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O rder N u m ber 9102697

A stu d y o f th e espoused value system s o f superintendents and
aspiring superintendents in M ichigan
Kingsnorth, John Daryl, Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1990

UMI

300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106

A STUDY OF THE ESPOUSED VALUE SYSTEMS OF SUPERINTENDENTS
AND ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENTS IN MICHIGAN

By
Jo hn D. K i n g s n o r t h

A DISSERTATION

S u b m it te d t o
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y
in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e requirem ents
f o r th e degree of

DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

D epartment o f E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n

ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF THE ESPOUSED VALUE SYSTEMS OF SUPERINTENDENTS
AND ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENTS IN MICHIGAN
By
John D. K i n g s n o r t h

This
system s

study
of

designed

to

su perintendents

superintendency
statistical

was

to

te st

and

determine

was

identify
those

what

pe rf or m e d

to

and
who

differences
determine

compare

the

asp ire

to

exist.

whether

value
the

Also,

an

a

im ba lan ce

e x i s t s between t h e "head" and " h e a r t " i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s di c h o to m y .
Head v a l u e s
values

refer

to

com petence-oriented

r e f e r to m oral-oriented

ones.

qualities,

Personal

value

w he re as

heart

s ys t em s

were

measured u s i n g t h e Rokeach Values Survey and a dem ographic q u e s t i o n ­
naire.

A random

sample

of

superintendents

A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s
of

N onpublic

Schools

(NSS)

w ithin

the

Michigan

(PSS) and Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n

com prised

o ne

study

group

(PRS).

S t u d e n t / e d u c a t o r s e n r o l l e d in Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ’ s Dep art me nt
o f E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n co m pri se d t h e second s t u d y gr o up (AS).
Each

group’s

totals

were

calculated,

and

Kruskal-W allis

one-way

a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e and t - t e s t s were p er f or m e d on t h e d a t a .
The f i r s t m a jo r f i n d i n g r e v e a l e d from t h e d a t a was t h a t t h e PRS
and t h e AS d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y on n i n e v a l u e s .

However, when t h e

Jo hn D. K in g s n o r t h
PRS was s u b d i v i d e d i n t o PSS and NSS and t h e n compared w i t h t h e AS,
20

values

larg e st

were

found

to

be

different

nu m be r o f d i f f e r e n c e s

compared w i t h any o t h e r g r o u p .

between

occurred

the

groupsThe

whenever

the

NSS w e r e

The PRS’ s v a l u e s y s t e m s were found

t o be v e r y s i m i l a r t o CEOs i n t h e b u s i n e s s w o r l d .

Also, d i f f e r e n c e s

were d i s c o v e r e d between ma le PRS and f e m a l e AS and a l s o between PRS
and AS who were i n t h e 2 5 - 4 9 - y e a r - o l d age b r a c k e t .

The second m a jo r

f i n d i n g was t h a t o n l y t h e NSS had a b a l a n c e d h e a d / h e a r t d ic h o to m y .
The

other

g ro u p s

r an k ed

the

head

values

higher

than

the

heart

v a l u e s , t h u s r e v e a l i n g t h e em pha sis on comp eten ce v e r s u s c o n c e r n f o r
ethics.

However,

it

was

determined

from

the

data

that

as

the

a d m i n i s t r a t o r g a i n e d more e x p e r i e n c e t h e h e a d / h e a r t dich oto my became
in b a l a n c e .

T h i s was t h e p a t t e r n among a l l t h e g r o u p s .

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Anyone

who

has

been

through

the

process

of

com pleting

a

d o c t o r a t e knows what a l e s s o n i n p e r s i s t e n c e i t i s .

Also, he/she is

aware

many

of

the

enormous

people.

In p a r t i c u l a r ,

Dr. John

Suehr,

support

one

I would

my a d v i s o r .

receives

like

His

to

from

express

dem onstration

different

my g r a t i t u d e
of

to

enco ur ag em ent

p r o v i d e s an o u t s t a n d i n g model o f how t o d e a l w i t h a d u l t s t u d e n t s and
people in g e n e r a l .

I would a l s o l i k e t o t h a n k t h e o t h e r p r o f e s s o r s

on my com mi tt ee f o r t h e i r h e l p :

Dr.

J an Alleman,

Dr.

Frank F e a r ,

and Dr. Samuel Moore I I .
Thanks

to

my p a r e n t s ,

Daryl

and

G ladys

K ingsnorth,

i n s t i l l i n g in me t h e v a l u e o f s t r i v i n g t o r e a c h a g o a l .
can

do

it"

attitude

developed

in

me t h e

for

T h e i r "you

perseverance

needed

to

co m p le te t h i s work.
Finally,

t o my c h i l d r e n ,

Julie

k i s s e s and hugs you gave me as

and J . D . ,

I left

the

thanks

house f o r c l a s s .

patience

and l o v e were s u r p a s s e d o n l y by y o u r Mom.

grateful

to

patience,

my b e s t

prayers,

friend

and

l i f e ’s

partner,

and l o v i n g en c o u r a g e m e n t .

f o r t h e many

It

g r a t i t u d e t o my f a m i l y t h a t I d e d i c a t e t h i s work.

Your

I am f o r e v e r

Jackie,

for

her

i s w i t h l o v e and

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF T A B L E S .......................................................................................................

viii

LIST OF FIGURES.......................................................................................................

ix

Chapter
I.

II.

.........................................................................................

1

Re s ea r c h Q u e s t i o n s
......................................................................
Re s ea r c h Q u e s t i o n 1 ..................................................................
R es e a rc h Q u e s t i o n 2 ..................................................................
V a r i a b l e s ..............................................................................................
D e l i m i t a t i o n s .....................................................................................
L i m i t a t i o n s .........................................................................................
A s s u m p t i o n s .........................................................................................
D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms ..................................................................
Summary and O v e r v i e w ..................................................................

6
6
9
10
11
12
13
14
15

REVIEW OF LITERATURE......................................................................

17

The S tud y o f V a l u e s ......................................................................
How Have V al ue s Been D e f i n e d ? ...........................................
How Have V al ue s Been Measured? ......................................
V alu es Development, V alues Change, and t h e
I n f l u e n c e o f E d u c a t i o n and E x p e r i e n c e on
V a l u e s .........................................................................................
Va lue s and B e h a v i o r ..................................................................
Study o f V alues S u m m a r y ........................................................
V a l u e s , Le ad er B e h a v i o r , and O r g a n i z a t i o n a l
E f f e c t i v e n e s s ................................................................................
The Im p o rt an ce o f V alu es in O r g a n i z a t i o n a l
E f f e c t i v e n e s s ...........................................................................
T r a n s m i s s i o n o f L e a d e r s ’ V alu es ......................................
C o n s i s t e n c y and Congruency o f V alu es
........................
V a l u e s , Le ad er B e h a v i o r , and O r g a n i z a t i o n a l
E f f e c t i v e n e s s Summary ........................................................
V alu es and E t h i c s ...........................................................................
The Link Between Va lues and E t h i c s .............................
H e a d /H e a rt D i s c u s s i o n .............................................................
Va lues and E t h i c s Summary ....................................................

17
17
23

INTRODUCTION

v

28
33
37
37
37
41
44
48
48
48
51
55

Page

III.

IV.

V.

Va lues and E d u c a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p ......................................
The S t a t u s o f V alues in E d u c a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p
.
Va lues and A d m i n i s t r a t o r T r a i n i n g .................................
Values and E d u c a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p Summary . . . .
S u m m a r y ..................................................................................................

55
55
57
60
60

PROCEDURES AND METHODS..................................................................

61

P o p u l a t i o n and Sample ..................................................................
The P o p u l a t i o n ...........................................................................
Sample S i z e .....................................................................................
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Chief Educational Leaders
From t h e P u b l i c Sc ho ol s (PSS) ......................................
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f C h i e f E d u c a t i o n a l L ea de r s
in t h e No np ubl ic Sc ho ol s (NSS)
.................................
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Aspiring Chief Educational
Le a de rs ( A S ) ...........................................................................
The Survey I n s t r u m e n t ..................................................................
Demographic I n f o r m a t i o n .........................................................
The Rokeach Value Survey ....................................................
C o l l e c t i o n o f D a t a ......................................................................
A n a l y s i s o f Data ...........................................................................
Null H y p o t h e s i s 1 .....................................................................
Null H y p o t h e s i s 2 .....................................................................
S u m m a r y ..................................................................................................

61
61
61

64
67
67
68
70
71
71
72
73

F I N D I N G S ..................................................................................................

74

R e s u l t s f o r H y p o t h e s i s 1 .........................................................
D iscussion of th e Findings f o r Hypothesis 1 . . .
R e s u l t s f o r H y p o t h e s i s 2 .........................................................
D iscussion o f th e Findings f o r Hypothesis 2 . . .
S u m m a r y ..................................................................................................

74
79
96
97
106

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND
REFLECTIONS.........................................................................................

107

S u m m a r y ..................................................................................................
P r o c e d u r e s .........................................................................................
F i n d i n g s ..............................................................................................
C o n c l u s i o n s .........................................................................................
Recommendations ................................................................................
Recommendations f o r F u t u r e R es e a rc h .................................
R e f l e c t i o n s .........................................................................................

107
109
110
113
116
119
120

vi

63
64

Page
APPENDICES
A.

COVER LETTER TO SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY

B.

COVER LETTER TO ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENT VALUES
S U R V E Y ..................................................................................................

124

ENDORSEMENT LETTER FROM THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF
THE MICHIGAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS .

125

D.

SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY

.....................................................

126

E.

ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY ..................................

129

F.

FOLLOW-UP LETTER

.................................................................................

132

G.

PROFILES OF THE SUPERINTENDENT GROUPS’ VALUE
SYSTEM RANKINGS ................................................................................

133

THE FORMULA, CALCULATION, AND RATIONALE USED IN
DETERMINING APPROPRIATE SAMPLE SIZE ......................................

137

PERMISSION LETTER FROM UCRIHS .....................................................

138

C.

H.

I.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

. . . .

............................................................................................................

v ii

123

139

LIST OF TABLES
Table

Page

1.

D istribution

o f Re sp on den ts

by Age

...........................................

66

2.

D istribution

o f R esp o nd en ts

by E x p e r i e n c e .............................

66

3.

D istribution

o f Re sp ond ent s

by Gender

66

4.

D istribution

o f R esp on den ts

by School D i s t r i c t Type . .

5.

Term inal Value Mean Rankings o f t h e PRS and AS, and
R esults of the K ruskal-W allis Test fo r S ig n if i c a n t
D ifferences
...........................................................................

76

I n s t r u m e n t a l Value Mean Rankings o f t h e PRS and AS,
and R e s u l t s o f t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s T e s t f o r S i g n i f i ­
c a n t D i f f e r e n c e s ...............................................................................

77

Term inal Value Mean Rankings o f t h e PSS, NSS, and AS,
and R e s u l t s o f t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s T e s t f o r S i g n i f i ­
cant D i f f e r e n c e s

78

I n s t r u m e n t a l Value Mean Rankings o f t h e PSS, NSS, and
AS, and R e s u l t s o f t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s T e s t f o r
S i g n i f i c a n t D i f f e r e n c e s .................................................................

79

R e s u l t s o f t h e Po st- Ho c A n a l y s i s o f t h e Terminal
Values o f t h e PSS, NSS, and A S ...............................................

80

R e s u l t s o f t h e Po st- Ho c A n a l y s i s o f t h e I n s t r u m e n t a l
Values o f t h e PSS, NSS, and A S ...............................................

80

11.

The H e a d /H e a r t B al a n c e as Determined by t h e T - T e s t

98

12.

Summary o f S i g n i f i c a n t l y D i f f e r e n t Va lues as
Dete rm ine d by t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s T e s t Between
t h e PSS, NSS, and A S ......................................................................

Ill

The Most C e n t r a l (Top T h i r d ) Values o f t h e PRS, PSS,
NSS, and A S .............................................................................................

115

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

13.

viii

...................................

. .

67

LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
1.

Page
E n g l a n d ’ s C e n t r a l i t y S ph ere

ix

........................................................

22

CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Values

are

im portant

adm inistrative position,
central

elem ents

in

the

including the superintendency.

t o a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n making.

tendent

make

a

decision

that

application of existing ru le s.
made by making a ju d g m e n t,
claim s.

V alues

are

perform ance

does

V alu es a r e

Seldom d o es a s u p e r i n ­

not

require

more

than

rote

to

o r p r e f e r e n c e between com peting

make

this

decision.

s c i e n t i s t Erwin Miklos (1986) s u p p o r t e d t h i s n o t i o n :

Behavioral
"Much g r e a t e r

a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d be g i v e n i n o u r a n a l y s i s o f a d m i n i s t r a t i o n . . .
the

ways

in

which

any

More commonly, t h e d e c i s i o n must be

choice,

needed

of

individual

values

impinge

on

to

adm inistrative

d e c i s i o n making" (p . 3 ) .
V alues

that

organization

are
are

compatible
im portant

Superintendents often are cen tral
values

or

shared
to

by many members

organizational

pay a t t e n t i o n t o ,

how t h e y r e a c t t o c r i t i c a l

What

the

success.

to the formation o f th e se

and r e p r e s e n t them in t h e community.

in

shared

superintendents

situ atio n s,

what t h e y

r e w a r d , and what t h e y model f o r t h e i r s u b o r d i n a t e s s p e a k v e r y c l e a r
me ssages t o t h o s e in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n w i t h r e s p e c t t o what i s v a l u e d
(Ashbaugh & K a s t e n ,

19 8 6 ) .

This v is io n

us e o f r e s o u r c e s , b o th human and f i n a n c i a l

1

becomes t h e

focus

fo r the

( P e t e r s & A u s t i n , 19 8 5) .

2
Knowing t h i s ,

it

would seem e s s e n t i a l

know what t h e y ch o os e t o v a l u e .
in ev itab ly

influence

th eir

(Holmes,

1986).

effectiveness
have

"survived,"

i.e.,

for

superintendents

S u p e rin te n d e n ts’ choices of values
ad m in istrativ e

methods

One

have l o n g e v i t y

in

high-conflict

from

th eir

his

research

said,

d istricts,

l e a d e r s must know

b e l i e v e i f t h e y a r e t o be e f f e c t i v e on t h e

superintendent

and

In h i s s t u d y o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s who

I an n ac co n e (1981) r e p o r t e d t h a t c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l
what t h e y

to

jo b over time.

"You need

your

own

g u i d a n c e sy st em ; o t h e r w i s e you l o s e y o u r d i r e c t i o n - - b e c o m e a v i c t i m
of every pressure"
that

"adequate

( p.

16),

conceptions

V alu es a r e so p r a c t i c a l
of

adm inistration

and e s s e n t i a l

cannot

be

developed

w i t h o u t a c l e a r l y f o r m u l a t e d v a l u e framework" ( G r a f f & S t r e e t ,

1957,

p. 1 29 ) .
Id en ti fying

th is

value

framework

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t would be e s s e n t i a l
Furthermore,
exercise,

if

then

it

is

true

identifying

th at
the

t h o s e who a s p i r e

wrote

that

to

an e x e c u t i v e

that

an

inform ation fo r
adm inistration
value

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n would be i n t e r e s t i n g
for

for

role.

assim ilates

him/her to

is

framework

in d iv id u al
know.

a "value-laden"

for

the

field

not only f o r p r a c t i t i o n e r s
In

addition,

values

inherent

Ba rn ar d
in

the

of
but

(1938)
role.

Knowledge o f p e r s o n a l v a l u e s and r o l e v a l u e s m ig ht p o s s i b l y g i v e an
a d m i n i s t r a t o r who a s p i r e s t o t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y t h e added "edge" t o
land t h a t

f i r s t p o s i t i o n and t o be s u c c e s s f u l .

When i t

i s s a i d t h a t one has a v a l u e ,

it

means t h e

individual

has an " e n d u r i n g b e l i e f t h a t a s p e c i f i c mode o f c o n d u c t o r e n d - s t a t e
o f e x i s t e n c e i s p e r s o n a l l y o r s o c i a l l y p r e f e r a b l e t o an o p p o s i t e o r

3

c o n v e r s e mode o f c o n d u c t o r e n d - s t a t e o f e x i s t e n c e "
p.

5).

(Rokeach,

1973,

Rokeach named t h e s p e c i f i c modes o f c o n d u c t " i n s t r u m e n t a l "

values,

whereas

"term in al"

values

refer

to

the

end-states

of

existence.
O fte n t h e t e rm " v a l u e s "
value

system

preferable

is

modes

i s used t o s p ea k o f v a l u e s y s t e m s .

an

"enduring

of

conduct

cont inuum o f r e l a t i v e

organization
or

of

beliefs

end-states

of

existence

(Rokeach,

1973,

importance"

p.

concerning
along

5).

part

of

this

categories:
values
not

value
moral

system,

can

eth ical

ethics.

codes

or

be

dichotomized

(Rokeach,

Intrinsic,

codes

The

I n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s , as

and competence v a l u e s

(in stru m en tal) define

ex trin sic,

further

a

People’ s

v a l u e syst ems o r v a l u e s s e r v e as s t a n d a r d s f o r t h e i r b e h a v i o r .
v a l u e system i n f l u e n c e s and g u i d e s c o n d u c t .

A

of

1 97 3 ) .

two

Moral

personal

conduct,

a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t o behave u n e t h i c a l l y o r e t h i c a l l y

into

values,

predispose

(K reitner & Reif,

1980 ).
I s t h i s moral

d im e n s io n m i s s i n g from t o d a y ’ s l e a d e r s ?

the mindless m a te ria lis m

of

the

vacuum?"

p.

14).

moral

(Shapiro,

left

in

Relevant

to

its

wake

this

leaders

a values

study,

dim en s io n m i s s i n g from t o d a y ’ s c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l

well?

is

leaders,

Is i t m i s s i n g from to m or ro w ’ s c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s ?
more

Discovering
lig h t

1987,

’8 0 ’ s

"[ H ]a s

of

inclined
this

the

to w ar d

inclination

p red ictio n

Goldhammer ( 1 9 8 2 ) :

of

competence
of

scho ol

leaders

leadership

"The l e a d e r s h i p

values

need

we need

for

or
is

moral
of

as
the

the
as
Are

values?

interest

in

expressed

by

80’s

and t h e

4
9 0 ’ s and t h e new c e n t u r y ,

looming i n t h e d i s t a n c e b e f o r e u s ,

be a n a l y z e d

its

in t e r m s

significance"

( p.

respected

their

for

of

27).

philosophical

A dm inistrators

moral

commitment

im p o r t
of

more

and

the
than

its

future
th eir

s h o u ld
ethical

must

be

ab ility

to

p e r f o r m m a n a g e r ia l t a s k s (Holmes, 1 98 6 ) .
" I f y o u ’ r e a ma nager, you do t h i n g s r i g h t .
you do t h e

right

thing."

I f you’re a le a d e r,

In an age o f r a p i d

change,

im plies th e v a lu e -la d e n d i s t i n c t i o n o f being a l e a d e r .
l e a d e r s who do t h e
of

the

" rig h t thing"

tech n o lo g ical

age

environm ental co n c e rn s,
biotechnology

force

in

is of special
which

n u c l e a r power,

leaders

to

positions.

raising

th at

questions

The need f o r

im p o r t a n c e in l i g h t

liv e.

U rbanization,

their

b eliefs,

Biotechnology,

"Moses,

maxim

teleco m m u n icatio n s,

"rethink"

t h e i r v a l u e s and e t h i c a l
moral

we

th is

Buddha,

and

including

f o r example,

C hrist

or

is

Mohammed

co u l d n o t have c o n c e i v e d o f in t h e i r w i l d e s t i m a g i n i n g s " (Van DusenWish ard ,

19 8 8) .

The n e g l e c t

o f t h e moral

d im e n s io n

of values

t h i s t y p e o f c h o i c e - f i l l e d en v i ro n m e n t would be c r i p p l i n g
19 7 4) .

The

directing

chief

educational

the schools t h a t

w ill

leaders

of

this

be e d u c a t i n g t h e

make many o f t h e d e c i s i o n s r e l a t i v e t o t h i s

nation

in

(Toffler,
w ill

be

l e a d e r s who w i l l

advanced t e c h n o l o g i c a l

age.
There
component
com petency
contrary,
ad v a n c e s ,

appears
in

to

be

leadership.
sk ills

both
the

should

for

need

However,

com ponents
need

a

be

an

this

be

values

em ph asi s
does

supplanted

should

ethical

for

or

not

the

moral

mean

that

the

excluded.

On

the

balanced.
must

on

also

As

technology

ad v a n c e .

Both

5
com po nen ts, t h e competence and t h e m o r a l , s h o u l d h ar m o ni ze .
(1976)

used

associated

the

te rm

with

the

"head"

qualities

co m pe te n c e,

o n e ’ s v alue system.

to

technical,

o f o n e ’ s v a l u e sy st em .

In h i s

Maccoby d i s c o v e r e d t h a t

im b a la n c e e x i s t e d .
future

leaders

to

cognitive

ethical,

108).

leaders

s t u d y o f managers
t h e head t r a i t s

who p o s s e s s

today

aspects

of

the

moral

in

(1938)
and

c l a im e d

strength

that

it

the

business

know r i g h t
(Maccoby,

im portant

th eir

that

an

"where w i l l we f i n d
to

is

tomorrow complement

aspects

dominated,

I f t h i s im b al an c e c o n t i n u e s ,

Ba r n ar d
of

values

affective

wrong and t h e c o u r a g e t o a c t on t h o s e c o n v i c t i o n s ? "
p.

those

He used t h e te rm " h e a r t " q u a l i t i e s t o r e f e r t o

th o s e v a lu es a s s o c ia t e d with th e moral,

world,

refer

Maccoby

from
1976,

that

competence

the

values

( hea d q u a l i t i e s ) w i t h moral v a l u e s ( h e a r t q u a l i t i e s ) , which s e r v e t o
add meaning t o a l l t h e v a l u e s t h e y h o l d .
L ittle

r e s e a r c h has been done

educational

leaders

organization

(Aplin,

t h e moral d i m e n s i o n ,
an

and

effect

area of values o f c h ie f

th eir

values

have

1983; Ashbaugh & K a s t e n ,

19 8 4 ) .

The s t u d y o f

i.e.,

the

in t h e

v a l u e s and e t h i c s

area

open

for

investigation

om itted

from

a ny

careful

because

em pirical

it

on

the

in a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ,
appears

study

to

have

(H odgkinson,

is

been

1978).

G r e e n f i e l d (1984) a g r e e d :
To c o n c l u d e t h a t l e a d e r s h i p i s a moral a c t i v i t y i s p e r h a p s t o
b e l a b o r t h e o b v io u s o r t o s t a t e a p l a t i t u d e .
But i t i s s t r a n g e
how o f t e n t h e o b v io us and t h e p l a t i t u d i n o u s a r e o v e r l o o k e d in
s t u d i e s o f l e a d e r s in sc h o o l and s t r a n g e , t o o , how f r e q u e n t l y
such t r u t h s a r e i g n o r e d , ( p. 160)
S t o u t (1986) c o n c u r r e d t h a t t h e moral d im e n s io n ne ed s a t t e n t i o n
from

scholars

in

educational

leadership.

He

w rote,

"The

6

c o n t e m p o r a r y s t u d y o f sc ho ol a d m i n i s t r a t i o n must b e g i n t o t a k e
account

in

a serious

way t h e

influence

of

values

and

into

ethics

on

serio u sly

by

d e c i s i o n s made in and a b o u t s c h o o l s " ( p . 1 9 8 ) .
The

present

exploring

the

nonpublic

w riter

value

sch ool

took

system s

of

superintendents,

th e purpose o f i d e n t i f y i n g
what

S to u t’s

differences

and

adm onition

public

school

and a s p i r i n g

superintendents,
superintendents

for

and comparing t h e i r v a l u e s t o d e t e r m i n e

commonalities

exist.

Furthermore,

because

moral v a l u e s p r e d i s p o s e e t h i c s , t h e s t u d y o f such v a l u e s i s a u s e f u l
i n v e s t i g a t i v e tool

f o r determ ining e t h ic a l

inclinations

(K reitner &

R e i f , 19 80 ).

R es e a rc h Q u e s t i o n s
Two

concepts

formed t h e

basis

that

were

of th is

revealed

study.

in

the

research

Those c o n c e p t s

are

literatu re

discussed

in

th is section.

R es e a rc h Q u e s ti o n 1
Are t h e r e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e v a l u e sy ste m s
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and a s p i r i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ?
Related l i t e r a t u r e .
values
m os t,

and e t h i c s
a

"steady

W illow er,

1986).

in

of

In t h e r e s e a r c h l i t e r a t u r e ,

sch oo l

trick le"

adm inistration

(Ashbaugh

Many

w riters

the

discussion of

has been s p a r s e o r ,

& Kasten,
in

practicing

1984;

field

of

Hiruy,

at

1987;

educational

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n have c l a i m e d t h a t s c h o l a r s need t o be more c o n c e r n e d
with
1986).

values

and e t h i c s

Further,

(Barnard,

1938;

G reenfield,

p ra c titio n e rs of adm inistration

1984;

Holmes,

in t h e f u t u r e ,

in

7

particular,
ethical

c h ie f educational

leaders,

must be c o n c e r n e d w i t h

significance of t h e i r leadership,

not

s im p l y t h e

the

technical

a s p e c t (Dexheimer, 1969; Goldhammer, 1982; Shannon, 1987; yan DusenWi s h a r d , 19 8 8) .
A d m i n i s t r a t o r t r a i n i n g programs need t o i n c l u d e more d i s c u s s i o n
a b o u t v a l u e s and e t h i c s

(Hodgkinson, 1978; Kimbrough,

H aller, & S o ltis ,

1 98 8 ).

conducted

field

in

the

1985; S t r i k e ,

F i n a l l y , more r e s e a r c h s t u d i e s need t o be
of

values

and

ethics

(Ashbaugh

& Kasten,

1984; Hodgkinson, 1978; Kimbrough, 1985; S t o u t , 1 98 6 ) .
T here fo re , according to the l i t e r a t u r e ,
values of c h ie f educational
the

w riter

w ill

superintendents.
provide

a

seek

leaders
to

of

Comparing t h e d a t a w i l l
v a l u e sy ste m s o f t h e

necessary.

id en tify

Q uantifying

"baseline"

is

the

data

or

the

value
a

the ex p lo ra tio n o f the
In t h i s

value

s ys te m s

beginning

show w h e th e r t h e r e

to

system s

by

are d iffe re n c e s

t h r e e gr o up s u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n ,
This e x p l o ra to r y study w ill

data

for

w ill

questions w ill

be

usable

be r a i s e d t h a t

fu tu re

are

research.

ancillary

ranks

to

the

of
will

understanding.

where c o m m o n a l i t i e s e x i s t .
that

study,

in t h e

as w ell

as

also yield

F urtherm ore,
sc op e

of th is

research.
Null H y p o t h e s i s 1 ;
There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e
instrum ental
and t e r m i n a l
values of p ra c tic in g
school
superintendents
(PRS)
(i.e .,
p u b l i c sc h oo l
superintendents
[PSS] and n o n p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s [NSS]) and a s p i r i n g
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s (AS).

8

Expec ted f i n d i n g s f o r H y p o th e s is 1 .
Instrum ental
differing

groups

(Sonnenberg,
principals

values:

Differences

have

shown

1979),

(Massey,

been

managers
19 8 2) .

to

in

in

instrum ental

exist,

i.e.,

business

With t h e

teacher

(M ills,

exception

values

of

of

u n io n s

1987),

HONESTY,

and
which

Maccoby (1976) viewed as a n e c e s s a r y anomaly,

t h e r e has n o t been a

consistency

of

could

However,

has been shown t h a t v a l u e s may change

it

any

one

m aturation, education,

ran ke d

value

that

and e x p e r i e n c e (Holloway,

Rokeach, 1968; S c o t t , 19 6 5) .

be
as

1985;

predicted.
a result
Plant,

of

1965;

T h e r e f o r e , one m ig ht e x p e c t t h a t b ei ng

a c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r w i l l c a u s e a change i n some v a l u e s ; t h u s ,
AS

could

However,

show

some

AS w i l l

practicing

significant

probably

superintendents

differences

em u la te

those

bec a u se

they

in

certain

values
aspire

values.

dem onstrated

to

De S a l v i a and Gemmill (1971) found t h i s t o be t r u e .

that

by

position.

In t h e i r s t u d y ,

c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s ’ v a l u e s were n o t much d i f f e r e n t from t h o s e o f t h e
c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r s w i t h whom t h e y were b e i n g compared.
expected

th at

AS’ s

values

wi 11

be

the

same

as

those

It is
of

the

p r a c t i c i n g s u p e rin te n d e n ts they emulate.
Term inal v a l u e s :
of

behavior

to

I n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s a r e , by d e f i n i t i o n , modes

achieve

term inal

end-states.

One

may

therefore

assume t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s in i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s w i l l u l t i m a t e l y c a u s e
d i f f e r e n c e s in t e r m i n a l v a l u e s .
between t h e two t y p e s ,

A lthough t h e r e may be a c o n n e c t i o n

th e re is not a c lo se ,

one-to-one connection

(Rokeach, 19 7 3 ).

T h e r e f o r e , w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n o f SALVATION, which

is

ran k ed

distinctively

higher

by

those

with

h ig h

religiosity

9

(Rokeach,

19 7 3 ) , one c a n n o t e x p e c t t o

find

s ig n ific a n t differences

i n t e r m i n a l v a l u e s o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s in t h i s s t u d y .
Beca use few v a l u e s can be p r e d i c t e d ,
values
A ls o ,
used

of the
since

to

three

there

g r o u p s would be more s i m i l a r

has

anticipate

i t was e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e

not

the

been d e f i n i t i v e

outcomes

of this

than d i f f e r e n t .

research

study,

that

the

could

findings

be

from

t h i s s t u d y t h e r e f o r e become more me an in g fu l t o t h e body o f knowledge
in e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
Re s ea r c h Q u e s t i o n 2
I s t h e r e an im b al an c e between t h e head and h e a r t
v a l u e s o f t h e PRS, PSS, NSS, and AS?
Related

lite ra tu re .

An im b ala nc e between t h e

instrum ental

head

and h e a r t

v a l u e s has been shown t o e x i s t in t h e b u s i n e s s world ( E ng l an d , 1974;
Goad,

1986;

Stevens,

K reitner

19 85 ).

& Reif,

An

1980;

" im b a la n ce "

Maccoby,

refers

to

1976;
the

M iller,

1983;

disproportionate

r a n k i n g o f t h e head v a l u e s above t h e h e a r t v a l u e s , as opposed t o an
even " m i x t u r e . "
A ls o ,

an

(G reenfield,
S pindler,

im ba lan ce
1985;

1955;

in

Holmes,

S tout,

im ba la n c e may c o n t i n u e

educational
1986;

1986;

Massey,

1982;

may

exist

S o nn enb erg ,

1979;

Van D u s e n - W i s h a r d ,

in e d u c a t i o n a l

o f endeavor resembles th e

adm inistration

business

1988).

adm inistration

sector

(Goad,

if

this

1986;

This
field

K reitner

&

whether

a

R e i f , 1980; M i l l e r , 1983; S t e v e n s , 198 5) .
In

th is

head/heart

study,

the

im balance

in

w riter
value

attempted
system s

to

determine

existed

in

educational

10
leaders.
useful

I m p l i c a t i o n s can be drawn from t h e
to

scholars

adm inistration.

and p r a c t i t i o n e r s

Because

in

data,

the

many p r a c t i c i n g

field

useful

to

aspiring

of

the

superintendents

be

educational

superintendents

r e t i r i n g w ithin the next th re e to fiv e y e a rs,
p articularly

which w i l l

w ill

be

f i n d i n g s may be
who w i l l

replace

them.
Null H y p o t h e s i s 2 :
t h e head and h e a r t
and AS.

T he r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t im b al an c e between
i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s o f t h e PRS, PSS, NSS,

Expected f i n d i n g s f o r H y p o t h e s i s 2 .

Several

i n v e s t i g a t o r s who

have c o n d u c t e d s t u d i e s in t h e b u s i n e s s wo rld have i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e
head

values

Reif,

are

ran k ed

1980; Maccoby,

higher

1976;

than

Stevens,

the

heart

1985 ).

values

A ls o ,

e x i s t in t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a t i o n a l

adm inistration

Stout,

1 98 8 ) .

1986;

Van

D usen- Wishard,

It

(K reitner

an im ba la nc e may
(G reenfield,

was

&

expected

1985;
that

a

s i g n i f i c a n t r e l a t i o n s h i p would e x i s t t h a t would show an im b al an c e in
t h e h e a d / h e a r t dic hotomy o f t h e

instrum ental

values.

The l a c k o f

em pirical d ata to support t h i s notion underscores the u sefu lness of
t h i s study.

Variables
The in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e
The g ro up s were d e t e r m i n e d ,

in t h i s

s t u d y was gr oup membership.

c o r r e s p o n d i n g t o t h e two h y p o t h e s e s

of

the study.
The f i r s t ma jor group com pri se d c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l
were c u r r e n t l y

practicing

superintendents--PRS).

th e ir

craft

in

M ichigan

T h i s group was d i v i d e d

into

l e a d e r s who
(p racticin g

two s u b g r o u p s .

11
One su bg ro up i n c l u d e d p u b l i c school

superintendents

(PSS) who were

members o f t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s
and r e p r e s e n t e d

the public

sch oo l

c h ie f educational

second s ubg ro up i n c l u d e d n o n p u b l i c scho ol

(MASA)

leaders.

superintendents

The

(NSS) who

were members o f t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f N o n pu bl ic S c h o o ls (MANS)
and

represented

the

chief

educational

leaders

in

the

nonpublic

s c h o o l s i n M ich ig an .
The second m a jo r s t u d y gro up c o m pr is ed t h o s e s t u d e n t e d u c a t o r s
enrolled

in

doctoral

adm inistration
become

chief

at

or

sp ecialist

Michigan

educational

State

program s

U niversity

leaders

but

had

in

(AS)

not

educational

who

yet

aspired

attained

to
that

p o s i t i o n and t h e r e f o r e were n o t y e t p r a c t i c i n g t h e i r c r a f t .
The d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e was t h e
t h e 18 t e r m i n a l

respondents’ value rankings

of

v a l u e s and 18 i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s u s i n g t h e Rokeach

Value S u r ve y, Form E.

Del i m i t a t i o n s
The

following

factors

were

considered

delim itations

of

this

study:
1.

The d a t a

The s t u d y

supported

findings

are

by t h e

r e s p o n d e n t s were s e l f - r e p o r t e d .

generalizable

only to

the

extent

that

the

s e lf - r e p o r t e d data re p re s e n t actual values o f the respondents.
2.

The d a t a r e p r e s e n t e d o n l y t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ’ p e r c e p t i o n s

t h e i r value systems.

of

R e s u l t a n t b e h a v i o r o r c o n d u c t was n o t w i t h i n

t h e scop e o f t h i s s t u d y , a l t h o u g h i m p l i c a t i o n s may be drawn.

12
3.

Only s e l e c t e d

included

in

the

c h ie f educational

sample

of

leaders

i n Michigan were

superintendents

in

the

study.

G e n e r a l i z a t i o n o f t h e f i n d i n g s o u t s i d e o f Michigan i s n o t a d v i s a b l e
except to

the

extent

that

chief

educational

leaders

from o u t s i d e

Michigan can be shown t o be s i m i l a r t o t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s

in t h i s

study.
4.

Only t h e D epartmen t o f E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t M i c h i -

gan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y was i n c l u d e d .
other

institutions

only

to

the

The f i n d i n g s a r e a p p l i c a b l e t o

extent

th at

they

are

sim ilar

to

Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y .
5.

Only NSS from t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f No np ubl ic S c h o o ls

were used t o
their craft

represent

those

c h ie f educational

in th e nonpublic educational

leaders

sector.

practicing

The f i n d i n g s a r e

g e n e r a l i z a b l e o n l y t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t NSS a r e s i m i l a r t o o t h e r c h i e f
e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s in p r i v a t e e d u c a t i o n a l
6.

Only

D epartm ent
U niversity

doctoral
of

or

and

E ducational
students

The r e s u l t s

students

A dm inistration

enrolled

statew ide A dm inistrator
included.

specialist

institutions.

in

at

Michigan

Extern-Superintendents

enrolled

in

M ic h i g an

S tate
section

the

S tate

U niversity’s
course

were

s h o u ld n o t be a p p l i e d t o any o t h e r s t u d e n t s

e n r o l l e d in th e College o f Education.

Lim itations
The s t u d y was l i m i t e d by t h e f o l l o w i n g f a c t o r s :
1.

The e x t e n t

to

which

the

PSS were

representative

p r a c t i c i n g p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s in M ic h ig an .

of

the

13
2.

The e x t e n t

to

which

the

NSS were

representative of

the

p r a c t i c i n g n o n p u b l i c sch ool s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s i n M ic h ig an .
3.

