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UMI A STUDY OF RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND TEACHERS' AND SCHOOLS' SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS TO TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION AS PERCEIVED BY THE TEACHERS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS By Rasul Bakhsh Raisani A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1988 ABSTRACT A STUDY OF RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANIZATIONAL CLIMATE AND TEACHERS* AND SCHOOLS* SELECTED DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS TO TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION AS PERCEIVED BY THE TEACHERS IN SELECTED MICHIGAN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS By Rasul Bakhsh Raisani This study organizational investigated climate, the teachers* demographic characteristics relationship and school's of selected to teacher job satisfaction as perceived by Michigan Public Secondary School Teachers. The data were collected from 340 teachers randomly selected from 56 secondary schools using the Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire, measuring organizational Revised Scale climate, the (OCDQ-RS) Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ) measuring job satisfaction and the demographic information. Pearson analysis Correlation procedures hypotheses which were and multiple used predicted a to stepwise test regression the significant two stated relationship between job satisfaction and variables under study. Significant organizational satisfaction relationship climate factors. were dimensions Positive found and between certain relationships were between: Engaged organizational climate dimension and job found Rasul Bakhsh Raisani supervision, colleagues, working conditions, work itself and recognition; supportive recognition; and conditions. working Intimate Frustrated conditions, Directive to factors. Pay and supervision, and colleagues negatively related responsibility colleagues and work and work advancement and itself and to working colleagues, security; itself were Job and as did satisfaction unrelated to any Job satisfaction also organizational climate dimension. Demographic characteristics had significant relationships. and Age negatively related working conditions, advancement and recognition, to colleagues, experience responsibility and recognition; Employment and Science and work status to Pay. as did sex itself; to to teaching advancement However, and Education positively related to responsibility and work itself, as did school size to working conditions, location to pay and Humanities to advancement. Multiple regression analysis certain organizational characteristics climate (stepwise) dimensions significantly indicated that and predicted demographic certain job satisfaction factors. The findings indicated that both organizational climate and demographic satisfaction, strongly to characteristics but organizational job are related climate satisfaction characteristics perceived by teachers. than to related job more demographic Rasul Bakhsh Raisani The more engaged, intimate, supportive, less frustrated and directive the organizational climate was perceived to be by the teachers, the more satisfied were teachers in that school. Teachers as a group, aspects of their job, though more satisfied with other were less satisfied with pay and advancement. The findings also suggested that female, younger, more educated and less experienced teachers were more satisfied with certain aspects of their job than their male, less educated and more experienced counterparts. older, This dissertation is dedicated to my father (deceased), mother, and my brother Rahmat Khan Raisani (deceased) who instilled in me the value of education and taught me hard working and perseverance. v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS NO research is ever completed by a single person. Many people have contributed to this effort and assisted me completing this task. It is time to acknowledge in their contribution. I am deeply and sincere indebted, appreciation and wish to express my deepest and gratitude, to members of my dissertation committee, Dr. John H. Suehr (academic advisor and chair of the guidance committee), Dr. Dr. Kenneth L. Neff, members) for their enduring support, and Dr. James patience, positive enthusiasm which made the C. Daniel R. Costar continuing guidance Ilgen, (Committee encouragement, and never-failing completion of this arduous task possible. I wish to extend my appreciation to all the teachers and principals who gave their time freely and participated in the study. Without their cooperation, this dissertation would not have come into existence. A special vote of thanks goes to Dr. Paula E. Lester (author of TJSQ) and Dr. Robert B. Kottkamp (Senior author of OCDQ-RS) for permitting me to use their instruments in this study. Special thanks their prayers, goes sustained to all members support and of my family encouragement the years it took to complete this task. for during Appreciation and thanks are extended to University of Baluchistan granting for providing study leave me and the opportunity Government of and for Pakistan for financial support. Last, all my but certainly not least, friends who stage of this study. supported and I would like to thank encouraged me in every TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF T A B L E S .................................... CHAPTER 1. THE PROBLEM............................ Introduction.................................. Definition of Terms .......................... 1. Organizational Climate............... a) Supportive principal behavior: . b) Directive principal behavior:. . c) Engaged teacher behavior:. . . . d) Frustrated teacher behavior: . . e) Intimate teacher behavior: . . . 2. Job Satisfaction..................... a) Supervision: ................... b) Colleagues:..................... c) Working conditions:............. d) P a y : ................... e) Responsibility:.......... f) Work i t s e l f : ................... g) Advancement: ................... h) Security:....................... i) Recognition: ................... 3. Education l e v e l ..................... 4. Teaching experience ................ 5. Nature of employment................ a) Tenured teachers:............... b) Non-tenured teachers:........... 6. Teaching subjects ................... 7. School S i z e ......................... 8. School L o c a t i o n ..................... a) Urban S c h o o l s : ............ b) Rural S c h o o l s : ................. Statement of the Problem..................... Purpose of the Study.......................... Research Hypotheses .......................... Hypothesis I : ............................ Hypothesis I I : .......................... Need for the Study............................ Delimitations and Limitations of the Study. . General izability of the S t u d y ............... Organization of the S t u d y ................... viii xii 1 1 7 7 7 7 8 8 8 8 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 10 10 11 11 11 11 11 11 12 12 13 13 13 16 16 17 Page CHAPTER 2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE.............. Introduction. . ............................ Organizational Climate.................. Definitions of Organizational Climate. . Dimensions of Organizational Climate . . The Importance of the Organizational Climate........................... Measurement of the Organizational Climate . . Objective Measures of Organizational Climate.............. Perceptual Measures of Organizational Climate........................... Organization Vs. Individual attribute . . . . Shared/Consensual Perceptions ............... Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction Redundant Concepts..................... Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction Relationship Studies.................. Job Satisfaction......................... Definitions of Job Satisfaction... Theoretical Frame Work.................. Content Theories of Job Satisfaction... Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory ........ Herzberg's Two Factor Theory ........... Process Theories of Job Satisfaction... Needs/Values Fulfillment Theories. . . . Expectations ............................ Instrumentality Theory . . . . . . . . . Equity Theory....................... Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction. .. Job Content Factors................ Job Context Factors................ Individual demographic characteristics . Summary of the Chapter.................. CHAPTER 3. PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY........ Introduction............................. Research D e s i g n ................. The Population........................... Sampling Procedures . . . . . . . ........... Cluster S a m p l i n g ............ Stratified Sampling................ Sample Selects, a Procedure. . . ........... School Sample Selection Procedure. . . . Teacher Sample Selection Procedure . . . Instrumentation .............................. The Organizational Climate Description Questionnaire-Revised Scale (OCDQ-RS) for Secondary Schools............ Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire ( T J S Q ) ........................... Demographic Characteristics........ ix 19 19 20 20 23 26 29 29 31 34 37 41 46 51 51 52 53 53 56 61 61 64 65 66 67 67 69 70 75 77 77 78 79 79 79 80 80 80 81 83 83 85 87 Page Data-Gathering Procedures ................... Data A n a l y s i s ................... ............. Scoring of Responses to OCDQ-RS......... Scoring of Responses to T J S Q ........... Coding Procedures for Teachers' and Schools' Selected Demographic Characteristics........................ Summary of the Chapter....................... CHAPTER 4. DATA ANALYSIS.......................... Introduction.................................. Demographic Characteristics ............. Means and Standard Deviations for Organizational Climate Dimensions ............ Means and Standard Deviations for Job Satisfaction Factors.......... .. .......... Inter-correlations and Internal Consistency Reliability Coefficients. . . . . ............ Internal Consistency Reliability (OCDQ-RS)................................. Intercorrelation Between OCDQ-RS Scales. Inter-correlations and Internal Consistency Reliability Coefficients for Job Satisfaction F a c t o r s ............ Inter-correlations Between Demographic Characteristics....................... Results of Hypotheses Tests ..................... Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction Relationship................ Hypothesis I : ..................... Zero-order Correlations:........... Multiple Regression:.................. Demographic Characteristics and Job Satisfaction Relationship................ Hypothesis II:. . . . ........... Zero-order Correlations:........... Multiple Regression Analysis: . . . Summary of the Chapter........................... SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................... Summary of the Study............................. Findings.......................................... Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction Relationship................ Discussion............................. Demographic Characteristics and Job Satisfaction Relationship................ Discussion............................. C o n c l u s i o n s ...................................... General Conclusions......................... Specific Conclusions ....................... 87 92 92 92 95 97 98 98 99 103 106 107 108 108 109 Ill 113 114 114 114 116 123 123 123 126 132 CHAPTER 5. x 134 134 138 139 142 149 152 160 161 163 Implications.................................. Recommendations Regarding Instruments . . . . Recommendations for Further Research......... 166 172 174 A P P E N D I C E S ......................................... A - L e t t e r s .................................. B - Survey Instruments........................ 176 176 183 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................... 192 xi LIST OF TABLES Page Table 3. Table 3. Table 3. Table 3. Table 4. Table 4. Table 4. Table 4. Distribution of School Sample, Participation Rate According to Location and Size of the School........ 82 Distribution of Teachers Combined Sample According to Location and School size.............................. 89 Distribution of Teacher Sample Responded to TJSQ and Size and Location of the S c h o o l . . 90 Distribution of Teacher Sample Responded to OCDQ-RS and Size and Location of the School ................. 91 Distribution of respondents (combined sample) based on age, sex, marital status, level of education, teaching experience, employment status, and size and location of the school (N = 3 4 0 ) .................................... 100 Distribution of subjects responded to OCDQ-RS based on age, sex, marital status, level of education, teaching experience, employment status, teaching subjects, location and size of the school (N = 171)................. 102 Distribution of subjects responded to TJSQ based on age, sex, marital status, level of education, teaching experience, employment status, teaching subjects, location and size of the school (N = 169)................. 104 Means and standard deviations for organizational climate subscales (N = 56)...................................... 105 Page Table Table Table Table 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 Table 4.9 Table Means and Standard deviations for job satisfaction factors (N = 56)........... 107 Intercorrelations between organizational climate scales and internal consistency reliability estimates (alpha coefficients) ......... 109 Intercorrelation among job satisfaction factors and internal consistency reliability (coefficient alpha) N = 1 6 9 .......................... 110 Intercorrelations between demographic characteristics of subjects responded to TJSQ (N = 169)....................... 112 Correlation between organizational climate dimensions and size and location of the school (N = 56)......... 113 4.10 Correlation between organizational climate scales and job satisfaction factors (N = 5 6 ) ........................ 115 Table 4.11 Table 4.12 Table 4.13 Table 4.14 Table 4.15 Multiple Regression (stepwise) analysis summary for organizational factors, with supervision being the dependent variable ..................... 117 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis for organizational climate, with colleagues' job satisfaction variable as dependent variable ......... 119 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary for organizational climate factors, with working conditions being the dependent v a r i a b l e ................................ 119 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary of organizational climate factors, with work-itself being the dependent v a r i a b l e ........... 120 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary for security (as the dependent variable) and organizational climate factors as independent variables................................ 121 xiii Page Table 4.16 Table 4.17 Table 4.18 Table 4.19 Table 4.20 Table 4.21 Table 4.22 Table 4.23 Table 4.24 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary with recognition as the dependent variable ................. 122 Correlation between demographics and job satisfaction factors (N = 169) . . . 124 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary for demographic characteristics, with colleagues as being the dependent v a r i a b l e ...... 127 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary, with working conditions as the dependent variable . . 128 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary for demographic characteristics, with pay as the dependent variable ..................... 128 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary for demographic characteristics, with responsibility as the dependent variable.......... 129 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary for demographic characteristics, with work itself as the dependent variable ................. 130 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis for demographic characteristics, with advancement as the dependent variable ................. 131 Multiple regression (stepwise) analysis summary for demographic characteristics, with security as the dependent variable ............... . . . 132 xiv CHAPTER 1 THE PROBLEM Introduction Schools, structure, despite differ their from apparent each other in similarity their in operation. Careful observation unveils such differences. Each school is unique in dealing with its personnel, individuality or personality of energetic, prolific and warm, and its own. while each has Some schools others appear to an are be indifferent, aloof, and alienated, while in still others the discontent and apathy of personnel observation of such differences in is conspicuous. The schools* "feel" provided the impetus to study the organizational climate of schools. Halpin and Croft (1963) developed a perceptual measure of organizational climate (OCDQ) for elementary schools. Halpin and Croft (1963) organizational are climate not via the only ones perceptions. to measure Likert (1967), Litwin and Stringer (1968), Pace and Stern (1958), Schneider and Bartlett Phesey (1971), (1968), Taylor Campbell and et Bowers a1. (1970), (1972), and Payne and Kottkamp, Mulhern and Hoy (1985) also developed perceptual measures of organizational climate. 