IN F O R M A T IO N T O U S E R S
T h e m o s t a d v a n c e d te c h n o lo g y ha s be en u se d to p h o to ­
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p r in t b le e d th ro u g h , s u b s ta n d a rd m a rg in s , a n d im p ro p e r
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O rd e r N u m b e r 8 9 2 3 8 4 6

A n id en tifica tio n o f th e in cen tiv es th a t m o tiv a te M ich igan
in d u stria l a rts tea ch ers to p a r tic ip a te in p ro fessio n a l-g ro w th
a c tiv itie s
Ellis, Alberta J., Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1989

UMI

300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, M I 48106

AN IDENTIFICATION OF THE INCENTIVES THAT MOTIVATE
MICHIGAN INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHERS TO PARTICIPATE
IN PROFESSIONAL-GROWTH ACTIVITIES

By
Alberta E l l i s

A DISSERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in p a r t ia l f u l f i l l m e n t o f the requirements
fo r the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Department of Teacher Education
1989

ABSTRACT
AN IDENTIFICATION OF THE INCENTIVES THAT MOTIVATE
MICHIGAN INDUSTRIAL ARTS TEACHERS TO PARTICIPATE
IN PROFESSIONAL-GROWTH ACTIVITIES
By
Alberta E l l i s

The purpose o f th is

research was to

would motivate Michigan in d u s tria l
professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .

id e n t if y

incentives

th a t

arts teachers to p a r tic ip a te

A general

problem e x is ts

in

in th a t

teachers employed with continuing c e r t i f ic a t e s in Michigan have not
u n til now been required to renew t h e i r c e r t i f i c a t e s or show evidence
of continued professional
th is

study was the

growth.

current

trend

A re la te d
of

problem addressed in

t r a d it io n a l

in d u s tria l

arts

programs being replaced by technology education programs re quirin g a
commitment to s t a f f development by in structors being a ffected by the
change.
A survey

instrument was developed

and sent

to

a s tra tifie d

random sample o f 405 drawn from the population of 2,243 in d u s tria l
arts teachers in Michigan.
frequency
a c tiv itie s

of

th e ir
d u rin g

p a r t ic ip a t in g .

The subjects were asked to in d ic a te the

p a r tic ip a tio n
th e

past

2

in

16

y e ars

professional-development
and

th e ir

reasons

fo r

They were asked to in dicate which incentives were

a v a ila b le to them and the importance o f the incentives.

They were

A lberta E l l i s
also asked to indicate t h e i r degree o f

in te r e s t

in

a v a r ie ty

of

approaches f o r technological updating.
The 264 respondents p a r t i c i p a t e d

in

re a d in g

p r o f e s s io n a l

jo u rn a ls , informal teacher/colleague dialogue groups, and attending
meetings as members of d i s t r i c t professional education committees as
t h e ir most frequent professional-development a c t i v i t i e s .
The

s u b je c ts

professional

most

success

f r e q u e n t ly

as

the

development a c t i v i t i e s .

workshops,

fo r

The preferred

updating was p a r tic ip a tio n
attending

reason

s e le c te d

in

personal

p a r tic ip a tin g

approach fo r

or

seminars.

industry-based programs over lo c a lly designed ones.
were of

in te re s t to 60% of the subjects.

in

s ta ff-

technological

industry observations,

conferences,

c h o ic e /

f o l 1owed by

They

preferred

A ll

approaches

The preferred

time fo r

professional development was during the school day.
Seventy

p e rc en t

of

the

d is tric ts

reimbursement fo r workshop fees,

but the

r e p re s e n te d
preferred

prov id ed

in centive

was

advancement on the salary scale fo r the accumulation o f continuing
education un its .

The preferred incentives were monetary.

A s ig n ific a n t

re la tio n s h ip

was

workshops and nonmonetary incentives.
found

between

two

of

th e

found

between

a tt e n d in g

A s ig n if ic a n t c o rre la tio n was

in c e n tiv e s ,

p o te n tia l

to

become

a

department head or teacher coordinator and a decision-making voice
lo c a lly ,

and re sp o n d e n ts ’ p a r t i c i p a t i o n

a c tiv itie s .

in p r o f e s s io n a l- g r o w t h

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The completion of a doctoral d is s e rta tio n

is

one’ s perseverance and commitment to a goal.

a r e fle c t io n

of

Achievement o f the

goal would be impossible without the support o f fa m ily , professional
colleagues, and frie n d s .
Special appreciation is extended to Dr. George W. Ferns fo r his
d i 1 ig e n t

guidance,

a d v ic e ,

d is s e rta tio n chairman.
committee members:
John

H.

Suehr,

and

support

as

th e

committee

and

I wish to acknowledge the c ontrib ution of my

Dr. Charles A. Blackman, Dr. Rex E. Ray, and Dr.
who o f f e r e d

th ei r

e x p e r t i se

in

th e

re search

Ernest A.

Bauer fo r

development and completion of the d is s e r ta tio n .
Sincere appreciation
his

patience

and

is expressed to Dr.

encouragement

while

assisting

through the design and analysis of the study.
to

Susan Cooley fo r

e d ito r,

ty p i s t,

and

her

professional

advi sor

in

and

and

me

A special thank-you

q u a lity

p r e p a r i ng

guiding

assistance

th e

as

di s s e r t a t i o n

manuscript.
Deep appreciation is extended to my professional colleague and
dear fr ie n d , Sharon, who shared several years o f research time and
tru ly

understood the demands and support required

goal while working toward the same end.

to

achieve the

Other close frie n d s , Conrad

and Sandra, who offered t h e i r assistance and personal support along
the way, contributed to making the goal a tta in a b le .

I am deeply indebted to my husband, Jack, fo r the investment of
time and energy, patience, understanding, and support, without which
th is degree and research could not have been completed.

A special

thank-you to my daughter, K atie, who grew up with a mother always
engaged in school work, but was understanding and supportive.

To my

parents, a thank-you fo r t h e i r in te r e s t and encouragement along the
way.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF T A B L E S .............................................................................................

ix

LIST OF FIGURES.............................................................................................

x ii

Chapter
I.

II.

INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY.......................................................

1

Introduction ............................................................................
Background o f the Problem ..................................................
Statement of the Problem .
..........................................
Purpose of the S t u d y ...........................................................
Importance of the S t u d y .......................................................
Theory and Supportive Research ......................................
Research Questions ...............................................................
Research Methodology ...........................................................
Assumptions................................................................................
L i m i t a t i o n s ................................................................................
D e fin itio n s o f Terms ...........................................................
O v e r v i e w ....................................................................................

1
4
8
10
11
12
15
16
17
17
18
20

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH .....................

22

Introduction ............................................................................
Inservice Education fo r Teachers ..................................
The Status of Inservice Education ..............................
Teachers’ Perceptions o f Staff-Development
P r a c t i c e s ............................................................................
E ffe c tiv e Staff-Development Practices .....................
Recommendations f o r Improving S t a ff Development .
Motivation and M otivational Theories .........................
E x trin s ic and In t r i n s ic Motivation .........................
Motivation and S t a f f Development ..............................
I n c e n t i v e s ................................................................................
Adult Learning and S t a f f Development .........................
The Current Status o f In d u s tria l Arts and
Technology Education .......................................................
Summary........................................................................................

22
23
23

vi

27
30
36
43
55
57
59
68
79
86

Page
III.

................................................................

89

Introduction ............................................................................
Design of the S t u d y ...............................................................
Population and Sample ...........................................................
Research Questions ...............................................................
Instrumentation .......................................................................
Data-Gathering Procedures ..................................................
Data-Analysis Procedures ...................................................
Summary........................................................................................

89
89
89
92
93
96
97
100

RESULTS OF THE DATA A N A L Y S IS ................................................

101

Introduction ............................................................................
R e s u l t s ........................................................................................
Summary........................................................................................

101
102
139

SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS .

142

Summary........................................................................................
P r o c e d u r e s ............................................................................
P r o file of Respondents ..................................................
F i n d i n g s ....................................................................................
C o n c lu sio n s ................................................................................
Recommendations .......................................................................

142
143
143
144
151
155

A.

REGIONAL MAP--MICHIGAN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SOCIETY .

158

B.

LETTER SENT TO CAREER EDUCATION PLANNINGDISTRICT
(CEPD) VOCATIONAL-TECHNICAL SPECIALISTS ..........................

159

C.

MICHIGAN CAREER EDUCATION PLANNING DISTRICTS

160

D.

PILOT COVER LETTER AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT

......................

161

E.

FINAL COVER LETTER AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT

......................

166

F.

CORRESPONDENCE WITH MICHIGAN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
SOCIETY PRESIDENT ........................................................................

171

IV.

V.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

APPENDICES

G. FOLLOW-UP CORRESPONDENCE

. . . .

........................................................

173

H. CORRESPONDENCE FROM UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON
RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS) .................

175

v ii

Page
I.

TABLES SHOWING FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION IN
PROFESSIONAL-DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES ..................................

176

J.

INDIVIDUAL COMMENTS TO RESEARCH QUESTION 5

187

K.

SUMMARY OF OTHER INCENTIVES FROM SURVEY RESPONDENTS .

189

REFERENCES.....................................................................................................

190

viii

LIST OF TABLES
Page
D is trib u tio n of Surveys to In d u s tria l Arts
Teachers in the 18 MIES Regions ......................................

92

Survey Response, by Michigan In d u s tria l Education
Society Region ............................................................................

102

Summary of P a rtic ip a tio n in Professional-Development
A c t i v it ie s ....................................................................................

104

Frequency of P a rtic ip a tio n and N onparticipation in
Professional-Development A c t i v it ie s
..............................

106

Reasons fo r P a rtic ip a tin g in Professional-Development
A c t iv it ie s ....................................................................................

107

Participants in Vocational Education Personnel
Development Project Workshops Between 1985 and
1987 .................................................................................................

111

Percentage of Respondents In dicating Various Degrees
o f In te re s t in Selected Approaches to Technological
Updating ........................................................................................

115

In te re s t Versus Lack o f In te re s t in S pecific
Approaches to Technological Updating ..............................

116

Times at Which Respondents Preferred to P a r tic ip a te
in Professional-Development A c t i v it ie s ..........................

117

Percentage o f Respondents In dicating Importance of
Each Incentive, Rank Ordered by the Mean .....................

119

Percentage o f Respondents In dicating Certain
Incentives Are Provided by Their School D is t r i c t s

.

120

P a rtic ip a tio n in Workshops .......................................................

123

P a rtic ip a tio n in Group Presentations ..................................

123

P a rtic ip a tio n in Coursework

124

ix

...................................................

Page
4.14

P a rtic ip a tio n in Other Professional-Development
A c t i v i t i e s ....................................................................................

124

Total P a rtic ip a tio n in 16 Professional-Development
A c t i v i t i e s ....................................................................................

125

4.16

Sum o f Monetary Incentives Provided by D is t r i c t s . . .

126

4.17

Sum o f Nonmonetary Incentives Provided by D is t r i c t s

127

4.18

Sum o f Monetary and Nonmonetary Incentives Provided
by D i s t r i c t s ................................................................................

128

Results of Pearson Correlation Between Five Cate­
gories o f Frequency o f P a rtic ip a tio n in
Professional-Growth A c t i v it ie s and Three Cate­
gories of Incentives Provided by D is t r ic t s .................

129

Results of Pearson C orrelation Between 16
Professional-Growth A c t i v it ie s and Nonmonetary
Versus Monetary Incentives ...................................................

130

Results of Pearson Correlation Between 11 Incentives
and P a rtic ip a tio n in Professional-Growth
A c t i v i t i e s ....................................................................................

133

Results of Cross-Tabulation Between Importance of
Extended Released Time From Classroom or Sabbatical
Status and Respondents’ Age Group ..................................

135

Results of Cross-Tabulation Between Importance of
Released Time to Work on Independent S t a f f Development Projects and Respondents’ Level of
E d u c a t i o n ....................................................................................

136

Results of Cross-Tabulation Between Importance of
Extended Released Time From Classroom or Sabbatical
Status and Respondents’ Secondary Employment . . . .

137

Results o f Cross-Tabulation Between Importance of
B uilding- or D is tr ic t-L e v e l Recognition and
Respondents’ Secondary Employment ......................................

138

Results o f Cross-Tabulation Between Importance of
Having a Decision-Making Voice Locally and
Respondents’ Secondary Employment ......................................

138

4.15

4.19

4.20

4.21

4.22

4.23

4.24

4.25

4.26

x

.

Page
Results of Cross-Tabulation Between Importance of
Advancement on Salary Schedule fo r Accumulation of
Continuing Education Units and Size of Respondents’
School D is t r ic t s .......................................................................

139

P a rtic ip a tio n in Local D i s t r i c t Workshop .........................

176

P a rtic ip a tio n in Intermediate, State Department, or
University-Sponsored Workshop . . ..................................

177

P a rtic ip a tio n in a Workshop Sponsored by the Voca­
tio n a l Education Personnel Development Project . . .

177

Making a Presentation at a Local D i s t r i c t Workshop . .

178

Making a Presentation at a Regional, Statewide, or
National Convention ...............................................................

178

Enrolling in a Community College or U niv e rsity C redit
Course Related to C e r t if ic a t io n or Advanced Degree .

179

Enrolling in a Community College or U niversity
Noncredit Course fo r Pleasure ..........................................

179

Enrolling in a Technical Education C redit or
Noncredit Course ........................................................................

180

Attendance at a S ta te , Regional, or National Con­
vention ........................................................................................

180

Reading of Professional Journals ..........................................

181

Observations of Other Teachers Teaching

182

.........................

Number of Meetings Attended as a Member o f a D i s t r i c t
or Building Professional Education Committee . . . .

183

Number o f Meetings Attended as a Member o f a State or
National Task Force ...................................... .....................

184

P a rtic ip a tio n in an Informal Teacher/Colleague
Dialogue Group Within a Building or D i s t r i c t . . . .

185

Writing or Co-authoring Student Textbooks or Journal
A rtic le s ........................................................................................

186

Membership in Professional Education Organizations . .

186

xi

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure

Page

2.1

Systems Approach to Planning Inservice Education . . .

37

2.2

Comparison o f Motivational Models, Arranged
H ie ra rc h ic a lly ............................................................................

50

2.3

Teacher-Motivation Policy Strategies ...................................

62

2.3

In d u s tria l Arts Curriculum in Relation to aFrame­
work o f Educational Thought ..............................................

80

Design of the S t u d y ....................................................................

90

3.1

x ii

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
Inservice education is not a new term or a new phenomenon to
educators.

It

can

be traced

back to

the

1850s,

when

teachers

received t h e i r basic in stru c tio n from laymen in the community,
to

the

e a rly

1900s,

when programs were geared

obtain college degrees.

to

help

and

teachers

"The Great Depression brought new problems

to the schools and added new tasks fo r inservice education" (T y le r,
1971,

p.

14 ).

The Eight-Year Study th a t

began

in

1933 prompted

colleges and u n iv e r s itie s by 1939 to become involved in preservice
and inservice education focusing on new educational programs of the
schools.
Recent
continual
1971,

p.

personnel

d e fin itio n s

updating
211)

to

of

the

of

of the

inservice

education

p r a c titio n e r

"any planned learning
local

d is tric t

or

in

range

the classroom"

opportunities

other

authorized

purposes of improving the performance o f such personnel
held

or

assigned

p o s it io n s "

(H a rris ,

from

1980,

p.

"the

(Meade,

provided

to

agency

fo r

in already

38 3),

to

"th e

continuing education o f a person who has previously developed the
basic

competencies

required

fo r

entry

into

a

position

teaching team" ( H i l l , c ite d in Evans & Terry, 1971, p. 73).

1

on

the

2
Inservice education of teachers is often re fe rre d to as s t a f f
development, continuing education, and professional development.

It

is defined as "any professional development a c t i v i t y th a t a teacher
undertakes, singly or with other teachers,
in itia l

te a c h in g c e r t i f i c a t e

p r a c t ic e "

(E d e lfe lt,

and a f t e r

p.

1977,

a f t e r receiving h is /h e r

Ill).

be ginning p r o f e s s io n a l
H unter

(1 9 8 8 )

made

the

f o l lo w in g d i s t i n c t i o n between s t a f f development and i n s e r v i c e :
" S ta f f

development:

effectiveness;
tio n

a t o ta l

Inservice:

program fo r

enhancing

professional

in structio n designed to supply informa­

and develop s k i l l s

th a t can be tran s la ted

into

professional

practice" (p. 3 3 ).
S t a f f development, or inservice education, has come qu ite a way
since 1975.

During th is period, ten times as much research on s t a f f

development was conducted as in a ll

preceding years

(Joyce,

1987).

Educators studying inservice education agree th a t there is a need to
reth in k and reconceptualize inservice education.
c ritic a l

Teachers have been

o f the d e f i c i t model used to develop programs to

them without

th e ir

input

and without

s e n s it iv it y

to

the

improve
unique

c h a ra c te ris tic s of the adult learner.
The implementation o f

any

amount o f s t a f f development.
advancements are

being

Technology

ra p id ly

is

innovation

requires

This is very evident as technological

infused

into

a ffe c tin g

the
th e

educational

reports,

environment.

w o rk p la c e ,

business/industry and the education community.
o f sta te and national

a substantial

the educational

both

in

Through a wide array
community has been

given a mandate to educate and/or t r a i n a diverse population in an

3

e v e r-c h a n g in g ,

complex

( Z a n a r d e lli, 1984).

world

of

s o p h is t ic a t e d

te c h n o lo g y

"All reforms, a l l e f f o r t s to cope with r e a l i t y ,

a ll e f f o r t s to fo llo w new visions are h eavily dependent on continued
professional

growth"

(Rubin,

Study (c ite d in McLaughlin,

1987,

p.

1).

The Rand Change Agent

1978) emphasized t h a t "local

d is tric ts

can no longer r e ly on ’ new h ir e s ’ to bring fresh ideas into d i s t r i c t
classrooms and must face the problem of how to upgrade the s k i l l s of
the teachers they already have" (p. 70).
The t r a n s itio n from an in d u s tria l

age to the information

age,

with vast and rapid technological advancements, has brought with i t
d i s t i n c t problems f o r a s p e c ific group o f teachers,
in the f i e l d of in d u s tr ia l a r ts .
schools,

those teaching

With a smaller pool o f students in

increased academic course requirements,

and fewer do llars

to support education, teaching the current processes o f industry is
not a simple task.

Many in d u s tria l

arts teaching la b o ra to rie s are

reported to be the same as they were 20 years ago, y e t industry has
undergone a massive transformation from la b o r-in te n s iv e

production

to the use of high technology with fewer prod uction-line employees.
There

is

a recognized

need

fo r

technological

updating

and other

professional-development a c t i v i t i e s f o r in d u s tria l a rts teachers.
In d u s tria l a r t s , l i k e many other f ie ld s of study, i s in
t r a n s it io n because o f many changes in i t s environment.
Some
observe th a t declines in the number o f teachers and students,
differences between what is taught in school and what e x is ts in
in d u s t r y and te c h n o lo g y , and p u b lic c h a lle n g e s to th e
importance o f in d u s tr ia l arts are signs t h a t the f i e l d is not
functioning as well as i t should. (B jo rk q u is t, 1986, p. 38)

4
Suggestions fo r reform,
sta ffs ,

the influence of technology, maturing

new relevant research on teaching and learn in g ,

development

a ll

contribute

to

the

problem

e s p e c ia lly supervisors and adm inistrators.
attempts

to

encourage

provide

s ta ff

a c tiv itie s ,

to

staff-development
p a rtic ip a te

have been dismal.

w i l l in g ly p a r t ic ip a t e

in

if

by

educators,

The re s u lts o f numerous

a c tiv itie s

o ff-s ite

lo c a l ly

or

to

s ta ff-d e v e lo p m e n t

Of an average s t a f f ,

10% to

in s ta ff-d e v e lo p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s ,

another 10% to 15% may never p a r tic ip a te .
may p a r tic ip a te

faced

and s t a f f

15%

whereas

The m a jo rity , 70% to 80%,

incentives are provided and the a c t i v i t i e s

are

relevan t to t h e i r perceived needs (Juntune, 1985).
Even though business and industry often a llo c a te large sums of
money, professional s t a f f , and other resources fo r employee-training
programs,

a recent study indicated th a t only 38% o f the employees

p a rtic ip a te d

in

some form of

Corporation, 1986).
o f education as well
g re a ter

tra in in g

in

1985

(Opinion

Research

There is a need to fin d solutions f o r the f i e l d
as industry to motivate employees to assume a

r e s p o n s ib ility

fo r

th e ir

own

professional

growth.

The

present research was undertaken in an attempt to shed some 1ight on
th is to p ic .
Background of the Problem
The teaching profession is not regulated by a set o f national
s ta n d a rd s .
c e rtific a tio n .
c e rtific a te s :

However,

each

s ta te

has

standards

fo r

te a c h e r

The standards in Michigan include two basic types of
the

in itia l

or

Provisional

C e r t if i c a t e

and

the

5
C ontin uin g C e r t i f i c a t e .

The re quirem en ts f o r

the P r o v is io n a l

C e r t if i c a t e include:
1.

The individual must be 18 years o f age.

2.

He/she must have an approved bachelor’ s degree.

3.

He/she must have completed a s p e c ific

teacher preparation

program at an approved teacher education in s t i t u t i o n .
A fte r

a teacher

has

been

issued

he/she must teach successfully fo r
earn

18 semester

approved

as

education

a

hours

in

planned

in s t i t u t io n

by

q u a lify

Provisional

C e rtific a te ,

the equivalent o f 3 years and

a course of

program

to

a

an

fo r

study established
approved

Michigan

the Continuing

and/or
teacher

C e r t if i c a t e .

The Continuing C e r t if i c a t e is v a lid as long as the holder serves in
an educational capacity fo r a minimum of

100 days in any given 5-

year period (Michigan Department o f Education, 1979).
Teachers who possess a Continuing C e r t if i c a t e in Michigan and
are employed in

local

school

d is tric ts

have not

been required to

renew t h e i r c e r t i f ic a t e s or show evidence of continued professional
growth.
s tric tly

P a rtic ip a tio n
voluntary

s tip u la tio n s .

in

unless

Ann A rb o r,

mandatory annual

s ta ff

professional-development

a c tiv itie s

local

contain

teacher

M ich ig a n ,

p a r tic ip a tio n

contracts

p u b lic
in

schools

professional

Union,

incentives

in

Michigan,
terms

of

d is tric t

o ffe rs

advancement

on

s ta ff
the

development,

members

salary

p a r tic ip a tin g in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s .

other

pioneered

specifying the number of hours required of each teacher y e a r ly .
Redford

is

The

monetary

schedule

fo r

Rubin (1978),

6
re fe r r in g to a presentation by John Porter, Michigan’ s former State
Superintendent o f Education, stated,
Almost f o u r - f i f t h s of Michigan’ s teachers are at the top o f the
salary scale, and more than three-fourths already have acquired
a ll o f the c e r t i f i c a t i o n they w i l l need. Thus, he cautions, we
have come to th a t point where salary increments and credentials
no longer can serve as the prime incentive f o r sustained
professional need. (p. 4)
Ham ilton and Wonacott (1 9 8 3 -8 4 )

s tr o n g ly recommended t h a t

school d i s t r i c t s adopt p o lic ie s supporting professional development.
In

th e

absence

of

such

p o lic ie s ,

it

becomes

ad m in is tra to r’ s re s p o n s ib ility to create a school
conducive to professional growth.

th e

b u ild in g

climate th a t

With maturing s ta ffs

is

across the

s ta te , th is task becomes increasingly d i f f i c u l t .
The

tre n d

c e rtific a tio n
no

renewal

toward

required

requirem ents

semester

fo r

renew

hours

preparation

clauses

of

that

changes

in

Currently there are

possessing

5-year Continuing

c e rtific a te

academic

i n s t i t u t io n

those

or

a

C ontin uin g

Beginning September 1, 1989, however, a ll

issued an o rig in a l
to

p o lic y

appears to be gaining momentum.

C e r t i f i c a t e in Michigan.
persons

1ocal

or the

c re d it

every
from

equivalent

C e r t if i c a t e

5 years
an
in

w ill

by earning

approved

be
6

te a c h e r

State-Board-approved

professional-development programs or a c t i v i t i e s (MDE, Rule 390.1135,
1985).
The report by the Carnegie Forum’ s Task Force on Teaching as a
P ro fe s s io n in c lu d e d recommendations not on ly f o r r e s t r u c t u r i n g
teacher education programs, but also fo r creating a National
f o r Professional Teaching Standards.

Board

This board would be organized

7
with a regional

and s ta te membership structure

to e s tab lish

high

standards fo r teachers and to c e r t i f y those who meet the standards.
In

a d d itio n ,

te a c h e rs

would

be

r e q u ir e d

to

p a rtic ip a te

in

continuing-education a c t i v i t i e s in order to keep current with t h e i r
subject matter and emerging uses o f technology and to obtain the
advanced c e r t i f i c a t e being recommended ( Chronicle o f Higher Educa­
t i o n . 1986).
Several

states,

including Minnesota,

C a lif o r n ia ,

created autonomous teacher-1icensure boards
e a rly 1970s.

and Oregon,

in the la t e

1960s and

Just rece n tly Nevada created an autonomous teacher-

1icensure board th a t w i l l

be teacher dominated and has been hailed

as the f i r s t ever to be established, s h iftin g power from the state
board of education to the new Commission of Professional
in

Education.

This

panel

w ill

have the

legal

Standards

a u th o rity

to

set

1icensing standards and control entry into the profession, mirroring
other professional 1icensure boards (Rodman, 1987).
In d u s tria l

arts can play an important r o le in preparing young

people fo r a knowledge-based technological

society.

"Technological

1 i t e r a c y prepares i n d i v i d u a l s f o r i n t e l l i g e n t p a r t i c i p a t i o n
informed c itiz e n s in the tr a n s itio n from an in d u s tr ia liz e d

as

society

to a p o s t-in d u s tria l ized service and information age" (Maley,

1985,

p.

looks

13).

dismal.

Yet,

in

Michigan,

the future o f in d u s tria l

a rts

In the past 8 years there has been a serious decline in the

number o f in d u s tria l arts teachers employed and programs offered to
students.

Between the 1978-79 and 1985-86 school years, the number

o f in d u s tria l

arts teachers employed in public schools in Michigan

8

declined from 3,240 to 2 ,2 4 3 --a decrease o f 997 teachers

(Rudnick,

1987).
There is evidence th a t in d u s tria l a rts teachers in Michigan are
somewhat

aware o f t h i s

conducted by the s t a f f
Development

Project

problem.
o f th e

(VEPDP),

the

In

a 1985

V o c a tio n a l
Future

needs

assessment

Education

D ire ctio n

Personnel

fo r

In d u s tria l

Arts was the fir s t - c h o ic e topic fo r 50% o f the Michigan In d u s tria l
Education Society Regions as a staff-development program a c t i v i t y .
Five statewide workshops were o ffe re d ,

a t tr a c t in g

580 teachers and

adm inistrators.
In

s p rin g

1987

a noth er

needs

assessment

was

cond u c ted ,

in which 50% o f the approximately 2,243 teachers in the s ta te were
surveyed by MIES regions.

The preferred topics f o r s t a f f develop­

ment were once again id e n t if ie d .
p rio rity ,

Computer-aided design was the top

f o l 1owed by two other computer-related

to p ic s.

S ta ff-

development a c t i v i t i e s were offered during the 1987-88 school year
based on the high-need areas id e n t if ie d in the assessment.

Project

s t a f f assumed th a t a strong re la tio n s h ip existed between a c t i v i t i e s
focusing

on needs rated

highly

VEPDP-organized workshops.
accuracy of th is

The

by

in stru c to rs

present

assumption by reviewing

and attendance

researcher
information

analyzed

at
the

on workshop

attendance.
Statement o f the Problem
The option o f technology education as a curriculum
becoming more widely accepted in Michigan,

follow ing

focus

is

a nationwide

9

trend.
and

Two other curriculum emphases--traditional

prevocational

t r a i n in g - - a r e

not

a ttra c tin g

in d u s tria l

large

arts

numbers

of

students (Rudnick, 1985).
The concept o f Technology Education as a natural evolution of
in d u s tria l arts c u rric u la has caused a great deal o f concern in
the profession during recent years.
In 1980, a series
of
symposia i n i t i a t e d a debate o f the issue, c l a r i f i c a t i o n of the
phi 1osophy and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f the a p p r o p r ia t e c o n te n t.
(Jones & Wright, 1986)
I f current technology used in industry is to be included in the
in d u s tria l

a rts

te c h n o lo g ic a l
c ritic a l.

curriculurn,

the

Yet,

programs

professional

updating and accompanying pedagogical
i f given the choice, many in d u s tria l

may choose not to p a r tic ip a te
arts

need f o r

face

a

in such updating.

continuing

decline

in

growth

in

s k i l 1s is

arts teachers

Thus,

in d u s tria l

enrollments.

This

decline is f u r th e r re fle c te d by the fa c t that fewer in d u s tria l arts
teachers are being employed in Michigan.
also being o ffe re d ,

Because fewer programs are

as current teachers r e t i r e ,

replaced by new in d u s tria l arts teachers.
te c h n o lo g y -e d u c a tio n

programs

are

they are not being

In d u s tria l technology

g r a d u a ll y

r e p la c in g

or

form er

in d u s tria l a rts teacher t r a in in g programs (Padelford, 1988).
The problem centers on the f a c t t h a t
program area
s tu d e n ts .

in the curriculum is f a i l i n g
In f u s in g

technology

in t o

increased p a r tic ip a tio n by in d u s tria l
re la te d

a once-viable

professional-growth

a c tiv itie s

to continue to a t t r a c t

th e

a rts

e le c tiv e

program c o n te n t

and

teachers in technology-

may be facto rs

contribute to a r e v i t a l iz e d in d u s tria l arts program.

th a t

could

10

To

address

the

problem

o u tl in e d

above,

th is

re s e a r c h e r

attempted to id e n t ify the types of incentives th a t are important to
in d u s tria l

a rts

te a c h e rs

in in c r e a s in g

professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .

th e ir

p a rtic ip a tio n

in

Teachers’ willingness to take part

in such a c t i v i t i e s was also assessed, along with t h e i r current level
of p a r tic ip a tio n .
Purpose of the Study
The primary purpose o f th is study was to id e n t if y the types of
incentives th a t would motivate Michigan in d u s tria l arts teachers to
p a r tic ip a te

in

professional-growth

a c tiv itie s .

The

researcher’ s

s p e c ific objectives were as follows:
1.
ers

To id e n t if y the frequency with which in d u s tria l arts teach­

have p a rtic ip a te d

in professional-growth

a c tiv itie s

and t h e ir

reasons fo r p a r t ic ip a t in g .
2.

To id e n tif y those professional-development a c t i v i t i e s th a t

teachers consider most re le v a n t.
3.

To assess the in te r e s t of in d u s tria l arts teachers in par­

t ic ip a t i n g

in

s p e c ific

approaches

to

technological

updating

and

t h e i r preferred time to p a r tic ip a te .
4.

To determine which incentives in d u s tria l a rts teachers have

id e n tifie d

as

im p o rta n t

m o tiv a to r s

and

th e

degree

to

which

incentives are c u rre n tly provided.
5.
of

To assess whether a re la tio n s h ip exis ts between frequency

p a rtic ip a tio n

in

p r o f e s s io n a l- g r o w t h

a v a i l a b i l i t y of local incentives.

a c tiv itie s

and

the

11

6.

To d eterm ine whether th e r e

teachers’

age,

level

teaching experience,

o f education,
size

of

is

a re la tio n s h ip

teaching assignment,

d is tric t,

and presence o f

between

years

of

secondary

employment, and t h e i r id e n t if ic a t io n o f important incentives.
Incentives have been viewed as one of the keys to motivating
e x is tin g personnel to become a c t iv e ly engaged in professional-growth
experiences.

For th is reason, incentives were an important focus of

t h is study.
Importance of the Study
Considerable
development
successful

pra c tic es ,

has

been

and various

conducted
models

f o r technological

Few researchers,

on t e a c h e r s ’

have

stra te g ie s

have

updati ng of i n d u s t r i a l

a rts

Likewise,

however, have i d e n t if ie d

w i lli n g n e s s

s ta fffo r

incentives th a t teachers view as important.
1 imi te d

on e f fe c t iv e

been devised

staff-development programs.

been i d e n t i f i e d
teachers.

research

to

the types of

Likewise,

p a r t i ci p a te

research is

in

speci f i c

a c t i v i t i e s . Such information may be valuable in m otivating teachers
to p a r tic ip a te in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .
In d u s tria l a rts teachers are unique in t h a t they possess s k i l l s
in occupational areas other than the teaching profession.

I f these

additional s k i l l s provide employment po tential a f t e r the school day,
th e ir

a v a ila b ility

diminished.

fo r

professional-development

a c tiv itie s

may be

Id e n t if ic a t io n of the types o f incentives a t t r a c t iv e to

th is group o f teachers is intended t o enhance the l i t e r a t u r e on th is
to p ic .

S ta ff

d e v e lo p e r s ,

b u i I d i ng admi n i s t r a t o r s ,

and those

12

re s p o n s ib le

fo r

deve lo p in g

te a c h e r

e x p e c ta tio n s f o r p r o fe s s io n a l

con tracts

th a t

growth should b e n e f i t

in c lu d e
from t h i s

research.
Theory and Supportive Research
The following discussion o f the th e o re tic a l foundation f o r th is
study was

based

m otivation,
1e a r n e r s ,

on

a review

1ite r a t u r e
and

development.

on

re c e n t
In

of

the

incentives,

s tu d ie s

a ddition ,

a

on

more

than

relevant

of

the

theories

research

in s e r v ic e

review

40

of

on adult

e d u c a tio n /s ta ff
current

status

of

in d u s tria l arts is included.
Herzog (1984) surveyed 104 teachers in Wisconsin, who had been
nominated by t h e i r p rin c ip a ls as " e ffe c tiv e teachers," to determine
what factors

motivated

them to engage

development.

She found th a t teachers cite d increased competence and

achievement of personal

in

or professional

continuing

professional

success as t h e i r

primary

reasons fo r p a r tic ip a tio n --b o th in t r i n s ic incentives.
In H o lly ’ s 1977 study of 102 teachers attending summer courses
at

Michigan

State

U n iv e rs ity ,

p a rtic ip a n ts

were

asked what

they

considered meaningful a c t i v i t i e s f o r t h e i r own personal-professional
growth with respect to meaningful
teachers

was

most

often

c ite d ,

a c tiv itie s .
followed

by

Talking with other
u n iv e rs ity

H olly noted th a t "pay," " c re d it hours," and other external

classes.
rewards

were n o t ic e a b ly o m itte d in t e a c h e r s ’ responses throughout the
interviews.

13
In

an attem p t

Bjorkquist
high

(1986)

and

to

id e n tify

problems

conducted interviews

senior

high

teachers,

in

with

c ity

in d u s tria l

a rts ,

representative

ju n io r

program

supervisors,

state

supervisors, teacher educators, and teacher education administrators
(n = 2 9 ).

Interviewees id e n tif ie d f iv e problem areas:

perception,
change,

(b)

and

content

(e)

and i t s

organization,

c o m p e t it io n .

Of

(c)

s p e c ific

(a) public

personnel,

in te re s t

to

(d)
th is

researcher was the area o f personnel and the concerns id e n t if ie d in
the

interview s.

The need fo r

inservice

education o f

teachers was id e n t if ie d ,

along with the follow ing:

enough

te a ch ers

in c e n tiv e s

professional ism ."
Lieberman

fo r

to

experienced

"There are not

c h a n g e ."

"Teachers

1 ack

"Teaching has become a second job" (p. 42 ).

and M i l l e r

(1984)

stated

th a t

teaching

becomes

a

noncareer fo r men who entered teaching expecting an advancement into
adm inistration.

Disengagement from teaching becomes the norm fo r

"men who are s t i l l

teaching at

special

the

concern

in

age 40."

male-dominated

"This

fie ld

of

is

a problem of

in d u s tria l

arts"

(B jorkquist, 1986, p. 4 2 ).
Geering
theory

is

leaders

(1980)

growing

in

a ll

reported
ra p id ly

types

of

th a t

because

the
of

1it e r a tu r e
the

organizations.

increased
He divided

motivation theory into three major categories:
such

as

Maslow’ s,

which

concern

on

th e

motivation
in te r e s t

by

contemporary

(a) content theories

fa c to rs

th a t

in itia te ,

s tim ulate, or cause behavior; (b) process th e o r ie s , which delve into
the

reasoning

accomplish

work

behind
goals;

th e
and

choice
(c)

of

a

b e h a v io ra l

reinforcement

theory,

p a tte rn

to

which,

in

14

Skinner’ s terms, re fe rs
between

forces,

with

to the p a s s iv ity o f

the

b e lie f

th a t

in d iv id u a ls mediating

measurable

behavior is more important than needs or goals.
an

in te g ra tiv e

m o t iv a t io n a l

model

and

and

observable

Geering presented

examined

p ra c tic a l

applications o f current motivational research.

He noted th a t much

of

on

the

th e o re tic a l

and

e m p ir ic a l

m a t e r ia l

m o t iv a t io n

is

contradictory, but increased pra c tic al applic a tio n o f the knowledge
gained by research

is

needed to

find

solutions

fo r

the

e x is tin g

problems facing organizations.
In the f i e l d
incentives

such

of education evidence has
as

teacher

s a la rie s ,

shown th a t

smaller

class

e x tr in s ic

sizes,

new

teaching m ate ria ls , and performance contracts w i l l not bring about a
meaningful

improvement in

school

effec tive ne s s .

Even though such

incentives contribute to effectiveness, t h e i r potency cannot compare
with th a t o f such social-psychology variables as in te rn a l commitment
and motivation to work.
money

now

look

challenges,

toward

Workers once thought to be motivated by
other

factors

such

as

achievement,

and the human resources o f the organization

job

f o r long­

term development and growth (Geering, 1980).
L o rtie (1975) conducted
occupation

by

interviewing

a sociological study o f the teaching
teachers.

He c la s s if ie d

the

extended to teachers as (a) e x t r in s ic --money, p re s tig e ,

rewards

power,

and

so on; (b) a n c i l l a r y , which can be ob jective and subjective and tend
to

be taken

vacations;

fo r

and

granted,
(c)

including

psychic,

work

subjective

schedules

evaluations

and
made

extended
in

the

15
course o f the work engagement
including

student

achievement

but v a ry in g

or

among i n d i v i d u a l s ,

s o c ia b i lit y .

Of

the

L o rtie interviewed, 76.5% chose psychic, 11.9% e x t r in s ic ,

teachers
and 11.7%

a n c illa r y rewards.

Research Questions
The following research questions were addressed in th is study:
1.