The e x t e n t t o which t h e sample o f s t u d e n t s

in th e D e p a rt­

ment o f E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y were
rep resen tativ e of aspiring superintendents.
4.

The e x t e n t t o which t h e Rokeach Value Su rv ey (RVS) a p p r o p ­

r i a t e l y depicted the values o f the respondents.
5.

The e x t e n t t o which t h e r e s p o n d e n t s c o u l d a c c u r a t e l y r a n k

t h e i r values.
Assumptions
The f o l l o w i n g

a s s u m p t i o n s were n e c e s s a r y

in

order

to

conduct

th e study.
1.

Th at t h e v a l u e s on t h e RVS a r e i m p o r t a n t

in

the

lives

of

the respondents.
2.

Th at t h e head v a l u e s and t h e h e a r t v a l u e s can be d i c h o t o ­

mized.
3.

Th at t h e r e s p o n d e n t s were a b l e t o i d e n t i f y and r a n k o r d e r

t h e i r values.
4.
the

Th at t h e v a l u e s t h a t were ran k ed f i r s t were more c e n t r a l t o

respondents

th a n were lo w e r - r a n k e d

values

(England,

1974;

Rokeach, 197 3) .
5.

Th at a p e r s o n p o s s e s s e s a r e l a t i v e l y smal l number o f v a l u e s

(Rokeach, 19 7 3) .
6.

Th at ev e r y o n e eve ry w he re p o s s e s s e s t h e

d i f f e r i n g d e g r e e s (Rokeach, 19 7 3) .

same v a l u e s

but to

14

7.

That

values

are

organized

into

value

sy ste m s

(Rokeach,

19 7 3 ).
8.
phenomena

T h a t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f human v a l u e s a r e m a n i f e s t e d in a l l
a

social

scien tist

might

consider

w or th

investigating

(Rokeach, 1 97 3 ) .

D e f i n i t i o n s o f Terms
Chief educational

lead er.

The c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r

in t h e

sch ool d i s t r i c t o r g a n i z a t i o n ; o p e r a t i o n a l l y d e f i n e d in t h i s s t u d y as
the su perintendent.
E th ics.

Moral

p rin cip les

by

which

a

person

is

guided

( B a r n h a r t , 1 97 4 ) .
Head v a l u e s .

A subset

c o g n itiv e , pragmatic, personal
p e rta in to the a b i l i t y

to

of

the

instrum ental

in o r i e n t a t i o n ,

"think"

values;

they

are

self-actualizing,

and

(Maccoby, 1 9 7 6 ) .

Rokeach (1969)

c a l l e d them competence v a l u e s .
Heart v a l u e s .

A subset of the

instrum ental

values;

they

are

a f f e c t i v e , m o r a l , and e t h i c a l , w i t h an i n t e r p e r s o n a l o r i e n t a t i o n and
f o c u s on o n e ’ s a b i l i t y

to

"feel"

(Maccoby,

1 97 6 ) .

Rokeach

(1969)

c a l l e d them moral v a l u e s .
Instrum ental

values.

Modes o f c o n d u c t

that

help

to

achieve

t e r m i n a l v a l u e s (Rokeach, 1973 ).
Terminal

values.

(Rokeach, 19 7 3 ) .

D esirable

goals

or en d -states

of existence

15
V alue.

An e n d u r i n g b e l i e f t h a t a s p e c i f i c mode o f c o n d u c t o r

end-state of existence

is

personally or s o c ia lly

preferable

to

an

o p p o s i t e o r c o n v e r s e mode o f e x i s t e n c e (Rokeach, 19 7 3 ).
V alu es

or

value

system.

Enduring

c o n c e r n i n g p r e f e r a b l e modes o f c o n d u c t

organization

of

or end-states

beliefs

of existence

a l o n g a cont inu um o f r e l a t i v e im p o r ta n c e (Rokeach, 19 73 ).
Summary and Overview
This

study

p racticing

was

undertaken

su perintendents

testing

the head/heart

explore

the

those

who

and

s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y by i d e n t i f y i n g
the p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ e th ic a l

to

value

syst ems

asp ire

and comparing t h e i r

to

values.

of
the

A lso,

i n c l i n a t i o n s were s t u d i e d by s t a t i s t i c a l l y

instrum ental

v a l u e d ic h ot o m y .

can be used as t h e b a s i s f o r f u t u r e s t u d y .

A ls o ,

The f i n d i n g s

the r e s u lt s

may

have i m p l i c a t i o n s f o r c u r r i c u l u m dev el op me n t and t e a c h i n g methods in
educational
stated,

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n coursework.

variables

defined,

framework f o r t h e s t u d y .

The r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s were

and h y p o t h e s e s

set

forth

to

provide

a

Expected f i n d i n g s bas ed on a r e v i e w o f t h e

l i t e r a t u r e were a l s o a r t i c u l a t e d .
Chapter
study.

II

contains

Several

measurement

of

a

theories

values,

re v i e w
of

values

of

values

literatu re
are

in

organizational

d ev el o p m en t ,

effectiveness

to

the

as

are

the

ch an g e ,

and

the

discussed,
value

e f f e c t o f e d u c a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e on v a l u e s .
of values

related

is

c o n n e c t i o n between v a l u e s and e t h i c s i s shown.

Next, t h e im p o r ta n ce
established,
Finally,

and t h e

an a t t e m p t

16
i s made t o

show t h a t

an im b al an c e may e x i s t

between t h e

head and

h e a r t v a l u e s in e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
In
this

Chapter

study are

III,

the

explained.

methods

and

procedures

The p o p u l a t i o n

and

follow ed

s am p le ,

the

in

survey

i n s t r u m e n t , and t h e d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n and d a t a - c o l l e c t i o n methods a r e
discussed.
R esults
reported

in

findings,
for

of

the

Chapter

data
IV.

analyses
Chapter

pe rf o rm e d
V contains

c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h e

those

leadership.

in terested

in

the

study

findings,
of

in
a

this

study

summary

of

are
major

and recommendations

values

in

educational

CHAPTER I I

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

The

review

theoretical

of

literature

related

framework on which t o

to

base th e

themes were d i s c o v e r e d from t h i s r e v i e w .
were

d iscussed,

identified

as

section also

and

be in g

o ne

particu lar

relevant

this

study

study.

provides

Several

a

ma jor

Several t h e o r i e s o f values
theory

and u s e f u l

for

or

framework

this

research.

was
This

i n c l u d e s d i s c u s s i o n s a bo ut t h e measurement o f v a l u e s ,

v a l u e s d e v e l o p m e n t , v a l u e c h an ge , and t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n and
experience

on

values.

Second,

the

im portance

organizational effectiv en e ss is estab lish ed .
between

values

and

ethics

is

shown.

In

of

Third,
the

values

in

th e connection

final

section,

an

a t t e m p t i s made t o show t h a t an im b ala nc e may e x i s t between t h e head
and h e a r t v a l u e s i n e d u c a t i o n a l a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .

The Study o f Values
How Have Values Been D ef in ed ?
A pproaches
disciplines

to

the

study

in which t h e y

are

of

values

fou nd ,

are

as

v aried

from t h e o l o g y

to

abstraction

or

generality

be in g

17

considered,

the

the

e co no m ic s .

Th is v a r i a t i o n i s due t o d i f f e r i n g d e f i n i t i o n s o f v a l u e s ,
of

as

the level

measurement

18
problem s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h v a l u e s ,

and t h e p u r p o s e s f o r which v a l u e s

a r e m ea su re d .
England

(1974)

philosophy or

b elief.

describing

most

continuum

ranging

approaches.
topics,

as

However,

from

to

he

sim ilar

to

an

ideology

em bellished t h i s

values

as

preferen tial

f a l l i n g on

view
a

approaches to

or
by

bipolar

norm ative

Normative a p p r o a c h e s r e f e r t o t h o s e t h a t f o c u s on moral

whereas

falls

values

approaches

em ph asi ze n e e d s ,
also

defined

on

preferen tial
desires,

approaches

and i n t e r e s t s .

a con ti nu um .

This

one

values to highly a b s tr a c t or general

refer

to

The l e v e l
ranges

values.

those

th at

of abstraction

from v e r y

specific

Furthermore,

England

p r e s e n t e d a framework o f v a l u e s by d i v i d i n g them i n t o two c l a s s e s ,
n o n r e l e v a n t o r weak v a l u e s and c o n c e i v e d v a l u e s .

Conceived v a l u e s

are then

intended

subdivided

and a d o p t e d v a l u e s .

to

be

tran slated

Operative
behavior.

values

operative

values,

values,

Weak v a l u e s a r e t h o s e t h a t would have 1 i t t l e o r

no e f f e c t on b e h a v i o r .
to

include

fr o m
refer

Conceived v a l u e s a r e t h o s e t h a t
the
to

Intended v alues

in ten tio n al
those

that

state

w ill

are those th a t

be

into

are 1ikely
behavior.

translated

a r e viewed a s

im portant

b u t may have o n l y a mo de ra te p r o b a b i l i t y o f b e i n g t r a n s l a t e d
the intentional

s t a t e in to behavior.

In t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h ,

norm ative, conceived v a lu e s.

from

Adopted v a l u e s a r e t h o s e t h a t

a f f e c t b e h a v i o r o n ly b e c a u s e o f s i t u a t i o n a l
p. 6 ) .

into

factors

(E n g l a n d ,

1974,

t h e r e s e a r c h e r was c o n c e r n e d w i t h

19

S c o t t (1965) f u r t h e r r e f i n e d v a l u e s a s f o l l o w s :
A p e r s o n may be s a i d t o
conceives a p a r t i c u l a r
a b s o l u t e good u n d e r a l l
toward which a l l p e o p l e

e n t e r t a i n a v a l u e t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t he
s t a t e o f a f f a i r s as an u l t i m a t e en d, an
c i r c u m s t a n c e s , and a u n i v e r s a l "ou gh t"
s h o u ld s t r i v e , ( p . 15)

V i r t u a l l y a l l w r i t e r s have p o i n t e d t o t h e " o u g h t" c h a r a c t e r o f
values.

N o t i c e i n t h i s d e f i n i t i o n t h a t t h e d im e n s i o n s o f u l t i m a c y ,

a b s o l u t e n e s s , and u n i v e r s a l i t y a r e i n c l u d e d .
d e g r e e t o which t h e v a l u e
state.

i s c o n c e i v e d as a f i n a l ,

s u f f i c i e n t end-

A b s o l u t e n e s s r e f e r s t o t h e d e g r e e t o which t h e v a l u e rem a in s

unchangeable.
all.

U lt i m a c y r e f e r s t o t h e

U n iv ersality re f e r s to the v a lu e ’s a p p l i c a b i l i t y

to

These t h r e e d i m e n s i o n s may c o v a ry t o d i f f e r i n g d e g r e e s , which

w ill determine the s tr e n g th of the value.
Summarizing

the

v a l u e s , McLaughlin

ma jor

concepts

of

t h e o r e t i c a l approaches

to

(1965) s t a t e d :

V alu es (1) a r e n o t d i r e c t l y o b s e r v a b l e , (2) have c o g n i t i v e ,
affectiv e,
and c o n a t i v e e l e m e n t s ,
(3)
do n o t o p e r a t e
i n d e p e n d e n t l y o f t h e b i o l o g i c a l o rg a n is m o r s o c i a l f i e l d . . .
v a l u e s a r e a l s o c o n c e i v e d o f as (4) r e f e r r i n g t o s t a n d a r d s o f
t h e d e s i r a b l e r a t h e r t h a n t o t h e d e s i r e d , (5) h i e r a r c h i c a l l y
o r g a n i z e d in t h e p e r s o n a l i t y sy st em , and (6) r e l e v a n t t o a c t u a l
b e h a v i o r as a f u n c t i o n o f p e r s o n a l commitment and s i t u a t i o n a l
f a c t o r s , (pp. 261-62)
M il t o n Rokeach ( 1 9 7 3 ) ,
the d e f in itio n
enduring
existence

o f v a l u e s even f u r t h e r .

belief
is

a l e a d e r in r e s e a r c h on v a l u e s ,

that

a

personally

specific
or

He d e f i n e d

mode o f

socially

c o n v e r s e mode o f c o n d u c t o r e n d - s t a t e

conduct

preferable

to

refined

a v a l u e as
or
an

o f e x i s t e n c e " ( p.

end-state

"an
of

o p p o site or
5).

Va lues a r e one o f t h r e e s p e c i f i c t y p e s o f b e l i e f s d i s t i n g u i s h e d
in t h e l i t e r a t u r e .

Rokeach (1973) s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e a r e e v a l u a t i v e

20
beliefs,

those

good o r

bad;

false;

descriptive

desirable

kind.

o f b e l i e f can be j u d g e d

beliefs,

and p r o s c r i p t i v e b e l i e f s ,

be j u d g e d
third

in which t h e o b j e c t

those

is

a

o f being

be

true

or

t h o s e where some means o r end can

or undesirable.

"A v a l u e

capable

to

A value

belief

p r e f e r e n c e " ( A l l p o r t , 1961, p. 4 5 4 ) .

upon

is

a b elief

which

a

man

of

the

acts

by

Kluckhohn (1951) a l s o c a l l e d a

v a l u e a " c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e d e s i r a b l e " (p. 3 5 9 ) .
V al u es
V alues

are

have

cognitive,

cognitive

in

c o r r e c t way t o be hav e.
e m o ti o n a l a b o u t them.

affective,

the

sense

and b e h a v i o r a l

that

an

V alues a r e a f f e c t i v e
V alues a r e b e h a v i o r a l

components.

individual
in t h a t

knows

the

one can f e e l

in t h a t v a l u e s l e a d t o

a c t i o n when a c t i v a t e d .
V alu es d i f f e r from many o t h e r s i m i l a r c o n c e p t s .
from a t t i t u d e s
situation.

in t h a t

they are not t i e d

An a t t i t u d e

is

a s yst em

of

to

V alues d i f f e r

a specific

several

object

beliefs

that

or
are

o b j e c t - s p e c i f i c o r s i t u a t i o n - s p e c i f i c and p r e d i s p o s e someone t o a c t
a c e r t a i n way.

A t t i t u d e s a l l o w f o r t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f an u n d e r l y i n g

s e t o f v a l u e s (Katz & S t o t l a n d ,

19 5 9 ) .

A v a l u e , on t h e o t h e r hand,

i s a s i n g l e b e l i e f , which s e r v e s as a s t a n d a r d t h a t g u i d e s c o n d u c t ,
transcends objects or s itu a tio n s ,

and h o l d s a more c e n t r a l

in t h e p e r s o n a l i t y o f an i n d i v i d u a l .
on

p re-ex istin g

so cial

values"

"A ttitudes

(A llp o rt,

position

t h e m s e l v e s depend

1961,

pp.

802-803);

" a t t i t u d e s a r e f u n c t i o n s o f v a l u e s " (Woodruff, 1942, p. 3 3 ) .
V alu es
traits
Kahn,

are

(A llport,
1962)

and

different

from

social

norms

(Williams,

1961) b u t s i m i l a r in some ways t o needs
interests

(Perry,

195 4) .

The

1968)

and

( F r en ch &

distin ctio n

made

21

between two k i n d s
some

of values,

atten tio n

psychological
(1951),

in

the

E nglish

resp ectiv ely .

on

and

R o ke ac h

and

ends-values,

p hilosophical,

literature

and

means

values.

E nglish
(1973)

received

anth ro p o lo g ical,

Lovejoy
(1958)

made

h as

(1950),

represent

th is

and

Kluckhohn
th is

d istin ctio n

work,
in

his

d i s c u s s i o n o f v a l u e s by d e f i n i n g b e l i e f s c o n c e r n i n g d e s i r a b l e modes
of

conduct,

the

"means,"

as

instrum ental

values,

w he re as

b eliefs

c o n c e r n i n g d e s i r a b l e e n d - s t a t e s o f e x i s t e n c e , t h e " e n d s , " he d e f i n e d
as t e r m i n a l v a l u e s .

Most r e s e a r c h e r s have g iv e n a t t e n t i o n t o one o r

the o th e r type of values.

S c o t t ( 1 9 65 ), P i a g e t ( 1 9 6 5 ) , and Kohl b er g

(1963) most o f t e n s t u d i e d i d e a l i z e d modes o f c o n d u c t o r i n s t r u m e n t a l
values.

Smith

( 1 9 6 9 );

All p o r t ,

Vernon,

and

Li ndzey

(1960);

and

Maslow (1959) co n ce r n ed t h e m s e l v e s w it h t h e e n d - s t a t e s o f e x i s t e n c e
or

term inal

values.

Some r e s e a r c h e r s ,

like

Maccoby

(1976),

have

s t u d i e d o n ly t h e s u b s e t o f i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s .
Rokeach
kinds:

(1973)

personal

further

and s o c i a l .

subdivided

term inal

values

into

two

I n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s were d i v i d e d i n t o

moral and competence v a l u e s .
W riters
Seldom,

if

1968).
permanent

have
ever,

England

also
is

validated

a person

(1974)

perceptual

the

g u id e d

defined

framework

concept

value

system

as

" an

value

by o n l y one v a l u e

value
which

system
shapes

g e n e r a l n a t u r e o f an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s b e h a v i o r "
defined

of

enduring

as
and

"a

system.

(W illiams,
relatively

influences

(p. 2 ) .

Rokeach (1973)

organization

c o n c e r n i n g p r e f e r a b l e modes o f c o nd uc t o r e n d - s t a t e s

the

of

beliefs

of existence

22
along

a cont inuum o f r e l a t i v e

s e r v e as g e n e r a l

plans t h a t

im p o r ta n c e "

(p .

can be used t o

5).

Value

sy stems

make d e c i s i o n s ,

solve

p r o b le m s , and r e s o l v e c o n f l i c t .
Rokeach

(1968)

developed

and

England

(1974)

c o n f ir m e d

the

notions o f c e n tr a lity - p e r ip h e ra ln e s s to in t e r p r e t beh av io rally one’ s
value systems.

He showed t h a t v a l u e s can be a r r a n g e d

t h e i r c e n t r a l i t y or p e rip h e raln ess to the person.
the

value

is

to

the

person,

the

more

stable

in t e r m s o f

The more c e n t r a l
it

is,

the

more

r e s i s t a n t t o v a l u e c ha ng e , and t h e w i d e r i t s scope o f i n f l u e n c e ( s e e
Figure 1).

Operative
Values

Intended
_ Values^
A dopted
Values
Weak
Values

Figure 1 . --England’ s c e n t r a l i t y sphere.

23

The t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s u n d e r g i r d i n g t h i s s t u d y r e l i e d h e a v i l y on
t h e work o f Rokeach ( 1 9 7 3 ) .
w r i t e r considered to

He p r e s e n t e d s e v e r a l c o n c e p t s t h a t t h i s

be v i a b l e .

F irst,

there e x ists

small number o f v a l u e s t h a t p e o p l e p o s s e s s .
where p o s s e s s e s

Second, e v e r y o n e e v e r y ­

t h e same v a l u e s b u t t o d i f f e r i n g

values a re organized in t o value systems.
be t r a c e d

to

culture,

a relatively

degrees.

Third,

Fourth, th e an teced en ts of

values

can

in stitutions,

F ifth,

t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s o f human v a l u e s w i l l

and

personality.

be m a n i f e s t e d

in

all

phenomena a s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t might c o n s i d e r worth i n v e s t i g a t i n g .
Also,

th e instrum ental values subdivided

into

two g r o u p s ,

the

head and h e a r t v a l u e s (Maccoby, 19 76 ), were g i v e n c l o s e a t t e n t i o n in
t h i s study.

How Have V alu es Been Measured?
The
values

question
is

"Can

one

might

values

extrem ely v alu a b le to
occupations,

and

p os e

when

be me asured?"

entering

a

Data

values

on

illu m in ate d iffe re n c e s

political

or

religious

discussion
would

on
be

between c u l t u r e s ,

orientations,

since

"all

c o n d i t i o n s a r e t r a n s l a t a b l e i n t o q u e s t i o n s c o n c e r n i n g d i f f e r e n c e s in
underlying
Furthermore,

values

and v a l u e

system s"

(Rokeach,

1973,

p.

26).

Handy (1970) c l a i m e d t h a t v a l u e s can be measured once

t h e y a r e i d e n t i f i e d and c l a s s i f i e d .
Th ere

are th ree

m a j o r a p p ro a c h e s

to

m e a su r i n g

values:

(a )

dr aw in g c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t o n e ’ s v a l u e s o r v a l u e sy ste m by o b s e r v i n g
his/her

behavior,

(b)

sim pl y

asking

a

person

to

tell

about

his

v a l u e s i n h i s / h e r own w o r d s, and ( c ) g i v i n g a r a n k - o r d e r i n g s u r v e y .

24

C o n s i d e r i n g t h e o b v io u s l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e f i r s t and second me thods,
i t i s no wonder t h a t many r e s e a r c h e r s have c ho s en t o u s e o r d e v e l o p
a

test

or

survey

to

m easure

values.

Many r e s e a r c h e r s have c l a s s i f i e d v a l u e s and d e v e l o p e d t e s t s
s u r v e y s t o d i s a g g r e g a t e them.
two

researchers

researcher

ten

g a t h e r d a t a on v a l u e s .
12.

Gordon (1964) and England (1974) a r e

who d e v e l o p e d

discovered

a

instrum ents

instrum ent

Ve rn on ’ s (1931) Study o f V a l u e s .
psychologist,

such

te st

that

or

survey.

could

be

Robinson and S ha ve r (1969)

The most p o p u l a r

Edward

or

for

many y e a r s

This

applied

found a t

to

least

was All p o r t

and

T h e i r work was ba se d on t h e German

Spranger

(1928),

a c c o r d i n g t o t h e main v a l u e s t h e y h e l d .

who

classified

people

In h i s book, Types o f Men,

s i x ty p e s o f v a l u e s - - t h e o r e t i c a l > econom ic,

aesth etic,

so cial,

po litical,

and r e l i g i o u s - - w e r e d e l i n e a t e d .

The 1960 m o d i f i c a t i o n o f

the

of

and

Stu dy

instrum ent
Smithers

Va lues

o f choice
(1975)

by

A llport,

Vernon,

f o r many r e s e a r c h e r s .

cl ai m e d

that

this

Li ndzey
However,

became

the

Kitwood

and

survey

does

not

actually

test

a survey o f values

that

has

become w i d e l y

v a l u e s , m e re ly i n t e r e s t s .
Rokeach d e v e l o p e d
accepted

and used t o

assess

the

values

of

groups.

Buros’s

1978

e d i t i o n o f Mental Measurements Yearbook documented 194 s t u d i e s u s i n g
t h e Rokeach Value Survey

(RVS).

The RVS was g i v e n

to

a national

p r o b a b i l i t y sample o f 1 , 4 8 9 a d u l t Americans i n 1968 by t h e N a t i o n a l
O pinion

Research

reasonably

valid

C enter.
and

Their

reliable

data

across

showed

a wide

that

range

of

the

RVS

groups

is
and

25
individuals
research.

and t h a t

is

usable

and a p p l i c a b l e

fo r the

current

(See p. 69 f o r RVS r e l i a b i l i t y i n f o r m a t i o n . )

Eighteen
from a lo n g
refer

it

to

term inal
list

those

instrum ental
individual

and

18

obtained

from v a r i o u s

d esirab le

values

instrum ental

refer

v a l u e s were d i s t i l l e d

sources.

en d -states

of

to desirable

modes

rank o rd e rs th e values

Terminal

existence,

from t o p t o

values
whereas

of behavior.
b ot to m ,

p r i o r i t y v a l u e b e i n g f i r s t and on t o p o f t h e l i s t

the

highest

(Rokeach, 1973, p.

28).
The t e r m i n a l v a l u e s on t h e RVS a r e :
1.

A c o m f o r t a b l e l i f e (a p r o s p e r o u s l i f e )

2. An e x c i t i n g l i f e

(a s t i m u l a t i n g ,

An

active lif e )

3.

A s e n s e o f ac c om pli shm ent ( l a s t i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n )

4.

A wo rld o f p ea c e ( f r e e o f war and c o n f l i c t )

5.

A wo rld o f b e a u t y ( b e a u t y o f n a t u r e and t h e a r t s )

6.

E q u a l i t y ( b r o t h e r h o o d , equal o p p o r t u n i t y f o r

7.

Family s e c u r i t y ( t a k i n g c a r e o f lo v e d o ne s )

8.

Freedom ( i n d e p e n d e n c e , f r e e c h o i c e )

9.

H ap pi n es s ( c o n t e n t e d n e s s )

10.

I n n e r harmony (fr eed om from i n n e r c o n f l i c t )

11.

Mature l o v e ( s e x u a l and s p i r i t u a l

12.

N a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y ( p r o t e c t i o n from a t t a c k )

13.

P l e a s u r e (an e n j o y a b l e , l e i s u r e l y l i f e )

14.

S alv atio n (saved, ete rn a l l i f e )

15.

S e lf-re sp e c t (self-esteem )

16.

Social r e c o g n itio n ( r e s p e c t, adm iration)

intimacy)

all)

26

17.

True f r i e n d s h i p ( c l o s e com p an io n sh ip )

18.

Wisdom (a m a tu r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e )

The i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s on t h e RVS a r e :
1.

Amb it iou s ( h a r d - w o r k i n g , a s p i r i n g )

2.

Broad-minded (open-minded)

3.

Capabl e (c o m p e t e n t , e f f e c t i v e )

4.

Cheerful

5.

Clean ( n e a t , t i d y )

6.

Courageous ( s t a n d i n g up f o r y o u r b e l i e f s )

7.

F o r g i v i n g ( w i l l i n g t o pardon o t h e r s )

8.

H e lp f u l

9.

Honest ( s i n c e r e , t r u t h f u l )

(lig h th earted , joyful)

(working f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s )

10.

Imaginative (d arin g , c r e a tiv e )

11.

Independent

(self-relian t,

12.

Intellectual

(in tellig en t, reflective)

13.

Lo gi ca l

14.

Loving ( a f f e c t i o n a t e , t e n d e r )

15.

O b e d ie n t ( d u t i f u l , r e s p e c t f u l )

16.

P o l i t e ( c o u r t e o u s , w e ll - m a n n e r e d )

17.

Responsible (dependable, r e l i a b l e )

18.

S e lf-c o n tro l led ( r e s tr a in e d , s e l f - d i s c i p l i n e d )

self-sufficient)

(consistent, refle ctiv e)

Maccoby (1976) used a m o d i f i c a t i o n o f t h e RVS by u s i n g o n l y t h e
instrum ental

values to determine the

of business le a d e rs.
profile

by

listin g

"head" o r

"heart"

orientation

Maccoby d e v e l o p e d h i s own i n s t r u m e n t a l
19

"character

traits."

Ten

of

the

value

so-called

27

traits

are q u a litie s of the "h e a rt,"

"head."

Head v a l u e s

t h e goal

of se lf-a c tu a liz a tio n .

to

"think."

focus.

In

are co g n itiv e,

Heart values
contrast

to

and n i n e a r e q u a l i t i e s
personal

orientation,

w ith

Head v a l u e s d e a l w i t h t h e a b i l i t y

are a f f e c tiv e
head

in

of the

values,

and have an i n t e r p e r s o n a l
heart

values

deal

with

a

" f e e l i n g " o r i e n t a t i o n (Rokeach, 19 69 ).
The h e a r t v a l u e s ( c a l l e d moral v a l u e s by Rokeach) o f t h i s s t u d y
are:
Clean
Forgiving
H el p f u l
Honest
Loving
O b e d ie n t
Polite
Responsible
S elf-controlled
The head v a l u e s

( c a l l e d competence v a l u e s by Rokeach)

of this

study are:
A mbitious
Broad-minded
Capable
Imaginative
Independent
Intellectual
Lo gi ca l
Because t h e RVS i s
individuals
accepted

as

valid

and r e l i a b l e

and

g r ou ps

and

b e ca us e

it

a

measure

of

values,

this

instrum ent fo r the p resen t re se a rc h .
"head/heart" o rie n ta tio n

across

has

survey

widely
was

the

used

p articu lar

and

p r im a r y

Furthermore, t o a s c e r t a i n

o f th e study groups,

was f o c u s e d on t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s .

been

a wide r a n g e o f

the

attention

28

V al ue s Development, Values Change,
and t h e I n f l u e n c e o f E d u c a ti o n
and E x p e r i e n c e on Values
It

is

im portant e a r l y

to d istin g u is h

in t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f v a l u e s deve lo pm ent

between c o n t e n t and s t r u c t u r e

of a value.

C o n te n t

r e f e r s t o WHAT one v a l u e s o r b e l i e v e s a b o u t a v a l u e ; i . e . ,
th at

stealing

is

wrong

is

the

content.

hand, r e f e r s t o t h e WHY o f a v a l u e ;
it

causes

another a lo ss.

Structure,

i.e .,

stealing

The s t r u c t u r e

of

the value

on t h e

other

i s wrong b ec a u se

a value w ill

develop

w i t h age and e x p e r i e n c e .

A p e r s o n might be s t r u c t u r a l l y g u id e d by

what a n o t h e r p e r s o n w i l l

say a t one p o i n t

r u l e s or laws.
is

be g u i d e d

by

The c o n t e n t r em a in s t h e same, y e t what s u p p o r t s

it

d ifferent.

experiences

Structure,

therefore,

w ill

and as one p a s s e s t h r o u g h

(Ward, 1 9 7 9 ) .

and l a t e r

stages

Through out t h i s d i s c u s s i o n ,

change

study,

it

is

not

im portant to

one

gains

o f t i m e and m a t u r i t y

v a l u e change r e f e r s t o a

ch ang e in s t r u c t u r e a n d / o r c o n t e n t o f t h e v a l u e .
of this

as

For t h e p u r p o s e s

know what component ch ang es

b u t r a t h e r t h a t a v a l u e i s c a p a b l e o f d e ve l o pm en t and change due t o
e d u c a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e .
The f i e l d
developm ent
Kohl b e r g
account

and

(1964)
for

o f moral
w ith

dev el op me nt
the

found

that

v irtu ally

is

concepts
three

al 1 moral

of

interests

a g ain st the s e lf i s h ,

and p u r p o s e s .

related

content

different
judgm ents.

p r e c o n v e n t i o n a l l e v e l , f o c u s e s on s e l f .
the s e lf is h

closely

and

kinds

values

stru ctu re.

of

Level

structure
1,

or

the

"Good" i s what b e s t s e r v e s

"Bad" o r "wrong"

intrinsic interests.

to

i s what goes

Punishment and rew ard a r e

29
t h e m a jo r i n f l u e n c e s .
on o t h e r s .

Moral

concerns.

Level

2, o r t h e c o n v e n t i o n a l

j u dg m en ts

are

made

on

the

basis

of

are

d e v e l o p e d from

regulations.
p rin cip les,

Level

a

stric t

adherence

3, o r t h e p o s t c o n v e n t i o n a l

b o th i n t r i n s i c and e x t r i n s i c .

o f t h e s e l e v e l s a r e two s t a g e s .
t h a n t h e se co n d .
Sim ilarly,
" sc h em e. "

to

level,

This le v e l

The f i r s t

rules

and

focuses

i s r e a c h e d by
W it hin each

stage

is

less

stage

theory

advanced

Each s t a g e i s s e q u e n t i a l .
Perry

he/she

(1970)

may

categories.A person’s
or

pass

developed

a

Absolutismto

Commitments,

through

value

is

nine

s y st e m
Relativism

sim ilar

Level 3 and Maslow’ s (1954)

in

called

p ositions

would
to

highest-level

in

The

t o Kohl b e r g ’ s

need,

basic
last
(1964)

self-actualization.

(1909) and P i a g e t (1932) a l s o

s u p p o r t e d t h e n o t i o n o f s t a g e s o f v a l u e and moral d e v e l o p m e n t .
of

a

three

d e v e l o p from

Commitments.

function

Some o f t h e e a r l i e r work by McDougall

work

on

His scheme h o l d s t h a t as one d e v e l o p s from c h i l d h o o d t o

adulthood,

category,

extrinsic

L a t e r in t h i s l e v e l ,

a m i n o r i t y o f a d u l t s and u s u a l l y a f t e r t h e age o f 20.

duality

focuses

E a r l y i n t h i s l e v e l , t h e way t o d e t e r m i n e r i g h t and wrong

dep end s on t h e r e a c t i o n o f s i g n i f i c a n t o t h e r s .
values

level,

these

theorists

seems

to

imply

that

values

The

continue

to

d e v e l o p as one m a t u r e s and a l s o as new e x p e r i e n c e s a r e u n d e r t a k e n .
How do p e o p l e come t o

adopt th e p a r t i c u l a r

values

t h e y h o ld ?

R e s e a r c h e r s have shown t h a t t h e v a l u e s - d e v e l o p m e n t p r o c e s s b e g i n s a t
a

very

young

theorists

age

and

continues

throughout

life.

A ls o ,

have b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f v a l u e s

is

several
based on

r e i n f o r c e m e n t , p o s i t i v e o r n e g a t i v e , o f c o n c e p t s and b e h a v i o r .

30

[A cq u irin g v a lu e s ] i s o r d i n a r i l y d e s c r ib e d as a le a r n i n g
p r o c e s s , whereby t h e i n d i v i d u a l comes t o a n t i c i p a t e rew ard o r
punish me nt f o l l o w i n g an approv ed o r f o r b i d d e n a c t , and d e v e l o p s
some ( a p p r o x i m a t e ) c o n c e p t i o n o f t h e s t a n d a r d t h a t o t h e r s use
t o r e i n f o r c e h i s b e h a v i o r . ( S c o t t , 1965, p. 42)
Hence, many have s t u d i e d v a l u e s d ev el op m en t i n c h i l d r e n r a t h e r
t h a n a d u l t s and have found t h a t most v a l u e s a r e l e a r n e d w h i l e young
and change i n s i g n i f i c a n t l y a s t h e y a g e .
work d e a l i n g

with

m orality

in

children

P i a g e t ’ s (1932) p i o n e e r i n g
indicated

th at

values

in

p l a c e by t h e e a r l y t e e n a g e y e a r s a r e n o t e s s e n t i a l l y d i f f e r e n t from
t h e a d u l t view.

Peck and H a v i g h u r s t

(1960)

s t u d i e d 34 a d o l e s c e n t s

i n " P r a i r i e C i t y " and d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e i r l e v e l o f m o r a l i t y a t age
16

could

be

p r e d i c t e d by

age

10.

Kohlberg

and

Kramer

(1969)

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e was 1 i t t l e d i f f e r e n c e in t h e moral judgm ent o f
i n d i v i d u a l s a t 16 and 25.
college

fraternity

and

However, S c o t t (1965) found when s t u d y i n g
sorority

men

and women

th at

moral

values

d e v e l o p well i n t o e a r l y a d u l t h o o d and even l a t e r 1 i f e .
Rokeach (1973) a s s e r t e d t h a t v a l u e s do c h a n g e .
change

is

in itiated

h i s / h e r value system,

when

a

person

recognizes

which c a u s e s h i m / h e r t o

a

The p r o c e s s o f
contradiction

be d i s s a t i s f i e d

in
and

consequently to seek r e c t i f i c a t i o n .
. . . The b a s i c mechanism t h a t i n i t i a t e s a p r o c e s s o f change i s
an a f f e c t i v e s t a t e o f s e l f - d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , which i s ind uc ed
when a p e r s o n becomes aware o f c e r t a i n c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i n h i s
t o t a l b e l i e f system.
The more such c o n t r a d i c t i o n s i m p l i c a t e
s e l f - c o n c e p t i o n s , t h e more 1 i k e l y t h a t t h e y w i l l in d u c e s e l f d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n and t h e more 1 i k e l y t h a t t h e e n s u i n g chang es
w ill endure.
S e l f - d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i l l n o t a r i s e i f such
c o n t r a d i c t i o n s do n o t e x i s t o r do n o t become a p p a r e n t o r ,
s h o u ld t h e y become a p p a r e n t , t h e y a r e d e n i e d o r r e p r e s s e d .
But
i f a p e r s o n p e r c e i v e s such c o n t r a d i c t i o n s w i t h i n h i m s e l f as
c r e d i b l e , h i s p e r c e p t i o n s h o u ld g e n e r a t e s e l f - d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n .
To r e d u c e o r e l i m i n a t e such s e l f - d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n , a p e r s o n w i l l

31
o fte n fin d i t n e c e ssa ry to r e a l ig n v a lu e s w ith s e l f ­
conceptions.
Value cha ng e s h o u l d i n t u r n l e a d t o a c o g n i t i v e
r e o r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e r e m a i n i n g v a l u e s in t h e s ys te m and
c h a n g e s i n f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d a t t i t u d e s , and i t s h o u l d
c u l m i n a t e f i n a l l y in b e h a v i o r a l ch ang e, ( p. 286)
New e x p e r i e n c e s can c a u s e t h i s
S elf-dissatisfaction
exist

w ithin

the

over not

sense of s e l f - d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n .

holding

superintendency

the

could

appropriate
cause

an

values

aspiring

that
chief

e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r t o r e e v a l u a t e and change h i s / h e r v a l u e sy st em .
T h i s view t h a t v a l u e s t e n d t o be a p r o d u c t o f o n e ’ s e x p e r i e n c e
has been s h a r e d by o t h e r t h e o r i s t s .
believed

th at

because people

develop d i f f e r e n t
they

function

values;

in

a

R a t h s , Harmin, and Simon (1966)

have

d ifferen t

these values

pure,

abstract

experiences,

are n e ith e r

way.