1 The concept of organizational climate has increasingly become the However, focus it is measurement a wide The measurement Guion variety surrounded by problems. definitions, prompted of (1973) of conceptual, diversity and techniques and to research state that studies. definitional contradiction ensuing "the and in results concept of organizational climate is undoubtedly important, but it also seems to be one of the fuzziest concepts to come along in some time" (p. 121). James and Jones (1974), in a review of organizational climate, theory and research, identified three approaches to the definition and measurement of organizational climate: a) The multiple-measurement-organization attribute perceptual-measurement-organizational attribute approach; b) The approach; and c) The perceptual-measurement-individual attribute approach. The perceptual generated the measure greatest of organizational amount of has been controversy whether research. it is climate However, as valid has there a measure of organizational climate as is an objective measure. Critics argue that in such a measure characteristics of individual Gilmer, and 1964; perceptual organization James measures and of are Jones, confounded 1974). organization Guion climate (Forehand (1973) and found ambiguous in that it is not clear who or what is the Bubject of the study. He commented: . . . to many in the field, however, there seems to be a real confusion over whether 'climate* refers to attributes of organization or attributes of people, (p. 121) James and Jones issue, suggested represent (1974), the of organizational climate" to represent been use addressed in using different Howe, 1977; "organizational attribute and of methodological James, construct to "psychological issue has validity techniques 1979; the climate" individual attribute. This a number Jones and and Snyder, in an attempt to resolve studies (Drexler, Gavin, 1975; 1977; Schneider 1975; Johnston, 1976). Drexler (1977) after examining data from 1,256 groups in 21 organizations found a main effect for organization and thus, concluded that organizational climate is an attribute of organization, while Johnston (1976) and Gavin (1975) came to a different climate is conclusion, neither indicating exclusively that an organizational attribute of an organization nor an attribute of an individual. Further confusion surrounding organizational climate is the possible climate and (1973) overlap and redundancy between organizational job satisfaction. argued satisfaction attributed that measures this borrowing items identical or organizational are redundancy from similar Johannesson (1973) climate redundant to researchers satisfaction methods of scales, and Guion and job concepts. They culling and/or and measurement. utilizing However, a number of theorists and researchers do not share this view. A conceptual distinction organizational climate has and job been drawn satisfaction, between arguing organizational climate measures are descriptive, that while job satisfaction measures are affective and evaluative in nature (James and Schneider Jones, and Schneider, Snyder, 1975; Pritchard 1974; and 1975; Payne, Ilgen, Hellriegel LaFollett Fineman 1980). and A and Slocum, and Wall, number of 1974; Sims, 1976; 1975; Naylor, research studies also provided support for conceptual distinction. They have shown that both measures related differently to performance (LaFollett and Sims, 1975), the organizational level and job performance influenced the nature of the relationship between organizational climate and job satisfaction (Downey et a l ., aspects 1974), of and work measures those reflected from measures (Schneider research findings, organizational climate and Snyder, these climate reflected by job 1975). and job satisfaction Based researchers different on their concluded that satisfaction are not redundant but rather distinct constructs. In short, over whether perceptually there seems to be real confusion and debate organizational or objectively. climate If be measured operationalized perceptually, whether does it refer to an organization attribute and/or an individual attribute? organizational climate And are job satisfaction and separate and/or distinct constructs? Despite these controversies, the perceptual measure of organizational climate has gained popularity. A group of researchers has attempted to far larger operationalize organizational climate in terms of participants' of different aspects perceptual measure acknowledged climate, of the and completely. work of Even not Guion The organizational importance have environment. of (1973), critics climate perceptual suggested perception have organizational abandoning who of is highly its use critical of perceptual measure, said: These comments [on organizational climate] are not intended to disparage work on organizational climate or even on perceptions of organizational climate. . .perceptions, whether by employees or by consultants, can be used as estimates. . .of attributes of organizations (p. 124). The is an issue of whether perceived organizational climate organization remains debatable. attribute or an individual Studies by Drexler (1977), attribute Howe (1977), and Schneider and Snyder (1975) have bolstered the assertion that organizational climate refers to an attribute of organization. But the findings of Johnston (1976) and Gavin (197 5) provide researchers Schneider Hall, (with and 1972) have The climate a individuals the Bartlett, attribute. as contradictory exception 1968 viewed within a or and of 1970; climate organization unitary evidence. attribute main given as effect, subunit or A majority Schneider, and an 1973); Schneider and organization approach and of regards assumes that organization form similar perceptions about organizational climate. Regarding the possible and potential overlap and redundancy of these two constructs, a conceptual distinction has been offered which suggests that organization climate is descriptive and satisfaction is organizationally affective and oriented, individually while job oriented. The distinction, however, has not been empirically demonstrated. It has been argued that descriptions are highly influenced by one’s feelings (Johannesson, 1973). Still, the psychological problem remains of divorcing and/or isolating descriptions from feelings. This question shall have to be resolved empirically. The approach to be used in this study is best characterized by James’ and Jones’ (1974) classification of the definitional and measurement approach of organizational climate, i.e., the attribute approach." "perceptual-measurement-organization The climate is descriptive/organization-oriented one, perceptions of individual members. other hand, is conceived to conceived but to is measured Job satisfaction, be be a via on the affective/individual- oriented. In a perceptual measure of organizational climate, the respondents are in effect asked to ignore their feelings about the organization and merely describe or indicate the extent to organization. which each statement characterizes the 7 Definition of Terns 1. Organizational Climate Refers to a set of attributes which can be perceived about a particular organization and/or its subsystems, and that may be induced from the way that the organization and/or its subsystems deal with their members and environment (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974, p. 256). Several themes are implicit in this definition of organizational climate: a) perceptual responses sought are primarily descriptive, rather than evaluative; b) the unit of analysis tends to be attributes of the organization or specific subsystems, rather than an individual; c) the perceptions have potential behavioral consequences. In climate this study, description five dimensions of an questionnaire— Revised for secondary schools, organizational Scale developed by Kottkamp (OCDQ-RS) et a l . (1985) will be used to measure the organizational climate of public secondary behavior schools: (supportive two and dimensions directive), related and to principal three related teacher behavior (engaged, frustrated and intimate). a) Supportive principal behavior: Characterized by principals' efforts to motivate teachers using constructive criticism and setting an example through hard work. Supportive behavior of principals is directed toward both task achievement and the social needs of the faculty. b) Directive principal behavior: Reflects rigid and domineering supervision by the principal, who to maintains close control over teachers and school activities. c) Engaged teacher behavior: Reflected faculty morale. Teachers are supportive other and enjoy working with each other. also friendly with students, trust them concerned with the success of students. by high of each They are and are d) Frustrated teacher behavior: Refers to the general pattern of influence, from both administrators and colleagues, that distracts from the basic task of teaching. Teachers get irritated and annoyed because of routine and excessive non­ teaching duties. e) Intimate teacher behavior: Reflects a cohesive network of social relationships among faculty. Teachers are close friends and regularly socialize together. The the organizational conditions of climate an measure internal organization. The respondents is descriptive environment of of an indicate the extent to which each statement characterizes/represents the organization. On the other hand, job satisfaction represents the affective feelings of the respondents to different facets of the job. It is the reaction of organization members to the conditions of the job that are embedded in the organization. Job satisfaction, for the purpose of this study, is conceived of as being affective and individually oriented. 2. Job Satisfaction Refers to "a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experience." (Locke, 1976,p. 1300) In this study, the satisfaction of teachers will be ascertained using the teacher job satisfaction questionnaire (TJSQ) developed by Lester (1983). It is intended to measure affective feelings of teachers associated with different facets of their job situation. The instrument examines nine factors/facets of the job. Lester (1983) defined the factors as follows. a) Supervision: The task-oriented behavior of the immediate supervisor. b) Colleagues: The work group, as well as social interaction among fellow workers. c) Working conditions: The work environment, aspects of the physical environment. and d) Pay: Annual income. e) Responsibility: The opportunity to be accountable for one's own work, and to take part in policy- and decision-making activities. f) Work itself: The task related to the job. This includes the freedom to institute innovative materials and to use on e ’s skills and abilities in designing one’s work, as well as the freedom to experiment and to influence or control what happens on the job. g) Advancement: The opportunity for promotion. h) Security: The school’s tenure, seniority, layoffs, and dismissal. policies pensions, regarding retirement i) Recognition: Some act of notice, blame, praise, or criticism. Job satisfaction is the reaction of individuals toward the job conditions of their organization. Those (teachers in this case) in express their bases. One an organization feelings such to basis tend to react the job conditions on different is (school) demographic establish a frame of reference (Smith, background. or They Kendall and Hullin, 1969) based on these demographic characteristics and respond accordingly. A host of personal and school demographic 10 characteristics may have some association with teacher job satisfaction. include all literature It is beyond the scope of this such demographic characteristics. provided a basis characteristics; however, Some demographics were for inclusion study to Job attitude of demographic the emphasis has been lop sided. studied extensively in relation to job satisfaction, while others were not given due emphasis. In this study, the following teachers (age, sex, marital teaching experience, subjects) and school personal status, employment demographics education status, level, and teaching demographic characteristics (location and size of the school) are included: 3. Education level The amount teacher. of formal education received by the 4. Teaching experience The number of school system. of years a teacher has taught in a 5. Nature of employment The status of a teacher's employment. The teachers are classified as tenured or non-tenured teachers. a) Tenured teachers: Those teachers who have completed six years of teaching service in a school system, and whose position as a teacher has been officially made permanent. b) Non-tenured teachers: Those teachers who have not completed six years of teaching service in a school system. 11 6. Teaching subjects The various subjects/disciplines the teachers are teaching, based on their specific knowledge and specialty in the field/discipline. 7. School Size Refers to the enrollment of students in the school. For the purpose of analysis, the schools are classified as small (less than 300 students), medium (300-599 students) and large sized schools (600 and more students). 8. School Location Refers to the physical location of the school building. The schools are classified as urban and rural schools. a) Urban Schools: The physical location of the school building in a locality with a population of 2,500 or more inhabitants. b) Rural Schools: The physical location of the school building in a locality with a population of less than 2,500 inhabitants. Statement of the Problem The level been an area researchers. the of satisfaction experienced by teachers has of considerable interest to educational Attention has been concentrated on identifying factors presumably satisfaction. Early associated researchers with focused teacher more on job personal demographic characteristics to find the sources of variation in teacher variation attributed job in to satisfaction. human behavior organizational relate job satisfaction is array an of But in the some factors, recognition circumstances led can be researchers to to organizational variables. demographic and that organizational There variables 12 which may have some association with job satisfaction. The focus and of teachers* this study is and schools' on organizational climate selected demographic characteristics and their relationship to teacher job satisfaction. Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study is twofold: 1) To determine the relationship between organizational climate and teacher job satisfaction, as perceived by public secondary school teachers. 2) To ascertain the relationship between teachers' and schools' marital selected status, demographic level characteristics of education, nature of (age, sex, employment, nature of teaching subjects, location of the school and size of the school) and teacher job satisfaction. Research Hypotheses Previous job research relating satisfaction consistently organizational climate has shown organizational climate and job satisfaction to be related (McElroy, Burke, 1982; Ronnenkamp, studies investigating 1984; and and LoFland, 1985). 1984; The the relationship of job satisfaction to demographic characteristics showed no consistent pattern of relationship between the variables under study. There are a number of studies that indicated older teachers to be more satisfied than younger teachers Alutto, satisfied 1972; than McElroy, male 1984), teachers (Hoppock, female (Chase, 1935; Belasco and teachers 1951; are Lortie, more 1975; 13 Birmingham, than less Iwanicki, 1984); experienced teachers are more experienced 1984; ones Taylor, (Sweeney, 1986), married more satisfied than single teachers teachers exhibit a higher tenured teachers indicated job (Quinn relationship satisfaction satisfaction. On level et 1981; al., between Anderson teachers (Chase, demographic the basis of and slightly 1951), tenured of satisfaction than non- 1974). thus These studies organizational and satisfied climate characteristics these findings, and and job following testable hypotheses were generated for this study. Hypothesis I: There will be a significant relationship between organizational climate (measured by OCDQ-RS) and teacher job satisfaction (measured by TJSQ) as perceived by public secondary school teachers. Hypothesis II: There will be a significant relationship between teachers' and schools' selected demographic characteristics (age, sex, marital status, level of education, nature of employment, nature of teaching subjects, location and size of the school) and teacher job satisfaction as perceived by public secondary school teachers. Heed for the Study This study can be justified on the following grounds. 1) No conducted study, to organizational to the best investigate climate and of my knowledge, therelationship teacher involving public secondary school job has been between satisfaction teachers in the state of Michigan. 2) Elementary their structures. and secondary Elementary schools schools are are different designed to in be 14 self-contained classrooms. Teachers are relatively independent of each other and enjoy a great deal of freedom (at least behind classroom doors), whereas secondary schools are departmentalized and teachers are interdependent. This structural difference is accompanied by differences in norms established at each level which to a large extent govern the teacher behavior. These differences require that the organizational climate at each level should be assessed with instruments that reflect conditions in the schools before relating it to other criteria. Prior teacher research job satisfaction organizational developed relating by climate Halpin organizational climate indiscriminately used Description and Croft Questionnaire (1963) to assess to the (OCDQ) secondary school climate. This instrument was specifically designed to measure the organizational climate of elementary schools. The utility of this instrument in assessing secondary school organizational climate was questioned by various researchers (Morris, 1964; Watkins, 1968; Carver and Sergiovanni, 1969). This study specifically is the designed to first to measure use the an instrument secondary school organizational climate in Michigan public secondary schools. 3) and Schools increasing environment functioning mobility. which exerting much are Schools itself influence is in an era of rapid are a part changing upon schools. change of a broader continuously The vicissitudes and of external environment augment the need for schools to create 15 an internal environment which allows the development of the unique capacities of each teacher. Teachers must be willing to execute not only their basic tasks of teaching, but also carry out other organizational assignments in order to cope effectively achieve with these the changing objectives, external schools must environment. be concerned To with satisfying the needs and expectations of their teachers. 4) Schools, specifically secondary schools, have undergone a series of changes (such as teacher negotiation/ collective bargaining*new teaching methods, and expansion of school goals). All these changes have contributed to a more complex operation bargaining in aspect of 1982), of schools. public operations including schools has the assessment collective affected virtually and governance of schools organizational satisfaction of teachers. need for Specifically, every (Kowalski, climate and In the wake of these changes, of organizational climate and job the teaoher job satisfaction becomes quite evident. Furthermore, accountability problems, society's in the and teachers' demand teaching for quality profession, education, discipline organizations militant posture and increasing demands for fringe benefits and greater involvement in policy- and decision-making all accentuated the need for studying teacher job satisfaction. 5) Previous to personal personal studies demographic variables at a relating teacher job characteristics time. This have satisfaction studied study includes few a 16 relatively large number of demographic variables to investigate their relationship to job satisfaction. Delimitations and Limitations of the Study No survey research there are bound to be in its some entirety can limitations. This be perfect, study is no exception. This study is limited in a number of ways which are as follows: 1) The study is delimited to Michigan Public Secondary Schools. 2) The study is delimited to the perceptions of public secondary school teachers. 3) The study is delimited teachers and their responses not to the perceptions of to OCDQ-RS and TJSQ and included those who opt not to participate in the study, since the participation was voluntary. 4) A possible methodological limitation of the study is the validity of participants’ perceptions as a measure of organizational climate. was measured through accuracy and validity The organizational climate the perceptions of teachers, of perceptual measure has the been subjected to much controversy and debate. Generalizability of the Study As indicated earlier, Secondary Schools and the study was their limited to Public teachers’ responses to organizational climate and job satisfaction, therefore, the 17 findings from this study can only be generalized to Michigan Public Secondary Schools. Organization of the Study This study is comprised of five chapters. were presented the statement of the problem! study, research hypotheses, presented in chapter scope the of 1 were and need for of study 1 purpose of the the the limitations generalizability In Chapter study. Also of the study, and definition of terms and variables used in the study. Chapter definitions importance problems 2 contains of of a review organizational organizational associated with of literature, climate, climate, dimensions discussion organizational including climate of and major construct and a discussion of studies relating organizational climate and job satisfaction. Presented also in chapter 2 is review of including job satisfaction a discussion of theories related to job satisfaction and a discussion of findings of studies relating job characteristics and demographic characteristics to job satisfaction. In chapter 3 the research design, and a discussion discussed. Also of instruments presented is sampling procedures, used the in the discussion study of are data gathering and data analysis procedures. Chapter 4 presents the data analysis results concerning the relationships of organizational climate and demographic characteristics to teacher job satisfaction. 