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by

Aaldert Mennega

AN ABSTRACT

Submitted to the College of Science and Arts
of Michigan State University of figriculture
and Applied Science in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS
Department of Zoology
1960

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Aaldert Mennega

ABSTRACT

The anatomy of the respiratory system of the common water-
snake, W W was investigated. It was found to have a
functional right lung, which is separated into an anterior alveolar
part and a posterior mechanical part.

The trachea contains the tracheal lung, which, though
functional, is deve10ped only slightly. The pulmonary bronchus
is the continuation of the trachea into the lung tissue and extends
to the mechanical part of the lung.

The rudimentary left lung is found at the extreme and of
the trachea. It has alveoli and a narrow communication with the
trachea.

The pulmonary artery lies on the ventral right side of the
lung, giving off large branches to the left and small branches to
the right. The pulmonary vein emerges from the lung tissue at the

anterior tip of the lung and empties into the left atrium.

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SOMn; bDRPh’OLOGICAL ASPECTS OF THn‘ RESPIMTORY
SYSTEM OF THE COMMDN WATEBSNAKE, IJATRIX SIP‘? Ii

 

by
Aaldert Mennega

A THESIS
Submitted to the College of Science and Arts
of Michigan State University of Agriculture
and Applied Science in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
NMSTER OF ARTS
. Department of Zoology

1960

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Dr. R. A. Fennel for
initiating the problem. Special thanks are due Dr. Mhrvin
M; Hensley, who served as chairman of the Graduate Committee.

Grateful thanks also to Dr. R. H. Baker, Director
of the Museum, and Dr. T. W. Jenkins, Department of Anatomy,
for serving as committee members and assuming the duties this
entails. '

Acknowledgement is made to Dr. P. Clerk for his
advice in regard to the statistics of this work.

Thanks also are extended to Mrs. E. Henderson,
departmental secretary, for her help in the administrative
details associated with this program.

Acknowledgement is accorded, last but not least,
to my wife, Elisabeth, who has, with unfailing patience

and untiring helpfulness, helped to make this work possible.

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TABLE OF COI~¢TE£§TS

Abstract...........................................
Acknowledgements...................................
Table of Contents..................................
List of tables and grephs..........................
List of figures....................................
INTRODUCTION.......................................
METHODS AND MATERIALS..............................
THE RELATION TO OTHER ORGANS.......................
THE NASAL PASSAGES.................................

External narcs...............................

H.381 GBVitYeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
Internal n‘reaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

1

THE TEACHEA AND THE TRACHEAL LUNG..................

GlOttiSeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
n.3heal ringaeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
Tracheal lungeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

THE LUNG PROPER AND THE RUDIMENTARI LUNG...........
Respiratory part.............................
Intr.pu1m0n8ry hronChuIeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
APOXeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee
“Gehanical part...........................ooo
Rudimentary lungeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

THE MEOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOCOO....00......O...00......

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Arterial...................................o.

Venous.....................................o.

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Table I.

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LIST OF TAbLnS AND GRAPHS

‘Measuremsnts and calculations of the ten

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Measurements and calculations of the ten
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Graph showing comparative position of the
ventral scute at which some organs start
in "103 find female............................

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Diagram for cross-sections.................................
Cross-section through head, in plane (a)...................
Cross-section through neck, in plane (b)...................
Gross-section through heart, in plane (c)..................
Gross-section through rudimmntary'left lung, in

plane (d)eeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Gross-section through the functional part of
tha right lung........ooo.....................o............

Cross-section through the mechanical part of
the right lung and liver................................o..

mr'01at0ral View or head Of mu Weeeeeeeeeeeeeeee.

Posterior View of transverse section through
tip of nose, immediately behind the external

nlris......................................................

Side View of head with air passages laid

Openeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

Trachea and lung cut Open to show the
trachflal‘lung Ind intrapulmonary bronchus..................

Ventral View of respiratory organs in
relation to heart and liver................................

ventral view of heart and lungs, including

b1°0d VCEUCIBeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeeee

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1.

INTRODUCTION

Throughout the ages snakes have been known, by
primitive people as well as by the civilized. Snakes have
appeared in the folklore of many tribes and nations, and
have given rise to superstitions in many instances. Presum-
ably it is through ignorance that fear of snakes is so wide-
apread and deeply rooted in peOple. Even in scientific
literature there is a striking paucity of information on
the anatomy of this group of animals. Being made aware of
the gap in the knowledge of this subject, the author attempted
to investigate some general aspects of snake anatomy, with
the interest drawn especially to the respiratory system.