This

static,
notion

they
n o r do

is

also

c o n s i s t e n t w i t h R o g e r s ’ s (1964) o b s e r v a t i o n a b o u t v a l u e s :
V alu es a r e n o t h e l d r i g i d l y , b u t a r e c o n t i n u a l l y c h a n g i n g . The
p a i n t i n g w h i c h l a s t y e a r s e e m e d m e a n i n g f u l now a p p e a r s
u n i n t e r e s t i n g ; t h e way o f working w i t h i n d i v i d u a l s which was
f o r m e r l y e x p e r i e n c e d as good now seems i n a d e q u a t e ; t h e b e l i e f
which t h e n seemed t r u e i s now e x p e r i e n c e d as o n l y p a r t l y t r u e ,
o r p e r h a p s f a l s e , ( p . 164)
Conceivably,

these

values.

Therefore,

aspiring

superintendent,

theories

as an

purport

im portant
higher

that

experience

education

can

experience

affects

in

the

life

of

be

influential

an
in

v a l u e s deve lo pm ent and ch ang e.
E d u c a ti o n

has

been

Educational

in stitutions,

values

certain

in

shown

to

make

a

by t h e i r

v er y

nature,

d irectio n s

th at

are

i n s t i t u t i o n s ’ v a l u e s (Rokeach, 1973, p. 3 3 6 ) .
the

form

of

lecture

or

exposure

to

difference

in

attem pt

congruent

values.
to

shap e

w ith

the

However, e d u c a t i o n in

inform ation

w ill

not

likely

32
p r o du ce v a l u e change u n l e s s i t
(Rokeach,

1973,

p.

332).

i s coupled with s e l f - d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n

This

principle

could

help

explain

apparent co n tra d ic tio n s

in t h e r e s e a r c h t h a t has a t t e m p t e d t o

th at

d o es

higher

education

make

a

difference

in

the
show

values.

The

research is not c l e a r - c u t .
One o f t h e f i r s t modern s t u d i e s on t h e i n f l u e n c e o f e d u c a t i o n
on v a l u e s was done by H a r t s h o r n e and May ( 1 9 2 0 ) .
on

cheating

programs
found

in s c h o o l s

that

college

behaviors,

value

the

authors

that

and c h u r c h e s had l i t t l e

ch ang es

experience.

do n o t

Emmanuel

generally

( 1 97 8) ,

i n d i c a t e d t h a t v a l u e s d i d n o t ch ang e,
o t h e r hand,

found

in

In t h e i r r e s e a r c h
values-education

effect.

Jacob

occur

a

his

as

(1957)

result

longitudinal

s av e r e l i g i o u s o n e s .

of

study,
On t h e

P l a n t (1965) found t h a t s t u d e n t s from t h e i r fre s hm an t o

s e n i o r y e a r s showed a d e c r e a s e

in dogmatism,

authoritarianism ,

and

intolerance.
In

the

N ational

O pinion

Research

C enter

study,

Rokeach

d i s c o v e r e d t h a t some v a l u e s te n d e d t o i n c r e a s e w it h e d u c a t i o n w h i l e
others

decreased.

aesthetic,

and

P olitical,

romantic

values

intellectual,
te n d e d

hedonic, m a t e r i a l i s t i c ,

p acifistic,

In

the

his

graduate

com par iso n
students,

S l i p p e r y Rock S t a t e

of

personal

to

self-actu alizatio n ,

increase.

and p a t r i o t i c
values

of

f a c u l t y , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , and

R eligious,

values decreased.
undergraduate
board

members

and
at

C o l l e g e , G a l l i n e a u (1979) found t h a t t h e r e was a

l a r g e d i s p a r i t y in t h e v a l u e s o f u n d e r g r a d u a t e s and f a c u l t y on 18 o f
t h e 36 v a l u e s o f t h e Rokeach
Eskimo sch ool board

Values S ur vey .

In a s t u d y

o f Inupiaq

members, Holloway (1985) d i s c o v e r e d t h a t l e n g t h

33

o f formal e d u c a t i o n a f f e c t e d v a l u e s .
Survey o f I n t e r p e r s o n a l V a l u e s ,

B e n e v o l e n c e , as t e s t e d by t h e

became l e s s v a l u e d w i t h more formal

education.
The d i s c u s s i o n i n t h i s s e c t i o n i n d i c a t e d t h a t v a l u e s do d e v e l o p
and change t h r o u g h o u t a d u l t h o o d and t h a t d i f f e r e n c e s

in v a l u e s

be

contradictory

attributed

inform ation
This

to

demonstrated

theoretical

asp irin g

education

and

a need

framework

experience.
to

study

provides

superintendents

as

a

The

th is

the

influence

rationale

relev an t

study

for

can

further.
including

group

for

th is

research.

V alues and B eh av io r
As me nti on ed e a r l i e r ,
of

interest

recognized

of

Sikula

researchers

th at

understanding

the

human

(1971)

t h e s t u d y o f v a l u e s has been t h e s o u r c e

study

from

many

of

values

behavior,

indicated

disciplines.
lies

specifically

that

the

study

of

at

that

values

organization.

more

completely

are

determ inants

V alues

values

explain
of

the

have

core

management

p r o m i s i n g ap p ro ac h t h a t e x i s t s t o e x p l a i n b e h a v i o r .
stating

They

of

behavior.

is

the

most

He c o n t i n u e d by

m otivation

v irtually

all

in

the

kinds

of

s o c i a l b e h a v i o r , i n c l u d i n g s o c i a l a c t i o n and i d e o l o g y , ju d g m e n t s and
evaluations,
self

to

and j u s t i f i c a t i o n s ,

others

as well

as

comparisons,

attem pts

to

and p r e s e n t a t i o n s

influence

others

of

(Rokeach,

19 7 3) .
England

(1974)

influence behavior:

discussed

two m a jo r ways

behavior channeling

in

which

and p e r c e p t u a l

values

can

screening.

34

B e h a v i o r c h a n n e l i n g r e f e r s t o a method i n which one c h a n n e l s h i s / h e r
b e h a v i o r away from a q u e s t i o n a b l e p r o p o s i t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e v a l u e s
he/she

abides

behavior.

by.

This

Perceptual

values to

select,

’ s e e s ’ and

is

viewed

screening

filter

as

refers

and i n f l u e n c e

’ h e a r s ’ " ( E ng l an d ,

1974,

p.

values
to

d irectly

"the

power o f

in terp retatio n
7).

influencing
personal

o f what one

Obviously,

perceptual

s c r e e n i n g i s a more i n d i r e c t i n f l u e n c e on b e h a v i o r .
P e r s o n a l v a l u e s i n f l u e n c e o r g a n i z a t i o n a l b e h a v i o r as w e l l .

Udy

(1959) s t a t e d t h a t each member b r i n g s i n t o t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n from t h e
o u t s i d e v a r i o u s e x p e c t a t i o n s and v a l u e s t h a t

inevitably

affect

how

he/she c a r r i e s out h is /h e r r o l e .
England (1974) expanded t h i s n o t i o n by a s s e r t i n g t h a t p e r s o n a l
values

influence

the

behavior

of

managers

in

organizations.

He

s t a t e d t h a t personal value systems:
1.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

i n f l u e n c e t h e way a manager lo o k s a t o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s and
groups of in d i v i d u a l s , th u s in f lu e n c in g in te r p e r s o n a l
relationships.
i n f l u e n c e a m a n a g e r ’ s p e r c e p t i o n s o f s i t u a t i o n s and p r o b ­
lems he f a c e s .
i n f l u e n c e a m a n a g e r ’ s d e c i s i o n s and s o l u t i o n s t o pr o b le m s .
s e t t h e 1 i m i t s f o r t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f what i s and what i s
no t e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r by a manager.
i n f l u e n c e t h e e x t e n t t o which a manager w i l l a c c e p t o r w i l l
r e s i s t o r g a n i z a t i o n a l p r e s s u r e s and g o a l s .
i n f l u e n c e n o t o n ly t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f i n d i v i d u a l and o r g a n i z a t i o n s u c c e s s , b u t i t s a c h i e v e m e n t as w e l l . (p . 3)

A pparently,

the

values

of

the

manager

and

consequent

m a n a g e r ia l

b e h a v i o r in any o r g a n i z a t i o n w i l l a f f e c t t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n .
V alues have been shown t o make a d i f f e r e n c e in d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g
behavior.

C o l l e g e freshmen make d e c i s i o n s t o j o i n o r n o t t o j o i n a

f r a t e r n i t y o r s o r o r i t y based on t h e i r v a l u e s ( S c o t t , 1 9 6 5 ).

Parents

35
send t h e i r c h i l d r e n t o C h r i s t i a n s c h o o l s b e c a u s e o f v a l u e con gr uen cy
(Adams,

1983).

D ifferences

in

values

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h c h e a t i n g on t e s t s
Tagiuri

(1965)

showed

th at

( H e n s h a l,

personal

s t r a t e g y c h o i c e s o f b u s in e s s m e n .

have

been

1969,

values

shown

19 71 ).

influence

be

Guth and
corporate-

McMurry (1963) n o t e d t h a t t h e r o l e

o f v a l u e s i s shown in how " p e o p l e pro ble ms " a r e h a n d l e d .
b u t a few e xa m pl es .

to

These a r e

There i s a body o f e v i d e n c e l i n k i n g v a l u e s and

behavior.
Knowledge

of

an

indiv id u al’s

values

enables

one

to

predict

behavior.
I f i t i s in d e e d t h e c a s e t h a t t e r m i n a l and i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s
a r e s t a n d a r d s t h a t g u i d e a c t i o n s as well as a t t i t u d e s , t h e n
knowing a p e r s o n ’ s v a l u e s s h o u ld e n a b l e us t o p r e d i c t how he
w i l l behave in v a r i o u s e x p e r i m e n t a l and r e a l - l i f e s i t u a t i o n s .
(Rokeach, 1973, p. 122)
Rokeach

(1968)

found

th at

the

ranking

of

the

term inal

value

SALVATION was h i g h l y p r e d i c t i v e o f ch ur ch a t t e n d a n c e .

Inclinations

of

made on

ethical

basis

of

behavior
their

of

ranking

future
of

bu sin es sm en

instrum ental

have

values

been

(K reitner

the

& Reif,

1980; Maccoby, 1976; S t e v e n s , 1985 ).
Personal

values

define

b e h a v i o r and " a d m i n i s t r a t i v e "

the

difference

behavior.

between

Hodgkinson

"management"
(1978)

made a

u s e f u l d i s t i n c t i o n between management and a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
The d i s t i n c t i o n d i v i d e s b e h a v i o r t h a t has a s t r o n g moral and
vol i t i o n a l
component
from
behavior
th at
has
n o t.
A d m i n i s t r a t i v e a c t s a r e r e l a t e d t o t h e d ev el op m en t o f p o l i c y ,
t h e c r e a t i o n o f p r e c e d e n t , t h e e x p r e s s i o n o f v a l u e s , and t h e
exercise of professional d is c re tio n .
M an ag er ia l a c t s a r e
c o n c e rn e d p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n o f p o l i c y , t h e
f o l l o w i n g o f p r e c e d e n t and t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f norms and r u l e .
Good a d m i n i s t r a t i o n i n v o l v e s t h e c o n s c i o u s and w is e a p p l i c a t i o n
o f moral c h o i c e . (Holmes, 1986, pp. 3 - 4 )

36

B arn ard
aspect of

(1938)

adm inistration

distinguishes
distinction
technical

asserted

interaction

and t h e moral

"quality"
between

th at

base

decision-making

those

things

bases of d e c isio n )

that

of

of

the

the

adm inistrator

behavior.
are

technical

He

possible

noted
to

the

do

(the

and t h o s e t h i n g s t h a t a r e w o r th d o in g

o r t h a t a r e r i g h t t o do.
Much o f t h e

discussion

thus

far

has

illum inated

that

values

i n f l u e n c e b e h a v i o r in p o s s i b l y i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l ways and o n l y t o t h e
e x t e n t t h a t t h e y a r e submerged in t h e p r o c e s s o f r a t i o n a l
making b e h a v i o r .

However, r e s e a r c h e r s have found more d i r e c t l i n k s

between v a l u e s

and p o l i c y - m a k i n g b e h a v i o r . M i t c h e l l ,

W irt

in

(1985),

th eir

demonstrated c l e a r
and t h e

proposals

leg islato rs

are

co n stitu en ts,

decision­

links

w ork

w ith s ix s t a t e s ’

between

the

fo r educational
elected

they

are

who

value

share

th erefore

the

and

1egi s i a t u r e s ,

systems

policy.

M arshall,

of

leg islators

They a r g u e d t h a t

since

same

th eir

inclined

to

values

as

support

p o licies

c o n s i s t e n t with th e values o f the c i t i z e n r y , e s p e c i a l l y a t p o in ts of
choice.
Kirby e t a l . (1973) d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e l i n k s
key d e c i s i o n
school

makers

and

desegregation

policy

decisions

out comes.
were

viewed

They
as

between v a l u e s
pointed
a

out

moral

and
that

struggle

a b s e n t o f d i s c u s s i o n a b ou t presumed c o s t s and b e n e f i t s .
Iannaccone

and

Lutz

(1970)

sh owe d

th at

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e chosen t o l e a d a school d i s t r i c t
d irec tio n s.

The

form er

school

board

m e mb ers

successor
in new p o l i c y
and

form er

37
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t were
shifted.

relieved

Therefore,

the

of

new

duty

as

the

superintendent

c o m m u n it y
reflects

values

the

"new"

values.
The l i n k between v a l u e s and b e h a v i o r i s d o cu m en ta bl e and can be
se en i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l ways.

T h i s l i n k i s a p p a r e n t among l e a d e r s in

the educational

Even though b e h a v i o r was n o t t h e f o cu s

in

this

community.

study,

im plications

can

be

drawn

that

reflect

on

the

b e h a v i o r o f t h e l e a d e r and a r e t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d w o r t h w h i l e .

Stu dy o f Values Summary
The t h e o r e t i c a l f o u n d a t i o n o f t h i s s t u d y r e s t s on t h e t h e o r y o f
values

presented

values

are

personal

section.

and

w o rth y

R es ear ch

has

study.

It

of

c o n fi r m e d
was

shown

that
that

v a l u e s d e v e l o p and change o v e r t i m e and m a t u r i t y and t h a t
and

Furthermore,
next

this

measurable

education

the

in

experience

can

have

i t was shown t h a t p e r s o n a l

section,

the

w riter

attempts

an

influence

on

values.

values a f f e c t behavior.
to

establish

the

role

In
of

v a l u e s in o r g a n i z a t i o n s , w i t h p a r t i c u l a r f o c u s on t h e v a l u e s o f t h e
leaders of organizations.

V a l u e s . Leader B e h a v i o r , and O r g a n i z a t i o n a l E f f e c t i v e n e s s
The Imp or ta nce o f V alues in
O rganizational E ffectiveness
Values o f t h e
but p a r ti c u la r ly
(1938)

leader

by t h e t y p e s o f d e c i s i o n s

co n cl u d ed t h a t

were made by an

i n f l u e n c e an o r g a n i z a t i o n

quality

interaction

i n many ways,

h e / s h e makes.

d e c i s i o n s made by e x e c u t i v e
o f two components,

the

Barnard
leaders

technical

and

38
m oral.

The m o r a l

responsibility

and

component
(b)

was

personal

fu rth er

subdivided

codes o f c o n d u c t

in to

(values).

It

t h e moral a s p e c t t h a t d e t e r m i n e s t h e q u a l i t y o f t h e d e c i s i o n .
(1986)

c l a im e d t h a t

the

interaction

of these

q ualities

(a)
is

Stout

determ ines

t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n t h r o u g h t h e e x e c u t i v e .

He

w r o te :
The moral codes o f t h e e x e c u t i v e , t h e s e n s e o r c o n d i t i o n o f
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y and t h e e x e c u t i v e ’ s g e n e r a l
in tellectu al
a b i l i t i e s come t o g e t h e r a t p o i n t s o f d e c i s i o n .
The e x e c u t i v e
l a c k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e co m b in at i o n w i l l a l m o s t c e r t a i n l y f a i l .
(p . 200)
V iall
He

(1984)

developed

presence

a

of

the

studied e f f e c t iv e ,
typology
three

presented.

The

differences

between

high-perform ing o r g a n iz a ti o n s .

where

seven

conditions

states,

Time,

F ocu s,

these

three

interaction

of

high-perform ing

of

and

absence

Feeling,

states

o rganizations

or
were

explains
and

the

o th ers.

" F e e l i n g " i s d e f i n e d as em ana ti ng from t h e l e a d e r ’ s "deep v a l u e s and
beliefs"

and i s

located

at

the

center

of the

three

c o n d i t i o n most r e l e v a n t t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f v a l u e s
Time and Focus w i t h o u t F e e l i n g .

states.

The

is the condition

Viall s t a t e d :

Time and Focus w i t h o u t F e e l i n g s a y s , "Don’ t g e t t o o i n v o l v e d .
Look a t t h e f a c t s .
Make a d e c i s i o n and move on t o t h e n e x t
thing.
I t i s i m p o r t a n t t o say w i t h Time/Focus w i t h o u t F e e l i n g
th a t the p a tte rn is not dysfunctional per se:
i t is j u s t never
found in l e a d e r s o f h ig h pe r fo r m i n g s y s t e m s , ( p. 95)
Hodgkinson
"value-laden,
explain

(1978)

concurred

even v a l u e - s a t u r a t e d

ad m in istrativ e

Successful

adm inistrators,

they value i t .

practice

that

since

enterprise"
w ithout

therefore,

adm inistration
there

reference

is

is

a

no way t o
to

values.

know what t h e y v a l u e and why

39

P e t e r s and Waterman ( 1 9 8 2 ) , in t h e i r c l a s s i c book, In S ea r ch o f
E x c e l l e n c e , c o n fi r m e d V i a l l ’ s n o t i o n
t h e e x c e l l e n t comp anie s.

that

values

are

im portant

in

They w r o t e :

Let us supp ose t h a t we were as k e d f o r one a l l - p u r p o s e b i t
o f a d v i c e f o r management, o r t r u t h t h a t we w ere a b l e t o d i s t i l l
from t h e e x c e l l e n t companies r e s e a r c h .
We m ig h t be te m p te d t o
r e p l y , " F i g u r e o u t y o u r v a l u e sy st em .
De cid e what y o u r company
s t a n d s f o r . " (p. 279)
Every e x c e l l e n t company we s t u d i e d i s c l e a r on what i t
s t a n d s f o r , and t a k e s t h e p r o c e s s o f v a l u e s h a p i n g s e r i o u s l y .
( p . 280)
C l a r i f y i n g t h e v a l u e s yst em and b r e a t h i n g l i f e i n t o i t a r e
t h e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n s a l e a d e r can make. ( p . 291)
From t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s , one can s e e t h a t t h e v a l u e s o f t h e c h i e f
l e a d e r in t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n a r e c e n t r a l
success

or

failure

of the

t o t h e v a l u e s and c o n s e q u e n t

organization.

becomes a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o s u c c e s s .

Sharing

the

same v a l u e s

I t is im portant, t h e r e f o r e , th a t

an o r g a n i z a t i o n p o s s e s s a u n i f o r m i t y in v a l u e s o r " s h a r e d v a l u e s . "
K en ne dy

a nd

"corporate

Deal

(1982)

culture."

referred

Elsewhere,

to

shared

these
values

shared
are

values

known

as

as
the

ethos of the organization.
The e t h o s i s what p e o p l e in a community s h a r e t h a t makes them a
community r a t h e r t h a n a group o f d i s p a r a t e i n d i v i d u a l s .
I t is
t h e c o n f i g u r a t i o n o f a t t i t u d e s , v a l u e s , and b e l i e f s t h a t
members o f t h e community s h a r e . ( G r a n t , 1985, p. 133)
The e f f e c t s o f t h e a b s e n c e o f s h a r e d v a l u e s o r e t h o s p r o v e t h e
necessity

for

them.

In

the

sch ool

setting,

superintendents

are

o f t e n r e p l a c e d when t h e community, as r e f l e c t e d by t h e sc ho ol b o a r d ,
does n o t s h a r e t h e same v a l u e s as t h e i r c h i e f e x e c u t i v e .

When t h i s

occurs,

indicated

effectiveness

cannot take

place.

Danis

(1981)

40
t h a t t h e change i n school bo ar d membership, o f t e n o c c u r r i n g b ec a u se
of

a

sh ift

in

values,

superintendent,

d oes

d istrict

policy,

research

that

connected.

follow ed

pr o du ce

and

very

success

is

far

values

the

from t h o s e
goal.

employment

shifts

direction.
and

of

This

in

It

systems,

his/her

notion

a

values,

are

new

school

from

this

inextricably

therefore,

sch oo l

bo ard

also

explain

may

of

appears

effectiveness

A s u p e rin te n d e n t’ s value

deviate

the

significant

general

shared

by

must n o t

if

long-term

differences

between p u b l i c school and n o n p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
B ar na r d (1938) argu ed t h a t t h e e t h o s o r t h e u n d e r g i r d i n g s h a r e d
v a l u e s ys te m o f an o r g a n i z a t i o n and i t s
the

moral

character

of

the

chief

s u c c e s s depended in p a r t on

executive.

Hodgkinson

(1978)

hypothesized t h a t "the q u a l i t y o f le a d e rs h ip is f u n c t i o n a l l y r e l a t e d
t o t h e moral c l i m a t e o f t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n and t h i s ,
moral

com plexity

and s k i l l s

of

the

leader"

( p.

in t u r n ,

179).

to the

G reenfield

(1986) and M a c I n ty r e (1982) a r e a d m i n i s t r a t i o n t h e o r i s t s who s h a r e d
t h e same view w i t h Ba rn ard and Hodgkinson.
exam ple, p e r f o r m s some key t a s k s

The s u p e r i n t e n d e n t ,

for

in h i s p o s i t i o n where t h e f o c u s o f

t h e r o l e p o i n t s s q u a r e l y t o h i s v a l u e sy st em .
The

effective

schools

research

has

illum inated

n e c e s s a r y f o r a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t t o be e f f e c t i v e .
superintendent

are

effectiv en ess.
superintending,
function,

essen tial

The
as

four

es p o u s ed

com ponents

management
by Katz

(b) o r g a n i z a t i o n f u n c t i o n ,

controlling

function.

Each o f t h e s e

each

are

leading

functions

skills

The v a l u e s o f t h e

dim ensions

(1987),
(c )

in

the

dim ension
for

the

effectiv e

(a )

function,
is

of

planning
and

subdivided

(d)
into

41

more s p e c i f i c t a s k s t h a t e f f e c t i v e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s do, which r e v e a l s
the value-laden nature of t h i s im portant p o s i t i o n .
planning

fu nction

centeredness,
focusing

(b)

academic

in clu d es
setting

the

learning

at

(a)

creating

agenda
the

for

core

For exam ple , t h e
visio n

board

of

and

the

o p e r a t i n g w it h a s h o r t - t e r m management s y s t e m .

and

goal

staff,

m ission,

(c)

and

(d)

Every one o f t h e s e

"management" b e h a v i o r s i s shaped by t h e p e r s o n a l v a l u e s o f t h e c h i e f
executive o f f ic e r .
The " v i s i o n "
s yst em

(Rokeach,

of the
19 73 ),

leader

is

at

and s h a r i n g

the

core

a vision,

of

his/her

focus,

or

belief

sense

of

m i s s i o n i s one o f t h e most i m p o r t a n t a c t i v i t i e s a s u p e r i n t e n d e n t can
do (Bogues,

1985; DeBruyn,

agenda

the

for

board

and

1976;

Sergiovanni,

staff

is

a

1984).

S etting

gate-keeping

the

function.

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s e l e c t and shap e t h e i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t goes t o bo ard
members

(Ashbaugh & K a s te n ,

19 86 ).

Th is

activ ity

assumes

certain

e t h i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s and c o n s e q u e n t management b e h a v i o r .
I t can be seen t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s p l a y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s i n t h e
educational
w ill

community and t h a t t h e i r v a l u e s y st e m a f f e c t s

behav e.

individuals
(Strike,

Behaving
have

H aller,

power

ethically
and

& Soltis,

"is

influence
1988, p.

6).

especially
over

the

In t h e

how t h e y

im portant

lives

of

when

others"

next sectio n ,

how

t h i s i n f l u e n t i a l person tr a n s m its h i s / h e r v a lu e s i s d is c u s s e d .

T r a n s m i s s i o n o f L e a d e r s ’ Values
Selznick

(1957)

v a l u e s by a s s e r t i n g :

discussed

l e a d e r s ’ commitment

to

transm itting

42
The f o r m a t i o n o f an i n s t i t u t i o n i s marked by t h e making o f
v a l u e commitments, t h a t i s , c h o i c e s which f i x t h e a s s u m p t i o n s
o f p o l i c y makers as t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e n t e r p r i s e to
d i s t i n c t i v e ai ms , m e th od s , and r o l e s .
These c h a r a c t e r d e f i n i n g
c h o i c e s a r e o f t e n n o t made v e r b a l l y , t h e y mi gh t n o t even be
made c o n s c i o u s l y . . . . The i n s t i t u t i o n a l l e a d e r i s p r i m a r i l y
an e x p e r t in t h e pr o m o ti o n and p r o t e c t i o n o f v a l u e s , (p. 28)
I t a p p e a r s from S e l z n i c k t h a t t h e l e a d e r ’ s p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n

is the

t r a n s m i s s i o n o f v a l u e s and t h a t much o f t h e l e a d e r ’ s v a l u e s ys te m i s
transm itted e ith e r overtly or covertly.
O v e r t t r a n s m i s s i o n o f v a l u e s can be e x p l a i n e d by communication
theory.

In a s t u d y t o i d e n t i f y an ex em pl ary p r i n c i p a l ’ s v a l u e s and

t o d e t e r m i n e how he t r a n s m i t t e d t h o s e v a l u e s ,
found t h a t t h e p r i n c i p a l
transm it

values.

"receiver"

The

recognition,

Sender

(b)

frequent

(e)

al ig n in g

behaviors
formal

via

were

and

"sender"

identified

and in f o rm al

ex p ectatio n s;

specific;

values

in stru c tio n a l leadership.
s h a r e d d e c i s i o n making,

transm itted

m odeling

and

f a c e - t o - f a c e communication t o

were

in n o r m a l , e v e r y d a y ,

co nversations;

people;

values

behaviors.

participating
and

us ed normal

Densmore-Wulff (1985)

(d)

being

goals;

and

(a)

discussions

(c)
an

as

and

providing

advocate
(f)

for

providing

R e c e i v e r b e h a v i o r s were i d e n t i f i e d as (a)

(b) a c t i v e 1 i s t e n i n g , and (c ) a high c o n c e r n

fo r personal r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
I t a p p e a r s from t h i s s t u d y t h a t one o f t h e most powerful t o o l s
adm inistrators
ability

to

have

"talk"

available

with people.

(1986) t h e s i s t h a t t a l k i s
gain

control

over

aspects

to

transm it

This

study

their

social

is

the

s u p p o r t e d Ma cph ers on’ s

t h e i n s t r u m e n t by which
of

values

reality

and

o r g a n i z a t i o n knowledge deemed t o be p o l i c y " ( p. 1 ) .

"adm inistrators
the

moral

and

43
On t h e

other

hand,

the

influence

a

top

h i s / h e r s u b o r d i n a t e s can be c o v e r t in n a t u r e .
De ns more -Wul ff’ s , A p li n (1983)

executive

has

over

In a s t u d y s i m i l a r t o

shadowed an ex em p la r y s u p e r i n t e n d e n t

t o i d e n t i f y t h e v a l u e s t h a t g u id e d h i s b e h a v i o r and t o d e t e r m i n e t o
what

extent

discovered
staff,

these

that

values

affected

values

of

the

unw illingness

to

equity,

compromise

" o w ne rsh ip " were most i m p o r t a n t .
in a l l

the

su bordinates.

respect
on

for

A plin

students

and

goals,

and

agreed-upon

These v a l u e s were found t o e x i s t

the d i s t r i c t ad m in istrato rs,

and t h e s t r e n g t h and s i m i l a r i t y

o f v a l u e s depended on t h e c l o s e n e s s t o and f r e q u e n c y o f c o n t a c t w i t h
the

superintendent.

These d a t a

imply

that

values

"trickle

down"

( L e a r , 1986, p. 18) t o o t h e r s .
Newstrom and Ruch (1975) a l s o s t u d i e d t h i s t r i c k l e - d o w n e f f e c t .
They s t u d i e d 121 managers p a r t i c i p a t i n g
program.

The s u b j e c t s

b eliefs,

as w ell

as

reported
th eir

behavior/beliefs of others.
ti m e f o r p e r s o n a l

in an e x e c u t i v e dev el o pm en t

on t h e i r own e t h i c a l

p e rc e p tio n s concerningthe

the

behaviors

activ ities,

the

ethical

Padding ex p e n s e a c c o u n t s , u s i n g company
breaching c o n f i d e n t i a l i t y ,

company equip men t and s e r v i c e s f o r p e r s o n a l
of

b e h a v i o r and

managers

th e m s e l v e s as f a i r l y e t h i c a l

and u s i n g

r e a s o n s were j u s t a few

evaluated.

These

managers

b u t r a t e d t h e i r c o l l e a g u e s as f a r more

unethical

than them selves.

Ruch drew

from t h i s s t u d y was t h a t e t h i c a l bel i e f s o f employees

sim ilar

to

perception

of

rated

One o f t h e c o n c l u s i o n s t h a t

top-management

ethics.

Newstrom and

This

research

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e v a l u e s o f t o p management a r e in d e e d " c a u g h t "
employees a t lo w er l e v e l s i n t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n .

are

by

44

S t o u t (1986) co n cl u d ed t h a t t h e t r i c k l e - d o w n e f f e c t b e g i n s when
the

sc ho ol

executive

operate.

S etting

sets

the

the

tone

tone

for

refers

how t h e
to

organization

w ill

o p erationalizing

the

e x e c u t i v e ’ s v a l u e sy ste m a t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f h i s / h e r t e n u r e .
It

appears

from

the

literatu re

th at,

for

chief

educational

l e a d e r s t o be s u c c e s s f u l , t h e y must be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r and committed
t o t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f v a l u e s in t h e i r sc ho ol

system.

t h e s e v a l u e s a r e in de ed c a u g h t by t h e s u b o r d i n a t e s ,
or co v e rtly .

Furthermore,
either

overtly

In t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , t h e w r i t e r examines t h e s t a b i l i t y

o f v a l u e s o f c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s as a g r o u p .
C o n s i s t e n c y and Congruency o f Values
One

of

c o m pa r is on
apparent
s ys t em s

the
of

key

value

from t h e
are

considerations

of

systems

superintendents.

research

relatively

among

literature

stable,

this

that

study

hinges
It

on

becomes

superintendents’

consistent,

and

the

congruent

value
among

t h e m s e l v e s and when compared w i t h o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s .
For

more

than

superintendents

have

50

years,

been

surveys

conducted

by

of

the

students

background
of

of

educational

leadership.

One r e m a r k a b l e f a c t s t a n d s o u t from t h e mounds o f d a t a

collected:

The

portrait

of

the

superintendent

since

1899

has

rem ai ned i n c r e d i b l y c o n s i s t e n t (Tyack & H a n s o t, 19 82 ).
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s in t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y have
m arried
w hite
m ales,
ch aracteristically
P r o t e s t a n t , upw ardly m o b i le , from f a v o r e d
n ative-born, . . .
o f r u r a l o r i g i n s , and
e x p e r i e n c e i n e d u c a t i o n . (Tyack & H a n s o t, 1982,

a l m o s t a l l been
m iddle-aged,
e th n ic groups,
h a v e had l o n g
p. 169)

45
Given t h i s

long h i s t o r y o f c o n s i s t e n c y ,

one c o u l d assume t h a t

t h e v a l u e sy ste m s o f t h i s

gr o up would l i k e w i s e

Segars

c o n s i s t e n c y by ex am in in g d i f f e r e n c e s

(1987) s t u d i e d t h i s

professional

eth ics

superintendents.

between

Segars

large

included

and

in

rem ai n c o n s i s t e n t .

sm all

the

school

study

154

in

d istrict

public

sc h oo l

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s from M i s s i s s i p p i and 84 s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s named t o t h e
E x e c u t i v e E d u c a to r 100 f o r 1986.
the

respondents’

responded

to

situ atio n s.
th is

conformity

Ethical

to the

MSA

adecision-m aking

B o th

the

Code

of

q uestionnaire

No ma jor d i s c r e p a n c i e s

study.

b e h a v i o r was me asured by

were

M ississippi

found

Ethics

as

they

com prising

between

15

groups

su perintendents

and

in

those

e x em pl ary s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s conformed c o n s i s t e n t l y t o t h e AASA Code o f
Ethics.

F u r t h e r m o r e , no d i f f e r e n c e s in e t h i c a l

b e h a v i o r were found

between s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s o f l a r g e and small d i s t r i c t s .
Other
specific

studies
values.

adm inistrators
values

Stutz
the

consistently

(1981)

practice

a

h ig h

and

found

of

congruency

th a t central

on

office

im p o r t a n c e

to

the

PRESTIGE and l e s s

im p o r t a n c e

to

ALTRUISM.

that

criteria

concluded t h a t
and

assigned

degree

more

c o nc lu de d

practices
(1980)

shown

Waggoner (1983)

INDEPENDENCE and

Hoskins
hiring

have

value

of

the
were

public

congruent

superintendents
corporal

scho ol

adm inistrators’

among

them selves.

consistently

pu n is h m e n t.

work

These

supported
studies

i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e i s a h ig h d e g r e e o f co n gr ue nc y o f v a l u e s among
superintendents.
Several
values

studies

among o t h e r

have

shown

subgroups.

a

h ig h

degree

In M ats uo ’ s

of

(1982)

congruency

of

cross-cultural

46

s t u d y o f J a p a n e s e - A m e r i c a n and C au c a si a n -A m e r ic a n a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
Hawaii and C a l i f o r n i a p u b l i c s c h o o l s ,
fo und

among

the

A dm inistrator

value

systems

Value O r i e n t a t i o n

th e Japanese-Americans
ru les

and

of

i n s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s were
the

S u rv e y ,

three
the

groups.

Using

researcher

found

the
that

had a h i g h e r r e g a r d f o r t a c i t u r n i t y and f o r

regu latio n s,

p articu laristic.

in

w hereas

C aucasian-A m ericans

There were no m a jo r

differences

were

due

to

more

gender,

g e n e r a t i o n , and g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s .
M ills
public

(1987) c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y comparing t h e v a l u e

school

industries.

p rincipals
With

found

and m i d d l e

few e x c e p t i o n s ,

groups

were

to

be s i m i l a r

values

among a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

are

managers

the

and

value

in

s y st em s

m anufacturing

systems

overlapping,

of

of

the

indicating

c o n g r u e n t even when t h e

two
that

nature

of

t h e i r product is d if f e r e n t.
Even g e n d e r does n o t a p p e a r t o be a c a u s e f o r v a r i a t i o n
managers.
sc ho ol

In S u nda ck’ s (1983)

principals,

no

among

s t u d y o f male and f e m a le e l e m e n t a r y

statistic ally

significant

found between t h e v a l u e s o f t h e two g r o u p s .
corroborated the f a c t th a t gender d iffe re n c e s

differences

were

Mo racco’ s (1982)

s tu d y

in v a l u e s y st em s have

d i m i n i s h e d in t h e l a s t 20 y e a r s ; c o n s e q u e n t l y , g e n d e r i s n o t a val id
c r i t e r i o n f o r s e l e c t i o n t o an a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p o s i t i o n .
The

above-selected

research

is

not

meant

to

im ply

th at

c o n g r u e n c y e x i s t s among a l l

s u bg ro u ps b e c a u s e i t q u i t e c l e a r l y does

not.

degree

For

exam ple,

a high

of

value

d issim ilarity

between

47
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and t e a c h e r union o f f i c e r s

i n Texas was r e v e a l e d

by

So nnenberg ( 1 9 7 9 ) .
The

research

findings

comparing

superintendents

b o a r d members a r e a l s o c o n f l i c t i n g .

