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A DYNAMIC APPROACH TO THE INVESTIGATION
OF SOME PERSONALITY FACTORS
RELATED TO STUDY PROBLEMS

BY

Donald L. DeBolt

AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1963

ABSTRACT

A DYNAMIC APPROACH TO THE INVESTIGATION
OF SOME PERSONALITY FACTORS
RELATED TO STUDY PROBLEMS

By Donald L. DeBolt

Many colleges and universities offer courses which
are designed to aid students who experience study problems
of various kinds. The present study 1) proposes that such
students constitute a psychological entity and 2) attempts
to examine some of the personality-dynamic aspects of study
problems within such a population.

Group and personal interactions with students exper-
iencing study problems suggested that such students differ
from the general population of college students in terms
of the strength of certain conscious personality "needs."

A test of manifest needs, The Edwards Personal Preference
Schedule, was administered to the entire enrollment for one
year in "Methods of Effective Study," a course offered at
Michigan State University for the purpose mentioned above.
The following results were obtained, using a Student's 3.
statistic to compare the present with the norms established
for the EPPS. Both male and female Methods-of-Study students
were significantly higher than the national norm in Agaggmggt
need, and lower in Dominance need. In addition, the males
were lower than the norm in Aghigzgmggt.need, and the females

Donald L. DeBolt

were higher than the norm in Nurtuzance need.

These results were interpreted primarily in terms
of phenomenological personality theory, especially in terms
of "self-concept." The particular need constellations which
emerged suggested that these students feel themselves to
be generally inadequate persons. It was speculated that
"undue" success in academic endeavors (or in any other area,
perhaps) might disrupt such a concept of self-inadequacy,
and that, therefore, at some level, conscious or unconscious,
there is a real need to fail. For, phenomenological theory
tells us that once a self-concept has become stabilized,
the psychological equilibrium of the individual demands
that such a concept be retained and defended, regardless
of its adequate or inadequate nature.

Portions of psychoanalytic theory were also presented
in support of the idea of a dynamic basis for study problems.

Some additional problems in need of research were

cited.

C1,, x/’\/6“‘\.L 9- §J\\ .~\ ' /
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" \j 0"? i-/‘\2’ (k-A-AHL-&

A DYNAMIC APPROACH TO THE INVESTIGATION
OF SOME PERSONALITY FACTORS
RELATED TO STUDY PROBLEMS

By

Donald L. DeBolt

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Psychology

1963

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

To Dr. Josephine Morse, whose ideas and guidance
were major factors in my motivation both to undertake and
to complete the present thesis study, and to James Clark,

a fellow student, whose assistance in processing the data
through MISTIC saved me countless hours of meticulous tabu-

lation, I express my sincere gratitude.

D.L.D.

11

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGMst 0 O O O 0 0 O O O I O O O O 0 O O O O O 1 1
PROBLEM O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 1
METHOD OF APPROACH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

The Population

The Measuring Instrument

Relevant Studies

Procedure
RESULTS 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o e o o o o o o o o o o 15
DISCUSSION 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 21
SWARY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 32
APPENDIX 0 O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 35

BIBLIOGRAPHY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 37

ill

Table

2.

LIST OF TABLES

Page
comparison of fall term methods-of-study
males with winter and spring term methods-
of-study males for each of the 15 EPPS
variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

comparison of fall term methods-of-study

females with winter and spring term methods-
of-study females for each of the 15 EPPS
variableSooeoeeeeeeeeeeto...17

comparison of methods-of-study males with
EPPS norm group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

comparison of methods-of—study females
withEPPSnomgrOup............. 20

iv

I. THE PROBLEM

For many years university counseling centers and/or
psychology departments have offered courses designed to
assist students who are experiencing study problems. The
fact that such study-aid courses are offered in many uni-
versities makes it clear that there exists an entity which
we can refer to as a population of students with study
problems. Furthermore, these are students who, through
enrolling in such courses, have expressed their own aware-
ness of their study problems. The present study arose out
of the recognition thatttudents experiencing study problems
appear to have in common certain personality characteristics
which differentiate them from the student population in
general. This study assumes that students experiencing
study problems constitute an entity, and proposes to des-
cribe this group in terms of measurable personality dynamics.

That personality variables are related to academic.
performance is not a new idea. Educators and psychologists
have long recognized that scholastic achievement cannot be
accurately predicted or evaluated on the basis of "intelli-
gence" tests alone. The following statement by Jacob Getzels
is typical of the findings in the areas of counseling and
educational psychology:

2
To identify the able learner other criteria

than mere intelligence test scores are necessary,

.but there is no agreement as to what these cri-

teria are (13).

Even a casual examination of the literature produced
within the last five years in this area will reveal that the
problem of the extra-intellectual factors of academic per-
formance has demanded more than its proportional share of
publication space. Some writers approach the problem from
the standpoint of the genera; emotional factors involved
(3. 9. 35. 23, 43, 17, 33, 41). Others use for*specific
investigation such concepts as manifest anxiety (35); study
habits and interests (5), manifest needs (22, 21, 12);
hostility (33, 34); social reinforcement (26); and parental
attitudes (8).

At Michigan State University students with study prob-
lems have the opportunity to enroll in Psychology 101,
Methods of Effective Study. Psychology 101 provides for
students an opportunity to approach their study problems
through group counseling. The instructor's role in this
counseling situation is primarily that of a group leader,
and students are encouraged to talk about their own prob-
lems as they themselves perceive them. A generally non-
directive attitude is maintained by the instructor, and the
student is given the opportunity to talk about his own
feelings, problems, and attitudes to whatever extent he is
able to do so. In turn, the instructors meet regularly to

discuss their experiences with their respective groups of

3
students. As a result of such discussions it became appar-
ent that many of the attitudes and behaviors observed in
one group were common to the others as well. The following
are some typical statements which students make about them-
selves in relation to studying: (a) I'm lazy. I cannot
make myself study, etc. (b) I'm simply not interested.
I'm sure if I could Just do something that I really like I
wouldn't have any more trouble and I could get it. (c) My
instructors are unfair--they don't do a good Job of teach-
ing and then they expect me to know a lot that I've never
heard of. (d) There is too much that isn't practical, and
I don't like anything that isn't practical so I can't study
it. (e) I clutch on exams. (f) I don't know how to use
my time well. It takes me too long to do what I have to.

It is apparent that these statements concerning "study
problems" can more meaningfully be seen as statements con-
cerning "self." And the question then becomes, What kind
of a "self" does the student with study problems experience?
and more specifically for this study, What kind of a "self"
do they share in common?

A search of the literature seems to indicate that the
present study is the first to treat this group (i.e.,
students with study problems) as an entity with common
personality dynamics. Other studies describe their popu-
lations in terms of over and under achievement, but this
is not an appropriate description for the present population,

although some under-achievers may be included. A review

4
will be presented later of studies which appear to be rele-
vant.

Personality may be examined from a variety of different
theoretical viewpoints, most of whichare more likely com-
plementary than contradictory. The present study was
approached within the framework of need-press theory as
originally developed by Murray and others (29). The logic
of this theory, applied to the present situation, would lead
us to conclude that some need(s) may be expressed and/or met
through the experiencing of study problems. It follows,
if there is a commonality of personality dynamics within
this group, that there should appear common differences in
certain needs in contrast to the college population in
general. Such common differences will provide at least a
partial description of the population of students having
study problems. This approach does not assume that measures
derived from other personality theories might not also be

effective in revealing differences along different dimensions.

Organization of Succeeding Chapters

The present chapter has been an attempt to delineate
the problem and to describe its origins. Following this,
Chapter II will describe the population, the instrument
utilized for measurement, and the procedure involved. Chapter
III will report the results. In Chapter IV the results will
be discussed and related to personality theory. Chapter V

will present the summary and conclusions.

II. METHOD OF APPROACH

The Population

A more specific definition of terms is in order. It
could be argued that all, or nearly all, college students
have study problems to some degree, and that, consequently,
thepopulation we speak of is not a separate population.
Because of this it is necessary to further differentiate
the population utilized for this study. Psychology 101.
"Methods of Effective Study," at Michigan State University
is a course described in the university catalog as follows:

101 Methods of Effective Study.

Fall, Winter, Spring., 1 credit.

Not open to Juniors and Seniors except on
recommendation from the counseling center
and approval of department. ‘

Group and individual counseling for stu-
dents with problems in academic achieve-
ment, including motivation, concentration,
and attitudes toward study; methods and
techniques of study; utilization of time;
and student efficiency in the classroom
(28).

