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A SCHOOL AS A SYSTEM AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY
IMPLEMENTATION: WITH REFERENCE TO KENDON PROFESSIONAL
DEVELOPMENT SCHOOL, LANSING, MICHIGAN.

By

Prince Yaw Nim ako

AN ABSTRACT OF A DISSERTATION

S u b m itte d t o
M ichigan S t a t e U n iversity
in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s
fo r t h e d e g r e e of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
D e p a r t m e n t o f C ou nseling , E d u catio nal P sy c h o lo g y
a n d S pecial E d u ca tio n
1995
Dr. L e ig h to n Price

UMI Number: 9605920

Copyright 1995 by
Nimako, Prince Yaw
All rights reserved.

UMI Microform 9605920
Copyright 1995, by UMI Company. All rights reserved.
This microform edition is protected against unauthorized
copying under Title 17, United States Code.

UMI
300 North Zeeb Road
Ann Arbor, MI 48103

ABSTRACT

A SCHOOL AS A SYSTEM AND ITS IMPLICATIONS FOR TECHNOLOGY
IMPLEMENTATION: WITH REFERENCE TO KENDON ELEMENTARY
PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT SCHOOL, MICHIGAN.
By
Prince Yaw Nimako

T h e o b j e c t i v e s o f th is s t u d y w e re (a ) t o e s t a b l is h historical
profile o f K endo n te c h n o lo g y , c lassify Kendon t e c h n o lo g y le a d e rs and
th e i r fo llo w e rs w ithin t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m a c c o rd in g t o th e ir
r e s p e c t iv e ro les an d influ en ces, (b ) t o d e s c rib e t h e in ce n tiv e a n d
c o n s t r a i n t f a c t o r s , a n d (c ) t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e p a r tic ip a n ts ' beliefs
a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t Kendon te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s. T h e c e n tra l
c o n c e rn w a s t o s e e k e v id e n c e o f lea d e rsh ip f a c t o r s t h a t have
in flu e n c e d K en don te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . In a d d itio n , tim e
s e r ie s " T o p -d o w n a n d B o tto m -u p " in te ra c tio n e f f e c t s w e re o f
p a rtic u la r i n te r e s t. A c a s e - s t u d y a p p ro a c h w a s u s e d f o r t h e s tu d y ,
co v erin g (I) K endon O rg a n iz atio n al Culture; (II) T h e Role and
In flu e n c e s o f k e y T e c h n o lo g y A c to rs ; (III) T e a c h e r s ' Beliefs,
E x p e c ta tio n s , a n d A d o p tio n o f T ec hn olo gy; a n d (IV) P e rce iv ed
In s tru c tio n a l C h a n g e s o v e r tim e a n d T e c h n o lo g y Modeling. Self­
a d m i n i s t e r e d s u rv e y a n d p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s w e r e u s e d a s prim ary
d a t a c o lle c tio n a n d c o m p l e m e n te d by rev iew s o f p r o c e e d in g s o f
g ro u p m e e tin g s , K endon te c h n o lo g y re c o rd s, an d o b s e r v a tio n a l d a t a
on K endo n c o m p u t e r t e a c h in g la b o ra to ry . T h e following c o n c lu sio n s
w e re d ra w n fro m t h e s t u d y findings.
T h e f i r s t a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s w a s b a s e d on
t h e p e rs o n a l d e c isio n , v o lu n ta ris m , an d e n th u s ia s m , i.e., t h e first

Prince Yaw Nimako
a d o p tio n w a s a m o d e s t " b o t to m - u p " s t a r t which w a s well publicized
w ithin t h e sc h o o l.
T h e e a rly te c h n o lo g y a d o p tio n p r o c e s s a t K endon w a s "idea
sh a rin g " s t r a t e g y a m o n g p e e rs . T e a m te a c h in g a n d small g ro u p
w riting p r o j e c t s p r a c tic e d by t h e e arly a d o p t e r s s t a r t e d t o s h if t t h e
"individual" t o " g ro u p " in stru c tio n a l p r o c e s s e s in s o m e c la s s ro o m s .
T h e p a c e o f t e a c h e r s ' a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v atio n s
w a s v e ry slow d u e t o lim ited e q u ip m e n t, t e a c h e r 's lack o f e x p e r tis e
in te c h n o lo g y , a n d s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h t o t h e im p le m e n ta tio n
p r o c e s s . T h e c o m p e tin g d e m a n d s on tim e an d lim ited tim e
a llo c a tio n s f o r s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t m a d e t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n plan
m o re d iffic u lt fo r t e a c h e r s . T h e s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s
du ring th is firs t p h a s e w a s a m a jo r p ro b lem .
E m p h a sis p la c e d on s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t
s t r a t e g i e s , p e e r m e n to r in g s t r a t e g i e s , te a m w o r k , t h e s h i f t fro m
s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d t o t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h , a n d t h e 4 0
c o m p u t e r s a n d n e tw o rk m a n a g e m e n t in -service train in g o f f e r e d by
t h e S chool D istrict during 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r w e re g r e e t e d w ith
m o re t e a c h e r p a rtic ip a tio n in te c h n o lo g y p r o g r a m s a n d a c tiv itie s.
This m a s s p a rtic ip a tio n a n d t h e " b o t to m - u p " a p p ro a c h a d o p t e d in t h e
s c h o o l w e r e c le a r e v id e n c e o f s u s ta in a b ility o f t e c h n o lo g y
a p p lic a tio n s in t h e c u rric u lu m .
O v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s , t h e sc h o o l principal, a few t e a c h e r s ,
a n d Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o r a to rs h a v e b e e n t h e key
te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs a t K endon. T he lea d e rsh ip role h a d b e e n
c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y e n th u s ia s m , h a rd w ork, o p e n - m in d e d n e s s ,
c o m m i t m e n t , p r o fe s s io n a l a n d se lf c o n s c io u s n e s s , c o n fid e n c e , a n d
a c tio n s a c c o m p a n ie d by e x a m p le s an d e n c o u r a g e m e n t.

C o p y rig h t by

Prince Yaw Nim ako

1995

D ED IC A TIO N

T o t h e m e m o r y o f m y l a te :
fa th e r,
b ro th e rs,
and

O sei

N im a k o ;

N im a k o

siste rs,

To

K ofi

S erw aa

m y w ife ,

and our d a u g h te rs,
fo r th e ir

and
and

v

N im a k o ;

M a g g ie .

A g a th e,

A gnes,

lo v e

Paul

and

L y d ia , a n d
su p p o rt.

Nina,

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

With d e e p a p p re c ia tio n , I a c k n o w le d g e t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t ,
su p p o rt, an d g u id a n c e given t o m e by m a n y individuals.
I w ould like t o t h a n k m y d o c to r a l g u id a n c e c o m m i t t e e fo r th e ir
ab le g u id a n c e th r o u g h o u t t h e p ro g ram . Special th a n k s g o t o Dr.
L eig h to n Price, t h e c o m m i t t e e c h airm an , w h o h a s b e e n an
inspirational p e rs o n t o m e. Dr. Price h a s b e e n m y c o u n se lo r, my
m e n to r, m y m e d ia to r, a n d m y friend. I a m also g ra te f u l t o Dr. J a m e s
G avelek, Dr. C h ris to p h e r Clark, Dr. Richard McLeod, all m e m b e r s o f
m y d o c to ra l g u id a n c e c o m m i tt e e , w ho c o n tr i b u te d g r e a tly t o m y
s u c c e s s f u l c o m p le tio n o f t h e d o c to r a l p ro g ram .
I a m a lso g r a te f u l t o Dr. Minnie W h ee le r-T h o m as, Kendon
E le m e n ta r y S ch ool Principal, f o r h e r a s s i s t a n c e , o p e n n e s s , insightful
c o m m e n t s , a n d d isc u ssio n . I o f f e r m y th a n k s t o K endon fac u lty ,
s t a f f , p a r e n t s , c o m m u n ity C.A.S.E C re d it Union fo r th e i r p a tie n c e ,
tim e , a n d s u p p o r t w hich m a d e th is s t u d y possible. Special t h a n k s t o
B a rb ara R e e v e s fo r final ty p in g a n d f o r m a t ti n g o f t h e d is s e r ta tio n .

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF TABLES

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

xv

CHAPTER

1:

A N ew P a r a d i g m F o r
T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h a n g e

C e n tra l C o n c ern s Of T h e S tu d y
S p e c ific R e s e a rc h Q u e s tio n s
L im ita tio n s And P o te n tia ls Of T h e S tu d y
C om bining Q u a lita tiv e And Q u a n tita tiv e M e th o d o lo g ie s
CHAPTER

2:

LITERATURE

REVIEW

In tro d u c tio n
C h a n g e a s a P roblem Solving P ro c e s s
C h a n g e a s a R e s e a rc h -D e v e lo p m e n t
a n d D iffusion P r o c e s s
C h a n g e a s a P ro c e s s o f Social In te ra c tio n
C h a n g e a s a Linkage P ro c e s s
A dd itio n al P ro p o s itio n s A b o u t C h a n g e P r o c e s s
(R e w a rd s & Rew ard S t r u c tu r e s fo r C h a n g e
T h e D ynam ics o f S y s te m ic C h a n g e
T h e C o m p lex ity o f t h e C h an g e P ro c e s s
S t a g e s o f t h e C h a n g e P ro c e s s
Key E le m e n ts t o C han ge
L e a d e r s h ip Role
R a tio n a le o f L e a d e r s h ip S itu a tio n
Principal a n d a Few T e a c h e r s a s P ro g ra m L e a d e rs

v ii

1
4
4
6
7
9
9
10
10
11

13
16
16
25
26
27
28
29

I n te r a c tiv e T e c h n o lo g ie s in E d u c a tio n
M i c r o c o m p u te r s
N e tw o r k in g
M u ltim e d ia
T h e I m p a c ts o f S t a f f Inserv ice T raining
on T e c h n o lo g y A pplications in E ducation
S um m ary

C h a p te r

3:

Q u a n tita tiv e And Q u a lita tiv e
U s e d In t h e S t u d y

37
39

M e th o d s

O v e r v ie w
R ationale For C a se S tu d y
R e s e a rc h D esign
E volution o f T e c h n o lo g y I m p le m e n ta tio n
Roles a n d In flu en c es o f C h a n g e A g e n ts
Beliefs, E x p e c ta t io n s , a n d I n s tru c tio n a l P r a c t i c e s
P o p u la tio n
D a ta C ollection: S o u r c e s Of In fo rm a tio n
D a ta C ollection fo r Evolution o f T e c h n o lo g y
Im p le m e n ta tio n
P a rtic ip a n ts
Review o f School T e c h n o lo g y R e co rd s
a n d R e p o rts
Audio T a p e s
P a rtic ip a n t O b s e rv a tio n s
F o r m a tiv e E v alu atio n
S um m ary
D ata C ollection fo r Roles a n d In flu en ces o f K endon
T ec h n o lo g y C hange A g e n ts a n d D ata
C o lle c tio n f o r B eliefs, E x p e c ta t io n s ,
a n d I n s tr u c tio n a l P r a c t i c e s
P a rtic ip a n ts
S t a g e O ne: S e lf-A d m in iste re d S u rv e y
S t a g e Two: Individual And G roup In te rv ie w s
S um m ary
D a ta A n a ly sis
O v e r v ie w
A nalysis o f Q u a lita tiv e D a ta R eg ard in g
Evolution o f T e c h n o lo g y
Im p le m e n ta tio n
vi i i

31
31
35
36

41
41
42
44
44
45
45
45
46
47
47
47
47
47
47

50
50
51
52
52
53
53

54

A nalysis o f Q u a lita tiv e D a ta R egarding
C o m m e n ts a n d O b s e rv a tio n s
Analysis o f Q u a n tita tiv e D ata on K endon
T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rs a n d Followers
a n d D a ta on Beliefs, E x p e c ta tio n s ,
a n d I n s tru c tio n a l P r a c t i c e s
A nalysis o f Q u a n tita tiv e D ata o n Kendon
T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rs a n d Followers
a n d D a ta on Beliefs, E x p e c ta tio n s ,
a n d I n s tr u c tio n a l P r a c t i c e s
R atio n ale fo r C om bining Q u a n tita tiv e and
Q u a lita tiv e D a ta

CHAPTER

4 :

E v o lu tio n o f E d u c a tio n a l
I m p le m e n t a t i o n

56

57
59

T e c h n o lo g y

In tro d u c tio n
B ack grou nd o f K endon E le m e n ta ry
S e t ti n g a n d H isto ry
K endon m ission s t a t e m e n t
O rg a n iz a tio n a l C u ltu re a n d M a n a g e m e n t
K endo n s t a f f
S t u d e n t D a ta
P a r e n t / c o m m u n i t y in v o lv e m e n t.
S chool i m p r o v e m e n t p r o c e s s
K endo n S c h o o l a n d U niversity F a c u lty Alliance
K endon T e c h n o lo g y Vision
P h a s e s o f K endon T e c h n o lo g y I m p le m e n ta tio n
O v e r v ie w
P h a s e I: In tro d u c tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y w ith
In n o v ato rs
T h e fifth g r a d e m u ltim e d ia p r o j e c t
R e fle c tio n s o n P h a s e I
P h a se II: E x ten din g t h e u se of T e c h n o lo g y w ith
Early A d o p t e r s
Early op inion le a d e r s h ip role
I n n o v a tio n s d e c i s i o n s
S u m m e r te c h n o lo g y tra in in g
Early e le c t r o n i c n e tw o rk in g :
in f o r m a ti o n s e r v i c e s
R e fle c tio n s o n P h a s e II
ix

55

60
60
61
61
62
62
62
62
63
63
64
65
66
66
67
67
69
71
72
73
73
74
77

P h a s e III: Individual a n d C lass P r o j e c t s w ith
Early M ajority A d o p t e r s
K endon G ra n t P rop osal
S u m m e r P ro g ra m
R eflections o n P hase III
P h a s e IV: S ch o o lw id e I m p le m e n ta tio n w ith
L a te M ajority A d o p t e r s
Looking t o t h e F u tu re
R e fle c tio n s o n P h a s e IV

CHAPTER 5:

CHANGING PATTERNS OF
TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP

Overview
T h e Role a n d Influences o f Kendon
T e c h n o lo g y A c to rs
Id e n tific a tio n o f A c to r s A nd T h e ir R elativ e
Influences
Roles and P erceiv ed N egative an d Positive
Influences
O b s e rv a tio n s
A ttr ib u te s o f Kendon T ec h n o lo g y L eadership
Roles
L e a d e rs' Roles
L e a d e rs' Beliefs
L e a d e rs' E x p e c ta tio n s
G eneral O b s e rv a tio n s And T he P a rtic ip a n ts' Own
C o m m e n ts o n t h e Key
T e c h n o lo g y A c to rs
L ansing S c h o o l D istric t
Sum m ary
T h e S c h o o l A d m in is tra to r: Principal
Sum m ary
P a ren ts
Su m m ary
B u sin e ss C o m m u n ity : P a r tn e r s h ip
S um m ary
T each ers
S um m ary
x

78
82
82
83
84
87
88

90
90
90
90
96
101
102
103
105
108

112
112
113
114
116
116
118
118
119
119
121

N e tw o rk M a n ag e rs
R e sp o n d e n ts ' c o m m e n t s regarding
n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s
Group interview w ith n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s
S um m ary
MSU T e c h n o lo g y C o lla b o ra to rs
Sum m ary
Internal A g e n ts

CHAPTER 6 :

121
121
122
124
124
125
125

CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY
128
O verview
128
Beliefs, E x p e c ta tio n s , an d A d o p tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y
130
S u m m a ry
132
T h e P a r tic ip a n ts Own C o m m e n ts on T e a c h e r s ' Beliefs,
E x p ec ta tio n s, an d A doption o f T ec h n o lo g y
133
P e rc e iv e d G en eral Beliefs (BELPAS/PRE, Q. 5& 6 )
133
Curriculum D e m a n d s (CRDPAS/PRE, Q. 7& 8)
135
P e rc e iv e d G e n era l E x p e c ta tio n s
(TESPAS/PRE, Q. 9 & 1 0 )
136
P r e s e rv ic e & In serv ice (ITRPAS/PRE, Q. 1 5 - 1 8 )
137
T e c h n o lo g y D e m a n d s On Time
(TMEPAS/PRE, Q .1 9 & 2 0 )
138
A p p lica tio n s o f T e c h n o lo g y in t h e C o n t e n t A re a s
(TAPPAS/PRE Q. 21 & 24 )
139
E ase o f Use o f t h e T e c h n o lo g y (CMFPAS/PRE, Q. 2 5 & 2 6 )
140
T e a m Work (TWKPAS/PRE, Q. 2 7 & 2 8 )
141
Sum m ary
142
G eneral Instru ctional a n d T echnological C h a n g e s
142
S um m ary
145
P a r tic ip a n ts Own C o m m e n ts on In s tru c tio n a l C h a n g e s
an d T e c h n o lo g y Modeling
146
P e rce iv ed C h a n g e s (C -9 0 - C -94, Q. 2 9 & 3 0 )
146
K endon a s a T e c h n o lo g y Model
(KTMPAS/PRE, Q. 3 1 & 3 2 )
147
N um ber o f C o m p u te rs (WDR & DBL, Q. 3 3 & 3 4 )
149
S um m ary
150
M odels o f Learning
151

T e a c h e r L a b o ra to ry P re p a ra tio n (Old a n d New
MindS e t s )
P e rc e iv e d A t t it u d e an d Beliefs in t h e L a b o ra to ry
T e c h n ic a l M a t te r s
Facility M a n a g e m e n t
S um m ary

C h a p te r

7:

S u m m a ry , D isc u ssio n s,
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s And
For F u rth e r S tu d y

C o n c lu sio n s &
S u g g e stio n s

S um m ary
C en tral Focus Of T h e S tu d y
B ackgro und And S e ttin g
T h e o r e tic a l A nd P ro fe ss io n a l I s s u e s
M etho d o lo g y
R atio nale For This C a se S tu d y
D ata C ollection And D a ta A nalysis
W hat I L ea rn ed from t h e S tu d y
O v e r v ie w
E volution o f E d u ca tio n a l T e c h n o lo g y
Im p le m e n ta tio n
P h a s e I: In tro d u ctio n o f T e c h n o lo g y
w ith I n n o v a to r s
P h a s e II: Early A d o p te rs
(1 9 9 0 /9 1 & 1 9 9 1 /9 2 )
P h a se III: Early Majority A d o p t e r s ( 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 )
P h a se IV: L a te Majority A d o p t e r s ( 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 )
W h a t t h e P a rtic ip a n ts Say a b o u t C hanging P a t t e r n s
o f T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rsh ip
Roles a n d In flu en c es o f T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rs
T h e s c h o o l a d m in is tr a to r (in te r n a l a g e n t )
K endon f a c u lty (in te rn al a g e n t )
T e c h n o lo g y m a n a g e r s (in te rn a l a g e n t )
U n iv e rs ity c o l l a b o r a t o r s
Roles a n d In flu e n c e s o f T e c h n o lo g y Follow ers
T h e s c h o o l d is t r ic t (e x te r n a l a g e n t s )
K endon p a r e n t s (e x te r n a l a g e n t s )
C o m m u n ity b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s
( e x te r n a l a g e n t s )
x ii

1 53
1 55
156
1 57
158

160
160
160
161
161
16 3
163
164
164
164
165
165
166
167
168
169
169
169
170
170
170
171
171
171
171

S hifting Roles o f L e a d e rs a n d Follow ers
C h a r a c te r is ti c s s p e c ific t o K endon
t e c h n o lo g y le a d e rs h ip role
W h a t t h e P a rtic ip a n ts S ay a b o u t T e a c h e r s ' Beliefs,
E x p e c ta tio n s , an d A d o p tio n o f In n o v atio n s
P e r c e iv e d T e a c h e r s ' Beliefs
P e rc e iv e d T e a c h e r s ' E x p e c ta tio n s
T e a c h e r s ' A d o p tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y
I m p a c ts o f T e c h n o lo g y on In stru c tio n
Kendon T ec h n o lo g y a s a Model
W h a t I L ea rn ed fro m t h e C o m p u te r
T e a c h in g L a b o ra to ry
R e c o m m e n d a tio n s f o r E d u c a tio n a l P ra c tic e
S u g g e s t i o n s f o r F u r th e r R e se a rc h

172
172
173
173
174
174
175
175
176
177
179

A P P E N D IC E S

181

R E FE R EN C ES

225

x ii i

LIST OF TABLES

P a r tic ip a n ts fo r S e c o n d A p p ro a c h t o D ata Collection

51

D e g re e o f In flu e n c e s o f Individuals a n d G roups within
K end on S cho ol D istrict

95

T e c h n o lo g y In v o lv em en t a t Each S ta g e o f th e
Im p le m e n ta tio n

99

N a tu re o f In flu en c es

100

A t t r i b u t e s o f K endon T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rsh ip Roles

105

A t t r i b u t e s o f K en d o n T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rsh ip Beliefs

107

A t t r ib u t e s o f K endon T e c h n o lo g y L ea d ersh ip E x p e c ta tio n s

111

B eliefs a n d E x p e c ta tio n s

131

T e c h n o lo g y A d o p tio n

133

T e c h n o lo g ic al C h a n g e s O ver T im e

143

W ithdraw al, Doubling & Modeling o f T e c h n o lo g y

146

xiv

LIST OF FIGURES

I

D e g re e o f influence o f Kendon te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs
a n d fo llo w e rs

93

II

Roles a n d p o sitiv e a n d n e g a tiv e in flu e n c e s

IIIA

M ajor role v a ria b le s

104

IIIB

M ajor b e lie f v a ria b le s

106

IIIC

Major e x p e c t a t i o n v a ria b le s

109

xv

97

CHAPTER

1

A NEW PARADIGM FOR TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE

T h e firs t d e c a d e o f in fo rm a tio n te c h n o lo g y e n te r in g sc h o o ls
h a s b e e n m a rk e d by t h e a b s e n c e o f th o ro u g h in te g ra tio n o f su c h
te c h n o lo g ie s in to c la s s ro o m life. N u m e ro u s r e p o r t s o f c o m p u t e r
u s a g e d o c u m e n t a g e n e ra l failure t o apply t e c h n o lo g y t o daily
p ro b le m solving a n d inquiry o f m a t h e m a t i c s , social s t u d i e s , s c ie n c e ,
o r English c la s s e s (U.S. D e p a r t m e n t o f E ducation, 1 9 9 1 ) . T h e full
p o te n tia l o f t h e s e e d u c a tio n a l to o ls will n o t b e re a liz e d u n le s s t h e
te c h n o lo g y , s y s te m , an d p e d a g o g y a d v a n c e t o g e t h e r . T h e re is no
sin g le "best use" o f t e c h n o lo g y in s c h o o ls an d c o lle g e s t o im prove
te a c h in g a n d learning, b u t a s e a c h new m ed iu m is p u t into
e d u c a tio n a l u se , it p ro v id e s t h e o p p o r tu n ity fo r e d u c a t o r s t o
e x a m in e i n t e r a c t i o n s a m o n g r e l e v a n t in flu e n c e s o p e r a t in g w ithin a
sc h o o l s y s t e m .
For e f f e c t i v e im p le m e n ta tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in o u r sc h o o ls,
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t e a c h e r s , p a r e n t s , a n d c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s m a y
n e e d t o m o v e t o w a rd t h e kinds o f s t r u c t u r e s a n d learning t e a m s
e n v isio n e d by S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) , w h o s e e s m e m b e r s o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m
on a q u e s t fo r c h a n g e and im p ro v e m e n t. Each an d e v e ry t e a c h e r h a s
t h e resp o n sib ility t o h elp c r e a t e an o r g a n iz a tio n c a p a b le o f
individual a n d c o lle c tiv e inquiry a n d c o n ti n u o u s re n e w a l, o r it will
n o t h a p p e n (Fullan, 1 9 9 3 ) . Bringing p a r e n t s a n d c o m m u n ity m e m b e rs
in to m o re a c tiv e c o n t a c t w ith t h e n e w te c h n o lo g ie s m a y likely help
t h e m t o gain a p e rs o n a l a p p re c ia tio n fo r t h e p o w e r o f t h e s e

i

2

te c h n o lo g ie s . As no o n e p e rs o n can possibly u n d e rs ta n d t h e
c o m p le x itie s o f c h a n g e in d y n a m ica lly c o m p le x s y s t e m s , it follow s
t h a t w e c a n n o t sim ply le a v e t h e re sp o n sib ility t o o th e r s .
From a p e rso n a l p e rs p e c tiv e , s e v e n y e a r s o f te a c h in g
e x p e r ie n c e s a t t h e Audio Visual D e p a r t m e n t o f " In s titu t N ational
S u p e rieu r De L 'E n s e ig n e m e n t T e c h n iq u e (INSET)", C o te D'Ivoire, g a v e
m e sim ilar in sig h ts a b o u t t h e p e d a g o g ic a l an d a ttitu d in a l p ro b le m s
involved w ith te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n in sc h o o l a n d co lleg e
curricula. In m y c a p a c i ty a s a c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r a n d an a u dio visual
te c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n t t o t h e e n tire fac u lty , I o b s e r v e d t h a t m an y o f my
c o lle a g u e s u s e d t h e C ollege In stru ctio n al Media C e n te r a s an
e n t e r t a i n m e n t c e n t e r t o c o v e r fo r th e i r u n p la n n e d in stru c tio n a l
a c tiv itie s. T h e in a p p r o p r ia te u s e s a n d t h e kind o f p e r c e p tio n s t h a t
t h e s e t e a c h e r s h a d o f in s tru c tio n a l te c h n o lo g ie s u n d e rm in e d t h e
p o te n tia ls o f t h e s e pow erful to o ls and, th u s , r e n d e r e d t h e c o s tb e n e f i ts o f t h e s e e d u c a tio n a l te c h n o lo g ie s m e a n in g le ss, i.e., w a s t e
o f tim e , e f f o r t s , a n d m o n ey .
A n o t h e r ty p ic a l t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n issu e in C o te
d 'Ivoire w a s UNESCO-Cote d'Iv oire J o i n t In stru c tio n a l T elev ision
P ro g ra m s fo r E le m e n ta ry Schools in t h e c o u n try . B e tw e e n 1 9 7 2 / 7 3
a n d 1 9 7 6 / 7 7 sc h o o l y e a r s , in stru c tio n a l te le v isio n p r o g r a m s w e re
b r o a d c a s t fro m B ouak e T elevision S ta tio n t o all r e m o t e e le m e n t a r y
s c h o o ls in t h e c o u n try . T h e s e p ro g ra m s w e re t h e prim ary m o d e o f
c la s s r o o m in s tru c tio n , s u p p o r t e d by t h e c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r . T hus,
t e c h n o lo g y w a s p la c e d b e f o r e t h e tra d itio n a l s y s t e m o f c la s s ro o m
in s tru c tio n . T h e p ro g r a m w a s d is c o n tin u e d a f t e r t h e fifth y e a r a s a
r e s u lt o f sc h o o l p a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s ' d isa p p ro v al o f t h e
e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e p ro g r a m s . As an e x p a t r i a t e t e a c h e r in C o te
d'Ivoire fro m 1 9 8 0 t o 1 9 8 7 , I had an o p p o r tu n ity t o e n g a g e in
p e rs o n a l inform al d is c u s s io n s w ith s o m e sc h o o l p a r e n t s an d
e l e m e n t a r y sc h o o l t e a c h e r s in Abidjan, Y am o u sso k ro , a n d Bouake. I
h o p e y o u will learn w ith d ism a y o r i n t e r e s t t h a t , e v e r y individual I
t a l k e d t o d is c lo s e d s t r o n g p e s s im is tic v iew s a b o u t in s tru c tio n a l
te c h n o lo g ie s.

3

T h e le s s o n s le a rn e d from m y p e rs o n a l an d p ro fe s sio n a l
e x p e r ie n c e s in African sc h o o ls a re th a t : ( 1 ) t h e r e is a n e e d t o pro v id e t h e n e c e s s a r y g u id e lin e s a n d s t r a t e g i e s t h a t w ould a s s i s t
local t e a c h e r s t o s e l e c t a n d ap p ly a p p ro p r ia te te c h n o lo g y in th e ir
r e s p e c tiv e c la ss ro o m s , ( 2 ) it is a c o m m o n p r a c tic e a m o n g m any
e d u c a tio n a l d e c is io n - m a k e r s in Africa t o a c q u ire e x p e n s iv e high
te c h n o lo g y (Big Media, a c c o rd in g t o S c h ru m m ) w ith o u t t h e
p a rtic ip a to r y role o f t h e e n d - u s e r s (i.e., sch ool fa c u lty ), a n d (3 )
w i t h o u t e f f e c t i v e planning a n d im p le m e n ta tio n s t r a t e g i e s t h a t
involve t e a c h e r s , t h e s e in s tru c tio n a l to o ls t e n d t o b e c o m e "W hite
E le p h a n ts " in o u r sc h o o ls.
In E a s t Lansing, Michigan I h a v e had t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o work
w ith e d u c a tio n a l te c h n o lo g y e x p e r t s a t Michigan S t a t e U niversity
a n d t o w ork fo r an e le m e n t a r y scho ol tak in g a v e ry d if f e r e n t
a p p r o a c h t o te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . This sc h o o l is a t t e m p t i n g to
m a k e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n a b y p r o d u c t o f t h e planning e f f o r t s
o f t e a c h e r s , a d m in is tr a to r s , a n d o t h e r a c t o r s within t h e sc h o o l
s y s t e m , a n d m y e x p e r i e n c e s w ith th is sc h o o l confirm m y belief t h a t ,
fo r a n y e f f e c t i v e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n , it is critical t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e in te rn al le a d e r s h ip roles t h a t e x is t w ithin t h e schoo l
s y s t e m . In a d d itio n , t h e s e e x p e r ie n c e s confirm t h a t p e r c e p t i o n s and
local c o n tro l o f t h e te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m by t h e v a rio u s a c t o r s within
t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m n e e d t o b e e x a m in e d serio u sly t o u n d e r s t a n d th e ir
e f f e c t s on t h e im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s e s a t e a c h s t a g e o f
d e v e lo p m e n t.
C o n s e q u e n tly , given m y p e r s p e c tiv e a n d c o n c e rn s , I fo u n d
K endon sc h o o l in Lansing, Michigan, an ideal r e s e a r c h s e t ti n g .
L e a d e rsh ip ro les a n d d y n a m ic s p e rta in in g t o te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n could b e e x a m in e d in d e p th . I could s t u d y t h e
p e r c e p t i o n s , beliefs, a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f all individuals a n d g r o u p s
w ho a re d ir e c tly a n d / o r in d ire ctly involved in planning, d e v e l o p m e n t ,
im p le m e n ta tio n , an d e v a lu a tio n o f t e c h n o lo g y in o u r sc h o o ls. I w a s in
a p o sitio n t o c o lle c t d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n fro m a n d a b o u t all key
a c t o r s w ithin K en don sc h o o l s y s t e m an d t o c o lle c t d e ta ile d

4

in fo rm a tio n a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s of te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n a t t h e
schoo l. In o t h e r w o rd s, I w a s a ble t o s tu d y , in -d e p th , t h e d y n a m ic s
o f in te r a c tin g f a c t o r s in K endon sc h o o l a s a p o ssib le n ew p a ra d ig m
o f e f f e c t i v e te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e -- a p a ra d ig m fo r te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s e s an d p r o c e d u r e s t h a t c e r ta in ly d e s e r v e s
e x a m in a tio n a n d e v a lu a tio n .
C e n tra l C o n c e rn s o f t h e S tu d y
T h e s t u d y w a s d e s ig n e d to: m a p t h e c o u r s e o f tec h n o lo g ic al
c h a n g e s within t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m in o rd e r t o s t u d y t h e im p a c ts o f
te c h n o lo g y i m p le m e n ta tio n on in s tru c tio n a n d o t h e r f a c t o r s
a f f e c tin g t h e d y n a m ic s o f t h e s y s te m ; ex am in e t h e e v o lu tio n o f t h e
ro le s o f individuals a n d g r o u p s id e n tifie d a s le a d e r s a n d follo w ers
w ith r e s p e c t t o te c h n o lo g y within K endon sc h o o l s y s te m ; a n d s tu d y
c h a n g in g p e r c e p tio n s (e.g ., issu e s a n d p ro b lem s) in o r d e r t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e m a jo r f a c t o r s o r a t t r i b u t e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e Kendon
t e c h n o l o g y le a d e rs h ip role.
Each o f t h e q u e s t io n s a d d r e s s e s a d if f e r e n t a s p e c t o f t h e
in te r a c tin g f o r c e s a t w ork within a sc h o o l s y s t e m e n g a g e d in
te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n a n d t h e c h a n g in g d y n a m ic s o f e a c h a re
follow ed o v e r s e v e r a l y e a r s . T he p u r p o s e is t o e x am in e , in a
d e v e lo p m e n ta l s e q u e n c e , how e a c h f a c t o r r e l a te s t o t h e o th e r s .
S p e c ific R e s e a r c h Q u e s tio n s
T h r e e m a jo r q u e s t io n s w e re a d d r e s s e d in th is s t u d y a n d
r e l a te d s u b q u e s t i o n s w e r e d e v e lo p e d t o g a t h e r in - d e p th in fo rm a tio n
which p ro v id e d a n s w e r s t o t h e m ain is s u e s ra ise d in th is s tu d y .
1.

W hat changes occurred in the uses o f technology and how did
these in te ra c t with o th er influences and outcomes?

This q u e s t io n trie d t o g a t h e r e v id e n c e fro m s c h o o l r e c o r d s a n d
p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s t o e s t a b l is h an h isto ric al profile o f

5

te c h n o lo g y d e v e l o p m e n t a t Kendon. T he s u b q u e s tio n s r e la te d t o th is
b ro a d q u e s t io n w ere:
a.
W h at kinds an d n u m b e r of h a rd w a re a n d s o f tw a r e did th e
sc h o o l r e c e iv e e a c h y e a r?
b.
W h a t kinds o f in stru c tio n a l e v e n t s a n d p r o j e c ts w e re
involved w ith te c h n o lo g y in t h e cu rriculum within and
a c r o s s g r a d e lev els?
c.
W ho d ire c tly p a r t i c i p a te d in t h o s e a c tiv itie s a n d w h a t
w e re t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e d u t ie s a n d / o r c o n tr ib u tio n s ?
d.
W h at im p a c ts did t h e s e a cq u isition an d e v e n t s h a v e on
t h e d y n a m ic s o f t h e s y s t e m an d on t h e p e r c e p tio n s and
a ttitu d e s o f a d m in istrato rs and te a c h e rs ?
2.

W hat changes occurred in roles, policies, and procedures in the
school system over time and how did these influence the
im plem entation o f technology?

T his q u e s tio n s o u g h t t o e x a m in e t h e v a rio u s w a y s in which t h e
e x te r n a l p a r t i c i p a n ts s u c h a s t h e S chool D istrict a n d in te rn a l (local)
s c h o o l h o u s e p a r t i c i p a n ts s u c h a s t e a c h e r s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s within
K endon sc h o o l s y s t e m h a v e influenced t h e scho ol te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n p ro g r a m o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s . T h e following
r e l a te d q u e s t io n s w e r e a s k e d fo r in -d e p th a n s w e r s t o th is m ain
q u e s t io n :
a.
Who a re t h e principal a c t o r s during t h e
c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n , d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d i m p le m e n ta tio n o f
t h e te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s ? W h at vision d o t h e y hold fo r
K endon t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n ?
b.
D o es t h e o rg a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu r e (e .g ., in stru c tio n a l
policy, in c e n tiv e s , s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d te c h n ic a l
s u p p o r t ) sp e c ific t o K endon sc h o o l r e la te t o t e a c h e r s '
a d o p tio n o f o r r e s i s t a n c e t o te c h n o lo g y in t h e c la s s ro o m
a n d in t h e la b o r a to r y ?

6

3.

In w hat ways did expectations, beliefs, and instructional
practices o f various actors within the school system change
and how did these prom ote o r hinder Kendon teachers' adoption
o f technology in the curriculum?

This q u e s t io n a t t e m p t e d t o e x a m in e t h e philosophical,
a ttitu d in a l, a n d p e d a g o g ic a l is s u e s t h a t t h e individuals a n d g ro u p s
w ithin t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m hold fo r te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n in t h e
c u rric u lu m a n d t h e i r im p lica tio n s f o r K en d o n sc h o o l cu rricu lu m
in n o v atio n g o a ls. T h e r e l a te d s u b q u e s t i o n s w e re:
a.
Do a ttitu d in a l f a c t o r s s u c h a s c o m p u t e r s e lf ­
c o m p e t e n c y , c o m p u t e r utility b e lie fs (p h ilo so p h ic a l
a t t a c h m e n t ) , a n d g e n e ra l a t t i t u d e s to w a r d s c o m p u t e r s
a f f e c t t h e a d o p tio n o f c o m p u t e r s f o r in s tru c tio n ?
b.
T o w h a t e x t e n t and in w h a t w a y s a re t e a c h e r s using
c o m p u t e r s in t h e c la s s ro o m s an d in t h e c o m p u t e r
t e a c h i n g la b o r a to r y ?

L im ita tio n s a n d P o te n tia ls o f t h e S tu d y
T h e m a jo r is s u e s an d p ro b le m s raised in th is s t u d y h a v e t h e
p o t e n t i a l o f b e in g g e n e r a liz e d a c r o s s m a n y s c h o o ls w hich u se
t e c h n o lo g y in t h e curriculum , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t t h e re s e a r c h
c o n c e r n s a single school. S o m e e d u c a tio n a l is s u e s a re m o re c o n t e x t
a n d tim e sp e cific d u e t o in te rn al d y n a m ic s o f t h e p e o p le involved in
a p a rtic u la r s c h o o l s y s t e m a s well a s t o c h a n g e s o f in stru c tio n a l
policies a n d p e rs o n n e l. T his s tu d y , t h e r e f o r e , w a s lim ited t o a single
sc h o o l s e t t i n g an d t h e k e y a c t o r s w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m . It
c o v e r e d a p erio d o f five sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 ) . T h e
is s u e s a n d p r o b le m s w e re c o n c e rn e d w ith t h e a c t o r s ' r e s p e c t iv e
ro le s a s le a d e r s o r fo llo w ers, th e i r b e lie fs a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s w ith
r e s p e c t t o te c h n o lo g y . T h e in stru c tio n a l c h a n g e s d i s c u s s e d p e rta in e d
t o t h e o n e s t h a t h a p p e n e d a s a re s u lt o f te c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s in
t h e curricu lu m o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s . In o t h e r w o rd s, t h e s t u d y

7

p rovided rich s o u r c e s o f d a t a a b o u t t h e school and, it sh ould be
p o ssib le t o g e n e r a liz e t h e k n o w le d g e s o u g h t t h r o u g h in -d e p th
in v e s tig a tio n b e y o n d K endon t o sc h o o ls a c ro s s t h e U nited S t a te s .
D e sp ite t h e privileges t h a t K endon E le m e n ta ry e n jo y s a s a
p r o f e s s io n a l d e v e l o p m e n t sc h o o l, being te c h n ic a l, financial, or
p e rs o n n e l (a s itu a tio n w hich is ty p ic al t o m a n y U nited S t a t e s
e d u c a ti o n a l e n v ir o n m e n t s ) t h e is s u e s a n d p ro b le m s in v e s ti g a t e d
c ould b e a p o te n tia l c o n c e r n s fo r e v e ry schoo l s y s t e m . F u rth e rm o re ,
m y p e rs o n a l te c h n o lo g y e x p e r ie n c e s in Michigan S t a t e U niversity and
K end on E le m e n ta ry in t h e U nited S t a t e s , U niversity o f S o rb o n n e
(Paris III), a n d INSET o f Y a m o u sso k ro , C o te d'Ivoire, Africa, lead m e
t o s u g g e s t t o m y r e a d e r s t h a t m an y a s p e c t s o f K endon in stru ctio n al
t e c h n o lo g y p r a c t ic e s le a rn e d fro m th is s t u d y c o uld b e ap p lied in
m a n y s c h o o ls in t h e w orld using o r a t t e m p t i n g t o in tro d u c e
t e c h n o lo g y in t h e cu rriculum .
C om bining Q u a n t it a t i v e a n d Q u a lita tiv e M e th o d o lo g ie s
T h e kind o f in fo rm a tio n a n d d a t a s o u g h t t o a n s w e r t h e
q u e s t io n s d e v e lo p e d f o r th is c a s e s t u d y req u ire d b o th q u a n ti t a t iv e
a n d q u a lita tiv e m e t h o d o lo g ie s t o in v e s ti g a t e t h e i s s u e s raised.
Review s o f K endon sc h o o l t e c h n o lo g y re c o rd s, p r o c e e d in g s o f g ro u p
m e e ti n g s s u c h a s S ta f f a n d School Im p ro v e m e n t T e a m m e e tin g s , an d
m y p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n d a t a o n Kendon C o m p u te r T e a c h in g
L a b o ra to ry fo r a perio d o f six m o n th s (i.e., fro m J a n u a r y t o Ju n e ,
1 9 9 4 ) w e re o n e d a t a s o u r c e . S e lf-a d m in is te re d s u r v e y s follow ed by
individual in te rv ie w s w e r e a n o t h e r s o u r c e o f d a ta . T h e m e t h o d s
s e l e c t e d a llow ed m e t o o b ta in in -d e p th in fo rm a tio n on te c h n o lo g y
o v e r t h e p a s t five s c h o o l y e a r s fro m c e r ta in individuals a n d g r o u p s
w ithin t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m .
T h e c o m b in a tio n o f b o th q u a n ti t a t iv e a n d q u a lita tiv e
m e th o d o lo g ie s in a c a s e s t u d y like th is o n e , n o t only c a p t u r e s t h e
g e n e r a l p ic tu re o f t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m a n d its r e la te d is s u e s and
p ro b le m s, b u t a ls o p ro v id e s s o m e sp e cific c o m p l e m e n ta r y

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in fo rm a tio n t h a t f a c i li t a t e s t h e full u n d e r s ta n d in g o f t h e c o m p le x
s y ste m .

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE

REVIEW

In tro d u c tio n
In t h e e a rly s ix tie s so c ial s c i e n t i s t s w e re c o n c e r n e d
prim arily w ith t h e " p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e " . A ccording t o H avelock
( 1 9 7 3 ) , th is c h a n g e r e s t s on t h e a s s u m p tio n s t h a t social p ro g r e s s
c a n b e p lan n e d a n d e n g in e e r e d s o t h a t it is m o re reliable an d m o re
beneficial t o m o re p e o p le . "This new c o n c e p t o f 'p la n n e d in n o vation'
s t r e s s e s t h e i m p o r ta n c e o f rea listic d ia g n o s is o f n e e d s , a d e q u a t e
r e s o u r c e re trie v a l, c o lla b o ra tiv e planning a n d so lu tio n building, an d
s y s t e m a t i c d e sig n a n d e v a lu a tio n o f a lt e r n a t iv e s o lu tio n s (H avelock
a nd Havelock, 1 9 7 3 , p.2)".
S t r a t e g y w a s re c o g n iz e d a s t h e k e y a s p e c t o f th is n ew c o n c e p t
o f in n o v atio n . In building su c h s t r a t e g i e s , Lippit, W a ts o n a n d
W e stle y in "T he D ynam ics o f Planned C h a n g e" ( 1 9 5 8 ) , m a d e available
t h e firs t c o h e r e n t c o n c e p tio n o f t h e social c h a n g e a g e n t ; Bennis,
B enne, a n d Chin ( 1 9 6 9 ) w o rk e d on "Planned C hange"; R ogers and
S h o e m a k e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) g a v e em pirical r e s e a r c h on t h e "Diffusion o f
Inno vations; an d H avelock a n d c o lla b o ra to rs ( 1 9 6 9 ) p ro v id e d a
c o m p r e h e n s iv e s u m m a r y o f m o s t available lite r a tu r e o n c h a n g e
p r o c e s s . T h e s e w o rk s p ro v id e d a usefu l s t a r ti n g p o in t fo r building
t h e c o n t e n t o f training p r o g r a m s fo r c h a n g e a g e n t s . For in s ta n c e , th e
c o n f e r e n c e on c h a n g e a g e n t train in g w hich a s s e m b le d 5 0 nationally
(USA) r e c o g n iz e d le a d e r s o f r e s e a r c h a n d train in g on e d u c a tio n a l
9

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c h a n g e a t Clinton, Michigan, in Spring 1 9 7 0 d e riv e d p ro p o sitio n a l
s t a t e m e n t s fro m t h e e x is tin g lite ra tu r e a n d e n d o r s e d a s " im p o r ta n t"
o r " e s s e n tia l" by all t h e c o n f e r e n c e p a rtic ip a n ts . T h e m ajo r
p e r s p e c t iv e s o r s t a t e m e n t s an d o b s e r v a tio n s on t h e c h a n g e p r o c e s s
identified by H avelock e t al. ( 1 9 6 9 ) a re p r e s e n t e d below.
C h a n g e a s a P rob lem Solving P ro c e s s
A cco rdin g t o H avelock ( 1 9 6 9 ) , a d v o c a t e s of p ro b le m solving a s
a m e a n o f c h a n g e p r o c e s s involves a t l e a s t five p o in ts: first, t h a t
th e u s e r - n e e d is t h e p a r a m o u n t c o n sid e ra tio n ; s e c o n d , t h a t diag n o sis
o f n e e d a lw ay s h a s t o b e an in te g ral p a r t o f t h e t o ta l p ro c e s s ; third,
t h a t t h e o u ts id e c h a n g e a g e n t shou ld b e n o n d ire c tiv e , rarely, if ever,
violating t h e in te g r ity o f t h e u s e r by placing him self in a d ir e c t or
e x p e r t s t a t u s ; fo u rth , t h a t t h e in te rn al r e s o u r c e s sh o u ld alw ay s b e
fully u tilize d ; a n d fifth , t h a t s e lf -in itia te d a n d s e lf-a p p lie d
in n o v atio n will h a v e t h e s t r o n g e s t u s e r c o m m i t m e n t a n d t h e b e s t
c h a n c e s f o r long t e r m survival. A fe w o f t h e m a jo r a d v o c a t e s o f th is
o r ie n ta tio n a re L ippitt, W a tso n , and W esley ( 1 9 5 8 ) , Goodwin W atso n
( 1 9 6 7 ) , a n d H e rb e rt T h elen ( 1 9 6 7 ) . T h e s e social p s y c h o lo g is ts w e re
c o n c e r n e d w ith g r o u p d y n a m ic s - h u m a n r e la tio n s tr a d itio n . From th is
p e rs p e c tiv e , th is c a s e s t u d y e x a m in e d t h e "N eed A s s e s s m e n t "
s t r a t e g i e s a d o p t e d by K endon scho ol s y s t e m prior t o te c h n o lo g y
im p l e m e n ta t io n in t h e s c h o o l curriculum .
C h a n g e a s a R e s e a rc h - D e v e lo p m e n t- a n d - D iff u s io n P r o c e s s
A c co rd in g t o H avelock ( 1 9 6 9 ) , t h e c o n c e p tu a l c a t e g o r iz a tio n
a d v o c a te d by Brickell ( 1 9 6 1 ) an d Clark an d Guba ( 1 9 6 5 ) , u n d e r th is
o r ie n ta tio n , is g u id e d by a t l e a s t five a s s u m p tio n s . First, it a s s u m e s
t h a t t h e r e sh o u ld b e a ratio n al s e q u e n c e in t h e e v o lu tio n and
a p p lic a tio n o f an in n o v atio n . This s e q u e n c e sh o u ld include r e s e a rc h ,
d e v e l o p m e n t , a n d p a c k a g in g b e fo r e m a s s d is s e m in a tio n t a k e s place.
S eco n d , t h e r e h a s t o b e a planning. Third, t h e r e h a s t o b e a division
an d c o o rd in a tio n o f labor. F o u rth , it a s s u m e s a m o r e - o r - le s s p a ssiv e
b u t ratio n al c o n s u m e r w h o will a c c e p t a n d a d o p t t h e in n o v atio n if it

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is o f f e r e d t o him o r h e r in t h e right place, a t t h e rig h t tim e , an d in
t h e rig h t form . Fifth, t h e p r o p o n e n t s o f th is v iew p o in t a c c e p t t h e
f a c t o f a high initial d e v e l o p m e n t c o s t prior t o a n y d is s e m in a tio n
a ctiv ity . In its b ro a d t e r m s , th is o r ie n ta tio n is a g r a n d s t r a t e g y fo r
p la n n e d innovation. A ccording t o Havelock a n d Havelock ( 1 9 7 3 ) , th e
p r o t o t y p e s o f th is m o d el a re p r e s u m e d t o e x is t in in d u stry and
a g ric u ltu re . C o n siderin g t h e im p o r ta n c e o f e f f e c t i v e planning fo r an y
s u c c e s s f u l in n o v a tio n p r o g r a m s in e d u c a tio n a l s e t t i n g , th is c a s e
s t u d y e x p lo re d t h e "Planning" s t r a t e g i e s a d o p t e d by t h e scho ol
s y s t e m f o r t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n tak in g in to a c c o u n t
social, c u ltu ral, a n d e c o n o m ic f a c t o r s sp e c ific t o K end on E le m e n ta ry
P ro fe ss io n a l D e v e lo p m e n t School. It a lso a t t e m p t e d t o id e n tify all
t h o s e w ho w e re involved a n d t h e kind o f roles p lay e d during t h e
planning an d d e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e s .
C h a n g e a s a P ro c e s s o f Social In te ra c tio n
A ccord in g t o H avelock ( 1 9 6 9 ) , a b o d y o f em pirical re s e a r c h
t e n d s t o s u p p o r t five g e n e r a liz a tio n s a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s o f inno vation
diffusion: first, t h a t t h e individual u s e r o r a d o p t e r b e lo n g s t o a
n e tw o rk o f social re la tio n s w hich largely in flu e n c e s his a d o p tio n
b eh av io r; s e c o n d , t h a t his p lac e in t h e n e tw o rk (c e n tr a lity ,
p e rip h e ra lity , iso latio n ) is a g o o d p r e d ic to r o f his o r h e r r a t e o f
a c c e p t a n c e o f n e w ideas; third , t h a t inform al p e rs o n a l c o n t a c t is a
vital p a r t o f t h e influence a n d a d o p tio n p ro c e s s ; fo u rth , t h a t g ro u p
m e m b e r s h ip a n d r e f e r e n c e g r o u p id e n tific a tio n s a r e m a jo r
p r e d ic to r s o f individual a d o p tio n ; a n d fifth, t h a t t h e r a t e o f
d iffu sio n th r o u g h a social s y s t e m follow s a p r e d ic ta b le S -c u rv e
p a t t e r n ( v e r y slow b egin nin g, follow ed b y a period o f v e ry rapid
diffusion, follow ed in tu rn by a long l a t e - a d o p t e r o r " la g g e d " period).
R ogers ( 1 9 6 2 ) w a rn s t h a t t h e opinion le a d e r c a n b e "w orn o u t"
a s an e f f e c t i v e p r o m o te r o f c h a n g e if he o r s h e b e c o m e s t o o closely
id e n tifie d w ith o u t s i d e c h a n g e a g e n t s a n d b e c o m e s t o o iso la te d fro m
his follow ers. He s u g g e s t s t h a t opinion le a d e r s also n e e d t o b e ab le
t o filte r o u t in n o v a tio n s which m ig h t u p s e t th e ir re la tio n s h ip s t o

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fo llo w ers. R o g e rs ( 1 9 7 1 ) s tr o n g ly e m p h a s i z e s t h a t in n o v a tio n
a d o p tio n in s c h o o ls is a c o lle c tiv e d ecisio n p ro c e s s .
If c o m p u t e r s a re being u s e d in all c la s s ro o m s a n d a la b o ra to ry
s e t ti n g a t Kendon, th e n th is c a s e s t u d y had e v e r y re a s o n t o ex am in e
t h e s t r a t e g i e s a d o p t e d by t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m w hich h a d in fluenced
in n o v a tio n d iffu sio n , ta k in g in to c o n s id e r a tio n "w ho, w h e n , w h a t,
a n d w h e r e " a s p e c t s sp e c ific t o K endon te c h n o lo g y . Particularly, th is
c a s e s t u d y e x a m in e d t h e issu e s o f Kendon t e c h n o lo g y le a d e rs and
fo llo w ers, t h e ro le s a n d sp e c ific c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t e c h n o lo g y
le a d e rs a n d follow ers, t h e early a n d la te a d o p te r s , an d t h e p a c e a t
which t h e t e c h n o lo g y a d o p tio n p r o c e s s h a s t a k e n p lace.
C h a n g e a s a Linkage P ro c e s s
T h e c o n c e p t o f "Linkage" p ro p o s e d by Havelock and
c o lla b o r a to r s ( 1 9 6 9 ) is s e e n a s a p o ssib le unifying an d in te g r a tin g
id e a s b a s e d on t h e t h r e e o r i e n t a t i o n s prev io u sly d is c u s s e d . This
m o d el e m p h a s i z e s t h a t t h e u s e r m u s t e n t e r into a recip ro cal
r e la tio n s h ip w ith t h e r e s o u r c e s y s t e m ( C o s m o p o lite n e s s ) . R ogers
d e fin e s " c o s m o p o li t e n e s s " a s " t h e d e g r e e t o which an individual's
o r ie n ta tio n is e x te r n a l t o a p a rtic u la r social s y s t e m ." ( 1 9 6 2 , p. 1 7 )
It r e s u lts fro m e x p e r ie n c e in m o re t h a n o n e s y s t e m e i t h e r th r o u g h
living, tra v e lin g , visiting, o r c o m m u n ic a tin g . T h u s, t h e r e s o u r c e
s y s t e m s a n d re s o u r c e p e rs o n s m u s t ( 1 ) sim u la te t h e u s e r 's n e e d , (2 )
s im u la te t h e s e a r c h a c tiv ity t h a t t h e u s e r h a s g o n e th ro u g h , a n d (3 )
s im u la te t h e s o lu tio n - a p p lic a tio n p r o c e d u r e . H avelock ( 1 9 6 9 )
s u g g e s t s t h a t th is r e c ip ro c a tin g re la tio n s h ip s n e e d t o be d e v e lo p e d
t o w a r d s t h e c r e a t i o n o f a s t a b le a n d lo n g -la stin g so cial in flu en ce
n e tw o rk . He d e s c r i b e s th is kind o f c o lla b o ra tio n a s a chain o f
k n o w le d g e utilizatio n, c o n n e c tin g t h e m o s t r e m o t e s o u r c e s o f e x p e r t
k n o w le d g e in t h e u n iv e rs ity w ith t h e m o s t r e m o t e c o n s u m e r s o f
k n o w le d g e. He s t r e s s e s t h a t linkage b e tw e e n s y s t e m s is t h e
e s s e n t ia l p r o c e s s in a n y e f f o r t a im e d a t p la n n e d so cial c h a n g e .
H avelock a n d H avelock ( 1 9 7 3 ) in d ic a te t h a t s t u d e n t s o f e d u c a tio n a l
c h a n g e a p p e a r t o a g r e e t h a t p ro b lem -so lv in g h u m a n re la tio n s

13

a p p r o a c h e s a n d rigorous s y s t e m a n aly tic a p p r o a c h e s h a v e t o be
b r o u g h t t o g e t h e r a t t h e local level b e fo r e a tru ly s a t i s f a c t o r y
e d u c a tio n a l c h a n g e m odel c a n evolve.
K endon E le m e n ta ry being a P ro fe ssio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t School,
th is c a s e s t u d y e x a m in e d a m o n g o t h e r th in g s t h e kind o f social
in te ra c tio n s t h a t g o on within t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m (i.e., a m o n g Kendon
fa c u lty , p a r e n t s , c o m m u n ity b u s in e s s p a rtn e r s , a n d u n iv e rsity
c o lla b o ra to rs ) a n d t h e kind o f im p a c ts t h a t t h e s e in te r a c tio n s h a v e
on t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p ro g ram .
A dd ition al P ro p o s itio n s a b o u t C h a n g e P r o c e s s
(R e w ard s a n d Reward S t r u c tu r e s fo r C han gin g)
In a d d itio n t o t h e a b o v e s t r a t e g i e s d is c u s s e d , re w a rd s y s t e m s
play a v ital role in o u r e d u c a tio n a l in n o v atio n e f f o r t s . H avelock
( 1 9 6 9 ) id e n tifie d six m a jo r is s u e s p e rta in in g t o re w a rd s y s t e m s .
First, he n o t e d t h a t e f f e c t i v e k n o w le d g e u tilizatio n is a se lffulfilling p r o p h e s y . Kurland ( c ite d in H avelock a n d Havelock, 1 9 7 3 , p.
3 3 ) n o t e s t h e im p o rta n c e o f building individual and g r o u p c o n fid e n c e
in t h e c a p a c i ty t o p ro d u c e c h a n g e . S e c o n d , a willingness t o t a k e
risks is an i m p o r t a n t r e q u ir e m e n t f o r s u c c e s s f u l in n o v atio n . "As
well a s d e v e lo p in g new anim als known a s c h a n g e a g e n t s , w e m u s t
instill in p r e s e n t train in g p r o g r a m s fo r m o s t e d u c a tio n a l p e rs o n n e l a
g r e a t e r relian ce u p o n "n ew " in fo rm atio n , a s well a s a m o re po sitiv e
a t t i t u d e to w a r d t h e "risk" o f fig h tin g tra d itio n " , s a y s T o w n e ( c ite d
in Havelock & Havelock, 1 9 7 3 , p .3 3 ) . H ow ever, T aylor ( c ite d in t h e
s a m e review ) c a u tio n s t h a t a ty p ic al s y s t e m h a s no r e a s o n t o t a k e
risks on in n o v atio n id e a s until t h e y a re s u p p o r t e d by solid e v id e n c e
o f utility. H avelock n o t e d t h a t s h a r e d a c c o u n ta b ility a n d a
s p e c if ic a tio n a n d lim itation o f c o n s e q u e n c e s m a y b e w a y s in which
risk-taking c a n b e s a f e g u a r d e d . " A c c o u n ta b ility m a y n o t w ork fo r
s y s t e m im p r o v e m e n t if p e o p le d o n o t h a v e t h e rig h t t o m ak e
m is ta k e s . C h a n g e re q u ire s a c e r ta in d e g r e e o f e rro r e m b r a c e m e n t "
(H avelock a n d Havelock, 1 9 7 3 , pp. 3 3 & 3 4 ) . Third, a willingness t o
m a k e an e f f o r t t o a d a p t in n o v atio n s t o o n e 's o w n s itu a tio n is an

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im p o r t a n t p r e r e q u is ite t o e f f e c t i v e u tiliza tio n (a d im e n sio n o f
o p e n n e s s ) . F o u rth , social in te r a c tio n tra d itio n s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e r e is
a g e n e ra l f a c t o r o f c a p a c i ty or c o m p e t e n c e t h a t a c c o u n ts fo r m uch
o f t h e v a ria n c e in diffusion s tu d ie s . Havelock n o t e d t h a t t h o s e w ho
a lre a d y p o s s e s s t h e m o s t in t h e w a y o f r e s o u r c e s a n d c a p a b ilitie s
a re t h e m o s t likely t o g e t e v e n m ore. His s u m m a ry c o n c e p t tie s
t o g e t h e r , a c c o rd in g t o him, t h e highly in te r c o r r e la t e d v a ria b le s o f
" w e a lth , p o w e r, s t a t u s , e d u c a tio n , in te llig en c e, a n d s o p h is tic a tio n "
which a re invariably g o o d p r e d ic to r s o f s u c c e s s f u l in n o v a tio n a n d
u tilization . A n o th e r in g re d ie n t o f c a p a c ity , id e n tifie d by Havelock,
s e lf - c o n f i d e n c e , is a lso i m p o r t a n t p r e d i c to r o f s u c c e s s f u l
utilizatio n . O t h e r in g r e d ie n ts id en tifie d are: t h e a m o u n t o f available
tim e; e n e rg y ; e d u c a tio n ; so p h is tic a tio n ; a n d siz e o f o p e ra tio n . Fifth,
h e n o t e d t h a t a n ti c i p a te d re w a rd is a m a jo r in c e n tiv e fo r d if fu s e rs
an d u s e r s o f in novation. T h e review in d ic a te s t h a t m a n a g e m e n t of
t h e re w a rd s y s t e m is s e e n a s t h e crucial e le m e n t in c h a n g e . "I think
t h e b a sic e l e m e n t in c h a n g e in e d u c a tio n is tie d into t h e reinforcing
a g e n t s t h a t a re available fo r m odifying t h e b e h a v io r o f all
o p e r a tio n a l p e rs o n n e l, b o th t e a c h e r s a n d sc h o o l a d m in is tr a to r s , fo r
e x a m p le " , s a y s O fiesh ( c ite d in Havelock & Havelock, 1 9 7 3 , p. 3 5 ).
Sixth, t h e review in d ic a te s t h a t n e w id e a s a n d in n o v a tio n s which
c le arly c o n t r a d i c t p r e e x is tin g v a lu e s will n o t g e t f a r in a u s e r
s y s t e m , w h e r e a s t h o s e w hich a p p e a l t o c h e r is h e d v a lu e s will.
A ccording t o C h e sler ( c ite d in Havelock & Havelock, 1 9 7 3 , p. 3 7 ),
c h a n g e is a political p r o c e s s f r a u g h t w ith c o n flic ts o f i n t e r e s t a n d
v a lu e s .
C o n sid e rin g t h e im p o r ta n c e o f p r e s e rv ic e a n d in se rv ic e
tra in in g t o e f f e c t i v e a p p lic a tio n s o f t h e s e m o d e r n in s tru c tio n a l
to o ls , c o n s id e rin g se lf a n d p ro fe s sio n a l i n t e r e s t s o f t e a c h e r s in
g e n e ra l a s a p ro b a b le m e a n s o f p ro g ra m a d o p tio n in in s tru c tio n , th is
c a s e s t u d y s o u g h t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s a n d b e liefs o f
K endon t e a c h e r s . It eq u ally e x p lo re d t h e kinds o f m o tiv a tio n a l
s t r a t e g i e s sp e c ific t o K endo n E le m e n ta ry PDS t h a t h a v e in flu e n c e d
t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p ro g ra m s . Following t h e le s s o n s

15

le a rn e d fro m s o m e re n o w n e d so cial s c i e n t i s t s in t h e s ix tie s, it w a s
a b s o lu te ly n e c e s s a r y t o h e a r w h a t o t h e r e d u c a tio n a l s c i e n t i s t s s a y
a b o u t t h e p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e in sc h o o ls as e x p e r ie n c e d from
s e v e n t i e s t o t h e p r e s e n t era.
S o m e e d u c a tio n a l s c i e n t i s t s o f t h e s e v e n t i e s in d ic a te t h a t
prior t o 1 9 7 0 , t h e fo c u s o f schoo l c h a n g e w a s primarily on a d o p tio n
o f m a te ria ls . E d u c a to r s a s s u m e d t h a t p ro g ra m im p le m e n ta tio n
follow ed an "in d u stria l m odel"; t h a t c h a n g in g a cu rricu lu m involved
sim ply a d o p ti n g a n e w p r o g ra m , installing it w ith m inim um s t a f f
d e v e l o p m e n t an d a ssu m in g w id e s p r e a d u se (Fullan, 1 9 8 7 ) . Fullan h a s
d e s c r ib e d t h e period fro m 1 9 7 0 - 1 9 8 0 a s o n e o f " d o c u m e n tin g
failure". He p o in te d o u t t h a t during th is period w e le a rn e d a b o u t
w h a t n o t t o do: d o n o t ignore training; d o n o t ignore local le a d e rs and
opinion s e t t e r s ; d o n o t im p le m e n t large, v a g u e in n o v atio n s; a d o p tio n
by o r g a n iz a tio n s d o e s n o t tell u s a b o u t how individuals a c t in
c la ss ro o m s ; a n d r e p o r t e d u se d o e s n o t m e a n a c tu a l use. T h e
in d ustrial view d o e s n o t fit t h e sc h o o l s e t t i n g .
R e s e a rc h s h o w s t h a t c h a n g e in s c h o o ls re q u ire s le a d e rsh ip ,
s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t , m o d ific a tio n o f t h e o rg a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e , and
t h e in v o lv e m e n t o f p e o p le fro m all a s p e c t s o f e d u c a tio n a l s y s t e m
(Fullan, 1 9 8 2 ) . T h e p r o c e s s o f c h a n g e n e e d s also t o b e in te g r a t e d
in to a n y re fo rm initiative. W hen in te r v e n tio n s a re n o t i n t e g r a t e d
in to t h e c h a n g e p ro c e s s , t h e in n o v atio n im p le m e n ta tio n e f f o r t s a re
o f t e n u n s u c c e s s f u l (McLaughlin, 1 9 9 0 ) .
O rg a n iz a tio n a l in n o v ativ e p r o g ra m s could n o t b e a s s e s s e d
w ith o u t fully u n d e rs ta n d in g t h e c o m p le x ity o f t h e c h a n g e p r o c e s s in
g e n e ra l. T h e follow ing lit e r a t u r e rev iew w a s in te n d e d , t h e r e f o r e , t o
e x p lo re ( 1 ) in large p a rt, t h e underlying p a t t e r n a n d g e n e r a l
d y n a m ic s o f s y s te m ic c h a n g e in o u r o r g a n iz a tio n s , e d u c a tio n in
p a rtic u la r ( 2 ) t h e im p a c ts o f s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t o n t h e e f f e c t i v e
a p p lic a tio n s o f m o d e r n in stru c tio n a l to o ls , a n d ( 3 ) t h e im p a c ts of
m o d e r n te c h n o lo g i e s o n in stru c tio n .