To what extent have Michigan in d u s tria l arts teachers par­

tic ip a te d in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s during the past 2
years, and what were t h e i r reasons fo r p a rtic ip a tin g ?
2.

To what extent have Michigan in d u s tria l arts teachers par-

tic ip a te d

in

a c tiv itie s

ta rg e te d

by th e

V o c a tio n a l

Education

Personnel Development Project between 1985 and 1987?
3.

What types of professional-development a c t i v i t i e s do teach­

ers view as relevant?
4.

Which methods f o r technological updating are of in te r e s t to

in d u s tria l arts teachers?
5.

When would in d u s tria l arts teachers most p re fe r to p a r t i c i -

pate in professional-development a c t iv it ie s ?
6.

What

s p e c ific incentives do in d u s tria l

arts teachers view

as important?
7.

What

types

of

incentives

do local

d is tric ts

provide

to

encourage p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-growth a c t iv it ie s ?
8.

Is there a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between the frequency

of p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s and the extent to
which incentives are provided lo c a lly ?

16
9.
age,

Is there a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between teachers’

(b) level o f education,

teaching experience,

(e)

(c) teaching assignment,

(d) years of

secondary employment, and ( f )

size of the

school d i s t r i c t , and t h e i r id e n t if ic a t io n o f important incentives?
Research Methodology
The f i r s t

step in conducting th is research was to review the

1985 and 1987 needs assessments conducted through the
Education Personnel
teachers

Development P roject,

throughout

Michigan

were

in which

surveyed.

Vocational

in d u s tria l

A

review

of

arts
the

inservice a c t i v i t i e s conducted as a r e s u lt of the t e a c h e r -id e n tifie d
needs

re v e a le d

the

e xten t

to

p a rtic ip a te d in these a c t i v i t i e s .
Michigan

In d u s tria l

which

e lig ib le

te a c h e rs

had

This information was analyzed by

Education Society

region

and statewide.

The

next step was to conduct a thorough review of the 1 it e r a t u r e on the
topics of s t a f f development, m otivation, incentives, adult lea rn in g ,
and in d u s tria l a rts .
Based

on

the

1ite r a t u r e

staff-development a c t i v i t i e s ,
adults,

and the

developmental

regarding

teachers’

the ro le of incentives
le v e ls

of

the

researcher decided to conduct a statewide survey.
population o f in d u s tria l

arts

perceptions

teachers,

the

adult

of

in motivating
le a rn e r,

the

From the e l i g i b l e

in v e s tig a to r

selected

and surveyed a s t r a t i f i e d sample of approximately 400 teachers.
The researcher developed and p i l o t tested a survey instrument
to c o lle c t the necessary data.
a n a ly z e d ,

p rim a rily

using

Questionnaire responses were content
measures

of

c e n tral

tendency

and

(a)

17
c o rre la tio n analysis.

Chapter I I I contains a d e ta ile d discussion of

the procedures followed in conducting the research.
Assumptions
In conducting th is study, the researcher assumed th a t:
1.

The in d u s tria l a rts teachers selected randomly would w i l l ­

in g ly p a r tic ip a te by completing the self-adm inistered questionnaire.
2.

The in d u s tria l a rts teacher partic ip a n ts would be honest in

giving responses th a t r e fle c te d t h e i r personal a ttitu d e s .
3.

The randomly selected teachers p a r tic ip a tin g

in the study

represented teachers employed in Michigan.
4.

The f i e ld - t e s t e d questionnaire would provide the necessary

data to answer the research questions.
Limitations
I t was not possible to id e n t ify each p o ten tial
might

be c a te g o r iz e d

Therefore,

the

study

as

a c tiv ity

a p ro fe s s io n a l-d e v e lo p m e n t

was

lim ite d

to

(a)

the

16

that

a c tiv ity .

professional -

development a c t i v i t i e s 1 isted in the questionnaire and (b) the eight
approaches 1isted in the questionnaire as methods f o r technological
updating

(Hami1 ton

& Wonacott,

frequency of p a r tic ip a tio n
a c tiv ity

was

professional

given
journal

the
was

1 9 8 4 ).

When summarizing

in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s ,
same
given

value.
the

For
same

example, reading

weight

as

the
each
one

attending

a

workshop or p a r tic ip a tin g in any other a c t i v i t y .
I t was equally impossible to 1 i s t every type of incentive the
individual teacher p a rtic ip a n ts valued.

Consequently, the study was

18

lim ite d

to

the

11

incentives

lis te d

in

the

questionnaire,

and

p a rtic ip a n ts could contribute to and expand on the o rig in a l l i s t in
the space provided.
The study was lim ite d to the perceptions and responses o f the
teachers who were randomly selected as respondents.
D e fin itio n s o f Terms
D e fin itio n s of key terms th a t are used in th is study fo llo w .
D e f i c it model.

A staff-development model

based on a b e l i e f

th a t a c t i v i t i e s are needed to remediate or improve s t a f f ra th e r than
to renew or provide fo r continual growth.
Eight-Year Study.

A major

educational

study

th a t

began

in

1933, involving 30 school d i s t r i c t s in cooperation with u n iv e r s itie s
to develop programs to reach a ll students.
E x trin s ic

in c e n tiv e .

An

outward

or

external

reward

th a t

encourages someone to do something.
In c e n tiv e .

That which encourages someone to do something.

In d u s tria l

arts

teachers.

A c la s s ific a t io n

of

secondary-

c e r t i f i e d teachers with preparation to teach students "those phases
o f general
organization,

education
m ate ria ls ,

th a t

deal

w ith

occupations,

with the problems re s u ltin g

from the

in d u s tr y --its

e v o lu tio n ,

processes,

and products--and

in d u s tria l

and technological

nature of society" (Wilber & Pendered, 1973, p. 16).
Innovation.

Something new or d i f f e r e n t th a t is

added to the curriculum (Random House, 1969).

introduced or

19
Inservice education.
provided to

personnel

A planned learning opportunity th a t

of the

local

d is tric t

or

other

is

authorized

agency fo r purposes of improving the performance o f such personnel
in t h e i r current positions (H a rris , 1980).
In trin s ic

in c e n tiv e .

An i n t e r n a l

reward t h a t

encourages

someone to do something.
Michigan In d u s tria l

Education Society (MIES) regions.

The 18

regions of Michigan th a t are used fo r MIES membership information.
Monetary in c e n tiv es .

Incentives th a t

are e x tr in s ic

but also

include money and/or reimbursement fo r money expended.
M o tiv a tio n .
he/she fe e ls

An in d iv id u a l’ s recognition of a s itu a tio n

stimulated to complete or th a t

contribute to i t s
used to

re fe r

stimulates

s t a b i l i t y or m odification.

to

any

arousal

of

It

an individual

him/her to

is a general
to

th a t

term

goal -d ire c te d

behavior (Theordorson, 1970).
Nonmonetary in c e n tiv e s .

Incentives th a t may be e it h e r e x t r i n ­

sic or in t r i n s i c but do not have a d ire c t monetary attachment.
O ff-s ite
a c tiv itie s

s ta ff-d e v e lo p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s .

th a t

are conducted in a s e ttin g

S ta ff-d e v e lo p m e n t

away from the primary

employment arena.
Preservice education.

"The preparation needed to develop the

basic competencies p re req u is ite to adequate performance in each of
the

in s tru c tio n a l

roles"

(Moss,

cite d

in

Evans & Terry,

1971,

p.

3 3 ).
P re v o c a tio n a l

programs.

Programs t h a t

experiences which enable students to

id e n t if y

"p ro v id e

le a r n in g

and describe worker

20
role s , entry level education, and s itu a tio n a l and personal factors"
(S ie v e rt, 1975, p. 4 5 ).
Professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .
experiences

th a t

contribute

to

A broad range o f a c t i v i t i e s or

an

in d iv id u a l’ s effectiveness

in

r e la tio n to h is /h e r work r o le .
Secondary employment.

A job held in addition to a f u l l - t i m e

teaching position.
Technology

education.

A type o f program

th a t can help the student:
know and appreciate technology;
apply t o o l s , m a t e r i a l s , p ro c e s s e s , and t e c h n ic a l concepts
safely and e f f i c i e n t l y ; uncover and develop individual ta le n t s ;
apply problem-solving techniques; apply other school subjects;
apply c reative a b i l i t i e s ; deal with forces th a t influence the
futu re ; adjust to the changing environment; become a wiser
consumer; and make informed career choices.
(In te rn a tio n a l
Technology Education Association, 1985, p. 25)
T raditio n a l

in d u s tria l arts programs.

Programs such as woods,

metals, and d ra ftin g th a t are commonly found in Michigan schools.
Overview
Chapter I contained an introduction to the study, a background
and statement of the problem, purpose and importance o f the study,
theory and supportive research, research questions, assumptions and
1 im ita tio n s ,

and d e fin itio n s

Chapter
research.

II

question:

a review

of

1it e r a t u r e

re la te d

to

t h is

An abundance o f information e x is ts on the topics of s t a f f

development,
T h e r e fo r e ,

contains

o f key terms.

m o t iv a t io n ,

these

to p ic s

What types

of

in c e n tiv e s ,
were examined
incentives

and
as

th e
th e y

a d u lt

le a rn e r.

re la te

motivate Michigan

to

th e

in d u s tria l

arts teachers to p a r tic ip a te in professional-growth a c t iv it ie s ?

21

Chapter I I I

contains a description of the design, methodology,

and procedures followed in the study,
p ilo t

survey

c o lle c tio n .

in s tru m e n t

through

The population

method o f s t r a t i f y i n g

from the development o f the
re v is io n s

and

a c tu a l

and sample are described,

the sample.

as

The d a ta -c o lle c tio n

d a ta
is

the

procedures

are d e ta ile d , and the s t a t i s t i c a l methods used in analyzing the data
are explained.
The
Chapter

findings

are

V in c lu d e s

conclu sions

drawn

presented
a

summary

from

the

suggestions f o r fu r th e r research.

and
of

in terpreted
the

f i n d in g s ,

s tu d y ,

in

Chapter

major

IV.

fin d in g s ,

recommendations,

and

CHAPTER I I
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND RESEARCH
Introduction
The
th e o ry

topics

selected

u n d e rly in g

1ite r a tu r e

and

the

fo r

review

problem

rese a rch

provide

addressed

on th e

to p ic s

in
of

the
th is
s ta ff

background

and

s tu d y .

The

d evelop m ent,

motivation and m otivational th eories, incentives, adult learning and
s t a f f development, and in d u s tria l arts and technology education were
examined as they p ertain to the following question:

What types o f

incentives motivate Michigan in d u s tria l arts teachers to p a r tic ip a te
in professional-growth a c t iv it ie s ?

To respond to th a t question, the

following topics were considered re levan t:
1.

The current status of inservice education.

2.

Teachers’

perceptions

of

current

staff-development

prac­

t h a t are reco g n ize d

to be

tic e s .
3.

S ta ff-d e v e lo p m e n t p r a c t ic e s

e f f e c t iv e and recommendations fo r improving s t a f f development.
4.

Motivation

and

motivational

theories

as

they

r e la t e

to

s t a f f development.
5.

Incentives or rewards and the im plications f o r increasing

p a r tic ip a tio n in s t a f f development.

22

23
6.

Adult

learners

and adult

learning

theories

as

important

considerations in designing staff-development programs.
7.

The current status of in d u s tria l arts and technology educa­

tion as areas in which s t a f f need continued professional growth.
The 1 it e r a tu r e re la te d to these subjects is reviewed in th is
chapter.
Inservice Education fo r Teachers
A vast

amount

has

been w ritte n

on the

topic

of

inservice

education or continuing professional development fo r teachers.
section contains a discussion of the current
e d u c a t io n , t e a c h e r s ’ p e rc e p tio n s o f c u r r e n t

status

of

This

inservice

s ta ff-d e v e lo p m e n t

practices, recognized e f f e c tiv e inservice-education prac tic es , and a
summary o f

recommendations made by prominent

c o n t r ib u t o r s

to

the 1 ite r a t u r e .
Various
a c tiv itie s .

terms

have

been

used to

denote

professional-growth

Some of the terms th a t are used interchangeably in the

1ite r a tu r e

include

continuing

education,

a c tiv itie s .

inservice

These

s ta ff

terms

education,

professional

development,

are

also

used

and

development,

professional-growth

interchangeably

in

the

1it e r a t u r e review.
The Status o f Inservice Education
In a 1965 survey o f promising practices in inservice education,
comprehensive planning in which teachers were involved in selecting
goals and a c t i v i t i e s
( E d e lf e lt

& Lawrence,

fo r

t h e ir

1975).

own growth was noticeably
In 1975,

the

National

absent

Education

24

Association conducted a study o f teachers’ need f o r in stru c tio n a l
and professional

development.

A concern

th a t

surfaced

inadequacy of or d is in te r e s t in inservice education.

was

the

"The p o sitiv e

conclusion to be drawn from th is information is th a t teachers want
q u a lity

inservice

education;

they

also

recognize

a

s ig n ific a n t

discrepancy between what exists and what they would 1 ike" ( E d e lf e lt
& Lawrence,

1975,

p.

1 6 ).

E d e lfe lt

and

Lawrence

pointed

to

a

missing framework fo r inservice education and a lack o f commitment
at e it h e r the u n iv e rs ity l e v e l , to 1 ink inservice to preservice, or
at

the

s ta te

or

lo c a l

d is tric t

1e v e l ,

to

assume

u l t im a t e

r e s p o n s ib ility fo r such education.
"Teachers,
agree

th a t

ir r e le v a n t ,

adm inistrators,

current

s ta ff

in e f f e c t iv e ,

researchers,

development

or

and generally a

(McLaughlin & Berman, 1977, p. 19 ).

and

bureaucrats

inservice

programs

a ll
are

waste o f time and money"

Long (1977) and E d e lf e lt

(1977)

concurred on the in effectiveness of most current p ra ctices.
The Rand Change Agent Study (1975)
s t a f f development:

re fe rre d to two models of

the d e f i c i t model and the developmental model.

The d e f i c i t model assumes th a t problems in the school or with
teachers have to do with inadequate inform ation, inadequate
s k i l l s , and so i f these s k i l l s and information could only be
imparted to teachers, they would be more e f f e c t iv e in the
classroom.
The major incentives fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in systems
using the d e f i c i t model seem to be c r e d it on the salary scale
or f u l f i l l i n g the relic e n s in g regulations with 1i t t l e
or no
release time f o r teachers. (McLaughlin & Berman, 1977, p. 193)
With

the

d e fic it

model,

there

is

very l i t t l e carry-over

to

the

classroom by teachers who feel s t a f f development is not a p r i o r i t y .

25
With the developmental model or stra te g y , a school d i s t r i c t is
permeated with expectations about the ro le
professional

needs.

The developmental

o f teachers

model

sets

and t h e i r

a clim ate

teachers to assume re s p o n s ib ility fo r solving t h e i r

fo r

own problems.

Some p re v ailin g c h a ra c te ris tic s of the developmental model are:

(a)

funding

and

and

a utho rity

to

determine

staff-development

outcomes are at the building l e v e l , (b) the p rin c ip a l

needs

is viewed as

an educational leader who sets an example fo r professional
(c)

teacher centers

often

growth;

emerge as a message o f the d i s t r i c t ’ s

p r i o r i t y fo r s t a f f growth; (d) when possible, local resources guide
innovative

effo rts;

and

(e)

release

time

is

used

ra th e r

than

monetary incentives, but a combination of personal and release time
may r e s u lt (McLaughlin & Berman, 1977).
Shaefer
practices

(1 9 86 )

said

th a t

is th a t p a rtic ip a n ts

one

f l aw in

s ta ff - d e v e lo p m e n t

are lumped in to

homogeneous groups

with s im ila r expectations and outcomes, ignoring adult learning and
the

adult

learner

d iffe re n c e

in

as

a unique

emphasis

sector.

The p riv a te

approach

to

guiding

between

in d iv id u a l.
school

She

d is tric ts

also
and

noted

the

the

p riv a te

sector recognizes the need fo r a systematic
employees

to

appropriate

professional-growth

avenues through t h e i r personnel function or d iv is io n .

Shaefer c ite d

the importance of the a ttitu d e and support o f an organization toward
s t a f f development and i t s in teg ra tio n into the t o t a l o rganization.
Wood and Thompson (1 9 80 ) d e s c rib e d most s t a ff -d e v e lo p m e n t
programs as being in e f f e c t iv e ,
money.

ir r e le v a n t,

and a waste o f time and

They claimed th a t "inservice teacher t r a i n in g , as i t

is now

26

co nstitu ted ,
authors

is the slum o f American education"

c ritic iz e d

the focus

of

(p.

such t r a in in g ,

374).

which

is

The
usually

information dissemination in the form of d is jo in te d workshops and
courses.

Seldom is there

a comprehensive plan with goals set by

s t a f f and adequate funding to carry out the plan.

They blamed the

current status o f in service education on educators who hold negative
a ttitu d e s toward such education.
According to L o rtie (1975),
"In -s e rv ic e tr a in in g " in American public schools r a r e ly rises
above a s u p e rfic ia l l e v e l ; i t seems to consist p r im a r ily of
occasional short "workshops," fa c u lty meetings, and infrequent
v i s i t s to the classroom by central o f f ic e supervisors.
School
systems g e n e r a l l y have not assumed r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
system atically improving s t a f f performance through serious
tr a in in g programs.
I have speculated e a r l i e r th a t th is stems
from fin a n c ia l stringency and narrow local ism; i t may also be
connected with the reluctance to invest in the fu tu re of s ta ffs
with high turnover. . . . I f school systems are to play a
s ig n ific a n t part in increasing the a d a p ta b ility o f teachers,
in -s e rv ic e education w i l l have to receive considerably more
c u lt i v a t i o n , (pp. 233-34)
Rubin (1971)

c ite d a lack o f "achievement motivation"

as the

reason educators often do not continue to grow p ro fe s s io n a lly .

He

fa u lte d

in

the

teaching

profession

teachers the expectation
e x is tin g

system tends to

fo r

its

fa ilu re

o f continued growth.
destroy

much natural

to

estab lis h

Rubin claimed
motivation

the

by not

providing a tangible way o f acknowledging e it h e r a superior e f f o r t
or

s u p e r io r

performance

and

suggested

e x t r in s ic and i n t r i n s i c reinforcement.

making

g re a te r

use

of

27
Long (1977) perceived a need fo r s t a f f development to cope with
th e

pre s sin g

needs

g e nerated

by

s o c ie t a l

changes,

which

are

r e fle c te d f i r s t by students or c lie n ts and l a t e r in the curriculum.
I t is our position th a t learning (changes in behavior) is the
o verall goal o f s t a f f development.
Such changes are more
1ik e ly to occur when in -s e rv ic e experiences have meaning to the
lea rne r (helper) and are not perceived as being threatening to
the in d iv id u a l. (p. 80)
He stated th a t a t r a n s it io n must be made from s t a f f development fo r
renewal c re d its to s t a f f development f o r professional growth.
Landrith (1977) asserted,
The tragedy o f the decade is th a t public schools which spend so
much time in upgrading the education o f the nation expend so
1i t t l e time and e f f o r t in upgrading t h e i r own employees.
Without e f fe c t iv e in -s e rv ic e education programs, educators
cannot perform at t h e i r peak e f f ic ie n c y , (p. 1)
Teachers’ Perceptions of S t a f f Development Practices
Showers, Joyce, and Bennett (1987) found th a t:
Surveys o f s t a f f development practices confirm the complaints
o f teachers, p rin c ip a ls , and central o f f ic e personnel th a t only
a small proportion o f programs combine the necessary components
to develop s k i l l or engender the "fo llo w up" th a t sustains
practice to the point of tr a n s fe r , (p. 86)
Davis and Armistead (1965) 1isted the follow ing ten aspects teachers
p re fe r with regard to inservice a c t i v i t i e s :
(b) demonstration teaching, (c) p ra c tic a l
th a t

are

concept,

short
(f)

and to

the

p o in t,

w e l1 -o r g a n iz e d

incentive to attend,

(i)

(e)

(a) a c tiv e involvement,
information,

in-depth

a c tiv itie s ,

(g )

(d) programs

treatment

of

one

v a rie ty ,

(h )

an

occasional in s p ira tio n a l speakers, and ( j )

an opportunity to v i s i t other schools to observe other teachers.

28
In t h e ir research in Tennessee, Brimm and T o l l e t t (1974) found
th a t teachers wanted an opportunity to select the inservice program
they believed

would strengthen t h e i r

own competence.

wanted to be involved in developing the purposes,

They also

a c tiv itie s ,

and

methods of evaluating the inservice programs.
Wood and Thompson (1980) claimed th a t the current problems with
s ta ff

development

p la n n in g ,

impersonal

involvement
inadequate
Teachers

e x is t

in

because

a c tiv itie s ,

pianning.

They

needs assessment,

are

viewed

of

as

n e g a tiv e

and

also

d is lik in g

p a rtic ip a n ts ’

c ite d

and unclear

a ttitu d e s ,

lack

of

objectives

inservice;

poor

1 ack

of

follow-up,

as problems.

th e re fo re ,

they

are

often coerced or forced to take p a rt or rewarded fo r p a r tic ip a tin g .
Often

a d is t r ic t - w id e

from teachers’ needs;
focus of inservice
in service, y e t i t

focus is adopted, which is
instead, the individual

a c tiv itie s .

too f a r

removed

school should be the

Adults’ needs must be met through

is customary fo r a program to consist s olely of

information to be assim ilated.

There is a lack o f modeling, which

should r e f l e c t desired practices to use in the classroom.
Hoily (1977) surveyed 102 teachers attending summer courses at
Michigan State U n iv e rs ity concerning t h e ir preferences f o r personal/
professional-growth experiences.
as t h e i r f i r s t

p rio rity ,

Talking with other teachers ranked

f o l 1 owed by u n iv e rs ity classes,

reading,

s e lf-e v a lu a tio n , personal a c t i v i t i e s , and e x tra c u r r ic u la r a c t i v i t i e s
with students.

In questions re la te d to where these teachers usually

sought help or where they might obtain new ideas, the top response
was "other teachers."

Teachers’ suggestions f o r improving inservice

29

education included personal/individual relevance o f the a c t i v i t i e s ,
te a c h e r

in p u t

provision

and c o l l a b o r a t i o n ,

te a c h e r-to -te a c h e r

o f choices and a lte r n a tiv e s ,

s h a r in g ,

and ongoing programs th a t

include follow -up.
L o rtie (1975) noted,
That teachers do not depend g re a tly on the school hierarchy fo r
technical assistance is supported by responses to a national
survey conducted by the NEA (1967).
When questioned about
a c t i v i t i e s which might "contribute to professional grow th,"
respondents showed 1 im ite d enthusi asm f o r school-based
programs, (p. 76)
Teachers

e v a lu a te d

ex tern a l

a c tiv itie s

such

as

col 1ege-based

programs more p o s itiv e ly than in-school a c t i v i t i e s .
Christensen
teachers’

(1981)

perceived

teachers

were

investigated

Wisconsin

elementary

professional-development needs.

asked

to

rank

those

needs

by

In

process

was

used

id e n tify in g

in

needs.

the
In

study.

the

The

firs t

second phase,

phase

indicated were:

motivating

students,

(c )

(a)

id e n tify in g

id e n tify in g

consisted

reading

mathematics

a b ilitie s ,

(b)

a b ilitie s ,

(d)

reading.

professional-development

53

id e n t if ie d

of

The top f i v e needs

and (e)

the

to

A two-phase

id e n tify in g learning d i s a b i l i t i e s ,
Of

and

teachers were asked to

match a preferred d e liv e ry mode to each need.
teachers

additio n ,

importance

indicate t h e i r preference in having those needs met.

school

acquiring new ideas

in

needs,

teachers preferred the u n iv e rs ity workshop d e liv e r y mode f o r more
than

50% of

the

topics

and d i s t r i c t

preferred d e liv e ry modes were
workshops.

D elivery

modes

workshops

u n iv e rs ity

id e n t ifie d

courses

but

not

fo r

25%.

Other

and teach er-led
preferred

to

any

30

meaningful

degree were curriculum committees,

s t a f f meetings,

and

work experience.
E ffe c tiv e Staff-Development Practices
A 4 -year,
(1975)

2-phase

study

provided insights

development prac tic es .

sponsored

by

the

into c h a ra c te ris tic s

Rand

Corporation

o f e f f e c t iv e

s ta ff-

McLaughlin and Berman (1977) concurred with

the Rand fin ding s, s ta tin g ,
The e f f e c t iv e d i s t r i c t s t a f f development model provides a
v a r ie ty of options, i t has a f l e x i b l e program form at, i t
stresses individual and small-group learn in g , i t is concrete,
ongoing, and d i r e c t l y t i e d to ongoing a c t i v i t i e s .
Yet
e f f e c t iv e s t a f f development depends much more on the d i s t r i c t ’ s
point of view about prin cip a ls and teachers as learners than on
the s pecifics o f the s t a f f development program, (p. 191)
Lawrence (1974), too, found that the most successful s tra te g ies
are t e a c h e r s p e c i f i c .
p ra c tic e ,

Programs t h a t

emphasize d e m o n s tra tio n ,

and feedback have been found to be more e f f e c t i v e

those th a t merely absorb teachers

in

ideas.

than

Lawrence also found

th a t s t a f f development conducted by local adm inistrators appeared to
be

more

e f f e c t iv e

than

th a t

presented

by

outside

consultants.

Berman and McLaughlin (1978) supported th is view, but Joyce (1976)
found th a t teachers did not want t h e i r evaluators as t h e i r t r a in e r s .
Johnston

and

Yeakey

(1977)

di scovered

th a t

te a c h e rs

and

adm inistrators d iffe r e d s ig n if ic a n t ly in t h e i r preferences f o r s t a f f
development

and

g re a tly

e ffe c tiv e

to

concluded

th a t

programs.

jo in t
The

planning
Rand

McLaughlin, 1980) supported th is conclusion.

would

Study

contribute

(Lawrence

&

31
Showers e t a l . (1987) indicated th a t the m a jo rity o f research
relevant to s t a f f development has been conducted during the la s t 20
years.

T h e ir

re s e a rc h

p o in te d

to

th e

importance

in

s ta ff

development of program design th a t teachers can implement in t h e i r
classrooms.

The authors reviewed researcher and p r a c t it io n e r issues

and studied such independent and dependent variab le s as (a)
c h a r a c te r is tic s ,

(b)

school

student c h a r a c te r is tic s ,

teacher

and school-system c h a r a c te r is tic s ,
staff-development programs.

and (d)

(c)
They

also reviewed fie ld - d e f in e d issues such as teachers’ involvement in
the

governance

tr a in e r s ,

process,

s it e

and time

of

tra in in g ,

of

Showers et a l . wrote,

and voluntariness and commitment.

"The 1 it e r a t u r e

role

the

is re p le te with the assumption th a t

if

people are

highly motivated, f l e x i b l e and good r is k takers, then the results of
tr a in in g
tr a in in g ,

w ill

be p o s itiv e "

combined

with

(p.

8 3 ).

They

continued,

involvement-oriented

p o s itiv e e ffe c ts o f a c tiv e organizational

"Stronger

governance

leadership,

can

and

the

lay the

basis fo r some very e f f e c t i v e s t a f f development programs" (p.

87).

Self-concept has been found to be a strong influence on the a b i l i t y
to "drive" new teaching s k i l l s

to implementation in

the classroom

(McKibbon & Joyce, 1980).
Cook’ s

(1982)

research

on

preservice

and

inservice

teacher

education revealed the follow ing c h a ra c te ris tic s of e f f e c t i v e s t a f f development programs:
l e a r n in g ;

(b )

(a) teachers are a c t iv e ly involved in t h e ir

c o lla b o ra tio n

based

in s t it u t io n s of higher education,

local

on

mutual

school

tru s t

d is tric ts ,

between
and the

community is e s s e n t ia l; and (c) changes in curriculum, le a rn in g , and

32

te a c h in g

r e q u ir e

a change

Programs

based on the

in

a ttitu d e s ,

above-mentioned

b e lie fs ,

and v a lu e s .

c h a ra c te ris tic s

are:

(a)

teacher centered, giving choices to teachers who have r e s p o n s ib ility
fo r t h e i r

own growth;

(b)

teacher d ire c te d ,

allowing

teachers

to

play a major r o le , and (c) cooperative programs between u n iv e r s itie s
and t e a c h e r s ,

b r in g in g

to g e t h e r

broad

v is io n s

and

immediate

concerns.
Berman and F r ie d e r w itz e r

(1 9 8 1 )

in d ic a t e d t h a t s u ccessful

in service programs are based on teachers’ expressed needs and allow
teacher input e a rly in the program.

Such programs provide teacher

t r a in in g before the onset of a new program or innovation and employ
a c t i v i t i e s th a t p a r a lle l

those to be used fo r c h ild re n ,

model fo r implementation.

creating a

Successful programs provide teachers with

knowledge o f subject matter below and above t h e i r own grade level
and include adm inistrators
same t r a in in g .
but

ta k e

and other supervisory personnel

in the

Successful programs are held during the school day

pi ace

in

the

b u ild in g

and

p ro v id e

continuous

evaluation o f the process and the immediate and long-term e ffe c ts on
student achievement.
Ainsworth (1974) focused on the s h i f t o f inservice a c t i v i t i e s
from remediation to growth enhancement.
in s e r v i c e

e d u c a tio n

p ra c tic a lity ,

(b)

has

th e

He suggested th a t e f f e c t iv e

f o l lo w in g

systematic development,

(d) teacher sharing,

(e)

v a r ie t y ,

and (h) support and encouragement.

(f)

c h a ra c te ris tie s :
(c)

choice,

(a)

a humanistic nature,
(g)

s e lf - d ir e c t io n ,

33
Wood

and

Thompson

(1 9 8 0 )

suggested

development with adult learning in mind.

Adults w i l l

important and r e a l i s t i c goals are set th a t
and professional needs.

re d e s ig n in g

s ta ff

commit when

enhance t h e i r personal

They want to see re s u lts and get feedback

but do not want to be c r i t i c i z e d

f o r t h e i r current prac tic es .

As

le arners, they want to be shown respect, t r u s t , and concern, without
damaging t h e i r egos.
on them,

but

a c tiv itie s .

They do not want topics or a c t i v i t i e s imposed

d e s ir e

to

E ffe c tiv e

s e le c t

th e

c o n te n t,

staff-development

o b je c tiv e s ,

programs

should

and

include

more p a r tic ip a n t control over what is to be learned and how i t is to
be assim ilated.

The focus

teachers

important.

consider

should

be on jo b -re la te d

tasks

Choices and a lte rn a tiv e s

should

provided, along with opportunities to p ractice new s k i l l s .
group work

and

learning

from

each

other

should

be

th a t
be

Smal1 -

encouraged.

Threat can be eliminated by having peers review and provide feedback
about performance and areas needing improvement.
"To

be more

d e m o n s tra tio n ,

e ffe c tiv e ,

p ra c tic e ,

Showers, 1980, p. 379).

tra in in g

feedback,

The re s u lts

in c lu d e

a p p l ic a t io n "

th e o ry ,
(Joyce

&

Joyce and Showers analyzed more than 200

studies concerning the effectiveness
methods.

and

should

of various

kinds o f tr a in in g

o f these in vestig ations consistently

showed

th a t "teachers learn the knowledge and concepts they are taught and
g e n e ra lly

dem onstrate

o p p o r t u n i t ie s

fo r

feedback" (p. 380).

any

new s k i l 1s and

s tra te g ie s

com bination

m odeling,

of

if

provided

p ra c tic e ,

or

34
McLagan (1987) claimed th a t excellent professional development
has

the

following

q u a lit ie s :

(a)

anticip ates

the

fu tu re

helping prepare individuals to shape and respond to
s e lf-d ire c te d
e ffic ie n t,

and

a h ig h ly

s e lf-re s p o n s ib le

it,

while

(b)

p rocess,

is

(c)

a
is

(d) is re le v a n t to the in d iv id u a l’ s career stage, and (e)

uses both social processes and appropriate technology.

Hull

(1975)

wrote t h a t "inservice education exists as one o f the most rewarding
and p o te n tia lly most e ff e c t iv e mediums fo r encouraging the use of
new ideas" (p. 4 3 ).

For each inservice a c t i v i t y , he advocated using

a management plan in which four simple questions are asked:
What is the purpose o f the
influence?

session?

(b) Whom is

it

(a)

designed to

(c) What approach is 1 ik e ly to be most e ffe c tiv e ?

and

(d) What was the e f f e c t o f the session?
The National

Education

Ohio Education Association

Association,
(1977),

in

cooperation

with

the

prepared a planning manual

fo r

inservice education.

An inservice continuum was designed,

six

(a ) attending,

sp e c ific

stages:

(b)

awareness,

(c)

having

in t e r e s t ,

(d) commitment, (e) s k ill development, and ( f ) implementation.
Holly

and

p r o f e s s io n a l

Blackman

(1981)

development

suggested

be

piaced

th a t

emphasis

fo r

p h ilo s o p h ic a l

and

psychological aspects ra th e r than on the need fo r remediation.

They

recommended bu ild ing a context th a t
development,
c lim a te ,

considering

c o n te n t,

the f iv e

o rg a n iz a tio n ,

on

the

supports personal-professional

re la te d categories
and

tim e .

environment, with personally relevant a c t i v i t i e s

of

a t t it u d e ,

A n o n th re a te n in g
th a t are f l e x i b l e

and responsive, contributes to a p o sitive learning clim a te .

"Time

35

is

one o f the

professional

most

im p o rta n t

development.

.

.

resources

a v a ila b le

.

takes

Growing

to

time"

support
(H olly

&

Blackman, 1981, p. 7 ).
Based

on

re search

and

e x p e rie n c e ,

A s s o c ia tio n f o r S u p e rv is io n
id e n ti fie d

th e

f o l lo w in g

professional development:
planning;
time

to

s ta te d

(b)

activ e

plan;

(d)

re s e a rc h e rs

and Curriculurn Development
20

(a)

c h a ra c te ri s tie s

e x p e c ta tio n s

fo r

of

d is tric t

(c)

successful

d u rin g

in

a llo c a tio n

of

support;

(e)

adm inistrative

p a rtic ip a n ts

the

(1 9 85 )

involvement o f the p a rtic ip a n ts

involvement of p rin c ip a ls ;
v is ib le

fo r

a c tiv itie s

and

afterwards, including evaluation; ( f ) opportunities fo r p a rtic ip a n ts
to

share;

(g)

an o verall

plan th a t

provides

r e g u la rly conducted needs assessments;
s e s s io n s ;

(j)

a program

design

fo r

c o n tin u ity ;

(h)

( i ) provision fo r follow-up

th a t

in c lu d e s

d e m o n s tr a tio n ,

supervised tasks, and feedback; (k) p a r tic ip a n ts ’ a ctive involvement
in a c t i v i t i e s ;
using

(1) a c t i v i t i e s th a t allow fo r p a r tic ip a n t choice; (m)

p a rtic ip a n ts

strengths;
c o n te n t

(n)

area,

d ir e c t
w ith

as

resources
a p p l ic a b il it y

accompanying

and
to

b u ild in g
grade

on

level

r e a d y - t o -u s e

in d iv id u a l
or

s p e c ific

m a te ria ls ;

(o)

presentation of topics from p a r tic ip a n ts ’ perspective; (p) degree of
in d iv id u a liz a tio n determined by a d u lts ’ stages of development;
small-group a c t i v i t i e s

as the norm;

(r)

(q)

a nonthreatening environ­

ment; (s) consideration o f physical needs when choosing a f a c i l i t y ;
and ( t ) choice o f appropriate time of day and season.

36
Harris (1980) c ite d assumptions th a t should be made in shaping
inservice

education with

assumptions was th a t
in t e r n a l , personal
follows:

a

"people"

people

can

o r ie n ta tio n .

and w i l l

frame o f reference.

le a rn ,

One

of

based on t h e i r

Other assumptions were as

Feedback and cognitive organizers guide le a rn in g .

in te rv e n tio n

is

sometimes

n e cessary.

motivation lead to le a rn in g .

these

Time,

D irect

c o n d it io n s ,

and

In divid uals determine the meaning and

purpose of and s a tis fa c tio n with the inservice a c t i v i t i e s .
Landrith

(1977)

recommended employing

planning inservice a c t i v i t i e s .

a systems

approach

in

The approach he suggested is shown

in Figure 2.1 .
Recommendations fo r Improving
S t a f f Development
To improve s t a f f developm ent,
building

a

conceptual

support framework.

E d e lfe lt

framework with

He suggested th a t

constructed using cues from research.

a

(1 9 75 )

recommended

le g a l-o rg a n iza tio n a l

such a design
According to

and

framework be
E d e lf e lt,

the

major issues to be resolved were (a) teacher supply and demand; (b)
the re la tio n s h ip between preservice and inservice education;

(c) the

ro le

teacher

of

higher

education;

(d)

the

ro le

of

teachers

and

organizations; (e) self-governance f o r the teaching profession;

(f)

the adequacy of courses, c r e d its , and c re d e n tia ls ; and (g) the role
and purpose of inservice education.

37

1. Assess teacher
competencies

> 3. Develop inservice
in terms o f teacher
needs

Id e n t if y teacher
needs

4. Determine tr a in in g
p rio ritie s

8. Use feedback
re su lts and
modify
5. Establish c r i t e r i a
to determine when
needs are met

7. Perform thorough
evaluation

t

6. Develop schedule
f o r completion
of program

Figure 2 . 1 .--Systems approach to planning inservice education
(from Landrith, 1977).

38

T y le r
w ill

(1971)

place great

predicted th a t

"inservice education o f tomorrow

emphasis upon helping

teachers

acquire

what

is

perceived by school leaders to be essential to the implementation of
the plans of the school setting" (p. 1 4 ).

He fu r th e r predicted th a t

inservice would address real problems d i r e c t l y or through simulation
in

a v a r ie ty

of

s e ttin g s .

T y le r

forecasted

th a t

the

notion

of

molding or shaping teachers w i l l cease to e x is t and be replaced with
enhancing,

a iding,

supporting,

and encouraging the development

of

the teaching c a p a b ilit ie s the individual values.
S t a f f development is assumed to be an adaptive learning process
in which (a) lea rn e rs , namely p rin c ip a ls and teachers, have
d i f f e r e n t needs a t d if f e r e n t times and (b) th a t learners
themselves must know what i t is they need to know; (c) learners
must be w i lli n g and ( d ) learners must be able. (McLaughlin &
Berman, 1977, p. 194)
Jones and Hayes’ s (1980)

study o f 86 K-6 teachers and t h e ir

needs r e la t i v e to the teaching of reading raised questions about the
v a l i d i t y o f needs assessments.

"Asking teachers what inservice they

want may not produce an accurate assessment o f needs" (p. 390), they
wrote.