As indicated, enrollment in this non-required course
is limited primarily to Freshmen and Sophomores, occasional
exceptions being made for upper classmen with serious study
problems. Although Psychology 101 may be recommended by
the student's counselor or academic advisor, it is an
elective course and the ultimate decision to enroll is

voluntary on the part of the student. The reasons most

6

frequently expressed by the students for selecting this
course included some mention of their recognition of their
own problems, and exposure to the course through friends
who had taken it, through their own investigation, etc.

Thus, the present population may be defined as college
students who are aware of experiencing some kind(s) of study
problem(s) and who are seeking help by enrolling in a
Methods-of-Study course.

The Measuring Instrument

The selection of the measuring instrument was based
primarily on three criteria. First the instrument should
provide for the measurement of "need" variables at the
same level that such variables were observed. Since the
hypotheses concerning the commonality of need differences
were based on the students' own statements about themselves,
the instrument should measure needs at this same level of
student awareness. Second, because the test was to be
administered in a classroom situation it should be one that
can be group-administered, and completed within approximately
one hour, the length of the class session. Finally, it was
decided that if possible the test selected would be used
for purposes of group and/or individual counseling with
the students, in addition to its researoh_function.

Since Murray's conceptual framework is utilized in the
present approach, it might appear logical to use the
Thematic Apperception Test, which Murray developed from his

7
own theory. However, the interpretation of TAT protocols
involves inferences about unconscious needs, and it was

felt that this would not be consistent with the first
criterion mentioned above.

After some consideration the Edwards Personal Prefer-
ence Schedule (EPPS) was selected as the instrument coming
nearest to fulfilling the requirements. The EPPS is a
forced-choice type of inventory, designed primarily as an
instrument for research and counseling purposes, according
to its author, and ". . .to provide quick and convenient
measures of a number of relatively independent 'normal'
personality variables" (10). The statements in the EPPS
and the variables that these statements purport to measure
have their origin in a list of manifest peggg,presented
by H. A. Murray and others (29). The EPPS provides measures
of 15 personality variables. These variables, and the

manifest needs associated with each, are as follows (10):

1. Achievement: To do one's best, to be
successful, to accomplish tasks requiring skill
and effort, to be a recognized authority, to
accomplish something of great significance, to
do a difficult Job well, to solve difficult
problems and puzzles, to be able to do things
better than others, to write a great novel or

play.

2. Defezence: To get suggestions from
others, to find out what others think,to follow
instructions and do what is expected, to praise
others, to tell others that they have done a
good Job, to accept the leadership of others,
to read about great men, to conform to custom
and avoid the unconventional, to let others
make decisions.

8

3. Order: To have written work neat and
organized, to make plans before starting on a
difficult task, to have things organized, to keep
things neat and orderly, to make advance plans when
taking a trip, to organize details of work, to
keep letters and files according to some system,
to have meals organized and a definite time for
eating, to have things arranged so that they run
smoothly without change.

4. Exhibition: To say witty and clever
things, to telI amusing Jokes and stories, to
talk about personal adventures and experiences,
to have others notice and comment upon one's
appearance, to say things Just to see what effect
it will have on others, to talk about personal
achievements, to be the center of attention, to
use words others do not know the meaning of, to
ask questions others cannot answer.

5. Autonomy: To be able to come and go as
desired, to say what one thinks about things, to
be independent of others in making decisions, to
feel free to do what one wants, to do things that
are unconventional, to avoid situations where one
is expected to conform, to do things without re-
gard to what others may think, to criticize those
in positions of authority, to avoid responsibil-
ities and obligations.

6. Affiliation: To be loyal to friends,
to participate in friendly groups, to do things
for friends, to form new friendships, to make
as many friends as possible, to share things
with friends, to do things with friends rather
than alone, to form strong attachments, to
write letters to friends.

7. Intraception: To analyze one's motives
and feelings, to observe others, to understand
how others feel about problems, to put one's self
in another's place, to Judge people by why they
do things rather than by what they do, to ana-
lyze the behavior of others, to analyze the mo-
tives of others, to predict how others will act.

8. Succozance: To have others provide help
when in trouble, to seek encouragement from
others, to have others be kindly, to have others
be sympathetic and understanding about personal
problems, to receive a great deal of affection
from others, to have others do favors cheerfully,

9

to be helped by others when depressed, to have
others feel sorry when one is sick, to have a
fuss made over one when hurt.

9. Doginance: To argue for one's point of
view, to be a leader in groups to which one be-
longs, to be regarded by others as a leader, to
be elected or appointed chairman of committees,
to make group decisions, to settle arguments and
disputes between others, to persuade and influ-
ence others to do what one wants, to supervise
and direct the actions of others, to tell others
how to do their Jobs.

10. Abasemgnt: To feel guilty when one
does something wrong, to accept blame when things
do not go right, to feel that personal pain and
misery suffered does more good than harm, to
feel the need for punishment for wrongdoing, to
feel better when giving in and avoiding a fight
than when having one's own way, to feel the need
for confession of errors, to feel depressed by
inability to handle situations, to feel timid
in the presence of superiors, to feel inferior
to others in most respects.

11. Nurturance: To help friends when they
are in trouble, to assist others less fortunate,
to treat others with kindness and sympathy, to
forgive others, to do small favors for others,
to be generous with others, to sympathize with
others who are hurt or sick, to show a great
deal of affection toward others, to have others
confide in one about personal problems.

12.. Chggge: To do new and different things,
to travel, to meet new people, to experience
novelty and change in daily routine, to experi-
ment and try new things, to eat in new and differ-
ent places, to try new and different Jobs, to
move about the country and live in different
places, to participate in new fade and fashions.

13. Endurance: To keep at a Job until it is
finished, to complete any Job undertaken, to work
hard at a task, to keep at a puzzle or problem
until it is solved, to work at a single Job before
taking on others, to stay up late working in order
to get a Job done, to put in long hours of work
without distraction, to stick at a problem even
though it may seem as if no progress is being made,
to avoid being interrupted while at work.

10
14. Heterosexugiity: To go out with members

of the Opposite sex, to engage in social activities

with the opposite sex, to be in love with someone

of the opposite sex, to kiss those of the opposite

sex, to be regarded as physically attractive by

those of the opposite sex, to participate in dis-

cussions about sex, to read books and plays involv-

ing sex, to listen to or to tell Jokes involving

sex, to become sexually excited.

15. Aggression: To attack contrary points

of view, to tell others what one thinks about them,

to criticize others publicly, to make fun of

others, to tell others off when disagreeing with

them, to get revenge for insults, to become angry,

to blame others when things go wrong, to read

newspaper accounts of violence.

In the construction of the EPPS an attempt is made to
minimize the influence of social desirability in responses
to the statements. This was done by including in each
forced-choice pair, statements which are equal with respect
to their social desirability scale values.

The EPPS differs from many inventories in another
respect. A number of personality inventories purport to
measure such traits as emotional stability, anxiety, adJust-
ment, or neuroticism. Still others purport to measure such
clinical and psychiatric syndromes as schizophrenia, para-
noia, or hysteria. High and/or low scores on these inven-
tories have associated maladJustive or clinical connotations.
For research and counseling purposes, where it is often
desirable to report back scores to subJects, such inventories
present definite problems. These connotations are less

likely to be attached to the variables in the EPPS (10).

11

Normative data have been developed for two groups for
the EPPS, viz., college students and adults who were house-
hold heads in the United States. The college sample was
composed of high school graduates with some college training.
The sample consisted of 749 college women and 760 college
men. The students were enrolled in day or evening liberal
arts classes at various universities and colleges throughout
the United States, and were obtained as subJects through
the cooperation of the psychologists at the various insti-
tutions. Each of the psychologists was asked to obtain a
specified number of students approximately equally divided
between the sexes and with as wide an age spread as possible.
They were also requested to obtain students maJoring in as
wide a variety of different areas as possible (10). The
adequacy of the sampling procedure in the construction of
the EPPS norms for college students makes unnecessary the
addition of a "control“ group for the present study. Other
studies, reported later, also used methods of comparison

utilizing the EPPS norms.

Relevant Siudies

A search of the literature reveals no other studies
which utilize a population of subJects equivalent to that
of the present study. There are reported, however, at least
four studies which utilized the EPPS in approaching a problem
similar to the present one. Gebhart and Hoyt (12), using

Kansas State College students, report that over-achievers

12
score significantly higher than under-achievers on the

following personality needs: inhievemen , deer, and Intna-
cention, while under-achievers scored significantly higher

than over-achievers on Nurtunange, igiiliation and Chnnge.

Krug (22), replicating the Gebhart and Hoyt design
and using engineering students at Carnegie Institute of
Technology, found over-achievers significantly higher than
under-achievers in A hieveme t, grinn, and Endunance,
while under-achievers were significantly higher in Affiiii-
§£A22.33d Heterosexuality.