Preserved specimens of the water snake, m
lipgdgn, were readily available, and since the species is
representative of the Serpentes, it was selected for this
study. Although studies on fresh specimens are certainly
more ideal, yet the use of preserved specimens was considered

more practical for our purpose.

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The distribution of E, fiipedgn,ranges from.southerly
Canada to Florida and westward to the Mississippi (Ditmars,
1941). It is closely confined to the neighborhood of water
and can thus be found in many swamps, marshes, streams and lake
borders (Allee and Schmidt, 1951). Its food consists mainly
of fish (Oliver, 1955).

The primary objectives of the problem.were: (a) to
survey and compile pertinent literature dealing with the
morphology of the respiratory system.in snakes; (b) to make
a series of illustrations showing the respiratory anatomy and
the location of the major organs, in.E, lingdgns and (o) te
correlate these data with available studies of other species.

It is haped that this study will provide a basis tor
future work with dissections of fresh specimens and histological

analysis of the various internal structures.

(J
C if.

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3.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

The enimals utilised had been fixed in formalin end leter
transferred to en elcohol solution to facilitate handling. The
snakes were e mixed lot of sexuelly mature melee end females of
verying eges end eises, selected et rendom.trom e large number of
individuels. Approximately ten specimens were dissected and
examined internelly; Nor-e1 dissecting techniques were employed
to expose, meesure, end analyse the serious orgene. A hendlens
‘wes used for'those structures which could not he reedil: observed.
Meesurenents were nede with e millimeter rule. A stetisticel
enelysis or the orgens end locations wes sede on twenty specimens,

ten eech or male end female individuels.

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4.

THE RELATIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY SYQTEd TO OTHER ORGANS

Figures 1-7 show the relative position of the respiratory
system with respect to the associated major organs in MILK m.

The nasal passages may easily be determined between the
external end internal hares. The trachea starts at the glottis and
extends poateriorly dorsal to the tongue sheath (Fig. 2 ). With
the asephagus to its left, the trachea continues until it passes
the heart on the left side. At the level of the apex of the heart
the trachea joins the anterior and of the lung in the vicinity of
the 30th ventral scute. At the junction of the trachea and the
lung preper, the rudimentary left lung may be found (Fig. 5). The
functional part of the right lung continues past the anterior tip
of the liver, to about the 43rd ventral scute. The mechanical
part of the right lung lies dorsal to the liver (Fig. 7), and
extends caudad beyond the liver.

For the computation of tables I and 11, ten male and
ten female specimens were examined and measured. The females
attained the greatest overall length, while the males showed a
greater number of ventral scutes from snout to vert. The males
ranged in size from 54.0 to 82.0 cm., with an average of 67.9 cm.
Their ventral scutes numbered from 182 to 219, averaging 208.2.

The females measured from 51.0 to 94.0 cm., with an average of

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ecutee

ventral

raph I. Graph showing comparative position of the ventral
acute at which some organs start in males and
females. The mean of the starting scute is indi-
cated by the horizontal mark; the range by the
vertical line.

120_

110

100- i 1

90‘
80a

70a 1 *41“
4 ‘ ,
50-
401 1* +1
30- 4+ {1

30-

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

10‘

organ

 

 

Hauauagaka «a «auguauamaueeuaua «HE

heart

lung proper
lung one
liver
stomach
amall int.
gallbladder
spleen
pancreas
gonad r.
gonad l.
kidney 1'.
kidney 1.
large int.
vent

TABLE I

Measurements and calculations of the organs of the ten
male anakee

 
 

 
 

... -. —.—---_-. *‘---.--— -

 

 

13521122412111 dinenaion_ln_2m
organs mean range mean range
length width

tail 139.6 134~143 16.6 12.0-22.0

heart 25.7 23-29 2.0x0.9 1.5-2.6 0.7-1.0
lung preper 30.7 25-33 5.3x0.8 2.5-8.0 0.4-1.2
lung sec 43.7 40-47 -—---- ----
trachea ---- --- ll.OxD.3 9.5-13.0 0.2-0.3
liver 39.5 33-43 11.4x0.9 9.0b15.0 0.6-1.2
atomach 63.1 58-70 4.0x0.8 2.5-5.0 0.5-1.1
pancreaa 70.0 71-82 l.2x0.5 0.8-1.7 0.3-0.7
gallbladder 74.2 68-81 1.1x0.8 0.6-1.5 0.6-0.8
apleen ‘ 75.8 71-82 O.3x0.3 0.2-0.3 0.2-0.3
gonad, r. 86.3 74-97 3.5x0.7 2.0-6.0 0.1-1.2
gonad, 1. 98.0 92-105 3.0x0.7 1.5-4.8 0.3-1.0
kidney, r. 105.7 98-113 6.0x0.5 4.0-7.5 0.3-0.7
kidney, 1. 109.3 87-119 5.6x0.5 3.8-6.8 0.3-0.6
adrenal, r. 93.4 86-97 1.110.1 0.5-1.7 0.1-0.2
adrenal, 1. 102.6 96-109 0.81:0.1 0.3-1.6 0.1-0.2
amell int. 73.9 68-82 55.0x0.2 43.0-66.0 0.2-0.3
large int. 125.1 117-136 4.2x0.4 3.0-5.5 O.4~0.5
thyroid body 24.5 20-28 0.3x0.l 0.1-0.5 0.1—0.3
tongue sheath ---—— ----- 6.0x0.1 5.0-7.0 0.1-0.2

