INFORMATION TO USERS The most advanced technology has been used to photo­ graph and reproduce this m anuscript from the microfilm master. UMI films the original text directly from the copy submitted. Thus, some dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from a computer printer. In the unlikely event th a t the author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyrighted m aterial had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize m aterials (e.g., maps, draw ings, charts) are re­ produced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand com er and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. Each oversize page is available as one exposure on a standard 35 mm slide or as a 17" x 23" black and white photographic print for an additional charge. Photographs included in the original manuscript have been reproduced xerographically in this copy. 35 mm slides or 6" x 9" black and white photographic prints are available for any photographs or illustrations appearing in this copy for an additional charge. Contact UMI directly to order. ■■UMI Accessing the World’s Information since 1938 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA Order N um ber 8814921 F actors influencin g th e sa tisfa ctio n o f M u slim organ ization m em b ers in th e G reater L an sing, M ich igan , area Yahya, Hasan A. Qader, Ph.D . Michigan State University, 1988 Copyright ©1988 by Yahya, Hasan A. Qader. All rights reserved. UMI 300N.ZeebRd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 PLEASE NOTE: In all cases this material has been filmed in the best possible way from the available copy. Problems encountered with this docum ent have been identified here with a check mark V . 1. Glossy photographs or p a g es_____ 2. Colored illustrations, paper or print______ 3. Photographs with dark background_____ 4. Illustrations are poor copy_______ 5. Pages with black marks, not original copy______ 6. Print shows through as there is text on both sides of p a g e _______ 7. Indistinct, broken or small print on several pages 8. Print exceeds margin requirements______ 9. Tightly bound copy with print lost in spine_______ i/ 10. Computer printout pages with indistinct print______ 11. Page(s)___________ lacking when material received, and not available from school or author. 12. Page(s)___________ seem to be missing in numbering only as text follows. 13. Two pages num bered 14. Curling and wrinkled p ag es______ 15. Dissertationcontains pages with print at a slant, filmed a s received__________ 16. Other______________________________________________________________________ . Text follows. UMI FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SATISFACTION OF MUSLIM ORGANIZATION MEMBERS IN THE GREATER LANSING, MICHIGAN, AREA By Hasan A. Qader Yahya A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan S ta te U n iv e rsity in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e requirem ents f o r th e degree o f DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f Educational A dm inistration 1988 Copyright by HASAN A. QADER YAHYA 1988 ABSTRACT FACTORS INFLUENCING THE SATISFACTION OF MUSLIM ORGANIZATION MEMBERS IN THE GREATER LANSING, MICHIGAN, AREA By Hasan A. Qader Yahya In conducting t h i s study, th e main o b je c tiv e s were (a) to explore various re la tio n s h ip s between Muslim o rg an iz atio n members’ s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and the academic domain and c e r t a i n demo­ graphic v a ria b le s ; (b) to examine a proposed typology o f human behavior, taking in to account normative values as a p o in t o f d epar­ tu re; and (c) t o ev alu ate th e v a l i d i t y o f measures o f su b je c tiv e phenomena, namely r e l i g i o s i t y domain. and s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e academic To serve th ese o b je c tiv e s , th e l i t e r a t u r e on small groups and org an iz atio n al theory was disc u sse d . L ife sa tisfa c tio n as r e la te d to contextual v a ria b le s was reviewed, and measurement sc a le s were c o n stru cted . The purpose o f t h i s study was t o measure th e r e l a ti o n s h i p between c e r t a i n demographic v ariables--nam ely, age, m arita l s t a t u s , len g th o f residence in th e United S ta te s , and e th n ic background--and s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and th e academic domain, as evaluated by members o f a voluntary o rg a n iz a tio n -- th e Islam ic Center o f G reater L an sin g , M ichigan. P ro b a b ility sam pling was used in sample Hasan A. Qader Yahya s e le c tio n (N - 115). Survey (q u e stio n n a ire and in te rv ie w ), case study, and personal observation were used as methods o f in q u iry . The response r a t e was 58%. study v a r ia b le s : re lig io sity . Three measures were designed f o r the academic domain, l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n as a whole, and The a n a ly s is plan was divided in to fo u r s ta g e s : m odification o f the d a ta , coding-recoding, computer sim u la tio n , and data a n a ly s is . The major s t a t i s t i c a l t o o ls used were a t - t e s t and c ro ss-ta b u la tio n . c o n tro ls . M u l t ip l e r e g r e s s i o n was used f o r p o s s i b l e Principal-component f a c t o r a n a ly s is was a ls o used. Twenty-four hypotheses were t e s t e d . Only s i x hypotheses were r e je c te d , whereas 18 hypotheses were not r e je c te d f o r no d if fe r e n c e between th e study groups. p resen t, The sample’s s a t i s f a c t i o n and e x p e c te d f u t u r e l i f e re s p e c tiv e ly . was 5 .0 0 , 4 .8 4 , with p a s t, and 5 .6 6 , Concerning academic domains, th r e e o f the nine items ( s a t i s f a c t i o n with p ro fe s s o rs , with mass media, and with the English language) were s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 level among Arab and non-Arab Muslim respondents. To my parents, Haj Abdul-Qader and Hajjah Ezziya. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people were involved in th e process o f preparing t h i s r e s e a rc h . I wish to thank th ose who shared with me th e good experiences and c o n trib u te d to my p ro fessio n al and personal growth. I am v e ry t h a n k f u l d i s s e r t a t i o n committee. to Dr. L ouis Romano, ch airm an o f my He was th e r e whenever I needed him, and h is advice and judgments helped my p e rs is te n c e and p ro fe ssio n a lism . My g r a t i t u d e a ls o goes to Drs. John Suehr, C hristo pher Sower, and Fred Waisanen, my committee members. T heir c o ll a b o r a t iv e work and encouragement Kenneth Neff, o f d i s c ip l i n e d w ritin g and p erson nel, and i n s i g h ts were g r e a t . Special thanks goes to the a d m in is tr a to r s , community members o f the Islam ic Center o f East Lansing f o r t h e i r encouragement and s p i r i t u a l in s i g h ts . The e ffo rts of Sue Cooley May God b le s s them a l l . cannot p ro fe ssio n a l help was o f g r e a t a s s is ta n c e . be fo rg o tte n . Her Thanks a ls o goes to my many co lleag u es and p ro fe s so rs who discussed many o f th e ideas from th e very beginning o f t h i s study, as well as in c o n s tru c tin g th e q u e s tio n n a ire . My most sin c e re a p p re c ia tio n goes to my physical and s p i r i t u a l g o d b ro th er, Dr. H u sse in Yahya, w ith o u t whose encouragement t h i s work would not have been completed. vi support and His support gave me g re a t s e c u r ity and s e l f - r e s p e c t , w ithout which none o f t h i s would have been p o s s ib le . My g r e a t e s t debt i s to Zakia, my w ife, and our c h ild r e n , Ala, Baha, Safa, and Hadi, who shared with me th e good, th e b e t t e r , and the b e st during our sojourn . vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES . . . . ............................................................................ LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................ Chapter I. INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY....................................................... 1 In tro d u ctio n ............................................................................ Statement o f th e Problem and Purpose o f th e Study . O bjectives o f th e Study .............................. Importance of th e Study ....................................................... Research Im p lication s f o r A dm inistration ................. R ationale f o r th e S t u d y ....................................................... T h eoretical Framework f o r th e Research ...................... Dependent V ariables ........................................................... Independent V ariables ....................................................... The Study Hypotheses ........................................................... L ife S a t i s f a c t i o n and Age ............................................. L ife S a t i s f a c t i o n and M arital S ta tu s .................... L ife S a t i s f a c t i o n and Length o f Residence in th e United S ta te s ........................................................... L ife S a t i s f a c t i o n and Educational Level ................. L ife S a t i s f a c t i o n and Respondents’ Number o f C h i l d r e n ........................................................................ L ife S a t i s f a c t i o n and Ethnic Background ................ Academic S a t is f a c ti o n and Age ..................................... Academic S a t is f a c ti o n and M arital S ta tu s . . . . Academic S a t is f a c ti o n and Length o f Residence in th e United S t a t e s ................................................. Academic S a t is f a c ti o n and Educational Level . . . Academic S a t is f a c ti o n and Respondents* Number o f C h i l d r e n ....................................................................... Academic S a t is f a c ti o n and Ethnic Background . . . D e fin itio n o f Terms .............................................................. D e lim ita tio n s o f the Study .............................................. O v e r v i e w .................................................................................... 1 1 2 2 3 4 6 6 6 8 9 10 viii 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 15 15 Page II. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In tro d u ctio n ........................................................................... Islam and Muslims ............................................................... B a c k g r o u n d ........................................................................... D e fin itio n s o f Islamic Terms ...................................... Islam ic B e lie fs and P ra c tic e s ...................................... H is to ric a l Background o f Muslims in North A m e ric a ............................................................................... L ite r a tu r e on O rganizations .............................................. In tro duction ....................................................................... O rganizational Theory ...................................................... Systems Theory ................................................................... Contingency Theory and E q u if in a lity Theory . . . Research on S a tis f a c tio n ................................................... Approaches to Studying Life S a t is f a c ti o n . . . . 35 S a tis f a c tio n With Life as a W h o le................ Life and Domain S a tis f a c tio n ...................................... Congruity o f th e Study Model .......................................... Voluntary O rganizations and Membership ................. C l a s s i f ic a t i o n o f Muslim Groups .................................. Logical Reasoning and Discussion o f the Study M o d e l................................................................................... Theories Related to C l a s s i f ic a t i o n ......................... Summary....................................................................................... III. IV. 17 17 17 17 18 20 22 25 25 29 30 32 33 33 36 42 42 43 44 50 60 ........................................................... 61 I n t r o d u c t i o n ......................................................................... The Study S e ttin g ................................................................... The Role o f the Islam ic C e n t e r .................................. Congruity o f th e Islam ic Center and Educational S y s t e m s ................................. The Target Population .......................................................... The Study Sample ................................................................... Instrum entation ....................................................................... The Study Q uestionnaire .................................................. A ssu m p tio n s............................................................................... Data C o llectio n ....................................................................... Analysis o f th e D a t a .......................................................... Summary....................................................................................... 61 61 62 64 64 65 66 68 72 73 75 75 ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA.......................... 76 In tro ductio n ........................................................................... R e l i a b i l i t y and V a lid ity o f the Scales ..................... Demographic Data ................................................................... A g e ........................................................................................... M arital S ta tu s ................................................................... 76 77 78 78 79 METHODS AND PROCEDURES ix 9 Page Educational Level ............................................................... Length o f Residence in the United S ta te s . . . . B irth O r d e r ........................................................................... Number o f Children ........................................................... R esults o f Hypothesis T ests .............................................. A g e .............................................................................. M arital S ta tu s ................................................................... Length o f Residence in the United S ta te s . . . . Educational Level ............................................................... Number o f Children .......................................................... Ethnic Background ............................................................... Academic Domain Measures .................................................. Life S a t i s f a c t i o n ................................................................... E th n ic ity Cross-Tabulations .............................................. E th n ic ity and Demographic C h a r a c te r is tic s . . . . E th n ic ity and Acceptance o f Innovative Ideas . . E th n ic ity and P a r tic ip a tio n ......................................... E th n ic ity and Life S a t is f a c ti o n ................................. E th n ic ity and Academic Domain ..................................... Additional Analyses ............................................................... C o rrela tio n Analyses ...................................................... P rin c ip a l Components Analysis ...................................... Summary....................................................................................... V. 79 80 81 81 82 83 84 85 87 88 89 90 93 95 95 98 100 102 107 Ill Ill 114 115 THE CASE STUDY........................................................................... 116 Intro d u ctio n ........................................................................... Approaches to Studying Communities ........................... The Ethnographic Approach .............................................. The Social System Approach .......................................... Synthesis o f th e Ethnographic and Social System Approaches ........................................................... A nalytic Scheme o f the Study .......................................... Islam ic Customs, T ra d itio n s , and Values ..................... H o s p ita lity and Generosity .......................................... Companions, F riendship, and Neighbors ..................... Handshaking, Embracing, and Kissing ......................... Sneezing and Y a w n i n g ...................................................... N a m i n g ................................................................................... Basis o f Honor and Respect .......................................... Research Methodology f o r th e Case Study ..................... Procedural Problems ............................................................... The Problem o f Sample S e lec tio n ............................... The Problem o f th e Interview er ............................... The Problem o f th e Q uestionnaire ........................... The Problem o f Analysis ................................................ Conducting the F ield Research .......................................... 116 116 117 118 x 118 120 121 123 123 125 126 126 127 128 129 129 130 130 131 131 Page The Case-Study Sample ...................................................... Discussion o f the Decision-Making ModeT ................. Events and Action .................................................................. Event I ................................................................................... Event I I ............................................................................... D iscussion o f Events ...................................................... D escrip tiv e D a t a ................................................................... A g e ........................................................................................... Ethnic Background .............................................................. M arital S ta tu s .................................................................. Length o f Residence In the United S ta te s . . . . Sponsoring Agency .............................................................. Findings o f th e Data Analysis .......................................... Reasons f o r High o r Low Expectations ..................... Comparison o f Respondents’ Expectations and Demographic C h a r a c te r is tic s ...................................... Discussion o f S p e c ific Findings ...................................... A ttitu d e s Toward Innovative Ideas ............................. Summary....................................................................................... 148 151 152 155 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS ..................... 156 Summary....................................................................................... Summary o f Findings .......................................................... C o n c lu s io n s ............................................................................... The Study C la s s if ic a tio n .............................................. Im plications ........................................................................... Recommendations fo r Further Research ......................... 156 157 159 159 164 165 A. COVER LETTER, FOLLOW-UP LETTER, AND QUESTIONNAIRE . . 167 B. ADDITIONAL STATISTICS .............................................................. 175 VI. 131 134 135 135 140 142 143 143 143 144 144 145 145 146 APPENDICES BIBLIOGRAPHY......................................... x1 192 LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 3.1 Page A Comparison o f Merton’ s Typology and th e One Used in This Study ............................................................................ 56 D is tr ib u tio n o f Muslim Students a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rsity According to Country o f O rig in , Spring 1987 62 3 .2 S tru c tu re o f th e Islam ic Center anda School System 3.3 Total Values f o r th e Study S cales ....................................... 72 4.1 Parameter R e l i a b i l i t y C o e ffic ie n ts f o r the Three Scales Used in th e S t u d y ....................................................... 77 4.2 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents by Age ....................................... 78 4 .3 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents by M arital S ta tu s . . . . 79 4 .4 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents by Educational Level . . . 80 4 .5 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents by Length o f Residence in th e United S t a t e s ............................................................... 81 4 .6 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents by B irth Order ...................... 82 4.7 D is tr ib u tio n o f Married Respondents by Number o f C h i l d r e n ........................................................................................ 82 D ifferen ces Between th e Mean S a t is f a c ti o n Ratings o f Older and Younger Respondents ...................................... 84 D ifferences Between the Mean S a t is f a c ti o n Ratings o f Married and Unmarried Respondents .................................. 85 D ifferences Between th e Mean S a t is f a c ti o n Ratings o f Respondents With S h o rte r Residence in th e United S ta te s and Those With Longer Residence .......................... 86 D ifferen ces Between th e Mean S a t is f a c ti o n Ratings o f Respondents a t th e Ph.D. Level and Those a t th e Non-Ph.D. Level ........................................................................ 87 4 .8 4 .9 4.10 4.11 xii . 65 Page 4.12 D ifferences Between th e Mean S a t i s f a c t i o n Ratings o f Respondents With Less Than Two C hildren and Those With More Than Two Children .............................................. 89 D ifferences Between th e Mean S a t i s f a c t i o n Ratings o f Arab and non-Arab Respondents .......................................... 90 Means and D is tr ib u tio n s f o r th e E n tire Sample on th e Academic Domain S a t is f a c ti o n Measure ..................... 91 C o rre la tio n s Between Nine Subdomains o f Academic Domain S a t is f a c ti o n ............................................................... 92 Respondents' Ratings o f S a t is f a c ti o n With the Past L i f e .................................. ................................................. 93 Respondents’ Ratings o f S a t is f a c ti o n With th e Present L i f e ................................................................................ 94 Respondents’ Ratings o f Expected S a t is f a c ti o n With the Future L i f e ....................................................................... 94 Means and Standard D eviations f o r th e E n tire Sample’ s L ife S a t is f a c ti o n f o r the Three Time Periods . . . . 95 4.20 Cross-Tabulation o f Respondents' E th n ic ity byAge . . 96 4.21 Cross-Tabulation o f Respondents' E th n ic ity by M arital S ta tu s ............................................................................ 96 C ross-Tabulation o f Respondents’ E th n ic ity by Number o f Children ................................................................... 97 C ross-Tabulation o f Respondents' E th n ic ity by Educational Level ................................................................... 97 C ross-Tabulation o f Respondents’ E th n ic ity by Length o f Residence in th e United S ta te s ........................ 98 Cross-Tabulation o f Respondents’ E th n ic ity by Acceptance o f th e Friday Prayer Idea ............................... 100 Cross-Tabulation o f Respondents' E th n ic ity by Acceptance o f Idea o f E sta b lish in g aMuslim Club . . 100 Cross-Tabulation o f Respondents' E th n ic ity by P a r t ic ip a t io n 1n Islam ic Center A c t i v i t i e s Other Than Prayer ................................................................... 102 4.13 4.14 4.15 4.16 4.17 4.18 4.19 4.22 4.23 4.24 4.25 4.26 4.27 xiii Page 4.28 4.29 4.30 4.31 4.32 4.33 4.34 4.35 4.36 C ross-Tabulation o f Respondents* E th n ic ity by S a t is f a c ti o n With T heir Past L ife .................................. 102 C ross-Tabulation o f Respondents* E th n ic ity by S a t is f a c ti o n With T heir P resen t L ife .............................. 106 C ross-Tabulation o f Respondents* E th n ic ity by Expected S a t is f a c ti o n With T heir Future L ife . . . . 106 C ross-Tabulation o f E th n ic ity by S a t is f a c ti o n With P r o f e s s o r s .................................................................................... 107 Cross-Tabulation o f E th n ic ity by S a t is f a c ti o n With the Mass Media ............................................................................ Ill C ross-T abulation o f E th n ic ity by S a t is f a c ti o n With the English Language ............................................................... Ill P a r t i a l C o rre la tio n C o e f fic ie n ts : Zero-Order P a r t ia l s ........................................................................................ 113 Pearson C o rre la tio n C o e f fic ie n ts f o r L ife S a t i s f a c ­ tio n and Academic Domain S a t is f a c ti o n With th e Demographic V ariables ........................................................... 114 F actor Communalities, Eigenvalues, and Percentages o f Variance f o r th e Nine Academic Subdomains ................. 115 5.1 D is tr ib u tio n o f Interview ees by Age .................................. 5.2 D is trib u tio n o f Interview ees by Ethnic Background 5.3 D is trib u tio n o f Interview ees by M arital S ta tu s . . . . 5.4 D is tr ib u tio n o f Interview ees by Length o f Residence in th e United S ta te s ............................................................... . . 143 144 144 5.5 D is tr ib u tio n o f Interview ees by Sponsoring Agency 5.6 Reported Reasons f o r High Expectations ............................. 147 5.7 Reported Reasons f o r Low E xpectations ............................. 147 5 .8 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents With High and Low E xpectations by Age ............................................................... 148 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents With High and Low E xpectations by M arital S ta tu s .......................................... 149 5.9 xiv . . 145 145 Page 5.10 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents With High and Low E xpectations by Ethnic Background .................................. 149 5.11 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents With High and Low E xpectations by Length o f Residence in the United S ta te s ............................................................................ 150 5.12 D is tr ib u tio n o f Respondents With High and Low E xpectations by Sponsoring Agency .................................. 151 6.1 Respondents* Transformed R e lig io s ity Scores 160 6.2 Respondents* Transformed P a r t ic ip a t io n Scores . . . . 161 B.1 Means and Standard D eviations f o r th e Religion V a r i a b l e s .................................................................................... 185 C ross-Tabulation o f Islam ’ s F i t f o r Today’ s Problems, by E t h n i c i t y ................................................................................ 185 Cross-Tabulation o f Respondents* E th n ic ity by T heir B irth O r d e r ................................................................................ 185 B.4 R e l i a b i l i t y A nalysis: . 186 B.5 R e l i a b i l i t y A nalysis: Academic S a t is f a c ti o n S c a le -Covariance Matrix ................................................................... 187 R e l i a b i l i t y A n aly sis: Academic S a t is f a c ti o n S c a le -C o rre la tio n Matrix ................................................................... 188 B.7 R e l i a b i l i t y A nalysis: . 188 B.8 R e l i a b i l i t y A nalysis: Academic S a t is f a c ti o n S c a le -Item-Total S t a t i s t i c s ........................................................... 189 R e l i a b i l i t y A nalysis: R e lig io s ity Scale ........................... 190 B.10 R e l i a b i l i t y A nalysis: R e li g i o s i ty Sca1e--Item-Tota1 S t a t i s t i c s .................................................................................... 190 B.11 M ultiple Regression and P a r t ia l C o rre la tio n o f Demographic V ariables With Academic S a t is f a c ti o n . . 191 B.2 B.3 B.6 B.9 ................... Academic S a t is f a c ti o n Scale . Academic S a t is f a c ti o n Scale . xv LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1.1 Combined T heoretical and Empirical Model 2.1 Hypothetical C l a s s i f ic a t i o n o f Respondents 2.2 Degrees o f Groups* Normative Departure ....................... 7 .................. 47 .......................... 49 2.3 The Getzels and Guba M o d e l ................................................... 57 2.4 The New G etzels and Guba M o d e l ........................................... 58 2.5 Expected Scores f o r Muslim Groups on th e R e lig io s ity S c a l e ............................................................................................ 59 3.1 S tru c tu re o f the Islam ic Center ........................................... 64 4.1 Muslim Innovation by E th n ic ity ........................................... 99 4.2 Muslim P a r tic ip a tio n by E th n ic ity ...................................... 101 4.3 Muslim Past S a t is f a c ti o n by E th n ic ity .............................. 103 4.4 Muslim Present S a t is f a c ti o n by E th n ic ity ....................... 104 4.5 Muslim Future S a t is f a c ti o n by E th n ic ity .......................... 105 4.6 S a t is f a c ti o n With Professors by E th n ic ity ...................... 108 4.7 S a tis f a c tio n With Mass Media by E th n ic ity ...................... 109 4 .8 S a t is f a c ti o n With the English Language by E th n ic ity . 110 5.1 System Model o f Muslim I n te r a c tio n .................................. 119 5.2 Operational Model of the In terv iew ee-S election P r o c e s s ....................................................................................... 131 Decision-Making Process in Agreeing o r Refusing to Be I n t e r v i e w e d ................................................................... 133 The Data-Analysis M o d e l........................................................... 146 5.3 5.4 xvi Page The Actual C l a s s i f ic a t i o n o f Study Respondents . . . 160 Empirical C l a s s i f ic a t i o n o f Muslim Respondents in Terms o f th e R e lig io s ity Scale ................................. 162 Past S a t is f a c ti o n by E th n ic ity .......................................... 175 Present S a t is f a c ti o n by E th n ic ity ...................................... 176 Future S a t is f a c ti o n by E th n ic ity 177 ...................................... S a tis f a c tio n With Media by E th n ic ity ............................. 178 S a tis f a c tio n With Shopping by E th n ic ity ......................... 179 S a t is f a c ti o n With Advisor by E th n ic ity 180 . . . . . . . S a t is f a c ti o n With Other Muslims by E th n ic ity .. . . 181 S a tis f a c tio n With A dm inistrators by E th n ic ity . . . . 182 ......................... 183 S a tis f a c tio n With Courses by E th n ic ity S a tis f a c tio n With Study Conditions by E th n ic ity . .. xvii 184 NOTE According to Muslim b e l i e f s , th e acronym SWT should follow the name o f A llah, PBUH should follow th e name o f th e Prophet, and RAA should follow each mention o f th e Prophet’ s companions and fam ily. However, f o r the sake o f b r e v ity , t h a t convention was not followed in w ritin g t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . xviii CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY Intro d u ctio n In been made t o re p la c e o b je c tiv e economic in d ic a to r s such as th e g ro ss n a tio n a l product w ith the la st su b je c tiv e sa tis fa c tio n , 30 y e a rs , so cial e ffo rts in d ic a to rs happiness, stre ss, have in m ea su rin g p e o p l e ’ s l i f e d issa tisfa c tio n , and well being (Andrews, 1983, 1986; Campbell, Converse, & Rodgers, 1975; C a n tr i l , 1965; Land, 1971). In s p i t e o f r e s e a r c h e r s ’ la c k o f a t h e o r e t i c a l l y sound framework w ith which t o s tu d y p s y c h o l o g ic a l phenomena, numerous in v e s tig a to r s have re c e n tly conducted s tu d ie s using various approaches and measurement devices to c o l l e c t inform ation re le v a n t to various asp ects o f q u a li t y of l i f e , happiness, and s a t i s f a c t i o n (Adams, 1969; Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell e t a l . , 1975; Horley, 1984; Hoyt & Creech, 1983; Levy & Guttman, 1975; Liang, 1984). Statement o f th e Problem and Purpose o f th e Study L ife domains sa tisfa c tio n has c o u n tr ie s . dominated as th e a whole o r as q u a lity -o f-life In the United S t a te s , a combination o f re se a rc h in life advanced s tu d ie s have covered numerous m in o rity , e l d e r l y , and disadvantaged groups. Yet no such research has been conducted among members o f th e Islam ic f a i t h . 1 Hence the 2 w rite r’s concern in th e p re s e n t study was with a lim ite d but important p a rt o f Muslim o rg a n iz a tio n s. The p u rp o se of th is in flu e n cin g s a t i s f a c t i o n s tu d y was with l i f e o rg an iz atio n in v e s tig a te fa c to rs and th e academic domain among Muslim o r g a n i z a t i o n members r e s i d i n g Michigan, a re a . to in t h e G r e a t e r L a n s in g , The study fin d in g s a re expected to in c re a se Muslim a d m in istra to rs' a b ility to deal w ith c o n flic t s i t u a t i o n s and to enhance le a d e r s ’ understanding of a sp e c ts o f human behavior t h a t a re believed to be a p r i o r i t y s te p in th e process of c o n f l i c t r e s o l u ti o n . O bjectives o f th e Study In conducting t h i s were (a) to e x p lo r e study, v a rio u s th e r e s e a r c h e r 's re la tio n sh ip s main o b je c tiv e s betw een Muslim o rg a n iz a tio n members’ s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and th e academic domain and c e r t a i n dem ographic v a r i a b l e s ; (b) t o exam ine a p ro p o se d typology o f human behavior, tak in g in to account normative values as a p o in t o f d e p a rtu re ; and (c) to e v a lu a te th e v a l i d i t y o f measures o f s u b je c tiv e phenomena, namely r e l i g i o s i t y and s a t i s f a c t i o n with the academic domain. Importance o f the Study Because more than th r e e m illio n Muslims a re now l i v i n g in North America, th e unique con tex t o f Muslims in th e United S ta te s deserves more em pirical research documentation than p r e s e n tly e x i s t s . Muslim p o l i t i c i a n s and m ass-m edia com m entators A nti- have r e c e n t l y described Muslims as sources o f te r ro ris m and c o n f l i c t . Images o f 3 Muslims as p e a c e d e s t r o y e r s , i g n o r a n t m i l l i o n a i r e s , and harem c o l l e c t o r s have a ls o been conveyed in th e United S t a te s . In providing s c i e n t i f i c d a ta about Muslim o rg a n iz a tio n members, th e study b e h av io r. is intended An a tt e m p t to in cre ase is a lso th e understanding made t o answ er t h e of human f o l lo w in g q u e stio n s : 1. How do Muslims e v a lu a te t h e i r l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n ? 2. How do Muslims e v a l u a t e th e ir sa tisfa c tio n w ith th e academic domain? 