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T h e D ynam ics of S y s te m ic C h a n g e
T he C o m p lexity o f t h e C h a n g e P ro c e s s
S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) m a k e s t h e d istin c tio n b e tw e e n 'd e ta ile d
c o m p le x ity ' a n d 'd y n a m ic c o m p le x ity '. T h e f o rm e r involves
id en tify in g all t h e v a ria b le s t h a t could influence a p ro b lem .
A ccording t o S e n g e , d e ta ile d c o m p le x ity is n o t reality. "D ynam ic
c o m p le x ity is t h e real te r r ito r y o f c h a n g e : w h en 'c a u s e a n d e f f e c t '
a re n o t c lo s e in tim e a n d s p a c e a n d obvious, in te r v e n tio n s d o n o t
p ro d u ce e x p e c t e d o u t c o m e s (ibid., p .3 6 5 ) b e c a u s e o t h e r 'u n p la n n e d '
f a c t o r s d y n am ically in te r f e r e " . S e n g e a r g u e s t h a t p r o d u c tiv e c h a n g e
is t h e c o n s t a n t 's e a r c h f o r u n d e rs ta n d in g , knowing t h e r e is no
u ltim a te a n s w e r ' (ibid., p. 2 8 2 ) . T h e real le v e ra g e fo r c h a n g e , s a y s
S e n g e , involves:
. S e e in g in te r r e la tio n s r a t h e r t h a n linear c a u s e - e f f e c t chain s,
and
. S eein g p r o c e s s e s o f c h a n g e r a t h e r t h a n s n a p s h o t s , (ibid., p.
73).
E d u c a to rs a re ., th e r e f o r e , req u ire d t o c r e a t e a h a b it o f e x p e rie n c in g
an d thinking a b o u t e d u c a tio n a l c h a n g e p r o c e s s e s a s an o v e rla p p in g
s e r ie s o f d yn am ically c o m p le x p h e n o m e n a . A cco rdin g t o S e n g e
( 1 9 9 0 ) , e ig h t basic le s s o n s h a v e b e e n id entified fro m t h e new
p a ra d ig m o f d y n a m ic c h a n g e .
L esson 1: You C an't Mandate What M atters ( t h e m o re com plex
t h e c h a n g e , t h e less yo u c a n fo rc e it). T o a cc o m p lish c e rta in
e d u c a tio n a l g o a ls, y o u c a n n o t m a n d a te w h a t m a t t e r s , b e c a u s e w h a t
really m a t t e r s fo r c o m p le x g o a ls o f c h a n g e a re skills, c r e a t i v e
thinking, a n d c o m m i tt e d a c tio n (McLaughlin, 1 9 9 0 ) . He a r g u e s t h a t
m a n d a t e s a re n o t su ffic ie n t an d t h e m o re y o u t r y t o sp e c ify t h e m t h e
m o re n a rro w t h e go als a n d m e a n s b e c o m e . T e a c h e r s a re n o t
te c h n ic ia n s . E ven in t h e re la tiv e ly sim p le c a s e - d e ta il e d c o m p le x ity
- a lm o s t all e d u c a tio n a l c h a n g e s o f value req u ire n e w (i) skills; (ii)
beh av io r; a n d (iii) b eliefs o r u n d e rs ta n d in g (Fullan, 1 9 9 1 ) . L et us
th ink o f c o m p u t e r s a c r o s s t h e curriculum , t e a c h e r s ' thinking an d

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p ro b le m solving skills, in te g r a tio n o f sp e c ia l e d u c a ti o n in re g u la r
c la s s ro o m s , e tc . All o f t h e s e c h a n g e s , t o be p ro d u c tiv e , requireskills, c a p a c i ty , c o m m i tm e n t , m o tiv a tio n , b e lie fs a n d in sig h ts, and
d is c re tio n a ry j u d g m e n t on t h e s p o t. A ccording t o P a sc ale ( 1 9 9 0 ) , th e
only a lt e r n a t iv e t h a t w o rk s is c r e a tin g c o n d itio n s t h a t e n a b le and
p r e s s p e o p le t o c o n s id e r p e rs o n a l a n d s h a r e d visions, a n d skill
d e v e l o p m e n t th r o u g h p r a c tic e o v e r tim e . In light o f t h e s e
a s s u m p tio n , t h e s t u d y a t t e m p t e d t o id e n tify t h e n a tu r e o f vision
t h a t Kendon sc h o o l s y s t e m holds fo r te c h n o lo g y .
L esson 2: Change is a Journey. N ot a Blueprint (C h a n g e is non ­
linear, lo a d e d w ith u n c e r ta in ty , a n d s o m e t i m e s p e r v e r s e .) If c h a n g e
invo lved im p le m e n tin g single, w e ll-d e v e lo p e d , p r o v e n in n o v a tio n s
o n e a t a tim e , p e r h a p s it c o u ld be b lu ep rin te d . B ut sc h o o l d istric ts,
a c c o rd in g t o S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) a re in t h e b u s in e s s o f im p le m e n tin g a
b ew ild e rin g a r r a y o f m u ltip le in n o v a tio n s a n d p o licies
s im u lta n e o u s ly . If o n e t r ie s t o m a tc h t h e c o m p le x ity o f t h e s itu a tio n
w ith c o m p le x im p le m e n ta tio n plans, t h e p r o c e s s b e c o m e s unwieldy,
c u m b e r s o m e a n d usually w ro n g . T a k e a p a rtic u la r sc h o o l s itu a tio n in
England. McMahon an d W allace ( 1 9 9 2 ) e n g a g e d in sc h o o l d e v e lo p m e n t
planning. E x p e rie n c e d in t h e planning p r o c e s s , w orking t o g e t h e r , an d
c o m m i tt e d t o t h e plan t h e y p ro d u c e d , t h e y n o n e th e le s s e n c o u n t e r e d a
s e r ie s o f u n a n ti c i p a te d p ro b le m s: s t a f f train in g s e s s io n s h a d t o b e
p o s t p o n e d b e c a u s e o f d e la y s in t h e p ro d u c tio n o f n a tio n a l guidelines;
a training p r o je c t h a d t o b e d e fe r r e d b e c a u s e t h e t e a c h e r a p p o in te d
t o run it h a d le ft a f t e r six w e ek s; t h e g o v e r n m e n t in tr o d u c e d a
s e rie s o f n e w c h a n g e s t h a t h ad t o be a c c o m m o d a te d ; e tc . T hus, t h e y
qualified th is a s a j o u r n e y in to t h e partially know n o r u nknow n is an
a p t m e ta p h o r . 'R o u te an d d e s t in a ti o n 1 s a y s S ta c e y ( 1 9 9 2 ) , 'm u s t be
d is c o v e r e d th r o u g h t h e jo u r n e y its e lf if y o u wish t o tr a v e l t o new
lands' (p .1 ). In t h e fa c e o f u n p re d ic ta b le c h a n g e , 't h e key t o s u c c e s s
lies in t h e c r e a tiv e a c tiv ity of m aking n e w m a p s ', (p. 1) U nder
c o n d itio n s o f u n c e r t a i n t y , learn ing , a n x ie ty , d iffic u lties, a n d f e a r of
t h e unknow n, a c c o rd in g t o S ta c y , a re in tr in s ic t o all c h a n g e p ro c e s s ,

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e s p e c ia lly a t t h e e arly s t a g e s . C sikszen tm ih alyi, ( 1 9 9 0 ) s t a t e s t h a t
p e o p le w h o learn t o c o n tro l th e ir in ner e x p e r ie n c e s , while
c o n te n d in g w ith t h e p o sitiv e a n d n e g a tiv e f o r c e s o f c h a n g e will be
able t o d e te r m in e t h e q u a lity o f th e ir lives. In s u p p o r t o f th is S e n g e
( 1 9 9 0 ) a r g u e s t h a t p ro d u c tiv e e d u c a tio n a l c h a n g e , like a p ro d u c tiv e
life itself, really is a jo u r n e y t h a t d o e s n o t e n d until w e d o .
L esso n 3: Problems Are Our Friends (P ro b le m s a re in ev itab le,
b u t t h e g o o d n e w s is t h a t y o u c a n n o t learn o r b e s u c c e s s f u l w ith o u t
th e m .) S u c c e s s in sch o o l c h a n g e e f f o r ts , a cc o rd in g t o S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) ,
is m u ch m o re likely w h e n p ro b le m s a re t r e a t e d a s n a tu ra l, e x p e c t e d
p h e n o m e n a , an d a re looked for. He a rg u e s t h a t s u c c e s s fu l c h a n g e
m a n a g e m e n t r e q u ire s p ro b le m -fin d in g te c h n iq u e s , like 'w o rry lists',
a n d re g u la r rev ie w o f p ro b lem -so lv in g d e c isio n s, a t s u b s e q u e n t
m e e tin g s , t o s e e w h a t h a p p e n e d . Since c ir c u m s ta n c e s an d c o n t e x t
a re c o n s t a n t l y c h an g in g , an e m b e d d e d sp irit o f c o n s t a n t inquiry is
e s s e n tia l. S a y s P a sc a le ( 1 9 9 0 , p. 1 4 ), 'inquiry is t h e e n g in e of
v ita lity a n d s e lf-re n e w a l'. Louis a n d Miles ( 1 9 9 0 ) fo u n d t h a t t h e
l e a s t s u c c e s s f u l s c h o o ls t h e y s tu d ie d e n g a g e d in 'shallow c o p in g ' do in g n o th in g , p r o c r a s tin a tin g , doing it t h e usual w ay, e a s in g off,
in c re a s in g p r e s s u r e - while t h e s u c c e s s f u l s c h o o ls w e n t d e e p e r t o
p r o b e t h e u nderlying r e a s o n s a n d t o m ak e m o re s u b s ta n tia l
i n t e r v e n t i o n s like c o m p r e h e n s iv e r e s ta f f in g , c o n ti n u o u s train in g ,
re d e sig n in g p ro g ra m s, a n d t h e like. T h e y c o n c lu d e d t h a t s m o o t h n e s s
in t h e e a rly s t a g e s o f a c h a n g e e f f o r t is a s u r e sign t h a t superficial
o r trivial c h a n g e is b e in g s u b s t i t u t e d fo r s u b s ta n t ia l c h a n g e
a tte m p ts.
L esso n 4: Vision and Strategic Planning Come L a te r
( p r e m a t u r e visions a n d planning c an blind). S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) e xp lain s
t h a t visions a r e n e c e s s a r y fo r t h e s u c c e s s o f m an y new
in s tru c tio n a l p r o g r a m s b u t few c o n c e p t s a re m o re o f t e n
m is u n d e r s to o d a n d m isapplied in t h e early s t a g e s o f t h e c h a n g e
p r o c e s s . He a r g u e s t h a t visions c o m e la te r f o r tw o r e a s o n s : first,

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t h a t u n d e r c o n d itio n s of d y n a m ic c o m p lex ity o n e n e e d s a g o o d d eal o f
r e f le c tiv e e x p e r ie n c e b e fo r e o n e c a n fo rm a plausible vision; s e c o n d ,
t h a t s h a r e d vision, w hich is e s s e n t ia l fo r s u c c e s s , m u s t e v olve
t h r o u g h t h e d y n a m ic in te r a c tio n o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l m e m b e r s a n d
le a d e rs . Visions c o m e l a t e r b e c a u s e t h e p r o c e s s o f m e rg in g p e rso n al
a n d s h a r e d visions t a k e s tim e . S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) p ro v id e s an illuminating
d isc u ssio n o f t h e te n s io n b e tw e e n p e rs o n a l a n d c o lle c tiv e ideals. He
s t a t e s t h a t s h a r e d vision is vital fo r learning o r g a n iz a tio n b e c a u s e
it p ro v id e s t h e fo c u s a n d e n e r g y fo r learning. He a r g u e s f u r t h e r t h a t
while a d a p t i v e learn in g is p o ssib le w i t h o u t vision, g e n e r a t i v e
learning o c c u r s only w h e n p e o p le a re strivin g t o a c c o m p lish
s o m e th in g t h a t m a t t e r s d e e p ly t o th e m . In f a c t, a c c o rd in g t o him,
t h e w hole idea o f g e n e r a t i v e learning - 'e x p a n d in g y o u r ability t o
c r e a t e 1 - will s e e m a b s t r a c t a n d m e a n in g le ss until p e o p le b e c o m e
e x c ite d a b o u t s o m e vision t h e y tru ly w a n t t o a cc o m p lish .
In c o r p o r a t e le a d e rs h ip t o d a y , w e find t h a t m o s t 'v isions' a re
o n e p e r s o n 's (o r o n e g ro u p 's ) vision im p o sed on an o rg a n iz a tio n . Such
visions, a t b e s t , c o m m a n d c o m p lian c e - n o t c o m m itm e n t. S e n g e
w ro te
. . . s h a r e d vision is a vision t h a t m an y p e o p le a re truly
c o m m i t t e d to , b e c a u s e It r e fle c ts th e ir ow n p e rs o n a l vision, (p.
2 0 6 ) and, o rg a n iz a tio n s t h a t in te n d on building s h a r e d visions
c o n tin u a lly e n c o u r a g e m e m b e r s t o d e v e lo p th e i r p e rs o n a l
visions. If p e o p le d o n o t h a v e th e ir own vision, all t h e y c a n d o
is 'sig n u p ' fo r s o m e o n e e ls e 's . T h e re s u lt is c o m p lian c e, n e v e r
c o m m i tm e n t . P e o p le w ith a s t r o n g s e n s e o f p e rs o n a l d ire c tio n
c a n join t o g e t h e r t o c r e a t e a pow erful s y n e r g y to w a r d w h a t
I/w e truly w a n t (S e n g e , 1 9 9 0 ) (p. 2 1 1 ) .
By c o n t r a s t , t h e old p a ra d ig m is still b e ing p r o m u lg a te d , s u c h a s
B e ck h a rd a n d P r itc h a r d 's ( 1 9 9 2 ) r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s f o r vision-driven
c h a n g e . T h e re a re fo u r k e y a s p e c t s , t h e y s a y
. .
c re a tin g an d s e ttin g t h e vision; c o m m u n ic a tin g
t h e vision; building c o m m i t m e n t t o t h e vision; a n d o rg an iz in g

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p e o p le an d w h a t t h e y d o so t h a t t h e y a re aligned t o t h e vision.
T h e p r o g r a m m a tic a p p ro a c h o f t e n a s s u m e s t h a t a t t e m p t s to
c h a n g e h ow p e o p le think th r o u g h m ission s t a t e m e n t s o r
tra in in g p r o g r a m s will lead t o useful c h a n g e s in h ow p e o p le
a ctu ally b e h a v e a t w ork (p. 2 5 ).
In c o n t r a s t , in t h e i r s t u d y o f tw e n ty -s ix p la n ts o v e r a f iv e - y e a r
period, Beer, E is e n s ta t a n d S p e c to r ( 1 9 9 0 ) , findings s u g g e s t t h a t
p e o p le learn new p a t t e r n s th r o u g h th e ir in te ra c tio n w ith o t h e r s on
t h e job. (p. 1 5 0 ) In s h o rt, t h e critical q u e s tio n is n o t w h e t h e r visions
a re im p o r ta n t, b u t how t h e y c a n be s h a p e d and r e s h a p e d given th e
c o m p le x ity o f c h a n g e .
A ccording t o S t a c e y ( 1 9 9 2 ) , visions c a n die o r fail t o d e v e lo p
in t h e firs t place if t o o m a n y p e o p le a re involved a t t h e beginning,
w h e n le a d e r s fail t o a d v o c a t e th e i r view s, w h e n su p e rfic ial ta lk
r a t h e r th a n g r o u n d e d inquiry a n d a c tio n is t h e m e t h o d u se d . A n o th e r
p a ra d o x is 'o w n e r s h ip 1. Trying t o g e t e v e r y o n e on b o a rd in a d v a n c e of
a c tio n c a n n o t w ork b e c a u s e it d o e s n o t c o n n e c t t o t h e reality of
d y n a m ic c o m p lex ity . O w n ersh ip c a n n o t b e a c h ie v e d in advance of
learning s o m e th i n g new . O w n ersh ip is s t r o n g e r in t h e m iddle o f a
s u c c e s s f u l c h a n g e p r o c e s s t h a n a t t h e b eginning, a n d s t r o n g e r still
a t t h e e n d th a n a t t h e m iddle o r beginning. O w n ership is a p r o c e s s as
well a s a s t a t e . O w n e rsh ip is crucial u n le s s o n e k now s how it is
a c h ie v e d .
S t r a t e g i c planning is also called in to q u e s tio n . S p e n d in g t o o
m u ch tim e a n d e n e r g y on a d v a n c e planning is a m ista k e .
P a rtic ip a tio n , e l a b o r a t e n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t , fo rm al s t r a t e g i c p lan s
a re uncalled fo r a t t h e o u t s e t o f c om plex c h a n g e p ro c e s s . Louis and
Miles ( 1 9 9 0 ) call th is t h e e v o lu tio n a ry p e r s p e c tiv e . T h e y a rg u e
T h e e v o lu tio n a ry p e rs p e c tiv e r e s t s on t h e a s s u m p tio n
t h a t t h e e n v ir o n m e n t b o th inside a n d o u t s i d e o r g a n iz a tio n s is
o f t e n c h a o tic . No sp e cific plan c an la s t fo r v e ry long, b e c a u s e
it will e i t h e r b e c o m e o u t m o d e d d u e t o c h a n g in g e x te r n a l
p r e s s u r e s , o r b e c a u s e d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r p rio ritie s a r is e s

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within t h e o rg a n iz a tio n . S t r a t e g y sh o uld be v iew ed a s a
flexible to o l, r a t h e r th a n a s e m i- p e r m a n e n t e x p a n sio n o f t h e
m ission, (p. 1 9 3 ) .
S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) p r o p o s e s t h a t 'R eady, Fire, Aim' is t h e m o re fruitful
s e q u e n c e if w e w a n t t o t a k e a linear s n a p s h o t o f an o rg a n iz a tio n
u n d e rg o in g m a jo r refo rm . A ccording t o him, if 'R e a d y ' is im p o rta n t,
t h e r e h a s t o b e s o m e n o tio n o f d irec tio n , b u t it is killing t o bo g dow n
t h e p r o c e s s w ith vision, m ission, a n d s t r a t e g i c planning, b e fo r e you
know e n o u g h a b o u t d y n a m ic reality. He explains t h a t 'Fire' is a c tio n
a n d inquiry w h e r e skills, clarity, a n d learning a re f o s t e r e d . He
c la im s t h a t 'A im ' is c ry s ta lliz in g n e w b eliefs, f o r m u la tin g m ission
a n d vision s t a t e m e n t s a n d fo c u sin g s t r a t e g i c planning. He c o n c lu d e s
t h a t vision a n d s t r a t e g i c planning c o m e la te r.
S o m e c a s e s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n d o n e in th is reg a rd . For in sta n c e ,
in working o n re fo rm in t e a c h e r e d u c a tio n in T o r o n to , P a sc ale e t al
( 1 9 9 0 ) e x p e r i e n c e d th is s e q u e n c e ( re a d y -fire -a im ) o v e r five y e a rs .
A cco rd in g t o t h e m , t h e y r e j e c t e d launching im m e d ia te ly in to large
s c a le s t r a t e g i c planning. In s te a d t h e y b e g a n w ith f e w r e a d in e s s
principles: w ork on t h e t e a c h e r e d u c a ti o n c o n tin u u m , link t e a c h e r
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d s c h o o l d e v e lo p m e n t, c o m m it t o s o m e fie ld -b a s e d
p r o g r a m s , w o rk in p a r t n e r s h i p w ith sc h o o ls , in fu se t h e i r e f f o r t s
w ith c o n tin u o u s inquiry. T h e firing p a r t to o k t h e fo rm o f
e s ta b lis h in g a n u m b e r o f f ie ld - b a s e d pilot p r o j e c t s w ith d i f f e r e n t
t e a m s o f fa c u lty an d c o h o r t s o f s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s , a n d e n te r in g in to
a c t io n - o r i e n t e d a g r e e m e n t s like t h e L earning C o n so rtiu m . N ear t h e
e n d o f y e a r 3 t h e y w e re re a d y t o f o c u s on th e ir aim, by e stab lish in g
a S t r a t e g i c Planning C o m m itte e . A n o th e r c a s e in p o in t is T h o ra h
E le m e n ta ry School, n o rth e a s t o f T o r o n to in th e i r Learning
C o n so rtiu m . S ta r tin g on a sm all s c a le ( t h e Principal a n d tw o
t e a c h e r s o u t o f a s t a f f o f t w e n t y - t h r e e ) , t h e s c h o o l d e v e lo p e d from
indiv id u alistic t o a highly c o lla b o ra tiv e c u ltu r e o v e r t h r e e - y e a r
period: n o t s ta r in g w ith a vision, b u t by working to w a rd a s h a r e d
vision g e n e r a t e d th r o u g h th e ir a c tio n s (Fullan, 1 9 9 2 ) . P a sc a le ( 1 9 9 0 )

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also c a p t u r e s t h e re a d y -fire -a im s e q u e n c e w h e n he a n a ly z e s how t h e
Ford M otor c o m p a n y d e v e lo p e d a widely s h a r e d m ission and valu es
s t a t e m e n t in t h e 1 9 8 0 s . A m ajo r f a c t o r in t h e w ide a c c e p t a n c e of
th is s t a t e m e n t [F o rd 's vision a n d v a lu e s] is t h a t its principles w e re
e n a c t e d fo r s e v e ra l y e a r s b e fo r e t h e y w e re form ally a n n o u n c e d .
L esson 5: Individualism and Collectivism Must Have Equal
P o w e r . (T h e re a re no o n e -s id e d so lu tio n s t o isolation an d
g ro u p th in k ). P ro d u c tiv e e d u c a tio n a l c h a n g e is also a p r o c e s s o f
o v e rc o m in g isolatio n while n o t s u c c u m b in g t o g ro u p th in k . S e n g e
( 1 9 9 0 ) p o in ts o u t t h a t te a c h in g h a s long b e e n called 'a lonely
p r o f e s s i o n 1 a n d t h a t t h e p ro f e s s io n a l iso lation o f t e a c h e r s limits
a c c e s s t o n e w id e a s a n d b e t t e r so lu tio n s, d riv e s s t r e s s inw ard t o
f e s t e r a n d a c c u m u la te , fails t o re c o g n iz e a n d p raise s u c c e s s , a n d
p e rm its i n c o m p e t e n c e t o e x is t an d p e rs is t t o t h e d e t r i m e n t of
s t u d e n t s , c o lle a g u e s , a n d t h e t e a c h e r s th e m s e lv e s . Lortie, ( 1 9 7 5 )
s t a t e s t h a t iso latio n allow s c o n s e r v a t is m a n d r e s i s t a n c e t o
in n o v atio n in te a c h in g . R o se n h o ltz , ( 1 9 8 9 ) a n d Fullan & H a rg rea v es,
( 1 9 9 1 ) h a v e in d ic a te d t h a t e d u c a tio n a l p ro b le m s a re all t h e m o re
c o m p lex , a n d t h a t c o lla b o ra tiv e , 'lea rn in g e n ric h e d ' s c h o o ls d o b e t t e r
t h a n t h o s e lingering w ith t h e iso la tio n is t tr a d i ti o n s o f te a c h i n g .
T h e y q u e s tio n e d "So w h a t t o d o ? " T h e y think p a rtic ip a to ry s ite b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t is t h e a n sw e r. Fullan a n d H a rg rea v es, ( 1 9 9 1 )
arg u e
. . . M entoring a n d p e e r coachin g a re a m u st. Well, y e s an d
no.
P u s h e d t o e x t r e m e s co llab o ratio n b e c o m e s 'g ro u p th in k '. In
m oving to w a r d g r e a t e r c o lla b o ra tio n w e sh o u ld n o t lo se s ig h t
o f t h e 'g o o d side* o f individualism. T h e c a p a c i ty t o th ink an d
w ork in d e p e n d e n tly is e s s e n t ia l t o e d u c a tio n a l re fo rm . K eeping
in t o u c h w ith o u r in n er voice, p e rs o n a l re fle c tio n , an d t h e
c a p a c i ty t o b e a lo n e a re e s s e n tia l u n d e r c o n d itio n s o f c o n s t a n t
c h a n g e fo rc e s .

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S olitude also h a s its p la c e a s a s t r a t e g y fo r c o p in g w ith c h a n g e ,
s a y s S tro rr, ( 1 9 8 8 ) . T he law o f c y b e r n e t i c s - t h e law o f re q u isite
v a r i e ty - s t a t e s
fo r a n y s y s t e m t o a d a p t t o its e x te rn a l e n v iro n m e n t, its
in te rn a l c o n tr o l s m u s t in c o r p o r a te v a rie ty . If o n e r e d u c e s
v a rie ty inside, a s y s t e m is u n a b le t o c o p e w ith v a rie ty o u tsid e .
T h e in n o v a tiv e o r g a n iz a tio n m u s t in c o r p o r a te v a r ie ty in to its
internal p r o c e s s e s , (p. 1 4 ) T hus, w h a t a g ro u p c o m e s t o sh a re
in t h e v a rie ty o f c u ltu re a n d p h ilo so p h y e m e r g e s fro m
individual p e rs o n a l b e lie fs th r o u g h a learning p r o c e s s t h a t
builds up o v e r y e a r s . And if t h e learning p r o c e s s is to c o n tin u e ,
if a sc h o o l is t o b e c o n tin u a lly in n o v ativ e, t h e e m p h a s is should
b e on q u e s tio n in g t h e c u ltu re , n o t sh a rin g it. Having a h e a lth y
r e s p e c t f o r individuals a n d p e rs o n a l v isions is a s o u r c e o f
re n e w a l in in q u iry -o rie n te d o r g a n iz a tio n s . H onouring
o p p o s i t e s s i m u lt a n e o u s ly - individualism a n d c o lleg ia lity
- is t h e critical m e s s a g e ( S ta c e y , 1 9 9 2 ) (p. 1 4 5 ) .

L esso n 6: N e ith e r C entralization nor D ecentralization Works
(B o th to p - d o w n a n d b o t t o m - u p s t r a t e g i e s a re n e c e s s a r y .)
C e n tra liz a tio n e r r s o n o n e sid e o f o v e rc o n tro l, d e c e n tr a li z a t io n e rrs
t o w a r d s c h a o s . P a sc a le ( 1 9 9 0 ) p u t s in th is w ay, in ex am in in g th e
Ford c a s e : "C h a n g e flo u rish es in a 'sa n d w ic h '. W hen t h e r e is
c o n s e n s u s a b o v e , a n d p re s s u r e below , th in g s h a p p e n ." C ontrol a t t h e
t o p a s m a n y r e f o r m -m in d e d le a d e r s h a v e foun d, is an illusion. T h e
key q u e s t io n a s S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) s a y s is 'h o w t o a c h ie v e c o n tro l w ith o u t
c o n tro llin g '. He c o n tin u e s : While tr a d itio n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s re q u ire
m a n a g e m e n t s y s t e m s t h a t c o n tr o l p e o p le ’s b eh av io r, learning
o r g a n i z a t i o n s in v e s t in im prov in g t h e q u a lity o f thinking, t h e
c a p a c i ty f o r r e f le c tio n a n d t e a m learning, a n d ability t o d e v e lo p
s h a r e d visions a n d s h a r e d u n d e r s ta n d in g s o f c o m p le x is s u e s . It is
t h e s e c a p a b ilitie s t h a t will allow learning o r g a n iz a tio n s t o be b o th
m o re locally c o n tro lle d a n d m o re well c o o r d i n a te d t h a n th e ir
h ie ra rc h ic a l p r e d e c e s s o r s '. Similarly, it is a m is ta k e fo r local u n its

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t o ignore t h e c e n tr e . T h e c e n t r e a n d local u n its n e e d e a c h o th e r. W hat
is re q u ir e d is a d i f f e r e n t tw o - w a y re la tio n s h ip o f p r e s s u r e , s u p p o r t
a n d c o n tin u o u s n e g o tia tio n . It a m o u n t s t o s im u lta n e o u s to p -d o w n
b o t t o m - u p in flu e n ce .
L esso n 7: Connection with the Wider Environm ent Is Critical
(T h e b e s t o r g a n iz a tio n s learn e x te rn a lly a s well a s in tern ally ). Many
o r g a n iz a tio n s w ork h a rd o n in te rn al d e v e l o p m e n t b u t fail t o k e e p a
p ro a c tiv e learning s t a n c e to w a rd t h e e n v iro n m e n t. Sm ith ( 1 9 8 4 )
m a k e s th is p ro fo u n d o b s e rv a tio n : "For a social e n t i t y s u c h a s an
o rg a n iz a tio n t o r e f l e c t o n itself, it m u s t h a v e a s y s t e m re p r e s e n tin g
b o th its e lf an d t h e c o n t e x t in which it is e m b e d d e d , t h a t is w h e re
nonequilibrium c o m e s in. A social s y s t e m t h a t p r o m o te s p a ra d o x an d
f o s t e r s disequilibrium (i.e., e n c o u r a g e s v a ria tio n a n d e m b r a c e s
c o n tr a r y p o in ts o f view ), h a s a g r e a t e r c h a n c e o f know ing itself".
T his in t u r n g e n e r a t e s a re a s o n a b le likelihood o f b eing a w a re o f t h e
c o n t e x t in which it o p e r a t e s (P a sc ale , 1 9 9 0 ) p. 2 8 9 ." Dynam ic
c o m p le x ity m e a n s t h a t t h e r e is c o n s t a n t a c tio n in t h e e n v iro n m e n t.
For t e a c h e r s and sc h o o ls t o b e e f f e c t i v e tw o th in g s h a v e t o h a p p e n .
First, individual m oral p u r p o s e m u s t b e linked t o a la rg e r social
g o o d . S e c o n d , o r g a n iz a tio n s m u s t be a c tiv e ly p lu g g e d in to th e ir
e n v ir o n m e n t re s p o n d in g t o a n d c o n trib u tin g t o t h e issu e s o f t h e day.
F u n d a m e n ta lly , t h e learning o r g a n iz a tio n s sh o u ld know t h a t
e x p e c t a t i o n s and t e n s io n s in t h e e n v ir o n m e n t c o n ta in t h e s e e d s of
f u tu r e d e v e lo p m e n t. T h e r e a re f a r m o re id eas 'o u t t h e r e ' t h a n 'in
h e r e 1.
L esson 8: Every Person Is Change A gent (C h a n g e is t o o
im p o r t a n t t o leave t o t h e e x p e r t s .) T h e re a re tw o basic r e a s o n s why
e v e r y p e rs o n working in a n e n te r p r is e c o m m i t t e d t o m aking
c o n tin u o u s im p r o v e m e n ts m u s t b e c h a n g e a g e n t s w ith m oral
p u rp o s e . First, sin c e no o n e p e rs o n c a n po ssibly u n d e r s t a n d t h e
c o m p le x itie s o f c h a n g e in d y n a m ica lly c o m p le x s y s t e m s , it follow s
t h a t w e c a n n o t lea v e t h e respon sib ility t o o th e r s . S e c o n d , a n d m o re

25

f u n d a m e n ta l, t h e c o n d itio n s fo r t h e new p a ra d ig m o f c h a n g e c a n n o t
b e e s ta b lis h e d by fo rm al le a d e rs working by th e m s e lv e s . Each and
e v e r y t e a c h e r h a s t h e resp o n sib ility t o help c r e a t e an o r g a n iz a tio n
c a p a b le o f individual a n d c o lle c tiv e inquiry a n d c o n tin u o u s ren ew al,
o r it will n o t h a p p e n (Fullan, 1 9 9 3 ) .
In su m m a ry , t h e r e is a p a t t e r n underlying t h e s e e ig h t le s s o n s
o f d y n a m ic c h a n g e : s im u lta n e o u s ly pushing fo r c h a n g e while
allowing se lf-le a rn in g t o unfold; being p r e p a r e d f o r a j o u r n e y o f
u n c e r ta in ty ; s e e in g p ro b le m s a s s o u r c e s o f c r e a t i v e so lution; having
a vision, b u t n o t being blinded by it; valuing t h e individual an d t h e
g ro u p ; in c o rp o ra tin g c e n tr a liz in g a n d d e c e n tr a liz in g f o r c e s ; b eing
in te rn ally c o h e s iv e , b u t e x te r n a lly o rie n te d ; a n d valuing p e rs o n a l
c h a n g e a g e n c y a s t h e r o u te t o s y s t e m ch an g e .
T his a n a ly sis m e a n s t h a t s u c c e s s in a n y e d u c a tio n a l e f f o r t s
d e p e n d s on t h e e x t e n t t o which e a c h fo rc e c a n willingly c o n te n d
w ith if n o t e m b r a c e t h e o t h e r a s n e c e s s a r y fo r p ro d u c tiv e
e d u c a tio n a l c h a n g e . T h e c h a n g e p ro c e s s is e x c e e d in g ly c o m p le x a s
o n e r e a liz e s t h a t it is t h e c o m b in a tio n o f individuals a n d s o c ie ta l
a g e n c ie s t h a t m a k e a d if fe r e n c e (Fullan and Miles, 1 9 9 2 ) . T e a c h e r s
a re m a jo r p la y e rs in c r e a t i n g learning s o c ie tie s . D e v e lo p m e n t is 't h e
c o n tin u in g im p ro v e m e n t in t h e c a p a c ity t o g ro w a n d build e v e r m o re
c o n n e c tio n s in m o re varied e n v ir o n m e n ts ' (Land a n d J a rm a n , 1 9 9 2 p.
3 0 ) . Intern al c o n n e c ti o n s (w ithin o n e s e lf, w ithin o n e 's o rg a n iz a tio n )
a n d e x te rn a l c o n n e c tio n s ( t o o t h e r s and t o t h e e n v ir o n m e n t) m u s t
c o - e x i s t in d y n a m ic in te rp la y .
S t a g e s o f t h e C h a n g e P ro c e s s
A c co rd in g t o A n d e r s o n ( 1 9 9 3 ) , a d m in is tr a to r s a c r o s s t h e
U nited S t a t e s a re rec o g n izin g t h a t t h e e d u c a tio n s y s t e m n e e d s
f u n d a m e n ta l c h a n g e s t o k e e p p a c e w ith an in creasin gly co m p lex
global s o c ie ty . In e d u c a tio n a l s y s t e m , six d e v e lo p m e n ta l s t a g e s a n d
six k e y e le m e n t s o f c h a n g e h a v e b e e n identified (A n d e rso n , 1 9 9 3 ) .
T h e s e six s t a g e s o f c h a n g e c h a r a c t e r i z e t h e s h if t fro m a tra d itio n a l
e d u c a tio n a l s y s t e m t o o n e t h a t e m p h a s iz e i n t e r c o n n e c t e d n e s s ,

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a c tiv e learning, s h a r e d d e c isio n m aking, an d h ig h e r levels o f
a c h i e v e m e n t fo r all s t u d e n t s . T h e six s t a g e s are:
1.
Maintenance o f the old system. E d u c a to rs f o c u s on
m a in ta in in g t h e s y s t e m a s originally d e s ig n e d . It is tim e
t o r e c o g n iz e t h e im p o r ta n c e o f in c o rp o ra tin g into t h e
p r e s e n t e d u c a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e t h e n e w k n o w le d g e a b o u t
te a c h i n g , learn in g , a n d o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e s .
2.
Awareness o f change. Many e d u c a tio n a l r e f o r m e r s
b e c o m e a w a re t h a t t h e c u r r e n t s y s t e m is n o t working,
b u t t h e y a re u n c le a r a b o u t w h a t is n e e d e d in s te a d .
3.
Exploration. E d u c a to rs a n d policy m a k e r s s t u d y an d visit
p la c e s t h a t a re try in g n e w a p p ro a c h e s . T h e y t r y new
w a y s o f t e a c h in g a n d m anagin g.
4.
Transition . A critical n u m b e r o f opinion le a d e r s and
g ro u p s c o m m it t h e m s e lv e s t o t h e new s y s t e m an d ta k e
m o re risks t o m a k e c h a n g e s in crucial p la c e s .
5.
Em ergence o f New Infrastructure. E d u c a to rs n e e d t o k e e p
w ith t h e d e s ir e d n e w s y s t e m b e c a u s e t h e s e n e w w a y s
a re g e n e ra lly a c c e p t e d .
6.
Predominance o f the New System. Key le a d e rs b egin t o
e n v isio n b e t t e r s y s t e m s .
Key E le m e n ts t o C h an g e
A s s c h o o ls, d is tr ic ts , a n d s t a t e s m o v e th r o u g h t h e six
d e v e lo p m e n ta l s t a g e s , six e l e m e n t s o f t h e e d u c a ti o n s y s t e m s e e m t o
b e p a rtic u la rly i m p o r t a n t (Fullan, 1 9 9 3 ) . First, Vision: t h e vision
t h a t p e o p le h a v e o f an e d u c a tio n s y s t e m m u s t c h a n g e in o r d e r fo r t h e
s y s t e m t o c h a n g e . S e c o n d , Public and Political Support: t h e inclusion
o f d iv e rs e p o p u la tio n s a p p e a r s t o b e critical in building s u p p o r t.
Such s u p p o r t involves a d e e p e n in g u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e " w h a t" and
"why" o f t h e c h a n g e s n e e d e d . Third, N etw orkin g: n e e d fo r n e tw o rk s
t h a t w ould s t u d y , pilot, a n d s u p p o r t t h e new vision. I n s te a d o f
b u r e a u c r a tic s t r u c t u r e , t h e s e n e tw o rk s n e e d t o rely o n t h e f r e q u e n t
u s e o f c o m p u t e r s , n e w s l e t t e r s , c o n f e r e n c e s , a n d p e rs o n a l

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c o m m u n ic a tio n s . F o urth, Teaching and Learning Changes: if c h a n g e s
d o n o t o c c u r in te a c h in g an d learning, all t h e o t h e r c h a n g e s h a v e
little v a lu e . Fifth, A d m inistrative Roles and Responsibilities: t o
a c h ie v e c h a n g e in t h e c la s s ro o m , a d m in is tr a tiv e ro le s an d
resp o n sib ilitie s n e e d t o s h if t a t t h e sc h o o l, d is tr ic t, a n d s t a t e
levels fro m a h ierarchical s t r u c t u r e o f c o n tro l t o o n e o f s u p p o r t an d
s h a r e d d e cisio n m aking. Sixth, Policy A lignm ent: s t a t e a n d local
policy n e e d t o be aligned a ro u n d t h e b eliefs an d p r a c tic e s o f new
s y s t e m , p a rtic u la rly in a r e a s r e l a te d t o cu rric u lu m fr a m e w o r k s ,
in s tr u c tio n a l m e t h o d s a n d m a te r ia ls , s t u d e n t a s s e s s m e n t p r a c tic e s ,
r e s o u r c e a llocation , a n d t h e inclusion o f all t y p e s o f s t u d e n t s .
A ccording t o H olzm an M. ( 1 9 9 3 ) , if te a c h in g an d learning a re t o
im pro ve fo r all s t u d e n t s , w e n e e d s y s te m ic c h a n g e , i.e., f u n d a m e n ta l
c h a n g e . This im plies t h a t im p r o v e m e n ts n e e d e d in e d u c a ti o n a re so
e x te n s iv e t h a t t h e y c a n n o t b e d o n e within t h e limits o f t h e p r e s e n t
s y s te m ; t h u s p e o p le should s e e k t o c h a n g e t h e n a tu r e o f t h a t s y s te m .
E d u ca tio n a l o b s e r v e r s now s e e t h a t b u r e a u c r a tic a n d te c h n ic a l
s t r u c t u r e s m a k e it d iffic u lt t o f o c u s on t h e p a ra d ig m a tic learning
s itu a tio n , t h e re la tio n s h ip b e t w e e n an individual t e a c h e r a n d an
individual s t u d e n t .
L e a d e rs h ip Role
In an a t t e m p t t o give d e s c rib e a k e e n le a d e r in o u r in s titu tio n s
o r o rg a n iz a tio n s, m an y p e r s p e c t iv e s h a v e b e e n p r e s e n t. W enig and
M a tth e w s ( 1 9 8 3 ) a r g u e s t h a t key t o t h e s u c c e s s o f a n y new
e n d e a v o r , w h e t h e r in b u sin e ss, e d u c a tio n , o r g o v e r n m e n t, is t h e t o t a l
c o m m i t m e n t a n d in v o lv e m e n t o f t h o s e in le a d e rs h ip p o sitio n s . T h e y
d e fin e le a d e rs h ip a s a c o m m o n e l e m e n t o f s u c c e s s f u l p e o p le ,
in s t it u t io n s , o r g a n i z a t i o n s , b u s i n e s s e s , a n d in d u s tr ie s . It is
i m p o r t a n t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h a t le a d e rs h ip involves m o re t h a n a single
p e rs o n . T a n n e n b a u m , W eschler, a n d Massarik ( 1 9 6 1 ) include in th e ir
d e fin itio n o f le a d e r s h ip " t h e v irtu e o f g e n e ra lity t o all individuals"
( p .2 4 ) . T h e y also s u g g e s t t h a t t h e c o n c e p t o f lea d e rsh ip is n o t
lim ited t o t h o s e sp e cifica lly a p p o in t e d f u n c tio n a r ie s n o r t o

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individuals w h o s e p re v a le n c e r e s t s w ith v o lu n ta ry c o n s e n t o f o th e r s .
R a th e r, le a d e rs h ip t h a t p o sitiv e ly p e r s u a d e s o t h e r s is a p r o c e s s
a p p lic a b le t o all i n te r p e r s o n a l r e la tio n s h ip s r e g a r d l e s s o f individual
s itu a tio n s a n d / o r e v e n t s . Why d o s o m e individuals p e r s u a d e p e o p le
t o a c t while o t h e r s fail t o m a k e th in g s h a p p e n ? Schuller ( 1 9 7 8 )
in d ic a te d t h a t p ro b ab ly 9 5 p e r c e n t o f t h e p e o p le w ho fail d o so
b e c a u s e t h e y h a v e n e v e r lea rn ed t o t a k e c h a r g e o f th e ir lives a n d t o
sh o w c r e a t i v e le a d e rs h ip .
L e a d e rs a re s e n s itiv e t o f u n d a m e n ta l n e e d s , w a n ts , a n d v a lu e s
o f c o lla b o ra to rs . Burn ( 1 9 7 8 ) s u g g e s t e d t h a t le a d e rs e m e r g e fro m
c o m p le x so c ia liz a tio n p a t t e r n s involving v a ry in g d e g r e e s o f
m o tiv a tio n s , v a lu e s, a n d g o a ls. In e s s e n c e , le a d e rsh ip , a c c o rd in g t o
Burn ( 1 9 7 9 ) is in s e p a ra b le fro m follow ership. Using B u rn 's m odel,
le a d e rs h ip t a k e s t h e fo rm o f t h e tra n s fo rm in g o r tr a n s a c ti o n a l sty le .
A p e r s o n p o s s e s s i n g norm al physiological a n d p sy c h o lo g ic a l
q u a litie s h a s t h e p o t e n t i a l o f ex h ib itin g le a d e r s h ip in all f a c e t s o f
life (K rau ss, 1 9 7 4 ) .
T raditionally, t h e le a d e rs h ip im a g e h a s b e e n d o m in a t e d by t h e
few in p o w e r p o sitio n s . Many h a v e f o r g o t t e n t h a t m o s t e x a m p le s of
p e rs o n a l in flu e n ce a re a c tu a lly e x a m p le s o f le a d e r s h ip a n d a re
p r a c t ic e d q u ie tly a n d s u b tly in e v e r y d a y re la tio n sh ip s. L e a d e rsh ip
t r a i t id e n tific a tio n c a n b e valid if it is f o r a sp e c ific s i tu a tio n a s
o p p o s e d t o id en tify in g global le a d e rs h ip tr a i ts . T h e e x c e p ti o n t o th is
w ould b e t h o s e id en tified by Stogdill ( 1 9 7 4 ) su c h a s s t r o n g drive,
vigor, p e r s i s t e n c e , v e n t u r e s o m e n e s s , a n d originality.
R a tio n ale o f L e a d e r s h ip S itu a tio n
C o n te m p o r a r y le a d e rs h ip t h o u g h t s f o c u s on t h e sp e c ific
s itu a tio n , t h a t is, t h e in te r a c t io n a m o n g le a d e rs , c o lla b o r a to rs , a n d
t h e s itu a tio n . T h e d e g r e e o f s u c c e s s , t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f lea d ers,
r e l a t e s d ire c tly t o h o w t h e y fu n c tio n a p p ro p r ia te ly w ithin t h e e n tir e
s itu a tio n (W enig a n d M a tth e w s , 1 9 8 3 ) .

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Principal a n d a Few T e a c h e r s a s Prog ram L e a d e rs
School in nov atio n p ro g ra m s su c h a s K endon te c h n o lo g y , could
n o t b e a s s e s s e d w ith o u t fully u n d e rs ta n d in g t h e c o m p le x ity o f t h e
c h a n g e p r o c e s s in g e n e ra l in o u r scho ol s y s te m s . As m a n y sc h o o ls
rely o n t h e e f f o r t s o f individual e x te r n a l e n t h u s i a s t s su c h a s
u n iv e rs ity c o ll a b o r a t o r s fo r p ro g ra m im p le m e n ta tio n , m a jo rity o f
t h e s e p ro g r a m s a re o f t e n s p o t t y and u n su c c e ss fu l. This is o f t e n d u e
t o lack o f c o o rd in a tio n within t h e schoo l s y s te m . We, th e r e f o r e , n e e d
m o re s c h o o l - b a s e d h e ro ic s w ith im a g in atio n a n d s p irit t o inspire t h e
r e s t o f t h e s t a f f f o r t h e e f f e c t i v e im p le m e n ta tio n o f t h o s e p ro g ra m s
in t h e sc h o o l s y s te m .
R eg ard ing t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n , le a d e r s h ip role m a y be
t h e k e y s t o n e fo r t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e im p le m e n ta tio n plan. School
principals a n d t e a c h e r s play a critically i m p o r t a n t role in d e v e lo p in g
s u c c e s s f u l te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s. "Id eas s u c h a s vision a n d d e v eloping
s h a r e d le a d e rs h ip a re q u ite b e y o n d m o s t o f t h o s e w ho o c c u p y
a d m in is tr a tiv e p o s itio n s in o u r s c h o o ls" a c c o rd in g t o T y e ( 1 9 9 2 ) . For
a n y e f f e c t i v e le a d e rs h ip e f f o r t s on te c h n o lo g y in o u r sc h o o l
s y s t e m s , a d m i n i s t r a t o r s m u s t m o v e to w a rd t h e kinds o f s t r u c t u r e s
an d learning t e a m s e n v isio n e d by S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) , w ho s e e s m e m b e r s
o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m on a q u e s t fo r c h a n g e a n d im p ro v e m e n t.
S u b s ta n tia l n u m b e r s o f p a r e n t s d o n o t u n d e r s ta n d how new
te c h n o lo g ie s m ig h t b e c e n tr a l t o t h e e d u c a tio n o f a child fo r
c itiz e n s h ip in t h e n e x t c e n tu r y . School le a d e rs , t h e r e f o r e , m u s t
r e d e f in e t h e i r j o b a s s i g n m e n t s t o include m a r k e tin g c a m p a ig n s t h a t
will b r o a d e n c o m m u n ity in v o lv e m e n t an d s u p p o r t f o r te c h n o lo g y
p ro g ra m s . Bringing p a r e n t s a n d c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s in to m o re a c tiv e
c o n t a c t w ith t h e n e w te c h n o lo g ie s m ay likely help t h e m t o g ain a
p e rs o n a l a p p re c ia tio n fo r t h e p o w e r o f t h e s e te c h n o lo g ie s .
Hull an d Parnell ( 1 9 9 1 ) r e p o r t e d t h a t w h e n u p p e r-le v e l
a d m in is tr a to r s sim ply e n d o r s e a c o n c e p t a n d t h e n h a n d o v e r its
im p l e m e n ta t io n t o a s e c o n d - o r th ird-lin e a d m i n i s t r a t iv e level,
i m p le m e n ta tio n is s lo w e r a n d s o m e t i m e s le s s e f f e c t i v e . A c co rd in g
t o th e m , th is d o e s n o t p re c lu d e t h e reality t h a t , o n c e le a d e rs h ip h as

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b e e n c le arly e s ta b lis h e d , m a n y resp o n sib ilitie s c a n b e d e l e g a t e d t o
o t h e r s w ithin t h e s t r u c t u r e . T h e y s t r e s s t h a t , fo r a n y sch ool
te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m , t h e key a d m in is tr a to r is t h e principal. "If th is
p e rs o n , a s t h e e d u c a tio n a l le a d e r fo r t h a t school, is n o t s u p p o rtiv e
t o t h e t e c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m , all e f f o r t s will fail. T h e principal m u s t
inspire o r m o ti v a te t h e t e a c h e r s a n d o t h e r s u p p o r t p e rs o n n e l."
B erm an an d McLaughlin ( 1 9 7 5 ) a rg u e t h a t t e a c h e r s ' c o n c e rn s
w ith re g a r d t o a c c o u n ta b ility o f t e n raise e y e b r o w s a n d
d e f e n s i v e n e s s in m a n y sc h o o ls. "In o rd e r t o avoid s u c h a r e a c tio n t h e
scho ol principal a n d his o r h e r s t a f f n e e d t o a c c e p t t h e c o n c e p t of
'm u tu a l a d a p t a t i o n ' t h a t m a y lead t o s h a r e d le a d e rs h ip role and
o w n e rsh ip o f te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m " s a y s McKenzie ( 1 9 9 3 ) . In add ition
t o t e a c h e r s ' a c tiv e p a rtic ip a tio n in t h e le a d e rs h ip role, he p r o p o s e s
t h a t sc h o o l a d m in is tr a to r n e e d s t o b re a k d o w n t h e tra d itio n a l
iso latio n o f s c h o o ls fro m e x te r n a l r e s o u r c e s b y inviting a rich flow
o f id e a s a n d p o ssib ilities, e sp e c ia lly fro m t h e c o m m u n itie s and
u n iv e rsitie s, in to t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m .
O ne s t u d y (W enid a n d M atthew s, 1 9 8 3 ) s u p p o r t s t h e view t h a t
t e a c h e r , p a r e n t, b u s in e s s , a n d u n iv ersity s u p p o r t s y s t e m s play an
i m p o r t a n t role f o r an y e f f e c t i v e im p le m e n ta tio n o f sc h o o l
te c h n o lo g y p ro g ram . T he s t u d y a rg u e s t h a t if te c h n o lo g y is t o work,
it m u s t b e s u p p o r t e d by all p e rs o n n e l within t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m . T he
s t u d y in d ic a te s t h a t , th is s u p p o r t is likely t o h a p p e n only w h e n all
individuals h a v e a n a d e q u a t e u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e te c h n o lo g y
c o n c e p t a n d fe e l a s e n s e o f c o m m itm e n t, t h a t is, w h e n t h e y d e v e lo p
a s e n s e o f o w nership . A ccording t o Wenid an d M a tth e w s, ( 1 9 8 3 ) , a
q u e s tio n t h a t sh ould b e a s k e d early in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f a
te c h n o lo g y p ro g r a m is "will p a r e n t s s u p p o r t it"? T h e y n o t e d t h a t
b e c a u s e p a r e n t s usually e x e rc is e a p o w erfu l in flu e n c e o n th e ir
c h ild re n 's learning, it is i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e y u n d e r s t a n d clearly
w h a t kind o f t e c h n o lo g y is b e ing in tro d u c e d , its in s tru c tio n a l
im plicatio ns, a n d t h e kind o f s u p p o r t req u ire d fro m t h e p a r e n ts .
Again, o n e o f t h e v e ry critical is s u e s t o b e a d d r e s s e d early in t h e
i m p le m e n ta tio n o f a te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m is u n iv e rs ity a n d local

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b u s in e s s s u p p o r t . A p p ro p ria te in v o lv e m e n t o f local b u s i n e s s e s an d
u n iv e rs itie s p ro v id e s t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m w ith h u m a n a n d financial
r e s o u r c e s an d helps w ith m a rk e tin g t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y p ro g ram .
T h e s e s e g m e n t s o f t h e p o p u latio n sho uld b e p a r t n e r s th ro u g h th e
e n tir e p r o c e s s , se rv in g o n te c h n o lo g y c o m m i t t e e s a n d c o n trib u tin g
s u p p o r t in d iv e rs e w a y s su c h a s training.
I n t e r a c t i v e T e c h n o lo g ie s in E d u ca tio n
M i c r o c o m p u te r s
Many review s o f lite ra tu re h ave b e e n d o n e in t h e a re a o f
in stru c tio n a l c o m p u tin g , b u t t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n v e ry usefu l in
helping sc h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r s d e c id e h o w b e s t t o a llo c a te r e s o u r c e s
fo r c o m p u t e r u se s. A review w a s m a d e by Robler e t al ( 1 9 8 8 ) aim ed
a t p ro v id ing t h e m o s t u se fu l s t a t i s t i c a l in fo rm a tio n f o r d e c isio n
m aking. S e v e ra l sp e c ific q u e s t i o n s w e re a d d r e s s e d in a s e r i e s of
m e ta -a n a ly sis:
1.
How e ffe c tiv e are various com puter applications in each
co n te n t area?
T h e findings in d ic a te d t h a t rea d in g , m a t h e m a ti c s ,
an d c o g n itiv e skills ( fo r p ro b le m solving) all e q u ally d e m o n s t r a t e d
e d u c a tio n a lly s ig n ific a n t e f f e c t s . S c ie n c e sim u la tio n s s e e m e d t o be
e v e n m o re e f f e c t i v e t h a n an y a p p lic a tio n s in o t h e r c o n t e n t a re a s . In
m a t h e m a t i c s all kinds o f a p p lic a tio n s w e re e q u a lly e f f e c t i v e , while
tu to r ia ls s e e m e d m o re e f f e c t i v e t h a n o t h e r kinds o f to o ls in reading.
2.
How e ffe c tiv e are com puter applications in English as a Second
Language (ESL)?
T h e d e s c r ip tiv e r e s u lts fro m tw o s t u d i e s in d ic a te d
t h a t c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s w e re in e ffe c tiv e in th is a re a . T h e
r e a s o n s f o r n e g a tiv e e f f e c t s on ESL w e r e n o t c le a r a n d th is f u r t h e r
s u g g e s t e d t h a t e d u c a t o r s n e e d t o c o n s id e r c arefu lly t h e p o te n tia l
p r o b le m s in th is kind o f in s tru c tio n .
How e ffe c tiv e is word processing in improving writing skills?
3.
R e su lts in d ic a te d t h a t while t h e u se o f w ord p r o c e s s in g did n o t
s e e m t o in c re a s e q u a lity o f writing, it did m a k e s t u d e n t s w a n t t o
w rite m o re a n d m a k e t h e m fe e l m o re p ositiv ely a b o u t th e i r w riting.

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4.
How e ffe c tiv e are LOGO and Computer Assisted Instruction
(CAI) in teaching problem solving? The s tu d ie s o f LOGO u se s
p ro v id e d c o n s i s t e n t e v id e n c e o f e d u c a tio n a l e f f e c t i v e n e s s . H ow ever,
u n s t r u c t u r e d CAI w a s v e ry e f f e c t i v e in te a c h in g g e n e r a l thinking and
p r o b le m so lv in g skills.
N one o f t h e s t u d i e s in t h e m e ta - a n a ly s is c o m p a r e d e it h e r t h e s e
a p p lic a tio n s t o a s t r o n g n o n - c o m p u t e r in stru c tio n a l p ro g ra m ,
t h e r e f o r e t h e r e is a n e e d fo r f u r t h e r re s e a rc h .
A s t u d y o f five New York c ity high sc h o o ls by B racey ( 1 9 8 8 )
s h o w s t h a t s t u d e n t s a s well a s t e a c h e r s find c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s
in t h e c la s s ro o m s m o re c o n d u c iv e t o learning. T h e s t u d e n t s who
p a r t i c i p a te d in t h e s t u d y w e re t h e n tak in g c o u r s e s in English,
s c ie n c e , social s tu d ie s , b u s in e s s a n d m a t h e m a t i c s t h a t m a d e u s e s of
c o m p u t e r s . T h e y r e p o r t e d t h a t t e a c h e r s in c o m p u t e r - a id e d c la s s e s
g a v e t h e m m o re p e rso n a l a t t e n t i o n t h a n did t e a c h e r s in reg u la r
c la s s r o o m s . T his w a s t r u e o f all d iscip lin es e x c e p t so cial s tu d ie s ,
w h e re t h e r e no d iff e re n c e s . S e v e n ty p e r c e n t said t h e y u n d e r s to o d
m a te ria l b e t t e r fro m c o m p u t e r s an d 7 5 p e r c e n t said t h e y
r e m e m b e r e d t h e m a te ria l b e t t e r . T h e s t u d e n t s e x p r e s s e d m o re
a n x ie ty a b o u t giving w ro n g a n s w e r s in c o n v e n tio n a l c la s s ro o m s an d
only five p e r c e n t f e lt n e g a tiv e a b o u t c o m p u t e r c la s s ro o m s . Sixty
fo u r p e r c e n t sa id t h a t re g u la r c la s s r o o m s w e re i n te r r u p te d m o re
o f t e n . T e a c h e r s p e r c e iv e d t h e m s e l v e s a s le ss a u th o r ita r ia n in
c o m p u t e r c la s s r o o m s a n d m o re fa c ilita tiv e t o s t u d e n t - d i r e c t e d
learning. T h e y said t h e y s p e n t m o re tim e w ith individuals in t h e
c o m p u t e r c la s s ro o m s . T h e t e a c h e r s in d ic a te d t h a t c o m p u t e r
in s tr u c tio n a l e n v ir o n m e n t w a s d i f f e r e n t fro m t h a t o f re g u la r
c la ss ro o m . For e x am p le , in t h e c o m p u t e r e n v ir o n m e n t s t u d e n t s h a d a
g r e a t e r s e n s e o f a c c o m p lis h m e n t, b e t t e r a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e
s u b j e c t - m a t t e r , c l a s s e s a re m o re s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a n d s t u d e n t d i r e c te d . S ig n ific an t i m p r o v e m e n t s in s t u d e n t fu n c tio n in g w e re
e v id e n t t o t h e t e a c h e r s . T h e s e im p r o v e m e n ts , a c c o rd in g t o t h e
t e a c h e r s , m ig h t d u e t o t h e socially s u p p o r tiv e y e t individually
re s p o n s ib le n a t u r e o f m ic r o c o m p u t e r c la s s ro o m s .

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A n o t h e r c a s e s t u d y is c o n c e r n e d w ith w riting skills. T h e low
w riting s c o r e s a c h ie v e d by n in th -g ra d e r s a t W o o d s High School,
H o u sto n , s p a r k e d t h e sc h o o l a u th o ritie s t o in tro d u c e c o m p u te r a s s i s t e d la b o r a to r ie s in Fall 1 9 8 7 . L a b o ra to r y u s e r s ' a t t i t u d e su rv e y
a n d o t h e r o b s e r v a t i o n s w e re u s e d t o v a lid a te t h e s t u d e n t s ' writing
skills a t t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r. It w a s n o te d t h a t w e a k e r s t u d e n t s
w ro te m o re t h a n t e a c h e r s e x p e c te d . An a v e r a g e h o n o r s t u d e n t s
s e e m e d t o m a n ip u la te t e x t m o re e x te n s iv e ly and m o re fre q u e n tly .
Sixty-five p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s in d ic a te d t h a t t h e y did a s m u ch or
m o re revision a s on h a n d w r itte n p a p e rs . T h o s e w h o in d ic a te d "less
revision" m a d e c o m m e n t s a s "I sa w m y m is ta k e s on t h e s c r e e n and
c o r r e c t e d th e m , s o I had less revision t o do ". S e v e n ty five p e r c e n t
s t a t e d w riting in t h e la b o r a to r y "a v e ry g o o d e x p e r ie n c e which w e
e n jo y e d " . T h e m o s t s p e c t a c u l a r e v id e n c e w a s t h e in c re a s e o f 2 2
p e r c e n t on t h e s t a t e w riting t e s t s c o re s .
T h e w riting in t h e la b o r a to r y re c e iv e d local, s t a t e , a n d
n a tio n a l re c o g n itio n s . B ut t h e c o m p u t e r is only a tool, only t e a c h e r s
tru ly t e a c h writing. T e a c h e r s w ho s h a r e a c o m m o n vision, a
c o m m i t m e n t a n d n e e d e d skills s t r a t e g i e s t e a c h w riting b e t t e r
(Young, 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e tw o - y e a r in c re a s e in a c h i e v e m e n t s c o r e s a n d
g a in s fo r t h e s t u d e n t s a t tw o e le m e n ta r y sc h o o ls, W o o d la n d s and
S ilverdale in W a sh in g to n , r e s u l ts fro m t h e e x c e ll e n t c la s s r o o m
t e a c h i n g t e c h n i q u e s p r a c t ic e d a long w ith t h e a p p lic a tio n o f c o r r e c t
m e t h o d s o f m o n ito rin g , d ia g n o s in g , a n d p re sc rib in g le s s o n s available
t h r o u g h t h e CAI la b o ra to rie s . Eighty t h r e e p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s f e lt
CAI w a s v a lu a b le fo r t h e e d u c a tio n o f th e i r children. N inety six
p e r c e n t o f t h e p a r e n t s a g r e e d t h a t it h e lp e d th e ir s t u d e n t s gain in
m a t h e m a t i c s , rea d in g , a n d la n g u a g e a r t s skills. T e a c h e r s f o u n d t h a t
s t u d e n t s w h o w o rk e d w ith t h e CAI in t h e la b o r a to r y a p p ro a c h e d long
p r o b le m solv in g a s s i g n m e n t s , a s s o c i a t e d w ith h ig h e r-le v e l th in k in g
skills, w ith le s s a p p r e h e n s io n . T h e r e w e re no discipline p r o b le m s in
t h e la b o ra to ry . T h e m ax im u m e f f e c t i v e n e s s o f t h e CAI in t h e
la b o r a to r y d e p e n d s on t h e e ffic ie n t m an ip u latio n o f t h e p ro g ra m by
t h e t e a c h e r (H e rtz k e , 1 9 8 7 ) .

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T h e Office o f T e c h n o lo g y A s s e s s m e n t (OTA, 1 9 8 8 ) re s e a rc h on
e d u c a tio n a l u s e s o f c o m p u t e r s in a w ide ra n g e o f a p p lic a tio n s fo u n d
t h a t t h e v a rie d c a p a b ilitie s o f t h e te c h n o lo g ie s a re k e y t o th e ir
po w er. E d u c a to r s u s e in te r a c tiv e te c h n o lo g ie s fo r m a n y p u rp o se s;
t h e r e is no single " b e s t u s e " o f te c h n o lo g y in sc h o o ls t o im prove
learning. T h e following OTA findings are:
1.
Using CAI fo r drill a n d p r a c tic e t o m a s t e r b a sic skills, t h e
s t u d y s h o w e d t h a t e le m e n t a r y children w h o u s e d CAI fo r
m a t h e m a ti c s g a in e d t h e e q u iv a le n t o f o n e t o e ig h t m o n th s
i n s tr u c tio n o v e r p e e r s w h o r e c e iv e d only tra d itio n a l in s tru c tio n .
2.
B oth m a in s tr e a m an d special s t u d e n t s w ho u s e d w ord
p r o c e s s o r a s a s u p p l e m e n t t o w riting m a d e s ig n ific a n t g a in s in
w r itin g a b ility
3.
S t u d e n t s w h o u s e d m ic r o c o m p u te r b a s e d la b o ra to r ie s MBLs)
m a d e d e e p e r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f c o m p le x sc ien tific c o n c e p t s t h a n did
s t u d e n t s w ho did n o t u s e MBLs.
4.
C o m p u te r sim u la tio n s in s c ie n c e , m a t h e m a ti c s , a n d social
s t u d i e s p ro v e d t o be e f f e c tiv e to o ls. S t u d e n t s could t e s t a b s t r a c t
c o n c e p t s a n d e x p e r i m e n t w ith sc ie n tific p r o c e s s e s t h a t a re n o t
fe a s ib le o r t o o d a n g e r o u s fo r a c tu a l c la s s ro o m work.
5.
S tu d ie s in d ic a te d t h a t s t u d e n t s w h o u s e d d a t a b a s e s
o u t p e r f o r m e d o t h e r s t u d e n t s in t e s t s o f in fo rm a tio n p ro c e s s in g
skills. In a d d itio n , d a t a b a s e s h e lp e d s t u d e n t s t o u n d e r s t a n d
u n d e rly in g c o n c e p t s a n d re la tio n s h ip s b e t t e r , w ork c o o p e r a tiv e ly ,
an d b e c a m e m o re e n th u s ia s tic a b o u t g a th e rin g an d analyzing d a ta .
6.
C o m p u t e r - b a s e d t e c h n o lo g y e n h a n c e d individualized learning.
It m a d e it p o ssib le fo r t e a c h e r s t o d e v e lo p in s tru c tio n t h a t a d ju s ts
t o e a c h s t u d e n t ' s prior know ledg e, r a t e o f learning, a n d t h e n a tu r e
a n d s ty le o f t h e s t u d e n t 's r e s p o n s e . For in s ta n c e , t h e te c h n o lo g y
h e lp e d t o s t r e n g t h e n rea d in g c o m p re h e n s io n th r o u g h an aly sis o f t h e
s t u d e n t s ' u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e t e x t s . In tellig e n t t u to r in g s y s t e m s in
a r e a s s u c h a s g e o m e t r y p ro v id ed t h e s t u d e n t s w ith a n e x p e r t and
s e n s itiv e t u to r ; a n d " h y p e r t e x t " s y s t e m s allow ed s t u d e n t s t o
m a n ip u la te t e x t , g ra p h ic s , a n d d i f f e r e n t lev e ls o f in fo rm a tio n .

35

N e tw o r k in g
T h e c o m p u t e r is c e r ta in ly n o t t h e ideal deliv ery fo r all c la s s e s
in sc h o o ls. H ow ever, in c a s e s w h e re it s e r v e s a s b o th t h e m edium
a n d t h e s u b je c t, on-line in stru c tio n h a s p ro v e n ideal. With t h e
linking o f w idely s c a t t e r e d s t u d e n t s t o in fo rm a tio n a n d i n s t r u c t o r s
in a v e ry tim e ly m a n n e r, individualized learning t a k e s on new
m e a n in g s . T his t y p e o f d is tr ib u te d learning sh ould be t r e a t e d a s a
n e e d fo r lifelong learning a n d also a s a m e a n s t o w iden a kno w led ge
b a s e (S eguin, 1 9 8 8 ) . W ide a re a e d u c a tio n a l n e tw o rk in g is tak in g
p lac e in s o m e e le m e n t a r y sc h o o ls in t h e U nited S t a t e s . For in sta n c e ,
H o lte 's ( 1 9 8 9 ) five c la s s e s o f six th g r a d e r s grow corn, tr a c k g e e s e ,
m e a s u r e acid rain, m o n ito r w e a t h e r p a t t e r n s , a n d c o m p a r e th e ir
findings w ith t h o s e o f s t u d e n t s a c r o s s t h e U nited S t a t e s . In all of
t h e s e on-line e x p e r im e n ts , s t u d e n t s mimic t h e e f f o r t s o f real
s c i e n t i s t s t o e s t a b l is h n a tio n a l a n d in te r n a tio n a l n e tw o rk s , t o s h a r e
d a t a , a n d t o s e e t r e n d s . Also, like a d u lt s c ie n tis ts , t h e y a re
i n v e s tig a tin g n e w a r e a s a n d d isc o v e rin g th in g s fo r t h e m s e lv e s .
T e c h n o lo g y c a n e n g a g e kids in th e ir ow n learning a n d t h e r e b y give
t h e m p o w e r o v e r t h a t learning. Using te le c o m m u n ic a tio n is c o s t
e f f e c t i v e f o r w h a t it c an d o f o r a c la ss (Solom on, 1 9 8 9 ) . T h e p o w e r
o f c o m p u t e r s e x p lo d e s w h e n t h e y a re c o n n e c te d by n e tw o rk s . For an
e x a m p le , an in s tru c tio n a l n e tw o rk a t E a s t Linvoln S e n io r High in
D enver, NC, h e lp e d Principal S te v e C herry b o o s t o f his s t u d e n t s '
rea d in g levels. T h e s c h o o l's 7 5 4 s t u d e n t s in 1 0 th , 1 1 th , a n d 1 2 t h
g r a d e s , 2 0 p e r c e n t o f t h e m w e re reading a t a s e v e n t h g r a d e level or
lower. T o p ro v id e a so lu tio n , C herry a n a ly z e d a v a rie ty o f n e tw o rk
s o f t w a r e a n d s e l e c t e d a r e le v a n t p a c k a g e fo r t h e s c h o o l's rea d in g
p ro g ra m . T e s tin g a t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 8 8 - 1 9 8 9 sc h o o l y e a r re v e a le d
t h a t 7 6 p e r c e n t o f t h e pilot g r o u p raised th e ir rea d in g levels.
T e a c h e r s fo u n d t h a t t h e n e tw o rk m a d e th e ir te a c h in g m o re
rew a rd in g a n d e x citin g . T h e n e tw o rk also h e lp e d in c r e a s e
c o m m u n ic a tio n a m o n g e d u c a t o r s . T e a c h e r s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s could
c o m m u n i c a t e a b o u t tra in in g s e s s io n s , s t a f f m e e ti n g s , c o u r s e w a r e
e v a lu a tio n s , s t u d e n t s ' p r o g r e s s a n d p a r e n t / t e a c h e r c o n f e r e n c e s .

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M u ltim e d ia
T h e a b ility t o t r a n s f e r in fo rm a tio n is w h a t e d u c a ti o n is all
a b o u t a n d m ultim edia s y s t e m s allow t h a t by using t h e s e n s o r y
fu n c tio n s o f t h e body. "T he b e s t th in g s t h a t c o m e from m ultim edia
to o ls (e .g ., v isuals g rap h ic s, audio, a n d t e x t s ) " , a c c o rd in g t o R o b e rts
( 1 9 9 1 ) " a re t h e m o tiv a tio n t o really learn a n d t h e s t u d e n t s '
in c r e a s e d s e l f - e s t e e m w h e n t h e y s e e a n d sh o w o ff t h e re s u lts " .
I n te r a c tiv e m u ltim e d ia allow s s t u d e n t s t o p ro p el t h e m s e l v e s
fo rw a rd by th e ir ow n c u rio s ity a n d build, c o n n e c tio n by c o n n e c tio n ,
th e i r v e ry p e rs o n a l u n d e r s ta n d in g of t h e world (T.H.E, sp ecial Issue,
IBM m ultim ed ia, S e p t., 1 9 9 1 ) . P u ttin g to o ls in t h e h a n d s o f s t u d e n t s
in tu r n e n c o u r a g e s o r f o r c e s t h e m t o think a b o u t rela tio n sh ip s.
D e s p ite all t h o s e te a c h i n g an d learning b e n e f i ts fro m
m u ltim e d ia, t h e r e is still a n e e d f o r in -d e p th r e s e a r c h on t h e s e new
e d u c a ti o n a l to o ls sin c e m a n y q u e s t i o n s still p e r s i s t r e g a rd in g t h e
full p o t e n t i a l s o f m u ltim ed ia. A ccording t o D 'lgnazio ( 1 9 9 1 ) ,
m u ltim e d ia h a s t o g o th r o u g h t h e cy cle o f e x p e r im e n ta tio n ,
d isc o v e ry , a n d re in v e n tio n . He a r g u e s t h a t m ultim ed ia is still y o u n g
t o h a v e b e e n t e s t e d a n d conclusively p ro v e n e f f e c tiv e in r e s e a r c h
la b o r a to rie s . In r e s p o n s e t o t h e q u e s tio n a s t o w h e t h e r m u ltim edia
is an e f f e c t i v e to o l, Young ( 1 9 9 1 ) b e lie v e s t h a t m u ltim e d ia is a t
l e a s t a s e f f e c t i v e t o d a y a s o t h e r m e t h o d s o f te a c h in g a n d learning,
b u t t h e r e is no proof.
As e a c h n e w m e d iu m is p u t in to e d u c a tio n a l u se r e s e a r c h e r s
m ig h t c o n s id e r a n u m b e r o f d if f e r e n t q u e s tio n s . For e x a m p le , we
m ig h t a sk a b o u t t h e im p a c ts o f a m e d iu m 's in tro d u c tio n o n t h e
s e t t i n g . For in s ta n c e , t h e o rg a n iz a tio n a l c lim a te , i n te r a c t io n s
b e tw e e n t h e t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s a n d t h e c h a n g e s t h e s e t ti n g
u n d e r g o e s (S h ein g o ld e t al., 1 9 8 3 ) . E valuations o f m e d ia - b a s e d
p r o g r a m s m ig h t u se fu lly c o m p a r e a lt e r n a t iv e f o r m s o f delivering
a n d s h a p in g in s tru c tio n o n t h e b a sis o f c o s t e ffic ie n c y a n d a p p e a l t o
s t u d e n t s w i t h o u t n e c e s s a r ily m aking i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t learning o r
p e rf o r m a n c e ( e f f e c t i v e n e s s ) a d v a n t a g e s . A ccording t o G ag n e a n d

37

R e in (1 9 8 2 ), m ed ia s e le c tio n s c h e m e s should be b a s e d on a p p e a l and
e ffic ie n c y b u t n o t only o n p r e s u m e d learning b e n e f its .
T h e Im p a c ts o f S t a f f Inservice Training on T e c h n o lo g y
A p p lic a tio n s in E d u ca tio n
Trying t o in fu se te c h n o lo g y in to t h e tra d itio n a l m e t h o d s
c o u r s e re m a in s a difficult t a s k d u e t o fa c u lty r e l u c ta n c e an d
in e x p e rie n c e w ith c o m p u t e r s (B ite r e t al, 1 9 8 7 ) . If c o m p u t e r
te c h n o lo g y is t o h a v e an im p a c t on te a c h in g a n d learning, t e a c h e r s
m u s t be c o m f o r ta b le w ith c o m p u te r s , se e in g t h e m a s to o ls t h a t
e n h a n c e r a t h e r t h a n in te r f e r e w ith th e ir daily te a c h in g . T o m a k e th is
h a p p e n , t e a c h e r s n e e d sp e cia l training (Gleen e t al, 1 9 8 7 ) . Collins
( 1 9 8 7 ) h a s in d ic a te d t h a t sin c e t e a c h e r s typically t e a c h a s t h e y
w e re t a u g h t , u p g ra d in g t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l skills o f e d u c a ti o n fa c u lty
is a n e s s e n t i a l fir s t s t e p f o r p re p a rin g te c h n o lo g ic a lly l it e r a t e
e n tr y - l e v e l t e a c h e r s .
As e d u c a ti o n a l t e c h n o lo g i e s a re n o t s e lf -im p le m e n tin g ,
i n v e s t m e n t s in te c h n o lo g y c a n n o t b e fully e f f e c t i v e u n le s s t e a c h e r s
re c e iv e train in g a n d s u p p o r t. O ffice o f T e c h n o lo g y A s s e s s m e n t
( 1 9 8 8 ) h a s fo u n d five in te r r e la te d c o n d itio n s t h a t sh o u ld be m e t in
o r d e r t o re a liz e t h e full p o t e n t i a l s o f in stru c tio n a l t e c h n o lo g ie s :
Training in t h e skills n e e d e d t o w ork w ith te c h n o lo g y ; E d u c a tio n t h a t
p r o v id e s vision a n d u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f s t a t e - o f - t h e - a r t d e v e l o p m e n t
a n d a p p lic a tio n s ; S u p p o r t fo r e x p e r im e n ta tio n an d inno v atio n ; a n d
T im e f o r learning a n d p r a c tic e .
S o m e b a rrie rs t o g r e a t e r u s e o f t h e te c h n o lo g y , a c c o rd in g t o OTA
findings, a re m ainly a s s o c i a t e d w ith lack o f e q u ip m e n t, i n a d e q u a t e
o r in a p p r o p r ia te training, a n d fo r s o m e t e a c h e r s ' a n x ie ty a b o u t new
te c h n o lo g y . OTA finds t h a t t e a c h e r s ' u se o f c o m p u t e r s d e p e n d s on
t h e i r in s tru c tio n a l g o a ls , t e a c h i n g a p p ro a c h , tra in in g , s o f t w a r e and
h a rd w a r e available t o t h e m , a n d t h e in s tru c tio n a l s e t t i n g .
In serv ice train in g p la y s a n i m p o r t a n t role in t e c h n o lo g y
trainin g. W ith te c h n o lo g i e s c h a n g in g a n d a p p lic a tio n s v arying s o
widely, p r e s e r v ic e e d u c a ti o n a lo n e c a n n o t e n s u r e t h e e f f e c t i v e u se

38

o f te c h n o lo g y by t e a c h e r s . A d v a n c e d training in applying new
te c h n o lo g ie s c a n o c c u r th r o u g h inservice a n d c o n tin u in g e d u c a tio n .
Inservice tra in in g c a n a lso build on e x p e rie n tia l learning, b a s e d on
t h e t e a c h e r s ' sp e c ific c la s s ro o m e x p e rie n c e a n d n e e d s . T hus,
training fo r t e a c h e r s sh o u ld be s e e n a s on g o in g r e q u ir e m e n t fo r
p r o fe s s io n a l g r o w th (C a rn e v a le , 1 9 8 6 ) . A c co rd in g t o Williams an d
Williams ( 1 9 8 4 ) , s e v e ra l f a c t o r s c o n tr i b u te t o t e a c h e r s ' a n x ie ty
a b o u t c o m p u te r s :
1.
F ear o f u n c e rta in ty . It re q u ire s a c h a n g e in a t t i t u d e fo r a
t e a c h e r t o a d m it t h e p o te n tia ls o f t h e to o ls t h a t he o r s h e lacks
e x p e rtis e ; n o t b eing an e x p e r t m a y le s s e n t h e t e a c h e r s ' a u th o r ity
o v e r t h e te c h n o lo g y ; an d f e a r o f e m b a r ra s s in g t h e m s e lv e s in f r o n t o f
th e i r s t u d e n t s .
2.
C o n c e r n s re g a rd in g c h a n g e s in t e a c h e r - s t u d e n t re la tio n sh ip s.
S t u d e n t s a r e o f t e n m o re e n th u s ia s t i c a b o u t w orking w ith c o m p u t e r s
t h a n t e a c h e r s . S t u d e n t s a re likely t o learn m o re th in g s fro m
c o m p u t e r d a t a b a s e s t h a n t e a c h e r s . T h e re fo re , c o m p u t e r s a re likely
t o a l t e r ro le s a n d re la tio n sh ip s, e sp e c ia lly w h e n s t u d e n t s know
m o re a b o u t t h e c o m p u t e r th a n t h e te a c h e r , an d w h en s t u d e n t s a re
given t h e resp o n sib ility f o r helping run a c o m p u t e r lab o r c la s s ro o m
f o r te a c h i n g o t h e r t e a c h e r s .
3.
C o n c e rn s o v e r a c c o u n ta b ility . CAI m a k e s it e a s i e r t o m o n ito r
s t u d e n t s ' s c o r e s , t h e r e f o r e , t e a c h e r s u c c e s s c a n b e c h e c k e d a g a in s t
th e s e scores.
S t e c h e r e t al ( 1 9 8 7 ) s t u d i e s exam ining in se rv ic e c o m p u t e r
e d u c a t i o n p r o g r a m s id e n tifie d s e v e r a l in s tr u c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s t h a t
c o n tr i b u te t o e f f e c t i v e n e s s . A m ong o t h e r s are:
1.
A c y c le o f mini p r e s e n t a t i o n s , d e m o n s t r a t i o n s , a n d p r a c tic e
s e s s io n s a p p e a r t o b e t h e m o s t e ff e c t i v e a p p ro a c h
2.
D e ta ile d c u rric u lu m g u id e s a n d le s s o n p la n s a re im p o r ta n t.
3.
C lear a n d r e le v a n t o b je c tiv e s . T e a c h e r s n e e d t o h a v e a c le a r
u n d e r s ta n d in g o f w h a t t h e y w ould learn a n d o f th e i r resp o n sib ilitie s.

39

4.
L e s so n r e l a te d m a te ria ls a n d h a n d s - o u t s a p p e a r t o fre e
t e a c h e r s fro m e x te n s iv e n o t e tak in g o r reliance on c o m p u t e r
m a n u a ls .
5.
In serv ice le s s o n s t h a t link t o in s tr u c tio n . T e a c h e r s like
s p e c ific h e lp on p re p a rin g m a te r ia ls a n d e x p e r i e n c e s f o r th e ir own
s t u d e n t s . T e a c h e r s a p p r e c ia te an d learn fro m g o o d m odeling on th e
p a r t o f t h e tra in e rs .
6.
P e e r i n te r a c t io n d u rin g h a n d s - o n s e s s i o n s is p a rtic u la rly
effe ctiv e.
7.
S t r a t e g i e s fo r t e a c h i n g h e t e r o g e n e o u s c la s s e s . T ra in e rs w ho
h a v e w a y s t o d e al w ith t e a c h e r s o f d iffering levels o f prior
k n o w le d g e a n d a n x ie ty a re m o re e ff e c tiv e .
8.
T h e im p a c t o f train in g is m u ch s t r o n g e r w h e n follow ed up.
T y p ic ally , t e a c h e r s w ould c o m e b ack t o g e t h e r a n d r e p o r t on th e ir
u se o f t h e c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n in t h e c la s s ro o m a n d s h a r e
ex p erien c es.
S tu d ie s on e d u c a tio n a l m ed ia by L aryea ( 1 9 8 4 ) sh o w e d t h a t w h en
t e a c h e r s a re e x p o s e d t o m ed ia during th e ir p r e s e r v ic e training, t h e y
t e n d t o u s e t h e m m o re a n d w ith g r e a t e r e x p e r tis e during th e ir
in s e rv ic e d a y s .
S u m m a ry
R e s e a r c h s h o w s t h a t c h a n g e in s c h o o ls r e q u ire s le a d e rsh ip ,
s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t , m o d ific a tio n o f t h e o r g a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e , and
t h e in v o lv e m e n t o f p e o p le fro m all a s p e c t s o f e d u c a tio n a l s y s t e m
(Fullan, 1 9 8 2 ) . L ite r a tu r e in d ic a te s t h a t c o m p u t e r s a re now integral
p a r t o f o u r e d u c a tio n a l s y s t e m d u e t o th e ir m ax im u m s u p p o r t t o
e d u c a t o r s , s t u d e n t s , p a r e n t s , an d e d u c a tio n a l policy m a k e rs . Good
s o f t w a r e p a c k a g e s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d s ig n ific a n t t e a c h i n g and
learn in g g a in s o v e r tr a d itio n a l m e t h o d s in m a n y s u b j e c t - m a t t e r
a r e a s , e s p e c ia lly m a t h e m a t i c s , s c ie n c e , a n d social s tu d ie s . Much o f
t h e lite r a t u r e s u p p o r t t h e p o in t o f view t h a t in s tru c tio n a l to o ls su c h
a s c o m p u t e r s a n d CD-ROMs fu n c tio n b e s t if t h e y a re c o n n e c t e d in a

40

fo rm o f local a re a n e tw o rk s (LANs) a n d / o r wide a re a n e tw o rk s
(WANs), t h a t is t o sa y , e le c tr o n ic n e tw o rk s .
T e a c h e r train in g a n d m o tiv a tio n is s u e s h a v e a lw ay s b e e n
c ritical t o all e d u c a ti o n a l in n o v a tio n s. T h e full p o t e n t i a l s o f
in s tru c tio n a l t o o ls c o uld n o t be re a liz e d u n le s s t e a c h e r s re c e iv e t h e
n e c e s s a r y t e c h n o lo g y train in g , s u p p o r t fo r d e m o n s tr a ti o n s ,
e x p e r i m e n t a t io n s , an d in n o v a tio n s. With t e c h n o lo g y c o n s t a n t l y
c h a n g in g a n d a p p lic a tio n s v a ry in g s o w idely, in se rv ic e tra in in g plays
a leading role in te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n in o u r sc h o o ls.

CHAPTER 3
QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE METHODS USED IN THIS
STUDY
O v e r v ie w
This c h a p t e r d e s c r ib e s t h e d e sig n an d p r o c e d u r e s o f th is c a s e
s tu d y . It in clu d es t h e d isc u ssio n o f m e t h o d s u s e d t o i n v e s ti g a t e t h e
t h r e e m a jo r q u e s t io n s a d d r e s s e d in th is s tu d y :
1.
W h a t c h a n g e s o c c u rre d in t h e u se o f te c h n o lo g y an d how
did t h e s e i n t e r a c t w ith o t h e r in flu e n c e s a n d o u t c o m e s ?
2.
W h a t c h a n g e s o c c u r r e d in roles, policies, a n d p r o c e d u r e s
in t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m o v e r tim e an d how did t h e s e
in flu e n ce t h e im p le m e n ta tio n o f t e c h n o lo g y ?
3.
In w h a t w a y s did e x p e c t a t i o n s , beliefs, a n d
in s tr u c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s o f v a rio u s a c t o r s w ith in t h e
sc h o o l s y s t e m c h a n g e an d how did t h e s e p r o m o te o r
hin d er Kendon t e a c h e r s ' a d o p tio n o f t e c h n o lo g y in th e
c u rric u lu m ?
T h e in fo rm a tio n s o u g h t re q u ire d b o th q u a n ti t a t iv e a n d q u a lita tiv e
m e th o d o lo g ie s , a n d it w a s im p e ra tiv e t h a t t h e m e t h o d s o b ta in ind e p t h in fo rm a tio n o n t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m an d te c h n o lo g y c h a n g e s o v e r
t h e p a s t five sc h o o l y e a r s . One a p p ro a c h t o d a t a c o lle c tio n w a s
th r o u g h t h e review s o f K endon sch ool te c h n o lo g y re c o rd s , m e e tin g
p r o c e e d in g s , p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s , a n d f o r m a tiv e e v a lu a tio n . A
s e c o n d a p p r o a c h u s e d s e lf - a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y s p lu s individual an d
g r o u p in te r v ie w s .

