INFORMATION TO USERS The most advanced technology has been used to photo­ graph and reproduce this manuscript from the microfilm master. UMI films the original text directly from the copy submitted. Thus, some dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from a computer printer. In the unlikely event th a t the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyrighted material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize m aterials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are re ­ produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each oversize page is available as one exposure on a standard 35 mm slide or as a 17" x 23" black and white photographic print for an additional charge. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. 35 mm slides or 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. ■UMI Accessing the World’s Information since 1938 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA O rder N u m b er 8807105 T he self-directed learning process in a selected group of ad u lt farm ers in M ichigan Quiroz, Consuelo M., Ph.D. Michigan State University, 1987 C op yright © 1 9 8 7 b y Q uiroz, C on su elo M . A ll righ ts reserved. UMI 300 N. Zeeb RA Ann Aibor, MI 48106 PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this document have been identified here with a check mark V . 1. Glossy photographs or pages_____ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background 4. Illustrations are poor copy______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy_____ 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of p ag e______ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages 8. Print exceeds margin requirements_____ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine______ S' f 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print______ 11. Page(s)__________ lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s)__________ seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages numbered 14. Curling and wrinkled pages_____ 15. Dissertation contains pages with print at a slant, filmed as received_________ 16. Other___________________________________________________________________ . Text follows. UMI THE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING PROCESS IN A SELECTED GROUP OF ADULT FARMERS IN MICHIGAN By Consuelo M. Quiroz A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Agricultural Extension and Education 1987 ABSTRACT THE SELF-DIRECTED LEARNING PROCESS IN A SELECTED GROUP OF ADULT FARMERS By Consuelo M. Quiroz The purpose of this study was to enhance the understanding of the self-directed learning process as a basis for improving extension education programs. A group of 17 adult farmers was selected among a population of organic farmers in Michigan. The data collection was conducted using open-ended interviews. areas of inquiry guided the research process: these learners? Four (a) Who were (demographic characteristics); (b) How did they perceive learning and how did they perceive themselves as learners? c) How did they learn about organic farming? and (d) What were the main problems/barriers they faced when learning on their own? The analysis of data was based on the multiple comparative method consistent with the grounded theory approach as described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Glaser (1978). The findings conclusions. of this study resulted in several The major conclusions were as follows: First, these learners represented a relatively young and highly educated group of farmers. The majority of them were men who had worked in organic farming for at least five years Consuelo M. Quiroz and were working as part-time farmers. self-directed learners. Third, their major and preferred method of learning was self-directed. learn in isolation. Second, they were Fifth, Fourth, they did not learning from experience (learning by doing/learning through mistakes) was perceived as the most important learning method, but not necessarily the most efficient in terms of money and time. Finally, several problems and challenges were identified. Lack of time (self-time) was the major problem/challenge faced when learning on their own. Finding information was not considered a problem; the problem was perceived as "where to find the best and fastest" information and how to relate that information to their own situations. Copyright by CONSUELO M. QUIROZ 1987 iv DEDICATION To my parents Senovia and Hector, who gave their children an appreciation for education greater than they realize, go love and admiration. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS It would be difficult to adequately express my appreciation to all of the people who made this study possible. To begin with, this dissertation would not have been possible without the participation of the organic growers I interviewed. Their insight, enthusiasm, and generous cooperation reaffirmed my commitment to the use of qualitative data for generating theory. I would also like to express my gratitude to the following people who in one way or another helped me to accomplish this goals Dr. O. Donald Meaders, my advisor, chairperson and friend, provided moral support and helpful suggestions throughout the course of the research. Levine, Dr. Joe a member of my committee and friend, provided invaluable encouragement and advice whenever I needed it. My thanks go as well to Dr. Frank Fear and Dr. Fred Peabody, members of my committee for their useful criticism. I would also like to thank Dr. Berrie Thorne for her friendship and encouragement in the use of qualitative research. Appreciation is due to Dr. Susan Sontag, Dr. Margaret Bubolz, Julia and Rick Foster, Bob and Nancy Eggleston, researchers and members of the Family Farm Project at Michigan State University, for their unlimited cooperation in the early stages of this dissertation. I am grateful to the Universidad de Los Andes for is financial support, to Linda Carroll for her excellent work as editor and typist of this dissertation, and to all of my friends who shared with me the "ups and downs" ofthis kind of commitment and gave me their unlimited love and support. Finally, to my husband Armando and my daughter Indra for their unending love, confidence, encouragement, assistance, patience and understanding, I owe more than can be expressed with words. vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION ............................. 