3. What f a c t o r s in flu e n ce Muslims* s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith l i f e and th e academic domain? Whereas members’ s a t i s f a c t i o n with formal and informal types o f o rg a n iz a tio n s has been thoroughly in v e s tig a te d ( L ik e r t, 1967), t h i s to p ic has not been researched among Muslim o rg a n iz a tio n members. This study i s intended t o provide sy stem atic inform ation on so c ial o rg a n iz a tio n s with regard to t h i s s p e c i f i c group. The study i s th e f i r s t o f i t s kind t o be undertaken with the Muslim o rg a n iz a tio n in th e G reater Lansing a re a. Research Im p licatio n s f o r A dm inistration Exploring th e issu e o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith l i f e academic domain as re la te d Muslim o rg a n iz a tio n members u n d e rsta n d in g of to as and with the demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a human b e h a v i o r . f o lk group A ccording among w ill fu rth er the to th eo ries of o rg a n iz a tio n (L ik e r t, 1967), people tend t o d i f f e r in how they solve problems and e v a lu a te c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s . Knowing t h e i r degree o f 4 s a t i s f a c t i o n , i f used prop erly in c o n f l i c t r e s o l u ti o n , might lead to freedom from c o n f l i c t on both th e macro and the micro l e v e ls . In d e scrib in g th e d iff e r e n c e s between theory and understanding regarding academic s a t i s f a c t i o n , several needs must be mentioned: the need f o r a u n ifie d i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y approach t h a t can use the resources o f various f i e l d s o f in q u iry , the need to develop th e o r ie s r e l a te d to the value o f s a t i s f a c t i o n in general sources o f s a t i s f a c t i o n , and th e need and to s p e c if ic f o r assessment devices to measure s a t i s f a c t i o n in p a r t i c u l a r domains o f l i f e . Knowing sources o f d iffe re n c e s im portant. in human behavior highly Knowledge o f reasons f o r and p o ssib le consequences of behavior i s considered to be the f i r s t d if f e r e n c e s . is In t h i s among s m a ll- g r o u p study, members. step in dealin g with these the re s e a rc h e r explored d iff e re n c e s When c l a s s i f i e d as e le m e n ts of subgroups, th ese d iff e r e n c e s might help a d m in istra to rs d e fin e and s o lv e problem s c o n c e rn in g each group and t h e r e b y re d u c e th e p o te n tia l fo r c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s . R ationale fo r th e Study The saying, " I f you meet one Muslim, you have met them a l l , " is not t o t a l l y un tru e. In s p i t e o f d iffe re n c e s in Muslims' e th n ic backgrounds and socioeconomic and demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h i s re se a rc h e r assumed t h a t such d iffe re n c e s have l i t t l e to do with Muslim hetero g en eity in terms o f v alu es. In conducting th e study, the w r i t e r assumed t h a t Muslims as a fo lk c u ltu r e have common b e l i e f p a tte rn s. 5 R edfield (1922, 1941) described a fo lk c u ltu re as a m entally c o n stru cted s o c ie ty , in which custom s a r e n o t q u e s t io n e d and p r a c tic a l knowledge i s common without sc ien c e. In h is study o f f o lk c u lt u r e s , R edfield revealed c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f so c ial o rg an iz atio n s t h a t are stro n g ly influenced explained th e c o n tr a s t c u lt u r e . by primary group a s s o c ia tio n . in so cial Id e a ls He and values o f th e f o lk He a lso described th e d iv e rs e p a tte r n s o f so c ial groups and c u l t u r a l o rg an iz atio n s in v a r i o u s p a rts o f t h e w orld t o h ig h lig h t p a r t i c u l a r elements o f the f o lk s o c ie ty . Durkheim (1893) described such groups as bound to g e th e r mechanical so lid arity , by o r bonds o f common values and a c t i v i t i e s . Tonnoes (1887) used the term "Gemeinschaft" (community) to d e scrib e s im ila r groups. Although i t is d i f f i c u l t to o u tlin e the ideal fo lk group or s o c ie ty in terms of mechanical s o l i d a r i t y or Gemeinschaft, v arious common elements can be d e sc rib e d . organ izatio n found. members, both fo lk In th e p resen t sample o f Muslim and nonfolk c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s are In the Arab and non-Arab Muslim c u lt u r e s , in d iv id u a ls tend t o belong mainly t o t h e i r c la n s , whether they l i v e In ru ra l o r urban s e t t i n g s , whether they a re educated o r n o t, whether they a re young o r o ld , and whether they are males o r females. This s i t u a t i o n o f belonging to a clan c o n tr o ls t h e i r behavior as i t concerns values and r e l i g io n . In t h i s study, th e w r i t e r examined the assumption t h a t although d iffe r e n c e s e x i s t among indiv id ual Muslims, d if fe r e n c e s in values 6 are le ss p rev a len t. Common p a tte rn s in th e c u ltu ra lly preconditioned, m en tality o f Muslims are d escribed and c l a s s i f i e d according to d epartures from t h e i r ro o ts . This study was designed to f u r t h e r the understanding o f human behavior as r e l a te d co n cern ed w ith th e to v alues. v a lu e The of l if e re s e a rc h e r sa tis fa c tio n was p rim a rily among Muslim org an iz atio n members, as r e l a te d to se le c te d demographic v a r ia b le s . T heoretical Framework fo r the Research Dependent V ariables Two dependent v a ria b le s were in v e s tig a te d in t h i s study: life s a t i s f a c t i o n and s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e academic domain. Life s a t i s f a c t i o n . was e v a l u a t e d Respondents’ s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e i r l iv e s f o r t h r e e p e r i o d s o f tim e : e x p e r ie n c e d p a st, experienced p re s e n t, and expectation fo r s a t i s f a c t i o n in th e f u tu r e . S a t is f a c ti o n with th e academic domain. The academic domain is composed o f the perso n al, o rg a n iz a tio n a l, and environmental domains. Figure 1.1 shows th ese th re e major domains and t h e i r subdomains. These are th e personal th ro u g h co u rses, o rg an iz atio n al domain, which concerns o n e 's mass m edia, domain, which and t h e c o n c e rn s E n g lis h th e i n te r a c tio n la n g u a g e ; form al th e ra tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n with which respondents deal during t h e i r d a il y l iv e s (th e u n i v e r s i t y - - i t s p ro fe s so rs, a d v iso rs, and a d m in is tr a to r s ) ; and the environmental domain, which is represented by shopping, study con d itio n s a t home, and i n te r a c tio n with o th er Muslims. 7 TRADI TI ON THE ISLAMIC CENTER New Student Yesterday Muslim Old Student I N T E R A C T I 0 N Fundam entalists C onservatives Reformists Muslim of Today Neo-tradi 1 1o n ali s t s Anomi c T OTHER ORGANIZATIONS SECULAR I I I I I Ethnic Educa- Age Number o f M arital Length o f Background t io n | Children S ta tu s Residence I I I I I I I I N D E P E N D ENT VA R I AB L E S I______ l _ I____ .1________ S ATI S F ACTI ON TD WITH | E 1 P | E 1N 1D | E 1N | T 1 LIFE ( PAST, PRESENT, AND FUTURE > | SATCORS | 1 SATMDIA 1 | SATENG | | 1 | j | 1 | 1 SATPROF | SATADV 1 SATADM | I SATSHPG | SATSCON 1 SATOMUS | 1 1 1 | j | 1 | j | 1 | 1 PERSONAL DOMAIN ORGANIZATIONAL DOMAIN ENVIRONMENTAL DOMAIN A CD A0 DM EA MI I N c I | | | | | | I 1 Figure 1 . 1 .--Combined t h e o r e ti c a l and em pirical model. 1 1v 1A 1R | I A B L E S 8 Independent V ariables Six demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were considered th e independent v a ria b le s f o r th e study. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a re age, educational le v e l , m arita l len g th o f resid en c e in th e United S t a te s , sta tu s, number o f c h ild r e n , and Aae. e th n ic background. Age was divid ed in to two c a te g o r ie s , (a) younger ( l e s s than 30 y e a rs) and (b) o ld e r (more than 30 y e a rs) f o r th e purpose of c ro s s - ta b u la tio n with th e dependent v a r i a b le s . Fducational l e v e l . g o r ie s : This v a ria b le was divided in to two c ate ­ (a) non-Ph.D. c an didates and (b) Ph.D. c a n d id a te s . M arital s t a t u s . This v a ria b le was divided in to two c a te g o r ie s : (a) married respondents and (b) unmarried respo ndents. Length o f resid en ce in th e United S t a t e s . a ls o divided in to two c a te g o r ie s : This v a ria b le was (a) f iv e y ears o r l e s s and (b) more than f iv e y e a rs . Number o f c h il d r e n . g o r ie s : This v a ria b le was divided in to two c a t e ­ (a) th re e c h ild re n or l e s s and (b) more than th r e e c h i l ­ dren. Ethnic background. g o r ie s : This v a ria b le was divided in to two c a te ­ (a) Arab background and (b) non-Arab background. The Study Hypotheses According to th e lite ra tu re and re la te d r e s e a rc h , c ertain r e l a ti o n s h i p s are expected to e x i s t between s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and with th e academic domain (dependent v a r ia b le s ) and p a r t i c u l a r demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (independent v a r i a b l e s ) . (See Figure 1 . 2 .) Independent Variables Dependent Va riables Age Ethnic Background Marital S tatu s Educational Level Number o f Children Duration o f Residence S a t i s f a c t i o n with: Past Life Prese nt Life Future Life Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n Figure 1 . 2 . --The empirical model (independent and dependent v a r i a b l e s ) . In an attempt t o analyze such r e l a t i o n s h i p s , 24 nu ll hypotheses were t e s t e d f o r s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . Eighteen o f them concern t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e demographic v a r i a b l e s and l i f e satisfactio n variables--past, present, and f u t u r e . The remaining s i x hypotheses p e r t a i n to th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between th e demographic variables and s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e academic domain. The null hypotheses t e s t e d in the study are as follows: Life S a t i s f a c t i o n and Aae Ho 1 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p a st l i f e between o l d e r and younger respondents. Ho 2 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p resen t l i f e between o ld er and younger respondents. Ho 3 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in t h e expected degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e f u t u r e l i f e between o l d e r and younger respondents. 10 Life S a t i s f a c t i o n and Marital Status Ho 4 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e past l i f e between married and unmarried respondents. Ho 5 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e pres ent l i f e between married and unmarried respond­ ents. Ho 6 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in th e expected degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e f u t u r e l i f e between married and unmarried respondents. Life S a t i s f a c t i o n and Length of Residence in the United S t a te s Ho 7 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p a st l i f e between respondents with a long period of residence and those with a sh o rt period o f residence in the United S t a t e s . Ho 8 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with the present l i f e between respondents with a long period of res idence and those with a sh o rt period o f residence in the United S t a t e s . Ho 9 : There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in th e expected degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e f u t u r e l i f e between respondents with a long period o f res idence and those with a sh o rt period of residence in the United S t a t e s . Life S a t i s f a c t i o n and Educational Level Ho 10: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p a st l i f e between respondents with higher educational degrees and those with lower educational degrees. Ho 11: There i s no d i f f e re n c e in the degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with the present l i f e between respondents with higher educa­ t i o n a l degrees and those with lower educational degrees. Ho 12: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in th e expected degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e f u t u r e l i f e between respondents with higher educational degrees and those with lower educational degrees. 11 Life S a t i s f a c t i o n and Respondents* Number o f Children Ho 13: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in t h e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p a st l i f e between respondents with a l a r g e number of c h ild r e n and those with a small number o f c h il d r e n . Ho 14: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in t h e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the pres ent l i f e between respondents with a l a r g e number o f children and th ose with a small number o f c h il d r e n . Ho 15: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the expected degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e f u t u r e l i f e between respondents with a l arg e number o f c h ild ren and those with a small number of c h il d r e n . Life S a t i s f a c t i o n and Ethnic Background Ho 16: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the past l i f e between Arab and non-Arab Muslim respond­ ents. Ho 17: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in t h e degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with the pre sent l i f e between Arab and non-Arab Muslim respond­ ents. Ho 18: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in th e expected degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with the f u t u r e l i f e between Arab and non-Arab Muslim respondents. Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n and Aae Ho 19: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c t i o n between o l d e r and younger respondents. Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n and Marital Statu s Ho 20: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c t i o n between married and unmarried respondents. 12 Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n and Length o f Residence in the United S t a te s Ho 21: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c t i o n between respondents with a longer period o f res idence in the United S t a te s and those with a s h o r t e r period o f r e s i ­ dence. Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n and Educational Level Ho 22: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c t i o n between respondents with higher educational degrees and those with lower educational degrees. Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n and Respondents* Number of Children Ho 23: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c t i o n between respondents with a l arg e number o f c h il d r e n and those with a small number o f c h il d r e n . Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n and Ethnic Background Ho 24: There i s no d i f f e r e n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c t io n between Arab and non-Arab respondents. D e fin itio n of Terms The following terms are defined in th e context in which they are used in t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . Conformity. of the so c i e t a l social rules Behavior t h a t i s in accord with the ex p ec ta tio ns group. Conformity reflects acquiescence to the or norms and i s expressed in responses t h a t are e i t h e r s i m i l a r t o those o f oth ers or p rescribed by group customs or norms (Merton, 1957; c i t e d in Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969). Asch (1951) s u g g e s t e d t h a t group o p i n i o n s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e s group members’ behavior and judgment. Likewise, Homans (1974) a s s e r te d 13 t h a t conformity to the grou p 's ideas maximizes rewards and minimizes co sts in social interaction. Walker (1962) considered conformity and nonconformity as "instrumental acts, means to ends, achieving goals to s a t i s f y needs" (p. 5 ). some case s, conformity to group ways to He maintained t h a t , pres sure can have an in ove rall positive e ffe c t. Nonconformity. Behavior perceived as d ivergent from social expecta tions in a p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n . sometimes rewarded. Usually, however, expected p a t t e r n s of behavior i s those in d iv id u a ls who regard (Theodorson & Theodorson, Creative nonconformity i s failure comply ne gativ ely sanctioned, nonconformity 196 9 ). to as even by a positive In many c a s e s , with value p e o p l e who consciously do not conform to t h e i r own c u l t u r e ' s values and norms are unconsciously conforming to the norms and values of another c u l t u r e or group. Deviance. Behavior t h a t v i o l a t e s the norms of the social group in which the behavior occurs (Wallace & Wallace, 1986). Deviance is r e l a t i v e because norms vary from one c u l t u r e to another, o r from group to group. Deviance often has the same meaning as nonconfor­ mity. Satisfaction. Fulfillm en t of a need or want; the q u a l i t y or s t a t e of being s a t i s f i e d . Anomie. an in d iv i d u a l. The absence of c l e a r norms or values f o r a s o c i e t y or The concept was o r i g i n a l l y developed by Durkheim (1965), who defined anomie as "a property of t h e social and c u l t u r a l 14 structure, not structure." . . . a property o f In d iv id u a ls confronting t h a t Merton (1957) defined anomie as a so c ial psychological c on dition c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a breakdown in values in a f e e l i n g of i s o l a t i o n ( c i t e d in Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969). Religious anomie. A situation in which th e in stitution of r e l i g i o n f a i l s t o i n t e g r a t e i t s f o llo w e r s, leading t o d i s s e n s i o n or what i s described in the Arabic language as fawdha deenivvah. Familial anomie. A s i t u a t i o n in which the i n s t i t u t i o n o f the family plays a p a r t in th e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n among family members. Individualistic (through laws or anomie. norms) A situation d i s c r im i n a t e s in among which people the society within its boundaries in terms o f r a c e , wealth, r e l i g i o n , o r n a t i o n a l i t y . I n t e l l e c t u a l anomie. A s i t u a t i o n in which i n t e l l e c t u a l ism is not p r a is e d in a s o c i e t y , whereas t h e lac k o f i n t e l l e c t u a l ism is p r a i s e d in t h a t same s o c i e t y . Innovation. The in tr o d u c tio n o f something new ( id e a , method, or device) or any behavior or t h in g t h a t i s new. Normative integration. The i n t e r r e l a t i o n s h i p s of the so c ial norms o f a group in to a c o n s i s t e n t p a t t e r n so organized t h a t t h e r e are r e l a t i v e l y few s e r i o u s l y c o n f l i c t i n g social or psychological e x p e c ta ti o n s or o b l i g a t i o n s on the members t h a t stem d i r e c t l y from t h e norms of th e group. Normative I n t e g r a t i o n within a s o c ia l group i s a fu n ctio n o f i t s members’ v alu es. (Theodorson & Theodorson, 1969, p. 277) Normative p a t t e r n . t h e members o f th e group. An i n t e r r e l a t e d s e t of s o c ia l norms held by 15 Fundamentalists f s a l a f i ). Those members o f Islam who follow the s p i r i t and the l e t t e r o f the Sunnah (body o f Islamic custom and p r a c t i c e based on th e Prophet Muhammad’ s words and deeds). C onservatives. Less r i g i d than f un d am e nta lis ts , following the s p i r i t o f Islamic e t h i c s with l e s s o f th e l e t t e r . Reformers. essential Islamic i n t e l l e c t u a l s who understand r e l i g i o n as an factor for establishing new i n s t i t u t i o n s according to s c i e n t i f i c thought. Neo-tradi t i o n a l i s t s : Those who " [ v a l i d a t e ] c u r r e n t behavior by r ef e r e n c e t o immemorial p e rs p e c tiv e norms" (Apter, 1965,p. 83). For example, innovation has t o be mediated and linked with antecedent norms within the Islamic system. Sunni Muslims. Members of the Islamic mainstream (compared with S h i i t e s ) ; adhere t o t h e orthodox t r a d i t i o n of t h e Sunna. D elim ita tio n s o f the Study The study was d e l i m i t e d to adult male Sunni Muslims, p a r t i c u l a r l y those who v o l u n t a r i l y attended the social and r e l i g i o u s a c t i v i t i e s of the Islamic organiz atio n in East Lansing. The sample was d elim ited g e o g ra phically t o those r e s i d i n g in Lansing and East Lansing, Michigan. The sample was relatively small but of an adequate s i z e t o f u l f i l l t h e o b j e c ti v e s o f the study. Overview Chapter I contained an in tr o d u c tio n t o the study, a statement of t h e problem and p u r p o s e o f t h e study, the ob jectives and importance o f the i n v e s t i g a t i o n , im plication s and r a t i o n a l e o f the 16 study, th e research hypotheses, d e l i m i t a t i o n s o f the study. definitions of key and In Chapter I I , l i t e r a t u r e and research r e l a t e d to the t o p ic under i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s reviewed. includes an in tr od u c ti o n t o terms, Islamic b e l i e f s The review and p r a c t i c e s and a h i s t o r i c a l background o f Muslims in North America, a discussion of organizational contextual theories, variables, and research an on integration life of satisfactio n th es e three and major sections. The methods and procedures followed in conducting the study, as well as th e study s e t t i n g , are discussed in d e t a i l in Chapter I I I . The i n s t r u m e n t a t i o n is described, the population discussed, and the d a ta - a n a l y s i s methods explained. da ta analyses are discussed in Chapter IV. and sample Results o f the In Chapter V, the case study approach i s explained, and r e s u l t s of th e case study conducted f o r t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n are described. Chapter VI includes a summary o f the study, major fin d in gs and the conclusions drawn from those f in d in g s , l i m i t a t i o n s , and recommendations f o r f u r t h e r r e s ea rch . CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE In l a r g e measure, we are what our l o y a l t i e s a re : l o y a l t i e s to a family, t o a t r i b e , a c a s t e , a c l a s s , a neighborhood, a r e l i g i o n , a na tion, an Ideology, o r more r e a l i s t i c a l l y , a combination o f many o f t h e s e . ( C a n t r l l , 1976, p. 15) Introduction In t h i s study, the w r i t e r examined the r o l e o f r e l i g i o n formulating pe ople’ s opinions and i n v e s ti g a t e d s a t i s f a c t i o n members o f related a particular literature together certain and religious research institution. rep r e se n ts an s a t i s f a c t i o n of Muslim organization members. among The review attempt to key ideas concerning f a c t o r s t h a t in of draw in flu e n ce the Included in the f i r s t se c tio n are a discussion of Islamic b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s and a historical background o f Muslims in North America. Related org an izatio nal t h e o r i e s are discussed in the second s e c t i o n . The t h i r d section covers researc h on l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and contextual variables. An i n t e g r a t i o n of the t h r e e preceding s e c t i o n s concludes the chap ter. Islam and Muslims Background In the l a s t p a r t o f the s i x t h century, an i l l i t e r a t e Bedouin Arab renewed what was f o rg o tte n of th e r e l i g i o n o f Abraham, Ishmael, 17 18 Isa ac, Jacob, Moses, and Jesus and c re ated through t h e r e v e l a t i o n s contained in the Qura’n the social brotherhood, and j u s t i c e . rules and laws o f e q u a l i t y , Muhammad, son o f Abdullah and A'minah, was t h i s successful pioneer f o r social change. were simply r e v e l a t i o n s from Allah. His q u a l i f i c a t i o n s The revealed message was c a l l e d t he Qura’n, and the new r e l i g i o n was named Islam, t h e r e l i g i o n of God. Muslims, t h e r e f o r e , took t h e i r name from t h e i r r e l i g i o n and not from Muhammad, erroneously the called messenger Muslims of God. Some o r i e n t a l i s t s "Muhammadans" "Muhammadanism" (Gibb, 1953; G o l d z i h e r , and have called Isl am 1888; S c h a c h t , 195 0). Explaining t h i s point f u r t h e r , Cragg (1975) s t a t e d : The g r e a t Arab-born monotheism of Asia andf Africa i s unique among f a i t h s in being denoted by a term t h a t i s a ls o a common name. Hinduism tak e s i t s name from a land and a r i v e r , Buddhism from the meaning of a founder f i g u r e , Judaism from a people, C h r i s t i a n i t y from the concept and achievement o f "the Messiah." Islam which i s never properly c a l l e d "Muhammadanism" d i f f e r s from a l l t h e s e , (p. 5) To understand the unique r o l e t h a t Islam plays in the Muslim's l i f e , i t i s necessary to exp lain some important terms and p r i n c i p l e s o f the Islamic f a i t h . The basic Islamic b e l i e f s and p r a c t i c e s are discussed b r i e f l y in the following se c t i o n . D e f in itio n s of Islamic Terms Qura’ n : The c o l l e c t i o n o f the laws revealed by God (SWT) to the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) through the angel Gabriel Al-Rouh AlAmin (the Honest S p i r i t , PBUH). I t explains everything (Q 12:111), 19 and everything i s c l e a r in i t (Q 44: 3); i t overlooks nothing (Q 6:38). Sunnah: The way o f th e Prophet (PBUH), his sayings, h is p r a c t i c e s , and his approved a c t s . Hal a ! : Legal a c t i v i t i e s as fixed in the Qura'n and the Sunnah, t o be p r a c t ic e d by Muslims in t h e i r everyday l i v e s . Haram: Illegal activities as fixed in the Qura'n and the Sunnah, t o be avoided by Muslims in t h e i r everyday l i v e s . Sal ah: Muslim prayer performed f i v e times a day, i n d iv i d u a ll y or c o l l e c t i v e l y . Friday p r a y e r : performed A weekly noon prayer, i t s collectively with traditional steps; con dition t o be otherwise is it performed as Thuhur (noon) prayer. H ajl: Pilgrim age, perfo rm ed once in a l i f e t i m e o f e v ery p h y s i o l o g ic a l l y , psychologic ally, and f i n a n c i a l l y able Muslim. hajj i s performed by v i s i t i n g the holy Ka’ abah The in Makkah, with special arrangements of d r e s s and a c t s . Sevam: Fasting (29 o r 30 days) in the month o f Ramadan, when Muslims avoid food and d r i n k from before dawn t o su nset. Rebaa: Charging i n t e r e s t without sharing p r o f i t s and l o s s e s ; i t i s pro hib ited by Islamic law. B i d a 'h : Innovation in the r e l i g i o u s sense i s b i d a 'h (heresy) and something g e n erally bad. I t i s th e opposite o f th e sunnah, or path, which i s the way o f th e Prophet (PBUH) or h i s community of Muslims. 20 SWT: Acronym u s u a l ly used after the name o f Allah (SWT), l i t e r a l l y "Subhanahu Wa Ta’a l a , " meaning "P ra ise th e Lord." PBUH: Acronym u s u a l ly used a f t e r t h e mention o f any of the prophets Arabic, (Muhammad, Moses, " S a l la Je s u s , Allahu Alayhi etc. [PBUH]). Wasallam," which PBUH reads means "Peace in and Blessing Be Upon Him). RAA: An acronym t h a t companions and family; it follows literally th e mention reads of the Proph et’ s "Radhia Allah Anhum," meaning "Allah i s pleased with them." Islamic B e li e f s and P r a c t i c e s Some fundamentals o f the Islamic b e l i e f are explained in t h i s s e c t i o n to help understand the group under i n v e s t i g a t i o n study. God. in t h i s Islam means the a c t o f submitting o r r e s i g n in g o n e s e l f t o A Muslim i s one who submits himself t o one God, Allah. The b a s i c b e l i e f o f Muslims i s to witness Allah as th e only God and Muhammad as t h e a p o s t le o f Allah. The s i x a r t i c l e s o f f a i t h , follows: as revealed in t h e Qura’n, are as b e l i e f in Allah, His angels, His books, His a p o s t l e s , th e day o f judgment, and His p r e d e s t i n a t i o n o f good and e v i l . o b l ig a t o ry practices are mentioned g e n e r a l l y in the Five Qura’n and explained s p e c i f i c a l l y in t h e Sunnah, the w r i t t e n words and a c t io n s o f Muhammad. 1. These p r a c t i c e s a re : Shahadah ( r e c i t a l (one) God (Allah), ling u istic symbol o f the c re e d ) : "There i s no God but and Muhammad i s th e messenger o f God." is used in each o f th e five prayer c a l l s This by 21 Mu *a th i n (who c a l l t h e b e l i e v e r s to prayer) before pray e r time. place of pr ayer is u su a lly t h e mosque o r any o t h e r dry The place considered legal by t h e Sunnah f o r performing praye rs. 2. times: bedtime. Sal ah ( p r a y e r ) . The Muslim must pray a t f i v e s p e c i f i e d before s u n r i s e , a t noon, e a r l y aftern oon, s u n s e t , and before In praying, t h e Muslim fac es the Holy Ka'abah in Makkah. While pray er in t h e wherever he i s . Mosque i s encouraged, the Muslim can pray An exception i s t h e Friday p ray e r, which i s u s u a l l y performed in a group, with special arrangements o f r e l i g i o u s speech and p ray e r. Prayer and alms are mentioned t o g e t h e r sev eral times in the Qura’n as good deeds t o obtain God’ s approval. 3. Zakah (paying alms). Each Muslim c o n t r i b u t e s (according to Islamic law) t o help o t h e r Muslims. Almsgiving i s u s u a l ly devoted t o th e poor, the needy, t h e d e b to r, th e t r a v e l e r , and t h e o f f i c i a l alms c o l l e c t o r s . Nowadays, with t h e absence o f an Islamic s t a t e , alms are l e f t to t h e conscience o f Individual Muslims. 4. Sevam or Sawm ( f a s t i n g ) . During Ramadan, 29 o r 30 days o f t h e n in th Arabic month, a d u lt Muslims f a s t from s u n r i s e t o su n s e t . At t h i s time no food o r d r in k may be taken. The f a s t u s u a l ly ends with Eld a l - F i t r , one o f t h e two major Muslim f e s t i v a l s . 5. Hajj (pilgrimage) to Makkah. Every Muslim, circumstances p e rm i tt i n g , i s obliged t o perform t h e h a i i once in a l i f e t i m e . The pilgrimage begins two months a f t e r Ramadan and l a s t s t h r e e days. An individua l i s considered a " t r u e Muslim" o r b e l i e v e r If he/she follows t h e above p r a c t i c e s in everyday l i f e and follows th e r u l e s o f Allah and His Prophet, as w r i t t e n in th e Qura’n and Sunnah. 22 H i s t o r i c a l Background of Muslims in North America In 1955, I t a l y c ele b r a te d the f i v e hundredth anniversary of Columbus's b i r t h . A f a i r displayed h is belongings, which included an Arabic book by A1-Sherif a l - I d r i s i , an Arab Muslim geographer, which i s sa id to be what insp ired Columbus t o seek the New World. The f i r s t nation in the world o f f i c i a l l y to recognize United S t a te s independence was Morocco, an Arab Muslim country, in 1787 (Mehdi, 1978). Oman was the f i r s t Arab Muslim nation to have t r a d e r e l a t i o n s with the United S ta te s government; a t r a d e t r e a t y was signed by Sayyed Said and the United S t a te s in 1834. An Omani ship a rr i v e d in New York in 1940 to d e l i v e r the f i r s t cargo of goods (Mehdi, 1983). The f i r s t African Muslim group came t o the United S t a te s in 1717. R eligious words such as " A lla h " and "Muhammad" were c i r c u l a t e d among the Arabic-speaking s l a v e s , and a r ef u s al to eat pork was i d e n t i f i e d with s p e c i f i c names l i k e Omar, Ben A li, and Ibn S a 'i d (Mehdi, 1978). In 1856, f i v e Muslims (two Turks and t h r e e Arabs) came t o the United S ta te s to care f o r a cargo o f 33 camels brought from Arabia t o serve the n a t i o n ' s army in the Southwest. One of th ese Arabs became well-known by the nickname "Hadgi A l i , ” which l a t e r became "Hi J o l l y " (Makdisi, 1959; Mehdi, 1969, 1983). The l i t e r a t u r e on Muslims in North America showed t h a t the beginning o f Islam was made in 1887 by an American conv ert, Muhammad Alexander Russell Webb, t h e American Consul in Manila, who embraced 23 Islam and e s t a b l i s h e d an o f f i c e in New York City c a l l e d th e Oriental Publishing Company. In 1893, the f i r s t issue o f Muslim World appeared (Makdisi, 1959). Ross, North Dakota, is the earliest Muslims organized f o r communal prayer mosque was b u i l t in 1920 (Mehdi, recorded place where in p r i v a t e homes before a 1978). The group later was completely i n te g r a t e d in the host s o c i e t y , and in 1948 th e mosque was abandoned. The America was made in f i r s t recorded attempt to build a mosque in Highland Park, Michigan, in 1919. Later i t became a church (El-Kholi, 1966). The mosque t h a t was b u i l t in 1924 and s t i l l b u i l t in Michigan City, Indiana. e x i s t s today was Other mosques were b u i l t l a t e r in such are as as D e t r o i t , Michigan (1922); Cedar Rapids, Iowa (1934), known as the mother mosque (Mehdi, 1978); Washington, D.C. (1952); Toledo, Ohio (1955) (El-Kholi, 1966); and East Lansing, Michigan (1979). On the local l e v e l , Muslim a s s o c i a t io n s and o r g an iz atio n s were e s t a b l is h e d in many p la c e s . e s t a b l is h e d For example, an Islamic a s s o c i a t i o n was in Highland Park in 1919. Another a s s o c i a t i o n , the Young Men’ s Muslim Association, was e s t a b l is h e d in Brooklyn in 1923 (Haddad, 1983). On the national l e v e l , the Federation o f Islamic Associations (FIA) was e s t a b l is h e d in th e United S t a te s and Canada by th e e f f o r t s o f Abdullah Ingram of Cedar Rapids, Iowa, through a personal req uest to President Eisenhower in 1952. The wave o f Arab n ationalism led 24 to the c re a t i o n of the Organization o f Arab Students (OAS). Unlike the FIA, the OAS leaders were non-American-born Arabs and advocated nationalist and s o c i a l i s t o b je c tiv e s (Haddad, Muslim Brotherhood and non-Arab Jamaati a sso c ia tio n January Islam opposing the OAS o b j e c t i v e s . 