The

authors

expressed need fo r
content

area

of

found

1i t t l e

re la tio n s h ip

knowledge and t h e ir

reading.

Their

between

measured

preference

teachers’

knowledge in

fo r

re la te d

the

s ta ff-

development a c t i v i t i e s did not r e f l e c t t h e i r real

need, which was

fo r a stronger foundation of knowledge o f reading.

Jones and Hayes

concluded, "Our research suggests th a t teachers can express symptoms
of needs but may not be aware o f t h e i r actual needs" (p. 392).
Johnson (1975) worked with

staff-development educators

e f f o r t to reconceptualize inservice education.

in

an

Th eir work led to

39

the follow ing recoirenendations:

(a) professional development should

be viewed

preservice,

in

three

stages:

in itia l

teaching

(1-5

y e a r s ), and the "long p u ll" ; (b) inservice should be a c o lla b o ra tiv e
e ffo rt;

(c) i t

educational

should be recognized as an essential element o f the

process

and include a l l

personnel;

based on personnel needs, school-program needs,
(e)

inservice

in s tru c tio n a l
by the

should

in te rfa c e

improvement;

people

being

(f)

with

(d)

it

should

be

and student needs;

curriculum

development

and

inservice should be lo c a lly pianned

affec te d ;

and

(g)

" a lte r n a tiv e

inducements/

rewards f o r inservice education should be explored" (p. 75).

Some

suggested rewards or incentives included small grants and local and
professional

recognition.

Johnson recommended th a t

these

rewards

should take precedence over salary increments and should be offered
to

those

who

d e liv e r

s ta ff

development,

as

well

as

those

who

p a r tic ip a t e .
E d e lf e lt

(1975)

inservice

education,

educators

are

horizons.

helped

also
but
to

id e n t if ie d
with

the

improve

a

need

purpose

t h e ir

He preferred using the terms

of

s k ills

to

reconceptualize

changing
and

the

broaden

ways
t h e ir

"continuing education"

or

"professional development" instead of "inservice education" and saw
a need to d i s t i n g u i s h

between the

education

c e r t i f i e d and f u l l y c e r t i f i e d teachers.
at both the sta te and local

of

E d e lfe lt id e n t if ie d needs

le v e ls f o r frameworks,

commitments to professional development.

p ro v is io n a lly

resources,

and

In v is u a liz in g a plan fo r

s t a f f development, Bishop (1977) c a lle d fo r tra n s la tin g defic ie n cies

40
into a f fir m a tiv e
should

p ro v id e

d is tric t,

the

and generative program ob je ctiv es .
an index

to

competencies

of

the

responsiveness

d is tric t

Such a plan
of

professionals,

th e

school

and

th e ir

commitment to learners.
MacDonald

(1977)

viewed the

problem o f

s t a f f development

as

e xis tin g in two arenas, which he defined as the social s tru ctu re and
the mindset o f in dividuals and t h e ir view o f te a ch in g /le a rn in g .

He

affirmed the need fo r a change in both to a l t e r meaningfully the
future of s t a f f development.

Recognizing the

present

and futu re

concern fo r s t a f f development, the question emerges,
How can we create a professionwide environment which w i ll
e n ric h the 1 ives o f te a ch ers and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , help
fa c u ltie s and d i s t r i c t s enliven and continuously improve t h e i r
schools,
and ensure t h a t each e d u c a tio n p r o fe s s io n a l
continuously studies and enhances his or her own c ra ft? (Joyce,
1977, p. 114)
Joyce asserted,
I f the education profession is to flo u ris h and i f schools are
to be a v i t a l force in society, i t is necessary to re b u ild the
school in t o a 1 if e l o n g le a r n in g l a b o r a t o r y not o n ly f o r
child re n , but fo r teachers as w e l l .
The improvement o f s t a f f
development is not a matter o f deciding how to create and
imp!ement ad hoc programs.
R a th e r, i t is a m a tt e r o f
g e n e ra tin g a r i c h environment in which e very e d u c a tio n
p r o fe s s io n a l becomes a student o f e d u c a tio n and works
continuously to improve his or her s k i l l s , (pp. 117-18)
According to Joyce,

"the primary task in s t a f f development is

to develop a p rofessional, growth-oriented ecology in a l l
(p. 118).

The three purposes o f s t a f f development are (a) to enrich

the 1 ives of s t a f f ,
schools,

schools"

and

(c)

(b) to generate continuous e f f o r t s to improve
to

create

professional s k i l l development.

conditions

th a t

promote

continuous

41
E d e lf e lt
might take.
approach.

(1977)

described

two

d ire c tio n s

s ta ff

development

One was a continuation o f what he viewed as a haphazard
The other was the development o f a plan based on the

r o le s te a c h e rs assume, w h ile i d e n t i f y i n g s p e c i f i c competencies
teachers need,

to ensure th a t they are b e tte r prepared.

E d e lfe lt

cautioned th a t the plan must be c a r e f u lly examined and prepared by
a l l who operate w ithin the system.
the

general

framework

established.

in

which

The plan should be a sketch of
the

context

and

governance

are

PIanners must recognize th a t circumstances and condi-

tions often influence any thoughtful plan.
Having a choice o f a c t i v i t i e s or paths to follow in personal
and professional growth has been id e n t ifie d as a key ingredient in
changing the
s ta ff

development

characterized
w i t h in

somewhat negative

the

or

in s e r v ic e

freedom to

the i n d i v i d u a l ,

e x te r n a l" (p. 269).

view many in divid uals
e d u c a ti on.

choose

as

hold

Rogers

"something

toward
(1 9 69 )

which

something phenomenological

exists

ra th e r

than

"This experience of freedom to choose is one of

the deepest elements underlying change" (p. 268), he said.
Meade
p r e r o g a t iv e

(1970)
to

supported
d e te rm in e

the
the

notion
ways

of

th e y

giving
might

teachers
ach ie v e

the

th e ir

professional-growth goals.

He also believed th a t the organization

(school

set minimally

system)

must f i r s t

acceptable

standards

of

performance and id e n tif y the kind and q u a lity o f teaching i t wants.
Teachers would then be responsible f o r determining how to achieve
t h e i r goals fo r professional growth.

As Devaney (1975) wrote,

42
Teachers must be more than technicians, must continue to be
lea rn e rs .
Long-lasting improvements in education w ill come
about through in s e r v ic e programs t h a t i d e n t i f y in d i v i d u a l
s ta rtin g points f o r learning in each teacher [and] b u ild on
teachers’ motivation to take more, not less r e s p o n s ib ility ,
(p. 7)
Jackson
development.

(1 9 70 )

recommended

a

growth

approach

to

s ta ff

He wrote,

What is needed . . . is both the time and the tools f o r the
teacher to conceptualize his experience, to imbue i t with
personal meaning in a way th a t a lte r s his way o f looking a t his
world and acting upon i t . . . . I f teachers are to grow in
t h e i r jobs, they need more than time o f f from t h e i r regular
classroom d u ties.
They require an in s t it u t io n a l climate that
supports and encourages t h e i r e f f o r t s to learn more about what
they are doing, (pp. 28, 30)
Bush

(1970)

professional

s a id

autonomy

th a t
and

pian n e rs

base

in d iv id u a lly determined needs.

should

respect

professional-growth
The i d e a l ,

te a c h e r s ’

a c tiv itie s

he noted,

on

was to have

professional growth become a matter o f in quiry in which the teacher
continuously seeks to learn more about h is /h e r own c r a f t .
slow, cumulative process.

It

is a

Also, Bush recommended that professional -

growth programs should "take advantage of teachers’ p o te n tia l
teaching one another" (p. 70).
teachers
the

most

be

involved

useful

in

growth

sustained professional

th e ir

L ip p itt-F o x (1971) also advised that
own

experiences.

growth.

learning

through

Colleagues

"The professional

id e n tify in g

must

share

in

development

of

teachers must be seen in the context o f a group process,
re la tio n s h ip s , and o f t o t a l
p. 107).

fo r

of team

s t a f f development" ( L ip p it t- F o x ,

1971,

43
Motivation and Motivational Theories
M otivation is an important topic in the f ie ld s o f psychology,
s o c io lo g y ,

management,

However, there is 1i t t l e
and how i t

e d u c a tio n ,

re lig io n ,

and

consumerism.

consensus about the meaning o f motivation

is aroused or controlle d.

In te r e s t in the concept has

grown over the past 30 years, but opinions on the extent to which
m o t iv a t io n

in f lu e n c e s

beh a v io r and the t h e o r ie s

p o s tu la te d

to

explain such influence d i f f e r g r e a tly .
The term "motivation" is derived from the Latin word "movere,"
which means

to

move.

Theodorson

and Theodorson

(1970)

defined

motivation as "the recognition by a person of a s itu a tio n th a t he
fe e ls stimulated to complete or which stimulates him to contribute
to

its

s ta b ility

or

m odification.

It

is

a general term used

to

r e fe r to any arousal

of an individual to g o a l-d ire c te d behavior" (p.

266).

stated th a t

Murray (1964)

th a t arouses,

d ir e c t s ,

e x is t

in

an in te rn a l

and integrates a person’ s behavior.

not observed d i r e c t l y ,
assumed to

"a motive is

but

in ferred

order to

from his

explain his

behavior

behavior" (p.

described a motive as consisting of two parts:

or

fa c to r
It

is

simply

7).

He

the d riv e , which is

the in te rn a l process, and the goal or reward, which terminates the
d riv e .
Geering (1980) recognized th a t the research was sharply divided
with

regard

to

the

degree

of

support

given

to

pioneer and more recent theories o f m otivation.
analyses

of

motivation

should

concentrate

factors th a t arouse a person’ s a c t i v i t i e s .

on

the

v a lid ity

of

He concluded th a t
the

incentives

Motivation

or

is process

44

oriented

and concerns choice,

d ire c tio n ,

and goals.

It

also

is

concerned with how behavior is i n i t i a t e d , sustained, or stopped and
the in d iv id u a l’ s subjective reaction to th is behavior.
According

to

Geering,

there

contemporary motivation theory:
reinforcement.

are

three

(a) content,

major

categories

(b) process,

of

and (c)

Content theories are re la te d to the basic concept of

needs, which begin, s tim ulate, or cause behavior.

Process theories

are concerned with understanding the reasoning behind one’ s choice
of a p a r tic u la r pattern

to accomplish work goals.

Reinforcement

th e o rie s , which gained renown through Skinner’ s work,

assume th a t

in d iv id u a ls

fo rc e s

are

p a s s iv e ,

m erely m e d ia tin g

between

and

focusing on measurable and observable behavior ra th e r than on needs
or goals.
Well-known examples of contemporary content th e o ris ts
Argyris,

Maslow,

Herzberg,

and A ld e rfe r.

include

A rg y ris ’ s (1960)

theory

includes the term " p r e d is p o s itio n ," which he defined as "a tendency
to act in a p a r t ic u la r manner under s p e c ific conditions"
Every individual
express

while

has a number of predispositions

a member

individual to in d iv id u a l.
the individual

of

an

organization,

but

(p. 6 5 ).

he/she wants
they

vary

to

from

In a ddition , predispositions vary w ithin

at d i f f e r e n t times.

Argyris drew a tte n tio n to the

in c o m p a tib ility of one’ s basic needs and the demands o f the formal
organization.

One such need, the innate human-development process,

begins in infancy and advances toward completion in adulthood; i t is
d i f f i c u l t to suppress or a l t e r th is process.

Argyris believed th a t

45
management should give more consideration to these basic needs and
values and attempt to
organization to gain

adjust

the

structure

employee commitment.

in d iv id u a l’ s predispo sition ,

the

and operation of the
If

employee w i l l

the job meets the
be motivated

and

productive.
Maslow (1954) wrote,
Current conceptions o f motivation proceed o r d in a r ily , or at
le a s t seem to proceed, on the assumption th a t a motivational
s ta te is a s p e c ia l, a peculiar s ta te , sharply marked o f f from
the other happenings in the organism.
Sound motivational
theory should, on the contrary, assume th a t motivation is
constant, never ending, flu c tu a tin g , and complex, and th a t i t
is an almost universal c h a r a c te r is tic o f p r a c t ic a l ly every
organismic sta te of a f f a i r s , (p. 93)
According to Maslow, a p o s itiv e theory of motivation is one th a t is
derived

from c lin i c a l

experience

in

the

t r a d it io n

of

Dewey, fused with the holism of Wertheimer, Goldstein,

James

and

and Gestalt

and the dynamicism o f Freud and Adler.
Maslow categorized man’ s needs as (a)
safety needs,

(b)

basic physiological

belongingness and love needs,

(c)

and

esteem needs,

and (d) the need fo r s e lf - a c t u a l iz a t io n .

He organized these needs

into a hierarchy o f r e l a t i v e prepotency.

Once needs are r e l a t i v e l y

well g r a t i f i e d ,

a new set o f needs emerges because "a want th a t is

s a tis f ie d is no longer a want" (p. 8 4 ) .

The c le a r emergence o f one

need usually rests on the s a tis fa c tio n or g r a t i f i c a t i o n o f another
need, assuming th a t human beings are motivated only by unsatisfied
needs.
Chisholm’ s (1980)
framework.

work was grounded on Maslow’ s th e o re tic a l

She found th a t not a l l

needs are met e n t ir e ly before

46
th e

next

need emerges.

physiological

needs,

For

70% of

the

the

average

safety

person,

needs,

85% o f

50% o f

the

the
love

needs, and 40% o f the s e lf- a c t u a liz in g needs are s a t is f ie d .
Much research has been based on Maslow’ s work.
re s u lts

have been supportive,

but most

Some o f the

have opposed

his

theory.

More than 200 such studies were conducted between 1948 and 1972, 146
of them a f t e r 1965.

Maslow’ s c r i t i c s have doubted th a t a hierarchy

of needs exists and have asserted th a t needs are interconnected and
dynamic, not s t a t i c .

The concept of a hierarchy of needs has also

been d i f f i c u l t to v a lid a te e m p iric a lly .
In his tw o -factor theory, Herzberg (1968)
have two le v e ls o f needs:
animal

nature;

and (b)

claimed th a t people

(a) biological or ph ys ic a l, stemming from

psychological,

stemming from human nature.

He id e n t if ie d s a t is f ie r s or motivators as achievement, recognition,
work

its e lf,

in trin s ic
factors

in

r e s p o n s ib ility ,

and

the

id e n t if ie d

work.

He

as company p o lic y ,

advancement,

supervision,

a ll

of

d i s s a t is f ie r s

which
or

interpersonal

are

hygiene

r e la tio n s ,

working conditions, status, and s e cu rity, which are a ll e x t r in s ic to
the work.
Herzberg
th a t

resulted

studied
in

high

203 accountants
s a tis fa c tio n

to discover events

or

high

a t work

d is s a t is f a c tio n .

He

concluded th a t factors th a t led to job s a tis fa c tio n were d i s t i n c t
and separate from those leading to job d is s a t is f a c t io n .

C r i t ic s

have viewed Herzberg’ s work as too narrow and lacking in v a l i d i t y
and

r e lia b ility .

Herzberg

himself

stated,

"The

psychology

of

47
motivation is tremendously complex, and what has been unraveled with
any degree of assurance is small indeed" (p. 313).
A ld e r fe r ’ s ERG theory is a more recent motivation approach to
e stab lishing

human needs

in

organizational

s e ttin g s .

He reduced

Maslow’ s f iv e need categories to the three categories o f existence
( E ) , relatedness (R ), and growth (G)--ERG.
of

ERG theory

are:

(a)

the

less

The two basic p rin c ip le s

each

level

of

need

has

been

s a t is f ie d , the more i t w i l l be desired; and (b) the more low er-level
needs are s a t is f ie d ,
the less

the more h igher-level

h ig h e r-le v el

needs are desired,

needs have been s a t is f ie d ,

level needs w i l l be desired.

the more lower-

Since ERG is a r e l a t i v e l y new theory,

few studies have been undertaken to evaluate i t ,
viewed i t

and

as "the most c u rren t,

v a lid ,

but Geering (1980)

and researchable theory of

motivation" (p. 32 ).
McGregor’ s (1957) work resulted from his

assessment th a t

the

conventional management approach was inadequate when motivation was
considered.
but stated,
306).

He supported Maslow’ s theory o f a hierarchy o f needs
"A s a t is fie d need is not a motivator o f behavior"

McGregor’ s Theory X philosophy of management is

because the

human needs

unimportant

motivators

management r e l i e s
Management

is

e n te rp ris e .
organizational
organizations.

on which
of

behavior.

h e a v ily

responsible
People

are

the

approach
His

Theory

on s e l f - c o n t r o l
fo r

not

organizing
by

nature

r e lie s

(p.

inadequate
are

today

Y concept

of

and s e l f - d i r e c t i o n .

elements
passive

or

of

productive

r e s is ta n t

to

needs, but become so as a r e s u lt o f experiences in
According to McGregor,

48

The m otivation, the po te n tia l f o r development, the capacity fo r
assuming r e s p o n s ib ility , the readiness f o r d i r e c t behavior
toward o r g a n i z a t i o n a l goals a re p re s e n t in a l l p e o p le .
Management does not put them th e re .
I t is the r e s p o n s ib ility
o f management to
re c o g n iz e
and develop
these
human
c h a r a c t e r i s t i e s f o r th e m s e lv e s .
The e s s e n t i a l ta s k o f
management is to arrange organizational conditions and methods
o f operation so th a t people can achieve t h e i r own goals best by
d ire c tin g t h e i r own e ff o r ts toward organizational ob je ctiv es ,
(p. 316)
Houle

(1963)

developed

a m o t iv a t io n a l

o rie n ta tio n

model

s p e c if ic a lly to explain adult le a rn e rs ’ motives f o r p a r t ic ip a t in g in
continuing education.

He stated,

to ta l

c o n tin u in g

phenomenon

of

" I f we are ever to understand the
e d u c a tio n ,

we

must

begin

by

understanding the nature, the b e lie fs , and the actions o f those who
take part to the highest degree"

(p.

10 ).

Houle

interviewed

22

in dividuals who had the same basic way o f thinking about the process
in which they were engaged.
achieve,

they

a ll

found

s ig n if ic a n t , and they a l l
own sake"

(p.

Goal-oriented
objectives
adults

adults

th a t

take part

learn in g ,
its e lf.

15 ).

"They a l l

the

process

had goals they wished
of

learning

enjoyable

to
or

f e l t th a t learning was worthwhile fo r i t s

Houle categorized

adults

use

a

education

have been c le a r ly

as

meaning th a t may not

means

id e n t if ie d .

because they fin d ,

in

r e la t e

the
to

in to
of

three

groups.

accomplishing

A c t iv ity - o r ie n te d

circumstances o f

the

content

the

or purpose

Learning-oriented adults are those who seek knowledge fo r

i t s own sake.
In r e la tin g his fin d in g s , Houle noted:
I t is surprising . . . th a t only one o f the persons interviewed
thought th a t teachers had had any influence in creating the
desire to continue learnin g. . . . The explanation o f th is

49
discordant fin d in g may well be re la te d to f a ilu r e s in the
p re v ailin g method o f teaching.
I f a teacher does not make
e x p l i c i t the importance o f lif e lo n g le a rn in g , demonstrate i t s
sign ificance in his own behavior, and show by what methods i t
may be pursued, there is no p a r t ic u la r reason why he should be
id e n t if ie d by his students as wishing to create the desire f o r
continuing education w ithin them. (pp. 71-72)
Five contemporary motivational models are i l l u s t r a t e d in Figure
2.2 to show the s i m i l a r i t i e s and differences among them.
adapted from O’ Connor (1982),

The c hart,

is arranged h ie r a r c h ic a lly , with the

lowest need requirements shown at the bottom and the highest at the
top.
The two major process theories are expectancy theory and equity
theory.

Expectancy theory was formulated by Vroom (1970), based on

the e a r l i e r work o f Tolman,

Lewin,

based on three key concepts:

(a) expectancy, which is the perceived

b e l i e f th a t one’ s e f f o r t w i l l

and Atkinson.

lead to successful

The theory

performance;

is

(b)

valence, which is the degree o f attra c tiv e n e s s or d e s i r a b i l i t y th a t
an individual

attaches to a reward; and (c)

in s tru m e n ta lity ,

is the b e l i e f th a t a given performance is essential

which

in a tta in in g a

given reward or s a tis fy in g a valence. "The underlying assumption of
the

expectancy

psychological

model

events

is

th a t

occurring

choices
with

are

behavior"

la w f u lly

re la te d

(Geering,

1980,

to
p.

3 3 ).
Equity theory was developed by Adams in 1963 and states th a t i f
in divid uals perceive a discrepancy between the amount o f reward they
received

and

th e ir

e ffo rts ,

they

are

discrepancy; the gre a ter the discrepancy,
are motivated to reduce i t .

motivated

to

reduce

th a t

the more the in divid uals

Adams postulated th a t employees compare

A rg y ris 's
Interpersonal

Maslow's
Need Hierarchy

Humani s t i c/democrati c
values:
-In te rn a l commitment
-Psychological success

S e lf-re a liz a tio n
and fu lfillm e n t

Humani s t i c/democrati c
values:
-Psychological success
-Process o f c o n fir­
mation

Esteem and status

Humani s ti c/democrati c
values:
-Authentic re la tio n ­
ships

Belonging and
social a c tiv ity

Bureaucrati c/pyrami dal
values:
-D ire c tio n , a u th o rity
c o n tro l, rewards/
penalties

Safety and se cu rity

Herzberg's
Two-Factor Theory

A ld e rfe r1s
ERG Theory

M
0

GROWTH (G)
E ffo rts directed
toward creative or
personal growth
(s e lf-a c tu a li za ti on
and ego esteem)

Work it s e lf
Achievement
P o s s ib ility of
growth
V C R esponsibility
Advancement
i n
Tu
Recognition
N^
A
L

Ij

Physiological needs

o5

H
Y
G
I
E
N
E
F
A
C
T
0
R
S

Job security
Working condi­
tions
Salary
Personal l i f e

Professional knowledge
Improvement in social
welfare s k ills
Professional advance­
ment

A cquisition of cre­
dentials

RELATEDNESS (R)
Interpersonal re la ­
tio n sh ip in the
workplace
(sa fe ty, so cia l,
some esteem)

Status
Interpersonal
re la tio n s
-Supervi sion
-Peers
-Subordinates

Supervision
technical
Company policy &
adm inistration

Houle's Motivational
O rientation

0
V
E
R
L
A
P
P
I
N
G
I

I

Improvement 1n social
re la tio n s

Compliance with
au th o rity

EXISTENCE (E)
Good working condi­
tions
Adequate pay
(Physical and safety
need)

Figure 2 . 2 . —Comparison o f m otivational models, arranged h ie ra rc h ic a lly .

R e lie f from routine

51
t h e i r own inputs and outcomes to those o f co-workers.

I f there is

not a balance between the two, the individual is motivated to reduce
the in eq u ity .

Most research in th is area has focused on wage and

pay le v e ls as basic outcome and work e f f o r t or performance as input.
The d iffe re n c e between expectancy theory and equity theory is
t h a t, according to expectancy theory, the person chooses a le v e l of
work th a t would maximize outcomes or rewards.

In equity theory,

though, the person chooses a level o f work e f f o r t th a t is equitable
to th a t o f some comparison or reference person.

( 1972 )

Skinner
theory.

is

the most noted a u th o rity

on reinforcement

The basic assumptions of reinforcement are th a t:

individual

is

passive

and only mediates

the

forces acting on him/her and the output;
behavior

is

(a) the

re la tio n s h ip

and (b)

based on an in d iv id u a l’ s needs,

between

the notion th a t

d riv e s ,

or goals

rejected in favor o f measurable and observable behavior.

is

Permanent

change in behavior re s u lts from reinforced behavior or experience.
Ivancevich (1977) developed an in te g ra tiv e model in an attempt
to

draw

together

the

major

motivational

th e o rie s .

His

model

encompasses organizational variables such as leadership, job design,
reward

system,

integrated
d riv e s ,

the

group

a c tiv itie s ,

individual

le a rn in g ,

and

and organizational

c h a ra c te ris tic s

p e rs o n a lity ,

indicated lead to choice decisions,

of

which

need
th e

design.

He

d e fic ie n c ie s ,

1ite ra tu re

has

such as the value of rewards,

e f f o r t and performance p r o b a b ility , and the in d iv id u a l’ s perception
o f e quity.

Past experiences

are

recognized

e ffe c ts in stimulus-reinforcement s itu a tio n s .

along

with

learning

Managers can use th is

52

in fo r m a tio n

to

develop

s tra te g ie s

to

in f lu e n c e

employees’

m otivation.
Madsen (1964)
study

of

a ll

defined motivational

conditions

behavior o f organisms.
of

motivational

th a t

arouse

psychology broadly as the
and

fu r th e r

regulate

the

He attempted to c r y s t a l1ize the wide array

theories

into

three

types.

The

p h y s io lo g ic a lly

oriented theory includes the work of such th e o ris ts as Pavlov, Hebb,
Duffy,

Morgan,

Pribram.

Lindley,

Tinbergen,

Bindra,

Berlyne,

Konorsky,

and

An example is Hebb’ s theory of behavior, which is "based

on the physiology o f the nervous system and .
some community o f n e u r o lo g ic a l

.

. attempts to fin d

and p s y c h o lo g ic a l

conceptions"

(Madsen, 1964, p. 179).

The learning theory o f motivation embraces

the

H u ll,

work

of

Thorndike,

Logan, and Skinner.

M ille r,

Brown,

Tolman,

Woodworth,

H u l l ’ s theory has been described as an atypical

theory o f motivation and a general

theory o f psychology, which is

most d e ta ile d in dealing with the psychology o f the learning process
and the d riv e process.
systemic and exact theory

Some people consider i t
in psychology"

(Madsen,

to be the
1964,

p.

"most
176).

The personality theory o f motivation is represented by the work of
Freud, Lewin, Murray, Festinger, C a t t e l l , Atkinson, McClelland, and
Maslow.
based

McClelland’ s theory
upon

motivation"

a

pioneering

is

study

"an o rig in a l
of

(Madsen, 1964, p. 213).

human,

m otivational

c u ltu ra lly

theory

determined

According to these th e o r is ts ,

a l l motives are acquired, and a l l motivation is based on emotions.

53
Madsen a ls o discussed the m o tiv a tio n

th e o r y o f C h a r l o t t e

Buhler, who is known as one o f the great in teg ra to rs in psychology.
She developed a goal inventory describing the stages o f development,
along with the theme o f each stage.

According to Buhler, childhood

is dominated by s a tis fa c tio n of 1i f e ,
g ra tific a tio n
a d a p ta tio n

needs.
w ith

Adolescence
s e lf-1 im itin g

love, fa m ily ,
is

governed

c a u t io n ,

sex, and s e l f ­

by

s e lf - 1 im it in g

a d a p tiv e n e s s

submissiveness, and avoidance and hardships.

and

Ages 25 to 50 are a

time o f c re a tiv e expansion, self-development, power, and fame.

Ages

50 to 65 uphold in ternal order and moral values, with p o l i t i c a l
re lig io u s commitments as well as success.

and

Ages 65 and older can be

dominated by a regression to need s a tis fa c tio n from childhood or a
continuation o f c re a tiv e expansion.
McDougall’ s theory explains behavior in terms o f purposive 1 i f e
processes aimed at preserving one’ s existence.

McDougall

labeled

his motivational v ariab les in s tin c ts and prop en sities, but they are
not

highly

developed

and

are

d iffic u lt

to

control

e m p iric a lly

(Madsen, 1964).
Tolman presented a c la s s ify in g theory th a t he l a t e r changed to
a deductive theory, consisting o f the i n i t i a t i n g causes o f behavior,
the intervening v a ria b le s , and the behavior i t s e l f .

A ll port applied

his

psychology

of

of

human behavior

as

appear

simultaneously

as

(Madsen,

1964,

p.

own set

of

hypotheses

of

fu n c tio n a l

m otivation.

He described

adaptive

expressive,

and

the
which

autonomy

two aspects
"always

aspects of concrete units of behavior,
108).

Each aspect o f behavior

to

is

th e

actions"

determined

by i t s

54

central

determinants,

which together

form a system known as the

p e rsonality o f the in d iv id u a l.
According to Geering

(1980),

based on c o g n i t i v e ,

h e d o n is t ic ,

"There

g enerally

is

no single

m otivation.
in h e rite d

most concepts of motivation are
in s tin c t,

and d r i v e

accepted th e o re tic a l

th e o rie s .

framework fo r

Instead there are a number o f competing competencies
from

Cognitive

philosophy

or

borrowed

theory was based on the

from

biology"

(pp.

assumption th a t

8 -9 ).

man is

r a tio n a l being with conscious desires and the w i l l to f u l f i l l

a

them.

This assumption has been rejected and replaced by the notion th a t
man makes decisions based on personal constructs, ideas, values, and
a ttitu d e s about the world.
Hedonistic theory was based on the idea th a t man behaves in
such a way as to seek pleasure and minimize displeasure.
sophisticated version o f hedonistic theory stated

th a t

A more

motivation

r e a l l y consists of learned a n tic ip a tio n of goal-arousing p o s itiv e or
negative emotional reactions.
Darwin’ s theory o f evolution i n i t i a t e d the in s t in c t theory, but
t h is concept was l a t e r changed by Freud and McDougall.
came about as behavioral

I t s demise

th e o ris ts emphasized acquired ra th e r than

in h e rite d behavior.
Drive theory is o f central importance to many current theories
of

m o t iv a t io n .

It

is

based

on

th e

b e lie f

th a t

d e fic ie n c ie s

p e rtainin g to both primary and secondary drives are responsible fo r
motivating behavior.

The prin cip a l

emphasis

in motivation

as an

55
organizational and adm inistrative phenomenon is on the in d iv id u a l’ s
behavior at work.

There has been a marked change in the concept of

managing work and workers from p re s c rip tiv e models to the current
approaches based on human r e la tio n s and a sense o f cooperation, not
only

between

workers

but

also

between

employers

and

employees,

ra th e r than an adversarial re la tio n s h ip .
E x trin s ic and In t r i n s ic Motivation
The two widely recognized types o f motivation are e x t r in s ic and
in trin s ic .

According to Deci and Porac (1978),

An a c t i v i t y is generally said to be i n t r i n s i c a l l y motivated i f
there is no apparent
external reward associated with the
a c t i v i t y . . . . The reward is said to be in the a c t i v i t y
its e lf.
The extent to which the people engage in the ta rg e t
a c t i v i t y is assumed to r e f l e c t t h e i r i n t r i n s i c motivation fo r
the a c t i v i t y , (p. 150)
The

psychological basis

fo r i n t r i n s ic

m otivation

is

a need

fo r

competence and s e lf-determ in ation because both have survival values.
E x trin s ic motivation occurs when the external

environment and

some type of reward can be associated with the s p e c ific behavior or
a c tiv ity .

Much research has been conducted on the e ffe c ts of the

two types of motivation and the s p e c ific rewards or incentives th a t
stim ulate a desired behavior.
Calder et
m o tiv a tio n

a l .,

1975)

In his research, deCharms (c ite d in

found evidence th a t

may i n t e r a c t .

Deci

in trin s ic

in d ic a t e d

and e x tr in s ic

th a t

i n t r i n s i c and

e x tr in s ic rewards are not a dditive in t h e i r e f f e c t

on m otivation.

Kruglanski e t a l . (1975) elaborated:
According to Deci, in t r i n s ic motivation
obtains whenever the
actor locates the c a u s a lity fo r his a c t i v i t y w ith in himself and
e x tr in s ic motivation whenever he locates i t in the external

56
environment. . . . By now there exists experimental data to w it
th a t the introduction o f external rewards (money, prize s ,
experimental c r e d its , e t c . ) leads to a deciine in in t r i n s ic
m o t iv a t io n measured, f o r example, by re p o rte d i n t e r e s t ,
persistence at or resumption of an a c t i v i t y or the q u a lity of
task performance, (p. 744)
Two s tu d ie s
hypothesis

th a t

re p o rte d

by K ru glanski

when money is

in trin s ic

to

enhances i n t r i n s i c m otivation, but when i t
i t s presence 1owers i n t r i n s i c m otivation.
te s t

th e r e l a t i o n s h i p

et

a l.

supported

a task,

its

the

presence

is e x t r in s ic to a task,
An experiment designed to

between the magnitude o f t a s k - i n t r i n s i c

rewards and the degree o f in t r i n s ic and e x tr in s ic motivation toward
the task revealed th a t "there was strong support fo r the hypothesis
th a t

(a)

the extent of i n t r i n s ic motivation varies

(b) the extent of e x t r in s ic motivation varies
magnitude of t a s k - i n t r in s ic
704).

The p ra c tic al

rewards"

p o s itiv e ly

and

negatively with the

(Kruglanski

et

a l .,

1975,

p.

im plication is th a t e x t r in s ic rewards tend to

decrease in t r i n s i c m otivation,

and since workers quickly adapt to

e x t r in s ic rewards, there is a need constantly to elevate the rewards
to sustain work m otivation.
motivation

The economic e ffic ie n c y of e x trin s ic

and reward systems needs to

be examined c a r e f u lly

by

employers developing such systems.
McGraw (1978)

and McCullers

(1978)

claimed th a t

rewards may

have detrimental e ffe c ts on motivation over a long period.

McGraw

pointed to the task i t s e l f and claimed t h a t , with in te re s tin g tasks,
o ffe r in g incentives is a superfluous type o f m otivation.

McCullers

based his claim on the th e o re tic a l p rin c ip le s o f the Yerkes-Dodson
law,

which

states

th a t

increasing

the

level

of

motivation

w ill

57
enhance performance up to a point
poorer

performance

on d i f f i c u l t

and a f t e r
tasks.

th a t

The

w ill

r e s u lt

Hull-Spence

in

theory

states th a t rewards should be used only to enhance performance and
w ill

do so only with

tasks.

simple tasks

in

complex

Most success with rewards has been found with young children

and in s t it u t io n a liz e d a dults.
th a t

but be detrimental

rewards

fle x ib ility ,

I t is more d i f f i c u l t to fin d evidence

enhance

performance

in trin s ic

m o t iv a t io n ,

in

s itu a tio n s

conceptual

and

r e q u ir in g
p e rc e p tu a l

openness, and c r e a t i v i t y .
Motivation and S t a f f Development
F arrar (1981) conducted research involving 184 teachers and 18
b u ild in g a d m in is tr a to r s to determ ine what c o n s t it u t e d s u p e r io r
te a c h in g

and what

m a nipu lable

e x trin s ic

in c e n t iv e s

e x is t

education to motivate teachers to become superior in s tru c to rs .
id e n tifie d

two types o f m o t iv a t o r s .

(retirem ent

plans,

annual

a t t r a c t an individual

sala ry ,

P a rtic ip a tio n

increments,

to an organization.

in
He

m o tiv a to r s

and medical

plans)

Performance motivators

(piecework and m erit pay) are distinguished by a contingency payoff
depending on performance.
F arrar

used

expectancy

performance m otivation.
m o tiv a to r s
teaching,

fo r

th e o ry

He found th a t

te a c h e rs

were:

(a)

to

d e te rm in e

the p o te n tia l
r e c o g n it io n

(b) insurance, and (c) c o s t - o f - li v i n g

te a ch ers ’
performance

fo r

s u p e r io r

allowance.

Farrar

claimed th a t these findings supported the general contention o f many
m otivational

th e o ris ts

1 ike

Lawler

(1973)

and

Lawler

and Madler

58
(1979), "who believe pay manipulation holds the greatest promise fo r
performance motivation"

(p.

2 8 ).

He concluded

incentives appeared to hold the most po te n tia l
and secondary teachers.

th a t

pay-related

fo r both elementary

However, the incentives used in his study

were p rim a r ily e x tr in s ic ones th a t were a d m in is tra tiv e ly manipulable
and perceived by teachers as f a i r and equitab le .
O’ Connor (1982)
attend

studied the problems o f motivating nurses to

staff-development

programs,

to

be a ctive

le a rn e rs ,

and to

apply the new knowledge and s k i l l s in the work s e ttin g .

Looking fo r

solutions

of

to

these problems,

McGregor, A rg yris,
Maslow’ s model
Drawing

on

the

Herzberg,

to

the

work

she reviewed
and Houle.

three
of

models

Maslow,

O’ Connor f u r th e r applied

motivational

Knowles,

the

she

problems

concluded

with

th a t

nurses.

humanistic

approaches to the educational process work best with a dults.
from records o f n u rs e s ’ p a r t i c i p a t i o n
outside

the

o rie n ta tio n s

work

environment

corresponding

to

in c o n tin u in g

indicated

th a t

higher-order

in f lu e n t i a l in prompting p a r t ic ip a tio n .

th e ir

needs

e duc a tion

motivational

were

the

most

She recommended th a t a d u lt-

learning theory and humanistic educational

approaches appealing to

higher-order needs are 1 ik e ly to be most e f f e c t iv e
nurses to p a r t ic ip a t e ,

Data

to be activ e learn e rs ,

in motivating

and to apply the new

s k i l l s learned.
Wonacott and Hamilton (1983) expressed concern th a t "vocational
teachers,

as a whole,

are not staying up to date with

changing technologies o f t h e i r f ie ld s "
worked with

experts

in

the

fie ld

and

(p. 5 6 ).

the

As a r e s u lt ,

id e n t if ie d

f a s tthey

many successful

59

approaches f o r technological updating.

They noted th a t maintaining

motivation among teachers was e s s e n tia l.
subsequent

research

focused not only

incentives and rewards.

Wonacott and Hamilton’ s

on m otivation,

but

also

on

" In t r in s i c motivation is probably the most

e f f e c t iv e motivation" (Hamilton & Wonacott, 1984, p. 3 3 ).

Personal

values, which the authors labeled professionalism, were c ite d as a
powerful

force th a t

" n a tu ra lly leads teachers to put tim e,

and e f f o r t of t h e i r own in to the job o f teaching" (p. 3 3 ).
and

Wonacott

1 is t e d

s a la ry ,

p r o fe s s io n a l

money,

Hamilton

re c o g n itio n ,

and

c re d en tia lin g as motivators commonly used in vocational education as
e x t r in s ic

incentives

and

rewards.

"Although

motivation

s tre s s e s th e 1ong-term advantages o f p o s i t i v e
important consideration

theory

m o t iv a t io n ,

the

is not so much how teachers are motivated

but th a t they are motivated" (p. 35).
Incentives
This

s e c tio n

c o n ta in s

a d is c u s s io n

of

the

1ite ra tu re

on

incentives, rewards, and reward systems, as well as t h e i r e ffe c ts on
in d iv id u a ls

p r im a r ily

in

a work

s e ttin g .

The

im plications

of

o ffe r in g rewards fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in staff-development programs are
also

examined.

