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J .. fl f‘zxé‘ rzé ' E15.) :t’ Po".’..:(. ;"‘.,.:. 2’..‘.'7) f:::‘l::‘v.:" '0‘ . .0 3'“: ;-:i‘o “‘55: JxJ.:;.ilt:i'u 0’ 3‘ .‘- .../‘:.("‘.“" [’11:”"h....' 10);; ‘.“' v. ‘0‘0.‘0b'0..’. I ’0 .? m?4:f?’ ..." ‘:W‘. "..W" K /‘ J 55;. {grin-J- ”"er 4; 333* [gm-3.; ,a... 55’; r ”(figm' "~ {A ‘3 0 gr 0'00. 0...". L) ..40.050)00l 44.4.! $1.; 2 z '75“? :55: “'5'?! 1‘ m H’ W I' ”ISM ’I W i" / Ill/WigElgigmg/LIJIMé/lL/iéM/M L l ‘- 0 (a o 7 ‘i .9 LIBRARY Michigan State University This is to certify that the dissertation entitled TRAINING AS A MEANS FOR SOLVING HUMAN RESOURCES PROBLEMS: A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OF MANAGERS IN THE ELECTRICAL SECTOR IN SAUDI ARABIA presented by SAMI A . DHAFAR has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph.D. Adult & Continuing Education degree in 6%? Major professor Date November 2, 1988 MSU is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 ‘Y' ’Qmfiidflm . ' MSU LIBRARIES l '21; Q :4 “tan”: "y. ... F‘. ' El) ”'03 055» REIURNING MATERIALS: Place in book drop to remove this checkout from your record. FINES will be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. TRAINING AS A MEANS FOR SOLVING HUMAN RESOURCES PROBLEMS: A STUDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OE MANAGERS IN THE ELECTRICAL SECTOR IN SAUDI ARABIA BY Sami Abdallah Dhafar A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1988 ABSTRACT TRAINING AS A MEANS FOR SOLVING HUMAN RESOURCES PROBLEMS: A S'HJDY OF THE PERCEPTIONS OP MANAGERS IN THE ELECTRICAL SECTOR IN SAUDI ARABIA BY Sami Abdallah Dhafar The fourth five-year plan of the government of Saudi Arabia (1985-1990) stressed eight basic strategies. One strategy was to develop Saudi manpower by evaluating education, curricula and training programs. The literature indicated that for training to be effective, both managers and subordinates must recognize the importance of training. The purpose of this research was to identify the perceptions of managers at three Saudi Arabian electrical companies toward training as a means for solving human resources problems. The six research questions were: (1) To what extent is education and training provided and available to Saudi Consolidated Electric Company (SCECO) employees?: (2) What training programs are most important for improving job performance of SCECO employees?; (3) To what extent do SCECO managers perceive that training and education Dhafar are important for improving job performance of SCECO employees’H (4) What is the role of managers in providing training?: (5) Which employees could gain the most from having training programs in SCECO?; and (6) What are the best/most desirable methods of training employees?. To answer these questions, 145 managers in the companies were surveyed. An analysis of the responses to the survey led the author to conclude that although training and education exist in all electrical companies, training is not perceived as a needed priority or a major contributor to solving human resources problems. Pre-service training, though, is perceived to be very important, especially in helping new employees gain new skills. It was found that top management determines the amount and allocation of training budgets, and that the training programs provided by SCECOs do not meet all needs identified by respondents. Top management was perceived as needing training in human relations, executive management, and communications: lower management in human relations, components of scientific management, and company policies and procedures: and engineers and technicians in their professions, safety, company policies and procedures, and report writing. Managers' roles in providing training were to select the Dhafar trainees, approve employees for training, release employees for training, evaluate training, and identify training needs. It was perceived that supervisors would gain the most from training programs. Two-way student-centered training methods were preferred by all participants. In the Name of Allah, the Compassionate, the Merciful DEDICATION To my parents, whose love, support, and constant prayer helped me greatly in my achievement, To my wife "um Abdallah," whose endless support patience is reflected in this project And to my children, Abdullah, Abdulrahman, Ibraheem, and Salma, whose smiles and childish looks gave me the strength to achieve my goals vi ACKNOWLEDGMENTS No task, regardless of its nature, is accomplished without the influence, help, and assistance of others. I wish to acknowledge those special persons. I wish to thank the chair of my committee, Dr. Cas Heilman, for his full support. Cas never acted in a formal manner toward me. He and his wife Betty welcomed me into their house for long hours time after time. I never felt that he treated me as a student. Without the willing of "God the almighty" in the first place, and the help of Cas, this research would not have taken place. Thanks are also extended to my brothers Sameer, Muneer, and Tareg, who stood behind me and supported me financially while having their own homes and families to take care of and support. Appreciation is expressed to Sawah Al-Otaibi, Ali- Salem, and Badir Al-Duraihim, who loaned me most of the money I needed to begin my program at Michigan State University. Their dedication represents the real brotherhood that Islam embodies. I wish to thank Engineer Khalil Al-Fraih, the General Manager, who is a friend and a brother. Without vii his support and help, this research might have been delayed for another year or two. Finally I would like to thank Gene Purdum for typing and preparing the manuscript, and for his patience and understanding throughout the process of rewriting and correcting the text. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O LIST OF FIGURES O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Chapter I O INTRODUCTION O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Human Resource Development in Saudi Arabia Background and History . . . . . . . . . . Establishment of Other SCECO's . . . . . Saudi Consolidated Electric Company, _ Eastern Region (SCECO East) . . . . . . Saudi Consolidated Electric Company, Western Region (SCECO West) . . . . . . Saudi Consolidated Electric Company, Southern Region (SCECO South) . . A Prblem Facing Development . . Statement of the Problem . . . Significance of the Study . . . Definition of Terms . . . . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . . . . . Training in General . . . . Purpose of Training . . . Phases of Training . . . Assessment . . . . . . . Training Responsibi ities . Advantages of Training . . Costs and Expenses of Train ing Training in Saudi Arabia . . The Labor Force . . . . . Training and Training Programs How People Learn . . . . . Learning Theories Learning Methods Summary . . . . . Summary . . . . . . ix Page xii xiv ...; U'l U'Ibw I I I O METHomLOGY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Introduction . . . . . . . Population of the Study . Instrumentation . . . . . Interviews . . . . . . . Review of Annual Reports . The Survey . . . . . . . . Review of Draft Instrument . Result of the Review . . . . . t Administration of the Instrumen Returns . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis Section Section Section Section Section Section aim-bulk)»: IVO FINDINGS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Section 1 . Findings . Section 2 . Findings . Section 3 . Findings . Section 4 . Findings . Section 5 . Section 6 . V. CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS, AND REFLECTIONS Question 1: To what extent is education and training provided and available to SCECO employees? . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Question 2: What training programs are most important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Question 3: To what extent do SCECO managers perceive that training and education are important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? . . . . . X Page 60 60 60 62 63 63 7o 73 74 74 7s 79 79 79 so 81 82 83 84 87 91 97 98 107 107 112 114 115 115 115 116 116 116 118 Page Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Question 4: What is the role of managers in providing training? . . . . . . . . . . . 119 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 SCECO South and SCECO West . . . . . . . . 120 SCECO East . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120 Question 5: Which employees could gain the most from having training programs in the SCECO? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Question 6: What are the best/most desirable methods of training employees? . 123 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125 Recommendations for Further Research . . . . 128 Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129 APPENDIX O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 13 1 - Appendix A - Questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . 131 Appendix B - Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Activities Selected by Respondents, by SCECO . . . . . . . . . . . 140 Appendix C - Training Programs Suggested by Participants in All SCECOs . . . . . . . . . . 143 Appendix D - Interview Questions and Answers . . 149 Appendix E - T-scores . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . 153 xi 4.7 4.10 LIST OF TABLES Distribution of Surveys Return, by Group . Mean Response of Electricity Sector to Training Managers Versus Subordinates . Mean Response of Electricity Sector to Training, as Given in Section 1 . . . . Distribution of percentages for each activity according to respondent's position, for Section 2, ”In training programs, who should do the following activities?“ . . Budget allocations for training, by SCECO, as reported by SCECO managers . . . . . . Rank of Responses to Statement 1 of Section 3, "Action Toward an Ineffective Employee," by SCECO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Rank of Responses to Statement 2 of Section 3, "Why Send an Employee for More Education, a by SCECO O O O O O O O O O O Rank of Responses to Statement 3 of Section 3, "Why Send an Employee for Trainig,“ by SCECO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Rank of Responses to Statement 4 of Section 3, “How Training is Important for Improving Performance," by SCECO . . . . Responses to Question 1, "Whom Shall We Train?" O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Responses to Question 2, ”At What Level of Organization Should We Provide Training?” Responses to Question 3, ”Why Should We Train Employees?” . . . . . . . . . . . . xii Page 76 77 85 88 90 93 94 95 96 108 108 109 Page 4.11 Responses to Question 4, "When Should Training be Provided?" . . . . . . . . . . 109 4.12 Mean Response of Electricity Sector to Instructional Methods . . . . . . . . . . . 113 xiii 4.10 LIST OF FIGURES General Organization Chart for SCECOs . . . . Examples of Training Courses Offered by SCECO EaSt O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Employee Development Methods . . . . . . . . Training Method Effectiveness . . . . . . . . Who performs each of the eleven activities, by SCECO O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Who does and should perform each of the five activities, by SCECO . . . . . . . . . . . Percentages for Entire Sector for Question 1, ”Whom Should We Train?” . . . . . . . . . . Percentages for Entire Sector for Question 2, "Level of Trainee” . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentages for Entire Sector for Question 3, ”Goals of Training” . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentages for Entire Sector for Question 4, “When Should Training Be Provided?" . . . . Percentages by SCECO for Question 1, "Whom Should We Train?" . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentages by SCECO for Question 2, ”Level ”Level of Trainee” . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentages by SCECO for Question 3, ”Goals "Of Training O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O Percentages by SCECO for Question 4, "When Should Training Be Provided?" . . . . . . . xiv Page 52 54 89 92 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 Page ' 4.11 Managers' view of training needs for all SCECOS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 110 4.12 Subordinates' view of training needs for all SCECOS O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 111 XV CHAPTERI INTRODUCTION To speak of an organization is to speak of an entity that is established with a mission to accomplish. In order to carry out the mission, a goal or set of goals have to be identified and worked on. But the achievement of these goals, whether short-term or long-term, cannot be reached until objectives and procedures are identified and followed. To this end, organizations have to employ the different resources available to any organization by deciding how these resources can be employed to help achieve organizational goals. Nadler (1970) says that "every organization has goals or purposes. To achieve these, the leaders in the organization must make some decisions about how to meaningfully use the resources available to them" (p. 3). Furthermore, Nadler emphasizes that there are three types of resources available to any organization, and organizations cannot operate without them. The three types of resources are: 1. physical resources 2. financial resources 3. human resources 2 Physical resources, as described by Nadler, are those types of materials which the organization has control. Examples of this type are the machinery the company owns, raw materials, and any type of natural resources. Although one might associate "money" with the term "financial resources," Nadler notes that "financial resources may be generated in a variety of ways: sales of goods and services, loans against security, sales of stocks and bonds, etc." According to Nadler, human resources are "The people who are part of the organization." Furthermore, he writes that "They may be direct employees, the customers served, part-time employees, or consultants" (p. 3)- Although an organization cannot Operate without having the three types of resources, regardless of how large or small they are, this research will concentrate on human resources. According to Nadler (1970), human resources usually have two major areas of activity: l.Human. Resource Utilization. This activity includes the process of recruitment, selection, placement, and appraisal of human resources. Much more can be written about this area, but it is not the major concern of this researdh. 3 2. Human Resource Development (HRD). The attention of this research will be focused on this area of activity. These activities and functions are directed mainly toward working with the existing human resources in order to improve their effectiveness and efficiency. (p. 5) Human Resource Development in Saudi Arabia In 1985 the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia announced its five-year development plan for Saudi Arabia for the years 1985 through 1990. Eight basic strategic principles were identified in this plan. One of the principles (No. 5) says that the country should ”continue the development of (Saudi) manpower through the evaluation of edicational training programs and curricula" (Viola, 1986:165). This principle implies that evaluation should be performed on training programs and curricula. Although evaluating training programs and curricula is crucial to the effectiveness of training, the attitudes of managers and employees toward training is also important. Holloran and Frunzi (1986) wrote that “Effective training depends partly on the attitude accompanying the training--attitudes of employees, instructors, and sponsoring companies. . . . "A supervisor should not want to have training simply to have training. The idea behind training is to prepare workers to do the job righ “ (p. 273). 