories of career development may be categorized
into

four

personality,

main
and

groups:

trait-factor,

self-concept

(Osipow,

1973,

sociological,
p.

9).

summarize these approaches:
. Trait Factor: an individual's abilities may
be matched with vocational opportunities;
. Sociological:
chance;

career choices are made by

. Personality: an individual's personality
factors can be matched with those of persons
already in the chosen field;
* Self-Concept: a person tries to implement his
self-concept through his choice of occupation.
23

To

2.4
Although it is the self-concept theory which provides

the

main framework and

are

foundation

for

this

study,

there

portions of other theories which are significant as well.
Therefore, a brief summary of the contributions of the major
theorists in each approach is presented and the relationship
to this study is identified.
an analysis

of relevant

In addition, a discussion and

dissertation

studies

and

journal

articles are provided.
THE TRAIT-FACTOR THEORY
The

trait

factor

career development.

the

problem

contributions

to

is

the

oldest

approach

This model asserts that matching

individual’s abilities
solve

theory

with

of

this

vocational

vocational
theory

opportunities

choice.

have

been

to
the

will

Significant
Parsons'

early

efforts in vocational counseling in 1909, and Kitson's 1925
personnel

study of psychologists,

although

this

has

been

outdated by the major changes occurring since that time.
Frank
lecturer

at

Parsons,
Boston

a

prominent

University

in

Boston
the

citizen
early

and

1900's,

law
is

considered to be the first modern practitioner in the field
of career counseling and guidance,
trait-factor approach.

and the founder of the

He became active in the Boston Civic

Service House, a community settlement, and upon discovering
that many of the young people who used these facilities were
in dire need of vocational guidance, developed a series of
vocational
counseling.

lectures,
In 1907,

and

soon

began

he founded the

to

give

individual

Vocation Bureau

of

25
Boston, the first of its kind in the United States.
gravely

ill,

completing

he

devoted

Choosing

almost

all

of

his

energy

a Vocation, a book which

was

While
toward
put

in

final order by his disciple, Frank Albertson, and printed in
1909.

He declared:
. . . The wise selection of the business
profession, trade, or occupation
to which one's life is to be devoted,
and the development of full efficiency
in the chosen field are matters of the
deepest moment to young men and to the
public. These vital problems should
be solved in a careful, scientific way,
with due regard to a person's aptitude,
abilities, ambitions, resources and
limitations, and the relations of these
elements to the conditions of success in
different industries. (Parsons, 1909, p. 3)
Parsons

career choice:
abilities,
2)

states
1)

that three

involved

in

interests, ambitions, resources and limitations;

knowledge

disadvantages,
3)

are

clear self-understanding of aptitudes,

of

different

requirements,conditions

and

factors

the

of

lines

of

work

with

success,

compensation,

advantages,

opportunities,

relationship between

the

their

and

two.

prospects;
He

clearly

defines the role of the counselor in the vocational guidance
process in terms of personal
investigation.
exploration

investigation

and

industrial

He was also the first person to make career

a part

of

the

vocational

guidance

process.

(Prediger, 1974, p. 235)
The

vocational

trait-factor approach.

testing

movement

E. K. Strong

emanated

from

the

(1943) and G. F. Kuder

26
(1939)

developed

two

measure interests.
(SVIB),

of

the

best

known

instruments

to

In the Strong Vocational Interest Blank

individuals are asked to indicate what it is they

like to do.
developed

These responses are then
from

occupations.
interests

The

in

scientific,

occupation

have

a

members

measures

mechanical,

artistic,

and

clerical.

those

engaged

characteristic

particular

(KPR)

outdoor,

persuasive,

that

of

Record

areas:

service,

believe

of

Preference

following

social

psychologists

responses

Kuder

the

computational,
musical,

the

matched with a scale

literary,

Occupational
in

pattern

a

particular

of

likes

dislikes different from those in other occupations.
vocational

counselors

can

utilize

these

individuals select appropriate occupations.

tests

and
Thus,

to

help

Interests are

determined by many factors and, although they change with
age, become relatively stabilized in post adolescence
p. 85).

(Roe,

Osipow (1973, p. 260) notes that efforts to advise

men and women toward non-traditional
complicated

by

the

measurement

scales

difficulty
due

to

the

in

occupations have been
developing

paucity

of

men

appropriate
and

women

already in those occupations.
THE SOCIOLOGICAL MODEL
According to supporters of the sociological model of
career

choice,

individual

circumstances

contribute

to

the

beyond
choice

the
he

control
makes.

of

the
Thus,

"chance" or "being in the right place at the right time" may
be more significant than any amount of systematic planning

27
or vocational counseling.

Even in America, there are class

strata in the social organization.

Hollingshead's classic

study of Elmtown's Youth (1949) provides data that show that
the occupational aims of most lower class
consistent with

their

social

class.

adolescents

Caplow

(1954)

are

notes

that "career heredity" may occur for children whose families
own businesses or farms.

Sewell and Shah

(1968) conclude

that race, father's occupation, sex, marital status, family
income, place of residence, and family status affect career
possibilities, as well as educational opportunities.
Because the opportunity to attend college has become
available

to

all

segments

of

the

population

through

financial aid, the education, which opens the doors to many
careers,

is

no

longer

privileged classes.
formerly

limited

broadening

of

reserved

Removal

of

occupational

the

pool

for

children

financial

choice,

seeking

of

barriers,

has

resulted

entrance

into

the
which
in

a

various

careers, and increased the effect of ability and interest as
determining factors.

Thus,

may have been minimized.
accountants
following

may

not

can

opportunity

to explore

their parents.

career heredity

Children of doctors, lawyers, and

have

in their parents'

experience

the effect of

provide

the

ability

footsteps.
these

careers

or
A

interest

in

service-learning

individuals

far removed

with

from

those

the
of

An experiential opportunity in a hospital

may be just the catalyst needed for a bright child of the
slums to spark an aspiration to become a physician.

28
Miller and Form (1949) propose that socialization is a
process

with

three

socialization where

developmental
family,

phases:

school,

play,

provide awareness of available roles; 2)
force

with

limitations

national opportunities,
stereotypes;

and 3)

created

1)

by

Pre-work

and

peer

group

entry into labor

education,

occupational awareness,

local or
and

social

socialization into the job where the

individual may succeed in meeting the role prescriptions of
the position, may suffer bearable conflict, or may fail and
realize

the

need

to

change

to

a

different

field.

A

service-learning experience in the early phases of college
life may
succeed

allow a student
in

meeting

these

to

test whether

role

limits of bearable conflict.

or

prescriptions

not

he

can

within

the

If not, he may come

to the

realization that this is not the field for him.
Caplow

(1954) notes that often educational decisions

are made rather casually, committing a person to a certain
course of action which eliminates other possibilities.

The

social concept theorists believe that parents exert a great
deal of initial influence over their childrens' educational
and career decisions.

The value

of testing

collegiate experience of the "fit" of this
through

a

service-learning

experience

early
initial

should

in

the

choice
not

be

underestimated.
THE PERSONALITY APPROACH
Personality approach theorists such as Small

(1953),

Schaeffer (1953), Roe (1957) and Holland (1959) believe that

29
people in specific careers have distinguishable personality
characteristics
assistance

from

may

be

those

provided

personality

characteristics

predominant

personality

in other
by

analyzing

and

factors

careers.
an

matching
of

those

Career

individual's

them

with

already

in

the
that

career.
Small

(1953)

proposes

that

certain

aspects

vocational choice are a result of ego strength.

of

He contends

that a person with a healthy ego is in close contact with
reality, will be able to delay gratification longer than a
person with a weak ego,

and will

express

more

realistic

first occupational preferences.
Basing

his

concept

on

Maslow's

theory,

Schaeffer

(1953) concludes that job satisfaction is directly related
to need satisfaction.
for

fulfilling

actualization

Thus

unmet

are

jobs which

needs

of

motivational

offer

opportunities

self-esteem
in

nature.

and

self-

This

would

emphasize the importance of selecting jobs which can provide
these opportunities.
Through
traits

of

scientists,

her

ten

artists
clinical

and

year
the

research

on

the

characteristics

psychologist

Anne

Roe

personality
of

eminent

developed

and

published a formal personality theory of career choice in
Abraham Maslow developed his theory on the hierarchy
of needs, in 1954, which contends that man is motivated by a
series of unmet needs:
physiological,
safety,
love,
self-esteem and self-actualization in ascending order.
The
lower level needs are prepotent and must be met before the
higher level needs becomes motivators.

30
1957.

Her

theory

contends

that

each

person

inherits

a

unique predisposition toward the expenditure of his psychic
energy.

This

genetic difference,

combined with the effect

of childhood experiences and parental influences, molds the
general

vocational

findings

orientation of

indicate

that

there

the
are

individual.
major

Roe's

personality

differences between social scientists and physical-biologi­
cal scientists, specifically reflected in their interaction
with people and things.

These differences are exhibited in

the general style which an individual develops in satisfying
his needs and thus have major occupational implications.
Roe states that:
. . . People in service occupations are
primarily oriented toward persons and
probably come from a home which
generated a loving, overprotecting
environment, while scientists tend
not to be oriented towards persons
and come from a cold home atmosphere,
where rejection and avoidance pre­
dominated. (Osipow, p. 18)
Roe identifies eight classes of occupations:
business,

organization,

technology,

outdoor,

service,
science,

general cultural, and arts and entertainment. The groupings
of programs

available

through the

Service-Learning

Center

generally match these categories.
John
self-concept

Holland,
theories

dissatisfied

with

of career choice,

developmental
theorized

and

Chat

a

person's vocational interests are "simply another aspect of
the personality".

(Holland, 1966, p. 3).

The choice of an

occupation, therefore, represents an individual's attempt to

31
implement his broad, personal behaviorial style and reflects
a person's motivation,
(Holland, p. 4) .
for or against

knowledge,

personality and ability.

By having people express their feelings

a variety

of occupational

titles,

Holland

developed a Vocational Preference Inventory (VPI) which can
be used to identify personality types and
orientation.
number

Through his research,

of work

environments

into

thus vocational

he grouped

the

six categories

finite

and

also

categorized people as being one of six types with the same
names as the environment.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Each

type

These are:

Realistic
Investigative
Social
Conventional
Enterprising
Artistic

becomes

a

complex

cluster

of

personal

attributes which is the result of heredity and cultural and
personal forces, such as parents, peers, social class, other
adults,

and

vocations

the

which

personalities,

physical
represent

environment.
the

People

closest

allowing them to exercise

fit
their

seek
to

their

skills

abilities, and express their attitudes and values.

out

and

Because

Holland's contention is that the adequacy of an individual's
vocational decision depends on his knowledge of himself and
the

world

of

work,

(Holland,

special note to this study.

1959)

this

concept

is

of

Service-learning programs allow

students to measure their attitudes and values

with

those

already in the field and test their career interest through

32
these experiences.
THE SELF-CONCEPT THEORY
The self-concept theory grows out of the early work
of

Buehler

Ginzberg
(1963).

(1933)

(1951),

and

involves

Super

It states that

(1957)
a person

research

carried

and Tiedeman
strives

to

out

and

O'Hara

implement

self-concept through his choice of occupation.

by

his

Work allows

a person to achieve self-actualization and makes it possible
for

one

to play

a role

appropriate to

that

self-concept

(Harkness, 1976, p. 27).
The

1933

work

of

Charlotte Buehler

defines

the

psychological life stages as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Growth Stage
Exploratory Stage
Establishment Stage
Maintenance Stage
Decline

0-14
15-25
25-45
45-65
After

These processes not only have vocational

impact but relate

to all parts of life and living (Super, 1957, p. 72).
The philosophy of educator

Carl

Rogers

is

apparent

from the following quotation:
...There is one other ....attitude which I hold
....It is my belief in the fundamental pre­
dominance of the subjective. Man lives es­
sentially in his own personal and subjective
world, and even his most objective function­
ing, in science, mathematics, and the like,
is the result of subjective purpose and sub­
jective choice (Rogers, 1959, p. 191).
Roger's theory of education is based on the premise that the
human being is basically a trustworthy organism, capable of
evaluating

the outer

and inner

situation, understanding

33
himself in its context, making constructive choices
the next

steps in life, and acting on those choices

1977, p.

15). His writings

as

to

(Rogers,

have had great influence on the

self-concept theorists.
Eli Ginzberg, a professor of economics and director
of

The

Conservation

of

Human

Resources

at

Columbia

University, and his colleagues investigated the determinants
of occupational choice and the economics of human resources.
He characterizes the right of the individual to choose his
work

as

one of

capitalistic

the

culture

outstanding
(Ginzberg,

characteristics

1963,

p.

3).

of

The

our

choice

affects both the individual and society.
..."Most parents try both directly and
indirectly to provide their children
with a scale of values. They try to
teach them about various goals in
life, about prestige which attaches
to different occupations and the im­
portance of disciplined work. Our
society, for its part, has appreciated
the importance of a broad educational
system to which rich and poor have
access
Certainly the action of
parents and of educators influence the
way in which individuals choose their
occupations" (Ginzberg, p. 5).
Many parents would like to help their children,

but

Ginzberg notes there is much of the world about which they
too are ignorant.
but

Parents believe they know their children,

they also recognize

rapidly in many ways.

that

these

Consequently,

children are
parents

changing

and children

alike have looked to experts for help.
Ginzberg
choice stating:

discounts

the

accident

theory

of

career

34
. . .

In explaining their occupational
choices as accidents, most people
seem to mean that they were af­
fected by something beyond their
control - an unplanned exposure to
a powerful stimulus.
But the point
which this theory overlooks is that
in the life of every individual there
are countless such occurrences, only
a few of which so stimulate the
individual that he responds in a
manner which has important conse­
quences. The other exposures pass
unnoticed and never merge from the
background of events in the
individual's life (Ginzberg, p. 19).

He states that not only can a person find
specific

interests

in

a

large

number

expression
of

for

different

occupations, but also that there are remarkable differences
in

the

emotional

occupation.

make-up

among

members

of

the

same

His theory stems from the belief that career

choice is a developmental process which can be delineated
only as a result of understanding how internal and external
forces in a person's life act and react on each other.

His

basic

the

assumption

ultimate

is

decision

that

an

individual

never

reaches

at a single moment in time, but rather

makes a series of decisions over a period of many years.
Ginzberg
important

and

his

ingredients

individual's choice are:

associates

involved

in

note
the

that

the

adequacy

of

four
an

reality testing, development of a

suitable time perspective,

ability to defer gratification,

and ability to accept and implement compromises.

Another

critical factor is the impact of significant role models at
appropriate times.

Initially,

Ginzberg and his associates

35
believed

that

characterized
makes

this

by

between

a

his

was

an

series
wishes

of
and

irreversible

compromises
his

process,

the

individual

possibilities.

As

an

example, when a person majors in engineering in college, his
chances of selecting law as a career are minimized.
According to Ginzberg, the way in which an individual
reaches occupational decisions, as he matures, hinges on the
individual's understanding of what he likes and dislikes, of
what he does well and what he does badly, and what values
are meaningful to him.

Individuals also become increasingly

aware of their environment, developing new ways of analyzing
those aspects which have a direct bearing on them.
Basically,
occupational
periods:

Ginzberg

believes

decision-making

fantasy,

can

tentative,

that

be

the

divided

and realistic.

process
into
He

subdivides the tentative period into four stages:
value,
into

capacity,
three

stages:

specification.
eleven

and transition,

years

and

exploration,

age

and

may

three
further

interest,

the realistic

period

crystallization,

The fantasy period occurs between
of

carry

over

of

and

six and

into

early

adolescence; the tentative period coincides with early and
late adolescence; and the realistic period occurs in early
adulthood.

The

Ginzberg

speaks

Students

who

tentative
would

are

and realistic

occur

unsure

of

during

the

themselves

periods
college
may

of which
years.

test

their

tentative choice experientially through a service-learning
opportunity.

36
Ginzberg and his associates note that,
child's

choices

are

arbitrary and

initially,

lack reality,

a

later he

becomes aware of what he likes to do, and then cognizant of
things he does more skillfully than others.
Press article bears this out.

Not

one

An Associated

of the

twenty-six

Vicksburg, Michigan high school seniors who were asked "what
they wanted to be when they grew up" in 3rd grade had the
same

choice

"policeman"

nine
had

"veterinarian"

years

later.

changed

had

to

become

Such

"chemist"

selections
while

"broadcaster"

that

(Lansing,

as
of

State

Journal, May 24, 1979, p. B-2).
As Ginzberg puts it:
....By virtue of their age and limited
knowledge and experiences, pre­
adolescents and adolescents are un­
able to make a final decision about
an occupation. Despite this fact,
adolescents are forced to make a
host of decisions which have rele­
vance for their ultimate choice
(Ginzberg, p. 73).
In time, the individual realizes that some activities
have more intrinsic or extrinsic

value

than others.

The

realistic period begins with the exploration stage in which
the

young

relation

adult

to his

choices.

integrates
values

his

and begins

likes
to

and

dislikes

implement

in

tentative

It is at this point of job entry or early college

years that feedback of vocational behavior is particularly
important,

according

to

Ginzberg.

The

results

of

this

feedback lead to the crystallization phase and eventually to
the specification stage.

It is in this exploration stage,

37
that world of work experiences, whether paid or volunteer,
will be of greatest value (Ginzberg, p. 95).
Ginzberg's

statement

of

the

problem

which

college

freshmen face is as follows:
. . .The deliberateness and concern with
which the college freshmen group are
exploring the various aspects of their
choice arises out of several facts.
Many are still undecided between strong
interests; others have real doubts
whether they possess the capacities to
succeed in the field of their special
interest; and almost all are conscious
of their limited knowledge of the world
of work.
. . .They wanted to learn more about the
external world, and instead of acquiring
an insight into the reality of the
marketplace, they are immersed in
academic subjects which are related
tenuously, if at all, to specific voca­
tions . . . College, instead of answer­
ing questions, has added to them
(Ginzberg, p. 101-105).
In1972, Ginzberg
his original theory:

made three
1)

He modified his

career decision making was done
adulthood and
2) He modified

stated

conceptual

in

changes

in

assertion that

adolescence

or early

that it was a life-span phenomenon;

his notion of

irreversibility; and

3) He

changed the concept of compromise to that of optimization.
In forming his theory of career development,

Donald

Super was influenced by the self-concept theory illustrated
in the writings of

Carl

Rogers,

H.

D.

Carter,

and E.

S.

Bordin, who theorized that behavior is a reflection of an
individual's attempt to implement his self-descriptive and
self-evaluative

thought

(Osipow,

p.

131).

Charlotte

38
Buehler's

writings

suggested

that

in

life

developmental

consists

of

a

psychology,

series

stages, also influenced Super's work.

of

which

distinctive

Although he had been

conducting research in the area of career development

for

many years, it was his criticisms of Ginzberg's conclusion
that led Super to formalize his theory.

In a statement to

the American Psychological

in

stated

that

choice

of

Association,

occupation

was

compromise between interest, needs,
external

reality.

Super did not

1953,

a

Ginzberg

result

of

aptitudes, values,
concur

with

a
and

Ginzberg.

Super's book, The Psychology of Careers, published in 1957,
suggests that a person strives to implement his self-concept
by selecting a career he views as the one most
permit him self-expression.
developmental

process

decisions

a

are

development

where

result

in which

He views

of

that

career

vocational

the

is

choice

stage

at

the

to

as

behaviors

particular

person

likely

a

and

of

life

time.

He

identified two of the major stages of career development as
exploratory and establishment.
modified

by

the

crystallization,

Decisions are evaluated and

following

process:

specification,

formation,

implementation,

and

stablization.
Super notes
high

school

purpose.

and

that
college

curriculum
is

in the

exploratory

early years
in

content

of
and

Students try out different subjects which require

different ability levels, and appeal to different interests,
thus

learning

about

themselves

and

occupational

39
opportunities.

He observes that many students,

even those

in graduate or professional school, still need a great deal
of orientation to themselves and their prospective fields of
work.

Believing

that

part-time

and

vacation

jobs

are

primarily a means of earning money, rather than a means of
exploration and orientation, Super recommends a volunteer or
paid

experience,

in

the

intended

field

of

interest,

provide this exploratory opportunity (Super, p. 88).
describes
through

the value
the

of

experiences

Service-Learning

such

Center,

in

as
the

ones

to

Super
offered

exploratory

stage as follows:
. . . It provides youth with an opportunity
to develop mature work habits . . .
to mix with adults . . . try out adult
roles and test the reality of his
self-concept . . . only if part-time
or vacation work experience has some
bearing on the student's vocational
aspirations and plans, does it provide
him with the opportunity to test his
aptitudes, interests, and skills to
find out whether or not he likes that
kind of work. . . . He learns about
some of the kinds of situations in
which that type of work is carried on,
some of the kinds of people, equipment,
activities and problems associated
with that type of work (Super, p. 89).
David Tiedeman's concepts are built on the work
Super, Roe, and Ginzberg.

He contends that:

. . . Career development is conceived as the
process of fashioning a vocational
identity through a differentiation and
integration of the personality as one
confronts the problem of work in living.
The career affords both opportunity for
expression of hope and desire and limita­
tion upon life (Tiedeman, 1963, p. 4. )

of

40
Tiedeman
polarization

notes

between

thatlife
self

is

and

a

environment.

career, a person seeks to "accommodate the
suit

himself

while

simultaneously

incorporated by the environment."
is

a

balance

individual

between

works

out

self
a

progressive

and

Through

environment

being

p.

17).

Thus, career development
the

synthesis

Tiedeman

and

to

progressively

environment

between

self

as

the

and

the

reality opportunities and limitations of the world
1970,

a

O'Hara

state

(Kroll,

that

career

development is "part of the emerging cognitive structure of
self in relation to the world" {Tiedeman and O'Hara,

1960,

p. 16).
Tiedeman believes that career development consists of
relevant

personal

experiences

identity" (Tiedeman, p. 2).

which

fashion

a

"work

Reflection upon the experience

cannot change the event, but will change the meaning

of the

event

future

for

experience.

the

person

and

will

precondition

As the service-learning volunteer evaluates the

experience, he can decide whether he enjoyed the work,
environment, and those with whom he worked.

This evaluation

can help him to decide whether this field is the one
him,

or whether he

should

seek additional

the

experiences

other areas.
Tiedeman states:
....Career development is self-development
viewed in relation to choice, entry and
progress of educational and vocational
pursuits (Tiedeman, p. 46).

for
in

41
....Thus a person continuously develops an
attitude toward himself and his situation
in life which is called ego identity. I
am what I learn; I am what I do (Tiedeman,
p. 12).
Tiedeman hypothesizes

that

those

people,

whose

own

meaning is most consistent with that found in the world of
work, will find greatest satisfaction and success in their
work

(Tiedeman,

should

be

worlds.

the

p.

51).

Vocational

catalytic

agent

guidance,

which

focuses

he

feels,

these

two

He contends that early development of sameness and

continuity takes place in the family and school environment,
but

that

shock".

entrance

into

the world

of work

He would seem to be advocating

is

"cold water

a service-learning

experience when he states, "Prior knowledge of the world of
work

must

be

introduced

into

the

students'

frame

of

reference" (Tiedeman, p. 55).
RECENT STUDIES AT SECONDARY AND POSTSECONDARY LEVEL
Various studies have been undertaken in recent years
in the attempt to evaluate and measure the effect of career
decision intervention programs on students at institutions
at

the

secondary

and

postsecondary

level.

Some

are

of

year

college

particular note for purposes of this study.
Heck and Weible

(1978)

examine

first

students’ perceptions of career choice based on exploratory
field

experiences.

They

note

that

participants

gained

increased knowledge of self and an in-depth knowledge of a
career.
effective

In a five phased project designed to determine more
specific

occupational

programs

at

the

42
post-secondary

level,

Barnard(1978)

advantages of allowing students

identifies

the

specific job related experiences.

opportunity

the
to sample

Townsend (1981) describes

a theoretical and programmatic model of career development
at

the

University

of

Delaware,

experiential component.
regular

curriculum.

which

contains

a strong

This has been incorporated into the

At

Greenfield Community

College in

Massachusetts, thirty interested freshmen participated in a
1973

six

credit

sociology-of-work

course

supplemented

extensive, full-time volunteer work placements.
individuals

who

completed

the

course,

Of the 26

24

were helped

substantially in focusing their occupational plans.
(1980)
helps

describes
students

a

liberal

initiate

career decisions.

arts

early

career

career

Weaver

internship

planning

At Radford University,

by

and

which
focus

a 1980 study by

Millet and Dean reports that most students participating in
experiential

programs,

with

career

awareness

objectives,

indicate successful and meaningful experiences, and a growth
in career awareness.
cooperative

education

Lamb and McKay
program

which

(1980)

evaluated

employs

a

students

full-time and part-time in fields directly related to their
curriculum of study, during
institution.
experiential

enrollment

at a postsecondary

In general, the authors support the value of
programs

at

the

postsecondary

level.

They

identify personal growth and increased awareness of self and
the

world of

participants.

work, as the

positive

effects on student

They also denote the value to the institution

43
of supplementing and augmenting the regular curriculum.
Several studies have been conducted at institutions
where experiential programs were not available.

Findings at

Fitchburg State College, by the Merrimach Education Center,
(1979)

indicate that the concept of career guidance and how

students

receive

Kessler’s
more

information

should

be

reexamined.

research (1980) demonstrates a critical need for

extensive

data,

both

short

and

long

range,

on

career outcomes of college graduates and on those
which affect those outcomes.
be used by educators,

Such data,

an

education
while

idealistic

effort

Roemer

in

model

an

(1980)

(status-competition,

of

a

institution
examines

Hoyt

(1979)

comprehensive
of

higher

three

functionalism,

could

in improving

the relationship between education and work.
proposes

factors

she states,

employers and students

career

education,

social

and

the

theories

legitimation)

to

explain the growing interest among undergraduate students in
pursuing

studies

which

lead to

occupational

Conclusions of each of these authors

competence.

strongly

support

the

value of an experiential program at the postsecondary level.
A large number
experience

based

of

studies

programs

particular

emphasis

Education)

projects.

on

have

at the high
EBCE

Monkowski

been

conducted

school

level,

(Experience
(1980)

Based

examined

of

with

Career

the

final

year of the Lincoln, Nebraska public school program focusing
on the effect on
evaluations.

students,

Pre-tests

and

and parent
post-tests

and community
using

the

site

Career

44
Maturity

Inventory

(CMI),

the

Intellectual

Achievement

Responsibility Questionnaire (IAR), and a locally developed
survey

measured

student

outcomes.

Small

achieved (particularly on the IAR)
information,
planning,

self-awareness,

were

in career awareness and

career

application of learned

increases

decision

skills

to

making

jobs,

and

positive

view of school and working, and good work habits.
Stead and others (1977) conducted a similar study of
the

Appalachian

Maryland

EBCE

program

involving

an

experimental and control group of twelfth grade students.
Results on the CMI and the Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking
Appraisal indicated substantial gains in career skills and
career decision making, improved attitude toward education,
and exemplary academic progress for the experimental group.
In addition, strong community support for EBCE was noted.
Bonnet and Richert (1980) conducted a third party evaluation
of a career exploration course involving both classroom and
site components.
logs,

and

indicated

Data collection methods

employer
that

and

student

students

included teacher

questionnaires.

gained

career

Results

awareness

and

evaluated the experience as a positive one.
A Watertown,
EBCE

program

self-concept,

South Dakota

indicates

relationships

skills.

In

addition,

degree,

were

greater

families,

that

other

(1978)

evaluation

participants
with

others

objectives

understanding

of

of the

improved
and

their

reached,
job

increased expertise in consumerism,

to

clusters

their
basic
some
and

and decrease

45
in sex role stereotyping.

The report

concluded

that

the

program had the flexibility to meet the needs of adults in
work

exploration,

guidance

and

counseling, and

in

basic

educational skills.
Zumbrennan (1979) examined the extent to which 5th,
8th, and 11th grade students reported involvement in career
education

activities

activities.

and

their attitudes

Research instruments

used

toward

these

included a locally

developed instrument designed to measure student self-report
of involvement in and attitude towards particular activities
(SII), a standardized measure of self-concept (SOS), and the
Stanford Achievement Test

(SAT).

Treatment

types of career education activities:
and experiential.
preferred
preferred
related

Results

experiential
cognitive

activities,

attitudes

Academic achievement was not
students'

three

cognitive, simulated,

indicated that younger students

activities.

to positive

included

while

High
toward

older

students

self-acceptance
career

significantly

was

activities.

related

liking of the three types of career

to the

educational

activities.
Troyer (1975) outlines a high school program in Ohio
for

eleventh

and

twelfth

engineering careers.
and

investigation

experiences.

in

grade students

interested

in

This program included career guidance
class

activities

Miller and others

as

well

(1975) describe

as
a

field
similar

program in the area of health careers.
With

the

rise

of

the

women's

movement

and

the

46
increase

of

both

occupations,
differences

a

men

number

and
of

women

studies

in
have

in career decision making.

non-traditional
focused
At

on

West

sex

Virginia

University, Markiewicz (1979) compares the effectiveness of
the use of Holland’s Self-Directed Search, a decision making
program, and a vocational tour on the career development of
high school students.
trait

factor,

The study analyzes and evaluates the

developmental,

and

approaches to career counseling.

exploratory
The sample

theoretical
consisted

of

male and female tenth grade applicants planning to enroll in
vocational
post-test
development

training
design

curriculum.

was

used

evaluated

by

A

with
the

pre-test,

the

treatment,

effect

American

on

College

career
Testing

Program's Assessment of Career Development and Rosenberg's
Self-Esteem

scale.

