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U niversity M icrofilm s International A B ell & Howell Information C o m p a n y 3 0 0 North Z e e b R oad , Ann Arbor, Ml 4 8 1 0 6 -1 3 4 6 U SA 3 1 3 /7 6 1 -4 7 0 0 8 0 0 /5 2 1 -0 6 0 0 O rder N u m b er 8912617 T he relationship o f gender identification and background variables to th e traditional nature of career choice for w om en in vocation al or technical program s in M ichigan com m unity colleges Murphy, Mary Catherine, Ph.D. Michigan State University, 1988 UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 THE RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER IDENTIFICATION AND BACKGROUND VARIABLES TO THE TRADITIONAL NATURE OF CAREER CHOICE FOR WOMEN IN VOCATIONAL OR TECHNICAL PROGRAMS IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES By Mary C a t h e r i n e Murphy A DISSERTATION Submitted To Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y in p a r t i c a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e r e q u ir e m e n t s f o r th e degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department o f Educa tiona l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n 1988 ABSTRACT THE RELATIONSHIP OF GENDER IDENTIFICATION AND BACKGROUND VARIABLES TO THE TRADITIONAL NATURE OF CAREER CHOICE FOR WOMEN IN VOCATIONAL OR TECHNICAL PROGRAMS IN MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES BY Mary C a t h e r i n e Murphy PROBLEM The pu rp o se o f t h i s s t u d y was t o d e v e l o p a p r o f i l e o f women who made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l v o c a t i o n a l o r t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s and compare i t t o a p r o f i l e o f women who made t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n a t t e m p t e d t o d e t e r m i n e what demographic and background f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e l i k e l i h o o d o f a t r a d i t i o n a l o r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e , and t o examine t h e e x t e n t t o which s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n co n trib u ted to the t r a d i t i o n a l nature of the choice. METHODS AND PROCEDURES The sample c o n s i s t e d o f 293 women s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d i n 10 Michigan community c o l l e g e s i n t h e f a l l o f 1987. There were 64% t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s u b j e c t s , and 32% n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s u b j e c t s which i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o what was found i n t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n f o c u s e d on i d e n t i f y i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a p s y c h o l o g i c a l measurement o f s e x - r o l e i d e n t i t y , t h e Bems Sex-Role I n v e n t o r y , s e l e c t e d background and demographic v a r i a b l e s measured by t h e T r a d i t i o n a l N at u re o f C a r e e r Choice Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l nature of ca re e r choice. Mary C a th e rin e Murphy The statistical a n a l y s e s o f t h e d a t a produced c h i - s q u a r e s s c o r e s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r t h e BSRI to th e dependent v a r i a b l e s . Chi-square a n a l y s e s were a l s o c o n d u c t e d on t h e demographic v a r i a b l e s and t h e d e p e n d e n t variables. The r e m a in in g v a r i a b l e s on t h e T r a d i t i o n a l N at u r e o f C a r e e r Choice Q u e s t i o n n a i r e were examined u s i n g a p r o b i t a n a l y s i s method which r e q u i r e d t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a t - t e s t t o each o f t h e in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t , i f a n y , r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t e d between them and t h e traditional nature of c a re e r choice. FINDINGS The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n does in flu en ce the t r a d i t i o n a l th i s population. n a t u r e o f t h e c a r e e r c h o i c e p r o c e s s f o r women in An e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e demographic v a r i a b l e s s u g g e s t e d t h e r e was no r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l nature of the career c h o i c e p r o c e s s and t h e s e v a r i a b l e s . The f i n a l p r o b i t a n a l y s i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were s i g n i f i c a n t f o r women who made t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s : 1. Games and t o y s p r e f e r r e d as 2. youngsters P a r e n t s i n f l u e n c e on c a r e e r c h o i c e 3. P r e v i o u s work e x p e r i e n c e 4. TV/radio/magazines The f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were s i g n i f i c a n t f o r women who made no n trad itio n al choices: 1. Other majors considered 2. Technical c l a s s e s 3. Sports p a r t i c i p a t i o n Mary C a th e rin e Murphy 4. Male and f em a le c o u n s e l o r s 5. Male f r i e n d s Based on t h e f i n d i n g s i t was d e t e r m i n e d t h a t t h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two g r o u p s . I t i s e a s i e r , however, t o p r e d i c t t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s t h a n n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s , b ase d on a knowledge o f background v a r i a b l e s and s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n . Women who make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s do n o t y e t le n d t h e m s e l v e s t o a c l e a r d e s c r i p t i v e p r o f i l e . To My P a r e n t s P a t r i c k And P a t r i c i a T h e i r Unwavering Su p po rt ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The a u t h o r would l i k e to thank t h e members o f h e r d o c t o r a l committee, Dr. Ruth Renaud, Dr. David Ral ph, Dr. Lou Hekhuis. They c o n t r i b u t e d g e n e r o u s l y o f t h e i r time and o f f e r e d many h e l p f u l s u g g e s t i o n s . A very s p e c i a l tha nk you t o Dr. Max R a i n e s , c h a i r o f th e com mit tee , f o r h i s c o n s t a n t enc oura gement, s u p p o r t , c h a l l e n g e s , and u n d e r s t a n d i n g th r o u g h o u t t h e c o u rs e o f t h e d o c t o r a l program. The co m ple ti on o f t h i s p r o j e c t in v o l v e d t h e s u p p o r t and encouragement o f numerous c o l l e a g u e s , a s s o c i a t e s , f r i e n d s , and f a m i l y members. At t h e r i s k o f f o r g e t t i n g someone, I must o f f e r a s p e c i a l tha nk you t o Dr. John Eat on, Dr. Lee Meadows, Dr. Joanna M i c h e l i c h , Marie Hansen, Dr. Joanne deRosa, Jim Wall, Mary Haas, Mike and Jan Keefe, Cynthi a Kruska, Cha ris L i n k l a t e r , Joy Tubaugh, and my s i s t e r s , E i l e e n Smith and Mar gar et W al te r. This p r o j e c t a l s o in v o l v e d e x c e l l e n t c o o p e r a t i o n from th e Higher Education Management Department o f t h e s t a t e government o f Michigan, and t h e per so n ne l who a s s i s t e d with t h e p r o j e c t a t th e community c o l l e g e s t h a t p a r t i c i p a t e d in t h e s t u d y . T h e i r a s s i s t a n c e was g r e a t l y a p p r e c i a t e d . TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES......................................................................................... vi LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................. vii Chapter I II page THE PROBLEM........................................................................................ 1 I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................................................................. S t a t e m e n t o f t h e Prob lem ...................................................... Need f o r t h e S t u d y ................................................................... D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms................................................................. P r o c e d u r e s ...................................................................................... L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y ...................................................... S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e S t u d y ................................................... 1 3 4 9 10 12 13 REVIEW IF THE LITERATURE.......................................................... 16 I n t r o d u c t i o n ................................................................................. C a r e e r Development T h e o r i e s ............................................... S t u d i e s on S e l f - C o n c e p t T h e o r i e s ............................ Development o f S e l f and V oc a ti o n a l C o n c e p t ...................................................................................... Summary...................................................................................... Sex-Role I d e n t i f i c a t i o n T h e o r i e s ................................... P e r s o n a l i t y and B eh avi or T r a i t s ............................... Sex-Role I d e n t i t y and C a r e e r C h o i c e ..................... Summary...................................................................................... S o c i a l i z a t i o n ............................................................................... De pen dence -Independence C o n s t r u c t .......................... A chievem ent-A ffiliation C o n s t r u c t . . . D i f f e r e n t i a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n and C a r e e r C h o i c e ........................................................................................ Summary...................................................................................... School E x p e r i e n c e ...................................................................... R ei nf o rc em en t o f S o c i a l i z a t i o n P r a c t i c e s The Math F a c t o r ................................................................... The C o u n s e lo r F a c t o r ........................................................ Guidance P r o gr am s ....................... Summary...................................................................................... The I n n o v a t o r s ............................................................................. P r o f e s s i o n a l I n n o v a t o r s ................................................. P e r s o n a l i t y F a c t o r s .......................................................... Background F a c t o r s ............................................................ N o n p r o f e s s i o n a l Women...................................................... N at i o n a l S t u d i e s ................................................................. F a c t o r s R e l a t e d t o C h o i c e ............................................ Role Models and S u p p o r t e r s .......................................... Summary...................................................................................... C ha pt er I I Summary................................................................... 16 17 19 iv 21 22 22 23 24 25 26 26 27 28 30 30 31 32 32 33 34 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 40 41 42 Chapter III page RESEARCH DESIGN............................................................................ 45 I n t r o d u c t i o n ..................................................................................... Type o f S t u d y ................................................................................... Resea rc h H y p o t h e s e s ..................................................................... Res earch P o p u l a t i o n ..................................................................... R es ear ch Model................................................................................. Resea rc h I n s t r u m e n t s ................................................................... Bern Sex -Role I n v e n t o r y ....................................................... T r a d i t i o n a l N a tu r e o f C a r e e r Choice Q u e s t i o n n a i r e ............................................................................ Survey P r o c e d u r e s .......................................................................... S t a t i s t i c a l A n a l y s e s ................................................................... IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA................................................................ 45 45 46 47 48 49 49 54 55 58 60 H y p o th e s is One................................................................................. H y p o th e s is Two................................................................................. H y p o th e s is T h r e e ............................................................................ Summary............................................................... V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS.......................................................... 61 62 72 78 80 The Pr obl em ........................................................................................ R e s u l t s ................................................................................................. C o n c l u s i o n s ........................................................................................ D i s c u s s i o n o f R e s u l t s and C o n c l u s i o n s ........................... L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y .......................................................... I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r F u r t h e r R e s e a r c h ..................................... I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r P r a c t i c e ....................................................... 80 84 87 89 91 93 94 BIBLIOGRAPHY............................................................................................................... 96 APPENDIX A LETTER SENT TO WOMEN STUDENTS............................. 102 APPENDIX B COPY OF BEM SEX-ROLE INVENTORY........................... 104 APPENDIX C COPY OF BEM SEX-ROLE INVENTORY SCORING TABLES................................................................. 106 TRADITIONAL NATURE OF CAREER CHOICE QUESTIONNAIRE................................................................. 107 LETTER SENT TO COMMUNITY COLLEGE CONTACT PERSON................................................................................. Ill COPY OF A SECTION OF THE MICHIGAN IPEDS REPORT: FALL ENROLLMENTS AT MICHIGAN COMMUNITY COLLEGES, 1987........................................ 112 SUMMARY OF CAREER DATA FROM MICHIGAN VEDS REPORT, 1987........................................................ 113 APPENDIX D APPENDIX E APPENDIX F APPENDIX G v LIST OF TABLES Table page 1.1 MEDIAN INCOMES, 1982........................................................ 4 1.2 MEAN EARNINGS, 1983.......................................................... 6 1.3 FOUR MONTH AVERAGE INCOMES, 1984............................. 7 3.1 NORMATIVE DATA FOR THE BSRI........................................ 51 3.2 TEST RETEST RELIABILITY: BSRI.................................... 52 4.1 AGGREGATE BEM T Y P E S . . . . ................................................. 60 4.2 BEM TYPES FOR TRADITIONAL AND NONTRADITIONAL CHOOSERS.................................................................................. 62 4.3 PRELIMINARY MODEL............................................................... 65 4.4 PROBIT MODEL: INITIAL RESULTS.................................... 66 4.5 TRADITIONAL NATURE BY PREDICTED VALUE: INITIAL RESULTS.................................................................................... 68 4.6 PROBIT ANALYSIS: FINAL RESULTS.................................. 69 4.7 TRADITIONAL NATURE BY PREDICTED VALUE: FINAL RESULTS.................................................................................... 70 4.8 AGE BY TRADITIONAL NATURE............................................. 73 4.9 RELIGION BY TRADITIONAL NATURE................................. 74 4 .1 0 ETHNIC BACKGROUND BY TRADITIONAL NATURE 75 4.11 POSITION IN FAMILY BY TRADITIONAL NATURE 76 4.12 MARITAL STATUS BY TRADITIONAL NATURE.................... 77 5.1 NORMATIVE SAMPLE: AGGREGATE CLASSIFICATION.... 84 5.2 STUDY SAMPLE: AGGREGATE CLASSIFICATION 84 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figur e page 1.1 MEAN EARNINGS OF HUSBANDS AND WIVES, 1983............. 5 3.1 RESEARCH MODEL......................................................................... 49 vi i CHAPTER I THE PROBLEM Introduction Women in t h i s c o u n t r y have e n t e r e d t h e l a b o r f o r c e i n i n c r e a s i n g l y l a r g e numbers s i n c e t h e 1950s. The p h r a s e "women in t h e 80%", c u r r e n t l y in vogue among p o l i t i c a l a c t i o n groups r e f e r s t o t h e c o n t i n u i n g phenomenon o f women choos ing t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r s which o f f e r r e s t r i c t e d m o b i l i t y , low pay, and poor jo b s e c u r i t y . "The f e m i n i z a t i o n o f p o v e r t y " , a n o t h e r p o p u l a r p h r a s e , r e f e r s t o t h e t r e n d r e s u l t i n g from unemployed o r underemployed women u na bl e t o e a r n enough t o s u p p o r t t h e i r f a m i l i e s , and women o f t e n must support t h e i r fa m ilie s . In 1980 one i n seven White women and one in f i v e Black women were heads o f ho u s eh o ld s . was one in t e n . In 1969 t h i s f i g u r e f o r White women Women head h a l f o f a l l poor f a m i l i e s . a d u l t s i n t h i s c o u n t r y a r e women. Two o f t h r e e poor Women must work, y e t th e y make r e s t r i c t e d t r a d i t i o n a l c a re e r choices d e s p it e l e g i s l a t i o n enabling fr e e choice. The Equal Pay Act o f 1963, t h e C i v i l Righ ts Act o f 1964, T i t l e IX o f t h e E d uc a tio n a l Amendments, and s e v e r a l E x e c u ti v e Orders i n t h e l a t e 1960s and e a r l y 1970s a l l g u a ra n t e e d women a c c e s s t o t r a d i t i o n a l male careers. Why does t h e c a r e e r ch o i ce o f t h e s e women c o n t i n u e t o be in low-paying j o b s and who a r e t h e women who make t h e s e c h o i c e s ? Numerous s t u d i e s have e x p l o re d t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e o f c a r e e r ch o i ce among f o u r - y e a r c o l l e g e women (Almquist and A n g r i s t , 1970; Ashburn, 1977; Cooper, 1985; E p s t e i n , 1982; Hanson, 1975; Kingdon, 1982; Lemkau, 1979; R o s s i , 1965; T a n g r i , 1972; Veres and Moore, 1975; Walker, 1981; Wilson, 1978). These s t u d i e s noted t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f r o l e models in making n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s w ith t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l being male r o l e models. Women making n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s tended t o have a more 2 androgynous gend er i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and a l e s s s t e r e o t y p i c a t t i t u d e toward women's r o l e s . They te n de d t o have a h i g h e r achievement o r i e n t a t i o n , b e t t e r st u d y s k i l l s , and r e c e i v e d more encouragement t o e x p l o r e nontraditional f ie ld s . F u r t h e r , th e y seemed t o p o s s e s s many o f t h e same p e r s o n a l i t y and m o t i v a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s as t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w ith men, al th o u g h th e y a l s o e x p e r i e n c e d more r o l e c o n f l i c t . In one p a r t i c u l a r l y i n t e r e s t i n g s tu d y Almquist and A n g r i s t (1970) a t t e m p t e d t o e x p l a i n u nc o n v en t io n al ch o o s e r s among a p o p u l a t i o n o f c o l l e g e women w ith two p o s s i b l e h y p o th e s e s . The d ev ia nc e h y p o t h e s i s s u g ge s te d t h a t t h e c h o i c e o f a m a sc u l in e f i e l d i s made beca use e x p e r i e n c e has le d t h e ch o o s e r t o devel op a m a sc u l in e image o f h e r s e l f . The en ric hm ent h y p o t h e s i s s u g g e s te d t h a t she i s a p r o d u c t o f e n r i c h i n g e x p e r i e n c e s which have le d t o a l e s s s t e r e o t y p i c and b r o a d e r c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e f em in in e r o l e . Literature te n d s t o s u p p o r t t h e de v i a n c e h y p o t h e s i s (Dynes, 1956; Joh n so n, 1963; Rosenberg, 1957). Almquist and A n g r i s t found s t r o n g s u p p o r t f o r th e en ric h m en t h y p o t h e s i s , b u t could n e i t h e r conf irm nor r e f u t e t h e d ev ia nce h y p o t h e s i s based on t h e i r f i n d i n g s . Few s t u d i e s have been conducted on women p u r s u i n g n o n p r o f e s s i o n a l o r t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r s , and i t i s proposed t h a t t h i s p o p u l a t i o n comprises t h e l a r g e s t c a n d i d a t e pool f o r t h e p o v e r t y c y c l e . Women a t t h e lower end o f t h e socioeconomic s c a l e a r e t h o s e in j o b s t h a t o f f e r low pay, r e s t r i c t e d m o b i l i t y , and poor j o b s e c u r i t y . They a r e t h e b e a u t i c i a n s , s e c r e t a r i e s , w a itr e s s e s , housekeepers, r e c e p t i o n i s t s . They c o n t i n u e t o make t h e s e c h o i c e s r a t h e r th a n t o choose n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s such as w e l d i n g , a u t om ot iv e t e c h n o l o g y , o r e l e c t r o n i c s which a r e l e g a l l y a c c e s s i b l e and o f f e r higher s a l a r i e s . This s tu d y i s des ig n ed t o examine f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h a t phenomenon. 3 S ta te m en t o f t h e Problem This s tud y i s d e s ig n e d t o i d e n t i f y d i f f e r e n c e s between women who make t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s and women who make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choices. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e fo cu s w i l l be on community c o l l e g e women i n n o n t r a n s f e r v o c a t i o n a l o r t e c h n i c a l programs. This p o p u l a t i o n i s o f primary i n t e r e s t beca use t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s te n d t o l e a d t o jo b s t h a t o f f e r a t i c k e t t o t h e p o v e r t y c y c l e i f th e y a r e heads o f h ou s eh o ld s . The primary v a r i a b l e s t o be examined i n r e l a t i o n t o t h i s p r o c e s s a r e gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , and background v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o ex po su re t o c a r e e r s and support f o r c a re er choices. The woman who makes a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ch o i ce in t h i s p o p u l a t i o n i s expec ted t o s u p p o r t Almquist and A n g r i s t ' s de v i a n c e h y p o t h e s i s and t o have a ma sc u li n e o r androgynous image o f h e r s e l f . The t r a d i t i o n a l woman is e x pe c te d t o have a s t r o n g f em in in e image o f h e r s e l f . In t h i s s t u d y , an answer t o t h e f o l l o w i n g q u e s t i o n i s s o u g h t: "What i s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t o c a r e e r c h o i c e f o r women i n community c o l l e g e n o n t r a n s f e r programs?" 1. More s p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e q u e s t i o n s t o be e x p l o re d a r e : I f a woman has been s o c i a l i z e d in an environment where she has r e c e i v e d ex posure t o and s u p p o r t f o r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l a c t i v i t i e s and b e h a v i o r s , i s she more l i k e l y t o choose a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r program th an a woman r a i s e d in an environment where t h e r e was exp os ur e t o and s u p p o r t f o r t r a d i t i o n a l b e h a v i o r s and a c t i v i t i e s ? 2. I f a woman i s i d e n t i f i e d as m a sc u l in e o r androgynous in h e r s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n , based on t h e Bern Sex-Role I n v e n t o r y , i s she more l i k e l y t o choose a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r th a n a woman i d e n t i f i e d as f em i n in e on th e BSRI? Need f o r t h e Study In 1982 i n t h e United S t a t e s , t h e median incomes f o r p er s o ns by sex and e d u c a t i o n were: TABLE 1.1 MEDIAN INCOMES EIGHT YEARS HIGH SCHOOL DIPLOMA COLLEGE DEGREE MALES $9501 $17,055 $24,630 FEMALES $4657 $ 6,965 $11,717 White males w ith l e s s th a n two y e a r s o f high school have 12% h i g h e r e a r n i n g s th a n White and Black women who have had f o u r y e a r s o f c o l l e g e . One in t h r e e women have e a r n i n g s below $7000. Comparative d a t a r e g a r d i n g e a r n i n g s in 1983 o f Married Couple F a m i li e s s u g g e s te d th e e a r n i n g s gap had not improved ( F i g u r e 1.1 and Table 1 . 2 ) ) and more r e c e n t d a t a p u b l i s h e d in 1987 on E du ca tio na l Background and Earni ngs S t a t u s in t h e s p r i n g o f 1984 also depicted a continuation of the earnings The f u l l magnitude o f t h i s i s s u e i s to o s tu d y . gap. (Table 1 . 3 ) . complex t o examine in a single N e v e r t h e l e s s , f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e t r a d i t i o n a l low paying c a r e e r c h o i c e can be examined and t h e i r e x i s t e n c e can shed some l i g h t on t h e ca us es o f t h e b i g g e r problem. I t i s assumed t h a t h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a f f o r d s t h e framework f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g c a r e e r development and t h e means by which one p r e p a r e s f o r a c a r e e r ; t h e r e f o r e , i t i s e s s e n t i a l t h a t a s tu d y o f t h i s n a t u r e be conducted in a h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n c o n t e x t . As m e n tio n ed , numerous s t u d i e s have been C D Mean E arnings of H u sb a n d s and W ives, by Work E xp erien ce: 1 9 8 3 Worked at full-time jobs Husbands \ ' Wives Worked at part-time job6 r / / / \ Wives X / / / \ Husbands Mean earnings (dollars) 30,000' $26,530 $19,400 20,000 — $15,040 $13,780 $12,030 $11,950 10,000 — $8,300 $7,480 ■me.-. wee Is $6,850 $4,920 $3,580 27 to 39 weeks $2,850 26 “ or I Work experience FIGURE 1 .I: MEAN EARNINGS OF HUSBANDS AND WIVES, 1983 United States Department o f Labor, Bureau o f Census P ublications, Earnings in 1983 o f Husbands and Wives, 1983. 6 TABLE 1.2: MEAN EARNINGS, 1983 Comparison of Mean Earnings of Husbands and Wives in 1983 and 1981, by Selected Characteristics Wife Husband Per­ cent change Msan earnings Characteristic 1981 Per- Mean earnings 1981 change 1983 Constant dollars Currant dollars real money income 922.980 922.858 920.866 0.5 910.164 99.419 98,598 •7.9 12.217 20.000 26.336 27.008 24,048 11.932 13.559 20.497 28,477 26.223 23,962 11.681 12.378 18,711 24,170 23.938 21,874 10.663 ‘ -9.9 •-2.4 -0.5 “ 3.0 0.4 2.1 7,258 10.352 10.998 10.956 9,777 4.948 7,047 9,654 9.842 10,089 9.664 6,025 6.433 8.813 8.984 9,210 8.822 5.500 3.0 •7.2 •11.7 ••8.6 1.2 *-17.9 22,167 23.596 20,461 22.329 26,760 21,786 23.667 20.659 22.945 25.431 19,888 21,596 18.859 20.948 23.215 ••1.7 -0.3 -1.0 -2.7 1.3 11,088 9.365 9,192 8,150 9,877 10,510 8.521 8.083 7,203 9,112 9,594 7,779 7.379 6,575 8,318 •5.5 •9.9 •13.7 *13.1 •8.4 Work Experience Worked at full-time jobs............. 50 to 52 w eeks..................... 49 weeks or l e s s ................... Worked et part-time jo b s ........... 50 to 52 w eek s..................... £» !«»» 24,138 26.532 13.673 7,875 12,032 4.915 23.957 26,072 14,367 7.487 10,233 5.639 21.870 23.800 13.115 6.835 9,341 5 1 XX 0.8 *1.8 ••-4.8 5.2 “ 17.6 • •-I? n 12.900 15.041 7.423 4,603 6.849 7.646 12,003 14,314 7,024 4,197 6,439 7.81 1 10.957 13.067 6.412 3,831 5.878 7.566 •7.5 *5.1 5.7 *9.7 •6.4 1 3 Years of School Completed Less than 12 years ................... High school: 4 y e a rs ................. College: 1 to 3 years........... 4 y aars................. 5 years or more . . . 14,559 19.912 23.122 30.898 37.142 15,099 20,777 23.523 29.953 36.000 13,783 18.967 21.473 27.343 32,863 •-3.6 •-4.2 -1.7 ••3.2 ” 3.2 6.658 8.997 10.612 13,211 17.760 6,533 8.651 10.246 11.700 16.338 5,964 7,897 9,352 10.681 14.914 1.9 •4.0 “ 3.6 •12.9 •8.7 Total. 16 years and over........ Aga 15 to 24 years ......................... 25 to 34 years ......................... 35 to 44 years ......................... 45 to 54 years ......................... 55 to 64 years ......................... 65 years and o v e r..................... Age of Own Children Under 18 Years No own children ....................... One or more own children......... All under 6 .............................. Some under 6. some 6 to 17 . All 6 to 1 7 .............................. AO 1983 Constant dollars Currant dollars real money income ‘Significant at tha 95-percent confidence level. “ Significant between the 90-percent and 95-percent confidence levela. United States Department o f Labor, Bureau o f Census P u b lica tio n , Earnings in 1983 o f Husbands and Wives, 1983. 