4 The focus of this study is to identify the perceptions of Saudi managers toward the importance of training in solving human resources problems. Since the study cannot cover all managers in Saudi Arabia, a sample will be used. The researcher, having worked in the electricity sector for nine years, has chosen a major part of this sector for the study. The study will include managers and employees in three electrical companies: in the south, west, and east. Background and History Prior to 1976, electricity in Saudi Arabia was produced and managed by different companies scattered throughout the Kingdom. The government was the main shareholder of these companies. In 1976 the government decided to create its own electrical company that would electrify the major parts of Saudi Arabia which did not have electrical service. This agency was called the Electricity Corporation. The major parts which were not electrified consisted mostly of the north, the south, part of the central region, and part of the western region of Saudi Arabia. The east region was electrified mainly by ARAMCO in addition to another sixteen companies. The government decided to consolidate these companies into one large company, SCECO East. 5 Establishment of Other SCECO's SCECO is an acronym for the Saudi Consolidated Electric Company. SCECO East was established in 1976, as noted above. Since the main role for the Electricity Corporation was to construct electrical plants in all parts of Saudi Arabia, and since control of all these areas from the headquarters of the Electricity Corporation in the capital city of Riyadh seems to be difficult, the government decided to split the control of the Corporation into four divisions. SCECO Central was created to control the central part of Saudi Arabia: SCECO West was created to control the western region: SCECO South controls the southern region: and the northern part was left to be under the direct control of the Electricity Corporation. Saudi Consolidated Electric Company, Eastern Region (SCECO East) SCECO East was created by an act of the King in 1976. TNenty-six different companies in addition to all areas controlled and operated by ARAMCO were consolidated into SCECO East. SCECO East provides electricity to three major areas that are located in an area exceeding 120,000 square miles. These three areas are: (l) the area of Dammam operations: (2) the area of Al-Ahsa operations; and (3) the area of the northern Operations. SCECO East serves approximately 350,000 customers and has approximately 6500 employees. The 6 organization charts of all SCECOs are somewhat similar, although some differences occur. Figure 1.1 shows schematically the general form of the organizational charts. Human Resources Development. Although training is considered to be the most crucial aspect of human resources development, it was not until the beginning of 1987 that the SCECO East Central Training Institute was completed and officially Opened. Training was conducted in several places, including an old building, for many years. The Training Institute is one of the best-built Of the Company's training facilities. The Training Center has celebrated the graduating of 383 trainers who were enrolled in the two-year programs designed for high school graduates. Among the graduated trainers were 267 in industrial/academic counseling, 57 in electricity, 20 in mechanics, 19 in electronics, and 20 in operations. The Training Center Offers many training courses, both long and short term, for both administrative and technical employees. These courses are offered at various times throughout the year. The short-term courses range from four hours to five weeks. Three types of courses are Offered on a short-term basis: a. technical courses (25 courses) b. administrative short-term (10 courses) c. general short-term (14 courses). Director General) President (or 1 _ . I [Vice-PresidentJ Vice-President Vice-President] (DDG) (DDG) (DDG) Dept. Manage F-_ l .1 _ L Dept. Dept. Manager Manager Section Head or Section Head or Superintendent Superintendent Supervisor or Assistant Supervisor , or Assistant Supervisor or Assistant ‘ l l l 7 -Employees Dept. Manager Section Head or Superintendent -Technicians -— Engineers etc. Figure 1.1-General Organization Chart for SCECOs. 8 Examples of these courses are shown in Figure 1.2. According to the President of the Company, the yearly budget allocated for training ranges from 90 to 92 million Saudi rials (equivalent to 26 million U.S. dollars).1 Saudi Consolidate§_Electric Company, Western Region (SCECO West) According to the Cbmpany's annual report, 1987 was the sixth year of operation since the Company's creation in 1982 (SCECO west, 1987). The report indicates that the total number of subscribers reached 820,024 at the end of 1987, which was a 91 percent increase over the number of subscribers at the Company's creation in 1982. The Company provides electricity for four major areas in the western region. These areas include major cities as well as all villages belonging to the region. They are: 1. Makkah region 2. Jeddah region 3. Medina region 4. Taif region. The annual report shows that the company has 7999 employees (SCECO West, 1987). 1Some Of this information comes from SCECO East reports and some has been obtained by questioning key personnel at SCECO East. Technical Courses Supervision of LV Cable Installation Fault Hunting for LV Electricians Meter Disconnection and Reconnection Overhead Line Patrolling Meter Installation Meter Reading Compression Techniques Operating Procedures for Load Bust Tool HV Equipment Testing Lucy Switch Gear Use of Bucket Truck, Digger & Line wash Vehicles Substation Inspection Power Plant Safety Electronic Relays Use of Mobile Radios Administrative Courses Basics of Supervision Company Policy and Procedures Customer Service Decision Making and Problem Solving Effective Communication Effective Leadership First-Line Supervisory Development Program Management by Responsibility Introduction to Personal Computers Managing Employee Performance General Courses Scott Air Pack Training Gas Testing Procedures Work Permits Industrial Safety and Accident Prevention Defensive Driving Fire Prevention and Control First Aid Cardio—Pulmonary Resuscitation Occupational Skin Disorders Figure l.2--Examples of Training Courses Offered by SCECO East. 10 Human Resources Development. The Training Department was created in 1985, three years after the Company was established. The purpose for creating this department, as stated in the Company's annual report, was to "implement the Company's policy and to achieve the major Objective represented in the deveIOpment and promotion of the Company's Saudi employees or newcomers" (SCECO West, 1987:26). In the annual report of 1987, the following information is provided about training: The training department in the Company, in spite Of its limitations, has continued its intensive efforts during the year 1987 in order to realize its duties and objectives. The achievements of the department are summarized as follows: 1. The Company has established an integrated laboratory having the necessary apparatus and instruments. 2. The department has engaged a number of permanent trainers and made use Of some qualified personnel in the fields of engineering and administration. 3. Since its establishment in 1985, the training department has trained 101 workers in the training center in addition to 91 workers who received on-the-job training. (SCECO West, 1986:27). The Training Center Offers the following types of programs: 1. technical training for new employees (2 years) 2. technical training for existing employees (2 weeks or shorter) 3. conferences and seminars (outside Saudi Arabia) 4. on-the-job training 11 5. administrative training 6. industrial security 7. financial (accounting, etc.) According to the acting manager of the training department, the budget for training in the previous year (1987) was about 12 million rials ($3 million U.S.). Saudi Consolidated Electric Company, South Region (SCECO South) This company was created in 1981. It serves six large areas in the south region of Saudi Arabia. This region has the most difficult and rugged terrain in Saudi Arabia. High mountains separate the company into three major areas, as follows: 1. Areas east of the mountains a. Najran area b. Bisha area 2. Areas on the mountains (:38,000-10,000 feet) a. Asir b. Baha 3. Areas west of the mountains, by the west coast a. Jizan (the most populous area) b. Tihama The Company's headquarters are located in the Asir area in the city of Abha. The Company has about 4000 employees and serves about 235,000 customers. The researcher was the Materials Department Director for the Company at the time of this research. 12 Human Resource Development. In late 1986, the Company issued its first five-year report about training and education. Some of the salient points in this report are as follows: 1. Since its creation, the Company decided to develop the efficiency of its Saudi employees through training, education, and vocational education. 2. To attain that goal, the Company has completed the following training programs for its employees.1 a. Technical on-the-job training (656 employees) b. Technicians and engineers training (88 employees) c. Technical seminars in the headquarters sponsored by international companies (748 attendees) d. Administrative training including executive, middle management, and supervisory level management courses (443 attendees) According to the manager of the training department, the budget allocated one million dollars to the training department. 1To complete some of the programs, such as administrative training, the employees were sent to outside agencies (i.e., the Institute Of Public Administration). 13 A Problem Facing Training One can clearly see from the above mentioned facts that training is not viewed the same in the three companies. The budget allocated for training varies tremendously. Knowing that the three companies do not have wide differences in the number of their respective employees, the variations in the budgets raise a concern. In a meeting with the researcher, the President of SCECO East said: Because I see training as a very important tool in the development and success of the organization, I made the training department report directly to me when I was first assigned to SCECO East. I wanted to give the department the full support and strength and I wanted to enforce training throughtout the Company. That's why the budget allocated to the training department represents 10% of the total yearly budget. On the other hand, the training manager at SCECO South indicated that he could not convince top management in the Company to allocate even one percent of the yearly budget to training. From discussions with training department personnel in SCECO West, the researcher concluded that management support is the backbone of quality training programs. In summary, the researcher believes that the managers' perceptions and attitudes toward training play the most important role in the success or failure of the training function. 14 Statement of the Problem The specific problem was to identify the perceptions and attitudes of managers at the three SCECOs toward the training function in general, and toward training as a means for solving human resources problems in particular. From the review of literature and interviews, the perception of managers toward training was identified as a crucial factor in the success of the training function. Other important factors such as the role of managers in the training process and the methods used in the learning process were identified. Therefore, three crucial factors were identified: managerial support, their involvement, and the training methods. The problem addressed in this research is to contrast the preceding factors with the existing practices within the three SCECOs. To accomplish this, the research was guided by the following six questions: Question 1: To what extent is education and training provided and available to SCECO employees? Question 2: What training programs are most important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? Question 3: To what extent do SCECO managers perceive that training and education are important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? Question 4: What is the role of managers in providing training? Question 5: Which employees could gain the most from having training programs in SCECO? 15 Question 6: What are the best/most desirable methods of training employees? One sub-question will follow the six questions presented above: Question a: DO managers at different SCECO's view the six training issues differently? Significance of the Study The major corpus of literature addressing Human Resource Development identifies the need for skill development, behavioral change, and the role Of training and education in decreasing the gap between the actual and the intended. Literature addresses the idea of adoption Of and understanding the role of training in solving human resources problems by both the management and the employees of an organization. The fourth five-year development plan of Saudi Arabia stresses the evaluation of training programs. This study should contribute to this process. It is anticipated that the study will produce a replicable instrument which can be used by employers, in general, and the Electrical Sector in particular. This study should give guidance to training managers and top management on what seems to be the important factors that would make the training more valuable. The instrument may serve as a tool for future research on the best strategies to overcome the barriers and produce more effective training programs. 16 Definition of Terms Education: As known in Saudi Arabia, refers to the type Of education degree, such as diploma, bachelors, masters, and so on. Human Resources: refers to all employees working in any organization, including management. Human Resources Development: refers to the process used to deveIOp the personnel of the organization. Use Of this term in this study refers to training or education. Human Resources Problems: refers to the ineffectiveness of employees, whether caused by lack of skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes, or any other reason that leads to inefficiency. Long-Term Technical Training: refers to those types of training in a formal setting that take more than one year to acquire some sort of technical skills, e.g., mechanical, electrical, and so on. Non-Technical Training: refers to any type of training including administrative, management, loss prevention and any other type that is not characterized as technical. Rotation: refers to individual on-the-job experience in various job types, locations, departments, and so on. 17 Workshop: refers to a conference which divides participants into several small groups for discussion and reports back to a larger group. Simulation: refers to individuals who receive on-hand experience through simulation of the work environment and on-the-job situations. Role playing: refers to a simulated situation in which trainees act out the thoughts and behavior of persons in particular roles in the organization. Case method: refers to the study Of a situation which involves a specific incident or organization problem. Brainstorming: refers to a method of getting a group to come up with original, creative ideas. Individual study: refers to individual home study. Short-term Technical Trainirg: refers to non- degree technical courses designed for technicians and engineers in their respective areas (i.e., a course in meter installation) that requires less than three months. §C§_C_O_: refers to the Saudi Consolidated Electric Company. Top managers: refers to managers at the position of vice-president or president. Line managers: refers to supervisors and department managers. 18 Subordinates (others): refers to those university graduates who are qualified to be in managerial positions. In this study, managers and "others" (subordinates) are treated equally. Electricity Sector: refers to SCECO South, SCECO East, and SCECO West. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE Very' little literature exists about training in Saudi Arabia. In fact, only three studies dealing with training in Saudi Arabia were located. Fer the purpose of this study, the major emphasis of this review will be on three major areas: I. Training in General. The emphasis of the review will be on: a. Definitions of training, b. Purposes of training, c. Phases of training, d. Training responsibilities, e. Advantages of training, and 7. Costs and expenses Of training. II. Training in Saudi Arabia. The emphasis of the review will be on: a. The labor force in Saudi Arabia, and b. Training and training programs in Saudi Arabia. III. How People Learn. The emphasis of this review will be on: 19 20 a. Learning theories, and b . Learning methods . Training in General For Glueck, training is defined as "any act designed to increase the skills and effectiveness of employees" (p. 321). Although Glueck's definition is very straight—forward, many writers share almost the same idea. Cascio and Awad (1981) defined training as "a process that enables an individual to acquire the necessary skills or knowledge to meet job requirements" (p. 311). Similarly, Beach wrote that ”training is the organized procedure by which people learn knowledge and/or skills for a definite purpose” (1970:375). The notion Of training as a process to acquire new skills, knowledge, and/or attitudes can be found in many books about human resources development. But to Luthans and Davis (1981), training takes another perspective. To them, training takes expanded meaning and sOOpe. They wrote: Training has taken on a greatly expanded meaning and sOOpe that goes far beyond the traditional notion Of teaching a particular physical skill (e.g., drill press Operator) or an area of technical knowledge (e.g., the organization's Operating procedures). While job-based skill building remains an important area of training (especially in programs for the disadvantaged and the hard-to-employ). one of the largest growing functions of training and development in most organizations during the last two decades has been in the area of human relations (called 21 more recently human resource) programs that attempt to improve employees' (both hourly and managerial) interpersonal behavior at work. (13- 19) Luthans and Davis did not reject the idea of training being a means for acquiring skills, but rather added a very important factor in training, which is the attempt to improve employees' interpersonal behavior at work. Purpose of Training Although the purpose of training can be inferred from the definitions mentioned previously, Carrell and Kuzmits (1986) summarize the purpose Of training into six main areas. 1. To improve performance: Employees who perform unsatisfactorily. because Of a deficiency in skills are prime candidates for training. Although training cannot solve all problems of ineffective performance, a sound training program is often instrumental in minimizing those problems. 