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O rder N u m b er 9018691

A n e x a m in a tio n o f dual-career m arriage, fam ily, and career
stress e x p e c ta tio n s o f u n d ergrad u ate stu d en ts a t M ichigan S ta te
U n iv e r sity
Gunnings, Sonya Renita, Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1989

UMI

300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106

AN EXAMINATION OF DUAL-CAREER MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND
CAREER STRESS EXPECTATIONS OF UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY

By
Sonya R e n i t a Gunnings

A DISSERTATION

S u bmi t t e d t o
Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t of the requirements
f o r the degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

Depar t ment o f Co u n s e l i n g , E d u c a t i o n a l P s y c h o l o g y ,
and S p e c i a l Ed u c a t i o n

1989

ABSTRACT

AN EXAMINATION OF DUAL-CAREER MARRIAGE, FAMILY, AND
CAREER STRESS EXPECTATIONS OF UNDERGRADUATE
STUDENTS AT MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
By
Sonya R e n i t a Gunnings

The ma j or p u r p o s e o f t h i s s t u d y was t o a s s e s s t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p
bet ween d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s and t h e s e x,
family

ba c k g r o u n d ,

class

standing,

and

ma j or

area

of

race,

study

of

u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a t Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

Specifically,

this

bet ween

these

Personal

Norms

s t u d y was aimed a t d e t e r m i n i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p

variables
stress

and (a) Ove r l oa d s t r e s s

expectations,

(c)

Social

Role-Cycling s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s ,
and

(f)

expressed

expectations,
Network
( e)

importance

stress

(b)

expectations,

(d)

Identity stress

expectations,

of

occupational

selected

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s by u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s .
The p o p u l a t i o n
students
mi d we s t e r n

for

this

a t Michigan

State

university.

The

study

consisted

University,
instrument

o f 147 u n d e r g r a d u a t e

a predominantly
us ed

in

this

study

white,
was

a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e , which was c o n s t r u c t e d by S e n g e r - D i c k i n s o n and S t e w a r t
i n 1988.

Some p o r t i o n s o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e were d e v e l o p e d by t h i s

investigator

for

specific

use

in

this

study.

The

i n s t r u m e n t was

Sonya R e n i t a Gunnings
a d m i n i s t e r e d i n t h e c l a s s r o o m s e t t i n g a t Michi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
as wel l as a d m i n i s t e r e d t o s t u d e n t s a t t e n d i n g a c a r e e r - d a y j o b f a i r .
The a n a l y s i s
analysis

of

of data

variance

relationships

i n c l u d e d t h e use o f t - t e s t s

(ANOVA)

specified

in

to

the

determine

six

the

hypotheses.

and one-way

existence
The

. 05

of

the

level

of

s i g n i f i c a n c e was used t o a n a ' y z e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e ANOVA and t t e s t
procedures.

A d d i t i o n a l d e s c r i p t i v e d a t a were used t o a d d r e s s o t h e r

f i n d i n g s on t h e sampl e.
The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y s u g g e s t t h a t :
1.

Ther e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p between sex and t h e S o c i a l Network

and P e r s o n a l Norms s t r e s s di l emmas.
2.

Ther e were no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between s e x, r a c e , f a m i l y b a c k ­

g r ound,

class

Cycling,

I d e n t i t y , o r Ov e r l oa d s t r e s s di l emmas.

3.

standing,

and

maj or

area

of

study

and

the

Role-

Ther e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p between sex and r a c e and e x p r e s s e d

i mp o r t a n c e o f s e l e c t e d o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
This

study

supports

undergraduate population,

as

the

assumption

a whol e,

has

that

low s t r e s s

the

expectations

f o r known s t r e s s o r s i n t h e d u a l - c a r e e r s t r u c t u r e and i s ,
ill-prepared for this life s ty le .

therefore,

Thi s s t u d y a l s o s u p p o r t s t h e need

t o d e v e l o p and implement p r e v e n t i v e e d u c a t i o n a l
on t h e d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e .

college

wor kshops

focusing

To my p a r e n t s , Dr s. Thomas and Ba r ba r a Gunnings,
whose undyi ng l o v e and b e l i e f i n my a b i l i t i e s
p r o v i d e d t h e s t r e n g t h t o p u r s u e when
o t h e r s would r e t r e a t .

ACKNOWLEDG MENTS

I

wi sh

c o mmi t t e e :

to

e x t e n d my s i n c e r e

Dr s.

Herbert

Burks,

gratitude
Rober t

to

Craig,

t h e members
and Maxie

of

my

Jackson.

Your s c h o l a r l y c o n t r i b u t i o n s and t h e r e s p e c t I have f o r each o f you
c a n n o t be o v e r s t a t e d .
A special

expression

of

appreciation

whose g e n u i n e e n t h u s i a s m f o r t h i s
To Dr.

G l o r i a Smi t h,

to

Dr. Cyrus

Stewart,

study provided g r e a t motivation.

my c h a i r p e r s o n and p r o f e s s i o n a l

r o l e model ,

I

owe a s p e c i a l d e b t o f g r a t i t u d e .
I

am i ndeed

assistance

grateful

contributed

to

to
the

Dr.

Ira

strength

Was hi ngt on, whose
of

this

study,

S c h e l l i n g , who p r o v i d e d c o n s t a n t t y p i n g and e d i t o r i a l
Finally,

t o my husband,

Bobby Moton,

o f c o mf o r t and i n s p i r a t i o n t h a t was c r i t i c a l

v

research

and

Vas ht i

support.

fo r providing

the

t o my e x i s t e n c e .

source

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S ......................................................................................................

viii

LIST OF FIGURES......................................................................................................

xi

Ch a p t e r
I.

II.

III.

INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ........................

1

Pur pose o f t h e S t u d y .................................................................
S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e St udy ........................................................
The P o p u l a t i o n and S u b j e c t s ...................................................
P r o c e d u r e .............................................................................................
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e S t u d y ...................................................
T e s t a b l e Hypot hes es ......................................................................
D e f i n i t i o n o f T e r m s ......................................................................
O v e r v i e w .............................................................................................

8
9
11
11
12
13
14
15

REVIEW OF THE LI TERATURE............................................................

16

Rapopor t and Rapopor t -- Di l emmas i n D u a l - C a r e e r
M a r r i a g e ........................................................................................
Over l oad Dilemma ......................................................................
P e r s o n a l Norms Dilemma ........................................................
I d e n t i t y Dilemma ......................................................................
S o c i a l Network Dilemma ........................................................
R o l e - C y c l i n g Dilemma .............................................................
Coping With and A d j u s t i n g t o S t r e s s and C o n f l i c t
.
E q u i t y I s s u e s ....................................................................................
Oc c u p a t i o n a l S e t t i n g I s s u e s ...................................................
Co l l e g e U n d e r g r a d u a t e s
.............................................................
S u m m a r y ..................................................................................................

16
17
19
20
21
22
23
27
32
35
38

STUDY DESIGN AND PROCEDURES ........................................................

39

O v e r v i e w .............................................................................................
P o p u l a t i o n and S e t t i n g
.............................................................
S u b j e c t s .............................................................................................
I n s t r u m e n t .........................................................................................
P r o c e d u r e .............................................................................................
H y p o t h e s e s .........................................................................................

39
39
41
42
45
46

vi

Page
T r e a t me n t o f D a t a ...........................................................................
S u m m a r y ..................................................................................................
IV.

.........................................................

51

I n t r o d u c t i o n .................................................................
T e s t i n g o f t h e H y p o t h e s e s ........................................................
Summary o f F i n d i n g s ..................................................................
.................................
Additional D es cr ip ti v e Information

51
51
72
73

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND
IMPLICATIONS .....................................................................................

75

S u m m a r y ..................................................................................................
C o n c l u s i o n s and D i s c u s s i o n
....................................................
......................................
Recommendations and I m p l i c a t i o n s

75
78
83

A.

STUDENT OPINION QUESTIONNAIRE .....................................................

87

B.

LETTER SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS BY
INVESTIGATOR .....................................................................................

95

REFERENCES.................................................................................................................

96

V.

ANALYSIS OF DATA

48
50

APPENDICES

vii

LIST OF TABLES
Ta b l e
3. 1

3.2
4.1

4.2

4.3

4.4

4.5

4.6

4.7

4.8

Page
Breakdown o f Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y Un d e r g r a d u a t e
S t u d e n t P o p u l a t i o n by Cl a s s S t a n d i n g , Sex, Major
C o l l e g e ( S p r i n g 1989) and Race ( F a l l 1988) ...................

40

..............................

43

B i o g r a p h i c a l Data on St udy P a r t i c i p a n t s

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e Between
Male and Female Group Sc or e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e Over l oad S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s . . .

52

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e Between
Nonwhite and White Group Sc or e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e Over l oad S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s . . .

53

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a ge
Over l oad S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and Family
B a c k g r o u n d .............................................................................................

53

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a ge
Over l oad S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and Cl a s s
S t a n d i n g ..................................................................................................

54

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a ge
Over l oad S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and Major
Area o f S t u d y ....................................................................................

55

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Male and Female Group Sc or e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e S o c i a l Network S t r e s s Dilemma
E x p e c t a t i o n s ........................................................................................

56

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Nonwhite and Whi te Group S c o r e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e S o c i a l Network S t r e s s Dilemma
E x p e c t a t i o n s ........................................................................................

56

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a ge
S o c i a l Network S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Fami l y Background ..........................................................................

57

viii

Page
4.9

4.10

4.11

4.12

4. 1 3

4.14

4.15

4.16

4.17

4.18

4.19

4.20

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
S o c i a l Network S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Cl a s s S t a n d i n g ....................................................................................

58

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a ge
S o c i a l Network S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Major Area o f S t u d y ......................................................................

58

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Male and Female Group S c o r e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e I d e n t i t y S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s
. . .

60

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Nonwhite and White Group S c o r e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e I d e n t i t y S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s
. . .

60

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
I d e n t i t y S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and Family
B a c k g r o u n d .............................................................................................

61

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
I d e n t i t y S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and Cl a s s
S t a n d i n g ..................................................................................................

62

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
I d e n t i t y S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and Major
Area o f S t u d y ....................................................................................

62

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Male and Female Group S c o r e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e R o l e - C y c l i n g S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s

.

63

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Nonwhite and White Group S c o r e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e R o l e - C y c l i n g S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s

.

64

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
Ro l e - Cy c l i n g S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Fami ly Background ...........................................................................

64

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
R o l e - Cy c l i n g S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Cl a s s S t a n d i n g ...................................................................................

65

A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
R o l e - Cy c l i n g S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Major Area o f S t u d y ....................................................................

65

ix

Page
4.21

4.22

4.23

4.24

4.25

4.26

4.27

4.28

4.29

4.30

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Male and Female Group Sc or e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e P e r s o n a l Norms S t r e s s Dilemma
E x p e c t a t i o n s ........................................................................................

66

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Nonwhite and White Group Sc o r e s f o r D u a l - C a r e e r
Ma r r i a g e P e r s o n a l Norms S t r e s s Dilemma
E x p e c t a t i o n s ........................................................................................

67

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
P e r s o n a l Norms S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Fami l y Background ...........................................................................

67

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
P e r s ona l Norms S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Cl a s s S t a n d i n g ...........................................................................

68

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
P e r s ona l Norms S t r e s s Dilemma E x p e c t a t i o n s and
Major Area o f S t u d y .............................................................

68

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Male and Female Group Sc or e s f o r Expr e s s e d I mpor ­
t a n c e o f S e l e c t e d Oc c u p a t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . . .

69

R e s u l t s o f I - T e s t I n v e s t i g a t i n g D i f f e r e n c e s Between
Nonwhite and White Group Sc o r e s f o r Ex pr e s s e d
I mpor t ance o f S e l e c t e d Oc c u p a t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r ­
i s t i c s ......................................................................................................

70

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r Expr es s ed I mpor t a nc e o f
Oc c u p a t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Fami ly Background

.

71

.

71

A n a l y s i s o f Va r i a n c e f o r Expr es s ed I mpor t a nc e o f
Oc c u p a t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Cl a s s S t a n d i n g
A n a l y s i s o f V a r i a n c e f o r Expr es s ed I mpor t a nc e o f
Oc c u p a t i o n a l C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and Major Area o f
S t u d y ..............................................................................................

x

.

71

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
2.1

2. 2

Page
Thr ee o f t h e Major S o c i a l Rol es o f an American
Urban Ma r r i e d , Employed Woman ................................................

31

A Model f o r Viewing Mai nt enance o f D u a l - C a r e e r
L i f e S t y l e f o r F e m a l e s ...................................................................

33

C H APTER I
INTRODUCTION AND-STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

The d u a l - c a r e e r
structure

in

today’s

dual-career families
structure

is

the

society.

has

prevailed

The

reasons

are va rie d .

income i s e s s e n t i a l

c hange ,

increase

however,
in

work f o r c e .

for

a

the

predominant
existence

in

Therefore,

of

such a f a m i l y

Coupl es a r e f i n d i n g

to the s t a b i l i t y of t h e i r family.

c a n n o t be i g n o r e d as a m o t i v a t i n g

dual-career

movements has r e s u l t e d

as

In many i n s t a n c e s ,

in r e s p o n s e t o economic demands.

t h a t t h e dual
Social

marriage

marriages.

A culmination

force to
of

social

i n c r e a s e d o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r women i n t h e
many women s i mpl y choos e

to

pursue

these

o p p o r t u n i t i e s and commit t h e m s e l v e s t o c a r e e r de v e l o p me n t .
When l o o k i n g a t t h e f a c t s ,
couples

were

shows t h a t

dual-career

69.9% o f a l l

it

families

i s found t h a t 52% o f a l l
in

1980;

and

further

m a r r i e d women w i t h c h i l d r e n

married
evidence

ages

6 to

were income e a r n e r s i n 1985 (U. S. Bureau o f Labor S t a t i s t i c s ,
In a d d i t i o n ,

it

is predicted that families

19 86) .

Th i s

American f a m i l i e s by t h e end o f t h e 1980s
evidence

shows

that

the

become t h e " t r a d i t i o n a l " f a m i l y o f t o d a y .

1

19 86) .

in which t h e mal e s p o u s e

i s s o l e e a r n e r and t h e f e ma l e s pous e i s s o l e homemaker w i l l
o n l y 7% o f a l l

17

dual-career

family

typify

(Sekaran,
has

now

2
With

the

a wa r e ne s s

of

rise
the

in

these

mutual

figures

has

psychological

s uccess in t h i s s t r u c t u r e .

family

pr ove

to

come

preparation

an

increased

necessary

for

The i n h e r e n t c o n f l i c t s t h a t d u a l - c a r e e r

c o u p l e s must f a c e a r e complex in n a t u r e .
and

also

be

quite

Ef f or ts to balance c ar e er

challenging.

An

ideal

situation

r e s u l t s i n s a t i s f a c t o r y p e r s o n a l , c a r e e r , and f a m i l y f u n c t i o n i n g f o r
each

partner.

Reachi ng

obstacles.

Coupl es must

children?

If

so,

this

ideal,

address

when?

What

however,

concerns
roles

possible

need t o be mobi l e

we

smal l

sampl e

of

the

Will

need

to

wi t h

we have

assume

to

How w i l l we de a l wi t h t h e

in r e s p o n s e

to

occupational

How w i l l we manage t i me t o meet a l l needs ?
a

fraught

such a s :

will

b a l a n c e f a m i l y and o c c u p a t i o n a l demands?

is

decision-making

pl a c e me nt ?

These c o n c e r n s r e p r e s e n t

issues

dual-career

couples

must i n c u r .
Be f or e
family,

it

entering
is

characteristics
lifestyles
traditional

most

into

important
of,

in-depth
to

other

nuclear

clarify
family

frequently
family,

discussion
the

in

the

distinction

lifestyles.

discussed
(b)

of

The

the

dual-earner

dual-career
bet ween,
three

literature

family,

and

and

family
are

(c)

(a)
dual-

c a r e e r family.
The t r a d i t i o n a l
the roles
(Pleck,

i n v o l v i n g f a m i l y work and p a i d work a r e c l e a r l y d i v i d e d

1979) .

traditional

n u c l e a r f a m i l y i s t y p i f i e d as a s ys t em i n which

Papanek

family,

(1973)

bot h

husband

indicated
and

advancement o f t h e h u s b a n d ’ s c a r e e r .
prim arily

concerned

with

that

wife
In t h i s

occupational

are

generally,

in

the

dedicated

to

the

regard,

roles,

husbands a r e

while

wives

are

3

p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d wi t h f a m i l y r o l e s .
careers

is

limited

to

a

The w i f e ’ s i nvol vement wi t h

supporting

role

for

her

husband’ s

o c c u p a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s ( G i l b e r t & R a c h l i n , 1987) .
In t h e d u a l - e a r n e r f a m i l y ,
t h e work f o r c e .

However,

b ot h s pous e s have a c t i v e

roles

in

one, o r b o t h , o f t h e s p o u s e ’ s o c c u p a t i o n s

may be viewed as a j o b r a t h e r t h a n a c a r e e r .
assumed f o r economic r e a s o n s .

Their jobs are usually

Rapopor t and Rapopor t (1971) f u r t h e r

d i s t i n g u i s h e d bet ween j o b s and c a r e e r s by s t a t i n g t h a t j o b s

(a) a r e

more s u b j e c t t o i n t e r r u p t i o n and (b)

a r e more l i k e l y t o l a c k c l e a r

de ve l opme nt a l

of experiences.

stages

and c u l m i n a t i o n

Gilbert

and

Ra c h l i n (1987) f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t a c a r e e r t y p i c a l l y r e q u i r e s more
training

and i n v o l v e s more commitment t h a n a j o b .

f a m i l y i s d i s t i n c t from t h e t r a d i t i o n a l
a r e a c t i v e i n t h e work f o r c e .

f a m i l y i n t h a t bot h s p ous e s

However, i t i s a l s o d i s t i n c t from t h e

d u a l - c a r e e r f a m i l y in t h a t o n l y one s p o u s e ,
pursuing a ca re e r.

The d u a l - e a r n e r

Al t hough r o l e d i v i s i o n

t y p i c a l l y t h e ma l e,
is less present

is

in t h i s

s ys t em, one s p o u s e ’ s work i n v o l ve me nt i s viewed as c l e a r l y s e c o n d a r y
to the other.
In t h e d u a l - c a r e e r
careers

and

family

family,

life.

As

each

s pous e

Gilbert

and

is

commi t t ed

Rachlin

(1987)

to

bot h

stated,

"The i m p l i c i t a s s umpt i on u n d e r l y i n g t h e d u a l - c a r e e r f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e
is

that

neither

expectations

spouse

will

necessarily

t o family e x p e c t a t i o n s "

( p.

9).

subordinate
This

p r e mi s e

career
points

o u t t h e uni que c h a l l e n g e i n h e r e n t i n t h e d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e .

The

4
c o o r d i n a t i o n o f work and f a m i l y becomes much more complex t h a n t h a t
r e q u i r e d in t h e o t h e r f a m i l y s y s t e ms .
G ilbert

(1987)

psychological

stated

preparation

that

both

and a t t i t u d i n a l

l i f e s t y l e of a d u a l - c a r e e r marriage.
an

abs e nc e

of

Therefore,

the

relationship.
basis

societal
burden

men

support

of

success

lack

the

for the

is stressed th a t there

the

falls

women

changes r e q u i r e d

It

for

and

dual-career

upon

the

is

lifestyle.

partners

in

the

Thi s p o s i t i o n , t a k e n by G i l b e r t ( 1 9 8 7 ) , s e r v e d as t h e

for th is

study.

It

is

this

i n v e s t i g a t o r ’ s opinion t h a t

the

c o l l e g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e p o p u l a t i o n may be t a r g e t e d as one t h a t i s more
t h a n l i k e l y t o engage in a d u a l - c a r e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p .
these

students

ma i n t e n a n c e

do no t

of

such

possess the necessary

a structure.

understanding of expectations

Such

F u r t h e r mo r e ,

skills

success

for

successful

requires

and p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s ,

and

insight,

i mp l e me n t a ­

t i o n o f e f f e c t i v e copi n g s k i l l s .
The d u a l - c a r e e r

family

had men d o mi n a t i n g
The q u e s t i o n
structure
reality

has

as

even

the

income

been

can c o n t i n u a l l y

demonstrates

contrasts

that

earners

raised

exist
the

a long-standing

in

as

to

in

the

wh e t h e r

present

dual-career

wor l d
the

society.
couple

status
of

that
work.

dual-career
Nonetheless,

prevails

as

the

common l i f e s t y l e o f t o d a y .
Accurate
attention

to

satisfaction

discussion
the

of

positive

the

dual-career

aspects.

and r eward i n h e r e n t

in t h i s

s u p p o r t has i d e n t i f i e d t h e p r o f e s s i o n a l
bot h

t h e men and women i n

There

couple
is,

structure.

must

indeed,

much

Much r e s e a r c h

and p s y c h o l o g i c a l

the d u a l -c a r e e r

include

relationship.

gains

for

Sekar an

5

( 1 9 8 3 ) , Bl ums t ei n and Schwar t z ( 1983) ,

and Ha r d e s t y and Bet z (1980)

h i g h l i g h t e d t h e obvi ous a d v a n t a g e s f o r women as i n c l u d i n g
career

development,

i nd e p e n d e n c e .

increased

self-evaluation,

increased

a nd

financial

Al so r e v e a l e d has been t h e i n t e l l e c t u a l compani ons hi p

and s a t i s f a c t i o n t h e s e women d e m o n s t r a t e .

I t must be n o t e d t h a t t h e

men in t h e d u a l - c a r e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p a l s o b e n e f i t from t h e s e f a c t o r s .
I n c r e a s e d s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h s e l f by o n e ’ s s pous e may l i k e l y show as
increased
(1976)

satisfaction

in

the

relationship.

r e p o r t e d t h a t women who d e m o n s t r a t e d

reported a greate r marital

Safilios-Rothschild
s t r o n g work commitment

s a t i s f a c t i o n t h a n women who d i d n o t work

o u t s i d e t h e home.

In a d d i t i o n ,

the fin ancia l

the

relieves

male

f emal e

s pouse

the

from

c o n t r i b u t i o n made by

bearing

and Ra c h l i n

total

support f o r t he family.

Gilbert

the dual-career structure

a l s o a l l o ws t h e man t o f u l f i l l

needs t o n u r t u r e and bond" (p. 27) .
responsibility

of

financial

(1987)

economic

stressed

that

"inherent

The male no l o n g e r has t h e s o l e

supporter

but

begins

to

accept

resp on sib ility for caretaking.

and

In e s s e n c e ,

the d u a l -c a r e e r r e l a t i o n s h i p provides

fulfillment

wort hy

of

its

effort.

Thi s

i n v o l v e s t h e c o u p l e f a c i n g and d e a l i n g w i t h
conflict.

It

is

this

conflict

that

has

effort,

stress

gained

satisfaction

and

the

however,
inevitable

attention

of

p s y c h o l o g i s t s and mental h e a l t h p r o v i d e r s .
Among t h e

issues

wh e t h e r

of
and

concern
when

to

to

dual-career

parent.

