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T h e so cia liz a tio n an d se lf-esteem o f fem ale ca n d id a tes for th e
M ich ig a n leg isla tu r e, 1 9 8 0 -1 9 8 6
Malilwe, Flexon Spencer, Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1989

UMI

300 N. ZeebRd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106

THE SO CIA LI ZAT IO N AND SELF -ES TEE M OF FEMALE
CANDIDATES FOR THE MICHIGAN LEGISLATURE,
1980-1986

By
Flexon

Spencer Malilwe

A DIS SERTATION

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fu lfi llment of the requirements
for the degree of

DOCTOR

College

OF

PHILOSOPHY

of Education

1988

ABSTRACT

THE SOC IALIZATION AND SELF-ESTEEM OF FEMALE
CANDIDATES FOR THE MICHIGAN LEGISLATURE
1980-1986
By
Flexon

This
ization
the

study

and

elections

between

data

the

was

California

to

conclusions
female

null

were

this

form,

ization

focused

self-esteem
The
hypothesis

and

a

and

to

general

40

used

Inventory

this

measured

Scale

which

qu es tionnaire

information.
usable

in

which

Self-Concept

personal
on

were

demographic

hypothesis

study.

The

on

candidates

primary

instruments

Tennessee

the

and

General

that

which

Findings

responses

eight

from

and

these

of

female

su b- hypotheses
rel ationships

s u b- hyp oth ese s

hypothesis

no relationship

self-esteem

Legislature.

the

social­

candidates.

stated

and

political

Psychological

based

general

in

during

between

1980 and 1986.

obtain

political

One
tested

the

self-esteem;

designed

female

gathering

socialization;
measured

of

Legislature

held

Three
study:

inv/estigated the relationship

sel f-esteem

Michigan

Spencer Malilwe

I,

exists

ca ndidates
of

stated

the

between

between
to

the

general
each

in

were
the

social­
Michigan

hypothesis

indicator

of

and socialization.

results
I

and

of
six

data

analysis

sub-hypot he ses

indicate
(I-A,

that
that

general
there

is

Flexon

no

rel at ionship

I-B,

that

and

there

is

no

se lf -s a t is fa c ti on ;

between
is

be twe en

relationship

cal-self;
ization

I-F,

and

tionship

and

there

there

re lat io n s hi p

and

no

that

is

social-self)
rejected.

The

following

to

appears
be

one

to

of

no

were

and were

age

is

accepted.

there

many

a

is

I-G,

that

and

to

and

there

major

other

I-C

derived

no

rela­

I-H

not
(that

behavior,

socialization
at

from

.05

level

the findings:

variable

that

social­

were

and

significant

structural

va riables

is

and

between

there

moral/ethi-

between

soc ialization

be

that

family-self)

relati ons hip

found

relationship

I-E,

Su b- hyp oth ese s
between

socialization

no

no re la tionship

con clu si ons are

be

between

there

Malilwe

self-identity;

sociali zat ion

sociali za tio n

and

and

physical-self;

p e r s o n a l - s e l f » and

significant

and

that

between

that

betwee n

is

re lat ion shi p
I-D,

so ci a li za t io n

no

socialization

Spencer

which

determine

seems

political

participation.
Par ti c ip at i on
an

attempt

other

to

time

in

se lf- aw ar e ne ss

in

educational

search for
life

is

meaning

activities
in

one's

is

life;

there

a

more

potent

than

at

this

stage

op erating

apparently
and

force
of

at

no

toward

one's

life

cycle.
Pa rt i ci pa tio n
to

see

social

is also

change or

und ergirded

individual

by

change

a

personal

and

desire

personal

deve­

lopment.
A
to

table

accept

or

value

of

t-test

reject the

greater

null

than

hypothesis

±
at

1.6(34
.05

was

used

level

of

significance.
was

used

to

The

Pear son

det ermine

of the relationship.

the

product
strength

Flexon

Spencer

moment

correlation

as well

as

the

Malilwe

(r)

direction

DE DICATION

This

work

is

dedicated

Eliya

Jalila

Peace

Priscilla.

my

Malilwe,

father-in-law,

It

to

the

memory

my

friend

is

also

Stephen

and

v

my

mentor,

dedicated

Szilvagyi

dearly .

of

who

to

beloved
and
the

loved

my

mother,
sister,

memory
his

of

family

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish
L.

to express

Harding

my

encou ra ge me nt

Frank

A.

advisor
made

Sincere

whose

toward

the completion

logical

proposal

those

is

writing

of Dr.

Robert

academic

of

this

parti cul arl y
support

provided

C.

ammun ition

a

support

work

solid

d i ss er tat io n
needs

to

to

Dr.

comments

stepping
his

pertaining

and

possible.

diligent

In addition,

one

Kenneth

expressed

and

Craig

the

to Dr.

advice,

of

of this work.

c o n s i d e r a t i on s

necessary

constant

unfailing

my

appre ci ati on

comple ti on

ap pr eci ati on

Fear

and

whose

the

during

tions

my sincere

stone

sugges­

to m e t h o d o ­

provided
reach

the

the

goal

line .
A
whose

very

special

co ns tructive

sions

helped
More

tion

thanks
comments

me refine

personally,

are

offered

my

to

my

Corinna.

Malilwe

for

pedagogy

and andragogy.

family

for

Special

in tro ducing

gratitude

is

to

and

focus

thank

expressed

f a c il ita ti ng

Gloria

H.

thank

you,

Cecilia

and

you

to

ch ildren

to

this effort.

my

my
to

Kielbaso

during

on a res earchable

wife

his

Dr.

suggesti ons

a heartfelt

"Bingo"

My

goes

discus­

topic.

love

and

affec­

da ughter

Eliya

father
the

Simon

H.

sciences

of

m o t h e r -i n- la w

and

her

Special
Stephanie
humor

thanks

Turnbull

during

Stanley
James

good

Makuza,

Otieno

support
go

to

Chris

Elections
of

tors)

who

she

comments

the

to

for

entry

the

the

period

the

(to which

all,

this

work.

under

the

to

final

of
in

study.

thanks

go

Machungwa,
optimism
are

State

to

for

his

for

providing

their
thanks

personal
to
the

the
State

information

sincere

candidates

Dr.

extended

special

into

to

en­

children
My

my

and

expressed

A

sister

thank

(role

you

innova­

in this effort.

thank

typing

data
are

political

I agreed)

to the

their

thanks

me

their

and

of

D.

thanks

assistance

to assist

in

for

Secretary

female

I wish

you

of

special

performed

I thank

Muiruri

their

agreed

signifi can tl y

special

P.

and

acc ommodating

Special

Dr.

very

Mchawe

and

times.

Edyth

for

to

support

Mufune,

course

of

Rumbani

wife

Kathy

Bureau

Finally,
work

bad

his

Also,

extended

and
P.

Reznich

Michigan

relating
is

and

during

computer.

their

Also,

Joseph

Comrade

for

Dr.

and

couragement.
Drs.

to

Mary
this

Wilson

very much.

vi i

the

dissertation.

pertaining

product.

for

to format

excellent

Her

general

contributed

T A BL E

OF

CONTENTS

Page
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER

I

AND F I G U R E S ................................xi

INTRODUCTION

Purpose

of the

Importance

...............................

1

S t u d y ...............................

5

and Justif ic ati on

. . .

5

...................

B

.............................

7

Limitations

and De li mi ta ti ons

Theoretical

Framework

Self-Esteem

and

Definition

for

the Study

S el f- Ac tua liz at ion

..............

9

of T e r m s .................................. 10

H y p o t h e s i s .............................................. 11
Overview

CHAPTER

II

of the

S t u d y ................................12

LITERATURE

Theory

REVIEW

of Motivation

........................

13

...............................

13

A Historical Aspect of Self-Esteem
and the Problem of M e a n i n g ........................... 14
M a s l o w ’s Hierarchy

of Needs

......................

M a s l o w ’s

Theory of S e l f - A ct ual iz ati on

Maslow's

Theory of Self-Esteem

Ch ar act er ist ic s
Socialization
Cultural

of the

.............

18
18

Phenomenal S e l f .............. 20

of the Female

in S o c i e t y ............. 21

Social Factors

Peer and Parental

. . .

14

......................

27

I n f l u e n c e s ................. 30

viii

CHAPTER

III

ME THO DOLOGY

Introduction
Operat io nal
Study

...............................

33

.........................................

33

De fi nit io ns

..........................

34

H y p o t h e s e s ....................................... 37

Data C o l l e c t i o n ....................................... 43
Research

Design

...............................

De fining

the Population

The data colle ct ion
Califo rn ia
The

......................

instruments

Psychological

CPI

............

Inventory

. .

43
45
45
45

S c a l e .........................46

R e l i a b i l i t y ........................... 47
The

Tennessee

Self-Concept

Scale

. . .

48

The Nature of the Tennessee
Self Concept S c a l e ................. 49
History and Dev elo pme nt of the
Tennessee Self Concept Scale
. .

50

R e l i a b i l i t y ........................... 51
De m o gr ap hic
Data

Analysis

Approach

Statistical

............

53

.............................

54

Questi on nai re

Analysis

........................

55

The Pearson Correlation to
Test H y p o t h e s e s ........................... 55

CHAPTER

IV

FINDINGS

OF THE

S T U D Y ...................... 58

A De scr iption of the Female Political C a n d i ­
dates to the Michigan Legislature Between
1980 and 1986

58

Personal Information Describing the
R e s p o n d e n t s ............................................ 59
Age

.

59

ix

Marital

Status

Educational

...............................

Level

Pa rt icipation

.................

62

Discussion of Findings About the Re la tio nsh ip
..........
Between Socialization and Sel f-E ste em

63

Affiliation

Training

60
61

Party

In-Service

..........
. . .

Political

in

of Re sp ond en ts

60

S u m m a r y .................................................72
CHAPTER

V

SUMMARY,

Introduction
Purpose

CONCLUSIONS

AND R E C O M M E N D A TI ON S

.........................................

73
73

of the S t u d y .................................. 73

Procedures

of the S t u d y ............................. 74

MajorFindings

.......................................

78

C o n c l u s i o n s ............................................ 80
Implications

for

Recom men da tio ns

Education
for Further

........................
Study

..............

81
B4

APPENDIX

A - Letters of co rr esp ond enc e relating
to this s t u d y ................................ 87

APPENDIX

B - Demographic

..............

94

...................

95

C - Responses given by individual p a r t i ­
cipants to items §7 a and ff7b of the
Demographic Questi on nai re
..............

96

Questio nna ire

Informational
APPENDIX

BIBLIOGRAPHY

postcard

..............................................

x

102

LIST OF TABLES

AND FIGURES

Table

Page

4.1

Age of R e s p o n d e n t s ............................ 59

4.2

Marital

4.3

Educational

4.4

Par tic ip ati on

4.5

Political

4.6

Product Moment Correlation Between
Political Social iz ati on and S e lf -E ste em

Status

of Res pondents

Level
in

Party

...............

of Re sp ondents
In-Service

Affiliation

.............

Training

. . . .

of Respondents

60
61
62

.

62

. .

68

Figure
2.1

Maslow's

2.2

The Context of Social Learning for
W o m e n .......................................... 26

4.1

Frequency Dist ri bu ti on Histogram for
the Scores of the California P s y c h o ­
logical I n v e n t o r y ........................... 64

4.2

Frequency Di st ri bu ti on Histogram for
the Total Positive Scores of the
California Psychological Inventory ..........

65

Scatterplot Diagram of Scores Between
the Califo rni a Psychological Inventory
and the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale . . . .

67

4.3

Hierarchy

of N e e d s ................ 17

xi

CHAPTER

I

INTRODUCTION

Lack
is

not

a

of
new

involvement
concern

w o m e n ’s

phenomenon.
at

and worry

Darcy

full

the

partic ip at io n
Indifference

national

to social

e t . a l . (1987)

or

local

to

in

world

active
level

affairs

political

has

caused

reformers.

write:

The origin ofthe American political system can
be traced
to
the political
life
of
England.
Once the English
es ta blished
colonies
in North
America,
they
brought
with
them
the
concepts
of
local,
church,
and
national
government
to
which they were accost c rned.
Subsequently, ideas
of political
rights and who should
enjoy
them
were also imported from England.
Women were completely barred from par ticipation
in political
life during
the
period
of
the
American
Revolution
by the newly drafted
state
constitutions.
Thus, women were legally excluded
from political life at the moment when political
rights
ceased
to be based
on
custom
and were
instead derived from written state constitutions.
( p • 1)

Darcy

et a l . (1987)

continue:

A female
suffrage
movement
began
in the early
days of the new republic.
In 1848 a convention
for the purpose of advancing women's rights was
held in Seneca Falls, New York.
Among the rights
adv ocated was the vote.
What is clear from the
ac tivities and pro no un ce me nt s of those advocating
female suffrage, however, was that holding p o l i ­
tical
office
in
large
numbers was
not
a goal

1

2

of
the
movement.
For
suffragists,
female
political
influence
was
going
to
derive
from
the vote
in
other
ways than filling
political
offices
with
women.
Indeed,
after
national
suffrage was
granted
in 1920,
very few of the
suffragists
entered into campaigns for elective
office.
(p. 2 )

At

least,

so cialization
Maurice
(1955)

until

about

repeate dly

Duverge r
stated

as

ten

years

con fi rme d

early

as

ago,

the

the

studies

findings

made

m i d - 1 9 5 0 ’s.

of
by

Duverger

that:

Women . . . have the mentality of minors in many
fields, and, pa rt ic u l a r l y in politics, they will
accept pa te rna lis m on the part of men.
The man
husband,
fiance,
lover,
or
myth
is
the
mediator
between
them and
the political
world.
(p. 129)

Neither
of

women

the

nor

the

substantially
into

As

number

crease,

theories

to

develop
the

de sc rip tio n

of

de fi c i e n ci es

of

political

socialization

why

active,

political

the

their

un de r s ta nd in g

independent,

the

of

of

girls

achieving political

women.

such

how

elites

a

contribute
few

female

and

behavior

continues

theories

become

to

in­

even

more

social iz ati on

theories

and

as

by

and

evident.
The
studies

failure
stem

Boutilier

of

from

current

two

(1978):

sources

the

problem

properly

and

samples

for

studies.

The

such

number

of

the

inability
inutility

sources

for

con ce pt u al i za ti o ns

are

many.

identified

and

among

a

few,

identified
to
of

such
Kelly

them

Kelly

c on cep tu al ize

random

represent ati ve

improperly
and

are:

the

conceived

Bo utilier
(a)

the

have

tendency

3

of political

scientists

theories

human

of

ference

in

scientists
as

nature

nature
seem

to

explain

the

minimal

display,

they

(researchers)

the

same

importance

as

he

in

assumptions

women;

lead

to

the

and

the

that

in

their

the

father

has
to
may

holds

development

appear

qu es tio ns

it

woman

political

would

politics

attempt

the

that

dif­

political

conclude

daughter's

in appropriate

(b)
of

behavior

It

essential

definition

postulate

s o n ’s.

an

deterministic

woman;

(c)

political

in

the

and

logically

nothing

does

propound

to

quite

with

biolo gi ca ll y

man

assent

and

do

which

between

to

"masculine"

to accept

that

and

such

inadequate

data.
The
office,

study

of

women

or those who

new

area

of

The

paucity

concern
of

hold

who

aspire

to

elective

such positions,

and

empirical

interest
research

to
is

political

is a co mp aratively
social

a

scientists.

testimony

to

this

difficulty .
Beckwith

(1986)

echoes

this

theme when

she

laments:

I was struck at the time (early 1970's) by the
paucity of research in all subfields of women's
studies scholarship,
but especially by the lack
of study of wo men 's mass-level po litical p a r t i c i ­
pation,
which at the time even included voting
behavior.
Most of the scholarship on women and
politics
in
the
last
decade
focused
upon
the
political behavior of female elites.
(p. l)

Tangri

(1972)

repeats

this theme

when

he reports

that:

Occupational
choice has been studied much more
frequently
among
men
than
among
women.
This
is probably because the existing sex-map of the
occupational world presents more choices to men
than women.
Over 70% of American women are in

4

four
fields:
teaching,
nursing,
secretarial
work and social work . . . Women are pa rt icularly
u nd er -r e p r e s e n t e d
in those profess io ns
in which
prestige
and
financial
rewards
are
greatest
UJhat kinds of women choose law, medicine,
physics
and
or
other
(political
professions)
tra ditionally masc ul ine pr of essions?
(p. 177)

But

even with

women' s
who

the

political

achieve

paucity

p art ic ip ati on

higher

levels

and

research

contribute

to

an

of

their

at

the

in

their

of

mass-level,

p ar tic ip at ion
ach iev eme nt

un de rstanding
terms

studies

of

socialization

those
warrant

that

their

on

may

personal

and enhancement

self-esteem.

Concerned
holding

in

empirical

of political

recognition

cha ra ct er is t ic s

of

in

with

the

the

dynamics

United

States,

of

female

political

Kirkpatrick

(1974)

office

observes

that:
the
most
important
question
about
women's
political
role
is
its
si gn ificance .
. . the
most
important question about women's political
behavior is why so few women seek and wield power.
(p . 8 )

This

observa ti on

of methods
In
of

of rec ruitment

the

United

Michigan,

strated
has

a

not

influence
and
male

applies

to

most

to political

States,
are

instances

capacity

for

leadership

been
felt,

politics.
dominated

unusual
in
Those

for

some

business,
few

who

institution

where

to

and

here

of

the

have

State
demon­

assertiv ene ss .

exert,

and have

judiciary,

ventured

politics

in

women

education,
have

regardless

office.

par ticularly

there

nations

by

into
being

an

It

their
clergy

all-time

candidates

5

(whether

they

won

are the focus

or

of this

lost) to

the

overall

dir ection

so cia li zat io n
females
and

who

general

State

as
and

study

mea sur ed

by

self -es tee m
It

this

early

is

study

of

purports
or

research

of

the

of

1980,

is

to

determine

ass ociation

De mocratic

candid at es

is

research

at

has

and

during

1982 , 1984

these

women

important
because

between
Republican

the

and

primary

1986

for

positions.

young

to

in

the

Aspiration

this

Inventory

Se lf -Concept
rel ationship

the

behavior

revealed

that

pattern

of

life.

for

reason

the Study

for

no

such

study

in

this

state.

political

women

Tennessee

have

compelling

the

there

sociali za ti on

studies

and Ju st if ic at io n

time:

Is

Psy cholcqical

understand

underlies
adult

question:

between

by Fitt's

other

conducted
in

the

California

as measured

one

answer

rel ationship

Gough's

this

been

to

a

in later

There

model

this

political

Importance

of

of

self-esteem

sociali zat io n

individuals

women

of the Study

strength

elections

asso cia tio n

Scale?
in

and

were

Legislature

of Michigan.
The

an

purpose

and

Michigan

research.