7 TABLE 1.3 Four-Month Average Income, Earnings and Work Activity, and Bfcicationai Attainment, by Sex, Race, and Age, for Persons 18 Years and Over Work activity Monthly aaminga Monthly incoma Educational attainment Maan Standard anor Maan Standard arrer Maan Standard anor $917 2,747 3,439 1,956 1,540 1.188 990 985 848 415 2.47 3.35 3.45 3.32 3.08 3.16 2.75 2.76 2.61 1.56 0.01 0.02 21 2.93 3.51 3.52 3.56 3.48 3.49 3.33 3.09 3.11 2.07 11 2.05 0.02 Al Total............................. Doctoral#........................ Profaaaional..................... Maatar'a.......................... Bachalor'a........................ Aasodata........................ Vocation*........................ Some college, no degree... Hch school graduate only,. Not high school graduate... Mala $1,155 3,255 3,571 2,258 1,841 Total............................. Doctorate........................ Professional..................... Maatar’a .......................... Bachelor's......................... Aasodata........................ Vocational........................ Some colegs, no degree... High school graduate only.. Not high school graduate... Fends 1,620 3,567 4,309 2,843 2,455 1,755 1,822 1,534 1,510 973 m 1,159 1,045 693 I224 14 248 77 47 41 59 34 26 11 22 258 289 104 70 67 128 43 44 21 734 16 1,8l 1,645 1,148 959 923 789 684 453 2^? Total............................. Doctorate......................... Profaaaional..................... Maatar'a.......................... Bachalor'a......................... Aasodata......................... Vocational......................... Someodege, no dagraa... Hidt school graduate only.. Not high aehod graduate... re—», 1,208 3,342 3.927 2,287 1,881 1,367 1,248 1,2t3 1,080 734 15 234 Total............................. Doctorate......................... Profaaaional...................... Maatar'a.......................... Bachalor'a......................... Aasodata......................... Vocational........................ Some college, no degree... High school graduate only.. Not high school graduate... rVrsura IB to 24 Years Od 754 Total............................. Doctorate......................... Professional..................... Master's.......................... Bachalor'a......................... Aasodata .................... Vocational........................ Soma cdage.no dagraa... High school graduate only.. Not high school graduate... 105 55 40 54 50 31 8 1,355 3,073 3,809 2,504 2,119 1,577 1,574 1,308 1,302 665 520 1,7® I221 12 241 76 44 40 57 29 20 11 20 256 283 104 §6 130 36 41 2® ’■111 819 102 202 8 703 608 496 S3 38 49 46 13 1:81 2.85 2.46 2.41 ' 2.22 1.12 0.14 0.09 0.05 0.03 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.15 0.09 0.06 0.04 0.07 0.12 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.3 0.09 0.05 0.09 0.11 0.04 0.03 0.03 W hfta 2?0 51 45 65 38 30 13 954 2,806 3,476 1,944 1,564 1,201 1,006 990 869 439 13 230 *88 48 43 63 33 22 13 2.50 3.35 ni 3.06 3.16 2.76 2.78 2.60 1.59 0.01 0.15 0.09 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.03 0.02 0.03 2.18 619 3.1 _ 3.20 3.11 2.52 2.55 2.63 1.37 1,!__ 1,388 1,158 860 862 765 513 Total............................. Doctorate......................... Professional..................... Maatar'a.......................... Bachelor's......................... Aasodata......................... Vocational......................... Somecoteoe, no degree... High school graduate only.. Not high school graduate... R e n a 24 to 34 Years Od Total............................. Doctorate......................... Professional...................... Master's.......................... Bachelor's......................... 1,173 19 2.7^ JR 169 1,906 1.582 51 1,114 2 .7 $ 1,849 1,508 19 3.07 0.02 3® 3 .3 ofl 0.08 166 44 3.58 3.43 0.05 8 Four-Month Average Income; Earnings and W ok Activly. and Educational Attainment, by Sex, Race, and Age; for Persons 18 Years and Over—Continued Work activity Monthly samings Monthly incoma Educational attainmant Maan Standard srror Msan Standard anor Msan Standard arror 1.335 1,155 1,181 1,003 721 71 100 31 33 26 1,267 1,084 1,120 963 636 69 101 30 33 26 3.37 3.19 3.19 2.99 2.37 0.08 0.15 0.05 0.04 0.07 1,517 3,444 4,395 2,452 2,150 1,550 1,405 1,615 1,176 613 31 413 433 128 106 84 125 92 34 39 1,390 3,298 4,166 2,333 1,989 1,521 1,340 1,430 1,084 712 27 384 408 123 100 83 127 65 32 39 3.13 3.78 3.75 3.61 3.46 3.36 3.18 3.23 3.12 2.41 0.02 0.14 0.11 0.07 0.06 0.10 0.16 0.06 0.04 0.07 1H 5,168 2,722 2,489 1,727 1,381 1,713 1,386 860 51 9&1 192 138 149 209 112 102 38 1,349 (B9 4,814 2,450 2,195 1,484 1,165 1,482 1,252 744 !§ 944 182 127 131 173 107 101 39 2.93 3.i§ 3.71 3.42 3.37 2.88 3.07 2.98 2.40 0.03 o.f? 0.09 0.08 0.15 0.23 0.08 0.05 0.7 ’ .ajo 4,6^1 2,383 2,495 1,173 1,485 1,590 1,202 822 55 A 603 195 193 137 238 95 132 38 896 Si 4,007 1,731 1,697 774 1,109 1,070 790 556 32 (8 573 199 176 144 224 87 51 37 2.16 0.04 3 .S 3.07 2.69 2.03 2.51 2.49 2.14 1.79 o il 0.18 0.12 0.26 0.26 0.10 0.08 0.06 28 101 833 353 145 150 82 272 97 46 14 0.47 3$ 108 38 76 46 138 14 6 0.02 o$ 0.21 0.10 0.26 0.18 0.08 U.US 0.03 P n o m 35 to 44 Y e n CM Total........................................................ Bachalor'a..................................................... Vocational..................................................... m m 4 5 to 8 4 Y n Q d Total.......................................................... Bahtier*?..................... Vocational.......................... ........ • P n o m 55 to 64 Y o n Od Total.......................................................... Profaaaional................................................. B ................................. Vocation^......................................... .. i . r, Hiflh aehooToraduata only.............................. ftoaorn 65 Y m and O n Total.......................................................... Maatar'a...................................................... Ptchtior'f ......................................... ........................ Vocational..................................................... 1 2,707 1,929 1,569 1,198 1.011 1.377 905 830 J197R 120 163 98 191 71 11 li§ 1.10 0.61 0.85 0.46 0.71 0.55 0.34 (8) Boa is lass than 200.000 parsons United States Department o f Commerce, Bureau o f the Census P ublication, What I t ' s Worth! Educational Background and Economic Status, Spring 1984, Issued, S ept., 1^87. 9 conducted on women in f o u r y e a r s c h o o l s , and very few s t u d i e s on n o n - t r a n s f e r women in community c o l l e g e s o r t e c h n i c a l s c h o o ls . This l a t t e r p o p ul a tio n c l e a r l y needs t o be more thoroughly understood by in d i v i d u a l s engaged in th e e d u c a ti o n a l e n t e r p r i s e i f t h e r e i s ev e r going to be a change in th e c u r r e n t c a r e e r and economic s t a t u s o f such women. The focus o f t h i s study may s ugg es t a devaluing o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l female o c c u pa tio ns . I t i s e s s e n t i a l to un derstand t h a t our c u l t u r e has devalued t h e s e occupa tions and not th e c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h e r . If these fie ld s enjoyed a valued p o s i t i o n in our c u l t u r e , th o s e who occupy them would be as capable o f s up por tin g themselves and t h e i r f a m i l i e s as garbage men, w e ld e r s , e l e c t r o n i c t e c h n i c i a n s , and automotive mechanics. Perhaps when t h e r e a r e fewer women choosing t o e n t e r t r a d i t i o n a l women's f i e l d s and th e rea l val ue o f s e c r e t a r i e s and nurses becomes ap p ar e nt because there ar e not s u f f i c i e n t workers a v a i l a b l e to do t h i s important work, t h e i r value w i l l i n c r e a s e ; however, t h e scope o f t h i s study does not allow f o r an « examination o f f a c t o r s to e n r i c h t h e val ue o f t r a d i t i o n a l female c a r e e r s . I t i s hoped t h a t o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s w i l l c o n s i d e r an ex am in ia tio n o f t h a t p o s s i b i l i t y , as well as th e phenomenon o f men c o n t in ui n g t o choose t r a d i t i o n a l male oc cu p a ti o n s . DEFINITION OF TERMS The fo llowi ng terms and t h e i r meanings were adopted and a r e used throughout th e r e p o r t o f t h i s study. N o n - t r a d i t i o n a l Careers: Those in which two t h i r d s o r more of thos e employed in t h i s po p u la ti o n a r e males. 10 T r a d i t i o n a l Careers: Those in which two t h i r d s or more of thos e employed in t h i s pop ula tion ar e females. Androgynous: a balanced blending of high l e v e l s of masculine and feminine t r a i t s e x i s t i n g in a pe rs o n; d is m is s es the notion t h a t m a s c u l in i ty and femininity are bipolar t r a i t s . Sex-Role I d e n t i t y : A p e r c e p ti o n of th e degree o f maleness or femaleness of the s e l f . Pr o fe ssi o na l Career: Fie ld of work t y p i c a l l y r e q u i r i n g a f o u r y e a r degree. Vocational or Technical Career: F iel d o f work t y p i c a l l y r q u i r i n g l e s s than a f ou r y e a r d e gr ee , but r e q u i r i n g some type o f v oca ti on al t r a i n i n g and/ or a p p r e n t i c e s h i p program. S o c i a l i z a t i o n : The le a r n i n g and i n t e r n a l i z i n g o f s o c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e r o l e behaviors w ith in a c u l t u r e ; process o f communicating th e c u l t u r e to a child. Poverty: Individual o r family i n s u f f i c i e n c y o f a s s e t s , income and publi c s e r v i c e s ; c on di tio n of having an income in th e lowest one f i f t h of the income d i s t r i b u t i o n ; c o n d i ti o n o f having an income incompatible with a s o c i e t y ' s n at io n al o b j e c t i v e s . Procedures The popu lation of i n t e r e s t i s women e n r o l l e d in community c o l le g e voca tion al or te c h n i c a l programs in Michigan. The o r i g i n a l i n t e n t t o use a m u l t i s t a g e c l u s t e r sampling procedure had t o be modified because of u n a n t i c i p a t e d c i rc um s ta nc es . F i r s t , th e 29 community c o l l e g e d i s t r i c t s in Michigan were l i s t e d and a s t r a t i f i e d s y s t e m a t i c sampling procedure was a p pl ie d based on th e p o p u la ti o n o f th e communities in which t h e c o l l e g e s r e s i d e d . The c o l l e g e s were grouped i n t o m e t r o p o l i t a n , m i d s i z e , and r u r a l c l u s t e r s . Next, one to t h r e e i n s t i t u t i o n s were s e l e c t e d from each c l u s t e r , and f i n a l l y , l i s t s of women e n r o l l e d in t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l v oc at io na l o r te c h n i c a l programs were t o be o bt a in e d from each i n s t i t u t i o n s e l e c t e d and a random sample s e l e c t e d from each. However, th e r e s e a r c h e r l e ar ne d t h a t community c o l l e g e s in Michigan a r e unable t o r e l e a s e l i s t s o f s t u d e n t names and addresses. The r e s e a r c h e r then i d e n t i f i e d key i n d i v i d u a l s a t each in s titu tio n w illing in s t r u m e n t s . t o i d e n t i f y a sample and d i s t r i b u t e and c o l l e c t the The s u b j e c t s completed th e Bems Sex-Role In ventory which measures s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and c l a s s i f i e s respondents as mascu line , fe m in in e, androgynous, o r u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . They a l s o completed a demographic q u e s t i o n n a i r e which examined v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o e a r l y developmental e x pe ri en ce s and t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on c a r e e r ch oi ce. A r e l a t i o n s h i p p a t t e r n between th e two independent v a r i a b l e s ( s e x - r o l e i d e n t i t y and demographic v a r i a b l e s ) to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r choice was p r e d i c t e d . N o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were expected t o f a l l in t o th e masculine or androgynous sex t y p o l o g i e s and to have rece ive d c o n s i d e r a b l e exposure t o and s u pp or t f o r women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l r o l e s ; t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were expected t o f a l l i n t o th e feminine sex typology and to have r ec e iv ed c o n s i d e r a b l e exposure t o and su pp ort f o r women in trad itio n al roles. I t was a l s o p r e d i c t e d t h a t the combined e f f e c t of the two v a r i a b l e s would be a b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r of th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e of c a r e e r choi ce than e i t h e r one in de pen den tl y. The measures were analyzed using a p r o b i t a n a l y s i s model. Because th e r e was more than one independent v a r i a b l e a m u l t i p l e p r o b i t model was needed. The s t a t i s t i c a l a n a l y s i s provided t h e a b i l i t y t o p r e d i c t c a r e e r choice f o r women in t h i s po p u la ti o n based on t h e i r BSRI c l a s s i f i c a t i o n and demographic f a c t o r s i d e n t i f i e d as s i g n i f i c a n t in th e s tu d y. F act o rs expected to be s i g n i f i c a n t in t h i s ar ea i n c lu d e work s t a t u s o f t h e mother, a v a i l a b l e r o l e models in t h e home, e a r l y play and work a c t i v i t i e s , other r o l e models, and school e x p e r i e n c e s . Limitations Community c o l l e g e s in Michigan were s e l e c t e d f o r th e study based on th e comprehensiveness of th e Michigan community c o l l e g e system; however, th e a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a l i z e based on t h e c o n cl us io ns o f t h i s study i s l i m i t e d because th e sample does not r e p r e s e n t th e e n t i r e p o p u la ti o n of women e n r o l l e d in vo c a t io n a l o r t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r programs thr oughout t h e country. There may be s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between midwest s t u d e n t s and s tu d e n t s in o t h e r r eg io ns o f th e co unt ry. The sampling procedure had t o be modified due t o an e x i s t i n g p o l i c y in community c o l l e g e s in Michigan r eg ar d in g th e r e l e a s e of s t u d e n t names. The random n a t u r e o f th e sample was then determined by a d e s ig n at ed person a t each i n s t i t u t i o n and th e r e s e a r c h e r l o s t c o n s i d e r a b l e co n tro l in in s u r i n g the r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s o f th e sample. The design of t h e study r e q u i r e s s u b j e c t s to s e l f r e p o r t inform atio n about t h e i r background and p e r c e p t i o n s about gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . Thus, th e r e s u l t s a r e l i m i t e d by t h e degree o f accuracy provided in th e s e l f reporting. There ar e few p r ev io u s s t u d i e s using n o n t r a d t i o n a l , no npr ofessional women as s u b j e c t s and, p r i o r t o th e 1960s, t h e r e were very l i m i t e d s t u d i e s invol vin g p r o f e s s i o n a l women and c a r e e r d e c i s i o n making. T h e r e f o re , the l i t e r a t u r e review o f f e r s a l i m i t e d th e or y base f o r t h e design and conduct o f t h i s study. The i s s u e t h a t ge ne ra ted t h i s study i s broad and complex, but t h i s study focused on a very l i m i t e d a s p e c t o f th e br oad er concern. I t i s hoped t h a t o t h e r r e s e a r c h e r s w i l l g e n e r a t e a d d i t i o n a l s t u d i e s t o respond t o the myriad q u e s t i o n s surrounding s e x - r o l e i n f l u e n c e in c a r e e r d e c i s i o n making. S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Study " I r o n i c a l l y t h e f e m i n i z a t i o n o f poverty swung i n t o f u l l g e a r in the 1970s, th e per iod sometimes c a l l e d th e decade of th e l i b e r a t i o n of women" ( S t o l l a r d ) . This paradox needs t o be un der st ood . In o r d e r f o r women t o break out o f th e cy cl e o f poverty th ey need t o improve t h e i r ea rn in g p o t e n t i a l . L e g i s l a t i o n i s in p la ce which l i f t e d t h e b a r r i e r s t h a t had prevented women from e n t e r i n g h ig h e r paying t r a d i t i o n a l l y male o c c u p a ti o n s ; yet.women c on ti nu e t o make occup ation al choices along sexse g r e g a t e d l i n e s and co n ti n ue t o e n t e r low paying j o b s . Occupational choice has been s t u d i e d much more f r e q u e n t l y among men than among women. In at te m p t in g t o summarize t h e l i t e r a t u r e on women in male-dominated occup ations from 1930-1976 Lemkau found t h e r e was no r e l e v a n t r e s e a r c h p r i o r t o 1960. Lemkau s a i d Mulvey noted in 1963 " t h e complete la ck of comprehensive data on ps ych olo gi cal and s o c i o l o g i c a l f a c t o r s and t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n s as they a f f e c t c a r e e r p a t t e r n s o f women." Lemkau f u r t h e r noted t h a t "e mpirical s t u d i e s of no npr of es sio nal women workers ( e l e c t r i c i a n s , mi ner s, c a r p e n t e r s ) ar e few" (p. 223). Some s t u d i e s have noted th e e f f e c t s of d i f f e r e n t i a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n on c a r e e r development. Kagan and Moss le arn ed t h a t by age 3 c u l t u r a l norms about sex s p e c i f i c behavior were well le ar n ed and were r e f l e c t e d in play 14 and t a s k s e l e c t i o n . Lynch s t u d i e d 806 school age c h i l d r e n and le arn ed t h a t g i r l s did g i r l s ' w o r k and boys d id boys' work. At age 9 t o 11 g i r l s did 8 minutes o f housework t o every 5 minutes done by boys; and f o r ages 12 t o 17 g i r l s did twice as much as boys d id . rece iv ed household t o y s . Boys r ec e iv ed a c t i o n toys and g i r l s Masters and Wilkins found t h a t sex typi ng i s well lear ned and c o n s i s t e n t a t young ag es ; Macoby and J a c k l i n (1974) found evidence o f p a re n t a l encouragement f o r sex typed behavi or (Lewis). A 1977 study by L e i f e r and Lesser found t h a t occup atio na l r o l e s recognized by elementary c h i l d r e n a r e l i m i t e d by s t e r e o t y p e d ide as about sex and r a c e . Boys chose 2 t o 3 times as many d i f f e r e n t o c c u p a t i o n s , and g i r l s chose nurse and t e a c h e r two t h i r d s o f t h e time (Lewis). Other s t u d i e s have found t h a t p a r e n t s d i r e c t l y a f f e c t e d uc a tio n a l and occ upational c h o i c e s , (Bardwick and Douvan, 1972; Brown, 1970; Horner e t a l . , 1967; M i t c h e l l , 1977; Rehberg and S i n c l a i r , 1970; Sewell and Shar, 1968.) Bardwick and Douvan noted t h a t fa mi ly s t r u c t u r e s and p a r e n t - a d o l e s c e n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s c r e a t e g r e a t d i f f e r e n c e s between boys and g i r l s in degree of autonomy and independence, s e l f r e g u l a t i o n , and a s s e r t i v e n e s s , q u a l i t i e s needed in many t r a d i t i o n a l male oc cu p a tio ns . Ruhland examined f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e c a r e e r choi ce f o r g i r l s in the seventh grade and a l s o in th e e l ev en th and t w e l f t h g r ad es . looked a t fam ily v a r i a b l e s and p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e s . He b a s i c a l l y He found t h a t s e n i o r high women had g r e a t e r d is cr ep a n cy between id ea l and probable c a r e e r c h o i c e , and women not a t t e n d i n g c o l l e g e were most l i k e l y t o s e l e c t a trad itio n al career. Women who l i s t e d " f a t h e r " as having th e most s i g n i f i c a n t impact on c a r e e r choice tended t o make th e most n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o ic es . Those who r e p o r te d t e l e v i s i o n o r movies as i n f l u e n c i n g c a r e e r choice a l s o tended t o be more in n o v a ti v e . 15 B a s i c a l l y , th e evidence suggested t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n of boys and g i r l s in our c u l t u r e has had f o r th e p r e s e n t study into The ta sk was to l e a r n th e degree of t h a t impact with regard to th e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re o f I t i s hoped t h a t an impact on c a r e e r c h oi ce . t h a t choice f o r non pr o fes sio na l women. th e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s study w i l l provide new i n s i g h t and c l a r i f i c a t i o n o f th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and background o r s o c i a l i z a t i o n v a r i a b l e s on t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re of c a r e e r choice f o r women in th e p o p u la ti o n i d e n t i f i e d . expansion o f c a r e e r a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r women. The u l t i m a t e goal i s the This goal can be achieved i f school and community c o l l e g e personnel become more aware o f th e f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e t h e s e d e c i s i o n s , and develop s t r a t e g i e s and programs to encourage c o n s i d e r a t i o n o f n o n t r a d i t i o n a l employment f o r both se xes . This r e s e a r c h has both p r e d i c t i v e and p r e s c r i p t i v e va lu e. The study provides a p r o f i l e o f women l i k e l y t o choose t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s , and i t o f f e r s m o t iv a t io n and s t i m u l a t i o n f o r th e c r e a t i o n o f c a r e e r development programs a t a l l school l e v e l s t h a t w il l help school personnel and s t u d e n t s expand t h e i r v i s i o n o f c a r e e r o p t i o n s . CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Introduction "A woman i s always a f i c k l e u n s t a b l e t h i n g . " V ir gi l "Very l e ar ne d women a r e t o be found in t h e same manner as female w a r r i o r s , but they are seldom o r never i n v e n t o r s . " Voltaire "I have met brave women who a r e ex p l o ri n g th e o u t e r edges of human p o s s i b i l i t y with no h i s t o r y t o guide them and with a courage t o make themselves v u l n e r a b l e t h a t I f i n d moving." Steinham Women's pl a c e in our c u l t u r e p r i o r t o 1965 was c l e a r l y understood. The o r i g i n s o f occ upa tio na l sex s e g r e g a t i o n extend t o p r e h i s t o r i c time when men served as w a r r i o r s and h u nt e rs and women as food g a t h e r e r s . In the 1800s women were b a r re d from many c o l l e g e s and u n i v e r s i t i e s and when urban i n d u s t r i a l l i f e emerged in t h i s period women became dependent on t h e power o f men to earn money. During time o f war women were c a l l e d upon t o f i l l f o r the a b s e n t s o l d i e r s , but were q u ic k ly rep la ce d when war ended. in For t h o s e women who did remain in th e l a b o r f o r c e , S t a t e P r o t e c t i v e Labor laws, a l l e g e d l y designed t o p r o t e c t women and c h i l d r e n from long hours and hard phys ical l a b o r , e f f e c t i v e l y prevented women from ea rn in g more money and seeking advancement. Women were thought t o lack t e c h n i c a l (math and s p a t i a l ) a p t i t u d e and ph ys ica l s t r e n g t h t o enable them t o do "men's" work. 16 17 Of 17 occupa tions t h a t were 70% female in 1900 14 remained so in 1960. Sexual d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r has a long h i s t o r y . What a r e th e f a c t o r s t h a t ma intain t h e sexual d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r in th e f a c e of laws and l o g i c s u gg es tin g t h a t i t no lon ge r e x i s t ? Who a r e the women who defy t r a d i t i o n and make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l occ up at ion al choic es ? In t h i s c h a p t e r se ve ra l i s s u e s r e l a t e d to t h e s e q u e s t i o n s a r e examined from the p e r s p e c t i v e o f previous r e s e a r c h e r s . The a r e a s reviewed a r e : (1) c a r e e r development t h e o r i e s , (2) s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , (3) th e impact o f e a r l y s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s on c a r e e r development, (4) th e impact o f school ex p er ie n ce on c a r e e r development, (5) f a c t o r s known about women who have made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choices. Career Development Theori es Early s t u d i e s on c a r e e r development were based almost e x c l u s i v e l y on male s u b j e c t s because i t was not u n t i l r e c e n t l y t h a t women in l a r g e numbers began to have c a r e e r s o u t s i d e t h e home. The s t u d i e s reviewed in t h i s s e c t i o n were examined with t h a t l i m i t a t i o n in mind. Approaching c a r e e r d e c i s i o n making from a developmental p e r s p e c t i v e r e q u i r e s some d i s c u s s i o n . Super s ug ge s ts t h a t t h i s view approaches c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s and vo ca ti on al adj ust men ts as p r o c e s s e s . These pr o ce s s es involve a s e r i e s o f r e l a t e d behav ior s which change with time and tend t o become more complex and s p e c i f i c . of career a lte rn a tiv e s . The goal i s a gradual r e d u c t io n o f th e number Vocational behaviors tend t o occur in l i f e s ta g e s with each s t a g e c o n f r o n ti n g th e person with some new developmental t a s k . Osipow provided a good summary of th e c a t e g o r i e s o f c a r e e r development theories. 1. T r a i t Fact or Theories r e q u i r e matching a b i l i t i e s and i n t e r e s t with v oc a t io n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s ( H a l l , 1928; K its on , 1925; P ar so ns , 1908). The v o c at io n al t e s t i n g movement grew from t h i s approach (Kuder I n t e r e s t In v e n to r y , Strong Vocational I n t e r e s t Blank). 2. S o c io l o g ic a l models s u g g es t t h a t circu msta nc es beyond the c o n t ro l o f th e in d i v i d u a l c o n t r i b u t e s i g n i f i c a n t l y t o th e c a r e e r choice p r o c e s s ; people need to develop th e a b i l i t y t o cope e f f e c t i v e l y with th e environment (Caplow, 1954; H o ll in gsh ea d, 1949; M i l l e r , e t a l . , 1951). 3. Self -Co nce pt Theories propose t h a t as s e l f - c o n c e p t s and an image o f t h e occ up at ion al world develops an i n d i v id u a l compares the two and t r i e s t o make c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s . The adequacy of th e d e c i s i o n i s based on s i m i l a r i t i e s between an i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f concept and v oc at io na l concept. (Buehl er, 1933; Ginzburg, 1951; Super, 1957). 4. Vocational Choice and P e r s o n a l i t y Theories s u gg es t t h a t v o ca t io n al s a t i s f a c t i o n , s t a b i l i t y , and achievement depend on t h e congruence between o n e ' s p e r s o n a l i t y and th e environment in which one works (Holland, 1959; Roe, 1957). There i s not s i g n i f i c a n t s up por t f o r th e t r a i t f a c t o r or the s o c i o l o g i c a l model. Although th e p e r s o n a l i t y t h e o r i e s have some a p pe a l, they were not cons ide re d a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e p r e s e n t stud y. The s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r i e s were d i f f i c u l t to t e s t , and Holland (1959) and Wrenn (1959) were c r i t i c a l o f t h e i r v a l i d i t y . By 1973, however, Super had go tt en some em pirical c o nf ir m at io n f o r t h e fundamental as p e c t s of h is the or y: 1. Career choi ce i s viewed by th e chooser as a way t o implement th e 19 self-concept. 2. Career development t a s k s c o n f r o n t one throughout l i f e and s p e c i f y the p a r t i c u l a r choice to be made. Although most s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r i e s o f c a r e e r development involved male s u b j e c t s i t i s b el ie v ed t h a t t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e o f f e r s th e b e s t i n s i g h t i n t o t h e c a r e e r development process f o r women. S tud ie s on Self-Concept Theories Leona T y l er (1951) used s e l f - c o n c e p t th e o ry t o e x p l a in her f i n d i n g s in a study on th e r e l a t i o n s h i p of a p t i t u d e s and i n t e r e s t s in young c h i l d r e n . She used a sample o f f i r s t g r ad er s (61 g i r l s and 55 boys) and found a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r boys and no r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r g i r l s . She followed up on th e o r i g i n a l sample again in 1955 and found t h e same r e s u l t s . She suggested t h a t th e most s t r i k i n g f i n d i n g in t h e s e s t u d i e s was t h e sex difference. Openheimer suggested t h a t t h e r e i s s up por t f o r th e notion t h a t people p r e f e r occ up at ion s viewed as congruent with t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s , and h el ping people s e l e c t occ upa tio ns in which they can f i n d e x p re s s io n f o r t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t s i s a s u i t a b l e goal f o r voc at io n al co u n s e lo r s . He was i n t e r e s t e d in studying t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - c o n c e p t s and occupational p r e f e r e n c e s . He f e l t one should be ab le to p r e d i c t a p e r s o n ' s o ccupational p r e f e r e n c e h i e r a r c h y by examining the r e l a t i o n s h i p between the i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f - c o n c e p t and occupa tional concept. male l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s a t Rutgers (1966). Oppenheimer sampled 81 In g e n e r a l , th e s u b j e c t s p r e f e r r e d occupations perce ive d as congruent with t h e i r s e l f - c o n c e p t (n=60). 