The

couples
decision

is

question

of

to

children

i n c l u d e s each p a r t n e r ’ s e v a l u a t i o n o f h i s / h e r a b i l i t y

the
have
and

6
w i l l i n g n e s s t o make t h e r e q u i r e d emot i onal
One c a n n o t deny t h a t

the

d u a l - c a r e e r s ys t e m.

inclusion

these

children,
this

needs.

t h e y must

If

further

responsibility.

occupational
factors.
result

in

these

necessary

by

one

the

ideal

couple

partner

is

is

the

greatly

engage

they

fortunate

address
in

for

to

in

gel

incurring
by

may n e v e r

preparation

and

The same e f f o r t s

are

issues

havi ng

of

child

child-care

setting,

the

care frequently

a stressful

obstacle

in t h e

family

occupational

as

have

physiological

a v a i l a b l e through h i s / h e r occupational
arises

to

influenced

and

s i mpl y

circumstances.

as

decision
t i me

stability,

must

the

be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r

best

influencers

Coupl es

ensure

makes

decision

financial

parenthood.

manipulation to

Unl es s

for

couple

alters

n o t o n l y t o t h e t i me

but who w i l l

a g r e e on t h e

This

demands,

Wa i t i n g

the

commitment.

of children g re a t ly

A t t e n t i o n must be g i v e n ,

and needs r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a c h i l d ,
me e t i ng

and p h y s i c a l

care.

services

issue of child
dual-career

structure.
At t e mp t s
continuing

to

co n c e r n

balance
for

the

and

dual-career

couple.

roles

children
area

are

brought

greater

and

into
more

the

family

stressful.

s ys t e m,

the

demands

Commitments

to

l o n g e r have t h e same f l e x i b i l i t y and freedom f o r c ha ng e .

and

sources

When p a i r e d , t h e s e demands can pr ove over whel mi ng.
are

of

Oc c u p a t i o n a l

f a m i l y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s a r e a l o n e d e t e r mi n e d as s i g n i f i c a n t
of s t r e s s .

are

in

Once
this

family

no

I t becomes

c r u c i a l f o r t h e c o u p l e t o i mpl ement e f f e c t i v e co p i n g s k i l l s aimed a t
addressing t h i s c o n f l i c t .

7
The p o s s i b l e
p l a c e me n t
family.

also

need

arises

Partners

and c ommi t t ed
expectations

to

to

be

as

mob i l e

an

ongoi ng

in t h e d u a l - c a r e e r
career

involving

gr o wt h .
the

in

response

conc e r n

for

occupational

the

dual-career

s yst em a r e e q u a l l y d e d i c a t e d

In a d d i t i o n ,

support

to

of

bot h

their

partners

spouse.

o p p o r t u n i t y f o r c a r e e r gr owt h i n v o l v e s r e l o c a t i o n

have

When

the

f o r one p a r t n e r ,

conflict likely results.
The a b i l i t y t o h a n d l e t h i s m u l t i t u d e o f c o n c e r n s may be e a s e d
by o b s e r v i n g r o l e models who have met and conquer ed t h i s c h a l l e n g e .
Thi s

gives

one

the

benefit

through obs ervation
ba c kgr ou nd.
entering

of

learning

and/or p a r t i c i p a t i o n

Wi t hout

such o p p o r t u n i t y ,

a dual-career

marriage

will

effective
within

it

is

have

co pi ng

skills

h i s / h e r own f a m i l y
likely

less

that

persons

insight

into

the

r e a l i t i e s of th is structure.
Increased
preparation

in

insight

is

dealing

with

dual-career marital
complex

challenge

facing

most

obvi ous

conflict

structure.

and

means

stress

for

effective

inherent

in

the

These c i r c u m s t a n c e s d e m o n s t r a t e t h e

college

p l a c e me n t and advancement ,
lifestyle.

the

students

who a r e l i k e l y

aspiring
to

select

t oward

career

a dual-career

I t i s t h i s t h a t s e r v e d as t h e m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h i s s t u d y .

An e x a m i n a t i o n o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ’ o p i n i o n s and e x p e c t a t i o n s
regarding
e mp h a s i s .

known

stress

issues

in

dual-career

marriages

was

the

8
Pur pose o f t h e St udy
The

purpose of t h i s

s t r e s s and o c c u p a t i o n a l

s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e t h e d i f f e r e n c e s

in

e x p e c t a t i o n s reg ar di ng d u a l - c a r e e r marriage

existing

among u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a t Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .

Specific

q u e s t i o n s t h a t were e x p l o r e d were:

1.

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e Ov e r ­

l o a d s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s

and t h e

v a r i a b l e s o f s e x , r a c e , f a m i l y backgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and maj or
area o f study?
2.

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e S o c i a l

Network s t r e s s

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x,

race,

of undergraduate

f a m i l y backgr ound,

class

students

and

standing,

and

ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y ?
3.
tity

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e

s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e

students

Iden­

and t h e

v a r i a b l e s o f s e x, r a c e , f a m i l y backgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma j or
a r e a o f s t udy?
4.
Cy c l i n g

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e Rolestress

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x,

race,

of undergraduate

f a m i l y backgr ound,

class

students

and

standing,

and

marriage

Per­

ma j o r a r e a o f s t u d y ?
5.
s onal

Are t h e r e

Norms

stress

relationships

bet ween d u a l - c a r e e r

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

and t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x ,
and ma j o r a r e a o f s t u d y ?

race,

of

undergraduate

f a m i l y b a c kgr ound,

class

students
standing,

9
6.

Are

expressed

there

i mp o r t a n c e

relationships

t owar d

and t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x ,

selected

race,

between

undergraduate

occupational

f a m i l y ba c k gr ound,

students’

characteristics
class

standing,

and ma j or a r e a o f s t u dy?
The b a s i s f o r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s i s r o o t e d i n r e s e a r c h by Rapopor t
and

Rapopor t

(1964,

1969,

1971) ,

in

which

these

specific

stress

dil emmas i n d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e s were i d e n t i f i e d and d i s c u s s e d .
was t h e p r e mi s e o f t h i s i n v e s t i g a t o r t h a t ,

It

regardless of the e f f e c t

o f t h e s e v a r i a b l e s on s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e c o l l e g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e
p o p u l a t i o n as
dual-career

a whole has low s t r e s s

marriage

di l emmas.

An

expectations
elaboration

for
of

these
these

known
stress

dil emmas i s p r o v i d e d i n t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w.

S i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e Study
Several
institution

psychologists

Rather,

pendi ng

have
doom.

is

such

no l o n g e r

a decision

considered

may be

viewed

as

and e mot i onal w e l l - b e i n g .

differences

prevail

couples

continue

and

it

The

taboo

maintaining psychological

divorce,

viewed

the

rise

s e p a r a t i o n has c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h i s o p i n i o n .

of marriage

society.

sociologists

o f m a r r i a g e as one f a c i n g

d i v o r c e and m a r i t a l
dissolving

and

has

to

been

as

evidenced

a

leading

that

in which t h e w i f e i s a p r o f e s s i o n a l

the
is

in

in
The

American

necessary

in

Irreconcilable

justification
divorce

rate

higher than

for
among

in the

g e n e r a l p o p u l a t i o n (Berman, Sacks , & L i e f , 1975) .
Those
statistics,

in

the

mental

health

arena

must

look

beyond

which a r e me r e l y symptoms o f t h e u n d e r l y i n g p r obl e m.

the
A

10
couple’s

inability

to

resolve

marital

m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f numerous i s s u e s .
ineffective

coping

skills,

unchallenged

predispositions,

conflict

can

indicate

the

Thi s i n c l u d e s poor communi cat i on,

lack

of

and

r e s u l t o f such pr obl ems i s m a r i t a l

preparation

unrealistic

for

marriage,

expectations.

The

d i s c o r d t h a t may seem u n b e a r a b l e

f o r bot h p a r t n e r s .
These i s s u e s s t r e s s t h e c r u c i a l
intervention
career

and

marriage.

preparation

focusing

Amatea and Cr os s

t h a t most l i t e r a t u r e
the prevalent

a t t e n t i o n needed f o r p r e v e n t i v e
on

the

(1983)

challenge

presented

regarding d u a l -c a r e e r marriage

stressors

and c o n f l i c t .

of

the

has

More a t t e n t i o n

dual-

position

f o c u s e d on
needs t o

d i r e c t e d t oward p r e v e n t i v e s t r a t e g i e s t h a t d u a l - c a r e e r c o u p l e s ,
counselors,

can

implement

to

address

these

known

be
and

stressors.

Concerns such as i d e n t i f i c a t i o n o f s k i l l s n e c e s s a r y f o r co p i n g wi t h
this lifestyle,

as well as a t t e n t i o n t o how t h e s e s k i l l s can b e s t be

m a s t e r e d , now become a ma j o r g o a l .
One

major

individuals

effort

who

relationship.

are

toward

likely

For t h i s

this

to

goal

become

reason,

the

students will

requiring

c o mmi t me n t

anticipation

for

typically

college

mobility.

identify
in

a

as
By

those

dual-career

undergraduate

student

It is the w r i t e r ’ s b e l ie f

seek c a r e e r - o r i e n t e d

a nd t r a i n i n g ,

upward

to

involved

p o p u l a t i o n was s i n g l e d o u t in t h i s s t u d y .
that these

is

well
their

as

employment

demonstrate

presence

in

an

higher

e d u c a t i o n , t h e s e s t u d e n t s , bot h male and f e ma l e , have a l r e a d y made a
statement
force.

a bout

their

Th i s p r e mi s e ,

desire

for

white-collar

c o u p l e d wi t h t h e c u r r e n t

roles

in

the

work

knowledge r e g a r d i n g

11

dual-career

marriage,

makes

educational

institutions

it

increasingly

address t h i s

important

i s s u e and be g i n

that
to

higher

focus

on

p r e p a r a t i o n o f t h e i r s t u d e n t body f o r t h i s l i f e s t y l e .
It

is

equally

education to
a bout

any

important

know t h e i r

similarities

for

counselors

and

those

in

s t u d e n t body.

Having

increased

or

among

individuals

differences

higher

knowledge
in

the

undergraduat e s t u d e n t pop ul at ion will a s s i s t in b e t t e r under standi ng
of,

and s e r v i c e s

for,

higher educational
productive
Correct

these students.

is the r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of

i n s t i t u t i o n s t o p r o v i d e t h e most s t i m u l a t i n g and

en v i r o n me n t

us age

It

of the

in

order

results

to

foster

generated

student

from t h i s

de ve l o p me n t .

study will

help

ac c o mp l i s h t h i s g o a l .

The P o p u l a t i o n and Sub. i ects
The p o p u l a t i o n

for

this

s t udy c o n s i s t e d

male and f e ma l e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s .

of

approximately

The s t u d e n t s

selected

150
for

t h i s s t u d y were t h o s e who were c u r r e n t l y e n r o l l e d a t Mi chi gan S t a t e
University,

a 4-year,

population

of

approximately

predominantly white

undergraduate
41,000.

Because

institution.

students
of

the

at

this

large

The t o t a l

university

size

of

the

was

target

p o p u l a t i o n , t h e w r i t e r c o n t a c t e d a s p e c i f i e d r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sampl e.
Pr ocedur e
The

procedure

questionnaire
various

for

gathering

data

in t he classroom s e t t i n g .

undergraduate

classes

in

was

to

adm inister

The i n v e s t i g a t o r

which

diversity

in

a

attended
student

12
enrollment

had been n o t e d .

Th i s

me t hodol ogy a l s o

ensured

return rate.

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e r e q u e s t e d d a t a a b o u t

de mo g r a p h i c s ,

(b)

and ( c )

expectations

expectations

The

regarding

questionnaire

alternative
c o mp l e t e .

items

regarding

a nd

the

included
took

specific

Likert-type

approximately

s t u d e n t s ’ (a)

stress

occupational

a hi gh

di l emmas,

setting.

items

7 to

and

10

fixed-

minutes

to

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was d e v e l o p e d by S e n g e r - D i c k i n s o n

and

S t e w a r t ( 1988) .

S l i g h t m o d i f i c a t i o n s were made f o r us e s p e c i f i c a l l y

in t h i s

The q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p r e t e s t e d

study.

and r e f i n e d b e f o r e

i t was a d m i n i s t e r e d t o t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s .
D e l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e St udy
Thi s

research

students
placed

at
on

standing,

Michi gan

concerned
State

the

influence

and

ma j or

expectations
effects

was

race,
of

study

generalized.

variables

As a r e s u l t ,
can

expectations
universities.

of

be

very

in

the

career-life

undergraduate
concern

b a c kgr o und,

stress

and

With t h i s

class

occupational

focus,

populations

was

can

probable

be

greatly

t h e f i n d i n g s g e n e r a t e d from t h e s t u d i e d
useful

findings

c o u n s e l o r s a t many i n s t i t u t i o n s
for

family

on

similar

undergraduate
The

with

Particular

sex,

in a d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e .

of these

population

University.

of

area

specifically

preparation

in

assessing

students
will

in

assist

the

attitudes

and

colleges

and

adm inistrators

and

similar

i n which t h e r e i s a s p e c i a l
of

undergraduate

concern

students.

i n f o r m a t i o n summarized a bout t h e i r a t t i t u d e s can be used by a l l
p l a y a r o l e i n t h e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t ’ s p e r s o n a l de ve l o p me n t .

The
who

13

T e s t a b l e Hypot hes es
The f o l l o w i n g h y p o t h e s e s were t e s t e d i n t h i s s t u d y :
Hypothesis
1 : Ther e a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween
dual-career
m a r r i a g e Over l oad s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
s e x , r a c e , f a m i l y backgr ound,
c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma j o r a r e a o f s t u d y .
Hypothesis
2 : Ther e a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween
dual-career
m a r r i a g e S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, r ac e , family
ba c kgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y .
Hypothesis
3 : Ther e a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween
dual-career
m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
s e x , r a c e , f a m i l y backgr ound,
c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma j o r a r e a o f s t u d y .
Hypothesis
4 : Ther e a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween
dual-career
marriage
Role-Cycling
stress
dilemma
expectations
of
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, r a c e , family
ba c kgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma j o r a r e a o f s t u d y .
Hypothesis
5 : Ther e a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween
dual-career
m a r r i a g e P e r s o n a l Norms s t r e s s d i l e m m a e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, r a c e , family
ba c kgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y .
Hypothesis 6 :
Ther e a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween u n d e r g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t s ’ expressed importance of s e l e c t e d o ccu p atio n al
c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s a nd e a c h v a r i a b l e :
sex,
race,
family
ba c kgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y .
The
Mi chi gan

source
State

of

occupational

used

University

questionnaire.
demographic

data

This

data,

as

for

testing

undergraduate

questionnaire
well

as

these

students’
was

specific

hypotheses
responses

designed
stress

to

was
to

a

obtain

dilemma

and

s e t t i n g e x p e c t a t i o n s in a d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e .

Given t h a t

the

intent

of th is

s t u d y was t o d e t e r m i n e wh e t h e r

s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s e x i s t e d bet ween gr oup members
on i d e n t i f i e d d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e s ,

analysis of variance

(ANOVA) was

14
used as a s t a t i s t i c a l t o o l when more t h a n two gr oup means were bei ng
compared.

The d e c i s i o n t o us e a one-way ANOVA, r a t h e r t h a n m u l t i p l e

t - t e s t s f o r s e v e r a l gr oup c o m p a r i s o n s , was an a t t e m p t t o r e d u c e t h e
chance

of

making

Type

I

errors

and t o

reduce

statistical

labor.

P os t hoc p r o c e d u r e s (Tukey) were co mpl et e d t o i d e n t i f y t h e s p e c i f i c
gr o u p s

for

which

significant

prevailed.I - t e s t s
c o m p a r e d . The
significance.

were

.05

differences

on

employed when o n l y

critical

level

In a d d i t i o n ,

dependent

variables

two g r o u p s were t o be

was

used

in

testing

for

summary s t a t i s t i c s were used t o f u r t h e r

examine c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e s t u d y sampl e.

D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms
In t h i s s t u d y , t h e f o l l o w i n g t e r ms a r e used and a r e now d e f i n e d
for clarity.
Career.

Work t h a t

amount o f t r a i n i n g ,

and

involves personal

commit ment,

a

a f u t u r e with t he

anticipation

certain

of

upward

mobility.
Dual-career marriage.
life

span

familial,

affected
and

gender

economic m a i n t e n a n c e ,

by

Purposeful

the

roles

work o f two a d u l t s

interaction

of

and d i r e c t e d

at

and t h e

gr owt h

of the

vocational,
personal

over th e
marital,

a c h i e v e me n t ,

individual,

marriage,

f a m i l y , and s o c i e t y (O’ N e i l , Fishman, & K i n s e l l a - S h a w , 1987) .
Dual-earner

family.

A situation

in

which

b ot h

spouses

are

employed i n t h e work f o r c e , bu t one s p o u s e ’ s o c c u p a t i o n i s s e c o n d a r y
i n i mp o r t a n c e t o t h e o t h e r ’ s .

15
Expectations.

The ment al a t t i t u d e o f a n t i c i p a t i n g t h e a c t u a l ­

i t y of a s i t u a t i o n or occurrence.
Selected occupational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
work t h a t

provide

flexibility

responsibilities

and

Those f e a t u r e s o f o n e ’ s

and a l l o w a n c e

i n v ol ve me nt

in maint ai ni ng

(child-care

assistance,

family

released

t i m e , s p o u s a l a s s i s t a n c e f o r r e l o c a t i o n , and so o n ) .
Stress.

A response s t a t e or c o n d i t i o n o f a person s ub je ct e d to

ment al a n d / o r p h y s i c a l
Traditional

influences or pressures.

family.

A situation

i n which t h e male s pous e

employed i n t h e work f o r c e and t h e f ema l e s pous e s t a y s

is

i n t h e home

and assumes d o me s t i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
Overview
The

purpose

Chapter I.
Chapter

and

Res ear c h
II

need

for

hypotheses

presents

a

this

study

were

presented

and p r o c e d u r e were a l s o

review

of

relevant

provided.

literature.

The

population,

study p a r t i c i p a n t s ,

procedures,

as wel l as t h e d e s i g n and d a t a - a n a l y s i s p r o c e d u r e s ,

discussed

in Ch a p t e r I I I .

results.

Ch a p t e r

discussion

of

Ch a p t e r

V serves

results

instrumentation,

and

as

IV c o n t a i n s

a conclusion

the

providing

in

and d a t a - g a t h e r i n g

an a n a l y s i s
study

are

of the

to

the

of

recommendations.

I m p l i c a t i o n s f o r f u t u r e r e s e a r c h and d i r e c t i o n a r e a d d r e s s e d .

through

CHAPTER II
REVIE W OF THE LITERATURE

Relevant
literature

is

literature
organized

is

reviewed

ar ound

four

in

this

specific

chapter.

topics.

An

The
initial

a t t e m p t i s made t o a d d r e s s t h e work o f Rapopor t and Rap opor t ( 19 69) ,
who have been c r e d i t e d w i t h p i o n e e r i n g d i s c u s s i o n on s t r e s s dilemmas
in t h e d u a l - c a r e e r f a m i l y .

Thi s i s f o l l o we d by d i s c u s s i o n o f copi ng

w i t h and a d j u s t i n g t o d u a l - c a r e e r c o n f l i c t and s t r e s s ; e q u i t y i s s u e s
w i t h a f o c u s on women in d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e ; o c c u p a t i o n a l
issues;

and f i n a l l y ,

setting

r e s e a r c h p a r t i c u l a r l y d ea l i n g with t h e c o l l e g e

s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n and d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e i s p r e s e n t e d .

Rapopor t and Ra popor t - - Pi l e mma s in D u a l - C a r e e r Ma r r i a g e
Rapopor t and Rapopor t

(1969)

shared

their

early

insight

t h e d u a l - c a r e e r f a m i l y would become a p r e v a i l i n g t r e n d
They

stated,

" As s u mi n g

that

post-industrial

in

society.

society

emerges

s t r u c t u r a l l y as a p r e s e n c e bas ed on advance t e c h n o l o g y ,
to

be

shifts"

followed
(p.

postindustrial

by

3).

a

variety

They

went

issues.

consequent

further

by

i t is likely

structural
stating

and

that

in

value
this

s e t t i n g , husband and w i f e w i l l e x p e r i e n c e an emphasi s

on s h a r i n g and c o l l a b o r a t i n g
life

of

that

As a r e s u l t ,

i n d e c i s i o n making and g e n e r a l

each f a m i l y member w i l l

16

family

be a b l e a l s o t o

17
s h a r e i n t h e r e wa r d s t h a t come from e x t e r n a l

family a c t i v i t i e s .

th e ir writing,

acceptance

t h e y have

stressed that

the

In

o f cha ng i ng

mal e and f e ma l e r o l e s i s b ot h n e c e s s a r y and p r o b l e m a t i c .
Rapopor t
theoretical
family.

and Ra p opor t p r o v i d e d what has
base fo r

Through

stress

close

family

s t r e s s were i d e n t i f i e d .
defined

through

factors

been

affecting

studies,

five

accepted
the

ma j o r

as

the

dual-career
dimensions

of

These a r e a s o f dil emmas were i d e n t i f i e d and

intense

interviewing

of

16

dual-career

families.

Th r e e o f t h e 16 were d i s t i n c t i n t h e f a c t t h a t t h e w i f e had e l e c t e d
to

discontinue

her

career

role

and

i n v o l v e me n t .

The

couples

s e l e c t e d f o r t h e s t u d y were i n t e n d e d a l s o t o r e p r e s e n t a wide r a ng e
of careers.
Ov e r l o a d

The f i v e ma j or d i me n s i o n s o f s t r e s s

Dilemma,

Personal

Norm Dilemma,

identified

Identity

include

Dilemma,

Social

Network Dilemma, and R o l e - C y c l i n g Dilemma.
Ov e r l o a d

Dilemma

Ov e r l oa d Dilemma s p e c i f i c a l l y a d d r e s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t when bot h
husband

and

wife

are

career

domestic t a s k s as w e l l .
household c hor es ,
result,

but

oriented,

they

inevitably

Thi s n o t o nl y i n c l u d e s

child-rearing

activities

share

in

t h e completion

of

in a d d i t i o n .

As a

t h e s e demands a r e seen as overwhel mi ng and t y p i f y what has

been t e r med t h e

" Ove r l oad Dilemma. "

Rapopor t

and Rapopor t

(1969)

found t h a t t h e Ove r l oa d Dilemma i s a f u n c t i o n o f f o u r f a c t o r s :
1.

The d e g r e e t o which ha vi ng c h i l d r e n

d i s t i n c t from s i mpl y b e i n g m a r r i e d ) i s s a l i e n t .

and a f a m i l y l i f e

(as

18
2.

The d e g r e e t o which t h e c o u p l e a s p i r e t o a hi gh s t a n d a r d o f

d o me s t i c l i v i n g .
3.

The d e g r e e t o which s a t i s f a c t o r y a r r a n g e m e n t s f o r r e a p p o r ­

tionment of t a s k s are p o s s i b l e .
4.
and

The d e g r e e t o which t h e s h e e r p h y s i c a l

their

apportionment

is

adumbrat ed

by

a

overload of tasks

social-psychological

overload.
In t h e i r s t u d y ,

Rapopor t and Rapopor t found t h a t

wi t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f one,
rearing

as

highly

salient.

stress

and c o n c e r n

career

status

These

couples

assist

in

would

More

regard

have

expressed

in t h i s

pr esented general

to

on t h e i r

emot i onal

children

a hesitancy

dil emma.

family l i f e

specifically,
the

to

all

and c h i l d

the

couples

felt

effect

their

dual-

and

use

couples,

quality

outside

of

life.

resources

Rapoport and Rapopor t c o n c l u d e d t h a t

to
the

Ov e r l oa d Dilemma i n t h i s r e s p e c t i s " not a s i mp l e a r i t h m e t i c one o f
increased
assess,
concern"

number

of

tasks

.