The

terms

"rewards

interchangeably in the 1it e r a t u r e .

and

incentives

are

(a)

outward

or

are

used

An incentive or reward is th a t

which encourages someone to do something.
of

"incentives"

The two basic categories

e x te r n a l,

known

as

e x t r in s ic

in centives, and (b) i n t e r n a l , known as i n t r i n s ic incentives.

60
Organizations may have formal or informal

incentive or reward

systems as po te n tia l employee benefits or to provide opportunities
to challenge employee groups and in d iv id u a ls .

Incentives can be key

factors in bringing about change, but the 1it e r a t u r e review provided
1i t t l e

in sight in to the s p e c ific types o f incentives th a t

m otivation,
operate,

the

sources

and

conditions

under

which

they

increase
should

or the way they should be combined to enhance motivation

(Sieber, 1979).
The following seven trends id e n t if ie d by Sieber suggest a need
fo r a new perspective in id e n tify in g incentives and disincentives in
public education:

(a) there is a growing appreciation f o r e x tr in s ic

rewards th a t emerge in the process of innovation;

(b)

there is an

increased awareness th a t implementation is d i s t i n c t from adoption of
an innovation

and th a t

a d iffe re n t

reward is

appropriate at each

stage of the change process; (c) there is a recognition o f the local
conditions th a t shape change e f f o r t s and sometimes cause incentives
to f a i l to y ie ld the expected re s u lts ,

(d) there is an awareness of

school personnel’ s re lia n c e on local sources ra th e r than on external
sources of knowledge or expertise;
a tte n tio n

to

there

a growing

is

c o n f lic t in g

(e) there appears to be g reater

requirements

awareness

of

the

of

various

incentives,

unanticipated

negative

(f)
and

p o s itiv e side e ffe c ts o f planned change e f f o r t s , and (g) there is an
emerging body o f research
endorse.

on the

types o f

rewards th a t

teachers

61
Much has been w r itte n about the negative e ffe c ts o f incentives
and the re su lts of giving e x tr in s ic rewards.

In reference to D eci’ s

cognitive evaluation theory, Pinder (1976) stated,
Contingently paid rewards, e s pecially money, can cause an
individual to perceive the j u s t i f i c a t i o n o f his working to
s h i f t from in ternal reasons (based on the s a tis fa c tio n o f doing
the task) to external reasons (the re ce ip t o f the reward). As
a r e s u l t , when th e e x t e r n a l reward ceases, th e major
j u s t i f i c a t i o n fo r performing the task is removed. Further, the
i n i t i a l in t r i n s i c motivation w i l l have also been undermined"
(pp. 693-94)
Pinder’ s research f u r th e r supported Deci’ s theory,

suggesting th a t

in divid uals who are paid under a noncontingent schedule may derive a
more

in trin s ic

toward

o rie n ta tio n

the

work,

g re a ter

work

s a t is fa c tio n , and higher degrees of in t r i n s ic motivation than people
paid according to a more contingent pay schedule.
Sergiovanni

and E l l i o t t

(1965)

investigated

a ttitu d e s

toward

work and the types o f investments people make in order to obtain the
desired rewards.

The f i r s t investment is p a r t ic ip a tio n , which meets

lower-order needs o f s e c u rity ,
esteem.

s o c ia liz a tio n ,

and small

amounts of

The second investment is performance--giving e x tra energy

and achieving above and beyond expectations.
are improved s e lf - e s te e m

Rewards needed here

and s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n .

More money,

release time, and b e tte r working conditions are appreciated but not
a p p ro p ria te .
i n s e r v ic e

S ergiovann i

programs

should

and

E l l i o t t ’ s work

address

th e

v a rie ty

suggested
of

experiences teachers bring to the learning environment,
in te r e s t and investment a t d i f fe r e n t le v e ls .

needs

th a t
and

along with

62
According to M itchell
systems should r e f l e c t

and Peters

the

(1988),

p rin cip le s

th a t

" e f fe c t iv e
in trin s ic

incentive

rewards

are

more powerful than e x t r in s ic ones and th a t encouraging c o l l e g i a l i t y
is

preferable

m a intained

to

th at

rewarding
p o lic ie s

individual
being

teachers"

developed

motivation must solve two problems.
extending the
h ig h e r

scope o f work;

s ta n d a rd s .

F ig u re

the
2 .3

to

The f i r s t
second

is

r e c r u it

in e f fe c t iv e
q u a lity

new teachers,

ones to

fin d

is

teach er

p a r t ic ip a tio n ,

fo u r

s e ttin g

m o t iv a t io n a l

develop b e tte r

(b)

keep good teachers,

a lt e r n a t iv e

professional-growth

enhance

They

(a) extend the range of tasks

fo r teachers by enlarging t h e i r job d e f in it io n ;
ways to

74 ).

performance,

illu s tr a te s

s trategies these authors recommended:

(p.

careers;

programs to

(c)

and encourage
develop

enhance teachers’

high-

s k ills ;

and (d) strengthen a c co u n ta b ility fo r performance by improving task
execution.

Motivating
P a rtic ip a tio n
(Try Hard)
Motivating
Performance
(Get Results)

Extend the
Scope of Work
(Do More)

Set High
Standards
(Do B etter)

1.

2.
Improve ways to
r e c r u i t and re ta in

Englarge job
r e s p o n s ib ilitie s
3.
Professional
development

4.
A ccountability
fo r performance

Figure 2.3.--Te a c he r-m o tiv ation p o licy s tra te g ie s (from
M itc h e ll and Peters, 1988).

63

In an ERIC Clearinghouse (1980) study,
a ra th e r surprising finding was th a t giving e xtra pay fo r
t r a i n i n g had e i t h e r i n s i g n i f i c a n t or n e g a tiv e e f f e c t s .
Apparently, teachers p a rtic ip a te in tr a in in g programs because
they believe they w i l l help them to become b e tte r teachers and
not because o f e x tr in s ic rewards, (p. 182)
Paying teachers to p a r tic ip a te in programs appears to be
less useful than providing programs th a t appeal to teachers’
m o t iv a t io n to improve t h e i r a b i l i t i e s and become b e t t e r
teachers, (p. 184)
West

(1977)

id e n t if ie d

questions

answer to

assist

in

some problems

solving

th a t

researchers
in

s ta ff

need

to

development.

Some of those questions are:
Is the reward system in schools e f f e c t i ve?
Teachers
i d e n t i f y personal growth as t h e i r most p o te n t m o t iv a t in g
fa c to r, but they are offered only c red its leading to fin a n c ia l
reward. What other rewards could be offered?
How could they
be in s t it u t e d , and what e f f e c t would they have? (p. 44)
The

d is t in c t io n

between

in t r i n s ic

s a tis fa c tio n or d is s a tis fa c tio n
the

jo b

its e lf

or

is

generated

surrounding the job (Fraser,
e ith e r

individual

individual

is

sources

of

inherent in the very nature of
by the

1969).

c o n te x tu a l

c o n d itio n s

Rewards can also be viewed as

or system based.

performance,

and e x t r in s ic

Individual

rewards depend on

whereas system-based rewards apply

across

the board to a l l employees of an organization (Katz & Kahn, 1966).
Over the years,
of ways,

incentives have been categorized in a v a rie ty

from a taxonomy of organizational

inducements

1938) to organizational incentives (Schon, 1967).
in c lu d e m a t e r ia l

or e x t r i n s i c

conditions, and f i n a l l y
sense o f w o r t h ,

in t r i n s ic

respect

of

(Barnard,

These categories

i n c e n t i v e s , c lim a t e

and working

incentives, which include p rid e,

p e e rs,

and th e

freedom

to

choose

64

d if fe r e n t tasks w ithin a s p e c ific job c u ltu re .

L o rtie

three

(a )

categories

in t r i n s ic
L o rtie ,

or
the

to

distin g u is h

psychic,
psychic

and

(c)

rewards

incentives:
a n c illa r y

of d a ily

e x t r i n s ic ,

(b)

According

to

rewards.

e ffo rt

are

(1975) used

of

f a r g re a te r

motivational potency to teachers than are other incentives.
Specific rewards or incentives have not changed as much as have
the

approaches

to

categorizing

searching f o r ways to
a tta in m e n t.
f o llo w in g

implement various

Spuck

types

inducements,

(b)

rewards.

(1 9 7 4 )

of

found

support

te a c h e rs

(a )

and recognition

m a t e r ia l
from

the

or

in te ra c tio n

peers,

po lic y ,

with

fo r
the

monetary

community,

conditions, (d) pride o f workmanship,
( f ) agreement

been

p referre d

pleasant physical
with

have

types o f recognition

th a t

r e c o g n it i o n :

Researchers

(e)

d is tric t

(g) a b i l i t y or opportunity to influence school

(c)

social

goals

and

po licy,

and

(h) environment/working conditions.
Greenwood et a l .
tangible rewards,
to

implement

professional

(1975) c ite d f i v e types o f in centives:

(b) chance to learn a new s k i l l , (c) opportunity

id e a s ,

(d )

s ta tu re .

a c tu a lizin g adult

is

s o lu t io n

to

s tu d e n t

needs,

and

(e )

The reward or incentive most valued by the
individual

and in

one’ s personal

v a lu e ,

along w ith

meaningful,

(a)

1if e .

s triv in g

fu lfillin g

life

autonomy both in the work s e ttin g
Social

to

r e s p o n s ib ility

in c o r p o r a te

context.

is

a primary

one’ s work

The goal

being

inwardly rewarding and outwardly c re a tiv e (S in e ta r, 1987).

in to

sought

a
is

65
A fa c to ria l
State

U nive rsity

in c e n tiv e s .

1aboratory

study

to examine the

was conducted

e ffe c ts

of

Both types o f in c e n t iv e s

performance.

at

Pennsylvania

individual

and group

s ig n ific a n tly

in cre a s ed

This fin d in g supported the re s u lts o f e a r l i e r research

in which performance increased 10% to 20% when in d iv id u a l-in c e n tiv e
plans were used (Lawler & Farr, 1976).
o f individual

Some negative side e ffe c ts

incentive plans include r e s t r ic tio n s o f output due to

perceptions o f possible social r e je c tio n by peers.
plans ge n e ra lly avoid negative side e ffe c t s .
F a r r ’ s study

showed th at

increased p ro d u c tiv ity ,

group

the

or

Although Lawler and

individual

findings

also

Group-incentive

incentive

suggested

th a t

systems
c e rta in

combinations o f these plans may have serious negative consequences.
Campbell’ s (1952) and M a r i o t t ’ s (1949) findings also suggested th a t
as group size increased, the effectiveness of group-incentive plans
decreased.
In Hibbing, Minnesota, a Saturday staff-development program was
p ilo te d

to

bring

together

teachers

(Richburg & Drazenovich, 1987).
the

salary

scale,

graduate

from remote

geographic

areas

Incentives such as advancement on

c r e d it

r e c e r t i f i c a t i o n units were o ffe re d .

from nearby

u n iv e r s itie s ,

and

The program follow-up indicated

th a t those s t a f f members who were most in need o f renewal were le a s t
in terested in attending.
v e te r a n t e a c h e r s .

The incentives offered had no appeal fo r

Elem entary te a ch ers

evidenced th e g r e a t e s t

i n t e r e s t in p a r t i c i p a t i n g , whereas few er i n t e r m e d i a t e - l e v e l

or

middle school s t a f f p a r tic ip a te d , and nearly none o f the 30 e l i g i b l e
high school s t a f f p a r tic ip a te d .

66

The

N a tio n a l

School

Boards

A s s o c ia tio n

monograph

on

compensation and incentive plans re fle c te d the interchangeable use
of the terms
report

"merit pay" and "incentives"

focused

on

current teachers,
performance.

a ttra c tin g

(Amundson,

more q u a lif ie d

and motivating them to

1987).

teachers,

The

re ta in in g

increase t h e i r

level

of

According to the monograph,

Research shows th a t the rewards th a t matter most to teachers
are the ones th a t come from students themselves. Anything th a t
gets in the way o f those rewards makes teachers unhappy.
Eliminating b a rrie rs to e f f e c tiv e classroom teaching is a way
to increase teacher s a tis fa c tio n . . . . An ERIC review o f what
m o tiv a te s
te a c h e rs found t h a t a number o f n o n f in a n c ia l
incentives
have also been found to be e f f e c t iv e in motivating
teachers. These include reducing class s iz e , adm inistrator and
public recognition of outstanding teaching, more in te re s tin g
r e s p o n s ib ilit ie s , and opportunities fo r professional growth,
(p. 23)
Rosenshine

(c ite d

in Amundson,

1987)

completed research

revealed a "simple, no-cost practice" th a t had p o te n tia l
of nonfinancial
s a tis fa c tio n

incentives

and

fo r

improved

teachers.

student

behavior

He found
could

advantages

th a t

be

th a t

teacher

attain e d

by

reducing the number o f nonacademic intrusions on class tim e, such as
most of the announcements over the public-address system.
A school
developed

a

d is tric t
nonfinancial

in

the

C a t a l in a

incentive

F o o th ills

program

motivation-hygiene theory (Amundson, 1987).

based on

of

A rizo n a

Herzberg’ s

The d i s t r i c t found th a t

i f s a la ry , working conditions, jo b -s e c u rity status,

and supervision

needs were not appropriately met, d is s a tis fa c tio n would occur,

but

meeting these needs did not autom atically insure high and sustained

67
m otivation.

These re s u lts

substantiated the work o f

Sergiovanni

(1975).
An
County,

in c e n tiv e

system

Kentucky,

modeled

devised by the a i r l i n e

proposed
the

fo r

te a c h e rs

successful

industry,

in

J e f fe r s o n

fre q u e n t-flie r

program

whereby customers can accumulate

points to be put toward rewards (Schlechty & Ingwerson, 1987).
Jefferson County program d iffe r e d
th a t

it

encouraged

in itia tiv e .

both

The

from the f r e q u e n t - f l i e r plan

c o o p e r a tiv e

a c t io n

and

in

in d iv id u a l

The program developer stated,

A sound incentive system should h ig h lig h t what is expected as
standard performance and then reward performance th a t meets or
exceeds those expectations.
In the long run, f a i l u r e to
h ig h lig h t expectations causes standard performance to become
the minimum level o f performance th a t the system w i l l to le r a te
without dismissing an employee.
In our view, incentive systems
th a t t o le r a t e minimum performance and punish d e fic ie n c ie s w i ll
not promote excellence, (p. 587)
The

1 ite ra tu re

on

in c e n t iv e s

c o n ta i ned

the

f o llo w in g

recommendations fo r designing a monetary or nonmonetary
program:
s t y le ,

(a)

base the program on a d i s t r i c t ’ s goals,

concept o f teaching, and community values;

e x is tin g

salary

d e s ig n in g

an

structure
in c e n t i v e

designing phase;

and (d)

to determine
program;

(c )

its

management

(b) evaluate the

competitiveness

in v o lv e

consider o ffe rin g

incentive

te a c h e rs

comprehensive

m o t iv a t o r .
school

incentive

" In c e n t i v e

d is tric ts

to

system can be a

programs

develop

new

have
ways

in

the

a menu o f monetary and

nonmonetary incentives recognizing d i f f e r e n t teacher needs.
planned,

before

in
to

A w e ll-

powerful

many
fo s te r

cases

s ta ff
led

te a ch ers ’

professional growth and development" (Amundson, 1987, p. 29 ).

68
The

wide

v a rie ty

of

incentives

illu s tra te s

the

diverse assumptions and purposes th a t underlie such o ffe rin g s .

"As

Havelock very succinctly points out,
rewards i s ,

o f course,

vast,

id e n t if ie d

’ The spectrum o f s ig n ific a n t

and d i f f e r e n t

users place d i f f e r e n t

values on various types o f rewards’ " (Sieber, 1979, p. 2 5 ).
Adult Learning and S t a f f Development
In
learning
the

reviewing

the

theories

names

of

and t h e i r

several

appeared repeatedly.
fie ld

lite r a tu r e

1 ea rn ers

knowledgeable

adult

implications

prominent

education

fo r

contributors

s ta ff
to

and

adult

development,

the

1 ite r a t u r e

Edward Lindeman (1926), an e a rly leader in the

o f adult education,

te a c h in g

on

to

people.

introduced a new purpose o f education:

apply

knowledge,

This

new purpose

ra th e r

than

led

the

perform ance- or competency-based e d u c a tio n .

to

producing
concept

of

Lindeman’ s second

concern was a s h if t in research and practice away from teaching and
toward the learning process i t s e l f .

Out o f th is s h i f t emerged a new

emphasis on education as a process o f f a c i l i t a t i n g
learning in adults.

Third,

he introduced the concept o f lif e lo n g

learning in a world of accelerated change.
w ith

d e v e lo p in g

new ways

s e lf-d ir e c te d

to

d e liv e r

His fourth concern was

e d u c a tio n a l

s e rv ic e s

in divid uals can continue learning throughout t h e i r 1 ives,

so

at th e ir

convenience.
The study o f adult education and the notion th a t adults learn
in d i s t i n c t and diverse ways are r e l a t i v e l y new phenomena.
" [a d u lt education]

is

so new th a t

it

is

s till

in the

In f a c t ,

process of

69
forming an id e n t it y th a t

is separate from youth education,

work, counseling and re la te d
1980, p. 2 5 ).

f ie ld s

o f social

practice"

social

(Knowles,

New terminology fo r the f i e l d has emerged, including

n o ntrad ition al study, external degrees, multimedia learning centers,
community
centers,

e d u c a tio n ,

educational

developm ent,
inservice

1 earn in g

brokering agencies,

manpower

education,

communities,

development,

1 e a rn in g

learning

networks,

developmental

continuing education,

resource

and lif e lo n g

s ta ff

e d u c a tio n ,
education

(Knowles, 1980).
The term "andragogy," coined by European adult educators, was
f i r s t used by Knowles in 1968.

He defined andragogy as "the a r t and

science o f helping adults lea rn , in contrast to pedagogy as the a r t
and science of teaching children" (p. 4 3 ).

The concept of andragogy

has been used extensively to describe the adult lea rn e r and h is /h e r
unique c h a r a c te r is tic s .
Andragogy is premised on at le a s t four crucial assumptions
about the c h a ra c te ris tic s of learners th a t are d i f f e r e n t from
the assumptions on which t r a d it io n a l pedagogy is premised.
These assumptions are th a t as in dividuals mature:
(a) t h e i r
self-concept moves from one of being a dependent personality
toward being a s e lf-d ir e c te d human being; (b) they accumulate a
growing re s e rv o ir o f experience th a t becomes an increasingly
r ic h resource fo r learning; (c) t h e i r readiness to learn
becomes oriented increasingly to the developmental tasks of
t h e i r social roles; and (d) t h e i r time perspective changes from
one o f postponed application o f knowledge to immediacy of
a p p lic a tio n , and accordingly t h e i r o rie n ta tio n toward learning
s h if t s from one o f subject-centeredness to one of performancecenteredness. (Knowles, 1968, pp. 44-45)
Knowles id e n t if ie d three meanings o f adult education:

(a)

broadest

le a rn ;

sense,

te c h n ic a lly ,

it

it

is

the

process

by

which

adults

is a set of organized a c t i v i t i e s

in the
(b)

c arried on by a

70
wide

v a rie ty

of

in s titu tio n s

objectives; and (c)
idea

of

it

a movement or

to

accomplish

s p e c ific

educational

combines processes and a c t i v i t i e s
fie ld

of

social

p ra c tic e .

in to the

According

to

Knowles,
An adult learning experience should be a process o f s e l f ­
directed in quiry, with the resources o f the teacher, f e l 1ow
students, and m aterials being a v a ila b le to the learners but not
imposed on them.
The learners should be a c tiv e p a r tic ip a n ts ,
discovering fo r themselves those things they are ready to
discover at a p a r tic u la r phase o f t h e i r development, (p. 13)
Krupp

(1982)

id e n t if ie d

influence how they le a rn .

34

c h a r a c te ris tic s

These c h a ra c te ris tic s

of

adults

th a t

formed the basis

fo r a theory of education th a t "organizes and in teg rates knowledge
from

personal

d is c ip lin e s

e x p e rie n c e s ,

as biology,

o b s e r v a t io n s ,

education,

psychology, and sociology" (p. 1 ) .
by

means

of

interviews

with

(a) the adult

such

human development,

d is p a ra te
philosophy,

Krupp tested the c h a ra c te ris tic s

more

than

workshops with more than 500 p a rtic ip a n ts .
three concepts:

and

is

200

people

and

through

Her theory was based on

a unique in d iv id u a l;

(b)

development does not end with the beginning o f adulthood;

human

and (c)

although adulthood is recognized, i t cannot be defined.
Krupp’ s 34 c h a r a c te r is tic s , which are quoted on the follow ing
pages, are divided into seven categories:
role

and r e la tio n s h ip ,

p e rs o n a lity,

e x p e r i e n t ia l, p h y s ic a l,

developmental,

environmental,

and learning.
Experiential c h a r a c te r is t ic s :
The adult is the summation o f past experiences, but s im ila r
e x p e r ie n c e ( s ) may produce d i f f e r e n t sums and thus evoke
d if f e r e n t responses to the same current experiences, (p. 5)

71
No adult is the same as any other a d u lt, because each has a
unique past and a unique perception of th a t past. (p. 13)
An a d u lt ’ s self-concept is the product o f past experiences and
a b i l i t y to in te r p r e t those experiences.
The self-concept can
be r ig i d or te n t a t iv e and p o s itiv e or negative in a given
s it u a t io n , (p. 18)
Through e x p e rie n c e and past d e c is io n s a d u lts
p o s s ib ili t ie s open to them in the fu tu re , (p. 25)

narrow

the

Physical c h a r a c t e r is tic s :
The adult body has entered a c atab olic (breaking down) process.
(P. 31)
Adults have habit needs, (p. 35)
Role and re la tio n s h ip c h a r a c t e r is t ic s : Adults belong to many
groups and play many roles during a single day and during a
l i f e t i m e , (p. 37)
The motivational needs of adults change in d i f f e r e n t ro le s ,
with d i f f e r e n t developmental tasks, and in d i f f e r e n t ego and
m o ra lity s ta te s . These needs a f f e c t re la tio n s h ip s , (p. 43)
Adults have re la tio n s h ip preferences th a t influence t h e i r sense
o f s e l f and th a t a f f e c t decisions and actions, (p. 53)
Adults respond to s ig n if ic a n t others in t h e i r 1ives by fix e d or
te n ta t iv e concepts, (p. 60)
Personalitv c h a r a c t e r is t ic s :
An adult has a defined personality composed of a stable core
and a periphery th a t modifies with experience, (p. 67)
Adults have strengths and weaknesses th a t may or may not modify
as they in te r a c t with the environment and go through 1i f e ’ s
natural processes. S a tis fa c tio n is greatest when the strengths
o f the adult are used and acknowledged, (p. 74)
F le x ib le adults
a d u lts, (p. 80)

function cooperatively more often

than

r ig i d

Adults need a p o s itiv e sense o f personal worth, (p. 85)
Adults have biases and mindsets th a t preclude complete openness
and f l e x i b i l i t y , (p. 92)

72

Adults give clues to t h e i r conscious but unspoken,
unconscious thoughts and fe e lin g s , (p. 95)

and t h e i r

Needs, in te r e s ts , and values create an a f f e c t iv e and cognitive
base fo r an a d u lt ’ s goals, (p. 102)
Adults behave in terms o f what is real to them a t the moment.
(P- H D
Adults are located along numerous continua and are constantly
affected by the s a tis fa c tio n o f t h e i r basic needs in r e la t io n
to t h e i r current lo catio n on each continuum, (p. 118)
Stress is an in te g ra l part o f human existence, (p. 124)
Developmental c h a r a c t e r is tic s :
Adult development is a 1ifelo ng search f o r id e n t it y ,

(p. 133)

Adults continuously move from s e l f to others, (p. 138)
Marker events, t r a n s it io n s , and crises create times o f unrest,
re a p p ra is a l, or explosion th a t lead to some form o f adaptation,
(p. 144)
The r e la t io n of load to power changes as we age. (p. 152)
As adults, a b i l i t y does not appreciably d e c lin e , although time
needed fo r a response increases and new m aterial may be harder
to le a rn , (p. 157)
Across the 1ifespan,
functioning, (p. 163)

time

perception

changes,

and

a ffe c ts

Environmental c h a r a c te r is t ic s :
Adults are continuously faced with d u a lit ie s
balance, or attempt to transcend, (p. 169)

they can ignore,

A d u lts a re c o n s c io u s ly and un consciously a f f e c t e d by th e
geographic and physical space around them as well as the
a ttitu d e s and values of the times in which they l i v e . (p. 177)
Adults use a phenomenological
occurrences, (p. 184)

approach when evaluating

e a rly

73
Learning c h a r a c te r is tic s :
Adults are continuously growing and lea rn in g , (p. 189)
Adult learnin g is often
immediate g o a l. (p. 194)

s e lf-in itia te d

and aimed

toward

an

Adults le a rn and process m aterials through multitudinous means.
(p. 202)
People have subject matter or s k i l l s about which they p re fe r to
le a rn , (p. 208)
Adults use only part
t h e i r l i v e s , (p. 213)

of t h e ir

Oja

and categorized

(1986)

development to

described

in t e lle c t u a l

on developmental

theory

teachers’ growth to

in

research,
of

to

during

of

adult

provide

a

Her program design, based
can

ego,

be

used

"to

conceptual,

promote

and moral

Oja stated, "Views of adult development can

terms

b io lo g ic a l/m a tu ra tio n a l
th e

and

higher le v e ls

(p. 10).

be categorized

theories

furnish current information but also

framework fo r an inservice program model.

development"

the

p o te n tia l

of

three

d iffe re n t

perspectives:

the

models; the developmental-task models;

devel o p m ental-stage

models"

(p .

10 ).

Of

th e

and

th re e ,

developmental-task models have the greatest im plications fo r s t a f f
development.
Bi ol ogi c a l / m a t u r a t ional

models

are

re p re s e n te d

in

psychoanalytic theories developed by Freud, G essell, Rousseau,
A ll p o rt.
back

to

In these models,
childhood

the
and

adult personality and growth are traced

experiences.

The physiological

c o rrelate s

of

aging in adults focus on adults over 65 and t h e i r loss o f s k i l l s and
functions.

74
Developmental-task
coping

behaviors

th a t

function in society.

models

include

individuals

social

need

to

ro le s ,

perform

tasks,
in

and

order

to

The two groups of developmental-task th e o ris ts

are l i f e - a g e and l i f e - c y c l e th e o ris ts .
Examples o f l i f e - a g e th e o ris ts include Levinson (1978),
(1978),

and

Sheehy

(1974,

1976).

Levinson

developed

describing how men develop from 17 to 65 years of age.

a

Gould
1 adder

In his study

of 40 men between the ages of 35 and 45 in four occupational groups,
Levi nson

found

th a t

men

pass

through

p re d ic ta b ly

u n s ta b le

t r a n s it io n a l periods and a p a r t ic u la r ly wrenching time close to age
40.

Men must

confront

issues

if

successfully to the next period.

they

are

to

move or

progress

Gould examined 500 middle-class

people between the ages o f 16 and 60 and found th a t age 40 was a
d iffic u lt

one fo r most,

both

personally

and p ro fe s s io n a lly .

He

stressed th a t in divid uals need to change t h e i r e a rly expectations as
they develop.

Gould has changed his position from th a t o f a stage

or age th e o ris t and no longer believes th a t people go through formal
developmental
observations,

stages

in

he claimed

adulth o o d .
in dividuals

Based
merely

on

1987)

suggested

th a t

"adults

go

c lin ic a l

change t h e i r

looking at and experiencing the world over time.
Rosenfeld,

h is

way

of

Sheehy (c ite d in

through

progressive,

p re d ic ta b le , age-1 inked stages each o ffe rin g challenges th a t must be
met before moving on to the next stage"

(p.

6 4 ).

Sheehy’ s ideas

were based on the work o f Levinson, Gould, and V a i l l a n t .
Examples o f l i f e - c y c l e th e o ris ts
and Neugarten.

include Havighurst,

Erikson,

Robert Havighurst, an e a rly pioneer o f research on

75

adults,

divided

the

adult

adulthood (ages 18 to 3 0 ),

years

into

of

daughter

adulthood:
of

aging

worker,

parent,

phases:

(a)

(b) middle age (ages 30 to 5 5 ),

l a t e r m atu rity (ages 55 and o v e r ).
roles

three

e a rly
and (c)

He also id e n t if ie d ten social

mate,

c it iz e n ,

parent,
fr ie n d ,

homemaker,

son

organization

r e lig io u s a f f i l i a t e , and user o f le is u re time.

or

member,

According to Knowles

(1980), the requirements fo r performing these roles change as adults
move through the three phases of adult 1i f e .
Erikson (1950) described eight stages in the 1 i f e cycle of man,
in d ic a tin g that in divid uals must grapple with the c o n f l ic t

of one

stage

one

before

they

i n f a n c y , w ith
childhood,

can advance

th e

c o n flic t

stage two,

shame and doubt.

to

of

c o n f lic t

puberty.
d iffu s io n

In

of

tru s t

represents

industry

adolescence,

the c o n f l ic t

Stage

m is tru s t.
of

is

E a r ly

autonomy versus

in which i n i t i a t i v e

School age in stage four presents

versus
stage

in fe rio rity
fiv e ,

is the primary c o n f l i c t .

in

id e n t it y

the

time

versus

before
id e n t it y

In stage s ix , young adulthood,

intimacy versus is o la tio n must be resolved.
seven,

one.

versus

Stage three is the play age,

versus g u i l t presents c o n f l ic t .
the

a higher

g e n e r a tiv ity versus self-absorption

In
is

adulthood,

the

key

issue.

stage
In

stage e ig h t, senescence, the c o n f l ic t of in t e g r i t y versus disgust is
resolved by the person who has achieved intimacy with others and
fe e ls good about h is /h e r own accomplishments in various 1i f e ro le s .
Neugarten and Neugarten
define social

(1987)

indicated

th a t

a ll

age according to at le a s t three periods:

s ocieties
childhood,

76
adulthood, and old age.

Attempts to define middle age began on ly a

few decades ago, and the defin ing 1ines are blurred because of a new
group

labeled

healthy,

"young-o ld"--ind ividu als

vigorous,

and w e l l - o f f

adolescence

and

in divid uals

now marry

u n til

they

are

adulthood

in

is

la t e

have

fin a n c ia lly .

also

very young,

th e ir

who

being

r e t ir e d
The

obscured

whereas

others

30s and beyond.

1ine

but

between

because
del ay

The 1 ine

are

some

marriage
between

childhood and adulthood is fading as c hildren know more about oncetaboo topics and t h e i r preferences are s im ila r to those o f a d u l t s .
The incongruities between the t r a d it io n a l norms and the flu id
1 i f e cycle represent new freedoms f o r many people, f o r other
people new u n c e rta in tie s and s tra in s . . . . Some people l i v e in
new ways, but continue to th in k in old ways. . . . One’ s own
age remains c rucial to every in d iv id u a l, a l l the way from e arly
childhood through advanced old age. . . . A person uses age as
a guide in accommodating to others, in giving meaning to the
1i f e course, and in contemplating the time th a t i s past and the
time th a t remains. (Neugarten & Neugarten, 1987, p. 33)
Oja (1986) wrote th a t:
Developmental-stage theories are based on the assumption t h a t
human development re s u lts from changes in cognitive stru ctu res,
which are t h i n k in g p a t t e r n s by which a person r e l a t e s
him /h e rs e lf to h is /h e r environment.
The development-stage
theories o f Jean Piaget, Lawrence Kohl berg, Jane Loevinger, and
David Hunt a l l p o sit a sequence o f h ie r a r c h ic a l, in v a r ia n t, and
q u a l i t a t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t stages with the higher stages being
more adequate in the sense th a t they include taking m ultip le
points of view, more empathic r o le -ta k in g and more adequate
problem solving, (p. 16)
Rosenfeld (1987) reported on several
and t h e i r

development.

Helson,

M it c h e l l ,

studies concerning women
and Moore completed a

long-term study o f 132 women to examine forces p ro p ellin g people to
change psychologically during adulthood.
these women as college seniors,

The researchers

5 years l a t e r ,

studied

and when they were

77
between 42 and 45.
oriented,

They found three d i s t i n c t groups:

(b) career oriented,

(a)

fam ily

and (c) those who f o l 1owed n e ith er

path but pursued low -level work.

Between age 21 and t h e i r mid-40s,

women in a l l groups became more s e lf - d is c ip lin e d , more committed to
d u tie s,
th e ir

and more independent and confident.
e a rly

40s,

th e women s h i f t e d

feminine a tt it u d e s ,

Between age 27 and

toward

le s s

tra d itio n a lly

including g reater dominance, higher achievement

m otivation, g reater in t e r e s t in events outside the fa m ily , and more
emotional s t a b i l i t y .
In another study, He!son and Moane (c ite d in Rosenfeld,
found the

same m id iife

concerns

among women th a t

th e o ris ts have found in men and women.

the

1987)

1ife -s ta g e

They described the period as

m id iife consciousness, ra th e r than m id iife c r i s i s .

He!son and Moane

found th a t women who did not commit themselves to one o f the main
1 i f e - s t y l e patterns faced few challenges and did not f u l l y develop
as did other women.
Based on her studies o f women at m id iif e , Schlossberg (c ite d in
Rosenfeld, 1987) disagreed with the notion th a t there is a sin g le ,
universal tim etable fo r adult development or th a t one can p re d ic t a
c r is is

by knowing a person’ s age.

Bandura

(c ite d

in

Rosenfeld,

1987) also opposed the stage-development theory and contended th a t
"chance events" play an important ro le

in

shaping a d u lts ’

li v e s .

Life-age and -stage approaches have been f u r th e r c r i t i c i z e d because
they do not seem to apply to women (Rosenfeld, 1987).

78
Oja (1986) designed a framework based on adult learning theory
th a t can be used to incorporate

a developmental

focus in to s t a f f -

development programs.
The framework is based on the hypothesis th a t s t a f f development
which addresses teachers’ le v e l o f ego, moral and conceptual
growth w i l l meet teachers* needs f o r challenge in new learning
and w i l l r e s u lt in changes in teachers’ behaviors with students
in the classroom and with colleagues in schools, (p. 35)
O ja’ s framework consisted of
during the summer and f a l l .

three

phases

th a t

would take

place

Phase I was a time to build supportive

personal rela tio n s h ip s w ithin small groups, in order to create the
environment necessary f o r developmental growth.
of

learning new s k i l l s

Phase I I

consisted

appropriate fo r more complex ro le taking.

Here teachers would be fa m ilia r iz e d with the theory of developmental
stages of growth.

Phase I I I focused on applying the newly acquired

s k ills

to

and theory

support

and

the

advisement

conferences.

by

teacher’ s own classroom,
means

of

The example i l l u s t r a t e s

small-group

with
and

on-going
individual

how an environment conducive

to adult learning can be created in a nonthreatening s e ttin g with
adequate support and follow -u p.
Using the
Krupp

(1981)

age blocks

delineated

developed Adult

by Levinson

Development:

et

a l.

Im plications

(1978),

fo r

S ta ff

Development, a handbook to assist those pianning staff-development
a c tiv itie s .

She wrote,

teacher

completely

as

"A s t a f f developer must get to know each
as

possible

in

order

to

understand

in d iv id u a l’ s place in the developmental sequence" (p. 2 ) .

th a t

She urged

s t a f f developers to be concerned not only with a d u lts ’ developmental
stages

but

also

with

research

about

such

topics

as

the

adult

79

le a rn e r,

le a r n in g

s ty le s ,

re la tio n s h ip

p re fe re n c e s ,

assessments, and teacher-adm inistrator d iffe re n c e s .

needs

Krupp asserted,

Only the educator f a m i lia r with a l l areas re la te d to s t a f f
development can in d iv id u a liz e and view the adult le a rn e r in a
h o l i s t i c manner.
This must be done!
I t is only through a
h o i i s t i c view o f the adu lt, a view o f the adult in a l l possible
aspects, th a t s t a f f development can hope to be successful. (p.
147)
The Current Status of In d u s tria l Arts and
Technology Education
The c u r r e n t
in d u s tria l
current

arts

s ta tu s

of

education

educational

education

has

thought,

been

and,

said

societal

to

more
be

changes,

s p e c ific a lly ,

a r e f le c t io n

and values.

of
Zuga

(1 9 85 ) fo rm u la te d a framework o f t w e n t i e t h - c e n t u r y e d u c a tio n a l
thought

and

inserted

expanded framework.

in d u s tria l

arts

curriculum

(See Figure 2 . 4 . )

changes

into

Her purpose was to depict

how the values o f general education have influenced in d u s tria l
curriculum.
manual

She traced

a rts

through

in d u s tria l
technology

arts

an

from manual

e d u c a tio n .

arts

tr a in in g

Zuga

and

d e s c rib e d

t r a d it io n a l in d u s tria l arts as being based on the curriculum-content
model

of

wood,

m e ta l,

c u r r ic u lu m - c o n te n t

and d raw in g,

model

is

whereas

th e

m a n u fa c tu rin g ,

contemporary
c o n s t r u c t i on,

communication, and tran s p o rta tio n .
Zuga id e n tif ie d one o f the problems confronting in d u s tr ia l a rts
as defin ing
taught.

the content

and describing

what

knowledge

should

be

She recommended looking to industry and technology as only

a p a rtia l

answer.

80
The best methods we have f o r id e n tify in g curriculum have to do
with the in teg ra tio n o f our goals o f education and the methods
we use to id e n t if y what to do and teach in the classroom. . . .
Content, then, can be derived from values, when values are
taken to be the goals of in d u s tria l education. (Zuga, 1986, p.
67)
She urged teachers to

id e n t if y ,

s e le c t,

and f u r th e r

develop

the

curriculum using a theory base but, in so doing, to include values.

1870-1885
Child Study
Kindergarten
(MANUAL TRAINING)

7 W -1 8 8 5
Mental
Discipline

1800-1915
Scientific Study
(TRADE & JOB ANALYSIS)

1885-1800
Herbartlanlsm
(MANUAL ARTS)

1915-1930
Child-centered
Progresslvism
(TRADITIONAL
INDUSTRIAL ARTS)

1945-1960
Llfe-adjustment
(PREVOCATIONAL
INDUSTRIAL ARTS)

1975-1990
Humanistic (TECHNOLOGY
EDUCATION)

1930-1945
Society-centered
Reconstructlonlsm
(CURRICULUM TO
REFLECT TECHNOLOGY)

1980-1975
Academicism
(INDUSTRIAL
TECHNOLOGY)

1980-????
New Basics
(? rm ? r? )

Figure 2 . 4 . - - In d u s t r i a l arts curriculum in r e la t io n to a framework
o f educational thought (from Zuga, 1988).