1963, a new o r g a n i z a t i o n Association o f the United S t a te s 1983). called formulated On the the and Canada The Arab first Muslim a new day of Student (MSA) was announced (Haddad, 1983). In 1982, during the twentieth annual convention o f t h e MSA, a new name, the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA), was announced to i n t e g r a t e Muslim e f f o r t s under one o rg anizatio n (Al-Ummah, 1981). ISNA has the following p r o j e c t Islamic Trust (NAIT), a f i n a n c i a l ex tensions: the North American i n s t i t u t i o n ; t h e American Trust Publicatio n (ATP); the Islamic Book Service (IBS); t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l Graphics P ri n t in g Services (IGPS); and th e Islamic Teaching Center (ITC). Medical ISNA a ls o has t h r e e profes sional a s s o c i a t i o n s : A ssociation Scientists (AMSS), (IMA), the A ssociation t h e Islamic o f Muslim S o c i a l and the Association o f Muslim S c i e n t i s t s and Engineers (AMSE) (MSA, 1980). The increasin g number o f students se n t by th e oil- pro d ucin g Arab c o u n tr ie s to the United S t a te s and the English language used by ISNA c re ated the need f o r a new o r g a n iz a tio n , the Muslim Arab Youth Association (MAYA). Arabic language. Announced in 1977, t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n uses the Leaders o f MAYA deny t h e claim o f n a tion alism in t h e i r a s s o c i a t io n by using the Arabic language and explain t h a t the language i s Islamic, not n a t i o n a l i s t i c , because i t i s t h e language 25 o f th e Qur’an, and membership in the a s s o c i a t io n i s open to any individual (Arab or non-Arab) who wishes to j o i n (Rabitatu-Asshabab A1-Muslim Al-Arabi, n . d . ) . On the I n t e r n a ti o n a l or gan izational League (MLA) was e s t a b l is h e d league has several o b j e c t i v e s . level, the Muslim World in Saudi Arabia in May 1962. The I t s main purpose i s "the defense of Islam a g ain st those who seek to destroy i t , and the support and development o f Muslim communities around the world." To achieve i t s g o a ls , th e League has e s t a b l is h e d several o f f i c e s in many na tions and in 1974 became a nongovernmental r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f the United Nations. The influence o f the MLA on Muslim m i n o r i t i e s around the world has been sound (Haddad, 1983). Although no r e l i a b l e s t a t i s t i c s e x i s t on the number o f Muslims l i v i n g in North America, estim ates range from o n e -h a l f m il l io n to si x m i l l io n , depending on the source and th e purpose f o r which the number i s used (Lovell, 1973). In 1975 the consensus among Muslim lea ders was t h a t approximately t h r e e m illio n Muslims were l i v i n g in America (Haddad, 1983). Islamic a s s o c i a t io n s Because t h e r e are more than 400 mosques and 1n t h e United S t a t e s (Haddad, l i k e l y t h a t t h i s population estim ate i s r e l i a b l e , 1983), it is particularly i f nonresident students and v i s i t o r s are included in th e f i g u r e . L i t e r a t u r e on Organizations Introduction Numerous t h e o r i s t s have emphasized t h e po sitiv e role of r e l i g i o n in building social i n s t i t u t i o n s (Durkheim, 1965; Ellwood, 26 1927; LeBon, 1965; Weber, 1930). For i n s t a n c e , t he r o l e of r e l i g i o n in human l i f e . Durkheim s t r e s s e d Religion, he pointed ou t, is t he powerful means f o r e s t a b l i s h i n g , expanding, and in c r e a s in g the s o l i d a r i t y o f the members o f any s o c i e t y . In Elementary Forms of Religious Life (1965), he a s s e r t e d t h a t n e a r ly a l l t h e g r e a t social i n s t i t u t i o n s have been born in r e l i g i o n . power t h a t integrates so c ia l groups The lac k o f r e l i g i o n as a with common se ntiments and values r e s u l t s in i s o l a t i o n and d i s i n t e g r a t i o n , or anomie. Ellwood (1927) emphasi zed t h e b uild ing c i v i l i z a t i o n . importance of religion in He a s s e r te d t h a t th e death o f r e l i g i o n in any nation would lead t o the death o f i t s c i v i l i z a t i o n . t o Ellwood’ s theory o f t h e social r o l e o f r e l i g i o n , the time i s due to changes in s o c i e t a l According the c r i s i s of i d e a l s , v a lu e s, and norms. He a s s e r te d t h a t changes may already e x i s t in human behavior and in the formulation o f s o c ia l institutions as a result of ignoring r e l i g i o n as t h e most important instrument t o co ntrol i n d i v i d u a l s 1 as well as groups1 l i v e s . Ellwood f u r t h e r a s s e r t e d t h a t human behavior w ill r e t u r n t o paganism i f r e l i g i o n i s ignored and morals weakened. Long before Durkheim and Ellwood, Islam through t h e Qurayn and Sunnah described r e l i g i o n as having q u a l i t i e s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s to stre ngth en group s o l i d a r i t y ( Q u r a ^ 3:103, 2:143). and t o e s t a b l i s h a balanced society Almost a century ago, w r i t i n g about th e q u a l i t y o f th e human r a c e , LeBon (1897) de scribed man as a c r e a t u r e who lacks l o g i c . He i s apt to b e lie v e t h e most illogical and unreasonable thin g s i f they correspond t o his emotions and f e e l i n g s . 27 I n div id ua ls in th e modern world a ls o embody d i f f e r e n t q u a l i t i e s , and such q u a l i t i e s in flu ence human behavior. In r e c e n t l i t e r a t u r e concerning so c ial change o r what i s c a l l e d "modernity," a t t i t u d e s and values have been i n v e s t i g a t e d as a r e s u l t of technological innovation communication and interaction Shoemaker, 1 9 7 1 ) . and cultural (Inkeles diffusion & Smith, 1974; Among many T h i r d World n a t i v e s th r o u g h Rogers & (including Muslims), combinations o f old and new values have been observed. For i n s t a n c e , Useem and Useem (1968) described s o c i e t i e s , and i n d i v i d u a l s as ha vin g both t r a d i t i o n a l qualities co n cu rren tly . They mentioned groups, and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l that the modern period evidences an i n t r i c a t e combination o f a l l types o f o utlo o ks, from the most t r a d i t i o n a l to t h e most modern, within t h e world community, every s o c i e t y , most so c ial systems, and o f t e n th e same i n d i v i d u a l . This s i t u a t i o n of having both t r a d i t i o n a l and modern values c r e a t e s u n res t o r c o n f l i c t , which leads on the macro level t o a high su i c id e r a t e (Durkheim, 1951) o r t o a c l a s s c o n f l i c t (Marx, 1847). At the micro l e v e l , t h i s combination o f values leads t o u n c e r t a i n t y (Thompson, 1966) or t o d i v i s i v e n e s s within groups, which may lead to h o s t i l i t y and even to war (In keles & Smith, 1974; L i k e r t , 1967). Various s o l u t i o n s f o r c o n f l i c t r e s o l u t i o n have been suggested. For Marx, the solution was communism; for Durkheim, it was p rofessio nalism and organic s o l i d a r i t y ; f o r Thompson, t h e so lu tio n was "loosened bureaucracy” ; for Inkeles and s o l u t i o n was prom o tin g pe ac e and was term ed Smith (1974), the "m odernity"; and 28 f i n a l l y , f o r L ik e r t, the s o l u t io n was members* p a r t i c i p a t i o n in th e decision-making process. Organizational th eory i s not f a r removed from c o n f l i c t th eo ry . The c l a s s i c a l theory o f a d m in is tr a tio n th eo ry --T ay lo r [1911] and Fayol from Theory X ( c l a s s i c a l [1949]) through Theory Y (human r e l a t i o n s theory--Mayo [1932] and Barnard [1938]) and ending with Theory Z ( p a r t i c i p a t o r y t h e o r y - - L i k e r t [1962, 1967] and Ouchi [1981]) has c o n s i s t e n t l y d e a l t with promoting means t o achieve th e o rg an iz atio n al ends or to promote p a r t i c i p a t i o n members in th e decision-making pro cess . of o r g a n iz a tio n Such s o l u t i o n s , whether they were suggested by what i s known as cooperation (Barnard, 1938), functional patterns participation and in tegration in d e c i s i o n making (Likert, (Parsons, 1961, 1951), 1967), have, or in f a c t , improved the o rg an iz atio n al theory. In the 1950s, a group o f i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y s c i e n t i s t s attempted to develop a general 1951). theory of social In t h e i r theory o f a c t io n , sc iences (Parsons & Shils, Parsons and S h i l s considered t h r e e c o n c e p t s - - p e r s o n a l i t y , so c ial system, and c u 1 t u r e - - a s a frame o f refe ren c e f o r t h a t th eo ry . They defined p e r s o n a l i t y as "the organized system of t h e o r i e n t a t i o n and motivation o f a c t io n o f one individual a ctor" (p. 7 ). They defined a social system as "any system o f i n t e r a c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f a p l u r a l i t y o f individual a c t o r s " (p. 7 ) . Culture was described as a body o f symbols, s y s ­ tems, and a r t i f a c t s but not as an organized system o f a c t i o n . The concept o f p e r s o n a l i t y was explained r e l a t i v e t o a of need d i s p o s i t i o n s , which c r e a t e s role e x p ec ta tion s system in social 29 systems. The u n i ts of social structure, according to actio n theory, are conceptualized by r o l e s r a t h e r than by p e r s o n a l i t i e s . To a l l o c a t e rewards, f a c i l i t i e s , and r o l e s in a social system, i t i s necessary t o face and solve i n t e g r a t i o n problems t h a t usu ally occur between the p a r t s of the system. Without a d e f i n i t i o n of r o l e s and sa n ctio n s, i t i s impossible t o have i n t e g r a t e d systems or subsystems. Parsons and S h i l s (1951) s t a t e d : The r e g u la tio n of a l l of t h es e a l l o c a t i v e process es and the performance o f the functions which keep the system or the subsystem g oing in a s u f f i c i e n t l y i n t e g r a t e d manner i s i m p o s s i b l e w i t h o u t a system o f d e f i n i t i o n s o f r o l e s and sa nction s f o r conformity or d e v ia ti o n , (p. 25) Organizational Theory Organizational elements may be observed in both formal informal o rg an iz atio n s. be divided and The substance of o rganizational theory may in to two d i s t i n c t i v e areas functions and behavioral f u n c tio n s. of interest: structural Hierarchy and d i s t r i b u t i o n of a u t h o r i t y and r e s p o n s i b i l i t y are c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the s t r u c t u r a l fun ction , which i s known as the c l a s s i c a l theory o f o rganizatio n and has been presented by Taylor (1911) and Fayol (1949). They ignored the influence o f human p e r s o n a l i t y and channels o f i n t e r a c t i o n s . D i s s a t i s f a c t i o n with the c l a s s i c a l theory (sometimes c a l l e d Theory X) led to th e c re a t i o n of r e l a t i o n s theory or Theory Y. classical an alternative theo ry: th e human Human r e l a t i o n s theory d i f f e r s from theory p r im a r ily in I t s assumption t h a t members o f the or gan ization have an i n t r i n s i c i n t e r e s t in t h e i r o rg anizatio n and, more s p e c i f i c a l l y , in t h e i r work. They have t h e desire to be 30 resp on sible and to be self-directed (Ro eth lisb erger & Dickson, 1939). According to human r e l a t i o n s theory , formal r u l e s and r i g i d systems o f a d m in istratio n are made f l e x i b l e and members are c a l l e d on to p a r t i c i p a t e in the organ izational decision-making pr ocess. The development o f organizational theory led t o a new theory t h a t integrates factors intrinsic r e l a t i o n s theory. t o both c l a s s i c a l theory and human The new form was c a l l e d systems theory. Systems Theory Systems theory i s an approach t h a t involves a l l elements o f the o r g a n iz a tio n . Systems theory uses elements o f both c l a s s i c a l human r e l a t i o n s theory. and I t s advocates sought to d e scr ib e subsystems such as a u t h o r i t y , i n t e r a c t i o n , and energy as necessary s t r u c t u r a l components f o r social (March & Simon, organizations complexity. interaction 1 9 58). are systems and motivation According t o complex. L ikert social (1967) systems sy ste m s t h e o r y , illu stra te d th is He was p rim a rily concerned with the i n t e r a c t i o n o f the subsystems of a d m in istra tiv e decision making and m otivation. Lik ert according (1961, to 1967) th eir described four decision-making kinds of style: o rg a n i z a t i o n s , autho ritarian ( e x p l o i t a t i v e or benevolent), c o n s u l t a t i v e , and p a r t i c i p a t i v e . In e x p l o i t a t i v e - a u t h o r i t a r i a n o rg an iz atio n s, de cisio n s a re made f o r the b e n e f i t o f the org an iz atio n . In th e b e n e v o l e n t - a u t h o r i ta r ia n kind, de cision s are made f o r th e b e n e f i t o f org an iz atio n members. c o n s u l t a t i v e o r g a n iz a tio n s, members are consulted before In setting 31 o rganizational p o lic y ; however, the f i n a l decisio n i s made by the to p adm inistrators in the hierarchy. In the last kind of o r g a n iz a tio n , th e p a r t i c i p a t i v e organiz atio n , d e cisio n s are made by the o rg an iz atio n members who are d i r e c t l y a ff e c t e d by them. concepts a r e c o n s i d e r e d a key t o t h i s Two kind o f o r g a n i z a t i o n : i n t e g r a t i o n and d e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n ( L ik e r t, 1967). The above four types of o rganiz atio ns, c l a s s i f i e d by decisio n structure, c o n s t i t u t e the dimension of a u t h o r i t a t i v e / p a r t i c i p a t i o n as r e l e v a n t t o those who have a u th o r i ty and those on whom a u t h o r i t y is practiced. The power imbalance between th e two groups c r e a t e s an imbalanc e the in exchange o f power, which influences group decisions. Thompson (1966) theorize d t h a t the b u r e a u c r a t ic , hierarchical type of organization advocated by Weber r e t a r d s innovation. hypothesized that "the less bureaucratized o r g an iz atio n , th e more c o n f l i c t , are." Based on t h i s He a ls o (m onocratic) the u n c e r ta in ty and innovation t h e r e hypothesis, Thompson pro po se d t h a t h i e r a r c h i c a l orga nization be "loosened up" and made l e s s t i d y , the if innovation i s d e s i r e d . Concerning the Thompson model, Morphet and h is commented associates (1974) organizational model th at that "Thompson assumed some immediate p r o d u c t i o n in his must be s a c r i f i c e d in order t o assure innovation within the organization" (p. 73). Based on P a r s o n s ’ s and L i k e r t ’ s t h e o r i e s , G etzels developed a simple model f o r explaining human behavior. (1958) His model 32 depends on th e assumption t h a t the a d m i n i s t r a t iv e process d e als with so c ia l behavior structurally s e t t i n g - - s t r u c t u r a l l y in i t s and f u n c t i o n a l l y in a hierarchical r e l a t i o n s h i p between l e a d e r s and f o llo w e r s, o r what he c a l l e d su p e ro rdina tes and su bordinate s in a s o c ia l system, and f u n c t i o n a l l y in th e hierarch y r e l a t i o n s h i p o f th e "locus of control for allo catin g and integrating roles and f a c i l i t i e s " (p. 151). Getzels a s s e r t e d t h a t human behavior may be understood as a fun ctio n o f the nomothetic or normative dimension o f a c t i v i t i e s and an id io graph ic dimension in a so c ial system. includes th r e e elem ents: in stitu tio n , role, The f i r s t dimension and e x p e c t a t i o n , whereas the second dimension includes th e i n d i v i d u a l , p e r s o n a l i t y , and need d i s p o s i t i o n . These concepts are e la b o r a te d on in the f i n a l s e c t i o n o f t h i s c hap ter in r e l a t i o n t o the model developed f o r the p r e s e n t study. Contingency Theory and E o u i f i n a l i t y Theory Two o t h e r t h e o r i e s a re worth mentioning here because o f t h e i r relevanc e t o so c ial th eo ry. systems: contingency theory and e q u i f i n a l i t y Woodward (1965) and Perrow (1970) suggested a new s e t o f a s s u m p t io n s o r g a n iz a tio n a l of contingency theory. They em phasized that p a t t e r n s a r e con tingent on th e n a tu re o f the work s e t t i n g and th e needs o f th e people Involved. Contingency theory r e p r e s e n t s a f u r t h e r achievement f o r o r g a n iz a tio n a l t h e o r y , which in p a r t c r e a t e s the need f o r developing systems th eory. 33 E q u i f i n a l i t y t h e o r y 1s c o n s i d e r e d a l o g i c a l contingency th eo ry. I t Implies t h a t t h e r e a r e several equal means t o achieve o rgan iz atio nal ends. there 1s no b e s t way t o c o n tin genc ies. extension of Katz and Kahn (1966) suggested t h a t organize un d e r a p a r t i c u l a r set of According t o th es e a u th o r s , e q u i f i n a l i t y tends to r e l y on both c l a s s i c a l and human r e l a t i o n s t h e o r i e s and to seek general r u l e s t o accomplish o rg an iz atio n al g o a ls . Research on S a t i s f a c t i o n Approaches to Studying Life S a t i s f a c t i o n Studies o f l i f e satisfaction generally follow one o f three approaches, according t o d i f f e r e n c e s in d i s c i p l i n e s : 1. The economic approach focuses on o v e rt individual behavior o f the and u s e s monetary o r economic c r i t e r i a p eople ’ s well-being and s a t i s f a c t i o n . t o measure This approach has been used in s t u d i e s by th e United Nations (1954, 1974), Drewnowski (1971), t h e Organization f o r Economic Cooperation and Development (1974), Lisk (1979), and Havlghurst and Albrecht (1953). 2. The psychological intern al approach focuses frame o f r e f e r e n c e , with l i t t l e The combines on the individual’s atten tio n to social variables. 3. approaches. (1949), third Morris (1979). both internal and o v e rt I t 1s b e st represente d in the works o f Cavan e t a l . Havlghurst I n t e r n a ti o n a l approach Social (1957), the Development U n ite d (1963), N ations McGranahan R e se arch for (1972), and 34 The f i r s t and the t h i r d approaches do not serve the purpose o f th e p res en t re s e a r c h . Therefore, the following d is c u s s io n is focused only on the second approach. Findings o f r es ea r ch using contextual years variables such as age, of schooling, job s a t i s f a c t i o n , and m arita l s t a t u s are included in t h i s review. The assumptions o f th e psychological approach a re that the i n v e s t i g a t o r ' s value judgment can be minimized because i n d i v i d u a l s are t h e only v a li d judges o f t h e i r responses (Andrews, 1986; Andrews & Withey, 1976; Bradburn, 1969; 1965; Rodgers & Converse, 1975). Campbell et al., 1976; C antril, The l i n e of in q u iry o f t h e p r e s e n t study followed t h i s approach; t h a t i s , th e v a r i a b l e s were measured by means o f t h e respondents' own e v a lu a tio n s. As used in the p r e s e n t r e s ea rch , the term " s a t i s f a c t i o n " r e f e r s t o the s u b j e c t i v e way i n d iv i d u a ls perceive and e v a l u a t e t h e i r own lives. One im plication o f t h i s reasoning, in following the so c ial science t r a d i t i o n , i s t h a t any psychological measure o f s a t i s f a c t i o n should be c l e a r l y l i n k e d . t o the f e e l i n g s o f t h e people f o r whom i t is relevant. Material q u a l i t y o f l i f e has f a l l e n i n t o d i s f a v o r as a major index o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . Campbell e t a l . (1976) noted a gradual but c o n s i s t e n t d e c l in e in t h e rep orted l e v e l s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n in the United States from 1957 to 1972, whereas i n d i c a t o r s increased during t h a t time. economic and soc ial Liu (1975) r ep o r te d t h a t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e q u a l i t y o f l i f e in t h e United S t a t e s tends t o r i s e with r e a l per c a p i t a income and techn o lo gical advancement. 35 C a n t r i l ’ s (1965) f in d in g was t h a t the wealth o f a country i s j u s t o c c a sio n a lly o r not a t a l l r e l a t e d to r e p o r t s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . Schneider’ s (1975) comparable fin d in g s for American cities suggested t h a t comparison t o some r e f e r e n c e group was a primary basis fo r s a tis fa c tio n E a s t e r ! i n , 1974). reactions (Campbell, 1976; C antril, 1965; This decrease in s a t i s f a c t i o n was j u s t i f i e d by several r e s e a r c h e r s , such as C a n tril (1975), Hobbs (1971), Schneider (1975), and Sheldon and Moore (1968). S a t i s f a c t i o n With Life as a Whole Michalos (1986) repo rte d t h a t 76 s t u d i e s were conducted s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e as a whole between 1979 and 1982. noted a 106% in cre ase in p u b l ic a t i o n s He a ls o involving s a t i s f a c t i o n happiness compared with th e period between 1969 and 1972. on and Examples o f t h e s e s t u d i e s are included in the following paragraphs. Life s a t i s f a c t i o n (1976) explained that and q u a l i t y o f l i f e . th e development of Andrews and Withey the social-indicators movement emphasized th e measurement o f s u b j e c t i v e v a r i a b l e s that affect used the quality of life. Contrary to previously measurements o f o b j e c t i v e v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o economic i n d i c a t o r s such as p e r c a p i t a assessment was of the income and g r o s s s o c ia l factors national product, th is or what they c a l l e d "life concerns." Andrews (1974) showed the c l a r i t y and s i m i l a r i t y o f i n t e r a c t i o n o f w e ll-b e in g , q u a l i t y o f l i f e , and . s a t i s f a c t i o n . He a ls o noted t h a t " r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e i s s c i e n t i f i c a l l y known about such broadly 36 conceived we 11-being--either in the make-up o f i t s c o n s t i t u e n t p a r t s or in the conditions and influ ence which bring i t about." Andrews and Withey define d l i f e concerns as "asp ects o f l i f e about which people have f e e l in g s " (p. 11). 123 l i f e domains they enumerated could standards or "criteria," such as th e They theo rize d t h a t the be evaluated opportunity for by various achieving success, the amount o f beauty, or th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s f o r having fun. The concern in th e p res ent research was only one domain in the sample members* l i v e s , namely, the academic domain. Almost a l l o th er l i f e domains, such as family, jo b, community, and income, were excluded from study. Life and Domain S a t i s f a c t i o n Research on demographic v a r i a b l e s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p o f demo­ graphic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n has been stud ied by a number of r e s e a r c h e r s . Findings of th ese s t u d i e s have been c o n t r a ­ dictory. S p r e i t z e r and Snyder (1974) and Edwards and Klemmack (1973) found a negative r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and age, whereas Cantril this relationship (1965) and Bortner and Hultsch (1970) to be p o s i t i v e . found Other authors have found no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and age (Bigot, 1974; Bradburn, 1969; Lawton, 1972). One of the satisfaction has more c o n s i s t e n t been the of s a t i s f a c t i o n of weak r e l a t i o n s h i p demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s v a r i a b le s results on t h e research between one hand, and happiness on the on global so c ia l and and s u b j e c t i v e other (Andrews, 37 1982). Some resea rche rs have Inv estiga te d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between o b j e c ti v e and s u b je ctiv e v a ri a b le s in d i f f e r e n t r a c i a l groups. and eth n ic Generally speaking, with a few exceptional c ase s, a weak r e l a t i o n s h i p was reported (Andrews & Withey, 1976; Campbell, 1981; Campbell e t a l . , 1976). The l im ite d amount o f previous research on r a c i a l m inorities has been conducted with small samples. and e t h n i c A lac k of systematic research on s a t i s f a c t i o n within th e Muslim population and the e xis te nce of a few s t u d i e s r e p o r tin g some demographic v a r i a t i o n s suggest the need t o document t h e e f f e c t of such factors on su b j e c t iv e well-being in a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample o f Muslim community members. number The s c a t t e r e d population and th e lac k o f an i d e n t i f i e d of Muslims investigating l arg e in various samples. areas imply The present o p p o rtu n ity to explore th ese f a c t o r s a d ifficu lty research and t h e i r provided in the relationships sy s te m a t i c a ll y in a short time due t o th e r e l a t i v e l y small s i z e of t h i s group in the area in which the study was conducted. Andrews and Withey (1976) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t with one’ s l i f e as a whole 1s a d d it i v e : satisfactio n I t r e f l e c t s the t o t a l of o n e 's s a t i s f a c t i o n with various aspects o r domains, such as income, housing f a c i l i t i e s , family l i f e , on. friendship, l e i s u r e time, and so Research findin gs concerning the r e l a t i o n s h i p satisfaction and some of these domains a re between summarized life in the and h e a l t h . In following paragraphs. L ife s a t i s f a c t i o n with jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n answering the question "What did we learn about satisfaction, 38 happiness, (1980) w ell-be in g , o r q u a l i t y of l i f e pointed out t h a t as a whole?" Michalos some r e s e a r c h e r s have found s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e as a whole t o be p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d t o jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n (Michalos, 1981). 1980; Rose, 1980; Vredenburg & Sheridan, 1979; White, Rice, Hunt, and Near (1980) reviewed 23 s t u d i e s involving 350 jo b s a t i s f a c t i o n / l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n r e l a t i o n s h i p s and found t h a t " f o r more than 90 p ercen t of t h e c a s e s , relationship was positive; and none of the the direction of this scattered ne gativ e r e l a t i o n s h i p s was s t a t i s t i c a l l y r e l i a b l e " (p. 37). Concerning l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n with h e a l t h , i t was found t h a t in t h r e e s t u d i e s t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n v a r i a b l e was p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d to h e alth (Fernandez & K u lilk , Snyder, & Larson, 1980). found t o be p o s i t i v e l y 1981; Loewenstein, 1981; Spreitzer, In t h r e e o th er s t u d i e s , s a t i s f a c t i o n was a ss o c i a t e d with s a t i s f a c t i o n with h e a l th (Michalos, 1980, 1982, 1983). Life Michalos satisfactio n (1980) positively addition, with and White friendship (1981) and found l i f e a s s o c ia te d with s a t i s f a c t i o n L oewenstein (1981) found life fam ily satisfaction with 1982, 1983), satisfactio n and Medley (1980) to friendship. p o s i t i v e l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h ha v in g many f r i e n d s . Michalos (1980, relatio n s. to be In be White ( 1 9 8 1 ) , found a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p between l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and family r e l a t i o n s . Life s a t i s f a c t i o n with e d u ca tio n . Education may be t h e most important f a c t o r in flu en cin g p e o p le 's l i v e s and so c ia l m o b ility in 39 both advanced and developing s o c i e t i e s . Subjective w e ll- b e in g , such as s a t i s f a c t i o n and happiness, v a r i e s with the level o f education. Many r e s e a r c h e r s have found level o f education t o be p o s i t i v e l y c o r r e l a t e d with l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n (Adams, 1969; George, 1978; Herzog & Rogers, 1981; Liang e t a l . , 1980; Neugarten e t a l . , more e d u c a t e d the in d ividu als, 1961). t h e more s a t i s f i e d The they a re . Conversely, t h e l e s s educated people a r e , the l e s s s a t i s f i e d they tend to be with t h e i r l i v e s as a whole. Education seems t o have a g r e a t e r influ ence on p e op le ’s l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n than does sex, age, or s i z e o f th e community. Life s a t i s f a c t i o n with age and m arita l s t a t u s . shown t h a t marita l Research has s t a t u s has a major influence on s a t i s f a c t i o n . Various r e s e a r c h e r s have found t h a t being married i s more s a t i s f y i n g than being s i n g l e . For example, the empirical fin ding s o f I n g l e h a r t and Rabier ( c i t e d in Andrews, 1986) showed t h a t , in 1975-1979, 80% o f married people were s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r l i v e s , as compared t o 75% o f s i n g l e people. In 1982-1983, 82% o f married people were s a t i s f i e d , compared with 76% o f s i n g l e people. Atkinson (1980) and Rhyne (1981) found with na ti o nal samples o f Canadians t h a t males had higher l e v e l s o f m arita l s a t i s f a c t i o n than did females. A g r e a t deal has been w r i t t e n about the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s u b j e c t i v e well-being and age. levels of sa tis fa c tio n virtually every specific in c r e a s in g age. Herzog, Campbell e t a l . (1976) found r i s i n g with one’ s l i f e asp ect Rogers, of life in g e n e r a l , (except and w i t h health), and Woodworth (1982) with confirmed 40 th ese f i n d i n g s . In a d d i t i o n , Herzog and Rogers (1981) found a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and age. In c o n t r a s t , Neugarten e t a l . (1961) rep o rted no c o r r e l a t i o n between age and l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n . Likewise, Edwards and Kleiranak (1973) found no c o r r e l a t i o n between age and l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n when socioeconomic s t a t u s was c o n t r o l l e d . Larson (1978) examined 18 l i f e - s a t i s f a c t i o n surveys conducted in the United S t a t e s . Almost o n e - t h i r d o f th ese s t u d i e s reported p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between older age and life relationships, and satisfactio n , the r e m a in i n g one-third th ird found found negative slig h t or no relationships. Life s a t i s f a c t i o n with r e l i g i o n . Religion has been combined with s a t i s f a c t i o n v a r i a b l e s in a number o f s t u d i e s o f t h e American pub lic (Gurin, Snyder, 1974). Veroff, & Feld, 1960; Hadaway, 1978; Spreitzer & Those who adhered t o r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e s and b e l i e f s tended t o be more s a t i s f i e d than those who did not do so. This f in d in g was c o n s i s t e n t among C a th o l i c s , P r o t e s t a n t s , and t h e Greek Orthodox. Life satisfactio n and e t h n i c i t y . Several w riters have in v e s ti g a t e d t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e and s a t i s f a c t i o n o f Black Americans (Jackson, C h a tt e r s , & Neighbors, 1986). Herzog rep orte d a s i g n i f i c a n t r a c e by age i n t e r a c t i o n . et al. (1982) Their f in d in gs showed t h a t young blacks were l e s s s a t i s f i e d than young w h ites, but middle-aged and older blacks were c o u n te r p a r t s in terms of s a t i s f a c t i o n . sim ilar to th eir Investigators white have examined the s a t i s f a c t i o n o f Nexican-Americans ( O r tiz & Arce, a ls o in 41 Andrews, 1986), o l d e r Americans, s i n g l e American females, males, and st ud e n ts (Bachman e t a l . , 1986; Campbell e t a l . , 1976) as well as Belgians ( I n g l e h a r t & Rabier, 1986), Britons (Fox, 1973), Canadians (Michalos, 1982, 1983), French and Germans ( C a n t r i l , 1976), Chinese (Barclay e t a l . , 1976; G a l li n , 1966; Yang, 1959), and o t h e r e th n i c groups (Campbell e t a l . , 1976). No such s t u d i e s in t h e American l i t e r a t u r e have d e a l t with Muslims o r Arabs. be t h e f i r s t of i t s The p r e s e n t study may kind t o be conducted among Muslim community members in t h e U n ite d S t a t e s in g e n e r a l , and in Michigan in particular. Findings of res ea rch on l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and e t h n i c i t y have o f t e n been c o n t r a d i c t o r y , as m entioned a b o ve, e s p e c i a l l y when c o n t r o l l i n g f o r c e r t a i n demographic v a r i a b l e s . For example, Herzog e t a l . (1986), in a study o f I t a l i a n s and Belgians, found t h a t o l d e r a d u lt s tended t o show higher l e v e l s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n than did younger adults. Income, But when c o n t r o l l i n g education, f o r socioeconomic f a c t o r s and h e a l t h , the authors r e l a t i o n s h i p between age and s a t i s f a c t i o n . factors were such as found a n e g a t i v e I n t e r e s t i n g l y enough, when t h e s e socioeconomic controlled regression, the r e l a t i o n s h i p between s a t i s f a c t i o n in a m u ltip le and age was no longer negativ e (Herzog & Rogers, 1981). In another study, based on two n atio nal-sam p le surveys of American e t h n i c m i n o r i t i e s , Mexican and Black Americans, s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in s a t i s f a c t i o n were found between married and unmarried respondents and between men and women (Jackson e t a l . , 1986). 42 F i n a ll y , in a study t h a t analyzed demographic v a r i a b l e s among Chicanos, O r t i z and Acre (1986) found o ld er members o f t h e sample were l e s s happy but more s a t i s f i e d than younger persons; women were l e s s p o s i t i v e in t h e i r perceptions o f s a t i s f a c t i o n than were men. In g en eral, the fin ding s among groups of various e t h n i c backgrounds regarding happiness and s a t i s f a c t i o n tended to be sim ilar when socioeconomic f a c t o r s were included and s l i g h t l y d i s s i m i l a r when demographic v a r i a b le s (religion, age, marital status, education) were included. Conaruitv o f th e Study Model Voluntary Organizations and Membership The f un ctional present study took i n to account the r o l e s o f org an ization s as t h e o r e t i c a l psychosocial bases. and Persons i n t e r p r e t t h e i r universe according t o what they perc eive from o th er people, and the way they r e a c t t o problems i s affirmed by group support (Homans, 1950). The more i s o l a t e d t h e person i s , th e l e s s chance he will have to t e s t his hypotheses in the context o f f o lk life. Therefore, th e isolated person acts in terms of specific meaning (Shibutani, 1954). According to social theory, voluntary o r g an iz atio n s serve as a lin k between the p e rs o n and his env ir o n m en t ( R o ss , 1 9 5 4). Membership u sua lly brings a s s o c i a t e s t o i n t e r a c t with each o t h e r (Homans, 1950). Members share a t t i t u d e s , values, and opinions. the pres en t study, members of th e In Islamic org an iz ation formulate opinions and a t t i t u d e s concerning issu es facing the members in t h e i r 43 everyday l i v e s . The common b e l i e f t h a t what Allah has ordained will occur no m atter what th e person does or does not do w ill enhance group members* pe rc eptions about unpred icta ble phenomena such as s a t i s f a c t i o n with the f u t u r e . This b e l i e f makes members face the f u t u r e with more confidence and t o a c t in a pa ssive way. Members o f organiz atio ns have been found t o have a g r e a t e r knowledge o f t h e i r environment than nonmembers (Hausknecht, Inkeles & Smith, 1973; Rogers, 1963). a ls o been found to b eliev e that t h e r e f o r e can be planned f o r . 