20 Openheimer suggested c au t io n in i n t e r p r e t i n g t h e r e s u l t s of t h i s study. The s i z e and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e sample l i m i t g e n e r a l i z i n g the results. N e v e r t h e l e s s , th e r e s u l t s did o f f e r s u pp or t f o r previous r e s e a r c h on th e importance o f congruence between s e l f - c o n c e p t and occup ation al p r e f e r e n c e s (mdn.=.52). Korman suggested t h a t s e l f - e s t e e m i s an im portant c o n s t r u c t in the v o c at io na l choice process and t h a t i t i s a f a c t o r t h a t may work a g a i n s t th e implementation of th e s e l f . He proposed t h a t " a l l o t h e r th i n g s being e q u a l , i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l engage in th os e behavioral r o l e s which w il l maximize t h e i r sense o f c o g n i t i v e balance o r co n s is te n c y " (p. 479). He conducted two s t u d i e s based on t h e h yp ot h e si s t h a t an i n d i v i d u a l ' s s e l f - e s t e e m s erv es as a moderating v a r i a b l e on th e degree to which s e l f perceived needs ar e p r e d i c t i v e o f occup atio na l ch oi ce. Those high in s e l f - e s t e e m were expected t o make choices l i k e l y t o s a t i s f y t h e i r needs; tho s e low in s e l f - e s t e e m were expected to choose e n t r y i n t o an occupation perce ive d as "non s e l f - a p p r o p r i a t e " . consisted The sample in th e f i r s t study o f undergraduate u n i v e r s i t y men in business a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . Several measures were used. R es ult s i n d i c a t e d t h a t p e r c e p ti o n s of need s a t i s f a c t i o n w ith in an occ up at ion al choice occurred f o r persons high in s e l f - e s t e e m , but not f o r persons low in s e l f - e s t e e m . Korman's second s t u d y , conducted t o check the v a l i d i t y o f th e f i r s t , involved t h r e e s e p a r a t e samples, independent from th e f i r s t study and from each o t h e r . All s t u d e n t s in two o f the samples were males (nl=37, n2=26), al though in th e t h i r d sample (n=39), seven were females. were used as in th e f i r s t study. The same measures The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l l hypotheses were supported as p r e d i c t e d from th e f i r s t study and f o r a l l samples. s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h i s study r e s t s in th e i m p l i c a t i o n t h a t persons low in s e l f - e s t e e m a r e l i k e l y t o seek l e s s reward f o r a s i m i l a r t a s k than The 21 i n d i v i d u a l s high in s e l f - e s t e e m ; and t h e s e i n d i v i d u a l s f av or d a t a t h a t confirm t h e i r low s e l f - e s t e e m over data t h a t su g ge sts they ar e b e t t e r than they t h i n k . I t i s u n f o r t u n a t e t h a t Korman used such a small number of women in h i s sample. I t i s p r e d i c t e d by th e c u r r e n t i n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t t h e i r sco res on th e s e l f - e s t e e m measure ( C h i s e l l i ' s S e l f D e s c r ip ti o n Inventory) would i n d i c a t e low s e l f - e s t e e m and l e s s c o g n i t i v e bal ance between s e l f - c o n e p t and occ up at ion al ch o i c e . This concept w il l be developed more completely in th e s e c t i o n on s o c i a l i z a t i o n . Development o f Self-Concept and Vocational Concept Each o f t h e s t u d i e s d e s c r ib e d in t h e previous s e c t i o n o f f e r s co nf ir m at io n f o r th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e l f - c o n c e p t and vo ca ti on al development, but how does th e s e l f - c o n c e p t and vo c a t io n a l concept develop? Super su gg ested t h a t th e n a t u r e of t h i s development i s determined by the p e r s o n ' s p a r e n t a l socioeconomic l e v e l , mental a b i l i t y , p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o which one i s exposed. The process of developing and implementing a s e l f - c o n c e p t i s a compromise process invol vin g t h e assumption o f a v a r i e t y o f r o l e s combined with th e e x t e n t t o which t h e r e s u l t s o f r o l e p la yi n g meet with t h e approval of s u p e r i o r s and friends. Women who e n t e r t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s l i k e te a c h in g and n ur sin g have s e l e c t e d vo c a t io n a l r o l e s t h a t would provide approval from o t h e r s and congruence between s e l f - c o n c e p t and job f i t would be expected. Tangri expected th e r o l e in no va tor s in her study a t the U n i v e r s i t y of Michigan t o show more ego s t r e n g t h and h ig h e r s e l f - e s t e e m than the t r a d i t i o n a l s or moderates. She found t h a t th e r o l e innov at or s r e f l e c t e d c o n s i d e r a b l e s e l f doubt and f e e l i n g s of "not being too s u c c e s s f u l . " She suggested t h a t t h e s e f e e l i n g s were r e f l e c t i v e o f co m p e ti t io n , but they may 22 a l s o be r e f l e c t i v e o f the dissonance between c a r e e r choi ce and a concept of a woman's r o l e . Summary In t h i s s e c t i o n c a r e e r development t h e o r i e s have been reviewed to determine t h e i r rele va nc e t o th e is s u e o f women's c a r e e r d e c i s i o n making p a t t e r n s reg ar d in g t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s . The s e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r i e s appear t o o f f e r th e most s i g n i f i c a n t i n s i g h t in t o t h i s process and how i t o p e r a t e s , even though most o f th e s t u d i e s were conducted on male s u b j e c t s . S e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r i e s have found c o n s i d e r a b l e su pport f o r t h e idea t h a t c a r e e r choice i s seen by t h e chooser as a way to implement th e s e l f - c o n c e p t . Since making a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choice is u n l i k e l y t o r e c e i v e much e x t e r n a l s u p p o r t , t h e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l chooser may need t o be high in s e l f - e s t e e m . The s e c t i o n s on s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and s o c i a l i z a t i o n w il l o f f e r a d d i t i o n a l i n s i g h t i n t o t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p between a woman's s e l f - c o n c e p t and v o ca t io n al ch oi ce. S ex -r o le I d e n t i f i c a t i o n In Chapter I s e x - r o l e i d e n t i t y was de fi n e d as a p e r c e p ti o n of th e maleness and femaleness of t h e s e l f . I f a person has a str o n g gender i d e n t i t y , e i t h e r masculine or fe m in in e, t h e r e may be s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n s to th e range o f o p ti o ns open in v a r io u s s i t u a t i o n s , in cl u d in g c a r e e r s (Bern, 1974). Persons who a r e h ig h ly se x-typed a r e motivated t o keep t h e i r behavi or c o n s i s t e n t with an i n t e r n a l s e x - r o l e s t a n d a r d , and t o suppress any behavior consi der ed i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e i r sex. The more sex typed o n e ' s o r i e n t a t i o n , th e more t r a d i t i o n a l o n e ' s c a r e e r cho ice. 23 Until th e 1970's psychological m a s c u l in i ty and f e m i n in i ty were seen as b i p o l a r o p p o s i t e s . In 1972 Sandra Bern proposed t h a t a t h i r d s e x - r o l e a l t e r n a t i v e e x i s t e d which she la b e le d androgyny, derive d from th e Greek words andro (male) and gyn (fem ale ). Androgyny was " g e n e r a l l y d efi ne d as t h e balanced blending o f high l e v e l s of both masculine and feminine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in a given person" (p. 155). Bern c a r r i e d out re s ea r ch in 1973 t o ex p lo re her h y p o th e s i s , and t o provide c o n s t r u c t v a l i d a t i o n f o r th e concept o f androgyny. To do t h i s she developed a s e x - r o l e inv en tor y c a l l e d th e Bems Sex-Role Inventory (BSRI) which w ill be used in t h i s study and de sc rib e d more completely in the next chapter. V a li d a ti o n f o r the concept of androgyny was achieved and androgyny came t o oe pre se n te d as an ideal s ex -ty pe. P e r s o n a l i t y and Behavior T r a i t s A number of s t u d i e s have been conducted on androgynous and sex-typed people t o expand on the knowledge o f th e p e r s o n a l i t y and behavior t r a i t s of t h e s e people. I t was expected t h a t androgynous types would behave in a more h e al th y manner than strong masculine o r feminine t y p e s , and perhaps experience c a r e e r development as a non-sex-typed pro ces s. But Kaplan's r es ea rc h review suggested th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between gender i d e n t i t y and sexr o l e a t t i t u d e s i s q u i t e modest. The most c o n s i s t e n t connection was between l e s s t r a d i t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s and more masculine typed women. In one of t h e s e s t u d i e s , Jones e t a l . examined th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between androgyny and emotional adjustment and found p a r t i a l su pp or t. The androgynous men were not b e t t e r a d j u s t e d than th e androgynous women in the study. What was suggested i s t h a t an androgynous i d e n t i t y may lead to g r e a t e r h e a l th f o r women, but not f o r men. Even more s i g n i f i c a n t , 24 however, was a c l o s e r examination o f valued t r a i t s . The b e t t e r ad j u st ed androgynous women placed more val ue on t r a d i t i o n a l male t r a i t s ( a g e n t ic t r a i t s ) than on t r a d i t i o n a l female t r a i t s (communal). Androgyny may be a v a l i d c o n s t r u c t , but emotional h e a l t h may be more r e l a t e d to adopting male t r a i t s , p a r t i c u l a r l y in th e world o f work. Cook's 1985 review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e on androgyny concluded t h a t m a s c u l i n i t y or masculine t r a i t s were more c o n s i s t e n t l y and s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d t o p o s i t i v e ps ychological h e a l t h than f e m i n i n i t y or feminine t r a i t s . The e x p l a n a ti o n most o f t e n proposed f o r t h i s phenomenon i s t h a t masculine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have g r e a t e r s o c i a l value in our c u l t u r e . When o n e ' s behavior i s valued by o t h e r s , one i s more l i k e l y t o value o n e s e l f . S e x - r o le I d e n t i t y and Career Choice Several s t u d i e s about women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r s s up por t the noti on t h a t m a s c u l i n i t y and masculine t r a i t s a r e more l i k e l y t o be found in t h i s p o p u la ti o n . In he r 1980 d i s s e r t a t i o n study S eg al , ad m in ist e re d th e BSRI t o 40 p r o f e s s i o n a l women in management in th e Los Angeles a r e a . She then in te rv iew ed th e women who scored th e h i g h e s t on th e androgynous s c a l e (n=5), on th e masculine s c a l e (n=5) and on th e feminine s c a l e ( n = l ) . She found t h a t in her o r i g i n a l sample, 70% of t h e women (n=28) scored in the masculine range on th e BSRI. The inter vie we d s u b j e c t s appeared to b a s i c a l l y have an androgynous s e l f - c o n c e p t in t h e i r t o t a l l i v e s , but to e x h i b i t what they cons ide re d t o be a p p r o p r i a t e (male) behavi or in t h e i r work l i v e s . Although t h i s study i s q u i t e l i m i t e d in i t s general a p p l i c a t i o n because of i t s small sample s i z e , i t does su pport what has been de s c r ib e d p r e v i o u s l y by Cook and Kaplan. 25 In 1981 Yanico s t u d i e d 50 women and used both th e BSRI and ano th er s c a l e , th e A t t i t u d e Toward Women Scale (Spence and Helmreich), t o measure sex-role id e n tity . She found t h a t women who p r e f e r r e d male dominated c a r e e r s were more p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y masculine and possessed more l i b e r a l a t t i t u d e s than thos e who favored t r a d i t i o n a l female o c c up a tio n s . M o u l l i e t ' s d o c t o ra l study in 1981 examined p e r s o n a l i t y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and occupa tional and o r g a n i z a t i o n a l r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n s f o r 77 n o n t r a d i t i o n a l female managers, and compared them with 79 t r a d i t i o n a l female c l e r i c a l employees. She used a nine page q u e s t i o n n a i r e which combined f i v e psychological and job p e r c e p t i o n s c a l e s , i n c lu d in g t h e BSRI. She found t h a t managerial women were hi g h e r in c a r e e r commitment, s e l f - e s t e e m , and psychological m a s c u l i n i t y than t h e c l e r i c a l women. The n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s in a l l o f th e s t u d i e s c i t e d ( M o u l l i e t , S eg al , and Yanico) were i n p r o f e s s i o n a l c a r e e r s and t h e r e f o r e th e application o f t h e s e f i n d i n g s to t h e c u r r e n t study i s unknown. I t is bel ie ve d t h a t women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l v o c a t io n a l o r t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r s ar e a l s o l i k e l y t o be p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y masculine or androgynous as measured by t h e BSRI. Summary This s e c t i o n has examined th e r e s e a r c h on s e x - r o l e i d e n t i t y and i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p t o c a r e e r ch o ic e. I t was noted t h a t th e concept of androgyny was introd uce d in th e 1970s as a h e a l th y balanced blending of t r a d i t i o n a l masculine and feminine t r a i t s . Androgynous and masculine typed women seem to be more l i k e l y to make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s , whereas feminine typed women co nt inu e t o make t r a d i t i o n a l ch o i c e s . The former may be infl uen ced by ex per ie nce s and r o l e model s u p p o r t, th e l a t t e r by a need to 26 main tai n congruence between i n t e r n a l f e e l i n g s o f r o l e a p p r o p r i a t e n e s s and ex t e r n a l s upp or t and v a l i d a t i o n from s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s . Socialization An examination o f t h e r e s e a r c h on s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s r e l a t e d to c a r e e r development provided i n s i g h t i n t o how a person becomes gender typed as masc ul ine , fem in ine , o r androgynous. S o c i a l i z a t i o n in vo lv es l e a r n i n g and i n t e r n a l i z i n g s o c i a l l y a p p r o p r i a t e r o l e beh avior w it h i n a c u l t u r e . A b a s ic assumption in th e development of c h i l d r e n in our c u l t u r e has been t h e n e c e s s i t y of a c q u i r i n g s e x - r e l a t e d t r a i t s and behaviors in o r d e r t o e v e n t u a l l y f u l f i l l s o c i e t a l e x p e c t a t i o n s as female " c a r e t a k e r " and male "breadwinner". G i r l s were s o c i a l i z e d to become dependent, and a f f i l i a t i o n o r i e n t e d , boys t o become independent,and achievement o r i e n t e d . A number o f r e s e a r c h e r s have examined t h e s e c o n s t r u c t s with r ega rd to women's development. Dependence-Independence Cons truct Bardwick o f f e r e d an a n a l y s i s o f th e dependence c o n s t r u c t as i t r e l a t e d t o women. She suggested t h a t independence develops from p r i o r dependence; th e t r a n s i t i o n i s r e l a t e d t o s e l f con fid en ce. For example, independence in achievement behavi or r e s u l t s from l e a r n i n g t h a t one can accomplish by o n e s e l f , can r e l y on o n e ' s own a b i l i t i e s , can t r u s t o n e ' s own judgement, and can become i n v e s t e d in a t a s k f o r i t s own sake. F a i l u r e t o achieve independence u s u a l l y r e s u l t s from numerous exp er ie n ce s o f f r u s t r a t i o n . Dependent c h i l d r e n f e e l l e s s adequate and a r e l e s s ab le to t r y t o cope by themselves. A lack of independent achievement a c t i v i t i e s r e s u l t s in le ss adequate coping t e c h n i q u e s , l e s s s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e , and a continued need f o r support from o t h e r s . 27 Experiments on dependency suggested t h a t dependency behaviors in boys and g i r l s tend to s p r i n g from d i f f e r e n t m ot ive s; g i r l s ' behavior seems to sp r in g from a high need f o r a f f i l i a t i o n , boys behavi or from a s t r u g g l e to move from an a f f i l i a t i o n t o an achievement motive. Bardwick suggested t h a t dependency behaviors a r e i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d to f e e l i n g s o f s e c u r i t y about oneself. The i n c re as ed dependency in o l d e r g i r l s implied a r e l a t i v e re d u ct io n in s e l f - e s t e e m as well as the development o f a favored and approved coping mechanism. Bardwick r e p o r t e d a Kagan and Moss study begun in 1929 and involving 89 c h i l d r e n (44 males and 45 females) s t u d i e d over a 25-year period (1929-1954). They measured dependence as a p e r s o n a l i t y v a r i a b l e and found t h a t i t was remarkably s t a b l e f o r g i r l s from ages 3 t o 14 ( + . 6 4 ) ; the comparable c o r r e l a t i o n f o r boys was - . 3 3 . Eleanor Macoby's r e s e a r c h on i n t e l l e c t u a l development, r e p o r t e d by Weishaar (1966), suggested t h a t th e impact o f e a r l y independence t r a i n i n g on the development o f a n a l y t i c a l and problem s o lv in g s k i l l s i s s i g n i f i c a n t . These a r e p r e c i s e l y th e s k i l l s needed in male dominated c a r e e r s . Achievement-Affi1i a t i o n Co nstruct Another c o n s t r u c t of i n t e r e s t t o t h i s s e c t i o n was affiliation. achievement and Achievement i s d ef in e d as doing something independent of o th e r s based on some i n t e r n a l c r i t e r i a of e x e l l e n c e ; a f f i l i a t i o n i s the need to a c q u i r e and give love. Achievement i s viewed as a s a l i e n t need f o r men, while a f f i l i a t i o n i s seen as a primary need f o r women, and in f a c t , may be viewed as a source o f achievement. McClelland's s t u d i e s on achievement (1953, 1958) suggested t h a t women's achievement needs are channeled i n t o a f f i l i a t i o n needs. The d i s t i n c t i o n i s probably not i n n a t e , but based on d i f f e r e n c e s in s o c i a l i z a t i o n . 28 Bardwick noted t h a t t h e r e i s s p ar s e l i t e r a t u r e and re s ea rc h on women and achievement. She suggested t h a t th e model of achievement behavior d e p i c t s a person motivated by achievement as one who takes p r i d e in work when held r e s p o n s i b l e f o r a c t i o n s , when informed of t h e level of performance expec ted, when a c r i t e r i a f o r performance e x i s t s , and when an element of r i s k i s involved. A person with a high achievement motive has developed an i n t e r n a l sta n da rd of e x e l le n c e and performs inde pen den tl y, p e r s i s t e n t l y undertakes r e a l i s t i c t a s k s , performs well aca dem ic all y, and has c l e a r l y def ined g o a l s . This model d e f in e s t r a d i t i o n a l male achievement beha vi or and not female be hav io r. For women, th e motive to achieve appears to i n t e r a c t o r fu se with th e a f f i l i a t i v e motive and may depend on th e e x p e c t a t i o n of p r a i s e , love o r r e j e c t i o n r a t h e r than an i n t e r n a l c r i t e r i a of e x e l l e n c e . Seligman in 1975 s t u d i e d the phenomenon o f te n a s s o c i a t e d with women c a l l e d " le ar ne d h e l p l e s s n e s s " wherein at tempts to reach a goal do not get rewarded and one lo s e s m o ti va ti o n t o attem pt t h a t which may not be p r a is e d . He found t h a t f e e l i n g s o f h e l p l e s s n e s s became g e n e r a li z e d p er ce p ti o n s of women f o r t a s k s such as math or mechanical t a s k s . These a r e primary skills needed in most t r a d i t i o n a l male c a r e e r f i e l d s . D i f f e r e n t i a l S o c i a l i z a t i o n and Career Choice From a developmental p e r s p e c t i v e , boys a r e pressured by t h e i r f a t h e r s to take r i s k s , ac hi ev e, and become independent, while t h e i r mothers cont inue to love them f o r who they a r e , not f o r what they do. in c r e a s e s s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e and r i s k - t a k i n g behavior. This I f n e i t h e r th e mother nor the f a t h e r p r e s s u r e a g i r l to ac hi eve , she w ill not develop a motive to achieve nor a sense o f independence and r i s k o r i e n t a t i o n . A g i r l senses t h a t th e ex t er n al reward f o r t h i s behavior may not be c o n s i s t e n t . This 29 development o f d i s t i n c t i v e p e r s o n a l i t y and b i p o l a r s e t s o f behaviors f o r boys and g i r l s has c o n t r i b u t e d to t h e image t h a t both sexes have developed o f a p p r o p r i a t e se x-typed c a r e e r c h o i c e s . This has been confirmed by a number o f s t u d i e s . Lewis noted t h a t d i f f e r e n t i a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n does e x i s t even though p a r e n t s th i n k they ar e aiming f o r t h e same goal with each sex. He re po rte d t h a t in th e Kagan and Moss study p r e v i o u s l y mentioned, they found t h a t c u l t u r a l norms about sex s p e c i f i c behav ior s were well le arn ed a t an e a r l y age and were r e f l e c t e d in play and t a s k s e l e c t i o n Several r e s e a r c h e r s have found t h a t th e pr oce ss o f a c q u i r in g a s e x - r o l e s t e r e o t y p e about jobs has begun by age 5 (K irchner and Nondracek, 1973; S i e g e l , 1973; T u l l y , Stephen and Chance, 1976). A 1973 study by Brady and Brown involved 570 yo u n g s te r s aged 8 and 10 y e a r s old from a v a r i e t y o f d i f f e r e n t socioeconomic backgrounds. examined sex d i f f e r e n c e s on s e l e c t e d v o c at io n al v a r i a b l e s . They At age 8 and 10 boys saw themselves as having many more c a r e e r op ti on s than g i r l s . Girls had l i m i t e d themselves o c c u p a t i o n a l l y a t a very e a r l y age. Schlossberg and Goodman in 1972 s t u d i e d male and female k i n d e r g a r t n e r s and 6th g r a d e r s . They showed them p i c t u r e s o f people in va rio u s work s e t t i n g s and asked them th e q u e s t i o n : "Could a man/woman work here?" The r e s u l t s f o r both groups o f y o u n g s te r s su gg ested t h a t women could not r e p a i r c a r s , f i x t e l e v i s i o n s , o r des ign b u i l d i n g s . n u r s e s , and w a i t r e s s e s . They could be l i b r a r i a n s , The responses c o n s i s t e n t l y f e l l i n t o t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c a t e g o r i e s f o r both gender groups and both age groups. Lemkau reviewed se v er al s t u d i e s on women who made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choices and found t h a t as c h i l d r e n t h e s e women tended to have chances to ex pl o re and develop in d e p e n d e n tl y , t o view a wide range o f male and female 30 r o l e models, and to have access to hi g he r e d u ca ti on . They a l s o re p o r te d open encouragement and s up po rt o f achievement, e d u c a t i o n , and androgynous e x p l o r a t i o n of masculine as well as feminine t a s k s in a s t a b l e family situation. Summary In t h i s s e c t i o n , th e l i t e r a t u r e on s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s was reviewed to determine th e impact of e a r l y development on c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s f o r women. Two major c o n s t r u c t s of the b i p o l a r model o f sexual development were examined with r ega rd to t h e i r i n f l u e n c e on c a r e e r ch o i c e . Those c o n s t r u c t s were dependence-independence and a c h i e v e m e n t - a f f i l i a t i o n . It has been found t h a t th e development o f e a r l y independence t r a i n i n g leads to th e development of a n a l y t i c and problem s o lv in g s k i l l s which a r e e s s e n t i a l in most t r a d i t i o n a l male oc cu p a ti o n s . Most young g i r l s a r e s t i l l s o c i a l i z e d toward t h e dependence c o n s t r u c t and toward a f f i l i a t i o n as a primary source of achievement, an o r i e n t a t i o n not valued in most male dominated c a r e e r s . The s t u d i e s reviewed suggested t h a t s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s have t h e p o t e n t i a l t o p r ed is po s e a g i r l t o have a l i m i t e d view of c a r e e r cho ices a v a i l a b l e t o h e r , l a r g e l y because o f t h e manner in which she has been c o n di tio n ed t o view her primary l i f e r o l e . School Experiences A 1921 survey by Berta M. Nieburg o f t h e Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor advocated g i r l s ' involvement in male courses l i k e metalurgy. There was l i t t l e movement in t h i s d i r e c t i o n u n t i l f e d e r a l mandates to end d i s c r i m i n a t i o n began in 1963 with th e passage of th e Equal Pay Act. T i t l e IX o f th e Education Amendments of 1972 was designed to e l i m i n a t e p r a c t i c e s which denied young women access to male dominated voc at io n al programs in secondary, po stsecondary and h ig h e r edu cation 31 i n s t i t u t i o n s ( S t e e l e , 1974) The passage of time has not y i e l d e d s i g n i f i c a n t i n c r e a s e s in t h e number o f women pursuing male dominated v o c a t io n s . Is t h i s th e r e s u l t o f women being un w il l in g or d i s i n t e r e s t e d in pursuing t h e s e f i e l d s , or does t h e school environment support t r a d i t i o n a l s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s in p la c e p r i o r t o th e passage o f the legislation? A review o f th e l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to c a r e e r d e c i s i o n making a t th e secondary le v el w i l l provide some i n s i g h t re g a r d i n g t h e s e q u e s t i o n s . Reinforcement of S o c i a l i z a t i o n P r a c t i c e s Several r e s e a r c h e r s have suggested t h a t th e primary and secondary schools have p e r p e t u a t e d th e myths about occup atio na l s e g r e g a t i o n by sex. Lewis noted t h a t "one o f th e most i n t e r e s t i n g th i n g s about sexism in pu bl ic edu ca tio n i s t h e openess with which i t i s p r a c t i c e d " (p. 224). Alexander s ai d t h a t "sex r o l e s t e r e o t y p i n g permeates t h e ed u ca ti o n a l system from top to bottom" (Lewis, p. 28). Brown i n d i c a t e d t h a t "e d uc at io n and th e tea ch in g p r o f e s s i o n do l i t t l e t o d is p el sex r o l e s t e r e o t y p e s " (Lewis, p. 1 2 ). H of fer th conducted a l o n g i t u d i n a l study from 1968-1978 on sex t y p i c a l i t y o f noncollege bound boys and g i r l s in occ up at ion al c h o i c e s . She examined t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l e f f e c t s o f ex pe ri en ce p r i o r t o la bo r f o r c e e n t r y . The data r ev ea le d t h a t s e x - r e l a t e d d i f f e r e n c e s in occupa tional choice depend on a s p i r a t i o n s t h a t p r e d a t e high school e n t r y , and the schools r e i n f o r c e d sex typed v a l u e s . As a r e s u l t o f t h i s men and women appeared to develop along completely d i f f e r e n t l i f e o r c a r e e r t r a c k s . There was co n t in u in g evidence o f p a r e n t a l encouragement o f sex-typed beh avior and a c t i v i t i e s , with l o w e r - c l a s s p a r e n t s having t h e most t r a d i t i o n a l s e x - r o l e attitudes. 