Although i t

the

for

success

sim ilar

of

the

values

dissim ilarities

sc h oo l

as

school

have been

A11 p o r t - V e r n o n - L i n d z e y

th at

board

shown t o
Study

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and school
found

d istrict

of

is

and

im portant fo r

superintendents

members

school

to

hold

(D anis,

1981),

(1980)

used t h e

exist.

Smith

V alues

instrum ent

to

study

board members in n o r t h w e s t e r n Ohio.

superintendents

had

significantly

higher

mean

He

SOCIAL

v a l u e s t h a n sc h oo l board members, w h i l e board members were h i g h e r on
the

ECONOMIC v a l u e s .

Furthermore,

t h e r e were d i f f e r e n c e s

by age,

g e n d e r , and g e o g r a p h i c l o c a t i o n o f t h e school d i s t r i c t .
In h i s s t u d y comparing t h e v a l u e s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s and school
bo ar d

members

in

New J e r s e y ,

V ot to

d i f f e r e n c e s in v a l u e s e x i s t e d .

(1983)

discovered

that

a few

Using t h e same i n s t r u m e n t as Smith,

V o tt o found t h a t s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s rank ed t h e h i g h e s t on t h e POLITICAL
value,

w hile

highest.

sch oo l

board

members

rank ed

the

THEORETICAL

value

However, he found t h a t a high d e g r e e o f co ng r ue nc y e x i s t e d

among t h e o t h e r r e m a in in g v a l u e s .
Birkenstock
adm inistrators
schools,

and

board

in

his

study

chai rmen

of

comparing
the

the

existed

D i f f e r e n c e s were o b t a i n e d when t r e a t i n g

independent v a r ia b le s ,

such as

age ,

values

Seven th -Da y

found t h a t no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

two g r o u p s .
other

(1976),

years

of

of

A dventist

between t h e
the d ata

for

adm inistrative

48
e x p e r i e n c e , academic d e g r e e , and y e a r s o f s c h o o l i n g in a Seventh-Day
A dventist educational i n s t i t u t i o n .
T h i s r e s e a r c h showed t h a t t h e r e may e x i s t a con g ru en cy between
t h e v a l u e sy st em s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
is

some co ng ru enc y o f v a l u e s

w ithout the educational
the

relevance

of

between o t h e r g r o u p s

community.

com paring

I t also indicated th a t there

the

These s t u d i e s

value

sy ste m s

both w i t h i n

and

have l e g i t i m i z e d

of

superintendents,

e s p e c i a ll y since the research is equivocal.
V a l u e s . Lea der B e h a v i o r , and O r g a n i ­
z a t i o n a l E f f e c t i v e n e s s Summary
In t h i s
values

of

s e c t i o n an a t t e m p t was made t o show t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l

the

chief

executive

o fficers

of

o rg an izatio n s,

and

p a r t i c u l a r l y school d i s t r i c t s , do i n f l u e n c e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e
organization.

It

was

shown t h a t

these

values

are

transm itted

to

s u b o r d i n a t e s and t h a t t h e s u b o r d i n a t e s e m u l a t e t h e c h i e f e x e c u t i v e
o f f i c e r ’s values.
may e x i s t

I t i s q u e s t i o n a b l e t h a t t h e con gr ue nc y o f v a l u e s

among l e a d e r s

conclusions

with

respect

in
to

schools.

Lack o f d e f i n i t i v e

co ng r ue n c y

of

values

research

legitim izes

the

c u r re n t study.
In t h e n e x t s e c t i o n ,

t h e w r i t e r shows t h e e f f e c t o f v a l u e s on

ethics.

V alu es and E t h i c s
The Link Between V alues and E t h i c s
Ethics
conduct,

has

been

defined

i n s o f a r as t h i s

is

as

"the

science

c o n s i d e r e d as r i g h t

that

deals

o r wrong,

w it h

good o r

49
bad" (Dewey & T u f t s ,
"that

part

19 0 8) .

of science

d u t y and judgm ent"
principles

E l se w h er e ,

and p h i l o s o p h y

(Barnhart,

by which a p e r s o n

e t h i c s has been d e f i n e d as

dealing

19 7 4 ) .

moral

conduct,

ethics

refers

t o moral

(Barnhart,

1 97 4 ) .

Stevens

Also,

i s g u id e d

with

(1985) d e f i n e d m a n a g e r i a l e t h i c s a s "a s y s t e m a t i c s t u d y o f r i g h t and
wrong,

good and bad c o n d u c t on t h e

achieving o rg an iz atio n al

part

objectives"

o f those

( p.

a r e woven t h r o u g h t h e s e d e f i n i t i o n s :

292).

responsible

for

Two common t h r e a d s

(a ) moral p r i n c i p l e s o r v a l u e s

(b) p u t i n t o a c t i o n .
A1bert

S chw eitzer

(cited

in

H ill,

1980)

d e f i n i t i o n s t o i n c l u d e an a l t r u i s t i c component.

expanded

these

He s t a t e d ,

In t h e g e n e r a l s e n s e , e t h i c s i s t h e name we g i v e t o o u r c o n c e r n
f o r good b e h a v i o r .
We f e e l an o b i i g a t i o n t o c o n s i d e r n o t o n ly
o u r own p e r s o n a l w e l l - b e i n g , b u t a l s o t h a t o f o t h e r s and o f
human s o c i e t y as a whole, (p. 5)
T h i s d i s t i n c t i o n i s p a r t i c u l a r l y u s e f u l when d i s c u s s i n g e t h i c a l
behavior.

E t h i c a l b e h a v i o r i s do in g what one ou g h t t o do, f o l l o w i n g

"standards

o f b e h a v i o r , " d oi n g what

what

is

wrong

(H ill,

19 8 0) .

"o ug ht "

characteristic,

values.

"Va lues" t e l l

This

which

is,

is

right

view

is

as

consistent

by d e f i n i t i o n ,

us what we ou gh t t o do.

opposed t o

d oi n g

with

inherent

the

in

all

"Ethics" is p u ttin g

t h e "o u gh t" i n t o a c t i o n .
Dexheimer (1969)

studied

su p e rin te n d e n ts ’ personal
the

AASA Code o f

personal
their

Ethics.

the connection

value
He

frameworks
sought

to

between p u b l i c

and t h e i r
determine

adherence
whether

v a l u e s were c o n g r u e n t w i t h t h e Code o f E t h i c s

behavior.

Re sp on den ts were

asked

to

identify

school

their

as seen

the

to

by

decision

50
they

would

make,

given

dilemma was d e v e l o p e d ,
e ac h

a

school-related

corresponding

m ultiple-choice-type

question

t h a t would match w i t h t h e Code.
respondents
except

ch o s e

when

Apparently,
actual

the

a nonethical
decision

superintendents

practice

situ atio n .

the

at

l e a s t one

Each
Ethics;
answer

Dexheimer d i s c o v e r e d t h a t as many

based

as

chose

on

an

t h i s study

an

ethical

actual

were

one

decision.

more e t h i c a l

t h a n when g u e s s i n g what t h e y mi ght do

in

in

a given

Dexheimer’ s s t u d y has two i m p ! i c a t i o n s r e l e v a n t t o

c u rr e n t study:

the

(a ) v a l u e s do p r e d i s p o s e e t h i c s and e t h i c a l d e c i s i o n

making, and (b) codes o f e t h i c s may have l i t t l e
behavior.

dilemma-

AASA Code o f

contained

decision

was
in

to

ethical

i n f l u e n c e on e t h i c a l

Dexheimer c o n c l u d e d :

Th ere i s some q u e s t i o n , e s p e c i a l l y in te rm s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y
t h o u g h t on e t h i c a l b e h a v i o r , w h e th e r o r n o t c o d i f i e d r u l e s o f
c o n d u c t have any r e a l e f f e c t upon t h e b e h a v i o r o f human b e i n g s .
E t h i c a l p h i l o s o p h i e s from A r i s t o t l e t o P h e n ix , B a r n a r d , and
Maslow have a l l i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e a l s o u r c e o f e t h i c a l
b e h a v i o r e x i s t s w i t h i n t h e i n d i v i d u a l and n o t in any code o f
e t h i c s , ( p. 277)
The

i n e f f e c t i ve

organization,

ro le

a

code o f

eth ics

has w ith in

an

coupled w ith th e im portant r o l e o f th e v alues o f th e

c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r (Andrews, 198 9) , v a l i d a t e s t h e s t u d y o f t h e
v a l u e framework o f t h e CEO.
Even though t h e p r e s e n t r e s e a r c h e r d i d n o t p u r p o r t t o s t u d y t h e
r e l a t i o n s h i p between v a l u e s and b e h a v i o r , i . e . ,
a b o u t b e h a v i o r can be d r a w n .

Furthermore,

ethics,

im plications

since values

predispose

l e a d e r s t o behave e t h i c a l l y o r u n e t h i c a l l y

( K r e i t n e r & R e i f , 19 8 0 ) ,

by

can

studying

th eir

consequent e t h ic a l

values,

p red ictio n s

behavior of those le a d e rs .

be

made

about

the

By s t u d y i n g t h e head

51

and h e a r t d ic hot om y o f i n s t r u m e n t a l

values,

about th e p r e d i s p o s i t i o n o r i n c l i n a t i o n
available.

This h e a d /h e a r t

therefore,

inform ation

o f the respondents

relationship

is

discussed

in

becomes
the

next

section.

H e a d /H e a r t D i s c u s s i o n
Maccoby (1976) f i r s t d e s c r i b e d t h e d i s t i n c t i o n o f " q u a l i t i e s o f
the

head"

and

"q u alities

qualities

b a s e d on t h e

(1973).

" H e ad "

"thinking"

d esirab le

or

codes

values

interpersonal

refer
with

cognitive
of

to

h eart."

in

as

those

values

They a r e

nature.

w ith

He d e v e l o p e d

values

a personal

conduct

focus.

the

instrum ental

competence and t e c h n i c a l
are

of

a

espoused

" H e a r t"
moral

"feeling"

or

by Rokeach

th at

o rientation.

these

are

task

Also,

they

values

refer

to

o rien tatio n

a nd

an

affective

nature.

in

I t can be shown t h a t t h e moral o r " h e a r t " v a l u e s a r e e s s e n t i a l
when d i s c u s s i n g e t h i c s more so t h a n competence o r "head" v a l u e s . The
head v a l u e s have l i t t l e

t o do w i t h e t h i c s .

Rokeach (1973) p r o v i d e d

t h e f o l l o w i n g e x p l a n a t i o n , which summarized t h i s d i s t i n c t i o n :
Moral v a l u e s r e f e r m a i n l y t o modes o f b e h a v i o r and do n o t
n ecessarily
in c lu d e values th a t concern e n d - s t a t e s
of
existence.
For a n o t h e r , moral v a l u e s r e f e r o n l y t o c e r t a i n
kinds of in s tru m e n ta l
values,
to
those
th at
h a v e an
i n t e r p e r s o n a l f o c u s w hi ch , when v i o l a t e d , a r o u s e pangs o f
c o n s c ie n c e or f e e l i n g s o f g u i l t f o r w rongdoing.
O ther
i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s , t h o s e t h a t may be c a l l e d comp eten ce o r
s e l f - a c t u a l i z a t i o n v a l u e s , have a p e rs o n a l r a t h e r th a n
i n t e r p e r s o n a l f o c u s and do n o t seem t o be e s p e c i a l l y c o n c e r n e d
with m o r a lity .
T h e i r v i o l a t i o n l e a d s t o f e e l i n g s o f shame
about personal inadequacy r a t h e r than to f e e l i n g s o f g u i l t
a b o u t wro ng doin g.
Thus, b eh av in g h o n e s t l y and r e s p o n s i b l y
l e a d s one t o f e e l t h a t he i s b eh av in g m o r a l l y , w h er ea s be ha vi ng
l o g i c a l l y , i n t e l l i g e n t l y o r i m a g i n a t i v e l y l e a d s one t o f e e l
t h a t he i s b eh av i n g c o m p e t e n t l y , ( p. 8)

52

For t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s

study,

t h e two t y p e s o f i n s t r u m e n t a l

v a l u e s a r e (Rokeach, 1969):

HEART VALUES

HEAD VALUES

Clean
Forgiving
H el pf u l
Honest
Loving
O b ed ien t
Polite
Responsible
S elf-controlled

A m b it io us
Broad-minded
Ca pa b le
Imaginative
Independent
Intellectual
L o g i ca l

Maccoby’ s

(1976)

study

was

based

on

in terv iew s

w ith

250

managers from 12 m a jo r companies in d i f f e r e n t p a r t s o f t h e c o u n t r y .
He d e v e l o p e d
values.
were

classified

instrum ent

as

has

may
been

Maccoby

be

of

the

of the h eart.

identified

reinforced
found

ba se d

that

on

19 " c h a r a c t e r

q u alities

as q u a l i t i e s

in clin atio n s
he/she

own

Maccoby i d e n t i f i e d

classified

work.

his

by

tra its,"

head

and

instrum ental

nine
ten

of

which

which

were

He c l a i m e d t h a t

asking

for

any

the

q ualities

i m p o r t a n t and most o f t e n r e i n f o r c e d .

Rokeac h’ s

the

particular
of

behavioral

respondent
behavior
the

head

w h e th e r
while

were

at

most

Q u a l i t i e s o f the h e a r t held a

l e s s s i g n i f i c a n t r o l e in t h e l i v e s o f t h e m a n a g e r s .

Maccoby s t a t e d :

C o r p o r a t e work in advanced t e c h n o l o g y s t i m u l a t e s and r e i n f o r c e s
a t t i t u d e s e s s e n t i a l f o r i n t e l l e c t u a l i n n o v a t i o n and teamwork,
q u a l i t i e s o f t h e head .
And t h o s e a r e t h e t r a i t s r e q u i r e d f o r
work.
In c o n t r a s t , co m p ass io n , g e n e r o s i t y , and i d e a l i s m ,
q u a l i t i e s o f t h e h e a r t , remain unneeded and u n d e r d e v e l o p e d , (p.
175)
Even

though

d istinction,

Maccoby

was

the

first

to

use

t h i s dichotomy in v a l u e s i s n o t new.

the

head/heart

England ( 1 9 7 4 ) ,

53

i n a r e p l i c a t i o n o f h i s 1967 s t u d y w i t h American m a n a g e r s ,
the

personal

id e n tified
affective,

value

four

system s

ty p es

and mixed.

of

of

Indian

managers:

business

studied

m anagers.

pragm atic,

He

m o ralistic,

A p r a g m a t i c manager was c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by a

h ig h s u c c e s s o r i e n t a t i o n .

The m o r a l i s t i c manager was c h a r a c t e r i z e d

by

d o in g

a

h ig h

im p o r t a n c e

on

what

is

"right."

manager had high c o n c e r n f o r p l e a s a n t n e s s .

The

affective

The mixed c a t e g o r y was

the c a t c h - a ll .

In I n d i a , England d i s c o v e r e d more p r a g m a t i c a l l y t h a n

m oralistically

oriented

man age rs .

When

ex am in in g

the

list

of

c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h a t d i s t i n g u i s h e d t h e two g r o u p s i n t h i s s t u d y , one
cannot

help

but

notice

the

sim ilarity

to

Maccoby’ s

head/heart

dic hotomy and a l s o t o Rokeach’ s i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s , s u b d i v i d e d i n t o
competence

and

moral

values.

The

Indian

m oralists

ra n k e d

the

f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s h i g h l y (E n gl an d, 1974, p. 1 9 ) :
Employee w e l f a r e
Social w elfare
Loyalty
Honor
Obedience
Tolerance
Compassion
The I n d i a n p r a g m a t i s t s ran ke d t h e f o l l o w i n g v a l u e s h i g h l y
1974, pp. 3 4 - 3 5 ) :
P r o f i t m a x im i z a ti o n
O r g a n i z a t i o n a l growth
O rganizational e ffic ie n c y
O rganizational s t a b i l i t y
High p r o d u c t i v i t y
In d u strial leadership
A bility
Skill
Succ es s

(En gl an d,

54
A nother

study

in

w hich

the

head/heart

dichotom y

and

the

im b al an c e tow ard t h e head v a l u e s was d e m o n s t r a t e d was c o n d u c t e d by
K r e i t n e r and R e i f ( 1 9 8 0 ) .

Thes e r e s e a r c h e r s g a t h e r e d d a t a from 305

b u sin e ss s tu d e n t s a t Arizona S t a t e U n iv e r s it y .

They used a m o d i f i e d

v e r s i o n o f Maccoby’ s i n s t r u m e n t and c o n c l u d e d t h a t e i g h t o f t h e n i n e
head t r a i t s
Their

were ra n k ed h i g h e r t h a n

resu lts

corroborated

the
than

desirable

and

reinforced

replicated

this

study,

that,

at least

in t h e

and t h e

any one o f t h e

fact

th at

heart

results

b u s in e s s world,

head

traits

tra its.
were t h e

heart

traits.
are

Stevens
same.

head v a l u e s

more

(1985)

It

appears

a r e more h i g h l y

es te e m ed t h a n h e a r t v a l u e s .
However,

the

tendency

tow ard

em ph asi s

on competence

v alues is not e x c lu siv e to th e b u sin e ss world.
many e d u c a t i o n a l

adm in istratio n

(1978),

Holmes

w ritten

about th e

In

some

of

the

adm inistrators
study

of

d e r i v ed

(1986),

G reenfield

head/heart

research
favored

ad m in istrative
competency

the

( hea d)

head

and

Rokeach

group

appeared

Value

attached

values.

and S t o u t

that

practicing

educational

In

Value

S ur v ey ,

the

public

Sonnenberg’ s
o fficials,

Survey

indicated

s ch oo l

(1982)

principals,
principals

(1979)

the

data

th at

the

im portance

Massey’ s

C h r i s t i a n sch ool p r i n c i p a l s and p u b l i c scho ol
Rokeach

have

leadership.

un io n

in

(1986),

educational

considerable

Also,

Hodgkinson

in

values.

teacher

As m e n tio n ed b e f o r e ,
inclu d in g

(1985),

im b al an c e

it

the

adm inistrators
from

w riters,

and head

to
study

the
of

using the
ranked

the

competence v a l u e s BROAD-MINDED and INDEPENDENT h i g h e r t h a n d i d t h e
C h r i s t i a n sch oo l p r i n c i p a l s .

55

None o f t h e s t u d i e s
sp ecifically

on t h e

in ed ucational

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n was fo c u s e d

h e a d / h e a r t dic h ot o m y .

However,

the

preceding

s t u d i e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e r e may e x i s t an im ba la n c e tow ard t h e head
values
one

in e d u c a t i o n a l

of

the

tasks

leadership.

addressed

in

Exploring t h i s
the

present

p o i n t o f view i s

study.

The

lack

of

r e s e a r c h i n t h i s a r e a p o i n t s t o t h e need t o i n v e s t i g a t e i t .

V alu es and E t h i c s Summary
From t h e l i t e r a t u r e r e v i e w in t h i s
th at

values

predispose
values

and

ethics.

(Rokeach,

heart

values

appears to
the next

ethics
A ls o ,
1973)

can

(Maccoby,

exist

are

in ex tricab ly

it

was

be

dichotomized

19 7 6) .

the

role

i t was e s t a b l i s h e d

connected.

established

that

into

An im ba lan ce

in both b u s i n e s s

section,

section,

of values

instrum ental

head

between

and e d u c a t i o n a l

Values

values

these

values

leadership.

in e d u c a t i o n a l

and

leadership

In
is

further illu s tra te d .

Values and E d u c a ti o n a l L e a d e r s h i p
The S t a t u s o f Values in
Educational Leadership
A ccording
leadership

to

the

appears to

literatu re,

have deemphasized t h e

p a r tic u la r ly the heart values.
that

public

ethical

adm inistrators

dialogue.

the

field

of

educational

discussion

Hiruy (1987) s t u d i e d t h e p r o p o s i t i o n

have

been

neglected

with

respect

Using a q u e s t i o n n a i r e o f 48 e t h i c a l

drawn from r e p r e s e n t a t i v e

of values,

ethical

theories

id en tified

to

statem ents

as p e r s o n a l ,

56
s i t u a t i o n a l , s o c i a l , and e x i s t e n t i a l e t h i c s , H i r u y s t u d i e d 54 p u b l i c
a d m in is tra to rs ’ responses.

He found t h a t

although th e

t o r s were n o t m o n o l i t h i c i n t h e i r views a b o u t e t h i c s ,
d e m o n s t r a t e t h e k in d o f p a s s i o n o r z e a l
attitu d e

tow ard e t h i c s was co ol

c o r r o b o r a t e d M a c I n t y r e ’ s (1982)

adm inistra­
they did not

of a tru e believer.

and u n do gm a tic .
assertion th at

H iruy’ s

the

Their
findings

ruling

ethic

of

modern t i m e s p e r m i t s a d m i n i s t r a t o r s t o a c t t h e p a r t o f t h e d i s i n t e r ­
e s te d , honest broker.

Holmes (1986) c o n c u r r e d :

Because [ a d m i n i s t r a t o r s ’ ] image so well r e f l e c t s t h e modern
e t h o s , t h e i r p u b l i c p e r s o n a becomes f u s e d w i t h t h e p r i v a t e
person; th e t o l e r a n t , pragm atic, assured, i m p a r t i a l , managerial
p a t i n a i s a l l t h e r e i s . ( p . 14)
Ba rn ard
technical
personal

(1938)

defined

and m o r a l .
capacity

complexity"

( p.

Leadership,

for

both

288).

d e v e l o p i n g and even

values

have

a

as

having

said,

has

technological

selecting

had

he

Barnard

undue emphasis on t e c h n i c a l
th at

leadership

is

co m pon ent s,

"relativ ely

attainm ents

suggested

leaders

two

that

and

the

frequently

than

m a jo r

em ph as is

moral

process

unbalanced

competency (head v a l u e s ) .

less

high

of
by

The r e a s o n

in

educational

l e a d e r s h i p may be t h e b e l i e f t h a t a b s t r a c t v a l u e s a r e l e s s r e l e v a n t
to

adm inistration

than

the

between competing c l a i m s

ab ility

(W i l l o w e r ,

to

make

19 86 ).

deliberate
Head v a l u e s

ju d g m e n ts
appear

to

do m in at e t h e e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p l a n d s c a p e .
Holmes

(1986)

called

for

adm inistrators

to

develop

wisdom

r a t h e r t h a n know-how.

Wisdom i s d e f i n e d as knowledge c o u p l e d w i t h

the

i nherent

"ought"

Furthermore,

qu ality

in

a

truly

Holmes c l a i m e d t h a t a d m i n i s t r a t o r s

eth ical
of the

deci si o n .
f u t u r e must

57
be r e s p e c t e d f o r t h e i r moral commitment more t h a n f o r t h e i r a b i l i t y
to

manipulate

should

be

people

"at

manage

reestab lish ed

adm inistrator.
th at

and

in

power.
a

central

Ashbaugh and Ka sten

the

heart

of

He t h o u g h t
p o sitio n

(1984)

adm inistration

is

th at

agreed.

values

w ithin
They

concern with

an

cl a im e d

values"

(p.

195).
Furtherm ore,
leadership,
determ ines

moral
the

B a r n a r d (1938) arg u ed t h a t o f t h e two a s p e c t s
and

technical,

quality

of

the

it

is

decision.

the

moral

Because o f

factor
the

of

that

integral

p l a c e v a l u e s h o ld in a d m i n i s t r a t i v e d e c i s i o n making and b e c a u s e o f
the

a p p a r e n t d ee m p h as is

w riters
in

on v a l u e s

have c a l l e d f o r a u t h o r s

modest

and

diverse

ways,

in

educational

in e d u c a t i o n a l
t o compensate

leadership,

leadership
f o r such

to

many
"try,

omissions"

(Walton, 1988, p. 7 ) .
Va lue s and A d m i n i s t r a t o r T r a i n i n g
V arious

w riters

also

have

indicated

that

the

prevailing

c u r r i c u l u m i n a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r e p a r a t i o n programs has been heavy on
the

head

d ee m p h as is

values,
on

the

i.e.,
moral

technical s k ill
d im e n s io n

or

training,
heart

coupled

values.

with

a

G reenfield

(1985) s t a t e d ,
Recent s t u d i e s o f th e p r o f e s s io n a l p r e p a r a tio n o f school
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s r e v e a l an e m p h a s i s on t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f
knowledge and s k i l l s r e l a t e d t o t h e t e c h n i c a l , s o c i a l , and
conceptual dimensions o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e p r a c t i c e .
While t h e r e
have been a t t e m p t s t o a d d r e s s t h e moral d im e n s io n s o f p r a c t i c e ,
as i n e f f o r t s t o
i n t r o d u c e v a l u e s and
the humanities in to
a d m i n i s t r a t o r t r a i n i n g c u r r i c u l a , few p r o f e s s i o n a l p r e p a r a t i o n
programs e m ph as iz e t h o s e d im e n s io n s e x p l i c i t l y , ( p. 99)

58
S u r p r i s i n g l y few u n i v e r s i t i e s o f f e r a d m i n i s t r a t i v e c o u r s e s on v a l u e s
and e t h i c s ( S t r i k e e t a l . , 19 88 ).
S c h o l a r s o f school
moral

(ethical)

ignored

the

b a s e s o f e x e c u t i v e a c t i o n and t h e co n s e q u e n c e s

for

events a t s c h o o l.

adm inistration

Holmes

(1986)

appear to

stated,

have

" N e i t h e r o f t h e two most

popular approaches to th e study o f ed u c a tio n a l

adm inistration

over

t h e l a s t two d e c a d e s has been much c o n c e r n e d w i t h wisdom, l e t a l o n e
virtue"

(p.

9).

Because

values,

and

ethics

in

of

this

1im ited

adm inistrative

attention

training,

to

two

morals,

undesirable

r e s u l t s have o c c u r r e d in t h e f i e l d :
(1) School a d m i n i s t r a t o r s have been t r a i n e d in t h e o r i e s o f
o r g a n i z a t i o n which f a i l t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e
d ominant p u r p o s e s o f s c h o o l s a r e moral . . . and (2) S c h o l a r s
i n s c h o o l admi ni s t r a t i o n , h a v i n g a d o p t e d p o s i t i v i s t ( a n d
o s t e n s i b l y , v a l u e - f r e e ) frameworks f o r t h e i r a n a l y s i s o f
s c h o o l s , have been hampered in t h e i r a t t e m p t s t o f u l l y
u n d e r s t a n d . (Holmes, 1986, p. 198)
There a p p e a r s
central

to educational

school

ag re e m en t t h a t

adm inistration.

values

are

ind ee d

"The c o n t e m p o ra ry s t u d y o f

a d m i n i s t r a t i o n must begi n t o t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t in a s e r i o u s

way t h e
ab ou t

t o be g e n e r a l

influence

schools"

(1978),

and

of values

(Stout,

Holmes

1986,

(1986)

and e t h i c s
p.
are

1 98 ).

on d e c i s i o n s
Barnard

made

(1938),

a few w r i t e r s

who

in

and

Hodkinson

shared

th i s

position.
The e v i d e n c e o f t h e p r e c e d i n g a s s e r t i o n s can be c o r r o b o r a t e d by
examining
ethical

the

research

concerns

in

1ite ra tu re ,

adm inistration.

which

reveals

Ashbaugh

a d eem ph as is

and

K as ten

on

(1984)

examined p a s t i s s u e s o f t h e E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n Q u a r t e r l y t o
a s c e rta in th e percentage of a r t i c l e s t h a t addressed e t h i c s .

Using a

59

g e n e r o u s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f e t h i c s , t h e a u t h o r s i d e n t i f i e d f ew er t h a n
7% o f t h e 347 a r t i c l e s

i n 60 i s s u e s o f t h e j o u r n a l ,

1965,

ethical

issues

in

discovered

that

even

as

relating

Ashbaugh
provide

and

K as ten

sim ilar

indicated

to

that

verification,
lack

of

educational
th o ug h

conversations

attention

to

with

ethical

a retu rn

to

eth ical

in stru ctio n

leadership.

they

could

their

no t

colleagues

discourse

r e f l e c t e d in most a d m i n i s t r a t o r t r a i n i n g p ro g r am s .
c a l 1 ed f o r

d a t i n g back t o

is

also

Kimbrough (1985)

in

admini s t r a t i v e

t r a i n i n g progr ams :
The formal s t u d y o f a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e t h i c s i s e s s e n t i a l i f
ad m in istrato rs
a r e t o cope e f f e c t i v e l y
w i t h t h e complex
problems t h e y f a c e .
Leaving t h e t r a i n i n g
o f e t h i c s to the
i n f o r m a l l y handed down p r o c e s s i s no l o n g e r a d e q u a t e , ( p . 46)
Even th oug h

it

have deem pha siz ed
efficacious

appears

the

results

heart

in

th a t adm inistrator
values,

teaching

a

these

training

programs

curriculum .

are

programs
p r o d u c in g

Hoelscher

(1983)

c o n d u c t e d a s t u d y o f t h e Dep art me nt o f E d u c a t i o n a l A d m i n i s t r a t i o n a t
the

U niversity

faculty,

of

Akron.

graduates,

Rokeach Value S ur vey .

and

He compared

doctoral residency

values

and

students,

goals

using

of
the

H o e l s c h e r found no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in

100% o f t h e

v a l u e s and 83% o f t h e g o a l s .

congruence

of

values

the

between

students

He found a h ig h
and

level

facu lty .

t h e r e f o r e conclude t h a t whatever values a re ta u g h t

One

by t h e

are learned

by t h e s t u d e n t s .

A s p i r i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s may

r e f l e c t the

v a l u e s be in g em ph asi zed in t h e i r c o u r s e o f s t u d y .

of
ca n

faculty

therefore

60
Values and E d u c a t i o n a l L e a d e r s h i p Summary
A cco rd in g t o t h e l i t e r a t u r e re v ie w e d i n t h i s s e c t i o n , t h e r e

is

an a p p a r e n t dee m pha sis o f t h e h e a r t v a l u e s in e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p
in g e n e r a l.

A d m i n i s t r a t o r t r a i n i n g programs may be em p h a si z in g t h e

head v a l u e s , as w e l l .

T h i s a s s e r t i o n i m p l i e s t h e need t o s t u d y t h i s

possible

im balance.

A spiring

relevant

s t u d y gr oup

in

order

su p erintendents
to

determine

therefore

whether

the

are

a

im b ala n ce

will continue.

Summary
In

the

review

of

literature,

the

researcher

identified

a

t h e o r e t i c a l b a s e f o r t h e c u r r e n t s t u d y and p o s i t e d t h i s s t u d y in t h e
literature.

It

en d e a v o r

a social

for

was

shown

that

scientist

the

study

and t h a t

o n l y p o s s i b l e b u t v a l i d and r e l i a b l e .

of

values

m e a su r i n g

is

a worthy

values

is

not

The f a c t t h a t v a l u e s d e v e l o p

and change o v e r t i m e was shown and t h a t e d u c a t i o n and e x p e r i e n c e do
i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s was h i g h l i g h t e d .
are of c r i t i c a l

I t was shown t h a t p e r s o n a l v a l u e s

im p o rt a n c e t o o r g a n i z a t i o n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s , and t h a t

t h e v a l u e s system o f t h e c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r d oes i n f l u e n c e t h e
school

d istrict.

and e t h i c s .
may e x i s t

There i s a c l o s e c o n n e c t i o n between h e a r t v a l u e s

A ls o ,

an im b ala n ce between t h e head and h e a r t

in e d u c a t i o n a l

adm inistration.

b u i l d on t h a t ba s e o f l i t e r a t u r e
school

superintendents,

asp irin g

instrum ental values.

attempted to

by comparing t h e v a l u e s o f p u b l i c

nonpublic

superintendents,

This w r i t e r

values

w ith

school
a

superintendents,

p articu lar

focus

on

and
the

CHAPTER I I I
PROCEDURES AND METHODS

The p r o c e d u r e s
presented

in

this

and methods
chapter.

p o p u l a t i o n and samp le,

the

used t o

I n c lu d e d
survey

ac c o m p li s h

are

the

study

are

a discussion

about

the

instrum ent,

collection

of data,

s t a t i s t i c a l methods, and a r e s t a t e m e n t o f t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s e s .
P o p u l a t i o n and Sample
The P o p u l a t i o n
The

study

population

com prised

two

m ajor

groups:

c u r r e n t l y p r a c t i c i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s in Michigan (PRS) and e d u c a t o r s
who a s p i r e d t o become c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l

leaders

purposes,

i n t o two s u b g r o u p s :

school

t h e f o r m er gr ou p was d i v i d e d

superintendents

(PSS)

and

nonpublic

(AS).

sch oo l

For a n a l y s i s
public

superintendents

(NSS).

Sample S i z e
The main r e a s o n a sample i s t a k e n
the e n t i r e population.

i s t o make i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t

C l e a r l y , a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e sample i s d e s i r e d .

Random s e l e c t i o n o f t h e sample was t h e method used

in t h i s

study.

Using t h i s method g u a r a n t e e d t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e n e s s

of the

samp le.

In s e l e c t i n g t h e number o f s u b j e c t s f o r t h e r e s e a r c h s am p le , s e v e r a l
c o n c e p t s were c o n s i d e r e d .

61

62
1.

With

nonparametric

statistics

fewer

assumptions

about th e p o p u la tio n than w ith p a ra m e tric s t a t i s t i c s ,
d i s t r i b u t i o n f r e e (Linton & G allo, 1975).
scores

are

norm ally

nonparam etric

d istrib u ted

statistic s

the

in

scores

are

i.e .,

made

they are

In p a r a m e t r i c s t a t i s t i c s ,
the

p o pulation,

underlying

but

in

ranks

form

a

suggested

that

a

continuous d i s t r i b u t i o n .
2.
sample

Some
size

authors
of

at

of

least

statistics

books

30

g r ou p

in

ea ch

have
is

a

"rule

of

thumb"

b e c a u s e a v e r a g e s t e n d t o conform r a t h e r q u i c k l y ( S l a v i n , 1984 ).
3.

Procedures

in c a r r y i n g o u t t h e

study

are

as

im portant

as

sample s i z e s e l e c t e d ( S l a v i n , 19 84 ).
4.

"The b e s t way t o r e d u c e t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

of f a ls e negative

e r r o r w i t h o u t i n c r e a s i n g t h e ch anc e o f f a l s e p o s i t i v e e r r o r . . .
t o i n c r e a s e t h e number o f s u b j e c t s

in t h e s t u d y "

(Slavin,

is

1984, p.

102).

5.

A sample s i z e t h a t minim iz ed t h e s e t y p e s o f e r r o r s had t o

be d e t e r m i n e d .

In s u r v e y r e s e a r c h ,

t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p between

sample s i z e and s t a n d a r d e r r o r o f t h e mean, a measu re o f a c c u r a c y o r
p r e c i s i o n o f a g i v e n e s t i m a t e d mean.

To d e t e r m i n e t h e p r e c i s i o n o f

t h e sa mp le , a d e c i s i o n had t o be made w i t h r e g a r d t o t o l e r a b l e r i s k .
Precision

refers

to the degree of d if f e r e n c e

mean from a sample
1953).

and t h e

true

For t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h i s

the w illin g n e s s to

mean
study,

between

(Hansen,

an e s t i m a t e d

Hurwitz,

& Madow,

t o l e r a b l e r i s k r e fe rre d to

"gamble" w i t h t h e r e s u l t s

of the

survey

if

the

chance was 1 in 20 o f g e t t i n g a sample e s t i m a t e t h a t would be o f f by
more t h a n 10% from t h e t r u e v a l u e .

63
Therefore,

u s i n g t h e above i n f o r m a t i o n as a g u i d e ,

the

sample

s i z e f o r each o f t h e g r o u p s was s e t a t 43% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n .

A 43%

sample p r o v i d e s
t h e s am pl e.

f o r more t h a n

sufficient

accuracy o r

precision

of

The f o r m u l a , c a l c u l a t i o n , and r a t i o n a l e a r e i n c l u d e d in

Appendix H.
C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Chief Educational
Lea d er s From t h e P u b l i c S ch o ol s fPSSl
The

first

superintendents
School

subgroup
who were

Adm inistrators

was

taken

members

of

(MASA).

This

membership o f a c t i v e s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
K-12,

and i n t e r m e d i a t e sch oo l

Michigan

Department

of

from
the

public

Michigan

school

A ssociation
has

in M ich ig an .

Of t h e 621 K-8,

in t h e s t a t e

statistics,

579

or

the

of

organization

d istricts

Education

the

largest

as l i s t e d
93% o f

in
the

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s were members o f MASA.
To a c h i e v e an e q u i t a b l e c r o s s - s e c t i o n o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s i n t h e
s t a t e , a l i s t was d e v e l o p e d by r e g i o n .
state.

MASA has t e n r e g i o n s in t h e

S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a r e l i s t e d a l p h a b e t i c a l l y by school d i s t r i c t

w ithin the region.