18 Chapter 5 comprises the summary of the study, of the study and discussion of these findings, findings along with conclusions and recommendations for further research. CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE Introduction The organizational constructs have been climate focus of and job satisfaction considerable attention. Numerous articles, papers, books and dissertations have been published review on of the topics. pertinent Presented literature. in this Though the chapter review is is a not exhaustive in its coverage, however, every attempt has been made to review the relevant literature that have similarity to this study. two sections. The review of literature In the literature pertaining definitions, first section to the controversies importance, Also surrounding organization vs. perceptions debate, climate and concepts. finally, an And attribute the job measurement of this section is debate, controversy satisfaction overview of the are study i.e., shared whether redundant findings that related organizational climate to job satisfaction, provided. 19 of including organizational climate and organizational and presented in individual into is provided review organizational climate, dimensions, organizational climate. is presented is 20 The second satisfaction, section including constituted definitions of of review job of job satisfaction, brief overview of theories of job satisfaction, and overview of study findings relating job characteristics and individual characteristics to job satisfaction, is presented in that order. Organizational Climate The Organizational climate construct, though important, has been subjected to debate and controversy. controversies/debate definitional and conceptualizing centered measurement the concept, around problems. students, was realized by Argyris conceptual, The encountered by Much of the difficulty in organizational (1958) when he posed the question: How is this living complexity, "the climate of the conveniently defined as organization," to be analyzed and conceptualized without presenting us with an oversimplified picture of reality, a picture devoid committed to studying? (p.502). Despite for specific operationally Representative purposes and and many climate the life one is these difficulties, concept definitions commonly of have accepted is defined been offered. definitions of organizational climate are provided below. Definitions of Organizational Climate Forehand climate as: and Gilmer (1964) defined organizational 21 The set of characteristics that describe an organization and that a) distinguish the organization from other organizations, b) are relatively enduring over time, and c) influences the behavior of people in the organization, (p. 362) Tagiuri (1968) considered this definition deficient because it places excessive emphasis on organization at the neglect of perceptions of the members of the organization. Thus, he proposed the following definition: Organizational climate is a relatively enduring quality of the internal environment of an organization that a) is experienced by its members, b)influences their behavior, and c) can be described in terms of the values of a particular set of characteristics (or attributes) of the organization, (p. 27) Hellriegel and Slocum (1974) offered organizational climate and included it, which later has a definition "subsystem" been interpreted by climate others as climate" (Howe, 1977* Powell and Butterfield, of in "group 1978). Hellriegel and Slocum (1974) stated that: Organizational climate refers to a set of attributes which can be perceived about a particular organization and/or its subsystems, and that may be induced from the way that organization and/or its subsystems deal with their members and environment, (p. 256) The preceding definitions clearly indicate that climate has been considered exclusively an organizational attribute, which can be perceived Some researchers, of organizational attribute. The and assessed objectively however, do not seem to share climate. pioneers They consider of this school it an of as well. this view individual thought are 22 Schneider and his associates. As Schneider (1973) stated that: The concept of climate in the present research maybest be described as personalistic; climate is an individual perception. There was no attempt to restrict the climate definition to perceptions shared by members of a work group or organization. As stated elsewhere (Schneider and Bartlett, 1970),*. . . what is psychologically important to the individual must be how he perceives his work environment, not how others might choose to describe it (p. 510).* (p. 254) Climate is a particularly complex component of any organization. The school organizational climate researchers have emphasized this complexity and viewed it as analogous to personality. As Halpin and Croft (1963) stated: Organizational climate can be construed as the organizational *personality* of a school; figuratively, 'personality* is to the individual what ’climate* is to the organization, (p. 1) In the Same Vein, Norton (1984) defined the organizational climate of a school as: The collective personality of a school or enterprise, the atmosphere as characterized by the social and professional interactions of the individuals in the school, (p. 43) Keefe, Kelley organizational enduring and climate patterns Miller of of (1985) schools shared as: defined "The perceptions the relatively about the characteristics of an organization and its members" (p. 74). These definitions organizational climate enduring quality which non-members seem to share certain elements. is considered a molar concept, The an is perceived by members as well as (these perceptions are descriptive in nature), 23 and that climate has potential people in the organization. are distinct differences impact on the behavior Taken together, however, in these definitions. of there Climate has evolved from being considered exclusively an organizational attribute to an individual and subsystem (group) attribute. It is conceptualized as one concept, but defined and operationalized at three different levels of analysis within the organization (Field and Abelson, 1982). This has stirred debate and controversy surrounding the construct, which will be discussed in detail in a later section of this chapter. Dimensions of Organizational Climate The basic environments dimensions assumption that can be (Jones a characterized and James, varied by 1979) a group limited directed of social number of researchers' attention to focus on defining and measuring core dimensions of climate. Forehand and Gilmer (1964) stated: The definition of a climate dimension requires evidence that: the objective determinants of the dimension are applicable to all subunits, and the dimension is perceived comparably by individuals in the subunit, (p. 378) It emphasizes that individuals exposed to similar situations perceive those situations in similar ways and use essentially the same dimensions to describe them (Jones and Butler, 1980). Tagiuri (1968) conceptualized climate as a summary concept dealing with the total environmental quality within 24 an organization. According to Tagiuri (1968), dimensions of climate include: a) Ecology (Physical and material aspects); b) Milieu (social dimension concerned with the presence of persons and groups); c) Social System (social dimensions concerned with relationship patterns of persons and groups); and d) Culture (social dimension concerned with belief system and meaning systems). Dimensions organizational (1964) in of organizational variation climate by their order proposed of effect in determining Forehand upon and individual Gilmer behavior were: a ) Size; b) Structure; c) System’s complexity; d) Leadership style; and e) Goal direction. Campbell et al. climate (1970), research, organizational climate in a review of organizational identified common to four a dimensions number of empirical climate studies in organizations. a) Individual autonomy; b) The degree of structure imposed upon the position; c) Reward orientation, and d) Consideration, warmth and support. of 25 These factor dimensions analytic Waters, Roach Muchinsky, received studies and by Batlis, support LaFollette 1974; from and Jones and subsequent Sims, 1975; James, 1979; 1976; Payne and Pugh, 1976; Sims and LaFollette, 1975. It was noted, however, that a communality of items and/or outward appearance of factors might have contributed to the results (Campbell et al., 1970), and that the number of dimensions was perhaps too few (Jones and James, 1979). While it organizational acceptance, seems apparent climate are that four common and several other writers, dimensions have received of wide however, have noted the multidimensionality of organizational climate and suggested that there may be other dimensions 1973; Schneider, Schneider (Pritchard and Karasick, 1975; Naylor et al., 1980). (197 5) suggested that: "Organizational climate should refer to an area of research rather than a . . . particular viewed organizations set having number of dimensions, dimension salience of a dimensions" number (p. 472). He of climates, therefore any and thus posited that the question of was relevant in the context of a particular criterion. Anderson (1982) in a review of school climate research, used Tagiuri’s (1968) typology of organizational climate to evaluate the relative importance assigned to climate dimensions by school climate researchers. the four She came to the conclusion that the majority of factors measured by 26 school climate instruments culture dimensions, fell in the social system and and tended to ignore the dimensions of ecology and milieu. In sum, "most ’measures' aspects of the organization of climate concern particular usually only a few dimensions are focused on, and they are seldom combined to capture the essence of the climate" (Tagiuri, 1968, p. 28). The Importance of the Organizational Climate The organizational climate, though surrounded by conceptual, measurement and definitional problems, "has been a popular concept and Reichers, for theorizing and research" (Schneider, 1983). It is these controversies that prompted some theorists to conclude that it is the ’fuzziest’ concept (Guion, 1973) misunderstood these and most construct comments did confusing (Naylor not seem et to and al., universally 1980). obscure or However, vitiate the importance of the concept. More appeared than Campbell James and 1976; Thomas, 1979; and reviews Gilmer, et al. , 1970; Jones, 1974; 1976; 1978; Naylor, Schneider, dozen (Forehand 1968; and King, a 1964; and and construct Litwin and 1975; Payne 1979; Ilgen, have Stringer, and Slocum, Butterfield, and James, Pritchard the Hellriegel Schneider, Powell Jones of and 1974; Pugh, 1978; Woodman Joyce and Slocum, 1980; Anderson, 1982; 1983). These reviews and the prodigious number of articles and papers on the topic speak to the significance of the concept in the field of the organization. It should 27 be noted, critical however, of the that these reviews conceptualization and have been measurement very of the climate construct. Guion (1973), organizational though climate, very critical speaks of the of the perceived importance of the construct in these words: The construct. . . . implied by the term organizational climate, may be one of the most important to enter the thinking of industrialorganizational psychologists in many years (p. 120 ). For others, provides a construct conceptual organizational Stringer, the level 1968; link and Payne the and is important between analysis individual Mansfield, level 1973), prediction of organizational phenomena because at (Litwin aids in and is a link other organizational constructs, forming a nomological (Field and 1982), in understanding behavior Abelson, in work aids organization (Schneider, it the and the with net employee 1975), has potential for describing and understanding the behavior of individuals within organizations 1974; Woodman and King, understanding their the way perceptions of Pritchard and Ilgen, The received importance equally researchers. (Hellriegel 1978), and individuals their work and Slocum, is a useful device structure and environment for organize (Naylor, 1980). of good organizational recognition climate from school construct climate 28 Lindlow and Mazzerella (1981) spoke of the importance of climate in schools: Certainly the satisfaction and morale of students and staff are higher in school with healthy climates than in schools with unhealthy climates; indeed, school climate measures are often a direct reflection of satisfaction with the school (p. 175) . Baugh (1970) describes the importance of organizational climate in schools in these words: Organizational climate has become a vital and much studied concept in educational research and practice. To have an organization is to have an organizational climate of some kind. This climate will either contribute to the effectiveness of the organization in meeting its members’ social needs and in accomplishing its goals, or it will contribute to the ineffectiveness of the organization in fulfilling its responsibilities (pp. 39-40). Thomas (1976), in a review of organizational climate of schools, concept concluded of that "research organizational climate should is too continue. The important to abandon" (p. 457). The controversies surrounding that have been relatively have long Tagiuri been (1968) recognized organizational recently the focus of by has summarized pioneers the most of the climate attention concept. important of problems as: 1) Distinguishing between the objective and subjective environment; 2) Distinguishing between the person and situation; 3) Determining what aspects of the environment need to be specified; 4) identifying the structures and dynamics of the environment (p. 64). these 29 "These problems remain pertinent to the study of organizational climate today and to a large extent are still unresolved" (Woodman and King, 1978, p. 817). Measurement of the Organizational Climate Researchers have come to a partial agreement concerning the meaning of organizational 1984). However, climate (Joyce and Slocum, there is great diversity on how to measure the organizational climate (Lindlow and Mazzerella, Johannesson organizational (1973) climate reports has that proceeded 1981). measurement along two of lines: objective and perceptual. Objective Measures of Organizational Climate Objective rely on measures measures of perceptions by are Lirtzman, associated House and Whisler (1970); and (1967). The have the individuals. with Rizzo Friesen objective organizational the characteristics of not objective of Evan (1963); Pugh et al., (1969); and Lorsch, organizational climate (1978); of These do works (1973); measures climate Lawrence accuracy and reliability (Helleriegel and Slocum, 1974). However, they are not devoid of limitations. against Some objective include: "The numerous and criticisms measures variables too of that specific that to have been organizational may be (Forehand and Gilmer, 1964, p. 365). be examined readily leveled climate are too interpreted" 30 A second criticism is that: Studies that examine in isolation specific objective properties of an organization leave unanswered the questions of how they are related to useful constructs of organizational functioning (Forehand and Gilmer, 1964, p. 365). Characteristics which can be measured objectively are too far removed from behavior; the organization only they affect participants indirectly Hellriegel and Slocum, (Woodman and King, in 1978; 1974). Some researchers have suggested an objective measure of climate by using an outside observer. This method of assessing climate has also been criticized. As, Sarason (1971) pointed out: By virtue of the fact that observer is himself part of a structure— be it in the school culture or in one outside of it— his perception and thinking are in various ways incomplete, selective, and distorted (p. 15). Moos perceptions (1979) indicated with that observations is any attempt complicated to by validate several other factors. First, the infrequent but behavior intense, that leads to perception may be and may be a crucial dimension of the climate, but the observer would not observe an incident of it. Second, the behavior that take place regularly, but leads to perception may in a place not observable to the outsider. These limitations of objective measures led researchers to measure organizational individual members in the climate through organization. perceptions It is argued of that 31 "perceptions of the environment determinants of behavior than are more important is the objective environment itself" (Joyce, Slocum and Abelson, 1977, p. 262). Litwin and Stringer (1968) argue, that: Realities of the organization (organizational structure, leadership and decision making processes etc.) are understood only as they are perceived by members of the organization, allowing climate to -be viewed as a filter through which objective phenomena must pass (pp. 42-43). Perceptual Measures of Organizational Climate The perceptual measurement associated with controversies, of organizational has generated the climate, greatest amount of research. James and Jones (1974), in a review of organizational climate theory and research, identified three approaches to definition and measurement of organizational climate; a) The which set "multiple-measurement-organization regards of attribute"; organizational climate exclusively as a organizational attributes or main effects measurable by a variety of methods; b) The "perceptual-measurement-organization attribute," which views organizational climate as an organizational attribute or main effect, but is measured via perceptual means; and c) The views "perceptual-measurement-individual the organizational climate as an attribute and measured through perceptions. attribute" individual 32 Parallel to this categorization of measurement approaches are three levels of climate presented by Naylor, Pritchard and Ilgen (1980). a) Actual environmental climate). multiple This parallels measurement b) Perceived climate). attributes: James This and Jones' organization environmental parallels (level (1974), attribute attributes: James and one the approach. (level Jones' two (1974) the perceptual measurement-organization attribute approach. c) Psychological climate). This climate construct: parallels James (level and Jones’ three (1974), perceptual measurement-individual attribute approach. Those who have organizational climate based on experience involved than Gilmer, 256); p. argue that of how the that is both an 364); more perceives his extensive and observer" (Hellriegel measure perceptions perceptions is psychologically he perceptual "such outside "the consequences" "what must be that 1964, behavioral emphasized and 510); and relationship supervisory it is only between practices, (productivity, 1961, p. 196). attitudes, Slocum, environment, causal etc.) and 1974, p. important to the individual through etc.) more potential not how others might choose to describe it" (Schneider and Bartlett, p. are (Forehand have of perceptions variables and end that 1970, the (structure, result may be understood variables (Likert, 33 Critics of perceptual measure, on the other hand, argue that "in such a measure, characteristics of individual and