1962; Members o f a s s o c i a t i o n s have the future is predictable and These f ind ing s were s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the l e s s educated (Hausknecht, 1954; Inkeles & Smith, 1973; Lerner, 1958; Rogers,1968). According to Prethus well as l a t e n t go a ls . (1962), o rg an izatio ns have manifest "The manifest goal of p r i v a t e c o rp o ra tio n s i s to produce and s e l l c e r t a i n products a t a p r o f i t . unofficial g o a ls , however, members f o r s e c u r i t y , as include a l l r e c o g n itio n , the Their l a t e n t or aspirations and s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n " of (p. their 4) . Prethus hypothesized t h a t the attainment o f t h e manifest goals would be "promoted by r eco gn ition of th e legitim acy o f t h e l a t e n t goals o f the a c t o r s in the organization" (p. 4). C la ss ific a tio n o f Muslim Groups "Knowing is classifying" is a principle espoused s c h o lars (Fiske, 1921; Spencer, 1873; Weber, 1947). by many When i t i s sa id t h a t a given phenomenon has been explained, t h i s simply means t h a t it has been ranked w i t h s i m i l a r phenomena t h a t , h a vin g been 44 p revio usly grouped t o g e t h e r , are sa id t o be understood. (1922) carried th is thought a step further, Giddings w riting that " c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s the foundation o f a l l s c i e n t i f i c knowledge; . . . i t c o n s i s t s simply in p u t t i n g t o g e t h e r in our thought those th in g s t h a t a r e t r u l y and e s s e n t i a l l y a li k e " (p. 2). The p r e s e n t w r i t e r followed t h i s t r a d i t i o n classify Muslim groups according to d e p a r tu r e and academic s a t i s f a c t i o n . their and attempted t o degree of normative To i l l u s t r a t e , th e Muslim o f today can be c l a s s i f i e d in one o f f i v e suggested c a t e g o r i e s t h a t are formulated by the in flu e n ce o f several f a c t o r s . These f a c t o r s are ed ucation, age, m arita l s t a t u s , c u l t u r e , peer group o r k in ship , and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l membership. used to classify them Individuals* background d i f f e r e n c e s are into groups term ed fundam entalist, c o n se r v a tiv e , r e f o r m i s t , n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s t , and anomic. Logical Reasoning and Discussion o f t h e Study Model A dichotomy o f Ideal types does not i n co rpo ra te t h e c a t e g o r i e s t h a t l i e between th e ideal ty p e s , e s p e c i a l l y in a r a p i d l y moving p r o f e s sio n a l world (Levi, 1966). The suggested concepts o r types d e v i a t e from th e I d e a l - ty p e dichotomies in h ere n t in the s o c ia l and p hilo so p hic al l i t e r a t u r e and depend on the following assumptions: 1. The ideal person (1n philosophical o r so c i o lo g i c a l terms) does not e x i s t in to d a y ’ s real world; every person 1s, t h e r e f o r e , deviant. Hence t h e describ ed as i d e a l . Ideal t y p e r e q u i r e s more e l e m e n t s t o be The more elements t h a t a re added t o t h e ty pe, the more d e p artu re from t h e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f such type. Elements 45 of the "Ideal" organizations. elements t y p e do n o t e x i s t a c r o s s n a t i o n s , Each type sometimes would t h e r e f o r e shared by one or be two groups, or a combination of nations g e n e r a l i z a b l e t o a l l n a t i o n s , groups, or o r g a n i z a t i o n s . but not To apply th e above idea, l o g i c a l l y speaking, i f the ideal type (T) equals the elements A, B, and C, then any o f th e elements alone cannot be equal t o t h e ideal type (T). " p a r ts" o f T. Why? Because A, B, and C a re "sums" or F u rth e r, n e i t h e r A, B, nor C would be desc ribed as t h e ideal type (T). The e x is te n c e of a l l t h e s e elements t o g e t h e r cannot be found in r e a l i t y volume, time, and space. f o r several reason s, including size, Each o f thes e reasons can be divided in to many subreasons, which supports the argument t h a t th e ideal type does not e x i s t . 2. Based on t h e same lo g ic a l o pposite extreme o f the ideal c la s s ific a tio n s of s o c ie tie s , reasoning mentioned above, the type a ls o does not e x i s t . groups, o r g a n i z a t i o n s , Types, and even persons tend t o d e v ia te from t h i s extreme. 3. Based on the l o g i c a l reasoning o f the "IF . . . THEN" r u l e , i t i s assumed t h a t IF th e ideal type was given t h e l e t t e r "A" in the a lp h a b e tic a l o r d e r , and t h e opposite type was given t h e l e t t e r "Z" in the same o rd e r , THEN o t h e r types would be c a t e g o r i z e d between "A" and "Z." 4. Depending on Assumptions 1 and 2 above, 1t i s assumed t h a t a nonexis te nt type cannot be o p e ra t io n a l iz e d s c i e n t i f i c a l l y f o r two reasons: (a) theoretically: any d e f i n i t i o n for both concepts 46 (ideal and nonideal) w ill vary among those who d e fin e them, and (b) methodologically: i t would be d i f f i c u l t t o i n v e s t i g a t e or measure such concepts. 5. According to the preceding assumption, persons between th e two e x tr e m e s can be t h e o r e t i c a l l y iden tified and e m p i r i c a l l y o p e r a t io n a l iz e d and i n v e s t i g a t e d . Based on the foregoing assumption, th e suggested concepts were c l a s s i f i e d r e l a t i v e t o the respondents* c u l t u r a l attachment, t h e i r demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , psychological motives. their ethnic backgrounds, and t h e i r In s h o r t , t h es e motives a re the f o r ce behind the person ’ s behavior, whether t h a t behavior i s s p i r i t u a l , p h y sic a l, or s o c i a l . To examine the preceding assum ptions, the follow ing e x p ecta tio ns were formulated and t e s t e d : 1. No respondent o r group o f respondents w ill have an ideal mean f o r a high (5) or low (1) score on any o f t h e study s c a l e s . In o th er words, respondents w i l l . b e d ispe rsed between t h e two extremes. 2. tively, V aria tio n s between respondents can be c l a s s i f i e d q u a n t i t a ­ according to their scores in religiosity as d ispe rsed between extremely high and extremely low. 3. Concept c l a s s i f i c a t i o n can be termed and i d e n t i f i e d . 4. The given terms f o r types or c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s can be com­ pared with prev io u s t h e o r i e s , concepts, and t y p e s o f s i m i l a r phenomena. The h y p o t h e t i c a l depicted in Figure 2 .1 . classificatio n of study respondents is A r e c t a n g l e i s divided i n to fou r p a r t s , 47 according t o two dimensions (high and low) f o r both r e l i g i o s i t y and participation. The lower left quarter 1s characterized by low r e l i g i o s i t y and low p a r t i c i p a t i o n and i s given t h e term "anomic." The lower r i g h t q u a r t e r 1s desc ribed by high p a r t i c i p a t i o n and low r e l i g i o s i t y and 1s given t h e term " n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s t . " right quarter i s characterized by high participation r e l i g i o s i t y and i s termed the "fundamentalist" group. left quarter participation is and i s classification combination of characterized given t h e as high term The upper and high The upper relig io sity " c o n s e r v a tiv e ." i s given th e term " refo rm ist" and and The f i n a l in c o r p o r a te s a l l the o t h e r dimensions. LOW HIGH HIGH R 5E L I G I 0 S I T Y 1- CONSERVATIVE GROUP HIGH-LOW FUNDAMENTALIST GROUP HIGH-HIGH REFORMIST GROUP ' ANOMIC GROUP LOW-LOW NEO-TRADITIONAL GROUP HIGH-LOW LOW 1 • t LOW * low 5 HIGH PARTICIPATION Figure 2 . 1 .- -H y p othetica l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f respo ndents. a 48 I t was assumed t h a t th e above c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s o f human behavior r e p r e s e n t groups of people. qualities. Each group has s p e c i f i c and t y p ic al For Instan ce, the fundamentalist group tends t o be In conformity with t r a d i t i o n , r e s i s t s change, r e j e c t s compromises, and f o r c e s c h a l l e n g e and c o m p e t i t i o n . The c o n s e r v a t i v e gro up 1s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l e s s conformity than th e fundam entalist group, i s less resistant to ch an ge, and Is able to compromise. N e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s and r e f o r m i s t s are almost I d e n t i c a l In accepting new ideas f o r change. Whereas the former group has c onditions f o r acceptance o f change and innovative Ideas, most o f t h e s e c o nd itio n s are linked with antecedent values and norms. Conversely, r e f o r m i s t s have a wider sphere f o r innovation, whether i t i s lin k ed to values or not. Their r a t i o n a l e i s to clo se the gap between the p a st and the presen t in order t o increas e Muslim s o l i d a r i t y through modern knowledge. A p r im a r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c negligence o f b e l i e f , Islamic or no t, of the in their anomic group is everyday l i v e s . Although t h i s group does not possess any o f t h e q u a l i t i e s o f the o t h e r groups, they share with other groups t h e name o f Islam and o c ca sio n ally p r a c t i c e i t . Muslims as a f o l k group share c e r t a i n beliefs, va lu es, and norms, reg a r d le ss of the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n to which they a re placed. The w r i t e r assumed that of the in varying degrees. To i l l u s t r a t e , the v e r t i c a l a x is Is termed "normative d e p a r t u r e . " The s t r a i g h t path o f f a i t h they share (see Figure 2.2) some proportion horizo ntal axis re p r e s e n ts th e common values held by a l l Muslims and 49 i s termed the " s t r a i g h t p a th ." For i n sta n c e , the fundamentalist group i s hypothesized to be c lo s e to the path and occupies t h e area of triangle ABC. The conservativ e group occupies th e area t r i a n g l e AB1C1 and shares the AB1 po rt io n o f th e s t r a i g h t path . of The reformers group occupies the area o f th e t r i a n g l e AB2C2 and shares th e AB2 portio n o f the s t r a i g h t pa th . The n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s t group occupies the area o f t r i a n g l e AB3C3 and shares t h e AC3 po rtio n of th e s t r a i g h t path. path F i n a l l y , th e sm a llest p ortio n o f the s t r a i g h t (AB4) i s shared by th e anomic group and occupies th e are a of t r i a n g l e AB4C4. a> j3 4 -> 5Q. ie o0) •r— 4m-> zo A B3 B4 B2 B1 B S t r a i g h t Path Figure 2 . 2 . --Degrees o f groups* normative d e p a r tu r e . The w r i t e r so c ial assumed t h a t and r e l i g i o u s th e activities members’ p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f the 1n the Islamic Center continues 50 whether or not they are s a t i s f i e d with th e Center as a system. He a ls o assumed t h a t when a s t a t e o f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n o r ' c o n f l i c t a r i s e s between members as i n d iv i d u a ls , or between members and th e C e n te r’s administrators, g roups those according to in d iv id u a ls will the p a r t i c i p a t i o n (Homans, 1950). degree of tend to th eir be divided in to relig io sity and Some will agree on both the means and ends of the or g a n iz a tio n , whereas oth ers w ill have va rious responses toward accepting or r e j e c t i n g organizational p o l i c i e s and methods of achieving them. Theories Related to C l a s s i f i c a t i o n Se lec ti on o f the two v a r i a b le s to be the c r i t e r i a f o r Muslim c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in t h i s study was based on g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s made by two proponents o f social groups, Homans (1950) in The Human Group and Simmel (1959) in The Web o f Group A f f i l i a t i o n s . Simmel’ s concern was with social differentiation Although a t the s o c i e t a l level in modern i n d u s t r i a l s o c i e t i e s , which Is f a r from the purposes o f t h i s study, his focus on the na ture and s i g n i f i c a n c e o f group membership was d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d to the research. In h is a n a ly sis of social forms, Simmel used t h e s o c i e t y as the u n i t o f a n a l y s i s and r e f e r r e d to means of i n t e r a c t i o n through which people achieve t h e i r go a ls . However, the u n i t o f a n a l y s i s can also be applied t o smaller u n i t s such as th e one under study (Merton, 1 9 57 ). For Simmel, the frame of reference was social d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n , which r e s u l t e d in an incre asin g p o t e n t i a l f o r r o l e conflict. He demonstrated how h is a n a ly sis expla in s the way people 51 form groups because o f I n t e r a c t i o n and what he c a l l e d in v o lv e m en t" of the members w i t h s p e c i a l i z a t i o n o r p ro f e s s i o n a l i s m , so m eth ing "emotional common, such as where persons have freedom of choice. Close t o t h i s idea but with d i f f e r e n t reasoning, Parsons (1960) a s s e r te d t h a t "the c e n t r a l p o in t o f r e f e r e n c e f o r o rg an iz atio n i s i t s value p a t t e r n s . " (or lac k of c o n f l i c t ) analyzing the Fu r th e r , he claimed t h a t ord er in an org an iz ation i s b e s t maintained when members o f t h e o r g a n iz a tio n a re put in a p o s i t i o n o f c o n s t r a i n in g themselves. This p o s i t i o n can be a t t a i n e d as members i n t e r n a l i z e common values and b e l i e f s and cooperate with each o t h e r (Parsons, 1960). Unlike Simmel*s form in g g r o u p s , which i s c on dition of s o c ia l differentiation p u r e m a t e r i a l i s m and s e l f - i n t e r e s t , Parsons’ (1951) two c o n d it i o n s were members’ i n t e r a c t i o n participation and in integration of both value patterns through and need dispositions. Parsons (1951) was concerned with th e ways in which the norms and values of a system a re t r a n s f e r r e d t o system. i n t e g r a t i o n i s obtained, then both t h e need d i s p o s i t i o n If th e a c t o r within the and the value p a t t e r n s become p a r t of t h e p ers on’ s conscience. result, in pursuing t h e i r needs, people are I n t e r e s t s of t h e system as a whole. in f a c t As a se rving the The system as a whole, and not the a c t o r , was Parsons’ c o n c e r n - - t h a t i s , how t h e system c o n t r o l s the a c t o r and not how the a c t o r maintains th e system, as in Simmel*s case . 52 Both Simmel and Parsons emphasized th e p a r t i c i p a t i o n increas es i n t e r a c t i o n . Simmel idea that members’ (1959) a s s e r te d t h a t forms of i n t e r a c t i o n are found in a wide range o f s e t t i n g s : in the s t a t e , the family, the school, and th e r e l i g i o u s community. Parsons (1951) wrote, " I t i s the p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f an a c t o r in a p a tterned i n t e r a c t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p which I s f o r many p u r p o s e s t h e most s i g n i f i c a n t u n i t of th e social system” (p. 25). Homans’ s (1950) t o p i c in The Human Group was more r e l a t e d to t he c en tr al concern of t h i s study. He a s s e r te d t h a t the q u a l i t y r a t h e r than the q u a n tity o f group members and th e degree r a t h e r than the kinds of human r e l a t i o n s h i p s are important. Homans considered the t o t a l social system, as well as each group, as having i n te r n a l and external subsystems. He conceptualized t h r e e elements of the behavior of any group: interaction. interdependent sentiments, a c t i v i t y , and He then analyzed th e group’ s i n te r n a l and external subsystems with respect t o thes e elements. Homans defined th e i n te r n a l subsystem as "group behavior t h a t i s an expression of the sentiments toward one another developed by members of the group" (p. 123). He explained t h a t develop group norms through members' i n t e r a c t i o n . sentiments Homans defined norms as ideas in the minds of members of a group t h a t can be put in a statement specifying what the member should do, ought t o do, and i s expected t o do under given circumstances. More I m p o r ta n t 1n Homans's research g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s concerning small groups: are the follow ing 53 1. The more f r e q u e n t ly members of a group Interact, the g r e a t e r t h e i r sentiments o f f r i e n d s h i p f o r one another a re apt to be. 2. like Persons who fr e q u e n t ly i n t e r a c t with one another a re more one another in t h e i r activities than they are like other persons with whom they i n t e r a c t l e s s f r e q u e n t ly . 3. The c l o s e r an Individual or subgroup comes t o r e a l i z i n g in a l l a c t i v i t i e s the norms o f the group as a whole, t h e higher w ill be the so c ial rank o f t h e individual or the subgroup. 4. A decrease in the frequency o f i n t e r a c t i o n between the members o f a group and o u t s i d e r s , accompanied by an i n c r e a s e in the strength o f t h e i r n e g a t i v e s e n t i m e n t s to w ard o u t s i d e r s , w ill in cre ase th e frequency o f i n t e r a c t i o n and t h e s t r e n g t h o f p o s i t i v e sentiments among th e members of a group, and v ice v e rs a. In applying th es e g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s to the Muslim o r g a n iz a tio n members according t o t h e i r r e l i g i o s i t y and p a r t i c i p a t i o n in Center activ ities (norms and Interaction in Homans’ s term s), it can be stated th at: 1. The more Muslim org an iz ation members p a r t i c i p a t e as members in t h e Islamic o r g a n iz a tio n a c t i v i t i e s , th e more o p p ortun ity they have t o i n t e r a c t , and t h e r e f o r e the more o pp o rtu nity they have t o like each o t h e r . ( I t was assumed t h a t Homans’ s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n i s correct.) 2. Feelings o f a f f e c t i o n t h a t grow between Muslim o r g a n iz a tio n members on the one hand, and between members and d e c isio n makers on 54 the o t h e r , w ill lead t o o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s beyond t h e requirements of group membership. 3. The more Muslim members I n t e r a c t with each o t h e r , th e more they w ill l i k e each o th er. 4. members I f th e communication between Muslim le a d e r s and community is reduced, and th is decrease in communication is accompanied by an increase in th e negative sentiments o f each group toward the o th er, then t h e members of each group will be drawn c l o s e r to g e t h e r , but intergroup h o s t i l i t y will be increas ed. S o l i d a r i t y i s only one of the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a group whose members share sentiments, a c t i v i t y , and i n t e r a c t i o n . i s expected to p r o t e c t i t s norms and sentiments. thes e norms, e s p e c i a l l y by an o u t s i d e r Such a group Any a t t a c k on (o r anyone considered an o u t s i d e r according t o the group norms), increases the s o l i d a r i t y of the group as the group develops negative source o f the a t t a c k . sentiments toward the I f the a t t a c k comes from i n sid e th e group, i . e . , by a member v i o l a t i n g i t s norms, the group i t s e l f d i s c i p l i n e s the a t t a c k e r by making him an o u t s i d e r to the group. I f the number of o u t s i d e r s in c r e a s e s , then a new group of o u t s i d e r s with s p e c i f i c d ivergent norms and sentiments and sharing s i m il a r c r i t i c i s m s o f the main group w ill formally or informally announce i t s formulation with or without a group lea d er. Taking in to account the c u l t u r a l Simmers theory, the degree of (social) d if f e r e n tia tio n interaction and integration in in Parsons’ theor y, and the degree o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e i n te r n a l and external subsystems in Homans’ s theory, and adding to th es e the 55 different political systems t o which the members o f t h e Muslim o rganization belong as well as the various contextual va riable s* the above g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s w ill be more evid ent. From th e Islamic legacy, been a r t i c u l a t e d c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of human beings has in t h e Q ura 'n and Sunnah (trad itio n ). For i n sta n c e , th e Qura’n seems to d i s t i n g u i s h f i v e groups according to the revealed message o f God: the group to whom t h e Prophet addresses h i s message, the group of whom the message speaks, the group o f witnesses who a re produced, the people o f p a s t h i s t o r y , and f i n a l l y the group of people who are d istin g u i s h e d by t h e i r r e a c t i o n to t h e message ( B a k k er, c l a s s i f i e d i n to subgroups. the Qura’n d e scrib e s 1965 ). Each o f t h e s e groups can be For example, concerning th e l a s t group, two c l a s s e s of people according to their p o s i t i v e or negative r e a c t i o n t o the message--that i s , men with the r i g h t re a c t i o n and those with the wrong one (Bakker, 1965). Merton (1957) c l a s s i f i e d d i s s a t i s f i e d people i n to f i v e ty pes, according t o t h e i r ways o f adapting t o t h e goals o f a c u l t u r e and t he i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d means to r e a l i z e those g oals . conform ity, innovative, ritualism , retreatism , The types a re : and r e b e l l i o n . Merton’ s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system was the frame of r efe ren c e f o r the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n adopted f o r t h i s study. t he two typolo gies. Table 2.1 i s a comparison of 56 Table 2 .1 .- - A comparison o f Merton's typology and th e one used in t h i s study. C l a s s i f i c a t i o n s Used in This Study Merton’s Types Conformi ty Ritualism Innovative Retreatism Rebellion Fundamentalist Conservative Reformi s t N e o -tr a dition al Anomic To serve the typology used in t h i s study, another model t h a t supports th e l o g ic o f th e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s examined. Getzels & Guba (1957) viewed the concept of social behavior as th e a ss o c i a t io n th a t explains the in teraction between t h e role player in an o rganizatio n (ad m i n is t ra t o r as a supe rordinate) and the individual in the same o rg an ization (employee as a su bo rdin a te ). In t h e i r model, Getzels and Guba d istin g u is h ed two dimensions o f phenomena: nomothetic and id io g ra p hic . role e x p ec ta tio n s , The former describ es i n s t i t u t i o n s and whereas th e t h e i r need d i s p o s i t i o n s . latter de scrib e s in d iv i d u a ls and The model was c h a r a c t e r i z e d as a socio- psychological framework i l l u s t r a t i n g th e degree o f r o l e exp ecta tions in a p o s i t io n and th e allowance f o r expressed individual needs. Getzels summarized t h i s Figure 2.3 . This model has theoretical formulation as shown in become a c l a s s i c s i m p l i c i t y and seminal properties. . . . resea rch been on studies have based because of "its A number o f empirical hypotheses originating G etze ls' formulation" (Morphet e t a l . , 1974, pp. 69-70). in Nomothetic Dimension Institution Social System t Expecta+ Need D e p o s i t i o n Idiographic Dimension Figure 2 . 3 . - -The Getzels and Guba model. Getzels and Guba described kinds of o r g an iz atio n s according to a new model, including both extremes o f bureaucracy as well as the school system, as having both formal and informal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . To i l l u s t r a t e , the new Getzels and Guba model (Figure divided i n to t h r e e a re a s , according to org an iz atio nal 2.4) type. is The r o l e a t the l e f t side o f the diagram re p r e s e n ts t h e formal aspect of an org an iz atio n , as p r a c t ic e d in the m i l i t a r y . The r i g h t s id e of t he diagram rep re se nts th e asp ect in which t h e a r t i s t has complete freedom of decisio n making without any formal o r informal c o n t r o l . The middle p a r t o f the diagram c h a r a c t e r i z e s th e school which 1s a combination o f both personal and impersonal o rg an iz atio n . system, types of 58 M ilitary Extremely Formal School A rtist Extremely Informal Figure 2 . 4 . --The new Getzels and Guba model. As shown in Figure 2 .5 , th e classification system used the p res ent study combines both Merton's and Getzels t y p o lo g i e s . of clo seness in and Guba’ s The c r i t e r i o n used in t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i s th e degree or th e degree of de partu re from t r a d i t i o n . The "fundam entalis t" type in t h e p resen t study occupies the f a r l e f t o f the Getzels and Guba model (the formal-mi 1i t a r y type) and equates t o Merton's conformity type. The anomic type is sim ilar to the r e b e l l i o n type in Merton’ s typology and th e a r t i s t i c type in Getzels and Guba's model. Other c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s adapted f o r t h i s study are arranged according t o the same c r i t e r i a . next t o the fundam entalist type. The c o n serv a tiv e type i s The n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l type occupies the a re a next t o the a r t i s t i c type o f Getzels and Guba's model and equates t o th e concept o f r e t r e a t i s m in Merton’ s term s. Finally, t h e term " r e f o r m i s t , " although not included in Merton's typology per se , has much in common with c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the innovative type and was included in t h i s study t o r e p r e s e n t t h e middle p o i n t Getzels and Guba's model. in The term "refo rm ist" was s e l e c t e d to 59 d e scr ib e school a d m i n i s t r a t o r s as a type combining both so c ial and psychological approaches in a problem -solving situation in educational a d m i n i s t r a t io n , according t o s c i e n t i f i c o r i e n t a t i o n s . (?) T ra d i ti o n a l Secular (?) S e c u - t r a d it i o n I D > 80 E 60-79 40-59 20-39 < 20 A L Fundamentalist Reformist Conservative Anomic N e o - tr a d itio n al Figure 2 . 5 . --Expected scores f o r Muslim groups on the R e l i g i o s i t y Scale. The concepts " t r a d i t i o n a l , " " s e c u - t r a d i t i o n a l ," and " secu lar" shown a t t h e top o f Figure 2.5 were used t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e time hi erarchy o f normative d e p artu re from a sacred t r a d i t i o n a l customs, beliefs, (so c ial and values passed down from one g e n eration to another) to a nonsacred s e c u l a r ( c h a r a c te r iz e d by r a t i o n a l i t y and openness to change as opposed to t r a d i t i o n ) way o f l i f e . The term " s e c u - t r a d i t i o n a l " 1s a new concept used in t h i s study t o mean the state of e q uilibrium between traditional and s e c u l a r qualities. 60 Here, this secular equilibrium i s conflict and assumed t o harmonize th e to solve the problems traditionalc aused by misunderstanding o f social behavior in the process o f s p a t i a l psychic m obility and t r a n s i t i o n from a r i g i d t r a d i t i o n a l t o an un restrain ed anarchism. trad itio n al" or situation The w r i t e r believed t h a t th e "secu- c o n ce p t would s u i t leaders, adm inistrators, and reformers as q u a l i f i e d personnel t o a t t a i n a s t a t e o f equilibrium in the contemporary world on both th e macro- and mic ro -unit l e v e l s . Taking a l l selected the above t h e o r i e s two c o n c e p t s , in to account, p articip atio n th e researcher and r e l i g i o s i t y , c r i t e r i a f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n in t h i s study. as t h e The boundaries of each category in the c l a s s i f i c a t i o n are t h e o r e t i c a l l y sound but need more empirical e la b o r a tio n , e s p e c i a l l y in measuring such groups. That e la b o ratio n i s given in Chapter VI. Summary This chapter contained a di sc ussion o f Islamic beliefs and p r a c t i c e s and a h i s t o r i c a l background o f Muslims in North America. Related organizational t h e o r i e s were explored in the second s e c t i o n . Research on l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n and contextual v a r i a b l e s was covered in t h e t h i r d section. concluded the chapter. An i n t e g r a t i o n o f t h e three sections CHAPTER I I I METHODS AND PROCEDURES Introduction This chapter contains a d e s c r i p t io n o f the study s e t t i n g and the methods and procedures used in the resea rch . This d e s c r i p t i o n includes the t a r g e t po pulation, the instrument used in collecting data-collection and d a ta - sample s e l e c t i o n , the d a t a , and th e a n a l y s i s procedures. The Study S etting Four hundred t h i r t y - t w o Muslim s t u d e n t s were e n r o l l e d Michigan S t a te University a t the time t h i s study was (21.61% o f the 1,999 foreign student enrollment). 20 Muslim c o u n tr i e s , as shown in Table 3 . 1 . at conducted They repr ese nted A l a r g e proport io n o f th e s e students p a r t i c i p a t e in the Islamic Center in East Lansing, Michigan, e s p e c i a l l y in the Friday prayers and the grand f e s t i v a l s o f Islam (Eid A l - F i t r and Eid Al-Adha). The Islamic Center plays an important role in helping its members a d ju s t to Western l i f e , p a r t i c u l a r l y those who are new to the Michigan S t a te University campus. Both American and non- American Muslims p a r t i c i p a t e in the a c t i v i t i e s o f th e Center. 61 62 Table 3 . 1 . - - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f Muslim students a t Michigan S t a te U niversity according t o country o f o r i g i n , Spring 1987. Arab Country N 7 33 14 31 13 16 4 1 73 3 11 5 36 3 3 A1geri a Egypt Iraq Jordan® Kuwait Lebanon Morocco Oman Saudi Arabia Somalia Sudan Syria Tunisia United Arab Emirates Yemen Total Note: Non-Arab Country Bangladesh Iran Malaysia Pakistan Turkey N 5 50 72 30 22 253 179 Data were obtained from the Office of I n t e r n a ti o n a l Students and Scholars, Michigan S t a te University , April 10, 1987. All the above c o u n tr ie s are members o f th e Organization o f the Islamic Conference, e s t a b l i s h e d in May 1971. I t s headquarters i s in Saudi Arabia. a Includes P a l e s t i n i a n s . The Role o f the Islamic Center The r o l e o f the Islamic Center i s to organize and encourage members t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e various a c t i v i t i e s of the Center. The Muslim Center and has an elected numerous committee members, a l l p r e s id e n t and vice-president o f whom perform th e t a s k s o f the s t r u c t u r e and function o f the a d m i n istr a tio n . Some o f t h e s e task s are planning, organizing, coo rdin ating , and e valuatin g. 63 The organization committees are the so c ial committee, the Da’awah committee, the Muslim students committee, the information committee, and th e women’s committee. The o rganization provides s e r v ic e s through these committees, such as securing personnel religious services; g a th e r in g s ; having organizing rec eptio n s for lectures, camps, and new and graduating for social s t u d e n ts ; supplying the l i b r a r y with audio and video s e r v i c e s ; coord inating sports, e ducational, and c u l t u r a l Center i t s e l f . activities; and maintaining the The a d m in istr a tiv e personnel are chosen y e a r l y by the general assembly. The Islamic Center i s a member of the Islamic Society of North America (ISNA). Any member o f the Center is auto m atically considered a member of the mother o rganization (ISNA). The Islamic Center i s c h ara c te r iz e d o r g an iz atio n . as an informal type of As a soc ial system, ascribed r o l e s f o r a d m i n i s t r a t iv e personnel are expected t o be performed according t o c u l t u r a l norms and r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p s between thes e r o l e s and those who occupy them are c o n tro lle d by c u l t u r a l and r e l i g i o u s r u l e s of conformity, where members v o l u n t a r i l y and p a r t i c i p a t e in i t s a c t i v i t i e s . Center i s shown in Figure 3.1. serve the org an iz atio n The s t r u c t u r e o f th e Islamic 64 BOARD OF TRUSTEES (Majlis al-Shura) Preside nt Vice-President Student Committee Da’ awah Committee Social Committee Women’ s Committee Information Committee J MEMBERS. Figure 3 . 1 . - - S t r u c t u r e of the Islamic Center. Conqruitv o f the Islamic Center and Educational Systems The Islamic Center i s s i m i l a r to a school system, in t h a t both c a r r y on formal and informal r e l a t i o n s h i p s with t h e i r c l i e n t s well as with th e community around them. Table 3.2 shows as the s i m i l a r i t i e s in s t r u c t u r e and functions between t h e Islamic Center and a school system. The Target Population The Muslim p o p u l a t i o n in the community u n d e r s t u d y estimated t o comprise about 1,200 men, women, and c h i l d r e n . was The p o p u l a t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d a m u l t i - n a t i o n a l , c r o s s - e t h n i c group o f Muslims. The Muslim community In the Lansing area has increased since 1979, when t h e Islamic Center was e s t a b l i s h e d . The population 65 i n c l u d e s s t u d e n t s and n o n s t u d e n t s , U n ite d S t a t e s c i t i z e n s and n o n c it i z e n s , and migrants who are in t h e area f o r s p e cia l purposes. Table 3 . 