32 A n a t i o n a l study by Lewis e t a l . (1976) attempted t o i d e n t i f y p a c e s e t t e r v oc a t io n a l schools t h a t had designed programs t o encourage women to enter nontraditional f i e l d s . They found none. I n s te a d they s e l e c t e d vo ca ti o n al schools t h a t had f i v e or more women e n r o l l e d in a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l program. The s t u d e n t s s a i d they had not been encouraged by a co u n s el o r or t e a c h e r t o c o n s id e r a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d . They a l s o s a i d they had not f e l t any h o s t i l i t y by t e a c h e r s toward women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s in t h e i r cl as sr oo m, but they f e l t no enthusiasm e i t h e r . Lewis a l s o found t h a t women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s were more l i k e l y than women in t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s to f e e l i l l - p r e p a r e d and t o f e e l a lack o f general su pport from teachers. This group was very c r i t i c a l o f co u ns el or s y e t s ai d t h a t cou ns elo rs were th e most aware o f a l l school personnel o f the need t o overcome sex b i a s . The Math Fa ct or The c r u c i a l ed u c a ti o n a l element f o r women to succeed in male dominated f i e l d s i s an adequate math background, but math i s a male domain as noted by Boundy (1977) and Er ne s t (1976). Lewis (1976) found t h a t both male and female math te a c h e r s had lower e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r g i r l s ; in a d d i t i o n Houser (1971) found t h a t of t h e g i r l s in h er study i n t e r e s t e d in math, had been discouraged by school p e r s o nn el . The Counselor Fa ct or In a 1971 sur vey , Thomas and Stewart surveyed cou ns elo r a t t i t u d e s toward n o n t r a d i t i o n a l female c a r e e r c h o i c e s , and t r a d i t i o n a l female c a r e e r ch o i c e s . They found s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in coun se lor a t t i t u d e s toward de v i a n t c l i e n t s ( e n g i n e e r s ) and conforming c l i e n t s (home econ om ist s) . co un se lo rs did not approve as h ig h l y of th e d e v i a n t s . Bingham and Hous The 33 (1973) surveyed cou ns elo r a t t i t u d e s toward regard ing women and work. and accuracy of information They found t h a t male counselors held more ne gat ive a t t i t u d e s toward women and work than t h e i r female c o u n t e r p a r t s . Others have found t h a t g i r l s g e t l e s s approval to pursue n o n t r a d i t i o n a l go al s than conforming g o a l s . Ruhland s t u d i e d f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e c a r e e r choice f o r women in the 7th grade and again in th e 11th and 12th g rades. He found t h a t f o r s e n io r high women t h e r e was g r e a t e r dis cre pa ncy between t h e ideal and probable c a r e e r ch o ic e, while thos e women not a t t e n d i n g c o l l e g e were more l i k e l y to select a traditional career. He a l s o re p o r te d t h a t s u b j e c t s who chose te a c h e r o r cou ns elo r as most i n f l u e n t i a l in making a c a r e e r choice tended t o be more t r a d i t i o n a l in t h e i r c h o i c e s . Those who l i s t e d f a t h e r as most i n f l u e n t i a l tended to be t h e most i n n o v a ti v e . Ruhland suggested t h a t the noncollege bound lower socioeconomic women were re c e iv in g th e l e a s t cou nseling s e r v i c e s although they may well need i t th e most. These ar e the women most l i k e l y t o be heads of households, employed in low-paying jobs and in poverty. The sample f o r t h i s study was s e l e c t e d from s tu d e n t s in Rollo M issou ri; i t was small (n=118) and Caucasian, so th e a p p l i c a t i o n of h is f in d i n g s i s l i m i t e d . Guidance Programs In a d i s s e r t a t i o n study done in 1982, Turnbow i n v e s t i g a t e d "the e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f a guidance based c a r e e r e x p l o r a t o r y program r e l a t e d to s k i l l e d t r a d e s and t e c h n i c a l occupations" (p. 25) with middle school females. She wanted t o l e a r n i f t h e r e would be changes in c a r e e r i n t e r e s t s through i n t e r a c t i o n with a guidance based e x p l o ra to r y program and a s p e c i f i c p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t , locus of c o n t r o l . The r e s u l t s in d i c a te d t h a t the c a r e e r e x p l o r a t o r y program did not a f f e c t changes in i n t e r e s t s . She did not conclude t h a t th e lack o f impact was r e l a t e d to the in f l u e n c e of 34 f a m i ly , t e a c h e r s , or c o u n s e l o r s , but t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r would s p e c u l a t e t h a t as a f a c t o r . I t may be t h a t t e a c h e r / c o u n s e l o r a t t i t u d e s and pr e-s chool home ex per ie nce s cou n te rb al an c e guidance e f f o r t s and a c t i v i t i e s to encourage women to c o n s i d e r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r o p p o r t u n i t i e s . Summary I t may be t h a t th e choice process i s well on i t s way b efo re a s tu d e n t e n t e r s t h e school environment, bu t t h e r e i s evidence to su gge st t h a t schools have been r e i n f o r c i n g t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r l o w e r - c l a s s g i r l s l i k e l y t o be r e c e i v i n g th e l e a s t amount o f a t t e n t i o n from couns eli ng and guidance pe rs o n n e l. Of a l l school p e r s o n n e l , co un se lor s were perce ive d as th e most h el p fu l but the y were a l s o perc ei ved as e x h i b i t i n g sex b i a s . Counselors were'found to be d is ap pr ovi ng o f g i r l s who made d e v i a n t c a r e e r choices with male co u ns el or s being the most negative. I f t e a c h e r s o r co un se lor s were i d e n t i f i e d as t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l choices tended t o be t r a d i t i o n a l ; i f f a t h e r s were i d e n t i f e d as th e most i n f l u e n t i a l , cho ices tended to be n o n t r a d i t i o n a l . viewed as an impo rta nt s k i l l in most male f i e l d s . Math has been Math t e a c h e r s were found to have lower e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r g i r l s t u d e n t s , and g i r l s f e l t the y rece ive d discouragement from school personnel reg ard in g math. The Innovators The previous s e c t i o n s of t h i s c h a p t e r have focused on ex p l o ri n g the co n ti nu in g phenomenon o f women making t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s . This s e c t i o n w i l l ex pl ore f a c t o r s known about th e in n ov a tiv e women who have made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ch o i c e s . As noted e a r l i e r , th e m a j o r i t y o f the re s ea rc h focused on p r o f e s s i o n a l r a t h e r than w o rk ing -cl as s women. 35 P r o f e s s i o n a l Innovators Two s t u d i e s c i t e d c o n s i s t e n t l y in t h e l i t e r a t u r e regardi ng n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choice among c o l l e g e women a r e Almquist and A n g ri s t (1972) and Tangri (1972). The Almquist and A n g r is t study was reviewed b r i e f l y in Chapter I. This l o n g i t u d i n a l study focused on c o l l e g e women who had chosen male dominated o c c u p a ti o n s , and attemp ted to measure support f o r two a l t e r n a t i v e hypotheses t o e x p l a in t h i s c ho ic e. The deviance hy po th e sis proposed t h a t t h e s e women became i n t e r e s t e d in achievement t o compensate f o r f a i l u r e in th e a f f i l i a t i v e a r e a , t h e realm where women a r e supposed t o e x c e l . The a l t e r n a t i v e enrichment hy p ot h e sis proposed t h a t t h e s e women have b e n e f i t e d from a br oader more en r ic h ed exposure t o t h e world o f work through more occ upational r o l e models, a working mother, and more personal work e x p er i en ce . p e r io d . S u bj ec ts were 110 c o l l e g e women s t u d i e d over a f o u r y e a r The deviance h y p o t h e s i s , s ugg es tin g t h a t women choosing masculine c a r e e r s a r e l i k e l y t o be l e s s s o c i a l l y a c t i v e , to have c o n f l i c t e d family r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and t o a s c r i b e t o masculine work v a l u e s , was only minimally sup ported. The r e s e a r c h e r s c au ti o ne d t h a t th e n a t u re o f the sample cr e a te d l i m i t a t i o n s f o r g e n e r a l i z i n g th e r e s u l t s o f th e study. The deviance hy pot he sis was not r e f u t e d , but th e enrichment h y p o t h e s i s , which a l s o rece ive d some s u p p o r t , may o f f e r a broader and more p o s i t i v e ex t e n si o n of th e deviance th e o ry . T a n g r i ' s l o n g i t u d i n a l d o c t o ra l study has a l s o been widely reviewed in th e l i t e r a t u r e (1964-1969). She examined th e personal deter min an ts o f non­ sex-typed c a r e e r cho ices among c o l l e g e women. She c l a s s i f i e d women as r o l e i n n o v a t o r s , mod erates, and t r a d i t i o n a l s based on th e number of women employed in th e f i e l d o f ch o i c e . Role in n ov a to rs were in f i e l d s with l e s s 36 than 30% women; moderates were in f i e l d s with 30-50% women; t r a d i t i o n a l s were in f i e l d s with over 50% women. In her a n a l y s i s of family v a r i a b l e s she found t h a t f o r a l l groups mo th er 's ed uca tio na l le v el and d a u g h t e r ' s a s p i r a t i o n were r e l a t e d , but not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t ; f a t h e r ' s e d u ca tio n a l le v e l was p o s i t i v e l y r e l a t e d t o r o l e i n n o v a t i o n , but not s i g n i f i c a n t . m o t h er 's employment and i n n o v a t i v e n e s s . The b e s t i n d i c a t o r s were In t h e a n a l y s i s of p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s Tangri expected r o l e in n ov a tio n t o be a s s o c i a t e d with ego s t r e n g t h and high s e l f - e s t e e m . As p r e v i o u s l y r e p o r t e d , however, she found t h a t inn o va to rs r e f l e c t e d more s e l f doubt and f e e l i n g s of not being very successful. With t h e achievement measures she looked f o r e x t r i n s i c and i n t r i n s i c motives t o a ch ie ve . s t r o n g l y sup por ted . She found t h a t i n t r i n s i c motives were more Inn o va ti ve c a r e e r s were chosen f o r personal s a t i s f a c t i o n , not f o r a l t r u i s t i c or f i n a n c i a l o r s e c u r i t y re as on s. The n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers r e f l e c t e d l i b e r a l a t t i t u d e s on sex r o l e s , but not a recognized f e m i n i s t id eo log y; they f e l t g r e a t e r c o n f l i c t between marriage and c a r e e r ; they f e l t the y were always a c t i n g ; and the y shared concerns about t h e i r sense of i d e n t i t y . Innovators a l s o scored high on autonomy. Numerous s t u d i e s have examined p e r s o n a l i t y and background v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o c o l l e g e women who have made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ch o i c e s . Personality f a c t o r s w i l l be reviewed f i r s t . P e r s o n a l i t y F act ors Werner and Bachtold (1974) conducted a s e r i e s o f s t u d i e s on women p o l i t i c i a n s , a r t i s t s , a u t h o r s , and p s y c h o l o g i s t s using t h e C a t t e l l 16PF. The sco res suggested the n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women were c o n s i s t e n t l y b r i g h t e r , more dominant, adv en tu ro us , and r a d i c a l than th e comparison t r a d i t i o n a l group. They were compared with each o t h e r and with men in comparable o cc up at ion s. 37 Wolf and Betz (1981) examined th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f occupational p r e f e r e n c e ( t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ) and s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n (mas cul ine, fem in ine , androgynous, and u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d ) to " p e r s o n a l i t y occupa tional environment congruence in c o l l e g e women" (p. 42). The BSRI, Strong Campbell I n t e r e s t In v e n to r y , and ACT Unisex I n t e r e s t In ventory were used, th e l a t t e r p r ovi di ng a 3 - l e t t e r Holland p e r s o n a l i t y code. They found t h a t n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more l i k e l y t o make choices congruent with t h e i r p e r s o n a l i t y type than t r a d i t i o n a l women. were 184 underg radu ate women. Subjects They a l s o found t h a t masculine typed women were most l i k e l y t o make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l and congruent c a r e e r c h o i c e s ; most feminine ty p e d, androgynous, and u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d women preferred tra d itio n a l career f ie l d s . Background Factors Stud ies on background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s have y i e l d e d r e s u l t s t h a t are less consistent. Regarding e a r l y s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s , thos e v a r i a b l e s t h a t seem to be s i g n i f i c a n t a r e : o r d in a l p o s i t i o n ; maternal employment s t a t u s ; le vel o f p a r e n t a l e du ca tio n and f a t h e r ' s occupa tional s t a t u s ; the f a t h e r dau ght er r e l a t i o n s h i p ; and a c t i v e encouragement of achievement efforts. Although Henig (1971) found t h a t s u cc es s fu l women managers had been s t r o n g l y in f l u en ce d by t h e i r f a t h e r s , Tangri found th e women who made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l cho ices in her study were s t r o n g l y in f l u en ce d by highly educated mothers, e s p e c i a l l y i f th e mothers a l s o worked in a male dominated field. The l i t e r a t u r e o f f e r s mixed d a t a on p a r e n t a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . In some s t u d i e s s u b j e c t s favored t h e i r mother, although in o t h e r s , f a t h e r s were f av or ed . The i n t e r e s t i n g f a c t o r s in t h e s e s t u d i e s was t h e i n t a c t and s t a b l e n a t u re o f t h e p a r e n t a l u n i t . 38 Stud ies r e l a t e d to n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women in white c o l l a r f i e l d s provided a p r o f i l e o f b r i g h t , a s s e r t i v e , independent women who came from i n t a c t s t a b l e homes. These women a l s o appeared to have l e s s ego s t r e n g t h than t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s , but were e i t h e r p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y masculine or androgynous in t h e i r gender o r i e n t a t i o n . I t was i n t e r e s t i n g to compare t h i s p r o f i l e with t h a t o f the n o n t r a d i t i o n a l chooser in voca tion al or te c h n ic a l f i e l d s . Nonprofessional Women Wolshok (1975) noted t h a t we know l i t t l e about a w o rki ng -cl ass woman's d e c i s i o n to work. The l i t e r a t u r e on w or kin g-c la ss women focuses on women's c o n t r i b u t i o n to husband and fami ly. Lemkau's l i t e r a t u r e review on women in male-dominated occupations (1979) noted t h a t " u n f o r t u n a t e l y empirical s t u d i e s of nonprofessional women workers (eg. e l e c t r i c i a n s , miners, c a r p e n t e r s , e r e . ) a r e f e w . . . " (p. 223) The c u r r e n t r e s e a r c h e r a l s o had d i f f i c u l t y fin d i n g s i g n i f i c a n t r e s ea r ch on t h i s p o p u la ti o n . Those s t u d i e s found to be r e l e v a n t o f f e r some i n s i g h t i n t o th e is s u e s needing f u r t h e r study. National Studies Kane e t a l . were involved in two na t io n a l s t u d i e s to examine the f a c t o r s r e l a t e d to women making n o n t r a d i t i o n a l nonprofessional choi ces . The 1976 study involved 96 schools in 22 s t a t e s . They found t h a t n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choices tended to be more in f lu enc ed by men (school and nonschool personnel) than t r a d i t i o n a l c h o ic es . These women s aid t h a t high school had not prepared them f o r postsecondary t r a i n i n g (54%). The women who made t r a d i t i o n a l choices s a i d t h a t high school had prepared them (75%). Women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l programs perceived a number of problems r e l a t e d to t h e i r c l a s s e s , one of th e most s i g n i f i c a n t being male s t u d e n t s ' d i f f i c u l t y 39 a d j u s t i n g to them in c l a s s e s . i n c r e a s e d , th e As th e number o f o t h e r women in a program p e r c e p t i o n of problems d ec re as e d. The 1978 study involved 156 a r e a v oc a t io n a l t r a i n i n g c e n t e r s in 36 states. The r e s e a r c h e r s concluded t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were more bound by s t e r e o t y p e s , and mothers were t h e s i n g l e most i n f l u e n t i a l person t o a l l women. I n t e r e s t and not ear ni ng s was t h e s i n g l e most im portant reason f o r s e l e c t i n g a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d . Again, th e major problem faced by th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women was men a d j u s t i n g t o them in th e cla ssroom , and the more women in th e classroom the fewer th e problems. F u r t h e r , the y found t h a t male edu ca tio n a l personnel were more i n f l u e n t i a l than women on the n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l ch o os er s . Kane suggested t h a t th e primary i s s u e s to be co ns id er e d in promoting a l t e r n a t i v e occupa tions f o r women a r e exposure and s u p po r t. Lewis e t a l . (1976) a l s o did a n a t io n a l study on n o n t r a d i t i o n a l vo ca ti on al edu ca tio n programs f o r women. They used an i n t e r v i e w format and a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o g e n e r a t e da ta from a v a r i e t y o f p op ul a tio ns in cl u d in g t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l male and female s t u d e n t s . They found no d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e two groups in family background, in c lu d in g childhood toys and household t a s k s assign ed as c h i l d r e n ; however, t h e r e were d i f f e r e n c e s in p a r e n t a l t r e a t m e n t of boys and g i r l s . Both groups s a i d t h e i r c a r e e r choice was based on personal i n t e r e s t r a t h e r than r o l e model i n f l u e n c e or c a r e e r awareness programs, c o n t r a r y t o Kane's s u g g e s ti o n . Women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s a n t i c i p a t e d more problemss because they f e l t they lacked adequate p r e p a r a t i o n , and because t e a c h e r ' s a t t i t u d e s were n e u t ra l r a t h e r than encouraging. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between women in t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s in t h e i r a t t i t u d e s toward female r o l e s , but male s t u d e n t s and t h e i r p a r e n t s were 40 more s u p p o r ti v e o f t r a d i t i o n a l female r o l e s . N o n tr a d it io n a l women were more l i k e l y t o have p a r t i c i p a t e d in school a t h l e t i c s . F act o rs Related t o Choice Houser (1981) examined f a c t o r s t h a t encourage women's involvement in t e c h n i c a l and vo ca ti o na l t r a i n i n g a t th e high school and community c o l le g e level in C a l i f o r n i a . She looked a t e x t e rn a l and s o c i a l pro ces se s and i n t e r n a l p e r s o n a l i t y f a c t o r s with women in t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s . With regard t o e x t e r n a l f a c t o r s she found t h a t f o r a l l respondents 70% had working mothers, and 31% came from s i n g l e p a r e n t f a m i l i e s . Women in t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s were more l i k e l y to have had p r o t e c t i v e p a r e n t s . Women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s had p a r e n t s with a h ig h e r ed uc a ti o n a l l e v e l and were more l i k e l y t o have had more paid j o b s . Women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s s a i d they r ec e iv ed a l o t o f su pp ort and encouragement f o r t h e i r voc at io na l choice while women in t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s s a i d they would not have been supported i f th e y had made a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ch o ic e. Women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s s a i d o t h e r female s t u d e n t s were th e most s u p p o r t i v e , followed by p a r e n t s . The g r e a t e s t p o r t i o n o f th e v a r i a n c e between th e two groups was in the e x t e r n a l r a t h e r than t h e i n t e r n a l v a r i a b l e s . The i n t e r n a l rev ea le d t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were more s t r o n g l y se x-typed on the BSRI and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were h ig h e r on th e m a s c u l i n i t y s c a l e . The women in t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s exp erienced th e g r e a t e r f e a r o f s uc c e s s , and th e women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s r a t e d hi g he r on th e i n t e r n a l locus o f co n t ro l measure. Role Models and Supporters From th e o r i g i n a l s t u d y , Houser developed th e assumption t h a t the important o t h e r s in a woman's l i f e e x e r t th e major i n f l u e n c e on shaping her 41 career aspirations. In a l a t e r s tu d y , Houser and Garvey (1983) examined t h e impact of t h e s e im portant o t h e r s ( f a m i l y , p e e r s , edu ca tio na l per sonnel) on c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s . The f i n d i n g s supported previous r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t i n g t h a t s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t in t h e degree of s u p p o r t , encouragement, and discouragement provided by s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s between women who chose t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r s . N o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers g e t more support and encouragement than t r a d i t i o n a l choosers exp ec t they would have rec e iv ed i f they had made a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c ho ic e. P ar en ts provided c o n s id e r a b le encouragement t o n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women (60%); women f r i e n d s were th e next most encouraging group. P a r t of th e t r a d i t i o n a l sample had once cons ide re d a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l program and were c a t e g o r i z e d as " c o n s id e r e d s " . They were g e n e r a l l y th e ones who r e c e iv e d th e g r e a t e s t amount o f discouragement from im portant o t h e r s in t h e i r l i v e s . The most di sc o ur ag in g were b o y fr ie n d s . Summary This s e c t i o n has examined t h e l i t e r a t u r e on women who have made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l vo ca ti o na l or t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s . As p r e v i o u s l y noted, t h i s po pu la tio n has not been widely r e s e a r c h e d , and many o f th e e x i s t i n g s t u d i e s lack s u f f i c i e n t depth to provide adequate answers t o the reasons f o r women c o n t in u in g t o r e j e c t n o n t r a d i t i o n a l hi g he r paying vo ca ti o na l choices in s p i t e o f t h e o p p o r t u n i t i e s to make t h e s e c h o ic es . Additional s t u d i e s employing more s o p h i s t i c a t e d methodologies a r e needed. Most of th e s t u d i e s reviewed u t i l i z e d a s e l f r e p o r t design an d / o r a l i m i t e d sample. The s t u d i e s t h a t were reviewed suggested t h a t th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers in vo cat ion al o r t e c h n i c a l f i e l d s resembled t h e i r p r o f e s s io n a l c o u n t e r p a r t s on a number o f c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , in c lu d in g i n t e l l i g e n c e , work 42 ex p e r i e n c e , competetive s p i r i t , r o l e models, and gender o r i e n t a t i o n . d i f f e r e n c e may e x i s t in family s t a t u s . A P r o f e s s i o n a l n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women tended to come from i n t a c t s t a b l e f a m i l i e s , while some s t u d i e s found t h a t th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l vo c a t io n a l o r t e c h n i c a l choosers came from more s i n g l e p a r e n t homes. The n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women tended t o i d e n t i f y o t h e r women in th e programs and t h e i r p a r e n t s as t h e most i n f l u e n t i a l on t h e i r d e c i s i o n s , and a l s o th e most s u p p o r t i v e . Males o f f e r e d th e l e a s t su pport and th e most discouragement r eg ar di ng t h e i r c h o i c e s , al though n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers i n d i c a t e d t h a t male e d uc a tio n a l personnel were more i n f l e u n t i a l than female edu ca tio n a l p e r s on ne l. Perhaps t h i s i s because t h e r e a r e fewer female t e a c h e r s in v o ca t io n al s u b j e c t s . th e primary m o t iv a t o r f o r the ch o i c e . I n t e r e s t r a t h e r than e ar ni ng s was The n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women both expected and tended t o ex pe r ie nc e more problems than th e t r a d i t i o n a l choos ers. Chapter II Summary An examination o f c u r r e n t l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to women and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r s has provided a background and fou nda ti on f o r the examination o f some s p e c i f i c v a r i a b l e s concerning t h i s i s s u e . S e l f - c o n c e p t t h e o r i e s r e l a t e d t o c a r e e r development were found to be the most h el p fu l in t r y i n g to understand women's c a r e e r c h o i c e s ; th e development o f a s e l f - c o n c e p t i s in f l u en ce d by gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and by s o c i a l i z a t i o n p r a c t i c e s i n vo l v in g t h e family and edu ca tio n a l i n s t i t u t i o n s so t h e s e a r e a s were a l s o examined. I t was a l s o e s s e n t i a l to look a t what i s known about women who make t h e s e ch o i c e s . Because more is known about women who have made p r o f e s s i o n a l n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s , s t u d i e s 43 regarding t h i s population were examined as well as thos e reg ard in g the vocational or te c h n ic a l n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers. The de ci si on to pursue a p a r t i c u l a r c a r e e r appears to be infl uen ced by a m u l t i p l i c i t y of f a c t o r s a f f e c t i n g th e choice process through vario us developmental s t a g e s . A s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in t h i s process appears to be s e l f - c o n c e p t , or the image one has of o n e s e l f . This image i s in tu r n compared to an image th e person has developed o f the occupational world to determine th e f i t between the two. The development o f t h e s e images occurs through the assumption o f vario us r o l e s and the feedback o r approval received f o r the assumption o f t h e s e r o l e s . Women tend to g e t more approval and f e e l more congruence f o r t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choi ces . The s t u d i e s reviewed suggest t h a t when t h i s developmental process proceeds in a t r a d i t i o n a l mode, as i t s t i l l does f o r most women and men, c a r e e r choice i s l i m i t e d t o sex a p p r o p r i a t e f i e l d s . For women who might want t o co n sid er a masculine f i e l d , t h e i r s o c i a l i z a t i o n has probably r e s u l t e d in dependent, p a s s i v e , e x p r e s s i v e , communal b eha vi or s; they tend to be low r i s k t a k e r s and lack confidence in t h e i r a b i l i t y to analyze and solve problems, p r e c i s e l y th e s k i l l s and a b i l i t i e s needed in most masculine fields. The women who have made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choices appear to be e i t h e r masculine or androgynous i n t h e i r gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n . They a l s o appear to f r e q u e n t l y have low s e l f - e s t e e m and doubt t h e i r a b i l i t i e s , a t l e a s t a t the p ro fe s s io na l l e v e l . Role models in the f i e l d of choice appeared to be a s i g n i f i c a n t need, and pa re n t s s t r o n g l y in fl ue nc ed th e ch o ic e, although s t u d i e s d i f f e r e d on whether the f a t h e r or mother had the g r e a t e s t impact. For the p r of es s io na l n o n t r a d i t i o n a l woman, f a m i l i e s tended to be i n t a c t and s t a b l e ; however t h i s was l e s s t r u e f o r the voca tion al o r te c h n ic a l n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers. There seemed t o be some s i m i l a r i t y between th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l and v o c a t io n a l or t e c h n i c a l choos ers . Both groups were b r i g h t , c o m p e t i t i v e , and i d e n t i f i e d a need f o r more r o l e models. I t is suspected t h a t the n o n t r a d i t i o n a l women a r e e i t h e r masculine o r androgynous in t h e i r s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , with masculine being th e dominant type. CHAPTER I I I RESEARCH DESIGN Introduction This study focused on what, i f any, r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between a woman's gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and th e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re o f c a r e e r ch oi ce. This c h a p t e r w i l l examine t h e r e s e a r c h process involved in underta king t h i s s tu dy . w il l be reviewed: The fo llowing elements o f th e process 1) type o f s t u d y , 2) r e s e a r c h p o p u l a t i o n , 3) re s ea rc h model, 4) r e s ea rc h i n s t r u m e n t s , 5) data c o l l e c t i o n p r o c e d u r e s , and 6) s t a t i s t i c a l analyses. Type of Study The purpose o f t h i s study was t o as se s what f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d to c a r e e r choices made by women in community c o l l e g e vo ca ti o na l o r t e c h n i c a l programs, more s p e c i f i c a l l y r e l a t e d to why some women make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choices while o t h e r s co nt inu e t o make t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s . A 1978 Gallup poll surveyed teenage occ up at io n al c h oi ce s . In s p i t e o f g e n e r a l l y low income p o t e n t i a l f o r most o c c u p a ti o n s , young women s e l e c t e d in descending o r d e r , s e c r e t a r y , t e a c h e r , nurse or o t h e r me dica l, v e t e r i n a r i a n , fas h io n d e s i g n e r , model, d o c t o r , s o c i a l worker, b u s i n e s s , c o s m o t o l o g i s t / h a i r dresser. Most were t r a d i t i o n a l female c h o i c e s . These s t u d e n t s have access to t r a i n e d counseling and guidance personnel and t h e r e f o r e ought t o be e n l ig h te n e d about th e v a r i e t y o f o t h e r c h o ic es . I t was suggested in Kane and F r a z e e 's 1978 s tu d y , which attemp ted to d i s t i n g u i s h between t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers t h a t th e former are guided mainly by s t e r e o t y p e s and the l a t t e r ar e l e s s bound by them. Other s t u d i e s would su gge st t h a t n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers have ac qui red a masculine or androgynous gender type . The importance of exposure and 45 46 support were c i t e d as s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s in th e c a r e e r decsion making process o f n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ch oo se rs . Exposure i s provideed by o p p o r t u n i t i e s to observe and i n t e r a c t with r o l e models in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s and to observe o t h e r women in such f i e l d s . Support comes through encouragement from s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s i n th e environement. In o r d e r to understand and be ab le to p r e d i c t how th e s e f a c t o r s in f l u en ce d th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e of c a r e e r choice t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p to c a r e e r d e c i s i o n making was examined. A d e s c r i p t i v e stu dy was conducted e x p l o ri n g t h e r e l a t i o n h i p between c a r e e r c h o i c e , gender t y p e , and vario us demographic v a r i a b l e s . Research Hpotheses The n ul l hypotheses examined were: 1. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r choi ce among women in vo ca ti o na l or t e c h n i c a l community c o l l e g e programs and and t h e i r s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as measured by the Bems Sex-Role Inven tory . 2. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r choi ce among women in vo ca ti on al or te c h n i c a l programs in a community c o l l e g e and th e degree o f exposure t o and s up po r t f o r t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ch oi ces ac q ui r ed in t h e i r background as measured by th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature of Career Choice Q ue s tio n na ir e. 3. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a woman's r a c e , age m a ri t a l s t a t u s , b i r t h o r d e r , o r r e l i g i o u s background and the t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re o f c a r e e r cho ice. 47 Research Population The po pu la tio n s e l e c t e d c o n s i s t e d o f women c u r r e n t l y e n r o l l e d in a community c o l l e g e program in Michigan le ad in g to an a s s o c i a t e degree or c e r t i f i c a t e in a voc at io n al o r t e c h n i c a l f i e l d . The r a t i o n a l e f o r d e f in i n g th e po p ul a tio n in t h i s way was based on th e fo llowi ng c o n s i d e r a t i o n s : a. The d e c i s i o n t o e n r o l l in an academic program should r e f l e c t a commitment t o th e c a r e e r f i e l d chosen. b. The community c o l l e g e i s an e x e l l e n t arena f o r study because i t e n r o l l s s t u d e n t s pr ep ar in g f o r vo ca ti on al or t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r s . The sample was drawn from community c o l l e g e s in Michigan. The c r i t e r i a for s e l e c t i o n i n t o the sample involved the foll ow in g: 1. Women e n r o l l e d in a v o c at io n al o r t e c h n i c a l program le ad in g to an a s s o c i a t e degree o r c e r t i f i c a t e ; 2. A p r o p o r ti o n o f th e sample s e l e c t e d from t r a d i t i o n a l male dominated vo ca ti on al o r t e c h n i c a l programs; 3. A p r o p o r ti o n o f th e sample s e l e c t e d from t r a d i t i o n a l female dominated vo ca ti on al o r t e c h n i c a l programs. The sample s e l e c t i o n i n i t i a l l y involved a m u l t i s t a g e c l u s t e r sampling procedure. Michigan community c o l l e g e s were l i s t e d by s i z e o f community where l o c a t e d , and di v id ed i n t o urban, m i d s i z e , and r u r a l a r e a s . I n s t i t u t i o n s were then s e l e c t e d from each o f t h e s e groupings. The s p e c i f i c sample was randomly s e l e c t e d by a des ig n at ed i n d i v id u a l a t each o f the institutions. Random s e l e c t i o n by th e r e s e a r c h e r was not p o s s i b l e due to a community c o l l e g e p o l i c y rega rd in g r e l e a s e o f s t u d e n t in fo r m at io n. The study involved t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n o f the Bems Sex Role Inventory and the completion of a demographic q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 48 Research Model The model f o r t h e r e s e a r c h provided a method f o r p r e d i c t i n g th e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re o f c a r e e r choi ce based on knowledge o f s e x - r o l e or gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The sample was di v id ed i n t o two gr oups, t r a d i t i o n a l and nontraditional. For each of t h e s e groups each r e s p o n d e n t ' s s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n on a s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n s c a l e was o b ta in ed using th e Bems Sex-Role Inven tory . The in v e n to r y y i e l d e d f o u r sub-groups: fem in ine , 3) androgynous, and 4) u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . 1) mascu line, 2) Each catego ry was compared t o th e s u b j e c t ' s choice o f a t r a d i t i o n a l o r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r . In a d d i t i o n , th e s u b j e c t ' s responses on t h e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature of Career Choice Q u es tio n na ir e y i e l d e d in fo rm ati on reg ar di n g v a r i a b l e s of exposure and su pp or t l i k e l y t o in f l u e n c e c a r e e r ch oi ces in a t r a d i t i o n a l or nontraditional directio n . The model (Figure 3. 1) hypothesized a r e l a t i o n s h i p p a t t e r n between the two independent v a r i a b l e s , s e x - r o l e i d e n t i t y and demographic f a c t o r s to t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e of c a r e e r ch o ic e. More s p e c i f i c a l l y i t was proposed t h a t n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers would have a masculine or androgynous gender i d e n t i t y and would have r ec e iv ed s i g n i f i c a n t exposure t o and su pport f o r a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l ch oi ce. T r a d i t i o n a l choosers would have a feminine gender i d e n t i t y and minimal exposure to and support f o r a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choice. 49 TRADITIONAL sex-role id e n tity NON-TRADITONAL CAREER CHOICE CAREER CHOICE exposure and support / variables FIGURE 3.1 RESEARCH MODEL Research Instruments The study involved two independent measures, one of which has been used f r e q u e n t l y in s t u d i e s r e l a t e d to women's i s s u e s , and th e o t h e r being developed by th e r e s e a r c h e r . These instruments were s e l e c t e d because they y i e l d e d useful in fo rm atio n about how women r e l a t e t o gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and gender r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s with the assumption being t h a t t h i s type of r e l a t e d n e s s may have in f l u en ce d th e c a r e e r choice pr o ce ss . Bems Sex-Role Inventory The instrument used t o measure gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n was th e Bems Sex-Role Inventory. This measure was developed by Dr. Sandra L i p s i t z Bern of Stanford U n iv e r s it y and was o r i g i n a l l y published in the "Journal of Consulting Psychology" in 1974. A modified v er s io n of th e sco rin g system was published in th e same jo u r na l in 1977. Bems had an i n t e r e s t in the concept of androgyny but b el ie ve d t h a t empirical re s ea rc h on t h i s concept could not be undertaken u n t i l a new type of s e x - r o l e inven tory was developed. A major f e a t u r e o f th e Bems t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e d i t from o th e r s c a l e s was i t s tr e a tm e n t o f m a s c u l in i ty and f e m i n in i ty as s e p a r a t e dimensions r a t h e r than as two ends of a s i n g l e dimension. I f an ind iv idu al earned a high score on both of th e dimensions the ind iv id u al was la b e le d androgynous. I f t h e person was high on one and low on the o th e r 50 th e la bel was masculine o r feminine. I f th e sco re was low on both i t was la b e le d u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . Another d i s t i n g u i s h i n g f e a t u r e of t h e Bems was th e manner in which items were s e l e c t e d . They were s e l e c t e d as masculine o r feminine based on c u l t u r a l d e f i n i t i o n s o f sex -ty p ed s o c ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y and not on t h e b a s i s of d i f f e r e n t i a l endorsement by men and women, i . e . a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c q u a l i f i e d as feminine i f i t was judged t o be more d e s i r a b l e in American s o c i e t y f o r a woman than f o r a man, and i t was deemed masculine i f i t was judged t o be more d e s i r a b l e f o r a man than f o r a woman. The judges were 100 S ta n f or d und erg rad uat e s t u d e n t s (50 male, 50 f em a le ) . The o r i g i n a l Bems c o n s i s t e d of 60 items with 20 being m as cu li ne , 20 fem in ine , and 20 a s s e s s i n g s o c ia l d e s i r a b i l i t y or pro vidi ng a n e u t r a l scale. A respondent was asked t o i n d i c a t e on a 7 p o i n t s c a l e t o what degree each o f th e 60 c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s d e s c r ib e d h im se lf or h e r s e l f . responses y i e l d e d 3 s e p a r a t e s c o r e s : 1) a f e m i n i n i t y s c o r e , 2) The a m a s c u l i n i t y s c o r e , and 3) an androgyny s co re (a Social D e s i r a b i l i t y score could a l s o be computed). The androgyny s co re b e s t c h a r a c t e r i z e d th e n at u re o f a r e s p o n d e n t' s s e x - r o l e because i t r e f l e c t e d th e r e l a t i v e amounts of m a s c u l i n i t y and f e m i n i n i t y th e person inclu ded in t h e s e l f d e s c r i p t i o n . "The androgyny s co re i s d ef in e d as a s t u d e n t ' s t - r a t i o f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between a p e r s o n ' s masculine and feminine s e l f endorsement," (p. 160). The t - r a t i o was used as th e index o f androgyny because i t allowed f o r d i s t i n c t i o n s in endorsements o f both masculine and feminine a t t r i b u t e s and i t allowed f o r comparing d i f f e r e n t p o p u la ti o n s reg arding th e amount of s i g n i f i c a n t l y typed persons p r e s e n t in each p o p u la ti o n . The g r e a t e r th e a b s o l u t e val ue of the androgyny s c o r e , t h e more the person i s se x-typed or s e x - r e v e r s e d . The 51 c l o s e r th e sc or e i s t o ze r o th e more th e person i s androgynous, thus r e p r e s e n t i n g equal endorsements o f both masculine and feminine a t t r i b u t e s . The normative d a t a f o r th e BSRI were c o l l e c t e d in 1973 a t Stanford U n iv e r s it y and F o o t h i l l J u n i o r College F o o t h i l l n=117 male and 77 f em a le ) . (S ta n f o r d n=444male and 279 female; The r e s u l t s were analyzed by computing a s e p a r a t e c o e f f i c i e n t al ph a f o r th e m a s c u l i n i t y , f e m i n i n i t y , and s o ci al d e s i r a b i l i t y s co res o f s u b j e c t s in both samples. The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t a l l t h r e e s cor es were f a i r l y r e l i a b l e (,85=mdn. r e l i a b i l i t y f o r t h i s type o f measure.) TABLE 3. 1 NORMATIVE DATA STANFORD FOOTHILLS masculine a= .86 masculine a= .86 feminine feminine a= .80 soc. des . a= .75 a= .82 soc. des. a= .70 52 Test r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t y was measured a f t e r a four-week i n t e r v a l with the Stanfo rd sample (n=28 female, and 28 male). C o r r e l a t i o n s were computed between th e two a d m i n i s t r a t i o n s f o r both th e o r i g i n a l 60-item instru me nt and a shor ten ed 30-item v e r s i o n . TABLE 3. 2 Both proved to be f a i r l y r e l i a b l e . RELIABILITY MEASURES Or iginal BSRI Females Males Feminine .82 .89 Masculine .94 .76 Feminine-Masculine .88 .86 Feminine .85 .91 Masculine .91 .76 Feminine Masculine .88 .85 Short Version 53 V a l i d i t y , the degree to which th e BSRI was measuring the phenomenon i t pur por ted t o measure was checked on th e o r i g i n a l samples from Stanford and Foothill. The v a l i d i t y measures demonstrated t h a t males scored significantly high er than females on t h e M as cu li n ity s c a l e ( S tan for d m=4.97, F o o t h i l l m=4.96), ( S ta n fo rd f = 4. 57 , F o o t h i l l f= 4 . 5 5 ) ; females scored s i g n i f i c a n t l y hi g h e r on th e f e m i n i n i t y s c a l e f o r both samples than did males ( S ta n fo rd f = 5 . 0 1 , F o o t h i l l f = 5 . 0 8 ) , ( S ta nf o rd m=4.44, F o o th il l m=4.62), s i g n i f i c a n t a t .001. Empirical v a l i d a t i o n has been based on t h e hy pot he sis t h a t a nonandrogynous i n d i v id u a l i s r e s t r i c t e d in t h e range of behaviors a v a i l a b l e from one s i t u a t i o n t o a n o t h e r . Numerous s t u d i e s , many o f which were re p o r te d in th e previous c h a p t e r , have o f f e r e d su pport f o r th e v a l i d i t y of t h e BSRI t o t e s t t h i s c e n t r a l h y p o th e s i s . For example, in one s tu d y , when asked t o i n d i c a t e p r e f e r e n c e f o r an a c t i v i t y f o r which th ey would be paid t o be photographed, sex- typ ed s u b j e c t s were more l i k e l y than androgynous or c r o s s sex -ty p ed s u b j e c t s t o p r e f e r s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t y and t o r e s i s t non s e x - a p p r o p r i a t e a c t i v i t y , even when such choices c o s t them money. Additional s up por t f o r th e BSRI's v a l i d i t y was provided by a s e r i e s of s t u d i e s on in s tru m en ta l and e x p r e s s i v e f u n c t i o n i n g . These s t u d i e s suggested t h a t only androgynous s u b j e c t s demonstrated high l e v e l s of beh avior c o n s i s t e n t l y in both domains; h ig hl y sex-typed s u b j e c t s were f r e q u e n t l y low in one domain. The ins tru m ent was reviewed in Buros 9th Mental Measurements Yearbook, 1985, by P r o f e s s o r Richard Lippa, A ss o ci at e P r o f e s s o r of Psychology a t California State Fullerton. He i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h i s measure ps y ch o m et r ic a ll y has good i n t e r n a l c o n s is te n c y and r e l i a b i l i t y . I t i s th e most u t i l i z e d form o f in s p i t e of a l l such s c a l e s , in s p i t e of o t h e r 54 options. In a 1984 r e f e r e c n e se arc h Lippa found t h a t 432 re s e a r c h s t u d i e s were using th e BSRI. On t h e o t h e r hand, t h e BSRI has been s u b je c t e d t o numerous f a c t o r a n a l y t i c i n v e s t i c a t i o n s and t h e s c a l e s have not been found to be f a c t o r i a l l y pure. Another c r i t i c i s m of t h e Bems i s t h a t t h e normative data was o bt ai ned p r i m a r i l y from S ta nf o r d u n d e r g r a d u a t e s , cons ide re d t o be a n o n r e p r e s e n t iv e sample. N e v e r t h e l e s s , i t was chosen f o r th e p r e s e n t study because o f i t s empir ica l v a l i d i t y and i t s r e l i a b i l i t y . For t h e p r e s e n t study s c o r in g was based on th e medians f o r th e normative sample a t S ta n fo r d because Bern recommended t h i s method f o r c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i f t h e sample c o nt ai n ed only one sex. T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice Q u es tio n na ir e The ins tru m en t used t o measure gender r e l a t e d a c t i v i t i e s was a demographic q u e s t i o n n a i r e , The T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice, developed by th e r e s e a r c h e r . This in s tr u m en t was designed t o g e n e r a te data about background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e sample. These c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were de fin ed as v a r i a b l e s pr ov idi ng exposure and su ppo rt t o a v a r i e t y o f c a r e e r options. The items were s e l e c t e d based on t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p t o the exposure and su pport concepts i d e n t i f i e d in th e l i t e r a t u r e as p o t e n t i a l l y i n f l u e n t i a l on th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e o f c a r e e r ch o i c e . V ar ia b le s r e l a t e d t o exposure included fa mi ly c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , m o t h er 's and f a t h e r ' s occup ation s and e d u c a ti o n a l l e v e l , household t a s k s , games and toys p r e f e r r e d , high school c l a s s e s and a c t i v i t i e s , a c t i v i t i e s t h a t in fl ue n ce d c a r e e r ch o ic e. V ar ia bl es r e l a t e d t o su pport included family members and o t h e rs who i n f l u e n c e d c a r e e r c ho ic e. Additional v a r i a b l e s included age, r e l i g i o u s background, e t h n i c o r i g i n , c u r r e n t l i f e s t y l e s t a t u s , reason f o r choosing c a r e e r , and when c a r e e r d e c i s i o n was made. 55 A p i l o t group s i m i l a r t o th e study p o p u la tio n p r e - t e s t e d the demographic q u e s i o n n a i r e . This group came from West Shore Community College in S c o t t v i l l e , Michigan. Five women in t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s and f i v e i n n o n t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s completed th e survey. The p i l o t was run to determine: 1. The c l a r i t y o f th e format o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 2. The ea se o f th e d i r e c t i o n s f o r th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . 3. The l e n g th of time r e q u i r e d t o complete i t . In a d d i t i o n t o completing th e in s t r u m e n t , each person was asked to i d e n t i f y any p a r t o f th e q u e s i o n n a i r e t h a t seemed confusing o r vague. M o d if ic at io ns were made based on t h i s feedback. Survey Procedures The p o p u la ti o n o f i n t e r e s t f o r t h i s study was women e n r o l l e d in Michigan community c o l l e g e s in programs l e ad in g to an a s s o c i a t e degree or c e r t i f i c a t e in a v o c a t io n a l o r t e c h n i c a l program. For t h e time per iod of t h i s study ( f a l l o f 1987) t h a t p o p u la ti o n c o n s i s t e d o f 63,218 women. The r e s e a r c h sample provided a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e group from t h i s p o p u la ti o n . The r e s e a r c h sample c o n s i s t e d of t h e i n v i t e d sample, t h e a c c ep ti n g sample and the d a ta - pr o du ci n g sample. The i n v i t e d sample c o n s i s t e d o f 18 Michigan community c o l le g e s randomly s e l e c t e d from u rb an , midsi ze and small c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s t h a t were i n v i t e d t o p a r t i c i p a t e in the r e s e a r c h . As noted e a r l i e r , because of a p o li c y re g a r d i n g t h e r e l e a s e o f s t u d e n t names and a d d r e s s e s , p a r t i c i p a t i n g schools were as sig ned t h e t a s k o f a c t u a l l y s e l e c t i n g th e random sample of p a r t i c i p a n t s . Seven sc hools d e c l in e d p a r t i c i p a t i o n p r i m a r i l y because of th e time involved in d i s t r i b u t i n g and c o l l e c t i n g th e i n s t r u m e n t s , and the d i f f i c u l t y in i d e n t i f y i n g an a p p r o p r i a t e sample. 56 The accep ting sample c o n s i s t e d of eleven schools t h a t agreed to p a r t i c i p a t e . This involved i d e n t i f y i n g a random sample of women e n r o l l e d in vo cat ion al or t e c h n ic a l programs a t t h e i r i n s t i t u t i o n s , d i s t r i b u t i n g and c o l l e c t i n g th e in s t r u m e n t s , and mailing them back to th e r e s e a r c h e r . Ten schools a c t u a l l y produced data and re tu r n e d completed ins tru m ent s. The schools are : ENROLLMENT, FALL 1987 MaComb County Community College 32,141 Lansing Community College 21,090 Henry Ford Community College 15,261 Grand Rapids J u n i o r College 10,854 Kalamazoo Valley Community College 9,051 Washtenaw Community College 7,674 Muskegon Community College 4,930 Mid Michigan Community College 1,912 North Central Community College 1,630 K ir tl an d Community College 1,023 The o v e r a l l r e t u r n r a t e was 45%, and th e data-p ro duc ing sample c o n s i s t e d o f 293 women from 10 Michigan community c o l l e g e s . In o r d e r to make in fe re n c e s about th e po pu la tio n based on t h i s sample the r e s e a r c h e r attempted t o in s u r e i t s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s by: a. S e le c ti n g schools in r u r a l , m i ds i ze , and urban communities. b. Requesting t h a t th e school c o n t a c t person randomly s e l e c t s u b j e c t s f o r participation. c. Requesting t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s be s e l e c t e d p r o po r ti o na l to t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the i n s t i t u t i o n ' s o ve ra ll en rollment. 57 d. Providing a reward t o s tu d e n t s f o r completing th e in st ru m en ts to encourage a good response r a t e . e. Providing a stamped s e l f - a d d r e s s e d envelope to th e c o n t a c t person a t each i n s t i t u t i o n f o r r e t u r n o f th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e s . f. Making se ve ra l fo ll ow up phone c a l l s t o t h e c o n t a c t person a t each i n s t i t u t i o n t o encourage f u l l p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the study. Because th e d a t a producing sample f e l l s l i g h t l y below 50$ of th e s e l e c t e d sample, t h e r e s u l t s should be read with c a u t i o n . S ub jec ts were c l a s s i f i e d as being e n r o l l e d in t r a d i t i o n a l or n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r programs based on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e pop ula tion as obtained from t h e "Michigan Post Secondary VEDS Report" f o r th e Fall of 1987 from t h e Michigan Department o f Education. A c a r e e r was c l a s s i f i e d as t r a d i t i o n a l i f two t h i r d s of th e s t u d e n t s c u r r e n t l y e n r o l l e d in t h a t program in Michigan pos t secondary vo ca ti o na l schools were women. A career program was c l a s s i f i e d as n o n t r a d i t i o n a l i f two t h i r d s o f th e s t u d e n t s c u r r e n t l y e n r o l l e d in t h a t program in male. Michigan pos t secondary schools were The da ta -p ro du ci n g sample r e p r e s e n t e d 44 d i f f e r e n t c a r e e r programs. Of t h a t number 19 were c l a s s i f i e d as t r a d i t i o n a l and 19 as n o n t r a d i t i o n a l . The number o f s u b j e c t s in th e t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r programs was 188 r e p r e s e n t i n g 64$ o f th e t o t a l data producing sample. The number of s u b j e c t s in t h e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r programs was 94 r e p r e s e n t i n g 32$ of the t o t a l d at a producing sample. The r e s e a r c h e r a l s o found f o u r programs which could not be c l a s s i f i e d because th e number of men and women e n r o l l e d in them was about eq u al . These programs were given a n eu tra l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , although h i s t o r i c a l l y they probably would have been c l a s s i f i e d as male ( gr aph ic a r t s te chnology, business a d m i n i s t r a t i o n , b u sin ess data p r o c e s s i n g , computer programming). Also, one program which the r e s e a r c h e r expected t o be male dominated was a c t u a l l y female dominated 58 and t h a t was accounting (72% women). I t was s p e c u l a t e d , however, t h a t an a s s o c i a t e degree in accounting t y p i c a l l y r e s u l t e d in a c a r e e r as a bookkeeper and a lower income p o t e n t i a l than a b a c h e l o r ' s degree in accounting. S t a t i s t i c a l Analysis For th e Bern Sex-Role Inventory a raw g e n e r a l i z e d scor e was obtained according t o th e st an da rd format o u t l i n e d in th e BSRI P r o f es si o n al Manual The scor es y i e l d e d f o u r c l u s t e r s : undifferentiated. t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re masc ul ine , fem in ine , androgynous, and A t a b l e a n a l y s i s of th e Bern types in r e l a t i o n s h i p to th e of c a r e e r choi ce was then conducted y i e l d i n g chi-squares. In s co r in g th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice Q u e s ti o n n a i r e , th e i n v e s t i g a t o r as sig ned values t o each item. For th o s e items r e q u e s t i n g th e s u b j e c t t o "check a l l t h a t apply" each response was t r e a t e d as a s e p a r a t e q u e s ti o n with a yes o r no response. The yes and no response were each assign ed a d i f f e r e n t v al u e. Regression a n a l y s i s was cons ide re d f o r t h e a n a l y s i s o f th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice Q u e s t i o n n a i r e , but i t was r e j e c t e d in f a v o r of probit analysis. variable. This model i s b e t t e r s u i t e d t o a dichotomous dependent The p r o b i t method i s a maximum l i k e l i h o o d e s t i m a t o r and provides q u a l i t a t i v e b i v a r i a t e , r a t h e r than q u a n t i t a t i v e a n a l y s i s . I t provides an o p p o r tu n i ty t o b u il d a n o n li n e a r model to t e s t the impact o f t h e independent v a r i a b l e s on t h e dependent v a r i a b l e s . The model r e q u i r e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f a t - t e s t to each of the independent v a r i a b l e s to determine what, i f any, r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between each independent v a r i a b l e on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and t h e dependent v a r i a b l e s , th e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re of c a r e e r ch oi ce. Those v a r i a b l e s t h a t had a s i g n i f i c a n t 59 r e l a t i o n s h i p t o th e dependent v a r i a b l e s were s e l e c t e d f o r i n c l u s i o n in the final analysis. An f - s t a t i s t i c was a l s o done on t h e model to determine i f i t was p r e d i c t i v e as a whole. An r 2 was done t o determine the model's goodness o f f i t . As de p i c te d in Fig. 3 . 