2. To update employees' skills: Managers in all areas must always be aware of technological advances that will make their organizations function more effectively. Technological change Often means that jobs change. Thus, employee skills must be updated through training so that technological advancements are successfully integrated into the organization. 3. To promote job competency: Sometimes, a new or newly promoted employee will not possess the skills and abilities required to be competent on the job. First, employee selection systems are not perfect. Second, managers knowingly hire and promote 22 employees who need training to perform at standard levels. Third, many times management hires employees who possess the aptitudes to learn and then trains them to perform specific tasks. 4. To solve problems: Managers report they must achieve their goals through both scarcity and abundance: a scarcity of financial, human, and technological resources and an abundance of financial, human, and technological problems. Managers are expected to attain high goals in spite of personal conflicts, vague policies and standards, scheduling delays, inventory shortages, high levels of absenteeism and turnover. . . . Training is one important way to solve many of those problems. Training courses may concern personnel, marketing, accounting, finance, manufacturing, purchasing, information systems, and general management. 5. To prepare for promotion: One important way to attract, retain, and motivate personnel is through a systematic program of career development. Developing an employee's capabilities is consistent with a personnel policy of promotion from within, and training is important in a career-development system. Training enables an employee to acquire the skills needed for a promotion and eases the transition from an employee's present job to one involving greater responsibilities. Organizations that fail to provide such training often lose their most promising employees. 6. To orient new employees: During the first few days on the job, new employees form their initial impressions of the organization and its managers. These impressions may range from very favorable to very unfavorable and may influence their job satisfaction and productivity. Therefore, many administrators make an effort to orient new employees to the organization and the job. Orientation may be brief and informal, focusing only on such traditional topics as company benefits, holidays, vacations, and pay. But orientation may be a one- or two-day program 23 involving a company tour, meetings with managers and personnel officials, and discussions of a variety of subjects, including organizational objectives and philosophy, employee expectations, and relevant legislation. (pp. 211-212) Although many other reasons for training can be cited, those mentioned above seem to be the most common among companies. Phases of Training TO be effective, training should not occur suddenly. Careful study of the needs for training, the way the training is conducted, and evaluation of the training must take place. Assessment Assessing training needs is a vital process. Not only is this process important, it is, at the same time, quite difficult. According to Middlemist, Hitt, and Greer (1983): Because we recognize the inevitable need to conduct training in organizations, it is logical to ask next, 'How can we determine exactly what skills, rules, knowledge, or attitudes need to be developed or 1earned?‘ We might have a 'nice-looking' training program that teaches new abilities effectively, but if these abilities are not needed on the job, the training will prompt neither job performance nor satisfaction. Conversely, if these are needed job abilities but individuals already have them, the organization will have absorbed unnecessary costs that contributed little to performance or satisfaction. Therefore, the design of an effective program depends first on our ability to assess or measure the type and amounts of various skills, rules, knowledge, and attitudes required by the job and possessed by the employee. (p. 183) 24 In some cases, the determination Of training needs is very straight-forward,- in others it might be complicated. Carrell and Kuzmits (1986) suggested eleven different methods to gather and know training needs. These eleven ways for identifying training needs are as follows: advisory committees - Advisory committees generally comprise various levels of management, and some organizations create multiple committees to represent the various functions, such as production and accounting. Committees Often determine whether a particular problem is a training problem and establish training priorities. assessment centers - Used mostly for management develOpment, the assessment center requires participants to undergo a series of exercises and tests to determine their strengths and weaknesses in performing managerial tasks. attitude surveys - Attitude surveys are most effective in measuring the general level of job satisfaction, but the data gathered may show various areas where training needs exist. group discussions - This method generally involves meeting with employees who represent a specific work area. A primary benefit of group discussions is that the employees are emotionally committed to the training as a result of their active participation in the assessment process. employee interviews - This method generally involves a discussion between the trainer and an individual employee. Although employee interviews are good for specifying individual training needs, they are also time-consuming. This method is little used compared to other less-costly methods. exit interviews - A high turnover rate may spell organizational problems and a need for training, particularly in the area of supervision. The validity of exit interviews 25 greatly depends on an unbiased and skilled interviewer and on honest answers from the employee who is leaving. management requests - Occasionally, a member of management may request that an employee or employees receive training. With this approach, care must be taken to insure that the problem is actually a training problem and that the training needs have been accurately diagnosed. Observations of behavior - Trainers or supervisors may directly Observe employees' behavior to identify training needs. This method is generally limited to the assessment of technical skills and behaviors. Its primary drawback is that it is time-consuming and thus costly. performance appraisals - A valid, job-related appraisal system will point out strengths and weaknesses in employee performance and may indicate training and development needs. Time and cost are low since the data are regularly gathered. And because both the employee and supervisor are involved, an emotional commitment to training is often an additional benefit of this method. performance documents - Most organizations regularly gather data on employee performance, such as productivity, absenteeism, accidents, and turnover. Such information is generally accurate and may be used to point out training needs. A major shortcoming of this approach is that the data simply indicate the existence of a problem and do little to specify its cause. Only a careful analysis will determine whether or not training will solve that problem. questionnaires - Some organizations use questionnaires to identify training needs. The employees themselves are generally the respondents. The questionnaire generally specifies important skill areas, the importance of the skill, and the employee's perception of training need for each area. Cost of this technique is relatively low because a great deal Of data may be collected in a relatively short amount of time. 26 skills test - A test of necessary skills, such as typing, computer programming, or driving, may also be used to measure training needs. When using skills tests for needs assessment, it is critical that the tests are job-related and measure those skills and abilities required for successful job performance. (PP- 213-217) Delivery. The process of delivering training programs includes many factors that are important for the success Of the training programs. Because this involves many things about learning as a means to establish the required behavior, elaboration on this subject will be given in the last section of this review. Evaluation. Evaluation of the efficiency of training programs is a very important step. It allows managers and supervisors to work jointly with the training departments to make sure that the results are as expected. Halloran and Frunzi (1986) wrote: Regardless of which training method(s) is used, it is extremely important to evaluate the results. A supervisor should not want to have training simply to have training. The idea behind training is to prepare workers to do the job right. At the completion of the training program, the supervisor must establish a formal evaluation program to make sure that the program has met its objective. (p. 273) Furthermore, Carrell and Kuzmits (1986) note that good evaluation leads to management support of the ongoing training process for the development Of human resources: Training and development administrators should make every effort to evaluate training. Only through a sound evaluation will trainers obtain 27 support from top management and show how training improves organizational effectiveness. Major training efforts should include the following levels of evaluation: reaction, learning, behavior change, and results. Evaluation should focus primarily upon how the trainer's performance improves after completion of training. (p. 235) Training Responsibilities Training is a joint responsibility. For training to be effective, it has to have the support of top management, supervisors and line managers have to take responsibility for promoting training for their staff, and the training department should work jointly with all levels of the organization to make training more effective and productive. According to Carrell and Kuzmits (1986): Like many staff functions, responsibility for training is shared between line management and staff administrators. Effective training requires that line and staff are able to work closely together on all phases of the training process, and that both parties understand and recognize their shared authority. Trainers or line managers unwilling to approach the training process cooperatively find that training does not help their organizations. Although the responsibility for various functions of training will differ from organization to organization, certain responsibilities are usually reserved for either line managers or staff personnel. (p. 235) Furthermore, Christie (1993) stressed that line managers and supervisors should participate in all phases of training: Managers contribute to the success or failure of training programs. When they participate in the needs analysis and design of training 28 programs, when they match performance problems to training design, and when they sell training to their subordinates, managers cause results to happen. The Human Resources staff must have input and commitment from managers in order to produce training results. When budget cuts hit, effective training won't be the first to go. (p. 112) But as the role of managers is important, the role of the training department is vital. The role of the training department goes beyond simply conducting the training program. The training department should play the role of connecting all the small circles toward reaching the big one. Christie (1983) wrote: A manager may not know what skills would best develop a fast-track subordinate. A manager might not know what a course description really means. The training department should help the manager diagnose and plan for training, just as the finance department provides a structure for budgeting. The training department staff should help managers identify training needs, define profit-producing behaviors, establish a curriculum, select participants, and evaluate results. As facilitators, the training staff contributes their knowledge of group processes to the problem-solving tasks. Also, Training's knowledge of learning principles, course design, and prepackaged training programs will aid the managers in their selection of course content. (p. 110) Concerning the role of top management and other management levels in the training process, Beach (1970), in his book, Personnel: The Management of People at WOrk, noted: TOp line executive management (this may be the president or executive vice-president or a top division manager in a decentralized company) has the responsibility for authorizing basic training policies. Likewise it must review and 29 approve the broad outlines of training plans and programs without, or course, concerning itself with details. It must approve the training budget. If, for example, the training director thinks it would be desirable to inaugurate a comprehensive executive development program, he would have to obtain the wholehearted support of the chief executive Officer of the organization before he could undertake such an activity. It would be the training director who would formulate complete plans for carrying out an executive development program. However, these plans would have to be approved by tOp line management. A training director might feel that certain managers should be sent to one of the extended on-campus executive development courses given by a number of major universities. The actual selection of a person and the decision to release him from his present job for the duration of the course is a line management responsibility. (p. 378) Advantages Of Training The best advantage that any training program can contribute to the organization is by making trainees ready to change. The change might be in behavior or attitude. The change might occur as a result of acquiring new skills: above all, it might be to OOpe with the development of the organization. Beach (1970) indicated six advantages (benefits) of training. According to Beach, the major contributions of training are: 1. Reduced learning time to reach acceptable performance. By having qualified instructors and carefully controlled learning situations, management in countless cases has been able to obtain shortened learning periods and higher productivity from new employees. 2. Improved performance on present job. Training applies not only to new employees 30 but to experienced peOple as well. It can help employees increase their level of performance on their present job assignment. 3. Attitude formation. A common Objective of company training programs is the molding of employee attitudes to achieve support for company activities and to Obtain better cooperation and greater loyalty. Some training programs, such as those concerned with the 'economics of the business enterprise system,‘ have this as their primary goal. In other cases, attitude molding is simply a by-product of the instruction process. 4. Aid in solving Operational problems. Training of both supervisory and hourly paid employees can help reduce turnover, absenteeism, accidents, and grievance rates. For example, inept supervision is Often a cause of employee dissatisfaction and grievances. Supervisory training in such areas as labor relations, leadership, human relations, and administration may improve supervi sor-subordinate relationships. Other Operational problems that training can help solve are low morale, poor customer service, excessive waste and scrap loss, and poor work methods. 5. Fill manpower needs. One manufacturing company found it impossible to recruit sufficient skilled machinists and toolmakers. Hence it concluded that the best way to solve this manpower problem, in the long run, was to establish its own apprentice training program. 6. Benefits to employees themselves. As employees acquire new knowledge and job skills they increase their market value and earning power. The possession of useful skills enhances their value to their employer and thereby increases their job security. Training may also qualify them for promotion to more responsible jobs. This, of course, increases their pay and status. (pp. 376-377) Halloran (1986) adds three more benefits to the six listed above: 31 1. Promote good human relations. Through training, employees will gain self- confidence and security, which in turn promotes cooPeration and respect. Many will see the impetus behind their improvement and will accept more advice in the future. 2. Time can be used more advantageously. As subordinates' performances improve, a supervisor has more time for the essentials. Less time has to be spent on corrections, and more time can be given to planning, organizing, controlling, and coordinating. 3. Training promotes health and safety. By emphasizing health and safety rules, violations and accidents are less likely. (p. 129) Costs and Expenses of Trainipg Companies all over the world spend vast amounts of money on training. Middlemist, Hitt and Greer (1983) indicated that in the United. States alone, 100 billion dollars is invested in training. They indicated that "One recent survey estimates that $100 billion is invested in training programs by industrial and governmental organizations each year“ (p. 189). The question which arises here is, is it worth it to make that huge investment in training all the time? Middlemist, Hitt and Greer (1983) noted that "Economically, the investment in training is justified only if the benefits exceed the costs of training, and some would add that these training benefits should be greater than benefits that would accrue from alternate investment (say, in equipment)" (p. 89). 