Purpose

The

the

who

to such

process

may

co nducting
concerning
The

may

aspire

positions

that

these

inv olvement

serve
for

the

as

role

leadership

command

status

6

need

not

only

in sti tutions
people

be
of

are

human

that

to

politics,

activity

needed

org ani zat io ns
community

confined

most.

and

where

also,

qualified

Pa rt icipation

unco er ced

a ct iv iti es

but

are

of

the

and

in

involvement

some

to

other

trained

voluntary

in

w o rth wh ile

secondary

impacts

can result.
It

is

felt

ca ndi da tes

will

which

can

they

political
study

provide
conduct

female

of

sufficient

to

a

larger

rendering

to

further

United

the
the

It

the

research
is

act

ach iev em ent of

that

of

the

ideas

will

felt

provides

upon

integrate
that

a

this

population

significant.

follows

Decade

political

with

further

results

study

an

female

researchers

the

Nations

research

these

candidates

make

extent,

of

future

po litical

size

of the

towards

a study

participation.

of

the end

that

immediately

for Women,

and

celebration

decade

Also,

and

and

after

thereby,
support

goals

it

set

forth.
Hopefully,
assist

in

leadership
Michigan,

kno wl ed ge

the

gained

search for

c ha ra c t e r i s t i c s
and

hopefully,

this

und erstanding

for

in

from

the

other

women

those

of

countries

effort

the
of

will
female

State
the

of

world

as w e l l .

L im it at ion s

The
confine

dete rmi ni ng
the

scope

and Delimi ta ti on s

factors

of this

which

study were

were

est ab lis hed

as follows:

to

7

1)

Only

Michigan
general

the
and

those

female political

Legislature
elections

between

were

2)

No

effort

pre

or

post

1980

and

1986

to

the

primary

and

included.

or

assessment

election

was

emotional

made

to

determine

feelings

of

winners

losers.
3)

No

candidate
A)

Another

personal
The

attempt

Questi onn ai re

instrument

from

was

for

sh ort comings

not

this
became
is,

researchers

who

attempt

validity
5)
made

and

be

their

which

to the

to

adequate
to

Hence,
State

theoretical

theory

design

constructed

pre-tested

(although
and

during

the

and

each

of

to

the

solicit

candidates.

it

is

deemed

some

of

its

course

of

data

recommended

replicate

this

that

study

improved

funding

extend

of

the

and

future

construct

upon

time

scope

ge ne ra l i z a t i o n

to

assure

of

in

constraints

this
this

study
study

to
was

of Michigan.

T he or et ic al

the

was

the

long

party.

these female po litical

pre-tested

of

states.

The

how

respective

been

therefore,

impossible

limited

determine

reliability.

Lack

it

other

can

of

apparent

It

that

to

initial effect);

analysis.

one

made

lim it at io n has

information

adequate

was

had been a member

Demographic

is

candidates

framework

human

Framework

that

motivation.

un dergirds
Over

the

last

this
35

study
years,

8

exploration
on

male

recently
ment

of

a c h ie ve men t

subjects
that

in

the

same

is not

area

studies

focused

women

has
It

on

been

is

the

Unfortunately,

co ncerning

achieve­

research

seeking

only

public

on

office

available.
of

primarily

achievement

from the work

personality

conjunction

with

environment

to

def in itions

emphasis

societies.

have

females.

definition

stems

defined

of

subject

readily

The

industri al iz ed

research

motiva ti on

motivat ion

in

terms

processes

of the need

of Murray
of

from

determine

mo tivation

the

a research

(1938).

needs

that

perceived

behavior.

to achieve

as

and

act

in

objective

Included

are what

Murray

in

his

he calls:

tendencies to do things as rapidly and/or
well as possible . . . .
To master, manipulate
and organize
physical
objects, human
beings or
ideas . . . .
To overcome obstacles and attain
a high standard . . .
to excel one's
self. To
rival and surpass others.
(p. 164)

The
lated
in

study

further

his

motives

of
by

theory
as

ach ie ve me nt
the

of

work

and

Although

a

direct
vast

motivation

from Maslow's

(self
he

study

the

and

his

Mc Cl el la nd
are

of

toward

(1968)
a

which

both
goals.

mo ti v a t i o n

the

theory

is

of human

perspective.

theoretical
is more

integrative

on

defined

that

specific

research
by

and

stimu­

colleagues

(19 51 )

learned

is und er gi rd ed

assumed

actualization)

discusses

McCle ll and

that

amoun t

this

has

greatly

behavior

available,

Maslow

was

motivation,

tenden ci es

energize

of

motiva ti on

stance

of

humanistic.
aspects

of

self-es te em
In general,
personality,

9

stressing

the

im portance

(1950,

1970)

general

process of

relate

it to the

Every
to

developed

in
by

being

a

cipating
to

the

in

results

will

the

The

of need

and

certain
The

be

place

determined

belonging,

a

basic

can begin
esteem,

strives

human

useful

needs

framework

and enhancement
from p a r t i ­
in

of

relation

needs.

anti cip ate d

by

more

humanists

she

of

hierarchy

largely

satisfied
and

which

unders to od

the

a

self.

benefits derived

and

Maslow

of

other

hierarchy

the

activity

has

while

needs

can be

in

Thus,

aspect

of socialization

individual

security)

(love,

an

provides

activit ie s

social

individual

clothing

has

(1968)

ind ivi du al 's
of

as

the ideal

lifetime.

social

choice

for

the ben efits

of self-esteem.

growth.

se lf-actualization,

Maslow

evaluating

personal

self-est eem

striving

human

fulfill

for

views

of

The

positive

the

extent

to

needs

(food,

shelter,

to address

achievement,

other

which

levels

self-actuali­

zation) .
Maslow
whole
not

that
as

(1954)
is

sees

motivated.

di ff ere nt

Ind ividuals

yearn

as

for what

high

are

needs

evaluation

self-esteem,

and

of

a

esteem

as
of

an

integrated

individuals

everyday

are

exercises.

be attained.

S e lf- Ac tua li zat io n

stable,

individual

the

goals

conscious

might

and

for

individual
The

their

S el f- Est eem

These

the

self,
of

firmly
for

others.

based,

usually

self-respect,
These

are

or

needs

10

unde rgi rd ed
for
to

by

adequacy,
face

the
for

the

for

strength,

mastery

and

competence,

world,

self-identity.
satisfied,

desire

Even

we

we

are

doing

are

fit to do.

for

may

independence,

when all

feel

(seeking
(Byam,

the

following

the

discontent
elective

achievement,

for

and

confidence

freedom

and

needs

are

pr eceeding
and

restless,

office)

what

we

unless
feel

we

1983)

Definit io n

The

for

terms

in

of Terms

this

study

are

used

to

convey

fol lowing meaning:
Se lf -esteem

inhis

manus cr ip t

states

that

and

se lf -actualization:

entitled

sel f-e st eem

The

refers

l\l. Branden

Psychology

of

(1969),

Self-Esteem,

to:

an
indiv id ua l's
view
of
himself.
Self-esteem
has two in te rrelated aspects.
It entails a sense
of
personal
efficacy
and
a sense
of
personal
worth.
It
is
the
integrated
sum
of
s el f- co nf ide nc e
and
self-respect.
It
is
the
conviction
that
one
is
competent
to
live
and
worthy of living.
(p. 110)

Perceptual
pretation
will

of

the

field:
term

In the
as

provided

current
by

study,

Snygg

and

the

inter­

Combs

(1959)

suffice:
. . . to refer to that more or less fluid o r g a n i ­
zation of meanings existing for every individual
at any instance.
Ule call it the perceptual or
phenomenal
field.
By perceptual
field we mean
the
entire
universe,
including
himself/herself,
as it is
e x p e r ien ce d by
the individual at the
instant of action.
It is each in di vidual's p e r ­
sonal and unique field of awareness,
the field

11

of perception re sp onsible
havior.
(p. 20)

Self-concept:
definition

Rogers

of the

for

his/her

(1951)

offers

every

the

be­

following

term:

may
be
thought
of
as
an
organized
con fi gur at ion
of p e r c ept io ns
of the self which
are ad mis si ble
to awareness.
It
is
composed
of
such
element s
as
the
per ceptions
of
o n e ’s
c ha ra ct er is t ic s
and abilities;
the percepts and
concepts of the self in relation to others and
to
the
env ironment;
the
value
qualities
which
are per ceived
as
associated
with
experiences
and objects;
and
goals
and
ideal
which
are
perceived as having po sitive or negative value.
(p. 136)

Role-innovators:
Scales:
Califo rni a

The

Women

Tenne ss ee

P syc hol og ica l

in pioneer
Self

career

Concept

fields.

Scale

and

the

Inventory.

Hypothesi s

The
will

fol lowing

be

i n ve st iga te d

re lat io nsh ip
Democra tic
candid at es
and

general

hypothesis,

between
and

for

in

Mi ch ig an

elections

State of M i c h i g a n .

this

so ci a l iz at io n

R e p ub l ic an
the

stated

of

in

study.
and

females

1982,

null

There

who

were

during

1984

and

form

is

se lf -esteem

Legislature

1980,

the

of

no
both

political
the
1986

primary
in

the

12

Ove rv iew

to

This

chapter

p re sen ted

the

problem.

Chapte r

related

study

P roc edu re s

data

the

introduction

2 mill

present

a

and

background

review

of

the

Chapter

3.

literature.

The

include

of the Study

me th odo log y

employe d

op era ti ona l

collection

hypothesis

and

Chapter
clusions and

4

in

this

is

study

definiti on s

method,

presented

design

are

provided,

used,
and

in

and

these

instr um en ta ti on
procedures,

and

research

data an alysis procedures.
pre sen ts

the

r ec om m en da t i on s

study

findings. Summary,

are found

in Chapter

5.

con­

CHAPTER

II

LITERATURE REVIEW

As

public

represen te d
national

number

holders

rather

In

on

may

have

and

present
is under

(2)

Historical

of Meaning;
tics

of

Female

of

and

Self;

and

how

(l)

of

they

and

of Heed;
(5)

office

motivation

studies
are

The

Theory

Self-Esteem

mass

involvement

presented.

Hierarchy

into
on

related

literature

of Motivation;

and

the

Problem

(4 ) C h a r a c t e r i s ­

Social iz ati on

of

the

in Society.

Theory

Studies
a

is

their

United

their

political

discussion

subheadings:

Phenomenal

women

the

and

level.

in

soc ialization

a

under­

int ernational

focused
of

self-esteem,

(3) Maslow's

the

have

most

including

influenced

Aspect

the

also at the state

section

five

in

countries

how

research,

review

are

both

attitudes

than

this

socialization

A

most

or

women

group

studies

behavior

politics.

the

of

of

achievement

to

social

This problem exists

political

for

major

politics

States.
A

officeholders,

systematic

of prescribing

focusing
way

of

on

of Motivation

motivation

diagnosing

solutions

to these

13

attempt

motivation
problems.

to

provide

problems,

and

14

Early
problems
their

motiv at io n

by

saying

employees'

people

have

motiv at ion

whole

that

human

is

as

goals

theorists

u nde rl in ed
seeing

the

be

logy,

was

field.
as

James,

part

a

mere

or needs."

facts

of

mental

human

of

it

nature?"

all

its

trends

against

the

tendency

that,
beyond

he

he

what
what

he

study

that

all

of

integrated
"The

study

the

ulti­

of

66)

of

saw
to

remain

American

a

psycho­

emerging

treat

in

human

that

by

this

nature

the

untouched

about:

in

does

meet

theory

an

that:

suggesting

complained
. . .

his

as

(p.

founders

and

would

to

basic

experi­

"the

humbugging

psychological

literature

human

already

being

knew

by

really
the

learn

light

of

p. 96)

about

failure

has written

problem

exper ien ce

(1892,

Writing
and

the

ex act itu de

adding
from

by

approaches,

pretense

the

such

of Self-Esteem
of Weaning

of

technical

of

the

one

disturbed

Warning

basis

em phasized

A Histori cal Aspect
and the Problem

William

failed
assumed

individual

in

or desires

explained

and desires.
the

He

must

often

org ani zat io ns

These

motivated.

motivation

mate human

the

most

expectations,

(1954)

human

of

that

needs.

needs,

flaslow

theorists

to

sel f- est eem
address

and

human

the

problem

experience

of

Jackson

meaning
(1984)

that:

Psychol ogi st s
design
complex
experiments,
but
they
avoid
discus sin g
ordinary
behavior;
they
measure responses, but they do not talk to their

15

subjects;
they study variables, but they do not
study
people.
Moreover,
this
is
not
a
mere
failure in values,
a lack of proper humanistic
attitude.
For
in
losing
its
soul,
psychology
seems to have lost a great deal of its "sense"
as well.
Research is co nce ptu all y di sco nne cte d
from ordinary life,
and the results of e x p e r i ­
mental
in ves ti g a ti o n s
tend
to be
inconsistent,
insubstantial,
and
diff ic ult
to
apply
in
the
real world.
(pp. 2-3)

To

gain

some

to

consider

one

which

in

the

Jackson
volve
seem

a

into

these

specific area

is

especially

field.

By

concludes

the
to

insight

gaining

of

reflect

of ci rcumstances."

new

would

and

individuals
(p.

set

of

each person

is

feel

and

research,

the

problems

in

this

appear

to

but

it

act

useful

area,
in­

would

in

a

also

variety

2)

hierarchy

needs that

of

it

value,

M a s l o w ’s Hierarchy

Maslow's

it

ps yc h o lo gi ca l

kn o w l e d g e

only

identity

how

of

r e p r e s e n t at iv e

that: "Not

issues

questions,

of needs

individuals

di ffering

of Needs

theory

are

somewhat

describes

believ ed
in

to

the

a specific

have,

with

needs

which are

the

first and

m ot iva ti on

theories.

identified .
Beginning
one

of

Many

the

most

sized

his

mo tivation

individuals
by the

Maslow

popular

considered

individual
of

in1935,

rather

and

d e ve lo ped

we ll - k n o w n

theory
because

than

a
it

r e v o l u ti ona ry
h i g h l i g h t ed

the m a c h i n e - l i k e

scientific m an ag em en t

the

view

humanism

qual it ies

and classical

of

empha­

schools.

16

Maslow
ranged

in

stated
a

highest

level.

love,

needs.

needs,

(See Figure

need

to

have

from

the

identified
safety

needs,

five

most

basic

these

needs,

and

needs,

(5)

(3)

ar­

to

as:

the
(l)

belongingness

sel f-a ct ua li za ti on

2.1)

to

Ma sl o w 's
becom es

significant

individual

(2)

esteem

According

and

order

Maslow

(4)

unsatisfied

individuals

hi era rc hia l

ph ysiol ogical
and

that

interpretation,

the

prepotent,

need,

and

to

fulfill

act

the

one

it.

or

the
most

which

lowest
powerful

motivates

Satisfied

needs

do

an
not

motivate.
The
needs

general

for

ascribed

to these

basic

Phy sio lo gic al
Needs,
for food and water.

2.

Safety
Needs,
or
a
person's
security and protection.

3.

Bel on gi ng n es s and L o v e , or a pe rs o n ' s hunger
for af fe cti on ate relationships with others.

A.

Esteem N e e d s , or a person's desire for mastery
and competence, reputation and prestige.

5.

Se l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n
striving to reach
tial . (pp . 80-82)

re cog niz ed

certain

creative

order

has

1.

example,

needs

he

follow.

Maslow
under

def in it io ns

some

expression

over
needs.

that

the

all

others,

(1954,

people

over

pp.

or

b o d y ’s

Needs,
his or

circumsta nce s,

that

or

all

desire

for

or an indi vi du al 's
her f u ll es t p o t e n ­

hi e r a rc hy

vary
value
other

in

of

needs

could,

He

noted,

order.

self-esteem
needs,

hi ghe r-o rde r

98-99)

req ui re me nt s

needs

over

love,

physiological
ov e r

lower-

SELF-ACTUALIZATION

SELF-ESTEEM

BELONGINGNESS

SAFETY

& LOVE

NEEDS

PHYSIOLOGICAL

NEEDS

18

In

addition,

from

lower

lop

later,

less

needs

needs

their

motivating

require

less

immediate

dep end

and

the

are

more
less

pu rpo se s

(self-esteem

hierarchy

of needs

Flaslow's
described

on

value

needs

since

differ

they d e v e ­

gratification,

the

tangible

higher

environment
and

cause

for

their

observable.

this

study

people

to

the

are

(1954,

of

se l f - ac tu al iz in g

in cluded

more

fully
The

idea

goal

life.

as

the

all

of

free

of

the

living

a

than
Carl

more

need

evaluation

of

Theory
or

his

unique

themselves,

for
for

selection

person

person

of

person

emotional

an individual

life

and

being

person.

(1961)

reflect
as

does

might

be

the

same

Maslow's.

seen

as

the

process.

of S e l f - E s t e e m :

des ir e

friends,

capabilities,
and

Such

en riched

the average

a

Subjects

evidence

inh ib it io ns

Rogers

such

for

(1968)

s e l f - actuali zi ng

self-actualizing.

of the p s y c h o t h e r a p e u t i c

a

po sitive

ut ilizing

that

Maslou's

acquaintances,

a

was

s el f- a c t u a l i z i n g

suggests

in

people.

cr it eri on

his

of

highest

Flaslow

The

saw

fun ct io ni ng

Maslow's
have

personal

Maslow

less

wr it in gs

of

Rogers

his

public

and

two

consid ere d essential.

study

those

perc eiv ed

the

5e 1 f - flc t ua 1 i za t i□ n :

potent ia lit ie s,

was

only

s e lf -a ct ua liz ati on)

s u bj e ct -g r ou p

of

study,

of

in

developing

turmoil

this

and

s e l f - a c t u ali za tio n.

or

of

Theory

his

and

as

that

147-150 )
For

of

suggested

in

stress,

•existence,
pp.

he

a

Most

stable,

people

firmly

self-respect,

or

in society

based,

high

self-esteem,

19

and

for

esteem

the
need

strength,

esteem
leads

others.

to

feelings

capability

necessary

and

Satisfaction
of

of

the

self-confidence,

adequacy

and

being

self­
worth,

useful

and

in the world.

Self-es te em
tionally

of

entails

an

Maslow

put

defined,

evaluation

of

the

self.

Opera­

it thusly:

It is what
the subject
says
about
herself
in
an
intensive
interview,
after
a
good
rapport
has
been
established.
High
dom ina nce -- fe el in g
empi ric al ly involves good self-confidence,
selfassurance, high evaluation of the self, feelings
of general
capability
or superiority,
and lack
of
shyness,
timidity,
self-con sc io us ne ss ,
or
embarrassment.
Lo w- dom in anc e
feeling
is
seen
as lack of self-confidence, self-assurance,
and
self-esteem; instead there are extensive feelings
of
general
and
specific
inferiority,
shyness,
timidity, fearfulness, se lf -consciousness.
(1939,
p• 3)

According
esteem

are

to

Coope rs mi th

generated

by

four

(1967),
sources.

feelings
He

of

self­

identified

these

as follows:

Each

1.

Power:
control

2.