2 . - - S t r u c t u r e of t h e Islamic Center and a school system. The Islamic Center Administrative le a d e r s h ip A School System Board o f t r u s t e e s ; p r e s i d e n t and vice-president Board o f education; p r i n c i p a l and vice-principal I n t e g r a ti o n mechanisms Informal Formal Personnel Committee members Teachers and s t a f f C lie n ts Muslim community: stu d e n ts and o th ers Students and th e community Organizational Planning, organizin g, o p e r a t in g , managing, maint r a i n i n g , co o rd in a tin g , and developing Theories of a d m in istr a tio n C u l t u r a l , social Psychosocial Rules Religious b e l i e f s , norms, and r u l e s Bureaucratic and human r e l a t i o n s Performance and outputs Expressive Instrumental Product Good b e l i e v e r Good c i t i z e n The Study SamDle The r e s e a r c h e r participants. Center. constructed two l i s t s of p o ssible study One l i s t was obtained from a d i r e c t o r y o f t h e Islamic The o t h e r 11st was compiled from public university d ire c to rie s . telephone and Personal c o n ta c t s with o t h e r Muslims a ls o 66 helped in compiling t h i s l i s t . P r o b a b i li t y sampling was used in s e l e c t i n g 115 a d u lt male sample members (25% o f th e a d u l t male population) from these two l i s t s . Instrumentation Andrews and Withey (1976) defined l i f e concerns as "aspects of life about which people have fe e l in g s " (p. 11). The authors t heorized t h a t the 123 domains they enumerated could be evaluated by various standards or c r i t e r i a , such as the op portunity f o r achieving success, th e amount of beauty, or the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r having fun. The p resent r e s e a r c h e r was concerned with only one domain in the l i v e s of the sample members, namely the academic domain. All o t h e r l i f e domains, such as family, jo b , h e a lth , and income, were excluded from th e study. Three measures were used to assess l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r the past, p resen t, and f u t u r e , to determine whether the r e s u l t s were skewed f o r th e t h r e e time periods . The l i t e r a t u r e has shown skewed r e s u l t s using s a t i s f a c t i o n response s c a le s (Campbell e t a l . , 1976). To improve d isp e r sio n o f responses, Andrews and Withey (1976) used a seven-point s c a l e t h a t ranged from "delighted" to " t e r r i b l e , " obtain responses f o r both domains and c r i t e r i a . to Referring t o i t as ■C an " a f f e c t i v e evaluation" s c a l e , they believed t h a t i t incorporated both a f f e c t i v e and c ognitive components. Atkinson (1970) attempted t o resolve t h e problem of skewedness. Although Andrews and Withey reduced th e skew, the variance remained low. Atkinson a ls o a sse r te d t h a t people tend to ev aluate t h e i r 67 sa tis fa c tio n as low when they v ersa, th a t and a re , in f a c t , skew edness r e s u l t s sa tisfie d , from t h e and v ice fact t h a t most respondents a re s a t i s f i e d . The w r i t e r sa tis fa c tio n is in c lin e d to b e lie v e A tkinson’ s no tio n th at i n v o lv e s c o g n i t i v e c o m p arison o f a s p i r a t i o n s and e x p ec ta tio n s t o o n e 's c u rr e n t situ atio n . sa tisfa c tio n among group members in a Gemeinschaft- o r f o l k - l i k e group tend s to be ev alu ated lik e in dividu al c o n tr a s t to th e e v a lu a tio n o f in d ividu al would be r e f e r r i n g I t may be added t h a t sa tis fa c tio n . sa tisfa c tio n , to group s a t i s f a c t i o n . But though, in th e domain and subdomains, th e r e would not be t h a t tendency. In it academic Evaluation of such a domain i s expected to be r e l a te d t o one’ s own experience of sa tisfa c tio n . This i s a primary reason the re s e a rc h e r used two d i f f e r e n t measures f o r th e dependent v a r ia b le s . The image o f the group in t h i s study, as th e l i t e r a t u r e on s a t i s f a c t i o n had in common tho se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s suggested, in which th e value judgment neglected the r a t i o n a l i t y of e v a lu a tio n . A tkinson’ s work provided f u r t h e r c l a r i t y about s a t i s f a c t i o n and useful a n a ly s is o f response s c a le s . But he did not ta k e in to account th e re sp o n d en ts' background as th e p re se n t w r i t e r d id . The assumption concerning t h i s is s u e i s t h a t th e sample members, d e s p ite t h e i r homogeneity in c u lt u r a l p a tt e r n s , v a lu e s, norms, and b e l i e f s , re p re se n te d heterogeneous n a tio n a l groups w ith d i f f e r e n t demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and thus p e rc e p tio n s. Another assumption underlying t h i s study was t h a t th e sample members faced fo rce s o f change in 68 th e ir everyday l i v e s . In d iv id u a ls ’ a daptatio n to such changes v a rie s according to th e fo rces included in th e t h e o r e ti c a l model presented e a r l i e r in t h i s study, whether th ese fo rce s are Muslim or non-Muslim in n a tu re . On th e issue o f d im ensio nality, Robinson (1977) asked whether the frequency o f p a r t i c i p a ti o n o r type o f s a t i s f a c t i o n should be the most c r i t i c a l facto r fo r s a tis fa c tio n . Lack o f s p e c i f i c i t y led Robinson to suggest t h a t th e r e might be a " s a t i s f a c t i o n syndrome" (p. 118). He a lso suggested t h a t s a t i s f a c t i o n i s predominantly a p e rs o n a lity c h a r a c t e r i s t i c and t h a t th e re is a general sense of s a t i s f a c t i o n across events or a c t i v i t i e s . The Study Questionnaire As a m atter o f economy, the q u e stio n n a ire method was se le c te d f o r t h i s study. Months were spent in planning, c o n s tru c tin g , and re v is in g the q u e stio n n a ire . Before developing the q u e stio n n a ire , the re s e a rc h e r explored th e l i t e r a t u r e p e rta in in g to o rg a n iz a tio n s, asp ects o f s a t i s f a c t i o n , sa tisfa c tio n . and contextual v a ria b le s r e l a t e d t o l i f e He a lso examined the fin d in g s o f previous research about Muslims in the United S ta te s . The w r i t e r consulted with p r o f e s s o r s , f r i e n d s , and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s o f t h e I s l a m i c C e n te r concerning items in th e q u e stio n n a ire . The prelim inary d r a f t o f th e q u e stio n n a ire was considered a p i l o t t e s t and was adm inistered to 16 Muslims. Formal and informal meetings were held t o d isc u ss any d i f f i c u l t i e s p a r t i c i p a n t s had had with th e q u e stio n n a ire . As a r e s u l t o f th ese d is c u s s io n s , c e r t a i n 69 items were reworded before th e fin a l q u e stio n n a ire and cover l e t t e r were sen t to a ll sample members. The 23-item q u e stio n n a ire re p re se n tin g 33 v a ria b le s was divided in to th r e e p a r t s : and ov erall demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , th e study v a r ia b le s , l i f e s a tis fa c tio n /a c a d e m ic domain s a t i s f a c t i o n . (See Appendix.) To i n v e s tig a te th e respon dents' s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and the academic domain, th re e measures were developed e s p e c ia lly for th is study: th e Academic Domain S a tis f a c tio n ite m s), th e R e lig io s ity Scale (four ite m s), S a t is f a c ti o n S c a le - -p a s t, p re s e n t, Scale (nine and th e Overall and fu tu re (th re e L ife ite m s). An e la b o ra tio n o f th ese sc a le s follow s. The Academic Domain S a tis f a c tio n (Items 23.1 through 2 3 .9 ). Scale contained nine items Respondents were asked to e v alu ate t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with nine subdomains o f t h e i r academic environment: s a t i s f a c t i o n with o th e r Muslims, s a t i s f a c t i o n with c o n d itio n s fo r study, s a t i s f a c t i o n with shopping, s a t i s f a c t i o n with a d m in is tr a to r s , s a tis fa c tio n w ith t h e a d v i s o r , sa tisfa c tio n with the mass media, sa tis fa c tio n w ith s a t i s f a c t i o n with language, and s a t i s f a c t i o n with o n e 's c o u rses. p ro fesso rs, th e English Respondents used a f iv e - p o in t L ik e rt-ty p e s c a le (very good, good, d o n 't know, f a i r , and poor) to in d ic a te t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th ese subdomains. The mean o f th e se r a tin g s was c a lc u la te d to determine the s c a le value. The R e lig io s ity Scale comprised fo u r items (Items 8, 10, 20, and 21) designed t o measure th e resp ond en ts' r e l i g i o s i t y or what the re s e a rc h e r conceived as th e degree o f normative d e p a rtu re . p o ss ib le score range on t h i s s c a le was from 4 to 20 f o r The each 70 respondent, 20 p o in ts being the hig h est and 4 the lowest score fo r the four item s. The s c a le covered those asp ects th e re s e a rc h e r thought were most a p p ro p ria te for such a s c a le . included a d i r e c t question about stre n g th o f f a i t h These aspects (Item 8 ) , the psychological support f o r p a r t i c i p a ti o n (Item 10), f o lk norms (Item 20), and f i n a l l y support f o r the Idea o f an Islam ic s t a t e (K ilafa) (Item 21). These a s p e c ts, although not m utually e x c lu siv e , were taken a t t h e i r face value. The Overall Life S a t is f a c ti o n Scale, which included th r e e time periods (p a s t, p re s e n t, and f u t u r e ) , was a combination o f C a n t r i l ’ s (1975) theory and method o f se lf-a n ch o rin g sc a lin g and Campbell e t a l . ’ s (1976) seven-point l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n s c a le . Items 22.1, 22.2, and 22.3 c o n s titu te d the Overall Life S a t is f a c ti o n Scale. The se lf-a n ch o rin g sc ale C a n tril used in h is cro ss­ n a tio n al study was applied in th e presen t study using th e p i c t o r i a l nonverbal lad der s c a le , ranging from 0 (th e h ig h est degree d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n ) to 10 (th e h ig hest degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n ) . of Using t h i s lad d e r, the respondent lo c a te s where he was in the p a s t, is now, and expects to be in the fu tu re in terms o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . Campbell e t a l . devised a sc ale on which th e two extremes were lab eled "extremely s a t i s f i e d " and "extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d . " The middle poin t of th e s c a le , where th e respondent i s j u s t as s a t i s f i e d as d i s s a t i s f i e d , i s lab e le d "not decided." between the two extremes. Four p o in ts are included 71 In the p resen t study, the C a n trll and Campbell e t a l . s c a le s were combined to form a seven-step lad d e r. la b e le d "extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d , " la b e le d "extremely s a t i s f i e d . " sa tisfie d nor d is s a tis fie d ," and the The lowest ste p (1) i s h ig h est ste p (7) is The middle ste p i s la b e le d " n e ith e r and th e remaining fo u r ste p s are divided eq u ally between th e h ig h est and lowest s te p s o f th e la d d e r. The major concern in t h i s study was to le a rn more about human behavior and i t s development according to p e o p le 's own p e rc e p tio n s. To accomplish th e study g o a ls , respondents were asked to d e sc rib e t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e i r p a s t and p resen t l i f e and th e expected s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e i r f u tu r e l i f e . Examples o f items designed to ob tain inform ation about various asp ects o f l i f e s a tis fa c tio n for th e th r e e time periods o f i n t e r e s t in th e study a re as follow s: About th e p a s t: How did you fe e l United S ta te s? about your l i f e before vou came to the About th e p re s e n t: How do you fe e l about your l i f e now? About th e f u tu r e : How w ill you fe e l about your l i f e w i l ls ) ? a f t e r ten years ( i f God The mean r a t i n g f o r each time period was computed and compared with th e mean r a t i n g s f o r th e o th e r time p e rio d s. Item s c o n c e rn in g p a r t i c i p a t i o n and i n n o v a t i v e i d e a s were t r e a t e d in d iv id u a lly in th e a n a ly s is because th e r e not enough such items to c o n s tru c t a reliab le s c a le . Social and psychological p a r t i c i p a t i o n f o r both Arab and non-Arab respondents was analyzed, 72 as was respon dents' w ives' p a r t i c i p a t i o n . were included so c ial. in the q u e s tio n n a ire ; Three Innovative ideas two were r e l i g i o u s and one One o f the r e l i g i o u s ideas concerned adding ano ther Friday p rayer follow ing the usual one so as to serve more Muslims (Item 11). The o th e r concerned r e s t r i c t i n g th e number o f p ilg rim s in th e f u tu re as t h e i r number i s expected to exceed 10 m illio n in th e next 10 to 15 y e ars (Item 13). The so c ia l idea r e l a te d t o e s t a b l is h i n g a club near th e Mosque to serve and encourage Muslim stu d e n ts to p a r t i c i p a t e more e f f e c t i v e l y (Item 18). The t o t a l values f o r each o f th e study s c a le s a re shown in Table 3 .3 . Table 3 . 3 . --T o tal values fo r th e study s c a l e s . Scale High Values Low Values 11-20 28-45 11-21 1-10 1-18 1-10 R e lig io s ity Academic S a t is f a c ti o n L ife S a t is f a c ti o n Assumptions It is rea so n a b le s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e to assume th a t life sa tisfa c tio n domains can be measured because (a) or most people hold c e r t a i n e x p e c ta tio n s o f th e environment th ey r e s i d e in , and (b) in d iv id u a ls u s u a lly e v a lu a te t h e i r ex periences. The w r i t e r expected t h a t th e Muslim o rg an iz atio n members' responses would be v a lid re p re s e n ta tio n s o f t h e i r p e rc e p tio n s. T h erefo re, th e ir 73 responses t o s e le c te d Items r e l a te d to t h e i r l i v e s in general and to t h e i r academic environment in p a r t i c u l a r can be taken c o l l e c t i v e l y and viewed as an e stim a te o f t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and the academic domain. Data C o lle ctio n Methodologists have recommended using a m u l t i p l i c i t y o f resea rch methods in c o ll e c t in g d a ta . in t h i s re s e a rc h : Three in terdependent methods were used th e survey method (q u e s tio n n a ire and in te r v ie w s ) , research in depth (case stu d y ), The q u e stio n n a ire was sen t and personal to o b se rv a tio n . sample members with a cover l e t t e r signed by th e r e s e a rc h e r to give more"confidence t h a t he was a member o f the Muslim community. A stamped and addressed envelope was provided, in which th e respondent was to r e tu r n th e completed q u e stio n n a ire to th e re s e a rc h e r . weeks l a t e r . A follow -up l e t t e r was se n t two F if ty - n in e o f th e 115 sam ple members r e t u r n e d q u e s tio n n a ir e s , f o r a response r a t e o f about 58%. Of t h i s number, only 49 q u e stio n n a ire s were included in th e d a ta a n a l y s i s . q u e stio n n a ire s were d isc ard e d b e c a u se th ey la c k e d inform ation o r contained extremely n eg ativ e o r p o s i t iv e Four c o m p le te answers. Six instrum ents were re tu rn e d without answers. Twenty-one q u e stio n n a ire s were retu rn e d because th e addressees had moved or the addresses were i n c o r r e c t . so lid a rity responding. in such samples sometimes In a d d itio n , preven ts in d iv id u a ls group from Several persons t o ld th e r e s e a rc h e r t h a t they had put a side th e q u e stio n n a ire w ithout responding to i t . When asked why 74 they had done so, answer. some o f them said they had been t o ld not to Other reasons f o r nonresponse expressed to th e re s e a rc h e r were f e a r o f I n t e l li g e n c e bureaus 1n th e resp o n d en ts' c o u n trie s and a b e l i e f t h a t th e Inform ation gained from s c i e n t i f i c in q u iry might b e n e f it th e enemies o f Islam. One in div idu al commented t h a t h is s a t i s f a c t i o n was p r iv a te and t h a t no one had to be t o l d about i t . He e la b o ra te d , sa tisfie d , "If th e government knows t h a t we a re happy and i t might cut o f f some o f th e monthly payment." Such in d e c isiv e n e ss about whether to respond i s q u ite common among groups c h a ra c te r iz e d as f o l k groups (Berger, 1964). The w r i t e r a lso c o lle c te d in fo rm a l i n t e r v i e w s , t a l k s , r e l e v a n t s tu d y m a t e r i a l s , o b se rv atio n o f and p a r t i c i p a t i o n community. inform ation f o r th e study through in th e d a i l y l i f e and h i s o f th e Muslim The main channel o f inform ation was personal c o n ta c ts with Muslims from d i f f e r e n t areas o f th e United S t a t e s . The w r i t e r a tte n d e d se ss io n s , scores of g e t-to g e th e rs, p ic n ic s, pray er f u n e r a l s , r e l i g i o u s c e le b r a tio n s , and so c ia l occasio n s. The "research in depth" method i s a dynamic methodology in community resea rch and i s intended to maximize th e b e n e f i ts from the d a ta c o lle c te d and t o make sense o f responses. Ten cases were s e le c te d fo r in te rv ie w s; e ig h t in terv iew s were a c t u a l l y conducted. Responses were c l a s s i f i e d , and l e v e ls of e x p e c ta tio n s reasons f o r such e x p e c ta tio n s were c a te g o riz e d . and th e The case study approach and r e s u l t s o f th e in terview s a re discu ssed in Chapter IV. 75 A nalysis o f the Data The d ata S ta tistic a l were coded and en tered Package f o r th e Social in to Sciences th e computer. The (SPSSX) was used in t e s t i n g the r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e sc a le s and in complex d a ta recoding. Simple c o r r e la tio n s and c r o s s - ta b u la tio n s were obtained by using the SPSSPC in th e Department o f Sociology a t Michigan S ta te U n iv e rsity . The Harvard Package f o r Graphics was used to draw th e study graphics a t th e Michigan S ta te U n iv ersity Computer Center. Summary Chapter I I I contained a d e s c rip tio n of the study s e t t i n g , well as the methods and procedures used in t h i s re s e a rc h . were th e t a r g e t p op ulation , c o lle c tin g d a ta , sample s e l e c ti o n , as Discussed th e instrum ent f o r and th e d a ta - c o lle c tio n and a n a ly s is procedures. In Chapter IV the w r i t e r d e scrib e s th e stag es o f d a ta a n a ly s is , sta tistic a l packages used v a l i d i t y o f the s c a le s . in the an aly se s, and re lia b ility and Demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e sample and r e s u l t s o f th e hypotheses t e s t s are presented in t a b u l a r and n a r r a tiv e form. CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF THE DATA In tro d u ctio n The d a ta a n a ly s is was pursued in f iv e in te rrelate d s ta g e s . F i r s t , i t was im perative to examine th e e x te n t o f m issing d a ta on measures o f a n tic ip a te d sa tisfa c tio n before beginning the a ctual a n a ly s is o f r e l a ti o n s h i p s between s a t i s f a c t i o n and o th e r v a r i a b le s , which c o n s t it u t e d th e second sta g e . study hypotheses. The next techniques f o r d ata a n a ly s is . The t h i r d sta g e was to t e s t th e ste p was c o n s tru c tin g sta tistic a l F in a lly , th e r e s u l t s were compared with those o f s im ila r re s e a rc h . The S t a t i s t i c a l SPSSX), th e Package f o r th e Social S ta tistic a l Analysis System Sciences (SPSSPC+ and (SAS), and th e Package f o r Graphics were used in analyzing th e d a ta . c h a p te r, both q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e s t a t i s t i c s Harvard In t h i s a re used in r e p o rtin g th e f in d in g s . S t a t i s t i c a l t e s t s were employed to a sse ss th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e s c a le in d ic e s . Using th e SPSSX, Cronbach alpha was used to determ ine th e r e l i a b i l i t y o f th e se s c a le s . was a ls o computed. V a lid ity o f th e s c a le s The Pearson product-moment c o r r e l a t i o n was used to determ ine simple c o r r e l a t io n s between v a r i a b le s . Communalities of items and percentages o f t h e i r variances were a ls o determ ined, 76 77 using th e p rin c ip a l component f a c t o r a n a ly s is technique. The t - t e s t procedure was a ls o used t o determine th e two ends o f each v a ria b le . C ro s s -ta b u la tio n of th e s i x v a ria b le s used in th e study was t e s t e d by using th e c h i-s q u a re technique f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s . R e l i a b i l i t y and V a lid ity o f th e Scales R e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s provided e stim a te s o f th e degree to which the s c a le s measured th e underlying v a r i a b le . re lia b ility items) co efficien ts for academic domain and s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e The parameter sa tis fa c tio n as a whole were (nine .74 and .44, r e s p e c t iv e ly , with a s c a le v a l i d i t y o f .86 f o r the Academic Domain S a t i s f a c t i o n Scale and .66 f o r th e Life S a t is f a c ti o n S cale. The R e li g i o s i ty Scale c o e f f i c i e n t was .41 reduced to fo u r v a ria b le s with little d if f e r e n c e . Its v a l i d i t y was .64, as shown in Table 4 .1 . Considering the responses as personal e v a lu a tio n s , th e magnitude o f th e c o e f f i c i e n t was f a i r l y a c c u ra te . R e lia b ility tab les may be found in the Appendix. Table 4 . 1 .--P a ram ete r r e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r th e th r e e sc a le s used in th e study. Scale Name Overall L ife S a t is f a c ti o n (3 items) Academic Domain S a t is f a c ti o n (9 items) R e li g i o s i ty (4 items) Scale V a lid ity Alpha .66 .86 .64 .44 .74 .41 78 Demographic Data The r e l a te d demographic d a ta a re summarized and presented in th e follow ing t a b l e s and n a r r a t iv e . Age As shown in Table 4 .2 , only 8.2% o f th e respondents were 20 y e a rs o f age o r l e s s . The l a r g e s t co n ce n tra tio n (26.5%) was 31 to 35 y e ars o ld . was 26 to 30 y e ars o ld . o f th e sample The next l a r g e s t c l u s t e r (22.4%) The two groups with th e next h ig h est percentages o f respondents (14.3% each) were th e 21 t o 25 and th e 36 t o 40 y e ar groups. Previous t e s t i n g o f th e survey q u e stio n n a ire in d ic a te d t h a t some Muslims c o n sid er inform ation about t h e i r age to be s e n s i t i v e . Hence th e w r i t e r chose to use age ranges r a t h e r than s p e c i f i c ages in the q u e s tio n n a ire . Table 4 . 2 . - - D is tr ib u tio n o f respondents by age. Age 20 and under 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 and over Total Number Percent Cumulative Percent 4 7 11 13 7 6 1 8.2 14.3 22.4 26.5 14.3 12.2 2.0 8.2 22.4 44.9 71.4 85.7 98.0 100.0 49 100.0 100.0 79 The o v e ra ll age d i s t r i b u t i o n shown in Table 4.2 suggests' t h a t th e respondents were r e l a t i v e l y young; 71.4% o f th e sample members were under 35 y e ars o f age. The mean age was 30.9 y e a r s , and th e re was a 30-year range between the youngest and th e o ld e s t members o f th e sample. M arital S ta tu s Table 4.3 shows t h a t 59.2% o f th e respondents were m arried, and 38.8% were unmarried. None o f the respondents was d iv o rced , and one in d iv id u a l (2%) was widowed. Table 4 . 3 . - - D i s t r i b u ti o n o f respondents by m arita l s t a t u s . M arital S tatu s Married Unmarried Divorced Widowed Total Cumulative Percent Number Percent 29 19 0 1 59.2 38.8 2.0 59.2 98.0 98.0 100.0 49 100.0 100.0 Educational Level Respondents' educational l e v e ls are rep o rte d in Table 4 .4 . l a r g e s t group of respondents le v e l, (36.7%) were studying a t th e The Ph.D. and th e second l a r g e s t group (20.4%) were a t th e m a s te r 's degree l e v e l . About 18% were in th e b a c h e lo r's degree categ o ry , 12.2% in th e two-year-col lege category , and 6.1% each in th e high school and "other" c a te g o r ie s . These percentages a re not in harmony 80 with th e fin d in g s of o th e r surveys conducted among non-student Muslim communities such as D e tro it and Dearborn, Michigan; Toledo, Ohio; and Chicago, I l l i n o i s (Aswad & Abraham, 1983; El-Kholy, 1966; Haddad, 1969, 1983; Wigle, 1974). In th e s e s tu d ie s th e m a jo rity of respondents were m igrants who had become American c i t i z e n s ; th ey had c o n sid era b ly lower educational le v e ls than th e respondents in the p re se n t study. Table 4 . 4 . - - D i s t r i b u ti o n o f respondents by edu cation al l e v e l . Educational Level Number Percent Cumulative Percent 18 10 9 6 3 3 36.7 20.4 18.4 12.2 6.1 6.1 36.7 57.1 75.5 87.8 93.9 100.0 49 100.0 100.0 Ph.D. degree M aster’s degree B achelor’s degree Two-year c o lle g e High school Other Total Lenoth o f Residence in th e United S ta te s S l i g h t ly more than h a l f o f th e respondents (51%) had spent fewer than th r e e y e ars 1n th e United S ta te s and th u s were r e l a t i v e l y new to th e community (see Table 4 .5 ) . About 20% had been in th e United S ta te s four t o s ix y e a r s , and 8.2% f o r seven t o nine y e a r s . S l i g h t ly more than 20% had liv e d in the United S ta te s te n y e a rs o r more. The mean length o f resid en ce was 4.35 y e a r s , and th e range was 9.20 y e a rs . 81 Table 4 . 5 . - - D is tr ib u tio n o f respondents by leng th o f resid en c e in th e United S t a te s . Length o f Residence One year 1-3 years 4-6 years 7-9 years 10 y e ars and above Total Number Percent Cumulative Percent 9 16 10 4 10 18.4 32.7 20.4 8.2 20.4 18.4 51.0 71.4 79.6 100.0 49 100.0 100.0 B irth Order The d i s t r i b u t i o n Table 4 .6 . of respondents by b i r t h o rd er is shown in S lig h tly more than 26% o f the respondents were th e f i r s t born in t h e i r fa m ilie s , and 24.5%, the second l a r g e s t group, were th e t h i r d born. S lig h tly more than 18% were s i x t h or more in the b i r t h o rd e r, which i s r e l a t i v e l y high and an in d ic a tio n t h a t a la rg e percentage o f the sample came from larg e f a m ilie s . In examining th e b i r th - o r d e r fig u r e s by e th n ic background, i t was found t h a t 25.9% o f th e respondents from Arab Muslim c o u n trie s were s ix th or more In the b i r t h o rd e r, compared to only 9.1% o f those from non-Arab c o u n tr ie s . Number o f Children Table 4.7 shows the number o f ch ild ren o f m arried respondents. Almost 14% o f th e respondents had no c h ild re n , and 10.3% had th r e e c h ild r e n . About 24.1% had one, two, o r four c h ild r e n . respondent (2%) had f iv e o r more c h ild re n . J u s t one Although the percentage o f married people in the sample was r e l a t i v e l y small (59.2%), th e t o t a l number o f c h ild ren was 64, with a mean o f 3.17. Table 4 . 6 . - -D is tr ib u tio n o f respondents by b i r t h o rd e r. B irth Order Number Percent Cumulative Percent 13 6 12 5 4 9 26.5 12.2 24.5 10.2 8.2 18.4 26.5 38.8 63.3 73.5 81.6 100.0 49 100.0 100.0 F irst Second Third Fourth F ifth Sixth o r more Total Table 4 . 7 . - - D is trib u tio n o f married respondents by number o f c h ild re n . Number o f Children Number Percent Cumulative Percent 4 7 7 3 7 1 13.8 24.1 24.1 10.3 24.1 2.0 13.8 37.9 62.1 72.4 96.6 100.0 29 100.0 100.0 None One Two Three Four Five o r more Total R esults o f Hypothesis T ests The fin d in g s of the s e c tio n . hypothesis te sts a re rep o rted in th is The t - t e s t of mean d iff e re n c e s was used in c arry in g out 83 th e s e a n aly se s. The .05 lev el o f s ig n if ic a n c e was th e c r i t e r i o n fo r r e j e c t i n g th e null hypothesis o f no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e between groups. I t should be r e c a l l e d t h a t , resp o n d en ts used d issa tisfie d (1) a sev en -p o in t to extremely in r a t i n g t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n , sc a le sa tisfie d r a n g in g (7 ). from e x tr e m e ly In th e follow ing paragraphs, th e hypotheses p e rta in in g to each demographic v a ria b le a re r e s t a t e d , followed by th e r e s u l t s o f th e d a ta analyses f o r t h a t v a r ia b le . Age Ho 1 : There i s no d iff e re n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e p a s t l i f e between o ld e r and younger respo nden ts. Ho 2 : There i s no d iff e r e n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e p re s e n t l i f e between o ld e r and younger resp ond en ts. Ho 3 : There i s no d if f e r e n c e in th e expected degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e f u tu r e l i f e between o ld e r and younger respondents. Ho 19: There i s no d if f e r e n c e in th e degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c tio n between o ld e r and younger respondents. For a n a ly s is purposes, th e age c a te g o r ie s were c o lla p se d in to two: younger ( l e s s than 30 y e a rs) and o ld e r (30 and above). r e l a ti o n s h i p between age and l i f e using th e Pearson r c o r r e l a t i o n . s ig n if ic a n c e lev e l of .05. academic domain s a t i s f a c t i o n The was The s a t i s f a c t i o n was determined by The r e l a t i o n s h i p was .27 w ith a r e l a ti o n s h i p .31, between age with a s ig n if ic a n c e and lev el o f .05. As shown in Table 4 .8 , no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found between th e two age groups in terms o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with p a s t l i f e 84 o r academic s a t i s f a c t i o n . re je cte d . Hence Hypotheses 1 and Hypotheses 2 and 3 were r e j e c t e d 19 were not because s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e re n c e s were found between the groups on p re s e n t and f u tu r e l i f e sa tisfa c tio n . Older respondents were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s a t i s f i e d with th e p re se n t and the f u tu r e than were younger ones. Concerning academic s a t i s f a c t i o n , o ld e r respondents were more s a t i s f i e d than younger ones th is (means - 2.87 and 2.55, re s p e c tiv e ly ), but d iff e re n c e was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t . Table 4 . 8 . --D iffe re n c e s between the mean s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s o f o ld e r and younger respondents. S a tisfac tio n With: Past Present Future Academic Mean Ratings Under 30 30 and Above 5.09 4.09 5.14 2.55 4.91 5.48 6.12 2.87 T df Prob. .40 -3.17* -2.52* 11.87 43 44 43 25 NS .003 .016 .07 ♦ S ig n if ic a n t a t < .05. NS - Not s i g n i f i c a n t . M arital S ta tu s Ho 4 : There i s no d if f e r e n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e p a s t l i f e between married and unmarried respondents. Ho 5 : There i s no d iff e r e n c e in the degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e p re se n t l i f e between married and unmarried respond­ e n ts . 85 Ho 6 : There i s no d iff e re n c e in th e expected degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e f u tu r e l i f e between m arried and unmarried respondents. Ho 20: There 1s no d iff e re n c e in th e degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c tio n between married and unmarried resp ond en ts. A s ta tistic a lly s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found between m arried and unmarried respondents 1n terms o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith the p re s e n t and th e f u tu r e . Married respondents were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s a t i s f i e d than t h e i r unmarried c o u n te rp a r ts . 5 and 6 were r e j e c t e d . T h erefo re, Hypotheses As no s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found between th e two groups in terms o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p a s t o r academ ic s a t i s f a c t i o n , reje cted . H y p otheses 4 and 20 w ere n o t (See Table 4 .9 .) Table 4 . 9 . --D iffe re n c e s between th e mean s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s o f m arried and unmarried respondents. S a t is f a c ti o n With: Past Present Future Academic Mean Ratings Married Unmarried 4.85 5.39 5.96 2.77 5.23 4.05 5.12 2.66 T df Prob. - .83 2.91* 1.98* .53 42 43 42 24 NS .006 .05 NS ♦ S ig n if ic a n t a t < .05. NS - Not s i g n i f i c a n t . Length o f Residence in th e United S ta te s Ho 7 : There is no d if f e r e n c e 1n th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p a st l i f e between respondents with a long p erio d o f resid en c e and tho se with a s h o rt period o f re s id e n c e in the United S t a te s . 86 Ho 8 : There i s no d iff e r e n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e p re s e n t l i f e between respondents w ith a long p eriod of resid en c e and tho se with a s h o r t period o f resid en c e in the United S t a te s . Ho 9 : There i s no d iff e re n c e in th e expected degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith th e fu tu r e l i f e between respondents with a long period o f resid en c e and those with a s h o r t p eriod o f re sid e n c e in th e United S t a te s . Ho 21: There i s no d if f e r e n c e in th e degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c tio n between respondents with a longer period o f resid en c e in th e United S t a te s and th ose with a s h o r t e r p eriod o f r e s i ­ dence. For a n a l y s i s p u r p o s e s , th e v a ria b le were c o llap sed in to two: resp o n se c a te g o r ie s for th is l e s s than f iv e y e a rs and more than f iv e y e ars in th e United S t a te s . Hypotheses 7, 8, 9, and 21 were not r e j e c t e d . sig n ific a n t found No s t a t i s t i c a l l y between respondents in th e d if f e r e n c e two le n g th - o f - re s id e n c e was groups concerning t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p a s t, p re s e n t, o r f u t u r e , o r with academics. (See Table 4 .1 0 .) Table 4 . 1 0 . --D iffe re n c e s between th e mean s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s o f respondents with s h o r te r resid en c e in th e United S ta te s and those with longer re sid e n c e . S a t is f a c ti o n With: Past Present Future Academic Mean Ratings < 5 Years > 5 Years 5.14 4.58 5.47 2.69 4.54 5.58 6.27 2.92 T df Prob. 1.18 -1.88 -1.71 -1.11 43 44 43 25 .24 .06 .09 .28 87 Educational Level Ho 10: There i s no d if f e re n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p a s t l i f e between respondents with higher educational degrees and those with lower educational degrees. Ho 11: There is no d iffe re n c e in the degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e presen t l i f e between respondents with higher educa­ tio n a l degrees and those with lower educational degrees. Ho 12: There i s no d if fe r e n c e in the expected degree of s a t i s f a c t i o n with the f u tu r e l i f e between respondents with high er educational degrees and those with lower educational degrees. Ho 22: There is no d if fe r e n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ fa c tio n between respondents with higher educational degrees and those with lower educational degrees. For a n a ly s is purposes, the response c a te g o rie s were collapsed in to two: Ph.D. level and non-Ph.D. l e v e l. Hypotheses 10, 12, and 22 were not r e je c te d because no s i g n i f i c a n t d if f e r e n c e was found between groups on these comparisons. Respondents a t th e Ph.D. Hypothesis 11 was r e j e c t e d . level were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s a t i s f i e d with th e expected fu tu re l i f e than were t h e i r c o u n te rp a rts a t the lower educational le v e l. (See Table 4 .1 1 .) Table 4 .1 1 .--D iffe re n c e s between th e mean s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s of respondents a t the Ph.D. lev el and those a t th e nonPh.D. le v e l. S a t is f a c ti o n With: Past Present Future Academic Mean Ratings Ph.D. Non-Ph.D. 4.88 5.55 5.76 2.58 ♦ S ig n ific a n t a t < .05. NS - Not s i g n i f i c a n t 5.07 4.39 5.60 2.83 T df Prob. - .41 2.51* .37 -1.38 43 44 43 25 NS .01 NS .17 88 Number o f Children Ho 13: There i s no d if f e re n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p a st l i f e between respondents with a la rg e number o f c h ild re n and those with a small number o f c h ild r e n . Ho 14: There i s no d if f e r e n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p resen t l i f e between respondents with a la rg e number o f c h ild ren and those with a small number o f c h ild r e n . Ho 15: There i s no d iff e r e n c e in the expected degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the f u tu re l i f e between respondents with a la rg e number o f c h ild ren and those with a small number o f c h ild re n . Ho 23: There i s no d iff e re n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c tio n between respondents with a la rg e number o f c h ild re n and those with a small number o f c h ild re n . For a n a ly sis purposes, the response c a te g o rie s were co llap sed in to two groups: l e s s than two ch ild ren and more than two c h ild re n . Respondents with l e s s than two c h ild re n were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more s a t i s f i e d with the p a st l i f e than were those with more than two c h ild re n . Therefore, sta tistic a lly Hypothesis 13 was reje c ted . Because no s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e was found between groups on p re s e n t, f u tu r e , o r academic s a t i s f a c t i o n , Hypotheses 14, 15, and 23 were not r e j e c t e d . (See Table 4 .1 2 .) 89 Table 4 . 1 2 .--D iffere n ce s between the mean s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s o f respondents with l e s s than two c h ild re n and tho se with more than two c h ild re n . S a tis f a c tio n With: Mean Ratings < 2 Children > 2 Children Past Present Future Academic 5.33 5.27 4.94 2.80 4.00 5.30 5.90 2.70 T 2.54* -.0 4 -.0 9 -.3 9 df Prob. 26 26 26 18 .01 NS NS NS ♦ S ig n ific a n t a t < .05. NS ■ Not s i g n i f i c a n t . Ethnic Background Ho 16: There i s no d iffe re n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p a s t l i f e between Arab and non-Arab Muslim respond­ e n ts . Ho 17: There i s no d iffe re n c e in th e degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p resen t l i f e between Arab and non-Arab Muslim respond­ e n ts . Ho 18: There i s no d iffe re n c e in the expected degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e fu tu re l i f e between Arab and non-Arab Muslim respondents. Ho 24: There i s no d iffe re n c e in the degree o f academic s a t i s ­ f a c tio n between Arab and non-Arab respondents. H ypotheses 16, 17, 18, and 24 were not re je c te d . No s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d iff e r e n c e was found between Arab and nonArab respondents concerning t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with p a s t, p re s e n t, or fu tu re l i f e , o r t h e i r academic s a t i s f a c t i o n . (See Table 4 .1 3 .) 90 Table 4 . 1 3 . --D iffere n ce s between th e mean s a t i s f a c t i o n r a t i n g s o f Arab and non-Arab respondents. S a t is f a c ti o n With: Mean Ratings Arab Non-Arab Past Present Future Academi c 4.72 4.80 5.76 2.72 5.36 4.90 5.55 2.76 T df Prob. -1.45 - .19 .50 - .20 43 44 43 25 NS NS NS NS NS = Not s i g n i f i c a n t . Academic Domain Measures The respondents were asked to e v alu ate t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with nine items in th e academic domain, using a f i v e - p o i n t s c a le ranging from poor (1) to very good (5 ). lis te d in Table 4 .14 . Along The domains used in th e study are with th e o v e ra ll d istrib u tio n of responses f o r each item, th e average mean r a t i n g s f o r th e items are in clu d ed . 2.72. one’ s The mean r a t i n g f o r academic domain s a t i s f a c t i o n The highest mean r a t i n g co u rses, and th e (3.00) was f o r s a t i s f a c t i o n with lo w e s t s a t i s f a c t i o n with mass media. was mean ra tin g ( 1 .9 5 ) was for 91 Table 4 .1 4 .