Burkirk (1986) conducted a study in Nebraska in which he found
th a t "school board presidents had c le a re r opinions about the content
o f in d u s tria l arts programs than did parents, school adm inistrators,

81

or school
content,

respondents

p rio rity :
use

than

natural
(f)

counselors.

gave

the

on

in d u s tria l

of

(d)

futu re

(b)

s p e c ific s ,
occupational

in d u s trie s ,

competency-based curriculum,

o f 54 items

following

(a) basic mathematics,

resources,

study

From a l i s t

10

topics

g reater emphasis

(c )

environmental

resources,
(g)

about

curriculum

the

on general
impact

(e ) basic

prevocational

highest

physics,

s k ills ,

( i ) use o f c lu s t e r concepts,

and

(h)

and ( j )

study o f operating a business.
In 1970, a group o f graduate and undergraduate students a t West
V ir g in ia U niversity were seeking a name fo r
help s tudents understand
technological f u t u r e . "
the

In d u s tria l

A rts

" th e ir

a program designed to

t e c h n o lo g ic a l

i n h e r i t a n c e and

Thus, "the f i r s t program in the hi story of
P ro fe s s io n

changed

its

name to

re fle c t

contemporary technology" (Lauda & McCrory, c ite d in Jones & Wright,
1986, p. 15).
In a curriculum report e n t it l e d Technology Education: A Modern
Focus fo r In d u s tria l Arts (NASSP, 1985a), the movement t o transform
in d u s tria l arts education into technology education was described as
[an] o rderly evolution of the in d u s tria l a r ts curriculum th a t
w i l l r e f l e c t the character and serve the needs o f the society
in which i t e x i s t s .
A b r i e f re v ie w o f t h a t curriculurn
evolution, e s p e c ia lly in the la s t 40 years, w i ll show th a t the
recommendation t o c o n v e rt i n d u s t r i a l a r t s e duc a tion to
technology education is consistent w ith the history of th is
in s tru c tio n a l f i e l d , (p. 1)
The report continued,
focus o f in d u s tria l
in d u s tria l

arts

"The wisdom and p r a c t i c a l i t y o f changing the

a rts education are topics of

c ir c le s - - n o t

only among teachers

l i v e l y debate

in

and supervisors,

82
but among curriculum th e o ris ts as w e ll" (p. 2 ) .
th a t

a c le a re r

understanding

is

needed o f

There is evidence
th e

s tru c tu re

and

im plem entatio n o f a te c h n o lo g y -e d u c a tio n c urriculurn b e fo re the
movement can be evaluated.
In Technology E d u c a tio n : A P e rs p e c tiv e

on Im plem entatio n

(NASSP, 1985b), technology education was defined as "a comprehensive
action-based
th e ir

educational

evolution,

o rg a n iz a tio n ,
products;

program concerned

u tiliz a tio n ,
personnel

and t h e i r

technical

and significance with

systems,

s o c ia l/c u ltu r a l

education is designed fo r a l l

with

means,

industry,

te c h n iq u e s ,

re s o u rc e s ,

impact"

2 ).

(p.

it s
and

Technology

students, regardless of t h e i r career

goals:
[ I t ] can help the student to:
-Know and appreciate the importance of technology.
-A pply t o o l s , m a t e r i a l s , processes and t e c h n ic a l
s a fely and e f f i c i e n t l y .
-Uncover and develop individual ta le n ts .
-Apply problem-solving techniques.
-Apply other school subjects.
-Apply c re a tiv e a b i l i t i e s .
-Deal with forces th a t influence the fu tu re .
-Adjust to the changing environment.
-Become a wiser consumer.
-Make informed career choices. (NASSP, 1985b, p. 2)

concepts

Technology Education: A Perspective on Implementation contained
a model showing how technology education should beimplemented
grades K through 12, with a s p e c ific goal at each of
In grades

K through

t e c h n ic a l

awareness.

o rie n ta tio n

5 /6 ,

the goal
In

and explo ra tio n ,

grades

is

learning

6 through

three le v e ls .

reinforcement
8 /9 ,

th e

goal

whereas preparation in technology

the primary goal fo r grades 9 through 12.

in

and
is
is

83
Gradwel 1 (1988) advocated technology education as a new focus
fo r

in d u s tria l

arts

but stressed the importance of agreeing on a

common d e f in it io n o f technology and determining the essential
o f technology education.
education

He id e n t if ie d the strength o f technology

as the hands-on approach fo r

p ro je c ts .

core

The d i f f e r e n c e

p ra c tic a l

between t r a d i t i o n a l

construction
in d u s tria l

of

a rts

projects and technology education is the l a t t e r ’ s focus on enhancing
im a g in a tio n

and

p ro b le m -s o lv in g

a b ility

through

s t r u c tu r e d

s itu a tio n s ra th e r than on improving the student’ s performance with
to o ls .
Throughout the years,

in d u s tria l

students understand t h e i r technical
has

been

geared

to

the

m aterials and projects

past.

arts

educators

herita g e ,

Programs

but t h is

have

involved with technical

been

have

helped

in s tru c tio n
oriented

to

processes but have

excluded most content and stra te g ies th a t deal with tra n s p o rta tio n .
"Programs have not kept pace with the changing technology.

Updating

la b o ra to rie s to r e f l e c t contemporary technology is cost p r o h ib itiv e ,
and a lte r n a tiv e s to the problem have not been a high p r i o r i t y

fo r

many teachers" (Lauda & McCrory, c ite d in Jones & Wright, 1986, p.
2 9).
In

May

1986,

School

Shop,

the

In te rn a tio n a l

Technology

Education Association, and V ir g in ia Polytechnic In s t i t u t e undertook
a jo in t

e ffo rt

to

dete rm in e

th e

s ta tu s

of

i n d u s t r i al

a rts ,

technology education, and trade and in d u s tria l education (Dugger et
a l.,

1988).

State

supervisors

fo r

in d u s tria l

a r ts ,

technology

education, and trade and in d u s tria l education were surveyed on such

84

issues

as enrollment

le v e ls ,

program requirements,
Seventy

evaluation

in d ic a t e d

education f i e l d

th a t

procedures,

salary

le v e ls ,

and funding

le v e ls .

and Pennsylvania.

in ternal

and
and

alarmingly

th e

in d u s tria l

survey.

a r t s / t e c h n o lo g y

is dominated by males; the la rg e s t number o f these

teachers were employed in

q u a lity

numbers and

percent o f the s ta te supervisors responded to the

Findings

Jersey,

teacher

external

Indiana,

According to the

facto rs

q u an tity.

were

Increased

low number o f

New York,

teachers

Michigan,

survey r e s u lt s ,

negatively
academic
in

Ohio,

a ffe c tin g

some

program

requirements

tr a in in g

New

and

programs

fo r

an
the

future were cite d as causes fo r concern.
A second survey was conducted by these same groups in A pril
1987.

S ixty-nin e percent of trade and in d u s tria l

65% of
Data

technology education

from Michigan

indicated

supervisors and

supervisors responded to the
a

loss

of

s lig h tly

more

survey.
than

100

teachers from the previous year in both the trade and in d u s tria l and
the technology/industrial a rts f ie ld s (Dugger e t a l . , 1988).
Zuga (1986) expressed the concern th a t "as in d u s tria l educators
search fo r the underlying p rin c ip le s o f t h e i r f i e l d s ,

new programs

purporting to f u l f i l l t h is mission are being promoted" (p. 6 5 ).
questioned whether t r a d i t i o n a l

methods,

such

as

She

o c c u p a tio n a l

analysis, th a t have been used in curriculum planning are appropriate
fo r today’ s contemporary goals o f in d u s tria l education.
Swanson
educ a tion

as

(1985)
being

viewed th e
th e

problem c o n fr o n tin g

re s p o n s ib ility

of

in d u s tria l

in d u s tria l

te a c h e r

85
educators.
those

He categorized these educators

who are

tra d e s ,

narrowly

focused

d e m o n s tra tio n s ,

contem porary,
technological

wanting
forces

and
to

in

on

topics

p ro je c ts ;

make

such

and

changes

society.

into two groups:
as

(b )

Swanson

handicrafts,

those

w h ile

(a)

who are

understanding

recommended

t h a t,

to

improve in d u s tria l education, in d u s tria l teacher educators should:
(a) reassess and r e fin e t h e i r view o f industry; (b) update
t h e i r understanding o f le a rn in g , psychology and educational
technology; (c) expand industry and
in d u s tria l job content
analysis to o ls ; (d) embrace p riv a te -s e c to r in d u s tria l tr a in in g
as a program area o f i n d u s t r i a l e d u c a tio n ; ( e ) become
increasingly f a m i lia r with the changing nature of in d u s tria l
education; ( f ) develop and maintain
an a c tiv e network of
competent in d u s tria l educator colleagues in the p riv a te and
public sectors; (g) develop purposeful personal plans fo r
continued learning; [and] (h) a ffir m both the p r iv ile g e and
opportunity to influence others as in d u s tria l educators, (pp.
62-63)
Stadt
jobs

to

(1985)

asserted

accomplish

century" (p. 6 4 ).
suggested

if

it

is

" in d u s tria l

arts

has several

survive

into

the t w e n t y - f ir s t

to

Heposed the following two questions

responses:

p r e v o c a tio n a l

that

(a)

o rie n ta tio n ?

S h a l1

in d u s tria l

S ta d t

occupations in the same context as other general
but with up-to-date f a c i l i t i e s
a rts

be general

te c h n o lo g y ,

education?

educators

technology or c r a fts
d e s ira b le ,
accordingly.

th e y

must

and equipment,
In

th e

decide

th e

and home maintenance.

should

be

presented

in c lu d e

d e a lin g

of

w ith

in d u s tria l

understanding

d ire c tio n
If

a

education courses

(b) Shall

c o n te x t
if

and gave his

a rts

recommended

big

w ill

be

both focuses

are

s e p a r a t e ly

and

la b e le d

Stadt concluded,

In d u s tria l a rts is one o f America’ s strengths.
good fo r students to have both a lte r n a tiv e s .

I t would be
Unless c le a r

86
purpose and action plans are determined immediately, in d u s tria l
arts w i l l lose in the vicious p o l i t i c a l arena o f curriculum.
(P- 85)
Summary
D iv e rs e
development,
p e r s p e c tiv e

o p in io n s

exi st

but

accepted

fo r

e d u c a to rs .

a c c o u n ta b ility ,
e ff e c t iv e

most

about

what

and

With

lea rne r

s ta ff

in c lu d e

broad

d e fin itio n s
th e

curren t

re s e a rch -b a se d in fo r m a tio n

teaching,

c o n s titu te s

outcomes,

emphasis

on th e
models

fo r

appear in

e d u c a tio n a l

N o ta b ly

been

lin k

preservice

though,

education

to

has

th e

form a continuum f o r

of

on

elements o f

e d u c a tio n programs f r e q u e n t l y
m is s in g ,

a

inservice
jo u rn a ls .

i n s e r v ic e

teachers,

with

to
the

expectation f o r continued growth.
Most

w rite rs

on

the

topic

have

concurred

th a t

the

s ta ff-

development a c t i v i t i e s teachers have been offered in the past have
not met t h e i r overall perceived needs.
s itu a tio n

rests

with

the

program development;

general

th e y

Much o f the blame fo r th is

fa ilu re

are m erely

to

involve

in v ite d

to

teachers

in

p a rtic ip a te .

Another major problem is th a t many program planners f a i l to consider
the

uniqueness

of

the

adult

le a rn e r.

Teachers

are

taught

to

recognize students’ d i f f e r e n t learning styles and le v e ls , to enable
them to

be

successful

le a rn e rs ;

te a c h e rs

would

1 ik e

s im i1ar

consideration when they are the learners.
Teachers

recognize

staff-development

practices

as

e f f e c t iv e

when those a c t i v i t i e s are based on t h e ir expressed needs and include
d e m o n s tra tio n ,

p ra c tic e ,

and

feed b a c k.

C o ll a b o r a t i o n

w ith

87
colleagues ranks as a high p r i o r i t y , along with being given a choice
o f a c t i v i t i e s and the opportunity to d ir e c t one’ s own professional
growth.
A long-range, lo c a l ly designed plan is an essential element fo r
improving s t a f f development.
program,

The needs o f personnel, o f the school

and o f students should a l l

be considered in the program

design.
L ittle
numerous

agreement

e xists

t h e o r i sts

have

on what

motivates

emphasized

in d iv id u a ls ,

c o n te n t ,

process,

reinforcement and have 1 inked motivation and incentives.
incentives

seem to

whereas e x tr in s ic
e ffe c ts

be

powerful

than

or

In t r i n s i c

e x t r in s ic

ones,

incentives or rewards may have some detrimental

on motivation

e x tr in s ic

much more

but

over a long period.

Whether

in trin s ic

incentives are preferred depends on the s e ttin g

or

and the

in divid uals involved.
O v e r a l1,

monetary

rewards

fo r

p a rtic ip a tio n

in

s ta ff-

development a c t i v i t i e s have been found to have e it h e r in s ig n if ic a n t
or

negative

e f fe c ts ,

r e s p o n s ib ilitie s

has

whereas
been

proven

toward professional growth.
s iz e ,

r e c o g n iz in g

increasing
to

teachers’

create

job

in trin s ic

tasks

or

motivation

Other incentives include reducing class

o u ts ta n d in g

t e a c h in g ,

and

p r o v id in g

more

in te re s tin g responsibil i t i e s .
S t a f f development can be successful only i f developers take a
h o l i s t i c view o f the a d u lt.

Therefore, s t a f f developers must get to

know each teacher and understand h is /h e r place in the developmental
sequence.

A

framework

based

on

a d u lt

1 e a rn in g

th e o r y

is

88

recommended,

which

addresses teachers’

conceptual development.

level

of

ego,

moral, and

Changes in teachers’ behavior with students

and colleagues can be expected only i f the preceding conditions are
recognized and incorporated into staff-development programs.
If

in d u s tria l

arts

is to remain

an

curriculum and career choice fo r teachers,
r e f l e c t current societal values.
of

in d u s tria l

a rts

in te g ra l

p a rt

o f the

i t must be redefined to

There is evidence th a t the number

teachers is declining

annually

and

educators are being prepared to replace those who r e t i r e
other employment (Padelford, 1988; Rudnick, 1985).

th a t

few

or chose

In d u s tr ia l

arts

programs geared to the past must be replaced by those r e fle c t in g
contemporary technology.
th is problem,

Professionals in the f i e l d need to address

and they should do so before the program areas are

replaced with new and increased requirements f o r students.

CHAPTER I I I
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Introduction
The primary purpose o f th is study was to id e n t if y the types of
incentives th a t would motivate Michigan in d u s tria l a rts teachers to
p a r tic ip a te in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .

Chapter I I I contains

a description o f the methodology employed in conducting th is study,
including
sample,

the

basic

re se a rch

design

of

q u e s t io n s ,

the

research,

the

in s t r u m e n t a t io n ,

population

and

d a ta -c o lle c tio n

techniques, and data-analysis procedures.
Design of the Study
In th is
from

a

study a mail

s tra tifie d

in d u s tria l

random

survey was used to c o lle c t
sample

drawn

arts teachers in Michigan.

from

the

information

population

of

Each step taken in carrying

out the study is shown in Figure 3 .1 .
Population and Sample
The study p o p u la tio n

comprised th e 2 ,2 4 3

in d u s tria l

a rts

teachers who were employed in Michigan in 1985, according to State
of Michigan data.

A s t r a t i f i e d sample o f approximately 405 teachers

was selected as the ta rg e t group f o r
proportionate to

the population

s iz e .

89

the

study.

This

sample was

Information was a v a ila b le

90
Review Characteris­
t i c s o f the Adult
Learner

Review L ite ra tu re
on S t a f f
Development

Review Research
on Incentives
and Motivation

Review Technology Education
as a Curriculum Focus
f o r In d u s tria l Arts
Review the VEPDP
Needs Assessments
Id e n t it y Population
and Sample
Interview
5 Teachers

Design P ilo t
Questionnaire
Summarize P ilo t Information
and Review Questionnaire
Send L e tte r Requesting
Support From MIES

Send Survey Instrument
to Sample of 405

Send Follow-Up L e tte r
to Nonrespondents
C ollect Data
Process Data
Analyze and Describe Findings

Draw Conclusions and Make Recom­
mendations fo r Further Research
Figure 3 . 1 . --Design o f the study.

Mail P ilo t to
35 Teachers

91
categorizing the in d u s tria l arts teachers by the area of Michigan in
which

they

were

employed.

T h e r e fo r e ,

a s tra tifie d

procedure was used, based on the 18 Michigan
Society (MIES) regions (see Appendix A).

sampling

In d u s tria l

Education

The number o f in divid uals

selected from each region was based on the percentage o f in d u s tria l
arts teachers in th a t region.
r e p r e s e n t a t iv e

sample o f

This procedure was used to obtain a

in d u s tr ia l

a rts

te a c h e rs

throug hou t

Michigan so th a t the re s u lts would be generalizable to the e n t ir e
population

of

in d u s tria l

arts

teachers in

the s ta te .

Table

3.1

i l l u s t r a t e s the number o f surveys mailed to in d u s tria l arts teachers
in

each

of

the

18 MIES

regions,

using

the

s tra tifie d

sampling

procedure.
To v e r i f y the accuracy of
arts

teachers,

the

researcher

Education Planning D i s t r i c t
in

the

s ta te ,

in d u s tria l

requesting

arts teachers

the 19851i s t o f Michigan in d u s tria l
sent

a

l e t t e r to

the

(CEPD) vocational-technical
an

updated1 i s t

(Appendix B ).

53

Career

s p e c ia lis ts

of

c u rre n tly

T h ir ty -e ig h t

(72%)

employed

o f the

CEPD s p e c ia lis ts responded to th is request, enabling the researcher
to p a r t i a l l y

v e r if y

the

accuracy of the l i s t

teachers c u rre n tly employed in Michigan.

of

in d u s tria l

arts

Appendix C i l l u s t r a t e s how

Michigan is divided into planning d i s t r i c t s .

92

Table 3 . 1 .- - D is t r ib u t i o n of surveys to in d u s tria l a rts teachers in
the 18 HIES regions.
Region

Description

Surveys Mailed

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

D e tr o it
Wayne County
Jackson, Adrian, Ann Arbor
B a ttle Creek, H ills d a le
Kalamazoo, Portage
Macomb County
Oakland County
Lansing, Brighton
Grand Rapids
Genessee County
Saginaw
Bay C ity
Muskegon
Charlevoix, Petoskey
Traverse C ity
Sault Ste. Marie
Marquette, Escanaba
Calumet, L’ Anse

28
48
28
12
32
40
40
24
40
20
16
16
16
10
10
4
13
8

Total

405

Research Questions
The

following

research

questions

were

posed

to

achieve

the

objectives of th is study and to guide the c o lle c tio n o f data:
1.

To what extent have Michigan in d u s tria l arts teachers par­

tic ip a t e d in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s during the past 2
years, and what are t h e i r reasons fo r p a rtic ip a tin g ?
2.

To what extent have Michigan in d u s tria l arts teachers par­

tic ip a t e d in a c t i v i t i e s targeted by the Vocational Education Person­
nel Development Project between 1985 and 1987?

93
3.

What types of professional-development a c t i v i t i e s do teach­

ers view as relevant?
4.

Which methods fo r technological updating are o f in te r e s t to

in d u s tria l arts teachers?
5.

When would in d u s tria l arts teachers most p re fe r to p a r t i c i ­

pate in professional-development a c t iv it ie s ?
6.

What sp e c ific incentives do in d u s tria l

a rts teachers view

as important?
7.

What

types

of

incentives

do local

d is tric ts

provide

to

encourage p a rtic ip a tio n in professional-growth a c t iv it ie s ?
8.

Is there a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between the frequency

of p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s and the extent to
which incentives are provided lo ca lly ?
9.
age,

Is there a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip between teachers’

(b) level

of education,

teaching experience,

(e)

(c) teaching assignment,

secondary employment, and ( f )

(a)

(d) years o f
size of the

school d i s t r i c t , and t h e i r id e n t if ic a t io n of important incentives?
Seven of the nine research questions were answered using data
obtained
from the

through the surveyinstrument.
l i t e r a t u r e review.

Question

Question 3 was answered
2 was

answered

from data

obtained through the VEPDP.
Instrumentation
The

researcher developed a

survey

questionnaire

in

October

1987, using as a guide the work o f Carr (1984), Herzog (1984), Hal 1
(1979),

and

L o rtie (1975).

Thus,

the

1is t

of

s p e c ific

s ta ff-

development a c t i v i t i e s and the 1 is t of incentives were adapted from

94
the previously c ite d studies.

Survey items were designed to gather

the appropriate data with which to answer the research questions.
The f i r s t d r a f t o f the survey and an accompanying cover l e t t e r were
sent to 35 randomly selected in d u s tria l arts teachers from Region 7,
Oakland County,

in November 1987 (see Appendix D ).

A ll

in d u s tria l

arts teachers in Oakland County were e l i g i b l e to be selected fo r the
Each te ach er’ s name was written on a card, and 35 cards were

p ilo t.

randomly drawn fo r the p i l o t .
and returned the p i l o t

Thirteen o f these teachers completed
fo r a 37 % response r a te .

instrument,

The

researcher did not contact nonrespondents.
In additio n , the w r it e r asked f iv e in d u s tria l arts teachers in
Oakland County to p a r tic ip a te

in a structured in te rv ie w ,

using the

same survey th a t had been sent to the randomly selected teachers.
A ll

f iv e

teachers

agreed to p a r t ic ip a t e ,

conducted in December 1987.

perceptions

questions

and to

on

the

suggest

interviews

were

P articipants were asked to comment on

any items th a t were unclear.
t h e ir

and the

They were also encouraged to

ease

or

d iffic u lty

improvements.

in

share

answering

The researcher

the

c a r e f u lly

noted each in d iv id u a l’ s comments.
Based on suggestions made during the

interviews

and w ritte n

notes on the returned questionnaires, the researcher expanded on or
c la rifie d
Specific

th e d i r e c t i o n s

fo r

p a r t i c u l ar

p a r ts

of

th e

items were also modified as deemed necessary.

s urvey.
Research

s t a f f in the O ffic e o f Research and Consultation at Michigan State
U niversity were also asked to c r it iq u e the survey instrument.
suggestions gave the

researcher

an expanded awareness

Their
of

the

95

pertin e n t d e ta ils in conducting survey research and in constructing
a concise and understandable questionnaire.
The fin a l instrument comprised four parts (see Appendix E).
Part I ,
about

In

Background Information, demographic information was sought
the

respondents,

d is tric t,

including

gender,

number of years taught,

age,

size

of

employing

s p e c ific subject areas curren tly

taught, grade l e v e l , percentage of time devoted to in d u s tria l

a r ts ,

other teaching assignments, highest degree earned, other employment,
and type of secondary employment.
In Part
which

II,

information was requested on the

respondents

had

p ro fe s s io n a l-d e v e lo p m e n t
in dicate

the

number of

p a rtic ip a te d

in

a c tiv itie s .

Teachers

times

they

in dicate why they had chosen to

recognition

o b iig a tio n ,
by

p a r t ic ip a t e ,

2 = f r ie n d s

colleagues,

4

=

types

were

in

of

asked

the

to

specified

In addition, they were asked to

fiv e - it e m scale based on Maslow’ s (1954)
c o n tractu al

speci f i c

had engaged

a c t i v i t i e s during the past 2 years.

frequency with

using

the

following

hierarchy of needs:
were

influence

1 =

p a rtic ip a tin g ,

decision

makers,

3

=

5

=

personal choice/professional success.
In Part I I I ,
11

1isted

respondents were asked to in d ic a te whether or not

incentives

present positions.

were

c u rre n tly

involving

were,

th e

most

p a rt,

or

tim e

away

r e c o g n it io n

to

them

in

th e ir

Items 1 through 5 were examples of e x trin s ic

incentives
fo r

a v a ila b le

some

monetary

gain.

nonmonetary
from

th e

Items

6

in c e n t i v e s

classroom

to

through

11

in v o lv in g
engage

in

96
professional-growth
(1 = not at a ll

a c tiv itie s .

important,

were also asked to r a te
Respondents

could

add

Using

a fiv e - p o in t

r a tin g

5 = extremely im portant),

the

p a rtic ip a n ts

importance of the incentives

other

incentives

th a t

were

scale

lis te d .

a v a ila b le

or

d e sirable.
Part IV,

concerning approaches to technological

updating, was

based on the research o f Hamilton and Wonacott (1984).
were

requested

to

in dicate

th e ir

degree

of

Participants

in te r e s t

in

eight

approaches to updating (1 = no in te r e s t, 5 = exceptional i n t e r e s t ) .
Space was provided on the questionnaire

to

enable respondents

to

include other approaches th a t were not mentioned.
The
te a c h e rs ’

fin a l

survey

p re fe rre d

item

tim e

development a c t i v i t i e s .

sought

fo r

in fo r m a tio n

p a rtic ip a tin g

The choices were:

in

re g a rd in g

the

p ro fe s s io n a l-

during the school day,

a f t e r school, weekends, and summer or other vacation time.
Data-Gathering Procedures
The
In d u s tria l

r e s e a rc h e r

wrote

to

Education Society,

the

p r e s id e n t

of

the

Michigan

describing the purpose o f the study

and requesting the support and endorsement of the MIES executive
board (see Appendix F ) .

Because many MIES members were po tential

p a rtic ip a n ts , such an endorsement was d e s ira b le .

The MIES complied

with th is request fo r endorsement (see Appendix F ) .
In e a rly March 1988, the researcher sent the survey instrument,
along with a cover l e t t e r explaining the purpose o f the study and
its

endorsement

by

MIES,

to

the

405

in d u s tria l

arts

teachers

97
selected fo r the sample.

The l e t t e r emphasized th a t p a r t ic ip a n ts ’

anonymity would be protected
c o n fid e n tia l.
envelope

in

Included
which

and th a t

th e ir

responses

would

in the mailing was a postage-paid

completed

surveys

were

to

be

be

return

mailed

to

the

researcher.
Each

survey

in stru m e n t

accommodate the two d i g it s
th e

th re e

d ig its

was

(001 -3 0 5 )

purposes,

nonrespondents.

to

a

fiv e -d ig it

indicating the MIES region
fo r

p a rtic ip a n ts in some regions.
keepi ng

given

the

more

than

code,
(01-18)

300

to
and

el ig ib l e

The code was used s o le ly fo r record-

enable

the

researcher

to

c o n ta c t

Teachers were asked to respond by March 25, 1988.

Si nee spring break began the next week, follow-up l e t t e r s were not
mailed

u n til

April

8

(see

Appendix

G).

The

follow-up

packet

included a l e t t e r encouraging teachers to complete and return t h e ir
questionnaires, another copy of the o rig in a l cover l e t t e r and survey
instrument,

and another postage-paid envelope.

The two mailings

yielded 257 usable questionnaires, fo r a return ra te o f 56%.
The researcher sent thank-you le t t e r s to a l l respondents.
al so

informed

those

who

had

requested

a

summary

findings when they could expect to receive

th a t

of

the

information

She
study
(see

Appendix G).

Data-Analvsis Procedures
A fo u r-p a rt

q u e s t io n n a ir e

was

the

main

d a ta -c o lle c tio n

instrument to answer seven of the nine research questions.
Background

Information,

requested

demographic

data.

Part I ,

Percentages

98
were used in reporting the responses.

Part

II,

P a rtic ip a tio n

in

Professional Development A c t i v i t i e s , sought two le v e ls of responses
to 16 questions.
p a rtic ip a te d

Respondents were asked to indicate how often they

in

p a r t ic u la r

summarize these data.
in d ic a t e d

th e ir

a c tiv itie s ;

and

means

Using a L ik e rt-ty p e scale,

reasons

fo r

p a rtic ip a tin g

were

used

to

respondents also

in

th e

id e n tifie d

a c tiv itie s .
In

Part

Professional
sought

fo r

III,

Local

11

id e n t if ie d

and

incentives.
concerning

Provided

Development A c t i v it ie s ,

in d i c a t e whether the
d is tric ts

Incentives

the

importance

Percentages
a v a i 1a b le

two le v e ls

incentives.

in c e n tiv e s

P a rtic ip a tio n

were provid ed
piaced

used

in c e n t i ves

to

in

on

by

asked

th e ir

the

summarize

provid ed

in

o f responses were

Respondents were

they

were

fo r

1ocal

in d iv id u a l

the

the

to

responses
d is tric ts .

Respondents used a L ik e rt-ty p e scale to r a te the importance o f these
id e n t if ie d

incentives.

Means and frequency

summarize these responses.
U pda tin g ,

concerned

e ig h t

Part

in p a r t i c i p a t i n g

updating programs.

used to

Approaches fo r Technological

speci f i c

Respondents used a L ik e rt-ty p e
in te re s t

IV,

counts were

scale to

in s p e c i f i c

approaches
in dicate

to
th e ir

up dati ng.
degree

of

types o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l -

These responses were summarized using means and

frequency counts.
The data were

analyzed

tendency and c o rre la tio n

p rim a rily

analysis.

using

measures

of

central

Means and standard deviations

were the main d e s c rip tiv e s t a t i s t ic s used fo r Research Questions 1,
4, 5, 6, and 7.

Percentages were used to summarize the information

99

fo r
used

Research Question
fo r

Research

independence was

2.

Pearson product-moment

Question

used

fo r

8,

w h ile

Research

the

c o rre la tio n

c h i-s q u a r e

Question

9.

te s t

of

review

of

th e re fo re ,

no

The

1it e r a t u r e was used to answer Research Question 3;

was

s t a t i s t i c was used fo r th a t question.
Pearson’ s product-moment

c o rre la tio n

determine the magnitude and d ire c tio n
two v a ria b le s .
strength
variables

of

association

(Glass & Hopkins, 1984).

used

to

between

allow one to compare the

between d i f f e r e n t

pairs

of

The Pearson s t a t i s t i c was used

to determine i f there was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
between the frequency o f teachers’
growth a c t i v i t i e s

is

of the r e la tio n s h ip

C orrelation c o e ffic ie n ts

and d ire c tio n

c o e f f ic ie n t

s ig n if ic a n t r e la tio n s h ip

p a r tic ip a tio n

in

professional-

and the extent to which incentives were provided

lo c a l ly .
Chi-square,

a

nonparametric

s ta tis tic a l

te s t,

was

used

to

determine whether there was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip
between teachers’

(a)

age,

assignm ent,

(d )

y ears

employment,

and

(f)

id e n t if ic a t io n

of

of

s iz e

important

(b)

whether

th e

of

te a c h in g
of

the

education,

e x p e rie n c e ,
school

incentives.

performed with frequency data,
in d ic a t e s

level

using

the

S ta tis tic a l

(SPSS) (Nie et a l . , 1975).

Package

teaching
secondary

and

The chi-square

of

fo r

1971).

the

Social

th e ir

te s t

chi-square

fre q u e n c i es

s ig n if ic a n t ly from group to group (Borg & G a ll,
processed

(e )

d is tric t,

and the re s u ltin g

d is trib u tio n

(c)

is

value

di f f e r s
Data were
Sciences

100
Summary
This chapter contained an explanation o f the research design
and the procedures followed in conducting the study.

The population

and the sample were described, the research questions were restated,
and the questionnaire developed fo r the study was discussed.
data-gathering

and data-analysis

techniques

were

also

The

explained.

Chapter IV contains the re s u lts of the analyses o f data c ollected in
t h is study.

CHAPTER IV
RESULTS OF THE DATA ANALYSIS
Introduction
Results o f the analysis of data colle cte d to answer the nine
research questions are presented in th is chapter.

The sources of

data fo r th is study were (a) the completed survey instruments from
Michigan

in d u s tria l

arts

teachers

who were

randomly

selected

to

p a r tic ip a te in the study during winter and spring 1988; (b) records
of

workshop

p a rtic ip a n ts ,

collected

by the

Vocational

Education

Personnel Development team at Michigan State U niversity between 1985
and 1987; and (c) a review of l i t e r a t u r e on teachers’ perceptions of
relevant

professional-development

A s tra tific a tio n

process

a c tiv itie s .
was

used

respondents from the 18 Michigan In d u s tria l
regions throughout the s ta te .

(2 6 4)

of

the

405

s e le c t

p o te n tia l

Education Society (MIES)

Table 4.1 i l l u s t r a t e s the number and

percentage of surveys mailed and returned,
p e rc en t

to

m ailed

by region.

surveys

were

constituted the primary data base fo r th is study.
pages, each research question is restated,
pertaining to th a t question.

101

S ix ty -s ix

re tu rn e d

and

In the following

followed by the re su lts

102

Table 4 . 1 . - -Survey response, by Michigan In d u s tria l Education Society
region.

Surveys Returned
Region

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Description

Surveys

D e tro it
Wayne County
Jackson, A drian, Ann Arbor
B a ttle Creek, H ills d a le
Kalamazoo, Portage
Macomb County
Oak! and County
Lansing, Brighton
Grand Rapids
Genessee County
Sagi naw
Bay City
Muskegon
Charlevoix, Petoskey
Traverse C it y
Saul t S t e . Mari e
Marquette, Escanaba
Calumet, L ’Anse

Total
Note:

Number

Percent

28
48
28
12
32
40
40
24
40
20
16
16
16
10
10
4
13
8

14
24
17
9
20
17
31
15
26
14
15
13
10
5
10
3
13
8

50
50
61
75
63
43
78
63
65
70
94
81
63
50
100
75
100
100

405

264

66%

Three surveys were returned with the code removed. The
researcher was unable to assign the surveys to the appropri­
ate region; thus, they were not considered in ta b u latin g the
re s u lts .

Results
Research Question 1 :
To what extent have Michigan in d u s tria l
a r ts teachers p a rtic ip a te d in professional-development a c t i v i ­
t i e s during the past 2 years, and what were t h e i r reasons fo r
p a rtic ip a tin g ?
A mean was computed

fo r

each

p ro fe s s io n a l -d e v e l opment a c t i v i t i e s
highest mean (1 5.5)

re fle c te d

of

the

16

items

lis te d

in the q u e s t io n n a ir e .

the number of professional

as
The

journals

103

read

during

informal

the

past

2 years,

teacher/colleague

followed

dialogue

by

p a r tic ip a tio n

group

w ith in

a

or

b u ild in g

in

an

building

or

d i s t r i c t , with a mean of 8 .8 .
Respondents

a tten ded

di s t r i c t

p r o fe s s io n a l

education committee meetings and observed other teachers

teaching

more than they attended workshops, made presentations,

or enrolled

in

in

col 1ege

c o u rs e s .

A summary

of

p a rtic ip a tio n

a c tiv itie s

is

shown

professional-development
ordered

by

the

mean.

P ro fe s s io n a l

in

Table

o r g a n iz a t io n s

th e

4 .2 ,
to

rank
which

respondents belonged were the Michigan Education Association,
N ati onal

Education

a s s o c i a t io n s ,
National

the

A s s o c ia t io n ,

Michigan

v a rio u s

In d u s tria l

Association of Secondary School

A s s o c ia tio n

of

Occupational

Secondary

Special

School

A s s o c ia tio n ,

Vocational

In d u s tria l

the

Clubs

Coordinators Association.

American
of

Education

America,

the Michigan

and

the

the

the Michigan
the

V o c a tio n a l

the

e d u c a tio n

S o c ie t y ,

P rin c ip a ls ,

P rin c ip a ls ,

Needs Association,

Education

1 ocal

16

Michigan

Occupational
A s s o c ia t io n ,

Michigan

Co-op

Teachers also mentioned several local and

statewide coaching associations.
Appendix

I

contains

Tables

1

through

16,

illu s tra tin g

the

frequency of p a r tic ip a tio n during the past 2 years f o r each of the
16 professional-development
each are also provided.

a c tiv itie s .

The mean and median fo r

104
Table 4 . 2 . --Summary of p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-development
a c tiv itie s .
A c t iv it y

Mean

10. Readinq of professional journals (approximate
number read in the la s t 2 ye ars ).

15.519

14. P a rtic ip a tio n in an informal teacher/colleague
dialogue group w ithin a building or d i s t r i c t .

8.788

12. Number of meetings attended as a member of a d is ­
t r i c t or building professional education committee.

4.652

11. Observations of other teachers teaching.

3.500

1. P a rtic ip a tio n in local d i s t r i c t workshop.

2.697

16. Membership in professional education organizations.

1.682

2. P a rtic ip a tio n in interm ediate, state department or
u n iv e rs ity sponsored workshop.

1.341

3. P a rtic ip a tio n in a workshop sponsored by the Voca­
tio n a l Educational Personnel Development Project.

1.095

6. Enrol 1ing in a community college or u n iv e rs ity c r e d it
course re la te d to c e r t i f i c a t i o n or advanced degree.

1.030

9. Attendance at a s ta te , re g io n a l, or national conven­
t io n .

0.951

8. Enrolling in a technical education c r e d it or non­
c r e d it course.

0.534

7. E nrollin g in a community college or u n iv e rs ity non­
c r e d it course fo r pleasure.

0.341

4. Making a presentation at a local d i s t r i c t workshop.

0.284

13. Number of meetings attended as a member of a sta te
or national task force.

0.235

15. W riting or co-authoring student textbooks or journal
a rtic le s .

0.148

5. Making a presentation at a re g io n a l, statewide, or
national convention.

0.117

105

Table 4 .3 was designed to f u r th e r i l l u s t r a t e the frequency o f
p a r tic ip a tio n or nonparticipation by in d u s tria l
16 p r o fe s s io n a l-d e v e lo p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s
ordered

by t o t a l

p a r tic ip a n ts .

The

arts teachers in the

in summary f o r m a t , rank

firs t

two

columns

show the

number o f respondents who did and did not p a r tic ip a te

in 2 years.

The next

in d iv id u a l s

fo u r

columns

show the

p a rtic ip a te d in each a c t i v i t y .

number

of

tim es

More individuals

read professional

jo u rn a ls , p a rtic ip a te d in local d i s t r i c t workshops, and were members
of professional

education organizations than made presentations a t

conventions, co-authored textbooks o r journal a r t i c l e s ,

and attended

meetings as members of s ta te or national ta s k fo rc e s .
Respondents
p a r tic ip a tin g

were

also

asked

to

in d ic a te

th e ir

in the 16 professi onal-development

a c tiv itie s .

response categories, based on Maslow’ s needs hierarchy
o b iig a tio n ,

frie n d s were p a r t ic ip a t in g ,

reasons

recognition

fo r
Five

(contractual

by colleagues,

influence decision makers, and personal choice/professional success)
were

p r o v id e d .

T able

4 .4

shows

th e

number

of

respondents

p a r tic ip a tin g in each a c t i v i t y , as well as the number and percentage
of teachers in d ic a tin g each o f the f i v e reasons f o r p a r t ic ip a t i n g .