1 The Problem.................................... 1 Background of the Study......................... 4 Purpose of the Study ......................... 8 Definition of Terms............. 9 Overview of the Research Design................... 10 Importance of the Study........................... 11 Assumptions.......................................12 Delimitations and Limitations................... 12 Summary. . . . . . . . . . ........ . . . . . . . 14 Overview of the Dissertation..................... 14 CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE....................... 16 Self-Directed Learning Research................... 18 Previous Research ......................... 19 Current and Emerging Trends . . . . . . . . . 23 Other Knowledge Areas and Self-Directed Learning.......................................37 Social Learning Theory. . ................. 37 Experiential Learning ..................... 40 Social Networks ........................... 48 Social T i m e ................................. 50 Facilitating Self-Directed Learning................52 Qualitative Methods in Educational Research. . . . 58 Major Characteristics....................... 59 Grounded Theory Methodology ............... 63 Interviews.................................. 69 Reliability and Validity..................... 74 Summary.......................................... 81 CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY............................... 83 Use of Grounded Theory 83 Selection of Study Participants................. 85 Number of Study Participants ................... 89 Study S i t e .......................................89 Initial Contacts ............................... 90 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS, CONT'D. Page Nature of the Interview................... Interview Stages and Follow-up Interview Opening or Preinterview .......... Formal Interview................. Interview Closing or Post Interview ........ Follow U p ......... Coding and Analysis............................. Validity and Reliability......... Summary. .............................. 92 94 94 94 99 99 99 101 103 CHAPTER IV FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ................. 104 Introduction..................... 104 AREA OF INQUIRY #1: Who are these learners? . • • 106 Demographic Characteristics ............... 106 Interviewee Description ................... 108 AREA OF INQUIRY #2: How do they perceive themselves as learners and how do they perceive learning in general? ......................... 113 Nature of Their Learning.................. 113 Nature of Their Learning — Discussion. . . . 119 AREA OF INQUIRY #3: How have they learned on their own about organic farming? ............. 120 How They Learned About Organic Farming. . . . 120 Learning Process in General........... .. . 122 AREA OF INQUIRY #4: What have been the main problems/challenges faced when learning on their o w n ? ..................................... 162 Problems/Challenges for Them as Self-Directed Learners............................... 162 Problems/Challenges to Learning — Discussion............. 173 CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS..................... . 178 Summary. .......................... 178 AREA OF INQUIRY #1: Who are these learners? . 179 AREA OF INQUIRY #2: How do they perceive themselves as learners and how do they perceive learning in general? ........... 180 AREA OF INQUIRY #3: How have they learned on their own about organic farming?............ 180 AREA OF INQUIRY *4: What have been the main problems/challenges faced when learning on their own? ................... 184 TABLE OF CONTENTS, CONT'D. Page Conclusions/Implications and Recommendations . . . 185 Objective #1: To explore and describe the self-directed learning process of a selected group of adults by viewing it from the learners' perspective.............. 185 Objective #2: To propose hypotheses and/ or a learning model that would be an explanatory paradigm emerging from the data which in turn could be tested by other researchers......................... 187 Objective #3: To analyze and report the findings of this study including an assessment of its implications and recommendations for improving the extension agent's programming and practice................................... 190 Recommendations for Future Research. ........... 197 APPENDIX A FAMILY FARM PROJECT ..................... APPENDIX B INDEX M A P .................. ............ 200 APPENDIX C INTRODUCTORY AND THANK YOULETTERS........... 201 APPENDIX D INTERVIEW FOCUS ......................... 206 APPENDIX E SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ..................... 207 APPENDIX F MEMBER VALIDATION ...................... 214 199 BIBLIOGRAPHY.......................................... 226 x LIST OF TABLES Table Page 98 3.1 Major Emerging Themes...................... 4.1 Respondent's Ages............................ 107 4.2 Educational Background .................... 107 4.3 Time as an Organic Farmer. 107 xi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 2.1 A Revised Model of the LearningProcess . . . 2.2 A Model for Fostering 5.1 Towards a Model of the Self-Directed Learning Process. ................... xii 47 S D L ................... 57 189 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION The purpose of this introductory chapter is to provide the reader with a general overview of the study. It starts by framing the need for the study within the extension education field and it is followed by a description of the background of the study, its purpose, definitions of selected terms, an overview of research methodology, the importance of the study, the assumptions, the delimitations and limitations, a summary, and finally, it ends by giving an overview of the dissertation. The Problem Traditionally, agricultural extension has been conceived as a "transference of technology" process from the extensionist to the farmer; however, in recent years, many authors including Freire (1973), Griffith (1984), Tooker (1985), and Lawrence (1985), have claimed that agricultural extension should be concerned with other aspects apart from the "transference of technology", and they agree that extension should be more people-oriented. 