organization are confounded" 365); (Forehand and Gilmer, 1964, p. "there are potentially as many climates as there are people in the organization" "... (Johannesson, 1971, p. 30); and the use of perceptual measurement introduces variance which is a function of differences between individuals and is not necessarily descriptive of organization or situation" (James and Jones, 1974, p. 1103). These conflicting arguments for but and organizational climate persuasive, against and/or perceptual raised another compelling measure of issue concerning the convergent validity of subjective and objective measures of organizational climate. This concern was forcefully presented by Campbell et al., (1970) when they commented: . . . a distinction is necessary between perceptual and objective measures of situational characteristics. The two measurement processes of 1) asking an individual how he perceives his environment and 2) defining situational variables a priori and measuring them independently yield variables of very different order. The central issue is whether the determiner of significant effects is the situation as it actually is or as it is perceived (p. 389). Payne and Pugh (1976), reviewed a variety of convergent studies (Astin and Holland, 1961; Barker, 1970) conducted in educational settings, perceptual measures have validity and 1963; and Stern, concluded that the correlate with more objective and non-perceptual measures of climate. Woodman research, and King (1978), argued that the after problem of a review of convergent climate validity 34 between perceptual and more objective measurement of organizational climate remains unresolved. They concluded that: . . . until these issues of validity (convergent and discriminate) can be resolved, much speculation about organizational climate is likely to elude science and remain in the realm of organizational folklore (p. 624). Organization Vs. Individual attribute The reflect central actual issue, attributes whether of individual the organization perceptions or whether these are perceived attributes of individuals, was raised by Campbell et a l . (1970). However, Guion's this issue resulted in (1973) comments on many studies attempting to resolve this issue. Regarding the issue of what perceptual measures of climate actually measure, Guion stated: The idea of "perceived organizational climate” seems ambiguous; one can not be sure whether it implies an attribute of the organization or of the perceiving individual (p. 120). A number of research studies addressed this question. Gavin (1975) studying a sample of managerial-level employees in a bank, variables roughly (in reported an equally that additive accounted personal rather for and than organizational interactive significant amounts variance in climate perceptions. He concluded: A tentative conclusion that one might draw from this research is that organizational climate perceptions do not merely reflect organizational, or individual differences, as some have suggested (cf. Guion, 1973) (p. 138). way) of 35 Similarly, Johnston (1976), conducting a field study of a single firm contrasting the perceptions of two groups of individuals (those who have been with the organization over three years vs. those who have been 6 months to one year), found two different organizational climates,and concluded: The concept of climate as a joint function of situational and personality variables provides a direct and unequivocal answer to the . . . difficult question posed by Guion (1973), whether climate is an attribute of the organization or of its members. The answer implied by the concept presented here is that it is neither exclusively. As the field study data indicates here, that climate is an attribute of both the individual and organization (p. 102). In an attempt individual-attribute recommended using organizational to resolve the controversy, James "organizational attribute, and organizational and Jones climate" "psychological vs. (1974) to reflect climate" to represent individual attribute. Drexler's question. The perceptually characterize variance at (1977) main research interest generated individual, He examined the data was measures organizations, directly whether of or whether they levels of but climate represent interest. 1,256 groups representing individuals in 21 organizations. this descriptive organizational group or other from addressed 6,996 He found a main effect for organization which explained 42% of the variance in climate. Subunit effects were also found, much weaker organizational effects. Drexler (1977) concluded: These results support the position that descriptive measures of organizational climate characterize organizations. Such measures have than 36 organization-specific variance and, Jones' (1974) terminology, organizational attributes (p. 40). Schneider (1983) expressed the in James and constitute opinion that the distinction between organizational climate and psychological climate proposed by James and Jones (1974) has gained general acceptance. According to Schneider (1983), Psychological climate is the meaning an individual attaches to work context; Organizational climate is the aggregated meaning, that is typical average or usual way people in a setting describe it (p. 109) . A considerable amount of research studies have the construct validity of organizational climate. tested A number of methodological criteria have been employed. 1) Discrimination, or demonstrable differences between mean perceptions between climates (Drexler, 1977; Howe, 1977; Newman, 1975; Jones and James, 1979; Joyce and Slocum, 1984); 2) Predictable individual relationships criteria to (Pritchard organizational and Karasick, or 1973; Jones and James, 1979; Joyce and Slocum, 1984); 3) Internal (Howe, consistency 1977; or agreement Jones and James, 1979; in perceptions Joyce and Slocum, 1984). Field and Abelson construct Drexler, validity 1977; (1982), studies Howe, Offenberg and Cernius, after reviewing a number of (Litwin 1977;Schneider 1978; and Stringer, and Snyder, 1968; 1975; Newman, 1977; Jones and James, 1979), concluded that "these results indicate a substantial 37 amount of evidence organizational and regarding group the construct climate" (p. validity 190). And of they suggested: . . . it appears necessary to greatly limit the energies exerted on the argument of the whether the climate construct exists, and redirect these energies into more constructive activities. Appropriate models should be developed and tested (p. 198). Shared/Consensual Perceptions Many researchers and theorists (Halpin and Croft, 1963; Guion, and 1973; James and Jones, Abelson, 1982) have 1974; Schneider, suggested that if 1975; Field perceptual measures of organizational climate are used to describe an organization, agreement there among should be members a consensus in their or at least perceptions an of organizational climate. Halpin and perceptual Croft agreement organizational climate. (1963) in emphasized the They the importance measurement posited that of a of school degree of agreement among staff members’ perception of school climate must be presented before the global concept organizational climate could be considered valid. of the However, they sensed the difficulty of obtaining such an agreement by pointing out: Here we are confronted by the perennial phenomenological dilemma: each person is limited to seeing the world through only his own perceptions. Yet we are prepared and are still prepared to take the position that when a majority of the faculty group shows consensus in its perception of school climate, this consensus can 38 be used as a dependable index of what is out there (p. 10). The extent to which individuals agree with respect to perceptions of their work environment has been addressed in a number of studies (Drexler, 1977; Gavin and Howe, 1975; Howe, 1977; James, Demaree and Hater, 1980; Jones and James, 1979; Payne 1973; and Mansfield, Schneider, 1972; Schneider and Snyder, studies reported 1973; Pritchard Schneider and and Bartlett, 1975; Campbell and Beaty, evidence of Karasick, 1970; 1971). Many agreement on climate perceptions among members of an organization. Schneider and Snyder (in life positions insurance within (1975) agencies) an reported that respondents in organization different hierarchical (managers, assistant managers, supervisors, secretaries and stenographers) tended to agree more on the climate of their agencies than they did on how satisfied they were. Schneider (1972) found that not only members’ (managers, assistant managers and agency agents) perceptions were in agreement, but also non-members’ (newly contracted agents) perceptions were in agreement with those of members. Campbell and Beaty of salaried personnel (1971), in an organizational in a manufacturing plant, study indicated that : a) Subjects had more similar perceptions of their total organizational climate than of their job climate; and 39 b) A significant attributable portion to of subunit climate variance differences was (rather than individual differences in perceptions). Organizational climate studies in school settings also presented evidence of Cernius (1978) gave questionnaire to members different climates. the two perceptual schools agreement. Offenburg their organizational of schools two that and pattern had known The factor patterns of the results were significantly different. for However, a significant number of each faculty was able to select the factor pattern of its own school. Friesen study, (1972) reported principals' in a evidence and school of agreement teachers' organizational climate. organizational among perceptions climate experts', of school A school considered to have a more open climate by experts and principals was also perceived to be open by its teachers students’ perceptions (as measured were not by OCDQ) . However, in agreement with those of principals and teachers. Other studies, however, differences in the perceptions reported significant of climate among members in the same organization. Walden, elementary teachers Taylor school and perceptions. and (1975), organizational principals Similar Watkins (1972) and Grassie (1973). climate, significantly findings were in a found differ reported study in by of that their Wiggins 40 Payne and Mansfield (1973) reported differences in the perceptions of climate among organizational hierarchy. organizational hierarchy employees Persons tended in different higher to in the perceive their organization's climate as: 1) Less authoritarian; 2) Providing greater work interest; 3) More friendly; and 4) More ready to innovate. The shown work to (Gavin differ and Johnston, Snyder, Howe, 1975; that (climate) across roles 1974; and Hulin, shown environment 1975; Payne perceptions and organizational Hellriegel and Mansfield, Schneider and Bartlett, 1975; Newman, climate and perceptions such been positions Slocum, 1973; 1974; Schneider 1970; 1975). Previous individual characteristics, have Herman, and Dunham studies also have reflect differences as personality in attributes (George and Bishop, 1971; Johnston, 1974; Kenney, White, and Gentry, 1967); cognitive 1980); need strength and characteristics, McLeod, 1975); work values Margulies, such as age 1969); (Brinkmeir, and Butler, 1973; Downey, (Coughlan, 1971; and demographic 1967; Cook, 1965; 1969; Jones and James, 1979; and Newman, 1975); (Kimpston and Sonnabend, 1979; (Jones (Pritchard and Karasick, Hellriegel and Slocum, Friedlander complexity Kimpston experience and (Kalias, 1975) Sonnabend, 1980: sex education (Jones and James, 1975; Kimpston and and Newman, 1975); Sonnabend, 1975); 41 tenure (Jones 1980); and James, size Sergiovanni, 1979; (George Newman, and 1975 Bishop, and 1971; Kalias, Carver and 1969; Flagg, 1964; Payne and Mansfield, 1973). Naylor perceptual and et al. (1980) agreement, resented arguing organization use different the environment; and even their judgements (perceptions) that sets of the idea individuals of within attributes to if they did use using an describe the same sets, would not necessarily be of the same magnitude. Schneider (1975) perceptions of failure perceptual of sophisticated their asserted work environment agreement measures that of people and findings do share attributed to organizational the the lack climate. of He comments: People in a work setting tend to share their perceptions of the work setting's climate, although the degree of sharing is not very great with current measures (p. 474). Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction Redundant Concepts Another research is confusion the organizational surrounding possible climate overlap and job organizational climate or between redundancy satisfaction. Critics have attributed this tautology to: a) Researchers satisfaction culling scales and/or (Guion, borrowing 1973; items Johannesson, from 1973, 1971; Campbell et al., 1970); b) Identical or similar (Johannesson, 1973); and methods of measurement 42 c) The influence of affective predisposition of perceptual climate measure, which were assume to elicit descriptive responses (Johannesson, 1973). Johannesson's and (1973) organizational redundant examined climate concepts, the conclusion is are based relationship that not on satisfaction distinct, his between job but research study. organizational cluster scores and cluster cores based on the SRA Research Association) employee descriptive index (JDI). the a variance in rather inventory He climate (Science and the job It was hypothesized that "most of perceptual measure of organizational climate could be subsumed in factors traditionally found in satisfaction research." He found support for the hypothesis, and claimed that measured in variance to 141). "by this study commonly Thus, he and large, fails organizational climate to identified concluded add new satisfaction that the two or as different factors" concepts (p. are redundant. A number of Stern, 1964; theorists Schneider, 1975; James and Jones, Fineman and Wall, 1976; Joyce and Slocum, 1979), criticism. They (Hellriegel and Slocum, offered 1974; 1974; Payne, Naylor, Pritchard and Ilgen, 1980; have forcefully responded to this a conceptual distinction arguing that organizational climate measures are descriptive and job satisfaction measures are affective and/or evaluative in orientation. In response to the criticism that satisfaction and organizational climate are redundant concepts, 43 Hellriegel and Slocum instruments allege to (1974) describe argued work that "climate environments, whereas jog satisfaction serves to evaluate them" (p. 256), In similar vein, James and Jones (1974) tended to differentiate two constructs, arguing: . . . job satisfaction and perceived climate may be dynamically related and still provide somewhat different sources of related information; for example, climate provides descriptive information, often contaminated by satisfaction, while satisfaction provides actual evaluations and reactions (p. 1108). Schneider and Snyder (1975) argued that a logical and empirical distinction between the concepts of organizational climate and job satisfaction is possible if: 1) Organizational climate is conceptualized as a characteristic of organizations which is reflected in the descriptions employees make of the policies, practices and conditions which exist in the work environment; 2) Job satisfaction is conceptualized as an affective response of individuals which is reflected in the evaluations employees make of the individually salient aspects of their job and the organization for which they work (p. 326). Payne, synthesis of Fineman and Wall organizational (1976), climate and in a conceptual job satisfaction, agreed that measures of job satisfaction and organizational climate have a number of content areas they claimed that despite such in common. overlaps the However, measures conceptually different in two ways: a) Job satisfaction is focused upon a particular job, while organizational climate refers to organization as a whole; b) Job satisfaction concerns a person's affective response to his job, while organizational climate is derived from a person's description of what the organization is like (p. 45). are 44 They concluded relationship that between "while measures there of is evidence these two of a concepts, logically and empirically they remain distinct" (p. 47).LaFollette researchers, and Sims (1975), like tended to differentiate most other job satisfaction from climate measure by arguing: Organizational climate attempts to measure properties of work environment, whereas satisfaction measures assess the affective responses to facets of work environment (p. 260). Research has provided support for the conceptual distinction between organizational climate and satisfaction. Downy, Hellriegel, job satisfaction however, this organizational and Phelps and Slocum organizational relationship level was and job (1974) found that climate found to performance. be were related; affected by On the basis of these findings, they concluded: In this study, organizational level and job performance exhibited strong effects on the nature of the relationship between the climate and satisfaction dimensions. The data provide some basis for concluding that organizational climate and job satisfaction are not one and the same (p. 246) . LaFollette and and satisfaction Sims were (1975) related, differently to performance. to cast they serious doubts concluded that found both that though climate dimensions related This, according to them, on the redundancy hypothesis. "we believe. conclusion of redundancy . . . that tended Thus, Johannesson’s is premature and judgemental, and is contrary to prevailing evidence to date" (pp. 275-276). 