--Means and d i s t r i b u t i o n s f o r th e e n t i r e sample on the Academic Domain S a t is f a c ti o n measure. Very Good Good Don’t Know F a ir Poor 8.2% 53.1% 10.2% 24.5% 4.1% 16.3 10.2 36.7 36.7 12.2 6.1 24.5 34.7 8 .2 10.2 22.4 44.9 36.7 34.7 22.4 18.4 14.3 6.1 22.4 26.5 24.5 40.8 38.8 8.2 8.2 12.2 Total Rating N DOMAIN I Other Muslims Cond. f o r Studying Shopping 100% 2.73 44 10.2 12.2 100 100 2.67 2.48 43 46 18.4 26.5 16.3 6.1 8 .2 12.2 100 100 100 2.71 2.60 2.78 38 40 42 20.4 24.5 18.4 40.8 4.1 4.1 100 100 100 1.95 2.89 3.00 45 45 43 DOMAIN II Adminis. P ro fesso rs Advi sor DOMAIN I I I Mass media Eng. lang. Courses Table 4.15 shows c o r r e l a t io n s between th e items o f academic domain s a t i s f a c t i o n . p ro fe s so rs C o rre la tio n s and s a t i s f a c t i o n with betw een a d v iso r (r sa tis fa c tio n = .63) w ith and between s a t i s f a c t i o n with p ro fe s so rs and s a t i s f a c t i o n with courses ( r - .61) were s ta tistic a lly sig n ific a n t at th e .001 a lp h a le v e l. S a t is f a c ti o n with one’ s courses was c o r r e la te d w ith s a t i s f a c t i o n with c o n d itio n s f o r studying ( r - .6 2 ), again a t th e .001 lev e l o f s ig n if ic a n c e . 92 Table 4 .1 5 . - - C o r re la tio n s between nine subdomains o f academic domain sa tis fa c tio n . Subdomain Subdomain 1 1.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 3 2 .4 6 * 1.00 .26 .05 1.00 4 5 .04 .15 -.04 .12 1.00 .6 6 * .6 6 * * -.0 5 1.00 6 .30 .6 1 ^ .12 .6 } * .6 2 * * 1.00 Key: Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 = S a t is f a c ti o n - S a t is f a c ti o n ■ S a t is f a c ti o n - S a t is f a c ti o n - S a t is f a c ti o n - S a t is f a c ti o n =S a t is f a c ti o n »S a t is f a c ti o n =S a t is f a c ti o n with with with with with with with with with 7 8 9 .15 .41 -.11 .14 .25 46^ 1.00 -.0 9 .24 -.3 3 .20 .26 .29 .44^ 1.00 .25 .08 .46' .24 .26 .26 .17 .12 1.00 • o th e r Muslims p ro fe sso rs a d m in is tra to rs ad visor co nd itio n s f o r studying courses English language mass media shopping ♦ S ig n if ic a n t a t th e .01 l e v e l. ♦ ♦ S ig n ific a n t a t th e .001 l e v e l. At th e .01 l e v e l , s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t io n s were noted between s a t i s f a c t i o n with o th e r Muslims and s a t i s f a c t i o n ( r ■ .46) and with th e a d v iso r (r « .5 6 ). with p ro fe s s o rs S a tis fa c tio n with a d m in is tra to rs was s i g n i f i c a n t l y c o r r e la te d with s a t i s f a c t i o n with shopping ( r * .4 6 ), and s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e English language was s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e la te d with s a t i s f a c t i o n with the mass media ( r .4 4 ). 93 L ife S a tis fa c tio n The l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f Muslim o rg an iz atio n members f o r the th ree tim e background. p e rio d s examined a c c o rd in g to th e ir e th n ic For purposes o f t h i s comparison, th e sample was divided in to two groups: determine was whether Arab and non-Arab Muslims. sa tisfa c tio n An attem pt was made to among th e community members was r e la te d to whether as a r e l i g io u s group they believed in Al-Qadar ( f a t e ) o r Al-Qadha’a, th e div in e decree according t o which being s a t i s f i e d or not i s alre ad y determined. Using the Life S a t is f a c ti o n Scale ladder ranging from extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d (1) through n e it h e r d i s s a t i s f i e d nor s a t i s f i e d (4) to extremely s a t i s f i e d ( 7 ), respondents ra te d t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with the p a st and present l i f e and expected s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e fu tu re life . (See Tables 4.16, 4.17, and 4.18, r e s p e c t iv e ly ) . Table 4 .1 6 .--Respondents* r a tin g s of s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p a st l i f e (N - 49). Rating Extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d Very d i s s a t i s f i e d D is s a tis f ie d N either s a t i s f i e d nor d i s s a t i s f i e d S a t is f ie d Very s a t i s f i e d Extremely s a t i s f i e d No response Total Mean - 5.0 Number Percent 1 2 6 22 16 12 6 4 2.0 4.1 12.2 4.1 32.7 24.5 12.2 8 .2 49 S t. Dev. - 1.345 Minimum - 1.0 100.0 Maximum - 7.0 94 Table 4 .1 7 .--Respondents' r a tin g s o f s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e p resen t l i f e (N - 49). Rating Extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d Very d i s s a t i s f i e d D issatisfied N either s a t i s f i e d nor d i s s a t i s f i e d S a t is f ie d Very s a t i s f i e d Extremely s a t i s f i e d No response Percent 3 1 6 3 16 11 6 3 6.1 2.0 12.2 6.1 32.7 22.4 12.2 6.1 49 Total Mean - 4.848 Number S t. Dev. - 1.619 Minimum - 1.0 100.0 Maximum - 7.0 Table 4 .1 8 .--Respondents’ r a t i n g s o f expected s a t i s f a c t i o n with th e fu tu re l i f e (N « 49). Rating Extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d D issatisfied N either s a t i s f i e d nor d i s s a t i s f i e d S a t is f ie d Very s a t i s f i e d Extremely s a t i s f i e d No response Total Mean « 5.667 Number Percent 1 1 8 7 12 16 4 2.0 2.0 16.3 14.3 24.5 32.7 8.2 49 S t. Dev. - 1.382 Minimum ■ 1.0 100.0 Maximum - 7.0 The means and standard d e v ia tio n s o f l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r the e n t i r e sample are shown in Table 4.19. For the t o t a l sample the 95 mean r a t i n g s were 5.00, 4.84, and 5.66 fo r p a s t, p re s e n t, and fu tu r e l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , r e s p e c tiv e ly . Table 4 . 1 9 .--Means and standard d e v ia tio n s f o r th e e n t i r e sample’s l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n f o r the th re e time p e rio d s. Time Period Mean Std. Dev. Past Present Future 5.00 4.84 5.66 1.47 1.69 1.38 E th n ic ity Cross-Tabulations E th n ic ity and Demographic C h a r a c te ris tic s R e a c tio n s se n sitiv ity to th e p re te st to in d ic a te d o f some respondents to th e question country o f o rig in or n a t i o n a l i t y . r e l a te d q u e stio n n a ire th e respondents’ c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y o f the regarding th e th e ir Such s e n s i t i v i t y might have been perceived need information c o lle c te d . for secrecy or the The question was t h e r e f o r e reform ulated f o r the study instrument so t h a t respondents could choose w ithout being e ith e r Arab or more s p e c i f i c . non-Arab Muslim e th n ic background Arab Muslims comprised 55.1% o f the sample, and non-Arab Muslims comprised 44.9% o f th e sample. In th is s e c tio n , th e e th n ic background of th e sample is examined in terms o f th e respondents’ demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . R esults o f c r o s s - ta b u la tio n s o f the respondents' e t h n i c i t y by t h e i r age, m arita l sta tu s, number o f c h ild re n , educational l e v e l , and length o f sta y in th e United S ta te s are shown in Tables 4.20 through 96 4.24, respectively. No s t a t i s t i c a l l y significant d i f f e r e n c e was found between respondents in the two e t h n i c groups in terms o f t h e i r demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Table 4 . 2 0 . - - C r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n o f respondents* e t h n i c i t y by age. E th n i c i t y Age Arab (N=27) 20 years and under 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46 and above Non-Arab (N=22) 4.5% 13.6 27.3 22.7 18.2 9.1 4.5 11.1% 14.8 18.5 29.6 11.1 14.8 0 Table 4 . 2 1 . - - C r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n o f respo n dents’ e t h n i c i t y by m arita l s t a t u s . Ethnicity Marital S ta tu s Arab (N=27) Married Unmarried Divorced Widowed 59.3% 40.7 0 0 Non-Arab (N=22) 59.1% 36.4 0 4.5 97 Table 4.22.--Cross-tabulation of respondents’ ethnicity by number of children. E th n i c i t y Number o f Children Arab (N-27) None One Two Three four Five or more Non-Arab (N«22) 18.8% 31.3 12.5 6.3 25.0 6.3 7.7% 15.4 38.5 15.4 23.1 0 Table 4 . 2 3 . --C r o s s - ta b u la t io n o f respondents’ e t h n i c i t y by educa­ tio n a l l e v e l . E th n ic ity Educational level Arab (N=27) Ph.D. degree Master’s degree Bachelor’s degree Two-year colleg e High school Other 40.7% 11.1 18.5 14.8 7.4 7.4 Non-Arab (N=22) 31.8% 31.8 18.2 9.1 4.5 4.5 98 Table 4.24.--Cross-tabulation of respondents’ ethnicity by length of residence in the United States. E th n i c i t y Length o f Residence Arab (N-27) Less than 1 year 1-3 ye ars 4-6 years 7-9 years 10 years o r more 14.8% 37.0 25.9 11.1 11.1 Non-Arab (N=22) 22.7% 27.3 13.6 4.5 31.8 E th n icity and Acceptance o f Innovative Ideas Tables 4.25 and 4.26 show the r e s u l t s of c r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n s of the respondents’ e t h n i c i t y and t h e i r agreement with innovative ideas regarding r e l i g i o u s p r a c t i c e . These ideas concerned acceptance of performing the Friday prayer twice (Table 4.25) and e s t a b l i s h i n g a Muslim c l u b n e a r the mosque (T ab le 4.26). A statistically s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e (.05 le v e l) was found between Arab and NonArab Muslims concerning the idea of e s t a b l i s h i n g a Muslim club. S i g n i f i c a n t l y more non-Arab than Arab Muslims s t r o n g ly agreed with this idea. (The c r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n o f innovation by e t h n i c i t y shown g r a p h i c a l l y in Figure 4 . 1 . ) is 99 50 40 30 «“ 20 1 2 ARAB MUSLIMS 3 4 5 H - NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure 4 . 1 .--Muslim innovation by ethnicity. 100 Table 4.25.--Cross-tabulation of respondents' ethnicity by acceptance of the Friday prayer idea. E th n i c i t y Level o f Agreement Arab (N*27) Non-Arab (N=22) 14.8% 22.2 14.8 22.2 25.9 Strongly agree Agree Don’t know Di sagree Strongly di sa gree 31.8% 22.7 13.6 4.5 27.3 Table 4 . 2 6 . - - C r o s s - ta b u la t io n o f res pondents' e t h n i c i t y by a cc ep t­ ance of idea o f e s t a b l i s h i n g a Muslim club. E th n i c i t y Level o f Agreement Arab (N-27) Strongly agree Agree Don't know Disagree Strongly di sa gree Non-Arab (N=22) 22.2% 40.7 14.8 11.1 11.1 63.6% 18.2 9.1 0 9.1 E th n i c i t y and P a r t i c i p a t i o n The resu lts of the cross-tabulation of respondents’ p a r t i c i p a t i o n in Islamic Center a c t i v i t i e s ( o t h e r than prayer) and their ethnicity are shown in Table 4.27 and Figure 4.2. No s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e was found between the two groups In terms of t h e i r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in C e n t e r a c t i v i t i e s . 101 100 ARAB MUSLIMS NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure 4.2.--Muslim participation by ethnicity. 102 Table 4. 2 7 . --Cross-tabulation of respondents* ethnicity by p artici­ pation in Islamic Center activities other than prayer. Ethn4c4t-y Frequency o f P a r t i c i p a t i o n Arab (N-27) Not a t a l l 1-3 times 4-6 times 7 or more times Non-Arab (N=22) 14.8% 37.0 29.6 18.5 0 % 59.1 36.4 4.5 E th n i c i t y and Life S a t i s f a c t i o n Results of the c r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n s o f respondents* e t h n i c back­ ground and t h e i r l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n - - p a s t , p r e s e n t , and f u t u r e - - a r e shown in Tables 4.28 through 4.30 and Figures 4.3 through 4 . 5 , respectively. None o f t h e s e comparisons showed a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e ( a t th e .05 l e v e l ) between th e two groups in terms o f t h e i r l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n . Table 4 . 2 8 . - - C r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n o f respondents* e t h n i c i t y by s a t i s f a c ­ tio n with t h e i r p a st l i f e . E th n i c i t y Degree o f S a t i s f a c t i o n Arab (N-27) Extremely s a t i s f i e d Very s a t i s f i e d S atisfied Ne ither s a t i s f i e d nor d i s s a t i s f i e d D issatisfied Very d i s s a t i s f i e d Extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d 3.8% 34.6 34.6 0 15.4 7.7 3 .8 Non-Arab (N-22) 26.3% 15.8 36.8 10.5 10.5 0 0 103 Arab Muslims ES3S Non Arab Muslims Figure 4.3.--Muslim past satisfaction by ethnicity. 104 Arab Muslims 8883 Non Arab Muslims Figure 4.4 .--Musi 1m present satisfaction by ethnicity. 105 I - ’»,V ♦ ♦w .v v w - . VW * ' ksv » ARB MUSLIMS ESE2 NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure 4.5.--Muslim future satisfaction by ethnicity. 106 Table 4 . 2 9 . - - C r o s s - ta b u la t io n of respondents’ e t h n i c i t y by s a t i s ­ f a c t i o n with t h e i r p res en t l i f e . E th n ic ity Degree o f S a t i s f a c t i o n Arab (N«27) Extremely s a t i s f i e d Very s a t i s f i e d Satisfied Neither s a t i s f i e d nor d i s s a t i s f i e d Dissatisfied Very d i s s a t i s f i e d Extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d Non-Arab (N=22) 15.4% 26.9 26.9 3 .8 15.4 3.8 7.7 10.0% 20.0 45.0 10.0 10.0 0 5.0 Table 4 . 3 0 . --C r o s s - ta b u la t io n of respondents’ e t h n i c i t y by expected s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e i r f u t u r e l i f e . E th n ic ity Degree o f S a t i s f a c t i o n Extremely s a t i s f i e d Very s a t i s f i e d Satisfied Neither s a t i s f i e d nor d i s s a t i s f i e d Dissatisfied Very d i s s a t i s f i e d Extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d Arab (N-27) Non-Arab (N=22) 40.0 % 24.0 12.0 20.0 4.0 0 0 30.0% 30.0 20.0 15.0 0 0 5.0 107 E th n ic ity and Academic Domain S t a ti s t i c a l ly sig n ifican t differences (.05 l e v e l ) were found between Arab and non-Arab Muslims regarding t h e i r two of th e nine academic subdomains. pro fesso rs and s a t i s f a c t i o n with s a t i s f a c t i o n with These were s a t i s f a c t i o n with t h e mass media (Tables 4.31 and 4.32 and Figures 4.6 and 4 . 7 , r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . The d i f f e r e n c e between Arab and non-Arab Muslims in terms o f t h e i r s a t i s f a c t i o n with the English language approached s i g n i f i c a n c e a t the .06 l e v e l . (See Table 4.33 and Figure 4 . 8 . ) Tables and f i g u r e s f o r the c r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n s that were not s i g n i f i c a n t may be found in the Appendix. Table 4 . 3 1 . - - C r o s s - t a b u l a t i o n o f e t h n i c i t y by s a t i s f a c t i o n with p rofesso rs. E th n i c i t y Degree o f S a t i s f a c t i o n Arab (N=27) Poor Fa ir Don’t know Good Very good 20. 0% 2 9 .0 2. 0 2 9 .0 20.0 Non-Arab (N-22) 0 % 35.0 1.0 59.0 5.0 108 80 POOR FAIR ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD V.GOOD DK £ 2 3 NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure 4.6.--Satisfaction with professors by ethnicity. POOR FAIR I ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD E33 V.GOOD DK NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure 4 .7.--Satisfaction with mass media by ethnicity. 110 60 POOR FAIR ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD V.GOOD DK EZ2 NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure 4 .8 . --Satisfaction with the English language by ethnicity. Ill Table 4 . 3 2 . - - C r o s s - ta b u la t io n o f e t h n i c i t y by s a t i s f a c t i o n with the mass media. E th n ic ity Degree of S a t i s f a c t i o n Arab (N-27) Poor Fa ir Don’ t know Good Very good Non-Arab (N=22) 33.3% 23.8 2.0 40.9 0 54.2% 17.8 3.0 12.5 12.5 Table 4 . 3 3 . - - C r o s s - ta b u la t io n o f e t h n i c i t y by s a t i s f a c t i o n with the English language. E th n ic ity Degree of S a t i s f a c t i o n Arab (N=27) Poor Fair Don’t know Good Very good 8.3% 36.5 1.0 41.7 12.5 Non-Arab (N=22) 0 % 14.3 0 47.6 38.1 Additional Analyses C orrelatio n Analyses The m u ltip le c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t (R) and i t s square, the c o e f f i c i e n t o f determination (R^), r e f e r to the proportion o f the sum o f the d e v ia tio n s from the mean of the exogenous v a r i a b le t h a t 112 can be accounted f o r by the endogenous v a r i a b l e s . I t would be explained and can in terms of error of e stim ate reduction be i n t e r p r e t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y as a measure o f success to estim ate the dependent v a r i a b l e using r eg re ss io n equ atio ns. The v a r i a t i o n in the dependent v a r i a b le (Y) may be described by R or by i t s square, R2 . The p a r t i a l correlation co efficien t re fle c ts const ant of one independent v a r i a b l e . th e holding For example, the c o r r e l a t i o n between Variable 1 and Variable 2 ( r l 2) can y i e l d d i f f e r e n t numbers because of the he te rogeneity of the t h i r d v a r i a b l e . I f the t h i r d v a r i a b le i s unr elate d to 1 or 2, the p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n w ill equal rl2. In case o f a d i f f e r e n t sign ( n e g a t i v e / p o s i t i v e ) f o r r l 3 , r23 on one hand and r l 2 on th e o th er, p a r t i a l l i n g out the t h i r d v a r i a b l e will increase the c o r r e l a t i o n r l 2 . Tables 4.34 and 4.35 show the p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s f o r the study v a r i a b l e s . computed for life The zero -o rder p a r t i a l satisfaction, demographic v a r i a b l e s : age, academic marital c o r r e l a t i o n was satisfaction, status, educational and the level, number o f c h il d r e n , length o f residence in th e United S t a t e s , and e th n ic background. 113 Table 4.34.--Partial correlation coefficients: (N - 18). zero-order partials Variable Variable 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 .38 P - .0 4 .01 p«=.48 -.17 P - .2 3 .15 p*.25 -.23 P-.15 -.25 p».14 -.03 p=.44 2 1. 0 0 .26 p*». 13 -.04 P-.41 - .3 1 p-,08 .03 P-.44 .22 P'a.lO .05 p=.40 1.00 -.26 Pb .13 .07 p=.37 .65 p*.001 .39 p=.04 .32 p=.08 1 .0 0 .41 p=.03 -.30 p=.09 .38 p=.04 .20 p=.19 1 .0 0 .36 p=.05 -.08 ps .35 -.04 p=.43 1.00 .29 p=.10 .28 p=.ll 1 .0 0 .26 p*=.12 3 4 5 6 7 8 Key: 1 .0 0 Variable Variable Variable Variable Variable Variable Variable Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ■ - Total l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n Domain s a t i s f a c t i o n Age Marital s t a t u s Educational level Number o f c hildren Length o f sta y 1n the United S t a te s Ethnic background 114 Table 4.35 . --Pearson correlation coefficients for life satisfaction and academic domain satisfaction with the demographic variables. Demographic Variable Age Marital S t a tu s No. of Children Length o f Stay Educ. Level Total l i f e satisfaction .2755 fM4 P-.135 -.2650 N-44 P-.041 .0287 N-28 P-.442 .1506 N=44 P-.165 .1516 N=44 p«=. 163 Domain satisfaction .3101 N=27 p=.058 -.0957 N=27 p=.317 .0308 N=20 p=.449 .2551 N=27 p=.100 -.0762 N=27 p=.353 Princip al Components Analysis Pr in c ip a l components a n a l y s i s o f the c o r r e l a t i o n between the nine academic subdomains revealed t h a t th e f i r s t p r i n c i p a l component explained 31.5% o f the t o t a l variance o f t h e nine item s, f i r s t t h r e e components explained 59.9% o f th e v a ria n c e . and the Following varimax r o t a t i o n o f t h e s e t h r e e components, f i v e o f t h e items had l o a d i n g s on one f a c t o r satisfaction with in t h e r a n g e f r o m . 36 t o media and s a t i s f a c t i o n with lowest loadings ( - . 0 7 and .01, r e s p e c t i v e l y ) . communalities subdomains. and percentages o f variance .80, shopping whereas had the Table 4.36 shows the f o r the nine academic 115 Table 4 . 3 6 . - - F a c t o r communal 1t i e s , eigenvalues , and percentages of variance f o r t h e nine academic subdomains. Subdomain Communality Eigenvalue Percent o f Variance Cumulative Percent .67 .73 .83 .65 .74 .68 .72 .61 .73 2.83 1.42 1.13 1.01 .76 .71 .56 .36 .18 31.5 15.8 12.6 11.2 8.5 7.9 6.3 4.0 2.0 31.5 47.3 59.9 71.2 79.7 87.6 94.0 98.0 100.0 - Satisfaction =S a t i s f a c t i o n - Satisfaction - Satisfaction =S a t i s f a c t i o n - Satisfaction - Satisfaction =S a t i s f a c t i o n =S a t i s f a c t i o n with with with with with with with with with o th e r Muslims p ro fes sors administrators adv isor c onditions f o r studying courses English language mass media shopping 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Key: Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain Subdomain 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Summary T h is c h a p t e r c o n t a i n e d t h e r e s u l t s performed in t h i s research. of the Included were the data analyses reliab ility and v a l i d i t y scores f o r th e s c a l e s used 1n t h e study, t h e demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f the sample, tests. and the r e s u l t s o f t h e hypotheses CHAPTER V THE CASE STUDY Introduction This chapter begins with a d isc u ssio n o f various approaches to studying communities and an examination of the a n a l y t i c scheme and methodology used in the case study f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h . Procedural problems encountered in the i n v e s ti g a t i o n are d isc u sse d , f i e l d method i s de sc ri bed. and the F i n a ll y , the data gleaned from th e case study are discussed. Approaches to Studying Communities Throughout history, community s t u d i e s have been im plicitly h o l i s t i c , from the ancien t Greeks, through Ibn Khaldun and Tonnies, to Wirth, Redfield, M i l le r , and Sanders in contemporary times. Although the issue o f ord er has stimulated many w r i t e r s to study communities, emphasized Redfield (1922), the relationships moral cohesion between t h e Durkheim (1965), and Nisbet among community members structure o f such communities functions o f t h e i r people and i n s t i t u t i o n s . (1953) and the and the Approaches used by the above-mentioned t h e o r i s t s have a l s o been use d in c o nte m p o ra ry i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y a re as , such as p o l i t i c a l , economic, systems on both the micro-and macro-system l e v e l s . 116 and social 117 The l i t e r a t u r e on communities evidenced in c r e a s in g i n t e r e s t in s o c i a l , medical, and r e l i g i o u s s e r v i c e s (Fernandez & Kulik, 1981; G o u ld n e r, 1965; M i c h a l o s , 1980; M i l l e r , Wilson, 1962). The l i t e r a t u r e a ls o 1953; R e d f i e l d , revealed an interest r e s e a r c h e r s in the concept o f o rg an iz atio n and community. interests have not classification always taken th e i s an attempt to c o n d u c t i n g community s t u d i e s . set same form. forth In t h i s 1955; among Yet th es e The following v ario u s approaches t o section, some o f t h e approaches found in M i l le r (1953) and Sanders (1966) a re d isc u sse d . M i l le r pointed out t h a t four approaches are u s u a l l y employed in community r e s e a r c h : approach, a p p ro a c h . W irth’ s the th e ethnographic approach, com m unity-stability approach, and the a n a ly tic the Sa n d e rs a l s o p i n p o i n t e d f o u r a p p r o a c h e s , (1938) means of studying ur ban applied follow ing c o m m u n i ti e s . These approaches were viewing t h e community as a s p a t i a l u n i t ( ecolo gic al approach), as a way o f l i f e system (s o c i o lo g i c a l (q u alitativ e (ethnographic approach), as a soc ial approach), approach). The and f i n a l l y as ethnographic a plac e and to live sociological approaches are disc ussed in th e following paragraphs, along with a s y n th e sis o f t h e two approaches, as they were most a p p li c a b l e t o th e purposes of t h e p r e s e n t study. The Ethnographic Approach The ethnographic approach i s an i n v e s t i g a t o r y type o f resea rch focusing on t h e study o f small groups. the major a spects of such groups. I t s purpose i s t o d e s c r i b e Ethnographic s t u d i e s o f ten e n t a i l 118 l e s s q u a n t i t a t i v e and more q u a l i t a t i v e da ta a n a l y s i s . Famous works using the ethnographic approach are the Middletown (Lynd & Lynd, 1929) and P l a i n v i l l e s t u d i e s , Redfield*s (1941, 1955) f o l k c u l t u r e project, and i n v e s t i g a t i o n s of minority groups (Arensberg, 1965; Yang, 1945). The Social System Approach The soc ial system approach views th e community as a whole. According t o t h i s approach, th e community comprises interdep enden t elements from the micro and macro l e v e l s o f o r g a n i z a t i o n s , according t o the exte rn al (environmental) and i n t e r n a l powers involved in such systems (Homans, 1950; P a r i t o , 1966; Parsons, 1951). The s t a b i l i t y o f a system depends on t h e equilibrium o f both t h e system and i t s subsystems. the total Parsons and Homans concurred with P a r i t o ’ s notion of so c ial system as e x te rnal subsystems. a combination of both internal and Homans* and Parsons* t h e o r i e s were discu ssed more f u l l y in Chapter II o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n . Synthesis o f the Ethnographic and Social System Approaches The frame o f re f e r e n c e o f t h i s study was the ethnographic and so c ial system approaches. In combining the w r i t e r attempted t o d e scrib e the two approaches, sample in terms o f t h e i r the age, m arita l s t a t u s , e th n i c background, length o f res iden ce in th e United States, and sponsoring agency, customs, norms, and sentiments. as well as their group va lu es, 119 The group 1s Influenced by th e I n t e r p l a y o f both e xte rnal and i n te r n a l subsystems; 1t is conditioned by the environment and r e f l e c t s th e sentiments formed by group members toward one another in the course o f t h e i r l i v e s t o g e t h e r . The i n te r n a l subsystem is r eprese nted by the i n t e r a c t i o n s of members in t h e mosque and the e x te n d e d interactions among members through v isitatio n s and a c t i v i t i e s o th er than those r e l a t e d t o group membership (Homans, 1950). Figure 5.1 i s a systems model of th e interaction among Muslim orga nization members. EXTERNAL SUBSYSTEM INTERNAL SUBSYSTEM Group Members INPUT Mosoue Religious c i r c l e s Lectures Picnics Social ga th erin gs Parties Conferences Camps Visitations Kinship r e l a t i o n s h i p s Social r e l a t i o n s h i p s >1/ ENVI RONMENT Figure 5 . 1 . --System model o f Muslim i n t e r a c t i o n . OUTPUT 120 Analytic Scheme o f th e Study One o f the basic o b s t a c l e s in studying r e l i g i o u s groups i s th e lack o f a t h e o r e t i c a l l y sound framework. in t h e s t u d y o f s u b j e c t i v e This o b sta c le i s inherent phenomena i n t h e (Andrews, 1986; C a n t r i l , 1965; Glock, 1959). social sciences Another o b s t a c l e i s de visin g a framework with which t o synthesize the major v a r i a b le s used in a study. In the absence of a p p lic a b le in ductive or deductive p r o p o sitio n s , and because e x i s t i n g models did not s u i t the purpose o f this study, the r e s e a rc h e r saw two alternatives formulating a t h e o r e t i c a l framework f o r the study. was t o combine various frameworks in to in One a l t e r n a t i v e one model. The second p o s s i b i l i t y was to develop an ad hoc model t h a t would include the study variables. One drawback to th e latter a l t e r n a t i v e was the problem of data " f i t " to the study hypotheses, as an a p p lica b le scheme was desired to s u i t f u t u r e s t u d i e s . Thus, the w r i t e r chose the f i r s t a l t e r n a t i v e by combining both t h e o r e t i c a l and empirical V frameworks in one model, along the lines of so c ial-sy ste m and ethnographic approaches. Studying Muslim community or orga nization members r e q u i r e s an a p p ro p ria te approach with a unique treatment t h a t may d i s t i n g u i s h such a gro up according to its rules (verily, believ ers a re b r o t h e r s ) , bearing in mind the f o l k - c u l t u r e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s shared by th e members. The model designed f o r t h i s researc h was intended to s e r v e t h e p u rpose o f t h e s t u d y , which can be c a t e g o r i z e d as formulative ( S e l l t i z , 1959) or e x plo rato ry r e s ea rch . Using such an 121 approach i s unlikely to isolate th is study from p r e v i o u s or succeeding i n v e s ti g a t i o n s o f s u b je c tiv e phenomena. Islamic Customs. T r a d i ti o n s , and Values The in te r n a l subsystem of th e group under study i s c o n tr o l le d and distinguished traditions, by cultu ral mores and valu es. characteristics as well In t h i s as Islam ic se c t i o n , cu sto m s , some o f these are explained t o e l u c i d a t e the responses o f the group members who p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h i s study. A custom i s a folkway or a behavior p a t t e r n ; people do. i t i s something Customs p e r t a i n to the group r a t h e r than the individual (Warren, 1963). Some customs are sacred and must be d e a l t with c a r e f u l l y and p e r f e c t l y (Sumner, 1906). ways o f behavior. Muslim prayer p r a c t i c e s involve steps and For example, t o be prepared f o r a pr ayer, a Muslim should be psychologically and p h y s i c a l ly ready, f u l l o f f a i t h and p u r i t y . To achieve physical purity, Muslims must perform a b lu t i o n s , without which they are not l e g a l l y prepared f o r prayer. The psychological p reparation begins when a b lu tio n tak es place by remembering Allah fo rg ivene ss. and mentioning His names and asking Him f o r This p r a c t i c e i s performed u n t i l the prayer i s over. The prayer i t s e l f must be performed in a sp ecial way by a l l Muslims as it was performed Muslims r e j e c t by any change the in Prophet, with specific such sacred p r a c t i c e s . utterings. Sometimes Muslims rep e at t h e i r prayer i f they doubt whether t h e prayer was performed c o r r e c t l y by a no n trad itio n a l Imam, i . e . , i f he omitted 122 some o f the traditional practices, as the p ray er should be in conformity with t h e t r a d i t i o n . Customs and mores a re t r a d i t i o n a l in t h a t they have been handed down from preceding ge nerations by word o f mouth and by example. T r a d i ti o n s such as Eid El Adha and Eid El ho sp itality for Fitr, newcomers, are more than a s e t o f customs o r behavior p a t t e r n s ; they a ls o involve an explanation o f why th ese t r a d i t i o n s a re Important and must be pres erved. but a ls o listen to One must not only observe what people do, their explanations for their behavior, to understand th e r ich n e ss o f Muslim l i f e f o r i n d iv i d u a ls as well as o r g a n iz a tio n members. Values a r e t h o s e q u a l i t i e s t h e r e f o r e t o be sought. t h es e values beliefs and are t h e group c o n s i d e r s By i m p lic a tio n , bad and consequently t o values were explained in then, be good and t h e o p p o sites o f rejected. Chapter II Muslim of th is dissertation. The Islamic customs and value o r i e n t a t i o n s disc ussed in t h e s e pages a re preached d a i l y by p a r e n t s , r e l i g i o u s Imams, and f r i e n d s . Sentiments, norms, and a c t i v i t i e s shape the group members in t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n , as Homans (1950) discovered and on which he b u i l t h i s gen eralizatio n s. S p e c i f i c Muslim v a l u e s and customs a r e now describe d t o help t h e r e a d er understand t h e community under study. Included are Muslim customs concerning h o s p i t a l i t y and g e n e r o s i t y ; companions, friends, and neighbors; handshaking, embracing, and k i s s i n g ; sneezing and yawning; naming; and the b a s i s o f honor and respect. 123 H o s p it a li t y and Generosity Muslims h osp itab le (especially treatment of Arab Muslims) g u e sts. This are is known emphasized for th eir in Muslim t r a d i t i o n , where the Prophet said t h a t "Whoever believ es in Allah and the Last Day shall e n t e r t a i n h i s gu e st, and h is tr o u b le is f o r one day and one nig ht, and entertainment i s f o r t h r e e days and what i s beyond t h a t i s c h arity " (Mishkat 4:323). Almost 80% of the Muslim respondents in the sample had prac tic ed such h o s p i t a l i t y by i n v i t i n g Americans to have dinner or lunch in t h e i r homes (not in r e s t a u r a n t s ) , where a Muslim honors h i s guest by serving him in the b e st p o s s ib le way. Companions. Friendship, and Neighbors Companions, fr i e n d s , and neighbors are c eleb ra te d in Islamic customs, and th ese r e l a t i o n s h i p s have q u a l i f i c a t i o n s , r i g h t s , and duties. For example, before s e l e c t i n g companions and f r i e n d s one must look to the h a b it s , na tu re , and v i r t u e s o f the companion, not only from a worldly perspectiv e but also from a r e l i g i o u s po in t of view, because companions share each o t h e r ' s misfortunes and sorrows as well as t h e i r happiness. none but two: Abu Sulaiman sa i d , "Keep company with one who i s kind to you in worldly a f f a i r s , and one who helps youin your r e l i g i o n (Mishkat, p. 549). Caliph Al-Ma'mum (one o f the Abbaside Dynasty) also s a i d , "Companions are of t h r e e kinds: a necessary companion is like necessary food, another companion i s l i k e a medicine to which recourse i s had a t th e time o f 124 n e c e s s i t y , and another i s l i k e a d i s e a s e which i s not d e s i r e d but comes as a t r i a l f o r rewards (Mishkat, pp. 549-50). F u rth e r, t h e Qura’n p r o h i b i t s Muslims from keeping the company with idolaters, Q u r a 'n u n b e lie v e r s, reads: "Turn murderers, and b r ib e away from one who t u r n s takers. away from My remembrance, and who he does not Intend but t h e world’ s l i f e " 25:63). The Se lec ti o n of f r i e n d s , t h e r e f o r e , i s not an easy t a s k . everyone who shows apparent love should be be frie nd ed . (Q Not This r u l e a p p li e s t o man a t home within the family c i r c l e , as well as on a journey, pursuing an ed uca tion, p r a c t i c i n g r e l i g i o n , o r in any o t h e r l i f e associations. Financial help is one of the true duties Another i s sharing a f r i e n d ’ s sorrow and happiness. of friendship. A t h i r d duty i s concealing the f a u l t s o f one’s f r i e n d and not c r i t i c i z i n g him in h i s absence. F i n a l l y , one should guide h i s f r i e n d in t h e t r u e path o f Islam and t u r n him from e v il - d o in g and d e s t r u c t i o n (Mishkat, p. 500, from Al-Ghazzali’s Ihya Ulum Id-Din). These q u a l i t i e s o f f r i e n d s h i p are well-known in Islamic t r a d i t i o n , where f r i e n d s h i p i s valued and describ ed as follow s: "There i s no good in f r i e n d s h i p with one who does not see f o r you what he sees f o r himself" (Mishkat 552:195). Neighborhood has t h r e e h i e r a r c h i c a l degrees: a Muslim neighbor who i s a r e l a t i v e , a Muslim n o n r e l a ti v e neighbor, and a non-Muslim n o n r e l a ti v e neighbor. Duties toward neighbors are second t o d u t i e s toward p a re n ts and r e l a t i v e s . The Importance o f neighborhood i s emphasized by th e Qura’n (4:36) and Sunnah (Mishkat 249-254). 