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Order N um ber 9208831

A critical analysis o f M ichigan’s bilingual education program
p olicy and its im plem entation
Pena, Laurencio, Ph.D.
Michigan State University, 1991

UMI

300 N. Zeeb Rd.
Ann Arbor, MI 48106

A CR I T I C A L AN AL YS IS OF MI CH IG AN 'S BI LI NG UA L ED UC AT IO N
P R O G R A M PO L I C Y AND ITS IM PL EM E N T A T I O N

By

L a u r e n c i o Pena

A DISSERTATION

Submi tt ed to
M i c h i g a n State U n i v e r s i t y
in partial fu l f i l lm en t of the req uir em en ts
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DOC TO R OF P H I L OS OP HY

D e p a r tm e nt

of Teacher

1991

Ed u c a ti on

AB ST RAC T

A CR ITICAL AN ALYSIS OF M IC HI GA N' S BILIN GUA L ED UC ATI ON
PROGR AM POL IC Y AND ITS IMP LE MEN TA TIO N
By
Laure nci o Pena

This

is a study of bilingual

the state of Michigan,
in its planning,

educa tio n pr o g r a m policy

in

ba se d on 11 years of direct involvement

implementation,

and evaluation.

It

provides

a per sp ec ti ve of the behav io ra l and inter pr eti ve processes
the actions and actors inv ol ved in bi lingual educ at ion
fo rmu lat ion and implementation.

In this analytical

the study focuses on the educa tio n of Chicanes,
to w hi ch bilingual

education,

address their educational
social contex t wh ic h has
This

study will

segmented

bilingual

purposes
Michigan?

ed uc ati on

of udciressmg
This

criteria,

serves

a h i s t o r i ca ll y

to

based

language m i n o r i t i e s .

It puses

has

not

the question,
attained

the 6*dwcational needs*

que sti on will

policy formulation,

process,

show an "assimilation" m e n t al it y at

against Mi chi gan 's C h i c a n o s .
that

policy

and the degree

as an equity program,

needs w i t h i n

of

be addressed

its

work

Why is it
intended

of Cbrcanos
in

terms of

in
its

its i m p l e m e n t a t i o n ,its fu nd in g/ eligibility

and its mo ni t o r i n g at the state and local

levels.

The co nclusion drawn

from this study

is that

bilingual

ed uc at io n p ro gr am p o l i c y in the

state of M i c h i g a n has

short of

that

its intended

mission;

c on fo rm is t ethic in A me ri ca n culture,
political

telltale

oppoi'tunity.
educatio nal

Wh a t is

intent

th ere by rend eri ng
when

it

in

of
it

the

bilingual

or,

for

in

equal

the

educational

this analysis
ed uc at io n

as an ineffect ive
in the

challenged

and th a t it has become a

struggle

ev ide nt in

becomes ent an gl ed

A me ri ca n society

it has

fallen

is h o w

is

compromised,

p r o g r a m for

sociopoli tic al

this study's

case,

the

Chicanos

context

of

state

of

e d u ca ti on

is

the

Mi c h i g a n and the city of Fennville.
The

implication

of

the

study

is

that

pr im ar il y a political process rather than the neutral
tion of pro fessional

criteria to M i c h i c a n o s .

applica'

Copyright by
LAU RE NC IO PENA
1991

The h is to ry of A m e r i c an educ at ion
by attempts

is marked

to g r ap pl e with our polyglot heritage.
D. Wolsk
UNESCO, 1974

v

T ABL E OF CONTENTS

I ntr oduct i o n ........................................................1
Or gan iza tio n of the S t u d y .................................. 4
State men t of the P r o b l e m ................................... 6
Limi ta ti ons of This S t u d y ................................. 11
M e t h o d o l o g y ..................................................12

Chapter

I:

Hi storical O v e r v i e w of La ng uag e Minorities
and E d u c a t i o n ....................................... 14

Immigrant E x p er ie n ce in Early E d u c a t i o n ................ 15
Systemic R e st ri cti on s Against I m m i g r a n t s ............... 18
The "New" I m m i g r a n t ........................................ 22
Educati ona l Neglect of H i s p a n i c s ........................ 26

Chapter

II:

Bilingual E d uc at ion as a Means of
A dd re ssi ng the Needs of C h i c a n o s ............... 31

Bilingual Ed u c at io n for M i c h i c a n o s ...................... 32
The Bilingual E d u c a t i on C o n t r o v e r s y ..................... 35
Bilingual Ed u c at io n R e s e a r c h ............................. 38
S uimiiar y ............................................ ......... 4 5

Chapter

III:

The F o r m u l a t i o n of Bilingual Ed ucation
P ro gra m P o l i c y ................................... 51

Chicanos in M i c h i g a n ....................................... 52
Bilingual E d u ca tio n P r o g r a m Pol ic y for M i c h i c a n o s .... 55
A Com pro mis ed La ngu a g e P o l i c y ............................ 58
The Symbolic Meanin g of Bilingual E d u c a t i o n ........... 62
The Im pl eme nta ti on Failure of Bilingual E d u c a t i o n ....64
Chicano Impact in Pol ic y F o r m u l a t i o n ....................67
S u m m a r y ...................................................... 71

vi

Chapter

IV:

A Critical Analysis of Three Dimensions of
Michigan's Bilingual Edu ca tio n Programs...

I m p l e m e n t a t i o n .............................................. 7 7
The Intervention of a P r o p o n e n t ..........................79
House Concurrent Re sol ut ion 487 ......................... 80
The Failure of the Implement ati on P r o c e s s ..............83
Summa ry of I m p l e m e n t a t i o n ................................. 87
El igibi 1 i t y / F u n d i n g ........................................ 89
Ar b it ra r y Eligibility. P r o c e d u r e s ........................ 91
Bilingual Educ ati on F u n d i n g .............................. 93
Monitoring and E val ua ti on O u t c o m e s ...................... 97
Monito ri ng O u t c o m e s ........................................ 97
Evaluation O u t c o m e s ....................................... 103
Summary of M on it or ing and Evalua ti on O u t c o m e s ........114

Chapter V:

A Co mm un ity-Level Per sp ect iv e of Bilingual
Edu cation P o l i c y Implementation:
The Fe nnville C a s e ................................117

The S e t t i n g ................................................ 118
The S u b j e c t s ............................................... 119
Grouping for Bilingual E d u c a t i o n ....................... 120
Lack of Bilingual P e r s o n n e l ............................. 123
An "Assimilation" Me n t a li ty at W o r k ....................127
S u m m a r y ..................................................... 133

Chapter VI:

Summary and R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s .................... 135

S u m m a r y ..................................................... 137
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s ............................................144

Append ices
Appendix A:
Appendix B:
Appendix C:

The Tanton M e m o .............................151
Detroit Task Force P r o p o s a l .............. 158
Teacher and Parent S u r v e y s ................172

Bibl i o g r a p h y ..................................................... 193

vi i

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1:

Oral-Aural La ng u a g e Exper ie nce C o n t i n u u m ............47

viil

LI S T OF FIGURES

Figure

1:

Michigan Math Test,

Figure

2.

Michigan Reading,

Figure

3:

Mi chigan Math Test,

Figure

4:

Michigan Re a d i n g Test,

Figure

5:

Michigan Math Test,

Figure 6:

Grade

Grade

Grade

1985-86 ........... 108

19 8 6 ................. 109
7,

Grade

Grade

Mi chigan Re ad in g Test,

ix

4,

4,

10,

Grade

1985-86 ........... 110
7,

1 9 8 5 - 8 6 ........Ill

1985-86 ......... 112
10,

1986 ......... 113

INTRO DU CT IO N

Chi ca nos
groups.

are

They

one

are

a

of

M ic hig an 's

minority

of

75

d i ff er ent

Mexican

language

a nc es tr y

with

a

cultural and linguistic trad it io n d i f f e r e n t from the do mi na nt
society.

Hi st orically,

Chicanos

und e r a c h i e v e d in their schooling.
voice

or

pe rs u a si ve

in fluence

have

disproportionately

Th e y have had no meani ng ful

in

the

de c is io ns

that

affect

their co n di ti o n in Michigan, and they have been o v e r r e p r e s e n t ­
ed in the state's pri son system.
Can bi lingual ed u c at i o n improve the social conditi ons of
Ch icanos?

Some

education,
because,
state

argue

that

placing

too

much

in particular bilingual education,

de spi te

funding,

20 years

there

of federal

exists

little

emphasis

is unrealistic,

funding and 15 years

c o nv i n c i n g

on

evidence

of

that

bilingual educat io n has facilitat ed the Ch ic ano 's educational,
economic,

and

social

integra ti on

into

mainstream

society.

Mo ni to ri ng of programs over the past several years does reveal
that the state's bi lingual
"mission"

that

was

programs are

e n vi si on ed

for

falling short of the

them.

bilingual education remains a major issue

Nevertheless,

in the st ruggle for

an equal educational o p p o r t u n i t y for Chicanos.

What is clear

is that the success or failure of bilingual ed ucation may come

1

2
to d e t er mi ne
styles

whether

dif fe r

from

other

cultures,

those

of

the

whose

values

mainstream

and

belief

li f e ­
syste m

r eg ard ing culture and language, will be fully integrated

into

Am er i c an society.
In

the

American,

following

Chicano,

changeably

as

chapters,

Michica no,

their

the
and

terms
La

educatio nal

Hispanic,

Raza

neglect

evi denced to all spe akers of Spanish.

are
is

Mexican

used

i nt er ­

historically

Several terms, however,

are used synonymously.

These are Michicano, Chicano, La Raza,

and

these

Me xic an

ancestry.

American;

refer

to

Amer ica ns

At the in ception of this study,

of

Mexican

it is n e c e s sa ry to

provide a point of c l a r i f i c a t i o n r e g ar di ng the te r m Chica no in
rel ation to the te r m Hispanic.
Chi can os
stu dy

cites

are su bsu me d
references

under

on

the

rubric

Hi spanic

Hispanic.

e d uc at ion

This

because

the

m aj o r i t y of p ro fes si ona l re se a r c h on the educational a c h i e v e ­
ment
under

of

Chicanos,

the

heading

especially

prior

"H is panic."

to

This

the

1960s,

follows

is

the

found

example

est abl ish ed b y the U.S. Cens us Bureau which d es ign at es Mexic an
Ameri can s

as part of the

Hispa nic s

in

Am erican co unt ry
Domingo),

one

the

"Spanish origin"
Uni te d

(Mexico),

U.S.

island

Central Am erican c ou ntr ies
Nicaragua, Costa Rica,
(Venezuela,

Colombia,

Uruguay, Argentina,

two

States

population.

repre sen t

island repub lic s

po sse ssi on

one

(Cuba,

(Puerto

Rico),

North
Santo
six

(Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador,

Panama), nine South Am er ic an countries
Ecuador,

Chile),

Bolivia,

Peru,

Paraguay,

one Eur op ea n c o u n t r y (Spain), and

3
the Me xic an American p op u la ti on in the following four regional
concentr at io ns other than the So uthwest borderline: the upper
Midwest,

the

Mountain

South (McKee,

1985).

West,

the

Pacific

Northwest,

and

the

M e x i c a n Am er ica ns com pr is e the dom inant

Hispanic groups with 63%, followed by Puerto Ricans and Cubans
(Study charts Hispanics' acquisition, 1988).
any general

data

on His pan ic

educational

For this reason,

a c hi eve men t

in the

United States applies more to Chicanos than any other S p a n i s h ­
speaking group.
F r o m a so ci ocultura l perspective,

the t e r m Chicano

is a

self -re fe re nt de si g na ti o n to which is at tri but ed cul tural and
linguistic pride,
di ss e m i n a t e d

identity, and solidarity.

during

the

de c ad e

of

the

It became w i d e l y

1960s

and

has

gained

co nsi der abl e accep ta nc e in recent years among the educational
community.
chosen

The reason in part stems from the fact it has been

by members

following
different

of

the g ro up

linguistic
the or y to

itself.

d er iv a t i o n

its

is

derivation.

Et ymologically,

offered

to

the

provide

The te r m Chicano

a

is an

apocope of the Spanish word "mexicano" with the first syllable
being elided.

The result

et ym ol o g i ca ll y

inherited

archaic
trate,

Spanish
the

pronounced

or

Latin

the

Latin
word

[pache].

"Xicano" where the

pr on u n c i a t i o n

(Lopez

"pax,"

The

with ties to the state

is the word

Estrada,

which

of Michigan.

or

1966).

means

t e r m Mi c hi ca no

[z]

peace,

refers

"ch"
To

"X"
from

il lu s­

would

be

to a Chicano

4
O r g a ni za t io n

of the Study

This study consists

of six chapters

intended to provide

an an alysis of bi lingual education, an equi ty pr og ra m des igned
to al leviate
Chapter

the ed uca ti onal

I provides

m ino rit ies
States.

and
The

a

un d er ac hi ev em en t

hi storical

their

ov e r v i e w

educational

purpose

is

to

of

early

ex per ien ce

sho w

how

of Michicanos.

in

language

the

sc ho oli ng

United

for

early

immigrants served to mai nt ai n the status quo, and also to show
how this

particular

down to today's

spirit

of

edu cation

institutions where

e v e n tu al ly

it is still

filtered

prevalent.

The ea rly Ame ri ca n educatio nal ex per ien ce encountered by
immigrating

language

m ino rit ies

prefaces

bilingual education in the 1980s.

the

di sc us si on

of

It attemp ts to de m on st ra te

the importance of taking into con si de ra ti on the social context
in which bilingual

ed uc at ion

is being

implemented

for u n d e r ­

st anding its failure as an equity pr og r a m for Michicanos.
general,
which

existed during

language
and

its

first

this chapter di sc us se s

minorities;
social

half

translated
and

the midit

of

the

20th

minor it ie s

and

were

late

19th

why the

consumed

c e ntu ry

into re pre s si on

cultural

the xen op ho bi a and attitudes

also covers

refor mer s

In

with

fear

public

du r i n g

the

attitudes

for Chicanos and other

linguistic

a

how

Am erican

against

these

on

and

centu ry

national

scale.

By

citing

different legislation passed to su bjugate language minorities,
this

chapter

affected
Finally,

shows

how

po li cy -m aki ng
the chapter

attitudes
towards

of

more

dem ons tr at es

how

the

domina nt

s o ci et y

po werless

minorities.

this

equation

same

of

5
attitudes

and

power

m i no ri ti es going

is

still

into the

trying

to

repress

language

21st century.

Chapter II reviews the literature on bilin gua l education,
since

it

is

educational
tension

a

major

dilemma.

between

achie ve me nt

attempt

to

Inherent

in

r e c ti f y i n g

the

all ev ia te

the

bilingual

Chic an o' s

Chicano's

ed ucation
low

Therefore,

co nt i n u a l l y

sc ru ti niz ed

tives.

and

Pro

con

by

bilingual

two

somewhat

inv estigations

a

educational

and the p r e v a l e nc e of an "assimilation"

in de ci s i o n making.

is

attitude

ed ucation has been
conflicting

r e ga rd ing

objec­

its ad vantages

and d i s a d van ta ges have been re searched from various points of
view,

re su lt ing
Chapter

develop ed

in e xt en si ve

II

in

is

the

differe nt segments

intended
United

dis cu ss io n

dilemma

which

education
sound

in

States,

this

how

how

bilingualism

it

is

has

perceived

its pros and cons,

pra cti ce

this

sh o w

by

and why it

for u n d e r a c h i e vi ng Chicanos.

chapter

results

d i s s er ta ti on

in

a

ad dre sse s-- it

fundamental
bilingual

is intended to meet the needs of Chi canos and it is

pedagogy,

question

to

of society,

is a sound pedagogical
The

literature on the matter.

is

why

hasn't

addressed

in

it worked
terms

of

for
the

Mi ch ica nos ?
policy

This

formulation

process ( Chapter III); the statewide implementation, m o n i t o r ­
ing,
and

and det er mi na ti on
the

link

the local

between

program

and

IV);

practice

at
the

st udy generates a polit ica l theory of educational policy.

It

a

(Chapter V).

implement ati on

(Chapter

In answe rin g the question,

presents

level

of e l ig ib il it y cri te ri a

political

view

of

schoo lin g

for

Michicanos

and

links ed ucation at the state and local levels to the political
process.
Throughout,
political
and

we

will

see

how,

when

context of A m e r ic an society,

Fennville,

the

intent

of

bilingual

put

into

the

socio­

s p e c i f i c a l l y Michigan
e d u ca ti on

is c o m p r o ­

mised, resu lt in g in an ineffective p r o g r a m for Chicanos.
intent is co m p r o m i s e d in pol ic y formulation,
tation, and educational practice.

This

po l i c y i m p l e m e n ­

That is, the "a ssimilation"

me n t a l i t y and the st r a t i f i c a t i o n of language minorities, which
renders Ch icanos powerless,

also renders the p r og r a m m e a n i n g ­

less in terms of ad dr e s s i n g the educational needs of Chicanos.

State me nt of P r o b l e m
Re se a r c h li terature on the e d u ca ti on of language, m i n o r i ­
ties seems
sion

to support

on Ex ce l l e n c e

"schools

have

lost

the A Nation at Risk

in Education,
sight

of

the

1983,

p.

Mc Dermott & Aron,

19 78;

Trueba,

Herein

1 9 88 ).

Mehan,
lies

1)

purpose

particular where m i n o r i t i e s are concerned

(National C o m m i s ­

of

sta te me nt

that

sc ho oling,"

in

(Au f, J o r d a n .

1981;

1982;

Simich & McCreedy,

1987;

part

of

the

problem

for

the

Ch icano's educational d i l e m m a - - s c h o o l s have been unsuc ce ss fu l
where language m in or it ie s are co ncerned becau se they have not
altered

significantly

student

and

1 986).

between

the

school

re la ti o n s h i p
and

b e tw ee n

educator

minority community

and

(Cummins,

Moreover, schools have refused to ac c e p t any r e s p o n s i ­

bi l i t y for their edu ca ti on failure and have at t e m p t e d to blame

the

linguistic

ability

ground as a whole

of

Chicanos

(McDermott

or

their

& Gospodinoff,

cultural

back­

1981).

The single gr eatest p r o b l e m facing the Hispanic c o m m u n i t y
is u n d e r e d u c a t i o n .

The N e w

1988),

His pa nic

repo rt in g

on

York

Times

growth,

(Hispanic

quoted

gro wt h up,

the U.S.

Census

Bu reau's finding that 51% of Hispanic Am er ica ns have co mpleted
high

school,

as

a g ai nst

78%

of

the

rest

of

the

On l y 10% have com pl et ed four years of college,

population.

as against 21%

for n o n -H is pa ni c Americans.
Agen da
half

of

school

(1988)

Hispanic

c o r r o b o r a t es

adults

graduates,

25

co mp a r ed

these

years
to

of

findings:
age

three

and

only

over

qu arters

of

about

are

Whites

high
and

more than three fifths of Blacks; only one in 12 Hi spanics is
a college graduate,
Whites.

co mpa re d to one in 9 Blacks,

and one in 5

The Mi ch ig an De pa rt men t of Ed uc ati on Hi spanic Dropout

Stu dy (Flores,

1986)

reported a 47% dropo ut rate of Hispanics

in Mi ch i g a n schools.

The chall eng e is to struc tur e e d u c a t i o n ­

al

re fo r m

so

as

to

promo te

both

equ it y

and

excel le nc e

for

language minorities.
Educators

have

known

for

ma n y

years

that

language

m i n o r i t y childr en have had d i f f i c u l t y s u c c e e d i n g a c a d e m i c a l l y
in Americ an schools.
Ed u ca ti on

and

Caste

For example,
(1978),

achi ev em en t of Indians,

Ogbu,

provides

in his book M i n o r i t v

data

for

co mparing

the

M e x i c an Americans,

and Puerto Ricans

in such vital subjects as reading and math.

These groups are

behind
s ix th

A n g l o - A m e r i c a ns
grade,

and

the

by
gap

more

than

betwe en

one

th e m

grade

widens

level

at

the

in s ub se qu en t

8
years.
1920s

Ogbu
show

further states:

that

Mexican

than A n g l o - A m e r i c a n s
for

Mexican

school s

not

A m e ri ca ns

on

score

IQ tests"

Americans'

are

"various s tu di es since the ea rly

dilemma,

organized

to

(p.

substantially

218).

according
train

lower

The root causes
to Ogbu,

ca st e - l i k e

are

that

min or it ie s

(powerless la nguage and ethnic groups) to a ch iev e equal social
and

occupational

Gross

status

m e c h an is ms ,

little

staff,

Chicano

like

are

education

with m e mb er s
p o o r ly -f un de d

deliberately

of

the

do mi n a n t

bi li ng ua l

employ ed

by

caste.

pro gra ms

schoo ls

to

and
keep

inferior.

In Mi chigan, s t a t e w i d e st at i s t i c s r e g a r d i n g dro p o u t s and
a c h i e v e m e n t c e r t a i n l y ar e indica ti ve of such.

School s t a t i s ­

tics on C h i c a n o s run p a r a l l e l to national norms.

The M i c h i g a n

Department

incidence

dropouts

of E d u c a t i o n

has been m o n i t o r i n g the

in grades 9 to 12 in the state 's public school s since

the 1962- 63 school year.

What becomes evident

is that the d r op ou t rate among minorit ie s,
ics,

is

of

significantly

h igher

than

for

from this data

especially Hispan­

the

overall

stude nt

population.
In effect, since 1976-77, when the M i c h i g a n Dep ar tm en t of
Education

began

Hi s p a n i c s

have

racial/ethnic
had

a

me a n

grades 9-12;

collecting
shown

groups

dropo ut

the

dropo ut
highest

identified.
rate

of

da t a

by

dropout
From

11.64%

at

race/ et hn ic it y,
rate

of

1976-1980,
each

grade

all

the

Hisp an ics
level

in

whereas the rate for Whites was 5.60%, and 6.42%

for the ent ir e stude nt pop ul ation.
at each of the

four g r a de

levels,

A s s u m i n g a co nstant factor
those

rates tr an sl at e

into

9
a combined

total d r op ou t rate of 46.56%,

respectively.
who

might

Because the da t a used do not

have

percen ta ge

22.40%,

d ro pp ed

out

before

ninth

and

25.68%,

include students

grade,

the

actual

of Hispan ic dr op out s could be c o ns i d e r a b l y higher

than the estimated

47.0%

The cl earest indication of the de fi ci e n c i e s of the school
s y s t e m in Mi ch ig an is refl ec te d in the educatio nal outcomes of
Hispanic students.
Statewide, 56% of the His panic students,
in the
fall of 1983, achiev ed m i n i m u m a cc ep ta bl e levels of
performa nc e (75% or more of the objectives) in the
Mi chigan
E du ca ti ona l
Asses sm ent
Program
(MEAP)
reading tests for grades 4, 7, 10, compared to 79%
of all the students (including Hispanics) in the
state, or a gap of 23 percen ta ge points.
Among the
6 high schools that pa rt ic i p a t e d
in the study,
acceptable m i n i m u m readi ng pe r f o r m a nc e in the 10th
grade, on the average, was 73% for all students and
63% for Hispanics.
(Flores, 1986, p. 5).
As this

indicates,

Michigan

tends

co ns id er abl e
where

a

to

the
be

level

low.

d is ad v an ta g e

premium

is

placed

of

sc ho oli ng

Thus,

they

in

the

on

formal

among Chi canos

find

larger

themselves

Americ an

scho ol in g

and

in

at

a

society,
academic

achievement.
Why

is

literac y?
read?

it

Wh y do

What

educational

Ch icanos

they

lag

experience

in

the

ac qu isi tio n

di ff ic u lt ie s

learning

of
to

is the reason for their high d r opo ut rate and low
achievement?

Explain in g
Michigan,

that

as

an

Chicano

educational

outcome

of

sy ste mat ic

un de rac hi eve me nt

in

d i s c r i m i n at io n

and

Chicano p o w er le ss nes s to hold the s y s t e m acc ou nta bl e to meet
the

needs

of

their

children,

is

the

focus

of

this

study.

10
Bilingual

ed ucation was enacted to alle vi ate

un d e r a c h ie ve m e nt
therefore,

of

Chi canos

to under st an d

in

the

the educational

state

the mis edu ca ti on

of

Michigan;

of Chicanos

is to

tell the st or y of the failure of bilingual educ at io n to serve
the ch il d r e n and the c o m m u n i t y it was
If

bilingual

educational
working?

intended

e d u ca ti on

is

a

un d e r a c h i ev em en t

of

Michicanos,

Bilingual

means

framework

that
to

is, an

treat

setting,

of

a

the

why

not

traditi on al

linguistic

and

mode

cultural

e d u c a ti on

is

it

the status

of

Am er i c a n

education,

As a p r o g r a m intended

diversity

challenges

the

in

the

school

"assimilation"

concept of early Am er i c a n ed ucation whose sole purpose
c o m p l e t e l y r e s o ci al iz e

of

it is ope ra ti ng within

"assimilation" mentality.

bilingual

r ec tif yi ng

e d u ca ti on has not achieved

an equ it y p r o g r a m in Mi ch i g a n because
the

of

to benefit.

is to

language m in or it ie s without regard

to

individual needs.
The ina bi li ty of the Chicano c o m m u n i t y to unders ta nd the
power re lations at play in the process
bilingual
ical

education and to pe rceive

paradigm

inherent

existing

power relations
bilingual
the

fact

bilingual

hinders

i n st it ut io na li zi ng

it wit hi n a s o c io hi st or -

implementation.

segmentation

created

by

Moreover,
those

the

hi storical

further c o m p li ca te s any efforts to establish

education
that

its

of

the

education

as a viable
fo llowing

equ it y program,

chapter

clearly

is a sound concept.

in spite

indicates

of

that

11
L im it ati on s

of This Study

In pr ese nt i ng a poli ti ca l

theory of educational policy,

this st udy has three limitations that should be noted.

First,

the focus is only on bil ingual education p o l i c y as one aspect
of a set
This

of

policies

s t u dy

that affect

recogn iz es

that

equal

other

factors

educational op por tun it ies

for Chicanos.

explain

which

all

the

factors

underachievement,

but

rather

political dynamics are
Second,
city

of

the

impact

on

to create

at work

against

Given

No

that

other

impact

their

on

equal

educational

a sc enario

where

the

language policy.

school

app ro xi ma te ly

to education.

The intent is not to

im pl eme nt at ion dy namics

Fennville.

analyzed.

access

are

limited

districts

25%

of

the

to

have

the
been

students

in

Fe nn vil le are Chicanos, and given that this stu dy considers it
a m i c r o c o s m of a s t a te wi de
becomes entangled
confiden t

system where

bilingual

in a soci opo lit ica l process,

that the

education

this st ud y is

impl eme nta tio n process can be generalized

to most programs in the state and that the findings are those
educational

experiences

Finally,

this

p a r t i c ip at or y
reports,

of most Michicanos.

study

is

interpretation.

limited
It

to

is based

one

individual's

largely on ye ar l y

other primar y and s e c on da ry documents,

and in n u m e r a ­

ble technical as s is ta nc e/ m o ni to ri ng visits to school districts
statewide.
statewide
statistics

The

study's

de sc ri pti ve

critical

statistics;

can be assumed.

analysis
therefore,

is

not

no

based

on

inferential

12
Me th o d o l o g y
This s t u d y is an attem pt to treat the issue of bilingual
ed ucation

program

policy

im plementation

in

Mic hi ga n as an equ it y p r o g r a m for Chicanos.
it

focuses

on

the

ed uc at io n

of

Chicanos,

the

state

of

In the process,

and

the degr ee

to

which bili ng ua l e du ca tio n serves to address their educational
plight

wit hin

resulted

a historically-based

social

context

which

in the s t r a t i f i c a t i o n of language minorities.

an attempt

to d i s e n t a n g le bilingual

has

It is

edu ca tio n p r og ra m polic y

by p r o vi di ng a p a r t i c i p a t o r y per spe cti ve of the behavioral and
in te rpretive processes
bilingual

edu ca ti on

of the actions and actors

policy

formulation

This p a r t i c i p a t o r y p e r s p e c t i v e

and

involved

in

implementation.

is based on 11 years of direct

involvement in the planning, implementation, and ev aluation of
bilingual

e d u ca tio n

in the state

This s tu dy is hi st o r i c a l
records

and

information

were

of Michigan.

in nature.
co llected

Exi sti ng historical
from

state

agencies

which were easily a c c es si bx e Lu the writer, as a state e m p l o y ­
ee.

These records were co mb ine d with personal

experiences

upon

examination

and

analysis

to

int er pr et at io n and u n d e r s ta nd in g of bilingual

pa rt i c i p a t o ry
formulate

an

pr ogr am im pl e­

ment at io n .
The

participatory

policy im plementation
reports written,
to

local

reports

the

school
d e v el op ed

int er pr et at io n

of

bilingual

progr am

is large ly based on the numerous yea rl y
innumerable

districts,
since

the

and

technical

assist an ce visits

mo ni to ri ng

early

and

inception

of

compliance
bilingual

13
education.
events

whi ch

In

their

totality,

c om pl eme nt

the

coll ec te d for analysis.
legislation,

th e y

pr im ar y

provide
and

a

su m m a ry

of

s e c on da ry doc uments

P r i m a r y docu men ts include: statutes,

legisla ti ve

analysis

memoranda,

hearing

tran­

scripts, co m m i t t ee reports, research reports, correspondence,
minutes

of

co mmittee

meetings,

and

ne wspaper

articles.

Se c o n d a r y d o c um en ts consis t of: newspaper reports from dailies
across the state,
org an iz a t i o n a l
ries.

information bulletins

groups,

scholarly

from legislative and

articles,

and

prior

histo­

CHAPTER

I

HISTOR IC AL O V E R V I E W OF LA NG UAG E
M I N O R I TI ES AND E D UC AT ION

Th roughout

its

history,

the

United

States

has

had

oppressed minor iti es who were di s cr im in at ed against because of
language,
grants
1985).
customs;

in

culture,

and,

at

America

have

been

Each

wave

brought

times,

religion.

c hr on ic le d

with

Waves

since

them their

own

of

1607

immi ­

(McKee,

language

and

each presented a n ew challenge to the de ve lop men t of

a national

social

identity.

To con sider

language minorities

in the ba ckd ro p of a d e v e l o p i n g A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y is to learn
somet hin g important about our country, that is, that newcomers
to Americ a were not as welcomed as pu rported by the

inscrip­

tion on the Statue of Liberty:
Give me your tired, your poor,
Your huddl ed masses ye ar ni ng
to breathe free
The wretche d refuse of your
teemin g shore.
Send these, the homeless, tem pesttost to me,
I lift my lamp beside the golden door!
Emma Lazarus, 1903
It is also to learn that sc ho oli ng for immigrants was not the
noble cause that most Am er ica ns perceiv e it to be today,

that

it had advers e effects on language m i n o r i t y students, and that
it

played

a

r el at iv el y

insignificant

14

role

in

their

lives

15
before 1920 (Castell, Luke,

& MacLennan,

1986); and that early

Am erican educational institutions were u n wi ll ing to deal with
cultural d i v e r s i t y as an asset because
threat to the formation of a national

it was pe rceived as a

id entity and a national

society.

Immigrant Exp er ie n ce
Since

the

organized,

in E a r l y Ed uc ati on

1830s

and

1840s,

when

America has had to concern

tion of immigrants.
ning of the 20th,

publi c

educa tio n

was

itself with the e d u c a ­

F r o m the mid -19th ce n t u r y to the b e g i n ­

in creasing numbers of

Italy,

central

Europe

Russia

(Glazer

&

(Czechs,

Moynihan,

immigrants came

Slovaks,

1964).

from

Hungarians),

Unlike

earlier

and

white,

Anglo-Saxon, protes tan t settlers, these new groups were viewed
as a threat to what was considered,
tional Am er i ca n life style.
rural

areas

and

spoke

at that time,

These later

unfamiliar

the t r a d i ­

immigrants came from

languages;

moreover,

they

were from other than pr ote s t an t religious backgrounds, and had
di fferent
latter

values

(N e w Voices.

19th ce n t u r y worri ed

1988).

about

N e w Englan de rs

the

influx

of

of the

immigrants.

T hey saw
Catholic immigrants as unwashed,
ignorant,
illmannered, and even criminal . . . These strangers
were unaware of the ideas and beliefs essential to
good conduct in politi cs and social life (Cohen,
1984, pp. 254).
The
1880,

second wave

represented

a

of

immigrants,

major

turning

Ame ri ca n immigration because,

or those
point

in

arriving
the

after

hi s t o r y

of

in terms of language, religion,

16
and

customs,

Am er i c a n
between

these

values

n ew

than

1830-1880.

immigrants

those

The

of

were

the

second wave

even

first
of

more

wave

alien

who

immigrants

to

arrived

aroused

a

n a t i v i s m w hi ch had been un pr ec ede nte d at that time because of
their dev el o pm en t of ethnic enclaves, adher enc e to their li fe ­
styles,

and

mai nt en an ce

religion.

This

different

native Americans'
tion di re ct ed
culture,
1975).

de

baser

toward

language,

jure

immigrants

to

de

language,

immigrant

emotions.

religion,

evident.

and

their

fanned

facto,

America,

the

and

life-style,

poverty

s u p e r i o r i t y and

What

culture,

and

flames

of

No longer was d i s c r i m i n a ­

just a diffe ren t

A h i e ra rch y of

became more

of

but toward

status

i n f e ri or it y

(Tesconi,
of

races

followed was a series of actions,

intended
which

to

served

dim in is h
to

the

further

flow

of

st ra t i f y

language m i n o r i t y groups.
In the mi d- 19 th c e n t u r y duri ng the height of immigration
into

the

United

about the

States,

New

England

co ns er va ti ve s

worried

in I lux Of newc Diners .

These
reformers
be lieved
that
immigrants could
corru pt the bo d y politic,
that their political
expressions would be ill informed and unrestrained,
that th e y would give their votes to whoever a p ­
pealed to their baser instincts or interests (Co­
hen, 1984, p. 255).
In order to cope with the "immigrant problem," common schools
were established
tion.
to

for

"commoners"

for the state's own p r o t e c ­

Schools for the mi d- 1 9 t h c e nt ur y were not noble efforts

provi de

a hope

of

equal

political

participation;

rather,

17
they

were

of

co mprised

a

very

parti cu la r

spirit;

of c o m p u l s o r y ed u c a t i o n

that

is,

it

was

for:

re so ci l a l i z i n g the strangers; l i te ra lly to remake
their minds, manners, and morals.
In the v i e w of
19th c e n t u r y reformers, the ea rl y common school was
an instrument the state created for its own s p e c i f ­
ic func tio n- -th at of m a i n t a i n i n g the status quo
which p e r pe tu at ed an agenda of in equ ali ty (Harris,
1982, p. 8).
The essence of co m m o n schools was the d e l i b e r a t e effort
to create

in the young,

attitudes,

loyalties,

m a l l e a b le minds

and values,

di r e c t i o n by the state.

of a nation's common

and to do so under central

In this agenda,

"moral ed ucation" and

the shapi ng of a shared na tional id en ti ty were of c o n s i d e r a b l y
more

importance

than

tea c h i ng

basic

aca demic

skills.

teenth c e n t u r y r e f or me rs we r e co n c e rn ed about the
diversity
groups
The

of

American

began to

com mo n

society,

impact

school

was

upon
the

e s pe c i a l l y

as

the poli ti ca l

v eh icl e

for

increasing

more

life

Nine­

of

and
the

more
time.

moldi ng Ame ri ca' s

new

c i t i z e n r y with the e n l i g h t e n e d and to lerant at titudes held by
Oiiv.

±.

^

-W W> ^

4-Vn

During

the

4. Wi. ttiu i.

official

use

not

were

no n- En gl ish

li te ra cy

~

impacted

1 n o o >

\ NJXCi i U ;

language

laws

Americans.

vWh?

Ce nt e n n i a l

of

only

1 ,

X

Era

of

v V /

the

to E n gli sh
on

speaking,

in

1870s,

began

but

also

the

Black

on

laws

1989).

limit
These

immigrants

na ti ve- bor n

who

Black

laws led to ad op t i o n of
Codes

which

Blacks from voting (Michigan Civil Rights C om mi ss io n
Commission],

to

to appear.

second-generation

The language r e s t r i c t i v e
requ ir em en ts

•

prevented
[MI C.R.

18
Sys temic R e s t r i c t i o n s
Be ca us e

of

Again st

ex is ti ng

Immigrants

fears

and

emotions,

early

language

mi no r i t i e s not only suf fer ed institutional di scr imi na tio n, but
open

hostility.

du ri ng

Vi ol e nc e

the de ca de

of

the

was

pe rp etr ate d

1890s,

when

were lynched (LaGumina & Cavaioli,
cheated in employment;
associations

Ja pa ne se A m e r i c a n s
and

school

(Parmet,

immigrants

J e w immigrants were

they

Sullivan,

11

Italians

formed

prote ct iv e

1983).

Chine se

and

were subject to emplo ym en t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

segregation

and

were

restri ct ed

from owning

land

1981).

In

1882,

Exclusion

the

Act,

laborers

and

United

which
barred

c i t i z e n s h i p status
20th

&

least

1976).

as a result,

(Chiswick

at

against

century,

susp en de d

Co ngress

was

no

passed

immigra ti on

fo re ig n - b o r n

(Bennett,

there

were to dec rease.

State

Chinese

1963).

Chinese

Ch in es e - b o r n

from

obtaining

At the be ginning of the

in dication that

On the contrary,

of

the

these

se ntiments

an t i - e t h n i c moveme nts and

o r g a n i z a t i o n s developed, not only to s u b ju ga te minorities, but
to pressu re

for r e s t r i c t i n g

immigration of n e w ethnic groups.

O r g a n i z a t i o n s which g r e w around the b e g in ni ng of the 20th
century
were

to

the

lobby

to

ethnic minorities'

Immigration

R e s t r i c t i o n League, and the N e w Engla nd Brahmins.

The efforts

of

restric ti ve

gro up s

Protective

influenced

the

Association,

immigration

the

these

American

re st ri ct

p a ss ag e

of

such

imm ig ration legisla ti on and treaties as the Chinese Exclus io n
Act of 1882.

This Act was the first federal attempt to limit

imm ig ration by n a t i o n a l i t y

(Bennett,

1963).

The Gentlem en 's

19
Ag r e e m e n t

of 1908

limited

Japanese

immigration;

the

Immigra­

tion Act of 1917 excluded Asians and required lit eracy (McKee,
1985); and the National Origins Act of 1924 est ab lis he d quotas
for

each co un tr y outside

of the W es te rn

Hemisphere.

It was

p a r t i c u l a r l y pr eju di ced again st eastern and so ut he rn Eu ropeans
(Bennett,

1963).

20th century,
the

St u dy

lacking
problems

of

a noted

educator

in

the

ea rly

cl ass ifi ed them in his book, An Int roduction to

of

in

Cubberly,

Ed uc at io n

(1925),

"se lf-reliance"
"proper

and

ho usi ng

as

"il literate,"

"i ni tiative,"

and

living,

and

moral,

docile, "

p re sen ti ng

and

sanitary

conditions, honest and dec en t gover nm ent and proper education"
(p.

24-25).
During

the

1920s,

the

infamous

Ku

Klux

Klan

openly

p er pe tua ted ho st ili ty toward ethnic groups (Appel, 1982).
activit ies
part

of

of

the

this

20th

extr em is t

ce nt u r y

or ga ni z at io n

not

only

shed

dur in g

light

on

the
the

The
early

darker

side of the historical de v el op me nt of Am eri ca as a nation, but
cl ea rl y

attested

to

the

"de

facto"

efforts

to

subj ug at e

mi n o r i t y groups.
The advocates of re st r i c ti on s view ed una br id ge d i m m i g r a ­
tion as a major di sr upt er of the status quo.
argument on the fear of papal conquest
evidence

which

int ell ec tu al ly
would

c la ss if ie d
inferior.

foreigners
They

warned

Th ey based their

and p s e u d o - s c i e n t i f i c
as
that

genetically
too

man y

and

aliens

lead to the mo n g r e l i z a t i o n of the Am er i c a n race and the

decline of Am erican s o c i e t y from the ranks of great c i v i l i z a ­
tions

(Ziegler,

1953;

Jones,

1960).