1 , t h e combined e f f e c t o f t h e two s e t s o f independent v a r i a b l e s , gender i d e n t i f i c a t i o n and background f a c t o r s , should be a b e t t e r p r e d i c t o r o f th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e of c a r e e r choice than e i t h e r one inde pen den tl y. T h e r e f o r e , a m u l t i p l e p r o b i t a n a l y s i s was to be conducted t o determine th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h i s combined e f f e c t . CHAPTER IV ANALYSIS OF THE DATA This c h a p t e r prov ides an a n a l y s i s o f t h e data ob ta in ed from th e Bems Sex-Role Inventory and t h e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice Q u e s ti o n n a i r e . The p r e s e n t a t i o n invol ves a b r i e f d e s c r i p t i v e summary of th e r e s u l t s , followed by an examination o f th e t h r e e r e s e a r c h hypotheses based on th e s t a t i s t i c a l methods a p pl ie d t o th e data f o r each. The s u b j e c t s were 293 women s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d in 10 Michigan Community Colleges in th e f a l l o f 1987. A t o t a l o f 671 survey packets were s e n t o ut ; t h e number r e t u r n e d (293) y i e l d e d a r e t u r n r a t e of 44%. The c a r e e r choices of th e p a r t i c i p a n t s , as i n d i c a t e d on the Q u es io n na ire , included t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s , and 94 (32%) n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l cho ic es c l a s s i f i c a t i o n system p re s e n te d in Chapter Three. 188 (64%) based onthe Seven s u b j e c t s could not be c l a s s i f i e d with t h i s system because t h e i r ' c h o s e n c a r e e r programs e n r o l l e d n e a r l y equal numbers o f men and women in Michigan community c o l l e g e s in th e f a l l o f 1987. The women ranged in age from 18 to 63. T he ir ag gr eg a te Bems type s were: TABLE 4.1 AGGREGATE BEM TYPES Feminine 105 Masculine 45 15.4% Androgynous 79 26.9% Undifferentiated 63 22% Unknown/Invalid 60 1 36% .00, 61 Hypothesis One There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between the t r a d i t i o n a l natu re of c a r e e r choice among women in v oca ti on al or te ch ni ca l community c o l le g e programs and t h e i r s e x - r o l e i d e n t i f i c a t i o n as measured by th e Bems Sex-Role Inventory. Sub jec ts completed t h e Bems Sex-Role Inventory and t h e i r sco res were computed using the normative sample from Stanfo rd U ni v er s it y as recommended in the P ro fes sio nal Manual f o r th e BSRI f o r a s i n g l e - s e x sample. The t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s were c l a s s i f i e d as masculine, femin ine, androgynous, or u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . A c h i - s q u a r e method was used to t e s t th e s t a t i s t i c a l independence of the v a r i a b l e s . I f th e s u b j e c t s ' t r a d i t i o n a l or n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choice s t a t u s was r e l a t e d to t h e i r s e x - r o l e c l a s s i f i c a t i o n then they were not independent. Table 4. 2 provides a summary of th e data used t o compute th e ch i -s q u a r e statistic. The computed value o f the c h i -s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c i s 19.89. 62 TABLE 4. 2 BEM TYPE FOR TRADITIONAL AND NON TRADITIONAL CHOOSERS TRADITIONAL NATURE TRADITIONAL Count NONTRADITIONAL P er ce nt Count Percent BEMTYPE 1 (femenine) 83 29.0 20 7.0 2 (masculine) 21 7.3 22 7.7 3 (androgynous) 53 18.5 24 8. 4 4 (Undifferentiated) 34 11.9 29 10.1 191 66.8 95 33.2 TOTAL Chi-squ are 19.89 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 Since th e c h i - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c i s s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .05 le vel of co n f id e n ce , t h e null hy p ot h e sis i s r e j e c t e d . There i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choi ces and s e x - r o l e orientation. I t was expected t h a t the t r a d i t i o n a l choosers would be p r i m a r i l y feminine in t h e i r s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n and t h a t n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers would be p r i m a r i l y masculine o r androgynous in t h e i r o r i e n t a t i o n . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were most l i k e l y to be feminine (43.5%) and t h a t n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were f a i r l y evenly d i s t r i b u t e d between a l l c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s (masculine=23.2%, femi nin e= 21. 1%, androgynous=25.2%). However, t h e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were more l i k e l y 63 than t r a d i t i o n a l choosers to be c l a s s i f i e d as masculine ( t r a d i t i o n a l masculine=1195, n o n t r a d i t i o n a l masculine=23.2%). Hypothesis Two There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e of c a r e e r choice among women in voc at ion al o r te c h n i c a l programs in a community c o l l e g e and v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d t o exposure t o and support f o r c a r e e r cho ices acqui red in t h e i r background and measured by th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature of Career Choice Q u e s ti o n n a i re . The T r a d i t i o n a l Nature of Career Choice Q u es ti o n n ai r e requested in fo rm at io n about th e s u b j e c t ' s c u r r e n t c a r e e r program as well as background in fo rm atio n r eg ar d in g e a r l y family and school ex p er i en ce s . (See appendix D f o r a f u l l t e x t of th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e ) . The items were s e l e c t e d because th e p i l o t group b e l ie v e d they c o n t r i b u t e d t o a s u b j e c t ' s c a r e e r choice p r o c e s s . I t was expected t h a t t h i s in fo rm ati on would y i e l d data about c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers t h a t were d i f f e r e n t , and t h a t would make i t p o s s i b l e t o p r e d i c t c a r e e r choice based on a knowledge o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . Once t h e d at a was c o l l e c t e d , a s t a t i s t i c a l procedure was needed t h a t could i d e n t i f y thos e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t were s i g n i f i c a n t f o r the dichotomous dependent v a r i a b l e , t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e o f c a r e e r cho ice. The p r o b i t a n a l y s i s method was s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s purpose. As i n d i c a t e d in Chapter I I I , r e g r e s s i o n a n a l y s i s was considered b u t, because t h e dependent v a r i a b l e was q u a l i t a t i v e r a t h e r than a cont inou s i n t e r v a l measure, i t was rejected. When the dependent v a r i a b l e i s dichotomous, as i t i s in t h i s s tu d y , th e a p p l i c a t i o n of th e l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n model becomes q u i t e complex. In a bin ary choice model, th e assumption i s made t h a t s u b j e c t s ar e faced with making a choi ce between two a l t e r n a t i v e s and t h a t th e choice 64 made depends on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l . Given inform atio n about t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of th e in d i v id u a l s u b j e c t s , i t would be he l p fu l to have an eq uat ion t h a t would p r e d i c t th e cho ic es of o t h e r s not in th e o r i g i n a l sample. The s t a t i s t i c a l t a s k was to determine t h e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t an in d i v i d u a l with a given s e t of background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s would choose e i t h e r a t r a d i t i o n a l o r a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r program. The n o n - l i n e a r p r o b i t model was b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r t h i s purpose than th e l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n model because th e p r o b i t ma intain s the p r o p e r t y t h a t in c r e a s e s o r de cr e as e s in a given c h a r a c t e r i s t i c a r e a s s o c i a t e d with in c r e a s e s o r d ec r e as e s in th e dependent v a r i a b l e f o r a l l val ues of the characteristic. The p r o b i t method i s used t o c o n s t r u c t a model of th e d i s t r i b u t i o n of th e dependent v a r i a b l e . The dependent v a r i a b l e in t h i s case i s dichotomous with i t s va lu es coded as 1 o r 2. The independent v a r i a b l e s in p r o b i t a n a l y s i s a r e assumed t o be co n t in u o u s , y i e l d i n g es ti m a t e d c o e f f i c i e n t s which w i l l give th e amount o f change in t h e p r o b a b i l i t y t h a t t h e dependent v a r i a b l e w i l l be e i t h e r a 1 o r a 2. Thus, th e c o e f f i c i e n t value i s the amount o f change in t h e dependent v a r i a b l e f o r each u n i t o f th e independent variable. The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f th e p r o b i t r e s u l t s t h e r e f o r e i s very s i m i l a r to th e a n a l y s i s o f a r e g r e s s i o n model except t h a t the values of the dependent v a r i a b l e s a r e dichotomous. The p r o b i t p ro ces s i s an i t e r a t i v e one. Based on t h e o r e t i c a l e x p e c t a t i o n s of th e i n f l u e n c e o f th e independent v a r i a b l e s they a r e e i t h e r included in t h e i n i t i a l model o r l e f t out o f th e model. i s then run and th e r e s u l t s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d . The i n i t i a l model The s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e of the model as a whole, as well as th e s i g n i f i c a n c e of each c o e f f i c i e n t , i s determined. These r e s u l t s a r e then used to make changes in th e model by e i t h e r dropping or keeping each o f th e independent v a r i a b l e s . The f i n a l 65 model i s th e r e s u l t o f a number o f i t e r a t i o n s . I t r e p r e s e n t s th e most complete model, given th e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , th e behavi or o f the dependent v a r i a b l e s , and th e beh avi or o f t h e independent v a r i a b l e s selected. The s t a t i s t i c used t o determine i f th e model as a whole i s a good f i t s t a t i s t i c a l l y is the f - s t a t i s t i c . Each i t e r a t i o n a l s o produced an r 2 value which i s i n t e r p r e t e d as th e p r o p o r ti o n of th e v a r ia n c e in the dependent v a r i a b l e t h a t i s ex pl ai n ed by the independent v a r i a b l e s . I t was important in the i t e r a t i v e pr ocess t h a t th e model not l o s e i t s p r e d i c t a b i l i t y . The f - s t a t i s t i c and t h e r 2 i n d i c a t e t h e combined e f f e c t o f a l l remaining independent v a r i a b l e s on t h e dependent v a r i a b l e s . TABLE 4. 3 PRELIMINARY MODEL VALUE TRADITIONAL 1 COUNT PERCENT 66 66.67 % NONTRADITIONAL 2 33 33.33 For th e i n i t i a l i t e r a t i o n of t h e model th e independent v a r i a b l e s examined were s e l e c t e d based on t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s . selected V ar iab le s were tho se which th e l i t e r a t u r e suggested had had a s i g n i f i c a n t e f f e c t on th e c a r e e r choices o f women. The in st ru m en t cont ain ed 60 v a r i a b l e s and t h e s e were p a i r e d down to 24 f o r the f i r s t run of the model. A f t e r t h a t th e s ta n d a r d e r r o r and t - s c o r e were examined f o r each v a r i a b l e t o determine i f th e v a r i a b l e would be r e t a i n e d f o r the next iteration. I f a given v a r i a b l e had a high s ta nd ar d e r r o r or a low t - s c o r e 66 i t was dropped because t h a t suggested i t did not have s i g n i f i c a n t infl u en ce on th e dependent choice v a r i a b l e . iterations. The model involved f i v e cumulative The r e s u l t s o f the f i r s t and f i n a l runs a r e pr es ent ed in Tables 4 . 4 to 4.7 . The s i g n i f i c a n t s t a t i s t i c in th e se t a b l e s i s the es ti ma te d c o e f f i c i e n t . For th e es ti ma te d c o e f f i c i e n t neg at iv e values would i n d i c a t e t h a t th e v a r i a b l e , i f th e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c were p r e s e n t , would in c r e a s e the l i k e l i h o o d t h a t the choice would be t r a d i t i o n a l , while p o s i t i v e values would i n c r e a s e th e l i k e l i h o o d t h a t th e choice would be nontraditional. The value t h a t i s p r e d ic te d f o r the dependent v a r i a b l e i s a f u n c ti o n of t h e cumulative e f f e c t of th e f u l l model on a l l t h e independent v a r i a b l e s . TABLE 4 . 4 PROBIT MODEL: INITIAL RESULTS INDEPENDENT ESTIMATED VARIABLE COEFFICIENT t-STATISTIC Constant -0.52446 -0.24092 S ib li ng s -0.19423 -1.07496 Want to be 0.29105 0.63580 F a t h e r ' s education 1.73809 0.10322 Socioeconomic -0.26971 -1.17410 Mother's education -0.12190 -0.76831 Household ta sk s -0.17283 -0.90626 Games/toys -0.47517 -1.70078 Mother's in f lu en ce -0.84612 -1.41379 F a t h e r ' s in f lu en ce -0.44181 -0.72515 0.16245 0.37477 Math and scien ce 67 1.86878 2.24937 Sports p a r t i c i p a t i o n -0.60668 1.40149 Sports observer -0.18758 -0.42595 Male t e a c h e r -0.35346 -0.61704 Female te a c h e r 0.44751 0.78564 Male couns elo r 1.97534 1.81983 Female co u ns el or 0.43472 0.70434 Male f r i e n d 0.45699 1.00531 Female f r i e n d -0.21407 -0.48377 Previous work experience -1.22375 -1.55353 School guidance a c t i v i t i e s -0.99566 - TV/movies/magazines -0.55327 -0.75490 Ethnic background 0.53884 1.51893 Religion 6.59681 0.33021 Tech c l a s s e s PERCENT CORRECTLY PREDICTED = 78.89 1.02021 68 TABLE 4 . 5 TRADITIONAL NATURE BY PREDICTED VALUE P r e d ic t e d T r a d i t i o n a l Nature Actual T r a d i t i o n a l Nature Traditional Traditional 59 (26.9) 14 Total Estimated r z=.0579 (33.3) (73.1) 73 f-statistic= 54.8 (66.7) 33 19 ( 19.2) Total 66 7 ( 80.8) N o n tr a d it io n a l N o nt r ad it io n al 26 S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 69 TABLE 4. 6 PROBIT ANALYSIS:FINAL RESULTS INDEPENDENT ESTIMATED VARIABLE COEFFICIENT Constant -1.04820 -1.71418 1.20351 3.71418 Games and Toys -0.27729 -1.55637 Mother's in f l u e n c e -0.93350 -2.13861 F a t h e r ' s in f l u e n c e -0.39629 _ 0 . 85806 Tech c l a s s e s 1.24829 2.31039 Sports p a r t i c i p a t i o n 0.45050 1.46349 Male cou ns elo r 1.38226 1.80100 Female co un s el o r 0.19054 0.45433 Male f r i e n d 0.41727 1.20401 Previous work exp erience -0.75113 -2.57692 TV/movi es/magazi nes -0.39611 -1.00368 Other Major PERCENT CORRECTLY PREDICTED = 73 t-STATISTIC 70 TABLE 4. 7 TRADITIONAL NATURE BY PREDICTED VALUE P re d ic t ed T r a d i t i o n a l i t y Actual T r a d i t i o n a l i t y Traditional Traditional 67 (76.1) N o n tr a d it io n a l 21 (2 3.9) TOTALS 88 (71.0) Estimated r 2 = .475 f-Statistic=53.7 N o nt r ad it io n al 12 (33.3) 24 (6 6.7) 36 ( 29 .0) S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 By th e end o f th e process th e p e r c e n t c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d had in c re as ed to 73.4% s ugg es tin g t h a t th e model had improved upon the original estimate. The f i n a l r 2 s t a t i s t i c was .47486 s ugg es tin g t h a t 47% of th e v a r ia n c e in th e dependent v a r i a b l e ( t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re o f c a r e e r choi ce) could be e xp la in ed by th e remaining independent v a r i a b l e s . And t h e f i n a l f - s t a t i s t i c was 53 .7 , a t th e .05 confidence l e v e l , sugg es ting 71 t h a t th e model as a whole i s a good f i t s t a t i s t i c a l l y , and t h a t th e combined e f f e c t of th e s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e s i s li k e w is e s i g n i f i c a n t . The s i g n i f i c a n t independent v a r i a b l e s were: TRADITIONAL GROUP P a r e n t s ' i n f l u e n c e on c a r e e r choice ( mother and f a t h e r ) P r e f e r r e d games and toys Previous work experience TVs, movies, and magazines NONTRADITIONAL GROUP Other majors con sidered Technical c l a s s e s Sports p a r t i c i p a t i o n Male f r i e n d s Male and female c o un s el or s Because th e o r i g i n a l e s t i m a t e was improved upon t h e s t a t i s t i c a l null hyp oth es is i s r e j e c t e d su gg es tin g t h a t knowledge of c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s about a s u b j e c t improves th e a b i l i t y to c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t c a r e e r cho ice. The re s e a r c h h y p o t h e s i s , a l s o s t a t e d in t h e n u l l , i s a l s o r e j e c t e d . The a n a l y s i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t some background v a r i a b l e s a r e a s s o c i a t e d with t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s , and o th e rs a r e a s s o c i a t e d with n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r ch oi ce s. I t was t h e r e s e a r c h e r ' s i n t e n t to examine th e combined e f f e c t of the s i g n i f i c a n t independent v a r i a b l e s from th e q u e s t i o n n a i r e and Bern types on th e dependent choice v a r i a b l e . Upon f u r t h e r exa mination, however, i t was discov ere d t h a t t h e two s e t s of independent v a r i a b l e s pr es en te d a c o l i n e a r i t y problem. These v a r i a b l e s were high ly c o r r e l a t e d with each 72 o th e r making i t n ea r l y impossible t o c a l c u l a t e maximum l i k e l i h o o d es ti m a t e s o f the parameters f o r a m u l t i p l e p r o b i t a n a l y s i s . The presence of m u l t i - c o l i n e a r i t y implies t h a t t h e r e w ill be l i t t l e d at a in th e sample to provide confidence in the i n t e r p r e t a t i o n and i t i s highly l i k e l y t h a t both instrum ents measured v i r t u a l l y th e same t h i n g . Th ere fo re, the m u l t i p l e p r o b i t a n a l y s i s procedure was not done. Hypothesis Three There is no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a woman's r a c e , age, m a ri ta l s t a t u s , b i r t h o r d e r , or r e l i g i o u s background and t r a d i t i o n a l natu re o f c a r e e r choice. The demographic v a r i a b l e s were examined using a c h i - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c to determine the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e r e l a t i o n s h i p between each v a r i a b l e and th e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re of c a r e e r cho ic e. The r e s u l t s ar e shown in Tables 4. 8 to 4.12 with each demographic v a r i a b l e i d e n t i f i e d as a subhypothesis. 73 Subhypothesis A: Age There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between age and th e t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re of c a r e e r cho ice. TABLE 4 . 8 AGE BY TRADITIONAL NATURE Traditional N o nt r ad it io n al Count Count Percent Count Count Percent Low-25 73 25.7 42 14.8 26-35 71 25.0 35 12.3 36-45 37 13.0 15 5.3 8 2. 8 3 1.1 66.5% 95 33.5% AGE 46+ TOTAL 189 Chi-Square 1.18 Not S i g n i f i c a n t AT .05 74 Subhypotheses B: R e li gi o us Background There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o u s background and th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r ch oi ce. TABLE 4.9 RELIGION BY TRADITIONAL NATURE Traditional Count N o n tr a d it io n a l Count P ercent Count Count Percent Religion 2 .7 0 0 Roman Ca th o lic 62 22.4 22 7.9 Protestant 42 15.2 20 7.2 Other 78 28.2 51 18.4 TOTAL 184 66.4 93 Jewish Chi-Square = 5.158 Not S i g n i f i c a n t AT .05 33.6 75 Subhypothesis C: Ethnic Background There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between e t h n i c background and the t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re o f c a r e e r choice based on th e c h i - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c . TABLE 4.10 ETHNIC BACKGROUND BY TRADITIONAL NATURE Traditional Count N o n tr a d it io n a l Count Percent Count Count Percent Ethnic Background Black 9 3.2 6 2. 2 Native American 6 2.2 6 2.2 59.9 74 26.5 White 167 Asian P a c i f i c American 0 0 1 .4 Hispanic 4 1.4 3 1.1 Other 0 0 3 1.1 TOTAL 196 Chi Square= 10.834 66.7 93 33.3 Not S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 76 Subhypothesis D: Bi r t h Order There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p bewteen b i r t h o rd e r and the t r a d i t i o n a l na t u re o f c a r e e r cho ic e. TABLE 4.11 POSITION IN FAMILY BY TRADITIONAL NATURE Traditional Count N o n tr ad it io n al Count Perce nt Count Count Percent POSITION IN FAMILY Oldest 70 24.8 29 10.3 Middle 69 24.5 34 12.1 Youngest 34 12.1 26 9.2 Only Child 15 5.3 5 1.8 66.7 94 TOTAL 188 Chi-Square = 4.056 Not S i g n i f i c a n t a t .05 33.3 77 Subhypothesis E: Marital Stat us There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between m a ri ta l s t a t u s and the t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re o f c a r e e r choice. TABLE 4.11 MARITAL STATUS BY TRADITIONAL NATURE T ra d i t i o n a l Nont rad it ion al Count Count Percent Count Count Percent Single 63 22.5 39 13.9 Married 65 23.2 22 7.9 Separated 14 5. 0 5 1.8 Divorced 39 13.9 24 8.6 Widowed 2 .7 1 .4 N o nt rad it ion al 2 .7 3 1.1 185 66.3 94 33.7 MARITAL STATUS TOTAL Chi -Square 6.251 Not S i g n i f i c a n t AT .05 78 Based on th e a n a l y s i s o f th e c h i - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c s f o r t h e demographic v a r i a b l e s th e t h i r d r e s e a r c h h y po th e si s i s not r e j e c t e d si n c e no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s were found between t h e s e v a r i a b l e s and the t r a d i t i o n a l na t u re o f c a r e e r c h oi ce . Summary The s t a t i s t i c a l procedures employed t o analyze th e d at a from t h e Bems Sex Role In ventory and th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice Q u es tio n na ir e were designed t o determine t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e of two d i f f e r e n t , but r e l a t e d , s e t s o f independent v a r i a b l e s on the c a r e e r choice d e c i s i o n making pr ocess of s u b j e c t s in t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l community c o l l e g e c a r e e r programs. The r e s u l t s o f t h e a n a l y s i s were used t o determine i f the re s ea rc h h y p o t h e s i s , s t a t e d in th e n u l l , would be r e j e c t e d . Hypothesis One There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r choice among women in v o c at io n al or t e c h n i c a l community c o l l e g e c a r e e r programs and t h e i r s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n as measured by th e BSRI. Based on t h e c h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s i s o f th e Bern type s and the t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e o f c a r e e r choi ce t h i s hy p ot h e sis was r e j e c t e d . There e x i s t s a r e ^ t i o n s h i p between s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n and c a r e e r cho ice. Hypothesis Two There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re of c a r e e r choice among women in v o c at io na l or t e c h n i c a l programs in a community c o l l e g e and v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to exposure t o and support f o r c a r e e r choices ac q ui r ed in t h e i r background and measured by th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature of Career Choice Q u e s ti o n n a i r e . 79 The outcome of th e p r o b i t a n a l y s i s model provided s u f f i c i e n t support to r e j e c t t h e r e s e a r c h h y p o t h e s i s . The s t a t i s t i c a l null h y p o t h e s i s , which t e s t e d th e a b i l i t y o f t h e v a r i a b l e s from the q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o improve upon th e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f t h e p r e li m i n a r y model, was a l s o r e j e c t e d . Those v a r i a b l e s found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were: Technical c l a s s e s Sports p a r t i c i p a t i o n Male and female co u ns el or s Male f r i e n d s Other majors cons ide re d Those v a r i a b l e s found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t r a d i t i o n a l choosers were: P a r e n t s ' i n f l u e n c e on c a r e e r (mother and f a t h e r ) Games and toys p r e f e r r e d Previous work exp er ie n ce TV/movies/magazines Hypothesis Three There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re of c a r e e r choice and r a c e , age, r e l i g i o u s background, b i r t h o r d e r , and m a ri ta l s t a t u s as measured by th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature of Career Choice Q u e s ti o n n a i r e . For a l l v a r i a b l e s t h i s hypo the sis was su ppor ted. There was no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e dichotomous c a r e e r choice and age, r e l i g i o u s background, b i r t h o r d e r , and m a r i t a l s t a t u s . CHAPTER V SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The Problem The purpose o f t h i s study was t o develop a p r o f i l e o f women who made n o n t r a d i t i o n a l v o c at io na l or t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r choices and compare i t to a p r o f i l e o f women who made t r a d i t i o n a l v oc a t io n a l o r t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r ch o i c e s . The purpose i s li n k ed t o a macro-level assumption t h a t i f la bor f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n by women i n c re a s e d in t r a d i t i o n a l male occupations the c u r r e n t f e m i n i z a t i o n o f po verty t r e n d would d e c r e a s e . A r e l a t e d assumption suggested t h a t i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l b a r r i e r s e x i s t which c o n t r i b u t e to the c o n t i n u a t i o n of women (and men) s e l e c t i n g s e x t y p i c a l c a r e e r s . These macro-level assumptions r e q u i r e some e x p l a n a t i o n . In September o f 1981 th e P r e s i d e n t ' s National Advisory Council on Economic Opportunity concluded t h a t , " a l l o t h e r t h i n g s being e q u a l , i f th e p r o p o r ti o n o f the •poor in female householder f a m i l i e s were t o co nt inu e a t th e same r a t e as i t did from 1967 t o 1978, t h e po ver ty p o p u la tio n would be composed sole y of women and t h e i r c h i l d r e n be f or e th e y e a r 2000" ( S t a l l a r d , p. 7) . Since 1978, women have continu ed to c a r r y primary r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r supporting themselves and t h e i r c h i l d r e n as a r e s u l t o f r i s i n g d iv o r ce r a t e s and nonmarital c h i l d b i r t h s . They remain involved in jo b s with wages so low they cannot support themselves o r t h e i r f a m i l i e s . A s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t s between male and female pov erty . Unemployment i s t y p i c a l l y th e cause of poverty f o r men and i t can be remedied by g e t t i n g a j o b . "Female poverty e x i s t s even when a woman i s working f u l l time" ( S t a l l a r d , p. 18). 