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Measurements and calculations of the organs of the ten

TABLE II

female snakes.

 

W

 

 

 

atartina_saala d1nanaian.in_nm
organs mean range mean rang
length width

tail 139.1 136-141 15.3 11.5-21.0

heart 24.7 24—26 2.0xl.0 1.5-2.5 0.6-1.3
lung proper 29.3 27-32 4.3x0.8 3.0-7.0 0.4-1.1
lune no 42.3 37-46 --.... ......
trachea --- --- 10.4!0.3 9.5-12.5 0.2-0.4
liver 38.6 36-41 10.2x1.0 7.5-13.5 0.7-1.3
stomach 56.4 50-66 5.2x0.9 3.5-9.0 0.5-1.3
pancreas 70.7 56-79 l.4x0.6 0.7-2.3 0.4-1.0
gallbladder 68.9 55-76 1.3x0.8 1.0-1.8 0.4-1.2
spleen 70.9 58-79 0.3x0.3 0.2-0.3 0.2-0.3
gonad, r. 75.9 59-89 5.110.3 1.5-12.0 0.2-0.4
gonad, 1. 95.1 84-100 3.8x0.3 1.3-11.5 0.2-0.5
kidney, r. 101.6 98-109 5.4x0.4 3.8-7.5 0.3-0.6
kidney, 1. 111.0 91-118 4.6x0.5 3.0-6.5 0.3-0.6
adrenal, r. 88.3 79-92 1.4x0.l 0.8-3.0 0.1-0.2
adrenal, 1. 100.7 93-103 1.2x0.l 0.5-2.7 0.1-0.2
small int. 69-7 58-79 60.2x0.3 42.0-81.0 0.2-0.4
large int. 124.1 119-131 4.91.0.5 3.5-6.5 0.3-1.0
thyroid body 23.3 22-25 0.3x0.2 0.1-0.5 0.1-0.3
tongue sheath -—-- ----- 5.6x0.l 4.5-7.5 0.1-0.2

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8.

68.0 out They had from 179 to 207 ventral eoutes, averaging 201.4.

From this we can see that the organs, when located by the
number of the ventral saute at which the organ starts, were found
to be more caudad in the males than in the females (Greph I). This
is substantiated by the figures obtained by Dragoon (1953).

The heart starts et about the 25th acute and the lung
begins at approximately the 30th. The size of the functionel pert
of the right lung differed greatly, ranging in length from 2.5 cm.
to 8.0 cm. in males and from 3.0 cm. to 7.0 cm. in femeles. The
mechanical part of the lung slightly'exceeded the alveolar part in
length; no definite measurements could be obtained. The‘width of
the lung in the males was from 0.4 cm. to 1.2 cm., while in the
females it ranged from 0.4 cm. to 1.1 cm. The trachea measured
from 9.5 cm. to 13.0 cm. in males and from 9.5 cm. to 12.5 on. in

females.

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Pig. 2.

Fig. 5-

 

T 7' I I
o | ' ‘
: rd i l f

G 0

Diagram for cross—secticns.

 

 

W?” _____ __-_ -_

Cross-section through head, in plane "a"
Scale 2:1

right side left side

 

 

 

 

Cross-section thrOugh neck, in plane (b).

brain

trachea
tongue sheath

esophagus

trachea
tongue sheath

Scale 2:1

right side left side

Prachea

. %] ; esophagus
AZ] . heart
J

 

 

 

Pig. 4. Cross-section through heart, in plane (c).
Scale 2:1

right side left side

fi_ esophagus
apex of right lung

trachea
i rudimentary it lung

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 5. cross-section through rudimentary left lung. in
plane (d). Scale 2:1 '

right side left side

  
 

.l_l.l_.esophagus

_‘WJ__‘ right lung
“w --M“_ postcaval v.
pulmonary'a.