Merrill and Murphy (27), employing a similar design
and using University of Utah students, found the following:
Over-achievers significantly exceed "average" achievers
(i.e., students achieving approximately at the level pre-
dicted on the basis of aptitude tests) in Dgienenne, aninnnnn,
and Ennurancg, while "average" achievers exceed over-achievers
in Ennibition, Autonomy, Affiiiation and Changg. In addi-
tion, the authors report that over-achievers exceed the norms
established by the EPPS standardization group in 221222222:
22922: Anasement, and gndnnance; while the norms exceeded
the over-achievers in Autonony, Dominan e, finnnnnnngn,
Hetenosexuaiity, and Aggnession.

Klett (21), although findings indicated that the role
of the EPPS in the prediction of grade point average was not
impressive or unequivocal, reports that ”. . .striking con-

sistency waszevealed in all analyses in respect to the

13

particular variables related to academic achievement."
She found that over-achievers consistently scored higher in
Achievement, Do inance, and Endurance, and consistently
lower in Heterosexuniity, Autonom , and iggngssion.

In each of these studies the concepts of over- and
under-achievement were used, based on the student's actual
gradepoint average compared to what he "should" be achiev-

ing on the basis of various predictive tests.

Procedune
The entire enrollment of the 1960-61 Methods of Study

classes was included in the sample. The procedure was to
compare the sample mean on each of the 15 variables with
the mean established by the EPPS college norm group. Since
the mean and standard deviation of each of the 15 variables
for the norm group is included in the EPPS manual (10),
this comparison became a relatively uncomplicated process.
The first step necessary was to split the data into two
groups, male and female, since the EPPS is standardized
separately for men and women. Next it was necessary to
split each of these groups into two further groups on the
basis of term. This was necessary because the fall term
group consists, originally, mostly of students who nniininnnn
having study problems in college, whereas the winter and
spring term groups consist of students who presently nnzn
or gin,nnzg study problems. If differences related to term

should emerge, the groups cannot be combined and considered

14
as one homogeneous group. A Student's n_statistic (40)
was chosen to make this comparison between the means of
groups from different terms for all 15 variables. If the
assumption of equal groups across terms is supported, all
men are to be combined into one group, N = 189, all women
into another, N = 9A, and each of these means will be com-
pared to the appropriate EPPS norm group. A.nyratio was
also chosen for these comparisons, using a two-tailed test
and a significance level of .05 in all cases (40). In
every case the interpretation was made conservative by using
the degrees of freedom appropriate to the smaller N of the
two groups being compared. The necessary assumptions con-
cerning skewness and kurtosis of the distribution of the

individual scores (raw data) were satisfied.

III. RESULTS

Table 1 (page 16) reports the results of the compari-
sons of students according to term enrolled. It can be
seen that no significant irratio was produced for any of
the 15 variables from the comparison of fall versus winter
and spring groups of men. For the women (see Table 2, page
17) one i was significant, the Defenence variable, the fall
group being lower. However, since thirty nrtests were made,
this one significant result could well have occurred by
chance, using the .05 level of significance. There appears
to be no evidence that the groups differ according to term:
therefore, all males were combined (N = 189) as were females
(N = 94), and the means and standard deviations were com-
puted for each of the two groups for the 15 variables.

Table 3, page 18, shows the following results: Methods-
of-Study males scored significantly higher than their EPPS
norm group on Abasement need. (In all cases, the higher the
score the greater is the need.) This difference in Annnnr
ngni,need was significant at the .001 level as well as the
chosen alpha level of .05. Also, Methods-of-Study males
scored significantly lower than the norm group in both
Achievement need and Dominance need. No other significant
differences emerged for the men, though a trend is evident
on the iggnession need, the Methods-of-Study group tending

toward being higher.

15

16

Table 1.--A comparison of fall term methods-of-study males
with winter and spring term methods-of-study males for each
of the 15 EPPS variables.

F811 (N = 40)

“—- a

Winter + Spring

, mfiw *m-

i

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(N = 149)
Variable Mean Std. Mean Std. Mean .E
Dev. ’ Dev. 1 Diff.
1. Ach. 14.425 3.419 14.383 3.884 .042 .048
2. Def. 10.925 3.643 11.509 4.141 .584 .638
3. 0rd. 9.475 3.840 9.898 4.491 .423 .434
4. Exh. 14.475 3.924 15.017 3.802 .542 .582
5. Ant. 13.075 3.401 14.373 4.676 1.298 1.373
6. Aff. 15.025 3.732 14.935 3.966 .090 .098
7. Intra. 15.725 4.324 15.542 4.670 .183 .171
8. shoe. 12.625 4.187 10.662 4.502 1.963 1.905
9. Dom. 16.275 4.637 16.012 4.510 .263 .238
10. Aba. 14.900 4.636 14.206 5.335 .694 .593
11. Nur. 15.350 4.252 14.157 4.941 1.193 1.108
12. Chg. 16.100 5.083 16.445 4.676 .445 .375
13. End. 12.500 5.454 12.397 5.785 .103 .077
14. Het. 15.850 6.331 17.809 5.912 1.959 1.319
15. Agg. 13.225 4.210 13.715 4.957 .490 .481
nyvalue necessary for .05 significance = 2.02

Degrees

of freedom = 39

17

Table 2.--A comparison of fall term methods-of-study females
with winter and spring term methods-of-study females for each
of the 15 EPPS variables.

‘.C_~ “ _._ ,

Fall (11: 16) *

Winter +

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ring;
(N=78 ;
Variable Mean Std. Std. 1 Mean .2
Dev. Mean Dev. ‘ Diff.
1. Ach. 12.000 3.937 11.924 4.318 .076 .051
2. Def. 9.562 3.840 . 12.863 3.795 1 3.301 2.376*
3. 0rd. 10.375 3.100 ' 10.271 4.669 1 .104 .079
4. Exh. 15.375 2.446 14.740 3.379 .635 .630
5. Ant. 12.813 3.627 11.287 3.934 1.526 1.129
6. Aff. 17.250 2.948 16.701 3.983 ' .549 .462
7. Intra. 18.000 4.848 17.463 4.346 .537 .315
8. Succ. 12.688 4.326 13.162 4.555 ' .474 .296
9. Dom. 14.313 4.468 12.607 4.135 1.706 1.076
10. Aba. 15.875 4.715 17.224 4.685 1.349 .789
11. Nur. 17.625 3.389 17.666 4.206 .041 .030
12. Chg. 17.250 5.717 18.447 3.696 1.197 .648
13. End. 12.438 3.873 11.789 5.140 .649 .418
14. Het. 15.813 6.002 1 13.926 6.189 1.887 .857
15. Agg. 9.438 3.968 i 10.318 4.529 .880 .585
*irvalue necessary for .05 significance = 2.13

Degrees of freedom = 15

18

Table 3.--Comparison of methods-of-study males with EPPS
norm group.

————_.-

 

-—.—._.—.——_—.—.—_— ...- - -~_..-~_.——.—._._.. -__.,,-____,__._.______._..-_-____ ._ __ .-—. _. ...--——_-

 

 

Methods of Study Males EPPS
(N = 189) Norm Group
Mean Std. Mean Std. Mean .3
Dev. ' _Dev. Diff.

 

1. Ash. 14.390 3.797 15.66 4.13 r 1.27 2.988**
2. Def. 11.380 4.068 11.21 3.59 ; .17 .400
3. 0rd. 9.800 4.372 10.23 4.31 ; .43 .909
4. Exh. 14.910 3.835 14.40 3.53 ' .51 1.250

5. Ant. 14.090 4.542 14.34 4.45 ! .25 .511
6. arr. 14.951 3.923 15.00 4.32 , .05 .113
7. Intra. 15.391 4.650 16.12 5.23 ; .73 1.385
8. Succ. 11.090 4.517 10.74 4.70 * .35 .702

9. Dom. 16.070 4.547 17.44 4.88 g 1.37 2.702**
10. Aha. 14.370 5.230 12.24 4.93 5‘ 2.13 3.817***
11. Nur. 14.410 4.828 14.04 4.80 i .37 .704
12. Chg. 16.370 4.771 15.51 4.74 ' .86 1.663
13. End. 12.420 5.716 12.66 5.30 ? .24 .395
14. Hot. 17.390 6.065 17.65 5.48 1 .26 .406
15. Agg. 13.600 4.849 12.79 4.59 g .81 1.563

 

 

 

 

 

t-value necessary for .05 significance = 1.972
**Significant at .01 level of significance
***Significant at .001 level of significance

19

For females (Table 4, page 20) the Methods-of-Study group
was significantly higher in Abasemnn , at both the .05 and
.01 level, than was the EPPS group. Methods-of—study
females were also higher in Nnrturance than the norm group,
but were exceeded by the norm group in Dominance. No other
significant differences emerged, though a trend was evident
in Affiliation and Endunance.

