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U n iv e r s it y M ic r o f ilm s in te r n a t io n a l A Beit & H o w e ii In f o rm a t io n C o m p a n y 3 0 0 N o r th Z e e b R o a d A n n A r b o r M l 4 8 1 0 6 - 1 3 4 6 U S A 313 761 -4 7 0 0 8 0 0 5 21-0600 O rd e r N u m b e r 9018702 A n a n a ly sis o f p erceiv ed barriers to o ccu p a tio n a l m o b ility am o n g B la ck m u n icip a l recrea tio n a n d park em p loyees in M ich igan Waller, Steven Noble, Ph.D. Michigan State University, 1989 UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, MI 48106 AN ANALYSIS OF PERCEIVED BARRIERS TO OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AMONG BLACK MUNICIPAL RECREATION AND PARK EMPLOYEES IN MICHIGAN By Steven Noble Waller A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in pa rtial fu lfillm e n t of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Park and Recreation Resources 198S ABSTRACT AN ANALYSIS OF PERCEIVED BARRIERS TO OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AMONG BLACK MUNICIPAL RECREATION AND PARK EMPLOYEES IN MICHIGAN By Steven Noble Waller The purpose of this study was to examine those factors which were per­ ceived as barriers to occupational mobi1it y fo r Black personnel employed within the recreation and park profession in Michigan. Six independent variables were id en tified to test six study hypotheses. included: These variables (1) gender; (2) the number of years of related work experience; (3) the attained level of education; (4) the presence of an affirm ative action plan; (5) the race of the appointing authority; and (6) perceived job satisfaction. Occupational mobi1i t y , the dependent variable, was measured by calcu­ lating the difference in occupational status scores between the positions held in 1984 and 1988. Occupational status scores were obtained by ranking 18 occupational t i t l e s used in the f ie ld in Michigan. A positive mobi1ity score indicated upward mobi1i t y , no change in mobility score indicated stab i l i t y and a negative m obility score was indicative of downward mobi1it y . The survey instrument contained four major sections. Section one required the respondent to rate 18 occupational t i t l e s used in the park and recreation profession in Michigan. Section two required the respondent to provide an employment history for the period 1984-88 beginning with the most recent position held and culminating with the position held in 1984. Section three u tiliz e d the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (short-form) to obtain information relevant to job satisfaction. Section four required the respondent to provide demographic information about them­ selves. A sample of 137 Black employees was drawn from a master l i s t of employees compiled from names submitted by 13 municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. To be included in the sample, each respondent had to be (1) Black; (2) have been in the f ie ld at least three years; and (3) employed by an agency that served a population of 30,000 or more people. T o ta lly , 133 instruments were mailed to potential respondents and 111 usa­ ble Instruments were returned, for an adjusted response rate of 84%. One­ way analysis of variance, t - t e s t and multiple regression were the primary s t a tis tic a l tests used to test the hypotheses. The principal finding of this study was that none of the six study variables made a sig n ific a n t difference in terms of occupational mobi1ity fo r Black recreation and park personnel in Michigan. The results of this study also indicated that 31.6% of the sample experienced upward mobi1i t y , 56.7% remained stable, and 11.7% experienced downward m obility. In lig h t of these findings, i t is believed that the study accomplished its objec­ tiv e s . Dedi c a t e d To My M o t h e r , Doris and My Children, Melissa, Morgan, and Steven I I ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Completing a doctoral program is one of the most challenging and in te lle c tu a lly stimulating processes that one can undertake. Next to t r y ­ ing to balance the roles of administrator, parent and husband, th is has been one of the most d i f f i c u l t , but worthwhile, challenges that I have ever accepted. Completion of this program would not have been possible without the assistance and personal support obtained from several very special people. Unquestionably, i f i t had not been for the sound guidance obtained from my advisor, Dr. Joseph Fridgen, this task would have been fa r more d i f f i c u l t than i t has been. I am personally grateful to him fo r forcing me to address some tough questions that related to me being in the doctoral program. Most notably whether I had the time and commitment to complete the program. As my dissertation director, his advice, patience, benevolent c ritic is m and his allowing me to invade his privacy via telephone calls and v is its to his home at awkward hours, were c r it ic a l to its completion. Special appreciation is extended to Dr. James B risto r, Dr. George Logan, Dr. Robin Widgery and Dr. Phyl1is Ford for th e ir support and assis­ tance as members of my guidance committee. A very special thank you is also extended to Dr. Daniel Stynes and Professor Theodore Haskel1 for th eir assistance and encouragement during various stages of my program. I would also 1ike to thank my col leagues in the recreation and park profession who rendered invaluable assistance during the data col lection phase of this research e f f o r t . Colleagues such as: Rodney Stokes, Portia Fields-Anderson, Hurley Coleman, J r . , Jimmy Roberts, Douglas Finley, Lafiest Galimore and Murdock Jemerson, a ll played v ita l roles during this portion of the study. Additionally, the w rite r wishes to thank the entire Minority A ffairs Committee of the Michigan Recreation and Park Association fo r th e ir support and words of encouragement. A special note of appreciation is also extended to my former secretary, Mrs. Julia Osborne, who "covered my t a i l " at the o ffice while I was away working on various facets of this investigation. Two others that I would 1ike to thank are Dr. F. 0. Hockenhul1, my pastor, and Dr. Maiverne Winborne, who both 1ended words of encouragement during some tough times. Last, but not least, I am most grateful to my family. I am especially grateful to my mother for her support, understanding, encouragement, and prayers. Gratitude is also expressed to my uncle, Mr. Richard Neeley, and Mr. and Mrs. Robert Pea. Most of a l 1, I thank my w ife, P a tric ia , and my children for bearing with me during the process. I w i11 be eternally gra­ teful to you a l 1 for your patience, kindness and unselfishness. I am appreciative of the fact that you, too, agree that a ll of the neglect, impatience, moodiness and in general, not being around much, was worth the prize in the end. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Chapter 1 - Introduction .................................................................. 1 Chapter 2 - Literature Review ........................................................ 13 .............. Chapter 3 - Theoretical Models and Hypotheses Chapter 4 - Methodology and Procedures Chapter 5 - Analysis of the Data ................... Chapter 6 - Summary and Conclusions ........................ Bibl iography ................ 51 79 88 138 .............. 175 Appendices Appendix A - Means Table for Responses to Statements in the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnnaire (Short Form) ......... 181 Ranking of Mean Scores for In trin s ic and Extrinsic Measures of Satisfaction Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (Short Form)................ 182 Occupational Status Rankings by Occupational Function ................................. 183 Sunwary of Changes in Occupational Status Scores 1984-88 for Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan .................. 184 Appendix B - Occupational Mobi1it y Questionnaire ........ 185 Appendix C - Authorization Letter from UCRIHS ..................... Letter to Municipal Recreation and Park Agencies...................................................................... Letter to Members of the Sample ...................... Follow-Up Letter ........... Follow-Up Postcard ................................. 197 197 199 200 201 List of Tables Table 1 - Demographic P ro file of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan ...................................... 89 Table 2 - Percentage of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan by Occupational Category .......................................................................... 92 v Table 3 - Demographic P ro file of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan by Gender .......... 94 Table 4 - Percentage of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan by Occupational Category by Gender ............................................ 97 Table 5 - Mean Number of Years in the Field by Occupational Category . . r . . . . . . . ............................ 98 Table 6 - Mean Number of Years in the Current Position . . 99 Table 7 - Salary Breakdown of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan ........... 100 - Degree/Diploma Earned by Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan by Occupational .................. Category 101 - Regions Employing Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan by Occupational Category . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102 Table 10 -General Job Satisfaction Score (MSQ-Short Form) by Occupational Category and Gender for Black Recreation and Park Personnel In Michigan . . . . . 105 Table 11 -Rankings of Job Satisfaction Levels for Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan . . . . . 107 Table 12 -Mean Occupational Status Rankings by Occupational Mobility and Gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109 Table 13 -Summary of Changes In Occupational Status Scores 1984-88 for Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan ............................ Ill Table 14 -Mean Changes in Occupational Mobility by Gender for Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan 1984-88 ............... 112 Table 15 -Responses of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan to Questions Pertaining to Career Advancement ............................ 114 Table 16 -Responses of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan to Questions Pertaining to Continuing Education ............. 116 Table 17 -Responses of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan to Questions Pertaining to Affirm ative Action ................................................ 118 Table 8 Table 9 vi Table 18 -Responses of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan to Questions Pertaining to the Appointing Authority .................................... 120 Table 19 -Responses of Black Recreation and Park Personnel in Michigan to Questions Pertaining to Perception of Discrimination ............................ 121 Table 20 -T-Test for Gender and Occupational Mobility 1984-88 ................................................. Table 21 -One-Way Analysis of Variance Years of Experience and Occupational Mobility 1984-88 ............................. Table 22 -One-Way Analysis of Variance Level of Education and Occupational Mobility 1984-88 ........ . . ........... 126 127 129 Table 23 -T-Test for Presence of an Affirmative Action Plan and Occupational Mobility 1984-88 . . .............. 130 Table 24 -T-Test for Race of Appointing Authority and Occupational Mobi1it y 1984-88 ................................... 132 Table 25 -One-Way Analysis of Variance Job Satisfaction and Occupational Mobi1it y 1984-88........................... . . 133 Table 26 -M ultiple Regression Analysis With Occupational Mobi1it y 1984-88 as the Dependent Variable . . . . 135 List of Figures Figure 1 - Model of Occupational Mobility for Black Recreation and Park Personnel ........................ Figure 2 - Revised Model of Occupational Mobility for Black Recreation and Park Personnel ....................... v ii 72 166 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION I f employment is one of the chief determinants of opportunities in l i f e , work is , fo r many people the medium through which success is acquired. Occupationally, Blacks, in the United States, as a minority group have improved th e ir situation over the past several decades, progres­ sively moving into better paying and higher status jobs. Although i t is clear that Blacks have been integrated into the mainstream work force, they remain heavily concentrated in the semi-skilled and unskilled occupations (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1979b). Despite upward occupational m obility fo r Blacks in general, huge dis­ p a ritie s remain evident re la tiv e to whites. For example, although the num­ ber of Blacks in the professions has increased s ig n ific a n tly , they s t i l 1 represent only two percent and one percent of a l 1 lawyers and judges, respectively (U.S. Bureau of the Census, 1979b). indicate that Blacks are also of education, science Observation would clearly noticeably absent from the higher echelons and industry. A consistent theme of underrepresentation in the best and most prestigious jobs is repeated in many occupational categories. Throughout the decades, Black recreation and park professionals have strived to make a viable contribution to the profession. Black professionals, in spite of the obstacles that have been placed before them, have sought to maintain a standard of excellence in the delivery of recrea­ tion services to residents of the State of Michigan. 1 2 In the many urban metropolitan areas in the State of Michigan, Blacks are employed in municipal recreation and park agencies. They are employed within the techn ical, leadership, managerial, administrative, and executive levels of municipal recreation and park agencies. To date, there have been no formal manpower or occupational m obility studies conducted in Michigan which would indicate where Blacks are employed. In municipal recreation and park agencies throughout the United States where Blacks are employed, i t generally holds true that Blacks are concen­ trated at the leadership and supervisory levels. Blacks are r e la tiv e ly absent from the managerial, administrative and executive level positions within recreation and park agencies (Henkel and Godbey, 1977). In 1977, Donald Henkel and Geoffrey Godbey published a nationwide manpower study of the recreation and parks profession. This study encompassed the subject of Blacks and th e ir occupational representation within the profession. The sample included 3,624 recreation and park agencies from across the nation. A response rate of 51.27% was obtained as 1858 agencies included in the sample responded. Data obtained from this study indicated that Blacks represented 1.45 percent of a l 1 chief executives, and 2.03 percent of recreation and park superintendents. The study further revealed that minorities as a whole were severely underrepresented and noticeably absent from the top five administrative categories which included executives, superintendents, assistant superintendents, assistant directors and division heads. In addition, th is study revealed that Black employees comprised 38.57 percent of a l 1 community center directors, 30.89 percent of a l 1 recreation program leaders, and 27.78 percent of a l 1 recreation aides, thus lending 3 c r e d ib ility to the statement that Blacks in recreation and park agencies are concentrated at the leadership and lower supervisory levels. Also, Henkel and Godbey (1977) in th e ir study concluded that there was a relationship between occupational category and gender of employees. a l 1 positions combined, males held 84 percent of a l 1 jobs. For The greatest difference between the percentage of males and females occurred in those jobs considered to be administrative in nature. Conclusions from this manpower study indicated that there was some evidence of inequalities at various occupational levels which were direc tly attributed to race and gender. The most extensive research conducted in respect to the status of women in the recreation and parks profession was conducted by Ounn (1970, 1977) and Kerr (1973). The authors concluded that the status of women is sim ilar to that of other m inorities. The rationale for this finding is that women and minorities have h is to ric a lly been targets of discriminatory practices, therefore th e ir piights may be considered p a r a lle i. Dunn (1977), in reference to the status of women in the recreation and parks profession concluded that: Data indicates that the percentage of women in the parks and recreation profession does not parallel the percentage of women in the population or in the labor force. There is some evidence that women have been excluded from occupational areas to which they have a legitimate right to employment. I t seems 1ikely that some of the injustices have prevailed with respect to women in recreation no less than other fie ld s (p .30). 4 Occupational Mobility Research There has been v ir t u a lly no occupational m obility research conducted within the f ie ld of recreation and parks. conducted by McDonald in 1981. The sole research e ffo r t was McDonald conducted an occupational mobi1it y study of Black personnel employed in the recreation, park and leisure serv­ ices profession. From the l i s t of members belonging to the Ethnic Minority Society of the National Recreation and Park Association a sample of 82 Black professionals was drawn. Of the 82 instruments mailed, 39 usable instruments were returned, yielding a response rate of 47%. Based on the results of her empirical investigation, McDonald con­ cluded that there was no sig nifican t relationship between the variables of level of education/school1ng, fam1ly type and occupational m obility for Blacks within the recreation and park profession. In addition, the fin d­ ings of the McDonald study indicated that gender and education have a sig­ n ific a n t Impact on occupational mobility for Blacks employed in the recreation and park profession. In support of McDonald1s study, available manpower s ta tis tic s Indicate d is p a ritie s in the representation of minorities and women in administrative and other occupational categories. One of the primary intents of this study is to id e n tify whether the variables of gender, number of years of related work experience, attained level of education, presence of an a ffirm a tive action plan, the race of the appointing authority, and per­ ceived job satisfaction are related to occupational m obility for Blacks employed in municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. 5 D ire c tly related to the process of occupational m obility are factors which pertain to the motivational aspects of employment as well as those factors which impact job satisfaction . Management theories such as the "expectancy theory", the "equity theory", the "discrepancy theory" and Herzberg's "Two-Factor" theory of motivation a l 1 provide the theoretical impetus fo r understanding and relating the behavioral aspects of work to occupational m obility (Hal 1 , 1987). As indicated by the research of Jencks (1979), discrimination has a d ire c t impact upon occupational status and income for non-whites. Based upon the importance of this finding, i t is c r it ic a l to examine the theoret­ ical basis of prejudice and discrimination. The "power-conflict" theories of discrimination are relevant to the study of occupational mobi1i t y . S p e c ific a lly , the "economic gain" theory of discrimination is most applicable to th is study because employment is d ire c tly related to economic gain. H is to r ic a lly , employment has been a primary choice for discriminatory practices. The aforementioned management theories pertaining to employee motiva­ tion and job satisfaction coupled with the "economic-gain" theory of dis­ crimination provide the theoretical foundation for this study. This theoretical base w ill serve as the focal point in the examination of varia­ bles which may influence occupational mobi1it y for Blacks employed in the recreation and parks profession. Each of the aforementioned management theories and theories of prejudice and discrimination are discussed in d e ta i1 in Chapter 3 e n title d "Theoretical Models and Hypotheses". 6 Specific Research Problem This research e f f o r t was a self-reported, perceptual study of factors which may impact occupational m obility fo r Blacks employed by municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. The specifics of the research problem include identifying the occupa­ tional level of Blacks in recreation and park agencies 1n Michigan which service populations of 30,000 or more people. A dditionally, this research e f fo r t sought to determine whether the variables of gender, number of years of related work experience, attained level of education, the presence of an a ffirm a tive action plan, the race of the appointing authority, and per­ ceived job satisfaction are s ig n ific a n tly related to occupational mobility fo r Blacks in the municipal recreation and parks profession. Importance of the Problem/Potential Uses of the Study I t is important to study this problem for the following reasons: 1. There are no current studies being conducted in Michigan that would determine the number of Blacks employed by municipal recreation and parks departments and where they are located within the organizational hierarchy. 2. There are no current studies being conducted in Michigan that would determine i f Blacks are employed in key policy/decision-making positions in municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan that service minority segments of the population. 7 3. There are no studies being conducted in Michigan currently that Id en tify the factors that may be associated with occupa­ tional mobi1i t y of Blacks who are employed within the munici­ pal recreation and park profession in Michigan. Some of the potential uses of this study include the following: 1. The results of this study w ill help to id e n tify the status of Blacks in the profession in Michigan and id e n tify specific mobility patterns of Blacks within municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. 2. The results of this study could p o te n tia lly be u tiliz e d for developing specific strategies fo r recruiting minorities in recreation and park professions and the development of tr a in ­ ing programs to build the necessary s k ills needed to climb the organizational ladder into the upper administrative, man­ agerial and executive ranks. 3. The results of this study may serve to Id e n tify factors which lead to greater job satisfaction and increased longevity of employment fo r Black employees and employers working in municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan as well as nationally. Objectives The principle objective of this study is the f o i l owing: To determine the relationship between gender, number of years of related work experience, attained level of education, the presence of an affirm ative action plan, the race of the 8 appointing autho rity, perceived job satisfaction and occupa­ tional m obility fo r Blacks employed in the recreation and park profession in Michigan. The following series of sub-objectives pertinent to this study include the following: 1. To describe the occupational status of Black personnel within the recreation and park profession in Michigan. 2. To determine whether Blacks are occupying jobs at the upper management and administrative levels in the recreation and park profession in Michigan. 3. To gather data which wi11 allow fo r the formation of a spe­ c i f i c p ro file of the Black recreation and park professional in the State of Michigan. Del imitations This study which dealt with identifying those factors which may affect the occupational mobility of Black personnel in the parks and recreation profession in Michigan was delimited to a sample population of Black per­ sonnel who have a minimum of three years of ful1-tim e related work experience, who are employed by a parks and recreation agency which serves a municipality of 30,000 or more people. Limitations The following factors may have had an impact upon the results of this study: 9 1. The agencies from which the sample was chosen may not be tru ly representative of the universe of recreation and park agencies in Michigan. 2. The sample population may not be tr u ly representative of the universe of Black municipal recreation and park personnel. 3. Some of the municipal recreation ".id park agencies were not supportive of this study, thus lending l i t t l e or no support 1n this e f f o r t , which in turn reduced the response rate. 4. Some of the subjects drawn from the sample fa ile d to return the survey Instrument. 5. Some of the subjects drawn from the sample fa ile d to respond to specific items on the survey instrument. 6. Some of the subjects l e f t the agency for better jobs. As a resu lt, any occupational mobility they experienced could not be measured. Operational Definitions For the expressed purposes of this study, the following l i s t of terms was defined as follows: 1. Achieved Status: The current educational, occupational and Income level as reported by the respondent. 2. Black Personnel: Those recreation and park professional and non-professional personnel who id e n tify th e ir racial background as Black American. 3. Gender: The sex of the respondent, a Black male or female. 10 4. Level of Education: respondent: The highest degree completed by the high school diploma, associate, bachelors, masters, s p e c ia lis t, doctorate and the number of years of schooling as reported by the respondent u t iliz in g a scale from 4-20. As u t iliz e d in the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (short form), the range of 4-8 w ill identify the level of grade school completed, 9-12, the level of high school completed, 13-16, the level of college (undergraduate) completed, and 17-20, the level of graduate or professional school completed. 5. Number of Years of Related Work Experience: The total number of years in which an individual has been employed doing f u l 1time work related to the recreation and parks profession. 6. Occupational Mobi1it y : The movement of an individual or group within and between occupational categories. Occupational m obility w i11 be classified as downward, upward or stable. 7. Occupational Status Score: The numerical ranking of occupa­ tions based on the respondent's opinion of the general status of 18 occupational t i t l e s using a Likert scale with a range of 1 through 5, 1 denoting high status, and 5 denoting low status. 8. Downward M obility: A negative mobi1it y score resulting from accepting a position lower than the one previously held at the beginning of the 1984-88 period. 11 9. S ta b ility : No change 1n mobility score due to remaining 1n the same position or lateral transfer to a sim ilar position at the beginning and end of the 1984-88 period. 10. Upward M obility: A positive mobility score generated from accepting a higher level position in the recreation and parks profession than the one previously held at the beginning of the 1984-88 period. 11. Mobility Score: The score obtained by calculating the d i f ­ ference in occupational status scores assigned to the most current position held and the f i r s t position held between 1984-88. 12. Perceived Affirmative Action Plan: The perception of the plan implemented by the local municipality for equalizing the number of minorities and women in the work force in relatio n ­ ship to the number of qu alified minorities and women in the relevant labor market. 13. Race of Appointing Authority: The racial o rig in , as reported by the respondent, of the o f f ic i a l authorized to make person­ nel decisions such as hi ring and promotions for the division or department. 14. Job Satisfaction: The degree to which the Black employee is sa tisfied with his or her current position within the munici­ pal recreation and park agency. The degree of satisfaction w ill be measured by a satisfaction score being computed for 12 each respondent based upon the short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. 15. Job Satisfaction Score: The general measure of overall job satisfaction obtained by summing the scores of a ll Items con­ tained 1n the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Using a U k e r t scale scores range from 1 Indicating "very d1ssat1f1ed" to 5 Indicating "very satisfied " with the par­ tic u la r aspect of the job. Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter examines the lit e r a tu r e which forms the conceptual and theoretical framework for the hypotheses to be tested in this research effo rt. The development of a sound conceptual and theoretical foundation was of paramount importance in order to empirically determine to what extent achieved variables such as level of education, number of years of related work experience and job satisfaction , as well as ascribed variables such as gender, are related to the occupational status and mobility of Black personnel within the recreation and park profession in Michigan. In this chapter, six major areas of research are systematically reviewed. The f i r s t section focuses upon manpower studies which have been conducted within the recreation and parks profession. The second section examines the area of occupational mobility research conducted in several d iscip lin e s. The th ird section scrutinizes lite ra tu r e which has been w r it ­ ten pertaining to the area of job sa tisfaction . ines research in the area of affirm ative action. The fourth section exam­ The f i f t h section presents an overview of research conducted in the area of discrimination in employment. The sixth section presents a suimary of frequently u t i 1ized research designs which have been used in the area of occupational mobi1ity research. 13 14 Manpower Studies 1n Recreation and Parks To date, there has been r e la tiv e ly 1i t t l e manpower research completed In the recreation and park profession. The vast majority of available man­ power s ta tis tic s were descriptive in nature. Prim arily, they were con­ ducted to id e n tify the number and c la ss ifica tio n of personnel at various levels of the organizational hierarchy of recreation and park agencies in the public sector. The f i r s t primary research e ffo r t designed to assess the status of recreation and park personnel on a nationwide basis was conducted by Hawkins and Tindall (1966). This study was publ1shed by the National Recreation and Park Association and was e n title d "The 1966 Recreation and Park Yearbook". In this study, s t a tis tic a l data re la tiv e to the number of recreation and park personnel were broken down by c it y , county, and state. Data were obtained from the 1962 Bureau of Outdoor Recreation study, e n ti­ tled "State Outdoor Recreation S tatis tic s " and by surveys disseminated to c itie s and counties within the continental United States. size of these governmental units was not given. and park personnel were id e n tifie d . The population T o ta lly , 25,397 recreation This total represented a count of per­ sonnel employed in the f ie ld at that time. Hawkins and Verhoven (1968) conducted a study to determine the pro­ jected supply and demand needs for professional and para-professional rec­ reation and park personnel for the period of 1967 to 1980. From data collected from a survey of higher education in stitutio ns having formal rec­ reation cu rricu la, and a survey of recreation and park personnel across the nation (the response rate was not indicated), Hawkins and Verhoven con­ cluded that: 15 The present supply of persons acquiring more extensive preparation is expected to increase by only approxi­ mately 26,000 during the period of 1967 to 1980. But the demand for persons with junior college and col lege training (in parks and recreation) is expected to increase from 216,000 in 1967 to 760,000 in 1980 (judgment estimate). I t is obvious that whichever forecasting method is used, a serious supply d e f ic it exists (Hawkins and Verhoven, 1968, p . 151). In 1970, Dunn replicated the "1968 N.R.P.A. Manpower Study". The expressed purpose of this study was to update and validate the previous e ffo rt. All id e n tifia b le local recreation and park agencies were surveyed and a total of 1,119 responses were received. These agencies were id e n ti­ fied through the International City Managers Association Yearbook. The surveyed agencies were requested to project manpower needs for the period of 1970 to 1973. The major p i t f a l 1 of this study was that the sample size was not id e n tifie d and subsequently, the percentage of responses may not have been tr u ly representative of the total universe of park and recreation personnel and projected manpower needs. Hawkins and Verhoven (1974) published a report e n title d "The U t i 1ization of Disadvantaged Workers in Public Parks and Recreation Services" (the term "disadvantaged" refers to Blacks). The primary purpose of this study was to co llect and analyze data re la tiv e to the u t i 1ization of the "disadvantaged" in entry level and para-professional positions within the recreation and park profession. A s t r a t if ie d sample of 980 municipal, county and special d i s t r ic t recreation and park systems were 16 surveyed, resulting in 599 responding (a response rate of 56%). The sample was s t r a t if ie d by population of municipalities who were members of the International City Managers Association. Results of this study indicated that of the total number of ful1-time recreation and parks positions in existence, disadvantaged workers held 13% of those positions in existence and over 25% of the part-time seasonal positions. Additionally, Hawkins and Verhoven concluded that: The vast majority of part-time and seasonal positions held by disadvantaged workers are in the occupational categories of attendants and aides, recreation program leaders, semi-skilled personnel, a c tiv ity specialists, s k ille d park personnel, cle rical and recreation f a c i l ­ i t y supervisors (p .73). In 1975, a professional education study was conducted by the Society of Park and Recreation Educators, a branch of the National Recreation and Park Association (Stein, 1975). The purpose of this study was to determine the s ta te -o f-th e -a r t of recreation and park education in the United States and Canada. Surveys were sent to 711 post secondary in s titu tio n s , yielding a response rate of 77%. Comparisons of the number and types of ful1-time faculty in recreation and park education at the post-secondary level indi­ cated 779 (64%) of those educators reporting were male. female educators responding was 444 (36%). The number of In reference to racial composition, 82.4% were White, 3.5% were Black, and the remaining 14.1% were from "other" racial groups. 17 In Michigan, in terms of recreation and park educators, i t can be observed that there are more male educators than females and the number of White educators outnumber those that are Black. This may be evidence of the fact that there may be a shortage of Blacks and women who have advanced degrees and choose education as a professional endeavor. The most informative and comprehensive manpower study conducted to date in reference to public recreation and park personnel was the "Manpower Study" carried out by Henkel and Godbey (1977). The primary purpose of th is study was to ascertain characteristics of fu ll-tim e personnel in the public sector of recreation and park by occupational t i t l e . Surveys were disseminated to 5,014 public recreation and park agencies, resulting in a response rate of 51%. F ifty -e ig h t percent of a ll state recreation and park agencies, 42% of a l 1 county recreation and park agencies and 44% of a ll special d is tr ic ts responded to the survey. Data was analyzed by gender, race, region, occupational t i t l e , education and type of agency. From a to tal of 3,624 agencies responding to the survey, i t was indicated that 84,105 fu ll-tim e s t a ff were employed in public recreation and park agencies. Further analysis of the data indicated that representation among minority groups was s ig n ifican t at the leadership, sk ille d and lower super­ visory level positions; minority representation at the upper administrative level positions was noticeably absent. At the administrative le v e l, Whites comprised an average of 92.79% of a l 1 positions. Of the positions held, the largest Black representation was in the position of community center 18 director (38.57%). Other areas 1n which Black personnel were highly repre­ sented Include the positions of recreation program leader (30.89%) and rec­ reation aide/attendent (27.78%). The greatest underrepresentation for Black personnel occurred at the chief executive level (1.45%). In conclusion, data obtained as a result of the manpower study, Henkel and Godbey Indicated that: Minority groups were well represented in the public park and recreation f i e l d , although noticeably absent from high-level administrative positions and from posi­ tions involving the management of natural resources. Overal1, Blacks constituted 14.7% of a l 1 employees working in municipal recreation and park agencies ( p .35). In addition, Henkel and Godbey concluded that: For a ll positions combined, males held 84.7% of a ll jobs. The greatest difference between the percentage of males and females employed occurred in those jobs considered to be in the administrative category. This category Includes chief executives, assistant directors of parks and/or recreation, superintendents of recreation, division heads and park managers. In this category, males comprised an average of 91.29% of a l 1 personnel ( p .30). 