1 2 Freire (1973), for example/ said that agricultural extension involves the relationship between human beings and nature. The extensionists, he continued, usually described the world as natural and have forgotten the important relationship between human beings and culture (human world). Freire (1973) argued that, "It is impossible to dichotomize human beings and the world/ since the one cannot exist without the other . . . . Agricultural production does not exist in a vacuum" (p. 102). While the efficient dissemination of research findings is an indispensable part of the job of extension workers/ they are increasingly emphasizing their role as adult educators; as p r o f es si ona l responsibility is the persons f acilitation specifically, adult learning. whose primary of learning/ There is general agreement that the main role of the extension agent should be one of an educator, more specifically, an adult educator. As Lawrence (1985) pointed out: We are not in the business of extension, we are a part of a recently recognized phenomenon known as lifelong learning. within the totality of lifelong learning, we are in the phase known as adult education. In education there is the need for program development. Program development is what extension is all about, (p. 5) Given that one of the major roles of the extension agent is program development and that one of the factors 3 that influence the effectiveness and efficiency of extension programs is the extension worker's knowledge and understanding of how adults learn (Griffithf 1984), there is a clear need for the extension agent to know more about the process of learning and the skills and commitment required to facilitate this process. This need has been recognized by several authors including Sajilan and Martin (1986), Griffith (1984), and Gonzalez (1982). There are several learning theories in the field of adult education with which the extension worker should be familiar. One of these is the self-directed learning process. The research done by Tough and others (1968, 1971) on self-directed learning has shown, among other things, that a considerable amount of adult learning is self-planned and occurs outside of formal institutions. People are learning what they want to learn when they want to learn, and they are using a variety of resources in planning and implement­ ing their learning. There is a need to answer questions such as, What are the major implications of these kinds of findings for the extension worker? How can extension workers make use of their abilities as educators and their subject matter resources to facilitate this learning? additional help could be provided? what As extension educators. 4 it is necessary to be aware that the answers to questions like these are not simple. They need to be approached by building, through research, a more accurate and complete picture of the self-directed learning process (Lawrence, 1985). The main purpose of this study was to enhance understanding of the self-directed learning process as a basis for improving extension education programs. Background of the Study "No concept is more central to what adult education is all about than self-directed learning" p. 17). (Mezirow, 1985, The idea of self-directed learning is not a new one. As Kulich (1978) pointed out: Up to fairly recent times, when most nations accepted a goal of widespread and readily available schooling for everybody, self-education was the prime way for man to cope with the world around him" (p. 310) (cited by Brookfield, 1982a, p. 48). Only recently has this concept become a very important one in adult education. Many researchers, scholars and practitioners have paid attention to the concept of selfdirectedness in adult learning (e.g. Houle, 1961; Knowles, 1975; Tough, 1968, 1978; Penland, 1979; Brookfield, 1982a, 1982b, 1985a, 1985b, 1986). explanations for this phenomenon. There are several One of these is the fact 5 that in current times there is little hope of satisfying all adult learning needs in institutional settings. ways have to be provided. Alternative Ideas like open learning (e.g open university) have been developed. Furthermore, there is a general belief that self-directedness in learning encourages positive characteristics such as assertion, and skilled and interdependent approaches to learning needed for normal adult development. (Burge and Frewin, 1985) Research into self-directed learning has represented a growth area in the field of adult education. Work done by authors like Tough (1968, 1971), Luikart (1975), Brookfield (1982a, 1982b), and many others, have shown that the ability and the readiness of many adults to conduct self-directed learning projects is a reality. In particular, the work of Tough (1968, 1971, 1978) has stimulated more than 50 followup studies to this initial survey of the self-teaching projects of 40 graduates of the University of Toronto. Self-directed learning has been studied in a variety of adult learning populations. As Brookfield (1986) pointed out: We have studies of college graduates (Tough, 1967, 1968), professional men (McCatty, 1973), phar­ macists (JohnB, 1974), teachers (Fair, 1973; Kelley, 1976; Strong, 1977; Miller, 1977), parish ministers (Allerton, 1974) college and university administrators (Benson, 1974), clergy (Morris, 1977), graduate students (Kasworm, 1982; Caffare ll a and Caffarella, 1983), degreed 6 engineers (Rymell, 1981) and nurses (Savoies, 1980; Kathrein, 1982). These adults come from educationally advantaged backgrounds, but there have also been studies of working-class adults in America by Armstrong (1971), Johnson, Levine, and Rosenthal (1977), Booth (1979), and Leann and Sico (1981). In Britain Elsey (1974) and Brookfield (1980) have researched the use made of informal learning networks by