 

Fig. 6. Cross-section through the functional part or
the lung, in plane (e). Scale 2:1

 

right side left side

 

mechanical part
of right lung
——— stomach

 

 

 

_*__.liver

 

 

Pig. 7. Cross~section through mechanical part of right lung
and liver, in plane (f). Scale 2;1

12.

THE NASAL PASSAGES

The external nares in most snakes are found close to
the tip of the snout, well in front of the eye. They are small
openings which afford the entrance of air when the mouth is in
its usual, 1.1., closed, position. In R. W these; openings
are approximately one mm. in diameter, and can be found in the
position indicated in Fig. 8. It is generally assumed that the
external nares of the landsnakes require no special mechanism
to close off the air passages from the environment. However,
in those snakes which spend much, or all, of their time in the
water, this 1. stated to be different. Kathariner (1899), in
his studies, found that all of the latter species have a special
mechanism, which keeps the external nares closed constantly, and
requires muscular effort only when the nares are to be opened for
respiratory purposes. During breathing the blood supply to the
cavernous tissue, which normally closes off the nares, is shut
off by the surrounding smooth muscles. The cavernous tissue
thus collapses, and the air is free to enter the nasal cavity.
Cavernous tissue is not present in E, nipgdgn, so far as could
be determined from the preserved specimens used in this study.

The nasal cavity is divided into a vestibule and

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ext. naris

 

Fig. 8.
head of Natrix sigedon.

Dorsrlateral, View of

 

 

 

 

1/,'==:;:‘<\ main Gav.
nasal septum
\———— ext . naris
\vz’ ‘\ i

 

\‘J vestibule

 

) jawbone

Fig. 9.

Posterior View of transverse section through tip of nose,
immediately behind the external naris.

lain cavity. Generally the vestibule in snakes is poorly deve10ped,
except in the case of the marine snakes (Kathariner, 1899; lhtthes,
19343 VanderKlauu, 1952). The vestibule in E. m is poorly
developed, neasuring no more than 111 mm. It is not clearly sep-
arated from the slain cavity (Fig. 9). A concha is present on the
lateral wall of the nasal cavity (Reichert, 1953; Homer, 1956),

and extends from the vesti‘mle to almost the end of the nasal cav-
ity (Fig. 10). It measures approximately 1.11 mm. Its function is
to increase the available sensory surface (Heichert, 1953). “he
nasal cavity has the functions of olfaction and of air passage.

The two nasal cavities are separated by the nasal septum (Kellicott,
1898). The nasal cavities open into the oral cavity by means of
the internal nares. These Openings are in close relation to the
Opening of the trachea so that a good connection of the air passages
is established when the mouth is closed.

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15.

THE TRACEEA AKD THE TEACHEAL LUNG

An Openpmouth view of E, gipgggn,(Fig. 10) shows the a
trachea as a raised area on the floor of the mouth from Opposite
the internal nares to the Opening of the esophagus. The trachea
is covered on the outside with oral mucosa. At its anterior end
the glottis may be seen immediately posterior and dorsal to the
Opening Of the tongue sheath. As mentioned above, the glottis is
in direct relation to the internal hares, and thus the larynx is
found far rostrally (Wander Klauw, 1952): ca. 1.0 cm. trom.the
tip of the snout. Kathariner (1899) observes that the glottis
prevents food or water from entering the trachea during the act
of swallowing. While the prey is in the mouth, the trachea is
compressed (George and Verde, 1941). In H.tgzgdgn,it is at the
same time protracted by the genio-trschealis muscle (hellicot,
1898), to allow adequate breathing. The Opening at the glottis
is flanked ry the arytenoid cartilages, to which are attached
the muscles which dilate the glottis. The cricoid cartilage is
elongated and fused with several tracheal rings in most species
(Boner, 1956).

Egtzix_lipg§2n_has no epiglottis, although, in other
species, a slightly developed lip or valve at the lower part
of the glottis is reported as being present (Hopley, 1884).

Only in the bullsnake (Pitquhis) is the epiglottis found as a

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l7.

definite structure (White, 1884; Hopley, 1884). It not only aids

in closing the glottis, but also accounts for the “hiss” of the bull
snake. The hissing of other snakes is caused by the rapid passage
of air through the partly closed glottis (Balk, 1939).

Among snakes the tracheal rings vary in number, size and
structure. Generally the rings are complete at the anterior and of
the trachea (Thompson, 1913; Bronn, 1890; Balk, 1939), Int after a
short distance the sides of the rings fail to meet dorsally, thus
leaving an opening, which is filled in with soft, fibrous tissue,
or sometimes with a musclebundle (Beddard, 1903 and l906-a; Bronn,
1890). In E, singdgnbthe tracheal rings are incomplete from.glottis
to lung, and the gap is closed by fibrous tissue.