80 The jobs s e l e c t e d by women continue 81 t o be in th e t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s o f c l e r i c a l work, n u r s i n g , elementary t e a c h i n g , food s e r v i c e , e t c . In 1981 th e Bureau of Labor S t a t i s t i c s data on women workers d e p i c te d the 420 occupations l i s t e d . m a j o r i t y o f women workers c l u s t e r e d in 20 of In 1981 f u l l time s e c r e t a r i e s averaged $229 per week and p r a c t i c a l nurses averaged $227 per week. During t h i s same time p e r i o d , only 3% o f t h e n a t i o n s ' m a c h i n i s t s , 1% of auto mechanics, and 2% of e l e c t r i c i a n s were women. In 1961 women held 1% o f a l l s k i l l e d c r a f t j o b s , today t h a t f i g u r e i s 2% in s p i t e o f th e f a c t t h a t th e s e jobs o f f e r higher pay than t r a d i t i o n a l women's j o b s , and l e g a l b a r r i e r s r e l a t e d to d i s c r i m i n a t i o n in employment have been l i f t e d . I t i s assumed t h a t i f th e phenomenon o f s e x - t y p i c a l c a r e e r choices by women were a l t e r e d , t h e i r economic s t a t u s might improve. (The caut ion implied by th e use o f th e word "might" involves changes in o t h e r f a c t o r s beyond th e realm of t h i s s tu d y . They i n c lu d e such i s s u e s as c h i l d c a r e , employment d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , sexual harassment in the workplace, and reproductive r i g h t s . ) The second assumption suggested t h a t i n t e r n a l and e x t e r n a l b a r r i e r s e x i s t which l i m i t th e v i s i o n women have o f c a r e e r o p ti on s a v a i l a b l e to them. This assumption rec ei ved c o n s i d e r a b l e su pp or t in th e l i t e r a t u r e , though most of the r e s e a r c h focused on women in p r o f e s s io n a l r a t h e r than v oca ti ona l or t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r s . Women co nt inu e t o develop p s y c h o lo g i c a ll y in an a f f i l i a t i v e dependent mode d e f i n i n g themselves in r e l a t i o n to o t h e r s , and t h e r e f o r e , r e q u i r i n g feedback and approval from s i g n i f i c a n t o th e r s fo r choices made. S i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s , in c lu di n g fam il y, f r i e n d s , and school p e r s o n n e l, tend to o f f e r s u p p o r t i v e feedback and approval f o r co n ti n ui n g to make t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r ch o i c e s . For thos e p r o f e s s io n a l women who s tr a y e d from the t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r path s t u d i e s found they were viewed as de vi an ts who became i n t e r e s t e d in achievement in a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r because 82 they had f a i l e d in th e a f f i l i a t i v e area (Almquist and A n g r i s t , 1970), or who viewed themselves as e x pe r ie nc in g c o n s id e r a b le r o l e disco mfo rt inc ludin g f e e l i n g s of s e l f doubt and of not being s uc ces sf ul (Tangri, 1972). In a cc ep ti n g th e assumptions as d e s c r ib e d , t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n focused on i d e n t i f y i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between a psychological measurement of sexr o l e o r i e n t a t i o n and th e t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re of c a r e e r c ho ic e, and on i d e n t i f y i n g the r e l a t i o n s h i p between background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and the t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re o f c a r e e r choice in o rd er to develop a p r o f i l e of t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choosers. The sample c o n s i s t e d of 293 women s tu d e n t s e n r o l l e d in Michigan community c o l l e g e s in the f a l l of 1987. independent measures. The p a r t i c i p a n t s completed two The f i r s t was the Bems Sex-Role Inventory which measured s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n and c l a s s i f i e d respondents as e i t h e r masculine, feminine, androgynous, or u n d i f f e r e n t i a t e d . The second measure was the T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice Que sti on nai re which asked respondents t o provide inf ormation about background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e l a t e d to exposure and su pport v a r i a b l e s found to be s i g n i f i c a n t in the l i t e r a t u r e r e l a t e d to c a r e e r development. The p a r t i c i p a n t s were di vi ded in t o two groups based on t h e i r ca r e e r program, and c l a s s i f i e d as t r a d i t i o n a l or n o n t r a d i t i o n a l . The sample produced 64% t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s , and 32% n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s which is p r op or ti on al to what was found in the popu la tio n. The dichotomous sample and th e two measures were analyzed to t e s t the s i g n i f i c a n c e o f the r e s e a r c h hypotheses. These hypotheses, s t a t e d in the null were: 1. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s u b j e c t ' s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n on the BSRI and the t r a d i t i o n a l n at u re of c a r e e r choice. 83 2. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s u b j e c t ' s t r a d i t i o n a l nat ure of c a r e e r ch oi ce, and background c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s r e l a t e d t o exposure and su pport. 3. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between r e l i g i o u s background, age, e t h n i c o r i g i n , m a ri ta l s t a t u s , and b i r t h o r d e r and t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re of c a r e e r choice. Chi-square a n a l y s i s was used to t e s t the f i r s t h yp ot h e si s. The o b j e c t i v e was to determine i f th e c a r e e r choice process and a s u b j e c t ' s s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n op era te d independently of each o t h e r . I f n o t, then i t was l i k e l y t h a t s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n inf luenced c a r e e r choice. The second hypothesis was analyzed using the p r o b i t a n a l y s i s method which involved developing a n o n li n e a r model to i d e n t i f y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s which allowed f o r a hi g he r p r o b a b i l i t y of p r e d i c t i n g th e t r a d i t i o n a l natu re of c a r e e r cho ice. The s t a t i s t i c a l procedures in t h i s model provided an es ti ma te d c o e f f i c i e n t , a sta nd ar d e r r o r , and a t - t e s t f o r each v a r i a b l e . Based on th e s t r e n g t h o f t h e s e s c o r e s , v a r i a b l e s were pared down to d is co ve r thos e v a r i a b l e s which were th e b e s t p r e d i c t o r s . The o b j e c t i v e was to improve on th e o r i g i n a l p r e d i c t i o n which did not in c o r p o r a t e any of the independent v a r i a b l e s . Each run a l s o produced an f - s t a t i s t i c , or goodness of f i t , and an r 2 . The t h i r d hyp othe sis was analyzed using the c h i - s q u a r e method again to determine i f th e c a r e e r choice process and age, r a c e , r e l i g i o n , b i r t h o r d e r , o r m a ri ta l s t a t u s were o p er at in g independently o f each o t h e r . If they were not independent, then th e s p e c i f i c demographic v a r i a b l e involved would be l i k e l y to in f l u e n c e th e d i r e c t i o n of c a r e e r choice. 84 Re su lt s Hypothesis One: There i s no r e l a t i o n s h i p between a s u b j e c t ' s s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n as measured by the BSRI and th e t r a d i t i o n a l na t u re o f c a r e e r choi ce. The agg regate Bern c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s sample resembled th e normative sample from t h e o r i g i n a l Bems. TABLE 5.1 AGGREGATE BEM CLASSIFICATION: FEM COMBINED GROUP MASC AND UNDIF THIS STUDY 36% 15% 27% 22% NORM GROUP 39% 12% 30% 18% When t h e t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s a r e s e p a r a t e d , t h e r e ar e ob s er v ab le d i f f e r e n c e s . TABLE 5.2 AGGREGATE BEM CLASSIFICATION: TRADITIONAL AND NONTRADITIONAL FEM MASC AND UNDIF NORM GROUP 39% 12% 30% 18% TRAD.: THIS STUDY 44% 11% 28% 18% NONTRAD.: THIS STUD 21% 23% 25% 30% The c h i - s q u a r e a n a l y s i s y i e l d e d a c h i - s q u a r e o f 19.89381 with 3 degrees of freedom which was s i g n i f i a n t a t th e .05 le vel of conf ide nce . Therefore t h e null hy p ot h es is was r e j e c t e d ; t h e r e e x i s t s a l i k e l i h o o d t h a t s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n does in f l u e n c e whether o r not a woman w il l choose a trad itional or nontraditional career. In examining the data from th e Bern 85 c l a s s i f i c a t i o n f o r t h i s s t u d y , i t was observed t h a t th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s d i f f e r e d from t h e normative sample while th e t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s were very s i m i l a r t o t h e normative sample. Hypothesis Two: There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between th e t r a d i t i o n a l na t u re o f c a r e e r choice and background v a r i a b l e s r e l a t e d to exposure and su pp or t. The s t a t i s t i c a l null hypo the sis from th e p r o b i t a n a l y s i s model r e s u l t e d in a p r e d i c t a b i l i t y r a t e o f 67%. Before co ns id er i n g any of the independent v a r i a b l e s , 67% o f th e s u b j e c t s in o t h e r samples would be p r e d i c t e d t o be c l a s s i f i e d in t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r f i e l d s . The p r o b i t model re q u ir e d f i v e cumulative runs inv olving th e e l i m i n a t i o n o f those independent v a r i a b l e s t h a t did not show s t r e n g t h in t h e i r es ti ma te d c o e f f i c i e n t s and t - s c o r e s . The o b j e c t i v e was t o pa re down the independent v a r i a b l e s wh ile improving upon th e p r e d i c t a b i l i t y o f th e s t a t i s t i c a l n u l l . In a d d i t i o n , i t was im portant t h a t th e model, as a whole, r e t a i n a good f i t s t a t i s t i c a l l y ( f - s t a t i s t i c ) , and t h a t th e model account f o r most of the v a r ia n c e in th e dependent v a r i a b l e ( r 2). The percen tage c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t e d f o r each s u c c e s s i v e run was: 78.8%, 73.8%, 74%, 75.6%, and 73.4%. during th e paring down pr o c e s s . T h e r e f o re , th e null o f 67% was improved upon The s u c c e s s i v e f - s t a t i s t i e s were 54.8 ( . 0 5 ) , 50.1 ( . 0 0 5 ) , 48.4 ( . 0 5 ) , 54.97 ( . 0 5 ) , 53.7 ( . 0 5 ) . The h ig h e r values o f f are a s s o c i a t e d with a s tr on g r e l a t i o n s h i p f o r the n o n l i n e a r model with the dependent v a r i a b l e , t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r ch o i c e , and the s i g n i f i c a n t independent v a r i a b l e s i d e n t i f i e d through th e s uc c e s s iv e runs of the model. The s u c c e s s iv e r 2 s t a t i s t i c s were 58%, 52%, 49% 49% and 48% i n d i c a t i n g t h a t a s i g n i f i c a n t percentage of th e v ar ia n ce in t h e dependent v a r i a b l e was accounted f o r by th e model. 86 Those independent v a r i a b l e s i d e n t i f i e d as improving upon the p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of th e model d i f f e r e d f o r t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l subjects. For t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s , s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were: Games and toys p r e f e r r e d as yo un gs ter s P a r e n t s ' i n f l u e n c e on c a r e e r choice Previous work exp er ie nc e TV, r a d i o , and magazines For n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s , s i g n i f i c a n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were: Other majors co ns id ere d Technical c l a s s e s Sports p a r t i c i p a t i o n Male and female cou n sel o r Male f r i e n d The s t a t i s t i c a l null hypo the sis was r e j e c t e d . The p r e li m i n a r y model was improved upon using t h e p r o b i t method o f a n a l y s i s . As a r e s u l t , i t i s p o s s i b l e t o c o n s t r u c t a p r o f i l e o f women who w il l make t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choices based on c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s known t o be s i g n i f i c a n t in t h i s model. Thus, women in o t h e r samples ar e more l i k e l y to make a t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choice i f they a r e exposed t o t r a d i t i o n a l games and toys as a y o u n g s t e r , a r e in f l u en ce d by t h e i r p a r e n t s in making a c a r e e r choice (more s i g n i f i c a n t l y t h e i r mother) a r e in f l u en ce d toward t h i s choice through previous work e x p e r i e n c e , and ar e in f l u en ce d t o make t h i s choice by TV, magazines, or movies. Women in o t h e r samples w i l l be more l i k e l y t o make a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choice i f they have cons ide re d o t h e r majors before de ci din g on t h i s one, have enjoyed t e c h n i c a l c l a s s e s in high sc h o o l, have been a p a r t i c i p a n t in s p o r t s a c t i v i t i e s in high sc h o o l, have been 87 i n f l u e n c e d in t h e i r c a r e e r choice by a c o u n s e l o r , e s p e c i a l l y a male c o u n s e l o r , o r have been i n f l u e n c e d in t h e i r c a r e e r choice by a male f r i e n d . O r i g i n a l l y a m u l t i p l e p r o b i t a n a l y s i s was going t o be done on th e two s e t s of independent v a r i a b l e s t o determine t h e i r combined e f f e c t on the dependent v a r i a b l e , t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r c ho ic e. However, because o f th e problem of m u l t i - c o l i n e a r i t y , d es cr ib e d in Chapter IV t h i s was not done. Hypothesis Three: There i s no r e l a t i o n s h i p between age, e t h n i c background, r e l i g i o u s background, b i r t h o r d e r , and m a r i t a l s t a t u s and t r a d i t i o n a l i t y of c a r e e r ch oi ce. The c h i - s q u a r e s t a t i s t i c s f o r th e demographic v a r i a b l e s were as fo ll o ws : age, 1.17995 with 3 df ; r e l i g i o u s background, 5.1675 with 3 d f ; e t h n i c background, 10.83468 with 5df; b i r t h o r d e r , 4.05713 with 3df; m a r i t a l s t a t u s , 6.25195 with 5df. None o f t h e demographic v a r i a b l e s demonstrated any s t a t i s t i c a l s i g n i f i c a n c e . These v a r i a b l e s appear to o p e r a t e ind ep endently o f th e d e c i s i o n to s e l e c t a t r a d i t i o n a l o r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r , and t h e null hyp oth es is i s not r e j e c t e d . Conclusions Based on th e s t a t i s t i c a l t r e a t m e n t of t h e d a t a , and an a n a l y s i s of t h a t t r e a t m e n t , th e foll owin g co ncl usi on s have been supported and a s s i s t in th e development of a p r o f i l e o f t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l s u b j e c t s . 1. A r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n as measured by the BSRI and th e d i r e c t i o n o f c a r e e r ch oi ce. 2. Women c l a s s i f i e d as feminine on the BSRI a r e l i k e l y to be found in t r a d i t i o n a l female c a r e e r s . I t i s hig hl y u n l i k e l y t h a t women who make t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choices w il l be c l a s s i f i e d as mascu line , and t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in th e androgynous group resembles t h a t o f the n o n t r a d i t i o n a l group as well as th e o r i g i n a l norm group. 3. Women who a r e in th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choice group a r e twice as l i k e l y to be found in th e masculine c l a s s i f i c a t i o n on th e BSRI as t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c o u n t e r p a r t s o r t h e norm group. Their r e p r e s e n t a t i o n in the feminine c l a s s i f i c a t i o n w il l be s i g n i f i c a n t l y l e s s than the t r a d i t i o n a l choice group and the norm group. They w i l l be e q ua l ly r ep r es en t ed in th e androgynous group. 4. There ar e d i f f e r e n c e s in th e types of v a r i a b l e s i d e n t i f i e d as s i g n i f i c a n t in th e c a r e e r choice process f o r women in t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choice groups than f o r women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choice groups. 5. Women in th e t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choice group ar e infl uen ced by t h e i r p ar en t s in making a c a r e e r ch o i c e , with t h e i r mothers having a s t r o n g e r in f l u e n c e than t h e i r f a t h e r s . They a l s o had a s tr on g p r ef er en c e f o r t r a d i t i o n a l feminine games and toys ( " d o l l s , playing house, board games") as y o u n g s te r s ; they showed a weak p r ef er en c e f o r t r a d i t i o n a l masculine games/toys ("guns, t r u c k s , a c t i o n game"). They i d e n t i f y previous p a r t time or f u l l time work expe ri enc e as a s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r in in fl u en ci n g t h e i r c a r e e r ch oi ce; and they i n d i c a t e d t h a t t e l e v i s i o n , movies and, magazines were s i g n i f i c a n t f a c t o r s in t h e i r c a r e e r cho ice. 6. In c o n t r a s t , women in th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l choice group ar e s i g n i f i c a n t l y more l i k e l y to have considered o t h e r majors bef or e deciding on th e program they ar e pursuing a t th e community c o l l e g e . In high school they had a strong p r ef er en c e f o r t e c h n ic a l c l a s s e s and f o r p a r t i c i p a t i n g in s p o r t s as an e x t r a c u r r i c u l a r a c t i v i t y . Although family members do not have a s i g n i f i c a n t in f lu en ce on t h e i r c a r e e r ch oi ce , couns elors do have a 89 s i g n i f i c a n t i n f l u e n c e , e s p e c i a l l y male co u n s el o r s . Male f r i e n d s a l s o have a s i g n i f i c a n t in f l u e n c e on t h e i r n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r cho ice. There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between e t h n i c background and the t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re of c a r e e r ch oi ce. Women in non-White groups (Black, H is pan ic, Native American, Asian P a c i f i c Americans, o th e r ) ar e more l i k e l y to be r ep r es en t ed in th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r group than White women. Because of the small n (n=37) f o r non-White s u b j e c t s , and s inc e i t was not s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t , t h i s con clusion i s pres ented with ca u t io n . There i s a l s o no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between m a ri ta l s t a t u s , r e l i g i o u s background, age, and b i r t h o rd e r to the t r a d i t i o n a l na tu re of c a r e e r choice. Discussion of Results and Conclusions The r e s u l t s of the a n a l y s i s of the p r o b i t model and c h i -s q u a r e procedures suggest t h a t t h e r e ar e s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between women in t h i s p op ula tio n who make t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choices and women who make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r ch oi ces . Women in t h e t r a d i t i o n a l group are l i k e l y to be c l a s s i f i e d as feminine on th e BSRI. Bems1 c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n of hig hl y sex-typed persons (masculine or feminine) i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e s e in d i v i d u a l s ar e motivated to keep t h e i r behavior c o n s i s t e n t with an i n t e r n a l i z e d s e x - r o l e sta ndard which i s accompanied by suppr es sing any behavior t h a t might be considered i n a p p ro p r i a t e or u n d e s i r a b l e f o r his or her sex. T h er e fo re , women c l a s s i f i e d as feminine would have d i f f i c u l t y e i t h e r co ns id er in g or pursuing a c a r e e r program i n c o n s i s t e n t with a model of a p p r o p r i a t e feminine behavi or. This study su pports t h a t c o n c e p t u a l i z a t i o n . Because women in th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l group were f a i r l y e qu al ly r ep r es en t ed in a l l fou r Bems c l a s s i f i c a t i o n groups, i t i s not p o s s i b l e to 90 conclude t h a t they ar e l i k e l y to be c l a s s i f i e d as e i t h e r masculine or androgynous as had o r i g i n a l l y been expected. These s u b j e c t s , however, are twice as l i k e l y as t h e i r t r a d i t i o n a l c o u n t e r p a r t s t o be c l a s s i f i e d as masculine. This outcome i s in c o n t r a s t to s t u d i e s o f p r o f e s s i o n a l women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r s from th e l i t e r a t u r e . P r o fe s s i o n a l women were highly l i k e l y t o be c l a s s i f i e d as e i t h e r masculine o r androgynous. In t h i s r e g a r d , th e n o n t r a d i t i o n a l group not only d i f f e r s from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l group in th e c u r r e n t s t u d y , but a l s o from th e p r o f e s s i o n a l s u b j e c t s in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r s based on previous s t u d i e s . In a d d i t i o n to i d e n t i f y i n g a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n and t h e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e o f c a r e e r c h o i c e , th e a b i l i t y to c o r r e c t l y p r e d i c t c a r e e r choice based on th e knowledge of c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s was supported by t h i s stu dy. Women in t h i s p op u la ti o n who have been in f l u en ce d by t h e i r p ar en t s ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e i r mothers) with regard t o c a r e e r c h o i c e , who p r e f e r r e d t r a d i t i o n a l toys and games as y o u n g s t e r s , and who were in f l u en ce d by previous work ex pe ri en ce and TV, movies and magazines with regard to c a r e e r c h o i c e , ar e l i k e l y t o make t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h oi ce s . Women in t h i s po p u la ti o n who had given c o n s i d e r a t i o n to o t h e r majors, who favored t e c h n i c a l c l a s s e s and p a r t i c i p a t e d in s p o r t s in high s cho ol, and who were in f l u en ce d in t h e i r c a r e e r choi ce by co un se lo rs ( e s p e c i a l l y male) and by male f r i e n d s are l i k e l y to make n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r ch oi ce s. The combined e f f e c t of s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n and known c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s on th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u r e of choice i s assumed, but cannot be analyzed statistically . Because th e two s e t s of independent v a r i a b l e s ar e s t r o n g l y r e l a t e d to each o t h e r , they p r es en te d a problem of m u l t i - c o l i n e a r i t y meaning t h a t a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p e x i s t s between t h e two s e t s of v a r i a b l e s and they do not provide independent d a t a . I t i s assumed, f o r example, t h a t 91 th e p r o f i l e of a woman in the t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r group would be l i k e l y to have a feminine Bern c l a s s i f i c a t i o n , and t o possess th e c h a r c t e r i s t i e s i d e n t i f i e d as s i g n i f i c a n t f o r t h e t r a d i t i o n a l choice group in th e p r o b i t analysis. I t had been expected t h a t demographic c h a r a c t e r i s t c s such as age, r e l i g i o u s background, e t h n i c background, b i r t h o r d e r , and m a ri ta l s t a t u s would d i f f e r f o r women in the t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l groups. The a n a l y s i s o f th e d a t a , however, suggested t h a t f o r a l l of th e se c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , t h e r e was not a s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p . knowledge T h er e fo re , o f t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s f o r members of a sample group or pop u la tio n does not c o n t r i b u t e t o the p r e d i c t a b i l i t y of the p r o f i l e . With regard t o e t h n i c background, t h e r e i s some evidence t o suggest t h a t m in o r it y women ar e more l i k e l y than White women to s e l e c t a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r program , perhaps su g g e s ti n g a s t r o n g e r w i l l i n g n e s s to ta ke r i s k s . The sample o f m i n o r it y women was s m a l l, however, and th e r e s u l t was not s ta tis tic a lly significant. L i m i t a t i o n s of th e Study The co nc lu sio n s formulated from th e a n a l y s i s of th e data f o r t h i s study a r e l i m i t e d by c o n s i d e r a t i o n s r e l a t e d t o th e sample s e l e c t e d , the instr um ent s used, and th e methodology employed. The o r i g i n a l design o f th e study provided f o r a random s e l e c t i o n of p a r t i c i p a n t s by the r e s e a r c h e r ; however, an i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o li c y e x i s t e d in each of the c o l l e g e s p a r t i c i p a t i n g in th e study p r o h i b i t i n g th e r e l e a s e of s tu d e n t names and a d d r e s s e s . The r e s e a r c h e r r e l i e d on a c o n t a c t person a t each c o l l e g e to randomly s e l e c t s u b j e c t s f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n thereby 92 r e l i n q u i s h i n g co nt ro l of t h e sample s e l e c t i o n pr o c e s s . T h e re f o re , i t cannot be concluded t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g sample was randomly s e l e c t e d . A r e l a t e d i s s u e concerned f oll ow up on p o t e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a n t s . The r e s e a r c h e r followed up with c o n t a c t persons t o encourage p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the s tu d y , but did not have d i r e c t access to p o t e n t i a l p a r t i c i p a n t s to encourage t h e i r involvement. The r e t u r n r a t e o f 45% might have been improved i f d i r e c t c o n t a c t had been p o s s i b l e . Also, th e p o p u la tio n was l i m i t e d t o Michigan community c o l l e g e s tu d e n t s th e re by l i m i t i n g the a b i l i t y t o g e n e r a l i z e th e r e s u l t s nationwide. The BSRI i s a widely used in str um en t f o r th e measurement o f s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n and t h e r e i s good evidence t o s up por t i t s r e l i a b i l i t y and v a l i d i t y f o r r e s ea r ch pur pos es ; however, th e T r a d i t i o n a l Nature o f Career Choice Q u es tio nn ai r e was designed by th e r e s e a r c h e r and i t has not been t e s t e d f o r v a l i d i t y and r e l i a b i l i t y . In a d d i t i o n , some problems were noted with t h i s ins tru m ent dur ing t h e d a t a e n t r y and d at a a n a l y s i s phase o f the s tudy. Because sever al of t h e q u e s t i o n s provided an o p p o r tu n i ty f o r respondents t o check a l l responses t h a t a p p l i e d , i t was nece ssa ry to code each response as a "yes" o r "no" answer. In r e t r o s p e c t , the r e s u l t s may have been more in f o r m a ti v e with a " m o s t - l e a s t " fo rm at , r e q u i r i n g respondents to p r i o r i t i z e responses r a t h e r than merely s e l e c t them. The p r i o r i t i z a t i o n would provide d at a about th e degree of impact o f each v a r i a b l e t h a t was not always p o s s i b l e in th e c u r r e n t stu dy. Also, the q u e s ti o n s r e l a t e d to p a r e n t s ' occupations were open ended and r e s u l t e d in d at a t h a t was d i f f i c u l t t o code. Parental occupa tion had been expected to be a s i g n i f i c a n t v a r i a b l e and th e lo s s of t h i s data in the f i n a l a n a l y s i s was u n f o r t u n a t e . format. The q u e s ti o n design should have provided a fo rce d choice 93 The r e s e a r c h des ign involved a s e l f - r e p o r t by respondents on both ins tru m en ts reg ard in g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s they b e l ie v e d to be a c c u r a t e about themselves. T h e r e f o re , th e study i s l i m i t e d by th e degree t o which respondents have a c c u r a t e s e l f - p e r c e p t i o n s and a c c u r a t e memories of c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t e x i s t e d when they were younger. The design involved a snapshot of a moment in time when th e respondents completed t h e instr um ent s and does not allow f o r a moving p i c t u r e d e p i c t i n g th e lo n g i t u d i n a l impact o f th e c a r e e r d e c i s i o n and c u r r e n t c a r e e r program. I m p l ic a t io n s f o r F u r t h e r Research As noted p r e v i o u s l y , t h e r e has been a p a u c i ty o f r e s e a r c h on women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l v o c a t io n a l or t e c h n i c a l c a r e e r f i e l d s . The l i t e r a t u r e review poi nted out t h a t most p re vio us s t u d i e s focused on women in n o n t r a d i t i o n a l p r o f e s s i o n a l f i e l d s , and even th o s e s t u d i e s a r e f a i r l y re c e n t (1970s). The i n c re a s e d l a b o r f o r c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n o f women and the i n c re a s e d number o f working poor women with f a m i l i e s r e q u i r e s in c re as ed r e s e a r c h i n t o th e c a r e e r development pro cess f o r t h i s p o p u la ti o n . The c u r r e n t study provided a p r o f i l e o f Michigan community c o l le g e women who made t r a d i t i o n a l and n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r c h o i c e s . This study should be r e p l i c a t e d a t community c o l l e g e s in o t h e r p a r t s of th e country to determine whether th e r e s u l t s have n a t i o n a l i m p l i c a t i o n s , or a r e s p e c i f i c to the po p ul a tio n de fin e d by t h i s study. I t i s b el ie v ed t h a t a m u l t i p l i c i t y of f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e to occupa tiona l sex s t e r e o t y p i n g and t h e c u r r e n t r e s ea rc h focused p r i m a r i l y on f a c t o r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d to th e d e c i s i o n t o pursue a s e x - r e v e r s e d or se x-typed o cc u p a ti o n , as opposed t o examining what happens a f t e r the d e c i s i o n has been made. 94 Related s t u d i e s ar e needed which would examine f a c t o r s in the edu ca tio na l environment which a f f e c t a s u b j e c t ' s l i k e l i h o o d t o complete a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r program, and o f remaining in t h e c a r e e r f i e l d a f t e r g r a d u a t io n . Longitudinal s t u d i e s with t h i s po p u la ti o n a r e a l s o needed to determine whether a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r choice and en ro ll me n t in a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r program a t a community c o l l e g e le ads to employment in a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l j o b . The n a t u re o f th e work environment experienced by t h e s e women could be expl ored a l s o . Given what i s known about s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n as measured by the BSRI, and th e t r a d i t i o n a l n a t u re of c a r e e r c h o i c e , s t u d i e s a r e needed which i d e n t i f y exp er ie n ce s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e development of a s p e c i f i c s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n , and ex pe r i e n c e s which c o n t r i b u t e t o changes in s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n . For example, i s i t p o s s i b l e f o r a s u b j e c t c l a s s i f i e d as feminine t o develop an androgynous or masculine o r i e n t a t i o n ? Implications fo r Practice The l i t e r a t u r e suggested t h a t w o r k in g - c la s s p a r e n t s tend t o be more t r a d i t i o n a l in t h e i r s e x - r o l e a t t i t u d e s than p r o f e s s i o n a l w h i t e - c o l l a r parents. This su gg es tio n was supported in th e c u r r e n t s tu dy . In a d d i t i o n , i t was suggested in th e l i t e r a t u r e t h a t school personnel in th e elementary and high school systems paid t h e l e a s t a t t e n t i o n t o no ncollege bound students. This was not supported in th e c u r r e n t study but 65% of th e sample made t h e i r c a r e e r d e c i s i o n s a f t e r high s ch oo l. This su g ge sts t h a t the home and school e xp er ie nc es of working c l a s s g i r l s pro vid e c o n s i d e r a b l e support f o r adhering to a t r a d i t i o n a l female c a r e e r pat h. The women in th e t r a d i t i o n a l c a r e e r group were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more l i k e l y t o be c l a s s i f i e d as feminine on th e BSRI meaning t h a t th ey have been mot ivated to maintain 95 t h e i r c a r e e r d e c i s i o n making b e h a v i o r c o n s i s t e n t w it h an i n t e r n a l i z e d sex -ro le standard. These two c o n d i t i o n s , s u p p o r t f o r t r a d i t i o n a l c h o i c e s from o t h e r s and a f em in in e s e x - r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n , s i g n i f i c a n t l y l i m i t th e c a r e e r o p t i o n s p e r c e i v e d t o be a v a i l a b l e t o s u b j e c t s in t h i s p o p u l a t i o n . In o r d e r t o compensate f o r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , community c o l l e g e s need to d e s i g n programs t h a t p r o v i d e s u p p o r t f o r women t o c o n s i d e r a b r o a d e r r an ge o f c a r e e r programs. Programs d es ig n ed t o r e c r u i t women i n t o t e c h n i c a l programs have been in p l a c e f o r some t i m e , b u t t h e i r s u c c e s s r a t e seems t o v ar y depending on t h e amount o f i n s t i t u t i n a l nontraditional career choices. support for Such s u p p o r t i s c r i t i c a l because i t i s l i k e l y t o be l a c k i n g in o t h e r a s p e c t s o f a female s t u d e n t ' s l i f e . Washtenaw Community C o ll e g e has evol ved a model program f o r t h e r e c r u i t m e n t , t r a i n i n g , and pla cem en t o f women and pe op le o f c o l o r i n high t e c h o c c u p a t i o n a l programs. The model i s c o o r d i n a t e d th r o u g h t h e O f f i c e of Ad u lt S e r v i c e s and a d d r e s s e s r e c r u i t m e n t i n t o a n o n t r a d i t i o n a l program as well as f a c t o r s t h a t i n f l u e n c e r e t e n t i o n , g r a d u a t i o n , and employment. Those f a c t o r s c o n s i d e r e d i m p o r t a n t t o a s t u d e n t ' s a b i l i t y t o succeed in a high t e c h program i n c l u d e : 1. Academic p r e p a r a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y math 2. S e n s itiv ity of in s tru c to rs 3. Group and i n d i v i d u a l s u p p o r t 4. A v a ila b ility of tu t o r ia l services Programs have been dev el op ed which ad d r e s s each o f t h e s e f a c t o r s . The o v e r a l l model has been very e f f e c t i v e in meeting i t s o b j e c t i v e s . 