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ABSTRACT

A STUDY OF TRADITIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVEMENT IN THE
SINGING ABILITY OF UNCERTAIN
SINGERS

BY

Frances A. Jones

The purpose of this study was to compare the
effectiveness of two remedial methods on the singing
achievement of uncertain singers.

The traditional method incorporated all the fre-
quently used remedial techniques of speech activities,
pitch matching drills, tone calls, and chants. No songs
or melodic fragments from songs were used in these
sessions.

The experimental method differed from the tra-
ditional method in that melodic fragments from pOpular
rock and roll songs were used in remedial singing exer-
cises. Music concepts of speaking-singing, same-
different, and up—down were taught through the context
of songs. Examples to illustrate such concepts were all
recognizable melodic fragments from current popular songs,

sung by the original artist or group.

Frances A. Jones

Sixteen subjects, eight in the control group, and
eight in the experimental group, participated in remedial
training for two half-hour periods twice per week for
eight weeks.

There was found to be no significant differences
in the methods on the singing achievement of the two
groups. A nonsignificant u value of 26 was found using

gain scores of both groups.

A STUDY OF TRADITIONAL AND EXPERIMENTAL
TECHNIQUES FOR IMPROVEMENT IN THE
SINGING ABILITY OF UNCERTAIN

SINGERS

BY

Frances A. Jones

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

Department of Music

1971

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express sincere appreciation
to Mr. Robert Unkefer, my advisor and committee chairman,
for his most generous offering of assistance in all
phases of this study.

A special thank you is extended to Dr. Robert
Sidnell for his advice and critical evaluation of this
study and to June Raad, music colleague, for her advice

and assistance.

ii

Chapter

I.

II.

III.

IV.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . .

Purpose of the Study. .

SURVEY OF LITERATURE . .

DESIGN OF THE STUDY. . .

Statement of the Problem
Null Hypothesis . . .
Screening . . . . .
Placement . . . . .
Scheduling . . . . .
Rationale for the Use of

in Experimental Method
Control Procedure. . .

Sessions One and Two .
Session Three . . .
Sessions Four and Five
Sessions Six and Seven

Sessions Eight and Nine
and

Sessions Ten, Eleven,
Experimental Procedure .

Session One . . . .
Sessions Two and Three
Sessions Four and Five
Sessions Six and Seven

Sessions Eight and Nine
and

Sessions Ten, Eleven,

RESULTS 0 O O O I O C

Music Questionnaire Data

MUS

Results of Final Singing Evaluation.

Results of Teachers' Evaluation

Final Questionnaire After Post—test.

Conclusions and Recommendations

iii

ic

Page

17

18
18
l8
19
20

21
24

24
25
25
26
26
27

27

27
28
29
30
30
30

32

32
34
37
38
40

Page
BIBLIOGRAPHY O ' O O O O O O O I O O 0 O 42

APPENDIX 0 O O O O C O O C O C O O O 44

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Difference Between Gains of Control and
Experimental Groups . . . . . . . . 36
Difference Between Pitch Matching Scores of
Control and Experimental Groups . . . . 37
Correlations of Teachers' Evaluation . . . 39

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Singing is frequently among the first music
activities to be offered to children in their introduction
to music education. The singing experience is felt to be
of primary importance if future music appreciation,
enjoyment and knowledge are to accrue. Most children
respond readily to music and many of their earliest
responses are vocal. All children, however, enter ele-
mentary school with varying vocal deve10pment and singing
ability.

Although the estimates differ, there is agreement
that a high percentage of children in first grade cannot
sing in tune. It has been found by researchers, music and
classroom teachers that in a majority of cases the
inability to sing accurately can soon be corrected if the
difficulties of the child are detected early and if he is
given consistent and continuing help.

There are children who pass from primary grades
to upper levels without having learned to sing in tune.

Various terms such as out-of-tune singer, tone—deaf,

pitch—deficient, non-singer, underdeveloped voice,
conversational singer, monotone, and uncertain singer have
been used to describe such children. They each refer
(perhaps to varying degrees) to a child's general
inability to reproduce the tonal configuration of a melody
in a recognizable manner. Throughout this discussion, the
term uncertain singer will be used.

The basic underlying characteristic of uncertain
singers is their inability to match pitch although the
nature of this problem differs among individuals. The
uncertain singer has difficulty consistently matching
isolated pitches and cannot match continuous pitches
organized into a melody. This child may be recognized by
singing in one or any combination of ways: (a) singing
correctly some notes or phrases, but not singing continu-
ously accurate; (b) singing too high or low in relationship
to the pitches of the melody; (c) singing in a very
limited range of notes; and (d) talking the song instead of
singing it.