The c o n s e r v a t i v e v i e w towards

la ng uag e m i n o ri ti es

was

a

need for the total c l e a n s i n g of d i v e r s i t y a tt ri bu te s to bec om e
an a c c e p t a b l e American.

The xe no ph ob ia and at t i t u d e s g e n e r a t ­

ed by World War I c o n t i n u e d throu gh the 1920s.
c o n c er ne d

and

t hr ea t e n e d
target s

afraid

that

its

and endanger ed;

for

repression.

basic

hence,

A m e r i c a n s were

i n st it ut io ns

would

lan guage mi no ri ti es

In Michigan,

C h ic an os

of

be

bec am e

the

times

also bec am e a target for much of this n e g a t i v i s m be cau se the y
r e p r e s e n t e d an u n f a m il i a r
As

the

pe re nn ia l

kid

pa tte rn

e du ca t i o n a l
(1979),

"new

populace,

on

of

the

c ri ti cs

of

block,"

"focus"

discriminatory
the

a d i f f e r e n t culture.

for

th e y

all

sorts

practices.

Me xic an

fell
of

into

the

social

and

According

influx

to

co mp la i n e d

Garcia

that

they

were an i n a s s i m il a bl e g r o u p and that t h e y g e n e r a l l y re fus ed to
bec om e citizens.
immigr ant s

and

Na t i v i s t
which

att it ude s w hi ch had arisen toward

had

revived

fundamentalism

and

the

r e s u r g e n c e of the Ku Klu x Klan had found fertile ground in the
n e w l y a r ri vi ng Ch i c an o p o p u l a t i o n in M i c h i g a n
Identi fie d
endur ed

the

agains t

Germans,

peaked
1917,

as

ha rd sh i ps

Literacy

United

of

Asians,

d u r i n g World
the

o ut ca st s

War

States

r eq ui re m e nt s

in

late

sentiments

1920s,
again st

the

n ew

land,

in st itutional
and

so ut h e r n

I and

we re

added

In 1919,

1979).

immigrants
Sen ti me nt s

e a st er n

Eu r o p e a n s

after

the

Asian

immigration.

limit

the

trial

war.

ent ra nc e

(MI C.R. Commiss io n,

Sa cc o- V e n z e t ti

Italians.

and

s t opp ed
to

ma ny

racism.

the d e c a d e

Co ng res s

s o u t h e r n and eastern E u r o p e a n s
the

a

(Garcia,

1989).

ex em pli fie d

In

of
In
the

the state of N e b r a s k a

21
enacted
from

a

criminal

givi ng

(Lyons,

statute

instruction

in

barring
a

language

to

other

and

schools

than

English

19 88) .

The Anglo C o n f o r m i t y Mo vement
led

individuals

ado pti on

states.

of

Twenty

En g l i s h - O n l y

states

Ger man in schools.

enacted

and anti -Ge rma n sentiment

laws
laws

in

Ne braska

to bar

the

and

other

te aching

of

R he to ri c around this mov eme nt was similar

to that of the 1880s related to pr im ac y

(MI C.R.

Commission,

1989 ) .
Despite
certain
Some

discriminatory

language

e ar ly

groups

language

educatio nal

needs

by

to

actions,

there

were

ma intain

their

native

mi no ri ti es

sought

est ab li sh in g

to

their

attempts

by

language.

meet

their

own native

own

language

schools for their ch il d r e n because of "de jure" disc ri m in at io n
against th e m
that

(Isser,

Glazer and Mo ynihan

"Eastern Eu ropean Jews showed almost

of their arrival
was

1985).

unique

their

own

in

level

of

Jewish

against

Jewish

from the beginning

in this co u n t r y a passion for education that

Am er i ca n

with the belief

(1964) state

history,"

schools

that

to

and

"inoculate

is consid er ed

(p.

155)."

they

the

next

established
genera ti on

ne ce ss ar y to keep alive a

s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n es s

as si mil ati on

that

that

will

Similarly,

hold

the

the

line

Chinese

and

Ja panese set up a f t ern oo n schools to teach the native language
and

heritage

of

their

native

countries

to

their

children

(F r a n k , 19 8 3).
Al th ou g h
language

immigrant groups

schools

for

their

attempted to establish native

children,

the

great

ma jo r i ty

of

22
them

who

were

despit e

in

their

schools

schools

receiv ed

difficulty

enrol lin g

in

immigrants

no

the

special

En gli sh

in the

1900s

co ns i d e r a t i on

language.
suffered

Many

the

p r e s e n t - d a y symptoms a t t r ib ut ed to language min or it ie s
1980s, that is, high dr op ou t rates,
frequent grade rep et it io n

The

"New"
In

in the

low aca de mi c achievement,

(Ogbu,

1978).

century,

as

Immigrant
the

inability

early

to

r eco gni zed
(Greer,

same

20th

unders tan d

as

the

1970);

the

chief

language

cause

language

today,

of

of

poor

m in or it ie s

the

instruction

school

are

student's
was

p e rf orm anc e

still

victims

of

educatio nal practices w hi c h fail to cap it al iz e on their innate
capabilities, that is, languag e and cultu re (McDermott & Aron,
1978;

Erikson,

1979;

Mehan,

1983;

Florio-Ruane,

1987).

Alt ho u gh the height of immigration has long since passed,
it

is

a

w el l - e s t a b l i s h e d

century,

there

cha nging

the

greater

is still an

face

fact

going

into

the

influx of n e w immigrants

of America,

proportion.

that,

According

and Hisp an ic s
to

Briggs

which

account

and

21st

Tienda

for

is
the

(1986),

the number of fore ig n- bo rn Amer ic ans has increased s h a r p l y in
the decade
1920.
5.5

of

From

to

to

14.6

the

after

1980,

the

million

de c l i n i n g
Hi spanic
(Hispanic

(each

decade)

po pu l a t i o n
Policy

since

g r e w from

Develop me nt

1984 ) .

Ev id e n c e
since

1980s

1970

milli on

Project ,

the

turn

of
of

the
the

new

influx

century,

of
is

immigrants,
covere d

the

by Time

largest
(July 8,

23
1985).

What

cha n g i n g

becomes

sa li en t

upon

re adi ng

this

issue

is the

face of America.

The en ormous m i g r a t i o n is r a p i d l y and p e rm a n e n t l y
ch a n g i n g the face of America.
It is al te r i ng its
racial makeup, its landsca pes and cityscapes, . . .
its entire p e r c e p t i o n of itself and its w a y of life
(Time, Ju l y 8, 1985, pp. 26-27).
After

a

once again

lull

of

about

a visibl e

40

years,

presence.

recent immigrants

are

This r e a l i t y also r es ur re cts

biased at t i t u d es against m in or it ie s which existe d in the early
years

of

immigration.

se nt im en ts

against

internment

while

re p a t r i a te d
perme at ed
example,

example,

J a p a n e se

at the

with

into

For

today's

cit izens

same

Mexico.

time

These

led

same

ed u ca ti on al

War

II

their

camp

Ame ri ca ns

were

a t t it ud es

and

to H i s p a n i c s when

World
to

Me x i c a n

in White v. R e a e s t e r . (1973),

va r i e t y of d e ni als

during

social

ev en t u a l l y

scenes.

For

the Court pointed to a
it sta te d

that:

a cu lt ur al i nc om p a t i b i l i t y co n j o i n e d with the poll
tax and the most r e s t r i c t i v e voter r e gi st ra ti on
pr oc ed ur e s in the N a t i o n have ope rat ed to e f f e c ­
ti v el y d e n y Mexican Amer ic an s access to the p o l i t i ­
cal p ro ce ss in Texas even longer than Blacks were
fo rm a l ly denied access by the white primacy.
(MI
C.R. Commission, 1989, p. 7)
In 1974, the U.S. Supreme Court found that ins truction only in
Engli sh
matter

d ep ri v ed

some

stu de nt s

and equal op po r t u n i t y

of

un d e r s t a n d i n g

of

subject

in the Lau case.

The recent English O n l y movement,

with

its roots

in the

Cente nn ial Era of the 1870s,

is again an a s sa ul t on the basic

rights

of

people.

(1987,

M a r ch

racism.

language

It

1),
is

minority

the
an

En gl i s h

Ac c o r d i n g

Only mo ve m e nt

o r g an iz at io n

whi ch

has

to
its

ad vo cat es

Blonston
roots

an

end

in
to

24
bilin gua l edu ca ti on funds and mak in g the E n gl i s h language the
official

language

amendment.

of

While

the

the

United

intents

of

noble to the average American,
p ri m a c y of E ng lis h
U.S.

En gl is h's

were brought

States
this

and

a cons ti tut ion al

org an iz at io n may

Education

(see

A p p e n d ix

( 1988).

former

A)

in

White birthr at es

The

w hic h

chairman,

article

Tanton

the

the et hn oc e n t r i c views of
John

to light by the National A s s o c i a t io n

gual

seem

since ev eryone recogn iz es

in our society,

cofo und er

via

unco ve re d

ex pressed

a

Tanton,

for B i l i n ­
1986

worry

memo

that

low

and high Hispan ic birth ra tes would endanger

A m e r i c a n society.
What is salient in the U.S. Engli sh Only mo vement is that
it

e x e m pl if ies

A me r i c a n
nature
gives

the

citize ns

of

fear

who

are

contemporary

a glimps e

of

and

the

xenopho bia

d i st ur bed

American
true

about

intentions

to use the

"officialness"

the

pri vi l eg es

of

and

the

society.

O nl y movement:
rights

pre va len t

other

of

tions

(Kal am az oo

G a z e t t e . December

The

Time

article

the

U.S.

English

of English to limit

bilingual

Americans.

5,

1988).

there is a g r o w i n g sense that there

which

make

it

clear

laws are more worried about

some

16 states

While much

of

r e l a t i v e l y harmless in

le gi slation than just p r o m o t i n g English.
s u r fa ci ng

As

to their state c o n s t i t u ­

the nation has pe rceived these laws as
the past,

those

mul tic ult ur al

re ce n t l y as the 1988 na ti o n al pre sidential election,
had enacted Englis h On ly ame nd me nt s

in

is more to this

Racist comments are

backers

of

E n g l i s h - O nl y

keeping down c e rt ai n segments of

the p o p u l a t i o n than t h e y are about lifting up language skills.

25
Lyons (1988),
states

that

he

is

in wr it in g about the Englis h Only movement,
"startled

by the vigor

with

which

some

of

the propon ent s of the E ng l i s h La nguage Amend men t pressed the
e q ua ti on - -l an g ua ge and

(American)

loyalty"

(p.

9).

Immigrat io n cont inu es to be a major source for increasing
the

size

of

October 3,
tion

Act

language

minority

communities.

On

1965, P r e si de nt Lyndon Johnson signed The I m mi gr a­
of

increase

Ame ric an

1965.

Since

in the number

V o i c e s f 1988 )).
Hispanics

as

of

then,

there

immigrants

For this reason,

representative

has

been

a

striking

from Latin America

(New

it is wo rt h w h i l e to focus on

of

language

m in ori ti es

whose

status in Am er ic an s o c i e t y will have serious implications for
the de v e l o p m e n t

of a na tional social

identity.

Ac c o r d in g to P o p u l a t i o n Trends and Public Po li c y (1988),
a "net

figure

between

1980

of

over

and

2 m il lio n Hi spanic

1988"

(Valdivieso

immigrants

& Davis,

1988,

entered

pp.

3-4).

The U. S. Census Bur ea u reports that the His panic population
in

March

1987

po pulation
one

third

totaled

for

the United

since

faster

than

1988 ).

It

the

1980

rest

of the

is w or th wh il e

The

of

22.2

States

the

include the number
countries.

about

note

g r ow in g

that

nea rl y

this

Hispanic

by more
five

(Valdivieso

immigrants

Foundation

The

increased

popula ti on

illegal

Ford

has

census,

to

million.

growth

than
times

& Davis,
does

not

from Latin American

publication,

Hispanics:

Ch al le ng es and Op po r t u n i t i e s (1984), states that about 500,000
un d oc um en te d
every

year.

immigrants
They

are added to the Hi spanic population

remain

the

youngest

and

fastest

growing

26
major

U.S.

population.

compared to 32.6 years
social

and

dramatic.
patterns

design

med ia n

age

is

25.1

years,

for the non -Hi sp an ic population.

educational

implications

of

this

The

sta ti st ic

are

It means that Hisp an ics will co nt i n u e their growth
because

th e y are

while n on -H is pa nic s
eq ual ly

Their

dra mat ic

are

at

the peak

beyond

e du ca t i on al

cu rricular

pr ogr am s

it.

of

This

chal le nge

to

c h i l d - b e a r i ng

meet

trans la tes
for

our

Hispa ni c' s

age,

into

an

soc ie ty -- to
cultural

and

linguistic needs to counter their low educational ac hi ev em en t
in order to prepare th em to become c o n t r i b u t i n g part ic ipa nt s
of Ame ri ca n society.
The

National

Council

for La Raza Agenda

indicates that Hispa nic s are bec oming an
tant segment of the U.S.

productivity

and

Un fortunately,

will

c o m p e t i t iv en es s

however,

force, and their

help de t e r m i n e
in

inadequate

1988)

in cre asi ngl y imp or­

po pu la ti on and work

economic status and pr og re ss

(Summer,

the

world

future U.S.
marketplace.

p r e pa ra ti on

will

hinder

their con str uc ti ve co nt r i b u t i o n to Ame ri ca n so ci et y if drastic
changes

do

not

occur

to

better

prepare

them.

Hispanics

account for more than one of every seven families living b el ow
the

po ver ty

adults,

level,

and one

grade edu cation

Educatio nal

than

one

of

e ve ry

in every four adults with

five

illiterate

less than a fifth-

(A g e n d a . 1988).

Neglect

Edu ca ti on

more

for

of Hispanics
language minori tie s

in

the

United

States

has not been successful, as indicated by the previous d o c u m e n ­

27
tation;

there

is an

innate

co nt r a di ct io n

process that has had adve r se effects.
ac co rdi ng
the

to Harris

individual

This

stems

nature

from

"educere,"

(1982),
in

the

which

the educational

D. H. La wr e n ce asserts,

that education means

each

La ti n

means

in

person

to

its

d ef in it io n

"to

lead

true

of

out"

leading out

the

(Gove,

fullness.
infinitive

1986).

For

language minorities, e du cat ion has not "led th e m out" to their
true

fullness;

rather,

it

has

"left

th e m out"

of

the

educa­

tional process.
For John Dewey,
the

individual

results
(Smith,

in

the edu ca tio nal process

nature

personal

1980,

p.

in

each

person

to

gr owth--mental,

149).

The

of

its

true

moral

reward

of

"leading out

and

this,

fullness:
sp iritual"

supposedly,

the op eni ng of oc cu pat ion al rewards and upward mobility.
paradox

for

language

min or i t ie s

is

that

th ey

are

is
The

still

inculcated with the idea that to succeed t h e y must ac cu ltu ra te
to

the

ma j o r i t y

themse lve s
nistic"

culture,

into a pub li c

(Hodgkinson,

minorities,

our

which

school

1962,

p.

educ ati ona l

begins

curriculum
132).

s y st em

by

ac co m m o d a t i n g

"that

Clearly,
does

not

is a n t a g o ­
as

regards

acco mmo dat e

language minorities.
Our

country's

edu cat ion al

system

is

more

po ig n a n t l y

de sc ri be d by the Open letter to the Ame ric an People: A Nati on
at

Risk

(National

Co mm i s s i o n

on

Exc el le nc e

in

Education,

1983) :
Our Nat io n is at risk.
Our so ci e t y and its e d u c a ­
tional institutions s e e m to have lost sight of the
basic purposes of schooling, . . . we must de dicate

28
our selves to the r e f o r m of our edu cat ion al s y st em
for
the
benefit
of
all --( including)
mi nor iti es
(p.l)
To

deny

essential

Hispa nic s

the

skills, literacy,

for the 21st c e n t u r y is to

and tra ining

d i s e n f r a n c h i s e them from

the material rewards that a c c om pa ny co mp ete nt per fo rm an ce and
also from the chance to pa r t i c i p at e fully in our society.
equal

edu cational

cratic

society,

op po r t u n i t y

es pe ci a l l y

is essential

in

a

p lu ra lis tic as ours and prides

country

to

a free,

that

is

An

demo­

culturally

itself on individual

freedom.

Part of what is at
risk is the promis e first made
on this continent: all, re gardless of race .
. .
are entitled to a fair chance and to the tools for
d ev el op in g their
individual powers
of mind and
spirit to the utmost (National C o m m is si on on E x c e l ­
lence in E d u c a t i o n . 1983, p . 4)
That public ed uc ati on cont inu ed to ne gle ct the e d u c a t i o n ­
al needs

for prepa rin g language m in or it ie s

for their place

in

so cie ty is evident in that it was not until 1968 that the U.S.
Congress

enacted

toward greater

the

Bi lingual

equalization,

tion through ed ucation"

Ed u c a ti on

Act,

d e mo cr ati zat io n,

(Carnoy,

1983, p.

401).

"an

impetus

and p a r t i c i p a ­
The d e c l a r a ­

tion of p o l i c y of this Act states:
In re c o g n i ti on of the special e d u c at io na l needs of
the large number of ch il dre n of limited Englishspe aking a bi li t y in the United States, Congress
her eb y de clares it to be the p o l i c y of the United
States to provide and c ar ry out new and imaginative
e l e m e n t a r y and s e c o n d a r y school pro gra ms designed
to meet these special educational needs.
For the
purpose of this title, "children of limited E n g ­
lish-sp ea ki ng abi lity" means ch il dre n who come from
en vi ronments where the domina nt language is other
than Englis h (P.L. 909-247, Title VII, Sec. 702, 81
Stat. 816).

29
In spite of this Act and a mu l t i t u d e of d e m o n s t r a t i o n pr ograms
thr ou g h o u t the nation for language mi no r i t i e s

in the s u c c e e d ­

ing 20 years, ed u c a t i on cont in ues to "fail" students who come
from en vi ro n m e nt s

w her e

the dom ina nt

la nguage

is

other

than

English.
The
19th

" s oc ia li za tio n"

century

1983).

It

caused

goals of educa tio n ref ormers

p o l it ic al

and

social

co nflict

is a c o n t r o v e r s y which co nt inu es

education.

Today,

as

in

the

"assimilationist" mentality

past,

the

co ntinues

to

(Frank,

to haunt

imposition
be

of the

public
of

this

experie nc ed

as

opp re ss iv e by language m i n o r i t y groups who have, by virtue of
their

culture,

a different

vi e w of

reality.

The

"assimila­

tion" m e n t a l i t y is de f in ed as a cultural e x c l u si on ar y/ cu lt ur al
defic it

model

of

ed uc at io n

which

is

bent

on

cha ngi ng

student to fit the s y s t e m rather than vice versa;
it procrustean.
continues.

and

seen and
the

similar
To

the

21st

in the Un it ed States.
felt

po pulace

in the
at

ed uc ational
date,

so cialize

into

century,

this makes

the

conflict

The com mon school agenda still shapes d i s c u s s i o n s

of ed u c at i on
be

Go ing

the

Its end uri ng pr es enc e can

reactions

large
optio ns

ed u c a t i o n a l

against
for

of con se rv at iv e
bili ng ua l

as

educ at io n

and

language minorities.

institutions

language m i n or i t i e s

educators

have

been

trying

to

if they were a pathological

case instead of te ac h i n g t h e m the literacy skills n e c e s s a r y to
become a c o n t r i b u t i n g pa r t i c i p a n t of society.
quoting Gin ti s and Kanda l,

states that:

Harris

(1982),

30
The function of ed u c a ti on is conservative, being
di re c t ed toward integrating ne w gen era tio ns into
the p re va il ing cu l t ur e and p r ov id ing kn owledge and
skills geared toward en suring social s t a b i l i t y and
pe rpe tu a ti on of the status quo (p. 8).
Harris
manner:

further

de sc ri be s

the

educational

process

in

this

"Schooling has much to do with soc ia li za ti on and the

pro du ct i on

of so ci a l iz ed

beings,

but very

little

educa tio n or the p ro du c t i o n of educated peop le
Cohen

(1984)

states

(p.

to do

with

9)."

that:

We v i e w our schools with a split vi si on - - s o m et im es
c e l eb ra ti ng
their
co mm on ne ss
as
an egalitar ian
achieve me nt
and
s o me ti mes
wo rr yin g
about
their
commonness as an u n f o r t u n a t e con se qu en ce of e q u a l i ­
ty (p. 253).
On the one hand, the v e r y term "common school" was noble
and was a hope of equal po litical p a r t i c ip at io n
society.

But A m e ric a' s vi s i o n of the comm on school was also

shaped b y another view;

that

is, as as si mi la ti on is t

for the state's own p r o t e c t i o n against
It

in an unequal

is

the

former,

ennobling,

in nature

language minorities.

e qu al iz in g

vi e w

of

the

common school which was intended to be implemented by P.A. 294
of 1974

in the state of M i c h i g a n as a means of ad dr es si ng the

needs of Chicanos; however,

it was the latter, as sim ila tio nis t

v i e w which resulted and perm ea te s the educatio nal process, as
indicated by the foll ow in g chapter.

CHAPTER

II

BIL ING UAL E D U C A T I O N AS A MEANS OF A DD RE SS IN G
THE NEEDS OF CHICANOS

The previous chapter established the fact that education
for language m in or iti es since the turn of the 20th ce ntu ry did
not

fulfill

its

the Am erican
Instead,

bi ndi ng

mold

for

function

be coming

of

incorporating

them

into

part

of a national

identity.

language mi no r it ie s remained po werless and segmented

by common schools.

This

early educational

schooling process

has filtered down to today's schools and has had a detrimental
effect on Chicano educati on al

attainment.

A major attempt to address the Ch icano's low educational
ach ievement
failure

of

principal
the

was

bil ingual

Chicanos

education.

re ported

prior

factors which convinced

existence

ev en t u a l l y

to

of

bilingualism

le gislate

into

The

to

1965

Yarborough,

a

United

in

the

was

credited

initiating the Bilingual

the Title VII am endment
Ed ucation

Act

Mexica n

the

to acknowle dge
States

and

education

1975; Frank, 1983).
from

Texas

Americans,

is

Educ at io n Act of

whose
most
1968,

to the 1965 E l e m e n t a r y and Seco nd ar y

(E.S.E.A.),

funds for bilingual

of

one

bilingual

Senator

constituency
for

of

was

United

effect

States

c om pri sed

school

authorit ies

programs (U.S. C o m m i ss i on on Civil Rights,
Ralph

massive

which

educ at io n

provided

(Spolsky,

31

the

1975).

first

federal

32
The

stu dy

that most

el oq u e n t l y

ex pressed

the Chic an o's

educ ati on al dilemm a is the Mexic an Americ an St ud y con du cte d by
the

United

period,
old,

States

1972-74.

Civil
Ev e n

Rights

th ou g h

C om mi ss io n

this

study

over

a

two-year

is almost

25 years

the findings are still relevant because the same c o n d i ­

tions p r e s e n tl y persist.
During
M ex ic an

the

1960s,

Am ericans

while

persisted,

the
the

national
prospects

d r op ou t
for

rate

their

of

social

adv a n c e m e nt were d o u b l y limited because of race and language.
At this same time, the civil rights mo ve me nt offered language
mi nor iti es

encoura gem ent

to

challenge

the

"assimilation"

m e n t a l i t y which had existed in the Ame ric an educati on al s y s t e m
for decades.

The Civil Rights Act of 1964,

discrimination

based

on

race,

creed,

which prohibi ted

religion,

and

national

origin, pro vided the impetus for language m i n o r i t y com mu nit ies
to demand
not

equal

underst and

c 1ctiiiux.

fur

treatment
the

an

if their

sc hool's

equal

sons

language

educational

of

and daug ht er s

could

instruction.

Their

op po r t u n i t y

spawned

the

r ec o g n i t i o n of a national d i lem ma which encompa ss ed one third
of a nation

(ACE/ECS Report,

Bilingual Educ ati on
Re co gn iz ing
state

of

Michigan

the

May 1988).

for M ic hi ca no s
educ at ion al

moved

to

dilemma

"provide

of Michicanos,

bi lingual

limited English speakin g ab il it y students

programs

the
for

in order to ensure

that they received an equal educational op po rtunity" (HB 4750,
1974 ) .

33
Since

the early 1900s,

when Mexicans

cans began to arrive in Michigan,
they have been the objects

and Mexican A m e r i ­

it has been established that

of repression

(Garcia,

1979).

As

one result, today's Mi chi ca no s find themselves ma r k e d l y behind
in

the

area

of

educ at io n

(Flores,

1986 ).

To

address

this

concern, the Le g i s la tu r e of the state of M i ch ig an enacted P.A.
294

in 1974 and amended

as

the

as:

Bilingual

"...

it

in 1976.

Education

Act

This
of

the use of two languages,

as a media

of

instruction

com pr eh e n s i on "

(p.

glance,

m a y appear

reform,

this

1976

and

Although

reading,

this

being

defin ed

influenced

by

writing,

mandate,

to be an equalizing effort

study,

is

one of which is English,

for speaking,

2).

law is known today

at

or

first

of educational

McD er mot t

and

Aron

(1978), sees this type of effort by people who have access to
political
access
the

and

ec on om ic

to themselves.

o pp os i ti on

to

resources
As P.A.

this

eq ui t y

as

294

a

means

of

1974

to

began

program became

limit

that

to unfold,

evident.

As a

result, pol icy ma ke rs became mired in its co n t r o v e r s y while the
perennial
culture

myths

and

mi s c o nc ep ti on s

complicated,

bilingual

rather

than

reg ar di ng

dispelled,

language

the notion

and
that

education works.

Based on these perce ptions, one can assume that s e m b l a n c ­
es of early Ame rican educational

attitudes

are still

in today's

Moreover,

it can

assumed
that

it

educational

that

it

is

alive

Michig an' s

has

filtered

and

bilingual

process.

well

down

in

ed uc ati on

to

individual

Michigan's
pr og ra m

be

further
states

school

can

present
be
and

districts.

viewed

as

a

34
systematic,
within

transitory

a period

teachers,

of

to

in general,

bring

for

three years.

th e y fail to educate
tion

process

out

socializing

In this

act as agents

type

the

stude nt

of schooling,

of s o ci al iz at io n

in that

in the sense of going beyond s o c i a l i z a ­

and

develop

the

full

cap abi li ti es

of

the

students' personal, cognitive, and intellectual de v el op me nt as
suppo rte d

by

the

Mic hi ga n

Department

Goals of M i ch ig an Education, 1972).
P roc edu res
Bilingual

for

the

Fu nd in g

Ed uc at io n

(Common

Instead, a c co rd ing to the

Iden tif ic ati on

Edu ca ti on

of

of

Students

(1979)

rules,

El ig ib le
the

purpose

is to teach

oral

Englis h

and Readin g

limited

English-speaking

ab i l i t y

for

for

prog ram 's

to stu dents

t r an sf err in g

the m

of

into

English as soon as possible.

There is no intent to ca pi ta li ze

on the st ud ent 's background.

The great m a j o r i t y of bilingual

educa tio n pro grams
ineffective,

in Mi c h i g a n for Chicanos,

can be cha r ac te ri ze d

as

becau se they are

a form of cultural

and

psy ch ol og ic al isolation wh ich prevents the m from obtaining the
experience, knowledge, and skills required for active p a r t i c i ­
pation

in school

a ct iv it ie s

that are the basis

dev el op me nt and aca de mi c success.
bilingual

edu cation

is

for co gn iti ve

The tragic result

not me eti ng

the

needs

is that

of Chi can os

in

the state of Michigan, much less al l ev ia ti ng their educational
dilemma.
e du cat ion

This t r u i s m is in spite of the fact that bilingual
does

literature.

work,

as

supported

by

the

re vi e w

of

the

35
The Bilin gua l E d u c at i on Co nt r o v e r s y
Why

is it that bi li ng ua l

intended

p ur po se

C hi canos
intends

of

a d d r es si ng

in Mich ig an ?
to

ed uc ati on has not attained

address.

This
This

the

educational

is the di l e m m a

chapter

intends

which
to

needs
this

its
of

study

sh o w that

the

concept of bil in gu al e d u c a t i o n is sound p e d a g o g y by revie win g
related research.

The issue of why bili ng ual education hasn't

worked will be ad d r e s s ed

in terms

the p ol i c y f o r m u l a t i o n
the

implementation,

and m o n i t o r i n g

of:

in Chapter

III

funding/eligibility

in Chapt er

criteria,

IV

the link b e tw ee n i mp l em ent at ion and pr ac ti ce at the
local

level

in Chapte r V.

Upon readin g this study,
how the edu cat io nal
mised,

thereby

Chicanos

of

it

it

b e co mes

A m er ic an

become ap parent

of bi lingual educ at ion

rendering

when

context

intent

what should

an

inef fec tiv e

entan gle d

society,

in

the

is c o m p r o ­

p r og ra m

for

soc iopolitical

specifically

Mic hig an and the ci t y of Fennville.

is

the

state

of

The s t u d y will s h o w the

"common school m e n ta l it y" at work against Mi chi gan 's language
minorities,
powerless
ad dre ss i ng
bilingual

and
to

how

their

ef fe ct u a t e

their

own

education

stratification
m e ani ng ful

ed uc ational

will

be

program

needs.

linked

to

renders

Chicanos

changes

The

failure

a political

the or y

for
of
of

edu catio nal policy.
It

is

mi no ri ti es

apparent
in

a

that

languag e

p r ov id ing
other

instruction

than

English

to

language

has

stirred

36
contr ov er sy.
Immigrant.

In the book A m e r i c a n E d u c a t i o n and the E u r o p e a n
Berrol

(1982)

cites

one

of

many

reasons

for

s u p p o r t i n g a s s i m i l a t o r y schooling:
T h e y needed to k n o w the language in which economic
af f a ir s were c o n d u c t e d and t h e y req ui re d an u n d e r ­
s t a n d i n g of the p o l i t i c a l framework of the nation
to w h i c h t h e y had come.
(p. 31)
As

st a t e d

the

in Chapte r

acculturation

I,

of

language

lishment of the com mo n
Modern
the

day

maintenance

e a rl y ed uc at io n

which sh o u l d be e n h a n ce d

(Plotnicov,
education
1988),

bi l in gu al
tional
These

1983).

it

bil in gu al
and

at home,

Opponents

sentiments.

ed u c a t i o n

c u lt ur e

are

op p o n e n t s

has
of

further

th e y

never

that

m at te rs

for wh ich there

argue

that

divisiveness

c o nt en d

been

that,

necessary

la ng u a g e minorit ie s,

challenge

(Epstein,

estab­

argue

priva te

a pos it io n

p o l it ic al

And,

ed u c a t i o n

the

in e a rl y immigrant ed uc at io n in Am eri ca

foste rs

achievement

education

th r o u g h

is a threat to the A m e r i c a n w a y of life

that

American

of

la ng ua ge

is a s t r o n g p r e ce de nt

minorities

suppo rte d

school.

opponents
of

re fo rme rs

1977).

the

(Casanova,
and

anti-

historically,
for

nor

e f f e c t i v en es s

The si mp l e st

bi lingual

is
of

the

educa­

it today.
bilingual

and most co mp e l l i n g

arg ument again st b i l i n g u a l e d u c a t i o n is that it is an ec onomic
burden to schoo ls and that th e y lack the human resources, that
is,

te ac h e r s

im plement

the p r o g r a m

Teachers
also

fluent

ex p r e s s e d

in

the

(Glazer,

many

languages

to

1980).

and a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
misgivings

different

about

of mo no l i n g u a l
bil in gua l

school s have

e d uc at ion

on

the

37
basis that if language m i n o r i t y students lack Englis h language
skills,
tors

then they re qui re Engli sh

often

tend

to

see

instruction

language as und erm ini ng their
These

beliefs

based

on

about

instruction.

the

the

student's

first

efforts to teach th e m English.

ne gative

m i s c on ce pt io ns

in

These e d u c a ­

effect

re ga rdi ng

the

of

b i l i n g u a l i s m are

central

role

of

the

stud ent 's first language in their educati on al dev el op me nt and
the

spe c if ic ways

development.

in wh ic h

There

bilingual

exists

e d u ca ti on

extensive

recent

affects

this

research

from

through out the world which cl ea rl y shows that mai nt ai ni ng and
d ev el o p i n g

the stu dent's

first

language t h ro ug h

its use as a

m e d i u m of instruction has no negative effects on the d e v e l o p ­
ment of English (Annamalai, 1980; Tosi, 1984; Wolfgang, 1975).
In ma ny cases, bilingual instruction has v e r y po sitive effects
on

other

aca demic

(Cummins,

1986;

skills

Piper,

besides

1986).

d e ve lo p i n g
In

spite

of

findings which support bi lin gua l education,
m i s c on ce pt io ns
1.

Englis h

by mo no l i n g u a l

cannot

minorit ies

be

retain

educators.

mas ter ed
their

as

first

Engli sh
these

3.

research

there still exist
Some of these are:

long

as

language

language
(National

F oun dat ion for the Improvement of Education,
2.

skills

1982).

Using English and the home language for

instruction

causes academic re ta rd ati on

1982).

The

home-school

match)

impedes

language
lit eracy

(Saunders,

switch

(linguistic

(Cummins, 1986 ) .

mis­

38
4.

Bi li ng ual
c hi l dr en
Gould,

5.

pr og ra m s
from

the

isolate
rest

of

non-English-speaking

the

students

(Hakuta

&

1987).

Spanish,

in bi l i n g u a l programs, c a rr ie s a p s y c h o s o ­

cial s ti g m a which c a u s e s c o n f u s i o n

(Hakuta & Gould,

1987) .

Bilingual
To

Education Research

di sp el

these

myths,

f o l lo wi ng

are

sever al

recent,

c a r e f u l l y c o n t r o l l e d e v a l u a t i o n s on b i l i n g u a l i s m and Chicanos ,
and

bi li ngu al

ed uc at i on

conducted

in

mo no l i n g u a l

school

environments.
1.

Sou th we st

Austin. T e x a s .

con d u c t ed

la nguage
by B e t t y

longitudinal

D e v el op me nt

Laboratory

Study.

To gat he r inf or ma ti on to assi st policym ake rs,

c u r r i c u l u m desig ner s,
delivering

Education

and c l a s s r o o m t e ac he rs
and

reading

Mace-Matluck

investigation,

in p l an ni ng and

instruction,
from

which

a

1978-1984.

tracked

s t ud y
The

was

6-yea r

approximately

250

S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g c h i l d r e n from lo w- i n c o m e families and taught
by more than 200 te ach er s
di st ri ct s

in 20 sc hoo ls

from k i n d e r g a r t e n

reported that,

in five Texas school

th rou gh second

third grades,

among other po si t i v e findings relat ed to valid

language asse ss me nt and re adi ng acquisition,
En gli sh

and

language d e v e l o p m e n t

re se ar ch s t u d y refutes

was

not

it was found that

hin de re d

the co m mo n m i s c o n c e p t i o n

at

all.

This

that En gl is h

cann ot be mas ter ed when lan gua ge m in or it ie s reta in their first
language.

Hud el so n' s

(1988) s t u d y of nati ve language li te r a cy

39
in

the

ed ucation

of

language

minority

ch il d r e n

similarly

refutes this myth.
2.

Susan

La nguage
study,

R.

Skills

the

Go ld man 's

to

degree

Second
to

Study

(1983)

Lan guage

which

on

App ly in g

Comprehension.

kn owledge

av a i l ab le

First

In

this

in the

stu­

dent's first language is used in un de rs t a n d i n g second language
input,

and

languages

the
as

relationship

the

student

between

becomes

The subjec ts were bilingual

k n ow le dge

bi lingual

childr en

uses

are

in

considered.

in k i n d e r g ar te n through

fifth grade with E n gl is h or Spanish as a first language.
results

indicated

two

The

that know le dg e used to guide s to ry c o m p r e ­

hension in the first language is also used to guide it in the
second

language.

practice

of

using

This

finding

re inforces

the

primary

language

the

as

instructional

the

language

of

instruction while E n g li s h is introduced as a second language.
Another similar st ud y wh ic h shows that bi lingual education
English

and

the

home

language

Ca ntonese Site An al y t i c S t u d y .

works

is

Hoover's

(1984)

Both of these re se ar ch studies

refute the myth that using Engli sh and the home language
instruction
3.
Project

Project P.R.O.B.E.
Pr i m a r y
was

Readi ng

During the 1979-80 school year,

Object iv es

involved

in

for

improving

Bi lingual
the

rate

Educ at io n
of

reading

growth and co gnitive de v e l o p m e n t of 4- and 5-year-olds
New

pr i m a r i l y

York.

In

in Spanish,

instruction

for

impede ac ademic achievement.

(P.R.O.B.E.)

Bronx,

in

that

bili ng ua l
the

153

empha si ze d

classes
p r og ra m

oral

that

were

part ic ip an ts

language

in the

co nducted
received

re adiness

for

40
reading, a mon g other aspects.
report

found that the p r o g r a m exceeded the expected

achievement
learning
readi ng

and

that

it created

environment.
is

impeded

findings

chi l d r e n

as

preschool

they

study

the

classrooms.

in the

(1987)

myth

(1985)

that

study

of

language.

Literacy

d e v e l o p m e nt

the

Subjects

sp ea k i n g preschoolers.

of

ef fective

the

first

Pres ch oo l

li te ra cy
in

level

also shows similar patterns

reading

interacted

and

refutes

F ra nk li n' s

classr oo ms

Quintero's
in ves tigated

a st i m u l a t in g

Spanish.

which suppo rt

4.
s tu d y

This

by

li te r a c y in bi lingual
of

The final Title VII evalu at ion

social
were

of

bil ingual

context

12

Study.

native

of

their

Spanish­

It was h y p o t h e si ze d that what b i l i n ­

gual c h i l d r e n bring to the c l a s s r o o m in terms of experience,
values,
social

language,
c o nt ext

culture,

of

the

and

classroom

personality,
and,

in

affected

turn,

the

affected

the

d e v e l o p m e n t a l process of the ch il dr en 's literacy acquisition.
Because li te r a c y was b ei ng
consisting

of

many components

e t h n o g r a p h i c te ch n iq u es
c hi ld re n' s

ingly

Re sul ts

di s p l a y e d

and

m a n y d i f fe re nt

behaviors,

were used to observe and analyze

in te ra cti on

month period.

investigated as a holistic process

for

approximately

100

hours

in

the
a

5-

indicated that the children o v e r w h e l m ­

ex tr ove rt

charact er is tic s,

introvertness, which were d i s pl ay ed

as

opposed

in the playground.

to

Among

the co nc lu si on s based on the results are that cultural traits
and

customs

do

not

n e c e s s a r i l y affect

sel f-concept

and

that

they can have a po si ti ve effect on the learning environment.
Other r e s e a r c h projects,

such as the L e ga rr eta E S L / B i 1 ingual

This

41
Comp ar is on

Stu dy

(1979)

Lambert E x p er ie n ce

and

Tucker's

(1972-74),

(1987)

w el l-k no wn

St.

refute the myth that bilingual

educ ati on programs tend to alienate language mi n o r i t y students
from the E n g l i s h - d o m i n a n t
Cazden
ed ucation
teachers

(1984),

population.

in de sc r i b i n g seven "effective" bilingual

programs,
alike

school

repor ts

agree

that

outside

the

use

experts

of

and

bilingual

information

from

the

1 im it ed -E ng l i s h - p r o f i c i e n t st udent's home cultu re can promote
engage men t in instruc tio nal tasks and c on tr ib ut e to a feeling
of

trust

betwee n

c hi ld re n

and

their

teachers.