Significance:
is concerned with the degree
of acceptance, attention, and
affection that
others provide;

3.

Virtue:
morality

A.

Competence:
refers
to
successful performance.

of these

to flu ctuations

refers to
over other

a person's
people;

is
related
to o n e ’s
and ethics; and

sources

appears

throughout

the

to

be

influence

and

standards

of

ac hi ev em en t

of

highly

an in di vidual's

life.

susceptible

20

C h a ra c te ri s ti cs

Phenomenol og ist s,
most

si gn ificant

They

stress

individual
perception
variable

or

reacts

to

it.

the

from

individuals
see

it.

is

the

ac cording

it.

The

seen

by

is

made

of

the

propose

terms
the

the
self.

that

of

his

the

unique

most

important

to

observe

individual,

to

reality

and

as

the

assume

they

to

behavior

then,

as

that

themselves

therefore,

to the situation

and

and

irrational

individual,

her

attempt

behavior,

irrelevant

and pe rtinent

und erstands
it

of

behaving individual,

purposeful,

as

be

in

perception

indi vi du al 's

to

to the

world

study

and

therefore,

point

behave
An

considered
but,

the

the

have

behavior.

Phenomeno lo gis ts ,
behavior

in

perception

Hence,

de te rm ini ng

Self

"self-the ori sts ,"

co ntri bution

subject ive

of

of the Phenomenal

may

be

the

outsider;

is

relevant,

the

individual

reacts

to

represented

in

perceptual

stresses

the

her

reality

field.
Carl
the

Rogers,

perceptual

isthe

in

(1959)
ofhis

field,

center

of

Experiences,
only

likewise,

his

therefore,

terms

of

states

their

that,

experi enc e

perception
self-concept.

and

of

as
is

postulates
changing

according
relevance
the

world
to
to

the

diff er ent iat ed

self-concept,

every
of

Rogers,

individual

self-as-object,
The

that

im portance

which
once

individual

experiences.
must

be

viewed

individual.
matures,
into

of

a

he
formed,

a

Rogers
portion

conscious
calls

the

in fluences

21

the

perceptions,

tho ugh ts

S e l f - theorists

belie ve

self -c on ce pt

and

interc ha ng ea bly ,
In this

study

that,

they

they

three
ment

review

refer

refer

mo ti vat io n

cultural
relation

social

last

decade,

women

of

hist orical

fall

under

factors,

who

cited

much
few

have
in

need

has

att ain ed

Lo ckheed

little

role

socialization.
by

These

used

phenomena.

reveal

influencing

that

achieve­

categories:

influences,

(l)

and

(3)

in

the

to performance.
written

(1975),

about

are

women

available

leadership

on

research
major

has

types
as

of

been

done

change

significantly

those

positions.

S a f i 1 i o s -Rothschi 1 d

Safilios-Rothschild

w o m e n ’s options.

(1963)

general

political

Three

of

in Society

factors

studies

cr os s- cu l tu r a l

different

parental

been

research

that

docume nt ed

(2)

construct

generally

Crandall

three

individual.

idea.

the Female

by

the

the

are

to the same

of

of

although

to somewhat

studies

of a ch ie ve men t

Although

As

of

categor ie s

me mories

self -e ste em

S o c i a l i za t io n

A

and

reports
on

sex-

have

been

affecting

are:

1.

A
shift in political ideology
that
entails
social equality as its basic principle, such
as
the
Marxist
and
Maoist
so ciopolitical
theories;

2.

Amajor ide olo gic al change that is initiated
by a social movement, like the Women's L i b e r a ­
tion Mo vement in the United States; or

3.

A
crisis,
such as war
or revolution,
cially
if its result
is the creation
manpower shortage.
(pp. 9-10)

espe­
of a

22

Dale

(1973)

pressured

by

colleagues,

high

and

Hackamack

and

suggested

that

for

reports

woman

Solid

might

and

women

alter

of

young

In

a

found

aspirations.

observations

females

study

from

of

a bias concerning

the

choice

of

and

training

high

that counselors with

from

women

professors,

career

similar

d i sc our age d

con cluded

di scourage

to
made

careers.
(1976)

occurrences

teachers, parents,

(1972)

co uns el ors

fthrons

concept

school

or g a ni z a ti on s

important

counselors,

several

school

the career
such biases

nontraditional

careers.
According
cultural

norms

leadership

role

behavior.

lilhen

may

step

in to

Some
of

adult

Lo ckheed

by

at tem pt ing

is

often

this
attempt

di sc us si ons
political

tionships
are

to

as

usually

(1975)

occurs,

the

by

as

who

a

professional
in

teachers,

or

deviant

or

others

the behavior.

process involved
suggest

Davis

disregards

engaging

parents,

to correct
of

assume

viewed

at tit udes

re ported

to

a woman

a complex

(1903).

Three

in
set

formation
of

rela­

assumptions

made:

1.

The
s i g n if ic ant
so ci alization
experiences
that
will
affect
later
political
behavior
take place quite early in life;

2.

These ex pe r ie nc e s are not manifestly political
experiences,
but they have latent political
c o n se qu e n c e - - t h a t
is,
they
are
neither
intended
to have political
effects nor are
these effects recognized; and

3.

The di rection of so ci alization is a undirectional
one:
the more basic
family e x p e r i ­
ences
have
a
sig nificant
impact
upon
the
secondary
struct ur es
of
politics
but
are
not in turn affected by them.
(p. 83)

23

To
and

a

suggested

attitudes.
as

larger

a

source

that

extent

new

insights

Attention

was

of

political

authority

pa tterns

played

a crucial

these

role

in

into

focused

obse rv at io ns
the

sources

on

the

of

pr e-adult

attitudes.
in

mere

It was

pre-adult
formation

correct
political

ex pe riences

also

social

suggested
situations

of political

predis­

positions.
Almond
sights

and

of what

Verba

they

(1963)

refer

point

out

some

valuable

to as the ps yc hoc ult ura l

in­

approach:

1.

Nonpolitical
experiences
in
ch ildhood
may
play
an
imp ortant
part
in
later
political
attitudes
and
behavior,
but
the
impact
of
these
e x p er ie nce s
on
politics
continues
throughout
the
adoles ce nt
and
adult
years
(and) that early s oc ial iz ati on e x p e r i ­
ences
s i g n i f ica nt ly
affect
on
i n di vid ual s
basic
persona li ty
p r ed is po sit ion s
and
may
therefore
affect his behavior,
but nu merous
other factors intervene between these earliest
experiences
and
later political
behavior
that greatly inhibit the impact of the former
on the latter;

2.

Nonpolitical
authority patterns
to
which
an individual is exposed to have an important
effect
on
his
at titudes
toward
political
authority.
The
authority
patterns
in
the
family are his first exposure to authority.
And
it
is
likely
that
his/her
first
view
of
the
political
system
repre se nt s
a
ge n e r a l iz at i on from these experiences;

3.

Furthermore,
there are a host of other n o n ­
gov er nmental
authority patterns
to
which
the
individual
is
exposed;
in
school,
on
the
job,
in
the
various
or ga n i z a t i o ns
to
which
he/she
belongs.
And
these
other
patterns,
pa rti cu lar ly those closer in time
and
in
kind
to
the
political
system,
may
have greater importance for political behavior
than have the patterns in the family.
(pp.
323-325)

24

Wylie
in

the

adults

(1974),

French

village

referring

to the men who

can be divided
The

he

as

that

for young-uiomen
the

genetic

following

.
the

it as instruments

into

reports

studied,

(1976) suggests

learnin g

1.

instance,

to gover nm ent

run

Boulding
social

for

.

that

constantly

source

of evil."
factors

growing

children

of

evil

(p.

associated with

upin

any

society

categories:

substrate;

De ve l op me n ta l
co ns equences
of physiological,
emotional, intuitive, and cognitive maturation
and the as soc i at ed accum ula tio n of the social
kno wl edg e stock;

3.

Specific
learning
p r o c e s s - - cognitive
con­
struction,
trial
and
error
(social
r einf orcement), modeling and intuition; and

4.

The social spaces within
which learning takes
place--home,
community, schools,
churches,
place of work, and others.
(p. 25)

example,

of

the

politics,

on

league
Davis

the
to

and

208)

2.

For

hear

the

(1983)

sig nif ic an ce ofthe
sociali zat ion of
points

out

social
league

context

members into

that:

The primary
co ntr i b ut io n
of the social
context
of
the
League
to
the
so cia liz ati on
of
League
members into
politics was that the social context
of the League created a system analogous to m a i n ­
stream
pol iti cs
in
which
League
members
could
par t i ci pa t e
w it ho u t
suffering
co ns eq u e n c e s
for
failures
that
would
hurt
their
later
careers
in
m ai ns t r e a m
politics.
That
is,
the
social
context of the League provided a system of o r g a n i ­
zational go ver n an ce in which the expected norms
and b eh av ior s were similar to those used in m a i n ­
stream politics.
By p a r t i c ip at in g in that system,
League membe rs could learn how to function e f f e c ­
tively in such a system.

25

Boulding
co ncl ude that,
women

can

(197B )

to

fill

Historical

warriors,

queens,

this

of the

view

stated

given adequate

learn

society.

has

social

accounts

of

is

re aso nab le

and

performance

to

opportunities,

roles

av ai lab le

great

artists,

potential

it

so ci al- learning

any

poets,

that

women

in

a

hunters,

sc ientists
ca pacities

support
of women.

Bou ldi ng continues.
To know
how a woman will
actually
perfor m
in
a given society, we must know something of her
op po r t un it i e s for training, what kinds of social
rei nf o rc em e nt she is getting for specific kinds
of behaviors, and who her role models are.
(p.
25)

Recognition
soci al
in

space

diagram

size

and

on

of

the

the

learning

forms.

In

appropriate

society

to

importance

these
labels

society,
of

the

constraining
of

women

is

diagrams,
for

one

effect

various

in

limited

p r e se nt ed

while

constraint

family space

of

the

spaces
is

relative
vary

the

the life

below

from

relative

of

a

woman.

(See Figure 2.2)
She has some kind of "ceremonial space"
in every society, no matter how limited she is
in respect to
other spaces. If we were to do
a co mparable diagram for men,
the family
slice
would
be
smaller,
the
ne ig hb or ho od /co mmu nit y,
worksites, and "other" would be larger.
"Other"
repres en ts every thing beyond the local community.
(p. 27)

In

a

study

based

on

state

univer sit ie s

that

the

101

by

Arter (1972),

women

father's

holding

and
type

created

adm in is tr at iv e

land-grant
of

which

colleges,

employment

and

a

profile

p o si ti ons
it

his

was

in

found

edu cational

26

CHILDHOOD

1. Family
2 . Neighborhood and Community
3. Peer Group
4. School or Informal Learning Sites
5. Public Ceremonial Life and Mass Media

ADOLESCENCE
1 . Family
2. Neighborhood and Community
3. Peer Group
4. School or Informal Learning Sites
5. Public Ceremonial Life and Mass Media

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

ADULTHOOD
Family
Neighborhood and Community
Work Sites
Other
Public Ceremonial Life and Mass Media

Figure 2.2.
The Context of Social Learning for Women
Source: Boulding (1976: p. 27)
Adapted from Boulding, Elise, The Underside of History:
A View of Women Through Time. Westview Press. Boulder,
Colorado, 1976.

27

background

had

so cia liz ati on
office,

the

sig ni fi ca nt
process.

process

tra nsf or ma ti on
that

they,

too,

This

tr ans fo r m at io n

tion

as

it

is

Cultural
factors,
into

it

a

a ch ie vem en t
is

a

of

children

a

American
need
to

born

m oti va tio n

and

born
while

more

and Child

c hi ld -r ea ri ng
that
the

boys

begins
this

studied

before

the

o rientat ion

milieu,

than

i nd iv idu al 's

in

of

socializa­

by

the

candi­

in

cultural-social
cultural

milieu
of

example,

his

there

behaviors
highly

competitive.

Friedman

( 1952 ) of

indicated

cultures,

several

boys

than

a

girls.

known
Barry,

survey,

training

North
strong

are

societies

achi eve men t

compared

and
in

found

most

of

girls.

or ie ntation

reflects
his

fact

politics.

achieve me nt

training

indiv/idual

pa rti cul ar

For

in a cross-cul tur al

more

the

dev elopment

folktales

some

a ch ie ve me nt

received

cultures
An

their

pr ac tic es

of

c o m m u n i t i e s -- one

is less
and

of

the

the

differing

In

(1957)

itself

behavior.

McClel la nd

achievement.

a significant

process

general

affects

other

tribes,

elective

mainstream

terms

the

between

two

the

by

Indian

receive

Bacon,

in

In

that

is

study

for

found

on

the

and activities.

Factors:

been

in

seek

aware

in

manifest

women

who

takes

co ntinuing

may

d if fe ren ce

competitive,
In

the

these

become

players

in issues

child

marked

women

have

key

in

Social

has

which

be

realiz ed

d a t e s ’ inv olv eme nt

the

soc ialization

they

can

on

For

of

once

impact

the

towards

attains

voting

person's

family.

political
age.

Often,

immediate

Soc ialization

affairs

social

processes

28

operate
the

at

both

community

tra ns m i s s io n
is directed
of

the

while,

at

For

is

the

or singing

and

groups

The

and

community

best

level,

pledging

a ll eg ia nc e

anthem

(1969)

At

cultural

this

learning

two perspectives

is important

as

relevant

the national

Prewitt

levels.

understood

individual

instance,

feeling.

Dawson
of peer

it

to the politic al ly

flag

patriotic

individual

level,

person.

national

the

process

ex pe riences

might

to

one's

stimulate

are com plementary.

realized

in political

that

a

variety

learning:

Peer groups are a form of primary group composed
of members
sharing relatively
equal
status
and
intimate ties.
Childhood play groups, friends hip
cliques, small work groups, brothers and sisters,
married
couples
are
the
most
common
types
of
peer groups.
(p. 127)

Talcott
Peer

Parsons

groups

(1959)

begin

to

early

adolescence,

and

ence

throughout

groups

become

school

years and

Beckwith
also
within

continue

important

similar

special
to

have

Parsons

socializing

observations.

im portance

during

si gn ificant

influ­

suggests
agents

that

during

the

peer
high

later.

(1986)

states

the

this

century,
These

on

adulthood.

includes

mobilized.

take

made

rise

are

two

that

and

women's

fall

major

identified

of

political

feminist

feminist

history

movements;

moe ve me nt s

as:

The first feminist generation came of age roughly
between the years 1911 and 1926, a period which
saw
several
important
social
and
political
changes.
There
was
a steady
increase
in
the
numbers of women e mployed in the work force and
an
increase
in
the numbers
and pe rc en ta ge s
of
women
graduating
from
college
. . .
In 1903,

have

29

the
National
Wo men 's
Trade
Union
League
was
formed,
and
Women
in
Industry
Service,
the
precursor of the Women's Bureau of the Department
of Labor, was es ta blished in 1918 . . .
Activity
on
behalf
of
women' s
suffrage
throughout
this
period
was
marked
by
several
visible
events:
the founding of the National Women's Party; the
mass pic keting by suffragists of the White House
in 1917; the founding of Women's Political Union
under the leadership
of Harriet
Stanton
Blach;
and the election of Jeanette Rankin of Wyoming
as the first female member of Congress in 1917.
(pp. 77-79)

The

second

between

the

feminist

years

increased

progress

The

Pay

Equal

President
Committee

on

the

on

Women's

Studies

the

period

beneficial

to

feminist

among

many

. the

National

Radical

Women

was

and

by

Diego

State

also

progress ive

wi tn ess ed

programs

the

Women,

and

Hell
of

the

Women

the
(1968)
the

legislation

the

organizations.
identified

activity

first

colleges.

W o m e n ’s

political

Advisory

the

similar

and

from

academia,

of

(1967);

Conspiracy

In

Citizen's

develop me nt

of

Terrorist

the

1963,

Inte rde par tm ent al

San

Organi zat io n

Employed

the

levels.

November

at

marked

has

In

define

many

founded

political

Federally

Female

Women.

experienced
and

on

1963 .,

of

and

was

others,

in

Women

the

women,

activity

of

Program

was

identify

establi sh ed

Status

by

which

1976,

passed

Status

univer sit ie s

This

to

political

was

followed

at other

several

in

Kennedy

Council

College,

1961

Act

John

generation,

founding

Beckwith

(1986),

following,

".

(1966);
Equity

. . ."

the

New

Action

Women's

1960's

of

York

League,

International
(p.

and

79)
1970's

was

30

extensive

and

varied,

c o n s c i o u s n es s- r ai si ng
to major political
Peer
or

and

her

D'And ra de

(1959),

with

their
A

own

woman

who

potentially

The

most

powerful
A
close

impact

of

upon

by

view

that

as

all

aspects

as

not

have

by

and

Rosen

beh aviors

experiences.

filled

her

and

ori entations

their

habits,

reports

their

being

Investig at ion s

with

and

people

attitudes.

parents

who

have

of her growth.

(l97l)

important

issues.
his

achieve me nt

are

and

are

influence

people

lobbying

parents’

environment

with

more

did

may

informal

parents

(i960),

her values,

Nagely

careers

they

an

these

re la ti ons hi ps

homemaking
who

in

O n e ’s

that

in everyday

influence

powerful

study

shown

a ch ie v e me nt s

de velops

feminist

agents.

Rabson

have

the

legislative

Influences:

and

children

from

around

s o c ia li zi ng

Preston,

their

to

or ganizing

Crandall,

toward

groups

Parental

major

ranging

mothers

than

of

that

their

primary

close

women
tend

having

to

view

careers;

women

importance

rel ati ons hip s

report

with

their

mothers.
Among
a feminine
gical

found

intense

mous

role

distance

(1967)

found

IMagely’s

subjects,

seemed
between

that

the

the

creativ e

rel at io ns h ip s

that

to be

with

the

greatest

related
woman

women
both

and

r el at io ns hip s with

and psycho lo gi cal

both

distance.

to perceived
her

recall

parents,

is

one

from

psycholo­

parents.

having

parents.

r o l e - in novating woman

departure

Helson

had

equally

Tangri

(1972)

who

including

had

autono­

independence

31

Sorensen
ences
ture

on

and

women's

very

and

identific at ion
mother's

occ upational

found

related

more

orientation

their

while
the
to
each

there

the

in

some

processes,

warrant

att emp ts

permeated

of

daugh­

education,

da ug h t e r ' s

variables

She

were

mothers

in

found

signifi­

females.

determining

di ff erently

versus

that

Ca re e r -o ri en te d

occu­

status.

homemaking

at

fathers

the

career

college

from

career

and

the

women

way

enough
to

between

substantial

develop
until

o pp or tu ni ty

at all

dif fe ren ce s

de ve lopment

simil ari tie s

least

career

society

simi la ri ti es

their

career

equality

between

of ad olescent

women.

than

influ­

oc cu pational

compared

their

they

mothers.

are

gender,

the

aspirati on s

fathers

of

women

of

daughters.

their

between

of

by

this

father's

mo ther's

both

college

of

Readings
and

the

important

perceived

and

(1975)

ca re er - ori ent ed

men

r e la ti ons hip

that

to

Oliver

perceive

the

and

influenced

of

rela ti on sh ip

l i t e r a­

the career

awareness

nature

influ­

the

that

are

and

the

as pi rat io ns

asp ir at io ns

study

cantly

with

the

parental

indicate

daughters

However,

studied

of

summarizes

mothers

Burlin

pational

were

their

history.