45 Schneider and Snyder (1975), the issue of organizational examined possible climate the effectiveness, in an attempt to resolve overlap and job of redundancy satisfaction relationship measure and among measures, organizational organizational measures of job satisfaction. of climate and two They found that responses to two measures of satisfaction were more related to each other than they were to the responses to a measure of climate. Thus, they concluded that "organizational climate and satisfaction data are not equivalent" (p. 327). Joyce and collective climates similarities collective in (1984), (climates was in two of of in perceptions) climate satisfaction proportion Slocum variance an exploratory formed found on that significantly job related climate varied from one aspect of in to the explained of job satisfaction a job Furthermore, satisfaction of basis membership the three plants. in the study by to the other. On the basis of these findings, they asserted: Guion (1973) and Johannesson (1973) have argued that climate and satisfaction are redundant. If this were the case, climate and satisfaction should have been consistently and strongly related. The absence of such effects in plant I and the lack of consistency across the three plants does not support the equivalence of these constructs (p. 730). The conceptual distinction between these two constructs is commonly accepted, and the research findings provided additional credence to this distinction. have However, there remains the danger of contamination of descriptions by feelings. Critics have put forth the argument that 46 description of the feelings one’s environment of an is individual greatly about influenced by that environment. Johannesson (1973) forcefully presented this argument: If feelings heavily influence descriptions of perceptions, or perceptions themselves, how can derivates of them be called satisfaction dimension at one point in time and climate dimensions at another? (p. 112). The distinction has not been empirically demonstrated. Still, there remains the psychological problem of separating and/or isolating descriptions from feelings. This question remains to be resolved empirically. Organizational Climate and Job Satisfaction Relationship Studies Recognition of the importance of the work environment (climate), human its potential behavior satisfaction utility and stimulated was somehow the multiple impact upon that job possibility related to an organization’s climate. With the assumption that organizational climate has an influence on , or many studies were is influenced by, conducted to job determine the satisfaction, relationship between climate and job satisfaction. In an found that experimental job study, satisfaction induced climates, Litwin was and Stringer highest relatively high in (1968) "affiliation" in "achievement" induced climates and lower in "power" induced climates. Friedlander values and as moderator Margulies in (1969) included the the organizational climate and satisfaction relationship. They work job found that certain type of 47 job satisfaction organizational factors climate were predicted dimensions. by However, certain relationships were moderated by employee-held work values. Among those for whom work was more important, an organizational climate high in thrust maximized satisfaction; among those for whom work was less important, an organizational climate high in esprit and low in disengagement maximized satisfaction. Pritchard and Karasick (1973) considered needs and their relationships to climate, personality job satisfaction, and performance. A highly supportive climate was found to be associated with regardless of higher satisfaction individual for personality most managers, needs. However, managers with a high need for order tended to perform better in a highly structured climate. for autonomy were more Managers with a high need satisfied in a low decision centralization climate than those low in such a need. Downey, significant Hellriegel, positive Phelps and Slocum relationship climate and job satisfaction. between However, (1974) found a organizational these relationships were moderated by organizational level and job performance. When they partialled out the effect of organizational level and job performance, correlations significant transformed to positive significant zero negative order partial correlations. On the basis of these findings, they concluded that "organizational climate one and the same" (p. 247). and job satisfaction are not 48 Downey, Hellriegel proposition that and Slocum organizational (1975) climate tested the interacts with individual personality needs in influencing Job satisfaction and performance. They personality needs organization climate found for that sociability as open and individuals who with perceived empathetic, the and who set high standards for achievement, were more satisfied with pay and supervision than those individuals with similar personality need structures who perceived the organization’s climate as closed, self-confident bureaucratic, individuals and who impersonal. perceived Highly that the organization clearly assigned responsibility, and had clearcut policies, were more satisfied with their co-workers than individuals (regardless of self-confidence) who perceived the climate as unstructured. LaFollette positive and Sims correlation (1975) between five reported significant organizational climate factors and each of five job descriptive index scales (a job satisfaction measure). Lawler, Hall and scientists from a reported significant research organizational climate suggested the that Oldham more (1974) and the a development positive and in study organization, correlation satisfaction. organization's using The between results climate was perceived by scientists as competent,responsible, practical, risk-oriented and impulsive, scientist on the job. the more satisfied was the 49 Muchinsky utility's (1977), employees, with a reported sample a of a large significant public relationship between organizational climate and job satisfaction. Five of the six organizational correlated with organizational climate JDI factors subscales. climate was found were positively Standards to be factor of significantly but negatively correlated with JDI subscales. Schneider and relationship between satisfaction. However, Snyder (1975) also organizational reported climate a and job climate and satisfaction perceptions were found to be more highly correlated for people in some positions (staff, in-house trainees and brokerage trainees) than for people in other positions (managers and secsten). Studies results. in Coughlan school settings also reported similar (1971), in a study analyzing the effects of organizational structure (open and closed school systems) and work values on job satisfaction, found that in a relatively open school organization systems, the teachers as a group were significantly more satisfied than in closed systems, but were significantly divided with respect to work values on colleague relations. Grassie and Carss (1973), in a comparative study of two groups of Australian professionally-oriented school teachers teachers, were more found satisfied that with work and colleagues in a setting or structure characterized by considerate and trusting leadership (and the opportunity to participate in decisions about policies and programs, 50 with the absence of organizational a rigid hierarchy constraints) of than authority teachers and less professionally-oriented. Craig schools schools. (1979) were found more that teachers satisfied than McElory (1984) Similarly, those in in open climate closed climate reported a relationship between organizational climate and teacher job satisfaction. Teachers who exhibited a higher level of satisfaction tended to perceive their school climate as open. Ronnenkamp (1984) reported between the organizational a direct relationship climate and job satisfaction on the part of teachers and administrators as a combined group. This relationship diminished, however, when respondents were partitioned based on selected demographic characteristics. It indicates that these selected demographic characteristics acted as moderator in these relationships. Lofland (1985) organizational also climate found (open that or the closed) type of significantly affected teacher job satisfaction. To recapitulate, organizational to be an important construct, measurement problems, research. large clarify A the methodological clarification and the concept. progress of conceptual, however, number of has of have reviews However, and climate is considered definitional plagued did limited been psychological differentiation climate not completely such organizational and climate conceptual made, job and as and the climate satisfaction 51 measures. Still there are issues awaiting to be resolved, specifically, what attributes are actually being measured by perceptual measures? Job Satisfaction Attitudes of employees considerable attention. toward their job have received Though widely studied, there seems to be a lack of a clear and widely accepted definition of just what problem usage. sense is is implied complicated Sometimes, of the attitudes other times (Hinrichs, by the term further "job satisfaction.” The because of term has been used with regard to the its different in a very narrow job itself, it has been given a broad meaning of while "morale” 1968). Definitions of Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction has been defined in a variety of ways. Hoppock (1935) defined job satisfaction as "any combination of psychological, physiological and environmental circumstances that cause a person truthfully to say ’I am satisfied with my job’" (p. 47). According to Brayfield and Rothe (1951), attitude Vroom (feeling) (1964), affective "job satisfaction refers to the individual’s toward his work" "job orientation satisfaction of (p. refers individuals 307). According to toward the to positive the work role which they are presently occupying" (p. 99). Porter (1968) states that satisfaction difference between what a person thinks he should is "the receive 52 and what he feels he actually does receive." This is similar to how Locke (1969) viewed job satisfaction: "a function of the perceived relationship between what one wants from one's job and what one perceives it is offering" (p. 316). Smith, Kendall and Hulin (1969) viewed job satisfaction as "the feelings a worker has about his job" (p. 6). According to Locke (1976), job satisfaction is "the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of o ne’s job as achieving or facilitating one’s job values" (p. 1300). As is evident from the preceding definitions, there is great variation in the definition of job satisfaction. This reflects different theoretical satisfaction the is orientations. positive affective For some, job feeling or orientation toward the job, but for others, it is the degree to which an individual member’s needs, values expectations are fulfilled in a job situation. There or seems to be no single agreed-upon definition of job satisfaction. Theoretical Frame Work Because of continuing interest theories and literature. classified models Campbell, these emerged in Dunnette, theories in the construct, into the job Lawler and many satisfaction Weick (1970) content/substantive or process/mechanical theories. Process theories are concerned types or classes of variables with specifying (needs, values, the expectations, etc.), as well as how these variables combine to determine 53 job satisfaction. attempt to Content identify satisfaction, but the theories, variables are less on most the other conducive concerned with hand, to how job these variables influence job satisfaction. Content Theories of Job Satisfaction Two scene major (Locke, theories 1976): have dominated Maslow’s Need the contemporary Hierarchy Theory and Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory. Maslow’s Need Hierarchy Theory Maslow’s theory (1954, 1970) asserts that humans have five basic needs: 1) Physiological necessities of needs: the the fundamental human organism (Food, biological water, air, et c .). 2) Safety physical and security threats and needs: protection freedom from harms, as against well as economic security. 3) Social/belonging and love needs: satisfactory association with and affection from others. 4) Esteem needs: achievement and competence, as well as recognition, respect, appreciation and approval from others. 5) Self-actualization: maximum development and achievement of o n e ’s potential. Theory hierarchy posits of that these prepotency, in needs are ascending arranged order in a from 54 physiological theory, needs to self-actualization. According to a need at a higher level does not become a potent source of motivation, until the level below it is largely satisfied. The theory also postulates that one level of need ceased to become a potent motive when it is substantially satisfied. Porter (1961) hierarchical category esteem paradigm and and adding by an needs for from those of substantially autonomy autonomy esteem, and and satisfied (1962) then modified deleting self-actualization. that Porter slightly the need- physiological need need, The which rationale lie are physiological professional developed the between provided responsibility that in Maslow’s was different needs are organizations. Need Satisfaction Questionnaire (NSQ) based on Maslow’s theory, assuming that the discrepancy between actual and desired need fulfillment was an index of job satisfaction. The NSQ has been the Maslow’s theory. However, most popular measure to test it does not reflect Maslow’s need classification scheme (Vfahba and Bridwell, 1973). Maslow’s need hierarchy theory gained popularity among educators and was much studied to determine educator’s job satisfaction. Trusty and Sergiovanni of NSQ with educators. deficiencies administrators) for all were (1966) used a modified version They reported that educators in esteem, the largest need (school autonomy teachers and and self­ 55 actualization. Teachers, were indicate found to in comparison greater need to administrators, deficiencies in the esteem category whereas administrators reported less esteem deficiencies but more self-actualization deficiencies. Carver and Sergiovanni with a sample of (1971) teachers, replicated the findings indicating that teachers were more satisfied with lower-order needs (security and social). Again the greatest need deficiencies reported by teachers were in esteem, autonomy and self-actualization. Sweeney (1980, 1981) also reported similar results indicating that for teachers the greatest need deficiencies were in higher level needs (esteem and self-actualization). Earlandson and Pastor (1981), in a comparative study of teachers need with higher-order strength, found need that the strength teachers and lower-order with the highest order, in general, were the least satisfied. Anderson and Iwanicki (1984) reported that for teachers perceived need deficiencies were greater in esteem, autonomy and self-actualization than for lower-level security and social needs. Kries and Milstein teachers based (1985), in a study of high school on Maslow’s theory, reported a significant relationship between job satisfaction and need fulfillment. However, the related to supported. literature’s conclusion hierarchical arrangement that of satisfaction need was is not 56 The preceding studies all used a modified version of Porter's NSQ; generality of findings is restricted, because of lack of validity of NSQ. Pierson et al. (1985), in a cross-validation of NSQ for educators using factor analytic procedure, found two factors instead of five in the original NSQ. They concluded that "the results of the factor analysis indicated that NSQ measures higher but not lower order teacher need deficiencies" (p. 637). Maslow’s need hierarchy has been a popular its "intuitive theory of motivation. appeal" as Locke (1976) However, puts despite it, this theory’s major thesis of need hierarchy arrangement did not receive firm support from research studies. Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory Another popular content theory of job satisfaction has been proposed by Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman (1959). The theory is Hygiene, popularly known as or Herzberg’s Theory. "two-factor," Motivation- The original basis for two- factor theory was a study of engineers and accountants, were asked (using critical incident interview technique) who to recall a time when they had felt exceptionally good (or bad) about their feelings of jobs. The respondents were satisfaction in regard asked to also their if work the had affected their performance, their personal relationships and their well-being. This technique resulted in two sets of factors. One set (work itself, advancement) achievement, was recognition, frequently mentioned responsibility by respondents and as 57 sources of satisfaction, dissatisfaction, but and much was less termed as sources "Motivators" of or "Satisfiers." Another set interpersonal peers, conditions, pay, was factors relations company growth) of with policy satisfaction. superiors, and - technical, subordinates administration, and working job security and status and possibility of frequently dissatisfaction, (supervision but This mentioned less as frequently set was as labeled sources of sources of "Hygiene" or "dissatisfiers." Theory postulates unidirectional. that the Motivators effects cause only of these sets job are satisfaction, while "Hygiene" factors cause dissatisfaction. Herzberg producing job postulated that satisfaction the factors are separate and distinct the factors that led to job dissatisfaction, two feelings (satisfaction and involved in from and that these dissatisfaction) are not converses of each other. The opposite of job satisfaction is not job dissatisfaction, Similarly, but the opposite of rather no job satisfaction. job dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction, but no job dissatisfaction. The theory has been widely tested, but the findings to support it are mixed. The theory was supported when critical incident procedure was used, but the support for the theory is limited when methods used. other than critical incidents were 58 Criticism of the Theory: Much criticism has been leveled against the theory. One criticism "method-bound" of (King, two-factor 1970; 1967; House and Widgor, theory Wolf, 1970; 1967). That is, is that Dunnette it et is al., most studies using critical incidents support the theory, while those using a different method do not. Vroom (1964) observed that such results are artifacts of defensive mechanism. The individual attributes causes accomplishments of satisfaction to their achievement and and causes of dissatisfaction to the environment. Locke (1976) criticizes the theory on the grounds that it ignores individual differences in reporting causes of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. The major criticism of the theory lies in its emphasis on unidirectionality of the factors. House and Widgor (1967) and Dunnette, Campbell and Hakel (1967), after an extensive review of research, concluded that grossly oversimplified portrayal of two-factor theory and Hakel (1967) indicated and dissatisfaction can reside or in both jointly. On the that job in job content, basis a the Mechanism by which job satisfaction and dissatisfaction come about. Campbell is of these Dunnette, satisfaction job context observations Campbell et al. (1970) and Dunnette et al., (1967) suggested that the theory has served its purpose and should be altered or respectively laid to rest. 59 The settings. theory also Sergiovanni hasbeen (1967) tested in replicated educational Herzberg’s study with teachers. He demonstrated that factors which accounted for high job feelings of teachers (Motivators) and factors which accounted for low job feelings were mutually responsibility for teacher exclusive. were Achievement, factors job (Hygiene) of teachers which recognition accounted predominantly satisfaction. Interpersonal (subordinates, peers), supervision-technical, and were administration predominantly to teacher and factors relations school policy that contributed job dissatisfaction. Advancement and work itself, however, did not appear as satisfiers. Work itself appeared to be the source of both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Schmidt (1976) hygiene theory administrators. also of He found support for the motivationjob found satisfaction with that administrators school reported recognition, achievement and advancement as major sources of job satisfaction. Interpersonal relations (subordinates, peers and superiors), salary, policy and administration, and supervision were reported as sources of dissatisfaction. Holdaway (1978) found general support for the two- factor theory. He reported that recognition, responsibility, sense of achievement, found to be sources with students satisfaction. was advancement and job security of satisfaction for teachers; the Working major source conditions, of were working teacher administration job and 60 policies, status of teachers and supervision were perceived to be sources of dissatisfaction. However, relationships with teachers and salary were both sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. Friesen, support Holdaway for and two-factor Rice theory (1983) with found a sample a limited of school principals. The major sources of satisfaction for principals were interpersonal responsibility and relationships, autonomy. achievement, Administration and policy, amount of work, attitude of society and working conditions were reported as relationships with relationships sources of teachers, with parents' job dissatisfaction. However, responsibility, autonomy and and attitude and students’ performance were mentioned both as sources of satisfaction and dissatisfaction. It contradicts what two-factor theory suggests. Medved (1982), Herzberg’s theory factors teachers in using that most often were also, if a study of teachers a questionnaire, contribute absent, based found that on those to the satisfaction most often the cause of for teacher dissatisfaction. To summarize, studies in school settings generally have supported two-factor theory. However, the theory's assertion that one set of factors produces satisfaction and another set causes job dissatisfaction did not receive firm support. Many factors appeared to be bi-polar— that both satisfaction and dissatisfaction. is, they caused Furthermore, some 61 "motivators" in dissatisfiers two-factor for theory educators; were similarly, found some to be "hygiene" factors appeared to be motivators for educators. Process Theories of Job Satisfaction ' All process theorists agree that depends on the relationship between the job satisfaction individual and his work environment. There are considerable differences of view as to which process relates to job satisfaction (Gruneberg, 1979) . According to discrepancy theories. job satisfaction is determined by the extent of the discrepancy between what the job offers and what the individual expects, what the individual wants and what the individual values. Needs/Values Fulfillment Theories According to needs fulfillment theory, it is the degree to which the job fulfills an determines his/her job satisfaction individual's (Morse, need that 1953; Schaffer, 1953; and Porter, 1962). As Schaffer (1953) stated: Overall job satisfaction will vary directly with the extent to which those needs of an individual which can be satisfied are actually satisfied; the stronger the need, the more closely will job satisfaction depend on its fulfillment (p. 3). Porter (1962) used the discrepancy between actual desired need fulfillment as an index of job and satisfaction. The greater the need deficiency, the lower the satisfaction or vice versa. 