In each case, the problem centers around the
child's inability to hear and remember change or motion in
the music and/or his inability to coordinate the vocal
mechanism with pitches heard. Joyner states the problem
in this manner:

In order to sing a tune a person must be able to

do at least three things: (a) to tell one pitch from
another, thereby gaining mental concept of the rise

and fall of a melodic outline; (b) to recall suc-
cessions of pitches organized into melodic patterns in

order to be aware of what comes next; and (c) to have

a vocal instrument capable of reproducing the suc-

cessions of pitches in a melody, and that instrument

must be able to make an immediate and accurate response

to his intentions.1

Various factors have been stated as contributors to
the child's inability to sing accurately. The list
presented by Nye include those most frequently stated in
literature. They are: (1) immaturity; (2) lack of a
background of musical experience; (3) emotional and
psychological blocks; (4) lack of interest, failure to
try; (5) physical disabilities; (6) unsuitable accompa-
iments; and (7) muscular tension.2 To number six should be
added that of songs in unsuitable keys. Many songs are out
of the range of some children, frequently too high.
Because the child cannot sing in the range of the song, he
sings in a range comfortable to him but which is out of
tune.
Stein states that new psychological and emotional

factors frequently emerge with uncertain singers in the
intermediate grades. She discusses five types of uncertain

singers (which she terms "underdeveloped" voices) in the

upper grades. They are: (l) the child who thinks he

 

lDavid Joyner, "The Monotone Problem," Journal of
Research in Music Education, XVII (Spring, 1969), 117.
(Hereinafter referred to as "Monotone Problem.")

 

2Robert Nye and Vernice Nye, Music In the Ele-
mentary School (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall,
Inc., 1964), pp. 174-75. (Hereinafter referred to as
Music in Elementary School.)

 

 

 

cannot sing; (2) the child who hates music; (3) the quiet,
shy student; (4) the boy who will not sing high; (5) and
the boy who "sings bass" because he wants to sound like

a man.

The techniques offered in remedial training for the
uncertain singer are varied. One point of agreement among
music educators is the necessity for early remedial
training.

Gould conducted a survey which asked a large
number of music teachers to list the remedial techniques
they used for uncertain singers. This list is a composite
of the techniques most frequently discussed in articles on
non-singers. They are listed in order of the frequency
mentioned:

(1) tone matching drills; (2) use of speech drills;

(3) use of bodily movements; (4) use of song pattern
devices; (5) use of mechanical devices such as piano,
bells, recorders, etc.; (6) miscellaneous activities
including humming, whistling, siren and other sound
effects; listening experiences, group participation;
placing beginning singers near strong singers;
atmosphere of encouragement; imitation-echo; pitching
songs within speaking range of child; individual
attention.

Gould further states the following in summarizing the

techniques:

 

3Elin Stein, "There Are No Monotones," Music Edu—
cators Journal, LV, No. 8 (April, 1961), 117-18. (Herein—
after referred to as "There Are No Monotones.")

 

 

4Oren Gould, "Developing Specialized Programs for
Singing in the Elementary School," Council for Research in
Music Education Bulletin, No. 17, p. 15. (Hereinafter re-
ferred to as "Developing Specialized Programs.")

Many focused on dual importance of concept for-
mation and skill development. The kinesthetic aspects
of learning to combine tonal images with vocal
responses seemed to stand out as the process of
singing improvement was noted. After a child who has
had singing difficulties understands the concepts of
singing he must then be led to develop a vocabulary of
aural and mental skills as well as vocabulary of motor
skills. When the two vocabularies combine to form a
single vocabulary of basic singing skills which
functions at the instinctive or habit level, his mind
becomes increasingly free to expand his singing
repertory.5

The purpose of this introduction has been to

present an overview of the problems involved in the
inability of some children to sing in tune. Included in
this discussion has been the identification of the
uncertain singer, contributing factors to this inability

and remedial techniques frequently used for improvement.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to compare the effec-
tiveness of two methods on the singing achievement of
uncertain singers in remedial training. These two methods
are labeled Traditional and Experimental.

The traditional method incorporated frequently
used remedial techniques such as pitch matching drills,
tone-calls, tonal speech exercises, and body movements.
This method differed from the experimental method in that

no songs or melodic fragments from songs were used.

 

5Gould, "Developing Specialized Programs," p. 15.

The Experimental method used song material from
the preferred music of the subjects. A music question-
naire was given to subjects which asked them to indicate
the type of music they preferred and to list song titles.
Rock and roll music was indicated as the most pre-
ferred music in the experimental group and, therefore,

was the only music used in the sessions. Music concepts

 

such as same—different, upward and downward motion, high—
low were taught through the context of songs. Examples
to illustrate such concepts were all recognizable tonal
fragments from current popular songs, sung by the original

artist or group.

CHAPTER II

SURVEY OF LITERATURE

There is rather an impressive list of publications
written on uncertain singers. Such publications seem to
fall into two broad, though not mutually exclusive cate-
gories: (l) expository writings as those frequently
found in music education journals and textbooks, and (2)
reports of research.

The articles in the first group are very often
written by music educators who have had extensive experi-
ence with uncertain singers in their classes. Writers of
these articles frequently do any one or all of the
following: (1) identify the problems of uncertain singers;
(2) defend the position that there are no real non-
singers, by relating success stories; (3) state the
attitude a teacher must take in remedial help; (4) identify
certain related environmental, physiological, and social-
emotional factors; and (5) present helpful techniques that
have been found to be personally successful.