Thus the discriminating need variables for the males
are Abasement, Do inance, and Achievement: while for the
females they are Abasement, Dominance, and Nunturance.
Furthermore, Methods-of-Study students manifest this pattern
of needs whether or not they have actually eXperienced

failure in college.

Table 4.--A comparison of methods-of-study females with
EPPS norm group.

 

 

 

 

 

 

101 (n = 94) EPPS
Variable Mean Std. Mean Std. Mean ‘1
Dev. Dev. 1 Diff.

1. Ash. 11.94 4.25 13.08 4.19 1 1.14 1.928
2. Def. 12.30 3.80 12.40 3.72 ‘ .10 .190
3. 0rd. 10.29 4.40 ' 10.24 4.37 1 .05 .081
4. Exh. 14.85 3.22 14.28 3.65 .57 1.228
5. Ant. 11.55 3.88 12.29 4.34 .74 1.325
6. Aff. 1 16.80 3.81 17.40 4.07 g .60 1.111
8. Succ. 13.08 4.52 12.53 4.42 . .55 .885
9. Dom. 12.90 4.19 14.18 4.60 ' 1.28 2.136*
10. Aha. 16.99 4.69 15.11 4.94 1.88 2.835**
11. Eur. 17.66 4.07 16.42 4.41 1.24 2.175*
120 Chg. 18.24 4004 17020 #087 ' 1004 10753
13. End. 11.90 4.92 12.63 5.19 g .73 1.048
14. Hot. 14.25 6.16 14.34 5.39 r .09 .108
15. Agg. 10.17 4.43 10.59‘ 4.61 1 .42 .600

 

86 is significant.
32 is very significant.

1
2.

mm

IV. DISCUSSION

The very significant excess of Anasenent need in both
males and females of the present population is in agreement
with other writers' conclusions concerning under-achievers.
Namely, that the under-achiever (or in this case the stu-
dent with recognized "study problems") is an individual with
low self value (20, 19, 16, 38). A statement by Stevens,
following a comparison of honor roll students with students
on probation, is typical:

. . .the group which was high in achievement

showed a much greater degree of self-acceptance

than non-achieving students, who tended to re-
Ject themselves (38).

Stevens adds:

While previous studies have mainly stressed

external rejection of authority as the cause

of academic failure, the present findings sug-

gested that such external attitudes may become

internalized (38).

The individual with high Abasnment need is one who, in
Murray's terms, tends to ". . .submit passively to external
forces: to accept injury, blame, criticism, punishment: to
become resigned to fate; to admit inferiority. . .to blame,
belittle, or mutilate the self" (29).

With this description in mind, it is not surprising

that the score on Dominance need was significantly lower for

21

22
the Methods-of-Study students. For this is certainly not
the picture of an individual who needs to "control his
environment" or "direct the behavior of others" (10).

The low Aghievement need for males suggests in addition
that they have little need "to accomplish something diffi-
cult, or to master. . .physical objects, human beings, or
ideas, or to increase self regard by the successful exer-
cise of talent" (29).

The high Nunturance need in females suggests that they,
in addition, have a high need to "feed, support, console,
comfort, nurse, or heal objects or persons in need of these
services" (29).

To summarize, then, on the basis of this study both
male and female Methods-of-Study students are described as
individuals who have a high need to submit passively to
external force: to accept injury, blame, criticism, punish-
ment: to surrender: to admit inferiority, wrongdoing, error
or defeat: to blame, belittle or mutilate the self; to seek
and enjoy pain, punishment, illness and misfortune. They
have little need to control their environment or to influ-
ence or direct the behavior of others. In addition, the
males have little need to accomplish something difficult,
or to master, manipulate or organize physical objects, human
beings, or ideas, or to increase self-regard by the success-
ful exercise of talent. The females, in addition, have a

high need to feed, help, support, console, protect, comfort,

23
nurse, or heal objects or persons in need of these ser-
vices.

When one considers this description, he is led to the
question: Which existing personality theory most meaning-
fully takes account of these results? We appear to have
here a group of students characterized predominantly by
feelings of worthlessness, inadequacy, and inferiority, and
possessing little motivation to alter this state. In Short,
they are students with a structuralized and stable AEEQSf
nnnnglself-concent. Since the areas of self-concept and
self-esteem constitute a major portion of most phenomeno-
logical theory (36, 24, 31, 32), it seemed appropriate to
attempt an application of phenomenological theory to the
present data.

Snygg and Combs, adapting a definition from Rogers
(31), define self-concept as follows:

The self-concept includes those parts of the phen-

omenal field which the individual has differen-

tiated as definite and fairly stable characteristics

of himself (36).

This fits well into our present scheme of manifest needs,
for each of the EPPS' fifteen score values is based on the
testee's concept of feelings and behaviors characteristic
of himself (see instructions included on face of each test
form--Appendix).

Methods-of-Study students are beset by study problems
which may, realistically, result in failure and consequent
dismissal from college: yet, on the basis of the EPPS,

24
there appears to be little real incentive to alter either
their behavior or the feelings of inadequacy and inferiority.
How can this situation be explained within a phenomenological
self-concept framework? To answer this, it will be neces-
sary to examine the ideas pertaining to the origin and
deveIOpment of self-concept.

According to phenomenological theory the self-concept
emerges out of the interaction of the child with the world
about him. Obviously, this concept can only be a function
of the way he is treated by those who are nearest to him.

Accordingly:

As he is loved or rejected, praised or punished,
fails or is able to compete, he comes gradually
to regard himself as important or unimportant,
adequate or inadequate, handsome or ugly, honest
or dishonest, and even to describe himself in
the terms of those who surround him (36).

The child can see himself only in terms of his experience,
and in terms of the treatment he receives from those respon-

sible for his development. Snygg and Combs continue:

He is likely to be strongly affected
by the labels which are applied to him by other
people. . . .If the reactions of those who sur-
round him label him as a liar, a thief, a de-
linquent, or a "dummy," he may eventually come
to see himself in the same light. He can only
act in terms of what he regards as the truth
about himself. Since his phenomenal self is
the result of his experience, his behavior can
only be an outgrowth of the meaning of that
experience and he must necessarily become in
truth what he has been labeled by the commun-
ity which surrounded him" (36).

25
Anderson elaborates this same process when she says:

The psychological self-image is thus formed

early in life as a result of the succession of

experiences of the child with significant

people in his environment. It is built out of

interpersonal experiences for survival. . . .

When love or acceptance at any price is sensed

to be futile, the child can fall back upon his

nuisance value to be sure of not being neglected,

and he may incorporate such nuisance traits into

his structure. It is commonly regarded as more

threatening to be overlooked than to be punished

2 .

If we are on the right track thus far we may assume
that the inferior and inadequate feelings characteristic
of the Methods-of-Study students became internalized quite
early in life and have been maintained till the present.
We might ask, however, if this is reasonable. Through
the years would there not have been attempts to revise and
eliminate negative and undesirable aspects of the self-
concept? According to phenomenological theory this is
not the case. Rather, once a differentiated self-image is
established it becomes stable and more or less permanently
fixed. Snygg and Combs propose two reasons for this sta-
bility. First is the inertia of the organization itself.
An organization or integration once established, tends to
resist disruption. They point out the primary need of all
organisms in the maintenance of their fundamental organiza-
tion, and that even the slightest threat to the organization
is likely to be met by the organism "with a mobilization of

its defenses or a retreat from the menacing situation" (36).

26
In support of this idea the authors add:

It is interesting that even a self-concept in
which the individual regards himself as very
inadequate, stupid, or inept will often be de-
fended to the last ditch. Almost anyone knows
how difficult it is to convince the person with
severe inferiority feelings of his true level

of worth. He is likely to be pleased by praise,
even highly embarrassed, but continues to act in
the same old ways. Any college counselor is
familiar with such people who, when told a high
score on a test, for example, profess that "there
must be some mistake. That couldn't be me. Are
you sure?" (36)

A second factor, according to Snygg and Combs, contri-
buting to the stability of the self-concept is the selection

imposed upon the individual's perceptions by the phenomenal
self.

Once the phenomenal self has become established,
experience therefore can only be interpreted in
terms of that self. Thus all perceptions which
are meaningful to the individual derive their
meaning from the relation they bear to the
phenomenal self already in existence (36).