62 Vroom (1964) identified two models of job satisfaction, "subtractive" and "multiplicative." According to the satisfaction is the an subtractive model. the job function of the discrepancy between what individual needs and what is believed to be received from the job. The satisfaction; greater the the lower discrepancy, the the discrepancy, the less the greater the satisfaction. Kuhlen (1963) tested the subtractive model with a sample of school teachers. He measured the strength of need of teachers and the potential of the teaching profession for satisfying each need. He subtracting the former potential results of did obtained a discrepancy by (need strength) from the latter (the occupation infulfilling not score support the those subtractive needs). The model of job satisfaction. The total discrepancy score for all needs was found to correlate .25 with occupation for men and shows the for male .02 for women. subtractive model teachers but ratings not of satisfaction in The study of Kuhlen is related to job satisfaction for female teachers. Individual differences seem to affect the importance of needs and needfulfillment on the job. The Multiplicative Model of job satisfaction considers the need fulfillment importance. provided The by the perceived job, is amount multiplied of by need the importance to the individual of that need. The products for 63 each are summed to arrive at a total measure of job satisfaction. Vroom (1960) reports results favorable to the multiplicative model. He found that the relationship between the extent to which a person reported participation in decision-making in his job and his satisfaction with the job depends on the strength of his need for independence. The correlation between participation and job satisfaction was high for persons high in need for independence. However, the correlation was low for those low in need for independence. Locke (1976) argued that both models are flawed. The subtrative model emphasizes on need fulfillment but ignores the effect of value importance, and the multiplicative model focuses on value importance but overlooks need fulfillment. Locke (1976) noted that both views fail to distinguish between "the amount of value wanted by the person and how much the person wants of the value (or that amount, that the desired amount is, the importance of it) to him" (p. 1306). Locke (1969, 1976) argues that job satisfaction is the discrepancy between what the individual wants (including how much he wants) and what he perceives himself as getting and the importance of what estimates of the degree is wanted. of job He argues satisfaction that accurate reflect perceptions— value discrepancy and value importance. both Expectations Another group of theorists al. , 1953; and Spector, (Ilgen, 1956) 1971; McClelland et have argued that an individual’s affective reactions depend upon the discrepancy between what his environment offers or what he attains, and what he has adapted to, or expects (Locke, 1976, p. 1303). Locke (1976), however, questioned whether expectations and their relationship to what the job actually offers has any relevance to understanding job satisfaction. He argued that when there is discrepancy between what is expected from the job and what the job actually offered, not job dissatisfaction dissatisfaction will but depend, the reaction is surprise. Locke Satisfaction/ (1976) argues, upon whether the deviation from the expectation is in a direction one values or in a direction one disvalues. Evidence expectations effects on exists without to suggest changing reported that when values, satisfaction then (Amaee one there and changes are no Gruneberg, 1976) . There are, however, a number of studies which underscored the importance of expectations in understanding job satisfaction. indicated preview that Scott giving (realistic (1972) and individuals expectations) of Wanous a more the (1973) realistic organization have job they join and the role they will be playing has a positive effect on job satisfaction. 65 Instrumentality Theory Formulated by Vroom (1964) (Graen, 1969; Porter and Lawler, the theory is called and modified 1968; Lawler, by others 1971, 1973), valence-instrumentality-expectancy (VIE) theory, value theory and instrumentality theory. According to instrumentality theory, to which the job leads to the it is the degree attainment of valued/ attractive outcomes that determines one’s job satisfaction. It is assumed that for certain values individuals have outcomes varying (e.g., preferences/ pay, promotion, responsibility, etc.). They estimate the extent to which the job leads estimate will to of each of satisfaction, bring, the by its outcomes. the considers and evaluates perceived In individual individual outcomes in the set others these value believes all each or arriving the at the an job possible in relation attractiveness. to the It is called instrumentality theory because of its emphasis on the extent to which the job is instrumental in producing satisfaction. Miskel, DeFrain and Wilcox (1980) substantiated the theory with respect to teacher job satisfaction. Instrumentality notion important to motivation inherent in the usefulness for than has been considered to job satisfaction. more Problems instrumentality notion have restricted its job satisfaction. Its future orientation, complexity involved in its weighting system for each outcome through its instrumentality, and lack of explanation for 66 forming valences have restricted its utility in understanding job satisfaction (McCormick and Ilgen, 1980). Equity Theory Equity theory social comparison Adams, 1963, 1965). According his/her is theory to inputs based cognitive (Homans, equity (e.g., on theory, effort, 1961; an dissonance Patchen, individual skill, ability, and 1961; compares education, experience, etc.) and outputs (e.g., pay, rewards, benefits, etc.) to those of others. If an individual perceives he/she is inequitably treated, he/she would be dissatisfied. theory postulates that both underpayment over-payment (over-reward) will cause The (under-reward) inequity and and thus dissatisfaction. Predictions of theory concerning the effects of under­ payment have consistently been supported by indicating that under-payment leads Dunnette, Jorgenson, and to job dissatisfaction 1972). However, (Pritchard, the effects over-payments are at best limited (Pritchard, Dunnette, Jorgenson, of and 1972). Miskel, satisfaction Galnsp of and school Hatley (1975), teachers, in reported a study of partial job support for theory’s prediction regarding under-reward. The exist equity evidence seems to (McCormick and Ilgen, is so loose it indicate that equity 1980). However, allows for enormous individual interpretation (Locke, 1976). norms do the concept of variation in 67 In sum, important each individual in understanding theory of job satisfaction job satisfaction. No is individual theory alone can explain the variance of job satisfaction. We are still far from a coherent theory of job satisfaction to account for all clearly, shows the variance in job satisfaction. the complex nature of the job This, satisfaction phenomenon. Factors Associated with Job Satisfaction Identification of the underlying sources of job satisfaction has been a subject of considerable importance. Several explanations have been suggested to account for the variation in variations job in satisfaction. job One satisfaction is way in of explaining terms of job characteristics. One set of factors has been referred to as job content, and another as job context. Job Content Factors Challenging and Interesting Work: Work that allows for creativity, mentally (Locke, Research the utilization challenging 1976; has Hackman summarized by and of been skills/abilities found Lawler, Hulin and to be and is satisfying. 1971; and Vroom, Blood (1968), 1964) however, indicated that all employees do not desire or seek mentally challenging work. It follows then that challenging work will be satisfying for those who greatly desire it. Work that is personally interesting and meaningful, regardless of whether 68 it is challenging or not, is an important precondition of employee work satisfaction (Herzberg et al., 1959). Achievement/Accomplishment and Success on the Job: It is not sufficient that there must be challenges on the job, but these challenges must be successfully overcome for the individual to Achievement, experience satisfaction (Locke, 1976). accomplishment or success in reaching specific standards is an important determinant of work satisfaction (Herzberg, 1966; Locke, 1965; Vroom, 1964). Freedom/Control (Autonomy) in Work: The job provides a greater degree of freedom and control that (autonomy) in work method and work pace also enhances satisfaction with the work (Vroom, 1964; Hughey and Murphy, 1982; Brodinsky, 1984 ) . Participation Responsibility: in There Decision is considerable satisfaction of subordinates the degree participate Alutto, to which 1972; Amount evidence permitted that an opportunity decisions (Vroom, 1981; Schneider, Sweeney, or of the is positively associated with they are in making Making 1964; Belasco 1984), but to and the effects of participation in decision making on satisfaction depends on the personality of each participant. Vroom (1960) showed that the amount of participation was most positively related to satisfaction of persons high in need for independence. Recognition: accomplishment Recognition has been for found one's to task be a performance/ significant 69 contributor to employee job satisfaction. Locke (1973) found recognition mentioned to be one events of the causing single most frequently satisfaction/dissatisfaction* especially for blue-collar workers. Researchers using Herzberg’s methodology found it to be one of the most frequently mentioned sources of satisfaction, but found it one of the most frequent sources of dissatisfaction when methods other incidents were used (House and Widgor, than critical 1967). Job Context Factors Pay: The amount of payment has been found- to be a significant factor in relation to employee job satisfaction. Nearly all occupational groups consider the amount of pay to be relatively important (Herzberg et al., 1957). Herzberg et al. (1957) found pay to be more a source of dissatisfaction, but was ranked fourth in importance. Similarly, (1971) found pay to be most dissatisfying, in importance by employees. Fournet, Lawler but ranked third Distefano and Pryer (1966) have stated that "the difficulty in establishing its relation to job satisfaction is that it is confounded with other factors such as age, occupational level and education" (p. 174). Supervision: satisfaction of leadership and (1964) cites There is employees is kind evidence affected of supervision evidence that there that by the the style job of they experience. Vroom are often changes in satisfaction following changes in supervision. Consideration 70 of subordinates and employee-centered leadership on the part of the supervisor results in a high level of satisfaction (Vroom, 1964; Gruneberg, 1979). Herzberg et al. (1957) found that supervision was mentioned as a source of satisfaction more frequently management, than security, working job conditions content, or company opportunity and for advancement. Promotion: satisfaction There with is evidence that a job which promotional opportunities (Vroom, Locke (1976) associated that it with will individuals provides express substantial 1964). suggested that promotion is likely to be job satisfaction. depend upon He, personal however, ambition aspirations of individuals. Herzberg et al. indicated and career (1957) reported that promotion is ranked second in importance by employees, but was mentioned frequently as a source of dissatisfaction. Security: A job that provides security seniority, pension, etc.) has a significant (e.g., effect job satisfaction of employees. Herzberg et al. security in to be ranked first importance tenure, on (1957) and a the found strong reason for liking the job, but infrequently as a source of dissatisfaction. This finding et al. (1959), who indicated is at variance with Herzberg that security was mentioned frequently as a source of dissatisfaction. Individual demographic characteristics Individual demographic characteristics likely target of sources of variation have been a in job satisfaction. 71 Many such aspects of workers have been studied in relation to job satisfaction. The most frequently studied of these personal characteristics include: Age: Age has been satisfaction (Rhodes, concerning shown a the nature U-shape related to job 1983). Three views have been advanced of relationship between age and satisfaction (Lee and Wilbur, found consistently 1985). Herzberg et al. relationship between age job (1957) and job satisfaction-. Morale is high when people start their job, it goes down level, after then a few it begins years to and rise remains and relatively continues through low the remainder of the working career (Herzberg et al., 1957). The second view is that job satisfaction increases in a positive linear fashion with respect to satisfaction increases with the Smith, 1965). The third age. That is, increase of age function is positive the job (Hulin and and linear until a terminal period when there is a significant drop in job satisfaction (Saleh and Otis, 1964; Carrell and Elbert, 1974 ). These other contradictions factors, such as found job in research tenure, suggest education level that and salary may be affecting the relationship between age and job satisfaction. Lee and relationship of age to job satisfaction Wilbur (1985) job satisfaction. increased with age. investigated the They showed that while statistically controlling the effects of salary, job tenure and education, the same differences were found. 72 In educational that older teachers were more satisfied with their job (Hoppock, 1935; Trusty 1972; and Sweeney, 1984; settings, Sergiovanni, 1980, 1981; Galloway, results 1966; Medved, et a l ., indicate Belasco 1982; 1985). and Alutto, Anderson and However, Iwanicki, there are studies which reported no relationship between age and teachers’ job satisfaction Sutcliffe, (Lipka 1979; Ronnenkamp, Davis, Goulet, 1981; 1979; Oades, Kyriacou 1983; LoFland, and 1984; 1984). Sex: Studies satisfaction did relationship. satisfied and relating not Some than show studies men; employee’s any have others consistent found have sex to job pattern of women to be more men to be more found satisfied; while others found no difference (See Herzberg et al., 1957; and Hulin and Smith, 1964). Weaver (1978) found no difference in males’ and females’ job satisfaction after they controlled moderating variables effect. controlled the effect Lee, of which Mueller salary, were and thought Miller to have (1981), who found sex differences in job satisfaction. Women were found to be more satisfied with their compensation than men, but were more dissatisfied with working conditions than men. Studies in school settings also showed no consistent pattern of relationship. reported female teachers to be teachers (Trusty and Sergiovanni, 1972; Lortie, 1975; NEA, more Many studies satisfied than male 1966; Belasco and Alutto, 1980; Birmingham, 1984) while some studies showed that male teachers were more satisfied than 73 female with professional autonomy (Galloway, with pay (Medved, relationship (Hoppock, 1982), between 1935; 1981; Oades, still sex other and Sergiovanni, studies teacher 1967; et a l ., 1985), reported job Davis, 1983; Goodson, 1984; Ronnenkamp, of The no satisfaction 1981; Sweeney, 1984; LoFland, 1985). Length Service: relationship between job satisfaction and tenure is not clear. Herzberg et al. (1957) reported job satisfaction to dropping within a few years for a number of years, be high at of service, but as the beginning, and remaining service increases low job satisfaction also increases. Hulin and Smith (1965) showed a positive relationship between job satisfaction and length of service. However, Gibson and Klien (1970) showed a negative relationship between job satisfaction and length of service. Studies experienced Greenfield and and Shirey, more 1981; Binnie, found 1966; Kyriacou teachers are Blase, 1984; studies Sergiovanni, 1979; school teachers Iwaninicki, other with and such 1985; LoFland, and 1981; 1979; 1951; 1986), and 1981; and while (Trusty Lipka Davis, more Anderson Taylor, 1967; that (Chase, relationship Sergiovanni, Sutcliffe, shown satisfied Sweeney, 1984; no have and Goulet, Driscoll 1985). Education: Again, studies showed no consistent pattern. Vollmer and Kinney (1955) indicated that more employees reported dissatisfaction with their jobs. educated Similar findings were reported by Klien and Maher (1966); their data 74 indicated that college-educated managers were less satisfied with pay than non-college educated managers. are somewhat at Herzberg et al. variance with the These results studies reviewed by (1957), who found some studies to show that more educated employees were more satisfied with their jobs. And those of Glenn and Weaver (1982) who showed a positive relationship between education and work satisfaction. other studies found work satisfaction Atkinson, no relationship Still between education (Gordon and Arvey, 1975; and King, Murry and 1982). Amirtash (1982) found a negative relationship between education and teacher job satisfaction. A number of studies reported no relationship between education and teacher satisfaction and Taylor, (Kyriacou and Sutcliffe, 1981; Goodson, job 1984; 1986) Marital Status: The relationship of marital employees to job satisfaction pattern. Studies reviewed did not show any by Herzberg et status of consistent al. (1957) indicated contradictory results, some studies indicated that more married workers were satisfied with their jobs than single worker, while other studies showed single workers to be more satisfied than married ones, while still