Articles in the second category are findings of

investigations conducted employing experimental or

 

quasi-experimental designs of research. The techniques
are planned and controlled by the researcher for measurable
comparisons.

As previously indicated, the terminology is almost
as vast as the literature. There does not seem to be a
generally preferred or standard term of reference in
describing persons with singing difficulties. Therefore,
articles cited here will use different terminology but
they are similar to the term of uncertain singer used in
this research.

The incidence of uncertain singers is one of
concern for music educators for it clearly points out the
need for curriculum guided remedial programs on each grade
level.

Gould reports that both the studies of Jersild
and Beinstock in 19321 and Romaine in 19612 report an
18 per cent incidence of non-singers in the elementary
schools. This figure has remained almost identical in
spite of numerous research studies of the problem.

Gould's study contains a table of percentages of
the incidence of Problem Singers (Continuing Through the

Year):

 

l .
Arthur T. JerSild and sylvia F. Bienstock, "A

Study of Children's Ability to Sing," Journal of Edu-

cational Psychology, XXV, No. 7 (1933). (Hereinafter
referred to as Study of Children's Ability.")

 

2 . .
westervelt B. Romaine, "Developing Singers From

Non-Singers" (unpublished Ed.D. thesis, Teacher's College,
Columbia University, 1961).

lst grade 34.6 per cent problem singers
2nd grade 24.2 per cent problem singers
3rd grade 17.8 per cent problem singers
4th grade 12.9 per cent problem singers
5th grade 11.8 per cent problem singers
6th grade 11.0 per cent problem singers
All grades 18.7 per cent problem singers

Nye and Nye estimate the number of uncertain
singers to be from "one-half to two—thirds" in first grade
and agree with Gould in stating that this figure declines
in the upper grade levels.4

In surveys of the incidence of monotonism through-
out the United Kingdom, Bentley found the following:

Approximately 25 per cent of boys and 12 per cent

of girls are monotones between the ages of 7 and 8
years, the proportions falling to about 7 per cent
boys and 1 to 2 per cent girls at 12 to 13 years.
After the age of 8 years between three and four times
as many boys as girls are monotones.5

Most music educators seem to agree on two basic
premises. First, they state that most uncertain singers
can be helped, although not to the same degree. Second,
most agree that corrective measures should begin as soon
as difficulty is detected.

These beliefs are indicated in surveys such as
Gould's in which 62 per cent of the 602 respondents be-
lieved that all children can and do match certain tones.

In answering the questions, "Can all children be helped, and

 

3

Gould, "Developing Specialized Programs," p. 14.

4Nye and Nye, Music In the Elementary School, p. 175.

 

5Arnold Bentley, Monotones (London: Novello &
Company, Ltd., 1968), p. 63. (Hereinafter referred to
as Monotones.)

 

 

 

 

10

to what extent?fl'70 per cent believed that all children
can be helped some, but expressed doubt as to how much
can be accomplished with difficult cases of non-singing;
29 per cent believed all children could be helped to
participate successfully in classroom singing. One per
cent believed it impossible to help some children.6
Although there is some basic agreement in the two
previously mentioned statements, there is strong criticism
of other beliefs and practices in remedial help.
Neiswender states that the "handling of the child
voice in the primary grades is in a rut."7 He specifically
refers to the following:
(1) the fifty year 'protection' of Childhood's early
voice; (2) the so-called approved limited range; (3)
the assumption that all first grade children are
sopranos, or that they are not good singers; (4) the
belief that children who have low voices sing badly
out of tune; (5) the supposition that many children
with low voices are inhibited; (6) the acceptance that
no real alto voice exists in the first grade.8
He is strongly critical of treatment of the primary
grade voice as a soprano and labeling the child with a low

voice as a non-singer because he does not conform to

textbook standards of range.

 

6Gould, "Developing Specialized Programs," p. 14.

7Charles Neiswender, "Is It Too Late to Teach All
Children to Sing?" Music Educators Journal, XLI (September-
October, 1954), 33.

 

81bid.

 

11

A similiar critical position is taken by Cleall9
who states that we cannot force our expected levels of
musical development on the child but must accept what he
can do. "If the poor singer cannot adjust to us than we
must adjust to him by accepting the notes he can sing and
letting him use them often as the basis of his active
experience of song."10

In recent decades, music educators have become
increasing aware that certain psychological and emotional
factors may be involved in a child's inability to sing.

In the survey by Gould, "psychological inhibitions
toward singing created by various environmental impacts,"11
was listed by his respondents as the second cause of sing-
ing problems. Stein12 discusses the child who reflects the
lack of self-confidence and security in his school environ-
ment in his singing voice. The timid child, the tense

child, the child who thinks he cannot sing, the quiet, shy

student are discussed in her article. Paul lists "emotional

 

9Charles Cleall, "Tone Deaf or Lazy Ear?" Music
Teacher and Piano Student, XLVIII (September, 1969).

 

1°1bid., p. 13.

ll

Gould, "Developing Specialized Programs,‘ p. 14.

12Stein, "There Are No Monotones."

12

or mental blocks because of improper criticism"13 as a

similar cause among adults with singing problems.