She

reports

three ways in which home and c o m m u n i t y c u lt ur e are i n c o r p o r a t ­
ed into c l a s s r o o m life:
a.

Cultural re fe re nt s in both verbal and n o n v e r ­
bal
forms to com mu ni ca te instructional and
institu tio nal de man ds

b.

Inst ruc tio n is organized to build upon
of di sc ou rs e from the home culture

c.

Values and norms of the home cultu re are
re spected e q u a l l y with those of the school
(p. 21)

Walsh' s
second

child's
language
child 's

(1984) s t u d y on the c o n s t r u c t i o n of meani ng in a

language an al y ze d

pr ocesses

rules

involved

in

co ns tr uc ti on
and
native

the

of

examined
language

the so ci ocultural

Spa ni sh -s pe ak in g

abs tract

how

and psy chological

these

reality.

meani ng

in

pr ocesses
Results

Puerto
the

related

Rican
Englis h
to

de mo ns t r a t e d

the
that

the influence of native language meani ng is es pe ci al ly strong
with regard to c u l t u r a l l y salient words and occurs regardless
of levels of En gli sh proficiency.

These findings suggest that

42
both

social

context

and

language acquisition.
similar

studies

English

are

factors

of

sh o w

not

cultu re

a

do mi nan t

role

in

In spite of the fact that the following
that

speaki ng

equitable,

cultur e

play

and

English

schools

social

and

co ntinue

context

in

thinking

to

the

ignore

in
the

education

of

Chicanos.
A c c o r d i n g to Strick
organize

and

language

world

native

interpret
in

language

linguistic

and

environment.

(1980), learners of a second language
their

terms

and

of

categories

culture,

cultural

experiences

de riv ed

together

pheno men a

in

in

with
the

the

second

from

their

perce pt ion

second

of

language

A c c ord in g to Walsh (1984), these categories then

form the me an in g behind En g l i s h words which result in semantic
mi su nd er st an d in gs becau se 1 i m it ed -E ng li sh- pro fic ien t students
interpret En gli sh word mea ni ng s d i f f e r e n t l y than the m o n o l i n ­
gual

En gl is h

orally

in

speaker.

English,

the

totall y divergent.
al

misma tch "

Whi le

they

cul tural

may

be

able

to

converse

frame

of

reference

may

be

This si tu at ion is referred to as "c ul tu r­

between

home

and

school

(Cummins,

1984;

Mehan,

1982) .
The

noti on

Michael's
literacy

of mi s m a t c h

(1986)
with

also

e t h n o gr ap hi c

first

graders.

becomes

study
Her

on

a salient

oral

careful

issue

preparat ion
d e sc ri pti on

in
for

of

a

highly col la bo ra ti ve c l a s s r o o m act ivi ty betwee n students and
teacher
resulted

unc overed
in

children's

s ys te ma ti c

uns uccessful
ability.

The

co mmu nic ati ve

col la bo ra ti on
mis mat ch

and

pr ob le m

mismatc hes

that

mi sa ss ess men t
revolved

of

around

43
to pic -c en te re d and t o p i c - a s s o ci at ed
ca lly diffe ren t
co nst rai nts

in

difficult.
cultural

di s c o u rs e
the

For

classroom,

the

mis mat ch

styles

which

crea te

t h ere by

purposes

of

and aca dem ic

learning

study,

been used

ethni­

interactional

mak in g

this

the or y which has

apparent poor se lf -co nce pt

narra tiv e styles,

it

to

more

is

this

explain

the

failure of Chicanos.

Co gn iti ve psychologists' cr os s-c ult ura l research suggests
a sign ifi can t rel ati on sh ip between culture and the d e ve lop men t
of

intellectual

Bullock,

1984).

abili tie s

(Boggs,

1985;

Cole,

1985;

Fisher

&

Interestingly, Rosenthal and Gin sbu rg (1981)

con clude that social and eco nomic status had a great effect on
educational
than

the

ach ievement

influence

Nonetheless,

of

co gn iti ve

which,

in actuality,

language

and

may

cultural

p sy cho lo gic al

be greater
background.

re search

provides

educators one clear message:

it is important not to be culture

bound

students'

and

in the

learn.

make

a

ways

we assess

How can

di ffe ren ce

school -ba sed

a

in

know which

learning?

The

aspects

following

of culture
studies

res ear ch

significant

linkage

on

hom e/s cho ol

of

between

the

rel ationships
student's

culture and the dev el op me nt of intellectual abilities
1982;

to think

efforts provide useful clues.

E th nog rap her 's
suggest

educators

c a pab il iti es

Peshkin,

1982).

In

particular,

Shultz,

home

(Mehan,

Florio,

and

Erikson's (1982) st udy on aspects of the cultural org anization
of social rel ati ons hi ps in com mu ni ca ti on at home and in school
reports important implications for teachers co ncerned with the
s tr uc tur ing

of

school

environm ent

for

learning.

Their

44
research

found

that

quality

scho oli ng

seemed

d i r e c t ly to the school 's re c og ni ti on that
ed ucative force in a child 's
no n-school
think

be

related

it is not the sole

life; that ac kn ow l e d g m en t of the

culture amounts to a w i l l in gn ess

in terms of di f f e r e n t

to

"kinds

for educators

to

of competence."

Another educational s t u d y which found that the st udent's
backgr ou nd
Early

is

i ndi spe ns ab le

E d u c at i on

project

Program

for

(KEEP),

located at Honolulu,

learning
a

is

re se ar ch

Hawaii.

the
and

K am eh am eh a
dev el op me nt

In this project, a team

of teachers, psychologists, anthropologists, and linguists had
di sc o v e r i n g better ways to teach readin g to Haw aii an chi ldr en
as one of

its pr im ar y goals.

Hawaiia n children,
resided
enced

At a school

compr ise d of urban

most of them from families

on welfare who

in public h ou sin g projects and who t y p i c a l l y e x p e r i ­

the

greatest

d i f f ic ul ti es

ci p l i n a r y team set out to
practices

and c l a s s r o o m

in

school,

the

multidis­

identify a c o mb in at io n of teaching

org ani za ti on

that

would

both

engage

these chi ld re n in their own learning and boost their a c h i e v e ­
ment.

This

success ful
speech event

in-depth s tu dy revealed that re adi ng lessons were
because,

th rou gh

their

in Haw aiian culture, talk story,

on the pree xis tin g co gn it iv e and
ch ild ren

r e s e m b l a n ce

(Calfee, Cazden,

Duran,

to

a

they capital ize

linguistic abilities
& Griffin,

major

1981).

of the

This KEEP

study, as well as those ethn og ra ph ic and cognitive p s y c h o l o g i ­
cal studies mentioned, should suggest that school dist ric ts do
not have the luxury of ignoring the Chicano student's language
and

cultur e

altogether

and ca te go ri zi ng

th e m by their

back­

45
ground

(Carrasco,

1984).

Instead,

ed ucators

should

utilize

"home d e v e l o p e d literacy" to teach Chicanos, not only reading,
as

in

the

KEEP

ed u ca ti on

study,

skills

development

of

but

form

also

the

w r it in g

basis

li te r a c y

and,

for

as

these

language

two

early

minorities'

subsequently,

educational

achievement.
The

educational

system's

failure

limited-English-speaking-ability

to

students

educate

Chicano

is

to

due

its

failure to recognize and c ap ita li ze on the connec tio n betwee n
their

e a r l y ex per iences

Simich & McCreedy,

and

1987;

learning

Wertsch,

(Farr

1985).

& Daniels,

1986;

Of greater da ma g i n g

impact to the Chicano s t ud en t was that they most pr ob a b l y were
placed
begin

in a basal r e ad in g pr o g r a m where they were expected to
to

read

and

w ri te

in

Engli sh

long

before

they

had

ex p e r i e n c e d and s o l i d i fi e d the pr ere qui sit e language skills of
listening

and

interface

of

fourth

speaking.
reading

and

language skills

fied these

M a ce -M at lu ck

basic steps

writing.

needed

(1983)

These

focuses

are

the

to co nceptualize.

on the

third

and

She c l a s s i ­

accordingly:

LISTENING->SPEAKING->READING->WRITING
The con cepts of "listening" and "speaking" have to be mas tered
before

immersing

the

child

in

three have to be ac co mp l i s h e d
immersion
Chic an o' s
concerned.

in writing.
educational

This

"reading,"

and

the

previous

prior to the Chicano student's

logical patte rn

experi en ce

as

far

has not been the
as

li te ra cy

is

46
M a n y Chicano
years

with

Spanish.
and

a

The

LEP

co mp l e t e

effort

except

has

for

been

Schematically,

1.

educa tio n

language skills

programs,

noted

to cap it al iz e

on their

tragic

Chican o

outcome

LEP

the

This

loss

up by the

time

LEP

student,

Bi lingual
variables,

ed uc at i on

such as usage

seq ue nc e

of

the student

unable

personnel,

variati on s

tend

three

can

to

categories:

to

never­

language.
place

is based

the early years
in all phases
matter

gets to high

attain

in

bilingual

in kn owledge of subject

of
of
is

school.

scholastically

in

has a high dropo ut statistic.
be

defin ed

by

a

of first and second

instruction;

language,

home

prov id in g

in

in

no me ani ngf ul

of s c ho ol ing

not

students

com pa ri s on with his Anglo peer,

and

of

6

"listening"

of LEP Chicano students'

in the early stage

of

system

in Spanish;

is that they fall s e r i o u s l y behind

se ld om ma d e

of

few bilingual

The

the curriculum.

Thus,

at the age

c o mm un i c a t i o n

firmly devel ope d

the di le mm a

for

schoo lin g

language

school

a

reading and writi ng
Table

enter

first two basic

"speaking" have been

theless,

on

student s

re lative

community

m u l ti tu de

language;

emphasis

involvement,

c l a s s i f y bilingual
maintenance,

on
etc.

educ at io n

transition,

the

or

into

of

scope
first
These
one of

immersion.

Implied in each of these three catego ri es is that language and
culture pla y a si gn ifi can t role.

To the extent that bilingual

progr am

language

students
the

im pl ementors

on the

directly determines

educational

Iwamura,

tap

1982;

ac h i e v e m e n t
Moll

& Diaz,

the success
of the
1988).

and
of

student

culture
the

of

the

p r o g r a m and

(Escobedo,

1984;

47
Table

1

Oral-Au ra l L a n g u ag e E x p e r i e n c e Co n t i n u u m

List ening

>'

Spea Iting

English D o m i ­
nant Child

Spanish D o m i ­
nant Child

Chicano LEP
Child

Birth to a p ­
pr ox i m a t e l y 3
years of age
hears En gli sh

Birth to a p ­
p ro xi m a t e l y 3
years of age
hears Spanish

Birth to
approximate­
ly 3 years
of age hears
both Spanish
and English

3-6 years of
aae sneaks
English

3-6 years of
aae sneaks
Spanish

\<

Read ing

\

Writing

3-6 years of
age speaks
any combination of more
Englis h than
Spanish or
vice versa

Is placed in
reading p r o ­
gram in E n g ­
lish with
fully develoDed l i s t e n ­
ing. and
soeakin a
skills; thus
exper iences
me asures of
success

Is placed in
reading p r o ­
gr a m in E n g ­
lish with NO
developed
skills in
Engli sh l a n ­
guage l i st e n ­
ing and
speak ing
skills.
Leads to
frustration,
lags behind.

Is placed in
reading p r o ­
g r a m where
there is a
cultural
mi smatch
between
home/school
and teacher/
student.
Results in
communica­
tive m i s ­
match + misassessment.

Is pr ovided
writing with
fully d e v e l ­
oped p r e r e q ­
uisite skills
of listening,
speaking, and
reading.

Is placed in
writing with
NO de veloped
c o n t i n u u m of
oral-aural
language
skills.
The
result is
"self-ful­
filling p r o p ­
hesy. "

Is placed in
writi ng with
a weakly
dev eloped
c o n t i n u u m of
oral-aural
language
skills.
The
result is
under­
ac hi evement .

|

1
j
1

1

j

48
Summar y
While
attune

not new,

instruction

the debate
to

the

about

whether

student's

language

backgr ou nd has never been more critical.
clearly

sh o w

that

the

cultural

and

should

cultural

D e m o gr ap hi c trends

ma k e u p

under go ne a radical trans formation.

schools

of

our

schools

H od gk in so n (1987), in his

report to the Mi chigan State Board of Ed u c a t i o n entitled,
State

and

state's

Its

E d u c at io na l

sc hool-age

educational

needs

of

Mic hi ga n

enacted

national

controversy.

indicates

that bil ingual

Re se ar ch
become

cl ea rl y

an

System,"

p op ul a t io n

a

language

shows

integral

part

are

language

states

minorities,
in

Nonetheless,
education

of

Ling uis tic s

Ex ec ut iv e
in

Washington,

of

D.C.

the

the

and

learning

Director

To

"The

of

the

meet

the

state

midst

of

argued

social,

and

believ e

s tr on gl y

and economic be nefits

its

literature

culture

process

have

to

if schools

school achievement.

the

and

Center

for

c o - r e se ar che r

Applied
of

Can adi an bilingual edu cat io na l longitudinal study, states:
have

of

is a muc h- ne ed ed program.

language
the

24%

re se a r ch

expect to affect p o s i t i v e l y minorities'
Tucker,

that

minorities.

po l ic y

that

has

that

there

are

the
"I

personal,

that would accrue to all of us

with the dev elopment of a lang uag e -c om pe te nt Ame ric an society"
(1987,

p.

The

361).
bilingual

controversial.

educa tio n

Diff ere nce s

issue

exist

is

both

conceptually,

with respect to the means and ends of the program.
pr og ra m be for all or just language min or it ie s?

complex
as

and

well

as

Should the
Should

it be

49
m a i n t e n a n c e - o r i e n t e d for c u l t i v a t i n g a m u l t i l i n g u a l so c i e t y or
t r a n s i t i o n - o r i e n t e d for t r a n s f e r r i n g the s t ud en t into En gl is h
as q u i c k l y as p os sib le ?

If the goal

is the

former,

co nce pt and means is c l e a r l y bilin gua l education.
is

the

latter,

however,

ass imla tory.

To

the

date

no

program
lan guage

is

on the mat te r

of b i l in gu al

If the goal

bilingual,

policy

n a t i o n a l l y or in the s ta t e of Michigan,
position

not

then the

exists,

but

either

w h i c h takes a de f i n i t e

education.

It

is w i th i n

this vague, n o n - c o m m i t t a l p o st ur e that it b ec om es compromised,
thereby

rendering

it

as

an

when it become s e n t a n g l e d

ineffec ti ve

program

for Ch ic a n o s

in the po li tic s of language m i n o r i ­

ties.
It was
an

in the ab se nc e

ed u c a t io n a l

trist

language

organization

p o li c y

known

a c c o m m o d a t i n g to assail
ties

in

the

state

of

of an in st it uti ona l
that,

as

U.S.

the basic

Michigan.

in

1989,

English,

rights
Dr.

of

com mi tm en t
the

to

e t h no ce n-

Inc.

found

it

language m i n o r i ­

Josu6

Go nz al ez

stat es

that the U.S. En g l i s h m o v e m e n t ' s h i s t r i o n i c s should remind us
that

the

battle

(N.A.B.E.

NEWS,

involvem en t
bilin gu al

on

for

equity

1987).
the

an
the

ed ucation does

educati on al
social,

people s"

This battle

part

political arena becau se

of

not occur

over

polit ica l

the

de b a t e

on

in the

it "is no longer r e g a r d ed s t r i c t l y as
also

political,

and

ec on om ic

the

as

from

in the s c ho ol s but

but

1979,

far

sug ge st s

Michicanos

m ea su re

(Pifer,

pre s u p p o s e s

in ed uc at io n is

p.

a b i l i t y to

5).

as

a strategy

aspirations

P o l it ic al

interact

for

in

of

r e al iz ing
Hi sp an ic

involvement
a

also

so ci o c u l t u r a l

50
ambienc e where language p o l i c y is formulated and is g e n e r a l l y
regarded

as off-limits

R e c o g ni zi n g
the

larger

that

with

political

inter action,

the

illustrates

how

later

from

saved

the

arena

is a m i c r o c o s m

so cie ty and that po litical rela ti on s reflect

majority/minority
de ali ng

to Michicanos.

fo r m u l at io n

it

was

the

the
of

bilingual

c o mp rom ise d

grips

of

an

or g a n i z a ti o n by language m i n o r i t y

foll ow in g

in

the

chapter,

program
early

intervention.

this
in

policy,

stages

ultra-conservative

of

and

re fo r m

C HA PTE R

III

THE F OR M U L A T I O N OF BI L I N G U A L E D U C A T I O N P R OG R A M POLICY

The Bilingual E d u c a t i o n L a w of the state of Michigan, P.
A. 294 (1974), marked a n e w d i r e ct io n for ed uc ati on in general
and

a

new

outlook

toward

speakers

of

other

languages.

P r e v i o u s l y in Mi chigan education, bi lingual educ at io n had been
excluded as an instru ct io na l vehicle, and language mi no ri ti es
repressed.
to

the

The industrial state of Mi ch i g a n was no exce pt ion

strains

campaigns
century.

of

which

xenophobia

swept

In 1915,

our

nor

to

nation

for example,

the

"Ame ri ca ni za ti on "

du r i n g

the

the Na ti on al

early

20th

A m er i c a n i z a t i o n

Co mmittee launched an "English First" proje ct in Detroit, with
the

co o p e ra ti o n

employers
ization

the

local

Board

of

Commerce.

Industrial

like Henry Ford made a tt end an ce at these A m e r i c a n ­

classes

(Crawford,

of

mandatory

1989).

for

Chapt er

I

sp ea ker s
of

this

of

other

study

languages

delves

more

ex t e n s i v e l y into the a s s i m i l a t o r y process of language m i n o r i ­
ties

in

America.

It

process,

bilingual

(Liebman,

19 82).

Prior

to

1974,

language policy.

is

in te resting

to

note

education

was

viewed

the

of

Michigan

state

that,

as

had

a

no

in

this

detr im ent

official

The idea of te aching M i c h ig an 's chil dre n in

51

52
other languages was an affron t to l o ng -e sta bl ish ed traditions.
Yesterday's

immigrants

education.

E ar ly

language
socially

qu ic kl y

to

advance

process

of

hardships

childre n' s children.
people,

a l l e g e d l y pro sp er ed

that

m in or it ie s
and

without

either

economically

affected

their

bilingual

as si mil at ed

or

su ffered

chi ldr en

and

a

their

For these obdurate, obs ti nat e classes of

a s i n k - o r - s w i m mode

of educ at io n

was

the

norm.

The

human t r a g e d y was that far too ma n y language mi no r i t i e s "sank"
in pr op o r t i o n

to those who

learned h ow to "swim."

point is the Michi ca no s who,

A case

as a language group, d e m o n s t r a t e

all the symptoms of an e d u c a t i o n a l l y negl ec te d minority,
minority

g ro up

which

"sank"

jure s o c i a l i z a t i o n policies

Chicanos

in

as

a result

of

de

facto

or a

and

de

and practices.

in Michigan

Chi canos

in Mi ch ig an

du ri n g

the

first

half

of

the

20th

ce n t u r y were no e x c ep ti on to other pr ev ai li ng attitu des of the
■hirnp'S-

In t ^ ^

object

of

n£ £

re pressive

0

1920s,

atti tu de s
after

0

x 3 rnp Is, they v/crc t c

caused,
the

in

xe no ph ob ia

which

1919-1920,

and the en actment of re s tr ic ti ve

1924.

resulted

for1

war,

part,

by

Red

Scare

the

the
of

laws of 1921 and

These restr ic ti ve laws forced em ployers in the Midwest,

who were hard pressed in finding a new source of cheap labor,
to

tap

(Corwin,
ly,

the

the

rich

1974;

labor

of

Mex ic o

Weeks & S pi el be rg -Be ni tez ,

first Chicanos

themselves

pool

segregated,

in

and

the

1979).

Southwest

C o n s eg ue nt -

the state of Mi c h i g a n often

rele ga ted

to

living

in

found

substand ard

53
houses, and g e n e r a l l y un de rg oi ng all the hardships of d i s c r i m ­
ination; nevertheless, they managed to establish roots and eke
out a living

in what was to become an adopted state.

In spite of these and other human travails,
of

M ic hi ca no s

exact

continued

number

is diffi cul t

state; nevertheless,
a

number

to

that

gro w
to

much

ascertain

the

1920s.

throughout

The

the whole

"the 1930 census listed 13,336 Mexicans,

varies

with

the

(Michigan Writer's Project,
caused

throughout

the numbers

ebb

1941,

and

p.

rise

111).

of

employment"

This growth was

in large part because the Mexica n populat ion provided

of

the

needed

agric ult ura l

uns killed

sectors

of

labor

in

Michigan.

the

Many

industrial

and

Michic an os

are

des ce nd an ts from braceros who arrived from Texas or immigrated
from Mexico.
with

The bracero p r o g r a m was establis hed in agr eement

Mexi co

Ame ric an

labor

co ntinues
labor

during

in

to

force
the

Mic hi ga n

attach men t

I

principal

even

45,000

Services,

War

(Gamboa,

to

supplant

1990).
source

though,

to agri cul tur e

approximately
Migrant

be

World

as

a

of

date,

cheap

whole,

is minimal.

families

To

the

Mic higan Department

La

Raza

agricultural

the Mic hi can o' s

In 1988,

were count ed

dw i n d li ng

for example,

by the

of Social

Office

of

Services,

as

having been soc ia ll y served in Michig an (Michigan Ag ri cultural
Statistics,

1988).

In this same year,

50,473 migrant workers

18 years of age and older were counted by a Mich iga n Economics
for Human Development
Director,
1988 ) .

Manual

(MEHD)

Garcia

intake report,

(personal

ac cording to

communication,

June

its
1,

Garcia

(1979)

stat es

who began to "settle out"

that

the

large

number

of Ch ic an os

in M i c h i g a n d u r i n g the 1950s proved

to u n se tt le native M i c h i g a n i a n s .

At the end of crop harvests,

an inc re as in g number of m i g r a n ts became Mi ch i c a n o s

instead of

m i g r a t i n g back to the Southwest.

they began

As a co ns equence,

to es t a b l i s h p e r ma ne nt r e si de n c e s in the same areas where the y
previously

sought

process was,

se as o n al

farm

in large measure,

work.

This

"s ettling

due to an increase of a g r i c u l ­

tural m e c h a n i z a t i o n and the d e cl in e

in farm labor demand.

ad di t i o n a l

wages

sector

in ducement

(Weeks

&

was

higher

S p i e l b e r g - B e n i t e z,

cit iz en s

of M i c h i g a n s e t t l e d

Detroit,

Pontiac,

Huron,

Monroe,

co mm u n i t i e s
example,
than

Saginaw,

as

in

1979).

the
The

An

industrial
new

Ch ica no

in such c o m m u n i t i e s as Lansing,

Muskegon,

and G ra nd Rapids,

such

out"

Holland,

Imlay City,

Flint,

among other cities.
Adrian,

and

Today,

Fennville,

can boast of a C h ic an o c o m m u n i t y po pu l a t i o n

Port

for

of more

25%.
X en op h ob ic

s en ti m e n t s

began

to

appear

as

co m mu ni ti es

dealt with the pr oblems e n c o u n t e r e d and en ge nd e r e d by Chi can os
d ro pp in g

out

of

the

migrant

stream.

The

fol lo wi ng

oral

account by Senor Jos6 Loz an o (personal com mun ic at io n, Ma rch 6,
1989),

who arrived

in Lansing,

the r e c e pt io n ac corded

Michigan

to migra nt

in 1936,

e x e m pl if ie d

families:

Como mi gr an t es no ten iamos iglesia pS cuando a uno
se le ofreci a cosa espiritual.
Ibamos a bautizar a
una de mis hijas a la catedral.
El monsenor, en
paz descanse, d e s pu e s de d e ci rl e lo que queriamos,
nos rayd el disco.
Nos dijo que 6ramos una bola de
ateos, ab a r c an do a todos los me jicanos, porque no
ibamos a la misa los domingos.
Mi co mp adr e le

55
reclam 6 que p£ no so tro s como
de sc an s o - - q u e t r a b a j & ba mo s duro
g o s . No nos ba uti zd a mi hija,
Tom&s donde nos re ci bi e r o n muy

m i g ra nt es no habia
hasta en los dominy nos fuimos a sto.
bien.

Eventually, Chicanos re so rte d to founding mutual aid societies
and es tab lis hin g their own churches to meet their physical and
sp iritual

needs.

According

to Haney

(1979),

who reported

on

Chicano age nc y activity, mutual aid soc ieties were es ta blished
to deal

with

prac tic ed
dec ade

the di scr imi nat ion ,

against

of

the

them.

1950s

It

prejudice,

is worthwh ile

rev ealed

widespread

and
to

segr ega tio n

note

that

the

exp loi ta ti on

and

s uf fer ing on the part of migrants and their families
sion on Mi g r a t o r y Labor,

( C omm is ­

1951).

In the decade of the 1960s, one finds that the conditions
for Chican o migrants

had not

A film d o c u m e n t a r y enti tle d
at tested to this fact.

to any d r ast ic extent.

"Harvest of Shame"

Moreover,

the same d o c u m e n t a r y (MEMO,
the

improved

(Murrow,

1963)

a 1986 CBS News follow-up on

1963) found little or no change in

living or working conditions.

State reports produced

by

the Mic hig an Civil Rights Co mmi ssi on by the a u t h o r i t y of P.A.
368 of 1978, as amended,
working,
C.R.

and

educatio nal

Commission,

Bilingual
As
Chicanos
created

further undersc ore the wage, health,
condit ion s

of Ch ica no

migrants

(MI

1968).

Education P r o g r a m Policy for Michicanos

regards
in

the

educatio nal

Michigan,

in

1966

needs
the

of

the

United

"settle

States

out"

Congress

the Migrant E d u c a t i o n P r ogr am in order to meet their

special educational needs nationw ide

(Gayeff,

1986).

For the

56
state

of

tim el y

Michigan,

becau se

Mi chi gan

this

83,696

enactment

mig ran ts

could

were

in the following year

not

have

worki ng

(Garcia,

been

the

1979).

more

fields

of

The Mi ch iga n

De par tme nt of Education, t h ro ug h its M i gra nt Edu ca ti on Office,
has been res pon sib le for se rvi ng Chic ano mi grants in the state
since

1968,

to al le via te their

about by language and cu lt ur al

educational

cond it ion brought

needs.

Since the early 1900s when Mexicans and Me xic an Ameri can s
began to arrive in Michigan,

it has been est ablished that they

have been the objects of repression.
Mic hi ca no s
education
of

find

(Flores,

Mic hig an

mi nor iti es

themsel ves
1986).

began

to

in the

mar ked ly

behind

in

the

To address this concern,

con sid er

early

As one result,

policies

1970s.

related

R e c o g n i z in g

to

today's
area

of

the state
language

the educati on al

needs of ch ild re n of 1 i m i t e d - E n g l i s h - sp ea ki ng ab il it y in 1971,
the

M ic hi g an

entitled,

"The

Departm ent
Common

d e c la ra ti on stated,

of

Goals

Ed uc ati on
of

app roved

Mic higan

a

doc ume nt

Educ ati on. "

This

in part:

Michiga n edu cation must recognize and respect the
needs
for
special
academic
and
ad m i n is tr at iv e
measures in schools servi ng student s whose native
tongue is one other than English.
These students
should be en cou rag ed and assisted to d e ve l o p their
skills in their nati ve language while they are
acqu iri ng p ro f i c i e n c y in English . . . Bilingual
programs should be pro vi ded in order that students
may develo p their bilingual skills and enhance
their educational experi en ce rather than be forced
into the position of a d i sa dv ant age d student.
(p.
5)
In the same year,

the M i c h i g a n

legislature,

of the State Board of Education,

for the

with the support

first

time moved to

57
enact
for

House

Bill

language

Mic hi ga n 's

(H.B.)

4462,

minorities.

first

effort

a bilingual

This
to

m a nda te

language mi n o r i t y p o p u l a ti on had
This
mak in g

chapter

g en er at es

that will

achievement.

died

eq u it y

in

committee.

services

to

its

failed.

a the or y

be ap pli ed

First,

bill

educa tio n me asu re

of

educatio nal

to Mi ch ica no

the chapter

policy­

educ ati ona l

examines

the

under­

f o rm ula tio n of

bi lingual edu cation p o l i c y in the state of M i c h ig an by tracin g
its dev el op me n t
strate

how

res pon se

and

why

in the

later

proposes

when

to

early 1970s.

a

to the call

co m p r o m i s e d
years

in the

pol ic y

deemed

for an equal
p ol iti cal
a

delimit

intent

is to d e m o n ­

sound

ped agogical

a

educati on al

process.

national
the

The

The

o p p o r t u n i t y is
chapter

e t hn oc en tr is t

ex isting

language

ends

15

or gan iza tio n
policy.

Two

se par ate political events related to language poli cy and which
tr ans pir ed

in a span of about 15 years will be examined.

dif fe r e n t i a l
events

input

with in

the

and

impact

po l i ti ca l

which

arena

Ch ic ano s

will

be

had

The

on

both

emphasized.

The

intent is to dem on st ra te the lack of poli ti ca l clout, u n i f i c a ­
tion,

and movement tow ar d pol it ica l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of M i c h i ­

canos

before

and

after

the

1976

im pl em e nt at io n

of bilingual

ed uct ion pr og ra m p ol i c y and how Ch icanos have impacted po li c y
formulation

since

then.

The

political

focus

suggests

that

Chican o input is important in d e te r m i n i n g educati on al policy.

58
A C o m p r o m is ed La ngu ag e P o l i c y
Chi ca nos
ed uc ati on

in

were unable to
1971.

What

impact the pa ssa ge of bilingual

had

lacked

in this

first

effort

to

legislate language p o li c y were negotiations between m a in st r e a m
p ol i t i c i a n s

and

fo rm ul at io n
education,
who

Michicanos.

process

there

reform.
was

be ca us e

in

the

early

to

1970s

impact

the

bilingual

as a fl edgling program, did not have the following

ac kn ow le dg ed

tional

They were unab le

a

it as a st and ard -be are r
F r o m another

dearth

of

perspective,

res ea rc h

for

Chicano

educa­

in the early 1970s

literature

on

Chicanos

and

bilin gua l ed uc ati on to pr ov id e Michicano leaders the kno wledge
or

educ ati on al

evidence

for a c kn ow led gin g

the

p ro gra m as an

eq ui t y measure.
A sec on d
was

made

on

effort to formulate bilingual

May

14,

1973.

This

time,

education po li c y

Representative

Daisy

Elliott, a legislator fr o m Detroit, with the as sistance of the
Detroit

Task

Force

on

B i 1 ing ual-Bicultural

Education,

chaired b y Jorge La m br in os and Raquel Moreno,
4750 to the Mi chigan Legis la tu re .
October

of

1974,

the

fo rm ulation

introduced H.B.

Ni ne tee n months

Govern or Mi ll i k e n signed P.A.

Inasmuch as the Chicanos
of

co­

294

later,

in

into law.

from Detroit were able to influence

policy,

their

effect

was

confined

to

ral lying c o m m u n i t y support and serving as an adv is or y group to
their d i s t r i c t re pre sentative.
The

Detroit Task

sites of a successful

Force

had

not de mo n s t r a t e d

the r e q u i ­

interest group as its pa rt i c i p a t i on did

not d i r e c t l y impact bili ng ua l

policy formulation.

Represen­

59
tative Elliott's role as a key in terventionist was indicative
that Ch icanos were still de p en de nt upon ma in s t r e a m politicians
to pass H.B.
that

this

4750.

on this

p o w er l es s / p a t r o n

Re p r e s e n t a t i v e
mising

Based

the

Elliot t

original

in

fact,

one can ed it orialize

rela ti on sh ip

the

do minant

language

policy

may

have

placed

position

of

for

enactment.

its

compro­

Chicanos had no options to negotiate on the formulation of the
1973

language policy.
The

the

p r e -e na ctm en t

internal

submitted.

track

dy na mi cs

As will

that bilingual

to

record

which

months,

the

pr oposed

to nine he ar in gs

un derwent

no

of H.B.

H.B.

4750

language

it was

alludes
pol ic y

in this

less

than

four

to
was

process

e d u cat io n was co mp rom is ed to the d e tr im ent

submitted

revisions.

this

be demonstrated,

Michi ga n' s language minorities.
seven

of

of

For a period of one year and

bilingual

education

bill

in the House and Senate,
sig ni fic an t

su bstitute

where

was
it

language

Fo l l o w i n g is the pr og re ss iv e pre-en ac tm ent histor y

4750

in House and Senate comm it te e hearings:

Date

Su bmitted to

Anno un ce me nt

05/14/73

Introduced
the House

HJ 52
p g . 1100

Referred to
Comm it te e on
Education

03/28/74

House C o m mi tt ee
on Educ at io n

HJ 45

Referred to 2nd
reading with
language
changes

04/04/74

House C o m mi tte e
on Ed u c a t i o n

HJ 49
pg.1018

Referred to
Co mmittee on
Appropriations

in

Result

60
Date

Submitted

07/12/74

House Co mm itt ee
on A p p r o p r i a ­
tions

HJ 102
p g . 2617

2nd & 3rd read­
ing with l a n g ­
uage substitute

07/13/74

Introduced to
Senate

SJ 99
p g . 1607

Referred to
Senate Commit­
tee on E d u c a ­
tion

09/24/74

Senate C o m m i t t e e
on Ed u c a t i o n

SJ 103
pg. 1702

General orders
withsubstitute
language

09/25/74

Senate Co m m i t t e e
on E d u c a t i o n

SJ 104
p g . 1731

3rd reading
with language
substitute

09/25/74

Senate Co m m i t t e e
on Ed u c a t i on

SJ 105
pg. 1746

Passed, to take
immed iate
effect (i.e.)

09/26/74

House Co mm i tt ee
on E d u ca ti on

HJ 110
pg. 2893

Senate substi­
tute concurred
in i.e., order­
ed enrolled

10/08/74

Governor

HJ 111
pg. 2990

Presented
Governor

10/17/74

Governor

HJ 2967

Signed into law

Chica no
policy,
2

input

to

Result

Ann ou ncement

into the

formulation of the 1973

to

language

even though better or ganized than the previous effort

years

earlier,

was

structure of power
ef fective

still

do minated

by

the

hierarchical

in the leg is la ti ve process;

political

behavior,

compromise,

and

specifically,
protocol.

As

Michicanos were in the "cocoon" stage of political dev el op me nt
to

be able

extent
process

of
was

to e f f e c t i v e l y
their

a rt icu la te

involvement

through

their

into
Detroit

mi n o r i t y
the

concerns,

po li c y

the

formulation

representative,

Daisy

61
Elliott,

who played a key role

for the enac tm en t of P.A.

294

of 1974.
The state of Mic hi ga n' s Bilingual E d u ca ti on Act of 1974
provided for the establishment,
programs

in bilingual

state

Michigan,

of

these programs.

implementation, and funding of

ed uca tio n

and

the

in the public schools

c e rt if ic at io n

of

of the

teachers

under

The Act further provided for the creation of

a parental ad visory co m m i tt ee at the local dis trict level, as
well
among
only

as

re search

other
part

original
tion

e va lua ti on

provisions.
of

the

These

pol ic y

(Appendix

some

bill.

key

m uc h- ne ed ed

B. )

These

c u r r i c u l u m development,

provisions
which

of

P.A.

remained

294
from

were
the

by the Detroit Task Force C o a l i ­
provisions

What was not

language

and

language

document suppo rt ed

com pro mis ed
were

and

sections

educational services

are

included
intended

the

in P.A.
to

result

of

a

294 of 1974

provide

extra,

to Chicanos.

One such re c o mm e nd at io n which was co mp rom ise d was section
7 of the Detroit Task Fo rc e Coa li tio n

language policy:

Section 7 - A school board may est ab li sh on a full
or
part-time
basis
pre-school
or summer- sc ho ol
programs in bi lingual ed ucation for chi ldren of
limited E n g l i s h - s pe a k in g ab i l i ty or join with other
local school di s t r ic ts in est abl is hi ng such p r e ­
school or summer programs.
Pre-school or summer
programs in bi lingual education shall not s u b s t i ­
tute for programs in bilingual ed ucation required
to be provided dur in g the regular school year.
(p.
8)

Other

provis io ns

of

a

Chican o

language

po l i c y

which

were

compro mi sed in the le gi slative process will be d e mon st rat ed in
Chapter

IV's

imp lementation process.

62
Mi ch iga n

was

the

second

state

in

the

nation,

after

Mas sac hus ett s, which had formulated bi lingual ed ucation pol ic y
in

1974.

It

was

respond

to

the

state' s

Chicanos.

a

new

ed uc ational

l a n g u a ge -r el at ed
Th e y were

on ly

two

for

language

groups,

intended
needs

of

imp le me nt at io n

Hispanics

to
the

language mi n o r i t y

initiating bilingual

In the first year of

served bilingually.
ics

ed uc ati ona l

the singular

wh ose needs were re sp o n s i b l e
tion policy.

app ro ac h

and

educa­

(1975-76),

Vietnamese,

were

By far the greater m a j o r i t y were H i s p a n ­

(Bilingual E d u c at io n Report,

1976-79).

The Sym bol ic M ean ing of Bilingual Ed u c a ti on
Bilingual
for

education,

add re s si ng

minoriti es,

was

a

becau se of

variety

already

of

one

social
of

po li ti ci ze d programs to emerge
level.

Therefore,

the ear ly 1970s,
v er sy

it

had

bilingual

when

a

created.

separate

channels

to

was

(Navarro,
The

most

for

language

c o n t r ov er si al

and

from this era at the national

One

reason

the

a r t i c u l at io n

for

the

social con cerns

constit uen cy,

realize

the

importance

formulated

in

in its d e v e l o p m e n t was the c o n t r o ­

being part of the broader
as

co nc er ns

state po l ic y was being

inherent

educa tio n

its sy mbolic

their

lacked

the

interests

in

of

co nt r o v e r s y

of

the

as

program

of Hispanics,
regular
the

who,

political

policy

arena

1985).
Bilingual

Mi chi ga n' s

language

Act

of

1974

minority

mark ed

students;

a

new

that

outlook
is,

toward

Michicanos,

who were the singular pro po ne nt s most re sp o n s i b l e for bri nging

63
attention

to

its

needs.

It

meant

an

equal

educational

o pp or tun ity and the thres hol d to social and economic eq uality
by

engaging

into

an

educational

cycle of educational

mode

intended

underachievement.

The

to

break

the

long established

linguistic as si mi la ti on "chains" had been cracke d by P.A. 294,
but not broken.
Fifte en years
gual

education

purpose.

of hindsight had d e m o ns tr at ed

in

M i ch ig an

In the dec ad e

ac hie vem ent

of

had

of the 1980s,

Chi can os

still

Instead of raisin g achi eve men t
education

aroused

social status,
of P.A.
dict
or,

not

passions

intended

(Flores,

levels of students,

about

bilin gua l

its

the educational

pers ist ed

issues

and educational myths.

294 of 1974,

achieve d

that b i l i n ­

of

under­
1986).

bilingual

political

power,

At the very inception

education appeared

to c o n t r a ­

the ma j o r i t y cu lt ure 's assumption about the meltin g pot
more

culture

accurately,
(Cummins,

about

1988).

the

conformist

Halfway

through

ethic
its

in American

first

year

of

implementation, m a n y individuals and c o m m u n i t y groups t h r o u g h ­
out

the

state

were

ex pre ssi ng

d i s s a t is fa ct io n over
local

school

(Special

the

le gi slature

the substantial d i sr eg ard

dist ric ts

Study

to

Co mm it te e

Concurrent Resolut ion

487,

and
on

the

Depart men t

Bilingual

of the
of

their
law by

Educa tio n

Education,

House

1976).