41

42

R ationale fo r a C a se S tu d y
B e s t a n d Kahn ( 1 9 8 9 ) d e sc rib e a c a s e s tu d y as:
"...a w a y of organ izin g social d a t a fo r t h e p u rp o s e o f viewing
social rea lity . It e x a m in e s a social u n it a s a w hole in stitu tio n ,
o r a c o m m u n ity . T h e p u rp o s e is t o u n d e r s ta n d t h e life cycle, o r
an i m p o r ta n t p a r t o f t h e life cycle o f t h e unit. T h e c a s e s tu d y
p r o b e s d e e p ly a n d a n a ly z e s in te r a c tio n b e t w e e n t h e f a c t o r s
t h a t explain p r e s e n t s t a t u s o r t h a t influence c h a n g e o r gro w th ,
(p. 7 6 )."
B e s t an d Kahn s t a t e t h a t, in a c a s e stu d y , t h e e l e m e n t of
ty p ic a ln e s s r a t h e r t h a n u n iq u e n e s s is t h e f o c u s o f a t t e n t i o n , for
e m p h a s is on u n iq u e n e s s w ould p r e v e n t sc ie n tific a b s t r a c t i o n an d
g e n e ra liz a tio n o f findings. As Bromly ( c ite d in B e s t an d Kahn, 1 9 8 9 )
n o te d , "A 'c a s e ' is n o t only a b o u t a ’p e rs o n ' b u t also a b o u t 't h a t kind
o f p e rs o n .' A c a s e is an e x e m p la r of, p e rh a p s e v e n a p r o t o t y p e for, a
c a t e g o r y o f individuals" (p. 9 2 ). B e s t an d Kahn also n o te d :
C a se s t u d i e s a re n o t c o n fin e d t o t h e s t u d y o f individuals and
th e i r be h av io ral c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . C a se s t u d i e s h a v e b e e n m a d e
o f all t y p e s o f c o m m u n itie s , fro m h a m le t t o g r e a t m e tro p o lis ,
a n d all t y p e s o f individuals.... a n d in s titu tio n s . T h e s e s t u d i e s
ha v e b e e n c o n d u c te d fo r t h e
p u rp o s e o f u n d e rs ta n d in g t h e
c u ltu r e a n d t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f variable rela tio n sh ip s, (p. 9 3 )
A ccording t o Van Dalen a n d Mayer ( c ite d in A nsah, 1 9 8 0 ) , o n e
o f t h e o b je c tiv e s o f t h e c a s e s t u d y is t o find " t h e n a tu r e o f
prevailing c o n d itio n s , p r a c t ic e s a n d a t t i t u d e s . . . s e e k in g a c c u r a t e
d e s c r ip tio n s o f a c tiv itie s, o b je c ts , p r o c e s s e s a n d p e r s o n s " (p. 8 2 ) .
P e rso n a l in te rv ie w s w ith s u b j e c t s a re o n e o f a w ide v a rie ty o f
m e t h o d s t h a t m a y be u s e d t o g a t h e r d a t a in a c a s e s t u d y re s e a rc h .
A ccording t o B e s t and Kahn ( 1 9 8 9 ) an d Yin ( 1 9 8 9 ) , a single c a s e
s t u d y e m p h a s i z e s in - d e p th a n aly sis.
T h e g o a ls o f q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h a re c o n c e r n e d m o re w ith
u n d e r s ta n d in g th a n w ith c a u s e s .... T h e q u a lita tiv e

43

m e th o d o lo g ie s s e e k d ir e c t a c c e s s t o t h e lived e x p e rie n c e o f
t h e h u m a n a c t o r a s he o r s h e u n d e r s ta n d s a n d d e a ls with
on going e v e n t s . T h e goal is t o d e sc rib e a n d a n a ly z e t h e
a c tiv itie s a n d re a s o n in g p r o c e s s e s by w hich p e r s o n s c r e a t e
th e ir ow n b e h a v io rs a n d u n d e r s ta n d an d d e a l w ith t h e b e h av io r
of o th e r s . (P a tto n , 1 9 9 0 , p. 3 9 1 )
T h e aim s o f q u a lita tiv e thinking a re t o s e e t h e p a r ts , w hole an d th e
t e n s i o n s (Giarelli & C ham bliss, 1 9 8 8 ) . Q u a lita tiv e a n a ly sis is u s e d
t o unravel an d c o m p re h e n d t h e c h a n g e s in t h e social world an d in t h e
b e h a v io r o f p e rs o n s ( P a tto n , 1 9 9 0 ) . It also c a n clarify t h e hidden
a s p e c t s o f in stitu tio n a l c u ltu r e s (Kuh & A n d re a s, 1 9 9 1 ) . Such
r e s e a r c h o f t e n c a n p u t individuals within t h e o r g a n iz a tio n in t o u c h
w ith o n e a n o t h e r a n d c h a lle n g e a s s u m p tio n s m a d e within an
in s titu tio n (Kuh & A n d re a s, 1 9 9 1 ) . Q u a litativ e r e s e a r c h is f o c u s e d on
an o b je c tiv e o f u n d e r s t a n d i n g an in s id e r's p e r s p e c t iv e , n a tu ra lis tic
inquiry, a s e n s e o f t h e u nique in c o n t e x t , v a lu e -la d e n inquiry,
in d u ctiv e analy sis, p e rs o n a l c o n t a c t a n d insight, a n d d e sig n
flexibility ( P a tto n , 1 9 9 0 ; S chuh & W hitt, 1 9 9 2 ) . It c a n b e labor
in te n siv e , d e c e p ti v e , a n d a p p e a r t o be le ss difficult t h a n it is
(Biklen & B ogdan, 1 9 8 6 ) . Such te c h n iq u e s a re f r e q u e n tly e x p e n siv e
(W hitt, 1 9 9 1 ) a n d m a y o v e rw h e lm t h e r e s e a r c h e r w ith d a t a an d
d e c isio n s a t e v e r y j u n c t u r e (W h itt & Kuh, 1 9 8 9 ) . It h a s also b e e n
said t h a t q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h is le s s rig o ro u s b e c a u s e it is s e e n as
being s u b je c tiv e , is b a s e d o n a s s u m p tio n s , an d is valu e laden. Britain
( 1 9 8 1 ) d is a g r e e d on th is issue. He sa w n e ith e r e x p e rim e n ta l nor
c o n te x tu a l e v a lu a tio n a s m o re rigorous. He a r g u e s t h a t e a c h carries
v a lu e s an d c a n only b e t e s t e d in app licatio n . R egarding a s s u m p tio n s ,
it w a s B rita in 's b elief ( 1 9 8 1 ) t h a t i n t e r p r e t e r s o f b o t h q u a n ti t a t iv e
a n d q u a lita tiv e r e s e a r c h m u s t m a k e s u p p o s itio n s a n d le a p s in
thinking by t h e v e ry n a tu r e o f e x a m in a tio n an d d e d u c tio n . Kane
( 1 9 8 5 ) w a rn e d r e s e a r c h e r s t h a t " t h e m o re fam iliar t h e s itu a tio n is
t o you , t h e m o re likely y o u a re t o m ak e p r e m a tu r e j u d g m e n t s and t h e
m o re e f f o r t y o u will h a v e t o m ak e t o avoid
th e m " (p. 5 4 ).

44

R e se a rc h D esign
T he m e th o d o lo g y u s e d for th is c a s e s t u d y w a s p a rtly
q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d p a rtly q u a lita tiv e in n a tu r e . Q u a n tita tiv e d a t a
c o lle c tio n w a s in t h e fo rm o f se lf a d m in is te r e d s u rv e y . Q u a lita tiv e
m e t h o d s includ ed o p e n - e n d e d r e s p o n s e s t h a t follow ed e a c h s u rv e y
q u e s tio n , individual a n d g r o u p in te rv ie w s, rev ie w s o f sc h o o l r e c o rd s ,
p r o c e e d in g s of m e e tin g s , and p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s . More
specifically, th is c a s e s t u d y w a s d e s ig n e d t o s e e k a n s w e r s t o t h r e e
m ain r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n s m e n tio n e d in t h e in tr o d u c tio n t o th is
c h a p t e r a n d d is c u s s e d in t h e s e c t i o n s below.
Evolution o f T e c h n o lo g y Im p le m e n ta tio n
P ertaining t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n o n e , I g a t h e r e d d a t a t o gain an
in -d e p th u n d e r s ta n d in g o f b a c k g ro u n d in fo rm a tio n on K endon sch ool
s y s t e m a n d t o d e s c rib e t h e s y s t e m e v o lu tio n v iew ed fro m t h e
p e r s p e c t iv e o f te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s fro m 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 th r o u g h t h e
p r e s e n t. In o t h e r w ords, I s o u g h t t o give an a c c o u n t o f t h e Kendon
s c h o o l s e t t i n g , t e c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s, d iffu sio n o f te c h n o lo g ic a l
in n o v a tio n s, r a t e o f a d o p tio n , im p a c ts o f te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s
on in s tru c tio n , a n d t h e in flu e n c e s a n d ro les o f individuals a n d g r o u p s
w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m . This w a s m a d e possib le th r o u g h t h e
rev ie w s o f s c h o o l r e c o r d s su c h a s a nn ual r e p o r t s a n d m e e tin g s
p r o c e e d in g s s u c h a s K endon School Im p ro v e m e n t T e a m . All t h e s e
s o u r c e s o f d a t a c o lle c tio n p ro v id e d d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n on t h e
m o tiv e s o r thinking underlying t h e e m e r g e n c e o f a K endon te c h n o lo g y
plan; t h e ra n g e o f u se o f te c h n o lo g y ; t h e kinds of t e c h n o lo g y being
u s e d a t K endon o v e r tim e ; t h e tim e lines fo r te c h n o lo g y p ro g ram s;
a n d t h e kinds o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu r e sp e cific t o K end on schoo l.
This in fo rm a tio n h e lp e d m e t o u n d e r s t a n d a n d d e s c r ib e te c h n o lo g ic a l
in v e n tio n s, d iffu sio n p r o c e s s e s , a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s o f te c h n o lo g ic a l
c h a n g e s in t h e s c h o o l curriculum . This s e c t i o n is d i s c u s s e d in d e ta il
in c h a p t e r four.

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Roles a n d In flu en ces o f C h a n g e A g e n ts
With R egard t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n tw o, I a t t e m p t e d t o id en tify
individuals a n d g r o u p s w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s te m , d e s c r ib e t h e kind
of roles t h e y p la y e d during t h e c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n , d e v e lo p m e n t,
im p le m e n ta tio n , a n d e v a lu a tio n o f t e c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s, an d
u n d e r s t a n d t h e im p a c ts o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu re o f t h e sc h o o l on
t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . T h e in fo rm a tio n on t h e s e a s p e c t s w a s
g a t h e r e d th r o u g h a s e lf - a d m in is te r e d s u rv e y an d fo llow -up p e rs o n a l
in te rv ie w s . T h e in fo rm a tio n h e lp e d m e t o c la ssify individuals an d
g ro u p s a s te c h n o lo g y le a d e r s a n d follow ers o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s
an d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e d y n a m ic s o f t h e school s y s te m . This s e c tio n is
d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r five.
B eliefs. E x p e c ta t io n s , a n d In s tru c tio n a l P r a c tic e s
C o n c ern in g r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n t h r e e , I s o u g h t t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e
f a c t o r s (b e lie fs , e x p e c t a t i o n s , in s tru c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s ) t h a t h a v e
m o t i v a t e d a n d / o r c r e a t e d r e s i s t a n c e s t o t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n o f
K endon te c h n o lo g y . T h a t is, t h e im p a c ts of philosophical a t t a c h m e n t ,
individual a n d g r o u p a t t i t u d e s , a n d t h e e x t e n t o f te c h n o lo g y a d o p tio n
in t h e c la s s r o o m s an d c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y s e t ti n g . D a ta w e re
c o ll e c t e d t h r o u g h r e c o r d s o f m e e ti n g s , t h e s e lf - a d m in is te r e d
s u rv e y , p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s, a n d p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s . This
q u a lita tiv e in fo rm a tio n is d is c u s s e d in t h e c h a p t e r s five a n d six.
P o p u l a ti o n
T h e K endon school p o p u la tio n c o n s id e r e d fo r th is s t u d y
included all K endon p a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s , s ta f f, a n d u n iv e rs ity an d
c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s w h o a re d ire c tly involved in K end on sc h o o l
p r o g r a m s -- t h u s , all a d u lt s w ho c o n s t i t u t e t h e K endon sc h o o l
s y s te m . W hen s e le c tin g K endon sc h o o l a n d t h e p e o p le within t h e
sc h o o l s y s t e m fo r t h e s tu d y , a n u m b e r o f is s u e s w e r e c o n s id e re d .
K endon E le m e n ta ry is a sp e cia l school, n o t m e re ly b e c a u s e of
t h e c o m m i t m e n t o f t h e fa c u lty a n d s t a f f t o t h e sc h o o l m ission
s t a t e m e n t , b u t b e c a u s e it is o n e o f t w o e le m e n t a r y s c h o o ls in

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Lansing t h a t h a s b e e n s e l e c t e d a s a P ro fe ssio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t School
(PDS).
O ne o f t h e g o a ls o f t h e school is t o c r e a t e a learning
e n v ir o n m e n t in w hich s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s c o uld e ff e c tiv e ly apply
c o m p u t e r s t o f a c ilita te th e ir work. K endon is a PDS which h a s local
and wide a re a (e le c tr o n ic ) n e tw o rk s and e v e r y t e a c h e r h as m a d e it a
p r a c tic e t o u se c o m p u t e r s in t h e c la s s ro o m an d lab s e t t i n g t o
e n h a n c e in stru c tio n . I c o uld re a s o n a b ly a s s u m e t h a t d u e t o t h e
a d o p tio n o f sc h o o lw id e te c h n o lo g y - s u p p o r t e d in s tru c tio n a l
p ro g r a m s b y t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m , p a r tic ip a n ts w ould b e willing t o
s h a r e th e i r id ea s, e x p e r tis e , a n d e x p e r ie n c e s in sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n w ith o t h e r sc h o o ls .
T h e te c h n iq u e s u s e d t o re c ru it t h e p a rtic ip a n ts fo r t h e s t u d y
w e re t h e follow ing.
1.
I inform ally c o n t a c t e d all K endon t e a c h e r s f o r th e ir
p a rtic ip a tio n .
2.
I r e q u e s t e d , fro m t h e sc h o o l principal a n d s o m e
t e a c h e r s , t h e n a m e s o f p a r e n t s a n d c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s
w ho h a v e b e e n a ctiv e ly involved in t h e Kendon te c h n o lo g y
program (s).
3.
L e t t e r s w e re a d d r e s s e d t o all id e n tifie d individuals
explaining t h e p u r p o s e s o f t h e s t u d y a n d r e q u e s tin g th e ir
p a rtic ip a tio n o n v o lu n ta r y b asis. T h e y w e re a s s u r e d of
c o n fid e n tia lity o f p a rtic ip a tio n a n d in fo rm a tio n t h a t m a y
b e p rov id ed by t h e s e people.
During t h e rev ie w o f sc h o o l d o c u m e n t s a n d p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s ,
e v e r y individual a n d / o r g r o u p w h o w a s d ire c tly involved in K endon
sc h o o l p r o g r a m s w a s c o n s id e r e d fo r th is s tu d y . This kind o f inquiry
p ro v id e d an in - d e p th in fo rm a tio n p e r t i n e n t t o t h e m ain r e s e a r c h
q u e s tio n o n e o f t h e s tu d y .
D a ta C ollection: S o u rc e s o f In fo rm a tio n
In an e f f o r t t o s e e k a n s w e r s t o t h e t h r e e r e s e a r c h
q u e s tio n s , t h e inquiry involved a tw o d i f f e r e n t a p p r o a c h e s t o d a t a

47

c o lle c tio n . Initially, d a t a w e r e c o lle c te d t h r o u g h review o f sc h o o l
d o c u m e n t s , p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s , a n d f o r m a tiv e e v a lu a tio n
which c o n s t i t u t e d o n e a p p ro a c h o f t h e d a t a collection. S o m e o f w h a t
w a s le a rn e d h e r e f o r m e d t h e b a sis fo r c o n s t r u c t in g in s t r u m e n t s
u s e d in t h e s e c o n d a p p ro a c h . Each a p p ro a c h o r te c h n iq u e t o t h e d a ta
c o lle c tio n is d e s c r i b e d in t h e follow ing s e c t i o n s .

D a ta C ollection fo r Evolution o f T e c h n o lo g y I m p le m e n ta tio n
C o n c e rn in g t h e firs t a p p ro a c h t o d a t a c o lle c tio n , I r e c e iv e d
p e rm iss io n fro m t h e sc h o o l principal t o review all te c h n o lo g y
r e la te d d o c u m e n t s an d a u d io t a p e s r e c o rd e d during g r o u p m e e tin g s
b e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 scho ol y e a rs . As t h e Michigan S t a t e
U niv ersity P ro fe ss io n a l D e v e lo p m e n t S chool (MSU-PDS) te c h n o lo g y
r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t an d t h e Michigan S t a t e U niversity -K en d o n
E le m e n ta ry PDS C o o rd in ato r, I had t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o b e a
p a rtic ip a n t o b s e r v e r in t h e scho ol s y s t e m a n d o f t h e K endon
te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s . T h e a s p e c t o f m y role
e n c o m p a s s e d b e ing physically in t h e sc h o o l s e t t i n g fo r tw o full
a c a d e m ic y e a r s , w orking w ith t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s in t h e
c la s s ro o m s a n d la b o ra to ry , o b se rv in g an d tak in g n o t e s o n h u m an and
te c h n ic a l m a t t e r s , a t t e n d i n g m e e ti n g s w ith K endon fa c u lty , p a r e n ts ,
a n d c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s . T hus, I s h a r e d c o n t e x t o f te c h n o lo g y
d is c u s s io n s d uring sp e c ia l te c h n o lo g y m e e tin g s , S chool I m p ro v e m e n t
T eam , a n d E x te n d e d L unches.
P a r t i c i p a n t s . All K en d o n t e a c h e r s , a d m in is tr a tiv e s t a f f ,
p a r e n t s , c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s , Michigan S t a t e U n iv ersity
c o lla b o r a to rs , a n d p e r s o n n e l o f L ansing School D istrict w ho d ire c tly
involved in K en don sc h o o l p ro g ra m w e re c o n s id e re d in th is d a t a
c o lle c tio n . Specifically, t h e d a t a w e re c o lle c te d th r o u g h t h e
follow ing p r o c e d u r e s .

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R eview s o f sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y re c o r d s a n d re p o r ts . T h e review
of d o c u m e n t s and m e e tin g p ro c e e d in g s f o c u s e d m o re on "Who",
"W hat", a n d "How" te c h n o lo g y issu es. T h e "W ho" w a s re la te d t o
individuals a n d g ro u p o f individuals; "W h a t" w a s r e l a te d t o t h e kinds
o f in flu e n ce s a n d roles p lay e d by t h e s e people. T h e "How" w a s
r e la te d t o t h e m a n n e r in which t h e s e p e o p le u s e d t o handle
a d m in is tra tiv e , te c h n ic a l, an d h u m a n m a t t e r s r e la te d t o te c h n o lo g y .
All k ey w o rd s, p h r a s e s , a n d / o r s t a t e m e n t s by t h e principal,
t e a c h e r s , a n d p a r e n t s w e r e faith fu lly r e c o r d e d w i t h o u t re s e r v a tio n s .
Audio t a p e s . All audio t a p e s re c o rd e d during t h e E x te n d e d
L un ch es, C ore T e a m , a n d School Im p ro v e m e n t m e e tin g s b e tw e e n
1 9 8 9 - 1 9 9 0 an d t h e c u r r e n t y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) w e r e tra n s c r ib e d . This
in fo rm a tio n h e lp e d t h e i n v e s tig a to r t o b e t t e r p e rc e iv e t h e
in d iv id u a l's p e rs o n a lity , a t t i t u d e , c o m m u n ic a tio n skills, b e lie fs a n d
e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t h a v e sp e cifica lly in flu e n c e d t h e im p le m e n ta tio n
o f te c h n o lo g y a t Kendon.
P a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s . As a te c h n o lo g y r e s e a r c h a s s i s t a n t
an d PDS C o o rd in a to r in th is scho ol g a v e m e o p p o r tu n ity t o m ak e
g e n e ra l o b s e r v a t i o n s o v e r a tw o c o n s e c u tiv e sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 9 2 / 9 3
a n d 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 ) . Particularly, b e tw e e n J a n u a ry a n d J u n e 1 9 9 4 , I
w o rk e d w ith t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s b o th in t h e c la s s ro o m s an d
c o m p u t e r la b o r a to ry . All te c h n ic a l a n d h u m a n is s u e s w e r e c arefu lly
o b s e r v e d , e s p e c ia lly during t h e la b o r a to r y s e s s io n s . T h e s e h e lp e d m e
t o d e v e lo p field n o t e s in a fo rm o f w eekly jo u rn als. I c a su a lly
e n g a g e d in s o m e inform al d is c u s s io n s w ith t h e t e a c h e r s o n th e ir
r e s p e c t iv e u s e s o f t h e n e w c o m p u te r s . Again, on t h r e e o c c a sio n s,
a f t e r School Im p ro v e m e n t T e a m (SIT) m e e tin g s , I h a d o p p o r tu n ity t o
e n g a g e in s o m e inform al d is c u s s io n s w ith tw o p a r e n t s on w h a t t h e y
" s a y " a b o u t t h e sc h o o lw id e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n .
F o r m a tiv e e v a l u a t i o n . A t t h e e n d o f W inter te rm , 1 9 9 4 I
c o n d u c t e d a n inform al fo rm a tiv e e v a lu a tio n , in t h e fo rm o f self-

49

a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y o f five i te m s w ith re g u la r a n d sp e c ia l
e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r s ( s e e A ppendix C). T h e p u rp o se w a s t o a s s e s s th e
t e a c h e r s ' n e e d s , c o n c e rn s , an d p e r c e p tio n s in o rd e r t o im prove
te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t s e r v ic e s t o t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s .
S u m m a r y . T hus, during t h e first a p p ro a c h o f t h e d a t a
c o lle c tio n , in fo rm a tio n w a s g a t h e r e d th r o u g h rev ie w s o f sc h o o l
te c h n o lo g y re c o r d s an d re p o rts , which f o c u s e d on "Who, W hat, and
How" t e c h n o lo g y issu e s. In add itio n , in fo rm a tio n w a s c o lle c te d on
a u dio t a p e s t o u n d e r s t a n d individual's p e rs o n a lity , a t t i t u d e ,
c o m m u n ic a tio n skills, beliefs, a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s . Again, th r o u g h
p a r tic ip a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s , s o m e te c h n ic a l an d h u m a n is s u e s a s well
a s w h a t s o m e Kendon t e a c h e r s an d p a r e n t s " sa y " w e re n o te d . Finally,
f o r m a tiv e e v a lu a tio n w a s c o n d u c t e d t o a s s e s s t h e t e a c h e r s ' n e e d s,
c o n c e rn s , an d p e rc e p tio n s . D ata c o lle c te d th r o u g h th is a p p ro a c h a re
fully d i s c u s s e d in c h a p t e r four.
Four m a jo r t h e m e s w e re id en tifie d during t h e fir s t a p p ro a c h of
t h e d a t a c o llec tio n w ere:
1.
Key T e c h n o lo g y A c to rs a n d th e ir R e sp e c tiv e Roles and
I n f lu e n c e s .
2.
O r g a n iz a tio n a l C u ltu re .
3.
Beliefs, E x p e c ta tio n s , a n d A d o p tio n o f T ech n o lo g y .
4.
P e rc e iv e d In stru c tio n a l C h a n g e s o v e r tim e a n d
T e c h n o lo g y Modeling.
T h e s e t h e m e s w e re u s e d t o c o n s t r u c t in s t r u m e n t s fo r se lf­
a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y s a n d p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s. This s e c o n d a p p ro a c h
t o d a t a c o llec tio n a t t e m p t e d t o s e e k r e s p o n s e s t o re s e a r c h
q u e s tio n s tw o an d th r e e . T h a t is, t h e m e 1 an d t h e m e 2 fo rm e d t h e
b a sis fo r se e k in g r e s p o n s e s t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n tw o . T h e m e 3 and
t h e m e 4 w e re u s e d t o s e e k r e s p o n s e s t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n th r e e .

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D ata Collection For Roles a n d In flu en ces o f K endon
T e c h n o lo g y C h a n g e A g e n ts a n d D a ta Collection fo r Beliefs.
E x p e c ta t io n s , a n d I n s tru c tio n a l P r a c tic e s
For t h e s e c o n d d a t a co llec tio n a p p ro a c h , tw o d if f e r e n t
v e rs io n s o f a s e lf -a d m in is te r e d su rv e y , " T e a c h e r v e rs io n a n d P a r e n t
& B u sin e ss p a r t n e r v e rsio n ", w e re d e v e lo p e d . T h e w ording o f t h e
f o r m e r w a s m o re d i r e c te d a t t h e t e a c h e r s a s being p a r t o f t h e school
s y s t e m a n d also a s being t h e principal e n d -u s e r s of t h e te c h n o lo g y
a t K endon. T h e l a t t e r w a s fo r m u la te d t o s e e k r e s p o n s e s fro m p a r e n t s
a n d b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s a s being p a r t o f t h e scho ol s y s t e m a s well a s
b e ing d i r e c t o r in d ire c t o b s e r v e r s t o t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s a t
K endon ( s e e A ppendix A a n d B). However, b o th v e rsio n s s o u g h t t h e
s a m e in f o rm a tio n .
P a r t i c i p a n t s . In s e e k in g r e s p o n s e s t o r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n s tw o
an d t h r e e (i.e., s e c o n d a p p ro a c h ), d a t a w e re c o lle c te d fro m 16
individuals an d g r o u p s within t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m ( s e e T a b le A below ).
T h a t is, tw o t e a c h e r s w h o p ro v id ed le ss d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n during
t h e s e l f - a d m in i s t e r e d s u rv e y , t h e sc h o o l principal, a n d tw o n e tw o rk
m a n a g e r s w e re s e l e c te d . All K endon fa c u lty m e m b e r s w e re s e l e c t e d
b u t only nine e v e n tu a lly p a r tic ip a te d . T h e p a r tic ip a n ts inclu ded t h e
sc h o o l principal, six re g u la r t e a c h e r s , a n d t w o Special E d u ca tio n
t e a c h e r s . Tw o K endon a d m in is tr a tiv e s t a f f m e m b e r s a n d t h r e e
p a r e n t s w e re s e l e c t e d o n t h e b a sis o f th e ir d i r e c t in v o lv e m e n t w ith
K endon te c h n o lo g y is s u e s , p a rticu la rly during t h e School
I m p r o v e m e n t T e a m a n d s t a f f m e e tin g s , a s n o tic e d fro m t h e sc h o o l
r e c o r d s a n d c o n firm e d by t h e sc h o o l principal. T h e t w o p a r tic ip a n ts
fro m t h e local bank (K e n d o n b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s ) w e r e s e l e c t e d
b e c a u s e t h e y d ire c tly w o rk e d w ith 4 t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s an d th e ir
t e a c h e r s , using te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s y s t e m a s a s u p p o r t , t h r o u g h o u t
t h e W inter a n d Spring t e r m s o f 1 9 9 4 . T h e in fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d from
t h e s e p a r t i c i p a n ts h e lp e d t o p ro v id e d e ta il r e s p o n s e s t o r e s e a r c h
q u e s t io n s tw o a n d th r e e .

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T ab le A: P a rtic ip a n ts For S e c o n d A p p ro a ch T o D a ta Collection
STUDY PARTICIPANTS
STATUS
K endon F acu lty
P a re n ts
B u s in e s s P a r t n e r s
K endon S ta f f

NUMBER
9
3
2
2

PERCENTAGE
56
19
12.5
12.5

S t a g e o n e : S e lf - a d m in is tr a te d s u rv e y . T h e q u e s t io n n a ir e s
c o n ta in e d 1 5 t y p e s o f i te m s w hich w e r e c la ssified in to six s e c t i o n s
(A-F). Each t y p e o f ite m w a s d e s ig n e d t o s e e k r e s p o n s e s p e rta in in g
t o p a s t (i.e., 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 ) a n d p r e s e n t ( 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 ) views. Each
t y p e o f ite m c o n ta in e d t w o q u e s tio n s , e x c e p t view s on training and
in flu e n c e s w hich c o n ta in e d fo u r q u e s t io n s e a c h , t h u s giving a t o t a l
o f 3 4 q u e s tio n s .
Each q u e s tio n w a s s c a le d fro m "N one t o V ery High" which
p ro v id e d an o p p o r tu n ity t o c o lle c t q u a n ti t a t iv e d a t a fro m t h e
r e s p o n d e n t s . Also, an o p e n - e n d e d r e s p o n s e f o r m a t a c c o m p a n ie d e a c h
q u e s tio n t h a t p e r m i tt e d r e s p o n d e n t s t o p ro vide a d e ta ile d
e x p la n a tio n (i.e., q u a lita tiv e d a t a ) t o e a c h r a t e d ite m on t h e
q u e s tio n n a ire . In o t h e r w o rd s, th is r e s e a r c h c o m b in e d s t r u c t u r e d and
u n s t r u c t u r e d inquiry.
This p h a s e o f t h e d a t a co llectio n involved t w o - s t a g e a p p ro a c h .
S t a g e o n e w a s purely a s e lf -a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y a n d s t a g e tw o w a s
fo llo w -u p individual a n d g r o u p in te rv ie w s w ith s o m e s e l e c t e d
t e a c h e r s . T h e q u e s tio n n a ire w a s h a n d e d t o t h e p a r tic ip a n ts w ith
c o v e r l e t t e r s . T h re e d a y s l a te r I b e g a n t o re c e iv e r e s p o n s e s fro m t h e
p a r tic ip a n ts . I c a re fu lly r e a d t h r o u g h t h o s e w r itte n r e s p o n s e s . This
h e lp e d m e t o g a t h e r ad d itio n al c lu e s o r p r o b e s t h a t w e r e u s e d t o

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p r e p a r e t h e final f o r m a t fo r s u b s e q u e n t individual an d g ro u p
in te rv ie w s w ith t h e t e a c h e r s .
S t a g e tw o : Individual a n d g r o u p in te rv ie w s . Individual an d
g r o u p in te rv ie w s w e r e c o n d u c t e d t o g a t h e r a d d itio n al in -d e p th
in fo rm a tio n a b o u t t h e te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs h ip role a n d its
im p lica tio n s fo r t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n o v e r a five y e a r
perio d. All t h e in te rv ie w s w e re au d io r e c o r d e d . S o m e critical c lu e s
o r p r o b e s w e re u s e d by t h e r e s e a r c h e r t o p r o m p t t h e in te rv ie w e e s .
All t h e m a jo r is s u e s ra is e d by t h e in te r v ie w e e s w e re w r i t te n d ow n
in a fo rm o f s y n o p s is . Since m u ch w r itte n in fo rm a tio n w a s o b ta in e d
in t h e s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d s u r v e y , t h e fo llo w -u p individual in te rv ie w s
w ith s o m e t e a c h e r s w e re rela tiv e ly s h o r t, i.e., b e t w e e n 1 5 - 2 0
m in u te s . O ne g r o u p in te rv ie w w ith t h e sch o o l te c h n o lo g y m a n a g e r s
l a s te d a b o u t 4 5 m in u te s .
S u m m a r y . D a ta w e re c o ll e c t e d t h r o u g h s e lf - a d m in is te r e d
s u rv e y a n d p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s. This s e c o n d a p p ro a c h t o d a t a
c o llec tio n a t t e m p t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d and d e s c r ib e ( 1 ) t h e w a y s in
which c h a n g in g roles, policies, a n d p r o c e d u r e s in t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m
did in flu e n ce t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n o f
te c h n o lo g y (i.e., r e s p o n s e s
t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n tw o ) a n d ( 2 ) t h e w a y s in which c h a n g e s in
e x p e c t a t i o n s , b e lie fs, a n d in s tr u c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s o f v a rio u s a c t o r s
w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m did p r o m o te o r h in d er K endon t e a c h e r s ’
a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e curriculum (i.e., r e s p o n s e s t o re s e a r c h
q u e s t io n t h r e e ) . T h a t is, t h e s e lf - a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y a n d p e rs o n a l
in te rv ie w s s o u g h t t o id e n tify T e c h n o lo g y le a d e r s a n d fo llo w ers on
t h e b a s is o f t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e ro le s a n d in flu e n c e s, o rg a n iz a tio n a l
c u ltu r e o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m , beliefs, e x p e c t a t i o n s , in s tr u c tio n a l
p ra c tic e s , a n d K endon te c h n o lo g y a s a te c h n o lo g y m o d el o v e r t h e five
y e a r p eriod . D a ta c o lle c te d th r o u g h th is a p p ro a c h a re fully d is c u s s e d
in C h a p te r s five a n d six.

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D a ta A nalysis
O v e r v ie w
A nalysis o f m u ch o f t h e in -d e p th q u a lita tiv e d a t a involved
p r o c e d u r e s fo r id en tify in g m a jo r c o n t e n t t h e m e s in d o c u m e n ts ,
c o m m e n t s , a n d o b s e r v a tio n s . How ever, t h e a n aly sis o f q u a n tita tiv e
in f o r m a tio n in v o lv e d sim p le c o m p a r is o n s o f p a s t - t o - p r e s e n t
c h a n g e s in m a n y v a ria b le s a s well a s m o re c o m p le x a n a ly se s. T he
m o re co m p lex a n a ly s e s w e r e d e sig n e d t o e x a m in e t h e d y n a m ic s o f
p e o p le 's roles in t h e sc h o o l, e x a m in e t h e s t r u c t u r e o f th e ir
p e r c e p t i o n s , a n d t r a c e p a s t - t o - p r e s e n t m o v e m e n t s in t h e s t r u c t u r e
o f b o th .
A n alysis o f t h e q u a lita tiv e d a t a ( id e n tific a tio n o f m a jo r
th e m e s , s u b t h e m e s , a n d is s u e s and c o n c e r n s ) w a s p e rf o r m e d t o
d e s c rib e t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f Kendon school a n d t h e e v o lu tio n o f
t e c h n o lo g y i m p le m e n ta tio n . This kind o f a n a ly sis p ro v id e d a n s w e r s
t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n o n e .
T h e d a t a fro m t h e s e lf-a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y a n d p e rs o n a l
in te rv ie w s w e re a n a ly z e d t o c la ssify t e c h n o lo g y le a d e r s an d
fo llo w ers a n d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e kinds o f be liefs held by individuals
a n d g r o u p s a n d t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s , t e a c h e r s ' in stru c tio n a l p r a c tic e s ,
a n d t h e e x t e n t t o which all t h e s e v ariab les h a v e in flu e n ce d t e a c h e r s '
a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e curriculum . T h e s e r e s u l ts p rov id ed
a n s w e r s t o r e s e a r c h q u e s t i o n s tw o a n d t h r e e .
T h e an aly sis t e c h n iq u e u s e d t o u n c o v e r t h e s t r u c t u r e o f
r e la tio n s h ip s a m o n g n u m e r o u s v a ria b le s, m u ltid im e n s io n a l sc alin g
(MDS), w a s s e l e c t e d b e c a u s e it p e rm its t h e u s e o f d a t a sa tisfy in g :
( a ) only m inim al a s s u m p t io n s re g a rd in g t h e level o f m e a s u r e m e n t
involved a n d (b ) only v e ry b a sic tria n g u la tio n a s s u m p t io n s reg a rd in g
re la tio n s h ip s a m o n g v a ria b le s. This is im p o r t a n t w h e n t h e n u m b e r o f
c a s e s is sm all a s is t h e s i t u a t i o n o f th is s tu d y . T h e prim ary re s u lt
o f th is t y p e o f a n a ly sis is a g raphical d isp la y o f r e la tio n s h ip s a m o n g
e n t i t i e s in a s y s t e m , r a t h e r t h a n s t a t i s t i c a l in f e r e n c e s . Since
r e s p o n s e s t o e a c h v a ria b le w e re on a unipolar sc a le , c a lc u la te d
r e l a ti o n s h i p s v a r ie d fro m high sim ilarity (low d is s im ila rity ) t o low

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sim ilarity (high d issim ila rity ) a n d , a s a re s u lt, w e r e re la tiv e ly e a s y
t o i n te r p r e t .
In o t h e r w o rd s , m u ltid im e n sio n a l sc alin g s e e m e d w e ll-s u ite d
t o t h e a n a ly sis o b j e c ti v e s o f th is r e s e a r c h sin c e it a t t e m p t s t o
fa c ilita te u n d e rs ta n d in g by red u c in g a large a n d c o m p le x s e t of
re la tio n s h ip s t o a s p a tia l a n a lo g in w hich e a c h e n t i t y is r e p r e s e n t e d
in a s p a c e w ith j u s t a fe w d im e n sio n s. I n te r p r e ta tio n o f t h e s p a tia l
p lo t inv olv es looking fo r c lu s te r s , p a t t e r n s , flow s a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f
e n t i t i e s w ithin t h e s p a c e . T h e a x e s t h e m s e l v e s d o n o t n e c e ssa rily
m e a n a n y th in g in su c h analysis.
A nalysis o f Q u a lita tiv e D a ta R egarding
E volution o f T e c h n o lo g y I m p le m e n ta tio n
T h e d a t a c o lle c te d t h r o u g h t h e review s o f Kendon sc h o o l
r e c o rd s , m e e ti n g p r o c e e d in g s , p a r tic ip a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s , a n d
f o r m a tiv e e v a lu a tio n (i.e., fir s t a p p r o a c h o f t h e d a t a c o lle c tio n )
w e re a n a ly z e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f K endon E le m e n ta ry
a n d K endon te c h n o lo g y vision an d im p le m e n ta tio n p ro c e s s .
In fo rm a tio n on K end on sc h o o l curriculum , individuals a n d g r o u p s
w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s te m , t h e n a t u r e o f th e ir in v o lv e m e n t in
t e c h n o lo g y is s u e s a n d a c tiv itie s , a n d th e ir c o n c e r n s w e re c arefu lly
s tu d i e d . P articu larly , a t t e n t i o n w a s g iv en t o t h e following:
n a tu r e o f issu e s, c o n c e r n s , ideas, s u g g e s t i o n ra ise d a n d
r e s o lu tio n s o r d e c is io n s m a d e a b o u t te c h n o lo g y
kinds a n d s o u r c e s o f te c h n o lo g ie s o b t a i n e d a n d u s e d e a c h
year
in s tru c tio n a l p u r p o s e s s e r v e d by t h o s e te c h n o lo g ie s
all individuals a n d g r o u p s w ho h a v e d ire c tly o r ind irectly
p a r t i c i p a t e d in t e c h n o lo g y d is c u s s io n s a n d a c tiv itie s
m a jo r c o m m e n t s a n d s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t a n d by individuals
a n d g r o u p s w ith re g a rd t o te c h n o lo g y
p e rs o n a l a n d p r o fe s s io n a l i n t e r e s t s m a n i f e s t e d by
individuals a n d g r o u p s

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a c t iv e a n d in a c tiv e p a rtic ip a tio n , c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d
m o tiv a tio n a l skills m a n i f e s t e d d uring t e c h n o lo g y
d i s c u s s i o n s a n d a c t iv i t ie s
individual a n d g r o u p f r u s t r a t i o n s , a n x ie ty ,
e n c o u r a g e m e n t , a n d e n th u s ia s m w ith t e c h n o lo g y
te c h n ic a l a n d p e rs o n n e l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s
e tc .
This a n a ly s is h e lp e d m e id e n tify t h e kind o f te c h n o lo g ic a l
in n o v a tio n s t h a t h a v e t a k e n place, t h e m edia or te c h n o lo g y u se d , th e
im p a c t s o f t h e te c h n o lo g y on d i f f e r e n t in stru c tio n a l e v e n t s , t h e r a te
o f a d o p tio n o v e r t h e five y e a r period, a n d d if f e r e n t roles and
in flu e n c e s o f individuals a n d g ro u p s w ithin K endon sc h o o l s y s te m .
T h e s e t h o r o u g h rev ie w s p ro v id e d d e ta ile d in fo rm a tio n re s p o n d in g to
r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n o n e , re g a rd in g t h e e v o lu tio n o f te c h n o lo g y
i m p le m e n ta tio n in t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m .
A n aly sis o f Q u a lita tiv e D a ta R egarding
C o m m e n t s a n d O b s e rv a tio n s
All re c u rrin g m a jo r e v e n t s , issu e s, an d p ro b le m s (i.e.,
c o n t e x t u a l in fo rm a tio n ) n a r r a t e d a n d / o r s t a t e d w hich w e re
id e n tifie d fro m t h e s c h o o l re c o rd s , m e e tin g p r o c e e d in g s , w r itte n
r e s p o n s e s t o s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d s u rv e y , p e r s o n a l in te rv ie w s ,
f o r m a t iv e e v a lu a tio n , a n d p a r t i c i p a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s w e r e c a re fu lly
n o te d . In fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d fro m all t h e s e s o u r c e s h e lp e d m e t o g e t
d e ta il e d in fo rm a tio n on K endo n p a r e n t s , c o m m u n ity p a r t n e r s , s ta f f,
f a c u lty , L an sing S chool D istrict, a n d Michigan S t a t e U niversity
c o l l a b o r a t o r s a s well a s t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e ro les, in flu e n c e s , b e lie fs,
a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s a b o u t K endon te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p ro g ra m s
o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s . T hus, th is b ro a d p ic tu re g u id ed m y
c o n s t r u c t io n o f an h isto ric al profile o f K endon te c h n o lo g y b e tw e e n
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 an d 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a rs.

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A nalysis Of Q u a n tita tiv e D a ta o n Kendon T e c h n o lo g y
L e a d e rs an d Follow ers a n d D ata on Beliefs. E x p e c ta tio n s
and In stru ctio n al P ra c tic e s
Each q u e s t io n in t h e s e lf -a d m in is te r e d s u rv e y h a d r e s p o n s e
c a t e g o r i e s ranging fro m "N one" t o "Very High", an d r e s p o n s e s t o e a c h
w e re c o d e d 0 th r o u g h 5. T he graphical s u m m a ry a n a ly s e s d e sc rib e d
b elow w e re p e rfo rm e d using th is c o d ing o f t h e d a ta .
Graphical analysis. D issim ilarity c o e f f i c i e n t s w e r e c a l c u l a t e d
fro m d a ta c o d e d fro m n o n e ( 0 ) t o v e ry high (5 ). Tw o in te ra s s o c ia tio n

m a t r i c e s o f E uclidean d i s t a n c e s (S picer, 1 9 7 2 ) w e re c a l c u l a t e d first, o n e m atrix r e p r e s e n ti n g d a t a c o lle c te d fro m q u e s t io n s 1 a n d 2
o f t h e q u e s tio n n a ir e ( s e e s e c tio n A o f A p p e n d ic e s A a n d B: "D e g ree of
In flu en c e") w ith r e g a r d t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n tw o , a n d s e c o n d ,
a n o t h e r m atrix , r e p r e s e n ti n g v a ria b le s o n q u e s t io n s 3 - 3 4 ( s e e
s e c t i o n s B t o F o f A p p e n d ic e s A a n d B) w ith r e s p e c t t o r e s e a rc h
q u e s t io n t h r e e .
Each m a trix w a s in p u t t o t h e m u ltid im e n sio n al scalin g (MDS)
p r o c e d u r e a n d a 3 -d im e n sio n a l so lu tio n w a s c a lc u la te d . T h e
c o o r d i n a te s w e re t h e n p l o t t e d t o p ro d u c e a 3-D sp a tia l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f d i s t a n c e re la tio n s h ip s a m o n g t h e v a ria b le s
in v o lv e d .
C o n c ern in g r e s e a r c h q u e s t io n tw o , th is t e c h n iq u e w a s u s e d t o
s e e re la tio n s h ip s t h a t e x i s t e d b e tw e e n t e c h n o lo g y le a d e r s a n d
fo llo w ers o v e r t h e five y e a r period ( q u e s tio n s 1 a n d 2 o f t h e s e lf ­
a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y q u e s tio n n a ire of A p p e n d ic e s A a n d B). This
te c h n iq u e h e lp e d m e u n d e r s t a n d t h e d e g r e e o f influence an d t h e kinds
o f ro les p la y e d by individuals and g r o u p s within t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m
o v e r tim e . I w a s t h e n a b le t o cla ssify t h e s e individuals a n d g r o u p s
a s e i t h e r t e c h n o lo g y le a d e r s (in n o v a to r s , opinion le a d e rs , o r early
a d o p t e r s ) o r fo llo w e rs (i.e., a u th o r i ty d e c is io n -m a k e rs o r la te
m a jo rity a d o p t e r s ) . Also, th is in fo rm a tio n h e lp e d m e e x a m in e t h e
p a c e o r r a t e o f a d o p tio n o f individuals a n d g ro u p s within t h e scho ol
s y s t e m a n d t h e q u a lity o f in s tru c tio n on t h e b a sis o f o rg a n iz a tio n a l

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c u ltu r e s u c h a s te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s , in se rv ic e tra in in g
p r o g r a m s , in s tr u c tio n a l po licies, a n d m o tiv a tio n a l s t r a t e g i e s
sp e c ific t o K endon scho ol.
C o n c ern in g r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n t h r e e , t h e a n a ly sis te c h n iq u e
w a s u s e d t o e x a m in e t h e d a t a in o r d e r t o id en tify t h e kinds o f
b e lie fs p e rc e iv e d b y t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts o f individuals a n d g r o u p s
w ithin t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m , t h e i r e x p e c t a t i o n s fo r s u c c e s s f u l
i m p le m e n ta tio n o f t h e te c h n o lo g y , a n d t h e p e rc e iv e d in stru c tio n a l
p r a c tic e s o f K endon t e a c h e r s ( s u r v e y q u e s t io n s 3 - 3 4 o f
A p p e n d ic e s A an d B).
Sum m ary statistics. A d e s c r ip tiv e a n aly sis w a s run t o p ro d u c e
s u m m a r y s t a t i s t i c s fo r all q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h s e lf ­
a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y s ( q u e s t io n s 1 - 3 4 of A p p e n d ic e s A a n d B). All
t h e i te m s on t h e q u e s tio n n a ir e w e re c la ssifie d in to six d o m a in s in

t h e fo rm o f ta b le s : D e g re e o f Influences; T e c h n o lo g y Invo lvem ent;
a n d N a tu re Of In fluences s o u g h t r e s p o n s e s t o r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n tw o.
B eliefs a n d E x p e c ta tio n s ; T e c h n o lo g y A d o ptio n; a n d T e c h n o lo g ic al
C h a n g e s O v e r Five Year Period also s o u g h t r e s p o n s e s t o re s e a r c h
q u e s t io n t h r e e .
R e s p o n s e s o f 0 t o 2 w e re classified a s "low", p e r c e n t a g e s for
s c o r e 3 w e re c la ssified a s an " a v e r a g e " , a n d p e r c e n t a g e s fo r s c o r e s
4 a n d 5 w e re c la ssified a s "high" a n d p e r c e n t a g e s w e re c a lc u la te d .
C a te g o riz in g t h e s c o r e s h e lp e d m e t o u n d e r s ta n d a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e
r e s p o n s e s re g a rd in g p e r c e p t i o n s o f t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n .
A nalysis Of Q u a litativ e D a ta on K endon T e c h n o lo g y
L e a d e rs a n d Follow ers a n d D a ta on Beliefs. E x p e c ta tio n s
an d In stru ctio n al P ra c tic e s
T h e q u a lita tiv e d a t a g a t h e r e d th r o u g h t h e w r itte n o p e n - e n d e d
r e s p o n s e s t o e a c h q u e s t io n in t h e s e lf - a d m in is te r e d s u rv e y
q u e s t io n n a ir e a n d t h e s t r u c t u r e d in te rv ie w s a d d r e s s in g t h e s e s a m e
q u e s t i o n s w e r e e x a m in e d t o id e n tify t h e m e s .

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W hen c o d in g an d classify ing t h e t h e m e s an d s u b t h e m e s
id en tifie d , a t t e n t i o n w a s given t o t h e following.
1.
Major p h r a s e s o r s t a t e m e n t s by t h e p a r tic ip a n ts t h a t
c a p t u r e t h e f u n d a m e n ta l m e a n in g o r sig n ific a n c e of
K endon te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v atio n s.
2.
E sse n tia l s t a t e m e n t s by t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts a b o u t th e ir
p e rs o n a l a t t r i b u t e s a n d p r o f e s s io n a l a c tiv itie s o f t h e
l e a d e r s a n d fo llo w ers w ith r e g a r d t o c o m p u t e r
ap p lic a tio n s.
3.
Specific q u a litie s, s i tu a tio n s , a n d c o n t e x t s , t h a t h a v e
b e e n t h e p re o c c u p a tio n o f t h e s e te c h n o lo g y a c t o r s t o
m ak e te c h n o lo g y w ork a t Kendon.
4.
O th e r m o tiv a tio n a l a n d hindering f a c t o r s t h a t h a v e
in flu e n ce d t e a c h e r s ' u s e s o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e
c la s s r o o m s a n d t h e la b o ra to ry .
All individual's w o r d s a n d s t o r i e s n a r r a t e d o r s t a t e d durin g t h e
o p e n - e n d e d r e s p o n s e s a n d in te rv ie w s w e r e c la ss ifie d by t h e m e s t o
fo rm c o m m o n p a t t e r n s . T h e te c h n iq u e s o u g h t t o id en tify s o m e
sp e c ific a t t r i b u t e s t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e d K en don t e c h n o lo g y le a d e rs .
For e a c h t y p e o f t h e m e a n d s u b t h e m e identified, a r e s p o n d e n t 's
r e s p o n s e w a s c o d e d a s a " 1 " if t h e t h e m e w a s m e n tio n e d an d w a s
c o d e d a s " 0 " if t h e t h e m e w a s n o t m e n tio n e d . Similarity
c o e f f ic ie n ts , using a fo rm u la " S 4 " (Gow er, 1 9 8 5 ) , w e r e c a lc u la te d
fro m t h e s e d a t a . T h e sim ilarity in te r a s s o c ia t io n m a trix w a s lo a d e d
in to m u ltid im e n sio n a l sc a lin g (MDS), a n d a 3 -d im e n s io n a l so lu tio n
w a s c a lc u la te d . T h e c o o r d i n a te s w e r e t h e n lo a d e d in to a p lo ttin g
p ro g r a m t o p r o d u c e a 3-D s p a tia l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f re la tio n s h ip s
a m o n g t h e v a ria b le s involved. T h us, t h e 3 D -p lo ts r e d u c e d t h e m atrix
o f re la tio n s h ip a n a lo g w hich s o u g h t t o re v e a l p a t t e r n s in
p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o n t h e kinds o f ro les, beliefs,
e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d in s tru c tio n a l c h a n g e s t h a t p rev a ile d w ithin t h e
sc h o o l s y s t e m o v e r t h e five y e a r period.

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R ationale fo r Com bining Q u a n tita tiv e an d Q u a lita tiv e D ata
All t h e v a ria b le s inclu ded in e a c h m atrix a n a ly z e d w e re b a s e d
on t h e s a m e uni-polar sc a le , and, a s a resu lt, t h e in d ices alw ay s
m e a n t t h e s a m e th in g . W ith sim ilarity a n d d issim ila rity indices,
v a lu e s w e r e a lw a y s p o sitiv e , t h e r e f o r e , t h e r e w e re no n e g a tiv e
re la tio n sh ip s. T h e g rap h ic al p lo ts h e lp e d t o s e e c lu s te r s , p a t t e r n s ,
flow s a n d s t r u c t u r e s o f e n t i t i e s w ithin t h e s p a c e . T h e s e r e s u l ts
f a c i li t a t e d t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e d a t a . F igu res I, II, lll-IIIC, IVA,
& IVB in c h a p t e r five a n d six r e p r e s e n t t h e g rap h ic al in fo rm a tio n
o b t a i n e d fro m t h e s e kinds o f s t a t i s t i c a l a n aly sis.
B oth t h e s t a t i s t i c a l in fo rm a tio n (in t h e fo rm o f q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a )
a n d p e rs o n a l c o m m e n t s a n d o b s e r v a tio n s (in t h e fo rm o f q u a lita tiv e
d a t a ) w e r e u s e d t o a n s w e r t h e t h r e e r e s e a r c h q u e s tio n s .

CHAPTER 4
EVOLUTION OF EDUCATIONAL
TECHNOLOGY IMPLEMENTATION
In tro d u c tio n
In Spring 1 9 9 4 , I s p e n t s e v e ra l w e e k s s tu d y in g K endon scho ol
s y s t e m a n d t h e im p le m e n ta tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e sc h o o l
curriculum . T h e p u r p o s e s o f th is p o rtio n o f t h e s t u d y w e re to:
u n d e r s t a n d t h e sc h o o l c o n t e x t a n d h isto ry
id e n tify k e y is s u e s sp e c ific t o K endon s c h o o l s y s t e m
d e s c r ib e t h e e v o lu tio n o f te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s
a s s e s s t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e in te r p e r s o n a l d y n a m ic s o f
individuals an d g ro u p s h a v e in flu e n ce d a n d b e e n
in flu e n ce d by t h e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n ,
e x a m in e t h e v a rio u s w a y s in which t e a c h i n g a n d learning
c h a n g e d a s te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s o c c u rr e d in t h e schoo l
fro m t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 sch ool y e a r t o t h e p r e s e n t.
A v a rie ty o f s o u r c e s w e r e c o n s id e r e d f o r d a t a c o lle c tio n . First, w ith
t h e p e rm iss io n o f t h e s c h o o l principal, I r e v ie w e d all K endon
te c h n o lo g y r e l a te d d o c u m e n t s s u c h a s End o f Y ear R e p o rts ( s e e
1 9 9 3 / 9 4 e x a m p le in A ppen dix K) a n d audio c a s s e t t e s o f all m e e tin g
p r o c e e d in g s su c h a s School Im p ro v e m e n t T e a m fro m 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 to
1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r s . S e c o n d , d a t a w e re c o lle c te d fro m Kendon
c la s s ro o m s a n d c o m p u t e r te a c h i n g la b o r a to r y th r o u g h m y p a r tic ip a n t
o b s e r v a tio n s . Third, in Spring te r m , 1 9 9 4 I c o n d u c t e d an informal
f o r m a tiv e e v a lu a tio n t o a s s e s s t e a c h e r s ' n e e d s a n d c o n c e rn s , a n d t h e
e x t e n t t o w hich c o m p u t e r s w e re being u s e d in t h e c la s s r o o m s and
la b o r a to r y s e t t i n g ( s e e A ppendix C).

60

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T h e in fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d fro m t h e s e s o u r c e s h e lp e d m e t o
u n d e r s ta n d t h e b a c k g ro u n d o f Kendon school c o n t e x t an d its
o rg a n iz a tio n a l m a n a g e m e n t . This in fo rm a tio n p ro v id e d e v id e n c e
p e rta in in g t o t h e p u r p o s e s o u tlin e d a b o v e . S o m e o f th is in fo rm a tio n
w a s also u s e d t o s t r u c t u r e an d s u p p o r t e v id e n c e g a t h e r e d for
a n o t h e r p o rtio n o f t h e s tu d y .
T h e s t u d y s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e e v o lu tio n o f te c h n o lo g ic a l
in n o v a tio n s a t K endon School c a n be d e s c rib e d as o c cu rrin g in fo u r
p h a s e s o v e r t h e five y e a r period. B efo re d isc u ssin g t h e s e p h a s e s in
detail, I w a n t t o begin b y d e scrib in g t h e school.
B ack g ro u n d o f K endon E le m e n ta ry
S e t ti n g a n d H isto ry
K endon E le m e n ta ry School is lo c a te d in t h e s o u t h e r n p a r t o f
Lansing, t h e c a p ita l o f Michigan. T h e scho ol w a s built in 1 9 5 8 and
e x t e n d e d in 1 9 6 1 . Kendon School h a s 1 4 c la ss ro o m s , o n e m e d iu m ­
s iz e d g y m n a s iu m , a n d a library. T h e re a re fo u r sm all
c o n f e r e n c e / s t o r a g e ro o m s lo c a te d a t e ith e r e n d o f t h e building.
K endon E le m e n ta ry is a sp e cia l school, n o t m e re ly b e c a u s e o f
t h e c o m m i tm e n t o f t h e fa c u lty a n d s ta f f , b u t b e c a u s e it is o n e of t h e
f o u r s c h o o ls ( tw o e le m e n ta r y , o n e m iddle an d o n e high) in Lansing
t h a t h a v e b e e n s e l e c t e d a s P ro fe ssio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t S chools (PDS).
As a PDS, K endon h a s e x p e r im e n te d w ith m aking c h a n g e s in
c la s s r o o m p r a c t i c e s a n d s c h o o l o rg a n iz a tio n . In c o lla b o ra tio n w ith
u n iv e rsity fa c u lty a n d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s fro m Michigan S t a t e
U niversity, t e a c h e r s r e f l e c t u p o n th e i r p r a c tic e s , w o rk th r o u g h th e ir
s t r u g g l e s a n d a c k n o w le d g e th e ir s u c c e s s e s a s t h e y c r e a t e a richer
learn ing c o m m u n ity f o r s t u d e n t s .
K end on S chool c o m m u n ity brin gs m uch d iv e rs ity t o t h e sch ool
s e t ti n g . T h e re a re d is tin c t fam ily g r o u p s t h a t a t t e n d K endon School:
n e ig h b o rh o o d s t u d e n t s w h o walk t o sch o o l a n d s t u d e n t s living in t h e
d o w n to w n a re a . Children a n d fam ilies fro m t h e c o m m u n itie s t h a t
K endon s e r v e s d if f e r a lo ng m a n y dim en sio n s: s o c io e c o n o m ic s t a t u s ,
prior e x p e rie n c e , i n t e r e s t in an d c o n c e rn w ith e d u c a tio n , an d

62

e th n ic ity . T h e v a ria b le s in h e r e n t in t h e K endon c o m m u n ity a t large
m a k e it a ch allen g in g a s well as rew ardin g place t o t e a c h a n d learn.
K endon m ission s t a t e m e n t . T h e m ission o f K endon E le m e n tary
P ro fe ssio n a l D e v e lo p m e n t S chool is t o p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s f o r t h e
f u t u r e by w orking c o o p e r a tiv e ly w ith p a r e n t s , t h e c o m m u n ity , and
e d u c a tio n a l fa c u lty . T o g e t h e r t h e sc h o o l will c r e a t e an o r g a n iz e d an d
s u p p o r tiv e learning c o m m u n ity . T h e sc h o o l s y s t e m will a c c e p t a n d
a c c o m m o d a t e d iv ersity . K endon s t u d e n t s will b e c o m e r e s p o n sib le
a n d p ro d u c tiv e c itiz e n s w h o will u s e th e ir s t r o n g k n o w le d g e b a s e t o
e n g a g e in critical th in k in g a n d p ro b le m -so lv in g fo r lifelong learning.
O rg a n iz a tio n a l C u lture a n d M a n a g e m e n t
In an e f f o r t t o build a fa v o ra b le learning c o m m u n ity , K endon
s t a f f in c o lla b o ra tio n w ith e x te r n a l a g e n t s e s t a b l i s h e d a s t r o n g
o rg a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu re an d m a n a g e m e n t t h a t s o u g h t t o re s p o n d t o t h e
a s p ir a tio n s o f individuals a n d g r o u p s w ithin t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m .
K end on s t a f f . K endon reg u la r s t a f f fo r 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r
c o n s i s t e d o f a principal, 13 g e n e ra l e d u c a ti o n c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r s ,
f o u r s e n io r in te rn s t u d e n t t e a c h e r s , o n e sp e cia l e d u c a ti o n t e a c h e r ,
o n e s p e c ia l e d u c a ti o n c o n s u l ta n t, o n e re a d in g t e a c h e r , a p a rt- tim e
librarian, a p a r t - t i m e p r e v e n t i o n s p e c ia lis t, t h r e e lea rn in g
s p e c ia lis ts , six fa c u lty m e m b e r s a n d f o u r g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t s o f
Michigan S t a t e U niversity, a s p e c ia l e d u c a ti o n in s tr u c tio n a l
a s s i s t a n t , t h r e e " C h a p te r 1" in s tr u c tio n a l a s s i s t a n t s , o n e p a r t - t im e
p a r e n t L ending Library c o o rd in a to r , o n e lunch c ash ie r, e le v e n lunch
a s s i s t a n t s , a s e c r e t a r y a n d t w o c u s to d ia n s . This s t a f f r e p r e s e n t e d
d if f e r e n t g r o u p s o f p e o p le a n d e x p e r tis e t h a t p ro v id e d s u p p o r t an d
k n o w le d g e fo r t h e s t u d e n t s t h e y se rv e d .
S t u d e n t d a t a . T h e re w e re 3 3 3 s t u d e n t s during 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sch ool
y e a r a t t e n d i n g K endon E le m e n ta ry PDS. T h e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s p e r
c la s s is p r e s e n t e d a s follow s:

63

K in d e rg a rte n
61

G rade 1
66

G rade2
47

G rade3
52

G rade4
55

G rade 5
52

P a r e n t / c o m m u n i t v in v o lv e m e n t. T h e aim o f try in g t o bring
K endon p a r e n t s a n d c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s into t h e sc h o o l h a s b e e n t o
help t h e m u n d e r s t a n d t h e kind o f inn ovative te a c h in g a n d learning
t h a t t h e f a c u lty a re try in g t o i n te g r a t e a c r o s s t h e curriculum . T he
a s s u m p tio n is t h a t p a r e n t s ' in v o lv e m e n t in an d u n d e rs ta n d in g of t h e
f a c u l t y 's w ork will e n a b le t h e m t o b e t t e r s u p p o r t t h e i r c h ild re n 's
learn ing e f f o r t s in sc h o o l.
S choo l im p r o v e m e n t p r o c e s s . T he K endon s t a f f in c o o p e ra tio n
w ith Michigan P a r tn e rs h ip fo r New E d u ca tio n a n d t h e S t a t e of
Michigan (R e q u ir e m e n t o f ) Public A c t 2 5 e s t a b l is h e d a S chool
I m p ro v e m e n t T e a m (S.l.T). This is a policy-m aking um brella fo r th e
sch ool an d a ls o a c t s a s t h e s i t e - b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t t e a m required
fo r s c h o o l im p r o v e m e n t a s m a n d a te d by t h e School District.
M e m b ersh ip is v o lu n ta ry a n d includes t h e sc h o o l principal, Kendon
t e a c h e r s , Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o ra to rs , a n d K endon
p a r e n t s . A five m e m b e r E x ec u tiv e C o m m itte e f a c ilita te s t h e w ork o f
t h e School Im p r o v e m e n t T e a m .
T h e K endon f a c u lty m e m b e r s h a v e b e e n c o m m i tt e d t o reversing
t h e h isto ric al p a t t e r n o f s c h o o ls poorly se rv in g d iv e r s e p o p u la tio n s
o f s t u d e n t s . T h e c o n c e rn f o r helping all s t u d e n t s learn a b o u t s u b j e c t
m a t t e r , a b o u t p ro b le m solving, a n d a b o u t t h e m s e l v e s a s individuals
is c e n tr a l t o t h e f a c u l ty ’s work. This PDS w ork h as b e e n on g o in g a t
K endon fo r five y e a r s . In 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 , t h e initial e x p lo ra tio n an d
i m p le m e n ta tio n o f PDS g o a ls a n d p r o je c ts b e g a n . In 1 9 9 0 - 9 1 , th is
w ork c o n tin u e d a n d e x p a n d e d a s m o re t e a c h e r s p a rtic ip a te d in PDS
r e l a te d p r o j e c ts a n d m e t regularly during t h e t e a c h e r s ' ow n tim e
b e fo re a n d a f t e r sc h o o l a s well a s " e x t e n d e d lun ches".

64

R egarding t h e e x t e n d e d lunches, Kendon f a c u lty s c h e d u le d a
sc h o o l-w id e m e e t i n g s of t h e fa c u lty o n c e e v e r y six w e e k s fo r th e
e n tire 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 a n d 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 school y e a r s . During t h o s e m e e tin g s ,
f a c u lty m e m b e r s d i s c u s s e d t h e s c h o o l-w id e in s tru c tio n a l p r o g r a m s
su c h a s literacy , te c h n o lo g y , and m a t h e m a t i c s p r o je c ts . T h e s e
d is c u s s io n s f o c u s e d m ainly on p a re n t- s c h o o l c o n n e c ti o n s a n d
t e a c h in g fo r u n d e r s t a n d i n g in v a rio u s s u b j e c t s (e .g ., m a t h e m a ti c s ) .
As an a d d itio n a l c o n t e x t , fa c u lty w o rk e d sp e cifica lly on building
s c h o o l- w id e t r u s t .
In a d d itio n , t h e s c h o o l fa c u lty d e c id e d t o e x p e r i m e n t w ith a
m odel o f r e a l lo c a t e d tim e t h a t in volved hiring p a r t - t i m e t e a c h e r s
and a llow ed re g u la r t e a c h e r s t o f o c u s on PDS work. Specifically, by
hiring p a r t - t i m e t e a c h e r s , reg u la r s t a f f m e m b e r s co u ld b e r e le a s e d
fro m t h e i r te a c h i n g re s p o n sib ilitie s f o r an e n ti r e m o rn in g o r
a f t e r n o o n e v e r y w e e k . During th e re le a s e d tim e, t e a c h e r s w o rk e d on
curricula, m e t w ith Michigan S t a t e U niv ersity c o lla b o r a to rs , and, in
g e n e ra l, id e n tifie d a n d so lv e d p ro b le m s r e la te d t o th e ir
e x p e r i m e n t a t io n w ith n e w p e d a g o g y . Using a sim ilar o rg a n iz a tio n a l
fra m e w o rk d e v e l o p e d in t h e p re c e d in g y e a r s , w ork t o w a rd m aking
c o n c r e t e PDS g o a ls a n d principles c o n tin u e s .
K e n d o n School a n d U niversity F a c u lty Alliance. In an a t t e m p t t o
p r e p a re s t u d e n t s f o r t h e 2 1 s t c e n tu r y , Kendon f a c u lty s tro n g ly felt
t h a t t e a c h e r s n e e d e d an o p p o rtu n ity t o work in c o lla b o ra tio n with
Michigan S t a t e U niversity fa c u lty m e m b e r s in d e v e lo p in g a n d
de sig n in g p ro g ra m s . T h e y also f e lt t h e n e e d t o v o ice th e i r view s on
issu e s r e l a te d t o PDS w ork. D espite all t h e e f f o r t s t h a t h a d g o n e
into e s ta b lis h in g a learn in g c o m m u n ity , t h e r e w a s still a n e e d t o pay
g r e a t e r a t t e n t i o n t o building sc h o o l-w id e t r u s t . In 1 9 9 2 - 1 9 9 3 , t h e
s t a f f e n g a g e d in a n u m b e r o f t e a m building a c tiv itie s d e s ig n e d t o
help s t a f f m e m b e r s u n d e r s t a n d d i f f e r e n t c o m m u n ic a tio n s t y l e s an d
build t r u s t b e t w e e n s t a f f m e m b e rs . In 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 t h e s t a f f p lan n e d
to c o n ti n u e t e a m building e x e r c is e s w ith c o n tin u in g a t t e n t i o n t o
building s t a f f t r u s t .

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K endon T e c h n o lo g y Vision.
T h e s c h o o l's t e c h n o lo g y vision fo r t h e p a s t five sc h o o l y e a r s
w a s t h a t c o m p u t e r s an d r e la te d te c h n o lo g ie s w ould b e c o m e an
in te g ra l p a r t o f in s tru c tio n a l a c tiv itie s a t t h e sc h o o l. W hen
i m p le m e n te d a p p ro p ria te ly , c o m p u t e r s m a y b e t o o ls t h a t could
e n h a n c e thinking, p ro b le m solving, and c o m m u n ic a tio n . T h e scho ol
s y s t e m , t h e r e f o r e , a im e d t o c r e a t e an e n v ir o n m e n t in w hich s t u d e n t s
a n d t e a c h e r s c o uld a p ply c o m p u t e r s t o fa c ilita te th e ir w ork and
learning. Specifically, th is re q u ire d t h a t s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s
b e c a m e fam iliar w ith m u ltip le c a p a b ilitie s o f c o m p u t e r s a n d le a rn e d
how t o a p p ly t h e m t o m e e tin g th e ir in stru c tio n a l n e e d s s u c h a s w ord
a n d d a t a p ro c e s s in g , publishing, an d a c c e s s in g in fo rm a tio n . T hus,
Kendon sc h o o l s y s t e m w ould c o n tin u e t o p r e p a r e s t u d e n t s t o
p a r t i c i p a te a n d c o n tr i b u te t o a s o c i e t y in w hich in fo rm a tio n
te c h n o lo g ie s a re c e n tr a l ( s e e A ppendix K: 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 Annual R epo rt).
T h e fra m e w o rk o f th is te c h n o lo g y vision e n c o u r a g e d Kendon
f a c u lty t o s e e k e x te r n a l s u p p o r t ( e q u ip m e n t, financial, te c h n ic a l,
p e rs o n n e l) f r o m t h e S chool D istrict, Michigan P a r tn e r s h ip fo r New
E d u ca tio n , Michigan S t a t e U niversity, an d s o m e Michigan b u s in e s s
firms. T h e sc h o o l t o o k t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o form ally in tro d u c e
c o m p u t e r t e c h n o lo g y in to t h e sc h o o l curriculum w h e n P ro fe ssio n a l
D e v e lo p m e n t S chool P ro g ra m s w e re fir s t e s ta b lis h e d a t K endon
E le m e n ta ry in 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 sc h o o l y e a r. As a s t r a t e g i c plan, t h e sch ool
d e c id e d t o fo rm a " te c h n o lo g y g ro u p " in t h e s a m e y e a r t o s u p p o r t t h e
te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan. T h e g ro u p c o n s i s t e d o f o n e fa c u lty
a n d o n e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t fro m Michigan S t a t e U niversity, t h e sc h o o l
principal, a n d o n e K endon t e a c h e r . O ver t h e p a s t five y e a r s , t h e
s c h o o l h a s e n g a g e d in s e v e ra l te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s, b o th sm all a n d
larg e s c a le .