A s y s t e m a t i c random sample o f 250 was c h o s e n ,

u s i n g a t a b l e o f random v a l u e s t o d e t e r m i n e t h e
the l i s t .

starting

point

on

Every t h i r d name on t h e l i s t was s e l e c t e d from t h a t p o i n t

u n t i l 250 names (43% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n ) were ch o s en .
Two hun dred f i f t y
sa mp le .

the

randomly s e l e c t e d

Of t h e 250 s u r v e y s m a i l e d , 191 (76%) were r e t u r n e d from t h e

f i r s t m ailing.
making

s u r v e y s were s e n t t o

the

total

Eleven (4%) were r e t u r n e d from t h e second m a i l i n g ,
returned

equa l

to

202

(81%).

However,

i n c o r r e c t o r i n c o m p l e t e r e c o r d i n g o f d a t a by t h e r e s p o n d e n t s ,

due

to

three

64
s u r v e y s were u n u s a b l e .

T hr ee

unable to

survey. Therefore,

c o m p le te t h e

usable fo r t h i s
breakdown

of

respondents

s t u d y and were i n c l u d e d

either

refused

o r were

196 (78%) s u r v e y s were

in

the

o t h e r d em ogr ap hic i n f o r m a t i o n

data an aly sis.

i s shown i n

A

Tables

1

t h r o u g h 4.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f Chief Educational
L ea d er s i n t h e No npu bli c S c h o o l s (NSS1
T hi s

subgro up i n c l u d e d

members

of

MANS i s

the organization

M ichigan,
A m e r ic a ),

the

Michigan

including
C atholic

the

o f t h e members

educationalle ad ers

A ssociation
that

schools,

in t h i s

of

represents

C hristian

The member sch ool d i s t r i c t s
All

chief

N on public

who

S c h o o ls

(MANS).

the

nonpublic

schools

in

schools

(Reformed

Church

of

and L ut he ra n

schools

( M is s o u r i

employed 34 c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l
gr oup

were

served

as

the

study

Synod).
leaders.

sample

and

received surveys.
Of t h e 34 s u r v e y s m a i l e d , 26 (76%) were r e t u r n e d from t h e f i r s t
m a i l i n g , w her eas 5 (15%) were r e t u r n e d f o l l o w i n g t h e second m a i l i n g .
The t o t a l

r e t u r n e d was 31 (91%).

to the s u p e rin te n d e n t’ s re fu sa l
the t o t a l

number o f s u r v e y s

Only two s u r v e y s were u n u s a b l e due
t o c o m p le te t h e s u r v e y .

used

in

the

data

analysis

Therefore,
equaled

29

(85%).

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of A spiring Chief
E d u c a t i o n a l L ea de rs (AS)
T h i s su bgroup com pri sed s t u d e n t s who had been a c c e p t e d i n t o t h e
doctoral

or

sp ecialist

program

in

educational

adm inistration

Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a n d / o r t h o s e who had r e c e n t l y e n r o l l e d

at
in

65
Michigan S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y a n d / o r t h o s e who had r e c e n t l y e n r o l l e d
t h e MSU A d m i n i s t r a t i v e E x t e r n - S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s s e c t i o n
those ex te rn s e n ro lle d
list.

Four

hundred

class.

already

Only

in 1987-88 and 1988-89 were i n c l u d e d on t h e
four

students

were

accepted

or

s t u d e n t s in t h e s e programs a t t h e ti m e o f t h e s t u d y .
students

in

held

a superintendency

enrolled

as

Twenty-three

and w e r e c o n s e q u e n t l y

d e l e t e d from t h i s g r o u p , l e a v i n g 381 p o t e n t i a l members i n t h e g r o u p .
A random sample o f 163 s t u d e n t s

(43% o f t h e s ub gro up ) was s e l e c t e d

u s i n g a t a b l e o f random numbers f o r s e l e c t i o n .
The s t u d e n t s
were

interested

were asked

to

c o m pl et e

the

i n becoming

a superintendent.

survey only
If

they

if

they

were

not

i n t e r e s t e d , t h e y were as ke d t o r e t u r n t h e uncompleted s u r v e y in t h e
stamped, r e t u r n e n v e l o p e .
Of t h e 163 s u r v e y s t h a t were s e n t , 103 (63%) were r e t u r n e d from
the

first

m ailing.
(12.7%)
that

m ailing,

and

16

(10%)

were

One hundred n i n e t e e n s u r v e y s
of the

they

returned

the

second

(72%) were r e t u r n e d .

On 25

119 s u r v e y s t h a t were r e t u r n e d ,

were

not

interested

in

becoming

marking "NO" on t h e s u r v e y .

N inety-three

were

a superintendent

data.

interested
O n ly

i n becoming
one

survey

was u n u s a b l e

from

students

a

indicated

superintendent

by

(80%) o f t h e r e s p o n d e n t s
and

because

provided
of

usable

incom plete

inform ation.
Permission

to survey

t h e above

gr o u p s

was

granted

U n i v e r s i t y Committee on R es e a r c h I n v o l v i n g Human S u b j e c t s
(Appendix I ) .

by

the

(UCRIHS)

66
T a b l e 1 . - - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n d e n t s by a g e.
Age
Res pondent Group

Total
25-34

35 -49

50-64

P r a c t i c i n g (PRS)
P u b l i c (PSS)
No n pu bl ic (NSS)

2
1
1

126
114
12

95
79
16

2
2
0

225
196
29

A s p i r i n g (AS)

4

84

4

1

93

65+

Ta b l e 2 . - - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n d e n t s by e x p e r i e n c e .

Years o f E x p e r i e n c e
Respondent Group

Total
0 -5

6 -1 0

11-15

16-20

21-25

26+

P r a c t i c i n g (PRS)
P u b l i c (PSS)
No n pu bl ic (NSS)

74
62
12

63
63
5

40
38
2

29
22
7

8
7
1

11
9
2

225
196
29

A s p i r i n g (AS)a

41

25

13

11

2

1

93

aRefers to years of general a d m in is tra tiv e experience.

T ab l e 3 . - - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n d e n t s by g e n d e r .

Gender
Respondent Group

T ot al
Male

P r a c t i c i n g (PRS)
P u b l i c (PSS)
Non pu blic (NSS)
A s p i r i n g (AS)

Female

211
193
18

14
3
11

225
196
29

63

30

93

67
T ab l e 4 . - - D i s t r i b u t i o n o f r e s p o n d e n t s by sch ool d i s t r i c t t y p e .
Respondent Group/
D i s t r i c t Type

Number o f Re sp on de n ts

P r a c t i c i n g (PRS)
Public
N on public

196
29
225

Total
A spiring
Public
N on public

87
7
93

Total

The Survey I n s t r u m e n t
The

survey

instrum ent

was

divided

into

parts:

i n f o r m a t i o n and t h e Rokeach Value Survey (RVS).

demo gra phic

Complete c o p i e s o f

th e survey instrum ents f o r p r a c t i c i n g c h i e f ed u cational

leaders

and

f o r a s p i r i n g e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s a r e i n c l u d e d i n Appe ndi ce s D and E,
respectively.
Demographic I n f o r m a t i o n
T h i s s e c t i o n o f t h e s u r v e y was d e s i g n e d t o e l i c i t
data

about

the

respondents.
of

Information

included

age,

length

serv ice,

d istrict,

i.e .,

pu b lic or nonpublic.

needed

gender,

and

demo gra phic

from

all

g ro u p s

type

of

school

The v a r i a b l e s a g e , e x p e r i e n c e ,

and g e n d e r have been shown t o show s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s in v a l u e
sy ste m s
a bo ut

of
the

respondents
gr o u p s

was

(Rokeach,
discovered

1973).
by

A dditional

including

th is

inform ation
dem ographic

68

inform ation

section,

although

th is

was

not

the

w riter’s

primary

f o c u s in t h e r e s e a r c h .
The Rokeach Value Survey
The Rokeach Value Sur vey was d e v e l o p e d by M i l t o n Rokeach as a
method

of

m easuring

individuals.
is

a list

of

values

im portant

value

system s

of a

wide

variety

The RVS, Form E, i s d i v i d e d i n t o two p a r t s .

instrum ental
these

the

18 t e r m i n a l
values.
in

value

and

The r e s p o n d e n t

the
is

values,

order
ra n k ed

that
1,

is
and

part

is

two

is

asked t o

im portant to
the

of

Part

a list

rank or

one

of

arrange

them. The most

l e a s t im portant

18.

The

r a n k i n g method assumes t h a t t h e r e l a t i v e o r d e r i n g i s e s s e n t i a l ,
the

a b s en ce

A ls o ,

values

stable,

i.e.,

or

presence

that

are

of

ranked

a

particular
higher

or

value
lo w er

18

(Rokeach,
appear

change t h e l e a s t from t e s t t o r e t e s t .

to

not

19 7 3 ) .
be

more

T h i s phenomenon

i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o n f i d e n c e t h e r e s p o n d e n t has in t h e h i g h - and lowran k ed v a l u e s r e l a t i v e t o t h e m id dl e v a l u e s .
inherent

in

all

ranking

procedures,

This r e l a t i o n s h i p

according

to

Rokeach,

and

is
is

p a r t i c u l a r l y mean ingfu l when exam ining t h e h e a d / h e a r t dic ho to my .
The two l i s t s

are

arranged a l p h a b e ti c a ll y ,

p r e s e n t e d w it h a b r i e f d e s c r i p t o r o r d e f i n i t i o n .

and each

value

The l i s t o f v a l u e s

includes the following:

Terminal Values
A com fortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
A s e n s e o f acc omp lishm ent
A wo rld a t pea c e

is

I n s t r u m e n t a l Values
Amb it iou s
Broad-minded
Cap abl e
Cheerful

69
A w or ld o f b e a u t y
Equality
Family s e c u r i t y
Freedom
H app ine ss
I n n e r harmony
Mature l o v e
National s e c u r i t y
Pleasure
Salvation
Self-respect
Social r e c o g n itio n
True f r i e n d s h i p
Wisdom

Clean
Courageous
Forgiving
H e lp f u l
Honest
Imaginative
Independent
Intellectual
Lo gi ca l
Loving
Obedient
Polite
Responsible
S elf-controlled

Rokeach d e r i v e d t h e l i s t s by r e v i e w i n g t h e l i t e r a t u r e ,
were l i s t e d v a r i o u s v a l u e s found in American s o c i e t y .
Anderson’ s
distilled

(1968)
these

list

lists

of

555

into

p ersonality-trait

a reasonable

in which

A l s o , he used

wor ds.

number.

He

This

th e n

survey

has

been used r e p e a t e d l y by r e s e a r c h e r s o v e r t h e y e a r s w i t h p e o p l e aged
11 t o 90 and from a l l wa lks o f l i f e .
Measurements

Yearbook

(Buros,

In f a c t ,

1 9 78 ) ,

nearly

in t h e E i g h t h Mental
200

references

are

l i s t e d in which t h e RVS has been used o r s t u d i e d .
Over a p e r i o d o f t h r e e t o se ven weeks, t e s t - r e t e s t r e s u l t s
Form

E

for

college

(Spearman’ s

rho).

reliab ilities

students
The

have

correlation

fo r the term inal

values

shown

very

good

reliab ility

for

te st-re test

.74; f o r th e

instrum ental

coefficient
is

for

v a l u e s i t i s .65 t o .70 (Rokeach, 19 7 3) .
Cohen and Kitwood i n d i v i d u a l l y a r r i v e d
about

the

RVS

in

their

reviews

Measurements Yearbook ( B u r o s ,

presented

19 7 8) .

at

the

in

the

same c o n c l u s i o n
E i g h th

Mental

They c l a im e d t h a t even though

t h e t e s t - r e t e s t r e l i a b i l i t i e s a r e low, t h e y a r e v e r y h ig h f o r a t e s t
of th is

type.

A ls o ,

because

the

RVS does

not

provide

a way

to

70

assess the r e l a t i v e in t e n s ity or stren g th o f a p a r t i c u l a r value,

it

is

or

not

a go od

instrum ent

psychotherapy.

H o w e v er ,

reliab ility ,

to

t h e RVS i s e x t r e m e l y u s e f u l

"is

more

d irectly

K it w o o d

counseling

agreed

and e x t e n s i v e norms a r e

th at

the

such t h a t

and i s recommended f o r g e n e r a l use w it h

concerned

Furthermore,

individual

and

Kitwood and S m i t h e r s

u n d e r s t o o d , t h a n mo st,
1 0 3 3 ).

in

Cohen

construct v a lid ity ,

gr ou p s am p l e s .

use

w ith

(1975) co n cl u d ed t h a t t h e RVS
values,

as

p h ilo so p h ically

i f not a l l , o th e r a v a ila b le instrum ents"
no o t h e r

instrum ent

me as u re s

as

(p.

many v a l u e s

( M u e l l e r , 1984 ).

C o l l e c t i o n o f Data
Maximizing t h e
collection

return

in

developing th e cover l e t t e r

(Appendices A and B) and e n c l o s u r e s

in

order

a 70% r e t u r n

reach

the

The

goal

of

following

r e s p o n d e n t s , an en dor sem en t l e t t e r

rate:

were

salience

to

the

(Appendix C ) , a s t a t e d amount o f

t i m e t o co m p le te t h e s u r v e y ( i . e . ,
r e a s o n a b le survey le n g th ,

principles

of the dataapplied

to

procedures.

r a t e was t h e p r i m a r y goal

ten minutes)

ti m e d e a d l i n e s

or

corresponding to a

completion

due d a t e s ,

and use o f f i r s t - c l a s s stamps on t h e l e t t e r and t h e r e t u r n e n v e l o p e .
A l s o , an i n c e n t i v e was i n c l u d e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w - u p l e t t e r b e c a u s e i t
has

been

shown

to

have

a

positive

effect

even

with

the

second

m a i l i n g (B aum gartner & H e b e r l e i n , 19 8 4) .
The demographic q u e s t i o n n a i r e ,
stamped r e t u r n - a d d r e s s
PSS and AS.

All

t h e RVS, a c o v e r l e t t e r ,

e n v e l o p e were s e n t

to

the

o f t h e NSS were s e n t t h e same.

and a

randomly sampled
A copy o f t h e

71

in fo rm atio n i s provided in the appendices.
not

ask ed

to

state

their

s u r v e y was

assigned

subgroups.

For

names,

a number i n

ease

in

Because r e s p o n d e n t s were

anonym ity was
order

to

guaranteed.

distinguish

d istin g u ish in g

th e

Each

between t h e

subgroups,

each

s u b g r o u p ’ s s u r v e y was p r i n t e d on a d i f f e r e n t c o l o r o f p a p e r s t o c k .
The r e s p o n d e n t s were a s s u r e d t h a t t h e number on t h e s u r v e y was f o r
statistical
resu lts

purposes

would

be

only.

Res po nde nt s

treated

w ith

were

stric t

in f or m ed

that

confidence,

and

all
th at

p a r t i c i p a n t s would remain anonymous when t h e r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g s were
reported.

To a s s u r e a h i g h e r r a t e o f r e t u r n , a f o l l o w - u p l e t t e r was

mailed to

nonrespondents;

the

follow-up m ailing

included

a second

c o v e r l e t t e r (Appendix F ) , s u r v e y , and stamped r e t u r n e n v e l o p e .
A n a l y s i s o f Data
Null H y p o t h e s i s 1
T he r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l and
t e r m i n a l v a l u e s o f p r a c t i c i n g scho ol s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
(PRS)
( i . e . , p u b l i c school s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s [PSS] and n o n p u b l i c school
s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s [NSS]) and a s p i r i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s ( A S ) .

the

A nalysis o f d a ta f o r Hypothesis 1 .

To p r e s e n t t h e r e s u l t s

data

the

concerning

analysis
term inal

t a b u l a r form,

for

th is

and

hypothesis,

instrum ental

producing p r o f i l e s

for

relevant

values
PRS,

PSS,

was
AS,

necessary

ra n k ed d a t a ,
( S i e g e l , 19 56 ).

nonparametric

statistical

The S t a t i s t i c a l

inform ation

organized

into

and NSS.

The

means f o r ea ch v a l u e were p r od uc ed , f o l l o w e d by t h e r a n k .
RVS y i e l d s

of

Since th e

procedures

Package f o r

the

were

Social

72
S c i e n c e s (SPSS-X) program was used t o p r od uc e K r u s k a l- W a l l i s one-way
a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e t e s t s t a t i s t i c s on t h e g r o u p s .
An a l p h a l e v e l o f .05 was used as t h e c r i t e r i o n f o r d e t e r m i n i n g
w h e t h e r t h e r e were s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e
groups.

Any com par iso n o f an

individual

value th a t

fell

below t h e

p = .05 l e v e l was deemed t o be s i g n i f i c a n t .
Also,

a method had t o

be d e v e l o p e d

v a l u e s y s t e m s o f t h e g ro u p s

to

determ ine whether the

were d i f f e r e n t .

For t h e

purposes

of

t h i s s t u d y , when g ro up s d i f f e r e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y on o n e - f o u r t h

(nine)

of

t o be

the

val u e s ,

different.

the

o v e r a l 1 v a l ue

M ethodologically,

for

system s

Question

were
1,

the

deem ed

co m pa ris o n o f

g r o u p s u s i n g t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s was r e p l i c a t e d from Adams (1983) and
Goad ( 1 9 8 6 ) .

Null H y p o t h e s i s 2
T h e r e i s no s i g n i f i c a n t im b al an c e between t h e head
i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s o f t h e PRS, PSS, NSS, and AS.
A nalysis

of data

w i t h an a l p h a

level

respondent’ s to ta l
mean.

Head

for
of

Hypothesis

2.

A nondirectional

.05 was used t o

test

Hypothesis

h e a r t v a l u e r a n k s were c a l c u l a t e d

value

ranks

were

treated

and h e a r t

sim ilarly.

to

t-test

2.

Each

produce

Because

a

these

c a l c u l a t i o n s pr od uc ed a d i s t r i b u t i o n o f means, t h e p a r a m e t r i c t - t e s t
could

be used

SPSS-X
+1.96.

to

program

was

Therefore,

-1.96 r e s u lte d
null

determine

hypothesis

used

statistical

in

calculations.

a t-statistic

greater

in r e j e c t i o n o f t h e n u l l
indicated

significance.

that

a

C ritical
than

1.96

hypothesis.

significant

A ga in ,
values
or

less

the
were
than

R ejecting the

im b al an c e

existed.

73

S i n c e none o f t h e

research

has d e a l t w i t h

a head/heart

im b a l a n c e ,

t h i s method o f a n a l y s i s i s u n i q u e .

Summary
The p r o c e d u r e s and methods were p r e s e n t e d i n t h i s c h a p t e r .
p o p u l a t i o n and sample were d e s c r i b e d ,
s ub gr oup s
total

representing

practicing

The s u r v e y

used

to

superintendents),

the

leaders:

PSS,

the

following

the

NSS,

and t e s t - r e t e s t

PRS

and

the

determine
rankings

test

for

an

whether
of the

there

groups.

i m b a la n c e

in

the

were

significant

A nondirectional
head/heart

(the
AS.

reliab ilities

The K r u s k a l - W a l l i s one-way a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e

to

between t h e
used

educational

i n s t r u m e n t was d e s c r i b e d ,

were s t a t e d .
was

chief

which i n c l u d e d t h e

The

test

differences
t-test

d ic h o to m y .

was
The

r e s u l t s d e r i v e d from t h e s e t e s t s were used t o draw c o n c l u s i o n s based
on t h e
IV.

stated

hypotheses.

These f i n d i n g s

are

reported

in C h a p t e r

CHAPTER IV
FINDINGS

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s t u d y a r e p r e s e n t e d
chapter

is

divided

into

hypotheses o f th e study.
in

isolation

section.

and t h e

two

chapter.

corresponding

to

The

the

two

D i s c u s s i o n s o f t h e f i n d i n g s f o r t h e gr o u p s

gr o up

The g r o u p s

sections

in t h i s

in

co m p ar is o n s

isolation

and

are

included

selected

in

effects

the

first

of

group

membership a r e d i s c u s s e d in s e c t i o n two.
Kruskal-W allis
were per fo rm ed

in

one-way
the

analysis

analysis

a p p l i e d in H y p o t h e s i s 2.

of

of

variance

Hypothesis

1.

test
The

statistics
t-test

was

SPSS-X was used f o r t h e c o m p u t a t i o n s and

analyses.
The t o p

th ird

values

(six)

are

used

for

evaluative

purposes

throughout th e d is c u s s io n ,

ba se d on t h e p r e m i s e t h a t t h e t o p t h i r d

v a l u e s a r e more " c e n t r a l "

to the respondent than are o t h e r v a lu e s.

The more c e n t r a l

a value is to a person,

r e s i s t a n t t o change i t

is,

t h e more s t a b l e

and t h e more i n f l u e n c e

it

and more

exercises

on

b e h a v i o r (E n gl an d, 19 7 4) .
A summary o f t h e f i n d i n g s c o n c l u d e s t h e c h a p t e r .

R e s u lts f o r Hypothesis 1
C orresponding
differences

to

the

first

research

q u estion,

in t h e v a l u e s y st em s o f p r a c t i c i n g

74

"Are

th ere

superintendents

and

75
a s p irin g su p erintendents?" the data revealed s i g n i f i c a n t d iffe re n c e s
in n i n e v a l u e s .

A p r o f i l e o f each g r o u p ’ s v a l u e s ys te m r a n k i n g s i s

p r o v i d e d in Appendix G.

The n i n e v a l u e s on which t h e g r o u p s were

found t o d i f f e r s i g n i f i c a n t l y were:
Te rminal V al ue s

I n s t r u m e n t a l V alu es

An e x c i t i n g l i f e
A s e n s e o f acc om pl ish m en t
Salvation
Social r e c o g n itio n

Honest
Independent
Intellectual
Loving
S e lf -c o n tro l led

The mean

rankings

are

shown

in

Tables

5 and

6.

In

these

t a b l e s , t h e v a l u e s a r e l i s t e d in t h e o r d e r in which t h e y a p p e a r e d in
the survey.
Of t h e

nine

values,

only

three,

A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT,

HONEST, and INTELLECTUAL, were l i s t e d in t h e t o p t h i r d o f e i t h e r t h e
PRS’ s o r AS’ s v a l u e r a n k i n g s .
and NSS,

analyzing

appropriate

an d

the

data

necessary.

Because t h e PRS co m p ris ed both
from t h e s e

s ub gr o up s

By d i v i d i n g

the

was
data

PSS

s ee n

to

be

in to

th ree

s u b g r o u p s , PSS, NSS, and AS, i n t e r e s t i n g r e s u l t s were r e v e a l e d .

To

make

of

th is

com parison,

the

K ruskal-W allis

v a r i a n c e was r un on t h e t h r e e g r o u p s .
were

Twenty v a l u e s ,

found

to

be

analysis

ten term inal

and t e n

instrum ental

groups.

The t w e n t y v a l u e s deemed t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t a r e

l i s t e d below.

values,

one-way

different

between

76
Terminal Values

I n s t r u m e n t a l Va lues

A comfortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
A s e n s e o f accomplishment
Family s e c u r i t y
A w or ld o f b e a u t y
I n n e r harmony
Pleasure
Salvation
Social re c o g n itio n
Wisdom

Am bit iou s
Broad-minded
Clean
Courageous
Forgiving
Honest
Independent
Intellectual
Loving
S e lf- c o n tr o l led

T a b l e 5 . - - T e r m i n a l v a l u e mean r a n k i n g s o f t h e PRS and AS, and
r e s u l t s of the K ruskal-W allis t e s t fo r s i g n i f i c a n t
differences.

Terminal Value

A com fortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
A s e n s e o f accomplishment
A w o r ld a t peac e
A wo rld o f b e a u t y
Equality
Family s e c u r i t y
Freedom
H app ine ss
I n n e r harmony
Mature l o v e
National s e c u r i t y
Pleasure
Salvation
S elf-respect
Social re c o g n itio n
True f r i e n d s h i p
Wisdom

PRS
(n=225)

AS
(n=93)

P-Value

11.2044
10.0089
5.417 8
9. 84 44
1 3. 057 8
10.8267
4 . 4 57 8
8.1378
7.5244
7.9244
10. 0356
13.3689
13.4311
9.586 7
5.32 89
13. 0044
9.706 7
7.6844

11.3226
11.6559
6.451 6
10.4839
12.7849
10.4731
4. 1935
7.871 0
7.2043
7.7849
9.2581
13.6989
12.5806
12.0215
4. 7204
11.6344
8 .8 81 7
7.9462

.9930
.0121*
.0109*
.1977
.6779
.6333
.2739
.4802
.4567
.7287
.1415
.2198
.0591
.0041*
.0829
.0125*
.1038
.4688

♦ S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

77
T ab l e 6 . - - I n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e mean r a n k i n g s o f t h e PRS and AS, and
r e s u l t s of the Kruskal-W allis t e s t fo r s i g n i f i c a n t
d ifferences.

I n s t r u m e n t a l Value

Amb it iou s
Broad-minded
Capabl e
Cheerful
Clean
Courageous
Forgiving
H el p f u l
Honest
Imaginative
Independent
Intellectual
Log ic al
Loving
O b e d ie n t
Polite
Responsible
S elf-controlled

PRS
(n=225)

AS
(n=93)

P-Value

7.346 7
9.0311
6. 253 3
10.7422
14 .3556
8.0978
10. 5289
8. 77 33
2.8133

7.07 53
8.0860
6 .1 0 75
11 .0860
1 4. 18 28
9.1828
10.3763
9.5161
4 .2 043
10 .6344
9.204 3
8.3548
9. 77 42
9.333 3
15.9247
11. 9355
5 . 2 25 8
10. 2688

.9106
.0787
.9769
.5489
.9483
.0544
.7496
.1637
.0011*
.5544
.0098*
.0077*
.7248
.0223*
.0707
.2385
.9801
.0434*

11.0000
10 .7156
9 . 89 7 8
9 . 96 0 0
10.7867
14.9289
11.3733
5.088 9
9 . 100 0

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

Mean r a n k i n g s and p - v a l u e s a r e l i s t e d f o r t h e g r o u p s i n T a b l e s
7 and 8.

This i n i t i a l

K ru sk a l-W allis t e s t in d ic a te d only t h a t th e se

p a r t i c u l a r v a r i a b l e s d i f f e r e d between t h e t h r e e g r o u p s .
distinguish
they

between t h e

differed.

running

Therefore,

a

on which

post-hoc

they

analysis

was

on

combinations o f th e t h r e e groups,

i.e.,

PSS v e r s u s NSS,

NSS v e r s u s

AS.

This

procedure

is

or

where

p e rf o rm e d

te st

and

all

differed

Kruskal-W al 1i s

AS,

another

group(s)

I t did not

p o ssib le

analogous

by

pairw ise
PSS v e r s u s
to

Ryan’ s

78

procedure

(Linton

& G allo,

19 7 5) .

The

results

of

this

post-hoc

a n a l y s i s a r e shown in T a b l e s 9 and 10.

T a b l e 7 . - - T e r m in a l v a l u e mean r a n k i n g s o f t h e PSS, NSS, and AS, and
r e s u l t s of the K ruskal-W allis t e s t f o r s i g n i f i c a n t d i f ­
ferences.

Te rminal Value
A com fortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
A s e n s e o f acc omplishment
A w o r ld a t peac e
A w o rl d o f b e a u t y
Equality
Family s e c u r i t y
Freedom
Ha pp in es s
I n n e r harmony
Mature l o v e
National s e c u r i t y
Pleasure
Salvation
Self-respect
Social r e c o g n itio n
True f r i e n d s h i p
Wisdom

PSS
(n=196)

NSS
(n=29)

AS
(n=93)

P-Value

10.5765
9.3163
5.2500
9.9439
13.2551
11.0153
4.178 6
7.9898
7.3827
8.301 0
10.2194
13.2347
13.1786
10.4286
5.3367
13.0612
9.841 8
8.0102

15 .4 483
14 .6897
6 . 55 1 7
9 .1 7 24
11.7241
9 . 55 17
6.3448
9.1379
8.4828
5. 379 3
8.7931
14. 275 9
15 .1 37 9
3.8966
5 .2 75 9
12. 6207
8.7931
5 .4 8 28

11.3226
11.6559
6. 45 16
10.4839
12.7849
10.4731
4 .1 93 5
7.8710
7.2043
7. 784 9
9.2581
13 .6989
12 .5 80 6
12.0215
4.720 4
11.6344
8. 881 7
7.9462

.0001*
.0001*
.0068*
.2793
.0742
.1710
.0085*
.2800
.2845
.0018*
.0954
.2740
.0042*
.0001*
.2206
.0270*
.0927
.0070*

♦ S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

79
T a b l e 8 . - - I n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e mean r a n k i n g s o f t h e PSS, NSS, and AS,
and r e s u l t s o f t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s t e s t f o r s i g n i f i c a n t
differences.

I n s t r u m e n t a l Value

PSS
(n=196)

NSS
(n-29)

AS
(n=93)

P- Value

Amb it iou s
Broad-minded
Capabl e
Cheerful
Clean
Courageous
Forgiving
H e lp f u l
Honest
Imaginative
Independent
Intellectual
Log ic al
Loving
O be d ie n t
Polite
Responsible
Self-controlled

6 .7 7 55
8.7908
6 . 11 22
10.5357
14.1633
8.2551
10.9133
8.9031
2. 790 8
10.9031
10.5408
10.0510
10.0000
11 .1429
15. 1378
11.3827
5. 0816
9 .3 98 0

11. 206 9
10 .6552
7. 206 9
12 .1 37 9
15 .6552
7.0345
7. 931 0
7 .8 9 66
2 .9 65 5
11 .6552
11 .8 96 6
8.8621
9. 68 97
8 . 37 93
13.5172
11 .3103
5. 937 9
7.55 17

7.0753
8.0860
6 .1 07 5
11 .0 86 0
14 .1828
9.1828
10.3763
9.5161
4. 20 43
10 .6 344
9.204 3
8.3548
9. 77 42
9.333 3
15.9247
11. 9355
5 .2 258
10 .2688

.0002*
.0219*
.6183
.1711
.0811
.0547
.0025*
.2166
.0040*
.6527
.0125*
.0143*
.8916
.0022*
.1287
.4987
.9267
.0129*

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

D iscussion o f the Findings f o r
Hypothesis 1
The f i n d i n g s

f o r Hypothesis

1 are divided

into

two s e c t i o n s .

In t h e f i r s t s e c t i o n , each g ro up i s examined in i s o l a t i o n .
groupings o f the
configured

to

in d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e ,
acquire

added

g r ou p membership,

inform ation

for

the

Selected
were t h e n

com parisons.

S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s between g r o u p s , as s p e c i f i e d by t h e K r u s k a l W allis t e s t ,

a r e examined in t h e second s e c t i o n .

80
Table 9 . - - R e s u l t s o f th e p o st-h o c a n a l y s i s o f th e term inal values
o f t h e PSS, NSS, and AS.

Term inal Value
A com fortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
A s e n s e o f acc om pli shm ent
A w o rl d o f b e a u t y
Family s e c u r i t y
I n n e r harmony
Pleasure
Salvation
Social re c o g n itio n
Wisdom
Term inal s u b t o t a l

PSS v e r s u s
NSS

PSS v e r s u s
AS

NSS v e r s u s
AS

.0001*
.0001*
.0588
.0218*
.0032*
.0002*
.0170*
.0001*
.2497
.0024*

.2170
.0002*
.0042*
.4023
.0058*
.3207
.1789
.0477*
.0102*
.9404

.0007*
.0002*
.9976
.1328
.0044*
.0159
.0019*
.0001*
.3374
.0031*

5

7

8

* S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

Ta b l e 1 0 . - - R e s u l t s o f t h e p o s t - h o c a n a l y s i s o f t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l
v a l u e s o f t h e PSS, NSS, and AS.

I n s t r u m e n t a l Value

A m b it io u s
Broad-minded
Clean
Courageous
Forgiving
Honest
Independent
Intellectual
Loving
S e lf- c o n tr o l led
Instrumental subtotal
Term ina l s u b t o t a l
Total

PSS v e r s u s
NSS

PSS v e r s u s
AS

NSS v e r s u s
AS

.0001*
.0296
.0211*
.1260
.0007*
.4712
.1548
.2584
.0075*
.0272*

.4240
.1909
.7196
.1039
.2983
.0010*
.0261*
.0041*
.0058*
.1164

.0002*
.0076*
.0831
.0324*
.0065*
.1406
.0067*
.6246
.4421
.0052*

6
8

4
5

6
7

14

9

13

♦ S i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .05 l e v e l .

81
D i s c u s s i o n o f gr ou ps i n i s o l a t i o n .

The mean r a n k i n g s l i s t e d in

r a n k o r d e r a r e compiled in t h e Appendix.

The f o l l o w i n g d i s c u s s i o n

c e n t e r s on t h e s e r a n k i n g s .
P racticin g

superintendents

(PRS):

The

chief

educational

l e a d e r s who were c u r r e n t l y p r a c t i c i n g t h e i r c r a f t i n Michigan were
v e r y s i m i l a r t o CEOs in t h e b u s i n e s s w o rl d w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e t o p
values

ranked.

students,

In

Goad’ s

(1986)

study

of

many o f t h e same v a l u e s were r an k ed

CEOs

and

in th e

business

top t h i r d

t h o s e o f t h e c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s in t h e c u r r e n t s t u d y .

as

Below,

a co m p ari so n i s made o f t h e v a l u e s in a c t u a l r a n k o r d e r .
PRS

CEO (Goad, 1986)
Terminal v a l u e s ( t o p t h i r d )

Family s e c u r i t y
S elf-respect
A s e n s e o f acc omplishment
H ap p in es s
Wisdom
I n n e r harmony

Family s e c u r i t y
Freedom
Wisdom
A s e n s e o f acco mp li shm ent
Self-respect
True f r i e n d s h i p

Instrumental values (top th i r d )
Honest
Responsible
Ca pab le
Amb it iou s
Courageous
H e lp f u l

Honest
Responsible
Capabl e
Ambi ti ous
Independent
Courageous

Of t h e 12 v a l u e s in t h e t o p t h i r d ,

nine

(75%) were t h e same.

Th is

r e m a r k a b l e s i m i l a r i t y c o n f ir m s t h e n o t i o n t h a t CEOs in t h e b u s i n e s s
and e d u c a t i o n f i e l d s a r e more a l i k e t h a n d i f f e r e n t ( K r e i t n e r & R e i f ,
1980).

The

lowest-ranked

values

in

th is

study,

PLEASURE

OBEDIENT, were a l s o t h e l o w e s t ran ke d in t h e Goad (1986) s t u d y .

and

82
P e t e r s and A u s t i n (1985) d e s c r i b e d some q u a l i t i e s n e c e s s a r y f o r
effective

leadership

Leadership

in t h e i r

D ifference.

Courage and c r e a t i v i t y
The

PRS ra n k ed

book A P a s s i o n f o r

Leaders,
or

they

said,

imagination are

COURAGE i n

the

top

Excellence:

must

required

th ird

and

be

The

risk-takers.

to

take

IMAGINATIVE

risks.
in

the

bott om t h i r d (COURAGE was f i f t h , w hereas IMAGINATIVE was f i f t e e n t h ) .
Therefore,
risk-taking
eight.

the

PRS’ s r i s k - t a k i n g

in d e x

from

the

average or

CEOs

in

Goad’ s

" i n d e x " was t e n .
(1986)

study

The

equaled

By i m p l i c a t i o n , t h e n , t h i s " in d e x " c o u l d mean t h a t i f " r i s k -

t a k i n g " were a v a l u e o f

its

own,

it

would r e c e i v e

th is

respective

ranking.
To d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r age and e x p e r i e n c e s i g n i f i c a n t l y

affected

v a l u e s , t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s t e s t was a p p l i e d t o t h e g r o u p .
1.

D ifferences

by g e n d e r (PRS).

Because o f t h e

small

number

o f f e m a le s in t h i s gr ou p (n = 1 4 ) , s t a t i s t i c a l l y s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r ­
e n c e s c o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d v a l i d .
2.

D i f f e r e n c e s by age

(PRS).

Because o f t h e small

number o f

members in t h e f i r s t

and l a s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s

years, respectively),

t h e s e two c e l l s were c o l l a p s e d t o form l a r g e r

groups.

( 25 -3 4 y e a r s

and 654-

The two g r o u p s t h a t were formed were 25-49 y e a r s o l d

128) and 504- y e a r s o l d (n = 9 7 ) .
d ifferent:

(n =

Only two v a l u e s were found t o be

A WORLD AT PEACE ( .0 0 0 5 ) and FORGIVING ( . 0 1 6 6 ) .

The PRS

who were 504- y e a r s o l d r a n k e d both o f t h e s e v a l u e s h i g h e r t h a n d i d
the

younger

group.

Because

only

two v a l u e s

were

d ifferent,

the

v a l u e sy ste m s o f t h e two g r o u p s were c o n s i d e r e d n o t t o be d i f f e r e n t .

83
3.

D ifferences

by e x p e r i e n c e

(PRS).