Thus the self-concepts we hold select our perceptions and
bring them in line with the way we see ourselves.
Anderson explains the stability of the self-concept in

slightly different terms, though there is no basic dis-

agreement:

Once the psychological self-image has been
formed, behavior loses its free and experimental
nature and becomes compulsive, because it has
become in effect structuralized. Once having
structuralized any specific trait, each individual
proceeds through life behaving according to his

27

structure and expecting the succession of people

in his subsequent environment to treat him in

the same manner as the original significant

people treated or regarded him. This automatic

maneuvering of people into reactions and responses

toward him that are familiar is the essence of the
transference phenomena of Freud and the parataxic
phenomena of Sullivan. . . .To alter one 8 pattern

of behavior is to court anxiety. One might ex-

pect that a person who has structuralized the

assumption that he is incompetent would be eager

to change. This is not according to fact, for

it is the familiar rather than the hypothetically

desirable that is the comfortable role (2).

These two basic ideas (i.e., the develoPment and the
stability of the self-concept) are found in essence also in
the writings of Rogers (32), Cattell (4), and in slightly
altered form in Lecky (24) and Gordon Allport (1).

Given the phenomenological paradigm of the early devel-
opment and subsequent centrality and stability of the self-
concept, we are logically led to speculate as to the function
fulfilled by study problems for the Methods-of Study stu-
dents. Perhaps this is a process of "self-fulfilling proph-
ecy"; in other words, this is a group of students who, early
in life, came to feel inadequate and inferior. By now, as
reflected on the EPPS,these feelings have become structur-
alized into a stable inadequate self-concept. "Undue"
success in academic endeavors, or in any other area for that
matter, would surely represent a challenge to at least some
aspects of such a self-concept, and would result in anxiety.
For as Anderson says:

As long as a person can maintain his self
image intact and functioning according to

28

anticipation, he will be free from anxiety. But

whenever a person feels there is a threat to

the integrity of the whole or to any portion of

his self structure, or whenever a portion of

his structure does not function in the anti-

cipated manner, he will experience psychic

pain, which is anxiety (2).

Thus it may be necessany to experience study problems,
or even to fail, in order to maintain the integrity of one's
concept of himself as an inadequate and inferior person.
(Evidence of this phenomena can be seen in the fact that
there is no difference in need patterns between students
who enroll in Methods of Study during the Fall term, which
represents their first college experience, and those who_
enroll during subsequent terms.) Thus, we could expect to
find among Methods-of-Study students situations and be-
haviors which, at some level conscious or unconscious,
represent deliberate failure. ("Failure" must, of course,
be defined phenomenologically, and this may or may not
coincide with objective criteria of success and failure.)

Here again the literature is mute concerning incidents
of such deliberate failure in our population. Kimball,
however, on the basis of numerous case studies and psycho-
therapy experiences with inn;nnninzing counselees, concludes:

. . .Other personality characteristics were strong

feelings of inferiority, passivity, and prominent

dependency needs. All of these could contribute

to poor scholastic performance. When the feelings

of inferiority are strong, we see n.nattern 2;
almost deliberate failure (19).

29

What have been interpreted as similar "patterns of
deliberate failure" have been observed by the writer and
by teaching colleagues in the Methods-of-Study groups.
However, to know the extent of such behavior, and its im-
portance, will require further research in which this
variable is measured directly.

To this point we have relied upon phenomenological
personality theory to make meaningful the results obtained.
The "deliberate failure" or need to maintain an inadequate
self-concept might, in some sense, he looked upon as a
need for punishment. Here psychoanalytic theory can make
a meaningful contribution. Fenichel, in discussing guilt
feelings as a motive for defense, says:

The pressure from the part of the superego

to which the ego is exposed creates first of all

a need for getting rid of this pressure, for

regaining the lost self-esteem, and for reassur-

ance against possible feelings of annihilation.

This aim is best achieved by "forgiveness."

After the experience that punishment may be a

means of achieving forgiveness, a need for

punishment may actually develop. . . .In "moral

masochists," however, the situation may be more
complicated: punishment may be asked for not as

a means of forgiveness only, but also as a kind
of distorted substitute for sexual gratification

(11)-

It is not our purpose here to elaborate on the differ-
ences in etiology implied by phenomenological and psycho-
analytic theory. What is important is that we have two
dynamic explanations, either of which may conceivably be
adequate in clarifying some of the behaviors associated with

30
study problems. This same attitude should prevail in con-
sidering the following additional comments by Fenichel.
He states that mental, as well as physical, functions may
become sexualized and consequently inhibited. Two main
reasons are given as to why an ego may be induced to keep
its intellect permanently in abeyance:

1. A repression of sexual curiosity may
block the normal interest in knowing and think-
ing. Often the inhibited sexual curiosity cor-
responds to an intense unconscious scoptophilia or
stands in intimate relationship to sadistic im-
pulses; the consequent "stupidity" may represent
simultaneously an obedience to and a rebellion
against the parents from whom the patient had
suffered frustrations of his curiosity. . .

2. Exactly as in other inhibitions, the
inherited intellectual functions may have been
sexualized in a much stricter sense. Actually,
the function of thinking may be equated with
the sexual functions in both men and women: its
inhibition, then, has the meaning of castration
(or of the avoidance of castration) (11).

Fenichel goes on to say that studies have been made of
a number of specific disturbances of intelligence, such
as the failure of children in certain subjects at school,
or their inability or unwillingness to study certain things.
The analytic study of such cases corroborated what psycho-
analysis says about inhibitions in general. That is, the
particular subject, or something connected with it or with

the teacher, proved to be associated with fundamental con-

flicts around infantile sexuality.

31

Thus we have added support from psychoanalytic theory
that the study problems experienced by our population of
students may be of a dynamic origin. This suggests, also,
that the relation between psychosexual development and
study problems may be a fruitful area for future investi-
gation.

In addition, we might speculate concerning the high
Nurtunance need for females, which does not necessarily fit
into the inadequacy syndrome. Is it possible that this is
actually a displaced need for Succorance, or dependency,
whose displacement was motivated by ambivalence? Ambiva-
lent feelings toward dependency are often observed in the
Methods-of-Study groups. It should be remembered that the
EPPS is designed to tap nnniznnn needs and does not differ-
entiate between manifest needs which are "real" and those
which are reactive or displaced needs. This, also, is a

question for future research.

V. SUMMARY

So far we have restricted the implications of the data
to the actual population represented by our sample. Are
there other populations to which the results of this study
might apply? We have made frequent reference in our dis-
cussion to over- and under-achievers and to the results
of studies involving these populations. It does not appear,
however, that the present population can be equated with
either of these, for in the present population are included
both over- and under-achievers as well as those who would
be considered average achievers. Therefore, any attempt
to generalize across these populations would seem only to
contaminate the issues.

There is another population, however, which would
appear to approximate the Methods-of-Study groups. This
is the population consisting of Counseling Center clientele
with study problems. Both groups may be described as stu-
dents who are experiencing study problems of some nature
and are seeking help. A selective factor may enter into
the situation in determining which students seek help
through a group experience (classroom situation) and which
seek help through an individual counselor. This question
merits further investigation, for, should future research

reveal that the two populations are essentially homogeneous,

32

33
the implications are far-reaching for counseling centers
and their approaches to study-problem counseling.

In conclusion, it appears that more questions have
been raised than have been answered. The present data ‘
lend support to the argument thatsmudy problems are of a
dynamic nature and not merely a function of poor techniques.
Such problems appear to have their origin in an inadequate
self-concept. Although the exact relationship between
behavior and the needs created by such a self-concept has
not been ascertained, phenomenological theory would suggest
that sometimes patterns of deliberate failure are neces-
sary in order to maintain one's familiar concept of himself
as inadequate and inferior.

Further research questions have been raised concerning
(1) the actuality of such patterns of deliberate failure:
(2) the presence of high dependency needs in individuals
with low self-value; (3) the relationship of psycho-sexual
development to study problems; and (4) the generalizability
of the present findings to students seeking counseling
for other problem areas, e.g., inability to make a voca-
tional choice.

At this point it would be easy to conclude that stu-
dents with study problems are hopelessly involved in the
process of maintaining an inadequate self-concept, and are
therefore doomed to failure in college and other life exper-

iences. It would seem more appropriate, however, to utilize

34

the implications of this study to explore and develop methods
for changing self-concept. Though such changes are often
demonstrated in individual psychotherapy, more widely appli-
cable approaches are needed if an inadequate self-concept
constitutes the basis of study problems. A further impli-
cation is that the teaching of study techniques and mechanics
will not provide a solution for problems which have their

origin in personality dynamics.

APPENDIX

 

 

 

DIRECTIONS

This schedule consists of a number of pairs of statements about things that you may or may not
like; about ways in which you may or may not feel. Look at the example below.

A I like to talk about myself to others.
B I like to work toward some goal that I have set for myself.

Which of these two statements is more characteristic of what you like? If you like "talking about
yourself to others" more than you like "working toward some goal that you have set for yourself,” then
you should choose A over B. If you like "working toward some goal that you have set for yourself” more
than you like “talking about yourself to others,” then you should choose B over A.