In many snakes the dorsal tracheal soft tissue is continuous
with the lung tissue, and actually carries on respiratory function
(Beddard, l906-b). This l'tracheal lung", as it is called, exhibits
considerable variation in the different snakes (Beddard, l906-b).
Verde (1951) showed that in m mm, W m,
and others l'the trachea gives off laterally a series of tiny tracheal
branches, which after repeated sub-branching form the tracheoles that
terminate in slveoli, giving rise to the lung tissue called 'the
tracheal lung', in contradistinction to the bronchial lung.” The
function of this structure seems quite obvious if we keep in mind

the snake's difficulty in breathing while swallowing its food. When

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18.

the air in the lung proper is not available, due to the closing off
of the air passages by a large-size prey, the tracheal lung may be
prevailed upon for a sufficient supply of oxygen (George and Bards,
1941). However, in some cases, as in the Black snake, no tracheal
lung is present (Attwood, 1916). In other species, such as hum
xhgmpggnug, a viper, the tracheal lung may carry on the respiratory
function completely (Beddard, l960-a). The respiratory tissue may
start at the glottis, or any point posterior to it; sometimes this
tissue is even to be found as a wide band, exceeding the width of
the trachea (Thompson, 1914-b).

A tracheal lung is present in most snakes as stated early
by Cope (Beddard, l906-a), and since then affirmed by several other
investigators (Bolk, 1939): Beddard, 1906-b; Rothley, 1930).

The structure of the tracheal lung is similar to that of
the bronchial lung (Verde, 1951; Vander Klaus, 1952; Beddard, 1906-b;
Rothley, 1930); the latter will be discussed later.

A special condition exists where the trachea is perforated
by large foramina which lead to air-chambers which are divided into
compartments by stout connective tissue. Only three species, Qphigr
2mm. WWamWW. are
known to possess these special airchambers (Thompson, l9lAph; Beddard,
1903).

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19.

In E, gigging the tracheal lung may be found on the
dorsal inner surface of the trachea. It starts at the glottia
aa a barely perceptible line which gradually widens into a 2 an.
wide band, and continues to the thoracic lung (Fig. 11). Shallow
alveoli are present in the posterior two-thirds of this band,
along with longitudinal folds of fibrous tissue.

In many species the trachea does not end abruptly at
the beginning of the thoracic lung, but usually'penetrates into
the lung tissue a certain length before its distinction is loat
(Attwood, 1916; Beddard, l906—a). The condition in E, liggdgn,
will be discussed in greater detail below, in connection.with

the intrapulmonary bronchus.

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tracheal lung

Opening ta apex

aperture of
rudimentary lung

 

alveolar tissue

intrepwnnonary
bronchus

transitional
area

mechanical part
or lung

 

Fig.11. Trachca and lung cut Open to show the tracheal
lung and intrapulmonary bronchus. Scale 2:1

21.

THE LUNG PROPER MD THE RUDIMENTARY LUNG

4 In snakes the anterior tip of the lung usually is found
in the vicinity of the heart (Brongersms, l951—a), as is the case
with bl. m (Fig. 12). The length of the lungs varies greatly;
in some cases, 1.3., mm W, they may even reach all
the way to the oloeca (George and Verde, 1941; Thompson, 1914-13).
In E. W the lungs grow posteriorly to approximately the end
of the liver.

In any reptilian lung we may expect to find a clear
separation into mechanical and reapiratory parts (Wolf, 1933; Balk,
1939). The respiratory part is that part which is alveolar and
carries on the function of gas-exchange. The mechanical part is
the posterior portion which is smooth and appears al a more men--
branous sec. The respiratory part is usually found in the anterior
one-third of the lung (welt, 1933), although both extremes may be
found: some snakes, 9.4., W W and m
m, have the lung lined throughout with pulmonary tissue
(Thompson, l9lA-a), while others are lined with pulmonary tissue
very scantily. 3-2.. 2mm W (Thompson. 1914-12).

Its inner surface appears spongy and alveolar (Verde,

1951), and 1.1., in W m, may contain a complicated

 

 

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~_w”_ trachea

 

__l__ thyroid

 

- l__ul___ esophagus

.w—l_r«- inert
___.. -_ 1t aortic arch

pulmonary v,

 

..H_h _, trachea

 

, w a"- , __ pulmonary a.

 

 

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postcaval v.

