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Order N um ber 8912602

A n investigation o f th e spatial, tem poral, and organizational
processes o f th e industrial frontier: A case study from the
U pper P eninsula o f M ichigan. (Volum es I and II)
Langhome, William Thomas, Jr., Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1988

Copyright © 1988 by Langhorne, William Thomas, Jr. All rights reserved.

UMI

300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE SPATIAL, TEMPORAL, AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PROCESSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL FRONTIER: A CASE STUDY FROM THE
UPPER PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN
By
Wi lliam Thomas Langhorne, J r .
V olume 1

A DISSERTATION

S ub mi tt ed t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
f o r th e degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department o f Anthropology

1988

ABSTRACT
AN INVESTIGATION OF THE SPATIAL TEMPORAL AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PROCESSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL FRONTIER: A CASE STUDY FROM THE
UPPER PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN
By
Wi lli am Thomas Langhorne, J r .

Th is s t u d y p r e s e n t s a compre hen siv e approac h t o t h e problem o f
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r by d e v e l o p i n g a model o f t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r which i s t h e n a p p l i e d in a c a s e s t u d y .

The model

i n t e g r a t e s t h e i d e a s o f a r c h a e o l o g i s t s , g e o g r a p h e r s , and s o c i o l o g i s t s ;
f o c u s i n g on f o u r major components ( s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m , ch ang e,
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy stem) o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l
frontier.

These a r e t r e a t e d so t h a t both s y n c h r o n i c and d i a c h r o n i c

a s p e c t s of t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r a r e r e v e a l e d .
The s t u d y a r e a f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h , t h e w es t u n i t o f t h e Hiawatha
N at io na l F o r e s t , i s e x p l o r e d u s i n g t h r e e t y p e s o f d a t a .

F irst,

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a drawn from s i t e f i l e s p r o v i d e s d e s c r i p t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n
abo ut s i t e s as well as a b o u t a s s o c i a t e d en vi ro n m en ta l f e a t u r e s .
h i s t o r i c a l d a t a p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t v a r i o u s t o p i c s .
a r e l o c a l ch r o n o lo g y and p e r s p e c t i v e s on ev er yda y l i f e .

Second,

Among t h e s e

Finally,

c a r t o g r a p h i c d a t a p r o v i d e s i n f o r m a t i o n a bo ut t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m ,
i n t e r s i t e d i s t a n c e s and r e l e v a n t en v i ro n m e n ta l f e a t u r e s .
Both q u a n t i t a t i v e and q u a l i t a t i v e a n a l y t i c a l methods a r e used t o
evaluate these d ata.

The f o r m er c o n s i s t o f d e s c r i p t i v e and n o n - p a r a m e t r i c

s t a t i s t i c s , and i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f g r a p h s .

The l a t t e r methods a r e used

when t h e d a t a i s in a n o n - q u a n t i f i a b l e form.
The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y conformed t o t h e model i n most c a s e s .

The

s e t t l e m e n t s yst em i s o r g a n i z e d i n a h i e r a r c h i a l , d e n d r i t i c f a s h i o n , w ith
c o a s t a l e n t r e p o t s , i n t e r m e d i a t e s u pp ly c e n t e r s , and camps.

The

o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s emphasize u n i f o r m i t y o f b e h a v i o r and
m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e in a v a r i e t y o r a r e a s .

Change, w h e th e r in b e h a v i o r ,

m aterial c u l t u r e or t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , occurs in a step l i k e fa s h io n ,
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f alm os t immediate a d o p t i o n o f a new f e a t u r e .
E q u a l ly i m p o r t a n t a r e t h o s e non-con formi ng r e s u l t s .

The i n t r o d u c t i o n

o f a new t r a n s p o r t mode d i d no t have t h e p r e d i c t e d d i s r u p t i v e e f f e c t on
entrepots/hinterlands.
settlem ent lo c atio n .

R a t h e r , i t was c o n d i t i o n e d by p r e - e x i s t i n g
I t did a f f e c t th e d e f i n i t i o n of usable tim b e r,

r e s u l t i n g i n s i g n i f i c a n t changes i n la n d ownership and r e l a t e d f a c t o r s .
Another f i n d i n g , t h a t t h e f r o n t i e r was i n t e r n a l l y p r o v i s i o n e d , was not
predicted.

This may be a uniq ue r e s u l t , a t t r i b u t a b l e t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s ,

o r i t may c h a r a c t e r i z e o t h e r i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s and r e q u i r e a
r e - e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e model.

C o p y r ig h t by
WILLIAM THOMAS LANGHORNE,
1988

IN MEMORIUM
F r e d e r i c k Pembroke H a r r i s s , J r .
(1900-1978)
Lydia Leonide H a r r i s s Johnson
(1906-1979)
Mary Lou Langhorne
(1922-1985)

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My c a r e e r a s a d o c t o r a l s t u d e n t has spanned e l e v e n y e a r s from t h e
t i m e I f i r s t a r r i v e d a t Michigan S t a t e u n t i l t h e t i m e I s u b m i t t e d t h e
f i n a l copy o f t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n .

I s p e n t a b ou t h a l f t h o s e y e a r s in

r e s i d e n c e and h a l f in u p s t a t e New York where my sp o us e and l a t e r m y s el f
were employed.

Throughout t h i s r a t h e r l e n g t h y p e r i o d o f ti m e I have been

i n f l u e n c e d and a s s i s t e d by a number o f p e o p l e , who each i n t h e i r own way,
made t h e j o u r n e y more i n t e r e s t i n g .
F i r s t o f a l l , t h e r e a r e t h e members o f my d o c t o r a l committee who
sh ep h erd ed me t h r o u g h t h e pr ogram.

Bill

L o v i s , my c h a i r , p o s s e s s e d an

i n f i n i t e s u p p ly o f p a t i e n c e t h r o u g h o u t t h e e n t i r e p r o c e s s and was always
w i l l i n g t o p r o v i d e a d v i c e and h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s i n re s p o n s e t o my
q u e s t i o n s . His c o n t i n u e d s u p p o r t , e s p e c i a l l y d u r i n g my 1985 d a t a
c o l l e c t i o n t r i p when a sudden d e a t h in my f a m i l y d i s r u p t e d my p l a n s , i s
remembered and a p p r e c i a t e d .
ways.

L a r r y Ro bb ins ' i n f l u e n c e was f e l t in o t h e r

He p r o v i d e d my i n t r o d u c t i o n t o t e a c h i n g a n t h r o p o l o g y , b u t more

i m p o r t a n t l y , he e n a b l e d me t o s a t i s f y my c u r i o s i t y a b o u t A f r i c a which was
k i n d l e d d u r i n g a d o l e s c e n c e when I f i r s t read e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y
a c c o u n t s a bo ut t h e c o n t i n e n t and i t s p e o p l e .

I w i l l remember Chuck

Cl el and f o r a v a r i e t y of t h i n g s , most n o t a b l y h i s r e a d i n e s s t o c h a l l e n g e
me on i s s u e s b o th i n t h e c l a s s r o o m and in t h e d i s s e r t a t i o n .

I w ill also

remember t h e s i g n above h i s d o o r , which r e a d s , "Do s o m e t h in g , l e a d ,
f o l l o w , o r g e t t h e h e l l o u t o f t h e way."

There a r e t i m e s in my c u r r e n t

p o s i t i o n when I wish more p e o p l e were aware o f t h i s v e r s e .

F inally, there

i s Ken Lewis, who by v i r t u e o f o u r work in South C a r o l i n a , can c l a i m t o be
both t h e o l d e s t and newest member o f my co m m it te e .

I 'v e learned a great

deal from Ken o ve r t h e y e a r s , both p h i l o s o p h i c a l l y and p r a g m a t i c a l l y .

He

k i n d l e d my i n t e r e s t in f r o n t i e r s and f r o n t i e r p r o c e s s e s and a l s o began t h e
p r o c e s s , l a t e r c o n t i n u e d by B i l l L o v i s , o f making me w r i t e b e t t e r .
Th is d i s s e r t a t i o n c o u l d not have been w r i t t e n , however, w i t h o u t t h e
d a t a p r o v i d e d by t h e Un ited S t a t e s F o r e s t S e r v i c e .

John F r a n z e n ,

a r c h a e o l o g i s t f o r t h e Hiawatha N a ti o n a l F o r e s t , was i n s t r u m e n t a l in
s e c u r i n g my a c c e s s t o t h i s d a t a and i n p r o v i d i n g a number o f i n f o r m a t i v e
comments and s u g g e s t i o n s d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r s t a g e s o f t h e r e s e a r c h and
w h i l e I was v i s i t i n g t h e F o r e s t in 1985.

His w i l l i n g n e s s t o p r o v i d e maps,

p h o t o c o p i e s , and o t h e r m a t e r i a l and n o n - m a t e r i a l a s s i s t a n c e i s g r e a t l y
appreciated.
When I began my employment a t SUNY-Binghamton, I found I had a n o t h e r
s u p p o r t e r i n my a s s i s t a n t d e a n , Don B la k e .

Throughout t h e e n t i r e

d i s s e r t a t i o n p r o c e s s Don has al lo w ed my f r e e r e i n o f t h e o f f i c e word
p r o c e s s i n g e q ui pm en t, f l e x i b i l i t y in t a k i n g ti m e o f f t o work on t h e
d i s s e r t a t i o n and o v e r a l l good n a t u r e d s u p p o r t o f my e n d e a v o r s .

He has

a l s o enc ou ra ge d me t o u t i l i z e my knowledge by a l l o w i n g me r e l e a s e t i m e t o
t e a c h c o u r s e s i n t h e Anthr opo logy De p ar tm en t.

Thanks a r e a l s o f o r th c o m in g

t o Marsha P e a s l e e , Linda H i l l s and Tonia Shadduck, who t o l e r a t e d my
r e a r r a n g i n g t h e i r de s k s w h i l e u s i n g t h e i r word p r o c e s s o r s .

L a s tly , during

t h e y e a r s 1985 t o 1987 t h e r e were t h r e e o u t s t a n d i n g s t u d e n t s :

L i sa

S c h w a rt z , E i l e e n S ch w a r tz , and D eni se J a n u s , who each in h e r own way made
my a d v i s i n g j o b a l o t e a s i e r .

vii

There remains one f i n a l p e r s o n who d e s e r v e s t h e utmost in t h a n k s and
a p p r e c i a t i o n , no t o nl y f o r h e r t o l e r a n c e , s u p p o r t and e d i t o r i a l a d v i c e ,
b u t a l s o b e c a u s e she w i l l i n g l y gave t h e s e when she h e r s e l f was und er g r e a t
p r e s s u r e ; my spo use o f f i f t e e n y e a r s Deborah Ann C r o y l e -L a n g h o r n e .
s i m p l y , I c o u l d no t have f i n i s h e d t h e d e g r e e w i t h o u t h e r .

Q u ite

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF T A B L E S ...............................................................................................................

xi

. . .

x iv

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................
CHAPTER I .

INTRODUCTION

...................................................................................

1

CHAPTER I I .

LOCAL HISTORY .....................................................................................

14

Introduction
Land T r a n s f e r
The Study Area
Summary
CHAPTER I I I .

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

...........................................................

39

..................................................................

52

Introduction
Discussion
Co n cl u si o n s
CHAPTER IV.

MODEL AND HYPOTHESES

P r e v i o u s Research
A Model o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l F r o n t i e r
Hypotheses
Summary
CHAPTER V.

DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY...................................................

Data So urces
A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Data
H i s t o r i c a l Data
Variables
Methodology
Sampling C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
F a c i l i t y , Hardware and S o f tw a r e
A n a l y t i c a l Pr o ce du r es
Summary

ix

93

CHAPTER VI.
H y p ot h es is
H y p o th e s is
H yp ot h es is
H y p ot h es is
H y p ot h es is
H y p o th e s is
H y p o th e s is
H y p ot h es is
H y p ot h es is
H y p o th e s is
H y p ot h es is
H y p ot h es is
H y p ot h es is
H y p o th e s is
H yp oth es is
H y p ot h es is
H y p o th es is
Summary
CHAPTER V I I .

RESULTS

123

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17

CONCLUSIONS

...................................................................................

285

S e t t l e m e n t System
Change
Organization
Transportation
Conclusions
APPENDIX A.

LOGGING CAMP VARIABLES

..............................................................

303

APPENDIX B.

ENTREPOT/INTERMEDIATE
SUPPLY CENTER VARIABLES ............................................................

309

APPENDIX C.

LOGGING CAMP S I T E S .......................................................................

312

APPENDIX D.

ENTREPOTS AND
INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY CENTERS ...................................................

322

LIST OF REFERENCES......................................................................................................

324

x

LIST OF TABLES

Tab le

Page

1.

S o il C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by S i t e T y p e ....................................................

125

2.

Slo p e by S i t e T y p e ....................................................................................

128

3.

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n o f S o il Group
w it h S lo p e I n t e r v a l ....................................................................................

130

4.

D e s c r i p t i v e S t a t i s t i c s f o r S i t e S i z e ...........................................

133

5.

R i v e r D riv e Camps .........................................................................................

144

6.

C r o s s t a b u la tio n of D istance t o Nearest
Water and D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t
D r i v e a b l e Water .............................................................................................

152

Type o f N e a re s t Water When N e a r e s t
Water and N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Water
a r e t h e s a m e .................................................................................................

156

O r i e n t a t i o n o f N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Water
R i v e r Driv e C a m p s ........................................................................................

158

R e l a t i v e E l e v a t i o n R i v e r D r iv e S i t e s

...........................................

159

R e l a t i v e E l e v a t i o n and D r i v e a b l e Water
O r i e n t a t i o n R i v e r Driv e S i t e s ............................................................

160

R e l a t i o n s h i p between D i s t a n c e t o
N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Water and
O rie n ta tio n of Nearest Driveable
Water R i v e r D riv e S i t e s ..........................................................................

161

C rosstabulation R elative Elevation
by E l e v a t i o n R iv e r D ri v e S i t e s
........................................................

163

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n E l e v a t i o n by
R e l a t i v e Occupation Rive r
Driv e S i t e s - I n t e r m e d i a t e
E l e v a t i o n s ......................................................................................................

165

7.

8.

9.
10.

11.

12.

13 .

xi

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n E l e v a t i o n by Occupation
R i v e r Driv e S i t e s - I n t e r m e d i a t e
Elevations
............................................................

166

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Water Railway
Camps ..........................................................................

168

Type o f N e a r e s t Water Railway
Camps w i t h i n One Mile o f Water/
N at u r al D r ai na g e ...............................................

172

Slope Railway Camps ov er One Mile
from a N at ur al D ra in a g e .................................

172

S lo p e Railway Camps l e s s t h a n One
Mile from Water ...................................................

173

C h i - S q u a r e : Slope f o r Railway S i t e s
G r e a t e r and Less t h a n One Mil e from
Water ..........................................................................

174

Type o f N e a r e s t Water Railway Camps
G r e a t e r t h a n One Mile from Water/
N a tu r a l D ra in ag e ...............................................

175

Chi Sq uare T e s t : Type o f Water
A s s o c i a t e d w ith Railway Camps
G r e a t e r t h a n One Mile from Water
and Less t h a n One Mile from Water . . .

176

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Swamp Railway
Camps ..........................................................................

179

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Swamp R iv e r
D r iv e Camps .............................................................

183

Average Monthly Employment Michigan
1 9 1 0 ..........................................................................

188

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Camp o f t h e Same
Type R i v e r D riv e Camps .................................

190

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Camp o f t h e Same
Type Railway Camps ..........................................

193

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by P o r t
Variable
.................................................................

205

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by
R e l a t i v e Occupation ..........................................

206

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by Type
o f N e a r e s t Water ...............................................

208

xi i

30.

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by Post
O f f i c e ...............................................................................................................

209

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by Type o f
N e a r e s t Water .................................................................................................

211

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by N ea r es t
Logging C a m p .................................................................................................

212

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by Terminus
o f Logging R a i l w a y ...................................................................................

213

C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n S e t t l e m e n t s by Terminus
o f a Main Line R a i l w a y ..........................................................................

214

D iscrim inant Analysis R esults
........................................................................................
R eclassification

216

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s A s s o c i a t e d
A c t i v i t i e s ......................................................................................................

221

37.

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s D u r a ti o n

.........................................

228

38.

Population--D escriptive S ta t is tic s
E n t r e p o r t s and I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t r e s .................................

231

D i v e r s i t y E n t r e p o t s and I n t e r m e d i a t e
Supply C e n t e r s
.............................................................................................

233

I n i t i a l Occup at ion D ate s R i v e r Driv e
Camps and Railway C a m p s ..........................................................................

267

Type o f N e a r e s t Camp R iv e r Driv e
S i t e s ....................................................................................................................

274

D i s t a n c e between R i v e r Driv e Camps
and N e a r e s t Oth er Camp, when t h e
L a t t e r was a Railway C a m p ......................................................................

275

Land Ownership in t h e Upper
P e n i n s u l a 1 9 1 0 .............................................................................................

281

C o n n e c t i v i t y Among Major Upper
P e n i n s u l a La n d h o l d er s 1910

282

Timber R es er ve s o f Upper P e n i n s u l a
L a n d h o l d e r s 1 9 1 0 ........................................................................................

283

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

xi i i

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure
1.

Page
M i c h i g a n ' s Upper P e n i n s u l a , A = West U n i t ,
Hiawatha National F o r e s t
( A f t e r M art in 1 9 7 7 ) ...................................................................................

12

M ic hi ga n, C o u n ti es a - D e l t a , b - A l g e r ,
c-Sch oo l c r a f t .................................................................................................

21

C o u n t i e s and Study A r ea , a - D e l t a ,
b - A l g e r , c - S c h o o l c r a f t ..........................................................................

23

4.

Major D ra in ag e s in t h e Study A r e a ..............................................

45

5.

S i t e S i z e f o r R iv e r D riv e S i t e s .......................................................

137

6.

S i t e S i z e f o r Railway Camps................................................................

139

7.

S i t e S i z e f o r Unknown S i t e s ................................................................

142

8.

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Water f o r
R i v e r D riv e S i t e s ........................................................................................

147

Distance to Nearest Driveable
Water f o r R iv e r D riv e S i t e s .................................................................

150

2.

3.

9.

10.

C r o s s p l o t D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Water by
D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Water
f o r R i v e r Drive S i t e s (A = one s i t e ,
B = two s i t e s , e t c ............................................................................................. 155

11.

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Water f o r Railway S i t e s ...........................

171

12.

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Swamp f o r Railway S i t e s ...........................

182

13.

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Swamp f o r
R i v e r D riv e S i t e s ................................................................

185

D i s t a n c e t o t h e N e a r e s t Camp o f t h e
Same Type f o r R iv e r D rive S i t e s ........................................................

192

D i s t a n c e t o t h e N e a r e s t Camp o f t h e
Same Type f o r Railway S i t e s .................................................................

196

14.

15.

xiv

16.

17.

18.

19.

T44NR19W Logging Railways ( A f t e r Hiawatha
N ati on al F o r e s t Map 1 9 3 2 ) ....................................................................

198

T46NR20W Logging and Main Line Railways
( A f t e r Hiawatha N at i o n al F o r e s t S i t e F i l e )

...........................

200

Time Li ne I n i t i a l O cc up at ion t o Abandonment
f o r R i v e r Drive S i t e s
.........................................................................

269

Time Line I n i t i a l O cc up at ion t o Abandonment
f o r Railway S i t e s ...................................................................................

272

xv

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Research i n t o North American f r o n t i e r s has been c a r r i e d o u t f o r
a lm o s t a c e n t u r y .

Beginning w ith t h e work o f Turn er (1893) s c h o l a r s in

North America, and l a t e r Eu rope, began t o pose q u e s t i o n s abo ut t h e v a r i o u s
s o c i o - c u l t u r a l phenomena t h a t were uniq ue t o t h e f r o n t i e r s e t t i n g .
I n i t i a l l y r e s e a r c h was c o n f i n e d t o h i s t o r i a n s o f t h e American West, but
growing a w ar en es s o f t h e f r o n t i e r as a s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l p r o c e s s le d
g e o g r a p h e r s , a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s and a r c h a e o l o g i s t s t o f o c u s on t h a t
p a rticu la r subject.
The r e s e a r c h u n d e r ta k e n h e r e w i l l examine one p a r t i c u l a r t y p e of
f r o n t i e r —t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

The r e s e a r c h w i l l proceed th r o u g h a

c a s e s tu d y o f one example:

t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a of

Michigan from 1870 t o 1920.

Beginning w it h t h e development o f a model o f

the in d u strial

f r o n t i e r , t h i s s t u d y w i l l i n t e g r a t e i d e a s a b ou t t h e

s p a t i a l , t e m p o r a l , and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f such f r o n t i e r s i n t o a
c o h e r e n t body o f t h e o r y from which t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s e s can be f o r m u l a t e d .
These h y p o t h e s e s w i l l e x p l o r e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s i t e l o c a t i o n and
th e environment, the s p a t i a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e s i t e s t h e m s e l v e s , and

t h e n a t u r e o f c o n t r o l on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Analysis of th e se t h r e e

a r e a s w i l l shed l i g h t on t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e f r o n t i e r , and t h e
homeland, t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r i n c i p l e s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e e x p a n s io n o f

1

t h i s t y p e o f f r o n t i e r and t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between e x t r a c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y ,
t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , and s e t t l e m e n t .

Moreover, a v a i l a b l e d a t a i n d i c a t e s t h a t

t h e r e was a ma jor change in e x p l o i t a t i v e t e c h n o l o g y midway th r o u g h t h e
study p e r io d .

This s h i f t s h o u ld be m a n i f e s t e d in t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

r e c o r d as a ch an gi ng l o c a t i o n a l p a t t e r n o f s i t e s w i t h r e s p e c t t o
e n v i ro n m e n ta l f e a t u r e s and each o t h e r .

D e f i n i t i o n o f such a s h i f t in

s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n w i l l a l l o w s t a t e m e n t s t o be made c o n c e r n i n g change on
industrial f ro n tie rs .
The development o f f r o n t i e r s t u d i e s as a r e c o g n i z a b l e r e s e a r c h a r e a
o c c u r r e d n e a r l y one hundred y e a r s ago w it h F r e d e r i c k Jack so n T u r n e r ' s
p u b l i c a t i o n on t h e American F r o n t i e r ( 1 8 9 3 ) .

Having as i t s c e n t r a l t h e s i s

t h e id e a t h a t t h e wide open s p a c e s and unbounded l i f e s t y l e of t h e American
w es t c r e a t e d a un iq u e s o c i e t y found nowhere e l s e , T u r n e r ' s work became t h e
r e s e a r c h e r ' s f o c a l p o i n t f o r a number o f y e a r s .

Thi s s i t u a t i o n l e d f o r a

t i m e t o s t a g n a t i o n i n t h e a r e a o f f r o n t i e r s t u d i e s a s s c h o l a r s became more
in v o l v e d i n d e b a t i n g T u r n e r ' s work t h a n t h e y were i n d e v e l o p i n g new
approaches.

Thus, i t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r t h e Second World War t h a t new

d i r e c t i o n s in f r o n t i e r s t u d i e s began t o a p p e a r (Merk 1978, S t e f f e n 1980,
T ur n er 18 93 ).
The 1 9 6 0 ' s saw a r e v i t a l i z a t i o n o f i n t e r e s t in f r o n t i e r s on t h e p a r t
of a v a r ie ty of so cial s c i e n t i s t s .

I n i t i a l l y , t h i s was a p p l i e d r e s e a r c h

f o c u s i n g on t h e problems o f fo rm er c o l o n i e s as t h e y emerged as in d e p e n d e n t
t h i r d world n a t i o n s .

As knowledge o f t h e f r o n t i e r s e t t i n g and i t s

p r o c e s s e s came t o l i g h t , t h e impact o f a p p l i e d s t u d i e s performed by
g e o g r a p h e r s and a n t h r o p o l o g i s t s was f e l t by h i s t o r i a n s and a r c h e o l o g i s t s
s t u d y i n g p a s t f r o n t i e r s ( C a s a g r a n d e , Thompson and Young 1964; Johnson
1970; P r e s c o t t 1965; T a a f e , M o r r i l l and Gould 19 63 ).

During t h e p a s t d ec a de s e v e r a l

im p o r t a n t c o n c e p t u a l dev elopment s were

made i n t h e s t u d y o f

frontiers.

S t e f f e n (1980) which

e s t a b l i s h e d two broad c a t e g o r i e s o f f r o n t i e r s :

i n s u l a r and c o s m o p o l i t a n .
c l o s e l y bound t o t h e
through tim e .

C h ie f among

t h e s e has been t h e work of

Insular f r o n t i e r s are those

homeland and which t e n d

which a r e n o t

t o become i s o l a t e d from i t

Co smopolitan f r o n t i e r s , in c o n t r a s t , a r e always c l o s e l y

l i n k e d t o t h e homeland.

S t e f f e n proposed t h a t a d a p t a t i o n t o

c o n d i t i o n c o u l d be s t u d i e d by examining t h e i n h e r e n t

the fro n tie r

demands o f t h e

f r o n t i e r en vi ro nm en t and t h e b e h a v o r i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h o s e
im m ig r a ti n g t o t h e f r o n t i e r .

Thi s p r o c e s s o f a d a p t a t i o n t o f r o n t i e r

c o n d i t i o n s pr od uc es r e s u l t s un iq ue t o each c a t e g o r y o f f r o n t i e r .

Insular

f r o n t i e r s , bec a us e o f t h e i r i s o l a t i o n , would t e n d t o be t h e s c e n e s o f
fundamental c h a n g e s , w it h n o t o n ly b e h a v i o r change t o accomodate t h e
f r o n t i e r e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t a l s o change in t h e norms u n d e r l y i n g t h e
behavior.

By c o n t r a s t , c o s m o p o l i t a n f r o n t i e r s , b e c a u s e o f t h e i r c l o s e

l i n k a g e s w it h t h e homeland, would be t h e sc ene o f modal chang e,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a l t e r a t i o n o f b e h a v i o r t o accomodate t h e f r o n t i e r
e n vi ro nm en t w i t h o u t t h e c o r r e s p o n d i n g a l t e r a t i o n in t h e b a s i c b e h a v i o r a l
p r i n c i p l e s people brought to t h e f r o n t i e r

( S t e f f e n 19 8 0 ).

H a r d e s ty ( 1 9 8 5 ) , f o l l o w i n g S t e f f e n ' s d ic h ot o m y ,

fo c u s e d on

c o s m o p o l i t a n f r o n t i e r s and has d ev el o pe d a model o f change on i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r s , a s u b ty p e o f c o s m o p o l i t a n f r o n t i e r s , by borr ow ing p r i n c i p l e s
from e v o l u t i o n a r y b i o l o g y .

H a r d e s ty proposed t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e i s o l a t i o n

o f t h e i n s u l a r f r o n t i e r v e r s u s t h e co s m o p o l it a n f r o n t i e r made i n s u l a r
f r o n t i e r s more l i k e l y t o d e v e l o p uniq ue a d a p t a t i o n s t o l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .
In c o n t r a s t , i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , a h i g h l y co n n e c te d co s m o p o l it a n
f r o n t i e r , were c h a r a c t e r i z e d by s t a n d a r d i z e d b e h a v i o r a l

responses t o the

4
f r o n t i e r environment.

In such a h i g h l y c o n n e c t e d , s t a n d a r d i z e d s e t t i n g , s y s t e m i c char

pr od uc e a s t e p l i k e o r d i s c o n t i n u o u s p a t t e r n o f change t h a t o c c u r s more o r
l e s s sim ultaneously throughout th e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

The c l o s e s t

a n a l o g t o t h i s p a t t e r n i s t h a t o f p u n c t u a t e d e q u i l i b r i a , found in
evolutionary biology.

However, H a r d e s ty ad m its t h a t o t h e r e x p l a n a t o r y

m o d e ls , such as c a t a s t r o p h e t h e o r y , may a l s o be v a l i d i n t h i s c a s e (Gould
and E l d r ed ge 1977, H a r d e s ty 1985, Renfrew 1978 ).
In a d d i t i o n t o d e a l i n g w ith f r o n t i e r change a t t h e macro l e v e l ,
H a r d e s ty a l s o e x p l o r e d ways o f t r e a t i n g t h e s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s o f i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r s as models o f e c o s y s t e m s .

Using t h e Marginal Value Theorem, he

has de ve lo pe d s e v e r a l p r o p o s i t i o n s t h a t can be t e s t e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l l y
r e g a r d i n g t h i s s o r t o f b e h a v i o r on i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s .

According t o t h e

t h e o r e m , i n d u s t r i a l c o l o n i s t s a r e e x p e c te d t o s t a y in a given p a t c h u n t i l
i t s n e t y i e l d d ro p s below t h a t l i k e l y t o be o b t a i n e d from an a v e r a g e p at ch
e l s e w h e r e in t h e f r o n t i e r .

The l e n g t h o f s t a y i s t h u s depe nde nt upon s i z e

o f p a t c h , v a r i a b i l i t y of p a t c h , r a t e o f p at ch r e n e w a l , e x p l o i t a t i v e
t e c h n o l o g y , t r a n s p o r t c o s t s and ma rket p r i c e .

I f one o f t h e s e

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s comes t o do m in at e t h e o t h e r s , i t i s t h e n p o s s i b l e t o
p r e d i c t t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e a p a r t i c u l a r p at ch w i l l be c o l o n i z e d .

For

example, i f t r a n s p o r t c o s t i s t o be minimized and o t h e r v a r i a b l e s a r e t o
be maximized, t h e n t h e d u r a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n w i l l be l o n g .

Moreover,

changes i n t h e s e v a r i a b l e s , w ith t h e e x c e p t i o n of p a t c h s i z e and
v a r i a b i l i t y , are d i f f i c u l t to p re d ic t.

However, gi v e n t h e h i g h l y l i n k e d

n a t u r e o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , changes in t e c h n o l o g y and p r i c e , once
t h e y o c c u r , a r e l i k e l y t o be t r a n s m i t t e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h r o u g h o u t t h e
f r o n t i e r , so t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l

p a t c h a d v a n t a g e s i n t e r m s of

5
t e c h n o l o g y / p r i c e a r e not l i k e l y t o d e v e l o p .

F u r t h e r m o r e , f o r p a t c h e s w ith

high renewal r a t e s , r e g u l a r r e - c o l o n i z a t i o n i s e x p e c te d t o o c c u r .
A l t e r n a t i v e l y , i f a pa tc h i s small and t h e r e s o u r c e s e a s i l y o b t a i n a b l e , i t
i s l i k e l y t o be occup ied once and t h e n abandoned when i t s r e s o u r c e s a r e
e x h a u s t e d . More complex p a t t e r n s o f abandonment and r e - c o l o n i z a t i o n a r e
found in f r o n t i e r p a t c h e s w ith randomly a v a i l a b l e , no n- ren ew abl e
r e s o u r c e s , l a r g e s i z e , a n d / o r r e s o u r c e s not e a s i l y e x p l o i t a b l e with
a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o l o g y (H a rd e s ty 1 9 8 5) .
An other a r c h a e o l o g i s t i n f l u e n c e d by S t e f f e n ' s f r o n t i e r dichotomy i s
Lewis (1975, 1976, 1977a, 1977b, 19 8 4 ) .

Although working p r i m a r i l y with

i n s u l a r f r o n t i e r s , Lewis has l i n k e d t h e development o f f r o n t i e r s in
g e n e r a l w it h t h e model o f t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t world system
proposed by W a l l e r s t e i n and h i s c o l l e a g u e s (Hopkins e t . a l .1982;
W a l l e r s t e i n 1976, 1979, 1980, 1 9 8 3 ) .

In l i n k i n g h i s f r o n t i e r models with

W a l l e r s t e i n ' s world sy stems t h e o r y , Lewis has p r o v id e d a r c h a e o l o g i s t s w ith
an o v e r a r c h i n g t h e o r e t i c a l

framework w i t h i n which t o t e s t v a r i o u s

p r o p o s i t i o n s a bo ut f r o n t i e r s .
W a l l e r s t e i n ' s (1976, 1979, 1980, 1983) c a p i t a l i s t world system
c o n s i s t s o f an i n t e g r a t e d network o f r e g i o n s which f a l l
general c a t e g o r ie s :

i n t o one o f t h r e e

t h e c o r e , t h e s e m i p e r i p h e r y , and t h e p e r i p h e r y .

Each

o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s e x h i b i t s c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and r e l a t e s in
c e r t a i n ways t o t h e o t h e r s .

These r e l a t i o n s h i p s a r e d e t e r m in e d by a

s in g le , overarching d iv isio n of la b o r.

Thi s d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r , t h e

c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m , i s based on co m m o d if i c a ti o n and t h e c a p i t a l i s t s '
e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f s u r p l u s produced th r o u g h t h e a c t i o n s o f p u r p o r t e d l y f r e e
ma rke t f o r c e s .

The e x p r o p r i a t i o n o f s u r p l u s c r e a t e s a pathway o r flow

from l a b o r t o t h e c a p i t a l i s t s which has a g e o g r a p h i c as well as

6
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l component.
expropriated surplus flow s.

Core s t a t e s / r e g i o n s a r e t h o s e toward which t h i s
They a r e g e n e r a l l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d as high

p r o f i t , high t e c h n o l o g y , high wage and a r e t h e l o c i o f d i v e r s i f i e d
production.

They a r e a l s o t h e s e a t s o f s o c i o - e c o n o m i c - p o l i t i c a l power.

P e r i p h e r a l s t a t e s / r e g i o n s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d as low p r o f i t , low wage, low
te c h n o l o g y and a r e t h e l o c i o f l e s s d i v e r s i f i e d p r o d u c t i o n , such as
a g r i c u l t u r e and t h e b a s i c e x t r a c t i v e i n d u s t r i e s .
s u r p l u s v a l u e from p e r i p h e r a l s t a t e s / r e g i o n s .

C a p ita lis ts expropriate

While such s t a t e s / r e g i o n s

may have t h e i r own p o l i t i c a l s t r u c t u r e s , t h e s e s t r u c t u r e s e x e r c i s e
e f f e c t i v e power o nl y in t h e immediate l o c a l e and have l i m i t e d t o no impact
on t h e world system as a w ho le .

Moreover, t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e s o f t h e

c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m , co m m o d if i c a ti o n and e x p r o p r i a t i o n , r e q u i r e a c o n t i n u a l
i n c r e a s e in b o th number and kind o f goods and s e r v i c e s t o keep t h e system
operational.

I t was t h i s d r i v e t o f i n d new commodities t h a t l e d t o t h e

c o n t i n u a l g e o g r a p h i c e x p a n s io n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t world sy st em , which
r e s u l t e d in t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n and p e r i p h e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d .

I t is

t h e s e c o l o n i e s - - f r o n t i e r s - - t h a t have bcome t h e f o c u s o f r e c e n t r e s e a r c h
(Hopkins e t . a U 1 9 8 2 ; W a l l e r s t e i n 1976, 1979, 1980, 1 98 3 ) .
In a d d i t i o n t o t h e work mentioned a b ov e, Lewis (1984) i s t h e s o u r c e
o f p r e l i m i n a r y d i s c u s s i o n s abo ut t h e n a t u r e o f co s m o p o l it a n f r o n t i e r s .
According t o Lewis (1984) c o s m o p o l i t a n f r o n t i e r s a r e t y p i c a l l y s h o r t t e r m ,
dedicated to th e s p e c ia liz e d p r o d u c ti o n /a c q u is iti o n of a s in g le or lim ited
number o f g o o d s / r e s o u r c e s , and e x h i b i t l i m i t e d in d i g e n e o u s dev el o pm en t.
They may be grouped i n t o s i x s u b t y p e s :

tra d in g , ranching, e x p lo ita tiv e

p l a n t a t i o n , i n d u s t r i a l , m i l i t a r y , and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .

Industrial

f r o n t i e r s , as a s u b ty p e o f co s m o p o l it a n f r o n t i e r s , e x h i b i t t h e same
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d e f i n e c o s m o p o l i t a n f r o n t i e r s , p l u s some t h a t a r e

7
un iq u e t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l s e t t i n g .

G e n e r a l l y , t h e y a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

c l o s e l i n k a g e s w ith t h e c o r e s t a t e , s h o r t d u r a t i o n and a r e t h e s c e n e o f
t r a n s i e n t economic a c t i v i t y .

U n i f o r m i t y , in t h e b r o a d e s t s e n s e ,

c h a r a c t e r i z e s b e h a v i o r on i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s .

R a t h e r th a n o c c u r r i n g as

an a d j u s t m e n t t o a new c u l t u r a l and n a t u r a l e n v i r o n m n e n t , a d a p t a t i o n
o c c u r s al m os t e x c l u s i v e l y a l o n g t h o s e p a r a m e t e r s a s s o c i a t e d w ith
production.

That i s , changes a n d / o r i n n o v a t i o n s a r e l i n k e d a l m o s t s o l e l y

t o e f f e c t i n g g r e a t e r r a t e s o f p r o d u c t i o n a n d / o r i n c r e a s e s in p r o d u c t
quality.

P o p u l a t i o n g e n e r a l l y f l u c t u a t e s in s i z e , c o m p o s i t i o n and

d i s t r i b u t i o n throughout th e d u ra tio n of th e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .
F u r t h e r m o r e , i t v a r i e s c o n s i d e r a b l y alo ng t h e a f o r e m e n t i o n e d p a r a m e t e r s
from what one would e x p e c t t o f i n d i n t h e c o r e s t a t e (Lewis 1 9 8 4 : 2 6 3 - 2 9 2 ) .
Although i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s i n c l u d e a number o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l
a c t i v i t i e s which vary a c c o r d i n g t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e s o u r c e and l e v e l o f
technological s o p h is tic a ti o n , th e re are th r e e b asic s ettlem en t types
common t o a l l

regions.

These a r e camps, where r e s o u r c e c o l l e c t i o n and

p r o c e s s i n g o c c u r s ; e n t r e p o t s , t h e c o l l e c t i n g , p r o c e s s i n g , and
r e - d i s t r i b u t i o n c e n t e r s l i n k i n g t h e f r o n t i e r w ith t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d ; and
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

These l a t t e r a r e o f t e n c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d

w ith camps and may move w i t h the m.

There i s a t l e a s t one e n t r e p o t

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h each f r o n t i e r r e g i o n , a l t h o u g h t h e r e may be more depend ing
on g e o g r a p h y , t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r y o r o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .
S i n c e t h e p r i m a r y a c t i v i t y a s s o c i a t e d w ith i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s i s t h e
e x t r a c t i o n and removal o f r e s o u r c e s from t h e immediate a r e a ,
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n networks a r e c l o s e l y l i n k e d t o i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s .
as i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s a r e t r a n s i t o r y , t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n netwo rk s
a s s o c i a t e d w it h them te n d a l s o t o be t r a n s i t o r y and e p h e m e r a l .

Just

F u r t h e r m o r e , i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , bec a us e o f t h e i r e x t r a c t i v e n a t u r e ,
t e n d t o be o r i e n t e d toward t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f s p e c i f i c l o c i r a t h e r t h a t
e n t i r e r e g i o n s as i s common among o t h e r t y p e s o f c o s m o p o l it a n f r o n t i e r .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , one would e x p e c t t o f i n d t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n o f an
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a s e t o f l i n k e d p o i n t s c o n v e rg i n g on
t h e e n t r e p o t o r e n t r e p o t s and from t h e r e o u t o f t h e r e g i o n toward t h e
core.

I n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s v a r y in t h e i r d u r a t i o n d ep end in g on t h e

a b i l i t y o f r e s o u r c e s t o be e c o n o m i c a l l y e x t r a c t e d un de r t h e p r e v a i l i n g
t e c h n o l o g i c a l system (Lewis 1 9 8 4 : 2 8 4 - 2 8 6 ) .
The work o f H ar de sty and Lewis, as well as t h a t o f ge og r ap he rs
( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Taafe e t . al_. 1963) who deal w it h t r a n s p o r t t h e o r y and
d ev el op me nt al p ro b le m s , w i l l be drawn upon t o d e v el op a model o f t h e
in d u strial f r o n tie r .

Lewis (1984) i s t h e s o u r c e o f b a s i c g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s

a b ou t t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t t e r n o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , w h il e H ar de s ty
(1985) p r o v i d e s s i m i l a r g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s abo ut t h e n a t u r e o f change on
industrial f r o n tie r s .

From t h e g e o g r a p h i c l i t e r a t u r e (B u r g h a r d t 1971,

Ta af e e t . al_. 1963 ), i d e a s a b ou t t h e o p e r a t i o n o f f r o n t i e r t r a n s p o r t
sy ste m s and t h e s p a t i a l component o f change p r o v i d e dynamic l i n k i n g
el e m e n t s t o t h e s p a t i a l g e n e r a l i z a t i o n s o f Lewis and p r o v i d e a s p a t i a l
component t o H a r d e s t y ' s i d e a s a b o u t i n d u s t r i a l

f r o n t i e r ch ang e.

Once t h e

i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model i s d e v i s e d , a s e r i e s o f h y p o t h e s e s w i l l be
g e n e r a t e d and t e s t e d u s i n g d a t a from t h e s t u d y a r e a .

These h y p o th e s e s

w i l l be f o c u s e d on f o u r g e n e r a l a r e a s o f i m p o r ta n c e t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g
industrial fro n tie rs:

t h e s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m , ch a n g e , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e

a n a l y s e s w i l l a l lo w a more compre hen siv e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r and i t s a s s o c i a t e d c u l t u r a l p r o c e s s e s .

9
The s t u d y a r e a chosen f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h i s t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a o f
Michigan between 1870 t o 1920.

These y e a r s c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e l o g g i n g boom

in t h e s t u d y a r e a - - a n e r a o f h i s t o r i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e r e g i o n .

The

l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r was chosen as an example o f an i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r
b ec a u se o f i t s o v e r a l l im p o r t a n c e in t h e s e t t l e m e n t o f North America and
b e c a u s e we c u r r e n t l y l a c k knowledge o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and p r o c e s s e s
a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h i s t y p e o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Throughout t h e

expanding s e t t l e m e n t o f North America d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , t h e
l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r was one o f c o n s i d e r a b l e s i z e , a l b e i t s h i f t i n g l o c a t i o n ,
and pla yed a s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in both r e g i o n a l and n a t i o n a l d e v e l o p m e n t s .
This r o l e was m u l t i f a c e t e d and i n f l u e n c e d v a r i o u s a s p e c t s o f s o c i e t y , such
as law, t e c h n o l o g y , l a b o r o r g a n i z a t i o n , e d u c a t i o n , s e t t l e m e n t , ba nki ng and
others.

During t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y and i n t o t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , as

t h e l o c a t i o n o f t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r s h i f t e d , so d i d t h e p a r t s o f t h e
s o c io - e c o n o m ic f a b r i c where i t s i n f l u e n c e was g r e a t e s t f e l t .

Nonetheless,

i t was one o f t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l s o c io - e c o n o m ic phenomena in t h e s h ap in g
o f t h e North American c o n t i n e n t as we know i t t o d a y .

I t remains f o r

r e s e a r c h e r s t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s p e c i f i c n a t u r e o f t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r and
t h e r a m i f i c a t i o n s a c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d w it h i t had f o r t h e development of
North America.
The Upper P e n i n s u l a o f Michigan was chosen as t h e s tu d y a r e a bec a u se
i t i s p a r t o f t h e Lakes S t a t e s lumber r e g i o n , t h e l e a d i n g p r o d u c e r of pi n e
and l a t e r hardwood d u r i n g t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h
centuries.

Thus, in c h o o s i n g i t as a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f a lo g g i n g

f r o n t i e r , we have an a r e a t h a t was i n t h e ma in str ea m o f t h i s t y p e o f
f r o n t i e r development.

Within t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l i e s t h e West U n it o f

t h e Hiawatha N at io na l F o r e s t which has been t h e s u b j e c t o f e x t e n s i v e

10
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and documentary r e s e a r c h ov er t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s aimed a t
a c q u irin g d ata r e l a t e d t o th e logging in d u s try (Figure 1 ) .
The a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a d e r i v e d from t h i s a r e a w i l l be used p r i m a r i l y
t o answer q u e s t i o n s a bo ut t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s i t e l o c a t i o n and t h e
en vi ro n m en t and i n t e r s i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s .

The d a t a a r e bas ed on t h e s i t e

f i l e r e c o r d s p r e s e n t a t t h e United S t a t e s F o r e s t S e r v i c e H e a d q u a r t e r s in
Es ca n a ba ,

which re c o r d p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n abo ut a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s

l o c a t e d by f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n , d o c u m e n t a r y / i n f o r m a n t r e s e a r c h and
c o m b in a ti o n s o f t h e two.

Given t h e d i f f e r e n t s o u r c e s upon which t h e s e

s i t e d a t a a r e b a s e d , t h e y w i l l be d i v i d e d i n t o two s u b s e t s :

t h o s e with

d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n ( i . e . d a t e s , o w n e r s h ip , e t c . ) , u s u a l l y common among
s i t e s f o r which f i e l d and documentary r e s e a r c h has been c a r r i e d o u t , and
t h o s e w ith more l i m i t e d i n f o r m a t i o n .
of th e l a t t e r , fo r a to t a l

There a r e 194 o f t h e for mer and 250

of 444 s i t e s t h a t w i l l be in c l u d e d in t h i s

analysis.
There a r e a l s o s e v e r a l forms o f documentary d a t a a v a i l a b l e f o r t h i s
r e s e a r c h , m a in ly l o c a l / r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i e s , a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s / o r a l h i s t o r i e s ,
and books a b ou t t h e co n du ct o f t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y a t v a r i o u s l e v e l s .
The l o c a l / r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i e s a r e used t o e s t a b l i s h an o v e r a l l temporal
framework w i t h i n which devel op men ts can be viewed.

The

a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s / o r a l h i s t o r i e s w i l l be u t i l i z e d t o v e r i f y c e r t a i n
h y p o t h e s e s made abo ut t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and o p e r a t i o n o f v a r i o u s f a c e t s o f
th e logging i n d u s tr y .

F i n a l l y , t h e s o u r c e s d e a l i n g with t h e co n d u ct o f

t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y s e r v e two p u r p o s e s .

Some w i l l be employed t o

e s t a b l i s h b r i d g i n g arg uements t o r e l a t e h y p o th e s e s abo ut i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r s to th e actual s i t u a t i o n in the study a r e a .

The rem a in d er s e r v e

as d a t a t o p r o v i d e answers o r p a r t i a l answers i n c o n j u n c t i o n with

11

FIGURE 1
MICHIGAN'S UPPER PENINSULA
A-West U n i t , Hiawatha N at io n al F o r e s t
( A f t e r Ma rtin 1977)

LAKE SUPERIOR

LAKE M I C H IG A N

miles

FIGURE 1

13
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s t o some o f t h e h yp o th e se s posed f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h .
As i s t h e c a s e when d e a l i n g w it h any body o f documentary d a t a , c a r e w i l l
be t a k e n t o e n s u r e t h a t t h e s o u r c e s used t o d e v el op t h e h y p o t h e s e s /
b r i d g i n g argue me nts a r e n o t t h e same ones employed t o s u p p ly answers t o
t h e q u e s t i o n s posed in t h e h y p o t h e s e s .
In summary, t h i s r e s e a r c h e x p l o r e s t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r th r o u g h
t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f one example o f such a f r o n t i e r :

t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r

o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a o f Michigan from 1870 t o 1920.

Because o f t h e

r e l a t i v e d e a r t h o f knowledge a bo ut such f r o n t i e r s , a t t e n t i o n w i l l be
b r o a d l y f o c u s e d on t h e s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m , c ha ng e , o r g a n i z a t i o n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m .

In a d d i t i o n t o examining

th e se to p i c s w ithin the study a r e a , the im p lic atio n s th e r e s u lt s of t h i s
a n a l y s i s have f o r t h e l a r g e r sc o pe o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s w i l l be
discussed.

CHAPTER II

LOCAL HISTORY

Introduction
This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s t h e so c io - e c o n o m ic h i s t o r y o f t h e s t u d y a r e a
f o r t h e p e r i o d 1870 t o 1920.

While t h e s e i s s u e s w i l l be a d d r e s s e d a t t h e

l o c a l l e v e l , i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d some o f t h e o v e r l y i n g p r o c e s s e s
which shaped t h e development o f t h e s tu d y a r e a .

The most s i g n i f i c a n t

p r o c e s s e s d e a l t with how la n d ( he nce t i m b e r ) p as se d from t h e p u b l i c s e c t o r
i n t o p r i v a t e ownership.

T herefore, a d is c u s s io n of th e processes

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h la nd t r a n s f e r in t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y w i l l be p r e s e n t e d
p r io r to th e d e s c r ip tio n o f th e study a r e a .

Land T r a n s f e r
Land was t r a n s f e r r e d from t h e p u b l i c domain i n t o p r i v a t e ownership in
a v a r i e t y o f ways.

These were governed p r i m a r i l y by a s e r i e s o f f e d e r a l

laws e n a c t e d between t h e l a t e e i g h t e e n t h and mid n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r i e s .
These laws d e a l t with t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e o f p u b l i c la n d t o both i n d i v i d u a l s
and c o r p o r a t e b o d i e s , w it h an u n d e r l y i n g emphasis on e n c o u r a g in g
s e t t l e m e n t and development w i t h i n a given t e r r i t o r y .

They a l s o were

supp lem ent ed o r enhanced by s t a t e / t e r r i t o r y r e g u l a t i o n s aimed a t
d i s t r i b u t i o n s t a t e owned p u b l i c la n d t o p r i v a t e i n t e r e s t s .

14

In t h i s l a t t e r

15
c a s e , however, t h e r e c i p i e n t s o f t h e la n d te n d e d t o be c o r p o r a t e e n t i t i e s
r a t h e r than in d iv id u al s e t t l e r s / f a r m e r s .
The Land Ordi nan ce o f 1785 e s t a b l i s h e d t h e b a s i s by which a l l s t a t e s
b u t t h e o r i g i n a l t h i r t e e n c o l o n i e s were s u rv ey ed and s e t t l e d .

It

e s t a b l i s h e d t h e towns hip and r an ge g r i d s y s t e m , which d i v i d e d t h e
t e r r i t o r i e s in to six mile square townships.

Each t o w n s h ip was f u t h e r

d i v i d e d i n t o t h i r t y - s i x one m i l e s q u a r e s e c t i o n s .

The Land Ordinance o f

1785 a l s o f o r b a d s e t t l e m e n t in an a r e a u n t i l a f t e r i t had been mapped, s e t
t h e minimum p u r c h a s e amount (640 a c r e s ) , and s e t a minimum p u r c h a s e p r i c e .
Once an a r e a was opened f o r p u b l i c s a l e , la n d was p u r c h a s e d w it h e i t h e r
cash o r a c r e d i t v o u c h e r .

The usu al p u r c h a s i n g p r o c e d u r e was t o l o c a t e a

s u i t a b l e t r a c t , e s t a b l i s h i t s l o c a t i o n w i t h i n t h e to w n s h ip and range
s y s t e m , and f i l e a c l a i m a t t h e n e a r e s t f e d e r a l la n d o f f i c e ( B ai ly n e t . a l .
1977, Deg ler e t . a l - 1979> Merk 1978)*
Through i t s r e q u i r e d mapping and p r o c e d u r e s f o r p u b l i c s a l e , t h e Land
O rdinance o f 1785 was t h e b a s i s o f f u t u r e changes i n l a n d p o l i c y
throughout th e nineteen th c e n tu ry .

In term s o f i t s d i r e c t impact on t h e

s t u d y a r e a a , i t sh oul d be n o te d t h a t t h e la n d s u r v e y was not completed
until

1851 on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

P r i o r t o t h a t p o i n t l e g a l s a l e of la n d

o c c u r r e d o n ly i n p r e v i o u s l y mapped a r e a s ( B a i l y n e t . a l . 1977, Deg ler
e t . a l . 1979, Dunbar 1970, Merk 1 97 8 ) .
This d id n o t , however, l i m i t s e t t l e m e n t on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a b e f o r e
1851.

R a t h e r , pr e-1 85 1 s e t t l e r s had t o r e - s e c u r e t h e i r r i g h t t o own t h e

la n d upon which t h e y l i v e d .

C o n s i d e r a t i o n s such as t h i s one le d t o t h e

c l a r i f i i c a t i o n o f e x i s t i n g r e g u l a t i o n s by t h e Pre-Emption Act o f 1841.
T hi s law g u a r a n t e e d t h e r i g h t o f p r i o r o c c u p a n ts t o p u r c h a s e t h e la nd on
which t h e y l i v e d a t a s a l e in advanc e o f t h e g e n e r a l p u b l i c la n d s a l e f o r

16
t h e a r e a , w i t h t h e p r o v i s i o n t h a t p r i o r o cc u p a n ts c o u l d not p u r c h a s e t h e
la nd u n t i l i t had been s u r v e y e d ( Ba il yn e t . a l . 1977, Deg ler e t . a l . 1979,
Merk 197 8) .
In s p i t e o f a ready a v a i l a b i l i t y o f l a n d , only l i m i t e d , p r i m a r i l y
a g r i c u l t u r a l s e t t l e m e n t o f many new t e r r i t o r i e s o c c u r r e d b e f o r e t h e C i v i l
War.

Thi s phenomenon le d t o a s h o r t te rm s u r p l u s . o f la n d in some

t e r r i t o r i e s as s e t t l e r s p u r c h a s e d t h e b e s t farm la n d and l e f t t h e r e s t .
Because t h e r e were r e l a t i v e l y few s e t t l e r s , t h e r e coul d be v a r y i n g amounts
o f r e l a t i v e l y l e s s p r o d u c t i v e o r poor la n d l e f t u ns o ld in a gi v e n
te rrito ry .

The l o n g e r such la n d remained u n s o l d , t h e g r e a t e r burden i t

became t o t h e f e d e r a l gove rn me nt, s i n c e i t n e i t h e r pr o v id e d income th r o u g h
i t s s a l e , nor was i t t a x a b l e f o r f u t u r e income.

The G ra d u a ti o n Act (1854)

was implemented t o deal w i t h t h i s p a r t i c u l a r pro blem.

It established a

s l i d i n g s c a l e o f minimum p u r c h a s e p r i c e s f o r u n s ol d l a n d , whereby t h e
l o n g e r a p a r t i c u l a r t r a c t o f la n d remained u n s o l d , t h e ch e a p e r i t g o t .
Moreover, t h e minimum p u r c h a s e amount f o r such la nd was reduced from 640
t o 320 a c r e s .

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , a p o r t i o n o f t h e un so ld la n d was c o n s i d e r e d

"swamp l a n d " , which was n o t a p a r t i c u l a r l y a c c u r a t e d e s c r i p t i o n bec a u se
much o f t h i s l a n d , w he th er t r u l y swampy o r n o t , c o n t a i n e d a v a r i e t y o f
c o n i f e r o u s t r e e s p e c i e s p r i z e d by lumbermen, but which were r e l a t i v e l y
u s e l e s s t o f a r m e r s (B ai ly n e t . a K

1977, D eg ler e t . a l _ . 1979, Merk 19 78 ).

In a d d i t i o n t o t h e s e two l a w s , two M i l i t a r y Bounty Acts (1847, 1855)
were d e s i g n e d t o g i v e v e t e r a n s e a s i e r a c c e s s t o p u b l i c l a n d , i n p a r t i a l
compensation f o r t h e i r m i l i t a r y s e r v i c e .

They d id so by e s t a b l i s h i n g

special conditions r e la tin g to the sale of public land.

Although t h e

p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e 1847 Act were r e s t r i c t e d t o v e t e r a n s o f t h e Mexican War,

17
t h o s e o f t h e 1855 Act were open t o anyone who had s e r v e d in any c a p a c i t y
in t h e United S t a t e s m i l i t a r y s i n c e 1790 (Merk 19 7 8) .
The most s i g n i f i c a n t p i e c e o f l e g i s l a t i o n d e a l i n g w ith i n d i v i d u a l
a c q u i s i t i o n o f p u b l i c la n d in t h e w e s t , and one which a f f e c t e d t h e
a c q u i s i t i o n o f l a n d s in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a was t h e Homestead Act ( 1 8 6 2 ) .
This law q u a r a n t e e d t o e v e r y male o v e r 21 y e a r s o f age 160 a c r e s o f p u b l i c
l a n d , p r o v i d e d he pa i d a modest i n i t i a l f e e and l i v e d o n / c u l t i v a t e d t h e
la n d f o r f i v e y e a r s , a t which t i m e f u l l t i t l e would be s u r r e n d e r e d t o him.
The Homestead Act r e p l a c e d t h e G ra d u a ti o n Act and l a t e r , in 1891, t h e
Pre-Emption Act was r e p e a l e d and t h e Homestead Act a l t e r e d so t h a t a
s e t t l e r w ith a l a r g e r cash payment a c q u i r e d t i t l e t o t h e land a f t e r
r e s i d i n g on i t f o r f o u r t e e n months i n s t e a d o f f i v e y e a r s ( Ba il yn e t . a l .
1977, Deg ler e t . a l . 1979, Merk 1 9 78 ) .
The p a s s a g e and i m p le m e n ta t io n o f t h e Homestaead A c t , coupled with
t h e o v e r a l l p o p u l a t i o n i n c r e a s e between 1870 and 1900, l e d t o t h e
s e t t l e m e n t o f t h e t r a n s - M i s s i s s i p p i United S t a t e s .

The p o p u l a t i o n t h a t

s e t t l e d t h e s e a r e a s came from an i n c r e a s e in do m e s t ic f e r t i l i t y and
/

i m m i g r a t i o n ; i n i t i a l l y from n o r t h e r n and w e s t e r n Europe and l a t e r from
s o u t h e r n and e a s t e r n Eu rope.

I t was t o t h e s e p e o p l e , as i n d i v i d u a l s , t h a t

p u b l i c la n d was pas se d un d er t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e Homestead A ct .
I n d i v i d u a l s , however, were not t h e only b e n e f i c i a r i e s o f a f a v o r a b l e
p u b l i l c la n d p o l i c y .

Throughout most o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

c o r p o r a t i o n s and o t h e r b u s i n e s s i n t e r e s t s were s u b s t a n t i a l l y a s s i s t e d
t h r o u g h government g r a n t s o f p u b l i c la nd (B ai ly n e t . a l .

1977, Degler

e t . a l * 1979> Merk 1978 ) .
One o f t h e n a t i o n a l needs which became a p p a r e n t by t h e m i d - n i n e t e e n t h
c e n t u r y was t h e need f o r b e t t e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n as t h e United S t a t e s grew

18
in s i z e and c o m p l e x i t y .

To e n c o u r a g e t h e development o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n ,

e s p e c i a l l y r a i l w a y s , t h e f e d e r a l government i n s t i t u t e d a r a i l w a y g r a n t
system in 1856 which gave l a n d t o r a i l w a y s in r e t u r n f o r l a y i n g t r a c k
t h r o u g h an a r e a .

Although g r e a t l y a b u s e d , t h i s g r a n t i n g system

t r a n s f e r r e d a g r e a t deal o f p u b l i c la n d i n t o p r i v a t e h a n d s .

It

e s t a b l i s h e d a system whereby r a i l w a y companies were g iv e n a l t e r n a t e
s e c t i o n s o f la n d e x t e n d i n g from f i v e t o t e n m i l e s on e i t h e r s i d e o f t h e i r
tracks.

The r a i l r o a d had f i r s t c h o i c e o f t h e s e s e c t i o n s , with t h e

r em ai nde r s o l d in t h e usual manner.

In a d d i t o n t o t h e s e f e d e r a l g r a n t s ,

s t a t e s sometimes awarded t h e r a i l w a y companies a d d i t i o n a l p u b l i c la nd from
t h e i r own p u b l i c la nd f u n d s .

R e g a r d l e s s o f i t s s o u r c e , once t h e r a i l w a y

companies r e c e i v e d t h i s l a n d , t h e y d id with i t as t h e y p l e a s e d .

Other

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n e n t e r p r i s e s , such as roads and c a n a l s , were sometimes giv en
s i m i l a r g r a n t s , bu t t h e s e were nowhere as s i g n i f i c a n t as t h o s e gi v e n t o
r a i l r o a d s (Bailyn e t . a U

1977, D eg le r e t . a l _ . 1979, Merk 1978 ).

The v a r i o u s methods d i s c u s s e d above were t h e l e g a l ways by which
p u b l i c la n d p a s s e d i n t o p r i v a t e hands d u r i n g much o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h
centry.

Although i t was p o s s i b l e t o s e l l t i m b e r r i g h t s t o ones p r o p e r t y ,

a p r a c t i c e f o ll o w e d by many h o m e s t e a d e r s , much o f t h e t i m b e r in t h e Great
Lakes r e g i o n pa s s ed i n t o p r i v a t e hands unde r t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f one or more
of th e se r e g u la tio n s .

As s u c h , t h e y w i l l be i m p o r t a n t in a l a t e r c h a p t e r

when an a n a l y s i s o f l a n d h o l d i n g i s u n d e r t a k e n .

At t h i s p o i n t , however, a

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e s t u d y a r e a d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from 1870 t o
1920 i s a p p r o p r i a t e .

19
The Study Area
The c o u n t i e s which co m pr is e t h i s s tu d y a r e a ( A l g e r , D e l t a ,
S c h o o l c r a f t ) were o r i g i n a l l y p a r t o f Mackinac c o u n t y , which was c r e a t e d in
1818 and encompassed t h e e n t i r e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

D e l t a cou nt y was formed

i n 1843 by t h e s u b d i v i s i o n o f Mackinac and Chippewa c o u n t i e s .

I t was

reduced t w i c e , in 1861 and in 1885, as c o u n t i e s were formed f u r t h e r t o t h e
w est.

S c h o o l c r a f t coun ty was a l s o c r e a t e d i n 1843 o u t o f a n o t h e r

s u b d i v i s i o n o f Mackinac and Chippewa c o u n t i e s .

A lg e r co u n t y was c r e a t e d

i n 1885 by d i v i d i n g S c h o o l c r a f t co u n t y (Je nks 1 9 1 2 ) ( F i g u r e s 2, 3 ) .
Commercial lo g g i n g on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a d a t e s from 1838 when a
sawmill was b u i l t n e a r t h e mouth o f t h e Escanaba R i v e r .

Over t h e n e x t t e n

y e a r s a few o t h e r sa w m il ls were b u i l t on t h e S tu r ge on and W h i t e f i s h
r i v e r s , a l l o f which were w a t e r powered.

Logging was c a r r i e d o u t mainly

in t h e v i c i n i t y o f t h e s a w m i l l s , w it h lo g s dragge d t o t h e m i l l by oxen o r
horses.

The t r a n s p o r t o f t i m b e r was r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e w i n t e r months, and

as a r e s u l t t h e m i l l s were in o p e r a t i o n ma inly from e a r l y s p r i n g th r o u g h
June.

Ex p o r t s from t h e s e e a r l y o p e r a t i o n s went t o S a u l t S t e . Marie and

a f t e r t h e C i v i l War t o Chicago (Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 1984).
A ma jor e v e n t in t h e r e g i o n ' s h i s t o r y o c c u r r e d in J u l y 1848 when t h e
la n d o f f i c e a t S a u l t S t e . Marie opened f o r s a l e a l l t h o s e l a n d s in t h e
c o u n t i e s c o m p r i s i n g t h e West Uni t o f t h e Hiawatha N at i o n a l F o r e s t .

Prior

t o t h i s p o i n t , ma jor s e t t l e m e n t and land t r a n s f e r s , e s p e c i a l l y in t h e
i n t e r i o r , were blo ck ed by t h e Land Ordinance o f 1785 r e g u l a t i o n s .

The

l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y began a slow s t e a d y growth d u r i n g t h e 1 8 5 0 ' s , i n c l u d i n g
t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f some steam s a w m il ls a l o n g t h e s o u t h s h o r e o f t h e
Upper P e n i n s u l a .

However, i t was n o t u n t i l a f t e r t h e C i v i l War and t h e

20

FIGURE 2
MICHIGAN
C o u n ti e s
a-Delta
b - A I g er
c-Schoolcraft

2 1

miles

FIGURE 2

22

FIGURE 3
COUNTIES AND STUDY AREA
a-Delta
b- A lg e r
c-School c r a f t

23

m iles

FIGURE 3

24
a d ve nt o f t h e 1 8 7 0 's t h a t l o g g i n g began i t s monumental e x p a n s io n on t h e
Upper P e n i n s u l a (Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 1 98 4 ) .
By t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y had become much l i k e o t h e r
i n d u s t r i e s d u r i n g t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y —t h a t i s , composed al m os t
e n t i r e l y of c o r p o r a tio n s .

Thi s development was m e re ly one f a c e t o f t h e

o v e r a l l i n c r e a s e in v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l i n t e g r a t i o n o c c u r r i n g a t t h a t
tim e.

Thus , from t h e b e g i n n i n g c o r p o r a t i o n s were i n v o l v e d w it h t h e

e x p l o i t a t i o n o f Upper P e n i n s u l a t i m b e r .

D e c i s i o n s were made a t t h e

c o r p o r a t e l e v e l , which co ul d pr od uce a v a r i e t y o f r a m i f i c a t i o n s down t h e
l i n e ( D e g le r 1977, Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 1984, Reimann 1952, Todes 1 93 1 ) .
In s p i t e o f t h e f a c t t h a t most o f t h e f o r e s t in t h e e a s t e r n h a l f of
t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a was composed o f mixed hardwoods and p i n e , t h e i n d u s t r y
f o c u s e d on t h e w h i t e and Norway p i n e d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d from 1870 t o around
1900.

There were two p r i n c i p l e r e a s o n s f o r t h i s , which r e l a t e t o both

b u i l d i n g and lo g g i n g t e c h n o l o g y .

F i r s t , p i n e lumber from t h e Gr eat Lakes

r e g i o n was a s u p e r i o r l i g h t - w e i g h t y e t s t r o n g c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l .

It

c o n t i n u e d t o s u p e r c e d e b r i c k and s t o n e as t h e b u i l d i n g m a t e r i a l o f c h o i c e
throughout t h e study p e rio d .

This was e s p e c i a l l y t r u e i n t h e p l a i n s

s t a t e s , where s t o n e f o r b u i l d i n g p u r p o s es was n o t common.

Moreover, t h e

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , i n c o r p o r a t i n g both w a t e r and r a i l , p r o v i d e d t h e
p l a i n s s t a t e s w it h ea s y a c c e s s t o t h e l a k e s s t a t e s p i n e r i e s (Davis 1964,
Defebaugh 1906, Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 19 84 ).
S e c o n d l y , p i n e and c l o s e l y r e l a t e d s p e c i e s had a h ig h d e g r e e o f
n a t u r a l buoyancy which was e s s e n t i a l t o t h e i r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e sawmill
w it h t h e p r e v a i l i n g w a t e r o r i e n t e d t e c h n o l o g y .

While o t h e r t r a n s p o r t

m o d a l i t i e s e x i s t e d , t h e y were used in c o n j u n c t i o n w it h w a t e r t r a n s p o r t and

25
hence buoyancy and r e l a t e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s remained i m p o r t a n t (Dunbar
1970, Karamanski 198 4).
Cedar and hemlock were two o t h e r buoyant c o n i f e r o u s s p e c i e s which
began t o be e x p l o i t e d between 1870 and 1900.

During t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h

c e n t u r y boom in r a i l r o a d c o n s t r u c t i o n c e d a r was f i r s t c h o i c e wood f o r t i e s
and as i t s p r o p e r t i e s became known, i t was f a v o r e d f o r p o s t s , s h i n g l e s and
lath .

Cedar b l o c k s were a l s o used t o pave walkways and s t r e e t s in some

Upper P e n i n s u l a to w ns , i n c l u d i n g Escanaba (Karamanski 19 84 ).
Hardwoods r e c e i v e d s c a n t a t t e n t i o n u n t i l t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s .

Those t h a t were

logged were u s u a l l y used i n t h e mining i n d u s t r y , e i t h e r as s u p p o r t s in t h e
s h a f t s o r as a s o u r c e o f c h a r c o a l f o r s m e l t i n g .

Such u n d e r t a k i n g s were

u s u a ll y r e s t r i c t e d t o th e v i c i n i t y of th e mine.

Later operations of t h i s

s o r t became common in A l g e r c o un ty (Karamanski 198 4) .
The i m p o r ta n c e o f w a t e r t r a n s p o r t t o t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y o f t h e
Upper P e n i n s u l a d u r i n g t h e y e a r s from 1870 t o 1900 c a n n o t be
u n d e r e s t i m a t e d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h o s e c o u n t i e s c o m p r i s in g t h e West Unit
o f t h e Hiawatha N ati on al F o r e s t .

E s p e c i a l l y i m p o r t a n t were t h o s e r i v e r s

in D e l t a co u n t y fl o w in g i n t o t h e L i t t l e and Big Bay de Noc.

The

W h i t e f i s h , S t u r g e o n , R a p i d , E s c a n a b a , Day, Ogontz, Fishdam, M a n is ti q u e and
o t h e r s p r o v id e d a means o f t r a n s p o r t i n g p i n e l o g s from t h e i n t e r i o r
f o r e s t s t o t h e c o a s t a l towns f o r m i l l i n g a n d / o r s h i p p i n g t o m a r k e t .

The

r a p i d growth o f c o a s t a l to w n s , such as E s ca n a ba , Nahma, Rapid R i v e r ,
M a n i s t i q u e and G la d s to n e d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d i s d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o
t h e i r b e i n g s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e p o i n t s where one o f t h e ma jor r i v e r s emptied
i n t o Lake Michigan o r one o f i t s bays (Dunbar 1970, Hudgins 1961,
Karamanski 1 9 8 4 ) .

26
A s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e ex p a n s io n o f commercial l o g g i n g and t h e growth o f
towns in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a was t h e i n f l u x o f a m u l t i - e t h i n i c p o p u l a t i o n ,
composed o f t h e l o g g e r s t h e m s e l v e s and t h e i n d i v i d u a l s a s s o c i a t e d with
support se rv ic e s for th e logging in d u s try .

A l a r g e number were

Fre nc h- Ca na d ia n o r were from o t h e r a r e a s o f t h e Un ited S t a t e s where
l o g g i n g had p r e v i o u s l y been i m p o r t a n t .
Sca n da na v ia n s and I r i s h .

In a d d i t i o n , t h e r e were many

S i n c e p e o p l e from t h e s e two r e g i o n s comprised

t h e bulk o f t h e immigrant p o p u l a t i o n e n t e r i n g t h e Un ited S t a t e s d u r i n g t h e
m i d - n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , i t was n o t u nex pec ted t h a t p e o p l e with t h e s e
e t h n i c backgrounds s ho ul d be found among t h e l o g g e r s d u r i n g t h e l a t e r
nineteenth century.

A s i m i l a r phenomenon o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e e a r l y

t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y when many e a s t e r n Europeans t u r n e d up as l o g g e r s ,
r e f l e c t i n g once a g a i n t h e ch an gi ng p r o f i l e o f t h e U n ite d S t a t e s immigrant
p o p u l a t i o n (Abrams 1978, D eg le r 1977, Deg ler j j t . a l _ . 1979, Draper 1930,
Dunbar 1970, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, H u l b e r t 1949, Karamanski 1984,
Wells 19 7 8) .
By t h e 1 8 9 0 's a number o f fundamental changes were underway in t h e
Upper P e n i n s u l a lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y .
s e v e r a l f a c t o r s , among them:

These changes were a t t r i b u t a b l e t o

t h e p a s t con du ct o f l o g g i n g in t h e Upper

P e n i n s u l a , new t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t s , and ch an g in g ma rk e ts f o r f o r e s t
products.

An u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s e t h r e e f a c t o r s i s i m p o r t a n t t o an

o v e r a l l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e way t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y d ev el op ed d u r i n g t h e
l a t t e r p a r t of th e study p e rio d .
The s i n g l e most i m p o r t a n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l advance o f t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s was t h e
p e n e t r a t i o n o f common c a r r i e r r a i l r o a d s i n t o t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a , fo ll o w ed
by t h e development o f l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d s .

In itial

c o n t a c t with t h e Upper

P e n i n s u l a was made in 1872, when t h e Chicago and N o rth w es te rn Railway

27
re ac he d E s c a n a b a .

Over t h e n e x t t w e n t y y e a r s a number o f o t h e r main l i n e

common c a r r i e r s p e n e t r a t e d t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

By t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s , t h r o u g h a

co m bi n at io n o f mergers and o t h e r ma neuvers, f o u r r a i l r o a d c o r p o r a t i o n s
c o n t r o l l e d a l l t h e common c a r r i e r l i n e s in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

Most o f

t h i s r a i l r o a d b u i l d i n g e f f o r t was f u e l e d by t h e la nd g r a n t s y s t e m , which
awarded r a i l r o a d companies a c e r t a i n amount o f p u b l i c l a n d f o r each m i le
o f t r a c k b u i l t ( C a l k in s 1929, Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 1984, M an sf ie ld
1899, Nute 1 9 4 4 ) .
The l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d , f i r s t p i o n e e r e d in t h e Lower P e n i n s u l a in 1876,
re a c h e d t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a by t h e mid 1 8 8 0 ' s .

F a v o r a b ly r e c e i v e d , over

t h e ne x t d ec ad e i t was ado pt ed by most o f t h e l o g g i n g companies t h e n
in v o l v e d in r i v e r d r i v i n g .

Companies a d o p t i n g t h e l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d d id so

w ith s e v e r a l mo ti v es in mind.

Most used them t o t a p p r e v i o u s l y

i n a c c e s s i b l e p i n e f o r e s t s and th e n hardwoods, some moved s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
i n t o both p i n e and hardwood p r o d u c t i o n and o t h e r s , who had e x h a u s t e d t h e
s u p p l i e s o f p i n e a v a i l a b l e t o them, went e x c l u s i v e l y i n t o hardwood lo g g i n g
(Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 19 84 ).
Throughout t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s , as t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d became more common,
r i v e r d r i v i n g assumed a l e s s e r r o l e ; by 1900 t h e l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d had
e f f e c t i v e l y su p e r c e d e d t h e r i v e r d r i v e in t h e Upper P e n i n s l a lo g g i n g
in d u stry .

Logging r a i l r o a d s c r i s s c r o s s e d A l g e r , D e l t a and S c h o o l c r a f t

c o u n t i e s , as well as o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u s l a .

The lo g g i n g

r a i l r o a d s used in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a d i f f e r e d from t h o s e in use e l s e w h e r e
in t h a t t h e y were s t a n d a r d i n s t e a d o f narrow ga uge .

S t a n d a rd gauge was

more e x p e n s i v e , d i f f i c u l t t o c o n s t r u c t , had more demanding e n g i n e e r i n g
s p e c i f i c a t i o n s , and was l e s s ea s y t o remove and t r a n s p o r t e l s e w h e r e .

The

in v e s t m e n t r e q u i r e d f o r s t a n d a r d gauge equipment n e c e s s i t a t e d a g r e a t deal

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o f c a r e f u l p l a n n i n g so t h a t u l t i m a t e l y t h e v e n t u r e would be p r o f i t a b l e .
Only l a r g e c o r p o r a t i o n s had t h e n e c e s s a r y c a p i t a l and power t o c o n s t r u c t
such r a i l r o a d s and g u a r a n t e e t h e i r p r o f i t a b i l i t y ( C a l k i n s 1929, Dunbar
1970, Karamanski 1984, M a n s f i e l d 1899, Nute 1944, Reimann 1952 ).
There w e r e , however, a d v a n t a g e s t o u s i n g s t a n d a r d gauge t r a c k .

In

a d d i t i o n t o i n t e r c h a n g e a b i l i t y o f eq ui p m en t, t h e most ob vious was t h e
s im p l e and more c o s t e f f e c t i v e t r a n s i t i o n from t h e l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d t o t h e
common c a r r i e r l i n e .

Log c a r s , once loa ded in t h e f o r e s t , moved al on g t h e

lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d t o i t s j u n c t i o n w it h t h e common c a r r i e r , where a s w i tc h
was thrown t o a l l o w t h e l o g c a r s t o be moved o nt o t h e common c a r r i e r l i n e .
There was no u n lo a d in g and r e l o a d i n g t o be done as when narrow gauge t r a c k
was u s e d , a p r i n c i p l e which a p p l i e d in r e v e r s e when t r a n s p o r t i n g men
and/or material

into the f o r e s t .

Thi s c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s p a r t i a l l y o f f s e t

t h e a d d i t i o n a l c o s t o f b u i l d i n g a t s t a n d a r d ga uge .

In a d d i t i o n t o making

p r e v i o u s l y i n a c c e s s i b l e s t a n d s o f / t y p e s o f t i m b e r a c c e s s i b l e , t h e lo g g i n g
r a i l r o a d a l s o caused some chang es i n f o r e s t o p e r a t i o n s ; most n o t a b l y , i t
made y e a r round lo g g i n g p o s s i b l e (Karamanski 198 4) .
As a r e s u l t o f t h e development of t h e l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d , Upper
P e n i n s u l a l o g g e r s g ai ne d a c c e s s t o a p p r o x i m a t e l y 4 . 7 m i l l i o n a c r e s o f
hardwoods.

S i n c e t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a f o r e s t s c o n t a i n e d more hardwood th a n

p i n e , t h i s t y p e o f wood became t h e p r i n c i p a l p r o d u c t o f Upper P e n i n s u l a
fo re sts a f te r the turn of the century.

Predominant s p e c i e s i n c l u d e d

y e l l o w b i r c h , s u g a r map le, hemlock, elm, basswood and b e e c h .
c u t t i n g c o n t i n u e d as t h e p r i n c i p a l means o f f e l l i n g t r e e s .

C le a r
In f a c t , i t

was more p r o d u c t i v e f o r hardwoods th a n f o r p i n e b e c a u s e odd l e n g t h s / s i z e s
o f hardwood were u s e f u l whereas p i n e was u s u a l l y m ark et ed as saw l o g s .
The mining i n d u s t r y c o n t i n u e d t o be an i m p o r t a n t ma rket f o r hardwoods, bu t

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a v a r i e t y o f o t h e r s e x i s t e d as well

(Davis 1961, Defebaugh 1906, Dunbar

1970, Karamanski 1984, Longyear 19 6 0) .
Although t h e p r i n c i p a l fo c u s o f lo g g i n g had t u r n e d t o hardwoods,
c o n i f e r o u s s p e c i e s , such a s c e d a r , s p r u c e and t a m a r a c k , c o n t i n u e d t o be o f
i n t e r e s t b e c a u s e o f t h e i r r e s i s t e n c e t o decay and t h e i r u s e f u l n e s s in odd
len g th s.

The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s e were c u t f o r r a i l r o a d t i e s , f e n c e p o s t s

and t e l e p h o n e / t e l e g r a p h p o l e s .

Spruce and ta ma rac k were a l s o marketed t o

t h e s h i p b u i l d i n g i n d u s t r y t o p r o v i d e r i b s f o r wooden h u l l e d v e s s e l s
(Karamanski 19 84 ).
The development o f r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g a l s o a f f e c t e d t h e l o c a t i o n o f
m illing f a c i l i t i e s .

This s h i f t , however, la gg ed behi nd t h e development o f

t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d s and n e v e r r e s u l t e d in t h e co m p lete r ep la ce m e n t o f
t h e old c e n t e r s by t h e newer o n e s .

The main m i l l i n g c e n t e r s o f t h e p in e

e r a ( i . e . E s ca n a ba , M a n i s t i q u e , Nahma, e t c . ) were a l l
lakeshore near driveable r i v e r s .

l o c a t e d on a

They were t h u s t h e t e r m i n i o f r i v e r

d r i v e s , where p i n e l o g s c o u l d be p r o c e s s e d i n t o lu m b e r .

Given t h e i r

p r e s e n c e d u r i n g t h e f i r s t p a r t o f t h e s t u d y p e r i o d , t h e y were t h e e x i s t i n g
towns which were l i n k e d by common c a r r i e r r a i l w a y s when t h e s e f i r s t
e n t e r e d t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

With t h e a d v e n t o f t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d ,

t h e s e p r e - e x i s t i n g c e n t e r s were t h e d e s t i n a t i o n s f o r t h e t i m b e r
t r a n s p o r t e d by r a i l .

Through t i m e , s m a l l e r towns dev el op ed in t h e

i n t e r i o r , th ou gh t h e s e te n d e d t o o c c u r most f r e q u e n t l y a t t h e j u n c t i o n s of
t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d s w ith common c a r r i e r l i n e s .

They i n i t i a l l y a p pe a r ed

and f u n c t i o n e d as t r a n s s h i p m e n t p o i n t s , s u p p ly d e p o t s and e n t e r t a i n m e n t
c e n t e r s f o r men and m a t e r i a l going i n t o o r o u t o f t h e f o r e s t .

Some o f

t h e s e i n t e r i o r to w n s , in f a c t , p r e - d a t e t h e a r r i v a l o f lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d s
in t h e a r e a .

The l o c a t i o n of many o f t h e s e t r a n s i t i o n a l

c e n t e r s can b e s t

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be e x p l a i n e d by t h e i r b e i n g s u p p ly c e n t e r s r a t h e r t h a n t r a n s s h i p m e n t
points.

F u r t h e r m o r e , as l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d s became e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e Upper

P e n i n s u l a and f o r some t i m e t h e r e a f t e r , co m p os it e o p e r a t i o n s d e v e l o p e d .
That i s , some o p e r a t i o n s log g ed p i n e and s h ip p e d i t by r a i l t o t h e head o f
a d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m and t h e n d r o v e i t in t h e s p r i n g .
r e v e r s e a l s o hap pen ed .

O ccasionally, the

Thi s p a r t i c u l a r p r a c t i c e i n f l u e n c e d t h e l o c a t i o n

o f i n t e r i o r towns (Bohn 1937, D ulnbar 1970, Karamanskil 198 4) .
Some o f t h e s e i n t e r i o r towns e v e n t u a l l y de v el o p ed i n t o m i l l i n g
centers.

While t h i s was n o t u n i v e r s a l l y t h e c a s e , i t o c c u r r e d f r e q u e n t l y

around t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y and t h e r e a f t e r .

Wetmore and S h i n g l e t o n

were two such i n t e r i o r towns in t h e West Unit o f t h e Hiawatha National
F o r e s t which d ev el op ed i n t o m i l l i n g c e n t e r s .

At such i n t e r i o r m i ll tow ns ,

t h e lo g s coming in on t h e l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d would be p r o c e s s e d i n t o a
v a r i e t y o f p r o d u c t s and t h e n s h ip p e d t o ma rket on t h e common c a r r i e r l i n e .
Such towns t e n d e d t o be l a r g e r and more d i v e r s e th a n t h e sim pl e j u n c t i o n
towns (Karamanski 19 8 4 ) .
Logging c o n t i n u e d a t a r a p i d p ace d u r i n g t h e l a s t p a r t o f t h e s tu d y
p e r i o d , w it h c l e a r c u t t i n g and r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g e x t r a c t i n g a g r e a t amount
o f t i m b e r from t h e f o r e s t .

Over t i m e t h e amount o f t i m b e r a c c e s s i b l e t o

r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g d e c l i n e d as d i d t h e c o s t e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f such lo g g i n g
operations.

I t became more common t o d e c i d e n o t t o lo g a given a r e a

because of t h e s e f a c t o r s as th e f i r s t q u a r t e r of th e tw e n tie th century
wore o n .

Moreover, some a s t u t e o b s e r v e r s r e a l i z e d what was o c c u r r i n g and

e s t i m a t e d t h a t t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a would d e c l i n e much l i k e t h e Lower
P e n i n s u l a once t h e t i m b e r was g on e.

One a u t h o r , w r i t i n g a t t h e t u r n o f

t h e c e n t u r y , e s t i m a t e d t h a t in a b o u t t e n y e a r s many Upper P e n i n s u l a towns
would c e a s e t o be lo g g i n g c e n t e r s (Karamanski 1984, M a n s f ie ld 18 9 9) .

31
With t h e a d v en t o f World War I , p r i c e s r o s e in t h e lumber i n d u s t r y as
t h e y d id i n mining and a g r i c u l t u r e .

In s p i t e o f some l a b o r t r o u b l e s ,

l o g g i n g c o n t i n u e d a t a f a i r l y b r i s k r a t e and was a p r o f i t a b l e v e n t u r e .
However, w i t h t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e wa r, t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y f e l t t h e
e f f e c t s o f t h e r e c e s s i o n as much o r more so th a n o t h e r Upper P e n i n s u l a
industries.