125 Handshaking. Embracing, and Kissina In Islam, a f f e c tio n . handshaking and embracing a re sig n s o f love and Handshaking ta k e s place in Islam when a man touches th e hands o f a another man with h is own two hands. This p r a c tic e d i f f e r s from modern handshaking, in which only one hand i s used. handshaking i s Sunnah. So I t i s unlawful f o r a woman to shake hands with a young man and v ic e -v e rsa (see Tirmidi 38 and Al-Bukhari 36 in Mishkat, p. 577). Embracing and k issin g the hand are considered by Imam Abu Hanifah as abominable, but according to th e m ajo rity o f r e lig io u s le a d e rs i t i s lawful to k is s the hand o f a pious man. By th e same token, k issin g the ground in re s p e c t f o r a man i s unlawful. In Islam th e re are fo ur kinds o f k is s in g : from a f a t h e r to h is son, a kind k iss an a f f e c t i o n a t e k iss from c h ild re n to th e ir p a re n ts , a p a ssio n a te k is s from a husband to h is w ife ’ s fa c e , and a g ra te f u l k is s from a s u b je c t to his su p e rio r (king, imam, o r man) (Mishkat, p. 578). In contemporary s o c ie ty , tak e d i f f e r e n t a c c o r d in g t o handshaking, forms a c c o rd in g I s la m ic tea ch in g s to embracing, and k issin g t h e Muslim’ s c u l t u r e , and t r a d i t i o n s . not In g e n e r a l , handshaking and embracing a re supposed t o be a sign o f a f f e c t i o n . The more group members p r a c tic e such customs and sentim en ts, more a f f e c tio n and love they have f o r each o th e r , Homans’ s (1950) theo ry . the according to 126 Sneezing and Yawning S neezing comes from th e angel and th e re fo re is good; conversely, yawning comes from the devil and t h e r e f o r e i s bad (AlBukhari 74, in Mishkat, p. 590). Sneezing is believed to be a sign o f sound h ealth and b ra in , whereas yawning in d ic a te s When a Muslim sneezes, Muslims must say to he must say, to A lla h ." th e sneezer, "May Allah be m erciful The essence of such u tte ra n c e s should be g l o r i f i e d "P ra ise at is to every moment. slo th . Other to you." remind Muslims t h a t Allah This a ls o sig n ifie s Muslims l i v e in t h i s world f o r Allah and d ie fo r Allah th at as w e ll. Allah i s th e cornerstone o f t h e i r l i v e s . Naming "Names are given to humankind f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n in the proper management o f the business o f the world" (Mishkat, p. 594). In the Muslim c u lt u r e , people’ s names must be se le c te d in a way t h a t these names s ig n if y the name o f God. recommended t h a t names convey the For example, q u a li t y of in Islam servin g it is God only. T herefore, th e best names a re Abdullah (se rv an t o f A lla h ), Abdul Rahman (se rv a n t o f the m erc ifu l) (Mishkat: Hadith 595:90), and any o th e r name jo in in g t h i s q u a li t y with any o f the 99 names o f Asma’ a Allah Al-Husnaa (the b e a u tifu l names o f God). The b e s t o th e r names a re tho se t h a t p ra is e God, such as Muhammad (th e thankful th e p ro p h e ts’ names, and s im ila r Islam ic h isto ric a l f o r God), names. The worst names are Malik Al-Amlak (King o f kings) and any o th e rs t h a t have th e same connotation (Mishkat, pp. 594-95). Muslim c h ild r e n , 127 th e r e f o re , must be given th e names o f th e prophets and pious men. To encourage marriage in e a r ly y e a rs , young boys sometimes were c a lle d Abu, followed by t h e i r f a t h e r s ’ name. known to follow t h i s custom are Abu Hasan f o r A li, Some o f the names Abu Muhammad f o r Jassim (Qasim), Abu Zakariyya f o r Yahya (th e B a p ti s t ) , Abu Sulaiman f o r David, and Abu Ali f o r Hasan and Hussein, and so on. Names a re sometimes important in giving a good impression o f those who c a rry them. The respondents in t h i s study had many o f th e above mentioned names. T h ir ty - s ix person s' names began with Abd in combination with one o f A lla h ’s names, and 18 were named Muhammad. Such names as Ibrahim, Hasan, Hussein, Mustafa, Saleh, Yousuf, and Omar were also fre q u e n tly observed in th e community. Basis o f Honor and Respect Islam recognizes t h a t by b i r t h every man i s equal in honor and re s p e c t. The most honor i s reserved f o r th e most pious person. The saying, "The g r e a te r i s the p ie ty of a person, th e g r e a t e r i s h is r e s p e c t," is not merely a slogan. It is p ra c tic e d in communities according to the Qura’n (49:13) and t r a d i t i o n 4:247). Islam ic (Mishkat The c r i t e r i o n f o r such a pious person i s the degree to which he le a rn s the t r a d i t i o n and Qura'n sciences by h e a r t , in a d d itio n to h is physical appearance (long beard and sh o rt mustache), as well as h is normative behavior. The h is to r y o f Islam ic communities shows t h a t some weak persons u n fo rtu n ately have pretended to be pious to deceive simple people. 128 Some deceivers were discovered were found o u t. immediately, whereas o th e rs never A la rg e propo rtio n o f Muslims, because they are emotional, s u b je c tiv e , v e ry t r u s t i n g . and value o r ie n te d , have h i s t o r i c a l l y been They a r e a l s o e a s i l y d e c e iv e d by a p e r s o n ’ s appearance because checking people’ s c r e d i b i l i t y and a u th e n ti c it y is unthinkable according t o Muslim customs (Ibn Khaldun, Al-Muqaddimah, pp. 22-24). This q u a lity may be natu ral quoted e a r l i e r as saying, man i s because, as LeBon was illo g ic a l and apt to b eliev e unreasonable th in g s i f they correspond to h is emotions and f e e lin g s . Research Methodology f o r th e Case Study In an e f f o r t to understand the s u b j e c t s ' responses, an in-depth m ethodology was u se d , in v o lv in g i n t e r r e l a t e d , freq u e n tly used methods. th e se le c tio n of th ree The f i r s t i s widely known as the se lf-s u rv e y method, using a q u e stio n n a ire f o r d a ta c o ll e c t io n . The second was the case study method, which has been recommended fo r use in community s t u d i e s (Sower & M i l l e r , 1 9 5 7 ). comprised personal observations and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s . The t h i r d These methods were employed to make sense o f the s t a t i c d a ta . Describing an o b je c t from o u tsid e i s d i f f e r e n t from d e scrib in g the same o b je c t from in s id e . group under study. This argument can be ap plied to the Examining th e Muslim o rg an iz atio n from o utside as an o u ts id e r d i f f e r s from d e scrib in g th e same group from in s id e as an i n s id e r . u s in g th e illu stra tio n : Schatzman and S trau ss (1973) supported th e value o f two methods of o b se rv atio n w ith th e f o llo w in g 129 Im agine o b s e r v in g a c i t y s u b s t a n t i v e l y th ro u g h t h e ey es (p ersp ec tiv e ) o f a la y homeowner, a r e a l t o r , an urban p lan n e r, and an urban h i s t o r i a n ; th en , vary the p o s itio n o f o b se rv a tio n . L o g ic a lly , by walking along th e s t r e e t s , by b ic y c lin g and m o to rin g th r o u g h i t and th e n f l y i n g j u s t above i t in a h e lic o p te r . Assuming one were able to tak e th e s e p e rs p e c tiv e s in combination, th e c i t y as "data" would n a t u r a l l y p re se n t i t s e l f in a v a r ie ty o f conceptual p a t t e r n s , (p. 121) As a method o f i n v e s ti g a t i o n , field lik e lih o o d o f obtain in g v a lid inform ation. e ig h t c a se s. re se a rc h enhances th e The case study involved The sample was lim ite d to a d u lt male Sunni Muslims r e s id in g in th e East Lansing, Michigan, a re a . Such l i m i t a t i o n s did not perm it g e n e ra liz a tio n o f th e fin d in g s to o th e r groups or complex sta tistic a l a n a ly s is . Thus, d e s c r ip tiv e s t a t i s t i c s were used in t r e a t i n g and re p o rtin g th e d a ta . Procedural Problems Several problems arose in conducting th e f i e l d re s e a rc h . in c l u d e d sample se le c tio n , q u e s tio n n a ire item s, c h o ic e of th e and th e d a ta a n a l y s i s . These in te rv ie w e r, th e These concerns a re addressed in the follow ing paragraphs. The Problem of Sample S e le c tio n Because random sampling did not serve th e purpose o f th e f i e l d stud y, a purposive sampling method was used. Because th e purpose o f th e study was to a sse ss o rg an iz atio n members* s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and with th e academic domain, in d iv id u a ls with varying demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s (age, e th n ic background, m a rita l s t a t u s , len g th o f resid en c e in the United S t a t e s , and sponsoring agency) were chosen 130 f o r th e case study interview s to allow th e re s e a rc h e r ' to make comparisons between divergent groups. A fter consu ltin g with h is d i s s e r t a t i o n committee members, the r e s e a rc h e r decided to s e l e c t j u s t enough cases f o r th e purpose of d ata a n a ly s is . 12 cases The committee members suggested t h a t between 6 and would be adequate. Of th e 14 persons se le c te d to interview ed, 8 consented to take p a rt in th e interv iew . be All e ig h t o f th ese in d iv id u a ls also completed the q u e stio n n a ire t h a t was p a rt o f th e la r g e r study. The Problem o f th e Interview er Because only e ig h t r e s e a rc h e r decided in d iv id u a ls were to he would be the develop and conduct the interv iew s. most be interview ed, a p p ro p ria te person the to Because o f the small sample s i z e , the re se a rc h e r was able to complete the f i e l d research phase of the study in l e s s than one month. The Problem o f th e Questionnaire The purpose o f conducting understanding o f the d a ta . the case study was to maximize T herefore, the re se a rc h e r Included in th e interview those Items from th e mailed q u e stio n n a ire t h a t needed more e la b o ra tio n 1n terms o f why respondents had answered th e way they had. These items concerned l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n (Item 22), the innovative Friday prayer idea (Item 11), the idea o f e s ta b lis h in g a Muslim club in the area (Item 18), and the concept o f an Islamic s t a t e (Item 21). 131 The Problem o f Analysis This concern was r e l a te d to the problems o f sample s e le c tio n and choice o f q u e stio n n a ire items f o r th e in te rv ie w s. The lim ite d number o f cases and items included In the a n a ly s is made i t d i f f i c u l t to draw g e n e r a liz a tio n s from the d ata gathered in th e f i e l d study. Conducting th e F ield Research The Case Study Sample A purposive sample was se le c te d f o r th e case study. Thus, i f an interv iew was canceled o r refu sed , th e re s e a rc h e r had t o s e l e c t an a l t e r n a t i v e interview ee who possessed th e necessary demographic c rite ria sta tu s, (d ifferin g in terms o f age, e th n ic background, length o f residence in th e United S t a te s , a g e n c y ). These c rite ria were of p rim a ry and sponsoring im p o rta n c e d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g among respondents f o r a n a ly s is purposes. shows t h e o p e ra tio n a l model of th is se le c tio n m arita l in Figure 5.2 process. The interview ees were a l l a d u lt males between 20 and 40 y ears o f age who had liv e d in the United S ta te s f o r not l e s s than one y e ar and were Michigan S ta te U niversity stu d e n ts. Acceptance Contacting ......... Discussion Interview Refusal A lte r n a tiv e Figure 5 . 2 . --O perational model o f th e In te rv ie w e e -se le c tio n process. 132 To o b t a i n c a s e s tu d y p a r t i c i p a n t s , th e research er first contacted Islam ic Center members a t th e mosque and explained to them the purpose o f the study and th e p a rtic ip a te in q u e stio n n a ire . an in te rv ie w The p o t e n t i a l in te rv ie w s, a fte r and asked them to c o m p le tin g th e research i n t e r v i e w e e s were e n co u rag ed t o con tact the r e s e a rc h e r i f they had any q uestions o r doubts about the r e s e a r c h e r 's purposes and o b je c tiv e s . had explained th at th e purpose Even though the re s e a rc h e r of the study was t o meet h is d i s s e r t a t i o n requirem ents, some in d iv id u a ls were not convinced o f t h i s purpose and refused to respond. Some group members questioned whether th e innovative concerning Friday prayer was legal in terms o f Islam. forced the re s e a rc h e r t o support the idea This inqu iry innovative concepts he was proposing through what he termed " l e g a liz a tio n o f id e a s ," by which he meant le g itim iz a tio n based on Islam ic t r a d i t i o n concerning the idea as p ra c tic e d by th e Prophet him self o r h is companions in th e e a r ly - m e s s a g e p e r i o d . r e je c te d both in terv iew . p a rtic ip a te . the O th e r o r g a n i z a t i o n members im m e d ia te ly Friday prayer idea and p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the S t i l l o th e rs asked f o r more time t o decide whether to The re s e a rc h e r learned t h a t some in d iv id u a ls were p o l i t e enough to re fu se d i r e c t l y according to so c ia l and r e l i g io u s norms, whereas o th e rs needed more time to ask fello w group members about the study t o see i f the re s e a rc h e r was v i o la t in g th e group norms. The l a t t e r members did not make a d e cisio n without th e help o r d ir e c tio n o f o th e rs . 133 The decision-making process by which group members solved the problem o f agreeing o r re fu sin g to be Interviewed followed the p a tte r n depicted 1n Figure 5 .3 . The Idea (Event) In itia tio n A rtic u la te d as a Problem o f Choice (Input) Search f o r S olu tions (id eas) (Action I) (E arly Sponsorship) Intervening V ariables - Ideological - Socioeconomic - Demographic i Area o f Persuasion More Information - L egalizatio n - I n te ra c tio n - Consul t a t ionsN v Final -> Sponsorship Rejection (Negative Output) NEW IDEA<- / / / (D ecision[s]) (Action II) (P o s itiv e Output) -/ Figure 5 . 3 . --Decision-making process in agreeing o r refu sin g to be interview ed. 134 Discussion o f the DecisionMaking Model One o f the purposes of field resea rch is to maximize the p o s s i b i l i t y o f disco v erin g a so c ial o rd e r developed along d i f f e r e n t lin e s of re a lity . E xpectations of the re s e a rc h e r responses have been supported by several re s e a r c h e r s . to p r e d ic t For in s ta n c e , Sower (1957) s u g g e s te d a u n iq u e r e s e a r c h method f o r s tu d y in g communities: I f any innovation is introduced to an o rg an iz atio n or community w ithin i t s customary decision-making p a tt e r n s . . . , the s c i e n t i s t s can p r e d i c t t o h i g h e r - t h a n - c h a n c e l e v e l s o f p r o b a b i l it y whether th e t a r g e t o rg an iz atio n w ill sponsor th e innovation, w ill r e j e c t i t , o r whether th e r e w ill be a delayed response, (p. 13) I f t h i s notion was ap p lied in the p re s e n t study, would i t y i e l d new in s ig h ts and d is c o v e rie s ? The r e s e a r c h e r ’ s f a m i l i a r i t y with the community members under study led him to b e liev e i t would. of P ra c tic e Islam in the United S ta te s does not involve th e same a c tio n s a c t u a l l y undertaken in Arab Muslim c o u n tr ie s . In th e United S t a t e s , th e r o le o f th e mosque is broader in scope because o f th e community members’ unique needs, relig io u s a c t iv i t ie s . and non-A rab in d iv id u a ls language). e s p e c ia lly in th e a re as of s o c ia l and This r o l e i s e s p e c ia lly p re v a le n t f o r women American M uslim s, as (newcomers and b e g in n in g This broader r o le le a d e rs through th e y e a r s . w ell as A r a b ic - s p e a k i n g s t u d e n t s o f t h e E n g lis h has generated problems f o r Muslim Meeting community members’ needs has more o r l e s s followed th e ste p s shown in th e problem -solving model d e p ic te d in Figure 5 .3 . 135 Events and Action In th is s e c tio n , an attem pt is made to bring to g e th e r th e various elements o f the decision-making process as an a ctio n o f the social system. A s im ila r model o f community a ctio n using th e same process with d i f f e r e n t terms was t h a t o f Sower e t a l . , 1957. In th e Sower e t a l . model, f u lf illm e n t o f th e c h a r t e r ," system should be d ir e c te d . the "u ltim ate o b je c tiv e to which a l l fo rce s is in th e th e social The a n a ly tic a l components in th e a ctio n sequence and process a re convergence o f i n t e r e s t , the i n i t i a t i n g s e t , le g itim a tio n and sponsorship, the execution s e t and resource m o b ilization, and f u l f il l m e n t of the c h a r t e r . Compared with the model employed in the p resen t study, th e elements o f th e d e c is io n ­ making process are s im ila r in sequence but not in term inology. are: the sponsorship event (ac tio n a rtic u la te d II); set as a problem o f a lt e r n a t iv e s (in itia tio n ); (more They e a rly inform ation, l e g a li z a t io n , i n te r a c t io n , and c o n s u lta tio n s ); and f i n a l sponsorship (action II). When the process cycle ends, another event o r idea begins to be undertaken by the same process. This s e c tio n covers two se le c te d events f o r e la b o ra tio n and d e sc rip tio n according to th e ste p s in th e decision-making process in Figure 5 .3 . L egalizatio n o f the idea provided in the a rea of o f members in persuasion in the model i s described between th e two e v en ts. Event I The sequence o f th e event and th e response to i t can take th e following ste p s: a c tio n s 136 1. In itia tio n . o r problem, In itia tin g the idea: Here th e idea or event whether i t was posed by a person o r s i t u a t i o n , tak es th e same sequence with varying degrees. The idea o f Friday p rayer was i n i t i a t e d through the q u e stio n n a ire . 2. Action I . The idea was sponsored by a small group and i n i t i a l l y r e je c te d by a la rg e group. 3 was in o rd er. 3. To r e c r u i t more sponsors, Step The e a rly responses were r e l a t i v e l y low (a c tio n I ) . In fo rm a tio n -le g a liz a tio n . This i s th e kind o f information used in the area of persuasion to r e c r u i t more sponsors and to provide answers fo r in q u ir ie s as needed. While the e a r ly sponsors did not need la rg e e f f o r t s to be convinced, e a r ly r e j e c t e r s d id . Therefore, more inform ation, needed in t h i s sequence. in te r a c t io n , and c o n su lta tio n were L egalization i s meant to provide s o lid and v a lid inform ation from th e most con siderab le source o f ju risp ru d en c e in Islam. The examples given were se le c te d p r a c tic e o f a d d itio n , from th e th e Prophet him self as the exemplar f o r life and Muslims. In in te r a c tio n was a lso needed to provide answers and to promote sponsorship a c tio n . Consultation was a ls o needed to give the r e j e c t e r s l e s s chance to r e j e c t the event. The c o n s u lta tio n in t h i s manner would be neutral and respected by both the i n i t i a t o r and th e audience (members o f th e so cial system). In t h i s phase, the resea rch e r had to d isc u ss th e l e g a li z a t io n content with the group le a d e rs . important in such a small group. leaders* opinions are adopted The r o le of th e le a d e rs is Word o f mouth t r a v e l s f a s t , and fa ste r (In k eles & Smith, 1974; Rogers, 1963). than tho se of nonleaders 137 4. with Action II ( fin a l sponsorship). f a c ts and more Information c o n s u lta tio n ) Sometimes convincing people (leg a liz atio n , in cre ases th e number o f sponsors i n te r a c t io n , (id e a lly , and because sometimes i t might work a g a in s t th e event i f the information i s not convincing). The p o s itiv e response in t h i s case was described as ac tio n I I , in which the f in a l decisio n o r sponsorship tak e s p la c e . In t h i s phase, which Sower e t a l . (1957) described as th e " c h a r te r ," the u ltim ate o b je c tiv e to which a l l fo rces o f th e so c ial system are to be d i r e c te d , one a r r iv e s a t the f in a l ste p in th e model. The d e cisio n made in t h i s phase would be th e f in a l d e cisio n f o r an event t o be accepted or r e j e c t e d . 5. members Consequences. in itia lly The r e lig io u s n ature o f th e event made many h e sita te to accept it. E ffo rts leg a l inform ation were used in th e area of persu asio n . and The number o f sample members a ffe c te d by the d ecisio n (th e success o r f a i l u r e o f the event) was r e l a t i v e l y sm all, while the m ajo rity o f th e sample a tte n d the ordinary pray er. L eg a liz atio n o f the (See Chapter I I I fo r fin d in g s .) Friday prayer id e a . This s e c tio n was prepared to convince the respondents t h a t th e Friday p rayer idea in c lu d e d in t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e has l e g a l ro o ts in t h e Sunnah (tra d itio n ). To be accepted, an id e a , e s p e c ia lly a r e l i g io u s id ea, needs to be supported by leg al documents from the normative b e l i e f . The process o f providing such Informational support was conceptualized in t h i s study as " l e g a li z a t io n of id e a s ." By " l e g a liz a tio n " the 138 w r ite r meant t h a t , to be accepted, th e innovative ideas included in the q u e stio n n a ire had to to be supported by th e Qura’n o r Sunnah (the Prophet’ s way of l i f e ) . The idea concerning performing Friday prayer two times on Friday, with a time d iff e r e n c e o f one hour, may be the idea most needing to be le g a liz e d . What th e w r i t e r d id was to co nsu lt th e second source o f Islam ic law to fin d some o f the Prophet’s Sunnah in performing the prayer twice in th e same place with the same Imam (prayer lea d er) postponing the time o f pray er. o r another Imam as w e ll, or Our source was th e Sahih Al-Bukhari (the highest a u th e n tic c o lle c tio n o f Hadith [sunnah]). Religious communities tend to r e j e c t innovative ideas unless those ideas have ro o ts in th e Prophet’s sunnah. The Islam ic community was confronted with v ast problems in th e e a r l y y e ars of the mission o f Islam. Prophet him self or such problems was Prophet. These problems were solved s o le ly by the by s h o rt; h is companions. The process immediate d e c isio n s of solving were made by th e In the Prophet’s l i f e , the p r in c ip le "Inna Al-Dina Yosrun" (Religion i s a r e l i e f ) was used in solving problems in th e Muslim community. For in sta n c e , according to th e Hadith n a rra te d by Al- Bukhari, th e Prophet delayed noon prayer on hot days and performed i t e a r ly on cold days (Al-Bukhari: Hadith 359; Mishkat: Hadith 34). Another example showing th e r e l i e f o f r e l i g io n was th e Prophet’ s giving permission to Muslims who had begun tak in g t h e i r food to continue e a tin g even i f they heard th e p rayer c a l l Hadiths 435 and 436). (Al-Bukhari: 139 F u rth e r, th e companions o f t h e P ro p h e t p r a c t i c e d p r a y e r s tw ic e w ith d i f f e r e n t g rou ps (A l-B u k h a r i: and and performed Athan same mosque ( c a ll (Al-Bukhari: to in prayer) Nishkat, p. prayer 469). lea d in g H a d ith 448} twice in the Other prayers were performed by th e Prophet a t d i f f e r e n t tim es; e . g . , he p ra c tic e d la te noon prayer a fte r sunset in a Dharurah (with an excuse) s i t u a t i o n (Al-Bukhari: Hadith 393). As another example, Gabriel tau ght Muhammad how and when to pray each o f the f iv e prayers a t two d i f f e r e n t p rescrib ed times (Mishkat: Hadiths 27, 28, 29, and 30). has i t s b le ssin g : This was because each time The e a r l i e r time i s the p lea su re o f God, and the l a t t e r i s th e pardon o f God (Mishkat: Hadith 49). The f a c t t h a t the preceding examples were p ra c tic e d by th e Prophet and h is companions does not mean t h a t i t i s th e r u l e , but r a t h e r in d ic a te s t h a t th e Prophet changed th e prayer time from a d i f f i c u l t time to an e a s i e r one. In c o n tr a s t to what has been s a id , many Hadiths emphasize prayers a t s p e c i f i c tim es (Mishkat: Hadiths 34, 48, 5 0 ,and 62). The im p o rtan c e o f p e rfo rm in g F r id a y p r a y e r was e x p re s s e d c l e a r l y in th e Qura’n (Q 6 2 :9 ), and each prayer must be performed a t its s p e c ifie d time (Q 4:103). The Prophet a lso emphasized t h i s . For in sta n c e , he said t h a t "Friday prayer i s an o b lig a to ry ta s k to be performed in a group" (Mishkat: Hadith 671). Al-Imam A l-Shafie a ls o n a rra te d the Hadith t h a t the Muslim who gives up Friday prayer without an excuse o r n e c e s s ity Is w ritte n as a hyp o crite in a record t h a t w ill n e ith e r be effaced nor changed (Mishkat: Hadith 674). 140 However, t h i s Hadith was n a rra te d in a s l i g h t l y more perm issive way by o th e r a u t h o r i t i e s (Ibn Hanbal, Abu Daud, and Ibn Majah): The Muslim who gives up a Friday prayer without an excuse sh a ll give one d in a r in c h a r ity ; i f he does not have one d in a r, then h a l f a d in a r (Mishkat: Hadith 669). The above Hadiths show t h a t the Prophet him self changed and performed some prayers according to members (the Muslim jama*ah). th e needs o f th e community There i s no doubt t h a t th e p r in c ip le mentioned e a r l i e r - - t h a t r e l i g io n is a r e lie f - - w a s p ra c tic e d to ease d i f f i c u l t s i t u a t i o n s f o r Muslims without changing th e b a sic r u le s of the f a i t h as revealed in the Qura’n o r p ra c tic e d by th e Prophet. For Muslims, Muhammad was, s t i l l th ro u g h h is ap p re cia te d , way o f life is, and w ill remain th e exemplar (sunnah). He w i l l and followed as a source second to be ch erish e d , th e Qura’n fo r Islamic ru le s and laws. Event II E stab lish in g a Muslim c lu b . The need was u rgent. The d iv is io n among people in the community c re ate d two d i f f e r e n t groups, supporting th e idea and one r e j e c t i n g the idea. one The need to i n v it e non-Muslims to atten d th e Islam ic le c tu r e s was u rg en t, e s p e c ia lly when th e le c tu r e was not f u l l y t r a d i t i o n a l . Expanding th e c ap a c ity of the mosque and fin d in g another space f o r such a c t i v i t i e s were adopted by th e following s te p s . le a d e rs . The sequence of th e event took the 141 1. In itia tio n . The idea was included in th e q u e s tio n n a ire . Unlike th e r e l i g io u s id ea , t h i s idea was s o c i a l ; i t was expected th e p ro p o rtio n o f sponsors would be g r e a t e r than t h a t o f r e j e c t e r s . 2. Action I . The r e j e c t e r s req u ire d l i t t l e e f f o r t to see th e advantages o f such an id ea . 3. I n f o r m a tio n - le g a liz a tio n . The so c ia l n a tu re o f t h i s event made f o r an e a s i e r adoption as compared with th e r e l i g i o u s event. L i t t l e l e g a l i z a t i o n was needed. The most im portant need was th e need f o r more money to execute th e event. A campaign was launched by a c tiv e members o f the o rg an iz atio n to c o l l e c t enough money to fu lfill th e purpose o f the event. The event was e s t a b l is h i n g a Muslim club to serve th e Muslim stu d e n ts in t h e i r m eetings, o th e r than th e mosque. mosque. The place was c lo se t o th e boundaries o f th e At th e same tim e, i t was announced t h a t a church lo c a te d beside th e mosque was f o r s a l e . The event was pushed p o s i t i v e l y to have more sponsors and su p p o rte rs. The members’ enthusiasm to t r a n s f e r th e event from an idea in to an actu al f a c t had c o l l e c t i v e group c o n s c i o u s n e s s . In ste ad , it T h is p h a se d id needed fu n d -ra is in g e f f o r t s n o t need to fu lfill le g a liz a tio n . th e u ltim a te o b je c tiv e o f th e so c ia l system, which was th e event. 4. out the Action I I . I n te r a c tio n o f th e group members with o r w ith ­ re s e a rc h e r in cre ased , and th e Idea found su p p o rte rs sponsors who began to c o l l e c t money to cover th e c lo s in g the s a l e . and c o s ts o f The push f o r such e n th u s ia s t i c sponsorship was undertaken fo r sev eral reason s. F i r s t , th e church rep re se n te d a r e l i g i o n o th e r than t h a t o f th e sponsors* group. Second was th e e x p e c ta tio n o f 142 planning a c tiv itie s in th e new f a c i l i t y . T hird, th e le a d e rs c ontinuously emphasized th e need t o implement th e idea before o th e r com petitors took advantage o f th e bargain. Fourth, c o lle c tiv e occasions were in o rd e r, e s p e c i a l l y th e month o f Ramadan and Eid E1F itr, when group members share pray ers c o l l e c t i v e l y . well as committee members contacted members and Leaders as asked them to c o n tr ib u te generously to th e fu n d -ra isin g a c t i v i t y . 5. Consequences. This event was a success f o r th e community as every Muslim, whether he was a member o f th e Islam ic Center or n o t, needed to c o n tr ib u te to the process. D is c u s s io n o f E vents In attem pting to analyze the d a ta , i t should be kept in mind t h a t th e Islam ic o rg a n iz a tio n and th e process o f d e c isio n making or f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e " c h a rte r" (Sower e t a l . , 1957) or members’ a c tio n as a r e s u l t o f t h e i r i n te r a c t io n i s not se p a ra te d . a c tio n p rocess, th e r e l a ti o n s h i p c u lt u r a l s e t t i n g was most e v id e n t. s h a re d by th e in d iv id u a lism . p o s i t iv e a c tio n . g roup members Throughout the between group behavior and th e A stron g c o l l e c t i v e sentim ent was observed, as opposed to The u ltim a te o b je c tiv e in both events was to achieve The f i n a l choice (a c tio n I I ) concerning event II was considered p o s i t iv e l y higher than t h a t o f event I . In using th e method o f event attem pt t o r e c o n s tr u c tio n , Figure 5.3 i s an pull out and focus on the i n te r a c t io n as an important method in the decision-making p ro cess. focused on Major emphasis the a n a ly s is o f th e two e v en ts. was a ls o 143 The sequence o f phases 1n both events was almost id e n tic a l. D ifferen ces were seen in the a rea o f p e rsu asio n , where fu n d - ra is in g e ffo rts in event II s u b s ti t u t e d f o r th e l e g a l i z a t i o n - i n t e r a c t i o n e f f o r t s in event I . D e sc rip tiv e Data In t h i s s e c tio n , th e d e s c r ip tiv e d ata from th e in te rv ie w s are re p o rte d , and th e fin d in g s a re d isc u sse d . Age Five (62.5%) o f th e interview ees were between 31 and 40 y ears o f age, and th re e (37.5%) were 20 to 30 y e ars o ld . (See Table 5 .1 .) Table 5 . 1 . - - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f interview ees by age. Number Percent 20-30 y ears 31-40 y ears 3 5 37.5 62.5 Total 8 100.0 Age Ethnic Backaround Although th e sample rep resen ted a number o f Muslim c o u n tr ie s , f o r a n a ly s is purposes the respondents were d ivid ed i n to two groups: Arab and non-Arab. Five (62.5%) o f th e interview ees were o f Arab backgrounds, whereas th r e e (See Table 5 .2 .) (32.5%) were o f non-Arab backgrounds. 144 Table 5.2.--Distribution of interviewees by ethnic background. Ethnic Background Number Percent Arab Non-Arab 5 3 62.5 37.2 Total 8 100.0 Marital S ta tu s Four (50%) o f the interview ees were m arried, were unmarried. (See Table 4 .3 . ) and fo u r (50%) As only one widower p a r t i c i p a te d in the q u e stio n n a ire po rtio n o f the study, th e re s e a rc h e r decided to exclude him from the interview sample f o r reasons o f c o n fid e n tia lity . Table 5 . 3 . - - D is tr ib u tio n o f interview ees by m arital s t a t u s . M arital S ta tu s Married Unmarri ed Total Number Percent 4 4 50.0 50.0 8 100.0 Length o f Residence in the United S ta te s Six (75%) o f th e interview ees had liv e d in th e United S ta te s more than four y e a rs . y e a rs . Only two (25%) had liv e d here l e s s than th r e e (See Table 5 .4 .) 145 Table 5.4.--Distribution of Interviewees by length of residence in the United States. Length o f Residence Number Percent 2 6 25.0 75.0 8 100.0 Less than 3 years More than 3 years Total Sponsoring Aaencv Four (50%) o f th e interview ees were re c eiv in g support f o r t h e i r education, th r e e governmental (37.5%) were rec e iv in g fam ily support, and one (12.5%) was receiv in g support from sources o th e r than family or government. (See Table 5 .5 .) Table 5 . 5 . - - D is tr ib u tio n o f interview ees by sponsoring agency. Sponsoring Agency Number Government One’s fam ily P riv a te (nonfamily) Total Percent 4 3 1 50.0 37.5 12.5 8 100.0 Findings o f th e Data A nalysis A nalysis S tra u s s , is th e working o f thought processes 1973) r a t h e r than academic a b s t r a c ti o n s . sense o f the d a ta and involves c r i t i c a l th in k in g . (Schatzman It & i s making The d a ta - a n a ly s is model used in t h i s study i s shown in Figure 5 .4 . Shown in the fig u re are th e resp o n d en ts’ c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the respo ndents' reasons f o r having high or low e x p ec ta tio n s fo r th e f u tu r e . RESPONDENTS’ CHARACTERISTICS EXPECTATION LEVEL Age Ethnic Background M arital S tatu s Length o f Residence Sponsoring Agency < REASONS High Expectation P o litic al Social Economi c Religious Other Low Expectation Figure 5 . 4 . --The d a ta - a n a ly s is model. Reasons f o r High or Low Expectations Of the e ig h t case-stu d y p a r t i c i p a n t s , fo u r had in d ic ate d on the q u e stio n n a ire th at they had high e x p ec ta tio n s for fu tu re life sa tisfa c tio n , and four had in d icated they had low e x p e c ta tio n s . This s e c tio n contains a d isc u ssio n o f respo ndents’ reasons f o r why they had high o r low e x p e c ta tio n s fo r fu tu re life sa tisfa c tio n . The respo ndents’ e x p ec ta tio n s are then examined in l i g h t o f the demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s used as c r i t e r i a f o r s e le c tio n o f the interview ee sample. As Table 5.6 shows, among th e resp ond en ts’ reasons fo r high e x p ec ta tio n s f o r fu tu r e honor ranked f i r s t . life sa tisfa c tio n , fam ily re p u ta tio n and Economic reasons ranked second, and individual p r e s tig e ranked t h i r d . F in a lly , chances to tr a v e l and to occupy a p o l i t i c a l p o s itio n in th e fu tu r e ranked fo u rth . 147 Table 5 . 6 . --Reported reasons f o r high e x p e c ta tio n s . Reason Number3 Rank 4 3 2 1 1 1 2 3 4 4 Family honor ( c o l l e c t iv e ) Economic (employment) P re s tig e ( in d iv id u a l) T raveling P o litic a l aSome interview ees gave more than one reason. Table 5.7 shows the ranking o f reasons f o r in te rv ie w e e s ’ low e x p e c ta tio n s f o r f u tu re l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n . Lack o f freedom ranked first, P o litic a l and chance of war ranked second. f e e lin g o f i n j u s t i c e , c o n flicts, exhausted and economic reasons reso u rce s, la c k o f rea so n s, ranked t h i r d . so c ia l re c o g n itio n , unemployment ranked fo u rth . Table 5 . 7 . --Reported reasons f o r low e x p e c ta tio n s . Reason Lack o f freedom Chances o f war P o litic a l In ju stic e Economic (wealth) Value c o n f l i c t s Exhausted reso u rces Lack o f so c ia l re c o g n itio n Unemployment Numbera Rank 4 3 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 aSome interview ees gave more than one reason . the Value and 148 Comparison o f Respondents* Expectations and Demographic C h a r a c te r is ti c s Because examining s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith l i f e , esp ecially f o r the f u tu r e , was a major purpose o f t h i s study, th e r e s e a r c h e r 's concern was focused on th e components o f th e model d e p ic te d in Figure 5 .4 . In th e f o l lo w in g p arag rap h s, th e c a se -stu d y resp o n d en ts’ e x p ec ta tio n s f o r fu tu r e l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n a re analyzed w ith regard to th e personal c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s used in th e purposive s e le c tio n of the sample. Aae. Of th e four interview ees with low e x p e c ta tio n s , two were in th e 20 to 30 age group and two were in th e 31-40 age group. Conversely, o f th e four respondents in d ic a tin g high e x p e c ta tio n s , one was in the 20 t o 30 age group and th r e e were in th e 31 t o 40 age group. (See Table 5 .8 .) Table 5 . 