T a b le 4 . 3 . - - F r e q u e n c y o f p a r t i c i p a t i o n

and n o n p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n p r o f e s s i o n a l - d e v e l o p m e n t a c t i v i t i e s .
Number o f
Yes

A c tiv ity

In d iv id u a ls 3

t b
Number o f Times

No

1

2 -3

4-5

6+

220

44

9

40

17

154

187

77

39

86

36

26

172

92

57

69

39

7

164

100

71

71

15

7

149

115

13

47

18

71

Number o f m e e tin g s a t t e n d e d as a member o f a d i s t r i c t o r b u i l d i n g p r o f e s ­
s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n c o m m itt e e .

136

128

11

30

25

70

P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n a wo rksho p s p o n s o re d by t h e V o c a t i o n a l
D e v elo pm e nt P r o j e c t .

133

131

54

61

11

7

130

134

53

64

11

2

O b s e rv a tio n s o f o th e r te a c h e rs te a c h in g .

89

148

29

39

18

30

E n r o l l i n g i n a com m unity c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y c r e d i t c o u r s e r e l a t e d t o
c e r t i f i c a t i o n o r advanced d e g r e e .

75

189

28

22

8

17

E n ro llin g

in a te c h n ic a l e d u c a tio n c r e d i t o r n o n c re d it course.

52

212

32

15

3

2

E n ro llin g

i n a com m unity c o l l e g e o r u n i v e r s i t y

37

227

22

10

3

2

36

228

23

8

3

2

21

243

8

6

5

2

18

246

10

6

1

1

17

247

13

3

0

1

Readin q o f p r o f e s s i o n a l
P a rtic ip a tio n

in

lo c a l

jo u rn a ls

( a p p r o x im a t e number rea d i n t h e l a s t 2 y e a r s ) .

d i s t r i c t w o rk s h o p .

Membership i n p r o f e s s i o n a l e d u c a t i o n o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
P a rtic ip a tio n
w o rk s h o p .

in

in te rm e d ia te ,

P a r t i c i p a t i o n i n an i n f o r m a l
b u ild in g or d i s t r i c t .

A t te n d a n c e a t a s t a t e ,

s t a t e d e p a r tm e n t o r u n i v e r s i t y

s p o nso red

t e a c h e r / c o l l e a g u e d i a l o g u e g ro u p w i t h i n a

r e g io n a l, o r n a tio n a l

M aking a p r e s e n t a t i o n a t a l o c a l

E d u c a tio n a l

P e rs o n n e l

c o n v e n tio n .

n o n c r e d it course f o r p le a s u re .

d i s t r i c t w o rk s h o p .

Number o f m e e tin g s a t t e n d e d as a member o f a s t a t e o r n a t i o n a l
W r itin g o r c o -a u th o rin g s tu d e n t te x tb o o k s or jo u r n a l
M aking a p r e s e n t a t i o n a t a r e g i o n a l ,

a rtic le s .

s ta te w id e , o r n a tio n a l

aNumber o f i n d i v i d u a l s who d i d o r d i d n o t p a r t i c i p a t e .
^Number o f t i m e s i n d i v i d u a l s p a r t i c i p a t e d .

ta sk fo rc e .

c o n v e n tio n .

Table 4 . 4 . --Reasons fo r p a rtic ip a tin g in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s .

Reasons fo r P a rtic ip a tin g
A c tiv ity
1
N

Participatio n in local d i s t r i c t
workshop (n = 209)
P artic ip a tio n in intermediate,
state department, or u n iv e rs ity sponsored workshop (n = 180)

104

4

5

%

N

%

4

1.9

3

1.4

3

1.7

3

1.7

7

3.9

145 80.6

N

%

N

%

11

5.3

87

41.6

12.2

2

1.3

2 1.3

4

2.6

2

1.3

141 93.4

3

5.7

-

7

13.2

12

22.6

31 58.5

2

6.1

Making a presentation at a local
d i s t r i c t workshop (n = 53)

Enrolling in a community college or
university c re d it course re la ted to
c e r t i f ic a t i o n or advanced degree
(n = 93)

49.8

3

N

22

P articipatio n in a workshop spon­
sored by the Vocational Education
Personnel Development Project
(n = 151)

Making a presentation at a regional,
statewide, or national convention
(n = 33)

2
%

.

.

10

10.8

.

-

.

1 1.1

6

-

18.2

-

-

25

-

75.8

82 88.2

Table 4 . 4 . --Continued.

Reasons fo r P a rtic ip a tin g
A c tiv it y
2

Enrolling in a community college or
university noncredit course fo r
pleasure (n = 58)
Enrolling in a technical education
c re d it or noncredit course (n = 78)

2

2

3

4

5

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

N

%

3.4

1

1.7

1

1.7

-

-

54

93.1

2.6

-

-

-

-

1

1.3

75 96.2
►
—»

Attendance at a s ta te , regional, or
national convention (n = 148)

O

1

0.7

3

1

0.5

1

16

13.8

26.7

Reading of professional journals
(approximate number read in the
la s t two years) (n = 214)
Observations of other teachers
teaching (n = 116)
Number of meetings attended as a
member of a d i s t r i c t or building
professional education committee
(n = 135)

36

2.0

1

0.7

8

5.4

135

91.2

0.5

3

1.4

3

1.4

206 96.3

3

2.6

1

0.9

5

4.3

91 78.4

3

2.2

10

7.4

17

12.6

69 51.1

°°

Table 4 . 4 . --Continued.

Reasons fo r P a rtic ip a tin g
A c t iv it y
1

Number of meetings attended as a
member of a state or national task
force (n = 30)
Partic ip a tio n in an informal teacher/
colleague dialogue group w ithin a
building or d i s t r i c t (n = 137)
Writing or co-authoring student t e x t ­
books or journal a r tic le s (n = 29)
Membership in professional education
organizations (n = 115)

Key:

2

N

%

-

-

30

-

10

3

4

5

N

%

N

%

N

%

-

-

1

3.3

7

9

6.6

7

5.1

-

1

3.4

1

8.7

4

3.5

21.9

N

%

23.3

22

73.3

15

10.9

76

55.5

3.4

2

6.9

25

86.2

-

3

2.6

98

85.2

1 = Contractual ob lig atio n , 2 = Friends were p a r tic ip a tin g , 3 = Recognition by c o l­
leagues, 4 = Influence decision makers, 5 = Personal choice/professional success

110

Research Question 2 : To what extent have Michigan in d u s tria l
arts teachers p a rtic ip a te d in a c t i v i t i e s targeted by the Voca­
tio n a l Education Personnel Development Project between 1985 and
1987?
Following a needs assessment conducted during w in te r 1985, the
Vocational
s e r ie s

Education Personnel

o f one-day

i n s e r v ic e

vocational

instructors

records

a ll

of

in d u s tria l
(22%)

arts

attended

and

workshops

to

s t a f f o ffered a

in d u s tria l

adm inistrators.

Project

those who attended the workshops.
teachers
one

or

employed
more

between 1985 and 1987.
p a rtic ip a n ts

Development Project

of

in
the

Table 4.5

Michigan
one-day

gives

at

a rts
s ta ff

kept

the

2,243

Of
th a t

tim e,

in service

teachers

492

workshops

a breakdown of

and the number and percentage o f

and

e lig ib le
from each

MIES region who p a rtic ip a te d .
Research Question 3 :
What types of professional-development
a c t i v i t i e s do teachers view as relevant?
The

review

Research

of

Question

1it e r a t u r e

3.

provided

Teachers

have

education in i t s broadest context.
those

in

input.
focus.

a u th o rity ,

select

On the surface

it

the

been

basis
c ritic a l

fo r

answering

of

inservice

They resent th a t others, often

programs
appears

fo r

th a t

teachers

without

remediation

is

th e ir

often

the

Teachers commonly request input in the selection and design

o f programs, based on the id e n tif ie d needs o f p a r tic ip a n ts .
Most te a c h e rs
purposes

and

want

a c tiv itie s

a c tiv e
of

involvem ent

in s e r v ic e

in

d e v e lo p in g

programs,

as

w e ll

the
as

opportunities to select the programs th a t w i l l strengthen t h e i r own
1e v e ls

of

competence

(Brimm

& T o lle tt,

1 9 74 ).

They

p re fe r

demonstration teaching, p ra c tic a l information, and programs th a t are

Ill

Table 4 . 5 . --P a rtic ip a n ts in Vocational Education Personnel Develop­
ment Project workshops between 1985 and 1987.

Teachers P a rtic ip a tin g
E lig ib le
Teachers

Region

153
273
146
69
173
213
233
138
218
119
97
96
92
42
40
21
77
43

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Total

Note:

N

%

9
39
37
20
48
37
47
31
90
25
10
20
22
6
5
5
24
17
----492

6
14
25
29
28
17
20
22
41
21
10
21
24
14
13
24
31
40
(22%)

P artic ip a n ts may have attended more than one workshop. Total
in d u s tria l arts teachers = 2,243 (Michigan Department of
Education data: 1985-86 school y e a r ).

112

short and to the point.

An in-depth treatment o f one concept is

preferred over a b r i e f overview of m ultiple concepts.

Teachers want

v a rie ty in the a c t i v i t i e s , which they expect to be w ell-organized.
An occasional

in s p ira tio n a l

speaker

type o f incentive to attend.

is welcomed,

along with

some

Teachers value opportunities to v i s i t

other schools and to observe other teachers

in

s im ila r

positions

(Davis & Armistead, 1965).
A c tiv itie s
teachers

than

th a t

are

impersonal

should develop a s k i l l

p e rs o n a liz e d
ones.

To

are

more

a c c e p ta b le

be meaningful,

and include a follow-up that

the

to

programs

sustains the

s k i l l with enough practice to the point of tr a n s fe r (Showers, Joyce,
& Bennett,

1987).

If

the

atmosphere does

not

appear

safe

fo r

experimenting, the p a rtic ip a n ts feel threatened and are unw illing to
take the risks th a t are often necessary when learning something new
(Long, 1977).
Teachers have expressed a strong preference fo r b u ild in g -le v e l
versus d is tric t-fo c u s e d a c t i v i t i e s .

In her 1977 survey, H olly found

te a c h e rs

o th e r

p re fe rre d

u n iv e rs ity

classes,

ta lk in g
reading,

w ith

te a c h e rs ,

s e lf-e v a lu a tio n ,

fo llo w e d

personal

by

a c tiv itie s ,

and e x tra c u r r ic u la r a c t i v i t i e s with students as professional-growth
experiences.
A c tiv itie s
experiences
meetings

te a c h e rs

have

include d is jo in te d

held

after

the

conducted by the National

normal

c ite d

as

workshops
workday.

ir re le v a n t

and courses
In

Education Association

i n s e r v ic e
and fa c u lty

a national
in 1967,

survey
teachers

113
showed lim ite d enthusiasm fo r any school-based programs.
more p o s itiv e evaluations to external
courses.

They gave

programs such as u n iv ers ity

Teachers were discouraged th a t time was not b u i l t into the

school year or day fo r professional-growth experiences and resented
being expected consistently to p a rtic ip a te a f t e r the school day, on
weekends, and/or during normally scheduled vacation time.
The 1 i t e r a t u r e
relevan t

inservice

d id

not c o n ta in

a c tiv itie s .

fu rth e r

id e n tific a tio n

The pre v ailin g

message to

administrators and supervisors was the urgent need to
school

clim ate

and

adequate resources
s ta ff

assume

professional

growth

in the budget,

primary

re s p o n s ib ility

th a t

e ff e c t iv e

s ta ff

fo r

school

improve the

teachers.

along with

growth, seemed to be a high p r i o r i t y .
concluded

of

Providing

an expectation

t h e ir

own

of

that

professional

McLaughlin and Berman (1977)

development

depends

more

on

the

d i s t r i c t ’ s point of view about principals and teachers as learners
than on the s p e c ific

a c tiv itie s

th a t c o n s titu te

staff-development

programs.
Principal s’

support

fo r

professional

growth

and

involvement

with the teaching s t a f f in inservice a c t i v i t i e s were cite d as addi­
tio n a l

factors

contributing

to

improving

the

image o f

in service.

The a u th o rity to determine the needs and outcomes o f professional
development should re s t with teachers, or i t should be "a j o i n t ven­
ture entered

into by teacher and adm inistrator,

both of whom are

accountable fo r the educational programs a ffe c tin g those they serve"
(Winterton, 1977, p. 3 7 ).

Teachers indicated a preference fo r per­

sonal professional-growth pians they designed and t h e i r prin cip a ls

114
approved.

In addition, teachers f e l t empowered when they were able

to evaluate staff-development a c t i v i t i e s
as a r e s u lt o f those a c t i v i t i e s .
fessional -development
based on id e n t if ie d

In summary, teachers viewed pro­

a c tiv itie s
needs,

versus a d i s t r i c t focus,

(b)

and t h e i r own improvement

as
well

relevant

when

organized,

they

(c)

were

(a)

b u ild in g -le v e l

(d) short programs with p ra c tic a l

informa­

t io n , (e) conducted in an atmosphere safe f o r experimenting, and ( f )
single-concept programs with demonstration teaching.
Research Question 4 : Which methods fo r technological
are o f in te r e s t to in d u s tria l arts teachers?
A summary

of

the

responses

teachers who p a rtic ip a te d

in th is

given

by

the

updating

in d u s tr ia l

arts

study is provided in Table 4 .6 .

The mean and median were computed fo r each o f the eigh t approaches
1 isted in the questionnaire, along with the number and percentage of
respondents
in t e r e s t ,

in

each

of

fiv e

c a te g o r ie s

in d ic a tin g

degree

of

using a L ik e rt-ty p e scale ranging from 1 (no in t e r e s t ) to

5 (exceptional

in te re s t).

P a rtic ip a tio n

in

industry

observations

was the approach th a t received the most in t e r e s t , with a mean score
of 4 .1 ,

f o l 1 owed by attendance

seminars,

with

a mean score

of

a t workshops,
4 .0 ;

e n ro llin g

c o n fe r e n c e s ,

or

in

or

u n iv e rs ity

college coursework received the lowest mean score ( 2 . 9 ) .
be

noted

th a t

f iv e

of

the

six

top

choices

fo r

I t should

updating

were

industry-based approaches.
Space was provided

in

the

questionnaire

fo r

suggest other approaches to technological updating.

respondents

to

The additional

approaches respondents li s t e d included (a) keeping current with the
1 it e r a t u r e ,

(b)

taking u n iv ers ity courses in

technology education

Table 4 . 6 . --Percentage of respondents indicating various degrees of in te re s t in selected
approaches to technological updating.

Degree of In te re s t

[ %)

Approach to Updating

Mean

Median

13.9

3.266

3.468

25.7

6.7

2.893

2.929

16.1

38.8

36.7

3.984

4.131

5.1

21.8

40.8

38.8

4.063

4.226

6.3

13.3

26.3

30.2

23.9

3.522

3.636

12.2

14.1

20.1

30.2

23.5

3.388

3.623

P articipatio n in lo c a lly designed pro­
grams (n = 251)

9.2

18.3

32.7

28.7

11.2

3.143

3.189

P articipatio n in industry tra in in g
programs (n = 254)

3.9

11.0

22.8

34.6

27.6

3.709

3.852

1

2

3

4

5

P articipatio n in work-experience
internships (n = 252)

10.7

15.1

25.0

35.3

Enrolling in un iv ers ity and college
coursework (n = 253)

13.0

23.7

30.8

Attendance at workshops, conferences,
or seminars (n = 255)

2.4

7.1

P articipatio n in industry observations
(n = 255)

3.5

P articipatio n in an education and
industry s t a f f exchange (n = 255)
Part-time employment with opportuni­
tie s fo r technological tra in in g (n = 255)

Key:

1 = No in te r e s t, 2 = Limited in te r e s t, 3 = Moderate in te r e s t, 4 = S ig n ific a n t
in te r e s t, 5 = Exceptional in te re s t.

116
offered lo c a lly and s p e c if ic a ll y fo r in s tru c to rs ,
in

General

Motors summer workshops, and (d)

(c) p a r tic ip a tin g

being

self-employed.

One respondent commented th a t the approaches li s t e d were f in e

fo r

those who had been teaching up to 15 years, but a f t e r more than 20
years one tends to "burn o u t . "
In Table 4 .7 , response categories 1 and 2 have been combined to
in dicate no in t e r e s t , and response categories 3 through 5 have been
combined to r e f l e c t respondents’ in te r e s t in s p e c ific approaches to
technological

updating.

The approaches are

from the greatest to the le a s t
each

approach.

in te r e s t

P a rtic ip a tio n

attendance at workshops,

in

conferences,

in

respondents

in d u s t r y

rank order

expressed

o b s e rv a tio n s

in
and

and seminars were rated the

h ig h e s t ,

w h ile enro l 1 i ng in u n i v e r s i t y

re c e iv e d

the

1owest r a t i ng,

1isted

although

and col le g e
more than

coursework

60% in d ic a t e d

in t e r e s t .

Table 4 . 7 . - - I n t e r e s t versus lack of in te r e s t in s p e c ific approaches
to technological updating.

Combined Responses (%)
Approach

Industry observations
Workshops, conferences, seminars
Industry tr a in in g programs
Education/industry s t a f f exchange
Work-experience internships
Part-tim e employment
Locally designed programs
U n iv e rs ity /c o lle g e coursework

1 & 2
No In te r e s t

3-5
In te r e s t

8 .6
9 .5
14.9
19.6
25.8
26.3
27.5
36.7

91.4
90.6
85.0
80.4
74.2
73.8
72.6
63.2

117
Research Question 5 : When would in d u s tria l arts teachers most
p re fe r to p a r tic ip a te in professional-development a c t iv it ie s ?
Study p a rtic ip a n ts were asked,
p a rtic ip a te

in

"When would you most p re fe r to

p ro fe s s io n a l-d e v e lo p m e n t

responses are shown in Table 4 .8 .

a c tiv itie s ? "

During the school

T h e ir

day was the

preferred time, while weekends were ranked the le a s t prefe rre d , with
le s s

than

20% checking

respondents

added t h e i r

th a t

response.

own comments

T w e n ty -fo u r

under

th is

of

question.

the
See

Appendix J f o r a summary of those comments.

Table 4 . 8 . --Times at which respondents preferred to p a r tic ip a te
in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s .
N

Time Preference
During the school day
Summer or other vacation time
A fte r school
Weekends

Note:

183
83
65
47

%
70.4
31.9
25.0
18.0

The to t a l exceeds 100% as respondents frequently checked more
than one item.

Research Question 6 :
What s p e c ific
arts teachers view as important?

incentives do in d u s tria l

Eleven incentives f o r p a r tic ip a tin g in professional-development
a c t i v i t i e s were l i s t e d on the survey instrument.
requested to

in dicate

the

importance

to

them o f

using a f iv e - p o in t ra tin g scale from 1 (not at a l l
(extremely im p o rta n t).

Respondents were
each

in cen tiv e,

important) to 5

The mean score fo r each item was computed.

The percentage o f teachers choosing each of the f iv e responses is

118
shown

in

standard

Table

4 .9 ,

deviation

along
fo r

with

each

the

mean

item.

importance placed on incentives,

To

importance
illu s tra te

ra tin g

and

fu r th e r

the

responses 1 and 2 were

combined, as

were responses 3 through 5.
The incentive respondents preferred most was advancement on the
salary schedule fo r accumulation of continuing education units (mean
= 3 .8 ),

followed by reimbursement fo r workshop fees

(mean = 3 . 8 ) .

The le a s t preferred incentives were po te n tia l to become a department
head or teacher coordinator (mean = 2 .9 )
level

recognition

(mean = 3 . 0 ) .

It

should be noted th a t

three responses were monetary incentives.
q u e s t io n n a ir e

fo r

respondents

and b u ild in g -o r d i s t r i c t -

to

Space was provided on the

in c lu d e

" o th e r"

in c e n t iv e s

a v a ila b le to them or those they found to be des ira b le .
those incentives

is provided in

the top

A summary of

Appendix K.

Research Question 7 :
What
types of incentives do local d i s ­
t r i c t s provide to encourage p a r tic ip a tio n in professional growth a c t iv it ie s ?
Only 4 of the 11 incentives 1 isted on the questionnaire were
p rovided

by

50%

or

more

Reimbursement

fo r

workshop

re s p o n d e n ts ’

di s t r i c t s .

reimbursement

fo r

of

fees
The

membership

th e
was

le a s t

fees

in

re s p o n d e n ts ’
a v a ila b le
a v a i 1 ab le

in

di s t r i c t s .
of

the

in c e n t iv e s

was

professional

69.8%

organizations

(provided by only 15.7% o f the respondents’ d i s t r i c t s ) .

Table 4.10

provides a summary of the incentives provided by the respondents’
school d i s t r i c t s , rank ordered in terms of the degree to which they
were provided.

T a b le 4 . 9 . — P e r c e n t a g e o f r e s p o n d e n t s i n d i c a t i n g

i m p o r t a n c e o f each i n c e n t i v e ,

I m p o r ta n c e o f

In c e n tiv e

I n c e n t i v e s . (%)

ra n k o r d e r e d by t h e mean.

Mean

S.D.

Not I m p o r t a n t
Responses 1&2

Im p orta nt
Responses 3 - 5

1

2

Advancement on s a l a r y s c h e d u le f o r accumu­
l a t i o n o f c o n tin u in g e d u c a tio n u n it s

6.1

3.0

1 1 .3

2 7 .3

52.4

4 .1 6 9

1.131

9.0

91.0

Reim bursem ent f o r w o rks ho p f e e s

6 .4

8.1

2 2 .2

2 8 .2

3 5 .0

3 .7 7 4

1.1 95

14 .5

85.4

1 0 .2

1 1 .5

19.2

2 3 .0

3 5 .4

3 .6 1 9

1.3 39

2 1 .7

77.6

1 0 .0

8.2

2 6 .0

2 6 .9

2 8 .8

3.5 6 2

1.263

18.2

8 1 .7

5.0

1 4 .9

2 9 .4

3 0 .3

2 0 .4

3 .4 6 2

1.122

1 9 .9

80 .1

Reim bursem ent f o r t i m e o u t s i d e o f t h e workday
spent in a tte n d in g p ro fe s s io n a l a c t i v i t i e s

10.7

1 1 .6

2 9 .3

2 4 ,0

2 4 .4

3 .4 0 0

1.2 68

2 2 .3

77.7

A b ility
sta tu s

1 5 .5

15 .5

31.9

19 .2

1 7 .8

3 .0 8 5

1.297

31 .0

68.9

E xten ded r e l e a s e d t i m e f r o m c la s s r o o m o r
s a b b a tic a l s ta tu s

12.7

18.4

33.8

21 .1

14 .0

3.0 53

1.212

31.0

68 .9

Reim bursem ent f o r mem bersh ip f e e s i n p r o ­
fe s s io n a l o r g a n iz a tio n

18.1

1 5 .9

3 1 .4

1 8 .6

1 5 .9

2.9 8 2

1.3 1 0

3 4.0

65.9

B u ild in g - or d i s t r i c t - l e v e l

1 8 .8

2 0 .6

2 5 .7

19.7

15.1

2.9 17

1.3 28

3 9 .4

6 0.5

17 .3

22.6

3 1 .9

1 1 .9

16 .4

2.8 7 6

1.297

39.9

6 0 .2

T u itio n

re im b u rs e m e n t f o r u n i v e r s i t y c o u r s e s

D e c is io n -m a k in g v o ic e l o c a l l y
R e le a sed t i m e t o w o r k on in d e p e n d e n t s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t p r o j e c t s

4

5

t o a c h i e v e a m a s t e r o r le a d t e a c h e r

re c o g n itio n

P o t e n t i a l t o become d e p a r tm e n t head o r
tea cher c o o rd in a to r

Key:

3

1 = Not a t a l l

i m p o r t a n t , 2 = Not v e r y i m p o r t a n t , 3 = Somewhat i m p o r t a n t , 4 = V e ry i m p o r t a n t , 5 = E x t r e m e l y i m p o r t a n t

120

Table 4 . 1 0 . --Percentage o f respondents in dicating c e rta in incentives
are provided by t h e ir school d i s t r i c t s .
Is Incentive Provided?
Incentive
Yes (%)

No (%)

Reimbursement f o r workshop fees

69.8

30.2

Extended released time from classroom
or sabbatical status

56.4

43.6

Decision-making voice lo c a lly

55.4

44.6

Potential to become department head or
teacher coordinator

54.6

45.4

B uilding- or d i s t r i c t - l e v e l recognition

39.4

60.6

Released time to work on independent
staff-development projects

37.8

62.2

29.5

70.5

T u itio n reimbursement fo r u n iv ers ity
courses

26.7

73.3

Advancement on salary schedule fo r accumu­
la t io n of continuing education units

26.1

73.9

A b i l i t y to achieve a master or lead
teacher status

20.9

79.1

Reimbursement fo r membership fees in pro­
fessional organization

15.7

84.3

Reimbursement fo r time outside of the
workday spent in attending professional
a c tiv itie s

Some
providing

respondents
information

made m arginal

notes

on

beyond what was requested.

th e ir
Many

notes were w r itte n in the space provided fo r additional

s urveys,
of

these

incentives,

121

even though they did not r e la te d i r e c t ly to incentives.

Some o f the

notes include:
"In

th is

d is tric t

there

are

very

few

incentives

other

than

one’ s own professional conscience."
"Superintendent wants m erit pay.

A ll

I want is to be a very

good teacher to the s tudents."
The lack o f fin a n c ia l

support fo r teachers was r e fle c te d

in

several comments, such as:
"I hate to sound negative, but you’ l l

be hard pressed to find

many school systems th a t w i l l reimburse a teacher f o r anything."
"A $50 maximum a year fo r workshop fees is i n s u f f i c i e n t . "
The i n a b i l i t y to leave the classroom was expressed by several
teachers, who stated:
" [It

is ]

very

d iffic u lt

to

because we do not have q u a lifie d

leave

my students

in d u s tria l

arts

fo r

subs;

the

day

th e re fo re ,

when I ’ m gone students do classroom work [ w r i t t e n ] ."
"My d i s t r i c t

urges us to attend conferences,

but

leaving

an

in d u s tria l arts lab in a sub’ s hands means problems."
"What about a d i s t r i c t which says ’ yes’ you can go,
w i l l pay,

’ b u t’ Fridays are hard to get subs--so you can’ t be gone

on Fridays.
Other

’ yes’ we

Most conferences are Friday-Saturday."
te a c h e rs

noted

a 1 ack

of

p r o fe s s io n a l-d e v e lo p m e n t

a c t i v i t i e s suited to t h e i r perceived needs.
" In d u s tria l

arts

classes

need

to

be

Some commented th a t:
offered

Michigan; only vocational classes are a v a i l a b l e . "
"Increase number and q u a lity o f workshops."

in

southeast

122

"School exchange or v is it a t io n days."
"Inform ation/idea swap shop day."
"Programs at MIES th a t teach something new."
One respondent shared his ra tio n a le
degree:
provide

fo r pursuing an advanced

"[My] main incentive fo r seeking [an] advanced degree is to
a means to

advance out of

teaching."

Some others

made

statements in dicating a need, such as "Local or regional groups th a t
help get monies fo r programs."

"Help in gettin g programs funded by

the sta te 1 ike vocational education."
Research Question 8 :
Is there a s ig n ific a n t r e la tio n s h ip
between the frequency of p a rtic ip a tio n in professional-growth
a c t i v i t i e s and the extent to which incentives are provided
lo c a lly ?
A s ta tis tic a lly

s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip was found between the

category of workshops and the category of nonmonetary incentives.
The procedure used to determine th a t re la tio n s h ip

is

described

in

d e ta il.
The professional-development a c t i v i t i e s were categorized on the
survey instrument as workshops (Items 1 - 3 ), presentations (Items 45 ) , coursework (Ite m s 6 - 8 ) ,
a c tiv itie s

(Items 9 -1 6 ).

p a r tic ip a tio n
highlig h ts
incentives.

fo r

and o th e r p r o fe s s io n a l-d e v e lo p m e n t

Tables 4.11

each category.

through 4.14 show the to t a l

This

information

the frequency of p a r tic ip a tio n

f o r the

by categories
four groups of

123
Table 4 .1 1 .- - P a r t ic ip a t i o n in workshops (Items 1-3) (N = 264).
Total Workshops

N

0
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21-25
26-30
31-40
41-46

46
127
67
13
3
1
3
3
1

Mean = 5.133

%

17.4
48.1
25.4
4 .8
1.2
0.4
1.2
1.2
0 .4

Median = 3.776

Table 4 . 1 2 . - - P a r tic ip a t io n in group presentations (Items 4-5)
(N = 264)
Total Presentations
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
12
22

N
223
20
12
3
2
1
1
1
1

Mean = 0.402

Median * 0.092

%

84.5
7 .6
4.5
1.1
0 .8
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4

124
Table 4 . 1 3 . - -P a r t ic ip a t io n in coursework (Items 6 -8 ) (N = 264).
Total Coursework
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10-15
20-25
26-30
31-50

N
151
31
25
20
10
3
6
3
5
1
4
2
1
2

Mean = 1.905

%

57.2
11.7
9 .5
7.6
3 .8
1.1
2.3
1.1
1.9
0 .4
1.6
0 .8
0.4
0 .8

Median = 0.374

Table 4 . 1 4 . - - P a r t ic ip a t io n in other professional-development
a c t i v i t i e s (Items 9-16) (N = 264).
Total Other A c t iv it ie s
0
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21-25
26-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
61-70
71-80
81-90
91-100
101-150
151-200
201-250
251-282
Mean = 35.473

N
16
28
25
33
16
17
18
33
26
13
6
5
6
3
10
6
2
1
Median = 24.750

%

6.1
10.6
9 .5
12.6
6.1
6 .4
6 .8
12.7
9 .8
5.1
2.3
2 .0
2.4
1.2
4 .0
2.4
0 .8
0 .4

125
T able

4 .1 5

re fle c ts

the

resp ondents’

to ta l

frequency

p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s .
from 0 to 300.

of

Totals ranged

The mean was 42.9 and the median 30.5.

Of the 264

respondents, 14 or 5.3% had not attended or p a rtic ip a te d in any of
the 16 a c t i v i t i e s li s t e d in Part I I o f the questionnaire during the
past 2 years.

Table 4 . 1 5 . --T o ta l p a r tic ip a tio n in 16 professional-development
a c t i v i t i e s (N = 264).

Total A c t i v it ie s

N

0
1-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
21-25
26-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
61-70
71-80
81-90
91-100
101-150
151-200
201-250
251-300

%

14
11
19
25
30
14
19
32
27
25
13
6
5
3
13
6
2
2
Mean = 42.913

5.3
4.2
7.2
9.5
11.4
5.3
7.2
12.1
10.2
8.7
4.9
2.3
1.9
1.1
4.9
2.3
.8
.8

Median = 30.500

For the purposes o f summarizing the information, the researcher
divided

the

incentives

nonmonetary incentives

into

monetary

(Items 6 -1 1 ).

incentives

(Items

Although the data

1-5)
fo r

and
each

126
item were

tabulated

in d iv id u a lly ,

fo r

summary purposes

professional-development categories and a summary t o t a l
The in c e n tiv e s were s i m i l a r l y grouped as monetary

the

four

were used.
in c e n tiv e s ,

nonmonetary incentives, and to ta l incentives.
To determine
incentives
the

the extent

(Items 1-5)

respondents,

the

to which d i s t r i c t s

and nonmonetary incentives
researcher

responses to each incentive item.
ta b u late d .

counted

a ll

(Items 6-11)

the

"yes"

and

to

"no"

The sum fo r each item was then

Table 4.16 shows the sum of monetary incentives provided

by respondents’ d i s t r i c t s .
E ig h te en

provided monetary

respondents

in centives.

The mean was 2.1

or

Twenty-one

7.4% in d ic a te d
teachers

did

not

and the median 2 .1 .

r e c e iv i n g
respond

no monetary
to

the

items

regarding monetary incentives.

Table 4 . 1 6 . --Sum of monetary incentives provided by d i s t r i c t s
(N = 243).
Incentives Provided

0
1
2
3
4
Mean = 2.128

N

%

18
56
75
65
29

7.4
23.0
30.9
26.7
11.9

Median = 2.133

Table 4.17 shows the sum of nonmonetary incentives provided by
the respondents’ d i s t r i c t s .

The mean was 2 .6 and the median 2 .6 .

Twenty-nine respondents or 12% indicated receiving none o f the six

127

nonmonetary incentives
te a c h e rs

d id

not

lis te d

respond

in the questionnaire.

to

any

of

th e

Twenty-three

q u es tio n s

re g a rd in g

nonmonetary incentives.

Table 4 . 1 7 . --Sum o f nonmonetary incentives provided by d i s t r i c t s
(N = 241).
Incentives Provided

N

0
1
2
3
4
5
6

29
42
45
56
34
27
8
Mean = 2.568

%

12.0
17.4
18.7
23.2
14.1
11.2
3.3

Median = 2.580

When both monetary and nonmonetary incentives were considered
together, the researcher found that the average respondent received
4.7 incentives; only four teachers reported receiving no incentives
(see

Table

incentives,

4 .1 8 ) .

Just

one

respondent

reported

and no one reported receiving a l l

on the questionnaire.

receiving

10

11 incentives l i s t e d

128
Table 4 . 1 8 . --Sum o f monetary and nonmonetary incentives provided by
d i s t r i c t s (N = 241).
Incentives Provided
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

Mean = 4.710

Pearson

product-moment

frequency o f teachers’

%

4
12
27
31
41
38
35
27
12
13
1

1.7
5.0
11.2
12.9
17.0
15.8
14.5
11.2
5.0
5.4
0.4

Median = 4.645

c o rrelatio n s

whether there was a s t a t i s t i c a l l y
the

N

were

used

to

determine

s ig n ific a n t r e la tio n s h ip between

p a r tic ip a tio n

in

the

16 professional -

development a c t i v i t i e s l i s t e d on the questionnaire and the extent to
which the 11
th is

id e n t if ie d

information,

a

3

incentives were provided
x

5

c o rre la tio n

matrix

lo c a lly .
was

Using

designed

to

determine how each o f the f i v e professional-development categories
correlated with each of the three incentive categories.
The

Pearson

s ta tis tic a lly
development

product-moment

s ig n ific a n t
category

of

c o rre la tio n

r e la tio n s h ip
workshops

incentives, with a variance o f 6.8%.

procedure

between

and

the

the

group

revealed

a

professional of

nonmonetary

No s t a t i s t i c a l l y

s ig n ific a n t

relationsh ips were found in the other categories, as shown in Table
4.19.

Table 4 . 1 9 . --Results of Pearson c o rrelatio n between fiv e categories o f frequency of p a r t i c i ­
pation in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s and three categories of incentives
provided by d i s t r i c t s .

Nonmonetary
Incentives

Monetary
Incentives

Total

A c t iv it y
R
Corr.

R2
Coeff. of
Determin.

R
Corr.

R2
Coeff. of
Determin.

R
Corr.

R2
Coeff. of
Determin.

Workshops

.2615*

.0684

.0874

.0076

.234V>

.0548

Presentations

.0994

.0099

-.0315

.0010

.0562

.0032

-.0097

.0001

-.0003

.0000

-.0098

.0001

Other

.1162

.0135

.0366

.0013

.0997

.0099

Total a c t iv it ie s

.1430

.0204

.0436

.0019

.1228

.0151

Coursework

♦ S ig n ific a n t at the .01 le v e l.

130
The

re la tio n s h ip

development a c t i v i t i e s

between
and the

each

of

types o f

The significance level was set at

the

16

p r o fe s s io n a l -

incentives

was examined.

.01 f o r each a c t i v i t y

(see Table

4 .2 0 ).

Table 4 . 2 0 . --Results o f Pearson c o rre la tio n between 16 professionalgrowth a c t i v i t i e s and nonmonetary versus monetary
incentives.

A c t iv it y

P a rtic ip a tio n in local
d i s t r i c t workshops

Nonmonetary
Incentives

Monetary
Incentives

Total

.2278*

.0230

.2048

P a rtic ip a tio n in interm ediate,
sta te department, or u n iv e r s ity sponsored workshops

.1867*

.1022

.0845

P a rtic ip a tio n in a workshop spon­
sored by the Vocational Education
Personnel Development Project

.1637*

.1466

.0171

Making a presentation at a
local d i s t r i c t workshop

.0740

-.0299

.0441

Making a presentation at a r e g io n a l,
statewide, or national convention

.1183

-.0281

.0902

.0350

.0381

.0031

Enrolling in a community college
or u n iv e rs ity c r e d it course
re la te d to c e r t i f i c a t i o n or
advanced degree
Enrolling in a community college
or u n iv e rs ity noncredit course
fo r pleasure
Enrolling in a technical educa­
tio n c r e d it or noncredit course
Attendance at a s ta te , r e g io n a l,
or national convention

.0615

-.0748

.1703*

-.1 4 7 2 *

-.0857

.0368

-.0380

.0424

.1279

131
Table 4 .2 0 .--Continued.

Nonmonetary
Incentives

A c t iv it y

Monetary
Incentives

Total

Reading of professional journals

.0375

.0041

.0334

Observations o f other teachers
teaching

.0915

.1441

.0526

Number o f meetings attended as a
member o f a d i s t r i c t or building
professional education committee

.1682*

-.0109

.1573

Number o f meetings attended as a
member o f a state or national
task force

.1287

-.0029

.1258

P a rtic ip a tio n in an informal
teacher/colleague dialogue group
w ithin a building or d i s t r i c t

.0355

-.0210

.0145

-.0191

.0585

.0394

-.0117

.1999

Writing or co-authoring student
textbooks or journal a r t ic le s
Membership in professional
education organizations

.2116*

♦ S ig n ific a n t at the .01 le v e l.

No s t a t i s t i c a l l y
s tre n g th

o f the

s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e was found between the

a s s o c ia tio n

between nonmonetary

and monetary

incentives and the following professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s :
Presentations
Making a presentation at a local d i s t r i c t workshop
Making a presentation at a region al, statewide, or national
convention

132
Coursework
Enrolling in a community college or u n iv e rs ity c r e d it course
re la te d to c e r t i f i c a t i o n or advanced degree
Enrolling in a technical education c r e d it or noncredit course
Other Professional A c t i v it ie s
Reading of professional journals
Observations o f other teachers teaching
Number o f meetings attended as a member o f a sta te or national
task force
P a rtic ip a tio n in an informal teacher/colleague dialogue group
w ithin a building or d i s t r i c t
Writing or co-authoring student textbooks or journal a r t ic le s
A s ta tis tic a lly
provision

of

s ig n if ic a n t

incentives

workshops 1isted on the
college
s ta te ,

or

u n iv e rs ity

re g io n a l,

or

c o rre la tio n

was

and p a r tic ip a tio n

in

survey instrument;

e n ro llin g

noncredit

national

course

fo r

conventions;

three

d is tric t-

organizations,

although the percentage o f variance was small.
provision

of

professional

incentives

and

of

attending

meetings,

between

in

types

in community

pleasure;

attending

between

b u ild in g -le v e l

c o rre la tio n

and membership

the

found

or

education

e n ro llin g

The
in

a

community college or u n iv e rs ity noncredit course f o r pleasure was
n e g a t iv e ,

in d ic a tin g

th a t

the

g re a ter

th e

a v a i 1a b i 1 i t y

of

incentives, the lower the r a te of p a r tic ip a tio n .
To determine which o f the individual 11 incentives contributed
to p a r tic ip a tio n

in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s ,

the researcher

reviewed data concerning the c o rre la tio n between the 11 incentives
and to ta l

p a r tic ip a tio n

in the 16 professional-growth

a c tiv itie s .