Results

indicated

that

the

decision­

making treatment lowered self-esteem, compared to the other
treatments, and provided more certainty of choice than the
exploration

treatment.

The

self-directed

search

participants were more apt to change their choice than the
exploration participants.
than for females
treatment

Results were different for males

for each treatment,

seemed

to

increase

the

and

the

exploratory

involvement

in

non-

traditional areas.
In a paper presented to the conference for Educating
Women in Science,
more

"exposure to

Hanson

(1975)

observes

non-traditional

that women need

fields".

Jackson's

(1980) research with academically gifted females concurs.

47
Identifying

career innovators

enter a career in which

as

zero

those women who

to 40 percent

presently employed, Veres and Moore

(1975)

role-innovative women had higher grades,

plan to

of women are
concluded

made more

that

recent

career choices, aspired to higher degrees, were less apt to
marry

before

completing

their

education,

wanted

to

have

fewer children, planned a wider range of careers, were less
likely to cite closeness to home as the reason for choosing
their

college,

and

reported

more

colleges than non-innovators.

problems

with

their

Non-innovators were defined

as those women who plan to enter careers in which 70 to 100
percent

are

enrolled

women.

in

a

Green's

Wisconsin

identified a number
enter

a

of

research

apprentice

factors

non-traditional

challenge,

(1979)

which

training

women

program

encourage

women

These

include:

occupation.

variety, learning,

with

feeling

of

pride

to

and

self-worth, a sense of accomplishment, and the work itself.
Discouraging
conditions,

factors
lack

include:

working

of supervisory

and

feedback,

and

safety
personal

concerns, such as housework and child care responsibilities.
Thomas

and

educational

others

(1980)

program designed

personal-social

barriers

occupations.

Twenty

to

studied

to

help

enter

women

into

from

a

short

women

term

overcome

non-traditional
each

of

three

community/junior colleges were surveyed using the Survey of
Women's
findings,

Attitudes
a

About

treatment

Careers.

was

designed

Based

upon

addressing

survey
decision

48
making, goal setting, self-knowledge and career opportunity
awareness.

Post-tests and follow-up interviews analyzed the

changes made

by the

specific goals,
support

participants

as

a

encountering problems,

received

from

family

and

result
and

of

the

friends.

setting

amount
The

of

author

concluded that the program assisted women in setting career
goals, in entering the non-traditional occupations,

and in

changing stereotypical attitudes.
Results
Harren

(1979)

of

a

study

of

1500

college

students

indicate that gender and sex role

by

attitudes

continue to restrict student career options.

Of particular

relevance

work

to

this

study

is

the result

that

related

field experience generally makes one less optimistic about
one's future.
students

at

contention

A 1979 study by Alden, administered to 1470
16

Illinois

that

Community

occupational

colleges,

sexism

is

supports

the

result

of

a

long-standing stereotypes of role expectation.

Respondents

classified few occupations along racial lines, but many did
so according to sex.
In studies, conducted in postsecondary and secondary
vocational-technical
traditional,
(1978)

mixed,

concludes

schools,
and

that

which

compared

non-traditional
interest

is

the

selecting a non-traditional occupation.

women

occupations,
major

reason

in
Kane
for

Career education,

career orientation and job site visitation were considered
the most useful counseling techniques.
that

interest

in non-traditional

Little (1974) found

occupations

could

be

49
increased

through

an

awareness

program

in

reinforcement was provided by a male counselor.

which

A year long

project by the Research Foundation of the State University
of New York at Albany (1979) was designed to encourage women
to enter non-traditional fields.
course which

demonstrated

It included

possibilities

an academic

for

competence,

success, and job satisfaction for women in non-traditional
careers and identified role models, intensive advisement by
female

faculty members,

indicated

a

participants
group.

significant
in

the

and career
increase

experimental

exploration.
in

Results

self-esteem

group

over

in

the

the

control

No overall significant difference in career attitude

or expectations between the experimental and control groups
was found, however.
increased

Sauter's research (1980) indicates that

information,

work

experience

and

unbiased

counseling influenced the choice of freshmen college women
toward both traditional and non-traditional careers.
In an attempt to keep women from dropping an already
selected non-traditional career, the Department of Freshmen
Engineering at Purdue University developed
preparation

program

for

engineering program.
It

includes

women

the

first

year

career
of

an

Lebold (1978) evaluates this program.

a course

designed

career information,

and offers

the

Results

participants.

in

a model

to provide

engineering

and

experience

for

a practical

have

assisted the school in

revising the program to better meet student needs.
Generally,

researchers identify that

the

important

50
factors

in

awareness

career

of

self and

world of work,
together.

choice
the

and

decision

opportunities

and an understanding

making

are

available

an

in the

of how the two

"mesh"

This is particularly true in the case of

men or

women choosing careers which are not traditional for their
genders.
SUMMARY
In Chapter II, a review of the four major schools of
thought on career decision making has been presented.
trait

factor

approach

(Parsons)

states

that

The

problems

of

vocational choice can be solved by matching the individual's
abilities and interests with vocational opportunities;
sociological model
fate

or

chance

Advocates
that

make

that

by

can

assist

analyzing

matching it with the
specific

choice

for

considers

the

field.

Those

the

individuals

in

individual's

personalities
favoring

the

of

that

individual.

of the personality theory (Roe, Holland)

counselors

choices

(Reeb, Miller and Form)

the

believe

making

career

personality

those

already

self-concept

and
in a

approach

(Buehler, Ginzberg, Super, Tiedeman) declare that successful
career choice can occur when an individual's
correlates

with

the

vocational

concept

of

self-concept
the

selected

career.
These four schools of thought are not incompatible
or contradictory.

Rather, they are overlapping and similar

in many respects, and actually build upon each other.

This

study will involve and examine applications of each of these

51
approaches.
In addition. Chapter II has included a review of a
number

of

studies

which

have

analyzed

the

effect

of

exploratory field experiences and various career education
efforts at the secondary and postsecondary levels.
of

these

studies

have focused on

non-traditional areas.
in

these

programs

those

A number

involved

in

Findings indicate that participants
have

grown

in

self-esteem,

career

opportunity awareness, career decision making and planning,
and

in

Although
results

the

application

these
in a

studies
change

of

learned

would

of

skills

suggest

that

stereotypical

to

the

the

job.

experience

attitudes,

in

some

cases it has served as a reality shock which destroys the
illusion

and

as

Harren

(1979)

noted

"makes

one

less

optimistic about one's future."
Chapter

III

will include the

description

of

the

design of this study denoting the population to be studied,
the instrument to be used,

the method of data collection,

and the means by which this data will be analyzed.

CHAPTER III
DESIGN OF THE STUDY
This

chapter

describes

the

design

including:

the population

studied,

the

by

data

method

which

the

the

were

of

the

study

instruments

collected,

used,

and

the

statistical means by which they were analyzed.
Population
The subjects of this
State

University

September,

1977

study were

students
and

who

July,

all

of the Michigan

participated

1981

in

between

Service-Learning

experiences provided by the Service-Learning Center CSLC), a
division of Student Affairs.
to twenty hours per week;

Placements varied from three

commitments

ranged

from one

to

three terms during the academic year.
The potential volunteer was made aware of the services
which

the

Center

could

academic advisors,
presentations,

provide

through

faculty

college orientation material,

other

students,

and

the

media.

members,
classroom
Students

could volunteer through the SLC for non-credit experience(s )
as well as arrange for credit through academic departments.
In addition, in cooperation with the academic units, the SLC
had developed optional and required experiential components
for courses, and placements which would assist students in
fulfilling

the

experiential

entrance into a major.

requirements

necessary

for

Students could participate in one of

fifty major programs or 200 special requests
the Center in the areas of aging,

business,

developed

by

communication,

53
corrections, education, government, health,

mental health,

nutrition, recreation, science and special education. These
placements provided the participants with the opportunity to
work in schools, hospitals, mental health centers, community
service agencies, businesses, correctional institutions, and
governmental offices.
Each of the participants visited the Service-Learning
Center at the beginning of a term.

A staff advisor provided

information regarding the scope of programs
assisted

the

student

in

the

selection

appropriate to the stated need.
given program description
involvement,

which

qualifications,

major

of

a

and

placement

Potential volunteers were

sheets,

specified

available

color coded by area

time

suitability,

commitment,
which

of

required

skills

could

be

developed, and whether or not transportation was provided.
The

Program

Description

Sheet

also

included

a

program

overview, job descriptions of all areas of involvement, and
an explanation of the orientation and placement
After students filled out an SLC application,

process.

and attended

the orientation, they were referred to the program of their
choice and proceeded with the placement process.

If they

met the placement criteria, they were assigned for a one to
three term commitment in the selected program.
The
students

subjects
who

were

for

this

assigned

study
to

included

and

all

participated

of
in

the
a

service-learning experience during an academic year between
September, 1977 and July, 1981.

(Table 1).

The size of the

54
population studied was 10,620 students.
TABLE 1
FOUR YEAR REVIEW OF STUDENT PARTICIPATION
1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Referrals
Academic
Year

3,105

3,470

3,805

3,895

Assigned
Academic
Year

2,445

2,600

2,762

2,813

Instrumentation
During 1978, the staff members of the Service-Learning
Center familiarized themselves with
theories
which

of

career

would

development.

provide

the broad
They

demographic

spectrum

devised

information

of

questions
about

the

participants in the experiential programs and identify the
students'

perceptions

of

the

relationship

of

these

experiences to selected measures of career development.
Demographic
information:
Additional
program

questions

age,

class level,

questions

in

which

requested

asked

he

was

sex,

the

college,

the volunteer
involved,

in

to

following
and major.

identify

which

term(s)

the
he

volunteered, how he learned about the Center, and whether or
not his participation fulfilled an academic requirement. The
student was asked to
involved,
plans,

and how

major

identify his

the

selection

experience
and

the

motivation for becoming
had
rest

affected his
of

his

career

university

55
experience.

A number of questions asked the volunteer to

identify his perception of the value of the experience in
relation

to

career

awareness

and

career

preparation.

Finally, the student was asked to evaluate the services and
the experience itself.
An optical

scan computer

developed in 1978,
Social

Science

card

survey

instrument

in conjunction with the Michigan

Research

Laboratory.

(Appendix

was

State
A)

Utilization of this instrument provided for a swift analysis
of the data.

The survey was expanded to two cards for the

1980-81 academic year, to allow space for asking additional
questions regarding the use of skills,

and personal growth

and development. (Appendix B)
At the midterm point of spring term of 1978,

a survey

card was mailed to each of the individuals who participated
in a volunteer experience during the 1977-78 academic year.
Included were a personal

letter to the

student

indicating

the importance of the survey and the necessity of a prompt
response, and a pre-addressed envelope with return postage
guaranteed.

This

effort

was

1979-80, and 1980-81 academic

repeated
years.

for
Table

the

1978-79,

2 provides

a

review of the total number of volunteers assigned each year,
and the number

of

surveys

sent

out,

undeliverable, and returned completed.

delivered,

returned

It is important to

note that the surveys were sent out shortly after midterm
during Spring term in each of the four years.

There were

additional volunteers placed after the surveys were sent out

56
and

this

accounts

for

the

differences

in

the

number

volunteers placed and the number of surveys sent out.

of

Over

the four year period, 4308 completed surveys were returned.
This represents a total return rate of 41.62%.
TABLE 2
FOUR YEAR REVIEW OF SURVEY RETURNS
1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Four Year
Total

2,445

2,600

2,762

2,813

10,620

2,445

2,544

2,687

2,720

10,396

0

0

30

14

44

Number of
Question­
naires
Delivered
to Students

2,445

2,544

2,657

2,706

10,352

Number of
Completed
Question­
naires
Returned

1,013

1,041

1,162

1,092

4,308

Percent
Returned

41.43%

40.92%

43.73%

40.35%

41.62%

Number of
Assigned
Volunteers
Number of
Surveys
Sent Out
Number of
Question­
naires
Returned Un­
deliverable

57

Statistical Analysis
When the completed
grouped

together

and

surveys

were

numbered

by

received,

program.

they

Handwritten

comments from each card were noted by program.
information

from

these

cards

was

computer

program as well as grouped collectively.
question were displayed by

count

were

Each year,
tabulated

by

Answers to each

(frequency distribution)

and percentages (relative frequency, adjusted frequency, and
cumulative
included

frequency).
a

frequency

percentage

column

The
for

excluded

relative

blank
blank

frequency

answers;

answers.

the

column
adjusted

For

questions

requiring answers on a continuum, the cumulative frequencies
were displayed as positive and negative groupings.

The mean

and median for each set of frequency distributions were also
calculated.
The data were analysed through a statistical technique
known as the analysis of variance (ANOVA).

This technique

is used to determine whether the differences among two or
more means
alone.

are greater

than would

be

expected

by

chance

It allows us to test the hypothesis that the several

populations of interest have the same mean on the variable
of interest.
probability

The use of the ANOVA technique decreases the
of

a type-I

error

than would be

the

case

if

multiple t-tests were conducted.
The
English

analysis

of variance

statistician

which was

Sir Ronald Fisher

developed
about

by

the

fifty years

58
1
ago, permits the control of alpha (° ^ ) at a predetermined
level when testing the simultaneous equality of a number of
means (Hopkins, 1978, p. 333)
H: u
1

= u
2

The omnibus hypothesis is:

= u

=

u

3

J

where J is the number of groups.

In ANOVA, all differences

for all pairs of J means are examined at the same time to
determine whether one or more means
from one

or more

varianceevaluates

of

the

whether

other

deviate

means.

there

is

significantly

The analysis
any

of

systematic

(non-random) difference among the set of the J means.
The ANOVA utilizes the sums of squares (SS) in testing
the null hypothesis.

The total sum of squares is decomposed

or subdivided into the sources of the variation.

Some of

the sum of squares are due to the differences between group
means;

some

are

the

result

of

differences

among

the

observations within the groups.
SS

= SS
total

+ SS
between

within

The formula for the sum of squares resulting from the
differences between group means is SSg = S n j d j , where nj is

\?hen testing whether or not a statistical hypothesis
is tenable, the degree or risk of a Type-I error must be
specified.
This risk, stated as a probability, is denoted
as "alpha" (oL ) and is called the level of significance.
Setting (oC ) at .05 means that we are willing to take a 5%
risk of a Type-I error (rejecting a null that is true).

59
the number of observations in group j, and dj is the effect
of treatment j, or more simply, the difference in the mean
of the group and the grand mean.
The

sum

of

the

squares

within

groups

is

obtained

through the following equation:
SS

= SS
W

When a sum of

- SS
total

squares

is

B
divided

by

freedom, a variance estimate is obtained.

its

degree

of

In an ANOVA, the

ratio of two independent variance estimates is utilized.
The total sum of squares is determined and divided into two
independent portions, SSg and SS^.

Each of these portions

is

degrees

then divided

by

its

respective

of

obtain variance estimates called mean squares.
MSg/MS^ is called the F-ratio.
true

these mean

squares

are

to

The ratio

When the null hypothesis is
approximately

expected value of their ratio

freedom

(F)

equal,

and

is approximatley

the

1.0.

When the population means are not equal, the numerator will
tend to be larger than the denominator, and the F-ratio will
be greater than 1.0.

A table containing the critical values

of F for various levels of significance is contained in most
statistics books.

Every F distribution is defined by two

sets of degrees of freedom,

one for the numerator and one

for

critical

the

denominator.

predetermined

level

The
of

intersection of the two

significance
columns.

value

for

F

at

the

is

located

at

the

When the observed F-ratio

60
is greater than the critical F-ratio,

the null

hypothesis

may be rejected.
In this study, the ANOVA technique was used to examine
whether

students'

volunteer

perceptions

experience

were

hypothesis

question

was

effects

for

academic

and

of

different

and ethnicities.

established

regarding

the

different

levels, age levels, genders,
null

of

A

examined

the
class

separate
for

requirements,

each

volunteer

motivation, and the effect on career plans, major selection,
career awareness, career preparation, personal awareness and
development,

and use of skills in relation to age,

class,

gender, and ethnicity.
For the following null hypothesis:
The motivation for applying for a volunteer
position to gain experience in a career field
is the same for each age group
the

F-ratio

F-ratio

at

was
.05

computed
level

of

freedom corresponding

and

compared

to

the

critical

significance at

the

degrees

of

to SSfi and SS w.If

the

F-ratio was

less than the critical F-ratio, then the null was tenable.
H

= u
0

1

=u
2

= u

= u =u
= u (where u is the mean of the
3
4
5
6
answers in the first year)

If the F-ratio was greater than the critical F-ratio, then
the null was rejected.
u

4
17

u
2

4u
3

It did not necessarily follow that
^ u
4

4 u

^u
5

6

61
Perhaps u > u = u < u = u = u :
1
2
3
4
5
6

If we rejected the null,

the alternate hypothesis which we accepted was that:
The motivation for applying for a volunteer
position to gain experience in a career
field differs by age group.
For
were

purposes

grouped

of

into

statistical

two groups:

manipulation,
white

and

the

races

minority.

In

addition, the participants were grouped in two ways by age.
In the first instance,

the examination was carried out by

utilizing the six age levels as noted on the

survey

form

(i.e., 19 or younger, 20, 21, 22, 23-25, and 26 and over).
In the second instance, the participants were grouped into
two groups:

those who were appropriate to their class level

and those who were not.
groups

to

two,

rejection.
motivation

The
to

we

Thus, by reducing the number

increased

rejection

apply

for

a

of

the
a

impact

null

volunteer

of

the

stating

that

experience

to

of

null
the
gain

independent study/internship/field experience credit was the
same for whites as minorities allowed us to conclude that
this motivation was not the same for whites and minorities.
The same conclusion could be drawn in the case of males and
females,

and for those whose age was appropriate to their

class level and those who were not.
Another way

in which

the data

from this

descriptive

study were examined was through the construction of cross
tabulation tables.
bivariate

This approach is particularly useful in

correlation

studies where

an attempt is made to

62
show that two or more variables are related.
which

may

be

influencing

the

other

is

The variable
known

as

the

independent variable; the variable which may be influenced
by the other is known as the dependent variable
Monroe, 1979, p. 86).

(Twaite and

Thus, for example, whether or not the

participants' volunteer work was recommended or required by
an academic unit was cross tabulated by six age groupings.
Traditionally,

it

is

the

custom

that

the

independent

variable is the column variable, and the dependent variable
is the row variable.

The subjects falling into the various

categories

independent

of

the

separately in order to determine
these

categories

distribute

dependent variable.

As many

over

variable
how

are

subjects

various

conditional

examined

in each of

values

of

distributions

the
as

there are values of the independent variable are considered
and expressed as relative frequency distributions.

(Table 3

shows an example of a cross tabulation analysis table)
TABLE 3
CROSS TABULATION
OF "REQUIRED BY AGE"
AGE

REQUIRED

19 or
younger
YES
NO
COLUMN
TOTAL

20

21

22

23-25

26 or
older

ROW
TOTAL

63
In

each cell,

percentage,

the

and total

frequency, row

percentage,

column

percentage are listed in order.

In

addition, the column and row totals are given.
Forthis particular example,

the null hypothesis is:

Age has no effect on whether or not volunteer work
was recommended or required by an academic unit.
H : u
= u = u = u = u =
0
1
2
3
4
5

u
6

The alternate hypothesis is that age does have an
effect on whether or not volunteer work was recom­
mended or required by an academic unit.
H : u
£ u = u ^ u = u ^ u
a
1
2
3
4
5
6
The

level

separate

of

significance

the

analysis.

rejection

of A

and

=

.05

is

acceptance

established

regions

in

to

each

That is, the null hypothesis will be rejected in

favor of the alternative

if the

level

of

significance

is

less than .05.

This means that there is a 5% chance of
2
making a Type-I error
or rejecting the null when it is
true.
The Chi Square statistic

and Kendall's

Tau statistic

were also used to examine the data.
In

each

determined.

case,
For the

the

degrees

example

of

freedom

given above,

must

the degrees

be
of

freedom would be 5, calculated using the following formula:
2

A Type-I error is defined as the error which occurs
when a null hypothesis that is true is rejected.
It may be
likened to convicting an innocent man. The probability of a
Type-I error is denoted by the Greek letter oC •

64
degrees of freedom = (R - 1)(C-1) where R =
the number of rows and C = the number of
columns
df=

(2 — 1)(6 — 1) = 5

Chi Square was calculated using the following
formula:
_ gY1-

where E is the number of frequencies we would expect
to find assuming there was no relationship at all
between the two variables, and 0 is the number of
observed frequencies.
For

each

analysis,

the

Chi

Square

statistic

was

computed and compared with the critical value of Chi Square
as listed on the chart at that degree of freedom and at that
level of significance already predetermined (for this study
that level was

.05).

If the value of the calculated

Chi

Square was greater than the critical value set by the table
at that degree of freedom and level of significance, then we
rejected the null and accepted the alternate hypothesis.
In

another

effort

to

determine

the

degree

of

relationship between two variables, the statistical measure
Kendall's

Tau

was

used.

Kendall's

Tau

(

nr

>

is

a

correlational coefficient which requires the use of rankings
rather than absolute values of variables in the computation
of the coefficients.
meaningful

Kendall coefficients are somewhat more

when the data

contain a large

number

of

tied

ranks and when a fairly large number of cases are classified
into a relatively small number of categories.
s
formula for tau is:
r-

The general

65
where S is computed by comparing the ranking of one variable
with the number of pairs of rankings of a second variable,
which are all arranged in their correct or natural order,
when they are sorted according to the natural order rankings
of the first variable.

N is the number of observations or

cases.
S is then computed by beginning with
ranked on the

first

variable

ranks on the second variable.
the

number

of

ranks

below

the observation

and counting

the

number

of

Once this has been completed,
this

observation,

which

are

smaller than its rank on the second variable, are subtracted
from the first quantity.

This procedure is repeated for all

ranks, resulting in a sum of remainders which is equal to
the statistic S.

The computed or actual S is then divided

by the maximum possible

S which would have

been obtained

with that number of rankings had the two sets of rankings
been in total agreement.

The computations were carried out

by computer at the Social Science Research Laboratory on a
software package entitled Statistical Package for the Social
Sciences

developed

by

the

Vogelback

Computer

Center

at

Northwestern University.
In

addition

to

the

cross

tabulation

table

example

provided above, the following additional bivariate analyses
were carried out:
Major selection
)
Importance to Career Awareness )
Importance to Career Preparation) by age, class
Use of Various Skills
) level, sex, and
Overall Rating
) ethnic origin

66
Summary
This chapter has contained a description of the design
of

the

study

instrument

including:

used,

the

the

method

population

by

which

studied,

the

data

the
were

collected,

and the statistical tools with which

analyzed.

Chapter IV will include the results of the study

including

demographic

participants

over

tables

their

of

the

information
four year

perceptions

regarding

period,
of

they were

the

cross

volunteer
tabulation

effects

of

the

experience including Chi Square and Kendall's Tau statistics
and level of significance.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS
Introduction
During
years,

the

1977-78,

a computer

card

1978-79,

survey

and

1979-80

instrument was

academic

mailed each

year to every student who participated in a service-learning
experience
Michigan

provided

State

by

the

Service-Learning

University.

(Appendix

A).

Center
Each

at

survey

contained demographic questions, as well as ones relating to
career awareness, career preparation, career decision making
and

major

field

instrument

was

selection.

expanded

During

to two

1980-81,

cards

to

the

allow

survey

space

for

additional questions regarding personal values and skills.
(Appendix B) .

Over

the

four year period,

were delivered to participants.

10,352

surveys

Four thousand three hundred

eight surveys were completed and returned,

representing an

overall return rate of 41.62%.
Methods of Data Analysis
The

analysis

of data

from each of

the

surveys

was

accomplished by means of optical scan, using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences

(SPSS)

as adopted for the

CDC 6500 computer at Michigan State University.
each question were
frequency)

and

computer

percentages

tabulated

by

(relative

Answers to

count

(absolute

frequency).

The

relative frequency was determined by dividing the absolute
frequency by the total number of observations.

Tables were

constructed

showing

to assist with

the data
67

analysis

the

68
frequencies .for

each

calculated means.

variable,

They

by

appear

year,

along

with

the

in Appendix C as numbered

tables, and will be cited in the appropriate places in the
narrative.
Analyses

of

the demographic

information provided by

the participants regarding gender, age, and class level were
carried

out

calculating

by
the

comparing
means

and

absolute

frequencies

standard

deviations.

differences were well within the established
significance.
no

and
The

.05 level

of

Therefore, we could conclude that there were

appreciable

demographic

differences

participants during these years.

between

A decision was

the

made

to

list the results of each question by year, but also to group
these results over the four year period.
In
tables

provided

between
refer

addition,
a

the

construction

means

two variables.

to

these

of

of

determining

The narrative

tables,

cross

noting

the

the

which

tabulation
correlation

follows will

variables

which

are

involved, the data manipulations which were conducted,

and

the nature of the statistical information which resulted.
Analysis of Demographic Information
Over the four year period from 1977-1981,
number of respondents consisted of 1,224 males
3,017 (71.1%) females.

(Table 1).

participants during this period was
7,133 (68.9%>) females.
to return the survey

the

total

(28.97<>) and

The gender ratio of all
3,219

(31.1%) males to

Female participants were more likely
than were

their male

counterparts.

69
There were 1,242

(29-1%) respondents who were nineteen or

1,147

younger;

(26 -9%)

469

twenty-one;

age

(11.07o)

age

age

(7.67o)

age

(3.9%)

age twenty-six

(Table 2).

or older.

Analysis
indicated
(26.6%)

(21.470)

325

twenty-two;
and 165

twenty-three to twenty-five;

913

twenty;

of

that

the

there

sophomores;
116

seniors;

(2.77o)

respondent
760

were
1,273

involvement

(17.7%)

(29.6%)

graduate

by

class

freshmen;

1,142

913

(21.2%)

(.87>)

special

juniors;
33

students;

students; and 64 (1.5%) non-students.

(Table 3).

The question regarding ethnic origin was asked only of
1980-81 volunteers.
that

34

(3.17o)

individuals
1,000

Oriental;

10

American;
origin;

Results of that year's

(.97o)

individuals

8

Black;

(91.67o) were White;

and 17 persons

(Table 4).

were

16

survey
(.7%)

(1.57o) were

indicated

(1.670) left

showed

that

were
Native

other

ethnic

question blank.

The actual Michigan State University enrollment

figures for 1980-81 indicate a total minority population of
7.17%, of which 5.3% were Black,
were Native American,
analysis

of

the

Service-Learning

.25%

American.

These

minority

ethnic

origin

of

Center opportunities

Native
figures

involvement

.25%

.81% were Asian or Asian American.

5.65% minority involvement,
Hispanic,

.797o were Hispanic,

in

American,
indicate

participants

for

including:

An

1980-81

shows

4.05% Black,

and

.60%

that while

Service-Learning

in
a

.757>

Asian/Asian
the

Center

1980-81
partici­

pation was slightly less than the minority enrollment ratio

at Michigan State University,

the minority survey response

rate was higher than non-minority response rate.
There

were

1,815

(42.1%.)

during fall term;

2,536

individuals

term;

(63.8%)

and

2,750

during

persons

who

(58.97.)

spring

participated
during winter

term.

Multiple

answers were allowed for this question because it was known
that many persons participated during more than one term.
This

fact was

regarding

the

participated.

emphasized by the answers
number

of

terms

There were 1,738

in

to

which

the
the

question
volunteer

(40.3%) who indicated that

they had volunteered for one term; 1,194 persons (27.7%.) who
had participated for two terms; 680 individuals (15.8%.) who
were

involved

for

three

terms;

participated

for four

terms;

participated

for five

terms

209

persons

(4.9%)

who

and 449 persons

(10.4%)

who

or more.

An

examination

of

Tables 5 and 6 will show that this pattern of participation
was consistent over the four year period.
To the question regarding how they had learned about
the opportunity, the participants responded as follows:
922 (21.4%.)

Read it in the college newspaper

856 (19.9%)

First heard about it in the
classroom

134

(3.1%.)

Saw a

496

(11.5%)

Were told by their advisor

1250

(29.0%>)

Heard

through friends

(2.4%.)

Heard

about it in the dorm

(.1%)

Heard

it on the radio

105
5

Poster

71
31

(.77.)

Were spoken to bya student
coordinator

59

(1.4%)

Read a brochure

409

(9.57.)

Learned through other means
(Table 8).

Participants1 Perception of the Effect of the Experience in
Academic and Career Areas
When the MSU Service Learning Center began in 1972 as
the Office of Volunteer Programs,
altrusim.