 

t _ i 4 A.. transitional
J,fl area

4
w.-- —- liver

-it-_.t 4., _____._. lung one

i . .

Fig.12. Ventral view of respiratory organs in relation to
heart and liver. Scale 2:1

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

23.

system of niches and crypts, which gives it a toadsz effect
(Schmallhausen, 1905). These compartments are separated by
partitions which grow perpendicular to the lung-wall to form,
more or less, a honeycomb structure (Rothley, 1930). No lobes
are found in the snake lung (Creeper, 1929). The development of
alveoli in snake lungs shows great variety and ranges from
primitive to complex (Verde, 1949). In E. W the alveoli are
polygonal in shape, varying from.quadrangles to hexagona. They
are from 0.5 to 2 mm. deep, depending on the size of the snake and
the location in the lung. Particularly at the transition to the
lechanical lung they tend to become shallow. There are approximately
250 to 300 alveoli per square cm. of surface area of lung tissue.
As mentioned above, in most snakes the trachea does not
and immediately upon meeting the lung, but usually enters the lung
a short way. In.E, nipgdgn, however, the trachea ends as soon as
it reaches the lung tissue. ventrally, however, there is a narrow
groove (Fig. 11), approximately one mm. wide, which is referred to
as the intrapulmonary bronchus or intrapulmonary streak. This
structure may be expected in all reptiles (Wolf, 1933), and has
been found repeatedly in snakes (Bronn, 1890; Thompson, l9lA-a and

19149b), where it continues to the end of the alveolar tissue,

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fans out and is lost in the membrane of the mechanical portion of
the lung. This groove has longitudinal folds, and a few shallow
alveoli. It aeema to have the function of directing part of the
air more directly to the posterior part of the lung (Welf, 1933).

Because the trachea does not meet the lung at its most
anterior part, an apex is formed anterior to the Junction of these
two organs (Thompson, 1913 and l9l4-a; Attwood, 1916). Its inner
aurface is identical to that of the main part of the lung, and its
communication with the latter is ample (Fig. 11 and 12). In acme
oases, 1,3,, fillindzgphi§,:nflng, only a narrow tube connects the
two (Thompson, l914-a).

In K. W (Fig. 12), as well as in other anekes, the
transition from the alveolar to the mechanical part of the lung may
be found at about the beginning of the liver (Graeper, 1929). The
mechanical portion of the lung has no alveoli and appears as a
amooth membrane, continuing along the liver at a uniform diameter,
but narrowing down in the end. In some cases the mechanical
portion gradually merges into the connective tissues of the body
(Attwood, 1916). In some of the Viperidae the thoracic lung has

been found to be completely devoid of alveoli (Beddard, 1906-b),

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a ’ ' ‘

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VoaL’ '- L)'.‘.‘\'; ~‘ .' LI; . ' ‘3'} H' \‘U ..‘-I;“.’. l'~ 2K

25.

and the respiratory function is assumed entirely by the tracheal
lung. In those specimens of H, fiipgdgn_where the posterior end
of the mechanical part of the lung could be approximately deter-
mined, it was found to be almost an inch caudal to the posterior
end of the liver.' Thus the mechanical part exceeds the alveolar
part in length.

Although the mechanical part of the lung is denied any
function by some (Bolk, 1939), yet its usefulness as an air
reservoir cannot be denied (Verde, 1951; Wolf, 1933; Graeper,
1929). This is supported by an experiment with a viper, 1123:.
hgzng, which showed that the stored air was sufficient for survival
for 29 hours at 7.5 degrees centigrade, while at 29.5 degrees this
air lasted for 1.5 haurs (Suomslainen, 1939). This store of air
is useful during feeding time, or for time spent under water. For
marine species the buoyancy, which the mechanical lung affords,
may also be significant.

The Rythons and Boas are known to have two lungs (George
and Verde, 1941; Beddard, l906—b), although the left one is
invariably reduced in size. All other snakes have only one

functional lung, i.g., the right one, while the left lung is

{w

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26.

either completely ebeent or rudimentary (Attwood, 1916; Beddard,
1906-b; Verde, 19513 Bronn, 1890} Thompson, l9lA-a; Cape, 1894;
Butler, 1895} George and Verde, 1941). In.thoee cases where the
lung is rudimentary it lies perpendicular to the right lung (Bblk,
1939). The water-snake, E, aipgdgn, does have a rudimentary left
lung (Fig. 13), measuring only 2 to 4 mm. in length. .Althcugh
for practical purposes it is considered nonpfunctional, in acne
anekes, including N, lingdgn, the rudimentary lung does have
alveoli end is highly vascular (Schmalheueen, 1905; Beddard,
1906-b). Its Opening may be found as a tiny hole at the very

end of the trachea. The growth of the left lung may be minimal,
yet no regression occurs during development (Flint, 1906; Baumnnn,
1902). Although in the early etudiee there existed a difference
of opinion as to whether the single lung of a snake was the right
one or the left, Butler (1895) has found sufficient evidence to
etate clearly that the larger, or only lung, is the homologue

of the right lung of other vertebratee.