19 The findings of the "Manpower Study" conducted by Henkel and Godbey (1977) illu s t r a t e two Important points. F ir s t , even though Blacks were well represented across the range of occupational categories, few Blacks are employed in key administrative positions. This 1imited number of qual­ if ie d Black personnel in key administrative positions may have implications in terms of policy, re la tiv e to resource allocation and service delivery. Secondly, the findings underscore the resounding theme of male dominance across the supervisory and administrative job categories. Woman have tr a ­ d ition al ly not had access to these positions which may have been "reserved" fo r males. Dunn (1977) conducted a study to examine trends in the participation of women 1n the recreation and park profession. Dunn studied trends in the employment of women 1n recreation and park between 1928 and 1975 and found a decl1ne in the number of females employed in public recreation and park agencies. During that period, the percentage of women dropped from 49% in 1930 to 17% in 1977. Dunn concluded that: Data indicated that the percentage of women in parks and recreation does not parallei the percentage of women in the population or in the labor force. There is some evidence that women have been excluded from occupational areas to which they have a legitimate right to employment. I t seems 1ike ly that some injus­ tices have prevailed with respect to women in recrea­ tion no less than in other fie ld s (p .30). 20 Kerr (1973) conducted another survey to assess the status of women in the recreation and park profession. The instrument was mailed to 125 member agencies of the American Park and Recreation Society (a branch of the National Recreation and Pa;k Association), with a response rate of 56%. The objective of this study was to obtain data pertinent to the status of both male and female recreation and parks professionals. There were three primary variables designed to determine i f there were existing differences between male and female professionals. These variables were: (1) occupa­ tional position, (2) income, and (3) educational background. The results of this study revealed that there were notable disparities existing between male and female personnel in the recreation and park profession. Some of the important facts obtained as a result of this study Include the following: (1) the ra tio of male to female personnel in the recreation and park profession was two to one, in favor of the males, (2) 85% of the administrative positions were held by white males; women id en ti­ fied a t the administrative level earned approximately $3,000.00 per year less than th e ir male col leagues holding sim ilar positions, and (3) women earned an average of $1,000.00 per year less than males across a l 1 positions. The Dunn (1977) and Kerr (1973) studies serve to substantiate the findings of the Henkel and Godbey (1977) "Manpower Study". Dunn and Kerr, lik e Henkel and Godbey found that males outnumbered females in the work force and that males occupied a fa r greater number of administrative positions. A dditionally, the Kerr study pointed out the salary disparity which is commonly found in those occupations that are dominated by males. 21 All of the findings previously mentioned underscore what may be the plight of the Black female in the recreation and park profession. The Kerr study (1973) has implications for this research endeavor. Her work suggests that the results may yie ld the following information: (1) Black males included in the sample w ill outnumber Black females, (2) Black males w ill occupy a greater number of administrative positions than Black females, and (3) Black females may earn less than th e ir Black male counterparts. In summation, the findings of this study may be consistent with those of Kerr and serve to further confirm the impact that gender has upon employment in general, occupational mobility and compensation. As evidenced by the Henkel and Godbey (1977) study, Blacks are notice­ ably absent from the administrative ranks in municipal recreation and park agencies. As with women, i f Black personnel meet the necessary entrance requirements for administrative positions, by law they are to be given an equal opportunity for employment. When noting the s ta tis tic s presented by Henkel and Godbey in th e ir "Manpower Study", perceived discrim ination may be a factor in Blacks being underrepresented in the administrative categories. In the present investigation, hypotheses related to the race of the appointing authority and the presence or absence of an affirm ative action plan wi11 be tested to determine i f discrimination may be a factor in thwarting attempts by Blacks to climb into the administrative ranks. To further examine those factors which may have an impact on occupa­ tional mobi1it y for Blacks, i t is necessary to examine the results of occu­ pational mobi1it y studies u t i 1izing an in terdisciplinary approach. The following series of studies which have occurred over the last two decades 22 w ill assist 1n developing greater Insight Into the process of occupational m obility and further elaborate upon the perceived barriers to occupational mobility among Blacks. Occupational Mobility Studies One of the most re lia b le and frequently replicated occupational mobil­ i t y research designs was developed by Blau and Duncan (1967). Mobility research is based on the premise that the occupational structure of a society is the major determinant of social mobi1i t y . Blau and Duncan deve­ loped m obility tables to explicate the flow of manpower within and between groupings of occupations ( i. e . movement within particular groupings of white c o lla r occupations and movement from blue c o llar occupations to white c o lla r occupations). pational groupings: In th e ir research design, they used three major occu­ (1) white c o lla r, (2) blue c o lla r, and (3) farm worker. From this research came two major findings: (1) short distance geo­ graphic movement exceeded long distance geographic movement, and (2) upward mobility was more prevalent than downward mobi1i t y . These findings were based on a survey conducted in 1962 of 52,000 households which were id e n ti­ fied by the 1960 census. The sample population consisted of 25,000 males between the ages of 20 and 60 years of age. sample responded to the survey. Eighty-three percent of the The relationship between several social conditions demographic variables and affecting occupational mobi1it y inclu­ ded: population of c ity where one resides; race; region or country where ancestors migrated from; family type; sibling pattern; geographic mobility; 23 geographic region; marital status; education of immediate family; occupa­ tional status fiv e years ago; occupational status of fa th e r's f i r s t job; occupational status of father; and spouse's fa th e r's occupational status. The findings of Blau and Duncan (1967) revealed that race, ethnic o rig in , educational background, family background and geographic mobility a ll had a sig nifican t relationship to upward occupational mobi1it y . Race has a s ig n ifican t relationship to downward mobi1i t y and marital status had no Impact on occupational m obility. In respect to the effects of race on occupational mobi11ty, Blau and Duncan (1967) made the following statement about Black Americans within the American Occupational Structure: In sum, Negroes are handicapped by having poorer parents, less education, and in fe r io r career experi­ ences than Whites. Yet, even i f these handicaps were s t a t i s t i c a l l y control led by asking, in e ffe c t, what the achievement of non-whites would be i f they had the same origins, the same education and the same f i r s t jobs as Whites, th e ir occupational chances are s t i l l consis­ te n tly in fe r io r to those of Whites. Thus, being a Negro in the United States has independent disadvanta­ geous consequences for several factors that d ire c tly a ffe c t occupational success. The culmination of the d is tin c t, though not related, disadvantages creates profound InequalIties of occupational opportunities for the Negro in America (p .209). 24 Comparable findings were reported by Jencks (1979) in his research on inequality and determinants of economic success in America. Jencks con­ cluded that: Our data only indicates that economic differences between White and non-Whites persist even when they have the same amount of schooling and the same scores on cognitive tests. Nonetheless, th is creates a strong prima facia case fo r assuming that on the average, and despite affirm a tive action, non-whites suffer from dis­ crimination based on skin color (p .79). Jencks arrived at this conclusion a f te r noting the results of the Project Talent 1960-72 sample. The principle objective of Project Talent was to measure academic a b i l i t y among brothers who were in grades 10 and 11 in 1960. Jencks notes that race d ire c tly affects occupation and earnings in a l 1 large national surveys of 25-64 year olds. The Project Talent survey was the only national survey where race had no independent e ffe c t, perhaps because of the high non-response rate in the non-white sample. In summation, i f a l 1 factors are equal ( i . e . , test scores and schooling), Blacks and Whites should have a comparable employment rate. The only fac­ to r that cannot be control led for is the employer1s willingness to hi re a Black employee. An ethnographic case study administered by Bulls (1986) focused on nine Black female superintendents' perceptions of sig nifican t career paths and behavioral strategies necessary to ascend to a superintendency. 25 U tiliz in g a questionnaire, data was gathered from two face-to-face and seven telephone Interviews with Black female public school superintendents 1n Pennsylvania. The study provided a b r ie f description of the respondents re la tiv e to the interview situation , described the superintendents' posi­ tions held in ascendancy, preparation, so cialization, and mobi1it y experi­ ences and focused on the behaviors which the superintendents revealed were c r i t i c a l l y related to th e ir success. A review of the data provided by the interviews substantiated the f o l ­ lowing relevant conclusions: (1) mentorship 1s v ita l to the Black female administrator's career advancement; (2) obtaining a doctorate degree is essential preparation for superintendency for Black female educational professionals; and (3) work experience at the central o ffice (administrative) level provides essential experience and v i s i b i l i t y for Black females interested in a superintendency. In relationship to mobi1it y within the recreation and parks profession fo r Black employees, the aforementioned study illu s tr a te s that adequate preparation in terms of education and related work experience are mandatory prerequisites. I f discrimination does not intercede into the personnel selection process, education and related work experience in the recreation and park profession should assist in obtaining upward mobi1it y . Hale (1985) conducted a study pertaining to occupational mobi1it y of Black corporate managers residing in the Phoenix, Arizona area. The grounded theory research method was employed to obtain information from 13 Black managers which addressed the question of: What are Black managers' perceptions of th e ir work experience and of the other elements that have affected the direction of th e ir careers? The grounded theory research 26 method allows for the construction of a theory by observing aspects of social behavior that may point to universal principles. Theory developed through this method is based on observation more than deduction. The data were coded and sorted into categories. The sig nifican t find­ ings of th is study were as follows: (1) fa iia r e as a manager is not unique to Blacks, but Blacks usually must work harder than th e ir white counter­ parts to reach the middle and upper management levels w ith in th e ir organizations; (2) those managers that participated in this study have developed and refined th e ir professional and personal a b i l i t i e s to acquire and maintain th e ir managerial status; (3) mentor and supporters have played an important role in the 1ives and careers of Black managers; (4) in many Instances, the progress of Black managers 1s affected by upper management1s perception of Blacks and th e ir a b i l i t i e s ; and (5) racism and discrimination have become d i f f i c u l t to recognize, but Black managers are dealing with them in a creative manner. The results of this study imply that Black managers are w illin g to go beyond the norm in preparing themselves for managerial positions. In spite of th e ir preparation, actual attainment of these positions may be affected by stereotypes held by white upper level managers and discrimination which w ill generally serve to r e s t r ic t mobi1it y . To date, there has been only one study conducted in the area of recre­ ation and parks that pertained to factors which the occupational mobility of Blacks in the recreation and park profession. 'icDonald (1981) id e n ti­ fied four variables - gender, education, geographic mobi1i t y , and family type - which may influence the occupational mobi1it y of Black recreation and park professional s. Hypotheses were developed regarding each of the 27 aforementioned variables. A sample was drawn from the membership l i s t of the Ethnic Minority Society of the National Recreation and Park Association. Eighty-two survey instruments were disseminated, yielding a 47% response rate (50 instruments were returned with 39 being deemed as usable). A fter collecting data, the data was analyzed by calculating per­ centages and means. The primary purpose was to develop descriptive in for­ mation about the sample. The Chi-Square Test was used to test each hypothesis. The results of the McDonald study indicated the following: 1. There was a sig nifican t relationship between gender and occupational mobi1i t y . In the study, males out­ numbered females by a ra tio of two to one. Males held 66.6% of administrative positions compared to 33.3% held by females. The male domination of the administrative ranks is consistent with research conducted by Kerr (1973) and Henkel and Godbey (1977). 2. There was a sig nifican t relationship between educa­ tion and occupational a b i l i t y for Black recreation and park professionals. The majority of the respon­ dents had completed graduate degrees. Respondents with higher levels of education held higher status positions. 3. There was a sig nifican t relationship between geo­ graphic m obility and occupational mobility for Black recreation and park professionals. For those respondents who exhibited downward m obility, i t appeared that relocation to another state was a sig­ n ific a n t fa cto r. McDonald fa ile d to elaborate on this point regarding the reasons for downward mobil­ i t y a f te r relocating to another state. One explana­ tion for this fact may have been that the party took a lower level or lower paying position than the one that was previously held upon relocating to another state. This may have been a function of the 1imited number of available jobs within or outside of the recreation and park profession. 4. There was a sig nifican t relationship between family type and occupational mobi11ty for Black recreation and park professionals. Thirty-three percent of those respondents whose occupational m obility was downward were from single parent households (pp.80-81). Jones (1980) conducted a study which analyzed the correlates of chang ing occupational positions for Black and White MBA managers employed in business organizations 1n the United States. A casual model for the attainment process was constructed by integrating individual background characteristics and structural characteristics of organizations and jobs. The purpose was to provide a framework for an empirical investigation of the determinants of earnings and job authority among Black and White manag ers in business organizations. 29 The data was taken from two samples of MBA managers who completed th e ir graduate business studies between 1969 and 1974 (160 White males and 148 Black males). A number of Individual and structural variables ( i . e . , race, age and educational background) were combined in regression equations to estimate earnings and job authority functions for White and Black managers. The conclusions resulting from this study were as follows: (1) Black MBA's began th e ir careers a t a higher starting salary than White MBA's; (2) Black MBA managers exercise less job authority in th e ir manage­ ment positions than White MBA managers; (3) the earnings d iffe r e n tia l between White and Black MBA managers widens in the years following career entry with Blacks' earnings lagging sig n ifican tly behind the earnings of Whites. Howard and Bray (1980) conducted a study of young Black and White man­ agers a t the American Telephone and Telegraph Company (AT&T). The primary purpose of the study was to determine i f there were differences among Black and White managers in relationship to career advancement at AT&T. The sam­ ple drawn for this study included 50% female and 25% minority managers. The key findings of this study indicated that Blacks, especially Black males, were more strongly motivated for money and promotions than Whites. Black managers and White managers were found to be equally motivated in reference to career advancement. As in the Howard and Bray (1980) i t is predicted that the sample u tiliz e d in the present study, study w i11 also be concerned with career advancement. The findings of the Howard and Bray (1980) study related d ire c tly to the hygiene and motivational factors contained in Herzberg's "Two-Factor" 30 model of motivation (Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman, 1959). cluded that two separate factors influenced motivation: nance factors and motivational factors. Herzberg con­ hygiene or mainte­ Hygiene factors are those elements of a job that may be dissatisfying but are necessary to maintain a reasona­ ble level of satisfaction in employees. Example of hygiene factors include company policy, pay, jo b security, working conditions and status. Motivational factors are those job conditions that operate to build motiva­ tion and job satisfaction. job dissatisfaction. An absence of motivational factors may lead to Examples of motivational factors include achievement, advancement, recognition, responsibility and p o s s ib ility of growth (Davis, 1981). When these factors are not present in the current employment environment, dissatisfaction may occur. The employee then exercises proce­ dures to minimize the tension created by job dissa tisfactio n . One of the most common methods for resolving the tension is to make attempts to become occupationally mobile within or outside the organization. Hudson (1978) conducted a study on a sample of Black employees of a large international computer corporation. The objective of the study was to explore the relationship between as crip tive, achievement, and b e lie f and a ttitu d in a l variables and mobi1it y of Blacks employed in predominantly white organizations and within occupations that were previously closed to Blacks. I t was hypothesized that the following factors would be s ig n if i­ cantly related to the respondents' occupational status and to th eir move­ ment into management positions: educational achievement, parents' achievement, sex, skin color, the respondents' beliefs and attitudes about Blacks, Whites, the corporation, work and business. The major findings of 31 this study were that education was very significant as a determinant of occupational m obility for Black males and females. In addition, 1ight- skinned respondents receive more favorable consideration for management positions than dark-skinned respondents and females. The conclusions of this study may indicate that Blacks are brought in at the managerial level for affirm ative action reasons, and denied promo­ tional opportunities due to lack of experience, in s u ffic ie n t education or skin color, thus allowing th e ir White counterparts to progress ahead of them in terms of earnings and career m obility. Hudson (1978) concludes that this represents a very overt indication of discrimination. Weiss (1978) conducted a study to determine the effects of class on racial differences. The primary focus of his study was income returns for investment in education. Research conducted by Goodman (1977) and Blau and Duncan (1979) on racial inequality pertaining to income and occupational status, indicated that Black males received lower income returns on educa­ tion than White males (Blau and Duncan, 1979). Within this framework of the Weiss (1978) study, there were four hypotheses tested by the investigator: (1) managers as a whole would receive much higher returns on th e ir investment in education than subordinates; (2) Black males would be concentrated more in the working classes than White males; (3) when class position is controlled, Black males w i11 receive lower returns on th e ir Investment in education than White males; and (4) within the managerial category, Black males wi11 have lower returns on educational investments than White males. Data were collected from a random sample of 5,000 households from data sets u t iliz e d by two previous studies. Hypotheses were tested with two 32 regression equations and the F-tes t. Findings indicated that: (1) manag­ ers did receive higher returns to education; (2) 61% of the Black males were concentrated in the working class; (3) when class position is ignored, Black males received lower returns to education than White males; (4) within the supervisory category, there was l i t t l e sig nifican t difference between Black males and White males on return for educational investment; and (5) within the managerial category, Black males had lower returns to education than White males. Goodman (1977) conducted a survey to determine the effects of race and e th n ic ity upon Income and occupational status attainment. Data was col­ lected from a random sample of 1960 and 1970 census data for Chicago, I I 11no1s. Subjects included a s t r a tifie d sample of native Whites, second generation It a lia n Americans and second generation urban Black Americans. Data was analyzed u t iliz in g regression equations for each group to ascer­ ta in the effects on income and occupational status attainment for each year. Findings concluded that race had a sig nifican t relationship to Income and status attainment, and that for Whites, eth nicity did not sig­ n ific a n tly a ffe c t income or status attainment. Another study in the 1970's, conducted by Leigh (1976), focused atten­ tion upon the occupational mobi1it y patterns of young men. The sample popu­ lation consisted of males between the ages of 25 and 34 over the period of 1965-75. 1ized. A random sample of the 1970 Census Public Use Sample was u t i An analysis of variables which affected mobi1it y included age, race, marital status, education and vocational train in g . I t was concluded 33 that education enhanced m obility fo r Blacks and Whites, however, more for Whites. White males had higher market returns for educational investment. Vocational training for both Blacks and Whites had a positive effec t on m obility. Several variables such as gender, race, age a ll a ffe c t occupational m obility in a negative manner. The variables of educational background and vocational training w ill influence occupational m obility in a positive manner. One important variable that also has to stay with an organization or seek attempts an influence on one's choice to become occupationally mobile outside of the organization is job satisfaction. The f o il owing series of research effo rts pertain to job satisfaction of Blacks working in a variety of disciplines. Job Satisfaction Research In reviewing the lit e r a tu r e related to job satisfaction for Black employees, the studies by Penn (1985) and Perry (1985) made reference to two important management theories. The f i r s t was Herzberg1s "Two-Factor" theory and the second was "Equity Theory". For the benefit of the reader, i t 1s necessary to b r ie f ly define both theories which are described in greater detail in Chapter 3. Herzberg in his "Two-Factor" theory id en tified six motivators or s a tis fie rs and ten hygiene factors or d is s a tis fie rs . Motivators (s a tis fie r s ) are those factors which operate to buiId job satisfaction and motivation. Examples of motivational factors include achievement, advan­ cement, recognition, and possibi1it y for growth. 34 Hygiene factors are those elements of a job that may or may not be satisfying but are necessary to maintain a reasonable level of satisfaction in employees. Examples of hygiene factors include company policy and admi­ n is tra tio n , pay, job security, working conditions and status (Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman, 1959). A certain amount of hygiene factors is necessary to f u l f i l l a person's biological drives and basic needs, such as safety and a f f i l i a t i o n . become d is s a tis fie d . When these needs are not met, the employee may Once there is a s u ffic ie n t amount of hygiene factors to f u l f i l 1 these needs, satisfaction may occur. Motivators (s a tis fie r s ) are job characteristics that are relevant to a person's high-order needs and psychological growth. Include: These characteristics work that is interesting and challenging, responsibility and achievement. An in s u ffic ie n t amount of motivators may prevent an employee from experiencing the positive satisfaction that accompanies psychological growth, but w i11 not result in job dissatisfaction (Wexley and Yuki, 1984). Equity theory is based on the relationship of two variables: and outcomes. inputs Input represents what an individual contribues to an exchange; outcomes are what an Individual receives from the exchange. Individuals assign weights to various inputs and outcomes according to th e ir performance. A fter they arrive at a ra tio of inputs and outcomes for themselves, they compare i t with th e ir perceived ratios of inputs and out­ comes 1n the same or sim ilar situation . Thus, others become the objects of comparison for people in determining whether they feel equitably treated. Equity exists whenever the r a tio of a person's Inputs equals the ra tio of outcomes to inputs for others. Inequity exists when the ratios of outcomes to inputs are not equal (Hel1r ie g e l, Slocum, Woodman, 1986). 35 Penn (1985) conducted a study which id en tified the factors which contributed to job satisfaction among a group of Black school administra­ tors in V irg in ia . A sample of 41 Black school administrators in Virginia was drawn from a 1is t provided by the State Department of Education. The respondents were asked a series of questions within the confines of the Herzberg semi-structured interview technique. The respondents were asked to re la te a good and bad incident pertaining to th e ir work. analyzed using the Chi-Square s t a t is t ic . The data was The primary result of this study Indicated that factors relating to keeping or advancing in a job (job security, p o s s ib ility of growth and advancement) were id e n tifie d as hygiene factors by the Black administrators included in the sample. Perry (1985) conducted research which assessed job satisfaction within the framework of equity theory. Analyses were based upon data obtained from the National Survey of Black Americans. Equity using both subjective and objective measures was defined by occupational status and pay within the organization. Subjective measures included the respondent's perceptions of equal job status and objective measures included u t i 1ization of actual data such as position within the organization and salary rates. Demographic variables were examined for possible sub-group d iffe re n ­ ces. In this study, subjective equity predicted job satisfaction better than the objective measures. The major implications of this study stems from it s finding that sharp differences exist in the extent to which Blacks (p a r tic u la r ly Black women) reap the monetary and occupational status rewards which education brings to Whites. Equity theory indicates that when an employee compares his/her inputs and outcomes with those of his 36 peers and 1f the ratios are comparable and there is not an equivalent reward, then inequity exists. satisfaction. These differences were shown to a ffe c t job Perry (1985) concluded that education should continue to be emphasized as a vehicle fo r advancement for Black Americans. Perry suggests that because of unlawful discrimination in employment, education, per se, cannot be expected to elIminate Inequality. Grinnell (1982) conducted a study which examined the level of stress experienced by Black female professionals in Los Angeles County. One of the primary questions addressed in this study was whether being perceived as Black by others contributed to higher levels of stress than being per­ ceived as female. One hundred twenty salaried Black female professionals completed a 14 item questionnaire in a group meeting setting. Their ages ranged from 21 to 60, th e ir salaries ranged from $15,000-$50,000 per year and th e ir length of professional experience ranged from 1 year to 27 years. The most sig nifican t finding of this study revealed that the overwhelming majority of the respondents f e l t that being "Black" was a major concern to others more so than being female. The perceived over-importance of being Black may contribute to additional pressures in the work place and may very well contribute to diminished job satisfaction . As indicated by the previous research effo rts presented above, job satisfaction is an important factor in terms of occupational mobi1it y for Black personnel. Another important variable is affirm ative action. The following studies pertain to a ffirm a tive action as related to occupational mobility fo r Blacks. 37 Affirm ative Action Research Shivers (1985) conducted a study of Black females employed 1n the top three levels of community college administration In C alifo rn ia . The p r i­ mary intent of the study was to report the observations of Black women cur­ ren tly employed in these positions regarding race and sex discrimination as they had experienced i t and the influence of affirm ative action on career advancement. A questionnaire was developed and mailed to 79 Black women administrators in C alifornia Community Col leges. study were that: The findings of th is (1) Black women administrators were motivated toward the top level of administration; and (2) many were hired or promoted as a resu lt of affirm a tiv e action and f e l t that affirm ative action would in flu ­ ence th e ir further career advancement. R1ley (1984) conducted a study which assessed the effects of T i t le VII and Affirm ative Action on the employment status of women. also commonly known as the C ivil Rights Act of 1964. T i t l e V II is The act prohibits discrimination in employment decisions based on race, color, sex, religion or national o rig in . To investigate the enforcement effects of the a n ti­ discrimination le g is la tio n , the determinants of the probability that women would be employed in a tr a d itio n a lly male occupation were studied in 1981 and 1982. The samples used in this study were s t r a t if ie d into four sub­ samples on the basis of age and race to control for the factors of race discrimination and pre-employment tra in in g . was estimated on an industry-wide basis. Enforcement of the legislation Relevant data was obtained from the Bureau of Labor S ta tis tic s fo r manufacturing firms in the State of New 38 York. The data covered the period of 1981 and 1982. sized that as enforcement more 11kely to I t was also hypothe­ increased within industries, employers would be hire women in tr a d itio n a lly male occupations. been a function of s t r ic te r enforcement of regulations. This may have As a resu lt, an Increased number of women were hired in 1982. Probit analysis was used to estimate the effects of changes in enforcement on the probabi1i t y that women would be hired for a tra d itio n ­ al ly male occupation. There was a s t a t is t ic a lly sig nifican t increase in the number of women employed in male occupations between the two years of the study. Probit analysis is a s t a tis tic a l technique used to estimate the p robability of a recorded reaction occurring. applIcation of a specific stimulus or action to a given situation. This reaction is to the In this study, the recorded reaction is the change in the number of women employed in male occupations. effo rt. The stimulus or action is the s t r ic te r enforcement The results indicated that enforcement a c tiv ity has had an effect across industry groups. In reference to affirm ative action and its relationship to occupa­ tional mobi1i t y , Hal 1 (1987) suggested that a l 1 organizations should view a ffirm a tive action as a means of combating discrimination against minori­ tie s and women and as an important organizational outcome. r e fle c t the divisions in society and reinforce them. Organizations Affirmative action policies are organizational policies; i f such policies work, then the cate­ gories of individuals that have suffered discrimination may be able to experience the same mobi1it y patterns as the dominant White male. As indicated by the findings represented in the aforementioned studies 39 affirm ative action plays a positive role 1n relationship to occupational m obility for Black personnel. The next series of studies addresses the Issue of discrimination in employment. Discrimination In Employment Research Lewis (1986) conducted a study of federal employees which sought to determine whether women and minorities were less 1ikely to be supervisors or managers than are White males, even when they are at the same grade level and have the same educational le v e l, major fie ld of study in college, length of federal experience, and age. A one-percent random sample of 1982 data from the Central Personnel Data F ile (CPDF) for General Schedule, Merit Pay, and Senior Executive Service Employees was drawn. This sample included employees who were classified as "managers", "supervisors" or "others". With respect to Black employees, the study revealed that only 7% of Black females and 10% of Black males were lis te d as supervisors compared to 20% of White males. These figures suggest a White male advantage over Black males and females. The study also indicated that there may be factors other than discrim­ ination that may relate to the reasons why there were so few minorities and women in the managerial/supervisory ranks. These factors include: opportunities that were passed up and th e ir agencies' policies and hiring practices which influences mobi1it y for Blacks through the personnel selec­ tion process. In relationship to this study, Lewis states that: 40 "Affirmative action helps raise more women and minori­ tie s into upper level positions, but other forces may keep them out of the more powerful positions at those levels. Managers may hesitate to appoint female or minority supervisors because they fear resistance from subordinates. Women and minorities may thus face even more obstacles in obtaining authority over fellow employees than they do in achieving high salaries in federal employment." (p. 25). Lewis concluded that the pattern 1s discouraging due to the fact that White males s t i 11 dominate the managerial and supervisory cla ssificatio ns. Differences in age, grade levels, experience and education cannot explain this fa c t. Taylor and Tuch (1986) conducted a study which surveyed the opinions of American Whites on issues of prejudice toward Blacks and continuing pat­ terns of racial inequality. Taylor states that "a primary theme in contem­ porary race relations analyses is the notion that racial inequalities in this country have become less dependent on the prejudices of individual Whites and more a consequence of (normal) in stitu tio n a l arrangements that serve to disadvantage Blacks", (p .268). A national random sample of 372 White adults was contacted by te le ­ phone interviews. exchanges. The sampl1ng plan called for random d ig it dialing within Thus phone numbers within the sample were s t r a t if ie d by exchange and within exchange clustered by the f i r s t two of the remaining 41 four d ig its . whites Calling was done during the morning and evening hours. werescreened out on id e n tific a tio n question. Non- the basis of answers to a racial s e lf- The response rate was 90%. Each respondent was asked a series of questions pertaining to th e ir beliefs about the existence of in s titu tio n a l constraints on racial equality and attitudes toward change in these in s titu tio n a l practices. s e n io rity. Relevant to this study was the issue of Respondents were asked the following questions pertinent to employment and seniority: 1. Because of job discrimination in e a r lie r years, many Blacks are new on the job today. Last hired, f i r s t fire d seniority systems are a disadvantage to these new Black employees. Would you say this statement is true or false? 2. Somepeople think that seniority practices should continue as they are, even i f this means that Blacks and Whites do not have the same chance of being kept on and promoted. Do you strongly agree with this opinion, do you agree, do you disagree, or do you strongly disagree? The results of this study indicated that 53.9% of the respondents opposed any change in seniority practices. The strength of this attitu de toward change in seniority systems may r e fle c t an opposition to affirm ative action whichmay assist Blacks in becoming Dreier (1985) conducted a study which occupationally mobile. sought to identify factors in a local educational agency that support or hinder women in th e ir desire for career m obility. Concomitantly, the male and female teachers were surveyed to s o l i c i t th e ir perceptions of and attitudes toward gender discrimination. 