You may like both A and B. In this case, you would have to choose between the two and you should
choose the one that you like better. If you dislike both A and B, then you should choose the one that you
dislike less.

Some of the pairs of statements in the schedule have to do with your likes, such as A and B above.
Other pairs of statements have to do with how you feel. Look at the example below.

A I feel depressed when I fail at something.
B I feel nervous when giving a talk before a group.

Which of these two statements is more characteristic of how you feel? If "being depressed when you
fail at something" is more characteristic of you than "being nervous when giving a talk before a group,"
then you should choose A over B. If B is more characteristic of you than A, then you should choose B
over A.

If both statements describe how you feel, then you should choose the one which you think is more
characteristic. If neither statement accurately describes how you feel, then you should choose the one
which you consider to be less inaccurate.

Your choice, in each instance, should be in terms of what you like and how you feel at the present
time, and not in terms of what you think you should like or how you think you should feel. This is
not a test. There are no right or wrong answers. Your choices should be a description of your own per-
sonal likes and feelings. Make a choice for every pair of statements; do not skip any.

The pairs of statements on the following pages are similar to the examples given above. Read each
pair of statements and pick out the one statement that better describes what you like or how you feel.
Make no marks in the booklet. On the separate answer sheet are numbers corresponding to the numbers
of the pairs of statements. Check to be sure you are marking for the same item number as the item you
are reading in the booklet.

 

 

If your answer sheet is printed If your answer sheet is printed
in BLACK ink: in BLUE ink:
For each numbered item draw a circle around For each numbered item fill in the space
the A or B to indicate the statement you under A or B as shown in the Directions
have chosen. on the answer sheet.

Do not turn this page until the examiner tells you to start.

Copyright 1953. All fights reserved.
The Psychological Cerporatien

Printed 1n U.S.A.
Copyright In Great Britain New York' New York 56-183 TI

 

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

w>w>

>

w>w>w>w>w

w>w>w>w>

w >

an»

I like to help my friends when they are in trouble.
I like to do my very best in whatever I undertake.

I like to find out what great men have thought about
various problems in which I am interested.

I would like to accomplish something of great signifi-

cance.

Any written work that I do I like to have precise, neat,
and well organized.

I would like to be a recognized authority in some job,
profession, or field of specialization.

I like to tell amusing stories and jokes at parties.
I would like to write a great novel or play.

I like to be able to come and go as I want to.
I like to be able to say that I have done a difficult
job well.

I like to solve puzzles and problems that other people
have difficulty with.

I like to follow instructions and to do what is expected
of me.

I like to experience novelty and change in my daily
routine.

I like to tell my superiors that they have done a good
job on something, when I think they have.

I like to plan and organize the details of any work
that I have to undertake.

I like to follow instructions and to do what is expected
of me.

I like people to notice and to comment upon my ap-
pearance when I am out in public.

I like to read about the lives of great men.

I like to avoid situations where I am expected to do
things in a conventional way.

I like to read about the lives of great men.

I would like to be a recognized authority in some job,
profession, or field of specialization.

1 like to have my work organized and planned before
beginning it.

I like to find out what great men have thought about
various problems in which I am interested.

If I have to take a trip, I like to have things planned
in advance.

I like to finish any job or task that I begin.
I like to keep my things neat and orderly on my desk
or workspace.

A I like to tell other people about adventures and strange

things that have happened to me.
I like to have my meals organized and a definite time
set aside for eating.

I like to be independent of others in deciding what I

want to do.
I like to keep my things neattand orderly on my desk

or workspace.

I like to be able to do things better than other pCOple

can.
I like to tell amusing stories and jokes at parties.

18

19

20

21

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

29

30

31

32

33

w>w>w>w>w>w>w>

{P

w>w>w>w>w>w>w>w

U3>

I like to conform to custom and to avoid doing this;
that people I respect might consider unconx'enticza,

I like to talk about my achievements.

I like to have my life so arranged that it runs smart};
and without much change in my plans.

I like to tell other people about adventures and st:a:§:
things that have happened to me.

I like to read books and plays in which sex pins;
major part.
I like to be the center of attention in a group.

I like to criticize people who are in a position of a1»-
thority.

I like to use words which Other people often do rs"
know the meaning of.

I like to accomplish tasks that others recognize as ::
quiring skill and effort.

I like to be able to come and go as I want to.

I like to praise someone I admire.
I like to feel free to do what I want to do.

I like to keep my letters, bills, and other papers neg...
arranged and filed according to some system.

I like to be independent of others in deciding whirl
want to do.

r“.

I like to ask questions which I know no one “it“:
able to answer.

I like to criticize people who are in a position of a:
thority.

I get so angry that I feel like throwing and break;
things.

I like to avoid responsibilities and obligations.

I like to be successful in things undertaken.
I like to form new friendships.

I like to follow instructions and to do what is expeczei
of me.

I like to have strong attachments with my friends.

Any written work that I do I like to have precise. 12:1.
and well organized.

I like to make as many friends as I can.

I like to tell amusing stories and jokes at parties.
I like to write letters to my friends.

I like to be able to come and go as I want to.
I like to share things with my friends.

I like to solve puzzles and problems that other pro?
have difficulty with.

I like to judge people by why they do something—rs?
by what they actually do.

I like to accept the leadership of people I admire.

I like to understand how my friends feel about was:
problems they have to face.

I like to have my meals organized and a definite tizf
set asrde for eating.

I like to study and to analyze the behavior of Others

 

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I like to say things that are regarded as witty and
clever by other people.

I like to put myself in someone else’s place and to
imagine how I would feel in the same situation.

I like to feel free to do what I want to do.

I like to observe how another individual feels in a
given situation.

I like to accomplish tasks that others recognize as re-
quiring skill and effort.

I like my friends to encourage me when I meet with
failure.

When planning something, I like to get suggestions
from other people whose opinions I respect.

I like my friends to treat me kindly.

I like to have my life so arranged that it runs smoothly
and without much change in my plans.

I like my friends to feel sorry for me when I am sick.

I like to be the center of attention in a group.

I like my friends to make a fuss over me when I am
hurt or sick.

I like to avoid situations where I am expected to do
things in a conventional way.

I like my friends to sympathize with me and to cheer
me up when I am depressed.

I would like to write a great novel or play.

When serving on a committee, I like to be appointed
or elected chairman.

When I am in a group, I like to accept the leadership
of someone else in deciding what the group is going
to do.

I like to supervise and to direct the actions of other
people whenever I can.

I like to keep my letters, bills, and other papers neatly
arranged and filed according to some system.

I like to be one of the leaders in the organizations and
groups to which I belong.

I like to ask questions which I know no one will be
able to answer.

I like to tell other people how to do their jobs.

I like to avoid responsibilities and obligations.

I like to be called upon to settle arguments and dis-
putes between others.

I would like to be a recognized authority in some job,
profession, or field of specialization.

B I feel guilty whenever I have done something I know

is wrong.

I like to read about the lives of great men.

I feel that I should confess the things that I have done
that I regard as wrong.

I like to plan and organize the details of any work
that I have to undertake.

When things go wrong for me, I feel that I am more
to blame than anyone else.

49

50

51

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

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>

I like to use words which other people often do not
know the meaning of.

I feel that I am inferior to others in most respects.

I like to criticize people who are in a position of au-
thority. '

I feel timid in the presence of other people I regard
as my superiors.

I like to do my very best in whatever I undertake.

I like to help other people who are less fortunate than
I am.

I like to find out what great men have thought about
various problems in which I am interested.

I like to be generous with my friends.

I like to make a plan before starting in to do some-
thing difficult.

I like to do small favors for my friends.

I like to tell other people about adventures and strange
things that have happened to me.

I like my friends to confide in me and to tell me their
troubles.

I like to say what I think about things.

Ilike to forgive my friends who may sometimes
hurt me.

I like to be able to do things better than other people
can.

I like to eat in new and strange restaurants.

I like to conform to custom and to avoid doing things
that pe0ple I respect might consider unconventional.

I like to participate in new fads and fashions.

I like to have my work organized and planned before
beginning it.
I like to travel and to see the country.

I like people to notice and to comment upon my ap-
pearance when I am out in public.

I like to move about the country and to live in differ-
ent places.

I like to be independent of others in deciding what I
want to do.

' I like to do new and different things.

I like to be able to say that I have done a difficult job

well.
I like to work hard at any job I undertake.

I like to tell my superiors that they have done a good
job on something, when I think they have.

I like to complete a single job or task at a time before
taking on others.

If I have to take a trip, I like to have things planned
in advance.

I like to keep working at a puzzle or problem until
it is solved.

I sometimes like to do things just to see what effect
it will have on others.

I like to stick at a job or problem even when it may
seem as if I am not getting anywhere with it.