adults of low educational attainment. . . . The picture that emerges from this body of research is interesting, if not always consistent. . • (p. 149) It has become apparent for several authors (e.g. Tough, 1978; Cross, 1981) that the research on this area, particu­ larly during the decade of the 70's, did not add very much to the conceptual, theoretical or methodological base originally set down by Tough. In other words, research into this area has mainly documented learning planning tasks, content of their learning, and some of the factors that may influence a learner's choice of self-directed learning. But much work still needs to be done to understand how adults experience self-directed learning (Griffin, 1985). More specifically, there is a need for more in-depth studies (Cross, 1981; Kidd, 1981) and studies made from the learner's perspective (Taylor, 1979). After almost 25 years of work in the field of self­ directed learning, there is a need for reflection on that body of research. As Brookfield (1984) said: It is important that adult education researchers cease "reinventing the self-directed learning research wheel" and accept that the propensity and 7 capacity of many adults to conduct learning projects is now well proven. Researchers, should now infuse a spirit of self-critical scrutiny into their developing field of research, (p. 60) Brookfield (1984) went further and offered suggestions for a shift in the research paradigm governing this field. The criticisms voiced referred to: 1. The emphasis on middle class adults as the sampling frame for studies of this mode of learning. 2. The almost exclusive use of quantitative or quasiquantitative measures in assessing the extent of learning and the concomitant lack of attention to its quality. 3. The emphasis on the individual dimensions of such learning to the exclusion of any consideration of the social context in which it occurs. 4. The absence of any extended discussion of the considerable implications raised by these studies for questions of social and political change, (p. 60) Recently, several studies have been conducted having in mind this need for change in the orientation of self­ directed learning research. For example, Wenden (1981) used interviews to study the self-directed learning process in adults who were learning another language. Through in- depth case studies, Leean and Sisco (1981) studied the self­ directed learning process of a group of undereducated adults. Brookfield (1982a, 1982b) interviewed a group of successful independent learners focusing on the way they had been learning on their own. Danys and Tremblay (1985) 8 conducted a similar study, focusing on a comparison of the learning principles suggested by the literature with those suggested by successful self-taught learners. To the researcher's knowledge, no systematic attempt had been made thus far to find out from adult learners how they experience the self-directed learning process in a farm setting. Purpose of the Study The pur po se of this study is to enhance the understanding of the self-directed learning process as a basis for improving the extension education programs. In order to accomplish this purpose, the following specific objectives were developed: 1. To explore and describe the self-directed learning process of a selected group of adults by viewing it from the learners' perspective. 2. To propose hypotheses and/or a learning model, that would be an explanatory paradigm emerging from the data which in turn could be tested by other researchers. 3. To analyze and report the findings of this study including an assessment of their implications and recommendations for improving the extension educator's programming and practice. 9 Definition of Terms To add to the understanding of the research problem, it was necessary to define selected terms. The following definitions were selected: Adult Education refers to the institutionalized system that provides the programs, administrative structures, processes, settings, resources, and so on that facilitate adult learning. Learning may be carried out by an individual acting in a one-to-one relationship with another person, and by individuals acting in group settings. (Brundage and Hackeracher, 1980) Chemical (Conventional) Farming refers to that farming pro duction where chemical products (e.g. chemical fertilizers, pesticides, etc.) are freely used. Extension Agent or Practitioner refers to the person who works in an extension education related institution (e.g. extension service, ministry of agriculture). Learning activity refers to those enduring, intellectually planned sequences of behavior undertaken in the service of dominant motives and directed toward specific objects (Scribner, 1984). Memos are the theorizing write-up of ideas about codes and their relationships as they strike the analyst while coding (Glaser, 1978). 10 Organic Farming refers to that farming production where mainly natural (organic) products are used. Qualitative Research refers to those investigations described variously as ethnographic research, case study research, field research, or anthropological research. Self-directed learning is the attempts of adults to acquire skills, knowledge, and self-insights through educational experiences that they are responsible for arranging (Brookfield, 1986). Overview of the Research Design The methodology of this study was based on the grounded theory approach described by Glaser and Strauss (1967) and Glaser (1978). Grounded theory methodology focuses on generating rather than validating theory. This research was designed to generate theory on the process of adult self­ directed learning in a farm setting. The constant comparative method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967) was chosen to analyze the data derived from in-depth interviews, thereby using the data to develop a theory closely related to the phenomena studied. The collection of data for this research was mainly done with in-depth, openended, tape-recorded interviews. 11 In an attempt to define the exploration, several broad areas of inquiry guided the present study. They are as follows: 1. Who are these learners? (Demographic characteristics) 2. Bow do they perceive themselves as learners and how do they perceive learning in general? 