32 Offering another viewpoint, Halloran (1986) thinks that promoting employees without training them in the new position is a wasteful expenditure: Truly wasteful expenditures occur when people are promoted and then never training in their new duties. Many promoted peOple have been demoted after promotion because they are unable to handle their newly assigned responsibilities. (p. 130) Although the aim of the large investment in training may be justified, certain precautions and careful attention must accompany training to make it economically feasible and to obtain the targeted benefits. Cascio and Awad (1981) wrote that: Training analysis, design, implementation, and evaluation are not for the inexperienced. Training is a costly enterprise that should be given careful attention by staff specialists, responsible line management, and the tOp management of the organization. As we move through the 19803, training promises to remain as pOpular as ever in the continuing struggle to make (or keep) employees maximally effective in their jobs. (p. 311) Training in Saudi Arabia The Labor Force The labor force in Saudi Arabia consists of two main groups: (1) Saudi workers, and (2) expatriates. According to Shaw (1966), the labor market in Saudi Arabia is shared equally between Saudi nationals and expatriates, totaling 3 million workers (p. 94). It is obvious that the number Of expatriates far exceed what a conservative country like Saudi Arabia 33 should have. The reason for the massive employment of exptriates, as described by Sirageldin and Sherbiny (1984), was due to the heavy demand for labor which exceeded the local supply (p. 22). They further wrote that: This excess demand for labor created significant shortages in a wide variety of skills, which have resulted in substantially higher wage rates in Saudi Arabia than in many neighboring Arab and Asian countries. For these reasons, expatriates are spread across all skill levels in all parts of the country. Literally hundreds of thousands of unskilled and semiskilled expatriate workers are employed throughout the five regions of Saudi Arabia. (9. 22) In sum, the Saudi labor market consists Of a massive number of foreign laborers that exceeds by many times the size of local labor. The government, in its fourth development plan, stressed the notion Of Saudization of the labor force. Saudization means replacing an expatriate with a Saudi. In this respect, Al-Sudairy (1986) wrote: The question of Saudization of the civil service is a rather delicate one, as it is surrounded by different viewpoints. In theory, Saudization is an important national goal. In practice, many difficulties arise. (p. 245) Al-Sudairy explained the difficulties arising in the way of Saudization by pointing out how the shortage of the local supplies of labor and the high demand for labor necessitate the continuation of both recruiting and preserving the expatriates. He wrote: 34 Most of the expatriates will still be in existence or will continue to prevail for some time. The following points are of relevance to the issues: 1. The availability of government funds and the expansion of services not only in cities and towns but in the different isolated villages of this vast country necessitated the recruitment of expatriates in large numbers. 2. The small number of graduates from educational institutions in the past proved insufficient for the expanding needs of the public services. 3. The private sector, which progressed very rapidly in the last ten years, attracted many Saudi graduates. (In spite of this, the government is still the biggest employer.) 4. The language of training abroad was a real handicap to training more Saudis outside the country. 5. The unwillingness of some Saudis to work in some jobs, particularly the subprofessional and technical jobs. 6. The lack of a scientific manpower plan in the past to anticipate manpower needs. 7. The expansion of general education compared to that of technical education, and at the same time the expansion of the social sciences colleges compared to other academic studies. 8. The limited entry of women into civil service positions, and the recruitment of expatriate women instead. Training and Training Programs in Saudi Arabia Saudization cannot take place unless enough qualified and trained Saudis are in place. This is why the government stresses training. Sirageldin and Sherbiny (1984) wrote: Another unique feature of the Saudi labor market is the massive program to train Saudis employed in a wide range Of occupations and activities. The rationale'for this phenomenon comes from the proclaimed policy of Saudi authorities to 'Saudize' the decision-making functions at practically all levels of government. There is, however, no adequate 35 empirical knowledge about the extent of Saudization in the public sector. Many Saudis who are less than trained or prepared to take over managerial or administrative functions in the government or public sector may find themselves given such responsibilities in the hope that they will become trained on the job. In fac;:, many succeeded in doing so admirably. (p. 23 Training. Serageldin and Sherbiny (1984) identified three types of training associated with the labor market in Saudi Arabia. These three types of programs are: 1. Vocational training: The Ministry of Labor's major attempt to provide further education and training for school graduates via its prevocational and vocational centers failed to attract sufficient entrants. The possible causes are many. Some undoubtedly stem from a sociocultural preference for nonmanual occupations. Other causes may be related to educational and administrative factors such as the low quality of the training programs, which still need revision: poorly trained teachers: and inadequate linkages with the job market, which makes it impossible to ensure jobs, in part, because potential candidates lack knowledge about the private returns. 2. Upgrading: Given the rapidly changing employment Opportunities of the Saudi work force, it appears that the second plan did not put enough emphasis on the upgrading and training of Saudis already in the workforce. Such efforts as they exist--the literacy campaign, for example--were rather unfocused and could have benefited from better planning and coordination. Despite a strong and beneficial labor law with regard to training and upgrading in the private sector, the result fell far short of expectations, and there was no systematic reporting on progress made in this area. Remedying all these areas was set as an objective of the government's third plan. 3. On-the-job training: Although the evaluation of major industrial investments does take into account the on-the-job training of Saudis, it is not given sufficient attention despite the fact that the transfer of skills 36 might be counted among the most significant benefits associated with many of these large projects. A commendable example is the work of the Saudi Arabian Basic Industries Corporation (SABIC), which is doing much to ensure that project-related training is well designed and appropriately financed. However, the country's overall requirements for highly skilled Saudis is certain to exceed the available supply for the next decade. The allocation of these key resources to competing agencies remains a critical question facing decision makers in the 19803. (pp. 54-55) In summary, the Saudi labor market is saturated with expatriates. The government of Saudi Arabia is stressing Saudization. The Saudization process cannot be completed without the existence of responsible and accountable Saudis, which cannot happen without extensive training and retraining. Training in Saudi Arabia is concentrated on skill acquisition. Upgrading existing skills and on-the-job training are not yet sufficient to produce the required valuable trained Saudis to replace expatriates. How People Learn "lbw do people learn? Nobody knows for certain," wrote Laird (1978:113). But in recent years there has been a flurry of interest in answering that question. Skinner says, "We learn to behave in a certain way because the consequences of that behavior are reinforcing” (1974:189). According to Rogers, significant learning occurs when external factors of threats are at a minimum (1969:18-21). 37 From the above we can see that experts do not quite agree on a sole definition of learning. Thus we should not be too concerned with an exact definition Of learning but rather discuss the theory (or theories) that lies behind the concept of learning. Laird (1978) asks the question, which theory does somebody use? Then he answers, Probably the best answer is to use the theory which has proven to work for you, if you have not that practical experience in causing learning to happen, then the next best thing is to use the theory which seems most persuasive, and there is another approach: to find a thread of harmony in all the existing theories . . . in effect, to develOp an eclectic learning theory which you can call your own. (p. 114). Learning Theories Traditional Sensory Stimulation Theory. "Traditional theory says that learning happens when instruction stimulates the sense of the learner. More attention is paid to sensory experience than to mental processes or emotional involvement,“ writes Laird (1978) in his Approaches to Training and Development (p. 114). He further adds that: Special stress goes to the sense of sight. Advocates Of the sensory stimulus approach maintain that 75 percent Of what adults know was acquired through the eyes. They credit hearing with 13 percent and say that the remaining 12 percent of what people know was acquired through touch, smell, or taste. Learning theorists who reject this approach do so on several bases. They argue that the research itself is faulty, based on just a few variables and ignoring other variables which might have influenced the outcome. For 38 example, there are no data to show whether the learners knew they were accountable for acquiring and retrieving the information. Now many people believe that no learning occurs at all unless students know that they will be held accountable. (p. 114) Ibinforcement TheOpy. By the time B.F. Skinner's (1974) behaviorist psychology arrived, it proved to be a major variation to the traditional ideas concerning stimulus- response learning. The essence of Skinnerian psychology appears in the study of contingency management, or, "What do you do when you don't give training?" (p. 116). "However," Laird (1978) said, "one element called 'reinforcement theory' applies especially to learning theory. It guides the dynamic of the instructor-learner relationship." "Behaviorism," says Laird, "teaches that a behavior is controlled by its consequences." He adds that "Humans will repeat a behavior which seems to produce pleasant consequences, and will avoid behaviors which seem to lead to unpleasant consequences." Laird concludes that what is meant is that "teachers can cause students to behave in a desired way by . . . 'rewarding' . . . giving positive, pleasant consequents to students who 'get it right.'" But Laird then describes this conclusion as being a dangerous one because, as he says, "It is terribly incomplete and partly incorrect" (pp. 116-117). But why is it incomplete? Laird's answer is: Because it ignores the fact that reinforcement between humans is a two-way transaction. Learners are constantly shaping the behavior of 39 instructors, just as they are attempting to shape the behavior of the learner. How incorrect? Because behavior isn't that simple. Students rarely 'get it right' the first time. They certainly don't get the complex Objectives of adults training and develOpment programs completely the first time. (p. 118) Finally, Laird concludes that it appears that both traditional sensory stimulus and reinforcement theory are quite compatible. He says: It's just that reinforcement theory goes farther in describing an inter-reaction of the instructor, the learner and the course content, above all it assumes that such an interaction exists--and that the learner is actively engaged in that interaction whenever learning is really happening. (p. 118) Facilitation Theory. In the book, Freedom to Leap, Rogers (1969) outlines a different theory of learning. He places greater emphasis on the learner's involvement in the process. He examines far more deeply the relationship between the learner and the instructor, identifying this relationship as the primary ingredient in the process. Laird (1978) comments that "The Rogers approach is called 'facilitation.‘ Why? Because Rogers sees the role of instructor as a facilitator of, rather than a stimulator or controller of, the learning process" (p. 119). Rogers believes above all that humans have a natural capacity to learn, even an eagerness to do so. But according to Laird (1978), "he describes this eagerness as 'ambivalent' because significant learning 4O involves two kinds of pain: one with learning itself and the other with giving up previous learning" (p. 23). Finally, in his book Approaches to Training and Development, Laird (1978) cites five points which Rogers points out that the facilitative instructor should be: 1. Less proactive in their own belief and constructs than other teachers; 2. student-centered, especially concerning feelings 3. able to accept from students any innovative and creative ideas 4. more socially oriented than text or materials oriented 5. accept feedback, both positive and negative. (p. 119) Androgogy. The term "andra" derives from the Greek "aner," meaning "man," and androgogy deals with how adults learn. The leading person in this field is Malcolm Knowles. Many differences have been pointed out by Knowles that differentiate adults from children. Adult learners are, to Knowles (1973): I l. problem-centered rather content-centered 2. learners seeking participation 3. they like the student- (learner-) centered classroom setting. SO some of the points that need to be considered when designing androgogic learning to teachers are: 41 1. permit and encourage active participation 2. encourage the introduction and expression of last experience to enhance the learning process 3. plan mutually for activities between them and the learners 4. know that activities are experience, not "transmitted and absorbed" in a pedagogy (teaching children). Knowles stressed that the primary function of the instructor is to "manage" or "guide" the learning process, not "to manage the content" as in traditional pedagogy. TO achieve this, learning designs involve establishing norms for a great deal of the two-way communication (Knowles, 1973). Laird (1978) concluded by saying "Learning is a verb--not a noun. It is a journey--not a destination. Thus the designers of the highway and the drivers Of the vehicles definitely need a consistent philosophy from which to Operate" (pp. 119-120). Recent Findings. As is often the case, recent research indicates that previous findings may not be as clear-cut as they seemed at first. Graham and Gray list the following modifications drawn from the work of Bruner and others: 1. Reward or satisfaction is a highly individual (and Often not conscious) matter. 2. While learning occurs under motivation, there is an Optimum level and type of motivation for each person. Similarly, appealing to more than one sense provides variety, but using more senses than the individual can simultaneously handle 42 interferes with learning for many persons. 3. The learning sequence must be meaningful, but for whom is the problem meaningful? Recent study indicates that if people are forced to adOpt a pattern not their own, they will learn very slowly, if at all. 4. Transfer is facilitated as the learning situation approximates the job situation. However, another factor has been recognized; in actually learning, one learns how to learn, and thus becomes more flexible and capable of a wider range of behavior and adjustment. 5. The value of practice also has been modified. 'Practice makes perfect' only if you enjoy the practice,- otherwise you may simply avoid the whole situation. For example, the child who is forced to practice the piano sometimes learns only how to hate it. (Sica, 1974:121-122) Learning Methods Before talking about the different methods for learning, or the so-called teaching methods, it is important to note that contributors in this field are too numerous to mention. This review is mainly taken from four books concerning human resource development. They are: Employee Training and DevelOpment in the Public Sector by Kenneth Byers: Approaches to Training and DevelOpment by Dugan Laird: Employee DevelOpment Programs by Vaught, Hoy and Buchanan: and Developing Human Resources by Leonard Nadler. We begin by quoting Laird when talking about the methods. "Interstate I-70," said Laird (1978), "is a fine highway if you want to go to Topeka--but don't take it if Birmingham is your destination. The Ohio Turnpike 43 is great for travelers from Ohio to New Jersey, but terrible to take if you are going from Fresno to San Francisco" (p. 127). He continues: And that's the point about instructional methods--more happily called 'learning methods. ' They are just as good as they are contributing toward the achievement of a learning Objective. In fact, it is often helpful to think Of methods as highways which lead to cities (Objectives) and of training materials (visual aids, case study writings, role-play descriptions) as the ingredients of these highways. (p. 127) There are many methods that are used widely in employee training, education, and develOpment. A very brief discussion Of each method will follow. Not all methods will be discussed, but most of the important ones are: l. The Lecture Laird (1978) says, The lecture is, by definition, words spoken by the instructor. It is thus a verbal-symbol medium, Offering a relatively passive and unstimulatory experience for learners . . . Unless the speaker has unusual vocal and rhetorical talent, the lecture needs plenty of interesting examples to illustrate theory, colorful and persuasive language to enhance a well-organized pattern of ideas, and a pleasant and stimulating voice. (p. 131) 2. Role-Playing Vaught, Hoy, and Buchanan (1985) write that "Role playing is primarily used to develop 'implementation' skills. That is, a problem can be identified and a solution recommended" (p. 36). They continue, Part of the learning takes place after the role play as participants (both players and 44 Observers) have the Opportunity to discuss the enactment's content and process variables. Many of the problems, such as defensiveness, embarrassment, etc., encountered in a role-play learning can be overcome by trainers who are competent in the role-playing method. (p. 36) 3. Case Method Vaught, Hoy, and Buchanan (1985) wrote that: Designed to impart 'real life' situations, the case method of instruction attempts to present students with an Opportunity to 'think for themselves.