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P h a s e s o f K endon T e c h n o lo g y Im p le m e n ta tio n
O v e r v ie w
T h e p h a s e s o f K endon te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s t h a t a re p r e s e n t e d
in t h e r e s t o f th is c h a p t e r a re b a s e d on t h e d iffusion o f in n o v atio n s
m odel p r o p o s e d by R ogers and S h o e m a k e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) in th e ir book
e n title d "C o m m u n ic a tio n o f In n ovations". This m o d el s u g g e s t s th r e e
s e q u e n tia l s t a g e s in t h e p r o c e s s o f social c h a n g e : invention,
diffusion, a n d c o n s e q u e n c e s . T h e social s t r u c tu r e , a c c o rd in g t o th e
m odel, c o n s i s t s o f t h e s t a t u s e s o r p o sitio n s in a social s y s t e m an d
t h e s y s t e m a c t s t o im p e d e o r fa c ilita te t h e r a t e o f d iffusion and
a d o p tio n o f new id e a s th ro u g h w h a t a re called " s y s t e m e f f e c t s " .
A ccording t o R ogers a n d S h o e m a k e r, t h e m ain e l e m e n t s in t h e
diffusion o f n e w id ea s a re : ( 1 ) t h e innovation, ( 2 ) which a re
c o m m u n ic a te d th ro u g h c e r ta in c h a n n e ls , ( 3 ) o v e r tim e , ( 4 ) a m o n g t h e
m e m b e r s o f a social s y s t e m . T h e y a s s e r t t h a t t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f
an in n o vation, a s p e rc e iv e d by t h e m e m b e r s o f a social s y s te m ,
d e te r m i n e its r a t e o f a d o p tio n . Five a t t r i b u t e s o f in n o v a tio n s a re
id e n tifie d in th is m odel: ( 1 ) re la tiv e a d v a n t a g e , ( 2 ) c o m p a tib ility ,
( 3 ) c o m p le x ity , ( 4 ) trialability, a n d ( 5 ) o b se rv a b ility . A c co rd in g t o
th is m o d el, in n o v a tiv e n e s s is t h e d e g r e e t o w hich an individual is
rela tiv e ly e a rlie r in a d o p tin g new id e a s t h a n o t h e r m e m b e r s o f his
so c ial s y s t e m .
Five a d o p t e r c a t e g o r i e s a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith th is m odel: (1 )
in n o v a to rs , ( 2 ) e arly a d o p t e r s , ( 3 ) early m ajo rity , ( 4 ) la te m ajo rity ,
( 5 ) lag g a rd s. R ogers a n d S h o e m a k e r ( 1 9 7 1 ) a rg u e f u r t h e r t h a t
diffu sio n o c c u r s w ithin a social s y s t e m b e c a u s e t h e s y s t e m 's social
s t r u c t u r e c a n h a v e an im p o r t a n t influence o n t h e s p r e a d o f new
ideas. It is also n o t e d in th is m o del t h a t diffusion m a y a lso c h a n g e
t h e social s t r u c t u r e o f a s y s t e m in t h e s e n s e t h a t m a n y in n o v atio n s
a re o f a r e s t r u c t u r in g n a tu r e .
P e rta in in g t o th is s tu d y , t h e following p h a s e s c o r r e s p o n d t o
t h e fir s t f o u r a d o p t e r c a t e g o r i e s m e n tio n e d earlier:
p h a s e I — in tr o d u c tio n o f t e c h n o lo g y w ith in n o v a to rs

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p h a s e II — e x te n s io n o f t h e u se o f te c h n o lo g y w ith
e arly a d o p te r s
p h a s e III — slow p a c e o f a d o p tio n w ith e a rly m a jo rity
p h a s e IV — sc h o o lw id e te c h n o lo g y i m p le m e n ta tio n
w ith la te m a jo rity a d o p te r s .
In t h e c o u r s e o f m y s tu d ie s , I w a s c o n s t a n t l y asking m y se lf
q u e s t io n s reg ard in g : t h e kinds o f s t r a t e g i e s t h a t t h e te c h n o lo g y
opinion le a d e rs ap plied a n d how t h e s e in flu e n ce d t h e p a c e o f
te c h n o lo g y a d o p tio n by K endon t e a c h e r s , p a r e n ts , a n d c o m m u n ity
b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s (fo llo w ers); t h e kinds o f t e a c h i n g a n d learning
p r o c e s s e s t h a t w e re ta k in g p lac e in t h e c la s s r o o m s a n d c o m p u t e r
t e a c h in g la b o ra to ry ; a n d t h e e x t e n t t o w hich t h e s e te c h n o lo g ic a l
in n o v a tio n s w e re being s u p p o r t e d by in te rn al a n d e x te r n a l a g e n t s on
b o th a s h o r t an d long t e r m basis. A t t h e e n d of t h e d isc u ssio n o f e a c h
i m p le m e n ta tio n p h a s e , I d is c u s s m y r e f le c tio n s o n t h e diffu sio n
p r o c e s s , c h a n g e s in te a c h i n g a n d learning p r a c tic e s , a n d
s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s.
P h a s e I: In tro d u c tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y w ith I n n o v a to rs
In 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 sc h o o l y e ar, Kendon PDS la u n c h e d a form al
te c h n o lo g y e x p e r im e n ta l p ro g ra m s . This involved K endon f a c u lty an d
s t u d e n t s , s o m e f a c u lty a n d s t u d e n t s o f Michigan S t a t e U niversity,
a n d g r a n t s fro m Apple C o m p u te r s a n d Kellogg F o u n d atio n . A
te c h n o lo g y g ro u p , c o n sistin g o f t h e sc h o o l principal, o n e Kendon
t e a c h e r , a n d t w o Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o ra to rs , w a s
f o r m e d in Fall 1 9 8 9 t o m a n a g e t h e im p le m e n ta tio n plan. During t h e
Fall a n d W in ter te r m s , t h e g ro u p e n g a g e d in a n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t
p r o c e s s t o s e t p riorities f o r te c h n o lo g y in n o v a tio n s. A n u m b e r o f
te c h n o lo g y p r o j e c ts w e re c o n s id e r e d a n d tr ie d o u t in o n e fifth g r a d e
c la ss ro o m .
T h e fif th g r a d e m u ltim e d ia p r o je c t. In t h e sp rin g o f 1 9 9 0 , a
g r o u p o f K endon fifth g r a d e s t u d e n t s a n d th e ir t e a c h e r , o n e p r o f e s s o r
an d a g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t fro m t h e College o f E ducation, Michigan S t a t e

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U niversity ( in n o v a to r s ) s t a r t e d t o o p e r a t e a " C o m p u te r C orner"
p r o j e c t w ith o n e A pple M acinto sh a n d a P io n e er L aserd isc Player a t
t h e b a ck o f t h e c la ss ro o m . T h e s t u d e n t s w e re firs t in tro d u c e d to th e
b a sic c o n c e p t s o f using c o m p u t e r k e y b o ard , m o u se , an d s o m e sim ple
ty p in g using M icrosoft W orks. L ater, w ith t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e
c la s s t e a c h e r , six s t u d e n t s w e re s e l e c t e d t o fo rm an " o p e r a t o r s
t e a m " (OT). T h e y w e re tr a in e d t o use t h e M acintosh, M icrosoft Works,
L aserd isc Player, an d H yperCard. W hen t h e o p e r a t o r s b e c a m e
c o m p e t e n t e n o u g h t h e c la s s la u n c h e d in to e x p e rim e n tin g w ith t h e
follow ing a c t iv i t ie s a s p a r t o f te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n e f f o r t s
(K end on E le m e n ta ry PDS Annual R eport, 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 ) .
1. The MicroExploratorium Project. A s i m u la t e d m u ltim e d ia
p ro g ra m d e v e lo p e d by tw o p r o f e s s o r s a n d s o m e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a t
Michigan S t a t e U niversity r e p r e s e n t e d s c ie n c e a n d m u s e u m
e x p lo ra tio n . T h e p a rtic ip a tin g s t u d e n t s u s e d t h e p r o g r a m t o e n g a g e
in h a n d s - o n s c i e n c e a c tiv itie s .
2. The Kendon Videodisc Project. A v ideo disc, p r e p a r e d by t h r e e
p r o f e s s o r s a n d s o m e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s o f t h e Michigan S t a t e
U n iversity , c a p t u r e d a c tiv itie s inside t h e K endon S chool a s well as
its s u rro u n d in g n e ig h b o rh o o d . A H yperC ard in te r f a c e w a s d e s ig n e d t o
e n c o u r a g e t h e s t u d e n t s t o w rite a b o u t t h e m s e lv e s , c la s s ro o m ,
sc h o o l, a n d / o r n e ig h b o rh o o d . This p e rs o n a liz a tio n o f t h e v id e o d isc
e x c i te d s t u d e n t s a n d s p a w n e d i n t e r e s t in w riting w hich w a s c a rrie d
in to o t h e r p r o j e c ts su c h a s t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f h y p e rc a r d d a t a b a s e s
a n d d a ta b a n k s .
3. The Voyager and the Solar System Project. A v id e o d is c , w ith
a H yperC ard in te rf a c e , p ro v id e d t h e s t u d e n t s w ith an o p p o r tu n ity t o
view s o m e d i s t a n t p la c e s a n d o b j e c t s in a s im u la te d "S o la r S y s te m " .
T h e s t u d e n t s t h e n u s e d t h e c o m p u t e r t o w rite s to r ie s a b o u t th e ir
s i m u la te d s p a c e "trip s " .
4. The Weekly Eagle Project. As w riting b e c a m e m o re
i m p o r t a n t in th is c la s s p r o je c t, t h r e e s t u d e n t s w e r e s t a r t e d a
c la s s ro o m n e w s p a p e r , "T h e W eekly Eagle", using M icrosoft Works.
T h e r e s t o f t h e p a r t i c i p a te d in t h e w riting o f t h e n e w s p a p e r

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c o v e rin g m a n y s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a re a s , including s c ie n c e an d
m a t h e m a ti c s . T h e s u c c e s s o f t h e p r o je c t quickly s p r e a d in to o t h e r
c la s s ro o m s . S o m e 3 rd g r a d e s t u d e n t s s u b m i tt e d a rtic le s fo r
publication. T h e fifth g r a d e o p e r a t o r s t e a m (OT) b e c a m e e d ito r s o f
K endon n e w s p a p e r, "T he W eekly Eagle" which w as p u b lish ed t h r e e
t im e s a w eek .
5. Famous African Am ericans Project. One u n d e rg r a d u a te
s t u d e n t fro m Michigan S t a t e U niversity d e s ig n e d a sim ple d a t a b a s e
w ith M icrosoft W orks. In th is p ro g ram , K endon s t u d e n t s t y p e d
in fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d fro m b o o k s in t h e library, th e ir t e a c h e r s , an d
p a r e n t s a b o u t v a rio u s in fluen tial A frican A m e ric an s.
6. F ractal Trees Project. One g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t d e s ig n e d a
HyperCard s t a c k called "F ra c ta l T r e e s " w hich t a u g h t a b o u t t h e
r e la tio n s h ip b e t w e e n initial s e t t i n g s o f e q u a t io n p a r a m e t e r s , t h e
size, a n d s h a p e o f t h e fr a c ta l t r e e d raw n by t h o s e e q u a tio n s .
S t u d e n t s in th is c la s s w e re e n c o u r a g e d t o u se th is p r o g ra m a s an
e d u c a tio n a l g a m e t o e n h a n c e th e ir m a t h e m a t i c s skills.
R e fle c tio n s on P h a s e I
A t t h e o u t s e t o f K endon s c h o o l's in v o lv e m en t w ith te c h n o lo g y ,
t h e sc h o o l e n d o r s e d a vision o f in te g r a tin g te c h n o lo g y into
i n s tr u c tio n a n d e s t a b l is h e d a sm all g r o u p of p e o p le e s p e c ia lly
i n t e r e s t e d in te c h n o lo g y . How ever, t h e fir s t a d o p tio n o f
te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s w a s b a s e d o n t h e p e rso n al d e c isio n o f o n e
t e a c h e r t o w e lc o m e o u t s i d e a g e n t s t o bring a p p lic a tio n s o f
te c h n o lo g y in to his c la s s ro o m . This t e a c h e r had v e ry little
k n o w le d g e o f m o d e rn in s tru c tio n a l te c h n o lo g y , b u t he e m b r a c e d t h e
e f f o r t w ith p e rs o n a l e n th u s ia s m a n d e n c o u r a g e d o t h e r t e a c h e r s t o
g e t th e i r s t u d e n t s involved in s o m e o f t h e p r o je c ts d o n e b y his class.
In o t h e r w o rd s, t h e firs t a d o p tio n w a s a m o d e s t " b o t to m - u p " s t a r t
w hich w a s well p u b lic iz e d w ithin t h e sc h o o l.
K endon sc h o o l fa c u lty m e m b e r s re c o g n iz e d t h a t t h e y could n o t
e f f e c tiv e ly im p le m e n t t h e te c h n o lo g y w ith o u t t h e s u p p o r t of
e x te r n a l a g e n t s o r e x p e r t is e . T h e id ea o f inviting u n iv e rs ity f a c u lty

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a n d g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s , p a r e n t s , an d c o m m u n ity b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s to
s u p p o r t t h e in n o v a tio n s w a s a firs t im p o r t a n t d e cisio n .
S u b s e q u e n tly , t h e fo rm a tio n o f te c h n o lo g y g ro u p , c o n sistin g o f
in te rn al a n d e x te rn a l a g e n t s , t o m a n a g e o r s u p p o r t t h e in n o v atio n s
w a s a s t r a t e g i c plan.
T h e te c h n o lo g y g ro u p fe lt t e a c h e r s an d s t u d e n t s c o uld learn
t o g e t h e r a b o u t t h e s e to o ls , c o n sid e rin g t h e n e w n e s s o f th is
in stru c tio n a l to o l t o t h e school. How ever, t h e y d e c id e d t o e m p o w e r
t h e s t u d e n t s first. This a p p ro a c h w a s m o re o f s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d t h a t
re q u ire d c la s s r o o m t e a c h e r ’s m ax im u m su p e rv isio n a n d
p a rtic ip a tio n . This im plies t h a t e v e n if s t u d e n t s i n t e r a c t e d d ire c tly
w ith t h e t e c h n o lo g y , t h e in te rv e n tio n o f c la s s ro o m t e a c h e r w a s
in d isp e n sa b le .
T h e e x p lo r a to r y n a t u r e o f m u ltim e d ia in s tr u c tio n a l a c tiv itie s
e x p e r ie n c e d in t h e fifth g r a d e c la s s ro o m w a s m o re o f d isc o v e ry
learnin g p r o c e s s e s . T he s t u d e n t s h a d t o i n t e r a c t d ire c tly w ith t h e
learnin g to o ls (i.e., s t u d e n t - t e c h n o l o g y in te r a c t iv e p r o c e s s ) t o m ake
s e n s e o f t h e e m b e d d e d c o n t e n t . During th is p ro c e s s , t h e c la ss
t e a c h e r h a d little c o n tro l o v e r t h e s t u d e n t s ' learning. T h e role o f t h e
t e a c h e r w a s, t h e r e f o r e , m o re o r le s s o f c la s s ro o m m a n a g e m e n t . Of
c o u r s e , th is radical c h a n g e req u ire d new c la s s m a n a g e m e n t skills as
well a s p e rs o n a l a n d p ro fe s s io n a l i n t e r e s t s . T h e im plication o f th is
s h if t o f in s tr u c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s is d is c r e tio n o f t h e c la s s t e a c h e r t o
d e c id e e i t h e r t o a c c o m m o d a t e o r r e j e c t t h e in n o v atio n s.
T h e s u c c e s s o f t h e fifth g r a d e s t u d e n t s ' t e c h n o lo g y p ro je c ts ,
e sp e c ia lly t h e c r e a t i o n o f c la s s " n e w s l e t t e r " , lead m e t o a s s e r t t h a t
if s t u d e n t s a re g iv e n t h e a p p r o p r ia te learning t o o l s a n d su p erv isio n ,
t h e y c a n t a k e c o n tro l o f th e i r ow n learning. T h a t is, e m p o w e rin g
s t u d e n t s t h r o u g h s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h could b e a s t r a t e g i c
plan t o te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n in s c h o o ls. H ow ever, t e a c h e r
g u id a n c e is a lw ay s i m p o r t a n t t o m a k e s u c h learning h a p p e n .
C o n sid e rin g t h e lim ited e q u ip m e n t w ith w hich t h e in n o v a tio n s
s t a r t e d , t e a c h e r 's lack o f e x p e r t is e in te c h n o lo g y , a n d , t o s o m e
e x t e n t , s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h , lead m e t o c o n c lu d e t h a t t h e

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s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s during th is firs t p h a s e w a s a m ajor
p ro b le m . Particu larly, t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s w ou ld h a v e
e n d e d if t h e e x te r n a l a g e n t s h a d d e c id e d t o w ith d raw th e ir s e r v ic e s
and c o m m i tm e n t s . T h e r e fo r e , fo r a n y e f f e c t i v e sc h o o l in n o v ativ e
p ro g ra m s, t e a c h e r s n e e d t h e n e c e s s a r y skills a n d k n o w le d g e t o
s u s ta i n t h e p ro g ra m s .
P h a se II: E xtend ing t h e Use o f T e c h n o lo g y w ith Early A d o p te rs
T h e e x c i t e m e n t g e n e r a t e d th r o u g h t h e 5 t h g r a d e m ultim edia
a c tiv itie s e n c o u r a g e d t h e te c h n o lo g y g r o u p t o in tr o d u c e t h o s e
a c tiv itie s in to o t h e r c la s s r o o m s d uring 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2
sc h o o l y e a r s . A fte r n u m e r o u s d isc u ssio n s a m o n g te c h n o lo g y g ro u p
( le a d e r s ) a n d K endon t e a c h e r s a n d p a r e n t s (fo llo w ers), t h e scho ol
s y s t e m a g r e e d t h a t it w ould b e b e t t e r working to w a r d s s o m e
c o m m o n g o a ls in all t h e c la s s r o o m s . Prior t o th is c o lle c tiv e decisio n
on t h e s p r e a d o f te c h n o lo g y inno vations, t h r e e t e a c h e r s h a d t h e n
vo lu n tarily s t a r t e d e x p lo rin g t h e p o te n tia ls o f 3 M a cintosh
m ic r o c o m p u t e r s re c e iv e d th r o u g h t h e " C la ssro o m of T o m o rro w
P ro je c t" w hich w a s la u n c h e d by Michigan S t a t e U niversity. T h e
p u r p o s e an d a c tiv itie s of th is p r o je c t a re b e y o n d t h e s c o p e o f this
s tu d y .
In 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 sc h o o l y e a r, Kendon re c eiv e d 4 a d d ition al M acintosh
m ic r o c o m p u te r s a n d p r in te r s fro m Apple C o m p u te r s g r a n t th r o u g h
Michigan S t a t e U niversity t o s u p p o r t t e a c h e r s ' t e c h n o lo g y e ff o r ts .
T h e t o t a l n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s f o r curriculum a c tiv itie s in c r e a s e d
t o 11 (8 M acintosh an d 3 Apple II GS). With t h e s e , t h e te c h n o lo g y
g ro u p t h e n d e c id e d t o p u t 1 M acintosh m ic r o c o m p u te r an d 1
Im ag e W rite r p r in te r in a s m a n y c la s s r o o m s a s p o ssib le . E n c o u ra g e d
by t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e 5 th g ra d e rs , all t e a c h e r s an d s t u d e n t s a t
K endon b e g a n t o e x p lo re t h e p o t e n t i a l s o f t h e s e in stru c tio n a l to o ls
t h r o u g h individual a n d g r o u p p r o je c ts . Particularly, s o m e K endon
t e a c h e r s b e g a n t o u se M ic ro so ft W orks t o im p ro v e w riting a c r o s s
t h e c u rric u lu m .

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T he g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s t a r t e d t o in tro d u c e d iff e r e n t p ro g ra m s to
s o m e few skilled a n d i n t e r e s t e d t e a c h e r s . One su c h p ro g ra m w a s
KidPix, a p a in tin g p ro g ra m a im e d a t children. It b e c a m e an in s ta n t
hit in tw o 3 rd g r a d e c la s s ro o m s . T e a c h e r s in t h e s e tw o c la s s e s
e n c o u r a g e d th e ir s t u d e n t s t o u s e b o th M icrosoft W orks a n d KidPix
f o r w riting p r o je c ts . B oth t e a c h e r s an d s t u d e n t s in t h e s e 3 rd g ra d e
c la s s e s t h e n s t a r t e d w orking w ith t h e 5 t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s on
d i f f e r e n t t e c h n o l o g y p r o j e c ts .
As p a r t o f t h e s t r a t e g i c plan, t h e te c h n o lo g y g ro u p t e a m e d up
w ith t h e s e tw o 3 rd g ra d e t e a c h e r s (i.e., t h e fe w e arly a d o p te r s ) . The
g r o u p w a s t h e n r e c o n s t i t u t e d t o include t h e sc h o o l principal, t h r e e
K endo n t e a c h e r s , a n d tw o Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o ra to rs .
A lth o u g h m e m b e r s o f t h e te c h n o lo g y g roup , e x c e p t t h e u n iversity
c o lla b o r a to r s , h a d lim ited skills in t h e te c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s , t h e y
w e r e highly e n th u s ia s t i c , o p tim istic , an d w o rk e d h a rd t o m a s t e r t h e
te c h n o lo g y in a s h o r t perio d o f tim e. T he g ro u p p ro vided t h e
n e c e s s a r y te c h n ic a l a n d m oral s u p p o r t t o novice te c h n o lo g y u s e r s
( t e a c h e r s ) . T he m e m b e r s o f t h e new te c h n o lo g y g ro u p w e re t h e n
p e rc e iv e d a s e arly te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs and t h e r e s t o f t h e p eople
w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m w e r e p e rc e iv e d a s te c h n o lo g y follow ers.
Early opinion le a d e r s h ip ro le . In s p ite o f t h e c o n tin u o u s
s u p p o r t fro m t h e t e c h n o lo g y gro up, it a p p e a r e d t h a t s o m e t e a c h e r s
w e r e p e s s im is tic a b o u t te c h n o lo g ic a l "rev o lu tio n " a t K endon.
C o n siderin g t h e g e n e r a l c o n c e r n s a b o u t t e a c h e r s ' in e x p e rie n c e w ith
t h e new to o ls, t h e te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs had t o find so lu tio n s t o tw o
m a jo r p ro b lem s. First, t h e y w e re c o n c e rn e d a b o u t (a) how t o help a
t e a c h e r t o e ff e c tiv e ly u se c o m p u t e r w ith which s h e o r h e h a d n e v e r
w o rk e d b e fo re , a n d (b ) h o w t o a c c o m m o d a t e t e a c h e r s ' d if f e r e n c e s in
n e e d s a n d skills a c r o s s all six g r a d e levels (K -5). All t h e s e re q u ire d
n e w a p p ro a c h t o o r g a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu r e in t h e sc h o o l, p a rticu la rly
s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d te c h n ic a l su p p o r t.
As p a r t o f t h e so lu tio n s t o t h e s e problem s, t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t
s t a r t e d t o visit c la s s r o o m s w ith t h e in te n tio n o f helping t h e

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t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s b e c o m e c o m f o r ta b le w ith t h e new
in s tru c tio n a l to o ls . On t h e s c h o o l bulletin b o a rd , t e a c h e r s w e re
a s k e d t o p o s t r e q u e s t s fo r c o m p u t e r help on t h e b a sis o f th e ir
individual n e e d s a n d s c h e d u le . For s e v e ra l w e e k s t h e g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t m o v e d fro m c la s s ro o m t o c la s s ro o m try in g t o a d d r e s s e a c h
t e a c h e r ’s p a rtic u la r p ro b le m s. This p e r m i tt e d t h e te c h n o lo g y t e a m to
identify s o m e o f t h e t e a c h e r s ' c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e te c h n o lo g y . For
in s ta n c e , it w a s o b s e r v e d t h a t s o m e t e a c h e r s (i.e., in e x p e rie n c e d
o n e s ) b e c a m e v e ry f r u s t r a t e d a n d a n n o y e d b e c a u s e t h e c o m p u t e r and
g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t did n o t h a v e an y m agical so lu tio n s t o th e ir
p ro b le m s w ith t h e te c h n o lo g y . How ever, t h o s e t e a c h e r s w h o w e re
m o re te c h n o lo g y e n t h u s i a s t s b e g a n t o realize t h e p o t e n t i a l s of
c o m p u t e r s in t h e curriculum a n d , th e r e f o r e , gladly d e c id e d t o m e e t
its c h a lle n g e s .
I n n o v a tio n s d e c i s i o n s . A t t h e e n d o f t h e 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 sch ool year,
t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m to o k t w o im p o r t a n t d e c is io n s t h a t e v e n tu a lly
m odified t h e a p p ro a c h t o K endon t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p ro c e ss .
First, t h e te c h n o lo g y t e a m f e lt t h e n e e d t o d e v e lo p a local n etw o rk .
T h e ra tio n a le b e hind t h e n e tw o rk in g , a c c o rd in g t o t h e te c h n o lo g y
t e a m , w a s t h a t n e tw o rk s a re widely r e c o g n iz e d t o d a y a s t h e m o s t
rapidly gro w in g a r e a in t h e c o m p u t e r in d u stry . For in s ta n c e , Local
A rea N e tw o rk s (LANs) p ro v id e t h e ability t o s h a r e in fo rm a tio n
b e tw e e n c o m p u t e r s lo c a te d a s c lo se a s n e x t ro o m a n d a s f a r as t h e
o t h e r sid e o f t h e world. T h e s e c o n d i m p o r ta n t d e cisio n w a s t o allow
t e a c h e r s t o t a k e th e ir c o m p u t e r s h o m e fo r t h e S u m m e r v a c a tio n ,
1991.
S u m m e r t e c h n o lo g y tr a in in g . T h r o u g h o u t t h e S u m m e r te rm ,
1 9 9 1 t h e g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t e n g a g e d in o n e -o n - o n e c o m p u t e r
s e s s io n s a t s o m e t e a c h e r s ' o w n re s id e n c e . It w a s during th is tim e ,
w ith o u t t h e p r e s s u r e o f c la s s ro o m a c tiv itie s , t h a t s o m e t e a c h e r s
s t a r t e d t o u n d e r s t a n d t h e v a lu e a d d e d t o th e i r in stru c tio n a l
to o lb o x e s . For e x a m p le , b e f o r e t h e s u m m e r v a c a tio n , o n e firs t g r a d e

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t e a c h e r h ad a v a g u e idea o f how t o tu rn on t h e c o m p u te r . But, a t her
h o m e, a f t e r o n e h o u r d e m o n s tr a ti o n by t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t , th is
f irs t g r a d e t e a c h e r s u d d e n ly b e g a n w orking on h e r fir s t le sso n plan
using M icrosoft W orks. T w o h o u rs later, s h e b e g a n p a s tin g M acPaint
g ra p h ic s an d t h e n s t a r t e d d isc u ssin g t h e a d v a n t a g e s o f using
H yperCard a n d P ageM aker fo r d e s k t o p publishing. By t h e e n d o f th e
s u m m e r v a c a tio n s h e w a s able t o e ffe c tiv e ly u s e t h e M icrosoft
W orks p ro g ra m t o w rite h e r l e t t e r s a n d p re p a r e g r a d e r e p o r t s h e e t s
f o r h e r c la ss.
Early e le c t r o n i c n e tw o rk in g : In fo rm a tio n s e r v i c e s . T he
1 9 9 1 / 9 2 sc h o o l y e a r s t a r t e d a n d K endon t e a c h e r s w e re e x c ite d to
d is c o v e r w h a t t h e y could d o w ith a local a re a n e tw o rk (LAN) an d
w ide a re a n e tw o rk (WAN) t o e n h a n c e in stru c tio n a n d p ro fe s sio n a l
d e v e l o p m e n t p r o g ra m s . A f t e r c o n s u lta tio n w ith L ansing School
D istrict, O ffice o f P ro fe ss io n a l D e v e lo p m e n t S ch o o ls, a n d t h e
p e rs o n n e l o f c o m p u t e r s u p p o r t s e rv ic e s o f Michigan S t a t e
University, t h e te c h n o lo g y g r o u p d e c id e d t o in tro d u c e Kendon t o th e
w orld o f c o m p u t e r n e tw o rk in g . In le ss t h a n tw o w e e k s o f Fall te r m ,
1 9 9 1 all t h e 8 M acintosh c o m p u t e r s in t h e sc h o o l building w e re
i n t e r c o n n e c t e d t o fo rm a local a re a n e tw o rk a n d w ide a r e a n e tw o rk s ,
using 2 Farallon S t a r C o n tro lle rs. T h e n e tw o rk w a s e q u ip p e d w ith a
L a serW riter p rin ter. T h e te c h n o lo g y g ro u p f o c u s e d on tw o im p o r ta n t
in fo rm a tio n t e c h n o l o g i e s .
Electronic mail. Every t e a c h e r w a s p ro v id ed w ith an
e le c tr o n ic mail a c c o u n t o n t h e Michigan S t a t e U niv ersity IB M -3090

m a in fra m e c o m p u t e r . T h e c o n c e p t o f e le c tro n ic m e s s a g in g w a s
d e m o n s t r a t e d a n d d is c u s s e d . T e a c h e r s h ad t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o
c o r r e s p o n d w ith s o m e Michigan S t a t e U niversity fa c u lty . T h e
p o t e n t i a l s re a liz e d w ith E lectronic-M ail w e r e g r e a t . For e x a m p le ,
t h e te le b r id g e m o d e m w ith six t e l e p h o n e lines g a v e t h e s t a f f an
o p p o r tu n ity t o s h a r e d o c u m e n t s on t h e n etw o rk . From his office a t
Michigan S t a t e U niversity, a p r o f e s s o r could p r e p a r e a d o c u m e n t on

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his M acintosh a n d s e n d it t o b e p rin te d on th e L aserW riter l o c a te d in
t h e K endon library t h a t could be in sta n tly s h a r e d a m o n g t e a c h e r s .
Bulletin boards services (BBS). A s e c o n d a d v a n t a g e o f having a
m o d e m an d a p h o n e line w a s t h e u se o f BBS. T h e IBM m a in fra m e runs

a BBS w hich c o uld a c c e s s in fo rm a tio n fro m a w orldw ide n e tw o rk o f
u s e r s . By e x p a n d in g t h e n o tio n o f Electronic-Mail, t h e e x p e rie n c e
w ith BBS s h o w e d how e a s y a n d e ff ic ie n t it w a s f o r p e o p le fro m
d i s t a n t lo c a tio n s t o e x c h a n g e in fo rm a tio n .
S p e c ia liz e d individual a n d g r o u p a c tiv itie s . D e sp ite t h e
gro w in g i n t e r e s t s o f K endon t e a c h e r s in te c h n o lo g y , t h e te c h n o lo g y
t e a m rea liz ed t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r s in t h e building w e re n o t
a d e q u a te ly u se d . T h e s u c c e s s o f s o m e few t e a c h e r s ' in d e p e n d e n t
s t u d y s u c h as 1 9 9 1 S u m m e r s e s s io n s e n c o u r a g e d t h e sc h o o l
principal a n d t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t t o s e a r c h f o r new s t r a t e g i e s of
s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t . S o m e sp e c ia l individualized an d g r o u p p r o j e c ts
w e re in tr o d u c e d in Fall 1 9 9 1 . T he g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s t a r t e d t o
in tro d u c e d if f e r e n t p r o g r a m s t o t e a c h e r s . For e x a m p le , t h e Reading
S p e c ia list a n d t h e Librarian b e c a m e m o re i n t e r e s t e d in d e v e lo p in g a
H yp erC ard s t a c k s t o a s s i s t children in c a te g o r iz in g b o o k s. O ne
S p ecial E d u c a tio n t e a c h e r w a s also p a rtic u la rly i n t e r e s t e d in using
S p r e a d s h e e t t o o rg a n iz e h e r s t u d e n t s ' g ra d e s .
M icrosoft works. T h e t e a c h e r s ' c o n c e r n s a b o u t t h e inefficien t
u s e o f t h e av ailable i n t e g r a t e d s o f t w a r e (i.e., w o rd p r o c e s s o r ,
s p r e a d s h e e t , d a t a b a s e m a n a g e m e n t , and c o m m u n ic a tio n built in MS

W orks) b e c a m e a com pelling a r g u m e n t t o s e a r c h fo r new w a y s of
o p tim iz in g t h e c a p a b ilitie s o f t h e p ro g ra m . While s o m e t e a c h e r s
w e re i n t e r e s t e d in o rg a n iz in g th e i r s t u d e n t s ' g r a d e s , o t h e r s w e re
m o re c o n c e r n e d w ith te a c h i n g ty p in g skills an d w o rd p ro c e s s in g .
L ow er g ra d e -le v e l t e a c h e r s a t t e m p t e d t o u s e t h e p ro g ra m fo r
draw ing. T h e g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t trie d t o a c c o m m o d a t e , a s m u ch as
p o ssib le , t h e p a rtic u la r n e e d s o f e a c h t e a c h e r . Given t h e c o n s t r a i n ts

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o f t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t a n d t e a c h e r s ' tim e n o t all t e a c h e r s w e re
e x p o s e d t o t h e s a m e a m o u n t o f learning a b o u t t h e n e w te c h n o lo g ie s
a n d th e ir a p p lic a tio n s. How ever, m o s t t e a c h e r s had t h e o p p o r tu n ity
t o e x p r e s s th e i r p a rtic u la r n e e d s a n d w ork on a solu tio n .
The "Mini Com puter Laboratory" in the school library. A f t e r

having w o rk e d t o g e t h e r clo sely fo r s e v e r a l m o n th s , t h e g r a d u a t e
s t u d e n t a n d tw o Kendon t e a c h e r s ( t h e c u r r e n t n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s )
d e te r m in e d t o t r y s o m e th in g on a b ig g e r sc ale . Since b o th t e a c h e r s
h a d c o n s id e r a b le k n o w le d g e in using M icrosoft W orks f o r w riting
p r o j e c ts w ith th e ir 3 rd g r a d e r s , t h e y p r o p o s e d a g r o u p w riting
a ctiv ity . T h e y d e s ig n e d a fo u r-w e e k p r o g ra m a im e d a t im proving
t h e i r s t u d e n t s ' w ritin g skills using M ic ro so ft W orks. It w a s th e n
d e c id e d t h a t all 8 M acin tosh m ic r o c o m p u te r s in t h e building w ould
be b ro u g h t t o t h e library so t h a t tw o s t u d e n t s could w ork o n o n e
c o m p u te r . T his fo u r -w e e k p ro g ra m f o c u s e d on ty p in g e diting , spell
c h ec k in g , g ra p h ic d e s ig n w ith KidPix p ro g ra m , im p o rtin g p ic tu r e s o r
g ra p h ic s in to w o rd p r o c e s s o r , a n d printing.
Each m e e tin g in t h e la b o ra to ry l a s te d o n e hour. T h e tw o third
g r a d e t e a c h e r s t e a m e d up t o help e a c h o t h e r during t h e la b o ra to ry
s e s s io n s . T h e s e fe w t e a c h e r s g rad u a lly b e c a m e v a lu a b le r e s o u r c e o r
s u p p o r t s t a f f f o r t h e e n ti r e scho ol. A f te r t h e fo u r-w e e k t r y period
t h e c o m p u t e r s w e re r e t u r n e d t o t h e c la s s ro o m s .
Kendon school: A learning center fo r the community. E very
new s t e p in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f schoo l c o m m u n ity an d t h e p ro m o tio n

o f m o d e rn te c h n o lo g y in s u p p o r t o f su c h d e v e l o p m e n t brings new
c h a lle n g e s . Many K endon s t u d e n t s a re n o t e x p o s e d t o stim u la tin g
learning e n v ir o n m e n t s o u t s i d e t h e s c h o o l building. Given social a n d
financial c o n s t r a i n t s o f s o m e K endon fam ilies, t h e K endon
te c h n o lo g y g r o u p d e c id e d t o e x p a n d its te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v atio n
p r o g ra m s t o t h e c o m m u n ity a t large. T hus, it w ould h a v e b e e n an
o p p o r tu n ity f o r t h e p a r tic ip a n ts t o learn how t o u s e d i f f e r e n t
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s su c h a s w ord p ro c e ss in g , h o u s e h o ld b u d g e tin g ,

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a n d d a t a b a s e m a n a g e m e n t . Such a c tiv itie s w e re i n te n d e d t o a t t r a c t
K endon p a r e n t s a n d c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s t o form al sc h o o l a ctiv itie s
in a w a y o f d ire c tly o r in directly e n g a g in g t h e m in th e i r c h ild re n 's in
an d o u t o f sc h o o l leering a s s ig n m e n ts .
R e fle c tio n s o n P h a s e II
T e a c h e r 's prior te c h n o lo g y e x p e r ie n c e , in se rv ic e trainin g,
beliefs, a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s play an im p o r t a n t role in h e r o r his
a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v atio n s. Following t h e e n th u s ia s m
g e n e r a t e d in p h a s e I an d e n c o u r a g e m e n t re c e iv e d fro m t h e fifth
g r a d e t e a c h e r , a fe w t e a c h e r s d e c id e d t o give a tr y t o t h e s e
te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s in th e i r c la s s ro o m s , d e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t
th e y h a d v e ry little k n o w le d g e in te c h n o lo g y . T h e s e e a rly a d o p te r s ,
t h e r e f o r e , to o k th is d e cisio n on t h e b a sis o f v o lu n ta rism ,
e n th u s ia s m , belief, a n d p e rs o n a l i n te r e s t.
T h e s p r e a d o f t h e in n o v a tio n s req u ire d re o rg a n iz a tio n o f school
c u ltu r e in o r d e r t o c o p e w ith t e a c h e r s ' f r u s t r a t i o n s a n d c o n c e rn s .
T he sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y g ro u p h a d t o p a y sp ecial a t t e n t i o n t o s t a f f
d e v e l o p m e n t an d te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s . T h e t e m p o r a r y o n e -o n o n e t e c h n o lo g y a s s i s t a n c e in t h e c la s s ro o m s , sm all g ro u p te c h n o lo g y
se s s io n s , a n d S u m m e r te c h n o lo g y in d e p e n d e n t s t u d y o f f e r e d by
o u ts id e a g e n t s p o s e d c h a lle n g e s t o m a n y K endon t e a c h e r s a s t o
e i t h e r a d o p t o r r e j e c t t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s.
O ne im p o r t a n t o b s e r v a tio n t h a t c h a r a c t e r i z e s e a rly te c h n o lo g y
a d o p tio n p r o c e s s a t K endon w a s "idea sharin g " s t r a t e g y a m o n g p e e rs.
T h e c o o p e r a tiv e t e a c h in g a n d learning a p p ro a c h e s , w ith re g a rd t o
te c h n o lo g y , a d o p t e d by t w o 3 rd g ra d e t e a c h e r s s e r v e d a s a
s p rin g b o a rd t o t h e in n o v a tio n s p ro c e s s . T h e r e c o n s t i tu t i o n o f t h e
te c h n o lo g y g r o u p t o include t h e s e tw o e arly a d o p t e r s w a s s e e n a s an
i m p o r t a n t d e c isio n t o s p r e a d t h e in n o v atio n s.
T h e s e e a rly a d o p t e r s o f c la s s ro o m te c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s had
t o s h a r e c o m p u t e r s w ith o t h e r t e a c h e r s w ho h a d e a rlie r o n re c e iv e d
c o m p u t e r s th r o u g h t h e D istric t's g r a n t fo r " C la s sro o m o f T o m o rro w "
p ro je c t. In f a c t, a s s o m e o f t h e s e t e a c h e r s w a n t e d t o k e e p th e

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c o m p u t e r s fo r lo n g er p e rio d o f tim e , t h e r o ta tio n s t r a t e g y slow ed
d o w n t h e r a t e o f a d o p tio n .
D e sp ite t h e in c re a s e in n u m b e r of c o m p u t e r s in t h e schoo l t o
11, it w a s critical a t th is s t a g e t o build t e a c h e r s ' c o n fid e n c e an d
t r u s t a b o u t t h e inn ovations. T h e o u ts id e a g e n t s h ad t o te m p o r a r y
e x p lo re a w ide v a rie ty o f a c tiv itie s w ith all t e a c h e r s . All t h e 8
M acin to sh m ic r o c o m p u t e r s w e r e t e m p o r a r y in sta lle d in t h e sc h o o l
library t o fo rm a mini la b o ra to ry . Having e x p o s e d t e a c h e r s t o new
p ro g r a m s , n e tw o rk in g a c tiv itie s , a n d c o o p e r a t i v e p r o j e c t s in th is
mini c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry , t h e y b e g a n t o realize t h e p o t e n t i a l s o f
t h e s e to o ls , b u t th e ir in v o lv e m e n t w a s still low.
New te a c h in g a n d learning s t y l e s b e g a n t o e m e r g e a s a re s u lt
o f t h e s e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v atio n s. For in s ta n c e , t e a m te a c h in g a n d
sm all g r o u p w riting p r o j e c t s in t h e mini c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y
p r a c tic e d by t h e 3 rd g r a d e t e a c h e r s and s t u d e n t s , during t h e fourw e e k pilot p ro je c t, s t a r t e d t o s h ift t h e "individual" t o "g ro u p "
in s tru c tio n a l p r o c e s s e s in t h e s e c la s s ro o m s . T h e s e n e w e x p e r i e n c e s
b e g a n t o s p r e a d a c r o s s g r a d e levels an d m an y t e a c h e r s s t a r t e d to. g e t
i n t e r e s t in t h e te c h n o lo g y . Of c o u rs e , th is p h a s e laid g ro u n d s fo r
t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h t o t h e im p le m e n ta tio n .
During th is p h a s e , t h e sch ool still n e e d e d m o re e q u ip m e n t,
e x te r n a l a g e n t s w e re t h e p iv o t o f t h e in n o v atio n s, a n d s t u d e n t c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h w a s still m a in ta in e d . All t h e s e is s u e s in d ic a te d
t h a t t h e s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s w a s still q u e s t io n a b le .
H ow ever, d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f p e rs o n a l an d p r o fe s s io n a l i n t e r e s t s a n d
skills a c q u ir e d fr o m t h e o u t s i d e a g e n t s a s well a s le a d e rs h ip role
p lay e d by t h e s e e a rly a d o p t e r s w a s an indication o f g ra d u a l
s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s .
P h a s e III: Individual a n d C lass P r o j e c t s w ith
Early M ajority A d o p t e r s
During t h e Fall T erm , 1 9 9 2 , t h e te c h n o lo g y g ro u p s t u d i e d th e
s t a t u s o f t h e sc h o o l a n d its te c h n o lo g ic a l role in L ansing School
D istrict, e sp e c ia lly a s a m o d e l fo r L ansing Public S ch o o ls. From a

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s y n t h e s i s o f t h e in c e n tiv e s and p o te n tia ls g e n e r a t e d b y t h e sc h o o l
principal an d s o m e few t e a c h e r s , t h e schoo l s e t up n e w g o a ls t h a t
c ould e f f e c tiv e ly r e s p o n d t o K endon te c h n o lo g y vision a s well a s an
a c tio n plan t h a t p ro v id ed sp ecific t a s k s fo r t h e 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 schoo l
y e a r. T h e tw o b ro a d g o a ls w e re to:
1.
R einforce "A ctive, C o o p e ra tiv e , Individualized, a n d
Interd iscip lin ary L earning" th r o u g h t h e u se o f s t a n d ­
a lo n e c o m p u t e r s a n d e le c tr o n ic n e tw o rk in g .
2.
F o cus on novice te c h n o lo g y u s e r s t o im pro ve th e ir basic
skills in s o f t w a r e a p p lic a tio n s s u c h a s W ord P ro c e s sin g ,
S p re a d S h e e t, D a ta b a s e M a n a g e m e n t, P rintsho p,
a n d HyperCard.
T h e t e c h n o lo g y g ro u p , no w c o m p o s e d o f tw o u n iv e rs ity c o lla b o ra to rs
(including m y se lf), t h e sc h o o l principal, a n d tw o K endon t e a c h e r s ,
d e c id e d o n w h a t t h e t e a c h e r s could d o w ith t h e e x is tin g c o m p u te r s ,
n e w w a y s o f fa c ilita tin g t e a c h e r s ' c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c y t h a t would
d ire c tly help t h e m im p ro v e in s tru c tio n in t h e c la s s ro o m s , a n d how
b e s t t h e g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t s could a d ju s t th e ir s c h e d u le t o m e e t
w ith e a c h t e a c h e r 's train in g tim e . T h e s c h o o l principal r e q u e s t e d all
t e a c h e r s t o sign up fo r c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c y training a s p a r t o f t h e
PDS p ro g ra m . Six novice ( te c h n o lo g y ) t e a c h e r s sig n e d up fo r t h e
training. Having c o n d u c t e d an inform al n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t , w e
id en tifie d sp e c ific n e e d s a n d tim e c o n s t r a i n t s o f e a c h t e a c h e r . We
e s t a b l is h e d p rio rities a n d d e v e lo p e d a w orking plan fo r e a c h t e a c h e r
in o r d e r t o o p tim iz e t h e train ing periods. T h e t e a c h e r c o m p e t e n c y
tra in in g a c t iv i t ie s m ainly f o c u s e d on h a n d s -o n a c tiv itie s . T h e s e
included c o n n e c tin g t h e d e v ic e s t o g e t h e r (k e y b o a rd , m o u s e , m on ito r,
c o m p u te r , an d p rin te r), sw itc h in g on a n d o ff t h e c o m p u t e r , c re a tin g
o r o p e n in g files fro m t h e h a rd a n d flo ppy disks, a n d running d if f e r e n t
p r o g ra m s . S o m e s p e c ia liz e d c o m p u t e r a c tiv itie s c o n ti n u e d w ith
s o m e individual t e a c h e r s .
O ne g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t a s s i s t e d tw o 2 n d g r a d e t e a c h e r s in th e ir
c la s s ro o m s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w hole sc h o o l y e a r . A c tiv itie s in t h e s e
c l a s s e s w e r e s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d . One m ajo r c o n c e rn w ith t h e s e tw o

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c la s s e s w a s s t u d e n t c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c y training. T h e g oal w a s t o
t e a c h s t u d e n t s t o a c q u ire d e c la ra tiv e an d p ro c e d u ra l k n o w le d g e in
c o m p u t e r te c h n o lo g y . In th is c o n te x t, c o m p e te n c y m e a n s b e ing able
t o sw itc h on a c o m p u te r, in se rt a p r o p e r disk, run t h e p ro g ram , m ak e
a p rin t o u t, a n d sw itch o ff t h e c o m p u t e r w ith o u t any a s s i s t a n c e .
A f te r t h r e e w e e k s o f training, t h e y w e re c o m f o rta b ly ab le t o
id e n tify v a rio u s p a r t s a n d f u n c tio n s o f m ic r o c o m p u te rs . For
e x a m p le , t h e y could easily id entify an d u se t h e k e y b o a rd , t h e
m o n ito r, m o u s e , c o m p u te r , a n d t h e printer. In ad d itio n t o t h e
d e c la r a tiv e kn ow led g e, t h e y d e v o t e d m o s t o f th e ir tim e on h a n d s-o n
p r a c t ic e w ith c o m p u t e r s .
As a r e s u lt o f th is e x p e r ie n c e a n d e n th u s ia s m a b o u t th is new
w riting to o l, o n e c la ss d e c id e d t o e s ta b lis h a c la s s " N e w s le tte r " .
T h e c la s s t e a c h e r d e v e lo p e d a s t r a t e g y t h a t allowed h e r s t u d e n t s t o
w rite s t o r i e s b a s e d on t h e i r e x p e rie n c e , i n t e r e s t s , a c tio n s ,
im a g in atio n s, a n d o b je c ts . T h e s t o r i e s w e re e d it e d e i t h e r by t h e
c la s s t e a c h e r o r in s o m e c a s e s by th e ir p a r e n ts . On Fridays, t h e
s t u d e n t s w r o t e th e i r s t o r i e s using M icrosoft W orks, w ith t h e
a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t . T h e y easily e d it e d th e i r s c r ip ts
on t h e s c r e e n individually o r in small g r o u p s b e fo r e printing. Each
s t u d e n t p r o d u c e d tw o h a rd c o p ie s e v e ry w eek: o n e fo r t h e c la ss
n e w s l e t t e r a n d t h e o t h e r fo r his o r h e r p a re n ts .
T o w a rd s t h e e n d o f t h e Spring s e m e s t e r , t h e s t u d e n t s w r o te an
a v e r a g e o f t h r e e s to r ie s . M ost o f t h e s t u d e n t s w ho initially s t a r t e d
w ith o n e p a g e s t o r y m a d e a re m a rk a b le p ro g re s s, writing u p t o tw o
p a g e s . Few s t u d e n t s w r o te up t o t h r e e o r fo u r p a g e s . S o m e p a r e n t s
h e lp e d th e i r children t o c o m p o s e t h e s to r ie s a t h o m e a n d r e q u e s t e d
t h e m (child ren ) t o ty p e t h e m on t h e c o m p u t e r an d print o u t hard
c o p ie s in sc h o o l.
In t h e o t h e r 2 n d g r a d e c la ss ro o m , s t u d e n t s u s e d a rith m e tic
s o f t w a r e t o learn how m o n e y is b eing u se d . T h e s t u d e n t s w o rk e d in
g r o u p s o f tw o . By t h e e n d o f Spring s e m e s t e r s t u d e n t s in th is c la ss
w e re a b le t o id e n tify d i f f e r e n t d e n o m in a tio n s a n d th e i r v a lu e s. With

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th is s o f t w a r e , s t u d e n t s e n g a g e d in a d d itio n , s u b t r a c t io n ,
m u ltip lic a tio n , a n d f r a c t io n p ro b le m s.
A n o th e r te c h n o lo g y p r o je c t w a s m o re t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d . I
w o rk e d c lo s e ly w ith f o u r t e a c h e r s in t h e follow ing a r e a s ( s o f t w a r e
a p p lic a tio n s ): W ord P ro c e ssin g , S p r e a d s h e e t , P rin tsh o p . Due t o
c o n flictin g s c h e d u le a m o n g t e a c h e r s , o n e - o n - o n e tra in in g p ro g ra m
w a s d e v e lo p e d . With t h e P rin tsh o p p ro g ra m , I a s s i s t e d t h e schoo l
principal t o learn how t o u se t h e built-in g ra p h ic s, s o m e im p o r te d
g rap h ic s, a n d m a k e b a n n e rs , signs, a n d l e t t e r h e a d s . T h e t e x t p ra c tic e
w ith th is p ro g ra m g a v e u s t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o review s o m e basic
skills in w o rd p r o c e s s in g s u c h a s e n te r in g c h a r a c t e r s , c u ttin g ,
p a s tin g , d e le tin g , f o r m a t ti n g , sa v in g , retrie v in g , a n d p rinting
d o c u m e n ts . A t t h e e n d of t h e school y e a r, s h e u se d t h e p ro g ram t o
p r o d u c e 3 0 0 " C e r tif ic a te s o f A w ard s" t o t h e sc h o o l a t h l e t e s .
O ne 1 s t g r a d e t e a c h e r and t h e sc h o o l librarian w e re i n t e r e s t e d
in learning a b o u t c o m p u t e r s in g e n e ra l a n d w o rd p ro c e s s in g in
p a rticu la r. We w e n t th r o u g h t h e s t e p s o f w riting a l e t t e r o r c re a tin g
a d o c u m e n t. T h e y p r a c tic e d ty p in g , e d itin g, f o r m a ttin g , spell
check ing, saving, a n d printing a d o c u m e n t. Having c o m p l e t e d t h r e e
s e s s io n s , t h e 1 s t g r a d e t e a c h e r s t a r t e d w riting m e m o s f o r h e r
c h u rc h a c tiv itie s . T h e librarian a lso s t a r t e d w riting h e r p e rs o n a l
w e ek ly r e p o r t s w ith c o m p u t e r . A t t h e l a t t e r p a r t of Spring t e r m , sh e
d e v e lo p e d i n t e r e s t in c r e a tin g an e le c tro n ic d a t a b a s e f o r t h e sc h o o l
lib r a r y .
In o n e 4 t h g r a d e c la ss ro o m , I a s s i s t e d o n e t e a c h e r t o
e ffe c tiv e ly u se s p r e a d s h e e t in MS W orks t o c r e a t e a g r a d e book,
discipline, a n d a n a t t e n d a n c e r e c o r d s f o r h e r c la ss. T h e p r a c tic e
involved: c r e a tin g a n e w a n d o p e n in g an e xisting s p r e a d s h e e t ,
e n te r in g a n d c h a n g in g t e x t , v alues, a n d fo rm u la e , c o p y in g a n d m oving
cell c o n t e n t s , nam ing, saving, an d printing a s p r e a d s h e e t . A t t h e e n d
o f Spring te r m , 1 9 9 3 s h e w a s v e ry h a p p y t o realize how t h e p ro g ra m
h e lp e d h e r t o c a lc u la te t h e "T otals, A v e ra g e s, an d P e r c e n t a g e s " o f
h e r s t u d e n t s ' g r a d e s a s well a s view ing t h e g rap h ical
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d e n t s p r o g r e s s in d i f f e r e n t c o n t e n t a re a s .

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In a d d itio n t o t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a c tiv itie s , I a s s i s t e d s t u d e n t s
in th is c la s s t o u s e s o m e s o f t w a r e p r o g ra m s su c h as Sim City,
M a th b la ste r, Kids Pix, a n d O nce Upon a Tim e fo r w riting p r o j e c ts and
m a t h e m a t i c s p ro b le m solving. For e x a m p le , w ith g ra p h ic s su c h a s
th e sun, m oon, an d h o u s e s in "O nce Upon a Tim e" p ro g ram , s t u d e n t s
w e re able t o c r e a t e s h o r t s to r ie s and t y p e t h e m on t h e c o m p u te r.
Also, w ith t h e M a th b la ste r, t h e y did s o m e a rith m e tic p ro b le m
solving o n t h e c o m p u t e r su c h a s a d d itio n s, s u b t r a c t io n s , d e cim a ls,
a n d m u ltip lic a tio n s .
K endon G ra n t P roposal. In 1 9 9 2 - 1 9 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r, Kendon
s c h o o l s u b m i t t e d a p ro p o sa l t o t h e School D istrict r e q u e s tin g 4 0
M a cintosh m ic r o c o m p u te r s t o s u p p o r t t h e f a c u l ty ’s e f f o r t s to w a rd s
a cc o m p lish in g t h e te c h n o lo g y vision. T he sc h o o l r e q u e s t e d 3
c o m p u t e r s f o r e a c h c la s s ro o m a n d o n e file s e r v e r , all o f which had
t o b e i n te r c o n n e c t e d t o fo rm a local a re a n e tw o rk t o fa c ilita te
s h a r e d u s e o f s o f t w a r e a n d c r o s s - c la s s r o o m c o lla b o ra tio n . This
would h a v e allow ed s t u d e n t s t o u se t h e c o m p u t e r s individually o r in
pairs d uring re g u la r c la s s ro o m tim e . O ne s tip u la tio n o f t h e p ro p o sa l
w a s t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r s w ould rem ain in t h e c la s s ro o m s .
W h a t th is a r r a n g e m e n t did n o t fa c ilita te w a s t h e u se o f
c o m p u t e r s f o r large g r o u p in stru c tio n t h a t involved m an y s t u d e n t s
in te r a c tin g w ith c o m p u t e r s a f t e r e a c h p r e s e n t a t i o n o r t e a c h e r
d e m o n s tr a ti o n . For e x a m p le , t h e r e a re a ra n g e o f th o u g h tfu lly
d e s i g n e d p r o g r a m s fo r m a t h e m a t i c s , social s t u d i e s , a n d s c ie n c e
p ro g r a m s t h a t req u ire large g ro u p s o f s t u d e n t s t o e x p lo re d a ta ,
m a n ip u la te v a ria b le s, m a k e an d t e s t h y p o t h e s e s , a n d p r o c e s s large
a m o u n t s o f inform ation, e tc ., o n t h e c o m p u te r. T h e s e kinds o f g ro u p
a s s i g n m e n t s re q u ire a c o m p u t e r facility su c h a s a c o m p u t e r te a c h in g
la b o ra to ry t h a t c o uld a c c o m m o d a t e c la s s e s o f 3 0 s t u d e n t s a t a tim e .
S u m m e r p r o g r a m . During t h e S u m m e r v a c a tio n , m y c o lle a g u e
(i.e., o t h e r g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t ) an d I v o lu n te e r e d t o w ork w ith any
i n t e r e s t e d t e a c h e r during t h e S u m m e r v a c a tio n o f 1 9 9 3 . O n e -o n -o n e

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w e ek ly c o m p u t e r s e s s io n s w e re s c h e d u le d w ith a fe w t e a c h e r s w ho
sig n e d up. T h e schoo l allow ed t h e s e t e a c h e r s a n d o t h e r s t o t a k e th e ir
c o m p u t e r h o m e. We f o c u s e d t h e training on e a c h t e a c h e r 's p erso n al
n e ed s.

R e fle c tio n s o n P h a s e III
T he p a c e of a d o p tio n p e rc e iv e d in t h e 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r w a s
relatively slow . This n e c e s s i t a t e d n e w a p p r o a c h t o t h e
im p le m e n ta tio n s t r a t e g i e s . A n u m b e r o f issu e s h a d t o b e rev isited by
t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m t o e n s u r e a c tiv e p a rtic ip a tio n o f t e a c h e r s . More
im p o rta n tly , th is re q u ire d e n g a g in g e v e r y t e a c h e r in all te c h n o lo g y
d isc u ssio n s a n d t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h had t o b e a d o p te d . This
s h if t o f i m p le m e n ta tio n s t r a t e g i e s implied t h a t s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t
a n d te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t s t r a t e g i e s n e e d e d sp e cia l e m p h a s is in o rd e r t o
k e e p t e a c h e r s ' c o n fid e n c e an d t r u s t a b o u t t h e in n o v atio n s.
T h e e m e r g e n c e o f t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h w a s g r e e t e d with
m o re t e a c h e r p a rtic ip a tio n in te c h n o lo g y p r o g ra m s an d a ctiv itie s.
With t h e s e c h a n g e s t e a c h e r s b e g a n t o a s s u m e new te c h n o lo g y roles
in t h e sc h o o l. For e x a m p le , all m a jo r te c h n o lo g y d e c isio n s w e re
t a k e n by t e a c h e r s in s te a d o f t h e te c h n o lo g y g ro u p . A t th is p h a se ,
t e a c h e r s b e g a n t o c o n s o lid a te id e a s a n d e x p e r tis e , t h u s indicating
t h a t t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s w a s m oving g rad u a lly fro m
individual t o sm all g ro u p , a n d th e n t o larg e g ro u p a c tiv itie s. T he
s p e c ia liz e d individual a n d sm all g r o u p a c tiv itie s b y s o m e novice
te c h n o lo g y t e a c h e r s s e e n in 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sch ool y e a r m a y explain th e
t e a c h e r s ' re n e w e d e a g e r n e s s a n d c o m m i tm e n t t o K endon m ission
s t a t e m e n t a n d te c h n o lo g y vision a n d how wide t h e te c h n o lo g y w as
b eing s p r e a d in t h e c la s s ro o m s . In o t h e r w o rds, K endon te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s h a s follow ed " b o t to m - u p " a p p ro a c h .
C o n c ern in g c la s s r o o m d y n a m ic s , t h e t e a c h e r s ' a c tiv e
p a rtic ip a tio n in t e c h n o lo g y p ro g r a m s a n d th e i r a c q u ir e d d e c la r a tiv e
k n o w le d g e s e r v e d a s vehicle fo r t h e m t o provide g u id a n c e t o s t u d e n t
learning a b o u t t h e t e c h n o lo g y a n d e f f e c tiv e ly o r g a n iz e c la s s ro o m

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in s tru c tio n . T h e f a c t t h a t s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h w a s still
m a in ta in e d , b o th d is c o v e ry an d g u id ed learning w e re v e ry c o m m o n in
K endon c la s s ro o m s . T he c o m b in a tio n o f t h e s e t w o in stru c tio n a l
p r o c e s s e s s h i f t e d s t u d e n t - t e c h n o l o g y i n te r a c tiv e p r o c e s s t o a
s itu a tio n in w hich t e c h n o lo g y only s e r v e d a s a v ehicle fo r c la s s ro o m
in s tr u c tio n . T h a t is, in s tru c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s w e r e m o re o f t e a c h e r t e c h n o l o g y - s t u d e n t in te r a c t iv e p r o c e s s e s .
A t th is im p l e m e n ta t io n p h a s e , e x te r n a l a g e n t s still in itia te d
a n d s u p p o r t e d m a n y c la s s te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s. T h e s e a c tiv itie s
w e re m ainly c e n t e r e d on s t u d e n t s a n d p rac tic ally no new e q u ip m e n t
w a s r e c e iv e d t o a t t r a c t t e a c h e r a c tiv e p a rtic ip a tio n . All t h e s e
f a c t o r s im plied t h a t t h e in n o v a tio n s w e r e still n o t s u s ta in a b le .
H ow ever, t h e t e a c h e r s r e q u e s t fo r a d ditio nal c o m p u t e r s fro m t h e
School D istrict t o s u p p o r t te c h n o lo g y vision, r e o r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e
s c h o o l c u ltu re , m a s s p a rtic ip a tio n o f n ov ice t e c h n o lo g y t e a c h e r s ,
a n d t h e c o n tin u e d s u p p o r t fro m t h e un iv ersity , t o large e x t e n t ,
im plied t h a t t h e in n o v a tio n s w ould grow .
P h a s e IV:
S c h o o lw id e I m p le m e n t a t i o n
w ith L a te M ajority A d o p t e r s
T h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sch ool y e a r m a rk e d a tr e m e n d o u s c h a n g e in th e
h is to ry o f K end on te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p r o g ra m s o v e r t h e p a s t
f o u r y e a r s , p a rtic u la rly in e q u ip m e n t, s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t ,
in stru c tio n , a n d g e n e ra l p e r c e p t i o n s o n t h e d y n a m ic s o f t h e school
s y s t e m . As p a r t o f t h e s t r a t e g i c planning fo r t h e p ro m o tio n o f
e f f e c t i v e u s e s o f t h e n e w c o m p u t e r s in t h e curriculum , t e a c h e r s '
n e e d s a n d c o n c e r n s re c e iv e d sp ecial a t t e n t i o n fro m t h e te c h n o lo g y
grou p. During t h e fir s t w e e k o f t h e sc h o o l y e a r, Fall 1 9 9 3 , Kendon
f a c u lty a n d t w o Michigan S t a t e U niversity g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
c o n d u c t e d a n e e d s a s s e s s m e n t a n d s e t priorities fo r t h e kinds o f
training, s o f t w a r e , a n d o t h e r te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t s e r v ic e s n e e d e d fo r
t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n o f t h e sc h o o lw id e c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s in t h e
c la ssro o m s.

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A t t h e beginning o f 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 school y e a r, Kendon school
r e c e iv e d a D istrict g r a n t o f 4 0 c o m p u t e r s . This initially p ro v id ed th e
s c h o o l w ith 3 c o m p u t e r s fo r e a c h c la s s ro o m a n d 1 file s e rv e r. All
t h e s e c o m p u t e r s w e re i n te r c o n n e c t e d t o fo rm a local a re a n e tw o rk
(LAN) a n d w ide a re a n e tw o rk (WAN), replacing t h e ex istin g n e tw o rk
c o n fig u ra tio n .
T h e n e e d s fo r train in g p r o g ra m s w e re id en tified, su c h a s basic
in tro d u c tio n t o t h e h a rd w a re (M acin to sh ) a n d new s o f t w a r e fo r b o th
t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s . Training p ro g ra m s w e re o r g a n iz e d a c c o rd in g
t o individual a n d / o r g r o u p n e e d s . Two 5 t h g r a d e t e a c h e r s , m e m b e r s
o f t h e te c h n o lo g y grou p, w e re d e s i g n a t e d by t h e t e a c h e r s th e m s e lv e s
a s t h e s c h o o l- b a s e d n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs . T h e y a t t e n d e d 8 -w e e k
n e tw o rk m a n a g e m e n t a n d te c h n o lo g y train ing s e s s io n s o f f e r e d by
L ansing School D istrict. T h r o u g h o u t t h e Fall t e r m o f 1 9 9 3 all t h e
t e a c h e r s p a rt i c i p a te d in t h e s c h o o l's s h o r t t e r m a n d long t e r m
te c h n o lo g y inservice p ro g ra m s . T h e s e p r o g r a m s w e re c o o r d in a te d by
t h e tw o Michigan S t a t e U niversity g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s a n d t h e new
n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s .
C o n c e rn in g s o f t w a r e s e l e c ti o n f o r c la s s r o o m a p p lic a tio n s ,
e a c h t e a c h e r d e s c r ib e d t h e v a rio u s w a y s an d sp e c ific c o n t e n t a r e a s
in which he o r s h e e x p e c t e d t o u se c o m p u t e r p r o g ra m s t o s u p p o r t
c la s s r o o m in s tru c tio n . T h e s e le c tio n c rite rio n h a d t o c o n f o r m w ith
L ansing S chool D is tric t's t e c h n o lo g y s p e c if ic a tio n s a s s p e c if ie d in
Lansing School D istrict Curriculum Guide, 1 9 9 3 / 1 9 9 4 . B a se d on t h e
local n e e d s o f K endo n t e a c h e r s , t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs , w ith t h e
a s s i s t a n c e o f tw o Michigan S t a t e U niversity g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s ,
id e n tifie d a p p r o p r i a te s o f t w a r e p r o g r a m s fo r all g r a d e lev e ls an d
a c r o s s d iscip lines. T h e s e l e c ti o n an d p u r c h a s e s c h e m e s w e r e lim ited
by t h e f u n d s available. In 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, t h e r e w e re five
p r o g ra m s on t h e n e tw o rk : MS W orks 3 .0 ; HyperCard Player; M acintosh
Basics; Kid W orks 2; T h e Writing C e n te r; T e a c h T e x t; an d Play Room.
1.
C om puter Laboratory Development. As t h e train ing
a d v a n c e d a n d t h e c o n c e p t o f "critical m a s s " b e g a n t o gain full
m o m e n tu m , t h e t e a c h e r s p e rc e iv e d t h e n e e d fo r m o re "h a n d s -o n "

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a c tiv itie s fo r b o th s t u d e n t s an d t e a c h e r s s o a s t o b e c o m e a c tiv e
u s e rs o f c o m p u te r s . In view o f th is t h e idea o f d e v e lo p in g a
M acintosh C o m p u te r L a b o ra to ry e m e r g e d . T he te c h n o lo g y group, in
c o n s u lta tio n w ith Kendon t e a c h e r s , a d d r e s s e d a m e m o ra n d u m t o
Lansing School D istrict. In t h e m o n th o f N o v em b er, r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
fro m t h e S chool D istrict a n d Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o r a to rs
and K endon f a c u lty m e t t o talk a b o u t t h e im plications o f t h e
la b o r a to r y on in s tru c tio n a s well a s te c h n ic a l is s u e s involved. As a
re s u lt o f th is m e e tin g , a form al p ro p o sa l w a s s e n t t o L ansing School
D istrict fo r a c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry . In t h e m o n th o f D e c e m b e r, 1 9 9 3
p e rm iss io n w a s g r a n t e d b y Lansing School D istrict t o w ith d ra w o n e
c o m p u t e r fro m e a c h c la ss ro o m . In t h e s e c o n d w e e k o f J a n u a ry , 1 9 9 4
a M acin to sh c o m p u t e r t e a c h in g la b o r a to r y o f 1 5 c o m p u t e r s w a s
e s ta b lis h e d . C urrently , t h e 1 5 c o m p u t e r s a re " s ta n d - a lo n e s " .
In w in te r a n d Spring t e r m s of 1 9 9 4 t h e la b o r a to r y w a s
e x te n s iv e ly u s e d t o s u p p o r t t h e c la s s ro o m in s tru c tio n . All t h e
t e a c h e r s s e n t th e ir s t u d e n t s t o u s e t h e la b o r a to r y t o c o m p l e m e n t
t h e c la s s r o o m a c tiv itie s. T hus, t h e la b o r a to r y w a s highly c o n s id e r e d
a s an e x te n s io n o f t h e c la ss ro o m s . T he m ain p ro g r a m s u s e d in t h e
la b o r a to r y du ring 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 fo r in s tru c tio n w e re Kid W orks 2
(M ultim edia) a n d MS W orks 3 .0 . T he Kid W orks 2 w a s t h e p ro g ra m
u s e d m o s tly by all t h e g r a d e levels fo r rea d in g , w riting, a n d painting
skills. T h e 3rd, 4 th , a n d 5 t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s eq ually u s e d t h e MS
W orks f o r t h e i r w riting p r o j e c ts .
During t h e la b o r a to r y s e s s io n s , s t u d e n t s w o rk e d individually
o r in g r o u p s o f tw o . E x c e p t fo r t h e t w o n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s (i.e., 5 th
g r a d e t e a c h e r s ) , all t h e t e a c h e r s r e c e iv e d ( te c h n ic a l) a s s i s t a n c e
fro m t h e g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s d uring t h e la b o r a to r y s e s s io n s a n d w e re
o f t e n a s s i s t e d by t h e t e a c h e r s p e c ia lis ts . T h e t e a c h e r s a lw ay s w e re
re q u ire d t o c o m e t o t h e la b o r a to r y w ith p r e p a r e d learning o b je c tiv e s
a n d g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t s w e r e t h e r e only t o give te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t.
2.
Telecom m unication In Education. In a d d itio n t o reg u lar
c la s s ro o m a n d la b o r a to r y te c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s , t h e s c h o o l
e s t a b l is h e d a te le c o m m u n ic a tio n p r o je c t t o s u p p o r t t h e K endon 4 t h

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Grade-C.A .S.E C re d it Union P a rtn e rsh ip V e n tu re . In t h e m o n th o f
March, 1 9 9 4 a w o r k s ta tio n of o n e IBM c o m p u t e r ( P S / 2 ) , o n e m onitor,
o n e m o d e m , a n d o n e p r in te r w a s installed in e a c h o f t h e tw o 4 t h
g r a d e c la s s ro o m s . T h e f i r s t e le c tro n ic c o m m u n ic a tio n o r b u s in e s s
t r a n s a c ti o n b e g a n in mid March, 1 9 9 4 . This s y s t e m p e r m i tt e d t h e 4 t h
g r a d e s t u d e n t s t o a c c e s s t h e C re d it Union d a t a b a s e fo r financial
in fo rm a tio n .
Looking t o t h e f u t u r e . In p u rsu it o f lo n g -te rm t e c h n o lo g y g o als
a n d e n s u rin g c o n tin u e d e f f ic ie n t a n d e f f e c t i v e a p p lic a tio n s , t h e
sc h o o l p lan s t o u s e t h e following s t r a t e g i e s du ring t h e 1 9 9 4 - 1 9 9 5
sc h o o l y e a r.
1.
T w o MSU g r a d u a t e a s s i s t a n t s will c o n tin u e t o w ork w ith
t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s in t h e c la s s ro o m s an d t h e c o m p u t e r
l a b o r a to r y until t e a c h e r s b e c o m e c o m f o r t a b l e w ith t h e
te c h n o lo g y . In a w a y o f p re p a rin g fo r full d is e n g a g e m e n t ,
t e a c h e r s w ould h a v e full c o n tro l of t h e c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry
s e s s io n s , unlike l a s t sc h o o l y e a r .
2.
T h e sc h o o l will so lic it a d d itio n a l MSU c o lla b o ra tio n in t h e
fo rm o f a " T e c h n o lo g y In tern sh ip P ro g ram " t o e n s u r e o n e -o n o n e a n d / o r sm all g r o u p " h a n d s -o n " a c tiv itie s in t h e c la s s ro o m s
a n d c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry .
3.
In S e p t e m b e r , t h e s c h o o l will in itia te " P a r e n t - T e a c h e r S t u d e n t (PTS)" T e c h n o lo g y Club. T h e p u rp o s e is t o g e t p a r e n t s
a c tiv e ly involved in th e ir c h ild re n ’s learning ( b o t h in a n d o u t of
s c h o o l) t h r o u g h "mini te c h n o lo g y p r o je c ts " su c h a s using
c o m p u t e r s t o c r e a t e h o u s e (fam ily) b u d g e ts .
4.
T w o - h o u r t e a c h e r in se rv ic e tra in in g s e s s i o n s p e r m o n th will
b e o r g a n iz e d t o e n s u r e o n g o in g s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t. T h re e -h o u rs
o f r e le a s e d tim e p e r w e ek fo r m a in te n a n c e would b e req u ire d
fo r t h e N etw o rk M a n ag e rs ( tw o 5 th g r a d e t e a c h e r s ) t o e n s u r e
sc h o o l w ide s m o o t h running o f t h e h a rd w a re a n d s o f tw a r e .

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5.

T o e n s u r e c o n tin u e d p ra c tic e , p rovisions will b e m a d e for
t e a c h e r s t o t a k e s o m e c o m p u te r s h o m e during t h e S u m m er
b rea k .

R e fle c tio n s o n P h a s e IV
In 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 scho ol y e a r, t h e s h a r p in c re a s e in t h e n u m b e r of
c o m p u t e r s (i.e., fro m 11 t o 5 1 ) r e s u lte d in sc h o o lw id e a d o p tio n of
c o m p u t e r s in t h e c la s s r o o m s and t h e c o m p u t e r t e a c h in g la b o ra to ry .
T h e sc h o o l c o n tin u e d t o hold t h e belief t h a t e d u c a tio n a l
t e c h n o lo g i e s a re n o t se lf-im p le m e n tin g , w ith te c h n o lo g y c o n s t a n t l y
c h an g in g , a n d a p p lic a tio n s varying s o widely, u p g ra d in g th e
te c h n o lo g ic a l skills o f K endon f a c u lty a n d s t u d e n t s ( a s e n d u s e rs ) is
an e s s e n t ia l f ir s t s t e p fo r e f f e c t i v e im p le m e n ta tio n o f te c h n o lo g y
p ro g ra m s . A t th is p h a s e , t h e e m p h a s is on s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d w a s
s h if te d t o t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h . T h e p a rtic u la r a t t e n t i o n
a t t a c h e d t o in -se rv ic e tra in in g an d t e c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e , e sp e c ia lly
in t h e la b o ra to ry , m o ti v a te d all K endon t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s t o
e f f e c tiv e ly u s e t h e t e c h n o lo g y a s an in s tru c tio n a l tool.
T h e sc h o o lw id e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s b r o u g h t new
in s tru c tio n a l c h a lle n g e s t o t e a c h e r s . As p a r e n t s a n d c o m m u n ity
p a r t n e r s g o t involved in sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s , t e a c h e r s h ad t o
m od ify t h e i r tra d itio n a l te a c h in g s ty le t o a c c o m m o d a t e t h e
e x p e r i e n c e s a n d e x p e r t is e t h a t t h e e x te r n a l a g e n t s w ould bring into
t h e c la s s r o o m s . T h e c o lla b o ra tiv e t e a c h in g e n c o u r a g e d o r fa c ilita te d
b o th o n e - o n - o n e , sm all a n d large g r o u p in s tru c tio n a l p r a c tic e s .
T h e s e implied t h a t t e a c h e r s had t o a cq u ire n e w skills in tim e a n d
c la s s r o o m m a n a g e m e n t . R egarding k n o w le d g e a c q u isitio n , t h e
tr a d itio n a l c la s s r o o m s e a t w o r k w a s s u p p o r t e d b y p ra c tic a l o r real
world p ro b le m solving. For in sta n c e , it w a s a m a z in g t o s e e s t u d e n t s
in tw o 4 t h g r a d e c la s s r o o m s talking w ith th e i r b a n k p a r t n e r s a b o u t
b a nking o p e r a t i o n s a s well a s working w ith t h e m a s b a n k te lle rs a t
t h e c o m p u t e r te r m in a ls a n d se a rc h in g on-line in fo rm a tio n fro m t h e
m ain bank.

89

R egarding t h e long t e r m s u p p o r t o f t h e in n o v atio n s, th e
sc h o o lw id e a p p lic a tio n s o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e c u rric u lu m b r o u g h t
m an y h o p e s . For in s ta n c e , t h e b o t to m - u p a p p ro a c h a d o p t e d in th e
sch ool t o d e m o n s t r a t e t h a t c o m p u t e r s could be equally u s e d in t h e
la b o ra to ry a s in t h e c la s s r o o m s in d ic a te d t h e long t e r m c o m m i tm e n t
o f t h e t e a c h e r s . In a d d itio n , t h e s h ift fro m s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d t o
t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h , an d t h e 4 0 c o m p u t e r s a n d t h e n e tw o rk
m a n a g e m e n t in-service train in g o f f e r e d t o tw o K endon t e a c h e r s by
t h e S cho ol D istric t w e re c le a r e v id e n c e o f s u s ta in a b ility o f
t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s in t h e curriculum .
It is critical a t th is s t a g e o f o u r te c h n o lo g ic a l e f f o r t s t o
r e f le c t o n n u m b e r o f is s u e s t h a t m a y e n h a n c e o r j e o p a r d iz e th e
f u t u r e o f K endon t e c h n o lo g y vision. More im p o rta n tly t h e r e is a n e e d
t o c o n s id e r t h e s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e e x istin g e q u ip m e n t an d
p e d a g o g ic a l in n o v a tio n s. First, failure t o a d d r e s s t h e u n f o r e s e e n
te c h n ic a l p r o b le m s s u c h a s c o m p u t e r b re a k -d o w n s t h a t a c c o m p a n y
a n y te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n in o r g a n iz a tio n s o r in s c h o o ls m ay
c a u s e d is c o n tin u ity o f t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s o r in e ffic ie n t u se
o f t h e te c h n o lo g y . C o n sid erin g t h e lim ited te c h n ic a l s e r v ic e s
re c e iv e d fro m t h e School D istrict in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, d e p e n d in g
so lely on c e n tr a l o ffic e p e rs o n n e l m a y likely r e n d e r t h e te c h n o lo g y
in e f fe c tiv e a n d in efficien t. For in s ta n c e , t e a c h e r s m a y t e n d t o
r e j e c t t h e te c h n o lo g y if t h e y h a v e t o w ait fo r d a y s a n d / o r w e e k s
b e fo r e te c h n ic a l p ro b le m s could be fixed. T h e s e is s u e s lead m e t o
c o n c lu d e t h a t fo r e ff ic ie n t a n d e f f e c t i v e im p le m e n ta tio n o f
te c h n o lo g y in o u r sc h o o ls b o th te c h n o lo g y an d p e d a g o g y sh ould
a d v a n c e t o g e t h e r . In o t h e r w ords, b o th a d m in is tr a to r s a n d t e a c h e r s
n e e d t o g e t se rio u sly involved in te c h n o lo g y in o r d e r t o s u s ta in
te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s in sc h o o l cu rricu lu m .