In an article by Robison, a music therapist, she
describes the prevalence of institutionalized children who
are poor singers. The author states that monotones are
generally the rule rather than the exception in many
institutional settings. "The incidence of conversational
singer was in inverse ratio to that in groups of children

"14 This

from normal, reasonably happy home situations.
therapist frequently found the monotones to be the
apathetic, unresponsive, expressionless—faced children
who caused no trouble but were unpopular, and withdrawn
in their peer relationship.15

Many educators believe that the problems of adult

uncertain singers do not differ from that of the young
uncertain singers except in degree. Paul, in relating his
work with non-singing adults, states the following:

An inevitable and significant corollary to the
thesis that all can learn to sing is that almost all
singing problems of adults are caused by neglect,
ignorance, or misguided zeal. In other words, the

difficulty usually is technical and/or psychological
rather than musical.16

 

13Quida Paul, "Working With Singing Problems of
Adults," Choral Journal, VI-VII (May-June, 1967), 13.
(Hereinafter referred to as "Singing Problems of Adults.")

14Doris Robinson, "New Horizons for Monotones,"
Music Educators Journal, VI-VII (May-June, 1967), 43.

15

 

 

Ibid.

l6Paul, "Singing Problems of Adults," p. 13.

13

The causes of adult singing problems he lists are almost
identical to those listed by educators in discussing
problems of students.

Reports of many remedial training periods with
uncertain singers are reported by researchers and classroom
teachers both in individual and group work.

In an early investigation conducted by Wolner and

17 seven extremely "pitch-deficient“ children under-

Pyle,
went a training period to distinguish pitch and to learn
to sing. The piano and tuning forks were used in the
training period which consisted on an average of sixteen
hours per subject over a period of eighty-one days. The
results were that all seven pupils learned to discriminate
the intervals of octaves, fifths, thirds, whole tone, and
semitones in a range of four octaves. Four of the subjects
were able to sing several songs with few or no errors.
During the same time period, Jersild and Bienstock18
conducted research to study the ability of 470 children
and 65 adults to vocally reproduce pitches. Findings
indicate that there was an increase in total range in

subjects ages 2—9 with a decline at age 10. There was

greater improvement in subjects ages 2-6 years than from

 

l7Manuel Wolner and W. H. Pyle, "An Experiment In
Individual Training of Pitch-Deficient Children," Journal
of Educational Psychology, XXIV (1933).

18

Ability."

Jersild and Bienstock, "Study of Children's

l4

6 years to maturity. According to their findings, a child
realizes a large portion of his potential pitch range in
the first three grades. These findings have far reaching
implications for music educators for it suggests that
uncertain singers with limited ranges must be given help
in early childhood if they are to increase their range
and singing progress.

Fieldhouse,19 using fifty subjects ages nine to
eleven, found that a defective tonal memory was a very
important cause of singing out-of-tune. If the singer
cannot remember the notes to be reproduced he stops
singing or sings the wrong notes. When he has not
remembered notes accurately, he does not sing them
accurately.

In a study of monotonism, Bentley received infor-
mation from teachers throughout the United Kingdom on
16,669 students who persistently sang out of tune. He
interprets the following:

1. Monotones, as a group, reveal significant deficien-
cies in both pitch discrimination and tonal
memory, but not in rhythm memory.

2. Monotonism, as a condition, appears to be a form
of retarded development in the case of most

children, but in a small proportion (about 4 per

cent) the condition persists throughout childhood.20

 

19A. E. Fieldhouse, "A Study of Backwardness in

Singing Among School Children" (unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
London University, 1937).

20Bentley, Monotones, p. 63.

 

15

Joyner21 in his work with thirty-two monotones
found the most interesting point to result from remedial
training of real monotones was the parallel development
which took place between the ability to make definite,
easy, and accurate vocal responses to music material and
the ability to recall the same material.

Paul has found group work to be most effective in
working with adult uncertain singers. He states the
following reasons for group work:

1. It makes possible the alternating of group and
individual work and moving from one to the other
rapidly enough that energy span is not pushed
beyond the limits of control.

2. One can hear what is happening in others voices
much more easily than in one's own voice.

3. The feeling of isolation and strangeness which
these students usually have in relation to music
is dissipated through working with others with
similar problems.22

As a part of remedial training, Roggensack states
that the following pertinent factors should be investigated
in monotone correction:

1. Quality of Speaking Voice. This is often an
indication of physical factors that affect the
ability to sing.

2. Rhythm Test. If the child cannot sing but is able
to respond rhythmically to music, there is a point
in favor of eventual correction of the vocal
handicap. It indicates he is not without musical
feeling.

3. Recognition of Melodies. This often indicates
whether a child hears and feels that which he
cannot yet put into his voice.

 

21Joyner, "The Monotone Problem."

22Paul, "Singing Problems of Adults," p. 14.

16

4. Mentality. An 1.0. is no indication of musical
ability, but it may be indicative of an ability
to concentrate on melody or pulse or of his
degree of coordination in responding either
rhythmically or vocally to what he hears.

5. Personality Factors. There are personality traits
that hinder the child's musical development.
Timidity, nervousness, flightiness and extreme
agressiveness may all be hindrances.