65

66

67

68

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

76

77

78

79

80

>

I like to do things that other people regard as un-
conventional.

B I like to put in long hours of work without being

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>

distracted.

I would like to accomplish something of great signifi-
cance.

I like to kiss attractive persons of the opposite sex.

I like to praise someone I admire.

I like to be regarded as physically attractive by those
of the opposite sex.

I like to keep my things neat and orderly on my desk
or workspace.

I like to be in love with someone of the opposite sex.

I like to talk about my achievements.

I like to listen to or to tell jokes in which sex plays
a major part.

I like to do things in my own way and without regard
to what others may think.

I like to read books and plays in which sex plays a
major part.

I would like to write a great novel or play.

I like to attack points of view that are contrary to
mine.

When I am in a group, I like to accept the leadership
of someone else in deciding what the group is going
to do.

B I feel like criticizing someone publicly if he deserves it.

>

I like to have my life so arranged that it runs smoothly
and without much change in my plans.

B I get so angry that I feel like throwing and breaking

w>w>w>w> w>w>

l>

things.

I like to ask questions which I know no one will be
able to answer.

I like to tell other people what I think of them.

I like to avoid responsibilities and obligations.

I feel like making fun of people who do things that
I regard as stupid.

I like to be loyal to my friends.
I like to do my very best in whatever I undertake.

I like to observe how another individual feels in a
given situation.

I like to be able to say that I have done a difficult
job well.

I like my friends to encourage me when I meet with
failure.

I like to be successful in things undertaken.

I like to be one of the leaders in the organizations and
groups to which I belong.
I like to be able to do things better than other people

can.

When things go wrong for me, I feel that I am more
to blame than anyone else.

B I like to solve puzzles and problems that other people

have difficulty with.

81

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83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

91

92

93

94

95

96

{11>

>

I like to do things for my friends.

When planning something, I like to get suggestions
from other people whose opinions I respect.

I like to put myself in someone else’s place and to
imagine how I would feel in the same situation.

B I like to tell my superiors that they have done a good

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job on something, when I think they have.

I like my friends to be sympathetic and understanding
when I have problems.

I like to accept the leadership of people I admire.

When serving on a committee, I like to be appointed
or elected chairman.

When I am in a group, I like to accept the leadership
of someone else in deciding what the group is go-
ing to do.

If I do something that is wrong, I feel that I should
be punished for it.

I like to conform to custom and to avoid doing things
that people I respect might consider unconventiona.

I like to share things with my friends.

I like to make a plan before starting in to do some-
thing difficult.

I like to understand how my friends feel about vari-
ous problems they have to face.

If I have to take a trip, I like to have things planned
in advance.

I like my friends to treat me kindly.

I like to have my work organized and planned before
beginning it.

I like to be regarded by others as a leader.

I like to keep my letters, bills, and other papers neatly
arranged and filed according to some system.

I feel that the pain and misery that I have suffered has
done me more good than harm.

B I like to have my life so arranged that it runs smoothly

Wile

>

and without much change in my plans.

I like to have strong attachments with my friends.

I like to say things that are regarded as witty are
clever by other people.

I like to think about the personalities of my friends
and to try to figure out what makes them as they are.

B I sometimes like to do things just to see what eff-e:

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it will have on others.

I like my friends to make a fuss over me when I a:
hurt or sick.

I like to talk about my achievements.

I like to tell other people how to do their jobs.
I like to be the center of attention in a group.

I feel timid in the presence of other people I regard
as my superiors.

I like to use words which other people often do not
know the meaning of.

I like to do things with my friends rather than 'r'~
myself.

B I like to say what I think about things.

 

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105

106

107

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110
111

112
' 113

114

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>

I like to study and to analyze the behavior of others.

I like to do things that other people regard as uncon-
ventional.

I like my friends to feel sorry for me when I am sick.

I like to avoid situations where I am expected to do
things in a conventional way.

I like to supervise and to direct the actions of other
people whenever I can.

I like to do things in my own way without regard to
what others may think.

I feel that I am inferior to others in most respects.
I like to avoid responsibilities and obligations.

I like to be successful in things undertaken.
I like to form new friendships.

I like to analyze my own motives and feelings.
I like to make as many friends as I can.

I like my friends to help me when I am in trouble.
I like to do things for my friends.

I like to argue for my point of view when it is at-
tacked by others.

I like to write letters to my friends.

I feel guilty whenever I have done something I know
is wrong.
I like to have strong attachments with my friends.

I like to share things with my friends.
I like to analyze my own motives and feelings.

I like to accept the leadership of people I admire.

I like to understand how my friends feel about vari'
ous problems they have to face.

I like my friends to do many small favors for me

cheerfully.

B I like to judge people by why they do something—

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not by what they actually do.

When with a group of people, I like to make the
decisions about what we are going to do.

I like to predict how my friends will act in various
situations.

I feel better when I give in and avoid a fight, than
I would if I tried to have my own way.

I like to analyze the feelings and motives of others.

I like to form new friendships.
I like my friends to help me when I am in trouble.

I like to judge people by why they do something—
not by what they actually do.

I like my friends to show a great deal of affection
toward me.

Ilike to have my life so arranged that it runs
smoothly and without much change in my plans.

I like my friends to feel sorry for me when I am sick.

I like to be called upon to settle arguments and dis-
putes between others.

I like my friends to do many small favors for me

cheerfully.

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121

122

123

124

125

126

127

128

129

>

I feel that I should confess the things that I have
done that I regard as wrong.

I like my friends to sympathize with me and to cheer
me up when I am depressed.

I like to do things with my friends rather than by
myself.
I like to argue for my point of view when it is at-

tacked by others.

I like to think about the personalities of my friends
and to try to figure out what makes them as
they are.

I like to be able to persuade and influence others to
do what I want to do.

I like my friends to sympathize with me and to cheer
me up when I am depressed.

B When with a group of people, I like to make the

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decisions about what we are going to do.

I like to ask questions which I know no one will be
able to answer.

I like to tell other people how to do their jobs.

I feel timid in the presence of other people I regard
as my superiors.

I like to supervise and to direct the actions of other
people whenever I can.

I like to participate in groups in which the members
have warm and friendly feelings toward one another.

B I feel guilty whenever I have done something I know

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is wrong.

I like to analyze the feelings and motives of others.

I feel depressed by my own inability to handle vari-
ous situations.

I like my friends to feel sorry for me when I am sick.

I feel better when I give in and avoid a fight, than
I would if I tried to have my own way.

I like to be able to persuade and influence others to
do what I want.

B I feel depressed by my own inability to handle vari-

l>

ous situations.

I like to criticize people who are in a position of
authority.

B I feel timid in the presence of other people I regard

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as my superiors.

I like to participate in groups in which the members
have warm and friendly feelings toward one another.

I like to help my friends when they are in trouble.

I like to analyze my own motives and feelings.

I like to sympathize with my friends when they are
hurt or sick.

I like my friends to help me when I am in trouble.

I like to treat other people with kindness and sym-
pathy.
I like to be one of the leaders in the organizations

and groups to which I belong.

I like to sympathize with my friends when they are
hurt or sick.

130

131

132

133

134

135

136

137

138

139

140

141

142

143

144

I feel that the pain and misery that I have suffered
has done me more good than harm.

B I like to show a great deal of affection toward my

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friends.

I like to do things with my friends rather than by
myself.

I like to experiment and to try new things.

I like to think about the personalities of my friends
and to try to figure out what makes them as
they are.

I like to try new and different jobs—rather than to

continue doing the same old things.

I like my friends to be sympathetic and understand-
ing when I have problems.

I like to meet new people.

I like to argue for my point of view when it is at-
tacked by others.

I like to experience novelty and change in my daily
routine.

I feel better when I give in and avoid a fight, than I
would if I tried to have my own way.

I like to move about the country and to live in differ-
ent places.

I like to do things for my friends.

When I have some assignment to do, I like to start
in and keep working on it until it is completed.

I like to analyze the feelings and motives of others.
I like to avoid being interrupted while at my work.

I like my friends to do many small favors for me
cheerfully.

I like to stay up late working in order to get a job
done.

I like to be regarded by others as a leader.

I like to put in long hours of work without being
distracted.

If I do something that is wrong, I feel that I should
be punished for it.

I like to stick at a job or problem even when it may
seem as if I am not getting anywhere with it.

I like to be loyal to my friends.

I like to go out with attractive persons of the op—
posite sex.

I like to predict how my friends will act in various
situations.

I like to participate in discussions about sex and sex-
ual activities.

I like my friends to show a great deal of affection
toward me.

I like to become sexually excited.

When with a group of people, I like to make the
decisions about what we are going to do.

I like to engage in social activities with persons of
the opposite sex.