F u r t h e r m o r e , gi v e n t h e g r e a t dependence o f a g r i c u l t u r e and

o t h e r s u p p o r t i n d u s t r i e s on l o g g i n g , t h e r i p p l e e f f e c t was q u i t e p r o f o u n d .
Although some lo g g i n g c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 2 0 ' s , d e c r e a s i n g t i m b e r
s u p p l i e s and f i n a l l y t h e G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n e f f e c t i v e l y ended t h e lo g g i n g
i n d u s t r y as i t had been p r i o r t o 1920 (Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 19 8 4) .
C o i n c i d e n t a l with t h e development o f commercial l o g g i n g in t h e Upper
P e n i s n s l a was t h e development o f a g r i c u l t u r e .

In o t h e r p a r t s o f t h e

United S t a t e s , and indeed in t h e Lakes S t a t e s , a g r i c u l t u r a l development
was a p r im a r y motive f o r s e t t l e m e n t .

In t h e c a s e o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a ,

however, i t was viewed as a v i t a l s u p p o r t s e r v i c e f o r t h e l o g g i n g and
mining i n u s t r i e s .

P r i o r t o t h e C i v i l War, most farms on t h e Upper

P e n i n s u l a were small and l o c a t e d n e a r one o f t h e e s t a b l i s h e d t o w n s .

A fter

t h e C i v i l War ( 1 8 7 0 ' s ) and t h e p a s s a g e o f t h e Homestead Act t h e number o f
farms grew and were more w id e l y d i s t r i b u t e d o ve r t h e l a n d s c a p e .

This

l a t t e r development was, however, one o f d i r e c t a s s o c i a t i o n w ith t h e
ex p an s io n o f t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y .

Throughout t h e r e m a in d e r o f t h e s tu d y

p e r i o d , t h e l o c a t i o n and number o f farms on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a c o n t i n u e d
t o be d e t e r m in e d by t h e l o c a t i o n and s i z e o f sawmill t o w n s , p o r t s ,
i n t e r i o r towns and o t h e r l o g g i n g f a c i l i t i e s

(Chase 1936, Dunbar 1970,

Karamanski 1984, Merk 1978, Watson 19 23 ).
Farmers i n i t i a l l y o b t a i n e d la n d th r o u g h p u b l i c s a l e o r by p u r c h a s i n g
i t from c o r p o r a t i o n s who had r e c i e v e d government la n d s u b s i d i e s .

They

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g e n e r a l l y t r i e d t o p ic k la n d upon which hardwoods grew s i n c e t h i s s o i l was
more f e r t i l e t h a n t h a t which u n d e r l a y p i n e .

E a r l y in t h e s t u d y p e r i o d

f a r m e r s were u s u a l l y s u c c e s s f u l in f i n d i n g v i r g i n l a n d .

When t h e y c l e a r e d

t h e la nd t h e y s o l d what t i m b e r t h e y d i d n ' t use f o r t h e i r own pu rp o s es t o
lumber c o m p a n ie s .

I n de ed , i f t h e y had o r i g i n a l l y puchased t h e i r la nd from

a c o r p o r a t i o n , i t was r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e y t u r n o v e r such e x c e s s t i m b e r t o
th a t corporation.

By t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s i t became more common t h a t a f a r m e r would

be g in far m in g th r o u g h t h e p u r c h a s e o f c u t o v e r la nd from a lumber
c o r p o r a t i o n r a t h e r th a n by o b t a i n i n g v i r g i n land (Chase 1936, Karamanski
1984, Watson 1 92 3 ) .
Two t y p e s o f f a r m e r s came t o t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

F i r s t , t h e r e were

t h o s e im migra nts from o t h e r p a r t s o f th e United S t a t e s and Europe whose
pr im ar y goal was t o become fa rm e r s o r c o n t i n u e farm in g as t h e y had done in
the p a s t.

The second group was t h o s e who came o r i g i n a l l y as l o g g e r s o r

m in er s o r who were a f f i l i a t e d w ith one o f t h e s e two e x t r a c t i v e i n d u s t r i e s
in some o t h e r c a p a c i t y .

Through s a v i n g s , many o f t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s were

a b l e t o a c q u i r e t h e i r own la n d and become f u l l or p a r t t i m e f a r m e r s .
a d d i t i o n , e t h n i c i t y seemed t o p la y some r o l e in f a r m i n g .

In

Most f a r m e r s ,

w het her t h e y immigrated d i r e c t l y and began farm in g o r worked in t h e
l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y b e f o r e t h e y began f a r m i n g , te n d e d t o s e t t l e i n a r e a s
where t h e r e were o t h e r s o f s i m i l a r c u l t u r a l b ac k g r o u n d .

This p r o c e s s was

much t h e same a s t h e r i s e o f e t h n i c neighb orho ods in urban a r e a s and may
be seen as a way by which p e o p l e a d a p t e d t o a new e n v i r o n m e n t .

It also

f i t i n well w i t h t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t world
sy stem (Chase 1936; Karamanski 1984; W a l l e r s t e i n 1980, 1983; Watson 192 3) .
The c l o s e r e l a t i o n s h i p between lo g g i n g and f ar m i ng was m a n i f e s t e d in
o t h e r a r e a s as w e l l .

During t h e f i r s t p a r t

(1870-1900) o f t h e s tu d y

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p e r i o d when p i n e was t h e p r i n c i p a l t i m b e r c u t , many f a r m e r s were a l s o
employed as l o g g e r s d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r mon ths.

This phenomenon o c c u r r e d

b ec a u se t h e busy p e r i o d f o r w i n t e r lo g g i n g c o i n c i d e d w it h a s l a c k p e r i o d
fo r farming.

Moreover, many f a r m e r s a l s o l e a s e d t h e i r d r a f t an i m a ls t o

l o g g i n g o p e r a t i o n s in a d d i t i o n t o / i n s t e a d o f working a s l o g g e r s
them selves.

The e x t e n t t o which t h i s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e i r income may be

seen when i t i s r e a l i z e d t h a t f o r many Upper P e n i n s u l a fa rm e r s farming
i t s e l f was not t h e i r m a jo r s o u r c e o f income.
lo g g i n g in t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s , f a r m e r s s t i l l

With t h e advent o f r a i l r o a d

worked as l o g g e r s d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r

mo n th s, bu t t h e y d id n o t c o n t i n u e d u r i n g t h e o t h e r p e r i o d s o f t h e y e a r
(Chase 1936, Draper 1930, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, Karamanski 1984, Watson 192 3) .
Farming was i n t i m a t e l y t i e d t o t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y in te rm s o f i t s
p r o d u c t s , s i n c e most a g r i c u l t u r a l m a rk e ts on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a were
l o c a l with e x p o r t t r a d e b e i n g l i m i t e d o r n o n - e x i s t a n t .
c r o p s t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y p e r i o d were hay and p o t a t o e s .

The p r i n c i p a l
Both o f t h e s e

c r o p s a r e s t u r d y , col d r e s i s t a n t and grew well in sandy loam.
to a v a rie ty of uses.

Hay was put

I t was s o l d t o lo g g i n g companies as f o d d e r f o r t h e

d r a f t a n i m a ls i n t h e camps.

I t co u ld a l s o be used by t h e f a r m e r o r s o l d

t o an d a i r y / s t o c k fa rm e r as c a t t l e f o o d .

P r o d u c t s from l i v e s t o c k

o p e r a t i o n s , such as c h e e s e , mi lk and me at, were t h e n s o l d t o lo g g i n g
companies o r t o i n d i v i d u a l s l i v i n g in one o f t h e i n t e r i o r to w n s .
were s o l d t o t h e l o g g e r s a s f o o d .

Potatoes

A f t e r 1900, a l f a l f a , o a t s , r y e , p e a s ,

s u g a r b e e t s and seed corn were grown alo ng with hay and p o t a t o e s .

These

c r o p s , which had been t a i l o r e d t o grow in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a ' s c l i m a t e ,
were t h e r e s u l t o f e a r l y e f f o r t s a t s e l e c t i v e b r e e d i n g con ducted a t

34
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y and e l s e w h e r e .

They were u t i l i z e d f o r both

human and animal consumption (Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 1984, Kuhn 1955,
Watson 19 23 ).
Throughout t h e s t u d y p e r i o d far m in g c o n t i n u e d t o grow alo ng with t h e
lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y .

During t h e p i n e e r a s u p p l i e s were p r i m a r i l y ha ul ed i n t o

t h e lo g g i n g camps on wagons d u r i n g t h e f a l l and on i n f r e q u e n t s l e d t r i p s
during th e w in te r.

The a d v e n t o f r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g changed t h e m a rk e t i n g

sy ste m d r a m a t i c a l l y .

F r e s h meat and produce were b r o u g h t d i r e c t l y t o t h e

l o g g e r s in a l l b u t t h e most s e v e r e w e a t h e r .

Va rious a c c o u n ts o f lo g g i n g

camp l i f e a r e e s p e c i a l l y c l e a r a b ou t t h e kind and q u a l i t y o f food t h a t was
a v a i l a b l e and i t s im p or ta n ce t o m o r a l e , e t c .

Furthermore, th e appearance

o f i n t e r i o r towns and s a w m i l l i n g c e n t e r s a t t h e r a i l w a y j u n c t i o n s pr o v id e d
an a d d i t i o n a l market f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s .
Upper P e n i n s u l a lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y was s t i l l

Beyond t h e s e f a c t o r s , t h e

in a growth p h a s e , which meant

t h a t t h e demand f o r a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s c o n t i n u a l l y i n c r e a s e d d u r i n g t h e
l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e s tu d y p e r i o d .
c o n t i n u e d t o grow as well

Needless t o s a y , t h e number o f farms

(D r ap er 1930, Dunbar 1970, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e

1889, Karamanski 1984, Wells 19 7 8) .
During t h e l a s t d eca de o f t h e s tu d y p e r i o d as t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y
began t o d e c l i n e on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a , farm in g d i d not f o l l o w a s c l o s e l y
as one might have e x p e c t e d .

Th is was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o World War I , which

c r e a t e d a g r e a t demand f o r farm p r o d u c t s .

Some Upper P e n i n s u l a f a r m e r s ,

in v o l v e d in mixed farm in g b e f o r e t h e war, began t o p r a c t i c e c a t t l e o r
sheep r a n c h i n g .

The wa rti m e demand f o r f o r e s t and m i n e r a l p r o d u c t s a l s o

i n c r e a s e d t h e demand f o r food f o r t h e s e w o r k e r s .

Thus l o g g i n g , m i n in g ,

and f ar m i ng were g r a n t e d a t e m p o r a r y r e s p i t e from t h e d e c l i n e i n t o which
t h e y had been f a l l i n g .

With t h e c o n c l u s i o n o f t h e wa r, t h i n g s changed

35
dram atically.

There was an o v e r a l l , n a t i o n a l p o s t war d e p r e s s i o n .

The

demand f o r f o r e s t and m i n e r a l p r o d u c t s dropped below p r e - w a r l e v e l s , t o a
p o i n t where t h e y would have been had not t h e war c r e a t e d f a l s e demand.
F u th e r m o r e , t h o s e e x t e r n a l m a rk e ts t h a t had d ev el o p ed f o r Upper P e n i n s u l a
a g ric u ltu re disappeared.

The i n t e r n a l ma rket t h a t had e x i s t e d b e f o r e

World War I was dep en de nt a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y ,
which was a l s o in d e c l i n e .

The r e s u l t o f t h e s e e v e n t s was a d r a m a t i c

d e c l i n e in Upper P e n i n s u l a a g r i c u l t u r e .

The f i r s t t o d i s a p p e a r were t h e

r a n c h e s t h a t had ap pea red d u r i n g t h e war.

However, t h e economic impact

d i d no t s t o p h e r e as many o f t h e s m a l l e r d a i r y and mixed farms a l s o
disappeared.

Th is o c c u r r e d b e c a u s e many f a r m e r s , s p u r r e d by t h e m a rk e ts

g e n e r a t e d by t h e lo g g i n g boom, had s e t t l e d on m a rg in al l a n d .

Co ns eq u en tl y

t h e y were f o r c e d t o abandon t h e i r farms becausp t h e s o i l was o f such poor
q u a l i t y t h a t i t coul d n o t e c o n o m i c a l l y be farmed e x c e p t under c o n d i t i o n s
o f a g u a r a n t e e d and s t a b l e / i n c r e a s i n g demand, such as t h a t f o r m e r l y
p r o v i d e d by t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y (Defebaugh 1906, Dunbar 1970, Hudgins
1961, Karamanski 1984, Watson 1 92 3 ) .
The i r o n i n d u s t r y , which had d ev el o p ed in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a p r i o r
t o t h e C i v i l War, c o n t i n u e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e l a s t q u a r t e r o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h
and i n t o t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .

This i n d u s t r y d e a l t no t w ith coke

i r o n / s t e e l , which had become t h e pred omi nan t t y p e o f i r o n m a n uf a ct ur ed in
t h e r e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y , b u t w ith c h a r c o a l i r o n .

The r e a s o n f o r t h e

c o n t i n u a t i o n o f t h i s i n d u s t r y was t h a t town b l a c k s m i t h s and o t h e r small
o p e r a t i o n s f a v o r e d c h a r c o a l i r o n o v e r coke i r o n / s t e e l .

The i n d u s t r y

c o n t i n u e d t o o p e r a t e on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a b e c a u s e o f t h e p r o x i m i t y o f
i r o n d e p o s i t s and a s o u r c e o f hardwood f o r c h a r c o a l and fram in g t i m b e r s
(Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 1 9 8 4 ) .

36
During t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e s tu d y p e r i o d t h e c h a r c o a l i r o n i n d u s t r y
became one o f t h e ma jor u s e r s o f t h e new hardwood s u p p l i e s t h a t became
a v a i l a b l e w it h t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g .

Some s m e l t e r s were no

l o n g e r l o c a t e d imme dia tely a d j a c e n t t o m i n e s , b u t i n s t e a d were l o c a t e d a t
i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t s which s h o r t e n e d t h e r e l a t i v e d i s t a n c e between m i n e s ,
f u e l s u p p ly and s h i p p i n g p o i n t s .

G la d s to n e was one such s m e l t i n g c e n t e r

in t h e West Unit o f t h e Hiawatha N at io n al F o r e s t .

The f u r n a c e s t h e r e

r e q u i r e d 1200 t o 1600 a c r e s o f hardwoods p e r y e a r t o f u e l them.
s m e l t e r s r e q u i r e d s i m i l a r v ol um es.

Other

Logging o p e r a t i o n s s u p p l y i n g s m e l t e r s

h e r e and e l s e w h e r e were l o c a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y a r e a (Dunbar 1970,
Karamanski 1 9 8 4 ).
During World War I , t h e a s s o c i a t e d l a b o r s h o r t a g e f o r c e d mining
companies t o a do pt a n o t h e r s t r a t e g y t o f u e l t h e i r f u r n a c e s .
immigrant "c ho pp er s " t o s cav en ge an a r e a f o r wood.

They h i r e d

These pe o p le o f t e n

l i v e d in abandoned d w e l l i n g s and were u s u a l l y pa i d by t h e amount o f wood
they c u t .

They e n a b l e d t h e mining i n d u s t r y t o m a i n t a i n a cheap s u p p ly o f

hardwood t h r o u g h o u t t h e war y e a r s (Karamanski 19 8 4 ) .
With t h e end o f t h e w ar , t h e mining i n d u s t r y on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a
s u f f e r e d from t h e r e c e s s i o n .

Although c h a r c o a l i r o n p r o d u c t i o n had

i n c r e a s e d a n n u a l l y u n t i l 1890, and remained high t h e r e a f t e r , i t d e c l i n e d
at th is point.

While i t was no t a s s e v e r l y e f f e c t e d as a g r i c u l t u r e and

l o g g i n g , mining p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l s d u r i n g t h e 1 9 2 0 ' s f e l l t o t h o s e o f t h e
p r e - C i v i l War y e a r s (Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 19 84 ).
Throughout t h e s t u d y p e r i o d ( 1 8 7 0 - 1 9 2 0 ) , t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e e a s t e r n
h a l f o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a can be seen as one i n c r e a s i n g l y o r i e n t e d
around t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y .

Although mining may be c o n s i d e r e d as

somewhat s e p a r a t e , i t n o n e t h e l e s s was d ep en de n t on t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y

37
f o r fra m in g t i m b e r s and c h a r c o a l .

A g r i c u l t u r e , however, was al mo st

e x c l u s i v e l y de p en d e n t on t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y .

Although no l o n g e r t h e

United S t a t e s l e a d e r in t i m b e r p r o d u c t i o n Michigan d i d produce s i g n i f i c a n t
amounts d u r i n g t h e second deca de o f t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .

However, i t

was no l o n g e r an i n d u s t r y on t h e r i s e and l o g g e r s began t o l e a v e t h e Upper
P e n i n s u l a f o r t h e Northwest c o a s t and t h e I n la n d Empire.

World War I

c r e a t e d a f a l s e demand f o r p r o d u c t s o f a l l t h r e e Upper P e n i n s u l a
industries.

At i t s c o n c l u s i o n and w ith t h e a r r i v a l o f t h e r e c e s s i o n in

1920, most lo g g i n g and a g r i c u l t u r a l v e n t u r e s came t o a c r a s h i n g h a l t .
This marked t h e end o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y as i t had been
known s i n c e 1870.

Although l o g g i n g c o n t i n u e d d u r i n g t h e 1 9 2 0 ' s and 1 9 3 0 ' s

i t was d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e boom y e a r s and was i n t r a n s i t i o n e d t o an
e r a o f managed f o r e s t r y as i s found t o d a y .

Summary
In r e v i e w i n g t h e h i s t o r y o f t h e e a s t e r n Upper P e n i n s u l a , i t i s
a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e r e g i o n was i n f l u e n c e d markedly by t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y .
Because o f t h i s , s e t t l e m e n t was p u r p o s i v e , with occupancy o f t h e r e g i o n
s h i f t i n g in c o n c e r t w ith changes i n t h e e x t e n t and i t e n s i t y o f l o g g i n g .
Moreover, s i n c e lo g g i n g was an e x t r a c t i v e , e x p o r t - o r i e n t e d i n d u s t r y , i t
fo c u s e d as much, i f n o t more s o , on p r o c e s s e s e x t e r n a l t o t h e Upper
Peninsula.

These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n d i c a t e t h a t d u r i n g t h e lo g g i n g e r a t h e

Upper P e n i n s u l a ' s f e a t u r e s matched t h o s e of t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model
d ev el o pe d in C h a p t e r IV.
Exa mination o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model draws upon h i s t o r i c a l
d a t a u n d e r l y i n g t h e e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s c h a p t e r as well as upon
a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and e n vi ro n m en ta l d a t a , and f o c u s e s upon t h e s p a t i a l ,

38
temporal and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s which c h a r a c t e r i z e i n d u s t r i a l
frontiers.

Should t h e model suc cee d in i n t e g r a t i n g t h e s e v a r i o u s d a t a

i n t o a l o g i c a l and s y s t e m a t i c c o n s t r u c t , which p r o v i d e s an u n d e r s t a n d i n g
of the essence of in d u s tria l

f r o n t i e r s , i t w i l l a l s o enhance t h e

h i s t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f t h e e v e n t s d e s c r i b e d in t h i s c h a p t e r .

F irst,

however, i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o d i s c u s s t h e n a t u r a l c o n t e x t w i t h i n which t h e s e
events occurred.

CHAPTER I I I

THE NATURAL ENVIRONMENT

Introduction
This d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l envi ronm ent o f t h e s tu d y a r e a
i l l u s t r a t e s t h e s e t t i n g w i t h i n which lo g g i n g was c on d uc te d from 1870 t o
1920.

In a d d i t i o n t o p r o v i d i n g d e s c r i p t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n ab out t h e n a t u r a l

s e t t i n g o f t h e s t u d y a r e a , c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f a s s o c i a t i o n among
e n vi ro n m en ta l f e a t u r e s a r e d i s c u s s e d .

In so d o i n g , g e n e r a l r a t h e r th a n

f i n e s c a l e d e s c r i p t i o n s w i l l be u s e d .

This appro ac h i s based on c e r t a i n

p r em i s es a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e environ me nt w ith r e s p e c t t o l a t e
n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y h i s t o r i c o c c u p a t i o n , t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e lo g g i n g
i n d u s t r y and t h e v a r i a b l e s chosen f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h .
The l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y r e l a t i o n s h i p between h i s t o r i c o c c u p a t i o n
and t h e en vi ron m ent d i f f e r e d from t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between e a r l i e r
h i s t o r i c o r p r e h i s t o r i c o c c u p a t i o n and t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .

During e a r l i e r

h i s t o r i c and p r e h i s t o r i c t i m e s , t h e s u r v i v a l o f human p o p u l a t i o n s depended
d i r e c t l y on t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u b s i s t e n c e m a t e r i a l s and t h e p o p u l a t i o n s '
a b i l i t y t o s e c u r e t h e s e f o r human u s e .

By t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y

many Euro-American p o p u l a t i o n s no l o n g e r d i r e c t l y p r o c u r e d s u b s i s t e n c e
ite ms from t h e l o c a l e n v i r o n m e n t .

When s u b s i s t e n c e m a t e r i a l s were

a v a i l a b l e l o c a l l y , t h e s e were u t i l i z e d .
were s hi p pe d i n t o t h e a r e a .

When n o t , t h e n e c e s s a r y items

Hence, t h e te c h n o l o g y o f an i n d u s t r i a l i z e d

39

40
s t a t e s o c i e t y made i t p o s s i b l e t o i n h a b i t a r e a s where t h e human p o p u l a t i o n
exceeded t h e c a r r y i n g c a p a c i t y o f t h e l o c a l e n v i ro n m e n t .
Within t h e c a p i t a l i s t world system t h e en v iro nm ent was something t o
be e x p l o i t e d f o r p r o f i t , r a t h e r t h a n something from which one d i r e c t l y
derived su b sis te n c e .

C o n s e q u e n t l y , s e t t l e m e n t in a g iv e n a r e a te n d e d t o

be p u r p o s i v e , aimed a t t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a ma rket o r t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f
a m a r k e t a b l e commodity.

Thus , t h e e nv ir on m en ta l p a r a m e t e r s a s s o c i a t e d

w ith h i s t o r i c s e t t l e m e n t a r e l i k e l y t o be found a t a f a i r l y g e n e r a l l e v e l
and may n o t have t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e t h e y do f o r e a r l i e r
h i s t o r i c / p r e - h i s t o r i c occupation.

The l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y , which o p e r a t e d on

a c o s t m i n i m i z a t i o n / p r o f i t m a x im iz at io n b a s i s , i s one example o f such an
occupation.

Within t h i s c o n t e x t , d e c i s i o n s t o log an a r e a were bas ed on

t h e p r e s e n c e o f t r e e s i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y and a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o produce
the g re a te st p r o f it p o ssib le.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e p r e s e n c e o f lo g g i n g camps in

an a r e a was t a k e n t o be i n d i c a t i v e o f t r e e growth i n s u f f i c i e n t q u a n t i t y
and a c c e s s i b i l i t y t o be p r o f i t a b l e .

This was t h e c a s e r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e

t y p e o f t r e e s e x p l o i t e d and t h e l o c a l a v a i l a b i l i t y o f s u b s i s t e n c e g ood s.
Because o f t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s mentioned ab ov e, and in C ha pt er IV, t h e
e n vi ro n m en ta l v a r i a b l e s used in t h i s a n a l y s i s d i d n o t i n c l u d e t r e e s or
p o t e n t i a l food s o u r c e s ; d e t a i l e d d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e s e have n o t been
included.

R a t h e r , t h e aim o f t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o p r o v i d e an u n d e r s t a n d i n g

o f t h e l a r g e r e nv ir on m en ta l s e t t i n g w i t h i n t h e s t u d y a r e a and t h e
a s s o c i a t i o n s which e x i s t among c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h i s s e t t i n g .

Discussion
While t h e e a s t e r n Upper P e n i n s u l a was cove re d by i c e d u r i n g a l l f o u r
o f t h e ma jor g l a c i a l e p i s o d e s o f t h e P l e i s t o c e n e , t h e l a s t ma jor g l a c i a l

41
p e r i o d , t h e W i sc o n s i n an , had t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on t h e modern la nd
surface.

I t was d u r i n g t h e P o r t Huron s u b s t a g e o f t h i s g l a c i a t i o n t h a t

most of t h e g l a c i a l f e a t u r e s in t h e s t u d y a r e a were for me d.

During t h e

d e g l a c i a t i o n a number o f p r o - and p o s t - g l a c i a l l a k e s o c c u p i e d t h e a r e a
w i t h i n which t h e G r e a t Lakes now r e s i d e .

F l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e s i z e and

sh ap e o f t h e s e l a k e s , combined w it h changes i n d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n , e f f e c t e d
many p a r t s o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

Moreover, r e t r e a t o f t h e g l a c i a l i c e

i n i t i a t e d t h e p r o c e s s of i s o s t a t i c r eb o un d.

The ongoing n a t u r e o f t h i s

p r o c e s s caus ed s h i f t s in d r a i n a g e and e l e v a t i o n f o r a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d
a f t e r t h e f i n a l d i s a p p e a r a n c e o f g l a c i e r s from t h e r e g i o n (Dorr and
Eschman 1970, Goldman 19 7 6) .
The s u r f a c e geology o f t h e s t u d y a r e a m i r r o r s t h e e f f e c t o f
g l a c i a t i o n and t h e p o s t - g l a c i a l Gr eat L ak e s.

Much o f t h e s o u t h e r n and

e a s t e r n p a r t s o f t h e s t u d y a r e a a r e composed o f l a k e bed sands with
i s o l a t e d end m or ai nes as well as ground m or ai nes and outwash p l a i n s .

The

c e n t r a l p o r t i o n o f t h e s t u d y a r e a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by ground m o rai nes and
outwash p l a i n s , w h i l e t h e n o r t h e r n edge c o n t a i n s t h e Munising moraine and
la k e bed s e d i m e n t s .

These g l a c i a l f e a t u r e s a f f e c t t h e d r a i n a g e ,

t o p o g r a p h y and o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e modern l a n d s c a p e (Dorr and
Eschman 1970, Goldman 19 7 6) .
The r e s u l t s o f g l a c i a l a c t i v i t y on c u r r e n t la n d fo r m may be seen
t h r o u g h an e x a m i n a t i o n o f each o f t h e c o u n t i e s in t h e s t u d y a r e a .

D el t a

County i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e l e v a t i o n s between 580 and 1000 f e e t above se a
level

(asl).

The n o r t h w e s t e r n p a r t s o f t h i s cou nt y as well as t h e Garden

P e n i n s u l a a r e composed o f m or ai n es and outwash f e a t u r e s .

The c o u nt y as a

whole i s r e l a t i v e l y p o o r l y d r a i n e d w ith a number o f swamps and m a r s h e s .
A lg e r County, w it h e l e v a t i o n s between 600 t o 1000 f e e t a s l , i s l e v e l t o

42
r o l l i n g and composed p r i m a r i l y o f m o r a i n i c h i g h l a n d s and l a k e bed
s e d im e n ts w it h swamps and ma rshes common in t h e l e v e l p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t y .
S c h o o l c r a f t County i s a g e n e r a l l y unifo rm sandy p l a i n , w ith m o r a i n i c
h i g h l a n d s in t h e n o r t h .

E l e v a t i o n s range between 580 and 1000 f e e t a s l .

The sandy lo w la nd s a r e g e n e r a l l y p o o r l y d r a i n e d and swamps and marshes a r e
common (M ar ti n 197 7).
The c l i m a t e o f t h e s t u d y a r e a i s g e n e r a l l y u n i f o r m , w ith any
v a r i a t i o n b e i n g d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h e Gr eat La ke s.
Average annual s now fa ll v a r i e s from 130 i n c h e s on t h e n o r t h e r n c o a s t t o
100 i n c h e s i n l a n d and 55 i n c h e s n e a r t h e Lake Michigan s h o r e .

S pr in g

t e n d s t o be l a t e and autumn e a r l y , a l t h o u g h t h e l a t t e r can be d e l a y e d in
a r e a s a d j a c e n t t o t h e warmer w a t e r s of Lake Mic hi gan .

Summertime

t e m p e r a t u r e s r a r e l y exceed 90 d e g r e e s F a h r e n h e i t (F) w h i l e w i n t e r s te n d t o
be co l d w it h a p p r o x i m a t e l y t w e n t y days o f below ze r o (F) t e m p e r a t u r e s .
The growing s e a s o n a v e r a g e s 120 days bu t v a r i e s between 80 days in t h e
i n t e r i o r t o 140 days n e a r t h e l a k e s .
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 30 i n c h e s o f r a i n f a l l

The s t u d y a r e a r e c e i v e s
each y e a r , a l t h o u g h numerous l a k e s and

e x t e n s i v e w e t l a n d s c a u s e much o f t h i s t o be l o s t by e v a p o t r a n s p i r a t i o n .
However, t h i s s i t u a t i o n i s a m e l i o r a t e d beca use w i n t e r sn o w f a ll and t h e
s u b s e q u e n t s p r i n g thaw e x t e n s i v e l y r e c h a r g e s t h e a q u i f e r s which o c c u r b o th
in g l a c i a l d r i f t and in t h e u n d e r l y i n g b e d r o c k .

In a d d i t i o n t o forming an

a q u i f e r , t h e g l a c i a l d r i f t l a y e r i s a l s o r e s p o n s i b l e f o r many s u r f a c e
water f e a t u r e s .

For example, t h e t h i n n e s s o f t h i s d e p o s i t o v e r l y i n g

impermeable bedro ck o f t e n r e s u l t s in t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f swamps and marshes
( B er n d t 1977, Goldman 197 6) .
The r i v e r systems o f t h e s t u d y a r e a a r e i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g
th e h i s t o r i c occupation f o r t h r e e reasons.

F i r s t , t h e y p ro vi d ed an easy

43
r o u t e f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f p e o p l e and goods i n l a n d from t h e c o a s t .
Second, t h e y were v i t a l f o r t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f l o g s t o t h e c o a s t from
the i n t e r i o r .

Third, the nature of t h e i r drainages a ffe c te d the lo c atio n

o f s e t t l e m e n t i n t h a t some a r e a s were s e a s o n a l l y o r p e r e n i a l l y t o o wet f o r
occupation.
A c l o s e r e x a m in a t io n o f t h e s e r i v e r s y s t e m s , based upon t h e work of
Bern dt ( 1 9 7 7 ) , Goldman (1976) and Martin ( 1 9 7 7 ) , r e v e a l s t h a t t h e y have
r e l a t i v e l y small w a t e r s h e d s and l a c k t h e d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n t y p i c a l o f well
d ev el o pe d d r a i n a g e s y s t e m s .

Moreover, t h e d r a i n a g e d i v i d e i s c l o s e r t o

t h e Lake S u p e r i o r s h o r e t h a n t o t h e Lake Michigan s h o r e , which r e s u l t s in
t h e up p er r e a c h e s o f t h e Lake Michigan d r a i n a g e b e i n g s l u g g i s h and
d i f f i c u l t to tr a c e (Figure 4 ) .
A lg e r County s t r a d d l e s t h e d r a i n a g e d i v i d e and i t s r i v e r s and s tr ea m s
flow in b o th d i r e c t i o n s .

Those fl o w in g i n t o Lake S u p e r i o r a r e r e l a t i v e l y

s h o r t and flo w f a i r l y r a p i d l y , w h i l e r i v e r s and s t r e a m s fl o w in g i n t o Lake
Michigan a r e l o n g e r and fl o w more s l u g g i s h l y

.

They f r e q u e n t l y flow

t h r o u g h t h e numerous swamps, ma rshes and l a k e s which c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e
southern p a r ts of th e county.
The M a n i s t i q u e R iv e r d r a i n a g e i s t h e p r i n c i p a l r i v e r system in
S c h o o l c r a f t County, a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d by swamps, ma rshes and l a k e s .
These f e a t u r e s a r e p a r t i c u l a r l y n o t i c e a b l e in t h e upp er p o r t i o n s o f t h e
M a n i s t i q u e d r a i n a g e where a r e a s between s t r e a m s can remain p er m a n en tl y
cov er e d by w a t e r , i n d i c a t i n g t h e g l a c i a l d r i f t ' s c a p a c i t y t o hold w a t e r as
well as t h e in a de qu ac y o f t h e M a n is ti q u e d r a i n a g e .
D e l t a County c o n t a i n s a number of r i v e r s and s t r e a m s , most o f which
flow i n t o t h e Bays de Noc o f Lake M ichigan, w h i l e o t h e r s a r e components o f
d r a i n a g e s t h a t flow i n t o o t h e r c o u n t i e s .

Many o f t h e s e r i v e r s occupy

44

FIGURE 4
MAJOR DRAINAGES IN THE STUDY AREA

miles

FI G URE 4

46
g l a c i a l d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s a n d , as e l s e w h e r e , t h e s e d r a i n a g e s a r e
un developed w i t h f r e q u e n t l a k e s , swamps and m a r s h e s .

Principal riv e rs of

t h e c o u nt y a r e t h e W h i t e f i s h , t h e E sc ana ba, t h e R ap id , and t h e Days.
The Upper P e n i n s u l a e x i s t s in a t r a n s i t i o n a l
p l a n t and animal communities t h e r e .

zone i n te rm s o f t h e

To t h e n o r t h l i e s t h e Canadian B i o t i c

Province, while to th e south l i e s t h e C aro lin ian B io tic Province.
E c o l o g i s t s , such as S h e l f o r d ( 1 9 7 4 ) , whose work i s t h e b a s i s o f t h e
f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n , have termed t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t r a n s i t i o n a l r e g i o n t h e
Lake F o r e s t z o n e - c h a r a c t e r i z e d p r i m a r i l y by maple-b eec h- hem loc k f o r e s t
c o - o c c u r r i n g w it h pin e -he m lo c k f o r e s t .
Dominant s p e c i e s in t h e ma ple -be ec h- hem loc k f o r e s t in c l u d e d s u g ar
m a p le , y e l l o w b i r c h and b e e c h .

Minor s p e c i e s a r e r e p r e s e n t e d by hemlock,

w h i t e p i n e and s p r u c e - b a l s a m f i r .
conditions w arrant.

Elm, basswood and ash oc cu r when l o c a l

Lower s t o r i e s in t h e f o r e s t c o n t a i n a v a r i e t y o f

s h r u b s and h er b a c e o u s s p e c i e s , i n c l u d i n g s p i c e b u s h , c h o k e b e r r y and
jewel weed.

The dominant t r e e s p e c i e s in t h e pin e -he m lo c k f o r e s t i n c l u d e

w h i t e p i n e , red p i n e , hemlock and j a c k p i n e .

Lower s t o r i e s in t h e f o r e s t

a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v a r i e t y o f s h r u b s and he rb a c e o u s s p e c i e s , among
the m, Labora dor t e a , b u n c h b e r r y , mountain a s h , s t a r f l o w e r , s a r s a p a r i l l a ,
b i l b e r r y , h o n e y s u c k l e , and l i c h e n .
The Lake F o r e s t zone i s a l s o c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a v a r i e t y o f w a t e r
f e a t u r e s i n c l u d i n g swamps, b o g s , r i v e r s / s t r e a m s , i n l a n d l a k e s and Gr eat
L ak e s.

With t h e o c c a s i o n a l e x c e p t i o n o f t h e G r ea t Lakes s h o r e s , t h e

b i o t i c communities a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e s e f e a t u r e s d u p l i c a t e t h o s e o f t h e
f o r e s t w i t h i n which t h e y o c c u r .

Timber s p e c i e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e s e

w e t t e r a r e a s i n c l u d e w h i t e c e d a r , b la c k s p r u c e , t a m a r a c k , a s p e n , b i r c h and
balsam f i r .

Lower s t o r y growth i s a l s o more a q u a t i c in n a t u r e ( e . g . w a t e r

47
l i l i e s , c a t t a i l s , marsh g r a s s , sphagnum moss) w h i l e s t i l l

containing

v e g e t a t i o n common t o t h e m a jo r s u r r o u n d i n g f o r e s t .
The a s s o c i a t i o n o f t h e b a s i c d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s , s u r f a c e geology and
f o r e s t growth p r o v i d e a more c om p le te u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e s t u d y a r e a .
Although t h e f o r e s t i s c u r r e n t l y s u c c e s s i o n a l l y modern growth ( i . e . p o s t
l o g g i n g e r a ) , i t i s assumed t h a t i t b e a r s some r es em bl an ce t o t h e
p r e - s e t t l e m e n t growth ( i . e . p r e - l o g g i n g / l o g g i n g e r a ) .

Moreover, bec a u se

f o r e s t growth w i l l no t be used as a v a r i a b l e i n t h i s r e s e a r c h , t h i s
a p p r o x i m a t i o n i s a c c e p t a b l e f o r pu r p o s es o f t h i s s t u d y .
D i s c u s s i o n o f en v i ro n m e n ta l a s s o c i a t i o n i s drawn from la n df or m based
e n v i ro n m e n ta l a s s o c i a t i o n s d ev el o p ed by t h e United S t a t e s F o r e s t S e r v i c e
( B u r g h a r d t and Wigger 1978) and from t h e work o f Be rn d t ( 1 9 7 7 ) .

Each

a s s o c i a t i o n i s reviewed on t h e b a s i s o f l a n d f o r m , s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ,
d r a i n a g e and pr edom inant f o r e s t t y p e .

By p r e s e n t i n g t h e s e env iro n m en ta l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in t h i s way i t i s p o s s i b l e t o i d e n t i f y t h e t y p e s o f
s e t t i n g s i n which h i s t o r i c o c c u p a t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e
l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r , would have o c c u r r e d .

Moreover, t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s

between l a n d fo r m and s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s would impact d i r e c t l y upon t h e
s i t i n g o f l o g g i n g camps and o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s b e c a u s e t h e s e two
e n v i ro n m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s e f f e c t d r a i n a g e , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , s a n i t a t i o n ,
b u i l d i n g c o n d i t i o n s and t h e o v e r a l l h a b i t a b i l i t y o f t h e a r e a .
The f i r s t a s s o c i a t i o n i s t h a t o f m or ai ne s cov er e d by g l a c i a l outwash
which ran ge from l e v e l t o r o l l i n g t o s t e e p .

Medium san ds with p o c k e t s o f

g r a v e l and o r g a n i c s o i l a r e t h e pr im ar y s o i l s a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s
landform.

Although most o f t h e s o i l s have a well d e v e l o p e d o r g a n i c

s u r f a c e l a y e r , n a t u r a l f e r t i l i t y i s low and t h e s o i l
erosion.

i s s u b j e c t t o wind

The u p la n d s t e n d t o be e x c e s s i v e l y t o well d r a i n e d c o n t r a s t i n g

48
w it h t h e p o o r l y d r a i n e d low l y i n g a r e a s .

N orthern hardwoods ( m a p l e - b i r c h -

beech) w i t h r e d p i n e a r e t h e pr ed om in ant t r e e t y p e .

Hemlock, s p r u c e - f i r

and aspen o c c u r as i n c l u s i o n s w i t h i n t h e l a r g e r f o r e s t .
G l a c i a l outwash sa nd s a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by low, r o l l i n g h i l l s and
g ra d u a lly slo p in g level p l a i n s .
gravel p o c k e ts.

S o i l s a r e g e n e r a l l y medium sand with

Areas n e a r l a k e beds a r e lo w e r , c o n t a i n c l a y , s t r a t i f i e d

san ds and s i l t , and a r e p o o r l y d r a i n e d .

Other th a n t h e s e a r e a s , t h e

r e m a in d e r t e n d t o be e x c e s s i v e l y d r a i n e d .

The predominant t i m b e r t y p e i s

j a c k p i n e mixed w ith red ma pl e, w h i t e b i r c h and a s p e n .
Va rio us l a c u s t r i n e d e p o s i t s composed o f s i l t s and c l a y s o c c a s s i o n a l l y
o v e r l a i n by sand o r loamy sand were d e r i v e d from g l a c i a l

lakes.

The

to p o g r a p h y i s g e n e r a l l y f l a t t o g e n t l y s l o p i n g and t h e d r a i n a g e i s
somewhat poor t o poor and ponded w a t e r i s common.

Timber s p e c i e s i n c l u d e

a s p e n , balm o f g i l e a d , s p r u c e - f i r , red m a p le , w h i t e b i r c h and t a m a r a c k .
The w e t t e s t a r e a s u s u a l l y c o n t a i n swamp c o n i f e r s ( c e d a r , b l a c k s p r u c e ,
tam arack).
Both h ig h and low r e l i e f s e t t i n g s c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e morai nes which
cover lim estone bedrock.

In t h e f o r m e r , t h e to p o g r a p h y i s g e n t l y r o l l i n g

t o s t e e p in more h e a v i l y d i s s e c t e d a r e a s .
the landscape.

Bo ul d er s a r e s c a t t e r e d abo ut

S o i l s a r e p r i m a r i l y loams and sandy lo a m s , a l t h o u g h some

s t r a t i f i e d sand and g r a v e l outwash d e p o s i t s o c c u r , as do kames and e s k e r s .
The up la n d a r e a s a r e well d r a i n e d , w h il e d e p r e s s i o n s a r e somewhat p o o r l y
to poorly d ra in e d .

N o rth er n hardwoods, s p r u c e - f i r , a s p e n , p a p e r b i r c h and

i n c l u s i o n s o f hemlock and y e l l o w b i r c h a r e t h e dominant t i m b e r s p e c i e s .
In t h e c a s e o f t h e low r e l i e f s e t t i n g , t h e to p o g ra p h y i s l e v e l and
d r a i n a g e r a n g e s from somewhat poor t o p o o r .

As w ith t h e high r e l i e f

s e t t i n g , s o i l s a r e p r i m a r i l y loams and sandy loa ms , a l t h o u g h i n t h i s c a s e

49
t h e y more f r e q u e n t l y c o n t a i n g r a v e l and c o b b l e s .

Depressions often

c o n t a i n o r g a n i c s o i l , s i l t , c l a y and sandy d e p o s i t s ; bedrock f r e q u e n t l y
occurs a t th e s u r f a c e .

In a r e a s a l o n g t h e G rea t Lakes s a n d / g r a v e l beach

r i d g e s a r e common, u s u a l l y c o n t a i n i n g o r g a n i c d e p o s i t s between t h e r i d g e s
and g e n e r a l l y b e t t e r d r a i n e d .

Timber s p e c i e s i n c l u d e w h i t e c e d a r ,

b a l s a m - f i r , a s p e n , balm o f g i l e a d , w h i t e b i r c h and s p r u c e .
Moraines o v e r s a n d s t o n e be dr ock s h a r e some f e a t u r e s common w ith t h o s e
ov er l i m e s t o n e .

Topography t e n d s t o be v a r i e d , with f a i r l y s t e e p s l o p e s

and in some a r e a s bedrock i s p r e s e n t on t h e s u r f a c e .

Soils are prim arily

sandy loams w ith some sand and g r a v e l d e p o s i t s o c c u r r i n g in outwash a r e a s .
Organic s o i l s oc cu r in somewhat p o o r l y t o p o o r l y d r a i n e d d e p r e s s i o n s and
o t h e r low l y i n g a r e a s .

Upland a r e a s a r e well d r a i n e d .

Timber s p e c i e s a r e

n o r t h e r n hardwoods w ith i n c l u s i o n s o f s p r u c e - f i r and hemlock.
The n e x t a s s o c i a t i o n o c c u r s p r i m a r i l y w ith g l a c i a l l a k e beds and
d r a i n a g e ways and c o n s i s t s o f sandy r i d g e s with i n t e r v e n i n g o r g a n i c
d e p o s i t s which p a r a l l e l waterways and t h e Great Lakes s h o r e l i n e s .

The

r i d g e s a r e composed o f sandy s o i l s , w h i l e t h e i n t e r s t i t i a l a r e a s c o n t a i n a
m i x t u r e o f sandy and o r g a n i c s o i l s w ith o c c a s i o n a l i n c l u s i o n s o f s i l t and
clay.

The r i d g e s a r e e x c e s s i v e l y t o well d r a i n e d w h i l e t h e low la nd s a r e

poorly t o very poorly d r a in e d .

J ac k p i n e , w h i t e p i n e and b a l s a m - f i r a r e

t h e dominant t i m b e r s p e c i e s on t h e r i d g e s , with c e d a r , a s p e n , and b la ck
s p r u c e o c c u r r i n g in t h e l o w l a n d s .
Sand dunes occ ur al o ng t h e G r e a t Lakes s h o r e l i n e s and in a r e a s of
glacial

lake sh o res.

They a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by e x c e s s i v e l y t o well

d r a i n e d sandy s o i l s , w ith p o o r l y d r a i n e d m i n er al and o r g a n i c s o i l s
o c c u r r i n g between t h e d u n e s .

S i l t and c l a y a r e s c a t t e r e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s e

50
lower a r e a s .

Major t i m b e r s p e c i e s on t h e dunes a r e n o r t h e r n hardwoods,

a s p e n , p a p e r b i r c h and j a c k p i n e , w ith lo w la n ds c h a r a c t e r i z e d by swamp
conifers.
Throughout t h i s d i s c u s s i o n t h e r e has been f r e q u e n t mention o f o r g a n i c
deposits.

These d e p o s i t s o c c u r p r i m a r i l y i n low l y i n g a r e a s , such as

g l a c i a l l a k e b e d s , k e t t l e d e p r e s s i o n s , d r a i n a g e c h a n n e l s and s i m i l a r a r e a s
and vary in s i z e and shape depen din g upon l o c a l c o n d i t i o n s .

Topography

a s s o c i a t e d w ith o r g a n i c d e p o s i t s i s l e v e l and t h e d r a i n a g e i s poor t o very
poor.

S o i l s a r e o f two g e n e r a l t y p e s :

sphagnum p e a t and decomposed muck.

The for mer t e n d t o be v e r y a c i d and o cc u r most f r e q u e n t l y in a s s o c i a t i o n
w ith sandy outwashes and m o r a i n e s , w h i l e t h e l a t t e r v ar y in a c i d i t y .
S ta n d i n g w a t e r i s common i n both t y p e s o f s o i l t h r o u g h o u t much o f t h e
year.

The p e a t s o i l s u s u a l l y s u p p o r t b l a c k s p r u c e and j a c k p i n e alo ng

w ith marsh p l a n t s w h i l e muck s o i l s s u p p o r t swamp c o n i f e r s with w h i t e c e d a r
b e i n g most common.
In summmary, t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a was g r e a t l y a f f e c t e d by g l a c i a l and
post g la cial

e v e n t s which were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r most o f t h e l a n d f o r m s ,

s o i l s and d r a i n a g e p a t t e r n s i n t h e s tu d y a r e a .

Landforms a r e v a r i a b l e ,

b u t s o i l s a r e c o n s i s t a n t l y s a n d , sandy loam o r loam.

Organic s o i l s o cc ur

a t lower e l e v a t i o n s and in t h e v a r i o u s d e p r e s s i o n s t h a t e x i s t a c r o s s a l l
landforms.

The d r a i n a g e a s s o c i a t e d w ith most o f t h e s e i s poor enough t o

r e s u l t in ponded w a t e r t h r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r .

Uplands a r e b e t t e r d r a i n e d

and a s s o c i a t e d with n o r t h e r n hardwoods, s p r u c e - f i r , a s p e n , and p i n e .
Lowlands u s u a l l y c o n t a i n swamp c o n i f e r s , aspen and some p i n e .

51
Co n cl u si o n s
The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e n a t u r a l envi ron me nt in t h i s c h a p t e r has
i l l u s t r a t e d several

im portant c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e study a r e a .

Although

r e l a t i v e l y u nif or m in c l i m a t e , t h e s t u d y a r e a i s c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a
v a r i e t y o f la nd fo rm s and w a t e r r e l a t e d f e a t u r e s .

While some o f t h e s e

la nd for m s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d s o i l s and v e g e t a t i o n o c c u r ov er broad
e x p a n s e s , w i t h i n t h e s e ex p a n s e s t h e r e can be c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n
be ca use o f commonly o c c u r r i n g a q u a t i c f e a t u r e s .

Not o n l y do t h e s e

f e a t u r e s c r e a t e l o c a l v a r i a t i o n i n v e g e t a t i o n , bu t t h e i r a c t i o n th r o u g h
t i m e a l s o c r e a t e d l o c a l d i f f e r e n c e s in e l e v a t i o n .

Moreover, t h e s e

en v i ro n m e n ta l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p a r t i c u l a r l y t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d with w a t e r ,
la ndform and s o i l t y p e , c o u l d a f f e c t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e h i s t o r i c o c c u p a t i o n
of th e study a r e a .

I t i s from t h e s e t h a t en v i ro n m e n ta l v a r i a b l e s w i l l be

dev el o pe d f o r use in t h e a n a l y s i s fo t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

CHAPTER IV

MODEL AND HYPOTHESES

This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s a model o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r and a s e r i e s
o f h y p o t h e s e s drawn from t h i s mo de l.

Also in c l u d e d i s a revie w o f

p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h in t h e s t u d y a r e a which s e r v e s as background f o r t h e
development o f t h e model.

P r e v i o u s Res earch
Initial

r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n o f t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a

lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y was con du ct ed by Ma rtin (1977) who a n a l y z e d f o r t y - f i v e
s i t e s l o c a t e d in t h e Ea st Unit o f t h e Hiawatha N ati ona l F o r e s t .

Beyond

c o n c l u d i n g t h a t s aw m il ls te n d e d t o be l o c a t e d c l o s e t o w a t e r , M art in coul d
n o t d e f i n e any r e l a t i o n s h i p between s i t e l o c a t i o n and e nv iro n m en ta l
features.

She d id s u g g e s t , however, t h a t f u t u r e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l work in

t h e Hiawatha N a ti o n a l F o r e s t s h o u ld be based on E c o l o g i c a l Land Units
( EL U 's ), t h e b a s i c la n d u s e / p l a n n i n g u n i t s o f t h e United S t a t e s F o r e s t
Service.

M ar ti n a l s o posed h y p o t h e s e s r e g a r d i n g s i t e l o c a t i o n

( p r e h i s t o r i c and h i s t o r i c ) in t h e Hiawatha N ati on al F o r e s t (Ma rti n 19 77 ).
In 1979 Lovis (1979) t e s t e d M a r t i n ' s h y p o t h e s e s . His a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
sampl ing frame was based upon ELU's, as s u g g e s t e d by M a r t i n .

Although t h e

sample s i z e was q u i t e small t h e i d e n t i f i e d a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s
r e p r e s e n t e d bo th t h e E a s t and West U n i t s .

52

In g e n e r a l , t h e a u t h o r found a

53
h i g h l y v a r i a b l e r e l a t i o n s h i p between ELU's and s i t e f r e q u e n c y , w ith t h e
e x c e p t i o n t h a t ELU 4 c o n t a i n e d t h e l a r g e s t mean s i t e d e n s i t y i n both t h e
Ea st and West U ni ts o f t h e Hiawatha N ati on al F o r e s t .

Moreover, c e r t a i n

v a r i a b l e s were not a s s e n s i t i v e t o l o g g i n g camp l o c a t i o n s as when used f o r
p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e s (Lov is 19 7 9 ) .
Problems e n c o u n t e r e d in t h e s e e a r l i e r s t u d i e s may be grouped i n t o
three categories:
selection.

sample s i z e , n o n - e x c l u s i v i t y o f a t t r i b u t e s and v a r i a b l e

M a r t i n ' s sample o f 45 was no t o n ly small b u t a l s o was

r e s t r i c t e d t o th e East U n it.
d i s t r i b u t e d bu t was s t i l l

L o v i s ' sample o f 32 was more e v e n l y

sm all.

D iv id i n g t h i s i n t o E a s t and West Unit

s u b - s a m p l e s , t h e i r s i z e becomes even s m a l l e r .
a l i m i t e d amount o f s t a t i s t i c a l

Because o f small s i z e , o n ly

i n f o r m a t i o n can be o b t a i n e d from t h e s e

samples (Lovis 1979, M a r ti n 19 7 7 ).
Non-mutual e x c l u s i v i t y o f t h e en vi ro n m en ta l a t t r i b u t e s d e f i n i n g t h e
ELU's i s t h e second d i f f i c u l t y .

Thi s a t t r i b u t e s i m i l a r i t y among ELU's

r an g es from mutual e x c l u s i v i t y ( h a v in g 0 p e r c e n t common a t t r i b u t e s ) t o
b ei n g f a i r l y s i m i l a r (havng up t o 75 p e r c e n t common a t t r i b u t e s ) .

A

s i t u a t i o n where d i s t i n c t i o n s between sampling u n i t s a r e b l u r r e d t o v a r y in g
d e g r e e s i s n o t con d uc iv e t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f p r e c i s e a n a l y s e s a n d / o r
c le a rly defined p re d ic tiv e c r i t e r i a .
F i n a l l y , t h e v a r i a b l e s used in t h e s e s t u d i e s were d e r i v e d from
p r e v i o u s work i n t h e l o c a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e s .

I t was

assumed t h a t v a r i a b l e s i m p o r t a n t t o p r e h i s t o r i c s i t e l o c a t i o n would a l s o
be i m p o r t a n t t o h i s t o r i c s i t e l o c a t i o n .

The i n c o n c l u s i v e a n d / o r e q u i v o c a l

r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h e a n a l y s e s performed w ith small samples c a s t some
doubt on t h i s a s s um pt i o n (Lovis 1979, Ma rtin 1 97 7 ).

54
Karamanski (1984) and Weir and R u t t e r (1985) con ducted two a d d i t i o n a l
ma jor r e s e a r c h p r o j e c t s in which t h e y had t h e a d v a n t a g e of a s i g n i f i c a n t l y
l a r g e r d a t a b a s e t h a n e i t h e r Lovis o r M a r t i n .

Their p r o je c ts revealed

t h a t t h e West Unit o f t h e Hiawatha Na tion al F o r e s t c o n t a i n s a l a r g e r
p r o p o r t i o n o f lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r s i t e s t h a t t h e E a s t U n i t , making i t t h e
more s u i t a b l e a r e a f o r r e s e a r c h i n t o t h i s f r o n t i e r .
K a r a m a n s k i 's (1984) r e s e a r c h was p r i m a r i l y h i s t o r i c a l , d e s ig n e d t o
l o c a t e and a n a l y z e a l l a v a i l a b l e h i s t o r i c a l do cu m en ta t io n on t h e lo g g i n g
f r o n t i e r o f M i c h i g a n ' s Upper P e n i n s u l a .

The r e s e a r c h p ro v id ed a

h i s t o r i c a l framework f o r t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a d u r i n g t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h
and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s and l e d t o t h e d i s c o v e r y o f a number o f new
sites.

Karamanski a l s o f i e l d t e s t e d a sample o f s i t e s l o c a t e d i n i t i a l l y

th r o u g h documentary s o u r c e s and performed a l o c a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s o f lo g g i n g
camps (Karamanski 1 9 8 4 ) .
The l o c a t i o n a l a n a l y s i s had two o v e r a l l g o a l s :

t o d e t e r m in e i f camp

s i t e s were randomly d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e l a n d s c a p e , and t o d e t e r m i n e i f
they f e l l

i n t o some p a t t e r n o v e r t i m e .

Karamanski t h e n proposed t h e

i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f two s e t s o f v a r i a b l e s he b e l i e v e d i m p o r t a n t t o t h e
e x p l a n a t i o n o f p a t t e r n i n g : d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t n a v i g a b l e w a t e r s o u r c e , and
p e r c e n t a g e o f s i t e s l o c a t e d i n v a r i o u s e nv i ro nm en ta l z o n e s .

This a n a l y s i s

was c o n f i n e d t o t h e West U n i t , w i t h a t o t a l sample s i z e of 195 lo g gi ng
camps d i v i d e d among t h r e e te m po r al p e r i o d s :

White Pine 1838-1890 ( 3 1 ) ,

Hardwood 1890-1937 (147) and Pulpwood 1938 t o p r e s e n t ( 4 1 ) .
Karamanski

(1984) used t h e n e a r e s t n e i g h b o r s t a t i s t i c in h i s

locational a n a ly s is .

He f i r s t computed t h i s measure f o r a l l lo g g i n g camp

s i t e s in t h e sample and t h e n f o r t h e camp s i t e s w i t h i n each o f t h e t h r e e
temporal p e r i o d s .

His r e s u l t s were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t f o r each o f

55
the four c a te g o r ie s .

For t h e t o t a l sample (R=.7 8 ) a t e n d e n c y toward

randomness was s u g g e s t e d .

For t h e s u b s a m p l e s , t h e R v a l u e s te n d e d t o be

i n t e r m e d i a t e between c l u s t e r e d and random (P in e .5 31 , Hardwood .686,
Pulpwood .621) (Karamanski 19 8 4) .
Karamanski o f f e r e d two p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h i s p a t t e r n .

The

f i r s t m a i n t a i n e d t h a t p i n e t i m b e r may have been a v a i l a b l e o n l y i n very
larg e, iso la ted stands.

Thi s would r e s u l t in t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a

number o f camps w i t h i n a s t a n d b e f o r e i t s t i m b e r was e x h a u s t e d , t h e r e b y
creating a clu sterin g e f f e c t .

S in c e hardwood s t a n d s were more randomly

d i s t r i b u t e d , hardwood e r a camps would a l s o be randomly d i s t r i b u t e d .
second e x p l a n a t i o n f o cu s ed on t r a n s p o r t a t i o n :

The

t h e p i n e e r a camps would

c l u s t e r around n a v i g a b l e w a t e r s o u r c e s , w h il e t h e l o c a t i o n o f hardwood
camps would be more random s i n c e t h e y were n o t dep en de n t upon w a te r
t r a n s p o r t (Karamanski 19 84 ).
Although K ar am a n sk i's i n i t i a l

e x p l a n a t i o n ap pe a re d p l a u s i b l e , f u r t h e r

e x a m in a t io n r e v e a l s some c o n t r a d i c t i o n s .

Karamanski m a i n t a i n e d t h a t

hardwood in t h e s tu d y a r e a e x i s t e d in s m a l l , randomly d i s t r i b u t e d p a t c h e s ,
w h i l e t h e p i n e o c c u r r e d in l a r g e , i s o l a t e d s t a n d s , which acc o un te d f o r t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p i n e and hardwod camps.

However, t h i s p a r t i c u l a r

c o n c l u s i o n o n ly p a r t i a l l y f i t w ith t h e f o r e s t d i s r i b u t i o n in t h e s tu d y
area.
stands.

Th is c o n c l u s i o n was a p p r o p r i a t e f o r p i n e , which e x i s t e d in l a r g e
In te rm s o f hardwood, however, t h e r e were d i f f e r e n c e s between

K ar am a n sk i 's c o n c l u s i o n s and t h e a c t u a l f o r e s t d i s t r i b u t i o n .

Karamanski

m a i n t a i n e d t h a t hardwoods e x i s t e d in small i s o l a t e d s t a n d s , a p r o p o s i t i o n
which did no t f i t t h e f o r e s t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s b ec a u se t h e r e was a l a r g e r

56
amount o f hardwood f o r e s t t h a n p i n e f o r e s t in t h e a r e a .

K ar am an sk i's

argument i s r e n d e r e d more i m p l a u s i b l e when t h e e f f e c t o f w a te r f e a t u r e s i s
considered.
Karamanski posed an a l t e r n a t e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h i s p a t t e r n .

Pine

camps were c l u s t e r e d b e c a u s e o f t h e i r dependence on w a t e r f o r t r a n s p o r t ,
w h i l e hardwood camps were more randomly d i s t r i b u t e d bec a u se t h e y d i d not
depend on w a t e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .

However, when he a n a l y z e d d i s t a n c e t o

n e a r e s t n a v i g a b l e w a t e r f o r both p i n e and hardwood e r a camps he found t h a t
hardwood camp s i t e s were l o c a t e d more c l o s e l y t o n a v i g a b l e w a t e r t h a n p in e
camp s i t e s , r e f u t i n g h i s own arguement (Karamanski 1 98 4 ) .
As e x p l a n a t i o n , Karamanski p o i n t s o u t t h a t t h e p i n e lo g g i n g camps
c o u l d be some d i s t a n c e away from n a v i g a b l e w a t e r , w ith t h e lo g s
t r a n s p o r t e d o v e r i c e ro ad s t o a s t a g i n g a r e a a d j a c e n t t o t h e s t r e a m .
While t h i s argument i s p l a u s i b l e , i t has l i m i t a t i o n s .

Furthermore, t h e r e

a r e problems w it h K a r a m a n sk i 's i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e mean d i s t a n c e t o
n e a r e s t n a v i g a b l e w a t e r measures p r e s e n t e d in Table 7 ( 1 9 8 4 : 1 4 8 ) .

In t h e

c a s e o f p i n e camps, t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n exc e ed s t h e mean, w h i l e f o r
hardwood camp s i t e s , t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n ( . 4 2 ) e f f e c t i v e l y e q u a l s t h e
mean ( . 4 4 ) .

These me asures i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s e t o f d i s t a n c e s used f o r

t h e a n a l y s i s do not conform t o t h e normal d i s t r i b u t i o n and t h e r e f o r e
c a n n o t be used as r e p r e s e n t a t i v e measures o f e i t h e r s a m p l e .

Had

Karamanski i n v e s t i g a t e d t h i s phenomenon f u r t h e r p e r h a p s he co u l d have been
o b t a i n e d some u s e f u l i n f o r m a t i o n (A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Bryant 1913,
Karamanski 1 9 8 4) .
In h i s f i n a l a n a l y s i s Karamanski an a l y z e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between
s i t e l o c a t i o n and la nd t y p e .

Using c h i - s q u a r e (A=0.05, df=18) he

a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t 56. 4 p e r c e n t o f a l l

lumber camp s i t e s were l o c a t e d on

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morai nes c o v e r e d by g l a c i a l o u tw as h.

However, t h i s a n a l y s i s was performed

o n ly on t h e t o t a l sample so t h a t t h e r e were no o b s e r v a t i o n s t o r e p o r t on
the d if f e r e n tia l
temporal p e r i o d s .

la nd t y p e a s s o c i a t i o n between d i f f e r e n t t e c h n o l o g i c a l /
An a d d i t i o n a l a n a l y s i s which was n o t p u r s u e d , coul d

have in v o l v e d a p r o p o r t i o n a l s t u d y o f t h e la n d t y p e a s s o c i a t e d w it h s i t e
location.

Using a c h i - s q u a r e t e s t , an o b s er ve d d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r a giv en

number o f c e l l s co u ld be compared w ith t h a t e x p e c te d t o o cc u r randomly.
I t would a l s o have been u s e f u l t o compare t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of s i t e
l o c a t i o n s w ith t h e p e r c e n t a g e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f la nd t y p e s in t h e st u d y
area.

Karamanski informed us t h a t t h e mor ai ne w ith g l a c i a l outwash land

t y p e cov ere d 3 5 . 8 p e r c e n t o f t h e West Unit and c o n t a i n e d 5 6 . 4 p e r c e n t o f
t h e lo g g i n g camp s i t e s .

I f , f o r example, t h i s la n d t y p e i s t h e l a r g e s t

s i n g l e la n d t y p e in t h e West Unit one might e x p e c t t h a t i t would c o n t a i n
t h e g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e o f l o g g i n g s i t e s , even i f t h e a c t u a l p e r c e n t a g e s
were not e q u a l .

S i m i l a r a s s o c i a t i o n s might be s t u d i e d w i t h o t h e r la nd

t y p e s in t h e West U n i t .

Thi s i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e a t t h e t i m e

K a r a m a n sk i 's r e p o r t was p r e p a r e d , b u t a p p a r e n t l y was n o t c o n s i d e r e d when
t h e a n a l y s i s was performed ( B u r g h a r d t and Wigger 1978, Karamanski 19 84 ).
The poole d sample used in K a r a m a n sk i 's e n v i r o n m e n ta l a n a l y s i s , evoked
a n o t h e r m e t h o d o l o g i c a l / a n a l y t i c a l comment.

The modern f o r e s t growth

a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e moraine w ith g l a c i a l outwash la n d t y p e , whereon 5 6. 4
p e r c e n t o f t h e pooled sample o f s i t e s o c c u r , i s n o r t h e r n hardwoods, red
p i n e w ith i n c l u s i o n s o f s p r u c e - f i r , hemlock and a s p e n .

Even though t h e

modern f o r e s t co m p o si ti o n i s no t an e x a c t d u p l i c a t e o f p r e - s e t t l e m e n t
f o r e s t , t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r a i s e s an i n t e r e s t i n g p o i n t .

Given t h e

overwhelming number o f hardwood camp s i t e s in t h e sample (67 p e r c e n t ) , i t
s ho u ld be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e la n d t y p e upon which most s i t e s o c c u r w i l l

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c o n t a i n n o r t h e r n hardwood f o r e s t mixed with p i n e .

In o t h e r wor ds, t h e

r e s u l t s o f t h e la n d t y p e a n a l y s i s coul d have been p r e d i c t e d t h r o u g h an
e x a m in a t io n o f t h e sample c o m p o s i t i o n .

Hence, K ar am a ns ki 's s tu d y of

en v i ro n m e n ta l a s s o c i a t i o n can b e s t be c o n s i d e r e d an a n a l y s i s o f hardwood
camps, w i t h enough p i n e and pulpwood camps t o p r e v e n t more th a n 5 6 . 4 p e r
c e n t from b e i n g a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h i s one la nd t y p e (Karamanski 198 4) .
The re m a in in g s t u d y o f t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r in t h e West Unit was
performed by Weir and R u t t e r ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

In was c a r e f u l l y th o u g h t o u t and

p o i n t s t o some key a r e a s t h a t r e q u i r e f u r t h e r e x a m i n a t i o n .

The a u t h o r s

m a i n t a i n e d t h a t p r e v i o u s r e s e a r c h a n a l y z i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f l o g g i n g camps
had p er hap s f o c u s e d t o o n a r r o w ly on t r a n s p o r t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

They

pr oposed t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e co n c e p t o f s c a l e i n t o such a n a l y s e s t o
a l l o w d i f f e r e n t s e t s o f l o c a t i o n a l f a c t o r s t o be i m p o r t a n t a t d i f f e r e n t
l e v e l s o f t h e s p a t i a l c o nt in uu m .
s c a l e : ma cro , meso and m i c r o .

Three l e v e l s comprised t h e i r s p a t i a l

The macro l e v e l , co nc e r ne d w ith t h e o v e r a l l

l o c a t i o n o f t h e lumber i n d u s t r y a t t h e c o n t i n e n t a l l e v e l , i s no t r e l e v a n t
here.

The meso l e v e l i s co n ce r n ed w ith t h e l o c a t i o n o f o p e r a t i o n s w i t h i n

r e g i o n s and t r a n s p o r t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e i m p o r t a n t a t

this level.

F i n a l l y , t h e mi cro l e v e l i s co n ce r n ed w ith t h e a c t u a l s i t i n g o f lo g g i n g
camps.

The a u t h o r s b e l i e v e t h a t l o c a t i o n a l f a c t o r s a t t h i s l e v e l have

more t o do w it h t h e camp a s a h a b i t a t i o n a r e a t h a n as a r e s o u r c e
e x t r a c t i o n and t r a n s p o r t s e t t i n g (Weir and R u t t e r 1 9 8 5 ) .
Weir and R u t t e r began t h e i r a n a l y s i s by n o t i n g t h a t most o f t h e s i t e s
in t h e i r sample were from t h e hardwood e r a and t h e y o p e r a t e d w ith t h e
as s u m p ti on t h a t t h e i r sample was n o n - r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .

As w ith p r e v i o u s

s t u d i e s , t h e y fo c u s e d on problems a s s o c i a t e d w it h d i s t a n c e t o w a t e r .

The

f i r s t o f t h e s e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e a r l i e r s i t e s would be l o c a t e d c l o s e r t o

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Lake M ic h ig an , a p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t o r i g i n a t e d w it h M a r ti n ( 1 9 7 7 ) , and which
Weir and R u t t e r found t o be t h e c a s e .

Next t h e y t e s t e d s i t e l o c a t i o n with

respect to d is ta n c e to n e a re st navigable w ater.

Their fin d in g s mirrored

K araman ski' s ; hardwood camps were c l o s e r t o n a v i g a b l e w a t e r th a n p in e
camps.

Weir and R u t t e r a t t r i b u t e d t h i s t o e i t h e r small sample s i z e o r t h e

p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h i s d i s t a n c e was not a v a r i a b l e r e l e v a n t t o t h e
e x a m in a t io n o f o f camp s i t i n g a t t h e m i c r o - l e v e l

(Weir and R u t t e r 198 5) .

Weir and R u t t e r n e x t t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n t o d r a i n a g e and s l o p e ,
which t h e y b e l i e v e d were i m p o r t a n t t o micro s c a l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f camp
l o c a t i o n . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s were h i g h l y s i g n i f i c a n t , w it h ov er
80 p e r c e n t o f t h e s i t e s b e i n g l o c a t e d on e x c e s s i v e t o well d r a i n e d l a n d .
F u r t h e r m o r e , o v e r 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e s i t e s were on l e v e l t o g e n t l y r o l l i n g
land.

No well d r a i n e d s i t e was on f l a t ground (Weir and R u t t e r 1985 ).
The a u t h o r s ' f i n a l a n a l y s i s was a m o d i f i e d ca t ch m e n t a n a l y s i s o f t h e

lo g g i n g camp s i t e s w ith r e s p e c t t o f o r e s t t y p e .

Thi s t o p i c was pur su ed

under t h e as s u m p ti on t h a t f o r e s t s n e a r t h e camps would c on ai n t h e t y p e o f
t r e e s t o be c u t and camps c o u l d be d i s t i n g u i s h e d by t h e predominant modern
forest association.

Using a two m i l e r a d i u s , t h e y s t u d i e d modern f o r e s t

c o m p o s i ti o n around t h e s i t e s .

They found t h a t both p i n e and hardwood camp

ca t c h m e n ts c o n t a i n e d b o th p i n e and hardwoods w i t h i n a two m i l e r a d i u s .
There was a l s o c o n s i d e r a b l e v a r i a t i o n in t h e p r o p o r t i o n o f p i n e s t o
hardwoods i n b o t h t h e p i n e camp c a t c h m e n ts and t h e hardwood camp
catchments.

A c h i - s q u a r e t e s t performed f o r t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d

t h a t t h e y had a high p r o b a b i l i t y o f o c c u r r i n g by ch anc e (Weir and R u t t e r
1985 ).
All o f t h e p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s i n t o t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g
f r o n t i e r s h a r e common f l a w s .

Most n o t i c a b l y t h e y have fo c u s e d al m o s t

e x c l u s i v e l y on lo g g i n g camps and have n o t viewed t h e f r o n t i e r as a w h o le .
While t h i s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e c o n t r a c t for ma t under
which t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s were p e r f o r m e d , i t has n o n e t h e l e s s produced a
r a t h e r o n e - s i d e d view o f t h e s t u d y a r e a .
Second, many o f t h e a s s u m p ti o n s and v a r i a b l e s used in t h e a n a l y s e s o f
camp l o c a t i o n have been drawn d i r e c t l y from p r e h i s t o r i c a r c h a e o l o g y .

With

t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Weir and R u t t e r (1985) t h e r e has been l i t t l e o r no
a t t e m p t t o e v a l u a t e t h e s e a s s u m p ti o n s and v a r i a b l e s in l i g h t o f t h e
a v a i l a b l e d a t a a bo u t t h e p r a c t i c e o f lo g g i n g in t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h - e a r l y
tw entieth c e n tu r ie s .

Hence, t h e l a c k o f r e l e v a n t r e s u l t s c o n c e r n i n g camp

l o c a t i o n may be a t t r i b u t a b e d t o i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y framed h yp ot h e se s and
i n a p p r o p r i a t e l y chosen v a r i a b l e s r a t h e r th a n t o t h e a c t u a l s i t u a t i o n in
th e study a r e a .
The r e s e a r c h u n d e r t a k e n h e r e w i l l

remedy t h i s s i t u a t i o n th r o u g h t h e

development o f a model o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r and t h e e v a l u a t i o n t h i s
model with d a t a from t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r , t h e r e b y
p r o v i d i n g a s y s t e m a t i c t r e a t m e n t o f t h e r e g i o n l a c k i n g in p r e v i o u s
research.

Moreover, t h e v a r i a b l e s chosen f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l be

d et e r m in e d t h r o u g h t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f contemporary lo g g i n g t e x t b o o k s , and
t h u s w i l l be r e l e v a n t t o t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

A Model o f t h e I n d u s t r i a l

Frontier

In d e v e l o p i n g a model o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r i t i s i m p o r t a n t t o
t r e a t t h e s p a t i a l , temporal and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l dim ens ion s o f human
activity.

Th is e n a b l e s t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o o b t a i n an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

s p a t i a l s t r u c t u r e and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r
w i t h i n a g iv e n t i m e frame as well as t o e v a l u a t e how t h i s s t r u c t u r e and

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t h e s e p r o c e s s e s ev o l v e t h r o u g h t i m e .

A c c o r d i n g l y , t h e s p a t i a l dimension

o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model w i l l be d i s c u s s e d f i r s t , f o ll o w e d by a
d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and temporal d i m e n s i o n s .
In m o d e l l i n g t h e s p a t i a l dime nsion o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , two
b o d ie s o f t h e o r y w i l l be drawn upon.

The f i r s t i s t h a t o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l

f r o n t i e r t h e o r y (Lewis 19 8 4 ) , which p r e s e n t s a h y p o t h e t i c a l s e t t l e m e n t
co m p o si ti o n f o r t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

The second i s t h a t body of

g e o g r a p h i c t h e o r y ( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Taafe e t . a l _ . 1963) which d e a l s with t h e
p e n e t r a t i o n o f an un d er d ev e lo p ed r e g i o n by a more t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y advanced
society.

Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e s e two b o d ie s o f t h e o r y w i l l a l l o w f o r t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a model o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r which not on ly d e a l s
i n d i v i d u a l l y w it h t h e c o n s t i t u e n t s i t e s , b u t a l s o w it h t h e s e t t l e m e n t
p a t t e r n and s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m .
B eh av i o ra l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l a s p e c t s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r w i l l
a l s o be m o d e l l e d .

B eh av io r w i l l be app roached a t t h e p r o d u c t i o n l e v e l ,

w h i l e o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l be viewed as a p a n - f r o n t i e r phenomenon.

The

u n d e r l y i n g pr em is e f o r t h i s appro ac h w i l l be drawn from Lewis ( 1 98 4) ,
H ard es ty (1985) and a v a r i e t y o f h i s t o r i c a l s o u r c e s (Abrams 1978; Deg ler
1977; Edwards e t . a K 1972; W a l l e r s t e i n 1980, 19 8 3) .
Change w i l l be ap pr oac hed from t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s .

The f i r s t w i l l

a d d r e s s t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n . S u g g e s t i o n s as t o how
t h i s o c c u r s a r e drawn from g e o g r a p h i c a n a l y s i s o f t r a n s p o r t development in
t h i r d world n a t i o n s ( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Taafe e t . a l _ . 19 63 ).
Change in o r g a n i z a t i o n a l / b e h a v i o r a l f e a t u r e s w i l l be a d d r e s s e d in
term s o f t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e s e phenomena.
One s e t o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s drawn from H ar d es ty (1985) and d e a l s
p r i m a r i l y w it h b e h a v i o r deemed common t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

The

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o t h e r s e t d e a l s with l a r g e r s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s o f t h e
in d u s tr i a l f r o n t i e r in l i g h t of th e overall l a t e n ineteenth c e n tu ry -e a rly
t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y s o c i e t y i n which t h e y e x i s t e d .
F i n a l l y , change w i l l be a d d r e s s e d as a phenomenon in and o f i t s e l f .
H a r d e s ty ( 1 9 8 5 ) , i n a d d i t i o n t o d e f i n i n g b e h a v i o r and a d a p t a t i o n on t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , prop os ed a p a t t e r n change s h o ul d f o l l o w in t h i s
situation.

He m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r change w i l l be s t e p l i k e

and d i s c o n t i n u o u s , a n al o go us t o t h e b i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f p u n c t u a t e d
equilibria.
Two o v e r a l l f e a t u r e s c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

F irst,

i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s a r e o r i e n t e d towards t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n / a c q u i s i t i o n o f
a single resource.

Second, i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s a r e o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n .

The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e two p r em i s es i s t h e ob vi ou s one:

the

i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r w i l l s h i f t when t h e r e s o u r c e s in a give n a r e a can no
l o n g e r be p r o f i t a b l y e x p l o i t e d .

These two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i l l be

a d d r e s s e d in t h e h y p o th e s e s p r e s e n t e d below ( H a r d e s ty 1985, Lewis 1984,
S te ffen 1980).
The development o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model a p p r o p r i a t e l y b e g i n s
w it h a d i s u c u s s i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s t y p e o f
frontier.

The e n t r e p o t i s t h e f i r s t o f t h e t h r e e h i e r a r c h i c a l l y a r r a n g e d

t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Entrepots are s in g u la r ,

o r few in number, and c o n t a i n a l l t h e h i g h e r o r d e r c e n t r a l p l a c e f u n c t i o n s
found on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

The e n t r e p o t i s a l s o t h e s o l e gateway

between t h e f r o n t i e r and t h e homeland.

Raw o r p a r t i a l l y p ro c e s s e d

m a t e r i a l s fl o w t h r o u g h t t h e e n t r e p o t t o t h e homeland an d , in r e t u r n ,
m a n uf a ct ur ed goods and s u p p l i e s fl o w th r o u g h t h e e n t r e p o t t o t h e
hinterland.

Given t h i s c o n s i d e r a t i o n , t h e e n t r e p o t i s both t h e p o r t and

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t h e t e r m i n u s o f t h e f r o n t i e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , w h at ev e r t h a t system
might be ( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Lewis 1984, Taafe e t . a l . 1 9 6 3) ,
O r d i n a r i l y o nl y a s i n g l e e n t r e p o t w i l l e x i s t on a f r o n t i e r .

However,

i t i s p o s s i b l e t o have more t h a n one e n t r e p o t p r o v i d i n g each has i t s own
hinterland.

Once e s t a b l i s h e d , e n t r e p o t s remain in a f i x e d l o c a t i o n f o r a

l o n g e r d u r a t i o n th a n e i t h e r i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s o r camps and have
t h e p o t e n t i a l t o s u r v i v e t h e demise o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n i t e r .

This

s u r v i v a l p o t e n t i a l e x i s t s b e c a u s e t h e s i z e and d i v e r s i t y o f e n t r e p o t s
co u l d a l l o w them t o d e v e l o p an i n t e r n a l economy o f s u f f i c i e n t s i z e t o
ensure t h e i r survival

( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Lewis 1984, Taafe e t .a l _ . 196 3) .

The i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r i s t h e n e x t t y p e o f s e t t l e m e n t common
to the in d u s tria l f r o n t i e r .

These s e t t l e m e n t s o c c u r more f r e q u e n t l y th a n

e n t r e p o t s , b u t not as f r e q e n t l y as camps, and a r e l o c a t e d in t h e i n t e r i o r
a l o n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r o u t e s between t h e e n t r e p o t and t h e camps.

They

c o n t a i n a l i m i t e d number o f c e n t r a l p l a c e f u n c t i o n s , and s e r v e p r i m a r i l y
as s u p p ly b a s e s f o r t h e camps and t r a n s s h i p m e n t p o i n t s f o r goods
t r a v e l l i n g between camps and t h e e n t r e p o t .

These s e t t l e m e n t s a r e o f s h o r t

d u r a t i o n , l a s t i n g o nl y as lo n g as t h e r e a r e camps in t h e a r e a t o s e r v i c e
( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Lewis 1984, T aa fe e t . a l _ . 196 3).
Camps a r e t h e most numerous t y p e o f s e t t l e m e n t on t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r , f o c u s e d e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e p r o d u c t i o n / a c q u i s i t i o n o f a s i n g l e
commodity.

They may e x h i b i t un iq u e l a y o u t s , b u i l d i n g d e s i g n s , e t c . , as

well as c o n t a i n a uniq ue m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e as se mb la ge which r e l a t e s t o t h e
camp's commodity and p r o c e s s i n g a c t i v i t i e s . Because o f t h e i r e x t r a c t i v e
n a t u r e , t h e s e s i t e s o c c u r in c l o s e p r o x i m i t y t o t h e r e s o u r c e .

Moreover,

camps a r e c h a r a c t e r i z e d by impermanence and f r e q u e n t abandonment as t h e
r e s o u r c e bas e s h i f t s (Lewis 1 9 84 ) .

The t h r e e t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r a r e
c o n n e c t e d by a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy ste m which might u t i l i l z e a s i n g l e mode o f
t r a n s p o r t o r s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t s e q u e n t i a l modes.

C o m p e ti n g / si m u lt a n e o u s

modes would be i n e f f i c i e n t and a r e n o t l i k e l y t o be f o u n d .
all

U ltim ately,

r o u t e s would conv erg e on t h e e n t r e p o t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e p a t t e r n in

which t h e y l a y ov er t h e l a n d s c a p e .

Because t h e camps' l o c a t i o n s

f r e q u e n t l y cha n ge d, t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system was a l s o s u b j e c t t o f r e q u e n t
changes.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t r o u t e s and f a c i l i t i e s

was l i k e l y t o be acc om pl is h e d i n t h e l e a s t c o s t l y f a s h i o n p o s s i b l e , u n l e s s
o t h e r c o n s i d e r a t i o n s p r e v a i l e d ( B ur g ha r dt 1971, Lewis 1984, Taafe e t . a l .
1 9 63 ).
In s t r i c t l y s p a t i a l t e r m s , t h e i n d u s t r i a l

f r o n t i e r may be c o n ce iv ed

o f as a s e r i e s o f c o a s t a l e n t r e p o t s s e r v i c i n g a h i n t e r l a n d c o n t a i n i n g
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and camps.

These i n t e r i o r s e t t l e m e n t s a r e

c o n n e c te d t o t h e e n t r e p o t by a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m .

The boundary o f t h e

h i n t e r l a n d i s l o o s e l y d e f i n e d by t h e p r e s e n c e o f s e t t l e m e n t s which a r e
c o n n e c te d t o a g iv e n e n t r e p o t .
A s s o c i a t e d with t h i s p a r t i c u l a r s p a t i a l p a t t e r n a r e c e r t a i n
b e h a v i o r a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s .

The most s i g n i f i c a n t o f t h e s e i s

t h e p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r o c c u r r i n g in t h e camps.

This b e h a v i o r

w i l l be u n if o rm a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e f r o n t i e r w i t h i n any given ti m e frame
b e c a u s e camp b e h a v i o r was s e l e c t e d f o r p r o d u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y .

Thus, in

o r d e r t o r ea c h and remain a t peak p r o d u c t i o n , a l l camps te n d e d t o p r a c t i c e
t h e same b e h a v i o r a l r e p e r t o i r e s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , s ho ul d a b e h a v i o r a l change

o c c u r , i t would be r a p i d l y adop te d a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e f r o n t i e r , r e f l e c t i n g
t h e u n i v e r s a l q u e s t f o r p r o d u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y and t h e l a r g e s c a l e

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c a p i t a l i s t organizational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of the in d u s tria l f r o n ti e r
( H ar de s ty 1985, Lewis 1984, S t e f f e n 1980 ).
In a d d i t i o n t o camp l e v e l b e h a v i o r a l p a t t e r n s , l a r g e r s c a l e
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r r e l a t e t o
c o n t r o l o v e r r e s o u r c e s on t h i s f r o n t i e r .

Given t h e u m b i l i c a l r e l a t i o n s h i p

between t h e i n d u s t r a l f r o n t i e r and t h e homeland, t h i s c o n t r o l o v e r
r e s o u r c e s s h o u ld m i r r o r t h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e homeland and r e f l e c t
c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m i c p r o c e s s e s in g e n e r a l .

Because t h e s e a r e l a r g e r s c a l e

p r o c e s s e s t h e y w i l l n o t be r e f l e c t e d in d a i l y a c t i v i t i e s and t h e r e f o r e
must be o b s er v ed o ve r l o n g e r p e r i o d s o f t i m e ( H a rd e s ty 1985; Lewis 1984;
S t e f f e n 1980; W a l l e r s t e i n 1980, 19 8 3) .
While p a t t e r n s can be i d e n t i f i e d and s t u d i e d , t h e i n d u s t r i a l

frontier

was dynamic and i t i s a p p r o p r i a t e t o examine change as an i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r phenomenon.

The most common and e x p e c t e d change i s t h e s h i f t in

camp l o c a t i o n as t h e r e s o u r c e s in a given a r e a d e p l e t e .

Sin ce t h e

i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r i s e x c l u s i v e l y p r o d u c t i o n o r i e n t e d , changes i n t h e
l o c u s o f p r o d u c t i o n and t h e i r r a t i o n a l e a r e i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e
operation of the e n t ir e f r o n t i e r .