CHAPTER

5

CHANGING PATTERNS OF TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP
O v e r v ie w
This c h a p t e r d is c u s s e s t h e ( 1 ) individuals an d g r o u p s within
t h e K endon sc h o o l s y s t e m an d th e ir re la tiv e influ en ces, ( 2 ) kind o f
roles t h e y p la y e d during t h e c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n , d e v e lo p m e n t,
im p le m e n ta tio n , an d e v a lu a tio n o f te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s, a n d (3 )
p e rc e iv e d a t t r i b u t e s o f K end on te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs h ip roles. T h e
in fo rm a tio n on t h e s e a s p e c t s o f le a d e rs h ip w a s g a t h e r e d th ro u g h
q u e s t io n s 1 a n d 2 o f t h e s e lf -a d m in is te re d s u r v e y ( s e e A p p e n d ic e s A
& B) a n d th r o u g h follo w -up p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s. T h e in fo rm a tio n
g a t h e r e d fro m t h e s e t e c h n iq u e s w a s s u p p o r t e d by p a r tic ip a n ts ' own
c o m m e n t s a n d m y p e rs o n a l o b s e rv a tio n s . All t h e s e d a t a h e lp e d m e t o
c la ss ify individuals a n d g r o u p s a s t e c h n o lo g y le a d e r s a n d follo w ers
o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s a n d t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e d y n a m ic s o f t h e
school sy ste m .
T h e Roles a n d In flu en ces o f Key T e c h n o lo g y A c to rs
I d e n tific a tio n o f A c to rs a n d T h e ir R elative In flu e n c e s
T h e in fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d th r o u g h s t a g e o n e , as in d ic a te d in
c h a p t e r 3, h e lp e d m e t o id e n tify five d is tin c t g r o u p s t h a t c o n s t i t u t e
t h e K endon School S y s te m . T h e y a re (I) Lansing School D istrict (T op
A d m in is tra tio n ); (II) K end on S ta ff; (III) K endon P a r e n ts ; (IV)
C o m m u n ity B u sin e ss P a rtn e r s ; a n d (V) U n iversity C o lla b o ra to rs.
T h r e e d i f f e r e n t g r o u p s w e r e f u r t h e r id e n tifie d w ithin K en d o n f a c u lty
m e m b e r s w ith r e g a r d t o te c h n o lo g y : t h e School Principal; N etw o rk
M anagers, an d R egular K endon T e a c h e rs . In o t h e r w o rds, t h e r e w e re
90

91

s e v e n c o n s t i t u e n t g ro u p s (i.e., c o re o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m )
im p le m e n tin g t h e te c h n o lo g y plan. T he an aly sis w a s on t h e b asis o f
s e l f - a d m i n i s t e r e d s u r v e y a n d fo llo w -u p s t r u c t u r e d in te rv ie w s .
B e c a u se I fo u n d t h a t te c h n o lo g y planning a t Kendon w a s in itiated by
f a c u lty a t t h e sch ool, t h e School Principal (PRD), N e tw o rk M anagers
(NWM), R egular Kendon T e a c h e r s (TEA), and U niversity C o lla b o rato rs
(MSU) w e re classified a s te c h n o lo g y lea d ers. For t h e s a m e re a so n ,
Lansing School D istrict (LSD), K endon p a r e n t s (PAR), an d C o m m un ity
B u sin e ss P a r t n e r s (BUS) w e r e c la ss ifie d a s follo w ers. T h e follow ing
s e c t i o n s give a full d e sc rip tio n o f t h e s e a c t o r s an d t h e a m o u n t and
kind o f in flu e n ce s e a c h h a s e x e rc is e d on K endon t e c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n .
Figure I s h o w s a t h r e e - d im e n s io n a l p lo t o f m u ltid im e n sio n a l
scaling r e s u l ts fo r t h e s e t o f influence v a ria b le s ( q u e s t io n s 1 and
2 ), r e p r e s e n ti n g p a s t a n d p r e s e n t in flu e n c e s o f t h e a c t o r s listed
a b o v e . T he p o in ts f o r e a c h o f t h e s e a c t o r sho w n in th is p lo t a re
p r e s e n t e d in tw o form s: p a s t (i.e., suffix "PAS") a n d p r e s e n t (i.e.,
suffix "PRE").
B e fo re I begin w ith a d isc u ssio n o f t h e plot, le t m e explain
how t o u n d e r s t a n d it. First, t h e p lo t p ro v id es a sp a tia l
r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f re la tio n sh ip a m o n g t h e a c t o r s w hich e x is t in t h e
d a ta . T h a t is, t h e p o in ts a re c lo s e t o g e t h e r in th is s p a c e w h e n
a c t o r s a re p e rc e iv e d v e ry similarly. C o n v e rsely , p o in ts w hich a re
fa r a p a r t in s p a c e a re p e rc e iv e d d iffe re n tly f o r a c t o r s . In add ition ,
if t h e p e r c e p t i o n o f a p a rtic u la r a c t o r h a s s h if te d sh a rp ly fro m p a s t
t o p r e s e n t , t h e n t h e p a s t an d p r e s e n t p o in ts fo r t h a t p a rtic u la r a c t o r
will be re la tiv e ly fa r a p a r t . F u rth e r m o r e , if p e r c e p t i o n s o f a c t o r s
s h ift in a sim ilar w a y fro m p a s t t o p r e s e n t , it sh o u ld b e p o ssib le t o
id en tify s o m e g e n e ra l t r e n d s in t h e c o o r d in a te d s p a c e .
It m ig h t b e po ssib le t o a t t a c h s o m e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s t o t h e
axes, b u t th is is n o t t h e m ain p u rp o s e o f t h e plot. T h e prim ary
p u rp o s e is t o provide a g rap h ic m e a n s o f s e e in g w hich p o in ts g o
t o g e t h e r an d an o p p o r tu n ity t o look f o r t r e n d s in t h e re la tio n sh ip s
a m o n g d if f e r e n t p o in ts a n d c lu s te r s in t h e s p a c e . T h e n u m b e r s

92

(n u m erica l lab els) w hich a p p e a r on t h e a x e s m a k e it p o ssib le fo r t h e
r e a d e r t o e x a m in e t h e c o o r d i n a te s listed in A ppendix B. It is
p o ssib le t o u se t h e c o o r d i n a te s t o lo c a te e x a c tly w h e re e a c h p o in t is
in t h e t h r e e dim ensional plot. T he ra n g e s o f n u m b e rs on e a c h o f t h e
a x e s only e x t e n d a s f a r in p o sitiv e a n d n e g a tiv e d ire c tio n s as
n e c e s s a r y t o include all t h e p o in ts in t h e t h r e e d im e n sio n al s p a c e .
B a se d on m y e x a m in a tio n o f th is t h r e e d im e n sio n al plot, I f e lt
I co uld id e n tify fo u r d i f f e r e n t z o n e s r e p r e s e n ti n g g r o u p s w ithin t h e
K endon sc h o o l s y s t e m a n d how t h e p e rc e p tio n s o f t h e s e s h if te d o v e r
tim e . First, I will d is c u s s t h e r e s u l ts p e rta in in g t o t h e z o n e s w hich
r e la te t o a rro w s " 1 " a n d "2 ," a n d la te r I will d is c u s s o b s e r v a t i o n s
p e rta in in g t o a rro w s "3 " an d "4."
In Figure I, z o n e s A, B, C, a n d D r e p r e s e n t individuals a n d / o r
g r o u p s w ithin K endon s c h o o l s y s te m . T h e y a re c lu s te r e d a c c o rd in g t o
th e ir p e rc e iv e d d e g r e e o f influence o n K endon t e c h n o lo g y
i m p le m e n ta tio n o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s . R egarding t h e t e c h n o lo g y
follow ers, Z o n e s A a n d B r e p r e s e n t t h e p e rc e iv e d in flu e n c e s of
L ansing School D istrict (LSD), K endon p a r e n t s (PAR), a n d c o m m u n ity
b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s (BUS) in t h e p a s t ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 ) a n d p r e s e n t
( 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 ) re s p e c tiv e ly . C o n c ern in g t h e te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs , Z o n es C
a n d D r e p r e s e n t t h a t o f K endon sc h o o l principal (PRP), t e a c h e r s
(TEA), n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s (NWM), an d Michigan S t a t e U niversity (MSU)
c o lla b o ra to rs.
T h e n a t u r e o f c lu s te rin g in d ic a te s tw o d i s t in c t g ro u p s , e a c h
r e p r e s e n tin g t h e a m o u n t a n d kind o f influence it h a d on t h e
t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . R eg arding te c h n o lo g y fo llo w ers ( z o n e s A
& B), arro w 1 in d ic a te s t h a t t h e p e r c e p tio n s o f t h e s e g ro u p s have
s h if te d in th is d ire c tio n o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s . W ith r e g a r d to
te c h n o lo g y le a d e r s ( z o n e s C & D), arro w 2 in d ic a te s t h a t t h e
p e r c e p t i o n s o f sc h o o l principal a n d u n iv e rs ity c o ll a b o r a t o r s h a v e
s h i f t e d in a lm o s t t h e s a m e d ire c tio n a s t h e fo llow ers. For b o th
le a d e r s a n d follow ers, Figure I s h o w s t h a t t h e r e w e r e s h i f t s o f
p o sitio n s fro m z o n e s A & C (in t h e p a s t ) to w a rd z o n e s B & D
r e s p e c tiv e ly in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r. T h e a rro w s " 1 " a n d " 2 " in

'W e

,

93

' 0/'oive ,s %
Of

94

Figure I in d ic a te t h a t t h e p e rc e iv e d in flu e n ce s o f b o th te c h n o lo g y
le a d e r s an d fo llo w ers s h i f t e d in t h e s a m e d ire c tio n . Brief
e x p la n a tio n o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s is given in T able B below.
Looking a t t h e s u m m a r y s t a t i s t i c s o f t h e s a m e d a t a , T able B
sh o w s t h a t only 2 9 % , 2 0% , an d 3 1 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts p e rc e iv e d
t h a t L ansing School D istrict, K endon p a re n ts , a n d b u s in e s s
c o m m u n ity p a r t n e r s h ad a high d e g r e e o f influence. In add ition , t h e
p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e o f Lansing School D istrict d r o p p e d fro m 2 9 % t o
2 0 % in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, t h o s e o f o t h e r fo llo w ers re m a in e d
c o n s t a n t . T he s a m e ta b le sh o w s t h a t , fo r t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 2 / 9 3
schoo l y e a rs , 6 9 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts r a t e d t h e d e g r e e o f influen ces
o f t h e sc h o o l principal high, follow ed by Michigan S t a t e U niversity
c o lla b o ra to rs (5 3 % ), th e n t e a c h e r s (5 0 % ). T hus, t h e scho ol principal
w a s p e rc e iv e d a s t h e key te c h n o lo g y lead er. In t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 school
year, 8 0 % , 8 6 % , 7 5 % , a n d 6 6 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts p e rc e iv e d th e
d e g r e e o f in flu e n c e s o f K en don n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s , s c h o o l principal,
t e a c h e r s , a n d Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o r a to rs , r e s p e c tiv e ly
a s high,
From b o th s u m m a r y and graphical a n a ly s e s o f t h e s a m e d a ta ,
t h e p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e s o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts o v e r t h e five y e a r period
s u g g e s t t h a t t h e individuals a n d / o r g ro u p s l o c a te d in z o n e s A a n d B
p lay e d in a c tiv e ro les in t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s , t h u s
qualifying t h e m a s te c h n o lo g y follow ers. Also, t h e p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e s
r e p r e s e n tin g t h o s e in z o n e s C a n d D s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e individuals
a n d / o r g r o u p s p la y e d a c tiv e roles, t h u s qualifying t h e m a s
te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs .
In z o n e C o f Figure I, y o u m a y o b s e r v e t h a t in t h e p a s t, t h e
p e rc e iv e d d e g r e e o f in flu en ce o f t h e sc h o o l principal w a s c lo s e t o
t h o s e o f t h e t e a c h e r s . In z o n e D, n o tic e t h a t t h e p e rc e iv e d influence
o f t h e s c h o o l principal, in t h e p r e s e n t, w a s c lo s e r t o t h o s e o f
Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o ra to rs t h a n t o t h e t e a c h e r s . T h e
p e rc e iv e d in flu e n c e s o f t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s lie b e t w e e n t h e
t e a c h e r s on t h e o n e h a n d a n d th e schoo l principal a n d Michigan S t a t e
U niversity c o lla b o r a to rs o n t h e o t h e r hand . T ab le B sh o w s t h a t , t h e

95

p e rc e iv e d key te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs h ip role s h if te d fro m t h e sc h o o l
principal t o t h e n ew d e s i g n a t e d n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs .

TABLE B: DEGREE OF INFLUENCES OF INDIVIDUALS AND GROUPS
WITHIN KENDON SCHOOL DISTRICT

PAST

PRESENT

LSD

PRP

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

50
21
29

25
69

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

47

0

NWM TEA PAR MSU
( P e r c e n t a g e S c o re s )
7

54

50

80
0
20

40
53

15
31

6
19

40
40

7
27

31
38

75

20

66

31

6
44

6

33

20

0
14

20

80

86

BUS

N um ber o f C a se s = 1 6
T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rs
PR P=K endon S c h o o l Principal
NWM=Kendon N etw ork M anagers
TEA=Kendon T e a c h e r s
MSU=Michigan S t a t e U niversity
C o lla b o ra to rs
PAST
PRESENT

T e c h n o lo g y F ollow ers
LSD=Lansing S c h o o l D istric t
PAR=Kendon P a r e n ts
BUS=Kendon B u sin e ss P a r tn e r s

= B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 School Y ears
= 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 School Year

In Figure I, y o u m a y also o b s e rv e t h a t a m o n g t h e t e a c h e r s ,
arro w 3 in d ic a te s t h a t t h e p e r c e p tio n s o f n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s (i.e.,
tw o t e a c h e r s ) s h i f t e d in n e arly t h e o p p o s ite d ire c tio n fro m t h e r e s t
o f t h e t e a c h e r s a s sh o w n by arro w "4 ". This c h a n g e o f d irec tio n
a m o n g t e a c h e r s could be a t t r i b u t e d t o a n u m b e r o f re a s o n s .
R egarding t h e t e a c h e r s in g e n eral, in th e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, t h e
t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h t o t h e im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s , a s
d is c u s s e d in c h a p t e r 4, e m p o w e r e d t e a c h e r s t o a s s u m e n ew roles.

96

For e x a m p le , t h e te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t and a d m in is tra tiv e ro les a s s u m e d
by t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s g a v e t h e m n ew resp o n sib ilitie s b e s id e s
th e ir c la s s ro o m t e c h n o lo g y a p p lica tio n s. T h e f a c t t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s
t h e m s e l v e s d e s i g n a t e d tw o o f th e ir c o lle a g u e s a s in -h o u se n e tw o rk
m a n a g e r s g a v e t h e m (i.e., all t e a c h e r s ) a d d ition al p o w e rs an d
in flu e n ce s. T h e sc h o o lw id e t e a c h e r s ' form al a d o p tio n o f c o m p u t e r s
in t h e curriculum in t h e s a m e y e a r g a v e th e m new in flu e n ce s o v e r
t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n .
R egarding t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s , t h e te c h n ic a l e x p e r tis e , s o m e
te c h n o lo g y a d m in is tr a tiv e d u tie s , a n d t h e t r u s t a n d c o n fid e n c e t h a t
t h e s c h o o l s y s t e m in v e s te d in t h e s e tw o t e a c h e r s g a v e t h e m g r e a t e r
c o n tro l o v e r t h e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . All t h e s e f a c t o r s
in d ic a te t h a t t h e t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h p ro v id e d o p p o r tu n itie s
fo r all t e a c h e r s t o p u rsu e t h e b o t to m - u p a p p ro a c h t o t h e
i m p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s a n d a lso t o a ctiv e ly p a r t i c i p a te in t h e
t e c h n o lo g y le a d e rs h ip role.
Roles a n d P e rc e iv e d N e g a tiv e a n d Positive In flu en c es
F ig u re s II s h o w s a th r e e - d im e n s io n a l p lo t o f m u ltid im e n sio n al
scaling r e s u lts fo r p e rc e iv e d roles a t v a rio u s s t a g e s o f t h e
im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s a n d t h e p o sitiv e an d n e g a tiv e in fluen ce
v a ria b le s ( q u e s t io n s 3, 4, & 1 1 - 1 4 o f A p p e n d ic e s A & B). T h e full
p lo t a n d its c o o r d i n a te s r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e s e t o f roles, influ ences,
o r g a n iz a tio n a l m a n a g e m e n t , a n d in s tru c tio n a l v a ria b le s g a t h e r e d
th r o u g h q u e s t io n s 3 - 3 4 o f A p p e n d ic e s A & B a re p r e s e n t e d in
A p p e n d ic e s E & F.
R egarding q u e s t io n s 3 a n d 4, Figure II sh o w s t h a t t h e
r e s p e c t iv e ro les p la y e d d uring planning, d e v e lo p m e n t,
im p le m e n ta tio n , a n d e v a lu a tio n s t a g e s a s p e rc e iv e d by t h e
p a r t i c i p a n ts h a v e s h if te d o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s . From Figure II,
y o u m a y o b s e r v e t h a t planning an d im p le m e n ta tio n v a ria b le s h a v e

97

Figure II:

Roles and p o sitiv e and n e g a tiv e influences.

2

1

0

o

.o -

98

m o v e d in t h e s a m e d ire c tio n from th e ir p o sitio n s in 1 9 8 9 / 9 0
- 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 t o th e i r p o sitio n s in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, as
in d ic a te d b y solid a rro w s. While p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f
planning s h i f t e d sh a rp ly in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 , t h a t o f im p le m e n ta tio n
m o v e d only a little. T h e d e v e l o p m e n t an d e v a lu a tio n v a ria b le s b o th
s h i f t e d in a d i f f e r e n t d ire c tio n fro m th e i r p o s itio n s fro m 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 t o th e ir p o sitio n s in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 , a s in d ic a te d by t h e d a s h e d
a rro w s. T he d i f f e r e n t d ire c tio n s o f t h e a rro w s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e
p a r t i c i p a n ts h a d tw o d i f f e r e n t opinions, o n e fo r planning and
im p le m e n ta tio n v a ria b le s a n d a n o t h e r fo r d e v e l o p m e n t an d
e v a l u a t i o n v a ria b le s .
T ab le C a b o v e is a s u m m a r y s t a t i s t i c s o f q u a n ti t a t iv e
in fo rm a tio n c o lle c te d u n d e r q u e s t io n s 3 and 4 o f A p p e n d ic e s A & B.
T h e p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e s of t h e p a r tic ip a n ts w ho r a t e d high t h e role
p lay e d by t h e individuals a n d / o r g ro u p s during t h e d e v e l o p m e n t (DEV)
s t a g e o f t h e im p le m e n ta tio n in c re a s e d fro m 2 0 % in t h e p a s t (i.e.,
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 ) t o 3 6 % in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r; t h a t o f
im p le m e n ta tio n (IMPL) in c re a s e d from 2 7 % t o 4 0 % ; an d t h a t o f
e v a lu a tio n (EVAL) in c re a s e d fro m 2 7 % t o 4 3 % .

99

TABLE C:
TECHNOLOGY INVOLVEMENT AT EACH STAGE OF THE
IMPLEMENTATION
PLAN

PAST

PRESENT

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

50

20

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

60
13
27

30

DEVP
IMPL
( P e r c e n t a g e S c o re s )
53
53
27
20
20
27

57
7
36

53
7
40

EVAL
46
27
27

50
7
43

N um ber o f C a se s = 1 6
PLAN
DEVP
IMPL
EVAL

= Planning S ta g e
= D e v e lo p m e n t S ta g e
= Im p le m e n ta tio n S ta g e
= Evaluation S ta g e

PA ST
PRESENT

= B e tw ee n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 & 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 School Years
= 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 School Year

T h e f a c t t h a t in Figure II, t h e p a s t a n d p r e s e n t s h ift fo r th e
p e rc e iv e d ro les p lay e d during t h e d e v e lo p m e n t (DEV) a n d e v alu atio n
(EVAL) s t a g e s w a s in o n e d ire c tio n while t h e p a s t a n d p r e s e n t sh ift
fo r t h e p e rc e iv e d roles p la y e d during t h e planning and
im p le m e n ta tio n p h a s e w a s in d i f f e r e n t d ire c tio n g o e s a long w ith t h e
o b s e r v a t i o n t h a t , in T able C, t h e po sitiv e s h i f t s fo r t h e p e rc e iv e d
ro les p la y e d during d e v e l o p m e n t a n d e v a lu a tio n s t a g e s w e r e larg er
t h a n t h o s e f o r planning a n d im p le m e n ta tio n . T o g e th e r , t h o s e re s u lts
s u g g e s t t h a t m o re p e o p le within t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m b e g a n t o a s s u m e
s h a r e d te c h n o lo g y resp o n sib ilitie s in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r. T he
r e s u lts o f t h e s e tw o a n a ly s e s sh o w t h a t t h e kinds o f in flu e n c e s t h a t
a c t o r s within t h e sch ool s y s t e m h a d on t h e te c h n o lo g y

100

im p le m e n ta tio n p ro g ra m d e p e n d e d on t h e a m o u n t an d kind o f role
p la y e d during t h e planning, d e v e lo p m e n t, im p le m e n ta tio n , an d
e v a lu a tio n s t a g e s .
C o n c ern in g q u e s t io n s 1 1 - 1 4 , fro m Figure II y o u m a y n o tic e
t h a t t h e p a r tic ip a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f n e g a tiv e a n d p o sitiv e
in flu e n c e s s h i f t e d in d i f f e r e n t d ire c tio n s fro m t h e p a s t t o t h e
p r e s e n t , a s in d ic a te d by t h e arrow s. F u rth e rm o re , while t h e s h ift fo r
p e rc e iv e d n e g a t iv e in flu e n c e s w a s minimal, t h e s h if t fo r p o sitiv e
in f lu e n c e s w a s larg e.
T a b le D below g iv e s s u m m a r y s t a t i s t i c s o f q u a n t i t a t i v e
in fo rm a tio n c o lle c te d u n d e r q u e s tio n s 11 th r o u g h 14. T h e ta b le
s h o w s t h a t t h e low p e r c e n t a g e o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts w h o p e rc e iv e d
high n e g a tiv e in flu en ces (NEGI) rem a in e d t h e s a m e (9 % ) o v e r t h e p a s t
five y e a r s . H ow ever, p e r c e p t i o n s o f p o sitiv e in flu e n c e s (POSI)
in c re a s e d fro m 3 6 % in t h e p a s t t o 5 5 % in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 scho ol year.

TABLE D: NATURE OF INFLUENCES
POSI

PAST

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

NEGI
(P e r c e n ta g e S c o re s )
46
18
45
45
9
36

PRESENT

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

9
36
55

36
55
9

N um ber o f C a s e s = 16
POSI
NEGI
PAST
PRESENT

P o sitiv e Influence
N e g a tiv e Influence
= B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 & 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 School Years
= 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 School Year

101

T h e larg e s h if t fo r p e rc e iv e d p o sitiv e in fluen ce (POSI) an d
sm all s h if t fo r p e rc e iv e d n e g a tiv e in flu en ce (NEGI), a s sh o w n in
Figure II, is c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e o b s e r v a tio n s t h a t , in T a b le D, t h e
p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e s o f p a r t i c i p a n ts w ho p e rc e iv e d p o sitiv e in flu e n ce s
high in c r e a s e d c o n s id e ra b ly in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 re la tiv e t o t h e previous
y e a r s an d t h o s e o f p e rc e iv e d n e g a tiv e influences, o n t h e a v e ra g e ,
in c r e a s e d slightly. T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s fro m b o th s u m m a r y an d visual
a n a ly s e s s u g g e s t t h a t m o re p e o p le r e s p o n d e d po sitiv ely t o t h e
te c h n o lo g y an d th is s h o w e d a sign o f su s ta in a b ility o f t h e
in n o v a tio n s .
O b s e r v a ti o n s . This s e c t i o n r e p r e s e n t s t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' view s
a s well m y p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s . T h e role t h a t e a c h a c t o r in th e
sc h o o l s y s t e m p lay e d h a d b o th its a d v a n t a g e s a n d w e a k n e s s e s with
r e g a rd t o K endon t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan o v e r t h e p a s t five
y e a r s . R egarding p o sitiv e a s p e c t s , s o m e p a r e n t s f e lt t h e long te r m
te c h n o lo g y vision s e t f o r th in 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 sc h o o l y e a r h a d po sitiv e
in flu e n ce on t h e t e c h n o lo g y plan. O ne sig n ific a n t o b s e r v a tio n w a s
t h e kind o f le a d e rs h ip role t h a t w a s m a n i f e s te d by t h e schoo l
principal a n d fe w t e a c h e r s . A ccording t o s o m e t e a c h e r s , d e s p i te
c e r t a i n initial p e s s im is m e x p r e s s e d by a m a jo rity o f t h e t e a c h e r s
a n d d e s p i t e i n a d e q u a t e te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t fro m t h e S chool D istrict,
t h e s c h o o l principal a n d s o m e t e a c h e r s w e re still o p tim is tic a b o u t
t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . "T he sch ool principal did n o t give up
se e k in g o u t r e s o u rc e s , s u p p o r t, e t c
a n d t h e t e a c h e r s I w o rked
with w e r e d e d i c a t e d t o pu rsu in g t h e te c h n o lo g y plan", sa id o n e
t e a c h e r . As t h e sc h o o l principal s t a t e d " I basically d o n o t dwell on
n e g a tiv e view s, s o I trie d t o m o v e on. I lis te n e d t o b o th p a r e n t s and
t e a c h e r s an d w e n t b a c k t o m ak e it work. We a t t e m p t e d t o m ove
fo rw a rd by providing a lot o f s u p p o r t fo r all t e a c h e r s in s p i t e o f
s h o r tc o m in g s . O ur d e s ir e t o m o tiv a te t e a c h e r s an d s t u d e n t s
p o sitiv e ly in flu e n c e s". She n o t e d t h a t j u s t sim ply talk in g a b o u t t h e
n e e d s a n d t h e im p o r ta n c e o f te c h n o lo g y during t h a t tim e w ith
t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s w a s driven h o m e b e c a u s e it w a s highly

102

s t r e s s e d . "T h o u g h t h e te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s t a r t e d w ith few
c o m p u t e r s , still w e s a w m o re t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s w aitin g t o t a k e
tu rn s " , in d ic a te d o n e u p p e r g r a d e te a c h e r . As in d ic a te d in t h e school
te c h n o lo g y r e p o r t (K en don Annual R eport, 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 ) , Michigan S t a t e
U n iversity in itiativ e o f " T o m o rro w C o m p u te r C la s s ro o m s " p r o j e c t a t
K endon b e c a m e a m o tiv a tin g a s s e t t o Kendon te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n plan, e v e n t o t h o s e t e a c h e r s w ho initially
e x p erien c ed fru stra tio n s.
As m o re tim e , e q u ip m e n t, a n d s u p p o r t p e rs o n n e l b e c a m e
available during t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, b o th t e a c h e r s a n d p a r e n t s
b e g a n t o d e v e lo p p o sitiv e a t t i t u d e s to w a r d s t h e te c h n o lo g y plan. T he
in -h o u se s e m in a rs o f f e r e d t o t e a c h e r s by b o th t h e Michigan S t a t e
U niversity c o lla b o r a to rs a n d n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s h a v e b e e n v e ry
helpful. O ne low er g r a d e t e a c h e r c o m m e n t e d "T ec h n o lo g y m a n a g e r s
work hard a n d h a v e d o n e a lo t t o help us. T he sch ool principal
c o n tin u e s t o s u p p o r t, PTA is g e tt i n g m o re involved a n d c o m m i tt e d t o
helping t h e t e a c h e r s ' t e c h n o lo g y e f f o r t s . As a r e s u lt o f t h e s e
c o o p e r a tiv e e f f o r t , s t u d e n t s e n jo y te c h n o lo g y ." A n o th e r t e a c h e r
a d d e d "Of c o u rs e , t h e c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry an d t h e a f te r -s c h o o l
c o m p u t e r train in g s e s s io n s h a v e h a d p o sitiv e influ ence on t h e
t e a c h e r s ' g e n e r a l a d o p tio n o f t h e c o m p u t e r s in th e i r r e s p e c tiv e
c la s s ro o m s . As t h e n u m b e r of c o m p u t e r s c o n tin u e s t o in c re a s e , as
w e s a w in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r, w e h o p e t o m axim ize o u r tim e fo r
c o m p u t e r p r a c tic e t h a t m a y likely re s u lt in t e a c h e r s ' a n d s t u d e n t s '
e x p e r t i s e in t h e t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s " .
A t t r i b u t e s o f K endon T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rsh ip Roles
T his s e c t i o n p r e s e n t s a s e t o f t h e m e s on p e rc e iv e d q u a litie s o f
K endon t e c h n o lo g y le a d e r s w ith r e g a rd t o beliefs, e x p e c ta ti o n s , an d
in s tru c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s g a t h e r e d t h r o u g h t h e w r i t te n o p e n - e n d e d
r e s p o n s e s t o e a c h q u e s tio n n a ir e in t h e s e lf -a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y an d
t h e s t r u c t u r e d in te rv ie w s a d d r e s s in g t h e s a m e q u e s tio n s .
A p p e n d ic e s G p r e s e n t s t h e th r e e - d im e n s io n a l p lo ts o f
m u ltid im e n sio n al scalin g r e s u lt fo r t h e t h e m e s ( s e e A pp en d ix H fo r

103

t h e c o o rd in a te s o f t h e t h e m e s ) . T he p lo ts of e a c h c a t e g o r y o f th e
a t t r i b u t e s a r e p r e s e n t e d in F igures IIIA, IIIB, a n d MIC a n d in T a b le s
E, F, a n d G. T h e d e sc rip tio n o f e a c h v ariable is p r e s e n t e d in A ppendix
I.
L e a d e r s ' r o le s . Figure IIIA b elo w p r e s e n t s t h e m a jo r role
v a ria b le s ( a t t r i b u t e s ) w hich w e r e a s s o c i a t e d w ith t e c h n o lo g y
le a d e rs h ip a s p e rc e iv e d by t h e p a rtic ip a n ts . T h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f
te c h n o lo g y le a d e r s ' g r o u p a s s i s t a n c e (RGRASS) a n d p e rs o n a l
a s s i s t a n c e (RPSASS) t o t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s , m o tiv a tio n a l
s t r a t e g i e s (RMOTIVAT) t h e y u se d , a n d rich id e a s (RIDEAS) t h a t t h e
le a d e rs g e n e r a t e d a re lo c a te d a t t h e t o p o f t h e g rap h . T ab le E below
sh o w s t h a t 5 3 % o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts in d ic a te d t h a t t h e le a d e rs
d e m o n s t r a t e d o r p ro v id ed g ro u p a s s i s t a n c e , 4 0 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts
in d ic a te d t h a t t h e le a d e r s u s e d m o tiv a tio n a l s t r a t e g i e s , a n d a b o u t
3 3 % s t a t e d t h a t t h e le a d e r s p ro v id ed rich id e a s a n d p e rs o n a l
a ssista n ce to te a c h e rs and stu d e n ts .
T w o is s u e s a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e l e a d e r s ' a t t r i b u t e s w e re t h e
p e rc e iv e d role o f t h e le a d e r s a s f r o n t - r u n n e r s o r le a d e r s (RLEAD)
a n d t h e m onitoring s t r a t e g i e s (RMONITOR) t h e y u se d . You m ay
o b s e r v e t h a t t h e tw o v a ria b le s a re l o c a te d a t b o t t o m o f t h e g rap h.
T ab le E s h o w s t h a t 2 0 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts in d ic a te d t h a t s o m e
le a d e r s s e r v e d a s f ro n t- r u n n e r s o r le a d e rs an d a b o u t only 7 % s t a t e d
t h a t t h e le a d e r s m o n ito re d t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n .
T h r e e m a jo r o b s e r v a t i o n s a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith Figure IIIA an d
T ab le E. First, t h e p o sitiv e e x t r e m e o f t h e lo c a tio n o f p e rc e iv e d
le a d e rs ' g r o u p a s s i s t a n c e t o t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s a n d high
p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts w ho in d ic a te d t h a t t h e le a d e rs
p ro v id e d g ro u p a s s i s t a n c e s u g g e s t t h a t t h e le a d e r s highly c o n s id e re d
g r o u p o r c o lla b o ra tiv e w o rk a s e f f e c t i v e s t r a t e g y fo r t h e s u c c e s s o f
t h e t e c h n o lo g y i m p le m e n ta tio n . S e c o n d , tv a tio n a l s t r a t e g i e s a n d
p e rs o n a l a s s i s t a n c e o f t h e le a d e r s a s well a s t h e e x t e n t t o w hiche
pro xim ity (fo r b o th Figure IIIA & T able E) o f p e rc e iv e d m o tih s o m e
le a d e r s s e r v e d a s f r o n t - r u n n e r s in d ic a te s t h a t t h e le a d e r s
m o d e r a t e l y c o n s id e r e d t h e s e f a c t o r s a s im p o r ta n t. Third, t h e

104

Figure IIIA:

Major role v a ria b le s.

105

t h e e x t r e m e p o sitio n o f p e rc e iv e d le a d e r s ' m o n ito rin g s t r a t e g i e s on
t h e g ra p h a n d t h e e x t r e m e low p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts
fo r th is f a c t o r s u g g e s t t h a t only few le a d e r s paid a t t e n t i o n t o
m o n ito rin g s t r a t e g i e s su c h a s t h e e x t e n t t o which t e a c h e r s and
s t u d e n t s w e r e using c o m p u t e r s in t h e curriculum .

TABLE E: THE ATTRIBUTES OF KENDON TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP
ROLES
T hem es

P resen t
(P e rce n tag e S cores)

RGRASS
RMOTIVAT
RIDEAS
RPSASS
RLEAD
RMONITOR

53 .3
4 0 .0
3 3 .3
3 3 .3
2 0 .0
6 .7

N um ber o f C a s e s = 15

L e a d e r s ' b e lie fs. Figure IIIB r e p r e s e n t s t h e principal b elief
v a ria b le s ( a t t r i b u t e s ) w hich t h e p a r tic ip a n ts p e rc e iv e d o f K endon
t e c h n o lo g y le a d e rs . T h r e e m a jo r o b s e r v a tio n a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e
s p a tia l r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s o f t h e p e rc e iv e d be liefs o f t h e le a d e rs .
First, v a ria b le s a s s o c i a t e d w ith le a d e r s ' b e lie f t h a t t e c h n o l o g y is
usefu l (BUSEFUL) in t h e curriculum , t h a t t e a c h e r s h a d t o b e
e n th u s ia s t i c (BENTHUSI) a b o u t te c h n o lo g y , a n d t h a t t e a c h e r s n e e d e d
e n c o u r a g e m e n t (BENCRGMT) in o r d e r t o a d o p t t h e in n o v atio n s a re
tig h tly c l u s t e r e d in t h e fo rm o f trian g le. T ab le F b elow sh o w s t h a t
a b o u t 7 3 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts p e rc e iv e d t h a t t h e le a d e r s s tro n g ly
b e lie v e d t h a t t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s w e re u se fu l, t h a t t h e
le a d e r s s h o w e d e n th u s ia s m , a n d t h a t t h e y e n c o u r a g e d t h e follow ers
t o a c tiv e ly g e t involved.

106

Figure III.B:

Major belief v a ria b le s.

.0

e>

o

107

TABLE F:

ATTRIBUTES OF KENDON TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP BELIEFS
Them es

BUSEFUL
BENTHUSI
BENCRGMT
BSTDEVPT
BSUPSYST
BEXPERI
BTIMEDIF
BSELFCON
BRESIST

P resent
( P e r c e n t a g e S c o re )
7 3 .3
7 3 .3
7 3 .3
6 6 .7
6 6 .7
6 6 .7
5 3 .3
3 3 .3
2 0 .0
N um ber o f C a s e s = 1 5

S e c o n d , fo r e f f e c t i v e im p le m e n ta tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e
c urriculum , t h e v a ria b le s a s s o c i a t e d w ith l e a d e r s ' b e lie fs in
t e a c h e r s ' k n o w le d g e o r e x p e r ie n c e (BEXPERI) in te c h n o lo g y , a b o u t t h e
n e e d fo r s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t (BSTDEVPT) a n d te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t
(BSUPSYST) t o t e a c h e r s e f f o r t s a re tig h tly c lu s te r e d t o g e t h e r
h o rizo ntally . T h e p e rc e iv e d be liefs in t h e t h e s e six f a c t o r s h a v e also
c lo se ly c l u s t e r e d w ith t h e i r belief t h a t tim e m a d e it diffic u lt
(BTIMEDIF) fo r t e a c h e r s t o learn a n d m a s t e r t h e te c h n o lo g y . All
t h e s e s e v e n v ariab les h a v e c lu s te r e d a t t h e t o p o f t h e g rap h . T ab le F
s h o w s t h a t a b o u t 6 7 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts in d ic a te d t h a t t h e le a d e rs
b e liev e d t h a t t e a c h e r s ' s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t, te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t
s y s te m s , a n d t e c h n o lo g y e x p e rie n c e w e re v e ry im p o rta n t. A b o u t 5 3 %
o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts also p e rc e iv e d t h a t t h e le a d e r s b e lie v e d t h a t
tim e m a d e it difficult fo r t e a c h e r s t o learn a n d m a s t e r t h e
te c h n o lo g y .
Third, t w o m a jo r is s u e s a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith th is a n a ly sis. You
m a y n o tic e t h a t t h e p e rc e iv e d le a d e r s ' b e liefs in t e a c h e r s '
r e s i s t a n c e (BRESIST) t o c h a n g e o r a d o p t t h e in n o v a tio n s an d
t e a c h e r s ' se lf c o n fid e n c e (BSELFCON) applying t h e to o ls in t h e

108

curriculum a re lo c a te d a t t h e b o t t o m o f t h e g ra p h an d t h e y a re
widely d is p e r s e d . T a b le F sh o w s t h a t a b o u t 3 3 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts
f e l t t h e le a d e r s b e lie v e d in individual's se lf c o n fid e n c e a s a f a c t o r
o f a d o p tio n o r r e je c tio n o f t h e t e c h n o lo g y in t h e curriculum . Only
2 0 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts a g r e e d t h a t t h e le a d e rs w e r e c o n c e rn e d with
s o m e t e a c h e r s ' f r u s t r a t i o n s a n d r e s i s t a n c e t o t h e in n o v atio n s.
T h e p o s itio n s o f t h e s e a t t r i b u t e s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e p e rc e iv e d le a d e rs '
be liefs in t h e s e tw o f a c t o r s w e re w eak.
T h e s p a tia l lo c a tio n s o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f
K endon te c h n o lo g y le a d e r s ' b eliefs in t h e u s e f u ln e s s o f te c h n o lo g y in
t h e c u rricu lum , e n t h u s i a s m a b o u t te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s,
e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t e a c h e r s , s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t, s u p p o r t s y s te m s , and
t e a c h e r s ' te c h n o lo g y e x p e rie n c e a s well a s t h e high p e r c e n t a g e
s c o r e s o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts fo r t h e s e f a c t o r s s u g g e s t t h a t t h e s e
a t t r i b u t e s o f t h e le a d e r s in flu e n ce d o r c o n tr i b u te d t o t h e sch o o lw id e
a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e curriculum . T h e c lo s e p roxim ity o f t h e
p e rc e iv e d tim e d iffic u ltie s t o t h o s e v a ria b le s a ls o s u g g e s t t h a t
le a d e r s a lw ay s c o n s id e r e d tim e a s a p o te n tia l f a c t o r fo r t h e s u c c e s s
o f t h e im p le m e n ta tio n . T h e lo c a tio n s o f p e rc e iv e d le a d e r s ' be liefs in
se lf c o n f id e n c e a n d r e s i s t a n c e a s well a s t h e low p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e s
o f t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts w h o in d ic a te d t h a t t h e le a d e r s b e lie v e d in t h e s e
tw o f a c t o r s im plies t h a t t h e le a d e rs did n o t s e e t h e s e f a c t o r s as
p o te n tia l p ro b le m s t o t h e s u c c e s s o f t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n .
L e a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s . Figure MIC s h o w s t h a t f o u r m a jo r
o b s e r v a t i o n s a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e s p a tia l lo c a tio n s o f
p a r t i c i p a n t s ’ p e r c e iv e d e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t h e le a d e r s . First, c o n c e rn in g
t h e im p a c ts o f te c h n o lo g y on in s tru c tio n , t h e lo c a tio n s of
p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f le a d e r s e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t t h e
a p p lic a tio n s o f t e c h n o lo g y in t h e cu rriculum w ould e f f e c t c h a n g e s in
te a c h in g (CHTESTYL) an d learning (CHSTINT) s t y l e s a re c lo s e t o t h e
p e rc e iv e d l e a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s t o a c q u ire m o re
k n o w le d g e a b o u t te c h n o lo g y (EKNOWLE). T h e p e r c e p tio n s o f le a d e rs '
e x p e c t a t i o n s fo r t e a c h e r s ' g r o u p o r c o lla b o ra tiv e w ork (EGRWORK) in

'9 u r *
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109
Ms
uor

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- 'i .

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110

also c lo s e t o e x p e c t a t i o n s o f in s tru c tio n a l c h a n g e s a n d t e a c h e r s '
kn ow ledge. T h e p e r c e p tio n s o f le a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f tim e c h a n g e s
(CHTIMGT) t o r e s p o n d t o te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s in t h e c la s s ro o m s is
lo c a te d f a r fro m t h e r e s t o f t h e e x p e c t a t i o n s o f in stru c tio n a l
changes.
T ab le G sh o w s t h a t a b o u t 5 3 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts in d ic a te d
t h a t t h e le a d e r s e x p e c t e d c h a n g e s in te a c h in g a n d learning s ty le s
an d also e x p e c t e d t e a c h e r s t o a c q u ire te c h n o lo g y skills a n d
k n o w le d g e b e fo r e t h e y c o uld e ff e c tiv e ly i n t e g r a t e te c h n o lo g y in t h e
curriculum . 4 0 % a g re e d t h a t t h e le a d e rs e x p e c t e d m o re g ro u p work
o r in stru c tio n fro m t h e t e a c h e r s . With re g a rd t o tim e , only 2 0 % o f
t h e p a rtic ip a n ts p e rc e iv e d t h a t t h e le a d e rs e x p e c t e d c h a n g e s in tim e
m a n a g e m e n t t o re s p o n d t o te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s in t h e c la ss ro o m s .
S e c o n d , y o u m a y n o tic e fro m Figure IIIC t h a t t h e p o sitio n of
t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f le a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s fo r m o re
te c h n o lo g y tim e (EMORETIM) lies rig h t o n t o p o f e x p e c t a t i o n s o f
in stru c tio n a l c h a n g e s , t e a c h e r s ' k n o w le d g e a n d t e a m work. T able G
sh o w s t h a t a b o u t 6 7 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts a g r e e d t h a t t h e le a d e rs
e x p e c t e d m o re tim e f o r t e a c h e r s t o learn a b o u t a n d m a s t e r t h e
te c h n o lo g y .
Third, r e g a rd in g e q u ip m e n t, t h e lo c a tio n s o f p a r t i c i p a n ts '
p e r c e p t i o n s o f l e a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s t h a t t h e w ith d raw a l (WDRCOMP)
o f half o f t h e c o m p u t e r s a n d doubling (DUBCOMP) o f t h e n u m b e r of
c o m p u t e r s w ould a f f e c t in s tru c tio n a re c lo s e t o t h o s e o f
in s tru c tio n a l c h a n g e v a ria b le s a n d t e a c h e r s ' k n o w le d g e a b o u t
te c h n o lo g y . From t h e s a m e figure, t h e p a r tic ip a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f
le a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f h a rd w a re (EHAWARE) a n d s o f t w a r e
(ESOWARE) a re sp a tia lly lo c a te d f a r fro m t h e r e s t o f t h e e x p e c ta ti o n
v a ria b le s e x c e p t c h a n g e s in c la s s ro o m tim e m a n a g e m e n t . T ab le G
s h o w s t h a t 6 0 % o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts in d ic a te d t h a t t h e le a d e r s
e x p e c t e d in s tru c tio n t o b e p o sitiv ely a f f e c t e d if t h e n u m b e r o f
c o m p u t e r s in t h e sc h o o l is in c re a s e d o r d o u b led . A b o u t 5 3 % also
s t a t e d t h a t t h e le a d e r s e x p e c t e d in stru c tio n t o b e n e g a tiv e ly
a f f e c t e d if half o f t h e c o m p u t e r s a re w ith d ra w n fro m t h e school.

Ill

TABLE G:
THE ATTRIBUTES OF KENDON TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP
EXPECTATIONS
T hem es

P resent
(P e rc e n ta g e S cores)

EMORETIM

6 6 .7

DUBCOMP

6 0 .0

EKNOWLE

5 3 .3

CHSTDINT

5 3 .3

CHTESTYL

5 3 .3

WDRCOMP

5 3 .3

EHAWARE

4 0 .0

EGRWORK

4 0 .0

KENMODEL

4 0 .0

ESOWARE

3 3 .3

CHTIMGT

2 0 .0

N um ber o f C a s e s = 15

4 0 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts a g r e e d t h a t t h e le a d e rs e x p e c t e d m o re
h a rd w a re an d a b o u t 3 3 % o f t h e m a g re e d t h a t t h e le a d e rs e x p e c t e d
m o re s o f t w a r e in t h e c la s s ro o m s . F ourth, t h e lo ca tio n o f
p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f le a d e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f K endon
te c h n o lo g y b e c o m in g a m od el (KENMODEL) is c lo se t o t h e e x p e c te d
t e a c h e r s ' g r o u p o r t e a m work. 4 0 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts a g re e d t h a t

112

t h e le a d e rs e x p e c t e d t o s e e Kendon te c h n o lo g y a s a m odel within
Michigan public s c h o o ls.
T h e s y n t h e s i s o f t h e s e fo u r o b s e rv a tio n s s u g g e s t t h a t th e
p a r tic ip a n ts p e rc e iv e d t h a t t h e te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs e x p e c t e d m o re
tim e a n d e q u ip m e n t fo r t e a c h e r s t o learn and m a s t e r t h e te c h n o lo g y
in o r d e r t o e ffe c tiv e ly u se t h e te c h n o lo g y to e n h a n c e te a c h in g an d
learning in t h e c la s s ro o m . A n o t h e r im plication w ith th is a n a ly sis is
t h a t t h e le a d e rs e x p e c t e d Kendon t e a c h e r s ' te a m w o r k o r c o -te a c h in g
t o be a m o d el fo r te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v atio n s w ithin s c h o o ls. H ow ever,
t h e le a d e rs did n o t w orry a b o u t t h e issu e s o f s o f tw a r e an d tim e
m a n a g e m e n t p ro b le m s in t h e c la ss ro o m s .
G eneral O b s e r v a tio n s and t h e P a rtic ip a n ts ' Own C o m m e n ts
on t h e Kev T ec h n o lo g y A c to rs
T h e follow ing s e c t i o n s r e p r e s e n t t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' g e n e r a l
c o m m e n t s a n d o b s e r v a tio n s , a s s t a t e d o r n a r r a t e d u n d e r q u e s t io n s
1 -4 o f A p p e n d ic e s A & B a s well a s t h e s t r u c t u r e d in terview s.
In fo rm a tio n c o lle c te d d uring t h e review o f t e c h n o lo g y r e p o r ts ,
m e e tin g p ro c e e d in g s , a n d m y p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s is also included.
L ansing S c h o o l D istric t
A ccording t o t h e p a rtic ip a n ts , t h e Kendon t e c h n o lo g y
i m p le m e n ta tio n plan h a s b e e n in flu e n ce d by t h e School D istrict
th r o u g h its a d m in is tr a tiv e a n d financial p o w e rs, b e in g a final
d e c is io n - m a k e r a n d fin an cial c o n tro lle r. T h e p a r t i c i p a n ts o b s e r v e d
t h a t t h e School D istrict did n o t d ire c tly p a r tic ip a te in t h e planning,
d e v e lo p m e n t, a n d im p le m e n ta tio n o f t h e te c h n o lo g y plan, b u t t h e
School D istrict r e s p o n d e d fa v o ra b ly t o t e a c h e r s ' r e q u e s t s w ith
r e g a r d t o te c h n o lo g y . H ow ever, d e s p i te t h e p ro m is e s fro m t h e
D istrict, s o m e t e a c h e r s a n d p a r e n t s w ho p a r tic ip a te d in t h e s t u d y
s t a t e d t h a t t h e School D istrict slo w e d dow n t h e te c h n o lo g y
i m p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s b e c a u s e o f its c o m p le x a d m in is tr a tiv e
fo rm a litie s an d lim ited te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t t o t e a c h e r s ' e f f o r t s ,
p a rtic u la rly in t h e c o m p u t e r t e a c h i n g la b o ra to ry s e t t i n g during t h e

113

1 9 9 3 - 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r. "I feel t h e School D istrict h a s h a m p e r e d , t o
s o m e d e g r e e , m a n y of t h e th in g s w e c o n s id e re d im p o r ta n t d u e t o its
lim ited r e s o u r c e s a n d p e rs o n n e l" , s t a t e d o n e t e a c h e r . A n o th e r
t e a c h e r a d d e d "T he Lansing School D istrict g iv e s m o re ta lk t h a n
a ctio n ". As o n e p a r e n t p u t it "From m y o b se rv a tio n , I am n o t su re
how involved t h e D istrict is b u t I know it d o e s m o n ito r t h e p r o g re s s
o f t h e te c h n o lo g y plan th r o u g h t h e sc h o o l's annu al r e p o r ts ." However,
a m ajo rity o f t h e t e a c h e r s w h o p a r tic ip a te d in t h e s t u d y in d ic a te d
t h a t t h e 4 0 M acintosh c o m p u t e r s g r a n te d t o t h e scho ol an d th e
in service train in g w hich t h e School D istrict o f f e r e d t o tw o K endon
t e a c h e r s ( t h e d e s i g n a t e d n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s ) had s ig n ific a n t im p a c ts
on t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan. A n o th e r i m p o r ta n t
c o n tr ib u tio n w a s t h e a p p ro v a l a n d s u p p o r t o f A s s i s t a n t
S u p e r i n t e n d e n t f o r In stru c tio n t o e s ta b lis h a c o m p u t e r t e a c h i n g
la b o ra to ry t o s u p p o r t g r o u p s t a f f train in g a n d in stru c tio n . D e sp ite
t h e e n c o u r a g e m e n t an d m a te ria l s u p p o r t fro m t h e D istrict, s o m e
p a r tic ip a n ts o b s e r v e d t h a t s o m e a g e n t s in t h e D istrict O ffice s e r v e d
a s g a t e k e e p e r s o r c a t a l y s t s t o in te rf e re w ith t h e im p le m e n ta tio n
p ro c e s s . O ne t e a c h e r c o m m e n t e d "It s e e m s t h e te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t
p e rs o n n e l a n d fe w o t h e r s in t h e D istrict Office d o o p p o s e t h e
c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry plan a n d t h a t t h e y d o n o t w a n t t o give any
te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t e x p e c t e d fro m t h e D istrict". Tw o o f t h e t e a c h e r s
s tro n g ly s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e scho ol a n d t h e D istrict n e e d t o w ork
clo sely t o g e t h e r t o s u p p o r t t h e te c h n o lo g y plan, p a rticu la rly t h e
t e c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e .
S u m m a r y . T h e s t u d y in d ic a te s t h a t t h e D istrict O ffice p ro v id ed
e q u ip m e n t a n d financial a s s i s t a n c e , b u t t h e o n -g o in g te c h n ic a l
s u p p o r t a n d te c h n o lo g y in -se rv ic e trainin g h a v e alw ay s b e e n t h e
r e s p o n s ib ility o f t h e s c h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r (p rin cip al) a n d h e r
c o lla b o r a to rs . In g e n e ra l, it a p p e a r e d t h e D istrict O ffice w a s highly
s u p p o r tiv e in w o rd s b u t slow in a c tio n s during t h e period b e tw e e n
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r s . In 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 school y e a r, t h e
s t u d y r e v e a le d t h a t t h e D istric t's g r a n t o f 4 0 m ic r o c o m p u te r s an d

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e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t e a c h e r s ' e f f o r t s h a d a very p o sitiv e im p a c t on th e
in n o v a tio n s . In c o n c lu sio n , t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts f e l t t h e D istrict Office
and t h e sc h o o l n e e d t o w ork m o re closely t o s u s ta in t h e
te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s a t K endon.
T h e S chool A d m in is tra to r: Principal
All t h e t e a c h e r s , s t a f f , p a r e n t s , a n d c o m m u n ity b u s in e s s
p a r t n e r s w ho p a r t i c i p a te d in t h e s t u d y r e c o g n iz e d t h e g r e a t po sitiv e
im p a c ts t h e sc h o o l principal h a s h a d on t h e te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n sin ce 1 9 8 9 t o t h e c u r r e n t y e a r. T h e y all
a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t s h e w a s t h e key p e rs o n in g e tt i n g fun din g from
t h e S chool D istrict. In a d d itio n , s h e h a s w o rk e d h a rd w ith Michigan
S t a t e U n iv e rsity c o l l a b o r a t o r s in so licitin g financial a s s i s t a n c e o r
g r a n t s f r o m P ro fe ss io n a l D e v e lo p m e n t School P ro g ra m , Michigan
P a rtn e rs h ip f o r New E d ucation, Kellogg a n d A ppje C o m p u te r s t o
s u p p o r t K endon te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s.
O ne p a r e n t in d ic a te d t h a t , initially, s o m e p a r e n t s did n o t know
e x a c tly t h e kind o f in flu e n ce s t h e sc h o o l principal h a d on t h e
te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan. Y et t h e y a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t s h e h as
a lw ays b e e n e n th u s ia s t i c a b o u t t h e e n tire PDS p ro g ra m . O ne p a r e n t
e m p h a s i z e d "T h e sc h o o l principal plays a v e ry a c tiv e role in t h e
sc h o o l p r o g ra m s . She is a lw ay s visible, v e ry c o m m i t t e d t o t h e PDS
p ro g ram , C h a p te r I p ro g ram , e tc . She w orks v e ry h ard t o s e e in g t h a t
all t h e sc h o o l p ro g r a m s a re s u c c e s s f u l." Both K endon p a r e n t s and
b u sin e ss p a r t n e r s n o t e d t h a t s h e h a s b e e n v e ry c o o p e r a tiv e an d
d e d i c a t e d l e a d e r e s p e c ia lly w ith t h e te c h n o lo g y p r o je c ts . O ne
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e fro m CASE C re d it Union (a local b a n k ) c o m m e n t e d
"She is a lw ay s d e d i c a t e d t o w h a t is b e s t fo r t h e schoo l".
A cco rdin g t o s o m e t e a c h e r s w h o p a r tic ip a te d in t h e s tu d y , t h e
principal is a lw a y s willing t o s t a n d firm t o s u p p o r t t h e i r p r o g r a m s
e v e n w h e n t h e School D istrict o p p o s e s t h e t e a c h e r s ' id eas. T h ey
c o m m e n t e d t h a t s h e h a s trie d h ard t o uphold all t h e PDS principles
a n d id e a s ( s e e A ppendix J). S o m e t e a c h e r s re v e a le d t h a t s h e giv es
t h e n e c e s s a r y e n c o u r a g e m e n t a n d tim e t o h e r t e a c h e r s . In addition,

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s h e h a s b e e n an e x c e lle n t s o u rc e o f ideas. One t e a c h e r s t a t e d " S h e 's
alw ay s e n c o u ra g in g , su p p o rtiv e , a n d o p e n -m in d e d . I like th a t!!"
T h e s e t e a c h e r s h a d o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e m o re t h e n u m b e r o f c o m p u te r s
in c r e a s e d in t h e sc h o o l, particu larly 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, t h e m o re
s h e g o t involved w ith t e c h n o lo g y a ctiv itie s. A c co rd in g t o th e m , this
w a s q u ite visible in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y ear: working w ith t e a c h e r s
a n d s t u d e n t s in t h e c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry , a tt e n d i n g m e e ti n g s w ith
Michigan S t a t e U niversity s u p p o r t p e rs o n n e l a n d h e r n e tw o rk
m a n a g e rs , e tc . O ne p a r e n t happily ex p la in e d "Being a principal,
m o th e r o f sc h o o l a g e children, t e a c h e r an d a g o o d friend o f all
K endon p a r e n t s s h e h a s alw ays m a n a g e d t o g e t e v e r y b o d y involved in
t h e s c h o o l p ro g ra m s . S he is v e ry visible, helpful, caring, an d h as
g r e a t c o m m u n ic a tio n skills. She is g r e a t , o n e o f t h e b e s t principals
in t h e w orld."
A ccording t o t h e school r e c o r d s an d p r o c e e d in g s fro m t h e
School I m p r o v e m e n t T e a m and S t a f f m e e tin g s , t h e principal h a s
p lay e d a m a jo r role during t h e planning, d e v e lo p m e n t,
im p le m e n ta tio n , a n d e v a lu a tio n s t a g e s of t h e te c h n o lo g y plan. W hen
t h e te c h n o lo g y p r o je c t s t a r t e d in 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 sc h o o l y e a r, s h e m a d e
s u re t h e plan w a s c o n s i s t e n t w ith g o a ls a n d o b j e c ti v e s s e t fo r
s t u d e n t s ' s u c c e s s . She led t h e s t a f f and te c h n o lo g y t e a m t o d e v e lo p
p r o g ra m plan, m o n ito r e d t h e p r o je c ts , a n d a n s w e r e d hard q u e s t io n s
by t e a c h e r s , p a r e n ts , a n d School D istrict a u th o r itie s . During t h e
im p le m e n ta tio n s t a g e s h e trie d t o c a u tio n a n d a s s u r e h er
c o ll a b o r a t o r s t h a t it w a s th e ir f ir s t y e a r of e x p e r i e n c e w ith
te c h n o lo g y an d t h a t t h e y should w ork o u t t h e p ro b le m s an d issu e s
t o g e t h e r . As an o n going a s s e s s m e n t s h e m a d e s o m e m ajo r
c o n tr i b u ti o n s t o t e c h n o lo g y d is c u s s io n s , lis te n e d t o s u g g e s t i o n s fo r
how t o m a k e t h e te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m b e tt e r .
A s a te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e r s o n an d Michigan S t a t e UniversityK endon C o o rd in a to r, I h a d an o p p o r tu n ity t o w ork c lo sely w ith t h e
s c h o o l principal a n d m a k e p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s o n te c h n o lo g y
is s u e s . During t h e sc h o o l-w id e c o m p u t e r im p le m e n ta tio n in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4
sc h o o l y e a r , s h e w a s v e ry involved a t all s t a g e s o f t h e

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im p le m e n ta tio n . She e n c o u r a g e d t h e s t a f f t o talk a b o u t w h a t n e e d e d
t o be d o n e a n d how t h e y w ould d o it. She f o c u s e d o n t h e utility o f th e
p r o g r a m s a n d t e a c h e r s ' m o tiv a tio n s . Particularly, s h e w a s m uch
c o n c e r n e d w ith w h a t t h e s t a f f could u se t o m ak e t h e schoo l-w ide
te c h n o lo g y plan s m o o t h an d rew arding fo r b o th t e a c h e r s an d
s t u d e n t s . As an a s s e s s m e n t s t r a t e g y , s h e alw ay s a s k e d t h o s e basic
a n d c om pelling q u e s t io n s during t h e s t a f f a n d School Im p ro v e m e n t
T e a m m e e ti n g s su c h a s : W h at b u s in e s s a re we in? How is it going?
W h at e v id e n c e do w e h a v e ? e tc .
A sked a s t o how s h e s e e s Kendon b e co m in g a te c h n o lo g y
o r i e n t e d sc h o o l, s h e rep lied "I feel it is tim e w e find a lte r n a tiv e
w a y s o f d o in g new th in g s. N ot alw ay s doing old th in g s." A ccording
t o her, w h e n t h e S cho ol D istrict f ir s t p r o p o s e d a d is tric t-w id e
te c h n o lo g y plan in early 1 9 9 0 s , m a n y sc h o o ls r e f u s e d t o e m b r a c e t h e
idea. This w a s an o p p o r tu n ity f o r h e r t o p u rsu e new w a y s o f
im proving t h e s c h o o l curriculum , s o s h e a c c e p t e d t h e idea
w h o le h e a rte d ly . As a s c h o o l principal, s h e h a s b e e n working hard
w ith all h e r c o lla b o ra to rs t o win t h e c o m p e titiv e e d g e o f t h e
d i s t r i c t - w id e t e c h n o l o g y im p l e m e n ta t io n plan.
S u m m a r y . T h e s t u d y re v e a ls t h a t t h e sc h o o l principal h a s b e e n
v e ry s u p p o rtiv e , c o m m i tt e d , and d e d ic a t e d t o g o a ls a n d n e e d s of
te c h n o lo g y in t h e lines o f t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s . She h a s alw ays
b e e n a f o r e r u n n e r in t h e sc h o o l t e c h n o lo g y e f f o r t s . She is a w a re and
u n d e r s t a n d s t h e im p a c ts o f t e c h n o lo g y on p r e s e n t an d f u tu r e
in s tr u c tio n a l a c tiv itie s . S h e p r o m o t e s t h e t e c h n o lo g y id e a s w ith
e m p h a s is o n n e e d s . All h e r a c tio n s a re being a c c o m p a n ie d w ith
e x a m p le s , m o tiv a tio n s , e n th u s ia s m , c o o p e r a tio n , o p e n n e s s , a n d se lf
co n fid en ce .
P a re n ts
T h r e e K endon p a r e n t s p a r tic ip a te d in t h e s tu d y . T w o o f th e m
h a v e s e r v e d on t h e School Im p ro v e m e n t T e a m fo r t h e p a s t fo u r y e a rs
an d t h e o t h e r o n e is an a d m in is tra tiv e s t a f f m e m b e r a t K endon. T he

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r e s p o n s e s g a t h e r e d th r o u g h t h e s e lf -a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y an d t h e
p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s fro m t h e s e p a r e n t s in d ic a te d t h a t K endon
p a r e n t s h a d v e ry little in flu en ce on t h e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n
in t h e e a rly y e a r s b e t w e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 . "I feel p a r e n t s had
v e ry little t o d o w ith t e c h n o lo g y d e v e l o p m e n t a t t h a t tim e ,
u n f o r tu n a te ly " said o n e p a re n t. This could be u n d e r s to o d by t h e f a c t
t h a t t h e y h ad lim ited k n o w le d g e a b o u t t h e long t e r m g o a ls fo r t h e
te c h n o lo g y plan. O ne p a r e n t n o te d "I a m n o t s u re of t h e a m o u n t of
influence Kendon p a r e n t s h ad on t h e s e p ro g ra m s o t h e r th a n t h e input
o f t h o s e w ho s e r v e d on t h e School Im p ro v e m e n t T e a m (SIT) and
P a r e n t T e a c h e r A s so c ia tio n (PTA) m e e tin g s ." O ne p a r e n t e x p r e s s e d
t h e c o n c e rn a b o u t s o m e p a r e n t s ’ p a ssiv e role in t h e sch ool
a c tiv itie s. "I wish t h e r e w e r e m o re p a r e n t p a rtic ip a tio n b u t only few
a t t e n d e d School I m p r o v e m e n t m e e tin g s w ith t e a c h e r s . "Even t h o s e
w h o m a n i f e s t e d i n t e r e s t in w o rking w ith children, th e i r
c o m m i tm e n t w a s n o t s tro n g ," said o n e p a re n t. How ever, t h o s e w ho
a c tiv e ly p a r t i c i p a te d in t h e sc h o o l m e e ti n g s a s s u m e d t h e
resp o n sib ility o f e xp lainin g t h e te c h n o lo g y p e r s p e c t iv e t o o t h e r
p a r e n ts . From m y p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s , during 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 and
1 9 9 3 / 9 4 scho ol y e a rs , s o m e Kendon p a r e n t s b e g a n t o a s s u m e new
re sp o n sib ilitie s. I n o tic e d fro m t h e re v ie w s o f K endon a n n u a l r e p o r ts
a n d w ork p lan s t h a t , s o m e p a r e n t s ' a c tiv e te c h n o lo g y in v o lv e m e n t
w a s a r e s u lt o f t h e f a c u l ty 's e f f o r t s t o g e t all p a r e n t s e n g a g e d in
t h e s c h o o l p ro g ra m s. T h eir in p u t during t h e SIT a n d PTA m e e tin g s
h a s h a d v e ry p o sitiv e in flu e n ce o n t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n .
T h e PTA h a s m a d e s u b s ta n t ia l financial an d physical c o n tr ib u tio n s
to w a r d s t h e s c h o o l's Library A u to m a tio n . One p a r e n t n o t e d t h a t o v e r
t h e p a s t y e a r m o re p a r e n t s hav e g a in e d u n d e rs ta n d in g o f Kendon
te c h n o lo g y plan. O ne t e a c h e r c o m m e n t e d "K endon p a r e n ts , in g en eral,
a re b e g in n in g t o like t h e sc h o o l-w id e c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s b u t
u n fo rtu n a te ly , t h e y d o n o t give m u ch s u p p o rt." A n o th e r p a r e n t a d d e d
"S o m e p a r e n t s w a n t a v a rie ty o f c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s fo r th e ir
children b u t t h e y a re n o t willing t o c o n tr i b u te financially."

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S u m m a r y . B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 - 9 2 , Kendon p a r e n t s did n o t play any
sig n ific an t role during t h e planning and d e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e s . T ho ugh
t h e y h a d s o m e influence, y e t it w a s n o t s tr o n g e n o u g h . This w a s d u e
t o th e ir lim ited u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e long t e r m t e c h n o lo g y plan.
H ow ever, b e tw e e n 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 an d 9 3 / 9 4 school y e a rs , t h o s e w ho
s e r v e d on t h e School I m p r o v e m e n t T e a m c o n s tr u c tiv e ly w o rk e d w ith
Kendon f a c u lty on t h e te c h n o lo g y plan. As t h e y b e c o m e m o re involved
w ith t e c h n o lo g y p r o g ra m s a n d w ith m o re b ra in s to rm in g fro m th e
s t a f f , t h e y w ould gain m o re in fluence on t h e te c h n o lo g y plan.
B u sin e ss C o m m u n ity : P a r tn e rs h ip
A ccording t o s o m e K endon t e a c h e r s t h e b u s in e s s c o m m u n ity
w a s n o t involved in t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y p ro g r a m s until 1 9 9 3 - 9 4
sc h o o l y e a r w h e n a te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s y s t e m w a s s e t up t o s u p p o r t
local C re d it Union a n d t h e 4 t h g r a d e c la s s e s p a r tn e r s h ip p ro je c t. Up
until now, th e i r in v o lv e m e n t is lim ited t o t h e t w o 4 t h g r a d e c la s s e s ,
a c c o rd in g t o SIT r e p o r ts . This lim itation is e x p la in e d by t h e f a c t
t h a t th is p a r t n e r s h i p v e n tu r e is in t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s t a g e a n d it w a s
originally d e s ig n e d only f o r t h e s e t w o 4 t h g r a d e c la s s e s . H ow ever,
t h e sc h o o l e x p e c t s t o e x p a n d t h e p ro g ra m t o all g r a d e levels in t h e
n e a r fu tu r e , a c c o rd in g t o t h e tw o 4 t h g r a d e t e a c h e r s an d t h e school
p rin cip als (i.e., p r o j e c t c o o r d i n a to r s ) .
T h e p a r e n t s fee l t h e financial a n d p e rs o n n e l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s
fro m t h e local c r e d i t union has, t o s o m e e x t e n t , influ en ced t h e
te c h n o lo g y p ro g ram . As o n e p a r e n t in d ic a te d "A lth o u g h I perso nally
did n o t s e e a lot o f b u s in e s s p e o p le in t h e school. But I a m s u re t h e
a m o u n t o f e q u ip m e n t a n d tim e s p e n t w ith s t u d e n t s h a d b e e n very
in fluen tial." A n o th e r p a r e n t sa id "I love b a n k r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
w orking w ith s t u d e n t s , e s p e c ia lly t h e e le c tr o n ic t r a n s a c t i o n s in t h e
c la s s ro o m s ." As a te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e rs o n , I h a d t h e o p p o r tu n ity t o
o b s e r v e t h e s t u d e n t s in t h e s e c la s s e s b eing tr a in e d a s "Bank T ellers"
by t h e b a n k r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s . For e x am p le , fro m t h e c o m p u t e r
te rm in a l, o n e b a n k r e p r e s e n t a t i v e (T eller) w ould explain t o s o m e
individuals o r sm all g r o u p s o f t w o o r t h r e e t h e b a sic o p e r a t io n s

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involved w ith b a n k d e p o s i t s , w ith d raw al, a n d c h e c k in g t h e b a la n c e in
a c u s t o m e r 's a c c o u n t. O ne t e a c h e r a c k n o w le d g e d , "The C redit Union
h a s b r o u g h t th e ir k n o w le d g e in to t h e c la ss ro o m . This h a s p ro v id ed a
v e ry im p o r t a n t h a n d s - o n learning skills t o t h e s t u d e n t s . " A n o th e r
t e a c h e r a d d e d , "This h a s b e e n po ssible d u e t o th e ir c o o p e r a tio n and
w illingness. T h e y really c r e a t e n a tu r a l in flu e n c e a n d s h o w
c o m m i t m e n t ."
S u m m a r y . T h e c o m m u n ity b u s in e s s c o m m u n ity w a s n o t
involved in t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y p r o g r a m s until 1 9 9 3 - 9 4 sc h o o l
y e a r . T h e financial a n d p e rs o n n e l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s fro m t h e local
c r e d it union had, t o s o m e e x t e n t , in flu en ced t h e te c h n o lo g y p ro g ram .
H ow ever, t h e i r in v o lv e m e n t w a s lim ited only t o t h e tw o 4 t h g r a d e
c la sse s.
T each ers
T h e r e s p o n s e s fro m t h e s u r v e y a n d in te rv ie w s did in d ic a te t h a t
b e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 sc h o o l y e a r s few t e a c h e r s
p a r tic ip a te d in t h e planning an d d e v e l o p m e n t o f t h e te c h n o lo g y plan.
T his w a s e x p la in e d b y t h e f a c t t h a t m a jo rity o f t h e m lack ed
c o n fid e n c e a n d e x p e r ie n c e in e d u c a tio n a l te c h n o lo g y . H ow ever, e v e r y
t e a c h e r r e s p o n d e d p o sitiv e ly t o all te c h n o lo g y r e l a te d p r o p o s a ls an d
d is c u s s io n s in t h e planning s t a g e s . One t e a c h e r h in te d "As I w a s
h e s i t a n t initially d u e t o m y lack o f e x p e rie n c e , I d e c id e d t o give m y
only c o m p u t e r t o a c o lle a g u e fo r t h e c a u s e b e c a u s e I t h o u g h t it w a s
im p o r t a n t f o r u s all. "E ven t h o s e fe w t e a c h e r s w ho did n o t d irec tly
u s e c o m p u t e r s f o r in s tr u c tio n in t h e c la s s ro o m w e r e willing t o
w rite t e c h n o lo g y r e p o r t s " , in d ic a te d a n o t h e r t e a c h e r .
B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a rs , t h e r e w a s no d e fin e d
s c h o o l - b a s e d policy re g a rd in g c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s in t h e
curriculum . T h e t e a c h e r s f o u n d it d ifficu lt t o im p le m e n t t h e
D is tric t's te c h n o lo g y g u id e lin e s b e c a u s e , a c c o rd in g t o s o m e
t e a c h e r s , t h e y w e re in a p p r o p r ia te o r in c o m p a tib le w ith t h e t e a c h e r s '
n o rm al c la s s r o o m p r a c tic e s . A c co rd in g t o t h e t e a c h e r s , th is w a s

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e v id e n t by t h e f a c t t h a t t h o s e t e a c h e r s w ho h a d c o m p u t e r s in th e ir
c la s s ro o m s m a d e p e rs o n a l d e cisio n s a s t o how b e s t s h e o r he h ad to
u se t h e c o m p u t e r fo r in stru ctio n . In 1 9 9 2 - 9 3 sch ool y e a r, a t e a m of
five t e a c h e r s a n d t h e sc h o o l principal m e t o n c e a w e e k a f t e r reg u lar
sc h o o l h o u rs an d during t h e re a llo c a te d tim e p e rio d s t o s e a r c h fo r
a p p r o p r i a te p r o g r a m s t h a t could b e in stalled in t h e curriculum .
As c o m p u t e r s b e c a m e m o re available in t h e sc h o o l th ro u g h t h e
D istricts' g r a n t in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, th e t e a c h e r s ' b e h a v io r
to w a r d s te c h n o lo g y b e g a n t o c h a n g e . T hrough individual an d g ro u p
i n t e r e s t s a s well a s t h e n e c e s s a r y s u p p o r t s y s t e m s fro m t h e
n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s a n d t h e Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o r a to r s
e v e r y t e a c h e r is a c tiv e ly involved in t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n
plan. A ccording t o o n e te a c h e r , t h e c o m m o n vision d e v e lo p e d for
1 9 9 3 / 9 4 te c h n o lo g y w ork plan h a s m a d e all t h e t e a c h e r s i n t e r e s t e d
in c o m p u t e r s , t h u s fa c ilita tin g t e a c h e r s ' a d o p tio n o f t h e sc h o o lw ide t e c h n o l o g y i m p le m e n ta tio n .
All K endon p a r e n t s w ho p a r tic ip a te d in t h e s t u d y sa id m ajo rity
o f K endon t e a c h e r s h a v e p lay e d a vital role t o m ak e t h e sc h o o l wide
te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan a s u c c e s s . One p a r e n t re v e a le d "I
think fro m t h e o u tlo o k , o u r t e a c h e r s a re doing a g r e a t jo b . T h e y s e e m
willing t o a t t e n d all m e e t i n g s a n d p a r t i c i p a te a c tiv e ly in all
te c h n o lo g y r e la te d to p ic s . In f a c t t h e y a re doing w h a t t h e y c a n t o
n u r tu r e t h e p ro g ra m a lo n g ." T h e B u sin e ss r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s equally
c o m m e n t e d t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s h a v e b e e n v e ry c o o p e r a tiv e and
su p p o r tiv e . "M ost o f t h e t e a c h e r s really w a n te d c o m p u t e r s f o r th e ir
s t u d e n t s s o t h e y w o rk e d h a rd t o a cq u ire t h e n e e d e d skills t o t e a c h
w ith t h e te c h n o lo g y " , a d d e d o n e p a re n t.
T h e t e a c h e r s p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e 4 t h and 5 t h g r a d e t e a c h e r s
h a v e p lay e d an o u ts ta n d in g role. O ne t e a c h e r n a r r a te d "T h o se
t e a c h e r s a lw a y s w ork h a rd on c o m p u t e r s w ith t h e i r s t u d e n t s a n d fo r
t h e m s e l v e s a s a d u lt le a rn e rs ." A n o th e r t e a c h e r c o m p lim e n te d "T h ey
h a v e w o rk e d in t e a m s t o help e a c h o th e r" . In g e n eral, t h e s t u d y
d is c o v e r e d t h a t m a jo rity o f t h e t e a c h e r s hav e trie d t o p u t in
m ax im u m e f f o r t fo r t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . Y et t h e y n e e d

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m o re tim e t o m a s t e r a n d / o r do r e s e a r c h on t h e s o f tw a r e fo r
e f f e c t i v e a n d e f f i c ie n t a p p lic a tio n in th e i r r e s p e c t i v e c la s s r o o m s .
S u m m a ry . T he t e a c h e r s h a v e b e e n v e ry r e c e p tiv e t o t h e
te c h n o lo g y plan d e s p i t e s o m e p e s s im is tic v iew s m a n i f e s t e d in t h e
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 and 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 school y e a rs. T h e y h a v e b e e n v e ry
c o o p e r a tiv e , a c c o m m o d a tin g a n d d e d ic a t e d t o t h e sc h o o l-w id e
te c h n o lo g y p r o g ra m s during 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 scho ol y e a r. P e e r m e n to rin g or
c o lla b o r a tiv e e f f o r t s a s well a s p e rs o n a l a n d p r o f e s s io n a l i n t e r e s t s
had b e e n t h e c o r n e r s t o n e t o t e a c h e r s g e n e ra l a d o p tio n o f Kendon
te c h n o lo g y i m p le m e n ta tio n plan.
N e tw o rk M a n a g e rs
R e s p o n d e n ts ' c o m m e n t s re g a rd in g n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s . A t
t h e tim e o f t h e s t u d y only few p a r e n t s kn ew w h a t t h e p o sitio n of
n e tw o rk m a n a g e r w as. O ne p a r e n t said "This is a n ew t e r m t o m e."
T h o s e w h o w e re a w a re o f th is p o sitio n r e c o g n iz e d t h a t u p o n th e ir
n o m in a tio n s a s n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, t h e s e tw o
5 t h g r a d e t e a c h e r s h a v e d e m o n s t r a t e d a v e ry s t r o n g le a d e rs h ip role
re g a rd in g t h e s c h o o l-w id e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan. T h e tw o
b u s in e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s n o t e d t h a t t h e s e m a n a g e r s w ork v e ry hard,
a n d t a k e t h e i r re s p o n sib ilitie s se rio u sly . W h a t o n e t e a c h e r said
a b o u t o n e o f t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs , "O ne o f o u r n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s
h a s b e e n v e ry w ond erful. W hen w e s t a r t e d first, s h e to ld u s t h a t now
s h e h a s a c q u ire d h e r ow n c o m p u t e r an d h a s s t a r t e d p ra c tic in g
serio u sly a t h o m e. And if a n y t e a c h e r n e e d e d help, s h e o r h e sh o uld
feel f r e e t o call on her. Now, s h e is t h e c o n t a c t p e rs o n w h o is
a lw ay s re a d y t o a s s i s t us. Her kids a re learning f a s t " .
In g e n e ra l, t h e t e a c h e r s g a v e m u ch c re d it t o t h e n e tw o rk
m a n a g e r s fo r m aking 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 a s u c c e s s fu l y e a r a t K endon
p a rtic u la rly w ith c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s in t h e c la s s r o o m s a n d
la b o r a to r y s e t ti n g . O ne t e a c h e r n a r r a t e d "T he n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s have
w o rk e d h a rd t o give u s s u f f ic ie n t train in g t o b e se lf s u f f ic ie n t in
c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s b o t h in t h e la b o r a to ry a n d c la s s ro o m s . T h e y

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a re helpful, v e ry involved, a n d a c c o m m o d a tin g ." A n o th e r also
s u p p o r t e d " T h ey h a v e d o n e an e x c e lle n t j o b e sp ec ially fo r t h e s t a f f
w ith w h o m t h e y had t o work. In fa c t, t h e y w o rk e d hard t o g e t
e v e r y b o d y involved."
T h e e x tr a train in g w hich t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s re c e iv e d fro m
t h e School D istrict p la y e d a s ig n ific a n t role in t h e te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n plan. One low er g r a d e t e a c h e r s t a t e d t h a t t h e
t e a c h e r s lis te n e d t o t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s w ith c o n fid e n c e a b o u t
t h e s o f t w a r e a n d c o m p u t e r te c h n ic a l a d v ic e b e c a u s e t h e y ( t e a c h e r s )
f e lt t h e l a t t e r w e r e m o re k n o w le d g e a b le . T h e t e a c h e r s s t r e s s e d t h a t
t h e m a n a g e r s h a v e a lw ay s b e e n v e ry p a t i e n t an d s e n s itiv e t o
t e a c h e r s ' f r u s t r a t i o n s w ith c o m p u t e r s . One t e a c h e r s t a t e d "I
a p p r e c i a te t h a t kind o f a t t i t u d e an d available s u p p o r t in t h e
b u ild in g ."
G roup in te rv ie w w ith n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s . During t h e small
g r o u p in te rv ie w w ith t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s , tim e a n d m o n e t a r y
in c e n tiv e s (r e w a r d s ) w e re t h e m a jo r c o n c e rn s . A ccording t o th e m ,
t h e y d o n 't h a v e e n o u g h tim e t o g o th ro u g h t h e n e tw o rk p ro g ra m s in
o r d e r t o r e n d e r a p p r o p r ia te s e rv ic e s t o th e ir c o lle a g u e s . T h e y think
m o re r e le a s e tim e w ould help t h e m t o learn m o re in o r d e r t o t a k e
full c o n tro l o f t h e m a n a g e m e n t p ro b lem s. In a d d itio n t o t h a t t h e y
feel b o th PDS an d LSD sh ou ld a rra n g e paid S u m m e r te c h n o lo g y
s e s s io n s f o r b o th n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s a s well a s t h e r e s t o f t h e
t e a c h e r s . A ccording t o t h e m th is w ould help t o a llev ia te s o m e
p ro b le m s s u c h a s f a tig u e , fam ily tim e d e m a n d s , a n d p e rs o n a l
a p p o i n t m e n t s b e in g e x p e r ie n c e d during t h e a f t e r - s c h o o l te c h n o lo g y
se ss io n s .
R egarding t h e m a in te n a n c e a n d m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e h a rd w a re
a n d s o f t w a r e , t h e y c o m p la in e d t h a t t h e train ing re c e iv e d fro m t h e
School D istrict w a s in c o m p le te . A f te r t h e in se rv ic e tra in in g t h e y
e x p e c t e d s o m e f r e q u e n t follow -ups fro m t h e t r a in e r s b u t n o t e v e n a
single o n e h a p p e n e d . Even if t h e y called fo r te c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e ,
t h e D istric t's te c h n o lo g y p e rs o n n e l s e ld o m r e s p o n d e d t o t h e i r n e e d s.