(1976)

view

reviews
of

clear.

compared

His

The

a t t it ude s
with

work

(1975)

develop me nt

is by no means

ter's
as

career

effectively.

perceptions

ence

Winters'

levels.

between

suggest
the

that,

sexes

di ff ere nc es

dis ti nc ti ve
such

time

as

exists

and

the

exist

theories
true

in

for

sexual

results

have

32

Bowman

(1974)

has written

that:

The nature of the self has been throughout the
ages
an
intrig ui ng
qu estion
for
man.
In
his
quest
for
an
und er st an di ng
of h i m s e l f / h e r s e l f ,
he/she
has
hoped
to
answer
such
q u es ti ons
as
Who am I?
What am I?
and Why am I?
from these
questions, there has developed much human thought.
Theologians,
ph ilos ophers,
and
sc ien tis ts
have
pr oposed th eor ies which have often been accepted
as e x p la na ti on of m a n ’s/woman's ul timate nature,
(p. 1)

CHAPTER

III

METHODOLOGY

Introduction

The

purpose

of

the

of

female

relat io ns hip

between

political

1980

on

female

to

seek

tions

of

and

to

reasons

p a r t i c ip at io n

It

to

to

is

by

the

is

nature

self-esteem

Michigan

Legislature

future

encourage

identifying
to

the

and

that

may

and

research

more

women

seeking

so l u ­

no n- in vo lve men t

or

non­

process.

in ve stigated
there

determine

hoped

partici pa ti on

co ntr ibuting

hence,

or independent
Fear

candidates

office

being

is

so ci alization

in the political

Variables
relationship;

study

between

1986.

political
elective

this

no

have
mention

an

associational

of

the

dependent

variables.

(1986)

has

taught

that:

With
regard
to
the
as so ciational
statement
of
the hypothesis, we often are seeking (searching)
for
va riable
relationships.
In
other
words,
we
are
c on ce rne d
about
whether
the
existence
of a certain level of a variable is contingent
upon the e x i st en ce of a certain level of another
variable.
(p . 6 )

Study

data

and

Re pu bli ca n

both

during

were

col le ct ed

P art ie s

the primaries

of

from

women

Michigan

and general

33

who

in

the

were

elections

Democratic
candidates

held between

34

198D
are

and

1986.

included
The

the

in the

survey

These

(CPI),

the

method

includes

the

ut ilized

data

data

indicators,

of

the

on

study

Scale
This

has

from

instruments

were

and data

Inventory

(TSCS),

and

chapter

method.

The
of

the

provides

chapter
theory,

analysis

also
study

approach.

De fi ni tio ns

o pe ra ti o n a l i z a t i o n
(1986)

data

Psychol ogi cal

o p er at i o n a l i z a t i o n

collection,

Babbie

p a rt ic ip at ed

collect

collec ti on

(DQ).

Opera ti on al

Concerning

that

to

Se lf -C o n c ep t

Qu es t io nn a ir e

sections

candid at es

Cal if or ni a

T en ne sse e

account

hypotheses,

was

Three

were

Demographic
detailed

party

study.

participants.

used.

a

Minor

of

said

concepts

and

their

that:

The next step is the sp ec if ica tio n of empirical
indicators to repr es ent the theoretical concept.
Although
theoreti ca l
concepts
must
be
somewhat
abstract and perhaps vague, the empirical i n d i c a ­
tors must be precise and specific . . . The effect
of op er at i o n a l i z a t i o n is to convert the t h e o r e t i ­
cal hypothesis into an em pirical one.
(pp. 5859 )

Babbie
tion

for

(it)

a

taken
the

a

clear

and

He

states

definition.
pr ecisely

how

Strictly

speaking,

an

of

measuring

following

follows:

provide d

out

des cr iption
in

has

operatio nal
spells

measured.
is

(1986)

the
a

will

be

(p.

concept

that
102)

operati on al ly

".

will

be

definition

will
In

defini­

that,

operational

"oper at ion s"

concept."

concepts

the

simple

be

this

under­
study,

defin ed

as

35

Po litical
the
of

subjects

Beh av io r

in this

educ ation

and

cular,

this

(1969)

serves

cept.

G r e en s te in

of

human

the

research.

pol itics

research,
as

the

to

view

states

behavior

si tua t io ns

p s y c ho l o gi ca l

in

behavior

of the

everyday

life

in

by

defin it ion

parti­

Greenstein

for

this

con­

that

politics

is

a

is

function

of

both

a

which

actors

predispositions

find

they

of

int ermingling

and,

ex pressed

operati on al

and

political

Because

in

the

(1969)

behavior,

en vi r o n m e n ta l
and

refers

matter
the

themselves

bring

to

these

situations.
Female
to

mean

official

women

ballot

between

Minor
pol itical

for

Party

kind

also,

in

which

state
of

the act

and

the

self.

according

is

on

defined

in the

levels,

State

cit ize ns

on

an

and general

of

this

study

they

are

those

either

female

the

Demo­

of Michigan.
defined

was

to a political

se lf -c o n c e p t

as

with

which

and

to Ma slow's

defined

candid at es

in primary

op er a t i o n a l l y

the

of be longin g

In

are

in dividual

local

impact

1986

a ff ili at ed

an

operati ona lly

Legislature.

parties

ac tiv ist

Sel f - e s te em
of

not

is

po litical

and

Can di da te s

ca nd i d at es

ac ti vi ti es

were

1980

the Mi chigan

Pol itical

some

who

or Re pub lic an

national,

c an di da te s

those

elections

cratic

po litical

to

involved

were
her

seen

as

include
at

having

community;

and

party.

entail

an

evaluation

o pe ra ti on al ly

defined

in te rp retation:

It is what
the
subject
an
inte ns iv e
interview,
has
been
es tab lished.

the

says
about
herself
in
after
a
good
rapport
High
do mi n a nc e- -f ee li ng

36

empirically involves good self-confidence,
selfassurance, high evaluation of the self, feelings
of general
ca pability
or superiority,
and lack
of
shyness,
timidity,
sel f-c ons ciousness,
or
embarrassment.
Lo w-domi nan ce
feeling
is
seen
as lack of se lf-confidence,
self-assurance,
and
self-esteem; instead there are ex tensive feelings
of
general
and
specific
inferiority,
shyness,
timidity, fearfulness, sel f-c ons ciousness.
(1939,
p. 31)

In

this

as meaning

all

experien ce d
from
and

research,

birth

by

that

and

have

jects'
tion

sub jects

social
had

and

often

receives

from

public

officials
opinions

the

(police,
and

but

the

ori gin ati ng

norms

of a community.
of

aspect

refers

local

in

meanings

the

are

of

an

political

tradi­

the

educa­

the

1965,

pp.

family

or

political

defined
2-3):

1.

Self-identity:
refers to
sees herself in comparison

how the individual
to other persons.

2.

Self-satisfaction:
refers
dual feels about herself.

to

3.

Behavior:
refers
to
what
the
individual
does and how she acts under different social
e nv ir onm en ts or circumstances.

the

of

officials),

o pe ra ti on al ly

how

sub­

individual

unofficial

(Fitts,

family

behavior

elected
in

will

experiences

to formal

that

acguired

se lf -e st ee m

the fo llowing

experience,

general

judges,

free

include

foreign

the

attitudes

or

those

concept

wat ching

groups

Indicators

on

and

and positive)

coercion

un intended learning

peer

to convey

by

Such activ it ie s may

impact

Further,

opera ti ona li zed

(both ne gative

either

pr actices

an

lives.

the

is

e n c u l t u r a t i o n , employment

experiences

or

activities

to adulthood.

political

tional

those

social iz ati on

indivi­

37

A.

Physical-self:
refers to how the individual
presents
her
view
of
her
body,
her
state
of
health,
her
physical
appearance,
skills
and sexuality.

5.

M o r a l / E t h i c a l - s e l f : refers to how the i n d i v i ­
dual
describes herself from a mo ra l-ethical
frame of reference -- moral worth, r e l a t i o n ­
ship
to God,
feelings
of being
a good
or
bad person, and satisfaction with her religion
or lack of it.

6.

Personal-self:
refers to
the
individual's
sense of personal worth, her feeling of a d e ­
quacy as a person and her evaluation of her
personality apart from
her
or her r e l a t i o n ­
ships to others.

7.

F a m i l y - s e l f :refers
to
one's
feelings
of
adequacy, worth, and value as a family member.
It also, refers to the indi vi dua l's perception
of herself
in reference to her closest and
most immediate circle of associates.

8.

Social-self:
refers to
the
in di vidual's
sense
of adequacy
and worth
in her social
interaction with other people in general.

This

study

above

with

dates

under

in at least

an

has

provided

assumption

study

were

at

one of those

this

nature

study,

will

se lf -satisfaction;
self;
self

(5)
and

of

oper ati ona l

that

all

female

one

time

social

Study

the

the

social-self.

as

by:

political

mo ra l/ et hical-self;
(8)

another

candi­

pa rt icipants

or situations.

Hypotheses

indicated

(3)

political

e n vir on men ts

self-esteem,

be

or

definitions

(6)

it
(l)

is

un derstood

self-identity;

behavior;

(A)

in
(2)

physical-

p e r s o n a l - s e l f ; (7)

family-

38

Having
the

i de nt ifi ed

variables

thesis,

un der g ir di ng

stated

the direction

null

strength

and

Legislature

during

1980,

1983

stated

in

the

I:

the
and

null

is

form,

following
to

of

as

hypo­

determine

association.

both

Democratic

candidates
and

The

are

the

is no re lat ion shi p

primary
1986.

se l f- es te em

c o ns tru cte d

There

political

and

study,

of that

self-esteem

females who were

1982,

this

form,

Hy pot he sis

so ci alization
lican

in

and

General

so ci ali za tio n

also

and

Repub­

for the Michigan

general

following
examined

between

el ections

of

sub-hypo th es es

by

the

research­

er .
Sub-hypothesi s I - A :

That there is no relat io nsh ip between
soc i a l i z at io n and sel f- id en ti ty •

Sub -hypothesis

I-B :

That there is no r e la ti on sh ip between
s o c i a li za ti on and self-satis fa ct io n.

Sub -hypothesis

I-C :

That there is no re la tionship between
so c i a li za ti on and political behavior.

Su b-hypothesis

I- D :

That there is no re la tionship between
so ci a l i z a t i o n and p hy si ca l- se lf •

Sub-hypo th es is

I-E :

That there is no re la tionship between
so c i a li za ti on and moral/ et hi ca l -self.

Su b-hypothesis

I-F :

That there is n o re la tionship between
so ci a l i z a t i o n and p er so na l- se lf •

Sub-hypot he si s

I-G:

That there is no rel at ionship
s o c i a li za ti on and f a m i l y - s e l f .

between

Su b-hypothesis

I-H :

That there is no rela ti ons hip
so ci a l i z at io n and s o c i a l - s e l f .

between

Because
who,

in

vocations

the

the
is

proce ss

future,
a

complex

of

may
one,

sociali za ti on

pursue
it

is

of

individual
difficult

ind iv idu als
careers

in

this

and
study

39

to
in

realistically
individual

times
be

in

categories

research,

applicable

to

employs

what

By

he means

this

tors
all

all
of

behave

he

in
in

sub-hypotheses
hypothesis

a

search

identity.
needs,

of

one

degree,

the

same way

and could
the

and

Babbie

the

of

same

that

the

the

and

I-H,

I —F ;

and

(pp.

Category
3

would

100)

have

2

been

sub-hypo­
includes

includes

1:
for,

These
or

belief
and

(1967)

sub- hyp oth ese s
an

attempt

lies

in

the

at,

suggest

sub­

that

there

discovering

self-

reality

of

higher

capacities.
cautions

that:

In any case, it is implied, if not made explicit,
by most of these writers that the organism,
in
the
strictest
sense,
has
needs
which must
be
gratified
in
order
to
become
fully
human,
to
grow well, and to avoid sickness.
(pp. 150-151)

Maslow

then

of indicators

1 includes

Category

indica­

concept

su b- hy p o t h e s e s

Cateogry

I-E

indicators.

concept,

be observed."

ten

will
(1986)

different

i n te rc han qea bil ity

categories.
I-D,

several

Some­

concepts

concept.

. . if

self-esteem

discussion.

certain

some

study,

I-G,

This

motives

Maslow

individual

of

I-C only.

Category
is

to

real

I-B,

indicators

i n te rc han qea bil ity

".

to employ

three

I-A,

the

behave

this

for

than

that,

if it were

concept

theses

calls

them will

the

indicators

more

represent,

In order

grouped

separate

(1967)

continues

by

stating

that:

li/e speak then
of a self,
a kind
nature
which
is
very
subtle,
necessarily
conscious,
which
has
for, and which has to be uncovered

of intrinsic
which
is
not
to
be
sought
and then built

human

AO

upon, actualized, taught, educated . . .
These
deepest
impulses
in
the
human
species,
at the
points where the instincts have been lost almost
entirely, where they are extremely weak, extremely
subtle and delicate,
where you have to dig to
find them, this is where I speak of introspective
biology,
of
biological
phenomenology,
implying
that one of the necessary methods in the search
for
identity,
the
search
for self,
the search
for spontaneity and for naturalness is a matter
of closing
your
eyes,
cutting down the noise,
turning
off
the
thoughts,
just
relaxing
in
a
kind
of
Taoistic
and
receptive
fashion.
(p.
152)

In

addition

individual
these

to

attem pt ing

has

feelings

their God,

feelings
may

Women's

There

position.

Baxter

the

States

United

incident
59

at

percent

plants."

of
(p.

the

have

urban

also

efforts
change,

"It

was

the

bad;

and

oneself,

with

some

evidence

Lansing

(19 8□)

poll

Island,

found
71

has

been

to

labelled

support

reported
that,

percent

this

that,

"In

following

of

men

but

the
only

opposed

to

closing

of

all

American

women's

background

of

involvement

movement

as soc iat ed
up

however,

not

with

the

were

reform

clean

conserv at ive s

or

self,

nuclear

59)

been

to

the

good

satisfaction

Gallup

Mile

women

being

pa rt ici pa tio n

is

a

discover

religion.

and

Three

Against
in

of

political

moralistic.

of

include

or lack

to

who

of

with

government
has
have

moralism,

been

the

reformism
and

fight

objected

dismissed
but

P r og re ssi ve

it

in

Era,

the

sense

corruption.
to

by

self-interest,

by

women
of

This

many

male

asserting

that,

that

determined

41

their decision
(Epstein,

1981;

Wheth er
influ en ce d
issues,

it

women

had

you

sum

it

that

that no one

In

possess

recorded
nature

is

is

with

us

to

man

is

deprived of

state,

lies

because

Maslou

(1970)

stated

social

of

their

the

qu estion

you,

how

responses,

thread

that

to

hurt

way

of

solving

would

Gilligan

runs

not

worth

through

others

and

the

conflicts

so

that

apart

the

self

from

her

can
body

others.

a

neutral

have

lived
As

Maslow

never

process.
in

Th roughout

ass oc ia ti on

persons,

it

is

(1972) implies

with

cannot

a state

to

suggest

association

such

these

indicative

their

another.

he/she

that

15)

personal

seek freedom.

because

a
(p.

people

for

a monster

wish

never

one

in

meant to

common

she has with

life

s e lf -i nte res t

r e sp on ded

hypotheses

of

history

and

the

or

is

morality

be hurt."

feelings

Social

in others.

thing.

"The

these

relationship

awareness

involved

reviewing

mor ality

will

Finally,

get

students

that,

in

to

what

up?"

statements

hope

social

awareness

right

to say

found

and

partic ip at io n

college

you

(1982)

social

to do the

"If

cases

134)

is

their

Female

and

p.

these

conviction

these

in some

other

regress

to

humans
his

natural

that
he

with

when

becomes

pr e- cu l tu re d

existed.

that:

The first and most obvious level of ac cep tan ce
is at the so called animal
level .
. .
They
are able to accept themselves not only on these
low
levels,
but
at all
levels
as well;
e.g.,

42

love,
safety,
be lo ngingness,
honor,
and
selfrespect.
All
of
these
are
accepted
without
question
as
worthwhile,
simply
because
these
people are inclined to accept the work of nature
. . . (p. 156)

Category
herself

as

an

2:

These

adequate

member

family

members

Family

is one of the most

Hess and Torney
logical

and

hypoth es es

her

(1967)

dependence.

most

assume

of value

and worth

immediate

important

lend

support

According

that

circle

of

one
to

sees

closest

associates.

agents

of socialization.

to the

theory

to their

of p s y c h o ­

analysis:

The
family
unit,
especially
the
parents,
participates
in
the
so cia liz ati on
of political
perceptions and attitudes in three ways.
First
the family reinforces other institutions.
In
this
regard,
the
family
may
help
children
acquire feelings of loyalty, respect for symbols
of
government,
and
compliance
to
law
Secondly,
the
family
serves
as
a model
which
the
child
may
emulate
or identify
with.
This
is seen to be the case when the child identifies
with
a political
party
. . .
Finally,
family
experience
may
be
general iz ed
to
political
experiences
later
on
in
life
and
establish
a
frame of reference by which to approach systems
he will later encounter.
(pp. 110-111)

It

further

socio-ec ono mic
women

from

suggests

has

with

mentioned

Peru,

come
In

herself

the
as

families

are

that
more

lo w- s oc io - ec on om ic

that

correlated

proposes

female
high
that

poltical

from the middle
realm

of

adequate

or upper

having

Boneparth

status.

political

higher

active

p a rt ic ip at io n

social-self,
and

from

po li tic all y

families.

soci o-e con omi c
female

women

is

(1977)
strongly

Jaquette

leaders,

in

than

(1976)

Chile

and

classes.
the

worthy

individual
in

social

then

sees

interaction

43

with

other

political
the

people

in

candidate

ability

of public

to

general.

has

interact

3:

political

activis m

be

may

cultural

mental
and

a

to
of

of

those

who

(1963)

pa rt i ci pa t or y

who

female

adequacy

in

her

assumes

or

and

pursuit

that

resultant

of

those

who

and

(3)

particip ati on .
c on ne ct ion

her

an

political

social

influences

(those

of

position

been

exposed

their

those
Their

who

that

current

ability

political

and

Almond

into

had

more

indicated

remembe re d

and

them,

the

they

remember

data

to

reported
in

school,

attitudes

respond en ts

consistently

reported

non-govern­

family,

political

op po rtu ni tie s

betwee n

decision

the

the

have

c o ns is ten tl y

opportunity;

on

divided

had

in family

of

people

product

have

(l)

had

behavior

authority

groups:

a

other

understand

of work)

Verba

of

feeling

the

heritage.

pa tterns

behavior

those

study,

hy pothesis

direct

a tt em pti ng

place

and

same

with

This

indivi du al 's

In

this

office.