42 A random sample of 498 public school teachers and administrators from dis­ tr ic t s located through the State of Pennsylvania were selected to take part in this study. Questionnaires, interviews, and document analysis were u t i 1ized to co llect the data, which were then recorded and manipulated by means of an SPSS program. The Chi-Square Test of Independence was u t i 1- ized to test each hypothesis. The results revealed that: were almost non-existent. (1) Women 1ine administrative positions Though over 100 vacancies were f i l l e d since 1972, only one woman had been elevated to p rin c ip a l. (2) No e f fo r t had been made to recru it female or minority administrators outside of th '2 d is tric t. (3) No written hiring and promotional policies and practices in easily accessible forms ( i . e . , booklets, manuals) existed in this particu­ la r school d i s t r i c t . A dditionally, the study revealed that p o litic s played an Important role in the selection process when men were selected over women fo r administrative positions. This implies that pressure is exerted upon the administrator who is responsible for making the personnel selec­ tion to choose a male candidate over a female candidate. Hines (1985) implemented a study which attempted to id e n tify profes­ sional and personal factors which were perceived by female educators in three counties in Delaware to have an impact on females securing adminis­ tr a tiv e posts in public education. A questionnaire was mailed out to 654 female educators in Delaware Publ1c Schools and the State Department of Publ1c Instruction. analysis. Responses from 278 educators were used in the The Chi-Square test was used to analyze the data. The primary finding of th is study was that sex-typing of occupations, inadequate 43 recruitment programs and discriminator selection and hiring practices existed in the three counties. The Drier (1985) and Hines (1985) studies illu s t r a t e a situation which may occur in smaller municipal recreation and park agencies. Generally, in larger m unicipalities, hiring practices are monitored closely by the appointing department, the Personnel Department and local collective bar­ gaining units, thus decreasing the potential for discriminatory hiring practices. There may be a small number of q u a lifie d Blacks in the work force of smaller units of government, but because of p o litic s and the lack of an affirm ative action program, q u alified Blacks may not be selected. In some instances, smaller municipal agencies often view i t as imprac­ tic a l to search outside to broaden the pool of applicants, which would increase the probabi1it y of a Black candidate getting into the pool. In smaller agencies, the personnel selection practices may not be scrutinized as closely due to the size of the community. This may be true especially i f Blacks comprise a smal1 portion of the population and workforce and i f the responsibi1it y of monitoring compliance with regulations is not the sole charge of one individual or department. In addition to the possible Im practicality of searching outside of the system to get qualified applIcants, in some cases this process may be cost p roh ibitive. Reasons such as these provide a rationale for Black and female administrate*s being v ir t u a lly non-existent in smaller municipal recreation and park agencies. S ilb e rt (1985) examined the perceptions and experiences of fiv e Black attorneys in a major metropolitan c ity as they attempted to rise to the top of the legal profession. Each attempted to become a partner in a major law 44 firm . The study was conducted over a 15 month period and consisted of a series of in-depth interviews with the fiv e Black partners. The results Indicated that racial social structures exist as an ongoing normal process within society. The daily real1ty of the Black respondents was infused with the effects of being Black in a r a c ia lly discriminatory society: the continual burden of having to overcome socially imposed assumptions of i n f e r i o r i t y , the struggle with isolation and cultural id e n tity , and the constant r e a lity of a dual opportunity structure 1imiting access into upper level positions within the system. The findings of this study supported the theoretical position that racial discrimination continues as an important variable influencing Black m obllity into upper level positions w ithin society. Even though this e f fo r t was the f i r s t study to provide a q u a lita tiv e analysis of the process of Black mobi1i t y into top level positions of success within a professional hierarchy, the methods were not elaborated upon in d e ta i1. Also, the study did not expound upon ways in which the subjects were discriminated against which should be of primary in terest. I f barriers of discrimination are constantly placed in the career path of a Black employee, the probabi1ity of frus tra tio n and lack of job satisfaction may be great. Cox (1985) conducted a study which explored the relationship between Black id e n tific a tio n , organizational communication supportiveness, and mes­ sages about race. In the context of this study "messages" about race refers to perceptions about race which are communicated verbally or nonverbally. Data for the study were collected from 471 Black and White employees from three Midwestern universities. In addition, interviews were 45 scheduled with 42 Black employees which produced q u a lita tiv e data that yielded information about Black id e n tific a tio n , and messages about race. The messages about race pertained to stereotypes relating to Blacks in the work environment. Examples Include: (1) Blacks are generally lazy and (2) Blacks cannot be trusted with responsibility. These messages are passed among the White employees of the organization. The results indicated that race may affec t an employee's perception of organizational id e n tific a tio n and messages about race influenced White employees more than Black employees. Interviewee conments were used in this study to define specific types of messages about race. This study serves to illu s t r a t e the point that messages about race may be associated with prejudicial or discriminatory acts which include discrimination in respect to the personnel selection process. Verdugo (1985) in stituted a research e ffo r t which scrutinized the earning differences between Black, White and Hispanic, males and females. The purpose was to estimate the effects of over-education, under-education, and discrimination on earnings suggesting in equ alities. A s t r a t if ie d ran­ dom sample of data from the 1980 Census Micro-Data were selected. Black c iv ilia n wage and salary workers between the ages of 25 and 64 who worked a t least 1,365 hours in 1979. This resulted in a sample of over 51,000 persons. The principle finding of this study suggested earnings of minorities and females may have been reduced because of discrimination, sp ec ific a lly in terms of pay. Black males earned an average of $2,025 less than White males and Black females earned an average of $6,560 less than White males. 46 The author concluded that I f minorities and women received the same returns on education, occupation and experience as those received by White males, a large portion of the male-female, minority-majority earnings gap would be closed. The author also notes that in spite of equalizing returns on edu­ cation, occupation and experience and closing the earnings gap between nonminorities and m inorities, a tremendous amount of discrimination in employment would s t i l l e x is t. Salmon (1979) implemented a research e ffo r t which explored and ana­ lyzed the career and career satisfaction of Black executives. The sample of 75 Black executives was drawn from 32 companies, which were White owned and control led and located in the metropolitan Chicago area. Each respon­ dent was asked to complete a questionnaire which contained questions per­ taining to th e ir career, job satisfaction and discrimination. One of the major findings of this study was that among Black executives there was a strong correlation ( r=.54) between the perception of being treated by "p e rc u lia ris tic standards" based on race and job dissatisfaction. The term "p e rc u lia ris tic standards" is defined as behaviors or practices conducted within the work environment that are not applicable to a l 1 employees. This study illu s tr a te s the fact that treatment which may be construed as dis­ criminatory in nature may have an adverse impact on job satisfaction. Shaffer (1978) conducted an investigation into the job mobi1it y paths exhibited by mature male workers over the course of th e ir working careers. The hypothesis tested was that there are barriers to mobi1it y in the labor market in the sense that certain workers become trapped in undesirable job paths. Predictions were made about the re la tiv e magnitudes of inter-sector 47 mobility rates. Job sectors are defined as groups of jobs within a given c la s s ific a tio n . Examples Include "blue-col lar'Vfarm laborer or "white collar"/manager. Actual m obility rates among the sectors, from f i r s t job held to career peak job, were then generated using individual observations from a sample of mature (over 55 years of age) male workers. tables were then disaggregated by race and level of education. The mobi1ity I t was found that barriers to mobi1it y do e x is t, especially for Black men. Shaffer concluded that the empirical evidence was consistent with the hypothesis that racial discrimination of one form or another affects the job mobility paths of Black males. Conclusions In summary, the findings of the previous research indicate that the variables of race, gender, and education, and experience have a significant Impact on both income and occupational mobility for Black personnel. The studies conducted by Dunn (1970, 1977) and Kerr (1973) i 1lustrate the c i r ­ cumstance that occupational mobi1it y for Blacks closely p a ra llels mobi1ity fo r women. A l1 of the aforementioned variables have a great impact on occupational mobi1it y for both groups. Consistently throughout the aforementioned studies (Verdugo 1985, Goodman 1977), White males are more occupationally mobile and have higher earnings over time than th e ir Black male counterparts. A dditionally, research (Shivers 1985, Riley 1984, Hal 1 1987) has indicated that affirma­ tiv e action increases the 1ikelihood that Blacks w ill become more occupationally mobile. The personnel selection procedures and policies of 48 agencies and p o litic s both Impact occupational mobility for Blacks. Again, th is may be an indicator that the race and gender of the appointing author­ i t y may be the c r it ic a l factors which perpetuates discriminatory personnel procedures, which in turn contribute to the lack of mobi1it y for Blacks within the workforce (Hale 1985, Hines 1985, Shaffer 1978). Al 1 of the previously mentioned factors impact in a very d irec t manner the degree of satisfaction that the Black employee derives from his or her job. In summation, the aforementioned factors have been shown to have an Impact on occupational mobi1it y and i t is suggested that the results of this present study should be consistent with the findings of other researchers. Summary of Occupational Mobility Research Designs The majority of occupational mobility studies Implemented have been based upon data obtained through fiv e national surveys on males between the ages of 25 to 64 years of age (Jencks, 1979, p .4 - 5 ). These are as follows: 1. The 1962 Occupational Changes in a Generation Scale (O.C.G.) sample collected by the U.S. Current Population Survey (C .P .S .). This sample was ana­ lyzed by Blau and Duncan (1967); Duncan and Featherman and Duncan (1967); and Featherman and Hauser (1976a, 1976b, 1978). 2. The 1965 Productive Americans (PA) Sample collected by the University of Michigan Survey Research Center (S .R .C .). 49 3. The 1970 Census of Population's 1/1,000 Public Use Sample. 4. The 1971-72 Wave of the Panel Study of Income Dynamics ( P . S . I . D . ) , collected by S.R.C. 5. The 1973 Replication of O.C.G. by David Featherman and Robert Hauser (1976a, 1976b, 1978). The major shortcoming of al 1 of the aforementioned studies is that none of them collected data pertaining to women. This is a very c r it ic a l factor in that gender has been id e n tifie d as a key variable in reference to occupa­ tional mobility for women (Kerr, 1973; Dunn, 1977; and McDonald, 1981). To date, the only study that d ire c tly pertains to examining occupa­ tional mobi1it y within the recreation and park f ie ld is the work of McDonald (1981). McDonald's work has drawn upon the research of Blau and Duncan (1967) and Jencks (1979). The variables most frequently measured in occupational mobi1ity research included the following: race, region of upbringing, father's education, father's occupation, number of siblings, father absent at 16, adolescent personality, adolescent test score, early adult test score, adult test score, years of education, degrees, occupation, earnings, weeks worked, brother's education, brother's occupation, brother's earnings, geo­ graphic m obility, number of parents in the household, and the head of household's education. The methods of analyzing the data obtained from these research efforts included: simple 1inear and multiple regression techniques, analysis of covariance and Chi-square analysis. The procedures u tiliz e d required 50 controls for r e l i a b i l i t y 1n measurement and sampling error. Controls that were commonly u t iliz e d Included using actual years of schooling completed as a measure of education attained and inserting various family background t r a i t s such as income and education level of the head of household or s1bl1ng into regression equations. All of the studies mentioned previously focus on such factors as family background, cognitive and academic a b ilit ie s of the respondent, and race as causal factors which influence occupational m obility. This research e f fo r t examined the variables of gender, attained level of education, number of years of work experience, presence of an affirm ative action plan, race of the appointing authority and perceived job satisfaction . The present study provides a novel perspective on the process of m obility from the standpoint that i t focuses on those that are currently employed in municipal recreation and park agencies. Greater emphasis was placed on factors which were pertinent to the process of occupational m obility within a municipal employment system. This approach d iffe rs from the methods of researchers such as Blau and Duncan (1967); Jencks (1979) and McDonald (1981) who a l 1 placed emphasis on variables such as family background and geographic distance when examining occupational mobi1it y . Chapter 3 THEORETICAL MODELS AND HYPOTHESES This chapter examines various theories, models and studies which served as the foundation fo r developing a model of occupational mobility fo r Black recreation and park personnel in Michigan. A dditionally, the hypotheses which were tested in this study are developed in this chapter. There are several management and sociologically based theories that are pertinent to the study of occupational m obility. The theories most pertinent to this study include the expectancy theory, the equity theory, the discrepancy theory and Herzberg1s "Two-Factor" theory of motivation. The theoretical underpinnings of prejudice and discrimination were also of paramount importance to th is research e f f o r t . A l1 of these theories pro­ vide a unique perspective through which to view factors assumed to be asso­ ciated with occupational m obility among Blacks within the recreation and park profession. Management Theories Expectancy Theory The f i r s t management theory applicable to this study, expectancy theory, holds that work motivation is determined by individual beliefs regarding effort-performance relationships and the d e s ir a b ility of various work outcomes associated with d iffe re n t performance levels (Georgepolous, Mahoney and Jones, 1957). Simply put, the theory is based on the notion that people w ill do what they can do, when they want to do i t . Expectancy theory proposes that a person w ill choose a behavior alternative that is 51 52 lik e ly to have favorable consequences. This theory also postulates a deliberate and rational choice process. There are four assumptions about the causes of behavior in organizations that serve as the basis of this theory. These four assumptions are as follows: 1. I t is assumed that a combination of interacting forces in the individual and the environment alone determines behavior. Neither the individual nor the environment alone determine behavior. 2. I t is assumed that people make decisions about th e ir own behaviors 1n organizations. Many constraints are placed on people1s behaviors such as rules, regulations, technology. For the most part, people generally make two kinds of con­ scious decisions: (a) decisions about coming to work and staying with or leaving an organization (membership decisions); and (b) decisions about the quantity and quality of work (job-performance decisions). 3. I t 1s assumed that d iffe re n t people have d iffe re n t types of needs and goals. People generally want d iffe re n t types of outcomes from th e ir work such as job security, a better sal­ ary or a promotion. 4. I t is assumed that people decide among alternatives based on th e ir perceptions of the degree to which a given behavior w ill lead to a desired outcome. There is a tendency for peo­ ple to do the things that they perceive as leading to rewards they desire and avoid engaging in behaviors that they per­ ceive as leading to outcomes they do not desire. 53 (H e llrie g e l, Slocum and Woodman, 1986, pp. 188-189) In general, the expectancy theory views people as having th e ir own needs and ideas of what they desire from th e ir work (rewards). They act on these needs and ideas when making decisions about what company to join and how hard to work on the job. I t holds true that people are not inherently motivated or unmotivated; motivation depends on the situation facing people and how i t f i t s th e ir needs. The expectancy theory has four important operational variables. f i r s t variable is "F irs t and Second Level Outcomes". The The f i r s t level out­ comes are largely the result of behaviors that are associated with doing the job i t s e l f . work. They include productivity, absenteeism and the qua1it y of Second-level outcomes are those events (positive or negative) that are 1ike ly to produce results, such as a pay increase or promotion. The second variable "expectancy" is the b e lie f that a p a rticu lar level of e f f o r t w i11 be followed by a p a rticu lar level of performance. I t can vary from the b e lie f that there is absolutely no relationship between e f fo r t and performance to the certainty that a given level of e ffo r t w ill result in a corresponding level of performance. The th ird variable "valence" can be defined as an in d ivid u a l1s prefer­ ence fo r a second-level outcome. An outcome is positive when i t is pre­ ferred and negative when i t is avoided. when indifference is present. An outcome has a valence of "0" For example, a person may attach a high pos­ i t i v e valence to the outcome of being promoted. Because of th is , the in di­ vidual is motivated to work hard and perform e ffe c tiv e ly in order to obtain the promotion. I f the person is successful and eventually promoted, he or she may find that the actual experienced value of the promotion is much 54 lower than was anticipated. Regardless, i t is the valence ( i . e . , the anticipated value) of the promotion that motivated the person to work hard in order to obtain the promotion. The fourth variable "instrumentality" defines the relationship between the f i r s t and second-level outcomes. +1. I t can have values ranging from -1 to A value of (-1 ) indicates that attainment of the second-level outcome 1s inversely related to the achievement of a f ir s t - le v e l outcome. A value of (+1) indicates that the f i r s t - l e v e l outcome is positively related to the second-level outcome. This theory is important to the present study due to the fact that Black employees may exhibit excellent job performance, striv e to continue professional education and remain in the service of the recreation and park agency with the expectation that this w ill lead to an opportunity to become occupationally mobile within or outside the agency. When expected outcomes are not achieved, this may lead to decreased job satisfaction . The studies conducted by Jones (1980) and Hale (1985) have direct application to expectancy theory. One of the key findings in the study by Jones was that Black MBA managers expected to earn salaries equivalent to th e ir White counterparts over time. In spite of equivalent education and experience (MBA degree and entering labor force between 1969-74), Blacks exercised less job authority and lagged sig n ifican tly behind in earnings compared to th e ir White colleagues. The findings of Jones (1980) i l l u s ­ tr a te the " f i r s t and second level outcomes" and "instrumentality" compo­ nents of expectancy theory. Research conducted by Hale (1985) found that Black managers who took part in the study developed and refined th e ir professional a b i l i t i e s to 55 acquire, maintain and advance th e ir professional status. A key implication of this finding is that in spite of effo rts to obtain appropriate levels of education and related work experience, barriers such as discriminatory selection practices may be a barrier to upward mobi1i t y . As in Jones study (1980), the components of " f i r s t and second level outcomes", "expectancy" and "instrumentality", are d ire c tly applicable to the findings. In both the Jones (1980) and Hale (1985) studies, members of the sam­ ples may have attained the necessary education and experience requirements to obtain th e ir current positions. They may have worked hard and performed well in th e ir jobs ( f i r s t and second level outcomes), with the expectation that these factors would lead to pay increases and promotions. They may have believed that the outcome (pay increases and promotions) would be v a l­ ued highly and would lead to satisfaction (valence). Inspite of th e ir per­ formance and expectations (in stru m en tality), the outcome in both cases was negative. Because of the lags in salaries, job authority (Jones, 1980) and opportunities for advancement (Hale, 1985), job dissatisfaction may have occurred among the members of both samples. Equity Theory A second management theory that is applicable to this study is the "equity theory" (Adams, 1963). The equity theory focuses on an in d iv id u a l' s feelings of how f a i r l y he or she is treated in comparison to others. The theory has two key elements. als evaluate th e ir social relationships. F ir s t , i t assumes that individu­ The theory views social relatio n ­ ships as exchange processes in which individuals make contributions and expect certain results. Second, each person compares th e ir situation with 56 that of others to determine the equity of th e ir own situation . The extent to which people view an exchange favorably is influenced by what happens to them compared with what happens to others. Equity theory is based on the relationship of two variables: and outputs. inputs Inputs represents what an individual contributes to an exchange; outcomes are what an individual receives from the exchange. Individuals assign weights to various inputs and outputs according to their perceived performance. A fte r they arrive a t a ra tio of inputs and outcomes for themselves, they compare i t with th e ir perceived ratios of inputs and outcomes of others in the same or sim ilar situation . Thus, others become the objects of comparison fo r people in determining whether they feel equi­ tably treated. Equity exists whenever the ratio of a person1s outcomes to inputs equals the ra tio of incomes to inputs for others. Inequity exists when the ratios of outcomes to inputs are not equal (Hel1r ie g e l, Slocum, Woodman, 1986). Inequity can lead to tension in the employee and other individuals within the organization. tension. There are several methods for reducing this The rationale fo r the use of this theory in this study, is that one of the options for reducing tension precipitated through inequity, is for the Black employee to make attempts to become occupationally mobile within the agency or outside of the agency. favorable balance in a new work environment. This is done to achieve a more A dditionally, feelings of Inequity may lead to increased feelings of discrimination, especially in the areas of wage compensation and career advancement. The study conducted by Perry (1985) illu s tr a te s equity theory in 57 practice. One of the key findings In this research e f fo r t was that sub­ stantial differences existed between Blacks and Whites as related to com­ pensation (salaries) and occupational status. Equity theory indicates that when an employee compares his/her inputs and outputs with those of th e ir peers and i f ratios are comparable and there 1s not an equivalent reward, then inequity exists. Perry concluded that these differences affected job sa tisfaction . Discrepancy Theory A th ird management theory that is appl1cable to this study 1s the dis­ crepancy theory (Locke, 1969). This theory is based on the premise that satisfaction or dissatisfaction with some aspect of the job depends on the discrepancy between what a person perceives he/she is getting and what is desired. The desired amount of a job characteristic is defined as the min­ imum amount necessary to f u l f i l 1 the person's current needs. A person w ill be sa tis fie d i f there is no discrepancy between desired and actual considerations. A person w ill be dissatisfied i f there is less than the desi red amount necessary to f u l f i 11 the person's current needs. The greater the deficiency and the more important the object desi red, the greater w ill be the dissatisfaction. I f there is more than the mini­ mal ly acceptable amount of some job factor and the excess is b e n e fic ia l, a person w ill be even more satisfied than when there is no discrepancy between the desi red and actual amount. However, i f the excess is perceived to be detrim ental, the person w ill be ju st as dissatisfied as when there is less than the desired amount (Wexley and Yuki, 1984). 58 In relationship to the study of occupational m obility discrepancy the­ ory 1s useful. Black employees may engage in preparing themselves educa­ tio n a lly and professionally for promotional opportunities i f and when they arise. The desired outcome may be getting a promotion, but factors such as discrimination may impact the actual outcome (the employee not receiving the promotion). This in turn leads to dissatisfaction, decreased i d e n t i f i ­ cation with the organization and exploring opportunities outside of the agency and/or profession fo r career advancement. Herzberg1s "Two-Factor" Model Another management theory model that is important to this study 1s Herzberg's "Two-Factor" model of work motivation (Herzberg, Mausner and Snyderman, 1959). According to Herzberg et a l , characteristics of jobs f a l l into two separate and d is tin c t categories, labeled motivators and hygiene factors. Motivators include factors that are inherent to the job, such as achievement, recognition, responsibi1i t y , advancement, and personal growth and development. Hygiene factors, on the other hand, refer to things such as company po licies, supervision, working conditions, salary, Interpersonal relationships, status, and security. Herzberg believed that satisfaction and dissatisfaction with work are not opposite ends of a single continuum, but are separate independent continua. Further, he argues that a person1s satisfaction and motivation are solely determined by the extent to which the job contains motivators. Dissatisfaction, on the other hand, is caused by a lack of hygiene factors. Thus, hygiene factors must be present in a job in order to prevent dissatisfaction, but hygiene factors cannot generate positive motivation and satisfaction . That can 59 only be done by introducing motivators into the job. I f individuals are to be motivated to perform e ffe c tiv e ly , th e ir jobs must be high on motivators. This theory provides a rationale fo r employees wanting to become upwardly mobile within the recreation and park profession. I t id e n tifie s those factors which are principle in an employee's decision to stay in a position which may not meet th e ir respective needs or to seek an employment environment that 1s more satisfyin g. I f opportunities for advancement are blocked, this may lead to feelings of discriminatory practices being in s t i ­ tuted, thus the employee w ill opt to seek employment outside of the organi­ zation and possibly pursue legal action. Summary of Management Theories A l1 of the previously mentioned management theories play a role in explaining and predicting behavior related to occupational mobi1i t y . The expectancy theory explains motivation in terms of the expectations that people have about th e ir a b i l i t y to perform e ffe c tiv e ly on the job and about the kinds of rewards they expect to obtain i f they do perform e ffe c tiv e ly . According to this theory, e f f o r t , performance and outcomes are the key fac­ tors that Influence an employee's motivation to perform e ffe c tiv e ly . The equity theory of motivation examines the Issue of how f a i r l y or equitably employees feel they are being treated in comparison to th eir peers by the organization. of inputs to outcomes. The comparison is made in terms of th e ir ratios Inputs are defined as contributions made to the organization and outcomes are the rewards received from the organization. When the inputs are greater than the outcomes, then inequity occurs. The 60 consequences of inequity that are most pertinent to the study of occupa­ tional m obility are twofold. F ir s t , job dissatisfaction may occur, thus changing both job related inputs and outcomes. Secondly, one of the meth­ ods fo r reducing feelings of inequity and dissatisfaction is to leave the organization. Thus, the employee makes attempts to seek employment in other areas within the organization or outside of the organization (Arnold and Feldman, 1986). The discrepancy theory of job satisfaction addresses the issue of what an employee feels he or she is getting versus what is desi red in relatio n ­ ship to satisfaction or dissatisfaction with some aspect of th e ir job. Generally, the greater the deficiency and the more the element 1s desired, the greater the dissatisfaction. I f a promotion is the desi red object and 1f 1t 1s not obtained, this may lead to dissatisfaction and attempts to leave the organization. Lastly, Herzberg's two factor theory of job attitudes groups job char­ a c te ris tic s into two categories, hygiene factors or d is s a tis fie rs and motivators or s a tis fie r s . Hygiene factors include pay, job security and status, while motivation factors include recognition, achievement and opportunities for advancement. I f there is an in s u ffic ie n t amount of e ith er of these factors, then job satisfaction w111 be jeopardized. I f job dissatisfaction occurs, then the remedy of leaving the organization may be Implemented by the employee. 61 Importance of Management Theories The management theories that were previously discussed are important to this research e f fo r t fo r two key reasons. F ir s t , each of the theories provides insight into factors that influence job satisfaction . A person's attitu d e toward his or her job refle cts pleasant and unpleasant experiences in the job and expectations about future experiences. Factors such as tangible returns on education and experience and perceptions of discrimina­ tion may have an impact on job sa tisfaction . Secondly, the expectations about future experiences may p o ten tia lly impact an employee's desire to become occupationally mobile. faction w ill drive m obility. In this study, i t is assumed that job satis­ With this in mind, i t is important to understand those factors that contribute to the level of perceived job satisfaction experienced by the employee. A dditionally, the models of occupational mobi1it y which were examined to build a model fo r this study appear to be grounded in management theory. Both the "Organizational Boundaries and Upward-Shifts Model" (Sandefur, 1981) and the "Women's Occupational Attainment Model" (Robinson, 1986) appear to have been grounded in both expectancy theory and Herzberg's "Two-Factor" theory. The management theories and theoretical models of occupational mobi1i t y reviewed for this study were instrumental in deve­ loping the theoretical foundation and model of occupational m obility for this study. Prejudice/Discrimination Prejudice and discrimination occur in many situations. Prejudice becomes a problem when the preformed judgment remains unchanged even a fte r 62 the facts become evident. The social problem of prejudice is not so much the prejudgment, (which in many cases is necessary fo r social interaction) but rather, i t is the fa ilu r e to discard that prejudgment in 1ight of addi­ tional evidence. In cornnon usage, prejudice generally refers to the narrow, biased and in fle x ib le thinking rather than to a l 1 forms of prejudgment. Prejudice against ethnic and racial minorities is always a learned behavior. An en tire system of prejudice may be b u iIt into a culture. Research by Marger (1985) suggests that certain groups of people are more 1ikely to be prejudiced against minority groups than others. These groups Include those that are closest to the dominant group in physical appearance and culture. Because working class Whites compete with Blacks for jobs, they are usually more prejudiced against Blacks than are Whites of higher social standing. Prejudice and discrimination are often regarded as inseparable and a natural pairing. I t is important to note that prejudice refers to an a t t i ­ tude and discrimination refers to the manifestation of the prejudicial attitu d e into unfair or unequal treatment of individuals or groups. Prejudice and discrimination may or may not occur together, but the two ty p ic a lly reinforce one another. Many forms of discrimination stem from prejudicial attitudes and continuing discrimination can create prejudice (Popenoe, 1983). The more serious forms of discrimination with much greater injury to m inorities involve the denial of access to various opportunities in 1ife such as employment opportunities, housing, education, ju s tic e , and p o l i t i cal p a rticip atio n. Minority groups are placed in disadvantageous positions 63 with regard to these societal rewards and end up receiving less than they would i f no barriers existed. One of the basic problems gathering data concerning discrimination in employment is that d iffe re n t researchers employ d iffe re n t concepts of discrimination. Their definitions are rarely e x p lic it , but become discern­ ib le only through careful examination of th e ir writings and analyses. The various defin ition s are important because they have counterparts in the approaches to discrimination by governmental o f f i c i a l s , employers, and the general public. The primary view of discrimination that is most relevant to this research e ffo r t is the perspective focusing upon the impact that various social institutio ns and processes have upon groups and individuals 1n terms of employment. This view is derived from the "power-conflict" theories of prejudice and discrimination (Bernard, 1951). Simply stated, these theories view prejudice and discrimination as emerging from historical instances of Intergroup c o n flic t. In this view, discrimination serves as a means of injuring or neutralizing out-groups that the dominant group perceives as threatening to th e ir position of power and p rivileg e . When prejudice and discrimination are combined, they function to protect and enhance dominant group interests. And, once established, prejudice and discrimination are used as power resources that can be tapped as new confl ic t situations demand. Studies by Cox (1985) where Whites were more influenced by perceptions of race in the work environment than Blacks and Salmon (1979) where Black 64 executives in Chicago experienced treatment which they perceived to be une­ qual and not of the norm fo r a l l employees, epitomize how prejudicial a t t i ­ tudes and perceived discriminatory acts impact the work place. The findings in both studies are 11lu s tra tlv e of the "power-confl1ct" theories of prejudice and discrimination. Economic Gain Theory The principle "power-conflict" theory that 1s most germaine to this research e f f o r t is the theory of "economic gain" (W.M. Newman, 1973). This theory emphasizes the economic benefits that derive from prejudice and discrimination. In a rudimentary sense, prejudice and discrimination yield p ro fits fo r those who engage in them (Marger, 1985). Employment is d ire c tly related to economic gain and therefore has been a primary target fo r discriminatory practices. The studies by Jones (1980) and Verdugo (1985) address the economic outcomes of discrimination. Both studies found that Blacks earned less than Whites 1n reference to returns on education. A dditionally, Jones (1980) found that the disparity in salaries between Black and White MBA managers increased over time. Prejudice and discrimination against Blacks and other minorities in the United States continues to benefit at least some segments of the White population. The strong resistance to affirm ative action during the past two decades can be interpreted as the negative reaction of Whites who see th e ir economic gains threatened by Blacks and other minorities seeking upward social and occupational mobility (Marger, 1985). Taylor and Tuch (1986) found evidence in th e ir study which supports the point made by 65 Marger (1985). In th e ir survey of White Americans on issues of prejudice toward Blacks, they found that 53.9% of those responding opposed any change in seniority practices. They concluded that the strength of this attitu d e toward change may re fle c t a strong opposition to affirm ative action. Increasingly, Blacks and other minority groups have argued that equal applications of certain rules and procedures may produce d iffe r e n tia l results which are discriminatory. I f hiring qualifications are unnecessar- 1ly stringent for p a rticu lar jobs, and the result is to exclude a greater proportion of minority group members, this can be considered discrimination. Additionally, i f employers place advertisements in newspa­ pers read predominantly by the majority and seldom by the minority, that can be considered discriminatory, too. Informal patterns