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T h e s e i m p o r t a n t t e c h n ic a l h a n d ic a p s , s o m e t i m e s c r e a t e d
f r u s tr a tio n s fo r t h e m a n d th e ir c o lle a g u e s , t h e y a d m i t te d . In an
e f f o r t t o m a in ta in a n d / o r r e s t o r e t e a c h e r s ' c o n fid e n c e a n d th e ir
credibility a s n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs , a c c o rd in g t o t h e m , t h e y h a v e t o p u t
in e x tra h o u rs b o th a f t e r sc h o o l an d during t h e w e e k e n d s a t h o m e
se a r c h in g f o r p o ssib le s o f t w a r e a n d h a rd w a re s o lu tio n s .
A sked w hy t h e y a c c e p t e d t o b e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s , o n e
re s p o n d e d t h a t p e rso n ally s h e e n jo y e d being a n e tw o rk m a n a g e r o r
b e co m in g o n e o f t h e schoo l te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs, th o u g h no m o n e ta r y
rew ard s w e re a t t a c h e d t o t h e position. On t h e o t h e r hand, her
c o llea g u e sa id s h e a c c e p t e d b e c a u s e it w a s an o p p o r tu n ity t o
im prove h e r t e c h n o lo g y p e rf o r m a n c e th r o u g h t h e e x tr a train in g from
t h e D istrict. T h a t is, o n e a c c e p t e d t h e p o sitio n on p e rs o n a l i n te r e s t
and t h e o t h e r w a s b a s e d on p ro fe ssio n a l d e v e l o p m e n t m o tiv e s.
Q u e s tio n s re g a rd in g th e i r f u tu r e plan s a s n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s , o n e
replied t h a t sh e w ould n o t c o n tin u e t h e w ork if m o n e t a r y re w a rd s o r
o t h e r r e la te d c o m p e n s a tio n a re n o t c o n s id e re d by t h e School
D istrict. C o n tra ry , h e r c o u n t e r p a r t said s h e w ould c o n tin u e e v e n if
t h e School D istrict r e f u s e s t o give h e r a c o m p e n s a tio n .
For e v a lu a tio n p u rp o s e s , t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s th in k it w ould
b e nice t o r e q u e s t t h e t e a c h e r s t o d o c u m e n t o r k e e p log o f all th e ir
c o m p u t e r a c tiv itie s in t h e c la ss ro o m s . T h a t is, k e e p in g t r a c k o f tim e
s p e n t , t y p e s o f s o f tw a r e u s e d and t h e n u m b e r o f s t u d e n t s p e r day,
all m a jo r a n d m in or te c h n ic a l ( h a rd w a re a n d s o f t w a r e ) p ro b le m s,
a n d s t u d e n t s ' a t t i t u d e t o w a r d c o m p u te r s , during individual a n d g ro u p
h a n d s - o n a c tiv itie s . R egardin g t h e p ro b a b le s o lu tio n s t o t h o s e
te c h n ic a l a n d m a n a g e ria l p ro b le m s in t h e f u tu r e , t h e y s tr o n g ly feel
t h e t o p a d m in is tr a to r s sh o u ld alw ays b e in fo rm e d o f a n y s itu a tio n o r
in c id e n ts t h a t m ig h t j e o p a r d iz e o r in te r f e r e w ith t h e s m o o t h running
o f t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s. For in s ta n c e , t h e y s tr o n g ly
r e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e s c h o o l Principal, t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s , and
Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o r a to rs sh o u ld m e e t w ith t h e
A s s i s t a n t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f In s tru c tio n t o d is c u s s t h e s e te c h n ic a l
p ro b lem s. More sp ecifically , t h e y e n t e r t a i n e d f e a r s t h a t if t h e

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A s s i s t a n t S u p e r i n t e n d e n t o f In stru c tio n , w ho e n d o r s e d t h e original
la b o r a to r y p ro p o sa l, c h a n g e s p o sitio n o r le a v e s t h e S chool D istrict,
t h e c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry plan w ould c o lla p se or d is c o n tin u e fo r t h e
sim ple f a c t t h a t t h e r e w ould b e no s u p p o r t fro m t h e te c h n ic a l
p e rso n n e l. T h e y f u r t h e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e sc h o o l sh o u ld su b m it
a n o t h e r p ro p o sa l fo r a p e r m a n e n t la b o ra to ry , a f t e r six s u c c e s s fu l
m o n th s o f e x p e r i m e n t a t io n , sin c e t h e original la b o r a to r y p ro p o sa l
w a s a c c e p t e d on provisional basis. A cco rd in g t o th e m , th is is t h e
tim e t h e scho ol n e e d s t h e la b o ra to ry t o be c o n n e c t e d t o b o th t h e
sc h o o l local a r e a n e tw o rk (LAN) a n d t h e D istric t’s w ide a re a n e tw o rk
(WAN). T h e y feel t h e n e tw o rk in g w ould help K endon s t u d e n t s t o
c o n v e n ie n tly a c c e s s library in fo rm a tio n a n d o t h e r e d u c a tio n a l
r e s o u r c e s t o c o m p e n s a t e f o r t h e s c h o o ls lim ited library r e s o u r c e s .
T h u s, m aking t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y plan m o re c o s t - e f f i c i e n t an d
e ffe c tiv e .
S u m m a ry . T h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s ' in serv ice train in g fro m t h e
School D istrict, t h e i r p e rs o n a l a n d p ro fe s s io n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , an d
c o m m i tm e n t s h a v e c o n tr i b u te d t o s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e
s u b s e q u e n t sc h o o l-w id e a d o p tio n o f t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n .
D e sp ite t h o s e e f f o r t s , t h e s e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s n e e d m o re tim e t o
w ork o u t c o m p u t e r p ro b le m s. Equally, t h e y n e e d m o n e t a r y in c e n tiv e s
o r o t h e r c o m p e n s a ti o n f o r t h e se rv ic e s.
MSU T e c h n o lo g y C o lla b o ra to rs
A cco rdin g t o K endon p a r e n t s w ho p a r tic ip a te d in t h e s tu d y , t h e
p a rtic ip a tio n o f Michigan S t a t e U niversity t e c h n o lo g y p e rs o n n e l
s tro n g ly e n c o u r a g e d t h e School D istrict t o e n d o r s e t h e Kendon
te c h n o lo g y plan. " T h ey h a v e h e lp e d t o build a solid link b e tw e e n
te c h n o lo g y a n d s t u d e n t s " sa id o n e p a re n t. S o m e t e a c h e r s re m a rk e d
t h a t a lth o u g h in t h e fir s t y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 9 1 / 9 2 sc h o o l y e a r s ) , only
t h e u p p e r g r a d e s re c e iv e d s u p p o r t fro m Michigan S t a t e U niversity
c o lla b o r a to rs , th is c o n ti n u e d c o lla b o ra tio n h a s h e lp e d a g r e a t deal
t o w a r d s t h e sc h o o lw id e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan. T h e

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t e a c h e r s in d ic a te d t h a t i n a d e q u a t e p e rs o n n e l fro m t h e u n iv ersity
lim ited t h e kind o f s u p p o r t s y s t e m s it p la n n e d fo r K en d o n initially
until 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r w h e n tw o a d d itio n al g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s
g o t involved in t h e te c h n o lo g y prog ram . One t e a c h e r s t a t e d " 1 9 9 3 1 9 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r h a s b e e n t h e b e s t fo r Michigan S t a t e University
w ith re g a rd t o K endon te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n " . A cco rd in g t o
t h e t e a c h e r s , t h e t e c h n o lo g y s e rv ic e s h a v e in c r e a s e d significantly
sin ce t h e c o m p u t e r t e a c h in g la b o r a to ry w a s d e v e lo p e d in Ja n u a ry ,
1 9 9 4 . As o n e t e a c h e r s t a t e d "We re c e iv e d m o re w eekly s u p p o r t in
t h e la b o ra to ry a n d th is h e lp e d m an y t e a c h e r s w h o o f t e n g o t s tu c k
like m e"
D e sp ite all t h o s e i m p o r t a n t s u p p o r t s y s t e m s r e c e iv e d fro m th e
u n iv ersity , K endon t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d m o re re g u la r v isits o r followu p s o f t h e u n iv ersity fa c u lty . Again, s o m e t e a c h e r s f e lt t h e Michigan
S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o r a to r s le f t t o o m u c h w ork fo r t h e n e tw o rk
m a n a g e r s , w h o really h a d lim ited tim e fo r t h e sc h o o lw id e t e c h n o lo g y
assig n m en ts.
However, K endon p a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s feel v e ry g o o d a b o u t t h e kind
o f a s s i s t a n c e b e ing re c e iv e d fro m t h e u n iv e rs ity p e rs o n n e l.
S u m m a r y . T h e te c h n ic a l e x p e r tis e , s e lf a n d p ro f e s s io n a l
c o m m i t m e n t s o f MSU c o lla b o r a to r s a n d m a te ria l in c e n tiv e s fro m
PDS and MPNE had b e e n v e ry in stru m e n ta l in g e tt i n g t h e te c h n o lo g y
plan in p lac e. H ow ever, K endon t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d m o re re g u la r visits
o r fo llo w -u p s o f Michigan S t a t e U niversity f a c u lty m e m b e r s
re s p o n s ib le fo r t h e v a rio u s PDS p r o j e c ts a t K endon.
In te rn a l A g e n t s
The school adm inistrators . T h e p a rtic ip a n ts in d ic a te d t h a t
t h e sc h o o l principal h a s b e e n v e ry su p p o rtiv e , c o m m i tt e d , a n d
d e d i c a t e d t o g o a ls and n e e d s o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e lines o f t e a c h e r s
an d s t u d e n t s . S he h a s a lw ays b e e n a fo re r u n n e r in t h e sch ool
te c h n o lo g y e f f o r t s . She is a w a re and u n d e r s t a n d s t h e im p a c ts o f
t e c h n o lo g y o n p r e s e n t a n d f u tu r e in stru c tio n a l a c tiv itie s. She

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p r o m o te s t h e te c h n o lo g y id e a s w ith e m p h a s is o n n e e d s . All h e r
a c t io n s a r e b eing a c c o m p a n ie d w ith e x a m p le s , m o tiv a tio n s ,
e n th u s ia s m , c o o p e r a tio n , o p e n n e s s , a n d se lf c o n fid e n c e .
Kendon faculty . T h e s tu d y in d ic a te d t h a t t e a c h e r s w e re very
r e c e p tiv e t o t h e t e c h n o lo g y plan d e s p i t e s o m e p e s s im is tic view s

m a n if e s te d in t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 sc h o o l y e a rs . T h e y w orked
c o o p e ra tiv e ly , a c c o m m o d a t e d a n d d e d ic a t e d t o t h e sc hoo l-w ide
te c h n o lo g y p r o g r a m s during 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r. P e e r m e n to rin g or
c o lla b o r a tiv e e f f o r t s a s well a s p e rs o n a l a n d p ro f e s s io n a l i n t e r e s t s
had b e e n t h e c o r n e r s t o n e t o t e a c h e r s g e n e ra l a d o p tio n o f Kendon
te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan.
In-house technology managers.

T h e d e s ig n a tio n o f tw o
t e a c h e r s by t h e t e a c h e r s th e m s e lv e s a s n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s had
p o sitiv e i m p a c t s on t h e im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s . T h e sp ecial
in se rv ic e train in g w hich t h e y r e c e iv e d fro m t h e S ch ool D istrict,
t h e i r p e rs o n a l a n d p ro fe s s io n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d c o m m i t m e n t s all
h a v e c o n tr i b u te d t o s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t scho olw ide a d o p tio n o f t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . D e sp ite t h o s e
e f f o r t s , t h e p a r tic ip a n ts re a liz e d t h a t t h e s e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s
n e e d e d m o re tim e t o w ork o u t c o m p u t e r p ro b lem s. Equally, t h e y
n e e d e d m o n e t a r y in c e n tiv e s o r o t h e r c o m p e n s a ti o n f o r t h e se rv ic e s.
E x te rn al A g e n t s .
The school district. R egarding t h e t o p a d m in is tr a to r s , t h e

s t u d y in d ic a te s t h e S chool D istrict w a s highly s u p p o r t i v e in w o rd s
b u t slow in a c tio n s during t h e p erio d b e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 2 / 9 3
sc h o o l y e a r s . H ow ever, in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, t h e D is tric t's g r a n t
o f 4 0 m ic r o c o m p u te r s a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t e a c h e r s ' e f f o r t s had a
v e ry p o sitiv e im p a c t on t h e in n o v atio n s. T h e p a rtic ip a n ts f e l t t h e
D istrict O ffice a n d t h e sc h o o l n e e d t o w ork m o re clo sely t o s u s ta in
t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s a t K endon.

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University alliance. T h e te c h n ic a l e x p e r tis e , se lf an d
p ro fe s s io n a l c o m m i t m e n t s o f Michigan S t a t e U niversity
c o lla b o r a to rs a n d m a te ria l in c e n tiv e s fro m PDS a n d MPNE h a d b e e n

v e ry in s tr u m e n ta l in g e t t i n g t h e te c h n o lo g y plan in place. H ow ever,
K endon t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d m o re re g u la r v isits o r follo w -u p s o f
Michigan S t a t e U niversity fa c u lty m e m b e r s re s p o n s ib le fo r t h e
v a rio u s PDS p r o j e c ts a t K endon.
Kendon parents.. B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 - 9 2 , Kendon p a r e n t s did n o t play
any sig n ific an t role a n d t h a t t h e y did n o t h ave s t r o n g influ ence on
t h e im p le m e n ta tio n . H ow ever, b e tw e e n 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 a n d 9 3 / 9 4 scho ol

y e a rs , t h o s e w h o s e r v e d on t h e School Im p ro v e m e n t T e a m
c o n s tr u c tiv e ly w o rk e d w ith K endon fa c u lty on t h e t e c h n o lo g y plan.
As t h e y b e c o m e m o re involved w ith te c h n o lo g y p r o g ra m s a n d with
m o re b ra in s to rm in g fro m t h e s ta f f , t h e y b e g a n t o gain m o re
in fluen ce on t h e te c h n o lo g y plan.
Com m unity business partners. T h e financial a n d p e rs o n n e l
s u p p o r t s y s t e m s fro m t h e local c r e d it union had, t o s o m e e x t e n t ,
in flu e n c e d t h e t e c h n o lo g y p ro g ram . T h eir s u p p o r t a n d p a rtic ip a tio n
in s o m e c la s s r o o m s e n h a n c e d s t u d e n t s ' u n d e r s ta n d in g o f real world
a p p lic a tio n s o f t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r su c h a s m a t h e m a t i c s
a p p lic a tio n s in bank ing .

CHAPTER 6
CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF EDUCATIONAL TECHNOLOGY
O v e rv ie w
This c h a p t e r d is c u s s e s t h e (1 ) p a r tic ip a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s of
K endon t e a c h e r s ’ e x p e c t a t i o n s w ith r e g a rd t o o rg a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu re
o f t h e sc h o o l a s well a s t e a c h e r s ' beliefs in a n d a d o p tio n o f
te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s an d ( 2 ) p a r tic ip a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f
te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s in t h e schoo l curriculum o v e r t h e p a s t five
y e a rs . T h e d a t a on t h e s e a s p e c t s o f ch an g in g p e rc e p tio n s w e re
c o lle c te d fro m r e s p o n s e s t o q u e s t io n s 5 - 1 0 a n d 1 5 - 3 4 o f se lf­
a d m in is te re d s u r v e y ( s e e A p p e n d ic e s 1 & 2 ) and follow -up p e rso n al
in te rv ie w s. T h e in fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d fro m t h e s e t e c h n iq u e s w a s
s u p p o r t e d by p a rtic ip a n ts ' ow n c o m m e n t s an d m y p e rso n al
o b s e rv a tio n s . All t h e s e d a t a h e lp e d m e t o u n d e rs ta n d t h e e x t e n t t o
which o rg a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu re o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m a n d t e a c h e r s '
p e rs o n a l b e liefs h a v e in flu e n c e d t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s o v e r
t h e p a s t five y e a r s .
Figure IVA r e p r e s e n t s s u b s e t s o f p e rc e iv e d beliefs,
o rg a n iz a tio n a l, in s tru c tio n a l, a n d g e n e r a l te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e
va ria b le s g a t h e r e d th r o u g h q u e s t io n s 5 - 1 0 , & 1 5 - 3 4 o f A p p e n d ic e s
A & B. T h e full p lo t and its c o o r d in a te s a re p r e s e n t e d in A p p e n d ic e s
E & F. T h e s e grap h ical p r e s e n t a ti o n s a re s u p p o r t e d by s u m m a ry
s t a t i s t i c s in T a b le s H, I, J, & K.

128

-*«?9

Figure IV A : T each ers'
technology.

beh'efs
’ e *P e

ctations

’ and

~\

v

aCJoPtio

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Beliefs. E x p e c ta tio n s , a n d A d o p tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y
Figure IVA a b o v e r e p r e s e n t s a s u b s e t o f beliefs,
o rg a n iz a tio n a l, a n d in s tru c tio n a l v a ria b le s ( q u e s t i o n s 5 - 1 0 , & 1 5 - 2 8
of A p p e n d ic e s A & B). All t h e v a ria b le s a re p r e s e n t e d in tw o form s:
p a s t (i.e., suffix "PAS") a n d p r e s e n t (i.e., suffix "PRE"). Regarding t h e
o r g a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu r e o f K endon sch o o l, t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts '
p e r c e p t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s e x p e c t a t i o n s o f m o re te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t
(TES), in serv ice te c h n o lo g y train in g p r o g r a m s (ITR) b e f o r e
e f f e c t i v e l y in te g r a tin g t h e s e m o d e r n in s tru c tio n a l t o o ls in to t h e
curriculum , a n d m o re te a m w o r k (TWK) du ring t h e im p le m e n ta tio n
p r o c e s s h a v e s h if te d fro m th e i r lo c a tio n s in t h e p a s t ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0
- 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 ) in a p p ro x im a te ly t h e s a m e d ire c tio n t o t h e i r lo c a tio n s in
t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r. T h e lo catio n o f p a rtic ip a n ts ' p e r c e p tio n s
o f t e a c h e r s ' beliefs (BEL) in te c h n o lo g y a s a p o te n tia l to o l t o s u p p o r t
tr a d itio n a l in s tr u c tio n w a s c lo s e t o o r g a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu re o f t h e
sc h o o l. T h e lo c a tio n o f p a r tic ip a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s '
e x p e c t a t i o n s o f tim e (TME) fo r te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s w a s a lso clo se
t o o rg a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu r e o f t h e sch ool.
T able H below sh o w s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e o f t h e
p a r t i c i p a n ts w h o r a t e d t h e t e a c h e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s o f m o re te c h n ic a l
s u p p o r t high in c re a s e d fro m 2 3 % in t h e p a s t t o 6 9 % in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4
sc h o o l y e a r , t h a t o f inserv ice train in g p r o g r a m s in c r e a s e d fro m 2 5 %
t o 58% , t h a t o f t e a m work in c re a se d fro m 3 0 % t o 5 0% , a n d t h a t o f
b eliefs in te c h n o lo g y in c re a s e d fro m 5 4 % t o 7 5 % . With r e g a rd t o
tim e f a c t o r , t h e p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts w h o p e rc e iv e d
t h a t c o m p e ti n g d e m a n d s o n tim e m a d e it difficult f o r t e a c h e r s '
te c h n o lo g y a s s i g n m e n t s re m a in e d 7 7 % o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a rs .
T h r e e m a jo r i s s u e s a re a s s o c i a t e d w ith t h e g ra p h ic a l lo c a tio n s
a n d s u m m a r y s t a t i s t i c s . First, t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' o p in io n s a b o u t
t e a c h e r s ' e x p e c t a t i o n s w ith r e g a rd t o tim e h a d b e e n v e ry high o v e r
t h e p a s t five y e a r s . This implies t h a t tim e f a c t o r p o s e s p o te n tia l
p ro b le m fo r t e a c h e r s t o e f f e c tiv e ly i n t e g r a t e t e c h n o lo g y in t h e

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TABLE H: BELIEFS AND EXPECTATIONS

BEL

PAST

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

15
31
54

TES ITR TME TWK
(P e rce n tag e S cores)
54
67
15
60
23
8
10
8
77
23
25
30

PRESENT

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

17
8
75

23
8
69

17
25
58

15
8
77

42
8
50

N um ber o f C a s e s = 1 6

BEL
TES
ITR
TME
TWK

=
=
=
=
=

Beliefs in T e c h n o lo g y
T ec h n ic al S u p p o r t
In se rv ic e T rainin g P ro g ra m s
T im e L im ita tio n s o r C o n s tr a in ts
T e a m o r C ollaborative Work

PAST
PRESENT

= B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 School Y ears
= 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 School Year

curriculum . S e c o n d , t h e s h if ts o f opinions a b o u t o rg a n iz a tio n a l
m a n a g e m e n t w ith r e s p e c t t o te c h n o lo g y a re m oving c lo s e r t o t h a t o f
tim e . This c o n v e r g e n c e o f opinions s u g g e s t t h a t tim e p lay s a m ajor
role in t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n o f new p ro g ra m s. Third, o n e m a jo r
e x c e p tio n is t h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' op in io n s a b o u t t e a c h e r s ' b e liefs
c h a n g e d t o d if f e r e n t d ire c tio n in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, a s
in d ic a te d by arrow " 3 " .
C o n cern in g t h e a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g y , t h e p a r tic ip a n ts '
op in io n s a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o which curriculum called fo r t h e u se o f
te c h n o lo g y (CRD), t h e e x t e n t t o which t e a c h e r s applied t e c h n o lo g y in
t h e curriculum (TAP) an d in d if fe r e n t c o n t e n t a r e a s (COA), an d how

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t e a c h e r s f e l t c o m f o r ta b le using te c h n o lo g y (VMF) s h i f t e d in t h e p a s t
t o o n e d ire c tio n in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 scho ol y e ar.
T ab le I below s h o w s t h a t t h e p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e s o f th e
p a r t i c i p a n ts w h o re a liz e d t h a t cu rriculu m highly c a lle d fo r t h e u se
o f c o m p u t e r s in c re a s e d fro m 1 4 % in t h e p a s t t o 5 4 % in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4
s c h o o l y e a r, t h a t o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts w h o s a w t h a t te c h n o lo g y
a p p lic a tio n s in t h e c la s s ro o m s w e re high in c re a s e d fro m 8 % t o 58% ,
t h a t o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts w h o p e rc e iv e d t h a t t e c h n o lo g y w a s highly
i n t e g r a t e d in to t h e c o n t e n t ( s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ) a r e a s in c r e a s e d fro m
8% t o 4 6 % , an d t h a t o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts w ho p e rc e iv e d t h a t Kendon
t e a c h e r s f e lt m o re highly c o m f o r ta b le using c o m p u t e r s t o t e a c h
in c re a s e d fro m 8 % t o 5 0 % . Looking a t b o th g raphical a n d su m m a ry
in fo rm a tio n , t h e s e s h if ts o f o pinio ns w e r e c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h o s e of
o r g a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu re o f t h e sc h o o l. This im plies t h a t t h e
o r g a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu r e o f K endon sc h o o l also in flu e n c e d t h e a d o p tio n
o f te c h n o lo g y a t Kendon.
In g e n e r a l t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t t e a c h e r s ' b eliefs
in te c h n o lo g y , e x p e c ta ti o n s , and a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e
cu rric u lu m i n c r e a s e d s u b s ta n tia lly in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r. T h e s e
p e r c e p t i o n s a re q u ite c o n s i s t e n t w ith t h e n e w d ire c tio n t h a t
t e a c h e r s to o k in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 as previously d is c u s s e d in c h a p t e r 5. T he
p e rc e iv e d high p o sitiv e a t t i t u d e s o r im a g e a b o u t t e a c h e r s w ith
r e g a rd t o te c h n o lo g y g o e s along t h e sc hoo lw ide a d o p tio n o f
c o m p u t e r s in t h e curriculum in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r.
S u m m a ry . T h e p a r tic ip a n ts ' p e rc e iv e d t h a t t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d
m o re t e a m w ork, p r e s e r v ic e a n d inservice t e c h n o lo g y train ing ,
t e c h n ic a l s u p p o r t s e r v ic e s , a n d tim e f o r t e c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s . T h e y
p e rc e iv e d t h a t t e a c h e r s ' b e liefs in te c h n o lo g y highly a f f e c t e d t h e
im p le m e n ta tio n p ro c e s s . T h e y p e rc e iv e d t h a t in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l
y e a r, t h e t e a c h e r s f e lt c o m f o r ta b le w ith t h e te c h n o lo g y and t h a t
te c h n o lo g y w a s highly u s e d in t h e curriculum .

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TABLE I: TECHNOLOGY ADOPTION
CRD

PAST

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

57
29
14

TAP
COA
(P e rce n tag e S cores)
67
59
33
25
8
8

PRESENT

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

31
15
54

8
33
58

36
18
46

CMF

0
50
50

42
50
8

N um ber o f C a s e s = 16
CRD
TAP
COA
CMF

=
=
=
=

Curriculum D e m a n d s on T ec h n o lo g y
T e c h n o lo g y A p p lica tio n s in t h e Curriculum
T e c h n o lo g y A p plicatio ns in C o n t e n t A re a s
C o m fo rt o r T e a c h e r s E ase o f Using T e c h n o lo g y

PAST
PRESENT

= B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 School Years
= 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 School Year

T h e P a r tic ip a n ts Own C o m m e n ts On T e a c h e r s ' Beliefs.
E x p e c ta tio n s , an d A d o p tio n of T ec h n o lo g y .
This s e c t i o n c a p t u r e s t h e g e n e r a l o b s e r v a tio n s a n d s o m e
p e r t i n e n t re m a rk s g a t h e r e d th ro u g h q u e s tio n s 5 - 1 0 a n d 1 5 - 2 8 o f
t h e s e l f - a d m in i s t e r e d s u r v e y a n d p e rs o n a l in te rv ie w s a s well a s
s o m e in fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d from t h e rev ie w s o f t h e sc h o o l ann ual
re p o rts.
P e rc e iv e d G e n era l Beliefs (BELPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 5& 6)
B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 school y e a r s a n d t h e p r e s e n t,
m a jo rity o f t h e t e a c h e r s h a d c h a n g e d th e ir t h o u g h t s a b o u t t h e
te c h n o lo g y plan. S o m e o f t h e s e b eliefs w e re principally b a s e d on
t e a c h e r s ' prio r k n o w le d g e , e x p e c ta ti o n s , a n d p e rs o n a l c o m m i tm e n t s .

134

As o n e t e a c h e r n a r r a t e d "A t firs t m y in se c u rity h a d tw o e f f e c t s :
firs t it c a u s e d m e t o fe e l in a d e q u a te , c o n fu s e d , an d f r u s t r a t e d with
m yself. S e c o n d , it m a d e m e m o re d e te r m in e d t o im prov e m y skills
an d a t t i t u d e a b o u t t e c h n o lo g y in s te a d o f fearin g it." S o m e t e a c h e r s
be liev e d t h a t t h e te c h n o lo g y w ould b e helpful if u s e d t o rein fo rce
b u t n o t t o re p la c e tra d itio n a l m o d e o f in stru c tio n .
As fo r t h e sc h o o l principal, s h e had a v e ry s t r o n g s e n s e o f self
and p ro fe s sio n a l c o n fid e n c e in w h a t s h e w a s doing. A cco rdin g t o her,
s h e tr ie d t o rem a in o n t h e c o m p e titiv e e d g e o f t h e D istrict-w ide
t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n e f f o r t s by being a f r o n t- r u n n e r fo r hard
a s well a s e a s y t a s k s t h a t c o n f r o n te d h e r s ta f f. As s h e p u t it "I
believ ed t h a t m y know ledg e o f t h e n e e d an d im p o rta n c e o f
te c h n o lo g y in t h e lines o f t e a c h e r s , s t u d e n t s , p a r e n t s a n d o t h e r s w a s
clearly e x p r e s s e d a n d r e s p e c t e d . T h e s e s h a r e d e f f o r t s w e re an
o u t g r o w t h o f m y b e liefs a n d c o n v ic tio n s a b o u t t h e im p o r ta n c e and
s u c c e s s o f t h e sc h o o l-w id e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan".
A cco rdin g t o s o m e K endon p a r e n t s t h e lack o f e n th u s ia s m
d e v e lo p e d by s o m e t e a c h e r s during t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 school
y e a r s w a s n o t a m ajo r p ro b le m fo r t h e long t e r m t e c h n o lo g y vision
a t K endon. O ne p a r e n t r e p o r t e d "My feeling w a s t h a t new id e a s
alw ay s t a k e tim e t o fully g o into e f f e c t ." T h e b u s in e s s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s a n d t h e p a r e n t s eq u ally h a d s t r o n g belief in
c o m p u t e r s a s u se fu l to o ls fo r s t u d e n t s ' learning. B ut t h e y equally
a n ti c i p a te d t h a t th is w ould n o t h a p p e n u n less t h e s t u d e n t s re c e iv e d
t h e n e c e s s a r y e n c o u r a g e m e n t fro m t h e t e a c h e r s . O v e r tim e , a s
te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t s e r v ic e s , e q u ip m e n t, a n d train in g b e c a m e m o re
av ailab le, e sp e c ia lly in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, t h o s e initial
m is c o n c e p tio n s o r p e s s im is tic view s b e g a n t o f a d e o u t. T e a c h e r s
s t a r t e d t o re v ita liz e th e i r h o p e s t h a t c o m p u t e r s co u ld b e e f f e c tiv e ly
im p le m e n te d in t h e i r c la s s ro o m s . A f o u r th g r a d e t e a c h e r s t a t e d
"This y e a r (i.e., 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r ) I feel m o re k n o w le d g ea b le ,
c o n fid e n t, a n d c o m f o r ta b le , e v e n th o u g h t h e r e ’s still a lot t o learn".
One p a r e n t c o m m e n t e d " as e v e ry t e a c h e r h as b e g u n t o d e v e lo p a

135

d e s ire fo r t e c h n o lo g y , I b e liev e t h e im p le m e n ta tio n plan w ould fit
well in to t h e s c h o o l curriculu m in t h e s u b s e q u e n t y e a r s " .
In g e n e r a l t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts s tr o n g ly b e liev e d t h a t c o m p u t e r
c o m p e t e n c y d uring t h e e a rly sc h o o l a g e is a b s o lu te ly in d isp e n sa b le
d u e t o f u tu r e j o b m a r k e t p r o s p e c t s . One lower g ra d e t e a c h e r
c o m m e n t e d "I believe t h e early s t a g e s o f c o m p u t e r t e c h n o lo g y (K-5)
in o u r s c h o o ls will h e lp o u r s t u d e n t s t o build a solid f o u n d a tio n fo r
c o m p u t e r u s e s in t h e f u tu re .
Curriculum D e m a n d s (CRDPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 7 & 8 )
T h e K endon p a r e n t s h a v e a lw ays e n c o u r a g e d th e ir children and
t h e t e a c h e r s t o a p ply te c h n o lo g y in t h e curriculum . O ne m o th e r
s t a t e d "My so n w a s using a c o m p u t e r in t h e k in d e rg a rte n which
really im p r e s s e d b o t h m y h u s b a n d an d m yself. And w ith m o re
c o m p u t e r s in t h e c la s s r o o m s an d t h e la b o ra to ry , I fe e l m o re p o sitiv e
a b o u t his learning." A n o th e r p a r e n t also re v e a le d "I h a v e b e e n
a c tiv e ly involved in K endon curriculum c h a n g e s s in c e 1 9 9 2 . Of
c o u rs e , I know m y child h a s u s e d c o m p u t e r s in h e r c la s s ro o m a b o u t
o n c e a w e e k during t h e t w o a n d half y e a r s s h e h a s b e e n a t K endon".
In g e n e ra l, t h e p a r e n t s e m p h a s iz e d t h a t now t h a t w e h a v e m o re
c o m p u t e r s in t h e sch ool, w e sh o u ld e x te n siv e ly ap p ly t h e m in m an y
curriculu m a r e a s su c h a s m a t h , rea d in g , s c ie n c e a n d w riting.
In f a c t , a c c o rd in g t o t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y r e p o r ts , t h e School
D istrict h a d m a d e it a policy t o i n t e g r a t e c o m p u t e r s in t h e
curriculu m , p a rtic u la rly a s t e a c h i n g a n d learn in g t o o ls in t h e
c la s s ro o m s . U n fo rtu n a te ly , s o m e t e a c h e r s p o in te d o u t t h a t t h e r e is
no w h e re in t h e curricu lu m t h a t m e n tio n s t h e s t r a t e g i e s fo r
m e a su rin g t h e e x t e n t t o w hich c o m p u t e r s a re being u s e d by t e a c h e r s
and s t u d e n t s . O n e t e a c h e r said "I d o n o t believe t h e r e is a n y w h e re on
t h e s t u d e n t s 1 r e p o r t t o in d ic a te c o m p u t e r u s a g e in t h e curriculum ."
T h e t e a c h e r s e x p r e s s e d t h e c o n c e rn t h a t no form al s t u d y h a d b e e n
c o n d u c t e d t o a s s e s s t h e e x t e n t t o which t e a c h e r s ap p ly te c h n o lo g y
in t h e curriculum . O ne t e a c h e r r e m a rk e d t h a t t h e sc h o o l h a s
te c h n o lo g y s t a n d a r d s b u t t h e r e a re no d e fin e d policies by t h e school

136

s y s t e m t h a t w ould e n s u r e t e a c h e r s ' c o m p lia n c e w ith t h e te c h n o lo g y
plan in t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e c la s s ro o m s .
In s p ite o f t h e s e c o n c e rn s , s o m e t e a c h e r s m e n tio n e d t h a t in
1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r, t h e r e h a s b e e n m o re c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s in
t h e curriculum . O ne t e a c h e r s t a t e d "W e s e e m o re c o m p u t e r p ro g ra m s
in t e a c h e r s ' le sso n plans b e c a u s e t h e y feel it is tr e n d y now... and
p ro b a b ly th is will c o n tin u e t o in c re a s e . Even t h o s e w h o s e te a c h in g
a s s i g n m e n t s a re n o t d ire c tly involved w ith te c h n o lo g y h a v e b e g u n t o
e x te n s iv e ly u s e t h e c o m p u t e r fo r publishing s t u d e n t s ' s t o r i e s a n d
r e p o r t s ." O ne sp e c ia l e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r in siste d "If t h e sch o o l is t o
ab id e by t h e te c h n o lo g y vision t h e n c o m p u t e r s n e e d t o b e u se d
w idely in t h e c u rric u lu m ."
P e rc e iv e d G en eral E x p e c ta tio n s (TESPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 9 & 1 0 )
During t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 sc h o o l y e a rs , b o th Kendon
p a r e n t s an d t e a c h e r s f e lt t h a t t h e r e w a s a n e e d t o u se c o m p u t e r s t o
s u p p o r t in stru c tio n . U n fo rtu n a te ly , t h e r e w e re n o t e n o u g h c o m p u t e r s
fo r e v e r y t e a c h e r fo r t h e r e w e re only e ig h t c o m p u t e r s fo r all 13
re g u la r t e a c h e r s , tw o sp e c ia l e d u c a tio n t e a c h e r s a n d t h r e e
in s tr u c tio n a l a s s i s t a n t s . T h e o n ly s h o r t - t e r m a l t e r n a t i v e s o lu tio n
w a s t o e n c o u r a g e t e a c h e r s t o d e v e lo p s h a r e d a t t i t u d e to w a r d s
te c h n o lo g y u s a g e in t h e scho ol. Again, t h o s e w ho f r e q u e n tly u s e d t h e
c o m p u t e r s lack ed t h e n e c e s s a r y s u p p o r t s y s te m s . O ne t e a c h e r
in d ic a te d t h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d a lo t o f s u p p o r t fro m b o t h Michigan
S t a t e U niv ersity a n d t h e S chool D istrict a s initially p ro m is e d b u t
t h e t e a c h e r s re c e iv e d le s s fro m t h e fro m t h e S chool District.
A f t e r t h e g e n e r a l a d o p tio n o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e curriculum , t h e
t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d m o re o n g o in g te c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e a n d s t a f f
d e v e l o p m e n t fro m t h e School D istrict. "Of c o u rs e , I e x p e c t t o learn
m o re a n d d o m o re t o help m y s t u d e n t s t o b e c o m e c o m p u t e r lite ra te s
b u t... ", said o n e low er g r a d e te a c h e r . With re g a rd t o la b o ra to ry
a p p lic a tio n s , while s o m e t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d t o learn n e w th in g s
a b o u t c o m p u t e r s fro m t h e te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e rs o n t h a t could b e
u s e d in t h e c la s s ro o m s , o t h e r s e x p e c t e d m o re d i f f e r e n t p r o g r a m s for

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e a c h s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a r e a s u c h a s m a t h e m a ti c s a n d s c ie n c e . One
th ird g r a d e t e a c h e r n a r r a t e d "My s t u d e n t s are k n o w le d g e a b le a b o u t
all t h e available p ro g r a m s (MS W orks a n d Kidworks 2) now ". C o n tra ry
t o novice c o m p u t e r u s e rs , t h e fe w t e a c h e r s w h o re c e iv e d c o m p u t e r s
in t h e e arly K endon te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m e x p e c t e d less s u p p o r t. One
o f t h e m s t a t e d "I fee l re a s o n a b ly c a p a b le o f using m y c o m p u t e r fo r
t h e t a s k s t h a t I h a v e t o d o ."
In h e r role a s sc h o o l principal, it h a s alw ay s b e e n h e r m ajo r
p r e o c c u p a tio n t o a c q u ire b o th te c h n ic a l a n d financial s u p p o r t
s y s t e m s . "I will c o n tin u e t o s e e k financial a s s i s t a n c e f o r o u r
re s o u rc e p e rso n n e l. And I e x p e c t t o re c e iv e m o re help fro m th e m
t h a t w ould e n c o u r a g e t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s t o e ffic ie n tly u se t h e
c o m p u t e r s in t h e c la s s ro o m s a n d t h e la b o ra to ry " , s h e e m p h a s iz e d .
P re s e rv ic e & In se rv ic e (ITRPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 1 5 - 1 8 )
In g e n e ra l, m o s t of t h e t e a c h e r s in d ic ate d t h a t t h e y did n o t
re c e iv e a n y s u b s t a n t i a l te c h n o lo g y tra in in g in t h e i r c o lle g e
e d u c a tio n . This lack o f t e c h n o lo g y e x p e r ie n c e initially c r e a t e d f e a r s
( p o s e d p ro b le m s ) fo r s o m e t e a c h e r s . With re g a rd t o in service
training, t h e r e s p o n d e n t s in d ic a te d t h a t during t h e 1 9 9 8 9 / 9 0 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 s c h o o l y e a r s t h e r e w a s n o t m u ch in serv ice train in g in
c o m p u te r s . This w a s e x p la in e d by t h e f a c t t h a t t h e e m p h a s is on
t e c h n o lo g y train in g w a s le s s b e c a u s e t h e r e w e r e f e w c o m p u t e r s in
t h e sc h o o l. F u rth e rm o re , t h e r e w e re no long t e r m te c h n o lo g y training
plans, p a rtic u la rly w ith r e s p e c t t o tim e a llo ca tio n , t h o u g h t h e long
t e r m t e c h n o lo g y vision w a s s tro n g ly s t r e s s e d . H ow ev er, th is w a s n o t
a m a jo r p ro b le m b e c a u s e in serv ice train in g w a s p la n n e d e a c h tim e
t h e sc h o o l re c e iv e d new e q u ip m e n t. In ad ditio n, t h e in tro d u c tio n of
c o m p u t e r s in t h e c urricu lu m w a s a g ra d u a l o r slow p r o c e s s . This
g a v e t h e t e a c h e r s e n o u g h tim e t o learn a b o u t t h e te c h n o lo g y an d its
im p lic a tio n s in t h e c u rric u lu m .
As e n o u g h tim e a n d r e s o u r c e s w e r e m a d e available fo r
t e c h n o lo g y in se rv ic e tra in in g , e s p e c ia lly during t h e 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r s , t h e t e a c h e r s s t a r t e d gaining c o n fid e n c e fo r

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t h e e f f e c t i v e a n d e ffic ie n t u se o f t h e te c h n o lo g y . O ne t e a c h e r
c o m m e n t e d "Working w ith Carol a n d Carol (i.e., t h e tw o n e tw o rk
m a n a g e r s ) h a s im p ro v e d m y skills a n d u n d e rs ta n d in g o f d if f e r e n t
f u n c tio n s o f c o m p u te r s . As a n o th e r t e a c h e r p u t it "I w ould n o t h a v e
known t h e v a rie d u s e s o f c o m p u t e r s h a d it n o t b e e n t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f
o u r Michigan S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o ra to rs " . A n o th e r c o n tin u e d "My
c o m p u t e r skills a re im proving th a n k s t o Michigan S t a t e U niversity
c o lla b o ra to rs . I h o p e th is new k n o w le d g e w ould h a v e an influence on
som e te a c h e rs".
N e e d l e s s - t o - s a y , well d e fin e d tr a in in g p r o g r a m s , p a rtic u la rly
w ith s t r o n g e m p h a s is o n te a m w o r k , in itia te d in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r
h a v e had a v e ry s ig n ific a n t im p a c ts o n t h e sc h o o l-w id e te c h n o lo g y
i m p le m e n ta tio n plan. This h a s h e lp e d m a n y t e a c h e r s t o gain m ore
c o m p u t e r e x p e r ie n c e . Again, th is h a s b e e n a s t r o n g m o tiv a tio n a l
f a c t o r f o r s o m e t e a c h e r s t o p u t in e x tr a tim e f o r m o re c o m p u t e r
p ra c tic e . O ne u p p e r g r a d e t e a c h e r e m p h a s iz e d "I a m serio u sly
planning t o w ork m o re on m y c o m p u t e r during th is S u m m e r v a c a tio n ."
T h e id ea o f in c re a sin g t h e in serv ice train in g e a c h tim e t h e school
re c e iv e d n e w c o m p u t e r s h a s e n h a n c e d t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s in t h e
school. D e s p ite t h o s e im p r o v e m e n ts , b o th p a r e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s
e x p r e s s e d t h e n e e d f o r m o re in se rv ic e-train in g . "I still n e e d m o re
in -se rv ic e tra in in g " o n e t e a c h e r said.
T e c h n o lo g y D e m a n d s On T im e (TMEPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 1 9 & 20)
A cco rd in g t o s o m e p a r e n t s t h e t e a c h e r s w e re o v e r b u r d e n e d
w ith te c h n o lo g y tim e d e m a n d s . O ne p a r e n t e x p la in e d "learning t o
a d ju s t t o s o m e sc h o o l c h a n g e s alw ays d e m a n d s m o re tim e " . T he
p a r e n t s h a d o b s e r v e d t h a t t h e s c h o o l is s a t u r a t e d w ith m a n y
c o m p e tin g p r o g r a m s b e s i d e s t h e c la s s ro o m ro u tin e . O n e p a r e n t
c o m m e n t e d "D eciding w h a t t h e s c h o o l prio rities a re in re la tio n t o
t e c h n o lo g y p o s e a n o t h e r p ro b le m fo r sc h o o l inn ov atio n p ro g ra m s " .
A cco rd in g t o o n e b u s in e s s r e p r e s e n ta t iv e , it s e e m s t h a t te a c h in g
c a r e e r is v e ry t im e d e m a n d in g a n d would t a k e a m ajo r e f f o r t and
tim e t o w ork o n t h e s e new t e c h n o lo g y a s s ig n m e n ts .

139

Tim e t o learn a n d m a s t e r t h e s e new te a c h in g to o ls h a s alw ays
b e e n a m a jo r c o n c e rn of t h e t e a c h e r s . A ccording t o t h e m t h e y n e v e r
have e n o u g h tim e t o s t u d y t h e te c h n o lo g y . T h ey feel t h e r e is to o
m uch t o d o all t h e tim e. O ne t e a c h e r s t a t e d "I have t o o m uch t o t e a c h
in t o o little tim e . And I d o n o t h a v e e n o u g h tim e t o learn how t o
e ff e c tiv e ly u se c o m p u t e r s m yself, le t alo n e t e a c h m y s t u d e n t s now".
A n o th e r t e a c h e r a d d e d "I fe e l I a m t o o tire d a t t h e e n d o f t h e d a y t o
d o t w o h o u rs inservice tra in in g ". In g e n e ra l, t h e t e a c h e r s in siste d
t h a t t h e y n e e d e d m o re tim e w ith t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs .
U n fo rtu n a te ly , t h e l a t t e r a ls o n e e d e d m o re tim e t o w ork w ith th e ir
s t u d e n t s in t h e c la ss ro o m . T h e t e a c h e r s re v e a le d t h a t b e tw e e n
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 an d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 sch o o l y e a rs , t h e r e w e re no p lan n e d
te c h n o lo g y train ing p ro g r a m s f o r t h e t e a c h e r s so t h a t m a d e s t a f f
d e v e l o p m e n t v e ry difficult. O ne t e a c h e r s t a t e d "T h e firs t
re sp o n sib ility w e n t t o m y fam ily a n d t h e n t o m y s t u d e n t s . Receiving
tra in in g a f t e r sc h o o l w a s difficult. T h e sc h o o l principal a d m i t t e d
t h a t t h e c o m p e tin g d e m a n d s on tim e m a d e it h ard t o s e t priorities
f o r K endon in stru c tio n a l p ro g ra m s . H ow ever, s h e e m p h a s i z e d t h a t
te c h n o lo g y re m a in e d a t t h e t o p o f h e r list. F o rtu n a te ly , a s training
s c h e d u le s w e r e p lan ned a h e a d fo r 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 scho ol y e a r, it m a d e
tra in in g s e s s i o n s e a s i e r a n d i n c r e a s e d t e a c h e r p a rtic ip a tio n .
A p p lic a tio n s in t h e C o n t e n t A re a s
(TAP-COAPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 2 1 - 2 4 1
A ccord in g t o K endon s t a f f a n d p a r e n ts , n o t m uch w a s s e e n
using c o m p u t e r s in t h e curriculum during t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2
sc h o o l y e a r s . In 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r, c o m p u t e r s w e re m o d e r a te ly
u s e d f o r s o m e c la ss p ro je c ts . A cco rd in g t o p a r e n t s , b u s in e s s
r e p r e s e n ta t iv e s , an d t e a c h e r s 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sch ool y e a r h a s b e e n a
s u c c e s s f u l o n e f o r t h e te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n in t h e curriculum .
For e x a m p le , t h e tw o b u s i n e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s in d ic a te d t h a t fo r
e a c h c la s s ro o m p r e s e n ta tio n , t h e y u s e d c o m p u t e r s t o d o t h e
tr a n s a c ti o n s . S o m e t e a c h e r s s t a t e d t h a t t h e y u s e d t h e te c h n o lo g y
m o re o f t e n fo r individual a n d g r o u p in stru c tio n s. One t e a c h e r

140

e x p la in e d "I norm ally u s e te c h n o lo g y t o s u p p o r t in s tru c tio n in social
s c ie n c e s , a little in m a t h e m a ti c s , a n d w riting". A n o t h e r t e a c h e r
n a r r a t e d "Since 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r, I h a v e u s e d c o m p u t e r s
f r e q u e n t ly fo r d i f f e r e n t c o n t e n t a r e a s a n d c la s s p r o j e c t s su c h a s
M a th e m a tic s , Reading, a n d W riters' W orships. I m a k e m o re c o m p u t e r
g e n e r a t e d s t u d y s h e e t s fo r m y s t u d e n t s " . In g e n eral, c o m p u t e r
a p p lic a tio n s a c r o s s s u b j e c t - m a t t e r a r e a s had b e e n v e r y low in t h e
lo w e r g r a d e s .
E ase o f Use o f t h e T e c h n o lo g y
(CMFPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 2 5 & 2 6 )
From s o m e p a r e n t s ' ow n o b s e rv a tio n , Kendon t e a c h e r s in
g e n e ra l fo u n d it hard initially t o a d ju s t t o t h e te c h n o lo g y . S o m e
t e a c h e r s e q u a lly a d m i t t e d t h a t t h e y la c k e d s e lf-c o n f id e n c e ,
e x p e rie n c e , a n d k n o w le d g e using c o m p u t e r s f o r ro u tin e in stru c tio n
in t h e c la ss ro o m . Even 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r in w hich te c h n o lo g y w a s
b e c o m in g m o re p o p u lar in t h e school, only a fe w s t u d e n t s and
t e a c h e r s f e lt c o m f o r ta b le using c o m p u t e r s f o r m a t h e m a ti c s ,
la n g u a g e a r t s , a n d s t o r y w riting.
During t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r, p a r e n ts , b u s in e s s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , a n d t e a c h e r s rea liz ed t h a t a m a jo rity o f t h e
t e a c h e r s b e g a n t o feel a t e a s e using t h e s e te a c h in g to o ls. O ne
t e a c h e r s t a t e d "I know w h a t I a m d o in g now. In f a c t, I fe e l m o re
s e c u r e a n d I a m en jo yin g learning m o re." One low er g r a d e t e a c h e r
e x p la in e d t h a t du ring t h e Spring te r m , 1 9 9 4 s h e e n jo y e d using
c o m p u t e r s f o r te a c h i n g s o m e basic th in g s su c h a s w riting n a m e s,
sim p le w o rd s, d a y s of t h e w eek , e tc .
D e s p ite t h e g e n e r a l im p ro v e m e n t in t e a c h e r s ' c o m p u t e r
c o m p e te n c y , t h e r e is still m o re room fo r im p ro v e m e n ts . O ne t e a c h e r
c o m m e n t e d "T h e m o re a p p lic a tio n s b e c o m e varied , t h e m o re I realize
t h a t I h a v e a lot t o learn. In f a c t, t h e te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t o f Michigan
S t a t e U niv ersity h a s c e rta in ly h e lp e d m e t o fe e l m o re c o m f o r t a b l e
using c o m p u t e r s f o r m y p e rs o n a l a s s ig n m e n ts " . T h e sc h o o l principal
a d d e d "As I c o n tin u e t o learn m o re a b o u t c o m p u t e r s w ith d if f e r e n t

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a p p lic a tio n s, I a m begin ning t o u n d e r s t a n d m o re w h a t t h e c o m p u t e r
te rm in o lo g y m e a n s by " u se r-frie n d ly ".
T e a m Work (TWKPAS/PRE. Q u e s tio n s 2 7 & 281
C ollaborative o r t e a m w ork ( s t u d y g r o u p s ) is o n e o f t h e
im p o r ta n t s t r a t e g i e s c o m m o n a m o n g Kendon t e a c h e r s . As a m e a n s of
facin g t h o s e te c h n o lo g y c h a lle n g e s p o s e d in early y e a rs , 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 , s o m e fe w t e a c h e r s b e c a m e m o re d e te r m i n e d t o in c re a se
t h e ir c o m p u t e r lite ra c y th r o u g h c o o p e r a tiv e e f f o r t s . As I o b s e r v e d
during an E x te n d e d Lunch in April, 1 9 9 4 , th is c o n tin u e d p e e r
in te r a c tio n , jo in t t e c h n o lo g y a s s ig n m e n ts , a n d t h e d e s ig n a tio n o f
n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s ( a s p e e r - m e n t o r s ) by t h e t e a c h e r s h a v e r e s u lte d
in all K endo n t e a c h e r s a v e ry p o sitiv e a t t i t u d e to w a r d s te c h n o lo g y .
From m y ow n p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a tio n s , it w a s a v e ry p o sitiv e
e x p e r ie n c e t o s e e t h e sc h o o l principal, sp e c ia l e d u c a ti o n t e a c h e r s ,
t e a c h e r s p e c ia lis ts , a n d t h e c la s s t e a c h e r all w orking t o g e t h e r in a
c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y s e s s io n . "D iscovering n e w th in g s t o g e t h e r w ith
s t u d e n t s a n d c o - t e a c h e r s in t h e c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y w a s q u ite
ex citin g an d e n c o u ra g in g t o learn a n d t e a c h h e re " , said o n e lower
g r a d e t e a c h e r . A n o th e r t e a c h e r proudly n a r r a t e d during a sch ool
i m p r o v e m e n t m e e tin g "W ith t h e s e n e w e d u c a tio n a l to o ls , t e a c h e r s
a re b e g in n in g t o a s s u m e s h a r e d resp o n sib ilitie s in e l e m e n t a r y
sc h o o ls. For e x a m p le , t h e p r e p a r a tio n o f g ro u p s t u d y r e p o r ts ,
p a rtic u la rly e d itin g , is now s e e n a s a jo in t e f f o r t sin c e t e a c h e r s c a n
c o n v e n ie n tly t a k e t u r n s in t h e i r r e s p e c t iv e c la s s r o o m s th r o u g h t h e
s c h o o l n e tw o rk s y s t e m . " R egarding p a r tn e r s h ip p r o je c t, t h e
t e a c h e r s f e lt t h e on-line c o m p u t e r s y s t e m h e lp e d b o th 4 t h g r a d e
t e a c h e r s an d th e ir b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s t o work t o g e t h e r a s a t e a m t o
a c c o m p lish t h e p r o j e c t 's g o a ls. Similarly, t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s c an
e asily s h a r e c la s s in fo rm a tio n o n t h e sc h o o l local a r e a n e tw o rk ,
a c c o rd in g t o t h e p a r tic ip a n ts . In 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, b o th
individual a n d c o o p e r a t i v e learn ing w e re b e c o m in g m o re a c tiv e , t h u s
p ro m o tin g c o m p e titiv e learning e n v iro n m e n t. As o n e u p p e r g r a d e
t e a c h e r s t a t e d "E very s t u d e n t w a n t s t o w rite g o o d a rtic le s o r

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s to r ie s t h a t could be r e a d by o t h e r s t u d e n t s an d t e a c h e r s on t h e
n e tw o rk ."
S u m m a ry . T h e p a rtic ip a n ts s t a t e d t h a t t e a c h e r s ' be liefs in
te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s w e re principally b a s e d o n t h e i r prior
k n o w le d g e, e x p e r ie n c e w ith t h e te c h n o lo g y , a n d p e rs o n a l
c o m m i tm e n t s . A ccord in g t o t h e p a rtic ip a n ts , t e a c h e r s b e lie v e d t h a t
te c h n o lo g y w ould b e helpful if it is u s e d t o re in fo rc e b u t n o t t o
r e p l a c e t r a d i ti o n a l in s tr u c tio n .
S o m e t e a c h e r s in d ic a te d t h a t t h e r e w a s no sc h o o l policy t o
a s s e s s t h e im p a c ts o f te c h n o lo g y on in s tru c tio n . R egarding t h e
diffusion o f t h e in n o v atio n s, t h e p a rtic ip a n ts s t a t e d t h a t t h e p a c e
w a s g rad u a l o r slow b u t t h a t g a v e t h e t e a c h e r s e n o u g h tim e t o learn
a b o u t t h e te c h n o lo g y . K endon t e a c h e r s in g e n e ra l fo u n d it difficult
initially t o a d j u s t t o t h e te c h n o lo g y . S o m e o f t h e m a d m i t t e d t h a t
t h e y la c k e d se lf c o n fid e n c e , skills, a n d k n o w le d g e. D e s p ite t h e
g e n e ra l im p r o v e m e n t o f t e a c h e r s ' c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c y in t h e
1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r, t h e r e is still m o re ro o m fo r im p ro v e m e n t.
C o lla b o ra tiv e o r t e a m w ork, p a rticu la rly s t u d y g r o u p s an d c o ­
t e a c h in g is o n e o f t h e im p o r t a n t s t r a t e g i e s c o m m o n a m o n g Kendon
t e a c h e r s . T his h a s h e lp e d t e a c h e r s t o d e v e lo p p o sitiv e a t t i t u d e
t o w a r d s t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s.
G e n era l In stru c tio n a l & T e c h n o lo g ic a l C h a n g e s
Figure IVB r e p r e s e n t s a n o t h e r s u b s e t o f A p p e n d ic e s E
r e g a rd in g t h e p e rc e iv e d c h a n g e s in in stru c tio n a l q u a lity th r o u g h
t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s ( q u e s t i o n s 2 9 - 3 0 ) , how t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts
p e rc e iv e d K endon te c h n o lo g y a s a m o d el fo r o t h e r s c h o o ls ( s e e
q u e s t io n s 3 1 - 3 2 ), a n d t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e p a r tic ip a n ts
p e rc e iv e d how in stru c tio n w ould b e a f f e c t e d if t h e n u m b e r of
c o m p u t e r s in t h e sc h o o l is d o u b le d up o r half o f t h e m is w ith d raw n
( q u e s t io n s 3 3 - 3 4 ) . R e la te d in fo rm a tio n is p ro v id e d in T a b le J a n d K.
In Figure IVB, y o u m a y n o tic e t h a t t h e p a r tic ip a n ts '
p e r c e p t i o n s o n te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s a n d q u a lity o f in s tr u c tio n

143

c h a n g e d gradually e a c h y e a r, fro m 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 t o 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 . T h e flow o f
t h e s e p e rc e iv e d c h a n g e s ( C -9 0 th ro u g h C -9 4 ) is p r e s e n t e d in a c u rv e
fo rm ( s e e cu rv e "A"). T h e p a rtic ip a n ts ' opinions o n t h e o u t c o m e of
in s tru c tio n ( 1 ) sh o uld half o f t h e c o m p u t e r s b e w ith d ra w n ( s e e
arrow "C") fro m t h e schoo l an d ( 2 ) should t h e n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s
be d o u b le d -u p in t h e c la s s ro o m s w e r e c lo s e r t o t h e p e rc e iv e d
g e n e r a l te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s . T h e p e r c e p t i o n s o f K endon
te c h n o lo g y a s a m odel, fro m 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 th ro u g h 1 9 9 2 / 9 4 scho ol y e a rs,
follow ed t h e d ire c tio n s o f t h e kind o f te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s
p e rc e iv e d in t h e s a m e sc h o o l y e a r s .

TABLE J:

TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGES OVERTIME
C -90

C -9 1

100

91

75

58

33

AVERAGE

0

8

17

25

17

HIGH

0

0

8

17

50

LOW

C -9 2
C -93
(P e rc e n ta g e S cores)

C -94

N um ber o f C a s e s = 16
C - 9 0 = 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 School Year
C - 9 2 = 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 School Year
C - 9 4 = 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 School Year

C -9 1 = 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 School Year.
C - 9 3 = 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 School Year

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Figure IVA:
v a ria b le s.

S u b j e c t o f beliefs, o rg a n iz a tio n a l, a n d in stru c tio n a l

2

0

o
o'?
-O

145

T a b le J a b o v e in d ic a te s 1 0 0 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts r a t e d t h e
overall te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s low in 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 sc h o o l y e a r a s
c o m p a re d t o 9 1 % in 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 , 7 5 % in 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 , 5 8 % in 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 , and
3 3 % in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 . H ow ever, 5 0 % of t h e p a rtic ip a n ts r a t e d t h e overall
c h a n g e s high in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 a s c o m p a re d t o 1 7 % in 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 , 8% in
1 9 9 1 / 9 2 , a n d 0 % in 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 an d 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 school y e a rs . Considering
Kendon te c h n o lo g y a s m od el t o o t h e r sc h o o ls, T ab le K below sh o w s
t h a t 5 5 % o f t h e p a rtic ip a n ts r a t e d Kendon te c h n o lo g y m o d el (KTM)
high in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 a s c o m p a r e d t o 1 7% in t h e p re c e d in g y e a rs.
R egarding t h e im p a c ts o f q u a n tity o f h a rd w a re in t h e sc h o o l, 5 4 % of
t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts f e l t in s tru c tio n w ould b e highly a f f e c t e d if half o f
t h e c o m p u t e r s a re w ith d raw n (WDR) fro m t h e sc h o o l. On t h e o t h e r
hand, 6 9 % o f t h e p a r tic ip a n ts in d ic a te d t h a t in stru c tio n w ould be
a f f e c t e d if t h e n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e sc h o o l is d o u b le d or
in c re a s e d (DBL).
T h e in c re a s e in p e r c e n t a g e s c o r e s o f p a r tic ip a n ts w h o r a t e d
high t h e o r g a n iz a tio n a l c u ltu re o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m a n d t e a c h e r s '
b e lie fs in te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s a s d i s c u s s e d e a rlie r in Figure
IVA, lead m e t o a s s e r t h e re t h a t s o m e o f t h e s e te c h n o lo g ic a l
p r a c tic e s a t K endon could be a d o p t e d by, o r s e r v e a s a m odel fo r
o t h e r sc h o o ls .
S u m m a ry . T h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f te c h n o lo g ic a l
in n o v a tio n s a n d q u a lity o f in stru c tio n c h a n g e d g rad u a lly e a c h y e ar,
fro m 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 t o 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sch ool y e a rs . T h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s s h ifte d
sh a rp ly in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r. T h e p a r tic ip a n ts f e lt in s tru c tio n
would b e highly a f f e c t e d if t h e n u m b e r o f t h e c o m p u t e r s in t h e
s c h o o l a re in c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d . All t h e p a r tic ip a n ts n o t e d t h a t
s o m e a s p e c t s o f K endon o rg a n iz a tio n a l m a n a g e m e n t a n d
in s tru c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s w ith r e g a rd t o te c h n o lo g y co u ld b e a d o p t e d
by o t h e r sc h o o ls.

146

TABLE K:

WITHDRAWAL, DOUBLING, & MODELING OF TECHNOLOGY
WDR

PAST

PRESEN T

DBL
KTM
( P e r c e n ta g e S c o res)

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

-

-

-

-

-

-

LOW
AVERAGE
HIGH

31
15
54

8
23
69

66
17
17
45
0
55

N um ber o f C a s e s = 16
WDR = W ithdraw al o f Half o f t h e C o m p u te r s
DBL = Doubling t h e N um ber o f C o m p u te rs
KTM = Kendon T ec h n o lo g y a s a Model
PA ST
PRESENT

= B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l Years
= 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 School Year

T h e P a r tic ip a n ts ' Own C o m m e n ts a n d P e rso n a l
O b s e r v a tio n s on T ec h n o lo g ic al C h a n g e s And Modeling
T h e follow ing s e c t i o n s d e s c r ib e w h a t t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' g e n e r a l
o b s e r v a t i o n s w e re a n d s o m e sp e cific c o m m e n t s o r r e m a r k s u n d e r
q u e s t io n i te m s 2 9 - 3 4 fo r s e lf - a d m in is te r e d s u r v e y a n d p e rs o n a l
in te rv ie w s. T h e s e a re s u p p o r t e d by in fo rm a tio n g a t h e r e d fro m t h e
rev ie w s of t h e sc h o o l a n n u al r e p o r ts .
P e rc e iv e d C h a n g e s (C -9 0 - C -94. Q u e s tio n s 2 9 & 3 0 )
From t h e s t a r t o f PDS p r o g r a m s a t K endon, m o re im p o rta n tly
b e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 sch ool y e a r s , s o m e p a r e n t s f e lt t h e y
w e re c o n s t a n t l y playing " c a t c h - u p " re g a rd in g w h o w a s t e a c h i n g w h a t
s u b j e c t t o w h a t child. T h e r e w e re cu rriculum c h a n g e s in

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m a t h e m a ti c s , readin g, a n d w riting b u t t e c h n o lo g y w a s le s s u se d .
Trying t o e v a l u a t e e a c h y e a r t h e s t u d e n t learning w a s f r u s tr a tin g
b e c a u s e o f s t a f f c h a n g e s resu ltin g in c h a n g e s o f te a c h in g s ty le s . T he
p a r e n t s h a d t o s u p p l e m e n t th e ir c h ild re n 's e d u c a tio n e a c h y e a r w ith
S u m m e r School P ro g ra m s. D e sp ite t h o s e e f f o r t s t h e p a r e n t s rea liz ed
t h a t t h e i r ch ild ren still h a d p r o b le m s e sp e c ia lly w ith sp ellin g an d
writing skills. O ne p a r e n t c o m m e n t e d "W e d o n o t think t h e overall
qu ality o f in stru c tio n did im prove. Now w e a re in fa v o r o f m a n y of
t h e s e n e w p ro g ra m s su c h a s t h e CASE C redit Union p ro je c t an d t h e
C o m p u te r L a b o ra to ry . But t h e s e a re relativ ely new c o n c e p t s . I would
like t o s e e b e t t e r r e s u lts in w riting a n d rea d in g skills.... a n d I h o p e
t h e c o m p u t e r s w ould help o u r children in t h e s e a re a s " . B o th p a r e n t s
a n d t e a c h e r s w e re h a p p y t o s a y t h a t 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 w a s an e x c e lle n t y e a r
w ith re g a r d t o s ta ffin g . O ne t e a c h e r c o m p lim e n te d "A v e ry willing
t e a c h e r w h o f e e ls a c a d e m ic s is highly i m p o r t a n t fo r o u r c h ild re n 's
lea rn in g i m p r o v e m e n ts " .
S o m e p a r e n t s c o m m e n t e d t h a t s u b s ta n tia l c h a n g e s h a v e ta k e n
p la c e du ring t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r. More im p o rta n tly , t h e y fe lt
t h e te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m is really being p u t into use. O ne b u s in e s s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e h in te d "It s e e m s t h a t b o t h c la s s ro o m s w h e re I
w o rk e d t h e t e a c h e r s w e r e highly i n t e r e s t e d in d e v e lo p in g t e c h n o lo g y
a p p lic a tio n s t o s u p p o r t in stru c tio n . O ne t e a c h e r e x p la in e d " B e c a u s e
o f o u r N e tw o rk M anagers b o th t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s a re highly
involved w ith te c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s in in s tru c tio n " .
Kendon a s a T ec h n o lo g y Model (KTMPAS/PRE. Q u e stio n s 31 & 3 2 )
A cco rd in g t o t h e s t u d y p a rtic ip a n ts , b e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d
1 9 9 2 / 9 3 scho ol y e a rs , K endon te c h n o lo g y could n o t be c o n s id e re d a s
"Model". S o m e o f t h e a r g u m e n ts raised w e re t h a t t h e sc h o o l w a s n o t
able t o m o v e t h e plan a h e a d f a s t e n o u g h a n d also t h e c o o p e r a tio n
a m o n g s t t h e S chool D istrict, Michigan S t a t e University, a n d K endon
f a c u lty w a s v e ry w eak. O ne t e a c h e r n a r r a t e d "We w e re t o o loosely
divided". A cco rd in g t o t h e sc h o o l principal, t h e PDS p ro g r a m
s t i p u la t e d t h e long t e r m te c h n o lo g y g o a ls a n d ra tio n a le s, b u t during

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t h o s e y e a r s K endon s t a f f did n o t h a v e e n o u g h te c h n o lo g y savoir-faire
a n d e x p e r ie n c e t o e m b r a c e t h e PDS te c h n o lo g y a g e n d a . " N e e d le ss-to s a y , s e v e r a l t e a c h e r s quickly u n d e r s t o o d t h e p o t e n t i a l s o f t h e
t e c h n o lo g y plan. T h e y to o k t e c h n o lo g y training s e s s io n s serio u sly
an d w o rk e d h a rd a t h o m e o v e r t h e w e e k e n d s an d during t h e S u m m er
v a c a tio n s . Now, t h e y a re t h e o u ts ta n d in g te c h n o lo g y le a d e r s a m o n g s t
K endon t e a c h e r s " , said t h e scho ol principal.
D e sp ite t h e sc h o o lw id e t e a c h e r s ' a d o p tio n o f c o m p u t e r s in th e
c urriculum in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, s o m e p a r e n t s still fe e l it is to o
e a rly t o tell t h e p r o s p e c t s o f t h e s e new in stru c tio n a l to o ls .
How ever, s o m e p a r e n t s h a v e b e g u n t o feel g o o d o r be o p tim istic
a b o u t t h e te c h n o lo g y . O ne s t a t e d "I a m m o re im p re s s e d w ith th e
sc h o o l now t h a n w h en w e s t a r t e d few y e a r s ago. For e x am p le , t h e r e
a re m o re p a r e n t a n d c o m m u n ity in v o lv e m e n ts an d c o m m i tm e n t s now.
A nd I think, t h o s e w ould help t o s u s ta in t h e im p le m e n ta tio n o f th e
t e c h n o lo g y plan in t h e schoo l".
T h e t e a c h e r s fee l m o re h a s h a p p e n e d during t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4
s c h o o l y e a r t o sh o w a c c o m p lis h m e n ts fo r th e ir e f f o r t s . O ne t e a c h e r
e x p r e s s e d "W e h a v e h a d e x c e lle n t te c h n o lo g y p r o g r a m s th is y e ar,
p a rtic u la rly t h e c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y a p p lic a tio n s " . Up till th is po in t,
s o m e t e a c h e r s fe e l K endon te c h n o lo g y plan could n o t be c o n s id e re d
a s a m o d el fo r o t h e r sc h o o ls. T h e t e a c h e r s s tro n g ly fe e l t h a t th e ir
c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c y h a s t o b e re in fo rc e d w ith m o re trainin g and
individual p r a c t ic e s o a s t o m a k e t h e sc h o o l-w id e te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n plan m o re e f f e c t i v e a n d e ff ic ie n t a s a m o del. O ne
t e a c h e r s t r e s s e d " t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n is v e r y difficult, b u t
t h e r e is g o t t o b e a b e t t e r w ay".
In g e n e ra l, t h e t e a c h e r s a c k n o w le d g e d t h a t K endon te c h n o lo g y
p ro g ra m is a t t h e e x p e r im e n ta l s t a g e a n d t h a t it w ould be p r e m a tu r e
t o b e c o n s id e r e d a s a m o d el fo r o t h e r P ro fessio n al D e v e lo p m e n t
Schools. O ne t e a c h e r e m p h a s iz e d "All K endon t e a c h e r s a n d Michigan
S t a t e U niversity c o lla b o ra to rs n e e d t o w ork h a rd t o m a k e K endon
PDS a real te c h n o lo g y m o d el". T he sc h o o l principal n a r r a t e d
"C o nsid ering t h e p r o g r e s s w e h a v e m a d e s o far, it is p o ssib le t h a t

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c e r ta in a s p e c t s o f o u r te c h n o lo g y plan could be d is s e m in a te d as a
m o d e l s u c h a s t e a m te a c h in g , s u p p o r t s y s t e m s o f few Kendon
t e a c h e r s , a n d t h e facility a r r a n g e m e n t s . In p a rtic u la r, a c o m p u t e r
te a c h i n g la b o r a to r y w h e re b o th s t u d e n t s an d t e a c h e r s re c e iv e
im m e d ia te a s s i s t a n c e fro m k n o w le d g e a b le s u p p o r t p e r s o n s . Also,
k e e p in g t r a c k o f utility a n d o u r c o n tin u a l e v a lu a tio n s t r a t e g i e s could
b e a p o te n tia l g o o d m odel, I think... " It w a s in te r e s tin g t o learn t h a t
e v e r y t e a c h e r w h o p a r tic ip a te d in t h e s t u d y prou dly re c o m m e n d e d
t h e c o m p u t e r la b o r a to ry s e t t i n g an d a p p licatio n m o d e s a s a m odel
fo r o t h e r s c h o o ls s t a t e w i d e .
N um ber o f C o m p u te rs (WDR & DBL. Q u e stio n s 3 3 & 3 4 ) .
T h e q u e s tio n on t h e kind of im p a c ts th e te c h n o lo g y would have
on in s tru c tio n if t h e S chool D istrict d e c id e s t o w ith d ra w half o f t h e
c o m p u t e r s fro m t h e s c h o o l in f u tu r e , t h e p a r e n ts , b u s in e s s
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , a n d t e a c h e r s f e lt it w ould h a v e n e g a tiv e e f f e c t s on
in s tru c tio n . O ne p a r e n t l a m e n te d "This would b e a s t e p b a c k w a rd fo r
t h e s c h o o l im p r o v e m e n t e f f o r t s . I w ould s e e t h a t v e ry d isa p p o in tin g
an d a s e t b a c k t o all t h e h ard w ork o v e r t h e la s t s e v e ra l y e a r s " .
A cco rd in g t o s o m e t e a c h e r s t h e in c re a s e in n u m b e r o f
c o m p u t e r s m a d e in s tru c tio n a n d tim e m a n a g e m e n t e a s ie r, e sp ec ially
fo r t h e low er g r a d e s . As o n e t e a c h e r s t a t e d "Finding an d c o n n e c tin g
tim e fo r e a c h s t u d e n t o r sm all g ro u p s o f s t u d e n t s o f t e n m a d e th in g s
e a s i e r f o r K in d e rg a rte n c la s s e s . S t u d e n t s alw ay s h a v e s p a c e in t h e
la b o r a to r y a n d c la s s ro o m during t h e d a y t o c h o o s e d i f f e r e n t exciting
c o m p u t e r p r o g r a m s fo r p r a c tic e " . O ne t e a c h e r in d ic a te d "I would b e
furious! I a m j u s t beginning t o m ak e real p r o g r e s s t h e n 'o u t g o e s t h e
rug u n d e r m y f e e t ' ". A n o th e r t e a c h e r a d d e d , "This would be
d e v a s t a t i n g . We h a v e j u s t s t a r t e d learning t o e f f e c tiv e ly i n t e g r a t e
c o m p u t e r s in t h e cu rriculu m and .... Of c o u rs e , t h e S chool D istrict
w ould n o t only lose o u r c o n fid e n c e b u t also t h e s t a t e ' s tim e , m o n ey ,
a n d e d u c a tio n a l in n o v atio n e f f o r ts " . How ever, o n e t e a c h e r s t a t e d
t h a t in s tr u c tio n w ould g o on r e g a r d le s s o f School D is tric t's d ecisio n .
O ne b u s in e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e c o m m e n t e d "I thin k t h e y c o uld still

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a d ju s t b e c a u s e o u r world o f c o m m u n ic a tio n is n ow m o re im p o rta n tly
linked by c o m p u te r s . T h e sc h o o l n e e d s m o re c o m p u t e r s fo r s t u d e n t s '
t e c h n o lo g y p r a c t ic e to w a r d s t h e f u tu re " .
T h e p a r e n t s a n d b u s in e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s feel if t h e n u m b e r of
c o m p u t e r s is d o u b le d e a c h s t u d e n t would h a v e m o re c o m p u t e r tim e.
O ne t e a c h e r a d d e d "We w ould n o t h a v e t o pair s t u d e n t s a t t h e
w o r k s ta tio n s . This w ould b e a real a s s e t b e c a u s e w e w ould be able
t o e x p a n d o u r p r e s e n t p ro g ra m s a n d e f f o r t s t o a c c o m m o d a t e b o th
individual an d g ro u p in s tru c tio n " .
S u m m a r y . T h e r e w e re cu rriculum c h a n g e s in m a t h e m a ti c s ,
reading , a n d w riting b u t te c h n o lo g y w a s less u se d . D e sp ite t h o s e
c h a n g e s , t h e p a r e n t s re a liz e d t h a t t h e i r children still h a d p ro b le m s
e sp e c ia lly w ith spelling a n d w riting skills. T h e y h o p e d t h e full
i n te g r a tio n o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e curriculu m w ould help t h e children
in t h o s e a re a s .
S o m e t e a c h e r s n o te d t h a t , during t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 an d 1 9 9 2 / 9 3
schoo l y e a r s , K endon te c h n o lo g y could n o t be c o n s id e re d a s "Model"
fo r t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sc h o o l w a s n o t able t o m o v e t h e te c h n o lo g y plan
a h e a d f a s t e n o u g h a n d also t h e c o o p e ra tio n a m o n g t h e School
D istrict, Michigan S t a t e U niversity, a n d K en d o n f a c u lty w a s v e ry
w eak. D e sp ite t h e sch o o lw id e t e a c h e r s ' a d o p tio n o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e
curriculu m in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r, s o m e p a r e n t s still fe e l it is t o o
e arly t o tell t h e p r o s p e c t s o f t h e s e new in s tru c tio n a l to o ls.
How ever, s o m e p a r e n t s n a r r a t e d t h a t p a r e n t s a n d c o m m u n ity
in v o lv e m e n ts a n d c o m m i t m e n t s w ould help t o s u s ta i n t h e
im p le m e n ta tio n o f t h e te c h n o lo g y plan in t h e schoo l. S o m e p a r e n ts ,
b u s in e s s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , a n d t e a c h e r s f e lt t h e d e c r e a s e in t h e
n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s w ould h a v e n e g a tiv e e f f e c t s on in stru c tio n . One
p a r e n t la m e n te d , " th is w ould b e a s t e p b a ck w a rd fo r t h e scho ol
i m p r o v e m e n t e f f o r t s " . S o m e low er g r a d e t e a c h e r s h in te d t h a t t h e
in c re a s e in n u m b e r of c o m p u t e r s m a d e in s tru c tio n an d tim e
m a n a g e m e n t e a s i e r fo r th e m . In g e n e r a l all t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts w e re