‘ A case report is a summary of a real (or fictitious) situation in which the student is asked to play the role of decision maker. The student must define the problem, analyze the facts, develop alternatives, and suggest the most feasible solution to correct the problem. The instructor simply acts as a guide to pose questions and lead discussions. An interesting derivation of the case method is the incident process. Group members study a written incident and than direct their questions to a discussion leader who has the facts of the case. The group then discusses the facts and presents their best solution, both for the short-term incident and long—term organizational goals. Using a probing, discussion-oriented format, the incident process combines intellectual ability, practical judgment, and social awareness to stimulate self-development. (p. 36) 4. Job Rotation Nadler (1970) writes that As part of education designed for career development, the employee can be given the Opportunity to gain experience on the specific job or the type of job for which he is being prepared. An employee should not merely be placed on another job but must be adequately prepared for the kind of experience he is going to and the relationship of this to his total experience in education. (p. 72) Nadler then describes two patterns that can be used. "The first pattern," according to Nadler, 45 is a short—range rotational experience where the employee is rotated to a job for a short period of time with a purpose Of having him Obtain a feel for the job. He does not remain there long enough for any in-depth involvement. The second pattern Nadler describes is "the long-range job rotational assignment. This can last up to five years though there is no outside limit." Nadler adds that "During this rotational period, the employee becomes part of the unit so that he can become involved in sufficient depth to enable him to make decisions and live with them" (p. 72). 5. Planned Experience TO avoid the administrative problems and emotional overtones of job rotation, the California State Service has been working with an approach called "planned experience." It was developed by Leon Lefebvre. The program aims to develop individual talents and skills in a manner that will produce a reservoir Of manpower. "The procedure," writes Smith (1974), is that The trainee remains in his assigned position, rather than moving from unit to unit. Over a period of years he is given opportunities to perform certain tasks which ordinarily might not come his way. These are based on a list of experience factors developed by a task force of managers and trainees. Smith continues by saying: An organization should develOp its own list of experience factors based on its ability to provide experiences. The list should be broad enough to provide trainees with a representa- tive exposure to management processes, and to aid in develOpment of particular talents and skills. (1974:154) 46 6. Field Trip Instead of rotating to a different job, the employee "rotates" to a different physical environment for a short period of time. Nadler (1970) writes, A field trip is an organized observational experience outside Of the physical plant of the learner for a stipulated set of Objectives. It should not be a junket, nor should it be utilized without a clear understanding of Objectives by employees and those responsible for authorizing the trip. Part of the growth experience is that the employee must develop his faculties for observation and for sharing his experience with others. Larger organizations have a resource which is too infrequently used. Where the organization has Offices or plants at a variety of sites, organized Observations of those plants is a meaningful educational experience for an employee. (pp. 75-76) Nadler adds: Field trips can also be arranged outside the company to other companies. The same kind of educational experience can be made available when HRD personnel from different companies work together to provide a mutual set of field trips. A mutual exchange among various companies in unrelated fields could prove to be an exiting educational experience for all, including the HRD department. (p. 76) Laird (1978) writes: A major argument in favor of field trips is that they permit learners to experience sensory impressions which could never occur in classrooms or conference rooms--but which are characteristic of the environment in which the new behavior must persevere. The trip thus assists the 'generalization' process, permitting behaviors acquired in an isolated or unnatural environment to persist in a less focused 'real world.‘ Further, field trips effectively let people who work in one part of the system comprehend the impact and dependencies they have upon other departments. This desire for 47 organizational empathy is highly commendable, and field trips are probably infinitely more successful than 'guest lecturers' from alien departments. (p. 134) 7. Mutual Exchange Programs With some similarity to field trips, mutual exchange programs is a new idea which stems from the idea of visiting the U.S.A. by peOple from Japan. Nadler writes that as part of various foreign aid programs conducted by the United States government since World War II, there has been a component known as 'participant training.‘ Nadler (1970) states that: through these programs, individuals have come to the United States for different lengths of time. In some cases, they came for training and education, but there were also some which fit under the classification of develOpment. The visits to the United States were for as little as three weeks but usually were for six weeks. During this period, the participants had a series of organized visits to a variety of companies but did not spend more than one day in any company. It proved to be an excellent technique for one aspect of development, which dealt with expanding the horizons of leaders and participants. (p. 101) During his work in Japan, Nadler was involved in sending more than 5,000 Japanese to the U.S. for such develOpmental experiences. When the Japanese participants returned to Japan, they would usually meet with each other and discuss their experiences in the United States. "Although the official terminology for such develOpmental experience was 'observations,‘ they 48 were certainly much more than that," writes Nadler. During the debriefing sessions, he was constantly amazed at the newer insights the Japanese participants had received from such a short exposure: "They returned and now saw their organizations in a new light." From the experience above, according to Nadler (1970), Employees should not be sent on these exchange experiences with the objective of returning and immediately applying their observations. The basic purpose of this practice is to provide the employee with an opportunity for a new experience which he previously has not had. (p. 102) 8. Programmed Instruction Vaught, Boy, and Buchanan (1985), in their book Employee Development Programs, write the following about programmed instruction: One of the few methods of training that allows the trainee to work at his/her own pace is programmed instruction (PI). Trainees are asked to read information pertaining to the course content. Several questions are posed to which the trainee is asked to respond. The trainee receives feedback immediately as to the correctness of his/her answer. The trainee is then free to advance to the next piece of information and the procedure is repeated. There are several situations where PI may be indicated: a wide geographical spread of students, a large volume of students, stable subject matter, crucial requirement for standardized performance, little need for 'batch' training, and high potential benefit from, performance improvement. Organizations may buy off—the-shelf programs or hire a contractor to develop an exclusive program that fits their needs. Or organizations, if the volume is great, may train their own personnel to develop the programs in-house. (pp. 38-39) 49 9. Sensitivity Training Vaught, Hoy, and Buchanan (1985) also write the following about this method: One of the most controversial of training methods, sensitivity training (sometimes called T-groups) emphasizes a laboratory approach to learning about oneself. Utilizing the guidance of a skilled leader, the small group (8 to 15 people) meets periodically for several sessions. There is very little structure to the sessions: rather there is a reliance on the ability of the group members to concentrate on the 'here and now,‘ thus moving toward more open and trustful communication. The trainer's role is extremely passive. His/her behavior will depend largely upon whether or not the emphasis is upon the person, the interpersonal relationships, or the group itself. The avowed aims of sensitivity training are: [1] increasing awareness of interactional styles: [2] increasing sensitivity to others: [3] understanding group processes and their immediate effects: [4] understanding how roles are taken up and fulfilled: and [5] understanding how conflicts arise and are resolved. (p. 38) In order to achieve these aims, several conditions are necessary which encourage experimentation within the group. First, prescribed agenda and parliamentary procedures are abandoned. Second, the trainer is open and candid in his/her observations of the group. Third, group cohesiveness is facilitated in order to loosen up personal defensiveness. And fourth, the giving and receiving of feedback from observers within the group helps put problems and concerns in perspective. (p. 39) 10. Group Training Much training and develOpment activity, especially that of a more formal nature, takes place in a group setting. There are many group training methods. Conferences is one such group training method. 50 Reith, in his "Group Methods" (1976), indicates eleven different formats for group training. These formats depend upon the objectives defined for the meeting. They are: l. Speech-forum - a lecture followed by open discussion, 2. Panel - three to six competent members who discuss an assigned topic, 3. Panel-Forum - a panel presentation followed by audience participation, 4. Symposium - a series of related speeches (or talks) by two to five qualified authorities, ’ 5. Symposium-Forum - a symposium followed by open discussion with the audience, 6. Colloquy - a panel of three to four experts and three to four pe0ple from the audience discuss a particular subject area, 7. Group Discussion - six to twenty participants discuss a tOpic under the guidance of a trained leader, 8. Conference - a group of two to fifty people with different points of view but common backgrounds, 9. Committee - a small group of people assigned to study a problem and report back to the parent group, 10. Seminar - a group (under a learned person) designed to define problems, conduct a certain amount of research and then reach a conclusion, and 11. Workshops - a study group (under a program coordinator) designed to improve the participants' ability or understanding of a particular problem. The effectiveness of all of these group methods depends upon the ability of the group leader to plan activities, build group norms, stimulate group interaction, and evaluate group movement. (p- 34) There are several indirect results and benefits to the organization resulting from the use of group discussions. During the meeting, participants are brought into contact with one another, and they 51 establish a fellowship as a group which is carried over into other working relationships the individuals may have. To more clearly illustrate the above mentioned formats of group training, it might be helpful to put them into the form presented by Smith, in his Employee Development Methods (1974: 176-178). The same format is presented in Figure 2.1. It explains what each method is, how to use it, and when to use it. This summary is intended to reinforce the larger discussion and is not all-inclusive. 11. Organization and Self-Renewal Lippitt (1969), in his book Organizational Renewal, emphasizes the responsibility of the individual for his own develOpment. He quotes, "HRD should provide - each employee with the responsibility of exploring his own area for renewal and development" (p. 291). Nadler (1967) adds that "The famous quote attributed to Lord Acton also has a message. He wrote 'Power tends to corrupt: absolute power corrupts absolutely.‘ In self-renewal, specific objectives tend to limit renewal and specific terminal behaviors eliminate the possibilities of develOpment" (p. 103). According to Nadler (1967), a newer trend is called "organizational development" and "organizational renewal." This trend may serve to highlight equally important goals of employee develOpment. Hopefully, 52 Hefhod Correspondence and individual Study What-ii is individirdi home study flew—fo-rise if Trainee enrolls in home-study course or reeds Independently men}; {a}; 3': Other sources of training not available or trainee is isolated Job instruction Training (Jl'i‘) Individual instruction by supervisor Supervisor follows 4-step method with employee on the job Employee on new job: lacks job experience: specific skills required: one-position jobs, group training not feasible. Coaching individual on-tlre-iob training Supervisor works closely with trainee on specific iob tasks Orientation: new employee: disadvantaged employees: regressing employees. Programmed Learning individual study Buy or build programmed in- struction course: trainer mon- itors trainee's Independent progress through program Trainee isolated; specific non. motor skills or knowledge to he learned: content not sub- icct to frequent changes: large numbers to be trained. Rotation individual on-the-iob experi- ence in various job types, loca- tions, departments, etc. Periodically move trainee from job to job: have him learn through performance in each position Employee being groomed for promotion: needs to know. be able to function in many dif- ferent capacities: to sharpen insights, broaden skills. Planned Experience Individual experience of var- ious kinds without rotation to diaerent positions Give opportunities to perform tasks not associated with job assignment .ioh rotation not feasible: em- ployee has potential for ado vsncement: broader experi- ence desirable. Speaking to training group usually from prepared notes Stand or sit in front of group and give information or spe- cific topic Large number of trainees: all require same information: no time for more participative methods. Conference Meeting to solve problem through group discussion Trainer or chairman conducts discussion: involves trainees in attempting to solve prob- lem, reach decision. To gather or pass on infor- mation. communicate policies, get participation in problem solving: to stimulate group efi’ort. , Workshop Conference divides Into sev. oral small groups for discus- sion. reports hack to big IMP llave small groups discuss a problem or issue: leaders or reporters tell big group what they decided When a problem should be attacked from different angles: when group is faced with several different prob- lems or issues: when partici. pation by many members is desired: when group is too large to carry an elective discussion. Laboratory Training Group human relations train- ing using principles of group dynamics llave managers participate in T-group with people other than own superiors or sub- ordinates (unless for "team training" or “organisation de- velopment") When managers are not aware of the effect of their attitudes and behavior on others. or of others' reactions to them, or as part of an "or- ganisation development” pro. gram. Role Playing A simulated situation in which trainees act out the thoughts and behavior of per- sons in particular roles in the organisation Trainees act out situation: afterward discuss what hap- pened and why When trainees need to look at human relations problems from a different viewpoint. Caselethod Study of a situation which in- volves a specific incident or organisation problem Present case orally, in writ- ing. by film: have conferees analyse and discuss it. deter. mine issues. possible solutions Whoa trainees need practice in applying management con- cepts to their own problems. incident Process A case study with little infor- mation available to trainees at beginning Provide trainees with mini- mal information: have them ask questions. analyse facts. draw conclusions When group needs to learn to gather and analyse facts before solving a problem. Brainstorming Method of getting group to come up with original, cre- ative ideas List all ideas: suspend judg- ment: encourage freewheel- ing thinking, hitchhiklng on others' ideas. When new or unusual Idea is needed, or a knotty problem defies analysis. Management Games in-Basket A simulation of real-life situation A simulation of a series of decisions a trainee might have to make in real life. Present trainees with realis- tic situation containing prob- lems they must solve through team effort Present trainee with pack of papers containing adminiso trative problems: require him in limited time, to make de- cision on each When you want trainees to get practical experience using management tools without real-life risks. To teach decisionomaklng un- der time pressure and assign. ing of priorities. Figure 2.1-Employee Development Methods 53 preparation will be made to allocate sufficient company resources to developing individuals as is now planned to be allocated for renewal or organization (p. 103). Much more can be written about the various methods which are expanding and taking various shapes and forms to best serve for the development of human resources, but it is the intention of this study to brief the reader of the various methods used and then derived from there into the problem of this study. We will next discuss some literature about the idea and bases in which any of these methods can be adopted and applied. Vaught, Boy, and Buchanan (1985) wrote: The selection of a method of training and development can be very difficult. Of course, some method selections are easy to make, such as apprenticeship. However, most methods are clothed with their own particular disadvantages and advantages, critics and advocates, theory and research, thus making the training specialist's job somewhat exhausting. For example, the final choice between on-the-job develOpment or off-the-job development has certain pluses and minuses. On-the-job methods typically provide for job realism, immediate feedback, and higher knowledge transfer. 