6. Health Check. Englarged and infected tonsils have
their effects upon the ability to produce a tone.
Malnutrition is another factor because it robs the
child of the necessary vitality to sing well.23

This has been a selected review of literature
which has been published to enhance our knowledge and
working skills with uncertain singers. Much research has
been conducted by graduate students whose findings are

unpublished or unavailable.

 

23Delinda Roggensack, "Pertinent Factors in

Monotone Correction," Music Educators National Conference,
1930-40 Yearbook, pp. 369L70.

 

73‘:

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

This study was conducted during spring of 1971 for

.-

eight weeks in an elementary school in East Lansing,
Michigan. Grades in the elementary school were K-5. The
school had three fifth grade classes, totaling seventy-five
fifth graders. These three classes were seen twice a week
by the vocal music teacher. Each class had one separate
thirty-minute period in the morning and one combined
fifty—five minute period in the afternoon in which the
three classes met together.

The music teacher, earlier in the year, had tested
all the fifth graders to select the better singers for
special choir membership. Thirty-seven students were
chosen for membership and it was from the remaining
students that the uncertain singers were selected. In
preparation for a program, choir members met to rehearse
at a time separate from that of the two music periods,
usually before or after school. Two music programs were

scheduled during the time of this study. Since these

17

 

18

programs involved all of the fifth graders, the number of
subjects in the study had to be limited so that only a
small percentage of the students would miss rehearsals

which were frequently scheduled during the music periods.

Statement of the Problem

 

No differences in the singing achievement of
subjects using traditional remedial techniques, without
song material, and those in the experimental group using

melodic fragments from their preferred music is expected.

Null Hypothesis

 

There will be no differences in the singing
achievement of uncertain singers in the control or experi-

mental group.

Screening

 

Each of the thirty-two students were requested to
sing three songs: (1) America, the Beautiful, by Bates

and Ward;* (2) Creaking Saddle, by Morhardt and Early;*

 

and (3) a song of their Choice.
The first song is one of the frequently sung

patriotic songs. It is the first song in the Discovering

 

Music Book Five which was used in the vocal music classes.

The second song, taught earlier in the year, was one the

 

*Arrangements of these songs are in Discovering
Music Book Five, Follett Publishing Company, 1966, pp. 4,
123.

 

19

music teacher stated that fifth graders knew and frequently
requested in the music periods. The third song was one of
the subject's choice; the student was asked to sing a song
that he especially liked. This was done to ascertain if
there was any difference, in accuracy in the singing of
this song in comparison to the other two songs. In
selecting the third song, most of the students either did
not know any songs outside of the fifth grade book or
could not sing a favorite song in its entirety. Therefore,
the most frequently sung songs were giggy, an Appalachian
Folk Song;* When Johnny Comes Marching Home, by Louis

Lambert;* and Star-Spangled Banner, by Key and Smith.*

 

The subjects were individually tested and recorded.
Twenty of the thirty-two students receiving the lowest
pretest scores were identified as uncertain singers and

were chosen for the project.

Placement
Of the twenty subjects, ten were in one class, six
in a second class, and four in a third class. Placement
of subjects from three classes into control and experi-
mental groups was made on the following basis:
1. The largest number of subjects in one class served

as one treatment group.

2. The second treatment group was a combination of

the other two classes.

 

*See note on previous page, pp. 84, 8, 218.

20

3. In an administration of a music questionnaire which
will be discussed later, the two smaller groups of
students from two fifth grade classes indicated
a preference for one type of music, that of rock

and roll.

4. The group of ten subjects from one class had a
greater divergence of listening preference ranging

from serious concert music to jazz.

Based upon the above factors, the group of students
indicating a preference of rock and roll was termed experi-
mental and was composed of subjects from two fifth grade
classes, totaling ten. The group of students from one
class indicating a greater diversity of listening prefer-

ence was termed control.

Scheduling

 

Subjects participated in remedial sessions during
the same time as their homeroom's regularly scheduled music
period. The regular music period consisted of each fifth
grade class meeting for a thirty minute period one day a
week in the morning, and in a combined fifty-five minute
period one afternoon a week. The uncertain singers met
separately from their classmates who went to the regular

music teacher.

21

The researcher was without the use of a piano in
the morning sessions but had the availability of one for
the afternoon session. The use of the piano in each
session would have permitted subjects to have more
consistent exposure to it and would have been most
advantageous for subjects having low singing ranges. The
autoharp, resonator bells, and pretaped music were used in

the morning sessions.

I“. L . .F‘a ”H! I!“

In the afternoon sessions, control subjects met as
one twenty-five minute group and experimental subjects as

the other twenty-five minute group.

Rationale for the Use of Preferred Music
in ExperimentaI’Method

 

 

Although the musical taste of children ages 10-12
is certainly not clearly formed or permanent, they are
aware of the popular music heard on records, radio, and
television. It is perhaps not until later in the teen
years that a certain preoccupation, as evidenced by
collecting records, collecting pictures of the artists, and
endless hours of radio listening occurs. Nonetheless,
children ages 10-12 are certainly aware of this music and

often identify it as music which they like most.