.

.

but

one

far

more

which i s r e l a t e d t o t h e d u a l i t y o f emot i onal

difficult

to

commitment and

(p. 9 ) .

The s econd f a c t o r

affecting

t h e Ove r l oa d

Dilemma p e r t a i n s

to

t h e d u a l - c a r e e r c o u p l e ’ s a s p i r a t i o n s f o r a hi gh s t a n d a r d o f l i v i n g .
Coupl es i n t h e s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t a s p i r i n g t o a hi gh s t a n d a r d o f
living
domestic

increased
life.

aspirations,

the
It

complexity

was

stressed

of maintaining
that

attempting

a satisfactory
to

reduce

these

as a means o f r e s o l u t i o n , was viewed as be i n g i n d i r e c t

opp osition to the ideal

of "career success."

Rapopor t and Rapopor t

s t a t e d t h a t t h i s s i t u a t i o n is a c i r c u l a r process in t h a t as p ir i n g to

19

higher living

standards

is

tied

into

t h e need t o d i r e c t

increased

e n e r g i e s i n t o c a r e e r d e v e l o p me n t .
The t h i r d p r e v a i l i n g f a c t o r i s r e l a t e d t o t h e c o u p l e ’ s a b i l i t y
to delegate
s y s t e ms ,

f a m i l y and d o m e s t i c t a s k s

"others"

responsibility.
delegated

to

experienced

include

children

others.

who a r e

In some f a m i l y
of

age

to

assume

A s s i s t a n c e from h e l p e r s o u t s i d e t h e f a m i l y a l s o was

assume
by

c o mb i n a t i o n o f
the

may

to

this

the

responsibility.

couple

(a)

the

acceptability

of

in

ability
the

this

The

amount

instance,

of

stress

however,

to acquire these resources

quality

and

quantity

of

is
and

a
(b)

available

resources.
Last,
Rapopor t

the

Over l oad

described

as

Dilemma
the

of varied

down

the

earlier:

four

of

a factor

physical

constant confronting
into

is

exertion

conflict.

general

o f what

experienced

Thi s

components

Rapopor t

conflict

of

stress

by

is

and
the

br oken

me nt i oned

n o r ma t i v e c o n f l i c t ,

s e x - r o l e i d e n t i t y m a i n t e n a n c e , net wor k

management, and r o l e c y c l i n g .

I t was p o i n t e d ou t t h a t t h e amount o f

stress
which

experienced
these

areas

by t h e
of

couples

conflict

varies,

affect

the

as

does

family

the

s ys t em,

extent
and

to
the

d e g r e e t o which t h e c o u p l e e f f e c t i v e l y cope wi t h t h e c o n f l i c t .
P e r s o n a l Norms Dilemma
The second ma j o r di me n s i o n o f s t r e s s i d e n t i f i e d by Rapopor t and
Ra popor t

is

that

of

a

P e r s ona l

Dilemma i s d e s c r i b e d as t h e
and what one f e e l s

Norms

conflict

society thinks

Dilemma.

Personal

Norms

bet ween what one want s t o do

h e / s h e s h o u l d do.

The women i n

20

the study presented t h i s
childbirth
Rapoport

and

career

and Rapopor t

dilemma o v e r whe l mi ngl y.
development

emphasi zed t h a t

and assumi ng " t r a d i t i o n a l

to diverge

t h i s dil emma.

from t h e i r

the

prevailing

discontinuing

d o me s t i c r o l e s "

t h i n g t o do i n American s o c i e t y .
opt e d

was

The c o n f l i c t

of

issue.

their

careers

a r e viewed as t h e p r o p e r

However, t h e c o u p l e s in t h e s t u d y

traditional

roles

as

a resolution

to

Sekar an (1986) p o i n t e d o u t t h a t s o c i e t y i s g e n e r a l l y

no t s u p p o r t i v e o f n o n t r a d i t i o n a l
pressures

are

placed

lifestyle

that

families.

on d u a l - c a r e e r

members

i s not commensurate wi t h

men and women must deal

wi t h

issues

i m p o r t a n t t o them v e r s u s s o c i e t y .

As a r e s u l t ,
who opt

traditional

that

additional

to

assume

values.

Both

i n v o l v e d e f i n i n g what

In a d d i t i o n ,

concerns

a

is

regarding

child-rearing practices also arise.
Rapopor t and Rapopor t

identified

three

instances,

however,

in

which t h e P e r s ona l Norms v e r s u s S o c i a l Norms Dilemma i s r e a c t i v a t e d :
1.

At

critical

transition

points

in

the

family

life

cycle

( p a r t i c u l a r l y b i r t h of t h e f i r s t c h i l d ) .
2.

At c r i t i c a l

tra n s itio n points

in t he c a r e e r l i f e

cycle of

e i t h e r p a r t n e r ( r o l e e n l a r g e me n t o r c o n t r a c t i o n ) .
3.

At c r i t i c a l

e v e n t s in t h e l i f e s p a c e o f t h e c h i l d r e n

(ill­

n e s s , school pr obl ems , and so o n ) .

I d e n t i t y Dilemma
The t h i r d maj or di me ns i on o f s t r e s s d i s c u s s e d by Rapopor t
Rapopor t

is

entitled

Dilemma

of

Identity.

When

addressing

and
the

Dilemma o f I d e n t i t y , f o c u s i s p l a c e d on t h e b a s i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f

21

the s e lf .
"bad"

More s p e c i f i c a l l y ,

is

dealt

with.

In

t h e p o l a r i t y bet ween b e i n g "good" o r
compar i s on

to

the

Nor mat i ve

Dilemma,

Rapoport and Rapopor t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e I d e n t i t y Dilemma " i s
deeper

level

arising

and

over

dilemmas

more

specific

st ems

from

internally

generated

behavioral

the

than

patterns.

socio-cultural

.

.

the
.

conflicts

Th i s

definitions

of

that

spouses

a s s u me

dev e l opme nt .

These g e n d e r

nontraditional

roles

are

internalized

roles

they are

prevail

likely

to

as

by

set
work

f a m i l y as i n t r i n s i c a l l y m a s c u l i n e and f e mi n i n e " ( p. 1 5 ) .
roles

them

in

the

of
and

The ge n d e r
early

in

wi t h

the

conflicting

assume

at a

dual-career

sys t em.
It
fulfill

was

found t h a t

women

t h e i r individual

in

the

identities.

study

used

their

to

individual.
that

be

creative,

It

is

the

interesting,

" whi l e autonomy i s

and o t h e r w i s e - - i t

and

to

S p e c i f i c a l l y , t h e women i n t h e

study indi cat ed t h a t t h e i r ca re er s provided f in a n c ia l
ability

careers

feeling

however,

of

security,

effectiveness

t h a t the authors

as

the
an

stressed

a p r omi ne nt p a r t - - f i n a n c i a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l

i s coupled with ,

r a t h e r than excl usi ve

from,

the

Rapopor t

and

wish t o be i n t e r d e p e n d e n t wi t h t h e i r hus bands " (p. 1 6 ) .

S o c i a l Network Dilemma
The
Rapopor t

Social
as

the

Network

Dilemma

fourth

di mens i on

marriage.

In

this

obligations,

desires,

instance,
and

was
of

the

presented
stress
issue

responsibilities

by

in
of

is

the

dual-career

balancing
the

p r i ma r y

social
focus.

22
The b a l a n c i n g o f t h e s e v a r i e d s o c i a l n et wor ks i s a l s o c o m p l i c a t e d by
t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e Over l oad Dilemma.
Social
in-laws

obligations

that

involve

become p a r t

those

and p a r c e l

commitments t o

of marriage.

relatives

Thi s

s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e o b l i g a t i o n s may no t a l s o be d e s i r a b l e ;

is

or

not

to

however,

t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y ma i n t e n a n c e o f such net wor ks becomes emi nent i n t h e
dual-career

marriage.

Social

desires

portray

the

types

of

f r i e n d s h i p s one e s t a b l i s h e s o u t o f p e r s o n a l d e s i r e and f u l f i l l m e n t .
The

nature

of

the

dual-career

marriage

generally

makes

f r i e n d s h i p s more s e l e c t i v e t h a n n a t u r a l l y o c c u r r i n g .

It

was

these
also

o b s e r v e d in Rapopor t and R a p o p o r t ’ s s t u d y t h a t t h e c o u p l e s t e n d e d t o
form

these

difference

friendships
deviates

establishment

on

from

a couple

the

basis.

traditional

This

pattern

in which male and f emal e c o h o r t s

qualitative
of

friendship

a r e more d i s t i n c t l y

di v i d e d .
The c r u c i a l c o n c e r n wi t h t h e S o c i a l Network Dilemma becomes t h e
shortage
Limitations

of

time
on

to

t i me

be

to

with

enjoy

and

friends,
pursue

family,
personal

and

spouse.

interests

also

p r e s e n t s i g n i f i c a n t s t r e s s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r members.

R o l e - C y c l i n g Dilemma
F i n a l l y , t h e Ro l e - Cy c l i n g Dilemma was d i s c u s s e d by Rapopor t and
Rapopor t as t h e f i f t h

s t r e s s d i me n s i o n .

in t h e m i d s t o f t h r e e r o l e s y s t e ms :
s p o u s e and (c)

The d u a l - c a r e e r c o u p l e i s

(a & b) t h e work s ys t em o f each

t h e f a m i l y s ys t em i n which bot h a r e

involved.

The

d i v e r s i t y demands from each r o l e s ys t e m, and t h e c o u p l e ’ s i n d i v i d u a l

23
ability

to

resolve,

determine

Rapopor t and Rapopor t

(1963,

the

1964,

degree

of

stress

experienced.

1966) posed i n e a r l i e r w r i t i n g s

t h a t t h e r e e x i s t v a r i o u s pha s e s o f t h e l i f e c y c l e t h a t s p e c i f i c a l l y
a d d r e s s t h e f a m i l y r o l e s yst em:
Anticipatory--Efforts

are

t owar d

preparation

for

assumi ng

a

r o l e in t h e d u a l - c a r e e r s ys t em.
Establishment- - E ffo rts
one’s r o le .

Thi s

are

t owar d

maintaining

stability

phas e i s g e n e r a l l y n o t e d by h e i g h t e n e d

in

interest

and i n v o l v e me n t .
Plateau--This

is

referred

to

as a s t e a d y - s t a t e

in which

full

e f f o r t s a r e maximized t o r o l e f u l f i l l m e n t .
P i s e n g a g e m e n t - - The p o i n t a t which a r o l e

i s no l o n g e r p r e s e n t

due t o e i t h e r v o l u n t a r y d e c i s i o n s o r f o r c e d c i r c u m s t a n c e s .
The

couples

in

Rapopor t

and

Rapoport’s

p r e d o m i n a n t l y in t h e p l a t e a u ph a s e .
t h a t t h e c o u p l e s were m a r r i e d ,
ma xi mal l y

e ngagi ng

in

conflict

relating

to

categories:

all
role

(b)

roles.

systems

fell

in t h e home,
They

also

within

(a) c o n f l i c t between t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l

and w i f e and t h e i r f a m i l y r o l e s

study

were

Thi s was e v i d e n c e d by t h e f a c t

with c h i l d r e n

family

(1969)

and were

found

two

that

distinct

r o l e s o f husband

( C a r e e r - F a m i l y Cy c l i n g Dilemma)

c o n f l i c t between t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l

or

r o l e s o f t h e husband and t h e

o c c u p a t i o n a l r o l e s o f t h e w i f e ( D u a l - C a r e e r Cyc l i n g Dilemma).

Coping With and A d j u s t i n g t o S t r e s s and C o n f l i c t
Bebbi ngt on (1973) p o s i t e d t h a t t e n s i o n and s t r e s s i n t h e d u a l c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e do n o t n e c e s s a r i l y imply somet hi ng u n d e s i r a b l e .

In

24
h i s s t u d y o f 14 d u a l - c a r e e r c o u p l e s ,
traditional

family

ultim ately

undesirable.

conventional

f a m i l y were q u i t e n e g a t i v e .

the

dual-career

lifestyle

would

i t was t h e c o n s e n s u s t h a t t h e

The

system

was

i nde ed

be

couples’

both

more

stressful

perceptions

of

and
the

The d e c i s i o n t o engage in

purposeful

and

desirable.

Bebb i ngt on c o n c l u d e d t h a t ,
While t h e s o u r c e s o f s t r a i n i n h e r e n t i n t h e d u a l - c a r e e r f a m i l y
seem t o g e n e r a t e a hi gh d e g r e e o f s t r e s s r e l a t i v e t o t h e
t r a d i t i o n a l p a t te r n , the d u al-c areer couples, p a r t i c u l a r l y the
w i v e s , do n o t seem t o f e e l t h a t t h e t r a d i t i o n a l f a m i l y
s t r u c t u r e would n e c e s s a r i l y o f f e r freedom from s t r e s s , ( p. 535)
Bebbi ngt on p r oc e e de d t o make a d i s t i n c t i o n bet ween two k i n d s o f
s t r e s s l i k e l y t o o c c u r in any g i v e n l i f e s t y l e :
1.

That d e r i v i n g from an u n s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s o l u t i o n o f c o n f l i c t
as bet ween i d e a l s and b e h a v i o r ; and

2.

That d e r i v i n g from i n t r i n s i c p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e l i f e s t y l e ,
t hough i d e a l s and b e h a v i o r may be c o n s i s t e n t , ( p. 535)

The l a t t e r i s q u i t e i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e s t r e s s o c c u r r i n g i n t h e d u a l c a re e r marriage.

In t h i s

regard,

stress

typically

experienced

in

t h e d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e i s i n h e r e n t i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h e s y s t e m, as
opposed t o what Bebbi ngt on t ermed a "mere s i d e - e f f e c t . "
Gilbert

and Ra c h l i n

stress

in

parent,

(b) c h i l d c a r e ,

and

(d)

the

(1987)

dual-career

occupational

identified

marriage

as

(a)

significant
whether

sources
and

when

of
to

( c) combi ni ng o c c u p a t i o n a l and f a m i l y r o l e s ,
mobility

and

job

p l a c e me n t .

children d r a s t i c a l l y a f f e c t s the dual-c areer s t r u c t u r e .

The

issue

of

Th i s e f f e c t

i s much more p r of oun d when t h e c o u p l e has n e g l e c t e d t o d i s c u s s such
issues before c hi ld bea ri ng or, b e t t e r y e t , before marriage.

25
The combi ni ng o f o c c u p a t i o n a l
stated

and f a m i l y r o l e s i s a f r e q u e n t l y

c h a l l e n g e and s o u r c e o f s t r e s s

G i l b e r t and Ra c h l i n s t a t e d
involves

e x a mi n a t i o n

of

expressed the po sit i o n

that

this

attitudes
that

for
is

the

dual-career

couple.

an ongoi ng c h a l l e n g e t h a t

and

priorities.

certain conflicts

are

Pleck
inherent

(1983)
in

the

d u a l - c a r e e r s yst em and must be d e a l t w i t h by b ot h s o c i e t y i n g e n e r a l
and t h e

couple

specifically.

Factors

related

to

these

conflicts

were l i s t e d as ( a) t h e g e n d e r s o c i a l i z a t i o n o f each s p o u s e ,
i mp o r t a n c e each s pouse a t t r i b u t e s t o o c c u p a t i o n a l
( c)

the integration of these

s pous e

individually

t h e s pou s e s

on t h e

roles

that

and by t h e c o u p l e ,

satisfaction

on t h e

and f a m i l y r o l e s ,

has been a c h i e v e d by each
(d)

i mp o r t a n c e a t t r i b u t e d

(b) t h e

to

role

the

c on g r u e n c e

bet ween

f a m i l y and work r o l e s

and t h e i r

mutual

allocation

achieved

in

practice,

(e) s p o u s e s ’ s t a g e s i n t h e c a r e e r and l i f e c y c l e s , and ( f )

s o c ie t a l supports for parenting.
Nadel son and Nadel son (1980) pu t f o r t h t h e p o s i t i o n t h a t d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e s r e q u i r e an a d a p t a t i o n t h a t i s no t commensurat e wi t h
more c o n v e n t i o n a l

marriages.

D e c i s i o n making and a p p o r t i o n i n g

r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s become more complex in t h i s s ys t e m.

of

These a u t h o r s

f u r t h e r s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e c o n f l i c t and d i s c o r d e x p e r i e n c e d by dual ca r e e r couples
influences.

i s a p r o d u c t o f bot h i n t r a p s y c h i c
"Issues

of competition,

jealousy,

and s o c i o c u l t u r a l
and

unrealized

e x p e c t a t i o n s o r f a i l u r e t o r e s o l v e depende ncy pr obl ems from t h e p a s t
play

a

part

in

c o n c e r n s " (p. 9 7 ) .

addition

to

administrative

and

reality-oriented

26
Co mp e t i t i o n
Nadel s on

as

a

was

more

ma j or

thoroughly

conflict

in

i n s t a n c e s i n which bot h p a r t n e r s
setting,

the

issue

discussed

the

by

dual-career

Nadel s on

and

marriage.

In

a r e employed i n t h e same f i e l d o r

of competition

is

more

critical.

Co mp e t i t i o n

r e s u l t s i n c o n f l i c t " i f t h e c h a r a c t e r s t y l e s and d i s p o s i t i o n s o f t h e
partner

make

statement

is

compromise
the

difficult"

a s s u mp t i o n

that

( p.

10 0 ) .

compromise

Inherent

is

the

in

this

o n l y means

of

resolution for this conflict.
Nadel s on and Nadel son a l s o spoke t o t h e c o n f l i c t o f work needs
versus
parallel

personal

needs.

those

presented

Ove r l o a d Dilemma.
psychological
these

concerns

by Rapopor t

However,

issues

couples,

The

Nadel son

dual-career

wor k

be c o me s

addressed
and

an

Rapopor t

and Nadel son

couples

in

regard

(1969)

as

the

highlighted

the

present.

For

frequently

acceptable

this

escape

mechanism.

Submergi ng o n e ’ s s e l f i n t o o n e ’ s work p r o v e s t o be a common way o f
d e a l i n g w i t h f a m i l y p r o b l e ms , a n x i e t y , and d e p r e s s i o n .
and a c h i e v e me n t become a s o l e p r i o r i t y ,
f a m i l y d i s c o r d mount.

The a u t h o r s

Career focus

thereby l e t t i n g marital

c o n c l ude d

by acknowl e dgi ng

i mp o r t a n c e o f t h e c o u p l e ’ s r e c o g n i z i n g and p r o c e s s i n g

and
the

the c o n f l i c t

in t h e i r r e l a t i o n s h i p .
Se i de n (1980) p u t f o r t h t h e a s s umpt i on t h a t t i me management i s
a key a r e a o f c o n f l i c t f o r a l l m a r r i e d c o u p l e s and even more so f o r
the d u a l -c a r e e r couple.

The a u t h o r a s s e r t e d t h a t

lack of control

o v e r work s c h e d u l e s f o r bot h p a r t n e r s i s p r o b l e m a t i c , as i s t h e f a c t
that

pursuing

demands.

"careers"

versus

"jobs"

suggests

increased

Seiden f u r t h e r s t a t e d t h a t f o r couples pursuing

time

careers,

27

issues

regarding

s e l f and p e r s o n a l

life

are t i e d

i n more c l o s e l y .

Each s pous e f i n d s

i t d i f f i c u l t t o n e g o t i a t e t h e mut ual

t i me

work

invested

in

and

the

t i me

invested

in

b e n e f i t s of

personal

life.

C o mp e t i t i o n bet ween p a r t n e r s in how b e s t t o n e g o t i a t e t h e s e f a c t o r s
surfaces

as

management
master.

a

source

becomes
She t h e n

of

conflict.

a crucial
presented

Seiden

skill

that

concluded

dual-career

strategies

for

identification

and e x a m i n a t i o n

of

t i me

couples

must

intervention

t e a c h i n g t i me management t o d u a l - c a r e e r c o u p l e s .
involve

that

aimed

at

These s t r a t e g i e s

values,

priorities,

and

reality constraints.
Lawe

and

Lawe

relationships

from

perspective.

(1980)
an

addressed

conflict

interindividual

Accor di ng t o t h e s e a u t h o r s ,

d i f f e r e n c e s in p h i l o s o p h y and p e r c e p t i o n s ,
satisfaction,
time.

They

further

stated

writing,

communi cat i on,
the

that

the

psychological

presented case s tu d ie s

procedure,

and

dual-career

intraindividual

c o n f l i c t may r e s u l t
l a c k o f emo t i o n a l

and u n r e s o l v e d c o n t e n t c e n t e r i n g on p e r s o n a l

fa c t o r of individual

their

in

intensity

of

resolution

negotiation,
process

of

and

involves

a g r e e me n t .

conflict

s pa c e and
is

a

Lawe and Lawe
resolution.

three

basic

Al t hough

resolution

needs,

conflict

predispositions.

and t e c h n i q u e s f o r c o n f l i c t

conflict

from

may

In

steps:

s i mp l e
pr ove

in

quite

complex and t i me consumi ng.
Eq u i t y I s s u e s
Much a t t e n t i o n
d u a l - c a r e e r marriage.

has
It

been

given

to

the

f e ma l e

partner

in

the

i s t h e o p i n i o n s t a t e d by many r e s e a r c h e r s

28

( Be b b i n g t o n ,

1973;

G ilb e rt & Rachlin,

J o h n s o n , 1980) t h a t i t
d u a l - c a r e e r marriages
of

co p i n g

is

1983;

Intervention

revealed th a t

it

sacrifices

maintain

J ohnson

&

t h e woman who b e a r s much o f t h e burden in

i n t h e form o f r o l e c o n f l i c t

strategies.

to

1987; Gray,

i s most

likely

wi t h

and devel opment

dual-career

couples

has

t h e woman who must make p e r s o n a l

marital

harmony.

These

options

typically

i n v o l v e r e d u c e d i nv o l v e me n t i n p r o f e s s i o n a l / c a r e e r a c t i v i t i e s .
S c h r o e d e r (1985) p r e s e n t e d t h e o p i n i o n t h a t
force

structure

in America makes

it

the present

e a s i e r f o r women t o

work and f a m i l y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s t h a n i t i s f o r men.
with t h i s

c a r e e r marriage implies the sharing of these r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .

As a

partners

are

trend

is

that

the

The d i f f i c u l t y
dual-

the general

however,

negotiate

the

result,

premise,

wor k­

very n a t u r e

of

has been t o d e l a y havi ng c h i l d r e n

established

in t h e i r

ca re er s (Daniels

until

& We i n g a r t e n ,

1982) .
Bl ock (1984) c l a i me d t h a t t h e c h i l d h o o d and s o c i a l
of

women

d e p e nde nc e ,

generally

fosters

and commitment.

f o s t e r i n g of independence,
in

men.

G ilbert

characteristics

characteristics

Th i s

Rachlin

fostered

i n men

found

to

conflict

f o r women r e s u l t s

in d i r e c t

self-directedness,

a nd

factors

is

contribute

to

( 1987)
are

nurturance,

opposition

to

the

and f r eedom o f s p i r i t

c o mme nt e d

that

more commensur at e

career

as t h e r e

of

devel opment

success.