Over

participation

time,

and

Student Affairs

however,

the

in a climate of

focus

that

of

the

sponsoring

evolved

to

one

of

career development
with

it was

the academic

and awareness,
units.

of

Department

increased

emphasis

and closer

Therefore,

an

student
of
on

coordination

analysis

of

the

participants' perception of the effect of the experience on
academic and career related areas was considered crucial to
the

program's

continued

existence

and

to

future

program

development.
Participants were asked to identify the relationship
of the participation in a Service Learning
their academic program.
that

it

was

stated that
instructor;

a

course

to

There were 572 (13.370) who reported
requirement

it had been
454

opportunity

or

suggested by

(10.57.) were

their advisor;for 458 persons
was required for admission

encouraged
(10.67,),

into

option;
their

322

(7.57.)

professor

or

to participate

by

the participation

their major;

and

for

249

individuals (5.87.), the involvement was required as part of

72
their major.

(Table 9).

The motivation(s ) of the individual to become involved
in a Service-Learning opportunity were of great interest to
those

responsible

opportunities.

for

developing

and

providing

these

Because the literature supported the notion

that people are motivated to act in specific circumstances
by a number of reasons, not just one, multiple answers were
allowed on the question regarding motivation.

Results

of

the 1977-80 surveys indicated that the primary motivations
were

to

people.

gain

experience

(Table 10).

in

a

career

field

and

to

help

Specific results over this three year

period were as follows:
11.8% (381 persons) participated to gain
course credit;
15.8% (508 persons) got involved to gain
admission into their major;
60.87o (1,956 persons) were motivated by a
desire to help people;
68.17> (2,191 persons) wanted to gain
experience in theii' career field;
50.57o (1,624 persons) wanted to develop skills;
34.97> (1,125 persons) wanted to meet people;
12.27> (391 persons) wanted to have something to
do;
15.67o (503 persons) sought to develop job
contacts;
9.67o (310 persons) indicated that they had other
reasons.
During the 1980-81 academic year,
question was

altered

to provide

the wording of the

additional

information.

73
Again the results showed that the two major motivations were
to gain experience in a career field and to help people.
(Table 11).
important
choice.

This time, participants indicated that another
motivation

was

to

explore

a

possible

career

Specific results from the 1980-81 survey were as

follows:
13.6% (148 persons) participated to complete
part of a course requirement;
21.37o (233 persons) sought to gain independent
study, internship, or field experience
credit;
12.3% (134 persons) participated to help gain
admission into their major;
14.1% (154 persons) were using this experience
to help gain admission into graduate or
professional school;
48.5% (530 persons) sought to explore a possible
career choice;
66.9%, (731 persons) wanted to gain experience in
a career field;
27.0% (295 persons) looked to develop professional
contacts;
68.4%,

(747 persons)wanted to help people;

32.1%

(351 persons)wanted to socialize with
others;

19.4%, (212 persons) needed to have something to
do in their leisure time;
11.7%, (128 persons) had a motivation that some­
thing other than one of those choices
specified.
A total of 2,220 participants
experience

had

no

1,457 participants

effect

(51.5%)

on their major

noted that the

selection,

while

(33.8%,) reported that it affirmed

their

74
major

selection.

Of particular

that

175 persons

(4.17.)

importance,

reported

that

however,

was

they changed their

major as a result of the experience, while 404 participants
(9.47.) indicated that the experience caused them to consider
changing

their

respondents
make

major.

(Table

13).

In

addition,

1,504

(36.57.) believed that the experience helped to

some

of

their

courses

more

meaningful,

while

984

persons (23.97.) felt that their participation helped them to
identify courses which would be useful to their career.
response

to

additional

survey, 311 students

questions

posed

in

the

In

1980-81

(33.37,) indicated that the experience

affected their motivation to learn, participate and achieve
in classes; 495 students (53.17.) felt that they were able to
apply coursework knowledge and skills to the community, and
405 persons
and

(43.47.) were able to apply community knowledge

skills

to

participants

their

(40.67.)

coursework.

who

indicated

There
that

were

their

1,672

involvement

necessitated better time planning, while 524 persons (12.77.)
reported

having

difficulty

keeping

because of time spent volunteering.

up

in

their

classes

(Table 14).

A review of the participants1 perception of the effect
of the experience on their career plans revealed that 1,654
persons (38.47.) reported that the experience had no effect,
while

1,824

affirmed
number

of

persons

their

(42.37.)

previous

questions

career

asked

the

noted

that

choice.

the
(Table

participants

to

experience
12).

A

rank

the

importance of the experience on a continuum in a number of

7'5
areas of career awareness and preparation.

Complete results

by year appear in Appendix C as Tables 15-21.
of

"extremely

recorded

as

importance"

important"
positive

and

negative answers.

"of

and

"somewhat

answers;
no

answers

importance"

were

The answers

important"
of

"of

were
little

considered

The percentage of positive

answers

as
for

the four year period was as follows:
. Support from other for
Career Decisions

55.07> positive

. Broader knowledge of
Career and Job
Requirements

69.9%

. Focused (Narrowed)
Career Choices

44.57o positive

. Gained Awareness of
Relationship Between
Job Requirements and
Personal Values

74.37o positive

. Gained First Hand
Exposure to Work
Environment

74.9%

positive

. Became Known to People
in Their Field Who
Could Recommend Them
to Potential Employers

34.6%

positive

. Became Aware of How
Education Experience is
Serving as Preparation
for Career

63.8%.

positive

These

statistics

would

support

the

positive

conclusion that

students perceived that the experience was important to the
development of their career awareness

and

preparation and

provided a link between education and the world of work.

76
Participants1 Rating of Services Provided
Participants over the four year period were asked to
rank

their

provided by

level

of

satisfaction

the Service

with

various

services

Learning Center Staff

and those

provided by the agency staff at the volunteer site.

Answers

of "very satisfied" and "satisfied" were considered

to be

positive

"very

answers;

dissatisfied"

were

answers

of

considered

"dissatisfied"
to

be

negative

and

answers.

Complete results appear in Appendix C, Tables 22-32.

The

level of positive answers over the four year period was as
follows:
. Helpfulness of staff

90.070 positive

. Accurate Job Descriptions

88.27> positive

. Adequate Orientation

74.070 positive

. Adequate Transportation

64.17, positive

. Contact with Student
Coordinator

65.87o positive

. Helpfulness of Agency
Staff

80.57o positive

. Adequate Supervision at
site

80.070 positive

. Adequate training at site

68.67o positive

. Meaningful Tasks to Do

73.47> positive

. Acceptance and Support
by Agency Staff

84.47o positive

. Recognition of Efforts by
Agency Staff

79.9% positive

Participants
positive

rating

gave

over

the

the

experience

four

year

an

period.

overall

86.8%

Ratings

of

77
excellent and good were considered positive; ratings of fair
and poor were considered negative.

(Table 33).

During the first three years of the survey (1977-80),
50.5% of the respondents had indicated that their motivation
for participating in a service-learning
develop

skills.

Therefore,

it was

experience was

decided

to

include

to
a

question on the use of skills in volunteer work as part of
the 1980-81 survey.

Respondents were asked

to note

on a

continuum the degree of occurrence of the use of skills with
5 representing "very often", 4 representing "fairly often",
3 "sometimes", 2 "rarely" and 1 "never". The entire results
are included in Appendix C, Table 34.

The mean and standard

deviation for each item were calculated.

A review of the

results is as follows:
SKILL

MEAN

STANDARD
DEVIATION

Research and Investigation
(To Question, seek knowledge
and search for data)

2.76

1.496

Communication and Persuasion
(To express knowledge and
ideas to others)

3.71

1.177

Organizational Management
(To administer others, guide
or direct groups to complete
tasks)

2.82

1.440

Design and Planning
(To image the future and
design plans or programs)

2.39

1.360

Information Management
(To organize data and
knowledge in writing)

2.33

1.421

Technical and Manual
(To manipulate objects or
the physical environment)

2.56

1.405

78
These

statistics,

"sometimes"

and

in which
"fairly

skill which participants
Persuasion.
of

the

the means

often",

are

would

used most

located between

indicate

was

that

the

Communication

and

Participants also indicated some degree of use

skills

investigation,
experiences,

of organizational
and

with

technical

little

use

of

management,
and

research

manual

in

and

planning

design

and

their
and

information management.
Additional questions were asked on the 1980-81 survey
regarding

the

students'

perception

of

the

effects

experience on personal growth and development.
results appear in Appendix C, Table 35.
items

in which a majority

of

the

The entire

A summary of the

of respondents

noted

that

the

experience affected them is as follows:
. Improved Communication Skills
(Listening, articulating,
presenting ideas)
. Increased

Awareness of Skills

69.27.

66.07.

. Developed Awareness of
Situational/Personal Dif­
ferences in Others

61.87o

. Increased

Awareness of Values

61.17.

. Developed

Self-Confidence

60.07.

. Gained Personal Feeling of
Success and Self-Accomplishment

57.87.

. Increased Acceptance of Differences of Others

51.97.

Thus, one may conclude that the participants perceived
theexperience made a significant impact
growth and development.

that

on theirpersonal

79
Examination of the Relationship Between Variables
by Chi Square and by Kendall's Tau
The

approach

which

was

used

to

examine

the

relationship between variables involved the construction of
cross tabulation tables.
may be influencing the

Traditionally, the variable which
other

is known as

the

variable and is shown as the column variable;
which

may

be

influenced

by

the

other

is

independent
the variable

known

as

the

dependent variable and is shown as the row variable in the
table.

The subjects falling into the various categories of

the independent variables are examined separately in order
to

determine

how

subjects

in

each

of

these

categories

distribute over various values of the dependent variable.
As many conditional distributions as there are values of the
independent

variable

were

considered

relative frequency distributions.
Chi

Square

statistic

was

and

expressed

For each analysis,

computed

and

compared

with

as
the
the

critical value of Chi Square, for that degree of freedom at
a .05 level of
correlational

significance.

coefficient

was

In addition,
computed.

Kendall's

For

each

Tau

cross

tabulation table, a decision was made as to whether or not
the null hypothesis could be rejected.
Academic Requirement
The
Required by
36.

Cross

Tabulational

Table

for

"Recommended

or

Academic unit" by "Ethnicity" is shown in Table

The null hypothesis was:

80
Ethnicity has no effect on whether or not
volunteer work was required or recommended
by an academic unit.
The Raw Chi Square of 5.38357 was

less

than the

critical

value of Chi Square of 11.1 at .05 level of significance.
Therefore, the null may not be rejected and we may conclude
that ethnicity does not affect whether or not volunteer work
was

required

Kendall's

or

recommended

Tau of

by

.01582 was

an

academic

not within

the

unit.

The

predetermined

level of significance of .05.
The

Cross

Tabulational

Table

for

"Recommended

or

Required by Academic Unit" by "Age" is shown in Table 37.
The null hypothesis was:
Age has no effect on whether or not
volunteer work was required or recom­
mended by an academic unit.
The Raw Chi Square of 12.38929 was greater than the critical
value

of

Chi

significance.

Square

of

11.1

at

the

.05

level

Therefore, the null may be rejected.

of

We may

conclude that whether or not volunteer work was required or
recommended by an academic unit was affected by age.
computed

Kendall's

Tau

significant to a level of
level.

statistic

of

.0162, which

.07083

The

is

is within

also

the

.05

This positive correlation suggests that the younger

students were more likely to have the experience recommended
or

required

by

an

academic

unit

than

Table

for

were

the

older

students.
The

Cross

Tabulational

"Recommended

or

Required by Academic Unit" by "Class" appears in Table 38.

81
The null hypothesis was:
Class has no effect on whether or not
volunteer work was recommended or required
by an academic unit.
The Raw Chi Square of 14.93034 exceeds the critical value of
Chi Square of 12.6, with '6 degrees of freedom at
level of significance.

the

.05

Therefore, the null may be rejected.

We may conclude that class does have an effect on whether or
not the volunteer work was
academic unit.

recommended or required by an

The Kendall's Tau statistic for this table

is .08217 which is significant to the .0065 level.

These

results

juniors

were

indicated

more

that

freshmen,

likely to have

the

sophomores,

experience

and

recommended

than

were seniors, graduate, or special students.
The

Cross

Tabulational

Table

for

"Recommended

or

Required by Academic Unit" by "Gender" appears in Table 39.
The null hypothesis was:
Gender has no effect on the perception of
whether or not volunteer work was recom­
mended or required by an academic unit.
The Raw Chi Square of 10.80762 exceeds

the critical

value of Chi Square of 3.84, with one degree of freedom, at
the

.05 level

of

significance.

Therefore,

the

null

was

rejected and the conclusion reached that gender does have an
effect on whether or not volunteer work was recommended or
required by an academic unit.

The Kendall's Tau correlation

statistic for this table is -.08827, which is significant at
the

.0005

level.

This

negative

or

inverse

correlation

indicates that women are more likely to have the experience

8-2
recommended to them by an academic unit than are men.
In summary, the null hypotheses regarding age,

class

and gender and the academic requirement of the experience
were rejected,

and

class,

have

gender

the

conclusion

an

effect

was

on

reached

whether

or

that

age,

not

the

experience was recommended or required by an academic unit,
while ethnicity does not.
Motivation
Table 40 shows the cross tabulation of "Participant's
Motivation to apply for a Volunteer Position" by "Age".

The

null hypothesis was:
Age does not affect the participant's
motivation to apply for a volunteer
position.
The

Raw

Square

Chi
of

Square

67.50,

at

of

81.292

.05

exceeded

level

of

the

significance,

degrees of freedom, so the null was rejected.
hypotheses

was

accepted

that

critical

age

does

with

Chi
50

The alternate
affect

the

participant's motivation to apply for a volunteer position.
The cross tabulation of the "Participant's Motivation
to Apply for a Volunteer Position" by "Class" is shown in
Table 41.

The null hypothesis was:
Class has no effect on the participant's
motivation to apply for a volunteer position.

The null was rejected because the

Raw Chi Square of 132.06

exceeded the critical Chi Square of 79.08, at .05 level of
significance,

with

60 degrees

of freedom.

The alternate

hypothesis, which was accepted, was that class does affect

83
the

participant's

motivation

to

apply

for

a

volunteer

position.
The cross tabulation of "Participant's Motivation to
Apply

for a Volunteer Position"

Table 42.

by

"Gender"

is

shown

in

The null hypothesis was:
Gender has no effect on the participant's
motivation to apply for a volunteer position.

The Raw Chi Square of 72.63 was greater than the critical
Chi Square of 18.31, at .05 level of significance,
degrees of freedom.

with 10

Consequently, the null was rejected.

The alternate hypothesis, which was

accepted,

stated that

gender does affect the participant's motivation to apply for
a volunteer position.
Table 43 shows the cross tabulation of "Participant's
Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer Position" by "Race".
The null hypothesis was:
Race has no effect on the participant's
motivation to apply for a volunteer
position.
The Raw Chi Square of 88.09 exceeded the critical Chi Square
of 67.51, at .05 level of significance, with 50 degrees of
freedom,

so

the

null

was

rejected.

The

hypothesis, which was accepted, was that race
the

participant's

motivation

to

apply

for

alternate
does

a

affect

volunteer

position.
To summarize the cross tabulational analyses regarding
motivation, it was determined statistically that age, class,
gender, and race each affect the participant's motivation to

84
apply

for

a

volunteer

position.

The

Kendall's

Tau

correlational coefficient was not computed for this section,
so the direction of correlation could not be established.
Effect on Career Plans
Another area in which the correlational relationship
was examined was that of the "Effect of Experience on Career
Plans" by "Age" by Gender, by Class and Race.
Tabulation by Age Table

is

shown

The Cross

in Table 44.

The null

hypothesis was:
Age has no effect on the effect of experience
on career plans.
The Raw Chi Square of 25.57849 exceeded the critical value
of

Chi

Square

of

25.0

at

.05

level

of

significance.

Therefore, we could reject the null and conclude that age
does affect the effect of experience on career plans.

The

Kendall's

the

Tau

.0466 level.

statistic

of

.04113

is

significant

at

This indicated that the experience was more

likely to affect the career plans of younger students.
The

correlational

relationship

of

the

"Effect

of

Experience on Career Plans" by "Class" is shown in Table 45.
The null
effect

hypothesis

was

that

of the experience

in

class has no effect
career

plans.

The

on the
Raw

Chi

Square of 40.95700 exceeded the critical value of Chi Square
of

28.9

at

18

significance.

degrees

of

freedom

at

the

.05

level

of

The null could be rejected and the conclusion

reached that class does affect the effect of experience on
career plans.

The Kendall's

Tau

statistic

of

.02980

is

85
significant to the .1115 level, which is not within the .05
level of significance.
Table 46 shows the Cross Tabulation of the "Effects of
the

Experience

on

Career

Plans"

by

"Gender".

The

null

hypothesis was:
Gender has no effect on the effect of
the experience on career plans.
The Raw Chi Square of 10.89013 with three degrees of freedom
exceeded the critical Chi Square of 7.81.

Therefore,

the

null was rejected and the conclusion drawn that gender does
affect

the

negative
.0263.

effect

Kendall's

of
Tau

experience
of

on

-.05768

career

has

a

plans.

The

significance

of

Therefore, the career plans of women are more likely

to be affected by the experience than are those of men.
The null hypothesis regarding the effect of race could
not be rejected statistically.

Therefore,

the

conclusion

was reached that age, class and gender do affect the effect
of experience on career plans, but race does not.
Effect on Major Selection
The Cross Tabulation of the "Effect of Experience on
Major Selection" by "Age" is shown in Table 47.

The null

hypothesis was:
Age does not affect the effect of experience
on major selection.
The

Raw Chi

freedom,

Square

of

25.57849,

with

fifteen

exceeds the critical value of 24.99,

degrees

of

so the null

was rejected and the conclusion reached that age does affect
the effect of the experience on career plans.

The positive

86

Kendall's

Tau of .04113

indicates

that

the

has a significance of

older

students

are

more

perceive that the experience did not make

.0466 and
likely

to

them change their

career plans than are younger students.
Table 48 provides the Cross Tabulation Chart
"Effect of the Experience" by "Class".

of

the

The null hypothesis

was:
Class level has no effect on the participant's
perception of effects of experience on major
selection.
The

critical

value

significance,

of

Chi

Square,

at

.05

with 18 degrees of freedom, was

level
exceeded

of
by

the Raw Chi Square of 73.22198, so the null was rejected.
The alternate hypothesis was accepted that class level has
an

effect

on

the

effects

of

experience

on

major.

The

Kendall's Tau correlation of .10674 with a significance of
.0000

suggests

seniors,

special,

graduate

or non-students

are more likely to perceive that the experience did not make
them change their major, than are freshmen,
juniors.
more

sophomores and

Conversely, freshmen, sophomores, and juniors are

likely

to

change

their

major

as

a

result

of

the

experience.
The Cross Tabulation Table of "Effect of Experience on
Major Selection" by "Gender" is shown in Table 49.

The null

hypothesis of:
Gender has no effect on the participant's
perception of the effects of the experience
on major selection
was rejected because the Raw Chi Square of 23.05762 exceeded

87
the critical value of Chi Square of 7.81 with 3 degrees of
freedom

at

.05

level

of

significance.

The

alternate

hypothesis that gender has an effect on the participants'
perception
selection

of
was

the

effects

accepted.

correlation of -.12815

of

the

The

experience

Kendall's

had a significance

on

Tau
of

major

negative

.0000 means

that women are more likely to have the volunteer experience
affect their major selection than are men.
The null hypothesis regarding the effect of race could
not be rejected statistically.

Therefore,

the

conclusion

was reached that age, class, and gender affect the effects
of the experience on major selection, but race does not.
Importance of Volunteer Experience
in Relation to Career Awareness
a)

Support from Others for Career Decision

Table 50 shows the Cross Tabulation of "Importance of
Experience

in Relation

Decisions" by "Age".

to Support

from Others

for Career

The null hypothesis was:

Age has no effect on participants' perception
of the importance of the volunteer experience
in relation to support from others on career
decisions.
The Raw Chi Square

of

26.61273

exceeded

the critical

Chi

Square of 25.0 at .05 level of significance with 15 degrees
of

freedom,

so

the

null

was

rejected.

The

alternate

hypothesis that age does affect the participants' perception
of the importance of the experience in relation to support
from others for career decisions.
correlation

of

-.08793,

with

a

Based on Kendall's Tau
significance

of

.0002,

88
indicates that the experience was more important to younger
students than to older or non-students in this area.

The

null hypotheses regarding the effect of gender,

and

class,

race could not be rejected statistically.
b)

Broadening Knowledge of Career and Job Requirements
The

cross

Experience

in

tabulation

of

Broadening

"Importance

Knowledge

of

of

Effect

Career

Requirements" by "Class" is shown in Table

and

51.

of
Job

The null

hypothesis was:
Class has no effect on the participants'
perception of the importance of the ex­
perience in broadening knowledge of
career and job requirements.
The null was rejected when the Raw Chi Square of 31.78539
exceeded the critical Chi Square of 28.9, at
significance,

with

18 degrees

of

freedom.

.05 level of
The alternate

hypothesis, which was accepted, was that class does affect
the

participant's

experience

perception

in broadening

requirements.
-.04583 at

of

the

importance

the knowledge

The negative

Kendall's

of

the

of career and

job

Tau

correlation

.0330 level of significance indicates

experience was more

important

to lower

class

that

students

of
the
in

this area than to seniors, graduate and non-students.
The

Cross

Experience

on

Tabulation
Broadening

of

Knowledge

Requirements" by "Gender" is
hypothesis:

"Importance

shown

of

of

Career

in Table

52.

Effect
and

of
Job

The null

89
Gender has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the ex­
perience in broadening knowledge of career
and job requirements
was rejected when the Raw
the

critical

significance,
hypothesis

Chi

Square

with
was

Chi Square

of 7.81,at

3 degrees
accepted

of 10.16054 exceeded

of

.05

freedom.

that

gender

level
The

of

alternate

affects

the

participants' perception of the importance of the experience
in broadening knowledge of career and job requirements.
positive Kendall's Tau correlation of

.09204 with a

The
.0012

level of significance indicates that the experience was more
important to women than men in this area.
The null hypotheses regarding the effect of age
race could not be rejected statistically.
conclusion was reached that
participant's perception of

Therefore,

and
the

only class and gender affect the
the effect

of the experience in

broadening knowledge of career and job requirements.
c)

Focusing Choices

The Cross Tabulation of "Importance of the Experience
in Focusing Choices" by Gender is shown in Table 53.

The

null hypothesis was:
Gender has no effect on participants'
perception of the effect of the experience
in focusing career choices.
Because the Raw Chi Square of 20.60914 exceeded the critical
Chi Square of 7.81, at
degrees of freedom,

.05 level

of

significance,

the null was rejected.

with

3

The alternate

hypothesis was accepted stating that gender does affect the

9G
participant’s perception of the effect of the experience in
focusing

career

choices.

The

positive

Kendall’s

Tau

correlation of .12859 and a significance of .0000 indicates
that the experience is more important to women than men in
this area.
The
class,

null

and

hypotheses

race

Therefore,

the

could

regarding

not

conclusion

be
was

the

effects

rejected
reached

of

age,

statistically.
that

only

affects the participant's perception of the effect

gender
of

the

experience in focusing choices.
Importance of Volunteer Experience
in Relation to Career Preparation"
a)

First Hand Exposure to Work Environment

Table 54 shows a cross tabulation of
Experience

in Providing

First

Environment" by "Gender".

Hand

"Importance

Exposure

to

the

of

Work

The null hypothesis was:

Gender has no effect on the participants'
perception of the importance of the ex­
perience in providing first hand exposure
to the work environment.
The Raw Chi

Square

of

8.03968

exceeded

the

critical

Chi

Square of 7.81, at .05 level of significance, with 3 degrees
of freedom, so the null was rejected.
A

Kendall's

Tau

correlation

of

.12859

with

a

significance of .0000 indicated that the experience was more
important to females than males in this area.
The null hypotheses regarding the effects of race, age
and class could not be rejected statistically.

Therefore,

91
the conclusion was

reached

that

only gender

affected

the

participant's perception of the importance of the experience
in providing first hand exposure to the work environment.
b)

Becoming Known to People in Field Who Could
Recommend to Potential Employer
The Cross Tabulation of the "Importance of Experience

to Participant Becoming Known to People in Field Who Could
Recommend Him/Her to Potential Employer" by "Race" is shown
in Table 55.

The null hypothesis was:

Race has no effect on participants' perception
of the importance of the experience in the
participant becoming known to people in field
who could recommend him/her to potential
employer.
This was rejected because

the Raw Chi

Square

exceeded the critical Chi Square of 25.0 at
significance with
hypothesis

15

was

degrees

accepted

of

that

freedom.
race

of 25.42590
.05 level

The

does

of

alternate

affect

the

participants' perception of the importance of the experience
to the participant becoming known to people in the field who
could

recommend

negative

him/her

Kendall's

significance of

Tau

to

a

potential

correlation

of

employer.
-.11184

The
with

a

.4705 was not relevant because it was not

within .05 level of significance.
The
class,

null

hypotheses

and gender

could

regarding
not

be

the

effects

rejected

of

age,

statistically.

Therefore, the conclusion was reached that only race affects
the

participant's

experience

perception

to becoming known

of

the

to people

importance
in

the

of

the

field

who

92
could recommend to a potential employer.
c)

Becoming Aware of How Education Experience is
Serving as Preparation for Career

Table 56 shows the cross tabulation of "Importance of
Experience to Participants Becoming Aware of How Education
Experience
"Gender".

is

Serving

as

Preparation

for

Career"

by

The null hypothesis was:
Gender has no effect on the participant’s per­
ception of the importance of the experience to
the participant becoming aware of how the
education experience is serving as preparation
for career.

The null was

Raw Chi Square

of 17.34395

exceeding the critical Chi Square of 7.81, at

.05 level of

significance,

rejected with a

with

3

degrees

of

freedom.

The

alternate

hypothesis, which was accepted, was that gender does affect
the

participant's

experience

to the

perception

of

the importance of

participant

becoming aware

of how

the
the

education experience is serving as preparation for career.
The positive Kendall's Tau correlation of .11381 at a .0001
level of significance indicates that the experience is more
important to women than men in this area.
The null
could

not

conclusion

hypotheses

be

rejected

was

reached

regarding

race,

statistically.
that

only

age,

and

Therefore,

gender

affects

class
the
the

participant's perception of the importance of the experience
to becoming aware of how the education experience is serving
as preparation for career.
d)

Awareness of Relationship Between Job
Requirements and Personal Values

93
Table 57 shows the cross tabulation of ’’Importance of
Experience to Participant Gaining Awareness of the Relation­
ship Between Job Requirements and Personal Values” by ’’Age".
The null hypothesis was:
Age has no effect on the participant’s
perception of the importance of the
experience to the participant gaining
awareness of the relationship between
job requirements and personal values.
A

Raw

Chi

Square

of

26.74974

exceeded

the

critical

Chi

Square of 25.0 at .05 level of significance with 15 degrees
of

freedom,

so

the

null

was

rejected.

The

alternate

hypothesis, which was accepted, stated that age affected the
participant's perception of the importance of the experience
to

the participant

gaining

awareness

of

the

between job requirements and personal values.
Kendall's Tau correlation of -.06713 with a
significance

indicates

that

the

important to younger students

relationship
The negative

.0035 level of

experience

in this

area

was

more

than to older

students.
The
Experience

Cross
to

Tabulation

the

of

Participant

the

"Importance

Gaining

Awareness

of

the

of

the

Relationship Between Job Requirements and Personal Values”
by "Class” is shown in Table 58.

The null hypothesis was:

Class has no effect on the participant's
perception of the importance of the
experience to the participant gaining
awareness of the relationship between job
requirements and personal values.
This

null

was

rejected

because

the

Raw

Chi

Square

of

41.05540 exceeded the critical Chi Square of 28.9, at

.05

94
level

of

significance,

with

18 degrees

alternate hypothesis was accepted.

of

freedom.

The

This stated that class

affects the participant's perception of the

importance

of

the experience to the participant gaining awareness of the
relationship between job requirements and personal values.
A negative Kendall's Tau correlation coefficient of -.07212
with a significance of .0019 indicates that the importance
of the experience in this area was greater for those

in

lower classes than higher classes.
The null hypotheses regarding
not be rejected statistically.

gender and race

Therefore,

was made that only age and class affect the

could

the conclusion
participant's

perception of the importance of the experience

to gaining

awareness of the relationship between job requirements and
personal values.
Use of Skills In the Volunteer Experience
a)
The

Cross

Research and Investigation
Tabulation

of

"Use

of

Research

and

Investigation Skills in Volunteer Work" by "Gender" is shown
in Table 59.

The null hypothesis was:

Gender has no effect on the use of research
and investigation skills in the volunteer work.
This

null

was

rejected

because

the

Raw

Chi

Square

of

10.24028 was greater than the critical Chi Square of 9.49,
at a .05 level of significance, with 4 degrees of freedom.
The alternate hypothesis, that gender does affect the use of
research and investigation skills in the volunteer work, was
accepted.