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Kingdon, Margaret A. and Se dlacek, William E . , "D i ff e r e n c e s Between Women Who Choose T r a d i t i o n a l and N o n tr a d it io n a l C a r e e r s , " Journal o f The National A s s o c i a ti o n of Women Deans A d m in i s t r a to r s and U o u n s e lo r s , v o l . 45, no. 2 (Winter, 1982): p p . 34-37. Kirby, Emily, " P e t t i c o a t s t o Jackhammers: S t r a t e g i e s f o r Women in Occupational Educa tio n, " New D i r e c t i o n s f o r Community C o ll e g e s , 3 4 , ( 1 9 8 ) : pp. 43-53. Korman, A l b e r t , "S elf-Esteem V ar ia bl es in Vocational Choice," Journal o f Applied Psychology, 50 (1966): pp. 479-486. Leach, J u l i e t t e , "A S o f t Technology: th e H i s t o r i c Eva luation of Techniques U t i l i z e d t o R e c r u i t , Tr ai n and Place Women and People o f Color in High Tech Occupational Programs", a paper prepare d f o r th e O f fi c e o f Adult S e r v i c e s , Washtenaw Community Co ll eg e, Ann Arbor Michigan, 1986. Lemkau, Jeanne P a r r , " P e r s o n a l i t y and Background C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Women in Male Dominated Occupations. A Review," Psychology of Women Q u a r t e r l y , v o l . 4 , no. 2 (Winter, 1979): pp. 221-2397 Lewis, Morgan e t a l . , N o n t r a d i t i o n a l Vocational Education Programs f o r women: ^ i n *. _ . .. jl. r 1 fidi R e p o r t , rn r/» n c r i o _ j. f r>* i* ■ > /- t r\~r r ooounient c . u i o u u £ y , 1 3 / u " Lunneborg, P a t r i c i a , " S er v ic e vs . Technical I n t e r e s t : Biggest Sex D if f e r e n c e o f A l l , " Vocational Guidance Q u a r t e r l y , v o l. 28, no. 2 (Dec., 1979): pp. 146-153. Mcllwee, J u d i t h Samson, "Occupational Segreg atio n and th e Entry o f Women i n t o N o n tr a d it io n a l and Nonprofessional Occupations", PhD. d i s s e r t a i o n , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a a t San Diego, 1980. Mednick, Martha; T a n g r i , Sandra; and Hoffman, Lois e d . , Women and Achievement. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1975. M i t c h e l l , James V. J r . e d . , Buros 9th Mental Measurements Yearbook. Vol. I: Lippa, Richard, review of~tKe Bems Sex-Role Inventory; U n iv e r s it y of Nebraska, Lincoln Nebraska: The Buros I n s t i t u t e of Mental Measurement, 1985, p. 176. 99 Morgonoff, P h y l l i s P e r ry , "Readiness f o r Career Planning: A Function of Sex and Vocational Se lf- Es te em ," PhD. d i s s e r t a i o n , Rutgers U n i v e r s i t y , 1978. Novarra, V i r g i n i a , Women's Work, Men's Work. Boyers, 1980. London and Boston: Marion M ou ll i et , Diredre Kathryn, "Women Employed in Management and C le r ic a l Occupations: D iff er en ce s in P e r s o n a l i t y C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , and Role O r i e n t a t i o n s , " Ed.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv er s it y of C i n c i n n a t i , 1979. Openheimer, Er nes t A. "The R e l a ti o n s h i p Between C e r t a in S e l f Constructs and Occupational P r e f e r e n c e ," Journal o f Counseling Psychology, 13 (1966): pp. 191-197. Openheimer, V a l e r i e , "The Sex Labeling of J o bs ," I n d u s t r i a l R e l a t i o n s , vol. 7 (3) (May, 1968): pp. 307-325. Osipow, Samuel, Theories of Career Development. 2nd e d . , Inglewood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : " T r e n t i c e Hall I n c . , 1973. P i e l , Ellen Ruth, "Sex and Careers: R e l a ti o n s h i p Between Sex Typing and Dif fer enc es on C ar ee r-R ela te d V ar iab le s f o r Men and Women," Ph.D. D i s s e r t a t i o n , U n iv e r s it y o f Iowa, 1977. Pindyck, Robert S . , and Rubenfeld, Dan iel , Econometric Models and Economic F o r e c a s t s . New York: McGraw H i l l , 1981. P la s , Jeanne M. and Wal lston, Barbara S t r u d l e r , "Women Oriented Toward Male Dominated Careers: Is th e Reference Group Male o r Female?" Journal of Counseling Psychology, v o l. 30, no. 1 (1983): pp. 46-54. Pogrebin, Lett y C o t t i n , G etting Yours. New York: P u b l i s h e r s , 1975. David McKay Pray, Margaret, and Thomas, Kenneth R., "Overcoming Obst acle s: N o nt ra di ti on al Jobs f o r Women," Journal o f Employment Counseling, (March, 1982): pp. 2-9. Reading, Hugo F . , A D ict ion ary of the Social Sciences. London and Boston: Routledge and Paul Kagan Pub., 1977, p. 158. Roe, Anne, The Psychology of Occupations. Sons, I n c . , 1956. New York: John Wiley and Ruhland, David J . e t a l . , Determinants of Career Goals i_n J u n i o r and Senior High School Women, ERIC Document ED185356, 1978.. S c o t t , Robert A . , The Evolution o f Roles and A s p i r a ti o n s : Choices f o r Females, ElRIC Document ED100110, 1980. Burgeoning 100 Se ga l, J u d i t h , " P r o f i l e s of Successful Women Working in N o n tr ad it io na l Occupations with Special Reference t o t h e i r Androgynous C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , " PhD. d i s s e r t a t i o n , F ie l d in g I n s t i t u t e , 1980. Smith, Caryl K. e t a l . , Broadening Career Options f o r Women, ERIC Document ED212931, 1982. Smith, Walter S . , e t a l . , Counseling Women f o r N on tr ad it io n al C a r e e r s , ERIC Document ED150533, 1977.. Speare, K at h er i n e, "The P a t t e r n s of Role Model I n f lu en c e on Women's Career Development," Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Northwestern U n i v e r s i t y , 1978. Spokane, Arnold, "A Review o f Research on Person-Environment Congruence in H o ll a n d 's Theory o f C a r e e r s , " Journal of Vocational Behavior, no. 26 (1985): pp. 306-343. S t a l l a r d , Karin; Eh r en re ic h, Barbara; S k l a r , Holly, Poverty in the American Dream: Women and Children F i r s t . Boston: South Eni P r e s s , 1984. Super, Donald, and O v e r s t r e e t , Phoebe, Vocational Matu ri ty of 9th Grade Boys, Career P a t t e r n s Monograph 2^ Columbia U ni v er s it y Teachers C ol le g e, New York: Bureau o f P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1960. Super, Donald e t a l . , Career Development: S e l f Concept Theory. Columbia U n i v e r s i t y Teachers Col le ge, New York: Bureau of P u b l i c a t i o n s , 1963. Ta ng ri , Sandra Schwartz, "Determinants of Occupational Role Innovation Among College Women", In Women and Achievement, pp. 255-258. Edited by Martha Mednick, Sandra""5chwartz Ta n gr i, and Lois Hoffman. New York: John Wiley and so n s, 1975. Thomas, Hoi l i e B. e t a l . , "Overcoming P er s o n al - S o ci a l B a r r i e r s to Entry i n t o N o n t r a d i t i o n a l Occupations: A Review," Psychology o f Women, Q u a r t e r l y , v o l. 4 (2) (Wint er, 1979): pp. 221-240. Turnbow, Sandra P ar k s , "The E f f e c t i v e n e s s o f Guidance Based Career Exp lo rat or y Programs Related t o S k i l l e d Trades Occupations f o r I n t e r n a l Locus of Control Females," Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , Oregon S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1982. T y l e r , Leona, "The R e l a t i o n s h i p o f I n t e r e s t s t o A b i l i t i e s and Reputation Among F i r s t Grade C h il d r e n ," Educational and Psychological Measurement (1951): pp. 255-264. United S t a t e s Department of Commerce, Bureau of th e Census P u b l i c a t i o n , "What I t ' s Worth! Educational Background and Economic S t a t u s , Spring 1984", Issued S e p t . , 1987. 101 United S t a t e s Department of Labor, Bureau o f Census P u b l i c a t i o n , "Earnings in 1983 o f Husbands and Wives", 1983. United S t a t e s Department of Labor, Women's Bureau, "Time of Change: 1983 Handbook o f Women Workers", B u l l e t i n No. 298, 1983. Veres, Helen, and Moore, Kathryn, Career Inno vati ve and Noninnovative Women in th e Two Year College: I m p l ic a t io n s f o r Counselinq, E r i c ”Document“ EDl7?9T8, 1979.. Walker, A lice A . , I n f lu e n c e s o f Female Role Models on Career Related A t t i t u d e s , ERIC Document ED212957, 1981. Walshok.Mary L . , N o n tr a d it io n a l Blue C o l l a r Work Among Urban Women, ERIC Document ED124854, 1975. Weishaar, M a r jo r ie , e t a l . , "Primary I n f l u e n c e r s o f I n i t i a l Vocational Choices f o r College Women," Journal o f Vocational Behavior, v ol . 18, no. 1 (Feb. 1981): pp. 67-7ST Williams, Sue Winkle, and McCullers, John C., "Personal Fact ors Related t o Typical ness o f Career and Success in Active P r o f e s s i o n a l Women," Psychology o f Women Q u a r t e r l y , v o l. 7, no. 4 (Summer, 1975): pp. 343-357. Wilson, Marian L . , "Career and Familial A t t i t u d e s o f College Women Enrol led in Typical and Atypical Programs," Career Education Q u a r t e r l y , v o l . 3, no. 2 ( S pr in g, 1978): pp. 36-43. Wolfe, Linda K., and Bet z, Nancy E . , " T r a d i t i o n a l i t y o f Choice and Sex-Role I d e n t i f i c a t i o n as Moderators o f Occupational Choice in College Women," Journal o f Vocational Behavior, v o l . 18, ( F e b . , 1981): pp. 42-55. Zuckerman, Diane, "Family Background, Sex-Role A t t i t u d e s , and L if e Goals of Technical College and u n i v e r s i t y S tu d e n t s , " Sex R o le s , vul 7, no. I l l (1987): pp. 1109-1125. APPENDIX A STUDENT LETTER November 16, 1987 Dear Women Students o f Lansing Community College: I b et th e l a s t th i n g you want to do today i s complete a couple of s ur vey s, but I ' d r e a l l y a p p r e c i a t e i t i f you would read on. I am doing a study t o l e a r n more about how women in community c o l le g e s make c a r e e r choi ces . I am a do ct o ra l s t u d e n t a t MSU but used to work a t a community c o l le g e in Michigan. I am re q u e s ti n g your help with t h i s s tu d y. Your p a r t i c i p a t i o n i s important t o help me develop some i n s i g h t i n t o how community c o l le g e women l i k e y o u r s e l f s e l e c t e d th e f i e l d o f study and work t h a t they did. The enclosed q u e s t i o n n a i r e s should take about 20-30 minutes to complete and may even be r a t h e r enjo yab le f o r you. I have spoken with Ms. Andrea Lindsay a t your c o l l e g e about my study so she may be ab le to answer some o f your q u e s t i o n s . I t would be g r e a t i f you would complete t h e s e surveys and r e t u r n them by as soon as p o s s i b l e t o t h e person d e s ig na t ed a t your c o l l e g e . However, y our p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h i s study i s completely vo lu n t a r y and t h e r e is no p en al ty f o r choosing not t o p a r t i c i p a t e in th e study. All responses w il l be t r e a t e d c o n f i d e n t i a l l y and your p a r t i c i p a t i o n w ill be anonymous. Your comments and r e a c t i o n s t o th e survey ar e welcome as w e ll . Thanks so much f o r your i n t e r e s t in t h e s tu dy . difference. Your response w il l make a Best wishes f o r your continued study a t Lansing Community College. Mary C. Murphy, Doctoral Student Di Unn iv e r s it y Michigan S t a t e U 102 103 THIS IS THE COVER This packet co nt ain s two s h o r t surveys: 1. The Bern Inventory measures sex r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n , i e . whether has a feminine, masculine, o r androgenous o r i e n t a t i o n . a person 2. The T r a d i t i o n a l 1 t y of Career Choice Questionnaire measures background information regardi ng c a r e e r choice. DIRECTIONS: 1. For the Bern Inventory p le a s e leave th e Biographical S ection blank accept f o r "age". This i s t o i n s u r e your anonymity. Then, follow th e d i r e c t i o n s provided f o r th e completion o f t h i s instrument. 2. For the T r a d i t i o n a l I t y o f Career Choice Qu estionnaire t h e r e are s l i g h t l y d i f f e r e n t d i r e c t i o n s f o r some items. Please read the d i r e c t i o n s carefully. 3. There Is no time l i m i t , bu t 1t has g e n e r a ll y taken women 20-30 minutes to complete t h e surveys. There a r e no r i g h t or wrong answers, and th e f i r s t th in g t h a t comes to mind 1s l i k e l y t o be th e most a cc u ra te . 4. You may use e i t h e r pen o r p e n c i l . 5. I f you a r e i n t e r e s t e d in knowing th e general r e s u l t s of t h i s study a copy w il l be s e n t to your c o l l e g e . Again, thanks f o r your help. APPENDIX B BEMS SEX ROLE INVENTORY PLEASE NOTE: Copyrighted materials in this docum ent have not been filmed at the request of th e author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author’s university library. T hese consist of pages: 104-105 106 UMI APPENDIX C BSRI TABLES APPENDIX D THE TRADITIONAL NATURE OF CAREER CHOICE QUESTIONNAIRE THE TRADITIONAL NATURE OF CAREER CHOICE QUESTIONNAIRE Please follo w d i r e c t i o n s f o r each item or s e c t i o n as i n d i c a t e d , and p le ase respond t o every q u e s ti o n . 1. What kind o f job do you expect t o have when you f i n i s h your community c o l l e g e program? 2. What i s your major a t the community c o l l e g e ? 3. (For t h i s q u es ti o n p l e a s e check a l l t h a t apply) Why ar e you e n r o l l e d in t h i s major? I need to work. I b e l ie v e d I could earn more money than in o t h e r majors. I t i s conv eni ent f o r my c u r r e n t l i f e / f a m i l y s i t u a t i o n . I am i n t e r e s t e d in t h i s major. Other (P le a s e s p e c i f y ) ________________________________ 4. Have you ev er co ns id er e d o t h e r majors o r c a r e e r s ? yes no I f y e s , what were t h e y ? __________________________________________] Why did you r e j e c t them? FOR QUESTIONS 5 TO 8 CHOOSE ONE BEST ANSWER 5. What i s your p o s i t i o n in your family? Old es t c h i l d Middle c h i l d Youngest c h i l d Only c h i l d 6. When you were in grade s c h o o l, were you Living with both pa re n ts Living with my mother who was a s io n g l e pa re n t Living with my f a t h e r who was a s i n g l e pa re n t Living with an o t h er female r e l a t i v e Living with an ot h er male r e l a t i v e Other ( P le a s e s p e c i f y ) _______________________________ 7. I f you had s i b l i n g s , were they? Only b r o th e r s Only s i s t e r s Both b r o t h e r s and s i s t e r s None Other ( P le as e s p e c i f y ) ___ 107 108 8. Your m o t h e r ' s o c c up a tio n was________________________________________ _ 9. Your f a t h e r ' s occ u pa tio n was_________________________________________ _ 10. When you were in gr ade s c h o o l, what d id you want to be when you grew uo? FOR QUESTIONS 11-15 CHOOSE THE ONE BEST ANSWER. 11. Your f a t h e r ' s e d u c a ti o n a l l e v e l i s : Less th an a high school diploma High school diploma Vocational t r a i n i n g beyond high school Some c o l l e g e Co llege de gre e 12. When you were in gr ad e s c h o o l , how would you d e s c r i b e yo u r f a m i l y ' s socioeconomic s t a t u s ? Upper c l a s s Upper middle c l a s s Middle c l a s s _____ Lower middle c l a s s Lower c l a s s Don't know 13. Your m o t h e r ' d e d u c a t i o n a l l e v e l i s : Less th a n a high school diploma High school diploma Vocational t r a i n i n g beyond high school Some c o l l e g e C oll ege de gr ee 14. When you were in gr ad e s c h o o l , what kinds o f household t a s k s were a s s ig n e d t o you? Tasks l i k e c l e a n i n g house, coo king, washing, ir o n i n g Tasks l i k e b u i l d i n g t h i n g s , f i x i n g t h i n g s , l i f t i n g th i n g s A combination o f t h e two items above. Oth er ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ______________________________________ 14a. 15. Did t h e s e t a s k s change when you were In high scho ol: Yes No I f y e s , p l e a s e e x p l a i n ____________________ When you were in grade school, what kinds o f games/toys did you prefer? Guns, trucks, action games D o lls, playing house, board games Combination o f the two previous items Other (Please sp e cify )___________________________________ 109 FOR ITEMS 16-18 PLEASE CHECK ALL THAT APPLY 16 Did anyone in y o u r fa m i ly have any i n f l u e n c e on y o u r c a r e e r choi ce? Mother F a th e r Other male r e l a t i v e O ther female r e l a t i v e None Other ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) __________________________________________ 17. When you were in high s c h o o l , what were your f a v o r i t e c l a s s e s ? Math and s c i e n c e E n gl is h and s o c i a l s c i e n c e Tech nica l c l a s s e s (sh op , e l e c t r o n i c s , e t c . ) Home economi cs The a r t s ( ban d, c h o i r , drama, a r t ) C l e r i c a l and b u s i n e s s Other (P lease sp e cify ) 18. When you were in high s c h o o l , what were y o u r f a v o r i t e extracurricular a c tiv itie s? Sports p a r t i c i p a n t Sports observer Drama Band/Choir School c l u b s ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) __________________________________ Church a c t i v i t i e s D idn't re a lly p a r tic ip a te Othe r ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) __________________________________________ 19. When d id you make t h e d e c i s i o n abo ut y o u r c u r r e n t c a r e e r program? Before high school During my freshman o r sophomore y e a r During my j u n i o r o r s e n i o r y e a r A f t e r high school FOR ITEMS 20-21 PLEASE CHECK ALL THAT APPLY. 20. Who, o u t s i d e y o u r f a m i l y , had th e g r e a e s t i n f l u e n c e on yo ur c a r e e r cho ic e? Male t e a c h e r : S u b j e c t t a u g h t ______________________________ Female teacher: Subject taught Male counselor Female counselor Male friend Female friend Other ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y : _______________________________________ 21. What, i f any, o t h e r f a c t o r s i n f l u e n c e d your c a r e e r choi ce? P r e v io u s p a r t time o r f u l l time work e x p e r i e n c e School gui da nce a c t i v i t i e s T e l e v i s i o n , movi es, mag azi ne s, e t c . None o f t h e above Other ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) 110 22. What i s your e t h n i c background? Black Native American White Asian P a c i f i c American o r Asian P a c i f i c I s l a n d e r Hispanic Other ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) ____________________________ 23. What i s your r e l i g i o u s background? Jewish Roman C a t h o li c Protestant Other ( P l e a s e s p e c i f y ) 24. What i s your l i f e s t y l e s t a t u s ? S ing le Married Separated Divorced Wi dowed Nontraditional (Please specify) 25. Are you a p ar en t ? yes no 25a. How many c h i l d r e n ? Number o f g i r l s Number o f boys Ages_ Ages' APPENDIX E LETTER TO CONTACT PERSON December 8, 1987 Dr. Frank Marczak Dean of I n s t r u c t i o n Muskegon Community College 221 S. Q u a r t e r ! i n e Rd. Muskegon, Mi. 49442 Dear Dr. Marczak: F i r s t I w a n t t o thank you f o r your w i l l i n g n e s s to a s s i s t me with my d i s s e r t a t i o n study. Enclosed ar e 80 packets f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n to women s t u d e n t s . My p re fe re n c e would be f o r h a l f o f them t o be d i s t r i b u t e d t o women in t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s , and h a l f t o women in n o n - t r a d i t i o n a l f i e l d s , i f p o s s i b l e . I would a l s o p r e f e r t h a t a l l s u b j e c t s be in non t r a n s f e r o r vo ca ti on al te c h n i c a l programs. The i n s t r u c t i o n s should be s e l f e x p l a n a to r y . A few s u b j e c t s in th e p i l o t study were confused about t h e purpose o f th e BSRI th i n k i n g i t was measuring sexual o r i e n t a t i o n r a t h e r than sex r o l e o r i e n t a t i o n so you may g e t a few q u e s ti o n s about t h a t . I am en cl os in g a l e t t e r from the MSU Committee on Research Involving Human Sub jec ts i n d i c a t i n g t h e i r approval of th e study in case y o u ' g e t any qu e s ti o n s about i t . I f you have any qu e s ti o n s concerning th e study or th e i n s t r u c t i o n s plea se give me a c a l l . My work number i s 517-353-3780 and my home number is 517-371-2638. I r e a l i z e t h a t i t i s g e t t i n g c l o s e to th e end of th e f i r s t term so I w ill l e t you decide the b e s t time f o r d i s t r i b u t i o n of th e iristrumerits. I w i l l give you a c a l l w i t h i n th e next week or so t o hear how you have decided to handle i t . I have enclosed a stamped s e l f - a d d r e s s e d envelope f o r you t o r e t u r n the completed surveys t o me. Thanks again f o r your a s s i s t a n c e , and I hope you and your family have a wonderful hol iday season. Sincerely, M. Kate Murphy, Doctoral Student Michigan S t a t e U n iv e r s it y 111 APPENDIX F MICHIGAN IPEDS REPORT PREPARED: 12/7/87 INSTITUTION ALPENA BAY DE NOC DELTA GLEN OAKS GOGEBIC TABLE 1 1987 PALL ENROLLMENT BY FULL- AND PART-TIMB STATUS AND GENDER MICHIGAN PUBLIC COMMUNITY AND JUNIOR COLLEGES PULL-TIME STUDENTS MEN WOMEN TOTAL PART-TIME STUDENTS WOMEN MEN TOTAL TOTAL MEN TOTAL WOMEN TOTAL STUDENTS 433 456 1.577 1B7 401 472 620 1.955 225 505 905 1.076 3.532 422 706 661 295 2,654 492 441 704 713 4.252 476 319 1.385 1,008 6,906 966 760 1.114 751 4.231 669 842 1.176 1.333 6,207 701 624 2,280 2.084 10.438 1.390 1,466 GRAND RAPIDS JR. HENRY FORD HIGHLAND PARK JACKSON KALAMAZOO 2,047 1,548 312 828 1,088 1.811 1,557 BOB 674 1,004 3.858 3.105 1,221 1,702 2.083 3,677 6,496 332 2,251 2,993 3.319 5,660 684 1,635 3.965 6.996 12,156 996 4.066 6.836 5,724 6,044 644 3.079 4.062 5.130 7.217 1,573 2,709 4,969 10.654 15.261 2.217 5,768 9.051 KELLOGG KIRTLAND LAKE MICHIGAN LANSING MACOHB 885 205 322 2.580 2.780 818 259 466 2.635 ‘ 2,746 1,403 464 780 a. 216 5.536 1.343 224 1,044 6.980 12,330 2,530 335 1,371 6,695 13.773 3,873 669 2.415 15.875 26.605 1.928 429 1.366 9.560 15.620 3,349 594 1.639 11.830 16,621 5,276 1,023 3,205 21,080 32.141 MID MICHIGAN MONROE MONTCALM MOTT MUSKEGON 267 425 231 1,055 607 423 527 313 1,342 664 690 652 644 2,387 1.331 443 651 904 3,316 1,558 779 1,316 •45 4.602 2,041 1.222 2.16S 1.649 6.116 3,599 710 1.276 1,135 4.371 2.225 1.202 1,645 958 6.144 2,705 1.912 3.121 2.093 10,616 4,930 NORTH CENTRAL NORTHWESTERN OAKLAND ST. CLAIR SCHOOLCRAFT 163 ; 640 2.586 567 974 366 646 2,764 760 961 531 1.666 5,350 1.347 1,935 336 777 6,403 931 2,744 763 1.349 12.496 1,629 3,856 1.086 2,126 20,801 2,560 6,602 499 1.617 10,969 1,486 3,716 1,131 2,193 13.262 2.409 4.819 1,630 3.612 26.251 3.907 6,337 SOUTHWESTERN WASHTENAW WAYNE WEST SHORE 321 721 731 196 741 767 1,411 216 1,262 1.506 2.142 412 469 2.776 2.726 239 737 3,390 6,424 466 1.206 6,166 9.152 725 990 3,487 3,459 435 1.476 4.177 7,635 702 2.468 7.674 11.294 1,137 26.314 28,801 54,115 69,206 89,532 156.740 94,522 116.353 212,655 TOTALS source: ** 1987 I.P.E.D.S. FALL ENROLLMENT REPORTS The nuaber of full-time students enrolled at community colleges increased 2.4* to 54,115 in fell of 1987, while the part time student enrollment Increased 1.2* to 158,740 students. Part-time students comprise 74.6* of the total community college enrollment this fell, down just slightly from 1986 (74.8*1. Eighteen colleges recorded Increased for full-time students and 19 reported increases in part-time students. The number of men enrolled at community colleges decreased by 1.4* to 94.522. A 1.6* increase in female enrollment means that women continue to outnumber men, with 118,333 female students enrolled in fall of 1987 (55.6(1. APPENDIX G SUMMARY OF CAREER DATA FROM MICHIGAN VEDS REPORT Women E nr ol led in O cc u p a t io n a l ly S p e c i f i c Programs in Michigan Post Secondary Scho ols, F a l l , 1987. (Source: Post Secondary VEDS Report, Michigan Department o f Educ at ion , Research Eval uat io n and Assessment Services, 3/23/88). PROGRAM SCHOOLS I n t e r i o r design Landscape a r c h i t e c t u r e Business management Accounting Business a d m i n i s t r a t i o n Business d a t a pr o c e s s in g Secretarial Court r e p o r t e r Executive s e c r e t a r y Legal s e c r e t a r y Medical s e c r e t a r y Word p r o c e s s o r Fashion merchandise Computer programming Data p r oc es s in g Cosmetology E lectronics/Electricity Mechanical e n g i n e e r in g A r c h i t e c t u r a l design D ra ft in g design E l e c t r o n i c technology Robotics technology Welding technology Auto technology Machine des ign technology Dental a s s i s t a n t Dental hygiene R e s p i r a t o r y th e ra py Mental h e a l t h Medical re co r ds technology Nursing Chef/cook Metalurgy technology Law e n f o r c e m e n t / c o r r e c t i o n s Social work Carpentry Computer e l e c t r o n i c s Auto body r e p a i r Auto mechanic G r a p h i c s / p r i n t communication Cummercial a r t Foundry work Machine tool o p e r a t o r Graphic a r t s technology 4 1 13 5 18 12 19 5 12 16 18 16 6 9 4 7 1 2 11 24 26 2 21 18 9 12 9 R 2 5 :.3 3 4 11 5 1 1 9 22 2 9 1 22 3 MEN ENROLLED 23 95 1490 744 3579 1029 36 10 8 12 227 54 33 2842 209 7 16 70 708 1449 5100 134 1116 1653 702 4 6 7F> 20 6 455 230 127 3695 77 56 70 292 1773 8 734 42 1070 48 113 WOMEN ENROLLED 167 54 2388 1935 3835 1524 1622 323 1199 920 1989 1829 482 3528 344 284 4 1 188 344 483 8 45 109 88 390 598 ?OQ 117 217 6404 137 29 1615 401 2 16 9 97 19 1511 3 55 65 % WOMEN 88 27 61 72 52 60 98 97 99 99 90 97 93 55 62 97 20 1 21 62 8 6 4 6 11 99 99 73 85 93 93 37 18 30 84 3 19 3 5 70 67 6 5 57