This i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e bec a us e such

changes u l t i m a t e l y a f f e c t o t h e r components o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and
o t h e r a s p e c t s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r ( H a r d e s t y 1985, Lewis 1984).
O th er changes co ul d o c c u r in t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n as t h e r e s u l t o f
t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new mode o f t r a n s p o r t .

A s h i f t in t r a n s p o r t mode

cou ld e f f e c t t h e l o c a t i o n o f i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s as well as t h e i r
central place fu n c tio n s.

More e f f i c i e n t use o f t h e e x i s t i n g t r a n s p o r t

mode would n o t e f f e c t such a change bec a u se e f f i c i e n c y i s m a n i f e s t e d in
s c h e d u l i n g and c a p a c i t y , r a t h e r t h a n in a major s t r u c t u r a l change
( B u r g h a r d t 1971, H ard es ty 1985, T aa fe e t . a l . 19 6 3 ).

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Changes in t r a n s p o r t mode may a l s o a f f e c t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o f
v a r i o u s e n t r e p o t s / h i n t e r l a n d s on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

For example, i f

new t r a n s p o r t modes a r e p r e s e n t in some, b u t n o t a l l h i n t e r l a n d s , th e n
t h o s e w i t h o u t t h e new t r a n s p o r t modes coul d be a t a c o m p e t i t i v e
d i s a d v a n t a g e r e s u l t i n g in t h e i r d e c l i n e as v i a b l e so c io - e c o n o m ic s y s t e m s .
A ls o , an a d j a c e n t h i n t e r l a n d w it h a more well d ev el op ed t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
system might " c a p t u r e " p a r t o f a n e i g h b o r i n g e n t r e p o t ' s h i n t e r l a n d by
e x t e n d i n g i t s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s yst em t o one o f t h e n e i g h b o r ' s i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

In t h i s c a s e , t h e f i r s t h i n t e r l a n d co ul d be so deci mat ed

t h a t i t co u ld no l o n g e r f u n c t i o n as a d i s t i n c t s o ci o - ec o no m ic s y s t e m .

Its

e n t r e p o t would d e c l i n e o r d i s a p p e a r and t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e su pp ly c e n t e r s
and camps would be r e o r i e n t e d toward t h e n e i g h b o r i n g e n t r e p o t ( B u rg h ar dt
1971, Taa fe e t . a l . 1963)*
A th ir d possible tr a j e c t o r y fo r in d u strial f r o n t i e r settlem ent
p a t t e r n change would be t h e e v o l u t o n of an i n t e r m e d i a t e s up p ly c e n t e r i n t o
an i n t e r i o r c e n t r a l p l a c e , c o n t a i n i n g a l l t h e c e n t r a l p l a c e f u n c t i o n s o f
t h e e n t r e p o t w it h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f p o r t f a c i l i t i e s .

The f a c t t h a t t h e

e n t r e p o t r e t a i n e d i t s p o r t f u n c t i o n would a l lo w i t t o remain t h e dominant
s e t t l e m e n t , b u t t h e h e i r a r c h y would be l e s s c l e a r l y d e f i n e d .

Moreover,

t h e p r e s e n c e o f an i n t e r i o r c e n t r a l p l a c e would ca u s e an number of
p e r m u t a t i o n s in t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n .

This

p a r t i c u l a r t r a j e c t o r y o f change i s viewed as l e a s t l i k e l y t o o c c u r on t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r because of t h i s f r o n t i e r ' s r e l a t i v e l y s h o rt d u ra tio n
( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Taafe e t . a j N 1 96 3 ) .
Change in b e h a v i o r and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s c a n n o t be modelled t o
o c c u r a l o n g a number o f a l t e r n a t i v e t r a j e c t o r i e s .

R a t h e r , change in t h e s e

a r e a s must be viewed in te rm s o f i n c r e a s e s in p r o d u c t i v e e f f i c i e n c y ( i . e .

67
p r o f i t a b i l i t y ) a n d / o r c o n t r o l o v e r r e s o u r c e s , r e g a r d l e s s o f what forms i t
takes.

In t h e b e h a v i o r a l c o n t e x t , p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s w i l l be unifo rm

w i t h i n camps and between contemporaneous camps on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .
Change in t h e s e p r o d u c t i v e a c t i v i t i e s w i l l o c c u r o n ly i f t h e new b e h a v i o r
w i l l im p a r t a s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l t o t h o s e
adopting i t

( H a r d e s ty 1 9 8 5 ) .

Change in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p a t t e r n s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r w i l l
o c c u r o nl y t o i n c r e a s e t h e e l i t e s ' c o n t r o l ov er a v a i l a b l e r e s o u r c e s .

This

i n c l u d e s an i n c r e a s e in d i r e c t own ersh ip o f r e s o u r c e s as well as t h e use
o f o t h e r o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and e n t r e p r e n e u r a l a c t i v i t i e s t o p r o v i d e i n d i r e c t
c o n t r o l o v er r e s o u r c e s .

Moreover, r e s o u r c e c o n t r o l may a l s o i n c l u d e

c o n t r o l o v e r l a b o r , s i n c e l a b o r i s t h e means which c o n v e r t s t h e r e s o u r c e s
i n t o a s a l a b l e commodity.

Hence, t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h i s

l a r g e r s c a l e a s p e c t o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r change and change in b e h a v i o r
o c c u r i n g a t t h e camp l e v e l

(Abrams 1978; D eg le r 1977; Edwards e t . a l _ . 1972;

W a l l e r s t e i n 1 9 8 0 , 1 9 8 3 ).
F i n a l l y , t h e phenomena o f change i t s e l f may be e v a l u a t e d as a
d i s t i n c t p r o c e s s on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

In an ex a m in a t io n o f t h e

s o u t h w e s t e r n mining f r o n t i e r , H ar d es ty (1985) proposed t h a t change on t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s h o u ld be s t e p l i k e and d i s c o n t i n u o u s , a n a l a g o u s t o t h e
b i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y o f p u n c t u a t e d e q u i l i b i r a (Gould and E l d r e d g e 197 7) .
Should H a r d e s t y ' s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n be a v i a b l e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e p r o ce s s
o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r c h a n g e , i t s h ou ld be o b s e r v a b l e on a l l
frontiers.

industrial

T h e r e f o r e , t h e c o n t e n t o f change in t h e s t u d y a r e a , as well as

t h e p r o c e s s by which change o c c u r s w i l l be e v a l u a t e d .
In c o n c l u d i n g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r mo de l, t h r e e
key p o i n t s s h o u ld be made.

F i r s t , t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r i s a unique

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t y p e o f f r o n t i e r w ith i t s own s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and b e h a v i o r a l /
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s which a r e o r i e n t e d toward t h e ma in te n a nc e o f t h e
most e f f i c i e n t l e v e l o f p r o d u c t i o n p o s s i b l e .

Second, bec a u se o f t h i s

emphasis on p r o d u c t i o n , u n i f o r m i t y r a t h e r th a n d i v e r s i t y i s s e l e c t e d f o r
on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , w i t h change o c c u r r i n g o n ly when i t r e s u l t s in
an i n c r e a s e in p r o d u c t i v i t y .

I f an i n n o v a t i o n meets t h i s c r i t e r i o n , i t

w i l l be r a p i d l y adopted a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e f r o n t i e r .

Thus, when viewed

from a l a r g e r s c a l e , t h e p a t t e r n o f f r o n t i e r change a p p e a r s s t e p l i k e and
discontinuous.
T h i r d , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among t h e s p a t i a l and b e h a v i o r a l /
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s a r e complex and n o t as s im pl e a s t h e y a p p e a r on
the s u rfa c e .

These may be examined and d e f i n e d f u r t h e r th r o u g h t h e

a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h e model t o c a s e s t u d y o f a s p e c i f i c i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Hypotheses
The d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e
a r e s e v e r a l a r e a s open f o r i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

The most obvi ou s i s t h e

i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n based on known a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
sites/settlem ents.

From t h i s , t h e a c t i v i t i e s a s s o c i a t e d with each

s e t t l e m e n t and t h e o p e r a t i o n o f t h e system as a whole can be i n f e r r e d .

In

a d d i t i o n , t h e i n d i v i d u a l components o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n can be
examined t o s e e what t h e y r e v e a l a bo ut t h e o p e r a t i o n and p r o d u c t i o n
r e l a t e d c o n c e r n s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Given t h e

o v e r r i d i n g emphasis on p r o d u c t i o n on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , i t i s
e x p e c t e d t h a t t h i s w i l l be r e f l e c t e d in t h e s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n as well as
in o t h e r m a t e r i a l and n o n - m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e on t h e f r o n t i e r .

S in c e camps

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a r e t h e one p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f s i t e d e v ot ed e x c l u s i v e l y t o p r o d u c t i o n ,
t h e y might be t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e f o c u s f o r t h i s kind o f a n a l y s i s .
Change may a l s o be examined in te rm s o f s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and
m a t e r i a l and n o n -m a t e r a l c u l t u r e .

S in ce camps a r e t h e l o c i o f p r o d u c t i o n

and f r e q u e n t l y change l o c a t i o n , u n d e r s t a n d i n g how and why t h e y r e l o c a t e
would be s i g n i f i c a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e p r o d u c t i v e p r o c e s s e s o f t h e
industrial fro n tie r.

In t h e r a r e e v e n t a ma jor change o c c u r s , i t sh oul d

c a u s e a s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e in p r o d u c t i o n .

Moreover, t h e r e s u l t s o f such

changes s h o u ld be e a s i l y v i s i b l e in t h e a r c h e o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r c a l
record.

P r e l i m i n a r y r e s e a r c h i n t o t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r

i n d i c a t e s t h a t such a ma jor change o c c u r r e d w ith t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
r a i l w a y l o g g i n g and t h i s w i l l be a d d r e s s e d in t h e h y p o t h e s e s below.
Camps and camp a c t i v i t i e s p l a y a major r o l e on t h e i n d u s t r i a l
frontier.

Hence, t h i s e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r

w i l l f o cu s on camps f o r a s i g n i f i c a n t p o r t i o n o f t h e a n a l y s i s .
r e s e a r c h w i l l d i f f e r from p r e v i o u s e f f o r t s in t h r e e ways.

Thi s

F i r s t , i t will

be assumed t h a t b ec a u se a s i t e i s a lo g g i n g camp, i t must be c l o s e t o
trees.

A v a i l a b l e h i s t o r i c a l d a t a i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s was u n i v e r s a l l y t h e

c a s e f o r s i t e s d u r i n g both t h e r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y l o g g i n g e r a s and
s t a t i n g o r d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h a t l o g g i n g camps and t r e e s c o - o c c c u r has l i t t l e
e x p l a n a t o r y power in t h e a t t e m p t t o a n a l y z e i m p o r t a n t i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r
processes.

T h e r e f o r e , f o r e s t s w i l l not be used as a v a r i a b l e o r f o cu s o f

study.
Second, f o l l o w i n g t h e s u g g e s t i o n o f Weir and R u t t e r ( 1 9 8 5 ) , micro
s c a l e l o c a t i o n a l f a c t o r s w i l l be examined in t h e a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
l o c a t i o n a l c r i t e r i a f o r l o g g i n g camps.

These a u t h o r s m a i n t a i n t h a t a c t u a l

camp s i t i n g w i l l depend more on t h e h a b i t a b i l i t y o f a give n a r e a t h a n on

other c r i t e r i a .

Thi s c o n s i d e r a t i o n i s n o t i n c o n s i s t e n t with t h e o v e r a l l

f r o n t i e r emphasis on p r o d u c t i o n , s i n c e a h a b i t a b l e camp s i t e g r e a t l y
r e d u c e s t h e d a n g e r c f a c c i d e n t and d i s e a s e w h il e e a s i n g and e f f e c t u a t i n g
d a i l y work r o u t i n e s .
T h i r d , p r e v i o u s a t t e m p t s t o t r e a t l o g g i n g camps as a group were
l i m i t e d t o a s c e r t a i n i n g t h e i r d i s t r i b u t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by means o f
n eare st neighbor a n a l y s i s .

A more f r u i t f u l appro ac h in term s of

i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r p r o c e s s e s i s t o deal with them in p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d
term s.

Thus , thr'ough u n d e r s t a n d i n g what d e f i n e d a camp's t e r r i t o r y and

how t h i s r e l a t e d t o camp movement, t h e s p a c i n g between camps and t h e
o r g a n i z a t i o n o f work w i t h i n a camp, i n s i g h t i n t o t h e o p e r a t i o n a l and
s p a t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r can
be o b t a i n e d .
In o r d e r t o dev el op h y p o t h e s e s about micro s c a l e l o c a t i o n a l f a c t o r s
and i n t e r - c a m p r e l a t i o n s h i p s i t was n e c e s s a r y t o l e a r n t h e c r i t e r i a
g o v er n in g t h e optimum l o c a t i o n f o r a lo g g i n g camp.

F o rtu n a te ly , sources

f o r t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n were r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e i n t h e form o f lo g g i n g and
f o r e s t r y textbooks published s h o r tly a f t e r the tu rn of th e cen tu ry .
During t h e l a t t e r p a r t o f t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , w ith t h e growth o f
la n d g r a n t c o l l e g e s , t h e r e d e v e l o p e d an emphasis on t h e p r a c t i c a l s k i l l s
( i . e . a g r i c u l t u r e , e n g i n e e r i n g , e t c . ) n e c e s s a r y f o r an i n d u s t r i a l i z i n g
nation.

A growth o f knowledge and t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f e x p e r t s in t h e s e

a r e a s le d t o t h e i r f o r m a l i z a t i o n and i n c o r p o r a t i o n i n t o t h e u n i v e r s i t y
curriculum .

F o r e s t r y was one o f t h e s e a r e a s .

With t h e f o r m a l i z a t i o n o f

t h e p r o f e s s i o n and t h e s u b j e c t , t e x t b o o k s which d i s c u s s e d t h e v a r i o u s ways
t o o r g a n i z e f i e l d o p e r a t i o n s , e s t a b l i s h camps, b u i l d lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d s ,
e t c . began t o a p p e a r s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e t u r n o f t h e c e n t u r y .

From t h e s e

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t e x t b o o k s a s e t o f c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i m p o r t a n t in t h e l o c a t i o n o f lo gg i n g
camps can be dr awn.

While t h e t e x t b o o k s r e p r e s e n t t h e formal knowledge o f

t h e p r o f e s s i o n , which i s always s u b j e c t t o m o d i f i c a t i o n by t h e f o l k wisdom
o f t h e l o g g e r i n t h e f o r e s t , t h e y a r e t h e o n ly r e a d i l y a v a i l a b l e s o u r c e
from which we can draw a r e l a t e d s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t in
camp l o c a t i o n / o p e r a t i o n .

Moreover, t h e s e t e x t b o o k s were w r i t t e n by

i n d i v i d u a l s who were a c t i v e in t h e lumber i n d u s t r y d u r i n g t h e s tu d y
period.

T h e r e f o r e , we might e x p e c t t h a t t h e y would be more a c c u r a t e t h a n

d e s c r i p t i o n s p r e p a r e d long a f t e r t h e f a c t (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947;
Bryant 1913; C ro y le -L an gh or n e 1982; Kuhn 19 5 5) .
S ev er al o b s e r v a t i o n s can be made based on t h e e x a m in a t io n o f lo g g i n g
t e x t b o o k s f o r mi cro s c a l e l o c a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s .

F i r s t , loggers

r e c o g n i z e d t h a t v a r i o u s s e t t i n g s were a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e s i t i n g of
l o g g i n g camps.

S ec o nd ly , t h e s e s e t t i n g s c o n t a i n e d some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

t h a t were common t o r i v e r d r i v e camps and r a i l r o a d camps, as well as
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s unique t o each t y p e o f camp.

F i n a l l y , some l o c a t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were c o n s i d e r e d more i m p o r t a n t th a n o t h e r s (Brown 1923,
1934, 1936, 1947; Bryant 1 9 1 3 ) .
The f i r s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n d e a l t w ith t h e p h y s i c a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
t h e a r e a in which t h e camp i s t o be b u i l t .

For b ot h r i v e r d r i v e and

r a i l w a y camps t h i s a r e a s h o u ld be l e v e l , well d r a i n e d , and o f an optimal
size.

Such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s s i m p l i f i e d t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f camp b u i l d i n g s

and i n s u r e d t h a t s u r f a c e w a t e r c o u l d q u i c k l y d r a i n away, r e d u c i n g t h e r i s k
of m alaria or o th e r highly contagious d i s e a s e s .

The a v e r a g e s i z e f o r

r i v e r d r i v e o r r a i l w a y camps s h o u ld be between one and two a c r e s t o
p r o v i d e f o r t h e p r o p e r a r r a n g e m e n t o f camp b u i l d i n g s and a s s o c i a t e d work
a r e a s (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bryant 191 3) .

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Based on t h e above d i s c u s s i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s may be made.
H y p ot h es is 1 :

Logging camps, r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e th e r t h e y a r e
a s s o c i a t e d w it h r i v e r d r i v e o r r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g ,
s h o u ld be l o c a t e d on f a i r l y l e v e l , well d r a i n e d l a n d .

H y p o th e s is 2 :

Logging camps, r e g a r d l e s s o f w h e th e r t h e y a r e
a s s o c ia t e d with r i v e r d r iv e o r r a i l r o a d logging,
s h o u ld range from a p p r o x i m a t e l y one t o two a c r e s in
size.

The n e x t c o n s i d e r a t i o n d e a l s with w a te r f e a t u r e s .

P re vi o us a n a l y s e s

o f t h i s t o p i c have produced un exp ec ted and e q u i v o c a l r e s u l t s when t r e a t e d
as t h e s im p l e d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r .

Examination o f t h e lo g g i n g

t e x t b o o k s r e v e a l s t h a t t h i s v a r i a b l e i s , in f a c t , ve ry complex and i s
l i n k e d t o s u p p l y , s a n i t a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s .

An

e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s i t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r r i v e r d r i v e camps i l l u s t r a t e s
th e complexity of t h i s v a r i a b l e .
F i r s t , camps s h ou ld have a s t r e a m o f p ur e r u nn in g w a te r ne ar b y f o r
d r i n k i n g , cooki ng and washing p u r p o s e s .

This s o u r c e need no t be t h e

s t r e a m one used f o r lo g d r i v i n g , a l t h o u g h i t c o u l d b e .

In some i n s t a n c e s ,

however, a well may have been d r i v e n or w a t e r ha ul ed t o camp from t h e
d r i v i n g s t r e a m (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bry ant 19 1 3) .
S e c o n d l y , r i v e r d r i v e camps s ho uld be l o c a t e d n e a r a d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m
o r a l a k e w ith a d r i v e a b l e o u t l e t .

The d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m sh ou ld be small

w ith high b a n k s , only s l i g h t l y w id er tha n th a n t h e l o n g e s t log l e n g t h s
c u t , and be deep and c l e a r o f o b s t r u c t i o n s .
removed o r o t h e r w i s e c i r c u m v e n t e d .

Any o b s t r u c t i o n s sh ou ld be

The channel s h ou ld be f a i r l y s t r a i g h t

and t h e w a t e r s h e d s u f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i d e f i v e t o s i x hou rs o f d r i v i n g t i m e
per day.

Water used f o r d r i v i n g could come from n a t u r a l s t r e a m f lo w or

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from dams l o c a t e d al on g t h e d r i v i n g s t r e a m .

L a r g e r s tr e a m s and l a k e s were

a c c e p t a b l e , b u t t h e s e f r e q u e n t l y needed improvements ( i . e . p i e r s , booms,
e t c . ) on a l a r g e r , more c o s t l y s c a l e th a n t h e b a s i c d r i v i n g s tr e a m (Brown
1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bryant 1 9 1 3 ) .
T h i r d l y , r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g camps were no t t o be l o c a t e d im me di ate ly
adjacent to th e driving stream .

R a t h e r , a l a n d i n g o r d e ck i n g a r e a would

be a d j a c e n t t o t h e d r i v i n g s tr e a m w ith t h e camp l o c a t e d some d i s t a n c e
uphill.

I d e a l l y , t h e main haul road from t h e c u t t i n g a r e a t o t h e l a n d i n g

sh o u ld p as s t h r o u g h t h e camp.

Thus , t h e camp would be l o c a t e d a t t h e same

o r a low er l e v e l t h a n c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s , b u t some d i s t a n c e up s l o p e from
t h e l a n d i n g a r e a and d r i v i n g s t r e a m .

Thi s a r r a n g e m e n t was more e f f i c i e n t

f o r t h e m a in te n a n c e o f d r a f t a n i m a l s , equipment and t h e t r a n s p o r t o f l o g s .
The d i s t a n c e u p h i l l from t h e d r i v i n g s tr e a m coul d v a r y , bu t p r o b a b ly
sh ou ld f a l l between one h a l f and one m i le and r a r e l y exceed one and a h a l f
m iles.

These d i s t a n c e f i g u r e s r e l a t e t o t h e e f f e c t i v e work r a d i u s around

a r i v e r d r i v e camp f o r b o th humans and d r a f t a n i m a ls (Brown 1923, 1934,
1936, 1947; B r y an t 19 13 ).
These were t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s made by l o g g e r s in l o c a t i n g r i v e r d r i v e
camps and t h e acknowledgement o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s throw s a d i f f e r e n t
l i g h t on t h e use o f d i s t a n c e t o w a t e r in s t u d y i n g camp l o c a t i o n .

While

two o f t h e p o i n t s r e l a t e d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y t o t r a n s p o r t
c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , t h e y do n o t f o l l o w t h e proxemic argument used in p r e v i o u s
analyses.

R a t h e r , t h e y r e l y more upon f a c t o r s r e l a t i n g t o t h e

o r g a n i z a t i o n o f work by camp members.

A d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s , such as t h e

procu rem ent o f d o m e st ic w a t e r , c o u l d have been met by a v a r i e t y o f means
which do not r e q u i r e immediate a d j a c e n c y t o a w a t e r s o u r c e .

Therefore,

g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n w i l l be p a i d t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n s based on camp work

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o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a n t o s im p l e d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r .

From t h i s

p e r s p e c t i v e , a d d i t i o n a l h y p o t h e s e s w i l l be d e r i v e d (Brown 1923, 1934,
1936, 1947; Br y an t 1913; Karamanski 1984; Lovis 1979; M art in 1977; Weir
and R u t t e r 1 9 8 5 ).
H y p o th e s is 3 :

R iv e r d r i v e e r a lo g g i n g camps w i l l be l o c a t e d n e a r ,
b u t n o t im m ed ia te ly a d j a c e n t t o d r i v e a b l e s tr e a m s o r
lakes.

They may be e x p e c t e d t o o c c u r between one h a l f

and one and a h a l f m i l e s from t h e d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m /
l a k e and o n ly o c c a s i o n a l y o c c u r a t d i s t a n c e s g r e a t e r
t h a n one and a h a l f m i l e s from t h e d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m /
lake.
H y p o th e s is 4 :

R i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g camps w i l l be l o c a t e d a t
in te rm e d ia te e le v a tio n s w ithin th e surrounding a re a .
They w i l l be l o c a t e d above t h e l e v e l of t h e d r i v e a b l e
s t r e a m / l a k e and equal t o o r lower th a n t h e e l e v a t i o n s
where a c t i v e c u t t i n g w i l l o c c u r ( i . e . lower t h a n

the

h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n in t h e a r e a ) .
Water r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e s d i f f e r f o r r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g camps.
proximity to

F irst,

as u p p ly o f p u r e d r i n k i n g w a t e r i s s e c o n d a r y t o o t h e r

considerations,

s i n c e pur e d r i n k i n g w a te r co u l d be b r o u g h t in by t a n k c a r .

However, i t was g e n e r a l l y op ti m al t o have some near by s o u r c e o f w a t e r f o r
e n g i n e s , a n i m a l s and washing (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Br y an t 1913 ).
S e c o n d l y , in r o l l i n g r e g i o n s t h e main l i n e o f t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d
u s u a l l y e n t e r e d t h e r e g i o n th r o u g h and c o n t i n u e d t o f o l l o w a n a t u r a l
drainage
distance.

s i n c e such a r o u t e p r o v i d e d t h e

b e s t g ra de o v e r t h e s h o r t e s t

G e n e r a l l y , b u i l d e r s o f main l i n e s t r i e d t o av oi d g r a d e s o v e r 3

p e r c e n t and c u r v e s g r e a t e r th a n 12 d e g r e e s o f a r c .

Spur l i n e s s h o u ld

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f o l l o w d r a i n a g e s o r o t h e r n a t u r a l g r a d e s away from t h e main l i n e .

They

c o u l d t o l e r a t e somewhat s t e e p e r g r a d e s ( l e s s t h a n 6 p e r c e n t when f u l l ,
l e s s th a n 10 p e r c e n t when empty) and c u r v e s up t o 30 d e g r e e s .

While main

l i n e s were e x p e c t e d t o f o l l o w n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e s , s p u r l i n e s co u ld
sometimes d e v i a t e from t h e s e d r a i n a g e s / g r a d e s i f t h e val u e/ am ou nt o f
t i m b e r in a p a r t i c u l a r a r e a o f f s e t t h e i n c r e a s e d c o s t o f d e v i a t i o n (Brown
1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Br y an t 1 9 1 3 ) .
T h i r d l y , r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g camps were e x p e c t e d t o be l o c a t e d
i m m e d i a te l y a d j a c e n t t o t h e r a i l

l i n e t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e l o a d i n g and

u n lo a d in g o f s u p p l i e s and l a b o r and t o s e r v e as a d e c k i n g a r e a f o r t h e
closer cutting operations.

Since r a i l

l i n e s most l i k e l y f o ll o w ed a

n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e , r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g camps would be l o c a t e d f a i r l y c l o s e t o
a s tr e a m (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Br y an t 19 1 3) .
F i n a l l y , g iv e n t h e y e a r - r o u n d p o t e n t i a l o f r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g , l o g g e r s
g e n e r a l l y t r i e d t o l o c a t e camps as f a r away from swamps as p o s s i b l e .

Thi s

redu ce d t h e r i s k o f m a l a r i a and o t h e r c o n t a g i o u s d i s e a s e s t r a n s m i t t e d by
i n s e c t s or contaminated water s u p p l i e s .

Normally t h i s problem would no t

e x i s t in w i n t e r lo g g i n g b e c a u s e swamps were f r o z e n .
r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g has t h e p o t e n t i a l

However, s i n c e

for fu ll year o p e ra tio n s, t h i s point

must be t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bryant 1 91 3 ) .
Thus, w h i l e some emphasis i s p l a c e d on w a t e r s o u r c e s f o r d r i n k i n g ,
washing and e n g i n e s , t h e more i m p o r t a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p i s t h a t between t h e
l o g g i n g camp and t h e r a i l

line.

As i t so ha p p e n s , t h e r a i l l i n e a l s o has

a r e l a t i o n s h i p t o n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e s , which p e r f o r c e must th e n have a
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o camp l o c a t i o n .

These p r o p o s i t i o n s a l l o w f o r t h e

form ulation of th e following hypotheses.

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H y p o th e s is 5 :

R a i l r o a d lo g g i n g camps w i l l g e n e r a l l y be l o c a t e d
f a i r l y c l o s e t o n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e s / s t r e a m s ; p r o b a b l y no
f u r t h e r t h a n one m i le away.

Camps g r e a t e r t h a n one

m i l e from a n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e / s t r e a m s ho ul d be l o c a t e d
on ground with a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 p e r c e n t s l o p e and i n
an a r e a t h a t , by i n f e r e n c e , c o n t a i n e d a heavy s t a n d o f
tim ber.
H y p o th e s is 6 :

R a i l r o a d lo g g i n g camps w i l l be l o c a t e d as f a r as
p o s s i b l e from swamps.

The l o g g i n g t e x t b o o k s p r o v id e d v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n about t h e
i n t e r s i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g camps.

F i r s t , loggers

r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r e was a p o i n t where so much t i m e was s p e n t t r a v e l l i n g
t o t h e c u t t i n g a r e a from t h e camp t h a t c o n t i n u e d o c c u p a t i o n o f t h a t
p a r t i c u l a r camp was u n f e a s i b l e .

Thi s t r a v e l ti m e c o n s i d e r a t i o n was

i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i t l i m i t e d t h e amount o f ti m e t h e l o g g e r s co u ld work in
t h e c u t t i n g a r e a and a f f e c t e d t h e t i m i n g o f o t h e r i n t e r n a l camp
activ ities.

The s h o r t e r ho ur s o f d a y l i g h t d u r i n g w i n t e r and a d v e r s e

w e a t h e r c o n d i t i o n s were a l s o t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
m i l e s was t h e d i s t a n c e
allappropriate

considered c r i t i c a l

One and a h a l f

in t h i s r e s p e c t .

Hence, when

t i m b e r had been c u t w i t h i n a one and a h a l f m i l e r a d i u s o f

a r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g camp a move had t o be s e r i o u s l y c o n s i d e r e d (Brown
1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; B ry an t 19 1 3) .
R e l a t e d t o t h i s i s t h e f a c t t h a t h o r s e s and s l e d s were used t o haul
lo g s o ve r i c e roads from t h e c u t t i n g a r e a t o t h e l a n d i n g .

The h o r s e team

had c e r t a i n l i m i t s in te r m s o f t h e l e n g t h o f haul under give n c o n d i t i o n s .
F a c t o r s such as s i z e o f l o a d , s l o p e , ti m e o f day ( i . e . how long t h e team
had been w o r k i n g ) , w e a t h e r , e t c . , c o n t r i b u t e d t o d e t e r m i n i n g t h e d i s t a n c e

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a h o r s e team c o u l d e f f e c t i v e l y h a u l .

This d i s t a n c e i d e a l l y s ho ul d be ke p t

t o t h e s h o r t e s t p o s s i b l e , b u t un de r most c o n d i t i o n s , e s p e c i a l l y w i t h a
good g r a d e , a h o r s e team c o u l d haul f o r a p p r o x i m a t e l y one t o t h r e e m i le s
w i t h o u t r e s t i n g (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bryant 191 3).
I t s h o u ld be note d t h a t f o r e s t co m p o si ti o n had l i t t l e e f f e c t on
i n t e r s i t e s p a c i n g o f r i v e r d r i v e camps.

Once i t was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t a

c e r t a i n t r a c t o f la n d exce eded t h e t h r e s h h o l d o f p r o f i t a b i l i t y f o r
m a r k e t a b l e t i m b e r , t h e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d above were t h e
d e t e r m i n a n t s o f camp l o c a t i o n both w i t h i n t h e t r a c t and with r e s p e c t t o
each o t h e r .

F o r e s t c o m p o s i t i o n a f f e c t e d t h e l e n g t h o f t i m e i t to o k t o

remove a l l t h e m a r k e t a b l e t i m b e r from an a r e a , b u t i t d i d n ' t a f f e c t t h e
l o c a t i o n o f camps once t h e t h r e s h h o l d was exceeded

(Brown 1923, 1934,

1936, 1947; B r y an t 1913; H a r d e s t y 19 8 5 ) .
Based on t h e above d i s c u s s i o n s , an h y p o t h e s i s a b ou t t h e s p a t i a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s among r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g camps can be pu t f o r t h .
H y p o th e s is 7 ;

The i n t e r s i t e s p a c i n g o f r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g camps may
be viewed as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e work zone
around each camp.

I t i s t h e r e f o r e hypothesized th a t

r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g camps w i l l g e n e r a l l y be l o c a t e d
between one and a h a l f and t h r e e m i l e s o f each o t h e r .
Intersite

r e l a t i o n s h i p s f o r r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g camps a r e a more complex

i s s u e , p r i m a r i l y b ec a u se o f t h e r a i l r o a d .

G e n e r a l l y , t h e main l i n e of a

lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d was c o n s t r u c t e d i n t o an a r e a with an eye to w ar d s many
y e ars of u se.

Spur l i n e s were c o n s t r u c t e d o f f t h e main l i n e t o p r o v i d e

access to tim ber.

Camps were th e n l o c a t e d al ong t h e s e r a i l r o a d l i n e s .

in r i v e r d r i v e

o p e r a t i o n s , h o r s e power was used t o haul lo g s from t h e

cu ttin g to the

l o a d i n g a r e a w ith t h e a v e r a g e c o n t i n u o u s h o r s e haul

As

ran gi n g

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from one t o t h r e e m i l e s de pen di ng on t h e g r a d e .

S i m i l a r l y , t h e maximum

r a d i u s t o which lu m b e r ja c k s co u ld be ex p ec te d t o walk t o reac h t h e c u t t i n g
a r e a was a b ou t one and a h a l f m i l e s (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bry ant
19 1 3 ) .
Sometimes, however, t h e r a i l r o a d was used t o t r a n s p o r t workers a n d / o r
h o r s e s t o some d e b a r k a t i o n p o i n t al o ng t h e l i n e , whence t h e y walked t o t h e
cutting area.

This co u l d i n c r e a s e t h e e f f e c t i v e work zone around a camp

as well as change i t s sh ap e from an i d e a l i z e d c i r c l e t o a more l i n e a r
form .

Moreover, one s o u r c e recommends b u i l d i n g s p u r l i n e s one q u a r t e r t o

one h a l f m i l e a p a r t , w ith o n l y o c c a s i o n a l u s es o f i n t e r v a l s ov er one m i l e .
Even w i t h o u t r a i l t r a n s p o r t f o r h o r s e s and wo rkers one camp coul d s up pl y
l a b o r f o r a number o f r a i l

s p u r s so t h a t not ev er y r a i l

n e c e s s a r i l y be a s s o c i a t e d w it h a camp.

s p u r would

All o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s make

i t d i f f i c u l t t o frame h y p o t h e s e s abo ut t h e i n t e r s i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g camps (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; B r y an t 19 1 3) .
One r e l a t i v e l y c o n s t a n t f a c t o r i s t h a t t h e us e o f t h e r a i l r o a d t o
t r a n s p o r t wo rkers a n d / o r h o r s e s from t h e camp t o some i n t e r m e d i a t e p o i n t
on t h e way t o t h e c u t t i n g a r e a can s i g n i f i c a n t l y e n l a r g e and r e - s h a p e t h e
work a r e a around a r a i l r o a d camp r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i n t e r v a l between sp ur
lines.

Thi s use o f t h e r a i l w a y need not have been a d a i l y o c c u r r e n c e t o

have had an impact t h e s i t u a t i o n .
Based on t h e above d i s c u s s i o n , t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s may be s t a t e d .
H y p o th e s is 8 :

The i n t e r s i t e s p a c i n g o f r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g camps
i s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t i v e work zone around each
camp.

The work zone in t h i s i n s t a n c e sh oul d have as

i t s low er l i m i t a r a d i u s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y one and a

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h a l f t o two m i l e s .

I t s upper l i m i t i s not s p e c i f i a b l e

at t h i s tim e.
The h y p o t h e s e s p r e s e n t e d above have been d e s i g n e d t o a l lo w an
i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f c e r t a i n i n t e r s i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s among b o th r i v e r d r i v e
lo g g i n g camps and r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g camps.

Although couched in te rm s o f a

s im p l e l i n e a r d i s t a n c e measure between camps, t h e s e h y p o th e s e s w i l l a l lo w
d e e p e r i n q u i r y i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s i t e s b e c a u s e t h e y f o c u s on
t h e human o r g a n i z a t i o n o f s p a c e r a t h e r t h a n on i n t e r s i t e r e l a t i o n s h i p s
couched e x c l u s i v e l y in term s o f env iro n m en ta l f a c t o r s o r t h e d e p a r t u r e
from ran domne ss.

This f oc us on work zones w i l l a l l o w us t o not o n ly

u n d e r s t a n d s i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n w i t h i n t h e s tu d y a r e a , b u t a l s o t o p r o v i d e
some i n s i g h t i n t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y .
Having a d d r e s s e d s e v e r a l h y p o t h e s e s s p e c i f i c t o camps i t i s now
a p p r o p r i a t e t o move t o a l a r g e r p e r s p e c t i v e and deal w it h t h e e n t i r e
settle m e n t p a t te r n of th e i n d u s t r i a l

frontier.

The u s e f u l s t a r t i n g p o i n t

w i l l be t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e g e n e r a l s p a t i a l p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r mo de l.
A c c o r d i n g l y t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s may be p r o p o s e d .
H y p o th e s is 9 :

The l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r , w h eth er r i v e r d r i v e o r
r a i l r o a d , s h o u ld c o n t a i n t h r e e t y p e s o f s i t e s :
camps, i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s , and e n t r e p o t s .
These s ho uld e x i s t in a h i e r a r c h i a l

re la tio n sh ip to

each o t h e r ; w it h camps b e i n g t h e most numerous
f o ll o w e d by i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y c e n t e r s and
e n t r e p o t s , e i t h e r s i n g u l a r o r ve r y few in number.
H y p o th e s is 1 0 :

I n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s w i l l be camp o r i e n t e d and
f u n c t i o n t o s u p p ly t h e s u b s i s t e n c e and t e c h n o l o g i c a l

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needs o f t h e l o g g i n g camps a s well as p r o v i d e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s with t h e e n t r e p o t
and v a r i o u s p e r s o n a l g o o d s / s e r v i c e s f o r t h e w o r k e r s .
When camp l o c a t i o n s move, i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s
w i l l move o r c e a s e t o e x i s t .
H y p o th e s is 11 :

E n t r e p o t s w i l l be s i n g u l a r o r few in number, b u t
l a r g e r and more d i v e r s i f i e d t h a n o t h e r components o f
th e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e ttle m e n t system.

They w i l l

m a i n t a i n d i r e c t and c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t with t h e
homeland and w i l l be t h e t e r m i n i o f f r o n t i e r
transport/com m unications systems.

They w i l l be more

permanent t h a n o t h e r components o f t h e f r o n t i e r
s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m , o f t e n l a s t i n g beyond t h e demise o f
th e logging f r o n t i e r .
In a d d i t i o n t o hav in g t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s o f s i t e s , t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a m u l t i p u r p o s e c o m m u n i c a t i o n / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
system which co n n e c te d t h e s e s i t e s .

This system c o n n e c te d t h e f r o n t i e r

and t h e homeland a l l o w i n g a two-way exchange o f goods and i n f o r m a t i o n . I t
a l s o p r o v i d e d t h e f r o n t i e r w ith i n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t ma rke t c o n d i t i o n s ,
s u p p l y s o u r c e s and t e c h n o l o g i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t .

F i n a l l y , i t p ro v id ed a

means o f o r g a n i z a t i o n and c o n t r o l t o t h o s e in t h e homeland in c h a r g e o f
v a r i o u s o p e r a t i o n s on t h e f r o n t i e r .

The c o m m u n i c a t i o n s / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

s y s t e m , r e g a r d l e s s o f i t s f or m , had t h e e n t r e p o t as i t s t e r m i n u s and
t h r o u g h t h e e n t r e p o t goods and i n f o r m a t i o n a r e exchanged w ith t h e
homeland.
proposed.

Given t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s i s

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H y p o t h e s i s 1 2:

On t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , one may e x p e c t t o f i n d a
c o m m u n i c a t i o n s / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sytem with i t s t e rm i n u s
a t t h e e n t r e p o t and l i n k i n g a l l t h e s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e
f r o n t i e r w ith t h e e n t r e p o t .

I t i s t h e p r i n c i p a l means

by which goods and i n f o r m a t i o n a r e exchanged with t h e
o u ts id e w orld.
Having a d d r e s s e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t r e l a t e d a s p e c t s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o f o c u s a t t e n t i o n on o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Among t h e s e a r e t h e i s s u e s o f d u r a t i o n and c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y .

The f i r s t

might a p p e a r t o be te mp or al i n n a t u r e , however, in t h i s c a s e i t a l s o f a l l s
i n t o t h e c a t e g o r y o f b e h a v i o r a l / o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s bec au se o f
t h e way i t r e l a t e s t o t h e i s s u e o f c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y and t o t h e
o p e r a t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f l o g g i n g camps.
The Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r , l i k e a l l i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s ,
sh ou ld be o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n .

S e v e r a l q u e s t i o n s a r i s e , however, r e g a r d i n g

t h e way d u r a t i o n s ho ul d be m e a su r e d .

For example, do we c o n s i d e r t h e

d u r a t i o n i n l i g h t o f t h e human o c c u p a t i o n o f North America, t h e c a p i t a l i s t
o c c u p a t i o n o f North America o r t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f t h e United S t a t e s as a
nation?

R a t h e r th a n become i n v o l v e d in a long and u l t i m a t e l y u n p r o d u c t i v e

d i s c u s s i o n o f s c a l e , t h i s q u e s t i o n w i l l be a d d r e s s e d by d e a l i n g w it h
d u r a t i o n in t e r m s o f m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e .

I f a give n s e t t l e m e n t o r system of

s e t t l e m e n t s i s e x p e c te d t o be o f o t h e r th a n s h o r t d u r a t i o n , one would
e x p e c t t h a t b u i l d i n g d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n would r e f l e c t t h i s f a c t .
C o n v e r s e l y , i f s e t t l e m e n t s were d e s i g n e d f o r s h o r t d u r a t i o n , one would
e x p e c t t h a t t h i s would be a p p a r e n t in t h e i r d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n .
C o m m u n i c a t i o n s / t r a n s p o r a t i o n s ys t em s c o n n e c t i n g t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s would

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exhibit sim ilar c h a r a c te r is tic s .

These c o n s i d e r a t i o n s may be r e s t a t e d as

the following hypothesis.
H y p o th e s is 1 3 :

As an i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r
s h o u ld be o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n .

Th is c h a r a c t e r i s t i c

sh o u ld be r e f l e c t e d in t h e d e s i g n and c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
t h e s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
The n e x t g e n e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m a i n t a i n s t h a t t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r w i l l be c u l t u r a l l y u n if o r m t h r o u g h o u t i t s d u r a t i o n .

This

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s based upon t h e s o c i a l r e l a t i o n s a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e
c a p i t a l i s t world s y s t e m , w i t h i n which t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r o p e r a t e s .
C a p i t a l i s m above a l l i s a power r e l a t i o n s h i p r a t h e r t h a n a market system
and i s most m a n i f e s t in t h o s e a r e a s a s s o c i a t e d with p r o d u c t i o n .

Not o nl y

does t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p o c c u r on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , but gi v e n t h e
pu rp o se o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , i t s h o u ld be more v i s i b l e t h e r e t h a n
in t h e homeland.

This p a r t i c u l a r power r e l a t i o n s h i p , cou pl ed w ith t h e

d r i v e f o r e f f i c i e n c y , l e a d s t o u n i f o r m i t y i n both b e h a v i o r and m a t e r i a l
culture.

Given t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f u n i f o r m i t y

sh ou ld be a s s o c i a t e d w ith each o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t components o f t h e
industrial f r o n ti e r .

While t h e s e components a r e not e x p e c t e d t o be

i n t e r n a l l y i s o m o r p h i c , between component v a r i a t i o n s h o u ld be g r e a t e r t h a n
w i t h i n component v a r i a t i o n (Bowles 1985, Edwards e t . a l _ . 1972, Ev ang el auf
1985, Lewis 1 9 8 4 ) .
The most s t r u c t u r e d b e h a v i o r s h o u ld be found in camps which a r e
s i n g u l a r l y e s t a b l i s h e d f o r t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a commodity.

Not o nl y w i l l

work be c a r r i e d ou t under a s t r i c t s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s , f o c u s e d on
maximizing p r o d u c t i o n , b u t a l s o a c t i v i t i e s o u t s i d e o f work w i l l be
regulated.

Th is p a t t e r n s h o u l d h o ld t r u e f o r both r i v e r d r i v e camps and

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r a i l r o a d camps.

Behav io r a t i n t e r m e d i a t e s u pp ly c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s

would be l e s s s t r u c t u r e d b ec a u se t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s s e r v e d o t h e r f u n c t i o n s
besides production

(Bowles 1985, Edwards e t . a l _ . 1972, H ar d es ty 1985,

Lewis 1 98 4 ) .
The m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e ( p r i m a r i l y b u i l d i n g s in t h i s c a s e ) a s s o c i a t e d
w ith c u l t u r a l u n i f o r m i t y i s a l s o ex p e c te d t o be o r i e n t e d e x c l u s i v e l y
to w ar d s p r o d u c t i o n and t o be produced in f a i r l y r e g u l a r s i z e s and
a r r a n g e m e n t s , w h il e t h a t a s s o c i a t e d with o t h e r t y p e s o f s i t e s i s ex p ec te d
t o be more d i v e r s e .
Thus, t h e f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s may be s t a t e d .
H y p o th e s is 14 :

The

l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by a high

d e g r e e o f u n i f o r m i t y , both in te rm s o f b e h a v i o r and
m aterial c u l tu r e .

I t i s ex p ec te d t h a t t h i s

u n i f o r m i t y w i l l be most v i s i b l e in a r e a s d i r e c t l y
r e l a t i n g t o p r o d u c t i o n and t h a t i t w i l l va ry among
t h e t h r e e components o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r
s e ttle m e n t system.
The p r o c e s s o f change on i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s has r e c e n t l y been
examined by H ar d es ty ( 1 9 8 5 ) , in h i s s tu d y o f t h e mining f r o n t i e r o f t h e
United S t a t e s ' S o u t h w e s t .

H a r d e s ty has dev el o pe d s e v e r a l c on ce p tu al

ap p r o a c h e s t o t h e phenomenon o f change on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , one o f
which i s t h e co n c e p t o f s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n .

From a more g e n e r a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,

stan d ard ized ad aptive responses or c u ltu r a l
Hy p ot h es is 14.

In t h i s i n s t a n c e , however, i n t e r e s t i s fo cu s ed on how such

a h i g h l y s t a n d a r d i z e d sy stem c h a n g e s .
in d u strial

u n i f o r m i t y was a d d r e s s e d in

frontier

F u r t h e r m o re , t h e

o r ie n t a ti o n of the

d i c t a t e s t h a t change s ho ul d be most v i s i b l e and most

s i g n i f i c a n t in a r e a s a s s o c i a t e d w ith p r o d u c t i o n ( H ar de s ty 19 8 5) .

84
To d e v e l o p h i s model o f change in s t a n d a r d i z e d i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r
systems,

H ar d es ty borrowed from t h e f i e l d o f p a l e o b i o l o g y , s p e c i f i c a l l y

t h e work o f Gould and El d r e d g e (1977) c o n c e r n in g p u n c t u a t e d e q u i l i b r i a .
H ar de sty te rm s t h i s p a t t e r n o f ch a n g e , when a p p l i e d t o c u l t u r a l s y s t e m s ,
as t h a t o f c o r r e l a t e d e p i s o d e s .

Such a p a t t e r n o f change i s l i k e l y t o be

s t e p l i k e and d i s c o n t i n u o u s , b u t more or l e s s s i m u l t a n e o u s ov er t h e e n t i r e
industrial fr o n tie r .

For exam ple , a p a r t i c u l a r a d a p t a t i o n , u s u a l l y a

p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , w i l l be common a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r and w i l l remain in p l a c e u n t i l a s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e f f i c i e n t /
p r o f i t a b l e technology a p p e a rs.

Once t h e new t e c h n o l o g y a p p e a r s i t w i l l

r a p i d l y p r o l i f e r a t e a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r becoming t h e
p rin c ip a l production te chnology.

Such r a p i d p r o l i f e r a t i o n i s en s u r e d by

t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system and t h e power r e l a t i o n s h i p s
i n h e r e n t in t h e c a p i t a l i s t system (Bowles 1985, Edwards e j t . a K 1972,
H ar d es ty 19 8 5 ) .
The p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h p r e s e n t s an o p p o r t u n i t y t o examine t h e p r o c e s s
o f change on t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

H istorical

reports in dicate th a t

lo g g i n g began in t h e s t u d y a r e a as r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g and l a t e r s h i f t e d
to railro ad logging.

Such a s h i f t in p r o d u c t i o n , both in terms o f

r e s o u r c e and t e c h n o l o g y , s h o u ld be s i g n i f i c a n t .

T h e r e f o r e , i t would be

e x p e c te d t h a t such a change would conform t o t h e p r i n c i p l e o f c o r r e l a t e d
e p i s o d e s as de ve lo pe d by H a r d e s t y .

This e x p e c t a t i o n may be s t a t e d as t h e

f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s i s ( H a r d e s ty 1985, Karamanski 19 8 4) .
H y p o th e s is 15:

The s h i f t in p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y from r i v e r d r i v e
l o g g i n g t o r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g s h o u ld be a b r u p t and
occur within a sh o rt period of tim e.

This s h i f t

s h o u ld r e s u l t in a movement from u n i v e r s a l

river

85
d r iv e logging t o a s i t u a t i o n of universal r a ilr o a d
logging.
In a d d i t i o n t o h i s e x a m i n a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r change as
c o r r e l a t e d e p i s o d e s , H a r d e s ty (1985) proposed t h a t i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s
may be viewed as e c o s y s t e m s .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , H a r d e s ty m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e

Marginal Value Theorem may be used t o model s p a t i a l p a t t e r n s o f i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r ecosytems.

Thi s c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n a l lo w s r e s e a r c h e r s t o examine

problems o f d u r a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n , r e - o c c u p a t i o n , abandonment, e t c . as
well as t o c o n s i d e r such f a c t o r s a s r e s o u r c e r e n e w a b i l i t y and t e c h n o l o g y .
The Marginal Value Theorem d e s c r i b e s t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r as a web
o f p a t c h e s which a r e t h e l o c i o f r e s o u r c e a v a i l a b i l i t y .
the ore m any p a t c h w i l l

remain c o l o n i z e d u n t i l

According t o t h i s

i t s r a t e o f p r o d u c t i o n dr op s

t o a l e v e l equal t o t h e a v e r a g e r a t e o f p r o d u c t i o n f o r t h e f r o n t i e r as a
wh o le .

The a v e r a g e i n c l u d e s a l l o w a n c e s f o r t h e c o s t o f moving t o a n o t h e r

p a t c h and f o r t h e c o s t o f p r o d u c t i o n in a n o t h e r p a t c h .

The d u r a t i o n o f

o c c u p a t i o n , t h e r e f o r e , depends upon t h e r a t e o f p a t c h r e n e w a l , v a r i a b i l i t y
of the patch, siz e of the patch, technological e f f ic ie n c y , tr a n s p o rta tio n
c o s t and m ark et p r i c e .

H a r d e s ty m a i n t a i n s t h a t a l l o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s

(wi th t h e e x c e p t i o n o f p a t c h s i z e and v a r i a b i l i t y ) , a r e en vi ro nm en ta l and
change s t o c h a s t i c a l l y , making t h e p r e d i c t i o n o f i n n o v a t i o n and sudden
change i m p o s s i b l e ( H a r d e s t y 19 8 5 ).
H ar d es ty (1985) used t h e Marginal Value Theorem t o a n a l y z e t h e mining
f r o n t i e r and an a s s o c i a t e d l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r in t h e United S t a t e s
southwest.

In both t h e s e c a s e s he was d e a l i n g with a s i t u a t i o n where

c o m p lete abandonment a n d / o r c e s s a t i o n o f a c t i v i t y o c c u r r e d .

The e p i s o d e

o f change un de r s tu d y h e r e i s one where a gi v e n t e c h n o l o g y i s r e p l a c e d by
a n o t h e r w i t h o u t an i n t e r v e n i n g p e r i o d o f abandonment.

As s u c h , t h e

86
ma rg in al v a l u e appro ac h may n o t be a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h .
T h e r e f o r e , some o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t v a r i a b l e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e
Marginal Value Theorem w i l l be examined t o a s c e r t a i n i f t h i s approach i s
a p p r o p r i a t e in t h i s c a s e .

Thi s e x a m in a t io n may a l s o p o i n t t o o t h e r

q u e s t i o n s which might be asked s h o u l d t h e Marginal Value Theorem prove
inapplicable.
The most obv iou s a r e a t h a t t h e s h i f t from r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g t o
r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g would e f f e c t i s t h a t o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l e f f i c i e n c y .

The

a d v e n t o f t h e l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d t h e o r e t i c a l l y made y e a r around lo g g i n g
p o s s i b l e . Thus, s u p p l y i n g s a w m il ls w ith l o g s and t h e a c t u a l h a r v e s t i n g of
l o g s no l o n g e r had t o be a s e a s o n a l o c c u r r e n c e .

In a d d i t i o n , t h e l o g s

s u f f e r e d l e s s damage in t r a n s p o r t r e s u l t i n g in a g r e a t e r amount o f
marketable p ro d u ct.

F i n a l l y , and most i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e r a i l r o a d opened

t h e way f o r l a r g e s c a l e , s u c c e s s f u l hardwood l o g g i n g .

Prior to the

development o f t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d , l a r g e s c a l e l o g g i n g was r e s t r i c t e d t o
pine because o f i t s f l o a t a b i l i t y .

Now u n l i m i t e d p o s s i b i l i t i e s were

a v a i l a b l e t o l o g g e r s ( C a t t o n 1976, Dunbar 1970, Karamanski 19 8 4) .
This s h i f t a l s o comp lexly impac ts upon t r a n s p o r t c o s t .

The l o g g i n g

r a i l w a y a d v a n t a g e s ( r a p i d and c o n t i n u o u s t r a n s p o r t , t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f
p r o d u c t q u a l i t y ) , br o u g h t w it h them s u b s t a n t i a l l y i n c r e a s e d c o s t s when
compared t o r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g .

Railway c o n s t r u c t i o n , w h i l e u s in g

n a t u r a l g r a d e s whenever i t c o u l d , s t i l l

r e q u i r e d a g r e a t deal o f c u t t i n g

and f i l l i n g t o s t a b i l i z e t r a c k beds and l a y t r a c k .

Even though s p u r l i n e s

co ul d be l a i d w ith l e s s c a r e and o v e r more a d v e r s e t e r r a i n t h a n main
l i n e s , t h i s was s t i l l

an e x p e n s i v e p r o p o s i t i o n .

For exam ple, t h e

s u g g e s t e d r i g h t - o f - w a y f o r main l i n e s was 100 f e e t and any f i l l e d a r e a s
had t o have a p p r o x i m a t e l y a f o u r t e e n f o o t wid th f o r t r a c k bed and

87
drainage.

In a d d i t i o n , most o f t h e r i v e r improvements f o r r i v e r d r i v e

l o g g i n g were made o f l o c a l m a t e r i a l .

While t h i s i s t r u e f o r some r a i l w a y

associated construction ( e .g . f i l l s , t r e s t l e s , e t c . ) , other m aterials
( e . g . e n g i n e s , r o l l i n g s t o c k , r a i l s , e t c . ) had t o be imported from t h e
homeland t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l

frontier.

Thus, i n t h e s h o r t run r a i l r o a d

lo g g i n g was an e x p e n s iv e u n d e r t a k i n g , which coul d o n ly become c o s t
e f f e c t i v e i f used f o r a number o f y e a r s t o a c c e s s l a r g e amounts o f t i m b e r .
>*»

When c o n s i d e r i n g t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f a l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d a l o g g e r had t o
i n s u r e t h a t t h e r e was s u f f i c i e n t t i m b e r a v a i l a b l e t o a m o r t i z e t h e d e b t
i n c u r r e d by r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n , l o g g i n g o p e r a t i o n s , and t o p r o v i d e a
l a r g e p r o f i t (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Br y an t 1913; Karamanski 1 98 4 ) .
Patch s i z e i s d i f f i c u l t t o a c c u r a t e l y gauge on t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
During t h e r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g e r a , a p at ch c o n s i s t e d o f only c e r t a i n
t y p e s a n d / o r c l u s t e r s o f t r e e s w i t h i n any l a r g e r a r e a .
f l o a t a b l e pine r e la te d s p e c i e s .

These were

With t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g , a l l

t r e e s w i t h i n any r e g i o n a r e n o m i n a l l y u s a b l e .

What t h e n d e f i n e s a p a t c h ?

I t can no l o n g e r be done by s p e c i f y i n g a t y p e o f t r e e and e f f e c t i v e l y
becomes a l l t r e e s .

Thi s i s f u r t h e r born o u t by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e

p r e v a i l i n g c u t t i n g t e c h n i q u e d u r i n g t h e r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g e r a was c l e a r
cutting.

In te rm s o f n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , t h e n , t h e p a t c h has become t h e

e n t i r e f r o n t i e r (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bry ant 1913; H a r d e s ty 1985;
Karamanski 1 9 8 4 ) .
Patc h v a r i a b i l i t y p o s e s problems s i m i l a r t o t h o s e e n c o u n t e r e d with
patch s i z e .

During t h e r i v e r d r i v e e r a t h i s c o n c e p t may have had some

r e l e v a n c e t o t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r , b u t with t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g
and c l e a r c u t t i n g t h i s c o n c e p t l o o s e s i t s u t i l i l t y .

Moreover, t h e s tu d y

a r e a ' s pred omi nan t f o r e s t t y p e i s hardwood, w ith most o f t h e f o r e s t

88
c l a s s i f i e d as mixed hardwood and p i n e .

Given t h e s e f a c t o r s , t h e a d v e n t o f

r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g , in a d d i t i o n t o r e d e f i n i n g p a t c h s i z e a l s o reduced p at ch
v a r i a b i l i t y i n term s o f t h e n a t u r a l

r e s o u r c e b ei ng e x p l o i t e d ( H a r d e s ty

1985, Karamanski 1984, Weir and R u t t e r 19 8 5) .
P at c h r e n e w a b i l i t y i s u s u a l l y a p p l i c a b l e t o f o r e s t s , which may
r e g e n e r a t e i n t h e long r u n , b u t i t can be a complex c h a r a c t e r i s t i c t o
measure.

F i r s t , t h e r e i s t h e q u e s t i o n o f how t h i s renewal i s t o be

a c c o m p li s h e d :

by n a t u r a l r e g e n e r a t i o n o r by r e f o r e s t a t i o n .

Most of t h e

f o r e s t s in t h e United S t a t e s , i n c l u d i n g t h o s e in t h e s t u d y a r e a , have been
renewed by t h e l a t t e r method.
prospect?

Second, w i l l t h i s be a long o r s h o r t te rm

Allowing t h a t long and s h o r t a r e r e l a t i v e t e r m s , I would arg ue

t h a t r e f o r e s t a t i o n i s a lo ng te rm phenomenon v i s a v i s t h e i n d u s t r i a l
frontier.

I f one i s examining s u c c e s i v e r e - c o l o n i z a t i o n ov er t h e long

r u n , presuming r e - f o r e s t a t i o n had o c c u r r e d , t h e n t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d
sh ou ld a p p e a r as Ha rd es ty (19 85 :2 1 7) d e s c r i b e s i t .

However, t h e co n c e p t

o f r e n e w a b i l i t y as t h e c o m p le te re p la c e m e n t o f r e s o u r c e s i s n o t u s e f u l
when o b s e r v i n g an i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r w i t h i n t h e framework o f i t s i n i t i a l
colonization.

F u r t h e r m o r e , one must assume t h a t t h e r e s o u r c e was

p e r c e i v e d as e i t h e r n on -r e n e w a b le o r e l s e was no t t h o u g h t o f in te rm s o f
r e n e w a b i l i t y , by i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r c o l o n i s t s ( H ar d es ty 1985, Karamanski
1 9 84 ).
The r e - c o l o n i z a t i o n o f an a r e a a f t e r t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new
t e c h n o l o g y , b u t p r i o r t o t h e co m pl ete removal o f r e s o u r c e s can a l s o be
c o n s i d e r e d as an i s s u e o f p a t c h r e n e w a b i l i t y .

In t h i s i n s t a n c e t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new, more c o s t e f f e c t i v e t e c h n o l o g y makes i t p r o f i t a b l e
t o r e -o c c u p y an a r e a t o o b t a i n r e s o u r c e s u n o b t a i n a b l e under t h e p r e v i o u s l y
e x is tin g technology.

In t h e c a s e o f t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r , i t co u ld be

89
ex pe c te d t h a t some o f t h e e a r l y r a i l w a y camps might be l o c a t e d n e a r t h e
s i t e s o f r i v e r d r i v e camps t o h a r v e s t hardwood t i m b e r u n t r a n s p o r t a b l e in
e a r l ie r tim es.

This assumes t h a t such t i m b e r was n o t used in camp or dam

c o n s t r u c t i o n and was n o t used f o r f u e l

( H ar d es ty 19 8 5) .

The d i s c u s s i o n above p r e s e n t e d s e v e r a l d i f f i c u l t i e s with u s in g
H a r d e s t y ' s Marginal Value Theorem appro ac h in t h i s r e s e a r c h .

Initially ,

i t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h i s theorem was o nl y a p p l i c a b l e in a r e a s where
com ple te abandonment had o c c u r r e d and t h i s a p p e a r s t o be t h e c a s e .
Moreover, t h e uniq ue c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s tu d y a r e a and i t s f o r e s t s
s u p p o r t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t i t would be i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o use t h e Marginal
Value Theorem in t h i s c a s e .
One a s p e c t o f r e n e w a b i l i t y d i s c u s s e d above b e a r s f u r t h e r e x am in at io n
bec a us e i t assumes t h a t r e s o u r c e s were not d e p l e t e d p r i o r t o t h e o c c u re n c e
o f a major t e c h n o l o g i c a l c h a n g e .

This change r e n d e r s a c c e s s i b l e a

p r e v i o u s l y i n a c c e s s i b l e r e s o u r c e p r i o r t o abandonment and t h e r e f o r e renews
t h e r e s o u r c e in a r e l a t i v e s e n s e .

Thi s a l lo w s t h e f o l l o w i n g p r o p o s i t i o n

t o be p u t f o r t h .
H y p o th e s is 16 :

With t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g , some camps
might be l o c a t e d n e a r o l d e r r i v e r d r i v e camps so as
t o o b t a i n p r e v i o u s l y unc ut hardwoods.

This

p r o p o s i t i o n assumes t h a t such t r e e s were n o t used f o r
o t h e r th a n lo g p r o d u c t i o n d u r i n g t h e r i v e r d r i v e e r a .
In d i s c u s s i n g t h e Marginal Value Theorem, s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of
r a i l r o a d l o g g g i n g were b r o u g h t t o l i g h t .

F i r s t , i t allows fo r

t r a n s p o r t o f l o g s with l i m i t e d p r o d u c t damage.

rapid

Second, i t was now

p o s s i b l e t o l o g hardwoods and t o c o n t i n u e lo g g i n g th r o u g h o u t t h e y e a r .
S in ce most o f t h e t i m b e r i n t h e s t u d y a r e a i s hardwood o c c u r r i n g as mixed

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h a r d w o o d /p in e , t h e development o f r a i l w a y lo g g i n g opened a g r e a t deal o f
te r r i to r y to ex p lo itatio n .

Thus, commodity, t r a n s p o r t e f f i c i e n c y , work

p a t t e r n s , r e s o u r c e bas e and m a r k e t a b i l i t y were a l l

r e d e f i n e d and t h e i r

c a p a c i t i e s i n c r e a s e d (Brown 1923, 1934, 1936, 1947; Bry ant 1913; Ca tt on
1976; Dunbar 1970; Karamanski 19 8 4 ) .
However, such de vel op me nt s were not w i t h o u t c o s t .

R a i lw a y s , both in

te rm s o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a i n t e n e n c e , were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e x p e n s i v e
t h a n t h e r i v e r improvements needed f o r r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g .

In a d d i t i o n ,

t h e c o s t f o r equipment ( i . e . r o l l i n g s t o c k , e n g i n e s , e t c . ) was g r e a t ,
b ec a u se a l l o f i t had t o be b r o u g h t t o t h e f r o n t i e r from t h e homeland.
This i n i t i a l

in v e s t m e n t in t e c h n o l o g y and ongoing m a i n t e n e n c e / l a b o r c o s t s

had t o be a m o r t i z e d t h r o u g h p r o f i t s o b t a i n e d from t h e s a l e o f t i m b e r .
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e c o s t s were so g r e a t t h a t a number o f y e a r s o f
p r o f i t a b l e lo g g i n g had t o o c c u r b e f o r e t h e d e b t and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s were
a m o rt iz e d and t h e e n t i r e o p e r a t i o n showed a p r o f i t (Brown 1923, 1934,
1936, 1947; Br y an t 1913; C a t to n 1976; Dunbar 1970; Karamanski 19 84 ).
Thus, t h e s i t u a t i o n t h a t o c c u r r e d with t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g
was one in which t h e r e s o u r c e ba s e expanded s i g n i f i c a n t l y as d id t h e
technology a v a i l a b l e f o r e x p l o i t a t i o n .

These d e v e l o p m e n t s , w h i l e

pr od uc in g an i n c r e a s e in volume and p r o f i t s , were o f f s e t by g r e a t l y
i n c r e a s e d s t a r t up and o p e r a t i n g c o s t s .

The c r i t i c a l

f a c t o r determining

t h e o v e r a l l p r o f i t a b i l i t y o f t h e o p e r a t i o n was t h e a b i l i l t y o f t h e lo g g i n g
o p e r a t o r s t o c o n t i n u e in a give n a r e a f o r a number o f y e a r s .

F u r t h e r m o re ,

w h i l e t h e t i m b e r r e s o u r c e s may have a t f i r s t a p pe a r ed i n f i n i t e t o Upper
P e n i n s u l a l o g g e r s , t h e y were c e r t a i n l y aware t h a t t h i s was n o t t h e c a s e .
A prime and re ad y example o f t h i s was t h e d e c l i n e o f t h e Lower P e n i n s u l a
p in e rie s occurring at t h i s tim e.

Thus, t h e a b i l i l t y t o c o n t r o l a c c e s s t o

91
t i m b e r r e s o u r c e s became a key o v e r a r c h i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l problem
a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e a d v e n t o f

r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g ( Brown 1923, 1934, 1936,

1947; Br y an t 1913; C a t to n 1976; Dunbar 1970; Edwards e t . a l _ . 1972;
Karamanski 1984; Lovis e t . a l . 1 9 7 8 ) .
The c o n s i d e r a t i o n s above l e a d t o t h e f o i l owling h y p o t h e s i s .
H y p o th e s is 1 7 :

With t h e a d v e n t of r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g and t h e i n h e r e n t
s h i f t in t e c h n o l o g y / t r a n s p o r t t h e r e was a s h i f t in
t r a n s p o r t c o s t s t r u c t u r e . The r e s u l t s o f t h i s in
te rm s o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r
s h o u l d be seen in t h e i n c r e a s i n g c o n c e n t r a t i o n of
t i m b e r l a n d ownership i n t o t h e hands o f fewer
in dividuals/institiutions.

Summary
In t h i s c h a p t e r a model o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r was dev el op ed and
s e r i e s o f h y p o t h e s e s were d e r i v e d from i t t o be t e s t e d in an a n a l y s i s o f
t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

Thi s was a c c om pl is h e d

th r o u g h a

r evi ew and e v a l u a t i o n o f r e c e n t work by a r c h a e o l o g i s t s i n t h e f i e l d of
f r o n t i e r s t u d i e s , i n c l u d i n g some e x e c u t e d w i t h i n t h e s t u d y a r e a f o r t h i s
research.

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f an i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r were th e n

d i s c u s s e d based on t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e s p a t i a l , temporal or
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l dim en si on s o f human a c t i v i t y .

During t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s e

d i s c u s s i o n s arguments were made as t o how each c h a r a c t e r i s t i c might be
i d e n t i f i e d and examined on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e

d i s c u s s i o n s were a s e r i e s o f h y p o t h e s e s which w i l l be t e s t e d u s i n g d a t a
from M i c h i g a n ' s Upper P e n i n s u l a .

Because t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r was

e x c l u s i v e l y p r o d u c t i o n o r i e n t e d and e x i s t e d w i t h i n t h e c a p i t a l i s t s y s t e m ,

t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s fo c u s e d ma inl y on p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d f a c t o r s .

Moreover,

a p r e l i m i n a r y e x a m in a t io n o f a v a i l a b l e d a t a r e v e a l e d t h a t i t was most r i c h
in a r e a s r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t i o n .

Having e s t a b l i s h e d t h e scope o f t h e

a n a l y s i s t h r o u g h t h e f o r m u l a t i o n o f h y p o t h e s e s , o ur a t t e n t i o n w i l l now
f oc us on t h e a n a l y s i s i t s e l f .

CHAPTER V
DATA SOURCES AND METHODOLOGY

This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t s t h e a n a l y t i c a l methods used t o e v a l u a t e t h e
h y p o t h e s e s posed i n C h a p t e r IV.

O r i e n t e d toward t h e e x a m in a t io n o f t h e

l o c a t i o n a l , te mp o ral and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f a c e t s o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a
lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r , t h e h y p o t h e s e s w i l l be app roached t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f
m e t h o d o l o g i e s t h a t draw upon both a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and h i s t o r i c a l o f d a t a .
The v a r i a b l e s by which t h e d a t a w i l l be measured and t h e a n a l y t i c a l
methodologies are p re s e n te d .

Data Sources
A r c h a e o l o g i c a l Data
A r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a d e a l s w ith t h e p h y s i c a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f human
a c t i v i t y i n t h e s p a t i o - t e m p o r a l c o n ti nu um .

G enerally, t h i s data focuses

on t h e p h y s i c a l l o c a t i o n o f t h e s i t e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p among s i t e s , t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between a gi v e n s i t e and i t s n a t u r a l s e t t i n g , and t h e
temp ora l framework w i t h i n which t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o c c u r .

In t h i s

r e s e a r c h , a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a i s drawn from t h e Un ited S t a t e s F o r e s t
S e r v i c e s i t e f i l e s f o r t h e Hiawatha National F o r e s t and from Ghost Towns
o f Michigan (Dodge 19 7 3) .

These d a t a s o u r c e s may be used t o a d d r e s s a

number o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s posed in Ch ap te r IV.

Befo re t h i s can o c c u r ,

however, t h e d a t a s o u r c e s must be examined t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e y p o s s e s s

93

94
any unique c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which would r e n d e r them more o r l e s s s u i t a b l e
f o r t h e p u r po s e a t hand.
The f i r s t q u e s t i o n t h a t can be asked o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s o u r c e s
f o c u s e s on t h e i r a b i l i t y t o s u p p l y d a t a abo ut f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t s .

Of

t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t h y p o t h e s i z e d t o o c c u r on i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r s , camps can be i d e n t i f i e d most unambiguously from t h e a v a i l a b l e
archaeological s i t e f i l e d a ta .
three sources:

Thi s d a t a abo ut l o g g i n g camps i s based on

i n f o r m a n t s , f i e l d s u rv e y and s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n , and

h i s t o r i c a l and a r c a h e o l o g i c a l o v e r v i e w s .
Over t h e l a s t d e c a d e , a r c h a e o l o g i s t s have i n t e r v i e w e d i n f o r m a n t s who
were a l i v e d u r i n g o r s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e y e a r s o f t h e s t u d y p e r i o d and have
e n t e r e d t h i s in f o r m a n t i n t o t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e s i t e f i l e s .

This

i n f o r m a t i o n has been o f v a r i a b l e q u a l i t y , depending on t h e a c c u r a c y o f t h e
i n f o r m a n t ' s memory, t h e l e v e l o f h i s / h e r inv o lv em en t in t h e lo g g i n g
i n d u s t r y and r e l a t e d f a c t o r s .
F i e l d s u r v e y and s i t e e x a m i n a t i o n p r o v i d e t h e second s o u r c e o f
inform ation.

The Hiawatha N ati ona l F o r e s t has been one o f t h e most

e x t e n s i v e l y s u r ve y ed a r e a s in Michigan and t h e s e i n v e s t i g a t i o n s have
produced a w e a l t h o f i n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t v a r i o u s k in d s o f a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
sites.

Many o f t h e s e s u rv e y s were con ducted p r i o r t o t i m b e r s a l e s ,

a c q u i s i t i o n s , o r o t h e r forms o f la n d exchange and in some i n s t a n c e s , were
performed t o v e r i f y in f o r m a n t r e p o r t s a n d / o r l o c a l h i s t o r i c a l

inform ation.

A number o f h i s t o r i c a l and a r c h a e o l o g i c a l ov er v ie w s o f t h e Hiawatha
Na tion al F o r e s t have been p r e p a r e d o ve r t h e p a s t t e n y e a r s (Karamanski
1984, Lovis 1979, Martin 1 9 7 7 ) .

These have i n v o l v e d e x a m i n a t i o n s o f t h e

a r c h a e o l o g i c a l s i t e s and h i s t o r y - o f t h e Hiawatha N a ti o n a l F o r e s t t o p l a c e
th e se in to a broader spatio-tem poral p e rsp e c tiv e .

The most r e c e n t o f

95
t h e s e s t u d i e s (Karamanski 1984) was dev ot ed e n t i r e l y t o t h e h i s t o r i c
period.

The a u t h o r c o n s u l t e d a number o f pr im ar y documents i n c l u d i n g

t i m b e r c r u i s e r e p o r t s and company r e c o r d s , co unt y and s t a t e a r c h i v a l
m a t e r i a l s , and a number o f o t h e r p r i v a t e l y he l d s o u r c e s .

This s t u d y

p r o v id e d i n f o r m a t i o n abo ut new s i t e s and supplemented i n f o r m a t i o n about
lo g g i n g camps a l r e a d y on f i l e .

Moreover, i n r e c e n t y e a r s t h e Hiawatha

N ati on al F o r e s t a r c h a e o l o g i s t has been c o n d u c t i n g t i t l e s e a r c h e s , which
have produced a w e a lt h o f tempo ral i n f o r m a t i o n abo ut some o f t h e s e s i t e s .
S eve ral a s s u m p ti on s were made about t h e q u a l i t y o f t h i s d a t a on
l o g g i n g camp l o c a t i o n .

F i r s t , i t was assumed t h a t l o c a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n

and a s s o c i a t e d e nv ir on m en ta l i n f o r m a t i o n was c o r r e c t , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e
locational

i n f o r m a t i o n came from more th a n one s o u r c e .

r e c o g n i z e d t h a t in some i n s t a n c e s l o c a t i o n a l
in c o rre ct or c o n f lic tin g .

I t was a l s o

i n f o r m a t i o n might be

In t h e c a s e o f f o r m e r , t h e l a c k o f a l t e r n a t i v e

methods o f v e r i f i c a t i o n d i c t a t e d t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e l o c a t i o n a l
specifications.

While i n c o r r e c t l o c a t i o n s co ul d prod uce a b b e r a t i o n s

d u r i n g t h e a n a l y s i s , t h e s e can be f i l t e r e d out with t h e a v a i l a b l e
an aly tical procedures.
In t h e most common t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n c o n f l i c t t h e s i t e ' s to w n s hi p
and ran ge d e s i g n a t i o n d i d n o t match t h e w r i t t e n d i r e c t i o n s t o t h e s i t e
and/or the w ritten d e sc rip tio n of th e s i t e ' s s e t t i n g .

This mismatch was

u s u a l l y t h e r e s u l t o f human e r r o r t h a t o c c u r r e d when t h e s i t e s were
p l o t t e d o nt o U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e maps and c l o s e i n s p e c t i o n o f t h e s i t e
form o f t e n r e v e a l e d t h e c a u s e o f t h e c o n f l i c t .
i n s t a n c e , c o u l d ca us e t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s .
included d i g i t rev ersal

Ty po gr ap hi cal e r r o r s , f o r

Common t y p o g r a p h i c a l e r r o r s

( i . e . s e c t i o n 21 v e r s u s s e c t i o n 12; FR 2317 v e r s u s

FR 2371; e t c . ) , t h e i n c o r r e c t t r a n s l a t i o n o f a b b r e v i a t i o n s from f i e l d

96
n o t e s ( i . e . in f o r m i l e s i n s t e a d o f m e t e r s ) , and a s w i tc h o f l e t t e r s in
s u b - s e c t i o n d e s i g n a t i o n s ( i . e . SW v e r s u s SE) .
been a f i e l d r e c o r d i n g e r r o r .

The l a t t e r might a l s o have

That i s , o p e r a t i n g n e a r a s u b s e c t i o n

b o u nd ar y , t h e s u r v e y crew co u ld have m i s t a k e n l y a s s i g n e d t h e s i t e t o an
adjacent u n i t .

A l t e r n a t i v e l y , t h e s i t e might have c r o s s e d t h e s u b - s e c t i o n

boundary and a f i e l d judgment was made t o a s s i g n i t t o one or a n o t h e r
u n i t s , while w r it t e n d e s c r i p t i o n in d ic a te d t h a t i t overlapped th e
b o u n da ry .

These d i s c r e p a n c i e s were r e s o l v e d th r o u g h a r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f

t h e s i t e form and t h e amended l o c a t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n was e n t e r e d i n t o t h e
analysis.
The v a l i d i t y o f t h e c u l t u r a l / h i s t o r i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d on t h e

s i t e forms was w ei gh te d a c c o r d i n g t o t h e t h e s o u r c e ( s ) o f t h a t
inform ation.

When i n f o r m a t i o n was v e r i f i e d by a l l o f t h e s o u r c e s

d i s c u s s e d a b o v e , i t was assumed t o be c o r r e c t and a c c e p t e d a t f a c e v a l u e .
In c a s e s where t h e c u l t u r a l / h i s t o r i c a l

i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e s i t e was d e r i v e d

from a s i n g l e s o u r c e t h a t was a pr im ar y document ( i . e . t i m b e r c r u i s e
r e p o r t s , l o g g i n g company r e c o r d s , t i t l e s e a r c h e s , e t c . )

i t was a l s o

accepted a t fa c e valu e.
A more c o n s e r v a t i v e ap pr oac h was t a k e n when t h e s i n g l e s o u rc e was
e i t h e r an i n f o r m a n t r e p o r t o r f i e l d s u r v e y .
any a s s o c i a t e d c u l t u r a l / h i s t o r i c a l

In t h e c a s e o f t h e f o r m e r ,

i n f o r m a t i o n s u p p l i e d by t h e in f o r m a n t

was n o t i n c l u d e d so as t o a v o i d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f i n f o r m a n t b i a s o r
m isinterpretation.

This r e s u l t e d in t h e s i t e a p p e a r i n g in t h e a n a l y s i s as

a lo g g i n g camp o f unknown te mp o ral and t e c h n o l o g i c a l a f f i l i a t i o n .

In

c a s e s where t h e s i t e was r e p o r t e d as a r e s u l t o f f i e l d s u r v e y ,
cu ltu ral/h isto rical

i n f o r m a t i o n was u t i l i z e d o n ly i f t h e a r t i f a c t u a l

c o l l e c t i o n was deemed t o be s u f f i c i e n t l y l a r g e and d i a g n o s t i c .

S i t e f i l e r e c o r d s can a l s o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y
centers.

However, t h e t e r m i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r i s an a r t i f i c i a l

d e f i n i t i o n imposed f o r a n a l y t i c a l p u r p o s e s .

That d e f i n i t i o n i s based upon

a c e r t a i n number and ran ge o f a c t i v i t i e s which s h ou ld o c c u r in a l l
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly

c e n t e r s . To avoi d t h e p r e m a tu r e

a r t i f i c i a l d e f i n i t i o n o n to t h e d a t a , a l l o f t h e s i t e

i m p o s i t i o n o f an
f i l e lis tin g s for

s e t t l e m e n t s were c a t e g o r i z e d as p o t e n t i a l i n t e r m e d i a t e su pp ly c e n t e r s .
L a t e r in t h e a n a l y s i s t h e e x a c t n a t u r e o f t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s was d e f i n e d
w it h a s e t o f e x p l i c i t c r i t e r i a .
The o t h e r main s o u r c e o f i n f o r m a t i o n on i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y s u pp ly
c e n t e r s was Ghost Towns o f Michigan (Dodge 19 7 3) .

Organized on a county

by co u n t y b a s i s , t h i s r e f e r e n c e p r o v id e d t h e g e n e r a l l o c a t i o n o f
s e t t l e m e n t s w it h r e s p e c t t o t h e i r d i s t a n c e al on g r a i l
term ini.

l i n e s from major

I t a l s o p ro vi d ed a summary of t h e s e t t l e m e n t co m p o si ti o n in

t e r m s o f t h e ma jor economic a c t i v i t i e s an d , f o r many o f t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s ,
o c c u p a t i o n d a t e s and d u r a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n .

All t h e s e t t l e m e n t s l i s t e d

as occurring during

t h e s t u d y p e r i o d were c o n s i d e r e d

as p o t e n t i a l

i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly

c e n t e r s . As w it h t h e i n f o r m a t i o n d e r i v e d from t h e

s i t e f i l e s , t h e e x a c t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s e s i t e s were d e f i n e d
e l s e w h e r e in t h e a n a l y i s .
Ghost Towns o f Michigan (Dodge 1973) a l s o p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n on
entrepots.

Again, t o a v o i d t h e pr em a tu re i m p o s i t i o n o f an a r t i f i c i a l

d efin itio n , all

s e t t l e m e n t s were t r e a t e d as p o t e n t i a l e n t r e p o t s .

Later,

s e t t l e m e n t s were s o r t e d i n t o t h e i r a p p r o p r i a t e c a t e g o r i e s ( e n t r e p o t s ,
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s ) b e f o r e t h e y were a n a l y z e d .
Maps were an a d d i t i o n a l , v a l u a b l e d a t a s o u r c e .
two s o u r c e s :

They were drawn from

t h e 1975 U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e C la s s A Maps (1:31680) and t h e

98
s o i l s u r v e y o f t h e Hiawatha N at i o n al F o r e s t (B er nd t 1 9 7 7 ) .

These p r o v id e d

d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n on s i t e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s i n c e many o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s
l i s t e d in Ghost Towns o f Michigan (Dodge 1973) a r e a l s o note d on t h e U.S.
F o r e s t S e r v i c e maps.

Moreover, t h e y p r o v id e d a l l o f t h e i n f o r m a t i o n ab ou t

s p a t i a l and e n vi ro nm en ta l r e l a t i o n s h i p s among s i t e s and between s i t e s .
Thus, t h e y were a key d a t a s o u r c e s e r v i n g a s t h e v e h i c l e th ro u gh which
s i m p l e s i t e l o c a t i o n was c o n v e r t e d i n t o meaningful a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a .

H i s t o r i c a l Data
H i s t o r i c a l d a t a i s t h a t a v a i l a b l e in w r i t t e n f or m , which p r o v i d e s us
w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n a bo ut t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a g iv e n s u b j e c t as
u n d e r s t o o d by t h e a u t h o r w i t h i n h i s / h e r p a r t i c u l a r frame o f r e f e r e n c e .
t h i s s t u d y , h i s t o r i c a l d a t a were drawn from f o u r s o u r c e s :

In

local/regional

h i s t o r i e s , a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s / b i o g r a p h i e s / r e m i n i s c e n c e s , t o p i c a l s t u d i e s , and
t h e U.S. Ce n su s.

The h i s t o r i c a l

d a t a o b t a i n e d from t h e s e s o u r c e s e n a b l e d

t h e h y p o t h e s e s r e l a t i n g t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l , p r o c e d u r a l , and temporal
q u e s t i o n s t o be a d d r e s s e d .

Moreover, t h e U.S. Census d a t a supplemented

t h e o t h e r q u a n t i t a t i v e i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e ab ou t e n t r e p o t s and
in te rm e d ia te supply c e n t e r s .
L o c a l / r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i e s were used t o deal w ith q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g
t h e te mp or al framework w i t h i n which t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r
d e v e l o p e d and t o a d d r e s s q u e s t i o n s a b ou t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l and p r o c e d u r a l
components o f t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y .

Depending on when t h e y were w r i t t e n ,

l o c a l / r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i e s may c o n t a i n o v e r t o r c o v e r t b i a s in t h e i r
p resen ta tio n of inform ation.

Examples o f t h i s would i n c l u d e t h o s e w r i t t e n

t o in d u c e s e t t l e m e n t o r "development" o f t h e r e g i o n o r t h o s e w r i t t e n t o
s u b s t a n t i a t e one o f t h e many m y t h o l o g i e s t h a t had grown about t h e r e g i o n .

99
A u t o b i o g r a p h i e s , b i o g r a p h i e s o r r e m i n i s c e n c e s compose t h e second
source of h i s t o r i c a l d a t a .

These documents have v a r i o u s uses depending on

t h e a u t h o r and h i s / h e r p a r t i c u l a r frame o f r e f e r e n c e .

Some, w r i t t e n by

p e r s o n s who a c t u a l l y worked in t h e lumber camps, p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t
d a i l y l i f e , work o r g a n i z a t i o n , e t c .

Ot her s w r i t t e n by i n d i v i d u a l s who

l i v e d in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a d u r i n g t h e s t u d y p e r i o d , b u t who had only
i n d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith t h e lumber i n d u s t r y p r o v i d e o n ly i n d i r e c t e v i d e n c e
a b ou t lo g g i n g camps.