As

these

with
a

the

result,

i s a g r a v e d i s c r e p a n c y bet ween

e a r l y s o c i a l devel opment and p r e s e n t d e s i r e s .

29
Ac c o r d i n g
experienced
higher

to

J ohns on

by women i n

than

that

and

J ohnson

(1980),

the

the d u a l -c a r e e r marriage

experienced

by

their

male

is

role

strain

significantly

counterparts.

The

a u t h o r s s t a t e d t h a t " t h e d e l e g a t i o n o f some r o l e s ( a s a t e c h n i q u e t o
reduce r o l e s t r a i n )
psychological
14 4) .

i s more d i f f i c u l t f o r c a r e e r mo t h e r s due t o bot h

and s o c i a l

pressures

which

J oh ns on and J ohnson went on t o

woman

has

several

options,

all

state

resulting

They i n d i c a t e d t h a t a t a "minimal l e v e l
elect

to

put

all

efforts

m a r r i a g e and mot her hood.
a woman may d e c i d e

to

t owar d

gender
that

in

specific"

accept

t h e young c a r e e r

personal

sacrifice.

o f c o m p l e x i t y , " a woman may

career

the

a c h i e v e me n t

responsibility

t o have c h i l d r e n .

would be t o c y c l e t h e i r r o l e s .

and

of

simultaneously.

The

authors

roles simultaneously is s h o rt-li v e d .

The maximum l e v e l

i nv o l v e me n t

us e

which

however,
in a l l

making such c i r c u m s t a n c e s

J ohnson and J ohnson c o n c l u d e d by p r o v i d i n g
may

marriage,

The o v e r l o a d dilemma d i s c u s s e d

by Ra pop or t and Rapopor t (1969) p r e v a i l s ,

women

marries,

e mp h a s i z e d ,

r e s e a r c h has shown t h a t m a i n t a i n i n g a c t i v e

strategies

and

A s econd o p t i o n

o f c o m p l e x i t y i s o b t a i n e d by a t t e m p t i n g t o h a n d l e c a r e e r ,

over whel mi ng.

on

Johnson and J oh ns on d e s c r i b e d t h i s

and t h e n i n t e r r u p t s h e r c a r e e r t o b e a r c h i l d r e n .

that

pass

marriage

c a s e when a woman p u r s u e s h e r c a r e e r a s p i r a t i o n s ,

and mot her hood

(p.

At t h e " i n t e r m e d i a t e l e v e l o f c o m p l e x i t y , "

c a r e e r but f o r e g o t h e d e c i s i o n

as t h e

are

involve

b ot h

adaptive

environmental

and

psychological modification.
Lo p a t a ,

Ba r n e wo l t ,

and Nor r (1980) c omp l e t e d a s t u d y s u r v e y i n g

996 wor ki ng women in t h e Chi cago a r e a ,

74% o f whom were c u r r e n t l y

30

married.

T h e i r i n t e n t i o n was t o examine t h e i n t e r a c t i o n among t h r e e

distinct

roles

empl oyee.

assumed

by

these

F i g u r e 2.1

r o l e s assumed by t h e i r hu s b a n d s .

authors

were

particularly

c o nc e r ne d

wi t h

h e l p i n g b e h a v i o r d e m o n s t r a t e d by t h e s e women t o
of

their

p r e d o mi n a n t
their

and

shows t h e s e r o l e c o m p o s i t i o n s as p r e s e n t e d by Lopat a e t

The

results

wife,

The s t u d y went f u r t h e r by a l s o e v a l u a t i n g t h e p e r c e p t i o n s

o f t h e women t owar d t h e r e c i p r o c a l

al.

women--homemaker,

revealed

that,

in

degree

t h e i r spouses.

the role of

wife,

number o f women s u r v e y e d i n d i c a t e d g i v i n g

hus bands

with t h e i r s .
planning

study

the

wi t h

their

jobs

than

receiving

The c o m p l e t i o n o f s e c r e t a r i a l

were

relationship

cited

as

most

bet ween t h e r o l e s

frequent.

help

of
The
the

more h e l p t o

from husbands

t a s k s and e n t e r t a i n m e n t
When

focusing

o f wi f e and homemaker,

on

the

i t was found

t h a t t h e women no t o n l y gave more a s s i s t a n c e t owar d t h e i r husbands
for th e ir

jobs

bu t

also

ho u s e h o l d ma i n t e n a n c e .
of education

uphe l d t h e m a j o r i t y o f r e s p o n s i b i l i t y

for

I t was a l s o found t h a t t h e h i g h e r t h e l e v e l

and o c c u p a t i o n a l

s t a t u s o f t h e husband,

t h e more t h e

wi ves p e r c e i v e d t h e i r hus bands as f e e l i n g p o s i t i v e t owar d t h e w i v e s ’
wor ki ng

as

professionals.

influencing

the

These

perceptions

same f a c t o r s d i d

by w i v e s

of

support

not

p r e v a i l as

received

for

household r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .
The
inclusion
asserted,

obvious
of

missing

perceptions

piece

to

by

male

this

research

counterparts.

study
The

was

the

authors

however, t h a t t h e i r i n t e n t i o n was t o f o c u s on t h e r e a l i t y -

ba s e d p e r c e p t i o n s o f Ameri can ur ba n women.

husband
couple
friends
maintenance N.ociiiiiunity

uis.band's
kin

v is ito rs

w ife's
kin
suppliers:
go to

Wife
Self

--------------couple
husband ’s \ associates,
work
\
/
associates \
/

EMPLOYEE

c lie n t or
main beneficiary
or "firm"
A: self
maintenance
suppliers
adninistr a ta r s
(payroll)
colleagues.
general
.other workers
people in work
flow line

Figure 2.1:

I

Three o f t h e ma j or s o c i a l r o l e s o f an American urban m a r r i e d , employed woman.

32

Hopkins and White
of the factors

(1978)

presented

a figure conceptualization

i n f l u e n c i n g women i n d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e s .

Figure

2 . 2 d e p i c t s t h e r o l e c o n f l i c t and s t r a i n l i k e l y t o be e x p e r i e n c e d by
these

women.

The a u t h o r s

stressed,

however,

that

societal

norms

c a n n o t be i g n o r e d as a ma j o r i n f l u e n c e r o f r o l e e x p e c t a t i o n s .
In d i s c u s s i n g women i n c a r e e r

roles,

it

would be i n e r r o r t o

o v e r l o o k c u r r e n t s exual d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and p r e j u d i c e .
stated

that

the

structure

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n bas ed on s e x .

of

the

labor

force

Scott

(1982)

depicts

clear

Women c o n t i n u e t o e x p e r i e n c e o b s t a c l e s

as t h e y a t t e m p t t o e n t e r ma l e - d o mi n a t e d o c c u p a t i o n s .
i f a woman b r e a k s t h e b a r r i e r t o c o r p o r a t e s t a t u s ,
receive

fewer

underrepresented
G ilbert

promotions,
in

most

and R a c h l i n

lower

pay,

professional

(1987)

and

arenas

concluded,

In a d d i t i o n ,

s he i s l i k e l y t o
find

(Serrin,

herself

1984) .

As

"Women’ s a c c e p t a n c e

and

p r o mot i on i n c a r e e r s , u n l i k e t h a t o f men, c o n t i n u e s t o be bas ed more
on f a c t o r s r e l a t e d t o t h e i r g e n d e r t h a n t o t h e i r a b i l i t y "

( p. 14) .

Occupational S e tt in g Issues
The

number

increased

of

dual-career

significantly

over

couples
the

in

past

the
years,

work

force

growing

from

a p p r o x i m a t e l y 900, 000 i n 1960 t o 3 . 3 m i l l i o n t o d a y ( S e k a r a n ,
The

Co n f e r e n c e

Board

(1985)

indicated

that

young women c u r r e n t l y engaged i n p r o f e s s i o n a l
of

dual-career

future.
has

come

families

With t h i s
a

slower

rapid

can
rise

response

only

be

expected

in d u a l - c a r e e r
by

occupational

wi t h

the

training,
to

has

1986) .

number

of

t h e number

escalate

lifestyles,

in

the

however,

organizations.

As

No. & Ages
of Children

Standard
of Living

No. & O u a l i t y
o f Dome s t i c
Helpers

S i m i l a r i t y of
H u s b a n d ' s and
Wife's A ttitudes

Perceived A ttitu d es
o f O t h e r s Toward
Life Style

P r o f i t from
Fami l y
I n t e r a c t i on

AMOUNT OF STRAIN

Norms
About
Fami 1i e s

I m p o rt a n c e
o f Conformity
t o Norms
About F a m i l i e s

D i v i s i o n of
Domesti c
Res p o n s i b i 1i t y

Amount o f
Role S t r a i n

Marital
Sati sfactio n

Mai n t e n a n c e
of t h e DualC a r e e r Fami ly
Life Style for
t h e Female
Partner

EASE OF MAINTENANCE
OF ROLE

Amount o f
Ro l e C l a r i t y

Compatibility
o f Rol e
E x p e c t a t i ons

Amount o f Rol e
I n c o m p a t i b i 1i t y

Amount o f Role
C o n f 1i c t

Choice of DualCareer Life S tyle

Figure 2.2:

A model f o r v i e w i n g m a i n t e n a n c e o f d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e f o r f e m a l e s (From Hopki ns & W h i t e , 1978, p. 2 5 6 ) .

34

Sekar an

indicated,

most

organizations

are

not

even

aware

of

the

number o f t h e i r s t a f f members who come from d u a l - c a r e e r s t r u c t u r e s .
As a r e s u l t ,

t h e y a r e i n a d e q u a t e l y p r e p a r e d t o cope w i t h t h e uni que

probl ems o f such e mpl oyees .
Oc c u p a t i o n a l demands may be viewed as a ma j or s t r e s s o r d e s p i t e
one’s selected l i f e s t y l e .

For t h e d u a l - c a r e e r f a m i l y ,

work s e t t i n g i s a ma j o r e x t e r n a l
the

family

structure.

however,

the

s ys t em i n f l u e n c i n g t h e s t a b i l i t y o f

Skinner

(1980)

reported

that

"dual-career

c o u p l e s a r e i n c r e a s i n g l y i n t e r e s t e d i n n e g o t i a t i n g work a r r a n g e me n t s
which w i l l
479).

reduce

Sekar an

following

or

( 1986) ,

critical

work p l a c e :

remove

some o f

in d i s c u s s i n g

issues

related

to

the

l i f e s t y l e ’s

recent

dual-career

19 84) ,

t h e i r need f o r r e v i s e d employee b e n e f i t

Board,

1985) ,

19 84) ,

the

further

need

each

to

expend

energies

o th e r ’s progress

r e s e n t m e n t and c o m p e t i t i v e n e s s
and

their

need

to

maximi ze

a bout
in

rather

cited

the

families

child

care

harbor

overall

quality

1981,

(Immerwahr,
ways

that

feelings

(Sekaran,
of

the

( Co nf e r e nc e

collaborative
than

in

(Catalyst,

schemes

t owar d each o t h e r

the

(p.

literature,

t h e i r need f o r f l e x i b l e work p a t t e r n s

f r eedom from a n x i e t i e s

stress"

of

1985b),

their

chosen

l i f e s t y l e ( S e k a r a n , 1983, 1985a) .
Walker,

Rozee-Koker,

existing policies
necessary
personal

Wallston

(1987)

expressed

that

i n t h e work p l a c e do n o t l e n d t h e m s e l v e s t o t h e

flexibility
nature.

and

In

required
the

to

Wall

handle
Street

demands
Journal.

of

a

family

Lehrman

or

(1985)

r e p o r t e d t h a t d e s p i t e t h e i n c r e a s e d demand f o r c h i l d - c a r e s u p p o r t in

35
t h e work p l a c e , o n l y 1 , 8 00 American emp l o y e r s , o f a t o t a l 6 m i l l i o n ,
p r o v i d e some ki nd o f c h i l d - c a r e a s s i s t a n c e .
Such
solutions

circumstances

hig hlig ht the

available

handling

in

c o mp l e x i t y

family-life

and n a r r o wi n g

demands.

of

Numerous

c o n f l i c t s and probl ems a r i s e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r members as a r e s u l t o f
po or

organizational

work

policies.

Th i s

includes

a

significant

amount o f l o s t t i me a t work due t o c h i l d - c a r e r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ,
turnover

as

a

result

of

dealing

with

work

and

family

hi gh

overload

i s s u e s , and f e e l i n g s o f a l i e n a t i o n from t h e work e n v i r o n m e n t .
Thi s
couples

clearly

and o c c u p a t i o n a l

current

policies

further

by

effect

indicates

affect

e mp h a s i z i n g

of external

unreasonable
members.

d u a l - c a r e e r couples

i mp o r t a n c e

organizations

of

being

bot h

Halleck

that

are

individuals

tend

regard,

typically

to
it

blame
becomes

who

be a p p r i s e d o f t h e s e

how
went

of

the

unhappiness

themselves

increasingly

of

(1971)

unaware

view t h e i r

either

dual-career

cognizant

employee a d a p t a t i o n .

influences

and w i l l

In t h i s

the

or

family

important

influencers

as

so t h a t

that
they

can engage i n e f f e c t i v e m a n i p u l a t i o n and pr obl em r e s o l u t i o n .

College Undergraduates
Few r e s e a r c h e f f o r t s have been made p a r t i c u l a r l y t o a d d r e s s t h e
college
marriage.

undergraduate
Lo z o f f

student

(1972)

and

attitudes

discussed findings

about

revealing

dual-career
that

81% o f

c o l l e g e women i n t h e s t u d y i n d i c a t e d t h a t a c a r e e r was i m p o r t a n t as
wel l as be i ng a mot her o r s pous e .
L o z o f f found t h a t

91% o f

the

I t is also important to note t h a t

male

college

students

in

the

study

36
r e p o r t e d an i n t e r e s t i n p u r s u i n g a w i f e wi t h a c a r e e r o u t s i d e o f t h e
home.

Ot h e r f i n d i n g s

from Lo z o f f

suggested

that

60% o f t h e

male

s t u d e n t s a l s o t h o u g h t t h a t c h i l d r e a r i n g s h o u l d be an e q u a l l y s h a r e d
responsibility

and 40% m a i n t a i n e d

this

position

in

regard

to

h o us e hol d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
Katz (1978) f o l l o we d up i n h i s s t u d y by r e p o r t i n g t h a t 75% o f
t h e c o l l e g e mal es e x p e c t e d t o s h a r e e q u a l l y i n r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n .
was i n t e r e s t i n g ,
study

between

financing.
thought

male

and

to

see a d is c re pa n cy

f emal e

college

in

students

Lozoff’ s

(1972)

regarding

family

Sevent y p e r c e n t o f t h e f e ma l e s and o n l y 40% o f t h e mal es

that

family

however,

It

bot h

marriage

financing.

Loz of f

partners

s houl d

stated

that

contribute

this

equally

difference

may

to
be

i n d i c a t i v e o f a r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t men have more e a r n i n g power, o r i t
may be i n d i c a t i v e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e mal es i n t h e s t u d y want ed t o
maintain the t r a d i t i o n a l
Amatea and Cr oss
asserted

the

undergraduate

need

r o l e as p r i ma r y e a r n e r f o r t h e f a m i l y .

(1983)

for

and Kahnwei l e r

counseling

population.

and Kah n we i l e r

intervention

Accor di ng

to

Amatea

with

the

and

Cross,

(1980)
college
young

c o l l e g e c o u p l e s a r e l i k e l y overwhelmed by t h e v a s t number o f s t r e s s
and c o n f l i c t i s s u e s c o n f r o n t i n g them.
short-term

workshop

skills

strategies.

and

a s s u mp t i o n

and

focusing

further

on

devel opment

Kahn wei l e r
specified

In r e s p o n s e ,

and

that

of

effective

Ka hnwe i l e r
the

most

i n v o l v e r o l e c o n f l i c t and change, j o b i m m o b i l i t y ,
barriers

they proposed a

(inadequate c h i l d - c a r e r e s o u rc e s ).

cop i ng

supported

prevailing

this
issues

and i n s t i t u t i o n a l

They, t o o ,

presented a

37
workshop

for

college

undergraduate

students

aimed

at

vi e wi ng

the

d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e as a l i f e - p l a n n i n g p h a s e .
In

the

southern

Amatea

university

workshop.

and

Cros s

took

Each workshop

study,

part

in

included

college

a weekend

couples

at

dual-career

a five-phase

process

a

large

marriage
addressing

the following:
Phase One:

Examining t h e D u a l - C a r e e r L i f e s t y l e

Phase Two:

A s s e s s i n g Role C o n f l i c t Coping S t y l e s

Phase Th r e e :

C l a r i f y i n g and P r i o r i t i z i n g P e r s ona l E x p e c t a t i o n s

Phase Four:

J o i n t D e c i s i o n Making

Phase F i v e :

Building a C o l l a b o r a t i v e R e l a t i o n s h i p

Feedback from workshop p a r t i c i p a n t s
out come.

C i t e d as p a r t i c u l a r l y

indicated

a favorable

v a l u a b l e were t h e p r o b l e m - s o l v i n g ,

s k i l 1 - de ve l opme nt components and t h e model i ng by workshop l e a d e r s .
P a r t i c i p a n t s d i d i n d i c a t e , however, t h a t t h e s h o r t - t e r m s t r u c t u r e o f
t h e workshop seemed compr e s s ed;

t h e y t h o u g h t t h a t a more e l o n g a t e d

v e r s i o n would pr ove more e f f e c t i v e .
Ka h nwe i l e r and Kah nwei l e r (1980)

i mpl ement ed t h e i r d u a l - c a r e e r

f a m i l y workshop i n a c a r e e r - p l a n n i n g c l a s s on t h e campus o f F l o r i d a
State University.

Thi s workshop used d i d a c t i c

l e a d e r s ’ shared experiences,
approach.
following
riage:

The
as

and gr oup d i s c u s s i o n

researchers

most

critical

material,

reported
to

address

that

as a t h e r a p e u t i c

students

regarding

expressed the

dual-career

ma r ­

(a) d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r r e g a r d i n g homemaking r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s ,

(b) i s s u e s o f c o m p e t i t i o n and methods o f d e a l i n g w i t h them,
to

workshop

ma n a g e t i m e

effectively,

(d)

future

vocational

( c) how

plans,

(e)

38

p e r c e i v e d e mot i ona l

s u p p o r t from t h e s p o u s e ,

and

(f)

balancing

commitments t o o n e ’ s own and s p o u s e ’ s c a r e e r de v e l o p me n t .
s e l f - r e p o r t s on workshop out comes were q u i t e p o s i t i v e .
indicated

that

their

insight

had

increased

as

a

of

Verbal

Participants

result

of

this

experience.
Summary
The f i n d i n g s and p o s i t i o n s p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s
spurred

the

notion

to

further

investigate

prepa ration of college undergraduates.

literature

dual-career

r e vi e w

marriage

Rapopor t and Rapopor t (1963,

1964, 1966) p r o v i d e d t h e most w i d e l y a c c e p t e d d i s c u s s i o n p e r t a i n i n g
t o c o n f l i c t dil emmas i n h e r e n t i n t h e d u a l - c a r e e r s t r u c t u r e .

Efforts

must now be p l a c e d on a s s e s s i n g t h e r e a d i n e s s o f c o l l e g e y o u t h s t o
f a c e t h e s e di l emmas ,
among t h i s p o p u l a t i o n ,
at amelioration.

focusing

on p r e v a i l i n g

issues

of discrepancy

and d e v e l o p i n g i n t e r v e n t i o n s t r a t e g i e s aimed

C H AP T ER III
STUDY DESIGN AND PROCEDURES
Overview
The

ma j o r

objective

of

this

study

was

to

investigate

the

s i m i l a r i t i e s and d i f f e r e n c e s among t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t s a t Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y r e g a r d i n g s e l e c t e d s t r e s s
occupational

s e t t i n g i s s u e s in d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e s .

provides

discussion

subjects,

a

(c)

of

the

instrument,

(d)

( a)

population

procedure,

(e)

and

Th i s c h a p t e r

and

setting,

testable

(b)

hypotheses,

and ( f ) t r e a t m e n t o f d a t a used i n t h i s s t u d y .
P o p u l a t i o n and S e t t i n g
The p o p u l a t i o n from which p a r t i c i p a n t s in t h i s s t u d y were drawn
consisted
State

of

31, 6 5 9

University

students

by

sex,

undergraduate

students

during

Spring

1989.

race,

class

standing,

enrolled

The

breakdown

and

major

at

Mi chi gan
for

these

college

is

p r e s e n t e d in Ta b l e 3 . 1 .
Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
with

an

Admi s s i ons
Mi chi gan

approximately

University

c o l l e g e s , making t h e t o t a l
students.

a mi dwe s t e r n

90% C a u c a s i a n

& Scholarships,
State

is

1988) .
come

student

The
from

Big Ten u n i v e r s i t y
body

(Office

of

of

students

at

majority

Mi chi gan

hi gh

schools

and

p op ul at io n composition p r i m a r i l y i n - s t a t e

Founded i n 1855 as a p u b l i c i n s t i t u t i o n ,

39

Mi chi gan S t a t e

40

Ta b l e 3 . 1 . - -Breakdown o f Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y u n d e r g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t p o p u l a t i o n by c l a s s s t a n d i n g , s e x , ma j o r
c o l l e g e ( S p r i n g 1989) and r a c e ( F a l l 1988) .

Cl a s s S t a n d i n g
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
S p e c i a l progr am

Number

Percent

6, 872
7, 259
8 , 085
9, 105
338

21. 7
22. 9
25. 5
28. 8

31, 659
Sex
Male
Female

15, 062
16, 597

47.i
52.'

31, 659
Ma.ior C o l l e q e
A g r i c u l t u r e & N a t u r a l Re s o u r c e s
Arts & L e t t e r s
Business
Communication A r t s
Edu c a t i o n
Engineering
Human Ecol ogy
James Madison
Natural Science
Nur s i ng
Social Science
V e t e r i n a r y Medi ci ne
Undergraduate U n i v e r s i t y Division/No P re f.
Unclassified

2, 313
2, 525
6, 687
3,818
1, 309
3, 063
1,351
918
2, 896
350
4, 174
239
1, 943
73
31, 659

7. 3
8.0
21.1
12.1
4.1
9. 7
4. 3
2.9
9.1
1.1
13. 2
.8
6.1
.2

41
Tabl e 3 . 1 . - - C o n t i n u e d .

Race
American I n d i a n / A l a s k a n N a t i v e
Af r i c a n - Ame r i c a n
Hispanic
Chi cano
Ot h e r
Asian/Pacific Islander
Ca u c a s i a n
Other--no s p e c i f i c a t i o n
Nonresident a li en

Sources:

Number

Percent

122
2, 409

.4
7. 0

185
274
627
30, 440
57
491

.5
.8
1.8
87.8
.2
1. 4

Cl a s s s t a n d i n g , s e x, and ma j or c o l l e g e - - M i c h i g a n S t a t e
U n i v e r s i t y , R e g i s t r a r ’ s O f f i c e , Data R e p o r t i n g D i v i s i o n ;
r a c e - - M i c h i g a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , O f f i c e o f P l a n n i n g and
Budget .