The implement ati on failure of bilingual education policy
brings atten tio n to the formulation of an educa tio n poli cy for
language

minori tie s

proc e sse d

without

political

with those it was sup pos ed to impact the most.

interaction

The result was

64
an

i n ef f ec ti v e

pl ac at e

l eg is la ti ve

the Detroit

The

gesture

tactic but

Bili ngu al

str on g c o m m i t m e n t

which

poor marks

Im pl em e n t a t i o n F a i l u r e
The

which

was

Task F or ce Coalition;

politically-expedient
manipulative

m a nda te

to its

Act

to

it was a symbolic,

merit ed

high marks

as

a

embody

a

in good pedagogy.

of Bilingual

Ed u c a t i o n

formulated

of

Ed u c a ti on

1974

did

implementation.

not

When this

la ng ua ge

p o l i c y was to go into effect in the 1975-76 school year, there
was

a paucity,

if not

total

absence,

of the major

r eq ui si te s

for ef f e c t i v e pr ogr amming; that is, p r o p e r l y trained teachers,
knowledgeable
materi al s,
training
An

a d m in i st ra to rs,

and

pub li c

model

support.

curricula,

Neither

were

i n s ti tu ti on s p r o d u c i n g endorsed

of f i c e

at

the

State

level

to

in st ructional
there

bilingual

provi de

the

teacher

teachers.

much-needed

l e a d e r s h i p was also un av ailable.
Since
1974,
school

it

the

was

enactment

de st i n e d

aid.

This

i m p l em en t at io n

as

of

to

was

the

fail
a

Bi lingual

because

major

determined

by

Education

of

the

ob st ac le

to

its

H.R.

of

1976 .

487

lack

Act

of

of

state

effec tiv e
In

the

pr oce ss of the fo r m ul a ti on of language policy,

there had been

no

and

articulation

policy

was

school

year,

bec a m e

clear.

between

su pposed
the

to

impact

School

d i s r e g a r d e d the law.

majority

l e gi sla tor s

impact.

Halfway

of

a

districts

c o mp rom ise d
servi ng

into

those

the

language

language

the

1974-76
policy

minorities

The Depar tm en t of Ed u c a t i o n ' s c o m m i t m e n t

towar ds i m p le me nt ing b i l in gua l educ ati on was also questioned.

65
These

complaints,

respond

to

coupled

with

implement at io n

co mm uni ti es

via

some

the

De par tme nt' s

questions

legislators

raised

reg arding

failure

by

the

to

Michi can o

complaints,

prompted the introduction of House Concurrent Res ol ut io n 487.
The

resolution,

introduced

Hollister

(D-Lansing),

Bilingual

Education.

adopted
initial

and

the

created
In

Re pr ese nt at iv e

a Special

April

1976,

was

directed

Co mm itt ee

implementation process

The

by

of P.A.

David

C.

S tu dy Co mm itt ee

on

the
to

of

the

Bilingual

look

was

into

the

294.

first task of the Study Committee

implement ati on

resolution

Educa tio n

for ana ly zin g the
Act

was

to rev ie w

and discus s a series of concerns rep res en ti ng the views of the
Chicano

language co m m u n i t y at large,

Departm ent
State

of

Board

Hollister.
stru ctu re

Ed uc ati on

Member,
With

these

Dr.

ma int ain ed

inroads

them

outside
concern,

who

large

represen ted

bill amended P.A.
language

known as P.A.
Hol lister's
bilingual

Salas,

a

294,

its

intervention,

Chicano

within

David

the

in fra ­

Michicanos

were

As

a result

of

the

Re pr es en ta ti ve David Hollister,

segment

minorities.

education

arena.

of

North

Side

5955 on Fe b r u a r y 4, 1976.

This

which changed

294 of 1976.

a

R e pr es en ta ti ve

individuals

Chicano voters, sponsored H.B.

for

State

through the

into the political m a c hi ne ry which

Chicano communit y's

way

Gumerc ind o

through
two

funneled

of the po li c y formulation process,

begin nin g to make
had

and

to

as

The

Lansing's

it in a more meaningful

new Hollister

bill

became

As a conseque nce of Repre sen tat ive
he

became

in Michigan."

known

as the

"father

of

This

study

appro pr ia te
Chicanos.

re sponse
Yet,

entangled
Such

asserts

was

it

to
is

the

case

pr og r a m

legislative

Therefore,

the

po li cy which
a

the

power

education

educational

ineffective
context

This

when

is

a

formulation
study,

for mul ati on
and
of

died
an

microcosm
of

in

of

bilingual

in 1971

expected

is

an

needs

of

it becomes

of America n society.
of

and

bilingual

focusing

in the state of Michigan,

arena

began

the

initial

policy.

reflect ion

political

a dd re ss in g
rendered

in

for mul ati on of po li c y

was

bilingual

in the so ci op ol it ic al

educ ati on

the

that

assumes

American

brokers and the powerless,

that

p r og ra m

again

r e l a t io ns hi p

the

society.

education
filed

on

in

1973

between

that

is,

the

language

mi nor it i e s .
Culture translates
guide col lec ti vi ti es
institutions.

in their d ai ly occup ati ons within social

Actions,

specific cultural

into spe cific values and goals which

decisions,

and att itudes all reflect

tra ns mi ss io ns which are rooted

ient, collective, and end ur in g larger cultur e
The

"assimilation"

societ y

at

mentality

large,

as

stated

prevented the ad apt ati on and
political system.

towards
in

(Trueba,

language

Chapter

in a r e s i l ­

minorities

I,

by

his to ri ca ll y

integration of Chicanos

In Michigan,

1988).

into the

this att itude translates

into

an unequal, d i s pr op or ti on at e power rel ation to which Chicanos
have

had

to

adapt

formulation process.
in

the

policy

in

order

to

part ici pat e

in

the

policy

This power rel at io n is best exemplified

fo rm ula tio n

process

of

bilingual

education

67
begi nni ng

in

organized

Chicano

the

e ar ly

1970s,

and

again

in

av erting

an

attempt to d el im it the p r o g r a m p o l i c y in 1989.

Impact

What

in P o l i c y Fo r m u l a t io n

becomes

ap pa re nt

in

the

dy na m i cs

of

bilingual

education po li cy f o r mu la tio n is the almost nil involvement of
Chicanos

in the early 1970s and an assumed

so p h i s t i c a ti on by

av erting a n a t io n a l l y - o r g a n i z e d attempt to n e g a t i v e l y
exi sting

language p ol i c y 15 years

impact

later.

In 1973, Chicanos were limited to the political pe ri ph er y
of po li c y formulation to the extent that they only interacted
with

their

when

bi lingual

did

not

legislative

enter

re p r e se nt at iv e

educ at io n

p o l i c y was

into the r e a l m

Furthermore,

the

limited

as

an

first

advisory

group

formulated.

They

of true po li tic al

input

into

the

not io n

interaction.
of

policy­

mak in g was transfo rm ed to co n f o r m to the knowledge, behaviors,
and

interpretive p r o ces se s

cians.

It

bilingual

is at this
educ at io n

due to the

of the do mi n a n t cu lture's p o l i t i ­

st age

of the

p r o g r a m pol ic y

formulation

begins

to

nrorpss

that

be co mp romised

lack of suppo rt within the poli ti cal

machinery.

The involvement of the singular Detroit Co alition can be
viewed

as

involvement

a

means
served

to
to

placate

the

legitimate

Chicano

the

c o m mu ni ty

p o l i c y -m ak in g

whose

process.

The Coalition,

because of a lack of a power re la ti o n s h i p with

the

machinery,

po litical

did

not

significantly

impact

the

bilingual ed ucation p o l i c y fo rm ulation process, but rather was
pr o s ti tu te d by it.

This

issue of po litical manipulation,

at

68
the ver y inception of bilin gu al ed u c a ti on p o l i c y formulation,
points

to

a greater

problem

in the

so ci op ol it ic al

scheme

of

ef fe ct ua ti ng me ani n gf ul cha ng e for Chicanos; that is, the need
to

conform

processes

to

of

the

the

knowledge,

dom in an t

behaviors,

members

of

the

and

in te rpretive

policy

formulation

process.
Fi ft ee n
1976,

years

after

the

im pl eme nta tio n

Chi ca no s

in

the state

sophistication

in

the pol it ic al

when

education,

bilin gua l

social

mobility,

was

the

absen ce

edu cational
U.S.

of

Mic hi ga n' s

impose E ng li s h as
introduced

in

sessions.
to

resources

As
and

an

gained a refined

symbol

an

for Chicano

u l t r a c o n s e r v at iv e

institutional

co mmi tme nt

to

an

the e t h n o c e n t r i s t , ri gh t-winged

launched

an eff or t to assail the basic

la nguage minorities.

the official language
legisla ti on

primacy

of

English

(bilingual education)
(Michigan

Legislation

in Mic hig an

prior

to

to

had been

the

1989-90

and

limit

use

of

state

for a s s i m i l a t i n g new language

De pa rt me nt

of

Civil

Rights

Memorandum,

1989).

the

support,

motives

of

previous

the

m ino rit ies
18,

in

These p ro po sal s were pr ed ic at ed on a pe rceived need

protect

April

294

This was most evident

a th reshold
by

P.A.

in 1989.

language policy,

En g l is h mo vem ent

rights

as

arena.

t hr ea te ne d

re fo rmi st o r g a n i z a ti o n
In

of Mic hig an had

of

U.S.
it

behind

acq ui si ti on

of

Englis h
became
the

mov eme nt
app arent

al l- Am er ic an

En gl is h

skills.

gaine d
that

there

theme
This

national

of

were

atten tio n
ulterior

prom oti ng

mo ve me nt

was

the
more

69
con ce rn ed about s ub ju ga tin g language mi no ri ti es than upgrading
their

language

skills.

Two

Tanton of Pe t o sk y and U.S.

Mic hig an

individuals,

Dr.

John

Re p r e se nt at iv e Wi l l i a m Broomfield

of the M e t r o p o l i t a n Detroit area, were the prime movers of the
U.S.

E ng li sh movement
Sixteen

states

r ec en t l y as 1988
was

no

had

legislated

(English only,

exc ep ti on to

mov em en t

at the national

reformers
last

alter

policy.

The

attempt

language

in Mi chigan was

to

E n gl is h

1988).

an organized
to

and state levels.
Only policies

as

The state of Mic higan

effort

exi sting

by the

bilingual

impose E n gl is h

in the 1989-90

U.S.

as

English

education

the

official

leg is la ti ve session.

It was an attempt to d e li mi t an al r e a dy c o mp ro mis ed pr og ra m in
the po litical arena where, 14 years earlier, Chicanos had been
limited

in

impacting

program

po li c y

realize

their

due

the
to

formula ti on
the

interests

in

lack
the

of

of

bi lingual

po litical

political

education

channels

arena.

While

to
the

political action of the Detroit Task Force C o al it ion may have
been

limited to external

1970s,

or peripheral co nt ac ts

Chicanos were succes sf ul

in the early

in ave rti ng the U.S.

English

moveme nt 's attempt to impose ethnoce ntr ist legislation in 1989
by coa le s c in g

to

protect

har d- ear ned

educational

and

social

gains.
Chicanos,
recognize

the

represented,

in a

little

symbolic

more

than

importance

a decade,

which

had

bilingual

come

to

educatio n

that is, the threshold for upward social m o b i l i ­

ty.

They had also gained positions within the state structure

and

had

become

refined

in

the

political

interactive

skills

70
needed

to adapt

to

John Ro y Ca stillo
Director

a n ew role

in the

(Memo, April

18, 1989),

of the State De par tm ent

wid ely di st r ib ut e d

po li c y -m ak in g

process.

for example, as the

of Civil Rights,

his of fice's pos iti on on U.S.

issued and
English:

We do not find that there is a need for the English
language or Of ficial E n gli sh amendments.
Further,
we foresee several da n g e rs in adoption.
Applica­
tion of legal r e s t r i c ti on s to a single language
threatens g ove rnm en t programs aimed at as sisting
literac y and p a r t i c i p a t i o n in the d a i l y life of our
society.
The threat that the effect will be "En g­
lish Only" is real.
(p. 2)
Similarly, state offices which had been created since the
initial

imple men tat io n of bilingual

in

and

1974

defend

which

language

were

Affairs,

Hispanic

Educ ati on

the

threat.

Yzaguirre,

Pre sident

to

movement.
was

to

dohatp

formulation

of

information.
the

of
a

one

by Ch icanos

rallied

The

of

Office

Ed uc at io n

worked

to

Office,

repel

particular

Nat ional

the

case

Council

rpp rps p nt -s Hv p

of

in

of
the

La

Spanish
and

U.S.

the

Engli sh

1988,
Raza,

U.S.

to

Raul
was

English

which was held at the Lansin g Hilton,

pa rt ic ip an ts

information

e t hn oc en tr is t

This

political

Bili ngu al

In

The debate,

provide

rights.

Offi ce

movem ent 's

invitpd

ad min ist ere d

minority

Speaking

educ at ion p r og ra m poli cy

is anothe r

int eractive

for

impacting

leg isl ati on
mode

skills

via

of puttin g
req uired

the

co mm un it y

into practice
to

cha llenge

detr ime nta l policies.
The

threat

to

bilin gua l

uni fic ati on of the Chican o

educ ati on

educational

had

facilitated

the

infrastru ctu re within

state governm ent which co al esc ed with other statewide interest

71
groups to avert its demise.

Bilingual e d uc at ion had become a

symbol of Chican o asp ir at io ns
A c c or di n g
Abner

Co hen

linguistic
of

Navar ro

defines

men

Mic hig an had,

as

political

"Objects,

an th rop olo gis t

acts,

con cep ts

or

that stand a m b i g u o u s l y for a mu ltitude

meanings,

to

(1984),

symbol s

formations

d i s pa ra te

impel

to

in Mic hig an society.

evoke

action"

(p.

sentiments

201).

and

emotions,

Bilingual

and

edu cation

in

in fact, bec om e an important symbol of political

identification.

It was the singular legislat ive p o li cy which

gave Chicano s an aspi ra ti on for bec omi ng co nt ri bu ti ng p a r t i c i ­
pants in Am erican s oc i e t y via education.

The si gn if i ca nc e of

this symbol was enhanced by the U.S. En gli sh m o vem en t's threat
to repeal
The

the mandate.
U.S.

En gli sh

un ifying Chicanos.
the

political

the sur vival
u lt im a t e l y
min or it ie s

depends

interact

1980s

attests

of bil ingual

and

had

served

on

their

to the need

ed uc ati on

purpos e

of

the

political

ability

knowledge"

and

skills

wi ll ing nes s

n e c es sa ry

demonstrated

to a c kn owl edg e

that

in the state of Mic hig an

to

in the political ambience.

cl e a r l y

the

The def ea t of Englis h O n l y legislat ion in

arena

"so ciocultural
and

mov em en t

political

be

able

of
to

absor b

to

Ch ic ano s

language
the

negotiate

in the late

sophistication

in

impacting policy formulati on in compa ri son to the early 1970s.

Summar y
This
edu cation

chapter

has

ske tc he d

pr og ra m po li cy

by

the

for mu la ti on

focusing

first

on

of bilingual
the perv ad in g

72
national

a ss i m i l a t o r y

Mic hi ga n Chicanos.

process

which

filtered

down

to

early

By showin g that duri ng the first half of

the 20th c ent ury they were no exception to the "assimilation"
m e n t a l i t y of

the

times,

were repressed.
as

this

study points

out

that Chicanos

As such, they suffered the same consequences

early Am erican

immigrants.

lagged m a r k e dl y behind

One

result

was

that

Chicanos

in the area of education.

As the Chicano p o p u l a t i o n grew and the need became more
pronounced,

the

need

for

language

The pr o b l e m was that Mi ch i c a n o s

po l i c y

formulation

arose.

in the early 1970s lacked the

socioc ult ura l know led ge to interact in the political e n v i r o n ­
ment.

The result was the formulation of bilingual

po li cy

which

political
an

was

input.

intent

to

co mp r om is ed

due

to

the

lack

education

of

Chicano

This s t u d y asserts that the c om pr om is e was

"water

down"

needed

language

services

by

the

m aj or it y culture becaus e of the percep ti on that the pr o g r a m is
an

appr opr iat e

minorities.
the

sense

were

not

res pon se

for

upward

mobility

of

language

While on the one hand Chicanos were rejected
that

the

original

realized,

the y

did

intents

of

bilingual

manage

to

de ve lo p

education
a

symbolic

si gn ifi can ce on the concep t which served to gradually,
period of 15 years,

in

over a

integrate them into the political process

through the po li tic iza ti on

of bilingual

education.

This chapter's political focus predicted that the abilit y
of

Chicanos

to

gain

access

to

pol ic y- ma ki ng

important in det er mi ni ng educational policy.
this

chapter

treated

the

Chicano's

growth

positions

is

To demonstrate,
in

political

73
s o p h is ti c at io n
language
impact
meanin g

policy.
policy
of

knowledge,
members

15 years

of

What

behaviors,
policy

the

be com es

fo rm ul at io n

bilingual

the

after

by

salient

intent
is

and

by

to

their

acknowledging

ed u c a t i o n
and

first

ability

the

process.

The

to

sy mbolic

co nf or m i n g

in te rpretive pr oc ess es

fo rm ula tio n

formulate

to

the

of dom ina nt
defeat

of

d i s c r i m i n a t o r y leg islatio n again st language mi no ri ti es in 1989
was the
skills
tion.

indicator

that M ic hi ca no s

had att ain ed

needed to par ti ci pa te s u c c e s s f u l l y

the pol itical

in pol ic y f o r m u l a ­

CHAPTER

IV

A C R I TICAL A N A L Y S I S OF THREE D IMENSIONS OF
M I C H I G A N ’S B I L I N G U A L EDU C A T I O N PROGRAMS

B i lingual e d ucation p r o g r a m p o l i c y was formulated at the
m acro level

for im p l e m e n t a t i o n at the micro level.

Who holds

bilingual education d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process positions in both
of these levels

is important to ensure that language policies

are

not compromised.

the

co m p r o m i s e s

program
process,
process

policy
as

indicated

inherent

in

formulation

was

its

is the focus

C h a pters

As

in the previous

Mich i g a n ' s

were

a

bilingual

function

implementation.

of

This

chapter,
e d ucation

the political
implementation

of this chapter.

I and III have been historical

in nature.

They

have d e m o n s t r a t e d that language policies have been a function
of

power

relations

between

Chapter II is apolitical.
a r e s ponse

to

the

In spite of this,

majority

minority

cultures.

It justifies bilingual e d u cation as

Michicanos'
Chapter

and

educational

underachievement.

IV intends to s how that the concept

failed as an equity program.

To demonstrate,

the i m p l e m e n t a ­

tion, e l i g i b i l ity/funding, and m o n i t o r i n g / e v a l u a t i o n outcomes
are analyzed.
What becomes apparent in the analysis of three d i m e n s i o n s
of

bilingual

e d u cation

is

that

74

the

program

policy

didn't

75
c ontain

the

necessary

pedagogical

program;

that the p o l i c y was c o m p r omised e a r l y in the p o l i t i ­

cal legislative process;

provisions

for

a

good

and that Chicanos were not a part of

this process.
This

chapter

b ilingual

makes

education

r e ference

as

a

to

symbol

identif i c a t i o n and e ducational

the

for

u n i fying

Chicanos'

factor

of

political

attainment.

The e l i g i b i l i t y / f u n d i n g section c l e a r l y shows a lack

of

economic c o mmitment to bilingual education, while the m o n i t o r ­
ing/eva l u a t i o n section h ighlights its failure.
analysis,

this

chapter

m e n t a l i t y prevails

demonstrates

in Mich i g a n ' s

that

In its overall

the

"assimilation"

language p o l i c y i m p l e m e n t a ­

tion process.
State

educational

agencies

si b i l i t y to

insure that

the

and

civil

Mich i g a n ' s

local

have

school

constitutional

effort

toward

an

u nequivocal

agencies do not violate

rights

ensuring

respon­

of

their

s t u dents

students.

from

language

b ackgr o u n d s other than E n g l i s h an equal e ducational o p p o r t u n i ­
ty came
This

was

in the form of P.A.
the state

differences

of

294,

enacted

Michi g a n ' s

of students

with

action

either

in October

of 1974.

to

language

rect i f y

limited

Engli s h -

or

no

E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g abil i t y so that they would have equal access
to educational opportunities as provided to all students.
was

enacted

Supreme
failure

to

co m p l y

Court d e c ision
of

the

San

with
Lau

the

January

v s . Nichols

Francisco

school

1974

which

United
ruled

district

to

It

States

that

the

provide

l i n g u i s t i c a l l y c o m p r e h e n s i b l e instruction for its n o n - English-

76
speaking

Chinese

students

was

a denial

of

equal

opportunity

under Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964.
Ideally,

from the point of v i e w of the M i c h i g a n D e p a r t ­

ment of Education, equal ed u cation o p p o r t u n i t y for Chicanos is
more than just o f f ering the same books,
hours,

or

the

same

curriculum

Besides other objectives,

as

or the same number of

the

majority

student.

it entails n u r t u r i n g and d e v e l o p i n g

all the realms of human b e h a v i o r - - p h y s i c a l , emotional, social,
and intellectu a l - - s o m e of which are c u l t u r a l l y and l i n g u i s t i ­
ca l l y bound.
premise

An equal ed ucational o p p o r t u n i t y is based on the

that

e d u cation

must

respond

to

each

individual

student's modes of learning and to all facets of the learning
experience
Skills

for

each

child,

(Michigan D epartment

However,

as

noted

in

Michigan

of Education,

a c cording to statistical

1979,

p.

information,

Essential
i).
M i c higan

school systems have not lived up to their r e s p o n s i b i l i t y where
the

Chic a n o

Department

student

is

of Education,

concerned

(Flores,

1985).

is wi t h i n the context of

It

1987;

M i c higan

co m p a r a t i v e low levels of school a c h i e v e m e n t that the issue of
bilingual
Chicanos
is made

education

enters

into

as an eq u i t y measure;
to

implement

the

the

to

wield

the

which would

power

to

of

e d u cation

for

and when a l e g i s lative effort

remedy,

Michicanos

the sense that m a n y of their proposed
sions were not realized.

arena

are

rejected

in

language policy p r o v i ­

The m a i n s t r e a m legislators continued
e ffectuate

provide M i c h i c a n o s

the

educational

social benefits.

processes

77
This chapter
of

involvement

examines

in

the

the results

legislative

of the Chicano's

process

when

lack

majority

l egislators do not take into account input from those segments
the p o l i c y most affects.
P.A.
is

First, the im p l e m e n t a t i o n failure of

294 of 1974 will be discussed.

the

gross

n e gligence

of

a

What will become evident

legislative

mandate

by school

di s t r i c t s and even the M i c h i g a n D e partment of Edu c a t i o n where
language m i n o r i t y educational issues are concerned.
other

dimensions,

Michigan's

eligibility/funding

Bilingual

Education

further d e m o n s t r a t e how an

and

P r o g r a m will

Next, two

monitoring
be

analyzed

of
to

"assimilation" m e n t a l i t y inherent

in Mich i g a n ' s e ducational process manages to further usurp an
already

co m p r o m i s e d

c o nditions

equity

of equity for

program

intended

to

improve

language m i n o r i t y students.

The concern is raised whether M i c h i c a n o s can r e a l i s t i c a l ­
ly

effec t u a t e

change

in

the

education

process

given

the

m a j o r i t y cu l t u r e ' s o p p o s i t i o n to d i v e r s i t y and their current
belief

in m a j o r i t y / m i n o r i t y relations.

I m p lementation
Upon
1975-76

the

initial

school

year,

i m p lementation
bilingual

M i c higan was chara c t e r i z e d
a

"no-win"

measure.
tion

of

situation

"melting

P.A.

edu c a t i o n

in

294

du r i n g the

the

state

by elements which would result

for

On the one hand,
the

of

pot"

practices of the educational

opponents

or

p r oponents

of

of
in
the

it c h allenged the A m e rican t r a d i ­
concept

and

institutions;

its

socia l i z a t i o n

on the other hand,

78
it

did

not

provide

which would
teachers,

ensure

for
its

dat a base,

The

first

significant

provisions

impact as an equity measure;

adequate

bilingual

Mi c higan proved

l e g i s lative

funding,

e d ucation

that

is,

etc.

effort

in

to be a r e s o u n d i n g disaster.

the

state

of

As a result,

a

Special S tudy C o m mittee on Bilingual I n s t r u c t i o n P r o grams was
e stablished by L e g i s l a t i v e House C o n c u r r e n t R e s o l u t i o n 487 to
review

the

1974.

i m p lementation

The

bilingual

following

As P.A.

r e c ounts

Bilingual
the

Education

efforts

to

the

294

of

1974

began

i m p lementation

groups

Act

of

initiate

a

294,

and why

became

evident

failed.

destined for failure.
ty

the

education p r o g r a m in the wake of P.A.

these efforts

that

of

from

of

to unfold,

this

it

l e g i s lative

mandate

was

M a n y c o n cerned individuals and c o m m u n i ­

t hroughout

the

state

were

expressing

their

di s s a t i s f a c t i o n s over the substa n t i a l d i s r e g a r d of the law by
school

d i stricts

and

the

Depar t m e n t

Study C o mmittee on B i lingual Education,
this
to

piece of

its

teachers,

Education

1976).

(Special

Si m p l y stated,

legislation did not em b o d y a strong c o mmitment

implementation.

programming

of

were

model

not

The
in

major

place;

curricula,

support,

and,

most

The

lack

of a critical

requisites

that

is,

instructional

importantly,

suff i c i e n t

for

effective

properly

trained

materials,

public

state aid.

n e g o t i a t i o n process

for Chicanos

to transmit important p r o v i s i o n s to ensure eff e c t i v e i m p l e m e n ­
tation of language po l i c y has proved detrimental.
politi c i a n s

and

educational

organizations,

such

Mainstream
as

Michigan

79
Edu c a t i o n Associ a t i o n
language

of

P.A.

(MEA),

294,

m ore

had dominated in f o r m u l a t i n g the
than Michicanos.

Therefore,

" a s s imilation"

m e n t a l i t y was

m aintained

and

overall

of

education,

w hose

effect

b i lingual

remained
intent

as

the
the

was

to

a s s i m i l a t e the language m i n o r i t y student as soon as possible.
The

h i e r a rchical

ensured
not

structure

of

power

that the outcome of the

fulfill

the

aspirations

means for social mobility,

in

the

legislature

impleme n t a t i o n process

which

Mich i c a n o s

had

by negating Mi c h i c a n o

policy f ormulation process.

for

input

had

would
it,

a

in the

As a result of a p o o r l y f o r m u l a t ­

ed language policy, the i m p l ementation of P.A.

294 of 1974 was

a fiasco.

This prompted the introduction of H ouse C o n c u r r e n t

Resolution

487 by R e p r e s e n t a t i v e David Hollister.

The Int e r v e n t i o n of a P r o p o n e n t
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e Hol l i s t e r was a legislator who r e p r e sented
a substa n t i a l
the

Unnn

through,
the

segment

imnl
upon

ion

deficiencies

Bilingual

of an e ducational
had

opened

r ally

La

B ilingual

failure

of

the urging of Chicano

provis i o n a l

policy.

of Lan s i n g ' s Nor t h s i d e Chicano voters.

jobs
Raza

in

edu c a t i o n

of
had

P. A.

29 4,

leaders,

the

state's

he

foil owed

with r e c t i f y i n g
first

language

facilitated the d e v e l o p m e n t

i n f r a s t r u c t u r e within state g o v e r n m e n t and
local

behind

communities;

the

concept

it had
as

a

also

served

political

to

issue.

e d ucation had become a symbol of M i c h i c a n o a s p i r a ­

tions in society.

Therefore, when bilingual edu c a t i o n failed

80
in

1975,

Chicanos

coa l e s c e d

R e p r e s e n t a t i v e H ollister's

as

an

interest

group

to

seek

intervention.

The events which surrounded

the

i m p lementation disaster

were c r i tical to the formation of a Chicano political identity
because,
behind

for
one

the

first

common

time,

symbolic

La

Raza

issue.

was

united

s t a tewide

M i chicanos

had

come

together to ensure that the implementation of P.A. 294 of 1974
be

rectified.

House

C o ncurrent

Resolution

487

served

this

purpose.

House C o n c u r r e n t R e s o l u t i o n
The

resolution,

Hollister,
Education.

created

a

487

introduced
Special

In April 1976,

by

Study

Representative
Co m m i t t e e

on

David

C.

Bilingual

the r esolution was adopted and the

Co m m i t t e e was directed to look into the initial impleme n t a t i o n
process

of P.A.

294.

Its task was to:

Det e r m i n e the reasons wh y a s u b s t antial number of
school districts required to e s t ablish bilingual
i nstruction proqrams have failed to do so, and to
report
its findings and r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s
to the
Legislature.
(p. 2)
The
House

of

S tudy

Committee

R e p r e s e ntatives

consisted
and

of

five

five members

of

members
the

of

Senate,

follows:
Senators

R epr e s e n t a t i v e s
David Hollister,
Joseph Young
Mark Clodfelter
Bela Kenn e d y
Robert Geake

Chair m a n

Jack Faxon
Dale Kildee
Earl Nelson
Richard Allen
Gilbert Bursley

the
as

81
The

first task

implementation

of

of the Study C o m m i t t e e

the

Bilingual

for ana l y z i n g the

Education

Act

was

to r e v i e w

and disc u s s a series of concerns r e p r e s e n t i n g the v i e w of the
D epar t m e n t
nel,

of E d u c a t i o n ' s

l egislative

administrators
directors,

leaders,

and

Chicano

personnel,

bilingual

bilingual

Chicano a d m i n i s t r a t o r s and p e r s o n ­
school

VII

bilingual

Title

education

interest groups,

d i s trict
project

and national

experts.

This

challenge

surrounding

the

i m p l ementation failure d e m o n s t r a t e d
to

local

achieve

the

political

bilingual

e d ucation

an attempt by M i chicanos

r equisites

to

mak e

their

concerns

audible in the d e c i s i o n - m a k i n g process.

They were successful.

Bilingual

education

important

political

identification.

Mic h i c a n o

community

had

served

as

It

an

had

pol i t i c a l

p r o vided

symbol

for

basis

for

the

involvement.

Consequently,

their conce r n s reg a r d i n g the im p l ementation failure were being
heard

for the

first time.

These concerns
was assigned

fell

into

to one of three

12 cate g o r i e s

after which each

levels of responsibility:

1.

The local school d i s trict

2.

The D epartment

3.

The legislative

level,

of Edu c a t i o n

level,

and

level.

Next, the role of the three respective levels was outlined and
the

Study

Committee

examined

the

issues

assigned

to

each

level.
In

order

implementation,

to

better

the

Study

understand
Committee

the

problems

initiated

a

with
series

the
of

82
activities.
16,

1976;

director
the

It c o n d u c t e d a public hear i n g
it

held

a

meeting

of C o l o r a d o ' s

states'

conducted

Dr.

Carlos

Bil i n g u a l E d u c a t i o n

implementation

school

w ith

district

processes.
interviews

in L a n s i n g on June
Saavedra,

the

Office to c o m p a r e

The

Study

throughout

Group

also

the state.

As one example of the findings of the S t u d y Committee,
was c o n c l u d e d

that the re a s o n school d i s t r i c t s

im p l e m e n t e d P.A.
--

had not

it

fully

294 were:

lack of res o u r c e s i n c l u d i n g funding, staff, and i n s t r u c ­
tional

-- school

mat e r i a l s
districts

w hich

had

initiated

progr a m s

with

e x i s t i n g state and local revenues were having d i f f i c u l t y
serving

all

the

s t u dents

ha v i n g d i f f i c u l t y

who

had

been

identified

as

in the regular c l a s s r o o m

-- d i f f i c u l t y in the t r a i n i n g and staff and the i d e n t i f i c a ­
tion of m a t e r i a l s
An

and r e sources

" a s s i m i l a t i o n " m e n t a l i t y had

p e r vaded

in d e t e r m i n i n g what

type of e d u c a t i o n language m i n o r i t i e s were to r e c e i v e in spite
of the l e g i s l a t i o n and i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of a p l u r a l i s t i c mode of
education

by

in d i f f e r e n t
state's

majority
to

the

culture

implementation

e ducational

needs

process

infrastructure

e d u c a t i o n would not attain
the e d u c a t i o n a l

standards.

By
of

posited

being
P.A.

that

lax

294,

or
the

bilingual

its intended purp o s e of a d d r e s s i n g

of C h i c a n o s

in Michigan.

83
The Failure of the Im p l e m e n t a t i o n Process
Of the 23 school d i s t r i c t s that were
district

was

ope r a t i n g

i nstruction with local
overwhelmingly
essential

took

a

full-time

funds.
the

interviewed,

program

of

1

bilingual

School district adminis t r a t o r s

p o s ition

that

state

monies

to e s t a b l i s h i n g and ma i n t a i n i n g bilingual

tion programs.

not

This was d e t e r m i n e d

were

instruc­

to be one key factor

the failure of its original implementation.

for

Bilingual e d u c a ­

tion funding was a language provision which had been c o m p r o ­
mised
had

in the

been

legislative process.

proposed

final enactment,
school

districts,

where

the

to

implement

At one point,

the mandate;

$11 million

however,

in the

the n e c e s s a r y monies were not provided.
money

was

educational

more

needs

important

of

language

than

For

c ommitment

m inorities

was

concerned.
Upon

completion

of

P.A.

294 was a t t r i b u t e d

1.

limited

local

the

Study,

the

failure

to

implement

to:

i n itiative

in

establishing

bilingual

instruction programs
2.

problems with

involving parents

the census pro c e d u r e and
3.

of eligible c h i l d r e n

in

in p r o g r a m planning

diff i c u l t i e s in d e v e l o p i n g an accurate census instrument
to identify the eligible children

4.

wide v a r iance

from distr i c t

a ctivities accepted as

to d i s trict

"bilingual

in

the kind

of

instruction programs"

The S t u d y Group ack n o w l e d g e d that M i c h i g a n ' s schools had
failed to implement P.A.

294.

Schools are part of a social-

84
ization s y s t e m which plays
will

have

access

and power.
had

to such

"bottlenecks"

regards

the

State

impleme n t a t i o n of P.A.
the

societal

role

in d e t e r m i n i n g who

values

as

wealth,

status,

In the im p l e m e n t a t i o n process, Michi g a n ' s schools

functioned as
As

a central

initial

years

consultative

and

294

were

for

language minorities.

Department

of

failed because
c o n c e ntrated

technical

assistance

Education,

its actions du r i n g

mainly
to

the

on

p r o viding

school

districts.

The S t u d y Co m m i t t e e d e t e r m i n e d that the im p l e m e n t a t i o n of P.A.
294 had not been a top p r i o r i t y for the Department.
that

actions

thro u g h o u t

it

the

had

taken

state

for

were

the

initiation

generally

those

of

of

a

It found
P.A.

294

reactive

nature.
The S t u d y Com m i t t e e also d e termined that the L e g i s l a t u r e
had not fulfilled its ob l i g a t i o n to ensure an equal e d u c a t i o n ­
al o p p o r t u n i t y for all its language mi n o r i t y students.
not m a n dated
had

appropriate

it legislated

ed ucation
involved

the

services.
in

monies
An

bilingual

instruction to meet
ne c e s s a r y to

area

of

edu c a t i o n

major
in

their needs nor

provide

concern

Michigan

L e g i s l a t u r e ' s funding for bilingual education.

It had

to
had

bilingual
everyone
been

the

Since no state

monies, other than for pilot programs, were provided the first
year
$11

the act went
mill i o n

into effect

requested

dis t r i c t s

in general

levels of

funding.

unw i l l i n g to

was

and since only $850,000 of the

appropriated

for

1976-77,

school

were d i s s a t i s f i e d with past and current
As a result,

incur the costs of

local school dis t r i c t s were
implementing a n ewly enacted

85
e ducational p r o g r a m based mor e on c o m m u n i t y pressures than on
good pedagogy.
The failure of the impleme n t a t i o n of bilingual education
was

"systemic"

in

failure which had

the

sense

that

it

failed to provide

was

an

language m inorities with

an o p p o r t u n i t y for e d u c a t i o n a l intercourse.
al

failure

unde r s t o o d
(Chapter

is
in

a

sociopolitical

its

own

III) context.

This i n s t i t u t i o n ­

pheno m e n o n

historical

institutional

which

(Chapter

I)

and

is

better

political

As dis c u s s e d in previ o u s chapters,

it

was a failure that p e r m e a t e d from the c l a s s r o o m to the Chicano
c o m m u n i t y and the vari o u s

social

settings

in between.

Schools c o n t r i b u t e to the a c a demic problems of
m i n o r i t y children inten t i o n a l l y and un i n t e n t i o n a l l y
because they operate a c cording to the norms of
A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y and acc o r d i n g to the norms of the
co m m u n i t i e s in which the y exist.
C o m p a r a t i v e and
historical r e s e a r c h shows that there have always
been
factors wit h i n the schools and classrooms
ope r a t i n g against m i n o r i t y c h ildren's adjustment
and academic p e r f o rmance.
(Ogbu, 1987, p. 319)
After s u b s t antial

input from individuals, organizations,

school districts, and others, a series of r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s were
outlined

by

the

S tudy

n o n c o m p l i a n c e with P.A.

C o m mittee
294

to

rectify

of 1974.

the

substantial

The reco m m e n d a t i o n s

of

the S t u d y Group were intended to address all the discr e p a n c i e s
in the original m a n d a t e which weakened
b i lingual education.

the

implementation of

The following r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s delineated

sp e cific actions which the two most important agencies

in the

im p l e m e n t a t i o n process of bilingual e d ucation were to take in
order

to ensure the a p p r o p r i a t e

services:

i m plementations of bilingual

86
That the State
E d u c a t i o n to:

Board

direct

the

Superintendent

of

1.

Identify and incorporate into their p r o g r a m
approval and fund i n g process indicators that
can be e x a mined
in ass e s s i n g local school
d i s t r i c t initiate.

2.

Deve l o p a c c e p t a b l e standards for school d i s ­
tricts
to adh e r e
to that met the m i n i m u m
re q u i r e m e n t of a full-time p r o g r a m for b i l i n ­
gual instruction.

3.

E v a l u a t e e x i s t i n g g uidelines in the areas of
p r o g r a m models, in-service t r a ining and t e s t ­
ing and assessment. Where necessary, changes
should be recommended.

4.

Report whether e x i sting resources are s u f f i ­
cient to s u c c e s s f u l l y c arry out the r e q u i r e ­
ments of P.A. 294.

5.

R e v i e w and r e c o m m e n d to the Board of E d ucation
any n e c e s s a r y c h a n g e s in the r e v i e w procedure
so that all a p p r o v e d bilingual teacher t r a i n ­
ing programs will be reviewed within two years
after the initial p r o g r a m approval and that
any p r o g r a m not meet i n g the minimal standards
set by the State Board of E d u c a t i o n should be
discontinued.

6.

Increase t e chnical
distr i c t s .

7.

Deve l o p
into
the
funding
approval
process
c r i t e r i a for e v a l u a t i n g the extent of b i l i n ­
gual a c t i v i t y in grades 4-12.

8.

I d e ntify the
Inte r m e d i a t e
School
Districts
that will be r e q u i r e d to e s tablish and operate
programs of bil i n g u a l education.

That the L e g i s l a t u r e
Acts of 1974 to:

a s sistance to local school

amend P.A.

294

of

the Public

1.

Require that once every three years a special
Joint S e n a t e - H o u s e Committee be appointed for
the purpose of r e v i e w i n g the progress made in
implementing P.A. 294.

2.