The

negative

Kendall's

Tau

correlational

95
coefficient of

-.09190, with a .0017 level of significance,

indicated that women are more

likely

to use research and

investigation skills in the volunteer experience than men.
The
class

and

null
race

Consequently,
affects

hypotheses
could

regarding

not

be

of

research

effects

rejected

the conclusion was

the use

the

age,

statistically.

reached that

and

of

only gender

investigation

skills

in

volunteer work.
b)

Communication and Persuasion

The null hypotheses regarding age, class, gender, and
race could not be rejected statistically.

Therefore,

the

conclusion was made that neither age, class, gender, or race
affects the use of communication and persuasion

skills

in

the volunteer experience.
c)

Organization Management

The null hypotheses regarding age, class, gender, and
race could not be rejected statistically, at the
of

significance.

neither

age,

Therefore,

class,

gender,

the
or

decision
race

was

affects

.05 level
made

the

that

use

of

organizational management skills in the volunteer work.
d)

Design and Planning Skills

The null hypotheses regarding age,

class, gender and

race could not be rejected statistically at the .05 level of
significance.

Therefore,

the conclusion was

reached

that

neither age, class, gender or race affects the use of design
and planning skills in volunteer work.

96
e)

Information Management Skills

Table 60 shows the

cross

tabulation

of

"The Use

of

Information Management Skill in the Volunteer Experience" by
"Race".

The null hypothesis was:
Race has no effect on the use of information
management skills in volunteer work.

A Raw Chi Square of 36.50666 which exceeded the critical Chi
Square at the .05 level of significance with 20 degrees of
freedom

allowed

rejection

of

the

null.

hypothesis was accepted that race does

The

affect

alternate
the use

information management skills in the volunteer work.

of
The

negative Kendall's Tau correlational coefficient of -.00166
and a level of significance of
the

predetermined

conclusion

could

level
be

of

drawn

.4388 does not fall within

significance

regarding

for

of

.05,

which

so no

race

the

impact was greater.
The cross tabulation of "Use of Information Management
Skills in Volunteer Work" by "Class" is displayed in Table
61.

The null hypothesis was:
Class has no effect on the use of information
management skills in volunteer work.

The Raw Chi Square
Square
degrees

of
of

36.4,

of 48.56710

at

freedom,

.05
so

level
the

exceeded

the

critical

of significance,
null

was

with

rejected.

Chi
24
The

alternative hypothesis was accepted that class does affect
the use of information management skills in volunteer work.
The Kendall's Tau correlational coefficient of .06010, with
a

level

of

significance

of

.0055,

indicated

thatupper

97
classmen and graduate students were more likely to use these
skills.
The cross tabulation of "Use of Information Management
Skills

in Volunteer Work" by "Age" is shown in Table 62.

The null hypothesis was:
Age has no effect on the use of informational
management skills in volunteer work.
The null was rejected because the Raw Chi Square of 45.16873
exceeded the critical Chi Square of 31.4, at
significance,

with

hypothesis

that age

management

skills

20 degrees
does
in

of

affect

volunteer

freedom.
the use
work

.05 level of
The alternate

of

was

informational
accepted.

A

positive Kendall's Tau correlational coefficient of .04789,
at a level of significance of

.0216,

indicated that older

students were more apt to use this skill.
The
rejectd

hypothesis

statistically

Therefore,
age

null

the

at

regarding
the

gender

.05 level

could

of

not

be

significance.

decision was reached that race,

class, and

affect the use of informational management skills, but

gender does not.
f)
Table 63

Technical and Manual Skills

shows the cross

tabulation

of

the

"Use

Technical and Manual Skills in Volunteer Work" by Race.

of

The

null hypothesis was:
Race has no effect on the use of technical
and manual skills in volunteer work.
The null was rejected because the Raw Chi Square exceeded
the

critical Chi

Square

of

31.4,

at

.05

level

of

98
significance,

with

20 degrees

of

freedom.

The alternate

hypothesis that race does affect the use of technical and
manual skills in volunteer work was accepted.
Tau

correlational

significance of

coefficient

of

.01748

The Kendall's

has

a

level

of

.0547, which is slightly greater

than

the

predetermined acceptable level of significance of

.05.

No

conclusion could be drawn as to which race(s) had a greater
level of use.
The

null

hypotheses

regarding

the

effects

of

age,

class, and gender could not be rejected statistically at the
.05

level

reached

of

that

significance.
the

use

of

Therefore,
technical

the

and

decision

manual

skills

was
in

volunteer work was affected by race but not by age, class,
and gender.
Examination of the Relationship Between Variables by
Analysis of Variance
A

separate

null

hypothesis

was

established

examined by the analysis of variance for
answers to the 1980-81
recommendation

or

participants

survey questions regarding academic

requirement,

effect on career plans,

the

and

volunteer

major selection,

motivation,

and

career awareness,

career preparation, personal awareness and development, and
use

of

skills

ethnicity.

in relation
For

purposes

to:
of

age,

gender,

statistical

ways

In addition,

by age.

participants

In the first

instance,

were
the

and

manipulation,

participants were grouped into two racial groups:
minority.

class,

white and

grouped

in two

examination was

carried out by utilizing the six age levels as noted on the

99
survey form (i.e. 19 or younger, 20, 21, 22, 23-25, and 26
and older).
category

In the narrative describing the results,

is referred

to as

"age

level".

In

the

this

second

instance, the participants were grouped into two age groups:
those who were proper for their class level and those who
were not.

In the narrative

describing

the

results,

this

will be designated as "age groups (two groups)".
Of the

two

hundred

and

eight

null

hypotheses

thus

established, the following null hypotheses were rejectd at
the

.05 level of significance.

The specific F-ratios and

degrees of freedom corresponding to SSB and SSW are noted.
The F-probability indicates the level of significance.
the nullhypotheses

shown were rejected because

they

All
fell

well within the .05 level of significance.
*

*

*

Academic Requirement
NULL:

Whether or not volunteer work was recommended

or required by an academic unit is the same:
... for males as females
Reject: ( SS

=1
B

SS = 1059
W

F-ratio = 10.898
F-probability = .0010
... for each class level

SS

=4
B

SS = 1051
W

F-ratio = 2.472
F-probability = .0430
... for each age level

\ SS
=5
\
B
The

null

SS = 1080
W
hypotheses

F-ratio = 2.493
F-probability = .0296
regarding

race

and

academic

requirement could not be rejected statistically, at the .05

100
level

of

significance.

Therefore,

the

conclusion

was

reached that whether or not volunteer work was recommended
or required by an academic unit was not the same for males
and females, for each class level,

or for each age level,

but was the same for whites and minorities.
*

NULL:

The nature

*

of

*

the academic

unit

requirement

being "required by major" is the same:
... for males as females
Reject:

/ SS = 1
B

SS = 402
W

F-ratio = 23.352
F-probability = .0000
... for each class level

SS

= 4
B

SS = 402
W

F-ratio = 2.887
F-probability = .0223
... for whites and minorities

= 1

SS
\
The

B
null

SS = 402
W
hypothesis

F-ratio = 3.867
F-probability = .0499
regarding

academic unit being required by major

the

nature

being

the

each age group could not be rejected at the
significance.

The alternate

hypotheses

of

the

same

for

.05 level

of

for gender,

class

requirement

being

level, and race were accepted.
*

NULL:

*

*

The nature of the academic

"required as part of major" is the same:
... for males as females
Reject:

fss
=1
(* B

The

null

SS = 402
W
hypotheses

F-ratio = 26.995
F-probability = .0000
regarding

the

nature

of the

101
academic requirement being "required as part of major" being
the

same for whites and minorities,

each class level, and

eachage group and age level could not be rejected at
.05

level

of

significance.

The

alternate

the

hypothesis

regarding males and females was accepted.
* * *
NULL:

The

nature

of

the

academic

requirement

or

recommendation being "suggested by advisor" is the same:
... for each class level
Reject: fss

= 4

SS

B

= 402
W

F-ratio = 4.192
F-probability = .0025

The null hypotheses regarding age, gender and race and
"suggested by advisory" could not be rejected statistically
at the .05 level of significance.
that

the

nature

recommendation

of

the

"suggested

The alternate hypothesis
academic

by

advisor"

requirement
was

or

different

for

different class levels was accepted.
*

NULL:

*

*

The nature of the academic

requirement

being

"course requirement" is the same:
... for each class level
Reject: (sS

=4

SS

B

= 402
W

F-ratio = 2.679
F-probability = .0314

The null hypotheses regarding age, gender and race and
course requirement could not
the

.05 level

of

be rejected

significance.

The

regarding class level was accepted.
nature

of

the

academic

statistically at

alternate

hypothesis

This stated that the

requirement

being

"course

102
requirement" differed by class level.
* * *

Motivation
NULL:

The

motivation

position to complete part

to

apply

of a course

for

a

volunteer

requirement

is

the

same:
... for males as females
Reject: i SS

=1

SS

B

= 1063

F-ratio = 16.466
F-probability = .0001

W

The null hypotheses regarding age level,

age groups,

class level and race cannot be rejected statistically at the
.05

level

of

significance.

The

alternate

hypothesis

regarding gender and motivation being "to complete part of
course requirement" was accepted.
*

NULL:

The

experience

to

*

motivation

gain

*

to

independent

apply

for

a

volunteer

study/internship/field

experience credit is the same:
... for whites as
Reject: fSS

=1

SS

B

= 1071
W

minorities

F-ratio = 9.067
F-probability = .0027
... for each age group
(two groups)

SS

=1
B

SS

= 1071
W

F-ratio = 9.067
F-probability = .0027

The null hypotheses regarding age level, class level,
and

gender

and motivation

study/internship/field
rejected at the

being

experience

"to

gain

credit"

.05 level of significance.

independent

could

not

be

The alternate

103
hypotheses regarding race and age group were accepted.
* * *
NULL:

The

motivation

to

apply

for

a

volunteer

position to gain admission into the major is the same:
... for each class level
= 4

SS

= 1053

F-ratio = 12.143
F-probability = .0000

W

... for males as females
SS

=1

SS

B

= 1063

F-ratio = 26.860
F-probability = .0000

W

... for each age
Reject:

\SS = 5
B

The
gender,

SS

= 1084

F-ratio = 4.635
F-probability = .0003

W

alternate

hypotheses

regarding

and age level were accepted.

regarding

age

group

and

level

race

class

level,

The null hypotheses

could

not

be

rejected

a

volunteer

statistically at the .05 level of significance.
* * *

NULL:
position

The

motivation

to gain admission

to
into

apply

for

graduate

or

professional

school is the same:
... for males as females
Reject: \ss = 1
/ B

SS

= 1063
W

F-ratio = 39.749
F-probability = .0000

The null hypotheses regarding

age

level,

age group,

and race, and class level and the motivation being "to gain
admission

into

statistically

graduate
at

the

.05

school"
level

could
of

not

be

rejected

significance.

The

alternate hypotheses regarding gender and this variable was

104
accepted.
* * *
NULL:

The

motivation

to

apply

for

a

volunteer

position to explore a possible career choice is the same:
•* * for each age level
Reject: jSS

= 5

SS

B

= 1084
W

F-ratio = 2.385
F-probability = .0366

The null hypotheses regarding gender, class level, age
group, and race and motivation being "to explore a possible
career choice" could not be rejected statistically
.05

level

of

significance.

The

alternate

at

the

hypothesis

regarding age level and this variable was accepted, however.
* * *
NULL:

The

motivation

to

apply

for

the

volunteer

position to gain experience in a career field is the same:
... for each class level
Reject: /SS
W

F-ratio = 3.168
F-probability = .0134
... for each age group
(two groups)

SS
W

F-ratio = 6.731
F-probability = .0096
•** for each age level

SS

W

F-ratio = 5.620
F-probability = .0000

The null hypotheses regarding gender, and race and the
motivation being "to gain experience in career field" could
not

be

rejected

significance.

statistically

at

the

.05

level

The alternate hypotheses for class level

of
and

105
age group were accepted.
*

NULL:

The

*

*

motivation

to

apply

for a

volunteer

position to develop professional contacts is the same:
... for each class level
Reject: f SS

=4

SS
W

B

= 1053

F-ratio = 2.502
F-probability = .0410
... for each age level

SS

=5
B

The null
gender and
contacts

SS = 1084 F-ratio = 3.539
W
F-probability = .0035

hypotheses

regarding

the motivation being

could not

be

level of significance.

rejected

age

"to

group,

develop

statistically

race,

and

professional
at

the

.05

The alternate hypotheses regarding

class level and age level were accepted.
* * *
NULL:

The

motivation

to

apply

for a

volunteer

position to help people is the same:
... for whites as for
minorities
SS

= 1 SS

= 1071
W

F-ratio =
4.587
F-probability = .0325
... for each class level

Reject: 7 SS

= 4 SS

= 1053
W

F-ratio =
3.430
F-probability = .0085
... for each age group
(two groups)

SS

=

1 SS

= 1071
W

The alternate

F-ratio =
4.587
F-probability = .0325

hypotheses regarding race, class level,

106
and age group and the motivation being "to help people" were
accepted.

The

null

hypotheses

regarding

gender

level could not be statistically rejected at the

and

age

.05 level

of significance.
*

NULL:

The

*

motivation

*

to

apply

for

a

volunteer

position to have something to do with leisure time is the
same:
... for each class level
Reject: X SS = 4
I B

SS

= 1053
W

F-ratio = 2.921
F-probability = .0203

The alternate hypothesis was accepted regarding class
level and the motivation being "to have something to do with
leisure time".

The null hypotheses regarding age group, age

level, gender, and race could not be rejected statistically
at the .05 level of significance.

m

SUMMARY CHART
OF REJECTIOfTOF THE NULL
AND ACCEPTANCE OF THE ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
REGARDING" MOTIVATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Motivation to
Volunteer

Age
Level

Age
Group

Class
Level

Race

1. To complete part
of course require­
ment

X

2. To gain independent study/intern­
ship/field ex­
perience credit
3. To gain admission into major

Gender

X

X

X

X

X

107
Age
Age
Level Group

Motivation to
Volunteer

Race

Class
Level

4. To gain admis­
sion into grad­
uate or profes­
sional school

Gender
X

5. To explore
possible career
choice

X

6. To gain experi­
ence in career
field

X

X

7. To develop pro­
fessional con­
tacts

X

8. To help people

X

X

9. To socialize
with others
10. To have some­
thing to do with
leisure time

X

* * *
Effects of Experience
a)
NULL:

The

effect

On Career Plans
of

the

volunteer

experience

career plans is the same:
... for each age level
/SS

=5

SS

B

= 1073
W

F-ratio = 3.516
F-probability = .0037
... for males as females

Reject:s SS

=1

SS

B

= 1053
W

F-ratio = 8.031
F-probability = .0047
for each class level

SS

=4
B

SS

= 1045

W

F-ratio = 4.761
F-probability = .0008

on

108
The alternate hypotheses regarding age level, gender,
and

class

level

accepted.
and

the

and

the

effects

on

career

plans

were

The null hypotheses regarding age group and race
effects

on

career

plans

could

not

be

rejected

statistically at the .05 level of significance.
* * *
b)
NULL:

On Major Plans

The effect of the volunteer experience on major

plans is the same:
... for each age
Reject: /SS

=5
B

level

SS = 1074 F-ratio = 9.603
W
F-probability = .0000
... for each class level

SS
B

= 4 SS = 1048 F-ratio = 13.716
W
F-probability = .0000
... for males as

SS
B
The

females

= 1 SS = 1053 F-ratio = 17.586
W
F-probability = .0000

alternate

hypotheses

regarding

age

level,

class

level and gender and the effects of the experience on major,
plans

were

accepted.

The

null

hypotheses

regarding

age

group and race could not be statisticallyrejected at the
.05 level of significance.
* * *
c)
NULL:

On Areas of Career Awareness

The importance of the volunteer experience in

providing support from others for career decisions
same:

is

the

109
••• for each age level
'SS = 5
B

SS

= 1073
W

F-ratlo = 2.701
F-probability = .0196
... for each age group
(two groups)

Reject: J SS

=1

SS

= 1049

W

B

F-ratio = 4.868
F-probability = .0276
for males as females

SS

=1

SS

B

= 1052
W

F-ratio = 4.619
F-probability = .0319
... for whites as minorities

SS

=1

SS

= 1060
W

The

alternate

F-ratio = 7.658
F-probability = .0058

hypotheses

regarding

group, gender, and race were accepted.
regarding

class

level

decisions

could not

and

support

age

age

The null hypothesis

from others

statistically be

level,

rejected

for career
at

the

.05

level of significance.
* * *
NULL:

The importance of the volunteer experience

broadening knowledge of career and job requirements
same:
for each age level
SS

= 5
B

SS = 1073 F-ratio = 2.525
W
F-probability = .0278
for each age group
(two groups)

Reject: ^ SS
B

=1

SS = 1048 F-ratio = 5.080
W
F-probability = .0244
... for males as females

SS

=1
B

SS = 1052 F-ratio = 7.852
W
F-probability = .0052

in

is the

110

The null hypotheses regarding race and class level and
the

effect

career

of

and

the

experience

job

statistically

at

in

requirements
the

alternate hypotheses

.05

broadening
could

level

regarding

age

of

knowledge

not

be

rejected

significance.

level,

age

of

The

group,

and

gender were accepted.
* * *
NULL:

The importance of the experience

in focusing

career choices is the same:
... for each age level
Reject:

= 5

SS

= 1069
W

F-ratio = 2.546
F-probability = .0267
... for each age group
(two groups)

SS
W

= 1054 F-ratio = 4.667
F-probability = .0310
... for each class

SS
W

= 1042 F-ratio = 3.830
F-probability = .0043
... for males as females

SS

=1

SS

= 1050
W

The
group,

alternate

class level,

F-ratio = 16.702
F-probability = .0000

hypotheses

regarding

and gender and

the

age

level,

importance

of

experience in focusing career choices were accepted.
null hypothesis regarding race

in this

area

could not

rejected statistically at the .05 level of significance.

age
the
The
be

Ill

SUMMARY CHART
OF REJECTION OF THE NULL
AND ACCEPTANCE OF THE"ALTEENATE HYPOTHESIS
REGARDING IMPORTANCE OP "EXPERIENCE IN RELATION TO
AREAS' OF~CAREER AWARENESS AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Area of Career Awareness

Age
Level

Age
Group

Support from others for
career decisions

X

Broader knowledge of
career and job
requirements

X

X

Career choices
focused

X

X

Class
Level

Gender

X

X

#2

Race
X

X

X

X

* * *
d)
NULL:

The

On Areas of Career Preparation
importance

of

the

experience

in gaining

first hand exposure to the world of work is the same:
••• for each age group
(two groups)
Reject:/'SS

= 1

SS

B

1054 F-ratio = 4.667
F-probability = .0310

W

... for males as females
SS

=1

SS

B

= 1058
W

F-ratio = 4.566
F-probability = .0329

The alternate hypotheses were accepted regarding age
group and gender and

the

importance

of

the

experience

gaining first hand exposure to the world of work.
hypotheses

regarding

this area could not

age level,
be rejected

level of significance.
* * *

class

level,

statistically

The null

and race
at

in

the

in
.05

112
NULL:

The importance of the experience

to becoming

known to people in his/her field who could recommend him/her
to potential employers is the same:
... for whites as minorities
Reject:: \SS

= 1

SS

B

= 1058
W

F-ratio = 5.762
F-probability = .0166

The alternate hypothesis was accepted regarding race
and the importance of the experience to becoming known to
people who could recommend to

potential employer.

The null

hypotheses regarding age level, age group, class level, and
gender could not be rejected statistically at the .05 level
of significance.
*

NULL:

*

*

The importance of the experience

in becoming

aware of how education experience is serving as preparation
for career is the same:
... for each age level
Reject:

SS

= 5

SS

B

= 1062
W

F-ratio = 2.289
F-probability = .0440
... for each age group
(two groups)

SS

= 1

SS

B

= 1051
W

F-ratio = 9.890
F-probability = .0017
... for whites as minorities

SS

= 1

SS

B

= 1062
W

F-ratio = 5.042
F-probability = .0250
... for males as females

SS

= 1
B

The

null

SS

= 1054
W

hypotheses

F-ratio = 12.010
F-probability = .0006
regarding

class

level

and

the

113
Importance

of

the

experience

in

becoming

aware

education experience is serving as preparation
could not

be rejected

significance.

statistically at

the

of

how

for career

.05

level

of

The alternate hypotheses regarding age level,

age group, race, and gender were accepted.
*

NULL:
gaining

*

*

The importance of the volunteer’s experience in

awareness

of

the

relationship

between

job

requirements and personal values is the same:
... for each age level
Reject: / SS

=5

SS = 1075
W

F-ratio = 2.870
F-probability = .0148
... for each class level

= 4

SS = 1047
W

F-ratio = 3.550
F-probability = .0069
... for whites as minorities

SS
W

= .0024 F-ratio = 9.284
F-probability = .0024
... for males as females

SS

= 1055

F-ratio = 6.266
F-probability = .0125

W
The
importance

null
of

hypothesis
the

experience

relationship between
could not

be

significance.

regarding

in gaining

job requirements

rejected

age

group

and

the

awareness

of the

and personal

values

statistically at

the

.05

level

of

The alternate hypotheses regarding age level,

class level, race, and gender were accepted.

114
SUMMARY CHART
OF REJECTION OF THE NULL

#3

and acceptance op the alternate h y p o t h e sis
regarding importance o f ex pe r ie n c e i n f l a t i o n

to

AREAS OF CAREER PREPARATION AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Age
Level

Area of Career
Preparation
Gained first hand
exposure to work
environment

Age
Group

Gender

Class
Level

X

X

X

X

Race

Became known to
people in field
who could recom­
mend to potential
employer
Became aware of
how education
experience serves
as preparation
for career

X

Gained awareness
of relationship
between job
requirements and
personal values

X

X

X

X

X

* * *
e)
NULL:

On Collegiate Areas

The effect of the experience making some of the

volunteer's courses more meaningful is the same:
... for each class level
Reject:

SS

= 4

SS

B

= 907
W

F-ratio = 34.14
F-probability = .0088
... for males as females

SS

= 1
B

SS

= 910
W

F-ratio = 4.383
F-probability = ,0366

The alternate hypotheses were accepted regarding class
level and gender and the effect of the experience in making

115

some of the volunteer's courses more meaningful.

The null

hypotheses regarding age level, age group,

and race

not

.05

be

rejected

statistically

at

the

could

level

of

significance.
* * *
NULL:

The

experience

affecting

the

volunteer's

motivation to learn, participate and achieve in his classes
is the same:
... for each class level
Reject: (SS

:S

= 4

SS

B

1

= 907

F-ratio = 2.680
F-probability = .0306

W

The alternate hypothesis was accepted regarding class
level and the effect of the experience on the volunteer's
motivation

to

classes.

learn,

The

null

participate

hypotheses

and

achieve

regarding

age

in
level,

their
age

group, gender, and race in this area could not be rejected
statistically at the .05 level of significance.
*

NULL:
ability

The

to

*

experience

apply

coursework

*

affecting

the

volunteer's

knowledge/skills

to

community is the same:
... for each class level
Reject: /SS

= 4

SS

B

= 907
W

F-ratio = 3.652
F-probability = .0058
... for males as females

SS

=1
B

SS

= 910
W

F-ratio = 6.733
F-probability = .0096

the

116
••• f°r whites as minorities
Reject: iss = 1
/ B

SS = 917
W

F-ratlo = 7.222
F-probability = .0073

The null hypotheses regarding age level and age group
and the effect of the experience on the volunteer's ability
to apply coursework knowledge/skills to community could not
be rejected statistically at the .05 level of significance.
The alternate hypotheses regarding class level, gender, and
race were accepted.
* * *

NULL:
courses

The experience helping the volunteer identify

which

s/he

could

take

which

would

be

useful

to

his/her career is the same:
... for whites as minorities
Reject: ^ SS
1

S

=1

SS = 917
W

B

F-ratio = 3.912
F-probability = .0482

The alternate hypothesis was accepted regarding race
and the effect of the experience in helping the volunteer
identify courses to take which would be useful to career.
The null hypotheses regarding age level,

age

group,

class

level and gender in this could not be rejected statistically
at the .05 level of significance.
*

NULL:

The

*

experience

*

affecting

the

volunteer's

ability to apply community knowledge/skills to coursework is
the same:
... for males as females
Reject: (SS

= 1
B

SS

= 910
W

F-ratio = 5.446
F-probability = .0198

117

Reject: ( SS = 4
( B

1032

SS
W

. for each class level
F-ra'tio-= 2.6751
F-probability = .0346

The null hypotheses regarding age level, age group and
gender and the effect of the experience on the volunteer's
ability

to apply

could not

community knowledge/skills

be rejected

significance.

statistically

at

the

to coursework
.05

level

of

The alternate hypotheses regarding gender and

class level in this area were accepted.
SUMMARY CHART
OF REJECTION OF NULL
AND ACCEPTANCE OF ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
REGARDING EFFECTS OF VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE
ON COLLEGIATE AREAS AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES
Effects on Collegiate
Areas

Age
Level

Age
Group

Made some courses
more meaningful

Class
Level

Gender

X

X

Helped identify
courses to take
which would be useful
to career

Race

X

Made keeping up with
classes difficult
Affected motivation
to learn, participate
and achieve in
classes

X

Able to apply coursework knowledge/skills
to community

X

Able to apply community knowledge/
skills to course­
work

X

* * *

118
f)
NULL:

The

On Personal Areas

volunteer

being

forced

to

better

plan

his/her time as a result of participating in the experience
is the same:
... for each age level
Reject: (SS = 5
? B
The

SS

= 1062
W

alternate

F-ratio = 2.397
F-probability = .0357

hypothesis

was

accepted

regarding

age

level and the volunteer being forced to better plan his time
as

a

result

of

the

experience.

The

null

hypotheses

regarding age group, gender, class level and race could not
be rejected statistically at the .05 level of significance.
* * *
NULL:

The volunteer increasing his/her ability to be

responsible for himself/herself and others as a result
the experience is the same:
... for each age level
Reject: / SS
W

F-probability

= .0015

•** fof each age group
(two groups)
SS

= 1

SS = 1035 F-ratio =
5.777
W
F-probability = .0164
... for each class level

SS

= 4

SS = 1032 F-ratio = 2.601
W
F-probability = .0348
... for whites as minorities

SS

= 1

SS = 1051 F-ratio = 4.394
W
F-probability = .0363

of

119
The null hypothesis regarding gender and the volunteer
increasing his ability to be responsible for himself as a
result of the experience could not be rejected statistically
at the .05 level of significance.
regarding age level,

age group,

The alternate hypotheses
class

level and race were

accepted.
* * *
NULL:

The volunteer learning to problem solve as a

result of the experience is the same:
... for each age level
Reject: /SS

= 5

SS

B

= 1062
W

F-ratio = 3.518
F-probability = .0037
... for each age group
(two groups)

ISS

= 1

SS

B

W

= 1035 F-ratio = 4.678
F-probability = .0308
... for each class level

SS

= 4
B

SS
W

= 1032 F-ratio = 2.471
F-probabilicy = .0431

The alternate hypotheses were accepted regarding age
level,

age group andclass level and

to problem solve

as a result

the volunteer learning

of the experience.

The null

hypotheses regarding gender and race could not be rejected
statistically at the .05 level of significance.
* * *
NULL:

The volunteer developing an awareness

situational/personal differences in others
the experience is the same:

as

of

a result

the
of

120
... for males as females
Reject: 1 SS = 1
/ B

SS

= 1042

F-ratio = 11.991
F-probability = .0006

W

The alternate hypothesis was accepted regarding gender
and

the

volunteer

developing

an

awareness

situational/personal differences in others
the

experience.

level,

The null

age group,

and

hypotheses

class

level

as a result

regarding

could

of

not

race,

be

the
of
age

rejected

statistically at the .05 level of significance in this area.
* * *
NULL:

The volunteer increasing his/her acceptance of

the differences in others as a result of the experience is
the same:
•• • for each class level
Reject: 1SS

7

=4

SS

B

= 1032
W

F-ratio = 2.743
F-probability = .0275

The alternate hypothesis was accepted regarding class
level

and

the volunteer

increasing

his/her

acceptance

of

others as a result of the experience.