22

Rogers1 investigated the musical preferences of
children aged 10, 13, 15, and 18. He played fifty-seven
pairs of recordings to 635 children of the above ages. The
two excerpts were taken from serious classical, popular
classical, "dinner" music, and popular music. The subjects
were simply asked which of the two they preferred. The
results showed an overwhelming preference for popular music
at all grade levels. Morever, popular music was chosen to
an even greater extent with increasing age.

Wing2 in a much earlier investigation noted the
adolescent preference for popular music of jazz and dance
music. In his thesis, he lists a number of reasons. He
states that in adolescence, a connection between music and
emotion begins to develop. Wing states that the adolescent
is going through a period of independence. Popular songs
are a way of declaring such independence from the prefer-
ences of the older generation.

The following reasons are presented for use of the

popular music with uncertain singers in this research:

1. If the uncertain singer has not had successful

experiences with music by the upper elementary

 

1V. R. Rogers, "Children's Expressed Musical
Preferences at Selected Grade Levels" (unpublished Ed.D.
thesis, Music, Syracuse University, 1956).

2Herbert Wing, "Musical Ability and Appreciation"
(unpublished Ph.D. thesis, London University, 1941).

23

levels (4-6), the probability is greater that he
soon will not like music. Therefore, if music can
be used that does appeal to him, he may continue

his interest in music longer.

Many vocal artists sing in a low range to permit
ease in style and performance. It may be possible
for some uncertain singers to sing in these same

ranges of many of the recorded songs.

In the development of aural perception, music
educators stress the need for repetition. There
are many repetitive elements in popular music,
particularly rhythmic and melodic elements, which
account in part for its popularity, in that it can
be easily "picked up" by those with little or no

formal music training.

When a child is learning to match pitch, it may be
easier for him to do so if he hears and imitates
the quality of sound of a favorite male or female
artist until he makes enough musical gains and

feels confident enough to sing independently.

A child may respond more readily to music in the

form of popular songs in comparison to tone-calls,
and chants. The appeal of the music helps him to
focus more on the music and less on his inability

or fear of singing.

24

It should not be implied that the writer advocates
a steady diet of this music, nor that the music teacher
should not be selective in her choice of song material,
nor that preference of popular music is incompatible with
enjoyment of serious concert music, or music of the
classroom.

Whether used in remedial training sessions or other
purposes, the integration of popular music with classroom
music can help to increase a child's musical ability and
understanding. A child can broaden his total musical
experience by hearing and making certain similarities and

comparisons with music heard at home and at school.

Control Procedure

 

Sessions One and Two

 

The beginning sessions focused on hearing and
recognition of same and different pitches. In these
sessions, the researcher sang two pitches of the same
duration and asked subjects to judge if they were alike or
different. Subjects then were asked to match the pitches
sung. The subject himself or other group members were
asked to judge if the notes sung were same or different,
not right or wrong. The exercises were continued using
resonator bells with the researcher singing one pitch and
playing one on the bells. Subjects were asked to judge
if the note sung was same or different from the note played

and to match the pitches. Many of the subjects experienced

iFm-znr'lg

25

difficulty in hearing the sameness of pitch of the voice
and resonator bells due to the unfamiliar quality of the
resonator bells. However, subjects showed far less
difficulty in judgment when these exercises were repeated
on the piano. The exercises were alternated in presen-

tation of voice and instruments from which to match pitch.

Session Three

 

Each subject was given a resonator bell to begin
pitch matching exercises. Each subject sang his name on
the pitch of his bell. Each took turns matching the
pitches of his neighbor's bells with the neighbor judging
if the note sung was matched correctly. Bells were
rotated using same procedure except the subject himself
judged if he had sung the same pitch of his neighbor's
bell.

Sessions Four and Five

 

The piano was used in review of pitch matching.
The researcher distributed the bells and then played random
pitches on the piano which included those of the bells
given to subjects. Each subject stood when he heard the
pitch that was the same as his bell and then sang that
pitch.

Simple three and four note exercises using various
combinations of bells were sung. The researcher would sing
a simple melodic exercise on a neutral syllable and tell

subjects having bells with those pitches to come forward.

26

The remaining group members would repeat the exercise as
subjects with the particular bells tried to arrange
themselves in correct melodic sequence. Each subject sang
his note at the appropriate time and then individually

sang the complete exercise.

Sessions Six and Seven

 

By the time of these sessions, subjects were
judged ready to progress to longer and more interesting
melodic exercises. Melodies of stepwise motion were
used to illustrate melodic motion up and down. A tone step-
ladder was particularly helpful in presenting a visual
image. The term octave, which was familiar to some
subjects was briefly introduced. Scalewise exercises
emphasized the octave. Due to the limited range of most
of the subjects, only five notes (g, a, b, c', d') were
in the range which could be sung in octaves.

Exercises followed in which subjects had to close
eyes and identify if the second pitch played was higher,
lower, or the octave up or down. Each subject than sang
both notes he identified. The same procedure was used

with the piano.