However, t h e y do p r o v i d e v a l u a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n abo ut

o t h e r components o f t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m .
The t h i r d s o u r c e o f h i s t o r i c a l d a t a were t o p i c a l s t u d i e s which
examine a s u b j e c t a c r o s s s p a c e and t i m e .

These r e t a i n some o f t h e

a d v a n t a g e s o f fo c u s e d i n f o r m a t i o n ( i . e . a u t o b i o g r a p h i e s ) w h il e a t t h e same
t i m e have t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f a b r o a d e r p e r s p e c t i v e u s u a l l y found a t t h e
regional l e v e l .

These s o u r c e s were u s e f u l in t h e s t u d y o f c e r t a i n

p r o c e d u r e s and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r o c e s s e s on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a lo g g i n g
f r o n t i e r as well as how t h e s e v a r i o u s p r o c e d u r e s / p r o c e s s e s changed th r o u g h
tim e.
The f i n a l

s o u r c e o f h i s t o r i c a l d a t a was t h e U.S. Cens us .

This

p r o v id e d i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s which
have s u r v i v e d t o t h e p r e s e n t d a y , and which were n o t in c l u d e d in Ghost
Towns o f Michigan (Dodge 19 7 3 ) .

Variables
This s e c t i o n d e a l s e x c l u s i v e l y with t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a used in
th is research.

I t d e s c r i b e s how t h e v a r i a b l e s used in t h i s s t u d y were

d e f i n e d and r e c o r d e d in p r e p a r a t i o n f o r q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s , b e g i n n i n g
w ith some g e n e r a l o b s e r v a t i o n s common t o a l l t h e v a r i a b l e s .

100
One o f t h e im p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s was t h e r o l e pl a y e d by
t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e C la s s A Maps and t h e s o i l s u rv e y in t h e d e r i v a t i o n
of v aria b les.

I n i t i a l l y , u s i n g s i t e f i l e i n f o r m a t i o n , a l l s i t e s were

p l o t t e d on t h e a p p r o p r i a t e C la s s A map.

Every a t t e m p t was made t o avoid

t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f e r r o r when measu rin g d i s t a n c e s .

When a d i s t a n c e had

t o be m e as ur e d, t h i s was done by mea surin g from t h e c e n t e r o f t h e
ch ara cter representing the s i t e to the d e s tin a tio n .

When some i n f o r m a t i o n

ab ou t t h e s o i l a s s o c i a t i o n , g e n e r a l en vi ron m ent al f e a t u r e s , e t c . was
r e q u i r e d , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e map from t h e s o i l s u rv ey was c o n s u l t e d .

As with

t h e C la ss A maps, s i t e s were l o c a t e d on t h e s o i l s u r v e y as a c c u r a t e l y as
possible.

F o r t u n a t e l y , t h i s t y p e o f i n f o r m a t i o n had a l r e a d y been r e c o r d e d

on t h e s i t e form f o r a number o f s i t e s .

Such i n f o r m a t i o n was s p o t

ch ec k ed , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e r e were l o c a t i o n a l d i s c r e p a n c i e s , but was
g e n e r a l l y assumed t o be c o r r e c t .
The v a r i a b l e s used in t h i s r e s e a r c h f a l l
and c o n t i n u o u s .
consideration.

i n t o two g r ou ps :

nominal

These d i v i s i o n s o c c u r w ith t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f s i t e s under
Each v a r i a b l e , r e g a r d l e s s o f i t s t y p e , i s d i s c u s s e d below

as t o t h e way i t was r e c o r d e d , t h e way i t was m ea su re d, and i t s
co n trib u tio n to the a n a ly s is .

The d i s c u s s i o n b e g i n s with t h o s e v a r i a b l e s

a s s o c i a t e d w ith camps and i s f o l l o w e d by d i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e v a r i a b l e s
a s s o c i a t e d with i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p p ly c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s .

Camps
In a d d i t i o n t o a n a l y t i c a l

v a r i a b l e s , t h e r e were a number o f e n t r i e s

which were used f o r i d e n t i f i c a t i o n p u r p o s e s .

A l i s t i n g of v a ria b le s ,

t h e i r column w i d t h s , acronyms and t h e v a r i o u s s t a t e s f o r nominal v a r i a b l e s
can be found in Appendix A.

101
S i t e type
This e n t r y d i s t i n g u i s h e d among r i v e r d r i v e , r a i l w a y o r unknown s i t e s .
The s i t e t y p e d e s i g n a t i o n (SITTYP) i s a s i n g l e d i g i t e n t r y which
c l a s s ifie s the s i t e .

Thi s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was based on i n f o r m a t i o n from

t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e s i t e fo r m s .

A d i s t i n c t i o n between r i v e r d r i v e and

r a i l w a y camps was made o n l y when w r i t t e n d o cu m en ta t io n was p r e s e n t on t h e
s i t e form in a d d i t i o n t o / i n s t e a d o f f i e l d e x a m in a t io n i n f o r m a t i o n .
d o c u m en ta ti o n o c c u r r e d in s e v e r a l f o r m s .

This

The f i r s t o f t h e s e was

do cu m en ta t io n ( e . g . t i m b e r c r u i s e r e p o r t s , company r e c o r d s , e t c . )
a s s o c i a t i n g t h e s i t e w ith a p a r t i c u l a r lumber company a n d / o r with a
p a r t i c u l a r time span.

T h i s was p o s s i b l e bec a u se c e r t a i n lumber companies

o p e r a t e d e x c l u s i v e l y r i v e r d r i v e o p e r a t i o n s , w h i l e o t h e r s were e x c l u s i v e l y
railway o p e r a tio n s .
S i t e s which had l i m i t e d d o c u m e n ta t io n b u t which were l o c a t e d on r a i l
l i n e s as d e s c r i b e d by f i e l d s u r v e y , were c l a s s i f e d a s r a i l w a y s i t e s .

This

c l a s s f i c a t i o n made t h e as s u m p ti o n t h a t t h e s i t e was b u i l t a f t e r t h e
r a i l w a y g r a d e was b u i l t , r a t h e r t h a n t h e r a i l w a y g r a d e b ei ng b u i l t th ro ug h
a p r e - e x i s t i n g o r abandoned s i t e .

Given t h e o p e r a t i n g c o n s i d e r a t i o n s of

t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y and t h e l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n t o t h e c o n t r a r y , such an
assu mp ti o n was w a r r a n t e d .

However, t o guard a g a i n s t t o o l i b e r a l an

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , o f such e v i d e n c e , t h e s e s i t e s were coded d i f f e r e n t l y from
t h o s e f o r which e x t e n s i v e w r i t t e n d o c u m en ta ti on was a v a i l a b l e , a l t h o u g h
t h e y were used as a s i n g l e group f o r a n a l y t i c a l p u r p o s e s .
F i n a l l y , s i t e s f o r which t h e r e was no s p e c i f i c d o c u m en ta ti o n o r f i e l d
s u r v e y i n f o r m a t i o n were c l a s s i f i e d as unknown.

Thi s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n meant

t h e r e was e v i d e n c e t h e s i t e was a l o g g i n g camp, b u t t h e r e was no e v i d e n c e
as t o what t y p e o f camp i t a c t u a l l y was.

102
S ite size
The n e x t v a r i a b l e was s i t e s i z e ( S IT S IZ ).

Thi s was measured in a c r e s

and r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s , making t h e e n t i r e e n t r y t h r e e d i g i t s
in s i z e .

I n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t s i t e s i z e was n o t u n i f o r m l y a v a i l a b l e f o r t h e

s i t e s in t h e sa mp le , b u t when i t was a v a i l a b l e i t came from two s o u r c e s :
f i e l d s u r v e y and t i m b e r c r u i s e r e p o r t s .

R e g a r d l e s s o f t h e measures used

t o r e p o r t s i t e s i z e , t h e s e were a l l c o n v e r t e d t o a c r e s f o r pu rp os es o f
th is analysis.

In c a s e s where s i t e s i z e was unknown, z e r o e n t r i e s were

used.
So il phase
This v a r i a b l e was a nominal s c a l e one r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e s m a l l e s t s o i l
g r o up in g (SOLPHAS) i n t o which t h e s o i l around t h e s i t e co u ld be
classified.

I t was r e c o r d e d in a t h r e e d i g i t f o r m a t .

forms a l r e a d y had t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n e n t e r e d on them.

Many o f t h e s i t e
Thi s i n f o r m a t i o n

all ow ed h y p o t h e s e s c o n c e r n i n g d r a i n a g e and s i t e l o c a t i o n t o be a d d r e s s e d .
S oil s e r i e s
This v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t e d s o i l

s e r i e s (SOLSER) which was t h e ne xt

h i g h e r o r d e r s o i l g r ou pi ng t o which t h e s o i l
belonged.

in t h e p r e c e d i n g v a r i a b l e

Th is was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e and was r e c o r d e d in a two

d i g i t format.

The v a l u e s were o b t a i n e d from t h e s i t e form and t h e s o i l

s u r v e y ( B e r n d t 19 77 ).

Th is v a r i a b l e was used b ec a u se t h e use o f s o i l

phase might i n t r o d u c e un w ar r an te d c o m p le x it y i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s .

This

v a r i a b l e d e a l t with t h e same h y p o t h e s e s as s o i l p h a s e , b u t a t a more
general l e v e l .
Slope
Thi s was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e (SLOPE) e n t e r e d in a s i n g l e d i g i t
f o r m a t . The o r g i n a l measurements were o b t a i n e d from t h e s i t e forms a n d / o r

103

•

t h e s o i l s u r v e y , which r e c o r d e d t h e s l o p e in te rm s o f p e r c e n t a g e
intervals.

Each o f t h e s e i n t e r v a l s was a s s i g n e d a nominal s c a l e co d e.

This v a r i a b l e en a b l e d h y p o t h e s e s d e a l i n g with s l o p e , e l e v a t i o n , e t c . t o be
addressed.
Distance t o n e a r e s t water
This v a r i a b l e (DINEWAT) was c o n t i n u o u s and measured in m i l e s .

I t was

re c o r d e d

t o two decimal p l a c e s , w ith t h e t o t a l e n t r y b e i n g t h r e e d i g i t s in

length.

It

was measured by t a k i n g t h e d i s t a n c e from a lo g g i n g camp t o t h e

n e a r e s t w a t e r s o u r c e as r e p r e s e n t e d on t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e C la s s A
Maps.

I t a l lo w e d h y p o th e s e s d e a l i n g with d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r t o be

addressed.
Distance to n e a re s t d r iv e a b le water
This v a r i a b l e (DIDRWAT) was c o n t i n u o u s and measured in m i l e s .

I t was

recorded

t o two decimal p l a c e s , w ith t h e t o t a l e n t r y b e i n g t h r e e d i g i t s in

length.

It

was measured by t a k i n g t h e d i s t a n c e from a g iv e n l o g g i n g camp

t o t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r , which was d e f i n e d so a s t o i n c l u d e a major
r i v e r , which f l o w i n t o a m a jo r r i v e r , l a k e s l i n k e d by s t r e a m s t o a major
river, etc.

In e s s e n c e , t h e v a r i a b l e s o ug ht t o measure t h e d i s t a n c e

between t h e camp and t h e n e a r e s t p o i n t where i t c o n n e c t s t o a d e n d r i t i c
r i v e r system which u l t i m a t e l y l e d t o e i t h e r t h e Lake Michigan o r Lake
Superior c o a s t.

The p r e s e n c e o f dams on some of t h e s t r e a m s and r i v e r s

s e r v e d as c o r r o b o r a t i v e e v i d e n c e as t o what was d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

The

i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v id e d by t h i s v a r i a b l e en a b l e d h y p o t h e s e s r e l a t i n g t o
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and communication t o be a d d r e s s e d .

A l s o , i t allowed

d i s t i n c t i o n s between r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y camps t o be made.

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O r ie n ta tio n of n e a r e s t d r iv e a b le water
This v a r i a b l e (ORDRWAT) was measured on t h e nominal s c a l e and was
r e c o r d e d as a s i n g l e e n t r y r e f l e c t i n g t h e o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e n e a r e s t
d r i v e a b l e w a t e r with r e s p e c t t o camp l o c a t i o n .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , i t measured

w he th er t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r was downslope from t h e camp, u p s l o p e
from t h e camp o r a t a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same e l e v a t i o n o f t h e camp.

This

v a r i a b l e s e r v e d t o c h a r a c t e r i z e r a i l w a y and r i v e r d r i v e camps.
Type o f n e a r e s t w a t e r
Thi s v a r i a b l e (TYPPNWAT) was nominal s c a l e and was re co r d ed as a
s i n g l e d i g i t e n t r y r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e t y p e o f w a t e r n e a r e s t t h e camp.

It

c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e g e n e r a l u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f camp s i t i n g f a c t o r s .
D i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t camp o f t h e same t y p e
Thi s v a r i a b l e (DNSAMCAM) was c o n t i n u o u s and was measured in m i l e s .
I t was r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s , w ith t h e t o t a l e n t r y b e i n g t h r e e
d i g i t s in l e n g t h .

I t was measured by t a k i n g t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e d i s t a n c e

between a g iv e n l o g g i n g camp and t h e ne x t n e a r e s t camp o f t h e same t y p e as
p l o t t e d on t h e U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e C la s s A maps.

Thi s v a r i a b l e en a b l e d

camp l o c a t i o n t o be more c l e a r l y d e f i n e d w ith r e s p e c t t o c u l t u r a l as well
as n a t u r a l c r i t e r i a .
D i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t camp o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e
Th is v a r i a b l e (DNDIFCAM) was c o n t i n u o u s and was measured in m i l e s .
I t was r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s with t h e t o t a l e n t r y be in g t h r e e
d i g i t s in l e n g t h .

This v a r i a b l e was measured by t a k i n g t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e

d i s t a n c e between a g iv e n camp and t h e n e a r e s t camp o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e ,
i n c l u d i n g t h o s e camps o f unknown t y p e .

As w ith t h e p r e c e d i n g v a r i a b l e ,

t h i s v a r i a b l e al lo w ed i n f e r e n c e s t o be made a b o u t t h e c u l t u r a l c r i t e r i a o f
camp l o c a t i o n .

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Type o f t h e n e a r e s t s i t e o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e
Th is v a r i a b l e (TYPNDIC) was nominal and was r e c o r d e d by a s i n g l e
place e n try .

I t was d e s i g n e d t o r e c o r d t h e s i t e t y p e from which t h e

p r e c e d i n g v a r i a b l e was d e r i v e d .

In t h i s way, a d i s t i n c t i o n co ul d be made

as t o w h eth er t h e n e a r e s t s i t e o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e was unknown o r was from
a known d i f f e r e n t h i s t o r i c a l / t e c h n o l o g i c a l e r a .

Thi s all ow ed t h e

i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from t h e p r e v i o u s v a r i a b l e t o be used with g r e a t e r
precision.
D i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t swamp
Measurements f o r t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t swamp (DNSWAM) were made
i n m i l e s and r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s .
d i g i t s in l e n g t h .

The e n t i r e e n t r y was t h r e e

This measurement was made by t a k i n g t h e s t r a i g h t l i n e

d i s t a n c e from a give n l o g g i n g camp t o t h e n e a r e s t edge o f a swamp.

This

v a r i a b l e al lo w ed d i s t i n c t i o n s between r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y camps t o be
made as well as p ro v id ed e v i d e n c e o f s e a s o n a l i t y .
Elevation
E l e v a t i o n (ELEV) was measured i n f e e t and was r e c o r d e d as a f o u r
d ig it entry.

I t was measured u s i n g t h e t o p o g r a p h i c c o n t o u r s on t h e U.S

F o r e s t S e r v i c e C la ss A Maps.

Thi s v a r i a b l e , as with t h e t h r e e r e l a t e d

ones t h a t f o l l o w , was aimed a t p r o v i d i n g f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e
n a t u r a l and c u l t u r a l c r i t e r i a o f s i t e l o c a t i o n .

A l s o , i t was u s e f u l in

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g betweeen r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y camps.
H ig h es t e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n one and a h a l f m i l e s
The h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n one and a h a l f m i l e s (HIEL) was a
c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e measured i n f e e t .
entry.

I t was r e c o r d e d a s a f o u r d i g i t

I t was measured u s i n g t h e e l e v a t i o n c o n t o u r s on t h e U.S. F o r e s t

S e r v i c e C la s s A Maps w i t h i n a one and a h a l f m i l e r a d i u s o f each camp.

106
Lowest e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n one and a h a l f m i l e s
The lo w e s t e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n one and a h a l f m i l e s (LOEL) was a
c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e measured in f e e t .
entry.

I t was r e c o r d e d as a f o u r d i g i t

I t was measured u s i n g t h e e l e v a t i o n c o n t o u r s on t h e U.S. F o r e s t

S e v ic e C la s s A Maps w i t h i n a one and a h a l f m i l e r a d i u s o f each camp.
R elative e le v a tio n of the s i t e w ithin a
one and a h a l f m i le r a d i u s
This v a r i a b l e (RELEL) was a nominal s c a l e , e n t e r e d as a s i n g l e d i g i t .
I t was a measure o f t h e s i t e e l e v a t i o n w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e o t h e r
e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n a one and a h a l f m i l e r a d i u s around t h e camp.

I t was

coded f o r h i g h e s t , lo w e s t o r i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n , and used t o a d d r e s s
h y p o t h e s e s a b o u t t h e camp's s e t t i n g .
D i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e o r
cou nt y r o a d / t r a i l
The d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e o r coun ty r o a d / t r a i l
(DINRD) was a c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e measured in m i l e s .

I t was r e c o r d e d t o

two decimal p l a c e s , w ith t h e e n t i r e e n t r y b ei ng t h r e e d i g i t s l o n g .

This

was measured by t a k i n g t h e s h o r t e s t s t r a i g h t l i n e d i s t a n c e from each camp
t o t h e n e a r e s t U.S

F o r e s t S e r v i c e o r coun ty r o a d / t r a i l .

In c a s e s where

t h e camp was l o c a t e d on a r o a d / t r a i l , t h e d i s t a n c e was e n t e r e d as 0 . 0 1 .
Th is was done t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e s i t e was l o c a t e d on a r o a d / t r a i l .

An

e n t r y o f 0 . 0 0 was r e s e r v e d f o r t h o s e s i t e s o v e r 9.9 9 m i l e s from a
ro ad /trail.

Using 0 .0 1 i n t r o d u c e d some b i a s i n t o t h e measurement,

however, t h i s on ly amounted t o 5 2 . 8 f e e t and was i n s i g n i f i c a n t .

This

v a r i a b l e was chosen b e c a u s e many o f t h e r o a d s / t r a i l s a r e b u i l t ov er or
a d ja c e n t to t h e grades of former logging r a i l r o a d s .

I t sh ould be noted

t h a t when t h e r o a d / t r a i l was d e f i n i t e l y i d e n t i f i a b l e as an o l d r a i l r o a d

107
g r a d e , t h i s d i s t a n c e measure was e n t e r e d under t h e n e x t v a r i a b l e as well
as t h i s v a r i a b l e .

Thi s measure was used t o d i s t i n g u i s h between r a i l w a y

and r i v e r d r i v e camps.
D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t known r a i l w a y
The d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t known r a i l w a y (DINRWAY) was a c o n t in u o u s
v a r i a b l e measured in m i l e s .

I t was r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s , w ith

t h e t o t a l e n t r y be in g t h r e e d i g i t s l o n g .

I t was measured by t a k i n g t h e

s t r a i g h t l i n e d i s t a n c e from each camp t o t h e n e a r e s t known r a i l w a y .

In

i n s t a n c e s where t h e camp was l o c a t e d on a r a i l l i n e , t h i s d i s t a n c e was
e n t e r e d as 0.0 1 m i l e s .

Although t h i s e n t r y was no t e x a c t and i n t r o d u c e d

an e r r o r f a c t o r ( 5 2 . 8 f e e t ) i n t o t h e a n a l y s i s , t h i s was not s i g n i f i c a n t .
Thi s v a r i a b l e a i d e d i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g r i v e r d r i v e from r a i l w a y camps and
was u s e f u l in examining c e r t a i n l o c a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r a i l w a y
camps.
Occu pat ion d a t e
O cc u pa ti o n d a t e (OCCUP) was a nominal s c a l e v a r i b l e re co rd ed as a s i x
d ig it entry.

This was r e c o r d e d f o r t h o s e s i t e s where t h e r e was

docummentary i n f o r m a t i o n a b ou t a s i n g l e o c c u p a t i o n d a t e o r a
occupation.

It

was r e c o r d e d u s i n g t h e l a s t

duration of

t h r e e d i g i t s of the

o c c u p a t i o n d a t e o r d a t e s ( e . g . f o r 1895-1910, 895910; f o r 1905, 90 59 05) .
S i t e s f o r which t h e r e were no s p e c i f i c d a t e s

a v a i l a b v l e were coded as

333333.

a temporal framework f o r

Thi s v a r i a b l e was used t o e s t a b l i s h

the

a n a l y s i s , which was t h e n used t o a d d r e s s a number o f i n d i v i d u a l h y p o t h e s e s .
R e la tiv e occupation
R e l a t i v e o c c u p a t i o n (REL0C) was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e re c o r d e d in
a s in g le d i g i t format.

This was measured as l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , l a t e

n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y / e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .

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I t was r e c o r d e d f o r a l l s i t e s where t h e r e were d e f i n i t e o c c u p a t i o n d a t e s
t h a t co ul d be e n t e r e d u n d er t h e p r e c e d i n g v a r i a b l e .

Thi s v a r i a b l e , used

by i t s e l f and in c o n j u n c t i o n w it h t h e p r e c e d i n g o n e , a i d e d in t h e
e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f a te mp or al framework f o r t h e a n a l y s i s , which was t h e n
used t o a d d r e s s a number o f h y p o t h e s e s p r e s e n t e d e a r l i e r .

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s and E n t r e p o t s
I n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s were t h e o t h e r two t y p e s o f
s i t e s p r e s e n t on an i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

These s i t e s were s e t t l e m e n t s o f

a l a r g e r s c a l e w ith more d i v e r s i f i e d a c t i v i t i e s th a n t h e camps, which
p r e s e n t e d some problems s i n c e t h e y must be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from one a n o t h e r
p rio r to the a n a ly s is .

In g e n e r a l , e n t r e p o t s were e x p e c t e d t o be more

d i v e r s e , l a r g e r and o f l o n g e r d u r a t i o n th a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s up p ly c e n t e r s .
Moreover, t h e r e were some c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s uniq ue t o each which proved
u s e f u l i n making f i n a l d i s t i n c t i o n s between t h e tw o .

The d i s c u s s i o n which

f o l l o w s a d d r e s s e s v a r i a b l e s t h a t were p e r t i n e n t t o b o th t y p e s o f s i t e s , as
d e r i v e d from Lewis ( 1 9 8 4 ) (Appendix B) .
A p r i o r i s i t e type
Th is v a r i a b l e (APRIOR) was a nominal s c a l e e n t r y one d i g i t l o n g .

It

r e p r e s e n t e d an i n t u i t i v e , a p r i o r i a s s e s s m e n t on t h e p a r t o f t h e a n a l y i s t
as t o w het her t h e s e t t l e m e n t was an i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r o r an
entrepot.

As s u c h , i t was not u t i l i z e d in t h e main p a r t o f t h e a n a l y s i s ,

b u t was used t o o r g a n i z e and c h a r a c t e r i z e i n d i v i d u a l s e t t l e m e n t s in t h e
analysis.
Distance to th e n e a re st se ttle m e n t
This v a r i a b l e (DNST) was c o n t i n u o u s and was measured in m i l e s .
was r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s , with t h e e n t i r e e n t r y b e i n g f o u r

It

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places in l e n g t h .

I t was a s t r a i g h t l i n e measure o f t h e d i s t a n c e from one

s e t t l e m e n t t o t h e n e x t n e a r e s t s e t t l e m e n t in t h e sa m p l e .

I t p ro vi d ed

i n f o r m a t i o n a bo ut t h e s p a c i n g o f s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
A p rio ri d e f in itio n of the nearest settlem ent
A p r i o r i d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e n e a r e s t s e t t l e m e n t (APPRNSET) was a
nominal v a r i a b l e one p l a c e long and was t h e i n t u i t i v e a s s e s s m e n n t o f
settlem ent type of the n eare st s e ttle m e n t.

I t was used o nl y f o r

comparative purposes.
D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a te r
D i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t w a t e r (DINEWAT) was a c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e
measured i n m i l e s .

I t was r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s , with t h e e n t i r e

e n t r y bei ng t h r e e p l a c e s l o n g .

I t was a s t r a i g h t l i n e measure o f t h e

d i s t a n c e from t h e s e t t l e m e n t t o t h e n e a r e s t w a t e r .

I t was used i n

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e g e n e r a l s e t t i n g around t h e s e t t l e m e n t and i t s p o t e n t i a l
a s s o c i a t i o n w it h t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s .
Type o f n e a r e s t w a t e r
The t y p e s o f n e a r e s t w a t e r (TYPNWAT) was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e
r e c o r d e d t o one p l a c e .

I t r e c o r d e d t h e t y p e o f w a t e r most c l o s e l y

a s s o c i a t e d with each s e t t l e m e n t .

I t a i d e d in t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e

s e tt le m e n t's lo c a tio n , i t s place w ithin a transportation/com m unication
s y s t e m , and was u s e f u l in d i s t i n g u i s h i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s from
entrepots.
Distance to n e a re st railway
Th is v a r i a b l e (DINRWY) was c o n t i n u o u s and measured in m i l e s .

I t was

r e c o r d e d t o two decimal p l a c e s , w ith t h e e n t i r e e n t r y b e i n g t h r e e d i g i t s
l o n g . I t i s a s t r a i g h t l i n e measurement o f t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e
settlem ent to the nearest railw ay.

In t h e e v e n t t h e s e t t l e m e n t was

110
l o c a t e d on a r a i l l i n e , t h i s v a r i a b l e was e n t e r e d as 0 . 0 1 , as was done
w it h l o g g i n g camps.

This v a r i a b l e a i d e d in t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f a give n

s e t t l e m e n t ' s p a r t i c i p a t i o n in a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k .
Type o f n e a r e s t r a i l w a y
The t y p e o f n e a r e s t r a i l w a y (TYPNRW) was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e
r e c o r d e d i n one d i g i t .

Thi s v a r i a b l e d e f i n e d t h e t y p e o f r a i l l i n e t o

which t h e measurement in t h e p r e c e d i n g v a r i a b l e was t a k e n .

Choices

in c l u d e d l o g g i n g r a i l w a y , main l i n e r a i l w a y o r both ( i . e . a j u n c t i o n ) .
This v a r i a b l e al lo w ed f o r t h e r e f i n e m e n t o f o ur u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e way
each s e t t l e m e n t p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o rk .
Number o f r a i l

l i n e s w i t h i n two m i l e s

Thi s v a r i a b l e (NORWYL) was c o n t i n u o u s and r e c o r d e d t o two p l a c e s .
measured t h e number o f r a i l

It

l i n e s w i t h i n a two m i l e r a d i u s o f each

s e t t l e m e n t . I n d i v i d u a l b r a n c h e s were count ed as i n d i v i d u a l r a i l l i n e s even
though t h e y e v e n t u a l l y f e d i n t o f e w e r , h i g h e r volume l i n e s .

Thi s v a r i a b l e

pr o v id e d f u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a bo ut t r a n s p o r t a t i o n as well as e n a b l i n g
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s t o be d i s t i n g u i s h e d from e n t r e p o t s .
Terminus o f a lo g g i n g r a i l w a y
Th is v a r i a b l e (TRLGRWY) was nominal s c a l e and i n d i c a t e d w h e th e r or
n o t t h e s e t t l e m e n t was a t t h e t e r m i n u s o f a l o g g i n g r a i l w a y .

I t p ro v id e d

i n f o r m a t i o n a bo ut t h e f r o n i t e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m .
Terminus o f a main l i n e r a i l w a y
As w it h t h e p r e c e d i n g v a r i a b l e , t h i s v a r i a b l e (TRMNRWY) was nominal'
s c a l e and i n d i c a t e d w h e th e r o r not t h e s e t t l e m e n t was t h e t e r m i n u s o f a
mail l i n e r a i l w a y .

Ill
Port f a c i l i t i e s
P o r t f a c i l i t i e s (PORT) was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e and was d e s i g n e d
t o i n d i c a t e w he th er o r n o t t h e s e t t l e m e n t c o n t a i n e d p o r t f a c i i l i t i e s .
This v a r i a b l e d i s t i n g u i s h e d between i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and
entrepots.
D i r e c t l i n k t o homeland
Th is v a r i a b l e (DIRLKHM) was nominal s c a l e and was d e s i g n e d t o measure
wh ethe r o r n o t t h e s e t t l e m e n t was in d i r e c t c o n t a c t w ith t h e homeland.
D i r e c t c o n t a c t meant t h a t s h ip m e n ts /m e s s a g e s from t h e s e t t l e m e n t d i d no t
pas s t h r o u g h any o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t , w het her s m a l l e r o r l a r g e r , p r i o r t o
be in g r e c e i v e d by a c e n t e r in t h e homeland.

Thi s v a r i a b l e ai d ed in

d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s .
D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t v e r i f i a b l e l o g g i n g camp
Th is v a r i a b l e (DINLCMP) was c o n t i n u o u s and r e c o r d e d t o two decimal
places.

The e n t i r e e n t r y was f o u r p l a c e s l o n g .

I t measured t h e s t r a i g h t

l i n e d i s t a n c e from t h e s e t t l e m e n t t o t h e n e a r e s t v e r i f i a b l e lo g g i n g camp.
Type o f n e a r e s t v e r i f i a b l e l o g g i n g camp
This was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e (TYPNLCMP) and was measured w h eth er
o r n o t t h e n e a r e s t l o g g i n g camp was a r i v e r d r i v e , r a i l w a y , o r unknown
camp.
D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e
road or c o u n t y road
The d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e / c o u n t y road (DINRD)
was c o n t i n u o u s and measured in m i l e s .

I t was r e c o r d e d t o two decimal

p l a c e s and t h e e n t i r e e n t r y was t h r e e p l a c e s l o n g .

I t was a s t r a i g h t l i n e

measure o f t h e d i s t a n c e from t h e s e t t l e m e n t t o t h e n e a r e s t U.S. F o r e s t
Service/county road.

Given t h a t t h e s e r oad s f r e q u e n t l y p a r a l l e l e d or

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were b u i l t on t o p o f f o rm er t r a c k b e d s , t h i s v a r i a b l e pr o v id ed a d d i t i o n a l
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t r a i l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
Oc cupation d a t e
O cc up at ion d a t e (OCCUP) was a nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e r e c o r d e d t o s i x
places.

I t was used when a d e f i n i t e o c c u p a t i o n d a t e o r d a t e s co u ld be

a s s i g n e d t o a g iv e n s e t t l e m e n t .

The f i r s t t h r e e d i g i t s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e

e a r l i e s t known o c c u p a t i o n d a t e and t h e l a s t t h r e e t h e l a t e s t .

In c a s e s

where o nl y one d a t e was a v a i l a b l e , i t was r e p e a t e d ( i . e . 1895-1910,
895910; 1910, 91091 0).

For s e t t l e m e n t s where t h e r e were no s p e c i f i c d a t e s

a v a i l a b l e , t h i s v a r i a b l e was e n t e r e d as 333333.
R elativ e occupation
R e l a t i v e o c c u p a t i o n (REL0C) was a nominal s c a l e measure r e c o r d e d as a
one d i g i t e n t r y .

I t assigned a general occupation ( l a t e n in e te e n t h , e a r l y

tw e n tie th , l a t e n in e te e n th /e a rly tw entieth century) date to the
settlem ent.

In c a s e s where d e f i n i t e d a t e s were a v a i l a b l e both t h e

o c c u p a t i o n d a t e v a r i a b l e and t h i s v a r i a b l e were u t i l i z e d .

In i n s t a n c e s

where only a r e l a t i v e d a t e was a v a i l a b l e , t h e o c c u p a t i o n d a t e v a r i a b l e was
e n t e r e d as 333333 and t h i s v a r i a b l e was used t o p r o v i d e i n f o r m a t i o n on t h e
temporal framework o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t , p r o v i d i n g such i n f o r m a t i o n co u ld be
i n f e r r e d from a v a i l a b l e d a t a .
The re m a in in g v a r i a b l e s d e a l t w ith t h e t y p e s o f a c t i v i t i e s and
p o p u l a t i o n a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p pp ly c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s .
They were used p r i m a r i l y t o d i s t i n g u i s h between t h e two h y p o t h e s i z e d t y p e s
o f s e t t l e m e n t and th e n t o d e f i n e t h e a c t i v i t y s e t a s s o c i a t e d w ith e a c h .
They a r e d i s c u s s e d below i n t h e same f a s h i o n as t h o s e a b o v e .

However,

t h e i r pu rp o se f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h has been p r e s e n t e d in t h i s p a r a g r a p h and

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w i l l no t be r e p e a t e d f o r each v a r i a b l e .

Unless o t h e r w i s e n o t e d , a l l o f

t h e s e v a r i a b l e s were s i n g l e p l a c e e n t r i e s and were c o n t i n u o u s .
Railway s t a t i o n
Thi s v a r i a b l e (RWYSTA) measured t h e number o f r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s
p r e s e n t in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
O th er r a i l w a y f a c i l i t i e s
Th is v a r i a b l e (ORWYFAC) measured t h e number o f r a i l w a y
o t h e r t h a n s t a t i o n s , p r e s e n t in a s e t t l e m e n t .
roundhouses, r e p a ir shops, e t c .

facilities,

These might i n c l u d e

Thi s v a r i a b l e was r e c o r d e d t o two p l a c e s .

Lumber m i l l s
The lumber m i l l s v a r i a b l e (LUMMLS) measured t h e number o f lumber
m i l l s p r e s e n t in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

These m i l l s were n o t l i m i t e d t o

saw m ills, but could a lso in c lu d e sh in g le m i l l s , s ta v e m i l l s , e t c .
Warehouses
The warehouse v a r i a b l e (WARHS) measured t h e number o f warehouses
p re se n t in th e s e t t l e m e n t .
Logging equipment
Th is v a r i a b l e (LGEQP) measured t h e number o f e s t a b l i s h m e n t s s e l l i n g
lo g g i n g equipment in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
General s t o r e
The g e n e r a l s t o r e v a r i a b l e (GNLSTO) measured t h e number o f g en er a l
s t o r e s o p e r a t i n g in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
Post o f f i c e
Th is v a r i a b l e (PO) r e c o r d e d t h e number o f p o s t o f f i c e s p r e s e n t in t h e
settlem ent.

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Saloon/hotel/brothel
The s a l o o n / h o t e l / b r o t h e l v a r i a b l e (SHOWHOR) measured t h e number o f
t h e s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

In f r o n t i e r s e t t i n g s t h e s e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t s were o f t e n one and t h e same, w he th er o f f i c i a l l y l i s t e d as
such o r n o t .

T h e r e f o r e , i n m e as ur in g them f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s i t was

d e c i d e d t o lump them i n t o one v a r i a b l e .

Thi s v a r i a b l e was re c o r d e d t o two

p l a c e s (Murphy 19 83 ).
Specialty r e ta il
Thi s v a r i a b l e (SPCRET) measured t h e number o f r e t a i l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s ,
o th e r than general s t o r e s , p resen t in th e s e t t le m e n t .
Real e s t a t e b r o k e r s
The r e a l e s t a t e b r o k e r v a r i a b l e (RELEST) measured t h e number o f r e a l
e s t a t e b r o k e r s / e s t a b l i s h m e n t s o p e r a t i n g in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
R e ta il/w h o le s a le timber s a le s
Th is v a r i a b l e (REWHTIM) measured t h e number o f t i m b e r b r o k e r s
operating w itin the s e ttle m e n t.
Telephone
The t e l e p h o n e v a r i a b l e (TELPH) was nominal and i n d i c a t e d w h et he r or
n o t t h e s e t t l e m e n t was on a t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e .
T el eg r ap h
The t e l e g r a p h v a r i a b l e (TLGRH) was nominal and i n d i c a t e d w h et h er or
n o t t h e s e t t l e m e n t had t e l e g r a p h s e r v i c e .
Banks
The bank v a r i a b l e (BANK) measured t h e number o f banks in t h e
settlem ent.

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School
This v a r i a b l e (SCHOOL) measured t h e number o f s c h o o l s a n d / o r t e a c h e r s
in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
Religious
Thi s v a r i a b l e (RLFAN) measured t h e number o f r e l i g i o u s f a c i l i t i e s in
the s e ttle m e n t.
F i n i s h e d wood m a n u f a c t u r e r s
This v a r i a b l e (FINWDMN) measured t h e number o f f i n i s h e d wood
m a n u f a c t u r e r s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

These e s t a b l i s h m e n t s were in v o l v e d in

t h e m a n u f a c t u r e o f hardwood p r o d u c t s t h a t were u s a b l e w i t h o u t f u r t h e r
processing.

As s u c h , t h e y were examples o f t h e l i m i t e d m a n u fa c t u r i n g t h a t

co u ld o c c u r on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Examples o f t h e s e p r o d u c t s

in c l u d e d f u r n i t u r e , b o w ls , t a b l e w a r e , e t c .
Physician/dentist/pharm acy
Thi s v a r i a b l e (MEDIC) measured t h e number o f t h e s e h e a l t h c a r e
p r o v i d e r s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

In f r o n t i e r s e t t i n g s t h e s e r o l e s o f t e n

o v e r l a p p e d , as w ith t h e s a l o o n / h o t e l / b r o t h e l v a r i a b l e , and f o r t h i s r ea s o n
t h e y have been lumped t o g e t h e r f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s .
Lawyers
The la w y e r v a r i a b l e (LWYR) measured t h e number o f lawye rs in t h e
settlem ent.
H o s p i ta l
This v a r i a b l e (HOSP) measured t h e number o f h o s p i t a l s p r e s e n t in t h e
settlem ent.

Thi s v a r i a b l e was measured s e p a r a t e l y from t h a t o f

p h y s ic ia n s/d e n tis ts /p h a rm a c is ts since a hospital

represents a s ig n ifica n t

community in v e s t m e n t in a p h y s i c a l p l a n t and o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s .

Such a

communilty i n v e s t m e n t was q u a l i t a t i v e l y and q u a n t i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from

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a p h y s i c i a n / d e n t i s t in p r i v a t e p r a c t i c e .

Thus, t h e p r e s e n c e o f a h o s p i t a l

would be a s i g n i f i c a n t d i s c r i m i n a t o r between i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y c e n t e r s
and e n t r e p o t s .
L o c a l / s t a t e / f e d e r a l government
Thi s v a r i a b l e (LSFGOVT) measured t h e number o f governmental f u n c t i o n s
performed by t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

I t s ho ul d be note d t h a t t h e f e d e r a l

government component o f t h i s v a r i a b l e d i d no t i n c l u d e p o s t o f f i c e s , which
were measured by a s e p a r a t e v a r i a b l e .
Heavy i n d u s t r y
The heavy i n d u s t r y (HIND) v a r i a b l e r e c o r d e d t h e number o f heavy
i n d u s t r i e s o p e ra tin g in th e s e t t l e m e n t .

Excluded from t h i s v a r i a b l e were

t h o s e heavy i n d u s t r i e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y , which were
measured e l s e w h e r e .

Examples o f i n d u s t r i e s which were i n c l u d e d in t h i s

v a r i a b l e were i r o n f o u n d r i e s , s h i p b u i l d i n g , c h a r c o a l k i l n s , e t c .
L i g ht i n d u s t r y / s e r v i c e
The l i g h t i n d u s t r y / s e r v i c e (LIND) v a r i a b l e was d e s i g n e d t o measure
t h e number o f l i g h t and s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .
r e c o r d e d as a two p l a c e e n t r y .

I t was

Examples o f a c t i v i t i e s in c l u d e d in t h i s

v a r i a b l e were b l a c k s m i t h s h o p s , c o o p e r i n g , b a r b e r s h o p s , t a i l o r s , e t c .
Fishing r e la te d
The f i s h i n g r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e (FISH) measured t h e a c t i v i t i e s
a s s o c i a t e d w it h commercial f i s h i n g in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

In a d d i t i o n t o

f i s h e r m e n , t h i s v a r i a b l e a l s o measured r e t a i l and w h o l e s a l e f i s h b r o k e r s ,
processing a c t i v i t i e s , e t c .
Tota l m a n u f a c t u r i n g
This v a r i a b l e (TOTMNF) was t h e sum o f a l l m a n u f a c t u r i n g a c t i v i t i e s
o c c u r r i n g in t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

Thi s i n c l u d e d lumber m i l l s , heavy i n d u s t r y ,

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l i g h t i n d u s t r y and f i s h i n g .

This v a r i a b l e was used bec au se f o r some

s e t t l e m e n t s o n l y a measure o f t o t a l m a n u fa c t u r i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s was
available.

T h e r e f o r e , f o r t h e rem a in de r o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s i t was

n e c e s s a r y t o c o l l e c t m a n u f a c t u r i n g e s t a b l i s h m e n t s i n t o one v a r i a b l e so
t h a t a g r e a t e r number o f s e t t l e m e n t s could be compared.
r e c o r d e d t o two p l a c e s .

This v a r i a b l e was

Given t h a t e n t r e p o t s were e x p e c te d t o have a

l a r g e r t o t a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g component th an i n t e r m e d i a t e s u pp ly c e n t e r s ,
t h i s v a r i a b l e was i m p o r t a n t i n d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between t h e two t y p e s of
settlem ents.
P o p u l a t i o n 1900
Thi s v a r i a b l e (P0P00) was t h e p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h e give n s e t t l e m e n t
t a k e n from t h e 1900 c e n s u s .

In i n s t a n c e s where t h e p o p u l a t i o n was

r e c o r d e d o n ly t o towns hip l e v e l , t h i s was used as t h e b e s t a p p r o x i m a t i o n .
I f more t h a n one s e t t l e m e n t e x i s t e d in a t o w n s h i p , and township d a t a was
a l l t h a t was a v a i l a b l e , t h e p o p u l a t i o n was d i v i d e d e q u a l l y among t h e
settlem ents.

This v a r i a b l e was r e c o r d e d t o f o u r p l a c e s .

P o p u l a t i o n 1910
P o p u l a t i o n 1910 (P0P10)
t a k e n from t h e 1910 c e n s u s .

was t h e p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h e give n

settlem ent

The same c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a p p l y i n

t h i s c a s e as

was t h e p o p u l a t i o n f o r t h e give n

settlem ent

f o r t h e p r e c e d i n g cen su s d a t a .
P o p u l a t i o n 1920
P o p u l a t i o n 1920 (P0P20)
t a k e n from t h e 1920 c e n s u s .
in t h i s c a s e .

The c o n s i d e r a t i o n s d i s c u s s e d above a l s o a p p l y

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Methodology
The d i s c u s s i o n o f v a r i a b l e s i n t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d t h e
di m en s io n s a l o n g which t h e a r c h e o l o g i c a l d a t a r e s e a r c h were a n a l y z e d .
This s e c t i o n i n t r o d u c e s some o f t h e m e th o d o lo g i e s which were used t o
e v a l u a t e t h i s d a t a , d i s c u s s e s sampling c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , and d e s c r i b e s t h e
f a c i l i t y and s o f t w a r e employed in t h e a n a l y s i s .

In some i n s t a n c e s

s p e c i f i c h y p o th e s e s were e v a l u a t e d w it h m e th o d o l o g i e s t h a t were u n i q u e l y
s u i t e d t o t h e q u e s t i o n s posed by t h e h y p o t h e s i s .

In t h e s e c a s e s a

d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e methodology was p r e s e n t e d w ith t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e
hypothesis (Chapter VI).

Sampling C o n s i d e r a t i o n s
I t was ob vi o us from t h e o u t s e t o f t h i s r e s e a r c h t h a t sampling would be
one o f t h e t h o r n i e r i s s u e s t o be a d d r e s s e d p r i o r t o b e g i n n i n g t h e
analysis.

The n a t u r e o f t h e s i t e f i l e d a t a p r e c l u d e d i t from b e i n g

c o n s i d e r e d a p r o b a b i l i t y based s am pl e, s i n c e most o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l
work in t h e a r e a r e s u l t e d from c o n t r a c t p r o j e c t s .

Data d e r i v e d from

overview p r o j e c t s might be c o n s i d e r e d t o be based on a 100% sampling
fraction.

However, s i n c e each a d d i t i o n a l ov erv ie w has t u r n e d up more

s i t e s , t h e r e was r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l r e c o r d was not
y e t f u l l y r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e United S t a t e s F o r e s t S e r v i c e s i t e f i l e s
(A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972; Downie and Heath 1974; H a g g e t t , Frey and C l i f f
1977; Hammond and McCullagh 1974; Karamanski 1984; Lovis 1979; M u e ll e r
19 7 5) .
In t h e c a s e o f f i e l d i n v e s t i g a t i o n s , t h e p r o j e c t a r e a s were d e f i n e d
on t h e b a s i s o f management c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and not t o e n s u r e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
c o v e r a g e o f t h e West Unit o f t h e Hiawatha N ati on al F o r e s t .

Although

119
w i t h i n t h e s e p r o j e c t a r e a s p r o b a b i l i t y based sampling might have been
c o n d u c t e d , t a k e n t o g e t h e r t h e s e s t u d i e s c a n n o t be s a i d t o c o n s t i t u t e a
p r o b a b i l i t y based sample o f t h e s t u d y a r e a (A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972;
Downie and Heath 1974; H a g g e t t , Frey and C l i f f 1977; Hammond and McCullagh
1974; Lovis 1979; M art in 1977; M u e l l e r 197 5) .
N o n e t h e l e s s , t h e r e were a l a r g e q u a n t i t y o f l o g g i n g camp s i t e s i n t h e
West Unit o f t h e Hiawatha N at io n al F o r e s t .

The e n t i r e sample f o r t h i s

r e s e a r c h c o n s i s t e d o f 444 l o g g i n g camp s i t e s , broken down as f o l l o w s :
riv e r drive s i t e s

( 4 5 ) , r a i l w a y s i t e s ( 1 4 9 ) , and unknown s i t e s ( 2 5 0 ) .

S t a t i s t i c a l l y s p e a k i n g , each o f t h e s e sub samples was l a r g e enough f o r
p r o c e s s i n g w it h l a r g e sample t e c h n i q u e s , even though t h e sample i t s e l f was
judgment r a t h e r th a n p r o b a b i l i t y b a s e d .

Moreover, s i n c e t h e v a r i a b l e s

chosen f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h were b ot h nonimal and c o n t i n u o u s , n o n - p a r a m e t r i c
s t a t i s t i c s w i l l be employed f r e q u e n t l y , t h e r e b y l e s s e n i n g t h e e f f e c t o f a
n o n - p r o b a b i l i t y based s a m p l e .

P a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c s were a l s o u s e d , s i n c e

t h e y s u p p l i e d i n t e r e s t i n g and n e c e s s a r y ways o f examining t h e d a t a .
However, in u s i n g t h e s e , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s were made w it h c a u t i o n s i n c e t h e y
u l t i m a t e l y were p r e d i c a t e d upon d a t a bei ng c o l l e c t e d i n a p r o b a b i l i t y
based f a s h i o n (A lde r and R o e s s l e r 1972, Downie and Heath 19 7 4) .

F a c i l i t y , Hardware and S of tw ar e
This a n a l y s i s was co n d u ct ed t h r o u g h t h e U n i v e r s i t y Computer C e n t e r of
t h e S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f New York a t Binghamton.

I t was preformed on an

IBM 4381 s y st em o p e r a t i n g un de r VM w ith CMS f o r i n t e r a c t i v e u s e .

Access

was o b t a i n e d v i a D i g i t a l E q u i p m e n t 's DECMate I I n e t w o r k , which was
e s t a b l i s h e d on campus f o r communication and r o u t i n e word p r o c e s s i n g
activ ities.

Programs used t o a n a l y z e t h e d a t a were drawn e x c l u s i v e l y from

120
t h o s e a v a i l a b l e in t h e SAS p a c k a g e .

These i n c l u d e d n o t o n ly t h o s e g en er a l

p r o c e d u r e s d i s c u s s e d bel ow, b u t a l s o t h o s e which were used o n ly once o r
twice w ithin the context of a s p e c if i c h yp othsis.

P r o c e d u r e s were run

c o m p l e t e l y on an i n t e r a c t i v e b a s i s , with d a t a b e i n g s t o r e d on a d i s k
w i t h i n t h e main computer f a c i l i t y .

P r i n t e d o u t p u t was o b t a i n e d u s i n g t h e

work s t a t i o n p r i n t e r a t t a c h e d t o t h e DECMate I I t e r m i n a l

(SAS I n s t i t u t e

1983, 1985a, 19 85b ).

A n a ly tica l Procedures
A f t e r p r o o f r e a d i n g t h e d a t a t h a t had been e n t e r e d i n t o permanent
s t o r a g e t o e n s u r e i t s c o d i n g , f o r m a t t i n g , e t c . were c o r r e c t , a number of
p r o c e d u r e s were ex e c u te d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e b a s i c s t r u c t u r e and
c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of the d a ta .

The f i r s t o f t h e s e was t o o b t a i n s im pl e

f r e q u e n c y i n f o r m a t i o n f o r each o f t h e v a r i a b l e s .

Thi s i n f o r m a t i o n was

used t o look f o r p a t t e r n s in t h e raw d a t a t h a t might be used d i r e c t l y with
one o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s , t o s u g g e s t ways in which t h e r e s u l t s coul d be
r e - o r g a n i z e d in a more meaningful f a s h i o n o r t o s u g g e s t d i f f e r e n t a n d / o r
more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t might be performed on t h e d a t a .
In a d d i t i o n t o examining t h e t a b l e s g e n e r a t e d by t h e program ab ove ,
p r o c e d u r e s were ex ec u te d t o prod uce two t y p e s o f g r a p h i c i n f o r m a t i o n :
h i s t o g r a m s (CHART) and c r o s s - p l o t s (PLOT).

The CHART p r o c e d u r e was

e x e c u te d t o prod uce h i s t o g r a m s f o r a l l v a r i a b l e s , w h i l e t h e p l o t p r o c e d u r e
was used o nl y f o r t h o s e p a i r s o f v a r i a b l e s where t h e r e was v a l i d r e a s o n t o
b e l i e v e t h a t some r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e p r o c e d u r e s

were u t i l i z e d d i r e c t l y t o deal w it h some o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s .

They were

a l s o examined t o a s c e r t a i n i f o t h e r a n d / o r more s o p h i s t i c a t e d p r o c e d u r e s
might be perfor me d t o g e n e r a t e a d d i t i o n a l knowledge a b o u t t h e d a t a .

121
Throughout t h e r e s e a r c h , s i m p l e r d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s were employed
most f r e q u e n t l y t o a d d r e s s t h e h y p o t h e s e s , u s u a l l y in t h e form o f s im p l e
f r e q u e n c y t a b l e s and t h e i r a s s o c i a t e d h i s t o g r a m s .

Cross t a b u l a t i o n s were

a l s o employed in t h i s f a s h i o n , f o r both nominal and c o n t i n u o u s d a t a .

The

re a s o n f o r f o c u s i n g on t h e s e

s i m p l e r measures was b e c a u s e t h e sample o f

s i t e s used in t h i s r e s e a r c h ,

w h i l e l a r g e , was d e r i v e d

n o n - p r o b a b i l i s t i c a l l y (A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Downie and Heath 19 7 4 ) .
P a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c s were u s e d , in s p i t e o f hav in g a n o n - p r o b a b i l i t y
based s am p le , bec a us e o f t h e

i n f o r m a t i o n t h e y p r o v i d e d abo ut

c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e s used in

the study.

the

In t h e s e i n s t a n c e s , a t t e n t i o n

was

p a i d t o t h e n o r m a l i t y o f d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r v a r i a b l e und er
a n a l y s i s , s i n c e p a r a m e t r i c s t a s t i c s a l s o o p e r a t e un d er t h e ass um p ti o n o f
normal d i s t r i b u t i o n .

In c a s e s where t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h e p a r t i c u l a r

v a r i a b l e d e v i a t e d o nl y s l i g h t l y from n o r m a l i t y , t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e
p a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c s were u t i l i z e d d i r e c t l y .

In c a s e s where t h e

d e v i a t i o n from n o r m a l i t y was l a r g e , a t t e m p t s were made t o t r a n s f o r m t h e
v a r i a b l e s t o a n o t h e r s c a l e o f measure t o a t t a i n normal o r n e a r normal
d i s t r i b u t i o n p r i o r t o f u r t h e r a n a l y s i s ( A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Downie
and Heath 1 9 7 4 ) .

Summary
The d a t a from t h i s r e s e a r c h were drawn from both a r c h a e o l o g i c a l and
historical

sources.

The h i s t o r i c a l d a t a were used t o e v a l u a t e h y p o t h e s e s

i n a s u b j e c t i v e f a s h i o n , w h i l e t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a were a n al y ze d
q uantitatively.

In t h e c a s e o f t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l d a t a , two s e t s o f

v a r i a b l e s were f o r m u l a t e d t o d ea l w ith q u e s t i o n s posed abo ut t h e two
o v e r a l l g r o u p i n g s o f s i t e s ( l o g g i n g camps, i n t e r m e d i a t e su pp ly

122
c e n t e r s / e n t r e p o t s ) found on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
b o th nominal s c a l e and c o n t i n u o u s s c a l e .

These v a r i a b l e s were

S t a t i s t i c a l m anipulations of

t h e s e v a r i a b l e s were ke p t r e l a t i v e l y s i m p l e , bec au se t h e d a t a f o r t h i s
r e s e a r c h were no t o b t a i n e d p r o b a b l i s t i c a l l y . All s t a t i s t i c a l o p e r a t i o n s ,
d a t a s t o r a g e , e t c . , were co n d u ct ed a t t h e Computer C e n t e r o f t h e S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y o f New York a t Binghamton.

AN INVESTIGATION OF THE SPATIAL, TEMPORAL, AND ORGANIZATIONAL
PROCESSES OF THE INDUSTRIAL FRONTIER: A CASE STUDY FROM THE
UPPER PENINSULA OF MICHIGAN
By
Wi lliam Thomas Langhorne, J r .
Volume 2

A DISSERTATION

Sub mit ted t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
f o r th e degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department o f Anthropology

1988

CHAPTER VI
RESULTS

The a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s a r e d i s c u s s e d on a h y p o t h e s i s by h y p o t h e s i s
b a s i s in t h e o r d e r o f t h e i r i n t r o d u c t i o n in C h ap t er V.

Q uantitative

a n a l y s e s a d d r e s s e d many o f t h e h y p o t h e s e s w h i l e o t h e r s were a n a l y z e d in a
q u a lita tiv e /s u b je c tiv e fashion.

For a n a l y t i c a l p u r p o s e s , t h e camp sample

was d i v i d e d i n t o t h r e e s u bg ro up s based on s i t e t y p e :

unknown s i t e s

(250),

r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s ( 4 5 ) , and r a i l w a y s i t e s ( 1 4 9 ) .

H yp oth es is 1
All camps, r e g a r d l e s s w h e th e r t h e y a r e a s s o c i a t e d w it h r i v e r d r i v e o r
r a i l w a y l o g g i n g , sh oul d be l o c a t e d on f a i r l y l e v e l , well d r a i n e d l a n d .

H y p o th e s is 1 was e v a l u a t e d t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t h r e e v a r i a b l e s
d e a l i n g w it h s o i l s and s l o p e :

s o i l phase (SOLPHAS), s o i l s e r i e s

(SOLSER),

and s l o p e (SLOPE).
The i n i t i a l

run o f t h e FREQUENCIES program produ ced t a b l e s f o r each

o f t h e 193 s o i l p h a s e s , 75 s o i l s e r i e s and 9 s l o p e c a t e g o r i e s .

S in ce

t h e s e l a r g e t a b l e s o b s cu r ed t h e d a t a , t h e e n t r i e s were condensed i n t o
sm aller groups.

Moreover, s i n c e s o i l phase and s o i l s e r i e s d u p l i c a t e d

i n f o r m a t i o n , o n ly t h e s o i l

s e r i e s was used t o a d d r e s s t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .

The s o i l s e r i e s v a r i a b l e s were p la c e d i n t o two g r o u p s :

well d r a i n e d

s o i l s and p o o r l y d r a i n e d s o i l s , ba se d on i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d from t h e

123

124
s o i l s u r v e y (B er nd t 1 97 7 ) .

In t h e well d r a i n e d g r o u p , s o i l s were

c h a r a c t e r i z e d as well t o m o d e r a t e l y well d r a i n e d , l e v e l t o s t e e p l y
s l o p i n g , composed o f sandy m a t e r i a l w it h r a p i d t o m o d e ra te p e r m e a b i l i t y .
This g r o u p ' s s o i l s e r i e s i n c l u d e d : Blue Lake, Bohemian, C r o s w e l l , Duel,
E a s t Lake, K a l k a s k a , K a r l i n , Keweenaw, Kiva, Limestone Bedrock, L o n g r i e ,
Onota, R ou ss eau , Rubicon, S t e u b e n , S u m m e r vi ll e, and W a l la c e .

The s o i l s o f

t h e p o o r l y d r a i n e d group were somewhat p o o r l y t o v e r y p o o r l y d r a i n e d ,
l e v e l t o d e p r e s s e d in s l o p e , c o n t a i n e d loamy o r o r g a n i c s o i l s e i t h e r on
t h e s u r f a c e o r im me di ate ly b e n e a th a s u r f a c e l a y e r o f s a n d , and were
v a r i a b l y t o s lo w ly perme abl e depen din g on t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a s u r f i c i a l
l a y e r of sand ov er t h e l o a m y / o r g a n i c s o i l .

The s o i l s in t h i s group were:

A l l u v i a l , Au G r es , B u r t , C a r b o n d a l e / L u p t o n , C a t h r o / T a c o o s h , C h a r l e v o i x ,
Chippeny, Dawson/Greenwood, E n s l e y , I o s c o , Kawbagwam, K i n r o s s , M unising,
Nahma, Roscommon, S a u g a t u c k , Sk anee, Tawas, and T r e n a r y .
The o r i g i n a l n i n e c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h e s l o p e (SLOPE) v a r i a b l e were
collapsed in to th re e :

1-6 p e r c e n t , lo w e r ; 7-18 p e r c e n t , m i d d l e ; and

o v e r 18 p e r c e n t , u p p e r .

Although t h i s reduced some o f t h e v a r i a b i l i t y in

t h e s am p le , i t e l i m i n a t e d o v e r l a p p i n g c a t e g o r i e s and reduced c o n f u s i o n .

D r ai n ag e and S o i l Type- Ri ver Drive S i t e s
As in T ab l e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s , t h e r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s g e n e r a l l y
c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e H y p o th e s is 1 p r e d i c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g s o i l d r a i n a g e w ith
6 6 . 4 p e r c e n t (30) o f t h e r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s l o c a t e d on well d r a i n e d s o i l
and 2 8 . 9 p e r c e n t (13) l o c a t e d on p o o r l y d r a i n e d s o i l .

Of a l l t h e g r o u p s ,

t h e r i v e r d r i v e group had t h e lo w e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f s i t e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o
what was p r e d i c t e d by H y p o th e s is 1.

S in c e r i v e r d r i v e camps were d e s i g n e d

and s i t e d o n ly f o r w i n t e r u s e , when t h e ground was f r o z e n , poor s o i l

125
d r a i n a g e was l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t .

By t h e t i m e t h e s p r i n g thaw br ou ght

d r a i n a g e problems t h e camps would be abandoned as t h e r i v e r d r i v e b ega n.
S i t e s w i t h p o o r l y d r a i n e d s o i l a l s o pr o v id ed u n c o m f o r t a b l e , u n s a n i t a r y
c o n d i t i o n s d u r i n g t h e f a l l movement of s u p p l i e s and l o g g e r s i n t o t h e
areas.

Why t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s were a c c e p t a b l e f o r some s i t e s i s p r o b a b ly

r e l a t e d t o t h e p e r c e p t i o n t h a t t h e y were t e m p o r a r y , and hence t o l e r a b l e
f o r t h e s h o r t te rm i n l i g h t o f t h e s i t e ' s p o t e n t i a l .
TABLE 1
SOIL CHARACTERISTICS BY SITE TYPE
Number

Percentage

Well d r a i n e d

30

6 6 .4

P o o r ly d r a i n e d

13

28. 9

2

4.5

128

87.0

18

12.2

1

0.8

196

7 8 .4

49

19.6

5

2.0

S i t e Type

S oil Group

R i v e r D r iv e Camps

Unknown
Railway

Well d r a i n e d
P o o r ly d r a i n e d
Unknown

Unknown

Well d r a i n e d
P o or ly d r a i n e d
Unknown

D r ai n ag e and S o i l Type-Railway S i t e s
Among r a i l w a y s i t e s , 87 p e r c e n t s a t i s f i e d t h e c o n d i t i o n s pu t f o r t h
i n H y p o th e s is 1, w h i l e o n l y 12.2 p e r c e n t f a i l e d t o do s o .

This was

g e n e r a l l y e x p e c t e d gi v e n t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r t h e i r y e a r round use and t h e
c o n s t r a i n t s of railway c o n s tr u c tio n .

F l a t , well d r a i n e d s o i l en s ur ed t h a t

t h e y were b u i l t and used un d e r op ti m al c o s t c o n s i d e r a t i o n s s i n c e p o o r ly
d r a i n e d a r e a s r e q u i r e d c o s t l y f i l l i n g and s t a b i l i z a t i o n .

Thus, i t was

126
more c o s t e f f e c t i v e t o l a y more t r a c k o v e r opti mal t e r r a i n th a n l e s s t r a c k
o v e r t e r r a i n which r e q u i r e d e x t e n s i v e m o d i f i c a t i o n f o r c o n s t r u c t i o n .

The

12 .2 p e r c e n t o f t h e s i t e s which f a i l e d t o s a t i s f y H y p o th e s is 1 p r o b a b l y
r e f l e c t e d t h e v a r i a t i o n e x p e c t e d i n any sa m p l e .

They c o u l d r e p r e s e n t

s i t e s which were i n a un iq u e s e t t i n g o r which were d e s i g n e d f o r w i n t e r use
only.

D ra in a g e and S o i l Type-Unknown S i t e s
The unknown group a l s o s a t i s f i e d

t h e c o n d i t i o n s p u t f o r t h in

H y p o th e s is 1 w i t h 7 8 . 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e s i t e s l o c a t e d in well d r a i n e d
s e t t i n g s and 19 .6 p e r c e n t in p o o r l y d r a i n e d s e t t i n g s .
e x p e c te d

This group was n o t

t o s a t i s f y t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f H y po th es is 1 t o t h e same e x t e n t as

t h e o t h e r grou ps bec a u se t h e group was, by d e f i n i t i o n , unknown and
r e p r e s e n t e d an amalgm o f r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y s i t e s .

as such

F u r t h e r m o re ,

a l t h o u g h t h e s i t e s in t h e unknown group were supposed t o be l o g g i n g camps,
i t was p o s s i b l e t h a t n o n - l o g g i n g camp s i t e s were i n c l u d e d bec a us e o f an
o v e r a l l s p a r s e n e s s o f d a t a f o r t h i s gr o u p .
t h a n e x p e c te d v a r i a t i o n i n t h e g r o u p .

Thi s would r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r

Whether o r no t t h i s group c o n t a i n s

n o n - l o g g i n g camp s i t e s c a n n o t be d e t e r m in e d a t t h i s p o i n t .

Slope
In a d d i t i o n t o p r o p o s i n g t h a t t h e a r e a around l o g g i n g camps s h o u ld be
well d r a i n e d , H yp o th es is 1 a l s o m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e a r e a sh oul d be f a i r l y
level.

To i n v e s t i g a t e t h i s , t h e t h r e e s l o p e v a r i a b l e c a t e g o r i e s were

examined ( 0 - 6 p e r c e n t , l o w e s t ; 7- 1 8 p e r c e n t , m i d d l e ; o v e r 18 p e r c e n t ,
upper).

127
S l o p e - R i v e r D ri v e S i t e s
R iv e r d r i v e camps conformed t o t h e p r e d i c t i o n in Hyp othe sis 1
regarding s lo p e .

The l a r g e s t number o f s i t e s ( 3 5 /7 8 p e r c e n t ) o c c u r r e d in

t h e 0-6 p e r c e n t s l o p e ran ge i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e s e s i t e s were c o n s t r u c t e d
in l e v e l o r o n ly ve r y s l i g h t l y e l e v a t e d p l a c e s .
c e n t ) o c c u r r e d i n t h e 7-18 p e r c e n t r a n g e .

The r e m a in d e r (10/2 2 p e r

While t h e upp er end o f t h i s

rang e i s f a i r l y s t e e p , t h e lowe r end i s a t a l e v e l c l o s e t o t h a t o f t h e
lo w e s t r a n g e .

S in ce t h e r e were no s i t e s in t h e lo w e s t p a r t o f t h e middle

r a n g e , t h e r i v e r d r i v e camp sample f e l l
intervals.

i n t o tw o, f a i r l y d i s t i n c t s l o p e

The f i r s t c o n t a i n e d t h e g r e a t e s t number o f s i t e s , was l e v e l ,

and conformed t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s p u t f o r t h in H y p o th e s is 1.
interval

( c o n t a i n i n g f ew er s i t e s ) was s t e e p e r and might no t c o r r e s p o n d t o

t h e c o n d i t i o n s s e t f o r t h i n H y p o th s is 1.
sites

The second

However, s i n c e t h e m a j o r i t y of

(78 p e r c e n t ) s a t i s f i e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s pu t f o r t h in H yp oth es is 1,

t h e r i v e r d r i v e sample may be s a i d t o do so as a w ho le .

TABLE 2
SLOPE BY SITE TYPE
S i t e Type

Slope I n t e r v a l

Number

Percent

R i v e r Drive

Lower (0-6%)

35

78

Middle (7-18%)

10

22

0

0

Upper ( o v e r 18%)
Railway

Lower (0-6%)

108

72.4

35

2 3 .4

Upper ( o v e r 18%)

4

2.6

Unknown

2

1.3

168

67.2

68

27 .2

Upper ( o v e r 18%)

9

3.6

Unknown

5

2.0

Middle (7-18%)

Unknown

Lower (0-6%)
Middle (7-18%)

S lo p e -R a il w a y S i t e s
T----------ho

p ~a i.

.

I. w a *v/

r a m■•rn ~c ~a*m* r n l. o-

alcn

-

ca ti'cfio H

f~ .h. wo

dono

nr r.«o. «H* i. r
+inn
W W ■W il

nf

w .

H y p o th e s is 1 w i t h 7 2 . 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e s i t e s o c c u r r i n g in t h e 0- 6 p e r
cent slope i n t e r v a l .

T h i r t y - f i v e ( 2 3 . 4 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e s i t e s were in

t h e 7-18 p e r c e n t s l o p e i n t e r v a l .

Yet, w h i l e t h e r a i l w a y camp sample

s a t i s f i e d t h e s l o p e c o n d i t i o n s o f H y p o th e s is 1, i t d i d so t o a l e s s e r
d e g r e e th a n e x p e c t e d .

H y p o th e s is 5, which a d d r e s s e s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

o f l o c a t i o n and s i t e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s w i l l f u r t h e r examine t h i s
phenomenon.

129
Slope-Unknown S i t e s
The unknown sample conformed t o H y p o th e s is l ' s c o n d i t i o n s ,
a l t h o u g h t o a l e s e r d e g r e e th a n t h e o t h e r samples ( 6 7 . 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e
s i t e s were i n t h e 0 - 6 p e r c e n t s l o p e i n t e r v a l ) .
cent) of the s i t e s fe ll

S i x t y - e i g h t ( 2 7 .2 p e r

i n t o t h e 7-18 p e r c e n t s l o p e i n t e r v a l .

The

f a c t t h a t t h i s sample p r o b a b l y c o n t a i n e d r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y camps
a s well as s i t e s t h a t were n o t lo g g i n g camps e x p l a i n s t h e lower ( i n
comparison t o t h e o t h e r two s am p l es ) c o n f o r m i t y .

S l o p e , D ra in ag e and So il Type
The f i n a l a n a l y s i s o f H y p o t h e s i s 1 examined s o i l and s l o p e
i n t e r a c t i o n w i t h i n each o f t h e s a m p l e s .

A cross ta b u la tio n of the data

f o r each o f t h e samples showed how each sample was s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
d i s t r i b u t e d a c r o s s s o i l groups and s l o p e i n t e r v a l s (Ta bl e 3 ) .

130
TABLE 3
CROSSTABULATION OF SOIL GROUP WITH SLOPE INTERVAL
RIVER DRIVE

Lower
Soil Group

Slope I n t e r v a l
Middle

Well Drained
21(46.36%)
P o or ly Drained
14(31.1%)
9
35
= 5.77 (2X2 t a b l e )
di = 1
X ( . 0 5 ) = 3 .8 4

Upper

10(22.2%)
0
10

0
0
0

14
45

RAILWAY

Lower
So il Group

Slope I n t e r v a l
Middle

Well Drained
91(61.9%)
P o o r ly Drained
17(11.5%)
9
108
r = 4 . 0 4 (2X2 t a b l e )
d£ = 1
X ( . 0 5 ) = 3.8 4

Upper

34(23.1%)
1(0.6%)
35

4(2.7%)
0
4

129
18
147

UNKNOWN

Lower
So il Group

Well Dra ined
P o o r ly d r a i n e d

Slo pe I n t e r v a l
Middle

122(49.8%)
46(18.8%)
168
Xfc = 15.1 (2X2 t a b l e )
df = 1
X^(.OOl) = 10.83

Upper

65(26.5%)
3(1.2%)
68

9(3.7%)
0
9

196
49
245

R i v e r D r i v e - S l o p e , D rai n ag e and S o il Type
The l a r g e s t group (4 6 .3 6 p e r c e n t ) o f r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s were l o c a t e d
i n a r e a s t h a t were well d r a i n e d and in t h e lowe r s l o p e i n t e r v a l .

The n e x t

l a r g e s t group (3 1.1 p e r c e n t ) o f s i t e s had poor d r a i n a g e and were l o c a t e d
w i t h i n t h e low er s l o p e i n t e r v a l .

The rem a in in g s i t e s

(22.2 per cent)

o c c u r r e d i n s e t t i n g s t h a t were well d r a i n e d b u t in t h e mid dle s l o p e
interval.

These r e s u l t s s u p p o r t e d t h o s e o b t a i n e d e a r l i e r in t h a t t h e

131
l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f s i t e s o c c u r r e d in well d r a i n e d , l e v e l s e t t i n g s .
Although such s i t e s were n o t in t h e m a j o r i t y f o r t h e r i v e r d r i v e s am pl e,
t h e y were t h e l a r g e s t group produced from t h e c r o s s t a b u l a t e d s am pl e.
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between s l o p e and s o i l was i n v e s t i g a t e d t o a s c e r t a i n
i f i t was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t from what would r e s u l t from random
o

processes.

In t h i s c a s e , an a p p r o p r i a t e s t a t i s t i c was chi s q u a r e (X )

which was used t o t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s ( H g ) t h a t t h e p a t t e r n ob se rv ed in
t h e t a b l e o c c u r r e d by ch anc e (A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Reynolds 19 84 ).
As can be seen from Ta bl e 3, a chi s q u a r e t e s t performed on t h e r i v e r
d r i v e t a b l e f o r s o i l and s l o p e r e j e c t e d t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s a t t h e 0.0 5
l e v e l , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f s i t e s in t h e t a b l e co ul d be
a t t r i b u t e d t o non-random f a c t o r s ( A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Reynolds 198 4).
Thi s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d t h e H y p ot h es is 1 c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t t h e l o c a t i o n s
f o r r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s f a v o r e d t h o s e a r e a s t h a t were well d r a i n e d and l e v e l .

Railway S i t e s - S l o p e , Dr ainage and S o i l Type
Most o f t h e r a i l w a y s i t e s
level s e t t i n g s .

( 6 1 . 9 p e r c e n t ) o c c u r r e d i n well d r a i n e d ,

The second l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f s i t e s ( 2 3 . 1 p e r c e n t )

o c c u r r e d i n well d r a i n e d s e t t i n g s , w ith s l o p e s from t h e mi ddle i n t e r v a l .
The n e x t l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f s i t e s
d rained, level s e t t i n g s .

( 1 1 .5 p e r c e n t ) o c c u r r e d i n p o o r l y

The re m a in d e r o f t h e s i t e s o c c u r r e d a t

i n s i g n i f i c a n t l e v e l s , r e s t r i c t i n g t h e chi s q u a r e a n a l y s i s t o a 2X2 t a b l e
t h a t used t h e t h r e e c e l l s w it h t h e l a r g e s t e n t r i e s ( A ld e r and R o e s s l e r
1972, Reynolds 1984 ).

The r e s u l t i n g chi s q u a r e t e s t was s i g n i f i c a n t a t

t h e 0 .0 5 l e v e l , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e p a t t e r n f o r r a i l w a y camps d i d n o t
o c c u r by c h a n c e .

132
Unknown S i t e s - S l o p e , Dra ina ge and S o il Type
The l a r g e s t p e r c e n t a g e o f unknown s i t e s

( 4 9 . 8 p e r c e n t ) o cc ur e d in

well d r a i n e d , l e v e l a r e a s , w it h 2 6 . 5 p e r c e n t i n well d r a i n e d a r e a s with
s l o p e s i n t h e mi dd le r an ge
level.

and 1 8 . 8 p e r c e n t b e i n g p o o r l y d r a i n e d and

The r em a in de r of t h e c e l l e n t r i e s were i n s i g n i f i c a n t .

A chi

s q u a r e w i t h a 2X2 t a b l e was performed t o t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h i s
p a t t e r n was random (A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Reynolds 19 8 4 ) .

The r e s u l t s

o f t h e chi s q u a r e t e s t were s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0 .0 5 l e v e l , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t
t h e o b s er ve d p a t t e r n had ve ry l i t t l e p r o b a b i l i t y o f ch anc e o c c u r r e n c e .
This was i n keep in g w ith t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e o t h e r samples and
w it h t h e c o n d i t i o n s s e t f o r t h in H yp o th es is 1.

Summary-Hypothesis 1
H y p o th e s is 1 was a d d r e s s e d by i n d i v i d u a l e x a m i n a t i o n s o f s o i l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and s l o p e .

The r e s u l t s s u p p o r t e d , a l b e i t a t d i f f e r e n t

l e v e l s , t h e argument t h a t l o g g i n g camps, r e g a r d l e s s o f t y p e , occ u re d in
well d r a i n e d , l e v e l s e t t i n g s .

H ypo the sis 1 a l s o a d d r e s s e d t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p between s l o p e and s o i l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w i t h i n each subsample
and t h e r e s u l t s s u p p o r t e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s .

In c o n c l u s i o n , H yp o th es is 1 was

uphe ld by t h e d a t a .

H y p ot h es is 2
All lo g g i n g camps, r e g a r d l e s s o f w h et h er t h e y a r e a s s o c i a t e d w it h r i v e r
d r i v e o r r a i l w a y l o g g i n g , s h o u ld r ang e from a p p r o x i m a t e l y one t o two a c r e s
in s i z e .

133
This h y p o t h e s i s was examined in s e v e r a l ways, u s i n g a c o m b in at io n o f
m e t r i c a l and g r a p h i c t e c h n i q u e s .

S in ce s i t e s w ith no s i z e d a t a were

e l i m i n a t e d from t h e a n a l y s i s , each sample had a s m a l l e r number o f s i t e s
a v a i la b l e f o r a n a ly s is than in o th e r hypotheses.

I t was a l s o assumed t h a t

t h e r e was some u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f s i t e s i z e f o r l o g g i n g camps, which
was d i r e c t l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o v i s i b i l i t y problems e n c o u n t e r e d un de r f i e l d
c o n d i t i o n s ( T ab l e 4 ) .
TABLE 4
DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS FOR SITE SIZE
R iv e r Driv e S i t e s
N = 9

Range = 0 .1 2 - 3.03

Mean = 1.39

Median = 1.34

S t a n d a rd d e v i a t i o n = 1.09
Skewness = 0 .4 0
K urtosis = -1.20
Railway S i t e s
N = 54

Range = .06 - 8 . 7 3

Mean = 1.82

Median = 0 . 9 4

S t a n d a rd D e v i a t i o n = 2.0 3
Skewness = 1.73
K u r t o s i s = 3.05
Unknown S i t e s
N = 24
Mean =

Range = 0.1 1 0 .9 3

S t a n d a r d D e v i a t i o n = 0.7 9
Skewness = 1.53
K u r t o s i s = 2.39

Median = 0 .8 3

3.2 7

134

R iv e r Drive
The r i v e r d r i v e s i t e sample c o n t a i n e d n i n e s i t e s i z e o b s e r v a t i o n s
usable f o r t h i s a n a ly s is .

Although t h i s sample s i z e i s q u i t e small f o r

o r d i n a r y s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s , t h e a n a l y s i s pr o ce e de d w it h t h i s f a c t o r in
mind.

These o b s e r v a t i o n s g e n e r a t e d a mean s i t e s i z e o f 1.39 a c r e s which

f e l l w i t h i n t h e r ang e p r e d i c t e d by H ypo the sis 2.

The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n

a b o u t t h e mean was 1. 09 p l a c i n g v a l u e s f o r two o r more s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s
below t h e mean o u t s i d e o f t h e sample range and i n t o t h e ran ge o f n e g a t i v e
numbers.

Thi s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e sample was n o t n o r m a l ly d i s t r i b u t e d .

A

skewness v a l u e o f .40 and K u r t o s i s o f - 1 . 2 0 s u p p o r t e d t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n
i n d i c a t i n g a s l i g h t p o s i t i v e skew t o t h e d a t a .
A h i s t o g r a m produced f o r r i v e r d r i v e camps r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e d a t a was
n o t d i s t r i b u t e d in a normal c u r v e , b u t r a t h e r in a f l a t c u r v e .

The

h i s t o g r a m was composed o f s i n g l e o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r each v a l u e , p r e c l u d i n g
f u r t h e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n beyond t h e n o t a t i o n t h a t s i x (66 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n s occ u re d above t h e one a c r e s i t e s i z e minimum.

Furthermore,

two (22 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e s i t e s occ ur e d above t h e two a c r e s u g g e s t e d
maximum.

Given t h e l i m i t e d s a m p l e , t h i s co u l d i n d i c a t e t h a t one a c r e was

a c c e p t a b l e f o r a minimum s i t e s i z e , b u t two a c r e s was t o o small f o r a
maximum s i t e s i z e , a l l o w i n g t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s
conformed t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s p u t f o r t h in H y p ot h es is 2 ( F i g u r e 5 ) .

Railway
The r a i l w a y camp su bsample c o n t a i n e d 54 u s e a b l e s i t e s i z e
o b s e r v a t i o n s . These g e n e r a t e d mean s i t e s i z e o f 1 .8 2 a c r e s w it h a s t a n d a r d
deviation of 2.03.

While t h e s e r e s u l t s i n i t i a l l y s u p p o r t e d H y p ot h es is 2,

135
t h e s i z e o f t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d a t a were not
n o r m a l ly d i s t r i b u t e d .

Th is o b s e r v a t i o n was f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d by t h e

skewness ( 1 . 7 3 ) and k u r t o s i s ( 3 . 0 5 ) s t a t i s t i c s which i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f v a l u e s above t h e mean was h e a v i e r t h a n t h o s e t h a t below.
Moreover, t h e median o f t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n was 0 . 9 4 , o r abo ut h a l f t h e
v a l u e o f t h e mean.

As t h e median i s t h e m i d p o i n t o f any given

d i s t r i b u t i o n , i t i s g e n e r a l l y e x p e c t e d t h a t i t s h o u ld be f a i r l y c l o s e t o
t h e mean, when t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n i s n or ma l. This d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e n ,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by l a r g e v a l u e s in t h e p o s i t i v e t a i l

was

o f t h e c u r v e , which

were s u f f i c i e n t l y numerous t o skew t h e mean h i g h e r t h a n w a r r a n t e d .

A

Kolmogorov-Smirnov D s t a t i s t i c was g e n e r a t e d t o t e s t t h e n u ll h y p o t h e s i s
t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n was n o r m a l .
0.1 level

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d a t t h e

( 0 . 2 2 3 ) by a D v a l u e o f 0.22 5 (Ald er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Beyer

1971, B la lo c k 1972, Downie and Heath 1974, SAS I n s t i t u t e 198 5) .
A visual in s p e c tio n of a frequency histogram revealed t h a t th e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e SITSIZ v a r i a b l e f o r r a i l w a y camps was m os tl y s i n g l e
o b s e r v a t i o n s p e r given s i t e s i z e .

While t h e r e were s e v e r a l modes i n t h e

sa m p l e , none were composed o f more t h a n two o b s e r v a t i o n s .
a t 0 . 0 6 , 0 . 1 3 , 0 . 4 6 , 0 . 9 7 , 1 . 7 5 , 3 . 6 4 and 4 . 1 2 .

These occ ur ed

With t h e e x c e p t i o n o f t h e

f i r s t two , t h e r e seemed t o be l i t t l e l o g i c in merging any o f t h e s e i n t o
modal c a t e g o r i e s ( F i g u r e 6 ) .
This e x a m i n a t i o n o f r a i l w a y camps produced mixed r e s u l t s .

Although

t h e mean f e l l w i t h i n t h e r an g e p r e d i c t e d f o r s i t e s i z e by Hypotheses 2,
t h e r e was r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h i s measure was n o t an a c c u r a t e
d e s c r i p t o r o f t h e sa m p l e .
t h e sa m p l e .

The median ( 0 . 9 4 ) was a b e t t e r d e s c r i p t o r o f

Thus, a l t h o u g h i t came q u i t e c l o s e , i t c a n n o t be s a i d t h a t

t h e r a i l w a y camp sample met t h e c o n d i t i o n s put f o r t h in H ypo the sis 2.

136

FIGURE 5
SITE SIZE OF RIVER DRIVE SITES

137

SITE

SIZE

acres

3 .0 3
2 .9 0
2.12

1 .3 6
1 .3 4
1 .0 9
0 .3 3
0 .2 3
0 .1 2

FREQUENCY

FI GURE

5

138

FIGURE 6
SITE SIZE OF RAILWAY CAMPS

139

SIT E

SIZE

acres

8.73
8.60
5 .7 3
5.30
4.85
4.12
3.90
3.79
3.64
3 .6 3
3*27
2.9 0
2 .8 4
2 .3 6
2.12
1.75
1.60
1.33
1.30
1.26

1.10
1.09
0 .9 7
0 .9 2
0 .8 2
0.76
0 .7 5
0 .7 3
0 .6 9
0.68
0 .65
0.64
0 .6 0
0.55
0.52
0.51
0 .4 6
0 .4 5
0 .3 9
0 .2 5
0.22
0.1 8
0.15
0.13
0.11
0.0 9
0.06
FREQUENCY

1

F I GURE

2

6

140
Unknown
The unknown s i t e subsample c o n t a i n e d 24 o b s e r v a t i o n s u s a b l e i n t h i s
analysis.

The mean was 0 . 9 3 and t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n was 0 . 7 9 .

I n i t i a l l y , t h e s e s t a t i s t i c s d i d n o t s u p p o r t t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s put f o r t h in
H y p o th e s is 2 .

Moreover, t h e d a t a were n o t n o r m a l ly d i s t r i b u t e d , giv en t h e

r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n t o t h e mean.

The skewness ( 1 .5 3 )

and k u r t o s i s ( 2 . 3 9 ) s t a t i s t i c s both i n d i c a t e d a h e a v i e r p o s i t i v e t a i l
the d is tr ib u tio n .

of

As w ith t h e r a i l w a y camp s am p le , t h i s was ca u se d by

some l a r g e o u t l y i n g v a r i a b l e s on t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e o f t h e mean.

The

median ( 0 . 8 3 ) was s m a l l e r t h a n t h e mean and p r o b a b l y b e t t e r d e s c r i b e s t h i s
sample b e c a u s e o f t h e problem o f h ig h p o s i t i v e o u t l i e r s .

However i t a l s o

was below t h e e x p e c t e d v a l u e s f o r H yp ot h es is 2 ( A lde r and R o e s s l e r 1972,
Downie and Heath 1974, SAS I n s t i t u t e 198 5a) .
The f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m f o r t h e unknown s i t e s r e v e a l e d t h a t most o f
t h e v a l u e s were r e p r e s e n t e d by s i n g l e o b s e r v a t i o n s .
modes, each c o n t a i n i n g two o b s e r v a t i o n s .
f o l l o w i n g modal c a t e g o r i e s :

There were s e v e r a l

These were merged i n t o t h e

0 . 1 5 - 0 . 2 7 ( 4 / 1 6 . 6 p e r c e n t ) , 0 . 8 2 - 1 . 0 ( 6/ 2 5

p e r c e n t ) , 2 .4 2 ( 2 / 8 p e r c e n t ) .