145'

146

147

148

149

150

151

152

153

154

155

156

157

158

159

160

161

I feel depressed by my own inability to handle vari-
ous situations.

B I like to read books and plays in which sex plays a

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A
B

major part.

H

like to write letters to my friends.

I like to read newspaper accounts of murders and
other forms of violence.

F-fl

like to predict how my friends will act in various
situations.

like to attack points of view that are contrary to
mine.

H

H

like my friends to make a fuss over me when I
am hurt or sick.

feel like blaming others when things go wrong
for me.

F‘

H

like to tell other people how to do their jobs.

feel like getting revenge when someone has in-
sulted me.

H

feel that I am inferior to others in most respects.

I feel like telling other people off when I disagree
with them.

like to help my friends when they are in trouble.
like to do my very best in whatever I undertake.

like to travel and to see the country.

like to accomplish tasks that others recognize as
requiring skill and effort.

D—IHI—‘H

H

like to work hard at any job I undertake.

would like to accomplish something of great sig-
nificance.

I like to go out with attractive persons of the op
posite sex.
I like to be successful in things undertaken.

I like to read newspaper accounts of murders and
other forms of violence.

I would like to write a great novel or play.

I like to do small favors for my friends.

When planning something, I like to get suggestions
from other people whose opinions I respect.

I like to experience novelty and change in my daily
routine.

I like to tell my superiors that they have done a good
job on something, when I think they have.

I like to stay up late working in order to get a job
done.

I like to praise someone I admire.

I like to become sexually excited.
I like to accept the leadership of people I admire.

I feel like getting revenge when someone has insulted
me.

When I am in a group, I like to accept the leadership
of someone else in deciding what the group is
going to do.

I like to be generous with my friends.
I like to make a plan before starting in to do some.

thing difficult.

 

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

171

172

173

174

175

I 176

177

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I like to meet new people.

Any written work that I do I like to have precise,
neat, and well organized.

I like to finish any job or task that I begin.

I like to keep my things neat and orderly on my desk
or workspace.

I like to be regarded as physically attractive by those
of the opposite sex.

I like to plan and organize the details of any work
that I have to undertake.

I like to tell other people what I think of them.

I like to have my meals organized and a definite
time set aside for eating.

A I like to show a great deal of affection toward my

friends.

B I like to say things that are regarded as witty and

clever by other people.

A I like to try new and different jobs—~rather than to

>

continue doing the same old things.

I sometimes like to do things just to see what effect
it will have on others.

I like to stick at a job or problem even when it may
seem as if I am not getting anywhere with it.

B I like people to notice and to comment upon my ap-

w>w>w>w>w>w>

w>w>w>

pearance when I am out in public.

I like to read books and plays in which sex plays a
major part.
I like to be the center of attention in a group.

I feel like blaming others when things go wrong
for me.

I like to ask questions which I know no one will
be able to answer.

I like to sympathize with my friends when they are
hurt or sick.

I like to say what I think about things.

I like to eat in new and strange restaurants.

I like to do things that other people regard as un-
conventional.

I like to complete a single job or task at a time be-
fore taking on others.

I like to feel free to do what I want to do.

I like to participate in discussions about sex and sex-
ual activities.

I like to do things in my own way without regard

to what others may think.

I get so angry that I feel like throwing and break-
ing things.
I like to avoid responsibilities and obligations.

I like to help my friends when they are in trouble.
I like to be loyal to my friends.

I like to do new and different things.
I like to form new friendships.

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

w>w>w> 31>

a»

When I have some assignment to do, I like to start
in and keep working on it until it is completed.

I like to participate in groups in which the members
have warm and friendly feelings toward one another.

I like to go out with attractive persons of the op-
posite sex.

I like to make as many friends as I can.

I like to attack points of view that are contrary to
mine.

I like to write letters to my friends.

I like to be generous with my friends.

I like to observe how another individual feels in a
given situation.

I like to eat in new and strange restaurants.

I like to put myself in someone else’s place and to
imagine how I would feel in the same situation.

A I like to stay up late working in order to get a job

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{13>

done.

I like to understand how my friends feel about vari-
ous problems they have to face.

I like to become sexually excited.
I like to study and to analyze the behavior of others.

I feel like making fun of people who do things that
I regard as stupid.

I like to predict how my friends will act in various
situations.

I like to forgive my friends who may sometimes
hurt me.

I like my friends to encourage me when I meet with
failure.

I like to experiment and to try new things.

I like my friends to be sympathetic and understand-
ing when I have problems.

I like to keep working at a puzzle or problem until
it is solved.

I like my friends to treat me kindly.

I like to be regarded as physically attractive by those
of the opposite sex.

I like my friends to show a great deal of affection
toward me.

I feel like criticizing someone publicly if he de—
serves it.

I like my friends to make a fuss over me when I am
hurt or sick.

I like to show a great deal of affection toward my
friends.

I like to be regarded by others as a leader.

I like to try new and different jobs—rather than to
continue doing the same old things.

When serving on a committee, I like to be appointed
or elected chairman.

I like to finish any job or task that I begin.

I like to be able to persuade and influence others to
do what I want.

194

195

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

:>

I like to participate in discussions about sex and sex-
ual activities.

B I like to be called upon to settle arguments and dis-

wa>w3>

i>

putes between others.

I get so angry that I feel like throwing and breaking
things.
I like to tell other people how to do their jobs.

I like to show a great deal of affection toward my
friends.

When things go wrong for me, I feel that I am more
to blame than anyone else.

I like to move about the country and to live in differ-
ent places.

B If I do something that is wrong, I feel that I should

>

be punished for it.

I like to stick at a job or problem even when it may
seem as if I am not getting anywhere with it.

I feel that the pain and misery that I have suffered
has done me more good than harm.

I like to read books and plays in which sex plays
a major part.

B I feel that I should confess the things that I have

w>w>

be»

done that I regard as wrong.

I feel like blaming others when things go wrong
for me.

I feel that I am inferior to others in most respects.

I like to do my very best in whatever I undertake.

I like to help other people who are less fortunate
than I am.

I like to do new and different things.

I like to treat other people with kindness and sym-
pathy.

When I have some assignment to do, I like to start
in and keep working on it until it is completed.

B Ilike to help other people who are less fortunate

>

w

w>w>w>

than I am.

I like to engage in social activities with persons of
the opposite sex.

Ilike to forgive my friends who may sometimes
hurt me.

I like to attack points of view that are contrary to
mine.

I like my friends to confide in me and to tell me
their troubles.

I like to treat other people with kindness and sym-
pathy.
I like to travel and to see the country.

I like to conform to custom and to avoid doing things
that people I respect might consider unconventional.

I like to participate in new fads and fashions.

I like to work hard at any job I undertake.

I like to experience novelty and change in my daily
routine.

211

212

213

214

215

216

217

218

219

220

221

222

223

224

225

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l>

1:1

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{16>

65>

I like to kiss attractive persons of the opposite sex.

I like to experiment and to try new things.

I feel like telling other people off when I disagree
with them.

I like to participate in new fads and fashions.

I like to help other people who are less fortunate
than I am.

I like to finish any job or task that I begin.

I like to move about the country and to live in differa
ent places.

I like to put in long hours of work without being
distracted.

If I have to take a trip, I like to have things planned
in advance.

I like to keep working at a puzzle or problem unti
it is solved.

I like to be in love with someone of the opposite sex.
I like to complete a single job or task before taking
on others.

I like to tell other people what I think of them.
I like to avoid being interrupted while at my work.

I like to do small favors for my friends.
I like to engage in social activities with persons of
the opposite sex.

I like to meet new people.
I like to kiss attractive persons of the opposite sex.

I like to keep working at a puzzle or problem until
it is solved.

I like to be in love with someone of the opposite sex.

I like to talk about my achievements.

I like to listen to or to tell jokes in which sex plays
a major part.

I feel like making fun of people who do things that
I regard as stupid.

I like to listen to or to tell jokes in which sex plays
a major part.

I like my friends to confide in me and to tell me
their troubles.

I like to read newspaper accounts of murders and
other forms of violence.

I like to participate in new fads and fashions.

Ifeel like criticizing someone publicly if he de-
serves it.

I like to avoid being interrupted while at my work.

I feel like telling other people off when I disagree
with them.

I like to listen to or to tell jokes in which sex plays
a major part.

Ifeel like getting revenge when someone has in-

sulted me.

I like to avoid responsibilities and obligations.

I feel like making fun of people who do things the:
I regard as stupid.

 

1.

2.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Allport, Gordon W. Pepsonality: a psychological
inteppretation. Henry Holt and Co., New York, 1937.

Anderson, Camilla M. The self image: a theory of the
dyfiamics of behavior. Mental Hygiene, 36, 1952, 227-
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