University
university

is

the

only

promotes

land-grant
13

institution

colleges

offering

u n d e r g r a d u a t e d e g r e e - g r a n t i n g pr ogr ams .
i n a wide r a n g e o f f i e l d s ,
ma j or p r o f e s s i o n a l

in

Michigan.

The

approximately

125

These programs a r e o f f e r e d

including the science,

liberal

arts,

and

areas.
Subjects

Of

the

31,659

undergraduate

students

U n i v e r s i t y , 147 were o b t a i n e d f o r t h i s s t u d y ,
in t h e a n a l y s i s .

at
all

Michigan

State

o f whom were used

Given t h a t t h e e n t i r e p o p u l a t i o n o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e

s t u d e n t s was n o t s u r v e y e d ,

t h e 147 r e s p o n d e n t s comp r i s e d a c o n v e n i ­

ence sampl e o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
Background i n f o r m a t i o n was o b t a i n e d by a s k i n g p a r t i c i p a n t s
r e s p ond t o q u e s t i o n n a i r e

i t ems r e l a t i v e t o t h e i r s e x ,

race,

to

ma j or ,

42
c l a s s s t a n d i n g , m a r i t a l s t a t u s , age, and p a r e n t a l / f a m i l y backgr ound.
Thi s i n f o r m a t i o n i s summarized in Ta b l e 3 . 2 .
Instrument
The

instrument

(Appendix

A)

used

in

this

study

was

a

q u e s t i o n n a i r e s p e c i f i c a l l y de v e l o p e d t o g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n a bout t h e
demogr a phi cs

of

career,

stress

and

demogr aphi c

the

study

expectations

portion

investigator

for

participants,

of

the

specific

for

use

in

variables

expectations

of

and

this

as

was

study.

and

The

their

family,

marriage.

constructed
Th i s

relationship

stress

participants.

wel l

dual-career

questionnaire

i n f o r m a t i o n was needed t o a s s e s s t h e
background

as

by

the

demographi c

bet ween s p e c i f i c

occupational

demogr a phi c

The

setting

portion

of

the

q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n s i s t e d o f o nl y f i x e d - a l t e r n a t i v e i t e ms .
The

instrument

planning

of

determine
regard,

also

study

the

contained

i t e ms

participants.

context

in

fixed-alternative

which

These

addressing
i t e ms

responses

future

were

were

included

given.

i t ems were p r e s e n t e d t o

life

In

to
this

i n d i c a t e whether

o r no t p a r t i c i p a n t s even a n t i c i p a t e d e n g a g i n g i n a c a r e e r v e r s u s a
j o b , m a r r i a g e v e r s u s s i n g l e h o o d , o r c h i l d r e a r i n g in t h e i r f u t u r e .
The p o r t i o n o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e p e r t a i n i n g t o s p e c i f i c s t r e s s
a nd

occupational

alternative

and

setting

expectations

Likert-scale

i t e ms .

contained

The

both

fixed-alternative

fixedi t ems

c o n s i s t e d o f a few s t a t e m e n t s d e s i g n e d t o exami ne s p e c i f i c a t t i t u d e s
regarding

occupations

co ns is te d of several

and

family

life.

statements designed to

The

Likert-scale

explore

i t ems

the degree

of

43

Tabl e 3 . 2 . - - B i o g r a p h i c a l d a t a on s t u d y p a r t i c i p a n t s .
Number

Percent

Sex
Male
Female

65
82

44.2
55.8

Afle
19 y e a r s o r y ounge r
20-21
22-25
26-29
30 y e a r s o r o l d e r

71
53
18
1
4

48.3
36.1
12. 2
.7
2. 7

Cl a s s S t a n d i n g
Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior

51
47
31
18

34 . 7
32.0
21.1
12. 2

Ma.ior Area o f Study
Social s c ienc es
Sciences
Pre-professional
Liberal a r t s
Ed u c a t i o n

24
62
35
8
18

16. 3
4 2. 2
23.8
5. 4
12. 2

Marital S ta t us
Single
Ma r r i e d

144
3

98.0
2.0

E t h n i c Background
Bl ack
Ca uc a s i a n
Latino
N a t i v e American

29
113
1
4

19. 7
76.9
.7
2. 7

46
51
3
22
25

31.3
34.7
2.0
15 . 0
17 . 0

P a r e n t M a r i t a l Tvoe ( Fami l y Background)
Traditional
D u a l - e a r n e r ( m o t h e r ’ s o c c u p a t i o n s e c onda r y)
D u a l - e a r n e r ( f a t h e r ’ s o c c u p a t i o n s e c onda r y)
Dual-career
Single parent

44

agreement,

importance,

and s t r e s s

expectation

expressed toward

selected issues r e l a t e d to d u a l -c a r e e r marriage.
Respondents
responses

were

expressing

D i s a g r e e , Agr ee,
i mp o r t a n c e

to

degree

indicate

Not

Finally,

regarding s t r e s s

one

of agreement:

and S t r o n g l y Agr ee.

included

I mp o r t a n t .

asked

Important,

expectations:

the

following

Strongly

Disagree,

Options e xp r e s s i n g degree of
Somewhat

respondents

of

selected

I mportant,
from

Not S t r e s s f u l ,

and

these

Very

responses

Somewhat S t r e s s f u l ,

and Very S t r e s s f u l .
The c o n t e n t
Dickinson

and

questionnaire
in

attitudes

students

at

of the

questionnaire

Stewart

(1988).

initially
and
the

was

abstracted

These

authors

in res earch e f f o r t s

expectations
University

between

of

u n i v e r s i t i e s in t he c o n t i n e n t a l

Hawaii

from S enger -

developed

the

to explore dif fe re n ce s

Asian/Pacific
and

Uni t e d S t a t e s .

ma i nl a nd

Islander

students

at

At t h e t i me o f t h i s

w r i t i n g , r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s had no t y e t been p u b l i s h e d .
S p e c i f i c i t ems were d e v e l o p e d by t h e a u t h o r s t h a t were d i r e c t l y
r e l a t e d t o Rapopor t and R a p o p o r t ’ s (1964, 1969) and S e k a r a n ’ s (1986)
writings.

Sets

expectations

of

items

specifically

Ov e r l o a d , S o c i a l Network,
S t r e s s Dilemmas.

were

regarding

Identity,

Ot h e r s e t s

designed

of

to

Rapoport

measure
and

student

Rapoport’ s

P e r s o n a l Norms, and R o l e - C y c l i n g

i t e ms

pertained

to

the

degree

of

i mp o r t a n c e e x p r e s s e d by s t u d e n t s r e g a r d i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l s e t t i n g .
Additional

i t e ms

were

developed

to

investigate

student

opinions

r e g a r d i n g copi n g and a d j u s t m e n t i s s u e s i n d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e .

45
To e n s u r e v a l i d a t i o n o f t e s t i t e m s , a p i l o t s t u d y was c o n duc t e d
u s i n g 40 Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
in

a course

entitled

"Human P e r s p e c t i v e s

on

enrolled

Urbanization."

Thi s

c o u r s e i s o f f e r e d t owar d f u l f i l l m e n t o f Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ’ s
g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n r e q u i r e m e n t i n t h e s o c i a l and b e h a v i o r a l s c i e n c e s .
Res pondent s were

as ked

to

co mpl e t e

and e v a l u a t e

q u e s t i o n n a i r e f o r c o n c i s e n e s s and c l a r i t y .
developed

and

completed,

used w i t h

based

on

study

The f i n a l

participants

information

the

after

received

from

i t ems

on t h e

i n s t r u m e n t was
editing

was

pilot-study

participants.
P r oc e dur e
The

procedure

attending

selected

University

and

for

requesting
The

researcher

on

bas ed

in

class,

collection

undergraduate

questionnaire.

enrolled

data

ma j o r

courses

respondents

following

to

courses

e mp h a s i s ,

and d i v e r s i t y

involved

in

at

class

the

of

composition

State

research

identified

standing

racial

examiner

Michigan

co mp l e t e
were

the

by

the

students
of

course

attendees:
"Engineers
Engineering

and

the

Engineering

P r o f e s s i o n " - - Col 1e g e

of

" I n d i v i d u a l and t h e S c h o o l " - - C o l l e g e o f Edu c a t i o n
" M i n o r i t i e s in American C i t i e s " - - C o l l e g e o f S o c i a l S c i e n c e
Students

attending

a

university-sponsored

job

fair

for

business

ma j o r s were a l s o i n c l u d e d i n t h e s t u d y sampl e.
P r o f e s s o r s o f t h e s e c o u r s e s were c o n t a c t e d by t h e i n v e s t i g a t o r
via

phone

and

letter

transm ittal

(Appendix

B).

Information

46

regarding the
provided.

p u rp os e o f t h e s t u d y and c l a s s - t i m e
All

class

in v e stig a to r’s e ffo rts .

professors

were

in

r e q u i r e m e n t was

support

of

the

A date fo r the i n v e s t i g a t o r ’ s attendance at

t h e c l a s s was m u t u a l l y a g r e e d upon.
During

the

class

tim e,

the

investigator

made

the

following

statement to the students:
My name in Sonya Gunnings, and I am a d o c t o r a l c a n d i d a t e in
C o u n s e l i n g Psych olog y h e r e a t M.S.U.
Your p r o f e s s o r has been
kind enough t o a l l o w me t o r e q u e s t a bo ut 10 m i n u te s o f y o u r
c l a s s ti m e t o c o m p le te a q u e s t i o n n a i r e .
Th is q u e s t i o n n a i r e
w i l l as k y o u r o p i n i o n s abo ut j o b s , c a r e e r s , and a d u a l - c a r e e r
m arriage l i f e s t y l e .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e
is
very
selfexplanatory.
I as k t h a t you p l e a s e p l a c e y o u r r e s p o n s e s on t h e
answer s h e e t p r o v i d e d so t h a t q u e s t i o n n a i r e s may be used a g ai n
in t h e f u t u r e .
Thank you f o r y o u r t i m e .
A total

of

159 q u e s t i o n n a i r e s / a n s w e r

with t h i s procedure.
96% r e t u r n

rate.

A total
Six

of

sheets

o f 153 were r e t u r n e d ,

those

returned

distributed

constituting

questionnaires

u s a b l e due t o i n c o m p l e t i o n o r om i ss io n o f c r i t i c a l
and 1 5 - 6 2 ) .

were

were

a

not

it em s ( I te m s 1-6

The u s a b l e r e t u r n r a t e was 147 o f 159 o r 92.5%.

Hypotheses
The d a t a o b t a i n e d from t h e answer s h e e t s were used t o t e s t t h e
s ix hypotheses s ta t e d
th e null

form,

in C h a p t e r I .

and t e s t e d

at the

The h y p o t h e s e s were s t a t e d
.05 l e v e l

of

significance.

in
The

t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s e s a r e l i s t e d below:
Null H y p o t h e s i s 1 :
There a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e O v e r l o a d s t r e s s d il e m m a e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, r a c e , family
b ac kg r ou nd , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y .

47
A l t e r n a t i v e H y p o th e s is 1 :
There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e Overload s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
r a c e , family
b ac kg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
Null H y p o th e s is 2 :
There a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
ra c e , family
b ac kg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o th e s is 2 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
ra c e , family
bac kg ro u nd , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
Null H y p o th e s is 3 :
There a r e no
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s ex ,
ra c e , family
b ac kg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o th e s is 3 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
r a c e , family
b ac kg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y .
Null H y p o th e s is 4 :
There a r e no
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
ra c e , family
b ac kg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o th e s is 4 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
ra c e , family
b ac kg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y .
Null H y p o th e s is 5 :
There a r e no
r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e P e rs o n a l Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
ra c e , family
b ac kg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o th e s is 5 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e P e rs o n a l Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
undergraduate
s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e : s e x ,
ra c e , family
ba ck g ro u nd , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
Null H y p o t h e s is 6 :
T h e r e a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n
u n d erg rad u ate s t u d e n t s ’ ex p ressed im portance of s e le c te d
o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, race,
f a m i l y ba ckg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .

48
A lte rn a te H ypothesis 6 :
There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
u n d e rg ra d u a te s t u d e n t s ’ ex p ressed im portance o f s e le c te d
o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, race,
f a m i l y ba ckg ro un d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and major a r e a o f s t u d y .
Tr ea tm e n t o f Data
The
Michigan

data

from

S tate

U niversity’s

S tatistical
for

the

questionnaire
computer

were

analyzed

laboratory

by

use

facilities.

of
The

Package f o r t h e S o c i a l S c i e n c e s (SPSS) computer programs

frequencies,

t-tests,

and ANOVA were used t o

analyze

the

six

hypotheses.
The

variables

family

b ack gro un d,

stress,

P er s o n al

stress,

identified
class
Norms

the

standing,
stress,

R ole-C ycling

characteristics.

in

major

area

Identity

stress,

The v a r i a b l e s

h y p o th e s e s

were

of

study,

stress,

and

race,

Overload

Social

Network

occupational

were o p e r a t i o n a l l y

se x,

settin g

treated

in

the

f o l l o w i n g manner:
Race--The r a c e v a r i a b l e was c a t e g o r i z e d as (a) non wh ite and (b)
white.
S ex- -T he

sex

variable

was

categorized

as

(a)

male

and

(b)

fe m a le .
Family ba c k g r o u n d -- The c a t e g o r i e s f o r t h i s v a r i a b l e r e p r e s e n t e d
the fam ily types c l o s e s t

to

those

chosen

by t h e

parents

of

s tu d y

p a r t i c i p a n t s and were coded as f o l l o w s :

(a) t r a d i t i o n a l ,

(b) d u a l -

earner

(c)

(fa th e r’s

(mother’s

occupation

occupation secondary),
Class
f r es h m an ,

secondary,

dual-earner

(d) d u a l - c a r e e r , and (e) s i n g l e p a r e n t .

s t a n d i n g -- The
(b) sophomore,

categories

for

this

variable

( c ) j u n i o r , and (d) s e n i o r .

were

(a)

49

Ma.ior area of s t u d v --This variable was c ategorize d based on the
study p a r t i c i p a n t ’s currently declared major area as follows:
social
law),

sciences,

(b) s c i e n c e s ,

(c) p r e - p r o f e s s i o n a l

(a)

(business,

pre­

(d) l i b e r a l a r t s , and (e) e d u c a t i o n .
O ver loa d

stress

stress

expectations,

obtained.

dilemma--To

determine

t h e mean v a l u e s f o r

the

level

of

overload

Items 43 t h r o u g h 47 were

These items were reco de d so t h a t low numbers r e p r e s e n t e d

low s t r e s s

expectations

and

high

numbers

represented

high

stress

e x p e c t a t i o n s , w it h s c o r e s r a n g i n g from 1 t o 3.
Personal
Personal
through

Norms

Norms

stress

stress

expectations,

62 were o b t a i n e d .

numbers

represented

represented

high

dilem m a--To d e t e r m in e

low

stress

These
stress

the

t h e mean v a l u e s
items

were

expectations,

w ith

and

scores

of

Items

58

for

r e co d e d

expectations

level

so

that

high
ranging

low

numbers
from

1

t o 3.
Identity
stress

stress

expectations,

obtained.
low s t r e s s

dilemma--To

determine

t h e mean v a l u e s

for

the

level

of

Identity

Items 48 t h r o u g h 52 were

These items were reco de d so t h a t low numbers r e p r e s e n t e d
expectations

and

high

numbers

represented

high

stress

of

Social

e x p e c t a t i o n s , w ith s c o r e s r a n g i n g from 1 t o 3.
S ocial

N e tw o rk d i l e m m a - - T o d e t e r m i n e

the

level

Network s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e mean v a l u e s f o r Items 38 t h r o u g h 42
were

obtained.

represented

These

low s t r e s s

it em s

were

expectations

rec od ed
and

high

so

that
numbers

low

numbers

represented

high s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s , w i t h s c o r e s r a n g i n g from 1 t o 3.

50
Role-Cvclinq

stress

dilemma--To d e t e r m i n e

the

level

of

Role-

C y c l in g s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s , t h e mean v a l u e s f o r Items 53 t h r o u g h 57
were

obtained.

represented

low

These
stress

items

were

expectations

r e co d e d
and

so

high

that
numbers

low

numbers

represented

h ig h s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s , w i t h s c o r e s r a n g i n g from 1 t o 3.
O c c u p a t i o n a l s e t t i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s --To d e t e r m i n e t h e l e v e l o f
expressed

i m p o r ta n c e

of

occupational

setting

characteristics,

mean v a l u e s f o r Items 22 t h r o u g h 37 were o b t a i n e d .
recoded

so

that

low numbers

represented

numbers

represented

high

im p o r t a n c e ,

Summary t a b l e s

were

used

w it h

low

the

These it em s were

im p o r ta n c e

scores

and

ranging

high

from

1

t o 3.

analysis.

to

display

data

obtained

from

the

In a d d i t i o n , d e s c r i p t i v e s t a t i s t i c s were used t o summar­

ize oth e r respondent c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

Summary
This
setting,

chapter

provided

characteristics

instrum ent,

the

a

of the

discussion

of

the

subjects,

the

construction

of the

a statem ent

of

d ata-co llectio n

procedure,

t e s t a b l e h y p o t h e s e s , and t h e t r e a t m e n t o f t h e d a t a .

population

and

the

C H A P T E R IV
ANALYSIS OF DATA

Introduction
In t h i s

chapter,

t h e d a t a o b t a i n e d from t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e

an a l y z e d t o t e s t t h e s i x h y p o t h e s e s p r e s e n t e d

in C h a p t e r I I I .

are
The

s t u d y p a r t i c i p a n t s were 147 u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a t Michigan S t a t e
U niversity.

T h i s c h a p t e r i s d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s .

addresses the t e s t i n g of the hypotheses.
additional

descriptive

the d u a l-c a re e r
addressed.

inform ation.

structure

The f i r s t p a r t

The second p a r t

V a r io u s

opinions

includes

relating

and o t h e r r e s p o n d e n t c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s

to
are

A summary s e c t i o n c o n c l u d e s t h e c h a p t e r .

T e s t i n g o f t h e Hypothe se s
Null H y p o t h e s i s 1 :
There a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e O v e rlo a d s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
b ac k gr ou n d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t i v e H y p o th e s is 1 :
There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e O ver loa d s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
bac k gr o un d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
The r e s u l t s
in T a b l e s 4.1

of the t - t e s t s

th r o u g h 4 . 5 .

and a n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e a r e shown

These r e s u l t s

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was

no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p between O ve rlo ad s t r e s s
undergraduate

students

and

each

variable:

sex,

b ac kgr ou nd, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .

51

expectations of
race,

fam ily

52
T a b l e 4.1
means

of

displays

males

and

the

results

females

for

of the

the

t-test

O ve rlo ad

comparing group

stress

dilemma.

A

t - v a l u e o f - 0 . 4 7 , w i t h 142 d e g r e e s o f freedom, was n o t found t o be
s ig n ific a n t at the
means

(males

Therefore,

=

the

alternative

.05 l e v e l
1.88,

null

of confidence.

fem ales

hypothesis

hypothesis,

=
was

indicating

1.91)
not
th at

The d i f f e r e n c e in t h e
was

not

rejected
there

sig n ifican t.

in

was

favor
no

of

the

significant

r e l a t i o n s h i p between O v er lo ad s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s and s e x .

Ta b l e 4 . 1 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
male and fem a le group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
O ver loa d s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .

Mean

SD

Male

1.8770

.376

Female

1.9091

.431

Group

t

df

-.47

fi

142

.641

T ab l e 4 . 2 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t - t e s t comparing gr oup means
of

white

and

nonw hite

students.

A t-value

of

-0.23,

with

142

d e g r e e s o f freedo m, was n o t found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l
of confidence.
= 1.88)

was

suggesting

The d i f f e r e n c e in t h e means ( w h i t e = 1 . 9 0 ,
not

that

significant.
race

sig n ifican tly related.

and

The

O v er lo ad

null

hypothesis

stress

was

expectations

n onw hit e
accepted,
were

not

53
Table 4 . 2 . --Results of t-test investigating d i f f e rence s between
nonwhite and white group scores for d u a l - c a r e e r m a r riage
Overload stress dilemma expectations.
Group

Mean

SD

Nonwhite

1.8809

.473

White

1.8894

.386

df

t

£

142

-.23

.818

Tab le 4 . 3 p r e s e n t s t h e a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e showing t h a t t h e r e
was

no

significant

relationship

(dual-earner, dual-career,

between

trad itio n al,

family

bac kground

single parent)

e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e O ver loa d s t r e s s dilemma.

type

and l e v e l

of

An F - p r o b a b i l i t y

of

.7494 w it h 4 d e g r e e s o f freedom was no t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l
of confidence.

The d i f f e r e n c e

in means was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ,

again

r e s u l t i n g in an a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s .

T ab l e 4 . 3 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e O v er lo ad
s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and f a m i l y bac kg ro un d.

Sou rce

df

Between gr o u p s
Wi thi n gr o up s
To ta l

Sum o f
Sq uar es

4
138
142

.3255
23.3321
23.6576

Mean
S q ua re s

F-Ratio

F -P ro b .

.4813

.7494

.0814
.1691

54
The a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e d e p i c t i n g c l a s s s t a n d i n g and Ov erload
stress

expectations

(Table

d i f f e r e n c e between g r o u p s
level of ex p e c ta tio n s.

4.4)

(f r es hm an ,

there

sophomore,

was

no

significant

junior,

senior)

on

An F - p r o b a b i l i t y o f .6851 w i t h 3 d e g r e e s o f

freedom was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t
null

showed

at

the

.05 l e v e l

of confidence.

The

h y p o t h e s i s was a c c e p t e d in f a v o r o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s

because

it

was

found

that

the

difference

in

the

means

was

not

significant.

T a b l e 4 . 4 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e O ver loa d
s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and c l a s s s t a n d i n g .

df

Sum o f
Squares

3

.2510

.0837

138

23.3105

.1689

141

23.5615

So urce
Between g r o u p s
W i th in gr ou ps
Total

Mean
Sq uar es

F-Ratio

F-Prob.

.4953

.6861

Major a r e a o f s t u d y was t h e f i n a l v a r i a b l e examined.

Ta b l e 4 . 5

r e v e a l s t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e between group means
(social
arts)

studies,
and

the

F -probability

sciences,
level

of

of

.4869,

pre-professional,
O verload
w ith

4

d il e m m a

degrees

s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

of

education,

liberal

expectations.
freedom ,

was

An
not

The n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was

n o t r e j e c t e d in f a v o r o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s .

55
T ab l e 4 . 5 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e O ver loa d
s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .

Source

df

Sum o f
Sq u ar es

4

.5795

.1449

137

22.9517

.1675

141

23.5312

Between group s
W ithin gr ou ps
Total

Mean
Sq u ar es

F-Ratio

F -P ro b .

.8648

.4869

Null H y p o t h e s i s 2 :
There a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
back gr oun d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o th e s is 2 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
back gr oun d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y .
The r e s u l t s
these

of the

hypotheses

resu lts

are

in d icate

sig n ifican t

t-tests

shown

th at

the

in

and a n a l y s e s
Tables

v ariab le

relatio n sh ip

to

4.6
sex

Social

of variance

through

4.10.

dem onstrated

N e tw o r k

to

stress

test
These

the

only

d il e m m a

ex p ec tatio n s of undergraduate stu d e n ts.
The
Social

t-test

comparing

means

of

males

Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p
gender.
found

gr ou p

A t-value
to

difference

be

significant

between

the

( T ab l e 4 . 6 )

between amount o f

of 2.41,
at

means

w it h
the

139.4 2
.05

(males

and

stress

degrees

level
= 2.36,

of

females

showed t h a t

expectation
of

fr eed om ,

confidence.

females

for

= 2.19)

and
was
The
was

s i g n i f i c a n t ; t h e r e f o r e , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d in f a v o r o f

56
the a l te r n a t iv e hypothesis.