The null hypotheses

regarding age level,

and gender and this

age group,

race,

area could not be rejected statistically at the .05 level of
significance.
*

NULL:

The

volunteer

*

*

developing

his

ability

to

cooperate with others as a result of the experience is the
same:
... for each age level
Reject: \ SS

=5
B

SS

= 1062
W

F-ratio = 2.971
F-probability = .0114

121
The alternate

hypothesis

was

accepted

regarding

age

level and the volunteer developing his ability to cooperate
with

others

hypotheses

as

a

result

regarding

of

the

age group,

experience.

class

level,

The

null

gender,

and

race and this area could not be rejected statistically at
the .05 level of significance.
SUMMARY CHART
OF REJECTION OF HULL

#5

and acceptance of alternate h y p o t h e sis
r e g m d in g ~e f f e c t s - o f volunteer ex pe r ie n c e

ON PERSONAE "AREAS AND DEMOGRAGHI'CVARIABLES
Effects on Personal
Areas

Age
Level

Age
Group

Class
Level

Gender

Race

Increased Awareness
of Values
Increased Awareness
of Skills
Developed SelfConfidence
Forced to Plan
Time Better

X

Gained Personal
Feeling of Success
and Self-Accomplish­
ment
Increased Ability
to be Responsible
for Self and Others

X

X

X

X

X

X

Learned to Accept
Consequences for
Actions
Learned to take
Risks
Learned to
Problem-Solve

X

122
Effects on Personal
Areas

Age
Level

Age
Group

Class
Level

Gender

Developed Awareness of
Situational/
Personal Dif­
ferences in
Others

Race

X

Developed Aware­
ness of Values of
Others
Increased
Acceptance of
Differences in
Others

X

Developed Ability
to Cooperate with
Others

X

Improved Communi­
cation Skills
The use of Research and Investigation Skills

in the

volunteer experience is the same:
••• for males as females
Reject:f SS

= 1

SS

= 1044
W

F-ratio = 8.956
F-probability = .0028
... for each class level

=4

SS

= 1035
W

The
gender

and

alternate
class

F-ratio = 3.902
F-probability = .0038

hypotheses
level

and

were
the

use

accepted
of

regarding

research

investigation skills in the volunteer experience.

and

The null

hypotheses regarding age level, age group and race in these
areas could not be rejected statistically at the
of significance.
*

*

*

.05 level

123
All null hypotheses regarding
class level,
and

age

level,

age group,

gender and race and the use of communication

persuasion

skills

in volunteer

work could

not

be

rejected statistically at the .05 level of significance.
* * *
NULL:

The Use of Organizational Management Skills in

the volunteer experience is the same:
... for males as females
Reject: (ss = 1
) B

SS
W

= 1041 F-ratio = 6.182
F-probability = .0131

The alternate hypothesis was accepted regardinggender
and

the

use

volunteer
level,

of

organizational

experience.

age

group,

The null

class

level,

management

skills

in

hypotheses regarding
and

race

could

not

the
age
be

rejected statistically at the .05 level of significance.
* * *
NULL:

The use of Design and Planning Skills in the

volunteer experience is the same:
... for each class level
Reject:

Css
)

= 4
B

SS
W

= 1029 F-ratio = 2.767
F-probability = .0264

The alternate hypotheses were accepted regarding class
level and the use of design and planning skills in volunteer
work.
race

The null hypotheses regarding age level,
and

gender

in

this

area

could

not

statistically at the .05 level of significance.
* * *

age group,

be

rejected

124
NULL:

The use of Information Management Skills in the

volunteer experience is the same:
... for each age level
Reject: / SS

=
B

5 SS = 1059
W

F-ratio = 4.554
F-probability = .0004
... for each class level

=
B

4 SS = 1030
W

F-ratio = 5.809
F-probability = .0001
... for males as females

SS

=
B

1 SS = 1039
W

F-ratio = 6.179
F-probability = .0131

The alternate hypotheses were accepted regarding age
level,

class level,

and gender and the use of information

management

skills incommunity work.

regarding

race

and

age

group

The

could

null
not

hypotheses
be

rejected

statistically at the .05 level of significance.
SUMMARY CHART
OF REJECTION" OF THE NULL
and acceptance _ of _ the ~alter na te h y po t h e sis
REGARDING USE OP SKILLS IN VOLUNTEER' WORK
-------------- AND DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES-------------Skill

Age
Level

Research and
Investigation

Age
Group

Class
Level

Gender

X

X

Communication and
Persuasion
Organizational
Management

X

Design and Planning
Information
Management
Technical and Manual

X
X

X

X

#6

Race

125
COMPARISON OF TRADITIONAL AND
— NON-TRADTTIONAL PROGRAMS—
One other aspect of
was

examined,

involved

the volunteer experience,
a

comparison

of

1980-81

which
survey

respondents’ answers to questions in areas related to career
awareness,

career

programs.

preparation

and

skill

foods

for

six

Three programs were related to careers considered

traditional for women and non-traditional
with

use

mentally
and

handicapped

nutrition

teaching

(Headstart).

careers

considered

traditional
marketing

for

(Beekman

(Expanded

men:

(Marketing

Three

for men:

Center),

Nutrition),
programs

non-traditional
medicine

(Ingham

Aide),

and

working

and

were
for

working
with

pre-school
related

women,

to
but

Medical

Center),

government

service

(Legislative Aide).
Programs

Gender
Male

Female

Legislative Aide (75)

51.4%

48.6%

Marketing Aide (6)

50.0%

50.0%

Ingham Medical Center (111)

45.5%

54.5%

Beekman (28)

10.7%

89.3%

6.7%

93.3%

10.0%

90.0%

Expanded Nutrition (16)
Headstart (22)
The
differed
ratio

gender
greatly

(71%

participation
from

women/29%,

the
men).

ratios

overall

for

these

program

Programs

programs

participation

considered

non-

126
traditional for women and traditional for men had a 50/50
ratio;

programs

considered

traditional

for

women

and

non-traditional for men had a 90/10 ratio.
VOLUNTEER WORK REQUIRED OR RECOMMENDED BY ACADEMIC UNIT
Yes

No

Legislative Aide

17.3%

00
K>

Program

Marketing Aide

16.7%

83.3%

Ingham Medical Center

40.5%

59.5%

Beekman

76.9%

23.6%

Expanded Nutrition

31.3%

68.8%

Headstart

40.9%

59.1%

Whether or not the participation was required was not
related to the traditional or non-traditional nature of the
program.
nature

The
of

conclusion was

the

program

reached

and

the

that

the

academic

individual
curriculum

requirements to which it was related had more impact in this
area.

This same conclusion was also reached regarding the

comparison of the importance of the experience in areas of
career

awareness

and

career

planning,

traditonal and non-traditional programs.

and

skill

use

in

The data are shown

in the following charts.
VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE AFFECTED CAREER PLANS
Program

Confirmed

Questioned

Changed

Of No
Effect

Legislative Aide

36.1%

20.8%

1.4%

41.7%

Marketing Aide

83.3%

0%

16.7%

0%

127
VOLUNTEER EXPERIENCE AFFECTED CAREER PLANS (cont.)
Program

Confirmed

Questioned

Changed

No Effect

Ingham Medical Center

62.7 %

19.1%

4.5%

13.6%

Beekman

70.4%

7.4%

3.7%

18.5%

Expanded Nutrition

56.3%

6.3%

12.5%

25.0%

Headstart

36.4%

9.1%

13.6%

40.9%

IMPORTANCE OF EXPERIENCE IN GAINING
BROADER KNOWLEDGE OF CAREER AND JOB REQUIREMENTS
Program

Extremely

Somewhat

Of Little

Of No

Legislative

41.3%

42.7%

12.0%

4.0%

Marketing Aide

66.7%

16.7%

16.7%

0%

Ingham Medical Center

45.9%

34.9%

11.0%

8.3%

Beekman

71.4%

25.0%

3.6%

0%

Expanded Nutrition

68.8%

31.3%

0%

0%

Headstart

50.0%

27.3%

13.6%

9.1%

IMPORTANCE OF EXPERIENCE IN FOCUSING CAREER CHOICES
Program

Extremely

Somewhat

Of Little

Of No

Legislative Aide

22.7%

40.0%

29.3%

8.0%

Marketing Aide

33.3%

50.0%

0%

16.7%

Ingham Medical Center

28.4%

45.0%

16.5%

10.1%

Beekman

46.2%

46.2%

3.8%

3.8%

Expanded Nutrition

25.0%

62.5%

12.5%

0%

Headstart

40.9%

27.3%

13.6%

18.2%

12-8
IMPORTANCE IN GAINING FIRST-HAND EXPOSURE TO
WORtf 'ENVIRONMENT "
Program

Of Little

Of No

Extremely

Somewhat

Legislative Aide

52.0%

38.7%

5.3%

4.9%

Marketing Aide

66.7 %

33.3%

0%

0%

Ingham Medical Center

70.3%

19.8%

6.3%

3.6%

Beekman

81.5%

14.8%

3.7%

0%

Expanded Nutrition

50.0%

37.5%

12.5%

0%

Headstart

45.5%

36.4%

9.1%

9.1%

IMPORTANCE IN BECOMING AWARE OF HOW EDUCATION
EXPERIENCE IS SERVING AS PREPARATION FOR CAREER
Program

Of Little

Of No

Extremely

Somewhat

Legislative Aide

28.0%

40.0%

21.3%

10.7%

Marketing Aide

66.7%

33.3%

0%

0%

Ingham Medical Center

27.0%

42.3%

20. 7%

9.9%

Beekman

50.0%

39.3%

10.7%

0%

Expanded Nuturition

31.3%

50.0%

18.8%

0%

Headstart

23.8%

52.4%

14.3%

9.5%

IMPORTANCE IN GAINING AWARENESS OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
JOB REQUIREMENTS AND PERSONAL VALUES
Program

Extremely

Somewhat

Legislative

41.9%

31.1%

21.6%

5.4%

Marketing Aide

83.3%

16. 7%

0%

0%

Ingham Medical Center

39.6%

34.2%

19.8%

6.3%

Beekman

53.6%

39.3%

3.6%

3.6%

Expanded Nutrition

25.0%

56.3%

12.5%

6.3%

Headstart

42.9%

33.3%

19.0%

4.8%

Of Little

Of No

129
USE OF SKILLS
— RESEARCH—
Program

Very
Often

Fairly
Often

Some­
times

Rarely

Never

Legislative Aide

60.3%

26.0%

6.8%

2.7%

4.1%

Marketing Aide

83.3%

16.7%

0%

0%

0%

Ingham Medical Center

19.3%

24.8%

18.3%

8.3%

29.4%

Beekman

10.7%

17.9%

10.7%

10.7%

50.0%

Expanded Nutrition

37.5 %

31.3%

18.8%

6.3%

6.3%

9.5%

4.8%

0%

Headstart

23.8% . 61.9%

COMMUNICATION & PERSUASION
Program

Very
Often

Fairly
Often

Some­
times

Rarely

Legislative Aide

37.5%

30.6%

19.4%

6.9%

5.6%

Marketing Aide

66.7%

16.7%

0%

16.7%

0%

Ingham Medical Center 11.9%

23.9%

34.9%

20.2%

9.2%

Beekman

25.0%

46.4%

10.7%

10.7%

7.1%

Expanded Nutrition

25.0%

18.8%

31.3%

12.5%

12.5%

Headstart

28.6%

38.1%

19.0%

14.3%

0%

Never

ORGANIZATIONAL MANAGEMENT
Program

Very
Often

Fairly
Often

Some­
times

Rarely

Never

Legislative Aide

11.0%

12.3%

24.7%

31.5%

20.5%

Marketing aide

33.3%

66.7%

0%

0%

0%

Ingham Medical Center 10.2%

9.3%

12.0%

24.1%

44.4%

Beekman

32.1%

28.6%

17.9%

14.3%

7.1%

Expanded Nutrition

25.0%

25.0%

12.5%

18.8%

18.8%

Headstart

33.3%

14.3%

33.3%

4.8%

14.3%

130
DESIGN AND PLANNING
Program

Very
Often

Fairly
Often

Some­
times

Rarely

Never

Legislative Aide

13.9%

15.3%

29.2%

20.8%

20.8%

Marketing Aide

66.7%

33.3%

0%

0%

0%

3.77.

7.4%

8.3%

25.9%

54.6%

Beekman

11.1%

11.1%

18.5%

37.0%

22.2%

Expanded Nutrition

25.0%

43.8%

12.5%

12.5%

6.3%

4.8%

0%

23.8%

23.8%

4.6%

Ingham Medical Center

Headstart

INFORMATION MANAGEMENT
Program

Very
Often

Fairly
Often

Some­
times

Rarely

Legislative Aide

45.2%

39.7%

5.5%

4.1%

5.5%

100.0%

0%

0%

0%

0%

Ingham Medical Center

3 -7%

16.7%

13.0%

10.2%

56.5%

Beekman

7.4%

7.4%

18.5%

11.1%

55.6%

31.3%

25.0%

31.3%

6.3%

6.3%

4.8%

9.5%

9.5%

23.8%

52.4%

Marketing Aide

Expanded Nutrition
Headstart

Never

TECHNICAL AND MANUAL
Very
Often

Fairly
Often

Some­
times

Rarely

Never

4.1%

12.3%

30.1%

26.0%

27.4%

0%

50.0%

33.3%

0%

16.7%

Ingham Medical Center 26.6%

21.1%

18.3%

15.6%

18.3%

Beekman

33.3%

18.5%

25.9%

3.7%

18.5%

6.3%

18.8%

18.8%

18.8%

37.5%

14.3%

14.3%

9.5%

9.5%

52.4%

Program
Legislative Aide
Marketing Aide

Expanded Nutrition
Headstart

1-31
OVERALL RATING

Program

Excellent

Good

Fair

Poor

Legislative Aide

47.9%

37.0%

9.6%

5.5%

Marketing Aide

83.3%

16.7%

0%

0%

Ingham Medical Center

45.5%

39.1%

12.7%

2.7%

Beekman

75.0%

21.4%

0%

3.6%

Expanded Nutrition

50.0%

25.0%

18.8%

6.3%

Headstart

54.5%

45.5%

0%

0%

-

SUMMARY

This chapter has contained a review of the results
participants'

answers

to

1977-78,

1978-79,

1979-80,

and

1980-81 survey questions regarding demographics, motivation,
effect

on

career

plans

academic requirement,

and

major

selection,

nature

of

importance of the experience to areas

of career awareness and planning, and skill use.

Results of

the 1980-81 survey were cross tabulated and the relationship
between variables
Tau

analyzed using

Correlational

established

for

Chi-Square

statistics.

each

set

of

A

null

variables

and Kendall's
hypothesis

and

accepted

was
or

rejected at the .05 level of significance.
In

addition,

a

separate

null

hypothesis

was

established and examined by the analysis of variance for the
participants'

answers

to

the

1980-81

survey

questions

regarding academic requirement, motivation, effect on career

132
plans

and

major

selection,

career

awareness,

career

preparation, personal awareness and development, and use of
skills in relation to age, gender, class and ethnicity.

The

.05 level of significance was used to accept or reject the
null.

If the null was rejected the alternate hypothesis was

accepted.
Finally, a comparison of 1980-81 participants' answers
to questions in areas related to career awareness,
preparation,

and

skill use

for three

programs

career

related

to

careers considered non-traditional for women were compared
with

participants

answers

for

programs

considered

traditional for women.
Chapter V includes a review of the conclusions which
were

reached based on data

presented

in Chapter

IV.

addition, suggestions for future studies are included.

In

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Overview of the Study
This study examined the relationship between community
work experiences and selected measures of career development
of Michigan State University students,
programs

coordinated

by

the

1978-79,

MSU

who participated in

Service-Learning

1979-80,

and

1980-81

Center,

during

1977-78,

academic

years.

This study also sought to determine whether or not a

service-learning program was of value at the postsecondary
level.
A computer card survey instrument was mailed in each
academic

year

to

every

student

who

participated

in

a

service-learning experience provided by the Service-Learning
Center.
well

Each

as

survey

ones

preparation,
selection.
expanded

relating

career
During

to

contained

two

to

career

decision
1980-81,

cards

to

demographic

awareness,

making
the

and

survey

allow

questions,

major

for

questions regarding personal values and skills.
four

year

period,

participants.

10,352

surveys

career
field

instrument

space

were

as

was

additional
Over

the

delivered

to

Four thousand three hundred and eight surveys

were completed and returned, representing an overall return
rate of 41.62%.
The

analysis

of data

from each of

the

surveys

was

accomplished by means of optical scan, using the Statistical
Package for the Social Sciences
133

(SPSS)

as adopted for the

134

CDC 6500 computer at Michigan State University.
each question were
frequency)

and

computer

percentages

tabulated

by

(relative

Answers to

count

(absolute

frequency).

Tables

were constructed to assist with the data analysis.
Analysis

of

the demographic

information provided by

the participants regarding gender, age, race and class level
were

carried

calculating

out
the

by

comparing

means

and

absolute

standard

frequencies

deviations.

differences were well within the established
significance.

and

A conclusion was made

that

The

.05 level
there

were

of
no

appreciable demographic differences between the participants
during these years.

Therefore the data over the four year

period could be grouped together.
The construction of cross tabulation tables provided a
means of determining the correlation between two variables.
Chi

Square

used

to

and Kendall's
determine

significance.
to

identify

participants
level.

A

participation

Tau

statistical

correlation

at

techniques

the

.05

were

level

of

In addition the analysis of variance was used
whether

the

differently
separate

experience
by

age,

comparison

in traditional

and

affected

gender,
of

the

race

the

1980-81

or

class

effects

non-traditional

of

programs

was carried out.
Summary and Conclusions
As a result of this
reached:

study the

following

conclusions were

135
More women than men (2/1) participated in
the community work experiences, but the
porporation of male participants grew over
the four year period.
Women were more apt to participate in
programs considered non-traditional for
women (50/50); men were less apt to
participate in programs considered nontraditional for men. This percentage
consisted of only 107, of individuals
who were men.
The two major motivations for becoming
involved in a service-learning opportunity
were to gain experience in a career field
and to help people. Pragmatic motivations
increased over the four year period.
More than half of the participants affirmed,
changed or questioned their career choice;
almost half affirmed, changed or considered
changing their major.
The majority of the participants felt that
the experience was important to:
a) gaining support from others for
career decisions,
b) providing broader knowledge for
career and job requirements,
c) gaining first-hand exposure to
the work environment,
d) gaining awareness of the
relationship between job
requirements and personal
values, and
e) becoming aware of how education
serves as a preparation for
career.
The experience made courses more meaningful,
helped participants identify courses which
would be useful to their career, and helped
them apply coursework knowledge and skills to
their coursework.
Through the experience the participants:
a) increased their awareness of
their values,
b) increased their awareness of
their skills,
c) developed self-confidence,

136
d)
e)
f)

gained personal feelings of
success and self-accomplishment,
developed an awareness of
situational and personal
differences in others, and
improved communications skills
(listening, articulation,
presenting ideas).

Women were more apt to cross the sterotypic
barrier into non-traditional careers than
were men. Their motivation to become
involved was different than men, particularly
in relation to academics. They were more
likely to view the community experience as a
help to gaining admission into their major
and eventually into graduate or professional
school.
Women were more likely to have the experience
affect their career plans, but were less
likely to change their major than were men.
Women found that the experience had a more
profound effect in certain areas of career
and personal development than did men:
- broadening their knowledge of
career and job requirements,
- providing first hand exposure
to the work environment,
- making a link between education
and career,
- focusing their career choices,
- increasing awareness of the
relationship between job
requirements and personal values, and
- providing first hand exposure
to the work environment.
Minorities were less apt to become involved
in community work experiences, but once
involved, were more apt to respond to the
survey than their white counterparts. Racial
differences were also noted in motivation
and the impact of the experience. Minorities
found the experience to be more important to:
gaining awareness of the
relationship between job
requirements and personal values,
- becoming known to people who
could recommend him/her to
potential employers,

137
identifying courses useful
to career,
applying coursework to community
problems, and
using and developing their skills.
Younger and lower class students were more
likely to become involved to explore
possible career choices and select majors
which would lead to these careers. They
wanted to know what the world of work was
really like and they sought support from
others for the choices they made. The
experience helped younger students learn to
problem solve and become aware of their
values in relation to the work environment.
It also provided a setting to use and build
skills.
Older students were more interested in
building skills, gaining experience, and
developing professional contacts. They were
also better able to transfer knowledge and
skills between school and community.
Discussion and Recommendations
Richard

Graham,

of Brookings

Institute,

describes

a

good volunteer experience as manageable confrontation with
novel responsibility, with the added proviso that experience
earns esteem (Graham, 1975).
self

requires

these

He states that development of

manageable

confrontations

to

provide

opportunities for changing roles and the changing structure
of responsibilities.

Thus, moving from carrying out orders,

to participating in their formulation,

to looking

out

for

others, will provide this change in role and responsibility
which will
jobs

help

available

working

in

maintenance.
level

of

foster true development.
to college

fast-food

students

Most

include

establishments,

such

filing,

part-time
tasks
or

as

dorm

These positions require an entirely different

responsiblity

than

would

volunteer

positions

138
tutoring

children,

helping

mental

health

patients,

or

researching environmental concerns.
College

service-learning

placements

provide

these

manageable confrontations which held the student translate
interests in possible career areas into knowledge of the fit
between occupation and
students

with

experience,

preparation.
opportunities

self.
as

Students
have both.

Employers
well

are

as

involved

in

Often times,

concepts,

sound

for

academic

service-learning
the classroom has

shielded itself from outside interference.
taught many theories,

looking

and ideas,

The students are
yet

are rarely

given the opportunity or encouragement to test them, outside
the

classroom.

Solving

exercise with
Bloom,

et

problems

few responsibilities

al.,

point

out

the

becomes
for

value

wrong
of

an

academic

decisions.

service-learning

relative to course curricula in their handbook, Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives (1975, p.123):
If the situations described by the objective...
are to involve applications... then they must
either be situations new to the student or
situations containing new elements as compared
to the situation in which the abstraction was
learned...Ideally, we are seeking a problem
which will test the extent to which the individual
has learned to apply the abstraction in a
practical way. This means that the probmlems
should have some relation to the situations in
which he may ultimately be expected to apply the
abstraction.
Experience then becomes a primary component of learning.
The results of this study would bear out Ginzberg’s
developmental

theory,

which

stated

that

the

process

of

139
occupational
periods:

decision

fantasy,

students

are

exploring
gaining

more

making

can

tentative,
apt

to

possible

career

experience

in

be

and

be

in

divided
realistic.

the

Older

career

three
Younger

tentative

choices.
a

into

stage

students

field,

in
are

developing

professional contacts and making realistic choices.
It

would

seem

that

growth

in

the

area

of

career

awareness is essential for younger students and for women.
It is possible that "cold water shock", as Tideman puts it,
can make a student change his mind.

This is certainly not

all bad, particularly if it occurs early-on in a student's
academic career.
not

focus

his

Additionally, although the participant may
career

choices,

he,

in

effect,

may

be

broadening these choices by coming in contact with a number
of careers within a work setting, which he didn't even know
existed.
career

For
in

example,

medicine

a participant

and

be

thinking

career as a doctor or nurse.

may have
of,

in mind a

specifically,

a

When he gets into a hospital

situation, he may discover that there are some two hundred
and

fifty

separate

medically-related

careers,

that

are

on-going within a hospital setting at any given time.
The
women,

experience

minorities,

had

and

the

most

younger

significant

students.

To

impact
a

on

greater

degree, it increased their awareness of and exposure to "the
work

of

college
students.

work"
and

and

career

provided
than

that

for

critical

whites,

link

males

and

between
older

In examining the reasons behind these results, a

140
conclusion
more

can be reached

naive

about

that

career

special

possibilities

expectations at the start.
been victims of cultural

these

groups

and

had

were
less

Many women and minorities have
stereotyping.

These

experiences

open "doors of possibility" for these groups in particular
and give them hope that dreams are really attainable.
In this study the advisors emerged as
source of academic referral.
sensitive

to

suggestions

these
and

a significant

It is critical that they be

stereotypic

barriers,

recommendations

based

interests and capibilities, not

and
on

make
a

their

student's

on predetermined

biases.

Their role should be to encourage students to make tentative
major and career choices and to test the compatibility of
their choices with reality.
leads

eventually

increasingly
discover

to

a

life

expensive.

early-on

in

The college

It
his

career, which he has chosen,

long
is

career,

better

academic

education,

that

is

which

becoming
a

preparation,

student
that

a

is a proper career for him.

Since the first two years of college are primarily comprised
of general courses, it is better that a student find out if
he has chosen the appropriate major within those first two
years.

The closer to graduation one gets, the more costly

in time and money changes become.
The advisor can help the student evaluate the servicelearning experience to decide whether he enjoyed the work,
the

environment,

and

those

with

whom

he

worked.

This

evaluation can help him decide whether this is the field for

141
him,

or whether he

other areas.

should

seek additional

in

It is particularly important that advisors be

skilled and knowledgeable in assisting
evaluative

experiences

process.

Additional

students with

training

and

this
close

cooperation with the staff of the center which places the
students

in

the

community

work

experiences

is

highly

recommended.
In addition, increased effort should be given to the
cooperative relationship between a service-learning center,
the career counseling center,
Each of

these

experience,
evaluate

entities

to make

that

and the academic

should

the most

experience

encourage
of

in

that

terms

advisors.

students

to

experience,
of

his

seek

and

to

aptitudes,

interests, and skills within the possibilities of the "world
of work".
catalytic

This cooperative vocational guidance can be the
agent

which

helps

students

world and the world of work.

focus

the

academic

These efforts would confirm

Tideman1s hypothesis that those people, whose own meaning is
most consistent with that found in the world of work will
find

greatest

satisfaction

and

success

in

their

work.

Additional emphasis should be placed on experiences, such as
these, which allow students opportunities to try out adult
roles, test the reality of their self-concept,

and have an

opportunity for personal, as well as academic growth.
Increased emphasis needs to be given to the area of
skill use and skill development.
provides

much

in

the

way

of

The

academic

cognitive

curriculum

information

to

142
students,

but

very little

in

the

interactions and goal accomplishment.

area

of

personal

Thus,

an accounting

major may learn a great deal about balance sheets,

double

entry bookkeeping, debits, credits, etc., but very little in
how to present this information to other individuals.
engineering
materials

student

learns

a great

deal

about

An

structural

and design, but very little on how to organize a

project.

An advisor can encourage students with

technical

knowledge, but very

little

in

a lot of

human

relation

skills, to get involved in a service-learning opportunity to
increase these skills.
professions.

The

Skills are also translatable across

abilities

to

seek

knowledge,

express

ideas, and plan and organize are essential to success in the
world of work.
In the fall of 1985, Dr. Howard Swearer, president of
Brown University, and the Education Commission of the United
States spearheaded the founding of a nationwide organization
called Campus Contact:
Service.

The Project for Public and Community

Leaders and their staffs from over 50 colleges met

in March, 1986 to plan how to make this operational.

The

Minimum Expectations for Membership, which were reviewed by
the

executive

committee

in

December,

1986

in

New

York,

determined the policies which would help an institution to
move

ahead

campuses.

in

its

efforts

to

foster

public

service

Member organizations are encouraged to:

Explore links between community service and the
curriculum. Academic classes that encourage
service-learning include those with a field

on

143
study/work component - such as work in a mental
health agency for a psychology major - those
including a research project where the community
is a source of information, and other courses
where the student learns through addressing social
problems within a community.
This
become

study has

involved

altruistic

and

in

shown that

students'

community

pragmatic.

motivations

opportunities
Volunteerism

are

has

to

both

changed

significantly since the early days of "Lady Bountifuls" who
gave of goods and money to those less fortunate, but rarely
had direct association with those whom they helped.
today

must

beneficial

be

symbiotic

arrangement

students knowledge,

in

nature,

exists.

where

Society

energy and creative

a

Service
mutually

benefits

through

imagination.

The

student gains by the experience he receives and the personal
sense of accomplishment and giving he achieves.

Service-

learning is, after all, service in exchange for learning.
The mission of colleges and universities, particularly
land-grant

institutions,

public service.

involves

teaching,

research

and

Their graduates go out into the world and,

hopefully, make contributions to the betterment of society,
which

will

reflect

favorably

upon

the

institution

which

educated them.
The benefits to the individual student are many,
have been demonstrated by this study.

The

college and university are also numerous.
providing
classroom,

an added
the

learning

dimension

service-learning

to

benefits

as

to a

In addition to
the

experience

traditional
allows

the

university or college to fulfill its service mission to the

144
community, to check the relevance of education with reallife

situations,

and

to

update

theory

with

practical

knowledge.
Inter-relationships

and

inter-dependency

between

academic institutions and the world will be essential in the
future.