133
As shown in Table 4.21, a s ig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n was found between
two

incentives

(p o te n tia l

to

become

department

coordinator and decision-making voice lo c a l ly )

head

or

teacher

and p a r t ic ip a t io n

in

professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .

Table 4 . 2 1 . --Results of Pearson c o rre la tio n between 11 incentives
and p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .
Incentive
Reimbursement fo r membership in professional
organization

C orrelation

.0756

Reimbursement fo r workshop fees

-.0321

Reimbursement fo r time outside of the workday
spent in attending professional a c t i v i t i e s

-.1053

T u itio n reimbursement f o r u n iv ers ity courses

.0831

Advancement on salary schedule fo r accumulation
o f continuing education units

.0831

A b i l i t y to achieve a master or lead teacher status

.0252

Extended released time from classroom or
sabbatical status

.0434

P otential to become department head or teacher
coordinator

.1 5 4 7 ^

B uilding- or d i s t r i c t - l e v e l recognition

.1065

Decision-making voice lo c a lly

.1209^

Released time to work on independent s t a f f development projects

.0014

♦ S ig n ific a n t at the .05 l e v e l .
♦ ♦ S ig n ific a n t at the .01 l e v e l .

134
Research Question 9 :
Is there a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip
between teachers’ (a) age, (b) le v e l o f education, (c) teaching
assignment, (d) years of teaching experience, (e) secondary
employment, and ( f ) size of the school d i s t r i c t , and t h e i r
id e n t if ic a t io n of important incentives?
A chi-square

test

whether respondents

of

independence was computed to determine

in various demographic categories d iffe r e d

t h e i r ratin g s o f the importance of the various incentives.
analysis,

in

For th is

i t was necessary to recode some o f the categories because

too many empty c e lls appeared when the o rig in a l categories from the
survey

instrument

were

used.

The

recoded

categories

were

follow s:
Age:
From:
To:

22-29
22-37

30-37
38-45

38-45
46+

46-55

over 55

Total Enrollment:
From:

under 500 500-1000 1000-3000 3000-5000
over 10,000
less than 1000
1000-3000
3000-5000

To:

5000-7500
5000+

Years Taught:
From:
To:

1-5
1-15

6-10
16-20

11-15
21-25

16-20
over 25

21-25

over 25

Degree:
From:
To:

B .A ./B .S .
B .A ./B .S .

M.A.
M.A.+

Ed.S.

Ph.D.

Importance of In c e n tiv e s :
From:

To:

1 =
3=
5=
1+2
4+5

not at a l l important
2 = not very important
somewhat important
4 = very important
extremely important
= not important
3 =somewhat
important
= very important

as

135
The chi-square te s t of independence was recomputed,
recoded c a t e g o r ie s .
s ignificance at

The re s e a rc h e r

.05 or less.

e s t a b lis h e d

th e

using the
le v e l

of

Results o f the cross-tabulations of

the six demographic variables and the id e n t if ie d importance o f the
11

incentives

are shown in Tables 4.22

through

4 .2 8 .

Level

of

sign ificance is shown in each ta b le .
The on ly

in c e n t i v e

f o r which a s t a t i s t i c a l l y

s ig n ific a n t

d iffe re n c e was found among respondents in the three age groups was
extended released time from the classroom or sabbatical s tatu s.

As

shown in Table 4.22, 15.6% of those in the 22-37 age group indicated
th is incentive was not important, whereas twice as many respondents
in

the

3 8 -45

and 46+ groups

(34.1%

and 35.7%,

re s p e c tiv e ly )

indicated th is incentive was not important.

Table 4 . 2 2 . --R esults of cross-tabulation between importance of
extended released time from classroom or sabbatical
status and respondents’ age group (N = 228).
Importance of Incentive
Age

22-37
38-45
46+
Column to ta l

Row
Total

Not
Important

Somewhat
Important

7
29
35

15.6
34.1
35.7

23
29
25

51.1
34.1
25.5

15
27
38

33.3
31.8
38.8

45
85
98

19.7
37.3
43.0

71

31.1

77

33.8

80

35.1

228

100.0

Chi-square = 11.0867

df = 4

Very
Important

Significance = .0256

136
The only
d iffe re n t

in c e n t i v e

le vels

on whose

importance

of education d iffe r e d

respondents

s ig n if ic a n t ly

w ith

was released

time to work on independent staff-development projects (Table 4 .2 3 ) .
Only 15.5% of the respondents with an advanced degree indicated th is
incentive was not important, whereas 31.7% o f those with a B .A ./B .S.
degree indicated i t was not important.

Table 4 . 2 3 . --Results of cross-tabulation between importance of
released time to work on independent staff-development
projects and respondents’ level of education (N = 221).
Importance of Incentive
Educational
Level

Not
Important

B. A. / B . S.
M.A.+
Column to ta l

in d u s tria l

arts

s ig n if ic a n t ly
the 11

w ith

Row
Total

Very
Important

19
25

31.7
15.5

16
49

26.7
30.4

25
87

41 .7
54.0

60
161

27.1
72.9

44

19.9

65

29.4

112

50.7

221

100.0

Chi-square = 7.2491

Respondents

Somewhat
Important

df = 2

d iffe re n t

and years

of

Significance = .0267

te a c h in g

teaching

assignments

experience

did

w ith in

not

d iffe r

in t h e i r id e n t if ic a t io n of the importance o f any of

incentives.

Hence the re su lts

of these

analyses

are

not

presented here in ta b u lar form.
A s ta tis tic a lly
respondents with
id e n t if ic a t io n

s ig n ific a n t

and those without

of the

d iffe re n c e

was found

secondary employment

importance of three o f the

between
in

in centives.

th e ir
As

137
shown

in

Table

4.24,

a s ta tis tic a lly

s ig n ific a n t

d iffe re n c e

was

found between those with and without secondary employment and the
importance of extended released time from classroom or sabbatical
status.

Twenty-two percent o f those with another job in addition to

a fu ll-tim e

teaching

assignment

indicated

released

time

was

not

important, whereas almost twice as many o f those without secondary
employment (38%) indicated th is incentive was not important.

Table 4 . 2 4 . --R esults o f cross-tabulation between importance o f
extended released time from classroom or sabbatical
status and respondents’ secondary employment (N = 227).
Importance of Incentive
Secondary
Employment

Not
Important

Yes
No
Column to ta l
Chi-square = 9.0869

A s ta tis tic a lly

Somewhat
Important

Row
Total

Very
Important

20
51

21.5
38.1

40
36

43.0
25.9

33
47

35.5
35.1

93
134

41.0
59.0

71

31.3

76

33.5

80

35.2

227

100.0

df = 2

Significance = .0106

s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e was also found between

those with and those without secondary employment and the importance
o f b u ild in g - or d i s t r i c t - l e v e l recognition.

As shown in Table 4.25,

17.6% of the teachers with secondary employment indicated th is was a
somewhat

im p o rta n t

in c e n tiv e ,

whereas

31.7% o f

those w ith o u t

secondary employment indicated the incentive was somewhat important.

138
Table 4 . 2 5 . --Results o f cross-tabulation between importance o f
bu ild ing- or d i s t r i c t - l e v e l recognition and respond­
e nts’ secondary employment (N = 217).
Importance o f Incentive
Secondary
Employment

Not
Important

Yes
No
Column to ta l

Row
Total

Very
Important

45
41

49.5
32.5

16
40

17.6
31.7

30
45

33.0
35.7

91
126

41.9
58.1

86

39.6

56

25.8

75

34.6

217

100.0

Chi-square = 8 .0356

The incentive

Somewhat
Important

Significance = .0180

df = 2

of having a decision-making

voice

l o c a l ly

was

twice as important to those without secondary employment as i t was
to teachers with another job.

Table 4.25 shows the findings in each

category.

Table 4 . 2 6 . --R esults o f cross-tabulation between importance of
having a decision-making voice lo c a l ly and respondents’
secondary employment (N = 218).

Importance of Incentive
Secondary
Employment

Not
Important

Yes
No
Column to ta l

Chi-square = 7.0323

Somewhat
Important

Row
Total

Very
Important

24
16

25.8
12.8

19
38

20.4
30.4

50
71

53.8
56.8

93
125

42.7
57.3

40

18.3

57

26.1

121

55.3

218

100.0

df = 2

Significance = .0297

139
A s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t d iffe re n c e was found fo r only one
incentive

(advancement on the salary schedule fo r accumulation of

continuing

education

re s p o n d e n ts ’

school

u n its )

when

d is tric t.

d i s t r i c t s with 5000+ enrollments
important.

analyzed
About

by

the

20% o f

indicated th is

the

size

of

the

te a c h e rs

in

incentive was not

Just 6.7% of the respondents in the under 1000 category,

6.3% o f those in the 1000-3000 category, and 2.4% o f the teachers in
the 3000-5000 enrollment category indicated th is

incentive was not

important (see Table 4 .2 7 ) .

Table 4 . 2 7 . --R esults of cross-tabulation between importance of
advancement on salary schedule fo r accumulation of
continuing education units and size o f respondents’
school d i s t r i c t s (N = 215).
Importance of Incentive
Enrollment Size
Not
Important

Under 1000
1000-3000
3000-5000
5000+
Column t o ta l

Somewhat
Important

Row
Total

Very
Important

3
5
1
10

6.7
6.3
2.4
20.4

8
9
3
3

17.8
11.3
7.3
6.1

34
66
37
36

75.6
82.5
90.2
73.5

45
80
41
49

20 .0
37 .2
19 .1
22 .8

19

8 .8

23

10.7

173

80.5

215

100 .0

Chi-square = 14 .6583

df = 6

S ignificance = .0231

Summary
Results

of

the

data

analyses

research questions of the study.
o f the research questions.

provided

answers

to

the

nine

A b r i e f discussion followed each

Tables were used to present the data fo r

140
eight o f the research questions.

A n a rra tiv e was used to answer

Research Question 3 as the review of l i t e r a t u r e was the source fo r
th a t question.
A summary of the survey respondents by region was presented to
show the number and percentage of those responding to the mailed
questionnaire.

A

summary

of

p a r tic ip a tio n

by

in d u s tria l

arts

teachers in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s was presented, rank
ordered

by the

mean and grouped

by fre q u e n c y .

Other

t a b le s

contained summary information by number and percentages.
In d u s tria l arts teachers’ preferences fo r the eight approaches
to technological updating were presented by t h e i r ratings on a scale
o f 1 -5 ,
time

to

with the mean and median included.
p a r tic ip a te

percentages.

in

Teachers’

professional
ra tin g

presented using a scale of 1 -5 ,

of

Their preference fo r

growth
incentives

the mean,

was
by

presented

using

importance

was

and standard deviation.

The responses were fu r th e r combined to emphasize important versus
not important responses.
A summary ta b le 1is tin g the 11 incentives was used to present
the a v a i l a b i l i t y of incentives to the respondents.

The incentives

and professional-development a c t i v i t i e s were grouped into categories
and presented in th a t manner to i l l u s t r a t e the re la tio n s h ip between
th e

two g ro u p s .

Each a c t i v i t y

and

in c e n tiv e

was

a ls o

shown

in d iv id u a lly in a summary ta b le showing the c o rre la tio n with each
other and the level of s ig n ific a n c e .

The demographic variables were

presented in individual tables when they correlated with any of the
incentives.

141

A summary of the major findings
Conclusions

drawn

from

the

is

f in d in g s

presented
are

recommendations fo r fu rth e r research are set fo r th .

in

Chapter V.

d is c u s s e d ,

and

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Summary
The primary purpose o f th is study was to id e n t if y the types of
incentives th a t would motivate Michigan in d u s tria l arts teachers to
p a r tic ip a te

in

professional-growth

a c tiv itie s .

The

researcher’ s

s p e c ific objectives were as follows:
1.

To id e n t if y the frequency with which in d u s tria l arts teach­

ers have p a rtic ip a te d

in professional-growth

a c tiv itie s

and t h e i r

reasons fo r p a r t ic ip a t in g .
2.

To id e n t if y those professional-development a c t i v i t i e s th a t

teachers consider most re le v a n t.
3.

To assess the in te r e s t of in d u s tria l arts teachers in par­

t ic ip a t i n g

in

s p e c ific

approaches

to

technological

updating

and

t h e i r preferred time to p a r tic ip a te .
4.

To determine which incentives in d u s tria l arts teachers have

id e n tifie d

as

im p o rta n t

m o tiv a to rs

and

th e

degree

to

which

incentives are c u rre n tly provided.
5.
of

To assess whether a re la tio n s h ip e xists between frequency

p a rtic ip a tio n

in

p r o fe s s io n a l-g r o w th

a v a i l a b i l i t y of local incentives.

142

a c tiv itie s

and

the

143
6.

To d eterm ine whether

teachers’

age,

teaching

level

of education,

experience,

size

th ere

is

teaching

of d i s t r i c t ,

a re la tio n s h ip
assignment,

and presence of

years

between
of

secondary

employment, and t h e i r id e n t if ic a t io n o f important incentives.
A mail survey was used to obtain information from a s t r a t i f i e d
random sample of in d u s tria l arts teachers in the s ta te .
Procedures
The study population comprised the 2,243
who were employed in Michigan in 1985.

in d u s tria l

teachers

A s t r a t i f i e d sample o f 405

teachers was selected as the ta rg e t group fo r the study.

A four-

part questionnaire was sent to teachers representing the 18 Michigan
In d u s tria l

Education Society regions throughout the s ta te .

A 66%

(N = 267) response was received.
The data
tendency

were

analyzed

and c o rre la tio n

prim a rily

analysis.

using measures

Means,

deviations were the main d e s c rip tiv e

medians,

s ta tis tic s

of

central

and standard

used.

The chi -

square te s t of independence and Pearson product-moment correlations
were used to determine re la tio n s h ip s between v a ria b le s .

P r o f ile o f Respondents
A summary of the demographic c h a r a c te ris tic s o f the 264 survey
respondents

is

provided

as background

information.

One

hundred

percent o f the respondents were male; 19% were between the ages of
22 and 37, 37% were between 38 and 45,
o ld e r.
taught

Twenty-eight
16

to

percent

20 years,

and

and 43% were 46 years or

had taught
44% had

1 to

taught

15 years,
21

or

more

29% had
years.

144

Seventy-one

percent

had

attained

a

master’ s

or

higher

degree,

whereas 29% had a bachelor’ s degree.
The employment status of the respondents can be summarized as
follows:

36% worked in d i s t r i c t s with 1,000 to 3,000 students, 23%

in d i s t r i c t s

with

5,000

or more students,

22% in d i s t r i c t s

with

fewer than 1,000 students, and 19% in d i s t r i c t s with 3,000 to 5,000
students.

F i f t y - e ig h t

percent were teaching

at

the

high

school

l e v e l , 26% in middle or ju n io r high school, and 16% a t both high
school and middle or ju n io r high le v e ls .
f u l 1-time teaching schedule
had less

than

fu ll-tim e

time p rim a rily

Fifty -s e v en percent had a

in in d u s tria l

teaching

a r ts ;

assignments,

assigned to mathematics or

the remaining 43%
with

the

science.

remaining

The greatest

percentage of teachers had assignments in woods (53%) and d r a ftin g
and design
r e la te d

(51%).

The smallest

in d u s tria l

communications
manufacturing

a rts

c o u rs e s .

te c h n o lo g y ,

technology

percentage taught

and

Only

in

3% were

technologyassigned

to

4% t r a n s p o r t a t i o n

te c h n o lo g y ,

graphic

7% construction

a r ts ,

and

6%

technology and p la s tic s .
Forty-two percent o f the respondents reported
elsewhere

in

addition

those with two jobs,

to

th e ir

fu ll-tim e

65% indicated

the

teaching

being

employed

p o s itio n .

other job was re la te d

Of
to

t h e i r s p e c ific technical or vocational s k i l l area.
Findings
In th is section, each research question is re s ta te d ,
by the re su lts fo r th a t question.

followed

145

Research Question 1 . To what extent have Michigan in d u s tria l
arts teachers p a rtic ip a te d in professional-development a c t i v i ­
t ie s during the past 2 years, and what were t h e i r reasons fo r
p a rtic ip a tin g ?
In d u s tria l arts teachers reported reading professional journals
as t h e i r

most

frequent

professional-growth

a c tiv ity ,

f o l 1owed by

p a r tic ip a tin g in an informal teacher/colleague dialogue group w ithin
the building or d i s t r i c t .

But 44% reported not having p a rtic ip a te d

in a teacher dialogue group during the past two years.
These findings support those of H o lly ’ s (1977) research, which
indicated th a t a high p r i o r i t y with teachers fo r professional growth
was ta lk in g with other teachers.
and Thompson

(1 9 8 0 ) ,

1 is t e d

Ainsworth (1974), along with Wood
te a c h e r

sharing

as

an

im p o rta n t

component of e f f e c t iv e inservice education.
N in ety-four percent of the respondents who p a rtic ip a te d in the
a c t i v i t i e s 1isted indicated th a t t h e i r reasons f o r p a r tic ip a tin g in
the

16 professional-growth

professional
and Wonacott

success.
(1 9 8 4 ),

a c tiv itie s

were

a personal

choice

or

This finding supports the work o f Hamilton
which

in d ic a t e d

p r o fe s s io n a l ism are th e most powerful

th a t

personal

fo rc e s

fo r

v a lues

or

p r o f e s s io n a l

growth.
Only when asked why they

p a rtic ip a te d

in

lo c a l

d is tric t

workshops was teachers’ highest response other than personal choice.
In th a t

instance,

contractual

ob iig atio n was the la rg e s t

(50%).

Even though p a r tic ip a tin g

in an informal

dialogue group was the second most frequent
respondents,

22%

in d ic a t e d

the

reason

teacher/colleague

a c tiv ity

fo r

response

reported

p a rtic ip a tio n

by
as

146

contractual o b lig a tio n , w h ile 56% indicated personal choice and 11%
c ite d influencing decision makers.
More than 50% of those surveyed responded t h a t they had not
p a rtic ip a te d in the follow ing a c t i v i t i e s during the past two years:
(a)

making

a presentation

at

a local

or d is tr ic t

making a presentation at a re g io n a l, statewide,
t io n ;

(c) e n ro llin g

noncredit

course;

conference;

or

(e)

workshop;

(b)

or national conven­

in a community college or u n iv e rs ity c r e d it or
(d)

attending

a

observing other

percent reported they

had not

read

s ta te ,

r e g io n a l,

or

national

teachers teaching.

Seventeen

a professional jo urnal

in

two

years.
Research Question 2.
To what extent have Michigan in d u s tr ia l
arts teachers p a rtic ip a te d in a c t i v i t i e s targeted by the Voca­
tio n a l Education Personnel Development P roject between 1985 and
1987?
Twenty-two percent of
p a rtic ip a te d

in

the e l i g i b l e

the a c t i v i t i e s

targeted

percentages o f workshop a tten dees

in dustrial

arts

teachers

fo r them.

The

greatest

a t the

V o c a tio n a l

Personnel Development Project ta rg e t a c t iv it ie s
teachers were from Region 18,

the Calumet,

Region 9, the Grand Rapids area (41%).

fo r in d u s tr ia l a r ts

L’Anse area (40%),

The lowest

attendees were from Region 1, D e tro it (6%),

Education

and

percentages o f

and Region 11, Saginaw

( 10%).
Research Question 3 .
What types of professional -development
a c t i v i t i e s do teachers view as relevant?
The review o f l i t e r a t u r e on teachers’ perceptions of e f f e c t iv e
staff-development

a c tiv itie s

was

the

basis

fo r

formulating

summary statem ents about t e a c h e r s ’ p re fe re n c e s re g a rd in g

some
s ta ff

147

development.
ing

the

Most important to teachers was involvement in develop­

purposes

p re fe rre d

and

a c tiv itie s

dem onstration

programs th a t
1it e r a t u r e ,

are

short

of

te a c h in g ,
and to

the

inservice
p ra c tic a l
p o int.

programs.

They

in f o r m a t io n ,
From the

review

and
of

the s p e c ific a c t i v i t i e s did not appear as important as

the process,

the environmental-setting clim ate,

and the conditions

set fo rth by d i s t r i c t adm inistrators, who often have r e s p o n s ib ility
fo r planning staff-development programs.
Research Question 4 . Which methods fo r technological updating
are of in te r e s t to in d u s tria l arts teachers?
Seventy percent o f the survey respondents indicated th a t t h e i r
preference

fo r p a r tic ip a tin g

during the school day,

in professional

development would be

f o l 1owed by 32% in dicating

summer or other

vacation time.
Research Question 5 . When would in d u s tria l arts teachers most
p re fe r to p a r tic ip a te in professional-development a c t iv it ie s ?
More than 80% of the survey respondents indicated moderate to
strong in te r e s t

in attending workshops,

conferences,

and seminars,

and p a r tic ip a tin g in industry observations, education/industry s t a f f
exchange and industry tr a in in g programs as preferred approaches to
technological

updating.

The

le a s t

preferred

was

e n ro llin g

in

u n iv e rs ity or college courses, yet more than 60% indicated in te r e s t
in t h is a c t i v i t y .
Research Question 6 .
What s p e c ific
a rts teachers view as important?

incentives do in d u s tria l

The incentive most preferred by in d u s tria l
advancement on the salary scale.

arts

teachers was

This finding does not support the

148

research as c ite d in the ERIC Clearinghouse Synthesis o f 1980, which
indicated

th a t

in s ig n ific a n t

extra

pay

e ffects.

workshop fees,

fo r

tr a in in g

Also of

had

or

f o l 1owed by a decision-making voice

te a c h e r

c o o r d in a to r

negative

importance was reimbursement

le a s t important incentives were the po tential
head

e ith e r

and

lo c a l l y .

or
fo r
The

to become department

b u ild in g -

or

d is tric t-le v e l

recognition, but 60% indicated an in te r e s t in these incentives.

It

should

to

be noted

th a t

monetary

incentives

are

most

important

in d u s tria l arts teachers.
Research Question 7 .
What types of incentives do local
d i s t r i c t s provide to encourage p a r tic ip a tio n in professional growth a c t iv it ie s ?
Seventy

percent

of

the

d is tric ts

represented

provided reimbursement f o r workshop fe e s --m o re
incentives 1is te d .

in

than

the

study

any o th e r

From the information the respondents provided,

i t appears th a t local contracts provided fo r extended released time
or sabbatical status fo r teachers as 56% indicated the a v a i l a b i l i t y
of th a t in centive, followed by the a b i l i t y to have a decision-making
voice lo c a l ly (55%) and the p o ten tial to become a department head or
teacher

coordinator

reimbursement

fo r

(55%).

membership

The le a s t
fees

in

a v aila b le
professional

incentive

was

organizations

( 16%).
Research Question 8 .
Is there a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip
between the frequency o f p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-growth
a c t i v i t i e s and the extent to which incentives are provided
lo c a lly ?
When grouped by categories, the only s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t
re la tio n s h ip found was between the professional-development category

149
o f workshops and nonmonetary incentives as a group.
sample was less than 40,
would be found.

no s t a t i s t i c a l l y

No other s t a t i s t i c a l l y

s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip
s ig n if ic a n t re la tio n s h ip s

were found between the frequency o f p a r tic ip a tio n
development

a c tiv itie s

and

the

extent

I f the survey

to

in professional -

which

incentives

were

provided.
In d iv id u a lly , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s ig n ific a n t c o rre la tio n s were found
between nonmonetary in c e n t iv e s
d is tric t

workshops;

d is tric t,

state department,

p a r tic ip a tio n

(b )

p a rtic ip a tio n

national

p a rtic ip a tio n
in

in t e r m e d ia t e

in a workshop sponsored by the Vocational

convention;

in

1ocal
school

or uni versity-sponsored workshops;

Personnel Development Project;
or

and ( a )

(e)

(d) attendance at a s ta te ,
meetings

attended

as

(c)

Education
r e g io n a l,

a member of

di s t r i c t or b u ild in g p r o f e s s io n a l- e d u c a t io n com m ittee,

a

and ( f )

membership in professional education organizations.
In

a ddition ,

a s ta tis tic a lly

s ig n if ic a n t ,

although

negative,

c o rre la tio n was found between monetary incentives and e n r o llin g in a
community college or u n iv e rs ity noncredit course fo r pleasure.
Two out of the 11 incentives,

p o te n tia l

to become department

head or teacher coordinator and a decision-making

voice

lo c a lly ,

contributed to the respondents’ p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-growth
a c tiv itie s .

Having a decision-making voice lo c a l ly was s ig n if ic a n t

at the .01 l e v e l , whereas the p o te n tia l to become department head or
te a c h e r

c o o r d in a to r

was

s ig n ific a n t

incentives most preferred were le a s t
teachers.

at

th e

a v a ila b le

.05
to

le v e l.

in d u s tr ia l

The
arts

150

Research Question 9 .
Is there a s ig n ific a n t re la tio n s h ip
between teachers’ (a) age, (b) level o f education, (c) teaching
assignment, (d) years of teaching experience, (e) secondary
employment, and ( f ) size of the school d i s t r i c t , and t h e ir
i d e n t if ic a t io n of important incentives?
The demographic categories of age, level o f education, teaching
assignment, years o f teaching experience, secondary employment, and
si ze

of

th e

school

di s t r i c t

were

used

to

de te rm ine

whether

respondents in the various categories d iffe r e d in t h e i r ratings of
the

importance

s ig n ific a n c e

of

set

the
at

various

.05

or

incentives.

le s s ,

With

the

a s ta tis tic a lly

level

of

s ig n ific a n t

d iffe re n c e was found between respondents in the 22-37 age group and
those in the 38-45 and 46+ groups.

Twice as many of the respondents

38 years o f age and older

indicated th a t

time

was not

or

sabbatical

status,

as

the

in cen tiv e,

important

released

as indicated

by

those 22 to 37 years old.
Using

th e

v a r i a b le ,

1e v e ls

of

e d u c a tio n ,

s ta tis tic a l

sig n ific a n c e was found with the incentive released time to work on
independent

staff-development

advanced degree (15.5%)

projec ts .

those

with

an

indicated the incentive was not important,

whereas 32% o f those with a B .A ./B .S.
important.

Fewer o f

degree indicated i t

was not

No s t a t i s t i c a l significance was found with the v a ria b le ,

d i f f e r e n t teaching assignments w ithin in d u s tria l a r ts .
A s t a t i s t i c a l 1y s ig n i f i c a n t
respondents with
id e n tific a tio n

and those without
o f the

importance

di f f e r e n c e

was found

secondary employment
of

th re e

of

th e

Extended released time from classroom or sabbatical

between
in

th e ir

in c e n tiv e s .

status was not

151
important to 22% o f those with secondary employment and 38% of those
without

such

secondary

employment.

employment

recognition

was

in d ic a te d

somewhat

secondary employment
important.
was twice

T h irty-tw o

b u ild in g

important,

in d ic a t e d

percent
or

whereas

such

of

those

without

d is tric t-le v e l

18% of

r e c o g n it io n

those

was

with

somewhat

The incentive of having a decision-making voice lo c a lly
as

important

to

those without

secondary

employment

as

those with i t .
A s ta ti s ti c a lly

s ig n ific a n t

di ff e r e n c e

was found

between

teachers from d i f f e r e n t sizes of school d i s t r i c t s and the in cen tiv e,
advancement

on

the

s a la r y

continuing education u n its .
d is tric ts

(5000+

students)

schedule

fo r

the

accum ulation

of

More teachers (20%) employed in la rg e r
than those employed

in

d is tric ts

with

fewer students indicated th is incentive was not important.
Conclusions
Based on the findings of th is study,

several

conclusions seem

warranted.
1.
a c tiv e ly

O v e r a ll,

Michigan

engaged in professional

professional

jo u rn a ls ,

in d u s tria l

teachers

growth p rim a r ily

p a r tic ip a tin g

di alogue groups wi t h i n

arts

a b u ild in g

in

informal

through

It

reading

teacher/colleague

or di s t r i c t ,

and a tt e n d in g

meetings as members o f d i s t r i c t or building professional
committees.

have

is concluded th a t these a c t i v i t i e s

education

are e ith e r the

most preferred a c t i v i t i e s and/or most accessible to in d u s tria l
teachers.

arts

been

152
2.

The

reason

most

professional-growth
success.

frequently

a c tiv itie s

was

For ju s t one a c t i v i t y ,

workshops,

was

instance,

the

highest

contractual

cited

personal

p a r tic ip a tin g

was

in

choice/professional

p a r tic ip a tin g

response

o b iig ation

fo r

in

other

than

the

reason

local
th is .

d is tric t
In

given.

th a t
It

is

concluded th a t in d u s tria l arts teachers choose to p a r tic ip a te except
when 1ocal

co n tra c t

1 anguage mandates atten dance

at

s p e c ific

arts

teachers

a c tiv itie s .
3.
were

Approximately one-fourth of the

able

to

p a r tic ip a te

in

the

in d u s tria l

Vocational

Education

Personnel

Development Project a c t i v i t i e s targeted f o r them, which were based
on a statewide needs assessment.
4.

A conclusion drawn from the review of 1it e r a t u r e regarding

the types of professional-development a c t i v i t i e s th a t teachers view
as

relevant

is

th a t

the

process

of

s ta ff

development

important to teachers than the individual a c t i v i t i e s .

is

more

Teachers have

a preference fo r the format and focus but also want r e s p o n s ib ility
fo r t h e i r own professional growth.
5.

In d u s tria l arts teachers preferred industry-designed s t a f f -

development
designed

experie n c es

lo c a l l y .

in t e r n s h ip s

fo r

They were less

and p a r t - t i m e

It

updating

interested

employment as w e ll

u n iv e rs ity or college courses.
employed elsewhere,

t e c h n o lo g ic a l

in

over

ones

work-experience
as e n r o l l i n g

in

But nearly one-half were c u rre n tly

and nearly three-fo urths had advanced degrees.

is concluded th a t in d u s tria l

arts teachers as a group would be

153
w illin g

to p a r t i c i p a t e

in

a ll

e ig h t

approaches

presen ted

fo r

technological updating.
6.

Since in d u s tria l

arts teachers indicated a preference fo r

attending staff-development a c t i v i t i e s
concluded that planning a c t i v i t i e s

during the work day,

it

is

or programs during other times

would not a t t r a c t a s ig n ific a n t number o f in d u s tria l a rts teachers.
7.

A ll

11 incentives were id e n t if ie d as important motivators

fo r nearly two-thirds o f the survey respondents.
the

top

choice

accum ulation

was
of

advancement
c o n tin u in g

on

the

salary

educ a tio n

courses.

Therefore,

it

is

schedule

fo r

the

f o l 1 owed

by

reimbursement

fo r

u n its ,

reimbursement f o r workshop fees and t u i t i o n
u n iv e rs ity

When rank ordered,

concluded

th a t

monetary

incentives are preferred over nonmonetary incentives.
8.

Incentives were not widely a v a ila b le to Michigan in d u s tria l

arts teachers responding to the survey.
1isted

were

a v aila b le

to

one-half

of

Less than o n e-h alf of those
the

respondents.

It

is

concluded th a t there is a gap between the most preferred incentives
and the most av aila b le as reported by respondents.
In d u s t r i al

a rts

te a c h e rs ’

f a v o r in g

e x trin s ic ,

monetary

incentives does not support some o f the 1it e r a t u r e on incentives and
m otivation.

McGraw (1978) and McCullers (1978) found th a t rewards

may have detrimental

e ffe c ts

on motivation

over

a long

period,

whereas Farrar (1981) concluded th a t pay-related incentives appeared
to

hold

the

most

p o te n tia l

fo r

elementary

and

teachers when re la ted to performance m otivation.
the Michigan i n d u s t r i a l

a r t s te a c h e rs

secondary

school

Since on e-th ird of

surveyed

in d ic a t e d

th at

154

b u i l d in g / d is t r ic t - le v e l

recognition was not important,

th is

raises

some questions regarding the methods c u rre n tly being used to provide
recognition.
in

the

Spuck (1974) found th a t teachers preferred recognition

form

of

material

or

monetary

inducements,

support

and

recognition from the community, pleasant physical conditions, pride
in workmanship,
d is tric t

goals

s o c ia l

i n t e r a c t i o n w ith

and p o lic y ,

a b ility

or

p e e rs ,

agreement w ith

opportunity

to

influence

school po lic y , and environment/working conditions.
9.

A re la tio n s h ip

was

found

between

th e

p r o f e s s io n a l -

development a c t i v i t y of workshops as a category and the category of
nonmonetary incentives.

I t is concluded th a t nonmonetary incentives

of a decision-making voice lo c a lly

and the p o te n tia l

to become a

teacher coordinator or department head were those th a t contributed
to t h e i r p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-growth a c t i v i t i e s .
be

noted

th a t

th e ir

p re fe re n c e

was

monetary

I t should

in c e n t i v e s

as

motivators, but they were not a v a ila b le .
10.

O v e r a ll,

in t e r e s t e d

in

s a b b a tic a l

s ta tu s

fewer

extended
than

young

in d u s tria l

re le a s e d
th e ir

tim e

more

arts
from

mature

teachers
th e

are

not

classroom

col 1eagues.

or

More

in dividuals with advanced degrees are in terested in released time to
work on independent
B.A ./B .S.
those

an

in te r e s t

projects

than

Advancement on the salary scale was less

employed

d is tric ts .

staff-development

in

1a r g e r

d is tric ts

than

those

those with

a

important to
from

s m a lle r

Respondents without another job appeared to have more of
in

recognition

and

having

a

decision-making

voice

155

lo c a l ly than those who held another job.

It

is fu rth e r concluded

th a t no other relationships e xist between the remaining demographic
variables and the id e n t if ic a t io n o f important incentives.

Recommendations
The fin d in g s
follow ing

and con c lu s io n s

recommendations o f

supporting

the

of

th is

importance

professional

growth

of

study

to

the

to those responsible

fo r

in d u s tria l

1 ead

arts

teachers.

Those responsible e n t i t i e s may include, but are not 1imited to:
in d i v id u a l

te a c h e r,

te a c h e r-tra in in g

p r o fe s s i onal

in s t it u t io n s ,

o rg a n iza tio n s ,

the

the em ployer,

and public and private tr a in in g

and

development agencies.
1.

Teachers

should

be given

the opportunity

a c t i v i t y most appropriate fo r t h e ir individual

to

choose

the

development based on

t h e i r s e lf-perceived needs.
2.

Individual

pians fo r professional growth should be encour­

aged and supported.
3.

Staff-development

a c tiv itie s

should be offered

p rim a rily

during the work day.
4.

When group a c t i v i t i e s

fo r

s t a f f development

they should be based on teacher needs assessments.
have

an

in teg ra l

p a rt

in

the

pianning

and

are

o ffe red ,

Teachers should

evaluation

of

such

a c tiv itie s .
5.

A d m in is tr a to r s

r e c o g n it i o n
in d u s tria l

programs
a r ts

a n d /o r o th e rs

need t o

be

r e s p o n s ib le

aware t h a t

fo r

o n e -th ird

te a c h e r of

the

te a c h e rs in d ic a t e d b u i l d i n g - o r d i s t r i c t - l e v e l

156
recognition was not important.

More information should be obtained

to determine the reasons fo r these responses.

The effectiveness of

current programs should be evaluated, with a tte n tio n to the research
on the types o f recognition preferred by teachers.
6.

In d u s tria l

admini s t r a t o r s

arts

were

professional growth.

teachers

committed

were
to

not convinced

and

th a t

th e ir

of

th e i r

s u p p o rtiv e

An e f f o r t to communicate the commitment should

be pursued to demonstrate th a t support e x is ts .
7.

The

th e re fo re ,

p o te n ti al

serious

of

thought

in c e n tiv e s
should

be

as

given

moti v a to rs
by

include these incentives as options fo r s t a f f .
th a t

a gap exists

incentives.
8.

between the most preferred

policy

exi s t s ;
makers

to

There is evidence
and most

a v a ila b le

A closer alignment between the two is recommended.

I t is recommended that educational in s t itu t io n s c o llaborate

w ith in d u s tr y in p r o v id in g s ta ff-d e v e lo p m e n t o p p o r t u n i t ie s f o r
in d u s tria l arts teachers as a means fo r technological updating.
9.
fo r

Since ta lk in g to other teachers

in d u s tria l

in d i c a t i n g

teachers

th a t

as well

te a c h e rs

value

as

is an important a c t i v i t y

supportive

th is

of

a c tiv ity ,

opportunities should be made av aila b le to teachers.

other
more

research
of

these

There is a need

to fu rth e r le g itim iz e th is as a staff-development a c t i v i t y .
Topics and questions fo r fu rth e r research f o l 1ow.
1.
sider

using

Those interested in conducting a s im ila r study should con­
a random sample of

issues raised in th is
nonmonetary incentives.

study,

a ll

Michigan

teachers

to

c la rify

such as the value o f monetary versus

157

2.

Further research

professional

journals

is

read

suggested to determine the
by

teachers

and

the

types

carry-over

of

into

classroom in s tru c tio n .
3.

It

is

suggested th a t teachers who do not p a r tic ip a te

professional-development

a c tiv itie s

be

interviewed

to

in

determine

t h e i r reasons f o r no nparticipation.
4.

Further research is suggested to determine teachers’ p r e f ­

erence f o r developing t h e i r own professional-growth plans and the
type o f support they require.
5.