The l a r g e s t modal c a t e g o r y o c cu r e d j u s t

o u t s i d e t h e p a r a m e t e r s e s t a b l i s h e d by H y p o th e s is 2 .

However, g iv e n t h e

median ( 0 . 8 2 ) t h e bulk of t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o c cu r e d f a r enough below t h e
low er p a r a m e t e r t o r e s u l t in t h e r e j e c t i o n o f H y p o th e s is 2 f o r t h e unknown
s i t e sample ( F i g u r e 7 ) .

Summary
H y p o th e s is 2 was a c c e p t e d f o r t h e r i v e r d r i v e camp subsample b u t
r e j e c t e d f o r b o th t h e r a i l w a y camp and unknown s a m p l e s .

The median was a

b e t t e r i n d i c a t o r o f t h e c e n t r a l te n d e n c y o f t h e t h r e e bsamples t h a n t h e

141

FIGURE 7
SITE SIZE OF UNKNOWN SITES

ft?

SITE

SIZE

acres

3 .2 7
2 .4 2
1 .4 5
1 .3 1
1 .1 5
1 .0 3
1.00

0 .8 7
0 .8 5
0 .8 2
0 .6 7
0 .6 5
0 .3 6
0 .3 3
0 .2 7
0 .1 5
0 .1 3
0.11
1
FREQUENCY

2

143
mean. In t h e r a i l w a y camp s am pl e, t h e median ( 0 . 9 4 ) was c l o s e enough t o
t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d ran ge o f s i t e s i z e t h a t p r o v i s i o n a l a c c e p t a n c e co u ld be
g iv e n t o H y p o th e s is 2 in l i g h t o f t h e c a u t i o n a r y me ntion o f f i e l d
visib ility .

The unknown s i t e sample d e v i a t e d s u f f i c i e n t l y from t h e

h y p o t h e s i z e d v a l u e s f o r s i t e s i z e t h a t i t must remain r e j e c t e d .

Thus , t h e

e v a l u a t i o n o f H y po th es is 2 produced mixed r e s u l t s , which must be used with
c i r c u m s p e c t i o n d u r i n g t h e l a t e r ph as es o f t h e a n a l y s i s .

H yp oth es is 3
R i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g camps w i l l be l o c a t e d n e a r , b u t n o t imme dia tely
a d jacen t t o d r iv e a b le streams or l a k e s .

They may be ex p ec te d t o o c c u r

between one h a l f and one and a h a l f m i l e s from t h e d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m / l a k e
and o n ly r a r e l y o cc u r a t d i s t a n c e s g r e a t e r t h a n one and one h a l f m i l e s
from a d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m / l a k e .

This h y p o t h e s i s was examined u s i n g m e t r i c a l d a t a c o n c e r n i n g t h e
d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t w a t e r and t h e d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e
w ater.

The d a t a was a n a l y z e d by b ot h s t a t i s t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s and v i s u a l

in sp ectio n of graphs.

144
TABLE 5
RIVER DRIVE CAMPS
D i s t a n c e t o N ea r es t Water
N = 45

Median = 0 . 1 3

Mean = 0 . 2 4

Range = 0 - 1. 5

Standard Deviation = 0.33

Mode = 0.0 3

Skewness = 2.0 9
K u r t o s i s = 4 .3 6
D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Mater
N = 45

Median = 0 .2 5

Mean = 0 . 4 5

Range = 0 .0 3 - 3.13

Standard Deviation = 0.56

Mode = 0.03

Skewness = 2.6 5
K u r t o s i s = 10.34

D i s t a n c e t o N ea r es t Water
Although H yp ot h es is 3 d i d n o t d i s t i n g u i s h d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r
from d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r , some c l a r i f i c a t i o n was
necessary.

Most any u n p o l l u t e d w a t e r s o u r c e co u l d be used f o r do m e s t ic

p u r p o s e s , b u t o n ly s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f w a t e r co u ld be used f o r lo g d r i v i n g .
I t was i m p o r t a n t , t h e n , t o d i s t i n g u i s h d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r from
d istance to nearest driveable w ater.
The mean d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r (DINEWAT) f o r t h e r i v e r d r i v e
subsample (n = 45) was 0 . 2 4 and t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n was 0 . 3 3 , which
i n i t i a l l y s a t i s f i e d t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t n e a r e s t w a t e r , i f used f o r do m e s t ic
p u r p o s e s , would be c l o s e r t h a n t h e one h a l f m i l e i n t e r v a l posed in
H y p o th e s is 3.

However, t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n was l a r g e r t h a n t h e mean

145
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e v a r i a b l e s f o r t h i s subsample was
no t n or m al . Both skewness and k u r t o s i s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e t a i l o f
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n was h e a v i e r t h a n t h e n e g a t i v e t a i l , a p o i n t i n keep in g
w it h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n l a r g e r t h a n t h e mean.

Moreover, t h e median was

0 . 1 3 , c l o s e t o o nl y h a l f t h e s i z e o f t h e mean, w h i l e t h e mode ( 0 . 0 3 ) was
even l o w e r .

All o f t h e s e f a c t o r s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a few l a r g e v a r i a b l e s in

the p o sitiv e t a i l

o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n p r o b a b l y high skewed t h e mean.

T h e r e f o r e , i t was n o t t h e b e s t e s t i m a t e o f t h e c e n t r a l te n d e n c y f o r t h e
d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r ( T ab l e 5 ) (A ld er and R o e s s l e r 1972, Downie and
Heath 1974, SAS I n s t i t u t e 1 9 8 5 a ) .
The f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m d a t a v e r i f i e d t h a t t h e mean was skewed high
and t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n was n o t n o r m a l .

With t h e e x c e p t i o n o f s e v e r a l

o b s e r v a t i o n s a t 0 . 7 5 , t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n t r a i l e d o f f t o a s t r i n g of s i n g l e
o b s e r v a t i o n s a t 0 . 3 1 , which e x t e n d e d t o 1.50 and a c c o u n te d f o r t h e high
skew o f t h e mean.

In t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e mode and t h e median were

b e t t e r me asures o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y th a n t h e mean ( F i g u r e 8 ) ( A l d e r and
R o e s s l e r 1 97 2 ) .
This c o r o l l a r y t o Hypotheses 3 was s a t i s f i e d , a l t h o u g h n o t w i t h o u t
some d i f f i c u l t i e s .

Given t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n , t h e

median o r t h e mode were more a p p r o p r i a t e measures o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y tha n
t h e mean. Thus, n e a r e s t w a t e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i f used f o r d om e st ic p u r p o s e s ,
may o c c u r c l o s e r t o camp t h a n t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t
driveable w ater.

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Water
The r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h i s v a r i a b l e r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e mean
d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r (DNDRWAT) was 0 . 4 5 m i le s w ith a

146

FIGURE 8
DISTANCE TO NEAREST WATER FOR RIVER DRIVE SITES

147

1 .5 0
1 .1 3
0.88
DISTANCE
TO
NEAREST
WATER

. m iles

0 .7 5
0 .6 3
0 .5 3
0 .5 0
0 .3 1
0 .2 5
0 .1 9
0 .1 6
0 .1 3
0 .0 6
0*03
0.01

8

10

FREQUENCY

FIGURE

8

12

14

148
s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 0 . 5 6 , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e d a t a i n v o l v e d in t h e s e
c o m p u ta ti o n s were no t n o r m a l ly d i s t r i b u t e d .

The skewness ( 2 . 6 5 ) and

k u r t o s i s ( 1 0 . 3 4 ) s t a t i s t i c s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e t a i l was
s i g n i f i c a n t l y h eavier than th e n egative t a i l
th is inference.

providing f u r t h e r support fo r

Moreover, t h e median ( 0 . 2 5 ) was o nl y s l i g h t l y l a r g e r th a n

h a l f t h e s i z e o f t h e mean, f u r t h e r s u p p o r t i n g t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e
mean was skewed high s i n c e most o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s un de r s t u d y were l e s s
t h a n o r equal t o 0 .2 5 ( A ld e r and R o e s s l e r 1972, Downie and Heath 1974, SAS
I n s t i t u t e 1985a).
A f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m f o r t h e DNDRWAT d i s t r i b u t i o n r e f l e c t e d t h e
p o i n t s drawn from t h e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s in t h a t most o f t h e v a r i a t e s
were c l u s t e r e d a t t h e low

end o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n (mode = 0 . 0 3 ,

0.25).

o cc u r e d a t 0 . 0 3 , t h e r e were two o t h e r s m a l l e r

Although t h e mode

median =

modal c a t e g o r i e s l o c a t e d a t 0 .3 1 ( 0 . 2 5 - 0 . 4 4 ) and a t 0 . 6 9 ( 0 . 6 9 - 1 . 1 3 ) which
c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e high skew o f t h e mean.

Thus, t h e mode, which

c o n t r i b u t e s 20 p e r c e n t t o t h e t o t a l d i s t r i b u t i o n , and t h e median a r e
b e t t e r me asu re s o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y th a n t h e mean ( F i g u r e
H y p o th e s is 3 was o nl y p a r t i a l l y
nearest d riv ea b le w ater.

9).

upheld in term s o f d i s t a n c e t o

S i n c e o n l y one ( 2 . 2 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e

o b s e r v a t i o n s o c c u r r e d o u t s i d e o f t h e maximum o f 1. 5 m i l e s s t a t e d in t h e
h y p o t h e s i s , H y po th es is 3 was s a t i s f i e d i n te rm s o f t h e upp er l i m i t .

More

i m p o r t a n t was t h e f a c t t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s d i d n o t o cc ur
w i t h i n t h e s t a t e d r a n g e . The mode and me dian , t h e more r e l i a b l e measures
o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r d i s t r i b u t i o n , showed t h a t most (53 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n s o c c u r r e d between 0 . 0 3 t o 0.2 5 m i l e s from t h e camps.

Though

n o t im m e d i a te l y a d j a c e n t t o d r i v e a b l e w a t e r , t h e camps were no t one h a l f
t o one and one h a l f m i l e s away from t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r e i t h e r .

149

FIGURE 9
DISTANCE TO NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER
FOR RIVER DRIVE SITES

150

DISTANCE

TO

NEAREST

DRIVEABLE

WATER

m ile s

3 .1 3
1 .5 0
1 .1 3
1 .0 6
1 .0 0
0 .9 4
0 .8 8
0 .7 5
0 .6 9
0 .5 6
0 .5 3
0 .5 0
0 .4 4
0 .3 1
0 .2 5
0*19
0 .1 6
0 .1 3
VA iVAV4
0 .0 3

1
1

2

3

4

5

6

FREQUENCY

FI GURE

9

7

8

9

151
Perhaps t h e o r i g i n a l h y p o t h e s i s was couched w it h a to o r o b u s t lower l i m i t .
To p r o v i d e a b e t t e r p e r s p e c t i v e , t h e d i s t a n c e s i n m i l e s (0 .0 3 - 0 . 2 5 )
were c o n v e r t e d t o f e e t ( 1 5 8 - 1 3 2 0 ) .

This c o n v e r s i o n p r o v i d e d a b e t t e r

p i c t u r e o f t h e d i s t a n c e t h a n t e n t h s and h u n d r e d t h s o f a m i le m e as ur em ent s.
Again, no s i t e was on t h e banks o f a s t r e a m , l a k e e t c . , but none were
between one h a l f and one and one h a l f m i l e s away.

I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h e 0 .0 3

(158 f t . ) m i l e mode was a l s o t h e low er l i m i t o f t h e r a n g e f o r t h i s
v a r i a b l e , so t h a t no s i t e was n e a r e r t o d r i v e a b l e w a t e r th a n 158 f e e t .
Thus, w h i l e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e
w a t e r d id n o t conform t o t h e s t a t e d ran ge f o r t h e s e v a l u e s in H ypo the sis
3, t h e y d id conform t o t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s .

R e l a t i o n s h i p between D i s t a n c e t o Water V a r i a b l e s
The r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two v a r i a b l e s was n e x t examined by t h e i r
c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n and t h r o u g h a c r o s s p l o t o f one a g a i n s t t h e o t h e r . The
d a t a from t h e s e v a r i a b l e s were grouped i n t o l a r g e r i n t e r v a l s th a n t h e
r e c o r d i n g i n t e r v a l s t o e l i m i n a t e t h e l a r g e number o f z e r o v a l u e c e l l s in
t h e c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n . The i n t e r v a l s were: 0 - 0 . 2 5 , 0 . 2 6 - 0 . 5 0 , 0 . 5 1 - 0 . 7 5 ,
0 . 7 6 - 1 . 0 , 1 . 0 1 - 1 . 2 5 , 1 . 2 5 - 1 . 5 0 ( Ta bl e 6 ) .

152
TABLE 6
CROSSTABULATION OF DISTANCE TO NEAREST WATER AND
DISTANCE TO NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER
D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Water

Distance

0.25

to

0.50

Nearest

0.75

Water

1. 0

0 .2 5

0.50

0.7 5

1. 0

1.25

1.!

24

2

4

2

2

0

3

0

0

0

0

3

2

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

1.25
1.50

0
I d e n t i c a l C r o s s t a b u l a t i o n s in Raw Data
Values

Num

0.03/0.03

9

0.06/0.06

6

0.13/0.13

4

0.16/0.16

2

0.19/0.19

1

0.25/0.25

2

0.31/0.31

2

0.5/0.5

1

0.53/0.53

1

0.75/0.75

2

0.88/0.88

1

1.13/1.13

1

32

153
As can be seen from Ta b l e 6, most o f t h e v a l u e s f o r t h e
c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e d i s t a n c e t o w a t e r v a r i a b l e s o c cu r e d i n t h e
0.01-0.25 cell

(24/5 3 p e r c e n t ) which was s i x t i m e s l a r g e r t h a n t h e ne xt

la rg e s t c e ll frequency.

Thus , t h e m a j o r i t y o f s i t e s were l o c a t e d w i t h i n

0 .2 5 m i l e s o f both n e a r e s t w a t e r and n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

These

r e s u l t s a r e g r a p h i c a l l y p r e s e n t e d i n F i g u r e 10, which shows t h e heavy
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f v a r i a b l e s n e a r t h e v e r t e x and w i t h i n an a r e a bounded by
0 .2 5 on b o th a x e s .

Moreover, i t a p p ea re d t h a t f o r a l a r g e number o f

o b s e r v a t i o n s (32 /71 p e r c e n t ) d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r and d i s t a n c e t o
n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r were t h e same i n d i c a t i n g t h e n e a r e s t w a t e r s o u r c e
was a l s o t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r s o u r c e .
T ab l e 7 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e t y p e o f w a t e r a s s o c i a t e d w ith r i v e r d r i v e
camps when t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r was a l s o t h e n e a r e s t s o u r c e o f
w a t e r in g e n e r a l .

Streams (53 p e r c e n t ) were t h e most common t y p e of

w a t e r a s s o c i a t e d w ith r i v e r d r i v e camps and major r i v e r s (31 p e r c e n t ) t h e
next.

Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e s e two a c c o un te d f o r o v e r 80 p e r c e n t o f t h e

w a t e r t y p e / r i v e r d r i v e camp a s s o c i a t i o n s when t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a te r
was t h e n e a r e s t w a t e r .

O th er t y p e s o f w a te r (G r ea t La ke s, l a k e s , s p r i n g s

and l a k e / r i v e r o r s tr e a m ) o c c u r r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s f r e q u e n t l y under
these conditions.

154

FIGURE 10
CROSS PLOT OF DISTANCE TO NEAREST WATER BY
DISTANCE TO NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER
FOR RIVER DRIVE SITES
(A=one s i t e , B=two s i t e s , e t c . )

A

1. 5

1.0
A
B

A

155

DISTANCE
TO
NEAREST
W ATER

m iles

0. 5

A A
ABB

A
B

0. 5

A
A
B

A A A

1.0

1. 5

2.0

2. 5

DISTANCE TO NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER

m i les

F I G UR E

10

3. 0

156
TABLE 7
TYPE OF NEAREST WATER
WHEN NEAREST WATER AND NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER ARE THE SAME
Type o f Water

Number o f S i t e s

Percentage

Streams

17

53

Major R i v e r s

10

31

1

3

3

9

1

3

Lakes
Lake/stream or
Lake/river
Spring

Summary
H y p o th es is 3 ' s p r o p o s i t i o n s , m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e between
r i v e r d r i v e camps and t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r s ho ul d be between one
h a l f and one and a h a l f m i l e s , were on ly p a r t i a l l y c o n f i r m e d .

Although

t h e upper boundary o f one and one h a l f m i l e s was o n ly exceeded by one
o b s e r v a t i o n , t h e lower l i m i t o f one h a l f m i l e d id n o t encompass t h e
m ajority of v a ria b le s .

The median and t h e mode, more a p p r o p r i a t e measures

f o r t h i s sa m p l e , were s i g n i f i c a n t l y lower t h a n t h e lo w er boundary o f t h e
hypothesized range.

While no camp was l o c a t e d on a r i v e r o r s t r e a m bank

most ( 5 3 . 3 p e r c e n t ) were between 0 . 0 3 and 0 . 2 5 m i l e s away, t h e r e b y
n e g a t i n g p a r t o f H y p ot h es is 3 .

Th is p e r c e n t a g e i s n o t overwhelming, b u t

i t does le n d c r e d e n c e t o t h e i d e a t h a t t h e r e i s some bounded zone wherein
which t h e m a j o r i t y o f camps a r e l i k e l y t o o c c u r .

An other i n t e r e s t i n g

p o i n t t o come o u t o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r e x a m in a t io n was t h a t f o r 71 p e r c e n t
o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r was a l s o t h e n e a r e s t
w ater.

B e h a v i o r a l l y t h i s might i n d i c a t e t h a t l o g g e r s d i d n o t d i s c r i m i n a t e

157
in t h e i r s o u r c e s o f w a t e r f o r d o m e s t i c o r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n p u r p o s e s .

More

i m p o r t a n t l y , i t i n d i c a t e d t h e p r i o r i t y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and a c c e s s t h e r e t o
h e l d ov er camp l o c a t i o n s .

F u r t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a bo ut t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s

was o b t a i n e d when an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e t y p e o f n e a r e s t w a t e r was
conducted.

S t r e a m s , as n e a r e s t w a t e r / d r i v e a b l e w a t e r , a c c ou nt ed f o r o v e r

h a lf the observations.

I f ma jor r i v e r s a r e added t o s t r e a m s , t h e n o v e r 80

p e r c e n t o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s were in c l u d e d in t h e s e two t y p e s o f w a t e r .
Thus, a g e n e r a l s e t o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r r i v e r d r i v e camps has emerged
from t h e s t u d y o f H y p ot h es is 3.

R iv e r d r i v e camps w i l l most l i k e l y be

l o c a t e d between 0 . 0 3 and 0 . 2 5 m i l e s from d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

Thi s d r i v e a b l e

w a t e r i s most l i k e l y t o be t h e n e a r e s t s o u r c e o f w a t e r t o t h e camp.
Moreover, t h e n e a r e s t w a t e r / d r i v e a b l e w a t e r i s most l i k e l y t o be a s t r e a m ,
o r s e c o n d a r i l y a major r i v e r .

H y po th es is 4
R i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g camps w i l l be l o c a t e d a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s
w ithin th e surrounding a r e a .

They w i l l be above t h e l e v e l o f t h e

d r i v e a b l e s t r e a m / l a k e and equal t o o r lower th a n e l e v a t i o n s where a c t i v e
c u t t i n g w i l l o c c u r ( i . e . lo w er t h a n

t h e h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n in t h e a r e a ) .

This h y p o t h e s i s was e x p l o r e d th r o u g h t h e a n a l y s i s o f s e v e r a l
variables.

The v a r i a b l e m e as u ri n g o r i e n t a t i o n o f t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e

w a t e r p r o v i d e d i n f o r m a t i o n on w h et h er t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r was
a b ov e, below o r a t t h e same e l e v a t i o n as a g iv e n r i v e r d r i v e camp.

In

ad d itio n , the r e l a t i v e elev ation of

t h e camp was examined f o r a one and a

h a l f m i l e r a d i u s w ith t h r e e o p t i o n s

fo rtype of e le v a tio n :

highest, or interm ediate.

low est,

F i n a l l y , th e actual e le v a tio n of th e r i v e r

158
d r i v e camps was examined t o a s c e r t a i n i f t h e r e was any unifo rm p a t t e r n t o
t h e s e l e c t i o n o f e l e v a t i o n s a t which t o l o c a t e camps.

O r i e n t a t i o n o f N e a r e s t D r i v e a b l e Water
Th is v a r i a b l e was d e s i g n e d t o measure i f t h e r i v e r d r i v e s i t e was
a b o ve , below, o r a t t h e same e l e v a t i o n as t h e s o u r c e o f n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e
w ater.

As shown i n Ta bl e 8 , most ( 3 9 / 8 6 . 7 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e r i v e r d r i v e

camps were l o c a t e d above t h e l e v e l o f t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

The

r e m a in d e r o f t h e s i t e s ( 6 / 1 3 . 3

p e r c e n t ) were a t t h e same l e v e l

n e a re st d riv e a b le w ater.

d a t a s u p p p o r te d H y p o th e s is 4 in t h a t t h e

Thi s

m a j o r i t y o f r i v e r d r i v e camp s i t e s
n e a r e s t d r iv e a b le water (Table

were l o c a t e d above t h e l e v e l

as t h e

of the

8).

TABLE 8
ORIENTATION OF NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER
RIVER DRIVE SITES
Number

Percentage

Above Camp

0

0

Same E l e v a t i o n

6

1 3 .3

39

86.7

Below Camp

40

100

R elative Elevation
An a n a l y s i s o f r e l a t i v e e l e v a t i o n e v a l u a t e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t
r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s would be l o c a t e d a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e
surrounding a r e a .

This v a r i a b l e measured t h e e l e v a t i o n of r i v e r d r i v e

s i t e s w it h r e s p e c t t o t h e h i g h e s t and lo w e s t e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n a one and

159
one h a l f m i l e r a d i u s o f t h e camp.

The one and one h a l f m i le r a d i u s was

chosen b e ca u se i t was t h e same d i s t a n c e used i n o t h e r h y p o th e s e s t o
e s t a b l i s h t e r r i t o r y around a s i t e .

Most o f t h e s i t e s ( 4 2 / 9 3 . 3 p e r c e n t )

were l o c a t e d a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s w it h r e s p e c t t o t h e s u r r o u n d i n g
t e r r i t o r y ( T ab l e 9 ) .

One ( 2 . 2 p e r c e n t ) s i t e was l o c a t e d a t t h e h i g h e s t

e l e v a t i o n , w h i l e two ( 4 . 4 p e r c e n t ) were l o c a t e d a t t h e lo w e s t e l e v a t i o n .
These r e s u l t s conformed t o what was e x p e c t e d f o r H y p o th e s is 4 (Table 9 ) .

TABLE 9
RELATIVE ELEVATION
RIVER DRIVE SITES
Number
Highest
Interm ediate
Lowest

1

Percentage
2.2

42

9 3. 3

2

4.4

45

100

R e l a t i v e E l e v a t i o n and D r i v e a b l e Water O r i e n t a t i o n
Because H yp o th es is 4 was uphe ld in term s of b o th r e l a t i v e e l e v a t i o n
and o r i e n t a t i o n toward d r i v e a b l e w a t e r t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e two
v a r i a b l e s was examined.

The most common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( 8 2 . 2 p e r c e n t )

f o r r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s was t h e i r l o c a t i o n a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n
t h e s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a and above t h e e l e v a t i o n o f n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r
(Tab le 1 0 ) .

The ne x t most common c h a r a c t e r i s t i c ( 1 1 .1 p e r c e n t ) was t h e

s i t e s ' l o c a t i o n s a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a and a t t h e same l e v e l as t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

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T o g e t h e r , t h e s e two s e t s o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e s c r i b e o v e r 90 p e r c e n t o f
t h e r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s in t h e s a m p l e .

TABLE 10
RELATIVE ELEVATION AND DRIVEABLE WATER ORIENTATION
RIVER DRIVE CAMPS
R e la tiv e Elevation
Highest

Interm ediate

Lowest

O rientation

Above Camp

0

0

0

of Nearest

Same E l e v a t i o n

0

5 ( 1 1 . IX)

1 (2.2%)

Driveable

Below Camp

1 ( 2 . 2 %)

37 ( 8 2 . 2 %)

1 ( 2 . 2 %)

Water

F u r t h e r ex a m in a t io n o f t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s r e v e a l e d an i n t e r e s t i n g
p a t t e r n (Ta bl e 1 1 ) . Those s i t e s l o c a t e d on t h e same l e v e l as t h e n e a r e s t
d r i v e a b l e w a t e r were c o n s t r a i n e d w i t h i n a 0 . 7 5 m i le d i s t a n c e from t h e
n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r , which a p p ea re d t o r e l a t e t o t h e f l o o d p l a i n width
of d riv ea b le stream s.

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TABLE 11
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DISTANCE TO NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER
AND ORIENTATION OF NEAREST DRIVEABLE WATER
RIVER DRIVE SITES
D r i v e a b l e Water O r i e n t a t i o n
Same E l e v a t i o n

Below Camp

0-0.25

3 (6.6%)

21 (46.6%)

Distance to

0.26-0.50

2

(4.4%)

3 (6.6%)

Nearest

0.51-0.75

1

( 2 . 2 %)

6 (13.3%)

Driveable

0.76-1.00

0

4 (8.8%)

W ater(miles)

1.01-1.25

0

3 (6.6%)

1.26-1.50

0

1 ( 2 . 2 %)

6

(13.2%)

38 (84.1%)

Tab le 11 a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s a r a t h e r marked p a t t e r n f o r t h o s e s i t e s
which were l o c a t e d above t h e l e v e l o f n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

In t h i s

c a s e , t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( 4 6 . 6 p e r c e n t ) o f s i t e s was t h o s e
l o c a t e d w i t h i n 0 .2 5 m i l e s from d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

The n e x t l a r g e s t

c o n c e n t r a t i o n ( 1 3 . 3 p e r c e n t ) was l o c a t e d between 0 .5 1 and 0 . 7 5 m i l e s from
n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r , f o ll o w e d by t h o s e ( 8 . 8 p e r c e n t ) between 0. 76 and
1.0 0 m i l e s from n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

I f t h e l a t t e r two c a t e g o r i e s

( 0 . 5 1 - 0 . 7 5 , 0 . 7 6 - 1 . 0 0 ) a r e combined, t h e 0 . 5 1 - 1 . 0 0 i n t e r v a l c o n t a i n s 22.1
per cent of the s i t e s .

Thus, t h e r e e x i s t s a p a t t e r n o f h e a v i e s t s i t e

c o n c e n t r a t i o n between 0 - 0 . 2 5 m i l e s from n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r , fo ll o w ed
by a s m a l l e r , b u t s t i l l

s i z e a b l e ( 2 2 . 1 p e r c e n t ) c o n c e n t r a t i o n between

0 . 5 1 - 1 . 0 0 m i l e s from n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .
0 . 2 5 m i l e zone o f r e l a t i v e l y low s i t e p r e s e n c e .

The two a r e s e p a r a t e d by a
The l a t t e r p a t t e r n ,

162
however, was s p r e a d ov er t w i c e t h e a r e a as t h e for mer o n e , which r e s u l t e d
in a s i g n i f i c a n t l y d e c r e a s e d d e n s i t y o f s i t e s .

Th is p a t t e r n may r e f l e c t

d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o t r a n s p o r t a t i o n a n d / o r a r e l a t i o n s h i p t o work z o n e s .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , d i s t r i b u t i o n may r e p r e s e n t t h e i n t e r p l a y o f work zone s i z e
w ith t h e d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r .

The lower d e n s i t y o f s i t e s

in t h e o u t e r zone was in p a r t a p r o d u c t o f d i s t a n c e i n c r e a s i n g t r a n s p o r t
d ifficu lties.

I t i s a l s o a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e s i t e s were

l o c a t e d on t h e f r i n g e s o f t h e e f f e c t i v e c u t t i n g r a d i u s o f camps in t h e
i n n e r zo n e.

Th is e x p l a n a t i o n remains o n ly a p o s s i b i l i t y , a l b e i t a

p la u s ib le one.

F u r t h e r s t u d y , u s i n g a number o f co m p le te samples from

s i n g l e d r a i n a g e s r a t h e r th a n t h e po ol ed sample used h e r e , would be
necessary to v e rify t h i s p ro p o s itio n .

Elevation
Having e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t most ( 9 3 . 3 p e r c e n t ) r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s
o c c u r r e d a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s w it h r e s p e c t t o a one and one h a l f
m i l e r a d i u s o f t h e camp, i t was u s e f u l t o i n v e s t i g a t e w he th er t h i s
r e l a t i v e e l e v a t i o n cou ld be t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s p e c i f i c e l e v a t i o n s o r range s
of elev atio n .

This was ac c o m p li s h e d t h r o u g h a c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n o f

r e l a t i v e e l e v a t i o n v a l u e s w i t h e l e v a t i o n and by t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a
frequency histogram of e le v a tio n f o r s i t e s lo c a te d a t in term e d ia te
e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n a one and one h a l f m i l e r a d i u s o f r i v e r d r i v e camps.
As can be seen from Ta bl e 12, t h e r e were d e f i n i t e modes i n t h i s d a t a ,
most n o t i c e a b l y a t t h e 726-750 f o o t i n t e r v a l
interval

(9).

(9) and t h e 776-800 f o o t

S m a l le r peaks o c c u r r e d a t t h e 676-700 f o o t i n t e r v a l

t h e 601-625 i n t e r v a l

(5) and t h e 576-600 f o o t i n t e r v a l

c o n d e n s a t i o n o f t h e d a t a r e s u l t e d in two m a jo r modes:

(4).

(5),

A further

one from 576-625

163
f e e t (9) and t h e second from 726-800 f e e t ( 2 0 ) .

These g ro u p in g s c o n t a i n a

s i g n i f i c a n t p e r c e n t a g e ( 9 / 6 4 p e r c e n t , 2 0 / 4 4 . 4 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e s i t e s in
t h e s am pl e.
TABLE 12
CROSSTABULATION
RELATIVE ELEVATION BY ELEVATION
RIVER DRIVE SITES
R elativ e Elevation
Lowest

Interm ediate

H ig he s t

575-600

4

1

601-625

5

Elevation

626-650

2

(feet as!)

651-675

3

676-700

5

701-725

2

726-750

9

751-775

2

776-800

9

800-825

1

One i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h i s p a t t e r n i s t h a t i t r e f l e c t s c h r o n o l o g y .
Elsewhere i t has been n ot e d t h a t t h e e a r l i e r ( i . e . r i v e r d r i v e ) s i t e s
te n d e d t o be l o c a t e d n e a r e s t t h e Lake Michigan c o a s t , w h i l e more r e c e n t
s i t e s were l o c a t e d i n l a n d (Karamanski 1984, M art in 1 9 7 7 ) .

The p a t t e r n

d e s c r i b e d above coul d r e p r e s e n t an i n c r e a s e in number o f r i v e r d r i v e camps
th r o u g h ti m e as t h e l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y grew and an i n c r e a s e in e l e v a t i o n as
l o g g e r s moved f u r t h e r i n l a n d .

164
The r e s u l t s o f a c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n o f e l e v a t i o n and r e l a t i v e o c c u p a t i o n
f o r r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s l o c a t e d a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n t h e s tu d y
a r e a s u p p o r t e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t e a r l i e r s i t e s would be l o c a t e d a t
lower e l e v a t i o n s (Ta b le 1 3 ) .

Below 750 f e e t a s l , a l l

(29 /69 p e r c e n t ) bu t

one ( 1 / 2 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e s i t e s d a t e d t o t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y .
Above 751 f e e t a s l , w it h e x c e p t i o n o f f o u r s i t e s ( 4 / 9 . 5 p e r c e n t ) , between
776 and 800 f e e t a s l , a l l

( 8 / 1 9 p e r c e n t ) s i t e s were t r a n s i t i o n a l between

t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .

Ta bl e 14 p r e s e n t s a

breakdown o f Tabl e 13 in t e n y e a r i n c r e m e n t s , b e g i n n i n g with 1871,
illu stratin g

more s h a r p l y t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between e l e v a t i o n and

occupation d a t e .

Moreover, i t a l s o i l l u s t r a t e s t h a t t h e "heyday" o f r i v e r

d r i v e l o g g i n g i n t h e s t u d y a r e a was between 1881 and 1890.

This s u p p o r t s

(by i n f e r e n c e ) e a r l i e r s u g g e s t i o n s (Karamanski 1984, Martin 1977) t h a t
e a r l y r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s would be l o c a t e d n e a r t h e c o a s t .

165
TABLE 13
CROSSTABULATION
ELEVATION BY RELATIVE OCCUPATION
RIVER DRIVE SITES-INTERMEDIATE ELEVATIONS
R e l a t i v e Oc cupation
La te 19th

Lat e 1 9 t h / E a r l y 20th

575-600

4

0

601-625

5

0

Elevation

626-650

2

0

(feet a s l )

651-675

3

0

676-700

5

0

701-725

1

1

726-750

9

0

751-775

0

2

776-800

4

5

801-825

0

1

166
TABLE 14
CROSSTABULATION
ELEVATION BY OCCUPATION
RIVER DRIVE SITES-INTERMEDIATE ELEVATION
I n i t i a l O ccupation Date
1871-1880

1881-1890

575-600

3

601-625

4

Elevation

626-650

(feet asl)

651-675

1

"1900

1
2

676-700

1

3

701-725

1

1

726-750

3

5

751-775
776-800

1891-1900

1

1

1
1

5

1
1

3

801-825

1

Summary
H yp ot h es is 4 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g camps w i l l be
l o c a t e d a t i n t e r m e d i a t e e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n a one and a m i l e r a d i u s around
each camp.

F u r t h e r m o r e , r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g camps w i l l be above t h e l e v e l

o f d r i v e a b l e s tr e a m s b u t below t h e h i g h e s t e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n t h e
s u r r o u n d i n g a r e a ( i . e . one and a h a l f m i l e r a d i u s ) .

The a n a l y s i s has

s u p p o r t e d H yp oth es is 4 i n t h a t most of t h e r i v e r d r i v e camps o c c u r r e d
above t h e l e v e l o f t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r and
in te rm e d ia te e le v a tio n s w ithin th e surrounding a r e a .

a l s o were l o c a t e d a t
In a d d i t i o n t o

s e p a r a t e l y s a t i s f y i n g both o f t h e s e a s p e c t s of H y p o th e s is 4, t h e a n a l y s i s

167
r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r i v e r d r i v e camps a l s o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y s a t i s f i e d them,
s i n c e a c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t most r i v e r d r i v e camps were l o c a t e d
both above t h e l e v e l o f t h e n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r and a t i n t e r m e d i a t e
e l e v a tio n s w ithin th e surrounding a r e a .
F u rth er a n a l y s is provided i n s i g h t s in to th e lo c a tio n a l
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f r i v e r d r i v e camps.

In a d d i t i o n t o s u p p o r t i n g e a r l i e r

s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between c h ro no lo gy and d i s t a n c e i n l a n d
t h e a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d t h a t camps l o c a t e d a t t h e same l e v e l as t h e n e a r e s t
d r iv e a b le water occurred
Thi s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c l e d

w i t h i n 0 . 7 5 m i l e s of t h e

nearestdriveablew ater.

t o t h e i n f e r e n c e t h a t t h e s e s i t e s were f l o o d p l a i n

camp s i t e s , and t h a t t h e 0 . 7 5 m i l e d i s t a n c e r e p r e s e n t e d f l o o d p l a i n w i d t h .
Camps l o c a t e d above t h e l e v e l o f n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r o c c u r r e d in
two modal c a t e g o r i e s w ith r e s p e c t t o d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a t e r :
t h o s e l e s s t h a n 0.2 5 m i l e s away
The c l o s e r group was t h e

and t h o s e between

l a r g e r and more dens e o f

0 . 5 and 1. 0 m i l e s away.
t h e two which was

i n f e r r e d t o r e f l e c t th e d i f f i c u l t y o f tr a n s p o r ti n g logs over a g r e a t e r
d istance to d riveable w ater.

I t a l s o co ul d be i n t e r p r e t e d t o r e f l e c t t h e

e f f e c t o f a c u t t i n g zone around lo g g i n g camps, which would e s t a b l i s h a
minimum d i s t a n c e between camps f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e u s e o f s p a c e , a p o i n t
which w i l l be a d d r e s s e d in a l a t e r h y p o t h e s i s .

However, s i n c e t h e r i v e r

d r i v e sample was a poo led sample from t h e e n t i r e s t u d y a r e a and n o t from a
s i n g l e d r a i n a g e , i n f e r e n c e s o f t h i s n a t u r e must remain s p e c u l a t i v e a t t h i s
point.

H y p o th e s is 5
Railway l o g g i n g camps w i l l g e n e r a l l y be l o c a t e d f a i r l y c l o s e l y t o n a t u r a l
d r a i n a g e / s t r e a m s , p r o b a b l y no f u r t h e r t h a n one m i le away.

Camps g r e a t e r

168
th a n one m i l e from a n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e system s h o u ld be l o c a t e d on ground
w it h a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 p e r c e n t s l o p e in an a r e a t h a t , by i n f e r e n c e ,
c o n t a i n e d a heavy s t a n d o f t i m b e r .

S i t e s Less Than One Mile from Water (D r ai n ag e)
Th is h y p o t h e s i s was ap p ro ac he d i n i t i a l l y th r o u g h t h e e x a m in a t io n o f
t h e d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r v a r i a b l e f o r r a i l w a y l o g g i n g camps.

As

shown in Tabl e 15, t h e mean was 0 .4 3 m i l e s w it h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f
0 . 3 7 , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s were n o t n o r m a l ly d i s t r i b u t e d .
The skewness ( 1 . 3 3 ) and k u r t o s i s ( 1 . 9 2 ) s t a t i s t i c s conf irm ed t h i s
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e p o s i t i v e t a i l o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
was t h e h e a v i e s t .

One p o t e n t i a l c a u s e was a number o f high p o s i t i v e

o utliers.

TABLE 15
DISTANCE TO NEAREST WATER
Railway Camps
N = 149

Median = 0.3 8

Mean = 0 . 4 3

Mode = 0.5 0

S t a n d a rd D e v i a t i o n

= 0.37

Range = 0 . 0 1 - 1 . 9 4

Skewness = 1.33
K u r t o s i s = 1.92

A d d i t i o n a l s u p p o r t f o r t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s was found in t h e median
( 0 . 3 8 ) and t h e mode ( 0 . 5 0 ) .

Over h a l f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s o c c u r r e d a t or

below t h e 0 . 3 8 median, w h i l e t h e mode i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e v a l u e w it h t h e
l a r g e s t number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s was 0 . 5 0 .

The r an ge ( 0 . 0 1 - 1 . 9 4 ) a l s o

169
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n c o n t i n u e d some d i s t a n c e t o t h e p o s i t i v e
s i d e o f t h e mean.
interpretation.

The f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m a l s o s u p p o r t e d t h i s
F u r t h e r m o r e , a l t h o u g h t h e h i s t o g r a m app ea re d t o be

m u l t i - m o d a l , t h e r e were a c l u s t e r o f o b s e r v a t i o n s which acco un ted f o r a
l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e t o t a l o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h i s v a r i a b l e .

Those

o b s e r v a t i o n s ranged between 0 . 0 6 and 0.56 on t h e h i s t o g r a m and comprised
69 p e r c e n t (103) o f t h e t o t a l number o f o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h i s v a r i a b l e .
Moreover, H yp ot he s is 5 s p e c i f i e d a d i s t a n c e l e s s th a n o r equal t o one m il e
away from w a t e r .

The d i s t r i b u t i o n r e v e a l e d t h a t 9 2. 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e

o b s e r v a t i o n s o c c u r r e d a t o r below 1.0 m i l e s ( F i g u r e 1 1 ) .
The e x a m in a t io n o f t h e t y p e o f w a t e r a s s o c i a t e d w it h s i t e s l e s s th a n
or equal t o one m i l e from t h e n e a r e s t w a te r was u n d e r ta k e n b ec a u se
H y p o th es is 5 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h i s one m i le d i s t a n c e was a p p l i c a b l e t o t h e
n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e s a s s o c i a t e d w it h a s t r e a m o r r i v e r .

That i s , d r a i n a g e s

which were e s s e n t i a l l y d e n d r i t i c and which u l t i m a t e l y flowed i n t o Lake
Michigan o r Lake S u p e r i o r .

La ke s, w ith t h e i r i n t e r n a l d r a i n a g e , would not

n e c e s s a r i l y e n s u r e t h a t t h e r e was a d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n a l o n g which a
r a i l w a y g r a d e co ul d have been e s t a b l i s h e d .
The d a t a p r e s e n t e d in Table 16 shows t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e s i t e s
(86 p e r c e n t ) l o c a t e d l e s s th a n o r equal t o one m i le from w a t e r were most
c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith some s o r t o f f l o w i n g , d e n d r i t i c d r a i n a g e system
such as a s t r e a m o r r i v e r .
f o r t h in H y po th es is 5.

This conf irm ed one o f t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s put

170

FIGURE 11
DISTANCE TO NEAREST WATER FOR RAILWAY SITES

171

1 .9 4
1 .7 5
1 .3 8
1 .2 5
1 .1 9
1 .1 3
1 .0 6
1.00

0 .9 4 .
0.88
DISTANCE
TO
NEAREST
WA T PR

m iles

0 .8 5
0 .7 5
0 .6 9
0 .6 3
0 .5 6
0 .5 0
0 .4 4
0 .3 8
0 .3 1
0 .2 5
0 .1 9
0 .1 6
A 16
V* I W

0 .0 6
0 .0 4
0 .0 3
0.01

2

4

6

8

10

12

FREQUENCY

FI GURE

11

14

16

18

172
TABLE 16
TYPE OF NEAREST WATER
RAILWAY CAMPS WITHIN ONE MILE OF WATER/NATURAL DRAINAGE
Type
Flow ing/Dendritic

Number

Percent

114

86

18

14

Lakes ( i n t e r n a l d r a i n a g e )

S i t e s Over One Mil e from Water (D r ai n ag e)
H yp o th es is 5 a l s o m a i n t a i n e d t h a t r a i l w a y camps l o c a t e d more t h a n one
m i le away from a n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e sy stem would be l o c a t e d on ground t h a t
had a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 p e r c e n t s l o p e .

The i n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d in Table 17

p a r t i a l l y c o n f ir m s t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n .

Most o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s (82 p e r

c e n t ) o c c u r r e d i n t h e lo w er (0 -6 p e r c e n t ) s l o p e i n t e r v a l , and t h e
r em a in d er (18 p e r c e n t ) were in t h e mi ddle (7 -1 8 p e r c e n t ) s l o p e i n t e r v a l .
Hence i t can be s a i d t h a t t h e d a t a g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n ,
b u t t h e e x a c t e x t e n t c a n n o t be d e t e r m i n e d .

TABLE 17
SLOPE
RAILWAY CAMPS OVER ONE MILE FROM A NATURAL DRAINAGE
Slope

Number

Percent

14

82

Middle (7-18%)

3

18

Upper ( o v e r 18%)

0

0

Lower (0-6%)

173
The Converse
Another approach t o t h e s e two components o f H yp o th es is 5 was an
e x a m in a t io n o f t h e r e l a t i o n l s h i p o f s l o p e o f s i t e s l o c a t e d l e s s th a n o r
equal t o one m i le from w a t e r and t h e t y p e o f w a t e r a s s o c i a t e d w ith s i t e s
more t h a n one m i l e away from n e a r e s t w a t e r .

Ta bl e 18 p r e s e n t s d a t a on t h e

s l o p e o f r a i l w a y s i t e s l e s s t h a n one m i le from w a t e r .

When compared t o

t h e i n f o r m a t i o n in Table 17, some s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s emerged.
F i r s t , t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e s l o p e group from e i t h e r t a b l e was t h e lower (0-6
per cent) slo p e s.

Second, t h e m i d d le and up per s l o p e grou ps were l a r g e r

f o r t h e s i t e s l e s s t h a n one m i l e from w a t e r t h a n f o r s i t e s o v e r one m i l e
from w a t e r .

TABLE 18
SLOPE
RAILWAY CAMPS LESS THAN ONE MILE FROM WATER
Slope

Number

Percent

Lower (0-6%)

94

72. 4

Middle (7-18%)

32

24.6

4

3. 0

Upper ( o v e r 18%)

A chi s q u a r e t e s t f o r t h e ind ep en de nc e o f c l a s s i f i c a t o r y c r i t e r i a
e x p l o r e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s l o p e o f r a i l w a y s i t e s l e s s t h a n one
m i le from w a t e r and t h o s e g r e a t e r th a n one m i l e from w a t e r .

Ta b le 19

r e v e a l s t h a t t h e n u ll h y p o t h e s i s c an no t be r e j e c t e d , t h e r e f o r e t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g l e s s t h a n one m i le from w a t e r and t h o s e o c c u r r i n g
g r e a t e r t h a n one m i le from w a t e r behaved as in d e p e n d e n t p o p u l a t i o n s in
te rm s o f s l o p e .

This l e n t f u r t h e r , a l b e i t i n d i r e c t , s u p p o r t t o t h e

174
p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t r a i l w a y camps g r e a t e r th a n one m i le from w a t e r / d r a i n a g e s
would o c c u r in a r e a s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 p e r c e n t s l o p e .

Thus i t i s

p o s s i b l e t o s t a t e t h a t r a i l w a y s i t e s g r e a t e r th a n one m i l e from w at er
o c c u r r e d a t s l o p e s o f a p r o x i m a t e l y 6 p e r c e n t , with d e v i a t i o n s o c c u r r i n g
i n t h e 0- 6 p e r c e n t ran ge r a t h e r t h a n i n t o t h e ne x t h i g h e s t r a n g e .
Moreover, t h i s b e h a v i o r was d i f f e r e n t t h a n t h a t o f s i t e s l o c a t e d l e s s th a n
one m i l e from w a t e r .

TABLE 19
CHI-SQUARE:

SLOPE FOR RAILWAY SITES GREATER AND LESS THAN
ONE MILE FROM WATER

Slope

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Water
Less t h a n One Mile

G r e a t e r t h a n One Mile

Total

Lower (0-6%)

94

14

108

Middle (6-18%)

32

_3

35

126

17

143

X = 0 .4 5

df = 1

X ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 3.8 4

To c a r r y t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n f u r t h e r , t y p e s o f w a t e r a s s o c i a t e d with
s i t e s l e s s t h a n one m i l e from w a t e r and with t h o s e g r e a t e r th a n one m il e
from w a t e r were examined.

When t h e d a t a in Ta bl e 20 was compared t o t h a t

o f Table 16, t h e f lo w in g d e n d r i t i c t y p e o f w a te r was d o m i n a n t.

However

t h i s dominance was n o t as marked as f o r camps l o c a t e d more t h a n one m i le
from w a t e r as i t was f o r t h o s e l o c a t e d l e s s th a n one m i l e from w a t e r .

175
TABLE 20
TYPE OF NEAREST WATER
RAILWAY CAMPS GREATER THAN ONE MILE FROM WATER/NATURAL DRAINAGE

Mi

Number

Flow ing/dendritic
Lakes ( i n t e r n a l d r a i n a g e )

Percent

10

5 8. 8

7

4 1 .2

This r e l a t i o n s h i p was e x p l o r e d f u r t h e r th ro ug h t h e use o f a
c h i - s q u a r e t e s t which e v a l u a t e d t h e n u ll h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e was no
r e l a t i o n s h i p between t y p e o f n e a r e s t w a t e r a s s o c i a t e d w ith camps g r e a t e r
th a n one m i l e from w at er and t h a t a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h o s e camps l e s s th a n
one m i le from w a t e r .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e c h i - s q u a r e t e s t c a l l e d f o r t h e

r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s s i n c e r a i l w a y s i t e s l o c a t e d more t h a n one
m i le from w a t e r were not in d e p e n d e n t in te rm s o f t h e t y p e o f w a t e r with
which t h e y were a s s o c i a t e d .

Although t h e s e r e s u l t s d e v i a t e d from what was

e x p e c t e d , t h e y do no t r e f u t e t h e c o n c l u s i o n s reach ed e a r l i e r in t h i s
s e c t i o n r e g a r d i n g t h e t y p e o f w a t e r with which r a i l w a y s i t e s l e s s t h a n one
m i le from w a t e r would most l i k e l y be a s s o c i a t e d ( T ab l e 2 1 ) .

176
TABLE 21
CHI-SQARE TEST:

TYPE OF WATER ASSOCIATED WITH RAILWAY CAMPS

GREATER THAN ONE MILE FROM WATER AND LESS THAN ONE MILE FROM WATER
Type

D i s t a n c e t o Water
Less t h a n One Mile

F lo w in g/
Dendritic
Lakes
( in te r n a l drainage)

Greater

t h a n One Mile Total

114

10

124

,18

7

25

132

17

149

X2 = 8 . 3 9
df = 1
X2 ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 3. 84

Maps
A s u b j e c t i v e e x a m in a t io n o f t h e United S t a t e s F o r e s t S e r v i c e C la ss A
Maps p r o v id e d a rough c o u n t o f known l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s t h a t allo we d f u r t h e r
e x a m in a t io n o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s .

Also cou nt ed were r a i l

l i n e s which

r ou gh ly p a r a l l e l e d a c u r r e n t s t r e a m / r i v e r or to ok a d v a n t a g e o f a d r a i n a g e
which co u ld have been o c c u p i e d by a s t r e a m o r o t h e r n o t a b l e t o p o g r a p h i c
features.

Thi s was n o t i n t e n d e d t o be an e x h a u s t i v e e x a m in a t io n bu t

r a t h e r an i n d i c a t i o n o f w h e th e r l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s a c t u a l l y f o ll o w e d t h e l a y
o f t h e la n d whenever p o s s i b l e .

The r e s u l t s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e were 166

known mapped l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s / s p u r s in t h e s t u d y a r e a .

Of t h e s e 108 (65

p e r c e n t ) f o l l o w e d ( i n some f a s h i o n ) t h e to po g r ap h y o f t h e a r e a t o
minimize t h e a d v e r s e e f f e c t s o f s t e e p n e s s in r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n ,
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t most o f t h e l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s met t h e g e n e r a l e x p e c t a t o n s
pu t f o r t h i m p l i c i t l y un d er H y p o th es is 5.

Although i t might have been

a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t a g r e a t e r p e r c e n t a g e would have a d he r e d t o t h e p r e d i c t e d

177
p a t t e r n , s e v e r a l p o i n t s s h o u ld be remembered.

F i r s t , t h e sample i n c l u d e d

t h e well known lo g g i n g r a i l w a y s / s p u r s in t h e s t u d y a r e a r a t h e r t h a n a l l
l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s / s p u r s in t h e s t u d y a r e a .
not r e p r e s e n t a tiv e of th e u n iv e rs e .

Thus t h e sample was p r o b a b ly

Second, t h e e x a m in a t io n was c a r e f u l l y

done but g e n e r a l and s u b j e c t i v e , i n t r o d u c i n g t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t more o f
t h e r a i l w a y s may have f o l l o w e d t h e to p o g r ap h y t h a n t h o s e c o u n t e d .
t h e r e c o u l d be more d r a i n a g e a r e a s which s t i l l

Third,

had f a v o r a b l e s l o p e s P

6

p e r c e n t ) and t h u s would have been a c c e p t a b l e f o r l o g g i n g r a i l w a y
construction.

Summary
H y p ot h es is 5 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t r a i l w a y l o g g i n g camps w i l l g e n e r a l l y be
l o c a t e d f a i r l y c l o s e l y t o a n a t u r a l d r a i n a g e sy ste m ; p r o b a b l y no f u r t h e r
t h a n one m i l e away.

Camps l o c a t e d more t h a n one m i l e from a n a t u r a l

d r a i n a g e s yst em sh oul d be l o c a t e d on ground with a p p r o x i m a t e l y 6 p e r c e n t
slope.

In itial

e x a m in a t io n o f t h e e n t i r e lo g g i n g camp subsample r e v e a l e d

t h a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a t e r v a r i a b l e were not
n o rm a l ly d i s t r i b u t e d .

All measures o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y were well below

t h e h y p o t h e s i z e d one m i l e l i m i t .

Most o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s c l u s t e r e d

between 0 . 0 6 and 0.5 6 m i l e s and 92 p e r c e n t o f a l l o b s e r v a t i o n s were l e s s
t h a n o r equal t o one m i l e from t h e camp.

The e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h o s e s i t e s

t h a t o c c u r r e d l e s s t h a n o r equal t o one m i l e from w a t e r r e v e a l e d t h a t most
were c l o s e s t t o some form o f d e n d r i t i c d r a i n a g e ( i . e . r i v e r s , s t r e a m s ,
e t c . ) w h i l e o n ly 14 p e r c e n t were c l o s e s t t o l a k e s .

Thi s co n fi r m ed t h e

f i r s t p a r t o f H yp ot h es is 5.
For s i t e s o v e r one m i l e from w a t e r , 82 p e r c e n t f e l l w i t h i n t h e 0-6
p e r c e n t s l o p e r a n g e , w it h 18 p e r c e n t in t h e 7-18 p e r c e n t r a n g e .

This

178
p r o v id e d a g e n e r a l c o n f i r m a t i o n o f t h e second p a r t o f H yp o th es is 5 .

An

examination of th e converse cases revealed t h a t th e slope f o r s i t e s
g r e a t e r t h a n o r equal t o one m i l e from w a t e r was s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
th a n t h a t f o r s i t e s l e s s t h a n o r equal t o one m i l e from w a t e r , w h i l e t h e
n e a r e s t w a t e r a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r both groups were f a i r l y s i m i l a r .

A brief

e x a m i n a t i o n o f maps o f known l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s co nf irm ed t h a t many o f t h e s e
were l o c a t e d in t o p o g r a p h i c s e t t i n g s t h a t would have been ad v an ta g eo us a s
d e f i n e d by H y p o th e s is 5 .

O v e r a l l , t h e n , t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s s e t f o r t h by

H y p o th e s is 5 have been c o n f i r m e d .

H y p o th e s is 6
Railway l o g g i n g camps w i l l be l o c a t e d as f a r as p o s s i b l e from swamps.

Thi s h y p o t h e s i s r e l a t e d t o t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r r a i l w a y camps t o o p e r a t e
y e a r round and t h u s be o c c u p i e d d u r i n g warmer months when swamps thawed
and c r e a t e d a number o f p r o b le m s , i n c l u d i n g i n s e c t born d i s e a s e , p o t e n t i a l
c o n t a m i n a t i o n o f w a t e r s u p p l i e s , and d i f f i c u l t y in t r a n s p o r t i n g l o g s and
loggers.

T h e r e f o r e i t was h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t camp l o c a t i o n would g e n e r a l l y

av oi d swampy a r e a s .

U n f o r t u n a t e l y , no s p e c i f i c p a r a m e t e r s can be

e s t a b l i s h e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e o pt i m al d i s t a n c e from swamps.

The a n a l y s i s

p r e s e n t e d below a d d r e s s e s t h i s h y p o t h e s i s by drawing p r i m a r i l y upon
d i s t a n c e m e a s u r e s , as well as i n f o r m a n t and h i s t o r i c a l d a t a .
As shown in Ta b le 22, t h e mean d i s t a n c e from n e a r e s t swamp was 0 . 2 8
m i l e s w it h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 0 . 3 2 , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n
was n o t normal s i n c e t h e r e were no v a l u e s l e s s t h a n z e r o in t h e d a t a .

The

skewness ( 2 . 1 5 ) and k u r t o s i s ( 5 . 4 1 ) s t a t i s t i c s f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d t h i s
c o n c l u s i o n and i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n was skewed t o t h e p o s i t i v e

179
s i d e o f t h e mean.

A com parison o f t h e mean t o t h e median ( 0 . 1 9 ) and mode

( 0 . 0 6 ) p r o v i d e d f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t high p o s i t i v e o u t l i e r s were
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e skewed d i s t r i b u t i o n .

Thus, t h e mean was n o t t h e most

a c c u r a t e measure o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y f o r t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n .

In t h i s c a s e

t h e median ( 0 . 1 9 ) was t h e b e t t e r c h o i c e as a measure o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y ,
i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e median d i s t a n c e between camp and swamp was
approximately 0.19 m i le s .

TABLE 22
DISTANCE TO NEAREST SWAMP
RAILWAY CAMPS
N = 129

Median = 0.1 9

Mean = 0 . 2 8

Mode = 0 .0 6

Standard Deviation = 0.32

Range = 0 . 0 1 - 1 . 7 5

Skewness = 2 .1 5
K u r t o s i s = 5.41

A f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e d i s t a n c e s c l u s t e r e d around
two modal c a t e g o r i e s : 0.0 1 - 0 . 0 6 (5 0/ 3 3 p e r c e n t ) , and 0.1 9 - 0 . 3 8 (48 /3 2
per c e n t ) .

Taken t o g e t h e r , t h e s e two modal c a t e g o r i e s ac c o u n te d f o r 65

p e r c e n t o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s in t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n . They a l s o c o n t a i n e d t h e
median ( 0 . 1 9 ) and t h e mode ( 0 . 0 6 ) f o r t h e e n t i r e d i s t r i b u t i o n .

Thus, most

r a i l w a y l o g g i n g camps were l o c a t e d between 0 .0 1 and 0. 06 m i l e s from swamps
o r between 0 . 1 9 and 0 . 3 8 m i l e s from swamps and each o f t h e s e i n t e r v a l s
c o n t a i n e d s i m i l a r numbers o f o b s e r v a t i o n s , i n d i c a t i n g b a l a n c e between t h e
two modal c a t e g o r i e s ( F i g u r e 1 2 ) .

180
In te rm s o f s a t i s f y i n g t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s , t h e s e
r e s u l t s were e q u i v o c a l .

C e r t a i n l y t h e second modal c a t e g o r y ( 0 . 1 9 - 0 . 3 8 )

was s u f f i c i e n t l y d i s t a n t t o have s a t i s f i e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s o u t r i g h t .

The

o t h e r modal c a t e g o r y ( 0 . 0 1 - 0 . 0 6 ) , o r a t l e a s t i t s lowe r boun dar y, was
r e l a t i v e l y c l o s e t o swamps even though most o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s in i t
o c c u r r e d in t h e uppe r p a r t o f t h e c a t e g o r y .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e camps in

t h i s c a t e g o r y were l o c a t e d f a i r l y c l o s e l y t o swamps in g e n e r a l and with
r e s p e c t t o t h e o t h e r modal c a t e g o r y .
A f u r t h e r e x p l o r a t i o n o f H y p o th e s is 6 i n v o l v e d t h e ex am in a t io n o f t h e
d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t swamp f o r r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s .

Those s i t i n g r i v e r d r i v e

camps, which o p e r a t e d e x c l u s i v e l y in w i n t e r , d i d no t have t o worry about
p r o x i m i t y t o swamps.

Thi s comparison p r o v i d e d f u r t h e r i n s i g h t i n t o t h e

l o c a t i o n o f r a i l w a y camps and a i d e d in t h e r e s o l u t i o n o f t h e i s s u e s r a i s e d
ab ov e.
As r e v e a l e d in Table 23, t h e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s i n d i c a t e d t h a t
r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s were g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d c l o s e r t o swamps t h a n r a i l w a y
sites.

In s p i t e o f a n o n - n o r m a l , h ig h skew t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n ( s t a n d a r d

deviation = 0.28,

skewness = 2 . 2 0 , k u r t o s i s = 5 . 1 6 ) , t h e mean ( . 2 0 ) ,

median ( 0 . 1 3 ) and mode ( 0 . 0 1 ) were a l l
swamps t h a n f o r r a i l w a y camps.

in d ic a tiv e of lo c atio n s c lo se r

to

The range was a l m o s t 0 . 5 0 s m a l l e r f o r

riv er drive s ite s

th a n f o r r a i l w a y s i t e s .

riv e r drive s ite s

also e x h ib ited modality.

The f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m f o r
The f i r s t modal c a t e g o r y

( 0 . 0 1 - 0 . 0 3 ) c o n t a i n e d 4 4 . 4 p e r c e n t o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s in t h e s am pl e,
i n d i c a t i v e o f l o c a t i o n s c l o s e r t o swamps t h a n w ith t h o s e o f t h e f i r s t
modal c a t e g o r y a s s o c i a t e d w it h r a i l w a y camps ( 0 . 0 1 - 0 . 0 6 ) .

Furthermore, i t

contained a la rg e r percentage of th e observations fo r th e r i v e r d riv e
sample t h a n t h e comparable modal c a t e g o r y d i d f o r t h e r a i l w a y sample ( 4 4 . 4

181

FIGURE 12
DISTANCE TO NEAREST SWAMP FOR RAILWAY SITES

182

1 .7 5
1 .6 3
1 .5 0
1 .1 3
1 .0 6
1.00

0 .9 4
DISTANCE

TO

THE

NEAREST

SW AMP

m ile s

0.88

0 .7 5
0 .6 9
0 .6 3
0 .5 0
0 .4 7
0 .4 4
0 .4 1
0 .3 8
0 .3 1
0 .2 5
0 .1 9
0 .1 6
6 .1 3
0; 0 9
0 .0 6
0 .0 3
0.01

10

15

20

FREQUENCY

FI GURE

12

25

183
p e r c e n t v s . 33 p e r c e n t ) .

The second modal c a t e g o r y ( 0 . 1 3 - 0 . 2 5 ) was a l s o

i n d i c a t i v e o f l o c a t i o n s c l o s e r t o swamps t h a n w it h t h e com parable modal
c a t e g o r y f o r r a i l w a y camps ( 0 . 1 9 - 0 . 3 8 ) .

I t also contained a sm aller

p e r c e n t a g e ( 2 8 . 9 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r t h e r i v e r d r i v e sample
t h a n i t s c o u n t e r p a r t d i d f o r t h e r a i l w a y sample (32 p e r c e n t )

(Figure 13).

TABLE 23
DISTANCE TO NEAREST SWAMP
RIVER DRIVE CAMPS
N = 45

Median = 0. 13

Mean = 0 .2 0

Mode = 0.01

Standard Deviation = 0.28

Range = 0 . 0 1 - 1 . 3 1

Skewness = 2 .2 0
K u r t o s i s = 5.16

From t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f r i v e r d r i v e camps, i t was
con cl u d ed t h a t a l t h o u g h r a i l w a y camps seemed t o be l o c a t e d f a i r l y c l o s e l y

184

FIGURE 13
DISTANCE TO NEAREST SWAMP FOR RIVER DRIVE SITES

1.31
1.00
DIST AN CE
TO
NEAREST
SW AMP

m iles

0 .8 1
0 .7 5
0 .5 6
0 .4 4
0 .3 1
0 .2 5
0 .1 9
0 .1 3
0 .0 6
0 .0 3
0.01
1

2

3

4

5

6

FREQUENCY

FI GURE

13

7

8

9

10

186
t o swamps ( e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e in t h e lower modal ran ge c a t e g o r y ) t h e y were
still

not as c l o s e t o swamps as r i v e r d r i v e camps. S in c e r i v e r d r i v e

l o g g i n g was r e s t r i c t e d t o w i n t e r when t h e swamps were f r o z e n , t h e i r
measures may be ta k e n as a s c a l e a g a i n s t which r a i l w a y camps can be
compared.

S i n c e r a i l w a y camps were g e n e r a l l y l o c a t e d f u r t h e r from swamps

th a n r i v e r d r i v e camps, t h i s may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s a r e s p o n s e t o t h e
c o n d i t i o n s o f p o t e n t i a l f o r y e a r round l o g g i n g .
H i s t o r i c a l and i n f o r m a n t d a t a a l s o shed l i g h t on t h i s h y p o t h e s i s ,
e s p e c i a l l y w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e a p p a r e n t l y small d i s t a n c e from swamps t h a t
d e f i n e s t h e lowe r modal c a t e g o r y f o r t h e r a i l w a y camp s am p le .

Numerous

h i s t o r i e s o f t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y , both in t h e G r ea t Lakes r e g io n and
e l s e w h e r e , m a i n t a i n e d t h a t one o f t h e g r e a t e s t boons a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e
development o f t h e lo g g i n g r a i l w a y was t h e a b i l i t y t o co n du ct lo g g i n g y e a r
ro u n d .

However, t h e a b i l i t y t o l o g y e a r round and doing so may n o t be one

and t h e same.

Karamanski ( 198 4:6 8) note d t h a t w ith t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d , summer lo g g i n g became an " .
. ."

. .established p ra c tic e .

He d id n o t , however, i n d i c a t e how p r e v a l e n t t h i s p r a c t i c e was.

There i s r e a s o n t o b e l i e v e t h a t summer l o g g i n g was not pr ed om in ant in t h e
study area

and w i n t e r l o g g i n g dominated t h e s ce ne u n t i l t h e end o f t h e

s t u d y p e r i o d (Fra nze n 19 8 5 ) .
These h i s t o r i c a l d a t a have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r t h e p a t t e r n ob s er v ed f o r
t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n s o f d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t swamp.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e lower modal c a t e g o r y ( 0 . 0 1 - 0 . 0 6 ) co ul d be r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
o f t h o s e r a i l w a y camps s t i l l

devo te d e x c l u s i v e l y t o w i n t e r lo g g i n g when

swamps were f r o z e n be ca use t h e i r l o c a t i o n w ith r e s p e c t t o swamps c l o s e l y
p a r a l l e l e d t h a t o f r i v e r d r i v e camps.

Railway camps in t h e second modal

c a t e g o r y and t h o s e f u r t h e r away c o u l d be t h e ones where y e a r round lo g g i n g

187
was p r a c t i c e d as well as some which were s t i l l

dev ot ed e x c l u s i v e l y t o

w i n t e r lo g g i n g
H i s t o r i c a l d a t a drawn from t h e 1900 Census o f M a n u f a c t u r e s , which
in c l u d e d a r e p o r t on t h e lumber i n d u s t r y , a l s o s u p p o r t e d t h e dominance o f
w inter railway logging.

Thi s d a t a was a s tu d y o f monthly employment in

lo g g i n g camps and sa w m il ls f o r t h e e n t i r e s t a t e .

The us e o f t h i s l a r g e r

s c a l e d a t a was a p p r o p r i a t e b ec a u se most o f t h e lo g g i n g a c t i v i t y in
Michigan had s h i f t e d t o t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a by 1900. Although n o t w i t h o u t
i t s s h o r tc o m in g s (such as in c o m p l e t e o r i n c o n s i s t e n t c o l l e c t i o n ) t h i s
r e p o r t r e v e a l e d an i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n in t h e employment p r o f i l e and hence
t h e s e a s o n a l p a t t e r n s o f t h e Michigan lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y (U n ite d S t a t e s
Census O f f i c e 190 2) .
S p e c i f i c a l l y , l o g g i n g camp employment was a t i t s h i g h e s t l e v e l d u r i n g
t h e w i n t e r months (December th r o u g h March) and th e n d e c l i n e d d u r i n g t h e
s p r i n g and summer, bot to mi n g out in J u l y .

O v e r a l l , t h e lo g g i n g camp

w or k fo rc e d e c r e a s e d by 68 p e r c e n t between J a n u a r y and J u l y , w h i l e in
c o n t r a s t sawmill employment i n c r e a s e d by 50 p e r c e n t between December and
May.

Sawmill employment peaked in May, remained high from June th r o u g h

August and began t o d e c l i n e in Sep te mb er, w h i l e t h r o u g h o u t t h e f a l l
lo g g i n g camp employment i n c r e a s e d .

Although a t no t i m e was t h e r e an

a c t u a l c e s s a t i o n o f e i t h e r lo g g i n g camp o r sawmill o p e r a t i o n s , t h e f a c t
t h a t lo g g i n g employment peaked i n w i n t e r s u p p o r t s t h e c o n t e n t i o n t h a t
w i n t e r l o g g i n g c o n t i n u e d t o do mi nat e t h e s t u d y a r e a .

Hence, in s p i t e o f

t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r summer l o g g i n g t h e r a i l w a y p r o v i d e d , r e l a t i v e l y l i t t l e
was a c t u a l l y p r a c t i c e d ( T ab l e 2 4 ) .

188
TABLE 24
AVERAGE MONTHLY EMPLOYMENT
MICHIGAN
1900
Month

Logging Camps

Sawmil1:

Ja n u a r y

21,382

17,747

F eb r u ar y

21,043

18,896

March

18,930

22,013

April

11,777

26,239

May

9,329

30,637

June

8,05 2

28,791

July

6,931

26,23 4

August

7,301

25,59 8

September

8,5 08

24,461

October

10,908

22,975

November

15,114

20,894

December

18,005

15,465

Summary
H y po th es is 6 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t r a i l w a y camps would be l o c a t e d a s f a r as
p o s s i b l e from swamps t o a l l o w f o r h e a l t h and s a n i t a r y c o n s i d e r a t i o n s which
a r o s e d u r i n g y e a r round l o g g i n g .

While no s p e c i f i c d i s t a n c e was p r o p o s e d ,

t h e r a i l w a y camps were compared t o t h e r i v e r d r i v e camps, which were
e x c l u s i v e l y i n v o l v e d in w i n t e r l o g g i n g , t o a d d r e s s t h i s problem in a
re la tiv e fashion.

Most o b s e r v a t i o n s f o r r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g and r a i l w a y

lo g g i n g camps co u ld be grouped i n t o two modal c a t e g o r i e s f o r each t y p e o f
camp.

Those f o r r i v e r d r i v e camps were c l o s e r t o swamps th a n were e i t h e r

189
o f t h e two c a t e g o r i e s f o r r a i l w a y l o g g i n g .

I t was s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e

r a i l w a y camp p a t t e r n c o u l d be e x p l a i n e d by t h e f a c t t h a t some, b u t not a
dominant amount, o f y e a r round l o g g i n g was p r a c t i c e d .

This i n f e r e n c e was

f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d by t h e 1900 employment p r o f i l e f o r t h e Michigan lumber
industry.

In c o n c l u s i o n , H y p o th e s is 6 has been up he ld by t h e d a t a .

H y p ot h es is 7
The i n t e r s i t e s p a c i n g o f r i v e r d r i v e camps may be viewed as a f u n c t i o n o f
t h e e f f e c t i v e work zone around each camp.

I t i s t h e r e f o r e e x p e c te d t h a t

r i v e r d r i v e camps w i l l g e n e r a l l y be l o c a t e d between one and a h a l f and
t h r e e m i l e s o f each o t h e r .
D e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e DNSAMCAM v a r i a b l e
( Ta bl e 25) r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e mean was 1.96 m i l e s f o r t h e d i s t a n c e between
r i v e r d r i v e camps, b u t w it h a s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 1 . 4 0 , t h i s
d i s t r i b u t i o n was n o t n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d .

This i n f e r e n c e was born o u t by

t h e skewness ( 1 . 1 9 ) and k u r t o s i s ( 1 . 8 5 ) s t a t i s t i c s which i n d i c a t e d t h a t
the t a i l

t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e o f t h e mean was h e a v i e r , r e s u l t i n g i n a

s l i g h t high skew t o t h e mean.

A b e t t e r measure o f t h e c e n t r a l te n d e n c y

f o r t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n was e i t h e r t h e median ( 1 .8 1 ) o r t h e mode ( 1 . 8 1 )
which happened t o be t h e same f o r DNSAMCAM.

Thus, ba se d on an e x a m in a t io n

o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s f o r DNSAMCAM, i t can be s a i d t h a t H y p ot h es is
7 has been a c c e p t e d s i n c e b ot h t h e mean ( 1 . 9 6 ) and t h e median/mode ( 1 . 8 1 )
l i e between 1 1 /2 and 3 m i l e s .

190
TABLE 25
DISTANCE TO NEAREST CAMP OF THE SAME TYPE
RIVER DRIVE CAMPS-MILES
N = 45

Median = 1.81

Mean = 1.96

Mode = 1.81

S t a n d a rd D e v i a t i o n =

1.4 0

Range = 0 . 0 9 - 6 . 3 8

Skewness = 1.19
K u r t o s i s = 1.85

The f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m r e v e a l e d t h a t a bi-modal d i s t r i b u t i o n
c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e DNSAMCAM v a r i a b l e .

The f i r s t modal c a t e g o r y was between

1.81 and 2 . 1 3 and c o n t a i n e d 9 (20 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s w h i l e t h e
second modal c a t e g o r y was between 2.7 5 and 3 . 0 0 and c o n t a i n e d 6 (13 p e r
c e n t ) o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s on DNSAMCAM.
d is trib u te d across the range.

The r e m a in in g v a r i a t e s were e v e n l y

While t h e s e modal c l u s t e r s r e p r e s e n t e d

p a t t e r n s in t h e d a t a , even when t a k e n t o g e t h e r t h e y d id no t co m pr is e t h e
m a j o r i t y o f o b s e r v a t i o n s on DNSAMCAM.

Thi s argu ed f o r a f a i r l y even

d i s t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s t h e r an g e o f v a l u e s f o r t h i s v a r i a b l e .

Furthermore,

o n ly 17 (37 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s o c c u r r e d below t h e one and one
h a l f m i l e minimum and

o n ly 5 (11 p e r c e n t ) o c c u r r e d above t h e 3 . 0 m i le

maximum s t a t e d i n t h e

hypothesis.

s i t e s f e l l w ithin the

p r e d ic te d range (Figure 14).

Thus, t h e m a j o r i t y (52 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e

Summary
H y p o th e s is 7 has
DNSAMCAM v a r i a b l e f o r

been a c c e p t e d based on t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e
riv e r drive s i t e s .

between t h e one and one h a l f

The m a j o r i t y o f t h e s i t e s f e l l

t o t h r e e m i l e i n t e r v a l s t a t e d in t h e

191

FIGURE 14
DISTANCE TO NEAREST CAMP OF THE SAME TYPE
FOR RIVER DRIVE SITES

192

D IST A N C E
TO
THE
NEAREST
CAMP
OF
TH E
SAM E
TYPE
m iles

6 .3 8
5 .5 0
5 .1 2
4 .3 7
3 .5 0
3 .0 0
2.88

2 .7 5
2 .6 3
2 .5 6
2 .1 3
2.00

1 .8 1
1 .6 9
1 .6 3
1 .3 8
1 .1 3
1.00

0 .9 4
0.88

0 .6 9
0 .5 6
0 .4 4
0 .2 5
0 .0 9

FREQUENCY

FIGURE

14

193
hypothesis.

Moreover, t h e median/mode, t h e a p p r o p r i a t e measure o f c e n t r a l

te n d e n c y f o r t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n , a l s o f e l l w i t h i n t h e s t a t e d r a n g e .

H yp ot h es is 8
I n t e r s i t e s p a c i n g o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g camps w i l l be a f u n c t i o n o f t h e
e f f e c t i v e work zone around each camp.

The work zone in t h i s i n s t a n c e

s ho ul d have as i t s lower l i m i t a r a d i u s o f a p p r o x i m a t e l y 1 1/2 t o 2 m i l e s .
I t ' s up p er l i m i t i s not s p e c i f i a b l e a t t h i s t i m e .
As i l l u s t r a t e d in Tabl e 26, t h e mean f o r DNSAMCAM was 1.11 m i l e s .
The s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f 0 .8 4

r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h i s

'‘V a r i a b l e were n o t no r m al ly d i s t r i b u t e d ,

a p r o p o s i t i o n born o u t by t h e

skewness ( 1 . 8 2 ) and k u r t o s i s ( 4 . 6 5 ) s t a t i s t i c s .

All o f t h e s e measures

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e mean was skewed h i g h , most l i k e l y a t t r i b u t a b l e t o high
v a l u e ma rg in al o u t l i e r s t o t h e p o s i t i v e s i d e o f t h e mean.

A more

a p p r o p r i a t e measure o f c e n t r a l t e n d e n c y in t h i s c a s e was t h e median ( 0 . 9 4 ) .

TABLE 26
DISTANCE TO NEAREST CAMP OF THE SAME TYPE
RAILWAY CAMPS

N = 149

Median = 0 . 9 4

Mean = 1.11

Mode = 0.7 5

S t a n d a rd D e v i a t i o n =
Skewness = 1.82
K urtosis = 4.65

0 . 8 4 Range = 0 . 1 9 - 5 . 2 5

194
The f r e q u e n c y h i s t o g r a m f o r DNSAMCAM r e v e a l e d i t t o be m u l t i - m o d a l :
0 . 2 5 - 0 . 5 0 ( 3 8 / 2 5 . 5 p e r c e n t ) , 0 . 7 5 - 1 . 0 (39/2 6 p e r c e n t ) , 1 . 1 9 - 1 . 5 0
(29/19.4 per c e n t ) .

Combined, t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s c o n t a i n e d 70.9% o f t h e

o b s e r v a t o n s f o r DNSAMCAM.

Around t h e s e modal c a t e g o r i e s , o t h e r

o b s e r v a t i o n s were u s u a l l y s i n g u l a r and w id el y d i s p e r s e d ( F i g u r e 1 5 ) .
In itial

i n t e r p r e t a t i o n r u l e d t h a t t h i s d a t a d i d n o t conform t o what

was e x p e c t e d un de r H y p ot h es is 8 .

However, when t h e h y p o t h e s i s was be in g

fr am e d, i t was mentioned t h a t t h e work zones around camps might d i f f e r
from t h e i d e a l i z e d c i r c l e used f o r r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s b ec a u se t h e r a i l r o a d
co ul d be used t o t r a n s p o r t lu m b e r j a c k s as well as lu m b e r .

Moreover, i t

sh ou ld be n o te d t h a t some a u t h o r i t i e s recommended t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n of
r a i l r o a d s p u r s a t 0 .2 5 t o 0 . 5 0 m i l e i n t e r v a l s with t h e s e l i n e s i n t e n d e d
f o r a number o f y e a r s use t o a m o r t i z e t h e c o s t o f t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n .
Taking t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t o n s as a c o r o l l a r y t o H y po th es is 8 , a
r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d a t a d i s t r i b u t i o n produced some i n t e r e s t i n g
patterns.

F i r s t , t h e t h r e e modal c a t e g o r i e s ( i . e . 0 . 2 5 - 0 . 5 0 , 0 . 7 5 - 1 . 0 ,

1 . 1 9 - 1 . 5 0 ) were al m os t harmonic r e p e t i t i o n s o f t h e 0 . 2 5 - 0 . 5 0 mile
distance.

S p e c i f i c a l l y , each o f t h e modal c a t e g o r i e s was a p p r o x i m a t e l y

0 . 2 5 in s i z e and was s e p a r a t e d from t h e o t h e r c a t e g o r i e s by a gap o f
approximately 0.2 5 .

Although c o n t r a d i c t o r y t o t h e o r i g i n a l H y p ot h es is 8

t h i s e v i d e n c e f i t s in well with t h e c o r o l l a r y .

These modal c a t e g o r i e s

c l u s t e r e d around t h e i n t e r v a l s e x p e c t e d i f l o g g e r s used m u l t i p l e s o f
0.25-0.50 miles to c o n stru ct logging railw ays.

As would be e x p e c t e d , most

o f t h e s i t e s f e l l w i t h i n t h e lo w er two modal c a t e g o r i e s .
The c a r t o g r a p h i c e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d in F i g u r e s 16 and 17 p r o v id e d
f u r t h e r s u p p o r t . The s o u r c e f o r F i g u r e 16 was a map p r e p a r e d in 1932 when
t h e Hiawatha N at i o n al F o r e s t was c r e a t e d which shows r e c e n t l y abandoned

195

FIGURE 15
DISTANCE TO NEAREST CAMP OF THE SAME TYPE
FOR RAILWAY SITES

196

5 .2 5
4 .0 0
3 .7 5
3 .3 7
3 .2 5
2 .6 3
2 .5 0
2 .4 4
2 .3 1
2 .1 3
2.00
1.88

D IST A N C E
TO
THE
NEAREST
CAMP
OF
TH E

1 .8 7
1 .8 1
1 .6 9
1 .6 3
1 .5 6
1 .5 0
1 .4 4
1 .3 8
1 .3 1
1 .3 0
1 .2 5
1 .1 9
1 .1 3
1 .0 6
1 .0 3
1.00

0 .9 4
0 .9 1
0.88

SAM E
TYPE
m iles

0 .8 1
0 .7 5
0 .5 6
0 .5 0
0 .4 4
0 .4 1
0 .3 8
0 .3 1
0 .2 5
0.22

0 .1 9
FREQUENCY

2

4

6

FIGURE

8
15

10

12

14

16

197

FIGURE 16
T44N R19W LOGGING RAILWAYS
( A f t e r Hiawatha Nati ona F o r e s t Map 1932)

198

7\

FIGURE 16

199

FIGURE 17
T46NR20W LOGGING AND MAIN LINE RAILWAYS
( A f t e r Hiawatha N at io n al

Forest S ite File)

200

«...

FI GURE

17

201
lo g gi ng r a i l w a y s i n t h e i n t e r i o r o f t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a .

The l o c a t i o n a l

p a t t e r n s showed t h a t l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s were b u i l t a c c o r d i n g t o p r e c o n c e iv e d
intervals.

F i g u r e 17 shows an a r e a t h a t has been f a i r l y well r e s e a r c h e d

and t h e r a i l w a y s on t h i s map a l s o i n d i c a t e d a c o n s t r u c t i o n p a t t e r n s i m i l a r
t o t h a t d e s c r i b e d a b o ve .

Thus , t h e r e was

evidence supporting the

p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t such a c o n s t r u c t i o n p a t t e r n was t y p i c a l o f t h e s t u d y a r e a .
While r e s e a r c h i n g h i s h i s t o r i c a l ov erv ie w o f t h e Hiawatha Na tion al
F o r e s t and t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r , Karamanski (1984) i n t e r v i e w e d a number o f
in f o r m a n t s and examined a number o f pr im ar y do cu m en ts .

S i g n i f i c a n t among

t h e i n f o r m a n t commentary was t h e f a c t t h a t t h e camps were l o c a t e d t o
maximize u t i l i z a t i o n p o t e n t i a l .

"You want f i v e w i n t e r s from a camp

bec a us e i t c o s t s you t o o much t o b u i l d a l l them camps and t o b u i l d your
ic e road, a ll t h a t . . . "

(Karamanski 1 8 9 4 : 7 8 ) .

Moreover, company r e c o r d s

r e v e a l e d t h a t a g r e a t deal o f long ran ge p l a n n i n g went i n t o t h e s e l e c t i o n
o f s i t e s and t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d s .

For example, t h e

Cl e v el an d C l i f f s C o r p o r a t i o n d i d i t s p l a n n i n g on a t e n y e a r b a s i s
(Karamanski 1 98 4 ) .

Summary
Although t h e o b s e r v a t i o n s on t h e DNSAMCAM v a r i a b l e d id no t a l l o w f o r
t h e a c c e p t a n c e o f H y po th es is 8 as o r i g i n a l l y s t a t e d , i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s
were o b t a i n e d .

Logging r a i l r o a d s , and by i n f e r e n c e camps, were

c o n s t r u c t e d in harmonic i n t e r v a l s .

This p r o p o s i t i o n , based on t h e modal

c a t e g o r i e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s on DNSAMCAM, i s s u p p o r t e d by c a r t o g r a p h i c
e v i d e n c e as well as by i n f o r m a n t d a t a and a l lo w s t h e i n f e r e n c e t h a t
r a i l w a y l o g g i n g camps had an e f f e c t i v e work zone which d i f f e r e d i n s i z e
and sh ape th a n t h a t around r i v e r d r i v e camps.

Camps were l o c a t e d a t

202
m u l t i p l e s o f 0 . 2 5 t o 0 . 5 0 m i l e s from each o t h e r t o c o r r e s p o n d t o
recommended i n t e r v a l s f o r r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Given t h e r a t e o f c u t t i n g

t h a t o c c u r r e d in t h e s t u d y a r e a , i t would not have been p o s s i b l e f o r camps
t o l a s t f o r more th a n one s e a s o n i f c u t t i n g was r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e
0 . 2 5 - 0 . 5 0 i n t e r v a l between camps.

T h e r e f o r e , i t was i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e

work zone around t h e camps was most l i k e l y a g e n e r a l l y e l l i p s o i d a l or
tr ia n g u la r shape.

Some v a r i a t i o n was t o be e x p e c t e d in t h e s hap es o f t h e

work zones s i n c e p e r i m e t e r r a i l w a y camps may have d i f f e r e n t work zone
c r i t e r i a and l o c a l t o p o g r a p h i c c o n d i t i o n s might c a u s e t h e recommended
methods o f r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n t o be a l t e r e d .