of discrimination, some which may be extremely sub­ t l e occur frequently in d a ily 1i f e . The classic example is the anti-Black employer who turns down a l 1 Black applicants for a job, with claims that they are unqualified. In relationship to occupational mobi1it y for Blacks, i t may be the case of the appointing authority who denies a promotion for a qu alified Black employee due to prejudicial attitudes which may have been formed over time. Theoretical Models of Occupational Mobility In the areas of status attainment and occupational mobi1it y research, unquestionably Blau and Duncan are the pioneers. Their early research e f f o r t e n title d "The American Occupational Structure" (1967) served as the focal point and knowledge base for la te r research efforts by Hauser and Featherman (1977), Jencks (1979), McDonald (1981), Sandefur (1981) and 66 Robinson (1986). Each of these effo rts provided more insight into the process of occupational mobility and status attainment. The research of Blau and Duncan (1967) and Jencks (1979) examined occupational mobility in respect to economic success. The effects of fam­ i l y background, academic a b i l i t y , non-cognitive t r a i t s , education and race were examined closely in th e ir work. Undoubtedly, the effects of achieved and ascribed variables have been proven to be important in relationship to occupational mobi1it y and economic success. One of the major drawbacks of these p rio r studies is that there was no examination of factors which may aid or hamper mobi1i t y once an employee is working within an organization. The work of McDonald (1981) focused on occupational mobility for Blacks working in the recreation and park orofession. Sandefur (1981) who examined occupational mobility and status attainment from an "Organizational Boundaries and Upward Job Shifts" perspective. And la s tly , Robinson (1986) developed a model of occupational attainment for women. Each of these models are d ire c tly related to the development of a model to be used fo r the purposes of this study. The "Organizational Boundaries and Upward Shifts" model and the "Women's Occupational Attainment" model developed by Sandefur (1981) and Robinson (1986) respectively, are summarized below. Most importantly, these models focus on the impact of gender, education, years or work experience, the organizational personnel selection process and reward sys­ tems which may impact job satisfaction. Organizational Boundaries and Upward-Shifts Model In the analysis of this model, the important variables are job rewards 67 (wage and p res tig e ), Individual resources (any personal attributes that may be evaluated by an employer), age, and duration of job (years of experience). Each variable is predicted to be an important determinant of job change. I f rewards are used as a means of d iffe r e n tia tin g job s h ifts , three types can be id e n tifie d . An upward s h ift featuring a move from one job to another with a higher level of rewards; secondly, a lateral s h ift with an individual moving from one job to another with equivalent rewards; and th ir d ly , a downward s h ift with the individual moving to a lower level posi­ tion with a lower level of rewards. Changes in occupational prestige can only occur through a job s h if t . Organizational boundaries do have implications for the effects of Individual resources on upward m obility. The underlying assumption of these effects is that individuals are evaluated on the basis of th e ir value or potential value to the organization. In addition, evaluations, promo­ tions and hirings are mechanisms through which bureaucratic control is exerted. Bureaucratic control is defined as the formalized and in s tit u ­ tio nalized management of labor with the ultimate goal of maximizing p r o fits . Organizational boundaries creates a situation in which employees within an organization are considered f i r s t , before bringing in outsiders. This factor can be contributed to the fact that the job controllers wi11 have an existing knowledge of the background and the in d ivid ual1s career history within the organization. The individual w ill have resources which are employer or organization-specific since i t is to the advantage of the 68 employers to provide this type of training. tant e ffe c t on organizational boundaries. Such resources have an impor­ S p e c ific a lly , the higher the level of organization-specific resources, the more 1ikely an upward s h ift within the boundaries of the organization. In this model, education is treated as a general resource. Organizations use education as an Indicator of general work related a b ilitie s . Education can be expected to a ffe c t both interorganizational and intraorganizational sh ifts po sitively. With respect to age, this model indicates that age has a negative e ffe c t on job m obility. Research (Tuma, 1976) has indicated that organiza­ tions are less lik e ly to promote individuals a f te r they reach a certain age, and age also impedes interorganizational m obility. Duration or job tenure serves as a measure of job-specific resources (Tuma, 1976). The match between the individual and job becomes more a ttra c tiv e to everyone concerned as the length of the match grows. This model suggests that duration w ill have an impact on intraorganizational sh ifts and a considerably greater impact on interorganizational s h ifts . In summation, the key elements of the model presented by Sandefur Indicate that job rewards (wages, prestige, or status which impact job s a tis fa c tio n ), individual resources (education, training and experience) and duration (years of experience or tenure) w ill impact a mobi1i t y s h ift p o sitively . Age, on the contrary, may impact mobi1it y in a negative manner. Women' s Occupational Attainment Model The following model is in the status attainment trad itio n of Blau and 69 Duncan (1967). Key variables are education, f ir s t - jo b status, and current occupational attainment. This model includes variables which include the percentage of workers in the occupation who are women and the regional unemployment rate fo r women. This model implies that demographic variables affecting current occu­ pational attainment include age and marital status. Marital status is u tiliz e d to recognize the 1imitations of accepting opportunities for advancement due to marital constraints the workforce for a period children. and that women may be absent from of time for the purpose of bearing and raising The model also Indicates that women with more years of experi­ ence can be expected to have a higher level of occupational attainment. In reference to gender differences in terms of occupational attainment, the model implies occupational segregation. that the difference can be attributed to I f at the aggregate le v e l, occupations with a higher percentage female are those with fewer opportunities, then for an Individual woman as the percentage female increases, status gains wi11 be reduced (Robinson, 1986). In summation, the key points of this model indicate that education and years of experience w ill positively affec t occupational attainment. Age, marital status and gender may negatively impact occupational mobi1it y . The "Women1s Occupational Attainment Model" was used as a secondary source for building the study model. Study Model For the expressed purposes of this research e f f o r t , the "Occupational Boundaries and Upward Shifts" model developed by Sandefur (1981) and the 70 "Women's Occupational Attainment Model" (Robinson, 1986) were u tiliz e d to construct the model fo r the present study. The variables contained within this model developed by Sandefur (1981) Include the following: education, job rewards (wages, prestige or status; which impact job s a tis fa c tio n ); duration (years of experience or tenure) which w ill impact mobility p o sitively ; and age, which w ill have a negative impact on m obility. The model developed by Robinson (1986) contains the variable of gender. The aforementioned models suggested the variables that were selected fo r this research e f f o r t . Additionally the predictions about the variables contained within this model w ill assist in the development of hypotheses to be tested as a part of the proposed study. These models do not address the impact of variables such as the pres­ ence of an affirm a tive action plan or the race of the appointing authority on occupational mobi1i t y . Inspite of these factors, there 1s s t i 11 s u f f i­ cient research to make predictions about the aforementioned variables and th e ir relationship to occupational mobi1it y . Based on the manner in which key variables were predicted to impact mobility in the models developed by Sandefur (1981) and Robinson (1986); and the manner in which the variables are treated in the 1ite ra tu re , the following predictions are relevant to the variables selected for this study: Positive Impact On Mobi1it y Variable -Education -Experience -A ffirm ative Action Plan -Job Satisfaction Negative Impact On Mobi1ity Variable -Gender (Female) -Race of the Appointing Authority (Non-Black) 71 Figure 1 provides a graphic representation of the model of occupational mobility developed for the present study. In this model, the employee goes to work fo r an agency and brings with him or her an attained level of edu­ cation and related work experience. of job satisfaction is developed. Over time (tenure/duration), a level To meet the organizational needs of the agency the employee is working fo r , as job opportunities arise , vacant positions must be f i 1led. The organization begins an internal recruitment giving current employees who apply consideration. The attained level of formal education and amount of related work experience are considered at this time. Both of these variables are considered to be positive factors that w ill impact occupational m obility. During the selection process, the gender of the applicant and the race of the appointing authority may serve as negative factors in the selection process. The underlying assumption is that the gender and racial biases of the appointing authority w i11 prohibit the employee from being selected when race and gender are d iffe r e n t between applicant and appointing authority. A1so at this point in time, the a ffirm a tive action plan of the agency w i11 serve as a positive factor in the selection process. The assumption is that i f there is an imbalance in the workforce, the position may be earmarked for a minority. Whether the employee is selected or not, a decision is made. I f the employee opts to remain with the organization, he or she w i11 experience intraorganizational mobi1i t y . I f the employee opts to leave the organiza­ tion as a result of not being selected or i f opportunities arise outside of the current agency, then interorganizational mobi1i t y is experienced. Affirmative Action Plan T Organization Tenure/ Duration U Remain Selection Decision eoct = >> Decision r < < o — Figure 1: M odel of O ccupational M ob ility for Black Recreation & Park P ersonnel 73 Supporting Research Education has proven to impact occupational m obility for Blacks (Blau and Duncan, 1967; Jencks, 1979; Sandefur, 1981; and McDonald, 1981). Formal educational training and in-service training are considered to be organizational resources (Sandefur, 1981) and thus w i11 increase the 1ikelihood of intraorganizational and interorganizational mobi1it y . The number of years of experience is also a v ita l factor in occupa­ tional m obility. Tuma (1976), Sandefur (1981) and Robinson (1986) have al 1 concluded that experience is a key factor d ire c tly related to occupational attainment. Women with more experience can be expected to have a higher level of occupational attainment (Robinson, 1986). Experience or duration w i11 have an impact on intraorganizational sh ifts and a greater impact on interorganizational shifts (Tuma, 1976). Additionally, experience which is considered by Robinson (1981) to be an organization-specific resource and thus w ill increase the probability of an upward s h ift within the organization. Research conducted by Lewis (1986), Shivers (1985) and Riley (1984) has implicated affirm ative action as a factor in occupational attainment and mobi1i t y fo r Blacks. The results of the studies by Shivers (1985) and Riley (1984) indicated that affirm ative action played a major role in the hiring and promotion of Black women. A dditionally, affirm ative action would play a major role in further career advancement. In the present study, the primary focus is upon the impact of affirma­ tiv e action that an employee has been employed by an agency over a five year period (1984-88). The underlying assumption is that some qual ifie d employees may have been promoted into higher level positions to help 74 achieve a more balanced workforce. Additionally, hiring or promoting black and female employees may provide a remedy for any underutilization or underrepresentation that may have occurred in certain positions. In general, the presence of an affirm ative action plan should play a positive role in f a c ilit a t in g occupational mobi1it y for members of the sample. The race of the appointing authority ( i f d iffe re n t than the applicant) is predicted to be another negative factor in relationship to occupational mobi1it y experienced by the sample. Research by Taylor and Tuch (1986), Marger (1985), Cox (1985) and Salmon (1979) a l 1 imply that attitudes per­ taining to race may have an impact on occupational m obility for Blacks. The underlying assumption is that because of racial and gender biases against Black women, discriminatory hiring practices w ill be implemented to suppress attempts to become occupationally mobile within the current orga­ nization. In the present study, i t is assumed that the race of the appointing authority wi11 have it s greatest impact as promotional oppor­ tu n ities came about between 1984-88. I t is in the personnel selection pro­ cess that the prejudicial biases of the appointing authority may have intervened. As a result, attempts to become occupationally mobile within the agency may have been thwarted. Job satisfaction has also been proven to be an important variable in the occupational mobi1it y process. Expectancy theory, equity theory, dis­ crepancy theory and Herzberg's "Two-Factor" theory a l 1 assist in making predictions in reference to job satisfaction. negative or positive, w i11 impact m obility. Job satisfaction , whether Generally, job satisfaction w ill play a major role in perceptions of the organization by the employee and in terms of retention. Lower job dissatisfaction may lead to decreased 75 productivity, feelings of discriminatory practices being implemented on the part of the organization and the employee making attempts to become occupationally mobile outside of the organization. Research conducted by Penn (1985) and Perry (1985), elude to the fact that occupational mobi1it y drives job satisfaction. As implied in the pre­ vious paragraph, in the present study, the opposite approach is being examined. The examination of job satisfaction offers a novel approach to the study of occupational mobi1i t y . The underlying assumption is that the members of the sample were primarily concerned with compensation and job security related issues. The poor state of the economy in Michigan during the period of 1984-88 was the primary consideration in making this assump­ tio n. During this period of economic distress, many municipal recreation and park agencies were down-sizing and experiencing reductions in s t a f f . It seemed logical that during this period, to remain employed and be finan­ cial ly compensated at a reasonable le v e l, would lead to a degree of job satisfaction . I f the employee stayed with the agency and experienced a reasonable degree of job satisfaction, attempts to become occupationally mobile within the agency would be made as opportunities occurred. In essence, education, coupled with experience and the presence of an affirm ative action plan, w ill influence occupational mobi1it y fo r Blacks in a positive manner. I f rewards (promotional opportunities, compensation, responsibi1it y ) are issued in what is perceived to be an equitable manner, then job satisfaction may occur. Gender has been proven to have an adverse impact on occupational 76 mobility for women (Robinson, 1986; McDonald, 1981). Robinson (1986) con­ cluded that the fewer number of women within a given occupation, the greater the chances are that mobi1it y w ill be reduced. Another variable that may have a negative impact on mobility 1s age. Tuma (1976) indicates that age w ill have a negative impact on both intraorganizational and interorganizational mobi1i t y . In the models devel­ oped by both Robinson and Sandefur, age is used as a control variable. The fin a l variable that may adversely impact occupational mobility is the race of the appointing authority. Research conducted by Lewis (1986), Hines (1985) and Hudson (1978) a l 1 point to the fa ct that discriminatory selection practices have a tremendous impact on mobi1it y for minorities and women. Because of the domination of White males in the managerial and supervisory ranks of many professions, the race of the appointing authority becomes even more important. Generally, i t is at these levels that person­ nel decisions are made. Summary In summation, the theoretical model used in this study extracted com­ ponents from the "Organizational Boundaries and Upward S hift" model devel­ oped by Sandefur (1981) and the "Women' s Occupational Attainment Model" developed by Robinson (1986). The key variables encompassed within this model - education, duration or years of experience and job rewards - impact occupational mobi1it y p o s itiv e ly . Gender w i11 have a negative impact on occupational mobi1i t y . This research e f fo r t u t i 1ized the variables of gender, number of years of related work experience, attained level of education, the presence of an 77 affirm a tive action plan, race of the appointing authority and job satisfaction . Research conducted by Robinson (1986) and McDonald (1981) address the negative impact of gender in relationship to occupational m obility. Lewis (1986), Hines (1985) and Hudson (1978) conducted studies which refer to the Impact of White males dominating the upper supervisory and managerial posi­ tions where discriminatory selection procedures are practiced. This factor 1s d ire c tly related to the race of the appointing authority having an Impact on occupational m obility. The results of studies conducted by Lewis (1986), Shivers (1985) and R1ley (1984) a l 1 indicate that affirm ative action has a positive impact on occupational mobi1i t y . The predictions made pertaining to the variables contained in the study model and the supporting research pertinent to those variables not contained in the model played a major role in the development of the hypotheses which were tested in this research e f f o r t . Hypotheses For the expressed purposes of this study, the following null hypothe­ ses were u tiliz e d : 1. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in reported occupational mobi1it y scores between males and females. 2. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in 78 occupational m obility scores fo r those with varying number of years of related work experience. 3. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession 1n Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupational m obility scores for those with varying number of years of education. 4. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupational m obility scores fo r personnel working in agen­ cies with perceived a ffirm a tive action plans versus those without perceived a ffirm a tive action plans. 5. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupational m obility scores for personnel hi red by Black appointing authorities versus non-Black appointing autho rities. 6. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupational mobi1it y scores for those with higher levels of perceived job satisfaction versus lower levels of perceived job satisfaction. Chapter 4 METHODOLOGY AND PROCEDURES The primary purpose of this study was to examine those factors which are related to the occupational mobility of Black personnel within the rec­ reation and park profession. This chapter describes the methodology and procedures that were u t iliz e d to conduct this research e f fo r t. ing fiv e sections: The follow­ instrumentation; sampling plan/selection of subjects; control measures; col lection of data; and data analysis outline the proce­ dures that were u t i 1ized in the implementation of this study. Study Instrument The instrument consisted of four sections. Section one was designed to obtain the respondent's perceptions of the status of various occupa­ tional t i t l e s fo r the park and recreation profession. Occupational status rankings were derived by calculating percentages for high rankings (scores of one and two). Section two pertained to collecting information relevant to the respondents attempts to become occupationally mobile within and out­ side of the organizational structure, information pertaining to the per­ ceived impact of affirm ative action on employment, the appointing authority and perceived discrimination in employment. mation pertaining to job satisfaction. Section three solicited in fo r­ Section four was designed to col­ lec t demographic information about the respondents. As indicated in the aforementioned paragraph, section three of the instrument was designed to s o lic it information relevant to job s a tisfactio n . To gather this data, a standardized instrument that was both 79 80 re lia b le and v a lid , yet easy to administer was u t iliz e d . A fter searching and reviewing instruments in the "The Ninth Mental Measurements Yearbook", the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire was selected for use in this study. Occupational T itle s A comprehensive l i s t of 18 occupational t i t l e s used in the municipal recreation and park profession was u tiliz e d for the purpose of determining occupational status and measuring occupational mobi1i t y . The primary model for developing the series of job t i t l e s used in the municipal recreation and park profession was extracted from the "National Survey Of Selected Publ 1c Recreation and Park Personnel", developed by Henkel and Godbey (1977). Those t i t l e s contained in the 1is t were sim ilar to those used by departments in Michigan. This was confirmed by contacting the directors and personnel departments of agencies included in the sample. The "Occupational Mobility Survey", and "Occupational Status Scale" developed by McDonald (1981) and the "Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (short form)" developed by Weiss, Davis, England and Lofquist (1987) were the primary instruments u tiliz e d as models for the development of the instrument u t i 1ized in this research e f fo r t. Occupational Status Scale Occupational Status was established using procedures and instruments from the work of McDonald (1981). The respondents asked to rank each occu­ pational t i t l e using a Likert type scale from one to f iv e . One being a 81 high status position ranking and fiv e being a low status position ranking. Occupational status scores were then derived by calculating the percentage of high rankings (scores of one and two) for each individual occupational title . The status scores fo r each occupational t i t l e were then ranked from high to low. Occupational Mobility To ascertain occupational mobi1it y patterns for the sample, a proce­ dure sim ilar to the work McDonald (1981) was u t i 1ized. Each respondent was asked to indicate beginning with the current position held, a l 1 f u ll time positions held over a fiv e year period (1984-88) within the recreation and park f i e l d . The most current position indicated and the position held at the beginning of the fiv e year period (1984) were then assigned occupa­ tional status scores. The occupational status scores assigned were based on the scores derived from the ranking of the 18 occupational t i t l e s . Occupational mobility was measured by calculating the difference in occupational status scores of the most recent position reported and the position held at the beginning of the designated fiv e year period. A posi­ tiv e score indicated upward mobi1i t y , no change in status score indicated s ta b i1it y and a negative score indicated downward mobi1it y . Job Satisfaction The instrument u tiliz e d to measure job satisfaction was the short form of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. General job satisfaction was measured by asking each respondent to rate th e ir degree of satisfaction with specific aspects of th e ir job u t iliz in g a Likert type scale ranging 82 from "1" indicating "very dissatisfied" to "5" indicating "very sa tisfied ." The instrument consists of twenty questions. computed fo r each respondent. 20-100 points. A job satisfaction score was The range of scores for each respondent is The job satisfaction scores were calculated by summing the scores fo r a l 1 items contained in the instrument. Special Authorizations Pursuant to the use of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (short form), special authorization had to be obtained to use the instrument. Permission was necessary to avoid violating applicable copyright laws and make arrangements to pay royalties on copies that were to be reproduced. The Department of Vocational Psychology Research of the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis was contacted via telephone on April 13, 1988. The purpose of the call was to inform appropriate personnel of the proposed use of the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (short form) as a part of the instrument used to collect data for this research e f f o r t . A written communication requesting permission to use the instrument along with the payment fo r one specimen set (a sample set of the questionnaire and booklet) were forwarded on the same date. On April 19, 1988 the specimen set and authorization to reproduce the questionnai re was received. From May 10-26, 1988, the instrument to be used to co llect data in this study was p ilo t tested. The instrument was pi lo t tested by ten Black recreation professionals who had a minimum of three years experience; who were employed by the F Iin t Community Schools Recreation and Community Education O ffice. These parties were not included in the study sample. A fter p ilo t testing, revisions were made. 83 After the instrument had been refined to its near fin a l format, i t was submitted to the University Committee on Research involving Human Subjects (UCRIHS) along with the methodology and procedures section of the research proposal for approval. The material was forwarded on June 16, 1988, and a f te r revisions specifying c o n fid e n tia lity and anonymity, authorization to proceed with the proposed study was given by UCRIHS, on June 16, 1988, Sampling Plan/Selection of Subjects The sampling frame was a master 1is t of Black employees who are employed by municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan servicing populations of 30,000 or more people, selected from data according to the 1980 census. County recreation and park agencies and regional recreation and park authorities were not included in the analysis. This study per­ tained to municipal recreation and park agencies exclusively, therefore, county recreation and park agencies and regional recreation and park authorities such as the Huron-Clinton Metropolitan Authority (H.C.M.A.) surrounding D etroit were excluded. County recreation and park agencies, with the exception of those located in the southeastern, mid-Michigan area and some counties located in the western area of the state ( i . e . Ingham, Genesee, Kalamazoo, Kent, Oakland, Saginaw, Wayne, and Washtenaw), did not contain large populations of Blacks according to 1980 census data. County recreation and park agen­ cies may not employ Blacks due to the 1imited supply of Blacks within the county populations. Municipalities within counties that have large concen­ trations of Blacks tr a d itio n a lly o ffer higher salaries and greater profes­ sional opportunities. Due to these factors, Black employees of 84 municipalities serving populations of 30,000 people were selected as the unit of analysis. Regional authorities and/or special d is tr ic ts were excluded. Additionally, the employment status Blacks working fu ll-tim e for H.C.M.A. 1s comparable to that of county recreation and park agencies. The master l i s t of agencies and subjects to be included in the sample were developed by u t i 1izing the f o il owing methods: 1. From the 1980 census, a l i s t of a ll municipalities in Michigan with populations of 30,000 or more people was compiled. 2. From th is , a 1is t of c itie s with a municipal recreation and park department was developed. The Michigan Recreation and Park Association d1rectory and the directory of the Michigan Municipal League were u tiliz e d to v e rify that departments had recruitment and park departments contained in the 1is t . 3. Department directors were contacted by le t t e r to request a l i s t of Black employees with three or more years of experi­ ence who were employed by th e ir agency. was mailed out on May 27, 1988. weeks to respond to the request. The communication Each agency was given three Follow-up telephone calls were made on June 20-22 to those di rectors who had not responded. Employees who met the c r it e r ia were contacted by telephone to request th e ir participation in the study. 4. In addition, members of the Minority A ffa irs Committee of the Michigan Recreation and Park Association were contacted 85 to obtain a l i s t of Black employees who are employed in th e ir respective departments. As a result of employing the aforementioned measures, a 1is t of 137 Blacks working in 14 d iffe re n t agencies was developed. From this lis t in g , a sample of Black employees of a municipal recreation and park agencies serving a population of 30,000 or more people who have a minimum of three years of f u l 1 time professional experience in the recreation and park pro­ fession was drawn. Survey Administration One of the principle administrative measures implemented as a part of the study was v e rific a tio n of parties who were included in the sample. Division superintendents or personnel o ffice rs from 13 agencies were con­ tacted to v e rify the names and employment status of employees within th eir agencies. This procedure was implemented to ensure that persons included in the sample were employed with the agency and that they met the requirements as defined above. Additionally, support and cooperation for this research e f fo r t were sought. The names contained in each respective agency 1is t were read verbally via telephone to the division head or personnel o ffic e r for conflrmation that the party was Black and had three years of experience in the f ie ld . Out of 137 names submitted from 13 agencies, there were only four (4) in d i­ viduals (3%) that were erroneously included in the sample. A second control measure that was instituted pertained to the col lec­ tion of the instrument. The departments in Lansing and Ann Arbor requested that a l 1 individuals taking part in the study be granted the opportunity to 86 turn in th e ir completed, sealed instrument to a s t a ff member who would take responsibility fo r mailing back the group of instruments. As a result, the response rates fo r these two agencies was one hundred percent (100%). The other agencies were given the same option, but refused due to the small number of persons from th e ir agencies. I t was stated that these s t a ff members could easily take responsibility for mailing th e ir own returns back. The D etroit Recreation Department did not take advantage of this option due to the fact that the number of persons who were included in the sample from th e ir agency was large (52). The general feeling was that personnel were too dispersed in terms of job sites and that an e ffo r t such as this would be too time consuming. Collection Of The Data The survey instrument was mailed out to 133 potential respondents on July 21, 1988 and each party was given fourteen (14) calendar days to return the instrument. Each person was requested to return the instrument immediately upon completion. A b r ie f le t t e r was forwarded to agency di rec­ tors on August 5, 1988 requesting that they encourage th e ir employees who chose to be included in the sample to return th e ir instrument in an expedi­ tious manner. A post card was sent on August 8, 1988 to those parties who had not responded to the i n i t i a l mai1ing to determine th e ir interest in taking part in the study. Telephone ca lls were then made to those who had not responded to the i n i t i a l mai1ing on August 10-11, 1988. A follow-up mailing was done on August 17, 1988 to those who had not 87 responded to th e ir f i r s t mailing, but expressed an interest in p a rtic ip a t­ ing in the study. respond. These respondents were given seven (7) calendar days to As an additional measure to increase the overall response rate, telephone calls were then made to those who had expressed an interest in participating in the study but had not returned th e ir instrument by August 25, 1988. These calls were made August 26-28, 1988. Data Analysis T o ta lly , 133 instruments were mailed out and 113 were returned. Two of the instruments that were returned were determined to be unusable, thus the number of usable instruments was 111. A fter the unusable instruments were excluded, the adjusted response rate was 84%. The data was then cleaned, coded, and entered into the computer. Descriptive and in feren tial analyses were planned. One-Way Analysis Of Variance and T-Test were determined to be most appropriate fo r the purpose of hypothesis testing. The SPSS-PC+ (V.2.0) and Micro-Stat s ta tis tic a l packages were the s ta tis tic a l tools used to analyze the data. Chapter 5 ANALYSIS OF THE DATA This chapter contains the analysis of data relevant to occupational m obility Black personnel in the recreation and park profession in Michigan. To ensure the c o n fid e n tia lity of reponses obtained from personnel included in the sample, much of the data has been grouped into four occupational categories: (1) administrative; (2) supervisory; (3) leadership; and (4) support. The data is presented in fiv e sections. The f i r s t section includes data relevant to the demographic p ro file of Black municipal recreation and park personnel. The second section examines data pertaining to general job s a tisfaction , the third section analyzes data regarding occupational status and prestige among Black employees. The fourth section provides an analy­ sis of data regarding the perceived motivations for and hinderances to career advancement. Lastly, the f i f t h section contains an analysis of the data relevant to occupational mobi1it y fo r Black personnel in Michigan. A dditionally, Appendix A contains detailed tables of data pertinent to this research e f f o r t . The tables in Appendix A contain data segmented by position t i t l e and means tables for the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire. Demographic P ro file Table 1 presents a p ro file of Black personnel currently employed in the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan. 88 Of the personnel 89 TABLE 1 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN Category Number Column Percentage Gender of Respondents Males Females Total 68 43 111 61.3 % 38.7 % lOb.0 % Age of Respondents 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 Total 17 54 25 15 111 15.3 % 48.7 % 22.5 % 13.5 % 100.0 % Most Recent Diploma/Degree (Completed by Respondents) High School/Associate Bachelor's Advanced Total 45 46 20 111 40.6 % 41.4 % 18.0 % 100.0 % Salary Range of Respondent $10,000-$24,999 $25,000-$39,999 $40,000-$54,9994Total 42 61 8 111 37.8 % 55.0 % 7.2 % 100.0 % 58 32 21 111 52.3 % 28.8 % 18.9 % 100.0 % 15 31 34 31 111 13.6 % 27.9 % 30.6 % 27.9 % 100. 