Sessions Eight and Nine

 

Exercises progressed from stepwise motion to
melodies containing skips, leaps sung on neutral syllables.
These exercises took the form of short melodies and chants

although no melodic fragment from any song was used. The

27

autoharp and piano were both used in accompanying the
melodic exercises. Melodies sung by the researcher
alternated with those outlined by the piano for subjects

to sing.

Sessions Ten, Eleven, and Twelve

 

These sessions were in preparation for the final
singing evaluation. Subjects were told they would sing
three songs as they had done in the screening process.

Two of the songs had already been selected and the third
song would again be a song of their choice. Subjects
practiced both group and individual singing of these songs.
This was the first time during the sessions that song
material was used. Due to the length of time required for
the final evaluation of each subject, there was not a

practice session on the day of the final recording.

Experimental Procedure

 

The experimental group was given melodic fragments
from music preferred by the subjects for singing and
illustration of concepts. Examples to illustrate the
concepts of speech-singing, same-different, up-down,
step-skip, were recognizable in fragments from songs sung

by the original artist or group.

Session One

 

The first session focused on recognition of the
difference between singing and saying. This was done

because the first singing evaluation revealed that some

28

of the subjects were speaking rather than singing the words.
To illustrate the contrast between singing and saying, two
popular songs in which the artist spoke a portion of the

words and then returned to singing were used. They were

 

Glenn Campbell's Honey Come Back, and Diana Ross' Some Day
We'll Be Together. After listening to these two examples,
lyrics from popular songs were first spoken and then sung

on one pitch.

Sessions Two and Three

The next two sessions concentrated on the concept
of same-different. The researcher asked subjects to judge
if two notes of equal duration were same or different and
then to match them. The paired pitches, played on the
piano and resonator bells were to be later heard on
recordings which had melodic fragments using the same
paired combinations. In each fragment, subjects matched
pitches as well as identified the notes which were the
same (repeated) and those that were different. The fragment
Hey Jude by the Beattles having an interval of a minor
third was sung as a tone call beginning on various

starting pitches. I Think I Love You by the Partridge

 

Family uses two notes in this sentence. The first note
is repeated until a change of a major second occurs on
the last word. This fragment was sung on various starting

pitches. Cherish by the Association, likewise has a

29

beginning sentence which is sung on one note throughout
until the change of a major second on the last syllable
of the last word. Subjects sang with recordings, the piano,

and played the fragments on the resonator bells.

Sessions Four and Five

 

These sessions were a basic continuation of pitch
matching progressing from two to three and four note

fragments. The songs used were Double Lovin' sung by the

 

Osmond Brothers, Beg£§_sung by Nancy Sinatra, and Close to
Ygg sung by the Carpenters.

In the first song, the fragment of three notes on
"double, double, loving," was first outlined on the piano
and subjects were told to listen each time it was repeated
on the recording. Intervals of a major second and major
third are in this fragment. The fragment "these boots were
made for walking" from the second melody has three notes
with intervals of a minor third, major second, perfect
fourth. Subjects listened to the fragment, sang it, and
played it on resonator bells. In the third song, the
researcher asked how many could sing any portion of the

song Close to You; many could. The researcher played the

 

song on the piano until the fragment "just like me they
longed to be close to you." This fragment is based on
four notes, three of which are continuously repeated with
intervals of minor third, perfect fifth, major second.

Subjects sang this fragment with the piano and recording.

3O

Sessions Six and Seven

 

The concept of motion was illustrated through
several songs with upward and downward motion. It was
found that it was easier for most subjects to sing
fragments in downward motion. Songs used having melodic

fragments in downward motion were Love Is Blue sung by

 

Claudine Longet, Rose Garden sung by Lynn Anderson,

 

Bridge Over Troubled Water sung by Simon and Garfunkel.

 

These melodic fragments were sung with the recordings, the

piano, autoharp, and resonator bells.

Sessions Eight and Nine

 

There was a review of song material from previous
sessions. Familiar melodic fragments from popular songs
illustrating skips and leaps in melodies were introduced.

Portions of Up, Up, and Away sung by the Fifth Dimensions,

 

Raindrops sung by B. J. Thomas, and What the World Needs

 

 

Now sung by Dionne Warwick were used in the sessions.
Subjects sang with the recordings and piano, and played
the fragments on the bells with piano and autoharp

accompaniment.

Sessions Ten, Eleven, and Twelve

These sessions were spent in preparation for the
final singing evaluation. Subjects practice in groups
and individually. Members of this group practiced the

same two selected songs as did members of the control

31

group. However, in the song of their choice some chose
to sing the popular songs from which melodic fragments had
been taken. As with the control group, there was no

practice period on the day of the final evaluation.

CHAPTER IV

RESULTS

Music Questionnaire Data

 

A music questionnaire was administered to subjects
immediately after they were selected to participate in the
study. Of the twenty subjects selected for the study,
sixteen continued in the study until its completion. Of
the sixteen subjects, eight were in the control and eight
in the experimental. Their responses to the questionnaire
is discussed below. A copy of the questionnaire is shown
in the Appendix.

The sixteen subjects were composed of five boys
and eleven girls. The mean age of all subjects was 10.40.
For the control group, the mean age was 10.56 and 10.25
for the experimental group.