Developments

education
(1977).
York,

for

beyond

generations

Present Wofford,

the

to
of

eloquently articulated

classroom

come,

will

according

enhance
to

the State University
the value

Boyer
of New

of education

in a

symbiotic relationship with the experience:
The tragedy of the world is that those who
are imaginative have but slight experience, and
those who are experienced have feeble imaginations.
Fools act on imagination with knowledge; pedants
act on knowledge without imagination. The task
of a university is to weld together imagination
and experience.
Recommendations for Future Study
Although this study provided
the

value

of

the

service-learning

ample

data

to validate

experience

to

nearly

10,000 Michigan State University students, who participated
in

these

experiences

from

1977

through

1981,

there

are

several additional studies which should be undertaken.
A
measure

study

using

the actual

the
changes

pre-test/post-test
in students'

design

levels

would

of career

awareness, career development, and use of skills as a result
of the experience, rather than the students' self-perception
of these changes.
It would also be interesting to do a comparison study
of career development of students who have participated in

145
the

service-learning

colleges

or

majors

experiences
who

have

with

not.

those

This

in

study

the
could

same
be

longitudinal in nature and conducted during college years as
well as one, two or five years after graduation.
Additionally,

a

study

comparing

participated in community work experiences

students

who

with those who

did not regarding the area of changing of their major and/or
their career choices is recommended.
be

interesting

service

which

involvement,

compares
several

the

years

Finally, a study would
extent
after

of

community

graduation,

of

individuals, who participated in those types of experiences
while in college, with those who did not.
These studies would provide additional evidence of the
value of service-learning experiences to the college and to
the community.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

1111

II 11111111 111111

II I

(9 ^

(9 1

rr
►*

f
3

D□

f» C
3 3
(9 S

a

a c
3 3
< »-

IR a d i o

□

Progra&se

I

rr q ,

Volunteer

1F ri en d s

&n
9

9
n a

of

I

□

□

Office

<
►-

tne

rr

JClassroom

"•

a r*

9 9
— 9

aoout

!

n

How many
terras
i including
this
term] nave you v o l u n t e e r e d
as an H S f
J a t J d ynt?
__
( Ir.nlUi rwo
I 3 Three
I IPour
dpive
or more

News

*«o
0
3 <
*- O
*
<c
►O 3
a •<
e

learn

o>

&
U 0)

you

a

did

a
3

How

•

one*

•

a •<
&
►-

ill IState

D □ 0 0 ” ODls D D D D 0 D D*s □ 0 I] Q [&* D

{ m a r k o n ly

<2o

I

I

III

ISiBlllii

I I I I

*< x
(9 7

a •-t n
,m 3

d

no

h

□ o n □ 0 □ D Ll I
0
□ no

i

■,

D I 0 []
[J
□!

□ □

X)

rTi
0

S5
M
§
>

Old

your

volunteer

* » > « > . ' io n ?

(aark

work

only

have

any

affect

on

your

aajor

one )

C D affirmed ay aajor aalaction

±<4-7

(ZH changed ay aajor selection
□

aade

C D

had

ae
no

think

about

selecting

a new

aajor

affect

D i d your volunteer e x p e rience have an y affect on the
your univer s i t y e x p e r i e n c e ? (mark as a a n y as apply)
CH2aade

soee

of

ay

courses

aore

rest

of

aeaningful

f* I n o . it d i d n o t c h a n g e a n y t h i n g
\___1 f o r c e d
C D
C D

ae

to

plan

ay

tiae

better

h a d a h a r d t i a e k e e p i n g u p in
t i a e s p e n t in v o l u n t e e r i n g
h e l p e d ae to i d e n t i f y c o u r s e s
which

would

be

useful

in a y

ay

classes

which

1

because

aight

of

take

career

R a t e t he i m p o r t a n c e o f your v o l u n t e e r e x p e r i e n c e in r e l a t i o n
t o c a r e e r a w a r e n e s s a n d / o r p r e p a r a t i o n (mark o n l y o n e per
tow)
EV>extreaeiy valuable
SV*somewhat valuable
LV«of little value
NV*of n o value
a.

Support from
decisions .

b.

o t h e r s for c a r e e r
_
............................Le u J

_______ ____ _
tsvi
ESD

{mj

B r o a d e r k n o w l e d g e of c a r e e r s a n d
___
j o b r e q u i r e m e n t s ...................... (£2J

____
fs71

____
SOT

c.

Narrowed my
_
c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s ...................... Ie v I

isvi

d.

Gai n e d first hand e x p o s u r e to work
e n v i r o n m e n t a n d p e r s o n n e l in a
p a r t i c l e i n t e r e s t f i e l d .............. fEV~l

Svl

B e c a m e o u w n to i n f l u e n t i a l
in m y f i e l d wr»o c o u l d r e f e r

x e •„j

(

___
O l

Ir.vl

(uvl

'LVi

INVI

_____i _

_

a p p r o p r i a t e e m p l o y e r s .............................. !ewI

^vl

Ir.vl bjyJ

f.

Became realistically
education experience
p r e p a r a t i o n for w o r k

fsvi

ILV1

Fn 71

g.

AwarentfS^tbf
requirements

E D

£2

Q3Z3

fit
and

a w a r e o f h o w my
___
is s e r v i n g a s
o p p o r t u n i t i e s ifcvl

between job
personal values

and s k i l l s ......................... E 3

Ka t e tne s e r v i c e s p r o v i d e d b y th e O f f i c e of V o l u n t e e r
P r o g r a m s ( m a r k o n l y o n e p e r ro w )
vs»very satisfied
s*satistied
D»dissatis£ied
VD-very dissatisfied
N A an o t a p p l i c a b l e
Helpfulness

of

staff

.

.

Accurate

job

Adequate

orientation

Adequate

transportation

Contact

with

description
.

student

,

,

. Ivsl

c a

ca

1751

IHAI

.

. lug 1

C D

ca

lunl

1771

,

. GS]

cs

.

.

coor.

1751 c a

» lug 1

P l e a s e rate y o u r e x p e r i e n c e a t the
y o u w o r k e d ( m a r k o n l y o n e p e r row)
Ivsl
H e l p f u l n e s s of a g e n c y s taff

ca

□a

1751

Ih a I

□ 3

BSD

B E

CE)

E 3

IMA1

volunteer

site

ca

ca

Ivnl

at

Adequate

supervision

.

,

.

,

BE]

ca

ca

1751

liiAl

Adequate

training

. ,

,

.

BSD c a

CE

tvfP

E D

.

. lug 1

C3

ca

EH)

lua 1

.

. lug 1

ca

ca

lunl

Inal

. Ivsl

ca

ca

lunl

Ima 1

Meaningful
Acceptance

casks
and

Recognition

.
to

do

support

for

my

Overall, how would
v o l u n t e e r?
I iExcellent

.
.

efforts

you
1

rate
_
iG o o d

your

experience
_
L T j Fa ir

as

an

MSU
C Z 1 Poor

W o u l d yo u r e c o m m e n d t h e v o l u n t e e r p r o g r a m in w h i c n
w o r k e d . t o any of your f r i e n d s or c l a s s m a t e s ?
C D V e s
L_J No

Next year, do
experience?

I

you

plan

to c o n t i n u e
,

J Y e s , in t h e s a m e
program
iNo, I d o n o t i n t e n d
to v o l u n t e e r

COMMENTS

1—
I—

your

whicn

IWAI

you

volunteer

J Y e s , b u t in a d i f f e r e n t
program
J No, I am g r a d u a t i n g

APPENDIX B

148
APPENDIX B

SERVICE-LEARNING CENTER
QUESTIONNAIRE

1.

W4hhaa t

is

Oi

your

present

a1

9 or
younger

22

j g l 23

Co

26 o r

25

V

older

Wnat

is

your

class

present

sophomore

senior

g r a d u a te

i

4.

&

level?

freshman

Ethnic

L_J female

J male

Or iei.tal

^ 13 Black

origin:

c 3

Wh*t

Hispanic
^ 3

5.

•'"o 1 1eg c :

Eng i n e e r i ng

□

Hunan

—

t

I

I Hunan

1

IBusi n es s

O

James

Madison

□

Contr j n i c a t i o n
A r t s & S cience
i Education

□

Lyman

-.it igg

1

6.

What was
worn?

your

major

In w h i c h t e r m s d u r i n g
volunteer t h r o u g n the
= 3

8.

Summer
1983

O

Ecology

t=) Social

Science
»— * Scien
Medicine

C=) Natural

at

Ot nf r

1^J Nurs i n g

□

I Ay r i c u * t u r e fc
Nat. gesource.i
1=3 A r t s U L e t t e r s

I

non-student
junior

the

time

l_J Urban
_
Development
L J U n iv . C o 11.
^ U n d g r d . Dlv
I I Veterinary
M e d ii c ; n e
l__l O t h e r

Science

you

did

your

volunteer

tne 1983-1981 year were you
Service-Learning Center?

Fa l l
1988

O

Winter
19 8 1

l__] 3 p r l ng
1981

H o w m a n y total t e r m s ( i n c l u d i n g this one) h a v e y o u
v o l u n t e e r e d t h r o u g h the S e r v i c e - Le a r n i n g Cent er ?
1—

IO n e

I

ITwo

□

Three

I

I Four

C D

I

F i v e or
more

9.

P l e a s e l i s t t h e v o l u n t e e r p r o g r a m in w h i c h y o u p a r t i c i ­
pated this year.
If y o u p a r t i c i p a t e d in m o r e t h a n o n e ,
p l e a s e l i s t a l l of t n e m .

13.

Y o u s n o u l d h a v e r e c e i v e d a s e p a r a t e q u e s t i o n n a i r e for
-.*acn v o l u n t e e r p r o g r a m y o u p a r t i c i p a t e d in.
Questions
1 - 9
s h o u l d n a v e t h e s a m e a n s w e r s in e a c h c a s e .
For
the. r e m a i n i n g q u e s t i o n s , h o w e v e r , y o u r a n s w e r s m a y s e
d i f f e r e n t for d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s .
P l e a s e w r i t e in o e l o w
t h e n a m e o f t h e p r o g r a m w h i c h y o u a r e r e s p o n d i n g to in
this particular questionnaire.
Then answer questions
11 - 2 7 b a s e d o n y o u r e x p e r i e n c e s in t h a t p r o g r a m .

From

which of

about

the

the

t^l residence
halls
State News

oef

C 3
*

student
coordinator

PLEASE

following

Service-Learning

TURN THIS

sources did
Center?

you

(MARK

FIRST
ONLY

learn
ONE)

» e l assroom
poster
presentation
*
G Q academic
f fcfcb r o c h u r e
a d v i‘
. i»r/f a c u l ty
C S friend:.

CARO OVER
( f a c e ij

AND CONTINUE

ANSWERING

149
CARD ORE, PACE 2
12.

H a t your
academic

volunteer
unit?

w oj rk^
rn r
i e
« (c. uo m m o n d e d

_

or

reqj^^gd

by

any

1y*n

tLy'r,
13.

If y o u r a n s w e r t o q u e s t i o n 12 w a s " y e a * , i n d i c a t e b e l o w
t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e c o n u e r . t a t i o n ( s ) a n d r e q u i r e m e n t (a) .
MARK AS MANY AS APPLY
m
pI
Z )

• •
_
I B

14.

required
oy major
r e q u i r e d as
part of major

What

/

motivated

D t o

■ ■

^
^

^
L— J

a
^
£
fa

__

Q

a

course

requirement

into g r a d u a t e

I

field

I to

L

t o

gain

experience

in

I to

socialize

with

to

contacts

I other

others
have

(please

write

something
in

to d o

in m y

Q&'program
^ ^ - - d e s c t iption
C j student

□
»
£.J

coordinator

In w h a t w a y d i d
career plans?
c b

I

previous

In w h a t w a y d i d y o u r
aajor selection?

18.

Rate the
relation
£I «
LI •

I
■
*

19.

I

I

volunteer experience affect
(MARK O N L Y ONE)

S H

your

changed my
previous choice
had no effect

choice

volunteer experience affect
(MARK O N L Y ONE)

your

J

E

I

friends
agency
visit

t£ i confirmed my
(§b changed my
previous choice
, major
selection
t ^ ^ m a d e m e t h i n k a b o u t \ill h a d
noeffect
selecting a new
m a j or

•

I

your

confirmed my
previous choice
questioned my

•

17.

leisure

below)

W h i c h o f t h e f o l l o w i n g s o u r c e s w a s M O S T h e l p f u l to y o u
in s e l e c t i n g yo ur v o l u n t e e r p r o g r a m ?
(MARK O N L Y ONE)
i t ) SLC staff
i/
■ 0 orientation

16.

or

choice

career

to d e v e l o p p r o f e s s i o n a l

□
I

15.

of

independent study/internship/
field experience credit
gain
a d m i s s i o n to m y m a j o r

L _ J to nelp pe-jplt-

Mt A
_ _

to

part

position?

□
to
gain
admission
^
professional school
L _ J to e x p l o r e a p o s s i b l e c a r e e r

7 □
M

gain

^2""course
.
requirement
t ”) c o u r s e
option

y o u to a p p l y for a v o l u n t e e r
MARK A S M ANY A S APPLY

complete

to

suggested oy
•
my advisor
B S suggested by
'
an i n s t r u c t o r

i m p o r t a n c e of your v o l u n t e e r
to c a r e e r a w a r e n e s s .
(MARK

extremely
of l i t t l e

important
importance

51
N!

-

a. s u p p o r t f r o m o t h e r s f o r
career decisions
b. b r o a d e r k n o w l e d g e o f
career and job requirements
c. f o c u s s e d m y c a r e e r c h o i c e s

Ra t e the
relation

e x p e r i e n c e in
O N L Y O N E P E R ROW )

sonowhat important
of no i m p o r t a n c e
C U
_
Fill
____
fEll

H

CS1
^

CO)

___
fsTi

____

ITT!

fsD

EB

ED

IE )

fsil

ih i

nm

f sUD
E

I l Ti

is a

n rn

O

nm

l(
CONTINUE

ANSWERING

ON

ROW)

ED

c . b e c a m e a w a r e o f h o w m y e d u c a t i o n fTTI
( Ell
e x p e r i e n c e i s s e r v i n g as
p r e p a r a t i o n for c a r e e r
d. qai n e d awareness of the relaE 3
t l o n s h i p b e t w e e n job requirements
and personal values
PLEASE

___
Cn D

3 2- )

i m p o r t a n c e o f y o u r v o l u n t e e r e x p e r i e n c e in
to c a r e e r p r e p a r a t i o n .
(MARK O N L Y ONE PER

a. g a i n e d f i r s t - h a n d e x p o s u r e to
work environment
b. b e c a m e x n i w n to p e o p l e i n m y
f i e l d w h o c o u l d r e c o m m e n d m e to
potential employers

E D

ITfl FTTI FnTi

CARO TWO

L-

1

time

150
CARD TVO, PACE 3

20.

W hat affect di d your
of the following?

L

experience
A S M A N Y AS

have on
APPLY)

each

iw a d e s o m e o f m y c o u r s e s m o r e m e a n i n g f u l

helped m i I d e n t i f y c o u r s e s I c o u l d t a k e w h i c h w o u l d
b e useful t o m y c a r e e r
Ii m a d e keeping u p w i t h m y c l a s s e d d i f f i c u l t b e c a u s e
^
o f t h e i:lma s p e n t v o l u n t e e r i n g
L _ J a f f e c t e d m y m o t i v a t i o n to le a r n * p a r t i c i p a t e , an d
a c h i e v e in m y c l a s s e s
□
i w a s a b l e to a p p l y c o u r s e w o r k k n o w l e d g e / s k i l l s
_
to the c o m m u n i t y
t _ ! t I w a s a b l e to a p p l y c o m m u n i t y k n o w l e d g e / s k i 11s
to c o u r s e w o r k

□
_

1
■
I
1
I
21.

Through

/

my

volunteer experiences
H A R K AS M A N Y A S A P P L Y

my a w a r e n e s s of

I 1 increased
I I

1

^
yf

I

*

increased

ld e v e l o p e d

my
my

tbeen forced

1

^

lo a i n e d

a

^

my

skills

self-confidence
to

better

personal

plan

feeling

my

of

to take

time

success

and

for

responsible

1 1learned

t o p r o b l e m - s o Ive

act.ons

risks

developed my aware n e s s of
d i f f e r e n c e s in o t h e r s

. /✓

the

situational/personal

Undeveloped my awareness of the values of others
1 I increased

my

developed my
I )

*

B
b.
■
c.
.
d.

B
e.
B
f.
B

very

a.

often
4
■ rarely

*

fairly

•

difterences

in

with

t

very

others

others

ideas)

e a c h of the f o l l owing
( H A R K O N E IN E A C H ROW )

often
3 ■ sometimes
1 » practically never

Rese a r c h and investigation
'to q u e s t i o n * s e e k k n o w ledge* and s e a r c h for data)
Communication and persuasion
(to e x p r e s s k n o w l e d g e and
i d e a s to o t h e r s )
Organizational management
(to a d m i n i s t e r o t h e r s , g u i d e
o r d i r e c t g r o u p s to c o m p l e t
2c-3igr. v i d p l a n n i n g
(to i m a g e th e f u t u r e and
d e s i g n plans or programs)
Information management
(to o r g a n i z e d a t a and
k n o w l e d g e in w r i t i n g )
T e c h n i c a l and m a n u a l
(to m a n i p u l a t e o b j e c t s or
n • physical environment)

Rate

vs

of

cooperate

to

how o f t e n you h a v e used
in your v o l u n t e e r wo r k

2
a.

acceptance
ability

improved my communication skills
(listening, articulating* presenting

Check
skills
5

23.

my values

of

I I learned

i h
I *

B

I have:

-"/self a no o t h e r s
(__i l e a r n e d to a c c e p t the c o n s e q u e n c e s of my

f
£

22.

awareness

self-accomplishment
L-Zl 1no r e aped my a b i l i t y to be

t
■

voluntaar
(HARK

• services provided
H A R K O N E IN

1C/11 E l

ED E )

El

ED r a

ED E l

El

m

ED lAAi E )

is
ta s k s )

ED

si

ED

ED E )
ED

E)

El

ED tBD E l

GEt ED rrei E )

by the Service-Learning
EACH ROW

satisfied
S » satisfied
VD • very dissatisfied

D
HA

■

Center

■

dissatisfied

not

applicable

ivsl

El

job

d e s c r i p t i o n s f7S1

ed

of

job

orientation

tvsl

ED ED

[ml

adequacy

of

transportation

Ivsl

ED ED

rvni

ISAl

contacts

witn

ES

ED ED EE

CBS
rum

of

o.

helpfulness
staff
accuracy of

c.

adequacy

d.
e.
f.

coordinator
content of newsletter

q.

other

(please

SLC

office

student

write

ml

ED r r o
ED EB

TURN

THIS

ITOl

run

ES ED ED EE
G31 E l ED IVDl QS

3
PLEASE

rnxi

CARD OVER AND
( f a c e 3]

CONTINUE

>* /
ANSWERING

$

151

CARD TOO, FACE 4

24*

Float

rata

your

Which y o u w o r k e d .
VS

*

very

a x p a r i e n c e at t he v o l u n t e e r s i t e
<M A R K O N E IN E A C H R O W )

satisfied
V D * very

S

*

satisfied

0

b. adequacy of supervision

1751

c. adequacy of training

IV51

d. meaningfulness of tasks

1751

ED

1771

ED

1771

1751

ED

ED

1771

1751

ED

ED

1771

1751

ED
ED

1751

ED

ED

1771

1751

f. recognition for my efforts

1751

ED

ED

1771

1751

g. evaluation

1751

ED

E]

1771

[S3

Overall, how
volunteer?

would

V'

Would you
w o r n c d to

27.

rate

your

3

year,

yes

do

as

PH fair

I

an

MSU

P H poor

I

p r o g r a m in w n i * 1
classmates?
□

/
Next

3

/

experience

r e c o m m e n d the v o l u n t e e r
a n y of y o u r f r i e n d s a n d
□

■

you

P H good

r~l excellent

2f.

033

e. acceptance and support

4

"

■ dissatisfied

N5 •1 not appl ic.bl.

dissatisfied

a. helpfulness of agency staff E 3

25.

at

you

no

V'
you

hope

to

continue

your

volunteer

experience?
i f I v e s . in
■

i

the

program
( ^ 9 y e s , b u t in
program

same
a

I do

■

28.

W r i t e In b e l o w a d d i t i o n a l
which you m a y have.

comments

and

staff

THANK

not

intend

to v o l u n t e e r
l%l n o . I am graduating
—^
l » J no. I a m t r a n s f e r r i n g /
***
leaving MSU

different

suggestions

only:

code

C3

YOU VERY MUCH FOR FILLING OUT THIS QUESTIONNAIRE
P L E A S E M A I L I T T O U S IN T H E E N V E L O P E P R O V I D E D
(face

4|

APPENDIX C

Table 1
R espondent Involvement By Gender,

Year
1977-78
Frequency Absolute Relative
Male
Female
Blank
TOTAL

1978-79
Absolute Relative

1979-80
Absolute Relative

1977-81

1980-81
Absolute Relative

Four-Year Totals
Absolute Relative

275

27.3%

293

28.4%

332

29.9%

324

29.7%

1224

28.9%

734

72.7%

738

71.6%

777

70.1%

768

70.3%

3017

71.1%

4

.4%

10

1.0%

53

4.6%

0

.0%

67

1.6%

1013

1041

1162

1092

4308

Table 2
Respondent Involvement By Age,

Year

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1977-81

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

19 or
Younger

283

28.3%

303

29.3%

340

30.0%

316

20

303

30.3%

250

24.2%

308

27.2%

21

216

21.6%

241

23.3%

222

22

104

10.4%

112

10.8%

23-25

63

6.3%

84

26 or Older

32

3.2%

Blank

12

1.2%

Frequency

TOTAL

1013

Four-Year Totals

Relative

Absolute

Relative

28.9%

1242

29.1%

286

26.2%

1147

26.9%

19.6%

234

21.4%

913

21.4%

131

11.6%

122

11.2%

469

11.0%

8.1%

93

8.2%

85

7.8%

325

7.6%

44

4.3%

40

3.5%

49

4.5%

165

3.9%

7

.7%

28

2.4%

0

.0%

47

1.1%

1041

1162

1092

4308

Table 3
Respondent Involvement By C lass,

Year

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1977-81

1980-81

Four-Year Totals

Frequency

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Freshman

203

20.0%

170

16.4%

221

19.0%

166

15.2%

760

17.7%

Sophomore

296

29.2%

270

26.0%

283

24.4%

293

26.9%

1142

26.6%

Junior

310

30.6%

307

29.5%

328

28.3%

328

30.1%

1273

29.6%

Senior

172

17.0%

238

22.8%

272

23.4%

231

21.2%

913

21.2%

16

1.6%

26

2.5%

32

2.8%

42

3.9%

116

2.7%

4

.4%

10

1.0%

8

.7%

11

1.0%

33

.8%

11

1.1%

18

1.7%

17

1.5%

18

1.7%

64

1.5%

1

.1%

2

.2%

1

.1%

3

.3%

7

.2%

Special
N on-Student
Blank
TOTAL

1013

1041

1162

1092

Absolute

Relative

4308

1-54

Graduate

Relative

Table 4
Ethnic Origin of Volunteers,

1980-81

Relative

Adjusted

34

3.1%

3.2%

Oriental

8

.7%

.7%

3 Hispanic

7

.6%

.7%

1000

91.6%

93.0%

5 Native American

16

1.5%

1.5%

6

Other

10

.9%

.9%

7 Blank

17

1.6%

Missing

1092

100%

100%

1 Black
2

4

White

TOTAL

Valid Cases = 1075
Missing Cases = 17

155

Absolute

Frequency

Table 5
Respondent Involvement By Terms,
Year
Frequency

1977-78

1979-80

1978-79

1977-81*

1980-81

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Fall

447

44.1%

440

42.3%

477

41.0%

451

Winter

607

59.9%

574

55.1%

693

59.6%

Spring

691

68.2%

671

64.5%

694

59.7%

Summer
TOTAL

N/A

N/A

N/A

1013

1041

1162
‘Multiple Answers Permitted

Relative

Absolute

Relative

41.3%

1815

42.1%

662

60.6%

2536

58.9%

694

63.6%

2750

63.8%

43

3.9%
1092

N/A
4308

156

Absolute

Four-Year Totals

Table 6
Number of Terms Volunteers Participated, by Year,

Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1977-81

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

One

392

38.7%

436

41.9%

468

40.3%

442

Two

246

24.3%

279

26.8%

347

29.9%

Three

201

19.8%

146

14.0%

171

49

4.8%

53

5.1%

119

11.7%

118

6

0.6%

9

Four
Five or More
Blank
TOTAL

1013

1041

Absolute

Relative

40.5%

1738

40.3%

322

29.5%

1194

27.7%

14.7%

162

14.8%

680

15.8%

58

5.0%

49

4.5%

209

4.9%

11.3%

109

9.4%

103

9.4%

449

10.4%

0.9%

9

0.8%

14

1.3%

38

0.9%

4308

100.0%

1162

Relative

Four-Year Totals

1092

Table 7
Respondent Involvement By Number of Terms,
Year
Frequency

1977-78

1980-81

1979-80

1978-79

1977-81

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

One

392

38.7%

436

41.9%

468

40.3%

448

Two

246

24.3%

279

26.8%

347

29.9%

Three

201

19.8%

146

14.0%

171

49

4.8%

53

5.1%

119

11.7%

118

6

.6%

9

Four
Five or More
Blank
Totals

1013

1041

Relative

Absolute

Relative

41.0%

1744

40.5%

326

29.9%

1198

27.8%

14.7%

164

15.0%

682

15.8%

58

5.0%

49

4.5%

209

4.9%

11.3%

109

9.4%

105

9.6%

451

10.5%

.9%

9

.8%

0

0.0%

24

.6%

4308

100.1%

1162

1092

158

Absolute

Four-Year Totals

Table 8
How Respondent Learned About Opportunity,
Year

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1977-81

1980-81

Four-Year Totals

Frequency

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

State News

232

22.9%

234

22.5%

258

22.2%

198

18.1%

922

21.4%

Classroom

181

17.9%

207

19.9%

236

20.3%

232

21.2%

856

19.9%

Posters

49

4.8%

44

4.2%

17

1.5%

24

2.2%

134

3.1%

Advisor

119

11.7%

86

8.3%

118

10.2%

173

15.8%

496

11.5%

Friends

296

29.2%

293

28.1%

334

28.7%

327

29.9%

1250

29.0%

Dorm

26

2.6%

16

1.5%

15

1.3%

48

4.4%

105

2.4%

Radio

1

.1%

2

.2%

2

.2%

NA

5

.1%

Other

109

10.8%

143

13.7%

157

13.5%

NA

409

9.5%

Student
Coordinator

NA

NA

NA

Brochure
Blank

0
1013

16

1.5%
1041

2.2%

25
1162

Relative

Absolute

Relative

31

2.8%

31

.7%

59

5.4%

59

1.4%

41

1.0%

4308

100.0%

0
1092

i—
1
t-rt
vO

Table 9
Source of Academic Recommendation,

Year
Frequency

1977-78
Absolute Relative

1978-79

1979-80

1977-81

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Four-Year Totals
Absolute

Relative

Course
Requirement
or Option

150

14.8%

140

13.4%

161

13.9%

121

11. 1%

572

13.3%

Suggested
By Professor
(Instructor)

93

9.2%

91

8.7%

59

5.1%

75

6.9%

322

7.5%

Recommended
By Advisor

95

9.4%

74

7.1%

123

10.6%

162

14.8%

454

10.5%

Required for
Admission
Into Major

115

11.3%

110

10.6%

121

10.4%

112

10.3%

458

10.6%

Required as
Part of Major

61

6.0%

59

5.7%

56

4.8%

73

6.7%

249

5.8%

499

49.3%

567

54.5%

642

55.2%

549

50.3%

2257

52.4%

4308

100.1%

Blank
TOTAL

1013

1041

1162

1092

Table 10
Motivation of Volunteer,

Year

Frequency

1977-78

1977-80*

1978-79

1979-80

Three-Year Totals

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Course Credit

109

10.8%

129

12.4%

143

12.3%

381

11.8%

To Gain Admission Into Major

172

17.0%

152

14.6%

184

15.9%

508

15.8%

Desire to Help People

678

66.9%

626

60.3%

652

56.9%

1956

60.8%

To Gain Experience in
Career Field

711

70.2%

704

67.8%

776

66.9%

2191

68.1%

To Develop Skills

518

51.1%

509

49.0%

597

51.5%

1624

50.5%

To Meet People

392

38.7%

330

31.8%

401

34.6%

1123

34.9%

To Have Something to Do

125

12.3%

121

11.7%

145

12.5%

391

12.2%

To Develop Job Contacts

160

15.8%

155

14.0%

188

16.2%

503

15.6%

88

8.7%

105

10.1%

117

10.1%

310

9.6%

Other

‘Multiple Answers Permitted

Table 11
Motivation of Volunteer,

1980-81*
1980-81

Frequency

Relative

To Complete Part o f Course Requirement

148

13.6%

To Gain Independent Study/Internship/Field Experience Credit

233

21.3%

To Gain Admission into Major

134

12.3%

To Gain Admission into Graduate or Professional School

154

14.1%

To Explore A Possible Career Field

530

48.5%

To Gain Experience in Career Field

731

66.9%

To Develop Professional Contacts

295

27.0%

To Help People

747

68.4%

To Socialize with Others

351

32.1%

To Have Something to Do in Leisure Time

212

19.4%

Other

128

11.7%

Multiple Answers Permitted

162

Absolute

Table 12
Effect of Volunteer Experience on Career Plans,

Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1977-81

1980-81

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

No Effect

371

36.6%

381

36.6%

446

38.5%

456

Made
Student
Question
Previous
Choice

126

12.4%

136

13.1%

161

13.9%

Made
Student
Question
or Change
Career
Plans

53

5.2%

67

6.4%

56

461

45.5%

455

43.7%

2

0.2%

2

0.2%

Made
Student
Affirm
Previous
Choice
Blank
TOTAL

Relative

Absolute

Relative

41.8%

1654

38.4%

148

13.6%

571

13.2%

4.8%

63

5.8%

239

5.5%

496

42.8%

412

37.7%

1824

42.3%

3

0.3%

13

1.2%

20

0.5%

4308

99.9%

163

Absolute

Four-Year Totals

1013

1041

1162

1092

Table 13
Effect of Volunteer Experience on Major Selection,

Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Affirmed
Major
Selection

385

38.0%

348

33.4%

371

31.9%

353

Changed
Major

42

4.1%

45

4.3%

42

3.6%

Made
Student
Consider
Changing
Major

84

8.3%

91

8.7%

126

No Effect

485

47.9%

544

52.3%

17

1.7%

13

1.2%

Blank
TOTAL

1013

1041

Relative

1977-81

Absolute

Relative

32.3%

1457

33.8%

46

4.2%

175

4.1%

10.9%

103

9.4%

404

9.4%

613

52.8%

578

52.9%

2220

51.5%

10

0.9%

12

1.1%

52

1.2%

4308

100.0%

1162

Absolute

Relative

Four-Year Totals

1092

Table 14
Effect on Rest of University Experience,
Year
Frequency

1977-81*

19 7 7 -7 8

1978-79

1 9 7 9 -8 0

1980-81

Four-Year Totals

Absolute Relative

Absolute Relative

Absolute Relative

Absolute Relative

Absolute Relative

Made Some Courses
More Meaningful

368

36.3%

324

31.1%

354

30.5%

No Effect

257

25.4%

139

13.4%

187

16.1%

405

40.10%

387

37.2%

454

39.1%

426

Keeping Up Difficult
Because of Time Spent
Volunteering

85

8.4%

140

13.4%

153

13.7%

Helped Student Identify
Additional Courses
Useful to Career

206

20.3%

222

21.3%

235

561

53.9%

591

1504

34.9%

583

13.5%

39.1%

1672

38.8%

146

13.4%

524

12.2%

20.2%

321

29.4%

984

22.8%

50.9%

641

58.7%

Affected Motivation
to Learn, Participate,
& Achieve In Class

311

28.5%

Able to Apply Course Work/
Knowledge/Skills to Community

495

45.3%

Able to Apply Community
Knowledge/Skills to Course Work

405

37.1%

N ecessitated Better
Time Planning

Helped Student Develop
Self-Confidence

TOTAL

1013

1041

1162

‘Multiple Answers Permitted

458

41.9%

1092

4308

Table 15
Rating of Importance of Volunteer Experience to C areer A w areness and/or Preparation,