Hy p ot h es is 9
The lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r , w h e th e r r i v e r d r i v e o r r a i l r o a d , s h ou ld c o n t a i n
th re e types of s i t e s :

camps, i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s , and e n t r e p o t s .

These s h ou ld e x i s t in a h i e r a r c h i c a l

r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each o t h e r w i t h camps

b e i n g t h e most numerous f o l l o w e d by i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s and
e n t r e p o t s , e i t h e r s i n g u l a r o r few in number.

Prelim inary Considerations
H y po th es is 9 i s t h e f i r s t h y p o t h e s i s in which t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s had t o be made.

This p r o c e s s

in v o l v e d s e v e r a l s t e p s b e g i n n i n g w ith a s im pl e f r e q u e n c y and d e s c r i p t i v e
s t a t i s t i c t a b u l a t i o n o f t h e v a r i a b l e s re c o r d e d f o r t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s , as
d e s c r i b e d in C ha pt er 5 .
revealed several th i n g s .

An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s t a b u l a t i o n
F i r s t , f o r a number o f c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e s

t h e r e were o n l y z e r o (0) e n t r i e s o r o n ly one o r two o b s e r v a t i o n s with
e n t r i e s o f one ( 1 ) , r e p r e s e n t i n g a l a c k o f a v a i l a b l e d a t a r a t h e r th a n

203
abs enc e o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c .

S i n c e such v a r i a b l e s a r e o f l i m i t e d o r no

u s e , t h e f o l l o w i n g v a r i a b l e s were d e l e t e d :

l o g g i n g equipment d e a l e r s ,

r e a l e s t a t e b r o k e r s , b a n k s , l a w y e r s , w a r e h o u s e s , h o s p i t a l s , and d i s t a n c e
to nearest road.

Thi s l a s t v a r i a b l e was d e l e t e d b e c a u s e a l l s e t t l e m e n t s

were l o c a t e d on r o a d s .
S e c o n d l y , two v a r i a b l e s were o r i g i n a l l y r e c o r d e d as c o n t in u o u s
v a r i a b l e s b u t t h e y had o n l y two a l t e r n a t i v e v a l u e s , ze r o and on e .

In t h i s

c a s e t h e z e r o v a l u e meant t h a t none were p r e s e n t and was not
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e o f an unknown s i t u a t i o n .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e s e two v a r i a b l e s

( p o s t o f f i c e , r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s ) were c o n v e r t e d t o nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e s .
F i n a l l y , an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e
c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e s i n t h i s sample showed t h a t some were a p p r o x i m a t e l y
n or m al ly d i s t r i b u t e d w h i l e o t h e r s were n o t .

S in c e n o r m a l i t y o f

d i s t r i b u t i o n i s a p r e s u p p o s i t i o n f o r most o f t h e more s o p h i s t i c a t e d
s t a t i s t i c a l methods as well as t h e mechanism by which s im p l e d e s c r i p t i v e
s t a t i s t i c s such as t h e mean, s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n , e t c . a r e give n meaning,
o n ly t h o s e v a r i a b l e s w it h a p p r o x i m a t e l y normal d i s t r i b u t i o n were in c l u d e d
in t h e more s o p h i s t i c a t e d a n a l y s i s .

These v a r i a b l e s were number o f r a i l

l i n e s w i t h i n two m i l e s ; d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t l o g g i n g camp; l o c a l , s t a t e
o r f e d e r a l government f a c i l i t i e s ; heavy i n d u s t r y ; p o p u l a t i o n 1900;
p o p u l a t i o n 1910; and p o p u l a t i o n 1920.

Three Types o f S i t e s
The f i r s t p a r t o f H y p o th e s is 9 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e r e s h ou ld be t h r e e
t y p e s o f s i t e s on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r :
c e n t e r s , and e n t r e p o t s .

camps, i n t e r m e d i a t e su pp ly

The s i m p l i s t o f t h e s e d i s t i n c t i o n s ( t h a t between

camps and t h e o t h e r two t y p e s o f s i t e s ) was c o n s i d e r e d an a p r i o r i given

204
a t th e beginning of t h i s r e s e a r c h .

T h e r e f o r e , t h e y were acknowledged as

one component o f t h e f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t s yst em and a t t e n t i o n was fo cu s ed
on t h e problem o f d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and
entrepots.
As d i s c u s s e d in Ch ap te r 5, an a p r i o r i c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f t h e
s e t t l e m e n t s grouped them a s e i t h e r e n t r e p o t s o r i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly
centers.

With t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n e s t a b l i s h e d , i t co u l d be t e s t e d by

examining t h e two groups t o d e t e r m i n e i f t h e y were s i g n i f i c a n t l y
different.

I f t h e y d i f f e r e d , i t c o u l d be i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e r e were

e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
The nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e s were i n v e s t i g a t e d by an ex am in a t io n o f
t h e i r f r e q u e n c i e s , h i s t o g r a m s , and a c r o s s t a b u l a t i o n a n d / o r a chi s q u a r e
o f s i t e t y p e by v a r i a b l e .

The nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e s i n c l u d e d were p o r t ,

r e l a t i v e o c c u p a t i o n , t y p e o f n e a r e s t w a t e r , d i r e c t l i n k t o homeland, p o s t
office,

t y p e o f n e a r e s t r a i l w a y , t y p e o f n e a r e s t l o g g i n g camp, t e r m i n u s o f

a lo g g i n g r a i l o r a d , and t e r m i n u s

o f a main l i n e r a i l r o a d .

The p o r t v a r i a b l e d i s p l a y e d a c l e a r d i s t i n c t i o n between t h o s e
s e t t l e m e n t s t e n t a t i v e l y c l a s s i f i e d as i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s and
entrepots.

As shown in Ta bl e 27, a l l o f t h e prop os ed e n t r e p o t s were

p o r t s , w h i l e o n ly 4 ( 1 4 . 8 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e prop os ed i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly
centers

were p o r t s , e s t a b l i s h i n g t h a t t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e

between

t h e e n t r e p o t and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s on t h e b a s i s o f

possessing p o rt f a c i l i t i e s .

205
TABLE 27
CROSSTABULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY PORT VARIABLE
Port
S e t t l e m e n t Type___________
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r

Absent

Present

Total

23 (85.1%)

4 (14.8%)

27 (100%)

Entrepot

0

6

(100%)

6 (100%)
33

2
C o n t i n u i t y A d ju s te d X = 13. 0
df = 1
X2 ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 3 .8 4
F i s h e r ' s Exact T e s t P = 0.0002

This d a t a was f u r t h e r e x p l o r e d th r o u g h t h e us e o f s e v e r a l
n o n - p a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c s , however, bec au se t h e o v e r a l l

sample s i z e was

small and b e c a u s e more t h a n one c e l l had v a l u e s l e s s t h a n o r equal t o 5,
t h e chi s q u a r e t e s t was n o t u s e d .

The c o n t i n u i t y a d j u s t e d chi s q u a r e , a

chi s q u a r e computed t o a l l o w f o r t h e c o n d i t i o n s d e s c r i b e d ab ov e, was used
t o t e s t t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e r e was no r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two
v a r i a b l e s c o m p ri s in g t h e t a b l e .

The F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t measured t h e

p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e d a t a t a b l e was c r e a t e d by random p r o c e s s ( B la lo c k
1972, Downie and Heath 1974, Reynolds 1984, SAS I n s t i t u t e 1985b).
When t h e me asures were examined f o r Ta bl e 27, t h e a d j u s t e d chi s q u a r e
r e j e c t e d t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f ind e p en de nc e o f a s s o c i a t i o n a t t h e 0 . 0 5 l e v e l .
F u r t h e r m o r e , F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was o n l y a 0.000 2
p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n in t h e t a b l e o c u r r e d a s t h e r e s u l t o f
random p r o c e s s e s .

The a p r i o r i d i s t i n c t i o n s between e n t r e p o t s and

206
s up pl y c e n t e r s were s u b s t a n t i a t e d based on t h e s e measures and t h e
f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n p r e s e n t e d in Table 27 .
The r e l a t i v e o c c u p a t i o n v a r i a b l e d a t a r e v e a l e d t h a t s e t t l e m e n t s
c l a s s i f i e d as e n t r e p o t s were l e s s c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h o s e
c l a s s i f i e d as i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

All o f t h e e n t r e p o t s e x i s t e d

d u r i n g t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y th r o u g h t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y ,
w h i l e o n ly 51 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s e x i s t e d
t h r o u g h o u t t h i s same p e r i o d .

Some were e a r l i e r ( 3 . 7 p e r c e n t ) , w h i l e

o t h e r s ( 4 4 . 2 p e r c e n t ) were r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y .
Hence, t h e r e was some s i m i l a r i t y between i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and
e n t re p o ts (Table 28).
TABLE 28
CROSSTABLULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY RELATIVE OCCUPATION
R e l a t i v e Occupation
l a t e 19th

l a t e 1 9 t h / e a r 1 y 20th

E a r l y 20th

Total

Sett!ement

Me
Interm ediate

1

Supply C e n t e r

(3.7%)

Entrepots

0

14
(51.8%)

6
( 100 %)

C ont in gen cy C o e f f i c i e n t = 0 . 3 5
Con ti n ge n cy C o e f f i c i e n t (max) = 0. 70
C r a m e r' s V = 0.3 8

12
(44.4%)
0

27
(100%)
6
( 100 %)

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The d a t a in Table 28 were a l s o examined w ith t h e c o n t i n g e n c y
c o e f f i c i e n t and C ram er' s V (Downie and Heath 1974, Reynolds 1984, SAS
I n s t i t u t e 1 9 85 b) .

These a r e chi s q u a r e based me asures o f a s s o c i a t i o n

d e s i g n e d t o be used w ith a s s y m e t r i c t a b l e s .

They r a n g e from 0 t o 1, with

0 e q u a l l i n g c o m p le te ind e p en de nc e and 1 e q u a l l i n g co m pl ete dep en d e nc e.
F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e maximum v a l u e o f t h e c o n t i n g e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t may be
a d j u s t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e l e v e l o f a s s y m e t ry in t h e t a b l e .

This

e x a m in a t io n r e v e a l e d t h a t , in te rm s o f t h e c o n t i n g e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t , t h e
v a l u e s in t h e t a b l e were midway between c o m p l e t e l y in d e p e n d e n t and
completely a s s o c i a t i v e .

C r a m e r 's V a l s o r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e d a t a i n t h e

t a b l e were between ind ep en d en ce and a s s o c i a t i o n .

In t h i s l a t t e r c a s e , t h e

measure i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d a t a were c l o s e r t o ind ep end enc e th a n t o
association.

Thus , o c c u p a t i o n d i d not c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h between

e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s .
Next t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e two h y p o t h e s i z e d t y p e s o f
s e t t l e m e n t s and t h e t y p e o f n e a r e s t w a t e r was exam ined.

As T ab l e 29

i l l u s t r a t e s , t h i s v a r i a b l e i n t r o d u c e d a n o t i c e a b l e d i s t i n c t i o n between t h e
two t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t .

For t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s , t h r e e

ro u g h ly equal c a t e g o r i e s ( s t r e a m s , r i v e r s , G re at Lakes) c o n t a i n e d a l a r g e r
number o f s e t t l e m e n t s t h a n t h e o t h e r two c a t e g o r i e s .

Most o f t h e

e n t r e p o t s ( 8 3 . 3 p e r c e n t ) were a s s o c i a t e d w ith G r ea t L ak e s.

The re ma ini ng

e n t r e p o t (which c o n s t i t u t e d 16. 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e sample) was p r o b a b l y
a s s o c i a t e d w it h a G rea t Lake and a r i v e r mouth o r an i n t e r d u n a l l a k e .
Type o f n e a r e s t w a t e r , t h e n , uphe ld t h e d i s t i n c t i o n between e n t r e p o t s and
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

208
TABLE 29
CROSSTABULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY TYPE OF NEAREST WATER
Type o f N ea r es t Water
Streams

River

Lake

G r ea t Lake

2 o r more

Total

2

27

(7.4%)

(100%)

Settlem ent

1X21
Interm ediate
Supply

8
(29.6%)

9
(33.3%)

2

6

(7.4%)

(22.2%)

Centers
Entrepots

0

0

0

5
(83.3%)

1

6

(16.7%)

(100%)

C ont in gen cy C o e f f i c i e n t = 0.4 9
Con ti n ge nc y C o e f f i c i e n t (max) = 0.7 0
C r a m e r ' s V = 0 .5 6

The c o n t i n g e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t and C r am er' s V i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was
some a s s o c i a t i o n between s e t t l e m e n t t y p e and t y p e o f n e a r e s t w a t e r , s i n c e
both were o v e r t h e m i d p o i n t s o f t h e i r ran g es f o r t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t a b l e .
Thus both i n d i c a t e d a s s o c i a t i o n between s e t t l e m e n t t y p e and t y p e o f
n e a r e s t w a t e r , r e v e a l i n g d i s c e r n a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s between e n t r e p o t s and
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .
The n e x t v a r i a b l e co n ce rn ed d i r e c t l i n k a g e t o t h e homeland.

S in ce

t h i s v a r i a b l e was me rel y a r e f l e c t i o n o f t h e p o r t v a r i a b l e , a t a b l e
i d e n t i c a l t o Ta b le 27 was p r o d u c e d .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e c o n c l u s i o n s r eac hed

from t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s v a r i a b l e were t h e same as t h o s e r eac hed in
th e examination of th e p o rt v a r i a b l e .

T h e r e f o r e , i t i s s a f e t o say t h a t

209
e n t r e p o t s were more d i r e c t l y l i n k e d t o t h e homeland t h a n were i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s .
The p o s t o f f i c e v a r i a b l e was examined n e x t .

As can be seen in Table

30, a m a j o r i t y o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s ( 6 2 . 9 p e r c e n t ) d i d no t
have p o s t o f f i c e s .
offices.

In c o n t r a s t , 100 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t r e p o t s had p o s t

On t h e b a s i s o f f r e q u e n c y a l o n e t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t

d i f f e r e n c e between e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s , which was
f u r t h e r s u b s t a n t i a t e d by t h e c o n t i n u i t y a d j u s t e d chi s q u a r e and F i s h e r ' s
exact t e s t .

The chi s q u a r e was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0 . 0 5 l e v e l , i n d i c a t i n g

t h a t t h e d a t a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f o b s e r v a t i o n s i n t h e t a b l e were no t
independent.

The F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

ob se rv ed in T a b l e 30 had o n ly a 0 .0 0 7 p r o b a b i l i t y o f random o c c u r r e n c e .
T h e r e f o r e , in te rm s o f t h e p o s t o f f i c e v a r i a b l e , i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly
c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y .
TABLE 30
CROSSTABULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY POST OFFICES
Post O f f i c e
S e t t l e m e n t Type

Absent

Present

Tot al

17

10

27

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply
Center

(62.9%)

Entrepots

0

(37.1%)
6
( 100 %)

2
C o n t i n u i t y A dj u s te d X = 5.47
df = 1
X2 ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 3.84
F i s h e r ' s Exact T e s t P = 0.00 7

(100%)
6

The t y p e o f n e a r e s t r a i l w a y a s s o c i a t e d w it h each s e t t l e m e n t t y p e
r e v e a l e d some d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e tw o. As shown in Tabl e 31, main l i n e
r a i l w a y s were most f r e q u e n t l y (74 p e r c e n t ) a s s o c i a t e d w it h i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s , fo ll o w ed by l o g g i n g r a i l r o a d s (1 8 . 5 p e r c e n t ) , and
ju n c tio n s (7.4 per c e n t ) .

E n t r e p o t s were most f r e q u e n t l y a s s o c i a t e d with

j u n c t i o n s (66 p e r c e n t ) and m a i n l i n e r a i l r o a d s

(33.3 per c e n t ) .

This

f r e q u e n c y d a t a r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e were some n o t i c e a b l e d i f f e r e n c e s
between t h e t y p e o f r a i l w a y s a s s o c i a t e d w it h e n t r e p o t s v e r s u s t h o s e
a s s o c i a t e d w ith i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .
t h e c o n t i n g e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t and C r am er 's V.

Thi s was f u r t h e r born o u t by
The c o n t i n g e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t

was well o ve r h a l f way t o i t s maximum v a l u e , i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e d a t a
t e n d e d toward com ple te a s s o c i a t i o n .

C r am er' s V a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e

d a t a te n d e d toward a s s o c i a t i o n , a b e i t n o t as s t r o n g l y as t h e c o n t i n g e n c y
co efficient.

T h e r e f o r e , on t h e b a s i s o f t h e n e a r e s t r a i l w a y v a r i a b l e ,

e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were d e t e r m i n e d t o be s e p a r a t e .

211
TABLE 31
CROSSTABULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY TYPE OF NEAREST RAILWAY
N e a r e s t Railway
Logging

Mainline

Junction

5

20

2

Total

S e t t l e m e n t Type
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply
Centers

(18.5%)

Entrepots

0

(74.0%)

(7.4%)

2

27
(100%)
6

(33.3%)

(66.6%)

(100%)

Con ti nge ncy C o e f f i c i e n t = 0. 51
Co nt in ge nc y C o e f f i c i e n t (max) = 0 .7 0
Cramer's V = 0.60

The t y p e o f l o g g i n g camp n e a r e s t each o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s d id not
r e v e a l a s many d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s a s did
some o f t h e o t h e r v a r i a b l e s .

In g e n e r a l , both e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e

s u p p ly c e n t e r s were most c l o s e l y l o c a t e d n e a r unknown camps, fo ll o w ed by
r a i l w a y camps and r i v e r d r i v e camps ( Ta bl e 3 2 ) .

The c o n t i n g e n c y

c o e f f i c i e n t was l e s s th a n h al fw ay between 0 and 0 . 7 0 (max) i n d i c a t i n g a
t e n d e n c y to w a r d s i n d e pe nd en ce r a t h e r th a n a s s o c i a t i o n between t h e two
variables.

C r a m e r 's V s u p p o r t e d t h e c o n t i n g e n c y c o e f f i c i e n t , p r o v i d i n g

f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e two t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s c o u l d not be
d i f f e r e n t i a t e d t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e t o t y p e o f n e a r e s t l o g g i n g camp.

212
TABLE 32
CROSSTABULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY NEAREST LOGGING CAMP
N e a r e s t Logging Camp
Unknown

R i v e r Driv e

Railway

Total

S e t t l e m e n t Type
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply
Centers

1

17
(62.9%)

Entrepots

3

(3.7%)

9

27

(38.3%)

(100%)

(33.3%)

(100%)

1

(50%)

(16.7%)

Con tingency C o e f f i c i e n t = 0.21
Con ti nge ncy C o e f f i c i e n t (max) = 0. 70
Cr am er 's V = 0.21

The s e t t l e m e n t s were a l s o e v a l u a t e d as t o w h et he r o r not t h e y were
t h e t e r m i n u s o f a lo g g i n g r a i l w a y .

As Ta b l e 33 i l l u s t r a t e s , l i t t l e

d i f f e r e n c e was d i s c e r n a b l e between e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly
centers.

None (100 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e e n t r e p o t s were t h e t e r m i n u s o f a

known lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d , no r were most ( 8 8 . 9 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
supply c e n t e r s .

Thi s was s u p p o r t e d by t h e c o n t i n u i t y a d j u s t e d chi s q u a r e ,

which was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0 . 0 5 l e v e l , and by F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t ,
which i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s d i s t r i b u t i o n was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o random
processes.

TABLE 33
CROSSTABULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY TERMINUS OF LOGGING RAILWAY
Terminus o f Logging Railway
Absent

Present

T ot al

S e t t l e m e n t Type
24

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply

(88.9%)

Centers

6

Entrepots

3
( 1 1 . 1%)

( 100 %)

0

( 100 %)

C o n t i n u i t y A d ju s te d X

27

6
( 100 %)

= .0005

df = 1
X2 ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 3.84
F i s h e r ' s Exact T e s t P = 1.00

The f i n a l nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e was whe ther o r no t t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s
were t h e t e r m i n u s o f a main l i n e r a i l w a y .

A n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d some

d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s in t h a t none (100 p e r
c e n t ) o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s were l o c a t e d a t t h e t e r m i n u s o f a
main l i n e r a i l w a y w h i l e h a l f (50 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e e n t r e p o t s were (Ta bl e
34).

Thi s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n was f u r t h e r s u p p o r t e d

by a c o n t i n u i t y a d j u s t e d chi s q u a r e which was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e 0 . 0 5
lev el.

Moreover, F i s h e r ' s e x a c t t e s t r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n

o b s er ve d in Ta b l e 34 had o n ly a 0 . 0 0 3 p r o b a b i l i t y o f random o c c u r r e n c e .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e a n a l y s e s o f t h i s v a r i a b l e s u b s t a n t i a t e d t h e prem is e t h a t
e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were s e p a r a t e and d i s t i n c t
phenomena.

214
TABLE 34
CROSSTABULATION
SETTLEMENTS BY TERMINUS OF MAIN LINE RAILWAY
Terminus of Main Line Railway
Absent

Present

Total

S e t t l e m e n t Type
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply
Centers
Entrepots

27

27

( 100 %)

( 100 %)

3

3

(50%)

(50%)

6
( 100 %)

C o n t i n u i t y A d ju s te d X2 = 9. 41
df = 1
X2 ( 0 . 0 5 ) = 3.8 4
F i s h e r ' s Exact T e s t P= 0. 0 03

The nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e s s u p p o r t e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e r e were
d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e s e t t l e m e n t s which a l l o w t h e i r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n as
e i t h e r i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y c e n t e r s o r e n t r e p o t s , w i t h s i x out o f e i g h t
nominal v a r i a b l e s f u l l y s u p p o r t i n g t h e p r o p o s i t i o n .

Conti nuous V a r i a b l e s
Continuous v a r i a b l e s were used in t h i s a n a l y s i s o n ly i f t h e y were
a p p r o x i m a t e l y no r m al ly d i s t r i b u t e d . The number o f r a i l l i n e s w i t h i n two
m i l e s ; d i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t l o g g i n g camp; l o c a l , s t a t e , and f e d e r a l
government f u n c t i o n s ; heavy i n d u s t r y ; p o p u l a t i o n 1900; p o p u l a t i o n 1910;
and p o p u l a t i o n 1920 were t h e v a r i a b l e s s a t i s f y i n g t h i s s t i p u l a t i o n .

As

w ith t h e nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e s , t h e methodology in t h i s s e c t i o n fo c u s e d

215
on d i s t i n g u i s h i n g between p r o b a b l e e n t r e p o t s and p r o b a b l e i n t e r m e d i a t e
supply c e n t e r s .
D i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s examined t h e c o n t i n u o u s v a r i a b l e s o f t h e two
groups a l l o w i n g both groups t o be examined s i m u l t a n e o u s l y w ith r e s p e c t t o
several v a r ia b le s .

One o f t h e more i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t h i s methodology

was t h a t i t n o t o n ly a n a l y z e d t h e two groups w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e i r
c o h e s i v e n e s s as groups bu t a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h o s e members o f each group
which might be more a p p r o p r i a t e l y c l a s s i f i e d i n t o t h e o t h e r g r o u p .

This

a f f o r d e d a more com prehensive check on t h e whole c l a s s i f i c a t i o n scheme
t h a n d i d t h e methods used e a r l i e r with t h e nominal s c a l e v a r i a b l e s (Klecka
1980, SAS I n s t i t u t e 1985 b).
The d i s c r i m i n a n t a n a l y s i s r e s u l t s g e n e r a l l y co n f ir m ed t h e a p r i o r i
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n of the s e ttle m e n ts .

All o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s (100 p e r c e n t )

c l a s s i f i e d as i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s remained c l a s s i f i e d as s u c h .
Li kewise most ( 6 6 . 6 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s p r e v i o u s l y c l a s s i f i e d as
e n t e r p o t s remained so c l a s s i f i e d .
as i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s :

Two o f t h e e n t r e p o t s were r e c l a s s i f i e d
Nahma and Rapid R i v e r (Tab le 3 5 ) .

216
TABLE 35
DISCRIMINANT ANALYSIS RESULTS
RECLASSIFICATION
_To_________________________

From__________

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply

Entrepot

Center
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply

27

Center

0

( 100 %)

Entrepot

2

4

(33.3%)

(66.6%)

S e t t l e m e n t s r e c l a s s i f i e d as I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s :

Nahma
Rapid River

S in c e Nahma and Rapid R iv e r were r e c l a s s i f i e d , t h e y were examined
more c l o s e l y t o a s c e r t a i n i f t h e r e were any r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t r e a s o n s why
th is occurred.

Of t h e tw o , Rapid R iv e r had t h e h i g h e r p o s t e r i o r

p r o b a b i l i t y o f b e l o n g i n g t o t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r g r o u p .

A close

e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e v a r i a b l e s r e v e a l e d t h a t Rapid R iv e r had lower
p o p u l a t i o n c o u n t s ( p o p u l a t i o n 1900, 1910, 1920) t h a n d i d t h e o t h e r
e n t r e p o t s , w it h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f Nahma. In t h e a b s e n c e o f d i r e c t cen su s
d a t a f o r Rapid R iv e r an a v e r a g e d to w n s hi p p o p u l a t i o n f i g u r e was u s e d .
Thus, t h e p o p u l a t i o n d a t a f o r Rapid R iv e r was p r o b a b l y n o t r e p r e s e n t a t i v e
of tru e s iz e .

Moreover, Rapid R i v e r was a l s o one o f t h e l e a s t well

documented e n t r e p o t s

w ith r e s p e c t

a v a i l a b l e f o r heavy i n d u s t r y

to

the other v a ria b le s .

and l o c a l , s t a t e ,

No d a t a were

f e d e r a l government

217
f a c i l i t i e s , r e s u l t i n g in z e r o e n t r i e s .

Hence, Rapid R i v e r ' s i n c o r r e c t

r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n occurred because o f missing or u n d errep resen ted d a t a .
Nahma's r e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n r e f l e c t e d some o f t h e same r e a s o n s as Rapid
R i v e r 's , although i t s p o s t e r i o r p r o b a b i l i t y (0.74) of belonging t o th e
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r group was no t n e a r l y as s t r o n g as Rapid
R iv e r's.

As w it h Rapid R i v e r , Nahma's p o p u l a t i o n was r e c o r d e d u s i n g t h e

to w ns hip a v e r a g i n g method, which r e s u l t e d in an u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f i t s
population.

Although Nahma was well r e p r e s e n t e d on a number o f v a r i a b l e s ,

many o f t h e s e were no t used in t h e a n a l y s i s b e c a u s e t h e y were not
a p p r o x i m a t e l y n or m al ly d i s t r i b u t e d f o r t h e sample as a w ho le .

Hence,

w h i l e t h e d a t a was p r e s e n t f o r Nahma, t h e b e h a v i o r o f c e r t a i n v a r i a b l e s
w i t h i n t h e sample as a whole p r e c l u d e d i t s i n c l u s i o n in t h e f i n a l
analysis.

T h e r e f o r e , m i s s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was a t t r i b u t a b l e t o

u n d e r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n on t h e p o p u l a t i o n v a r i a b l e s and b ec a u se v a r i a b l e s on
which Nahma was well r e p r e s e n t e d d i d not meet t h e c r i t e r i o n o f
a p p r o x i m a t e l y normal d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e sample as a w ho le .

In term s o f

s e t t l e m e n t c o m p o s i t i o n , t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r was c h a r a c t e r i z e d as
p r e d i c t e d in H y po th es is 9 .

A Hierarchy of S ettlem ents
The second p a r t o f H y p o t h e s i s 9 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r
was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a h i e r a r c h y o f s e t t l e m e n t s , w it h camps b e i n g t h e most
numerous f o l l o w e d by i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and e n t r e p o t s .

This

p r o p o s i t i o n was i n i t i a l l y a d d r e s s e d u s i n g t h e pooled sample o f s i t e s from
t h e s t u d y a r e a , which r e s u l t e d in a c ou nt o f 6 e n t r e p o t s , 27 i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s and 194 lo g g i n g camps.

If all

p o t e n t i a l camps had been

i n c l u d e d r a t h e r th a n o n l y t h o s e o f known t e m p o r a l / t e c h n o l o g i c a l

218
a f f i l i a t i o n , t h e number o f l o g g i n g camps would have been 444.

Based on

t h i s i n i t i a l d a t a , t h e second p a r t o f H y p o th e s is 9 was u p h e l d .

Further

e x a m in a t io n o f t h i s q u e s t i o n was pu rs u ed by gr o up in g t h e camps, e n t r e p o t s
and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s a c c o r d i n g t o t e m p o r a l / t e c h n o l o g i c a l
associations.

R iv e r Drive Era
There were 45 v e r i f i a b l e r i v e r d r i v e camps i n t h e s t u d y a r e a .

Their

modal decade was between 1881 and 1890, w i t h most (40) o f t h e sample
o c c u r r i n g between 1871 and 1900 ( s e e H y po th es is 4 ) .

All o f t h e e n t r e p o t s

unde r c o n s i d e r a t i o n were e i t h e r i n e x i s t a n c e b e f o r e t h i s p e r i o d o r
e s ta b lis h e d during i t .

Twelve o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s e x i s t e d

b e f o r e t h e p e r i o d (3) o r came i n t o e x i s t a n c e d u r i n g i t

(9).

Thus, t h e

h i e r a r c h y pr o pos ed f o r t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r was u p he ld w ith r e s p e c t t o t h e
/

riv e r drive e ra .

Railway Era
A s im ila r a n aly sis stud ied th e railway tem poral/technological
association.

In t h i s c a s e t h e temp ora l c o n t r o l on t h e lo g g i n g camp sample

was l e s s co m p le te th a n t h a t o f t h e r i v e r d r i v e camps s i n c e a bo ut 63 p e r
c e n t (94) o f t h e r a i l w a y camps c o u l d not be s p e c i f i c a l l y d a t e d .

Therefore

t h e a n a l y s i s was r e s t r i c t e d t o t h a t segment o f t h e sample where t h e r e was
temp or al c o n t r o l .

Of t h i s group 14 (25 p e r c e n t ) d a t e d b e f o r e 1900,

o v e r l a p p i n g w i t h p a r t o f t h e r i v e r d r i v e s am p le .
sample ( 4 1/ 7 5 p e r c e n t ) o c c u r r e d a f t e r 1900.
e x i s t e d throughout t h i s p e r io d .

The re m a in de r o f t h e

All s i x o f t h e e n t r e p o t s

F i f t e e n (15) i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s

d ev el o p ed r a i s i n g t h e t o t a l o f i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s t o 2 5 .

219
These r e s u l t s s u p p o r t e d H y p o th e s is 9.

The i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r

f r e q u e n c y i n i t i a l l y a p p e a r e d t o be l a r g e f o r t h e number o f camps in t h e
study a r e a .

I f t h e p r e - 1 9 0 0 r a i l w a y camps were i n c l u d e d , t h e number of

camps i n c r e a s e d

t o 55. While t h i s s t i l l

seemed a b i t small

f o r t h e number

of interm ediate

s u p p ly c e n t e r s , i t s ho ul d be remembered t h a t most (63 p e r

c e n t ) o f t h e known r a i l w a y camps were no t i n c l u d e d i n t h i s a n a l y s i s
beca use t h e r e was no s p e c i f i c te mp o ral i n f o r m a t i o n a v a i l a b l e . I t was a l s o
no te d t h a t t h e r e was a l a r g e group (250) o f unknown camps.

Presumably a

number o f t h e s e were r a i l w a y camps

had temporal

(and r i v e r d r i v e ) w hi ch ,

i n f o r m a t i o n been a v a i l a b l e , would have r a i s e d t h e t o t a l
p r e s e n t in both s a m p l e s .

number o f camps

More ove r, s i n c e e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e

s u p p l y c e n t e r s were more v i s i b l e in t h e d a t a , t h e i r numbers p r o b a b l y were
more a c c u r a t e l y r e p r e s e n t e d t h a n t h o s e o f t h e camps.

All t h i n g s

c o n s i d e r e d , H y p ot h es is 9 was s u p p o r t e d by t h i s a n a l y s i s .
H y p o th e s is 9, t h e r e f o r e , has been s a t i s f i e d both in terms of
s e t t l e m e n t c o m p o s i ti o n and i n te rm s o f s e t t l e m e n t h e i r a r c h y .

Not only

were t h r e e t y p e s o f s i t e s d e m o n s t r a t e a d t o e x i s t on t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r ,
b u t a l s o t h e i r ar r an ge m en t c o r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e p r e d i c t e d h e i r a r c h y .

It is

now a p p r o p r i a t e t o c o n s i d e r a d d i t i o n a l h y p o th e s e s which a d d r e s s t h e
i n d i v i d u a l t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s found on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

H y p o th e s is 10
I n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s w i l l be camp o r i e n t e d and f u n c t i o n t o s upp ly
t h e s u b s i s t e n c e and t e c h n o l o g i c a l needs o f t h e lo g g i n g camp as well as
p r o v i d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s w ith t h e e n t r e p o t and v a r i o u s
personal g o o d s/serv ice s f o r th e workers.

When camp l o c a t i o n s move

i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s w i l l move o r c e a s e t o e x i s t .

220

Missing o r i d i o s y n c r a t i c d a t a posed s p e c i a l problems in d e a l i n g with
th i s hypothesis.

In some c a s e s , a d j u s t m e n t s were made t o t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e

d a t a o r t o t h e t y p e o f q u e s t i o n s t h e q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a were used t o
address.

In o t h e r c a s e s s u b j e c t i v e d a t a had t o be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r o r used

in c o n j u c t i o n w ith q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a in o r d e r t o a d e q u a t e l y a d d r e s s a
topic.

Camp O r i e n t a t i o n , Goods and S e r v i c e s
H y p ot h es is 10 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s would be
camp o r i e n t e d t o f u n c t i o n a l m o s t e x c l u s i v e l y t o p r o v i s i o n lo g g i n g camps
and p r o v i d e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n l i n k s with t h e o u t s i d e w o r l d .
This p r o p o s i t i o n was g e n e r a l l y s u p p o r t e d by t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s
( T ab l e 3 6 ) .

In term s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , most (23 /85 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e

i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were l o c a t e d on a r a i l l i n e .

Four (15 p e r

c e n t ) were n o t l o c a t e d on r a i l l i n e s and ranged between 0.8 8 t o 4 . 5 m i l e s
from t h e n e a r e s t r a i l l i n e .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e t h r e e most d i s t a n t o f t h e s e

had no r a i l w a y s t a t i o n , which p r e c l u d e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e y coul d
have been co n n e c te d t o t h e main l i n e by a s p u r .

The a v a i l a b l e d a t a

i n d i c a t e d t h a t one o f t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s was most l i k e l y a s s o c i a t e d with
t h e e a r l i e r r i v e r d r i v e e r a and was abandoned b e f o r e t h e r i s e o f t h e
railway logging e r a .

While t h e o t h e r two s e t t l e m e n t s d a t e d t o t h e r a i l w a y

e r a t h e r e was no d a t a t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e y were any c l o s e r t o r a i l l i n e s .
Perhaps t h e l i n e o r s p u r on which t h e y were l o c a t e d was t o r n up b e f o r e i t
was r e c o r d e d on any g e n e r a l l y a v a i l a b l e map o r o t h e r w r i t t e n s o u r c e s .
s p i t e o f t h e s e f o u r anomalous c a s e s , H yp ot h es is 10 was s u p p o r t e d .

In

221
TABLE 36
INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY CENTERS
ASSOCIATED ACTIVITIES
A ctivity/C haracteristic

Value

D i s t a n c e t o N e a r e s t Railway

Located on
0 .8 8 m i .
2.50 m i .
4.00 m i.
4.5 0 m i .
Mai n l i ne
Logging
Junction
Present
Absent
Present
Absent
None
1

Type of N e a r e s t Railway

Railway S t a t i o n
Oth er Railway F a c i l i t i e s
General S t o r e

2
Post O f f i c e
Sa lo o n/ Ho te l/ W ho re h ou se

S pecialized Retail

4
Present
Absent
None
1
3
4
None
1

2
L o c a l / S t a t e / F e d e r a l Govt.

2
24
3
4
23
19
4
3
1
10
17

22
3
1
1
23

2

None
1

2

2

3
5
10

1
2
1

4
None
1

2
L i g ht I n d u s t r y / S e r v i c e

23
1
1
1
1
20
5

1
1
21
3
1
2
23
3
1
20
1

3
None
1

2
Heavy I n d u s t r y

Number

Percent
8.5
3.7
3.7
3.7
3.7
7 4 .0
18.5
7. 4
88.9

11.1
1 4 .8
85.2
70 .0
14 .8

11. 1
3.7
37.1
6 2 .9
81.4

11. 1
3. 7
3. 7
85.0
7.4
3. 7
3. 7
77 .8

11. 1
3.7
7.4
8 5 .0

11. 1
3.7
74 .0
3.7
7. 4
3. 7
7. 4
3. 7

222
TABLE 36 ( c o n t ' d . )
A ctivity/C haracteristic

Val ue

Number

Lumber M i l l s

None

18
4

1
2
R e t a i l / W h o l e s a l e Timber Agents

Percent
6 6 .6
14 .8
7.4
7.4
3. 7
77.8
14.8
3.7
3. 7
29 .6
3 3 .3
7.4

2
2

3
4
None

2

1
2
Type o f N e a r e s t Water

5
Streams
Major Rive r
Lake
G r ea t Lake
Two o f t h e Above

8
9
2
6
2

2 2.2
7.4

The f a c t t h a t most o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were l o c a t e d on
r a i l l i n e s and had r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s i n d i c a t e d , i n f e r e n t i a l l y , t h a t t h e y
were a l s o c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l l y well c o n n e c t e d .

I t was assumed t h a t t h e p o s t

o f f i c e v a r i a b l e would more s t r o n g l y s u p p o r t t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f
c o n n e c t i v i t y , y e t o n ly 37 .1 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s upp ly c e n t e r s
had p o s t o f f i c e s , a f i n d i n g which seemed somewhat c o n t r a d i c t o r y .

However,

an e x a m i n a t i o n o f r e l e v a n t h i s t o r i c a l and demographic d a t a c l e a r e d t h e
contradictions.

F i r s t , s e t t l e m e n t s w i t h o u t p o s t o f f i c e s were s m a l l e r and

c o n t a i n e d f ew er o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s t h a n t h o s e w ith p o s t o f f i c e s .

Therefore,

t h e p r e s e n c e o f a p o s t o f f i c e r e l a t e d t o t h e number o f o t h e r a c t i v i t i e s
p r e s e n t in t h e s e t t l e m e n t r a t h e r t h a n t o i t s l o c a t i o n on a r a i l l i n e .
Secondly, h i s t o r i c a l

e v i d e n c e r e v e a l e d t h a t some i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly

c e n t e r s r e c e i v e d t h e i r mail from an a d j a c e n t i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y c e n t e r
which had a p o s t o f f i c e .

T h e r e f o r e , having few er p o s t o f f i c e s th a n

s e t t l e m e n t s was t h e norm and d i d no t i n d i c a t e m i s s i n g d a t a (Reimann 19 82 ).
F i n a l l y , t h e dem ographics o f t h e l o g g e r s i n f l u e n c e d t h e r o l e o f p o s t
offices.

The lu m b er ja c k p o p u l a t i o n was t y p i c a l l y d e s c r i b e d as a p o l y g l o t ,

223
m u l t i - e t h n i c group w ith l i t t l e formal e d u c a t i o n .

Given t h i s d e s c r i p t i o n ,

i t may be i n f e r r e d t h a t even though t h e y were t h e l a r g e s t p o p u l a t i o n on
t h e f r o n t i e r , t h e y had l i t t l e use f o r p o s t a l s e r v i c e .

Communication

between t h e company and t h e camp s u p e r i n t e n d e n t co u l d be t r a n s m i t t e d al on g
t h e r a i l l i n e s t o any i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s with a r a i l w a y s t a t i o n
s i n c e t h e r a i l w a y companies and l o g g i n g companies were u s u a l l y one and t h e
same.

From t h e r e messages would be c a r r i e d t o t h e camps.

Hence, o n ly

s e t t l e m e n t s w ith a c t i v i t i e s o t h e r th a n s e r v i c e as a r a i l h e a d f o r l o g g i n g
companies were c a n d i d a t e s f o r d i r e c t p o s t a l s e r v i c e (Bohn 1937, Draper
1930, Dye 1975, H u lb e r t 1960, Reimann 1982, Wells 19 7 8 ) .
Another r o l e o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r was p r o v i d i n g f o r t h e
s u b s i s t e n c e and t e c h n o l o g i c a l needs o f t h e l o g g i n g camps and p r o v i d i n g
personal g o o d s /se rv ic e s f o r th e lo g g e r s .

The d a t a r e v e a l e d t h a t 30 p e r

c e n t o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s c o n t a i n e d one o r more g e n e r a l
s t o r e s and 15 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s c o n t a i n e d
specialized r e ta il a c t i v i t i e s .

General s t o r e s p r o v id ed a v a r i e t y o f goods

and s e r v i c e s n o t o n ly t o t h e l o g g e r s b u t a l s o t o l o c a l

i n h a b i t a n t s and not

o nl y s o l d a v a r i e t y o f p r o d u c t s , b u t a l s o s e r v e d as p o s t o f f i c e s , b a n k s ,
and o c c a s i o n a l l y r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s .

Specialized r e t a i l

activities

(e.g.

shops s p e c i a l i z i n g in a l i m i t e d r a n g e o f p r o d u c t s ) by d e f i n i t i o n were
fo cu s ed on t h e uniq ue needs o f t h e i r m a r k e t s .

I t was s u r p r i s i n g , in

g e n e r a l , t h a t s p e c i a l i z e d r e t a i l a c t i v i t i e s o c c u r r e d even i n f r e q u e n t l y in
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

Moreover, give n t h e m u l t i p l e r o l e s p la y e d by

t h e g e n e r a l s t o r e , i t might be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e y would be more p r e v a l e n t
th a n t h e d a t a i n d i c a t e d .
case.

Th ere were s e v e r a l r e a s o n s why t h i s was n o t t h e

224
F irs t, all

i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were not e q u a l .

Some

c o n t a i n e d a v a r i e t y o f a c t i v i t i e s w h i l e o t h e r s a p p a r e n t l y s er v ed o n ly as
r a i l h e a d s f o r ne ar b y lo g g i n g o p e r a t i o n s .

Although t h e r e was no d i r e c t

e v i d e n c e a s t o how t h i s p a t t e r n d e v e l o p e d , h i s t o r i c a l d a t a allo we d some
speculation.
study a r e a .

One e x p l a n a t i o n r e l a t e s t o t h e p r e s e n c e o f farm in g in t h e
S h o r t l y a f t e r t h e l o g g i n g boom began f a r m e r s moved in and

began far m in g t h e c u t o v e r l a n d s .

The t i m b e r companies encouraged such

a c t i v i t y s i n c e i t gave them a ne ar by s o u r c e o f f r e s h food f o r t h e camps.
The fa r m e r s a l s o b e n e f i t e d from t h i s s y m b i o t i c r e l a t i o n s h i p bec a us e t h e y
were a b l e t o p r o f i t a b l y farm m a rg in al l a n d , knowing t h a t t h e y would g e t
t h e i r a s k i n g p r i c e s from t h e l o g g i n g com p an ie s.

I t was su rmised t h a t

t h o s e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s which c o n t a i n e d a g r e a t number o f
a c t i v i t i e s were a l s o t h e c e n t e r s o f farmi ng in t h e a r e a .

Hence, t h e y had

a s t e a d y y e a r - r o u n d p o p u l a t i o n which formed a ma rke t b a s e t o s u p p o r t a
number o f economic a c t i v i t i e s

(Karamanski 198 4).

S e c o n d l y , some i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were l o c a t e d n e a r e r t o
areas of highe r d e n s ity logging than o t h e r s .

When t h e t o t a l l o g g i n g

a c t i v i t y around a giv en i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r was g r e a t e r t h a n t h a t
around a n o t h e r , i t c o n t a i n e d a g r e a t e r number o f a c t i v i t i e s .

Also, th e

lo g g i n g a c t i v i t y around a gi v e n i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r might be c l o s e r
t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t t h a n was t h e c a s e o f o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .
In t h i s c a s e , t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r would c o n t a i n a g r e a t e r
number o f a c t i v i t i e s t o s e r v e a more a c c e s s i b l e m a r k e t , r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e
total

amount o f lo g g i n g a c t i v i t y in t h e a r e a .

F u r t h e r m o r e , as lo g g i n g

a c t i v i t y moved away from s e t t l e m e n t s , t h e y e x p e r i e n c e d d e c l i n e , s i n c e i t
was i n c r e a s i n g l y d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e i r c l i e n t e l e t o r ea c h them.

There i s

225
e v i d e n c e t h a t t h i s l a t t e r p r o c e s s o c c u r r e d in t h e s t u d y a r e a (Dodge 1973,
Karamanski 1984, Reimann 1 98 2 ) .
F i n a l l y , camp s t o r e s p la ye d a r o l e in l i m i t i n g t h e l o g g e r s p a t r o n a g e
o f e s t a b l i s h m e n t s in t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

Each camp had a

camp s t o r e which s t o c k e d a v a r i e t y o f p e r s o n a l it em s (w ith t h e e x c e p t i o n
o f l i q u o r ) needed by t h e l o g g e r s .

Camp s t o r e s were run on a c r e d i t b a s i s

and l o c a t e d in t h e camp; so t h e l o g g e r d i d n ' t need rea dy cash o r have t o
t r a v e l any d i s t a n c e t o make a p u r c h a s e .

While t h e p r e s e n c e o f camp s t o r e s

p r o b a b ly d i d no t i n h i b i t t h e growth o f an i n t e r m e d i a t e s u pp ly c e n t e r where
t h e r e was a n o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n t o s e r v e , t h e y could have h el d growth in
check b ec a u se t h e l o g g e r s were o n ly s e a s o n a l l y a v a i l a b l e as c u s t o m e r s .
Moreover, i t was u n l i k e l y t h a t an i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r would grow
beyond a r a i l h e a d so lo ng as i t r e l i e d s o l e l y on t h e l o g g e r s as a s o u r c e
o f commerce (Bohn 1937, D r ap er 1930, Dye 1975, H u lb e r t 1960, Reimann 1982,
Wells 19 7 8) .
Two l o g g i n g r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s o c c u r r e d in some o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s :

lumber m i l l s ( 3 3 . 4 p e r c e n t ) and r e t a i l / w h o l e s a l e t i m b e r

agents (22.2 per c e n t ) .

The p r e s e n c e o f lumber m i l l s was un expec ted s i n c e

i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t t h e y would o c c u r o n l y a t e n t r e p o t s .

However,

f o l l o w i n g t h e argument p r e s e n t e d ab ove , i t was most l i k e l y t h a t t h e s e
lumber m i l l s s e r v e d t h e l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n , as small f a c i l i t i e s t h a t c a t e r e d
t o l o c a l demand.

The p r e s e n c e o f t i m b e r a g e n t s i s l e s s p r o b l e m a t i c a l .

They most l i k e l y s o l d lumber t o l o c a l c o n c e r n s o r a r r a n g e d f o r t h e
p u r c h a s e o f t h e odd s t a n d o f t i m b e r not a l r e a d y un de r t h e c o n t r o l o f one
o f t h e a r e a ' s dominant c om p an ie s .
L i g h t / s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s were p r e s e n t in 26 p e r c e n t o f t h e
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s and heavy i n d u s t r y was p r e s e n t in 15 p e r c e n t

226
o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

The p r e s e n c e o f t h e former was

e x p e c t e d gi v e n t h e p a t t e r n o f well deve lo ped and un der dev el ope d
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s t h a t emerged from t h i s r e s e a r c h .
L i g h t / s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s i n c l u d e d such a c t i v i t i e s as b l a c k s m i t h i n g ,
b a r b e r s h o p s , wagon r e p a i r , e t c .

These a c t i v i t i e s were e xp ec te d in small

towns t h a t s e r v i c e d l o c a l far m in g a n d / o r small s c a l e m a u f a c t u r i n g
co m m u n it ie s .

They were a l s o a c t i v i t i e s t h a t s e r v i c e d t h e needs o f a

s e a s o n a l i n f l u x o f l o g g e r s o r a r e q u e s t f o r a s p e c i a l i z e d r e p a i r / j o b from
a lo g g i n g camp s u p e r v i s o r .

The p r e s e n c e o f heavy i n d u s t r y was more

p r o b l e m a t i c a l s i n c e t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s were g e n e r a l l y e x p e c te d t o be
a s s o c i a t e d o n l y with e n t r e p o t s .

Perhaps an i n t e r m e d i a t e s up ply c e n t e r

pr o v id ed ad v an t ag eo u s l o c a t i o n f o r such an a c t i v i t y .

In any e v e n t , t h i s

a c t i v i t y o c c u r r e d in a m i n o r i t y o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s and
t h e r e f o r e p r o v i d e d no grounds f o r t h e r e j e c t i o n o f H yp o th es is 10.
L o c a l , s t a t e , o r f e d e r a l government f u n c t i o n s o c c u r r e d in o n ly 22.2
p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s , and in a l l c a s e s were
r e s t r i c t e d t o law e n f o r c e m e n t .

These o f f i c i a l s were t h e r e t o m a i n t a i n law

and o r d e r , i f p o s s i b l e , when l u m b e r j a c k s v i s i t e d t h e s e t t l e m e n t (Dodge
1973, Reimann 1982, Wells 1 97 8 ) .
A f i n a l a c t i v i t y , s a l o o n / h o t e l / b r o t h e l , o c c u r r e d in 18.6 p e r c e n t o f
t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y c e n t e r s .

This f i g u r e was somewhat lower th a n

e x p e c t e d g iv e n t h e h i s t o r i c a l do c u m e n ta t io n and t h e f a c t t h a t t h e r e were
more i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s c a p a b l e o f s u p p o r t i n g such a c t i v i t i e s
t h a n t h e 18.6 p e r c e n t in which t h e y o c c u r r e d .

A r e - e x a m i n a t i o n o f Dodge

( 1 9 7 3 ) , t h e s o u r c e o f s e t t l e m e n t d a t a , r e v e a l e d t h a t he i n c o n s i s t e n t l y
r e c o r d e d d a t a a b ou t t h e s e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s , even when o t h e r s o u r c e s
i n d i c a t e d t h e i r e x i s t a n c e . For t h i s r e a s o n , 1 8 .6 p e r c e n t was a c c e p t e d as

227
t h e minimum f i g u r e f o r such a c t i v i t i e s among t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y
c e n t e r sample.

Given t h e p e r i o d i c n a t u r e o f t h e lu m b e r ja c k i n f l u x t h e s e

e s t a b l i s h m e n t s needed t o be l o c a t e d in a l a r g e r i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r
which had a l o c a l p o p u l a t i o n t o s e r v i c e and which mi gh t a l s o be a more
l i k e l y stopover for t r a v e l l e r s .
of all

For example, Seney, p e r h a p s t h e l a r g e s t

i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s in t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a g iv e n i t s

un iq u e l o c a t i o n , had 21 s a l o o n s , 5 b r o t h e l s and a permanent
population/community.

While o t h e r i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s were nev er

t h i s l a r g e , t h e y p r o b a b l y c o n t a i n e d t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s in p r o p o r t i o n to
th e ir size.

Fo llowing t h i s a r gu em en t, t h e maximum f i g u r e f o r s e t t l e m e n t s

c o n t a i n i n g t h i s a c t i v i t y can be e s t i m a t e d a t 25 p e r c e n t (Dodge 1973,
Reimann 1982, Wells 19 78 ).

M o b i l i t y and D u r at io n
The second p a r t o f H y p o th e s is 10 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t when camp l o c a t i o n s
s h i f t e d , i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s would e i t h e r move o r c e a s e t o e x i s t .
C a r r y i n g t h i s argument f u r t h e r , i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s would be o f r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t d u r a t i o n .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , when

l a r g e s c a l e l o g g i n g d e c l i n e d o r ce a se d in t h e a r e a , t h e y would e i t h e r be
abandoned o r e l s e c o n t i n u e with a g r e a t l y reduced s e t o f a c t i v i t i e s .
The r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s s u p p o r t e d t h i s p a r t o f H yp ot h es is 10.

As

Tab le 37 i l l u s t r a t e s , most ( 5 9 . 3 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s upp ly
c e n t e r s d i s a p p e a r e d with t h e demise o f lo g g i n g in t h e s t u d y a r e a .

A

number o f o t h e r s ( 1 8 . 5 p e r c e n t ) s u r v i v e d t h e l o g g i n g d e c l i n e but with a
g r e a t l y red uc e d range o f a c t i v i t i e s .

Only a small number ( 1 8 . 2 p e r c e n t )

s u r v i v e d t h e l o g g i n g d e c l i n e a t a l e v e l r e m o t e ly s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f t h e
l o g g i n g boom.

Hence, when lo g g i n g d e c l i n e d in t h e s t u d y a r e a both t h e

228
lo g g i n g camps and t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s which s e r v i c e d them
disappeared.
TABLE 37
INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY CENTERS
DURATION
Status

Number

Percent

5

18 .5

16

5 9 .3

S t i l l E x i s t / G r e a t l y Reduced

5

18.5

Unknown

1

3. 7

S t i l l Exist
D is ap p ea r ed with Logging D e c l i n e

During t h e e x a m in a t io n o f t h e raw d a t a f o r t h i s segment o f t h e
a n a l y s i s , an i n t e r e s t i n g p a t t e r n emerged.

Most o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y

c e n t e r s (2 1 /7 7 .8 per cent) dated to th e l a t e r y e a rs of th e study period
( a f t e r 18 9 0 ) .

These were t h e y e a r s g e n e r a l l y a s c r i b e d t o t h e r a i l w a y

l o g g i n g e r a o r r e g a r d e d as t r a n s i t i o n a l between r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y
l o g g i n g on t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
probable t h a t th e h ie ra r c h ic a l

Therefore, i t is

s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n n o r m a l l y a s s o c i a t e d w it h

an i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r d i d not f u l l y emerge on t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a
logging f r o n t i e r u n ti l th e advent of railway lo g g in g .

In t h e d i s c u s s i o n

above i t was note d t h a t t h r e e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were not l o c a t e d
on a r a i l

l i n e and t h e r e f o r e were p r o b a b l y a s s o c i a t e d w i t h r i v e r d r i v e

logging.

Thi s i n f o r m a t i o n , cou p le d w ith c h r o n o l o g i c a l

inform ation, led to

th e in fe re n c e t h a t during th e r i v e r d riv e era of th e logging f r o n t i e r th e
h y p o t h e s i z e d f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t h i e r a r c h y was no t as complex as t h a t o f
the l a t e r railway e ra .

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Summary
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s s u p p o r t e d H yp ot h es is 10.

Interm ediate

s u p p ly c e n t e r s were p a r t o f a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n system
( r a i l w a y ) and c o n t a i n e d many a c t i v i t i e s o r i e n t e d tow ard s e r v i c i n g t h e
needs o f lumber camps.

When l o g g i n g d e c l i n e d , i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s

d i s a p p e a r e d o r c o n t i n u e d w i t h a g r e a t l y red uce d r an ge o f a c t i v i t i e s .
I n f o r m a t i o n p r e s e n t e d a b o u t r a i l w a y a s s o c i a t i o n and c h r o n o l o g y , coupl ed
w ith t h e d i s c u s s i o n p r e s e n t e d in H y po th es is 9, le d t o t h e i n f e r e n c e t h a t
t h e h i e r a r c h i c a l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n a s s o c i a t e d w ith i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s
was l e s s complex d u r i n g t h e e a r l i e r , r i v e r d r i v e t e c h n o l o g i c a l /
c h r o n o l o g i c a l e r a on t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r th a n i t was
during th e railway te c h n o lo g ic a l/c h ro n o lo g ic a l e r a .

H y p o th e s is 11
E n t r e p o t s w i l l be s i n g u l a r o r few in number, bu t l a r g e r and more
d i v e r s i f i e d t h a n o t h e r components o f t h e f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m .

They

w i l l m a i n t a i n d i r e c t and c o n s t a n t c o n t a c t w it h t h e homeland and w i l l be
the term ini of f r o n t i e r transportation/com m unications systems.

They w i l l

be more per manent th a n o t h e r components o f t h e f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m ,
o f t e n l a s t i n g beyond t h e demise o f t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
Number, S i z e , and D i v e r s i t y
The f i r s t p a r t o f H y p o th e s is 11 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e n t r e p o t s would be
few in number b u t l a r g e r and more d i v e r s i f i e d th a n o t h e r components o f t h e
logging f r o n t i e r .

This p a r t o f H y po th es is 11 was a d d r e s s e d th r o u g h t h e

comparison o f e n t r e p o t s t o t h e o t h e r components o f t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
The s t u d y a r e a c o n t a i n e d 6 e n t r e p o t s , 27 i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s
and 444 l o g g i n g camps. These numbers s u p p o r t e d H y p o th e s is 1 1 1s c o n t e n t i o n

230
t h a t e n t r e p o t s would be few in number.

The i n i t i a l comparison o f t h e s e

s e t t l e m e n t s and r e l a t e d arguments were p r e s e n t e d i n H yp ot h es is 9 , so no
f u r t h e r d i s c u s s i o n w i l l be p r e s e n t e d h e r e and t h e r e a d e r i s r e f e r r e d t o
H y p ot h es is 9 .

Size
The s i z e o f lo g g i n g camps was d i f f i c u l t t o measure s i n c e p o p u l a t i o n
d a t a was n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r lo g g i n g camps.

Although lo g g i n g camps

t y p i c a l l y c o n t a i n e d 50 t o 200 p e o p l e and t h e r e were a number o f such camps
in e x i s t e n c e d u r i n g t h e c e n s u s y e a r s cove re d by t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t was not
t h e p r a c t i c e o f ce ns us e n u m e r a t o r s t o c o l l e c t d a t a on t h e i n h a b i t a n t s o f
l o g g i n g camps.

Loggers were c o n s i d e r e d t r a n s i e n t s and t h e ce n s us t a k e r s

did no t r e l i s h d i f f i c u l t ( u n c o m f o r t a b l e ) t r i p s t o t h e i n t e r i o r camps so
t h e y r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r work t o t h e su p p o se d ly p e r m a n e n t, more a c c e s s i b l e
s e ttle m e n ts of th e study a r e a .

For some lo g g i n g camps, s i t e s i z e a c r e a g e

d a t a was a v a i l a b l e , however comparable i n f o r m a t i o n was n o t a v a i l a b l e f o r
t h e e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s .

T h e r e f o r e , i t was d e c i d e d

t o r e s t r i c t t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f s i z e t o a comparison o f p o p u l a t i o n s o f t h e
e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s (Bohn 1937; Karamanski 1984;
Reimann 1952, 1982; Wells 19 7 8) .
As T ab l e 38 i l l u s t r a t e s , t h e p o p u l a t i o n o f t h e t h r e e census y e a r s was
c o n s i d e r a b l y l a r g e r f o r t h e e n t r e p o t s t h a n f o r t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly
c e n t e r s and t h e mean e n t r e p o t p o p u l a t i o n was a p p r o x i m a t e l y 17 t i m e s t h e
mean i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r p o p u l a t i o n .

This co nf irm ed t h e

p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t e n t r e p o t s would be l a r g e r th a n o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e
logging f r o n t i e r .

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TABLE 38
POPULATION - DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS
ENTREPOTS AND INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY CENTERS
1900
Entrepots
Mean =
3291
Median = 2697
Mode =
241
Range =
241 - 9308
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C en te r s
Mean =
179.6
Median = 121
Mode =
66
Range =
0 - 469
1910
Entrepots
Mean =
3769
Median = 3581
Mode =
314
Range =
314 - 9999
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s
Mean =
Median =
Mode =
Range =

212.6
148
102
0 - 550
1920

Entrepots
Mean =
4497
Median = 4995
Mode =
279
Range =
279 - 999
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s
Mean =
Median =
Mode =
Range =

254.5
252
94
0 - 572

232
The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e d a t a a s s o c i a t e d w ith e n t r e p o t s and
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s p r e c l u d e d a c o n v e n t i o n a l appro ac h t o t h e s t u d y
o f d i v e r s i t y in which a comparison o f t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l p r e s e n c e and
f r e q u e n c y o f a t t r i b u t e s would be made.

In t h i s c a s e m i s s i n g d a t a and t h e

f a c t t h a t some o f t h e v a r i a b l e s which s h o u ld have been c o n t i n u o u s
v a r i a b l e s had t o be c o n s i d e r e d b i n a r y b e c a u s e o n ly p r e s e n c e o r abs en ce
i n f o r m a t i o n was a v a i l a b l e r e n d e r e d such ap p r o a c h e s m e a n i n g l e s s .

Instead,

a l t e r n a t i v e a p p ro ac he s were u t i l i z e d .
One s t r a t e g y was t o group r e l a t e d v a r i a b l e s t o g e t h e r t o form t h r e e
com po sit e v a r i a b l e s :
activ ities.

t o t a l m a n u f a c t u r i n g , s o c i a l s e r v i c e s , and commercial

Tot al m a n u f a c t u r i n g was a summation o f a l l

known

m a n u f a c t u r i n g i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t (lumber m i l l s , f i n i s h e d wood
m a n u f a c t u r e r s , heavy i n d u s t r y , and l i g h t i n d u s t r y ) .

The commercial

v a r i a b l e was t h e summation o f v a l u e s e n t e r e d on t h e g e n e r a l s t o r e ,
s p e c i a l i z e d r e t a i l , w a r e h o u s e , and f i s h i n g v a r i a b l e s .

Social sevices

c o n s i s t e d o f a summation o f t h e p o s t o f f i c e , s a l o o n / h o t e l / b r o t h e l , s c h o o l ,
r e l i g i o u s f a c i l i t i e s , m e d i c i n e , l a w y e r s , h o s p i t a l and l o c a l , s t a t e ,
f e d e r a l government v a r i a b l e s .

While t h i s appro ac h masked some o f t h e

s am p l es ' v a r i a b i l i t y , i t a l lo w ed t h e a n a l y s i s t o c o n t i n u e and even made
a v a i l a b l e a new s o u r c e o f d a t a .

Thi s appro ac h was based on t h e

s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t s i z e and d i v e r s i t y were p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s (Ta bl e 39) r e v e a l e d t h a t e n t r e p o t s had
l a r g e r and i n f e r e n t i a l l y more d i v e r s e e n t r i e s f o r each o f t h e t h r e e
com po sit e v a r i a b l e s t h a n d i d i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s .

Bea ri ng in mind

t h e a s s u m p ti o n s under which t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a n a l y s i s was c o n d u c t e d , i t can
be s a i d t h a t H yp ot h es is 11 was s u p p o r t e d b e c a u s e t h e r e s u l t s r e v e a l t h a t
e n t r e p o t s were more d i v e r s e t h a n i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s .

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TABLE 39
DIVERSITY
ENTREPOTS AND INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY CENTERS
Tot al M a nu fa ct ur in g
Entrepots

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s
Mean

2

9.5

Median

0

2

Mode

0

2-39

Range

0-15

13

Commercial
Entrepots

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s

1.3 3

Mean

0.89

0

Median

0

0

Mode

0

0 - 6

Range

0 - 7

Social Service
Entrepots

I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s
Mean

1.52

4

Median

0

1

Mode

0

1 - 105

Range

0-11

21

T r a n s p o r t a t i o n and Communication
The second p a r t o f H y po th es is 11 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e n t r e p o t s would be
in d i r e c t c o n t a c t with t h e homeland and would be t h e t e r m i n i o f f r o n t i e r
transportation/com m unication systems.

This was a d d r e s s e d th r o u g h t h e

e x a m i n a t i o n and measurement o f t h e r e l e v a n t nominal s c a l e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n /

234
communication v a r i a b l e s .

A d i r e c t l i n k t o t h e homeland was d e f i n e d as t h e

a b i l i t y t o l e a v e t h e s e t t l e m e n t and t r a v e l d i r e c t l y t o t h e homeland
w ithout passing through another s e tt le m e n t.

Co n s eq u en t ly any s e t t l e m e n t

w it h p o r t f a c i l i t i e s p o s s e s s e d a d i r e c t l i n k t o t h e homeland, s i n c e one
c o u l d l e a v e t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a and t r a v e l v i a w a t e r d i r e c t l y t o t h e
homeland w i t h o u t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a n o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t .

S in ce a l l t h e

e n t r e p o t s in t h e s tu d y a r e a were p o r t s , t h e y were a l l c o n s i d e r e d t o have
d i r e c t l i n k s t o t h e homeland.
P r io r t o th e in tro d u c tio n of th e railway system, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n /
communication c o n s i s t e d o f moving p e o p l e and goods o v e r l a n d und er t h e i r
own power or t h r o u g h t h e u s e o f d r a f t a n i m a l s .

Water t r a n s p o r t was t h e

p r i n c i p a l means by which t i m b e r was t r a n s p o r t e d from t h e camp t o t h e
entrepot.

F u r t h e r m o r e , w h i l e t h e r e was l i t t l e movement v i a w a t e r in t h e

o p p o s i t e d i r e c t i o n , t h e d r a i n a g e s o f t h e r i v e r s and s tr e a m s formed a
n a t u r a l roadway from t h e c o a s t t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d .

T h e r e f o r e i t was

e x p e c t e d t h a t e n t r e p o t s would be a t o r n e a r t h e mouths o f l a r g e r i v e r s
emptying i n t o e i t h e r Lake Michigan o r Lake S u p e r i o r .
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e c a r t o g r a p h i c d a t a r e v e a l e d t h a t
t h i s c o r o l l a r y t o H y p o th e s is 11 was s u p p o r t e d f o r t h e s t u d y a r e a .

All

(100 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e e n t r e p o t s were l o c a t e d a t o r n e a r t h e mouth o f a
ma jor r i v e r which emptied i n t o e i t h e r Lake Michigan o r Lake S u p e r i o r .

In

f a c t , two e n t r e p o t s , Escanaba and G l a d s t o n e , were l o c a t e d a t i n t e r m e d i a t e
d i s t a n c e s between t h e mouths o f t h r e e r i v e r s ( F o r d , Escan ab a, D ays ).
A n ot h er (Rapid R i v e r ) , was l o c a t e d a t t h e mouths o f t h r e e r i v e r s (Tacoosh,
R a p i d , W h i t e f i s h ) which em ptied i n t o L i t t l e Bay de Noc.
I t can be argued t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r a i l r o a d sy ste m would
change t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f t h e e n t r e p o t .

With t h i s in mind, i t was d ec i d e d

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t h a t t h e most a p p r o p r i a t e s e t t l e m e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s would be i t ' s
l o c a t i o n on a main l i n e r a i l w a y w it h f e a t u r e s such a s j u n c t i o n s , a high
d i v e r s i t y o f r a i l l i n e s and i t ' s

s e r v i c e as t h e t e r m i n u s o f a main l i n e .

Main l i n e r a i l w a y l o c a t i o n was d e f i n e d as a s i t u a t i o n where a l a r g e volume
o f t r a f f i c p a s s e d th r o u g h t h e s e t t l e m e n t .

Thi s t r a f f i c volume would be

g r e a t e r th a n t h a t on any one o f i t s f e e d e r s .

Moreover, t h e t r a f f i c on t h e

main l i n e was g r e a t e r t h a n t h e sum o f t h e t r a f f i c on t h e f e e d e r s , bec au se
some main l i n e t r a f f i c t r a v e r s e d t h e r e g i o n t o r eac h a d e s t i n a t i o n in
another region.

A high d e n s i t y o f r a i l l i n e s w i t h i n t h e node or a given

d i s t a n c e from t h e node was i n d i c a t i v e n o t o n ly o f t h e r e l a t i v e s i z e of t h e
no de, b u t a l s o o f i t s i m p o r ta n c e as a t r a n s s h i p m e n t p o i n t .

Furthermore,

t h e im p or ta n ce o f a node i n c r e a s e d i f i t s e r v e d a s a t r a n s s h i p m e n t p o i n t
between two d i f f e r e n t modes o f t r a n s p o r t , such as between r a i l and w a te r
( B u r g h a r d t 1971; Ha gg ett et_.al_. 1977; M o r r i l l 1974; Hudson 1969; Johnson
1970; T a a f e , M o r r i l l and Gould 1963; Lindberg 19 6 8 ).
All o f t h e e n t r e p o t s i n t h e sample were l o c a t e d on main l i n e
railroads.

F u r t h e r m o r e , 6 6 .7 p e r c e n t were l o c a t e d a t j u n c t i o n s o f main

line railroads.

The mean number o f r a i l

l i n e s w i t h i n a two m i le r a d i u s

from t h e e n t r e p o t was 2 . 7 (compared t o 1 . 9 f o r i n t e r m e d i a t e su pply
centers).

Moreover, h a l f o f t h e e n t r e p o t s were i n l o c a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d t o

be t h e t e r m i n u s o f a main l i n e r a i l r o a d , which o c c u r r e d when a main l i n e
r a i l r o a d j o i n e d a n o t h e r in t h e e n t r e p o t .

Although t h i s might more

p r o p e r l y be c o n s i d e r e d a j u n c t i o n , s i n c e c o n t i n u e d t r a v e l by r a i l was
p o s s i b l e , i t d i f f e r e d from a s i t u a t i o n where two main l i n e r a i l r o a d s
sim pl y c r o s s e d and c o n t i n u e d in t h e i r o r i g i n a l d i r e c t i o n bec ause in a l l
c a s e s p o r t f a c i l i t i e s were i n v o l v e d .

Such s i t u a t i o n s were c o n s i d e r e d

236
t e r m i n i , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e t h e e n t r e p o t s were t r a n s h i p m e n t p o i n t s between
two modes o f t r a n s p o r t ( r a i l / w a t e r ) .
The i n i t i a l

consideratio n of transportation/com m unication lin k s

assumed t h a t t h e two p r o c e s s e s were one in t h e same.

That i s ,

communication in v o l v e d t h e p h y s i c a l movement o f some thin g ( i . e . a
m e s s e n g e r , a l e t t e r , e t c . ) from s e n d e r t o r e c e i v e r .

Hence, in o r d e r f o r

communication t o o c c u r , a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n network ( r i v e r , road o r r a i l w a y )
had t o be in p l a c e .

During t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y a number o f

communications b r e a k t h r o u g h s o c c u r r e d , i n c l u d i n g t h e development o f t h e
telephone.

I t t h u s became p o s s i b l e t o communicate w ith t h e homeland

w i t h o u t a p h y s i c a l o b j e c t moving from t h e f r o n t i e r t o t h e homeland.
Bear in g t h i s i n mind, i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t e n t r e p o t s would be con n ec te d
to a telep h o ne system.

I t was a l s o p o s s i b l e , but n o t v e r i f i a b l e , t h a t t h e

e n t r e p o t s were p a r t o f a t e l e g r a p h sy stem b ec a u se t h a t t e c h n o l o g y had been
a v a i l a b l e s i n c e mid c e n t u r y and b e c a u s e i t was common p r a c t i c e t o run
t e l e g r a p h and l a t e r t e l e p h o n e l i n e s al o ng main r a i l w a y s .
The d a t a f o r e n t r e p o t s r e v e a l e d t h a t most ( 4 /6 7 p e r c e n t ) were
equip ped with t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e .

Most l i k e l y t h e o t h e r two (33 p e r c e n t )

e n t r e p o t s had t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e b u t d a t a was n o t a v a i l a b l e t o v e r i f y t h i s .
In comparison o nl y 3 (11 p e r c e n t ) o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s
were known t o be equipped w it h t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e .

Permanency
The f i n a l

p a r t o f H y p o th e s is 11 m a i n t a i n e d t h a t e n t r e p o t s were more

permanent t h a n o t h e r components o f t h e f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m , o f t e n
l a s t i n g beyond t h e demise o f t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e n t r e p o t s ' o c c u p a t i o n d a t e s r e v e a l e d t h a t a l l
still

e x i s t e d i n 1986.

However, one (Nahma) was s i g n i f i c a n t l y reduced i n

s i z e and d i v e r s i t y so t h a t i t no l o n g e r f u n c t i o n e d as an e n t r e p o t .

Its

c u r r e n t s i z e and f u n c t i o n s were most l i k e t h o s e e x p e c t e d in i n t e r m e d i a t e
su p p ly c e n t e r s .

N e v e r t h e l e s s , 5 /8 3 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t r e p o t s were in

e x i s t e n c e and f u n c t i o n i n g as e n t r e p o t s i n 1986.

Thi s c o n t r a s t e d w ith t h e

i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r d a t a which r e v e a l e d t h a t o n ly 18.5 p e r c e n t o f
these settlem ents s t i l l

e x i s t e d w it h a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e same f e a t u r e s as

during th e study p e rio d .
supply c e n t e r s s t i l l

A f u r t h e r 18.5 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e

e x i s t , b u t a t a g r e a t l y redu ce d l e v e l .

Therefore,

w h i l e 100 p e r c e n t o f t h e e n t r e p o t s s u r v i v e d t o t h e p r e s e n t , a t most o nl y
37 p e r c e n t o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly camps managed t o s u r v i v e t h e demise
o f t h e lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y .
e x i s t e d i n 1986.
survival

F u r t h e r m o r e , none o f t h e s t u d y ' s lo g g i n g camps

One o f t h e phenomenon r e f l e c t e d by t h i s d i f f e r e n t i a l

r a t e was t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e d i v e r s e economies o f t h e e n t r e p o t s t o

a d a p t t o change more r e a d i l y t h a n o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s .

In a d d i t i o n t o

s e r v i n g t i m b e r i n t e r e s t s , many o f t h e e n t r e p o t s were a l s o in v o l v e d in
m i n i n g , s h i p p i n g , f i s h i n g , and s e r v i c i n g t h e growing a g r i c u l t u r a l
community.

In c o n t r a s t camps and most i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were

s e v e r e l y r e s t r i c t e d in s c o p e .

Thus, H y p ot he s is 11 was s u p p o r t e d b e c a u s e

e n t r e p o t s were t h e most permanent t y p e o f s e t t l e m e n t in t h e lo g g i n g
f r o n t i e r (Hulse 1981, Karamanski 19 8 4) .

Summary
In s p i t e o f i d i o s y n c r a t i c d a t a , t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s pu t f o r t h in
H y p o th e s is 11 were u p h e l d .

E n t r e p o t s were fewer in number and l a r g e r in

s i z e th a n t h e o t h e r t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

238
Moreover, e n t r e p o t s were more d i v e r s e t h a n o t h e r t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s on
t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

E n t r e p o t s were a l s o l o c a t e d t o s e r v e as s i g n i f i c a n t

nodes in t h e f r o n t i e r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n c i a t i o n n e t w o r k .

Even with

changes in t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , t h e y m a i n t a i n e d
t h e i r p o s i t i o n r e l a t i v e t o o t h e r s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
E n t r e p o t s were a l s o l o n g e r l i v e d t h a n o t h e r t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e
l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c r e f l e c t i v e o f t h e i r more d i v e r s e
economic b a s e .

H y p o th e s is 12
On t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r one may e x p e c t t o f i n d a
c o m m u n i c a t i o n / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s yst em with i t s t e r m i n u s a t t h e e n t r e p o t and
l i n k i n g a l l t h e s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e f r o n t i e r w ith t h e e n t r e p o t .

It is the

p r i n c i p a l means by which goods and i n f o r m a t i o n were exchanged with t h e
o u tsid e world.

An e l a b o r a t i o n o f t h e model p r e s e n t e d in C ha p t er IV was needed t o
evaluate t h i s hypothesis.

This i n v o l v e d an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e ways in

which t r a n s p o r t a t i o n / c o m m u n i c a t i o n systems evo lv ed in c o n j u n c t i o n with
gateway s e t t l e m e n t s .

According t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model, gateway

s e t t l e m e n t s ( i . e . e n t r e p o t s ) d ev el op ed in a r e a s t h a t were v i t a l t o
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and s e p a r a t e d two r e g i o n s w it h s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t
t y p e s and i n t e n s i t i e s o f p r o d u c t i o n .

They f u n c t i o n e d as entryways i n t o an

ext en d ed h i n t e r l a n d and were t h e t e r m i n i o f an e l o n g a t e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
system s t r e t c h i n g i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r .
s e t t l e m e n t s were l o c a t e d on t h e c o a s t .

Most t y p i c a l l y such gateway
The a r e a encompassed by t h i s

239
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system was known as t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a o f each gateway
s e t t l e m e n t ( B u r g h a r d t 1971, H i r t h 1978, Ta a fe e t . a l . 19 6 3 ) .
As f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t advanced i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r , a gateway
s e t t l e m e n t d ev el op ed a l o n g two p o s s i b l e t r a j e c t o r i e s .

When t h e t r i b u t a r y

a r e a was s m a l l , no o t h e r ma jor s e t t l e m e n t s de v el o pe d w i t h i n i t s b o u n d a r i e s
l e a v i n g t h e gateway a s t h e l o c u s o f a l l h i g h e r o r d e r c e n t r a l p l a c e
functions.

When t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a was l a r g e and h i g h l y p r o d u c t i v e , t h e

gateway l o s t some o f i t s c e n t r a l p l a c e f u n c t i o n s a s i n t e r i o r c e n t r a l
places developed.

In s p i t e o f t h e development o f i n t e r i o r c e n t r a l p l a c e s ,

t h e gateway s e t t l e m e n t u s u a l l y remained dominant b e c a u s e o f i t s
v

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and c l o s e l y r e l a t e d c e n t r a l p l a c e f u n c t i o n s ( B u rg h ar dt
1971, H i r t h 1978, Taa fe e t . a l . 1 9 6 3 ) .
Two o t h e r f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e d t h e development o f t h e gateway syst em :
p r o d u c t i v i t y and d u r a t i o n .

I f t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a was one o f low

p r o d u c t i v i t y , r e g a r d l e s s o f s i z e , t h e gateway community remained dominant
for all central

place f u n c t i o n s .

There was l i m i t e d development o f

i n t e r i o r s e t t l e m e n t s in t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a .

I f p r o d u c t i v i t y d e c l i n e d and

t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a c o n t r a c t e d , t h e p o s i t i o n o f t h e gateway r e l a t i v e t o t h e
in te r io r settlem ents strengthened.

The gateway s e t t l e m e n t a l s o remained

dominant i f t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a was one o f high p r o d u c t i v i t y b u t r e l a t i v e l y
short duration.

In t h i s s i t u a t i o n t h e gateway s e t t l e m e n t u s u a l l y grew

r a p i d l y and a t t a i n e d a h ig h o r d e r s t a t u s b e c a u s e o f t h e volume and t y p e o f
p r o d u c t s p a s s i n g th r o u g h i t .

However r e s o u r c e d e p l e t i o n d i c t a t e d t h a t

t h i s high l e v e l o f p r o d u c t i v i t y would be s h o r t l i v e d t h e r e b y l i m i t i n g
o p p o rtu n ity f o r higher o rd er c e n t r a l places to develop in the t r i b u t a r y
a r e a and compete with t h e g a t e w a y .

Lower o r d e r c e n t r a l

places developed,

b u t b e c a u s e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between d u r a t i o n and high l e v e l

240
p r o d u c t i o n , t h e r e was a d e c l i n e in p r o d u c t i v i t y and s u b s e q u e n t c o n t r a c t i o n
of th e t r i b u t a r y area b e fo re th e s e s e ttle m e n ts a t t a i n e d higher o rd e r
s t a t u s ( B u r g h a r d t 1971, H i r t h 1978, Taafe e t . a l . 1 9 6 3) .
The t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy ste m s which dev el op ed in a s s o c i a t i o n w i t h
gateway s e t t l e m e n t s were e s s e n t i a l l y d e n d r i t i c , f a n n i n g o u t i n t o t h e
h i n t e r l a n d o f t h e ga te wa y .

These t r a n s p o r t a t i o n syst ems d e f i n e d t h e

t r i b u t a r y a r e a f o r t h e gateway s e t t l e m e n t bec a u se i t was th r o u g h t h e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system t h a t goods and s e r v i c e s flowed t o and from t h e
gateway and t h e n c e t o t h e homeland.

Where a number o f gateways o c c u r r e d ,

t h e i r t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy ste m s o f t e n deve lo ped i n p a r a l l e l f a s h i o n s as
g r e a t e r p e n e t r a t i o n i n t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d was a t t a i n e d .

When lower o r d e r

c e n t r a l p l a c e s d ev el op ed a l o n g p a r a l l e l t r a n s p o r t a t i o n n e t w o r k s ,
h o r i z o n t a l t i e s sometimes o c c u r r e d .

That i s , lower o r d e r c e n t r a l p l a c e s

in two t r i b u t a r y a r e a s would become l i n k e d w i t h o u t c o n n e c t i n g t h r o u g h t h e
gateways.

These l i n k s were i n s i g n i f i c a n t as long as t h e r e s p e c t i v e

gateways dominated t h e i r t r i b u t a r y a r e a s .

However, s h o u ld a gateway

d e c l i n e o r i t s t r i b u t a r y a r e a c o n t r a c t , some o f t h e s e lowe r o r d e r c e n t r a l
p l a c e s co u l d become p a r t o f an a d j a c e n t t r i b u t a r y a r e a .

Furthermore, i f

t o o many h o r i z o n t a l l i n k s d e v e l o p e d between a d j a c e n t t r i b u t a r y a r e a s , one
g a t e w a y / t r i b u t a r y a r e a co ul d expand and encompass s e t t l e m e n t s f o r m e r l y
b e l o n g in g t o a n o t h e r ( B u r g h a r d t 1971; H i r t h 1978; T aa fe e t . a l . 1 96 3 ) .
The above c o n s i d e r a t i o n s h e l d as long

as a s i n g l e mode o f

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n was common t o a l l gateways and t r i b u t a r y a r e a s .

Changes in

t h i s mode, such as s p e e d i e r t r a n s p o r t , had

l i t t l e e f f e c t on t h e form and

f u n c t i o n o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s ys te m as a

who le.

However, t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f an e n t i r e l y new mode o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n caused d i s t o r t i o n
in e x i s t i n g t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m s , which in many c a s e s caused t h e d e c l i n e

241
o f some gateway communities and t h e i r t r i b u t a r y a r e a s ( B u r g h a r d t 1971,
H i r t h 1978, Ta a fe e t . a l . 1 9 6 3 ) .

Analysis
In exa mining t h e s t u d y a r e a in l i g h t o f t h e model p r e s e n t e d ab ove ,
two p r e l i m i n a r y d i s t i n c t i o n s were made.

F i r s t , t o co n tro l f o r chronology,

t h e focus was on t h e two c h r o n o l o g i c a l / t e c h n o l o g i c a l a s s o c i a t i o n s which
c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e s tu d y a r e a :
logging e r a .

t h e r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g e r a and t h e r a i l w a y

S ec on d ly , t h e d a t a used t o examine H y p o th e s is 12 were

e x c l u s i v e l y h i s t o r i c a l , b e i n g e i t h e r l o c a l / r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i e s or
a u t o b i og ra ph i e s / r e m i n i s c e n c e s .
The s e t t l e m e n t / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy stem f o r t h e r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g e r a
conformed t o what was e x p e c t e d unde r t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model.
I n i t i a l l y s e t t l e m e n t was r e s t r i c t e d t o c o a s t a l a r e a s , w i t h economic
a c t i v i t y r e s t r i c t e d t o r e s o u r c e s on o r n e a r t h e c o a s t .

Beginning in t h e

1 8 7 0 ' s and by t h e 1 8 8 0 ' s , l a r g e s c a l e commercial r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g was
e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e a r e a .

S i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e s i z e o f t h e gateways

i n c r e a s e d as lumber m i l l s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n f a c i l i t i e s and r e l a t e d s e r v i c e
i n d u s t r i e s were dev el ope d t o s u p p o r t t h e growing l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y .
Gateways were l o c a t e d n e a r r i v e r mouths and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r o u t e s f o l l o w e d
the riv er drainages.
ways.
use.

The t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy stems were uniq ue in s e v e r a l

F i r s t , t h e r e was an el em en t o f d i r e c t i o n a l i t y i n v o l v e d in t h e i r
Travel u p l a n d , w h i l e p o s s i b l e on w a t e r , was most common o v e r l a n d ,

i n c l u d i n g t h e movement o f l o g g e r s and s u p p l i e s t o t h e l o g g i n g camps.

The

second ph as e o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy ste m d e a l t w i t h t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
back t o t h e ga te w a y, which f o r a l l t i m b e r and some l o g g e r s was
a cc om pli she d by w a t e r .