-2.

. r r ‘ ‘. - u .- .- e

-\'~J : ', . ~ - « n I ~" \. ‘ ~, ‘ ', .,-__ e I ..; -- n . . . ~ . . . :7
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27.

THL RIBS

Reptiles have motile ribs to promote their breathing
(Romer, 1956). In snakes the ribs are used not only for inhalation
and exhalation of air, but also for the inner ventilation of the
inhaled air between successive breaths. The pairs of ribs love
independently of each other (Hair, 1933; Hulk, 1939). It 1-
considered to be beyond the scape of this work to deter-ine precise-

ly the contribution of the ribs to respiration.

- ' l . . ,'
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.‘. H . _ .' , ' A a .1. V. , ?J. .' f. .l.‘ ,
(u I a - .- ":1. OJ 'wl’t 2’31.) 4'.“ 3!)..UL‘; “Tc-.131)

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If;

28.

THE BLOOD SUr‘PLI

Arterial
Since the bloodvascular system plays an essential part in

the exchange of gases, it seems advisable to note briefly the main
parts of the pulmonary circulation. The pulmonary artery leaves the
right side of the ventricle dorsally and runs cranied to the anterior
and of the heart. It turns at the right atrium and then runs poster-
iorly to enter upon the right side of the ventral surface of the lung
and extends nearly to the and of this organ (Ray, 1934: lttuood, 1916;
O'Donoghue, 1912; Kellicott, 1898). Usually the branches given off
to the left aide are larger than those given off to the right aide.
This was proven to be the case also in E, lingdgn_(Fig. 13). In
many cases the tracheal lung may be supplied by a branch from the
pulmonary artery (Brongersma, l951-a and 1951-19; Beddard, 1906-”
Thompson, 1914-b). The posterior part of the lung may sometimes be
supplied directly by branches from the dorsal aorta (Brongerama,
l952-b).
‘Iaaans

The pulmonary vein is found medial to the pulmonary artery
(Fig. 13). It is imbedded ventrally in the lung tissue, and receives
branches throughout the length of the lung. It then courses forward
and upward to enter the heart on the posterior dorsal side of the left

atrium (O'Donoghue, 1912; Ray, 1936; Attwood, 1916).

   

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. \_ w- A. .- Q .’\e U ( . _ o ‘ _.J ‘ t m \ f '1‘. . r' I . a . - K -

 

 

-..- .- heart

Yfi _-__ pulmonary a.
'\‘ - aorta

.‘
5
5‘
"4—.“ -—-trachea
‘\$
§‘ rudimentary l. lung

I -_.-__._- pulmonary v .

 

--.—..fi—gwpulmonary a .

 

 

 

 

 

 

__ \\ aransition area

Fig. 13. Ventral view of heart and lungs. including
blood vessels. Scale 2:1

SUMMARY

mm m was considered a suitable Species for
studies of the respiratory anatomy of the snake. Preserved
specimens were used.

The lung starts at about the 30th ventral scute. The
respiratory part extends to about the 43rd ventral acute. The
mechanical part continues a short distance beyond the caudal
and of the liver.

The organs in the male snake lie more caudad than in
the female.

The external and internal nares are easily identified.
The vestibule is poorly develOped. The concha is present, enlar-
ging the surface area of the nasal cavity.

The trachea starts at the glottia, opposite the internal
nsres. The tracheal rings are incomplete from the glottis to the
lung. A tracheal lung is present, but not greatly developed.

The developed right lung is separated into an alveolar
and a mechanical part. An intrapulmonary bronchus is present.

A free apex is formed at the anterior and of the lung. The left
lung is rudimentary, but has alveoli and communicates with the
posterior end of the trachea.

The ribs are movable in pairs, independently of each

other. This enhances the inner ventilation.

Ifi

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31.

The pulmonary artery lies on the ventral right side of
the lung; its branches to the left side of the lung are larger
than those to the right. The pulmonary vein is imbedded in the
lung tissue until it emerges at the trachea. It empties into the
posterior dorsal side of the left atrium.