1977-81

A) Support from Others for Career Decisions

Year

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Four-Year Totals

Frequency

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Extremely
Important

126

12.4%

139

13.4%

163

14.0%

132

12.1%

560

13.0%

Somewhat
Important

435

42.9%

428

41.1%

477

41.0%

414

37.9%

1754

40.7%

Of Little
Importance

215

21.2%

192

18.4%

212

18.2%

237

21.7%

856

19.9%

Of No
Importance

206

20.3%

252

24.2%

279

24.0%

296

27.1%

1033

24.0%

Total Positive 561

55.4%

567

54.5%

640

55.1%

546

50.0%

2314

53.7%

3.1%

30

2.9%

31

2.7%

13

1.2%

105

2.4%

4308

100.0%

Blank
TOTAL

31
1013

1041

1162

Relative

1092

Absolute

Relative

Table 16
Rating of Importance of Volunteer Experience to C areer A w areness and/or Preparation,

1977-81

B) Broader Knowledge of Career and Job Requirements
Year

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Frequency

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Extremely
Important

261

25.8%

347

33.3%

373

32.1%

430

Somewhat
Important

427

42.2%

370

35.5%

407

35.0%

Of Little
Importance

171

16.9%

128

12.3%

185

Of No
Importance

127

12.5%

174

16.7%

Total Positive 688

67.9%

717

2.7%

22

Blank
TOTAL

27
1013

1041

Relative

Four-Year Totals
Absolute

Relative

39.4%

1411

32.8%

336

30.8%

1540

35.7%

15.9%

132

12.1%

616

14.3%

175

15.1%

181

16.6%

657

15.3%

68.9%

780

67.1%

766

70.1%

2951

68.5%

2.1%

22

1.9%

13

1.2%

84

1.9%

4308

100.1%

1162

1092

Table 17
Rating of Importance of Volunteer Experience to Career A w areness and/or Preparation,
C)

Year
Frequency

1977-78
Absolute

1977-81

Focused (Narrowed) Career Choices

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Four-Year Totals
Absolute

Relative

72

7.1%

102

9.8%

103

8.9%

245

22.4%

522

12.1%

Somewhat
Important

308

30.4%

287

27.6%

331

28.5%

414

37.9%

1340

31.1%

Of Little
Importance

249

24.6%

207

19.9%

281

24.2%

205

18.8%

942

21.9%

Of No
Importance

351

34.6%

415

39.9%

413

35.55%

211

19.3%

1390

32.3%

Total Positive 380

37.5%

389

37.4%

434

37.3%

659

60.3%

1862

43.2%

3.3%

30

2.9%

34

2.9%

17

1.6%

114

2.6%

4308

100.0%

Blank
TOTAL

33
1013

1041

1162

1092

168

Extremely
Important

Table 18
Rating of Importance of Volunteer Experience to Career Awareness and/or Preparation, 1977-81
D) Gained Awareness of Relationship Between Job Requirements and Personal Values

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Frequency

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Extremely
Important

325

32.1%

323

31.0%

334

28.7%

393

Somewhat
Important

438

43.2%

429

41.2%

490

42.2%

Of Little
Importance

119

11.7%

130

12.5%

159

Of No
Importance

94

9.3%

129

12.4%

Total Positive 763

75.3%

752

3.7%

30

Blank
TOTAL

37
1013

1041

Relative

Four-Year Totals
Absolute

Relative

36.0%

1375

31.9%

394

36.1%

1751

40.6%

13.7%

156

14.3%

564

13.1%

156

13.4%

138

12.6%

517

12.0%

72.2%

824

70.9%

787

72.1%

3126

72.6%

2.9%

23

2.0%

11

1.0%

101

2.3%

4308

99.9%

1162

1092

691

Year

Table 19
Rating of Importance of Volunteer Experience to Career Preparation, 1977-81
A) Gained First-Hand Exposure to Work Environment
Year

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Extremely
Important

496

49.0%

452

43.1%

482

41.5%

487

Somewhat
Important

291

28.7%

300

28.8%

344

29.6%

Of Little
Importance

96

9.5%

112

10.8%

138

Of No
Importance

103

10.2%

154

14.8%

Total Positive 787

77.7%

752

2.7%

23

Blank
TOTAL

27
1013

1041

Relative

Absolute

Relative

44.5%

1917

44.5%

318

29.0%

1253

29.1%

11.9%

114

10.4%

460

10.7%

181

15.6%

166

15.2%

604

14.0%

72.2%

826

71.1%

805

73.5%

3170

73.6%

2.2%

17

1.5%

7

0.9%

74

1.8%

4308

99.9%

1162

1092

170

Frequency

Four-Year Totals

Table 20
Rating of Importance of Volunteer Experience to Career Preparation,

1977-81

B) Became Known to People in My Field Who Could
Recommend Me to Potential Employers
Year
Frequency

1977-78
Absolute

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Four-Year Totals
Absolute

Relative

Extremely
Important

85

8.4%

146

14.0%

144

12.4%

173

15.8%

548

12.7%

Somewhat
Important

206

20.3%

230

22.1%

231

19.9%

242

22.1%

909

21.1%

Of Little
Importance

259

25.6%

229

22.0%

318

27.4%

269

24.6%

1075

25.0%

Of No
Importance

436

43.0%

408

39.2%

450

38.7%

392

35.8%

1686

39.1%

Total Positive 291

28.7%

376

36.1%

375

32.3%

415

37.9%

1457

33.8%

2.7%

28

2.7%

19

1.6%

16

1.5%

90

2.1%

4308

100.1%

Blank
TOTAL

27
1013

1041

1162

1092

Table 21
Rating of Im portance of Volunteer Experience to Career Preparation,

1977-81

C) Became Aware of How My Education Experience
Is Serving as Preparation for Career
Year

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Frequency

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Extremely
Important

293

28.9%

227

21.8%

255

21.9%

277

Somewhat
Important

383

37.8%

403

38.7%

427

36.7%

Of Little
Importance

176

17.4%

208

20.0%

239

Of No
Importance

130

12.8%

174

16.7%

Total Positive 676

66.7%

630

3.1%

29

Blank
TOTAL

31
1013

1041

Relative

Four-Year Totals
Absolute

Relative

25.3%

1052

24.4%

424

38.7%

1637

38.0%

20.6%

185

16.9%

808

18.8%

218

18.8%

195

17.8%

717

16.6%

60.5%

682

58.7%

701

64.0%

2689

62.4%

2.8%

23

2.0%

11

1.0%

94

2.2%

4308

100.1%

1162

1092

Table 22
Rating of Services Provided by OVP / SLC, 1977-81
A) Helpfulness of Staff
Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

435

42.9%

445

42.7%

490

42.2%

456

Satisfied

483

47.7%

462

44.4%

540

46.5%

Dissatisfied

36

3.6%

38

3.7%

38

Very
Dissatisfied

7

0.7%

17

1.6%

41

4.0%

38

3.7%

Not
Applicable
Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

90.6%
11

1.1%
1013

Absolute

Relative

41.6%

1826

42.4%

488

44.6%

1973

45.8%

3.3%

30

2.7%

142

3.3%

14

1.2%

9

0.8%

47

1.1%

70

6.0%

84

7.7%

233

5.4%

87.1%
41

3.9%
1041

Relative

86.2%

88.6%
10

0.9%
1162

25

2.3%
1092

88.2%
87

2.0%

4308

100.1%

173

Absolute

Four-Year Totals

Table 23
Rating of Services Provided by OVP / SLC,

1977-81

B) Accurate Jo b Descriptions
Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

322

31.8%

345

33.1%

355

30.6%

350

Satisfied

574

56.7%

560

53.8%

638

54.9%

Dissatisfied

48

4.7%

57

5.5%

66

Very
Dissatisfied

13

1.3%

13

1.2%

Not
Applicable

41

4.0%

47

4.5%

Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

88.5%
15

1.5%
1013

Absolute

Relative

32.0%

1372

31.8%

587

53.6%

2359

54.8%

5.7%

55

5.0%

226

5.2%

33

2.8%

21

1.9%

80

1.9%

54

4.6%

50

4.6%

192

4.5%

86.9%
19

1.8%
1041

Four-Year Totals

85.5%
16

1.4%
1162

Relative

85.6%
29

2,7%
1092

8 6 .6 %

76

1 .8 %

4308

Table 24
Rating of Services Provided by OVP / SLC,
C)
Year
Frequency

1977-78

1977-81

Adequate Orientation

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

231

22.8%

269

25.8%

276

23.8%

283

Satisfied

485

47.9%

476

45.7%

587

50.5%

Dissatisfied

109

10.8%

109

10.5%

107

Very
Dissatisfied

37

3.7%

29

2.8%

Not
Applicable

133

13.1%

131

12.6%

Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

70.7%
18

1 .8 %

1013

Absolute

Relative

25.8%

1059

24.6%

511

46.7%

2059

47.8%

9.2%

91

8.3%

416

9.7%

26

2 .2 %

31

2.8%

123

2.9%

140

12.0%

140

12.8%

544

1 2 .6 %

71.5%
27

2.6%
1041

Four-Year Totals

74.3%
26

2 .2 %

1162

Relative

72.4%

72.5%
36

3.3%
1092

107

2.5%
4308

Table 25
Rating of Services Provided by OVP / SLC,
D)
Year
Frequency

1977-78

1977-81

A dequate Transportation

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

420

41.5%

359

34.5%

438

37.7%

317

Satisfied

293

28.9%

272

26.1%

289

24.9%

Dissatisfied

47

4.6%

73

7.0%

64

Very
Dissatisfied

24

2.4%

49

4.7%

215

21.2%

266

25.6%

Not
Applicable
Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

70.4%
14

1.4%
1013

Absolute

Relative

28.9%

1534

36.1%

301

27.5%

1155

26.8%

5.5%

84

7.7%

268

6 .2 %

33

2.8%

58

5.3%

164

3.8%

314

27.0%

289

26.4%

1084

25.2%

60.6%
2 .1%

22

1041

Four-Year Totals

62.6%
24

2.1%
1162

Relative

56.3%
43

3.9%
1092

62.9%
103

1.9%
4308

Table 26
Rating of Services Provided by OVP / SLC,
E)

Year

1977-78

1977-81

Contact With Student Coordinator

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Four-Year Totals

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

231

22.8%

200

19.2%

214

18.4%

242

22.1%

887

2 0 .6 %

Satisfied

450

44.4%

450

43.2%

497

42.8%

468

42.7%

1865

43.3%

Dissatisfied

104

10.3%

109

10.5%

133

11.4%

107

9.8%

453

10.5%

Very
Dissatisfied

45

4.4%

57

5.5%

55

5.0%

49

4.5%

206

4.8%

159

15.7%

192

18.4%

236

20.3%

181

16.6%

768

17.8%

Frequency

Not
Applicable
Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

67.2%
24

2.4%
1013

62.4%
33

3.2%
1041

61.2%
27

2.3%
1162

Relative

Absolute

64.8%
45

4.4%
1092

Relative

63.9%
3.0%

129
4308

Table 27
Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site, 1977-81
A) Helpfulness of Agency Staff

Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

346

34.2%

391

37.6%

408

35.1%

451

Satisfied

435

42.9%

432

41.5%

487

41.9%

Dissatisfied

80

7.9%

64

6.1%

94

Very
Dissatisfied

31

3.1%

20

1.9%

Not
Applicable

91

9.0%

104

10.0%

Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

77.1%
30

3.0%
1013

Absolute

Relative

41.3%

1596

37.0%

433

39.7%

1787

41.5%

8.1%

63

5.8%

301

7.0%

40

3.4%

30

2.7%

121

2 .8 %

113

9.7%

91

8.3%

399

9.3%

79.1%
30

2.9%
1041

Four-Year Totals

77.0%
20

1.7%
1162

Relative

81.0%
24

2.5%
1092

78.5%
104

2.4%
4308

Table 28
Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,
B)

Year
Frequency

1977-78

1977-81

A dequate Supervision

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

273

26.9%

300

28.8%

338

29.1%

375

Satisfied

484

47.8%

497

47.7%

535

46.0%

Dissatisfied

10 1

1 0 .0 %

83

8.0%

95

Very
Dissatisfied

32

3.2%

27

2.6%

101

1 0 .0 %

105

10.1%

Not
Applicable
Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

74.7%
2 .2 %

22

1013

Absolute

Relative

34.3%

1286

29.9%

486

44.5%

2002

46.5%

8.2%

68

6 .2 %

347

8.1%

43

3.7%

36

3.3%

138

3.2%

119

10.2%

96

8 .8 %

421

9.8%

76.5%
29

2.8%
1041

75.1%
32

2.8%
1162

Relative

Four-Year Totals

78.8%
31

2.8%
1092

80.0%
114

2.6%
4308

Table 29
Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site, 1977-81
C) Adequate Training
Year

19 7 7 -7 8

1 9 7 8 -7 9

1 9 7 9 -8 0

1980-81

Four-Year Totals

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

200

19.7%

211

20.3%

231

19.9%

247

22.6%

889

2 0 .6 %

Satisfied

447

44.1%

479

46.0%

551

47.4%

497

45.5%

1974

45.8%

Dissatisfied

152

15.0%

134

12.9%

135

11.6%

142

13.0%

563

13.1%

Very
Dissatisfied

54

5.3%

44

4.2%

59

5.1%

49

4.5%

206

4.8%

129

12.7%

142

13.6%

147

12.7%

122

1 1 .2 %

540

12.5%

Frequency

Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

66.3%

63.8%
31

3.1%
1013

31

3.0%
1041

67.3%
39

3.4%
1162

Absolute

6 8 .1 %

35

3.2%
1092

Relative

66.4%
3.2%

136
4308

180

Not
Applicable

Relative

Table 30
Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site,

1977-81

D) Meaningful Tasks To Do

Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

248

24.5%

269

25.8%

280

24.1%

322

Satisfied

456

45.0%

478

45.9%

528

45.4%

Dissatisfied

148

14.6%

132

12.7%

139

Very
Dissatisfied

60

5.9%

60

5.8%

Not
Applicable

72

7.1%

76

7.3%

Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

2.9%

29
1013

Absolute

Relative

29.5%

1119

26.0%

491

45.0%

1953

45.3%

1 2 .0 %

136

12.5%

555

12.9%

95

8 .2 %

56

5.1%

271

6.3%

86

7.4%

54

4.9%

288

6.7%

71.7%

69.5%
26

2.5%
1041

69.5%
34

2.9%
1162

Relative

74.5%
33

3.0%
1092

71.3%
2 .8 %

122

4308

181

Absolute

Four-Year Totals

Table 31
Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site, 1977-81
E) Acceptance and Support
Year
Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Very
Satisfied

358

35.3%

396

38.0%

423

36.4%

418

Satisfied

461

45.5%

476

45.7%

496

42.7%

Dissatisfied

79

7.8%

66

6.3%

88

Very
Dissatisfied

27

2.7%

23

2.2%

Not
Applicable

59

5.8%

56

5.5%

Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

29

2.9%
1013

Absolute

Relative

38.3%

1595

37.0%

503

46.1%

1938

45.0%

7.6%

74

6 .8 %

307

7.1%

48

4.1%

32

2.9%

130

3.0%

70

6.0%

30

2.7%

215

5.0%

83.7%

80.8%
24

2.3%
1041

Relative

Four-Year Totals

79.1%
37

3.2%
1162

84.4%
35

3.2%
1092

82.0%
125

2.9%
4308

Table 32
Rating of Experience at Volunteer Site, 1977-81
F) Recognition of Efforts

Year
Frequency

1977-78

Absolute Relative

1978-79

Absolute Relative

1979-80

Absolute Relative

1980-81

Absolute Relative

Four-Year Totals

Absolute Relative

Very
Satisfied

308

30.4%

361

34.7%

368

31.7%

365

33.4%

1402

32.5%

Satisfied

464

45.8%

472

45.3%

503

43.3%

492

45.1%

1931

44.8%

Dissatisfied

95

9.4%

80

7.7%

111

9.6%

107

9.8%

393

9.1%

Very
Dissatisfied

39

3.8%

30

2.9%

49

4.2%

36

3.3%

154

3.6%

Not
Applicable

75

7.4%

73

7.0%

86

7.4%

55

5.0%

289

6.7%

Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

76.2%
32

3.2%
1013

80.0%
25

2.4%
1041

75.0%
45

3.9%
1162

78.5%
37

3.4%
1092

77.3%
139

3.2%
4308

Table 33
Overall Rating, 1977-81

Frequency

1977-78

1978-79

1979-80

1980-81

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Relative

Absolute

Excellent

409

40.4%

411

39.5%

457

39.3%

469

Good

464

45.8%

504

48.4%

541

46.6%

Fair

112

1 1 .1 %

96

9.2%

128

24

2.4%

21

2 .0 %

32

Poor
Level
Positive
Blank
TOTAL

87.9%

8 6 .2 %

4

0.4%
1013

9

0.9%
1041

Absolute

Relative

42.9%

1746

40.5%

456

41.8%

1965

45.6%

1 1 .0 %

118

1 0 .8 %

454

10.5%

2 .8 %

33

3.0%

110

2 .6 %

84.7%

85.9%
4

0.3%
1162

Relative

Four-Year Totals

16

1.5%
1092

8 6 .1 %

33

0 .8 %

4308

WT

Year

Table 34
Student Perception of Use of Skills,

1980-81

Degree of Occurence

F requ ency

Very Often

Fairly Often

Sometimes

Absolute Relative

Absolute RelaBve

Absolute Relative

Rarely

Absolute Relative

Never

Standard
Mean Deviation

Absolute Relative

191

17.5%

184

16.8%

209

19.1%

145

13.3%

341

31.2%

2.76

1.496

Communication
A Persuasion
(To Express
Knowledge and
Ideas to Others)

343

31.4%

300

27.5%

257

23.5%

113

10.3%

58

5.3%

3.71

1.177

Organizational
Management
(To Administer
Others, Guide or
Direct Groups to
Complete Tasks)

184

16.8%

199

18.2%

205

18.8%

202

18.5%

277

25.4%

2.82

1.440

Design A Planning
(To Image the
Future A Design
Plans or Programs)

108

9.9%

138

12.6%

207

19.0%

217

19.9%

394

36.1%

2.39

1.360

Information
Management
(To Organize Data
and Knowledge
In Writing)

121

11.1%

136

12.5%

170

15.6%

180

16.5%

458

41.9%

2.33

1.421

Technical and
Manual
(To Manipulate
Objects or the
Physical
Environment)

133

14.4%

237

21.7%

175

16.0%

361

33.1%

2.56

1.405

185

Research A
Investigation
(To Question,
Seek Knowledge
and Search
for Data)

12.2%

158

Table 35
S tudent Perception of Effect of Experience,

1980-81*

Frequency
Distribution

Perceived Effect

% of
Cases

653

61.1%

Increased Awareness of Skills

705

6 6 .0 %

Developed Self-Confidence

641

60.0%

Forced to Plan Time Better

426

39.9%

Gained Personal Feeling of Success and Self-Accomplishment

617

57.8%

Increased Ability to Be Responsible for Self and Others

502

47.0%

Learned to Accept Consequences of Own Actions

232

21.7%

Learned to Take Risks

183

17.1%

Learned to Solve Problems

376

35.2%

Developed Awareness of Situational/Personal Differences in Others

660

61.8%

Developed Awareness of Values o f Others

532

49.8%

Increased Acceptance of Differences in Others

554

51.9%

Developed Ability to Cooperate with Others

486

45.5%

Improved Communication Skills (Listening, Articulating, Presenting Ideas)

739

69.2%

‘Multiple Answers Permitted

186

Increased Awareness of Values

Table 36
C ross Tabulation of Recommended or Required by Ethnicity,
Required

1980-81

Black

Oriental

Hispanic

White

Native American

Other

Yes

16

2

3

377

7

1

406
(38.0%)

No

18

6

4

617

9

9

663
(62.0%)

34
(3.2%)

8

7
(.7%)

994
(93.0%)

10

1069
(1 0 0 .0 %)

(.7%)

Raw Chi Square = 5.38357

5 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall’s Tau 0.01582

Significance = 0.1488

16
(1.5%)

(.9%)
Significance = 0.3709

187

Column Total

Raw Total

Table 37
C ross Tabulation of Required by Academic Unit by Age,
Required

19 or Younger

20

21

22

23-25

1980-81

26 or Older

Raw Total

Yes

122

124

91

42

21

14

414
(38.1%)

No

193

161

141

79

64

34

672
(61.9%)

315
(29.0%)

285
(26.2%)

232
(21.4%)

85
(7.8%)

48
(4.4%)

Column Total

Chi Square = 12.38929
Kendall's Tau 0.07083

121
(1 1 .1 %)

With 5 Degrees of Freedom
Significance = 0.0162

Significance = 0.0298

1086
(1 0 0 .0 %)

Table 38
C ross Tabulation of Recommended or Required by Academic Unit by C lass,
Required

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Special

1980-81

Graduate

Non-Student

Raw Total

63

126

132

79

2

9

3

414
(38.2%)

No

103

166

195

150

9

33

14

670
(61.8%)

166
(15.3%)

292
(26.9%)

327
(30.2%)

229
(2 1 .1 %)

42
(3.9%)

17
(1 .6 %)

Column Total

Chi Square = 14.93034
Kendall's Tau 0.08217

11
(1 .0 %)

With 6 Degrees of Freedom
Significance = 0.0065

Significance = 0.0208

1084
(1 0 0 .0 %)

189

Yes

Table 39
C ross Tabulation of Recommended or Required by Academic Unit by Gender,
Required

Male

Female

Yes

91

315

406
(38.3%)

No

208

447

655
(61.7%)

299

762

1061
(1 0 0 .0 %)

Column Total

With 1 Degree of Freedom

Kendall's Tau 0.08827

Raw Total

Significance = 0.0010

Significance = 0.0005

190

Raw Chi Square = 10.80762

1980-81

Table 40
Cross Tabulation of Participants' Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer Position by Age,
19 or Younger

20

21

23-25

22

26 or Older

1980-81
Raw Total

44

41

35

13

8

7

148

To Gain
Independent Studyt
Internship/ Field
Experience Credit

67

65

58

22

14

6

232

To Gain Admission
into Major

53

46

18

6

6

5

134

To Gain Admission
into Graduate or
Professional School

43

45

31

17

14

4

154

To Explore Possible
Career Choice

155

147

118

59

37

13

529

To Gain Experience
in Career Field

202

204

174

77

52

20

729

66

79

85

29

23

12

294

To Help People

230

204

148

76

54

32

744

To Socialize
With Others

116

96

68

29

27

12

350

To Have Something to
Do in Leisure Time

70

46

45

21

20

9

211

Other

46

25

24

16

9

7

127

316

285

233

122

85

49

To Develop
Professional Contacts

Column Total
(Totals Based on Responses)

Raw Chi Square » 81.292

With 50 Degrees of Freedom

Critical Chi S q u are=67.5048 a t a = .05
Significant a t .05 Level and Null Can Be Rejected

1090
(100.0%)

191

To Complete
Part of Course
Requirement

Table 41
Cross Tabulation of Participants' Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer Position by Class,
Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Special

Graduate

Non-Student

1980-81
Raw Total

18

54

45

26

0

4

1

148

To Gain
Independent Study/
Internship/ Field
Experience Credit

35

61

74

56

0

2

4

232

To Gain Admission
into Major

33

58

32

9

2

0

0

134

To Gain Admission
into Graduate or
Professional School

22

35

53

29

1

9

5

154

To Explore Possible
Career Choice

89

140

170

106

4

13

7

529

To Gain Experience
in Career Field

99

203

231

158

4

21

11

727

To Develop
Professional Contacts

35

71

103

70

2

8

5

294

114

223

214

145

8

27

11

742

To Socialize
With Others

59

119

95

57

4

14

2

350

To Have Something to
Do in Leisure Time

36

57

45

50

2

13

7

210

Other

32

27

35

26

0

5

1

126

166

292

327

231

11

42

18

To Help People

Column Total
(Totals Based on Responses)

Raw Chi Square = 132.06

With 60 Degrees of Freedom

Critical Chi Square = 79.08 at a = .05
Significant at .05 Level and Null Can Be Rejected

1087
(100.0%)

192

To Complete
Part of Course
Requirement

Table 42
Cross Tabulation of Participants' Motivation to Apply for a Volunteer Position by Gender,
Female

21

126

147

To Gain
Independent Study/
Internship/ Field
Experience Credit

60

165

225

To Gain Admission
into Major

12

118

130

To Gain Admission
into Graduate or
Professional School

75

78

153

To Explore Possible
Career Choice

145

373

518

To Gain Experience
in Career Field

193

522

715

88

195

283

199

528

727

To Socialize
With Others

98

245

343

To Have Something to
Do in Leisure Time

58

148

206

Other

39

86

125

300

765

To Develop
Professional Contacts
To Help People

Column Total
(Totals Based on Responses)

Raw Chi Square - 72.63

With 10 Degrees of Freedom

Critical Chi Square = 183070 at a - .05
Significant at .05 Level and Null Can Be Rejected

Raw Total

1065
(100.0%)

193

Mato
To Complete
Part of Course
Requirement

1980-81

Table 43
Cross Tabulation of Participants' Motivation to Apply for Volunteer Position by Race,
Black
To Complete
Part of Course
Requirement

Oriental

Hispanic

White

Native American

Other

1980-81
Raw Total

1

2

135

4

0

147

10

1

2

203

11

2

229

To Gain Admission
into Uajor

5

0

2

120

4

0

131

To Gain Admission
into Graduate or
Professional School

3

1

0

144

3

3

154

To Explore Possible
Career Choice

15

3

2

486

12

5

523

To Gain Experience
in Career Field

23

4

4

674

9

6

720

To Develop
Professional Contacts

11

1

1

269

5

2

289

To Help People

29

5

7

677

9

9

736

To Socislize
With Others

9

4

4

321

4

6

348

To Have Something to
Do in Leisure Time

9

2

0

194

3

3

211

Other

1

1

1

115

2

5

125

34

8

7

999

16

9

To Gain
Independent Study/
Internship/ Field
Experience Credit

Column Total
(Totals Based on Responses)

Raw Chi Squares 88.09

With 50 Degrees of Freedom

Critical Chi Square = 675048 at a - .05
Significant a t .05 Level and Null Can Be Rejected

1073
(100.0%)

194

5

Table 44
C ross Tabulation of Effect of Experience on Career Plans by Age,
19 or Younger
Confirmed
Previous
Choice

20

21

22

23-25

1980-81

26 or Older

Raw Total

133

118

101

56

31

17

456
(42.3%)

Questioned
Previous
Choice

53

34

35

9

10

7

148
(13.7%)

Changed
Previous
Choice

24

23

9

3

3

1

63
(5.8%)

No Effect

102

107

87

53

41

22

412
(38.2%)

Column Total

312
(28.9%)

282
(26.1%)

85
(7.9%)

47
(4.4%)