T h i r d l y , t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy stem was s e a s o n a l .

242
Overland t r a v e l e f f e c t i v e l y c e a s e d when t h e camps became snow-bound
( u s u a l l y l a t e December) and d id n o t resume u n t i l s p r i n g (March).

Even

w it h r i v e r improvements, r i v e r d r i v i n g was r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e l a t e s p r i n g
and e a r l y summer months ( A p r i l - J u l y ) (Chase 1936, Defebaugh 1906* Dunbar
1970, Hudgins 1961, Karamanski 1984, Longyear 1960, M a n s f ie ld 1899, Maybee
1976, Reimann 19 5 2) .
As p r e d i c t e d , t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system d e f i n e d t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a
a s s o c i a t e d w it h each gateway b e c a u s e o f t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between p r o d u c t
and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c a p a c i t y .

Only p i n e and s i m i l a r t i m b e r were buoyant

enough t o be t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e gateway v i a r i v e r d r i v e , l i m i t i n g t i m b e r
production to those s p e c ie s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , c u t t i n g o p e r a t i o n s had t o oc cu r

w i t h i n a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e o f d r i v e a b l e w a t e r so t h a t l o g s coul d be
e f f i c i e n t l y tr a n s p o r te d to th e decking a r e a .

Thus, t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

sy ste m s n o t o n l y s p e c i f i e d t h e t y p e o f p r o d u c t b u t a l s o d e f i n e d t h e
t r i b u t a r y a r e a in which i t coul d be e f f i c i e n t l y c u t .

Moreover, b ec a u se o f

t h e r e s t r i c t e d n a t u r e o f t h e t r i b u t a r y a r e a and t h e p e c u l i a r i t i e s o f t h e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system few i n t e r n a l

s e t t l e m e n t s were e s t a b l i s h e d (Chase

1936, Defebaugh 1906, Dunbar 1970, Hudgins 1961, Karamanski 1984, Longyear
1960, M a n s f i e l d 1899, Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952).
The s e t t l e m e n t / t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system f o r t h e r a i l w a y lo g g i n g e r a
g e n e r a l l y conformed t o what was p r e d i c t e d by t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model
w it h some e x c e p t i o n s .

While t h e s e d id no t c o n t r a d i c t t h e o v e r a l l s u p p o r t

o f t h e gateway model and Hypotheses 12, t h e y p r o v i d e d an i n t e r e s t i n g
i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e m u l t i p l e i n f l u e n c e s which shape any give n
tr a n s p o r t a t i o n / s e t t l e m e n t system.
When main l i n e r a i l w a y s were f i r s t e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e Upper
P e n n i n s u l a , t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s yst em and s e t t l e m e n t s a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e

243
e a r l i e r r i v e r d riv e logging era already e x i s t e d .

These o l d e r systems

c o n t i n u e d t o f u n c t i o n as t h e r a i l w a y system was fo rm ed .

Although t h e

s t u d y a r e a was i n i t i a l l y l i n k e d t o t h e o u t s i d e world by a main l i n e
r a i l w a y i n 1872, i t was n o t u n t i l t h e l a t e 1 8 8 0 ' s t h a t main l i n e r a i l w a y s
were well e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a .

By t h i s ti m e main l i n e s

ran al on g both t h e n o r t h e r n and s o u t h e r n c o a s t s , c o n n e c t i n g t h e c o s t a l
s e t t l e m e n t s w it h S a u l t Ste M a r ie , Canada, and t h e Lower P e n n i n s u l a t o t h e
e a s t and Duluth and Menominee t o t h e w e s t .

Railway development peaked and

m a i n l i n e r o u t e s s t a b i l i z e d in t h e 1 8 9 0 's and t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f lo g g i n g
r a i l w a y s c o i n c i d e d with t h e s t a b i l i z a t i o n o f main l i n e r o u t e s .

O riginally

deve lo ped on t h e Lower P e n i n s u l a as narrow gauge l i n e s , t h e s e were used on
t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a as s t a n d a r d gauge l i n e s which ran i n two g e n e ra l
configurations.

One was a s i n g l e d e n d r i t i c p a t t e r n b e g i n n i n g in t h e

gateway and e x t e n d i n g i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r .

The o t h e r o c c u r r e d as a branch

o f t h e main l i n e t r a c k moving i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r ( C a l k i n s 1929, Chase 1936,
Defebaugh 1906, Dunbar 1970, Hudgins 1961, Karamanski 1984, Longyear 1960,
Maybee 1976, Nute 1944, Reimann 19 52 ).
From t h e d e s c r i p t i o n above i t can be seen t h a t e v e n t s in t h e s t u d y
a r e a d e v i a t e d from t h e e x p e c t e d t r a j e c t o r y in te rm s o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
a new mode o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and t h e r e s u l t i n g s h i f t in s e t t l e m e n t
pattern.

F i r s t , r a t h e r t h a n o c c u r r i n g in s i n g l e t r i b u t a r y a r e a s

a s s o c i a t e d w it h s i n g l e g a t e w a y s , t h e main l i n e r a i l w a y s c o nn ec te d a l l t h e
gateways.

The m a i n l i n e r a i l w a y was so c o n s t r u c t e d b e c a u s e a t t h e time

o n ly t h e gateway s e t t l e m e n t s had p o p u l a t i o n s s u f f i c i e n t t o s e r v e as a
market f o r t h e goods and s e r v i c e s p r o v id e d by t h e r a i l w a y .

As a r e s u l t , a

s i t u a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o main l i n e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n d id no t a r i s e
and t h e gateways and t h e i r t r i b u t a r y a r e a s remained i n t a c t .

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S e c o n d l y , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f lo g g i n g r a i l w a y s e n l a r g e d and r e d e f i n e d
the trib u ta ry areas.

The use o f t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d r e l e a s e d l o g g i n g

o p e r a t i o n s from s e a s o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s and, more i m p o r t a n t l y , e n l a r g e d t h e
scope o f p o t e n t i a l p r o d u c t s t o i n c l u d e a l l t i m b e r , t h e r e b y making t h e
e n t i r e study area a p o te n tia l t r i b u t a r y a r e a .

Some o f t h e s e l i n e s le d

d i r e c t l y from t h e gateways i n t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d , b r a n c h i n g in a d e n d r i t i c
f a s h i o n as t h e y ext en de d f u r t h e r i n l a n d .

O the rs sim p l y branched o f f a

main l i n e and headed i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r , b r a n c h i n g in t h e same f a s h i o n as
th e f i r s t group.

This l a t t e r t y p e o f lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d , w h i l e d e f i n i n g a

t r i b u t a r y a r e a , was d i f f i c u l t t o a s s o c i a t e w it h a g iv e n gateway s i n c e i t
t e r m i n a t e d on t h e main l i n e r a t h e r th a n in a s e t t l e m e n t .

Therefore i t

d i s t o r t e d t h e e x p e c te d p a t t e r n bec a us e i t p o t e n t i a l l y was a s s o c i a t e d with
any o f t h e gateways a l o n g t h e main l i n e .

N evertheless, the rapid

e x t e n s i o n o f t h e lo g g i n g r a i l w a y s i n t o t h e i n t e r i o r i n c r e a s e d t h e
t r i b u t a r y a r e a f o r t h e c o a s t a l gateways t o t h e p o i n t where i t i n c l u d e d t h e
e n t i r e study a r e a .

With t h e i n c r e a s e d o u t p u t from t h e expanded t r i b u t a r y

a r e a s , gateway communities grew in s i z e and number o f c e n t r a l p l a c e
a c t i v i t i e s , t h e r e b y s u p p o r t i n g t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r mod el.
Once l o g g i n g r a i l w a y s were e s t a b l i s h e d and t h e i n t e n s i t y o f lo g g i n g
i n c r e a s e d , two t y p e s o f i n t e r i o r s e t t l e m e n t s began t o a p p e a r al o n g t h e
rail lin e s.

The s m a l l e r ones u s u a l l y c o n t a i n e d o n ly a r a i l w a y s t a t i o n ,

w h i l e t h e l a r g e r ones were more d i v e r s i f i e d and c o u l d c o n t a i n g e n e r a l
s t o r e s , p o s t o f f i c e s , l i g h t / s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s , s a l o o n / h o t e l / b r o t h e l s , and
o c c a s i o n a l lumber m i l l s o r heavy i n d u s t r y .

Even though t h i s second group

was l a r g e r and more complex t h a n t h e f i r s t , none o f t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s
p o s s e s s e d a s u f f i c i e n t number o f h i g h e r o r d e r c e n t r a l p l a c e f u n c t i o n s t o
d i s p l a c e t h e gateways as t h e p r im a ry s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e f r o n t i e r .

The

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e v e n t u a l d e p l e t i o n o f t i m b e r meant t h a t c o n t i n u e d e x p a n s io n and
i n t e n s i f i e d p r o d u c t i v i t y , which would have al lo w ed s e t t l e m e n t s t o r eac h
h i g h e r l e v e l s w it h in a c e n t r a l p l a c e h i e r a r c h y , was n o t p o s s i b l e .

Summary
H y p ot h es is 12 was s u p p o r t e d by t h e d a t a .

For each o f t h e two

o c c u p a t i o n e r a s o f t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r t h e r e was a d i s t i n c t i v e
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system and o v e r a l l s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n .

In t h e c a s e o f t h e

r i v e r d r i v e e r a , t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n
co r r e s p o n d e d t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r m o d e l ' s p r e d i c t i o n s f o r a
r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l , low p r o d u c t i o n s i t u a t i o n .

The r a i l w a y e r a changed t h e

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system and s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s , bu t not in e x a c t l y t h e same
way as t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r model p r e d i c t e d .

R a t h e r th a n competing

g a t e w a y s / t r i b u t a r y a r e a s d e v e l o p i n g bec a us e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l a c c e s s t o t h e
new mode o f t r a n s p o r t , t h e gateways m a i n t a i n e d t h e same r e l a t i v e
r e l a t i o n s h i p t o each o t h e r b ec a u se a l l were i n v o l v e d in t h e new
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system.

The r e d e f i n i t i o n o f t r i b u t a r y a r e a and development

o f i n t e r i o r s e t t l e m e n t s p r e d i c t e d by t h e gateway model o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e
logging e r a .

Taking a l l t h e r e s u l t s i n t o a c c o u n t , t h e p r o p o s i t i o n s o f t h e

gateway model were uphe ld by t h e a n a l y s i s , s u p p o r t i n g H y o th e s is 12.

Hy p ot h es is 13
As an i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r s h o u ld be o f s h o r t
duration.

Thi s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s h o u ld be r e f l e c t e d in t h e d e s i g n and

c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

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In i n v e s t i g a t i n g c h r o n o lo g y o r d u r a t i o n o f o c c u p a t i o n , one o f t h e key
i s s u e s t h a t had t o be a d d r e s s e d was s c a l e o f mea sur em ent .

Generally

s p e a k i n g , t h e r e were two s c a l e s o f measurement by which t h i s h y p o t h e s i s
co u l d be a d d r e s s e d :

a b s o l u t e and r e l a t i v e .

t h e d u r a t i o n in terms o f y e a r s o f d u r a t i o n .

A b s o l u te c h r on ol o gy d e f i n e d
Such an appro ac h pr o v id e d

temporal p a r a m e t e r s w i t h i n which a phenomenon o c c u r r e d b u t d i d no t p r o v i d e
an i n d i c a t i o n o f whether t h i s c o u l d be c o n s i d e r e d a s h o r t o r long te rm
occupation.
In c o n t r a s t , t h e measure o f r e l a t i v e ch ro n o lo g y al lo w ed t h e d u r a t i o n
o f o c c u p a t i o n t o be e v a l u a t e d w it h r e s p e c t t o a measure o t h e r t h a n
absolute y e a rs .

The ap pr oac h used h e r e was bas ed on a s u b j e c t i v e

e v a l u a t i o n o f some o f t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and o p e r a t i n g p r o c e d u r e s
a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

Such an approac h was r e l e v a n t t o

t h e s i t u a t i o n in t h e s t u d y a r e a b e c a u s e i t a l lo w ed f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f
s h o r t v e r s u s long term i n v e s t m e n t s in m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and o f t h e way t h e
m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e was used on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
The ap pr o ac h used in t h i s a n a l y s i s m a i n t a i n e d t h a t l a r g e s c a l e
m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e ( e . g . camps, r a i l

l i n e s ) c o u l d be e v a l u a t e d w it h r e s p e c t

t o i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r permanence o r t h e i r p o t e n t i a l f o r s h o r t v e r s u s long
te rm u s e .

I t was e x p e c te d t h a t s h o r t te rm u s e would be r e f l e c t e d by

m aterials

which had a r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t l i f e span in t h e c a p a c i t y

t h e y were

used.

i n which

S h o r t t e r m use was a l s o i n d i c a t e d by m a k e s h i f t

construction techniques.

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e s e two

was no t n e c e s s a r i l y a d i r e c t on e .

That i s , s h o r t te rm m a t e r i a l s c o u l d be

used with

s h o r t te rm c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s , long t e r m m a t e r i a l s c o u l d

used w ith

s h o r t te rm t e c h n i q u e s , o r some o t h e r c o m b in a ti o n o f t h e two

be

co u l d be u s e d , a l l o f which would be t a k e n as e v i d e n c e o f s h o r t o c c u p a t i o n

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duration.

All o f t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s were e v a l u a t e d u s i n g h i s t o r i c a l d a t a .

A n a ly s is
Logging camp c o n s t r u c t i o n v a r i e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y p e r i o d .
e a r l i e s t techniques involved c u t t in g a t r a i l
l a t e summer and f a l l .

The

in to th e f o r e s t during the

The camp was t h e n c o n s t r u c t e d in log ca bi n f a s h i o n ,

w it h mud c h i n k i n g between t h e l o g s and p i n e bough r o o f s .

Most o f t h e

e x t e r n a l c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s were g a r n e r e d from t h e s i t e .

The i n s i d e

f l o o r was d i r t , two t o t h r e e t i e r s o f bunks were a r r a n g e d around t h e
p e r i m e t e r o f t h e c a b i n and t h e r e was a f i r e p i t o r s im p l e s t o v e in t h e
c e n t e r w ith a smoke h o l e i n t h e r o o f .
pr ed om in ant c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l .

Logs in t h e round was t h e

Windows were r a r e .

These b u i l d i n g s

might a l s o be s e m i - s u b t e r r a n e a n i f dugout c o n s t r u c t i o n was used o r i f
e a r t h was p i l e d a g a i n s t t h e o u t s i d e w a l l s .

Othe r b u i l d i n g s in t h e camp

were s i m i l a r l y c o n s t r u c t e d w ith t h e i n t e r n a l a rr a n g e m e n ts d i f f e r i n g
a c c o r d i n g t o b u i l d i n g f u n c t i o n ( D rap er 1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889,
Franzen 1984, H u lb e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Nute 1944, Reimann 1952, Rohe
1986, Wells 19 7 8) .
This p a r t i c u l a r method o f c o n s t r u c t i o n and t h e r e s u l t i n g m a t e r i a l
c u l t u r e q u a l i f i e d as s h o r t te rm f o r s e v e r a l

reasons.

F i r s t , a roof

c o n s t r u c t e d o f p i n e boughs was w a t e r p r o o f o n l y so long as t h e n e e d l e s
remained f r e s h .

Once t h e y began t o age t h e y would f a l l o f f , d e c r e a s i n g

t h e w a t e r p r o o f q u a l i t i e s o f t h e s e b u i l d i n g s and i n c r e a s i n g t h e i r
c o m b u s t a b i l i t y , e s p e c i a l l y i f a f i r e p i t r a t h e r th a n a s t o v e w ith a
s t o v e p i p e was used f o r h e a t .

S e c o n d l y , t h e mud c h i n k i n g between t h e l o g s

e v e n t u a l l y d r i e d , became d e t a c h e d and f e l l o u t .

This was caused by t h e

n a t u r a l d e s i c a t i o n o f t h e c l a y as well as by s h i f t s in t h e framework o f

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t h e b u i l d i n g indu ce d by f r e e z i n g / t h a w i n g .

T h i r d l y , a com b in at io n o f t h e

f i r s t two p r o b le m s , p l u s e x c e s s i v e amounts o f m o i s t u r e r e n d e r e d t h e
i n t e r i o r o f such b u i l d i n g s u n i n h a b i t a b l e a f t e r a c e r t a i n amount o f t i m e .
The d i r t f l o o r s became muddy, and t h e s h i f t i n g in t h e s t r u c t u r e b ec a u se o f
fre e z in g /th a w in g rendered th e e n t i r e s t r u c t u r e u n s t a b l e .

Finally, th is

p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f camp c o n s t r u c t i o n was c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e e a r l y y e a r s
o f r i v e r d r i v e lo g g i n g on t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a .

Given t h e n a t u r e o f t h e

p r o d u c t , and r e l a t e d f a c t o r s , i t was r a r e t h a t such camps were oc cu pi ed
f o r more th a n two s e a s o n s (D r ap er 1930, Dye 1975, Franzen 1984, H u lb e r t
1949, Maybee 1976, Nute 1944, Reimann 1952, Rohe 1986, Wells 19 7 8 ).
The n e x t g e n e r a l change in camp c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e
t r a n s i t i o n to railway logging.

The b a s i c f o u n d a t i o n and fram in g methods

remained t h e same, as d i d t h e log c o n s t r u c t i o n .

D i f f e r e n c e s o c c u r r e d in

f l o o r i n g , r o o f i n g , v e n t i l a t i o n and h e a t i n g as well as in s o u r c e o f
construction m a teria ls.

The f l o o r s were now made o f s p l i t l o g s so t h a t a

d r y , f l a t , r e l a t i v e l y even s u r f a c e e x i s t e d in a l l t h e camp b u i l d i n g s .
R o o f in g , both fr aming and s h e a t h i n g , was o f sawn lumber and p la n k s which
were b r o u g h t i n o v e r l a n d o r v i a r a i l .

The r o o f and g a b l e were u s u a l l y

cov er e d w it h t a r p a p e r he l d in p l a c e w ith b a t t e n s .

Pre- hun g windows in t h e

bunkhouses and o t h e r b u i l d i n g s p r o v id e d l i g h t and v e n t i l a t i o n .

Heat was

p r o v id e d by metal s t o v e s w i t h s t o v e p i p e s t h a t i n s u r e d a d e q u a t e v e n t i l a t i o n
and reduced t h e da n ge r o f f i r e .

The i n t e r n a l ar ra n g em en t o f t h e v a r i o u s

camp b u i l d i n g s remained e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same (D rap er 1930, Dye 1975,
Franzen 1984, H ul b er t 1949, Maybee 1976, Nute 1944, Reimann 1952, Rohe
1986, Wells 197 8) .
Such changes in c o n s t r u c t i o n seemed i n i t i a l l y t o imply g r e a t e r
per ma nence.

Roof c o n s t r u c t i o n was b e t t e r and more w a t e r p r o o f .

Wooden

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r a t h e r t h a n d i r t f l o o r s and improvements i n v e n t i l a t i o n and h e a t i n g a l l
bespoke l o n g e r te rm occupancy as d i d t h e i n c r e a s e d r e l i a n c e on
m a n uf a ct ur ed components.

F u r t h e r m o r e , h i s t o r i c a l d a t a i n d i c a t e d t h a t w ith

t h e a r r i v a l o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g , camps were b u i l t t o l a s t a number o f
years.

Thi s l o n g e r l i v e d camp c o n s t r u c t i o n and occupancy r e f l e c t e d t h e

s h i f t in p r o d u c t from p i n e t o any wood t h a t c o u l d be e x p l o i t e d , t h e r e b y
r e q u i r i n g l o n g e r t o d e p l e t e any g iv e n a r e a .

A ls o , t h e new r a i l w a y

t e c h n o l o g y o n ly e f f e c t e d t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s t o t h e
camps and t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o f t h e t i m b e r from t h e f o r e s t t o t h e saw
m ills.

Woods o p e r a t i o n s remained s u b s t a n t i a l l y t h e same, so t h a t changes

in t h i s a r e a were u s u a l l y l i m i t e d t o i n c r e a s e d camps and crews (Draper
1930, Dye 1975, Franzen 1984, H u l b e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Nute 1944,
Reimann 1952, Rohe 1986, Wells 1 9 7 8 ) .
This a p p e a r a n c e o f permanence in camp c o n s t r u c t i o n was d e c e p t i v e
because

many o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were d e s i g n e d t o f a c i l i t a t e t h e

r a p i d r e l o c a t i o n o f t h e camps.

Gables and r o o f s c o n s t r u c t e d o f sawn

lumber were d i s m a n t l e d , lo a d e d on r a i l w a y c a r s and moved t o new l o c a t i o n s
fo r reassembly.

With t h e e x c e p t i o n o f new t a r p a p e r , t h e r o o f was

e f f e c t i v e l y r e c y c l e d a number o f t i m e s b e f o r e t h e lumber had t o be
discarded.

Sim ilarly,

p r e - h u n g windows were removed from t h e log c ab i n

m a t r i x and s h ip p e d t o a new camp.
a number o f d i f f e r e n t camps.

B a r r i n g b r e a k a g e , windows were used in

L i k e w i s e , metal s t o v e s were a l s o d i s m a n t l e d

and t r a n s p o r t e d t o t h e new camps.

Thus, f e a t u r e s which ap p ea re d t o be

i n d i c a t i v e o f permanence were in f a c t d e s ig n e d t o i n c r e a s e t h e p o r t a b i l i t y
and r e c y c l a b i l i t y o f c o n s t r u c t i o n m a t e r i a l s .
l e s s e n e d t h e c o s t o f camp c o n s t r u c t i o n .

In t h e lo ng r u n , t h i s

T h e r e f o r e , a l t h o u g h o c cu p i ed f o r

a l o n g e r d u r a t i o n , camps were made more p o r t a b l e r a t h e r th a n permanent

250
(Draper 1930, Dye 1975, Fran zen 1985, H u l b e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Nute
1944, Reimann 1952, Rohe 1986, Wells 19 7 8 ).
The f i n a l

change in camp c o n s t r u c t i o n o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e r a i l w a y

l o g g i n g e r a , and was t h e s h i f t from p a r t i a l
sawn lumber c o n s t r u c t i o n .

l o g c o n s t r u c t i o n t o com ple te

Once c o n s t r u c t e d , camp b u i l d i n g s were cove re d

w i t h t a r p a p e r h el d down w i t h b a t t e n s .

The o t h e r f e a t u r e s o f t h e b u i l d i n g s

r e p l i c a t e d t h o s e d e s c r i b e d im m ed ia te ly a b o v e .

This i n i t i a l

in v e s t m e n t in

a more e x p e n s i v e , more permanent t y p e o f c o n s t r u c t i o n ap pea red t o be
i n d i c a t i v e o f l o n g e r te rm o c c u p a t i o n .

In much t h e same f a s h i o n as

d e s c r i b e d f o r t h e r o o f , e n t i r e b u i l d i n g s were d i s m a n t l e d , moved t o a n o t h e r
camp l o c a t i o n and r e - a s s e m b l e d w it h t h e a d d i t i o n o f new t a r p a p e r and
sometimes f l o o r s .

Windows, s t o v e s and d o o rs were a l s o r e c y c l e d .

T h e r e f o r e camp c o n s t r u c t i o n a g a i n r e f l e c t e d t h e s h o r t d u r a t i o n o f lo g g i n g
f r o n t i e r occupancy (Dra per 1930, Dye 1975, Franzen 1984, H ul b er t 1949,
Maybee 1976, Nute 1944, Reimann 1952, Rohe 1986, Wells 1978 ).
The ep it om e o f t h i s t r e n d o f i n c r e a s i n g t h e i n i t i a l

c o s t o f camp

c o n s t r u c t i o n w h i l e i n c r e a s i n g i t s r e c y c l a b i l t i y d i d n o t oc cu r i n t h e Upper
P e n n i n s u l a u n t i l a f t e r t h e end o f t h e s t u d y p e r i o d .

I t i s mentioned in

t h i s a n a l y s i s b e ca us e i t p r o v i d e d f u r t h e r s u p p o r t f o r t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t
s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r were d e s i g n e d t o be o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n .
This development was t h a t o f r a i l w a y c a r camps.

These were camp b u i l d i n g s

( i . e . b u n k h o u s e s , camp o f f i c e s , camp s t o r e s , c o o k h o u s e s , e t c . ) c o n s t r u c t e d
on r a i l w a y c a r s .

When a camp was t o be e s t a b l i s h e d , t h e a p p r o p r i a t e

number and v a r i e t y o f t h e s e c a r s were h i t c h e d t o an e n g i n e and h a u l e d t o
t h e camp s i t e , which in t h i s c a s e was a s i d i n g o f f t h e r a i l r o a d .

Only t h e

b a r n , b l a c k s m i t h sh op, r o o t c e l l a r and l a t r i n e coul d n o t be c o n s t r u c t e d in
th is fashion.

These b u i l d i n g s were b u i l t on t h e ground and were o f sawn

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lumber c o n s t r u c t i o n so t h e y c o u l d be d i s m a n t l e d and r e c o n s t r u c t e d when t h e
t r a i n camp moved o n .

While t h i s method r e q u i r e d a h i g h e r i n i t i a l c a p i t a l

o u t l a y , i t g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d t h e r e c y c l a b i l i t y o f t h e b u i l d i n g s so t h a t
c o n s t r u c t i o n c o s t s were a m o r t i z e d over a number o f camp l o c a t i o n s and ov er
a number o f y e a r s (Karamanski 1984 ) .
I n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s were a l s o s t u d i e d in l i g h t o f permanency.
E a r l i e r i t was e s t a b l i s h e d t h a t t h e r e were two t y p e s o f i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s , one more e l a b o r a t e and one more s i m p l e .

Because t h e more

s im p l e o f t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s u s u a l l y c o n s i s t e d of. l i t t l e more th a n a
r a i l w a y s t a t i o n and f u n c t i o n e d e x c l u s i v e l y as an u n l o a d i n g / l o a d i n g
t e r m i n a l , i t was a c c e p t e d w i t h o u t f u r t h e r e l a b o r a t i o n t h a t such
s e t t l e m e n t s were o f s h o r t d u r a t i o n and l i m i t e d f u n c t i o n .

The l a r g e r

i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s c o n t a i n e d a number o f s e r v i c e s beyond a
railway s t a t i o n .

These s e t t l e m e n t s were c o n s t r u c t e d o f sawn lumber which

was u s u a l l y u n f i n i s h e d o r c ov er e d with t a r p a p e r and b a t t e n s and which was
ha u l e d t o t h e l o c a t i o n by r a i l e x c e p t in t h o s e s e t t l e m e n t s w ith a s a w m i l l .
B u i l d i n g s were o f t e n m u l t i s t o r y and q u i t e s i z e a b l e by con tem porary
standards.

N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s were s t i l l

te rm o c c u p a t i o n .

fo c u s e d on a s h o r t

This p o s i t i o n was f o r m u l a t e d and m a i n t a i n e d b e c a u s e o f

t h e l a c k o f c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s , p r i n c i p a l l y t h e l a c k o f any l o c a l government
f u n c t i o n s e x c e p t law e n f o r c e m e n t .

Although i t was n o t a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t

t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s would become high o r d e r c e n t r a l p l a c e s , i t
was e x p e c te d t h a t t h e r e mi gh t be o t h e r c i v i c f u n c t i o n s i n d i c a t i v e o f a
permanent community.

Such s e r v i c e s as o r g a n i z e d f i r e p r o t e c t i o n , s c h o o l s ,

and l a t e r p r e s e n c e o f a t e l e p h o n e s e r v i c e were c o n s i d e r e d i n d i c a t i v e o f
permanency.

All o f t h e s e s e r v i c e s were l a c k i n g o r e l s e p r e s e n t in very

few o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s .

S in c e in v e s t m e n t in t h e s e

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s e r v i c e s was n o t made in t h e m a j o r i t y o f c a s e s , t h e mode and o r g a n i z a t i o n
o f such s e t t l e m e n t s was f o c u s e d on s h o r t r a t h e r t h a n lo n g te rm o c c u p a t i o n
(Bohn 1937; D ra pe r 1930; Dye 1975; H u l b e r t 1949; Karamanski 1984; Maybee
1976; Nute 1944; Reimann 1952, 1982; Wells 1 9 78 ) .

Summary
The t e s t i n g o f H y p o th e s is 13 was based on an e v a l u a t i o n o f r e l a t i v e
r a t h e r than a b s o lu te chronology.

The a n a l y s i s f o c u s i n g p r i m a r i l y on

l o g g i n g camps, t h e most numerous t y p e o f s e t t l e m e n t on t h e lo g g i n g
f r o n t i e r , and examined c o n s t r u c i t o n methods and m a t e r i a l s in l i g h t o f
t h e i r i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r s h o r t o r lo ng te rm o c c u p a t i o n .

Construction

t e c h n i q u e s and m a t e r i a l s were i n d i c a t i v e o f s h o r t te rm o c c u p a t i o n f o r both
t h e r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y l o g g i n g e r a s .
initial

In t h e c a s e o f t h e l a t t e r , t h e

e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l e d what a p pe a r ed t o be c o n t r a d i c t o r y d a t a .

That

i s , c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s / m a t e r i a l s were more e x p e n s i v e and more
d u r a b l e , i n d i c a t i n g l o n g e r te rm o c c u p a t i o n .

However, two c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

o f t h e new c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s / m a t e r i a l s , p o r t a b i l i t y and
r e c y c l a b i l i t y , r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e permanency was n o t t o be assumed.

Rather

t h e s e t e c h n i q u e s / m a t e r i a l s made i t p o s s i b l e t o t r a n s p o r t t h e camps t o new
l o c a t i o n s and r e b u i l d the m, r e c y c l i n g most o f t h e m a t e r i a l s , r e s u l t i n g in
a c h e a p e r c o s t i n t h e lo n g r u n , and i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e y were i n t e n d e d f o r
short duratio n s of occupation.

L ik ew is e an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e

c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s and t y p e s o f s e r v i c e s p r o v id e d by t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e
s u p p ly c e n t e r s r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s were b u i l t f o r s h o r t r a t h e r
t h a n long t e r m d u r a t i o n .

T h e r e f o r e , H yp ot h es is 13 was s u p p o r t e d .

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Hypothesis 14
The lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r w i l l be c h a r a c t e r i z e d by a high d e g r e e o f u n i f o r m i t y ,
both in te rm s o f b e h a v i o r and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e .

I t i s ex p ec te d t h a t t h i s

u n i f o r m i t y w i l l be most v i s i b l e in a r e a s d i r e c t l y r e l a t i n g t o p r o d u c t i o n
and t h a t i t w i l l vary among t h e t h r e e components o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r s e ttle m e n t system.

The e v a l u a t i o n o f H y p o th es is 14 f ocu se d p r i m a r i l y upon t h e b e h a v i o r
and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e which c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e lo g g i n g camps as a r e a s o f
p ri m ar y p r o d u c t i o n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e r e was a s u f f i c i e n t h i s t o r i a l d a t a

ba s e in t h e form o f r e m i n i s c e n c e s and l o c a l / r e g i o n a l h i s t o r i e s t o e n a b l e
lo g g i n g camps t o be e v a l u a t e d f o r u n i f o r m i t y .

Material c u l t u r e co n sis te d

o f t h e b u i l t en vi ro nm en t ( a r c h i t e c t u r e ) and t h e a r t i f a c t u a l as se mb la ge
commonly a s s o c i a t e d w ith l o g g i n g .

Behav io r was c a t e g o r i z e d as t o whe ther

o r no t i t was r e l a t e d d i r e c t l y t o p r o d u c t i o n .
I t was a l s o n e c e s s a r y t o e s t a b l i s h a working d e f i n i t i o n o f u n i f o r m i t y
t o e v a l u a t e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and b e h a v i o r .

Thi s d e f i n i t i o n was n o t

in t e n d e d t o be a r i g i d y a r d s t i c k by which u n i f o r m i t y would be e v a l u a t e d
b u t r a t h e r a broad s e t o f g u i d e l i n e s t o a l l o w f o r l o c a l and te mporal
v a r i a t i o n around a common the me .

In term s o f m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , u n i f o r m i t y

was d e f i n e d w it h r e s p e c t t o two s u b s e t s o f d a t a .

The a r c h i t e c t u r e o f t h e

lo g g i n g camps was e v a l u a t e d by t h e d e s i g n o f i n d i v i d u a l b u i l d i n g s and
t h e i r l a y o u t w i t h i n t h e camp.

To be c o n s i d e r e d u n i f o r m , b u i l d i n g d e s i g n

had t o be b r o a d l y s i m i l a r a c r o s s t h e dim ens ion s o f s p a c e and t i m e .

I t was

n o t e x p e c te d t h a t b u i l d i n g d e s i g n would be i d e n t i c a l , b u t t h a t t h e
c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f f e a t u r e s which d e f i n e d each t y p e o f b u i l d i n g would be
s i m i l a r in t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e same t y p e o f b u i l d i n g s .

Furthermore, i t

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was e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e t y p e o f b u i l d i n g s which o c u r r e d in a lo g g i n g camp
and t h e i r l a y o u t w i t h i n camps would be s i m i l a r a c r o s s t h e d im en sio n s o f
t i m e and s p a c e .

In te rm s o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n a r t i f a c t a s s e m b l a g e , a g en er a l

s i m i l a r i t y in i t s c o m p o s i ti o n was e x p e c te d a c r o s s t i m e and s p a c e .

As with

a r c h i t e c t u r e , t h e r e was room f o r v a r i a t i o n in t h e a s s e m b l a g e , but t h e
m a j o r i t y o f e l e m e n t s in t h e as sem bl age were e x p e c te d t o be t h e same
(Ferguson 1 97 7 ) .
D i f f e r e n t i s s u e s were a d d r e s s e d when d e f i n i n g u n i f o r m i t y in te rm s o f
p r o d u c t i o n and n o n - p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r .

One c o n s i d e r a t i o n was

t h a t b e h a v i o r o c c u r r e d in t h e camps and t h e r e f o r e w i t h i n an env ironm ent
t h a t was s t r u c t u r e d by b u i l d i n g d e s i g n and l a y o u t .

Such b e h a v i o r a l s o

in v o l v e d t h e u s e o f t h e p r o d u c t i o n a r t i f a c t a s s e m b l a g e , i l l u s t r a t i n g
a n o t h e r t i e between m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and b e h a v o r i a l r e p e r t o i r e on t h e
logging f r o n t i e r .

R e c o g n i t i o n o f t h e e x i s t a n c e o f t h e s e r e l a t i o n s h i p s le d

to c e r t a i n e x p e c ta tio n s about behavioral u n ifo rm ity .

F i r s t , u n i f o r m i t y in

p r o d u c t i o n b e h a v i o r was t h e p er f o r m a nc e o f t h e same t a s k s in s i m i l a r ways
a c r o s s t h e di m en s io n s o f t i m e and s p a c e .

Thi s u n i f o r m i t y was m a i n t a i n e d

by both f o l k wisdom p as s ed among t h e l o g g e r s and by i n s t r u c t i o n s from
s u p e r v i s o r s , and was r e i n f o r c e d th r o u g h t h e use o f t h e same t o o l
assemblage.

Changes

behavioral changes.

in a v a i l a b l e t e c h n o l o g y might o r might n o t l e a d t o
For exam ple , i f a change l e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n o f a

more e f f i c i e n t model o f a t r a d i t i o n a l t o o l , speed o f p r o d u c t i o n might be
i n c r e a s e d b u t n o t t h e manner in which t h e t o o l was u s e d .
was i n t r o d u c e d , t h e n

I f a new t o o l

b e h a v i o r would change bec a us e n o t h i n g in t h e

p r e - e x i s t i n g b e h a v i o r a l t r a d i t i o n p r o v id ed i n s t r u c t i o n s as t o how t o use
the to o l .

I t was a l s o p o s s i b l e , b u t not l i k e l y , t h a t changes in b e h a v i o r

would c a u s e changes in t h e t o o l a s s e m b l a g e .

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S e c o n d l y , on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r work p l a c e and r e s i d e n c e were one
and t h e same, e a s i n g t h e m a i n t a i n e n c e o f u n i f o r m i t y i n n o n - p r o d u c t i v e as
well as in p r o d u c t i v e b e h a v i o r .

In t h i s i n s t a n c e , n o n - p r o d u c t i v e b e h a v i o r

was d e f i n e d as b e h a v i o r which d i d n o t d i r e c t l y r e l a t e t o t h e c u t t i n g ,
t r a n s p o r t i n g , and p r o c e s s i n g o f t i m b e r .

I t was e x p e c t e d t h a t such

b e h a v i o r would r e l a t e more c l o s e l y t o a r c h i t e c t u r e and l a y o u t t h a n t o t h e
tool assemblage.

Be ar in g t h e s e p o i n t s in mind, i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t

n o n - p r o d u c t i v e b e h a v i o r would be r e g u l a t e d by a s e r i e s o f p r o s c r i p t i o n s .
These were e x p e c t e d t o be f a i r l y w i d e - r a n g i n g s i n c e t h e y r e g u l a t e d a l l
non-productive behavior.

While some might have been pa s s ed among t h e

l o g g e r s as f o l k wisdom, most were e s t a b l i s h e d and e n f o r c e d by t h e camp
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t and h i s m i n i o n s .

In a d d i t i o n t o p r o s c r i p t i o n s , r e g u l a t i o n

was a l s o e x p e c t e d t o s p e c i f y p a r t i c i p a t i o n in c e r t a i n a c t i v i t i e s as well
as t h e d u r a t i o n o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n .

F u r t h e r m o r e , en fo r ce m en t o f such

r e g u l a t i o n s was e x p e c te d t o o c c u r t h r o u g h both o v e r t and c o v e r t means.
F i n a l l y , i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t change would o c c u r in some o f t h e
m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and b e h a v i o r d i s c u s s e d a b ov e.

This phenomenon was in

kee pi ng w ith t h e d e f i n i t i o n o f u n i f o r m i t y a s broad s i m i l a r i t i e s o r as a
c o n s t e l l a t i o n o f s h a r e d a t t r i b u t e s r a t h e r th a n as is om or phi sm .

These

changes were n o t ex p ec te d t o d i s r u p t t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g p a t t e r n s o f b e h a v i o r
and m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e in t h e s t u d y a r e a .

R a t h e r t h e y were ex p ec te d t o be

changes in t h e p r o d u c t i v e a r e n a which s i g n i f i c a n t l y i n c r e a s e d
productivity.

As s u c h , t h e y were e x p e c t e d t o be r e a d i l y and r a p i d l y

ad o pt ed a c r o s s t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r w ith l i t t l e r e s i s t a n c e on t h e p a r t o f
t h e l o g g e r s ( H a r d e s t y 19 85 ).

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Analysis
The a n a l y s i s o f a r c h i t e c t u r e s u p p o r t e d H y p o th es is 14.

There was a

g e n e r a l s i m i l a r i t y in c o n s t r u c t i o n and l a y o u t o f l o g g i n g camps a c r o s s t h e
l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r and t h r o u g h ti m e from t h e r i v e r d r i v e e r a i n t o t h e
railway logging e r a .

From t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n t e c h n i q u e s

f o r camps p r e s e n t e d in t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f Hyp othe sis 13 i t was l e a r n e d t h a t
c o n s t r u c t i o n and d e s i g n remained s i m i l a r t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y p e r i o d w ith
c h a n g e s , when t h e y o c c u r r e d , d i r e c t e d t o w ar d s i n c r e a s e d p o r t a b i l i t y and
r e c y c l a b i l i t y o f camp b u i l d i n g s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e s e changes were fo cu s ed

p r i m a r i l y on t h e e x t e r n a l c o v e r i n g o f t h e b u i l d i n g s .
ar r a n g e m e n t s o f t h e b u i l d i n g s remained t h e same.

The i n t e r n a l

S p e c i f i c a l l y , bunks were

f i x e d in p o s i t i o n around t h e w a l l s o f t h e b u i l d i n g w ith a s t o v e l o c a t e d in
t h e open s p a c e i n t h e c e n t e r .

There might a l s o be m i s c e l l a n e o u s c h a i r s or

benches i n t h e open s p a c e . ( D rap er 1930, Dye 1975, Franzen 1985,
F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, H u l b e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952, Rohe 1986,
Wells 19 7 8 ) .
O th er b u i l d i n g s , most n o t i c e a b l y t h e coo kh ous e, r e t a i n e d t h e same
i n t e r n a l s t r u c t u r e t h r o u g h t i m e i n s p i t e o f changes i n e x t e r n a l c o v e r i n g .
The k i t c h e n o c c u p i e d one end o f t h e b u i l d i n g and was s e p a r a t e d from t h e
d i n i n g room by a wall which housed a l a r g e opening f o r food s e r v i c e .

The

l a r g e r d i n i n g room was f u r n i s h e d w i t h l o n g row t a b l e s n a i l e d t o t h e f l o o r ,
and b e n c h e s .

There was a l s o an a r e a where t h e cook a n d / o r h i s a s s i s t a n t s

co u l d s l e e p t o guard t h e k i t c h e n a t n i g h t .

The s t a b l e and b l a c k s m i t h shop

were a l s o s i m i l a r in c o n s t r u c t i o n th r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y p e r i o d .

The s t a b l e

c o n s i s t e d o f rows o f s t a l l s f o r t h e h o r s e s and t h e b l a c k s m i t h shop
c o n t a i n e d a f o r g e , workbenches and a work a r e a .
adjacent to the barn.

A s t o r e r o o m was u s u a l l y

The camp o f f i c e and s t o r e were g e n e r a l l y

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r e c t i l i n e a r b u i l d i n g s whose o n l y n o t i c i a b l e i n t e r n a l d i v i s i o n s were
s l e e p i n g a r e a s f o r t h e camp s u p e r v i s o r and camp c l e r k (Draper 1930, Dye
1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, Fran zen 1985, H u l b e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Reimann
1952, Rohe 1986, Wells 1 9 7 8 ) .
Although t h e i n t e r n a l d e s i g n o f camp b u i l d i n g s remained t h e same,
camp l a y o u t changed a t two p o i n t s d u r i n g t h e s t u d y p e r i o d .

The f i r s t was

w i t h t h e s u r g e in l o g g i n g t h a t o c c u r r e d s h o r t l y a f t e r t h e b e g i n n in g o f t h e
study p e rio d .

I n i t i a l l y , camps had been small and each b u i l d i n g was

m ulti-functional.

Commonly t h e cookhouse s er v ed as camp o f f i c e and

s t o r e r o o m w it h t h e barn s e r v i n g a s b l a c k s m i t h shop and s t o r e r o o m .
bunkhouse was t h e o n ly u n i f u n c t i o n a l b u i l d i n g .

The

As l o g g i n g i n c r e a s e d ,

b u i l d i n g use became more s p e c i a l i z e d and t h e y f u l f i l l e d t h e r o l e s
described above.

Root c e l l a r s p r o v i d e d a d d i t i o n a l food s t o r a g e a r e a s .

If

more t h a n one bunkhouse was needed e x a c t d u p i c a t e s were c o n s t r u c t e d .
A l s o , i f t h e camp was l a r g e enou gh , s e p a r a t e c a b i n s were b u i l t f o r t h e
f i l e r and s c a l e r .

All camp b u i l d i n g s were grouped in a l o o s e c i r c l e , a

d e s i g n p r o b a b l y reach ed t h r o u g h a s e r i e s o f p e r m u t a t i o n s , but which
pre d om in at e d a f t e r t h e i n f l u x o f l o g g e r s and t h e i n c r e a s e i n lo g g i n g
o p e r a t i o n s (D ra pe r 1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, Fran zen 1985, H u l b e r t
1949, Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952, Rohe 1986, Wells 1 9 7 8 ) .
The second change in camp l a y o u t o c c u r r e d w ith t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f
th e logging r a i l r o a d .

T h i s change a f f e c t e d t h e l a y o u t r a t h e r t h a n t h e

numbers o r t y p e s o f b u i l d i n g s in t h e camp.

In c o n t r a s t t o t h e lo o s e

c l u s t e r o f b u i l d i n g s which c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e r i v e r d r i v e e r a , r a i l w a y
l o g g i n g e r a camps were l a i d ou t l i n e a r l y , p a r a l l e l t o t h e r a i l r o a d t r a c k s
which p r o v i d e d e a s i e r a c c e s s t o t h e main t r a n s p o r t a t i o n r o u t e (Draper

258
1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, Franzen 1985, H u l b e r t 1949, Reimann
1952, Rohe 1986, Wells 19 7 8 ).
An e x a m in a t io n o f t h e t o o l ass em b la g e a s s o c i a t e d w it h l o g g i n g
a c t i v i t i e s a l s o p ro v id ed s u p p o r t f o r Hyp othe sis 14.

With only a few

c h a n g e s , t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o o l a s s se m b la g e remained rem ar kab ly s i m i l a r
throughout th e study p e r io d .

I n i t i a l l y t h i s a s s em b l ag e c o n s i s t e d of

v a r i o u s a x e s , wedges, ground t a c k l e , p e a v i e s , c a n t h o o k s , and c h a i n s .
Also i n c l u d e d were two v e h i c l e s :

a s l e d and a s p r i n k l e r .

wedges were used t o f e l l and t r i m t h e t r e e s .

The uxes and

The r em a in d er o f t h e t o o l s

were used t o maneuver t h e l o g s o n to t h e s l e d and l a t e r t o unload them
i n t o / o n t o t h e n e x t l i n k in t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m .
t h e roadways so t h a t t h e s l e d s moved e a s i l y .
t o o l a s s em bl ag e d u r i n g t h e s tu d y p e r i o d .
introduced f o r f e l l i n g purposes.

The s p r i n k l e r ic e d

Two chang es o c c u r r e d in t h i s

The two-man c r o s s c u t saw was

This s h i f t d i d no t d i s p l a c e axes from

t h e a s s e m b l a g e , s i n c e t h e y were s t i l l

used t o e s t a b l i s h t h e d i r e c t i o n o f

f a l l , t r i m f e l l e d t r e e s and c l e a r b r u s h , b u t t h e saw made t h e a c t u a l
f e l l i n g o f t r e e s q u i c k e r and n e a t e r .

The a d d i t i o n o f t h e c r o s s c u t saw

n e c e s s i t a t e d t h e a d d i t i o n o f a can o r j a r o f k e r o s e n e t o c l e a n sap from
t h e saw b l a d e t o e n s u r e c o n t i n u o u s r a p i d c u t t i n g .

The second change was

t h e s u b s t i t u t i o n o f d r a f t h o r s e s f o r oxen t o p u l l t h e s l e d s and
sprinklers.

Although oxen were c h e a p e r t o feed and had g r e a t e r i n d i v i d u a l

p u l l i n g c a p a c i t y , h o r s e s were more mane uve rab le and had g r e a t e r en d ur an c e
f o r woods work.
differential

Moreover, well m a i n t a i n e d i c e r oad s redu ce d t h e

p u l l i n g power between h o r s e s and o xen .

Once i n i t i a t e d , t h e s e

two changes were r e a d i l y a d o pt ed a c r o s s t h e s tu d y a r e a ( D rap er 1930, Dye
1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, H u l b e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952, Wells
19 7 8) .

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P r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r on t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r a l s o s u p p o r te d
H yp oth es is 14.

Techniques o f woods work, which i n c l u d e d c u t t i n g t r e e s and

t r a n s p o r t i n g them t o a f r o z e n r i v e r or r a i l w a y l i n e , remained t h e same
th r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y p e r i o d .

Although t h e r e were two changes in t h e t o o l

a s s e m b l a g e , t h e manner in which woods work was done c r e a t e d a p r e - a d a p t i v e
s i t u a t i o n , so t h a t t h e s e chang es were r e a d i l y and e a s i l y ac c e p te d i n t o t h e
production behavioral r e p e r t o i r e .

Beginning in t h e e a r l y autumn, a

roadway was c u t i n t o t h e f o r e s t from t h e n e a r e s t a c c e s s i b l e p o i n t
c o n n e c t i n g t h e f o r e s t with t h e o u t s i d e .

The new road ext end ed p a s t t h e

p o i n t where t h e camp was t o be b u i l t i n t o t h e f o r e s t where c u t t i n g was t o
occur.

A camp was c o n s t r u c t e d w it h some o f t h e t r e e s f e l l e d in road

c o n s t r u c t i o n and s u p p l i e s and equipment b r o u g h t in from t h e o u t s i d e .
t h e a r r i v a l o f c o l d e r w e a t h e r t h e road i n t o t h e f o r e s t was i c e d .

With

This

road was r e s u r f a c e d d a i l y by t h e s p r i n k l e r , which n o t o n ly a p p l i e d a f r e s h
c o a t o f w a t e r b u t a l s o c u t gro ov es i n t o t h e i c e f o r t h e s l e d r u n n e r s .
Actual f e l l i n g was done by men working in p a i r s .

I n i t i a l l y u s i n g axes and

wedges, and l a t e r c r o s s c u t saw s, a x e s , and wedges, t h e s e teams f e l l e d and
trimmed t h e t r e e s .

Once t h e t r e e s were f e l l e d and trimmed, t h e t e a m s t e r s

loa ded them o n to a s l e d and h a u l e d them t o a s i d i n g o r dec k in g a r e a .
P e a v i e s , c a n t ho ok s, c h a i n s and d o g s , and ground t a c k l e were used f o r t h i s
task.

The s h i f t t o c r o s s c u t saws and h o r s e s made l i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in t h e

way p a i r s o f f e l l e r s and t h e t e a m s t e r s worked.

Thus, w h i l e change

o c c u r r e d in t h e t o o l a s s e m b l a g e , t h e r e was no c o r r e s p o n d i n g change in t h e
p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r a s s o c i a t e d with t h e t o o l as se mb la ge (Draper
1930, Dyer 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, H u l b e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Nute 1944,
Reimann 1952, Wells 19 7 8 ) .

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The b e h a v i o r a s s o c i a t e d w it h p r o d u c t i o n a c t i v i t i e s was e s t a b l i s h e d
and r e i n f o r c e d th r o u g h two d i f f e r e n t mechanisms.

F i r s t , the actual

p r o c e d u r e s fo l l o w e d in woods work were pa s s ed al o n g from more e x p e r i e n c e d
loggers to th e novices.

An a p p r e n c t i c e sy ste m o f s o r t s e x i s t e d f o r a l l

a c t i v i t i e s on t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r , from cook t o t e a m s t e r .

In e x p e r i e n c e d

workers l e a r n e d by doing and were promoted th r o u g h t h e ran ks u n t i l t h e y
r ea ch ed s e n i o r p o s i t i o n s in t h e i r s p e c i a l i t i e s .

O fte n workers sw it ch ed

from one s p e c i a l i t y t o a n o t h e r b e c a u s e o f h i g h e r pa y , b e t t e r working
c o n d i t i o n s , o r d e r s from t h e camp s u p e r v i s o r , e t c .

N evertheless, job

t r a i n i n g t h r o u g h t h e se m i - fo r m al a p p p r e n t i c e system m a i n t a i n e d u n i f o r m i t y
th r o u g h o u t t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r ( D ra p er 1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889,
H u lb e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Nute 1944, Reimann 1952, Wells 1 97 8 ) .
S e c o n d l y , s u p e r v i s o r y p e r s o n n e l e x e r c i s e d c o n t r o l ov er p r o d u c t i o n
behavior.

In most c a s e s t h i s was on t h e l a r g e r s c a l e , such as p l a n n i n g

where t o c u t on a p a r t i c u l a r d a y , which had l i t t l e d i r e c t e f f e c t on
production beh av io r.

However, such i n d i v i d u a l s d i r e c t l y impacted

p r o d u c t i o n b e h a v i o r t h r o u g h t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f q u o t a s , r e i n f o r c e d with
rewards o r f i n e s .

They e x e r c i s e d c o n t r o l o v e r work a s s i g n m e n t s and could

p un is h o r reward workers by a s s i g n i n g them t o u n p l e a s a n t or ea s y t a s k s .
They a l s o had t h e power t o h i r e and f i r e w or ker s a t w i l l .

U n if o r m i ty was

a l s o e n f o r c e d th r o u g h m a n i p u l a t i n g a c c o u n t s a t t h e camp s t o r e (Draper
1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, H ul b er t 1949, Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952,
Todes 1931, Wells 197 8).
U n if o r m i ty found in n o n - p r o d u c t i o n b e h a v i o r a l s o p ro v id e d f u r t h e r
s u p p o r t f o r H yp oth es is 14.

This u n i f o r m i t y was e n f o r c e d by camp

s u p e r v i s o r s t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f o v e r t and c o v e r t me ans .
t h e form o f a v a r i e t y o f p r o s c r i b e d a c t i v i t i e s .

O ve rt means to o k

The l i s t o f such

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a c t i v i t i e s was f a i r l y l e n g t h y and was common a c r o s s t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r ,
including:

no t a l k i n g a t m e a l s , no l i q u o r in camp, cu rf ew s and e n f o r c e d

l i g h t s - o u t , no women i n camp, no e a t i n g between meals ( t h i s was e n f o r c e d
t o v a r y i n g d e g r e e s ) , and no f i g h t i n g .
p r o h i b i t i n g c a r d p l a y i n g and g am b li n g .

Some camps a l s o had r e g u l a t i o n s
The r e g u l a t i o n s were e n f o r c e d in a

v a r i e t y o f ways, such as l o c k i n g t h e cookhouse t o p r e v e n t between meal
eating.

In l a t e r y e a r s , when some camps had e l e c t r i c power, a m a s t e r

switch ex tin g u ish ed th e l i g h t s .

Visual i n s p e c t i o n by t h e camp s u p e r v i s o r s

was a l s o a method o f e n f o rc e m e n t (D ra pe r 1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889,
H u l b e r t 1949, Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, Wells 19 78 ).
There was a l s o a s m a l l e r l i s t o f p r e s c r i b e d a c t i v i t i e s , i n c l u d i n g :
s p e c i f i e d i n t e r v a l s f o r c l o t h e s w a s h in g , s p e c i f i e d i n t e r v a l s f o r b a t h i n g ,
s p e c i f i e d i n t e r v a l s f o r f u m i g a t i n g bu nkh ou ses , and s p e c i f i e d t i m e s f o r
l e t t e r w riting.

These r e g u l a t i o n s were e n f o r c e d by t h e camp s u p e r v i s o r

and h i s m in ion s (Dra per 1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, H u lb e r t 1949,
Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, Wells 19 7 8) .
From t h e above d i s c u s s i o n i t was a p p a r e n t t h a t u n i f o r m i t y was t h e
r u l e in both p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d and n o n - p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s on
th e logging f r o n t i e r .

Mai nt ene nce and en f o r ce m en t o f u n i f o r m i t y was

e s s e n t i a l t o p r o d u c t i o n e f f i c i e n c y and t o t h e c a p i t a l i s t c o n t r o l o v e r t h e
work f o r c e and t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r in g e n e r a l .

The examples p r e s e n t e d

gave some i d e a o f t h e v a r i e t y o f a c t i v i t i e s which were r e g u l a t e d and t h e
g e n e r a l ways in which some o f them were e n f o r c e d .

A c l o s e r e x a m in a t io n o f

t h e i s s u e o f en f o r ce m en t and c o n t r o l i l l u s t r a t e d i t s p e r v a s i v e n e s s on t h e
logging f r o n t i e r .
There were a v a r i e t y o f methods a v a i l a b l e t o e n f o r c e t h e r e g u l a t i o n s
g o v e r n in g p r o d u c t i o n and n o n - p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r s .

For example,

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wo rkers were u s u a l l y h i r e d by s e a s o n a l c o n t r a c t s which g e n e r a l l y ran from
September t o J u n e .

These c o n t r a c t s gave u n l i m i t e d freedom t o t h e camp

s u p e r v i s o r t o o r g a n i z e t h e work f o r c e s i n c e t e r m i n a t i o n was t h e obvious
punishment f o r i n f r a c t i o n s .

This was an extre me m e a s u r e , a l a s t r e s o r t ,

bec a us e employed t o o f r e q u e n t l y i t d eci ma te d t h e w o r k f o r c e .

Other

pu nishme nts d i d n o t d e p l e t e t h e work f o r c e and o f t e n t h e y were not
r e v e a l e d t o t h e worker u n t i l t h e end of t h e c o n t r a c t when wages were p a i d .
One method imposed f i n e s which were ded uc te d from wages a t t h e end o f t h e
year.

These might be a s s e s s e d t o r e p l a c e some a r t i c l e broken in a b r a w l ,

o r as sim p ly p u n i t i v e damages.
control.

The camp s t o r e was a n o t h e r monetary

Th is i n s t i t u t i o n pl a y e d a key r o l e in camp l i f e , even d u r i n g t h e

r a i l w a y l o g g i n g y e a r s , b e c a u s e t h e workers were u s u a l l y co n f in e d t o camp
most o f t h e t i m e .

Camp s t o r e s n o r m a l ly o f f e r e d a v a r i e t y o f goods such as

c l o t h i n g , t o b a c c o , t o i l e t r i e s , w r i t i n g p a p e r , p e n c i l s , ca nd y, p a t e n t
m e d i c i n e , s h o e s / b o o t s , sewing s u p p l i e s and o t h e r m i s c e l l a n e o u s i t e m s .

The

s t o r e k e e p e r a l s o d e l i v e r e d mail t o t h e n e a r e s t p o s t o f f i c e when going o u t
for supplies.

The f e e f o r d e l i v e r y v a r i e d , b u t in one i n s t a n c e was

mentioned t o be t e n c e n t s .

Items i n t h e camp s t o r e were not p r i c e d .

s e a s o n a l r e c o r d o f each wo rkers p u r c h a s e s was k e p t .

A

At t h e end o f t h e

se as on t h e c o s t o f t h e i t e m s p u r c h a s e d was d e d u c t e d from t h e w o r k e r ' s
wages b e f o r e he was p a i d .

Thi s c o s t was m a n i p u l a t e d t o a d j u s t f o r t h e

amount o f wages t h e c a p i t a l i s t s a c t u a l l y wished t o p a y .

Moreover, t h i s

amount v a r i e d from se as on t o se as o n and co ul d vary among workers d u r i n g
t h e same s e a s o n (Dra per 1930, Dye 1975, F i t z m a u r i c e 1889, H u lb e r t 1949,
Maybee 1976, Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, Wells 19 7 8) .
An other way t o e n f o r c e r e g u a l t i o n s was t o m a n i p u l a t e s u b t l e c l a u s e s
in t h e c o n t r a c t .

G e n e r a l l y , w o rk er s were no t p a i d f o r missed days o f

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work.

Workers might miss days f o r a number o f r e a s o n s , i n c l u d i n g

s i c k n e s s , o r j o b r e l a t e d i n j u r i e s as well as s e l f - i n d u c e d c o n d i t i o n s , such
as h a n g o v e r s .

F u r t h e r m o r e , i f t h e s e days were numerous, p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e

c o n t r a c t were c a l l e d i n t o p l a y which r e s u l t e d in f u r t h e r l o s s o f pay f o r
the worker.

An e x t r e m e , b u t no t r a r e example o f t h i s was t h e c a s e o f a

worker who was k i l l e d on t h e j o b .

When h i s widow went t o c o l l e c t t h e

wages owed t o h e r de c e a s e d husband, she found t h a t t h e company had
ded uc te d 20 p e r c e n t b e c a u s e h e r husband had broken h i s c o n t r a c t by
g e t t i n g h i m s e l f k i l l e d b e f o r e June (Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, Wells 1978).
In l i g h t o f such a c t i v i t i e s i t was s u r p r i s i n g t h a t workers in t h e
lo g g i n g i n d u s t r y were no t c a u g h t up in t h e d r i v e t o w ar d s u n i o n i z a t i o n
which c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h and e a r l y t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r i e s .
There were s e v e r a l r e a s o n s f o r t h i s .

F i r s t , even d u r i n g t h e r a i l w a y

lo g g i n g e r a camps were i s o l a t e d most o f t h e y e a r .
organizing e f f o r t s of unions.

Thi s stymied t h e

Moreover, v i s i t o r s b e n t on e s t a b l i s h i n g

un ion s were no t welcome (Karamanski 1984, Todes 1931, Wells 19 78 ).
S e c o n d l y , c a p i t a l i s t e l i t e s fo ll o w ed t h e same p r a c t i c e o f
i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d r a c i s m / e t h n o c e n t r i s m i n lo g g i n g a s t h e y did in o t h e r
realms o f t h e economy.

In many c a s e s camps were s e t up and p o p u l a t e d by

workers from t h e same e t h n i c g r o up .

The o v e r l a p p i n g t i e s of common

la n g u a g e , c u l t u r e and r e l i g i o n u s u a l l y c r e a t e d a s t r o n g bond and camp
i d e n t i t y among t h e s e w o r k e r s .

These bonds were f o s t e r e d s i n c e t h e y

prevented th e occurrence o f inter-camp u n it y .

E x t r a work, s upp ly

s h o r t a g e s , e t c . were blamed on ne ar b y camps o r cainps f u r t h e r down t h e r a i l
line.

The camps chosen as s c a p e g o a t s were always t h o s e c o n t a i n i n g a

d i f f e r e n t e t h n i c g ro u p .

Th is c r e a t e d and f o s t e r e d f e e l i n g s o f b i t t e r n e s s

between camps t h e r e b y p r e v e n t i n g t h e development o f any e f f e c t i v e

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inter-camp s o l i d a r i t y .

I f camps were t o o l a r g e o r i f t h e r e were not

enough w or ker s from a s i n g l e e t h n i c group t o f i l l

a camp, a l t e r n a t i v e

s t r a t e g i e s i n c l u d e d h i r i n g i n d i v i d u a l s from s i m i l a r g e o g r a p h i c o r i g i n s o r
w it h some o t h e r common t r a i t ( e . g . l a n g u a g e , r e l i g i o n ) .

This s i t u a t i o n

d i d not p r o v i d e as co m p lete c o n t r o l as t h a t w ith o n ly a s i n g l e e t h n i c
g r o u p , b u t i t i n s u r e d b e t t e r c o n t r o l th a n a h e t e r o g e n e o u s camp (Abrams
1978; D eg le r 1977; Hopkins e t . a l _ . 1982; Karamanski 1984; Reimann 1952;
Todes 1931; W a l l e r s t e i n 1980, 1983; Wells 19 78 ).
At t h e v er y end o f t h e s t u d y p e r i o d t h e red s c a r e pr o v id ed a n o t h e r
r e g u l a t o r y method t h a t was common in o t h e r l o g g i n g r e g i o n s .

S o c i a l i s t and

communist o r g a n i z a t i o n s , common t h r o u g h o u t Europe and o c c a s i o n a l l y North
America s i n c e t h e l a t e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y , a t t a i n e d n o t o r i e t y b ec a u se o f a
s e r i e s o f v i o l e n t u p r i s i n g s in R u s s i a c u l m i n a t i n g with t h e R e v o l u ti o n of
1917.

C a p i t a l i s t e l i t e s g e n e r a t e d a g r e a t deal o f f a l l a c i o u s propoganda

ab ou t s o c i a l i s t s and com mu nis ts.

S in c e many o f t h e aims o f union

o r g a n i z e r s were s i m i l a r t o t h o s e espoused by s o c i a l i s t s , unions were
exposed t o a g r e a t deal o f red b a i t i n g and o u t r i g h t v i o l e n c e .

Such

o r g a n i z a t i o n s were w id e l y d e c r i e d as un-American p r o v i d i n g c a p i t a l i s t s
w it h t h e s c o u r g e o f p a t r i o t i s m t o c o n t r o l wo rkers and undermine union
activity.

Thi s worked e s p e c i a l l y well w ith r e c e n t immigrants t r y i n g t o

become American.

By a s s o c i a t i n g s o c i a l i s m , u ni o ns and un-Americanism with

e t h i n i c ba ck g r o u n d , c a p i t a l i s t s f o r c e d workers i n t o f u r t h e r c o m p li a n c e .
(Abrams 1978; D eg le r 1977; Hopkins e t . a l _ . 1982; Karamanski 1984; Reimann
1952; Todes 1931; W a l l e r s t e i n 1980, 1983; Wells 1 97 8 ) .

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Summary
H yp ot h es is 14 was up h el d by t h i s a n a l y s i s .

U n if o rm i ty i n bo th

m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and b e h a v i o r c h a r a c t e r i z e d a l l f a c e t s o f l i f e on t h e
lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

M a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , both a r c h i t e c t u r e and t h e p r o d u c t i o n

t o o l a s s e m b l a g e , was s t a n d a r d t h r o u g h o u t t h e s t u d y p e r i o d .

A rchitectural

changes o c c u r r e d ma inl y in t h e l a y o u t o f camps w ith t h e ad ven t o f r a i l w a y
lo g g i n g and in t h e e x t e r i o r c o v e r i n g o f camp b u i l d i n g s .
ar r an g em en t was m a i n t a i n e d .

The same i n t e r n a l

The p r o d u c t i o n t o o l as s em b la ge underwent two

c h a n g e s , which i n c r e a s e d t h e e f f i c i e n c y o f woods work, b u t which d id not
d i s p l a c e o t h e r it em s in t h e a s s e m b l a g e .

As h y p o t h e s i z e d by H ar de sty

( 1 9 8 5 ) , bo th o f t h e s e cha nges were ado pt ed r a p i d l y a c r o s s t h e f r o n t i e r .
Be hav io r was s i m i l a r l y un ifo rm a c r o s s t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r , whe ther
i t was p r o d u c t i o n o r n o n - p r o d u c t i o n r e l a t e d .

In t h e c a s e o f p r o d u c t i o n

r e l a t e d b e h a v i o r , u n i f o r m i t y was m a i n t a i n e d t o i n c r e a s e o u t p u t .
U n if o rm i ty in n o n - p r o d u c t i o n b e h a v i o r was p a r t o f a p e r v a s i v e e f f o r t t o
e n s u r e a d o c i l e and m a l l e a b l e work f o r c e .

The i s o l a t e d c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e

l o g g i n g camps and t h e c a p i t a l i s t s us e o f e t h n o c e n t r i s m made i t ea s y f o r
t h e c o n t r o l s e x e r c i s e d o v e r both t y p e s o f b e h a v i o r t o c o n t i n u e
unchallenged.

H y p o th e s is 15
The s h i f t in p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y from r i v e r d r i v e t o r a i l r o a d lo g g i n g
s h o u ld be a b r u p t and o c c u r w i t h i n a s h o r t p e r i o d o f t i m e .

This s h i f t

s ho ul d r e s u l t in a movement from u n i v e r s a l r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g t o a
s itu a tio n of universal r a ilro a d logging.

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H y p o th e s is 15 was d e r i v e d from H a r d e s t y ' s (1985) d i s c u s s i o n o f change
on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r i n which he m a i n t a i n e d t h a t when change
o c c u r r e d in a r e a s r e l a t e d t o p r o d u c t i o n i t would r a p i d l y s p re a d a c r o s s t h e
frontier.

A sp e ct s o f change r e l a t e d t o t h e p r o d u c t i o n t o o l as se mb la ge

were d i s c u s s e d in H y p ot h es is 14, where i t was d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t such r a p i d
change d i d o c c u r .

In t h i s c a s e , a much l a r g e r phenomenon was examined:

t h e s h i f t from r i v e r d r i v e t o r a i l w a y l o g g i n g .
Data used in t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h i s h y p o t h e s i s came from two
sources.

The f i r s t was t h e o c c u p a t i o n d a t a a v a i l a b l e f o r most o f t h e

samples o f r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y lo g g i n g camps used in t h i s a n a l y s i s .
The second was h i s t o r i c a l d a t a which d e a l t w ith t h e t r a n s i t i o n from r i v e r
d riv e to railway logging.

This was most commonly found in l o c a l / r e g i o n a l

h i s t o r i e s and i n r e m i n i s c e n c e s o f t h e lo g g i n g e r a .

Analysis
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n d a t e s f o r r i v e r d r i v e and r a i l w a y
l o g g i n g camps s u p p o r t e d H y p o th e s is 15.

The i n i t i a l o c c u p a t i o n d a t e s f o r

most o f t h e r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s o c c u r r e d between 1881-1890; a s m a l l e r number
were o c c u p i e d between 1891-1900, a f t e r which t h e r e were e f f e c t i v e l y no
more r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s b u i l t in t h e s tu d y a r e a .
a p p ea r ed in numbers between 1881-1900.
o c c u r r e d between 1901-1910.

Railway s i t e s f i r s t

T h e i r g r e a t e s t s u r g e in numbers

Thi s p a r t i c u l a r p a t t e r n i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e

was an a b r u p t c e s s a t i o n in t h e us e o f r i v e r d r i v e camps by 1900, w h i l e a t
t h e same t i m e t h e r e was a s u r g e in t h e use o f r a i l w a y camps.

The decade

from 1891 t o 1900 was a p p a r e n t l y a t r a n s i t i o n p e r i o d between t h e e x t e n s i v e
us e o f r i v e r d r i v e camps and t h e e x t e n s i v e use o f r a i l w a y camps ( T ab l e 4 0 ) .

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TABLE 40
INITIAL OCCUPATION DATES
RIVER DRIVE CAMPS
AND
RAILWAY CAMPS
I n i t i a l Oc cupation Date

R i v e r Drive

Railway

1871-1880

7

2

1881-1890

26

8

1891-1900

8

4

1901-1910

0

13

1911-1920

1

7

F u r t h e r e x a m in a t io n o f H y p o th e s is 15 was u n d e r t a k e n th ro ug h t h e use
of time l i n e s .

F i g u r e 18 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e known o c c u p a t i o n spans f o r r i v e r

d r i v e s i t e s , most o f which o c c u r r e d b e f o r e 1890.

O th er r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s

l a s t e d f o r a number o f y e a r s , b u t a l l were e s t a b l i s h e d a t o r b e f o r e 1900.
S eve ral s i t e s had f a i r l y lo n g o c c u p a t i o n s p a n s , which was somewhat
unexpected.

Some o f t h e s e p r o b a b l y began t h e i r o c c u p a t i o n as r i v e r d r i v e

s i t e s and were l a t e r c o n v e r t e d t o r a i l w a y s i t e s , t h e r e b y g u a r a n t e e i n g
t h e i r continued occupation.

Given t h e s e l e c t i v e c u t t i n g in v o l v e d i n r i v e r

d r i v e l o g g i n g , i t was p l a u s i b l e t h a t such r i v e r d r i v e s i t e s , i f
a p p r o p r i a t e l y l o c a t e d , c o u l d be c o n v e r t e d t o r a i l w a y camps.

268

FIGURE 18
TIME LINE:

INITIAL OCCUPATION TO ABANDONMENT
FOR RIVER DRIVE SITES

- t i n g l e initial d a t e ,
r a n g e u nk no w n

Railway s i t e s had more t i m e l i n e d a t a a v a i l a b l e t h a n r i v e r d r i v e
s i t e s and t h e r e b y p r o v id e d some a d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n ab out change and
occupation.

While some r a i l w a y s i t e s began in t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s , most were

i n i t i a l l y o c c u p i e d a f t e r 1900.

Given t h e temp or al p a r a m e t e r s a s s o c i a t e d

w it h t h e i n i t i a l development o f t h e lo g g i n g r a i l r o a d , t h o s e camps begun in
t h e 1 8 7 0 ' s and e a r l y 1 8 8 0 ' s were most l i k e l y r i v e r d r i v e camps which were
s u b s e q u e n t l y c o n v e r t e d t o r a i l w a y camps.

The r a i l w a y camp ti m e l i n e was

s t e p p e d , which i l l u s t r a t e d t h e c o n t i n u e d abandonment and e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
l o g g i n g camps t h r o u g h t i m e as t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r expanded a c r o s s t h e
study area (Figure 19).

271

FIGURE 19
TIME LINE:

INITIAL OCCUPATION TO ABANDONMENT
FOR RAILWAY SITES

272
1870

1880

1890

1900

1910

1920

1920 +

• - s i n g l e i n i t i a l d a te ,
r a n g e un kn ow n

FIGURE

19

273
H i s t o r i c a l d a t a a l s o s u p p o r t e d H ypo the si s 15.

Nute (1944) in

d i s c u s s i n g l o g g i n g on t h e Upper P e n n i n s u l a , s t a t e d t h a t by 1900 r a i l w a y
lo g g i n g had a l m o s t c o m p l e t e l y r e p l a c e d r i v e r d r i v e l o g g i n g .

Although not

d i r e c t l y s t a t e d , i t was i m p l i e d t h a t t h i s change had swept t h e Upper
Penninsula.

Karamanski (1984) a l s o m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e a d o p t i o n o f

r a i l r o a d l o g g i n g by Upper P e n n i n s u l a l o g g e r s was very r a p i d .

Furthermore,

he m a i n t a i n e d and j u s t i f i a b l y s o , t h a t t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l w a y lo g g i n g was
t h e s i n g l e most i m p o r t a n t e v e n t i n Upper P e n n i n s u l a l o g g i n g d u r i n g t h e
f i r s t q u a rte r of the tw en tieth cen tu ry .

Oth er r e s e a r c h e r s have a l s o

m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e 1 8 9 0 ' s was t h e p e r i o d in which r a i l w a y lo g g i n g grew
e x t e n s i v e l y as t h e r i v e r d r i v e s yst em d e c l i n e d (F ran zen 1985).

H y p o th es is 16
With t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g , e a r l y camps might be l o c a t e d n e a r
o l d e r r i v e r d r i v e e r a camps so as t o o b t a i n hardwoods p r e v i o u s l y u n c u t .
This p r o p o s i t i o n assumes t h a t such t r e e s were n o t u t i l i z e d in some f a s h i o n
during the r i v e r d riv e e r a .

H y p o th e s is 15 was based on H a r d e s t y ' s (1985) c o n c e p t o f p at ch
r e o c c u p a t i o n which s t a t e d t h a t a p r e v i o u s l y o c cu pi ed and abandoned a r e a
c o ul d be r e o c c u p i e d i f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new p r o d u c t i o n te c h n o l o g y
r e n d e r e d r e o c c u p a t i o n and e x p l o i t a t i o n

profitable.

In t h i s c a s e t h e new

p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y was t h e l o g g i n g r a i l w a y .
During t h e r i v e r d r i v e e r a o n l y f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r was h a r v e s t e d .
Given t h e f o r e s t co m p o si ti o n o f t h e s tu d y a r e a , t h i s s e l e c t i v e c u t t i n g
c o u l d have l e f t n o n f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r in

the v ic in ity of riv e r drives i t e s ,

assuming t h a t such t i m b e r was n o t used in c o n s t r u c t i o n o r r e l a t e d

274
activ ities.

Data f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s were drawn from measures o f t h e

d i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t camp o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e and t h e t y p e o f n e a r e s t camp.

Analysis
Hy p ot h es is 16 was n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e d b ec a u se o f small sample s i z e and
c o n tra d ic to ry d is ta n c e measures.

An e x a m in a t io n o f t h e t y p e o f camp most

c l o s e l y a s s o c i a t e d w ith r i v e r d r i v e camps r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e s e were unknown
camps f o ll o w e d by r a i l w a y camps (Ta bl e 4 1 ) .

These unknown camps might

have been r i v e r d r i v e , r a i l w a y o r n o n - l o g g i n g s i t e s and were ex cl u de d from
t h e a n a l y s i s which fo c u s e d on t h e r a i l w a y camps.

TABLE 41
_

TYPE OF NEAREST CAMP
RIVER DRIVE SITES
Camp Type

Number

Percent

Railway

13

29

Unknown

32

71

The d i s t a n c e between r i v e r d r i v e camps and t h e n e a r e s t r a i l w a y camp
ranged between 0 . 6 9 t o 6 . 5 0 m i l e s w ith a median d i s t a n c e o f 1.75 m i l e s .
S in c e t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e s e me asures was composed o f a
s e r i e s o f o b s e r v a t i o n s and was t o o small f o r l a r g e sample t e c h n i q u e s , no
f u r t h e r d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s were computed.

Within t h e l i m i t s o f t h e

a v a i l a b l e d a t a t h e r e s u l t s w er e, a t b e s t , e q u i v o c a l .

The median d i s t a n c e

in t h i s c a s e ( 1 .7 5 m i l e s ) was a l m o s t t h e same as t h a t between r i v e r d r i v e
camps (1 .8 1 m i l e s ) as was t h e r a n g e .

Thi s i n d i c a t e d t h a t r a t h e r th an

275
bein g l o c a t e d c l o s e t o r i v e r d r i v e camps t o h a r v e s t p r e v i o u s l y uncut
n o n - f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r , t h e r a i l w a y camps were l o c a t e d a t t h e same d i s t a n c e
from r i v e r d r i v e camps as r i v e r d r i v e camps were from each o t h e r .

From

t h i s i t was i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e n o n - f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r had been p a r t i a l l y o r
f u l l y c u t , t h e r e b y r e n d e r i n g r e o c c u p a t i o n o f t h e a r e a u n p r o f i t a b l e (Tab le
42).
TABLE 42
DISTANCE BETWEEN RIVER DRIVE CAMPS AND NEAREST OTHER CAMP,
WHEN THE LATTER WAS A RAILWAY CAMP
Median = 1.75 m i l e s
Range

= 0.69 - 6.50 miles

These r e s u l t s were c a u t i o u s l y e x t r a p o l a t e d f u r t h e r .

When H yp ot h es is

16 was f r a m e d , i m p l i c i t t o i t s f o r m u l a t i o n was t h e ass um pt io n t h a t r i v e r
d r i v e and r a i l w a y lo g g i n g s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n s might o v e r l a p b ec a u se o f
r e o c c u p a t i o n t o h a r v e s t t h e r e m a in in g n o n - f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r in t h e v i c i n i t y
o f r i v e r d r i v e camps.

Because H yp ot h es is 16 was not s u p p o r t e d ( a l l o w i n g

f o r small sample s i z e ) i t was i n f e r r e d t h a t t h e r i v e r d r i v e s e t t l e m e n t
p a t t e r n and t h e r a i l w a y l o g g i n g s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n were s e p a r a t e phenomena
as f a r as camps were c o n c e r n e d .

The a n a l y s i s d i d , however, prod uce two

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r r i v e r d r i v e camps and t h e t i m b e r around them.

F irst,

i f t h e r e was u n f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r w i t h i n t h e work zone around r i v e r d r i v e
camps, i t may have been used in camp c o n s t r u c t i o n and m a in te na n ce o r in
th e subsequent c o n s tr u c t io n of r a i l

lines.

i n s u f f i c i e n t to support reoccupation.

Any r e m a in in g t i m b e r was

Second, r i v e r d r i v e camps may have

been s i t e d in o r a d j a c e n t t o c o n t i n u o u s s t a n d s o f f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r , a
c o n t e n t i o n made by Weir and R u t t e r ( 1 9 8 5 ) .

When a l l f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r was

276
h a r v e s t e d , t h e a r e a was logge d o u t , p r e c l u d i n g f u t u r e l o g g i n g .

Whatever

t h e e x p l a n a t i o n , H yp o th es is 16 was not s u p p o r t e d by t h e a n a l y s i s .

Hy p ot h es is 17
The change in l o g g i n g i n d u s t r y c o s t s t r u c t u r e b r o u g h t abo ut by t h e
i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e l o g g i n g r a i l w a y should r e s u l t in t h e i n c r e a s i n g
c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t i m b e r l a n d ow ner sh ip in t h e hands o f fewer
individuals/institutions.

This h y p o t h e s i s was d e s i g n e d t o examine one f a c e t o f t h e lo g g i n g
i n d u s t r y a s a component o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t world s y s t e m .

With t h e h i g h e r

i n i t i a l c o s t s o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g , i t was a n t i c i p a t e d t h a t c a p i t a l i s t
e l i t e s would seek t o g u a r a n t e e t h e i r p r o f i t t h r o u g h a f u r t h e r e x t e n s i o n o f
t h e i r c o n t r o l o v e r t h e means o f p r o d u c t i o n .

S in c e t h e lo g g i n g r a i l w a y was

a l r e a d y un de r t h e i r c o n t r o l , e x t e n s i o n s o f c o n t r o l might be e x p e c t e d in
t h e a r e a s r e l a t i n g t o l a b o r and raw m a t e r i a l s .

Cont ro l o ve r l a b o r was

d i s c u s s e d in H yp oth es is 15, so t h i s a n a l y s i s w i l l f o c u s on c o n t r o l over
raw m a t e r i a l s .

Because t h e raw m a t e r i a l in q u e s t i o n , t i m b e r , was c l o s e l y

a s s o c i a t e d w it h l a n d , t h e a n a l y s i s fo cus ed on t h e p r o c e s s o f la nd
a c q u i s i t i o n and t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f a c q u i s i t i o n t o measure c o n t r o l over
t h e means o f p r o d u c t i o n .
h istorical

Data f o r t h i s a n a l y s i s were drawn from

sources including autobiographies/rem iniscences, lo c a l/re g io n a l

h i s t o r i e s and t o p i c a l s t u d i e s , one o f which was a s p e c i a l r e p o r t on t h e
lumber i n d u s t r y p r e p a r e d by t h e U.S. Bureau o f C o r p o r a t i o n s ( 1 9 1 4 ) .

277
Analysis
The a n a l y s i s uph eld H y p o th e s is 17 b e c a u s e w ith t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f
t h e l o g g i n g r a i l w a y , t i m b e r l a n d owne rs hip was c o n s o l i d a t e d in t h e hands o f
a few i n d i v i d u a l s / i n s t i t u t i o n s .

I n i t i a l l y t i m b e r l a n d s pa s s ed from

government t o p r i v a t e ow n er sh ip in what app ea re d t o be an e g a l i t a r i a n and
dispersed fa sh io n .

Under t h e Homestead A c t, f o r ex am pl e, i n d i v i d u a l s

co ul d o b t a i n up t o 160 a c r e s p r o v i d e d t h e y l i v e d on t h e la nd f o r f i v e
y e a r s and made some imp ro vem ent s.
public a u c tio n s .

Land was a l s o s o l d a t s t a t e o r f e d e r a l

To e n c o u r a g e r a i l w a y and cana l c o n s t r u c t i o n in t h e Upper

P e n n i n s u l a t h e f e d e r a l government g r a n t e d la n d t o companies who b u i l t o r
promised t o b u i l d r a i l w a y s and c a n a l s .

Canal companies r e c e i v e d b l o c k s o f

l a n d , w h i l e r a i l w a y s were g r a n t e d a l t e r n a t i n g s e c t i o n s , f o l l o w i n g t h e
p a t t e r n used i n t h e r e s t o f t h e c o u n t r y .
s t a t e swampland g r a n t s .

Land was a l s o d i s p e r s e d th ro u gh

The f e d e r a l government g r a n t e d t h e s e l a n d s t o t h e

s t a t e on t h e c o n d i t i o n t h a t t h e la n d be d r a i n e d t o make i t s u i t a b l e f o r
agriculture.

The s t a t e c o u l d e i t h e r d r a i n t h e la n d o r s e l l

r e q u i r e m e n t o f s a l e t h a t t h e bu ye r d r a i n t h e l a n d .

i t w it h a

Michigan chos e t h e

l a t t e r o p t i o n and t h e money from t h e la n d s a l e s was p u t i n t o a t r u s t f o r
p u b l i c e d u c a t i o n ( C a t t o n 1976, Chase 1936, D eg le r e t . al_. 1979, Dunbar
1970, Maybee 1976, Merk 1978, Shands and Healy 1977, S te e n 1976, Todes
1931, U.S. Bureau o f C o r p o r a t i o n s 1914, Watson 1923, Wells 19 7 8) .
Taken a t f a c e v a l u e , t h e s e methods o f la n d d i s t r i b u t i o n d i d n o t seem
co nd uc iv e t o t h e c o n c e n t r a t i o n o f o w n e r s h i p .

They w e r e , however,

e x t r e m e l y s u s c e p t a b l e t o m a n i p u l a t i o n and o u t r i g h t f r a u d ; some o c c u r r e d
d u r i n g t h e r i v e r d r i v e e r a , b u t t h e f r a u d r ea ch ed i t s peak d u r i n g r a i l w a y
logging.

Here i s how i t worked.

278
M a n i p u l a t i o n o f t h e p r o v i s i o n s o f t h e Homestead Act fo cu s ed on
c o r p o r a t i o n s o r la n d g r a b b e r s who a r r a n g e d f o r an i n d i v i d u a l t o s t a k e a
c l a im f o r t h e 160 a c r e s and t h e n p a i d t h a t i n d i v i d u a l t o r e l i n q u i s h t h e
land.

The la n d was logge d o v e r and abandoned, u l t i m a t e l y t o r e v e r t t o t h e

s t a t e o r f e d e r a l government f o r non-payment o f t a x e s .