No s i g n i f i c a n t

d iffer­

e n c e s in v a l u e s were found among PRS w i t h r e s p e c t t o e x p e r i e n c e .
P u b l i c sc h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s (PSS):
top t h i r d

by t h e

c h i e f educational

The v a l u e s ra n k ed in t h e

leaders

in

the

public

schools

were as f o l l o w s :
Te rminal V alu es

I n s t r u m e n t a l Values

Family s e c u r i t y
A s e n s e o f acc om pl ish m en t
S elf-respect
H ap p in es s
Freedom
Wisdom

Honest
Responsible
Capable
A mbitious
Courageous
Broad-minded

The o n l y d i f f e r e n c e s in v a l u e s between PRS and PSS w i t h r e s p e c t
t o t h o s e r a n k e d in t h e t o p t h i r d were FREEDOM and BROAD-MINDED.
bottom-ranked

values

were

CLEAN, and OBEDIENT.

NATIONAL SECURITY,

A WORLD OF

Only A WORLD OF BEAUTY d i f f e r e d

The

BEAUTY,

from t h e PRS

bottom-ranked v a lu e s.
The
The

PSS ra n k ed

risk-taking

higher than th e

COURAGEOUS f i f t h

in de x

for

the

and

PSS was

IMAGINATIVE t h i r t e e n t h .

nine,

which

was

slig h tly

PRS in d e x o f t e n b u t lo w e r t h a n t h e CEO in de x o f

eight.
To d e t e r m i n e

whether gender,

values, th e Kruskal-W allis
1.
196

a g e, and

in

th is

study

influenced

t e s t was a g a i n a p p l i e d t o t h i s g r o u p .

D i f f e r e n c e s by g e n d e r (PSS).

PSS

experience

were

Again,

females,

b e c a u s e o n ly 3 o f t h e

statistically

significant

d i f f e r e n c e s c o u l d n o t be c o n s i d e r e d v a l i d .
2.

D ifferences

classified

by age

(PSS).

in t h e 25-34 age b r a c k e t .

Of t h e

196 PSS,

o n l y one was

The m a j o r i t y were c l a s s i f i e d

84
in t h e n e x t two b r a c k e t s :

114 i n t h e 3 5 - 4 9 - y e a r - o l d g r o u p and 79 in

t h e 5 0 - 6 4 - y e a r - o l d age g r o u p .
t h e 65+ age g r o u p .
different.
and

Only two r e s p o n d e n t s were e n t e r e d in

Only two v a l u e s were deemed t o be s i g n i f i c a n t l y

A WORLD AT PEACE was ra n k ed h i g h e r by t h o s e 50 y e a r s o ld

older.

FREEDOM r e c e i v e d

a

lo w e r

ranking

by

th is

g r ou p

as

compared t o t h e y o u n g e r r e s p o n d e n t s .
3.

D ifferences

by e x p e r i e n c e

(PSS).

The

experience

levels

were d i v i d e d i n t o s i x c a t e g o r i e s as f o l l o w s :
S u p erin ten d en t Experience

n

0-5 y e a rs
6 -1 0 y e a r s
11 -15 y e a r s
16-20 y e a r s
21-25 y e a r s
26+ y e a r s

62
58
38
22
7
9

Total

196

Wi thi n t h e s e s i x e x p e r i e n c e l e v e l s , o n l y one v a l u e was s i g n i f i c a n t l y
different.
years

of

A COMFORTABLE LIFE was r an k ed lo w e r by t h o s e w i t h 11-15
experience,

yet

it

was

ranked

higher

w i t h l e s s and t h o s e w i t h more e x p e r i e n c e .
ap p e a r e d

to

be s i g n i f i c a n t ,

experience

by

superintendents

Because o n l y one v a l u e

was j u d g e d

not

to

have

an

in flu e n c e w ith in t h i s group.
By ex am in in g
w ithin t h i s group,

the

influence

of

gender,

age,

and

experience

i t was s ee n t h a t t h e s e f a c t o r s d i d n o t i n t e r f e r e

i n any s i g n i f i c a n t way.
N o np ub lic sc h oo l
the

top

th ird

by t h e

superintendents
chief

(NSS):

educational

The v a l u e s

leaders

ranked

practicing

c r a f t in t h e n o n p u b l i c s c h o o l s in Michigan were a s f o l l o w s :

in

their

85
Terminal Values

I n s t r u m e n t a l Values

S alvation
S elf-respect
I n n e r harmony
Wisdom
Family s e c u r i t y
A s e n s e o f acc omp lishm ent

Honest
Responsible
Courageous
Ca pable
S e lf-c o n tro l led
H el p f u l

The v a l u e s t h a t were i n c l u d e d in t h e NSS’ s t o p t h i r d t h a t were
absent

from

C onsistent
Rokeach,
group.

Rokeach

which

PRS’ s

with

19 73 ),

C hristian

this

the

the

top

third

findings

of

were

SALVATION

other

research

SALVATION was e x p e c t e d
(1973)

value.

to

c o n s i d e r e d SALVATION t o

philosophy

undergirded

r e s u l t was a n t i c i p a t e d .

rankings o f the term inal
LIFE on t h e bo ttom.

1982;
by t h i s

be a d i s t i n c t i v e l y
d istricts

educational

The NSS d i f f e r e d

values,

high

sch oo l

the

AMBITIOUS.

(Massey,

be r a n k e d

Because t h e NSS r e p r e s e n t e d

a C hristian

and

in

the

in

syst em ,

bottom two

p l a c i n g PLEASURE and A COMFORTABLE

T h e i r bottom two i n s t r u m e n t a l

v a l u e s were t h e

same as t h o s e o f t h e PRS.
The

NSS

fourteenth.

rank ed

COURAGEOUS

Their ris k - ta k in g

third

while

in de x e q u a l e d

ranking
8.5,

IMAGINATIVE

slig h tly

higher

t h a n t h a t o f t h e PSS.
E ffe c ts o f gender,

age,

and e x p e r i e n c e w i t h i n

this

group

D i f f e r e n c e s by g e n d e r , a ge , and e x p e r i e n c e

(NSS).

are

d e ta ile d next.
1.
the

gr oup

size

sm aller groups,
have

yielded

was

so

i.e.,

erroneous

small

(n

by g e n d e r ,

=
a g e,

statistics.

29),

any

disaggregation

or experience,
N evertheless,

would

Because
into

likely

K ruskal-W allis

t e s t s were a p p l i e d , w i t h o n l y a few v a l u e s d i f f e r i n g .

A WORLD OF

86
BEAUTY

(.0239)

and

COURAGEOUS

(.0479)

d i f f e r e n t with r e s p e c t to gender.
EQUALITY ( . 0 4 3 7 )

were

identified

A WORLD OF BEAUTY ( . 0 2 0 7 )

MATURE LOVE ( . 0 4 3 8 ) ,

and AMBITIOUS ( . 0 2 5 7 )

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t with r e s p e c t to ex p erien ce.
enough

bei ng

were deemed t o be d i f f e r e n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o

EQUALITY ( . 0 3 4 1 ) ,

there

as

d ifferen ces

to

conclude

that

value

and
age.
were

In no c a s e were
system s

were

d i f f e r e n t as a r e s u l t o f g e n d e r , a ge , a n d / o r e x p e r i e n c e .
Aspiring su p erin ten d en ts
t h i r d by t h e e d u c a t i o n a l

( A S) :

The v a l u e s

ranked

in

the

top

l e a d e r s who a s p i r e d t o t h e s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y

were as f o l l o w s :
Terminal V alues

I n s t r u m e n t a l Values

Family s e c u r i t y
Self-respect
A s e n s e o f ac c om pli shm ent
H a p p in e s s
I n n e r harmony
Freedom

Honest
Responsible
Capable
A mbitious
Broad-minded
Intellectual

The o n ly d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a l u e s between PRS and AS w i t h r e s p e c t
to

rankings

INTELLECTUAL.

in

the

top

th ird

The b o t t o m - r a n k e d

WORLD OF BEAUTY,

CLEAN,

and

were

WISDOM,

BROAD-MINDED,

and

v a l u e s were NATIONAL SECURITY,

OBEDIENT.

Only

A WORLD OF

d i f f e r e d from t h e b o tt o m - r a n k e d v a l u e s o f t h e PRS.

A

BEAUTY

The PRS rank ed

PLEASURE on t h e bott om.
The AS r an k ed

COURAGEOUS s e v e n t h

and

IMAGINATIVE f o u r t e e n t h .

The r i s k - t a k i n g index f o r t h e AS was 1 0 . 5 , which was lo w e r t h a n t h a t
o f t h e PRS (10) and t h e l o w e s t o f a l l t h e g r o u p s .

87
The i n f l u e n c e o f g e n d e r ,
w ith

th is

group

to

a g e,

ascertain

and e x p e r i e n c e was a g a i n t e s t e d

w hether

th ere

were

sig n ifican t

differences.
1.

D ifferences

females

and

63

by g e n d e r

males.

Only

(AS).
five

The

AS group

values

were

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t w ith in t h i s group.
respective

p-values

were

A WORLD OF

The

f e m a le

AS

r an k ed

A WORLD OF

determined

Thes e v a l u e s

BEAUTY

( . 0 0 0 6 ) , CAPABLE ( . 0 2 5 2 ) , HONEST ( . 0 2 9 8 ) ,

c o m p ri s e d

30

to

be

and t h e i r

(.0262),

SALVATION

and INTELLECTUAL ( . 0 0 1 6 ) .

BEAUTY,

CAPABLE,

HONEST,

and

INTELLECTUAL h i g h e r t h a n d i d t h e male AS, w he re as t h e f e m a l e s rank ed
SALVATION lo w er t h a n d i d t h e m a l e s .
d ifferent,
This

the

finding

significant

Because o n l y f i v e v a l u e s were

v a l u e s y st em s were c o n s i d e r e d
confirms

effect

the

notion

on v a l u e

that

systems,

not

gender

to

be d i f f e r e n t .

does

particularly

not

have

when t a k e n

a

from

t h e same f i e l d o f work (Mor rac co, 1982; Sundack, 198 2) .
2.

D i f f e r e n c e s by age (AS).

t h e 3 5 - 4 9 - y e a r - o l d age b r a c k e t .
SELF-RESPECT ( . 0 4 9 7 )

and

classificatio n s

Therefore,

CLEAN ( . 0 0 3 5 )

between t h e age c a t e g o r i e s ,
o ther

Of t h e 93 AS, 84 o r 90% were in

cast

t h e small
any

even though t h e
d iffered

sig n ifican tly

number o f r e s p o n d e n t s

statistic al

values

sig n ifican ce

in t h e
into

question.
3.

D i f f e r e n c e s by e x p e r i e n c e (AS).

d i v i d e d i n t o s i x c a t e g o r i e s as f o l l o w s :

The e x p e r i e n c e l e v e l s were

88
S uperin ten d en t Experience

n

0 -5 y e a r s
6- 10 y e a r s
11-15 y e a r s
16-20 y e a r s
21-25 y e a r s
26+ y e a r s
F iv e

values

experience

41
25
13

11
2
1

were

levels:

found

to

EXCITING

be

different

LIFE

(.0426),

w ithin

these

A WORLD OF

six

BEAUTY

( . 0 4 9 5 ) , SALVATION ( . 0 3 6 7 ) , HONEST ( . 0 0 7 7 ) , and RESPONSIBLE ( . 0 3 5 6 ) .
AN EXCITING

LIFE

was

experience or l e s s .

ran ke d

higher

by

those

with

15

years

of

A WORLD OF BEAUTY was r an k ed h i g h e r by t h o s e

w i t h 10 y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e o r l e s s .

SALVATION was r a n k e d h i g h e r by

t h o s e w i t h 6 o r more y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e .

HONEST was r an k ed low er

by

ranking

those

with

increased

in

qualification
gr oup

sizes.

15

years

or

im portance

less.
w ith

of these findings
In g e n e r a l ,

significantly different,

The

experience.
is

however,

necessary

of

RESPONSIBLE

A gain,
because

because only

five

careful

of the

small

values

were

t h e v a l u e sy ste m s by e x p e r i e n c e l e v e l

were

c o n s i d e r e d n o t t o be d i f f e r e n t .
By exa mining t h e d a t a f o r t h e g r ou ps in i s o l a t i o n ,
t h a t gender,

i t ap p e a re d

age, and e x p e r i e n c e d i d n o t i n f l u e n c e v a l u e s ys t em s in

any s i g n i f i c a n t way.
D i s c u s s i o n o f group c o m p a r i s o n s .
corresponding to the
AS.
of

first

The f i r s t

g r ou p com par iso n

h y p o t h e s i s was between t h e

PRS and t h e

F o llo w in g t h i s d i s c u s s i o n , PRS i s s u b d i v i d e d t o examine e f f e c t s
PSS

and

NSS

compared

with

AS.

Selected

groupings

of

the

89
independent

variable,

gr o up

membership,

were

then

configured

to

a c q u i r e added i n f o r m a t i o n f o r co m p a ri s o n .
PRS-AS

d ifferen ces:

significantly different
analysis

of

variance

instrum ental

Nine

as

a resu lt

test.

val ues

values

The

were

AN

were

o f the
four

determ ined

K ruskal-W allis

term inal

EXCITING

values

L IF E,

be

one-way
and

A

ACCOMPLISHMENT, SALVATION, SOCIAL RECOGNITION, HONEST,
INTELLECTUAL, LOVING, and SELF-CONTROLLED.

to

five

SENSE

OF

INDEPENDENT,

Of t h e n i n e v a l u e s , o n ly

A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT, HONEST, and INTELLECTUAL were r an k ed
th e top t h i r d
differed,

by e i t h e r g r o u p .

only

respondents.

three

were

A cco rd in g

to

Therefore,

considered
the

to

in

even th ou gh n i n e v a l u e s
be

previously

more

central

stated

to

standard

the
(nine

v a l u e s o r m o r e ) , t h e v a l u e sy ste m s o f t h e two g r o u p s were deemed t o
be d i f f e r e n t ,

a l b e i t minimally.

Several

selected

gr oup membership,

c o m p a r is o n s

using

the

independent

variable,

a r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g p a r a g r a p h s t o show

other possible re la tio n s h ip s .
1.

D ifferences

conducted

to

determine

by g e n d e r .

whether

The f i r s t

or

not

two

practicing

gender

f em a le

tests

or

male

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s d i f f e r e d from t h e a s p i r i n g g r o u p .
Female
term inal

PRS/fem ale

and

four

SALVATION ( . 0 0 0 3 ) ,
(.0034),
PRS

instrum ental,

counterparts.

all

but

O n ly

di f f e r e d

values,

two

compari s o n :

HONEST ( . 0 0 1 8 ) ,

INDEPENDENT

and SELF-CONTROLLED ( . 0 3 4 8 ) .

The fem a le

INDEPENDENT

higher

than

in

six
th is

WISDOM ( . 0 0 3 0 ) ,

POLITE ( . 0 1 5 0 ) ,

ranked

AS d i f f e r e n c e s .

did

th eir

aspiring

However, more n o te w o r th y i s t h e f a c t t h a t t h e v a l u e s

were

90

SALVATION, WISDOM, HONEST,
top

third

of

the

PRS.

and SELF-CONTROLLED were r an k ed
Any

inferences

about

th is

in

the

p articu lar

c o m pa r is on must be made w i t h c a u t i o n b e c a u s e o f t h e g ro up s i z e (n =
14 f e m a le PRS).

Because o n l y s i x v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t (30 were t h e

sa me ), t h e v a l u e s ys t em s were deemed n o t t o be d i f f e r e n t .
Male PRS/male AS d i f f e r e n c e s .
EXCITING

LIFE

PLEASURE

(.0137),

(.0362)

instrum ental
d ifferent.

A

SENSE

di f f e r e d

value,

Only t h r e e t e r m i n a l
OF

ACCOMPLISHMENT

between

LOVING ( . 0 0 5 2 ) ,

these

was

two

found

to

values,

AN

(.0054),

and

groups.

One

be s i g n i f i c a n t l y

The male AS r a n k e d PLEASURE and LOVING h i g h e r t h a n d i d

t h e i r c o u n t e r p a r t s , wh ereas t h e male PRS r a n k e d AN EXCITING LIFE and
SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT h i g h e r t h a n d i d t h e male AS.

Even though

t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in t h e mean r a n k i n g s , bo th gr ou ps
agreed

that

A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT was

b e c a u s e i t was 1 i s t e d

more

in t h e t o p t h i r d o f b o t h .

were n o t rank ed in t h e t o p t h i r d .

It

is evident,

central

to

them

The o t h e r v a l u e s
because only fo ur

v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t , t h a t t h e v a l u e s y s t e m s were n o t d i f f e r e n t .
Male PRS/AS d i f f e r e n c e s .
compared w i t h a l l

o f t h e AS.

In t h i s c o m p a r is o n , t h e male PRS were
The r e s u l t s ,

t o t h o s e in t h e p r e v i o u s c o m p a r i s o n .
and one

instrum ental

however, were i d e n t i c a l

The same t h r e e t e r m i n a l v a l u e s

v a l u e were d i f f e r e n t .

They were AN EXCITING

LIFE ( . 0 1 3 7 ) , A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT ( . 0 0 5 4 ) ,

PLEASURE ( . 0 3 6 2 ) ,

and LOVING ( . 0 0 5 2 ) .
Male PRS/Female AS d i f f e r e n c e s .

The f o l l o w i n g t e n v a l u e s were

found t o be d i f f e r e n t between t h e s e two g r o u p s :

91
Ter mi nal V alu es

I n s t r u m e n t a l V alues

An e x c i t i n g l i f e ( . 0 4 0 6 ) *
A w o r ld o f b e a u t y ( .0 2 8 3 )
S a lv a tio n (.0001)*
S e l f - r e s p e c t (.0273)
Social r e c o g n i t i o n (.0045)
True f r i e n d s h i p ( . 0 1 5 4 )

Honest ( . 0 0 0 1 ) *
Independent (.0028)
I n t e l l e c t u a l (.0001)
O b e d ie n t ( . 0 1 2 9 ) *

The v a l u e s l i s t e d above w i t h an a s t e r i s k were r a n k e d h i g h e r by
t h e male PRS t h a n t h e

f em al e AS.

Those w i t h o u t

an a s t e r i s k

were

only

were

r a n k e d h i g h e r by t h e f em a le AS t h a n t h e male PRS.
Of

the

classified

as

SELF-RESPECT
groups.

ten v alu es th a t
be in g more c e n t r a l
and HONEST,

One v a l u e ,

t h e AS o n l y .

were

were

i.e .,

listed

f e m a le

SELF-RESPECT,
Because

in

the

INTELLECTUAL, was l i s t e d

top

Two v a l u e s ,
third

of

both

among t h e t o p t h i r d o f

Th is r e s u l t may c o r r o b o r a t e G i l l i g a n ’ s (1982) t h e o r i e s

profile,

the

three

to the respondents.

on t h e moral dev el o pm en t o f f e m a l e s .
AS v a l u e

d ifferen t,

a

Upon e x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e fema le

relationship-oriented

AS r an k ed

em ph asi s

SOCIAL RECOGNITION,

can

TRUE

be

seen;

FRIENDSHIP,

and EQUALITY i n t h e i r t o p t h i r d t e r m i n a l v a l u e s .
ten values

were

different,

the

value

sy ste m s

were

c o n s i d e r e d t o be d i f f e r e n t .
2.
to age.

D i f f e r e n c e s by a g e .

Two com pa ris on s were made w i t h r e s p e c t

The age g r o u p s were c o l l a p s e d b e c a u s e o f t h e low numbers in

t h e 65+ y e a r s

and t h e

groups co n tain e d

25-34 y e a r s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s .

50-64 and 65+ y e a r o l d s f o r t h e

The c o l l a p s e d
first

co m pa ris o n

and 25-34 and 35-49 y e a r o l d s f o r t h e second c o m p a r is o n .
PRS (50+ y e a r s o l d ) / A S

(50+ y e a r s o l d )

differences.

seven PRS and f i v e AS c o n s t i t u t e d t h e two g r o u p s .

Ninety-

Because o f t h e

92
low number o f members
making t h e c o m p a r i s o n s .
groups:

in

the

AS g r o u p ,

was

be t a k e n

in

Two v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t between t h e s e two

A COMFORTABLE LIFE ( . 0 4 9 1 )
these

c a u t i o n must

rated

in

the

and A WORLD AT PEACE ( . 0 4 1 6 ) .

N either

of

top

three

rankings

of

either

group.

Because o n l y two v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t , t h e v a l u e sy ste m s o f

t h e two g r o u p s were deemed n o t t o be d i f f e r e n t .
PRS (2 5- 49 y e a r s o l d ) / A S

( 25 - 49 y e a r s o l d ) .

com pa ris o n were 128 PRS and 88 AS.

Ten v a l u e s

I n c l u d e d in t h i s
were

found t o

be

d i f f e r e n t between t h e s e two g r o u p s :
Terminal V alu es

I n s t r u m e n t a l V alues

An e x c i t i n g l i f e ( . 0 0 3 4 ) *
A s e n s e o f ac c om pli shm ent ( . 0 2 1 0 ) *
P le a su re (.0391)
S a lv a tio n (.0046)*
Social re c o g n i tio n (.0218)

Courageous ( . 0 0 9 3 ) *
Honest ( . 0 0 0 6 ) *
I n t e l l e c t u a l (.0075)
Loving ( . 0 2 3 1 )
S e l f - c o n t r o l l e d (.0203)*

The v a l u e s l i s t e d above w i t h an a s t e r i s k were ra n k e d h i g h e r by
t h e PRS th a n t h e AS.

Those w i t h o u t an a s t e r i s k were ran k ed h i g h e r

by t h e AS t h a n t h e PRS.
Of t h e t e n v a l u e s t h a t were d i f f e r e n t ,
b e i n g more c e n t r a l

to the respondents.

t h e t o p t h i r d o f b ot h g r o u p s :
One v a l u e ,
only.
PRS.

f o u r were c l a s s i f i e d as

Two v a l u e s were l i s t e d

in

A SENSE OF ACCOMPLISHMENT and HONEST.

INTELLECTUAL, was l i s t e d

among t h e t o p t h i r d

o f t h e AS

One v a l u e , COURAGEOUS, was l i s t e d among t h e t o p t h i r d o f t h e
Because t e n

v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t ,

th e value

s y st em s o f t h e

two gr o u p s were c o n s i d e r e d t o be d i f f e r e n t .
This

finding

is

particularly

interesting

v a r i a b l e t h a t was d i f f e r e n t was group membership.
in v a l u e s can be a t t r i b u t e d

to r o le .

because

the

o n ly

The d i f f e r e n c e s

S i m i l a r f i n d i n g s s h o u ld t h e n

93

be

discovered

when

exam ini ng

these

two

groups

with

respect

to

experience.
2.

D i f f e r e n c e s by e x p e r i e n c e .

resp ect to experience:
e x p e r i e n c e and t h e

Two co m p ar is o n s were made w ith

t h e f i r s t w it h r e s p o n d e n t s w i t h 21+ y e a r s o f

second w i t h l e s s - e x p e r i e n c e d r e s p o n d e n t s

(i.e .,

0-10 y e a r s o f e x p e r i e n c e ) .
PRS

(21+ y e a r s

of

experience)/AS

(21+ y e a r s

differences.

Because o f t h e v e r y low numbers

(n = 19 PRS,

n = 3 AS),

validity

is

of

experience)

in t h e s e

questionable.

two g r ou ps

However,

the

K r u sk a l- W al l i s y i e l d e d two v a l u e s t h a t were d i f f e r e n t :

INDEPENDENT

(.0184)

and

INDEPENDENT

higher,

wh ereas t h e AS ra n k ed SELF-CONTROLLED h i g h e r .

SELF-CONTROLLED ( . 0 3 3 2 ) .

t h e v a l u e s was in t h e to p t h i r d .

The

PRS r a n k e d

Neither of

T h e r e f o r e , t h e v a l u e sy ste m s were

c o n s i d e r e d n o t t o be d i f f e r e n t .
PRS ( 0 - 1 0 y e a r s
differences.

o f experience)/AS

(0-10 years

o f experience)

E i g h t v a l u e s were found t o be d i f f e r e n t between t h e s e

two g r o u p s , as e x p e c t e d :
Terminal Values

I n s t r u m e n t a l Values

An e x c i t i n g l i f e ( . 0 2 0 2 ) *
A s e n s e o f acc o m p li sh m en t ( . 0 1 0 9 ) *
A world o f b e a u t y ( . 0 1 3 6 )
S a lv a tio n (.0067)*

Honest ( . 0 0 0 4 ) *
I n t e l l e c t u a l (.0016)
Loving ( . 0 1 5 5 )
S e lf - c o n t r o l led (.0243)*

The v a l u e s 1 i s t e d above w i t h an a s t e r i s k were r a n k e d h i g h e r by
t h e PRS t h a n t h e AS.

Those w i t h o u t an a s t e r i s k were ran k ed h i g h e r

by t h e AS t h a n t h e PRS.
Of

the

eight

val ues

th at

were

di f f e r e n t ,

c l a s s i f i e d as b e i n g more c e n t r a l t o t h e r e s p o n d e n t s .

only

two

were

The two v a l u e s

94

listed

in

the

top

th ird

ACCOMPLISHMENT and HONEST.

of

both

groups

were

A

SENSE

OF

Because e i g h t v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t , t h e

v a l u e sy ste m s were c o n s i d e r e d n o t t o be d i f f e r e n t .
Al though e x p e r i e n c e d i d n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y a f f e c t v a l u e s y s t e m s ,
age d i d , p a r t i c u l a r l y f o r t h e y o u n g e r gr ou p (2 5- 49 y e a r s o l d ) .
In t h e f i n a l

c o m p a r is o n , d i f f e r e n c e s between PSS and NSS were

examined.
PSS/NSS d i f f e r e n c e s .
examined

between

these

Only t h e e f f e c t o f gr oup membership was

two g r o u p s .

Gender,

age,

and

experience

c o u l d n o t be a n a l y z e d w it h any a c c u r a c y b ec a u se o f t h e small s i z e o f
t h e NSS group (n = 2 9 ) .
Fourteen

values,

eight

term inal

and

six

instrum ental,

deemed t o be d i f f e r e n t a c c o r d i n g t o t h e K r u s k a l- W a l1 i s t e s t .

were
The 14

v a l u e s and t h e i r p - v a l u e s a r e l i s t e d below:
Terminal Values

I n s t r u m e n t a l Va lues

A com fortable l i f e (.0001)*
An e x c i t i n g l i f e ( . 0 0 0 1 ) *
A world o f b e a u t y ( . 0 2 1 8 )
Family s e c u r i t y ( . 0 0 3 2 ) *
I n n e r harmony ( . 0 0 0 2 )
P leasure (.0170)*
S a l v a t i o n (.0 00 1)
Wisdom ( . 0 0 2 4 )

Ambi ti ous ( . 0 0 0 1 ) *
Broad-minded ( . 0 2 9 6 ) *
Clean ( . 0 2 1 1 ) *
F o r g i v i n g ( .0 0 0 7 )
Loving ( . 0 0 7 5 )
S e l f - c o n t r o l led (.0272)

The v a l u e s l i s t e d above w i t h an a s t e r i s k were ra n k ed h i g h e r by
t h e PSS t h a n t h e NSS.

Those w i t h o u t an a s t e r i s k were ra n k ed h i g h e r

by t h e NSS th a n t h e PSS.
Of t h e 14 v a l u e s t h a t were d i f f e r e n t ,
b e i n g more c e n t r a l

to the respondents.

in t h e t o p t h i r d o f b o th g r o u p s .

seven were c l a s s i f i e d as

FAMILY SECURITY was l i s t e d

I t was r an k ed f i r s t by t h e PSS and

95

fifth

by t h e

NSS.

INNER HARMONY was

r an k ed

w h er ea s i t was r a n k e d s e v e n t h by t h e PSS.

third

by

the

NSS,

SALVATION was r a n k e d most

i m p o r t a n t by t h e NSS, w h er ea s t h e PSS ran k ed i t t w e l f t h .

WISDOM was

r a n k e d in t h e t o p t h i r d by b o th g r o u p s - - t h i r d f o r t h e NSS and f i f t h
for

the

sixth

PSS.

by

AMBITIOUS and

the

eleventh,

PSS,

w he r ea s

respectively,

BROAD-MINDED were

these

by

the

values

NSS.

ranked

were

ranked

fourth

and

tw elfth

and

SELF-CONTROLLED was

ra n k ed

f i f t h by t h e NSS and e i g h t h by t h e PSS.
Some o f t h e m a jo r d i f f e r e n c e s between t h e PSS and t h e NSS can
be

explained

by

the

nature

of

the

types

of

sc h oo l

d istricts.

Rokeach (1973) e x p l a i n e d t h a t t h e v a l u e s SALVATION and FORGIVING a r e
d is tin c tiv e ly C hristian.
schools

with

a

Because t h e NSS r e p r e s e n t e d t h e n o n p u b l i c

C hristian

doctrine

undergirding

th eir

educational

s y s t e m , t h i s f i n d i n g was a n t i c i p a t e d .
Because 14 v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t ,

t h e v a l u e s y st em s o f t h e two

g r o u p s were c o n s i d e r e d t o be d i f f e r e n t .
Summary o f
gr oup
made

in

findings

iso latio n ,

little

it

difference

for

Hypothesis

1.

When

was found t h a t g e n d e r ,
and

no

significant

age,

exam ini ng

each

and e x p e r i e n c e

difference.

It

was

d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e PRS v a l u e r a n k i n g s were v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f
CEOs (Goad,
the

1986).

K ruskal-W allis

When c o m p a r is o n s were made between t h e g r o u p s ,
test

resu lts

indicated

that

nine

values

were

s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t on t h e Rokeach Value Survey between t h e PRS
and t h e AS, and 20 were s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t when com paring t h e
PSS, NSS, and AS:

14 v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t between t h e PSS and t h e

96
NSS,

13 were

different

between

the

d i f f e r e n t between t h e PSS and AS.
stated

in

different
can

be

this
if

study,

i.e.,

NSS and

the

that

the

and

Based on t h e s t a n d a r d

one-fourth

or

nine

t h e v a l u e s y st em s a r e c o n s i d e r e d t o

c on cl u de d

AS,

overall

value

s ys te m s

9 were

in itia lly

values

must

be

be d i f f e r e n t ,

it

were

d ifferent.

When o t h e r m o d e r a ti n g v a r i a b l e s such as g e n d e r , a g e, and e x p e r i e n c e
were i n c l u d e d

in t h e

analysis,
PRS

it

and

was

found

different

between

male

fe m a le

different

between

PRS and

bracket.

The co m p o si te r a n k i n g s o f t h e t o p

AS who were

t h a t t h e gr ou ps were s i m i l a r .

AS,
in

that
and

the

ten
ten

values

were

values

were

25-49-year-old

third

values

age

revealed

The r i s k - t a k i n g inde x i n d i c a t e d t h a t

t h e AS ( 1 0 . 5 ) were t h e l e a s t w i l l i n g t o t a k e r i s k s .

R esults f o r Hypothesis 2
C o r r e s p o n d in g

to

the

second

research

question,

"Is

there

an

im b ala n ce between t h e head and h e a r t i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s o f t h e PRS,
PSS, NSS, and AS?" a s i g n i f i c a n t im ba la nc e was found in t h r e e o f t h e
four

gr o up s

head/heart
balance,

when

taken

dichotomy

whereas t h a t

was

in

isolation.

considered

of the

NSS was

The
to

be

PRS,

PSS,

and

statistically

balanced.

out

AS’ s
of

An im b al an c e was

s t a t i s t i c a l l y d e f i n e d as r e j e c t i n g t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s , which s t a t e d
that

"There i s no s i g n i f i c a n t

imb ala nc e between t h e head and h e a r t

i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s o f t h e PRS,
t h e i r means.

PSS, NSS, and A S , " as e x p r e s s e d by

I f e i t h e r t h e head o r t h e h e a r t v a l u e s were r a n k e d so

t h a t one c l a s s i f i c a t i o n was h i g h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r ,
h y p o t h e s i s would be a c c e p t e d - - t h a t

there

the

alternative

WAS a d i f f e r e n c e

between

97
the

means.

On

the

other

acceptance o f the null
Cla im in g

that

there

hand,

a

balance

would

h y p o t h e s i s o f no d i f f e r e n c e
existed

no

difference

in d icate

an

between means.

between

means

would

i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e head and h e a r t v a l u e s were r an k ed so t h a t n e i t h e r
c l a s s i f i c a t i o n o f v a l u e s was h i g h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r .
T-test

statistics

v a l u e s i n two ways:

were

applied

to

the

groups’

instrum ental

(a ) t h e r a n k i n g f o r HONEST was i n c l u d e d in t h e

c a l c u l a t i o n s , and (b) t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s were p e r f o r m e d , e x c l u d i n g t h e
ranking

for

HONEST.

Th is

manipulation

Maccoby’ s

(1976)

anomaly.

What happens t o t h e b a l a n c e

not

included?

description

To d e t e r m i n e

or

the

claim

was
that
(or

effect

done

as

HONEST i s

a

result

a necessary

l a c k o f ) when HONEST i s

of th is

notable

exception

( i . e . , HONEST), t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s were done e x c l u d i n g HONEST.
follow ing

paragraphs,

the

resu lts

are

of

organized

s i g n i f i c a n c e w it h and w i t h o u t HONEST i n c l u d e d in t h e

to

In t h e

show

heart

the

values.

A p r o f i l e o f t h e g r o u p s ’ p - v a l u e s and t - s t a t i s t i c s i s shown i n T a b l e
11.

D iscussion of th e Findings
f o r Hypothesis 2
The f i n d i n g s
In

the

Selected

first

f o r Hypothesis

sectio n ,

effects

the

o f group

2 are divided

groups

are

membership

into

exam ined in

a r e examined in

two s e c t i o n s .
iso latio n .
the

second

section.
D i s c u s s i o n o f gro up s in i s o l a t i o n .
P r a c t i c i n g s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s (PRS):
the t - t e s t ,

A ccording t o t h e r e s u l t s

of

t h e PRS’ s i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e sy stem was n o t in b a l a n c e .

98

Ta b l e 1 1 . - -T h e h e a d / h e a r t b a l a n c e a s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e t - t e s t .
HONEST I n c l u d e d
Group

P-Value
PRS
PSS
NSS
AS

HONEST Excluded

n
T-Value

P-Value

T-Value

225
196
29
93

.014
.000
.066*
.000

2.48
3.45
-1 .91
4.97

.000
.000
.463*
.000

5 .9 4
6.79
- .73
7 .0 0

211
14
193
18
63
30

.006
.447*
.000
.190*
.009
.000

2.79
- .78
3.37
-1.37
2.69
5 .7 3

.000
.904*
.000
.616*
.000
.000

6 .1 2
.12
6 .6 7
- .51
4.44
6.64

126
95
84
4

.024
.201*
.000
.108*

2.28
1.09
4.27
2.27

.000
.002
.000
.063*

5 .0 4
3.19
6.15
2 .9 0

137
69
19
127
60
16
17
9
3
66
24
3

.564*
.529*
.002
.128*
.875*
.137*
.073*
.374*
.000
.442*
.174*

2 .5 7
.58
.64
3.23
1.55
.16
-1.57
-2.07
1.14
5.55
.78
2.07

.000
.017
.117*
.000
.001
.263*
.684*
.200*
.320*
.000
.103*
.115*

5. 32
2 .4 4
1 .6 5
5 .8 2
3.39
1. 16
- .41
-1.40
1.31
7.42
1 .2 0
2 .6 9

Gender
Male PRS
Female PRS
Male PSS
Male NSS
Male AS
Female AS
Age
35-49
50-64
35-49
50-64

PRS
PRS
AS
AS

Experience
0-10 PRS
11-20 PRS
21+ PRS
0-10 PSS
11-20 PSS
21+ PSS
0-10 NSS
11-20 NSS
21+ NSS
0-10 AS
11-20 AS
21+ AS

.011

* S i n c e p > . 0 5 , t h e h e a d / h e a r t di ch oto my i s b a l a n c e d .

99

They r a n k e d t h e

head v a l u e s

higher

than

HONEST was i n c l u d e d in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s ,
close to the c r i t i c a l value (1.96),
extremely out o f balance.
was 5 . 9 4 ,

the

heart

values.

the t - s t a t i s t i c

When

( 2 . 4 8 ) was

i n d i c a t i n g t h a t t h e PRS were n o t

When HONEST was e x c l u d e d , t h e t - s t a t i s t i c

which was more t h a n

a full

standard

deviation

from t h e

c r i t i c a l value.
This

finding

is

c o n s is te n t with those o f

c h ie f executive o f f ic e r s
1982).