3. How have they learned on their own about organic farming? 4. What have been the main problems/barriers they have faced when learning on their own? Importance of the Study This study was conducted to generate new knowledge which might prove beneficial for both adult self-directed learners and extension educators. For learners, it aims to help them better understand their own process of self­ directed learning. This understanding may help them realize their strengths and weaknesses, in this manner, it may help them to overcome difficulties and identify needed resources. This possibility of adult self-directed learners better understanding their own learning process leads directly to improved possibilities that others, including extension agents, would be able to contribute in providing the necessary conditions for effective self-directed 12 learning, and, therefore, they would be able to transfer some of the self-directed learning principles into their everyday educational practice. Finally, this study aims to make distinct contributions, from the perspective of the learner, toward the building of a foundational literature base related to the self-directed learning process. Agfiurop.tipng The first assumption was that the participants in this study, through their involvement in organic farming related activities, represented a good example of active self­ directed learners. The second assumption was that the subjects of this study not only experienced the process of self-directed learning, but they also were able to describe the quality of this process to the researcher. Third, the data base of this study included descriptive interpretations of experience, i.e. the formulation was constructed upon language, so cultural similarities were presumed to some extent in the shared meaning of that language. Delimit atipne.and Limltatlang The subjective nature of the research methodology used in this study constitutes an inherent limitation. Qualita­ tive studies are subject to concerns about reliability and 13 validity. Attempts were made to address both reliability and validity. Validity is not a problem in the traditional sense when the focus of a study is on generating theory or hypotheses rather than validating them. The specific facts per se are not of primary concern, what is important are the conceptual categories generated from the data. (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). Another limitation was represented by the fact that the researcher's mother tongue was not English. There were some expressions, especially slang, that the researcher was not familiar with prior to the interviews. In relation to generalizability, the primary concern of qualitative research is particularizability rather than generalizability• concretely and One discovers universals as manifested specifically, not generality (Erickson, 1986, p. 130). in abstraction and Theories produced in this type of study may serve as a map to guide other adult self-directed learners to explore the richness of their own experience. This study was not intended to be all inclusive. The study represents an initial attempt at describing the process of self-directed learning as perceived by learners in a farm setting. The group of farmers selected were not 14 intended to be representative of all farmers. it is expected that many studies will follow and add to the findings of this study. smwnaty The present study was conducted in an attempt to explore the self-directed learning process of a selected group of adult learners in a farm setting. It was noted in the literature that research in the field of extension education, self-directed learning is needed. At the same time, it was noted that research in this area is understudied, especially in the use of qualitative research approaches and looking at the process from the learner's point of view. It is believed that the results of this study will add to what is presently known about the self­ directed learning process. Overview of the Dissertation Chapter I provides an introduction to the basic study problem. related Chapter II contains a review of the literature to the research topic and to the research methodology, with the intent of establishing the theoretical and conceptual foundations for the study. A review of the methodology and procedures used in this study are presented in Chapter III. in Chapter IV, major findings of this study 15 and a discussion of the findings are presented. The conclusions, implications and recommendations for further study are presented in Chapter V. appendices are included. Finally, some related CHAPTER II REVIEW OF LITERATURE Self-directed learning, as other areas in the field of adult education, is characterized by lack of a unified theory that serves as a basis for research and development (Cross, 1981; Mocker and Spear, 1982; Brookfield, 1986). This lack of a unified theory is due, among other things, to the diverse nature of the adult as learner. As Brookfield (1986) pointed out, "Learning activities and learning styles vary so much with physiology, culture, and personality that generalized statements about the nature of adult learning have very low predictive power" (p. 25)• Some authors (Dubin and Okun, 1973; Cross, 1981) stated that there will never be a single theory of adult education in general or of self-directed learning in particular. Instead, there will be many theories useful in improving the understanding of adult learning. There have been some attempts to summarize the growing body of research in the field of self-directed learning into some conceptual framework. For example, Penland (1981) combined neo-behaviorism with social learning theory to establish what he considered to be a theoretical framework 16 17 for self-directed learning research. Other authors like Mezirow (1985) and Little (1985) developed a self-directed learning conceptual framework based on Habermas' (1971) work on knowledge. shows Current literature on self-directed learning a mixture of approaches drawn from different perspectives. For