232
(21.5%)

121
(1 1 .2 %)

Raw Chi Square = 25.57849

With 15 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau 0.04113

Significance = 0.0466

Significance = 0.0427

1079
(1 0 0 .0 %)

Table 45
C ross Tabulation of Effect of Experience on Career Plans by C lass,
Freshman

Sophomore

Junior Senior

Confirmed
Previous
Choice

64

127

138

103

Questioned
Previous
Choice

37

32

44

28

Changed
Previous
Choice

12

22

24

No Effect

52

109

118

290
(26.9%)

324
(30.1%)

Column Total

165
(15.3%)

Raw Chi Square = 40.95700
Kendall's Tau 0.02980

Special

Non-Student

17

Raw Total

455
(42.2%)

148
(13.7%)

95
229
(21.3%)

Graduate

1980-81

22
11
(1.0%)

With 18 Degrees of Freedom
Significance = 0.1115

42
(3.9%)

0

63
(5.8%)

8

411
(38.2%)

16
(1.5%)

Significance = 0.0015

1077
(100.0%)

Table 46
C ross Tabulation of Effect of Experience on Career Plans by Gender,
Female

Male
Confirmed Previous Choice

Raw Total

328

449
(42.6%)

Questioned Previous Choice

28

117

145
(13.7%)

Changed Previous Choice

16

46

62
(5.9%)

Had No Effect

132

267

399
(37.8%)

Column Total

297

758

1055
(1 0 0 .0 %)

Kendall's Tau = - 0.05768

Significance = 0.0123

Significance = 0.0263

197

121

Raw Chi Square = 10.89013With 3 Degrees ofFreedom

1980-81

Table 47
C ross Tabulation of Effect of Experience on Major Selection by Age,
19 or Younger

20

21

22

23-25

1980-81

26 or Older

Raw Total

Confirmed
Previous Choice

1 11

95

71

39

26

11

353
(32.7%)

Questioned
Previous Choice

50

30

11

5

3

4

103
(9.5%)

Changed
Previous Choice

18

17

9

1

0

1

46
(4.3%)

Had No Effect

133

143

142

75

55

30

578
(53.5%)

Column Total

312

285

233

120

84

46

1080
(1 0 0 .0 %)

Raw Chi Square = 25.57849

With 15 Degrees ofFreedom

Kendall's Tau = 0.04113

Significance = 0.0427

Significance = 0.0466

Table 48
C ross Tabulation of Effect of Experience on Major by Class,
Freshman

Sophomore

Junior Senior

Special

55

101

109

72

2

Questioned
Previous Choice

35

32

23

11

1

22

12

Changed
Previous Choice

Non-Student

Raw Total

2

352
(32.7%)

1

103
(9.6%)

11

46
(4.3%)

Had No Effect

65

136

182

144

8

31

11

577
(53.5%)

Column Total

164

291

326

230

11

42

14

1078
( 100. 0%)

Raw Chi Square = 73.22198

With 18 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall’s Tau = 0.10674

Significance = 0.0000

Significance = 0.0000

199

Confirmed
Previous Choice

Graduate

1980-81

Table 49
C ross Tabulation of Effect of Experience on Major Selection by Gender,
Raw Total

Female

Confirmed Previous Choice

76

270

346
(32.8%)

Questioned Previous Choice

19

83

102
(9.7%)

Changed Previous Choice

10

35

45
(4.3%)

Had No Effect

194

368

562
(53.3%)

Column Total

299

756

1055
( 100.0%)

With 3 Degrees ofFreedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.12815

Significance = 0.0000

Significance = 0.0000

ZOO

Male

Raw Chi Square = 23.05762

1980-81

C ross Tabulation of Importance of
for Career D<
19 or Younger

20

21

e 50
ience in Relation to Support from Others
is by Age, 1980-81
22

23-25

26 or Older

Raw Total

72

71

68

37

31

17

296
(27.4%)

Somewhat
Important

64

63

44

38

15

13

237
(2 2 .0 %)

Of Little
Importance

135

111

93

37

29

9

414
(38.4%)

41

38

27

10

9

7

132
(1 2 .2 %)

312

283

232

122

84

46

1079
(1 0 0 .0 %)

Of No Importance
Column Total

Raw Chi Square = 26.61273

With 15 De< ies of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.08793

Significance = 0.0321

Significance = 0.0002

201

Extremely
Important

Table 51
C ross Tabulation of Importance of Experience on Broadening Knowledge
of Career and Jo b Requirements by C lass, 1980-81
Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Special

Graduate

Non-Student

Raw Total

23

50

45

48

4

9

2

181
(16.8%)

Somewhat
Important

29

26

43

20

1

11

2

132
(12.3%)

Of Little
Importance

43

89

111

73

4

11

4

335
(31.1%)

Of No Importance

70

125

125

88

2

11

8

429
(39.8%)

165

290

324

229

11

42

16

1077
(100.0%)

Column Total

Raw Chi Square = 31.78539

With 18 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.04583

Significance = 0.0233

Significance = 0.0330

202

Extremely
Important

Table 52
C ross Tabulation of Importance of Experience on Broadening Knowledge
of Career and Jo b Requirements by Gender, 1980-81
Raw Total

Female

Extremely Important

58

118

176
(16.7%)

Somewhat Important

41

88

129
(12.2%)

Of Little Importance

101

226

327
(31.0%)

96

321

422
(40.0%)

296

758

1054
(100.0%)

Of No Importance
Column Total
Raw Chi Square = 10.16054

With 3 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall’s Tau = 0.09204

Significance = 0.0173

Significance = 0.0012

203

Male

Table 53
C ross Tabulation of Importance of Experience
in Focusing Choices by Gender, 1980-81
Male

Female

Extremely Important

70

137

207
(19.7%)

Somewhat Important

74

126

200

Raw Total

(19.0%)

Of Little Importance

Column Total
Raw Chi Square = 20.60914

304

408
(38.8%)

47

190

237
(22.5%)

295

757

1052
(100.0%)

With 3 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = 0.12859

Significance = 0.0001

Significance = 0.0000

204

Of No Importance

104

Table 54
C ross Tabulation of Importance of Experience in Providing First Hand Exposure
to Work Environment by Gender, 1980-81
Male

Female

Extremely Important

60

103

Somewhat Important

27

85

Raw Total
163
(15.4%)

112
(10.6%)

Of Little Importance

217

305
(28.8%)

Of No Importance

125

355

480
(45.3%)

Column Total

300

760

1060
(100.0%)

Raw Chi Square = 8.03968

With 3 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall’s Tau = 0.05751

Significance = 0.0452

Significance = 0.0275

205

88

Table 55
Cross Tabulation of Importance of Experience to Participant Becoming Known to People in Field
Who Could Recommend Him/Her to Potential Employers by Race, 1980-81
Black

Oriental

Hispanic

White

Native American

Other

Extremely
Important

9

3

3

363

3

2

383
(36.1%)

Somewhat
Important

6

3

1

249

2

5

266
(25.1%)

Of Little
Importance

7

2

2

225

3

1

240
(22.6%)

Of No Importance

11

0

1

151

7

1

171
(16.1%)

Column Total

33

8

7

988

15

9

1060
(100.0%)

With 15 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.00084

Significance = 0.0445

Significance = 0.4705

2Q6

Raw Chi Square = 25.42590

Raw Total

Table 56
Cross Tabulation of Importance of Experience to Participants' Becoming Aware
of How Educational Experience is Serving As Preparation for Career by Gender, 1980Male

Female

Extremely Important

62

130

192
(18.2%)

Somewhat Important

64

117

181
(17.1%)

Of Little Importance

122

290

412
(39.0%)

52

219

271
(25.7%)

300

756

1056
(100.0%)

Of No Importance
Column Total
Raw Chi Square = 17.34395

With 3 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = 0.11381

Raw Total

Significance = 0.0006

Significance = 0.0001

Table 57
Cross Tabulation of Importance of Experience to Participants' Gaining Awareness
of Relationship Between Job Requirements and Personal Values by Age, 1980-81
19 or Younger

20

21

22

23-25

26 or Older

Raw Total

29

33

28

22

14

12

138
(12.8%)

Somewhat
Important

52

41

30

14

13

6

156
(14.4%)

Of Little
Importance

110

101

81

51

37

14

394
(36.4%)

Of No Importance

122

108

94

35

20

14

393
(36.4%)

Column Total

313

283

233

122

84

46

1081
(100.0%)

Raw Chi Square = 26.74974

With 15 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.06713

Significance = 0.0308

Significance = 0.0035

208

Extremely
Important

Table 58
C ross Tabulation of Importance of Experience to Participants' Gaining Awareness
of Relationship Between Jo b Requirem ents and Personal Values by Class, 1980-81
Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Special

Graduate

Non-Student

Raw Total

Extremely
Important

11

33

41

38

1

12

2

138
(12.8%)

Somewhat
Important

29

45

43

28

2

9

0

156
(14.5%)

Of Little
Importance

62

93

122

89

7

9

11

393
(36.4%)

Of No Importance

64

118

120

74

1

12

3

392
(36.3%)

166

289

326

229

11

42

16

1079
(100.0%)

Column Total

Raw Chi Square = 41.05540

With 18 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.07212

Significance = 0.0015

Significance = 0.0019

Table 59
Cross Tabulation of Use of Research and Investigation Skills
in Volunteer Work by Gender, 1980-81
Frequency of Use

Male

Female

Very Often

81

250

331
(31.6%)

Fairly Often

35

108

143
(13.7%)

Sometimes

56

147

203
(19.4%)

Rarely

54

127

181
(17.3%)

Practically Never

69

119

188
(18.0%)

295

751

1046
(100.0%)

Column Total
Raw Chi Square = 10.24028

With 4 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.09190

Raw Total

Significance = 0.0366

Significance = 0.0017

Table 60
C ross Tabulation of Use of Information M anagement Skill
in Volunteer Work by Race, 1980-81
Frequency of Use

Black

Oriental

Hispanic

White

Native American

Other

Very Often

10

2

3

432

3

4

454
(43.2%)

Fairly Often

5

4

2

163

2

0

176
(16.8%)

Sometimes

11

0

2

145

4

4

166
(15.8%)

Rarely

4

0

0

124

5

0

133
(12.7%)

Practically Never

4

2

0

113

1

1

121
(11.5%)

34

8

7

977

15

9

1050
(100.0%)

Column Total

Raw Chi Square = 36.50666

With 20 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = - 0.00166

Significance - 0.0134

Significance = 0.4388

Raw Total

Table 61
Cross Tabulation of Use of Information Management Skills
in Volunteer Work by Class, 1980-81
Frequency of Use

Freshman

Sophomore

Junior

Senior

Very Often

78

128

131

83

5

Fairly Often

29

51

51

35

Sometimes

30

47

45

Rarely

21

34

4

26

Practically Never

Special

Graduate

Non-Student

Raw Total

23

9

457
(43.0%)

5

6

2

179
(16.8%)

39

1

6

2

170
(16.0%)

49

30

0

2

0

136
(12.8%)

43

41

0

3

4

121
(11.4%)

Column Total

162

286

Raw Chi Square = 48.56710

319

228

11

With 24 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = 0.06010

40
Significance = 0.0021

Significance = 0.0055

17

1063
( 100 . 0%)

Table 62
C ross Tabulation of Use of Information M anagement Skills
in Volunteer Work by Age, 1980-81
Frequency
of Use

19 or Younger

20

21

22

23-25

26 or Older

Raw Total

140

124

90

45

29

30

458
(43.0%)

Fairly Often

58

43

36

24

14

5

180
(16.9%)

Sometimes

59

37

33

18

18

5

170
(16.0%)

Rarely

39

33

37

16

10

1

136
(12 .8 %)

Practically Never

13

39

35

17

13

121

(11.4%)

Column Total

309

276

Raw Chi Square = 45.16873

231

120

With 20 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = 0.04789

84

45

Significance = 0.0010

Significance = 0.0216

1065
( 100 . 0%)

213

Very Often

Table 63
C ross Tabulation of Use of Technical and Manual Skills
in Volunteer Work by Race, 1980-81
Frequency of Use
Very Often

Black
13

Oriental

Hispanic

White

Native American

Other

Raw Total

0

2

337

0

5

357
(34.0%)

Fairly Often

5

3

1

158

2

1

170
(16.2%)

Sometimes

8

4

3

215

2

2

234
(22.3%)

Rarely

5

0

0

147

5

0

157
(14.9%)

Practically Never

2

1

1

122

6

1

133
(12.7%)

33

8

7

979

15

9

1051
(100.0%)

Column Total

v Chi Square = 33.73663

With 20 Degrees of Freedom

Kendall's Tau = 0.01748

Significance = 0.0280

Significance = 0.0547

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alden, Elaine F. and Seiferth, Bernice B. Factors
Influencing Choice of Technical Careers by Women and
Minorities? Paper presented at the annual meeting
of the American Educational Research Association
Special Interest Group for Community/Junior College
Research, North Central States, Ann Arbor, Michigan,
July 27, 1979.
Arfa, Marvin. "The Influence of Volunteer Experience on
Career Choice." Vocational Guidance Quarterly, Vol.
14, No. 4 (Summer 1966), 287-289.
Barnard, William W. "The Development of a Vocational
Diagnostic Program - Interim Report," South Bend:
Indiana Vocational Technical College, 1977.
Bloom, Benjamin (ED). Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Handbook I : Cognitive Domain, New York: David
McKay, 1965.
Bonnet, Deborah G. and Mary K. Richert. "Career Decisions:
A Program of the Indianapolis Public Schools. Final
Evaluation Report," New Educational Directions.
Crawfordsville, Indiana: March, 1981.
Boyer, Ernest. "A Conversation with the Commissioner."
Guidepost, October 6, 1977, Vol. 20, No. 5, 1, 6, 7.
Bozie, Donald W. "Occupational Aspiration Expectation Dis­
crepancies Among High School Seniors," Vocational
Guidance Quarterly. Vol. 24, No. 3 (March, 1976),
'25TT-Z50.-- ------Buehler, Charlotte. Per Menschliche Lebenslauf als
Psychologisches Problem. Leipzig: Herqel, 1933.
Campus Compact: The Project for Public and Community
Service. Minumum Expectations for Membership as
Included in Letters from Saphira and Baker:
October 31, 1986; and December 2, 1986.

215

216
Caplow, Theodore. The Sociology of Work.
McGraw-Hill, 1954.

New York:

Carvell, Fred and Others. "Options and Opportunities: A
Community College Educators Guidebook for Nontraditional Vocational Program Improvement," Carvell
Educational Management Planning, Inc., Los Angeles,
California: 1981.
Cauley, John and Lush, Anthony. "A Study of the Effects
of Volunteer Participation on Michigan State
Student Volunteers." Office of Volunteer Programs,
Michigan State University, 1973.
Crowe, Michael R. and Beckman, Carol A., editors.
Perspectives on Investigating the Consequences of
Experiential Education. Columbus: The National
Center for Research in Vocational Education, 1979.
Davis, James A. Undergraduate Career Decisions.
Aldine Publishing Company, 1965, 1-77.

Chicago:

Davis, Marylee.
"Career Development Project Report."
Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan,
1979.
DiBiaggio, John. Keynote Speech Presented to Linking
Learning and Service Conference, Kellog Center,
Michigan State University, September 26, 1986.
Published in Fall 1986, MSU Volunteer.
"Doing Good". Newsweek on Campus, November, 1986.
pp. 27-31.
Dolen, Christina; Smith, Jane S., Edens, Mary I. "Service
Learning: A Bridge Between the University and the
Community", Volunteer Administration. Vol. XI,
No. 1, p. 7-il.
Edens, Mary. "Service-Learning Center Survey of Volunteers,
1981-82 Overview." Service Learning Center, Michigan
State University 1982.
"Educational Plans and Career Choices of Bachelor's Degree
Recipients at Fitchburg State College", Chelmsford,
Massachusetts: Merrimack Education Center, 1978.
Erikson, Erik H. Childbook and Society.
Norten & Co” Inc., 1963.

New York:

W. W.

Fantini, Mario D. and Sinclair, Robert L., editors, National
Society for the Study of Education. Education in
School and Non-School Settings. Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1985.

217
Form, W. H. and Miller, D. C. "Occupational Career Pattern
as a Sociological Instrument," American Journal of
Sociology, January, 1949, pp. 317-329.
Gonzales, Jesse. "Minority Student Involvement in ServiceLearning Center Programs 1981-82, Service Learning
Center, Michigan State University, 1982.
Graham, Richard A . , "Voluntary Action and Experimental
Education," Journal of Voluntary Action Research,
Vol. 2, No. 4 (October, 1973), pp. 186-193.
Greenfield Community College, Massachusetts. "The
Exploratory Year: A Description and an Evaluation."
Newton, Massachusetts: New England Resource Center
for Occupational Education, 1973.
Ginzberg, Eli. Occupational Choice: An Approach to a
General Theory. New York: Columbia University Press,
1931.
Green, Deborah A. "Women in Apprenticeship for NonTraditional Occupations. Graduate Study Research
Final Report April 1, 1979 - June 30, 1979."
Wisconsin State Board of Vocational Technical and
Adult Education. Madison, 1979.
Gribbons, Warren D. and Lohnes, Paul R. Emerging Careers.
Donald E. Super, editor. New York: Teachers College
Press, 1968.
Hanson, Marlys C. "Jobs for Women in Science," A Paper
Presented at the Conference for Educating Women for
Science. Stanford, California, 1975.
Harkness, Charles A. Career Counseling: Dreams and
Reality. Springfield, Illinois: 1976.
Harren, Vincent A. "The Influence of Sex Roles and
Cognitive Styles on the Career Decision-Making of
College Men and Women." National Institute of
Education, Washington D.C, 1979.
Heck, Shirley and Weible, Thomas.
"Study of First Year
College Students' Perceptions of Career Choice Based
on Exploratory Field Experiences." Journal of
Educational Research; 71; 5; May/June, 1978, p.
’
273- 6 .---------------Hedin, Diane and Conrad, Dan. "Study Proves Hypotheses
and More," Synergist, Spring 1980, Vol. 9, No. 1,
pp. 8-13.

2-18
Hafferth, Sandra L. "High School Occupational Choice and
Sex Equity" National Institute of Education,
Washington D.C., 1981.
Holland, J. L. "A Theory of Vocational Choice" Journal
of Counseling Psychology, 1959, 6, 35-45.
Holland, John L. The Psychology of Vocational Choice; a
Theory of Personality Types and Model Environments
Walthan, Mass.: Blaisdell Pub. Co., 1966.
Holland, John, Douglas Whitney, Nancy S. Cole and James
Whitney, Jr., "An Emperical Occupational Classifi­
cation Derived from a Theory of Personality and
Intended Practice and Research." The Vocational
Interests of Young Adults. editors: Gary R.
Hanson and Nancy S. Cole. Iowa City: 1973, p. 8.
Hollingshead, August B. Elmstown Youth.
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1949.

New York:

John

Hopkins, Kenneth D. and Glass, Gene V. Basic Statistics
for the Behaviorial Sciences. Englewood Cliffs,
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1978.
Hoyt, Kenneth B. "Toward a Theoretical Career Development
Process," New Directions for Education, Work and
Careers. No. 5^ 1979, p^ 1-16.
Hoyt, Kenneth B. "Career Ed and Service-Learning,"
Synergist. Fall, 1980, Vol. 9, No. 2, 45-48.
Jackson, Frances.
"Career Guidance for Academically
Gifted Female Students: A Coordination of Resources
to Develop Human Potential. Final Report, October
1, 1978, to Sept. 30, 1979." Great Falls Public
Schools, Montana. Washington, D.C.: Office
of Career Education, 1980.
Jackson, Maxie, Jr. Comparative-Descriptive Study of MSU
Student Volunteer and the Relationship of Their
Background and Individual Characteristics to Student
Activists and to Non Volunteer Students, (non
published thesis.) Michigan State University,
November 10, 1972.
Kane, Roslyn D. and Pamela E. Frazee, "Women in NonTraditional Vocational Education in Secondary Schools
Final Report." Washington, D.C.: Bureau of
Occupational and Adult Education, 1978.
Kane, Roslyn D. and Pamela Frazee. "Occupational Choice:
Do Traditional and Non-Traditional Women Differ?"
Arlington, VA: R. J. Associates, Inc., 1978.

219
Kessler, Jean G. "Needed: Career Related Data" New
Directions for Education, Work, and Careers, No. 7,
'1979, p. 53-60.----------------------------Kitson, H.D. The Psychology of Vocational Adjustment.
Philadelphia: Lippincot, 1925.
Kroll, Arthur M. and Lillian B. Dinklage, Jennifer Lee,
Eileen D. Morley and Eugene H. Wilson, Career
Development Growth and Crisis, New York! Wiley, 1970.
Kuder, G. F. Manual to the Kuder Preference Record.
Chicago! Science Research Associates, 1939, 1946.
Lamb, Samuel H. and McKay, C. Forrest, "Placement and
Cooperative Education: A Resourceful Partnership,"
Journal of College Placement; V. 40, No. 1. (Fall,
T979), p'l 38-42. ----------Lebold, William K. and others. "Putting It All Together: A
Model Program for Women Entering Engineering,"
Research in Education. August, 1979.
Levinson, Lee M. Community Service Programs for Independent
Schools♦ Boston: National Association of Independent
Schools, January, 1986.
Little, Dolores and Roach, Arthur J. "Videotape Modeling
of Interest in Non-Traditional Occupations for Women,"
Journal of Vocational Behavior. Vol. 5, No. 1,
Sugust, 1974, pp. 133-137.---Lunneborg, Patricia W. "Vocational Indecision in College
Graduates." Journal of Counseling Psychology.
Vol. 23, No. '4. ,”'402-404.
Markiewicz, Marc F. Ed. D. A Comparison of the Self
Directed Search. A Decision-Making Program, and
a Vocational Tour Upon Career Development.
Unpublished Ed. D! dissertation, West Virginia
University, 1979.
Mendenhall, William and Ott, Lyman. Understanding
Statistics. North Scituate, Massachusetts:
Duxbury Press, 1976.
Miller, Laurie. Pre Postsecondary Program A Health Careers
Curriculum Columbus: Ohio State Dept, of Education,
1975!-----Miller, D.C., and Form, W.H.
York: Harper, 1951.

Industrial Sociology.

New

220
Millet, Diane and Dean, Susan. "Expanding Career Awareness,"
Journal of College Placement; V. 40, N. 1, Fall, 1979,
p\ 50-5t :------- -----------"Nine Year Gap Changes Goals for 26 Students," The State
Journal, Thursday, May 24, 1979, p. B-2.
Monkowski, Paul G. Third Year Report: EBCE Project.
Scottsbluff, Nebraska: Nebraska Educational Unit
#18, 1979.
Samuel H. Osipow. Theories of Career Development, 2nd
Edition. Englewood Clifts, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1973.
Parsons, Frank. Choosing a Vocation.
Houghton Miflin, 1909.

Boston and NY:

Peterson, Virgil. "The Twain Coverage," Synergist.
(Fall, 1971) Vol. 1, No. 1, 2-5 and 70, 71.
Peterson, Virgil. "Education As If People Mattered;"
Synergist; (Fall, 1977), Vol. 6, No. 2, 24-28.
Prediger, Dale, "The Role of Assessment in Career Guidance",
Vocational Guidance and Human Development, edited
by Edwin L. Herr. Boston, 1974.
Rash, Glen. "A Career Education Program for the Gifted and
Talented in Rural Colorado," Washington D.C.: 1980.
Rieb, M. "How People See Jobs: A Multidimensional
Analysis," Occupational Psychology, January, 1965,
pp. 1-17.
Roe, Anne.

1953

The Making of A Scientist. NY: Dodd, Mead,
/ -------------------------- -------------------------------------

Roe, Anne. The Psychology of Occupations.
Wiley, T956. ---------- -------

New York;

Roe, Anne and Klos, D. "Occupational Classification," The
Counseling Psychologist, 1969, 1, p. 84-92.
Roemer, Robert E. Vocationalism in Higher Education:

Rogers, Carl, "A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Inter­
personal Relationships, As Developed in the Client
Centered Framework," Psychology A Study of Science,
Vol. Ill, Formulation of the Person and Social
Context, editor: S. Koeb, New York:
1959.

221
Rogers, Carl, Carl Rogers on Personal Power.
1977, p.~T51

New York:

Sauter, Diane and others. "The Effects of High School
Counseling, Experience and Attitudes Towards Women’s
Roles on Traditional and Non-Traditional Career
Choice." Vocational Guidance Quarterly; V. 28,
N. 3, March 1980, p. 241-248.
Schaffer, R. H. "Job Satisfaction as Related to Need
Satisfaction in Work," Psychology Monographs, 1953,
No. 364.
Shaffer, L. F. and Shoben, E. J. Jr. The Psychology of
Adjustment. Boston: Houghton, Mifflen, 1956.
Schram, V. R. "Pilot Study of Human Capital Development
in Volunteer Work." unpublished study. East
Lansing, Michigan: 1982.
Schram, Vicki R. Ph. D. "Employment and Volunteer Work"
Michigan State University, 1983.
Sewell, W. H. and Shah, V. P. "Social Class, Parental
Encouragement and Educational Aspirations,"
American Journal of Sociology, 1968, 73, p. 559-572.
Shiner, E. H. "Sexual Stereotypes of Occupations,"
Journal of Vocational Behavior, 1975, No. 1, p. 99TTT.---------------------------Smith, Jane S. "1977-78 Annual Report: Office of Volunteer
Programs, Michigan State University." East Lansing,
MI: 1978.
Smith, Jane S. and Edens, Mary I. and Dolen, Christina.
"The Relationship of Service-Learning Experiences to
Career Decision Making," Volunteer Administration,
Summer, 1979, Vol. XII, Number 2, p. 28-33.
Smith, Jane S. and Dolen, Christina, and Edens, Mary I.
"An Analysis of Service Learning Center Volunteer
Survey Results for 1981 and the Trends for 197781" Michigan State University, 1981.
Smith, Jane S. and Dolen, Christina, and Edens, Mary I.
"Service Learning Center Annual Report, 1980-81."
Michigan State University, 1981.
Small, L. A. "A Theory of Vocational Choice," Vocational
Guidance Quarterly., 1952, No. 1, p. 29-3TT

222
Stead, Floyd D. and others. "Third Party Evaluation of
Appalachian Maryland Experienced Based Career
Based Education Project 1976-1977," Morgantown:
Office of Educational Research and Field Services,
1977.
Strong, E.K. Jr. Vocational Interests of Men and Women.
Stanford, California: Stanford University Press,
1943.
Super, Donald E. The Psychology of Careers. New York:
Harper and Row, 193/.
Thomas, Hallie B. and Others. "Impact of an Educational
Program Designed to Help Women Overcome the
Deterrents to Entering Non-Traditional Occupations.
Paper presented at the American Educational Research
Assn. Annual Meeting. Boston, MA: April 11, 1980.
Tiedeman, D. V. and Schreiber, Marilyn and Wessel, Tyrus R.
Key Resources in Career Ed: an Annotated Guide.
Northern Illinois University, DeKalb: 1976.
Tiedeman, David V. and Robert P. O'Hara. Career Develop­
ment: Choice and Adjustments. New Jersey:
1963.
Townsend, Edgar J. "Servicing the Career Needs of University
Students" New Directions for Experiential Learning.
1979, N. 5,"p. 61-67.
Troyer, Robert and others. "Pre Post Secondary Programs An
Engineering Curriculum" Columbus Ohio State Department
of Education, 1975.
Twaite, James A. and Monroe, Jane A. Introductory
Statistics. Glenview, Illinois:
Scott, Foresman and
Company, 1979.
Veres, Helen C. and Moore, Kathryn M. "Career Innovative
and Non-Innovative Women in the Two Year College:
Implications for Counseling," A paper presented at
the annual meeting of the American Educational
Research Association, Washington, D.C.: March 30 April 3, 1975.
Vogelback Computer Center Northwestern University.
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences Version
--------------------8.0,''"June IB'," 1979.—
Watertown Independent School District 1. "Pathfinder:
Project in Experience Based Career Education First
Interim Report" Office of Education, Washington,
D.C.:
1977.

22T3
Weaver, Kenneth L. "Reaching the Liberal Arts Student
Before Its Too Late," Journal of College Placement;
V. 40, N. 3; Spring, 1980; pT 44-49.
Williams, Polly Franklin. A Study of College Volunteers:
Characteristics, Analysis of Activities and
Perceived Participation Effects, unpublished Ph. D .
Dissertation; University of Mississippi, 1972.
"Womens Academic and Career Choices Final Report, August 1,
1978 - October 31, 1979" State University of New
York, Albany Research Foundation, 1979.
Wofford, Jr., Harris. Voluntary Service as Higher Educa­
tion. Paper presented at the Consultation on the
University and Voluntary Service, Princeton, New
Jersey: September, 1969.
Zumbrennan, Carol Brevich. Relationships Between Per­
ceptions of Career Education Activities, Self-concept
ana Academic Achievement of Fifth, Eighth, and
Eleventh Graders. An unpublished Ph. D. dissertation,
■the Ohio State University, 1979.