8 . - - D i s t r i b u ti o n o f respondents with high and low e x p ec ta tio n s by age. Age Level of E xpectations 20-30 Years (Number) Low High Total M arital s t a t u s . one was married 31-40 Years (Number) Total 2 1 2 3 4 4 3 5 8 Of th e four respondents with low e x p e c ta tio n s , and th r e e were unmarried. Three of th e fo u r respondents with high e x pectatio ns were m arried, whereas only one was unmarried. (See Table 5 .9 .) Table 5 . 9 . - - D is tr ib u tio n o f respondents with high and low ex pecta­ tio n s by m arital s t a t u s . M arital S ta tu s Level o f Expectations Married (Number) Low High Total E th n ic Unmarried (Number) Total 1 3 3 1 4 4 4 4 8 b ack aro und . Of th e four r e s o o n d e n ts w ith low ex p ectatio n s f o r fu tu re s a t i s f a c t i o n , th re e were Arabs and one was a non-Arab. Of those with high e x p e c ta tio n s, two were Arabs and two were non-Arabs. (See Table 5 .1 0 .) Table 5.10.---D istrib u tio n o f respondents with high and low e xpecta­ t io n s by e th n ic background. Ethnic Background Level o f Expectations Low High Total Arab (Number) 3 2 5 Non-Arab (Number) Total 1 2 4 4 3 8 150 Length o f residence in th e United S t a t e s . Three o f th e four respondents with low e x p ec ta tio n s fo r fu tu r e l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n had liv e d 1n the United S ta te s more than th re e y e a rs; one had liv e d here less than th r e e y e a rs . Conversely, th re e of the Interview ees with high ex p ectatio n s had liv e d 1n th e United S ta te s more than th r e e y e a rs , and one had liv e d here l e s s than th r e e y e a r s . (See Table 5 .1 1 .) Table 5 .1 1 . - - D i s t r i b u ti o n o f respondents with high and low expectat a t i o n s by length o f resid en ce in the United S t a te s . Length o f Residence Level of Expectations < 3 Years (Number) Low High Total SDonsorina agency. who were s p o n s o re d > 3 Years (Number) Total 1 3 1 3 4 4 2 6 8 The re s e a rc h e r expected t h a t respondents by th e ir governm ents would have h ig h er ex p ec ta tio n s o f l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n than would those with p r iv a te o r f a m ily s p o n s o r s h i p . For one r e a s o n , j o b s were a w a i t in g th e government-sponsored In d iv id u a ls on t h e i r re tu rn home, whereas o th er respondents would have t o seek employment. This ex p ec ta tio n was supported, d e s p ite th e tendency f o r governmental sponsorees to have no choice 1n s e le c tin g jo b s . As shown in Table 5.12, th re e o f the 151 four r e s p o n d e n ts w ith low e x p e c ta tio n s had nongovernm ent sponsorship, and one was sponsored by h is government. Conversely, th re e o f the in d iv id u a ls with high e x p ec ta tio n s were sponsored by th e ir g o v e rn m e n ts, as compared to one w ith nongovernm ent sponsorship. Table 5 .1 2 .- -D is tr ib u tio n o f respondents with high and low expec­ t a t i o n s by sponsoring agency. Sponsoring Agency Level o f Expectations Government (Number) Low High Total Nongovernment (Number) Total 1 3 3 1 4 4 4 4 8 Discussion o f S p e c ific Findings One o f th e i n t e r e s t i n g fin d in g s t h a t emerged from th e study was t h a t respondents who had spent a s h o r te r time in th e United S ta te s in v ite d Americans to t h e i r homes more o fte n than d id th ose who had liv e d in stu d e n ts th e still United S ta te s re ta in e d a longer tim e. th e ir home c o u n tr i e s ’ r e g a r d i n g h o s p i t a l i t y and g e n e r o s i t y . in flu e n c e d by f a c t o r s host newer and values These norms a r e o f t e n th e respondents’ p e r s o n a l i ti e s and intercommunication with o th e r s . It respondents. th e norms th e as was not c le a r t o in Perhaps what degree th e s e c o u n try , facto rs as had w ell influenced the 152 A ttitu d e s Toward Innovative Ideas A ttitu d e s tow ard in n o v a tiv e id eas s u g g e s te d in th e q u e stio n n a ire were another realm in which th e r e s e a rc h e r attempted to d isc o v er whether d iffe r e n c e s e x is te d between those who attended and p a r t i c i p a te d in Islam ic a c t i v i t i e s and those who did n o t- - in Homans*s term s, those who had th e sentim ents, norms (in te r n a l i subsystem), and a c t i v i t i e s (in te r n a l and external subsystems) o f the group and those who did not. The q u e stio n n a ire included th re e innovative id ea s, two of which were r e l i g io u s and one s o c i a l . I n t e r e s t in g l y , th e so c ial idea was more accepted by group members than were th e r e l i g io u s innovations. Some o f the reasons respondents gave fo r t h i s were as follow s. Respondents believed t h a t i f they accepted the idea o f change in re lig io u s p ra c tic e s, such e s ta b lis h in g a Muslim c lub , such as th e F r id a y p r a y e r id e a or acceptance might open th e door to se rio u s changes in th e p rin c ip le s o f f a i t h , which Muslims r e j e c t . F u rth e r, some respondents a sse rte d t h a t r e l i g io u s sc h o lars should be the ones to decide what p r a c tic e s a re leg al or i l l e g a l according to Islam. I t was hard f o r some respondents j u s t to d isc u ss t h i s issu e ; they rep o rted t h a t even th in k in g o f such a th in g might be considered heresy ( b id a ’ah). The l i t e r a t u r e on so c ia l change and innovation (In k eles & Smith, 1974; Rogers, 1969) has shown t h a t so cial ideas p e rta in in g to d a ily l i f e p r a c tic e s a re adopted f a s t e r than ideas r e l a te d to norms and v alues. On t h i s is s u e , the fin d in g s o f th e p re se n t study 153 supported th e fin d in g s o f previous resea rch conducted in th ird -w o rld c o u n trie s ( C a n tr il, 1965; Inkeles & Smith, 1974; Rogers, 1969). A la rg e prop ortion o f Muslims around th e globe b e lie v e Islam is th e so le s o lu tio n to most i l l s o f modern tim es (Wright, 1987). For example, Wright in The C h r is tia n Science Monitor d e scrib e d Islam as unique among th e w o rld 's major f a i t h s r e l i g io n because it is not j u s t a but a r e l i g i o u s p o l i t y complete with r u le s o f law (th e S h a ria). Mawdudi (1980) s t a te d th r e e p r i n c i p le s as bases o f th e Islam ic p o l i t i c a l system: Tawheed (oneness o f God), Resalah (prophethood), and Khilafah ( c a l ip h a t e ) . He a s s e rte d t h a t , in th e Arabic lex ico n , the concept o f K h ila fa t means r e p r e s e n ta tio n . r e p r e s e n ta tiv e o f God. Man on e a r th i s the Mawdudi explained t h i s r e p r e s e n ta tio n by giving the example o f one man tu rn in g an e s t a t e over to a n o th e r. He pinpointed fou r c o n d itio n s o f th e r e p r e s e n ta tio n : second man's undertaking such th e re a l ownership remains with th e owner, not th e a d m in is tra to r; th e a d m i n i s t r a t o r 's a c tio n s should be in accordance with th e owner's i n s t r u c t i o n s ; th e a d m in is tr a to r i s lim ite d to what th e owner p re s c r ib e s f o r him; and th e a d m in is tra to r should execute th e owner's w i l l , not h is own. Khalifah ( v ic e - r e g e n t) , l i m i t s p re sc rib e d by God. Because God has describ ed man as His man must e x e rc is e a u th o r ity The K h a lif a t, th e n , w ith in the is to f u l f i l l th e purpose o f God and t o r u l e in conformity with His i n s t r u c t i o n s and In ju n c tio n s . According t o the preceding argument, th e Islam ic s t a t e would be b u i l t on th e foundation o f Islam. The Qura’n c l e a r l y s t a t e s t h a t 1 154 the purpose o f such a s t a t e i s "the establishm ent, maintenance, and development" o f th e v i r t u e s pres cribed by God. "Islam places a high ideal before the s t a t e ” f o r the achievement o f i t s g o a l. demands t h a t "the p r i n c i p l e s of morality must be observed Islam at all c o s t [ s ] and in a l l walks o f l i f e " (Mawdudi, 1980, pp. 45-46). For a g r e a t m ajority of Muslims, th e saying "Islam i s the solutio n" r e f l e c t s the need f o r an Islamic ideology to lead Muslims. This implies an e s t a b l is h e d Islamic state (K hilafah). Muslims envision the most successful and most l e g i t i m a t e model experienced , in the e a r l y years of Islam by the four a u th e n tic Caliphs Khulafa’ a al-Rashidun: (al- Abu-Baker, Umer, Uthman, and A l i ) . In t h i s study, p a r t i c i p a n t s were asked whether they supported such a dream or no t, and to what degree they supported o r r e j e c t e d the idea. In interviewing the case study sample, the rese a r c h e r asked where and when they expected such a s t a t e to be e s t a b l i s h e d . Although alm ost t h r e e - q u a r t e r s o f t h e c a s e s t u d y r e s p o n d e n t s supported the idea of an Islamic s t a t e , they doubted i t s occurring in the near f u t u r e . One respondent expected t h a t such a s t a t e might c o llap s e immediately a f t e r i t s establishment f o r several reasons: the d isp ersio n of Muslims, low l i t e r a c y l e v e l s among Muslims in many a re a s , and goal ambiguity. That respondent s a id i t would be hard f o r such a s t a t e t o d i s t i n g u i s h between the t r u l y r e l i g i o u s and those who do not act in accord with Islamic b e l i e f s because in the contemporary world Muslim le a d e r s do not have the q u a l i t y o f the 155 early caliphs. As he put i t , the "time, pl ace, and people have changed." About 90% of the case-study respondents expected the Islamic s t a t e t o be e s t a b l is h e d in Egypt. However, 75% o f the interviewees doubted t h a t such a s t a t e would be e s t a b l is h e d in the foreseeable future. states One reason f o r such doubt was t h a t th e o f f i c i a l control t h e major r e s o u r c e s , tools, secular and communication f a c i l i t i e s , and i t will tak e time t o d i r e c t t h e s e res ou rces toward e s t a b l i s h i n g an Islamic s t a t e . However, one respondent reminded the inte rvie w er t h a t because God i s the only One Who knows, i f He wishes the dream to become a r e a l i t y , i t will be. Summary Chapter V described the case-study approach and p o s s ib le models f o r community s t u d i e s . Problems encountered in conducting the f i e l d research f o r t h i s study were noted. discussed in d e t a i l . Findings o f th e case study were Chapter VI contains a summary o f th e study, conclusions, l i m i t a t i o n s , and recommendations f o r f u r t h e r resea rch . CHAPTER VI SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS This chapter co nta in s a summary o f t h e study and t h e major f in d in g s , fin d in g s conclusions supporting regarding Homans’ s the study c l a s s i f i c a t i o n generalizations, system, i m p l i c a ti o n s , and recommendations f o r f u r t h e r r e s ea rch . Summary The purpose of th is study influ en cing s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e was organization investigate factors and th e academic domain among Muslim o r g a n i z a t i o n members r e s i d i n g Michigan, a re a. to i n t h e G r e a t e r L a n s in g , The study fin d in g s are expected t o in c r e a s e Muslim adm inistrators* ab ility to deal with conflict s i t u a t i o n s and to enhance l e a d e r s ’ understanding o f aspec ts o f human behavior t h a t are believed t o be a p r i o r i t y ste p in t h e process o f c o n flict resolution. In conducting this study, th e researcher explored various r e l a t i o n s h i p s between Muslim org an iz ation members* s a t i s f a c t i o n with life and the academic domain and c e r t a i n demographic v a r i a b l e s ; examined a proposed typology o f human behavior, takin g i n t o account normative values as a p o i n t of d e p a r tu r e ; and ev aluated t h e v a l i d i t y 156 157 o f m easu res o f s u b j e c t i v e phenomena, namely r e l i g i o s i t y and s a t i s f a c t i o n with the academic domain. Members o f the Islamic Center In East Lansing, Michigan, were s e l e c te d f o r the study sample. The r e s e a r c h e r cannot claim t h a t the sample was r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a l l Muslims 20 A 0 . 0% 0 . 0% 40-59 60-79 < 80 12.5% 35.4% 52.0% L Anomic Reformist Neo-trad1t1onal1st Fundamentalist Conservative Figure 6 . 1 . --The actual c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f study respondents. Table 6 . 1 .--Respondents’ transformed r e l i g i o s i t y scores (N - 48). Val ue > 80 60-79 40-59 20-39 < 20 Number Percent 25 17 6 0 0 52.0 35.4 12.5 0 0 48 9 9 .9a Fundamentalist Conservative Reformi s t N eo-traditionalist Anomic Total aTota1 does not equal 100% due to rounding. 161 Table 6 .2.--Respondents’ transformed participation scores (N = 47). Value Number Percent 0 0 12 21 14 0 0 25.5 44.6 29.7 47 9 9 .8a 1-19 21-40 41-60 61-80 81-100 Total aTotal does not equal 100% due t o rounding. The r e s e a r c h e r hypothesized t h a t n e i t h e r extreme o f ideal types in t h e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n ex ists. As T able 6.1 transformed R e l i g i o s i t y Scale sc o res , shows, b a sed on f u n dam enta lis ts c o n s t i t u t e d 52% o f the sample, c o nserv ativ es 35.4%, and r e f o r m i s t s only 12.5%. No n e o - t r a d i t i o n a l i s t s o r anomic i n d iv i d u a ls were found, according to eith er relig io sity or participation scores. A possible explanation might be t h a t i n d iv i d u a ls in t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s do not p a r t i c i p a t e , and t h e r e f o r e no scores were rep orte d f o r them, or the sample as an informal r e l i g i o u s group had more in common than what was e x p e c t e d . Further, gr oup norms and v a l u e s c o n c e r n i n g t h e q uestio ns posed in the q u e s t io n n a ir e to measure r e l i g i o s i t y were e v id e n t, in terms o f group homogeneity assumed by th e r e s e a r c h e r . In Figure 2.2 the horizontal Islamic values and b e l i e f s . a x is r ep re se n te d the common According t o the study f i n d i n g s , the area o f th e s t r a i g h t path t h a t Muslims share increas ed from AB4 to AB2. (See Figure 6 . 2 . ) 162 A B4 0 .0 B3 0.0 B2 12.5 B1 35.4 B 52.0 S t r a i g h t Path Figure 6 . 2 . --Empirical c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f Muslim respondents in terms o f the R e l i g i o s i t y Scale. Although t h i s w r i t e r i n i t i a t e d the l o g i c a l exp la nation o f such f i n d in g s among Muslim o r g a n iz a tio n members, f u r t h e r r es ea rch t h a t includes o th e r groups with more f o l k - l i k e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , as other religious or racial groups, is necessary. as well Change in Muslims has occurred, but the degree o f change in i n d i v i d u a l s and in groups may be impossible t o measure. such change i s t o be measured, The b e l i e f remains t h a t i f i t should be assess ed r e l a t i v e to o t h e r s t a t i c f o l k - l i k e groups. G e n era liz atio n s t h a t Homans made in t h e 1950s concerning small groups a re s t i l l a p p li c a b l e t o small groups such as the one under study. Findings of the g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s are as follows: present study supporting such 163 1. The high proportion of fundamentalis ts in the sample means a high proportion of p a r t i c i p a n t s in the Islamic Center a c t i v i t i e s . This corroborate s Homans’ s pro po sitio n that the more f r e q u e n t ly group members conform to th e group norms, va lu es, the more they are l i k e l y to p a r t i c i p a t e . in group a c t i v i t i e s , and sentiments, The more they p a r t i c i p a t e the more l i k e l y they w ill be to engage in r e l a t i o n s h i p s o t h e r than membership. 2. The degree to which a person i s accepted as a member by o th er group members depends on the degree t o which he conforms to the group norms, values, and sentiments. 3. The more a person i s accepted by the group, the g r e a t e r his chances of having a le a d e r s h ip p o s i t io n within t h e group. 4. The degree to which group members accept innovative ideas depends on the degree o f conformity o f the i n i t i a t o r o f such ideas. 5. The more the i n i t i a t o r conforms t o group norms and va lu es, the more l i k e l y the group w ill be t o accept his idea s. 6. Any idea suggested t o group members by an o u t s i d e r i s not accepted, even i f i t i s a good one. Conversely, any idea suggested to group members by an i n s i d e r i s accepted, even i f i t i s not a good one. 7. Small-group members tend t o be guided by t h e i r emotions, with l i t t l e lo g ic and reasoning. This may be e s p e c i a l l y t r u e among members of small r e l i g i o u s groups. 8. The more a person knows about and adheres t o group norms and values, the g r e a t e r h i s chances f o r le a d e r s h ip p o s i t i o n s . 164 How can th ese g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s be app lied t o th e org anizational s t r u c t u r e and function o f a school s e t t i n g ? whether at the elementary, middle comprises d i f f e r e n t gender, specialty, small The school s t r u c t u r e , school, or secondary g ro u ps c h a r a c t e r i z e d and l i n e o f a u t h o r i t y . level, by r a c e , a g e, Administrators should know the values, norms, and sentiments t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e such small groups in order to deal e f f e c t i v e l y with them. For example, one group might be recognized as an i n t e l l e c t u a l group, another may be i n t e r e s t e d in a f f i r m a t i v e a c t io n , and y e t another might need more f a c i l i t i e s to implement departmental goals rather than those of t h e school a d m i n i s t r a t o r ’ s power w ill characteristics. sy stem as be enhanced a whole. by knowing each The group’ s As a r e s u l t , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ’ decision-making power w ill be strengthened f o r the b e n e f i t o f the e n t i r e school. Many a d m i n i s t r a t iv e c o n f l i c t s i t u a t i o n s in a school s e t t i n g may be a consequence of m isunderstanding m isinterpreting a situ a tio n . identifying the s i t u a t i o n s w ill people’ s behavior or Knowing the causes o f c o n f l i c t and characteristics of parties involved in such increase a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ’ decision-making a b i l i t i e s and t h e i r s k i l l in p r e d i c ti n g and resolvin g c o n f l i c t s . Implications According to t h e o r i e s o f change, people tend to d i f f e r in t h e i r resolution of c o n flic t situ a tio n s. may be an important resolution. factor to People’ s degree o f s a t i s f a c t i o n consider I t may be c lo se to the in i n i t i a t i n g conflict f a c t to say t h a t sources of 165 c o n f l i c t and t h e i r consequences can be g e neralized on both the macro and micro l e v e l s . S a t i s f a c t i o n i s a p r i o r i f o r value c o n f l i c t . In d escribing th e d i f f e r e n c e s between theory and understanding regarding l i f e s a t i s f a c t i o n , several needs are e vid e n t: f o r a u n i f ie d interdisciplinary approach t h a t uses t h e need res ources of various f i e l d s o f in qu ir y , the need t o develop t h e o r i e s r e l a t e d to s a t i s f a c t i o n in general and to s p e c i f i c sources o f s a t i s f a c t i o n in p articular, and t h e need f o r assessment devices to measure s a t i s f a c t i o n in p a r t i c u l a r l i f e domains. Recommendations f o r Further Research 1. This study should be r e p l i c a t e d with o t h e r Muslim communi­ t i e s as well as with o t h e r minority groups t o re-examine th e s c a l e s used in t h i s research and the r e l a t i o n s h i p s between the v a r i a b l e s . C ro ss-cultural or comparative res earch will in cre ase understanding and promote thought i n t e g r a t i o n among div erg ent groups. 2. The r e l a t i o n s h i p between life satisfaction and various demographic v a ri a b le s should be studied in both formal and informal o rganiz atio ns. The e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f members, whether in a school or industry or a small group, i s assumed to be r e l a t e d to satisfaction. 3. Research i s needed on the a t t i t u d e s o f minority-group s t u ­ dents and migrants to understand th e consequences o f rap id change in an advanced country. 4. In the presen t study, s a t i s f a c t i o n with l i f e and with the academic domain was o f primary i n t e r e s t . Further research should be 166 undertaken on Muslims’ s a t i s f a c t i o n with domains o t h e r than the academic or in combination with i t . 5. A comparative methodology should be developed t o enhance s c i e n t i f i c understanding of broad issues r e l a t e d t o human behavior by including lo ngitudinal and c r o s s - s e c ti o n a l s t u d i e s among d i f f e r ­ ent groups a t d i f f e r e n t times. APPENDICES APPENDIX A COVER LETTER, FOLLOW-UP LETTER, AND QUESTIONNAIRE 167 COVER LETTER May 17, 1987 Dear Muslim b roth er, Assalamu Alaikum. Thank you f o r your response t o l a s t y e a r ’s survey, which was prepared t o c o l l e c t d a ta about the Muslim community members of Greater Lansing. This i s the second p a r t o f a lo n gitu d in al study f o r my doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n . As many o f you know, th e da ta will be used only f o r research purposes. Your responses will c o n tr i b u te to the general knowledge and in the long run might se rve, d i r e c t l y or i n d i r e c t l y , the Muslim community. Please read the i n s t r u c t i o n s and answer a l l q u e stio ns. Do not w rite your name on the q u e s t io n n a ir e . For your convenience, use the enclosed stamped, retu rn -ad dressed envelope t o r e t u r n your completed survey as soon as p o s s ib l e . I f you need more information about the research p r o j e c t , I will be more than happy to provide such information. Call me a t (517) 3511240 or w r ite t o me a t one of the following addresses: 1029 Coolidge Road Lansing, MI 48912 or Wassalamu Alaikum Warahmatu Allah. Hasan A. Qader Yahya Michigan S t a t e University Department of Sociology 309 Berkey Hall East Lansing, MI 48824 168 FOLLOW-UP LETTER May 28, 1987 Dear Muslim b r o th e r , Assalamu Alaikum. Last week, I sent you a survey qu e stio n na ir e t o obtain research data about the Muslim community in the are a. I f you fo rg o t or refus ed to respond (you have the r i g h t t o do so ), p lease in e i t h e r case send i t back using the stamped envelope provided to you. I f you have already returned th e q u e stio n n a ir e , please ignore t h i s note. In any case, I p e rs o n ally a pp re cia te your cooperation and good w i l l . Wassalamu Alaikum. Hasan A. Qader Yahya Michigan S t a te Uni ve rsity 169 SURVEY INSTRUMENT FOR MUSLIM COMMUNITY MEMBERS OF GREATER LANSING, MICHIGAN I n s t r u c t i o n s : This i s t h e second p a r t o f a lo n gitu din al study o f the Muslim Community. Please place an "X" next t o the answer you s e l e c t . All items r e q u i r e j u s t one answer. PART I 1. Age (as of l a s t birthday) Less than 20 years 20-25 26-30 31-35 2. 36-40 41-45 Over 45 Marital s t a t u s Married Unmarried Widowed Di vorced Separated I f you have never married, go t o Question 4. continue with Question 3. 3. How many ch ildren do you have? No ch ild ren One ch ild Two childre n 4. Two-year c ollege High school Other (specify ) Are you c u r r e n t l y studying a t Michigan S t a t e University? Yes 6. Three c h ild r e n Four c h ild ren Five or more c h ild r e n What i s your hig hes t level o f education? Ph.D. candidate Master’s degree B.A. degree 5. I f married, No What i s your eth n ic background? Arabic ____ Non-Arabic 170 7. How long have you been 1n the United States? Less than a year 1-3 ye ars 4-6 years ____ 7-9 years ____ 10 years o r more PART II 8. True Muslims obey Allah (SWT) and perform prayer d a l l y . do you consider y o u r s e l f as a Muslim? Very strong Muslim Strong Muslim Allah (SWT) knows 9. No How oft en do you p a r t i c i p a t e in th e Islamic Center a c t i v i t i e s ( o th er than prayer)? Never Less than 3 times a month I don’t know 11. Weak Muslim Very weak Muslim I f you are married, does your spouse p a r t i c i p a t e in the Islamic Center a c t i v i t i e s and se rvices? Yes 10. How ____ 3-5 times a month ____ 6 or more times a month Suppose Muslims in your community decided to perform Friday prayer twice, a t 1:00 p.m. and 2:15 p.m. on Friday, to serve more people conveniently. How would you agree with t h i s decision? Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly disag ree 12. Have you ever in v it e d Americans t o your home? Yes 13. No In th e y e ar 2000, th e Muslim population i s expected to be about one b i l l i o n . The number o f pilgrims i s expected to exceed ten m il l io n . Do you t h in k t h a t the number o f pilgrims should be r e s t r i c t e d t o two or t h r e e m illio n a year? Yes No 171 14. Are you a member o f any organization? Yes 15. No What kinds o f org an iz atio ns do you a s s o c i a t e with? Only pr ofes sional orga nizations Professional and r e l i g i o u s . o r g a n i z a t i o n s Only r e l i g i o u s org an izatio ns None 16. The ul tim ate need of t h e Islamic world today, to solve any social or psychological problem, i s t o follow the t r u e Islam. How do you agree with t h i s statement? Strongly disag ree Disagree No opinion Agree Strongly agree 17. What i s your b i r t h order in your family? First Second Third 18. Fourth Fifth Sixth or more To keep the community a c t iv e , t h e r e i s an idea to e s t a b l i s h a Muslim club near the Mosque so t h a t Muslim stud e nts may have a place to disc uss t h e i r problems and needs as community members. How do you agree with t h i s idea? Strongly agree Agree Not decided Disagree Strongly disag ree 19. A muslim student once sa id , "As highly educated Muslims, we must work hard to enhance the Islamic community through e f f e c t i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n in i t s i n s t i t u t i o n s . " How do you agree with t h i s statement? Strongly agree Agree Not decided Disagree Strongly disagree 172 20. A precondition f o r a Muslim man t o have a good family i s t o marry a Muslim woman. How do you agree with t h i s statement? Strongly d isa g r ee Disagree No opinion Agree Strongly agree 21. An Islamic a u t h o r i t y once s a i d , "True Islam needs an Islamic s t a t e (Khilafah) to p r o t e c t i t . " How do you agree with t h i s statement? Strongly agree Agree No opinion Disagree Strongly d isa g r ee 173 PART III 22. This question i s about your l i f e before you came to the United S t a t e s , now, and a f t e r ten y e a r s . On the ladd er s c a l e below, Number 1 d e scrib e s t h e lowest level of s a t i s f a c t i o n , while Number 7 de scribe s the hig hes t level o f s a t i s f a c t i o n . Please answer the following questions without giving them a g r e a t deal o f t h o u g h t - - j u s t what comes t o your mind f i r s t . Write the number t h a t corresponds to the lad der number you t h in k d escribes your f e e l i n g on the space t o the l e f t o f th e following que stio ns. / / / / / / / / , f 1 / / / / 4 3 / / / / / 7 6 5 / 2 / / / / f / Extremely s a t i s f i e d Very s a t i s f i e d / Satisfied / / / Neither s a t i s f i e d nor d i s s a t i s f i e d D issatisfied / Very dissatisfied Extremely d i s s a t i s f i e d All th in gs considered equal, how did you feel about your whole l i f e before you came t o the United S ta te s? How do you feel about your l i f e nowadays? How do you expect t o feel about your l i f e a f t e r ten years ( i f God w i l l s ) ? 174 23. Think of your academic environment as a frame o f r e f e r e n c e . How would you r a t e your s a t i s f a c t i o n according to the following asp ects o f your d a i l y l i f e ? Very Good Good Don’ t Know Fair Poor Other Muslims ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Administrators ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Professors_______________ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ English language_________ ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Your advis or ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Your courses (or work) ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Conditions f o r studying ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Mass media ____ ____ ____ ____ ____ Shopping APPENDIX B ADDITIONAL STATISTICS 175 50 40 30 20 10 0 5 *— A ra b M u slim s 6 7 H — N on A ra b M u slim s Figure B.l.--Past satisfaction by ethnicity. 176 50 40 30 20 10 0 3 Arab Muslims 5 —1— Non Arab Muslims Figure B.2.--Present satisfaction by ethnicity. 177 50 40 30 20 10 0 1 2 3 ARAB MUSLIMS 4 5 6 7 H - NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.3 . --Future satisfaction by ethnicity. 178 60 50 - 40 30 20 POOR FAIR ’ ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD V.GOOD DK NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.4 . --Satisfaction with media by ethnicity. 179 m POOR FAIR ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD E22J mJZZk V.GOOD NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.5.--Satisfaction with shopping by ethnicity. 180 & POOR FAIR ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD V.GOQD DK £ 2 3 NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.6 . --Satisfaction with advisor by ethnicity. 181 80 POOR FAIR ARAB MUSUMS GOOD V.GOOD DK NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.7.--Satisfaction with other Muslims by ethnicity. 182 POOR FAIR ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD E22 V.GOOD DK NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.8 . --Satisfaction with administrators by ethnicity. 183 60 GOOD ARAB MUSLIMS V.GOOD £ 2 3 NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.9 . --Satisfaction with courses by ethnicity. 184 60 POOR FAIR ARAB MUSLIMS GOOD V.GOOD E 2 3 NON-ARAB MUSLIMS Figure B.10.--Satisfaction with study conditions by ethnicity. 185 Table B.l.--Means and standard deviations for the religion variables. V ariable Strong f a i t h Muslim wife Islam ic s t a t e P a r tic ip a tio n R e lig io s ity N Mean Std. Dev. 49 48 48 49 48 4.10 3.37 3.75 4.18 3.87 1.10 1.60 1.34 1.03 .72 Table B.2 . --C ro s s -ta b u la tio n o f Islam’ s f i t fo r today ’s problems, by e th n i c i t y . E th n ic ity Islam’ s F i t f o r Today’ s Problems Arab (N=27) Non-Arab (N=22) Strongly agree Agree Don't know Di sagree Strongly disag ree 37.0 25.9 7.4 3.7 25.9 81.8 4.5 0.0 4.5 9.1 Table B.3 . --C ro s s -ta b u la tio n o f respondents’ e t h n i c i t y by t h e i r b i r t h o rd er. E th n ic ity B irth Order F irst Second Third Fourth F ifth Sixth o r more Arab (N-27) Non-Arab (N-22) 25.9 7.4 14.8 11.1 14.8 25.9 27.3 18.2 36.4 9.1 0.0 9.1 186 Table B.4 . - - R e l i a b i l i t y a n a ly s is : Key: Academic S a t is f a c ti o n Scale. Item Mean S t. Dev. No. o f Cases SATPROF SATADM SATADV SATENG SATMDIA SATSCON SATCORS SATOMUS SATSHPG 2.70 2.70 2.77 2.81 2.33 2.92 3.07 2.85 2.51 .72 .60 .93 .83 1.00 .82 .82 .66 .70 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 27 SATPROF SATADM SATADV SATENG SATMDIA SATSCON SATCORS SATOMUS SATSHPG = = = = = = = * = S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n with with with with with with with with with p ro fesso rs a d m in istra to rs advisor the English language the mass media c on dition s f o r studying one’ s courses o th e r Muslims shopping 187 Table B.5 . - - R e l i a b i l i t y a n a ly s is : covariance m atrix . Academic S a t is f a c ti o n S c a le -- Item Item 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SATPROF SATADM SATADV SATENG SATMDIA SATSCON SATCORS SATOMUS SATSHPG Key: SATPROF SATADM SATADV SATENG SATMDIA SATSCON SATCORS SATOMUS SATSHPG .52 .02 .43 .25 .17 .09 .36 .22 .04 = = = = = = = = = 2 .37 .02 -.0 5 -.2 0 -.0 2 .06 .10 .19 S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n 3 4 .87 .11 .19 .09 .40 .35 .15 .69 .37 .17 .32 .08 .09 with with with with with with with with with 5 1.00 .21 .24 -.0 6 .08 6 7 8 9 .68 .42 .02 .15 .68 .16 .15 .43 .11 .49 p ro fesso rs a d m in istra to rs advisor the English language th e mass media c o nditions f o r studying o n e 's courses o th e r Muslims shopping 188 Table B.6 . - - R e l i a b i l i t y a n a ly s is : c o r r e l a t io n m atrix . Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n S c a le -- Item Item 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 SATPROF SATADM SATADV SATENG SATMDIA SATSCON SATCORS SATOMUS SATSHPG Key: SATPROF SATADM SATADV SATENG SATMDIA SATSCON SATCORS SATOMUS SATSHPG 2 1.00 .05 .63 .41 .24 .15 .61 .46 .08 * ■ ■ = « = = = 1.00 -.0 5 -.11 -.3 3 -.0 4 .12 .26 .46 3 1.00 .14 .20 .12 .51 .56 .24 S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n S a t is f a c ti o n w ith with with with with with with with with 4 1.00 .44 .25 .46 .15 .17 5 1.00 .26 .29 -.0 9 .12 6 1.00 .62 .04 .26 7 1.00 .30 .26 8 1.00 .25 9 1.00 p ro fe s so rs a d m in is tra to rs adviso r th e English language the mass media c o n d itio n s f o r studying one’s courses o th e r Muslims shopping Table B.7 . - - R e l i a b i l i t y a n a ly s is : Academic S a t i s f a c t i o n Scale (number o f cases - 27). Mean Min. Max. Range Max./Min. Variance 2.74 2.33 3.07 .74 1.31 .04 Item varian ces .64 .37 1.00 .62 2.70 .04 I n te r - ite m covariances .15 CM • o 1 .43 .63 -2.10 .02 I n te r - ite m c o r r e l a t io n s CO CM • -.33 .63 .97 -1.89 .04 Item means S ta tistic s f o r s c a le : Mean 24.70 Variance 16.90 Std. Dev. 4.11 # o f V ariables 9 189 Table B.8 . - - R e l i a b i l i t y a n a ly s is : Academic S a t is f a c ti o n S cale-ite m -to ta l s t a t i s t i c s . Item 1 SATPROF 2 SATADM 3 SATADV 4 SATENG 5 SATMDIA 6 SATSCON 7 SATCORS 8 SATOMUS 9 SATSHPG Key: Scale Mean I f Item Deleted Scale Variance I f Item Deleted Corrected ItemTotal C orrelatio n Squared M ultiple C o rre la tio n Alpha I f Item Deleted 22.00 22.00 21.92 21.88 22.37 21.77 21.62 21.85 22.18 13.15 16.38 12.60 13.48 13.85 13.87 11.93 14.43 14.38 .61 .03 .51 .44 .27 .38 .74 .40 .38 .62 .55 .69 .47 .39 .56 .75 .48 .48 .68 .76 .69 .71 .75 .72 .65 .72 .72 SATPROF SATADM SATADV SATENG SATMDIA SATSCON SATCORS SATOMUS SATSHPG = = = = * = « = - S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n S a tis f a c tio n with with with with with with with with with R e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s - -9 items: p ro fesso rs a d m in istra to rs advisor the English language th e mass media c o n ditio ns fo r studying one’s courses o th e r Muslims shopping Alpha « .7415 Standardized item alpha « .7396 190 Table B.9 . - - R e l i a b i l i t y a n a ly s is : R e lig io s ity Scale (number o f cases - 48). Max./Min. Mean Min. Max. Range Item means 3.86 3.38 4.19 .81 1.24 .14 Item variances 1.72 1.09 2.58 1.49 2.36 .42 In te r - ite m covariances .26 -.09 .60 .69 -6.45 .07 In te r-ite m c o rr e la tio n s .15 -.06 .43 .48 -7.71 .03 S ta tistic s f o r s c a le : Mean 15.44 Std. Dev. 3.15 Variance 9.95 Table B.1 0 .- - R e l i a b i l i t y a n a ly s is : sta tistic s . Item FAITHSTR MWIFE ISSTATE PARTSUP Key: Variance # o f V ariables 4 R e lig io s ity S c a le - - ite m - to ta l Scale Mean I f Item Deleted Scale Variance I f Item Deleted Corrected ItemTotal C o rrelatio n Squared M ultiple C o rrela tio n Alpha I f Item Deleted 11.31 12.06 11.69 11.25 7.24 5.85 5.79 7.89 .21 .20 .36 .16 .07 .10 .23 .20 .36 .40 .19 .40 FAITHSTR NUIFE ISSTATE PARTSUP » Strength o f f a i t h Muslim wife Need f o r Islam ic s t a t e P a r tic ip a tio n support R e l i a b i l i t y c o e f f i c i e n t s - - 4 items: Alpha - .4133 Standardized item alpha = .4165 191 Table B.11.--M u ltip le re g re ss io n and p a r t i a l c o r r e l a t io n o f demographic v a ria b le s with academic s a t i s f a c t i o n . 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