Further

information

would

be helpful

in

determining

why

industry-based tr a in in g programs are preferred over l o c a l ly designed
programs.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

REGIONAL MAP--MICHIGAN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION SOCIETY

158

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m ack*

OA»ra©'OJCDOA f AUW4A
«ffos> tmsAusi

&***■*

105CJ

t?EQIONAL MAP
IGiwrulT

MICHIGAN 1MDUSTRIAL

&CHJCAq“|OH 6DC4BTY

oawA twf«*f&5,missfh ISAKUA■M
OiAM
DI BA
su m or I 3«*»Ma V

KWT !

cum ) \

I II

I GD2SEE I LAPEER
10;
1

8! \
Eaton iM&au lvngsw
MfcW
REN KMAottfeft

CAUOUN

JACASON

3
CAii ibTJKCfH

®^

-iMAVJtt. I MOmhOE.

a t e io n

APPENDIX B
LETTER SENT TO CAREER EDUCATION PLANNING DISTRICT (CEPD)
VOCATIONAL-TECHNICAL SPECIALISTS

159

M IC H IG A N S T A T E U N IV E R S IT Y
E.AST LANSING • MICHIGAN • M824I0M

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION • DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

March 1, 1988

As a doctoral student at Michigan State University, I am in the process of
collecting data for my dissertation. The topic I have chosen is "An Identification
of Incentives That Motivate Michigan Industrial Arts Teachers to Participate in
Professional Growth Activities." I plan to survey, through a random sampling
process, industrial arts teachers throughout the state of Michigan.
Would you please assist me by providing me with a current list of the industrial
arts teachers employed in your CEPD for the 1987-88 school year? It would be
of tremendous help to me to verify the accuracy of my sample prior to mailing
out the questionnaire. Please send the information to me at: 5081 Timber Ridge,
Clarkston, MI 48016.
If you have any questions concerning this request, you may reach me by telephone
at (313) 625-4402 (Work) or (313) 623-9085 (Home). Thank you in advance for
your cooperation.
Sincerely,

CUUm Ju
Alberta Ellis

Dr. George Ferns, Professor
Dissertation Committee Chairperson

MSU it mm A ffirm a tive A ction /E q u ai O pp o rtun ity In stitu tio n

APPENDIX C
MICHIGAN CAREER EDUCATION PLANNING DISTRICTS

160

CAREER EDUCATION PLANNING DISTRICTS

APPENDIX D
PILOT COVER LETTER AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT

161

M IC H I G A N

S T A T E U N IV E R S IT Y

COU.EGE OF EDUCATION • DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

EAST I.ANSING • MICHIGAN •

-IHKi-l-inM

November 30, 1987

Dear Industrial Arts Teacher,
As a doctoral student at Michigan State University, I am in the process of
collecting data for my dissertation.
The topic I have chosen is "An Identi­
fication of Incentives That Motivate Michigan Industrial Arts Teachers to
Participate in Professional Growth Activities." My plans to collect data include
a random sampling of the approximately 2,400 industrial arts teachers by Michigan
Industrial Education Society (M.I.E.S.) regions through a mailed questionnaire.
I am hopeful that the data I collect will provide valuable information to
employers, staff developers, and others responsible for planning growth activities
for industrial arts teachers.
As a participant in staff development programs,
your input can be considered in the future to determine the types of programs
to be made available for you locally and statewide.
The first step in the process is to pilot test the questionnaire with a small
sampling of industrial arts teachers to determine the appropriateness of the
questions and the validity of the instrument.
The official projected period of
time for data gathering will be November, 1987 to January, 1988. The four-page
questionnaire should take you approximately 20 to 30 minutes to complete.
Your
completion and return of the questionnaire is based on your choice to participate
in the survey.
If during the data gathering period you wish to have your input
excluded from the final tabulation and analysis, you may contact me and I would be
amenable to any such request.
Would you please assist me by taking the time to fill out the enclosed questionnaire
and return it in the enclosed stamped envelope by December 11, 198“? The infor­
mation you share will be treated in strict confidence and ail respondents will
remain anonymous.
After completing the dissertation, I would be willing to share the results with
you within the restrictions mentioned previously.
If you wish to receive this
information, please so indicate on the questionnaire.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation.
mcereiy,

is
.closure
If W. ,1 dn . |//ir^M ,i,r 111fn.

Fjuui t

162

PART I
Background Information
Directions: The purpose of this part of the survey instrument is to obtain some
general information regarding your current employment and status. Please respond by
checking the category that best describes your current status or supply the requested
information in the space provided.
1. What

is your sex?

2. What

is your age?

________ 22-29

3. What

30-37

________38-45

1,000-3,000

________ 7,500-10,000

________ 16-20

district?

over 55

________ under 500

3,000-5,000

5,000-7,500

over 10,000

How many years have you taught?
21-25

5. What subjects/areas are you

_______ 1-5

6-10

11-15

________over 25

currently teaching?

________ Auto Mechanics
________ Construction Technology
________ Electricity and
Electronics
________ Graphic Arts
________ Meta Is
Power Mechanics
________ Woo d s
6. What

46-55

is the total enrollment of your employingschool

_______ 500-1 ,000

4.

___________ Female

Male

Communications Technology
Drafting and Design
General Industrial Arts
Manufacturing Technology
Plastics
Transportation Technology
Other (Describe

level are you currently teaching?

________ Middle School.'Junior High

High School

7.

What percentage of your teaching schedule is devoted to Industrial Arts?

8.

If not 100 percent, what other classes are you currently teaching?______

9.

What

is the highest level degree you currently possess?

___________ B . A . / B . S .

10.

___________M . A .___________ ___________E d . S .

Ph. D.

Are you currently employed elsewhere?
_______During the school year

11.

)

_______Summer

Is your other employment related to a technical skill area?
Yes

No

Both

163

PART II
Participation in Professional Development Activities

Directions: The following items represent activities that are categorized as professional
growth experiences.
Please indicate the frequency of your participation during the past two
years by filling in the space provided. Using the key that follows, please circle the primary
reason for your participation.__________________________________________________________________
KEY: 1 = Contractual Obligation
3 » Recognition by colleagues
5 = Persona 1/professiona1
2 ° Friends were participating A ■ Influence decision makers_______ success
How
Reasons
for Participating
Activ ity
Of ten
WORKSHOPS
4
1
2
5
1. Participation in district workshop.
3
2.

Participation in intermediate, state department or university
sponsored workshop

1

2

3

4

5

3.

Participation in a workshop sponsored by the Vocational
Educational Personnel Development Project.

1

2

3

4

5

CONVENTIONS
A. Attendance at a state, regional, or national convention.

1

2

3

4

5

PRESENTATIONS
5. Making a presentation at a local district workshop.

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

A

5

1

2

3

A

5

COURSEWORK
9. Enrolling in a university credit course related to certifica­
tion or advanced degree.

1

2

3

A

5

10.

Enrolling in a university credit or non-credit course for
pleasure.

1

2

3

A

5

11.

Enrolling in a technical education credit or non-credit course.

1

2

3

A

5

OTHER PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
12. Observations of other teachers teaching.

1

2

3

A

5

13.

Number of meetings attended as a member of a district or
building professional education committee.

1

2

3

A

5

14.

Number of meetings attended as a member of a state or
national task force.

1

2

3

A

5

1

2

3

A

5

1

2

3

A

5

6.

Making a presentation at a regional, statewide, or national
convent ion.

PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
7. Membership in professional education organizations.
Please list:

8.

Reading of professional journals (approximate number read in
the last three years).

j
i

15.

Participation in an informal teacher/col league dialogue
group within a building or district.

16.

Writing or co-authoring student textbooks or journal articles.

!
|
1

Other Activities:

1

164

PART III
Local Incentives Provided for Participation
in Professional Development Activities

Directions: Some local school districts currently provide incentives for staff participation in
professional development activities. Please indicate whether or not these incentives are avail­
able in your district by checking the YES or NO column. Also, please note the effectiveness by
circling your response using the key that follows.
KEY: 1 =■ Extremely Effective
2 ” Considerable

3 * Somewhat
4 « Very Little

Incentives

5 » Not Effective

Provided
In Your
District
YES NO

Effectiveness of
Incentives

1.

Reimbursement for membership fees in professional organi­
zation .

2

3

4

5

2.

Reimbursement for workshop fees.

2

3

4

5

3.

Reimbursement for time outside of the workday spent in
attending professional activities.

2

3

4

5

4.

Tuition reimbursement for university courses.

2

3

4

5

5.

Advancement on salary schedule for accumulation of
continuing education units.

2

3

4

5

6.

Ability to achieve a master teacher status.

2

3

4

5

7.

Extended released time from classroom or sabbatical status.

2

3

4

5

8.

Potential to become department head or teacher coordinator.

2

3

4

5

9.

Building or district level recognition.

2

3

4

5

Decision-making voice locally.

2

3

4

5

10.

Please list others available or desirable:
1.

2.

3.

165

PART IV
Perception of An Innovation

1.

There is a current national movement underway to adjust the focus of industrial arts educa­
tion toward a concentration on the study and understanding of technology and its role in our
lives. Using the seven statements listed below, circle the stage that best describes your
feelings toward this innovation. Feel free to add additional comments under the expression
of concern.
Expressions of Concern

Stages of Concern
a.
b.

Informational

I would like to know more about it.

c.

Personal

How will teaching

Management

I seem to be spending all my time gathering and preparing new
materials.

e.

Consequence

How is my teaching of technology affecting m y students?

f.

Collaboration

I am concerned about relating and sharing what I am doing with what
other instructors are doing.

g.

Refocusing

I have some ideas about technology education that would work even
better.

d.

2.

I am not concerned about the innovation.

Awareness

technology education affect me?

A list of ways teachers may obtain technological updating have been identified.
Please
indicate the approaches you would chose for your personal technical updating by circ 1 ing
the degree of your interest for each item using the following key:
KEY:

1 « No interest
2 = Limited interest

3 “ Moderate interest
4 - Significant interest

Approaches for Updating

3.

Exceptional interest

Degree of Interest

1.

Work experience internships

1

2

3

4

5

2.

University and college course work

1

2

3

4

5

3.

Workshops, conferences, seminars

1

2

3

4

5

4.

Industry observation

1

2

3

4

5

5.

Education and industry staff exchange

1

2

3

4

5

6.

Part-time employment

1

2

3

4

5

7.

Locally designed programs

1

2

3

4

5

8.

Industry training programs

1

2

3

4

5

9.

Others.

1

2

3

4

5

1

2

3

4

5

(Please specify)

When would you most prefer to participate in professional development activities?
________ During the school day.
After school

_ ______ Weekends
Sunsner or other vacation time

APPENDIX E
FINAL COVER LETTER AND SURVEY INSTRUMENT

166

M IC H IG A N S T A T E U N IV E R S IT Y
EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48IU4-I0.V1

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION • DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

March 9, 1988

Dear Industrial Arts Teacher,
As a doctoral student at Michigan State University, I am in the process of collecting
data for my dissertation.
The topic I have chosen is "An Identification of Incentives
That Motivate Michigan Industrial Arts Teachers to Participate in Professional
Growth Activities." My plans to collect data include a stratified random sampling
of the approximately 2,400 industrial arts teachers by Michigan Industrial Education
Society (M.I.E.S.) regions through a mailed questionnaire.
I am hopeful that the data I collect will provide valuable information to employers,
staff developers, and others responsible for planning growth activities for industrial
arts teachers. As a participant in staff development programs, your input can be
considered in the future to determine the types of programs to be made available for
you locally and statewide.
You have been selected in the sampling process to be one of the respondents.
The
four-page questionnaire should take approximately 20 to 30 minutes to complete.
The official period for data gathering will be March, 1988. Your completion and
return of the questionnaire is based on your choice to participate in the survey.
If during the data gathering period you wish to have your input excluded from the
final tabulation and analysis, you may contact me and I would be amenable to such
a request.
Would you please assist me by taking the time to fill out and return the enclosed
questionnaire by March 25, 1988 in the enclosed stamped envelope? The information
you share will be treated in strict confidence and all respondents will remain
anonymous.
If you have any questions regarding the survey, you may reach me at
(313) 625-4402 (Work) or (313) 623-9085 (Home).
After completing the dissertation, I would be willing to share the results with
you within the restrictions mentioned previously.
If you wish to receive this
information, please so indicate on the questionnaire.
Thank you in advance for your cooperation.
Sincerely,

Dr. George Ferns, Professor
Dissertation Committee Chairperson
Enclosures

M SC is m A f/tr m a tii't A ctio n /E q iu J O p p o r tu n ity In s titu tio n

167

PART I
Background Information

Directions: The purpose of this part of the survey instrument is to obtain some
general information regarding your current employment and status. Please respond by
(.> /') checking the category that best describes your current status or supply the
requested information in the space provided.
_________ Male

Female

1.

What is your sex?

2.

What is your age? ______ 22-29

3.

What is the total enrollment of your employing school district?

______ Do not know

______ under 500_____ ______ 500-1,000

______ 3,000-5,000

30-37

How many years have you taught?
16-20

5.

21-25

______ over 10,000

______ 1-5

6-10

11-15

over25

What subjects/areas are you currently teaching?
Auto Mechanics
Construction Technology
Electricity and Electronics
Graphic Arts
Metals
Power Mechanics
Woods

6.

________A6-55

1,000-3,000

______ 5,000-7,500___ ______ 7,500-10,000

A.

38-A5

Communications Technology
_Drafting an(j Design
_Geiieral Industrial Arts
_Manufacturing Technology
_Plastics

^Transportation Technology
_0ther (Specify____________

What level are you currently teaching?
Middle School/Junior High

High School

7.

What percentage of your teaching schedule is devoted to Industrial Arts?

8.

If not 100 percent, what other classes are you currently teaching?_

9.

What is the highest level degree you currently possess?
______ B.A./B.S.

10.

M.A.

Are you currently employed elsewhere?______Yes
______ During the school year

11.

______ Ed.S.

______ Ph.D.

No

If yes, indicate when.

Summer__________ ______ Both

Is your other employment related to a technical or vocational skill area?
Yes

No
(O v e r)

over55

168

PART II
Participation in Professional Development Activities

Directions: The following items represent activities that are categorized as professional
growth experiences.
Please indicate the frequency of your participation during the past two
years by filling in the space provided.
Using the key that follows, please circle the primary
reason for your participation.
Do not circle more than one.
KEY: 1 = Contractual Obligation
3 “ Recognition by colleagues
5 • Personal choice/
2 = Friends were participating A » Influence decision makers
Professional success
How
Reasons
Activities
Often
or Participating
WORKSHOPS
1. Participation in local district workshop.
2.

Participation in intermediate, state department or
sponsored workshop.

university
2

3

A

5

2

3

A

5

2

3

A

5

2

3

A

5

2

3

A

5

2

3

A

5

2

3

A

5

2

3

A

5

Reading of professional journals (approximate number read in
the last two years).

2

3

A

5

11.

Observations of other teachers teaching.

2

3

A

5

12.

Number of meetings attended as a member of a district or
building professional education committee.

2

3

A

5

Number of meetings attended as a member of a state or
national task force.

2

3

A

5

Participation in an informal teacher/col league dialogue
group within a building or district.

2

3

A

5

15.

Writing or co-authoring student textbooks or journal articles.

2

3

A

5

16.

Membership in professional education organizations.
Please list:
_____________
2

3

A

5

3.

Participation in a workshop sponsored by the Vocational
Educational Personnel Development Project.

PRESENTATIONS
A. Making a presentation at a local district workshop.
5.

Making a presentation at a regional, statewide, or
convent ion.

national

COURSEWORK
6. Enrolling in a community college or university credit course
related to certification or advanced degree.
7.

8.

Enrolling in a community college or university non-credit
course for pleasure.
Enrolling in a technical education credit or non-credit course.

OTHER PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
9. Attendance at a state, regional, or national convention.
10.

13.

1A.

1
Other Activities:

169

PART III
Local Incentives Provided for Participation
in Professional Development Activities

Directions: Some local school districts currently provide incentives for staff participation in
professional development activities.
Please indicate whether or not these incentives are avail­
able in your district by checking the YES or NO column. Also, please note the importance to you
by circl ing your response using the key that follows.
KEY: 1 “ Not at all Important
2 “ Not very Important

3 ” Somewhat Important
A « Very Important

Incentives

5 “ Extremely Important

Provided
In Your
District
YES NO

Importance of
Incentives

1.

Reimbursement for membership fees in professional organi­
zation .

1

2

3

A

5

2.

Reimbursement for workshop fees.

1

2

3

A

5

3.

Reimbursement for time outside of the workday spent in
attending professional activities.

1

2

3

A

5

A.

Tuition reimbursement for university courses.

1

2

3

A

5

C

Advancement on salary schedule for accumulation of
continuing education units.

1

2

3

A

5

6.

Ability to achieve a master or lead teacher status.

1

2

3

A

5

7.

Extended released time from classroom or sabbatical status.

1

2

3

A

5

8.

Potential to become department head or teacher coordinator.

1

2

3

A

5

9.

Building or district level recognition.

1

2

3

A

5

10.

Decision-making voice locally.

1

2

3

A

5

11.

Released time to work on independent staff development
projects

1

2

3

A

5

1.

1

2

3

A

5

2.

1

2

3

A

5

1

2

3

A

5

Please list other incentives available or desirable:

*>

(Over)

170

PART XV
Approaches for Technological Updating

1.

A list of ways teachers may obtain technological updating has been identified. Please
indicate the approaches you would choose for your personal technical updating by circling
the degree of your interest for each item using the following key:

KEY:

1 = No interest
2 = Limited interest

3 = Moderate interest
4 = Significant interest

5 » Exceptional interest

Degree of
Interest

Approaches for Updating

2.

1.

Participation in work experience internships.

2

3

4

5

2.

Enrolling in university and college coursework.

2

3

4

5

3.

Attendance at workshops, conferences or seminars.

2

3

4

5

4.

Participation in industry observations.

2

3

4

5

5.

Participation in an education and industry staff exchange.

2

3

4

5

6.

Part-time employment with opportunities for technological
tra ining.

2

3

4

5

7.

Participation in locally designed programs.

2

3

4

5

8.

Participation in industry training programs.

2

3

4

5

9.

Others.

2

3

4

5

(Please specify)_

When would you most prefer to participate in professional development activities?
________ During the school day.
After school

Weekends
Summer or other vacation time

APPENDIX F
CORRESPONDENCE WITH MICHIGAN INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION
SOCIETY PRESIDENT

171

March 3, 1988
Mr. Dennis E. H i l l , President
Michigan In d u s tria l Education Society
60908 Waschull Drive
Washington, MI 48904
Dear Mr. H i l l :
As a doctoral student at Michigan State U n iv e rs ity , I am in the pro­
cess o f c o lle c tin g data fo r my d is s e r ta tio n .
The topic I have
chosen is "An Id e n t if ic a t io n of the Incentives th a t Motivate M ic h i­
gan In d u s tria l Arts Teachers to P a rtic ip a te in Professional Growth
A c tiv itie s ."
My plan to c o lle c t data includes a s t r a t i f i e d random
sampling of the approximately 2,400 in d u s tria l arts teachers in
Michigan.
I am hopeful th a t the data I c o lle c t w i l l provide v a lu ­
a b le in fo r m a tio n to employers, s t a f f d e v e lo p e r s , p r o f e s s io n a l
organizations such as M . I . E . S . , and others responsible fo r planning
growth a c t i v i t i e s fo r in d u s tria l arts teachers.
As a former vocational in s tru c to r and a d m inistrator, I am s e n s itiv e
to the decline in the number of in d u s tria l arts teachers c u rre n tly
employed in our s ta te .
I t is my hope, as I am sure i t is yours,
th a t th is downward trend w i l l soon be reversed.
I am attaching the cover l e t t e r and survey instrument th a t I w i l l be
sending out s hortly and am asking fo r the support and endorsement of
your organization.
Many of your members may be selected in the
sampling process as respondents.
I would be w i lli n g to share the
compiled r e s u l t s w ith your o r g a n iz a t io n a f t e r I complete my
research.
I f you have questions, please feel fre e to contact me at (313)
625-4402 (W) or (313) 623-9085 (H).
As I am working w ith in some
t ig h t tim e lin e s , I am o p tim is tic th a t I w i l l receive your response
soon.
Thank you in advance fo r your cooperation.
Sin cerely,

A lbe rta E l l i s
Attachments
Home Address:

5081 Timber Ridge
Clarkston, MI 48016

172

MICHIGAN INDUSTRIAL
EDUCATION SOCIETY
ORGANIZED IN THE INTEREST OF INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION IN 1928
D E N N IS E . H ILL
P re s id e n t
5 0 9 0 8 W a s c n u ti D riv e
W a s h in g to n M l -18094
■313) 7 8 ’ '3 6 0 9

13 M a rch , 1988

JA M E S P A R T R ID G E
p 'e s .o e n t- E e c t
3 0 3 M ia m i C o u r’
"e c u m s e n

M i 49286

S ’ 7- 4 2 3 - 7 3 9 2

R O B E R T LOB ER
C o n v e n tio n C n a ir o e 's o n
‘ 0 0 9 0 P ic k v v iC * C o u rt
" 'a v e 's e C ity

Ms. A lb e r t a E l l i s
5081 T im b e r R idge
C la r k s t o n , MI 48016

M l 49584

6’6i 946-24’ 6

Dear Ms. E l l i s :

D O N A LD G EE
“ 'e a s u r e '
:4 5 S o u th C e - ’ e*
3 a ; C'C

M i 4 ? '? 2

K EN N E T H H E IM
3 - C 'e ’ar-y
£ 3 -5 D onna
•Ves* a n a

V i 4 5 ' 55

3' 2- 435-49' 2

LEO N A R D F R IT Z
; z i'-n -e 'C ia ' =«'• t v s
" ? ' j -Vest C c a ,a « e P o a o
= 0u ’ e 7

jd.-OrO Mt 49*25

5- ?. 939.9924

I am p le a s e d to in fo rm you t h a t th e bo ard o f d i r e c t o r s o f
th e M ic h ig a n I n d u s t r ia l E d u c a tio n S o c ie ty (MIES) a p p ro ve d
y o u r r e q u e s t f o r s u p p o rt and endorsem ent from th e MIES
f o r c o l l e c t i n g d a ta f o r y o u r d o c to r a l d i s s e r t a t io n .
As you o f f e r e d in y o u r l e t t e r to me da ted March 3 , we
w o u ld l i k e to be in fo rm e d o f th e r e s u lt s a f t e r you c o m p le te
y o u r r e s e a rc h .
I f I can be o f any f u r t h e r a s s is ta n c e , p le a s e c o n ta c t me
a t y o u r c o n v e n ie n c e .

GU Y HART

mi£4 Cnairce'so"
6'0 -2 S R o m e o = a n « R o a c
. \ a s r - n g i;;n M * 4 5 3 9 4

S in c e r e ly ,

3* j i " 5 ' -6 * 62
JA C O B OJALA
R e g io n a l - o * T' •* 5 '*a ‘ -e
3 " ic e r C . n a i 'c e 's i "
V a r o u e i'e

M- 49 553

t.
Dennis E. H i l l , P re s id e n t
M ic h ig a n I n d u s t r ia l E d u c a tio n S o c ie ty

C A RL W IT TE

Men-ne'smc D.'ecto'
•-*4 s e 62,/e. acaa

= js e * v i.ie

M i 45*32

6 9 2 -4 C * 6
C H A R L E S G O S D Z IN S K I
. 4 c rn a i E d ilC '
4 . o n a a ;e H ig n 5 : n c o ;
4 „ O u rn M il's M ' 4 9 3 5 ?
•* 3 i 85 2 -2 9 5 2
W AY NE KADAR
. o u fn a i h a v e n 's n g M a n a g e '
6 2 6 la k e v ie w C ' .e
- 'a r o o ' B e a c * m i 4 9 44 1
5 ' 7 4 7 9 -3 6 2 2
BARBARA K O S C IE R Z Y N S K I
r e l a t io n M a n a g e '
5 2 6 5 7 H ris im C d u n
_ "ic a M l 4 8 2 8 7

3

3 i3 i 6 5 1 - 3 6 2
J O H N C . H O V IS

I hdDam

' 2 6 3 5 C ia'N R o a o
2 a v is U u» g

M l 43C ' 9

3 i3 i 62 5 -5 3 6 9

IN D U S T R IA L a n d T E C H N O L O G Y E D U C A T IO N
B R IN G IN G IT A L L T O G E T H E R
T he 6 0 t h A n n u a l M IE S C o n ven tio n
G ra n d T rav erse R es o rt • M a y 5 6 7 <98 8

APPENDIX G

FOLLOW-UP CORRESPONDENCE

173

M IC H I G A N

S T A T E U N IV E R S IT Y

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION • DEPARTMENT OF TEACHER EDUCATION

EAST LANSING • MICHIG AN • 48824-I0J4

April 8, 1988

Dear Industrial Arts Teacher,
On March 9 I sent a cover letter and questionnaire to you requesting that
you participate as a respondent in my data collection for my dissertation.
If you have completed the questionnaire and returned it, I want to thank you
for taking the time and giving your input.
If you have not already done so or have merely misplaced the questionnaire, I am
enclosing another copy along with the cover letter. Your prompt return in the
postage paid, self addressed enveloped, will be greatly appreciated.
Your response is very.important to my research. The greater the number of
respondents, the more meaningful the information will be not only to my personal
research, but to the industrial arts teaching profession in the state of Michigan.
Thank you for your support.
Sincerely

Attachments

MSU i i an .A ffirm a u rt A stw m /E qn*i O pportunity ImMitutinm

174

May 1988

Dear In d u s tria l Arts Teacher,
Thank you fo r your cooperation in responding to the questionnaire
sent to you during the time period of March-April 1988.
I received
an overall response of 66% from teachers l i k e y o u rs e lf throughout
the state of Michigan.
Currently I am w ritin g my d is s e rta tio n and analyzing the data I
received through the statewide survey. I f you indicated a desire to
receive the r e s u lts , you can expect to receive th a t information no
l a t e r than May 1989.
I hope to meet th a t deadline fo r completing my
d is s e rta tio n and graduating from Michigan State U n iv e rs ity .
Your cooperation and input are g re a tly appreciated.
continued success as an in d u s tria l arts teacher.
Sincerely,

A. J. E l l i s

Best wishes fo r

APPENDIX H

CORRESPONDENCE FROM UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON
RESEARCH INVOLVING HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS)

175

M IC H IG A N S T A T E U N IV E R S IT Y
EAST LANSING • MICHIG AN • 48824-1046

UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH INVOLVING
HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS)
238 ADMINISTRATION BUILDING
1517) 355-2186

November 17, 1987

Ms. Alberta Ellis
5081 Timber Ridge
Clarkston, Michigan

48016

Dear Ms. Ellis:
Subject:

Proposal Entitled, "An Identification of Incentives that
Motivate Michigan Industrial Arts Teachers to Participate
in Professional Growth Activities" ___

I am pleased to advise that I concur with your evaluation that this project is
exempt from full UCRIHS review, and approval is herewith granted for conduct
of the project.
You are reminded that
plan to continue this
obtaining appropriate

UCRIHS approval is valid
project beyond one year,
UCRIHS approval prior to

for one calendar year.Ifyou
please make provisionsfor
November 17, 1988.

Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the
UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change.
UCRIHS must also be notified
promptly of any problems (unexpected side
effects, complaints, etc.) involving
human subjects during the course of the work.
Thank you for bringing this project to my
attention.
help, please do not hesitate to let me know.

If I can be ofany

Sincerely,

-' l-'c / u ,
Henry E. Bredeck, Ph.D.
Chairman, UCRIHS
HEB/jms
cc:

Dr. George W. Ferns

MSU is mm A ffirm a tive A ctu m 'E q ua l O p p o rtu n ity Im tttu tm n

future

APPENDIX I
TABLES SHOWING FREQUENCY OF PARTICIPATION IN
PROFESSIONAL-DEVELOPHENT ACTIVITIES

176

Table I . 1 . - - P a r t ic ip a t io n in local d i s t r i c t workshop.
R elative
Freq.
(%)

Number of Workshops

Absolute
Freq.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
14
16
20
23
40

77
39
68
18
33
3
8
1
1
2
3
3
2
4
1
1

29.2
14.8
25.8
6 .8
12.5
1.1
3 .0
0.4
0.4
0 .8
1.1
1.1
0 .8
1.5
0 .4
0.4

264

100.0

Total
Mean = 2.697

Median = 1.735

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)
29.2
43.9
69.7
76.5
89.0
90.2
93.2
93.6
93.9
94.7
95.8
97.0
97.7
99.2
99.6
100.0

177
Table 1 . 2 . - - P a r t ic ip a t io n in interm ediate, sta te department, or
university-sponsored workshop.

Number o f Workshops

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
10
11
12
20
Total

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.

100
71
63
8
13
2
3
1
1
1
1

37.9
26.9
23.9
3 .0
4.9
0 .8
1.1
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4

37.9
64.8
88.6
91.7
96.6
97.3
98.5
98.9
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Mean = 1.341

(% )

Median = 0.951

Table I . 3 . - - P a r t ic ip a t io n in a workshop sponsored by the Vocational
Education Personnel Development Project.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Number of Workshops

Absolute
Freq.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
10
11
12

131
54
50
11
10
1
4
1
1
1

49.6
20.5
18.9
4.2
3 .8
0.4
1.5
0.4
0.4
0.4

264

100.0

Total
Mean = 1.095

Median = 0.519

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)
49.6
70.1
89.0
93.2
97.0
97.3
98.9
99.2
99.6
100.0

178

Table I . 4 . --Making a presentation at a local d i s t r i c t workshop.
Numer of
Presentations

0
1
2
3
4
5
10
11
Total

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

228
23
6
2
2
1
1
1

86.4
8 .7
2.3
0 .8
0 .8
0.4
0.4
0.4

86.4
95.1
97.3
98.1
98.9
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Mean = 0.284

Median = 0.079

Table 1 . 5 . --Making a presentation at a region al, statewide, or
national convention.

Number of
Presentations

0
1
2
3
11
Total
Mean = 0.117

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

247
13
2
1
1

93.6
4.9
0 .8
0.4
0.4

93.6
98.5
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0
Median = 0.034

179
Table I . 6 . --E n r o llin g in a community college or u n iv e rs ity c re d it
course re la te d to c e r t i f i c a t i o n or advanced degree.

Number o f Courses

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
11
20
30
Total

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

189
28
14
8
6
2
8
1
4
1
1
1
1

71.6
10.6
5.3
3.0
2.3
0 .8
3 .0
0.4
1.5
0.4
0.4
0.4
0.4

71.6
82.2
67.5
90.5
92.8
93.6
96.6
97.0
98.5
98.9
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Mean = 1.030

Median = 0.198

Table I . 7 . - -E n ro llin g in a community col lege or univers i t y nonc r e d it course fo r pleasure.

Number of Courses

0
1
2
3
4
5
11
20
Total
Mean = 0.341

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

227
22
6
4
2
1
1
1

86.0
8 .3
2.3
1.5
0 .8
0 .4
0.4
0.4

86.0
94.3
96.6
98.1
98.9
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Median = 0.081

180

Table I . 8 . --E n r o llin g in a technical education c r e d it or noncredit
course.

Number o f Courses

0
1
2
3
4
5
11
50
Total

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

212
32
11
4
1
2
1
1

80.3
12.1
4.2
1.5
0.4
0 .8
0.4
0.4

80.3
92.4
96.6
98.1
98.5
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Mean = 0.534

Median = 0.123

Table 1 . 9 . --Attendance a t a s ta te , re g io n al, or national convention.

Number of Conventions

0
1
2
3
4
5
8
11
Total
Mean = 0.951

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

134
53
61
3
7
4
1
1

50.8
20.1
23.1
1.1
2.7
1.5
0 .4
0 .4

50.8
70.8
93.9
95.1
97.7
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0
Median - 0.485

181
Table I . 1 0 . --Reading o f professional journals (approximate number
read in the l a s t two y e a rs ).
Number of
Journals Read

Absolute
Freq.

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
13
14
15
16
18
20
21
23
24
25
26
29
30
31
36
40
45
48
50
60
80
99
Total
Mean = 15.519

Relative
Freq.
(%)

44
9
21
19
10
7
10
1
5
2
17
11
1
2
3
1
4
16
3
1
23
6
1
1
9
1
4
11
2
6
5
3
2
3

16.7
3.4
8.0
7.2
3 .8
2.7
3 .8
0.4
1.9
0 .8
6.4
4.2
0.4
0 .8
1.1
0.4
1.5
6.1
1.1
0.4
8 .7
2.3
0.4
0.4
3.4
0.4
1.5
4.2
0.8
2.3
1.9
1.1
0 .8
1.1

264

100.0
Median = 9 . 7 3 5

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)
16.7
20.1
28.0
35.2
39.0
41.7
45.5
45.8
47.7
48.5
54.9
59.1
59.5
60.2
61.4
61.7
63.3
69.3
70.5
70.8
79.5
81.8
82.2
82.6
86.0
86.4
87.9
92.0
92.8
95.1
97.0
98.1
98.9
100.0

182

Table I . 1 1 . --Observations of other teachers teaching.

Number of Observations

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
15
20
21
50
99
Total
Mean = 3.500

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

148
29
30
9
7
11
6
1
1
9
1
3
3
1
1
4

56.1
11.0
11.4
3.4
2.7
4.2
2.3
0.4
0.4
3 .4
0.4
1.1
1.1
0.4
0.4
1.5

264

100.0
Median = 0.392

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)
56.1
67.0
78.4
81.8
84.5
88.6
90.9
91.3
91.7
95.1
95.5
96.6
97.7
98.1
98.5
100.0

183

Table 1 .1 2 .--Number of meetings attended as a member of a d i s t r i c t
or building professional education committee.

Number o f Meetings

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(*)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
17
19
20
21
24
25
27
30
36
50
60

128
11
20
10
19
6
12
2
5
2
13
7
5
1
1
11
1
2
2
1
2
1
1
1

48.5
4 .2
7.6
3 .8
7.2
2.3
4 .5
0 .8
1.9
0 .8
4.9
2.7
1.9
0.4
0.4
4.2
0.4
0 .8
0 .8
0 .4
0 .8
0 .4
0 .4
0 .4

48.5
52.7
60.2
64.0
71.2
73.5
78.0
78.8
80.7
81.4
86.4
89.0
90.9
91.3
91.7
95.8
96.2
97.0
97.7
98.1
98.9
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Total

Mean = 4 .6 5 2

Median = 0.864

184

Table I . 1 3 . --Number of meetings attended as a member o f a s ta te or
national task force.

Number of Meetings

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(*)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
13

243
8
5
1
3
2
1
1

92.0
3 .0
1.9
0 .4
1.1
0 .8
0.4
0.4

92.0
95.1
97.0
97.3
98.5
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Total
Mean = 0.235

Median = 0.043

185

Table I . 1 4 . - - P a r t ic ip a t io n in an informal teacher/colleague dialogue
group w ithin a building or d i s t r i c t .

Number o f Dialogues

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
12
15
16
18
20
21
24
25
30
40
50
80
99

115
13
35
12
9
9
9
2
5
1
13
2
1
1
1
10
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
10

43.6
4 .9
13.3
4 .5
3 .4
3.4
3 .4
0 .8
1.9
0.4
4 .9
0 .8
0.4
0.4
0.4
3 .8
0 .8
0 .8
0 .8
1.1
1.1
0 .8
0 .8
3 .8

43.6
48.5
61.7
66.3
69.7
73.1
76.5
77.3
79.2
79.5
84.5
85.2
85.6
86.0
86.4
90.2
90.9
91.7
92.4
93.6
94.7
95.5
96.2
100.0

264

100.0

Total

Mean = 8.788

Median = 1.614

188
Table 1 .1 5 .--W ritin g or co-authoring student textbooks or journal
a rtic le s .

Number of Writings

0
1
2
3
5
10
Total

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.

246
10
4
2
1
1

93.2
3 .8
1 .5
0 .8
0.4
0.4

93.2
97.0
98.5
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Mean = 0.148

{%)

Median = 0.037

Table 1 .1 6 .- -Membership in professional education organ iz a tio n s .

Number of Organizations

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
9
10
12
Total
Mean = 1.682

Absolute
Freq.

R elative
Freq.
(%)

Cumulative
Freq.
(%)

92
57
45
24
27
12
3
1
1
1
1

34.8
21.6
17.0
9.1
10.2
4 .5
1.1
0.4
0.4
0.4
0 .4

34.8
56.4
73.5
82.6
92.8
97.3
98.5
98.9
99.2
99.6
100.0

264

100.0

Median = 1.202

APPENDIX J
INDIVIDUAL COMMENTS TO RESEARCH QUESTION 5

187

Part IV of Survey Questionnaire: Approaches fo r
Technological Updating
Additional comments respondents provided to the question of time
preference fo r p a r tic ip a tio n in professional-development a c t i v i t i e s
follow:
Anytime depending on the s itu a tio n i f reimbursed fo r time and
expenses.
Any and a ll the times li s t e d .
Not interested in any program during the summer, vacation time
or weekends.
The time period would depend on the type of a c t i v i t y .
Industry puts on
seminars during the work daywhens t a f f
is
normally a l e r t , not a f t e r they’ ve worked a l l dayand looking
forward to relaxed time.
During the school day since not reimbursed fo r attending on own
time.
During January and February--slow months.
Summer or vacatio n--ha, ha.
Only during the school day.

A fte r school is my time.

During the school

day--too busy any other time.

Any time would be

okay and is needed.

No--summer.
Summer is best time and a f t e r school is second best time.
Depending on the q u a lity of the development a c t i v i t y ,
would be acceptable.
A fte r school, weekends, i f worthwhile.
Never on weekends, maybe a f t e r school.

anytime

188
I f I believe th a t the a c t i v i t y is o f importance to my teaching,
students and/or d i s t r i c t , I attend no matter what the time.
Usually summer attendance is lim ite d because I have to work. I
always go out of my way to obtain information which may help me
become a b e tte r teacher and help me keep up-to-date to help my
students.
Paid, anytime.
No weekends.
Right a f t e r school.
Whenever.
No weekends.
No, a f t e r school or during the
Prefer summer or vacation time.

school

Short sessions during the school day.
summer or vacation time.

day.

Yes,

weekends.

Long sessions during the

I

APPENDIX K
SUMMARY OF OTHER INCENTIVES FROM SURVEY RESPONDENTS

189

Part I I I of Survey Questionnaire
Summary of other incentives id e n tif ie d by in d u s tria l arts teachers:
Released time fo r M .I.E .S . convention, r e p a ir and maintenance,
in d u s tria l arts f a i r s , department heads, company-sponsored
t r a in in g .
Stipends fo r summer in -s e rv ic e .
Reimbursement fo r conference attendance, vocational c e r t i f i c a ­
t io n , p a r tic ip a tio n in contests, competitions, pro jec t f a i r s ,
technical courses.
M erit pay.
Support by superintendent in acquiring grants.
Encouragement by school
development a c t i v i t i e s .

board

to

a tte n d

p ro fe s s io n a l-

Salary scale incentive fo r classes beyond a master’ s, but not a
s p e c ific program.
Travel time fo r department heads.
Graduate c r e d i t
conferences, etc.

fo r

a tte n d in g

a

number

of

workshops,

Master’ s degree status fo r 40 or more graduate hours.
Teacher contract including attendance requirement fo r profes­
sional development.

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