0n the other hand, the trainer utilizing on-the-job methods may not be skilled in training techniques or simply may not have the time to provide the training. Also, these methods frequently disrupt regular production, thus giving on-the-job development a rather low priority among many supervisors and managers. Off-the-job development methods are most often taught by professional trainers, complete with the latest motivational and teaching strategies. Since the learning is off the job, few interruptions are encountered, giving the small organizations that use various types of in-house training S4 methods is shown in [Figure 2.2]. As can be seen, the most frequently used method was lecture-discussion. Role playing, case study, and films/videotape were used by a majority of the reporting organizations at both the first level of supervision and middle management. As might be expected, sensitivity training was the least frequently used method especially in small organizations who do not use it at all. Clearly, method effectiveness does not dictate use by training specialists. Other factors (e.g., cost, organizational needs) must be taken into consideration before selecting a method of instruction. (pp. 39-41) Training Objective Mast Effective Method least Effective Method Knowledge Acquisitim Conference Method Televisim lecture Changing Attitudes Sensitivity Training Televisicn Lecture Problem-solving Skills Case Study Movie Films Interpersonal Skills Role Playing Televi sicn lecture Participant Accqatance Gase Study Programmed Instruction Knowledge Retentim Programmed Instruction Sensitivity Training Source: Jdm Newetrom, "Evaluating the Effectiveness of Training Methods," Persmnel Administrator 25 (January, 1980). Figure 2.2—Training Metiiod Effectiveness Sica (1974), in his article “How We Learn," emphasizes the so-called "conditions of learning.“ No matter what method is used, their conditions should be looked upon, because any way the final product of any of these methods will result from a learning experience. Ten conditions are cited Sica (1974). They are (pp. 115-120): 1. Everybody Can Learn In deciding which method, if any, will be used, the developer must keep in mind that the "assumption that the ability to learn lessens with age is 55 questionable," writes Sica. "There is still no unequivocal answer to this, but there is argument that you _<_:_a_n teach an old dog new tricks. However, you have to know something about the dog," adds Sica (1974:114). 2. Everybody is Different In planning for individual or group methods for learning to take place, it is important to know that: Each of us sees the world from the background of his past experiences, his habits, needs, emotions, goals, and values. We vary with respect to our physical, emotional, intellectual, and social resources for learning. Since everybody is different, the trainer needs to learn about the trainees. He should try to provide for flexibility which will allow each trainee to progress at the rate best for his development. Another aspect of this condition is that training can be done most effectively in small groups. (p. 114) 3. The Learner Must Be Ready Learning cannot be forced. Unless the requisite degree of maturation and psychological readiness to learn is present, learning is either difficult or impossible. (p. 114) 4. The Learner Must Be Motivated The individial is not motivated by something you do to him. It is within him: he must want to learn. He must first feel some unfulfilled need. He is then motivated by action by seeing a goal that is related to the satisfaction of this need. This and Lippitt state that a condition for motivation is that 'the individual must be aware of the inadequacy or unsatisfactoriness of his present behavior, skill, or knowledge,‘ and '. . . must have a clear picture of the behavior which he is required to adOpt. (PP- 114-115) 5. Learning is Active Learning is an active process. If the trainee obtains first-hand experience or explores a 56 situation and discovers the operating principles, then the learning is more effective and is retained longer. Jerrold W. Kemp points out that the action need not be overt. 'Using symbols, abstracting, deducing, generalizing, inferring, and concluding are all activities intimately involved in learning.‘ (p. 115) 6. Start Where the learner Is The learner’ makes fastest progress when he can relate new knowledge or skills to what he already knows. Comparisons and analogies help carry him from the known to the unknown, and from what is most readily understood to what is less easily grasped. (p. 115) 7. Go from the Simple to the Complex Paul M. Stokes points out that 'the training program must be planned to progress naturally from the simple skills, either physical, or mental, to the more difficult or complex knowledge required.’ (p. 115) 8. variety Avoids Boredom This and Lippitt recommend that, where several learning methods are about equally useful, variety should be introduced to offset factors of fatigue and boredom. Stokes suggests that the work-place training program should provide a variety of experiences, in order to give the trainee the greatest possible number of Opportunities to learn. Another way of providing variation is by appealing to more than one sense, as with the use of visual aids. (p. 116) 9. The learner Needs Feedback We are aided by having information on our progress toward an objective. When we know how we are doing, we can correct mistakes and improve performance. Without such feedback, improper performance may become hardened and difficult to change. (p. 116) 10. And finally, and most importantly, Time Must Be Provided for Repetition and Practice. 57 Generally it may be said that nothing absolutely new is ever learned effectively with one exposure. Repetition functions to reinforce and extend learning and to make the learned information more enduring.‘ Practice is also essential. The program must provide Opportunities to use what is gained, and to allow time for assimilation, testing, and acceptance. This also means avoiding the temptation to cram everything possible into the allotted time. The essentiality of time for learning is illustrated by curves of learning, which show how performance changes with increasing practice. A representative curve, known as the S-shaped curve, is shown in Figure 12. The learning gets off to slow beginning, followed by more rapid progress to mastery, and then to a level or plateau. Drill for the sake of drill is no longer considered valid. Then, how much practice should be used? The answer is that famous one: 'it depends.‘ 'Whenever it is necessary to make a skill stick or to learn particular facts or definitions for exact repetition, then, and only then, will long practice be required in the learning.‘ Should we 'sock it to' the trainee while things are fresh in his mind? No--because we learn more easily when the training is spaced over a period of time. Breathing spaces seem to provide time for consolidation of what we have learned. However, the sessions should not be too far apart, because forgetting occurs most rapidly in the period immediately after training. (p. 117) Summary The conditions for learning are summed up by DePhillips, Berliner, and Cribbin and quoted by Sica (1974:119): The beginning of learning is a need which must be satisfied, the procedure is self-activity, the immediate aim is the satisfaction of the need, the intermediate objective is the use of what is known in one's daily behavior, the final end is a reorganization of behavior in the direction of what is wiser and better. 58 Summary The seven parts of the literature review indicated that: 1. While each type of job has some factors that are unique to the performance and effectiveness of carrying out that job, it would seem from the literature that education, satisfaction, financial rewards, experience, and age make a difference in the performance and effectiveness of any employee in the organization. In trying to develop, train, and educate staff members of any Department, one should seek the causes of the problem, diagnose it, compare the actual output to the required one, develop the objectives for the learning experience, recognize the present stage of the employee, and choose the best method and way that will enhance the required learning and consequently bring out the desired change. 3. While no simple method in learning is proven to be the best for every situation, careful examination of the existing situation must be considered. The following questions can serve as guidelines for training developers: a. What type of change is needed? 4. 59 l. Skill upgrading or establishment? 2. Knowledge acquisition or change? 3. Attitude acquisition or change? b. Is this change because of 1. Organizational development? 2. Employee transfer or upgrading? 3. Employees' inefficiency? After identifying the exact need, one can search for the best method that can be used. The success or failure of choosing one or a combination of these methods will determine the success or failure in the results. All points discussed earlier in this summary can never be achieved if both the manager (who pushes the wheel of the training and education process) and the employee (who is the center of the issue in the learning process) do not realize the real importance of training and education in Human Resource Development. Although there are more skills, knowledge, and attitudes that exist and could make a difference in employee effectiveness, the right skills, knowledge and attitudes needed to perform the job effectively differ from job to job and from culture to culture. CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY Introduction This research was concerned with the perception of Saudi managers regarding the importance of training in solving human resources problems. This inquiry was guided by six main questions: 1. To what extent is education and training provided and available to SCECO employees? 2. What training programs are most important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? 3. To what extent do SCECO managers perceive that training and education are important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? 4. What is the role of managers in providing training? 5. Which employees could gain the most from having training programs in SCECO? 6. What are the best/most desirable methods of training employees? Population of the Study The rationale for choosing three electrical companies was that the researcher was familiar with the 60 61 electrical sector and these three companies. Managers were chosen because managers represent decision makers, and it is at this stage of evaluating training programs that it is very important to know how managers view the value of training. After a review of the organizational chart of each company, the number of supervisors, managers, and subordinates (university graduates qualified to be managers) was identified and recorded. The number for SCECO South was approximately 60: SCECO West was approximately 40: and SCECO East was approximately 70. Thus, the total was approximately 170 participants. Instrumentation A review of the literature indicated that in order for training to be effective, four main factors had to be examined. The first factor is the perception of both managers and subordinates of the importance of training. The second factor concerns the phases of training: needs assessment and delivery. The third factor concerns the responsibility of training and the roles of the training department and the managers. The last factor concerns the method of delivering the contents of training. Taking the above mentioned factors into consideration, the researcher used three means for data collection: 62 1. interviews with training department managers, 2. a review of annual reports, and 3. the survey instrument. Interviews Training managers and some of the staff in the training department were interviewed. The main questions asked were: 1. What was the training budget for the last year? 2. Does that budget amount represent a fixed portion of the whole budget? 3. Who prepares the budget and who approves it? 4. Who performs the following activities: Allocate money for training? Select trainees? Approve employees for training? Release employees for training? Evaluate the Training? Identify training needs? Select the trainer? Identify expected training results? Prepare the training materials? Conduct the training? Plan the program? The answers to these questions can be found in Appendix D-l. 63 Review of Annual Reports The researcher reviewed the annual reports to identify the announced policy for training and to obtain some documented data about training. A copy of the page(s) concerning training of SCECO South and West are included in Appendix D-2. The Survey The researcher developed the survey instrument for obtaining the major data for this research. Initially about 150 items were included. These items were refined into a group of 100 items which was further refined into a final form having six sections. The six sections are related to the survey questions and are described and presented on the following pages. Section 1 was designed to obtain a general feeling about the perception of managers toward human resources development and training in general. The 10 items included in section one addressed the major issues about training. Section 2 was designed to identify the role of managers in providing training. To do this, the 11 major activities concerning training were stated. For each activity, the respondent was asked to answer the question, "In training, who does and who should do the following." Two columns were provided and five possible responses were given, as follows: (1) division heads: new 64 In this Section, please respond to each statement by entering one number, 1 to u, in the blank space, using the fOllowing scale: strongly agree ......1. 10. u 3 2 1 agree disagree strongly disagree Personnel are the most important resource available to the Company. Special effort and attention is necessary to improve and develop the personnel within the Company. Training programs are most effective when training is based on Company needs. Training programs are most effective when the training is based on specific employee needs. Designing training programs is a crucial process that requires lots of attention and considerations. The Training Department should play a leading role in the human resource development within the Company. Training is important for overall improvement in the perfbrmance of the Company's employees. Employees will benefit most by being sent outside the Company for training programs rather than being trained internally. Annual performance appraisal should be linked with the completion of training needed by individual employees. Evaluation of training programs is as important as conducting the training program. 