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o p tim is tic t h a t do ublin g t h e n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s w ould help
t e a c h e r s t o a c c o m m o d a t e b o th individual a n d g r o u p in stru c tio n .
O b s e rv a tio n s R egarding th e C o m p u te r L a b o ra to ry
T h e follow ing s e c t i o n s d e s c r ib e w h a t I p e rs o n a lly o b s e r v e d fo r
a p eriod o f six m o n th s (fro m J a n u a ry t o Ju n e , 1 9 9 4 ) a t Kendon
c o m p u t e r te a c h in g la b o ra to ry . T h e in fo rm a tio n p r e s e n t e d h e re s e e k s
t o c o m p l e m e n t w h a t t h e p a rtic ip a n ts said a b o u t K endon t e a c h e r s '
u s e s o f a n d a t t i t u d e a b o u t c o m p u t e r s in e d u c a tio n .
During t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r, se rv in g a s Michigan S t a t e
U niversity t e c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e rs o n , I w o rk e d w ith K endon s t u d e n t s
an d t e a c h e r s in t h e c la s s ro o m s a n d c o m p u t e r lab o ra to ry . As t h e
la b o r a to r y w a s o n e x p e r im e n ta l basis, I d e c id e d t o g ive m o re s u p p o r t
h e re t o e n s u r e s m o o t h running o f in stru c tio n a l a c tiv itie s. During t h e
c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y s e s s i o n s f o u r s ig n ific a n t e v e n t s d re w m y
a t t e n t i o n t h a t w e re c lo se ly o b s e r v e d fo r a perio d o f six m o n th s .
T h e y w e re : M odes o f L earning, T e a c h e r L a b o ra to ry P re p a ra tio n ,
T ec h n ic al M a tte rs, a n d M a n a g e m e n t p ro b lem s.
M odes o f Learning
Using t h e c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry a s an e x te n s io n o f c la ss ro o m s ,
d i f f e r e n t learn in g s t y l e s b e c a m e visible h e re su c h a s individual,
c o o p e r a t i v e , t e a c h e r g u id e d , and s t u d e n t c o n tro l learning p r o c e s s e s .
First, s t u d e n t s in t h e u p p e r g r a d e s (i.e., 4 t h a n d 5 t h ) w o rk e d m o re
in d e p e n d e n tly t h a n t h e r e s t. T h e s e 4 t h an d 5 th g r a d e s t u d e n t s o f t e n
c a m e t o la b o r a to r y w ith t h e i r individual p r e p a r e d m a n u s c r i p ts of
th e i r w riting a s s ig n m e n ts . Each s t u d e n t did his o r h e r ow n ty pin g,
e d itin g , f o r m a t ti n g a n d sp ell c h e c k in g w ith o u t t h e a s s i s t a n c e o f
o th e r s . T h e s e s t u d e n t s h a d c o n tro l o f th e ir learning. T h e y o f t e n
w o rk e d o n t h e i r individual w riting p r o j e c t s s e r io u s ly w ith le s s
s u p e rv isio n o r s o m e t i m e s w it h o u t su p e rv isio n . S e c o n d , b o th
individual a n d c o o p e r a t i v e learn in g skills w e r e highly c o m m o n w ith
3 rd a n d 2 n d g r a d e s t u d e n t s . In t h e s e c la s s e s , s o m e in te r m e d ia te
c o m p u t e r l i t e r a t e s p r e f e r r e d helping th e i r c o lle a g u e s o r a lw ay s

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m a n i f e s te d th e ir d e s ire t o help o t h e r s in s te a d o f w orking alo n e o r
doing s o m e m o re a d v a n c e w ork during t h e h a n d s-o n a s s ig n m e n ts .
A m o n g s t t h e s a m e skilled s t u d e n t s , o t h e r s trie d t o finish th e ir
a s s i g n m e n t s in s h o r t p e rio d o f tim e a n d t h e n a sk fo r t e a c h e r 's
pe rm issio n t o help o t h e r s t u d e n t s a s p e e r c o m p u t e r a s s i s t a n t s . T he
unskilled c o m p u t e r u s e r s a lw ay s p r e f e r r e d w orking in sm all g r o u p s
o f tw o o r t h r e e . For in s ta n c e , with t h e p ro g ra m "Kid W orks 2",
s t u d e n t s f ir s t w o rk e d t o g e t h e r t o s e l e c t s o m e d e s ire d o b j e c t s or
p ic tu re s , t h e n e n g a g e d in m u tu a l d is c u s s io n s a b o u t t h e o b je c ts .
T h ro u g h t h e s e g r o u p in te r a c tio n s t h e y alw ay s c a m e u p w ith a s h a r e d
s t o r y t h a t t h e y w r o te on t h e c o m p u te r . T he writing p h a s e w a s also
e n g ag in g . It w a s a c o m m o n s c e n e t o s e e o r h e a r t h e g ro u p s
e x c h a n g in g w o rd s a n d opinions. For ex am p le :
A nne e a t s pizza a lot", Jo h n w ro te . Mary o b s e r v e d a s Jo h n w as
w riting, r e a d silently, t h e n s u d d e n ly s h o u te d : "No, I d o n 't like
th is s e n t e n c e . Can w e w rite a n o t h e r o n e ? " Jo h n r e j e c t e d "No, I
like th is s e n t e n c e ." T h o m a s in te rv e n e d , "It is m y tu rn . L et m e
w rite o n e s e n t e n c e a b o u t m y dog". Jo h n an d Mary a g re e d , "OK,
l e t 's g o boy!
Again, du ring t h e h a n d s-o n a c tiv itie s, e v e r y b o d y w a n t e d t o s t a y on
t a s k o r d e m o n s t r a t e skills t o t h e g ro u p , e sp ec ially w h e n e d itin g and
f o r m a t ti n g a t e x t . T his o f t e n e n d e d u p w ith p a r t n e r s stru g g lin g to
t a k e tu r n s a t t h e k e y b o a rd a n d m ou se.
Third, t h e low er g r a d e s t u d e n t s (i.e., 1 s t a n d K in d e rg a rte n )
e n jo y e d w orking in g r o u p s e sp e c ia lly w ith m u ltim e d ia p r o g r a m (Kid
W orks 2 ). T h e s e low er g r a d e s t u d e n t s n e e d e d m o re g u id e d
in s tr u c tio n fro m t h e t e a c h e r o r c o m p u t e r a s s i s t a n t s . It w a s
i n te r e s tin g t o s e e t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s w e r e m o re disciplined in t h e
la b o r a to r y t h a n t h e i r s e n io r s in o t h e r c la s s e s . T h e m a jo r discipline
p ro b le m s w e re fo u n d a m o n g t h e 2 n d an d 3 rd g r a d e c la s s e s , w h e t h e r
t h e c la s s t e a c h e r w a s p r e s e n t o r n o t. A n o th e r i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a tio n
c o m m o n a m o n g s t all t h e g r a d e levels w a s s t u d e n t ' s c u rio s ity a b o u t
w h a t o t h e r s t u d e n t w a s doing. I o f t e n s a w s t u d e n t s w a tc h in g w h a t

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w a s h a p p e n in g on o t h e r c o m p u t e r s c r e e n s . T h e y fre q u e n tly
q u e s t io n e d th e ir c o lle a g u e s "How did y o u d o th is ? Will y o u sh o w m e...
". N e e d le s s - to - s a y , s u c h e x c itin g m ixed learning m o d e s a t th is
te a c h in g la b o r a to ry w a s a rich e x p e r ie n c e fo r m e a s I a m i n te r e s te d
learning m o re th in g s a b o u t te c h n o lo g y a n d cogn ition .
T e a c h e r L a b o ra to ry P re p a ra tio n (Old an d New Mind S e t s )
In t h e e arly w e e k s o f c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y s e s s io n s , s o m e
t e a c h e r s c a m e t o t h e la b o r a to r y w ith o u t a n y prior p r e p a r a tio n or
le sso n plan. T h e y o f t e n c a m e w ith t h e e x p e c ta ti o n t h a t t h e c o m p u t e r
s u p p o r t p e rs o n would d o t h e te a c h in g . As o n e t e a c h e r p u t it "I did n o t
ha v e tim e t o th in k a b o u t w h a t m y kids would d o in t h e la b o ra to ry .
N ext tim e I'll plan s o m e th in g in a d v a n c e ." T h e s e u n p r e p a r e d
p r a c t ic e s s o m e t i m e s f o r c e d s t u d e n t s t o e x p r e s s d i s c o n t e n t m e n t . For
in s ta n c e , in o n e s itu a tio n a s t u d e n t furiously s h o u t e d "Sir, I d o n 't
know w h a t t o do!"
S o m e tim e s , t h e s e t e a c h e r s w e re o blig ed t o a sk m e q u e s t io n s
su c h a s " W h a t sh o u ld w e d o to d a y ? " O u t o f fr u s tra tio n , o n e t e a c h e r
w a s inclined t o c o n f e s s t o t h e c la s s "I d o n ’t know how t o d o this,
kids. I a m e m b a r r a s s e d . I've t o a sk t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s how t o d o
it. I h a v e t o c o m e an d learn m o re a b o u t t h e p ro g ra m if n o t n e x t w e ek
I'll n o t c o m e w ith t h e s t u d e n t s . " Again, on tw o d i f f e r e n t o c c a sio n s,
t h e t e a c h e r s on d u t y h e re b e c a m e s o f r u s t r a t e d t h a t t h e y h a d t o
co m p lain t o t h e s c h o o l principal a b o u t t h e la b o r a to r y a p p lic a tio n s.
T h e y a rg u e d t h a t it w a s n o t n e c e s s a r y t o c o m e t o t h e la b o ra to ry fo r
t h e y did n o t h a v e t h e m a s t e r y skills t o t e a c h w ith t h e c o m p u te r s . I
f e lt su c h in c id e n ts m ig h t h a v e b e e n n e c e s s i t a t e d by lack o f
u n d e rs ta n d in g o f t h e la b o r a to r y g o a ls a n d o b je c tiv e s o r it w a s t h e
t e a c h e r s ' d e l i b e r a t e i n te n tio n t o s h i f t th e i r re s p o n s ib ilitie s t o
te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e rs o n s . I f u r t h e r a s s u m e d t h a t t h e t e a c h e r s
w e re n o t c o m f o r t a b l e o r te c h n ic ally re a d y t o u se t h e te c h n o lo g y a n d
t h a t t h e y did n o t w a n t t o b e held a c c o u n ta b le fo r a n y in stru ctio n al
a c tiv itie s in t h e c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry . In an a t t e m p t t o u n d e r s t a n d
t h e p r o b a b le c a u s e s o f t h o s e a t t i t u d e s , I r e p o r t e d t h e in c id e n ts t o

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t h e s c h o o l principal. T his r e s u lte d in an inform al c o n v e r s a t io n w ith
t h e sc h o o l principal, n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s , t h e t e a c h e r s in q u e s tio n ,
and m y se lf t o s h a r e lights on t h e role o f t h e t e a c h e r a n d t h a t of t h e
s u p p o r t p e rs o n s . Of c o u rs e , t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s in s is te d t h a t t h e
t e a c h e r s sh o u ld alw ay s u s e t h e la b o ra to ry a s an e x te n s i o n o f th e ir
c la s s r o o m s . T h e r e f o r e , t h e y sh o u ld c o m e w ith t h e i r in s tru c tio n a l
o b j e c ti v e s o r le sso n plan. "Prince, w e h a v e all a g r e e d o n how
t e a c h e r s sh ou ld u se t h e la b o ra to ry " , s h e s t r e s s e d . H ow ever, s h e
a s s u r e d t h e m o f e x tr a tra in in g s e s s io n s .
L eaving t h e la b o r a to r y le s s o n planning o r a c tiv itie s solely t o
t h e s u p p o r t p e r s o n s w i t h o u t prior in fo rm a tio n o f t e n c r e a t e d
c o n fu s io n in t h e la b o ra to ry . In o n e s itu a tio n a t e a c h e r s t a t e d "I
le a rn e d t h a t la s t w e e k t h e la b o r a to r y s e s s io n w a s c h a o tic . We n e e d
t o plan o r o r g a n iz e t h e la b o r a to r y a s s i g n m e n t s well a h e a d " .
U n fo rtu n a te ly , s o m e in itia tiv e s t a k e n by t h e s u p p o r t p e r s o n s
s o m e t i m e s d i d n 't m e e t t h e t e a c h e r 's d e s ire d g oals. T h e s e
o b s e r v a t i o n s m a d e t h e principal a n d t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s t o
e n c o u r a g e t h e t e a c h e r s fr e q u e n tly , during t h e s t a f f m e e tin g s , t o
a p p r o p r ia te ly u s e t h e c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y a c c o rd in g t o t h e i r c la ss
le s s o n plans.
With a s e n s e o f c o o p e ra tio n , d u ty , and e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h o s e
t e a c h e r s , t h e principal f r e q u e n t ly c a m e t o w ork w ith t h e m in t h e
la b o r a to r y a s w a y of d isc o v e rin g n e w th in g s t o g e t h e r a b o u t t h e s e
in s tru c tio n a l to o ls . On m a n y o c c a s io n s , t h e principal r e q u e s t e d o r
a s s ig n e d t h e T e a c h e r S p e c ia lis ts t o help t e a c h e r s in t h e c o m p u t e r
la b o ra to ry .
C o n tra ry t o t h o s e f r u s t r a t i o n s d u e t o lack o f p r e p a r e d n e s s ,
s o m e t e a c h e r s in t h e low er g r a d e s u s e d t h e te c h n o lo g y a p p ro p ria te ly
a s a d i r e c t s u p p o r t t o t h e i r tra d itio n a l t e a c h in g s t y l e s . T h u s, i n s te a d
of asking s t u d e n t s t o u se p e n a n d p a p e r t o w rite do w n a s e t o f
w ords, t h e t e a c h e r s r a t h e r a s k e d t h e m t o u se c o m p u te r s . Using th e
e d it c o m m a n d s t h e t e a c h e r s w e re able t o help e a c h s t u d e n t o r g ro u p
o f s t u d e n t s t o m a k e im m e d ia te c o r r e c tio n s . This m a d e in s tru c tio n
m o re e f f ic ie n t f o r t h e m .

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P e rc e iv e d A t t it u d e a n d Beliefs in t h e L a b o ra to ry
While s o m e t e a c h e r s w e r e s e e n as fairly e n th u s ia s t i c and
c o o p e r a tiv e w ith t h e te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e r s o n s o t h e r s w e re s e e n
a s in d iffe re n t an d u n c o o p e r a tiv e . Usually s o m e t e a c h e r s d is c u s s e d in
a d v a n c e w ith t h e la b o r a to r y s u p p o r t p e rs o n th e ir le s s o n plans. In
tim e s o f a b s e n c e t h e s e t e a c h e r s w ould inform t h e s u p p o r t p e rs o n s
w h a t t h e y e x p e c t e d him t o d o w ith t h e s t u d e n t s , e sp e c ia lly w h e n
t h e y h a d t o c o m e w ith a s u b s t i t u t e te a c h e r . T h e y w e re alw ay s o p e n
t o d is c u s s w ith t h e s u p p o r t p e r s o n s w h a t w e n t w ro n g a n d w h a t w e n t
b a d a f t e r e a c h p a rtic u la r la b o r a to r y s e s s io n .
In c o n t r a s t , s o m e t e a c h e r s , in te n tio n a lly o r u n in te n tio n a lly ,
o f t e n failed t o inform t h e s u p p o r t p e rs o n s o f c h a n g e o f th e ir
s c h e d u le . S o m e o f t h e m s o m e t i m e s j u s t s e n t p a r t o f t h e c la ss t o th e
la b o r a to r y , while t h e s e t e a c h e r s w ould b e w orking w ith t h e
rem ainin g s t u d e n t s in t h e c la s s ro o m . Such s itu a tio n q u ite o f t e n p u t
t h e s u p p o r t p e r s o n s in a n u n p l e a s a n t situ a tio n . On o n e sp ecific
o c c a s io n t h e sc h o o l principal c a m e t o w ork w ith t h e s t u d e n t s in t h e
la b o r a to r y while t h e t e a c h e r w a s in his c la s s ro o m w ith half o f t h e
class. A t t h e e n d o f t h e la b o r a to ry se ssio n , s h e a s k e d m e t o m ak e
s u re t e a c h e r s a lw ay s s t a y e d w ith th e ir s t u d e n t s in t h e la b o ra to ry .
S he in s is te d t h a t t e a c h e r s sh o u ld e ff e c tiv e ly a llo c a te t h e la b o r a to r y
tim e fo r c o m p u t e r a p p lic a tio n s in s te a d o f a lw a y s stick in g t o t h e old
in stru ctio n al p ra c tic e s .
S o m e t e a c h e r s p r e f e r r e d d isc u ssin g th e i r t e c h n o lo g y n e e d s
d ire c tly w ith t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s o r o t h e r t e a c h e r s i n s t e a d o f
Michigan S t a t e U niversity te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e rs o n s . In g e n e ra l,
t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s ' la b o r a to r y a t t i t u d e w a s q u ite p o sitiv e ,
d e s p i t e m in or f r u s t r a t i o n s . For e x a m p le , it w a s s o m e t i m e s
in te r e s tin g t o h e a r w h a t t h e t e a c h e r s said. "I am p le a s e d using t h e
la b o ra to ry b e c a u s e t h e y ( s t u d e n t s ) a re w riting f a s t e r . T h e y a re now
q u ite fam iliar w ith t h e k e y b o a r d an d t h e m o u s e . T h a t 's g r e a t " , said
o n e fir s t g r a d e t e a c h e r .

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T e c h n ic a l M a tte r s :
O ne im p o r t a n t te c h n ic a l p ro b le m e x p e r ie n c e d w a s p o w e r failure. On t w o d i f f e r e n t o c c a s io n s t h e w h ole c la s s l o s t th e i r t e x t
d u e t o ( 1 ) d is c o n n e c tio n o f p o w e r su p ply cab le fro m t h e main sw itch,
a n d ( 2 ) sc h o o l-w id e e le c tric ity su p p ly o u t a g e . Both s t u d e n t s and
t e a c h e r s c o m p la in e d a b o u t t h e e ffic ie n t a n d e ff e c t i v e u s e s o f th e
te c h n o lo g y . A ccording t o t h e t e a c h e r s , t h e y p r e f e r r e d using th e ir pen
a n d p a p e r s r a t h e r t h a n w a s tin g tim e on t h e te c h n o lo g y w ith o u t
p o sitiv e r e s u lts . For im m e d ia te a n d f u t u r e p r e c a u tio n s , I a d v is e d
s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s t o s a v e th e ir t e x t o r in fo rm atio n , a t m o s t
e v e ry t e n m in u te s, w h e n using c o m p u te r s . In view o f p re v e n tiv e and
b a c k u p s u p p o r t m e a s u r e s , t h e te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e r s o n s re p o r te d
t h e in c id e n ts t o t h e sc h o o l principal a n d t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs . T he
sc h o o l o r d e r e d t h r e e u n in te rru p tib le (b a c k u p ) p o w e r su p p lie s t h a t
a re c a p a b le o f s u p p o r tin g all t h e 15 c o m p u t e r s fo r a t l e a s t t w e n ty
m in u t e s .
O ne i m p o r t a n t o b s e r v a tio n issu e w a s t h e m is u s e o f c e rta in
c o m p u t e r f u n c tio n s o r c o m m a n d s . For in s ta n c e , s o m e s t u d e n t s
s o m e t i m e s u se d "Shift" key in s te a d o f "C o m m a n d " key w h e n c u ttin g
o r p a s tin g t e x t . S o m e tim e s b o th t e a c h e r s an d s t u d e n t s p anicked
b e c a u s e t h e y w e re afraid o r w orried t o lo se th e ir d a t a o r t e x t d u e t o
m inor m is ta k e s in p ro g ra m m an ip ulatio ns. T h e y had t o run t o t h e
n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s o r o t h e r te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e r s o n s fo r
a s s i s t a n c e . U nder s u c h e m e r g e n c y c a s e s , t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s
a lw a y s f o u n d p r o m p t s o lu tio n s t o t h o s e p ro b le m s by leaving th e ir
ow n s t u d e n t s . Coping w ith s u c h s itu a tio n s o f t e n d e m a n d e d tim e ,
e f f o r t, a n d c la s s m a n a g e m e n t skills on t h e p a r t t h e m a n a g e rs .
A n o t h e r f r e q u e n t te c h n ic a l p ro b le m w a s p r o g ra m in te r f e r e n c e .
T h e m ain m e n u p ro g ra m , called "L aunch", o f t e n m a d e it difficult fo r
u s e r s t o a c c e s s s o m e s o f t w a r e a p p lic a tio n s s u c h a s Kid W orks 2.
This o f t e n m a d e t h e t e c h n o lo g y n o t u se r-frie n d ly o r inefficien t.
W h e n e v e r s u c h p ro b le m s o c c u rre d , t h e s u p p o r t p e rs o n a n d t h e
t e a c h e r s h a d t o g o round helping t h e s t u d e n t s t o s e a r c h fo r t h e
d e s ir e d p ro g ra m . H ow ever, su c h i n te r f e r e n c e s b e c a m e less

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p ro b le m a tic a s t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s b e c a m e m o re fam iliar with
file r e tr ie v a l t e c h n i q u e s .
A p a r t fro m m inor s o f t w a r e p ro b le m s in t h e c la s s r o o m an d in
t h e la b o ra to ry , p rin te rs p o s e d m inor p ro b le m s fo r s o m e t e a c h e r s . A
t e a c h e r o n c e r e p o r te d "I c a n 't print in my ro o m b u t t h e n e tw o rk
m a n a g e r d o e s n o t w a n t m e t o c h a n g e o r sw itc h p rin te rs." T h e
te le c o m m u n ic a tio n s y s t e m fo r t h e 4 t h g r a d e s p r o j e c t t o o h ad its
ow n sp ecific p ro b lem s. S o m e tim e s t h e 4 t h g r a d e t e a c h e r s had
p ro b le m s a c c e s s in g t h e C redit Union d a t a b a s e . H ow ever, t h e y
alw ays m a n a g e d t o g e t th r o u g h (i.e., on-line c o n n e c tio n ). In g eneral,
h a rd w a re w a s o f le ss p ro b le m a tic . For in s ta n c e , no c o m p u t e r s y s t e m
bro ke dow n th r o u g h o u t t h e e n tire 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sch ool y e a r.
Facility M a n a g e m e n t
T he in a d e q u a t e s p a c e fo r t h e s c h o o l's c o m p e tin g p ro g ra m s
su c h a s Reading an d T e c h n o lo g y t h a t u se d t o t a k e p lace in t h e sa m e
facility (i.e., m ed ia ro o m ) f re q u e n tly c r e a t e d n oise p ro b le m s in t h e
facility. This o f t e n r e s u l te d in t e a c h e r s ' f r u s t r a t i o n b e c a u s e t h e
ch ild ren f o u n d it im p o ssib le t o follow t h e t e a c h e r 's la b o r a to r y
in s tr u c tio n s , leading t o lo ss o f la b o r a to r y c o n tro l. In o n e s itu a tio n ,
b o th o n e Special E d u ca tio n (re a d in g ) t e a c h e r a n d o n e low er g r a d e
t e a c h e r sh a rin g t h e facility lo st p a ti e n c e w hich m a d e t h e m s h o u t a t
th e ir s t u d e n t s f o r silence. W hen t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s h e a r d o f t h e
n e w s, t h e y im m e d ia te ly c o n s u l te d t h e tw o t e a c h e r s f o r a p p r o p r ia te
so lu tio n . In su ffic ie n t l a b o r a to r y tim e a llo c a tio n w a s a n o t h e r
c o n c e rn o f t h e t e a c h e r s . For in s ta n c e , s o m e low er g r a d e t e a c h e r s
o f t e n c o m p la in e d t h a t t h e 3 0 - m in u te la b o r a to ry s e s s io n w a s t o o
sh o r t. O ne tim e , a s o n e firs t g r a d e c la ss w a s n o t re a d y t o lea v e t h e
la b o r a to r y a t t h e e n d o f t h e la b o ra to ry period, t h e s u p p o r t p e rso n
a s k e d "Do y o u n e e d m o re tim e ? " T h e t e a c h e r replied, "Oh y e s, I w a n t
t o s t a y longer. My children w ould love it."

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S u m m a r y . During t h e c o m p u t e r la b o r a to r y s e s s io n s fo u r
sig n ific a n t e v e n t s d re w m y a t t e n t i o n t h a t w e re c lo se ly o b s e r v e d fo r
a p e rio d o f six m o n th s . T h e y w ere: M odes of Learning, T e a c h e r
L a b o r a to r y P re p a ra tio n , T ec h n ic al M a tte rs, a n d M a n a g e m e n t
p ro b le m s .
R egarding m o d e s o f learning, individual, c o o p e r a t i v e , t e a c h e r
g u id ed , a n d s t u d e n t c o n tro l learning p r o c e s s e s w e re c o m m o n .
S t u d e n t s in t h e u p p e r g r a d e s (i.e., 4 t h a n d 5 t h ) w o rk e d m o re
in d e p e n d e n tly t h a n t h e re s t. T h e s e s t u d e n t s had c o n tro l o f th e ir
learning. B o th individual a n d c o o p e r a t i v e learning skills w e re highly
c o m m o n w ith 2 n d a n d 3 r d g r a d e s t u d e n t s . T h e skilled s t u d e n t s
fin ish ed th e i r a s s i g n m e n t s in s h o r t p e rio d o f tim e a n d t h e n h e lp e d
o t h e r s t u d e n t s a s p e e r c o m p u t e r a s s i s t a n t s . T h e unskilled c o m p u t e r
u s e r s a lw ay s p r e f e r r e d w orking in sm all g r o u p s of tw o o r t h r e e . T he
low er g r a d e s t u d e n t s (i.e., 1 s t a n d K in d e rg a rte n ) e n jo y e d working in
g r o u p s e sp e c ia lly w ith m u ltim ed ia p ro g ra m (Kid W orks 2 ). T h e s e
low er g r a d e s t u d e n t s n e e d e d m o re g u id ed in stru c tio n fro m t h e
t e a c h e r o r c o m p u t e r a s s i s t a n t s . T h e s e s t u d e n t s w e re m o re
disciplined in t h e la b o r a to r y t h a n th e i r s e n io rs in o t h e r c la s s e s . T he
m a jo r discipline p ro b le m s w e re fo u n d a m o n g t h e 2 n d an d 3 rd g r a d e
c la sse s.
S o m e no vice te c h n o lo g y t e a c h e r s o f t e n b e c a m e f r u s t r a t e d d u e
t o m isu se o f c e r ta in c o m p u t e r fu n c tio n s o r c o m m a n d s . With a s e n s e
o f c o o p e r a tio n , d u ty , an d e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h o s e t e a c h e r s , t h e
principal f r e q u e n t ly c a m e t o w ork w ith t h e m in t h e la b o r a to r y as
w a y o f d isc o v e rin g new th in g s t o g e t h e r a b o u t t h e s e in s tru c tio n a l
to o ls . S o m e t e a c h e r s p r e f e r r e d d isc u ssin g th e ir t e c h n o lo g y n e e d s
d ire c tly w ith t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s o r o t h e r t e a c h e r s i n s t e a d o f
Michigan S t a t e U niversity te c h n o lo g y s u p p o r t p e rs o n s . In g e n e ra l
s o f t w a r e a n d h a rd w a r e w e r e le s s p ro b le m a tic . H o w ever, in su ffic ie n t
la b o r a to r y tim e allo catio n w a s a m ajo r c o n c e rn o f t h e t e a c h e r s . For
in s ta n c e , s o m e low er g r a d e t e a c h e r s o f t e n c o m p la in e d t h a t t h e 3 0 m in u te la b o r a to r y s e s s io n w a s t o o s h o rt. In g e n e ra l, t e a c h e r s an d

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s t u d e n t s ' l a b o r a to r y a t t i t u d e s w e re q u ite p o sitiv e , d e s p i t e m inor
f r u s t r a t i o n s an d c o n c e r n s .

CHAPTER 7
SUMMARY,

DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS,
AND SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER STUDY
S um m ary

C en tral F ocus Of T h e S tu d y
T h e c e n tr a l c o n c e r n s o f th is s t u d y w e re t o s y s te m a tic a lly m ap:
t h e c o u rs e o f te c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s , c h a n g in g f a c t o r s a f f e c tin g
d y n a m ic s o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m fo r te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n , and
in s tr u c tio n a l a n d a tt i tu d i n a l c h a n g e s . More sp ecifically , t h e s t u d y
s o u g h t t o g a t h e r e v id e n c e fro m sch ool r e c o r d s an d p e rso n a l
o b s e r v a t i o n s t o e s t a b l is h a n histo ric al profile o f t e c h n o lo g y
d e v e l o p m e n t a t Kendon; t o e x a m in e t h e vario u s w a y s in w hich t h e
e x te r n a l p a r t i c i p a n ts s u c h a s t h e School D istrict a n d in te rn a l (local)
s c h o o l h o u s e p a r t i c i p a n ts su c h a s t e a c h e r s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s within
K endon s c h o o l s y s t e m h a v e in fluenced t h e scho ol t e c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n p ro g ra m o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a rs ; a n d t o e x a m in e t h e
ph ilosoph ical, a ttitu d in a l, an d p e d a g o g ic a l is s u e s t h a t t h e
individuals a n d g r o u p s w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m hold fo r te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n in t h e c urriculu m an d th e ir im p lica tio n s fo r K endon
sc h o o l c u rric u lu m in n o v a tio n g o a ls . T h u s, I w a s p a rtic u la rly
i n t e r e s t e d in learn in g a b o u t t h e d y n a m ic s o f i n te r a c tin g f a c t o r s in
K endon s c h o o l a s a p o ssib le n e w p a ra d ig m o f e f f e c t i v e te c h n o lo g ic a l
c h a n g e - - a p a ra d ig m fo r te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s e s an d
p rocedures.

160

161

B a ck g ro u n d a n d S e ttin g
K endon E le m e n ta ry is o n e o f t h e fo u r P rofessio nal D e v e lo p m e n t
s c h o o ls in Lansing, Michigan. T he sc h o o l w a s built in 1 9 5 8 , c o v erin g
3 2 , 0 0 0 s q u a r e f e e t . T h e m ission o f K endon E le m e n ta ry is t o p re p a re
s t u d e n t s f o r t h e f u tu r e by working c o o p e ra tiv e ly w ith p a r e n ts ,
c o m m u n ity m e m b e r s , a n d e d u c a tio n a l fa c u lty . T h e g oal is t o c r e a t e
an o r g a n iz e d a n d s u p p o r tiv e learning e n v ir o n m e n t w h e re t h e school
s y s t e m a c c e p t s an d a c c o m m o d a t e s d iv e rs ity an d d e v e lo p m e n ta l
p r o g r a m s t o m e e t individual n e e d s . T ec h n o lo g y h a s b e e n c o n s id e r e d
a s a s t r a t e g i c in stru c tio n a l to o l o v e r t h e p a s t sc h o o l y e a r s (i.e.,
s in c e t h e b e g in ning o f K endon P ro fe ssio n a l a c tiv itie s in t h e scho ol).
T h e sc h o o l t e c h n o lo g y vision s tro n g ly s t r e s s e s p re p a rin g s t u d e n t s t o
p a r t i c i p a t e a n d c o n tr i b u te t o a s o c i e t y in which in fo rm a tio n is
c e n tr a l. K endon E le m e n ta ry e n jo y s t h e c o o p e r a tio n a n d s u p p o r t o f
S t a t e o f Michigan B oard o f E d ucation, Michigan P a r tn e r s h ip fo r New
E d u c a tio n , L ansing S c h o o l D istrict, P ro fe ss io n a l D e v e lo p m e n t School
P ro g ra m s, a n d Michigan S t a t e U niversity.
T h e o r e ti c a l A n d P ro f e s s io n a l Is s u e s
R e s e a rc h s h o w s t h a t c h a n g e in s c h o o ls re q u ire s le a d e rsh ip ,
s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t , m o d ific a tio n o f t h e o rg a n iz a tio n a l s t r u c t u r e , and
t h e in v o lv e m e n t o f p e o p le fro m all a s p e c t s o f e d u c a tio n a l s y s t e m
(Fullan, 1 9 8 2 ) . A cco rd in g t o S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) , s h a r e d vision, which is
e s s e n t ia l fo r s u c c e s s o f c h a n g e , m u s t e v o lv e t h r o u g h t h e d y n a m ic
i n te r a c tio n o f o r g a n iz a tio n a l m e m b e r s a n d le a d e rs . I d e s i g n e d th is
s t u d y p u rp o s e ly t o s e e k c o n te x tu a l in fo rm a tio n s p e c ific t o K endon
E le m e n ta ry t o e x a m in e t h e s e claim s in t h e c o n t e x t o f te c h n o lo g ic a l
changes.
S e c o n d , I w a s i n t e r e s t e d in u n d e rs ta n d in g t h e e x t e n t t o which
s o m e t e a c h e r s a n d sc h o o l p a r e n t s a re r e s i s t a n t t o a s c h o o l's
in n o v a tio n p r o g r a m s , p a rtic u la rly using te c h n o lo g y a s in n o v a tiv e
to o ls ; w hy s c h o o ls e x p e r ie n c e slow p a c e o f t e c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s ; a n d w h a t in flu e n c e s a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g y
in s c h o o l curriculum . A cco rd in g t o S ta c e y ( 1 9 9 2 ) , visions c a n die or

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fail t o d e v e lo p if t o o m a n y p e o p le a re involved a t t h e beginning of
t h e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n , w h e n le a d e r s fail t o a d v o c a t e th e ir
view s, w h e n su p e rfic ial ta lk r a t h e r t h a n g r o u n d e d inquiry and a c tio n
is t h e m e t h o d used . S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) a rg u e s t h a t t h e p ro fessio n al
isolatio n o f t e a c h e r s lim its a c c e s s t o n e w id e a s a n d b e t t e r
s o lu tio n s , d riv e s s t r e s s inw ard, fails t o re c o g n iz e a n d p ra ise
s u c c e s s , an d p e rm its in c o m p e t e n c e t o e x is t a n d p e r s i s t t o t h e
d e t r i m e n t o f s t u d e n t s , c o lle a g u e s , a n d t h e t e a c h e r s th e m s e lv e s .
L ortie ( 1 9 7 5 ) c o n firm s t h a t iso latio n allows c o n s e r v a t is m and
r e s i s t a n c e t o in n o v atio n in te a c h in g . Fullan & H a rg re a v e s ( 1 9 9 1 )
th in k p a r t i c i p a to r y o r c o lla b o ra tiv e s i t e - b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t is t h e
a n sw e r. Fullan ( 1 9 9 3 ) p r o p o s e s six key e le m e n t s t o c h a n g e : vision;
public a n d political s u p p o r t; n e tw o rk in g , t e a c h i n g a n d learning
c h a n g e s ; s h if t o f ro les a n d re s p o n sib ilitie s a t t h e sc h o o l, d istric t,
a n d s t a t e levels fro m c o n tro l t o s u p p o r t a n d s h a r e d d e cisio n m aking;
a n d policies n e e d t o b e aligned a ro u n d b eliefs an d p r a c tic e s o f new
s y s te m . A ccording t o OTA ( 1 9 8 8 ) , s o m e b arriers t o g r e a t e r u se of
t e c h n o lo g y in o u r s c h o o ls a re m ainly a s s o c i a t e d w ith lack o f
e q u ip m e n t, i n a d e q u a t e o r in a p p ro p r ia te training, a n d t e a c h e r s '
a n x ie ty a b o u t n e w te c h n o lo g y . To avoid t e a c h e r s ' a n x ie ty an d
a c c o u n ta b ility , McKenzie ( 1 9 9 3 ) s u g g e s t s t h a t t h e sc h o o l principal
a n d his o r h e r s t a f f n e e d t o a c c e p t t h e c o n c e p t o f 'm u tu a l a d a p t a t i o n 1
t h a t m a y lea d t o s h a r e d le a d e rs h ip role an d o w n e rsh ip . In addition,
t h e sc h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r n e e d s t o b re a k d o w n t h e tra d itio n a l
iso latio n o f s c h o o ls fro m e x te r n a l r e s o u r c e s by inviting a rich flow
o f id e a s a n d p o ssib ilities, e s p e c ia lly fro m s c h o o l p a r e n t s ,
c o m m u n itie s , a n d u n iv e rs itie s. T h u s, a p p r o p r i a te in v o lv e m e n t o f
local b u s i n e s s e s an d u n iv e rs itie s p ro v id e s t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m w ith
h u m a n a n d financial r e s o u r c e s a n d h e lp s w ith m a rk e tin g t h e sch o o l
t e c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m s .
Many sc h o o l a d m in is tr a to r s , t e a c h e r s , an d p a r e n t s a re n o t
i n t e r e s t e d in te c h n o lo g y fo r te c h n o lo g y 's sa k e , b u t r a t h e r fo r b e t t e r
te a c h in g a n d b e t t e r learning e x p e r ie n c e s fo r s t u d e n t s . As a
p r o p o n e n t o f e d u c a tio n a l te c h n o lo g y fo r d e v e lo p in g c o u n tr ie s , th is

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s tu d y , c o n d u c t e d in a c o u n tr y w h e re a c a d e m ic c o m p u tin g is well
a d v a n c e d , w ould prov ide m e w ith s o m e useful in fo rm a tio n on th e
kinds o f planning, d e v e lo p m e n t, im p le m e n ta tio n , a n d o r g a n iz a tio n a l
s t r u c t u r e s a n d s u p p o r t s y s t e m s a p p ro p r ia te fo r a sp e cific sc h o o l
c o n t e x t , e sp e c ia lly in A frica.
M e th o d o lo g y
T h e in v e s tig a tio n w a s in t h e fo rm o f a c a s e s t u d y which
f o c u s e d o n t h e e x a m in a tio n o f K endon school r e c o r d s a n d perso n al
o b s e r v a tio n s , plus t h e e x a m in a tio n o f beliefs, e x p e c t a t i o n s , and
g e n e r a l p e r c e p t i o n s o f K endon fac u lty , s t a f f , p a r e n t s , an d c o m m u n ity
b u s in e s s p a rtn e r s , o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 ) .
T o a c h ie v e t h e s t u d y p u rp o se s, a n sw e rs w e re s o u g h t t o t h e
following m ain q u e s t io n s ( 1 ) W h at c h a n g e s o c c u r re d in t h e u s e s of
te c h n o lo g y a n d how did t h e s e i n t e r a c t w ith o t h e r in flu e n c e s an d
o u t c o m e s ? ; ( 2 ) W h at c h a n g e s o c c u rre d in roles, policies, a n d
p r o c e d u r e s in t h e schoo l s y s t e m o v e r tim e a n d how did t h e s e
in flu en ce t h e im p le m e n ta tio n o f te c h n o lo g y ? ; a n d ( 3 ) In w h a t w ays
did e x p e c t a t i o n s , b eliefs, a n d in stru c tio n a l p r a c t i c e s o f v a rio u s
a c t o r s within t h e scho ol s y s t e m c h a n g e a n d how did t h e s e p r o m o te
o r h in d er K endon t e a c h e r s ' a d o p tio n of te c h n o lo g y in t h e curriculum ?
R atio n ale fo r th is c a s e s tu d y . If te c h n o lo g ie s a re being u s e d in
c la s s ro o m s a n d la b o ra to ry s e t t i n g s , th e n t h e r e is a n e e d t o
u n d e r s t a n d t h e d y n a m ic s ( s t r e n g t h s and w e a k n e s s e s ) w ithin t h e
sc h o o l s y s t e m t h a t influen ce t e a c h e r s ' a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e
curriculum a n d t h e kinds o f in stru ctio n al c h a n g e s t h a t t a k e place a s
a re s u lt o f te c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . T h e c o m b in a tio n o f b o th
q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d q u a lita tiv e m e th o d o lo g ie s in a c a s e s t u d y like th is
on e, n o t only c a p t u r e s t h e g e n e ra l picture o f t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m and
its r e l a t e d is s u e s a n d p ro b le m s , b u t also p ro v id e s s o m e s p e c ific
c o m p l e m e n t a r y in fo rm a tio n t h a t f a c ilita te s u n d e r s t a n d i n g a
c o m p le x s y s t e m .

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D a ta c o lle c tio n a n d d a t a analysis. S ix te e n p e o p le within t h e
sc h o o l s y s t e m p a r t i c i p a te d in t h e s tu d y . T h e re s e a r c h involved a
t w o - s t a g e a p p ro a c h t o t h e d a ta c o llection . Review o f sc h o o l
d o c u m e n t s , p a rtic ip a n t o b s e r v a t i o n s , a n d fo rm a tiv e e v a lu a tio n
f o rm e d s t a g e o n e . S om e o f w h a t w a s lea rn ed h e re f o rm e d t h e basis
fo r c o n s t r u c t i n g q u a n t i t a t i v e a n d q u a lita tiv e q u e s t io n n a ir e u s e d for
s e l f - a d m in i s t e r e d s u r v e y a n d follow -up individual a n d g r o u p
in te rv ie w s w hich f o r m e d s t a g e tw o.
S ta tis tic a l a n a ly sis (visual a n d s u m m a r y ) w a s u s e d t o
d e s c r ib e t h e d a t a g a t h e r e d in s e lf -a d m in is te r e d s u rv e y a n d p e rs o n a l
in te rv ie w s. T h e s t a t i s t i c a l a n a ly sis w a s s u p p o r t e d by t h e
p a rtic ip a n ts ' g e n e r a l c o m m e n t s an d m y p e rso n a l o b s e r v a tio n d a ta .
Major fin d in g s a re d i s c u s s e d in t h e following s e c tio n s .
W h at I L earned fro m t h e S tu d y
O v e r v ie w
T h e review o f lite r a tu r e , K endon s c h o o l re c o r d s , inform al
fo r m a tiv e e v a lu a tio n a n d in te rv ie w s, a n d m y p e rs o n a l o b s e r v a t i o n s
a t K endon s c h o o l c o n t e x t (i.e., s t a g e o n e ) and se lf -a d m in is te r e d
s u rv e y a n d follow -up in te rv ie w s (i.e., s t a g e tw o ) h e lp e d m e t o
id e n tify s o m e im p o r t a n t is s u e s p e r t i n e n t t o te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n in a c o m p le x sch ool s y s t e m . I le a rn e d a b o u t g rad u al
a n d s h a r p diffu sio n o f in n o v a tio n s o v e r tim e ; s y s t e m d y n a m ic s ,
p a rtic u la rly t h e s h iftin g ro le s o f t e c h n o lo g y le a d e r s a n d fo llo w ers
within a sc h o o l s y s te m ; t h e im p o r ta n c e o f p r e s e r v ic e a n d inservice
train in g fo r e f f e c t i v e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n ; t h e n e e d fo r
s u p p o r t s y s t e m s fro m w ithin an d o u ts id e t h e sc h o o l c o n te x t; t h e
role o f p e r c e p t i o n s / c h a n g i n g p e rc e p tio n s ; t h e n e e d fo r c o lla b o ra tio n
o r t e a m w ork a m o n g individuals a n d g ro u p s within a sc h o o l s y s te m ;
t h e e f f e c t s o f belief s y s t e m s a n d e x p e c ta ti o n s on t e c h n o lo g y
a d o p tio n ; tim e c o n s t r a i n ts ; a n d te c h n o lo g ic a l e f f e c t s on in stru c tio n .

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E volution o f E d u c a tio n a l T e c h n o lo g y I m p le m e n ta tio n
L e s s o n s le a rn e d a t fo u r d is tin c t p h a s e s o f t h e im p le m e n ta tio n
p r o c e s s w ith r e s p e c t t o diffu sio n o f in n o v a tio n s, in s tru c tio n a l
p r a c t ic e s , a n d s u s ta in a b ility o f te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s a re
p r e s e n t e d in t h e follow ing s e s s io n s .
P h a se I: In tro d u c tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y w ith In n o v a to rs ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 ) .
L e s s o n s le a rn e d a t th is p h a s e o f t h e im p le m e n ta tio n a re d e s c r ib e d
a s t h e following.
Innovation decisions. T h e f ir s t a d o p tio n o f te c h n o lo g ic a l
in n o v a tio n s w a s b a s e d o n t h e p e rso n al decision of o n e t e a c h e r t o
w e lc o m e o u t s i d e a g e n t s t o bring a p p lic a tio n s o f te c h n o lo g y in to his
c la ss ro o m . In o t h e r w o rd s, t h e first a d o p tio n w a s a m o d e s t " b o tto m -

up" s t a r t w hich w a s well publicized within t h e sch o o l. T h e idea of
inviting e x te r n a l a g e n t s t o s u p p o r t t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v a tio n s
w a s a f i r s t i m p o r t a n t d e cisio n . S u b s e q u e n tly , t h e fo r m a tio n o f
te c h n o lo g y g ro u p , c o n s is tin g o f intern al an d e x te r n a l a g e n t s , t o
m a n a g e o r s u p p o r t t h e in n o v a tio n s w a s a s t r a t e g i c plan. T h e decision
o f t h e in n o v a to r s t o e m p o w e r t h e s t u d e n t s firs t w a s a m o re
s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h . T h e s u c c e s s o f Kendon 5 t h G rade
M ultim edia P ro je c t, w hich s t a r t e d on sm all s c a le an d s u p p o r t e d by a
few te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs , c o n tr i b u te d t o la t e r sc h o o lw id e a d o p tio n o f
te c h n o lo g y . This s u p p o r t s S t a c e y 's ( 1 9 9 2 ) a s s e r ti o n t h a t visions c an
die o r fail t o d e v e lo p in t h e first place if t o o m a n y p e o p le a re
involved a t t h e beginning o f a n e w p ro g ram . T h e K endon e x p e rie n c e
also c o n firm s t h a t o f S e n g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) which s t a t e s t h a t try in g t o g e t
e v e r y o n e o n b o a rd in a d v a n c e o f a c tio n c a n n o t work b e c a u s e it d o e s
n o t c o n n e c t t o t h e reality o f d y n a m ic co m p lex ity .
In s tru c tio n a l s tra te g ie s . T h e kind o f learning s ty le in th is
e x p e r i m e n t a l c la s s w a s m o re o f d is c o v e ry o r e x p lo r a to r y sin c e

s t u d e n t s d ir e c tly i n t e r a c t e d w ith t h o s e new m u ltim e d ia learning
to o ls . T h e role o f t h e t e a c h e r w as, th e r e f o r e , m o re o f c la s s ro o m

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m a n a g e m e n t . T h e c re a tio n o f a c la s s " n e w s le tte r " th r o u g h s t u d e n t s '
ow n e f f o r t s in d ic a te s t h a t e m p o w e rin g s t u d e n t s th r o u g h s t u d e n t c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h could b e a s t r a t e g i c plan t o te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n in sc h o o ls. H ow ever, t e a c h e r g u id a n c e is alw ay s
im p o r t a n t t o m a k e su c h learning h a p p e n .
S u s ta in a b ility . T h e issu e s o f lim ited e q u ip m e n t, t e a c h e r 's lack
o f e x p e r t i s e in te c h n o lo g y , a n d s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h , lead m e
t o c o n c lu d e h e re t h a t t h e su s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s during
th is f ir s t p h a s e w a s a m a jo r p ro b lem .

P h a s e II: Early A d o p te rs ( 1 9 9 0 / 9 1 & 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 ) S om e o f t h e
le s s o n s le a rn e d a t th is p h a s e a re p r e s e n t e d a s t h e following.
D iffusion decisions. T he n e e d fo r s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t and
te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t re q u ire d a n e w a p p ro a c h t o o rg a n iz a tio n a l

m a n a g e m e n t su c h a s t h e d e s ig n a tio n o f n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s in t h e
sc h o o l in o r d e r t o s p r e a d t h e in n o v atio n s. Tw o individual t e a c h e r s
w e re t h e e a rly a d o p t e r s . T h e ir d e c isio n s t o a d o p t t h e in n o v atio n s
w e re o n t h e b a sis o f v o lu n ta rism , e n th u s ia s m , belief, a n d p e rs o n a l
i n te r e s t. D e s p ite t h e in c re a s e in n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e school
fro m 4 t o 11 , it w a s critical a t th is s t a g e t o build t e a c h e r s '
c o n fid e n c e a n d t r u s t a b o u t t h e inno v atio n s.
In s tru c tio n a l practices. T h e early te c h n o lo g y a d o p tio n p r o c e s s
a t K end on w a s "idea sh a rin g " s t r a t e g y a m o n g p e e rs . T h e early

a d o p t e r s p r a c t ic e d c o o p e r a t i v e te a c h in g a n d learning s ty le s . T e a m
te a c h i n g a n d sm all g r o u p w riting p r o j e c ts p r a c tic e d by t h e s e tw o
t e a c h e r s a n d th e i r s t u d e n t s s t a r t e d t o s h if t t h e "individual" t o
" g ro u p " in s tr u c tio n a l p r o c e s s e s in t h e s e c la s s ro o m s .
S u s ta in a b ility . Given t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sc h o o l still n e e d e d m o re

e q u ip m e n t t o a t t r a c t m o re t e a c h e r s , t h a t t h e e x te r n a l a g e n t s w e re
th e p iv o t o f t h e in n o v atio n s, an d t h a t t h e s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h

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w a s still m a in ta in e d , t h e s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s w a s still
q u e s tio n a b le . H ow ever, d e m o n s t r a t i o n o f p e rs o n a l a n d p ro fe s sio n a l
i n t e r e s t s , t h e n e w t e c h n o lo g y skills a c q u ire d a s well a s t h e
le a d e r s h ip role p lay e d b y t h e s e e arly a d o p t e r s w e re in d ic atio n s of
g r e a t e r s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s.
P h a s e III: Early M ajority A d o p t e r s ( 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 ) . T h e following
a re t h e le s s o n s le a rn e d a t th is p h a s e .
D iffusion decisions. T h e p a c e of a d o p tio n p e rc e iv e d in t h e

1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r w a s rela tiv e ly slow. In g e n e ra l, m o s t o f t h e
t e a c h e r s in d ic a te d t h a t t h e y did n o t re c e iv e a n y s u b s ta n tia l
te c h n o lo g y tra in in g in t h e i r c o lle g e e d u c a tio n . T his lack o f
te c h n o lo g y e x p e r ie n c e initially c r e a t e d f e a r s ( p o s e d p ro b le m s ) fo r
s o m e t e a c h e r s . T his finding c o n firm s t h a t o f Collins ( 1 9 8 7 ) t h a t
sin c e t e a c h e r s ty pically t e a c h a s t h e y w e re t a u g h t , u p g ra d in g t h e
te c h n o lo g ic a l skills o f e d u c a t i o n f a c u l ty is an e s s e n t i a l f ir s t s t e p
f o r p r e p a r in g te c h n o lo g ic a lly l i t e r a t e e n tr y - le v e l t e a c h e r s . This
n e c e s s i t a t e d n e w a p p r o a c h e s t o im p le m e n ta tio n s t r a t e g i e s . S ta f f
d e v e l o p m e n t a n d te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t s t r a t e g i e s w e re e m p h a s iz e d . This
m o v e t o t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h w a s g r e e t e d w ith m o re t e a c h e r
p a rtic ip a tio n in t e c h n o lo g y p r o g r a m s a n d a c tiv itie s. T e a c h e r s b e g a n
t o a s s u m e n e w te c h n o lo g y roles in t h e sch ool. For e x a m p le , all m ajo r
te c h n o lo g y d e c is io n s w e re t a k e n by t e a c h e r s in s te a d o f t h e
te c h n o lo g y g ro u p . T e a c h e r s b e g a n t o c o n s o lid a te id e a s a n d e x p e rtis e ,
t h u s in d ic atin g t h a t t h e im p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s w a s m oving
g rad u a lly fro m individual t o sm all g ro u p , a n d t h e n t o large g ro u p
a c tiv itie s . In o t h e r w o rd s, K endon t e c h n o lo g y d iffusion p r o c e s s
c o n tin u e d t o follow a " b o t to m - u p " a p p ro a c h .
in s tru c tio n a l practices. T he f a c t t h a t a s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d
a p p r o a c h w a s still m a in ta in e d b u t w ith m ax im u m t e a c h e r g u id a n c e ,

b o th d is c o v e ry a n d g u id e d learning w e re v e ry c o m m o n in Kendon
c la s s r o o m s . T h e c o m b in a tio n o f t h e s e tw o in s tru c tio n a l p r o c e s s e s

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s h i f t e d " s t u d e n t - t e c h n o l o g y " in te r a c tiv e p r o c e s s t o " t e a c h e r t e c h n o l o g y - s t u d e n t " i n te r a c t iv e p r o c e s s e s .
S u s ta in a b ility . T h e e x te rn a l a g e n t s c o n tin u e d t o initiate and
s u p p o r t m a n y c la s s te c h n o lo g y a c tiv itie s a n d t h e s e a c tiv itie s w e re
m ainly c e n t e r e d on s t u d e n t s . In addition, no n e w e q u ip m e n t w a s

re c e iv e d t h a t s c h o o l y e a r t o e n h a n c e h a n d s -o n a c tiv itie s. All t h e s e
f a c t o r s im plied t h a t s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s w e r e still
q u e stio n a b le .
P h a s e IV: L ate Majority A d o p te r s ( 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 ) . T he le s so n s
le a rn e d a t th is p h a s e a re d e s c r ib e d a s t h e following.
Schoolwide diffusion. T he 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 schoo l y e a r m a rk e d a

t r e m e n d o u s c h a n g e in t h e h isto ry o f Kendon te c h n o lo g y
i m p le m e n ta tio n p r o g r a m s o v e r t h e p a s t fo u r y e a r s , p a rticu la rly in
e q u ip m e n t, s t a f f d e v e lo p m e n t, in s tru c tio n , a n d g e n e ra l p e r c e p tio n s
on t h e d y n a m ic s of t h e school s y s te m . T h e s h a rp in c re a s e in th e
n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s (i.e., fro m 11 t o 5 1 ) re s u lte d in schoo lw ide
a d o p tio n o f c o m p u t e r s in t h e c la s s ro o m s an d t h e c o m p u t e r te a c h in g
la b o ra to ry . T h e e m p h a s is on a s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d w a s s h i f t e d t o a
t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h . T h e p a rtic u la r a t t e n t i o n g iven t o ins e r v ic e tra in in g a n d te c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e m o t i v a t e d all K endon
t e a c h e r s an d s t u d e n t s t o e ffe c tiv e ly u se t h e te c h n o lo g y a s an
i n s t r u c t i o n a l to o l.
In s tru c tio n a l practices. T h e sc h o o lw id e te c h n o lo g ic a l
in n o v a tio n s b r o u g h t n e w in stru c tio n a l c h a lle n g e s t o t e a c h e r s . All
K endon t e a c h e r s g o t involved in c o lla b o ra tiv e te a c h in g , th e r e f o r e ,
o n e -o n - o n e , a n d sm all a n d larg e g r o u p in s tru c tio n a l p r a c t ic e s

b e c a m e c o m m o n in K endon c la s s ro o m s . In a d d itio n , t h e tra d itio n a l
s t u d e n t c la s s ro o m s e a t w o r k w a s s u p p o r t e d b y p ra c tic a l o r real
w orld p ro b le m -so lv in g using c o m p u t e r s . For in s ta n c e , c o m m u n ity
b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s b e c a m e m o r e involved in K endo n in stru c tio n a l

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p ro g ra m s . More specifically, it w a s a m a z in g t o s e e s t u d e n t s in tw o
4 t h g r a d e c la s s r o o m s talking w ith th e i r ban k p a r t n e r s a b o u t banking
o p e r a t io n s a s well a s w orking w ith t h e m a s b ank te lle rs a t t h e
c o m p u t e r te rm in a ls. In a ddition , t h e s t u d e n t s u s e d t h e c la s s ro o m
te l e c o m m u n i c a t io n w o r k s ta t io n s t o s e a r c h f o r in fo rm a tio n fro m t h e
main bank.
S u s ta in a b ility . T h e sc h o o lw id e a p p lic a tio n s o f c o m p u t e r s in
t h e curriculum had m an y h o p e s . For in s ta n c e , t h e " b o tto m - u p "

a p p ro a c h a d o p t e d in t h e sch ool, t h e s h ift fro m s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d t o
t e a c h e r - c e n t e r e d a p p ro a c h , and t h e 4 0 c o m p u t e r s a n d n e tw o rk
m a n a g e m e n t in -se rv ic e tra in in g o f f e r e d by t h e S cho ol D istrict w e re
c le a r e v id e n c e o f s u s ta in a b ility o f t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s in t h e
curricu lum . H ow ev er, f o r t h e f a c t t h a t u n iv e rs ity c o lla b o r a to r s w e re
t h e m a jo r p ro v id e rs o f te c h n ic a l a s s i s t a n c e t o t e a c h e r s and
s t u d e n t s , s u s ta in a b ility o f t h e in n o v a tio n s re m a in e d a p o te n tia l
p ro b le m until t h e S chool D istric t a s s u m e s g r e a t e r financial
re s p o n sib ility fo r t h e s u p p o r t w hich is n e e d e d .
W h at t h e P a r tic ip a n ts Sav a b o u t C hang ing P a t te r n s
o f T e c h n o lo g y L ea d e rsh ip
O v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s , t h e sch o o l principal, a few Kendon
t e a c h e r s , a n d Michigan S t a t e U niv ersity c o lla b o r a to rs w e re
cla ssifie d a s t e c h n o lo g y le a d e rs . T h e L ansing School D istrict, Kendon
p a r e n t s , a n d c o m m u n ity b u s i n e s s p a r t n e r s w e re c la ss ifie d a s
fo llo w e rs.
Roles

a n d In flu en c es o f T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rs
T h e sc h o o l a d m i n i s t r a t o r (in te rn a l a g e n t ) . T h e p a r t i c i p a n ts
in d ic a te d t h a t t h e sc h o o l principal, h a s b e e n v e ry s u p p o rtiv e ,
c o m m itte d , an d d e d ic a t e d t o g o a ls a n d n e e d s o f te c h n o lo g y in t h e
lines o f t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s . S he h a s a lw ays b e e n a f o re r u n n e r in
t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y e f f o r ts . She is a w a re a n d u n d e r s t a n d s t h e
im p a c t s o f te c h n o lo g y on p r e s e n t a n d f u t u r e in stru c tio n a l a c tiv itie s.

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She p r o m o t e s t h e te c h n o lo g y id e a s w ith e m p h a s is on n e e d s . All h e r
a c t io n s a re b e in g a c c o m p a n ie d w ith e x a m p le s , m o tiv a tio n s ,
e n th u s ia s m , c o o p e r a tio n , o p e n n e s s , a n d self- c o n fid e n c e .
K endon fa c u lty (in te rn a l a g e n t ) . T h e s t u d y in d ic a te d t h a t
t e a c h e r s w e re v e ry r e c e p tiv e t o t h e te c h n o lo g y plan d e s p i t e s o m e
p e s s im is tic v iew s m a n i f e s te d in t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 1 / 9 2 sc h o o l
y e a rs . T h e y w o rk e d c o o p e ra tiv e ly , a c c o m m o d a t e d a n d d e d ic a t e d t o
t h e sc h o o l-w id e te c h n o lo g y p r o g ra m s during 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e ar.
P e e r m e n to rin g o r c o lla b o r a tiv e e f f o r t s a s well a s p e rs o n a l and
p ro fe s sio n a l i n t e r e s t s h a d b e e n t h e c o r n e r s t o n e t o t e a c h e r s g e n e ra l
a d o p tio n o f K endon t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n plan.
T e c h n o lo g y m a n a g e r s (in te rn a l a g e n t s ) . T h e d e s ig n a tio n o f tw o
t e a c h e r s , by t h e t e a c h e r s t h e m s e lv e s , a s n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s had
p o sitiv e i m p a c t s o n t h e i m p le m e n ta tio n p r o c e s s . T h e sp e c ia l
in se rv ic e tra in in g w hich t h e y r e c e iv e d fro m t h e S cho ol D istrict,
th e i r p e rs o n a l a n d p ro fe s s io n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s , a n d c o m m i t m e n t s all
h a v e c o n tr i b u te d t o s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t h e s u b s e q u e n t schoo lwide a d o p tio n o f t h e t e c h n o lo g y im p le m e n ta tio n . D e sp ite t h o s e
e f f o r t s , t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts re a liz e d t h a t t h e s e n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s
n e e d e d m o re tim e t o w ork o u t c o m p u t e r p ro b lem s. Equally, t h e y
n e e d e d m o n e t a r y in c e n tiv e s o r o t h e r c o m p e n s a ti o n fo r t h e se rv ic e s.
U niv ersity c o ll a b o r a t o r s ( e x t e r n a l a g e n t s ) . T h e te c h n ic a l
e x p e r t is e , se lf a n d p ro f e s s io n a l c o m m i t m e n t s o f Michigan S t a t e
U niversity c o lla b o r a to r s a n d m a te ria l in c e n tiv e s fro m PDS a n d MPNE
ha d b e e n v e ry in s tr u m e n ta l in g e t t i n g t h e te c h n o lo g y plan in place.
H ow ever, K en don t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d m o re re g u la r v isits o r followu p s o f Michigan S t a t e U n iversity fa c u lty m e m b e r s r e s p o n s ib le fo r
t h e v a rio u s PDS p r o je c ts a t Kendon.

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Roles

a n d In flu en c es o f T e c h n o lo g y Followers
T h e s c h o o l d is tr ic t ( e x te r n a l a a e n t ) . Regarding t h e t o p
a d m i n i s t r a t o r s , t h e s t u d y in d ic a te s t h e School D istric t w a s highly
su p p o r tiv e in w o rd s b u t slow in a c tio n s during t h e perio d b e tw e e n
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a n d 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a rs . How ever, in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 school
y e a r, t h e D is tric t's g r a n t o f 4 0 m ic ro c o m p u te r s an d e n c o u r a g e m e n t
t o t e a c h e r s ' e f f o r t s h a d a v e ry p o sitiv e im p a c t on t h e in nov atio n s.
T h e p a r tic ip a n ts f e lt t h e D istrict O ffice a n d t h e sc h o o l n e e d t o work
m o re c lo sely t o s u s ta in t h e te c h n o lo g ic a l in n o v atio n s a t K endon.
K endon p a r e n t s ( e x te r n a l a g e n t s ) B e tw e e n 1 9 8 9 - 9 2 , Kendon
p a r e n t s did n o t play a n y sig n ific an t role an d t h a t t h e y did n o t hav e
s t r o n g in flu en ce on t h e im p le m e n ta tio n . H ow ever, b e t w e e n 1 9 9 2 / 9 3
an d 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o o l y e a r s , t h o s e w h o s e rv e d on t h e School
I m p ro v e m e n t T e a m c o n s tr u c tiv e ly w o rk e d w ith K endon f a c u lty on
t h e te c h n o lo g y plan. As t h e y b e c o m e m o re involved w ith te c h n o lo g y
p r o g ra m s a n d w ith m o re b ra in s to rm in g fro m t h e s t a f f , t h e y b e g a n t o
gain m o re influence on t h e te c h n o lo g y plan.
C o m m u n ity b u s in e s s p a r t n e r s ( e x te r n a l a g e n t s ) . T h e financial
a n d p e rs o n n e l s u p p o r t s y s t e m s fro m t h e local c re d it union had, t o
s o m e e x t e n t , in fluen ced t h e te c h n o lo g y p ro g ra m . T heir s u p p o r t a n d
p a rtic ip a tio n in s o m e c la s s r o o m s e n h a n c e d s t u d e n t s ' u n d e r s ta n d in g
o f real w orld a p p lic a tio n s o f t h e s u b j e c t - m a t t e r su c h a s
m a t h e m a t i c s a p p lic a tio n s in banking. A m o n g t h e le a d e rs , b e tw e e n
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 , t h e s c h o o l principal w a s c la ssifie d a s t h e key
te c h n o lo g y lea d er. T h e s t u d y re v e a ls t h a t t h e sc h o o l principal h a s
b e e n v e ry s u p p o rtiv e , c o m m itte d , and d e d ic a t e d t o g o a ls an d n e e d s of
te c h n o lo g y in t h e lines o f t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s . She h a s alw ay s
b e e n a f o r e r u n n e r in t h e sc h o o l te c h n o lo g y e f f o r ts . S h e is a w a re an d
u n d e r s t a n d s t h e im p a c ts o f te c h n o lo g y on p r e s e n t an d fu tu r e
in s tr u c tio n a l a c tiv itie s . S h e p r o m o t e s t h e te c h n o lo g y id e a s w ith
e m p h a s is on n e e d s . All h e r a c tio n s a re being a c c o m p a n ie d w ith
e x a m p le s , m o tiv a tio n s , c o o p e r a t i o n , a n d se lf c o n fid e n c e .

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Shifting Roles o f L e a d e r s a n d F ollo w ers.
Upon t h e d e s ig n a tio n of n e tw o rk m a n a g e r s in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sch ool
y e a r, t h e k e y te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs h ip role s h if te d fro m t h e sc h o o l
principal t o t h e n e tw o rk m a n a g e rs . In a d d itio n , s o m e o f t h e t e a c h e r s
a n d u n iv e rs ity c o ll a b o r a t o r s ' in flu e n c e s s h i f t e d t o t h e n e tw o rk
m a n a g e rs . In te re stin g ly , n o t only s o m e o f t h e t e a c h e r s ' in flu e n c e s
s h if te d t o t h e tw o g r o u p s (i.e., key te c h n o lo g y le a d e rs ), b u t also t h e
ov erall beliefs, e x p e c t a t i o n s , a n d in s tr u c tio n a l ro le s c h a n g e d
d ire c tio n . T h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e rc e iv e d an in c r e a s e d s h if t o f p o sitiv e
in flu en ces fro m t h e p a s t ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 ) t o p r e s e n t ( 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 )
by all g r o u p s w ithin t h e s c h o o l s y s te m , e x c e p t t h e S chool D istrict
which s h o w e d d e c r e a s e d influence on t h e te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n . This m a y imply t h a t b o th le a d e r s a n d follow ers,
w ith t h e e x c e p tio n of L ansing School D istrict, b e g a n t o a s s u m e
s h a r e d re s p o n sib ilitie s w hich in flu e n c e d t h e g e n e r a l a d o p ti o n o f
te c h n o lo g y in t h e school. Such s h if ts s u p p o r t t h e s t a t e m e n t by Fullan
( 1 9 9 3 ) t h a t t o a c h ie v e c h a n g e in t h e c la ss ro o m , a d m in is tra tiv e ro les
a n d resp o n sib ilitie s n e e d t o s h if t a t t h e sch ool, d is tr ic t, a n d s t a t e
levels. This kind o f p e e r - m e n to r in g s y s t e m s u p p o r t s t h e a r g u m e n t by
Fullan & H a rg re a v e s ( 1 9 9 1 ) t h a t p a r tic ip a to r y o r c o lla b o ra tiv e s ite b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t is t h e a n s w e r t o t e a c h e r s ' a n x ie ty . S uch in-h ouse
s u p p o r t s y s t e m s also s u p p o r t s t h e view o f W enid a n d M a tth e w s
( 1 9 8 3 ) t h a t if te c h n o lo g y is t o work, it m u s t b e s u p p o r t e d by all
p e rs o n n e l w ithin t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m .
C h a r a c te r is ti c s sp e c ific t o K endon te c h n o lo g y le a d e r s h ip role.
T h e m a jo r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e le a d e r s id e n tifie d a s high w e re
g r o u p a s s i s t a n c e , p e rs o n a l a s s i s t a n c e , m o tiv a tio n a l s t r a t e g i e s , and
rich id e a s f o r e r u n n e r s w ith s t r o n g c o m m u n ic a tio n skills. M onitoring
s t r a t e g i e s a n d t h e role o f s o m e le a d e rs a s f r o n t - r u n n e r s w e re
id en tifie d a s low a m o n g t h e lea d ers. In a d d itio n t o t h o s e high and
low a t t r i b u t e s , t h e p a r t i c i p a n ts n o t e d t h a t t h e le a d e r s s h o w e d
c o n fid e n c e , e n th u s ia s m , e n c o u r a g e m e n t , hard work, o p e n m in d e d n e s s , and c o m m i tm e n t .