Category

and

this

In

three

that

they

family;

(2)

had

mixed

that
to

no

such

patterns

there

was

p a r t ic ip ate

competence.

Date Collection

In this
of

the

data

population,

co llection
Research

in

section,

the

State

details
the

process

Design.
of

on research

data

co llection

design,

defin it io n

in st ruments

and

are provided.
During

Michigan,

primary

the

and

Secretary

general
of

elec ti on s

State

of

the

44

State
to

of

Michigan

compile

meet

the

□ nee

a

and

to

candidate's

review

from
the

the

is

appear

on

of

the

state

recording

candidacy
certified
the

place

of

to

by

which

are

all

the

open

Board

ballot,

telephone

for

who

office.

State

state

and

code

persons

elective

official

residence

election

public

of
the

number
inspec­

or use.
of

subjects

Elections

the

list

for

Bureau

included

Democratic,

addresses

Michigan

this

of

A

of

from this
problem

selecting

females

the

research

was

Secretary

of

obtained
State

of

correct

was

include

candidates
under

to

study.

not

have

of

the

total

one

all

period

under

and
in
was

in

making

names

for

the

study

a

Because

the

political

arena,

females

Michig an

number

selection

The

candid at es

size.

in

was

subjects

candidates

parties.

were

the

male

sample

felt

ec ono mic al ly

hundred

the

sample

been

the
It

minor

enc ou nte red

actively

to

and

and

were

list.

participate
made

female

who

during

was

the

both

R e pu bli can

legislature

obtained

all

of

by

State of Michigan.

and

was

file

d oc um ent s

list

The
of

a

name

name,

public

The

required

re qu ire men ts

Canvassers

tion,

keep

p e r s o n ’s

become

is

of

in

this

study

Legislature
that

a

prudent
female

three

(103),

the

study.

not addressed

small
for

few
a

this

Hence,

the

been

period

size

from

decided

in this

had

study.

was

women

the

sample

would

Because
the

to

list

include

question

study.

on

decision

who

during

candidates
it

decision

of

45

Defining
the

researcher

tion

to

seek

related
a

seat

met

to
in

Population.

followed
the

the

Glaser

group

the

Strauss'

likely

The

Michigan

defining

and

most

problem.

the

In

to

women

(1967)

provide

seeking

Legislature

population,

between

sugges­
the

data

election
1980

and

for
1986

that qualification.
The

were
the

the

data

used

in

collection
collecting

California

Self-Concept

instruments.

data

from

Psychological

Scale (TSCS);

the

instruments

subjects.

Inventory
and

Three

(CPI);

They

the

Demographic

were:

Tennessee

Qu es ti onn air e

(DQ) .
1.
sion

California

to

use

the

scale

Psychological
for

this

Inventory

study

was

(CPI).

granted

by

Permis­
its

publishers.
In

1948,

of what was
(CPI).
derived

Five

to become

Over
other

edition

of

years

Harrison

the

Gough

the California

next

scales,
the

few

including

Consulting

the

full

CPI

Manual (Gough,

1957)

had

used

As

revised

eigh tee n- sca le

the CPI.

in

steadily

1964

and

increased

the

initial

more

than

years,

in
so

In

listed

1969,

the
a

CPI

first

its

was

studies.

the

Inventory
as sociates

the first

copyrighted

scales
Press

first

of

of
a

in

1951.

published

edition,

the

studies

reissued

number

quarter

scales

his

fi fty-four

manual

that,

and

Psychol ogi sts

scale construction,

six hundred

he

fifteen

CPI.

the

the

Psychol ogi cal

and he published

CPI,

later,

published

in

that

1960

and

investiga tio ns
century

literature

after

contained

46

Editions
are

of

av ailable

including

the

in

South

The basic

CPI,

over

translated

twenty-six

into

local

countries

languages,

of

the

world

Africa and China.
facts about

the

CPI

are:

It is a s e l f - a dm i n i s t e r e d pa pe r- a n d -p en ci l
per­
sonality
test.
De signed
for
group
administra­
tion, it also can be taken ind ividually or even
by mail.
While it is important to gain rapport
with the subjects, sta ndardized testing condit ion s
are
not
essential.
No
time limit
is imposed,
but most subjects finish in about an hour.
The
test requires f o ur th- gra de reading ability unless
the
items
are
read
aloud
to
the
respondents.
The CPI has been admini ste red to subjects ranging
in age from twelve to seventy, but some of the
items do not apply to elementary school or junior
high
school
students.
The
content
is
geared
more to students and young adults than to older
groups.
(flegargee, 1972, p. 5)

The
of
the
and

question

which

appear

content

and

and

easier
CPI

een

scales

aid

to

profile

Psy ch ol og ic al
eighteen

is used

CPI

total of

reports

480

Compared
for

its

The

content

is much

grammatical

lack
less

of

patterns

about

to other

notable

twelve
Most

be havior

attitudes

is

and

items.

of typical

opinions,

The

Gough

CPI

has

is

typically

divided into

in terpretation.
Inventory

has

sub-scales,

only

in this

statements,

social,

me as ure men t
of

symptom-

ob je c t i o n a bl e

constructions

are

to understand.

Scale:
that

a

matters.

vo cabulary

generally

of

of

material.

the

The

the

contains 468

for

feelings,
family

instruments,
oriented

twice

consists

customary

ethical,

booklet

study

because

four

Although

four
the
of

scored

for

graphs

eight­
as

an

the

C al if or ni a

catego ri es

consisting

s o ci al iza tio n

its relevance.

sub-scale

47

Reliability:

In

used

the

C al if o r n i a

Miles

and

Earle,

their

reviews

Ps yc hological

Jr.

(1973)

of

research

Inventory

that

(CPI),

has

Lake,

state that:

This
i nst ru men t
is st an dardized more
than
many
of
the
in st rum ent s
in this collection;
it has
been
inc luded
because
of
its
re latively
solid
researc h base,
and its importance as a measure
of
social
fun ctioni ng
(as
co ntr ast ed
with
the
cl inical
tone of many persona li ty
inventories).
(p. 40)

Kelly,
excel len t
viewers
date

reviews

point

each

further

of

but

and

Cronback

the

inventory

that

the

individual
For

of

out

state

reported,
and

T h o rn dik e

convincing

eighteen

(1959,
in

scales.

these are

sufficiently

instance,

(p.

their

made

These

exists

Lake,

"Only test-retest

have

Buros.

evidence

that:

use."

1955)

to

et al.

va l i ­
(1973)

r e li ab il it ie s
high

re­

for both

are
group

39)
report

continues:

. on a sample of 200 pr isoners retested after
one
to
three
weeks,
reliabi li ti es
range
from
.49 to .87, with a median of .80.
For high school
subjects tested after one week, the median testrelated
c or re la ti on
is
.85
for
males
and
.68
for females.
(pp. 39-40)

Another
enjoyed
cal
and,

in

about

notewo rt hy

other

successfully.
tion makes

cultures.

w he th er

s tr uc tu re d

aspect

do mestic

inventor ie s
The

fact

that

the cr os s- cu l t ur al

Megargee

(1972)

is

the

success

Ps yc ho log ist s
assessment
in

devices

particular,

it was

so

data more

has reported

that:

have

the

CPI

has

been

skepti­

in

general

can

be

exported

contrary

to

expecta­

impressive.

48

Gough
recalls
one
colleague
who
dismissed
the
early results on the validity of the Socialization
scale in Europe as meaningless, since all Western
cultures are alike.
When data from Costa Rica
arrived,
Gough
rushed
to
show
his
colleague,
who looked at them in con sternation and cried,
damn the United Fruit Company!
They have Ame ri­
ca nized the Costa Ricans!
(p. 28)

Megargee

(1972)

goes

on to point

out

that:

An inventory such as the CPI, which is designated
to assess en during
personality
characteristics,
should
have
high
c o ef fi cie nt s
of
stability.
□f course, the larger the time
interval between
test
sessions,
the
lower
the
coefficient
of
stability will be . . . (p. 29)

Hase
of

and

Goldberg

Diff er en t

Inventory

(1987)

St rat eg ie s

Scales,"

report

of

in

"Comparative

Con str uc ti ng

Validity

Personality

that:

s ho rt -t erm
c o eff ic ien ts
are
reasonably
high, ranging from .71 to .90 with a median of
.83.
Not
surprisingly,
lower
cor relations
are
the rule among prisoners, with corr el at io ns there
ranging
from
.49 to .87 with a median of .80.
The
lo ng-term
coe ff i c ie nt s
are
mostly
in
the
. 6 0 ’s and .70's,
indicating
mo de ra te
stability
over one year even among adolescents.
(p. 231248 )

2.
1987
in

at

the

an

Dr.

The
Tennessee

effort

to

fornia
was

home

address

the

of Mental

Nashville,
from

where

permission

who
to

was

the

Scale.

contacted

provided

use

In

contacted

Self-C onc ept

of the scale,

Tennessee,

(T5C5).

Health was

Tennessee

the developer

Scale

a

Cali­

instrument

granted.
Over

been

in

Se lf -Concept

De pa r t me nt
obtain

William Fitts,
his

Ten nes se e

the

employed

years,
to

a

wide

measure

variety

of

self-concept.

instruments

have

Nevertheless,

a

mid

49

need

has

co ntinued

subject,

widely

dimensional
Tennessee

in

for

a

scale

applicable,
its

well

de sc ription

(Department

of

which

Mental

is

standardized,

of

the

self

Health)

to meet

The

of

the

Tennessee

of

100

s e lf -de scr ipt iv e

scale

consists

form.

The

items

lished

sources.

Counseling
forms
The

use
Scale

exactly
is

culled

The
and

and

the

multi­
The

Concept

Scale

this need.

were

F orm

for

concept.

Self

was de veloped

Nature

simple

Scale
a

the

from
is

ap pr op ria te

and

test
for

a

Concept

Scale:

items

vague

av ailable

Clinical
same

Self

in

pool
in

Research

booklet

both

unpub­

forms,

Form.

and

group

booklet

of

two

test

and

The

a

Both
items.

individual

administration.
The

C oun sel in g Form

in

schools,

colleges,

The

Clinical

and

of

scoring

appropr ia te
to

the

Subscale
It

is

the

Burns

Form

is

in

Form

more

this

variables

states

by,
will

when

co unselors

community
complex

interpretation,

research

Co uns eli ng

fewer

(1979)

various

and

This

a pp ro pr iat e

it deals with

for use with

s e l f - i nt e r pr et at io n

subject.
of

and

Research

analysis,
for

is designed

or

direct

use

measuring

particular

and

the

agencies.
in
is

terms
not

feedback
Positive

self-esteem.

situation

because

and scores.

this:

Positive
Subscale
(PS):
consists
of
90
items
equally
divided
between
positive
and
negative
items.
It provides
the
overall
level
of self
esteem,
with
high
scores
desi gna tin g
persons
who,
like
themselves,
feel
they
are
of
value
and worth and have confidence.
Low scores i n d i ­
cate doubt about self-worth, with subjects being

50

anxious,
(p. 114)

Further
provides

depressed,

unhappy

subdivi din g

of

and

the

lack

confidence.

Positive

measures

of:

a)

Identity

- what

b)

Self satisf act ion - how the
about the self he perceives.

Subscale

score

I am;

the

individual

c)

Behavior
- how
own behavior;

individual

d)

Physical
self
how
the
individual
his health, body, and appearance;

e)

Mo ral -et hi cal self
his moral worth;

f)

Personal
self - how the
his adequacy as a person;

-

how

the

feels

perceives

views

individual

individual

his

sees

assesses

g)

Family self
- how the
individual
perceives
himself
with
reference
to
his
closest
and
most immediate "others;"

h)

Social self
- how the
individual
perceives
himself as adequate in his social interaction
with a wide
range
of
others.
(ibid.,
p.
114 )

The

scale has

History
Scale:

Fitts

and

a five-point
Dev el op me nt

(1965)

began

of

the

(5 to l) rating
the

Tennessee

initial

effort

scale.
Self
of

Concept

its

lopment .
The original
purpose was to develop a research
instrument that might contribute to the difficult
criterion
problem in
mental
health
research.
It
has since proved
useful for many other
p ur ­
poses.
In
the
original
de ve lop me nt
of
the
Scale
the
first
step was to compile a large
. . . pool
of
self de sc rip tiv e items.
The
original
pool
of
items was derived
from a number of other
self

deve­

51

concept measures including those by Engle (1955),
and Taylor (1953 ).
Items
derived are also from
written
self de scr ip tio ns
of patients and n o n ­
patients.
After considerable study, a p h e n o m e n o ­
logical
system
was
de veloped
for
classifying
items on the basis of what they themselves were
saying.
This evolved into the two-dimensional,
3x5 scheme employed
on the Score Sheet
After
the
items
were
edited,
seven
clinical
ps yc hol og ist s were employed as judges to classify
the
items
according
to the 3x5 scheme already
indicated.
They
also
judged
each
item
as
to
whether it was positive or negative in content.
The final
90
items
utilized
in the
Scale
are
those where there was perfect agreement by the
judges.
(p. l)

Reliability:
high

in

reliability.

Congdon

(1958)

still

obtained

Total

Positive

with

high

recruits,
with

used
a

by

Hall

nursing

senting

a

ethnic,

and

In
a

broad

his

study

reliability

(1964)

from

which

range

of

educational

col lected

of

teachers,

norms

by

and

by

subjects
were

from

the

study,

Burns

(1979)

Fitts

(1961)

for the

stan­

six

found

the

army

repre­

intellectual,
through

degree.
In reviewing

and

(1962)

with

developed

grade

for

Sundby

(1959)

is

patients,

.88

socio-economic,

levels

Scale

the Scale

of

Gividen

provided 626

the

psychiatric

version

by

with

of

that

coefficient

Data

students,

students

group

suggests

shortened

Score.

school

dardization

Ph.D.

Evidence

that:

(The)
test-re tes t
reliab il iti es
over
a
2-week
period for the subscales on the Counseling Form
ranged from 0.75 for Self Criticism to 0.92 for
the
total
Positive
Subscale
with
sub-elements
of the latter running from 0.80 to 0.90.
Validity
me asured on the basis of discrimi na tio n between
groups
rep resenting
'normal'
and
psychiatric

the

52

groups
reueals
an
dif fer enc es
mostly
p. 115)

Caroline

Ashcraft

Tenne sse e

Se lf - C on ce p t

occurring

in

the

Mental

exp erimental

time was

The
had

been

The

types

mean

changes,

but

□f

the

changed

in

significant
while
Of

the

the
21

variables:
conflict.
mental

30

for

was

patients

ps yc hot er ap hy
period

from

a

group
that

and/or

The

control

.05

groups
the

a decreas e
Ashcraft

level

and
who

of

little

control

group

patients

who

or

more

months.

oriented

work,

case

All
the

was

subjects
Tennessee

that

and

the

significant

show no change.

experimental
The
the

120

changed

that,

group

change

was

variables;

significant

tendency;

co ncluded

received

months.

with

direction.

showed

Fitts

mean

group

groups would

of psychotic

the

months

pre di cta ble

17

and

expe ri men ta l

hypothesis

for

been

therapy.

the

The

had

tw o-third

basis

reported,

at

who

24

three
and

group

show

pred ict abl e

variables

of

the

te s t -retest

the

control

six

more;

envir on men tal ly

would

the

of

which

variables

the

composed

the

co nducted

out-patients.

to eight

group

subjects

with

for six

Scale.

at

Center

used

sel f-concept

was

a week

therapy

21

study

once

on

Sel f-Concept

of

or

individual

mea sured

The

of

study

a

months

varied

experimental

Health

waiting

intensive

were

in

(1964)

three

of

exp erienced

Scale

Fitts

for

waitin g

a

William

consisted

control

with

to

group

psy cho the ra py

therapy

and

ps ychotherapy.

Nashville

in

array
of
highly
significant
at
the
0.001
level
(ibid.,

change.

only

and

two

perceptual

"the

ps yc hotherapy

on

experi­
reported

53

self-concepts
consistent,
(p.

with

were

less

Rogers

their

of

in

all

deviation

areas,

and

more

pathology."

of

more

and

1967)

studies

psychotherapy,

highly;

that

indicate

subjects

is,

it

tend

that
to

positively

as

value

increased

self-esteem.
3.

Dem ographic

tionnaire

was

a

instrument

simple

about

the

Qu es ti onn air e

constru cte d

pa rt ici pa nts

not designed

The

three

collecting

subjects

was

for

that

this

other

Appendix

d i sc us sed

On

January

4,

2.

Test Booklet:

3.

Tennessee

4.

Question
tory

5.

Hand
Scorable
Answer
logical Inventory

6.

Stamped

Se lf- Ad d r es se d

Envelope

7.

Stamped

Se lf- Ad d r es se d

Post

addressed

questionnaires.

is

information

two

instruments

B.

1988

were
each

used

of

the

Que st ion na ire
Tennessee

S el f-C on ce pt
Booklet:

given

postcard

It

following:

Demographic

were

ques­

study.

earlier

1.

Participants

short

process.

data.
the

This

pe rtinent

the

See

instrum en ts

sent

in

requests

to provide.

the

(D Q ) .

use

which

The data co llection

in

pos itive

evidence

(1961

consequence

themselves

are

more

118)
The

a

that

in

These

Self-C onc ept

Scale

Answer

Ca li fo rn ia

three
their

Sheet

Ps yc ho log ica l

Sheet:

Calif or ni a

Inven­

Psycho­

Card

choices

on

decision

choices were

Scale

the

stamped

to

complete

as follows:

selfthe

54

1.

To

separately
2.

complete
and

To

the

request

complete

separately,

but

not

qu es tio nn ai re s

for summary
the

and

them

back

mail

them

back

results.

qu es tio nna ire s

request ing

mail

to

and

receive

summary

results,

and
3.
The

To

postcard

anonymity
A
this

total

44

percent)
A

in
upon

was

of the

study.

while

the

refuse

(43

to

Forty

(39

reason
with

Re lat io nsh ip s

stated

all

separately

candidates

percent)

were

agreed
to

do

materials.
that

the

c o n ta ct ed

for

so

to

participate,

so.

between

n o n- re spo ns e

human
to

behavior.
divulge

Ni ne tee n

(18

data

is

the

Often,

fact

that

ind ivi dua ls

information

impinging

style.