In l a t e r y e a r s ,

la n d o f f i c e s made a f e e b l e a t t e m p t t o v e r i f y t h a t t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e
g r a n t had been met ( a c a b i n o f t h e r e q u i r e d s i z e , w ith g l a z e d windows
c o n s t r u c t e d on t h e p r o p e r t y ) .

The c l a i m a n t was asked t o ap p e a r a t t h e

lan d o f f i c e and v e r i f y t h a t he had met t h e c o n d i t i o n s ; however t h e s e
" v e r i f i c a t i o n s " were n e v e r checked by s i t e v i s i t s .

Had t h e la n d o f f i c e

a c t u a l l y v i s i t e d some o f t h e s e c l a i m s i t would have found t h a t t h e " c a b i n "
was t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s i z e , p r o v i d e d one measured in i n c h e s i n s t e a d o f f e e t
and t h a t " g l a z e d windows" meant d r i l l i n g a h o l e in t h e wall and pl ug g i n g
i t w it h a l i q u o r b o t t l e (Dunbar 1970, Hudgins 1961, Todes 1931, Watson
1923, Wells 1978 ).
Another p l o y was t o f i l e c l a i m s under t h e names o f j u v e n i l e s o r t h e
deceased.

" R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s " co u l d f i l e t h e c l a i m s by m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t

t h e y were a c t i n g on b e h a l f o f t h e c l a i m a n t who was u n a b l e t o a t t e n d
b e c a u s e o f p r e s s i n g b u s i n e s s in a n u r s e r y o r g r a v e y a r d .
p e r s o n e l even p a r t i c i p a t e d in some o f t h e s t r a t e g i e s .

Land o f f i c e
A favorite ta c tic

was t o c o l l e c t a number o f a d o l e s c e n t m a l e s , pay them, and have them f i l e
claim s.

When t h e y a r r i v e d a t t h e la n d o f f i c e t h e y s t o o d on a l a r g e "21"

t h a t had been w r i t t e n on t h e f l o o r .

This way t h e c h i l d r e n co u ld c l a i m

t h e y were m a l e s , o v e r t w e n t y - o n e , w is h in g t o f i l e a c l a i m f o r Homestead
Act l a n d s (Dunbar 1970, Hudgins 1961, Todes 1931, Watson 1923, Wells 19 7 8 ).
P u b l i c la n d s a l e s were a l s o open t o m a n i p u l a t i o n .

A coterie

i n t e r e s t e d in t h e a v a i l a b l e p a r c e l s would meet b e f o r e t h e s a l e and d i v y up

279
the p a r c e ls .

When t h e a c t u a l s a l e to o k p l a c e , on ly t h e pers on who had

been p r e v i o u s l y a l o t t e d a p a r c e l b i d .

As s i n g l e b i d d e r he coul d make t h e

bi d low, sometimes even below t h e f e d e r a l l y e s t a b l i s h e d minimum, and s t i l l
be g u a r a n t e e d p u r c h a s e a t h i s p r i c e (Hudgins 1961, Wells 1978, Reimann
1952, Todes 1 93 1 ) .
Sometimes, however, such p l o t t i n g was n o t p o s s i b l e .

In t h i s c a s e a

bu y er o r h i s a g e n t would su b m it an e x h o r b i t a n t bid f o r a p a r c e l o f l a n d ,
guaranteeing t h a t the h ighest b id .

A f t e r t h e s a l e was c l o s e d , t h e b i d d e r

withdrew t h e b i d , l e a v i n g t h e p a r c e l un so ld and u n c l a i m e d .

The la nd

o f f i c e t h e n had t o d i s p o s e o f t h e la n d on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s f o r t h e b e s t
price.

U s u a l l y w i t h i n a week o f h i s wi thdrawal t h e a g e n t would o f f e r a

low p r i c e t o t h e la nd o f f i c e and p u r c h a s e t h e p a r c e l a t h i s p r i c e , o f t e n
below t h e e s t a b l i s h e d minimum (Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, Wells 1 9 78 ).
While both t h e f e d e r a l

r a i l w a y and t h e cana l g r a n t s p r ov id ed a n o t h e r

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r la nd g r a b b i n g , t h i s was more common with t h e r a i l w a y
grants.
railroad.

Railways would a p p l y f o r la n d g r a n t s and t h e n n e v e r b u i l d t h e
A l t e r n a t e l y t h e y would submit s u r v e y maps as i f t h e y were maps

o f t h e com ple te d r a i l l i n e and c o l l e c t t h e la n d g r a n t .
maps were p r e p a r e d w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t o f a s u r v e y :
deliberate forgeries.
as t h e y saw f i t .

Often t h e s e s u r v e y

t h e y were s im p l e and

Once t h e r a i l w a y s owned t h e l a n d t h e y u t i l i z e d i t

This i n c l u d e d l o g g i n g , b u t sometimes t h e la nd was s o ld

t o o t h e r companies (Hudgins 1961, Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, Wells 1 9 7 8) .
Most o f t h e s t a t e swampland was d i s p e r s e d th r o u g h p u b l i c s a l e and
m a n i p u l a t i o n s o f t h e s a l e o f swamp l a n d s were i d e n t i c a l t o t h o s e used t o
m a n i p u l a t e o t h e r p u b l i c la n d s a l e s .
l e s s t h a n t h e minimum s e t p r i c e .

Most o f t h e s e l a n d s were s o l d f o r

Some o f t h e s t a t e swamp l a n d s were used

as s t a t e g r a n t s t o s u p p o r t r a i l r o a d o r road c o n s t r u c t i o n .

These were

280
m a n i p u l a t e d in t h e f a s h i o n d e s c r i b e d above f o r f e d e r a l

railway grants

(Hudgins 1961, Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, Wells 197 8) .
In summary, a l t h o u g h t h e r e were a number of ways t o t r a n s f e r f r o n t i e r
l a n d s from government t o p r i v a t e c o n t r o l , each was s u b j e c t t o a v a r i e t y o f
m a n i p u l a t i o n s which a s s u r e d t h e c a p i t a l i s t s t h a t t h e y would g e t t h e
amounts o f la n d a t t h e p r i c e t h e y w an te d .

These la n d a c q u i s i t i o n s fo cu s ed

e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e m a in te n a n c e o f c o n t r o l o ve r p r o d u c t i o n th r o u g h t h e
a c q u i s i t i o n o f la nd and hence t h e a v a i l a b l e t i m b e r s u p p l y .
In a d d i t i o n t o d i r e c t o w n e r s h i p , which was sometimes c o s t l y , t h e r e
were o t h e r ways t o g a i n c o n t r o l o v e r t i m b e r .

Companies were merged so

t h a t t h e c o n t r o l l i n g company c o u l d t a k e o ve r t h e s m a l l e r company's t i m b e r .
The "mergee" was u s u a l l y k e p t o p e r a t i o n a l l y s e p a r a t e so t h a t i t s t i m b e r
co u l d be c u t and i t coul d l a p s e i n t o b an k r u p tc y w i t h o u t harming t h e
c o n t r o l l i n g company.

C o n t r o l l i n g companies a l s o e s t a b l i s h e d s u b s i d i a r y

companies w it h i n t e r l o c k i n g d i r e c t o r a t e s .

The s u b s i d i a r y companies would

c u t t h e t i m b e r , t r a n s f e r t h e p r o f i t s t o t h e pr im ar y company and t h e n go
o u t o f e x i s t a n c e i f n e c e s s a r y (Reimann 1952, Todes 1931, U.S. Bureau o f
C o r p o r a t i o n s 1914, Wells 1 9 7 8 ) .
These two methods o f c o n c e n t r a t i n g la nd owne rs hip ( d i r e c t and
i n d i r e c t a c q u i s i t i o n ) were common in t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a and s u c c e s s f u l .
As Table 43 i l l u s t r a t e s , a b o u t h a l f o f t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a la n d was he ld
by t h i r t y - t w o ow ne rs .

Moreover, t h e Clev elan d C l i f f s I ro n Company he ld

14 .2 p e r c e n t o f t h e l a n d , a f a c t t h a t was s k i l l f u l l y camoflaged by t h e
d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h e la nd among t h i r t e e n companies t h a t were w ho lel y owned
s u b s i d i a r i e s o f Clev elan d C l i f f s .

281
TABLE 43
LAND OWNERSHIP IN THE UPPER PENINSULA
1910
Cumulative
Holders

Acreage

Percent

Percent

C le ve la nd C l i f f s

1,515,392

14.2

14.2

F i r s t Group

2,413,794

22.6

36. 8

1 , 0 9 5 ,4 9 7

10 .3

4 7 .4

974, 343

9. 1

(12 h o l d e r s o f ov er
100,000 a c r e s eac h)
Second Group
(19 h o l d e r s , 4 0 , 0 0 0 100.000 a c r e s each)
T hi rd Group

56.2

(58 h o l d e r s 1 5 , 0 0 0 4 0. 00 0 a c r e a each)

C le ve la nd C l i f f s i s a prime example of how i n t e r l o c k i n g d i r e c t o r a t e s
(and o t h e r m e as ur e s) f a c i l i t a t e d t h e c o n s o l i d a t i o n o f la n d o w n e r s h i p .

As

i l l u s t r a t e d in Table 44 , f o u r c l u s t e r s o f c o r p o r a t i o n s c o n t r o l l e d a
minimum o f 13 p e r c e n t o f t h e la n d i n t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

Furthermore,

t h e s e f o u r c l u s t e r s o r i g i n a l l y a p p e a r e d as t w e l v e o f t h e t h i r t y - o n e major
i n d i v i d u a l la n d h o ld i n g companies on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a .

R a t h e r th a n

assume t h a t t h e s e c l u s t e r s were a l l t h a t were p r e s e n t among t h e t h i r t y - o n e
n o m i n a ll y s e p a r a t e c o m pa ni es , i t was p er h ap s more v a l i d t o assume t h a t
t h e s e f o u r were t h e l e s s well camoflaged o f t h e g r o u p .

The rema ining

n i n e t e e n i n d i v i d u a l companies were a l s o p r o b a b ly co n n e c te d in some f a s h i o n
so as t o r e d u c e t h e t o t a l number o f e n t i t i e s c o n t r o l l i n g t h e l a n d .

If

282
Cl e v el an d C l i f f s ' h o l d i n g s a r e added t o t h e s e f o u r , t h e n f i v e companies
h e l d 2 7 . 2 p e r c e n t o f t h e la n d on t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a (U .S. Bureau o f
C o r p o r a t i o n s 1 91 4 ) .
TABLE 44
CONNECTIVITY AMONG MAJOR UPPER PENINSULA LANDHOLDERS
1910
Interlocking D irectorate

Acreage

Percent

965,000

9.0

100, 000+

1 .0

One
Keweenaw Land A s s o c i a t i o n
Michigan I ro n and Land Company
J.M . Longyear
J.C . Ayer's E state
Albany Pool
Two
Calumet and Hecta Mining
Tamarack Mining Company

(minimum)

Three
Wisconsin Land and Lumber
N o rth w es te rn Cooperage and Lumber

100, 000+

1 .0

(minimum)

United Logging Company
Four
D e t r o i t , Mackinac and M a r q u e tt e Railway

176,681+

2.0

South Shore Land Co.
An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e amount o f t i m b e r in t h e l a n d h o l d i n g s was
undertaken.
available.

In t h i s c a s e , however, o nl y g e n e r a l l e v e l i n f o r m a t i o n was
I t was n o t p o s s i b l e t o i s o l a t e t h e t i m b e r r e s o u r c e s a s s o c i a t e d

w it h i n d i v i d u a l c o r p o r a t i o n s , e x c e p t f o r t h o s e o f C le ve la nd C l i f f s .

As

283
r e v e a l e d in T ab l e 45 , t h e h o l d i n g s o f t i m b e r r e s e r v e s a r e even more
suggestive of a highly c o n tro lle d s i t u a t i o n .

While t h i r t y - t w o no m i n a ll y

i n d i v i d u a l c o r p o r a t i o n s h e l d 4 7 . 1 p e r c e n t o f t h e la n d on t h e Upper
P e n i n s u l a , t h i s la nd c o n t a i n e d 6 7 . 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e a v a i l a b l e t i m b e r .
More i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e s e f i g u r e s r e p r e s e n t e d t h e a v a i l a b l e t i m b e r f o r la nd
owned in 1910.

They d i d n o t i n c l u d e t i m b e r which had a l r e a d y been c u t f o r

l a n d s which were t h e n abandoned (U .S . Bureau o f C o r p o r a t i o n s 1 91 4 ) .
TABLE 45
TIMBER RESERVES OF UPPER PENINSULA LANDHOLDERS
1910

Board F eet
(x 107 )

L and hol der

P e r c e n t a g e of
Total Owned Land

C le v e la n d C l i f f s Ir o n Company

4.2

17.6

F i r s t Group (12)

7. 2

29.7

Second Group (19)

4.9

20.3

16.3

67.6

In a d d i t i o n t o d i r e c t o w n e r s h i p , o t h e r methods o f i n d i r e c t c o n t r o l
were used in t h e s t u d y a r e a and were u s u a l l y d i r e c t e d a g a i n s t s m a l l e r
h o l d e r s who n e i gh bo re d n e x t t o t h e v a s t b l o c k s o f la n d h e l d by
corporations.

I f t h e small landowner was not in v o l v e d in l o g g i n g , h i s / h e r

l a n d was i n d i s c r i m i n a t e l y logge d o v e r by t h e c o r p o r a t i o n .

If the

i n d i v i d u a l a t t e m p t e d small s c a l e l o g g i n g , he was d e n i e d a c c e s s t o t h e
l o g g i n g r a i l w a y o r o t h e r r e s o u r c e s n e c e s s a r y t o t h e removal and p r o c e s s i n g
of his tim ber.

U l t i m a t e l y t h i s f o r c e d t h e small la nd owners t o s e l l or

o t h e r w i s e t r a n s f e r t h e i r h o l d i n g s t o t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s on t h e c o r p o r a t i o n s '
t e r m s ( U . S . Bureau o f C o r p o r a t i o n s 19 14 ).

284
H y p o th e s is 17 was s u p p o r t e d by t h e d a t a from t h e s t u d y a r e a .

With

t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g c o n t r o l o v e r r e s o u r c e s became c o n c e n t r a t e d
in t h e handk o f r e l a t i v e l y few i n d i v i d u a l s / i n s t i t u t i o n s , both in te rm s o f
la nd owne rs hip and in te rm s o f t h e amount o f t i m b e r p r e s e n t on t h i s l a n d .
This c o n t r o l was a c h i e v e d t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f means, most o f which were
no m i n a ll y i l l e g a l , and r e s u l t e d i n t h e dominance o f c o r p o r a t e lo g g i n g
during th e l a s t p a r t o f th e study p e r io d .
SUMMARY
This c h a p t e r p r e s e n t e d t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s o f t h e h y p o th e s e s
posed e a r l i e r .

The e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e s e h y p o t h e s e s produced a v a r i e t y o f

r e s u l t s , a l l o f which added t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .
A number o f h y p o t h e s e s ( 1 , 2 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 9 , 1 0 , 1 1 , 1 2 , 1 3 , 1 4 , 1 5 , 1 7 ) were a c c e p t e d
outright.
rejectab le.

O th e r s ( 3 , 8 , 16) a p p ea r ed t o be o n ly p a r t i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e o r
Upon c l o s e r e x a m i n a t i o n , t h e s e h y p o th e s e s were found t o have

been p a r t i a l l y a c c e p t a b l e b e c a u s e a s s u m p ti o n s used in t h e i r f o r m u l a t i o n
were not a p p r o p r i a t e t o t h e s t u d y a r e a .

N o n e t h e l e s s , th r o u g h t h i s c l o s e r

i n s p e c t i o n f u r t h e r i n s i g h t s were o b t a i n e d abo ut t h e n a t u r e o f t h e lo g g i n g
frontier.

The r e s u l t s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r w i l l be d i s c u s s e d in t h e

c o n c l u d i n g c h a p t e r in l i g h t o f t h e i r c o n t r i b u t i o n t o ou r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r and lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r s in g e n e r a l .

CHAPTER VII
CONCLUSIONS

This r e s e a r c h has examined t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r o f M ic h i g a n ' s Upper
P e n i n s u l a as a c a s e s tu d y o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , w it h t h e goal of
u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e a d a p t i v e s t r a t e g i e s a s s o c i a t e d w it h f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t .
I n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s were v i t a l t o t h e o v e r a l l s e t t l e m e n t o f many p a r t s o f
North America a n d , on a s m a l l e r s c a l e , were o f t e n t h e o n l y s i g n i f i c a n t
h i s t o r i c a l occupation of various l o c a l e s .

Exa mination o f t h e p a t t e r n s and

p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d with t h e s e f r o n t i e r s p r o v i d e d , n o t o n ly i n f o r m a t i o n
a b o u t t h e s p e c i f i c Upper Michigan c a s e unde r e x a m i n a t i o n , b u t a l s o
i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e ongoing a d a p t a t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t o f i n d u s t r i a l
frontiers.

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s p a r t i c u l a r r e s e a r c h a l lo w e d f o r t h e

e x a m in a t io n o f f o u r such p a t t e r n s and p r o c e s s e s :

t h e s e t t l e m e n t sy st em ;

t e c h n o l o g i c a l / b e h a v i o r a l ch a n g e ; o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ; and t h e
tr a n s p o r ta tio n system.
S e t t l e m e n t System
Lewis' d e s c r i p t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t c o m po si tio n
s e r v e d t o f o c u s t h e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e s e t t l e m e n t system o f M i c h i g a n ' s
Upper P e n i n s u l a .

I n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by

t h r e e major f e a t u r e s .
of settlem ents:

F i r s t , i n d u s tr i a l f r o n t i e r s contained th r e e types

e n t r e p o t s , i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s , and camps.

E n t r e p o t s s e r v e d a s gateways which c o nn ec te d t h e f r o n t i e r w ith t h e
homeland and were t h e l a r g e s t and most d i v e r s e s e t t l e m e n t s on t h e

285

286
industrial fro n tie r.

I n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s , which were no t

mandatory f o r i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , c o n t a i n e d a more l i m i t e d ran ge o f
a c t i v i t i e s and fo c u s e d m a in ly on s e r v i c i n g t h e camps.
e x c l u s i v e l y on p r o d u c t i o n .

Camps f oc us ed

S e c o n d l y , b o th a nume ric al and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l

h i e r a r c h y e x i s t e d among t h e s e t h r e e t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t s , and c o r re s po nd ed
t o what would be e x p e c te d i n a gateway s i t u a t i o n .

Camps were t!,e most

numerous and most o r g a n i z a t i o n a l l y s i m p l e , f o l l o w e d in o r d e r o f d e c r e a s i n g
number and i n c r e a s i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c o m p le x it y by i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly
c e n t e r s and t h e n e n t r e p o t s .
a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system.

F i n a l l y , t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s were c o n ne c te d by

Although Lewis d i d not s p e c i f y t h e t y p e o f

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , t h e g e n e r a l p r i n c i p l e s and r e l a t e d f a c t o r s f o r such
syst ems were d e r i v e d from B u r g h a r d t (1971) and Taafe e t . a J L ( 1 9 6 3 ) .
R e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s r e v e a l e d t h a t Lewis' c h a r a c t e r i z a t i o n of
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s was s u p p o r t e d by t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r s i t u a t i o n in
t h a t t h e t h r e e t y p e s o f s e t t l e m e n t e x i s t e d in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e h i e r a r c h i c a l
arrangement.

More i m p o r t a n t l y , t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p remained r e l a t i v e l y

s t a b l e t h r o u g h ti m e in s p i t e o f a change in t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy st em ,
which was one o f t h e key f a c t o r s t h a t coul d a f f e c t change in t h e f r o n t i e r
s e t t l e m e n t sy ste m ( B u r g h a r d t 1971, T aa fe e t . a U

1 96 3 ) .

Moreover, w h i l e

changes in t h e mode o f t r a n s p o r t sh ou ld have a l t e r e d f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t ,
such a l t e r a t i o n was no t as profound as e x p e c t e d .

In s p i t e o f t h e

i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , t h e s e t t l e m e n t
c o m p o s i ti o n o f t h e l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r (as opposed t o numbers and p a t t e r n )
remained t h e same.

This f i n d i n g i s i m p o r t a n t not o n l y bec au se i t

c o n t r a d i c t s p r e v i o u s ways i n which changes in t r a n s p o r t mode were viewed,
but a l s o because i t i l l u s t r a t e s th e r o le of th e p r e - e x i s t i n g s e ttle m e n t
p a t t e r n and v a r i o u s h i s t o r i c a l e v e n t s in sh a p in g t h e new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

287
sy st em .

P r e v i o u s models o f t r a n s p o r t systems ( B u r g h a r d t 1971, Taafe

e t . a l . 1963) have g e n e r a l l y assumed t h a t t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new and
competing t r a n s p o r t t e c h n o l o g y would d i s r u p t p r e - e x i s t i n g s e t t l e m e n t
p a t t e r n / c o m p o s i t i o n b e c a u s e t h e new t r a n s p o r t t e c h n o l o g y would a l lo w
c e r t a i n e n t r e p o t s and t h e i r h i n t e r l a n d s t o more e f f e c t i v e l y e x p l o i t and
t h e n t r a n s p o r t commodities t o t h e homeland.

Thi s as s u m p ti on was based on

t h e prem is e t h a t new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t e c h n o l o g i e s would be o r i e n t e d on an
entrepot to hinterland a x is.
case.

However, t h a t p r e m i s e d id no t hold in t h i s

H i s t o r i c a l l y , a number o f e n t r e p o t s and h i n t e r l a n d s e x i s t e d p r i o r

to th e appearance of th e r a i l r o a d .

From t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n , i t was

a p p a r e n t t h a t t h e d e s i r e t o t r a v e r s e t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a and l i n k t h e
e n t r e p o t s was t h e i n i t i a l

impetus behi nd r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n .

Thus, main

l i n e r a i l r o a d s i n i t i a l l y were o r i e n t e d p e r p e n d i c u l a r l y t o t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g
en tre p o t/h in terlan d axes.

T h e r e f o r e , no e n t r e p o t / h i n t e r l a n d d e c l i n e d

b ec a u se o f t h e t r a n s p o r t a d v a n t a g e o f a n e i g h b o r .

Logging r a i l r o a d s

ap pe a r ed s u b s e q u e n t t o t h e main l i n e and l i n k e d t h e main l i n e w it h t h e
hinterland.

So, n o t o n l y d i d t h e s e t t l e m e n t c o m p o s i ti o n remain t h e same,

b u t a l l o f t h e e n t r e p o t s and most o f t h e i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s a l s o
c o n t i n u e d t o e x i s t a f t e r t h e devel opment o f t h e new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n
technology.
F u r t h e r m o r e , i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n te c h n o l o g y d id
no t sim pl y r e p l a c e t h e p r e - e x i s t i n g d e n d r i t i c e n t r e p o t / h i n t e r l a n d p a t t e r n
w ith a s i m i l a r one u s i n g t h e new t e c h n o l o g y , b u t r a t h e r i n t r o d u c e d a more
complex p a t t e r n .

Thi s p a t t e r n i n v o l v e d a l i n e a r b a s e l i n e from which t h e

ex p ec te d d e n d r i t i c r o u t e s p e n e t r a t e d i n t o t h e h i n t e r l a n d .

Moreover, t h i s

tr a n s p o r t p a t te r n a f f e c t e d th e s e ttle m e n t p a t t e r n but not th e se ttle m e n t
c o m p o s i ti o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

S p e c i f i c a l l y , i n t e r m e d i a t e s u pp ly

288
c e n t e r s were l o c a t e d l i n e a r l y a l o n g t h e main l i n e r a i l w a y r a t h e r th a n on
th e d e n d r i t i c e n t r e p o t / h i n t e r l a n d axis of th e p re -ra ilw a y e r a .

In s p i t e

o f t h e s e c h a n g e s , t h e o v e r a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p s between e n t r e p o t s ,
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s , and camps remained unchanged a f t e r t h e
emergence o f t h e new t r a n s p o r t t e c h n o l o g y .
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h a l s o p r o v id e d i n s i g h t s i n t o t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f e n t r e p o t s , which were a c c u r a t e l y d e s c r i b e d by Lewis
(1984) and B u r g h a rd t ( 1 9 7 1 ) .

On t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s

were t h e p r i n c i p a l s e t t l e m e n t s a n d , as s u c h , were l a r g e r , more d i v e r s e and
fe w er in number t h a n any o t h e r t y p e of s e t t l e m e n t .

Most c o n t i n u e d t o

e x i s t a f t e r t h e demise o f t h e f r o n t i e r b e ca u se t h e y d ev el o pe d i n t e r n a l
economies not d i r e c t l y de p en d e n t on t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f t h e dominant
commodity.

Nahma ( t h e e n t r e p o t which d e c l i n e d w ith t h e demise o f t h e

l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r ) i l l u s t r a t e d a phenomenon d i s c u s s e d by Bu r g h ar d t (1971)
and T aa fe e t . a l _ . (1963) where a gateway d e c l i n e s b e c a u s e t h e c e s s a t i o n o f
p r o d u c t i v i t y i n i t s h i n t e r l a n d i s cou pl ed w i t h t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f t h e
rem a in in g h i n t e r l a n d p r o d u c t i o n by a d j a c e n t , competing e n t r e p o t s .

Thus,

t h e b e h a v i o r o f e n t r e p o t s on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r can be u n d e r s to o d
t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e B u r g h a r d t (1971) model o f gateway co m m u n it ie s .
The c o n c e p t o f i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p l y c e n t e r s and t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t s yst em was more complex t h a n o r i g i n a l l y
thought.

Lewis'

(1984) m a i n t a i n e d t h a t t h e s e s e t t l e m e n t s were no t

r e q u i r e d on i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s and t h e r e f o r e might n o t always be
present.

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e y were th o u g h t t o be p r i m a r i l y camp o r i e n t e d ,

o f f e r i n g a l i m i t e d r an ge o f goods and s e r v i c e s .

While i n i t i a l l y t h i s

c o n c e p t i o n was a p p r o p r i a t e , t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f r a i l w a y lo g g i n g n o t o n ly
i n c r e a s e d t h e number o f i n t e r m e d i a t e s u pp ly c e n t e r s ( a c c e p t a b l e under

289
Lewis' d e s c r i p t i o n ) bu t a l s o d i f f e r e n t i a t e d them i n t o two t y p e s of
s e t t l e m e n t s : a s m a l l e r , l i m i t e d f u n c t i o n s e t t l e m e n t and a l a r g e r more
d iverse one.

The a p p e a r a n c e o f far m in g c o m m u ni ti es , which dev el o pe d t o

s e r v e t h e needs o f t h e camps and which were a s s o c i a t e d w ith some o f t h e
i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s , e x p l a i n e d such d i v e r s i f i c a t i o n .

This

o b s e r v a t i o n i s i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s were o r d i n a r i l y
p r o v i s i o n e d by s o u r c e s e x t e r n a l t o t h e f r o n t i e r .

In t h i s i n s t a n c e ,

however, s o u r c e s on t h e f r o n t i e r i t s e l f s u p p l i e d p r o v i s i o n s .

This

c o n t r a d i c t i o n between t h e p r e d i c t e d method of p r o v i s i o n i n g and t h a t
ob se rv ed i n t h i s c a s e may be e x p l a i n e d by s e v e r a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e
study a r e a .

F i r s t , i t was more e f f i c i e n t t o p r o v i s i o n camps from f r o n t i e r

s o u r c e s , a s t r a t e g y which compensated f o r t h e s e a s o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s on
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n from t h e homeland t o t h e f r o n t i e r .

A second p a r t o f t h e

e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e phenomenon, which goes beyond t h e p r e l i m i n a r y q u e s t i o n s
o f e f f o r t , a c c e s s i b i l i t y , and e f f i c i e n c y , p r o v i d e s a c l u e as t o why t h i s
phenomenon dev el op ed so d i f f e r e n t l y th a n e x p e c t e d .
t h e n a t u r e o f i n v e s t m e n t and r i s k .

Thi s i s s u e i n v o l v e d

As w ith any v e n t u r e , farm in g in v o l v e d

some r i s k , e s p e c i a l l y i f t h e farmed a r e a was s u b j e c t t o t h e a d v e r s e
c l i m a t i c c o n d i t i o n s found i n t h e s t u d y a r e a .

Who assumed t h i s r i s k and

how t h i s i n f l u e n c e d s e t t l e m e n t was im p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g why f a r m i n g ,
and t h e a s s o c i a t e d i n t e r m e d i a t e s u p p ly c e n t e r s , d e v e l o p e d .

R a t h e r th a n

e s t a b l i s h company f a r m s , an a l o g o u s t o camp s t o r e s , c a p i t a l i s t e l i t e s
en co ur ag ed in d e p e n d e n t f a r m e r s t o farm so t h e i n d i v i d u a l f a r m e r assumed
the risk of o p e ra tio n .
i n i t i a l l y prospered.

Because o f t h e g u a r a n t e e d m a r k e t , both s i d e s
However, w ith t h e demise o f t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r in

t h e s t u d y a r e a , c a p i t a l i s t i n v e s t o r s simply s w i t c h e d t h e t h e a t e r o f t h e i r
o p e r a t io n s , while farmers faced bankruptcy.

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Thi s p a r t i c u l a r phenomenon p r o v i d e d an i m p o r t a n t c o r o l l a r y t o t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r mod el, both i n te rm s o f s e t t l e m e n t and o v e r a l l
organization.

Under o r d i n a r y c i r c u m s t a n c e s , i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s were

p r o v i s i o n e d from s o u r c e s e x t e r n a l t o t h e f r o n t i e r .

However, i n c e r t a i n

s i t u a t i o n s where p r o v i s i o n i n g was impeded ( i . e . s e a s o n a l c o n s t r a i n t s on
f r o n t i e r / h o m e l a n d t r a n s p o r t ) , f ar m i ng may dev el op on t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r p r o v i d e d p a r t i e s o t h e r t h a n t h e c a p i t a l i s t e l i t e s assume t h e
r i s k s o f such v e n t u r e s .

As t h i s s t u d y shows, t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f such

s i t u a t i o n s l e d t o t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f some i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y c e n t e r s t o
s e r v e t h e needs o f f ar m i ng co m m u n it ie s .

I f no one was w i l l i n g t o

u n d e r t a k e t h e r i s k o f such f ar m i ng v e n t u r e s , th e n p r o v i s i o n i n g would have
been p r o v i d e d by s o u r c e s e x t e r n a l t o t h e f r o n t i e r .

Summary
The i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t system c an n ot be u n d e r s to o d t h r o u g h
a s i n g l e model o r s e t o f c o n d i t i o n s .

Lewis'

(1984) d e s c r i p t i o n was u s e f u l

when d e a l i n g w it h t h e o v e r a l l s e t t l e m e n t c o m p o s i t i o n .

The way such

s e t t l e m e n t s were c o n n e c te d and t h e ways in which t h e y were l i k e l y t o
behave a s a sy stem was mo de lle d by B ur g ha r dt (1971) and Taafe e t . a l .
( 1 9 6 3 ) , who d ea l w it h gateway sy ste m s and t h e e v o l u t i o n o f t r a n s p o r t
sy stems r e s p e c t i v e l y .

The s e t t l e m e n t c o m p o s i ti o n o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l

f r o n t i e r showed i t s e l f t o be s t a b l e in s p i t e o f t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f new
tr a n s p o rt technology.

F u r t h e r m o r e , t h e impact of a new t r a n s p o r t

te c h n o l o g y was i n f l u e n c e d h e a v i l y by h i s t o r i c a l f a c t o r s and t h e r e f o r e did
no t have as d r a s t i c an e f f e c t on s e t t l e m e n t as B ur g ha r d t s u g g e s t s .
G e n e r a l l y , w h i l e such changes in t r a n s p o r t te c h n o l o g y a l t e r t h e s e t t l e m e n t
p a t t e r n , t h e y do n o t a l t e r t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e t t l e m e n t c o m p o s i t i o n .

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The r o l e s o f e n t r e p o t s and i n t e r m e d i a t e s u pp ly c e n t e r s were
a d e q u a t e l y e x p l a i n e d t h r o u g h r e f e r e n c e t o t h e t h r e e models mentioned
above.

D i f f e r e n t i a t i o n among i n t e r m e d i a t e s up pl y c e n t e r s may r e f l e c t

a c t i v i t i e s un iq u e t o t h e r e g i o n a l s e t t i n g w i t h i n which t h e i n d u s t r i a l
fr o n tie r is located.

In t h e c a s e examined f o r t h i s r e s e a r c h , such

d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n a r o s e o u t o f an a t t e m p t t o i n t e r n a l l y p r o v i s i o n t h e
industrial f r o n tie r .

O th e r t y p e s o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r may e x h i b i t

s i m i l a r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , p r o v i d i n g t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f r i s k and r e t u r n a r e
c o n t r o l l a b l e by i n v e s t o r s .

T e c h n o l o g i c a l / B e h a v i o r a l Change
Change on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r was i n v e s t i g a t e d th r o u g h t h e use o f
H a r d e s t y ' s model (1985) o f f r o n t i e r ch an g e .
points.

This model had t h r e e s a l i e n t

F i r s t , u n i f o r m i t y o f a d a p t a t i o n was t h e r u l e a c r o s s t h e

in d u strial f r o n ti e r .

This u n i f o r m i t y was ex p e c te d t o be most v i s i b l e in

areas re la te d to production.

S e c o n d l y , c ha n g e , when i t o c c u r r e d , was

r a p i d l y a d o pt ed a c r o s s t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , t h e r e b y r e t u r n i n g t h e
s i t u a t i o n t o one o f u n i f o r m i t y .

Thus, t h e p a t t e r n o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r

change e n v i s i o n e d by H a r d e s ty was r a p i d and s t e p l i k e , s h a r i n g common
el e m e n t s w it h t h e b i o l o g i c a l t h e o r y of p u n c t u a t e d e q u i l i b r i u m .

Finally,

t h e o c c u p a t i o n and r e - o c c u p a t i o n o f v a r i o u s p a r t s o f t h e f r o n t i e r ,
c h a r a c t e r i z e d as r e s o u r c e p a t c h e s , was b e l i e v e d t o be b as ed on t h e
productive p o te n tial of the patches.

P r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l c o u l d be

a l t e r e d , most u s u a l l y by a change in t e c h n o l o g y , t h e r e b y i n c r e a s i n g or
d e c r e a s i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a giv en p a t c h would be occ u pi ed o r
abandoned.

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The r e s u l t s o f t h i s a n a l y s i s s u p p o r t e d H a r d e s t y ' s model o f i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r change in te rm s o f u n i f o r m i t y and r a t e o f ch a n g e .

A d a p t a t i o n in

t h e p r o d u c t i v e s p h e r e was un ifo rm a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e f r o n t i e r both in te rm s
o f m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e and b e h a v i o r .

When i t o c u r r e d , change was r e l a t e d

e x c l u s i v e l y t o p r o d u c t i o n and u s u a l l y a f f e c t e d t h e m a t e r i a l c u l t u r e , which
t h e n b r o u g h t a bo ut changes i n b e h a v i o r , i f such were w a r r a n t e d .
U n if o r m i ty was m a i n t a i n e d t h r o u g h a v a r i e t y o f m e th o ds , w ith t h e u l t i m a t e
pu rp os e b e i n g t h e i n s u r a n c e o f e f f i c i e n t p r o d u c t i o n methods and t h e
p r o v i s i o n o f c o n t r o l ov er t h e work f o r c e .

In t h i s r e s p e c t , u n i f o r m i t y o f

a d a p t a t i o n m i r r o r e d t h e h o m e la n d 's i n d u s t r i a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , i l l u s t r a t i n g
a n o t h e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r ; t h a t o f be in g in c l o s e
c o n t a c t w ith and s h a r i n g common i n s t i t u t i o n s with t h e homeland.
U n if o r m i ty f u r t h e r s e r v e d t o i l l u s t r a t e t h e l i m i t e d sc o pe o f t h e
industrial f r o n tie r .

That i s , t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n o f a s i n g l e r e s o u r c e was

t h e e x c l u s i v e f o c u s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , w ith a l l

non-productive

a c t i v i t i e s subordinated to t h i s s in g u la r g oal.
When used t o examine o c c u p a t i o n , t h e p a t c h model o f p r o d u c t i v e
p o t e n t i a l a p p e a r e d t o have l i m i t e d e x p l a n a t o r y power in t h e c a s e under
study.

During t h e i n i t i a l

r i v e r d r i v e occupation, with i t s p a r t i c u l a r

e n vi ro n m en ta l p a r a m e t e r s , t h e p a t c h co nc e pt proved u s e f u l in p r o v i d i n g a
key t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e l o c a t i o n o f lo g g i n g camps, s i n c e t h e
te c h n o - e n v i r o n m e n t a l p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e p at ch model were r e l e v a n t t o
c o n d i t i o n s on t h e f r o n t i e r .

With t h e a d v en t o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g ,

l o c a t i o n a l p a r a m e t e r s cha n ge d , t h e r e b y r e n d e r i n g i t d i f f i c u l t t o
adequately d efin e a patch .

I t was argu ed t h a t t h i s p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t o f

H a r d e s t y ' s model would be more u s e f u l on t h o s e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s (such
as t h e mining f r o n t i e r ) , where a c c e s s t o r e s o u r c e s was p o i n t o r i e n t e d .

In

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t h e c a s e o f t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r , n o t o n ly d i d t h e r e s o u r c e o c c u r in a
zonal f a s h i o n , b u t w it h a s h i f t in t e c h n o l o g y i t became a c c e s s i b l e
t h r o u g h o u t most o f t h a t z o n e .

Thi s r e n d e r e d a n a l y s i s o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n

and/or productive p o te n tia l fo r s p e c if i c patches i r r e l e v a n t , thereby
d e f e a t i n g t h e p u r p o s e o f t h e model.

Summary
Change and a d a p t a t i o n on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r were amenable t o
e x p l a n a t i o n t h r o u g h some o f t h e p a r t s o f H a r d e s t y ' s mod el.

These d e a l t

w ith u n i f o r m i t y o f a d a p t a t i o n and t h e r a p i d , s t e p l i k e f a s h i o n which
c h a r a c t e r i z e d change on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

The use o f t h e p at ch

a p p r o a c h , w h i l e amenable t o some i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , was no t a p p l i c a b l e
in t h i s c a s e b ec a u se o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e r e s o u r c e and t e c h n o l o g i c a l
develo pme nt s which o c c u r r e d d u r i n g t h e c o u r s e o f t h e s t u d y p e r i o d .

Organization
The l a r g e r s c a l e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l f e a t u r e s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r
were examined i n l i g h t o f t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t world
system w i t h i n which t h e f r o n t i e r o c c u r r e d ( W a l l e r s t e i n 1980, 19 83 ).

These

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in c l u d e d c o n t r o l o f r e s o u r c e s and c o n t r o l o f
l a b o r / t e c h n o l o g y , both o f which were e x p e c te d t o be c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e
hands o f r e l a t i v e l y few i n d i v i d u a l s / e n t i t i e s .

Moreover, t h e s e f a c t o r s

r e l a t e d to th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c u niform ity a s s o c ia te d with i n d u s t r i a l
fro n tiers.
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h s u p p o r t e d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s drawn from
W a l l e r s t e i n ' s (1980, 1983) c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n o f t h e c a p i t a l i s t world
system.

Co n tr o l o v e r r e s o u r c e s was c o n c e n t r a t e d in t h e hands o f a few

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in d iv id u als/en tities.

In t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e , t h i s c o n t r o l took t h e form

o f o u t r i g h t ownership o f t h e r e s o u r c e , though t h e r e were a v a r i e t y o f
o t h e r i n d i r e c t ways t o c o n t r o l r e s o u r c e s such as c o n t r o l o f a c c e s s t o
s u p p l i e s , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and l a b o r .

In t h i s i n s t a n c e , however, t h e s e

a l t e r n a t i v e methods were u t i l i z e d o n ly t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t o r no t a t a l l .
Contr ol o v e r l a b o r a l s o o c c u r r e d and t h a t c o n t r o l e x t e n d e d from
i

production r e la t e d to non-production r e la te d beh av io r.

Such c o n t r o l was

d e s i g n e d t o e n s u r e t h a t p r o d u c t i o n o c c u r r e d as e f f i c i e n t l y as p o s s i b l e ,
t h e r e b y m i r r o r i n g l a b o r c o n d i t i o n s i n t h e homeland.

Moreover, i t was t h e

s o u r c e o f t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f a d a p t a t i o n s which c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l
frontier.

D i f f e r e n c e s in t h i s c o n t r o l would c r e a t e d i f f e r e n t l e v e l s o f

p r o d u c t i v i t y , some more p r o f i t a b l e t h a t o t h e r s , and t h e e l i t e s ch o se
p r o f i t a b i l i t y which in t h e end t r a n s l a t e d i n t o u n i f o r m i t y .

This c o n s c i o u s

s e l e c t i o n f o r t h e most p r o d u c t i v e t y p e o f b e h a v i o r ( i . e . most p r o f i t a b l e )
and c o n t r o l o v e r i t , produced a s t a t e o f u n i f o r m i t y a c r o s s t h e e n t i r e
industrial f r o n tie r .

Changes, w he th er in l a b o r a n d / o r t e c h n o l o g y , were

r a p i d l y a d o p t e d so t h a t i n d i v i d u a l o p e r a t i o n s would n o t o p e r a t e a t l e s s
p r o f i t a b l e l e v e l s than o t h e r s .

Thi s c o n s c i o u s s e l e c t i o n f o r u n i f o r m i t y ,

and t h e way chang es were i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o t h i s f r o n t i e r s y s t e m , f i t s i n t o
t h e s t e p - l i k e p a t t e r n used by H a r d e s ty t o model change on t h e i n d u s t r i a l
frontier.

Although t h i s p a t t e r n i s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f p u n c t u a t e d

e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e r e was an i m p o r t a n t d i f f e r e n c e .

The i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r ' s

u n i f o r m i t y and t h e p a t t e r n o f change were und er t h e c o n s c i o u s c o n t r o l o f
e l i t e s , r a t h e r t h a n r e s u l t i n g from n o n - c o n s c i o u s p r o c e s s e s an a l o g o u s t o
th o se of b io lo g ic a l e v o lu tio n .

Once an i n n o v a t i o n o c c u r r e d , r e g a r d l e s s

o f i t s s o u r c e , i t s p o t e n t i a l f o r a d o p t i o n depended on w he th er o r n o t i t
increased production e f f i c i e n c y .

I f i t d i d , t h e mechanism o f a d o p t i o n

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w i l l be a c o n s c i o u s , u n i f o r m , r a p i d s p r e a d o f t h e i n n o v a t i o n a c r o s s t h e
entire fro n tier.

I t i s t h e e l e m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s which d i s t i n g u i s h e s

t h i s p r o c e s s from t h e b i o l o g i c a l a n a l o g u e s and from o t h e r p r o b a b a l i s t i c
approaches t o c u l t u r e change.
Summary
The o v e r a l l o r g a n i z a t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , t h e n ,
was o r i e n t e d tow ard t h e c o n t r o l o f both r e s o u r c e s and l a b o r / t e c h n o l o g y .
This o c c u r r e d t o m a i n t a i n maximum, g u a r a n t e e d p r o d u c t i v i t y on t h e
industrial f r o n tie r .

S i n c e t h e s e p r o c e s s e s were r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e

u n i f o r m i t y o f a d a p t a t i o n which c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , t h e y
a l s o pl a y e d a r o l e i n change on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

In t h e p r e c e d i n g

s e c t i o n , u n i f o r m i t y o f a d a p t a t i o n and a s t e p l i k e p a t t e r n o f change were
found t o c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Although t h i s p a t t e r n

res emb le d t h e p a t t e r n o f p u n c t u a t e d e q u i l i b r i u m , t h e c a u s a l p r o c e s s e s
a s s o c i a t e d w i t h i t were q u i t e d i f f e r e n t .

R a t h e r th a n change and

a d a p t a t i o n o c c u r r i n g t h r o u g h t h e i n t e r a c t i o n o f p o p u l a t i o n s and
en vi ron m ent on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , i t was a d m i n i s t e r e d by s o u r c e s
e x t e r n a l t o t h e f r o n t i e r , w it h t h e key d e t e r m i n i n g f a c t o r be in g t h e
i n c r e a s e in p r o d u c t i v i t y b r o u g h t a b o u t t h r o u g h t h e a d o p t i o n o f a given
innovation.

Transportation
T r a n s p o r t a t i o n was n o t a n a l y z e d as a s e p a r a t e t o p i c , e x c e p t t o
i l l u s t r a t e t h a t a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system e x i s t e d on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r
and t o p r o v i d e a d e s c r i p t i o n o f i t .

However, as e a r l i e r d i s c u s s i o n has

shown, t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s on t h e i n d u s t r i a l

f r o n t i e r were

complex and p e r v a s i v e and u n d e r l a y many o f t h e i s s u e s a n a l y z e d in t h i s

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research.

The more i m p o r t a n t a s p e c t s o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , w it h r e s p e c t t o

i n d u s t r i a l l o c a t i o n , have been known f o r a number o f y e a r s (D agg ett 1968,
Hamilton 1967, H a r ts h o r n e 1968, Lloyd and Dicken 1977, M i l l e r 197 0) .
However, f o r p u r p o s es o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , t h e r e l e v a n t a s p e c t s o f
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n may be p l a c e d i n t o two groups which can be termed t h e
f u n c t i o n a l mode and t h e d e f i n i t i o n a l mode.

The f u n c t i o n a l mode ( n o t

important to t h i s d isc u ssio n ) c o n s is ts of t r a n s p o r ta ti o n c o n s id e ra tio n s ,
such as s c h e d u l i n g , f e e s , e t c . , which deal w ith t h e a c t u a l o p e r a t i o n o f a
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system.
The d e f i n i t i o n a l mode, however, i s t h e key t o u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e
e f f e c t o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n on t h i s p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .
C o n s i d e r a t i o n s which comp ris e t h e d e f i n i t i o n a l mode i n c l u d e t h e t e c h n i c a l
c o n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f a gi v e n t y p e o f t r a n s p o r t , t h e t y p e of
goods t h e sy stem i s c a p a b l e o f h a n d l i n g , t h e o p e r a t i o n a l co m p le x it y o f t h e
system, co n stru c tio n c o s t , e t c .

The c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a s s o c i a t e d w it h a

g iv e n t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y st em e f f e c t i v e l y d e f i n e d t h e t y p e o f i n d u s t r i a l
a c t i v i t y occur w ithin t h a t system.

This c o n s i d e r a t i o n was s e p a r a t e from,

b u t o f equal o r g r e a t e r i m p o r ta n c e t h a n , t h e a c t u a l f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e
p r o d u c t i o n o f any commodity.

For example, i f t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y

and s o u r c e f o r a give n commodity a r e known, i t must a l s o be p o s s i b l e f o r a
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system t o l i n k t h e s o u r c e a r e a w it h t h e ma rket b e f o r e
p r o d u c t i o n can be u n d e r t a k e n .

In o r d e r f o r t h i s t o o c c u r , t h e f o r e g o i n g

c o n s i d e r a t i o n s f o r t r a n s p o r t must be s a t i s f i e d w i t h i n a c c e p t a b l e
param eters.

Thus, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy stem p l a y a

key r o l e in d e t e r m i n i n g t h e l o c a t i o n and commodity b e i n g p r o d u c e d .
The l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r i s a p r im e , though p er h ap s u n i q u e , example o f
t h i s premise.

P r i o r t o t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g , l o g g e r s were aware

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t h a t t h e m a j o r i t y o f t h e t r e e s in t h e s t u d y a r e a were hardwoods, hence t h e
s o u r c e o f t i m b e r was r e a d i l y known.
f e l l i n g p r o c e d u r e s ) was known.

A ls o , t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y ( i . e .

However, t h e o n ly t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system

was t h e r i v e r d r i v e , which c o u l d o n l y accomodate f l o a t a b l e t i m b e r .
t h e a d v e n t o f r a i l w a y l o g g i n g , a l l t i m b e r became t r a n s p o r t a b l e .

With

Thus, a

p r e v i o u s l y known s o u r c e and p r e v i o u s l y known p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y could
be j o i n e d so p r o d u c t i o n co u l d o c c u r .

Hence, t h e p r o d u c t i v e p o t e n t i a l o f

t h e e n t i r e f r o n t i e r as well as i t s s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n was a l t e r e d , in
e ffe c t redefining th is p a rtic u la r in d u stria l f r o n t i e r .

Therefore, the

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r t r a n s p o r t system were
s i g n i f i c a n t n o t o nl y t o t h e movement o f go od s, b u t a l s o in t h e d e f i n i t i o n
o f t h o s e p r o d u c t s and t h e n a t u r e o f p r o d u c t i o n on t h e f r o n t i e r .
While such t r a n s p o r t a t i o n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s a r e un d o u b te d ly i m p o r t a n t
f o r a l l i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , t h e c a s e a n a l y z e d h e r e may r e p r e s e n t an
anomaly.

T h e r e f o r e , a t t h i s p o i n t i t would not be a p p r o p r i a t e t o bas e

f u t u r e a n a l y s e s o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e x c l u s i v e l y on t h e i r
tr a n s p o r ta tio n systems.

The r e a s o n s f o r t h i s may be o f f e r e d as a

c o r o l l a r y t o t h e p r o p o s i t i o n t h a t t h e t r a n s p o r t a t i o n systems on t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s e r v e d t o d e f i n e t h e f r o n t i e r as well as move go od s.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y must be c a p a b l e o f s i g n i f i c a n t
i n c r e a s e i f t h e f u l l e f f e c t o f a new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n mode i s t o be f e l t .
That i s , p r o d u c t i o n must i n c r e a s e t o t h e p o i n t where t h e new
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system i s r u nn in g a t o r n e a r f u l l c a p a c i t y f o r t h e f u l l
impact o f t h e new system t o be f e l t .
methods meet c e r t a i n c r i t e r i a .

This can o n ly o c c u r i f p r o d u c t i o n

G e n e r a l l y , t h e y must be t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y

s i m p l e , e a s y t o p e r f o r m , and c a p a b l e o f s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s in
production through the a p p lic a tio n of increased l a b o r.

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Be ar in g t h i s i n mind, i t can e a s i l y be seen t h a t o t h e r t y p e s o f
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , such a s t h e mining f r o n t i e r d e s c r i b e d by H ar de st y
( 1 9 8 5 ) , may n o t be as g r e a t l y i n f l u e n c e d by a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s h i f t as was
t h e lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r .

In H a r d e s t y ' s example, t h e p r o d u c t i o n p r o c e s s was

t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y complex ( i . e . on s i t e s m e l t i n g ) , n o t e a s y t o p e r f o r m , and
co u l d no t be i n c r e a s e d t h r o u g h t h e d i r e c t a p p l i c a t i o n o f l a b o r , s i n c e t h e
c a p a c i t y o f t h e s m e l t e r as well as t h e number o f w o r k e r s d e te r m in e d t h e
ra te of production.

In t h i s s i t u a t i o n , in v e s t m e n t in an e x p e n s i v e , l a r g e r

c a p a c i t y t r a n s p o r t a t i o n s y s t e m , i f unaccompanied by t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a
new, more e f f i c i e n t mode o f s m e l t i n g , would have c a l l e d f o r an i n c r e a s e in
the capacity of the sm elter.

O t h e r w i s e , t h e new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system

would not be c o s t e f f e c t i v e s i n c e i t would be u n d e r u t i l i z e d .

Moreover,

gi v e n t h e p o i n t o r i e n t e d s o u r c e o f o r e , as opposed t o t h e zonal p a t t e r n o f
t i m b e r which c h a r a c t e r i z e d t h i s r e s e a r c h , i t i s d o u b t f u l i f t h e
a p p l i c a t i o n o f a new mode o f t r a n s p o r t t o t h e s i t u a t i o n d e s c r i b e d by
H ar d es ty would have r e - d e f i n e d and e n l a r g e d t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r .

Summary
The s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n t o t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r u n d e r l a y
many o f t h e f i n d i n g s abo ut t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r produced by t h i s
research.

The i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy ste m produced a new

settlem ent p a tte r n .

More i m p o r t a n t l y , t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a new

t r a n s p o r t a t i o n system on t h i s f r o n t i e r r e d e f i n e d t h e f r o n t i e r i t s e l f and
s i g n i f i c a n t l y increased th e productive o u tp u t.

While i t i s te m p t i n g t o

f o cu s e x c l u s i v e l y on t r a n s p o r t a t i o n sy stems when d e a l i n g w ith o t h e r
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , s e v e r a l c a u t i o n a r y p o i n t s must be made.
S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e Upper P e n i n s u l a lo g g i n g f r o n t i e r examined in t h i s

299
r e s e a r c h was c h a r a c t e r i z e d by t h e zonal a v a i l a b i l i t y o f r e s o u r c e s and a
s im p l e and e a s i l y o p e r a t e d p r o d u c t i o n t e c h n o l o g y , in which i n c r e a s e d l a b o r
i n p u t r e s u l t e d d i r e c t l y in i n c r e a s e d p r o d u c t i o n .

On o t h e r t y p e s o f

i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , such as t h e s o u th w e s t mining f r o n t i e r ,
t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s u nd o u b te d ly i m p o r t a n t .

However, i t s l e v e l o f im p o r ta n ce

may no t be q u i t e t h e same as in t h e c a s e examined h e r e .

Co n cl u si o n s
This r e s e a r c h has examined t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r t o e l u c i d a t e t h e
s a l i e n t p a t t e r n s and p r o c e s s e s a s s o c i a t e d with t h i s p a r t i c u l a r t y p e o f
occupation.

In doing s o , t o p i c s o f s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m , ch an g e , o v e r a l l

o r g a n i z a t i o n and t r a n s p o r t a t i o n were i n v e s t i g a t e d .

The c o n c l u s i o n s drawn

from t h e e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e s e t o p i c s le d t o c e r t a i n s t a t e m e n t s a bo ut t h e
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r w r i t l a r g e and abo ut t h e p a r t i c u l a r i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r used as a c a s e s t u d y .

In t h e c o n d u c t io n o f t h i s a n a l y s i s and t h e

drawing o f t h e s e c o n c l u s i o n s , s e v e r a l b r o a d e r i s s u e s were b ro u g h t t o mind.
These f e l l

i n t o two g r o u p s :

c u r r e n t app ro ac h es t o i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s

and s u g g e s t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h .
C u r r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e s t u d y o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s and
c o s m o p o l i t a n f r o n t i e r s i n g e n e r a l a r e o n ly b e g i n n i n g t o d e v el o p a body o f
t h e o r y which w i l l a l l o w i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s t o be i n v e s t i g a t e d as
to talities.

In t h e c a s e o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , t h e r e was a body of

g e o g r a p h i c t h e o r y as well as some a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r y upon which t o
draw .

The f o r m e r f o c u s e d m a in ly on t r a n s p o r t a t i o n and s e t t l e m e n t s y s t e m s ,

both as i n d i v i d u a l components on t h e f r o n t i e r and as r e l a t e d phenomena,
each c a p a b l e o f r es p o n d in g t o chang es in t h e o t h e r .

Much o f t h e

a n t h r o p o l o g i c a l t h e o r y was based on t h e g e o g r a p h i c t h e o r y .

The r em a in d er

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d e a l t w it h t h e p r o c e s s e s o f change on t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r and t h e
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of a d a p tiv e s t r a t e g i e s b elieved to o p erate t h e r e .
Only r e c e n t l y have a r c h a e o l o g i s t s become i n t e r e s t e d in i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r s as m a n i f e s t a t i o n s o f c a p i t a l i s t s t a t e s o c i e t i e s ( H ar d es ty 1 98 5 ) .
T h e r e f o r e , t h e r e have

been l i m i t e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r i d e a s abo ut t h e

l a t t e r t o a f f e c t r e s e a r c h on t h e f o r m e r .

However, t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r , p a r t i c u l a r l y i t s s h o r t d u r a t i o n , make i t amenable
t o such r e s e a r c h .

As d e m o n s t r a t e d in t h i s r e s e a r c h , use o f some g e n e r a l

c o n c e p t s p ro p os ed by W a l l e r s t e i n (1980, 198 3) , l e d t o t h e development o f
p r o p o s i t i o n s a b ou t t h e n a t u r e o f change and a d a p t a t i o n on t h e i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r , as well as t o an u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i t s o r g a n i z a t i o n o f
production.

Although some o f t h e s e p r o p o s i t i o n s were d e t e r m i n i s t i c in

n a t u r e , t h e c o n t e x t o f t h e i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r r a t h e r th a n t h e s o c i e t y as
a whole a l lo w e d such s t a t e m e n t s t o be made.

S i n c e f r o n t i e r s , by

d e f i n i t i o n , o n l y p a r t i a l l y r e p r e s e n t t h e r an ge o f s o c i e t a l v a r i a b i l i t y
p r e s e n t i n t h e homeland, t h e i r a n a l y s i s p r o v i d e s us n o t o nl y w it h an
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r f r o n t i e r , bu t a l s o w ith a
g li m p s e a t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s o c i e t y in t h e homeland.
Given t h e r e l a t i v e r e c e n c y o f i n t e r e s t in t h e a r c h a e o l o g y o f
i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s , t h e p o t e n t i a l f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h i s wide r a n g i n g .
Based on t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s r e s e a r c h , s e v e r a l t o p i c s s u g g e s t t h e m s e l v e s .
F i r s t , t h e r o l e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n i s c r u c i a l i n u n d e r s t a n d i n g a number o f
c h a r a c te r i s t ic s of in d u s tr ia l f r o n t i e r s .

Our u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h i s

phenomenon needs t o be r e f i n e d f u r t h e r by s t u d y i n g i t on o t h e r t y p e s o f
industrial f r o n tie r s .

Th is s h o u ld i n c l u d e o t h e r l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r s , s i n c e

such r e s e a r c h would d e t e r m i n e w h e th e r o r n o t t h e r o l e o f t r a n s p o r t a t i o n in
t h i s s t u d y a r e a was t y p i c a l o f a l l l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r s o r u n i q u e .

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S e c o n d l y , f u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t o f models o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r change
i s ne e d e d .

Evidence s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e r e s o u r c e may

a f f e c t t h e a p p l i c a b i l i t y o f d i f f e r e n t m o d e ls , o r o f d i f f e r e n t components
w i t h i n one o v e r a l l mod el.

These q u e s t i o n s need t o be r e s o l v e d b e f o r e a

s y s t e m a t i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r change can be o b t a i n e d .
Thirdly, the overall organizational featu res of other in d u strial
f r o n t i e r s s h o u l d be exam ined.

Thi s o b v i o u s l y c o n c e r n s t h e c o n t r o l of

r e s o u r c e s and l a b o r , b u t may a l s o i n c l u d e o t h e r f a c t o r s , such a s t h e way a
p a r tic u la r in d u s tria l f r o n ti e r is provisioned.

Othe r i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s

( i . e . o t h e r i n d u s t r i e s and l o g g i n g f r o n t i e r s e l s e w h e r e ) may vary from t h e
s i t u a t i o n o b s e r v e d in t h e s t u d y a r e a .

F u r t h e r r e f i n e m e n t o f our knowledge

of th e se o v e ra ll o rg a n iz a tio n a l f e a t u r e s w ill allow g r e a t e r understanding
o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s and may be i m p o r t a n t when d e a l i n g with o t h e r t y p e s
of cosmopolitan f r o n t i e r .
F i n a l l y , t h e s e t t l e m e n t system and s p a t i a l components o f i n d u s t r i a l
f r o n t i e r s seem t o be f a i r l y well u n d e r s t o o d , in t h a t t h e y a r e e x p l a i n a b l e
w ith c u r r e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t h e o r e t i c a l m o d e ls .

However, more o f a d i r e c t

l i n k a g e needs t o be made between Lewis' d e s c r i p t i o n o f s e t t l e m e n t
c o m p o s i ti o n and g e o g r a p h i c models d e a l i n g w ith s e t t l e m e n t p a t t e r n and
transportation.

This would p r o v i d e a more u n i f i e d ap p ro ac h t o d e a l i n g

with t h e s p a t i a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s .
In summary, t h e a r c h a e o l o g i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f i n d u s t r i a l f r o n t i e r s
i s a f e r t i l e a r e a open t o r e s e a r c h al o n g a v a r i e t y o f d i m e n s i o n s .

Given

t h e r e l a t i v e r e c e n c y o f many o f t h e s e f r o n t i e r s , a g r e a t e r ran ge o f d a t a
i s a v a i l a b l e on them th a n on some o t h e r t o p i c s .

They p r e s e n t

a r c h a e o l o g i s t s with a uniq ue o p p o r t u n i t y t o s t u d y phenomena of
s i g n i f i c a n c e n o t o nl y on a l o c a l l e v e l , b u t a l s o a t a l a r g e r l e v e l ; t h a t
o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e x p a n s io n and s e t t l e m e n t o f a c o n s i d e r a b l e p o r t i o n of
North America.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

LOGGING CAMP VARIABLES
Acronym
SITYP

Format
1.0

D escription
Type o f
0
1
2
3

-

l o g g i n g camp
unknown
River d riv e
Railway
Railway (wi th e x t e n s i v e d oc u m en ta t io n )

SITSIZ

3.2

Size of s i t e

in a c r e s (0-unknown)

SOLPHAS

3.0

So il Phase:
001 A l l u v i a l
002 Alpena g r a v e l l y sandy loam
003 Au Gres sand
004 Au Gres loamy sand
005 Blue Lake sand (0-6% s l o p e )
006 Blue Lake sand (7-18% s l o p e )
007 Blue Lake sand (19-40% s l o p e )
008 Bohemian f i n e sandy loam (0-6%s l o p e )
009 Bohemian f i n e sandy loam (7-18% s l o p e )
010 Bowers s i l t loam
011 B r e v o r t mucky loamy sand
012 Brimley f i n e sandy loam
013 Bruce mucky f i n e sandy loam
014 Bur t mucky sandy loam
015 C a r b o n d a l e / L u p t o n / R i f l e
016 Ca t h ro muck
017 Ca th ro /T ac o os h muck
018 C h a r l e v o i x sandy loam
019 Chatham f i n e sandy loam (0-2% s l o p e )
020 Chatham f i n e sandy loam (3-6% s l o p e )
020 Chatham f i n e sandy loam (7-18% s l o p e )
022 Chippeny muck
023 Croswell sand
024 Dawson p e a t
025 Dawson/Greenwood p e a t
026 Deerton sand (0-6% s l o p e )
027 Deerton sand (7-18% s l o p e )
028 D e e r t o n / B u r t
029 Deford loamy f i n e sand
030 Duel loamy sand
031 E a s t Lake sand
032 E a s t Lake a c i d loamy sand (0-6% s l o p e )

303

304
033
034
035
036
037
038
039
040
041
042
043
044
045
046
047
048
049
050
051
052
053
054
055
056
057
058
059
060
061
062
063
064
065
066
067
068
069
070
071
072
073
074
075
076
077
078
079
080
081
082
083
084
085
086

E a s t Lake a c i d loamy sand (7-18% s l o p e )
E a s t p o r t sand
Eastport/Roscommon sand
Emmet sandy loam (0-2% s l o p e )
Emmet sandy loam (3-6% s l o p e )
Emmet sandy loam (7-12% s l o p e )
Ensign f i n e sandy loam
Ensley/Angel i c a
F a i r p o r t s i l t loam (0-2% s l o p e )
F a i r p o r t s i l t loam (3-6% s l o p e )
G i l c h r i s t sand
G r a y l i n g sand (0-6% s l o p e )
G r a y l i n g sand (7-18% s l o p e )
Greenwood p e a t
I o s co sand
Kalkaska sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Kalkaska sand (7-18% s l o p e )
Kalkaska sand (19-40% s l o p e )
K a r l i n sandy loam (0-6% s l o p e )
K a r l i n sandy loam (7-18% s l o p e )
Kawbawgan sandy loam
Kawkawlin s i l t loam
Keweenaw loamy sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Keweenaw loamy sand (7-18% s l o p e )
K in ro s s muck sand
Kiva sandy loam (0-6% s l o p e )
Kiva sandy loam (7-20% s l o p e )
Lake beach
Limestone ro c k la n d
Lo ng ri e sandy loam (0-2% ran ge)
L on gr i e sandy loam (3-6%)
L o n g r i e /S u m m e r v il l e sandy loam
Mancelona loamy sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Mancelona loamy sand (7-18% s l o p e )
M e l i t a sand
Menominee loamy sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Menominee loamy sand (7-18% s l o p e )
Muni s i n g sandy loam (0-6% s l o p e )
Munising sandy loam (7-18% s l o p e )
Munising sandy loam (19-40% s l o p e )
Nahma loam
N e s t e r s i l t loam (0-2% s l o p e )
N e s t e r s i l t loam (3-6% s l o p e )
Onaway f i n e sandy loam (0-2% s l o p e )
Onaway f i n e sandy loam (3-6% s l o p e )
Onaway f i n e sandy loam (7-12% s l o p e )
Onaway f i n e sandy loam (13-18% s l o p e )
Onota/Chippeny
O n o ta /D ee rt o n (0-6% s l o p e )
O n o ta / D ee r to n (7-18% s l o p e )
O t i s c o loamy sand
P i c k f o r d s i l t loam
P i c k f o r d m o d e r a t e l y wet s i l t loam
P i c k f o r d m o d e r a t e l y wet complex

305
087
088
089
090
091
092
092
093
094
095
096
097
098
099
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
112
113
SOLSER

2.0

Roscommon muck sand
Roscommon/Kalkaska sand
Rousseau f i n e sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Rousseau f i n e sand (7-18% s l o p e )
Rousseau f i n e sand (19-40% s l o p e )
Rubicon sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Rubicon sand (7-18% s l o p e )
Rubicon sand (19-40% s l o p e )
Ruse s i l t loam
Saugatuck sand
S h e ll d r a k e sand
Skanee sandy loam
S teu be n f i n e sandy loam (0-6% s l o p e )
Steuben f i n e sandy loam (7-18% s l o p e )
S umm erville f i n e sandy loam
Su n de ll f i n e sandy loam
Su n de ll sandy v a r i a n t loamy f i n e sand
Tawas muck
T r e n a r y f i n e sandy loam (0-2% s l o p e )
T r e n a r y f i n e sandy loam (3-6% s l o p e )
T r e n a r y f i n e sandy loam (7-12% s l o p e )
T r e n a r y f i n e sandy loam (13-18% s l o p e )
Wainola f i n e sand
Wal lace sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Wal lace sand (7-18% s l o p e )
Yalmer sand (0-6% s l o p e )
Yalmer sand (7-18% s l o p e )

So il S e r i e s
01 A l l u v i a l
02 Alpena
03 A n g e l i c a
04 Au Gres
05 Au Gres g r a v e l l y s u b s o i l v a r i a n t
06 Blue Lake
07 Bohemian
08 Bowers
09 B r e v o r t
10 Brimley
11 Bruce
12 Bur t
13 C a r b on da le
14 Ca th ro
15 C h a r l e v o i x
16 Chatham
17 Chippeny
18 Croswell
19 Dawson
20 Deer ton
21 Deford
22 Duel
23 E a s t Lake
24 E a s t Lake a c i d v a r i a n t
25 E a s t p o r t

306
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
SLOPE

1.0

Emmet
Ensign
E ns le y
Fairport
G ilchrist
G r a y ! in g
Greenwood
Io sc o
Kalkaska
Karlin
Kawbawgam
Kawkawli n
Keweenaw
K in r o s s
Kiva
Lake bea c h es
Limestone r o c k la n d
Lo n gr ie
Lupton
Mancelona
Marsh
M elita
Menomi nee
Muni s i n g
Nahma
Nester
Onaway
Onota
Otisco
Pickford
P i c k f o r d m o d e ra te l y wet
R ifle
Roscommon
Rousseau
Rubicon
Ruse
Saug atu ck
Shelldrake
Skanee
Steuben
Summerville
Sundel1
Su n de ll sandy v a r i a n t
Tacoosh
Tawas
T r e n a ry
Wainola
Wallace
Wheatley
Yalmer

Slo p e o f t h e camp's s e t t i n g
0 - unknown
1 - 0 - 2%

307
2 - 0 - 6%

3
4
5
6
7
8
9

-

7-12%
13-18%
Over 20%
7-18%
0-4%
2-40%
19-40%

DINEWAT

3.2

D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t w a te r ( m i l e s )

DIDRWAT

3.2

Distance to n e a re s t d riv e a b le water (miles)

ORDRWAT

1 .0

O r i e n t a t i o n o f n e a r e s t d r i v e a b l e w a te r
0 - same e l e v a t i o n
1 - lower e l e v a t i o n
2 - higher elevation

TYPNWAT

1.0

Type o f
0 1 2 3 4 5 -

DNSAMCAM

3.2

D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t camp o f t h e same t y p e ( m i l e s )

DNDIFCAM

3.2

D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t camp o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e ( m i l e s )

TYPNDIC

1.0

Type o f
0 1 2 3 -

DNSWAM

3.2

D i s t a n c e t o t h e n e a r e s t swamp ( m i l e s )

ELEV

4.0

Elevation of s i t e ( f e e t a s l)

HIEL

4.0

H ig h e s t e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n
(feet a s l )

LOEL

4.0

Lowest e l e v a t i o n w i t h i n 1 1/2 m i l e r a d i u s o f camp
(feet asl)

RELEL

1.0

R e l a t i v e e l e v a t i o n o f camp w it h r e s p e c t t o o t h e r
e l e v a t i o n s w i t h i n 1 1 /2 m i l e r a d i u s o f camp.
0 - lo w e s t
1 - interm ediate
2 - highest

DINRD

3.2

D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e / c o u n t y
r o a d / t r a i l (miles)

n e a re s t water
stream
m a jo r r i v e r
lake
G rea t Lake
l a k e / s t r e a m o r l a k e / r i v e r com bin ati on
spring

n e a r e s t camp o f a d i f f e r e n t t y p e
unknown
River d riv e
Railway
Railway (with e x t e n s i v e d o c u m e n ta t io n )

1 1 /2 m i l e r a d i u s o f camp

308
DINRWY

3.2

D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t known r a i l w a y ( m i l e s )

OCCUP

6.0

O cc upa ti on d a t e s ( i . e . 1895-910, 895910; 1910,
9 109 10) .

RELOC

1.0

R elative
0 1 2 3 -

occupation
unknown
l a t e 19th c e n t u r y
l a t e 19th c e n t u r y / e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y
e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y

APPENDIX B

ENTREPOT/INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY CENTER VARIABLES

Acronym

Format

D escription

APRIOR

1.0

A p r i o r i assessment of settlem en t type
0 - In term e d ia te supply c e n te r
1 - Entrepot
2 - P o ssib ly subsequent to study period

DNSET

4.2

Distance

APRNSET

1.0

A p rio ri d e f in itio n of nearest settlem ent
0 - In term ed ia te supply c e n te r
1 - Entrepot
2 - P o ssib ly subsequent to study period

DINEWAT

1.0

D istance to n e a r e s t water (m iles)

TYPNWAT

1.0

Type o f
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 -

DINRWY

3.2

D istance to n e a re st railway (miles)

TYPNRWY

1.0

Type o f
0 1 2 -

NORWYL

2.0

Number o f r a i l l i n e s w i t h i n a
the settlem ent

TRLGRWY

1.0

Terminus o f a l o g g i n g r a i l w a y
0 - no
1 - yes (in c lu d e s ju n c tio n of logging railway
in to mainline)

to nearest settlem ent

(miles)

n e a r e s t water
stream
major r i v e r
lake
G re a t Lake
s t r e a m / l a k e o r r i v e r / l a k e co m b in at i o n
spring
two o r more o f t h e above

n e a re st railway
logging railway
mainline railway
j u n c t i o n o f two o r more r a i l w a y s

309

2 mile radius of

310
TRMNRWY

1.

Terminus o f a m a i n l i n e r a i l w a y
0 - no
1 - y e s ( i n c l u d e s j u n c t i o n o f two main l i n e s )

PORT

.0

P o r t f a c i l i t i e s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t
0 - no
1 - yes

DIRKLHM

.0

D i r e c t l i n k t o homeland
0 - no
1 - yes

TYPNLCMP

.0

Type o f
0 1 2 3 -

DINRD

.2

D i s t a n c e t o n e a r e s t U.S. F o r e s t S e r v i c e / c o u n t y
r o a d / t r a i l (miles)

OCCUP

.0

O cc up at ion d a t e ( s ) ( i . e . 1895-1910, 895910; 1915,
915915)

RELOC

.0

R e la tiv e occupation
0 - unknown
1 - l a t e 19th c e n t u r y
2 - l a t e 1 9 t h / e a r l y 2 0 th c e n t u r y
3 - e a r l y 20th c e n t u r y

RWYSTA

.0

Number o f r a i l w a y s t a t i o n s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

ORWYFAC

.0

O ther r a i l w a y f a c i l i t i e s i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t

LUMMLS

.0

Number o f lumber m i l l s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

WARHS

.0

Number o f warehouses in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

LGEQP

.0

Number o f e s t a b l i s h m e n t s s e l l i n g l o g g i n g equipment

GNLSTO

.0

PO

.0

Number o f p o s t o f f i c e s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

SHOWHOR

.0

Number o f s a l o o n s / h o t e l s / b r o t h e l s i n t h e
settlem ent

SPCRET

.0

Number o f s p e c i a l i z e d r e t a i l e s t a b l i s h m e n t s
the settlem ent

RELEST

.0

Number o f r e a l e s t a t e b r o k e r s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

RTWHTIM

.0

Number o f r e t a i l / w h o l e s a l e t i m b e r a g e n t s in t h e
settlem ent

n e a r e s t v e r i f i a b l e l o g g i n g camp
unknown
River d riv e
Railway
Railway (w ith e x t e n s i v e d o c u m en ta ti on )

Number o f g e n e r a l s t o r e s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

in

311
TELEPH

1.0

Tel ephones p r e s e n t i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t
0 - no
1 - yes

TLGRH

1.0

Te le g ra p h p r e s e n t in t h e s e t t l e m e n t
0 - no
1 - ye s

BANK

1.0

Number o f

banks i n t h e s e t t l e m e n t

SCHOOL

1.0

Number o f

s c h o o l s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

RLFAN

1.0

Number o f

r e l i g i o u s f a c i l i t i e s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

FINWDMN

1.0

Number o f f i n i s h e d wood m a n u f a c t u r e r s in t h e
settlem ent

MEDIC

1.0

Number o f p h y s i c i a n s / d e n t i s t s / p h a r m a c i s t s in t h e
settlem ent

LWYR

1.0

Number o f

l a w y e r s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

HOSP

1.0

Number o f

h o s p i t a l s in th e se ttle m e n t

LSFGOVT

1.0

Number o f l o c a l , s t a t e and f e d e r a l government
f u n c t i o n s / f a c i l i t i e s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

HIND

1.0

Number o f

LIND

1.0

Number o f l i g h t and s e r v i c e i n d u s t r i e s i n t h e
settlem ent

FISH

1.0

Number o f f i s h i n g r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s / f a c i l i t i e s
in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

TOTMNF

2.0

Total number o f m a n u f a c t u r i n g / i n d u s t r i a l
f u n c t i o n s / f a c i l i t i e s in t h e se ttle m e n t

POPOO

4.0

Population o f

the settlem ent -

1900

POPIO

4.0

Population o f

the settlem ent -

1910

P0F20

4.0

Population of

the settlem ent -

1920

heavy i n d u s t r i e s in t h e s e t t l e m e n t

APPENDIX C

LOGGING CAMP SITES
R i v e r D riv e S i t e s
Township Number

S e c t i o n Number

S i t e Number (USFS)

T38N R21W

05

01-119

T39N R21W

34

01-186

T40N R19W

09
10

01-202
01-198

T40N R20W

16

01-203

T41N R17W

13
27

02-277
02-280

T41N R18W

09
20
21

02-019
02-261
02-260

T41N R19W

03
09
21
26

01-241
01-243
01-141
02-287

T41N R21W

02

01-183

T42N R17W

03
04

02-092
02-235

T42N R18W

01

02-050

T42N R20W

19
20

01-184
01-191

T43N R17W

05
26
31

02-275
02-293
02-292

T43N R18W

10
24
27
34

02-276
02-080
02-018
02-017

312

313
T43N R19W

05

01-201

T43N R20W

03
14
17
18
36

01-189
01-256
01-030
01-255
01-188

T44N R17W

10

02-156
02-289
02-297
02-225
02-223
02-257

21
22
33
T44N R18W

21
25
32

02-243
03-243
03-246
03-429
02-271

T45N R17W

09

03-374

T47N R21W

22

03-051

12

Railway S i t e s
T39N R21W

04
27

01-154
01-158

T40N R21W

25

01-111

T41N R18W

13
14
22

02-350
02-075
02-170

T41N R19W

05

01-024
02-124
01-034
01-051
02-094
02-095
02-09
02-234
02-326

06
20
22

33

T42N R17W

05
07
18
20
21
24

02-176
02-355
02-356
02-300
02-304
02-290
02-181

314
T42N R18W

07
12
17
19
21
30
31

02-009
02-357
02-013
02-203
02-014
02-385
02-047

T42N R19W

03
11

12
14
17
20
29
30

01-064
02-200
02-368
02-369
02-008
02-167
01-026
01-021
01-020
01-134

T43N R17W

17
21

02-114
02-204

T43N R18W

01
18
30
32

02-053
02-029
02-168
02-012

T43N R19W

01
02

16
26
27
33
34

01-110
01-019
01-058
01-043
01-057
01-018
01-044
01-054
01-045
01-120
01-055
01-031
01-048

T43N R20W

05
27

01-022
01-015

T43N R21W

03
08
11

01-166
01-167
01-103

T44N R17W

08
29

02-175
02-358

T44N R18W

03
04

03-239
03-240

03
09
11
15

315
06

10
24
26

T44N R19W

01
03
10

13
14
15
16
19

21
23
25
26
27
32
T44N R20W

20
31
33

T45N R17W

07
18

20
30
32
T45N R18W

08
09
12
20

22
27
33
T45N R19W

01
05
08
13
30

T45N R20W

02
03

03-241
03-414
03-247
02-269
03-032
03-218
03-466
03-220
03-410
03-368
03-370
03-226
03-298
03-476
03-038
03-477
03-232
03-234
03-367
03-235
03-236
03-361
03-040
03-206
03-257
03-216
03-183
03-187
03-188
03-189
03-307
03-272
03-432
03-036
03-164
03-012
03-172
03-253
03-177
03-141
03-144
03-149
03-493
03-652
03-395
03-093
03-552

316
03-136
03-137
03-138
03-139
03-140
03-273

29

30
31

22

03-437
03-106
03-027
03-045
03-655
03-443

T46N R19W

18
19
20
27

03-017
03-363
03-636
03-099

T46N R20W

07
13
23
24
27
29
32

03-402
03-573
03-081
03-082
03-083
03-578
03-089

T46N R21W

10
13

22
24
26

03-062
03-066
03-067
03-302
03-380
03-597
03-598
03-379
03-073
03-362

T46N R23W

21

03-329

T47N R20W

34

03-586

T46N R18W

02
10
11
16
21

14
15
16

Unknown
T39N R21W

15

01-156

T40N R21W

11

01-236

T41N R18W

02
15
17
35

02-174
02-103
02-087
02-055

317
T41N R19W

05
06
08
13
17

21
26
31
T41N R20W

13
17
20
24
25

T41N R21W

12
25

T42N R17W

02
04
08

10
17

T42N R18W

06

13
24
33
T42N R19W

02
06
09

22
24
33
T42N R20W

01
08

11
21
36
T42N R21W

T43N R17W

01-273
01-277
01-283
02-078
01-242
02-097
02-288
01-276
01-087
01-286
01-053
01-052
01-287
01-274
01-098
01-093
01-257
02-091
02-099
02-175
02-165
02-301
02-329
02-071
02-231
02-262
02-088
02-093
02-171
02-338
02-367
01-131
01-023
02-159
02-236
01-137
01-271
01-090
01-116
01-139
01-187

15
24
36

01-054
01-107

07
19

02-023
02-245

01-101

318

T43N R18W

22
29

02-179
02-177

03
07

02-199
02-031
02-110

11
T43N R19W

03
18

T43N R20W

12

01-042
01-119
01-046

17
34

01-152
01-259
01-153

T43N R21W

24

01-115

T44N R17W

08

02-058
02-178
02-213
02-188
02 02-067

09
15
19
32
T44N R18W

11
17

22
23
25
29
30
32
34
35
36
T44N R19W

02
04
05
06
09
13

28
31
32
36

03-217
03-467
03-468
03-469
03-471
03-223
03-228
03-230
03-303
03-237
03-238
03-482
03-486

01
02

03-196
03-541

21
22

T44N R20W

03-612
03-245
02-153
02-154
02-195
02-046
02-005
03-251
02-074
02-155
02-164
02-172
02-328

319
04
06
09
13
16
18
19
20
24
32

T45N R17W

04
07

08
10

11
21

26
28
30
31
32
33
35
T45N R18W

01

02
03
06
08
14
20

24

29
30
31
33
35

03-197
03-198
03-199
03-200
03-201
03-202
03-546
03-203
03-204
03-205
03-207
03-260
03-210
03-214
03-261
03-550
03-371
03-182
03-419
03-420
03-421
03-360
03-418
03-190
03-373
03-192
03-193
03-375
03-195
03-425
03-640
03-611
03-158
03-159
03-430
03-116
03-162
03-399
03-165
03-166
03-167
03-169
03-170
03-171
03-173
03-175
03-176
03-436
03-431
03-179

320
T45N R19W

03
07
10

12

17
19
25
27
29
34

T45N R20W

04
05
08

11
12
13
14
15
18
20

23
32

T46N R18W

02
08
10

11
14
16
20
21

22
26
27
28
30
31
33
34

03-143
03-489
03-491
03-146
03-147
03-494
03-148
03-150
03-151
03-497
03-152
03-153
03-281
03-156
03-157
03-121
03-122
03-385
03-125
03-126
03-558
03-559
03-127
03-129
03-132
03-565
03-274
03-135
03-256
03-383
03-103
03-519
03-026
03-106
03-401
03-613
03-094
03-095
03-097
03-109
03-110
03-111
03-112
03-311
03-113
03-114
03-115
03-116
03-102
03-117
03-118

321

35

03-406
03-074
03-396
03-075
03-076
03-407
03-572
03-077
03-042
03-080
03-084
03-087
03-090
03-306
03-093

T46N R21W

01
08
10
11
17
18

03-060
03-592
03-063
03-065
03-070
03-071

T46N R23W

02

03-332
03-340
03-331
03-355
03-341

T46N R20W

03
04
06
09
10

11
16
17
20
28
30
34

14

22
25
26

28

03-030
03-059
03-452
03-454
03-455
03-462

T47N R19W

18
19
30

03-527
03-529
03-535

T47N R20W

13

03-582
03-583
03-313
03-584

T47N R18W

01
12
14

14
28

T47N R21W

21

22
30
34

03-049
03-050
03-053
03-604
03-606

APPENDIX D

ENTREPOTS AND INTERMEDIATE SUPPLY CENTERS
I n t e r m e d i a t e Supply C e n t e r s
Name

Township/Range

S e c t i o n Number

Onota

47N 19W

29

Rock R i v e r

47N 21W

15

Selma

46N 23W

22

New D alt on

46N 23W

17/16

Yalmer

46N 23W

6 /7

Dukes

46N 23W

Au T r a i n

47N 20W

32

Dixon

46N 20W

31

Stillm an

46N 20W

36

Ridge

46N 20W

12

Hanley

46N 19W

36

Juniper

46N 18W

30

Doty

46N 18W

22

Evelyn

46N 18W

22

Steube n

44N 17W

20

Brampton

41N 22W

21

Winde

41N 22W

7/8/6/5

Ga rth

41N 21W

33

41N 20W

31

27/26/34/35

G en a( M as on vi ll e)
Ensign

322

323
Cooks

41N 17W

30

Maywood

40N 22W

26

Chaison

40N 22W

07

Nahma J u n c t i o n

40N 20W

01

Isabella

40N 19W

02

Stonington

38N 22W

1/2

S t. Jacques

40N 20W

02

Eben J u n c t i o n

46N 21W

29

Chatham

46N 21W

34

Slapneck

46N 21W

36

Wetmore

46N 19W

13

Perkins

41N 22W

04

Maplewood

41N 21W

Elkhorn

41N 17W

11/10/15/14

Springer

41N 17W

26

Kipl ing

40N 22W

10

West G la d s to n e

40N 22W

19

Alton

40N 21W

3/10

Ogontz

40N 20W

8/9/17/16

Entrepots
Nahma
G1adstone
Escanaba
Rapid Rive r
M a n is ti q u e
Muni s i n g

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