00% Employment Region South-Eastern Michigan South-Central Michigan Western Michigan Total Occupational Category Administrative Supervisory Leadership Support Total 90 who were included in the sample, six ty-eig ht (61.3%) were male and fo rty three were female (38.7%). one to six ty. age (84.7%). The The respondents ranged in age between twenty- majority of the respondents were over t h ir t y years of Over eighty percent of the sample population had pursued a college education. four year degree. Approximately sixty percent of the sample had earned a Of these, eighteen percent had earned advanced degrees (masters, specialist and doctorate). In reference to the m unicipalities where Blacks are currently employed, 52.3% are employed by municipalities located in the South-Eastern sector of the state (D e tro it, Highland Park, Farmington H i l l s , Inkster and Ann Arbor). The South-Central region of the state ( F I i n t , Pontiac and Saginaw) accounted for 28.8% of Blacks employed in municipal rec­ reation and park positions within Michigan. Lastly, 18.9% of the respondents were employed by municipalities located in the Western sector of the state (Lansing, Jackson, Battle Creek, Kalamazoo and Grand Rapids). With respect to salaries earned by the respondents, 37.8% earned between $10,000-$24,999 annually. Approximately f i f t y - f i v e percent of the sample earned between $25,000-$39,999 per year and 7.2% earned between $40,000-$54,999 plus annually. In terms of occupational cla ss ifica tio n s, 13.6% of the sample held administrative positions. prised 27.9% of the sample. Those employed in the supervisory ranks com­ Those working in the leadership area consti­ tuted 30.6% of the sample, while the remaining 27.9% of the sample were employed in positions that were composed of support s t a ff. 91 In each of the occupational cla ssificatio ns, there were positions that were not represented by anyone within the sample and therefore not included in the analysis. The positions with no representatives included: o f f ic e r , park planner, and park patrol o f fic e r . budget Some of the occupational t i t l e s held by various respondents differed from those used in the analy­ s is , thus a section e n title d "other" was included in the 11st of t i t l e s used to indicate the current occupation held. Positions in the "other" category which were included in the analysis included: Elder Abuse Specialist (a social worker who specializes in deal­ ing with physical, emotional and financial abuse of the e ld e r ly ) , Account Clerk, Personnel O ffic e r, Grants Administrator and A c tiv ity Supervisor. Personnel occupying these fiv e positions accounted for 4.5% of the sample. In the analysis of the data, these positions were included in with occupational categories with comparable functions. The 1is t of occupa­ tional t i t l e s and descriptions used to establish occupational status r a t­ ings was u t iliz e d to accomplish this task. The positions classified as "other" were distributed within the various occupational categories as follows: Elder Abuse Specialist-Special Program Coordinator; Account Clerk, Personnel O fficer and Grants Administrator-Administrative Assistant; and A c tiv ity Supervisor-Functional Supervisor. Table 2 presents a sunmary of the number of Black personnel employed in each occupational category. Approximately two percent (1.8%) of the sample occupied the position of Director of Parks and Recreation. Directors of Recreation and Directors of Parks comprised 4.5% of the sample. Personnel occupying the positions of D is tric t Supervisor, Faci1ity 92 TABLE 2 PERCENTAGE OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY Position Count Column % Administrative Assistant 3 2.7 % Assistant Director 4 3.6 % Budget O fficer 0 0.0 % Custodian 6 5.4 % Director of Parks and Recreation 2 1.8 % Director of Recreation 4 3.6 % Director of Parks 1 .9 % D is t r ic t Supervisor 10 9.0 % F a c ilit y Director 12 10.8 % Functional Supervisor 9 8.1 % Park Planner 0 0.0 % 16 14.4 % 0 0.0 % 22 19.8 % 3 2.7 % 11 9.9 % Senior Park or Operations S ta ff 3 2.7 % Other 5 4.5 % 111 100.0 % Park or Operations S taff Park Patrol O fficer Recreation Leader Secretary Special Program Coordinator Total 93 Director and Functional Supervisor accounted for 27.9% of Blacks employed in municipal recreation and park departments. The greatest number of Black employees were found in the Recreation Leader (19.8%) and Park or Operations S ta ff (14.4%) occupational categories. Secretaries, Senior Park or Operations S ta ff and Administrative Assistants each represented 2.7% of the sample. Gender A demographic p r o file of Blacks, segmented by gender, is illu s tra te d in Table 3. F ifty percent of the male and 46.5% of the female respondents were between 31-40 years of age. In terms of actual degree/diploma earned, 27.9% of males and 62.8% of females included in the sample held bachelors degrees. There was a marginal difference in the percentage of males (19.2%) versus females (16.3%) that held advanced degrees. Overal1, the sample population was well educated with a greater percentage of females than males being the recipient of a four year degree or higher. In terms of salary, 39.7% of male and 34.9% of female respondents reported that they earn $10,000-$24,999 annually which represents the low end of the range. Among males, 10.3% and among females 2.3% of the respon­ dents reported earning between $40,000-$54,999 plus annually which repre­ sents the high end of the salary range. There was a greater percentage of female respondents (62.8%) compared to male respondents (50.0%) who earned $25,000-$39,999 annually. On the other hand, of a l 1 the respondents who reported earning between $25,000-$39,999, the majority were males (55.7%). Additionally, for a l 1 respondents who reported earning $40,000-$54,999, again the majority were males (87.5%). 94 TABLE 3 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN BY GENDER Category Male Count Column% Female Count Column% Gender of Respondents Males Females Total 68 0 68 61.3 % 0.0 % 61.3 % 0 43 43 0.0 % 38.7 % 38.7 % Age of Respondents 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 Total 9 34 15 10 68 13.2 % 50.0 % 22.1 % 14.7 % 100.00% 8 20 10 5 43 18.6 % 46.5 % 23.3 % 11.6 % 100.00% Most Recent Diploma/Degree Completed by Respondents High School/Associate 36 52.9 % 9 Bachelor's 19 27.9 % 27 13 Advanced 19.2 % 7 Total 68 100.00% 43 20.9 % 62.8 % 16.3 % 100.00% Salary Range of Respondents $10,000-$24,999 $25,000-$39,999 $40,000-$54,999 Total 27 34 7 68 39.7 % 50.0 % 10.3 % 100.00% 15 27 1 43 34.9 % 62.8 % 2.3 % 100.00% Employment Region South-Eastern South-Central Western Total 29 23 16 68 42.7 % 33.7 % 23.6 % 100.00% 29 9 5 43 67.5 % 20.9 % 11.6 % 100.00% Occupational Category Administrative Supervisory Leadership Support Total 10 18 14 26 68 14.7 % 26.5 % 20.6 % 38.2 % 100.00% 5 13 20 5 43 11.6 % 30.3 % 46.5 % 11.6 % 100.00% 95 Overall, Black males represented the greatest percentage of respon­ dents (by gender and c o lle c tiv e ly ) whose salaries f e l l into the lowest and highest salary ranges as reported in Table 3. This finding appears to be consistent with the findings of research conducted by Verdugo (1985) and Kerr (1973). Both studies conclude that males consistently earn more, in terms of salary, than females. With regard to the numbers of Black male and female employees who are currently working for m unicipalities included the sample, among males 42.7% are employed in the South-Eastern region of the state. Of the remaining percentage of males in the sample, 33.7% are employed by agencies in the South-Central region. The balance of males in the sample (23.6%) are employed in the Western region. Among females included in the sample, the greatest percentage (67.5%) are employed in the South-Eastern region. Municipalities in the Western region employed the smallest percentage of females included in the sample (11.6%). Occupational Distribution The distribu tion of Black male and female respondents across occupa­ tional c la ss ifica tio n s, indicates that males occupied a greater percentage of positions in the administrative, and support classifications (Table 3 ). Females occupied the greater percentage of positions in the leadership and supervisory categories. Table 4 presents a breakdown of positions occupied by both male and female respondents by occupational category. The positions encompassed in the administrative realm included: Director of Parks and Recreation, Director of Recreation, Director of 96 Parks, Assistant Director and Administrative Assistant. For those respon­ dents who reported that they held administrative positions, 66.7% were males and 33.3% were females. In those positions that were designated as being supervisory in nature; D is tr ic t Supervisor, Faci1i t y Director and Functional Supervisor, males comprised the greater percentage of supervisory employees (58.1% for males versus 41.9% fo r females). For those positions classified as leadership in nature, females out­ numbered males in a l 1 leadership positions (58.8% fo r females as compared to 41.2% for males). Positions in this category included Special Program Coordinator and Recreation Leader. Lastly with regard to those positions classified as support positions, 83.9% of the respondents were male and 16.1% of the respondents were female. Males outnumbered females in the occupational catgories of Senior Park or Operations S ta ff, Park or Operations S ta ff and Custodian. The only position in this realm that females outnumbered males, was in the position of Secretary. Additionally, males outnumbered females in the group of positions e n title d "other", including Elder Abuse S pecialist, Account Clerk, Grants Administrator, Personnel O fficer and A c tiv ity Supervisor. Overal1, there were a greater number of males employees in the administrative, supervisory and support occupational categories. To fu r­ ther explain this finding, the hypothesis that no relationship existed between gender and the occupational category of the respondents was tested. 97 TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY BY GENDER Occupational Category Administrative Male Count Row t 10 66.7 % Female Count Row % Total 5 33.3 % 15 Row % 100.0 % Supervisory 18 58.1 % 13 41.9 % 31 100.0 % Leadership 14 41.2 % 20 58.8 % 34 100.0 % Support 26 83.9 % 5 16.1 % 31 100.0 % 68 61.3 % 43 38.7 % 111 100.0 % Totals Note: Chi-Square = 12=775 (d f=3). Significant at p = .05 The Ch1-Square test was u t i 1ized to test the hypothesis a t significance. A Chi-Square value of 12.775 was obtained. the .05level of U t i 1izing a c r it ic a l value of 7.851 (d f=3), the null hypothesis was rejected. Thus, there appears to be a relationship existing between the gender and occupa­ tional category of the respondents. This finding is consistent with research conducted by McDonald (1981) and findings published by Henkel and Godbey (1976) in th e ir "Manpower Study". The data obtained from th e ir study indicated that females werenotice­ ably absent from positions that were administrative and supportive in nature. The findings of this study are comparable to those of Henkel and Godbey (1976). When noting the distribu tion of males and females by occu­ pational category, males occupy a greater percentage of positions in the administrative and support categories. found in the support category. The greatest difference can be This difference may be attributed to the number of males that are employed in park maintenance oriented positions. 98 Years In The Field The average number of years 1n the f ie ld for the sample was 13.3 years with a range of 3-40 years. The average number of years in the f ie ld for male and female respondents was 12.5 years and 14.1 years, respectively. Respondents who have worked in administrative positions as Director of Parks and Recreation were employed for an average of one year. Those respondents who were employed as Assistant Director 21.3 years, D is tric t Supervisor 21.0 years, Senior Park or Operations S ta ff 16.7 years and Functional Supervisor 16.3 years, have been in the f ie ld the longest. Personnel employed in the supervisory occupation category have been employed in the f ie ld an average of 17.2 years. Those respondents who were employed in the leadership category have been employed in the f ie ld shortest period of time, 11.0 years. the Table 5 presents a summary of the mean number of years in the profession by occupational category for Black municipal recreation and park personnel in Michigan. TABLE 5 MEAN NUMBER OF YEARS IN THE FIELD BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY Occupational Category Count Mean Number Of Years In The Profession Administrative 15 13.4 Supervisory 31 17.2 Leadership 34 11.0 Support 31 11.6 111 13.3 Total 99 Years In Current Position Table 6 presents a suimiary of the mean number of years in the current position fo r Black municipal recreation and park personnel 1n Michigan. Personnel employed in the administrative category have been in th e ir cur­ rent position the least amount of time (2.9 years). Personnel working in the support category have been 1n th e ir current position the greatest amount of time (8.1 years), From the administrative category, respondents who are working in the position of Director of Parks and Recreation and Assistant Director have been in th e ir current positions for the fewest num­ ber of years in comparison to the other positions id e n tifie d . Those in support positions such as custodians, park or operations s ta ff have been in th e ir current position fo r the greatest duration of time. TABLE 6 MEAN NUMBER OF YEARS IN THE CURRENT POSITION Current Position Count Mean Number Of Years In Current Position Administrative 15 2.9 Supervisory 31 7.3 Leadership 34 5.9 Support 31 8.1 111 6.1 Totals Salary Breakdown In regard to the annual salary of Black recreation and park personnel 100 in Michigan, salaries ranged from $10,000-$54,999 annually. The party who reported earning this salary occupied a position in the "other" occupa­ tional category. In relationship to reported earnings by occupational category, 46.7% of administrative personnel reported earning between $25,000-$39,999. Among supervisory employees, 87.1% reported earning $25,000-$39,999 per year. Among leadership employees, 64.7% reported earning $10,000-$24,999 per year. Additionally, 51.6% of the support personnel earned $10,000-$24,999 per year. Table 7 presents a summary of percentages of respondents represented in each occupational category by salary range. TABLE 7 SALARY BREAKDOWN OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN Occupational Category 10-24,999 25-39,999 Count Row% Count Row% 40-54,999 Count Row% Row Total Row % Administrative 1 6.6% 7 46.7% 7 46.7% 15 100. 0% Supervisory 3 9.7% 27 87.1% 1 3.2% 31 100. 0% Leadership 22 64.7% 12 35.3% 0 0.0% 34 100. 0% Support 16 51.6% 15 48.4% 0 0.0% 31 100. 0% 42 37.8% 61 55.0% 8 7.2% 111 100. 0% Totals Degree/Diploma Earned Across a l 1 respondents, 59.5% of the sample had earned a four year degree or higher. In addition, 40.6% indicated a high school diploma or associates degree as th e ir highest diploma earned, while 41.4% of the 101 respondents indicated a bachelors degree as the highest degree earned. In regard to those respondents who indicated that they had pursued advanced degrees (18.0%), 15.4% earned masters degrees, 1.8% had earned a specialist degree and 1% of those pursuing graduate degrees had earned a doctorate. For personnel working in administrative oriented positions, 53.3% held advanced degrees. Approximately 55.0% of the personnel that occupied supervisory and 58.8% of the respondents that held leadership positions reported the bachelors degree as the highest degree/diploma earned. For employees working in the support c la s s ific a tio n , 87.1% indicated the high school diploma/associate degree as the highest diploma earned. Table 8 presents a summary of the degrees/diplomas earned by Black personnel who were included in the sample. TABLE 8 DEGREE/DIPLOMA EARNED BY BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY Occupational Category H.S. / A S S O C . Bachelors Advanced Count Row% Count Row% Count Row% Row Total Row % Administrative 1 6.7% 6 40.0% 8 53.3% 15 100.0% Supervisory 6 19.4% 17 54.8% 8 25.8% 31 100.0% Leadership 11 32.4% 20 58.8% 3 8.8% 34 100.0% Support 27 87.1% 3 9.7% 1 3.2% 31 100.0% Total 45 40.6% 46 41.4% 20 18.0% 111 100.0% Employment Regions Among respondents employed in administrative positions, 53.4% are locate in the South-Eastern region, 33.3% are locate in the South-Central 102 region, and 13.3% from the Western region. equally represented across each region. Support personnel were about Table 9 presents data relevant to the numbers and percentages of Black personnel employed in each occupa­ tional category by region of the state. TABLE 9 REGIONS EMPLOYING BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY Occupational Category South-■Eastern Count Row% Administrative South-•Central Western Row Row% Count Row% Total Count Row % 8 53.4% 5 33.3% 2 13.3% 15 100. 0% Supervisory 18 58.1% 7 22.6% 6 19.4% 31 100. 0% Leadership 22 64.7% 8 23.5% 4 11.8% 34 100. 0% Support 10 32.3% 12 38.7% 9 29.0% 31 100. 0% 58 52.3% 32 28.8% 21 18.9% 111 100. 0% Totals Perceptions of Job Satisfaction To obtain a measure of general job sa tisfaction , the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (MSQ-short form) was incorporated into the sur­ vey instrument. The short form MSQ consists of three scales: extrinsic satisfaction scale, in trin s ic satisfaction scale, and general satisfaction scale. For the expressed purposes of this study, the general satisfaction scale was the principle measure u t iliz e d . The general satisfaction scale was selected because the objective for using the questionnaire was to obtain a general measure of satisfaction. Obtaining in strin s ic and ex trin s ic measures of job satisfaction were not of primary importance in this study. tion scale. These two scales when combined comprise the general satisfac­ 103 The scale items that correspond to each of the twenty statements con­ tained in the questionnaire are as follows: (1) a b i l i t y u t iliz a t io n ; (2) achievement; (3) a c tiv ity ; (4) advancement; (5) authority; (6) company pol­ icies and practices; (7) compensation; (8) co-workers; (9) c r e a tiv ity ; (10) independence; (11) moral values; (12) recognition; (13) responsibility; (14) security; (15) social service; (16) social status; (17) supervision human relations; (18) supervision - technical; (19) va rie ty; and (20) work­ ing conditions. General job satisfaction was measured by asking each respondent to rate th e ir degree of satisfaction with specific aspects of th e ir jobs u t i l ­ izing a Likert scale, ranging from "1" indicating "very dissatisfied" to "5" Indicating "very s a tis fie d ". The Instrument contained twenty statements; each respondent rated th e ir degree of satisfaction for each statement. A job satisfaction score was computed for each respondent. The job satisfaction scores were calculated by summing the scores fo r a l 1 items contained in the instrument. 20-100 points. The range of possible scores varied from The mean and median general satisfaction scores for the sample were 73.4 and 74.0 respectively. The mean general satisfaction scores fo r male and female respondents were 72.8 and 73.9 respectively. Means Table For Statements In MSQ (Short Form) Table 1 in Appendix A, presents a summary of the mean scores compiled fo r each of the twenty statements contained in the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (short form). The respondents were most sa tisfied with being able to keep busy (4.39) and opportunities to perform d iffe re n t tasks (4.28) on the job. Other aspects of employment that the respondents rated 104 high included: the chance to do things for other people (4.20) and being able to do things that d id n 't go against th e ir conscience (4 .1 9 ). A dditionally, the opportunity to u t i l i z e th e ir a b i l i t i e s (4 .06); the chance to work alone (4 .0 3 ); and the feeling of accomplishment obtained from the job (4.02) were also elements of th e ir job that were the most satisfying to the respondents. Other elements such as: the chance to try my own methods of doing the job (3.86) and the freedom to use my own judgment (3.80) were ranked high, but not as high as the previously mentioned statements. The items contained in the general satisfaction aspect of the questionnaire that the respondents were least sa tisfied with were the following components: pay and the amount of work done (3 .0 0 ); the way company p o li­ cies are put into practice (2 .7 5 ); and the chances for advancement on the job (2 .7 1 ). The mean scores that the aforementioned items received may be Indicative of frustratio n with compensation; development and implementation of agency policy; and the lack of opportunities for advancement within the agency. General Job Satisfaction The vast majority of the Black recreation and park personnel included in the sample were sa tisfied with th e ir jobs. Table 10 presents a summary of the mean general satisfaction scores by gender for the four occupational categories. In the administrative category, the mean score of job satisfaction was 77.45 fo r both sexes, with female administrators obtaining a higher score than th e ir male counterparts (78.80 versus 76.10). fact The mean general satis- " scores for both sexes working in the supervisory, leadership and 105 support categories were 74.60, 75.60 and 65.95, respectively. In the supervisory and leadership categories, females achieved higher mean general satisfaction scores than males. In the support category, males attained a mean satisfaction score of 67.10, whereas females attained a score of 64.80. In the support category, there is only a marginal difference in the mean general satisfaction scores between males and females. On the whole, Black females may be s iig h tly more satisfied with th e ir jobs than Black males in the recreation and park profession in Michigan. TABLE 10 GENERAL JOB SATISFACTION SCORE (MSQ-SHORT FORM) BY OCCUPATIONAL CATEGORY AND GENDER FOR BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN Occupational Category Count X SD Score Sample Count X Score Male SD Count X Score Female SD Administrative 15 77.45 .21 10 76.10 .10 5 78.80 .32 Supervisory 31 74.60 .34 18 73.40 .48 13 75.80 .21 Leadership 34 75.60 .16 14 74.80 .02 20 76.40 .30 Support 31 65.95 .23 26 67.10 .37 5 64.80 .10 111 73.40 .23 68 72.85 .24 43 73.95 .23 Totals Levels of Job Satisfaction To obtain an adequate representation of the level of job satisfaction experienced by those included in the sample, general satisfaction scores were segmented into qu intiles by general satisfaction scores. The segmen­ tation of general satisfaction scores into quintiles is recommended as a standard practice by the Department of Vocational Psychology Research at 106 the University of Minnesota when using the short form of the MSQ (Manual fo r the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire, 1967). When the normative data for other occupational groups ( i . e . nurses, salesmen and machinists) was compared with the mean general satisfaction scores for this sample, the mean scores appeared to be sim ilar. The mean general satisfaction scores for other occupational groups ranged from the mid to high seventies. The mean general satisfaction score for the sample of Black recreation and park personnel was 73.4 As a resu lt, i t can be assumed that the results were comparable to other studies using the ques­ tionnaire and that scores fo r this sample are within the expected range of scores observed in other applications of this instrument. Table 11 presents a suirmary of the data. Approximately 54.0% of the sample attained scores that f e ll into the category that included the mean score (7 3 .4 ). None of the respondents indicated that they were "not satisfied" with th e ir jobs and 18.0% indicated that they were "extremely satisfied" with th e ir jobs. The scores of those who were "extremely satisfied" ranged from 84.00-100.00 and comprised the 100th q u in tile . The greatest percentage of respondents were "satisfied" (54.1%) with th e ir employment situations. Approximately 28.0% of the respondents yielded scores indicating that they were either "dissatisfied" (6.3%) or had no strong feelings, "neutral" (21.6%) in terms of satisfaction. In summation, inspite of the diverse range of general satisfaction scores, the majority of the sample reported to be satisfied with th e ir jobs. 107 TABLE 11 RANKINGS OF JOB SATISFACTION LEVELS FOR BLACK PARK AND RECREATION PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN Quintile Range Level of Satisfaction Count Co1umn% 20.00 20.00 - 35.00 Very Dissatisfied 0 0.0% 40.00 36.00 - 51.00 Dissatisfied 7 6.3% 60.00 52.00 - 67.00 Neutral 24 21.6% 80.00 68.00 - 83.00 Satisfied 60 54.1% 100.00 84.00 - 100.00 Very Satisfied 20 18.0% 111 100.0% Totals Occupational Status To attain occupational status scores, the study participants were asked to provide th e ir perceptions of 18 occupational t i t l e s used in the recreation and park profession. The t i t l e s were sim ilar to those used in the "National Survey of Selected Public Recreation and Park Personnel" con­ ducted by Henkel and Godbey (1977) and the "Occupational Mobility Survey" developed by McDonald (1981). A l1 of these t i t l e s are currently u tiliz e d in municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. A Likert scale ranging from one to fiv e was u tiliz e d to indicate the perceived status of each occupational t i t l e . A score of one indicated high-status while a score of fiv e indicated that the position was perceived to be of low status. To develop an occupational status score for each position, the percentage of high rankings (scores of one and two) were cal­ culated for each occupational t i t l e . ranked from low to high. The occupational status scores were The occupational status scores ranged from a low 108 of .23 to a high score of .94. Positions with status scores of .50 and below were c la ss ified as low status positions whereas positions with status scores above .51 were considered to be high status positions. The position of Director of Parks and Recreation received the highest occupational status ranking with a score of .94. The positions of Director of Recreation and Director of Parks received occupational status scores of .92 and .91, respectively. Among the low status positions, the position of Recreation Leader received the highest status score ( .5 0 ) . The positions of Custodian and Secretary received an occupational status score of .23, which was the lowest ranking of a l 1 positions. Table 12 presents a summary of the status of positions contained within each occupational category for the to tal sample and by gender. Administrative positions received a mean ranking of .86 while positions within the support category received a mean status ranking of .27. Positions in the administrative and supervisory areas received the same mean scores (.86 and .77 respectively) from both male and female respondents. Table 3 in Appendix A presents a summary of the occupational status scores by functional c la s s ific a tio n . For those positions in the adminis­ t r a tiv e realm, the occupational status scores ranged from .72 to .94. position of Director of Parks and The Recreation received the highest status score (.9 4) and the position of Budget O fficer received the lowest status score ( .7 2 ) . For positions classified as supervisory in nature, status scores ranged from .75 to .85. The positions of D is t r ic t Supervisor and Functional Supervisor received the highest and lowest status scores respec­ tiv e ly (.85 and .7 5 ). 109 TABLE 12 MEAN OCCUPATIONAL STATUS RANKINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AND GENDER Occupational Category Count Status Ranking Count Male Status Ranking Count Female Status Ranking Administrative 15 .86 10 .86 5 .86 Supervisory 31 .77 18 .77 13 .77 Leadership 34 .54 14 .55 20 .54 Support 31 .27 26 .30 5 .25 111 .61 68 .62 43 .60 Totals In the leadership area, scores ranged from .50 to .64. The positions of Special Program Coordinator received status scores of .64, Therapeutic Recreation Specialist .58, and Recreation Leader .50, respectively. Lastly, among those occupational classifications that were support oriented, the status scores ranged from .23 to .58. Planner received the highest score ( .5 8 ). The position of Park The positions of Secretary and Custodian received scores of .23, which were the lowest scores in the sup­ port group of positions. Only six percent of the sample worked in positions which had occupa­ tional status scores that exceeded .90. These positions included: Director of Parks and Recreation, Director of Recreation and Director of Parks. Approximately fo rty -s ix percent of the respondents are currently working in positions that had occupational status scores that ranged between .64 and .89. These positions included: Assistant Director, D is t r ic t Supervisor, F a c ilit y Supervisor, Functional Supervisor, Administrative Assistant and Special Program Coordinator. 110 A large percentage of the respondents (47.2%) were employed in posi­ tions that received occupational status scores between .23 and .50. Of this group of respondents, 19.8% are employed as Recreation Leaders. Table 3 in Appendix A summarizes the number of Black recreation and park person­ nel by occupational status score. Changes In Occupational Mobility 1984-88 To ascertain occupational mobility patterns for the sample, a proce­ dure sim ilar to the work of McDonald (1981) was u t iliz e d . Each respondent was asked to indicate beginning with the current position held, a l 1 f u l 1time positions held over a fiv e year period (1984-88) within the recreation and park profession. The most current position indicated and the position held at the beginning of the fiv e year period (1984) were then assigned occupational status scores. Occupational mobility was measured by calculating the difference in occupational status scores of the most recent position reported and the position held at the beginning of the designated fiv e year interval (1984-88). A positive score indicated upward mobi1i t y , no change in status score indicated s t a b ilit y and a negative score indicated downward m obility. Mobility scores for the sample ranged from -.5 2 to +.28. score fo r the sample was +.07. The mean mobility In regard to gender and mobi1it y scores, males received a mean mobi1i t y score of +.08 compared to a mean score of +.06 fo r female respondents. In terms of changes in occupational mobility during the period of Ill 1984-88, 31.6% of the sample experienced upward m obility, 56.7% remained stable and 11.7% of the respondents experienced downward m obility. Of the respondents that were employed in the administrative c la s s ific a tio n , 66.7% experienced upward m obility. For those employees that comprised the supervisory, leadership and support c la ss ifica tio n s, the vast majority of these employees remained occupationally stable over the designated five year period. Table 13 presents a surrenary of changes in mobility for Black recreation and park personnel by occupational category. TABLE 13 SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN OCCUPATIONAL STATUS SCORES 1984-88 FOR BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN Occupational Category Upward Count Row% Administrative 10 66.7% 2 13.3% 3 20.0% 15 100.0% Supervisory 11 35.5% 18 58.1% 2 6.4% 31 100.0% Leadership 9 26.5% 21 61.8% 4 11.7% 34 100.0% Support 5 16.1% 22 80.0% !_ 12.9% 31 100.0% 35 31.6% 63 56.7% 11.7% 111 100.0% Totals Stable Count Downward Row Row% Count Row% Total 13 Row % The mean mobi1it y change scores by gender can be seen in Table 14. The mean changes ranged from +.08 for those working in administrative posi­ tions to +.10 for employees working in support positions. In the adminis­ tr a tiv e and leadership categories, males experienced a greater degree of positive mean change in mobi1it y than th e ir female col leagues. In the 112 supervisory and support categories, females attained a s lig h tly higher level of positive mean change In mobility than males 1n the sample. TABLE 14 MEAN CHANGES IN OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY BY GENDER FOR BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN 1984-88 Occupational Category Count Mean Change SD Count Male Mean SD Count Mean SD Change Female Change Administrative 15 .08 .15 10 .11 .23 5 .06 .07 Supervisory 31 .04 .14 18 .04 .16 13 .05 .13 Leadership 34 .06 .13 14 .10 .18 20 .03 .08 Support 31 .10 .21 26 .09 .20 5 .11 .22 111 .07 .15 68 .08 .19 43 .06 .12 Totals Table 4 In Appendix A provides a detailed summary of the patterns of the sample by position. mobi1ity Of the respondents who moved upward during this period, 14.3% were employed in the positions of D is tric t Supervisor and Special Program Coordinator, respectively. Respondents who worked in the positions of Assistant Director, Director of Recreation, Functional Supervisor, and Senior Park or Operation S ta ff accounted for 8.6% each of the percentage of personnel who experienced upward mobi1it y . Of the 56.7% of the sample which remained stable over the period of 1984-1988, 28.6% of employees in this group were employed as Recreation Leaders. The second largest occupational category which experienced sta- b i 11ty were those employees who were classified as Park or Operations S ta ff. They constituted 19.1% of the group of personnel who were stable in 113 terms of occupational m obility. F a c ilit y Directors who comprised 14.3% of the stable group represented the third largest group of employees that experienced no mobi1it y from 1984-88. The m obility patterns of the respondents in this study are comparable to those of the sample in the study conducted by McDonald (1981). McDonald found that Directors of Parks and Recreation and D is tr ic t Supervisors expe­ rienced upward m obility. Those employees working as Faci1it y Directors constituted a large percentage (83.33%) of the respondents who experienced stab i1it y . The McDonald (1981) study also found that Administrative Assistants, and Assistant Directors experienced downward mobi1i t y . Perceptions of Factors Impacting Career Advancement This section focuses upon analyzing responses from personnel Included in the sample regarding career advancement. Primarily questions were developed to evoke responses relevant to fiv e key areas: (1) career advancement; (2) continuing education; (3) affirm ative action; (4) the appointing authority; and (5) perceptions of discrimination in employment. Attitudes Toward Career Advancement Table 15 presents a summary of the responses of Black personnel regarding career advancement. Approximately 67% of the respondents were ac tive ly seeking career advancement opportunities. Approximately ninety- three percent of the respondents stated that 1f th e ir respective department or agency offered them a position that they considered to be a career advancement, they would accept i t . S ixty-six percent of the respondents 114 TABLE 15 RESPONSES OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN TO QUESTIONS PERTAINING TO CAREER ADVANCEMENT Percent Yes Percent No Are you presently seeking a position which you consider to be a career advancement? 67.3% 32.7% I f your Department offered you a position which you considered to be a career advancement, would you accept it? 92.6% 7.4% I f you were offered a position 1n another c ity or state which you considered to be a career advancement, would you accept 1t? 33.3% 66.7% - I f no, 1f the pay were greater, would you accept it? 24.5% 75.5% In the las t year, have you been offered a position which you consider to be a career advancement? 21.5% 78.5% - I f yes, did you accept the position? 33.7% 66.7% In the las t fiv e years, have you been offered a position within your department that is lower than the one you currently hold? 10.0% 90.0% 45.5% 54.5% 9.1% 90.9% 45.5% 45.5% - P o litic a l Reasons 20.0% 80.0% - Union Problems 20.0% 80.0% - Transfer 20.0% 80.0% - No Explanation 40.0% 60.0% Question - I f yes, was this proposed change due to: (a) Budget Reductions (b) Disciplinary Reasons (c) Other Percent Undecided 115 stated that they would not accept a position in another state even i f the opportunity was considered a career advancement. A large percentage (75.5%) of these respondents stated they would not accept the position i f the pay were greater than th e ir current salary. In the last year, 78.5% of the respondents noted that they had not been offered a position which they considered to be a career advancement. For the 21.5% that stated they had been offered an opportunity, 66.7% did not accept the position. A dditionally, over the past fiv e years, ten per­ cent of the respondents stated that they had been offered a position within th e ir respective agency that was lower than the one they are currently occupying. Of the respondents that were offered positions with less advancement p o te n tia l, 45.5% stated that budget reductions were the p rin c i­ ple reason fo r the action. a lower level included: Other reasons stated for offers of positions at p o litic a l reasons (20.0%); union problems (20.0%); and being transferred (20.0%). Overal1, the majority of the respondents are actively seeking opportunities for career advancement and i f the opportunity were offered within the department or agency, i t would be accepted. There seems to be a s ig n ifican t amount of interest in intraorganizational mobi1it y as opposed to Interorganizational mobi1i t y . The majority of the respondents would not accept a position outside the state. The two factors which may possibly influence the decision to take a position outside the state appear to be advancement (33.3%) and money (24.5%). 116 Attitudes Toward Continuing Education Table 16 presents a summary of the responses obtained from Black municipal recreation and park personnel toward continuing education. Over the past fiv e years, 63.6% of the respondents indicated that they had taken advantage of in-service training or continuing education opportunities pro­ vided by th e ir employer or professional associations. Of the respondents who indicated that they had not taken advantage of these opportunities, approximately f i f t y - f i v e percent Indicated that they had no plans to do so in the future. TABLE 16 RESPONSES OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN TO QUESTIONS PERTAINING TO CONTINUING EDUCATION Question Percent Yes Percent No Within the la s t fiv e years, have you participated in any in-service training or continuing education seminars sponsored by your employer or professional associations such as NRPA or MRPA? 63.6% 36.4% - I f no, do you have any plans in the future to do so? 45.2% 54.8% Within the la s t fiv e years, have you enrolled in a college or university to complete an undergraduate or advanced degree? 38.2% 61.8% - I f no, do you plan to enroll in the future? 63.2% 36.8% Percent Undecided 117 In reference to returning to school to complete an undergraduate or advanced degree, 61.8% stated that they had not done so in the las t five years. Of those respondents who had not returned to a college or univer­ s ity to continue th e ir education, 63.8% indicated that they plan to do so in the future. Generally speaking, the respondents took advantage of continuing edu­ cation opportunities offered by th e ir employers and professional associations. This may be attributed to the fact that normally these opportunities take place during working hours and may not demand commitment of time outside of the workshift. Returning to a col lege or university to fin ish undergraduate or gradu­ ate level work appears to be a d i f f i c u l t option for continuing education. This a ttitu d e may be a function of lack of time to take courses, and the general u n av a ila b ility of financial assistance needed to return to school. Inspite of these factors, the majority of the respondents plan to enrol 1 in an in s titu tio n of higher learning in the future. A1lowing the degree pro­ gram to remain uncompleted may result in lost opportunities for occupa­ tional mobi1i t y . Overal1, the sample had a positive attitu d e toward continuing education. These findings are also consistent with those of the study conducted by McDonald in 1981. Affirm ative Action Table 17 d e ta i1s the responses of the subjects included in the sample to questions pertaining to affirm ative action. The overwhelming majority (86.4%) of the respondents indicated that the municipality that they are employed by had an affirm ative action program. 