the purpose of this study, and due primarily to the inductive and descriptive nature of this research, it was decided to use a multiple perspective approach. The theoretical foundation or framework of the study was based primarily on the research literature related to self­ directed learning. m addition, and in order to better understand the phenomenon under study, other knowledge areas were examined as well. These areas included Social Learning Theory, Experiential Learning, Social Network Theory and Social Time approach. Furthermore, literature related to the facilitation of self-directed learning, and related to qualitative methodology have been included. After lengthy review, the related literature for this study was divided into four major sections. They will be examined as follows: 1. Research on Self-Directed Learning: in this section, previous, current and emerging trends of research in the area of self-directed learning are reviewed. The major emphasis is on summarizing 18 the findings that have direct implications for this study. 2. Other Knowledge Areas and Self-Directed Learning: In this section, briefly described. several knowledge areas are The focus is on their broad relationship and implications for self-directed learning. These areas are as follows: social learning theory, experiential learning, social network theory, and social time approach. 3. Facilitating Self-Directed Learning: This section contains a review of the different approaches used to facilitate self-directed learning, with a focus on implications relative to extension education. 4. Qualitative section, Research Methodology: In this the use of qualitative research in education is reviewed. Then, an overview of the grounded theory approach is presented followed by a brief description of the use of interviews and a discussion of the issues of reliability and validity in qualitative research. Self-Directed Learning Research In this section, research literature on self-directed learning is reviewed. two parts. Research in this area is presented in The first one, previous research, mainly covers research studies on self-directed learning conducted during 19 the 70's. The second part/ current and emerging trends/ covers the major areas of interest that are currently being explored and research on self-directed learning that have most recently emerged. Previous Research Coolican (1974) conducted a review of research literature related to the area of self-directed learning. She identified seven research studies that used the Tough (1971) approach. She included Tough's (1971) original study, her own dissertation (1973), McCatty's (1973) study of Canadian professional men, Johnson's (1973) study of adult high school and GED graduates, and Peters and Gordon's (1974) research on rural and urban populations in Tennessee. She compared their findings and suggested policy implications for institutions and the field of adult education. Coolican's (1974) studies showed universal participation by the adult subjects in some type of learning project during any 12-month period. Populations varied considerably in the extent of activities. Self-planned projects were dominant in all the studies. In one of the studies reviewed by Coolican (1974), specifically the one conducted by McCatty (1973), it was found that the desire for individualized subject matter was an important factor in almost half of all self-planned 20 projects. It appears that a major advantage of self­ directed learning, according to this study, should lie in the freedom to determine what is learned. By definition self-directed learners want to learn enough to solve their rather unique problems, and do want a solution. People turn to other people most frequently for assistance in learning — first to friends and relatives and then to paid experts. Books and pamphlets rival paid experts as resources. Classes are a distant fourth. Three methods were most commonly used by the adults in those learning projects: respectively. practice, reading and discussion, Listening, observation, and instructors were also used, but not as often. The most frequently used methods were all active, involving the learner directly; and the least commonly used techniques were passive, watching or listening to someone else do something. Coolican (1974) recommended, among other things, that adult educators should help adults increase their competencies for self-directed learning by learning how to determine their educational needs, organizing learning experiences, and evaluating the outcomes. Finally, believing that self-directed learning should be outside the responsibility of adult education, she posed two major questions, "What are the grounds for intervention, 21 and if the adult educator intervenes in the domain of self­ directed learning, what does he influence and how?” In 1978 Tough published a review of research in self-directed learning. His review included 24 studies in addition to his own. He noted, among other things, that there was a broad consistency of findings across time and the variety of populations used in these studies. Greater differences, he noted, occurred within population groups rather than across groups. He found, among other things, that approximately 90 percent of all adults conducted at least one learning project a year. Self-planned projects, with the learner assuming major responsibility for selecting the goals and means for learning, were dominant, representing 73 percent of all projects. in relation to ”other planner,” i.e. the way the projects, which were not self-directed, were planned. Tough's findings showed that groups represented 14 percent, one-to-one planner helpers represented 10 percent, and nonhuman resources represented three percent. Tough further analyzed the planning function and determined that professional planners functioned in 20 percent of all group learning projects, one-to-one consultations, and in the creation of nonhuman programmed resources. learner's friends and peer groups — the project planning. Amateurs — the handled 80 percent of One finding was clear, "adults want 22 additional competent help with planning and guiding their