others indicated no relationship between employee’s marital status and their job satisfaction. Studies relating teachers’ satisfaction are scant. Chase marital status (1951) reported that to job married 75 teachers were slightly more satisfied than single teachers. Hoppock (1935), however, found no such relationship. To summarize, inspite of a large number of studies concerning employee job satisfaction, we are still far from predicting accurately the job satisfaction of employees, and there is a lack of a systematic accumulation of knowledge. The inconsistencies point to the comparison of and contradictions complex these nature of job satisfaction. findings is not possible, severely limited due to many reasons, dependent variables in findings clearly used, measurement techniques, data is such as the nature of collection samples used, and The techniques, time periods and the conditions under which the studies were undertaken, and the statistical analysis that were performed. Summary of the Chapter The However, organization it is measurement Whether surrounded by problems. organizational individual climate climate members the individuals or climate is a measured it should attributes and measure be much studied. definitional debate through over to attributes are of measured. organization and satisfaction and whether perceptions objectively refer of the job been conceptual, be perceptual or organization There has of whether distinct constructs. Many reviews of the construct have appeared but they failed to completely clarify the issues. Though limited conceptual thing is, and methodological however, progress has been made. One quite clear that organizational climate 76 and job satisfaction settings and are settings related. other than Studies both school have in school consistently shown that organizational climate and job satisfaction are associated with each other. The review of literature pertaining to job satisfaction indicated the complexity of job satisfaction. Many theories of job satisfaction have been offered. No individual theory in itself is capable of phenomenon. We are still explaining the job far from a coherent satisfaction theory of job satisfaction. Our understanding of job satisfaction is very limited. The studies that attempted to relate factors that were presumably were associated with job satisfaction do not provide conclusive evidence. The findings are contradictory and inconsistent. Our results is limited. the findings these have inconsistent different theories understanding of these inconsistent The difficulties involved in comparing further restricted results. used to Those our understanding difficulties study job range satisfaction different statistical method to analyze the results. of from to CHAPTER 3 PROCEDURE AND METHODOLOGY Introduction The purpose of this study was two-fold: 1) To determine if there was any relationship between organizational climate (measured by OCDQ-RS) and teacher job satisfaction (measured by TJSQ) as perceived by public secondary school teachers . 2) To between ascertain schools’ whether and there teachers’ was any relationship selected demographic characteristics and job satisfaction. To achieve hypotheses were these objectives formulated. would be a significant It of was the study, predicted that two there relationship between organizational climate and teacher job satisfaction as perceived by public secondary school teachers. It was also hypothesized that there would be a significant relationship between schools’ and teachers’ teacher were job satisfaction. collected sampling selected demographic characteristics from procedures. a To test these predetermined Presented in this and hypotheses, population chapter data using are the research design, a description of the population along with the Sampling procedure, research 77 instruments utilized in 78 data gathering, data-collecting procedures employed in the investigation and a discussion of data analysis procedures. Research Design This study was concerned with obtaining of teachers regarding respective schools, demographic their job characteristics, relationship demographic Survey the organizational existed characteristics research was thus determine to teacher as According job an their and their whether organizational employed feasible research design. climate of satisfaction to between the responses any climate and satisfaction. appropriate to Babbie <1973 and survey research is logical, deterministic, and parsimonious. Survey research objectives: phenomenon method description, (Babbie, basically explanation and has three main exploration of a 1973). Survey research method was used to describe the relationship between organizational climate and teacher job secondary school satisfaction teachers. also 1983, used pp. to 407-408). explore perceived by public "Surveys can be used to explore the relationship between two Gall, as or more variables" The the survey research relationship of (Borg and method was demographic characteristics to teacher job satisfaction. Since the data for this study were collected at a specific point in time, a cross-sectional survey design was adopted. "In a cross-sectional survey data are collected at one point in time" (Babbie, 1973, p. 62). For this study 79 data were collected from a selected sample of teachers in Fall, 1987. The Population The population for this study comprised all of the public secondary school teachers in the state of Michigan in Fall, 1987. Sampling Procedures Sample selection procedure comprised two stages. In the first stage, a sample of schools were selected using cluster sampling with stratification. random sampling technique In the second stage, a simple was employed to select teachers within each school selected. Cluster Sampling The schools in this study were primary sampling units and were used as clusters. "A cluster sampling random sample in which each sampling unit is a simple is a collection, or cluster of elements." (Scheaffer et al., 1986, p.197) The decision to utilize cluster sampling is consistent with the observation asserted that cluster of Scheaffer sampling obtaining a specific amount et al. (1986), who is an effective design for of information at minimum cost when: A good frame listing population elements either is not available or is very costly to obtain, while a frame listing cluster is easily obtained (p.198). This was population true elements for this study. (teachers) was The frame listing not available all from a 80 single source. In order to obtain such a list, every school principal to had be contacted, which was monetarily not by "Separating the possible for the researcher. Stratified Sampling Stratification can population elements be into carried out non-overlapping groups, called strata, and then selecting a simple random sample from each stratum" (Scheaffer et al., 1986, p. 79). To implement this procedure, the schools, based on size (enrollment of students), 1) were grouped The strata included: students), 2) Medium-sized schools into three Small-sized schools (300-599 strata. (less than 300 students), and 3) Large-sized schools (600 and more students). The stratification representation and to sampling technique was employed minimize sampling error. for Sampling error can be reduced either by selecting a large sample or by homogeneity; stratification ensures the representation. Sample Selection Procedure Sample selection procedure comprised two stages: one for school selection, the other for teacher selection. School Sample Selection Procedure A cluster sampling technique with stratification was used for selection of the school sample. To implement these procedures, using Buyers. Jjf.ui.dt. D irectory the (1986) (1986), two M i c M g a n _____ and 8 Jn d E a i.f e tI L tQ .ll.l8 lists of public A m e x i- Q a t I.d.Mcjife..ipn secondary schools 81 (rural and stratified procedure urban) were according to produced six generated. their lists size. of Schools This schools, were then stratification three for each classification. A priori decision to select 10% of schools, a simple random sampling technique, using a random numbers table, was employed to select schools from each stratum in proportion to their size. This provided a total of 62 sampled schools (36 urban and 26 rural), from a total of 360 urban and 260 rural small, schools. Among the 36 urban choices, 9 medium-sized and 20 large schools were 7 selected; among the 26 rural schools, a sample of 8 small, 13 medium­ sized and 5 large ones were selected. Of these original 62 schools, 6 (5 large and 1 medium-sized urban schools) opted not to participate. Therefore, 56 schools (90%) comprised the sample. A 100% participation rate for rural schools was obtained, study. while Of the 83% 30 of urban schools urban schools, participated 15 were in large schools, the 8 were medium-sized and 7 were small sized schools. Of the 26 rural schools, 8 were small schools, 13 were medium-sized and 5 were large schools. The distribution of school sample according to school size with location and participation rate is provided in Table 3.1. Teacher Sample Selection Procedure A list of teachers was obtained eight from teachers their were within each sampled school principals. randomly Within selected, each using (N=56) school, a random numbers table to complete one of the two instruments (with 82 Table 3.1. Distribution of School Sample, Participation Rate According to Location and Size of the School. School Sample School Location Urban Rural Total School Size No.school originally sampled N o .school participated Percentage of school participation 1.Small 2. Medium 3. Large Total 7 9 20 36 7 8 15 30 100% 89% 75% 83% 1.Small 2.Medium 3.Large Total 8 13 5 26 8 13 5 26 100% 100% 100% 100% 1. Small 2.Medium 3.Large Total 15 22 25 62 15 21 20 56 100% 95% 76% 90% 83 the exception of only one school with just four teachers, thus all teachers in that school were chosen). teachers ensure from a sample methodological of 56 schools independence were between In all, 444 selected. To two measures, half of the respondents (N=222) were asked to respond to the teacher job satisfaction questionnaire half (N=222) were asked to respond climate description questionnaire, (TJSQ) and the other to the organizational revised scale (OCDQ-RS) for secondary schools. Instrumentation This study was undertaken to measure the organizational climate of public satisfaction and secondary teacher perceived by responses, the relationship and job the demographic teachers. satisfaction, and schools, On teacher characteristics the basis of as teacher between organizational demographic job climate characteristics and job satisfaction, were examined. The description of research instruments used in this study to measure climate, job satisfaction and demographic characteristics follows. The Organizational Climate Description QuestionnaireRevised Scale (OCDQ-RS) for Secondary Schools Organizational Organizational Scale climate Climate (OCDQ-RS) for was measured Description secondary by the Questionnaire-Revised schools, developed by Kottkamp, Mulhern and Hoy (1985). This instrument contained 34 items, measuring organizational five climate: dimensions supportive of secondary principal school behavior (7 84 items), directive teacher behavior principal (10 items), behavior (7 items); engaged frustrated teacher behavior (6 items) and intimate teacher behavior (4 items). Respondents answered items in this instrument according to a four-point scale, with response choices ranging from rarely occurs to very frequently occurs. The response are given a score of 1, 2, 3, 4 for RO (rarely occurs), (often occurs) and VFO SO (sometimes occurs), (very frequently 00 occurs) respectively. A high score thus indicates favorable response and a low score unfavorable response. Per authors, the instrument has been found to be a valid and reliable research instrument. The internal consistency of the instrument was determined by calculating an alpha coefficient for each set of sub-test "Supportive .85; items. .91; The reliability directive, and intimate, .87; engaged, .71." (Kottkamp et This instrument coefficients .85; were: frustrated, al., 1985, p. 14). in its original form was administered by mail to half of the sampled respondents (N=222), who were asked to describe the extent instrument characterizes The response choices to which the school were: RO each item in the on a four-point scale. =Rarely Occurs, SO = Sometimes Occurs, 00 = Often Occurs, & VFO = Very Frequently Occurs. The internal consistency of the instrument was determined through computation of an alpha coefficient. The reliability coefficient was calculated for the total scale as alpha well as for each subscale. The total scale 85 coefficient for coefficients Directive, the for sample each (N=171) subscale .69; Engaged, was .78. were: The alpha Supportive, .79; Frustrated, .91; .56 and Intimate, .77. Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ) job Teacher job satisfaction was measured satisfaction questionnaire (TJSQ) by the developed teacher by Lester (1983). This instrument contains 66 items, measuring teacher job satisfaction in nine areas: Supervision (14 items), colleagues (10 items), working conditions (7 items), Pay (7 items), responsibility advancement (5 items), (3 The items). feelings The (8 items), security instrument of teachers respondents are to (9 items), and recognition designed different asked itself (3 items), was about work to measure facets of their indicate their level the job. of agreement/disagreement with each statement on a five-point scale: strongly disagree, disagree, Neutral (neither agree nor disagree), agree, and strongly agree. This instrument reliable instrument. was determined by has been found to be a valid and Internal consistency of the instrument calculating alpha coefficient. The reliability coefficient was computed for the full scale as well as scale was for each factor. The alpha coefficient for full .93. The alpha coefficients for each factor were: supervision, .92; pay, responsibility, .80; advancement, .81; colleagues, security, .82; .73; .71; working condition, work and itself, recognition, .83; .82; .74. 86 (Lester, 1983, pp. 80-81) Favorable responses to each statement are given a score of 1, 2, 3, 4 or 5 for strongly disagree, disagree, respectively. neutral, A reverse scoring author of the instrument (i.e., 1= 5, agree 2 =4, 3=3, and strongly agree system is suggested by the for unfavorable or negative 4 = 2, and 5 = 1). Thus, a low items score represents a low level of job satisfaction, and a high score represents a high level of job satisfaction. A teacher job satisfaction questionnaire in its original form was administered by mail to the other half of the respondents feelings about agreement (N=222), choices disagreement of strongly (neither agree nor disagree), given a score of negative and/or reversed as instrument coefficient. were asked to express their job conditions by indicating their level and/or response who 1, 2, 3, was The the disagree, statement. disagree, The neutral agree and strongly agree were 4 or unfavorable suggested. with of 5 respectively. items, the Internal determined by reliability For the scoring system was consistency calculating coefficient computed for the full-scale as well as of an (alpha) the alpha was for each subscale. The full scale alpha coefficient for the sample (N=169) was .92. The alpha coefficients supervision, .91; pay, responsibility, .82; advancement, colleagues^ .82; security, for .81; .68; each factor working condition, work itself, .60; and recognition, .62. were: .83; .66; 87 Demographic Characteristics To measure the selected demographic characteristics of respondents, a demographic the researcher was used. information This sheet sheet was developed attached to by each mailed questionnaire. The respondents were asked to indicate their demographic category. The were measured education, characteristic demographic checking characteristics included: age, teaching by of sex, marital experience, nature the teacher status, of right that level of employment and nature of teaching subjects. School characteristics included location of the school and size of the school. Data-Gathering Procedures The data 1987 by mail schools, TJSQ for this measure demographic were collected from sampled teachers using OCDQ-RS to study during in 56 public secondary to measure climate of the teachers’ information job sheet demographic characteristics. constitutes teachers (N=444) schools, satisfaction, to The fall, measure sample from 56 for public and a teachers’ this study secondary schools. To avoid response bias/set and desirability, and to ensure methodological independence between the measures, the subjects (sampled teachers) within each school were randomly divided were into mailed two the groups. teacher Half job of the respondents satisfaction (N=222) questionnaire (TJSQ) with a demographic information sheet attached- to it, together a transmittal letter which explained the purpose of 88 the study and assured them their responses would be kept in strict confidence. Similarly, were the other mailed the questionnaire purpose of responses would with study be the respondents organizational along the half of a and climate cover letter assuring the kept confidential. (N=222) description explaining respondents After three the their follow- ups, allowing a period of approximately two weeks in between the administration follow-up letter, of instruments, the returns were and 345 each (78%). subsequent The returns for each were, 173 (78%) for TJSQ and 172 (77%) for OCDQ-RS. Five returned questionnaires (1.4%), were not were The completed breakdown of questionnaire is as properly, respondents unusable because excluded from who they analysis. returned completed follows: 340 (77%) for both instruments, 171 (77%) for OCDQ-RS and 169 (76%) for TJSQ. Among 171 who responded to OCDQ-RS, 87 (81%) schools; came schools, 68 from rural (81%) (74%) were 43 from urban schools (74%) from medium-sized represented schools and 84 small 60 (75%) from large schools. Among the 169 who responded to TJSQ, 86 (73%) were from urban schools, 83 small schools, 64 (70%) from sample large according instrument, number (80%) (76%) from rural schools; from medium-sized schools. to of The school 49 schools distribution location, participation provided in Tables 3.2, 3.3, and 3.4. and (84%) of school response from and 56 teacher size, rate is 89 Table 3.2. Distribution of Teachers According to Location and School size. Combined Sample Combined Teacher Sample School Location Urban Rural Total School Size No.of Teachers No.of Teachers Response participated rate (%) originallysampled 1.Small 2 .Medium 3.Large Total 52 64 120 236 41 45 87 173 79% 70% 73% 73% 1.Small 2 .Medium 3 .Large Total 64 104 40 208 51 87 29 167 80% 84% 73% 80% 1.Small 2 .Medium 3.Large Total 116 168 160 444 92 132 116 340 79% 79% 73% 77% 90 Table 3.3. Distribution of Teacher Sample Responded to TJSQ and Size and Location of the School. Teachers Responded to TJSQ School Location Urban Rural Total School Size No.of Teachers originally sampled No.of Teachers Response participated rate (%) 1.Small 2 .Medium 3.Large Total 26 32 60 118 23 23 40 86 88% 72% 67% 73% 1. Small 2 .Medium 3.Large Total 32 52 20 104 26 41 16 83 81% 79% 80% 80% 1.Small 2 .Medium 3.Large Total 58 84 80 222 49 64 56 169 84% 76% 70% 76% 91 Table 3.4. Distribution of Teacher Sample Responded to OCDQRS and Size and Location of the School. Teachers Responded to OCDQ-RS School Location Urban Rural Total School Size No.of Teachers No.of Teachers Response originally participated rate (%) sampled 1.Small 2.Medium 3.Large Total 26 32 60 118 18 22 47 87 69% 69% 78% 74% 1.Small 2 .Medium 3.Large Total 32 52 20 104 25 46 13 84 78% 88% 65% 81% 1.Small 2 .Medium 3.Large Total 58 84 80 222 43 68 60 171 74% 81% 75% 77% 92 Data Analysis The teachers data for (N=340) this study in 56 were collected from public secondary schools. data had been collected, sampled Once the the researcher coded the data to facilitate quantitative analysis. Analysis was done by using statistical package for the social sciences (SPSSX). The scoring of responses to TJSQ and OCDQ-RS are as follows: Scoring of Responses to OCDQ-RS The subject responded to each item in the OCDQ-RS using a four-point likert type scale. Responses to items were given the following scale scores: 4 = very frequently occurs 3 = often occurs 2 = sometimes occurs 1 = rarely occurs. Thus, the response highest and the score represented lowest denoted positive or negative or favorable unfavorable response. The unit of analysis for climate was school. responses to averaging the each subscale teacher items responses were within aggregated each school. The by The result was mean school scores for five subscales of OCDQ-RS. Scoring of Responses to TJSQ The subjects responded to the Teacher Job Satisfaction questionnaire using a five-point likert type scale. 