Requ i r e that the parents serving on a b i l i n ­
gual a d v i s o r y co m m i t t e e be elected by parents

87
of children e n r olled in the bilingual i n s t r u c ­
tion program.
3.

R e q u i r e that all school di stricts in the state
conduct an annual census for the purpose of
d e t e r m i n i n g the number of children in each
school d i s t r i c t who are of limited Englishs p e aking ability.
Results of the census to be
reported to the Office of Bilingual Education.

4.

Include
the
future m a i n t e n a n c e
and budget
al l o c a t i o n s for a Bilingual Edu c a t i o n Office,
a Bilingual E d u c a t i o n Director and the n e c e s ­
s a r y staff to c a r r y out the requirements of
P.A. 294.

5.

Requ i r e that bilingual instruction programs
include
instru c t i o n in the culture of the
ch i l d r e n e n r olled in the programs.

6 . Define "needs assessment" and to require that
all school d i s t r i c t s with 20 or more children
of limited En g l i s h - s p e a k i n g a b i l i t y conduct an
annual needs assessment.
7.

P r o v i d e full funding for b i 1 ingual-bicultural
programs in grades K-3, and that two a d d i t i o n ­
al grade levels be funded every year, until
full funding in grades K-12 is achieved.

8.

State that until full funding of grades K-12
is achieved, local school d i stricts will be
expected
to
prov i d e
bilingual
instruction
support s e r vices for those students in grades
for which there are no state monies.

9.

Requ i r e that, in addition to the annual r e ­
port, the D e p a r t m e n t of Edu c a t i o n submit an
annual plan for the coming school year.

10.

Require the State Department of E d u cation to
monitor local school d i s t r i c t implementation
of P.A. 294.

S u m m a r y of
In

Impleme n t a t i o n

summary,

the

Study

Committee

identified

three

major

factors w hich a d v e r s e l y affected the sta t e w i d e implementation
of bilingual

education.

These were:

88
--data base
- - p r o g r a m planning
--funding
A

major

problem

area

in

inadequate data base.

the

i m p lementation

process

was

an

Poor information in the total number of

bilingual

programs,

bilingual

languages

identified,

and

teachers

the

number

available,
of

dif f e r e n t

bilingual

students

(and grade level) made

it dif f i c u l t to estimate p r o g r a m costs

and overall

It was dete r m i n e d

programs.

of E d u c a t i o n
long-range
grams,

had

failed

plans

and,

Le g i s l a t u r e

for

not

it

made

impleme n t a t i o n of P.A.
tions were
In

to start

the

and c a r r y out

establishing

finally,
had

to d e v e l o p

was
an

294.

the

bilingual

further

adequate

of

maintaining

bilingual
a

education

concluded

process

ed u c a t i o n

"hands-off"

and
pro­

that
for

the
the

The Study C o m m i t t e e r e c o m m e n d a ­

i m p lementation process

im p l e m e n t a t i o n

short-

appropriation

of

P.A.

"assimilation" m e n t a l i t y had prevented
m e ntation

that the Department

for

attitude

anew.

294

of

1974,

the successful

imple­

language mino r i t i e s
on

a

token

an

by

legislative

gesture with no p e d a g o g i c a l basis.
The i m p lementation process was d e s tined to fail from its
inception.
power

and

"Patterns
status

of m i n o r i t y

r e l ations

student

between

failure

majority

and

s h o w that
minority

groups exerts major influence on school performance" (Cummins,
1986,

p.

radical

21).
change

How,
in the

then,

can

education

M i chicanos
process

seriously

given

the

effect

nature

of

the hierarchical power st r u c t u r e over t hem and their political

89
powerlessness?

The first step is by r e c o g n i z i n g that schools

are not neutral

institutions;

the values

that t h e y are the purveyors

of the m a j o r i t y culture;

tion institutions.

of

that the y are s o c i a l i z a ­

As d e s c r i b e d by W o n g - F i l l m o r e (1983),

the

do m i n a t e d status of m i n o r i t y groups exposes t hem to c o nditions
that

predispose

come

to

access

students

school.

These

to e ducational

to school

failure

even

conditions

include

limited

resources,

before

the y

parental

a m b i v a l e n c e toward cultural

t r a n s m i s s i o n and p r i m a r y language use

in the home,

a lack of

c o m m i t m e n t to m i n o r i t y programs, and a home culture which may
not prepare students

for a c l a s s r o o m cult u r e where d i fferent

interaction patterns are required.
c o n d i t i o n s which the S t u d y Group,
rent R e s o l u t i o n

487,

confirmed.

These are some of the same
introduced by House C o n c u r ­
An

"assimilation" m e n t a l i t y

had prevailed.

E l i a i b i 1 i tv/Fundinq
House C o n c u r r e n t R e s o l u t i o n 487, in focusing attention on
the

inadequacies

Legislature

of

had not

implementation.

P.A.
m ade

After

294

of

1974,

a sufficient

the

con c l u d e d

appropriation

id e n t i f i c a t i o n

and

that

the

for

its

r e solution

of

the impleme n t a t i o n p r o b l e m of 1975, one of the m a n y r e c o m m e n ­
dations was for the L e g i s l a t u r e to supp o r t bilingual education
with state funding.
o verturned

the

The L e g i s l a t i v e Study Group had b a s i c a l l y

po l i c y

c o m p r o m i s e d during the

language
initial

provisions

which

legislative process.

had

been

90
For

funding

purposes,

on

September

8,

1976,

the

State

Board of E d u c a t i o n a p p r o v e d "Guidelines to Aid in the D e v e l o p ­
ment of a District Plan for B i l ingual In s t r u c t i o n Programs and
to Secure R e i m b u r s e m e n t Under Section 41a of the 1976-77 State
School

Aid

d is t r i c t s
Board's

Act."
to

These

identify

Guide l i n e s

"Guidelines"

e l i gible

asked

students

for S e l e c t i n g Test

local

acc o r d i n g

school
to

the

I nstruments and P r o c e ­

dures for A s s e s s i n g the Needs of B i l ingual Children and Y o u t h .
A mong

other

things,

The

Guide l i n e s

advi s e d

dis t r i c t s

on

a c q u i r i n g r e i m b u r s e m e n t under the State Aid Act for bilingual
expenditures.
Since
barely

the

starting

grea t e r
the

majority

proc e s s

of

of

school

districts

were

bilingual

pro­

implementing

grams, m a n y initial m i s t a k e s occurred.

A lack of commitment,

staff shortages, s c a r c i t y of instructional materials, the lack
of

t e c hnical

expertise,

and

the

lack

bilingual m e t h o d o l o g y c o m p l i c a t e d the
for school d i s t r i c t s

of

knowledge

about

impleme n t a t i o n process

in its second round.

For these reasons,

the Bilingual E d u c a t i o n O f f i c e was lax in a p p l y i n g the funding
req u i r e m e n t s
following

between the y ears

years,

as

school

of 1976

districts

thro u g h
bec a m e

1979.
more

p ro v i d i n g bilingual s e r v i c e s to eligible students,

In the
adept

at

reimburse­

ment requirements be c a m e more stringent.
The

required

Report, _ 1976-79)
funding:

eligibility
stipulated

process
the

(Bilingual

f o llowing

E d u cation

guidelines

for

91
1.

Student e l i g i b i l i t y was to be d e t e r m i n e d by a
B i l ingual I n s t r u c t i o n E l i g i b i l i t y Committee,
co m posed
of parents,
teachers,
counselors,
a d m i n i s trators, and students.
A m a j o r i t y of
the co m mittee were to be parents whose primary
language in the home is other than English.

2.

The Bilingual I n s t r uction E l i g i b i l i t y C o m m i t ­
tee should work with the p r o f e s s i o n a l school
personnel to det e r m i n e the s t udent's p r i m a r y
or home language.

3.

The Bilingual Instruction E l i g i b i l i t y C o m m i t ­
tee
should
r e v i e w the
s t u dent's
classroom
p e r f o r m a n c e as r e f lected in acade m i c records,
p e r f o r m a n c e on one or more acade m i c a c h i e v e ­
ment tests that is at least 1 grade equivalent
until b e l o w average, and eval u a t i o n of other
data
from
teachers,
counselors,
parents,
and/or the B i lingual Instruction E l i g i b i l i t y
Committee
which
provide
e v i dence
that
the
child was h a v i n g difficulty, or was expected
to be having difficulty, in p e r f o r m i n g o r d i ­
nar y class work as a result of his/her l a n ­
guage background.

4.

The student was judged eligible if he/she has
d i f f i c u l t y p e r f o r m i n g o r d i n a r y class work, or
was expected to have d i f f i c u l t y perfo r m i n g
o r d i n a r y class work, in E n g l i s h as a result of
his/her language background.
(p. 3)

S I

L.

Ac c o r d i n g

to

Y

j. JL V L C U U L C a

the

1976-79

Bilingual

Ed u c a t i o n

Report.

school dis t r i c t s had not adhered to the e l i g i b i l i t y committee
requirements.

Others,

tees,

did

not

achieve

There

was

also

a

who

wide

the

did

attempt

recomm e n d e d

range

of

to

form such c o m m i t ­

parent

com m i t t e e

impact

d e t e r m i n a t i o n of students eligible for bilingual
For

example,

some

school

own e l i g i b i l i t y criteria.

dis t r i c t s

elected

membership.
on

the

instruction.

to d e v e l o p their

Others used a v a r i e t y of procedures

which tended to include some ch i ldren who were not considered

92
eligible

under

the

law's

definition

of

"limited

English-

s p e a k i n g a b i l i t y c h i l d r e n " as well as to excl u d e some s t u dents
who

should

have

been

enrolled

in the program.

These

"home­

made" p r o c e d u r e s onl y t e n d e d to un d e r m i n e bil i n g u a l edu c a t i o n
in the state.
In spite of the L e g i s l a t i v e
found

school

districts

i m p l e m e n t a t i o n of P.A.
mine

the

intent

f o l l o w i n g the
for

example,

education

el i g i b l e

294 of
the

in

1974,

mandated

or

findings,

Chicano

students

with

they continued

to u n d e r ­

language

bec a m e

policy

was

classified

for b i lingual
other

s t u dents

e l i g i b l e were the

as

a

student

a migrant,

by

the

not

In Fennville,
for

and/or
had

she/he

bilingual
l i nguistic

an

Hispanic

would

become

education.

arbitrary
of

eligible

of c u l t u r a l

If

which

non - c o m p l iance

funding e l i g i b i l i t y procedures.

characteristics.

Among
id e n t i f y

be

funding on the basis

behavior
surname

of

to

Study Group

procedures

limited

used

by

English-speaking

districts

to

ability

as

following:

Teacher
assessment
of
l a n guage
p r o f i c i e n c y and
general a c a d e m i c p e r f o r m a n c e .
Teachers, who often
w ere not b i l i n g u a l and had no l i n g u i s t i c training,
w e r e asked to as s e s s a chil d ' s l a n guage p r o f i c i e n ­
cy.
C o n s u l t a t i o n s wit h p a r e n t s or s t u d e n t s to d e t e r m i n e
if a language other than E n g l i s h was used in the
c hil d ' s home or env i r o n m e n t .
D i s t r i c t s used a wide
range of i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s r e g a r d i n g the m e a n i n g of
" p r imary language" and the amount of time needed to
d e s i g n a t e a l a n guage the p r i m a r y language used
w ithin the home or environment.
Tests of language d o minance, proficiency, and/or
achievement.
The d o m i n a n c e tests did not n e c e s s a r ­
ily meas u r e l a n guage proficiency.
A child may have

93
been dominant in English, but still unable to speak
the language at grade level p r o f i c i e n c y (Bilingual
E d u c a t i o n Report, 1976-79, p. 4).
It can be c o ncluded that the e l i g i b i l i t y process for funding,
for the

most part,

was b eing done on the basis

of a r b i t r a r y

procedures.

Bilingual

Education Funding

Upon

the

implementation

of

P.A.

294

of

1976,

or

the

second year of bilingual e d ucation pr o g r a m implementation,

it

was

as

r e p orted

federal,

by

yearly

report

that

funding c o n t r i b u t e d

to the

"creation of a Bilingual

E d ucation Office
and

the

the

within the M i c higan Depar t m e n t

im p l e m e n t a t i o n

programs

t hroughout

Education,

of a s ignificant
the

Bilingual

Beginning

in

Depar t m e n t

1976,

of

state,

state"

Education
programs

Education

(Michigan
Report,

became

began

number

to

of Edu c a t i o n
of bilingual

1976-79,

more

1 0

well

Department

of

p.

1).

as

the

apparent

acquire

m 0 m h p r 5 for oviIT°os0 s of n r o '/1 d 1 n cj t h 0

as

bilingual

staff

c hin 1 cs 1 cissistcincs cine!

guidance n e c e s s a r y for local school dis t r i c t s to identify and
serve the state's language m i n o r i t y students.
the

bilingual

years

of

the

funds were,
P.A.

294

ed u c a t i o n

of

program

in

fact,

1976,

funding process

will

indicate

a major

which

factor

replaced

that

was

the

p rovided the

funding

of

the

the

Bilingual

the

state

first
and

three

federal

in the i m p lementation of
Act

legislative House C o n c u r r e n t Reso l u t i o n
it

for

An analysis of

of

487.

1974,

via

the

In particular,

Education

Office

which

impetus n e c e s s a r y for local school d i stricts to

94
develop

bilingual

programs.

Via

this

office,

funds

were

allocated to school districts.
For

the

first

time,

in

1976-77,

the

state

l egislature

earmarked funds for the i m p l e m e n t a t i o n for b i lingual i n s t r u c ­
tional programs in local school districts.

Section 41a of the

1976-77 School Aid Act stated:
F r o m the amount a p p r o p r i a t e d in Section 11, there
is a l located not to exceed $850,000 to applicant
d i s t r i c t s o f f ering programs of bilingual i n s t r u c ­
tion for pupils of limited E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g abil i t y
as required by Sect i o n 390 to 396 of the School
Code of 1955.
R e i m b u r s e m e n t shall be on a per
pupil basis and shall be based on the number of
b i lingual pupils in m e m b e r s h i p on the fourth F r i d a y
following Labor
Day.
In 1977-78,
$3 million,
million.

and,

the amount of State funding was
for

1978-79,

Bilingual

increased to

State Aid rose to $4

The per capita funding for these three years was as

follows:

Year

Fund inq

No.

Funded

Per Capita

1976-77

$

85,000

10,697

S 79 : 49

1977-78

$3,000,000

19,089

$157.15

1978-79

$4,000,000

16,590

$241 .11

This

funding

efforts to
It
years

is

has

level.

scheme

the

implement b i l i n g u a l
interesting
not

In

shows

the

to

note

significantly
1988-89

extent

at only $251.00.

the

Department's

education.
that

funding

increased

school

year,

district r e i m b u r s e m e n t was $4,212,000.
remained

of

for

beyond
funding

the

last

the

1978-79

for

10

school

The per capita funding

As the numbers

of eligible bilin-

95
gual students increased, the per ca p i t a funding to schools d e ­
creased.

Once

again,

a

lack

of

definite

language m i n o r i t y edu c a t i o n was d e m o n s t r a t e d

c o mmitment
by those

to

in the

e ducational hi e r a r c h y of power, by l i m iting access to funding.
Federal
gual

funding p r o vided

initial

support

for b i l i n ­

edu c a t i o n which c o n t r i b u t e d s i g n i f i c a n t l y to its

mentation.
Title

The

VII

of

(E.S.E.A.),
its

the

national

the

Bilingual

Elementary

and

Act

Secondary

of

1968,

Ed u c a t i o n

initiative,

Michigan

populations.
proh i b i t e d

Prior
the

to

use

1955).

Department
but

also

Title

of E d u c a t i o n
e ncouraged

VII,

several

To s u p p l e m e n t

E.S.E.A.

other

resources

to

of

only

applied

school

1978,

districts

funds.

These

the

immediate

and

programs for the state language groups;
sources

of

additional
services

for

materials,

information,

staff

bring

to

to Michi g a n ' s

(P.A.

and

more

federal

the

funds,

to

compete

funds

were

federal sour c e s which provided:
meet

any

insufficient state resources,

not

local

this

of

language other than E n g l i s h as the m e d i u m of instruction
269,

Act

facilitated the p r ovision of language services to

1 imited-English-proficient

federal

Education

imple­

for

among

(a) additional

expanding

needs

of

(b) access to national
assistance;

intensive

and

and

(c)

extensive

langu a g e m i n o r i t y populations.

Another major source of funds which had a major impact in
the

impleme n t a t i o n

Title

IV of

1976-77

of

the Civil

school year,

bilingual
Rights

Act

ed u c a t i o n
of

the Bilingual

1964.

in

the

state

Beginning

was

in the

E d u c a t i o n Office began to

96
administer

these

desegregation

The o b jectives of these T itle

funds

for

s t atewide

impact.

IV monies were:

Where i n a bility to speak and u n d e r s t a n d the English
language e x c ludes n a t ional o r i g i n - m i n o r i t y group
ch i l d r e n from e f f e c t i v e pa r t i c i p a t i o n in the e d u c a ­
tional programs offe r e d by a school district, the
di s t r i c t must take a f f i r m a t i v e steps to r e c t i f y the
language d e f i c i e n c y in order to open its i n s t r u c ­
tional p r o g r a m to these s t u dents
(May 25, 1970
Memorandum, Office of Civil Rights, H.E.W.).
This

ample,

opportunity

vague
for

desegregation
transitory,

definition

the

of

of

Department

school

desegregation
of

intent

Education

to

one

to

of

a s s i m i l a t i o n i s t bilingual model.

of Title IV federal funds was not followed.

served

as

an

m i sdirect

a

implementing

a

The true intent
For a p p r o x i m a t e l y

seven years, the M i c h i g a n Depar t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n m i s a p p r o p r i ­
ated these federal mo n i e s
of Education,

(Proceedings be f o r e U.S. Depar t m e n t

1989).

In spite of the fact that Title IV funds were to provide
technical

assistance

for

ensuring

the Depar t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n was using these funds,

funding

exception

the Federal

was

Rights

the state of M i c h i g a n ' s

education p r o g r a m funding commitment.
r e v i e w of

Civil

to an

1964,

moni t o r i n g

the

right

ed u c a t i o n a l

to s u p p l a n t

under

s t udent's

equal

the most part,

opportunity

the

found.

Consequently,

Department
Whereas

of

Act

of
for

bilingual
in a 1983

Education,

federal

and

a

state

bilingual monies used by the Depar t m e n t of E d u c a t i o n e x p l i c i t ­
ly enco uraged transitional B i lingual Education, Title IV funds
were

to

r e m e d y past

technical

discrimination

a ssistance

for

by p r o v i d i n g

academically

sp e c i a l i z e d

enabling

language

97
m i n o r i t y students.
federal monies

However,

the D e p a r t m e n t had used Title IV

ineffectively,

inefficiently,

and

illegally.

In spite of a legisl a t i v e mandate which ack n o w l e d g e d the
lack of c o m m i t m e n t

on the part of the M i c h i g a n Depa r t m e n t

E d u c a t i o n and the lack of l egislative funding,
be n o n c o m m i t t a l

to

denced by federal

the needs
legal

of

language

pr o c e e d i n g s

it c o n tinued to

minorities

against

of

as

evi­

the Department.

M o n i t o r i n g and E v a l u a t i o n Outcomes
To ensure that school dis t r i c t s c o m plied with the b i l i n ­
gual

e d u cation mandate

Code of 1976)
the

State

(Sections

380.1151-1158

and the funding provisions

School

Aid

Act,

the

of the School

under

B i lingual

Section

Ed u c a t i o n

41 of
Office

d e v e l o p e d mo n i t o r i n g m a t e r i a l s for d o c u m e n t a t i o n purposes and
procedures.

To

programs

school

in

determine

the

extent

districts

to

increased

which
the

progress of students in c o m p a r i s o n with others,
off icp a 1 <=;n fonducted out c o m e evaluations.
a na l y z i n g these two processes,

bilingual

educational
the Bilingual

I'Tith the intent of

this s tudy proposes

to r e v i e w

the m o n i t o r i n g p r o cesses for the 1976-77, 1977-78, and 1978-79
school years
the s tudy
the

for c o m p a r a t i v e

also proposes

bilingual

program

to
for

purposes.

r e v i e w the
the

years

In this same manner,
outcome
1983-84,

evalu a t i o n
1984-85,

of
and

1985-86.

M o n i t o r i n g Outcomes
The
bilingual

1976-77

school

education

year

in the

was

state

a

developmental

of Michigan,

as

year

for

it was

the

98
first

year

House

C oncurrent

year

for

the

bilingual

Resolution

principal

districts,

services

to school

487.

o b jective

d i stricts

Consequently,

was

not

to

after

during

monitor

the

school

but to provide technical a s s i s t a n c e and in-service

training

to aid

in ident ifying eligible s t u d e n t s and provide

services

to them.

As

57 school d i stricts

implemented

bilin­

gual programs during this year, the Bilingual E d u cation Office
had

the

o b ligation

to

monitor

them.

The

existing

limited

staff of the Bilingual Ed u c a t i o n Office were both the provider
of

t e c hnical

This

dual

conflict

role
for

"helpers"
other

a ssistance
of

the

them.

while

hand,

conducting

role

c o n s u ltants

technical

also.

led

as the

for

In other words,

d if f i c u l t

for school dis t r i c t s

long

it yielded

run,

revealing

the monitors.
resulted

t hey were

visits

to

of

fear

that

on

these

The

become

in

perceived

programs;

opposite.

schools

visits

also

i m p l ementing

monitoring

viewed

assistance

monitored,

in

and

consultants

one hand,

ass i s t i n g

t hey were

training

bilingual

On the

schools,
of

and

a
as

the
same

co n t r a s t i n g

suspicious

they

were

of

being

the s e p a r a t i o n of roles was

to make;

nevertheless,

i nformation

for

in the

a m e l i orating

the programs.
In the
refined.

1977-78

school

year,

the m o n i t o r i n g

process

was

A monitoring checklist was d e v e l o p e d which consisted

of the following components:
eligibility;
committee;
evaluation;

(a) p r o g r a m overview;

(c) parent notification;

(e)

administration;

(h) resources;

and

(f)
(i)

(d)

(b) student

bilingual

a d v isory

p r o g r a m description;
in-service

training.

(g)
The

99
mo n i t o r i n g

visit

supposedly

c o n sisted

of

two

parts:

(a)

a

l engthy i n t e r v i e w with the p r o g r a m c o o r d inator to fill out the
checklist;
selected

and

(b)

bilingual

visits

to

c l assrooms

in

students were enrolled,

int e r v i e w with those students.

Bilingual

which

randomly

including a brief
teachers were also

interviewed.
In reality,
the

program

the

status

monitoring
since

person

she/he

had

was

a l r e a d y aware

already

had

of

extensive

contact with the school's bilingual p r o g r a m via the p r o v i s i o n
of

technical

bilingual

assistance.

consultant,

to

The
a

d e v e l o p m e n t of the program.
salient since districts
upon

consultant's

implementing

extent,

of
had

Educat i o n ' s
impacted

the

Nevertheless, d e f i c i e n c i e s became

did not have the ex p e r t i s e to fo l l o w

advise

change.

great

Department

or

Some

were

simply

not

deficiencies

in

interested
the

in

monitoring

process were:
the use of an incomplete and a r b i t r a r y e l i g i b i l i t y
process
failure to serve all e l i gible bilingual students
s h o rtage of teachers
meaningful i n s t ructional time
sh o rtage of instructional m a terials
s e g r e g a t i o n of students
few support services
inactive Bilingual A d v i s o r y C o mmittee
poor p r o g r a m evalu a t i o n
poor
parental
involvement
(Bilingual
E d u cation
Report, 1976-79, p. 65)
In spite of these m o n i t o r i n g
i neffective
programs

in

effectuating

for two reasons.

findings,

changes

in

the

c o n s u l t a n t s were
school

distr i c t

One was that she/he maint a i n e d no

c r e d i b i l i t y as an enforcer because the c o n s u l t a n t had a l r e a d y

100
de v e l o p e d
person

a p r olonged

prior

Bilingual

to

the

relationship

monitoring

E d u c a t i o n Office was

on a school
this date,
programs

d i s trict

the

a technical

program.

unwilling to

was

found

in

a s sistant

Secondly,

the

impose s a nctions

n o n compliance.

To

in spite of the poor q u a l i t y of b i lingual e d ucation
in

Edu c a t i o n

which

as

many

has

parts

not

of

followed

the

state,

through

with

the

Depa r t m e n t

s a nctions

for

of
any

school district.
On F e b r u a r y 24,

1978,

a weak effort was made to enforce

the requ i r e m e n t s of bilingual e d ucation per Sections 380.1151
through

380.1158

of

the

School

Code

of

1976

betw e e n

Depar t m e n t of Edu c a t i o n and the Office of Civil Rights.
departments'

staffs

met

to

explore

a possi b l e

working

the
Both

rela­

tionship to ensure that all of the state of M i c h i g a n ' s school
di s t r i c t s

which

provided

bilingual

edu c a t i o n

would

rectify

m o n i t o r i n g findings e n c o u n t e r e d by Bilingual E d u c a t i o n Office
staff.

The

Education,
Civil

Superintendent

of

the

Michigan

Department

of

John Porter, and the Director of the D e partment of

Rights

d r e w up

an a g reement

by

which

both d e p a r t m e n t s

would work c o o p e r a t i v e l y in the area of b i lingual e d ucation to
protect
ment,

the students'

civil rights.

In spite of this a g r e e ­

to date no school d i s t r i c t has been cited for v i olating

language

m i n ority

students'

access

to

an

equal

educational

opportunity.
During the 1978-79 school year, two full-time c o n s u l t a n t s
m o nitored
previous

bilingual
year's

edu c a t i o n programs

compo n e n t s

were

in 62 districts.

mon i t o r e d

and

included:

The
(a)

101
co m p r e h e n s i v e

planning;

involvement;
overall

(d)

(b)

student

evaluation;

program

(e)

eligibility;

staff

administration.

consisted of three parts:
sors and coordinators;

(c)

d e v e l opment;

The

monitoring

parent
and

(f)

visits

(a) interviews with p r o g r a m s u p e r v i ­

(b) interviews with b i l ingual teachers;

and (c) visits to c l a s s r o o m s with eligible bilingual students.
In some school districts,
were

the

arbitrary

same

as

in

eligibility

the d e f i c i e n c i e s

1979.

For

processes

example,

were

used;

found in 1978

incomplete
not

all

and

limited

E n g l i s h - s p e a k i n g a b i l i t y (LESA) students were served; e l i gible
LESA children

were

receiving

little

or

less-than-sufficient

instruction because of a s h o rtage of teachers;
materials

were scarce;

support

services,

instructional

such as counseling,

were unavailable; parent a d v i s o r y commi t t e e s were d i s o r g a n i z e d
and m i n i m a l l y involved in p r o g r a m operations, development, and
improvement;

evalu a t i o n desi g n s were

limited

or nonexistent.

Some posit i v e changes were recorded and some good, p o t e n t i a l l y
h i g h - q u a l i t y programs were in o p e ration in a few dis t r i c t s for
the first

time.

Program
function
technical
tiation.

in

monitoring
1979.

The

became

separation

a s sistance staff
Efforts

comprehensive.

in

a

both

much
of

more

clearly

monitoring

provided a clearer
areas

became

more

defi n e d

staff

from

role d i f f e r e n ­
specific

and

Specific job assignments and explicit follow-

up action enabled the Bilingual Education Office to gather and
update information on p r o g r a m status in all di s t r i c t s involved
with bilingual

education.

102
For the following year,

1979-80, the Office of Bilingual

Ed uc ati on d ev elo pe d a c om p re hen siv e year -l ong m on ito ri ng plan.
Staff attempted to de te rm in e whether existing programs were in
co mpl ian ce
which

with

pro grams

ap pli cab le

pop ul at io n access to an equal education opportunity.

In spite

of

the

co mp re hen siv e

evaluat ion
neither

of

the

process

the

existing

were

Michigan's

mo nit or ing

state's

a

plan,

bilingual

bilingual

making

to

and

m i no ri ty

pro vi di ng

improved

regulations

language

truly

been

and

ex em pla ry

for

have

rules,

become

models

could

laws,

a

pr o g r a m

services

meaningful

sampling

indicates

nor

impact

outcome

the
in

that

mo ni t o r i n g

raising

the

educational achievement of language minori tie s by sub stantial
gains.
A c c o rd in g
bilingual

to

this

education

minorities.
ing intents

had

writer's

m on ito ri ng

become

"catch-all"

a

observations,
for

language

Districts were using the concept for the f o l l o w ­
other than

its stated

-- dis ci pl in e det en ti on
-- placin g special

purposes:

of LEPs

educ ati on cases as LEPs

-- holdin g deck for stu dents without the benefit of a s s e s s ­
ment
-- tea chi ng non-LEPs

another

language

-- teaching English as a Second Language

(only)

to LEPs

-- getting more mon ey on a per capita basis
The

elastic

ach iev eme nt
fact that

use

of

the pr og r a m ne gat ive ly

of those

it was

the pr ogr am was

impacted

intended to serve;

of a transitional

upon

the

moreover,

the

nature which had

103
not

shown

significant

achievement

gain

serious concerns as an equ it y measure

in

10

years

raised

for Chicanos.

Evalua tio n Outcomes
Data

have

Department

been

collected

on bilingual

education

of Educatio n' s Office of Research and Development

on a y e ar ly basis since the 1978-79 school year.
was

by the

to de te rmi ne

the extent

which

the

progr am

The purpose
increased

the

educational progress of students in comparison to other groups
and

to

report

educational

its

findings

achievement,

to

the

the

State

outcome

al loc ati on

and

committees,

home language of students

bilingual

expenditures,

p rog ram

activities,

and

activities.
since all

staff,
studen t

will

these

study,

be

of

served,

the

in

ad vi sor y

com po si ti on

pa rt icipation

involvement

included

in

of

school

extracurricular

Data were gathered on this variety of categories
factors

bilingual students'
of the

Besides

evaluations

composition

family

Board.

success

isolated

analyzed

were deemed

to

as having

in the program.

outcomes

of several

dem on st ra te

the

impact

on the

For the purposes
of

these

limitations

factors
of

the

Dep artment's evaluation process and the unsuccessful outcomes
of bilingual
Outcome
data

education.
evaluation

collected

va rie ty

of

over

an

instruments,

over a period

of several

is

based

extended

on

period

performa nce
years

the

data

(Scriven,

process
of

ev aluation

time.

should
1968).

be
The

Using

a

gathered
limita­

tion of the Department's evaluations were that the evaluation

104
data

were,

and

still

are,

gathered

each singular school year.
of the data.

period

information

generated

There is no longitudinal analysis

The d e f i c i e n c y of this year ly evalua ti on is that

it fails to assess
a

on

of

the

time.

full

The

impact of the total

same

discrepancy

students'

educational

progress

bilingual

evaluations

for

the

on

pr ogr am over

occurred

achievement.

1983-84,

1984-85,

with

The
and

the

ye ar l y
1985-86

school years did not sh o w progress in co mpa ris on with m o n o l i n ­
gual English instruction.

Scrivens (1968) notes that the role

of sum mational eva lua tio ns

is

to enable ad mi nis t ra to rs to decide whether
the
entire finished curriculum, refined by the use of
the evaluat ion process . . . represents a s u f f i ­
ci en tl y signifi can t advance on the available a l t e r ­
native to justif y the expense of adoption by a
school system.
(pp* 41-42)
The results of the state's bilingual education evaluation
were based on insufficient data on student pe rf ormance and the
data

from

inadequate

the Dep artment's
de signed

for

instruments,

as

none

were

available

in

Office of Research and E v alu at ion ch ecklist

those mo no li ng ual

students

who

use part

of

the

school programs.
As a result,
gual
the

education
student's

entitled

judgments conce rn ing the success

in the state of Michigan were based so l e l y on
progress

A Description

School Year

of b i l i n ­

Section

41.

in
and

reading

and

Evaluation

math.

The

report,

of Michigan's

1982-83

Bilingual Educa tio n P r o g r a m , states:

Com ple te sets of readin g test scores admi ni ste re d
in the spr ing -t o- sp ri ng testing period were a v a i l ­
able on 5116 students,
or 44 percent
of those
reported.
Of these, 3935 students, or 34 percent

105
of those report ed were represented in sufficient
proporti on s to a l lo w for meaningful analysis of
a c h ie ve me nt in E ng li sh reading.
Of the mathemat ics
scores reported, 4604, or 48 percent were complete
sets.
Of these,
3644,
or 31 percent of those
reported, were analyzed (p. 5).
In this reported test data, no co ns ideration has been given to
the

Engli sh

English

language

is the goal

students

must

de v el op me nt

if

of the program.

first

understand

the

transition

into

In a bilingual program,

and

speak

English

before

learning to read it, as ex plained in Chapters II and V of this
study.

Reading, then, should first be deve lo ped in the native

language

before

being

introduced

in

English.

Thus,

for

a

great number of bilingual students included in this evalua tio n
summary,

it was inappropriate to make any compa ri so n about the

re lative

effect iv en es s

language

skills

concept
for

for

more

without

the

an

math

1982-83

pr ograms

awareness

learning reading.

me a s u r i n g

grades.

of

of

the

on

English

audio-lingual

The same argument can be made

ach ie ve me nt

through

English

in

the early

The vea rl v e va lu ati on r e p o r t s a c k n ow le dg e no need for

information

to

determine

at

what

point

students

in

bilingual programs can be expected to take s t an da rdi ze d tests
in math,

which assumes kn o w l e d g e of English.

BICS

CALP

V.

argument

is c l e a r l y

the

issue

Cummin's
in

the

(1988)

state

of

Michig an ye a r l y ev aluation reports (refer to Chapter II for an
exp la na ti on
reports

are

students'

of

these

assuming

cases,

the

concepts).
the

latter

The
when,

su mm ar y

in a

great

former skill ma y be the norm.

evaluation
number

of

106
Above

and

beyond

ev aluation reports,
ate

local

ment

in

stated

problems

with

Michi ga n' s

it can be safe ly assumed that no a p p r o p r i ­

instruments,
the

the

which measure a content area a c h i e v e ­

student's

primary

language

or

Engli sh

with

a

m i n i m u m of cultural or s o c i o e co no mi c bias, were used as normed
tests,

nor

de v e lo pm en t
education

instruments
for

used

justifying

in spite

of

to

the

measure
whole

c o nsi de rab le

bilingual

concept

res earch

of

in

skills

bilingual

the

area

of

language and cognition.
These isolated examples of the state's bilingual e v a l u a ­
tion

repo rt in g

language

minority

a d m in is te re d
state's

serve

to

sh o w

program.

poor

e va lu at io n

commit me nt

to

the

the

inattention

Moreover,
also

the

results

de m o n s t r a t e

program,

but

paid

not

also

to
of

only

that

a
an

the

it

is

suppor ti ng an inadequate bilingual ed ucation p r ogr am st atewide
for its language m i n o r i t y populations as indicated by the fact
that:
Over se ve nty-one percent
(71.3%) of the p r ogr am
students received bilingual instructional services
on a pull-out basis, that is in a c l a s s r o o m or
resource room se pa r a t e from their regular c l a s s ­
rooms (1986-87 E v a lu a t i o n Report, p. 14).
This bi lingual approach is un d o u b t e dl y recognized as the least
accept ab le form of bilingual instruction as it is ar gu a b ly the
most
least

diff ic ul t

way

respo ns iv e

ge n e r a l l y

react

to
to

yet
the
the

devised

to

student's
fact

that

promote

literacy

culture.
the

student

and

Teachers
requiring

the
also
the

most subject matter a tt ent ion is "pulled-out" from much needed

107
class

interaction

the time

because

of

the d i f f i c u l t y

in rec uperating

lost.

To

dem on st ra te

further

the

in adequacy

of

the

state-

ma nda ted and st at e-funded bilingual ed ucation program, note in
the

following

in math

and

po pu la ti on
gan.
4th

reading

100%

of

as com pared

objectives,

general

programs

are

Educatio nal
where as

79%

achie vin g

between

As ses sme nt
of

43%

of

7th

graders

are

s t a te wi de

ac hieving

57% of
75% and

Pr ogr am

the

(MEAP)

students

a t t a in in g the top quarter of reading objectives.
only

school

in M i c h i ­

in the key area of reading,

min or it ie s

Mic higan

to stat ew ide

fe de ral ly -fu nd ed

2 shows that

language

the

readin g

the ac hi ev eme nt of language minorit ies

and Title VII

Fig ur e
grade

figures

are

In Figure 4,

top

quarter

of

readin g object ive s as comp are d to 80% of the general statewide
population.
bil ingual

Similarly,

students

Fig ur e

6 shows M i c h i g a n ’s 10th grade

faring po or l y

in reading

in comparison to

the st at ew id e general population.
In
yield

the

the

area

same

of

math,

results;

a

that

similar
is,

cursory

bilingual

ac hi evi ng as well as the "regular" students.
evident
is

not

is that bilingual
ac hi evi ng

di le mm a of

educa tio n

its mi ss io n

students

are

will
not

What is clearl y

in the state of Mic hig an

of al le via tin g

language minorities.

analysis

the educational

100
'— General Education, Statewide
/

/— Bilingual Education,

/—

f—

Statewide

M H Z P I O C H M

"flO

HZWOPOW' fl

Bilingual Education, T-VII

23
19
13

50 - 75%
PERCENT

25 - 50%

0 - 25%

OF OBJECTIVES REACHED

Figure 1,.— M i c h i g a n M a t h Test, Grade 4, 1985-86

108

100
'— General Education,

Statewide

/ _/— Bilingual Education, Statewide
/—

1—

Bilingu al Education, T-V1I

W m m

ili&alSb
pjSjgas
D

30

21

21

21

15

sur^l^
piVriUi!..;:

pisjra
lip
50 - 75%

25 - 50 %

0 - 25%

PERCENT OF OBJECTIVES ACHIEVED
Figure 2.— Michigan Reading Text, Grade 4, 1985-86

c
u

100

'— General Education, Statewide
’— Bilingual Education, Statewide

90

— Bilingual Education, T-VII
P
E
R
C
E
N
T

80

70

60

0
F

I
T
U

AO

E
N

30

s

20

75 - 100%

50 - 75%

25 - 50%

PERCENT OF OBJECTIVES ACHIEVED
Figure 3.— M i c h i g a n M a t h Test, G r ade 7, 1985-86

0 - 25%

& & — General Education, Statewide

I I—
t—

Bilingual Education, Statewide

/— Bilingual Education, T-VII

28

25 - 50%
PERCENT OF OBJECTIVES ACHIEVED
Figure 4.— Michigan Reading Test, Grade 7, 1985-86

0 - 25%

100

B B B

/

— General Education,

Statewide

/— Bilingual Education,

Statewide

90

h

zm och w

>
*
io

Hznnnnt

7— -/— Bilingual Education, T-VII

00
70
ra
r

60

1

50

!
1

47
44

40
a
f
t

30

£
!
;
19

20
10
i

__________

75 - 100%

«
50 - 75%

25 - 50%

0 - 25%

PERCENT OF OBJECTIVES ACHIEVED

112

Figure 5— M i c h i g a n Mat h Teat, Grade 10, 1985-86

'— General Education,
/

Statewide

/— Bilingual Education,

Statewide

H 2 n n W M H

f— Bilingual Education, T-VII

130

734475

s
T
U
D
E
N
T
S

mm

2-1

20

5

75 - 100%

50 - 75%

25 - 50%

0 - 25%

PERCENT OF OBJECTIVES ACHIEVED

113

Figure 6.— M i c h i g a n Reading Test, Grade 10, 1985-86

114
Summary
This chapter has provided a sketch of bilingual education
as a pol icy issue,
ty/funding,
clear

focusing on its implementation,

and evalua ti on outcomes.

evidence

that bili ngual

eligibili­

These sketches present

education,

post

1974,

is still

a co mp romised p r o g r a m in spite of House Concurrent Resolu ti on
487's

findings

and

touted

by

tives,

bilingual

advance

recommendations.

imp re ss iv el y-s ta ted
ed ucat ion

d e mo cr at ic

individual

abilities,

opportunity;

it

Mi chigan

for

nor

rather,

educational

in

ideals

Despite

has

goals

has

Chicanos,

provided

an

resulted

in

a

p r o g r a m superimposed,

within

the

mode

As

P.A.

comp ro mi se d

of education.

un de ra ch i e v e me nt
294

of

1974

language

of Chicanos

began

po li cy

to

objec­

worked

to

their

educational

"watered-down,"
not
As

integrated,

a result,

the

persists.

unfold,

became

not

equal

and compromised

educational

and

ideals

devel ope d

token,

traditional

lofty

the

evident.

results
The

of

a

important

elements for its successful implemen ta tio n were missing; that
is,

state aid,

teachers,

implementation
into

the

important

critical

Consequently,

into

failing

program;

an

pointed

to

n eg o t iat io n

provisions

educati on was
equity

process

materials,

the

to attain

etc.
the

need

process
language
its

"assimilation"

This vac uu m in the
of

Chicano

for

transmitting

policy.

intended
mentality

input

Bilingual

purposes
had

as an

prevailed.

bilingual education became an ideological focus

for Mi chicanos to unify.