learning projects" (Tough 1978, p. 15). After summarizing the basic surveys reporting on the frequency, duration, and planning of adult learning projects, Tough (1978) implied, among other things, that while most of these studies provided more information on other aspects, they added more to the breadth rather than the depth of understanding adult learning projects. In 1979 Penland, in a national probability sample, verified some of the findings of Tough and associates regarding self-initiated and self-planned learning. He found that books were rated "extremely important" resources by 71 percent of his population, exceeded as a preferred resource only by knowledgeable friends and relatives. Similarly, 44 percent of Penland's respondents indicated that reading was the best way for them to learn, exceeded slightly by the more social learning mode of "seeing or observing” which was rated best by 45 percent. Penland (1979) found that those engaged in formal learning were considerably more likely to depend on books as their best source of information than those working on so-called practical projects. 23 Current and Emerging Trends The areas of interest that have currently been studied, have focused on such questions or issues as: What are the personal characteristics that facilitate self-directed learning? and Can skills that improve the ability to become a successful self-directed learner be taught or improved? Also, efforts have been made to develop and test new methodology. In relation to the personal characteristics that facilitate self-directed learning, there have been several works like the one by Guglielmino (1977). She developed an instrument called the "Self-directed Learning Readiness Scale" (SDLRS) • This is a self-report instrument of 58 items, using a Likert-type scale, which, according to her, can be used to identify the latent potential of individuals to assume responsibility for their own learning. In relation to "Improving Skills for Self-directed Learning," it is important to mention the studies done by Reisser (1973), and by Kasworm (1982). Reisser (1973) proposed a model based on questioning, examining, and reporting that adult educators might follow to facilitate the self-directed learning process. she suggested, among other things, that the facilitator should help the learner to: (a) identify or locate the starting point for a learning project, (b) discern relevant modes of 24 examination and reporting, and (c) conduct self-assessments regarding achievement without a requirement for objective testing. Kasworm's (1982) study represents another example. She studied 36 graduate students enrolled in two courses designed to examine the development of cognitive and affective competencies in self-directed learning along with experiential instructional strategies. Participants were given pre- and post-tests with the "Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale" (Guglielmino, 1977). She found, among other things, that there were significant positive gains in the self-directed learning behavior of the students in both classes, as measured by a t-test. Through content analyses of the observational diaries and the students's final self-assessments she found that there was a positive trend in the development of self-directed knowledge and skills. Based on her findings, she stated that curricular or instructional designs that facilitate and model self­ directed learning foster the perceptions and behavior associated with learner independence. After 25 years of research in the area, there is a recognized need for a shift in the orientation of research on self-directed learning. The need for critically reviewing the existing body of research has been confirmed by several authors. For example. Cross pointed out that the 25 decade of the 70* s, for this research thrust, added little to the conceptual, theoretical, or methodological base originally set down by Tough. The description of adults and their learning projects was expanded, but there were still many questions without answers. "It would be helpful", Cross (1981) continued "to know more about the reasons why learners are dissatisfied with the help they receive, what kinds of problems they experience, and what they think can be done about providing better help for self-directed learning" (p. 199). Another researcher that has strongly criticized the previous body of research on self-directed learning has been Brookfield (1984). He said, for example, "It is now time to infuse a spirit of self-critical developing field of research — scrutiny into this to undertake a critical assessment of research to date and to suggest future research priorities” (p. 60). His major criticisms were, 1. The emphasis on middle class adults as the sampling frame for studies of this mode of learning. 2. The almost exclusive use of quantitative or quasiquantitative measures in assessing the extent of learning and the concomitant lack of attention to its quality. 3. The emphasis on the individual dimensions of such learning to the exclusion of any consideration of the social context in which it occurs. 26 4. The absence of any extended discussion of the considerable implications raised by these studies for questions of social and political change. (P. 60) The following are some examples of studies that could be considered to be part of these emerging orientations. As can be seen, some of the major characteristics of this emerging era are the frequent use of qualitative research, and the study of self-directed learning on different types of adult learner populations. Wenden Wenden (1981) conducted a study to find out from learners how they actually direct their own language learning in a variety of social settings. The data were derived from interviews with 25 adult learners who had lived in the United States for no longer than two years. interview required that they reflect experiences in social situations. upon The language Analysis of the data revealed that these adults directed their own learning by engaging in the following assessments and action decisions: coping, designating, discriminating, evaluating, planning, self-analyzing, and theorizing. Bates