118 TABLE 17 RESPONSES OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN TO QUESTIONS PERTAINING TO AFFIRMATIVE ACTION Question Percent Yes Percent No Percent Undecided Does the c ity that you work for have an a ffirm a tive action program? 86.4% .9% 12.7% In your opinion, did you obtain your current position because of a ffirm a tive action? 14.8% 78.7% 6.5% I t may be assumed that a l 1 municipalities have affirm ative action programs, especially when a great percentage of c itie s are receiving state and federal funds- I t is a general prerequisite for receiving funding that the municipality show a commitment to equal employment opportunities. In many instances, lower level employees may not be certain that th e ir agency has an a ffirm a tive action program by virtue of the fact that personnel related functions are generally handled in the administrative ranks. This may account for the 13.6% who responded "no" or "undecided" to this question. Additionally, approximately seventy-nine percent of the respon­ dents indicated that they did not feel that they obtained th e ir position because of affirm ative action. In summation, the majority of the municipalities in Michigan which employ Black recreation and park personnel have a f f i rmative action plans/programs. The majority of the respondents f e l t that a f f i rmative action played no role in them obtaining th e ir position with th e ir agency. These findings are consistent with the attitudes of the sample regarding affirm ative action in the study conducted by McDonald (1981). 119 The Appointing Authority Table 18 provides a summary of responses to questions regarding the appointing authority (the party who was responsible for hiring the respondent) of the agency. The respondents indicated that the following persons were responsible fo r the hiring practices within th e ir agency: immediate supervisor (27.8%); division superintendent (18.5%); department director (21.3%); personnel director (24.1%). This indicates that the majority of personnel practices are administered within the department. The majority of the respondents indicated that they were hired by an employee that was Caucasian (64.5%). Approximately th irty -th re e percent of the respondents indicated that they were hi red by Black administrators. Lastly, 84.5% of the respondents administrator. indicated that they were hired by a male The reported findings relevant to the race and gender of the appointing authority are consistent with the findings of studies con­ ducted by Henkel and Godbey (1977) and Dunn (1977). both studies imply that White males occupy a greater The key findings in percentage of posi­ tions 1n the administration and supervisory ranks where administrative functions such as personnel operations are conducted. As a resu lt, opportunities for advancement into administrative and supervisory positions may be 1imited fo r Blacks and females i f there is very 1i t t l e turnover. 120 TABLE 18 RESPONSES OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN TO QUESTIONS PERTAINING TO THE APPOINTING AUTHORITY Question Percent Yes Percent No Percent Undecided Who in your department was responsible for hiring you? - Immediate Supervisor 27.8% - Division Superintendent 18.5% - Department Director 21.3% - Personnel Director 24.1% - Other 8.3% What was the race of the person that hired you? - Black 32.7% - White/Caucasian 64.5% - Hispanic - Other .9% 1.8% What was the gender of the person that hired you? - Male 84.5% - Female 15.5% Perceptions of Discrimination Table 19 presents a capsulization of the responses from Black munici­ pal recreation and park personnel in Michigan relevant to perceived f e e l­ ings of discrimination in employment. Approximately f i f t y - e ig h t percent of 121 TABLE 19 RESPONSES OF BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN TO QUESTIONS PERTAINING TO PERCEPTIONS OF DISCRIMINATION Question Percent Yes Percent No Have you ever f e l t as though your race, gender or both prevented you from obtaining a promotion? 57.8% 42.2% - Race 38.1% - Gender 15.9% - Explanations (a) Low seniority was a factor 4.8% (b) In early 5 0 's, there were more Whites than Blacks 1.6% (c) Blacks worked only as temporary employees 1.6% (d) Forced to s ta rt in lowest level jobs 1.6% (e) Told not enough experience 1.6% ( f ) Whites had best jobs 3.2% (g) Whites have more seniority 4.8% (h) Race held me back from better opportunities 1.6% (1) Too many men in decision­ making positions 3.2% ( j ) Too much racism 4.8% Have you ever f e l t as though your race or gender helped you to obtain a promotion? 23.6% 76.4% Have you ever f il e d charges of discrimination against any of your employers, past or present? 11.9% 88.1% Percent Undecided 122 the respondents f e l t that th e ir race, gender or both prevented them from obtaining a promotion. With regard to the term "race" as i t is used in the context of the aforementioned statement and Table 19, i t is specifically used to id e n tify being Black. A dditionally, the term "racism" is defined as the perceived feeling of prejudicial and perhaps discriminatory actions being used against those who are Black. Of the respondents who answered in the affirm ative to the aforemen­ tioned question, 38.1% f e l t that race was the variable which may have pre­ vented them from obtaining the desired promotion. Gender was cited by 15.9% of the respondents as another variable that may have impacted a deci­ sion to grant a promotional opportunity. Other responses (28.8%) such as low seniority and racism were a few of the other explanations provided as variables which may have had an impact on promotional opportunities. In terms of perceptions of race or gender helping to obtain promotions, 76.4% of the respondents f e l t they had no impact on regarding promotions. decisions Additionally, 88.1% of the respondents reported that they have never f ile d charges of discrimination against any of th eir employers, past or present. In summation, a majority (approximately (58%) of Black personnel perceive race and gender as factors which may prevent them from obtaining promotions. This finding is consistent with the find­ ings of research conducted by S ilb e rt (1985) and Salmon (1979). Race f o l ­ lowed by gender are the two most important factors which may prevent promotional opportunities from being offered to qualified employees. The majority of the respondents f e l t that race nor gender help in terms of obtaining a promotion. Even though there is an acknowledgement that race 123 and gender may serve as barriers to occupational m o bility, the vast major­ i t y of the respondents have never file d charges of discrimination against any of th e ir employers. I f charges are not f il e d when the employee per­ ceives that a discriminatory act has occurred, then the problem may continue. Most importantly, i f discriminatory acts are allowed to continue, then possible opportunities for occupational mobi1it y may be jeopardized for minorities and females. Occupational Mobility of Black Recreation and Park Personnel In Michigan The primary focus of this study was to explore fu rther the nature of occupational mobility and the 1mplications for Black municipal recreation and park personnel in Michigan. Based upon an extensive 1ite ra tu re review and the examination of theoretical models of occupational mobi1i t y , six independent variables were selected which were perceived to be related to occupational mobility for Black recreation and park personnel in Michigan. The study variables were as follows: gender; number of years of related work experience; attained level of education; the presence of an affirma­ tiv e action plan; the race of the appointing authority; and perceived job satisfaction . To specify the possible relationships between the aforemen­ tioned variables and occupational mobi1i t y , the following null hypotheses were tested: 1. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there wi11 be no difference in reported occupational mobility scores between males and females. 124 2. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobility scores for those with varying number of years of related work experience. 3. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobi1it y scores for those with varying number of years of education. 4. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional m obility scores for personnel working in agencies perceived to have a f f i rmative action plans versus those perceived not to have a f f i rmative action plans. 5. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobi1it y scores for personnel hi red by Black versus non-Black appointing authorities. 6. Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobility scores for those with higher levels of perceived job satisfaction versus lower levels of perceived job satisfaction. 125 The t - t e s t and one-way analysis of variance s ta tis tic s were u tiliz e d to te st the hypotheses. With the dependent variable consisting of interval level data and the independent variables being nominal in nature, t- t e s t and one-way analysis of variance were the most appropriate s ta tis tic s to use. These s ta tis tic s were also allowed for the examination of possible differences between two or more groups on a given dependent variable. Hypotheses 1, 4 and 5 were tested u t iliz in g the t - t e s t . Hypotheses 2, 3 and 6 were tested employing the one way analysis of variance s t a t is t ic . Al 1 of the hypotheses were tested at the .05 level of significance. Gender Table 20 summarizes the results of the t - t e s t for the hypothesis: Hypotheses 1: Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there wi11 be no difference in occupa­ tional mobi1it y scores between males and females. The pooled variance estimate was u t i 1ized to conduct the t - t e s t . that the hypothesis was non-directional in nature, a conducted. Being 2 -ta ile d test was A t-value of 1.05, (DF = 109; p < .15) was obtained, thus the null hypothesis was not rejected. Overal1, the mobi1it y scores are not s ig n ific a n tly d iffe re n t for Black males and females in the sample when gen­ der is taken into consideration. 126 TABLE 20 T-TEST FOR GENDER AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY 1984-88 Group 1: Gender = 1, Male t - t e s t for: Group 2: Gender = 2, Female Mobility Score N = lll Valid Cases = 111 Missing Cases = 0 Number of Cases 68 43 Group 1 Group 2 Mean .08 .06 Standard Deviation .19 .12 Pooled Variance Estimate t Value DF 2-Tail Prob. 1.05 109 .15 Years Of Related Work Experience The second hypothesis tested relating to occupational m obility for Black recreation and park personnel was the following: Hypotheses 2 : Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobility scores for those with varying number of years of related work experience. To test the hypothesis under scrutiny, one way analysis of variance was conducted to determine i f the years of related experience had an impact on occupational m obility. The respondents in the sample were segmented by 127 the number of years of related experience (1-10, 11-20, 21-41). As in d i­ cated in Table 21, an F -ra tio of .34 (DF = 2,108, p. <.71) was obtained. As a re s u lt, the null hypothesis was not rejected. Experience appears to make no difference in determining occupational m obility. TABLE 21 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE YEARS OF EXPERIENCE AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY 1984-88 One-Way ANOVA For: Years of Related Experience and Mobility N = lll Valid Cases = 111 Missing Cases = 0 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE N GROUP MEAN SD 1 = 1-10 YEARS 46 .09 .15 2 = 11-20 YEARS 43 .06 .17 3 = 21-41 YEARS 22 .06 .14 .07 .15 111 DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SOURCE GRAND MEAN MOBILITY SUM OF SQUARES D.F. 020 2 WITHIN 3. 138 108 TOTAL 3. 157 110 BETWEEN MEAN SQUARE .0099 .029 F-RATIO PROB. .34 .71 128 Attained Level of Education The third hypothesis relating to occupational mobility for Black rec­ reation and park personnel reads as follows: Hypotheses 3: Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobility scores for those with varying number of years of education. To test this hypothesis, one-way analysis of variance was conducted to test the impact of education on occupational m obility. The reported number of years of education and the mobility scores were u tiliz e d to conduct the te s t. As noted in Table 22, an F -ra tio of .99 was obtained (DF = 2,108, p <.38). As a resu lt, the null hypothesis under scrutiny was not rejected. I t may be concluded that the attained level of education does not make a difference in terms of occupational mobility for Black recreation and park personnel. Affirm ative Action Plan The fourth hypothesis relates to the presence of an affirm ative action plan and occupational m obility. bles is as follows: The hypothesis containing these two varia­ 129 TABLE 22 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE LEVEL OF EDUCATION AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY 1984-88 One-Way ANOVA For: Level of Education and Mobility N = lll Valid Cases = 111 Missing Cases = 0 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE GROUP N MEAN SD 1 = 9-12 YEARS OF EDUCATION 21 .04 .13 2 = 13-16 YEARS OF EDUCATION 59 .07 .15 3 = 17-20 YEARS OF EDUCATION 31 .10 .18 .07 .15 111 DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SOURCE MOBILITY SUM OF SQUARES BETWEEN GRAND MEAN D.F. MEAN SQUARE F-RATIO PROB. .99 .38 .057 2 .028 WITHIN 3.101 108 .029 TOTAL 3.157 110 Hypotheses 4 : Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobility scores for personnel working in agencies with perceived affirm ative action plans versus those without perceived affirm ative action plans. 130 TABLE 23 T-TEST FOR PRESENCE OF AN AFFIRMATIVE ACTION PLAN AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY 1984-88 Group 1: Affirm. Act.: Yes = 1 t - t e s t for: Group 2: Affirm. Act.: No = 2 Presence of an A ffi rmativei Action Plan N = lll Valid Cases = 111 Missing Cases = 0 Number of Cases 95 16 Group 1 Group 2 Mean .08 .06 Standard Deviation .18 .13 Separate Variance Estimate t Value DF .35 109 — 2-Tail Prob. .36 A t - t e s t u t iliz in g separate variance estimates was u tiliz e d to test the null hypothesis. A non-directional hypothesis was in force, therefore a 2 -ta ile d t - t e s t was u t iliz e d . was .35 (DF = 109; p C.37). rejected. As noted in Table 23, the t-value obtained As a resu lt, the null hypothesis was not Based upon these findings, there appears to be no significant difference in m obility scores between those working in agencies with per­ ceived a ffirm a tive action plans versus those without perceived affirm ative action plans. 131 Race Of The Appointing Authority The f i f t h hypothesis tested was related to the impact that the race of the appointing authority has on occupational m obility for Black recreation and park personnel. The hypothesis reads as follows: Hypotheses 5: Among Blacks employed within the municipal recreation and park profession in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupa­ tional mobility scores for personnel hired by Black versus non-Black appointing au tho rities. A t - t e s t u t iliz in g a separate variance estimate was used to test the null hypothesis. The pertinent hypothesis was non-directional in nature, there­ fore a 2 -ta ile d test was conducted. .79 (DF = 109; p <.51) was obtained. under scrutiny was not rejected. As indicated in Table 24, t-value of As a resu lt, the null hypothesis Based upon this finding, the race of the appointing authority appears to make no difference in mobility scores for Black recreation and park personnel. 132 TABLE 24 T-TEST FOR RACE OF APPOINTING AUTHORITY AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY 1984-88 Race = 1, Black Group 1: t - t e s t for: Group 2: Race = 2, Non-Black Race of the Appointing Authority N = lll Valid Cases = 111 Missing Cases = 0 Number of Cases 36 75 Group 1 Group 2 Mean .08 .06 Standard Deviation .18 .13 Separate Variance Estimate t Value DF 2-Tail Prob. .79 109 .51 Job Satisfaction The fin al hypothesis tested pertained to perceived job satisfaction and its relationship to occupational m obility. The hypothesis read as follows: Hypotheses 6 : Among Blacks employed in the municipal recreation and park profes­ sion in Michigan, there w ill be no difference in occupational mobility scores for those with higher levels of perceived job sat­ isfaction versus lower levels of perceived job satisfaction. 133 To test this fin a l hypothesis, one way analysis of variance was u t iliz e d . The job satisfaction and mobility scores were u tiliz e d as variables to con­ duct the te s t. As indicated in Table 25, an F -ra tio of 1.58 (DF = 2,108, p C.21) was obtained. As a resu lt, the null hypothesis was not rejected, thus indicating that job satisfaction does not make a difference in the mobility scores for Black recreation and park personnel in Michigan. TABLE 25 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE JOB SATISFACTION AND OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY 1984-88 One-Way ANOVA For: Job Satisfaction and Mobility N = lll Valid Cases = 111 Missing Cases = 0 ONE-WAY ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE GROUP N ... MEAN SD 1 = DISSATISFIED/NEUTRAL 31 .11 .18 2 = SATISFIED 60 .06 .13 3 = VERY SATISFIED 20 .05 .15 .07 .15 111 DEPENDENT VARIABLE: SOURCE GRAND MEAN MOBILITY SUM OF SQUARES D.F. MEAN SQUARE F-RATIO PROB. 1.58 .21 .090 2 .045 WITHIN 3.067 108 .028 TOTAL 3.157 110 BETWEEN 134 Multiple Regression Analysis To provide an opportunity to look at the relationship between these variables simultaneously, multiple regression analysis was con­ ducted. In addition to the six independent variables selected for study, a seventh independent variable, age, was inserted into the equation. In the models of occupational mobility developed by Sandefur (1981) and Robinson (1986), age, is noted to have a negative impact on m obility. To determine i f age played a role in determining occupational mobi1it y for the sample in the present study, the variable was added to the equation. Being that three (3) of the independent variables (gender, pres­ ence of a perceived a f f i rmative action plan, and race of the appoint­ ing authority) contained nominal data, dummy variables were u tiliz e d so they could be included in the equation. The variables were inserted into the equation in the order that the hypotheses tests were conducted. Table 26 presents the results of the multiple regression analysis. An R Squared vlaue of .08 was obtained. This is indicative of the fact that only 87. of the variation in the mobility scores of the sample can be explained when the seven independent variables are included in the regression equation together. The remaining 92% of the variation in mobi1it y scores of the sample may be attributed to the other factors not included in the equation. 135 TABLE 26 MULTIPLE REGRESSION ANALYSIS WITH OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY 1984-88 AS THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES INDEX 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 VARIABLE NAME MEAN Gender Related Work Experience Attained Level of Education Affirm ative Action Plan Race of Appointing Authority Level of Job Satisfaction Age TOTALS .39 13.31 15.29 .14 .68 73.40 34.80 .07 DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Occupational Mobility DEPENDENT VARIABLE: Occupational Mobility VARIABLE REGRESSION COEFFICIENT STD. ERROR T(DF=103) Gender Experience Education AAP Race. Ap. Auth. Job Satis. Age - .03692 .00226 .00775 .04663 .03643 .00165 .00237 - .669 - .319 - .125 - .315 - .587 -2.025 - .957 .02470 .00007 .00096 .01470 .02140 .00334 .00227 STD. DEV. .49 7.47 2.23 .35 .47 .60 7.62 .15 PROB. PART, i .50472 .75014 .90096 .75321 .55837 .04548 .34065 .00430 .00098 .00015 .00096 .00330 .03830 .00098 CONSTANT = .51 STD. ERROR OF ESTIMATE = .17 ADJUSTED R SQUARED = .02 R SQUARED = .08 MULTIPLE R = .29 ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE TABLE SOURCE REGRESSION RESIDUAL TOTAL SUM OF SQUARES .260 2.900 3.16 D.F. 7 103 110 MEAN SQUARE .036 .028 F-RATIO PROB. 1.31 .25 136 Summary of Hypotheses Testing The following is a b r ie f summary of the findings of the s t a t i s t i ­ cal tests conducted on the study hypothesis: Hypotheses 1: The null hypothesis was not rejected. There was no d i f f e r ­ ence found in the mobility scores of Black males and females in the sample. Gender appears to make no difference in regards to occupational mobility scores for Black municipal recreation and park personnel in Michigan. Hypotheses 2 : The null hypothesis was not rejected. The number of years of related work experience makes no difference with respect to occupational mobility scores for Black municipal recrea­ tion and park personnel in Michigan. Hypotheses 3 : The null hypothesis was not rejected. The attained level of education appears to make no significant difference in r e f­ erence to occupational mobility scores for Black municipal recreation and park personnel in Michigan. Hypotheses 4 : The null hypothesis was not rejected. The m obility scores for Black municipal recreation and park personnel were not s ig n ific a n tly d iffe re n t for those in agencies with perceived affirm ative action plans or without perceived affirm ative action plans. 137 Hypotheses 5: The null hypothesis was not rejected. The race of the appointing authority appears to make no difference in re la ­ tionship to occupational mobility scores for Black municipal recreation and park personnel in Michigan. Hypotheses 6: The null hypothesis was not rejected. The level of per­ ceived job satisfaction appears to make no difference in determining occupational mobility for Black municipal recre­ ation and park personnel in Michigan. The following chapter w ill provide further discussion of the findings of the analysis of the data relevant to occupational mobility fo r Black municipal recreation and park personnel in Michigan. Chapter 6 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS The principle purpose of this study was to examine those factors which are related to the occupational m obility of Black personnel within the recreation and park profession in Michigan. This research e f fo r t included the objective of providing a detailed descriptive analysis of the occupa­ tional status of Blacks employed by municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. The 1iterature pertaining to occupational mobi1it y from several disciplines was reviewed c a re fu lly . A theoretical model of occupational mobi1it y was developed fo r the purposes of this study (note Figure 1, Chapter 4 ). follows: The independent variables contained in the model were as (1) gender; (2) the number of years of related work experience; (3) the attained level of education; (4) the perceived presence of an affirm ative action plan; (5) the race of the appointing authority; and (6) perceived level of job sa tisfaction . In this model of occupational m obility, the employee goes to work for an agency and brings along an attained level of education and related work experience. Over time (tenure/duration), a level of job satisfaction is developed. To meet the organizational needs of the agency the employee is work fo r, as job opportunities aris e , vacant positions must be f i 1led. The organization begins an internal recruitment giving current employees who apply consideration. The attained level of formal education and amount of related work experience are considered at this time. Both of these variables are considered to be positive factors that w ill impact occupa­ tional m obility. 138 139 During the selection process, the gender of the applicant and the race of the appointing authority may serve as negative factors in the selection process. The underlying assumption is that the gender and racial biases of the appointing authority w ill prohibit the employee from being selected. Also, at this point in time, the affirm ative action plan of the agency would serve as a positive factor in the selection process. The assumption is that i f there is an imbalance in the workforce, the position may be ear­ marked for a minority. Whether the employee is selected or not, a decision is made. I f the employee decides to remain with the organization, he or she wi11 experience intraorganizational m obility. I f the employee opts to leave the organiza­ tion as a result of not being selected or i f opportunities arise outside of the current agency, then interorganizational mobility is experienced. Based upon this model, six hypotheses were developed and tested to determine the relationship between the independent variables and occupa­ tional m obility for Black personnel employed by municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. The summary and conclusions of this study are presented in fiv e sec­ tions: (1) surmiary and discussion of key findings; (2) general conclu­ sions; (3) an evaluation of the model of occupational mobi1it y developed for this study; (4) recommendations and implications; and la s tly , (5) the researcher's closing remarks. Discussion of Key Findings Pursuant to the results of this research e f fo r t, several key findings were made. These key findings are discussed under the following individual 140 variables contained in the theoretical model of occupational mobility: Gender In the tests of gender, no differences in m obility were observed. null hypothesis was not rejected (t=1.05, DF=109; p <.15). The Overall, no difference was found in the mobility scores between males and females in the sample. On the whole, Black males and females in the sample experi­ enced the same degree of occupational m obility. In relationship to the theoretical model of occupational mobi1it y developed for my study, gender was predicted to have a negative impact on occupational m obility. The findings related to gender are in direct c o n flic t with the manner in which gender is treated in the model of occupa­ tional m obility developed for this study and the 1ite ra tu re . Research con­ ducted by Kerr (1973), Dunn (1977), Henkel and Godbey (1977), and Robinson (1986), a l 1 conclude that gender has been a factor that has adversely impacted the progress of women in the recreation and park profession. These studies imply that women have been denied access to top level posi­ tions which have been tr a d itio n a lly occupied by males. One possible explanation is that perhaps over the last fiv e years, the employment status of women in the recreation and park profession has improved. More women have entered the profession since the studies by Kerr (1973) and Dunn (1977) were conducted. As a resu lt, women in the recrea­ tion and park profession have possibly achieved comparable amounts of edu­ cation and training that allows them to compete with men for available positions. 141 Others have argued that there has been an improvement in the employment status of women. Blum and Smith (1988) in a paper en titled "Women's Mobility In The Corporation: A Critique of the P o litic s of Optimism", note that the percentage of women in executive, administrative, and managerial occupations increased from 18.5% in 1970 to 36% in 1985. In this same essay, the authors note that the improved qu alifications and abi1it ie s of women to compete fo r higher level positions in the workplace have assisted in breaking down barriers to occupational mobi1i t y . Blum and Smith (1988) argue that the c r it ic a l issue facing women and minorities is no longer the lack of equal opportunity, but i t is an issue of gaining equal a b i l i t y to take advantage of opportunities as they arise . The authors conclude th at, in general, women have advanced considerably in the paid labor market. Progressive employment policies and public awareness of gender inequality within the workplace have helped to open the doors of opportunity for women (Blum and Smith, 1988). To further substantiate the position that the employment status of women, in general, has improved, extracts from a paper w ritten by Sokol o ff (1988) e n title d "Evaluating Gains and Losses by Black and White Women and Men in the Professions, 1960-80" are noted. The author reports that according to the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (1982) between 1960-1980, White men declined 83.5% to 58.9% of a ll professionals. This decline saw increases for Black and other racial/ethnic women and men in the professional labor force. Findings such as these conclude that White men have experienced losses whereas women and Blacks have made important gains in the most prestigious jobs in U.S. society. The author also notes that th is conclusion is supported by a Bureau of Labor S ta tis tic s study 142 which indicated that in 1986, for the f i r s t time, women were a majority of those in the nearly 50 occupations regularly surveyed by the Census Bureau. Sokoloff (1988) concluded that women are now moving into the more e l i t e , prestigious and higher paying White male dominated professions and that Black women appear to be the most mobile group of a l l . In noting the occupational distribution of this sample, women are represented well in the administrative and supervisory categories. In the leadership occupational category, women occupy a greater percentage of positions than thei r male col leagues. Overal1, in relationship to the size of the sample, women occupied a substantial percentage (38.7%) of positions across the four occupational categories. This may indeed be one indicator of the improving position of women in the recreation and park profession. There are other factors which may have contributed to the finding that gender made no difference in the mobility scores for this group of Black recreation and park personnel. F ir s t , i t may no longer be necessary for an employer to hire Black females over Black males to meet affirm ative action goals. The workforce of municipal agencies may be balanced enough to bypass the process of earmarking positions which must be f i l l e d by female employees. I f this is the case, then gender may not be an important factor in terms of the personnel selection process. The ultimate goal of the employer is to select the most qualified applicant for the position. Secondly, many municipalities through the col 1ective bargaining pro­ cess, are bound into a competitive examination and seniority system in reference to promotional opportunities. A fter establishing seniority and competing in the competitive examination process, the chances for upward m obility are equalized for a ll employees. The opportunities are equalized 143 in the sense that objective measures are used to determine e l i g i b i l i t y for promotional opportunities. Generally, without regard to gender, the most q u alified employee w i11 be selected. In sum, the principal discovery was that gender made no difference in relationship to occupational mobi1ity for the sample in this study. The Number of Years of Related Work Experience A second key finding of this research e ffo r t relates to the number of years of related work experience. The results of the hypothesis test relating to this variable indicated that experiences makes no difference in determining occupational mobility (F=.34; DF=2,108; p < .7 1 ). This finding contradicts the manner in which experience is treated in the model of occupational mobi1it y developed for my study. In the study model, the number of years of related work experience is predicted to be positively related to m obility. The underlying assumption is that the experience acquired during the time in a job wi11 prepare the employee for a higher level position within the agency i f the opportunity becomes available. One possible explanation as to why the results differed in the present study relates to the type of experience that the employee acqui res during his or her tenure with the agency. In some instances, tremendous amounts of experience may not be su ffic ien t to be selected for a specific posi­ tio n . An employer may be attempting to f i 11 a position that requires a specialized type of ski 11 ( i . e . computer analyst, marketing sp ec ia lis t, budget an a ly s t). An employee may have several years of general experience in leadership or lower level supervisory positions, but may not have the 144 required technical s k ills or experience to ju s t i f y his or her selection for the position. As a resu lt, the type of experience, not the number of years of experience, may be the determining facto r. Korn (1988), in his a r tic le e n title d "Blocked", states that opportunities for mobility are often lost due to the lim itations of the employee. These lim itations manifest them­ selves in not having the appropriate s k ills to make one's se lf "promotable". Korn (1988) notes that in order for the employee to remove the "self-imposed" barriers to occupational m obility, he or she must take the i n i t i a t i v e to find out what experiences or ski 11s are needed to become "promotable" within the organization. In essence, the author is indicating that employees who do not have the type of experiences that may be needed to get promoted should acqui re them through some form of continuing educa­ tio n. In summary, inspite of the longstanding notion that substantial amounts of experience may lead to greater opportunities for upward mobi1i t y , the results differed fo r this sample. No difference was found in the mobi1i t y scores of the sample when the number of years of related experience is considered. Attained Level of Education There was no difference found between the level of education of the respondents and occupational mobility (F=.99; DF=2,108; p <.38). Education, for this sample, was not found to be related to occupational mobility for Black municipal recreation and park personnel in Michigan. This finding is certainly inconsistent with the manner in which educa­ tion is treated in the study model. In the model of occupational mobility 145 developed fo r the present study, education is treated as a general resource that w ill have a positive impact on m obility. The underlying assumption is that increased levels of education generally leads to increased oppor­ tu n itie s for upward mobi1i t y . The work of Sandefur (1981), Jencks (1979), Hudson (1978) and Blau and Duncan (1967) a ll point to the fact that educa­ tional attainment plays a major role in determining occupational mobility fo r Blacks. The findings of my study relevant to education and occupational mobi­ l i t y are sim ilar to those found in the work of McDonald (1981) which rela­ tes d ire c tly to occupational mobi1it y for Black personnel in the recreation and park profession. In her study, no relationship was found between education/schooling and occupational m obility. Perhaps there is some 1inkage between the two variables that is peculiar to the recreation and park profession exclusively. I t may be possible that education is used as a mere "to o l" to meet the minimum entrance requirements to enter the work­ force and then is no longer considered as a vehicle for advancement. One of the findings that may be d ire c tly related to education and mobi1it y is the fact that over the last five years, 61.8% of the sample had not enrol led in a col lege or university to complete an undergraduate or advanced degree. In many instances, for administrative and supervisory positions, a minimum of a bachelors or masters degree may be required to be considered for the position. I f the candidate does not meet the minimum educational requi rements, he or she may be ruled in e lig ib le to compete for the position. lo s t. As a resu lt, an opportunity to become upwardly mobile may be 146 A second explanation for why the results of the present study differed from the results of the aforementioned studies lies in the value that the employer places on formal education a fte r the employee enters the work­ force. In some cases when new positions are developed or the educational requi rements for existing positions are re-evaluated, the educational requirements may be lessened. This process is common in agencies that operate in highly unionized work environments. The underlying motive is to create opportunities for employees who have a number of years of service, but 1i t t l e formal education. In practice, this happens with some degree of frequency when entry level professional positions that requi re an undergra­ duate degree are created or re-evaluated. tions such as: may be targeted. Entry level professional posi­ Recreation Leader, Parks Supervisor and Forestry Technician In essence, the value of a formalized education is dimi­ nished. Another explanation that may shed 1ight on the findings relevant to education in the present study, lie s in the renewed interest in continuing education. In many instances, both the employee and the employer stand to gain more from various forms of continuing education rather than tr a d i­ tional methods of educational advancement. Forms of continuing education such as attending workshops and seminars are often less costly and less time consuming when compared to the costs and time spent when taking pro­ fessional coursework at a col lege or university. To further support the aforementioned explanation, a study conducted by Cato (1986), relating to the attitudes and behaviors of practitioners in the recreation and park profession is referenced. The purpose of the study was to ascertain the attitudes and behavioral intentions of practitioners 147 toward continuing education. A sample of 400 members of the American Park and Recreation Society (APRS) branch of the National Recreation and Park Association were mailed questionnaires. achieved. A response rate of 58% was Multiple regression was used to test the related hypotheses. Some of the significant results suggested that: (1) encouragement from the employer was an important motivational factor in the employee's choice to engage in continuing education a c tiv itie s ; (2) continuing education programs do not have to give credit towards a col lege degree to be impor­ tant; and (3) employees are wi11ing to pay for continuing education oppor­ tu n itie s themselves. In summary, the results of the study by Cato may be indicative of a preference toward continuing education as opposed to formal education a fte r entering the workforce. The findings, as reported in the study by Cato (1986), are consistent with the attitudes of the sample in my study that relate to continuing education. In the present study, 63.6% of the sample indicated that they had participated in some form of continuing education, while 61.8% of the sample reported that within the las t fiv e years, they had not enrol led in a col lege or university to complete an undergraduate or graduate degree. In relationship to the theoretical model of occupational mobi1ity developed for the present study, formal education may have its strongest impact at the time of organizational entry. Thereafter, the employee and the employer may be best served by the employee1s participation in con­ tinuing education a c t iv i t ie s . Continuing education may be the mechanism for acquiring specific job-related s k ills that the employer is looking for. 148 Acquiring specific job-related s k ills may assist in f a c ilit a t in g occupa­ tional m obility. Overal1, the sample was well educated. Approximately eighty percent of the sample had completed an undergraduate degree or higher. Those who had completed four year degrees held a great number of positions in the leadership, supervisory and administrative classificatio ns. In summation, the finding that the attained level of education of the respondents made no difference in the mobi1it y scores is rather unique. It contradicts much of the 1ite ra tu re and many of the theoretical models that are related to occupational mobi1it y . I t appears that education may be most useful in gaining entry into an organization or agency. A fter i n i t i a l entry, the role that formalized education plays in f a c ilit a t in g upward mobi1i t y may decline or have less impact. The Presence Of A Perceived Affirmative Action Plan Contrary to the study model, the work of Hal 1 (1987), Shivers (1985), and Riley (1 °8 4 ), a f f i rmative action was not a factor in determining the occupational mobi1it y of Black recreation and park personnel in this study. In the theoretical model of occupational mobility developed for this study, the presence of a perceived affirm ative action plan was predicted to have a positive impact on the mobi1it y scores of the respondents. No significant difference in mobi1it y socres was found between Black personnel working in agencies with or without perceived a f f i rmative action plans ( t = .35; DF=109; p<.37). A ffi rmative action plans may be adopted as an organizational policy, but may have l i t t l e impact on advancing Blacks and other minorities within the hierarchy of the organization a fte r entry. 