115
With
Chicanos

the

intervention

brought

at te nti on

of

to a

Re p r e se nt at iv e
failed

Hollister,

language

policy.

It

was determined that the failure of the implementation process
was "systemic;" therefore,

the process was to begin anew with

the 1975-76 school year.
This second round of the
d e m o ns tr at e

significant

im plementation process did not

progress

in

the

educational

achievement of Michigan's language minorities.
in part,

to a lack

of co mmitment

on the part

Department of Educ at io n and school d i s tr ic ts
e l i g ib il it y rules for funding.

under­

This was due,
of the Michigan

in following the

Ar b i t r a r y procedures were used

to cl as s i f y language m i n o r i t y students.

This lack of c o m m i t ­

ment to bilingual edu ca ti on is demo ns tr at ed by the fact that,
in more than 10 years, state aid has d e c re as ed while e l i g i b i l ­
ity numbers
The

have

increased.

outcome

education
policy,

of

progr am
it

has

inadequate

evaluations

attests

not

to

the

achieved

implementation

of

M i ch ig an 's

fact

its

that,

intended

provisions,

its

as

bilingual
a

language

purpose.

poor

Its

funding,

and

inefficient progr am eva l u at io ns point to the inattention paid
to

a

language

achievement

mi no r i t y

in math

and

program.
reading

are

Com pa ra ti ve
provided

to

charts
prove

of
this

analys i s .
The critical
bilingual

analysis

education

of three dimens io ns

p r og ra m

demo ns tr at es

that

reactive attempt to placate c o m mu ni ty concerns
more

on

the

assim il at io ni st

theory

of

of Michigan's
it

was

a

and was based

cultural

de pr ivation

116
than

on

a

language

pro active

poli cy

pat hological

one

indeed

based

on

good

presupposed

perspect ive

of

pedagogy.

any

language

notion,

minorities

If
it

the

was

where

a

the

fault lies in the student who must be changed to fit into the
Americ an mold.
The
raise

results

serious

of

this

que stions

about

mode of education whose
ties

(Glenn,

type

of
the

intent

"assimilation"
ade qua cy

of

me nt al it y

a traditional

is to re f o r m language m i n o r i ­

1988 ) .

A vi e w of the interaction between the traditional mode of
edu cation

and

a

"pluralistic"

mode

from

a

co mm uni ty

level

pe rs pec tiv e where bilingual education becomes further c o m p r o ­
mised

will

de mo nst rat e

the

imbalance

of

m a j o r i t y / m i n or it y

relations, their segmentation, and their in ability to r e s t r u c ­
ture

the

pr og ra m

level do not

for

their

benefit.

exist on a vacuum.

Schools

at

the

local

They are only one aspect of

a broader social context that, despite legislative intents and
civil

rights

support

guarantees,

ingrained

by

majority

tradition

and

sociocultural

otherwise,

still

values

(Galicia,

demonstrate,

bilingual

1973 ) .
As

the

education,

following

will

as an equity pr og r a m which challen ges the maj or it y

culture's

conformist

political

issue

level.

c hapter

ethic

entangled

in
in

American
power

culture,

relations

at

becomes
the

a

local

The result is an ineffective language mino ri ty pr ogr am

in a c o m m u ni ty with a sizeab le Chicano population.

CHAPTER V

A C O M M U N IT Y- L EV E L PE R SP EC TI VE OP BILIN GUA L
ED U C A T I ON PO L I C Y IMPLEMENTATION:
THE FE N N V I L L E CASE

The

previous

schools as
of

the

chapters

the tran sm it te rs

status

quo.

As

speak

to

the

of culture;

such,

it

is

tra di tio na l
that

a

role

of

is, ma in ten anc e

conservator

of

the

existing so ci al -p o l it ic a l s y s t e m in which local di st ric ts play
an

integral part.

exist

at the

Th ey and their a d m i n i s t r a t i v e hierarchies

pleasure

of

the

language m i n o r i t y students
local

district.

Even

distri ct

c l a s s r o o m is

educ at io n

agency,

imp le me nt at io n

though
dista nt

the

The

tasks

of

educating

are dele ga te d by the state to the

itis decisive.

at

ex ception to this

state.

local

what
from

happens
the

in

the

state's

local

central

Bi lingual educ at io n pr o g r a m

school

di st ri ct

level

is

no

"assimil at io n" mentality.

Chapter III examined the formulation of bi lingual e d u c a ­
tion

pr o g r a m

policy

at

the

state

level.

It

conc lu de d

that

pol ic y failed because of the lack of Chica no po litical input.
Its

failure was

policy.

linked

to a political

the or y of

educational

Similarly, this chapter will sh ow that the failure of

bilingual

education, as an

equity p r og r a m for Chicanos

the local

level,

tied to the same po litical theory of

is also

117

at

118
educational

poli cy

when

state

policies

are

translated

d i s c r i m i n a t o r y a d m i n i s t r a t i v e actions, rules,
This
results

chapter

of

a

will

go

poli tic al

will be discussed;

beyond

the or y

lack of bi lingual

mentality

in practice.

level
at

of

bilingual

occurred

the

state

and procedures.

III

educational

in

that

the

pol ic y- ma ki ng

in par ticular, as they relate to: academic

grouping,

process

of

Chapter

into

personnel,

and an

"assimilation"

It will show that the

imp lementation

education

pr o g r a m

po l ic y

in a v a c u u m where some of the
level

were

also

missing

at

at

the

local

factors at play

the

local

level.

Teachers' and parents' surveys particular to Fe nnville will be
utilized as a basis for d e m o n str at ing the di ff er en ti al
of educational

pol ici es

impact

on Chicano students.

The Setting
The
western

F en nv ill e
Allegan

Michigan.

County

sh oreline

located

in

inland.

The city

The

School

between

District
Holland

the

second

the

de vel opment,

ci ty

of

is the

school
largest

but

Fennville,

the

is

in

South

in

Haven,

the

area

of

school

c o mpl ex
5

is

miles

largest co nc e n t r a t i o n of popula ti on

district,

ap pr o x im at el y

con ce nt ra ti on

from the school.

enrolled

and

located

ap pr ox i m a t e l y

of

Hutchins Lake area, a 1,000-acre inland
miles

is

The di str i ct includes a p p r o x i m at el y 5 miles of Lake

Mic higan

within

Publ ic

1,000

po pul ati on

residents.
is

in

the

lake, app ro xi ma te ly 2

The total popula ti on of the c o m m u n i t y

7,500,

with

in the K-12 system.

approximately

1,600

students

119
The m a i n s t a y of the local economy is agr ic ul tu re and has
been for more than 100 years.

The area is at the present best

known for apples, blueberries, grapes,
a

va ri et y

of

other

crops

and

and cherries, although

nu rse ry

stock

help

demand for labor from ea rl y March through November.
local

industries

Mic hig an

Fruit

factory,

and

plant.

are

also

Canners,

Campbell

Migran t labor

ag ri cul tur al

closely

Michigan's
Soup's

to

largest

a

The large

agriculture:

food

m u s h r o o m - g r o w in g

is in demand

economy,

tied

create

process ing
and

packing

in all phases of the local

from planting to processing.

Chican o graduates tend not to stay in the Fen nville area,
yet are well re pr ese nte d
citizens.
level

No

of

local

in the immediate area of settled-out

ele ctive

government,

officeholder

a lt ho ug h

the

lon g- te rm Ch ica no com missioner.
servic e

seems

Ca tholic

to

be

Church.

of

at any

Fennv ill e

had

a

Most of the energy for public

d i re ct ed

Chi ldren

cit y

is Chicano

who

through
attend

the

local

colleg e

Chicano

tend

not

to

return to the Fennv ill e area after graduation.

The Subjects
The vast ma j o r i t y of the people su pp ly in g the labor that
feeds

the

consider
sented

ec ono my

consider

Mexico their ancestral

in

settlem ent
School

local

the

area

for

three

has been with in the

home.

themsel ves

(28%)

and

They have been r e p r e ­

generations,

but

last 15 years.

Sys te m is a p p r o x i m a t e l y 25% Chicano;

tion figures

Chicano

the

greatest

The Fennville

however,

popula­

in lower elemen tar y for the 1988-89 school

120
year indicate that growth is anticipated.
with national po pul ati on trends.
78%

of

their

com pl et in g

a

parents
high

is consistent

Of that school population,

terminated

school

This

their

diploma,

education

while

some

prior

within

to
the

Chicano su bgr oup are th i r d - g e ne ra ti on residents; others arrive
at

the

will

school

have

being

limited

year's records,
ch ildren

able

to

En gli sh

speak

only

skills.

Spanish,

Based

on

and

the

others

previous

it was estimated that about 60% of all Chicano

enrolled

qual if ie d

for

a

free

or

reduced

lunch

program.
A
Kilty

th orough
of

st ud y

Western

of

the

Mi ch i g a n

reading

curriculum

Un iv ersity's

by

R e adi ng

Dr.

Ted

Department

indicated that 40% of Fe nn vil le 's students are 2 or more years
behind

in reading,

20%

are at

or about grade

are 2 or more years above grade level.
background

were

tended

be

to

r e p re se nt ed

in

and

40%

Children from Hispanic

throughout

o v e rr ep re sen te d

level,

the

the
lower

population,
60%.

This

but
is

consis te nt with s t a te wi de trends as evidenced by the Mi ch iga n
Department of Educ at io n Hi spanic School Dropouts and Hispanic
Student

Pe rf or ma nc e

Statewide,

the

MEAP

on

the

readi ng

MEAP
results

Tests
showed

(Flores,
a

1986).

deficit

for

Hispanics when compared to all students:
The combined 4th, 7th, and 10th grade results yield
an average gap of 23 pe rcentage points: 79% of the
students, statewide, attain acceptable perform an ce
in readi ng while only 56% of the Hispanics did. (p.
5)
The

1988-89 bilingual

education

"Fourth F r i d a y Count of

Students El igible for Bilingual Ed ucation Funds"

form s u b m i t ­

121
ted by the Fen nv il le School
ment

of

E d u ca tio n

eligible
are

Chicano

pre ve nt ed

for

District to the Michigan D e p a r t ­

funding

students.

These

from o b t ai nin g

the

reported

412

students

potentially

are the ones

experience,

knowledge,

who
and

skills required for active p ar ti ci pa ti on in school activities
that

are

success

the

basis

for

cogn it ive

because of cu ltural

de ve lop me nt

and psychological

and

academic

isolation.

To

counter this situation, bil ingual education is provided as an
equi ty m e as ure

per

state

mandate.

The

problem

is

that

the

pr o g r a m becomes mired in its controversy, t h er eb y rendering it
ineffect i v e .

Gro upi ng

for Bilingual

Educ at ion

Bilingual ed uc ati on at the local school di strict
does

not gua rantee an equal

educational

opportunity,

the qu al i t y and q u a n t i t y of language services vary.
words,

because
In other

a school s y st em ma y d e n y bilingual services or provide

poor services,
gual

levels

as

in the F en n v i l l e rase,

even after a b i l i n ­

educa tio n mandat e has been legislated.

Through the use

of various overt (e.g., segrega ted classrooms) and more subtle
institutional
schools

are

educational
the case

discriminatory
denyin g

language

o p p or tu ni ty

in Fennville,

a m i c r o c o s m of

practices

(e.g.,

m i no ri ty

students

(Fern&ndez & Guskin,

1981).

grouping)
an

equal
Such

is

a distric t which can be classified as

a st at ewi de

syst em where

bilingual

education

becomes entangled in an "assimilation" m e n t a li ty which renders
it ineffective.

122
The Bilingual E du ca tio n Office's 1988 m o n i t o r i n g visit to
Fen nv il le
"sorted"
ties;

do cum ent ed
on

(b)

the

fact

of:

(a)

basis

considered

useful

instructional
is

that

Chican o

estimated

cu l t u r a l / l i n g u i s t i c

Hispanic last name.

realit y

the

students

intellectual

behavioral

patterns,

were

abili­

or

(c)

a

A l t h o u g h academic gr ou pi ng techniques are
peda gog ica l

groups,

that

tools

for c r e a t i n g homogeneous

for Fen nv ill e' s

gr ou p in g

placed

bi lingual

them

in

students

an

the

ineffective

bilingual p ro g r a m where the t e a c h e r / p u p i 1 ratio was 214:1, as
indicated by the "Fourth F r i d a y Count of Students Eli gi bl e for
Bilingual Instruction Funds"
a

type

of

institutional

e sp ec ia l l y

when

it

(1987-88).

Aca de mi c gro uping is

di s c r im in at io n

s ti gm ati zes

students

(Gonzalez,
as

ethnic

1990),
and

low

achievers.
P.A.

294 of 1976,

Re sol uti on
bilingual
help;

the

students

487,

as rest ru ct ur ed after House Co ncurrent

required

programs
result,

local

school

distr ict s

to

create

for Chicanos who needed

extra educational

however,

out"

from regular

was

the

"pull

gro up in g

of

classes.

The "pull out" ap pr oa ch in bilingual educ at ion results in
segregation.

This method is ge n e r a l l y r ec ogn iz ed as the least

acceptable form of bi lingual instruction as it is ar gu abl y the
most

dif fi cu lt

way

least responsive
Yet,

Fenn vil le' s

bilingual

yet

devis ed

to

to the student's
"pull

programs

in

out"
the

promote
culture

pr og ra m
state

of

is

literacy

and

(MacDonald,

1982).

re pr es en ta ti ve

Mi ch i g a n

where

the

of

"over

seven ty one percent [71.3%] of the students re ceived bilingual

123
instructional

se rvices

on

a

Education E v a l u a ti on Report,
This

practic e

of

pull

out

1986-87,

gr ouping

basis"

p.

for

(Bilingual

14).

"pull

out"

bilingual

services is con si s t e nt with statewide practices;

it has become

imbedded

state.

in the

informal

modus

operandi

in the

This

sanction on informal p o l i c y has allowed F e n nv il le a d m i n i s t r a ­
tors

to

provi de

a

m e a n i n g l e ss

program,

perhaps

without

the

presence of co nscious b ig o t r y because of the lack of bilingual
resources

Lack

to share the kn ow le dg e of ex e mp la ry programs.

of Bi lingual
For

P er son ne l

a na ly ti ca l

purposes,

an

important

aspect

ville's school si tu ati on must be made explicit.
in the d i s t r i c t are p r e d o m i n a n t l y Anglo.
middlestudents
This

to

middle-income

come

means
^ -i-

W W .1
.*-*J.

s tu de nt /t ea ch er
language
Chicano

is

>W_

and

-y i n r»/-• a ir
wX
. V_**^ x_•_>•

relationship

nonexistent.

teachers

c o m pou nd s

the lack of Chicano teache rs
commitm en t

the

while

do not
-*■**'—

based

The

The teachers

the

lower -in com e

teachers

on

point
"pull

common
is

out"

backgrounds.

share

\ r r \ -r \

that

Chicano

r

the same

r ' i n n i f i c n n f

culture
the

lack

situation.

of

Also,

in F e nn vi lle points to a lack of

ac c o r d i ng to Brophy

(1983),

are the strongest

single influence on the student's learning environment.
easily

and

to m i n o r i t y teachers.

Teachers,

can

Fenn­

Th e y are from lower-

backgrounds,

predominantly

that st ude nts

r>n 1 f t t y ^ 1

W

from

of

influence

de c i s i o ns

on

abili ty

grouping.

They
Their

124
high

expectations

of

student pe rf orm an ce
This

study's

students

are

(Carrasco,

pol iti ca l

high ly

correlated

with

1984).

theory

of

an

equal

educational

opp or tu ni t y through bi lingual educa tio n is p a r t i a l l y explained
by staff perc ept ion s of Chicanos,
school

as evidenced by the Hispanic

improvement s u r v e y a d min is ter ed

on April 21, 1988
"Cultural

(Appendix C ) .

d e pr iv at io n

affects

to F e nn vi lle teachers

In respons e to the question:
his

ed uc ati on al

achievement,"

60% of the teachers agreed; 10% were not co n v i n c e d either way,
and

30%

disagreed.

When

asked,

"Teachers

in

this

school

believe all students can achieve basic re ad in g skills,"

only

40%

"are

agreed.

'tuned'

Only

20%

of the

to the educatio nal

students expectations,
that

over

95%

of

the

teachers

needs

agreed

that

of Hispanic s."

th e y

In terms of

again only 20% of the teachers
stu dents

in school

will

"expect

graduate

from

high school."
What becomes
attitudes
trict's

toward

general

tr anslate
services

into

evident
Chi can os

in the teacher s u r v e y are negative
which

policy

toward

tacit

policies

to Chicanos

postu lat e

minorities.
and

the

school

These

action s

dis­

attitudes

which

render

ineffective.

Teachers are the most

likely individuals to

influence a

pol ic y- ma ki ng decision at the local level in the area of equal
educational

opportunity.

Cummin's

that mi n o r i t y students

are

as

their

a direct

Fennville,

result
where

of

Ch ica no

research

"empowered"

or

interaction

teachers

(1986)

suggests

"disabled"
with

com prise

(p.

teachers.

only

2%

of

13)
In
the

125
total

teaching

significant
their

staff,

impact

educational

students

which

do

teachers

experiences.

not

can
This

benefit

have

on the

Chicano

from

the

nature

of

student /An glo

teacher ratio si tuation explains the teacher's surv ey response
regarding
Anglo

Chicano's

teachers

readin g

believed

reading sk i l l s- -t h e basis
As

regards

the

achievement;

that

Chicano

only

students

for educational

question,

4

out

of

10

can

learn

achievement.

"Teachers

are

'tuned'

to

the

educational needs of Hispanics," 50% of the teachers indicated
that

they

were

not

'tuned'

agreed nor disagreed;
Chicano needs.
in a similar

to

Chicano

needs;

and only 20% agreed to being

sur vey de si g n e d

for parents,

nor disagreed; and 22% agreed.

'tuned'

felt

neither

'tuned'

to

When this same qu es tio n was posed to parents
50% indicated

teachers were not 'tuned' to Chicano needs;

teachers

30%

the

same

as

15% neither agreed

Both Chicano parents and Anglo

regards

to Chicano needs.

that

Fenn vi lle

As a result,

teachers

being

Chican o students are

underachieving.
Even though 100% of the teachers surveyed and 93% of the
parents
benefit

surveyed
His pan ic

agreed

that

students,"

no

models

commitment
students

exists
the

for

services.

Only one fully certified bilingual teacher serviced
1988-89 school

bilingual

would

the

in the

eligible

poli cy

role

pro viding

them

214

"Teacher

needed

year.

In formulat ing a political theo ry of educational policy,
a political

hypothesis

is that

education

for Chicanos at the

12 6
local

level

should

be

co rrelated

with

the

proportion

of

Chicano teachers.
The answers to the su rv e y questions by teachers point to
the nature of
the

Chi cano

interaction which the teacher

student,

e s p e c i a l l y the

"cultural d e pr iva ti on"
of

positive

results

Chicano

in students

two

will allocate to

questions

re garding

and "student expectations."

st ud e n t/ An gl o

teacher

This lack

interaction

often

being p y g m a l i o n - a f f e c t e d .

The Fenn vil le teacher survey illustrates a classical case
where the py gm al i on -e f fe ct syndrome consists of som ething more
ingrained

in the

ed uca tional

not be the teacher,
school system,
its

subtle

surveyed

To
felt

educational

but a political

towards

the

illustrate,
that

a

"cultural

achievem en t

and

that

are

se,

models

support

exists

in the classroom.

a political

the

education

language

of

bilingual

the

teachers

affected
is

their
not

a

100% of the teachers felt that

teachers

Yet

no

ad ministrative

to address

their

This no nsupport of teachers

school

program

system's

c h a r ac te ri st ic

proficiency.

This

noncommitment

promulgates

achievement among a su b-p op u l a ti on
outstanding

the

percep­
is,

per

to

the

of

low

statement.

In Fennville,
bilingual

of

bi l i n g u a l i s m

important.

for

60%

de pr ivation"

Chicano

tions

pr obl em may

in this case,

program

sizeable

Moreover,

policy

entity;

equity

learning impediment.
role

The wider

which "disables" Chicano students by virtue of

bias

education.

system.

is

a

pattern

in the dis trict whose most

their

ethni cit y

noncommitment,

as

and

English

expressed

via

127
the teaching personnel,
bilingual

answers

the question,

educa tio n has not attained

address ing

the needs of Chicanos

Why is

it that

its intended purpose of

in Mi chigan?

An " A s s i m i l a t i o n 11 M e n t a l i t y at Work
The st udent's
curriculum.

language

This

is

is the most basic element of any

es pe c i a l l y

true

scho oli ng when the child must depend
to

communicate.

dominant

F e n nv ill e

language

Chicano's

early

of

in the

schools

reading

years

use

English

as

the

Consequently,

in

the

skills

are

and

writin g

deve lo pe d on the as su m p t i o n that the child has oral skills
the

English

language.

For

this a ss um pt io n is false.
they

have

language

reached
system

many Fe nnville

Chica no

in

students,

These Chicano children, by the time

school

in

of

en ti rel y on the a b ili ty

instruction.

education,

early

age,

Spanish,

have

and

d e v el op ed

some

have

a

even

complete
deve lo pe d

limited language skills in English; however, what may still be
lacking

are

instruction.

the

cultural

Current

skills

for

a p p r op ri at e

classroom

literature on mi n o r i t y edu cation d o c u ­

ments the si gn if i c an c e of commo n culture and social e x p e r i e n c ­
es

between

failure.

teacher

For example,

and

student

for

in 1976, Bates

ex plaining

m i n o ri ty

(cited in Ferrer,

1988))

defined the term "pragmatics" as the rules gove rn in g the use
of

language

"Where's
Social

the

in a social
Floor?

R el at io nsh ip s

Schultz,

Florio,

and

context.

As pects
in

In their

of

Cultural

Co mm u n ic at io n

E ri kso n

article

(1982)

at

O r g a n i z at io n

Home

cover

entitled

and
the

on

School,"
issue

of

128
communicative

incongruence.

To

all ev ia te

the

Chicano

stu­

dents' u n d e r a c h i e v e m e n t in Fennville, this c u l t u r a l / l i n g u i s t i c
gap needs
purpose
will

to be

closed

of po sitive

lead

to

via bilingual

educ at io nal

pos itive

tional achievement,

educa tio n

experiences.

te ach er/ stu den t

and

so cieties

This,

sole

in turn,
educa­

literacy.

cultural and cogni ti ve consequences.
both

the

com munication,

Literacy, a cc or din g to Farr and Daniels

changes

for

and

(1986), has both

They state that literacy

individuals;

that

is,

becoming

literate affects ho w peo pl e use language and how they think.
For

Boyer

(1983 ),

learning.

is

the

most

essential

tool

for

Herein lies the educational d i le mm a for Ch icanos in

Fennville.
the

l i t e ra cy

Since the d e v e l o p m e n t of lit eracy is co nti nge nt on

r e c o gn it io n

of

the

co nn e c t i o n

betwe en

the

student's

ba ck gr ou nd and learning, then, based on the "cultural d e p r i v a ­
tion" teacher re sp on se of the survey,
tion
cycle

for

F e n n vi ll e' s

wh ic h

allows

LEP
no

students

e n tr y

it follows that e d u c a ­

is

a

junction

contin uo us
for

those

vicious
who

are

l i n g u i s t i c a l l y and c u l t u r a l l y different.
Literacy

for C h ic an o

students

in Fe n n v i l l e

co ns ist s

of

being placed in basal r e ad in g programs where they are expected
to begin

to read

and write

in Engli sh

long before

they have

experie nc ed and so li di fi ed the prereq uis ite language skills of
listening

and

speaking,

g r a p h i c a l l y d e m on s tr at e d
The

teaching

substan ti al

of

as

in Table

reading,

u nd er st and in g

explained

of

Chapter

II

and

1 of the same chapter.

then,
the

in

should

nature

of

be

based

human

on

a

language

129
(Farr & Daniels,

1986).

Secondly,

teachers should ca pitalize

on the language ex per iences their students bring with them to
school.
keys

to

Utili zin g
teaching

and

bu il din g

reading

and

on

these

writing

to

res ources
LEP

are

the

students.

The

failure to do so highli gh ts the school's neglect and s o c i a l i ­
zation agenda.

Fe nn vi ll e pro vides

us a classical case of an

institution with an

"assi mil ati on " m e n t a l i t y at work against

bilingual students.

By sh a pi ng the images and con tr ol li ng the

ideas that Michicanos have about themse lv es and their position
wit hi n Am er ic an society,
s u b o r di na te

position.

schools
Despit e

have suppr es se d t h e m into a
the

lofty

touted by the state ed u c a t i o n agency,
not

worked

to

advance

Michicanos,

educational

goals

in re al it y schools have

but

rather

have

been

an

instrument of the do mi na nt s o c i e t y to p er pet ua te the existing
social, economic, and pol itical order.

The policy formulation

process and the educati on al un d e r ac hi ev em en t of Chi canos
Chapters

(see

III and IV) attest to the so ci al iz at io n prac ti ces of

M ich iga n's

"assimilation"

m e n t a l i t y in education.

A traditional mode of e d uc at ion is c u r r e n t l y in operation
in Fe n n v i l le Public Schools.

It is a process d i r e c t l y aligned

to the com mo n school concept

(see Chapter

I).

In order to un der st and the role schools play
in our socie ty we must see school as a social
institution.
Schooling, the practice of p a r t i c i ­
pating in a perpetual pr ed e t e r m i n ed in s t i t u t i o n a l ­
ized
social
relationship,
assumes
school
is a
ne c e s s a r y institution for the m a i n te na nce of e x i s t ­
ing relationships.
Institutions do not create the
social environment, they are created by it.
Insti­
tutions must exist in the mind of man first, then
the implemen ta ti on of the shared concept and its
con ti nu an ce
becomes
the
institution.
Schools

130
reflect
the ex is ti ng social
milieu
change it (Galicia, 1973, p. 4).
Acco rdi ng to Miranda

(1985),

and

do

not

this mode of ed ucation assumes a

critical role in the proc ess of co lo ni z at io n and, since it is
the pr ima ry institution of s o c i a l iz at io n and Americanization,
its predomin ant
Chicanos

and

to

"assimilation"
education.

function has been to elimi nat e the cultur e of
mute

their

process,

language.

are

excluded

Chicanos,
fro m

under

the

par ti ci pa to ry

This refers to the no na cce pt anc e by the school of

their exp eriential backgr ound.

In other words,

they can only

be incorporated into the educatio na l s y s t e m if Chicanos reject
their c ultur e and abando n their native tongue.
of Chi canos
not

since

gu ar ant ee

(Carter,

1979).

the

their

The education

1930s has de mo ns tr at ed that this

educatio nal

ac hi ev eme nt

nor

does

success

The "as similation" me nt al it y has spawned such

practices as:
1.

The no Sp ani sh rule

2.

Rilinnnal

3.

The Mexican school

4.

Dress code

5.

Suspensions

p r i n r a l-- -i-nn c
"m il 1

r..
>nf"

for Ch icanos

To date, numbers 2, 4, and 5 are common prac ti ce s in Fennv ill e
schools.
between

Moreover,
Chicano

there

students

is no p r op or ti on at e
and

staff are Chicano teachers;
best,

minimal,

in this

school

staff,

a regular

only

2% of

the

total

and parental c o m m u ni ca ti on is, at

as only 2 out of 10
on

as

repr ese nta tio n

"teachers

basis,"

contact parents

ac c o r d i n g

to

the

parent

131
survey.

The Fennville's school cu rr i c u l u m reflects the values

and ethos of the do minant society; therefore,
lation" mode of education,
an

educational

culture,

process

one finds that,
which

rejects

illustrates

the

case

for Chicanos,
their

there by esta bl is hi ng conditions

Fe n nv il le

in this " a s s i m i ­

for

of

it is

language

and

failure.

bilingual

education

operating within an "assimilation" me n t a li ty and the potential
outcomes

which

Chicanos.

contr ib ut e

What

Chicano culture

becomes

to

the

apparent

educational
in

dilem ma

Fenn vi lle

is

how

of
the

is viewed n e gat iv ely and ch il dr en are viewed

as pa th ological cases who must be depr og ram med as a first step
toward

socialization,

as

demon st rat ed

by

de pr iv at io n" question of the teacher survey.
show how culture

is pe rceived

by staff

as

the "cultural
The surveys also

being re sp onsible

for many of the problems experienced by Chi canos in and out of
the

school

ambience,

thereb y

po te nti al ly

instilling

an

apathetic attitude toward school while stifling cre at iv it y and
individuality.
viewed

as

academic
bilingual

By

negative
success.

implication,

parents

influences

which

Ac c o rd in g

to

schooling

for

must

and
be

Fennvill e's

Chicanos

is

not

the

home

are

neutralized

for

three
an

"equalizing"

prog ra m because of:
-- the alienation of

one's culture

-- the

loss of one's

language

-- the

low level of student

-- te achers not being
-- lack

of parental

expectation

"tuned"

to Hispanic needs

involvement

surveys,

132
To address
was

this dilemma,

intended

Michicanos.

to

the Bilingual E d u ca ti on Act of

bring

However,

about

changes

the fact

in

the

in F e n nv il le

education

it

of

institutional

in

ineffective.

ed ucation p r o g r a m policy has been

because

of

is that it became entangled

a "assimilation" m e n t a l i t y which rendered
Bilingual

1976

ineffective

di scrimination.

This

type of di s c r i m i n a t io n occurs when the norms, procedures,

and

rules of an or ga nization d i s cr im ina te against certain in di vi d­
uals.

Three

education

reasons

at

the

dis crimination.
of

language

national

suggest

local

that

level

is

the

failure

a product

of

of

bilingual

institutional

First, as indicated by Chapter I, the histo ry

pol ic y

language

in
at

the
the

United
expense

States

has

of

polyglot

our

emphasized

one

heritage.

This restrict ive at titude towards languages has filtered down
to the local

tion

level

through the state education agency.

Second,

since the

pol ic y

in

local

school

1968,

inception of federal bilingual
federal

d is tr ict s

to

and

state

implement

laws

have

bilingual

educa­

required
education

programs for language m in or it ies with extra educational needs,
which are

intended to as sim ila te them quicker rather

provide th e m an equal ed uc ational opportunity.
programs
result

are too often

"pull

out" modes

of

than to

These types of

instruction which

in segregation and stigmatization.

Third,

bilingual

ed ucation practices at the

have been consistent with statewide pr of essional
practices
bilingua l

and

procedures.

services

has

been

The
on

testing

of

local

educational

students

a r bi tr ary markers

level

for

of natural

133
a b i l i t y and on ethnicity.
"pull

out"

basis

from

Bilingual services have been on a

important

content

area

instruction.

P r o g r a m m a t i c eval u a ti on is on a ye ar l y basis for state funding
purposes,

rather

than

longitudinal

for

student

educational

ach i e v e m e n t purposes.
These
rules

of

pr actices
op eration

have
at

san ct i o n e d by the state,
bi lingual

education.

the

imbedded

local

These

are

in

di strict

t h ere by r e su lt ing

e d u ca ti on has not at tained
the needs of Chicanos

become

other

the

level

informal
and

are

in the failure of

reasons

why bilingual

its intended purpose of ad dr e s s i n g

in Michigan.

Su mma ry
This chapter

focuses

on Fen nv ill e' s bilingual educa tio n

program, consid er ed as a mi c r o c o s m of a stat ew ide s y st e m which
becomes mired

in an "assimilation" mentality.

Upon provi din g a d e m o g r a p h i c d e s c r i p t io n of the ci ty of
Fennville,
bilingual

the

chapt er

edu cation

"a ssimilatory"

discu sse d

program

p ra ct ice s

at

the

policy.
work

imp lementation
By

within

pr ese nti ng
the

of
some

struc tur e

of

bilingual education,

it showed that its failure was tied to a

po litical

educati on al

the or y

of

po li c y

at

the

local

which became apparent via the d i s c r i m i n a t o r y actions,

level
rules,

and procedu res as applie d to Chicano students.
In using
survey,

this

the

results

chapter

of

a teacher

dem ons tr at ed

ho w

language were viewed by school personnel.

sur ve y
Chicano

and

a

parent

culture

and

This p er cep ti on has

134
led

to

the

Chica no

stude nt

in

Fen nv ill e

being

pygma li on-

affected, thus p r o vid in g an answer to the question, Why hasn't
bilingual ed ucation attained its intended purpose in the state
of Mich ig an ?

CHAPTER VI

SUMMAR Y AND RE CO MM EN DA TI ON S

On May 31, 1989, Unit ed States E d u c a t i o n Se cr eta ry Lauro
Cavazos

called

ed uc ati on
reported

of

for

a

m in o r i t y

"national

commitm en t"

st udents

(1989).

to

improve

Secretary

the

Cavazos

that:

By the fourth grade, His panic students have fallen
so far behind a l r e a d y that they r e a l l y have to
struggl e to catch up.
Many of t h e m never catch up
and m a n y of th e m dr o p out.
We have a terrible loss
of human po tential in our educational system.
(p.
90)
This call for a "national co mm itm en t" attests to the same need
of Chicanos
canos
for

in the state of Michigan.

Why is

lag in the a c q u i s i t i o n of literacy?

the

low educati on al

Exp la i ni n g

it that M i c h i ­

What is the reason

ac hie vem ent ?

Chican o

educational

u n d e ra ch ie vem en t

in

Michigan, as an outcome of sys tem ic d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and Chicano
po we rl ess ne ss

to

needs,

is the

focus

tional

di lem ma

bilingual

hold

of

the

system

of this
Chi canos

ac c ou nt ab le

study.
is

to

to

To un derstand
explain

the

meet

their

the e d u c a ­
failure

of

education.

If bilingual e du cat io n is a st at e-m an da te d equity measure
intended to recti fy the M i c h i c a n o ’s educational u n d e r a c h i e v e ­
ment,

why

is

it not

wo rking?

In this
135

study,

its

failure

is

136
linked

to

a

political

th e or y

of

educatio nal

policy.

In

implementing bilingual education, proponents have faltered in
und e r s t a n d i n g

the power

institu ti on al iz in g
within

a

pr esented

relations

bil ing ua l

sociopol it ic al
and

at

play

ed ucation

historical

justified

a

and

in the process

of

in perce iv ing

it

paradigm.

political

vi e w

This

of

study

education

for

Chicanos in Mi chigan and linked it to school district policies
and to the political
This
ed ucation

study

process statewide.

is

an

attempt

p ro gr am p o l i c y

in

to

di s en ta ng le

the state

bilingual

of Michigan.

This

is

done by pr oviding a p a r t i c i p a t o r y p e r s pe ct iv e of the b e h a v i o r ­
al

and

interpretive

involved

in the

pro ce ss es

for mul ati on

of

and

the

actors

and

i m pl eme nta ti on of

actions

bilingual

education pr ogr am policy.
The

intent

is

to

show

that

bilingual

education

is

o perating within the framework of a traditi on al mode of early
American

education,

that

This s tu dy is historical

is,

an

"assimilation"

mentality.

in nature.

Ch icanos have been in Mic higan since the beginning of the
20th century; yet, as a result of language legislation,
only

been

in

the

last

15

years

concern themselves with their
and

implementation

rejected

of

in that their

that

schools

education.

language

policy,

intended objectives

have

it has

begun

to

In the formulation
Chicanos

have

been

for Chicano e d u c a ­

tion were not considered and, thereby, were unable to s i g n i f i ­
can tl y impact the pol itic al

process.

137
A

result

attained

its

been

that

bilingual

education

has

not

intended objective of al le via tin g the Chicano's

educational
program,

has

underachievement.

schooling

in

the

education received by the

In

1990s

spite

looks

immigrants

of

much

this

like

equity

the

early

of the mid-1800s.

Summary
In an attempt to gain an un de r s ta nd in g of the historical
roots of education
cor re la ti on
Chapter
which

I

to their

its roots

down to today's
lent today,

how

a

in ea rl y Am er ica n

educational

-C -v ; T

4- r-\
ww

; Y-. /-r

.*.*_* .4. j. j. *i ^

of

history,

education,

has

filtered

is still p r e v a ­

c o ns equ en tly n e g a t i v e l y aff ec ti ng Chicano

which

was

Chapter

^ w

*

-P

I

C ~ ~
LUi.

during

U4i C. l . L

est ablished

educa­

I, the a s s i m i l at io ni st mode of

preva le nt

a. W V 4-w w

its

21st century,

mode

institutions and

20th c e n t u r y had a de t r i m e n t a l
J

States and

into the

traditional

As indicated in Chapter

education

in the United

ed uc ati on going

illustrated

has

tion.

for Chican os

the

first

half

of

the

effect on language minorities
- 7 4- , , ~

_ 7

U-UJ. U U J_ a J.

the

^ ~ J
a n u

fact

7

J ~

,

; _ 4-

^

X l l l ^ U l D U X U

that

_

IICCUD •

education

for

language minorities since the turn of the 20th ce ntu ry did not
fulfill

its

binding

America n

mold

Instead,

language

segmented
early

by

for

being

educational

today's

schools

educational

and

function

of

bec omi ng

part

min or it ie s
proce ssed
sch ool in g
has

attainment.

had

incorpo rat ing
of

were

a

national

rendered

through

common

process

has

a de tr imental

them

into

the

identity.

powerless
schools.

filtered
effect

on

and
This

down

to

Chicano

138
No

real

effort

un de ra ch iev em ent

was

national

bilingual

hearings

on

te st im on y
tio nal ly
English

the

that

to

ed ucation

Bilingual

millions

(August,

language

Chi cano's

until

legislation
Educ at ion

of

the

school-aged

because

of

the

intent

cultural

includes
as

a

the

of

barriers

from

fac ilitation
d ev el opm ent
Bilingual
and

which

of
of

Act

caused

opponents

rati on al e

of

enabling students

base

the

to

their

this

1967

of
The

produced

were

inability

in

law

the

of

1968

de vel op

educa­

to

speak

to

resulted

setting

from home

to

education

in

English,

to school,

the

and

the

Realistically,

the

as sim ila tio nis t

confusion

and

language and culture

abilities

as

overcome

they had on children.

self-concept.

co nsi der abl e

was

school

to use their

a pos itive

II

of

1960s.

b i 1 in gu al-bic ultural

tr ans iti on

of bilingual

Chapter

the

ch il dr en

undo the ac co mpa nyi ng negati ve effects
Ideally,

introduction

in

Act

educational

1988).

general,
and

the

un der tak en

dis adv ant ag ed

In

alter

among

in nature

proponents

and

education.

notes

how,

in

the

midst

of

the

national

bilingual education controversy, the state of Michigan enacted
language policy

for

its

in the early 1970s.
tion

to

bilingual

po lic ymakers

language m in or it y student population

As P.A.
educ ati on

became

mired

294 began to unfold,
became
in

its

evident.