Wherever N, lipgdgn could be compared with other species
of snakes the results of this study indicated that the respiratory
system.of N, lipndgn,is representative of the Serpentes. In those
instances where e structure was shown to be different from.that in
a certain other species, it usually proved to be the species in
question, rather than N, lipgdgn, which showed the peculiarity.~

No specific adaptations or distinctive structures could
be found in the respiratory anatomy of E, gipgdgn_to single it out
as being hotter or less well adapted to its environment or to its

mode of life.

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32.
LITERATURE CITED

Allee, U. C. and K. P. Schmidt. 1951. Ecological Animal Geography.
University of Chicago Press: New York. 715 pp.

Attwood U. H. 1916. The visceral anatomy of the Black Snake
(Wis magician). Washington Univ. Studies Series

SCie, 433.38e

Baumenn, M. 1902. Note sur les premiers deve10ppements de l'appareil

pulmonaire ches la Couleuvre. (W m).
Bibliographie anatomique, Revue, BBQ/#311.

Beddard, F. E. 1903. On the trachea, lungs, and other points in
the anatomy of the Hanadryad Snake, W Mm.
Transactions of the Zool. Soc. of Iondon, 11:319—328.

Beddard, F. E. l906-a. Contribution to the anatonur of the Ophidia.
Proc. 2001. Soc. London, 1:12-44.

Beddard, F. E. 1906-1). Contribution to the knowledge of the vascular
and respiratory systems in the Ophidia, and to the anetonw
of the genera m and m. Proc. Zool. Soc. London,
23499-532.

Bolk, L; E. Goeppert; E. Kallius and W. Lubosch. 1939. Handbuch der
Vergleichenden Anatomie der Hirbeltiersn. Urban and
Schwarzenberg: Berlin-Mien, Bd. 3:812ff and 9091‘1‘; Ed.
63677ffe

Bragdon, D.E. 1953. A Contritntion to the Surgical Anatomy of the
Water Snake, m 11.991911: etc. Anet. Rec” 117:1.45—161.

Brongersma, L. D. l951~e. Some notes upon the anatomy of W;
and W. 2001. Mededelingen, 31:107-121..

Brongsrsma, L. D. 1951-13. De arteria pulmonalis big m an bij
mm. Ned. ‘I‘ijdschrift. Geneesk., 95 34):2490-2J.91.

Brongersms, L. D. 1952. Notes u n the arteries of the lung in

mm mm (Sohn. . Honinkl. Aked. Wetenschep,
Amsterdam, Proc. Sect. Sci., 55(1) 362-73.

Bronn, H. G. 1890. Klassen and Ordnungen des Thier-Reichs, Bd. 6.
Abte 11131594 If.

Butler, G. U. 1895. On the complete or partial suppression of....
the left lung in snakes, etc. Proc. 2001. Soc. London,
119:691-‘712.

7 " \ ' I. . -1 0’ ” ‘ -I .' w .. ‘ ‘ - r P '
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- . - . e- j '. - ~ . . . . . \ . ' . o ‘ .. ' ,._ '
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.st-" |o -'sr 3"'.e. - ‘ "' ,L'r L“) - ‘~‘ " ‘1'. l "‘ '. CC.-\JE\ .-- .I' O ‘ .’.: ".i ‘7.

' ‘Jh ' " I.’ o | " ' ‘ . ' 2. ‘2‘ .'. " ' " ' ' "1' ‘ ' c . .
" "' )f .\9 .'. "‘- . h ‘ '. .. I" 8' .U S. e. . 1‘: ' I I- . k‘. " ~' e |‘- "I’
,. . - . ' . . .. I. . ' . .‘ t. 5‘
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|
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.- I I I. I I. I I e I e . . .. ‘ I I .'- _ \ '. I. ,. I ‘ I I I I .
. ' ‘1 ‘. , " .' , f . ‘J ‘ Q. ‘I '1' .. . . .1 ' ’ . ,5 . ; .3' 3 . I e. K ‘
‘ . \ « ' " :' ’t .' ' ,‘ ~' -v F-‘lr- V " ' V . ‘
‘ . .o .) . _ ,_ , ... ,' 1' . ‘ ; ' ' L.’ ‘-
'_ K . . . o . t” ‘ A. LL alt-.'.‘n ' «(o \J- 5. ‘ . 0 'O x . 9...
-e . ~ -
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. ‘ ’_ 3.. . § ‘e .5: ' ‘
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33-

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boi Raptilien. Gegenbauer'a Merph. Jb., 62: 543-573.

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luftweg und Geruchaorgan. Zool. Jb. Abt. Syst., xiiiz415-
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nilxix. Aunt. Anzeiger, xxviiz511-520.

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