The males in t h e s t u d y d e m o n s t r a t e d a

h i g h e r l e v e l o f S o c i a l Network s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s th a n d i d f e m a l e s .

T a b l e 4 . 6 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
male and fema le group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Mean

SD

Male

2.3582

.333

Female

2.1920

.493

Group

t

df

2.41

139.42

E

.017*

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

T a b l e 4 . 7 shows t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t - t e s t comparing group means
of

w hite

and

expectations.
not

found t o

difference
significant.

nonw hite

students

for

Social

N e tw o r k

stress

A t - v a l u e o f - 0 . 1 5 , w it h 142 d e g r e e s o f freedom, was
be s i g n i f i c a n t a t

in t h e means
Therefore,

the

.05 l e v e l

(white = -2 .2 7 ,
it

can

be

of confidence.

nonwhite = - 2 . 2 5 )

inferred

that

S o c ia l

The

was n o t
Network

s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d t o r a c e .

Ta b l e 4 . 7 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
nonw hite and w h i t e group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .

Group

Mean

SD

Nonwhite

2.254 9

.462

White

2.2677

.431

t

-.15

df

p

142

.882

57

The a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e showing t h a t t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t
d i f f e r e n c e between group means bas ed on f a m i l y bac kground i s seen in
Table 4 .8 .

An F - p r o b a b i l i t y

of

. 30 20,

w i t h 4 d e g r e e s o f freedo m,

was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .
difference

in group means was n o t

'sig n ifican t,

Given t h a t t h e

the null

hypothesis

was a c c e p t e d .

T ab l e 4 . 8 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e S o c i a l
Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and f a m i l y
background.

Source
Between groups
Wi thi n grou ps
Total

Table 4.9
looking

4

.9377

.2344

138

26.3514

.1910

142

27.2891

the

results

a t group means based on c l a s s

o f fr eedom,
no

Sum o f
Sq uar es

indicates

s tre s s expectations.

was

Mean
Sq u ar es

df

the

F -P ro b .

1. 2276

.3020

analysis

standing

of

and S o c i a l

variance
Network

With an F - p r o b a b i l i t y o f .4 329, w i t h 3 d e g r e e s

i t was found a t t h e

significant

of

F-Ratio

.05 l e v e l

relatio n sh ip

e x p e c t a t i o n s and c l a s s s t a n d i n g .

of confidence t h a t th e re

between

the

lev el

of

stress

58
Table 4 . 9 . --Analysis of variance for d u a l - caree r m a r riage Social
N e twork stress dilemma expectatio ns and class standing.

S ou rce

Sum o f
Sq ua re s

df

Between g ro up s
Wi thin g r o u p s
Total

3

.5323

.1774

138

26.6051

.1928

141

sig n ifican t

F-Ratio

F-Prob.

.9203

.4329

27.1374

Major a r e a o f s t u d y and l e v e l
no

Mean
Squares

relatio n sh ip ,

as

of s t r e s s expectations presented
depicted

by

Table

4.10.

An

F - p r o b a b i l i t y o f .7881, w i t h 4 d e g r e e s o f freedom, was found n o t t o
be

significant

suggests t h a t

at

the

.05

level

of

confidence.

t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t

difference

Th is

finding

in group means,

r e s u l t i n g in a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s .

Table 4 . 1 0 . --A n a ly sis of v aria n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m arriage Social
Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and ma jor a r e a
of study.

S ource

Between g ro up s
W it hin g r o u p s
Total

Sum o f
Sq ua re s

df

Mean
Squares

4

.3360

.0840

137

26.8830

.1962

141

27.2190

F-Ratio

F-Prob.

.4281

.7881

59
Null H y p o t h e s i s 3 :
There a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
backg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o t h e s i s 3 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
ba ckg ro un d, c l a s s s ta n S tr rg , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
Null H y p o t h e s i s 4 :
There a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, r a c e , family
ba ckg ro un d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o t h e s i s 4 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between dual c a r e e r m a r r i a g e R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
ba ckg ro un d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
T a b l e s 4.11
the t - t e s t s

through

4.20

provide

Identity

each

categorical

and R o l e - C y c l i n g
variable:

stress

sex,

standing,

and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .

that

sig n ifican t

expectations

race,

family

of

b ack gr oun d,

relatio n sh ip s

class

are

related

b ac kgr ou nd,

to

class

The a n a l y s e s p r e s e n t e d s u g g e s t
e x i s t e d between

e x p e c ta tio n s f o r I d e n t i t y or Role-Cycling s t r e s s
family

representation

and a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e r e s u l t s t e s t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s e s

that

no

a tabular

s t a n d i n g , and

ma jor

level

and t h e r a c e ,
area

of

of
s ex ,

study

for

undergraduate stu d e n ts.
In r e f e r e n c e t o

Identity stress

expectations,

t h e gr ou p means

o b t a i n e d by males ( 1 . 8 5 ) and f e m a le s ( 1 . 8 9 ) p r e s e n t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t
d ifferen ce at the

.05 l e v e l

of confidence

( T ab l e 4 . 1 1 ) .

The n u l l

h y p o t h e s i s was a c c e p t e d in f a v o r o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s .
t-test

comparing gr oup means

undergraduate stu d en ts

o f white

(1.85)

and

n onw hit e

The

(1.94)

a l s o p r e s e n t e d no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e

at

60
t h e .05 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e ( T ab l e 4 . 1 2 ) .

Such f i n d i n g s r e s u l t e d in

a r e j e c t i o n o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s and a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e n u l l
hypothesis,

s u g g e s t i n g no s i g n i f i c a n t

relationship

between r a c e o r

g e n d e r and I d e n t i t y s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s can be i n f e r r e d .

T a b l e 4 . 1 1 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
male and f e m a le group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
I d e n t i t y s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Group

Mean

SD

Male

1.8556

.468

Female

1.886 5

.547

t

df

-.36

£

140

.722

T a b l e 4 . 1 2 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
nonwhite and w h i t e group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r
m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .

Group

Mean

SD

Nonwhite

1.9397

.529

White

1.8517

.507

t

df

.87

The a n a l y s e s

of variance

examining

each v a r i a b l e o f f a m i l y bac kg ro u nd ,
of

study

with

Identity

stress

class

dilemma

T a b l e s 4 . 1 3 , 4 . 1 4 , and 4 . 1 5 , r e s p e c t i v e l y .
study

p articip an ts

was

Id en tity expectations.

not

the

140

relationships

standing,
expectations

E

.384

between

and m a jo r a r e a
are

seen

in

The f a m i l y background o f

sig n ifican tly

related

to

level

of

An F - p r o b a b i l i t y o f .2 90, w it h 4 d e g r e e s o f

61

freedom, was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e
4.13).
With

.05 l e v e l

of confidence

(Ta b le

T h i s same f i n d i n g was t r u e when l o o k i n g a t c l a s s s t a n d i n g .
an

F-probability

significant

difference

level of confidence
by s t u d e n t s

revealed

f reedom ( T ab l e 4 . 1 5 ) .
level of confidence.
prevailed

of

. 244 9,

between

with

group

(Table 4 .1 4 ).

3

degrees

means

was

of

fr eedom,

n o te d

at

the

no
.05

The m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y p u r s u ed

an F - p r o b a b i l i t y

of

T h i s was, a g a i n ,

. 9 61 6,

w it h

4 degrees

not s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e

of
.05

T h i s s u g g e s t s t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p

between major a r e a o f s t u d y and

Identity

stress

dilemma

expectations.

T ab l e 4 . 1 3 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y
s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and f a m i l y backg ro un d.

Source
Between gr ou ps
W it hin grou ps
T ot al

df

Sum o f
Squ are s

Mean
Sq uar es

4

1.5640

.3910

136

35 .0786

.2579

140

36.6425

F-Ratio

F- Pro b.

1.5159

.2 010

62
Table 4 . 1 4 . --Analysis of variance for d ual-caree r m a r r i a g e Identity
stress d i lemma e xpectatio ns and class standing.

Source

Between group s
Wi thi n grou ps
To ta l

Mean
Sq u ar es

df

Sum o f
Sq uar es

3

1 . 07 78

.3593

136

34 .8 46 5

.2562

139

35.9243

F-Ratio

F -P ro b .

1.4022

.2449

T ab l e 4 . 1 5 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y
s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and major a r e a o f s t u d y .

Source
Between groups
Within groups
T ot al

These
hypothesis

findings
in

Sum o f
Squa res

4

.1646

.0411

135

36.4051

.2697

139

36.5697

resulted

in

favor of the null

w e r e no s i g n i f i c a n t
Identity

df

stress

Mean
Squa res

a

hypothesis,

relatio n sh ip s

dilemma

rejection

F-Ratio

F -P ro b .

.1526

.9616

of

the

alternative

indicating

that

there

between d u a l - c a r e e r m a rr ia g e

expectations

and

each

variable:

family

b ac kgr ou nd, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
The t - t e s t s

and a n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e t o e x p l o r e

between R o l e - C y c l i n g
(sex,
study)

race,

family

are presented

stress

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

bac kg ro u nd ,
in T a b l e s

class

standing,

relationships

and each v a r i a b l e
and m a jo r

4.16 through 4.20.

area

of

The r e s u l t s

of

63

these

data

relationships

analyses

in d icated

th at

th ere

between R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s

were

no

sig n ifican t

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

and

each c a t e g o r i c a l v a r i a b l e .
T a b l e 4 . 1 6 d i s p l a y s t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e t - t e s t s comparing group
means o f males ( 1 . 9 5 ) and f e m a le s ( 1 . 9 8 ) f o r t h e R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s
dilemma
freedo m,

expectations.
was

found

A t-value
not

to

be

of

0.49,

significant

with
at

142

the

degrees

of

level

of

.05

confidence.

Ta b l e 4 . 1 6 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
male and f em a le group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .

Group

Mean

SD

Male

1.9476

.351

Female

1.9780

.381

df

t

-.49

fi

142

.624

Ta b l e 4 . 1 7 p r e s e n t s t h e t - t e s t r e s u l t s comparing gr oup means o f
w h i t e and no nw hit e s t u d e n t s .

The t - v a l u e o f - 0 . 6 9 , w i t h 142 d e g r e e s

o f freedom,

was found n o t

confidence.

The d i f f e r e n c e in means ( w h i t e = 1 . 9 8 , no nw hit e = 1 . 9 3 )

was n o t

significant,

to

be s i g n i f i c a n t

suggesting

that

race

e x p e c t a t i o n s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y r e l a t e d .

at

the

.05

level

and R o l e - C y c l i n g

of

stress

64
T a b l e 4 . 1 7 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
nonw hite and w h i t e group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r
m a r r i a g e R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Group

Mean

SD

Nonwhite

1.9265

.353

White

1.9765

.372

t

df

-.69

£

142

.489

The a n a l y s e s o f v a r i a n c e showing t h a t t h e r e were no s i g n i f i c a n t
relationships

between

family

ba ckg ro und ,

class

standing,

or

major

a r e a o f s tu d y and l e v e l o f e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s
dilemma a r e shown in T a b l e s 4 . 1 8 ,
of

5.915

(ma jo r

(family

area

of

background),

study)

were

.2679

not

difference

4.19,

in

and 4 . 2 0 .

(class

standing),

significant

confidence.

The

means

for

significant.

The f i n d i n g s p r e s e n t e d r e s u l t e d

F-probabilities

at
each

the

and

.05

variable

.0776

level
was

of
not

in a r e j e c t i o n o f t h e

a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s e s in f a v o r o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s e s .

Ta b l e 4 . 1 8 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e RoleC yc l in g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and f a m i l y
backgr ou nd.

Source
Between groups

Within groups
Total

df

Sum o f
Sq ua re s

Mean
Squares

4

.3813

.0953

138

18.7270

.1357

142

19.1084

F-Ratio

F- Prob.

.7025

.5915

65
T able 4 . 1 9 . --Analysis of variance for d u a l - caree r m a r riage RoleCycling stress dilemma expectations and class standing.
Sum o f
Sq uar es

3

.5339

.1780

138

18.4936

.1340

141

19.0275

Between g ro up s
W i th in gr ou ps
Total

Mean
Sq uar es

df

S ou rce

F-Ratio

F- Pro b.

1.3279

.2679

T a b l e 4 . 2 0 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e RoleC y c l in g s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and m a jo r a r e a
of study.

Mean
Squares

df

Sum o f
Sq uar es

4

1.1247

.2812

137

17.8960

.1306

141

19.0207

Source
Between gr o up s

F-Ratio

F- Pro b.

2.1525
W it h in g ro u p s
Total

.0776

Null H y p o t h e s i s 5 :
There a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e P e r s o n a l Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, ra c e , family
bac k gr o un d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
A l t e r n a t e H y p o t h e s i s 5 : There a r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l c a r e e r m a r r i a g e P e r s o n a l Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, rac e , family
b ac k gr o un d, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
The t - t e s t s
Personal
4.21.

comparing

Norms s t r e s s
The

results

of

group means

of

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s
th is

analysis

males
are

indicated

and

females

displayed
that

for

in Ta bl e

there

was

a

66

significant difference between obtained means for males (1.84) and
females (1.67).

A t-value of 2.42, with 141

found t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t
in

the

dilemma

study

expressed

expectations

in

the

.05 l e v e l

a higher level
a dual-career

degrees of freedom, was

of confidence.
of

P er s on al

marriage

The males

Norms

th a n

did

stress
females.

Given t h i s f i n d i n g , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d in f a v o r o f t h e
a lte r n a tiv e hypothesis.

Ta bl e 4 . 2 1 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
male and f em a le group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
P er s o n al Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Mean

SD

Male

1.8444

.442

Female

1.6715

.409

Group

t

df

2.42

141

E

.017*

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

Further

analysis

investigating

the

relationship

between

race

and P e r s o n a l Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s showed t h a t t h e r e was
no r e l a t i o n s h i p

between s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s

The group means f o r w h i t e

(1.76)

and r a c e

and no n w h ite

(1.71)

( T ab l e 4 . 2 2 ) .
s t u d e n t s were

not s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t .

A t - v a l u e o f 0 . 5 9 , w i t h 141 d e g r e e s o f

freedom, was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

at

n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was a c c e p t e d .

the

.05 l e v e l

of confidence.

The

67
Tab le 4 . 2 2 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
non wh ite and w h i t e group s c o r e s f o r d u a l - c a r e e r
m a r r i a g e P e r s o n a l Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Group

Mean

SD

Nonwhite

1.7098

.454

White

1.7595

.425

t

df

-.59

The

analyses

relatio n sh ip s

of

variance

between each

showing

variab le

S.

.559

141

that

(fam ily

th ere

were

background,

no

class

s t a n d i n g , o r ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y ) and l e v e l o f e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e
Personal
and

Norms s t r e s s

4.25.

(class

dilemma a r e p r e s e n t e d

F - p r ob ab i 1 i t i e s

stan d in g ),

s i g n i f i c a n t at the

and

of

.0910

.7746
(m ajor

in T a b l e s

(family
area

.05 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

4.23,

4.24,

background),

.0971

of

study)

were

not

The d i f f e r e n c e between

group means f o r each v a r i a b l e was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t ,

r e s u l t i n g in t h e

acceptance of the null h y p othesis.

Ta bl e 4 . 2 3 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e P er s o n al
Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and f a m i l y backg ro un d.

So urce

Between gr o u p s
Wi thi n g r o u p s

Total

Sum o f
Sq ua re s

df

Mean
Sq u ar es

4

.3374

.0843

137

25.8663

.1888

141

26.2037

F-Ratio

F- Pro b.

.4468

.7746

68
Table 4 . 2 4 . --Analysis of variance for du a l - c a r e e r marri a g e Personal
Norms stress d i lemma expectations and class standing.

Source
Between g r oup s
W ithin gr ou ps
T ot al

df

Sum o f
Sq uar es

Mean
S qu ar es

3

1.1725

.3908

138

25.1156

.1820

141

26.2881

F-Ratio

F-P rob .

2.1474

.0971

T ab l e 4 . 2 5 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e P er s o n al
Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and m a jo r a r e a o f
study.

Source

Between gr oup s
W ithin gr ou ps
T ot al

df

Sum o f
Sq uar es

Mean
Squ are s

4

1.4879

.3720

136

24.6948

.1816

140

26.1827

F-Ratio

F-Prob.

2. 0485

.0910

N u ll H y p o t h e s i s 6 :
T h e r e a r e no r e l a t i o n s h i p s b e t w e e n
u n d e rg ra d u a te s t u d e n t s ’ ex p ressed im portance o f s e le c te d
o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, race,
f a m i l y backg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
A lte r n a te H ypothesis 6 :
There a re r e l a t i o n s h i p s between
u n d e rg ra d u a te s t u d e n t s ’ e x p ressed im portance o f s e le c te d
o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and each v a r i a b l e :
sex, race,
f a m i l y ba ckg ro und , c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .
In t e s t i n g t h i s h y p o t h e s i s , g e n d e r a g a i n p r e v a i l e d as showing a
sig n ifican t

relatio n sh ip

to

level

of

expressed

im portance

of

69
selected

occupational

characteristics.

o b t a i n e d a group mean o f
2.43.

2.29,

The

wh ere as

the

males

in

the

study

fem a le group mean was

The d i f f e r e n c e between t h e s e means was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05

l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e , w i t h a t - v a l u e o f - 2 . 7 6 and 117.5 6 d e g r e e s o f
freedom

(Ta b le

4.26).

The

null

females

thought

that

identified

hypothesis
occupational

was

rejected.

characteristics

The
were

s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i m p o r t a n t t h a n d i d t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s .

Ta b l e 4 . 2 6 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
male and f em a le group s c o r e s f o r e x p r e s s e d im p o r t a n c e
of se le c te d occupational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Mean

SD

Male

2.2874

.342

Female

2.4314

.270

Group

t

df

-2.76

117.56

fi

.007*

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

Ta bl e 4 .2 7

shows t h e

t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p
s e le c te d occupational

results

of

the

between l e v e l

ch aracteristics

of

t-tests

suggesting

expressed

and r a c e .

that

im p o r t a n c e

of

Nonwhite s t u d e n t s

p r e s e n t e d a group mean o f 2 . 5 3 , wh ere as n on w h ite s t u d e n t s p r e s e n t e d
a

group

mean

of

2.32.

The

difference

d e t e r m i n e d t o be s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e

between

these

means

was

.05 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e , w i t h a

t - v a l u e o f 3 . 6 0 and 144 d e g r e e s o f freedo m.

Given t h i s f i n d i n g , t h e

n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was r e j e c t e d in f a v o r o f t h e a l t e r n a t i v e h y p o t h e s i s .
Nonwhite

students

expressed

that

selected

occupational

70
charact e r i s t i c s were significantly more

important than did white

students.

T a b l e 4 . 2 7 . - - R e s u l t s o f t - t e s t i n v e s t i g a t i n g d i f f e r e n c e s between
non wh ite and w h i t e g r o u p s c o r e s f o r e x p r e s s e d imp or­
tance of s e le c te d occupational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
Group

Mean

SD

Nonwhite

2.5303

.288

White

2.3191

.302

df

t

3.60

fi

144

.000*

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

The

analyses

relationships

existed

c la s s standing,
occupational
4.30.

of

variance
between

showing

e ac h

th at

variable

no

sig n ifican t

(family

backg ro und ,

o r ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y ) and e x p r e s s e d im p o rt a n c e o f

characteristics

are

shown

in

Tables

4.28,

4.29,

and

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e a n a l y s e s showed F - p r o b a b i l i t i e s o f .1593

(fam ily background),

.8976 ( c l a s s s t a n d i n g ) ,

and

.3735

a t the

( m aj o r a r e a

of study).

These v a l u e s were n o t s i g n i f i c a n t

.05 l e v e l

confidence.

T h e r e f o r e , t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s was a c c e p t e d .

of

71
T ab l e 4 . 2 8 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r e x p r e s s e d im p o r t a n c e o f
o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f a m i l y backg ro un d.

Source
Between gr o up s
Within gro up s
Tota l

Mean
S qu ar es

df

Sum o f
Squ are s

4

.6407

.1602

140

13.3927

.0957

144

14.0334

F-Ratio

F- Pro b.

1.6744

.1593

Ta b l e 4 . 2 9 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r e x p r e s s e d i m p o r ta n c e o f
o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c l a s s s t a n d i n g .

So urce

Between gr o u p s
Within g ro u p s
T ot al

df

Sum o f
Sq ua re s

Mean
Squares

3

.0591

.0197

140

13.9373

.0996

143

13.9964

F-Ratio

F- Prob.

.1980

.8976

T a b l e 4 . 3 0 . - - A n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e f o r e x p r e s s e d im p o r t a n c e o f
o c c u p a t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and m a jo r a r e a o f s t u d y .

S our ce

Between gr o u p s
Within gr o u p s

Total

df

Sum o f
Sq ua re s

Mean
Squares

4

.4174

.1044

139

13.5492

.0975

143

13.9666

F-Ratio

F-Prob.

1.0706

.3735

72
Summary o f F i n d i n g s
The f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s were d e t e r m i n e d in t h e a n a l y s e s o f d a t a
t e s t i n g t h e h y p o t h e s e s as p r e s e n t e d :
1.

Th ere

students’

level

was a r e l a t i o n s h i p
of

expectations

between
for

sex and

dual-career

undergraduate

marriage

Social

Network s t r e s s dilemma.
2.

There

was a r e l a t i o n s h i p

s t u d e n t s ’ level

of expectations

between

sex and

undergraduate

fo r d u a l-c a re e r marriage

Personal

Norms s t r e s s dilemma.
3.

There

s t u d e n t s ’ level

was a r e l a t i o n s h i p
of

expressed

between

im p or ta n ce

of

sex and

undergraduate

selected

occupational

characteristics.
4.

There

students’

level

was a r e l a t i o n s h i p
of

expressed

between r a c e and

im p or ta n ce

of

undergraduate

selected

occupational

characteri s t i e s .
5.
able

Th ere were no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s

(race,

study)
marriage

and

family

ba ckg rou nd ,

undergraduate

O v e rl o a d ,

class

students’

Identity,

Social

between each v a r i ­

standing,

or

expectations
Network,

m a jo r
for

P er s o n al

area

of

dual-career
Norms,

and

R o l e - C y c l i n g s t r e s s dilemmas.
6.