Analysis

be twe en

with

in the major

for

or life

Data

rel ationship

return

assured.

de clined

rel uctant

associated

back

was

female

and

respond.

their be havior

been

mailed

percent)

deals
are

be

103

suspected

life

par ti ci pa te

pa rt ic ip an ts

of

did not

study

to

or

Approach

among

analysis.

s o c i a li za tio n

hyp ot h es is

is the

variables
In
and
focus.

this

have

always

study,

the

self-esteem,

as

55

Statistical

The

program

graphical
formula
moment

Analysis:

used

plots

used

and

for

in

SPSS

testing

this
was

analysis
used

the

for

was

Lotus

data

si gni fic anc e

l-2-3for

analysis.
of

the

The

product

cal cu la tio n was:

t = r 1 / (n - 2~

eg:

Co rr ela tio n between political
s oci ali za tio n and political b e ­
havior

.275
38
.075625
.275
38
.92

Table
The
tion
the

is

=

- .275

=

-1.7674

a

correlation

c oe ff ic ien t

and

UJallnau

the

most

common

(or

the

Pearson

Test

(r)
( 1985 )

is

p r o d u c t - m o me nt
me as ure s

between

the

is

used

Pearson

employed

have
is

Hypotheses.

that

variables.

c or re la ti on

co rre la tio n
relation

to

technique

between

Grauetter

linear

Co rr el a t io n

sta tistical

relat ion sh ip

Pearson

t 0 > 0 2 5 , 38 = _J25 = .025

t-value:

Pearson

** 6.4268459

the

Pearson

degree

and
(p.

measure

this

that:

correlation)

two variables."

to

p r o du ct -m om en t
in

stated

Correla­

study.

"By

far,

correla ti on
.

.

.

direction

532)

The
of

56

The

direction

or negative.
move
In

in

the

other

also

is

direction,
when

X

or,

if

variables

to

increases,
The

and

correlation
form

being

fied

by

a

indicates
The
tion

Pearson
linear

of

measures

how

the

of

in this

Pearson

correlation

relationship

socialization

and

Borg and Gall

is

Y

variable
the

relationship

and

self-esteem)

As

one

the
vari­

that:

data

fit

fit always

while

described

a

".

the
is

.

by
.

a

specific
identi­

cor relation

of

□

530-531)
study

is the

the

between

Pearson

correla­

correlation).

degree
two

and

direction

variables,

self-esteem.
(1983)

Y

the

best

p r o d uc t- mo men t

measures

exists.

correlation,

writes

perfect

(pp.

to

decreases.

the

1.0D,

the

directions.

who

well
A

at all."
chosen

negative

relationship

considered.

no fit

situation

variable

(1985)

correlation

a

tend

decreases,

so ci ali za ti on

opposite

the

Uallnau

design

(or

in

the other

degree

Grauetter

go

positive

relat io nsh ip

variable

In this

In

either

increases,

X

(i.e.

is

two vari ab le s

a positive

the

positive.

tend

when

variable

decreases.

considered

variables
able

same

also
the

re la tionship

instances

increases;

between

the

For

words,

variable

of

also advise

that:

The product -moment coefficient
(r) is used when
both
variables
that
we
wish
to
correlate
are
expressed
as
continuous
scores,
(further),
the
product- mom ent correlation has a smaller standard
error
than
the
other
bivarite
techni qu es
and
is generally preferred when its use is possible.
(Also), the p ro du ct -m om ent (r)
can be calculated
for any
two variables no matter how they have
been measured.
(p. 586)

The
of
i.e.

57

Another
tion

pe rs pe cti ve

is given

by Goehring

on

the

(1981)

use

of

the

Pearson

when he writes

correla­

that:

The degree of relationship between any two v a r i ­
ables
under
con sideration
can
be
represented
by
a
single
number
called
a
coefficient
of
correlation
(correlation coefficient); this n u m ­
ber
may
range
from
-1.00
to
+1.00
inclusive.
The more closely the value of r approaches +1.00,
the
greater
the
positive
relationship
between
the two var iables . . . (p. 146)

In

this

study,

becau se

it

fulfills

as

as

the

well

two

variables

with

the main

the
the

di rection
as

stated

hypothesis.

Pearson
purpose

correlation
of

of

the

in

those

measuring

linear

is

employed

the

strength

relationship

sub -hypotheses

between

associated

CHAPTER
FINDINGS

This
cerning
and

chapter

the

nature

self -es te em

Michigan
two

are

the

of

in

re sponses

second

of

section

the

findings

1980
The

hypothesis

the

between

study

1986.

first

to

the

There

are

section

deals

Questionnaire.
and

eight

con­

socialization

candidates

and

Demographic

the major

of

political

chapter.

the

STUDY

relat io nsh ip

between

this
to

OF THE

female

Leg isl at ure

sections

with

reports

IV

In

the

sub-h ypo the ses

tested .

A De sc ri p ti on of the Female Political Ca ndidates
to the Mi chigan Legislature Between 1980 and 1986

A total
under

of

c o n si de ra tio n

instrume nt s
of

(N=103)

A .5.

Only

were

members

members

of

were

di s c us se d

in fo rmation
AO

by

the

in

It

De moc ra tic

Republican

percent were member s

sent

party

the

is

party,
and

the

the

period

data

collection

3.

Breakdown

prov/ided

is known

of minor parties.

58

during

Chapter

af fi lia ti on

responded.

the

candidates

each

earlier

party

women
of

female

that
A5

in
50

Table

percent

percent

remainder

were
or

5

59

Personal

The
on

age,

of

Inf ormation

Demogra phi c
marital

those

Q ue sti on nai re

status,

respondents in

extent

Describ ing

level

some

of

the Resp ond ent s

provided

information

education,

involvement

in -service programs

programs

may

have

and

enhanced

to

what

personal

developments .

flqe:

Table

The

majority

age when

4.1

they

descr ibe s
of these

the

(70

p ar ti cip at ed

age

of the

percent) are

female
over

candidates.
40

years

in elections.

Table 4.1
Age

Age

Freq ue ncy

Percent

of Total

Under 25

1

2.5

26 - 30

1

2.5

31 - 35

4

10 .0

36 - 40

6

15.0

41

- 45

8

20 .0

46 - 50

2

5.0

51 - 55

4

10 .0

56 - 60

8

20 .0

60 and Over

6

15.0

Total

100.0

of

6D

Marital

Status:

percent)
lesser
or

Table

of these women

pe rce nta ge

separated.

single

4.2

divorced.

candida tes

reported

F if te en

while

another

Only 7.5

reveals

that

were

majority

that

reported

revealed

that

(62.5

A somewhat

single,

reported

percent

percent

the

were married.

they

percent

15

that

that

divorced
they

were

they

were

they were widowed.

TABLE 4.2
Marital

Marital

Status

Status

of Resp ond ent s

Frequency

Percent

of Total

6

15.0

25

62 .5

6

15.0

Widowed

_3

7.5

Total

40

100 .0

Single
Married
Divorced

Edu cational
that

the

Level

majority

earned

either

had

advanced

an

school

of

Respondents:

(72.5

percent)

a ba che lor 's

diploma.

degree;

Table
of

or master's

while

only

the

4.3

respondents

degree.

17.5

indicated

percent

Ten
had

had

percent
a high

61

TABLE
Educational

Level

A.3

Level

of Education

of Respondents

Frequency

Percent

of Total

7

17.5

Ba chelor's Degree

16

40 .0

M a s t e r 's Degree

13

32.5

Ph.D.

_4

10.0

40

100 .0

High

School

or Law

Total

Partici pa tio n
that
at

the

majority

least

purpose
sary

for

percent)
ing.
kind

once,
of

of

(90

some

were
( 10

kind

of

of

sponsored
percent)

vocation.
by

an

or

never

skills

greatest
of

taking

reveals

attended,

training

acquiring
The

4.4

respondents

institution

reported

training.

the

Table

in-service

improving

current

in-service

training:

percent)

enhancing,

their

Only

in-service

.-

for

neces­

number

higher
part

the

(35

learn­
in

some

62

T A BLE

A.A

Participati on in In-Service

Sponsor

Percent

Frequency

U ni ve rs it y/ Co ll eg e

Training

of Total

1A

35 .0

Agency

5

12 .5

Business/ In du st ry

8

20 .0

All

9

22 .5

None

_A

10.0

Total

AO

100 .0

Government

of the above

Political
majority
the

Party

Affiliation:

(A 7.5

percent)

Democratic

Republican

Party;

Party;

while

of

Table

respond en ts were

35 percent
only

A . 5 reveals

17.5

that

the

members

were members

of

of
the

percent belonged to minor

parties.

TABLE A . 5
Political

Political

Party

Party

Affiliation

of Res po nd en ts

Frequency

(l\l= A0)

Percent

of Total

Democratic

19

A7 .5

Republican

1A

35 .0

Minor or Other

_7

17.5

Total

A0

100 .0

63

Di scussion of Fin dings About the Re lat ion shi p
Betueen S oc ia liz at ion and Sel f- Est ee m

In
35 .25
a

this

and

study

the

by

terized

study

"high

onso ci alization

agree
1961,

are

distributions
in

findings

and

on

histogram

bar

1971

graph

5.02.

on

90

their

in this

so cia li za ti on

or

was

and

and

their

those

Gough,

in

score

deviation

on socialization
of

l/incent,

1966c.

se lf -esteem

displays

to

charac­

mean

standard

and

was

Co mpared

females

study

Megargee's

Hogan,

s oc ial iz at ion

citizens,"

while

with

on

based

best

41.51

similar

Kurtines

dev/iation

school

was

score

(1969b)

In short,

or

mean

standard

Me ga rg ee

as

was 4.25.

the

are

Figures

Score
provided

4.1

and

4.2

respectively .
Data
parative

on

purposes

The
no

s e l f -e st eem

main

are

of

exists

females

in

between

who

this

study

for

com­

null

form,

is

that

available.

hypothesis, stated

relationship

esteem

not

relevant to

were

social iz ati on

political

candidates

Michigan

L eg is la tu re

during the

primary

tions

1980,

1984,

1986.

the

of

findings

1982,

concerning

sub-hypotheses

will

in

A

Table

between

4.6.

the

the

center

the two variables

and

results

a

se lf -e s te em
of

major

scatter pl ot

Theoretically,
zation

and

this

and
The

the
elec­

discussion
and

information

representing

self­

for

general

hypothesis

around

and

the

the

of

eight

depicted

re la tionship

is provided.

re la tionship
as
study

shown

exists
in

support

Figure
this

between

sociali­

4.3.

Although

assumption,

the

1U1

9
8-

7
6

-

cZJ

o
O

4.
32
1.

•«- - - 1-i - - 1- - - g
24
26
28

n.
— g

L“u»,— t| — v

30

i■

32

t■— g1-- ir-lL-y-i
i,-- 1s - utr— 43

34

36

38

40

i

if

42

t

i

™—

44

L,---j
|—

46

u

|

48

CPI

FIGURE 4.1
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION HISTOGRAM FOR THE SCORES OF THE CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL INVENTORY (CPI)

8.

7.

6.
Count

54.
3-

2

-

CD

cn

1-1
0 I

280

1 a 1 i 1

300

I— *

f— ■ i i
» n ■ n"'v"1""

320

340

360

r

380

400

420

440

T otal +

FIGURE 4.2
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION HISTOGRAM FOR THE TOTAL POSITIVE SCORES OF THE TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE (TSCS)

66

two

variables

and

Figure

are

4.3.

inversely
Several

a s s o ci at io n

indicate

be

or

positive

between

these

other

of

s o c ia liz at ion

to

words,

an

feeling

these

tionship

data,
in

the

lation

between

ficant

at

the

of

s e l f - e st ee m

the

null

the
is

levels,

best

correlation

(score)

high,

which

feeling

moderate,

or

According

posits

no

accepted.
was

rela­

The

corre­

not

signi­

cor rel ati on
negatively

co rr elation

In

was

her

this

a

an

as
the

ac ce pt ed
the

no

relationship

individual

both

reference

at

At the

=

i.e.,
two

of

process

of

individual
community

is to the
Table

-.135).

variables

the

and

way
4.6

not

(P>.05)

level,
at

the

indi­

shows

that

self

a

and

while

Therefore,
is

search

reality

transmission;

views.

there

in

the

the

s o ci al iza ti on
(r

in

hypothesis,

cultural

political

correl ate d

is

belief

investigated.

between

between

to

operates

was

there

self-identity.

identity,

level,

ac quires

hypothesis

and

u nd er sto od

individual

vidual

either

no relationship.

se lf -e st ee m

That

relates

self

which

the

I-fl:

hy pot hes is

so ci al iz at io n

is

variable

can

vice-versa.

is

4.6

(P > .05 ) .

needs.

it

of

moment

high
a

hypoth es is
h yp ot he si s

Table

(r = .205).

a

or

and

in

nature

depicts

with

of

human

community

product

either

s oc ia l i z a t i o n

di sc ov er ing

higher

the

is negative

have

general

shown

re la tionship

scat ter plo t

could

so ci a li za t io n

The

The

as

on

this

individual

Su b- hyp ot h e si s
between

that

two variables

In

low

studies

negative.

In Figure 4.3,

a

related

identity
the

null

significant

■AO

CALIFORNIA

PSYCHOLOGICAL

INVENTORY

46 -

cn

SCORES

OF THE

-o

7-'30

-610

-330
370
3!?0
410
SCORES OF THE TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE
FIGURE 4.3

A SCATTERPLOT DIAGRAM OF SCORES BETWEEN THE CALIFORNIA PSYCHOLOGICAL INVENTORY
AND THE TENNESSEE SELF-CONCEPT SCALE (N = 40) .

430

Table

A .6

1

Socialization

2

Self-Esteem

-.205

1

3

Self-Identity

-.135

.836

4

Self-Satisfaction

-.131

.873

.541

5

Behavior

- .272'“

.903

.761

.637

6

Physical-Self

-.11

.707

.514

.69

.603

7

Morale/Ethical-Self

-.1

.825

.723

.717

.729

.497

8

Personal-Self

-.063

.864

.781

.745

.742

.417

.717

9

Family-Self

-.169

.746

.603

.632

.713

.314

.583

.631

10

Social-Self

- .354#

.796

.694

.643

.769

.49

.542

.646

R
R

.05

1

and behavior

value of socialization

and social-self

l\IB:

1
1
1
1
1
1
.434

1

'"‘Significant
7
= (-.272)
= .073984

value of socialization

2

10
Soc ial Self

1

P<
7

9
F amilySelf

a

PersonalSelf

7
Morale/
EthicalSelf

6
PhysicalSelf

5
Behavior

4
SelfSatisfac­
tion

3
SelfIdentity

2
SelfEsteem

1
Sociali­
zation

Product Moment Correlation Between Socialization
and Self-Esteem (N=40)

= (-.354)

R
value is the proportion of the variation
or explained by the other variable.

2

= .125315

in one variable

caused or associated

69

Sub- hy p o t he si s
between
It

I- B :

sociali zat ion and
was

hyp oth es iz e d
and

made

the nature

Table

4.6

tionship

shows

candidates
ship

is

is

nature

two

correl ate d

is not si g n if i ca nt

relationship

or

prediction

direction
for

-0.131);

(P>.05).

between
was

of this relationship.

variables

( r =

exists

l\lo

or direction

the

these

no

a re la tionship

se lf- satisfaction.

that

b e tw een

there

self-satisfaction.
that

so cialization
regarding

That

of

this

female

but

rela­

political

this

relation­

Hence,

the null hypothesis

there

is

was a c c e p t e d .
Su b - h yp o th es i s
between

s oc ia l iza ti on and

The
of

hy pothesis

socialization

A question

to

soc ialization
Table

somewhat
seems

the

4.6

to

may

(P<.05).

the

the

idea

ex pe rience.
the

political

behavior

individual

to

this
(r

that

=

be

I-D:

That

of these
is:

life

how

This

influenced

by

relationship

there

is

does
Data

reveals

individual's

was

female

cycle?

-0.275).

null hypothesis

process

behavior.

relationship

an

This

relationship

i n d i v i d u a l ’s

Legislature

necessarily

Hence,

the

political

Mi ch ig an

Su b- hy p o th es i s
between

the

no

behavior.

resultant

re lat io ns hi p

not
or

to

the

into

support

enviro nm en ts

political

p e r t a i n i ng

inverse

behavior

cant

and

fit

That

relates

co ncerning

candidates

in

I-C;

a

finding

political
political

is

signifi­

rejected.
no

relationship

s o c i a l i z at io n and p h y s i c a l - s e l f .

This
perception

hy po t h e si s
of

their

refers
body,

to

the

state

individual
of

their

candidate's

health,

their

70

physical
study

appearance,

findings

(r = -O.ll)
physical
being

in Table 4.6

between

these

and

female

this

frame
This

of

spiritual
and

describe

worth

tive
and

in

reference,

correlation

The

In
upon
to

her

sense

perform

her

of

and

ability

in

various

of

this

in

a

the

historical

significant

relationship

may

a

socialization.

to

a good

religion

or

the

two

Legislature
mor al-ethical

their

of being

female

of

to

may

no

their

or

or bad person,

lack

of

it.

variables

is not

God

is

significant

The
nega­

(P>.05)

there

is

no

relationship

personal-self.

office

entail

be

also

political

worth,

the

r ela ti ons hi ps

process

for

accepted.

personal

This

is

relationship

That

and

duties

to be elected.
ality

I-F;

regard

not

from

to

association

sociali zat ion
this

condition

Michigan

"self"

between

hypothesis was

Sub -hypothesis
between

a

their

coeffici en t

the null

is

the

relation

feelings

with

(r = -O.l).

relationship

in their views,

necessary

there

for

the

implies

satisfaction

of

and m o r a l / e t h i c a l - s e l f .

reference

moral

Hence,

a

That

candida tes

regard

a negative

as so ciation

I-E;

so cia li zat io n

The

not

Results

hypothesis was accepted.

Sub -hypothesis
between

sexuality.

indicate

is

The

the null

and

variables.

at tr act iv ene ss

socialized.

(p>.05)

in

skills

to which

in

In

recounting
the

final

reflects

of

she

adeguacy

is

seeking

of her p e r s o n ­

dealing

environments.

entail

perspective.

feeling

an evaluation

objective
and

her

candidate

with
A
of

others

component
the

self

analysis

this

71

process

leads

an

individual

more

compreh ens ive

that

the

two variables

and

not

sig nificant

to

self-esteem.

greater

Table A . 6 however

are negatively
(P>.05)

integration

and

co rrelated

the

null

and

indicates

(r = -0.63)

hypothesis

was

accepted.
S ub -h yp ot hes is
between

soc ial iza ti on

In
their

this

regard

feelings

of

associates.

to

ing

Table

their

A.6

reveals

between

the null

between
The

hyp ot he si s

soc ialization

others

in

interact
reveals
ship

a more
with

the null

and

she

general

the

the

the

two

That

public

hypothe sis

was

members
"self"

most immediate

circle

logically
to

family

as
mem­

moment

correla­

hence

signify­

variables,
at

serves

its

product

(P>.05).