65 SECTION 2 The next part of the questionnaire is designed to determine your perceptions of who SHOULD DO the following items related to training programs. For each of the items below, please indicate your impression as to who SHOULD DO the activity mentioned by placing the number 1-5 in the blank to the right of the statement, according to the following: Division Head Department Manager Deputy Direcrtor General Director General Training Manager msz-s ll ll ll ll ll In training programs, who should do the following: Who Should 20.11:. Allocate money for training _____ Select trainees ...... Approve employees for training ....— Release employees for training ...... Evaluate the Training _____ Identify training needs ...... Select the trainer ....— Identify expected training results ____. Prepare the training materials .___. Conduct the training ____. Plan the program .____ 66 (2) department managers: (3) vice-presidents: (4) Director General (President): and (5) training department manager. The reason for asking who performs the training now and who should do the training was to identify any differences between actual and desired training situations. Section 3 was created to have an understanding of how managers see training, along with other options to solve human resources problems. Four statements were given. For each statement or question, eight possible actions or reasons behind doing that action were provided. The participants were asked to choose only four actions and rank-order them in order of importance. Statement one asked what a manager would do if it came to his attention that a person(s) was ineffective. Statement two asked the question of why a manager would send someone for more education. Statement three was the same as statement two but concerned training. The fourth statement was a direct question of what a manager thinks about training in improving job performance. The fourth section of the instrument was developed to determine in what ways employees can most benefit from the training process. Four questions were provided. The first question asked, who among technical and non-technical staff should we train? The second question dealt with the level of organization most in need of training. The third question concerned 67 SECTION 3 A statement will be given to you followed by eight actions that you might take. Please choose four (A) of the eight (8) choices and rank those four from 1-u in order of importance with 1 : most important and u : least important. Example: If you marked statement p_with‘!l, then you are saying that b is the action I would do first. If you put :5 against 3, then you are saying that c is the last thing you would do. Statement 1: It has come to your attention that an employee working in your department is ineffective or lacks some knowledge and/or skills. Your action would be: (rank only H) _____ a. transfer him ._____ b. tell him to do it right .____ c. fire him d. neglect him a. train him in the department .____ f. send him to training center _____,g. give him another assignment ......h. try to annoy him so he will quit Statement 2: If someone asks you, "th would you send an employee for more education?" what would you tell him? (rank only A) a. I would not do it _____b. to get rid of him for a while c. because his job requires it .....d. to reward him e. it's the company policy ____.f. to gain new knowledge .....g. to gain new skills ._____h. to qualify him for advancement 68 Statement 3: If you were asked why you would send someone in your department to a trainingfiprogram, you would answer: (rank only u) ._ a. I would not do it _____b. to get rid of him fOr a while _____c. because his Job requires it _____ d. to reward him e. it's the company policy f. to gain new knowledge ......g. to gain new skills _____ h. to qualify him for advancement Statement u: If somebody asks you, "Do you think that training is important for improving Job performance of the Company's employees?" you would answer: (rank only A) a. I don't think so b. yes, but only for technical people 0. I don't think it is good in the area of attitudes changes _____ d. it could improve performance but it is not the important factor c. Job performance cannot be improved by training _____f. training can improve perfbrmance, but in an indirect way ......g. training improves Job performance .____h. training can improve Job performance for all employees 69 SECTION H In each of the following questions, circle all the answers that you agree with. Question 1: Whom shall we train? (Circle all that apply) a. technical employees b. non-technical employees Question 2: At what level of the organization should we provide training? a. lower level b. supervisory level c. management level d. top management level e. others specify Question 3: th would we train employees? a. to acquire new skills, attitudes or behaviors b. to update his skills, attitudes or behaviors c. to prepare him for a position d. to transfer him to another Job c. others specify Question A: When should training be provided? a. employees who are not performing well D. employees who need training on new equipment or procedures c. employees who need non-Job related training d. new employees e. experienced employees who have not had training for 3-5 years f. others specify 70 the circumstances under which training is necessary. The last question dealt with training timing. This question was similar to the third question but gave more situations. Section 5 was an open-ended question asking participants to list‘ needed training programs for six categories: top managers, department managers, section heads, technicians, and others. These six categories actually represent three major groups: tap managers, line managers, and subordinates. Section 6 was designed to identify the best possible method(s) for delivering the training. Nine common methods of teaching were given with some explanation of how each one is delivered. The respondent was asked to rate each method on a Likert- type scale of 1-4, where l = "very poor" and 4 a “excellent." The last page of the instrument contained two questions. One question asked about the participant's position, and the other asked which SCECO he worked for. Review of the Draft Instrument Because two types of cultures are involved in this research, the researcher conducted a pilot study with this final instrument with five people to make sure that the population could understand it and to ensure that the instrument could be answered easily by all 71 SECTION 5 Training Needs. Please write training needs (title of training programs) you think should be done for the following groups in the space provided. (P.S. you can write in Arabic if you prefer.) Group 1 : Top Management a. b. c. d. Group 2 : Department Managers a. b. c. d. Group 3 : Division (Section) Heads a. b. c. d. Group u : Engineers a. b. c. d. Group 5 : Technicians a. b. c. d. Group 6 : Other employees (please specify) a. b. c. d. 72 SECTION 6 For each of the instructional methods mentioned below, please mark in the blank to the left of the statement a number from 1 to 5 which indicates how effective you feel the method is in conducting training, according to the following scale: 1 2 3 u Very poor Poor Good Excellent The Lecture Method. The trainer will be speaking to training group usually from prepared notes. The trainer stands in front of the group and gives information or specific topics. Individual Study. The trainee enrolls in home-study courses or reads independently. Coachi 5. Individual on-the-Job training. The supervisor works closely with the trainee on specific Job tasks. Rotation. Individual on-the-Job experience in different Job types, locations, departments, etc. __ ibrkshop. Meeting to solve problems through group discussion. The trainer or chairman conducts discussion and involves trainees in attempting to solve problems and reach decisions. Simulation. Individuals receive on-hands experience through simulation of the work environment and on-the-Job situations. Bole Playipg. A simulated situation in which trainees act out the thoughts and behavior of persons in particular roles in the organization. Trainees act out the situation and then discuss what happened and why. _______ Case Method. Study of a situation which involves a specific incident or organization problem. The case is presented orally, in writing, or by film. Conferees analyze and discuss it, determine the issues, and propose solutions. Brainstorning. A method of getting a group to come up with original, creative ideas. The group lists all ideas, suspends Judgment, encourage freewheeling thinking and hitchhiking on others' ideas. 73 populations. Since most members of the pOpulation in this sector were supposed to know English well, the survey instrument was not translated into Arabic. The survey was first administered to five SCECO South managers. They were not told that the survey was a pilot study. However, they were encouraged to write down any comments they had about the questionnaire, including relevancy of the questions to the subject, and the presence of any questions which were vague or otherwise needed refinement. Result of the Review All five participants responded to the pilot study. A few words were asked to be changed or added, but the major concern was with question two, which asked them to identify who is doing the training now and who should do the training. All the respondents wrote that not everyone knows who performs these activities. They were concerned that they would write down a guess rather than leave the space blank, and the researcher would have inaccurate data as a result. The respondents suggested eliminating the spaces for “who does the activity now" and obtain accurate information from the training department, where they know for sure who now performs the eleven activities. Accordingly, the researcher eliminated the portion asking who presently performed each of the activites. Instead, these data 74 were gathered from interviews with training managers. A copy of the final version of the questionnaire is included in Appendix A. Administration of the Instrument Because the exact number of managers and supervisors was not known, 200’surveys were prepared. The researcher visited SCECO West and wrote a request to the President of the company for permission to administer the survey. The President transferred the request to the Training Department and asked them to assist the researcher distributing and collecting the surveys. Three weeks were given to the Training Department to collect the answered surveys. Forty surveys were given to them. The same procedure was followed at SCECO East, except that the surveys were transferred to the Public and Customer Relations Department. One hundred surveys were given to them. For SCECO South, a slightly different procedure was followed. Because the researcher is employed by SCECO South, his secretary distributed the surveys. Participants were asked to return their surveys to the Materials Department. Fifty surveys were distributed. Returns When the researcher went to SCECO East to collect the surveys, he was informed that some managers were on 7S vacation, consequently, the surveys were given to "M" participants who where university graduates and were qualified to be managers. They were randomly selected and given the surveys. The research thus acquired an additional good dimension by having subordinates as some of the respondents instead of managers. The same thing happened at SCECO West and SCECO South, where most of the managers were either on vacation or very busy preparing for the Haj (pilgrimage happening at the same time). A total of 145 surveys were returned, resulting in an overall return rate of about 70%. A summary of the response rate of different groups is summarized in Table 3.1. To ensure there were significant differences between the "others," who were subordinates but were either managers or associates, a t-test was applied to the answers given by managers versus the answers given by the "others" (subordinates). The results, shown in Table 3.2, indicate that, generally speaking, there were no significant differences between the answers of the managers and the answers of the subordinates ("others"). For the purposes of this study, the two groups were treated equally and considered as one group. Data Analysis Sections 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 of the survey were gathered and each item was coded and entered in the 76 Table 3.l--Distribution of Surveys Returned, by Group Returned Not Returned Group Complete & Usable Incomplete N % N % N % Supervisors and Managers (n8128) 69 57% 2 1% 29 42% Subordinates (n=72) 63 97% 2 1% 5 2% computer using lotus 1-2-3 and Hal software for the statistical analysis. Since the scale in sections 1, 3, and 6 represent a continuum, the mean values of each item were calculated and a table was develOped. In each table, the data from three SCECO's were presented along with the mean of each item against each activity. The last column shows the means for the entire sector. The scale on sections two and four was to represent the number of occurrences for each item. In treating these two sections, frequency distribution and percentages for each item were calculated. For section two, a table showing the percentages assigned to each item was calculated. For section four, a graphical presentation showing bias and pie charts was developed. 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The ten statements were entered in the computer and the score for each respondent (1-4) was entered. Each SCECO's items were entered separately. After the data were analyzed, a table was produced. The ten statements were presented, and against each statement the means of each of the three SCECOs were presented. In the last column, the whole sector's means were calculated (see Table 4.1). Section 2 Frequency distributions were calculated for each of the eleven activities. For each SCECO, the percentages for each activity for each of the four groups (line managers, top managers, training department, and joint) were calculated and are tabulated in Table 4.2. The highest percentages are underlined. Section 3 The scores for each statement were entered in the computer. Since the respondents were asked to choose only four statements and rank order them from 1 (top priority) to 4 (least priority), each rank assigned to a statement by the respondent was given a weight. Rank one was multiplied by four, rank two was multiplied by three, rank three was multiplied by two, and rank four was multiplied by one. For each of the eight choices 80 given, after each of the four statements the points received by the respondents were calculated and totaled to give the total points for each choice. To illustrate, suppose that choice "a" in statement one was ranked #1 by 20 respondents, #Zby 15 respondents, #3 by 10 respondents, and #4 by 5 respondents. The total number of points for this statement would be calculated as follows: (10 x 4) + (15 x 3) + (5 x 2) + (5 x 1) = 180 points The four highest means are presented in Tables 4. 3-4.6, which show the tap four answers for each SCECO, and their respective ranks. Since there were eight choices for eadh statement or question, the frequencies given to each of the eight choices are shown in Appendix E. Section 4 Since there were four questions .in this section, and since participants were asked to indicate all answers they thought applied, each question was entered followed by the number of choices. For each score of each of the choices, the frequency was determined. After the frequency was calculated, the percentage for each item was recorded. Two graphical presentations (using Harvard Business Graphics software) are presented. The bar-graph presentation indicates the frequency of each choice for each SCECO. The pie-chart 81 presentation indicates the percentages given to the whole sector. Section 5 This section consisted of Open-ended questions that asked participants to write down training programs needed for all levels of organization. All of the 480 titles were recorded as written (see Appendix C). The main themes of these 480 titles were then extracted and are given in Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.12. Section 6 Participants were asked to rate each of the nine presented methods on a four-point Likert-type scale. The means of responses were calculated for each method. The means were calculated to determine the tendency of the whole population. Table 4.7 shows the findings. Because the purpose of this study was to ascertain the best method(s) for training, 3.00 was chosen to be the midpoint between a high rating (good) and a low rating (not so good). CHAPTBRIV FINDINGS The purpose of this study was to determine the perception of Saudi managers toward training as a means for solving Human Resources problems. To achieve this, six main questions were raised in the study: 1. To what extent is education and training provided and available to SCECO employees? What training programs are most important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? To what extent do SCECO managers perceive that training and education are important for improving job performance of SCECO employees? What is the role of managers in providing training? Which employees could gain the most from having training programs in SCECO? What are the best/most desirable methods of training employees? Three methods of data collection were used: 1. interviews, 2. a review of annual reports, and 3. the survey. 