As

c o n tr ov er sy

the o p p o s i ­
a

result,

while

the

perennial myths and mis con ce pt io ns continued to complicate its
implementation.

139
To provide an und er s t a nd in g of bilingual
p ro g r a m

that

literature

works,

Chapter

related

II

directly

provided

to

some

education as a

a

rev ie w

ubiquitous

of

the

myths

and

m isc onc ept i o n s .
Chapter
educ ati on

III,

in d i s c u s s i n g the for mu la ti on of bilingual

pr og ra m

policy,

p ol ic y- m a k i n g that
achievement.
educa tio n
1970s.

The

deemed

a

political
Engli sh

related

What

that

Chican o

its

d e ve lop men t

in

p r og ra m
III ends

policy.

Two

ed uc at io n

input and

became

sophistication.

of

of

org ani za ti on

bilingual

the di ffe ren tia l

theo ry

for mulation

to de mo ns tra te

Chapter

Inc.

language

the

tr aci ng

was

process.

to

events.

by

p ed ag og ic al

Only,

exi sti ng

examined

intent

sound

a

education

is appli ed to Michi can o educational u n d e r ­

It

pol ic y

generated

evident

is

was

the

why

a pol ic y

c o mp rom ise d

15 years

proposes
separa te

in

the

later when the

to

delimit

political

pol ic y were

early

examined

the

events
to sh ow

impact which Chicanos had on both

The political

input

how and

bilingual

was

a

move

towards

focus of Chapter

important

in de te r m i n i n g

political

III suggests
educational

policy.
Chapter

IV provide d a critical

analysis

of three d i m e n ­

sions of Michigan's bilingual education pr o g r a m as implemented
under

po li t i c a l l y

eligib ili ty/ fun din g,

co mp r om is ed

implementation,

and m o ni to ri ng/ eva lua tio n.

the results of the Ch ic ano 's

from those segments

It examined

lack of input in the legislative

process when ma jo ri ty legislators
input

conditions:

failed to take into account

the polic y most affects.

140
In

the

became

d is cu s s i o n

evident

was

ma nda te

by school

Chapter

IV

important

the

policy

Mainstream

the

s t r uc tu re

of

gross

the

p r o v i s io ns

of

la nguage

po li c y
power

implemen ta ti on

process,

negligence

a

and

that

po li ti ci an s

d o m in at ed

the

d i s tr ic ts

sugg es te d

im pl em e n t a t i o n

of

the

im pl em e n t a t i on process

the

had

pro mpted

of

into

effective

detrimental.

o r ga ni zat ion s

therefore,

legisla tu re

agency.

input

ensure

pro ve n

had

a

had

hierarchical

ensured

that

the

language policy,

the

wo uld not succeed.

As a result of a p o o r l y formulated
im p l e m e n t a t i o n

Chicano

professional

formulating,

in

of

legislative

education

would

pol ic y

and

state

lack

which

of

what

bilin gu al

House C on cu rr ent

ed ucation

R es olu ti on

was

487,

a

fiasco.

which

This

this chapter

d iscussed.
In
Chapter
and

a

similar

fashion

these

in the
two

co mm i t m e n t
still

the

IV also focused a t te nt ion

monitoring/evaluation

pol i c y

to

late

1970s

d i me ns io ns
by both

a com pr om is ed
Despi te

state

and

1980s.

language
and

lofty

ideals

and

educa ti on

Mi chigan

bec am e

pol ic y

local

was

agencies,
into the

touted

not

edu ca ti on

What

by

le gi sl at iv e goals and
has

process,

on the e l i g i b i l i t y/ fu nd in g

bilingual

p r o g r a m going

dep ar t m e n t a l
in

of

of

impl eme nta ti on

worked

program

evident

the

and

lack

that

it

in
of
is

21st century.

imp re ssi ve ly- st ate d
objectives,

to

advance

bilingual
democratic

ideals for Chicanos, nor de ve lop ed their individual qualities.
All

the

dimens io ns

d i s c u s se d

have

d e mo ns tr at ed

a

"watered-

141
down,"
not

token,

and c o m p r o m i s e d

integrated,
Chapter

Michig an 's

withi n a traditional mode of education.

IV's

critical

bilingual

more

p r o ac ti ve

on

one

approach,

an

of

three

dimens io ns

program demonstrated

that

of
it

to placa te c o m m u n i t y concerns and was

"a ssimilation"

based

the

analysis

education

was a re ac t i v e attempt
based

language p r o g r a m superimposed,

on

good

mentality

pedagogy.

edu ca ti on al

As

rather

a result

un de ra ch i e v e me nt

of

than
of

a

this

Chicanos

pers i s t s .
Chapter

V

argued

impl em en ta ti on

at

that

the

local

bilingual
school

ed ucation

di strict

exc eption to the "as si mi la ti on " mentality.
bilingual

ed ucation

at

political

the or y

ed uc ational

showed
level

that
was

the

of

failure

tied

policies

were

actions,

rules,

the

to

of

the

transl at ed

state

bilingual

level

was

no

If the failure of

level

policy,

pr o g r a m

was

linked

this

chapter

educ at io n

same

political

into

discriminatory

at the

the or y

when

to

a

also
local
state

adm in is tr at iv e

and procedures.

This chapter

focused

on Fen nv il le 's

bilingual

education

pr o g r a m as a m i c r o c o s m of a stat ew id e sy s t e m where it becomes
entangled

in

ineffective
personnel,

an
via

and

"as si mi la ti on "
ac ademic
generally

mentality

grouping,
accepted

a

which

lack

of

informal

rendered

it

professional
practices

of

operation.
This

last

chapter

showed

that

the

failure

of bilingual

ed ucation

was,

without

doubt,

tied

to a political

theo ry

of

142
educational

pol icy which became evident via the differential

actions, rules, and p ro ce du re s as applied to Chicano students.
Mi ch iga n

schools,

in

an

attempt

to

r ec tif y

the

under­

achievem en t of Chicanos, implemented bilingual education based
on an

"assimilation"

mentality.

student must be assimilated.
of

an

ill-imposed

bilingual
Mi chigan

equity

education
local

was

school

In other

words,

the Chicano

To exem pl ify the drastic results
program,

viewed

the

from

the

implementation
pe rs pective

district--Fennville.

This

of

of
a

focused

analysis highlighted the following results of an ed uc ati on all y
de ficient

approach,

Re adi ng

as supported

by two localized

surveys:

un de ra chi ev em en t

Poor

st ud en t/ tea che r

c l a s s r o o m commun ic at ion

Lack

of parental

Poor

bilingual

Lack

of Chicano personnel

Poor

self-concept

involvement

ed u c a t io n program

These results raise s er io us questions about the ad equacy of a
traditional
that

students

predicament;
this

mode
are
the

idea also

of

ed uc at io n

which

c o m p l e t e l y to
e ff ec tiv en ess

is cause

holds

blame
of

for

school

on

to

their

the

notion

educational

programs

based

on

for concern.

Chicano researchers,

since the 1970s, have q u a l i t at iv el y

analyzed the educational dilem ma of Chicanos.

Their

findings

attribute school failure to a number of reasons other than the
student.

Among them are:

143
1.

P s y c h ol og ica l c h a r a c te ri st ic s and the failure of schools
to adjust to them

2.

School policies and practices inhibit Chican o achieve me nt
and promo te conflict,

3.

Schools

fail

to

emotional

c ap it al iz e

on

problems,

the

and dropout

student's

linguistic

and cultural backgrounds, thereby ob viating co mm un ic at iv e
c o mp et enc e on the part of the student.
4.

Ineffective bilingual programs only provide a superficial
facade that

5.

is being done to help Chicanos

Me aningful c o m m u n i t y support is not nurtured to assist in
the

6.

"something"

A

im pl eme nta ti on of Chicano programs

Ch ica no

Chican o

p ed ag og y

which

is not exi stent

reflects

the

ethos

of

the

in the school curriculum.

These d ef ic i en ci e s are the result of a traditional mode
of

education.

Michigan,

a

With
more

the

advent

pluralistic

of

bilingual

mode

of

education

ed ucation

began

in
to

replace the traditional model where large numbers of m i n o r i t y
students

are

enrolled.

Flint, Holland,

Detroit,

Such

schools

Saginaw,

are

Lansing,

Adrian,

and Bay City, among others.

A c o m p ar at iv e analysis of both the traditi on al model and the
plurali st ic

model

would

demonstrate

works to the ad vantage of Chicanos.

that

neither

approach

Both models would result

in the Chicano student hav in g to c o n f o r m to a dominant set of
values and behavior,
Bilingual
progr am

which

education.

c au si ng

educ at io n
is

in

classified

loss of
the

identity.

state

under

the

of

Mi chigan

pluralistic

is
mode

one
of

While it ac kn ow l e d g e s the linguistic and cultural

14 4

needs

of

Chicanos,

bilingual

programs

offer

no

equity because they do not s i g n i f i c a n t l y alter

educational

the r e l a t i o n ­

ship between:
1.

Te ac he r/ stu de nt

2.

S c h o ol /c om mu n it y

3.

Student/self

4.

Co gn it i v e / a c a d e m i c

As a result,
experience
this

Chicanos

in Michig an' s bilingual programs do not

me asu rab le

plur al ist ic

factors

aca demic

mode

for

addres si ng

the same problems persist;
high dropout

rate,

success.

that

is,

After

the

needs

15

years

of

of Chicanos,

low re adi ng achievement,

etc.

Rec omm end at ions
R ec og niz ing

that

both

the

traditi on al

model

and

the

plu ral ist ic model of ed uc at ion have "failed" the Chicano, this
s tud y proposes

a

framework

only reflects their ethos,
cally,

politically,

tional

approach

components.
does

It

not address

and

which
also

for a Chicano

not

hut s e e k s to e m p o w e r them e c o n o m i ­

culturally.

is

p e d a go gy which

devoid

reject s

the

of

It

rejects

lingu is tic

plu ra li st ic

the

and

tradi­

cultural

approach which

issues of economic and political control.

The purpose of the framework is to suggest redefinitions
of

existing

purposes
dilemma.

of
It

plu ral ist ic
impacting
is

an

approaches
po si ti v e l y

ecl ectic

to

Ch ica no

their

co mp osi tio n

education

current
of

tio na ll y sound and tried pedagogical modes,

for

educational

existing

educa­

interactions, and

145
power

relations,

framework

and

is

co nsists of the

1.

Bilingual

2.

Socioc ul tu ral

4.

Pa re nt al

mu l t i c u l t u ra l

submit

four key components:

programs
for

a

app ro ac h

ever changing,

society,

themse lv es

ed ucators

to
for

a

and

d i ve rs e

Chica no

p e d a g o gy

a

cosmopoli­
institu­

r e de fi ni ti on

its

for

of

what

population.
pu rports

to

for such redefinitions.

st ud y argues
is

mu lt id ime nsi ona l

In today's

framework

provide a basis

students

The

approaches

p lu r a l i s t i c

eq uitable

proposed

This

a

society.

to

c on st itu tes
The

offers

c u l t ur al l y
need

research.

involvement

framework

tions

following

te ac h i ng

Po litical co mponent

tan,

on q u a li ta ti ve

education

3.

This

based

that

"systemic."

educati on al
It

is

not

failure

a

for

pathology,

Chicano
but

an

institutional failure which has failed to p ro vid e the Chicano
with

an

equal

educ ati ona l

opportunity.

This

institutional

failure is a social p h e n o m e n o n which can only be u n de rs to od in
its

own

historical,

economic,

in

permeates

the

community,

and various social settings.

sy stemic

needed

chapters,

po litical

dis cussed

this

previous

and

classroom,

failure,

to change

the

impacts upon Chicano

a

the

it

home,

c o o p er at ive

eco nom ic

is

and

a

the

context.
"failure"

work

As
that

place,

the

As such, to overcome
po litical

political

ed uc ati on by means

approach

st r u c tu re

of planned

is

which

in t e r v e n ­

tion, as suggested by the third comp on ent of the framework for
a Chicano pedagogy.

146
The third co m p on e nt of a framework
ackn owledges
school

the

poli tic al

systems whi ch

theo ry

plays

for Chicano ed ucation

of

a central

educati on al
role

in the

policy

in

proce ss

of

political socialization, and that we are su b je ct ed to cultural
control.

It

important

for

recognizes

recogn ize s
the

that

that

to

e m p o w er me nt

schools

also

internalize
of

these

Chicanos.

function

as

It

facts

is

further

"bottlenecks"

for

so cie ty and thus play a crucial role

in d e t e r m i n i n g who will

have

as

access

to

such

so cietal

values

wealth,

status,

and

power.
Chicanos need to p e r c ei ve schools in the light that they
reflect the ex isting social milieu and do not change it.

They

need to take into account that schools are part of the overall
political

process;

therefore,

any

process

change has to be p o l i t i c a l l y bent to
not schools per se.

"It

will change the social

for

educational

impact upon s o c i e t y and

is a myth that c ha ng in g the schools

struct ur e"

(Galicia,

1973,

p.

4).

A Chicano p e d a g o g y has to assume that there are elements
of

resist an ce

at

the

local

level,

as

well

that will impede edu ca ti on al attainment.
tion

and

ap pl ica tio n

of

Chica no

ful

impact at the local

level,

other

levels,

Hence, the o r g a n i z a ­

politics

means to bring about d e s i r a b l e change.

as

is

sugg es ted

as

To ef fe ct ua te m e a n i n g ­

a Chicano p e d a g o g y must

focus

on the re la ti o n s hi p between the school and larger society.
major

pitfall

Chicanos
engender

of

the

p l u r ali st ic

is that they have
a

false

sense

a

mode

of

ed ucation

A
for

focused on language and c u lt ur e to
of

sec ur it y

and

o p t i m i sm

without

147
act ua ll y implementing att empts to alter the social structure.
The

suggested

sign ifi ca nt

framework

change

can

for

a Chicano p e d a g o gy

be

produced

by

information about Chicano educational,
deprivation,

thereby

c r e a t i ng

an

assumes

providing

social,

awareness

that

relevant

and political

of

the

Chicano

reality.
The
schools
rooted
are

previous
serve

to

chapters

have

socia li ze

established

Chicanos

and

in the American value system.

create d

to

serve

so ci et y

the

that

However,

rather

than

it

fact
is

that

deeply

since schools

vice

versa,

then

s o ci et y must change before schools can dem on st ra te change.
follows,
will

It

then, that patterns of classes and racial d om ina ti on

not

be

altered

by

si m pl y

implementing

superficial

legislative ma ndates without c h a l le ng in g the existing p o l i t i ­
cal

d o m i n a t io n

seriously

over

effect

Chicanos.

radical

How

change

in

else

the

can

Michic an os

educational

process

given the nature of the hiera rc hi ca l power st ructure over them
and

its

lack of r e l at i v i t y to cultural di versity?

In retrospect,

the

imp le me nt at io n

process

of

bilingual

education in Mi chigan was de st in ed to fail from its inception.
"Patterns
status

of

minority

relations

stude nt

failure

between m a j o r i t y

and

major influence on school per formance"
As de s c r i b e d by Wo ng - Fi ll m o re
a

minority

group

exposes

sh o w

that

minority

power

groups

and

exert

(Cummins, 1986, p. 21).

(1983), the do mi nat ed status of

its

members

to

co nditions

that

predis po se students to school failure even before they come to
school.

These condit io ns

include limited parental

access to

148
educatio na l
sion

and

resources,

pr im ar y

co mmi tm en t

am bi val enc e toward cultural

language

to m i n or it y

use

in

programs.

the

home,

These

are

transmis­

and

a

lack

the same

of

condi­

tions confi rm ed by the St ud y Group initiated by House C o n c u r ­
rent

Res ol ut io n

489.

The

"assimilation"

mentality

had

prevailed.
This
Chica no

chapter

pr oposes

pe d a g o g y

based

u n d er ac h i ev em e nt

which

on

a

theoretical

an

analysis

a

function

is

of
of

framework

the

framework

approa che s
the

is

to Chicano

ex isting

to

propose

ed uc ati on

educational

the

rel ati on sh ip

educational

r e d e f i ni tio ns
for

the

dilemma.

intent

The

a

their

between the society's power elite and education.
of

for

The purpo se
of

existing

of re versing

framework

is

an

eclectic melang e of e d u c a t i o n a l l y sound and salient p e d a g o g i ­
cal

modes,

interactions,

or

power

re lations

or ig i n a l l y

proposed as isolated means to impact the education of language
minorities.
tions,

and

This chapter me re l y suggests
organizationally

proposes

a

the best

interven­

C h ic an o

educational

The framework assigns a central role to four

interactive

pedagogy.

sets

of relations:

1.

bilingual education for cultural and li nguistic in c o r p o ­
ration

2.

so ciocultural

3.

a political

4.

parental

te ac h i ng approaches

component

involvement

149
It assumes that the social o r ga ni za ti on and burea uc rat ic
con st ra in ts
pol i c y and

four

factors,

The

pe da g o g y

c o l on iz ed

school

which

tenet

is that Chicanos

cultural

proposed

ex is ti ng

only

but also

central

group

and

enrolled a cc om pl is h the task
The

not

reflect

reflect

the

the

broader

extent

to

interactive sets of rela ti on s are deve lo pe d

implemented.

Chicano

the

societal

which these
and

within

framework

liberal

for

the

framework

are a socially,

that

schools

for

a

intern all y

where

they

are

of ma i n t a i n i n g the status quo.
is

modes

intended

of

to

suggest

ed ucation

are

ways

by

mo dified

or

enhanced to reverse C h ic an o student underachievement; the four
int er active approa ch es are such modes which were chosen on the
basis of research data which support them as relevant c o r n e r ­
stones

for

a

Chicano

pedagogy,

but

which

were

ineffective

reforms due to institutional n o n c om mi tm en ts and other factors.
In pr o p o s i n g a framework comp ri se d of "more of the same," this
study

propos es

rel ation

to

redefinitions

four

which

in st itutional

have

practices

to

be

assumed

of schools.

in

These

pr actices reflect the extent to which (a) the Chicano language
and

cultu re

into

the

dent's

is

in co rporated

school;

differing

(b)

teachers

communicative

er/st ud en t interaction;
m ea ni ng fu l
as an

input;

integral

and

the

bilingual

acc om mo da te
styles

via

the

program
Chicano

meani ng fu l

and
stu­

teach­

(c) Chicano politics are recognized as
(d) parental

component

these d imensions,

into

of Chicano

involvement
education.

is encouraged
For

each of

a n e w pe r s p e c t iv e is pr oposed for a l l e v i a t ­

ing the educational u n d e r a c h i e v e m e n t of Chican os and r e s p o n d ­

150
ing to their needs.

Both educators

and

institutions

require

a red efi ni ti on of what co n st it ut es equitable programs in order
to revers e the Chican o educ at ion al dilemma.
individual
co ntinue
tions

co ll e c ti ve

to repro duc e

that

students'

and

in these

cha rac te ri ze
aca demic

role

definitions,
interactions

the wider

failure

In the absence of

the

s o c i e t y and

inevitable.

schools
power

will
rela­

make m i n o r i t y

APPEN DI CES

APP ENDIX A

THE TANTON MEMO

151
APP EN DI X A

THE TANTON MEMO

PACK ET

TO:

WI TA N

FROM:

John Tanton

DATE:

October

I

IV At tendees

10,

1986

Here is a set of questions and st atements that I hope
will help guide our d i s c u s s i o n of the non- ec on om ic c o n s e ­
quences of immigration to California, and by extension, to the
rest of the United States.
These are not hi g hl y polished; I
ask your indulgence.
These notes are
papers, on the WITAN
several years on the
of Ame r ic an society.
categor ies is a bit
around.
I.

based on reading Bouvier's and related
III Meeting, and my own thinking over
topic of assim il at io n and the character
The assignment of subtopics to the main
arbitrary; many of them could be moved

Poli tic al Consequences.

1.
The political power between the states will change,
owing to diffe ren ti al m i g r a t i o n to the six immigrant -r ec ei vi ng
states.
The heartland will lose more political power (see
appended Table I ).
2.
Will the ne wc om er s vote de mo c r a t i c or republican,
liberal or conservative, and what d i f f er en ce does it make? A
lot, if yo u' r e one or the other!
3.
Gobernar es poblar translates "to govern is to
populate," (Parsons' paper, p. 10, packet sent May 8).
In
this so ci et y where the m a j o r i t y rules, does this hold?
Will
the present ma jor it y p e a c e a b l y hand over its political power
to a group that is si mp l y more fertile.
4.
Does the fact that there will be no ethnic m aj or it y
in Cal if or ni a early in the next c en tu ry mean that we will have
m i n o r i t y co a l i t i o n- t y pe governments, with third parties?
Is
this good or bad, in v i e w of the Eu ro pea n and other e x p e r i e n ­
ces .

152
5.
Shall illegal aliens be counted in the census and
used to appor ti on c ong re ss io nal and state house seats, t he re by
granti ng th e m political power?
6.
Is ap artheid in Southern C a lif or nia 's future?
The
d e m og ra p h ic picture in South Africa now is s t a r t l i n gl y similar
to what we'll see in Cal if o r ni a in 2030.
In Southern Africa,
a White mi n o r i t y owns the property, has the best jobs and
education, has the political power, and speaks one language.
A non-W hit e ma j o r i t y has poor education, jobs and income, owns
little property, is on its way to political power and speaks
a dif fe re nt language.
(The official language policy in South
Africa is b i 1 ing ualism--the Blacks are taught in Zulu and
related tongues.)
In the Cal if or ni a of 2030, the no n-H isp ani c Whites and
Asians will own the property, have the good jobs and e d u c a ­
tion, speak one language and be mos tl y P ro tes ta nt and "other."
The Blacks and Hispanics will have the poor jobs, will lack
education, own little property, speak another language and
will be m a in ly Catholic.
Will there be st rength in this
di ver sit y?
Or will this prove a social and political San
Andreas Fault?
7.
Illegal
aliens
will
pay taxes
to
Government; their costs will mo st l y be local.

the

Federal

8.
The politici ans are way behind the people on these
issues.
This brings to mind the st ory told of Gandhi: he was
sitting by the side of the road when a crowd went by.
He
said, "There go m y people.
I must get up and follow them, for
I am their leader!"
9.

Griffin

Smith's

nnint

from f hp

Fpf)pr p l i s t

Ppnprs;

Tf

was argued that the colonie s would make a good nation, as they
shared a common cultur e and language.
Ni ne t e e n eighty seven
is the c e le br at io n of the ado ption of the Constitution, 1988
its ratification, and 1989 the setting up of the first Federal
Government.
Can we tie into these dis cus si on s?
II. Cultural.
1.
Will Latin Ame ric an migrants bring with them the
tradition of the mordid a (bribe), the lack of involvement in
public affairs, etc.? What in face are the ch ara cte ris tic s of
Latin Ame ric an culture, versus that of the United States? See
Harrison's Washin gto n Post article in the September 3 packet.
2.

When does d i v e r s i t y grade over

into division?

3.
Will Blacks be able to improve (or even maintain)
their pos iti on in the fact of the Latin on slaught?
(See Graph
3)

153
4.
How will we make the transition from a domina nt nonHispanic socie ty with a Spanish
influence to a do minant
Spanish socie ty with no n- His pan ic influence?
5.
Do ethnic en claves
(Bouvier,
p.
18) constit ute
re s e gr eg ati on ?
As Whites see their power and control over
their lives declining, will they si m p l y go qu ie tl y into the
night? Or will there be an explosion? Why don't non -Hispanic
Whites have a group identity, as do Blacks, Jews, Hispanics?
6.
Note that Graph 2 shows vi rt ua ll y all the populat ion
growth will come from immigrants and their descendants.
7.
Is there a d i f f e r e n c e
between Asians and Latins?
8.
Should
some thi ng
me taphors of the salad bowl

in the rates of a s si mi la ti on

be
said
about
the
and the melti ng pot?

co mpeting

9.
What e x ac tl y is it that holds a diver se socie ty
together?
Gerda's paper said that in our case, it was a
common language.
10.
Is assim ila tio n a function of the educational and
economic level of immigrants?
If so, what are the c o n s e q u e n ­
ces of havi ng so many ill-educated people coming in to low
paying jobs?
11.
We're bui lding in a d e ad l y disunity.
empires disintegrate, we want stability.
(Lamm)
12.

Enclaves

lead to rigidity.

All

great

(Hardin)

13.
The t h e o r y of a m o r a t o r i u m ! the pause in immigratI on
between 1930-1950, com bined with the a s s im il at in g experience
of fighting side- by- si de in the trenches in World War II, gave
us a needed pause so that we could assim il ate the mass of
people who came in in the ear ly years of the century.
Do we
again need such a pause?
14.
Co ncerning the moratorium, here are some phrases
that could be used: "The pause that refreshes."
"A seventh
inning stretch."
"Take a break,
catch up,
eliminate a
backlog, take a breather,"
15.
Perhaps me nti on should be made of Pacific Bell's
move
to install
c o m pl e t e l y separate Spanish
and Chinese
language phone systems in Calif or nia (see May 27 packet).
16.
Novak's term "unmeltable ethnics" is pr ob ab ly better
than some of the others that have been suggested.
Similarly,
eth ni ci ty is a more ac ce p ta bl e term than race.
It should also
be noted that 50% of all Hi spanic surname people on the census

154
forms de s i g n a te th ems el ve s as White.
So perhaps we should
speak of Hi spanic Whites and n o n -H is pa ni c Whites, to further
di ff us e the issue.
Is A ng lo a better ter m than White?
L A N G U A G E IS VERY important here.
III.

Co ns er v a t i o n

and

Demography.

1.
What will be the effect on the co ns er v a t i o n m o v e ­
ment, which has d ra wn its suppo rt in the past from other than
the minorities, and w hi ch has relied on the political power of
the m a j o r i t y to pass l e g i s l a t i v e me asures? As the people that
groups like the Sierra Club represent go into o pp osi ti on
(minority political status), will many of the things they've
worked for be lost b e ca us e the new m a j o r i t y holds other
values?
2.
Can homo c o n t r a c e p t i v u s compete with homo progenitiva if borders aren't c o n t ro ll ed? Or is advice to limit ones
family s i m p l y advice to move over and let someone else with
greater re pr od u c t i v e powers occ up y the space?
3.
What are the co ns e q u e n c e s to C al if or ni a of the raw
popula ti on growth that is coming, the ethnic change aside (see
Graph I )?
4.
What is the c o n s e r v a t i o n ethnic of
Latin A m e r i c a n ne wco m er s?
Will they adopt
theirs?

the Asian and
ours or keep

5.
The Sierra Cl u b m a y not want to touch the i m m i g r a ­
tion issue, but the i m m i gr at io n issue is going to touch the
Sierra Club!
(To m e n t i o n just one group.)
6.
On the d e m o g r a p h i c point: perhaps this is the first
instance in which those with their pants up are going to get
caught by those with their pants down!
7.
Do you agree wi t h Te it el b a u m ' s statement, " I n t e r n a ­
tional m i g ra ti on has n o w bec om e an important point of i n t e r ­
section b e tw ee n the d i f f e r e n t de m o g r a p hi c pro fil es of d e v e l o p ­
ing and d e v el op ed co un t ri e s " ?
(Fear of Po pu la t i o n Decline, p.
134--see also pp. 111-115.)
IV.

Jur isprudence

1.
What are the co ns e q u e n ce s for af fi rma tiv e acti on of
the ethnic change comi ng along?
Will the no n- Hi s p a n i c Whites
(NHW) have a limited number of spots in p r of es si on al schools,
etc. p r o p o rt io na te to their numbers?
Or will a f fi rma tiv e
action go beyond this (as it does now in Malaysia) to cut
spots to be lo w their p r op or t i o n a t e share, to enable other
groups to "catch up?"

155
2.
3.
and does

An yt hi ng to be said about drugs and the border?
Will we get more of the N a p o l e o n i c Code
it make a di f f e re nc e?

influence,

4.
What do we dema nd of immigrants--or more correctly,
what should we demand of them:
a.
Learn our language.
b.
Adopt our political ideals.
c.
A ss im il at e and add their flavoring to our stew.
V.

Education.

1.
What are the di ff er en ce s in e d u c a b i l it y between
Hi spanics (with their 50% dropout rate) and Asiatics (with
their e xce ll en t school record s and long trad it ion of s c h o l a r ­
ship)?
2.
Where does b u s si ng fit into the picture?
Keep in
mind that
by 1990, over 50% of all the people under
15 years
of age will be of m in or it y status.
Th e y will also
be h e av il y
co n c e n t r a t e d in certai n g eo gr ap hic areas.
3.
The whole bi lingual
mentioned.

education qu estion needs

to be

VI . R ac e/ Cl ass R e l a t i o n s .
1.
What will be the fate of Blacks as their numbers
d e cl in e in re la ti o n s h i p to Hi spanics?
As they lose political
power, will they get along with the H is pa ni cs ?
Re lations are
al r e a d y h e a v i l y strained in m a n y places.
7.
What happens when we devel op a new underclass, or a
two-ti er ed economic system?
E s p e c i a l l y if the two groups
can't speak the same language!
(See Bouvier and Martin,
Chapter 5)
3.
Is r e s e g re ga ti on taking place,
of the state in particular?

in the Southern part

4.
Phil Martin's point: In agriculture, the Whites and
Asi at ic s will own and manage, but will not be able to speak to
the His pa ni c field workers. Th e y will need bilingual foremen.
Does this sound like social peace?
Or like South Africa?
Ke e p in mind the poor educational level of the field hands.
VII.

The E c o n o m y .

I don't think we should dwell much on the economy: I
think we should try to make our cont ri bu ti on by talking about
the no n- ec o n o m i c c o ns eq ue nc es of immigration.
Nonetheless:

156
1.
(Bouvier,

Do high levels of immigration cut back on innovation
p. 27)?

2.
Does it reduce the te nd e n c y and need of employers to
hire curre nt m i n o r it y teens (Bouvier, p. 27)?
3.
general

Is there a do wn w a r d pressure on labor standards
(Bouvier, p. 28)?

in

4.
Phil Mar tin's point on the co lo ni za ti on of the labor
market (Chapter 5).
VIII.

Retirement.

1.
Since the m a j o r i t y of the retirees will be NHW, but
the worke rs will be minorities, will the latter be willing to
pay for the care of the former?
They will also have to
provide the direct care: How will they get along, es pe ci al ly
through a language barrier (Bouvier, p. 40)?
2.
On the other hand, will the older and NH W groups be
willi ng to pay the school taxes ne cessary to educate the
bu rg e o n i n g minorit ie s?
3.
The Federal G ov er nm en t may have to pay for the care
of the e l d e r l y in s c h o o ls -- wi ll it?
IX.
of all to
less :

Re ligious C o n s e q u e n c e s . This is the most di fficult
tackle, and perhaps should be left out.
Nonethe­

1.
What are the implications of the changes shown on
graphs 2 and 3 for the s ep ar at io n of church and state?
The
Catholic Church hss never been reticent on this point.
If
they get a m a j o r i t y of the voters, will they pitch out this
concept?
2.
schools.

Same qu es ti on

for

parochial

schools

3.
Same qu estion for the topic of
birth control, po pul ati on control.
4.
5.
Am erican
casual.

Same qu es ti on

versus

public

abortion/choice,

for the role of women.

Will C a t h o l i c i s m brought
or the Eu rop ea n models?

6.
Keep in mind
are also Catholic.

in from Mexico
The latter is

be in the
much more

that many of the Vietna me se coming

in

157
7.
Is there a n y t h i n g to be said about the Ea ste rn
r e l i g io ns that will come along with
the As i a t i c s ?
X.
M e x i c o and L a t i n Ameri ca
(Chapter 7, Bouvier
&
Martin).
Pe r h ap s the ma i n thing to be a d dr es sed here
is
wh et he r or not s h u t t i n g off
the escape valve will lead
to
revolut io n, or wheth er ke ep i n g it open can avert it.
XI.
A d d i t io n al D e m o g r a p h i c I t e m s . T e i t e l b a u m 's phrase,
"A r e g i o n of lo w- n a t i v e fe r t i l i t y com bin ed with high i m m i g r a ­
tion of h i g h - f e r t i l i t y peo pl e does not make for co mp a t i b l e
trend lines!"
Finally, this is all o b v i o u s l y d a n g e r o u s territory, but
the p r o b l e m is not g o i n g to go away.
Who can open it up?
The
q u e s t i o n is an a l o g ou s to Nixon 's opening of China: he could do
it, Hubert H u m p h r ey co ul d not have.
Similarly, the issues
w e' re t o u c h i n g on here must be br oa che d by liberals.
The
c o n s e r v a t i v e s s i m p l y ca nn o t do it witho ut tainting the whole
subject.
I think the answe rs to m a n y of these ques ti ons depe nd on
h o w well people as si milate.
This, in turn, d e pen ds h e a v i l y on
whethe r the par en t s o c i e t y has made up its mind that a s s i m i l a ­
tion is a good thing (we're confused on this point now),
wheth er it works at a s s i m i l a t i n g ne w c o m e r s (as Canada and
A u s t r a l i a do by fo ll owi ng the m lon git udinally), whether the
people co mi n g want to a s s i m i l a t e (not all of th e m do), and,
even if all the factors are favorable, wh eth er the numbers are
small enou gh so as not to o v e r w h e l m the a s s i mi la ti ve process.
Good

luck to us all!

AP PE NDI X B

D ET RO IT TASK FORCE PROPOSAL

158

C IT Y O F O B T F O I T
POMAN 3. GftiBBS. Mcyor
COMMISSION ON COMMUNITV RELATIONS
pOUOTH PLOOR. ISO MICHIGAN AVENUE. OETROIT MICHIGAN 40S2B
013) 224.A95Q

February 15, 197L

Representative Daisy Elliott
Representative William R. Bryant, Jr.
Representative William R. Keith
House of Representatives
State of Michigan
Lansing, Michigan LSjOl
Dear Representatives Elliott, Bryant, and Keith:
Attached for your earnest consideration is the proposal for a
bill on bilingual education drafted by the Detroit Task Force
on Bilingual/Bicultural Education.
The Detroit bilingual education task force (roster attached) is
a broadly-based community organization of concerned citizens
organized in January, 197^ by the Commission on Community
Relations to secure more effective educational services to
pupils of limited English-speaking ability.
Inquiries or consultation regarding the provisions reconiuicuueu
herein are invited and may be addressed to the undersigned, or
to:
1. Mr. Jorge Lambrinos, Co-chairman,
Legislative Sub-committee
c/o L.A.S.E.D.

L138 W. Vernor
Detroit, Michigan

U8209

(313) 826-7022

JE S S IE M
D E N IS E J

D IL L A R D . C n « .r r r ,» n

■

L E W I S , S a o - a ta ry - O ir a n c a r

R E V . D A N I E L P . B O G U S , V .C » C N i r m a n
■

R I C H A R D V. M A R K S . A a a ia ta n t D i r e c t o r

Representative Daisy Elliott
Representative William R. Bryant, Jr.
Representative William R. Keith
Page 2
February 15, 197**

2. Ms. Rachael Moreno, Co-chairman,
Legislative Sub-committee
U138 W. Vernor
Detroit, Michigan 1*8209

(313) 826-7022
Thank you for your support of these recommendations.
Sincerely,
/
/.<.< ... / ' •
(Mrs.) Denise J. Lewis
Secretary-Director

_

■ ••-^n.
Silvestre Acosta
CCR Commissioner
Chairman, Detroit Ta3k Force
on Bilingual/Biculturel Education
Enclosures
cc:

Rep. Lucille H. McCullough
tv T
>—
44#

Rep.
Rep.
Rep.
Rep.
Rep.
Rep.
Rep.
Rep.
Rep.

Matthew McNeely
George Montgomery
Thaddeus C. Stopczynski
Jackie Vaughn III
Edgar A. Geerlin.-.s
John S. Mowat, Jr.
Clifford H. Smart
Roy L. Spenser
WllliaQi A. Ryan

160

RESTATEMENT 07 HOUSE BILL # 4750
The U.S. Supreme Court has found that the failure of educational oyotems to make provisions for children whoee dominant language is other than
English, effectively forecloses them from any meaningful participation in
the educational process and violates J601 of Civil Sights Act of 1 9 ^ which
bans discrimination based on "race, color or national origin." The 1970
census (U.S. Census) for the State of Michigan indicates that there ore
large numbers of children in this state whose home language is other than
English.

Experience has shown that public school classes in which instruc­

tion is given only in English are inadequate for the education of children
whose home language is not English.
This act will provide for the establishment, implementation, and fund­
ing of programs in bilingual education in the public schools of the State
of Michigan, and the certification of teachers under these programs.

This

Act will further provide for the creation of a Division for Bilingual In­
struction within the State Department of Education as outlined in this
enactment.

This Division for Bilingual Instruction will consist of a director,

an assistant for Migrant Programs, and an assistant for Urban Programs, as
well as the necessary supportive staff to provide the services in the areas
of Research and Evaluation, Curriculum Development and Resources, and InService Training and Staff Development and University Programs, as outlined
in section O') of this net;
Therefore:
Pursuant to the policy of the State of Michigan to insure equal educa­
tion opportunity to every child, and in recognition of the educational needs
of children of limited English speaking ability, it is the purpose'of this
bill to provide, for the establishment and funding of such bilingual programs
in the public schools where a need has been shown.

Section 1 - The following words as used in this act shall, unless
the context requires otherwise, have the following meanings:
"Department", The State Department of Education.
the school board of a local school district.
English-speaking ability",

"School Board",

"Children of limited

(l) children who were not born in the

United States whose home language is a language other than English and
who are incapable of performing classwork in English;

(2) children

who were born in the United States of non-English speaking parents and
who are incapable of performing classwork in English; and (3) children,
of parents with limited English speaking ability, who are incapable of
performing classwork in English.
"Program in bilingual education", a full-time program of instruction
(1) in all those courses or subjects which are required of a child, by
local school districts, for completion of grade requirements to receive
and which shall be given in the native language of the children of
limited English-speaking ability who are enrolled in the program and
also in English, (2) in the reading and writing of the native language
of the children of limited English-speaking ability who are enrolled
in the program and in the oral comprehension, speaking, reading and
writing of English, and (3) in the history and culture of the country,
territory or geographic area which is the nr.tiv* land of the parents
of children of limited English-speaking ability who are enrolled in the
program; and in the history and culture of the United States.
"Teacher of bilingual education", shall be defined for purposes of this
act as denoting fluency in the language comparable to the level attained
by persons in the ethnic classification by virtue of birthplace or
natural origin.

162

3

Section 2 - Each school board shall ascertain, not later than the first
day of

. under regulations prescribed by the Division

of Bilingual Instruction, the number of children of limited Englishspeaking ability within their school systems, and shall classify them
according to the language of which they possess a primary speaking
ability.
When, at the beginning of any school year, there are within a
local school district, not including children who are enrolled in exist­
ing private school systems, twenty or more children of limited Englishspeaking ability in any such language classification, the school board
shall establish, for each classification, a program in bilingual educa­
tion for the children therein; provided, however, that a school board
cay establish a program in bilingual education with respect to any class­
ification with less than twenty children therein.
Every school-age child of limited English-speaking ability not
enrolled in existing private school systems shall be enrolled and par­
ticipate in the program in bilingual education

established

for

the

classification to which he belongs by the local school district in
which he resides for a period of at least three years and until such
time as he achieves a level of English language skills which will enable
him

tn

perform

auenenafully in classes in which instruction is given

only in English.
Any other child in the local school district may participate in
components of a program of bilingual education at the request of the
child’a parent or legal guardian, subject to available space.