93 Responses to favorable items were given following scale scores: 5 = Strongly agree 4 = Agree 3 = Neutral (neither agree nor disagree) 2 = Disagree 1 = Strongly disagree. For unfavorable or negative items, the scoring system was reversed (i.e., 5=1, 4=2, 3=3, 2=4 and 1=5). Thus, a low score represented a low level of job satisfaction, score represented responses to a each high level subscale’s of job items a high satisfaction. were The aggregated by averaging the teacher responses within each school to obtain a school score individual for subscale nine subscales scores, the of TJSQ. average To score obtain over the comprises the number of items in the subscale was computed. The first stage of the data analysis description of the characteristics of the sample. A table of frequencies with percentages based on demographic characteristics for the combined sample and for each sample responded to TJSQ and OCDQ-RS was calculated. A table of school means for each subscale of organizational climate and for Job Satisfaction factors with their standard deviations was computed. The second testing of the hypotheses. organizational climate aggregated by averaging stage of data analysis included To test the relationship between and job satisfaction, the responses data within each were school. 94 The result was mean school scores for five subscales of OCDQ-RS and nine factors of TJSQ. School mean organizational climate subscale scores were correlated with school mean job satisfaction factors using Pearson correlation coefficients. A multivariate multiple regression test of significance was also performed. To organizational combination regression analyze climate in performed using independent relative subscales predicting analyses the job separately satisfaction, (Stepwise-multiple organizational variables, contribution and each a series regression) climate of or nine subscales factors in of in of were as job satisfaction as dependent variables. The second hypothesis regarding the relationship between job satisfaction and demographic characteristics was tested by using Pearson correlation and multivariate multiple regression. The unit of analysis in these analyses was the individual teacher, however, rather than the school. The qualitative demographic characteristics were dummy coded before entering them in the regression. The individual score for each subscale was obtained by averaging scores over the number of items. This demographic correlation. characteristics The characteristics job satisfaction analyses individual score was correlated with relative of the teacher contribution using of separately or in combination was (stepwise analyzed multiple by a series regression) Pearson demographic in predicting of using regression demographic 95 characteristics as independent variables and each of nine factors in job satisfaction as dependent variables. Coding Procedures for Teachers' and Schools' Selected Demographic Characteristics The following teachers' and schools' selected demographic characteristics were measured. Age: was treated as a categorical variable. Respondents were classified into four groups, 20-29 years, 30-39 years, 40-49 years and 50 and over, then given a numerical value of 1, 2, 3, or 4, respectively, for the purpose of analysis. Sex: was used as a discrete variable, and was dummy coded (0=female, l=male) for analysis purposes. Marital Status: Respondents were was treated categorized as a into two discrete variable. subgroups and dummy coded (0=single, l=married) for the purpose of analysis. Education: was measured in terms of formal education a respondent has received. Originally categorized into five subgroups: college and/or credits; Ph.D; 3=MA/MS; 5=other. respondents were 1=BA/BS; 2=BA/BS with some 4=Educational specialists/Ed.D. But for analysis purposes two categories were used. There were no respondents in the fifth category, only 3 respondents in the fourth category and only 8 respondents in the first category (see Table 4.3). The two subgroups used for analysis and second credits), categories and by resulted by merging the (BA/BS merging the + BA/BS third and with some fourth first college categories 96 (MA/MS + Ed.specialist/Ed.D and/or Ph.D). The resultant two subgroups were coded 1 or 2, respectively. Teaching variable, Experience: and the was respondents treated were of years, and years, 11-15 years a -categorical classified subgroups given a numerical value 6-10 as 1, 2, into four 3 or 4 for 0-5 15 years of over experience, respectively. Nature of Employment: was used as a discrete variable, and respondents were categorized into two subgroups: tenured and non-tenured. They were dummy coded 1 and 0 respectively for the purpose of analysis. Teaching Subjects: Respondents were were teaching used as categorized into three science social sciences included also and those 100=Science, regression analysis, teachers were languages was subjects, groups: Those who those teaching humanities/ teaching languages. 0 10=Humanities Dummy coding and 001=Languages. In only two groups science and Humanities used. not a discrete variable. The large number enough of to be teachers used for teaching meaningful analysis and thus was excluded. Location variable. of Sample the School: members were was treated from as rural a discrete and/or urban schools. Schools were dummy coded 0=rural and l=urban. Size of the School: was used as a categorical variable. School size indicated the enrollment of students in the school. Respondents were divided into three groups based on the student enrollment of their school: Small Schools (Fewer 97 than 300 students), Medium-sized Schools (300 - 599); and Large Schools (600 or more students). The numerical value of 1, 2 and 3 was given to represent each subgroup of teachers, respectively. Summary of the Chapter Presented in this chapter were sample selection, collection and the responses to OCDQ-RS, procedures of scoring and data coding TJSQ and demographic information. sample selection procedure comprised of~ two stages. The First, Schools were selected using cluster sampling technique with stratification. The selection which was done by technique. The data were collected OCDQ-RS to measure second stage using organizational consisted of teacher sample random sampling mainly by climate, mail, using TJSQ to measure teacher job satisfaction and demographic characteristics. In the final and coding part of this chapter, of responses to presented are the scoring OCDQ-RS, TJSQ and demographic information. In chapter 4 presented will be the data analysis results of the study. and CHAPTER 4 DATA ANALYSIS Introduction The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of organizational climate and job satisfaction as perceived further to by public determine secondary the school relationship teachers, and of teachers’ and schools’ selected demographic characteristics to teacher job satisfaction. Two hypotheses were generated to test the relationships of organizational selected climate demographic and teachers’ characteristics and to schools’ teacher job satisfaction. Hypothesis I: It was hypothesized that there would be significant relationship between organizational climate, as measured by OCDQ-RS, and teacher job satisfaction, measured by TJSQ, as perceived by public secondary school teachers. Hypothesis II: It was predicted that there would be a significant relationship between teachers' and schools' selected demographic characteristics and teacher job satisfaction. Data for the study were collected from Sampled teachers (N = 340) in 56 public TJSQ and demographic methods were had randomly secondary using information questionnaires. methodological divided schools, into independence, two 98 groups and the OCDQ-RS, To ensure respondents were asked to 99 respond to hypotheses, one the of the Pearson two instruments. correlation To test and multiple the stepwise regression analysis procedures were used. Following is the description of respondent characteristics, the findings from the descriptive statistics and intercorrelations between variables. Demographic Characteristics As indicated, the respondents in each school were randomly divided into two groups to respond to one of the two instruments. characteristics information Responses were also sheet. to their elicited The using description demographic a demographic of demographic characteristics that follows thus has three sections: a) Frequencies and percentages of the combined sample (N = 340); b) Frequencies and percentages of subjects who of subjects who responded to OCDQ-RS (N = 171); and c) Frequencies and percentages responded to TJSQ (N = 169). In Table 4.1 are presented the characteristics of subjects for both group of respondents. As Table 4.1 shows, the years majority of of age; the respondents, most overwhelming majority, of them, 258 189 204 (76%), (56%), (60%), were over were were married; male; of length of service, (74%), of the respondents approximately two-thirds, have over 11 an and little over half of them held Masters’ and/or higher degrees. terms 40 In 250 years of teaching 100 Table 4.1. Distribution of respondents (combined sample) based on age, sex, marital status, level of education, teaching experience, employment status, and size and location of the school (N = 340). Teacher Respondents (N = 340) Variables Frequency Percentage 1- Age a b c d 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50 and over 29 121 127 62 8.6% . 35.7% 37 .5% 18.2% 2- Sex a b Male Female 240 135 60.2% 39.8% 3- Marital Status a b c Married Single Divorced/ widow(er) 258 45 76.3% 13.3% 35 10.4% 20 5.9% 137 173 40.7% 51.3% 7 2.1% 4- Education a b c d B .A ./ B .S . B.A./B.S. with extra college credits M.A./M.S. Ed. specialist/ Ed.D/Ph.D 5- Teaching a Experience b c d 0- 5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16 and over 35 54 58 192 10.3% 15.9% 17.1% 56.6% 6- Employment a Status b Tenured Non-tenured 310 30 91.2% 8.8% 7- Teaching Subjects a b c Science Humanities Languages 110 180 47 32.6% 53.4% 13.9% 8- School Location a b Rural Urban 173 167 50.8% 49.1% 9- School Size a b c Small Medium Large 92 132 116 27.0% 38.8% 34.1% 101 experience. An overwhelming majority of the respondents, 310 (91%), have tenure, humanities/social (33%) of terms science subjects of 54% the subjects, teach school of respondents while only mathematics/science location, the teach one-third subjects. respondents are In evenly distributed. 50% of the respondents came from rural schools; approximately the same percentage came from urban schools. 39% of the respondents represented medium-size schools, of them represents large schools, 34% and only 27% represented small schools. The characteristics Organizational Climate are provided in Table the respondents, (58%) of the 97 of subjects who Description 4.2. As (56%), responded to Questionnaire is evident, were over respondents were the (OCDQ-RS) the majority of 40 years married; of age; 53% of 99 the respondents had Master’s and/or higher educational degrees; a majority of respondents 11 years, status. and With respondents an (72%) had been teaching more than overwhelming regard to majority their indicated they were (92%) subjects, had 50% teaching humanities tenured of the and/or social science, whereas only 32% reported they were teaching mathematics school, the and science subjects. respondents represented rural were In terms evenly schools and 50% come of location distributed. of 50% from urban schools. Approximately 40% of the respondents were teaching in medium sized schools. Only 35% were teaching in large schools; rest 25% were from small schools. the 102 Table 4.2. Distribution of subjects responded to OCDQ-RS based on age, sex, marital status, level of education, teaching experience, employment status, teaching subjects, location and size of the school (N = 171). Teacher Respondents (N = 171) Variables Frequency Percentage 1- Age a b c d 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50 and over 13 61 69 28 7.6% 35.7% 40.4% 16.2% 2- Sex a b Male Female 99 71 58.2% 41.8% 3- Marital Status a b c Married Single Divorced/ widow(e r ) 131 22 77. 1% 12.9% 17 10.0% 12 7.1% 67 85 39.9% 50.6% 4 2.4% 4- Education a b c d B .A •/ B .S . B.A./B.S. with extra college credits M.A./M.S. Ed. specialist/ Ed.D/Ph.D 5- Teaching a Experience b c d 0- 5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16 and over 18 30 27 95 10.6% 17.6% 15.9% 55.9% 6- Employment a Status b Tenured Non-tenured 158 13 92.4% 7.6% 7- Teaching Subjects a b c Science Humanities Languages 53 85 31 31.4% 50.3% 18.3% 8- School Location a b Rural Urban 87 84 50.9% 49. 1% 9- School Size a b c Small Medium Large 43 68 60 25. 1% 39.8% 35.1% 103 Table 4.3 presents the characteristics of subjects who responded to the Teacher Job Satisfaction Questionnaire (TJSQ). The majority, 92 (55%), of the respondents were over 40 years of age; 62% of the respondents were male; two- thirds of the respondents were married. The majority of the respondents (54%) reported they held a Masters', or higher, degree. In terms of teaching experience, the table indicates that two-thirds of the respondents had taught over 11 years, and a majority (90%) were tenured. 56% of them were teaching humanities/social reported they science were subjects, teaching whereas 34% of mathematics and them science subjects. With regard to location of school, the respondents were equally schools, were distributed. of them the other half urban ones. teaching teaching Half in in medium-sized large schools, 40% of them, schools, and only represented 33% 29% of were rural however, them were teaching in small schools. As a whole, the respondents were relatively older, male and married, more educated and more experienced. Means and Standard Deviations for Organizational Climate Dimensions The means and standard deviations for climate subscales are provided in Table 4.4. the organizational climate subscales were organizational The means the for result of summing scores on the 10, 6, 4, 7 and 7 items comprising the organizational climate divided by the number subscales. These summed values were of in items each subscale, then 104 Table 4.3. Distribution of subjects responded to TJSQ based on age, sex, marital status, level of education, teaching experience, employment status, teaching subjects, location and size of the school (N = 169). Teacher Respondents (N = 169) Variables Frequency a b c d 20-29 years 30-39 years 40-49 years 50 and over 2- Sex a b 3- Marital Status a b c 4- Education a b c d 16 60 58 34 9.5% 35.7% 34.5% 20.2% Male Female 105 64 62.1% 37.9% Married Single Divorced/ widow(er) 127 23 75.1% 13.7% 18 10.7% 8 4.7% 70 88 41.4% 52.1% B.A./B.S. B.A./B.S. with extra college credits M.A./M.S. Ed. specialist/ Ed.D/Ph.D 3 00 1- Age Percentage 5- Teaching a Experience b c d 0- 5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16 and over 17 24 31 95 10. 1% 14.2% 18.3% 57.4% 6- Employment a Status b Tenured Non-tenured 152 17 89.9% 10.1% 7- Teaching Subjects a b c Science Humanities Languages 57 95 16 33.9% 56.5% 9.5% 8- School Location a b Rural Urban 86 83 50.9% 49.1% 9- School Size a b c Small Medium Large 49 64 56 29.0% 37.9% 33.1% 105 Table 4.4. Means and standard deviations for organizational climate subscales (N = 56). Variables Means Standard Deviations 3teB.iskeiLJBeM .yl.Qi:. 1- Engaged 2- Frustrated 3- Intimate 2.6 1.9 2.4 .29 .27 .45 2.6 1.7 .54 .35 REliLQ .iBBl„EehB.yionnHaT~y School Inventory The statements below have no correct or incorrect answers. We are interested in your frank perceptions regarding these statements. Your responses will remain anonymous and no individual or school will be named in the report of this research. Your cooperation is greatly appreciated. Instructions: Following are some statements about the school setting. Please indicate the extent to which each statement characterizes your school by circling the appropriate response at the right of each statement. Circle only one response for each statement. Rarely Sometime Often Very occurs occurs occurs frequently occurs 1. Hie mannerisms of teachers- at this school are 1. RO annoying. SO 00 VPO 2. Routine duties interfere with the job of teaching. 2. R0 SO 00 VPO 3. The morale of the teachers is high. 3. R0 SO 00 VPO 4. Teachers’ closest friends are other faculty members at this school. 4. R0 SO 00 VPO 5. Teachers have too many committee requirements. 5. R0 SO 00 VPO 6. Teachers invite other faculty members to visit 6. R0 them at home. SO 00 VPO 7. Teachers interrupt other faculty members who are talking in staff meetings. 7. R0 SO 00 VPO 8. Teachers know the family background of other faculty members. 8. R0 SO 00 VPO 9. Administrative paper work is burdensome at this school. 9. R0 SO 00 VPO 10. Teachers spend time after school with students who have individual problems. 10. R0 SO 00 VPO 11. Teachers socialize with each other on a regular basis. 11. R0 SO oo VPO 12. Student government has an influence on school policy. 12. R0 SO 00 VPO 13. Assigned non-teaching duties are excessive. CO H R0 SO 00 VPO 14. Teachers help and support each other. 14. R0 so 00 VPO 15. Teachers are proud of their school. 15. R0 so 00 VPO 191 Rarely Sometime Often Very occurs occurs occurs frequently occurs 16. Teachers really enjoy working here. 16. R0 SO 00 VPO 17. Teachers respect the professional competence of their colleagues. 17. R0 SO 00 VPO IS. Teachers are friendly with students. 18. R0 SO 00 VPO 19. Pupils are trusted to work together without supervision. 19. RO SO 00 VPO 20. Hie principal goes out of his/her way to help teachers. 20. RO SO oo VPO 21. Pupils solve their problems through logical reasoning. 21. RO SO 00 VPO 22. Hie principal sets an example by working hard himself/herself. 22. RO SO 00 VPO 23. Hie principal uses constructive criticism. 23. RO SO 00 VPO 24. Hie principal rules with an iron fist. 24. RO SO 00 VPO 25. The principal explain his/her reasons for criticism to teachers. 25. RO SO 00 VPO 26. The principal closely checks teacher activities. 26. RO SO oo VPO 27. The principal compliments teachers. 27. RO SO 00 VPO 28. Hie principal looks out for the personal welfare of the faculty. 28. RO so 00 VPO 29. Hie principal is available after school to help teachers when assistance is needed. 29. RO so 00 VPO 30. The pincipal is autocratic. 30. RO so 00 VPO 31. Teacher-principal conferences are dominated by the principal. 31. RO so 00 VPO 32. Hie principal supervises teachers closely. 32. RO so 00 VPO 33. Hie principal moniotors everything teachers do. 33. RO so 00 VPO 34. The principal talks more than listens. 34. RO so 00 VPO BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, J. S., IneauiAX-ilL-Jlo^ (ed.) 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