It

also

sim ilar

research

on

in t h e b u s i n e s s wo rld (Goad, 1986; M i l l e r ,

appears

to

corroborate

the

claim

that

many

e d u c a t i o n a l w r i t e r s have made a b o u t t h e em ph asis on head v a l u e s o v e r
heart

values

in

educational

leaders

(Holmes,

19G6;

S tout,

1986;

W i ll o w e r , 19 8 6) .
From a p r a c t i c a l
three

heart

values,

perspective,
HONEST,

however, i t s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t

RESPONSIBLE,

among t h e t o p t h i r d v a l u e s o f t h e PRS.

and HELPFUL,

were

listed

These v a l u e s were c o n s i d e r e d

t o be more c e n t r a l t o t h e r e s p o n d e n t s .
1.
The

Effects

t-test

balance,

o f g e n d e r on t h e

indicated

wh ere as

HONEST i n c l u d e d

the
in

that

the

f e m a le

the

male

head/heart

PRS

PRS (n = 14)

calculations,

s t a t i s t i c o f - . 7 8 were computed.

(n

relationship

= 211)

were

in

a p-value

of

were

balance.
.447

to

the

t-statistic,

h i g h e r t h a n t h e head v a l u e s .

and

of
With

a t-

Even when HONEST was e x c l u d e d , t h e

f em a le PRS’ s v a l u e s ys te m r em ai ned i n b a l a n c e (p = . 9 0 4 ) ,
A cco rd in g

out

(PRS).

this

gro up

ra n k ed

the

t = .12).

heart

values

100
The

small

questionable.

number o f

fem a le

PRS makes

the

findings

somewhat

A ls o , b e c a u s e 11 o f t h e 14 f e m a le PRS were NSS, i t i s

q u e s t i o n a b l e t o deduce t h a t g e n d e r had an e f f e c t on t h e h e a d / h e a r t
r e l a t i o n s h i p o f t h e f em a le PRS.

I t would seem more p l a u s i b l e t h a t

sch ool d i s t r i c t t y p e was t h e i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r .
2.

E f f e c t s o f age on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p

th e purposes

of th is

analysis,

(PRS).

For

o n l y two age c a t e g o r i e s were us ed .

The y o u n g e s t (2 5-34 y e a r s o l d ) and o l d e s t (55+ y e a r s o l d ) c a t e g o r i e s
had to o few members t o be s t a t i s t i c a l l y
old

age

bracket

classification
group

rema ined

had

126

members,

had 95 members.
out

of

relevant.

w hereas

The t - t e s t

balance,

wh ereas

The 3 5 - 4 9 - y e a r -

the

50-64-year-old

revealed t h a t the f i r s t

the

second

gr o up

b a l a n c e when HONEST was i n c l u d e d in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s .
c o n f i r m s Rokeach’ s (1973) n o t i o n t h a t
values.

In t h i s

case,

the

older

the

in

This f in d in g

age o r m a t u r a t i o n
superintendents,

was

influences
the

higher

t h e y rank ed t h e h e a r t v a l u e s .
3.

E f f e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p (PRS).

Age and e x p e r i e n c e l e v e l s a r e c l o s e l y r e l a t e d .
be e x p e c t e d ,

as might

s i m i l a r r e s u l t s were found w i t h r e s p e c t t o e x p e r i e n c e .

The e x p e r i e n c e
years,

Therefore,

l e v e l s were c o l l a p s e d

11-20 y e a r s ,

and 21+ y e a r s

into

three

categories:

of experience.

0-10

The 0 -10 g r o u p ,

which was t h e l e a s t e x p e r i e n c e d g r o u p , was o u t o f b a l a n c e ; t h e 11-20
group was

in b a l a n c e when HONEST was

when i t was e x c l u d e d ;
conditions.

included

and o u t

and t h e 21+ gr oup was in

of

balance

b a l a n c e u n d e r both

As t h e c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r g a i n e d more e x p e r i e n c e ,

t h e h e a d / h e a r t dichotomy s h i f t e d toward a b a l a n c e .

101

P u b l i c sc h o o l s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s (PSS):

T h i s su bgroup o f t h e PRS

was v e r y s i m i l a r t o t h e PRS w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e h e a d / h e a r t a n a l y s i s .
The PSS were a l s o c o n s i d e r e d n o t in b a l a n c e .
their t- s ta tis tic

( 3 . 4 5 ) was n o t as c l o s e t o t h e c r i t i c a l

was t h a t o f t h e PRS.
out o f balance.

With HONEST i n c l u d e d ,
v a l u e as

T h i s i n d i c a t e s t h a t t h e PSS were somewhat more

E x c l u d in g HONEST y i e l d e d r e s u l t s

s im ila r to those

f o r t h e PRS.
A lso

sim ilar

to

RESPONSIBLE were l i s t e d

the

PRS,

the

in t h e t o p t h i r d

were c o n s i d e r e d t o be more c e n t r a l .
third

heart

values

HONEST

rankings of the

HELPFUL was l i s t e d

o f t h e PRS b u t dr op ped t o s e v e n t h f o r t h e PSS.

t h e t o p h a l f ( n i n e ) v a l u e s were h e a r t v a l u e s .

and

PSS,

and

in t h e t o p
Four o u t o f

The v a l u e s r a n k e d in

t h e bott om f i v e were a l s o h e a r t v a l u e s .
1.

Effects

o f g e n d e r on t h e

Because o n l y t h r e e members o f t h i s

head/heart

relationship

group were f e m a l e ,

i n f o r m a t i o n would n o t be c o n s i d e r e d v a l i d .

(PSS).

statistical

A cco rd in g t o t h e t - t e s t ,

t h e male PSS (n = 193) were n o t in b a l a n c e .
2.

E f f e c t s o f age on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p (PSS).

l a r r e s u l t s were found in t h i s comparison as
i.e.,

as t h e c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l

in t h a t

leaders got o ld e r,

fo r the

their

Simi­
PRS;

head/heart

di chotomy became more b a l a n c e d .
3.

E f f e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p (PSS).

Again, t h e r e s u l t s were i d e n t i c a l
to

experience.

relationship.

G aining

t o t h o s e f o r t h e PRS w i t h r e s p e c t

experience

balanced

the

head/heart

102
No n pu bl ic
t-test,

the

p - v a l u e was

s ch oo l

superintendents

NSS

instrum ental

value

.0 6 6 ;

therefore,

the null

(NSS):

s y st e m

A cco rd in g

was

in

are

-1 .91

in

balance)

could

not

be

hypothesis th a t

rejected.

showed t h a t t h e NSS ran ke d t h e h e a r t

head v a l u e s .

The

values

the

balance.
there

d i f f e r e n c e between t h e means o f t h e head and h e a r t v a l u e s
they

to

The
is

no

(or th a t

t-statistic
higher than

of
the

Even w i t h o u t i n c l u d i n g HONEST i n t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s , t h e

NSS v a l u e system was in b a l a n c e (p = . 4 6 3 ) .
The NSS ran ke d

four

heart

values

in

the

top

six:

HONEST,

RESPONSIBLE, SELF-CONTROLLED, and HELPFUL.
1.

Effects

of

gender

A cco rd in g t o t h e t - t e s t ,

on

the

head/heart

relationship

t h e male NSS (n = 18) were in b a l a n c e w i t h

and w i t h o u t HONEST i n

the

calculations.

tested

but

r a t h e r t h e y were t e s t e d

PRS.

by t h e m s e l v e s ,

(NSS).

The fem a le NSS were n o t

Because 11 o f t h e 14 f em al e PRS were NSS,

w it h t h e

f e m a le

and t h e f e m a l e PRS

h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p was in b a l a n c e w i t h and w i t h o u t HONEST,
was

deduced

that

gender

alone

did

not

influence

the

it

balance.

R a t h e r , t h e school d i s t r i c t t y p e was t h e i n f l u e n c i n g f a c t o r .
2.
(NSS).

E f f e c t o f age and e x p e r i e n c e on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p
Even though d i s a g g r e g a t i n g d a t a

into

not considered to provide v a l i d or r e l i a b l e

v e r y small
inform ation,

groups
the

is

NSS’ s

i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e sy ste m was in b a l a n c e a t e v e r y age and e x p e r i e n c e
level te s t e d .

This fin d in g is c o n s i s t e n t with th e n a tu re o f a l l th e

f i n d i n g s f o r t h e NSS.
Of t h e t h r e e g r o u p s

(PSS, NSS, and AS),

t h e most d i s t i n c t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s y s t e m ,

t h e NSS n o t o n l y had
b u t t h e y a l s o had a

103

balanced
account

head/heart
for

this

instrum ental

was o u t s i d e

value

the

scop e

system .
of

the

A ttem pting

research,

but

to
the

following is a p la u s ib le explanation fo r t h i s fin d in g .
Because
i.e .,

the

C atholic,

NSS

represented

C hristian,

le a d e r s ’ values

were

and

lik ely

respective

in stitu tio n s.

religiosity

influences

religious
Lutheran,

to

be

Many

19 6 8 ) .

Rokeach (1969)

set

the

sim ilar

organizations,

chief
to

researchers

some v a l u e s .

d e g r e e o f commitment t o r e l i g i o u s

sch ool

those
have

R eligiosity

educational
of

th eir

found

is defined

that
as t h e

i d e o l o g y o r dogma (Glock & S t a r k ,

o u t t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r t h o s e who a r e

r e l i g i o u s have a p a t t e r n o f v a l u e s t h a t

is discrim inably d if f e r e n t

from t h e v a l u e s o f t h o s e who a r e l e s s r e l i g i o u s and i r r e l i g i o u s .
found

that

all

three

groups

possessed

value

sy ste m s

that

He
were

d i s t i n c t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from one a n o t h e r .
Pollock,
they

extensively

entitled
the

Finn,

and Sny der

studied

the

(1981)
values

"The C o n n e c t i c u t Mutual

80’s."

The g e n e r a l

co n d u ct ed

a survey

o f Ameri ca ns ;

the

in which

survey

L i f e R ep o r t on American V alu es

population

was

surveyed

by means

of

was
in
the

t e l e p h o n e and c o m p ri s ed 1 , 6 1 0 randomly s e l e c t e d

citizens.

Pollock

et

population

was t h e

al.

found

that

relig io sity

for

stro n g e s t determ inant of v alues.
th a n

did

income,

sex,

race,

discovered th a t a c t i v i t i e s

or

the

general

R eligiosity
political

affected

ideology.

v a l u e s more
The

i n t h e home, s c h o o l , community,

p l a c e were i n f l u e n c e d by r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s .

authors
and work

Th is r e s e a r c h p r o v i d e d

104
a p l a u s i b l e r e a s o n f o r why t h e NSS’ s v a l u e sy st em was d i f f e r e n t and
why t h e i r h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p was b a l a n c e d .
Aspiring superintendents
AS’ s

instrum ental

value

(AS):

s y st em

A cc o r d in g

was

not

r a n k e d t h e head v a l u e s h i g h e r t h a n t h e
included

in t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s ,

larg est

of

the

four

t-statistic

the

This

h eart values.

Likewise,

number

t-test,

the

A ls o ,

they

balance.

t h e AS’ s t - s t a t i s t i c

groups.

im b al an c e o f t h e g r o u p s .

in

to

With HONEST

(4.97)

indicates

the

was t h e
greatest

when HONEST was e x c l u d e d ,

the

( 7 . 0 0 ) was t h e l a r g e s t as w e l l .

Two h e a r t v a l u e s , HONEST and RESPONSIBLE, were r an k ed f i r s t and
second, r e s p e c t i v e l y .
the

next

ninth.

heart

However, f i v e head v a l u e s were ran ke d b e f o r e

value.

The

next

highest

heart

value

was

rank ed

Not o n ly d i d t h e s t a t i s t i c a l t e s t show an im b a l a n c e , b u t t h e

practical te s t,

as seen by t h e o r d e r o f t h e r a n k i n g s , d i d a l s o .

A cco rd ing t o Barnard ( 1 9 3 8 ) , v a l u e s a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e r o l e o r
position
occupy

may ac c o u n t

the

position

learned

all

A n o th e r

plausible

s y st e m

for
of

the

im b a l a n c e .

superintendent,

of the a p p ro p ria te values

r es em b l ed

reason
that

of

for

this

th eir

Because AS d i d
they

th at

finding

university

had

not

acquired

contribute
is

that

not

to
the

professors

yet
or

success.
AS v a l u e

(H oelscher,

19 8 3) .
Because v a l u e s a r e p r e d i c t o r s o f b e h a v i o r
can

be

inferred

that

the

c h i e f educational

(Rokeach,

leaders

of

19 7 3) ,
the

it

future

were l e s s c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e h e a r t v a l u e s .
1.
t-test

E f f e c t s o f g e n d e r on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p (AS).
i n d i c a t e d t h a t both male

(n = 63)

and f em a le

(n = 30) AS’ s

The

105

instrum ental
.000,

value

sy ste m s

t - v a l u e = 5.73)

were n o t

were s l i g h t l y

in

balance.

more o u t

Female

AS (p

o f balance

than

=

the

male AS (p = .0 09 , t - v a l u e = 2 . 6 9 ) .
2.

E f f e c t s o f age on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p (AS).

b e c a u s e o f t h e small

number o f members i n t h e age c l a s s i f i c a t i o n s ,

o n l y two were c o n s i d e r e d :

35-49 and 50-64 age g r o u p s .

o f AS (n = 84) were i n t h e f i r s t c l a s s i f i c a t i o n .
found

to

exist

in

the

first

group,

but

the

b a l a n c e w i t h o r w i t h o u t HONEST i n c l u d e d .
taken

Aga in,

when dr awing c o n c l u s i o n s

here

An i m b a la n c e was

s ec on d

However,

because

The m a j o r i t y

there

gr ou p

was

in

c a u t i o n must be
were

only

four

50-64 y e a r o l d s .
3.
Of t h e
11-20,

E f f e c t s o f e x p e r i e n c e on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p
three

g ro u p s

separated

and 21+ y e a r s ) , t h e

im balance

w hereas

respectively)

the

by

least

more

experience
experienced

experienced

showed a b a l a n c e between t h e

levels

(i.e .,

(n = 66)

(n

=

head

24

( A S) .
0-10,

showed

and

and h e a r t

n

an

= 3,

values.

I t a p p e a r s from t h e d a t a t h a t a more b a l a n c e d d ic hot om y e v o l v e d w i t h
experience.
Summary o f f i n d i n g s f o r H y p o t h e s i s 2 .
from t h e d a t a f o r H y p o t h e s i s 2.

F irst,

in i s o l a t i o n ,

(PRS,

NSS had

a

o f th e four groups

balanced

head/heart

S e v e r a l f i n d i n g s emerged

when t h e g r o u p s were t a k e n
PSS, NSS,

dic ho to m y

of

and A S) , o n l y t h e

instrum ental

values.

Second, t h e AS a p p e a re d t o be t h e l e a s t c o n c e r n e d w i t h h e a r t v a l u e s ,
as seen by t h e i r t - v a l u e .

F i n a l l y , when g e n d e r , a g e , and e x p e r i e n c e

were i n c l u d e d in t h e a n a l y s i s , g e n d e r was found t o have no i n f l u e n c e

106
on t h e h e a d / h e a r t r e l a t i o n s h i p ,
an e f f e c t ,

b u t age a n d / o r e x p e r i e n c e d i d

r e g a rd le s s o f th e group.

and more e x p e r i e n c e d ,

the

have

As t h e a d m i n i s t r a t o r g o t o l d e r

head/heart

di ch oto my became

in

balance.

T h i s was t h e p a t t e r n among a l l t h e g r o u p s .

Summary
In

this

discussed,

chapter

the

resu lts

and v a l u e p r o f i l e s

practicin g

school

superintendents

for

were as s em bl ed

su perintendents

(PS S),

n o n p u b l i c sch ool

aspiring

superintendents

(AS).

performed

on

for

Hypothesis

2.

The t e s t

applied

for

the

the

data

H ypothesis

two
for

hypotheses
the

(PRS),

public

K ruskal-W al1is
1,

wh ere as

results

the

indicated

were d i f f e r e n c e s in t h e v a l u e sy ste m s o f t h e g r o u p s .
group,
and/or

t h e NSS,

had a b a l a n c e d

experience

C onclusions

and

h ad

an

head/heart

effect

recom m endations

p r e s e n t e d in C h a p t e r V.

fo u r groups:

superintendents

The

on
based

di c h o to m y ,
th is
on

school

(NSS),

and

test

was

t-test

was

that

there

A ls o , o n l y one
although

balance
these

were

as

findings

age

w ell.
are

CHAPTER V
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS

This

chapter

is

divided

into

o v er vi e w o f t h e w r i t e r ’ s p u r p o s e
f i r s t section.

in th e

sections.

study is

A

presented

brief
in the

The p r o c e d u r e s and methods used in c a r r y i n g o u t t h e

study are o u tlin e d
summarized.

several

i n t h e second s e c t i o n .

C o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h e

Third,
findings

the fin d in g s are
are discussed

in

t h e f o u r t h s e c t i o n , f o l l o w e d by rec om mendations f o r p r a c t i c e and f o r
future research.

The l a s t s e c t i o n c o n t a i n s t h e w r i t e r ’ s r e f l e c t i o n s

on t h e s t u d y .

Summary
There i s l i t t l e d e b a t e t h a t v a l u e s p l a y v e r y i m p o r t a n t r o l e s in
educational

adm inistration.

The f i r s t

role

that

c h ie f educational

l e a d e r s assume i s t o e s t a b l i s h t h e v i s i o n , m i s s i o n , o r d i r e c t i o n

in

which t h e school d i s t r i c t w i l l

to

infuse

a

set

of

shared

go.

values

It

into

is
the

the

le a d e r’s a b i lit y

sc h oo l

d istrict,

which

e n a b l e s t h e o r g a n i z a t i o n members t o work i n a common d i r e c t i o n
m i s s i o n and u l t i m a t e l y t o be s u c c e s s f u l
Second,
exercising

the

superintendent

influence

over

the

in t e a c h i n g a l l c h i l d r e n .

occupies

members

Andrews (1989) e x p l a i n e d :

107

or

of

an
the

im portant
sch ool

ro le

by

d istrict.

108
No one would deny t h a t a CEO’ s a c t i o n s p e a k l o u d e r t h a n words.
The i m p o r t o f t h i s a s p e c t o f a c o r p o r a t i o n a s
a moral
e n v i r o n m e n t i s o f c o u r s e t h a t CEOs s h o u ld be c o n s c i o u s o f t h e
a m p l i f i c a t i o n s t h e i r p o s i t i o n s g i v e t o t h e i r most c a s u a l
j u d g m e n t s , t h e i r j o k e s , and t h e i r s i l e n c e s .
But i f a p e r s o n
c a n n o t c o n c e a l h i s o r h e r c h a r a c t e r , t h e n an e v e n more
im portant im p lic a tio n is th a t th e s e le c tio n of
a chief
executive
and
indeed
of
a ny
asp iran t
to
management
resp o n sib ility
s h o u l d i n c l u d e an e x p l i c i t e s t i m a t e o f
character.
I f you a s k , "How do you do t h a t , " Emerson would
r e p l y , " J u s t l o o k ! " ( p . 8)
In

thi s

study,

superintendents
Value S u r v e y ,

as

the

w ri t e r

revealed

the

exam ined

by t h e i r

instrum ent

used

value

in

the

character

s y s t e m s . The

t h i s study,

of

Rokeach

can be

used

to

f o r m u l a t e v a l u e p r o f i l e s f o r t h e " c h i e f e x e c u t i v e " and t h e " a s p i r a n t
t o management r e s p o n s i b i l i t y "
with

the

statistical

as w e l l .

c o m pa r is on s

These v a l u e p r o f i l e s

reveal

an

"explicit

al on g

estim ate

of

character."
Third,

th e p o s itio n o f su p e rin te n d e n t c a r r i e s with i t

responsibility
(Barnard,

and

1938)

Some e d u c a t i o n a l

in

one

th at

addition

requires
to

the

moral

or

ethical

necessary

a large

conviction

competence

w r i t e r s have e x p r e s s e d c o n c e r n o v e r t h e

sk ills.
im ba la nc e

t h a t p r e s e n t l y e x i s t s w i t h r e s p e c t t o an o v e r e m p h a s i s on competency
co u p l e d w i t h a d eem p ha sis on t h e moral
second s t a t i s t i c a l

test

side

p r o v i d e d a g li m p s e

of the equation.
at

the

balance

The

between

t h e head and h e a r t v a l u e s o f c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s and t h o s e who
aspire to th a t position.

D e te r m in in g t h e e t h i c a l

b o th p r e s e n t and f u t u r e c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l
the

individual

adm inistration.

aspiran t

and

for

the

"in clin atio n s"

of

leaders

is

im portant fo r

field

of

educational

109
I t is f o r the preceding reasons t h a t th e study o f th e personal
value

sy ste m s

educational

of c h ie f

leaders

educational

to

more c o n c e r n e d w i t h

be

leaders

successful

th e moral,

in

ethical,

is

the

so

im portant.

future,

heart

For

t h e y must

component

of

be

their

v a l u e sy ste m .
A l a c k o f r e s e a r c h i n d i c a t e d t h e need t o s t u d y v a l u e s o r e t h i c s
of superintendents.
t h a t void.

T h i s s t u d y was u n d e r t a k e n in an a t t e m p t t o f i l l

The s p e c i f i c pro ble m a d d r e s s e d in t h i s s t u d y c e n t e r e d on

two q u e s t i o n s .

In an a t t e m p t t o i d e n t i f y an " e x p l i c i t e s t i m a t e o f

c h a r a c t e r , " t h e f i r s t r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n co n ce r n ed w h e th e r t h e r e a r e
differences

in t h e

values

of practicing

who a s p i r e t o t h e p o s i t i o n .
the

field

of

ad m in istratio n

u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f what v a l u e s

in

educational

inform ation

to

those

are

important

to

have

a

better

in t h e complex r o l e

of

The second r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n co n ce rn ed w h e th e r

o r n o t an im b ala nc e e x i s t s
values

and t h o s e

The f i n d i n g s e n a b l e t h o s e i n t e r e s t e d in

educational

the superintendency.

superintendents

between t h e head and h e a r t

adm in istratio n,
who

are

planning

and t h e
curriculum

instrum ental

resu lts
in

provide

educational

leadership.

Procedures
Two m a jo r gr o u p s o f e d u c a t o r s were s u r v e y e d .
com pri sed
This

practicing

group

was

superintendents
The

second

superintendents

divided
(PSS)

m a jo r

and

gr oup

into

two

nonpublic
co m pr is ed

(PRS)

from

subgroups,
sch oo l

educators

The f i r s t group
around

M ichi gan.

public

superintendents
who

aspired

school
(NSS).
to

the

110
s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y (AS).

P a r t i c i p a n t s were s u r v e y e d u s i n g t h e Rokeach

Value Survey (RVS), d e v e l o p e d by M i l t o n Rokeach.

R e s p o n d e n t s were

as ke d t o r a n k o r d e r 18 i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s (modes o f c o n d u c t ) and 18
term inal values ( e n d - s ta te s o f e x is te n c e ) .
calculated,
t-tests

and

Kruskal-W allis

one-way

were p er f or m e d on t h e d a t a ;

were used in making d e c i s i o n s

Each g r o u p ’ s t o t a l s were
analysis

of

the r e s u lt s

regarding

variance

of these

significance

and

analyses

corresponding

t o t h e two n u l l h y p o t h e s e s .
Findings
The f i r s t m a jo r r e s e a r c h
differed

significantly

on

f i n d i n g was t h a t

nine

values.

i n i t i a l l y s t a t e d in t h i s stu d y , i . e . ,

the

PRS and t h e AS

Based

on t h e

standard

o n e - f o u r t h o r n i n e v a l u e s must

be d i f f e r e n t i f t h e v a l u e s ys t e m s a r e t o be c o n s i d e r e d d i f f e r e n t ,
was co n cl u d ed t h a t t h e o v e r a l l
different.

When t h e

consequently
summary
PSS/NSS,

of

compared
values

PSS/AS,

v a l u e sy ste m s o f t h e PRS and AS were

PRS gr o up was d i v i d e d
with

that

the

were

it

AS,

20

values

significantly

and NSS/AS i s g i v e n

into

PSS and

were

different.

different

in T a b l e 12.

NSS and

between

A
the

The NSS had

a

v a l u e sy ste m t h a t was d i s t i n c t i v e l y d i f f e r e n t from t h a t o f t h e PSS
and AS.

The l a r g e s t

compared;

i.e.,

NSS,

13

and

differences

occurred

14 v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t

values

were

different

any

between

between

the

time th e
the

PSS

NSS and

NSS were
and t h e
the

wh ereas o n l y 9 v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t between t h e PSS and t h e AS.

AS,

Ill
Ta b l e 1 2 . --Summary o f s i g n i f i c a n t l y d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s as d e t e r m i n e d
by t h e K r u s k a l - W a l l i s t e s t between t h e PSS, NSS, and AS.
PSS v e r s u s
NSS

Value

PSS v e r s u s
AS

NSS v e r s u s
AS

Terminal V alues
A com fortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
A s e n s e o f a c c om pl is hm en t
A wo rld o f b e a u t y
Family s e c u r i t y
I n n e r harmony
Pleasure
Salvation
Social r e c o g n i tio n
Wisdom

X
X

X
X

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X
X
X

X

X
X

X

X

X
X
X

X
X

I n s t r u m e n t a l Va lues
A mbitious
Broad-minded
Clean
Courageous
Forgiving
Honest
In de p e n d e n t
Intellectual
Loving
Self-controlled

X
X

X
X
X
X
X

X
X

When each g r ou p was examined i n

X

X

isolation,

it

was d i s c o v e r e d

t h a t t h e PRS v a l u e r a n k i n g s were r e m a r k a b l y s i m i l a r t o t h o s e o f CEOs
(Goad, 1 9 8 6 ) .

S eventy-five percent of the values

were t h e same between t h e PRS and t h e CEOs.
the

findings

of

M ills

(1987),

who compared

in t h e t o p t h i r d

This
the

result
value

p r i n c i p a l s and m i d d le managers in t h e b u s i n e s s w o r ld .

confirms

s ys t e m s

of

112

A ls o ,

it

was found t h a t

gender,

a g e,

and e x p e r i e n c e made no

s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e in any o f t h e g r o u p s when t a k e n in i s o l a t i o n
f o r H y p o t h e s i s 1.
When

com parisons

moderating
included
s ys t e m s

variables

w e r e made b e t w e e n t h e

such

as

in t h e a n a l y s i s ,
of

male

gender,

age,

two f i n d i n g s

PRS and

f em al e

groups,
and

emerged.

AS were

a nd

when

experience
F irst,

different

were

the

(ten

value

values).

Second, t e n v a l u e s were d i f f e r e n t between PRS and AS who were in t h e
2 5 - 4 9 - y e a r - o l d age b r a c k e t .
When

the

co m p o si te

rankings of

the top

third

values

were

a n a l y z e d , t h e g r oup s were found t o be v e r y s i m i l a r .
The second m a jo r r e s e a r c h f i n d i n g was t h a t ,
(PRS,

PSS,

NSS,

and AS),

only

the

dich otom y o f i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s .

NSS had

o f th e fo u r groups

a balanced

head/heart

T h e r e f o r e , t h e NSS n o t o n l y had a

d i s t i n c t i v e v a l u e system as seen from t h e d a t a f o r H y p o t h e s i s 1, b u t
t h e y a l s o had t h e o n l y i n - b a l a n c e i n s t r u m e n t a l v a l u e s y s t e m .
i t was d e t e r m i n e d from t h e d a t a t h a t
effect

on

th is

dichotom y,

age a n d / o r e x p e r i e n c e

regardless

a d m i n i s t r a t o r g a i n e d more e x p e r i e n c e ,
became

in

balance.

F inally,

the

values,

as

a ttrib u tab le
programs.

AS

Th is

a p p ea r ed

evidenced
eith er

to

was
to

by

the

the

be

the

least

all

concerned

t-v alu es.

differences

group.

had an
As

the

h e a d / h e a r t dichotom y

t h e p a t t e r n among

th eir

role

of

A ls o ,

or

This
to

the

groups.

with

heart

finding

th eir

is

train in g

113

Conclusions
Based on t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s t u d y ,

the following conclusions

were drawn:
1.
less

The PRS were more i n c l i n e d t o v a l u e t h e head q u a l i t i e s and

inclined

inclinations
heart

than

to

value

indicated
did

perpetuated.

those

the

heart

qualities.

an even g r e a t e r
of

the

I t appears t h a t

PRS.

The

d isparity
Thus,

the

decision

alternatives,

ethical

between head
im b al an c e

although,

in

te r m s

and

may

tom or ro w ’ s c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l

may be r e l u c t a n t t o p i n p o i n t and weigh t h e e t h i c a l
their

AS’ s

be

leaders

im plications of
of

readiness

to

h a n d l e a s u p e r i n t e n d e n c y , t h e AS a r e p r e p a r e d .
2.

Life is the g r e a t e s t te a c h e r.

I t is clear th a t adm inistra­

t i v e e x p e r i e n c e o f any t y p e p u t s t h e i n s t r u m e n t a l

v a l u e s ys te m back

in

"b attlefield ,"

balance.

Per hap s

it

is

the

l e a r n i n g t h e r o p e s t h e h a r d way,
valued.

I t seems c e r t a i n ,

years

on

the

or

t h a t c a u s e s one t o change what i s

however, t h a t " o l d e r and w i s e r "

is not a

cliche.
3.
and

The NSS’ s v a l u e s y st e m was d i f f e r e n t

the

only

one

with

a

balanced

from a l l

head/heart

the

others

d ic ho to m y.

This

d i f f e r e n c e i s p r o b a b l y most a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e sc ho ol
d istrict

type.

h is /h e r values

The NSS i s

s e l e c t e d t o work in

are congruent with th e v alues

that

o f the

role

because

organization.

S i n c e t h e n o n p u b l i c s c h o o l s a r e r e l i g i o u s in b a s i c o r i e n t a t i o n , each
NSS i s p r o b a b l y c o n s i d e r e d t o be r e l i g i o u s .
perm itted,

encouraged,

T h e r e f o r e , t h e NSS a r e

and rew ar d ed t o e x p r e s s

t h e i r values w ithin

114
the

structure

of

S tatistic ally
concern

for

their

institu tio n s,

and p r a c t i c a l l y ,

the

heart

values.

wh ere as

th eir

values

R eligiosity

the

PSS

are

reflect
seems

to

not.

a greater
affect

the

v a l u e s one h o l d s .
4.

The AS’ s d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s ys te m e i t h e r

ferences a ttr ib u ta b le to the p o sitio n or ro le ,
type

of

train in g

they

h ad

received

in

reflected
or i t

th eir

the d i f ­

r e f le c te d the

adm inistrativ e

p r e p a r a t i o n programs o r some c o m b in a ti o n o f t h e two.
5.

S t a t i s t i c a l l y , t h e v a l u e sy ste m s o f t h e PRS and t h e AS were

different.

A ls o , when t h e PRS were d i v i d e d

into

PSS and NSS and

compared w i t h t h e AS, t h e r e s u l t was t h e same, i . e . , d i f f e r e n t v a l u e
systems.

However, from a p r a c t i c a l p o i n t o f view, by l o o k i n g a t t h e

t o p t h i r d co m p o si te v a l u e r a n k i n g s , i . e . ,

t h o s e t h a t were c o n s i d e r e d

t o be more c e n t r a l t o t h e r e s p o n d e n t , t h e d i f f e r e n c e s between gr o u p s
were minimal

(see Table 13).

f o r a ll groups.

S ix o u t o f 12 v a l u e s were t h e

Of t h e r e m a i n i n g s i x , o n ly t h r e e ,

CONTROLLED, and INTELLECTUAL, were l i s t e d
one o f t h e g r o u p s .
a t the d ata.

same

SALVATION, SELF­

in t h e t o p t h i r d

by o n ly

The c o m p o s i te r a n k i n g s a r e a n o t h e r way t o lo ok

The s t a t i s t i c a l

means i n d i c a t e t h e

intensity

of the

rankings.
6.

The PRS were v e r y much l i k e t h e CEOs in t h e b u s i n e s s w o r l d .

Even though CEOs a r e
they

must

organization.

in t h e money-making b u s i n e s s ,

effectiv ely

man age

people

to

have

it
a

is

certain

productive

PRS a r e in t h e " p eo p le - m ak in g" b u s i n e s s b u t must a l s o

work t h r o u g h p e o p l e t o be e f f e c t i v e .

Therefore,

t h e s e two gr ou ps t o d i s p l a y s i m i l a r v a l u e p r o f i l e s .

one mi gh t e x p e c t
A ccountability

115
f o r s t u d e n t outcomes and f i s c a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y e v i d e n t l y have c au s ed
t o d a y ’ s and tom orro w’ s c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l

leaders

to

ap p r o a c h t h e i r

work l i k e b u s i n e s s p e r s o n s .

T a b l e 1 3 . -- T h e most c e n t r a l
and AS.

( t o p t h i r d ) v a l u e s o f t h e PRS, PSS, NSS,

Group
PRS

NSS

PSS

AS

Terminal Va lues

Family s e c u r i t y 3
S elf-respect3
Sense o f acc omp.3
H app ine ss
Wisdom
I n n e r harmony

Family s e c u r i t y
Sense o f accomp.
Self-respect
H a pp in es s
Freedom
Wisdom

Salvation
Self-respect
I n n e r harmony
Wisdom
Family s e c u r i t y
Sense o f accomp.

Family s e c u r i t y
S elf-respect
S ense o f accomp
H ap p in es s
I n n e r harmony
Freedom

I n s t r u m e n t a l V alues
Honest
Responsible
Capable
Am bitious
Courageous
Broad-minded

Honest3
Responsible3
Capable3
Ambi ti ou s
Courageous
H el p f u l

Honest
Responsible
Capabl e
Am bit iou s
Broad-minded
Intellectual

Honest
Responsible
Courageous
Capabl e
Self-controlled
H el p f u l

aValue a p p e a r s in t o p t h i r d o f a l l g r o u p s .

7.

Al though t h e f e m a le AS h e l d a d i f f e r e n t v a l u e s yst em t h a n

t h e male PRS,

they displayed

Communication

and

build

co alitio n s

a propensity

relationship-building
of

support

and

to

be more r e l a t i o n a l .

sk ills

p artn ersh ip s

are
for

necessary

to

progress

in

116
com munities so t h a t t h e sc h oo l p e r s o n n e l can manage imminent change
more e f f i c i e n t l y .

Females a p p e a r t o

be b e t t e r e q u i p p e d f o r t h e s e

t a s k s t h a n t h e i r male c o u n t e r p a r t s .
8.

The r i s k - t a k i n g i n d e x was t h e l o w e s t f o r t h e AS.

g eneration o f c h ie f educational

The n e x t

l e a d e r s may n o t be p r e p a r e d t o t a k e

t h e r i s k s n e c e s s a r y t o r e s t r u c t u r e s c h o o l s t o meet t h e demands o f an
ever-changing world.

Ironically,

t h e AS were more t a s k

which i n d i c a t e s t h e i r p o t e n t i a l

t o g e t t h i n g s d o ne .

have t o d e v e l o p t h e c r e a t i v i t y

and c o u r a g e t o

oriented,

Y e t,

t h e y may

p l a c e t h e m s e l v e s on

t h e c u t t i n g edge o f e d u c a t i o n a l ch ang e.
9.

In a ti m e o f r a p i d ch ang e, knowledge o f o n e ’ s own v a l u e s i s

essential.

As one s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s a i d ,

"You need y o u r own g u i d a n c e

s y s t e m ; o t h e r w i s e you l o s e y o u r d i r e c t i o n - - b e c o m e a v i c t i m o f e v e r y
pressure"

(lannaccone,

understanding

of

what

1981,
the

p.

110).

"internal

AS now h a v e
guidance"

a

system

b etter
of

the

conclusions,

the

s u p e r i n t e n d e n t lo o k s 1 i k e .

Recommendations
Based

on

the

research

data

and

consequent

f o l l o w i n g recommendations a r e made t o p e o p l e i n t h e f i e l d o f e d u c a ­
tio n al adm inistration.
1.

AS need t o know and u n d e r s t a n d t h e v a l u e s ys t em s o f t h o s e

c h i e f educational
M ic hi ga n.

It

l e a d e r s who a r e a l r e a d y p r a c t i c i n g t h e i r c r a f t

would

behoove

an AS t o

compare

his/her

s ys te m w i t h t h e p r o f i l e o f t h e PRS l i s t e d in t h e Appendix.

own

in

value

117

2.

Those

p ersonnel,

responsible

i.e .,

for

proper

personnel

p la c e m e n t

d irecto rs,

and so on,

should ta k e note o f th e

study with

respect

the

experience.
dom in ate d

head/heart

Wise p l a c e m e n t o f

adm inistrator

could

the

findings

d ic h o t o m y ’ s

exciting

search

from t h i s

changing

ta sk -o rie n ted ,

produce

terms o f g e t t i n g th in g s done.

adm inistrative

superintendent

committees,

to

of

due

to

head-value-

p o ssib ilities

in

L i k e w i s e , i f s t a b i l i t y and r e f l e c t i o n

a r e d e s i r e d , a more b a l a n c e d p e r s o n i s ne ed e d.
3.