In

this

accepted.
there

to

the

perceives
way.
in

correlation
two

as

is

no

rel ationship

social-self.

relates

as

a negative

between

negative

value

reflect

the

institution

correlation

I-H:

sociali zat ion

re la tionship

focus being

family

hypoth esi s was

Sub- hyp ot hes is

of

a

non - sig nif ica nt

situation

no

candidates

and

and

the

soci ali zi ng

= -0.169)

a

closest

Although

significant

(r

political

The

ref erence

tion

these

respec ti ve families.

in

is

and f a m i l y - s e l f .

also

of

there

worth,

their

bers,

That

adequacy,

of

the

I-G:

This
the

individual's

herself
reflects

social

rejected.

is

relation

how

Table

This

significant

to

candidates

milieu.

(r = -0.35A).

variables

in

process

A.6

relation­

(P<.05)

and

72

Summar y

According
there

and

so cia liz ati on
hypoth esi s

and

relati ons hi p

form

these

data, su b- hy p o t he se s

is no relat ion shi p between

behavior)

no

to

is

and

data

(that

and

are

there

is

no

soc ial-self) are

the

re inforced

depicting
zation

I-H

social iz at ion

rest

of

accepted.
by

points

self-esteem.

the
of

and political

relat ion shi p

between

rejected.

The major

the su b- hyp ot he se s

which posit

This

acceptance

sc at terplot
the

I-C (that

diagram

relat io ns hi p

of

the

null

(Figure

A . 3)

between

sociali­

CHAPTER
SUMMARY,

CONCLUSIONS

V

AND RECOMM END ATI ON S

Introduction

This

chapter

and procedu res
and

presents

of the

rec omm endations

study,

of
of

the

purpose

between

of

this

re lat ionship

female

concerning
status,

and

1986.

educational
training

findings

of the

study

To

and

of

purpose

limitations.

Study

was

to

the

and conclusions,

to

determine

socialization

do

and

summary

study,

candidates

social iza ti on

in-service

major

between

political

1980

brief

for further

Purpose

The

a

the

the

and

Michigan

selfesteem
Legislature

so,

information

was

their

selfesteem,

age,

background,

and

or par ticipation

nature

gathered
marital

involvement

in continuing

in

education

activities.
In

addition,

status,

educational

continuing
the

education

Michigan

con sideration
in

conclusions

Chapter

background,
programs

Legislature
to

IV

the
and

relative

results
in

of
are
of

relation

73

and

to

discussed,

to

analysis
the

marital

par tic ipa ti on

political

data

age,

candidates
with
as

in
to
full

presented

literature.

The

74

re c o m m e nd at ion s
im pl ications

associated

for

future

with

research

the

are

data

also

and

included

the

in

this

chapter.

Proce du re s

In
made
the

recent

some

years,

supported
between

most

signifi ca nt

po litical
by
1976

These

United

and

countries

efforts

arena.

the

of the Study

1985

of

toward

when

as

United

the

world

have

including women

efforts

Nations

the

have

been

it declared
Nations

in

further

the

period

Decade

for

Women.
This
a

study

was

r e la ti on sh ip

women
and

between

candidates
1986.

undertaken to

The

to

so ci alization

the

State

Michigan

of

a sufficient

number

Another

co mpelling

reason

that

such

study

of

and

if there

was

women

between

chosen

political

for conducting

concerning these

was

sel f-esteem

Legislature

Michigan

provided

no

determine

1980

because

it

candidates.

this study

women

of

had been

is
done

before.
The

following instruments

pa rt ic ip an ts
Psychological
which
Scale,

for

Qu estionnaire,
information.

gathering

Inventory

me asured
which

the

(the

which

was

of

mailed
data:

so ci alization

socialization;
me as ur ed

were

the

"so"

Tennessee

self-esteem;
designed

the

and
to

the

obtain

to

the

California
sub-scale),
Self-Concept
Background
demographic

75

The

main

relationship
females

who

Legislature
1980 ,

1982,

hy pothesis
between

were

the

primary

1984,

and

1986.

These

su b-hypotheses

data

and

the

stated

that:

no

self-est eem

of

for

the

general

Eight

using

is

Michigan

elections

s u b - hy po th es es

in dicators

of

self-esteem.

That
there
is
soc ia liz at ion and

no
r e la ti ons hi p
self-identity.

1 -B :

That
there
is
s oc ia li zat io n and

no
rela ti ons hi p
between
self-satisfaction.

1-C:

That
there
is
no
rela ti ons hi p
between
s o c ia liz at ion and political b e h a v i o r .

1-D:

no
rela ti ons hi p
That
there
is
s oc ia li zat io n and p h y s i c a l - s e l f .

1 —E :

no
rela ti ons hi p
between
That
there
is
sociali za tio n and m o r a l / e t h i c a l - s e l f .

1 -F :

That

1-G:

1-H:

all
to

That
there
is
s oc ia li zat io n and

no
relat io nsh ip
family-self.

between

That
there
is
so c i a li za tio n and

no
r e lat io nsh ip
social-self.

between

provides
Table

is

p ro du c t -m om en t

hypotheses.

while

4.6

Analysis
frequency
and

correlation

between

esteem.

scatterplot

similar

A

between

between

Pearson

4.5)

between

no
r e lat io nsh ip
personal-self.

there

information.

Figure

cor relation

of

data

4.3

social iz at ion
diagram

is

was

(presented

di st r i bu ti on s
show
and
also

the

of

were

1-fl :

The

4.1

by

There

and

ca ndidates

during

formulated

that:

s oc ial iz at ion

political

also

test

stated

of

used
in

to

Tables

demographic

product

measures
provided

moment

of
to

self­
show

76

The
based

folloujing

are

on demogra phi c

results

of

the

research

findings

data:

1.

Most
of
the
female
political
candidates
were
over
for ty-years
of
age
when
they
a seat in the Michigan Legislature.

2.

Most

3.

Over
sev ent y-t wo
percent
(72.5%)
had
completed
at
least
four
years
of
university
study.
Only
17.5%
had
not
attended
college,
but had earned
a high school certificate.

A.

In
general,
the
majority
of
these
women
(90%)
pa rt ic ip at e d
in some kind of an adult education
program in order to improve or acquire a new skill
to enhance their vocation.

5.

Concer ni ng the level of education of their mothers,
res pondents indicated that the majority of their
mothers
(85%)
had
completed
high
school.
Only
15%
indicated
that
their
mothers
had
completed
at
least
four
years
of
unive rs it y
or
college
training.

6.

Co ncerning the level of education of their fathers,
res pon de nts indicated that the majority of their
fathers
(82.5%)
had co mpleted
high
school.
Only
17.5% indicated that their fathers had completed
at
least
four
years
of
u n iv er si ty
or
college
training.

7.

Conce rn in g
pa rt ic ipa tio n
in
in-service
training
or in career dev el opment seminars,
all but four
(90%),
had
participated.
Sponsors
of
these
dev elo pm ent
seminars
were
spread
fairly
evenly
among university, government agencies and business
or i n d u s t r y .

of these women

Re sponses
questionnaire,
enhanced the

to

items

candidates'

exactly

responses

as

they

indicate

and

were
a

(62.5%)

fj7 a

regarding

personal dev elo pme nt
C

the

were

and

how

adult

political
growth,
provided

#7b

married.

of

the

by

c o nsi de rab le

demographic

educ at io n

as p ir at io ns

are

pr esented
the

(70%)
sought

may

or

enhanced

in

Appendix

respondents.

degree

of

have

These

variation;

77

but

for

the

most

part

responses

conveyed

the

following

information:
a)

Keeping abreast of new de ve lopments
dates' chosen profession.

b)

Made
me
realize
choose to be.

c)

R e- en fo rce d my strong belief in an informed
citizenry in a democratic country where social
issues are discussed openly.

d)

Provided
wo rka bl e
models
leadership training.

e)

Identifying
issues
important
to
of
Michigan
and
programs
aimed
social problems.

f)

Learning
to incorporate
ways of doing things.

g)

Improving
skills.

h)

Learning
to
fine arts.

The

data

rel ationship

my

and

candidates

subjected

to

Table

ap preciate

to

the

Pearson

A . 5.

Indication

and

se lf -es tee m

between

the

two

variables.

between

so cia liz ati on

soc ial iza tio n
is

no

I-C
and

rel ationship

and

(that

be

that

new

between

and

and

sel f- est ee m

nature

analysis

of

Concerning
of

the

so cia liz ati on

between

relationship
re la tionship

self-esteem,

I-H
and

were

presented

rela ti ons hip
and

the

of female

findings

a negative

behavior)

the

Legislature

the

no

old

co mmu nic at ion

Michigan

is

in

into

the

reveal

I

the
state
at
solving

on

of

there

used

literature

indicators

political

are

and

candi­

wha tever

ideas

correlation

soc ialization

sub-hypot hes es

can

sel f-concept

socialization

political

in

I

information

between

the

that

in

only

between

(that

there

social-self)

78

respectively,
at

the

were
a

.05

show
level.

rejected.

significant

In

these

The

no n -s ig ni fi can t

they

a

rest

ne gative

cases

of

the

re lationship

at

the

rela ti on sh ip

null

hypotheses

su b- hy po th es es
the

same

reveal

level,

hence

are accepted.

Major Finqinqs

The
related

first
to

the

Demo gra ph ic
of

the

section

of

the

results

of

information

Questionnaire.

major

hypothesis

briefly.

These

evidenc e

obtained.

hypothe sis

to

I,

(that
and

sub-hypotheses,

(I-A,

rel at i o n s hi p
I-D,
and

that

and

there

no

personal-self;
between

findings

of

is

is

so ci alization
no

that

and

is derived.

I-G
and

that

discussed

statistical

the

no

the

that

and

between

between

there

is

no

s el f-s at isf ac tio n;

between

there

between

rela ti ons hip

I-B,

major

following

is

social iz ati on

no

mo r a l / e t h i ca l- se lf ;

re la tio nsh ip
and,

and

the

findings

rel ati on sh ip

rel ationship

I-E,

so cialization

conclusion

there

are
the

no

from

reflecting

on

self-identity;

s oc ia li zat io n
is

is

directly

obtained

based

self-esteen)

physical-self;

between

are

study

that

are

s u b - hypoth ese s

there

between

there

and

the

so ci al iz at ion

soc ia li za ti on

Co nc lus io ns

con clu si on s

Pertaining

con cl us io ns

re la tionship
I-F,

s o ci al iza tio n

there

is

family-self)

the

no

that
and

re lat ion shi p

following

general

79

The
female

process

of

s o c i a li za tio n

candi dat es

decision

to

seek

Legislature.

for

Know le dg e

p r of es si on al

that

IC,

(that

and

political

there

is

case

not

in

certain

it

exposure

both

(s e l f - a c t u a l i z e d )
hope

that

decisions

by

they

(that

female
to

influence

in the Michiga n

of

and

the

or

socialization

there

in

The

no

rela­

in

this

conclusion

differing

social

various

issues

community.

This

extrinsic

in

elective
social

the

these part ic ipa nts

about
and

legislative

is

hypotheses

p a rt ic ip an ts
seek

their

s u b -hypotheses

obtained.

profession,

enough

would

null

awa reness

in trinsic

community.

social-self)

involve me nt by

their

these

and

The

data

their

training

between

ac tivities

their

that

f i nd in gs

I-H,

made.

and

increased

was

appears

is

supported

them,

awarene ss

and

of

seminar.

relationship

e d u ca ti ona l

enviro nme nt s
affecting

no

the

from

in-service

s oc ia li zat ion

conclusion

is that

of

by

because

gained

one's

Michigan

given

and

these

of

the

gen de r

was

study

behavior)

between

their

program or

the

following

drawn

kind

dev el op me n t

to

el ec tio n

issues

some

to

seek

of

de te rm in an ts

respo nse s

affect

these

in

Pe rtaining

are

to

self-esteem

office

to

chose

issues

participation

major

elective

they

about

tionship

not

Ac cording

participants,
concern

are

and

felt

and

confident

office

system

process.

nature;

on

in

the

certain

80

Conclusions

From
small

the

to

age

findings

de se gre gat e

appears

to

be

to

one

be

of

of
by

many

tive

position

conclusion
eligible
have

is
to

been

involvem ent
50 's ,

on

tends

when

older

adults;

Pa rti ci pat io n
is

a

way

possible
this
is

an

in

to

life

toward

This
learning

cycle.
for

time

self -aw are nes s

family

political

the

process
of

and
of

education

education

activity

which

uniquely

is

available

This

search
beings

than

until

for
at

is there

operating

of

for meaning.

not

human

office,

the AO's

goal

that

in life

legally

hence,

when

highest

is

been

because

women in some

need

and at no other

have

rela­

general

during

and

that

seems

The

elective

a peak

identify

older age
their

who

is the search

these

which

cycle.

children);

the

too

example,

relationship

run for

older

and that

trying
an

to

are

all -e nc om p as si n g

of their

this

at

point

in life;
force

of

rearing

becomes

by

the

life

or

For

is

de te rmi ne political

partic ip ati on

to rise

children

is

persons,

from

sample

variable

that

a

issues

(i.e.,

s e l f- ac tu a li za t io n
for

older

inhibited

res pon si bi li ti e s

in

the

variables.

explanation

that

vote

other

variables

One

one's

study,

a major structural

participa tio n.
to

this

meaning

any

a more
at

at

stage
potent

this

stage

lives.
d ev el op me nt
at

learning

fosters

different
process,

stages

their
of

di fferent
one's

pa rt ic ipa tio n

by

experiential

development.
these

women

In
in

81

some
is

educational
social

change

reaffirms
and

activity

its

is

a major

or individual

and

this

se l f -e ste em
seek

of

Education,

and

whose

the

present

goal

impact
time

□ne

This

zation
solve
within

office,

only

needs

the

to

problems
social

aspirations,

imperatives.
dis equ i l i br iu m
to

achieve

soc ialization

the

the

must

from

candidates
traditional

be

well

are

addressed.
establis hed

important

a

normal,

life

insure

factors,

matrix,

to

are

societal

this

them

capacity

process

is

at

organi­

People

continued
their

odds with

must

existence

varying

tensions

human

phenomenon.

social

manageable.

frequently

between
with

because

fulfill

natural

betwe en

ongoing

their

These

cope

conflict

condition

make
to

which

built-in

as

a historical

created

their

female

that

occupation
support

sociali zat ion

ones.

societal
been

of

appears

in st itutions

is

was

capacity

it

and

social

that

de te rmi nan ts

implication

and
has

not

education

and

not the

needs

are

for Education

est ab lis he d

occupa tio n and

political
but

study has

elective

barriers

To

at

tuhose

future.

While

and

change,

continuing re levance

Im pl ic at io ns

to

at traction

needs

societal

produce

a

demands

and

a

externally

and

internally.

a

of individuals.

major

purpose

person's

of

the

82

It

was

Merton

soc ialization"
so cio lo gis ts

to

the

and

years

and

and

of

have

edu cation

in the

no n- go ve rnm en tal

role

of
of

the

the

"adult

majority

so ci alization
recognition

li fe -de ve lo pm en t
recently.

upon

insti tut ion s

conti nuo us ly

acco mmo da te
every

both

adult

such

in

of

tasks
These

education

time.

facilitated
devise
not

only

stage of

has stated

go ve rnmental

as the home,

retirement

be

educational

(1957)

The

impact

place

and

must

at

youth.

relatively

institutions,

needs

to

confined

ever-changing

takes

education

Merton

and

came

with

later years.

employment,

individual

who

significant

Social iza tio n

place

to

dealt

contrast

educators,

changes
had

first

in

childhood

adapta tio n

societal

changes

who

experience,

of

lifelong

(1957)

the

in

the

As
such

school,

such,
a

and

way

programs

that

societal,

but

the
that
can
also,

life-cycle.

that:

Social
scientists
have
long
had
an
enduring
interest in studying the process of socialization.
By this meant the process by which individuals
are
inducted
into
their
culture.
It
involves
the ac qu isition of attitudes and values, of skills
and
behavior
patterns
making
up
social
roles
est ablished
in
the
social
structure.
For
a
con sid er ab l e time, studies of so ci ali za tio n were
largely confined to the early years in the life
cycle
of
the
individual;
but
more
recently,
increasing
attention
has
been
direct ed
to
the
process
as
it
continues,
at
varying
rates,
throughout the life cycle.
(pp. 40-41)

Est ablishing
and

the

public

linkages

may

provide

between
a

female

proper

elected

forum

in

officials

dealing

with

83

many

significant

women
on

in

behalf

these
in

society
of

may

that,

their

be

their

the

bills
would

they

problem

co n s ti tu en t

to

particular

contribute

to

older

rights,

long-term

skills

to

engaged

creation

follow
concern

a

workshop

positions
such

"mini-constituency”
constituents
their

arrange

agency

or

educated

One

for

then,
a

or nearest
aimed

at

on

condition.

nutritional,

might

government

of

improving

was

An

problems.

affected

in

sources

legislative

these

educate

di scrimination

concerns.

in

Among

the

nutrition

educational

dealing

with

problem.
activi ti es
increased
adults

improve

Active

learn

benefits.

and

more

The

be ad dr ess ed

hierarchy)

social

about
and

security

crime

for

a

relationships

to

sense

programs

can
by

prevention,

advocacy

need

through

int erpersonal

is

Elaslow's

regulations

protect
of

love

in acquiring
and

to become

activities.

i m p ort an t

years

(in

personal

to

housing

social

Another

process.

to

can

in community

later

the

sex

for

advocate

bodies.

identifying

women

address

conduct

and bel on gi ng can

the

be

of

Educational

legal

that

from a local

enabling

of

r ep res en tat iv e

ins ti tu ti on
the

cadre

designed

If

widowhood,

alle via te

initiate

expert

care,

concern

effectively

legislative

can

can

process

in

special

can

and

we l l - in f o r m e d

the

they,

promotion,

and

wo rkshops

only

of

and

that

possibi li ty

problems

gender

child

employment

resources

social

societal

the

benefit

str engthening

p art ici pa ti on

of

the

of
of

education
the

citizenry

in

democratic
fortifies

84

the democratic

process,

is

un de rs tan di ng

based

on

int elligent

discussion

partic ipa nts

in

to

(1972),

Binstock

voting

record

percent

of

propor tio n
If

the

of

voters,

political
they

a

much

lobbyists,

and

group,

as

are

as

the
that
on

of the

basis

is

based

which
home.

to the

and

active

highest
about

than

16

their

is

amount

addresses
is

the

workers,

has

knowledge

much
of

to

as
gain

issues

and

process.

for Further

findings

and

Michigan
this

campaign

in

on

in

Study

this

study,

it

is

which

to

base

further

se lf -esteem

of

women

seeking

Legislature

study,

will

several

endure.

recomm end ati ons

these are:
As

It

the

p a rt ic ip an ts

society

on

information

concluded

1.
minimal

the

sociali zat io n

Having

a

held

and

According

con stituting

as
the

poli tical

of

useful

el ective office

are made;

are

voters.

re presentation

voters,

Re co mm en dat io ns

studies

as

active

candidates,

partici pat ion

un de rs ta ndi ng

hoped

involved

Older adults

system

higher

participation

issues

consi ste ntl y

age

adults

process

On

the

such

in the population.

older

such

of

when

of problems.

any.

political

if

especially

true

of

their

in

other

research

appears

compe te nc ie s

recom miended

that

areas

and

of
in

women's
the

skills

socialization

activities,

literature
outside

the

literature

85

focus

on

the

competencies

and

skills

of

women

outside

the

home.
2.
focus

A

on

second

the
In

research

be

motivated

women

(A

and

role
as

model

with

that

only

This would
types

of

during

who

to

surveys)

area

of

on

area

groups

diploma

as

their
on

their

their

fathers

women

role

who

models

or less.

research

to

be

serving

in

c on sid er ed
state

population

processes

future

educated

mothers

conducted
as

their

politically

college

identify

be

and

that

of

their

would

adequate

not
the

placards,
has

reco mme nde d

fathers

women

women

would

is

one

legislature.

that would

political

women

in

research

reflect

experience

journey.

which

campaign

or

consid ere d

training)

should

school

provide an

An

who

mothers

focus

is

college

be

political

identify

those

a high

life's

extent

of

to

between

would

socialization

A.

it

research

Another

would

between

regard

more

their

3.

research

conducted

Also,

identify
but

this

against

such.

of

re la tionship

parents.

years

area

included

media
and

played an

this

(television,

to

a

radio,

limited

influential

role

the

newspapers,

extent,
in the

is

telephone

soc ialization

of these women.
5.
to

A

state

longitudinal
legislatures

study
in

the

of

women

future

who

in

will

the

be

United

elected
States

is needed.
6.
the

Other

women's

areas

of

liberation

interest
movement

may
in

be
the

the

influence

recent

past.

of
To

86

what

extent

has

politically

whose
been
may

to

role

seek

models

influence
social

have

National

socialized

candidates
certain

the

and

(female
a

in

office?

or male)

determining

situations

of

influenced

elective

was

resulted

Organization

(positive

these
Have

in

the

the

strategies

are

desire

female

or

Or

negative)

influencing

(NOW)

there

past

factor?

or

Women

been

present

have
whose

for

there
impact

political

involvement?
7.