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The participants n o te d t h a t th e technology leaders e x p ec te d
m o r e t im e a n d e q u i p m e n t for t e a c h e r s t o learn a n d m a s t e r t h e
t e c h n o l o g y in o r d e r t o e f f e c t i v e l y use t h e t e c h n o l o g y t o e n h a n c e
t e a c h i n g a n d learning in t h e c la ss ro o m . Again, t h e l e a d e r s e x p e c t e d
Kendon t e a c h e r s ’ t e a m w o r k o r c o - t e a c h i n g t o b e a m o d e l for
t e c h n o l o g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s within sc h o o l s .
T h e s t u d y indic ated t h a t m o r e pe o p le g o t involved a t
d e v e l o p m e n t , i m p l e m e n ta t io n , a n d e v a l u a t i o n s t a g e s in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4
sc h o o l y e a r , t h u s a u g m e n t i n g t h e s h a r e d responsibilitie s a m o n g
t e c h n o l o g y l e a d e r s a n d followers. This w a s c o n s i s t e n t with t h e
p e r c e i v e d s h a r e d i nflue nce s o f t e c h n o l o g y l e a d e r s a n d followers. The
d y n a m i c s o f Kendon le a d e r s h ip role c o n fir m s t h e c o n d it i o n s of
d yn a m ic c o m p le x ity by S e r g e ( 1 9 9 0 ) t h a t o n e n e e d s a g o o d deal of
r e f l e c t iv e e x p e r i e n c e b e f o r e o n e c a n f o r m plausible vision; a n d t h a t
s h a r e d vision, which is e s s e n t i a l f o r s u c c e s s o f c h a n g e , m u s t e v o lv e
t h r o u g h t h e d y n a m i c i n te r a c t io n o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m e m b e r s and
leaders.
W h a t t h e P a r t ic ip a n t s Sav a b o u t Changing
P e r c e p t i o n s of E d u ca tio n a l T e c h n o l o g y
T h e e x t e n t t o which t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s p e r c e i v e d Kendon
t e a c h e r s ' beliefs, e x p e c t a t i o n s , a d o p t i o n o f t e c h n o l o g y , a n d t h e
i m p a c t s o f t e c h n o l o g y o n in s t r u c t i o n a re d i s c u s s e d in t h e following
sessions.
P e r c e i v e d T e a c h e r s ' Beliefs
T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s p e r c e p t i o n s o f Ken do n t e a c h e r s ' beliefs
s h i f t e d t h e i r l o c a ti o n s in t h e p a s t ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 - 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 ) t o relatively
high lo c a ti o n s in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h oo l y e ar. T h e y p e r c e i v e d t h a t
t e a c h e r s ' beliefs in t e c h n o l o g y m o v e d t o a new d irectio n in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4
sc h o o l y e a r a n d t h is highly a f f e c t e d t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s .
A c c o r d in g t o t h e m , t e a c h e r s ' beliefs in te c h n o lo g i c a l in n o v a t i o n s
w e r e principally b a s e d o n t h e i r prior k n o w l e d g e , e x p e r i e n c e with t h e
t e c h n o l o g y , a n d p e r s o n a l c o m m i t m e n t s . T e a c h e r s b e lieve d t h a t

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t e c h n o l o g y would b e helpful if it is u s e d t o rein fo rce b u t n o t t o
replace traditional instruction.
Perceived T e a c h e rs ' Expectations
T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t e a c h e r s e x p e c t a t i o n s of
m o r e t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t , in servic e t e c h n o l o g y train in g p r o g r a m s
b e f o r e e f f e c t i v e l y i n t e g r a t i n g t h e s e m o d e r n i n s t r u c t i o n a l t o o l s into
t h e curriculum, a n d m o r e t e a m work during t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
p r o c e s s s h i f t e d f r o m t h e i r loca tio ns in t h e p a s t ( 1 9 8 9 / 9 0
- 1 9 9 2 / 9 3 ) in a p p r o x i m a t e l y t h e s a m e d i r e c ti o n t o t h e i r l o c a ti o n s in
t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h oo l y e a r . T h e p a r t i c i p a n ts ' p e r c e i v e d t h a t t e a c h e r s
e x p e c t e d m o r e t e a m work. This finding s u p p o r t s t h e a r g u m e n t by
Fullan & H a r g r e a v e s ( 1 9 9 1 ) t h a t p a r t i c i p a t o r y o r c o l l a b o r a t i v e s ite b a s e d m a n a g e m e n t is t h e a n s w e r t o t e a c h e r s ' an x ie ty . Such in-house
s u p p o r t s y s t e m s also s u p p o r t s t h e view o f Wenid a n d M a t t h e w s
( 1 9 8 3 ) t h a t if t e c h n o l o g y is t o work, it m u s t be s u p p o r t e d by all
p e r s o n n e l within t h e sc h o o l s y s t e m . P r e s e r v ic e a n d inserv ic e
t e c h n o l o g y training, t e c h n i c a l s u p p o r t s e r v i c e s , a n d t i m e f o r
t e c h n o l o g y a c t iv i t ie s w e r e s o m e o f t h e o t h e r p e r c e i v e d
e x p e c t a t i o n s . T h e s e i s s u e s con firm t h e OTA ( 1 9 8 8 ) findings t h a t ,
s o m e ba rrie rs t o g r e a t e r u s e o f t e c h n o l o g y in o u r s c h o o l s a re mainly
a s s o c i a t e d w ith lack o f e q u i p m e n t , i n a d e q u a t e o r i n a p p r o p r i a t e
training, a n d t e a c h e r s ' a n x ie ty a b o u t new t e c h n o l o g y . O ne i m p o r t a n t
o b s e r v a t i o n w a s t i m e f a c t o r . O v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s , t i m e
c o n s t r a i n t s o r lim ita tio ns r e m a i n e d u n c h a n g e d . T im e t o learn a n d
m a s t e r t h e s e n e w t e a c h i n g t o o ls h a s a lw ays b e e n a m a j o r c o n c e r n of
t h e t e a c h e r s . S o m e t e a c h e r s e x p e c t e d a sc h oo l policy t h a t would
s t i p u l a t e t h e a s s e s s m e n t o f o r g a n i z a t i o n a l c u l t u r e o f t h e sc h o o l an d
t h e i m p a c t s o f t e c h n o l o g y on instruction.
T e a c h e r s ' A d o p t i o n of T e c h n o lo g y
T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' opinio ns a b o u t t h e e x t e n t t o which
curriculum called fo r t h e u s e of t e c h n o l o g y , t h e e x t e n t t o which
t e a c h e r s ap p lied t e c h n o l o g y in t h e c urriculu m a n d in d i f f e r e n t

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c o n t e n t a r e a s , a n d how t e a c h e r s f e l t c o m f o r t a b l e using t e c h n o l o g y
s h i f t e d in t h e p a s t t o o n e direc tion in 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc hool y e ar. The
p a r t i c i p a n t s s t a t e d t h a t t h e p a c e a t which t e a c h e r s a d o p t e d t h e
t e c h n o l o g y w a s grad u a l o r slow b u t t h a t g a v e t h e m e n o u g h t im e t o
learn a b o u t t h e t e c h n o lo g y . T h e s t u d y r e v e a le d t h a t Kendon t e a c h e r s
in g e n e r a l f o u n d it difficult initially t o a d j u s t t o t h e t e c h n o l o g y .
This w a s mainly d u e t o lack o f self c o n f i d e n c e , skills, a n d
k now ledge. D e sp ite t h e g e n e r a l i m p r o v e m e n t o f t e a c h e r s ' c o m p u t e r
c o m p e t e n c y in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc hool y e a r , t h e r e is still m o r e r o o m for
i m p r o v e m e n t in o r d e r t o e f f e c t i v e l y i n t e g r a t e t h e t e c h n o l o g y in t h e
curriculum .
I m p a c t s o f T e c h n o l o g y o n I n stru ctio n
T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t e c h n o lo g i c a l i n n o v a t i o n s a nd
quality o f in str u c tio n c h a n g e d gradua lly e a c h y e a r , f r o m 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 t o
1 9 9 2 / 9 3 sc h o o l y e a r s . T h e s e p e r c e p t i o n s s h i f t e d s h a r p ly in t h e
1 9 9 3 / 9 4 s c h o o l y e a r . T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a ls o f e l t in s t r u c t i o n would b e
highly a f f e c t e d if t h e n u m b e r o f t h e c o m p u t e r s in t h e sc h o o l a re
i n c r e a s e d o r d e c r e a s e d . In g e n e r a l all t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s w e r e
o p t im i s t ic t h a t doubling t h e n u m b e r o f c o m p u t e r s would help
t e a c h e r s t o a c c o m m o d a t e b o t h individual a n d g r o u p i nstructio n.
Ke ndon T ec h n o lo g y as a Model
T h e p a r t i c i p a n t s ' p e r c e p t i o n s o f t e c h n o l o g y a s a m odel, f ro m
1 9 8 9 / 9 0 t h r o u g h 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h oo l y e a r s , s h i f t e d in t h e d i r e c ti o n s of
t h e kind o f t e c h n o lo g ic a l c h a n g e s p e r c e i v e d in t h e s a m e sc hool
y e a r s . T he s t u d y indic ated t h a t , during t h e 1 9 8 9 / 9 0 a nd 1 9 9 2 / 9 3
sc h o ol y e a r s , Kendon t e c h n o l o g y could n o t be c o n s i d e r e d a s "Model"
for t h e f a c t t h a t t h e sc h o o l w a s n o t able t o m o v e t h e t e c h n o l o g y plan
a h e a d f a s t e n o u g h a n d also t h e c o o p e r a t i o n a m o n g t h e School
District, Michigan S t a t e University, a n d K e n do n f a c u l t y w a s v e ry
w e ak. However, in t h e 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h oo l y e a r , all t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s
n o t e d t h a t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f Kendon t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s could be
d i s s e m i n a t e d a s m o d e l s u c h a s t e a m t e a c h i n g , te c h n ic a l s u p p o r t

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s y s t e m s f r o m within t h e sc hool (i.e., n e t w o r k m a n a g e r s ) , a nd
c o m p u t e r t e a c h i n g l a b o r a t o r y facility, a plac e w h e r e b o t h s t u d e n t s
and te a c h e r s receive im m ediate a ssista n ce from knowledgeable
s u p p o rt persons.
W h a t I L e a r n e d f r o m t h e C o m p u t e r T ea ch in g L a b o r a t o r y .
During t h e c o m p u t e r l a b o r a t o r y s e s s i o n s fo u r sig nific an t
e v e n t s d r e w m y a t t e n t i o n t h a t w e r e closely o b s e r v e d fo r a period of
six m o n t h s . T h e y were: Modes o f Learning, T e a c h e r L a b o r a to r y
P r e p a r a t io n , T ec h nic al M a t te r s , a n d M a n a g e m e n t p r o b le m s.
Regarding m o d e s o f learning, individual, c o o p e r a t i v e , t e a c h e r
gu ided , a n d s t u d e n t c o n tr o l learning p r o c e s s e s w e r e c o m m o n .
S t u d e n t s in t h e u p p e r g r a d e s (i.e., 4 t h a n d 5 t h ) w o r k e d m o r e
i n d e p e n d e n t l y t h a n t h e r e s t . T h e s e s t u d e n t s h a d c o n tr o l o f t h e i r
learning. B o th individual a n d c o o p e r a t i v e learnin g skills w e r e highly
c o m m o n with 2 n d a n d 3 r d g r a d e s t u d e n t s . T h e skilled s t u d e n t s
finished t h e i r a s s i g n m e n t s in s h o r t pe riod o f t im e a n d t h e n h e lp e d
o t h e r s t u d e n t s a s p e e r c o m p u t e r a s s i s t a n t s . T h e unskilled c o m p u t e r
u s e r s a lw a y s p r e f e r r e d working in small g r o u p s o f t w o o r t h r e e . T h e
low er g r a d e s t u d e n t s (i.e., 1 s t a n d K in d e rg a r te n ) e n j o y e d working in
g r o u p s e sp ec ially with m u ltim e dia p r o g r a m (Kid Works 2). T h e s e
lower g r a d e s t u d e n t s n e e d e d m o r e g u id ed in str u c tio n f r o m t h e
te a c h e r or c o m p u te r assistants. These s tu d e n ts were more
disciplined in t h e l a b o r a t o r y t h a n t h e i r s e n i o r s in o t h e r c l a s s e s . T h e
m a j o r discipline p r o b l e m s w e r e f o u n d a m o n g t h e 2 n d a n d 3rd g r a d e
classes.
S o m e novice t e c h n o l o g y t e a c h e r s o f t e n b e c a m e f r u s t r a t e d d u e
t o m is u s e o f c e r t a i n c o m p u t e r f u n c t i o n s o r c o m m a n d s . With a s e n s e
o f e n c o u r a g e m e n t t o t h o s e t e a c h e r s , t h e principal f r e q u e n t l y c a m e
t o w ork with t h e m in t h e l a b o r a to r y a s w a y o f d isc o v er in g new
t h i n g s t o g e t h e r a b o u t t h e s e instru ctio n al tools . S o m e t e a c h e r s
p r e f e r r e d d i s c u s s i n g t h e i r t e c h n o l o g y n e e d s d i r e c tl y with t h e
n e t w o r k m a n a g e r s o r o t h e r t e a c h e r s i n s t e a d o f Michigan S t a t e
University t e c h n o l o g y s u p p o r t p e r s o n s . In g e n e r a l s o f t w a r e a n d

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h a r d w a r e w e r e o f less p r o b l e m a t i c . How ever, in su fficien t l a b o r a t o r y
tim e a llo catio n w a s a m a jo r c o n c e r n o f t h e t e a c h e r s . In ge n eral,
t e a c h e r s a n d s t u d e n t s ' l a b o r a t o r y a t t i t u d e s w e r e q u i t e positive,
d e s p i t e m in o r f r u s t r a t i o n s a n d c o n c e r n s .
R e c o m m e n d a t i o n s fo r E d u c a tio n a l P r a c t i c e
L e s s o n s l e a r n e d f r o m t h is s t u d y , in addition t o m y e d u c a ti o n a l
t e c h n o l o g y e x p e r i e n c e s in t h e United S t a t e s , e sp ec ially a t Michigan
S t a t e University a n d Kendon E le m e n t a r y PDS, Audio Visual C e n t e r of
University o f S o r b o n n e , Paris a n d p r o f e s s i o n a l e x p e r i e n c e in C o t e
d'Ivoire, Africa lead m e t o m a k e t h e following c o n c l u s i o n s a n d
recom m endations.
1.
Teacher and studen t empowerment. Co nsiderin g t h e
r e la tiv e slow p a c e o f d iffusion o f Kendon t e c h n o l o g i c a l in novations,
a n y sc h o o l s y s t e m planning t o i n t e g r a t e t e c h n o l o g y in t h e curriculum
n e e d s t o c o n s i d e r t h e a d o p ti o n o f s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a n d t e a c h e r c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h e s t o t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s . Empowering
b o t h s t u d e n t s a n d t e a c h e r s would n o t only a c c e l e r a t e t h e r a t e of
a d o p t i o n b u t m a y likely e n c o u r a g e t h e c o m b i n a t i o n o f d i s c o v e r y and
guided instructional practices.
2.
System dynamics based on shared vision. For an y
e f f e c t i v e sc h o o l a n d c o lle g e t e c h n o l o g y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n , s h a r e d
v i s i o n , p articu larly a m o n g s i t e - b a s e d p a r t i c i p a n ts , n e e d t o b e
e m p h a s i z e d t o e n s u r e s t r o n g in te rnal d y n a m i c s within t h e sc ho o l
s y s t e m . Again, a s t e c h n o l o g y is n o t s e l f - i m p le m e n t i n g a n d also
continues t o change, educational technology planners or pro p o n en ts
n e e d t o solicit t h e m u t u a l c o ll a b o r a t io n o f e x t e r n a l se r v ic e
p r o v i d e r s s u c h a s un iv ersity a n d c o m m u n i t y p a r t n e r s , sc h o ol
p a r e n t s , a n d s c h o o l d i s t r ic t s . Su c h alliance a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i v e
res p o nsib ilitie s n e e d t o b e built o n s h a r e d vision a n d e q u a l decision
making p o w e r s . T o o m u ch c o n tr o l f r o m within a n d o u t s i d e t h e sc hool

178

s y s t e m t e n d s t o c a u s e t e a c h e r s ' ( e n d - u s e r s ) r e s i s t a n c e t o a d o p ti o n
a n d / o r slow s d o w n t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n p r o c e s s .
3. Professional developm ent strategies. Many t e a c h e r s
c u r r e n t l y lack t h e n e c e s s a r y skills t o e f f e c t i v e l y a p p ly t e c h n o l o g y
in c l a s s r o o m s a n d t h e c o m p e t i n g d e m a n d s on t i m e m a k e it difficult
for t e a c h e r s t o m a s t e r t h e t e c h n o l o g y fo r c l a s s r o o m a p plicatio ns.
D e s p i t e t h e r e a llo c atio n t i m e being p r a c t i c e d in s o m e sc hools,
pa rticularly PDSs, t o h e lp t e a c h e r s i m pro ve t h e i r t e c h n o l o g y
c o m p e t e n c y , w e e x p e r i e n c e t h a t t h e r e is still r o o m f o r t e a c h e r s t o
m a s t e r t h e t o o l s f o r e f f e c t i v e a n d e f f i c i e n t i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in t h e
c l a s s r o o m s . It is, t h e r e f o r e , s u g g e s t e d t h a t School I m p r o v e m e n t
T e a m , School District, S t a t e , a n d National E du ca tion policy m a k e r s
a s well a s sc h o o l b u s i n e s s p a r t n e r s n e e d t o provide o p p o r t u n i t i e s
f o r t e a c h e r s t o p a r t i c i p a t e in t e c h n o l o g y w o r k s h o p s a n d S u m m e r
T e c h n o lo g y P ro g ra m s. Su c h training should be a c c o m p a n i e d by
m o n e t a r y a n d / o r o t h e r r e l a t e d in ce n tive s. Again, c o n s i d e r i n g t h e
relative i m p o r t a n c e o f t h is t e c h n o l o g y in o u r e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m , it
is s u g g e s t e d t h a t c o m p u t e r c o m p e t e n c y c o u r s e s n e e d t o be
i n t r o d u c e d a s p a r t o f t h e "Core C o u r se s" in all e d u c a t i o n a l
institutions t h a t p rep are s tu d e n ts for future classroom s.
4.
Building p o te n tia l trust. Schools using or a t t e m p t i n g t o
i n t r o d u c e t e c h n o l o g y n e e d t o c o n s i d e r s o m e sp ecific a s p e c t s of
Ken d on t e c h n o l o g y l e a d e r s h i p roles, particularly f o r p e d a g o g i c a l a n d
o r g a n i z a t i o n a l m a n a g e m e n t s t r a t e g i e s . T h e s e include h a r d work,
o p e n - m i n d e d n e s s , c o m m i t m e n t , rich id ea s, p e r s o n a l a s s i s t a n c e ,
g r o u p a s s i s t a n c e , p r o f e s s i o n a l a n d self c o n s c i o u s n e s s , c o n f i d e n c e ,
e n t h u s i a s m , s t r o n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n skills, a n d a c t i o n s a c c o m p a n i e d
by e x a m p l e s a n d e n c o u r a g e m e n t , a n d m o tiv a tio n a l s t r a t e g i e s .
5. Sustainability o f technological innovations. Over t h e p a s t
five y e a r s m aj o r it y o f Ken do n t e a c h e r s c o n t i n u e t o r e c e i v e t e c h n ic a l
s u p p o r t f r o m Michigan S t a t e University. T h e f e a r t h a t t h e d e p a r t u r e

179

o r w i t h d r a w a l o f Michigan S t a t e University s e r v i c e s m a y likely
b r e a k d o w n t h e te c h n o lo g i c a l i n no v atio n s s u g g e s t s t h a t m o r e
t e a c h e r s n e e d t o be t r a i n e d t o a s s u m e tec h n ic al roles. For
s u s ta i n a b i l it y of t h e i nn o vatio ns, t h e sc hool s y s t e m n e e d t o e n s u r e
t h a t t e c h n ic a l a n d p e d a g o g i c a l in novations a d v a n c e t o g e t h e r s o a s t o
e m p o w e r all c l a s s r o o m t e a c h e r s t o t a k e t o t a l c o n t r o l o f t h e
technological innovations.
S u g gestions for Further Research
1.
Each c l a s s r o o m a t Kendon has t w o c o m p u t e r s in addition
t o t h e c o m p u t e r t e a c h i n g l abo ra to ry . A f t e r o n e y e a r o f schoolwide
a d o p t i o n of t e c h n o lo g y , t h e r e is a n e e d t o c o n d u c t a for m al
e x p e r i m e n t a l o r q ua si e x p e r i m e n t a l s t u d i e s t o m e a s u r e t h e kinds of
i m p a c t s t h a t t h e t e c h n o l o g y h a s on in stru ctio n in t e r m s
e f f e c t i v e n e s s , e ffic ie n cy , a n d a p p e a l.
2.
All Kend o n p a r e n t s a n d C o m m u n i t y b u s i n e s s p a r t n e r s
h a v e e m b r a c e d t h e schoolw ide t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s. W h a t w e d o n o t
know a t Kendon is t h e e x t e n t t o which t h e s e in stru ctio nal t o o ls m a y
p r o m o t e in a n d o u t o f sc ho o l learning. Two s t u d i e s could b e
c o n d u c t e d in t h is regard.
a.
Kendon P a r e n t - T e a c h e r - S t u d e n t C o m p u t e r Club n e e d t o be
formally l a u n c h e d s o a s t o prov ide o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r p a r e n t s t o work
with t h e i r children in t h e school. My a s s u m p t i o n is t h a t , using
t e c h n o l o g y t o e n g a g e p a r e n t s in t h e i r child ren 's t y p ic al sc hool
i n s t r u c t i o n a l p r o j e c t s w o u ld p e r m i t e d u c a t i o n a l r e s e a r c h e r s t o
m e a s u r e t h e e x t e n t t o which s u c h instru ctio n al p r a c t i c e would
e n h a n c e o r m o t i v a t e s t u d e n t s ' "in a n d o u t " o f sc hool learning.
b.
A n o t h e r s t u d y could be c o n d u c t e d t o m e a s u r e t h e e x t e n t
t o which t h e a p p lic a tio n s o f t e c h n o l o g y in p r o j e c t s s u c h a s KendonCASE C r e d it Union P a r t n e r s h i p could c o n t r i b u t e t o s t u d e n t s '
u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f real world p r o b l e m solving. In c o n n e c t i o n with th is
inquiry, it would b e i m p o r t a n t t o m e a s u r e t h e e f f e c t s o f s t u d e n t t e c h n o l o o v ( d i s c o v e r y ) a n d t e a c h e r - t e c h n o l o g y - s t u d e n t (g uided)
in terac tiv e p r o c e s s e s on instruction.

180

T h e f i r s t a d o p t i o n o f tec h n o lo g i c a l in n o v a t i o n s w a s b a s e d on
t h e p e r s o n a l decision, v o l u n te e r i s m , a n d e n t h u s i a s m , i.e., t h e first
a d o p t i o n w a s a m o d e s t " b o t t o m - u p " s t a r t which w a s well publicized
within t h e s c h o o l . _ T h e e arly t e c h n o l o g y a d o p t i o n p r o c e s s a t Kendon
w a s "idea sh a ring " s t r a t e g y a m o n g p e e r s . T e a m t e a c h i n g a n d small
g r o u p writing p r o j e c t s p r a c t i c e d by t h e early a d o p t e r s s t a r t e d t o
s h i f t t h e "individual" t o " g r o u p " instructio n al p r o c e s s e s in s o m e
classro om s.
T h e p a c e o f t e a c h e r s ' a d o p t i o n of te c h n o lo g i c a l in no v ation s
w a s v e ry slow d u e t o limited e q u i p m e n t , t e a c h e r ' s lack of e x p e r t i s e
in t e c h n o l o g y , a n d s t u d e n t - c e n t e r e d a p p r o a c h t o t h e i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
p r o c e s s . T h e s u s ta i n a b i l it y o f t h e in n o v a t i o n s during t h is f i r s t p h a s e
w a s a m a j o r p rob lem .
E m p h asis p l a c e d on s t a f f d e v e l o p m e n t a n d t e c h n ic a l s u p p o r t
stra te g ie s, th e shift from s tu d e n t- c e n te r e d to te a c h e r - c e n te r e d
a p p r o a c h , a n d t h e 4 0 c o m p u t e r s a nd n e tw o rk m a n a g e m e n t in-service
t rain in g o f f e r e d b y t h e School District during 1 9 9 3 / 9 4 sc h o ol y e a r
w e r e g r e e t e d with m o r e t e a c h e r p a rtic ip a tio n in t e c h n o l o g y
p r o g r a m s a n d a ctiv itie s. This m a s s p a rtic ip a tio n a n d t h e " b o t t o m up" a p p r o a c h a d o p t e d in t h e sc ho o l w e r e c le a r e v i d e n c e o f
s u s t a i n a b i l i t y o f t e c h n o l o g y a p p li c a t i o n s in t h e curriculum.

APPEND ICES

APPENDIX

A

SELF-ADMINISTERED SURVEY & STRUCTURED INTERVIEW
(PARENT & BUSINESS QUESTIONNAIRE)

A.

S ystem

V e r y High
H igh
M oderate
Low
Very
Low
None

Influence
(VH)
(H)
(M)
(L)
(VL)
(N)

=
=
=
=
=
=

&

L eadership

5
4
3
2
1
0

Q u e s t i o n 1:
Over t h e fo u r sc h oo l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , w h a t did you
s e e a s t h e d e g r e e o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e following individuals a n d
g r o u p o f individuals on Ken do n t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s ?
VH
M
H
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
i. Lansing S c h o o l District
ii. Uni versity T e c h n o l o g y
Personnel
iii. P a r t n e r s h i p ( B u s i n e s s )
iv. P a r e n t s
v. Principal
vi. School N e t w o r k M a n a g e r
vi. T e a c h e r s

5
5

4
4

3
3

2
2

1
1

0
0

5
5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0
0

181

182

Please, on t h e n e x t p a g e explain e a c h o f y o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

Lansin g School District:
U n iv e rsity T e c h n o l o g y P e r s o n n e l
Partnersh ip (Business)
P arents
P rincipal
School N e tw o r k M a n a g e r s
Teachers

Q uestion 2
During th is c u r r e n t y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , w h a t d o y ou s e e a s t h e
d e g r e e o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e following individuals a n d g r o u p of
individuals o n Ken d on t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s ?
M
VL
VH
H
L
1
5
4
3
2
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
i. Lan sin g S chool District
ii. University T e c h n o l o g y
Personnel
iii. P a r t n e r s h i p ( B u s i n e s s )
iv. P a r e n t s
v. Principal
vi. School N e tw o rk M a n ag e r
vii. T e a c h e r s

5
5

4
4

3
3

2
2

1
1

0
0

5
5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1
1

0
0

P le a s e , e xp la in e a c h o f y o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail.
1.
ii.
iii.
iv.
V.

vi.
vii.

N
0

L an sin g S c ho o l District:
U niv e rs ity T e c h n o l o g y P e r s o n n e l
P artnership (Business)
P arents
Principal
Scho ol N e t w o r k M a n a g e r s
T eachers

0
0

183

B.

Personal

Role

& Curriculum

Dem ands

Q u e s t i o n 3.
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o ol y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t
e x t e n t did you play a r o l e in Kendon t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s during the:
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
i. Planning s t a g e
ii. D e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e
iii. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e
iv. Evaluation s t a g e

5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1

N
0

0
0
0
0

P le as e, expla in e a c h o f v o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Planning s t a g e
Developm ent sta g e
Im plem entation s ta g e
E v alu atio n s t a g e

Q u e s t i o n 4.
During t h is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you play a
r o l e in Kendon t e c h n o l o g y program s:

i. Planning s t a g e
ii. D e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e
iii. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e
iv. Evaluation s t a g e

VH
H
M
L
VL
1
5
4
3
2
(Please, c h e c k o n e only)

N
0

5
5
5
5

0
0
0
0

4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1

184

P le as e, expla in e a c h of y o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Planning s t a g e
Developm ent sta g e
Im plem entation s ta g e
E v aluatio n s t a g e

Q u e s t i o n 5.
Over t h e fo u r sc ho o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e a c h e r s ' b e l i e f s a b o u t t e c h n o l o g y a f f e c t t e c h n o l o g y
i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in t h e c l a s s r o o m ?
VH H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
P le as e, explain s o m e sp e c if ic b e lie f s in m o r e de ta il.

Question 6
During t h is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t e a c h e r s '
b e l i e f s a b o u t t e c h n o l o g y a f f e c t t e c h n o l o g y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in t h e
c l a s s r o o m a n d in t h e c o m p u t e r l a b o r a t o r y ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
P lease, explain s o m e sp e cific beliefs in m o r e d e ta il.

Q u e s t i o n 7.
O ve r t h e f o u r sc ho ol y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t h e sc h oo l c u r r i c u l u m call fo r t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(Please, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain your answer in more detail.

N
0

185

Q u e s t i o n 8.
During th is sc h o ol y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o e s t h e
sc h o o l c u r r i c u l u m call fo r t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s ?
VH H
M
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(Please, c h e c k o n e only)

N
0

Ple ase, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e de ta il.

C.

C onstraints,

in cen tiv es

&

E xpectatio n s

Q u e s t i o n 9.
Over t h e fo u r sc h o ol y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t
e x t e n t did t e a c h e r s e x p e c t t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t o f t h e i r ow n
uses of com puters?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain t h e kind o f e x p e c t a t i o n s in m o r e detail.
Q u e s t i o n 10.
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t e a c h e r s
e x p e c t t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t o f t h e i r ow n u s e s of c o m p u t e r s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
P lease, explain t h e kind o f e x p e c t a t i o n s in m o r e detail.

N
0

186

Q u e stio n 11.
O ve r t h e f o u r sc h oo l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e a c h e r s p e r c e i v e p o s i t i v e
i n f l u e n c e s ( i n c e n ti v e s ) o n Kendon
technology im plem entation?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Please, c hec k o n e only)
Ple ase, explain w h a t t h e in f lu e n c e s w e r e in m o r e detail.

Q u e s t i o n 12.
O ve r t h e f o u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e a c h e r s p e r c e i v e n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s ( c o n s t r a i n t s ) on Kendon
technology im plem entation?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
Ple ase, explain w h a t t h e in f lu e n c e s w e r e in m o r e detail.
Q u e s t i o n 13
During t h is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t e a c h e r s
p e r c e i v e p o s i t i v e i n f l u e n c e s ( i n c e n t i v e s ) on Kendon t e c h n o lo g y
im plem entation?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
Ple ase, explain w h a t t h e in f lu e n c e s a re in m o r e deta il.

187

Q u e s t i o n 14
During t h is sc ho o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t e a c h e r s
p e r c e i v e n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s ( c o n s t r a i n t s ) on Kendon te c h n o lo g y
im plem entation?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
( Please, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain w h a t t h e i nflue nce s a re in m o r e detail.

D.

P reserv ice

&

Inservice

T ech n o lo g y

T raining

Q u e stio n 1 5.
Over t h e f o u r sc hool y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e a c h e r s ' p r e s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g in t e c h n o l o g y , if a ny, a f f e c t
t h e i r tech n o lo g y uses for instruction?
VH
H
N
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

Nl
0

P le as e, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e de ta il.

Q u e s t i o n 16.
During t h is sc ho o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t is t e a c h e r s '
p r e s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g in t e c h n o l o g y , if any, a f f e c t i n g t h e i r
tec h n o lo g y u se s for instruction?
VH H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain your answer in more detail.

188

Q u e stio n 17.
Over t h e f o u r sc ho o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e a c h e r s ' i n s e r v i c e
t r a i n i n g in te c h n o lo g y , if any, a f f e c t t h e i r
tech n o lo g y u se s for instruction?
VH
H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Please, c hec k o n e only)
Please, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e deta il.

Q u e s t i o n 1 8.
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t is t e a c h e r s '
in serv ice
t r a i n i n g in t e c h n o lo g y , if any, a f f e c t i n g t h e i r
tec h n o lo g y u se s for instruction?
VH
H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

P lease, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e detail.

E.

T im e

F acto r

Q u e s t i o n 19.
O ve r t h e f o u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did c o m p e t i n g d e m a n d s o n t i m e m a k e it difficult f o r t e a c h e r s
t e c h n o l o g y a s s i g n m e n t s a t Kendon?
VH
H
N
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain your answer in more detail.

Nl
0

189

Q uestion 20 .
During this sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t a r e c o m p e t i n g
d e m a n d s o n t i m e m ak in g it difficult f o r t e a c h e r s ' t e c h n o l o g y
a s s i g n m e n t s a t K e ndon?
VH H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e detail.

F.

P ercep tio n s

Q u e stio n 21.
Ove r t h e fo u r sc h o ol y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did you s e e t e c h n o l o g y a p p l i c a t i o n s in t h e c l a s s r o o m s ?
VH
5

H
M
L
VL
N
4
3
2
1
0
(Please, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e detail.

Question 22 .
During this sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you s e e
t e c h n o l o g y a p p l i c a t i o n s in t h e c l a s s r o o m s a n d in t h e c o m p u t e r
laboratory?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Please, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain your answer in more detail

190

Question 23
O ve r t h e f o u r sc hool y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e a c h e r s i n t e g r a t e t e c h n o l o g y into c o n t e n t ( s u b j e c t - m a t t e r )
areas?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

Ple ase, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e deta il

Q u e stio n 2 4
During t h is sc h o ol y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t e a c h e r s
i n t e g r a t e t e c h n o l o g y into c o n t e n t ( s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ) a r e a s ?
VH
5

H
M
L
VL
N
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

Ple ase, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e d e ta il

Question 25
O ve r t h e f o u r sc hool y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e a c h e r s feel m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e using c o m p u t e r s t o t e a c h t h e
s u b j e c t a r e a in which s h e / h e m a j o r s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain your answer in more detail

191

Question 26
During this sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o t e a c h e r s
f e e l m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e using c o m p u t e r s t o t e a c h t h e s u b j e c t a re a
in which s h e / h e m a j o r s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

P lease, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e deta il

Question 27
O ve r t h e f o u r sc h oo l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t e c h n o l o g y influence t e a c h e r s ' t e a m o r c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k ?
VH
5

H
M
L
VL
N
4
3
2
1
0
(Please, c h e c k o n e only)

P le as e, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e deta il

Question 28
During t h is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o e s t e c h n o l o g y
influ e nce t e a c h e r s ' t e a m o r c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k ?
VH
5

H
M
L
VL
N
4
3
2
1
0
(Please, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain your answer in more detail

192

Q u e stio n 2 9.
Over t h e fo u r sc ho o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did you p e r c e i v e c h a n g e s in i n s t r u c t i o n a l q u a li t y o v e r t i m e
t h r o u g h t e c h n o l o g y a p p li c a t io n s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

1989-1990
1990-1991
1991-1992
1992-1993

5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0

P le a s e , exolain e a c h of v o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail
1989-1990
i.
1990-1991
ii.
1991-1992
v.
1992-1993

Q u e s t i o n 30 .
During th is school y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you p e rc e i v e
c h a n g e s in i n s t r u c t i o n a l q u a li t y t h r o u g h t e c h n o l o g y a p p l i c a t i o n s ?
VF
F
N
S
VS
5
4
3
2
1
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

P lease, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e detail.

NC
0

193

Q u e s t i o n 31 .
Over t h e f o u r sc h o ol y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did yo u c o n s i d e r Ke ndon T e c h n o lo g y Plan a s a m o d e l for t h e u s e of
t e c h n o l o g y in s c h o o l s ?
VH
5

H
M
L
VL
N
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e deta il

Q u e s t i o n 32 .
During t h is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you c o n s i d e r
Kendon T e c h n o lo g y Plan a s a m o d e l fo r t h e u se o f t e c h n o l o g y in
schools?
VF
F
N
S
VS
NC
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)

P le as e, expla in y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e d e ta il

Q u e stio n 3 3 .
To w h a t e x t e n t would in str u c tio n b e a f f e c t e d a t Ken d on if Lansing
School District d e c i d e s t o w i t h d r a w half o f t h e c o m p u t e r s f r o m t h e
classro o m s and th e laboratory?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
( Please, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain your answer in more detail.

194

Q u e s t i o n 34 .
To w h a t e x t e n t wou ld in str u c tio n b e a f f e c t e d a t Kendon if Lansing
School District d e c i d e s t o d o u b l e ( o r a d d m o r e ) t h e n u m b e r of
c o m p u t e r s in t h e c l a s s r o o m s a n d t h e c o m p u t e r l a b o r a to r y ?
VH
5

H
N
L
VL
Nl
4
3
2
1
(Please, c hec k o n e only)

P le a s e , expla in y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e deta il.
Q uestion

N um ber:

(Please, c h ec k o n e only)
Staff, Parent, Partnership

S tatu s:

School

Im provem ent

THANK

T eam /C ore

YOU

FOR

Team :

YOUR

Member____
Non Member.

P A R T IC IP A T IO N

195

APPENDIX

B

SELF-ADMINISTERED SURVEY & STRUCTURED
TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE

A.

S ystem

V e r y High
H igh
M oderate
Low
V ery Low
None

Influence

&

INTERVIEW

L eadership

(VH) = 5
(H ) = 4
(M) = 3

(L)

- 2

(VL) = 1
(N )
= 0

Q u e s t i o n 1:
O ve r t h e fo u r sc ho o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , w h a t did you
s e e a s t h e d e g r e e o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e following individuals a n d
g r o u p o f individuals on Kend on t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
i. Lansin g Sch oo l District
ii. University T e c h n o l o g y
Personnel
iii. P a r t n e r s h i p ( B u s i n e s s
iv. P a r e n t s
v. Principal
vi. School N e t w o r k M a n ag e rs
vii. T e a c h e r s

N
0

5
5

4
4

3
3

2
2

1
1

0
0

5
5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0
0

196

P lease, expla in e a c h of y o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail.
1.
i i.
iii.
iv.
V.

vi.
vii.

Lan sin g S chool District:
U n ivers ity T e c h n o l o g y P e r s o n n e l
P artnership (Business)
Parents
Principal
School N e tw o rk M a n ag e rs
Teachers

Q u e stio n 2
During this sc ho o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , w h a t d o vou s e e a s t h e d e g r e e
o f i n f l u e n c e o f t h e following individuals a n d g r o u p o f individuals
on Kendon t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
2
1
3
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
i. Lansing Scho o l District
ii. University T e c h n o l o g y
Personnel
iii. P a r t n e r s h i p ( B u s i n e s s )
iv. P a r e n t s
v. Principal
vi. School N e tw o rk M a n ag e r
vi. T e a c h e r s

5
5

4
4

3
3

2
2

1
1

0
0

5
5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0
0

P le as e, expla in e a c h o f y o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
vi.
vii.

N
0

Lan sin g S chool District:
U n ivers ity T e c h n o l o g y P e r s o n n e l
Partnersh ip (Business)
P arents
Principal
School N e tw o r k M a n a g e r s
T eachers

197

B.

Personal

R ole

& C urriculum

Dem ands

Q u e s t i o n 3.
O v e r t h e four sc h oo l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t
e x t e n t did you play a r o l e in Kendon t e c h n o l o g y p r o g r a m s during the:
VH
H
M
L VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h ec k o n e only)
i. Planning s t a g e
ii. D e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e
iii. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e
iv. E valuation s t a g e

5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3

2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0

P l e a s e . exDlain e a c h o f v o u r a n s w e r s in m o re detail.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Planning s t a g e
Developm ent sta g e
Im plem entation s t a g e
E valu ation s t a g e

Q u e s t i o n 4.
During t h is school y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you play a
r o l e in Kendon t e c h n o l o g y p ro g ram s:
N
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
2
1
0
3
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
i. Planning s t a g e
ii. D e v e l o p m e n t s t a g e
iii. I m p l e m e n t a t i o n s t a g e
iv. E valuation s t a g e

5
5
5
5

4
4
4
4

3
3
3
3

P l e a s e , expla in e a c h o f y o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e detail.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

Planning s t a g e
Development s ta g e
Im plem entation s ta g e
E valu ation s t a g e

2
2
2
2

1
1
1
1

0
0
0
0

198

Q u e stio n 5.
O ve r t h e f o u r sc hool y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did y o u r b e l i e f s a b o u t t e c h n o l o g y a f f e c t t e c h n o l o g y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n
in t h e c l a s s r o o m ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
( Please, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain s o m e sp e cific be liefs in m o r e detail.

Question 6
During this sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o y o u r
b e l i e f s a b o u t t e c h n o l o g y a f f e c t t e c h n o l o g y i m p l e m e n t a t i o n in t h e
c l a s s r o o m a n d in t h e c o m p u t e r l a b o r a t o r y ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
P le as e, explain s o m e s p e c i f i c be liefs in m o r e de ta il.

Q u e s t i o n 7.
O v e r t h e fo u r sc h oo l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did t h e sc h o o l c u r r i c u l u m call f o r t h e u s e o f c o m p u t e r s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(Pleas e, c h e c k o n e only)
Ple as e, expla in y o u r a n s w e r in m o r e detail.

199

Q u e stio n 8.
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o e s t h e
sc h o o l c u r r i c u l u m call fo r t h e u se o f c o m p u t e r s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il.

C.

C o n stra in ts,

in c e n tiv e s.

&

E x p e c ta tio n s

Q u e stio n 9.
O v er t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t
e x t e n t did y o u e x p e c t t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t o f y o u r ow n u s e s of
c o m p u ters?
VH H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, explain t h e kind o f e x p e c t a t i o n s in m o re d e ta il.

Q u e stio n 10.
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o y o u e x p e c t
t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p p o r t o f y o u r ow n u s e s o f c o m p u t e r s ?
VH H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain the kind of expectations in more detail.

2 00

Q u e stio n 11.
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did y o u p e rc e iv e p o s i t i v e
i n f l u e n c e s (in c e n tiv e s ) on Kendon
t e c h n o l o g y im p l e m e n ta t io n ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P le a s e , ex p lain w h a t t h e in flu e n c e s w e re in m o re d e ta il.

Q u e stio n 1 2.
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did you p e rc e iv e n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s ( c o n s t r a i n ts ) on Kendon
t e c h n o l o g y i m p l e m e n ta t io n ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P le a se , exp lain w h a t t h e in flu e n c e s w e re in m o re d etail.

Q u e stio n 1 3
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you
p e rc e iv e p o s i t i v e
i n f l u e n c e s ( i n c e n ti v e s ) on K endon te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain what the influences are in more detail.

Question 14

N
0

201

During th is sch ool y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you
p e rc e iv e n e g a t i v e i n f l u e n c e s ( c o n s t r a i n t s ) on Kendon te c h n o lo g y
im p le m e n ta tio n ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P lease, explain w h a t t h e in flu e n c e s a re in m o re d e ta il.

D.

P re se rv ic e

&

In se rv ic e

T e c h n o lo g y

T ra in in g

Q u e stio n 1 5.
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did y o u r p r e s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g in te c h n o lo g y , if any, a f f e c t y o u r
t e c h n o lo g y u s e s f o r in s tr u c tio n ?
VH
H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, ex plain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il.

Q u e stio n 16.
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t is y o u r
p r e s e r v i c e t r a i n i n g in te c h n o lo g y , if any, a ff e c tin g y o u r
t e c h n o lo g y u s e s fo r in s tr u c tio n ?
VH H
N
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain your answer in more detail.

Question 17.

Nl
0

202

O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did y o u r i n s e r v i c e
t r a i n i n g in te c h n o lo g y , if any, a f f e c t y o u r
t e c h n o lo g y u s e s f o r in s tr u c tio n ?
VH
H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, ex plain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il.

Q u e stio n 1 8.
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t is y o u r
in se rv ic e
t r a i n i n g in te c h n o lo g y , if any, a ff e c tin g y o u r te c h n o lo g y
u s e s fo r in stru ctio n ?
VH
H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, ex plain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il.

E.

T im e

F a c to r

Q u e stio n 19.
O v e r t h e f o u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did c o m p e tin g d e m a n d s o n t i m e m a k e it d iffic u lt f o r y o u r
te c h n o lo g y a s s i g n m e n t s a t K endon?
VH
H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain your answer in more detail.

203

Q u e stio n 2 0 .
During th is scho ol y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t a re c o m p e tin g
d e m a n d s o n t i m e m aking it d ifficu lt fo r y o u r te c h n o lo g y
a s s i g n m e n t s a t K endon?
VH
H
N
L
VL
Nl
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d etail.

F.
P e rc e p tio n s
Q u e stio n 21 .
O ver t h e fo u r sch ool y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did you s e e t e c h n o l o g y a p p l i c a t i o n s in t h e c la s s ro o m s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)

N
0

P le ase, ex plain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il.

Q u e stio n 2 2 .
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you s e e
t e c h n o l o g y a p p l i c a t i o n s in t h e c la s s ro o m s a n d in t h e c o m p u t e r
la b o ra to ry ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain your answer in more detail

20 4

Q u e stio n 2 3
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did yo u i n t e g r a t e t e c h n o lo g y into c o n t e n t ( s u b j e c t - m a t t e r )
areas?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P le a se , exp lain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il

Q u e stio n 2 4
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you
in t e g r a t e te c h n o lo g y in to c o n t e n t ( s u b j e c t - m a t t e r ) a r e a s ?
VH
5

H
M
L
VL
N
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)

P le ase, exp lain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il

Q u e stio n 2 5
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did y o u fee l m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e using c o m p u t e r s t o t e a c h t h e
s u b j e c t a r e a in w hich y o u m ajo r?
VH H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain your answer in more detail

205

Q u e stio n 2 6
During th is schoo l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you fee l
m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e using c o m p u t e r s t o t e a c h t h e s u b j e c t a re a in
w hich y o u m ajo r?
VH H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, exp lain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il

Q u e stio n 2 7
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did te c h n o lo g y in flu en ce t e a c h e r s ' t e a m o r c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
P le a s e , exp lain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il

Q u e stio n 2 8
During th is s c h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o e s te c h n o lo g y
in flu e n c e t e a c h e r s ' t e a m o r c o l l a b o r a t i v e w o r k ?
VH
5

H
M
L
VL
N
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain your answer in more detail

206

Q u e stio n 2 9 .
O ver t h e fo u r sc h o o l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did vou p e rc e iv e c h a n g e s in in s tru c tio n a l q u a lity o v e r t i m e
th r o u g h t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.

1989 -1 9 9 0
1
0
1 990-1991
1
0
1 9 9 1 -1 9 9 2
1
0
1 9 9 2 -1 9 9 3
1
0

5

4

3

2

5

4

3

2

5

4

3

2

5

4

3

2

P le a s e . exDlain e a c h of v o u r a n s w e r s in m o r e d e ta il
i.
1989 -1 9 9 0
ii.

1 990-1991

iii.

1991-1 9 9 2

iv.

1 9 9 2 -1 9 9 3

Q u e stio n 3 0 .
During th is sc h o o l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you p e rc e iv
c h a n g e s in in s tr u c tio n a l q u a lity th r o u g h t e c h n o lo g y a p p lic a tio n s ?
VF
F
N
S
VS
5
4
3
2
1
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
Please, explain your answer in more detail.

NC
0

207

Q u e stio n 3 1 .
O ver t h e fo u r schoo l y e a r s ( 1 9 8 9 / 1 9 9 0 - 1 9 9 2 / 1 9 9 3 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t
did you c o n s id e r Kendon T e c h n o lo g y Plan a s a m o d e l fo r th e u se of
te c h n o lo g y in s c h o o ls ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)
P le ase, exp lain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il

Q u e stio n 3 2 .
During th is schoo l y e a r ( 1 9 9 3 - 1 9 9 4 ) , t o w h a t e x t e n t d o you c o n s id e r
Kendon T e c h n o lo g y Plan a s a m o d e l fo r t h e u se o f te c h n o lo g y in
sc h o o ls?
VF
F
N
S
VS
NC
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h ec k o n e only)
P le a s e , ex p lain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il

Q u e stio n 3 3 .
T o w h a t e x t e n t w ould in stru c tio n b e a f f e c t e d a t K endon if Lansing
School D istrict d e c i d e s t o w i t h d r a w half o f t h e c o m p u t e r s fro m t h e
c la s s r o o m s a n d t h e la b o r a to r y ?
VH
H
M
L
VL
N
5
4
3
2
1
0
(P lease, c h e c k o n e only)

Please, explain your answer in more detail.

208

Q u e stio n 3 4 .
To w h a t e x t e n t w ould in stru c tio n be a f f e c t e d a t K endon if Lansing
School D istric t d e c i d e s t o d o u b l e ( o r a d d m o r e ) t h e n u m b e r of
c o m p u t e r s in t h e c la s s ro o m s an d t h e c o m p u t e r la b o ra to ry ?
VH
H
N
L
VL
5
4
3
2
1
(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)

Nl
0

P lease, explain y o u r a n s w e r in m o re d e ta il.

(P le ase, c h e c k o n e only)
QUESTION
School

NUMBER:

Im prov em en t

THANK

S t a t u s : T e a c h e r , P a re n t, P a rtn e r s h ip
T e a m /C o re

YOU

FOR

Team :

YOUR

M em ber____
Non M em ber_____

PA R T IC IP A T IO N

209

APPENDIX

C

Formative Evaluation
March 25, 1994
Dear Colleague,
In an effort to better serve the instructional and personal needs of our
teach ers and students through com puter applications, the Kendon
Technology Group requests your strong participation in this "Mini Survey".
Please, feel free to let us know your perceptions, needs, expectations, and
recom m endations concerning the com puter applications, training, and
m anagem ent. This is a cooperative, "Kendon Family", effort and your input
is indispensable.
1.

Your comm ents on the current software in the Computer Teaching
Lab and in the classroom s?

2.

In what disciplines (e.g., Math, Social studies, science, etc.,) do you
need more software or technology support?
Your suggestions of specific software applications preferred:

3.

Besides your competency in computers, what other technology help
or training do you need (e.g., Software for data analysis and
HyperCard)?

4.

What type of training and services do you expect from the network
m anagers?

5.

What motivations do you anticipate from the administration or the
principal with regard to the current u ses of com puters at Kendon?

21 0

APPENDIX D

COORDINATES

FOR

FIGURE I

VARPAS/PRE

AXE1

AXE2

AXE3

LSDPAS
MSUPAS
BUSPAS
PARPAS
PRPPAS
NWMPAS
TEAPAS
LSDPRE
MSUPRE
BUSPRE
PARPRE
PRPPRE
NWMPRE
TEAPRE

0.630
-0 .2 0 0
1.080
1.330
-0 .7 4 0
0.330
-0 .5 1 0
0.350
-0 .5 2 0
0.760
0.410
-0 .7 3 0
-0 .9 8 0
-1 .2 2 0
Vertical

0.430
-0 .5 2 0
-0 .3 8 0
0.530
0.160
-1 .1 1 0
0.150
0.370
0.020
-0 .1 4 0
0.440
-0 .1 5 0
-0 .7 3 0
0.930

-0 .3 2 0
0.030
-0 .4 1 0
-0 .0 7 0
-0 .2 3 0
-0 .3 4 0
-0 .3 9 0
0.220
0.480
0.460
0.470
0.440
0.060
-0 .4 0 0

Left
Horizc

I l l

A pp
£ND ix

V IS V

t».

212

APPENDIX

F

COORDINATES FOR FIGURES II. IVA. & IVB
EIGUBEJ1
VARPAS/PRE
PLANPAS
DEVPPAS
IMPLPAS
EVALPAS
PLANPRE
DEVPPRE
IMPLPRE
EVALPRE
POSIPAS
NEGIPAS
POSIPRE
NEGIPRE

BELPAS
BELPRE
CRDPAS
CRDPRE
TESPAS
TESPRE
ITRPAS
ITRPRE
TMEPAS
7MEPRE
TAPPAS
TAPPRE
COAPAS
COAPRE
CMFPAS
CMFPRE
TWKPAS
TWKPRE

AXE1
1.120
1.040
0.980
0.810
0.900
1.160
0.850
0.990
- 0 .1 1 0
0.380
- 0 .9 4 0
0.020

AXE2
- 0 .3 0 0
- 0 .4 0 0
- 0 .5 9 0
- 0 .7 3 0
- 0 .5 6 0
- 0 .5 7 0
- 0 .7 1 0
- 0 .5 9 0
0.430
0.290
0.420
0.300

-0 .0 4 0
-0 .3 4 0
0.310
-0 .6 9 0
-0 .0 1 0
-1 .1 9 0
0.190
-0 .7 7 0
-0 .7 4 0
-0 .9 8 0
0.530
-0 .9 2 0
0.410
-0 .6 7 0
0.500
-0 .8 8 0
0.480
-0 .6 5 0

FIGURE- IVA
-1 .0 0 0
-0 .5 7 0
0.330
0.140
-0 .0 9 0
-0 .4 5 0
0.490
0.070
-0 .9 1 0
-0 .6 5 0
0.230
0.120
0.330
0.550
0.360
0.010
0.600
0.040

Vertical

Left
Horizontal

AXE3
0.020
0.210
0.320
0.320
- 0 .1 5 0
- 0 .3 2 0
0.170
- 0 .3 4 0
- 0 .1 6 0
0.720
-0 .5 2 0
0.800

-0 .1 5 0
-0 .9 1 0
-0 .5 5 0
-0 .9 9 0
-0 .2 8 0
-0 .1 5 0
0.020
0.370
0.550
0.830
-0 .1 4 0
-0 .1 4 0
0.420
-0 .2 6 0
0.400
0.190
-0 .5 6 0
0.250
Right
Horizor

213

APPENDIX F

FIGURE 1V-B
VARPAS/EBE
C -90
C-91
C -92
C -93
C -94
KTMPAS
KTMPRE
WDR
DBL

AXE1,
1.160
0.770
0.420
0.310
-0 .9 5 0
-0 .0 3 0
-0 .9 1 0
-0 .6 7 0
-1 .2 2 0

AXE2
0.880
0.710
0.620
0.430
0.250
0.640
0.440
-0 .4 3 0
-0 .6 7 0

AXE3
0.300
0.050
-0 .1 3 0
-0 .2 8 0
0.130
0.140
0.860
-0 .4 2 0
-0 .1 1 0

Vertical

Left
H orizontal

Right
Horizontal

214

APPENDIX G

Figure III.

Full p lo t r e p r e s e n ti n g t h e a t t r i b u t e s o f le a d e rs h ip roles.

1

0

1

2

o

o

APPENDIX H
C O O R D IN A TES FO R FIG U R E S IIIA. II1B. & MIC

FIGURE.,IIIA
VARPAS/PRE
RIDEAS
RMOTIVAT
RMONITOR
RLEAD
RGRASS
RPSASS

AXE1.
-0 .4 5 0
-0 .3 8 0
-2 .6 3 0
-1 .3 3 0
0.170
-0 .5 3 0

'

AXE2
-0 .7 6 0
-0 .2 7 0
-0 .0 8 0
-0 .0 5 0
0.070
-0 .4 2 0

AXES
-0 .2 0 0
-0 .0 8 0
-0 .3 4 0
0.240
-0 .2 3 0
-0 .4 2 0

FIGURE HIB
VARPAS/PRE
BUSEFUL
BSELFCON
BSUPSYST
BSTDEVPT
BENTHUSI
BEXPERI
BENCRGMT
BRESIST
BTIMEDIF

YAB1.
0.470
-0 .6 2 0
0.360
0.400
0.470
0.360
0.470
0.410
0.920

.VAR2
0.050
-0 .0 2 0
-0 .3 5 0
0.060
0.050
-0 .3 5 0
- 0 .0 5 0
-1 .4 4 0
-0 .6 0 0

VAR3
0.250
0.920
0.400
0.160
0.250
0.400
0.250
-0 .9 4 0
0.440

FIGUBE.1HC
VARPAS/PRE
EGRWORK
B<N0WLE
B/IORET1M
EHAWARE
ESOWARE
CHTIMGT
CHSTDINT
CHTES7YL
KENMODEL
WDRCOMP
DUBOOMP

VAB1
-0 .4 3 0
0.150
0.680
0.650
0.760
0.070
0.130
0.130
-0 .3 7 0
0.060
0.100

VAR2
0.090
0.420
-0 .1 9 0
0.380
0.260
1.620
0.420
0.420
0.580
0.050
0.030

VAR3
-0 .0 1 0
0.380
0.210
-0 .6 5 0
-1 .0 1 0
-0 .5 7 0
0.060
0.060
0.130
-0 .0 8 0
0.370

Vertical

Left
Horizontal

Right
Horizontal

216

APPENDIX

I

DESCRIPTION OF ACRONYMS & THEMES

QUESTIONNAIRE ( SELF-ADMINISTERED SURVEY
AND PERSONAL INTERVIEWS
S e c tio n

A

Q u e s tio n s 1 & 2
LSDPAS:
L ansing S ch ool D is tric t's P a s t T e c h n o lo g y In v o lv e m e n t
LSDPRE:
L ansing S cho ol D is tric t's P r e s e n t T e c h n o lo g y
In v o lv em en t
UNIPAS:
U niv ersity C o lla b o r a to r s ' P a s t T e c h n o lo g y In v o lv e m e n t
UNIPRE:
U n iv e rsity C o lla b o r a to r s ' P r e s e n t T e c h n o lo g y
In v o lv em en t
BUSPAS:
C o m m u n ity B u sin e ss P a r tn e r s P a s t T e c h n o lo g y
In v o lv em en t
BUSPRE:
C o m m u n ity B usiness P a r tn e r s ' P r e s e n t T e c h n o lo g y
In v o lv em en t
PARPAS:
K endon P a r e n ts ' P a s t T e c h n o lo g y In v o lv em en t
PARPRE:
K endon P a r e n ts ' P r e s e n t T e c h n o lo g y In v o lv em en t
PRPPAS:
K end on School Principal's P a s t T e c h n o lo g y
In v o lv em en t
PRPPRE:
K endon School Principal's P r e s e n t T e c h n o lo g y
In v o lv em en t
NWMPAS:
N etw ork M an ag ers' P a s t T e c h n o lo g y In v o lv em en t
NWMPRE:
N etw ork M a n ag e rs' P r e s e n t T e c h n o lo g y In v o lv em en t
TEAPAS:
K endon T e a c h e r s ' P a s t T ec h n o lo g y In v o lv em en t
TEAPRE:
K endon T e a c h e r s ' P r e s e n t T e c h n o lo g y In v olvem en t

217

S e c tio n

B

Q u e s tio n s 3 & 4
PLANPAS:
Planning S t a g e in t h e P a s t
PLANPRE:
Planning S ta g e in t h e P r e s e n t
DEVPPAST:
D e v e lo p m e n t S ta g e in t h e P a st
DEVPPRE:
D e v e lo p m e n t S ta g e in t h e P r e s e n t
IMPLPAS:
I m p le m e n ta tio n S ta g e in t h e P a s t
IMPLPRE:
I m p le m e n ta tio n S ta g e in t h e P r e s e n t
EVALPAS:
Evaluation S t a g e in t h e P a s t
EVALPRE:
E valuation S t a g e in t h e P r e s e n t
Q u e s tio n s 5 & 6
BELPAS:
Belief in T e c h n o lo g y in t h e P a s t
BELPRE:
Belief in T e c h n o lo g y in t h e P r e s e n t
Q u e s tio n s 7 & 8
CRDPAS: U ses o f C o m p u te r s in Curriculum in t h e P a s t
CRDPRE:
U ses o f C o m p u te r s in Curriculum in t h e P r e s e n t
S e c tio n

C

Q u e stio n s 9 -1 4
TESPAS: T ec h n ic al S u p p o r t in t h e P a s t
TESPRE: T ec h n ic al S u p p o r t in t h e P r e s e n t
POSIPAS: P o sitiv e In flu en ce in t h e P a s t
POSIPRE:
P o sitiv e Influence in t h e P r e s e n t
NEGIPAS:
N e g a tiv e Influence in t h e P a s t
NEGIPRE:
N e g ativ e Influence in t h e P r e s e n t
S e c tio n

D

Q u estio n s 1 5 -1 8
PTRPAS: I m p a c ts o f P re se rv ic e T e c h n o lo g y T raining in t h e P a s t
PTRPRE:
Im p a c ts o f P re se rv ic e T e c h n o lo g y T raining in t h e P r e s e n t
ITRPAS:
I m p a c ts o f Inservice T e c h n o lo g y T raining in t h e P a s t
ITRPRE:
Im p a c ts o f Inservice T e c h n o lo g y T raining in t h e P r e s e n t

218

S e c tio n

E

Q u e s tio n s 1 9 & 2 0
TMEPAS:
C o m p e tin g D e m a n d s on T im e in t h e P a st(T im e
L im ita tio n s)
TMEPRE:
C o m p etin g D e m an d s on Tim e in t h e P a s t (Tim e
L im ita tio n s)

S e c tio n s

F

Q u e stio n s 1 9 -3 4
TAPPAS: T e c h n o lo g y A p p lica tio n s in t h e C la s sro o m s in t h e P a s t
TAPPRE:
T e c h n o lo g y A p p licatio ns in t h e C la s sro o m s in t h e P r e s e n t
COAPAS:
In te g ra tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y into C o n t e n t A re a s in t h e P a s t
COAPRE:
In te g ra tio n o f T e c h n o lo g y into C o n t e n t A re a s in t h e
P resen t
CMFPAS:
Feeling More C o m fo rta b le Using C o m p u te r s in t h e P a s t
CMFPRE:
Feeling More C o m fo rta b le Using C o m p u te r s in t h e P r e s e n t
TWKPAS: T e c h n o lo g y in flu e n ce s on T e a c h e r s ’ T e a m Work in t h e P a s t
TWKPRE: T e c h n o lo g y in flu en ces on T e a c h e r s ' T e a m Work in t h e
P resent
C_90:
C_91:
C_92:
C_93:
C_94:

C hanges
Changes
C hanges
C hanges
C hanges

in
in
in
in
in

In stru ctio n al
In stru ctio n al
In stru ctio n al
In stru ctio n al
In stru ctio n al

Qual
Qual
Qual
Qual
Qual

ty
ty
ty
ty
ty

in
in
in
in
in

19 8 9 -9 0
1990-91
19 9 1 -9 2
1992-93
1993-94

School
School
School
School
School

KTMPAS: K endon T ec h n o lo g y a s a Model in t h e P a s t
KTMPRE:
Kendon T ec h n o lo g y a s a Model in t h e P r e s e n t
WDR:
W ithdraw al o f Half o f t h e C o m p u te r s in t h e School
DBL:
Doubling t h e N um ber o f C o m p u te rs in t h e School

Year
Year
Year
Year
Year

219

THEMES IDENTIFIED FROM THE QUALITATIVE DATA
A t t r ib u t e s o f
RIDEAS:
RMOTIVAT:
RMONITOR:
RGRASS:
RPSASS:
RLEAD:

T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rs ' Role
Using Rich Ideas
M otivational S t r a t e g i e s
Leading T ec h n o lo g y M a tte rs
A ctive P a rtic ip a tio n in G roup A c tiv ities
P erso nal A s s is ta n c e O ffe red t o C o lleag ues (T e a c h e r s )
L e a d e rs a c tin g a s L ea d ers o r F ro n t-ru n n ers

P e rc e iv e d Beliefs Held bv T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e rs
BUSEFUL:
T ec h n o lo g y in E d u catio n c o n s id e re d a s Useful
BSELFCON:
Self C o n fid e n c e in T e c h n o lo g y A pp lication s
BSUPSYST:
Im p o rta n c e A t t a c h e d t o T e c h n o lo g y S u p p o rt S y s t e m s
BSTDEVPT: Im p o rta n c e A t t a c h e d t o S ta f f D e v e lo p m e n t
M a n ife sta tio n o f E n th u sia sm a b o u t T e c h n o lo g y
BENTHUSI:
BENCRMT:
E ncouraging Novice T ec h n o lo g y U sers ( T e a c h e r s and
S tu d e n ts)
BEXPERI:
T e a c h e r s ' T e c h n o lo g y E xperience o r Prior K now ledge
BRESIST:
Im p a c ts o f A c to r 's R e sista n c e t o T e c h n o lo g y
BTIMEDIF:
P ro b le m s o f T im e L im itatio ns
P e rc e iv e d T e c h n o lo g y L e a d e r s ' E x p e c ta tio n s
EGRWORK:
E x p ec te d More Group Work
EKNOWLE:
U sers' Prior K now ledge, E xperience, o r E x p ertise in
T e c h n o lo g y
EMORETIM: E x p e c te d More Tim e fo r T e c h n o lo g y Training a n d M astery
EHAWARE:
E x p e c te d More H ardw are (C o m p u te r s ) in t h e C lassro o m s
ESOWARE:
E x p e c te d V a rie ty o f S o ftw a re P ro g ra m s in t h e C o n te n t
A reas
CHTIMGT:
C h a n g e s in T im e M a n a g e m e n t in t h e C lassro o m s
CHSTDINT:
C h a n g e s in S t u d e n t s ' Learning I n te r e s ts
CHTESTYLE: C h a n g e s in T e a c h in g S ty les
KENMODEL: Kendon T ec h n o lo g y P rogram a s a Model
WDRCOMP:
W ithdraw al o f Half o f t h e C o m p u te rs in t h e School
DUBCOMP:
Doubling t h e N um ber o f C o m p u te rs in t h e School

220

APPENDIX

J

Six Principles fo r the Design of
Professional Development Schools

Principle One

Teaching and learning for understanding. All the school’s students
participate seriously in the kind of learning that allows you to go on
learning for a lifetime. This may well require a radical revision o f the
school’s curriculum and instruction.

Principle Two

Creating a learning community. The ambitious kind o f teaching and
learning we hope for will take place in a sustained way for large
numbers o f children only if classrooms and schools are thoughtfully
organized as communities of learning.

Principle Three

Teaching and learning for understanding for everybody’s children. A
major commitment o f the Professional Development School will be
overcoming the educational and social barriers raised by an unequal
society.

Principle Four

Continuing learning by teachers, teacher educators, and administrators.
In the Professional Development School, adults are expected to go on
learning, too.

Principle Five

Thoughtful long-term inquiry into teaching and learning. This is
essential to the professional lives o f teachers, administrators, and teacher
educators. The Professional Development School faculty working as
partners will promote reflection and research on practice as a central
aspect of the school.

Principle Six

Inventing a new institution. The foregoing principles call for such
profound changes that the Professional Development School will need to
devise for itself a different kind o f organizational structure, supported
over time by enduring alliances o f all the institutions with a stake in
better professional preparation for school faculty.

Source: Tomorrow’s Schools: Principles for the Desien o f Professional Development
Schools. 1990. The Holmes Group, Inc. , (p. 7).

221

APPENDIX

K

1994 ANNUAL REPORT

Kendon Elementary School
'!;e Kendon staff is proud to present our annuai
report which includes our programs, goals, and
visions for the future. As we work together to make
our scnool o good place to learn, we invite your
porticiootion in all our endeavors because we know
"it takes o whole village to raise one child."

School
Improvement
Process
The K endon staff in cooperation
with the Partnership for New Educa­
tion established a School Improve­
m ent Team to develop policy and
programs related to school improve­
m ent issues and concerns. Last year
its members w ere Principal Minnie
W heeler-Thomas: staff members
Renee Acker, Jan Baker, Nancy
Coleman, Bonnie lacy, Carol Miller,
Jo Nelson. David Sauve, Lori Shivley,
and Annie Williford; PDS coordinator
Tami McGill; and parents Yvonne
Hall, Richard Miller, and Kathy
Woodman.
The Kendon staff has attem pted to
build a learning community w here all
students are taught for understanding,
and w here the educational faculty
progressively assesses its efforts to
accom plish this goal. This learning
com m unity involves parents, other
com munity members, and educators.
In 1993-94, our w ork focused on
improving the teaching of reading and
science and fostering self-esteem.
O ur efforts also centered on literacy
with an em phasis on teaching and
learning critical responses that pertain
to good children's literature and the
developm ent of a com puter lab to
boost technology skills of students
and teachers.

Mission Statement
T he mission o f K endon Elem entary Professional
D evelopm ent School is to p rep are stu d en ts fo r the
future by w orking cooperatively w ith parents, the
com m unity, a n d o u r educational faculty. T ogether
w e will create an organized, su p p o rtiv e learning
com m unity. We will accept an d accom m odate diversity. O u r stu d en ts will
becom e responsible, capable citizens w h o will u se their stro n g k n o w led g e
base to engage in critical thinking a n d problem -solving fo r lifelong learning.

Our Goals and Strategies

R e ad in g : Students will b e able to
read for understanding (inquiry and
com prehension). Basal readers,
trade books, reading in content
areas, Read-A-Thon, a n d Literature
Encounter will all contribute to
achieving this goal. W e will collect
a n d analyze Curriculum M onitoring
System test data for th e 1993-94
school y ear an d co m p are it w ith
results from the 2 previous years.
O n ce that data has b een analyzed,
w e will d ecide u p o n a course of
action.
S cie n ce : Students at all grade levels
will have better k n ow ledge o f
science concepts. They will have
opportunities to learn m ore about
science topics of current interest,

such as recycling a n d environm ental
clean-up program s. In addition,
students will participate in an all­
school science fair, field trips,
hands-on science program s, an d
other activities that su p p o rt an d
en h an ce o u r goals in science.
A nother objective for science
instruction will b e to fam iliarize the
staff w ith th e State o f M ichigan
science objectives. T o m eet this
goal, w e will carefully analyze an d
discuss w ays to im plem ent those
objectives. T he 1993 MEAP science
scores for 5th graders h av e b ee n
collected an d will b e co m p ared to
those achieved o n th e O cto b er 1994
state exam s to help us assess o u r
achievem ent o f this goal.

(Continued on page 3)

R

CASE Credit Union
Board Member William
Brewer explores real life
math applications with
Nancy Coleman's 4tb
graders as part o f that
agency's partnership
with Kendon. Pictured
from left to right are
Lewis Harrison, Andrew
Mecber, Richard Clark,
Heather Riojas, Mr.
Brewer, Brandi Sterrett,
Rolando Gonzales, and
Mrs. Coleman.

222

Core
Curriculum
W hen the State Legislature
ad opted Public Act 25 in 1990, it
stipulated that M ichigan school
districts w ould have to m ake a core
curriculum available to all students
by the beginning o f th e 1991-92
academ ic year.
The State B oard o f Education
(SBE) th en distributed a m odel core
curriculum to school system s w hich
defined outcom es to be achieved by
students in various content areas.
An analysis o f th e Lansing School
District's curriculum show s it is
largely consistent w ith th e SBE
recom m endations an d student
outcom es.
H ow ever, there are areas w ithin
the arts at the elem entary level
w here o u r system d o es not address
all o f th e SBE recom m endations due
to the lim ited instructional tim e
available to elem entary art, music,
and physical education specialists.
This also is true o f the arts at the
secondary level w here such courses
are offered as electives an d d o not
fall w ithin the state s expectauon of
instruction fo r all students.
The single area in w hich Lansing
has n o current program to m eet the
SBE core curriculum outcom es is
elem entary foreign language. The
cost o f initiating such a program
district-w ide is prohibitive given the
district's current financial status.
Lansing's curricular review plan
operates o n a 5-year cycle. All
district-approved content areas and
outcom es recom m ended b y the SBE
are review ed and aligned during that
cycle. This process is ongoing and
will continue as state requirem ents
an d student n eeds change.

Student Achievement
The academ ic p erform ance of
K endon students is m on ito red in a
variety o f w ays th ro u g h o u t the
school year. Classw ork, hom ew ork,
a n d staff-developed tests help
teachers, parents, an d students
check progress o n a regular basis.
Frequent reports, staff contacts,
an d teach er conferences en courage
parents to b ecom e involved in the
evaluation o f their child's education.
In addition, th e Lansing School
District sponsors a testing program
d esig n ed to provide a n annual
picture o f th e academ ic progress o f
all students. O ne p art o f that
program is norm -referenced testing
each spring for stu d en ts in grades 111. T hese results allow u s to see

Accreditation
Status^Report.
la i MGHQBI U9JUUUMI 0 1 IWUMM MB r r ’

vtudtfNsfcnivtbbywbthal^

1

b ic o m ta c a w ttid L !h » iI m M d m U b « fa
plots by the spring of 1995. K tndonS dm ivi
b sn o ain w lY sd falh ad n h 'sm o tcsd aalisa ;
progron onaH bos b tcn fin ak n d .''

h o w K endon stu d en ts perform in
com parison to their co u n terp arts in
o th er u rb an areas across th e nation.
In th e spring o f 1993, th e school
district replaced the o u td ated
Stanford A chievem ent T est w ith the
latest version o f the M etropolitan
A chievem ent Test in o rd e r to better
assess today's ex pectations for
stu d en t learning. W ith th e change
in tests, w e beg an a n e w data
baseline. Historically, m ath scores
o f Lansing stu d en ts h av e b een
higher th an those for reading. With
th e ch an g e to th e M etropolitan, the
sam e p attern has em erged.
O n th e 1993 M etropolitan exam s,
K endon stu d en ts in grad e 2 p er­
form ed ab o v e the n ational average
(50% percentile) in b o th m ath an d
reading, w hile those in g rad e 4
sco red ab o v e th e n ational average in
math.
H ere at K en d o n w e stu d y these
scores carefully, along w ith other
m easures o f stu d en t progress, as w e
im plem ent changes in instruction
w hich are necessary to assu re that
ea ch an d every o n e o f th e students
has a successful school career an d is
w ell p rep a re d to b ec o m e a contrib­
uting citizen.

Extended Learning
There are many activities and
programs planned to give students
choices, the opportunity to experi­
ences successful learning, an d enhance
their self concept. Some of them are:

Math-R-Ranra, Math Magic, aftersch o o l tutorial program s. Fantastic
Fun Friday, v io lin , cam p, Calbery
W riting C ontest, sp rin g art fair/ice
cream social, scien ce fair, lite r a ­
ture Encounter, visitin g author
event, end-of-year award program ,
book sw ap, rem edial/enrichm ent
program s in m ath and reading,
com m unity partnership w ith
Capital Area School Em ployees
(CASE) Credit U nion, Parent

Mil

Lending lib rary, Building Libraries
Together, H om e O utreach Program
for Education (HOPE), season al
m usical program s, stu d en t/staff
softball gam e, Read-A-Thon, Read­
ing Is Fundam ental (RIF), city-w ide
field day, field trip s, m ulticultural
education, th e 4-H after-school
program , th e YWCA program ,
K cndon's p ositive behavior assem ­
b lies, and h on ors program s.
The services of an intervention
specialist w ere provided last year to
assist students in the areas of positive
self-esteem, conflict resolution, and
problem-solving.

223

Unique Chsrscteristics Of Kendon
As participants in a Professional
Development School, the Kendon
staff is able to think boldly and
sensibly about the future of education
and w hat a school ought to look like
to accom m odate students as w e
approach the 21st century. Our
participation in the PDS project has
brought increased attention, re­
sources, and support for practicing
teachers.
A selected group of K-5
teachers and 2 MSU faculty members
w orked on ways to improve the
teaching and team ing of literacy in
the elem entary grades last year. They
focused on 3 interrelated and interde­
pendent com ponents which will serve
to build a firm foundation for a life­
long habit of critical reading.
In te g ra te d S tu d ies — The fifth grade
teachers and selected MSU faculty
mem bers collaborated on developing
instructional units to integrate social
studies and language arts in 1993-94.
M ath f o r U n d e rsta n d in g — Five
Kendon teachers and several MSU
faculty m em bers collaborated to
rethink ways o f teaching mathematics.
Their goal was to help students make
a connection betw een classroom
mathematics and mathematics in the
real world.
M ath M agic— Math Magic is a
program to enhance math skills of
Chapter I and special education
students. The special education
teacher consultant. Chapter I reading
teacher, and 3 Chapter I instructional
assistants met tw ice w eekly with 4th
and 5th graders to provide a variety of
math experiences.
T e c h n o lo g y in th e C la ssro o m —
All K endon teachers and selected
MSU professors w orked with com put­
ers throughout the curriculum. A
com puter lab w as established to
com plem ent an d enhance the use of
com puters in the classroom.
In c lu s io n E d u c a tio n — Teams of
teachers, support staff, parents, and
administrators planned for the full­
time inclusion o f students with

(A Professional Development School)

challenging needs into general
education classrooms.
An A lte rn a tiv e C u rric u lu m With
Special E m p h a sis O n A cco m m o ­
d a tin g D iv erse L ea rn e rs ("At-Risk"
Students & High Achievers) — The
4th and 5th grade teachers have been
conceptualizing, developing, and
designing alternative curriculum and
programs to accom m odate diverse
learners.
M c n to rs h ip P ro g ra m — Our
Mentorship Program focused on
providing positive role models and
building self-esteem for "at-risk"
students starting in the early grades.
E le ctro n ic D ata S ystem s (EDS)
T u to rin g P ro g ra m — Kendon staff
members arc proud of our association
with the tutors from EDS. Several
spent 1 hour per w eek in classrooms
last year providing remedial and
enrichm ent support to students. They
are positive role m odels and w ere
very helpful in the classrooms.
T eam 1 (MSU T e a c h e r T ra in in g
P ro g ra m ) — Four post-graduate
students served a 1-year internship at
Kendon last year to comply with
MSU's newly instituted requirem ents
for teaching certification. In addition,
a num ber of MSU seniors w ere
assigned to classrooms for a few
hours each w eek and will continue to
work on their teaching certification
requirem ents this year. Those
requirem ents now consist of 4 years

Goals

of course work an d a fifth year
assignment in the classroom.
C o m m u n ity P a r tn e r s h ip — The
staff an d students at K endon School
are reaching out for community
support. Fourth graders have formed
a partnership with the Capital Area
School Employees (CASE) Credit
Union to help students make a
connection betw een school math­
ematics and the real w orld. We have
established a mini-credit union with
on-line com munication with CASE.
P a re n t L en d in g L ib ra ry — Last year,
the Parent Lending Library was
established to give parents an oppor­
tunity to borrow educational games,
toys, activities, books, videos, and
other academically related materials to
help their children at hom e.
V isiting A u th o r — Award-winning
author and illustrator Leonard Everett
Fisher visited Kendon last year The
program was m ade possible through
the collaborative efforts of Kendon's
PTA and the Partnership for New
Education.
P a re n ts as P a rtn e rs in E d u ca tio n
Parents as Partners in Education is
a Chapter I program that m et monthly
with a focused agenda determ ined by
parents' needs and concerns. Child
care and transportation w ere provided
for participants. Support from the
PTA enabled us to m ake these
meetings available to all parents.

.•«»w*rJ|K g.frV r*
(Continued from page 1)

S elf-e ste em : Students' positive selfim age will b e d ev elo p ed through
their participation in p ro b lem ­
solving activities. W e expect
children to en g ag e regularly in
problem -solving activities in w hich
they arrive at alternative solutions to
academ ic an d social problem s.
Students' positive self-im age also
will be d ev elo p ed as they gain
aw areness o f their ability to b e
constructively self-directed an d
responsible. We will focus during
the 1994-95 school y ear o n K endon's

Code o f Conduct, m onthly good
behavior assemblies and rewards, and
recognition o f fourth an d fifth
graders for academ ic achievem ent.
We have collected data o ver th e past
2 years by counting th e n um ber and
nature o f conduct citations issued.
We w ant to re-evaluate this m ethod
o f assessm ent and focus more on
specific behaviors that are taught,
learned, practiced, an d observed. A
com m ittee w as established in the
spring o f 1994 to clarify o u r goals and
strategies in self-esteem education.

22 4

Kendon
School PTA

Volunteers

T he K endon PTA strongly
supports th e educational efforts of
our students an d staff. The PTA
sponsors th e follow ing activities and
program s for o u r students:
• Fall o p e n h o u se
• Fall fund-raiser
•
•
•
•
•

'

H oliday o p e n house
Visiting author
Musicals
H allow een Parade
Ice Cream Social an d Art Fair

• Field Day
• Reading Is Fundam ental (RIF)
• Parent forum s
• B ook Fair
• C am ping program

Parent Participation In
T eacher C onferences

j

991/92

1992/93

993/94

Parent/Teacher
Conferences
G reat effort an d non-acceptance
of routine excuses are the keys to
reaching alm ost each an d every
parent at K endon School. Many
tim es w e have rescheduled m ore
than 20 conferences, an d an addi­
tional 20 o r m ore conferences are
held in h om es o f parents o r at their
place o f w ork.
P aren t/teach er conferences are a
top priority at K endon.

Volunteering is one of our most
valuable assets. Throughout the
1993-94 school year as in years past,
as many as 150 volunteers have
supported and coordinated programs,
events, and activities for children at
ail grade levels. Many activities such
as field trips, scouting programs, and
special projects are m ade possible
because of the efforts of volunteers.
The Kendon staff annually sponsors
an appreciation luncheon for all
parent volunteers who served through­
out the school year.

Community Resources
The Lansing School District considers the community as
o classroom. We reoch out by taking students into the
world through field trips, internships, work study
opportunities, ond technological links. We also invite
the community into our schools. There are countless
business partneiships, community resources, mentoring
program s, pen pal progroms with other countries, and
speakers ond assemblies from which Lansing students
benefit each year. We invite you to participate in the
education of our future leaders.

History of Our School
K endon School w as built in 1958.
An addition w as m ade in 1961,
creating a total o f 32,000 square feet.
K endon has 14 classroom s, on e
m edium -sized gym nasium , and a
library. There are four small confer­
en ce/sto rag e room s located at either
en d o f th e building.
T he K endon School com m unity
brings m uch diversity to the ed u ca­
tional setting. W e have neighbor­
h o o d students w h o w alk to school,
w hile oth er youngsters are trans­
ported b y bus from Mill Pond
Village an d the d o w n to w n area.
The variables inherent in the
K endon com m unity at-large m ake it
mmm 3 challenge as w ell as a
mmm rew arding place to teach
H g
an d learn.

■■■i

A n e q u a l opportunity district

Kendon Facts
Last year, the K en d o n staff w as
com prised o f a principal, 13 general
ed ucation classroom teachers, 4
senior intern stu d en t teachers, 1
special education teacher, 1 special
education consultant, 1 reading
teacher. 1 part-tim e Librarian, a parttim e prevention specialist, 3 learning
specialists, 6 M ichigan State Univer­
sity faculty m em bers, a special
education instructional assistant, 3
federally fu n d ed instructional
assistants, 1 part-tim e P arent Lending
Library coordinator, 1 lunch cashier,
11 lunch assistants, 1 secretary, an d
2 custodians.
This staff rep resen ts a w id e range
o f p eo p le a n d ex p ertise th a t p ro ­
vides trem en d o u s su p p o rt an d
know ledge for th e stu d en ts they
serve.
For the 1993-94 school year, o u r
stu d en t enrollm ent w as 333. T he
b reak d o w n by g rad e level w as as
follows:
K in d erg arten ... 6 1
1st G r a d e
66
2nd G ra d e
47
-

■

—

3rd G r a d e
52
4th G ra d e ........55
5th G ra d e ........ 52

"

National Goals
For Edor
As wo prepan our j
21st antoiy; wot
oondionai Qoois,
the ofignmmi of our I
Dktridwifl enable i

t*---------Mj
M U Q w 5uQ K 5lw G

century: A copy
available bi the school d iM S S n o a r ^
report ond in tlwdistrirt OwttadonrOffice^

REF ERENCES

REFERENCES

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