There were no s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p s

between each v a r i ­

a b l e ( f a m i l y bac kground, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , o r ma jor a r e a o f s t u d y ) and
undergraduate

stu d en ts’

occupational c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

expressed

im portance

of

selected

73
A dditional D e s c rip tiv e Information
The

in ten tio n

d escrip tiv e

of

th is

inform ation

inform ation aids

section

about

the

is

to

provide

sample

ad ditional

p articip an ts.

in u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s

Such

and o p i n i o n s

of

undergraduate stu d e n ts.
N in e t y -t w o

and o n e - h a l f p e r c e n t

o f the

respondents

t h a t t h e i r f u t u r e o c c u p a t i o n would be a c a r e e r .
as

i n v o l v i n g commitment,

m obility,
earning

as

training,

opposed t o

money and

N inety-three

a job,

involves

and t h e

which

is

and o n e - h a l f p e r c e n t

possibility
the

or

sole

future

fu rth er

pla n ne d t o marry a t some time in t h e

A c a r e e r was s t a t e d

for

no commitment

indicated

upward

purpose

of

expectations.

ind icated

future,

for

th at

they

and 74.9% p la n n e d on

having two o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n .
In r e g a r d t o l i f e s t y l e
dual-career

lifesty le,

earner l i f e s t y l e
the o th e r.
be

preference,

wh ere as

66.7% would l i k e t o have a

23.1% e x p e c t e d

to

assume

a

dual-

in which one s p o u s e ’ s o c c u p a t i o n was s e c o n d a r y t o

When asked i f t h e y t h o u g h t a d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e would

stressful,

38.1% d i d

not

believe

such

a

s t r e s s f u l , 45.6% th o u g h t i t would be s t r e s s f u l ,

lifesty le

would

be

and 15% were u n s u r e .

Group mean s c o r e s f o r males and f e m a l e s on t h e i d e n t i f i e d d u a l career

m arriage

Personal

Norms,

previous

tables

dilemma
(males
fe m a le s

stress

dilemmas

Id en tity ,
of

this

and

chapter

= 1.88,

females

= 2.36,

fe m a le s

= 2.19),

Role-Cycling

O verload,

R ole-C ycling

(males

= 1.89),

of

and
=

are

1.91),

Identity

dilemma

as

Social

were

Network,

presented

follow s:

in

O v er lo ad

Social

Network

dilemma

dilemma

(males

= 1.86,

(males

=

1.95,

females

=

74

1.98),

and P e r s o n a l

Norms dilemma (males = 1 . 8 4 ,

Mean s c o r e s were ba se d on a 3 - p o i n t s c a l e w i t h
the

area

was

not

expected

to

be

stressful,

e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t i t would be somewhat s t r e s s f u l ,

females = 1 .6 7 ).

(1)
(2)

indicating th a t
indicating

and (3)

an

indicating

an e x p e c t a t i o n t h a t i t would be v e r y s t r e s s f u l .
A r e v ie w o f t h e s e mean s c o r e s r e v e a l s t h a t t h e S o c i a l

Network

dilemma was e x p e c t e d t o be most s t r e s s f u l , w i t h mean s c o r e s o f 2 . 3 6
(m ales)

and

2.19

(fem ales).

All

other

stress

dilemma

areas

p r e s e n t e d no group mean v a l u e o v e r 2, s u g g e s t i n g t h a t t h e p o p u l a t i o n
as a whole had e x p e c t a t i o n s o f low s t r e s s
issues.

f o r t h e s e known c o n f l i c t

C H APTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND IMPLICATIONS

A summary o f t h e
chapter,

of

this

study

is

reviewed

a l o n g w i t h a r e v i e w o f t h e sample p o p u l a t i o n ,

and t e c h n i q u e s
and

purposes

of data

im plications

for

analysis.
fu tu re

A discussion

research

and

in

this

instrum ent,

of t h e c o n c l u s i o n s

ap p licatio n

is

also

provided.
Summary
The m a jo r p u r p os e o f t h e s t u d y was t o a s s e s s t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s
o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s f o r known s t r e s s
marriage.
family

E f f o r t s were p a r t i c u l a r l y made t o d e t e r m i n e i f s e x , r a c e ,

bac kg ro u nd ,

students
stated

is s u e s in a d u a l - c a r e e r

were
in

class

related

previous

to

standing,
th eir

chapters,

o r m a jo r a r e a
expectations.

the

p u r p os e

of

of

of

the

S pecifically,

as

this

study

study

was

to

determ ine:
1.

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s

between d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e Ov er­

lo a d s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and t h e
v a r i a b l e s o f s e x , r a c e , f a m i l y bac k gr ou nd , c l a s s s t a n d i n g ,

and ma jor

area o f study?
2.

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e S o c i a l

Network s t r e s s

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

of

75

undergraduate

students

and

76
the v a r i a b l e s o f sex,

race,

f a m i l y backgr ound,

class

standing,

and

ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y ?
3.
tity

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e

s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e

students

Iden­

and t h e

v a r i a b l e s o f s e x , r a c e , f a m i l y backgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , and maj or
ar ea o f study?
4.

Are t h e r e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e Rol e-

Cy c l i n g

stress

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x,

race,

of undergraduate

f a m i l y backgr ound,

students

and

standing,

and

marriage

Per­

class

ma j o r a r e a o f s t u d y ?
5.
s onal

Are t h e r e

Norms

stress

relationships

between d u a l - c a r e e r

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s

and t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x ,

race,

of

undergraduate

f a m i l y backgr ound,

students

class

standing,

undergraduate

students’

and ma j or a r e a o f s t ud y?
6.

Are

expressed

there

relationships

i mp o r t a n c e

t owar d

and t h e v a r i a b l e s o f s e x ,

bet ween

selected

race,

occupational

f a m i l y backgr ound,

characteristics
class

standing,

and ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y ?
The r e v i e w o f t h e l i t e r a t u r e p r o v i d e d an i n - d e p t h d i s c u s s i o n o f
t h e s e s t r e s s o r s as p r e s e n t e d by Rapopor t and Rapopor t ( 1 9 6 9 ) .
findings

supported

the

pr o mi n e n t c o n f l i c t a r e a s
the

present

study,

undergraduate

notion

these

stressors

in d u a l - c a r e e r ma rr i ag es .

however,

student

that

clearly

population

indicated
lacked

are

Their
i nde ed

The r e s u l t s
that

the

the

of

college

psychological

preparation necessary fo r a d u al-c ar eer l i f e s t y l e .

These f i n d i n g s

support

and

Gilbert’s

(1987)

a s s ump t i on

that

bot h

men

women

are

77

ill-prepared
Bebbington

for

the

(1973)

changes

emphasized

required

that

the

for

this

ability

to

lifestyle.
successfully

m a i n t a i n t h e d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e i s d e p e n d e n t on o n e ’ s w i l l i n g n e s s
to

accept

the

varied

stresses

and s t r e s s o r s

that

are

inherent

in

this lifestyle.
The i n i t i a t i v e o f r e s e a r c h f o c u s i n g on d u a l - c a r e e r f a m i l i e s was
an a t t e m p t

to

address

the

women i n t h e work f o r c e .
1967;

Fogarty,

issues

related

to

In e a r l y s t u d i e s

Ra popor t ,

& Ra pop or t ,

increased

numbers

of

( Da hl s t r om & L i l j e s t r o m ,

1968;

Myrdal

& Klein,

1956) ,

a t t e n t i o n was d i r e c t e d t o t h e cha n gi ng r o l e s o f women.

Rapopor t and

Rapopor t

focusing

(1969)

are

credited

wi t h

be i ng

pioneers

in

not

o n l y on women b u t on t h e i n f l u e n c e o f t h i s t r e n d on f a m i l y s y s t e ms .
R e s e a r c h e r s have bot h a c c e p t e d and r e l i e d on Rapopor t and R a p o p o r t ’ s
(1969)
the

identified

dual-career

Cycling,

internal
marriage

Personal

The

population

undergraduate
Big-Ten

s ys t e m.

Norms,

encompass t h e s t r e s s f u l

and

as
The

Social

critical
Ov e r l o a d ,

Network

in

understanding

Identity,

dilemmas

Rol e-

thoroughly

f e a t u r e s in t h i s s ys t e m.
for

students

institution.

stressors

this

at

study

consisted

Mi chi gan S t a t e

of

University,

S i x t y - f i v e mal es and 82 f e ma l e s

147

college

a mi dwe s t er n
were

pool e d

fo r the study.
The i n s t r u m e n t used i n t h e s t u d y was a q u e s t i o n n a i r e d e v e l o p e d
by S e n g e r - D i c k i n s o n
made by

this

and

Stewart

investigator

for

(1988).
specific

Some m o d i f i c a t i o n s
us e

in

this

study.

were
The

78
instrument
career

contained

marriage

i t ems

stress,

from t h e

and

areas

of

occupational

biographies,

dual -

characteristics.

The

i n s t r u m e n t c o n t a i n e d f i x - a l t e r n a t i v e i t ems and L i k e r t - s c a l e i t e m s .
The a n a l y s i s o f d a t a
determine

the

i n c l u d e d t h e use o f t - t e s t s

relationships

presented

in

the

and ANOVA t o

six

hypotheses.

F - p r o b a b i l i t i e s and t - v a l u e s were t e s t e d f o r s i g n i f i c a n c e a t t h e . 05
level

of

confidence.

Additional

analysis

used

descriptive

statistics.

Co n c l u s i o n s and D i s c u s s i o n
The

analyses

of

the

hypotheses

resulted

in

the

following

c o n c l u s i o n s and d i s c u s s i o n :
1.

Findings r e s u l t i n g

indicated

that

there

were

m arriag e Overload s t r e s s
students
standing,

and each

testing

relationships

sex,

race,

Null

bet ween

d i l e mma e x p e c t a t i o n s

variable:

of

family

Hypothesis

dual-career

of undergraduate
ba c kgr ound,

class

Over l oad

stress

and maj or a r e a o f s t u d y .

A further
expectations
this

no

from t h e

look

indicated

at

group

that

sampl e had low s t r e s s

the

mean

scores

college

expectations

for

undergraduate
for

the

students

Over l oad

in

dil emma.

The d i f f i c u l t y o f work and f a m i l y r o l e b a l a n c i n g i s a common s o u r c e
of strain
St.

in d u a l - c a r e e r

John-Parsons,

1978) .

marriages
The

fact

(Epstein,
that

1971;

these

Garland,

students

1972;

had

low

s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h i s dilemma c l e a r l y p r e s e n t s a s i t u a t i o n i n
which

being

adjustment.

ill-prepared

can

greatly

affect

future

lifestyle

1

79
2.

Findings r e s u l t i n g

from t h e t e s t i n g

o f Null

Hy p o t h e s i s

2

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e were r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
and

the

variable

of

sex.

However,

there

were

no

significant

r e l a t i o n s h i p s bet ween S o c i a l Network s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s and
race,

family

The m a l e s

ba c kgr ound,

in

the

class

study

standing,

expressed

or

ma j or

area

significantly

of

study.

higher

stress

e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e S o c i a l Network dilemma t h a n d i d f e m a l e s .
Thi s c o n c l u s i o n i s s u p p o r t e d in t h e l i t e r a t u r e ,

suggesting t h a t

men a r e more c on c e r n e d w i t h t h e ma i n t e n a n c e o f s o c i a l

s ys t ems t h a n

females.

S t . J o h n s - P a r s o n s (1978) r e p o r t e d t h a t r e l a t i o n s h i p s wi t h

relatives

tend

to

deteriorate

for

dual-career

d i f f i c u l t y me e t i ng some o f t h e s e e x p e c t e d s o c i a l

couples,

who

have

interactions.

The

s t u d y went on t o c o n f i r m t h a t men e x p r e s s a f e e l i n g o f g r e a t e r l o s s
in r e g a r d t o t h e i r f a m i l y t i e s be i n g l e s s e n e d .
3.

Findings

indicated

that

resulting
there

were

from t h e
no

testing

o f Null

relationships

Hypothesis

bet ween

3

dual-career

m a r r i a g e I d e n t i t y dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s and
the variables

o f sex,

race,

f a m i l y ba c k gr ound,

class

standing,

or

ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y .
Her e, a g a i n , an e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e gr oup mean s c o r e s shows lowlevel

s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e I d e n t i t y dil emma.

The l i t e r a t u r e

a d d r e s s i n g t h e I d e n t i t y dilemma has d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e c r i t i c a l
surrounding

gender-role

dual-career structure.
professional

women,

socialization

and

role

a s s u mp t i o n

Ber nar d (1974) r e p o r t e d t h a t ,
it

is

the

woman who mu s t

issues
in

the

in looking a t

engage

in

mor e

80

"psychological

work" when d e a l i n g w i t h

identity

integration.

The

n a t u r e o f t h e American c u l t u r e p o s i t s t h a t m a s c u l i n i t y

is

by

obtained

success

success

in

in

Hol s t r om,

the

the

work

role,

wher eas

d o me s t i c

role

(Heckman,

1973) .

Given

this

premise,

femininity
Br ys on,
it

is

is

obtained

& Brys on,

the

by

1977;

woman who most

l i k e l y assumes t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and c h a l l e n g e o f s u c c e s s

in both

environments.

express

The women i n

this

study,

however,

did

not

more c o n c e r n i n t h i s r e g a r d t h a n t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s .
4.

Findings r e s u l t i n g

indicated

that

there

m a r r i a g e Ro l e - Cy c l i n g
students

were
stress

and t h e v a r i a b l e s

standing,
dilemma

no

from t h e t e s t i n g
relationships

and maj or a r e a o f s t u d y .
in

the

literature

bet ween

dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s
o f sex,

has

race,

o f Null

family

of

Hypothesis 4

dual-career
undergraduate

ba c kgr ound,

class

Dis cus si on o f t h e Role-Cycling

suggested

that

role

cycling

has

a

de v e l opme nt a l p a t t e r n t h a t i n v o l v e s t h e mer gi ng o f c a r e e r c y c l e s and
family c y c l e s .
prevail

at

( Be b b i n g t o n ,
initial

As a r e s u l t , d i f f e r e n t c r i t i c a l
different
1973) .

stages

The

of

the

anticipatory

s t a g e and encompasses i n i t i a l

points of tr a n s itio n

developmental
stage of

efforts

this

pattern

cycle

is the

t o wa r d p r e p a r a t i o n f o r

assumi ng a r o l e i n t h e d u a l - c a r e e r s ys t em.
Thi s i n v e s t i g a t o r b e l i e v e s t h a t c o l l e g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e

students

a r e t y p i c a l l y a t t h i s a n t i c i p a t o r y s t a g e o r even a t an u n i d e n t i f i e d
preceding
progressive

stage.
stages

In

addition,

of

role

they

cycling.

lack the
Such an

insight
a s s u mp t i o n

into the
i s one

81
e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t he f i n d i n g in t h i s study t h a t c o l l e g e undergraduate
s t u d e n t s had low s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s f o r t h e Ro l e - Cy c l i n g dilemma.
5.

Findings r e s u l t i n g

from t h e t e s t i n g

o f Null

Hypothesis

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p between d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e
P e r s o n a l Norms s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
and

sex.

However,

Personal

Norms

ba c kgr oun d,

t h e r e was

stress

class

no

significant

d i l e mm a

standing,

relationship

expectations

and

between

race,

o r ma j or a r e a o f s t u d y .

family

The mal es

t h i s s t u d y e x p r e s s e d a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r l e v e l o f Pe r s o n a l
s t r e s s dilemma e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a n d i d f e ma l e s .

in

Norms

However, i t s h o u l d be

n o t e d t h a t gr oup s c o r e s f o r bot h mal es and f e ma l e s were low.
Th i s

finding

literature.

In

is

contrary

Rapoport

to

those

and

reported

Rapoport’ s

in t he

(1969)

review of

study,

women

p r e s e n t e d t h e P e r s ona l Norms dilemma over whel mi ngl y as a ma j o r a r e a
of

stress.

formed

only

The
as

explanation
a hypothesis

for
at

this
this

conflicting
stage.

finding

Given

the

s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s by bot h mal es and f e ma l e s i n t h i s
evident

that

anticipation

of

the

stressors

norms i s q u i t e low f o r c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s .
on t h e i r p a r t w i l l
to negotiate

bet ween p r i o r i t i e s

college-age

conflict

it

is

societal

as t h e y begi n

and p r i o r i t i e s

stated

by

Fol l o wi ng t h i s a s s u mp t i o n , one may s p e c u l a t e

men a r e

at

a stage

of personal

r e g a r d i n g what one want s t o do,

society thinks
females.

for s e lf

low-level

study,
by

be

Agai n, a l a c k o f awa r e ne s s

l i k e l y r e s u l t in i n c r e a s e d t u r m o i l

t h e American c u l t u r e .
that

presented

can

h e / s h e s h o u l d do,

devel o pment when

v e r s u s what one b e l i e v e s

i s more p r omi ne nt

f o r mal es t h a n

5

82

6.

Findings r e s u l t i n g

from t h e t e s t i n g

o f Null

Hy p o t h e s i s 6

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was a r e l a t i o n s h i p between e x p r e s s e d i mp o r t a n c e
by

undergraduate

characteristics
relationship,

students

and

race

however,

and

toward

selected

gender.

Ther e

was

occupational
no

significant

bet ween e x p r e s s e d i mp o r t a n c e o f o c c u p a t i o n a l

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and f a m i l y backgr ound, c l a s s s t a n d i n g , o r ma j o r a r e a
of

study.

The

occupational

females

in

the

study

thought

that

identified

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s were s i g n i f i c a n t l y more i m p o r t a n t t ha n

d i d t h e mal es in t h e s t u d y .
This

finding

investigator.

is

commensurate

The o c c u p a t i o n a l

with

assumptions

characteristics

of

selected

the
deal

p r i m a r i l y wi t h t h e f l e x i b i l i t y o f t h e o c c u p a t i o n i n a l l o w i n g one t o
address

child-care

pr e mi s e

that

women have t y p i c a l l y

logical

that

the

more c o n c e r n
(1977)

more

regard

than

responsibility

Th i s r e s u l t s

occupational

responsibility,

in t h e

28 d u a l - c a r e e r

t h e ma j o r

(p. 3 9 3 ) .

family-life

f e ma l e s

in t h i s

studied

retained

and

than t h e i r

im portance

on

these

willingness

to

assume

assumed t h i s

Given

role,

it

s t u d y would e x p r e s s
the

ma l es .

families
i n most

found

areas

quite

significantly

J ohnson

and

is

the

and J ohnson
that

"wives

of c h i l d - r e a r i n g "

i n t h e w i v e s ’ havi ng t o make s i g n i f i c a n t l y

adjustments,

t h a t t h e mal es i n t h i s

responsibilities.

in

hu s b a n d s .

attempting
It

is

to

fulfill

interesting,

this

however,

s t u d y d i d p l a c e a mo d e r a t e l y hi gh l e v e l
same

issues.

some c h i l d

and

This

suggests

family

a

of

cognitive

responsibilities,

as

83
well

as

a

desire

to

have

their

occupations

as

a group,

recognize

this

significantly

mor e

willingness.
Nonwhite
i mp o r t a n c e
their

students,

on t h e

white

interesting

selected

the

current li t e r a t u r e .
to

have

occupational

counterparts.
to

their

personal/family
occupation

placed

This

investigator

characteristics

finding

and

is

not

is

than

among

directly

did

the

mo s t

addressed

in

One a s s umpt i on i s t h a t m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s e x p e c t

occupations
lives.

assist

Thi s
in

responsibilities.

play

a more

includes

modifying

The

nature

fulfilling
the

desire

family
of

this

stress

to

and

in

their

have

one’s

child-rearing

study

c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t can be drawn r e g a r d i n g r a c i a l
c a r e e r m a r r i a g e and o c c u p a t i o n a l

role

lim its

influence

expectations.

the

and dual Efforts

to

a d d r e s s t h i s l i m i t a t i o n s ho ul d f oc us on i n d i v i d u a l

min or ity groups.

Thi s

need

finding,

explore

however,

minority

clearly

persons

in

makes
the

evident
context

the
of

the

to

further

dual-career

structure.

Recommendations and I m p l i c a t i o n s
The f i n d i n g s g e n e r a t e d
counselors

from t h i s

study

and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s wor ki ng w i t h

One p r i ma r y i m p l i c a t i o n o f t h i s

study

is

have
college

implications

for

undergraduates.

t h e need t o

increase

the

a wa r e ne s s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s f o r t h e known s t r e s s o r s
in t h e d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e .
it

is

imperative

that

As s t r e s s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h i s w r i t i n g ,

college

students

prepare

themselves

p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y f o r t h e uni que c h a l l e n g e f a c i n g them i f t h e y e n t e r a

84
d u a l - c a r e e r marriage.

Their eventual

success

and e mo t i o n a l

well­

be i n g a r e d e p e n d e n t on t h i s p r e p a r a t i o n and a wa r e n e s s .
I t was n o t t h e i n t e n t i o n o f t h i s
there

are

foolproof

Identity,

Social

occupational

techniques

Network,

setting

in

i n v e s t i g a t o r to suggest t h a t
dealing

Role-Cycling,

stressors

present

with

the

Personal

in t h e

Overload,
Nor ms ,

dual-career

and

s ys t e m.

I t i s s u g g e s t e d , however, t h a t r e c o g n i z i n g t h e m u l t i t u d e o f probl ems
commonly

faced

by

clarification,

dual-career

couples

(stress

management,

and b a l a n c i n g o f c a r e e r and f a m i l y r o l e s )

value

is

likely

t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r a b i l i t y t o deal e f f e c t i v e l y wi t h t h e s e i s s u e s .
For c o u n s e l o r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t h i s s t u d y o f f e r s t h e chance
to

understand

expectations,

mor e

clearly

and m i n d - s e t

their

own awa r e ne s s

their

students

of

in t h i s

in p r e p a r i n g

and
their

regard,

thoroughly
student

the

body.

opinions,

By i n c r e a s i n g

t h e y can more r e a d i l y

for successful

ma i n t e n a n c e

of

assist
a dual-

c a re e r marriage.
As t h e r e v i e w o f l i t e r a t u r e s u g g e s t e d ,
structure

is

increasingly

American s o c i e t y .
truly

mor e

traditional
mother

"traditional"

lifestyle

in

I t was f u r t h e r i n d i c a t e d t h a t such a l i f e s t y l e i s

desirable
structure,

assumes

becoming t h e

the d u a l-c a r e e r marital

sole

for

career-oriented

persons

than

the

i n which f a t h e r i s p r i ma r y income e a r n e r and
domestic

responsibilities.

Given

this

knowl edge, e f f o r t s must be made t o p r e s e n t t h i s r e a l i t y , n o t o n l y a t
the level
at all

o f h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n but a l s o i n K-12 p r ogr a ms .

Students

l e v e l s need t o be c o g n i z a n t o f t h e d i v e r s e f a m i l y s t r u c t u r e s

85
in t h e i r

society

and b e g i n t o d e v e l o p a g r e a t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g and

acceptance of t h i s d i v e r s i t y .
Recommendations
adm inistrators
preventive

in

for

future

higher

educational

i mp l e m e n t a t i o n

education

include

workshops

a i me d

by

counselors

and

the

development

of

at

assisting

the

u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t a t t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y s t a g e o f d e v e l o p me n t .

It

i s c l e a r t h a t p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n such workshops w i l l n o t o nl y i n c r e a s e
o n e ’ s a b i l i t y t o s o l v e pr obl ems and make d e c i s i o n s ,

but i t w i l l

also

a s s i s t i n maxi mi zi ng t h e b e n e f i t s t h a t can be o b t a i n e d from s uch a
structure.
Specific implications for future research are:
1.

Th i s s t u d y s h o u l d be r e p l i c a t e d wi t h a n a t i o n a l

of college

undergraduate

students

to determine

if

the

population
findings

of

t h i s study are g e n e r a l i z a b l e to the national population.
2.
vidual

Studies

s h o u l d be d e s i g n e d f o c u s i n g

minority

groups

and

nonminority

specifically

undergraduate

on

indi­

students

to

d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t o f r a c e on c a r e e r and f a m i l y - l i f e e x p e c t a t i o n s .
Such s t u d i e s w i l l

a i d i n making more d e f i n i t i v e d i s t i n c t i o n s between

m i n o r i t y and n o n m i n o r i t y c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s .
3.