82 83 The main purpose for interviewing staff and training managers of the training departments was: (a) to identify who actually performed the eleven activities presented in Section 2 of the survey: (b) to identify the budget amount for last year: and (c) to identify top management's attitudes toward training. The findings will be discussed with the findings in Section 2. The data obtained by reviewing the annual reports can be found in Chapter I (pp. 5-12). The six sections in the survey were developed with a wide range of overlap concerning training in order to measure, with some assurance, the perceptions of a sample of respondents in three electrical sectors. The research identified many useful thoughts and ideas for careful consideration. For the purpose of this chapter, the theme of each section will be identified, followed by the findings. The section will relate these findings to the main questions of the study. Section 1 The focus of this section was to find out: 1. The importance of human resources as perceived by managers 2. The importance of training as perceived by managers 3. How are the issues of needs, benefits, and evaluation of training perceived? 84 Table 4.1 gives the mean scores for each of the ten issues presented. For each issue, the mean is given for the whole SCECO and for SCECOs South, East, and West. Overall means for the whole sector for each issue are shown in the fourth column. In the last column, the rank of each issue according to the sector mean is given. Findings The overall perception of participants was very encouraging. Human Resources were perceived as important. The idea of training was perceived as important. Managers' perception generally was not found to differ significantly from subordinates. Participants in general seem to agree on issues 1, 5, 6, and 10 with no apparent differences among them. The issues which did differ significantly (Appendix E shows the t-test applied to these and other issues throughout the study) are: Issue 2 - Special efforts and attention are necessary for personnel improvement. SCECO West respondents judged this issue to be significantly less important (2.74) than respondents at SCECO East (3.78) and SCECO South (3.48). Issue 3 - Training programs are most effective when based on Company needs. SCECO West' 3 group judged 85 Table 4.l-Mean lbsponse of Electricity Sector to Training, as given in Section 1. SCEOO SCEOO SCEOO Description South East West Bank in Sector Sector Personnel are the mat inportant resource for the carpany 3.42 Special efforts and attention are necessary for personnel improvement 3.48 Training prograns are met effective when based m collpany needs 3.20 Training prograns are met effective when based on employee needs 2.20 Designing training programs requires lots of attention and cmsiderations 3.14 The training department should play a leading role in the human rescirce development 3.40 Training is inportant for the overall inprovement in employees performance 3 . 06 Enployees benefit met by being trained outside their company 2.34 Annual performance appraisal should be lirked with ccnpleticn of training 2.50 Evaluation of training programs is as important as cmducting them 3.32 3.68 3.78 3.35 2.50 3.56 3.43 3.35 2.46 2.57 3.40 3.74 2.74 2.43 3.43 3.52 3.65 2.43 3.87 3.74 3.57 3.57 3.67 3.37 2.39 3.43 3.43 3.26 2.41 2.57 3.43 10 Barking of Response 1 = Strongly Disagree 2 a Disagree 3 =- Agree 4 8 Strongly Agree 86 this issue to be significantly less important (2.43) than SCECO South (3.20) or SCECO East (3.35). Issue 4 - Training programs are most effective when based on employee needs. SCECO West respondents judged this issue to be significantly more important (3.43) than scrco South (2.20) or scnco East (2.50) respondents. Issue 7 - Training is important for the overall improvement in employee performance. SCECO West respondents judge this issue to be significantly less important (2.43) than SCECO South (3.00) or SCECO East (3.35). Issue 8 - Employees benefit most by being trained outside the Company. SCECO West respondents judge this issue to be significantly more important (3.87) than SCECO South (2.34) or SCECO East respondents (2.46). Issue 9 - Annual performance appraisals should be linked with completion of training. SCECO West respondents judged this issue to be significantly more important (3.74) than SCECO South (2.50) or SCECO East (2.57) respondents. Section 2 The main theme of this section was to identify the managers' role in the training process and to see if there were any differences between what the study showed and what was actually occurring. 87 The survey instrument dealt with managers' responses as to who should perform the activities. Table 4.2 shows the distribution of percentages by participants in each SCECO for each activity. The allocation of percentages included four groups: line managers, top managers, training department, and percentages showing joint allocation between the first three groups. The interviews dealt with who actually does each of these activities and the budget allocated to the training department. Figure 4.1 shows the answers of the training managers as to who actually performs each of the eleven activities. Table 4.3 shows the respective budget allocations for SCECO South, SCECO West and SCECO East, as reported by the managers interviewed. Findings Survey Findings. The overall perception of participants seems to agree that line managers should be involved in the activities of: (1) selecting trainees: (2) approving employees for training: (3) releasing employees for training: (4) evaluating the training: (5) identifying the training needs; and (6) identifying expected results. Another agreement in the whole electrical sector seems to indicate that the training department's role .pocsasoocs as has>suoa mono sou oumom some sou unanswered unonmsm one Adsosm one can» one: on co>sm ego: nonconv assow u aca acosusmaoo mcscsush u as nsommcms nos u as assumes: was; u :4 88 a as m as. I ma a 8 m .3 a i a a a 5 923.... 2: an: m 9... m as m NM m as a Mm a as s wls. m m. 9:52... 33:8 s H _ 3 a We. m mm m a a i m wM a as 23.5%... 9.2.8.: 95%.... as 2. a W... Z a: m mm 2 ..m 2 ...Im a H m N: 333.. 330a: 3353 as N a PM a aw. s am 8% .. am as H a am 28:2... 330m 9 am s mm 2 mm a aim. m. an as Mm as am m mo. 38.. 9:595 3353 : am a WM 2 am 0 mm 2 sm 9 mm a am a Q 9:595 ..8 aosaaasga a s .2 w... a m s ala as a. 2 Ha. s a ..m We. 9:595 .8 3:39..» 32.3.. a as as sla m as ._ .3. s as 3 H a am mm Wm 9:595 3.. uoososaao 32...: a as m Q. a N. 3 mm a Z a my. a a s mla. ”352... 332.. a ..m H mm 2 am aim. as m mm. mm 8 a % am sm 9:595 3.. >88 3332 saw as as 2a gas as zs za gas as as :a gas as :s :a sas>suoa naaaoa ssa suns ooaam an»: aoaam apnea aaaam apnosus>suom amazouaos on» on panama on: .nsmsuosm museums» cm: .N noduoom nos .sOsusnoa n.acovcoauos o» mcscsooos asas>suoa mono sou nouuasoosoa so cesusassunsoa|~.= vague Activity SCECO South SCECO East SCECO West Allocate month Board top Board of for training Directors management Directors Select trainees line line line managers managers managers & training department Approve employees top training top for training managers department managers Release employees line line line for training managers managers managers Evaluation of training line training training department managers department & training department Identify training training training training needs department department department Select training training training trainers department department department Identify training line training expected department managers department results & training department Prepare training training training training materials department department department Conduct training training training training department department department Plan the training training training program department department department Figure 4.1--Who performs each of the eleven activities, by scsco. 90 Table 4.3--Budget allocations for training, by SCECO, as reported by SCECO nanagers. SCECO Budget allocation, in dollars East 26 million West 3 million South 1 million should be to: (1) select trainees: (2) prepare training materials: (3) conducting the training: and (4) plan the program. The overall perception of who should allocate money for training seems to be that it should be done jointly among all groups. Some of the apparent differences noted between SCECO's are discussed below: Activity 3 - Release employees for training. Although all three SCECOs judged this activity the same, SCECO East participants seem to be more assured by giving line managers (80%) which tends to be higher than SCECO South (63%) and SCECO West (67%). Activity 8 - Identify expected results. Although differences occurred for this activity between SCECO East and SCECO West on the one hand, and SCECO South on the other hand, there seems to be an agreement that this activity should be done jointly by line managers and training departments. Activity 11 - Plan the program. While all SCECOs decided that this activity should be performed by 91 the training department, SCECO West seems to be more decisive by having a higher percentage (81%) than SCECO South (61%) or SCECO East (62%). The second purpose of this section was to identity points of difference between who should perform the training activity, as judged by the participants, and who actually performs these activities. After examining the reports and interviews collected from the training department about who actually performs the duties, the differences were identified, as shown in Figure 4.2. The main differences to be reported are the ones actually done by each of the SCECOs. While approving employees for training is not done by the training department in SCECO East, it is done by top management at both SCECO West and SCECO South. Another difference occurs for training evaluation. This activity is the role of line managers and the training department at SCECO East, while it is only the training department's responsibility at SCECO South and SCECO West. Section 3 The theme of this section was linked with Section 1 in finding out how training was perceived among other actions or solutions. Tables 4.4-4.7 identify for each statement presented at the top of the table the frequencies given to each of the eight answers. 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N s s I ooaagaosaoa o>osdss no: noon aN m o s N Ns s. as m m sm as s s o tosoas saastoaas was so: m m I I I NN s N N s s. a s s I oaaoao oosssaso as soon so: s N s s I as a m m s ss m s m o osaooa saosaaoos tos ssao o I I I I s I I I s s s I I I oaostoaas so: as sasasats «room a m N s «noon 2 m N s osoom a m N s tarmac .as: sass .os: sass .os: sass Ammuzv any: oumom Amhnzv snow oouom nomuzv mason oomom nosoom saunas»: pca accoscosm .oomom an :.oocassossom no» mss>osasH nos acousoasm as masasass 30:: .m ecsooom so s acosouoam on avocados: so xcazIIs.s sagas 97 points given for the eight answers are shown for each SCECO, and overall ratings are given in the last column. Findings This section was designed to obtain some idea of the managers' perceptions toward training. The managers were asked to respond to statements about training, ranging from very negative to very positive, with overlap between some statements and ambiguity in others. The managers' responses were generally positive toward training. In response to statement one, "Action toward an ineffective employee," for example, managers seem to agree on choices e, f, and g, which indicated their positive attitude toward training employees. One important finding in this section is that about 40% of the respondents selected "Tell him to do it right" would be an Option. This may indicate that although managers see the importance of training, they may not want to apply it. In statement two, concerning the reason for sending someone to receive more education, the majority responded by agreeing that they would do so if the job required it. The other choice was to gain new skills and knowledge. In statement three, concerning the reasons behind sending employees for training, most of the responses leaned toward the more positive actions of gaining new 98 skills and knovledge, qualifying the employee for advancement, and to meet training needs as they arise. There was no single clear-cut response to this statement. For statement four, concerning the value of training and its importance, the respondents seemed to agree generally that all employees need to be trained. Managers tended to view training as valuable. Nevertheless, a sizable number of managers said that training is not the most important factor in improving job performance. Section 4 The main theme of this section was to determine: 1. who should be trained, 2. why do we train, and 3. when should the training occur. Figure 4.3 shows the percentages given to each of the four choices by the entire sector. Figure 4.4 shows the percentages given by the entire sector surveyed to each level in the Company. Figure 4.5 shows the percentages given to four different goals of training. Figure 4.6 shows the percentages given to five situations in which training could become a necessity. Figures 4.6-4.10 show the percentages given to the same above. 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Board of Top Board of Directors Management Directors Who performs the following: 1. allocate money for Board of Top Board of training Directors Management Directors 2. select trainees managers managers managers 3. approve trainees top training top for training management dept. management u. release employees top for training managers managers management 5. evaluate training training managers & training training dept. dept. 6. identify training needs training training dept. training dept. & managers dept. 7. select trainees training training training dept. dept. dept. 8. identify expected results training training dept. training dept. & managers dept. 9. prepare training training training training materials dept. dept. dept. 10. conduct training training training training dept. dept. dept. 11. plan the program training training training dept. dept. dept. APPENDIX E T-scores 150 Table 1--T-test Applied to Section 1, SCECO East-SCECO West. not Description t-value significant significant Personnel are the most important resource available to the company .ou X Special effort and attention is necessary to improve and develop the personnel within the Company 3M.66 X Training programs are most effective when training is based on Company needs 8.36 X Training programs are most effective when training is based on specific employee needs 2.10 X Designing training programs is a crucial process that requires a lot of attention and consideration -.06 X The training department should play a leading role in the human resource development within the Company -.37 X Training is important for the overall improvement in the performance of Company employees -1.55 X Employees will benefit most by being sent outside the Company for training programs rather than being training internally -2.1 X Annual performance appraisal should be linked with the completion of training needed by individual employees 2.05 X Evaluation of training programs is as important as conducting the training program -.34 X To be significant, the t value must be > 2.00 151 Table 2-T-test Applied to Section 1, SCECO South-SCECO West. not Description t-value significant significant Personnel are the most important resource available to the company -1.00 X Special effort and attention is necessary to improve and develop the personnel within the Company 5.88 X Training programs are most effective when training is based on Company needs 5.fl5 X Training programs are most effective when training is based on specific employee needs -5.u2 X Designing training programs is a crucial process that requires a lot of attention and consideration -2.00 X The training department should play a leading role in the human resource development within the Company -1.u2 X Training is important for the overall improvement in the performance of Company employees 3.19 X Employees will benefit most by being sent outside the Company for training programs rather than being training internally -7.09 X Annual performance appraisal should be linked with the completion of training needed by individual employees -6.85 X Evaluation of training programs is as important as conducting the training program -1.92 X 4__ To be significant, the t value must be > 2.00 152 Table 3-T-test Applied to Section 1, SCECO South-SCECO East. not Description t—value significant significant Personnel are the most important resource available to the company -.u1 X Special effort and attention is necessary to improve and develop the personnel within the Company -.59 X Training programs are most effective when training is based on Company needs -.21 X Training programs are most effective when training is based on specific employee needs -.31 X Designing training programs is a crucial process that requires a lot of attention and consideration -.72 X The training department should play a leading role in the human resource development within the Company -.05 X Training is important for the overall improvement in the performance of Company employees -.uu X Employees will benefit most by being sent outside the Company for training programs rather than being training internally -.15 X Annual performance appraisal should be linked with the completion of training needed by individual employees -.08 X Evaluation of training programs is as important as conducting the training program . -.006 X To be significant, the t value must be > 2.00 REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY REFERENCES Al-Sudairy, Turki. 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