S uperintendent

search

com m ittees

should

give

serious

t h o u g h t t o m at ch in g t h e v a l u e s y s t e m s o f t h e new s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w it h
the

values

im plicitly

expected

in

the

position

as

the

bo a r d

of

education sees i t .
4.

Given t h e

with e x p erien ce,

fact th at

pairing

the

head/heart

relationship

a new s u p e r i n t e n d e n t w i t h

balances

a me nt o r c o u l d

pr od uc e an i m p o r t a n t p a r t n e r s h i p and mi ght h a s t e n t h e

balancing of

t h e newcomer’ s v a l u e s y s t e m .
5.

Training

in stitu tio n s,

School

Executives

(NASE),

School

A dm inistrators

including

the

a b r an ch o f t h e

(AASA);

the

National

Academy o f

American A s s o c i a t i o n

Michigan

Principals

of

Asse ss men t

C e n t e r s ; t h e Michigan I n s t i t u t e f o r E d u c a t i o n a l Management (MIEM), a
br an ch o f t h e Michigan A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s
and c o l l e g e
tion,

s h o u ld

and u n i v e r s i t y
begin

to

departments

include

of

training

educational

in

the

s p e c i f i c a l l y i n t h e a r e a o f v a l u e s and e t h i c s .
that

instruction

in t h e competency s k i l l s

(MASA);

adm inistra­

affective

domain,

T h i s does n o t mean

o r head v a l u e s s h o u l d be

118
s u p p l a n t e d , b u t r a t h e r t h a t a b a l a n c e between head and h e a r t s h o u ld
be s t r e s s e d .
AS need
im portant.
is

to

why t h e

study

of

personal

values

is

They must know t h a t t h e p o s i t i o n t h e y d e s i r e t o assume

a key r o l e

influences

understand

that

others,

determines
and t h a t

shared

requires

organizational
ethical

values,

choices

in

that

decision

making.
In any c a s e ,

a more c o n c e r t e d e f f o r t

s h o u l d be made t o

bring

more e t h i c a l d i a l o g u e i n t o e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s h i p t r a i n i n g p ro g ra m s.
An a t t e m p t
education,

s h o u ld

be made t o

bring

what would o t h e r w i s e

into

balance

occur through

earlier,

experience,

through
i.e .,

a

b a l a n c e d h e a d / h e a r t dic h ot o my , o r upon assuming a new r o l e .
The t e a c h i n g methods e s p o u s e d by Kimbrough
H aller,

and S o l t i s

(1985)

(1988) would make a p o s i t i v e c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e

higher education curriculum f o r a s p ir in g a d m in is tr a t o r s .
of case stu d ie s

and S t r i k e ,

of ethical

dilemmas,

a b o u t t h e co n s e q u e n c e s o f d e c i s i o n s ,

coupled

with

T h e i r use

open d i s c u s s i o n

i s c o n s i d e r e d by t h i s w r i t e r t o

be a b e n e f i c i a l t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e t h a t s h o u ld be u s e d .
Furthermore,

internship

programs

should

be

considered

as

a

t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e which would a l l o w t h e a s p i r a n t t o a s s i m i l a t e some
o f t h e r o l e v a l u e s t h a t need t o be a c q u i r e d .
6.

A f t e r i t has been a g r e e d t o b e g i n t o e m p ha si ze h e a r t v a l u e s

in e d u c a tio n a l

le a d e r s h ip t r a i n i n g programs, cu rric u lu m s p e c i a l i s t s

s h o u ld d e v i s e l e a r n i n g s t r a t e g i e s t o i n c o r p o r a t e t h i s
the curriculum.
ethics

and

em ph as is i n t o

T h i s c o u l d be a c c o m p li s h e d by i n c l u d i n g a u n i t on

values

w ithin

appropriate

classes,

i.e.,

Theory

and

119

P r a c t i c e in A d m i n i s t r a t i o n , o r p o s s i b l y i n i t i a t i n g a c o m p le te c o u r s e
on v a l u e s and e t h i c s i n sc ho ol a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
7.
s y st e m

It
was

balance.

would behoove e d u c a t o r s
different

and

why

to

their

examine why t h e

head/heart

NSS v a l u e

dich oto my

was

in

P u b l i c s ch ool l e a d e r s do n o t communicate enough w i t h t h e i r

counterparts

in t h e n o n p u b l i c s c h o o l s .

An open d i a l o g u e w i t h t h i s

gr o up would seem a d v i s a b l e , g i v e n t h e r e s u l t s from t h i s s t u d y .
8.

Knowing o n e ’ s own " g u i d a n c e sy stem" o r o n e ’ s own " e s t i m a t e

o f c h a r a c t e r " seems t o be a p r e r e q u i s i t e t o s u c c e s s .
mended t h a t

adm inistrators

assess

their

value

It

i s recom­

s y st em s

to

gain

a

b e t t e r u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e m s e l v e s and t o g a i n an i n c r e a s e d c a p a c i t y
for ethical re fle c tio n .
Recommendations f o r F u t u r e Resea rc h
As a r e s u l t
research

in

the

of

this

study,

im portant

area

many a r e a s

surfaced

of

and

values

for

ethics.

further
Future

r e s e a r c h e r s could study:
1.

The l i n k between p e r s o n a l v a l u e s and b e h a v i o r .

o f c o n c e i v e d v a l u e s was e s t a b l i s h e d in t h i s s t u d y .
ne ed s

to

examine t h e

extent

in t o behavior because i t

t o which t h e s e

i s understood t h a t

A r e s e a r c h e r now

values
it

A baseline

are

translated

i s what we d o ,

not

what we s a y , t h a t r e a l l y m a t t e r s .
2.

The c o r r e l a t i o n between v a l u e s and e f f e c t i v e n e s s .

3.

The d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a l u e s o f p r a c t i c i n g

su perintendents of

s c h o o l s and c h i e f e x e c u t i v e o f f i c e r s o f c o r p o r a t i o n s .
4.

The i n f l u e n c e t h a t r e l i g i o s i t y has on v a l u e s and e t h i c s .

120

5.

The e f f e c t t h a t o t h e r dem ographic v a r i a b l e s ,

graphic lo c a tio n

and/or

size

background a n d /o r c u l t u r a l

of

The

school

h eritage,

a n d / o r l e v e l o f e d u c a t i o n , have on
6.

the

such a s g e o ­

d istrict,

and i n t e l l i g e n c e

fam ily
q u o tien t

values.

d i f f e r e n c e s i n v a l u e s between AS a n d / o r PRS

and u n i v e r ­

s i t y p r o f e s s o rs in ed u c a tio n a l a d m in is t r a t i o n .
7.

Why t h e h e a d / h e a r t dich oto my b a l a n c e s w i t h e x p e r i e n c e

and

w h e th e r i t o c c u r s a t a s p e c i f i c p o i n t i n t h a t e x p e r i e n c e .

w ith

8.

The c o n n e c t i o n between age and e x p e r i e n c e .

9.

The f i n d i n g s from t h e p r e s e n t s t u d y i n a co m p a r is o n s t u d y

other

in stitu tio n s,

such

as

p riv a te schools

of higher

e d u c a t i o n , s c h o o l s o u t s i d e o f M ich ig an , and so on.
10.

The v a l u e s y s t e m s o f p r e s e r v i c e

(undergraduates)

or early

s e r v i c e (AS).
12.

The d i f f e r e n c e s between c h i e f e d u c a t i o n a l l e a d e r s and t h e i r

r e s p e c t i v e boards o f e d u c a tio n .
13.

More c l o s e l y t h e g e n d e r d i f f e r e n c e s

from a p e r s p e c t i v e

of

moral d ev el o pm en t.

R eflections
The f o l l o w i n g

r em a r k s a r e

an

attempt

to

reveal

some

of

the

p e r s o n a l r e f l e c t i o n s o f t h i s w r i t e r now t h a t t h e s t u d y i s f i n i s h e d .
1.
study

Values i n e d u c a t i o n a l
that

literatu re,

has

not

yet

although i t

popular p re s s .

received

leadership
much

is

an

im portant

attention

in

the

has r e c e n t l y r e c e i v e d some i n t e r e s t

Concern a b o u t t h e l a c k o f e t h i c s

area

research
in t h e

and/or values

is

of

121

e x p r e s s e d ea ch week in t h e new sp ape rs and news m a g a z i n e s .
wake

of

these

rep o rts,

educational lead ersh ip .

in terest

is

increasing

by

In t h e
those

in

For exam ple, t h e A s s o c i a t i o n o f S u p e r v i s i o n

and C u r r i c u l u m Development (ASCD) l i s t e d moral e d u c a t i o n as one o f
its

top p r i o r i t i e s

the

Center

for

f o r 1989,

the

Boston U n i v e r s i t y has r e c e n t l y

Advancement

of

Ethics

and

American A s s o c i a t i o n o f School A d m i n i s t r a t o r s

C haracter,

and

the

D ecade."

em pirical
be

more

potential

The pe n du lu rn

is

s t u d i e s o f value systems,
tim ely .

The

current

fo r educational

researchers

to

study

sw inging
ethics,

back.

scratched

researchers.

The d o o r

different

a

A Focus

T herefore,

and b e h a v i o r c o u l d n o t

study

many

the

(AASA) has p la n n e d

s e s s i o n a t i t s 1990 c o n v e n t i o n in San F r a n c i s c o on " E t h i c s :
of

opened

aspects

th e
is

of

surface

of

wide open f o r

values

and

the

i n f l u e n c e o f v a l u e s on b e h a v i o r .
2.

This

w riter

is

intrigued

R e l i g i o s i t y does a f f e c t v a l u e s ,
b e l ie f statem ent or d octrine?
cultu ral?

by

the

b u t how?

Is

NSS’ s
it

value

system.

conform ity with

Is i t f a i t h alone?

a

Is i t personal or

A s t u d y o f t h i s n a t u r e would be an i n t e r e s t i n g f o l l o w - u p

to the c u r r e n t study.
3.

The r e s p o n s e t o t h e s u r v e y was h e a r t e n i n g .

t h e r e s p o n d e n t s r e q u e s t e d summary i n f o r m a t i o n .
personal

n o t e s and well w i s h e s .

For t h i s ,

More t h a n 70 o f

Many more a t t a c h e d

the w rite r

is g r a t e f u l ;

t h e i r enc ou ra g em en t meant a g r e a t d e a l .
4.
was,

in

Although t h e w r i t e r i s n o t s u r e t h a t t h e d o n a t i o n i n c e n t i v e
itself,

instrum ental

in

increasing

the

return

rate,

the

122
S o u t h w e s t e r n Michigan Branch o f t h e A r t h r i t i s

F o u n d a ti o n

received

$29 a s a r e s u l t o f o f f e r i n g t h e i n c e n t i v e .
5.

The w r i t e r r e c e n t l y d i s c o v e r e d t h a t t h e r e i s a " net w or k" o f

academicians

and

t h e i r personal
Plugging

into

practitioners

who a r e

t i m e and e n e r g y t o t h e
this

devoting
field

ne t w o rk would be a t o p

a great

o f values
priority

if

deal

of

and e t h i c s .
the w r ite r

were t o s t a r t anew on a d i s s e r t a t i o n p r o j e c t .
6.

F inally,

although

the w r ite r maintained

a h ig h

level

of

i n t e r e s t i n t h e s t u d y , f o r t h e b e n e f i t o f h i s f a m i l y he would t a k e a
sabbatical,

a leave

were t o s t a r t o v e r ,

o f absence,

o r an o u t r i g h t

resignation

if

he

in o r d e r t o have more c o n c e n t r a t e d s t u d y t i m e .

No th in g can t a k e t h e p l a c e
with a s in g u la r focus.

of quality

and q u a n t i t y

time f o r

study

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A
COVER LETTER TO SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY

123

O T S E G O P U B L IC S C H O O L S
313 W. ALLEGAN STREET
OTSEGO, MICHIGAN 49078
( 616 )

694-5131

J o h n D. K inginorth
S u p e rin ten d e n t

July 28, 1989
Dear Colleague,
Over 50 percent of the practicing superintendents may
retire by 1992. With this anticipated turnover, many new
faces will enter the ranks. Will they have "what it takes"
to replace those that retire? Will they have the values that
will help them make wise decisions? Determining what
superintendents value could have a bearing on the eventual
success of future superintendents. Also, knowledge of the
ethical inclinations of today's and tomorrow's chief
educational leaders may provide worthwhile information to our
field.
Because of the immediacy of this topic, I am conducting
a dissertation research study comparing the values of
practicing superintendents with those who aspire to the
super intendency to determine what differences, if any, exist.
This study has been endorsed by Don Elliott, Executive
Director of MASA.
Enclosed you will find a questionnaire.
It will take 10
minutes to complete. All results will be treated with strict
confidence and your responses will remain anonymous.
By
writing your name on the return envelope, I will gladly send
you a summary of the findings. Returning the completed
survey in the enclosed, stamped envelope by Friday, August
11, 1989 would be greatly appreciated.
Thanks in advance for extending me this professional
courtesy.
C-i

T,

superlnrenaenr
enc.
Don Elliott letter
Superintendent Value Survey
Stamped, return envelope

Y our Public S c h o o ls - An Investm ent In T he F u tu re

APPENDIX B
COVER LETTER TO ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY

124

O T S E G O PU B L IC S C H O O L S
313 W. ALLEGAN STREET
OTSEGO, MICHIGAN 49078
( 616 )

694-5131

July 28, 1989
Dear Fellow Student in Educational Administration,
Do you have any desire to become a superintendent?
YES
POSSIBLY
NO {check one, please).
If you checked YES, or POSSIBLY, please continue reading.
If you checked NO, please return this letter along with the
blank questionnaire in the enclosed, stamped return envelope
and thank you for your time.
I am conducting a dissertation
research studyinvolving
students in MSU's Department of Educational Administration
who may aspire to the super intendency.
Superintendents are
also being surveyed.
Since over 50 percent of the practicing superintendents
may retire by 1992, many new faces will enter the ranks.
Will they have "what it takes" to replace those that retire?
Will they have the values that will help them make wise
decisions? Determining what superintendents value could have
a bearing on the eventual success of future superintendents.
Also, knowledge of the ethical inclinations of today's and
tomorrow's chief educational leaders may provide worthwhile
information to our field.
Therefore, this study compares the values of practicing
superintendents with those who aspire to the super intendency
to determine what differences, if any, exist.
This study has
the endorsement of Don Elliott, Executive Director of the
Michigan Association of School Administrators.
Enclosed you will find a questionnaire.
It will take 10
minutes to complete. All results will be treated with strict
confidence and your responses will remain anonymous. By
writing your name on the return envelope, I will gladly send
you a summary of the findings. Returning the completed
survey in the enclosed, stamped envelope by August 11, 1989
would be greatly appreciated.
Thanks in advance for extending me this professional
courtesy.
I will be happy to return the favor.

m

D. Kmgsnortn,

enc.
Don Elliott letter
Aspiring Superintendent Value Survey
Stamped, return envelope
Your Public S ch o o ls - An Investm ent In T h e F u tu re

APPENDIX C
ENDORSEMENT LETTER FROM THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR OF THE
MICHIGAN ASSOCIATION OF SCHOOL ADMINISTRATORS

125

MICHIGAN ASSOCIATION
OF
SCHOOL ADM INISTRATORS
Off ice o f th* Executive D irector

421 West Kalamazoo, Lansing, Michigan 48933

Telephone 517 371-5250

July 6, 1989

Dear Colleague:
A leader's value system, whatever it may be, affects
how he/she carries out his/her job.
Each day our
ethics and values influence our decision making and our
behavior.
Therefore, knowing the value systems of
successful superintendents would be very beneficial to
someone who aspires to the superintendency.
Furthermore, knowledge of our ethical inclinations
could have an impact on higher education programming in
educational leadership.
This study, which compares the value systems of
practicing school superintendents with those who aspire
to the superintendency, can make an important contribu­
tion to the field of educational administration.
Your assistance in this study would be appreciated very
much.
Sincerely yours,

Executive Director

pat

A M e m o e r o f T h e M ic h ig a n C o n c 'e s s o f S c h o o l A d m i n is tr a t o r A s s o c ia t io n s

APPENDIX D

SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY

126

SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY
Instructions
You a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a r e s e a r c h s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t
d i f f e r e n c e s , i f any, e x i s t i n t h e v a l u e s y st em s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
and t h o s e who a s p i r e t o become s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
P l e a s e co m p le te t h e
de m ogra phi c q u e s t i o n s l i s t e d below by c h e c k i n g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e box
and t h e n p r o ce e d t o r a n k t h e v a l u e s l i s t e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g pages
according to th e i n s t r u c t i o n s given t h e r e .
I t w i l l t a k e a b o u t 15
m i n u t e s t o c o m p le te t h e s u r v e y .
Thank you f o r y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n in
making t h i s s t u d y a s u c c e s s .
Demographic Q u e s t i o n s
1.

Age:
25-34 y e a r s
35-49 y e a r s
50-64 y e a r s
65 y e a r s and o v e r

2.

Gender:
Male
Female

3.

Superintendent experience:
0- 5 y e a r s
6-10 y e a r s
11-15 y e a r s
16-20 y e a r s
21-25 y e a r s
26 y e a r s o r more

4.

School d i s t r i c t t y p e :
Public
Nonpublic

127
Below i s a l i s t o f 18 v a l u e s in a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r .
This survey is
d e s i g n e d t o f i n d o u t t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e v a l u e s t o you
a s g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s in y o u r l i f e .
S tu d y t h e l i s t c a r e f u l l y .
Then
p l a c e a 1 n e x t t o t h e v a l u e which i s most i m p o r t a n t t o y o u , p l a c e a
2 n e x t t o t h e v a l u e which i s s eco nd most i m p o r t a n t , e t c .
The v a l u e
which i s l e a s t i m p o r t a n t t o you s h o u l d be r a n k e d 1 8 .
When you have
c o m p l e t e d r a n k i n g a l l t h e v a l u e s , go b ac k and c h e c k o v e r y o u r l i s t .
Feel f r e e t o make ch an g e s so t h a t t h e end r e s u l t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t s
your v alu es.

A com fortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e

(a prosperous l i f e )

(a s t i m u l a t i n g , a c t i v e l i f e )

A s e n s e o f a c c o m p li sh m en t ( l a s t i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n )
A w o r l d a t p e a c e ( f r e e o f war and c o n f l i c t )
A w o r l d o f b e a u t y ( b e a u t y o f n a t u r e and t h e a r t s )
E q u a l i t y ( b r o t h e r h o o d , equal o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a l l )
Fami ly s e c u r i t y ( t a k i n g c a r e o f l o v e d o ne s )
Freedom ( i n d e p e n d e n c e , f r e e c h o i c e )
Happiness (c o n te n te d n e ss)
I n n e r harmony ( f ree dom from i n n e r c o n f l i c t )
Ma ture l o v e ( s e x u a l and s p i r i t u a l

intimacy)

N a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y ( p r o t e c t i o n from a t t a c k )
P l e a s u r e (an e n j o y a b l e , l e i s u r e l y l i f e )
S alv a tio n (saved, e tern al l i f e )
S e lf-re s p e c t (self-esteem )
Social re c o g n itio n (re s p e c t, adm iration)
Tru e f r i e n d s h i p ( c l o s e com pa ni o ns h ip )
Wisdom (a m a t u r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e )

When you f i n i s h t h i s page , go on t o t h e n e x t pa ge .

128

Below i s a n o t h e r l i s t o f 18
i m p o r t a n c e , t h e same a s b e f o r e .

values.

Rank

Ambitious (hard-w orking, a s p i r i n g )
Broadminded (op en -m in d ed )
Capable (competent, e f f e c t i v e )
Cheerful

(lig h th e a rte d , joyful)

C le an ( n e a t , t i d y )
Cou ra ge ou s ( s t a n d i n g up f o r y o u r b e l i e f s )
F o r g i v i n g ( w i l l i n g t o pardon o t h e r s )
Helpful

( w or k in g f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s )

H o n es t ( s i n c e r e , t r u t h f u l )
Im aginative (daring, c re a tiv e )
Independent ( s e l f - r e l i a n t ,
Intellectual
Logical

self-su fficien t)

(in tellig en t, reflectiv e)

(consistent,

rational)

Loving ( a f f e c t i o n a t e , t e n d e r )
Obedient ( d u t i f u l , r e s p e c t f u l )
P o l i t e ( c o u r te o u s , well-mannered)
Responsible (dependable, r e l i a b l e )
S elf-controlled (restrained, se lf-d is c ip lin e )

Thank you!

them

in

o rd er

of

APPENDIX E

ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY

129

ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENT VALUES SURVEY
Instructions
You a r e p a r t i c i p a t i n g i n a r e s e a r c h s t u d y t o d e t e r m i n e w h a t
d i f f e r e n c e s , i f an y, e x i s t in t h e v a l u e sy st em s o f s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s
and t h o s e who a s p i r e t o become s u p e r i n t e n d e n t s .
P le a se complete th e
demo gra phi c q u e s t i o n s l i s t e d below by ch e c k in g t h e a p p r o p r i a t e box
and t h e n p r o c e e d t o r a n k t h e v a l u e s l i s t e d on t h e f o l l o w i n g pages
according t o t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s given t h e r e .
I t w i l l t a k e a b o u t 15
m i n u te s t o c o m p l e t e t h e s u r v e y .
Thank you f o r y o u r c o o p e r a t i o n in
making t h i s s t u d y a s u c c e s s .
Demographic Q u e s t i o n s
1.

Age:
25-34 y e a r s
35- 49 y e a r s
50-64 y e a r s
65 y e a r s and o v e r

2.

Gender:
Male
Female

3.

A dm inistrative experience:
0-5 y e a rs
6-10 y e a r s
11-15 y e a r s
16-20 y e a r s
21-25 y e a r s
26 y e a r s o r more

4.

School d i s t r i c t t y p e :
Public
N on pub lic

130

Below i s a l i s t o f 18 v a l u e s i n a l p h a b e t i c a l o r d e r .
This survey is
d e s i g n e d t o f i n d o u t t h e r e l a t i v e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e s e v a l u e s t o you
as g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s i n y o u r l i f e .
S tu d y t h e l i s t c a r e f u l l y .
Then
p l a c e a 1 n e x t t o t h e v a l u e which i s most i m p o r t a n t t o y o u , p l a c e a
2 n e x t t o t h e v a l u e which i s second most i m p o r t a n t , e t c .
The v a l u e
which i s l e a s t i m p o r t a n t t o you s h o u l d be r a n k e d 18.
When you have
c o m p l e t e d r a n k i n g a l l t h e v a l u e s , go b ac k and c h e c k o v e r y o u r l i s t .
Feel f r e e t o make ch a n g e s so t h a t t h e end r e s u l t t r u l y r e p r e s e n t s
your v alu es.

A com fortable l i f e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e

(a prosperous l i f e )

(a s t i m u l a t i n g , a c t i v e l i f e )

A s e n s e o f a c c o m p li s h m e n t ( l a s t i n g c o n t r i b u t i o n )
A w o r l d a t p e a c e ( f r e e o f war and c o n f l i c t )
A w o r l d o f b e a u t y ( b e a u t y o f n a t u r e and t h e a r t s )
E q u a l i t y ( b r o t h e r h o o d , equa l o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a l l )
Family s e c u r i t y ( t a k i n g c a r e o f l o v e d o n es )
Freedom ( i n d e p e n d e n c e , f r e e c h o i c e )
H a p p in e s s ( c o n t e n t e d n e s s )
I n n e r harmony ( f r e e d o m from i n n e r c o n f l i c t )
Mature l o v e ( s e x u a l and s p i r i t u a l

intim acy)

N a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y ( p r o t e c t i o n from a t t a c k )
P l e a s u r e (an e n j o y a b l e , l e i s u r e l y l i f e )
S a lv a tio n (saved, e te r n a l l i f e )
S e lf-re sp e c t (self-esteem )
Social r e c o g n i tio n ( r e s p e c t , adm iration)
True f r i e n d s h i p ( c l o s e co m p a n io n s h ip )
Wisdom (a m a tu r e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f l i f e )

When you f i n i s h t h i s p a g e , go on t o t h e n e x t pa ge .

131

Below i s a n o t h e r l i s t o f 18
i m p o r t a n c e , t h e same as b e f o r e .

values.

Rank

Ambitious (hard -w o rk in g , a s p i r i n g )
Broadminded (o p en - m i n d ed )
Capable (com petent, e f f e c t i v e )
Cheerful

(lig h th e a rte d , joyful)

C le a n ( n e a t , t i d y )
Co ur age ous ( s t a n d i n g up f o r y o u r b e l i e f s )
F o r g i v i n g ( w i l l i n g t o p ard on o t h e r s )
H elpful

( w o rk in g f o r t h e w e l f a r e o f o t h e r s )

H o n es t ( s i n c e r e , t r u t h f u l )
Im aginative (daring, c re a tiv e )
Independent ( s e l f - r e l i a n t ,

self-su fficien t)

Intellectual

reflective)

Logical

(in tellig en t,

(consistent, ratio n al)

Loving ( a f f e c t i o n a t e , t e n d e r )
Obedient ( d u t i f u l , r e s p e c t f u l )
P o l i t e (c o u rte o u s , well-mannered)
R esponsible (dependable, r e l i a b l e )
S elf-control!ed (restrain ed ,

Thank you!

self-discipline)

them

in

order

of

APPENDIX F
FOLLOW-UP LETTER

132

O T S E G O PU B L IC S C H O O L S
313 W. ALLEGAN STREET
O TSEG O , MICHIGAN 49078
( 616 )

694-5131

August 25, 1989
Dear Colleague,
A few weeks ago you received a letter from me asking you
to participate in a dissertation research study.
Enclosed
was a questionnaire. The study compares the values of
superintendents and those who aspire to the super intendency
to determine what differences, if any, exist.
If you have already returned the survey, you can
disregard this reminder and thank you for the professional
courtesy you have extended me. If you have not yet returned
the survey, please take a few minutes to respond.
Your
opinions are very important to this study. Your
participation ensures that the published results actually
reflect the values that you think are important as
educational leaders.
I have included duplicate copies of the survey and a
stamped, return envelope for your convenience.
Furthermore, your prompt return saves me time and money.
Consequently, when you return the survey before September 10,
1989, I will gladly contribute one dollar ($1.00) to the
Arthritis Foundation - Southwestern Michigan branch on your
behalf.
Thanks in advance for your help in making this study a
successful one.
Sincerely

hn D. Kingsnorth
enc. Values Survey
Stamped, return envelope

Y our P u b lic S c h o o ls - An Investm ent In T h e F u tu re

APPENDIX G
PROFILES OF SUPERINTENDENT GROUPS’ VALUE SYSTEM RANKINGS

133

Composite Mean Rankings3 f o r P ra c tic in g Public and Nonpublic
School Superintendents (PRS)

Comp.
Rank

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Terminal Va lues

Family s e c u r i t y
S elf-respect
A s e n s e o f acc om pli shm ent
H app ine ss
Wisdom
I n n e r harmony
Freedom
Salvation
True f r i e n d s h i p
A w or ld a t pea c e
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
Mature l o v e
Equality
A com fortable l i f e
Social rec o g n itio n
A wo rld o f b e a u t y
National s e c u r i t y
Pleasure

Mean
Rank
4 .4 57 8
5.3289
5.41 78
7.524 4
7.6844
7.9244
8 .1 37 8
9.5867
9.7067
9.844 4
10.0089
10.0346
10.8267
11.2044
13.0044
13 .0578
13.3689
13.4311

I n s t r u m e n t a l V alu es
Honest
Responsible
Capable
Amb it iou s
Courageous
H el p f u l
Broad-minded
S elf-controlled
Intellectual
Lo gi ca l
Forgiving
Independent
Cheerful
Loving
Imaginative
Polite
Clean
O b e d ie n t

Composite rank order followed by mean rankings.

Mean
Rank

2.8133
5 . 08 89
6 . 25 33
7.34 67
8.0978
8 . 7 73 3
9.0311
9 . 16 00
9 . 89 78
9.9600
10 .5287
1 0. 71 56
10.7422
10.7867
11. 0000
11.3733
14. 3556
14. 9289

134

Composite Mean Rankings3 f o r P ra c tic in g Public
School Superintendents (PSS)

Comp.
Rank

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Terminal Values

Family s e c u r i t y
A s e n s e o f acco mp li shm ent
Self-respect
H ap p in es s
Freedom
Wisdom
I n n e r harmony
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
True f r i e n d s h i p
A w o r ld a t peac e
Mature l o v e
Salvation
A com fortable l i f e
Equality
Social r e c o g n itio n
Pleasure
National s e c u r i t y
A wo rld o f b e a u t y

Mean
Rank

4.178 6
5.25 00
5.3367
7.3827
7. 9898
8 . 01 02
8 . 30 10
9.316 3
9 .8 418
9. 94 39
10.2194
10.4286
10.5765
11.0153
13.0612
13.1786
13.2347
13.2551

I n s t r u m e n t a l Values

Honest
Responsible
Cap abl e
Amb it iou s
Courageous
Broad-minded
H e lp f u l
S elf-controlled
Log ic al
Intellectual
Cheerful
Independent
Imaginative
Forgiving
Loving
Polite
Clean
O b e d ie n t

Com posite rank order followed by mean rankings.

Mean
Rank

2. 790 8
5.0816
6.1122
6.775 5
8.2551
8.7908
8.9031
9.3980
10.0000
10.0510
10.5357
10.5408
10.9031
10.9133
11.1429
11.3827
14.1633
15.1378

135

Composite Mean Rankings3 f o r P ra c tic in g Nonpublic
School Superintendents (NSS)

Comp.
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Terminal Values
Salvation
Self-respect
I n n e r harmony
Wisdom
Family s e c u r i t y
A s e n s e o f acc omp lishm ent
H app ine ss
Mature lo v e
True f r i e n d s h i p
Freedom
A world a t peac e
Equality
A world o f b e a u t y
Social re c o g n itio n
National s e c u r i t y
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
Pleasure
A comfortable l i f e

Mean
Rank

3. 896 6
5.2759
5.3793
5.4828
6 . 344 8
6.5517
8 .4 82 8
8.7931
8.7931
9.137 9
9.172 4
9.5517
11.7241
12.6207
14.2759
14.6897
15.1379
15.4483

I n s t r u m e n t a l Va lues

Honest
Responsible
Courageous
Capable
S e lf -c o n tro l led
H el p f u l
Forgiving
Loving
Intellectual
Logical
Broad-minded
Am bit iou s
Polite
Imaginative
In d e p e n d e n t
Cheerful
O b e d ie n t
Clean

aComposite rank order followed by mean rankings.

Mean
Rank

2 .9 65 5
5 . 13 79
7 . 03 45
7 .2 06 9
7 . 55 17
7 . 89 66
7.9310
8 .3 79 3
8.8621
9 .6 89 7
10.6552
1 1. 206 9
11.3103
11.6552
11.8966
12 .1379
13.5172
15.6552

136

Composite Mean Rankings3 f o r A spiring Superintendents (AS)

Comp.
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Terminal Values

Family s e c u r i t y
Self-respect
A s e n s e o f acco mp li shm ent
H app ine ss
I n n e r harmony
Freedom
Wisdom
True f r i e n d s h i p
Mature l o v e
Equality
A wo rld a t peac e
A com fortable l i f e
Social re c o g n itio n
An e x c i t i n g l i f e
Salvation
Pleasure
A world o f b e a u t y
National s e c u r i t y

Mean
Rank
4 . 193 5
4 .7 20 4
6 . 451 6
7.2043
7. 784 9
7.8710
7.9462
8. 88 17
9.2581
10.4731
10.4839
11.3226
11.6344
11.6559
12.0215
12.5806
12.7849
13 .6989

I n s t r u m e n t a l V alu es
Honest
Responsible
Cap abl e
Am b it io us
Broad-minded
Intellectual
Courageous
Independent
Loving
H e lp f u l
Log ic al
S e lf -c o n tr o l led
Forgiving
Imaginative
Cheerful
Polite
Clean
O b e d ie n t

Com posite rank order followed by mean rankings.

Mean
Rank
4 .2 0 43
5 . 2 25 8
6.1075
7 .0 75 3
8.0860
8.3548
9.1828
9 .2 04 3
9. 333 3
9.5161
9 .7 74 2
10 .2 68 8
10. 3763
10. 6344
11 .0 86 0
11 .9 35 5
14 .1 82 8
15. 9247

APPENDIX H

THE FORMULA, CALCULATION, AND RATIONALE USED IN
DETERMINING APPROPRIATE SAMPLE SIZE

137

To determine ap p ro p riate sample s iz e ,

the fo llo w in g

equation

was used (Hansen, H u rw itz, & Madow, 1953, p. 127):

Sample s i z e n =

where

|,2j|jw2
— ^ —~7
ND + k V

9-

k= 3
N = 579
V = .7
D = .1

1.

Using k = 3 e n s u r e s t h a t 99% o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s i n c l u d e d

(Chebycheff’ s theorem).
2.

N = t h e number o f members in t h e p o p u l a t i o n , i . e . ,

3.
since

V= t h e r e l - v a r i a n c e .
the

population

As m a l l e r

was homogeneous.

V could

However,

have

579.
been

.7 a l lo w e d

used
for

g r e a t e r sample s i z e and g r e a t e r p r e c i s i o n .
4.

The r e l a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e e s t i m a t e d mean from a

sample and t h e t r u e mean w i l l be no g r e a t e r th a n D, i . e . ,
4.

When c a l c u l a t e d ,

n = 250,

which

represented

p o p u l a t i o n ; hence 43% was used f o r bo th PSS and NSS.
NSS were i n c l u d e d .

.1 o r 10%.
43% o f

All members o f

the

APPENDIX I

PERMISSION LETTER FROM UCRIHS

138

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY COMMITTEE O N RESEARCH INVOLVING

EA ST L A N SIN G

•

M IC H IG A N

•

4 8 8 2 4 -1 1 1 1

HUM AN SUBJECTS (UCRIHS)
2 0 6 BERK EY HALL
(5 1 7 ) 3 5 3 -9 7 3 8

June 27,1989

IRB# 89-314

John Kingsnorth
1682 Oak Street
Otsego, MI 49078
Dear Mr. Kingsnorth:
Re:

"A STUDY OF THE VALUE SYSTEMS OF SUPERINTENDENTS AND
ASPIRING SUPERINTENDENTS IN MICHIGAN IRB# 89-314"

The above project is exempt from full UCRIHS review. I have reviewed the proposed
research protocol and find that the rights and welfare of human subjects appear to be
protected. You have approval to conduct the research.
You are reminded that UCRIHS approval is valid for one calendar year. If you plan to
continue this project beyond one year, please make provisions for obtaining appropriate
UCRIHS approval one month pnor to June 27,1990.
Any changes in procedures involving human subjects must be reviewed by the UCRIHS
prior to initiation of the change. UCRIHS must also be notified promptly of any
problems (unexpected side effects, complaints, etc.) involving human subjects during the
course of the work.
Thank you for bringing this project to our attention. If we can be of any future help,
please do not hesitate to let us know.
Sincerj

John K. Hudzik, Ph.D,
Chair, UCRIHS
JKH /sar
cc: J. Suehr

MSU is an A ffirm ative Action/Equal Opportunity institution

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Adams, A. "A C o m pa ra ti v e Stu dy o f V alu es Among C h r i s t i a n School
P a r e n t s , C h r i s t i a n School T e a c h e r s , and P u b l i c School T e a c h ­
ers."
Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , G e o r g i a S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , 1983.
A l l p o r t , G. W. P a t t e r n o f Growth in P e r s o n a l i t y .
R i n e h a r t , and Win sto n, 1961.
All p o r t , G. W., and Vernon, P. E.
H o u g h t o n - M i f f l i n , 1931.

New York:

A Study o f V a l u e s .

All p o r t , G. W.; Vernon, P. E . ; and Li n d z e y , G.
B os to n: H o u g h t o n - M i f f l i n , 1960.

H olt,

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A Stu dy o f V a l u e s .

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2 7 2- 7 9.
Andrews, K. R. E t h i c s i n P r a c t i c e : Managing t h e Moral C o r p o r a t i o n .
B o s to n , M a s s . : H ar v ar d B u s i n e s s School P r e s s , 1989.
A p l i n , N. D. "The Va lues G uiding t h e P r a c t i c e s o f a Suburban S u p e r ­
i n t e n d e n t : A Case S t u d y . " Ph.D. d i s s e r t a t i o n , U n i v e r s i t y o f
C i n c i n n a t i , 1983.
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P la n n i n g and Changing ( W in t e r 19 8 4) :
1 95 -2 08.
_________ . " A d m i n i s t r a t i v e V alues and A d m i n i s t r a t i v e A c t i o n :
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S tud y o f School S u p e r i n t e n d e n t s . "
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