149 Inspite of the finding that affirm ative action had no impact on mobi­ l i t y fo r this sample, when there is a clearly defined pattern of underuti­ liz a tio n and underrepresentation, the agency may be mandated by policy to remedy the problem on a case by case basis. In this situation, qualified minorities and women may be placed into these positions to remedy dispari­ t ie s . This circumstance may be the primary example of the impact that a f f i rmative action has a f te r an employee has been in the system for a length of time. S p e c ific a lly , the results of the studies conducted by Shivers (1985) and Riley (1984) indicated that a f f i rmative action played a di rect role in occupational attainment and mobility for Blacks. The results of this research e f fo r t indicate that the presence or absence of a perceived a f f i r ­ mative action plan made no difference at a l 1 in the occupational mobi1ity scores of the sample. Approximately seventy-nine percent of the sample indicated that they did not think that they obtained th e ir current position because of a f f i rmative action. Subsequent to this finding, i t may be construed that the role of a f f i rmative action has been somewhat diminished, especially when related to its impact in terms of the process of occupa­ tional m obility. I t should be noted that the results of the s ta tis tic a l test and the descriptive data used in the preceding paragraph should be interpreted with caution. The problem is that many employees may not be certain whether they obtained th e ir position as a result of a f f i rmative action, Often, in p ractice, employees are seldom told as to whether the position they were about to f i 11 was designated as one that was earmarked for a minority of women. Generally, the appointing authority and the personnel o ffic e r are 150 the only two parties that have access to this information. As a resu lt, the respondents may have answered the question with only an "educated guess". Additionally, i t must be noted that in many instances, affirm ative action may have its greatest impact at the time of organizational entry. Frequently, i t is used as a measure to remedy existing d ispa rities in the workforce. Nalbandian (1989) in his a r t ic le which summarizes the Supreme Court's position on a f f i rmative action, concluded that the high court is prim arily concerned with 1imiting affirm ative action tig h tly within the scope of the problem i t is supposed to solve. P rin cip ally , this problem has been one of remedying d ispa rities in the workforce and eliminating barriers to equal employment opportunities for women and m inorities. A fter an employee has entered the system, i f the workforce is balanced, there may be no need to u t i 1ize a f f i rmative action. Opportunities for mobility may be a d irec t function of the competitive exa­ mination process, and the seniority and merit systems. This is especially common in municipalities whose workforce may be bound by one or more co llective bargaining agreements. In essence, affirm ative action may be most beneficial to Blacks in the recreation and park profession and other professions as a means of organizational entry. A ffi rmative action may not be useful a fte r one has already entered the personnel system of the munici­ pal i t y . Braddock and McPartland (1987) present an interesting argument that relates d ire c tly to the ineffectivenss of a f f i rmative action a f te r the employee has been in an organization over a period of time. Their argument is based upon the fact that often minorities are not tied into jobs that 151 have designated career paths and opportunities for training. They also contend that the methods by which knowledge of a job opening is transmitted may be a detrimental factor in relationship to minorities applying for available positions. The authors note th at, in some instances, information about openings are not publicly posted but passed along through informal channel s. In some cases, available openings may be f i l l e d by la t e r a lly transferring non­ minorities into these positions. The general outcome is that minorities may not apply for an open position due to a lack of information or because the vacancy has been f i 1led through a lateral transfer of a non-minority employee. In essence, the affirm ative action process is never activated due to a lack of minority applicants. The general assumption being made is that there are no minorities available or interested in the internal labor pool because no minorities applied. Considering the insign ificant role that a f f i rmative action practices play in f a c i 1ita tin g upward mobi1i t y , other means of f a c i1ita tin g upward mobi1it y may warrant serious consideration. Blacks and other minorities may be forced to opt for both formal and informal networking and mentoring programs to f a c i l i t a t e upward m obility. These opportunities may take place within or outside of the agency. In suimiation, the presence of a perceived affirm ative action plan made no difference in the mobility scores of the sample. A ffi rmative action, as a practice, is perhaps most effective as a means of allowing Blacks and other minorities to enter organizations. I t may not be an effective measure to f a c i 1ita te upward mobi1it y within the agency hierarchy. There may be a substantial number of other variables such as union contracts and 152 quotas that may intervene into the process. I t may be more advantageous fo r Blacks in the recreation and park profession to examine alternative means fo r f a c ilit a t in g upward m obility. The Race of the Appointing Authority Another key finding of this research endeavor evolved around the role of the appointing authority in the process of occupational mobi1i t y . The relevant null hypothesis was tested and not rejected ( t= .79; DF=109; pC.51). The results of the s ta tis tic a l test indicated that the race of the appointing authority did not make a sig nifican t difference in the mobility scores of the respondents. This finding is not consistent with the results of studies conducted in the area of discrimination in employment. Lewis (1986), Taylor and Tuch (1986) and Cox (1985) conducted research on discrimination in employment in the public sector. The results of the s ta tis tic a l test conducted in my study did not confirm the manner in which the variable of the race of the appointing authority is treated in the theoretical model of occupational mobi1i t y developed for the study. In the model, this variable is predicted to make a significant difference in the mobi1it y scores of the sample. The variable was predicted to be a negative factor in terms of occupational mobi1i t y . The underlying assumption was that racial biases and discrimina­ tory selection practices would s t i f l e attempts to become occupationally mobile when promotional opportunities arose. The lite r a tu r e cited suggests that the race of the appointing author­ it y may be a key factor which may impact occupational mobility for Blacks. 153 Research conducted by Lewis (1986), Taylor and Tuch (1986), and Cox (1985) a ll underscore this statement. A key finding in the study conducted by Lewis (1986) serves to further substantiate the position that the race of the appointing authority impacts mobility for Blacks. Lewis concluded the following: "People in s ta ff positions may exercise substantial impacts on th e ir agencies' policies and hiring practices, thus influencing mobility for Blacks through the personnel selec­ tion process" (p. 27). Inspite of these findings, in the present study, no evidence was found that would assist in substantiating th e ir positions. Perhaps the race of the appointing authority and its impact on occupational mobility for Blacks needs to be re-evaluated. I t may be possible that the party who acts in this capacity may not be the party who makes the decision to employ i n i ­ t i a l l y or make promotions years la t e r . This decision may come in the form of a recommendation from a subordinate who acts in a supervisory capacity. I t is highly probable that the appointing authority may have been acting on someone else's decision. The key question is who was the actual party that made the i n i t i a l decision to hire and/or promote? In the pre­ sent study, the data needed to address this issue was not available. The appointing authority may have been the party who signed the selection a f f i ­ d a vit, but may not have been the party who actually made the decision. The answer to this question cannot be easily discerned with the available data. There are three possible explanations for why no difference was found 154 with respect to the race of the appointing authority and m obility for the respondents in this sample. F ir s t , i t is generally a standard practice for the agency director or personnel director to "sign-off" on a ll personnel transactions. Records relating to the composition and distribu tion of the workforce are supplied to those with personnel related responsibi1it i e s . 1is t of e lig ib le employees is also forwarded for selection purposes. A Upon making a selection, the party must ju s t if y the selection and have the agency director or personnel director a f f ix his or her signature to the document. This system of checks and balances may be a factor ir. preventing r a c ia lly motivated prejudices and biases from entering into the selection process. Secondly, the appointing authority may have changed during this five year period. Even though the duration of time spent in "exempt" positions is usually considerable, in many cases, a turnover of personnel can occur. Positions in the exempt class, such as Assistant Director and Superintendent of Parks, are usually sought as "stepping stones" to a directorship. The person that hired an employee may not be the same party who may make a decision about promoting the same employee a few years la t e r . Because of this turnover factor, the immediate supervisor may be the party that makes the recommendation for hiring or promoting an employee. Another reason for this contradiction is that fact that the personnel practices of many c itie s are governed by strong c iv il service systems. Inherent in these personnel systems are mechanisms such as objective testing procedures and mandates for reporting personnel practices which may 155 ensure equitable application of personnel policies and procedures. With a system of checks and balances, much of the decision making responsibility of the appointing authority, in the personnel selection process, may be taken away. With the onset of legislation governing employment and personnel prac­ tices and the s t i f f penalties fo r discrimination in employment, i t may not be practical or worthwhile to attempt to discriminate. The employee has recourses available through labor unions and c i v i 1 service cormiissions, in the public sector. Prim arily, grievances and requests for civi 1 service hearings are the two principal recourses employees have as a mechanism for dealing with perceived discrimination. This factor may be the reason why 88.1% of the sample had never f ile d charges of discrimination against any of th e ir employers, past or present. The findings related to the hypothesis pertaining to the race of the appointing authority and the supporting 1ite ra tu re previously mentioned do not relate to any theories of discrimination discussed in Chapter 2. There was no evidence found in my study which would serve to validate this theory. Perhaps the use of primary data sources, such as actual s t a t i s t i ­ cal data from the agency, may have yielded d iffe re n t results. As indicated in Table 18, 64.5% of the sample were hi red by a party that was White. A dditionally, 57.8% of the sample indicated that th e ir race, gender or both may have been factors which kept them from obtaining promotions. The key point is that the feelings expressed by the respon­ dents are indeed perceptions. Considering the results of the hypothesis t e s t, the perception of the denial of promotional opportunities a f te r the 156 employeo is in the system fo r prejudicial reasons may not be a r e a lis tic one. Other factors, such as misunderstanding the personnel system or dismay stemming from not meeting the requirements for competing for a higher position, may have led to the perception of discriminatory practices being employed. In conclusion, the race of the appointing authority made no difference in the mobi1it y scores of the sample. Factors associated with discrimina­ tion in employment are extremely d i f f i c u l t to prove without examining p r i­ mary data sources and u t iliz in g better research methods. Even though there may be perceptions of discrimination expressed by employees, there may not have been an act of discrimination committed. With recourses ( c i v i 1 ser­ vice comnissions, grievance procedures) available to contest perceived acts of discrimination, formal charges may not always be f il e d . The stringent penalties for vio lation of fe d e ra l, state and local leg islatio n pertaining to discrimination in employment may persuade employers not to sanction questionable hiring and promotional practices. Both the C iv i1 Rights Act of 1964 as amended, at the federal le v e l, and the El 1iot-Larsen C iv i1 Rights Act, at the state le v e l, allow very substantial punitive awards to be made to the p l a n t if f i f the agency is found g u ilty of discrimination in employment. The Perceived Level of Job Satisfaction In relationship to job satisfaction , no significant differences were found between the mobi1it y scores of the respondents and th e ir general satisfaction scores (F=1.58; DF=2,108; p<.21). As a resu lt, i t may be 157 assumed that job satisfaction does not play an important role in deter­ mining occupational mobility for Black municipal recreation and park per­ sonnel in Michigan. This finding was not consistent with the manner that job satisfaction is treated in the model. In the model developed for this study, job satis­ faction has been designated as a factor which may impact occupational m obility in a positive manner. The underlying assumption in the study model was that increased levels of job satisfaction may lead to upward mobility within the agency as opportunities presented themselves. An addi­ tional assumption relating to general job satisfaction was that the employee would experience a s u ffic ie n t amount of general job satisfaction derived from items such as job security and compensation (extrinsic fa c to rs ). This perceived level of job satisfaction would in turn keep the employee working in the agency seeking opportunities for m obility within the agency. The findings related to job satisfaction in this study are also incon­ sistent with the results of the studies conducted by Penn (1985) and Perry (1985). Both studies imply that job satisfaction plays an important role in relationship to occupational m obility. In the present study, the per­ ceived level of job satisfaction was predicted to impact occupational mobi1i t y . I t was observed that job satisfaction played no role in the occupational mobi1it y experienced by the sample. The general assumption was that the level of perceived job satisfaction evolved around issues relating to compensation and job security. I f compensation was satisfac­ tory and job security were provided, then the employee should be generally 158 sa tis fie d . I f the employee is satisfied with his or her employment s itu atio n , then he or she w ill remain with the same agency and attempt to become upwardly mobile within the system. In practice, managers and subordinates are often concerned about the amount of input that they are actually given in the development, implemen­ tation and evaluation of agency po licies. In many instances, agency s ta ff may be compel led to abide by, or implement policies that they may not agree with. As a practice, i t is not unconmon for lower level employees not to be consulted when agency p o l icy is formulated. Policy formulation is generally a task reserved for top level managers (Directors, Division Superintendents). As a resu lt, there may be an amount of disenchantment with agency policy, thus contributing to lower levels of job satisfaction. This factor may have an impact on an employee's perception of the agency, and may be a determining factor in his or her decision to take advantage of promotional opportunities as they arise or the choice to seek opportunities outside of the agency. Wright, King, Berg and Creecy (1987), in th e ir study of job satisfac­ tion among Black female managers, made an important finding that is related to the current study. They concluded that those managers who perceived themselves as having the qualifications necessary for advancement and are sa tisfied with th e ir work, are more 1ikely to obtain more opportunities for advancement than those who do not. This factor may account for the smal1 percentage of the sample that were dissatisfied with th e ir jobs in the current study. There may have been those in the sample that were preparing themselves 159 fo r a promotional opportunity through continuing th e ir education or doing increased amounts of work and the opportunity never availed i t s e l f . There may have been those in the sample who were granted the opportunity to com­ pete fo r a higher level position and did not receive i t . As a result, some dissatisfaction with th e ir jobs may have been experienced, thus affecting th e ir general job satisfaction score. Another possible explanation as to why the perceived level of job satisfaction of the respondents made no difference in th e ir mobility scores lie s in the manner in which general job satisfaction was defined in the model. As previously indicated, the underlying assumption in terms of defining job satisfaction as used in the model, was that the job satisfac­ tion was related to issues evolving around job security and compensation or the ex trinsic factors. This approach offers another way to examine job satisfaction and it s relationship to occupational m obility. Yankelovich and Immerwahr (1983), in th e ir study "Putting the Work Ethic to Work", made some important findings that are d ire c tly related to this study. The primary conclusion drawn from this study was that values relating to work have changed, but managerial practices have not. The f i r s t major finding was that the incentive system, mainly money and status rewards, are not s u ffic ie n t in motivating most people. Pay, in i t s e l f , is no longer an accurate predictor of job satisfaction. Secondly, although job security remains an important value to many, especially in 1ight of high unemployment rates in some occupational areas, there is more interest today in the content of work. More employees today are seeking to develop themselves in th e ir work, to learn new s k ills and 160 knowledge. I t has also become important that the work be interesting, allow for autonomy and c r e a tiv ity , and be challenging. The last important finding related to the work of Yankelovich and Immerwahr (1983) relates to the employee1s perception of work and employment. The employee of today is focusing on work as means to a career as opposed to solely working for economic gain. a c tiv itie s . Jobs are more than paid They are a mechanism for contributing to organizations and, in general, they are a way to make a difference. As a result of this percep­ tio n , management must design work to be an enriching and beneficial experience. Work should meet the objectives of the organization as well as the career objectives of the employee. A study conducted by Edginton, Neal and Edgington (1989), reinforces the conclusions drawn by Yankelovich and Immerwahr (1983) relating to job s a tisfactio n . The study was developed in the context of Herzberg's "Two-Factor" theory of motivation. In th e ir study involving recreation and park professionals from A ustralia, Canada, Hong Kong and the United States, the authors noted that the members of the sample perceived job satisfaction as being a function of motivators such as: and important/worthwhile work. job growth, interesting work Providing opportunities for job growth can lead to the acquisition of new ski 1Is which, in turn, may lead to new job assignments and opportunities for m obility. Many individuals wi11 select work environments that provide opportunities for growth and development. The lack of motivators may be one of the reasons why the perceived level of job satisfaction made no difference in the mobility scores of respondents in the present study. In summary, work and job satisfaction must be viewed from a h o lis tic 161 standpoint. What may be perceived as the trad itio n al forms of motivation, pay and job security, are no longer solely responsible for job satisfac­ tio n. Factors such as respect, the opportunity to develop s k ills and abi­ l i t i e s and recognition are now increasingly important in relationship to job satisfaction. The optimal way to sustain employee job satisfaction is to supply ample amounts of both in trin s ic (motivators) and extrinsic (hygiene) factors. A fin al explanation as to why the hypothesis relating to job satisfac­ tion and occupational mobi1it y relates to the economic climate of the state during the fiv e year period of 1984-88. The economic climate of the state and its c itie s during the period of 1984-88 may have contributed to the perception of the lack of opportunities for advancement within agencies. During this period, many agencies were retrenching and attempting to do more with less. Some agencies were eliminating positions and in s titu tin g hiring freezes as cost saving measures. As a resu lt, opportunities for advancement in the recreation and park profession may have been 1imited both from an intraorganizational and interorganizational perspective. This factor in i t s e l f may be d ire c tly related to the fact that 56.7% of the sample experienced no mobi1it y at a l 1 during this time period. Regardless of the finding that the level of job satisfaction experienced by the respondents made no difference in th e ir mobility scores, the majority of the sample (54.1%) were satisfied with th e ir jobs. Overal1, i t may be concluded that the perceived level of job satisfaction was not related s ig n ific a n tly to mobi1it y for this sample of Black recrea­ tion and park personnel. 162 General Conclusions M obility Patterns One of the key conclusions of this study relates to the mobility pat­ terns of Black recreation and park personnel in Michigan. Of the 111 respondents that were included in the sample, 31.6% experienced upward m o bility, 56.7% experienced s t a b i l i t y , and 11.7% experienced downward mobi­ lity . The greatest percentage of the sample (56.7%) experienced s t a b ilit y over the fiv e year period. upon this finding. There are several factors that may shed 1ight The f i r s t and probably the most important factor is the economic climate of the state and urban areas from 1984-88 described above. Secondly, family and other personal and social issues may have had an impact on m obility for the sample. Greater credence is lent to this argu­ ment when i t is noted that the majority of the sample (48.7%) was between the ages of 31-40 years of age, and the mean number of years in the fie ld was 13.3. These two factors, coupled with other factors, such as having school age children not wanting to change schools, strong community and family t ie s , as well as financial responsibi1itie s such as home ownership, may heighten the need for job security. Together, these factors may have contributed to the degree of occupational s t a b ilit y observed in this study. For those respondents whose mobility was determined to be downward, there were two principle reasons why this occurred. The f i rst reason was due to budget reductions experienced by agencies in the state during the test period. As a cost saving measure, i t is a common practice to reduce higher level employees to positions of lower levels in times of economic 163 d istress. Often this practice is mandated by collective bargaining agreements i f the position is in classified service. The second reason was a function of the changing of municipal admi­ nistrations or discip lin a ry action. For the respondents in the sample that experienced downward m obility, many worked in positions that were probably protected by a c i v i 1 service system. removal from service due to a change Therefore, they are not subject to municipal administrations. I t is also not unusual to find that an employee who violates personnel rules and guidelines or may not be functioning up to appropriate levels of productivity may be demoted as disciplinary measure. This is a cormion practice in local units of government which operate in highly unionized environments. Often demotions are used as a fin al step before termination in the process of administering progressive disciplinary action. Another important conclusion relevant to the mobility patterns of Black personnel pertains to the concepts of intraorganizational and interorganizational m obility. Intraorganizational mobility is when the opportunities come from within the agency that the employee is currently working fo r. Interorganizational mobility relates to an employee leaving one agency and seeks opportunities for mobility in another. In the sample, 92.6% of the respondents stated that they would accept a promotional opportunity i f th e ir agency offered one, and 66.7% of the sample stated that they would not accept a position in another c ity or state. Based upon these findings, i t may be concluded that the preference 1s toward intraorganizational mobi1it y as opposed to interorganizational m o bility. This preference may be d ire c tly related to the large percentage 164 of the sample that remained stable over the period of 1984-88. An Evaluation of the Model of Occupational Mobility Developed for the Present Study Judging from the results of this study, the model of occupational m obility used appears to be most applicable to the Black recreation and park personnel who are entering an agency for the f i r s t time. The variables of gender; the number of years of related experience; attained level of education; the presence of a perceived affirm ative action plan; the race of the appointing authority; and the perceived level of job satis­ factio n, made no difference in the mobi1it y scores of the respondents who had been in the system. Finding that none of the aforementioned variables made a difference in the mobility scores of the respondents is indicative of the fact that other processes and variables may intervene a f te r the employee has been employed with the agency over a period of time. As noted in the analysis of the data through multiple regression analysis, the variables tested in the study, when considered together, explained only 87. (R Squared = .08) of the variation of the mobi1ity scores of the respondents. This leaves a large percentage (927.) of the variation in mobi 1it y scores of the respondents to be explained by variables other than those used in the model. To possibly present a more concise picture of what the process of occupational mobility entails for employees already in the system, the model was modified. 165 Modification of the Model Noting the findings of the current study and the most recent l i t e r a ­ ture relating to the variables contained in the i n i t i a l model, modifica­ tions to the existing model were made. Figure 2 represents a more d e fin i­ tiv e model of occupational mobi1ity for Black recreation and park personnel. This model incorporates many of the variables from the in i t i a l model and also adds new variables which were derived from the newest 1ite ra tu r e . As indicated by the model, at the time of entry into the organization, the variables of gender, education and experience are considered to be fac­ tors external to the organization. this point. Gender may have a negative impact at The attained level of education and related work experience w ill be positive factors in terms of attempting to enter an organization. A dd itio nally, at the time of organizational entry, internal organizational factors such as an a f f i rmative action plan and the race of the appointing authority may come into play. Affirmative action may be a positive factor and the race of the appointing authority may or may not be a negative fac­ to r. Over time or the tenure of the employee, the work related needs of the employee must be considered by the organization. To f a c i l i t a t e meeting the needs of the employee, the employer must provide relevant work experiences and opportunities for growth and development through continuing education. Meeting these needs may lead to job satisfaction. In relationship to job sa tisfactio n , both the in tr in s ic and extrinsic needs of the employee must be considered. t s C S£ m II a. s < < << lEiemal Factors T T e n u re / Tenure Duration Esttry Duration a> I E ste m a i Factors «a ] X iX takerorg. M o b ility a» u o -a e<# C3 to a. M lU Figure 2: R evised M o d e l of O ccupational M ob ility for Black Recreation & Park P ersonnel 167 As time progresses, job opportunities within the agency may arise. The level of job satisfaction and the employee's perception of his a b i l i t y to perform the work may be factors which may influence his or her decision to apply. I f the employee applies and then is offered the job, then the employee must make a decision whether to remain or bypass the opportunity and look outside of the agency. I f the employee chooses to remain and accepts the position, then intraorganizational mobility is experienced. Under this circumstance, m obility may be attained through promotion, la te ra l transfer or demotion. I f the employee opts to look outside of the current agency, then he wi11 experience interorganizational mobi1i t y . In essence, the employee terminates employment with one agency and goes to work for another to f a c i1ita te occupational m obility. This model w ill hopefully address the issue of occupational mobility fo r those already in the workforce in a more effe c tiv e manner than the i n i ­ t i a l model. Recommendations and Implications As a result of this empirical investigation, lis te d below are a series of recommendations and implications for further research in the area of occupational mobility in the recreation and park profession and other discip lines. Recommendations 1. Additional research is needed to compare the occupational status and mobi1i t y patterns of Blacks, women, and other minorities against those of Caucasians in the recreation and park profession. As indicated in the 168 lit e r a tu r e review, much of the data pertaining to m obility and occupational attainment in this profession was collected in the seventies and early 1980's. Factors such as the changing image of the profession and the increasing number of minorities and women entering the f i e l d have contri­ buted to antiquating the data. The aforementioned factors have both demographic and m obility related Implications. We no longer can be certain about the numbers of personnel employed in the recreation and park f i e l d , or whether minorities and women are advancing in the recreation and park f ie ld without taking another assessment. A dditionally, by having no other racial group to compare and contrast with, many questions relevant to the process of m obility patterns of Blacks and other minorities compare with those of Caucasians? Do Caucasians perceive the status of certain jobs in the profession the same as Blacks? Do Caucasians feel that the race of the party making the per­ sonnel selection help or hurt th e ir chances for mobility within an agency? These are ju st a few of the questions that must be addressed to further advance the understanding of some of the issues relating to occupational m obility within the recreation and park profession. 2. A study of occupational mobility from the intraorganizational and interorganizational perspective is needed. The responses to questions con­ tained in Table 15 regarding career advancement seem to indicate that there 1s In terest in intraorganizational mobility for this sample of recreation and parks personnel. The primary focus should be placed upon identifying those factors which may be considered as organizational assets and l i a b i l i t i e s , 169 (education, experience, work history, e tc .) as indicated in the "Organizational Boundaries and Upward-Shifts" model developed by Sandefur (1981). Generally, these factors help or hinder an employee's chance to become occupationally mobile. Education, both in terms of the pursuit of a degree or in-service tra in in g , may help when opportunities arise. Considering the fact that the amount of education one has may not be help­ ful in one's quest to become occupationally mobile, perhaps the value of a formal education a fte r entry into the organization needs to be re­ evaluated. From an intraorganizational perspective, an examination of these fac­ tors may assist employers in helping employees understand th e ir potential fo r mobi1it y within the agency and how to prepare to meet the q u a lific a tions fo r positions at higher levels once they become available. From an interorganizational perspective, an understanding of the process of occupa­ tional mobi1i t y relevant to the agency may help the employee prepare to e x it the employ of an agency where the opportunities for mobility may be 1imited. Training and career counseling programs may be developed to help f a c i l I t a t e upward mobi1it y when opportunities arise within or outside of the organization. 3. Further research should be conducted into the value and effectiveness of equal opportunity and a f f i rmative action programs using primary data sources. The results of this study indicated that Black personnel perceive a f f i rmative action programs being ineffective in terms of f a c i1ita tin g occupational mobility once they are in the employ of an agency. Perhaps the examination of agency records or reports f ile d with state or federal 170 government may reveal a d iffe re n t conclusion. 4. A study of the processes of mentoring, coaching and networking engaged in by minority and female professionals should be conducted. With the per­ ception of the diminishing role of affirm ative action in the occupational m obility process, an examination of this topic may be in order. An inves­ tig ation of this nature may provide greater insight into the occupational m obility process from a personel intraorganizational and interorganizational perspective. 5. A more detailed analysis of the role that job satisfaction plays in the process of occupational mobi1it y may be warranted. The results of this study indicated that the perceived level of job satisfaction did not make a sig nifican t difference in the mobi1ity scores of the sample. For the expressed purposes of this study, the general satisfaction scale was used to assess perceived levels of job satisfaction. This p a rticu lar measure does not f u lly u t i 1ize a l 1 the data that may be obtained when using the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire (short-form). U tiliz a tio n of both the in trin s ic and ex trinsic scales wi11 allow for more detailed analysis of the data. The role that items such as pay, opportunity for advancement, agency policy and general working conditions play in overal1 job satisfaction may provide greater insight into the issue of occupational m obility. In many instances, job sati sfaction may lead to occupational m obility, but i t is also possible that occupational mobi1ity may lead to increased job satisfaction. A closer examination of this issue may lead to c la rific a tio n in terms of how the variable of job satisfaction may relate to occupational m obility. 