Finally,

party

leaders

and

activists

and

elect

qu alified

Qu al if ic at io ns

may

attainment,

leadership

organizations,

charisma,

serve

the

af fir mative

general
action

identify,

women

include,

for

but

not

and

an
In

to,

to

regard,

political

recruit
office.

educational

in

ability

is in order.

help

political

limited

this

to

encourage,

experience

public.
program

to

needed

voluntary
motivate
a

and

political

APPENDICES

APPENDIX
Letters

of co rr esp ond enc e

A

relating

to this

study.

87

M I C H I G A N S TA T E U N I V E R S I T Y

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION

EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824 I034

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
ERICKSON HALL

October 2, 1987.

Dr. Henry Bredeck, Director
Office of Research on Human Subjects
238 Administration Building
Campus
Dear Dr. Bredeck:

RE: Flexon S. Malilwe,

Mr. Flexon S. Malilwe's doctoral guidance committee has approved his
dissertation proposal, entitled, "Female Candidates for the State of Michigan
House and Senate: A Descriptive Study of Their Socialization as Measured by
the California Psychological Inventory and Self-Esteem as Measured by the
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale." This approval was granted, September 15, 1987.
It is the opinion of his guidance committee that his study is one in which
no one's rights should be threatened; and that a full review of the Committee
that scrutinizes research proposals should not be necessary.
Participation will be on a voluntary basis. Furthermore, permission to
use the instruments mentioned in the proposed title (above) is being attained
through appropriate channels. (Dr. Robert Craig, a member of Flexon's commit­
tee, is arranging for this clearance procedure.)
If further information is needed, please contact me at 416 Erickson Hall,
or by calling me at 355-4537.
Sincerely

Department of Educational Administration
416 Erickson Hall- MSU
P.S. I serve as Mr. Malilwe's guidance committee chair, as well as serving
as the director of his dissertation.

M SU u m AJfirmd tii* Acttam /Eqm si O pportunity htttuuttnm

88

M I C H I G A N STATE U N I V E R S I T Y
EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 4SU4 I0M

COLIEGE OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
ERICKSON HALL

R00B

4J6

October 5, 1987

Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
Western Psychological Services
12031 Wilshire Boulevard
Los Angeles, California 90025

Dear Sir/Msdaa:
I aa a doctoral student at Michigan State University in the College of
Education conducting a study on the processes of self-esteea of woaen in public
office.
After reviewing several inventories that purport to eeasure self-esteea,
the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale appears to be the best one suited for ay
study.
I aa, therefore, requesting you to grant ae peraission that I utilize it
for ay study.
I will be very grateful to you if ay request is honored.

Sincerely,

Flexon S. Malilwe
cc:

Dr. Kenneth L. Harding, Professor and Advisor

H SU k m Afftrmmtiv*

Off or m U y ImstUuttom

89

M I C H I G A N STATE U N I V E R S I T Y
EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 4M 2410J4

COLLEGE O f EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATION
ERICKSON H A U

R 0 0 (I)

October 30, 1987

The Publishers
Tennessee Self-Concept Scale
Western Psychological Services
13031 Wilshire B o ulevard
Los Angeles, California 90025

Dear Sir/Madam:
Mr. Flexon S. Malilwe is a doctoral student at Michigan State University
in the College of Education conducting a study on the processes of self-esteem
of women in public office.
Flexon is seeking permission to use the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale for
his data collection, your permission will greatly facilitate and expedite his
r e se a r c h .
I serve as his guidance committee chair, as well as the director of his
dissertation.
If further information is needed, please contact me at the above
address, or by calling me at (517) 355-4537.

Sincerely

Kenneth L. Haroing, Professor
cc:

Flexon S. Malilwe

A$SV u m Af/trmmltir Actmn/EqunJ Opportunity Inttilntum

90

M I C H I G A N STATE U N I V E R S I T Y
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION ■ DEPARTMENT OF COUNSELING.

EAST LANSING - MICHIGAN

48R24 I03<

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND SPECIAL EDUCATION

c/o Dr. Robert C. Craig
Michigan State University
461 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI 48824
October 7, 1987

California Psychologists Press, Inc.
P.O. Box 60070
Palo Alto, California 94306
Dear Sir/Madam:
I am a doctoral student at Michigan State University in the College
Education conducting a study on the processes of socialization of women
public office.

of
in

After reviewing several inventories that purport to measure socialization,
the California Psychological Inventory appears to be the best one suited for
my study.
I am, therefore, requesting you to grant me permission that I utilize
my study the 54-item sub-scale Socialization (So).
1 will be very grateful to you if my request is honored.
Sincerely,

Flexon S. Malilwe
cc:

Robert C. Craig
Professor of Measurement
Fellow APA Division 5, 15

M SUitmm Af f w m *th<r irfrrm 'F f m f Oppo r tu n ity h u iitu tio n

for

91

CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS, INC.
577 College Ave. (P.O. Box 60070), Palo Alto, California 94306

r

(415) 857-1665

Flexon Malilwe
Department of Counseling, Educational Psychology
Michigan State University
East Lansing, Michigan 48824

L
In response to your request of

O ctober 7 , 1987
(Date)

permission is hereby granted you to

reproduce the Items on the SO
scale of the CPI fo use in gathering Data for your doctoral research.
subject to the following restrictions:
(a)

Any material used must contain the following credit lines:
“Reproduced by special permission of the Publisher, Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc.,
Palo Alto, CA 94306,
from ______ The C a li f o r n ia P sy c h o lo g ic a l In v en to ry
_

by ------

(publication)____________________________________ ____

Harrison Gough, PhD.

®

1958

(author)

Further reproduction is prohibited without the Publisher’s consent.
(b) None of the materials may be sold or used for purposes other than those mentioned above.
(c) One copy of any material reproduced will be sent to the Publisher.
(d) Payment of a reproduction fee of

FEE WAIVED_______________________

(e)

---------------------------------

Please remit without further notice and mail to my attention. Be sure to identify material
for which paym ent is made.
CONSULTING PSYCHOLOGISTS PRESS. INC.
By—

/jpahuksxm s Editor

—

Date

/j £ / - A ^ Z
/
/

----

92

To: Dr. Kenneth L. Harding, Chairperson
Froa: Flexon S. Malilwe
Date: December 18, 1987
Topic: Update on the status of ay research

I aa enclosing copies of the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (TSCS). the
California Psychological Inventory (CPI).
Questionnaire (HDO). and a facsiaile of the postcard that will be used
to collect data.
Iteas in the CPI that constitute the Socialization (So) subscale are
identified by a check aark. I experienced soae delays in obtaining the
TSCS which did not arrive until r e cently.
On October 15, 1987, Dr. firedeck of the Office of Research on Huaari
Subjects granted peraission to proceed with the research after he aade
ainor revisions in ay cover l e tt e r . Copies of the research instruaents
have been given to hia.
Because of ay concern about Christaas a a i l ,the instruaents will be sent
out the first week in J a n u a r y .
Happy Holidays!
Sincerely,

Flexon S. Malilwe
cc:

Dr. Frank A. Fear
Dr. 61oria H. Kielbaso
Dr. Robert C. Craig

93

M ichigan Republicans
2121 E. G rand River
Lansing, Ml 48912
17/487-5413
M arquette Building
246 W. C ongress
Suite 200
Detroit, Ml 48826
313/963-9414

E SPEN CER ABRAHAM
C hairm an
FRANK 0 . STELLA
C o -F n a n c a Chairm an
RANNY RIECKER
C o -fm an ca Chairm an
PETER F SECCHIA
Manorial Com m m aam an
RONNA ROMNEY
National Commrnaawoman
LARRAIN THOMAS
F a i t V ca-Chair
J E “JO E " THOMAS
Saco n d V ca-C han
iz a n n e k

Enclosed, please find the information you recently requested. If I may provide any
additional m aterial, o r be of further assistance, please do not hesitate to contact
me.
Sincerely,

m il l e r

•*rd Vca-Chair
ARNOLD StMKUS
Fourth Vica-Chair

Diann Roebuck
Michigan Republicans

FROSTY BECKWITH
Fifth V ca-C ruir
ANGELA MATA
B o th V c a C h a ir

/dar
Enclosure

P M lor try * a ftaputftcan BUM C onw M ua, *121. E G rand Rwar. Lansing. M c * g a n 4B91?

APPENDIX
Demogra ph ic

B

Questionnaire

In fo rmational

postcard.

94

A PP EN DI X

B

DE HOGR APHT C Q U E S T T ONNA I RE
PLEASE CO MPLE TE ALL OUESTI ONS THAT APPLY TO YOU
BY PLACING AN “X" IN THE A P P R O P R I A T E BOX
I.)

Age;:

!_! Under 25 years
!_! 26 - 30 years
!_! 31 - 35 years

2.) Marital Status:

'_! 36 - 40 years
! i 41 - 45 years
! ! 46 - 50 years

!_! Single
!_! Harried
!_' Divorced
!_! Separated

3.) Your highest level of education:

M o t h e r ’s education

! ! 51 - 55 years
! ! 56 - 60 years
! ! Over 60 years
Widowed
F a th e r ’s education

High School Diploma
2 years of college
B a c h e l o r ’s degree
M a s t e r ’s degree
Ph. D. degree
4.) Discipline your highest degree or diploma is in
5.) Have you attended an in-service training or professional development
program or seminar in the past five years aimed at improving your present
career?
!_! Yes
!_! No
If your answer is y e s . please answer question #6.
If your answer is no, go to question #7.
6.) My in-service/development seminar was sponsored by:
A university or college !_!
A foundation !_!
A religious organization !_!
A government agency !_!
A business or industry !_!
Another source, please specify _ _ _ _
7.) Adult and Continuing Education emphasizes the continued need throughout
life on the part of individuals to improve their skills and abilities
relative to their chosen vocation. In a brief sentence, explain:
a.
How you think adult education may have enhanced your political
aspirations or present career?

b.

How adult education may have enhanced your personal development and
growth?

95

Flexon S. Malilwe
c/o Dr. Kenneth L. Harding
Michigan State University
A 16 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI. 48824

C U 8 P S 1987

Flexon S. Malilwe
c/o Dr. Kenneth L. Harding
Michigan State University
416 Erickson Hall
East Lansing, MI. 48824

(_)

I have returned the completed questionnaires separately,
nlease send me summary results. My name is ______ _______

(_)

I have returned the completed questionnaires separately
but do not wish to receive summary results.

(_)

I do not wish to participate. I am returning all materials.

APPENDIX C
Responses given by individual part ic ipa nts to items
§7a and §7b of the Demogra ph ic Questionnaire.

96

APPENDIX

Responses

given

by

of the Demographic

Many
also

years
served
strong
democratic
represen ted

individual

C

par ticipants

to

item

#7a

Questionnaire.

ago I was president of our local AEA group on the state Adult Education Association Board
belief
in an
informed
citizenry
for
a truly
country
with
all
segments
of
our
population
in its governance.

I took a 3 day course on
before I ran for office.

running

a

campaign

It provided
a variety
of workable
models
me to offer my own talents and expertise to
leadership and the political process.
I am a teacher.
Adult
my professional growth.

education

and

the

September

that
inspired
others through

seminars

assisted

I taught adult education to women desiring to update their
office
skills
and
re-enter
the
job
market.
My
seeking
of
agencies
to
help
them
had
a direct
bearing
on
my
political aspirations.
None .
Has helped me identify issues important
to the state and
programs
aimed
at
solving some
of
those
problems
especially social programs.
It didn't.
It has not.
No e f f e c t .
Broadened
ed ucation
s e l f - d e v e l o p m e n t . Specific

background,
exercises
instruction in politics.

Re-inforces
my
ability
to incorporate
techniques into old ways of doing things.
Adult

education

is for high

school

By keeping
me in touch with
of the long way we all have to
society .

graduates

new

in

ideas and

to get G.E.D.

others and keeping me aware
go toward a more progressive

97

I believe that learning is a life-long necssity.
It has
aided me in both my personal dev elopment and professional
development.
There
is no doubt
that
self-c onf ide nc e
improves
as one
continu es the educational process.
No longer in politics.
I am about to conclude an M.A. and de finitely feel stronger.
Although I have not par ticipated in any traditional adult
or continuing education programs, my political involvement
in various social movements through my socialist political
party
has
developed
my
org an iza tio na l
skills,
speaking
skills,
research
ability
and
kno wl ed ge
of
national
and
int ernational
history and current political developments.
As a result, I am a leading member of my party and other
organizations.
I suspect adult education gets a person excited again about
conditions she wishes to change or perfect.
I feel I am
more capable because of my studies.
I don't think formal adult education programs have enhanced
my political aspirations or present career, but my private
research has.
Various workshops,
helpful.
Keeping

me

conferences,

and

classes

have

been

very

current.

The
workshops,
seminars,
and
pre se nt at io ns
sponsored
by
the Michigan School Psychology Associa ti on were essential
to those of us some distance from a University
to keep
abreast of new developmen ts, techniques, etc.
Does not apply.
By providing
skills
-- i.e., public speaking
-- without
having to enroll in sem ester-long university courses.
Yes .
It made me realize that I can
someone besides a housewife.
Not

be

wh atever

at all.

To update
It had

and enhance

no connection

Knowledge

is always

my basic knowledge.
at all.

enriching

or enhancing.

I want

and

I'm

98

I do not feel that adult education has had any
upon my political aspirat io ns or present career.

influence

99

Responses

given

by

of the De mo gr ap hi c

To
in
my
for

individual

p a rt ic ip an ts

to

Item

ft7b

Questionnaire.

date, adult education has not played an
important role
my personal development, but I plan to
include it in
future . . .
in the field
of
literature and fine arts,
example.

Expanding

some of my horizons.

Contacts
made
career changes.

pr ovided

greater

know le dge

necessary

for

Being
with adults
of
all
ages
inlearning
situations
encouraged me to not be afraid to try new things, but
reach out and stretch myself.
Increased

ability

It made me
want to and

to do my

job.

realize that anyone can succeed only If
I learned that it made me a better person.

By offering a lt ern at ive s to my daily routine ---as well as learning (computer, etc.) alternatives.
It

has given me confide nce

It

gave me a new career

to

they

leisure

in myself.

at 55 years

old.

Kept me abreast of changes in profession.
decisions.
Exposed me to changing ideas
in and out of my profession.

Ditto for legal
of other persons

Adult education has enhanced my personal develop me nt and
growth
through
the occasional
classes
I choose to take,
not for my career but just because I want to learn more
about certain subjects.
With little chance of winning a l e gi sla tiv e seat,
I ran
for office for the opportunity to tell others the importance
of
being
informed
on
the
issues,
and
of
rating
with
intelligence for their rep res ent ativeness.
For more than
ten years,
I have served on a school board and help set
policy and budget for our adult and co ntinuing education
programs.
I also ran as a role model for women.
All education,
w het he r it be formal or books or Channel
23 will
enhance
your d e v e lo pm ent
and growth
if that
is
the mind set with which you approach the education.

100

Education
assists
personal
enhances self-esteem.
All of my
I consider
same thing.

and

prof es si on al

growth

adult education
has been career
related,
personal and career de ve lo pm en t and growth

and

but
the

Adult education has updated my new theories and methods;
i.e., development of handicapped children is best at home
with
p a re nt s/f am il y
an
in
institutional
settings
with
pr o f e ss io na ls
-also,
computers
are
now
common
place.
Not so when I went to college.
My teacher
of adult
the needs of women.
Enlarged

recreational

By enabling
in c o l l e g e .

me

to

education

enhanced

my

awar en ess

of

pursuits.

study

subjects

which

were

not

availabe

Forced me to socialize with my professional peers and others
who
I would
not
normally
meet.
Improved
my
style
of
communication.
It didn't.
It has

not.

No e f f e c t .
Broaded
general
confidence.

knowledge,

increased

I have taken
several
classes in special
To deal with stress; exercise, etc.
UJe are always

learning.

Classes

always

s e lf -es tee m

interest

focus

one's

Continuing education
. . . sweatshirt painting,
how to paint and fix your bike.
I know that is
you meant.
Adult education gave
its people, etc.

me

a broader

p e rs pec tiv e

People react differently (more positively)
is continuing
his or her education.
By
my Mast ers degree, I have proven to myself
I can do it.

of

and

areas.

learning
taxes on
not what

the world,

to someone who
going back
for
and others that

More
knowledge,
more
interesting
associations,
more inspiration.
Certainly, enhancem ent to one's
and public life.

probably
personal

101

Education whether formal or informal is a lifelong process.
Through
education
I have acquired in my political work,
I have grown from from student to teacher with confidence
and kn o wl edg e
broader
and deeper
than
many
others
with
more formal education.
The qu estions are unclear, do you
education?
Will
you use this to
funding
because
women's
political
i t . I don't need i t .

mean formal go ver nme nt
assure more go vernment
pa rt ic ip at io n
requires

I was
always
interested
in
politics.
I think
college
enhanced those feelings.
My education gave me the chance
to try running for office and be able to do well at my
career.

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