163

k

An examination in thr oral comprehension, speaking reading, and
writing of English, as prescribed by the Division of Bilingual Instruction,
shall be administered annually to all children of limited Englishspeaking ability enrolled and participating in a program in bilingual
education.

No school board wh«n transfer a child of limited English-

speaking ability out of a program in bilingual education prior to his
third year of enrollment therein unless the parents of the child approve
the transfer in writing, and unless the child has received a score on
said examination which reflects a level of English language skills ap­
propriate to his or her grade level.
If later evidence suggests that a child so transferred is still
handicapped by an inadequate command of English, he may be re-enrolled
in the program, or any component thereof.
Section J - No later than ten days after the enrollment of any child
in a program in bilingual education, the school board of the local school
district in which the child resides shall notify, by mail, the parent
or legal guardian of the child of the fact that their child has been
enrolled in a program in bilingual education.

The notice shall contain

a simplenon-technical description of the purposes, method and content
of the program

and shall inform the parents that they have the right to

visit bilingual education classes in which their child is enrolled.
The notice shall be written in English and in the language of which
the child of the parents so notified possesses a primary speaking ability.

164

5

Section 4 - A school baord shall allow a non-resident child of limited
English-speaking ability from a system without the required number of
students to establish a program to enroll in or attend its program in
bilingual education and the tuition for such child shall be paid by the
appropriate district in which he resides.
Ajy local school district may join with any other school district
or districts to provide the program in bilingual education required or
permitted by this act.

The coordination and establishment of such pro­

grams shall be under the direction of intermediate

school districts.

The State of Michigan under section
shall reimburse any local school district for the cost of providing
transportation for children attending a program in bilingual education.
Section 5 - Instruction in courses if subjects included in a program of
bilingual education which are not mandatory may be given in a language
other than English.

In those courses or subjects in which verbaliza­

tion is not essential to an understanding of the subject matter, in­
cluding but nut necessarily limited tu art, music and physical education,
children of limited English-speaking ability shall participate full with
their English-speaking contemporaries in the regular public school
classes provided that said subjects include definite units related to
the culture of the various ethnic classifications.

Each school board

of every local school district shall ensure to children enrolled in a
program in bilingual education practical and meaningful opportunity to
participate fully in the extra-curricular activities of the regular

165

6
public schools in the local school district.

Programs in bilingual

education shall be located in the regular public schools of the local
school district.
Whenever possible, children enrolled in a program of bilingual
education shall be placed in classes with children of approximately
the same age level of educational attainment.

If children of different

age groups or educational levels are combined, the school district so
combining shall ensure that the instruction given each child is appro­
priate to his or her level of educational attain, tent and the local
school districts shall keep adequate records of the educational level
and progress of each child enrolled in a program.

The maximum etudent-

teacher ratio shall be determined by the Division of Dilingual Instruc­
tion to reflect the special educational needs of children enrolled in
programs in bilingual education.
Section 6 - The State Board of Education, hereinafter called the Board,
shall grant certificates and/or endorsements to teachers of bilingual
education who possess such qualifications as are prescribed in this
section.

Teachers of hi1ingiisl education, including those serving un­

der endorsements provided through this act, shall be compensated by local
school districts cn the seme salary schedule applicable to rerular teachers.
Teachers shall make appliation for a teaching certificate and/cr
endorsement through the established procedures of the State of Michigan.
The Board shall grant such endorsements and/or certificates to
teachers of bilingual education who present the Board with satisfactory
evidence that they:

166
7

1.

possess a native speaking and reading ability in a language
other than English in which bilingual education is being
offered;

2.

possess communicative skills in English;

3.

are in good health, provided that no candidate shall be
disqualified due to defective hearing or blindness;

h.

are of sound moral character;

5.

possess a degree from an accredited college or 'university;

6.

meet such requirements as to courses of study, semester
hours therein, experience and training as may be required
by the Board;

7.

be versed in the history and culture of the ethnic class­
ification ;

8.

are legally present in the United States and possess legal
authorization for employment.
The Board may grant a temporary teaching certificate and/or en­

dorsement to those individuals lacking a degree, who are enrolled in
and have completed at least two years of study in an accredited teacher
training program and meet all other criteria.
For

the purposes of certifying teachers of bilingual education the

Board may approve programs at colleges or universities devoted to the
preparation of such teachers.

The institutions shall furnish the Board

with a student's transcripts and shall certify to the Board that the student
has completed the approved program and is recommended for a teaching cer­
tificate.

167

8
Also, the Division of Bilingual Instruction shall establish and
administer a state-wide program of insarvice training and staff develop­
ment in bilingual education in cooperation with local colleges.

This

training program shall include but. will not be limited to teachers,
teacher-aides, para-professionals,

administrators.

A teacher of bilingual education serving under an endorsement as
provided in this section shall be granted a certificate if he/she achieves
the requisite qualifications therefore.
All years of service under such endorsement shall be credited to
the teacher in acquiring that status of tenure and in the granting of
salary increments.
Section 7 - A uchool board may establish on a full of part-time basis
pre-school or summer-school programs in bilingual education for children
of limited English-speaking ability or join with other local school
districts in establishing such pre-school or summer programs.

Pre­

school or summer programs in bilingual education shall not substitute
for programs in bilingual education required to be provided during the
regular school year.
Section 8 - The cost of the programs in bilingual education required or
permitted under this act, actually rendered or furnished, shall for the
amount by which such costs increase the average per pupil expenditure
of the local school district for the .iucation of children of comparable
age, be allocated by the State to the local school districts.

168
9

Allocation ahall be made upon certification by the Division of
Bilingual Instruction that programs in bilingual education have been
carried out in accordance with the requirements of this act, the Divi­
sion's own regulations, and approved plans submitted earlier by the
local school districts.
Nothing herein shall be interpreted to authorize local school
districts to reduce expenditures from local and federal sources, in­
cluding monies allocated under the federal Elementary and Secondary
Education Act, for bilingual education programs.
Section 9 - In addition to the powers and duties prescribed in pre­
vious sections of this act, the Division of Bilingual Instruction shall
excercice its authority of all provisions of this act.

A copy of the

rules and regulations issued by the Division shall be sent to all local
school districts participating in bilingual education.
Section 10 - There shall be established within the State Department of
Education, a Division of Bilingual Instruction which shall be headed by
a director.

The director shall be appointed by the State Board of Ed­

ucation, and said director shall have the minimum qualifications of a
Manner's deccree and shall have at least five years of documented ad­
ministrative and/or teaching experience, with at least two of those
years in bilingual education.

The director shall file a quarterly re­

port with the State Board of Education, the Clerk of the House of Rep­
resentatives and the Clerk of the Senate.
The Division of Bilingual Instruction shall be charged with the
following duties: (l) to assist the Department in the administration

169

10

and enforcement of tho provisions of this act and in the formulation
of the regulations provided for in said act; (2) to study, review and
evaluate all available resources and programs that, in whole or in part,
ore or could be directed toward meeting the language needs of children
and adults of limited Engliab-speaking ability residing in the State;
(3) to compile information about the theory and practice of bilingual
education in the State and alsewhere, to encourage experimentation and
innovation in the field of bilingual education and to make an annual
report to the legislative bodies and the Qovemor; (*0 to provide for
the maximum practicable involvement of parents of children of limited
English-speaking ability in the planning, development and evaluation of
bilingual education programs in the districts serving their children and
to provide for the maximum practicable involvement of parents of child­
ren of limited English-speaking ability, teachers and teacher aides of
bilingual education, community coordinators, representatives cf com­
munity groups, educators and laymen knowledgeable in the field of bi­
lingual education, in the formulation of policy and procedures relating
to the administration of this

act hv the State:

(S) to ronanl t with other

public departments and agencies of the State; (6) to make recommendation::
to the Department in the areas of preservice and in-3ervice training for
teachers of bilingual education programs, curriculum development, testing
and testing mechanisms and the development of materials for bilingual
education courses; and (7) to undertake any further activities which may
assist the Department of Education in the full implementation of this
act.

170

TASK FORCE ON BI-LINGUAL/BI-CULTURAL EDUCATION

I. Mr. Silvestre Acosta,
CONVENER/CHAHMAN

Detroit Commission on Community Relations,
150 Michigan, Fourth Floor, Detroit,
Michigan 1+8226

221+-1*993
365 -I+868
825-391+0

2.

M b . Lynne Alvarez

New Detroit, Inc., 1515 Detroit Bank &
Trust Building, Detroit, Michigan 1+8226

961-9160

3.

Ms. Rose M. Aquilar

L.A.S.E.D., 1+138 W. Vernor, Detroit,
Michigan 1+9209

826-7022

1+. Mr. Fred Brinkman

La Raza Unlda, c/o L.A.S.E.D.,
1+138 W. Vernor, Detroit, Michigan 1+8209

863-7756

5.

Ms. Juana J. Canales

Webster School, IU50 Twenty-Fifth
Detroit, Michigan U8216

261-2351

6.

Ms. Lillian Caatlllo

Morley School, 1120 S. Beaumont,
Detroit, Michigan 1+8209

862 -U362

7.

Mr. Frank Do Santis

Region 2, 6550 W. Warren
Detroit, Michigan 1+8210

1+91+-2215

9.

Ms. Jean Downs

Webster School, IU50 Twenty-Fifth
Detroit, Michigan 1+8216

729-0599

9* Ms. Nina Drolias

Webster School, 11+50 Twenty-Fifth
Detroit, Michigan 1+9216

863-5651*

10. Mr. Gordon Farrell

191+1+1 Appoline, Detroit, Michigan
1+8235

86U-5723

11. Mr. Oscar Garcia

Neinas School, 6021 McMillan
Detroit, Michigan 1+3209

8U3-6250

xr. .

Vi&yne County Department of Social
Services, 61+0 Temple, Detroit,

256*1015

nr. i '. a n u e x u o n z a j . c z

Michigan
13.

Mr. Jorge A. Herrera

1+8201

Psyci+ology Department, nastum
Michigan University, Ypsilanti,
Michigan

ll+. Ms. Mirta Irueta

Webster School, IU50 Twenty-Fifth
Detroit, Michigan 1+8216

81+3-2191+

15. Ms. Margarita Jimenez

1522 Junction, Detroit, Michigan
1+8209

862-6617

16. Ms. Rossna Jackie

11+1+68 Flanders, Apt. 3, Detroit,
Michigan 1*9213

526-91+1+0

17. Mr. Jorge Lambrinos

L.A.S.E.D., 1+138 W. Vernor, Detroit,
Michigan 1+8209

826-7022

171

19. Mr. Israel Leyton

Latin-American Secretariat
305 Michigan Avenue, Detroit,
Michigan U8226

963-3680

19* Mr. Bob Lopez

Earhart Jr. High School, 1000 Scotten
Detroit, Michigan U8209

273-8663

20. Mr. Frank Lozano

Webster School, lU50 Twenty-Fifth,
Detroit, Michigan lt32l6

826-73^0

21. Ms. Cleofe Manzor

Maybury School,UUlO Porter
Detroit, Michigan U8209

822-5379

22.

Sr. Mary Martinez

St. Andrew's School, 5675 Larkins
Detroit, Michigan U8210

361-2900

23.

Dr. Charles Massey

Preston School, 1251 Seventeenth
Detroit, Michigan W2l6

9 2 5 -6 9 UU

2h.

Ms. Paulita Montanez

Webster School, 1 U50 Twenty-Fifth
Detroit, Michigan U8216

25.

Mrs. Annetta Miller

25^56 Warehan, Huntington Woods,
Michigan l»8070

5fc7-*>333

26.

Ms. Rachalel Moreno

Region 2, 6550 W. Warren, Detroit,
Michigan 1+8210

1+91+-225I*

27.

Ms. Serna E. Moas

Community on the Move, 3022 Trumbull
Detroit, Michigan U8216

563-5260

28.

Ms. Martha Moten

Webster School, IU50 Twenty-Fifth
Detroit, Michigan L9216

825-39^0

20.

Mr. TaH b Miirillo

Michigan Education
P.O. Box 673, E. Lansin.’,, Michigan,

isuO*

517'•332-6551

b':°23

30.

Mr. John Olivarez

Wayne State University, Detroit,
Michigan U9202

31.

Mr. Tom Rein

University of Michigan School of
Social Work, Ann Arbor, Michigan

32.

Dr. Mike Syropoulos

Detroit Public Schools, 10100 Grand River,
Detroit, Michigan U820 U

931-08h8

33. Ms. Percy Villaverde

Beard School, 8 U0 Waterman, Detroit,
Michigan U8209

8h3-OlUo

3*4. Ms. Margarita Valdez

Latin-American Secretariat,
305 Michigan Avenue, Detroit,
Michigan U6226

963-3680

35*

Wilson Jr. High, 7735 Lane,
Detroit, Michigan U8209

877-3596

Dr. Joseph Wytrval

521-7998

AP PENDIX C

TEACHER AND PARENT SURVEYS

MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT
OF EDUCATION

FENNVILLE SCHOOL DISTRICT
TEACHER SURVEY & PARENT SURVEY
ANALYSIS ABSTRACTS #2 & #3
by
PROGRAMS FOR EDUCATIONAL
OPPORTUNITIY (PEO)
Research Department
August 6, 1988

173

MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
FENNVILLE SCHOOL DISTRICT
TEACHER SURVEY
ANALYSIS ABSTRACT - ?2
by
Program for Educational Opportunities (PEO)
Research Department

WHAT WE DID
After receiving the data from MDE we did the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reviewed each questionnaire for completeness and/or data errors.
Assigned unique ID numbers to each questionnaire.
Keypunched the data and uploaded to MTS.
Read the data into the MIDAS Statistical Analysis program.
Performed three different types of descriptive analyses:
(a) comparison of negative and positive responses for each item
(b) frequency distribution for each item and (c) mean score
calculation for each item.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ANALYSES
We present the first analysis in Section II - Initial Findings, parts 2 & 3.
This analysis examines the proportion of negative and positive responses for
each item. Our analysis uses two different criteria to determine which items
suggest a potential school weakness and which a strength.
The second analysis is a frequency distribution for each question. A frequency
distribution provides the percentage each unique value contributes to the total.
These percentages always sum to 100 percent. These data are presented in
Appendix A and Appendix B.
The third analysis is a mean score for each question. This analysis treats each
response code as a real number. The mean (average) is derived through a three
step process. In step one, we exclude all Don't Know/No opinion respondents. In
step two, we sum all remaining response codes. In step three, we divide the
total number of remaining respondents by the sum derived in step two. These data
are presented in Appendix C.
SECTION I - Initial Analysis
Our initial review of the questionnaire focused on two areas, survey sample size
and conceptual groupings.
1. Survey Sample Size
The size of the Fennville teacher survey sample is quite small (n-10). Small
samples usually prevent the use of inferential statistics. In this study
descriptive statistics are the primary means of analysis. Frequency
distributions or marginals are appropriate for studies with small samples. The

174

negative effect, however, comes when interpreting the data. This is particularly
true for this analysis. In the Fennville Teacher Study, for example, each
respondent contributes 10 percent to the overall distribution. When this occurs
significant swings in percentages can be attributed to one person. Small samples
make it very difficult to draw accurate conclusions about the data. Thus,
caution should be used when generalizing the findings to the larger population
of Fennville teachers.
2. Conceptual Groupings
Our review of the questionnaire revealed numerous conceptual groups. Examples of
these groups include, goal organization', expectations, parent initiative/support
for school, parent school interaction, teachers, administrators, Hispanic
concerns and discipline. Unfortunately,'many questions are not easily
categorized and some questions overlap into other categories. In addition, it
was difficult to define concise, exclusive categories due to our limited
knowledge of the Fennville District and the original conceptual design for the
questionnaire. We patterned our analysis scheme to emphasize aspects of the
questionniare about which we're certain. We also present the data in such a way
that subsequent categorization of items by MDE or school personnel is possible.
SECTION II - Initial Findings
1. Description of Analyses
To simplify the analysis, we designated criteria or threshold points to
categorize the data. Although, the threshold polnt3 are arbritrary they are a
reasonable heuristic for organizing the data. Our Intention in designating
threshold points is to identify item responses as either positive or negative,
so that some interpretations of school strength and weaknesses can be made. This
approach provides data needed to evaluate the general perceptions of the
respondents. The first threshold categorizes items with more negative than
positive responses. The second threshold categorizes items with less than
majority (49
or less) positive responses.

X

2. Analysis One - Items with More Negative than Positive Responses
This analysis groups items as either positive or negative. A negative
classification means that more respondents answered negatively than positively.
This analysis excludes respondents that answered neutrally (code ■ 3) or DK/NO
(Don't Know/No Opinion or code - 9). For example, on question
of the teacher
survey 40 percent answered negatively (disagree or strongly disagree), 20
percent answered positively (agree, strongly agree) and 40 percent answered
either neutrally or DK/NO. In this case the item classification is negative,
even though it has a large proportion of DK/NO responses. Our justification for
this threshold is quite simple: a school strength is one in which more people
feel positively about it than negatively; a school weakness is one in which the
opposite is true.

t2

175

FENNVILLE TEACHERS STUDY
STRONGLY
DISAGREE
1
1.

2.

3.

4.

7.

8.

9.

DON'T KNOW
NO OPINION
9

2

3

4

5

—

20.0

30.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

30.0

30.0

20.0

--

10.0

Class is rarely interrupted
to discipline students.

--

30.0

20.0

40.0

--

10.0

Students believe that school
rules are reasonable and
appropriate.

10.0

10.0

50.0

20.0

—

10.0

10.0

30.0

50.0

10.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

—

-----

20.0

70.0

10.0

------

-----

30.0

10.0

60.0

-----

—

—

10.0

20.0

60.0

10.0

—

—

20.0

30.0

40.0

10.0

—

--

10.0

10.0

60.0

10.0

The administrators make
frequent Informal contacts
with students and teachers
The administrators regularly
give feedback to teachers re­
garding their instructional
techniques.

5. All students are encouraged to
participate in extra-curricular
activities.
6.

STRONGLY
AGREE

The administrators emphasize
participation by teachers in
Staff development activities
such as instructional improve­
ment.
Students are given many spportunities Co participate in
school activities.
Hispanics are proportionately
represented in extra-curricular
activities.
Teachers treat
respect.

--

10.0

—

students with

10. Teachers in this school believe
that all students can achieve
academically.
11. This school's written statement
of purpose defines academic goals
chat focus on student's learning.

176

STRONGLY
DISAGREE

STRONGLY
AGREE

DON'T KNOW
NO OPINION

1

2

3

4

12. Administrative leadership
is effective in resolving
problems concerning the
educational program.

^—„

40.0

40.0

20.0

13. Teachers in this school spend
more time communicating with
parents about the good things
students do than about the bad.

||||

50.0

20.0

10.0

14. There is a positive school
spitit.

--

20.0

40.0

20.0

10.0

--

--

20.0

20.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

20.0

20.0

__

60.0

15.

16.

Class starts promptly at the
beginning of each instructional
period.
Regardless of students' home
background, you feel you can
successfully teach 90-95Z of
your students.

5

9

„r_,

17. Hispanic students are seen as
"different" by other students.

60.0

30.0

---

---

---

10.0

18. The student's background: i.e.,
"cultural deprivation" affects
sduC2ti(J52l
-

10 =0

20,0

10.0

50.0

10.0

—

Bilingualism is a learning
impediment for Hispanics.

40.0

20.0

20.0

10.0

---

10.0

20. Administrators support teachers
in dealing with student disci­
pline matters.

---

10.0

40.0

40.0

10.0

—

---

10.0

50.0

40.0

---

—

---

---

10.0

50.0

30.0

19.

21.

The administrators are acces­
sible to discuss matters deal­
ing with Instruction.

22. All students in my class are
expected to be successful In
their school work.

10.0

STRONGLY
DISAGREE

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

Staff members are treated
respectfully by students.

STRONGLY
AGREE

1

2

3

A

10.0

10.0

30.0

50.0

---

20.0

40.0

30.0

10.0

The administrators encourage
teachers to accept their
responsibilities for student
achievement.

DON'T KNOW
NO OPINION

5

9

---

The activities of the parent
group support the school's
goals.

10.0

30.0

40.0

10.0

—

10.0

Hispanic students are respect­
ful of teachers.

---

---

20.0

60.0

20.0

—

20.0

40.0

20.0

20.0

40.0

Most homework assigned to
students is Independent
practice on what has already
been learned in class.
Almost all students complete
assigned homework before coming
to school.

20.0

20.0

20.0

---

---

Parent-teacher conferences
focus on factors directly
related to student gains.

---

10.0

30.0

50.0

10.0

---

Most students come to class with
all the materials they need
( books, paper, etc.)

10.0

10.0

60.0

10.0

—

10.0

Students' homework is monitored
at home.

30.0

50.0

10.0

---

---

10.0

Administrators enforce the stu­
dent rules consistently & fair.

10.0

10.0

50.0

20.0

10.0

—

Hispanic students are achieving
as well as non-Hispanics.

10.0

10.0

20.0

60.0

—

20.0

40.0

30.0

---

Hispanic parents support school
activities.

—

10.0

STRONGLY
DISAGREE

1
35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

42.

43.

44.

45.

2

4

3

5

DON'T KNOW
NO OPINION

9

Vandalism or destruction of
school property by students is
not a practice.

---

30.0

20.0

50.0

---

---

Students receive immediate
feedback on their homework.

---

20.0

30.0

30.0

---

20.0

Classroom test results are
used to give specific feed­
back to students.

---

10.0

50.0

20.0

10.0

---

20.0

30.0

20.0

20.0

---

20.0

10.0

50.0

20.0

10.0

20.0

60.0

Cooperation exists between
parents and teachers in regard
to homework monitoring.

10.0

40.0

40.0

Students are given specific
feedback on assignments.

---

---

There is an active parent group
in this school.

20.0

60.0

Teachers in this school base
grading on students' achieve­
ment of subject matter rather
than students' behavior.

--

Most students In this school
are eager and enthusiastic
about learning.

10.0

Reteaching and specific
skill remediation are
important parts of the
instructional process in
this school.
Alternative teaching strategies
are provided to students having
difficulty mastering a skill.

40. Most parents support school
personnel when their child
is disciplined for violation
of rules.
41.

STRONGLY
AGREE

30.0

---

10.0

B M W

---

---

10.0

30.0

60.0

--

10.0

10.0

-—

--

10.0

40.0

60.0

___

_____ —

50.0

10.0

STRONGLY
DISAGREE

1
46.

2

3

4

STRONGLY
AGREE

DON'T KNOW
NO OPINION

5

9

Most Hispanic parents demon­
strate an Interest in the
students' education.

---

30.0

40.0

20.0

---

10.0

47.

Homework is regularly assigned.

---

20.0

30.0

30.0

---

20.0

48.

Most parents have a clear under­
standing of the school's goals.

10.0

60.0

10.0

10.0

---

10.0

Hispanic parents have a clear
understanding of the schools
goals.

10.0

50.0

20.0

10.0

---

10.0

—

30.0

20.0

30.0

10.0

10.0

20.0

10.0

30.0

30.0

10.0

49.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

Teachers in this school believe
that all students can achieve
basic reading skills.

—

Students from all racial and
ethnic backgrounds are re­
presented in all curriculum
tracts, including college
preparatory.
Students in this school try to
succeed in their classes.

---

20.0

50.0

30.0

---

---

Teachers stress academic
achievement as a priority
for their students.

---

10.0

20.0

60.0

10.0

---

Staff members enforce the
student rules consistently
and equitably.

---

30.0

60.0

10.0

---

---

Teachers expect that over
95Z of students in this school
will graduate from H.S.

10.0

70.01

---

Teachers are held accountable
for teaching skills or concepts
contained in course outlines.

10.0

10.0

30.0

30.0

50.0

20.0

57.Hispanic parents frequently
Initiate contacts w/teachers.

20.0

40.0

---

---

---

10.0

180
STRONGLY
DISAGREE
1
58.

59.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

STRONGLY DON'T KNOW
AGREE
NO OPINION
2

3

4

Teachers in this school believe
they are responsible for helping
students achieve identified
--standards in each subject area.

10.0

30.0

60.0

---

Teachers are "tuned" to the
educational needs of Hlspanlcs.

10.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

--

Teacher role models would bene­
fit Hispanic students.

--

---

---

80.0

20.0

The administrators are highly
visible throughout the school.

---

20.0

40.0

40.0

---

Teachers contact Hispanic
parents in this school on
a regular basis.

---

30.0

30.0

20.0

---

---

Few discipline problems
are referred in the office.

10.0

60.0

20.0

---

---

10.0

In this school parents are aware
--of the discipline policy.

30.0

20.0

40.0

10.0

---

20.0

60.0

10.0

10.0

5

9

---

--

---

---

In general, teachers expect
almost all of their students
to do well on teacher pre­
pared tests.

_

In this school students are
assigned academic classes
according to ability.

30.0

10.0

20.0

40.0

---

---

I consistently hold high
academic expectations for
all students.

---

---

50.0

50.0

---

---

Seventy-five percent or more
of the parents attend open
house or back-to-school night.

40.0

20.0

10.0

20.0

---

---

Teachers at this school invite
parents to observe the instrutional program.

11.1

44.4

22.2

11.1

11.1

STRONGLY
DISAGREE

1
70.

71.

72.

73.

74.

STRONGLY
AGREE

2

3

4

DON'T KNOW
NO OPINION

5

9

Students treat each other
respectfully and are not
subject to verbal abuse by
other students.

20.0

30.0

10.0

40.0

In advanced classes, all
ethnic groups are represented.

---

10.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

30.0

Multicultural education should
be a course offering in this
school.

---

10.0

30.0

10.0

30.0

20.0

Hispanics and non-Hlspanic
students inter-relate well
in this school.

--------

10.0

50.0

40.0

---

10.0

50.0

40.0

Hispanics and non-Hispanics
mix socially in out-of-school
events.

I. Gender
Female— 702

Male— 30?

White— 802

Black— 102

II. Race
Hispanic— 102

III. Average Number of Year? Teaching

20.9 years
. IV. Average Number of years teaching in Fennville
15.6 years
V. Age of Respondents
Under
26 31 36 41 46 51 Over

26
30
35
40
45
50
55
55

---402
102
302
102
102

182

MICHIGAN DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
FENNVILLE SCHOOL DISTRICT
PARENT SURVEY
ANALYSIS ABSTRACT - #3
by
Program for Educational Opportunities (PEO)
Research Department

WHAT WE DID
After receiving the data from MDE we did the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Reviewed each questionnaire for completeness and/or data errors.
Assigned unique ID numbers to each questionnaire.
Keypunched the data and uploaded to MTS.
Read the data into the MIDAS Statistical Analysis program.
Performed three different types of descriptive analyses:
(a) comparison of negative and positive responses for each item
(b) frequency distribution for each item and (c) mean score
calculation for each item.

DESCRIPTION OF THE ANALYSES
We present the first analysis in Section II - Initial Findings, parts 2 & 3.
This analysis examines the proportion of negative and positive responses for
each item. Our analysis uses two different criteria to determine which items
suggest a potential school weakness and which a strength.
The second analysis is a frequency distribution for each question. A frequency
distribution provides the percentage each unique value contributes to the total.
These percentages always sum to 100 percent. These data are presented in
Appendix A.
The third analysis is a mean score for each question. This analysis treats each
response code as a real number. The mean (average) is derived through a three
step process. In step one, we exclude all Don't Know/No opinion respondents. In
step two, we sum all remaining response codes. In step three, we divide the
total number of remaining respondents by the sum derived in step two. These data
are presented in Appendix B.
SECTION I - Initial Analysis
Our initial review of the questionnaire focused on two areas, survey sample size
and conceptual groupings.
1. Survey Sample Size

The size of the Fennville Parent Survey sample is substantially larger than
the teacher survey sample (n=54). In our analysis of the parent survey we
decided to use the same analysis scheme as was used in the teacher survey, even
though the sample is large enough to support the use of inferential statistics.

183

One advantage is that this approach will maintain analysis continuity across
studies. In this study descriptive statistics are the primary means of analysis.
Unlike the teacher survey, however, less caution is needed when interpreting the
findings and more specific conclusions can be drawn from the data.
2. Conceptual Groupings
Our review of the questionnaire revealed numerous conceptual groups. Examples of
these groups include, achievement/learning, expectations, parent initiative &
support for school, parent-school interaction, teachers, administrators,
Hispanic concerns, fairness and discipline. Unfortunately, many questions are
not easily categorized and some questions overlap into other categories. In
addition, it was difficult to define concise, exclusive categories due to our
limited knowledge of the Fennville District and the original conceptual design
for the questionnaire. We patterned our analysis scheme to emphasize aspects of
the questionniare about which we’re certain. We also present the data in such a
way that subsequent categorization of items by MDE or school personnel is
possible.
SECTION II - Initial Findings
1. Description of Analyses
To simplify the analysis, we designated criteria threshold points to categorize
the data. Although the threshold points are arbritrary they are a reasonable
heuristic for organizing the data. Our intention in designating threshold points
is to identify item responses as either positive or negative, so that some
interpretations of school strength and weaknesses can be made. This approach
provides data needed to evaluate the general perceptions of the respondents. The
first threshold categorizes items with more negative than positive responses.
The second threshold categorizes items with less than majority (49,9% or less)
positive responses.
2. Analysis One - Items with More Negative than Positive Responses
This analysis groups items as either positive or negative. A negative
classification means that more respondents answered negatively than positively.
This analysis excludes respondents that answered neutrally (code * 3) or DK/NO
(Don’t Know/No Opinion or code “ 9). For example, on question *2 of the teacher
survey 40 percent answered negatively (disagree or strongly disagree), 20
percent answered positively (agree, strongly agree) and 40 percent answered
either neutrally or DK/NO. In this case the item classification is negative,
even though it has a large proportion of DK/NO responses. Our justification for
this threshold is quite simple: a school strength is one in which more people
feel positively about it than negatively; a school weakness is one in which the
opposite is true.

184

Table 1 presents survey items categorized as having more negative than positive
responses.
TABLE 1

~

Questionnaire Item __________
03
04
07
10
16
19
32
42
43
51
52

X

Positive____
16.4
35.2
34.5
35.9
27.3
36.3
19.6
26.0
21.8
29.1
22.2

%

Negative______
61.9
44.5
43.7
49.0
32.7
50.9
54.9
55.6
56.3
32.7
61.1

Neutral/
DK/NQ

X

21.8
20.4
21.8
15.1
40.0
12.7
25.5
30.2
21.8
38.2
26.7

In total, 11 out of 57. questions (19.0%) can be categorized as having more
negative responses than positive. In contrast, 46 out of 57 questions (31.0%)
can be categorized as more positive than negative. In many respects this' is a
positive finding. The issue, however, is to what degree the DK/NO respondents
affect this finding. In analysis two we re-evaluate the data using different
criteria designed to be more sensitlv to the effects of the DK/NO respondents.
3. Analysis Two - Items with Less Than Majority Positive
In the second analysis we incorporate in our interpretation the neutral and
DK/NO respondents. We base this approach on the assumption that neutral and no
opinion responses are actualy negative. This is particularly tre in education,
where neutrality or lack of knowledge about som school attributes is not
desirable. In other words, these respondents are as important to convert to the
positive as individuals who consistently answer strongly disagree."
In this analysis we examine those items with les3 than majority (4.9% or less)
positive. This method will describe more clearl the relationship between
negative and positive responses.

185

TABLE 2
Questionnaire Item *

01
02
03
04
07
03
10
12
13
16
17
18
19
23
25
32
34
35
40
41
42
43
47
48
49
51
52
53
54
57

ft Positive_____ ft Negative

37.0
46.3
16.4
35.2
34.5
40.0 .
35.9
36.4
49.1
27.3
44.4
47.3
36.3
41.8 ■
36.4
19.6
41.5
40.8
38.9
39.7
26.0
38.9
31.5
21.8
49.1
29.1
22.2
49.1
- 47.3
41.8

20.4
27.8
61.9
44.5
43.7
34.6
49.0
30.9
21.8
32.7
27.8
36.4
50.9
30.9
32.8
54.9
26.4
26.4
37.0
30.0
55.6
29.7
22.3
56.3
18.2
32.7
61.1
18.1
12.7
23.6

In total, 30 out of 57 questions (53.0ft) are categorized as having less than
majority positive responses. In contrast, 27 out of 57 questions (47.0%) are
categorized as nave majority positive response. This finding, unlike the
previous one, indicates parents responses as a group were more negative than
positive. In fact, slightly more than half the time parents as a group responded
more negatively than positively.

186

Summary - Next Steo3
The questionnaire contains many conceptual themes. Further data evaluations
should consider grouping questions by some of thse themes, such as perceptions
of teachers, discipline, Hlsanlc concerns, and fairness (see Section I. part
2). In general, teachers identified a variet of school strengths and
weaknesses, the exact proportionof which depended on the criteria used for the
analysis. Further investigation may reveal speific themes or areas which
consistently produce negative or ositive response. Thd" data presented in
Appendix A can help define common themes and question roup. This analysis will
alo provide valuable information that can be particularly useful when planning
an intervention.

187
FENNVILLE PARENT SURVEY
STRONGLY
DISAGREE

1.

2.

3.

4.

STRONGLY
AGREE

1

2

5.6

14.8

Overall, I think this school
is doing a good job educating
my child.

11.1

Parents, students, teachers
and principals work toget­
her to solve problems.

My child's property is secure
at this school.

I am satisfied with my child's
progress in school.

DON'T
KNOW

4

5

35.2

11.1

25.9

7.4

16.7

24.1

20.4

25.9

1.9

45.5

16.4

20.0

5.5

10.9

1.8

38.9

5.6

14.8

3.7

31.5

5.6

3

9

5.

My child gets to school on time.

5.7

3.8

3.8

5.7

75.5

6.

To the best of my knowledge stu­
dents take pride in this school.

9.3

9.3

20.4

14.8

44.4

Teachers stress academic achieve­
ment for Hispanic students.
36.4

7.3

18.2

12.7

21.8

3.6

Teachers, parents, and admin­
istrators share responsibili­
ty for maintaining this school.

25.5

9.1

25.5

12.7

27.3

--

I would be notified if my child
was misbehaving at school.

16.4

9.1

10.9

12.7

47.3

3.6

35.8

13.2

11.3

15.1

20.8

3.8

5.5

7.3

32.7

16.4

36.4

1.8

12. Hispanics are proportionately
represented in sports.

20.0

10.9

23.6

16.4

20.0

9.1

13. To the best of my knowledge
not much class time Is lost
because of disruptive students

12.7

9.1

27.3

25.5

23.6

1.8

7.

8.

9.

10. The principal is supportive of
parent groups at this school.

11. I am proud to say my child
attends this school.

5.7

1.9

188

STRONGLY
DISAGREE
1
14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

STRONGLY
AGREE

DON'T
KNOW

5

9

2

3

A

14.5

16.4

9.1

18.2

41.8

--

7.3

---

21.8

18.2

47.3

5.5

Teachers at this school expect
that all students will graduate
from high school.

20.0

12.7

9.1

9.1

18.2

30.9

The principal has stated the
school's purpose and goals at
parent meetings and in the
school newsletter.

20.0

16.4

16.4

18.2

29.1

My child's teachers contact
me to discuss my child's pro­
gress.

22.2

5.6

25.9

7.4

37.0

1.9

To the best of my knowledge,
teachers at this school have
the same level of expectations
for academic achievement for
students of all ethnic groups.

40.0

10.9

9.1

21.8

14.5

3.6

My child respects the teachers
in this school.

3.6

3.6

29.1

12.7

45.5

5.5

14.8

9.3

18.5

14.8

38.9

3.7

If my child breaks a school rule 1
I support the teacher in disci­
plining my child.
1.8

1.8

14.5

9.1

70.9

1.8

I am frequently kept informed
about my child's school work.

I attend open house or back
to school night.

1 attend school activities,
such as sports events, plays,
concerts, awards assemblies.

_i

___ '

There are few ethnic or other
group hostilities at this
school.

18.2

12.7

23.6

12.7

29.1

3.6

When I have concerns, the
administrators at this school
are willing to listen to me.

17.0

3.8

18.9

24.5

34.0

1.9

189

STRONGLY
DISAGREE
1
25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

I am pleased with the leader­
ship provided by the school
principal.

STRONGLY
AGREE
2

3

4

5

DON'T
KNOW
9

27.3

5.5

21.8

18.2

18.2

9.1

Students are encouraged to
participate in school acti­
vities.

7.4

9.3

13.0

14.8

50.0

5.6

Teachers at this school are
interested and cooperative when
I discuss my child's academic
progress.

9.1

1.8

25.5

20.0

38.2

5.5

I attend parent-teacher con­
ferences.

1.9

3.8

18.9

22.6

47.2

5.7

I make sure my child's homework
is completed.

--

1.9

7.4

20.4

66.7

3.7

I make an effort to be informed
about my child's educational
progress.

3.8

--

5.7

24.5

64.2

1.9

This school has a written dis­
cipline policy.

3.7

--

22.2

18.2

44.4

11.1

17.6

2.0

21.6

19.6

35.3

3.9

1.9

3.7

22.2

16.7

51.9

3.7

My child is treated differently
by teachers than other students.

33.

My child enjoys school.

34.

School rules are enforced
consistently and fairly.

17.0

9.4

20.8

11.3

30.2

11.3

A written statement of purpose
exists for this school.

22.2

3.7

11.1

9.3

31.5

22.2

I participated in this school's
parent group.

3.8

7.5

26.4

18.9

41.5

1.9

I feel free to initiate contact
with my child's teacher.

5.6

7.4

16.7

27.8

38.9

3.7

35.

36.

37.

190

STRONGLY
DISAGREE

STRONGLY
AGREE

I
38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

My child is continuously en­
couraged by teachers to work.

2

3

4

5

DON'T
KNOW

9

14.8

3.7

20.4

18.5

35.2

Hispanic teachers are needed as
role models in school.

1.9

--

5.6

1.9

90.7

Teachers and staff seem to take
a real interest in my child's
future.

29.6

7.4

20.4

16.7

22.2

3.7

My child is treated with respect
by teachers.
22.6

7.5

24.5

20.8

18.9

5.7

I have been invited to visit
and observe tny child's class.

16.7

9.3

16.7

16.7

38.9

1.9

It is easy for me to talk to
teachers.

16.7

13.0

29.6

9.3

29.6

1.9

I expect my child to graduate
from high school.

--

--

1.8

5.5

89.1

3.6

I am informed about how well
my child does on tests.

9.3

9.3

18.5

25.9

31.5

5.6

My child has a regular time
and place to work on homework.

--

3.6

16.4

18.2

56.4

5.5

There is an active parent group
at this school.

16.7

5.6

9.3

22.2

29.6

Teachers are "tuned" to the
educational needs of Hispanics. 52.7

3.6

14.5

1.8

20.0

I feel my child is learning the
skills and knowledge he/she
needs to know to prepare him/
her for the future.

12.7

5.5

27.3

25.5

23.6

5.5

My child is eager and enthus­
iastic about learning.

--

5.5

25.5

18.2

47.3

3.6

16.7

7.4

--

7.3

191

STRONGLY
DISAGREE
1
51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

57.

2

3

STRONGLY
AGREE

DON"T
KNOW

4

5

9

1 would race this school
as superior.

18.2

14.5

29.1

20.0

9.1

9.1

The principal keeps parents
well informed about the
academic program.

44.4

16.7

13.0

11.1

11.1

3.7

Teachers in this school base
my child's grades on how well
he/she performs in a subject.

9.1

9.1

25.5

21.8

27.3

7.3

I support the school homework
policy.

9.1

3.6

10.9

20.0

27.3

29.1

I know the name of the school
principal.

30.9

5.5

5.5

3.6

50.9

3.6

1.8

--

1.8

16.4

76.4

3.6

20.0

3.6

27.3

12.7

29.1

7.3

I expect my child to do well
in school.

To Che best of my knowledge,
my child's teachers will pro­
vide addicional help when
needed.

BI B L I O G RA PH Y

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