171 Implications 1. The sample used for this study did not include a ll Blacks employed in agencie? in Michigan, therefore, the following questions need to be addressed to allow for further generalization to a ll Black recreation and park personnel in the State of Michigan. the study sample compare with: How do the findings relevant to (1) Slacks employed in the recreation and park profession that were not included in the sample; (2) other minorities; and (3) non-minorities. 2. The results of the study indicated that the attained level of educa­ tion made no difference in the m obility scores of the respondents. One of the primary implications of this finding is that pursuing a formal educa­ tion a f t e r one is employed fo r a period of time may not be the most produc­ tiv e way to f a c i l i t a t e upward m obility. What appears to be most productive 1s pursuing continuing education through training sessions sponsored by the employer and attending workshops and seminars sponsored by the employer and attending workshops and seminars that are related to the work the employee 1s performing (Cato, 1986). Employers may need to re-evaluate the eduational requirements for jobs within th e ir agencies. Employers, regardless of the profession, wi11 have to place greater emphasis on pre­ paring employees for opportunities for advancement through continuing edu­ cation. 3. Based upon the results of this study, there appears to be an underrepresentation of women in some positions in the support c la s s ific a ­ tion such as planning, or park related work. These positions have h is to r i­ cal ly been dominated by males in the recreation and park profession. 172 Marketing the career and career opportunities to targeted groups such as women; mentoring; and networking may be possible solutions to this problem. The management of local agencies may want to set up pi lo t programs to address this issue. A detailed study of factors influencing occupational choice may bring about further understanding of this problem and aid in fac11ita tin g succession and manpower planning done in local agencies. 4. The results of this study and the study conducted by McDonald (1981) indicated that affirm ative action had 1i t t l e or no impact on occupational mobi1i t y for Black personnel currently working in an agency. The perceived role of affirm ative action programs needs to be examined and evaluated more thoroughly. There are implications for further research in the areas of public administration and public policy studies. 5. As a result of the smal1 body of 1iterature and research pertaining to occupational mobi1it y in the recreation and park profession, there are implications for replication and further research. Considering the pro­ jected economic, employment and demographic trends ( i . e . an increased per­ centage of Blacks, Hispanics, and Asian Americans in the workplace and general population of the U .S .) leading into the 1990*s and into the year 2000, an assessment of manpower needs and present and future mobi1it y pat­ terns may be necessary. terms of projecting: A study of this nature would be invaluable in (1) future supply and demand for personnel in the recreation and park profession; (2) trends and methods for service d e l i very; and (3) the impact of a m ulti-cultural workforce on the process of occupational mobi1it y . 173 Researcher's Closing Remarks There is no question that research related to occupational mobility has it s place in the recreation and park profession. Like employees working in other professions, one of the primary goals of most employees is to better one's position in 1i f e , and in one's profession through advan­ cement. To f a c i l i t a t e this process of occupational m obility, management must understand the factors that comprise the process. One of the principal discoveries that came out of this research e ffo rt was that the process of occupational mobi1it y is extremely complex. No sig n ific a n t relationships were observed between the variables tested in this study suggesting others w ill need to be id en tified and tested. Along with the variables that appear in much of the 1ite ra tu re related to m obility (education and gender), there are those that we know 1i t t l e about. Factors which may intervene into this process, such as tie s in the community and family composition, that may have impact on the process of occupational m obility. Understanding the manner in which these variables work in relationship to occupational m obility may help to understand why people enter this profession and may lead to increased job performance and satisfaction; better managerial practices and better service delivery. In tough economic times, opportunities for advancement may be very 1imited. An understanding of occupational mobi1it y may provide insight for agencies in terms of how to cope with this potential shortage of oppor­ tu n itie s fo r advancement. Strategies may be developed to f a c i 1ita te growth and development without the benefit of a promotion. rotation and job enrichment may be possible options. Lateral transfers, job 174 This study and the study conducted by McDonald (1981) are perhaps the only two research effo rts in this area that relate d ire c tly to the recreation and park profession. The results of both studies provide interesting findings that may serve as a starting point for future research. A common p i t f a l 1 of both studies is that neither study u tiliz e d another racial group to compare and contrast findings. Use of another group wi11 allow for the generalization of results to the broader popula­ tion of recreation and park personnel in Michigan. Overal1, better methods of data col lection and the use of more advanced s ta tis tic a l techniques may provide additional insights into the relationships between variables. Id e a lly , this study has contributed to the body of knowledge related to the study of occupational mobi1i t y within the recreation and park profession in Michigan. Additionally, i t wi11 serve as a useful resource or starting point for future research endeavors both within the profession and among a llie d human service and resource management organizations. BIBLIOGRAPHY BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, J.S. (1963). "Toward an Understanding of Inequity". Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 67, pp. 422-436. Arnold, Hugh J. and Feldman, David C. (1986). 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"Attitudes and Behavioral Intention of Practitioners in the Park and Recreation Profession Toward Continuing Education". Journal of Park and Recreation Administration, Summer, 4, No. 2, pp. 18-32. Cox, Mark Carnius (1985/1986). "The Effects of Black Id e n tific a tio n , Communication Supportiveness and Messages About Race" (Doctoral Dissertation, Purdue University, 1985, 203 pp.) . Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l, 47, 18A-19A. Davis, Keith (1981). Human Behavior at Work: New York: McGraw-Hi11, pp. 56-58. Organizational Behavior. Dreier, Frances Ann (1985). "Career Patterns of Women Educators Within A Local Educational Agency Compared With Their Male Peers" (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1985 p. 15). Dunn, Diana R. (1977). "Women In Recreation", Parks and Recreation Magazine. Arlington, Virginia: National Recreation and Park Association, July, pp. 24-30. 175 176 Dunn, Diana R. (1971). Local Parks and Recreation Survey. 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Hel1r e ig e l, Don, Slocum, John W. and Woodman, Richard W. (1986). Organizational Behavior, (4th e d .). St. Paul: West Publishing Company, pp. 186-192. 177 Henkel, Donald D. and Godbey, Geoffrey C. (1977). Parks, Recreation and Leisure Services Employment in the Public Sector: Status and Trends. Arlington, V irginia: National Recreation and Park Association. Herzberg, F . , Mausner, B ., and Snyderman, B.B.(1959). The Motivation Work. New York: John Wiley and Sons. To Hines, Ethel McCray (1985). "Women In Public School Administration: A Study Of The Present Status Of Female Educators And ThePerceived Factors Impacting On Upward Mobility Into Top-Level Administrative Positions In The State Of Delaware" (Doctoral Dissertation, Auburn University, 1985, 144 p p .). Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l, 46, 1811A. Howard A. and Bray D.W. (September, 1980). Continuities and Discontinuities Between Two Generations Of Bel 1 Systems Managers. A paper presented at the American Psychological Association Annual Convention. Hudson, Richard Lynn (1978). "Factors Which Influence Mobility Of BlacksIn An E lite Corporation: A Case Study Of Black M obility", (Doctoral Dissertation, City University of New York, 1978, 216 p p .) . Jencks, Christopher, et a l . (1979). Who Gets Ahead? Determinants of Economic Success in America. New York: Basic Books. Jones, Wallace Levaun (1980). "Determinants of Earnings and Job Authority for Black and White MBA Managers" (Doctoral Dissertation, Washington University, 1980, 301 p p .). Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l» 41, 1220A-1221A. Kerr, Donna Lee. "A Survey of the Status of Women in the Parks and Recreation Profession in the United States". (Masters Thesis, University of Maryland, 1973, 145 pp.). Korn, Lester (1988). pp. 54-59. "Blocked!". Across the Board, January, 25, No. 1, Leigh, Duane E. "The Occupational Mobility of Young Men", (1976). Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 30, 1, October, pp. 68-78. Lewis, Gregory B ., (1986). "Race, Sex, and Supervisory in Authority Federal White-Collar Employment". Public Administration Review, January/February, 46, No. 1, pp. 25-29. Locke, E. A. "What Is Job Satisfaction?" (1969). Organizational Behavior and Performance, 4> pp. 309-336. Marger, Martin N. (1985). Race and Ethnic Relations: American and Global Perspectives. Belmont: Wadsworth Publishing Company, pp. 45-67. 178 McDonald, Jessyna L. (1981/1982). "An Analysis of the Relationship Among Factors Which May Influence the Occupational Mobility of Black Personnel Within Recreation, Parks and Leisure Services", ( Doctoral D issertation, University of Maryland, 103 p p .). Nalbandian, John (1989). "The U.S. Supreme Court's 'Consensus' on Affirm ative Action". Public Administration Review, January/February, 49, No. 1, pp. 38-44. National Recreation and Park Association (1975). National Personnel Guidelines fo r Park, Recreation and Leisure Services. Arlington, V irginia: National Recreation and Park Association. National Recreation and Park Association (1975). State Park and Recreation S t a t is t ie s . Arlington, V irginia: National Recreation and Park Association. Newman, William M. (1973). American Plural ism: A Study Of Minority Groups and Social Theory. New York: Harper and Row. Penn, Clarence Preston (1985/1986). "S atisfiers and D issatisfiers of Selected Black School Administrators in Vi rginia (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Vi rg in ia, 1985, 148 pp .). Perry, Linda M. (1985). "Relationship Between Objective Equity in Pay and Occupational Prestige, Subjective Equity and Job Satisfaction" (Doctoral Dissertation, University Of Michigan, 1985, 209 p p .). Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l, 46, 1112A. Popenoe, David (1983). Sociology. Englewood C l i f f s , New Jersey: Prentice-Hal1, I n c . , 1983 (5th e d . ) , pp. 301-303. R iley, Teresa Marie (1984/1985). "The Impact of Antidiscrimination Legislation on the Employment Status of Women" (Doctoral Dissertation, Syracuse University, 1984, 172 pp.) . Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l, 46, 492A. Robinson, P atricia (1986). "Women's Occupational Attainment: The Effects of Work Interruptions, Self Selection, and Unobserved Characteristics". Social Science Research, December, 15, No. 4, pp. 325-328. Salmon, Jaslin U. (1979). Black Executives in White Businesses. Washington, D.C.: University Press of America, I n c . , p. 110. Sandefur, Gary D. (1981). "Organizational Boundaries and Upward Job S h ifts " . Social Science Research, March, 10, No. 1, pp. 69-72. Shaffer, Linda (1978). "Job Mobi1it y and Labor Market Segmentation" (Doctoral Di ssertation, Northwestern University, 1978, 207 pp .). Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l, 39, 1356A. 179 Shivers, Marian C. (1985). "Black Women Administrators in California Community Colleges: Perceived Influence of Sex and Race Discrimination and Affirmative Action" (Doctoral Dissertation, University of the P ac ific , 1985, 197 p p .). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46, 1491A. S ilb e r t , Susan G. (1985). "Making i t to the Top: A Study of Black Partners in Major Law Firms" (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Southern C a lifo rn ia , 1985, 109 p p .). Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l, 46, 1154A. Slack, James B. (1987). "Affirmative Action and City Managers: Attitudes Toward Recruitment of Women". Public Administration Review, March/April, 47, No. 2 , pp. 199-205. Sokoloff, Natalie J. (1988). "Evaluating Gains and Losses by Black and White Women and Men in the Professions 1960-1980". Social Problems, February, 35, No. 1, pp. 37-49. Stein, Thomas A. SPRE Report on the State of Recreation and Park Education in Canada and the United States. Arlinqton, V irq inia , 1975. Taylor, Marylee C. and Tuch, Steven A. (1986). "Whites' Opinions About In s titu tio n a l Constraints on Racial Equality". Sociology and Social Research, July, 70, No. 4, pp. 268-271. Tuma, N. (1976). "Rewards, Resources and the Rate of Mobility: A Nonstationary M u ltivariate Stochastic Model". American Sociological Review, 41, pp. 338-360. U.S. Bureau of the Census. "The Social and Economic Status of the Black Population in the United States: An Historical Overview, 1790-1978". Current Population Reports, Series P-23, No. 80. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing O ffice. Verdugo, Naomi Turner (1985/1987). "Earnings Differences Among Black, White and Hispanic Males and Females: The Impact of Overeducation, Undereducation and Discrimination" (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Southern C alifo rn ia , 1985, 135 pp .). Dissertation Abstracts In te rn a tio n a l, 47, 2748A. Verhoven, Peter J. and Lancaster, Roger A. (1975). Municipal Recreation and Parks Services. Arlington, Vi rginia: National Recreation and Park Association. Weiss, Leonard (1978). "Black Education, Earnings and Interregional Migration: Even Newer Evidence". American Economic Review, 65, pp. 241-244. 180 Wexley, Kenneth N. and Yuki, Gary A. (1984). Organizational Behavior and Personnel Psychology. Homewood, I l l i n o i s : Richard D. Irwin, In c ., (rev. e d . ) , p. 46. Wright, J r . , Roosevelt, Wesley-K1ng, Shirley, and Berg, William E. (1987). "Job Satisfaction Among Black Female Managers: A Causal Approach". Human Relations, 40, No. 8, pp. 489-506. Yankelovich, Daniel and Immerwahr, John. "Putting the Work Ethic to Work". New York: Public Agenda Foundation, 1983, p. 1. APPENDIX A PLEASE NOTE: Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author’s university library. These consist of pages: 181-182, Appendix A UM I 183 APPENDIX A - TABLE 3 OCCUPATIONAL STATUS RANKINGS BY OCCUPATIONAL FUNCTION Occupational T i t l e / Occupational Function____________ C o u n t S t a t u s Score Column % Administrative (15) Director of Parks and Recreation 2 .94 1.8% Director of Recreation 4 .92 3.6% Director of Parks 1 .91 .9% Assistant Director 4 .89 3.6% Administrative Assistant 4 .74 2.6% Budget O fficer 0 .72 0.0% D is t r ic t Supervisor 10 .85 9.0% F a c ilit y Director 12 .79 10.8% 9 .75 8.1% 12 .64 10.8% 0 .58 0.0% 22 .50 19.8% Park Planner 0 .58 0.0% Senior Park or Operations S ta ff 6 .41 5.4% Park Patrol O fficer 0 .39 0.0% 16 .30 14.4% Custodian 6 .23 5.4% Secretary 3 .23 2.7% Totals 111 Supervisory (31) Functional Supervisor Leadership (34) Special Program Coordinator Therapeutic Recreation Specialist Recreation Leader Support (31) Park or Operations S ta ff 100. 0% J.84 APPENDIX A - TABLE 4 SUMMARY OF CHANGES IN OCCUPATIONAL STATUS SCORES 1984-88 FOR BLACK RECREATION AND PARK PERSONNEL IN MICHIGAN Occupational Category Count Upward Column^ Stable Count Column% Downward Count Co1umn% Administrative Assistant 2 5.71% 0 0.00% 1 7.70% Assistant Director 3 8.57% 0 0.00% 1 7.70% Custodian 0 0.00% 5 7.94% 1 7.70% Director of 2 Parks and Recreation 5.71% 0 0.00% 0 0.00% Director of Recreation 3 8.57% 1 1.59% 0 0.00% Director of Parks 1 2.86% 0 0.00% 0 0.00% D is t r ic t Supervisor 5 14.29% 3 4.76% 2 15.38% Faci1i t y Director 3 8.57% 9 14.28% 0 0.00% Functional Supervisor 3 8.57% 6 9.52% 0 0.00% Park or Operations S taff 2 5.71% 12 19.05% 2 15.38% Recreation Leader 2 5.71% 18 28.58% 2 15.38% Secretary 0 0.00% 3 4.76% 0 0.00% Special Program Coordinator 5 14.29% 4 6.35% 2 15.38% Senior Park or Operations S taff 3 8.57% 0 0.00% 0 0.00% Other 1 2.86% 2 3.17% 2 15.38% 35 100.00% 63 100.00% 13 100.00% Totals APPENDIX B 185 TITLE: AH ANALYSIS O F THE PERCEIVED BARRIERS TO OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY AS REPORTED BY BLACKS EMPLOYED IN MUNICIPAL RECREATION AND PARK AGENCIES IN MICHIGAN S teven IH. W aller Doctoral Candidate Department of Park and Recreation Resources Michigan State University 186 INSTRUCTIONS ^jphank you for taking the time to be a part of this research effort. Your participation in this study is STRICTLY VOLUNTARY. You indicate your voluntary agreement to participate by completing and returning this questionnaire. The time and energy that you are about to put into answering this questionnaire booklet is appreciated. Please take your time and answer every question to the best of your ability. All responses to items contained in the questionnaire will be STRICTLY CONFIDENTIAL. The questionnaire has four sections: Section I - Occupational Status Scale - rate the status of several occupational titles. Section II - Mobility Information - provide a history of your job changes over the past five years. Section III - Job Satisfaction Survey - provide information pertaining to how satisfied you are with your current job. Section IV - Demographic information - asks you to provide some basic background information about yourself. When you have completed the questionnaire, please return it in the stamped, self-addressed envelope which is attached. Please make every effort to return the questionnaire no later than Friday, July 29, 1988. If there are any questions pertaining to the content of this questionnaire, please contact Steven Waller at (313) 766-7463 between the hours of 8:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m., Monday thru Friday or (313) 743-6403 after 6:00 p.m. daily. Thank You! 2 187 Section I: Occupational Status Scale JT or each of the occupational titles mentioned below, please select the statement that most accurately indicates your opinion of the status of each job by placing an (x) in the appropriate column. "Status" is defined as the perceived importance of the position within the agency structure: (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) High Status Moderately High Status Average Status Below Average Status Low Status 2 3 4 5 2. Assistant Director - May be called "Deputy Director". The assistant is 1 responsible for delegated functions including planning, administration, and supervision as delegated by the Departm ent Director. 2 3 4 5 3. Budget Officer - May be called "Budget Accountant" or "Fiscal Operations 1 Manager". Responsible for budgeting and financial administration for the Departm ent of Parks and Recreation. 2 3 4 4. Custodian - Under the supervision of a higher level employee, is responsible for maintaining recreation facilities and grounds. 2 CO 4 3 4 1 1. Administrative Assistant - Assistant to the Director of the Department or 1 Division. Responsible for administrative functions such as budgeting, personnel management, purchasing and related support functions. No direct supervision of other employees. 1 I 5. Director of Parks and Recreation - Chief Administrative Officer in a department that has recreation and park functions, Ultimately responsible for all departmental operations. 6. Director of Recreation - May also be referred to as "Superintendent of l Recreation". Chief administrative officer responsible for all facets of the 7. Director of Parks - may also be known as "Superintendent of Parks". Chief administrative officer responsible for planning, developing and maintaining specialized or general recreation facilities such as play areas, parks and other green belts comprising the parks system. 3 2 5 Section I: QcciipatloiBaB Status Scale 188 2 3 4 5 11. P ark Planner - May also be called Landscape Architect. Duties may include 1 planning and design of park areas and facilities, preparing bid documents and cost estimates; preparation of drawings and sketches and master plans. 2 3 4 5 12. P ark o r Operations Staff - Under supervision responsible for performance of 1 routine grounds, forestry, or facility maintenance work. 2 3 4 13. P ark Patrol Officer - As a certified law enforcement officer, patrols park and l recreation area and facilities, enforces laws and park ordinances; lends assistance 2 3 4 8. District Supervisor - Under direction, responsible for the supervision of the 1 work of others in all phases of the recreation program for a district or large geographic section of an urban area. 9. Facility Director - Under direction, responsible for the administration of a special facility such as a swimming pool/ ice rink complex, zoo, community center, golf course or camp facility. Duties may include supervision of lower level employees, planning, programming for the operation of the facility. 10. Functional Supervisor - Under direction, responsible for the supervision of lower level employees in the planning and organizing of an assigned function or specialized field of the community wide program. Recreation supervisors may be responsible for programs such as athletics, cultural arts or special events. Park supervisors may be responsible for landscape design, facility maintenance or equipment repair. i 5 . 14. Recreation Leader - Under supervision, responsible for planning and implementing a wide range of programs for a park area or recreation facility. 15. Secretary - performs routine and specialized clerical tasks for a recreation or park facility or main office. 16. Senior P ark or Operations Staff - Under supervision, responsible for a variety of skilled grounds, facility, equipment or construction work. May supervise a crew of lower level employees. 17. Special Program Coordinator - Under supervision responsible for 1 implementation of specialized programs such as athletics, special events or cultural arts on a city-wide basis for a facility. 2 3 4 5 18. Therapeutic Recreation Specialist - Responsible for planning, implementation 1 and evaluation of a therapeutic recreation program in a clinical or community-based environment. 2 3 4 5 4 189 Section II Mobility Information % Jnstructions: Please place an (x) in the appropriate space which most accurately indicates your response to the following items: A. Present Occupation: Of the occupational titles listed below, which one most accurately describes your current position? Please place an (x) in the appropriate space. Check one only. (Refer to Part I for position descriptions). 01. Administrative Assistant 02. Assistant Director 03. Budget Officer 04. Custodian 05. Director of Parks and Recreation 06. Director (Superintendent) of Recreation 07. Director (Superintendent) of Parks 08. District Supervisor 09. Facility Director 10. Functional Supervisor 11. Park Planner 12. Park or Operations Staff 13. Park Patrol Officer 14. Recreation Leader 15. Secretary 16. Senior Park or Operations Staff 17. Special Program Coordinator 18. Therapeutic Recreation Specialist 19. Other : Please Specify: ___________________________ B. Using the occupational titles listed above, BEGINNING WITH YOUR CURRENT POSITION, list the title number, location, number of years you worked in that job, and the year you started that position. Place this information in the table presented below. Position# Agency/City-State ft * - Place Your Current Position Number in This Place 5 # of Years Year Started Section II: Mobility Information 190 C. Are you presently seeking a position which you consider to be a career advancement? 20. Yes 2 1 ._________ _ N o D. If your Departm ent offered you a position which you considered to be a career advancement, would you accept it? 22. Yes 23. _ _ _ _ _ No E. If you were offered a position in another city or state which you considered to be a career advancement would you accept it? 24. Yes 25. No If no, if the pay were greater would you accept the position? 26. Yes 27. No F. In the last year, have you been offered a position which you consider to be a career advancement? 28. Yes 29. No If yes, did you accept the position? 30. Yes 31. No G. In the last five years have you been offered a position within your department that is lower than the one you currently hold? 3 2 ._______ Yes 3 3 ._______ No If yes, was this proposed change due to: 34. Budget Reductions 35. Disciplinary Reasons 36. O ther (Please Explain): H. Within the last 5 years, have you participated in any in-service training or continuing education seminars sponsored by your employer or professional associations such as NRPA or MRPA? 37._____ Yes3 8 . No If no do you have any plans in the future to do so? 39. Yes 40. No I. Within the last 5 years have you enrolled in a college or university to complete an undergraduate or advanced degree? 4 1 .____ Yes4 2 . No If no, do you plan to enroll in the future? 4 3 . 6 Yes 44. No Section II: Mobility Information 191 J. Does the city that you work for have an affirmative action program? 46. No 47. Uncertain 45.______Yes K. In your opinion, did you obtain your current position because of affirmative action? 48. Yes 49 No 50. Uncertain L.Who in your department was responsible for hiring you? (Place an (x) in only one space). 51. Immediate Supervisor 52. Division Superintendent 53.______Department Director 54. Personnel Director 55.______ Other- T itle ___________________________ M. What was the race of the person that hired you? 56. Black 57. White/Caucasian 60. ______O ther 58. Hispanic 59. Asian N. What was the gender of the person that hired you? 61.______ Male 62. Female O. Have you ever felt as though your race, gender or both prevented you from obtaining a promotion? 64. No 63.______ Yes If yes, please indicate whether race or gender and explain in the space provided below: P. Have you ever felt as though your race or gender helped you obtain a promotion? 65._______ Yes 66.______No Q. Have you ever filed charges of discrimination against any of your employers, past or present? 67. Yes 68. No 7 PLEASE NOTE: Copyrighted materials in this document have not been filmed at the request of the author. They are available for consultation, however, in the author’s university library. These consist of pages: 192-193, Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire UM I 194 P art IV: Em ploym ent and Dem ographic In fo rm a tio n Jnstructions: Please complete the following items listed below to the best of your ability. Your cooperation is appreciated. 1. Please indicate the name of the city where you are employed. 2. Please print the title and title number of the position you are currently working in and the number of years you have worked in this position (refer to occi> t ^iional titles listed on page 5). Title of Current Position Held Title No. Number of Years In this Position 3. Please indicate the total number of years that you have been employed in the field of recreation and parks. Total Number of Years in the Field 4. Please indicate your gender by placing an (x) in the appropriate space. Male Female 5. Please indicate your age 6. Please circle the number of years of schooling you have completed. 4 5 6 7 8 9 Grade School 17 18 19 10 11 12 Fr. So. Jr. Sr. 13 14 15 16 High School College 20 Graduate O r Professional Degree 7. Please indicate your most recent diploma/degree you have been awarded by placing an (x) in the appropriate space. _______ High School Diploma Associates Degree _______Bachelor’s Degree M aster’s Degree _______Specialist Degree_______ ______ Doctorate 10 Part IV: Employment and Demographic Information 195 8. Please place an (x) in the appropriate space that most accurately reflects your salary range. $10,000-$14,999 $35,0000 - $39,999 $15,000 - $19,999 $40,0000 - $44,999 $20,000 - $24,999 $45,0000 - $49,999 $25,000 - $29,999 $50,0000 - $54,999 $30,000 - $34,999 $55,0000 + THANK YOU FO R YO UR COOPERATION. PLEASE PLACE YOUR COMPLETED QUESTIONNAIRE IN T H E ENCLOSED ENVELOPE AND MAIL IT TODAY. 196 CODE D A T E M A IL E D RETURNED APPENDIX C 197 M IC H IG A N S T A TE U N IV E R S IT Y UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE O N RESEARCH INVOLVING EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824-1111 HUMAN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS) 206 BERKEY HALL (517) 353-9738 June 16,1988 Steven Waller 3468 Evergreen Pkwy. Flint, MI 48503 D ear Mr. Waller: Subject: "A PERCEPTUAL STUDY OF THE OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY PATTERNS OF BLACKS EMPLOYED IN MUNICIPAL RECREATION AND PARK AGENCIES IN MICHIGAN IRB# 88-203" The above project is exempt from full UCRIHS review. I have reviewed the proposed research protocol and find that the rights and welfare of human subjects appear to be protected. You have approval to conduct the research. You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate UCRIHS approval one month prior to June 16. 1989. Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified promptly of any problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the course of the work. Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help, please do not hesitate to let us know. Sincerely, a J o in K. Hudzik, Ph.D. Chair, UCRIHS JK H /sar cc: J. Fridgen M S U is a n A f f ir m a t iv e A c t io n / E q u a l O p p o r tu n it y I n s titu t io n 198 M IC H IG A N STATE U N IV E R S IT Y DEPARTMENT OF PARK AND RECREATION RESOURCES EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824-1222 NATURAL RESOURCES BUILDING May 27, 1988 Dear Colleague: As you are aware, opportunities for career advancement and especially "upward mobility" are common concerns that professionals employed by municipal recreation and park agencies share. With your assistance and cooperation, I would like to implement a study which will examine factors which may have an impact on occupational mobility for black personnel employed by municipal recreation and park agencies in Michigan. This research effort is entitled "A Perceptual Study of the Occupational Mobility Patterns of Blacks Employed in Muni­ cipal Recreation and Park Agencies in Michigan." I am conducting this project as part of my Ph.D. dissertation in the Department of Park and Recreation Resources at Michigan State University. To conduct this study a sample of black employees must be contacted. If you have black employees currently working in your agency who have a minimum of three years of full-time experience, please forward their names, business addresses and business telephone numbers so that I may contact them and invite them to take part in the study. You should know that data analyses will not be conducted at the city or individual level; results will be discussed in terms of the state of Michigan as a wh-ie. All information collected will be held in the strictest of con­ fidence, and their participation is voluntary. A self-addressed, stamped envelope has been enclosed for your convenience. I thank you in advance for your valuable time, patience and professional concern. Your assistance in promptly returning the requested informa­ tion is greatly appreciated. The results of this study will be avail­ able for your review upon request. Steven Waller Ph.D Candidate Joseph D. Fridgen Associate Professor Guidance Committee Chairman Dept. of Park and Recreation Resources Michigan State University M S U is an A f f ir m a t iv e A c t io n /E q u a l O p p o r tu n it y I n s t it u t io n 199 M IC H IG A N S T A TE U N IV E R S IT Y DEPARTMENT OF PARK AND RECREATION RESOURCES EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824-1222 NATURAL RESOURCES BUILDING Ju ly 21, 1988 Dear Colleague: O pportunities fo r c a re e r advancement a re corrmon concerns th a t black p ro fes­ s io n a ls employed by m unicipal re c re a tio n and park agencies sh a re. I am con­ ducting a study which w ill examine fa c to rs which may have an impact on occu­ p a tio n a l n o b ility . This research e f f o r t i s e n ti t le d "An A nalysis o f th e Perceived B a rrie rs to Occupational M obility as Reported by Blacks Employed In Municipal Recreation and Park Agencies in Michigan". I am conducting t h is study as a p a rt of my Ph.D. d is s e r ta tio n in th e Department o f Park and R ecreation Resources at Michigan S ta te U n iv ersity . Your p a rtic ip a tio n in t h i s study i s s t r i c t l y voluntary. You in d ic a te your voluntary agreement to p a r tic ip a te by completing and re tu rn in g th e attached q u e stio n n a ire . A ll responses c o lle c te d w ill be held in th e s t r i c t e s t of con­ fidence and d a ta c o lle c te d w ill not be analyzed on an in d iv id u al o r agency b a s is ; r e s u lts w ill be discussed in term s o f th e s t a t e o f Michigan as a whole. T his w ill ensure your anonimity as a p a rtic ip a n t in t h i s study. I t would be g re a tly ap p reciated i f you would complete and re tu rn th e a tta c h ­ ed q u e stio n n a ire no l a t e r than F riday, Ju ly 29, 1988. For your convenience, a se lf-a d d re sse d , stamped enveloped has been enclosed. To address any questions o r concerns about th e study o r th e content of th e q u e stio n n a ire , I can be contacted a t 313-766-7463 between th e hours of 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p.m ., Monday th ru Friday o r 313-743-6403 a f t e r 6:00 p.m. d a ily . I thank you in advance fo r your cooperation and invaluable a ssista n c e . Your a s s is ta n c e in promptly re tu rn in g th e q u estio n n aire i s g re a tly appre­ c ia te d . The r e s u lts of t h i s study w ill be made a v a ila b le to you upon re ­ quest . S in c e re ly , Steven W aller Ph.D. Candidate Joseph D. Fridgen, Ph.D. A ssociate P ro fesso r Guidance Conmittee Chairperson Dept, o f Park and R ecreation Resources Michigan S ta te U niversity M S U is a n A f f i r m a t iv e A c t io n / E q u a l O p p o r tu n it y I n s titu t io n 200 M IC H IG A N S T A TE U N IV E R S IT Y DEPARTMENT OF PARK A N D RECREATION RESOURCES EAST LANSING • MICHIGAN • 48824-1222 NATURAL RESOURCES BUILDING August 1, 1988 Dear C olleague: O p p o rtu n ities fo r c a re e r advancement a re ccciron concerns th a t black p ro fes­ s io n a ls employed by m unicipal re c re a tio n and park agencies sh a re. I am con­ d u ctin g a study which w ill examine fa c to rs which may have an impact on occu­ p a tio n a l m o b ility . T his research e f f o r t i s e n ti t le d "An A nalysis o f th e Perceived B a rrie rs to O ccupational M obility as Reported by Blacks Bnployed In Municipal R ecreation and Park Agencies in Michigan". I am conducting t h i s study as a p a rt o f my Ph.D. d is s e r ta tio n in th e Department o f Park and R ecreation Resources a t Michigan S ta te U niversity. Your p a rtic ip a tio n in t h i s study i s s t r i c t l y voluntary- You in d ic a te your v oluntary agreement t o p a r tic ip a te by completing and re tu rn in g th e a ttac h ed q u e stio n n a ire . A ll responses c o lle c te d w ill be held in th e s t r i c t e s t o f con­ fidence and d a ta c o lle c te d w ill not be analyzed on an in d iv id u a l o r agency b a s is ; r e s u lts w ill be discussed in term s o f th e s t a t e o f Michigan as a w hole. T his w ill ensure your anonimity as a p a rtic ip a n t in t h i s study. I t would be g re a tly ap p reciated i f you would complete and re tu rn th e a tta c h ­ ed q u e stio n n a ire no l a t e r than Friday, August 5, 1988. Bor your convenience, a se lf-a d d re s s e d , stamped enveloped has been enclosed. To address any q uestions o r concerns about th e study o r th e content o f th e q u e stio n n a ire , I can be contacted a t 313-766-7463 between th e hours o f 8:00 a.m. and 5:00 p .m ., Monday th r u Friday or 313-743-6403 a f t e r 6:00 p.m. d a ily . I thank you in advance f o r your cooperation and invaluable a s s is ta n c e . Your a s s is ta n c e in promptly re tu rn in g th e q u estio n n a ire i s g re a tly appre­ c ia te d . The r e s u l ts o f t h i s study w ill be made a v a ila b le to you upon r e ­ q u est. S in c e re ly , Steven W aller Ph.D. Candidate Joseph D. Fridgen, Ph.D. A ssociate P ro fesso r Guidance Gonmittee Chairperson Dept, o f Park and R ecreation Resources Michigan S ta te U niversity M S U is am A f f ir m a t iv e A c t io n / E q u a l O p p o r tu n it y I n s t it u t io n 200 >TEYEN Wa l l e r _ >468 E v e r g r e e n Pkwy. 'L I N T , M IC HIG A N HELP! D ID YOU FORGET TO COMPLETE AND RETURN THE QUESTION­ N A IR E P E R TA IN IN G TO OCCUPATIONAL M O B IL IT Y FOR BLACK EMPLOYEES WORKING IN RECREATION AND PARK AGENCIES IN M IC H IG A N ? I F SO, PLEASE TAKE 15 M IN UTES OF YOUR T IM E AND COMPLETE THE Q U E S TIO N N A IR E . A STAMPED, SELF-ADDRESSED ENVELOPE WAS ENCLOSED W ITH THE Q UESTIONNAIRE FOR YOUR CONVENIENCE. IF THERE ARE ANY Q U ES TIO N S, PLEASE CALL ME AT o r 1-313-743-M03-H. I t h a n k you FOR YOUR T IM E AND PROMPT RESPONSE TO T H IS REQUEST. 1-313-766-7463-B S IN C E R E L Y , " " S te v e n W a l l e r Ph .D. C a n d id a te M ic h ig a n S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y