Efforts

need t o

be made t o d e v e l o p

a more d i s c r i m i n a t i n g

s c a l e f o r me a s u r i n g d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e s t r e s s e x p e c t a t i o n s .
an

instrument

will

provide

greater

us e

in

regard

to

Such

practical

i mp o r t a n c e and i n t e r v e n t i o n .
4.

Occupational

organization

policies

should

be

thoroughly

exami ned t o d e t e r m i n e t h e e f f e c t on q u a l i t y o f l i f e f o r d u a l - c a r e e r
couples.

The

findings

of

this

examination

should

be

relayed

to

86

c o l l e g e u n d e r g r a d u a t e s t o i n c r e a s e t h e i r awar enes s o f t h e e x t e r n a l
i n f l u e n c e r s on t h e i r q u a l i t y o f l i f e .
5.
of

Given t h a t a c l a s s r o s t e r can be o b t a i n e d , w i t h t h e names

students

longitudinal

enrolled

in

the

courses

used

in

s t u d y c ou l d be c o n duc t e d by c o n t a c t i n g

this

study,

students

at

a
a

l a t e r d a t e t o d e t e r m i n e i f l i f e e v e n t s have a l t e r e d t h e i r o p i n i o n s
or ex p ec ta t io n s.
6.

In a t t e m p t s t o us e t h e r e s u l t s g e n e r a t e d from t h i s

study,

workshops f o c u s i n g on g e n d e r i s s u e s i n t h e d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e need
t o be d e v e l o p e d .
identified

Thi s s hou l d n e c e s s a r i l y i n c l u d e an emphasi s on t h e

stress

dilemmas and t h e i r v a r i e d e f f e c t s

on bot h mal es

and f e m a l e s .
7.
ventive

More e f f o r t s need t o be p l a c e d on t h e devel opment o f p r e ­
educational

undergraduates
social
goal.

for

scientists

workshops

a dual-career
and e d u c a t o r s

a i me d

at

lifestyle.
should

be

preparing

college

The c o n t r i b u t i o n s
pool e d

to

attain

of

this

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A

STUDENT OPINION QUESTIONNAIRE

87
STUDENT OPINION QUESTIONNAIRE
(Adapted from S e n g e r - D i c k i n s o n and S t e w a r t , 1988)

INSTRUCTIONS:
QUESTIONNAIRE.

PLEASE

READ CAREFULLY BEFORE

FILLING

OUT THIS

T h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s c o n c e r n e d wi t h y o u r o p i n i o n s r e g a r d i n g JOBS and
CAREERS.
A CAREER s h o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d as work which i n v o l v e s
p e r s o n a l commitment, a c e r t a i n amount o f t r a i n i n g , a f u t u r e w i t h t h e
a n t i c i p a t i o n o f upward m o b i l i t y . A JOB, on t h e o t h e r hand, i s chos en
p r i m a r i l y f o r t h e money t h a t one can e a r n and does no t i n v o l v e
p e r s o n a l commitment o r f u t u r e e x p e c t a t i o n s .
The t e r m OCCUPATION
r e f e r s t o employment , wh e t h e r such employment i s a j o b o r a c a r e e r .
Q u e s t i o n n a i r e s co mpl et e d by you, and o t h e r s t u d e n t s , w i l l be used in
a study of undergraduate s t u d e n t s ’ a t t i t u d e s regarding d u a l -c a r e e r
marriage.
Your r e s p o n s e s w i l l be bot h c o n f i d e n t i a l and anonymous,
and w i l l be viewed o n l y by a r e s e a r c h c o mmi t t e e .
I f you wish t o have
a summary o f t h e r e s u l t s s e n t t o you, we w i l l be happy t o do s o.
Your name and a d d r e s s , o f c o u r s e , w i l l be ne ede d.
Space i s p r o v i d e d
a t t h e end o f t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e i f you wish t o make t h i s r e q u e s t .
Your c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e i n d i c a t e s y o u r v o l u n t a r y
a gr e e me nt t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t h i s s t u d y .
PLEASE PLACE YOUR ANSWERS ON THE ANSWER SHEET PROVIDED,
PENCIL.

1.

What s ex a r e you?
(1) Male
(2) Female

2.

How o l d a r e you?
(1) 19 y e a r s o f age o r younger
(2) Between 20 and 21 y e a r s o f age
(3) Between 22 and 25 y e a r s o f age
(4) Between 26 and 29 y e a r s o f age
(5) T h i r t y y e a r s o f age o r ove r

3.

What i s y o u r c u r r e n t c l a s s s t a n d i n g ?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Freshman
Sophomore
Junior
Senior
Gr a dua t e

USING A #2

88
4.

In what a r e a i s y o u r c u r r e n t l y d e c l a r e d ma j or ?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

5.

Asi an
Bl a ck
Ca u c a s i a n
Latino
N a t i v e American

As you l o o k f or wa r d t o y o u r f u t u r e o c c u p a t i o n , what w i l l
(See i n s t r u c t i o n s on page 1 . )
(1)
(2)

8.

Single
Ma r r i e d
Separated
Di vor c e d
Widowed

What i s y o u r e t h n i c backgr ound?
(1)
(b)
(3)
(4)
(5)

7.

( B u s i n e s s , Pre-Law)

What i s y o u r c u r r e n t m a r i t a l s t a t u s ?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

6.

Social Sciences
Sciences
Pre-Professional
Liberal Arts
Education

My f u t u r e o c c u p a t i o n w i l l be
My f u t u r e o c c u p a t i o n w i l l be

Which o f

i t be?

a career.
a job.

t h e f o l l o w i n g BEST DESCRIBES y o u r m a r i t a l p l a n s ?

(1) I p l a n t o be m a r r i e d a t some f u t u r e t i me .
(2) I p l a n t o remai n s i n g l e .
(3) I am c u r r e n t l y m a r r i e d .
9.

Which o f t h e f o l l o w i n g BEST DESCRIBES t h e t i m i n g o f
marriage plans?

your

(1) I p l a n t o be m a r r i e d d u r i n g c o l l e g e .
(2) I p l a n t o be m a r r i e d as soon as p o s s i b l e a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n .
(3) I p l a n t o d e l a y m a r r i a g e u n t i l I have my o c c u p a t i o n wel l
un d e r way.
(4) I p l a n t o r emai n s i n g l e .
(5) I am c u r r e n t l y m a r r i e d .
10.

How many c h i l d r e n do you p l a n on ha v i n g ?
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

I do n o t p l a n t o have c h i l d r e n .
One c h i l d .
Two o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n .
Four o r more c h i l d r e n .

89
11.

When do you p l a n t o have c h i l d r e n ?
(1)
(2)
(3)

I p l a n t o have c h i l d r e n d u r i n g c o l l e g e .
I p l a n t o have c h i l d r e n as soon as p o s s i b l e a f t e r g r a d u a t i o n .
I p l a n t o d e l a y ha vi ng c h i l d r e n u n t i l my o c c u p a t i o n i s wel l
un de r way.
(4) I do n o t p l a n t o have any c h i l d r e n .
(5) I a l r e a d y have c h i l d r e n .
12.

Which o f t h e f o l l o w i n g BEST FITS y o u r i d e a o f t h e ki nd o f
m a r r i a g e you would l i k e t o have?
(1) TRADITIONAL Fami l y, where f a t h e r works and mot her s t a y s a t
home and c a r e s f o r c h i l d r e n .
(2) DUAL EARNER Fami l y, where bot h s p ous e s work b u t m o t h e r ’ s
o c c u p a t i o n i s s e c o n d a r y i n i mpor t a n c e t o f a t h e r ’ s o c c u p a t i o n .
(3) DUAL EARNER Fami l y, where bot h s pous e s work b u t f a t h e r ’ s o c c u ­
p a t i o n i s s e c o n d a r y i n i mp o r t a n c e t o m o t h e r ’ s o c c u p a t i o n .
(4) DUAL CAREER Fami l y, where bot h s pou s e s a r e e q u a l l y commi t t ed
i n t h e i r chos en c a r e e r or p r o f e s s i o n .
(5) SINGLE PARENT F a m i l y - - e i t h e r d i v o r c e d o r n e v e r m a r r i e d , wi t h
one o r more c h i l d r e n .

13.

R e f e r r i n g back t o t h e answer s in Que s t i on 12, which f a m i l y t y p e
i s c l o s e s t t o t h a t chos en by y o u r own p a r e n t s ?
(1) T r a d i t i o n a l Fami l y.
(2) Dual Ea r n e r Fami l y, f a t h e r ’ s o c c u p a t i o n p r i ma r y .
(3) Dual Ea r n e r Fami l y, m o t h e r ’ s o c c u p a t i o n p r i ma r y .
(4) Dual C a r e e r Fami l y.
(5) S i n g l e P a r e n t Fami l y.

The remainder o f t h i s q u e s t i o n n a i r e i s co ncerned w i t h your a t t i t u d e s
r e g a r d i n g your o c c u p a t i o n and your f a m i l y .
There ar e no r i g h t or
wrong a n s w e r s . What we a r e i n t e r e s t e d in i s how you b e l i e v e and f e e l
about t h i n g s .

14.

Which o f t h e f o l l o w i n g i s most i m p o r t a n t in d e t e r m i n i n g which
s pou s e s houl d t a k e t h e ma j or r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r home and f a m i l y
life?
(1) Women s h o u l d be more r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a m i l y t h a n men.
(2) The p a r t n e r who makes t h e l e a s t money s houl d have t h e g r e a t ­
e s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t he family.
(3) The p a r t n e r who has t h e g r e a t e s t c a r e e r p o t e n t i a l s h o u l d t a k e
t h e l e a s t r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r t he family.
(4) The p a r t n e r who has t h e most c o r p o r a t e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y s h o u l d
have t h e l e a s t f a m i l y r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .
(5) The p a r t n e r who has t h e g r e a t e s t p e r s o n a l d e s i r e t o be
r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e f a m i l y s houl d be t h e one t o assume t h e
most r e s p o n s i b i l i t y .

90
PLEASE ANSWER QUESTIONS 15- 37 ON YOUR ANSWER SHEET USING THE ANSWERS
TO THE RIGHT.

How i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n c h o o s i n g a m a r r i a g e
partner?

■P

4J
C

4J

-P
C

fO

fD

fD

4->

.C

4->

t-

s

L-

O
Q.

OE

15.

A s p o u s e who h i g h l y v a l u e s

my o c c u p a t i o n .

16.

A s pous e who h i g h l y v a l u e s

h is /h e r occupation.

17.

A s p o u s e who i s w i l l i n g t o
my o c c u p a t i o n .

make s a c r i f i c e s f o r

18.
19.
20.
21.

(D O
E CL

OE

4->
C
ft)

-P
L.

>, O
P CL

0) E

2

3

A s pous e who e x p e c t s me t o v a l u e h i s / h e r
occupation.

2

3

A s pous e who e x p e c t s o u r m a r r i a g e t o s t a y t h e
same o v e r t i me .

2

3

A s pous e who e x p e c t s t o g i v e up an equal amount
t o make our m a r r i a g e work.

2

3

A s pous e who e x p e c t s t o compete w i t h bot h s e x e s
on an equal b a s i s .

2

3

How i m p o r t a n t a r e t h e f o l l o w i n g c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i n y o u r s e l e c t i o n o f
an empl oyer ?
4J
4-> C

4->
C

ft)

4l_J
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CL

(O

ft)

. i : 4->
4-5

O
Q.

OE

S L.
<D O
E Q.
OE

to —

L.

<D E

22.

O c c u p a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r my s p o u s e .

23.

A v a i l a b i l i t y o f c h i l d - c a r e f a c i l i t i e s provided
by t h e company.

2

3

24.

F l e x i b l e wor ki ng h o u r s .

2

3

25.

Time o f f f o r e m e r g e n c i e s .

2

3

26.

Parental leave f o r family

2

3

27.

How much money you w i l l make.

2

3

28.

C a r e e r advancement .

2

3

reasons.

29.

What ki nd o f b e n e f i t s you w i l l g e t ( i n s u r a n c e ,
retirement, p ro fit sharing).

3

30.

Corporate

p o l i c i e s t h a t support family l i f e .

3

31.

Amount o f

vaca ti on time.

3

32.

Amount o f

personal leave time.

3

33.

C orporation-sponsored/affiliated day-care centers.

3

34.

Cash s u b s i d i e s t o d e f r a y d a y - c a r e c o s t s .

3

35.

C o r p o r a t e p o l i c i e s t h a t f a c i l i t a t e f a i r n e s s and
e q u i t y f o r each s ex.

36.

C o r p o r a t e a s s i s t a n c e i n h e l p i n g my s pous e t o
f i n d a j o b when t h e company a s k s me t o move.

2

3

Amount o f t r a v e l t i me r e q u i r e d .

2

3

37.

PLEASE ANSWER QUESTIONS 38- 62 ON YOUR ANSWER SHEET USING THE ANSWERS
TO THE RIGHT.
Taki ng i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n y o u r f a m i l y a n d / o r s p o u s e , how s t r e s s f u l
you a n t i c i p a t e t h e f o l l o w i n g c i r c u m s t a n c e s t o be?

10
if)

<D

4J t-

O 4-J
z : CO

do

4-5 3
fU 4 _C

5

lO

u)

<D <D

B
tO -P

CO CO

O 4-5
>

CO

38.

S h o r t a g e o f t i me t o be w i t h f r i e n d s .

39.

S h o r t a g e o f t i me t o be wi t h s p o u s e .

3

40.

S h o r t a g e o f t i me t o spend w i t h f a m i l y .

3

41.

S h o r t a g e o f t i me t o p u r s u e my own p e r s o n a l
interests.

42.

S h o r t a g e o f t i me and money t o e n j o y t r a v e l and
other recreational a c t i v i t i e s .

43.

H i r i n g p e o p l e who w i l l h e l p w i t h housewor k.

_C

0

4-> $~
O -P

s0)
E
O

Stressful

92

44.

E x p e r i e n c i n g a c o n f l i c t bet ween home and work.

2

3

45.

C o n s t a n t l y s h i f t i n g my i n v o l ve me nt a t home and
a t work.

2

3

Not b e i n g a b l e t o d e v o t e as much t i me and e n e r g y
t o my o c c u p a t i o n as I would want t o .

2

3

Not ha v i ng h e l p from e x t e n d e d f a m i l y i n c a r i n g
f o r my c h i l d r e n .

2

3

Having t o l i v e in t h e shadow o f my s pous e and
h i s / h e r occupation.

2

3

2

3

46.
47.

48.

49.

Not b e i n g a b l e t o a c t l i k e m y s e l f .

50.

P r o t e c t i n g my own i nde pe nde nc e w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g
a cl ose marriage r e l a t i o n s h i p .

51.

Competing wi t h my s pous e f o r o c c u p a t i o n a l

52.

Having t o pu t my s p o u s e ’ s o c c u p a t i o n ahead o f mi ne.

2

3

53.

Being a p a r e n t ,
time.

2

3

Having t o c u r t a i l c a r e e r i n v o l v e me n t s i n f a v o r
o f f a m i l y demands.

2

3

R i s k i n g d i s a p p r o v a l o f my c o l l e a g u e s when I
assume f a m i l y r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .

2

3

Having t o move b e c a u s e o f c a r e e r c h a n g e s , and
t h e move’ s e f f e c t on my c h i l d r e n and s pou s e .

2

3

C o o r d i n a t i n g t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l p r o g r e s s o f my
s p o u s e and me.

2

3

D e f i n i n g what i s i m p o r t a n t t o me ( s e t t i n g
priorities).

2

3

Not r a i s i n g c h i l d r e n a c c o r d i n g t o t r a d i t i o n a l
practices.

2

3

54.

55.
56.
57.

58.

59.

s p o u s e , and wor ker a l l

success.

a t t h e same

93

D
P
0
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CO

60.

Having t o d i s c o n t i n u e c a r e e r i n v o l v e me n t t o
assume c h i l d - r e a r i n g r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s .

1

61.

Taki ng t i me t o c a r e f o r t h e c h i l d r e n when t h e y
are sick.

62.

S u p p o r t i n g my c h i l d r e n and s pous e i n t h e i r e x t r a ­
c u r r i c u l a r and l e i s u r e a c t i v i t i e s .

D
P
m
in
0
L. U
0 P
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P =5
itJ P
in
s &
<D 0
E tO P
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{/>
I/)

2

3

PLEASE ANSWER QUESTIONS 63- 74 ON YOUR ANSWER SHEET BY FILLING IN THE
NUMBERED SPACE THAT CORRESPONDS WITH WHAT YOU BELIEVE, USING THE
ANSWERS TO THE RIGHT.

> > 0)
r -

0

cn tc cn

cn
c a;
o 0

O <o
i_ in

t_ L.
P cn
co <

P -rCO o

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.
68.

69.

70.

While I r e a l i z e t h a t my f a m i l y has i t s n e e d s ,
t h e y must r e a l i z e t h a t , in t h e l ong r u n , my
o c c u p a t i o n a l needs a r e more i m p o r t a n t .

2

3

4

I do no t i n t e n d t o be f i n a n c i a l l y d e p e n d e n t
upon my s p o u s e .

2

3

4

When I was growi ng up, s t r e s s i n my f a m i l y was
ca us e d by o c c u p a t i o n a l demands o r c o n f l i c t s .

2

3

4

I s e e m y s e l f as someone who has d i f f i c u l t y
a d j u s t i n g t o change.

2

3

4

I am w i l l i n g t o g i v e up a l mo s t e v e r y t h i n g f o r
f i n a n c i a l a n d / o r o c c u p a t i o n a l advancement .

2

3

4

I do no t i n t e n d t o be e m o t i o n a l l y d e p e n d e n t
upon my s pou s e .

2

3

4

Fami l y and work i s s u e s s h o u l d be k e p t s e p a r a t e
from each o t h e r .

2

3

4

In my o p i n i o n , a d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e w i l l
stressful.

2

3

4

be

>> a)
a>

c n i_
c cn
O fO

l. m
■P -rtn o

71.

72.

73 .

74 .

0

0

i_

cn
fO

0
0

•rQ

cn
<

L.

Strongly
Agree

94

I expect to take r e s p o n s i b i l i t i e s for household/
f a m i l y t a s k s t h a t ar e not u s u a l l y e x p e c t e d o f a
person o f my s e x .

4

In o r d e r t o a c h i e v e a s u c c e s s f u l c a r e e r ,
t o l i m i t t h e number o f c h i l d r e n I have.

4

I have

I am w i l l i n g t o r e l o c a t e f o r t h e c a r e e r
advancement o f my s p o u s e .

4

Pe op le who do not f u l f i l l t h e t r a d i t i o n a l male
or f em al e r o l e in terms o f f a m i l y r e s p o n s i ­
b i l i t i e s o f t e n have problems w it h t h e i r i d e n t i t y

Are t h e r e o t h e r s t r e s s o r s you f e e l

are imp ortant t h a t ar e not covere d?

Thank you f o r yo ur c o o p e r a t i o n on t h i s p r o j e c t ! ! ! !
P l e a s e w r i t e name and a d d r e s s i n t h e sp ac e below i f you wish t o have a
summary o f t h e s t u d y r e s u l t s :

APPENDIX B

LETTER SUBMITTED TO UNIVERSITY PROFESSORS BY INVESTIGATOR

95
5033 Par k Lake Road
E a s t La n s i n g , MI 48823
Dear Mi chi gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y P r o f e s s o r :
I am a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t o f Co uns e l i ng Psychol ogy h e r e a t M.S.U. and am
c u r r e n tly writing a doctoral d i s s e r t a t i o n .
The t i t l e o f my d i s s e r t a ­
t i o n i s "An Exami nat i on o f D u a l - C a r e e r M a r r i a g e , Fami l y, and C a r e e r
S t r e s s E x p e c t a t i o n s o f U n d e r g r a d u a t e S t u d e n t s a t Mi chi gan S t a t e Uni ­
versity."
In my e f f o r t s t o c on d u c t my r e s e a r c h f o r t h i s d i s s e r t a t i o n , I have
i d e n t i f i e d c o u r s e s o f f e r e d a t M.S.U. bas ed on e i t h e r (1) ma j o r c o l l e g e
o f f e r i n g c o u r s e , (2) c l a s s s t a n d i n g o f s t u d e n t s t y p i c a l l y e n r o l l e d i n
c o u r s e , o r (3) c o u r s e s i d e n t i f i e d as t y p i c a l l y t a k e n by a s i g n i f i c a n t
number o f m i n o r i t y s t u d e n t s .
For one o r more o f t h e s e r e a s o n s , y o u r
c o u r s e has been s e l e c t e d f o r i n c l u s i o n in t h i s s t u d y .
You a r e , t h e r e f o r e , k i n d l y r e q u e s t e d t o h e l p me in t h i s s t u d y by
a l l o w i n g me t o a d m i n i s t e r a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o y o u r s t u d e n t s .
Thi s
q u e s t i o n n a i r e is concerned with undergraduate s t u d e n t s ’ op in io n s
r e g a r d i n g j o b s , c a r e e r s , and a t t i t u d e s r e g a r d i n g d u a l - c a r e e r m a r r i a g e .
The q u e s t i o n n a i r e t a k e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 7 - 1 0 m i n u t e s t o c o m p l e t e .
I n c l u d i n g t i me r e q u i r e d f o r a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and r e t u r n i n g o f answer
s h e e t s , I am r e q u e s t i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 t o 20 mi n u t e s o f y o u r c l a s s
time.
I r e a l i z e t h a t t h i s r e q u e s t i s an i m p o s i t i o n on y o u r c l a s s t i m e ; how­
e v e r , my g r a d u a t e c ommi t t ee, i n c l u d i n g Dr. Cyrus S t e w a r t , t h e d i r e c t o r
o f my s t u d y , and I f e e l t h a t t h i s s t u d y has s i g n i f i c a n c e and i mpor ­
t a n c e i n o u r c o n t i n u o u s e f f o r t s t o improve t h e q u a l i t y o f l i f e f o r
undergraduate students.
Assessing the prep ara ti on of the se stu dents
t o e f f e c t i v e l y engage i n a d u a l - c a r e e r l i f e s t y l e w i l l a l s o be o f p r o ­
f e s s i o n a l i n t e r e s t t o h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n c o u n s e l o r s and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s .
I w i l l be happy t o s h a r e t h e r e s u l t s wi t h you and y o u r s t u d e n t s upon
request.
R e s u l t s w i l l be a n a l y z e d i n a g g r e g a t e form, and un d e r no
c i r c u m s t a n c e s w i l l t h e r e s p o n s e s be r e p o r t e d on an i n d i v i d u a l b a s i s .
I w i l l be f o l l o w i n g up w i t h you by phone s h o r t l y t o r e c e i v e y o u r
response to t h i s reque st.
I f you a r e w i l l i n g t o a s s i s t me i n my
e n d e a v o r , I w i l l a r r a n g e a t i me when I can a t t e n d y o u r c o u r s e a t y o u r
convenience.
Thank you i n advance f o r y o u r a n t i c i p a t e d c o o p e r a t i o n .
Sincerely,

Sonya R. Gunnings
Do c t o r a l S t u d e n t

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