Bates (1979) used a phenomenological approach in his study where he explored, in depth, the experience of adult learners who were participating in a formal educational experience in which, as learners, they were actively 27 involved with one another in planning, implementing and evaluating the learning experience. The data were collected by means of open-ended interviews which were recorded on audio-tape and later transcribed. In total 12 people were interviewed weekly for 13 weeks. Six themes were identified that characterized the experiences of these learners. themes were: The finding direction, relating to others, issues related to oneself, learning stance, energy, and overall satisfaction with learning. Taylor Taylor (1979,1981) population as Bates did a study using (1979). the same She interviewed some adult learners who were participating in a formal educational experience in which, as learners, they were actively involved with one another in planning, implementing, and evaluating the learning experience. Her focus was on the social dimensions of their learning. Taylor (1979) reported that the analysis of learners' descriptions of their experiences revealed a dynamic relation between "self and other." She explained that while common patterns in the experiences of the learners who were observed for this study include essential periods of solitude, the data suggested that learning would not occur without specific communication events between the learner and those he/she perceives to be associated with the theme 28 or issue being considered. Finally, Taylor (1979) stated that the assumption that humans can learn independently of other people, Taylor says, appears ill-founded in respect to the development of new understanding, (p. 135) Lsean ana general comment, but I wrote bee. I found it interesting, there is one particular person who said that, it looks like that when you're learning something, its fun to be learning and finding out, but when you already now how to do it, its not so much fun, and that person even told me that it looks like you don't want to master, to be master only that, but trying to do it in a different makes? fun, and that person said, it looks like this is opposite to the other really commercial farmer, bee. in the other type of farming,t hey really want to master and to do it, and to know exactly how to do it, and do it once, two, three time, and so on, the most you do it the same way, the most profitable, the most... how do you feel about that, 1 haven't talked with other people about this, I don't know... A: I was just thinking that when you get to doing something and, it looks like if you're going to master it, you're almost manipulating nature, in a sense, and if you get to do it so often, you can manipulate nature and make it work that way for you, to me it seems like, you're messing (smiled), higher things, just... Cs: she's talking about routine chores, I would think, (C: it sound like it becomes a routine instead, so its like, its not so enjoyable any more, it looks like instead of keeping doing it this way, that person try to find new ways of doing it, to experiment with new ways, just because that person enjoys doing new things, but..)... Cs: I might do that for, to find the most efficient way of doing certain chores, its not just to find new ways to do a chore, if you want, for me that's like getting to a certain goal, saying ok, I'm here, and I can see how I can get from where I was before, back here again, well, looks like chasing your tail, I would just, if I could find the more efficient way of doing this, then you can go on, ~ to me that's I get more intrigued?, I get more intrigued, I enjoy learning how to get there but I like to keep going on, to , if I can be more efficient, cleaner smoother operation, it might be a routine chore, but, something that you're out there, struggling to get the charcoal down the sheep, that is not enjoyable to me, ----- its less stressful in the animals, smooth and quick id enjoy that a lot more.... next time I know how to do it 225 and I can go to something else, but if its not enjoyable learning, its not my point just to b e , that's what it seems to me, like there is --- .... C: if you have any questions or something that you think that we didn't mention, A: the people that do the organic growing have more appreciation, for the things that they're growing or raising, like I get the feeling that the big commercial farmers don't have any thought?? of the feeling of the animals they're raising or the crops, I just get the feeling, I think that's what that question brought to mind, in fact that this people do things and they do it two or three time, they get it, they do it certain ways at the time, they don't even think about what they're doing for a while, I, get the feeling sometimes when I go out in the garden, and the flowers are coming out nice, the herbs are really coming along, and, its almost like they know that you want them , the plants, they just do well for you, bee. you can appreciate it, or the animals, the sheep are really used to him, when he goes out there they don't run too much, but when I go out there they're not too used to me, though,---(shce & hce)... Cs: 1 think you've got a good point towards the fact that, a lot of the people I know, who farms, is not necessarily organic but, go out and get it done as quick as you can, and then, you go to something else you don't care, if they have to go out and tare? the field and leave i t and compacted,-where a lot of the people, had the mind set, well it takes longer to do it, its enjoyable, and its not— - the earth, ------ enjoy get the hands dirty, and clothes, it sounds funny that you enjoy that, but it can be enjoyable, C: I visited one farmer, which had as a neighbor a big field, corn, chemical (Ice visited only once or twice a year)... Cs: (talked about a similar neighbor)... I enjoy walking through the corn field, smell the corn, if you get to big, I think you want bigger tractors, bigger plough, (hce)... A: you feel for sheep too when you were trying to give them the charcoal Cs: (hce).... 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