A majority of subjects, 62.50 per cent, indicated
a music preference of rock and roll, 18.75 per cent
preferred folk, 12.50 per cent preferred serious concert

music, and 6.25 per cent preferred jazz. In the control

group, 37.50 per cent preferred rock, 25 per cent preferred

folk, 25 per cent preferred serious concert music, and

32

33

12.50 per cent preferred folk. In the experimental group,
87.50 per cent preferred rock, 12.50 preferred folk.

Of the sixteen subjects, 31.25 per cent were
taking lessons on an instrument, 37.50 per cent of the
control group and 25 per cent of the experimental group
were taking lessons. Of the 68.75 per cent not taking
lessons, 54.54 per cent wanted to play an instrument, and
45.45 per cent did not wish to do so. In the control
group, 62.50 per cent were not taking lessons and of this
amount 60 per cent did not wish to play an instrument. Of
the 75 per cent not taking lessons in the experimental
group, 33.33 per cent did not want to play an instrument.

The average time that all subjects had been
playing an instrument was 10.30 months. The control group
had been playing for an average of 10.16 months, the
experimental group, 10.50 months.

Of the total number of subjects, 56.25 per cent
had family members who played instruments. In the control
group, 62.50 per cent had family members who played and
in the experimental group, 50 per cent had family members
who played.

Questions 8, 9, 10, and 11 were used to place
subjects into groups of high and low musical backgrounds.
Those subjects taking lessons on an instrument and/or had
family members who played were placed in the high musical
background group (HMB). Those subjects who played no

instrument nor had family members who did so were placed

34

in the low musical background group (LMB). Of the total
number of subjects, 62.50 per cent were in the HMB group,
and 37.50 per cent in the LMB group. In the control
group, 62.50 per cent were in the HMB group, and 37.50 per
cent in LMB group. In the experimental group, the same
percentages of 62.50 per cent were in the HMB group and
37.50 per cent in the LMB group.

More subjects expressed a desire to be in an
instrumental group than had expressed a desire to take
lessons in a previous question. Of the total number of
subjects, 12.50 per cent wanted to sing in a choir in
middle school, 18.75 per cent wanted to play in an
orchestra, 56.25 per cent wanted to play in the band, and
12.50 per cent did not wish to be in any musical group.

All of the subjects indicated they liked music. A
total of 87.50 per cent of all the subjects liked to sing;

93.75 per cent wanted to sing better.

Results of Final Singing Evaluation

 

The final singing evaluation was composed of three
songs and a 15-item pitch matching section. The individual
responses of all subjects were taped and later evaluated
by two judges.

The first song, America, the Beautiful,* was the

 

same on the pre- and post-tests. The second song was

 

*These songs are found in Discovering_Music Book
Five, Follett Publishing Company, 1966.

 

35

Shenandoah a Capstan chantey.* The third song was

 

a song of the subject's choice. In sessions ten,

eleven, and twelve of the control and experimental groups,
subjects had rehearsed the songs for the post-test. Some
of the members in the experimental group chose to sing some
of the popular songs from which melodic fragments had been
used in the remedial sessions. Other subjects in the
control and experimental group sang songs from the music
book which they already knew, or had requested to learn in
the last three sessions. No subjects were permitted to
sing the same song of his choice for the pre- and post-
test.

Judges rated subjects on a scale of 1-5. Each
judge rated all three songs. Subjects had a total score
from each judge. In an effort to test reliability among
judges, the Sperman Rank Correlation Coefficient was used.
The pre- and post-test ratings given by each judge were
totalled for each subject. The rating of judges A and B
were then ranked from highest to lowest. The difference
of the ranks was computed and then squared. A corre-
lation of .9625 was found among the judges. From this
high correlation, it can be assumed judges were in

agreement on ratings of the subjects.

 

*See note on previous page, p. 116.

36

To test for significant differences between the
means of the two groups, a Mann-Whitney u test using gain
scores of the subjects was computed. The difference of
pre-test and post-test singing scores were used as gain
scores and then ranked. The results are indicated in
Table 1.

TABLE 1. Difference between gains of control and
experimental groups.

 

 

 

E Score Rank C Score Rank
16 1 11 5
l3 2 10 6
12 3.5 9 7.5
12 3.5 7 9.5

9 7.5 7 9.5
4 13.5 5 11.5
2 15 5 11.5
1 16 4 13.5
R2 - 62.0 Rl — 74
u - 26
(p < .28)

 

The u value of 26 would be significant at the .28
level of significance. Thus, the gain scores for the
experimental group were not significantly different from
gain scores made by the control group. The two treatments
did not differ significantly in improvement of subjects.
The null hypothesis cannot be rejected due to the high

probability of chance.

37

A Mann-Whitney u test was also computed for the
lS-item pitch matching exercise. The results are indicated
in Table 2.

TABLE 2. Difference between pitch matching scores of
control and experimental groups.

 

 

 

E Score Rank C Score Rank
15 1.5 15 1.5
14 3 l3 4
10 6 11 5

8 7 7 8
6 10 6 10
5 l3 6 10
4 15 5 l3
2 16 5 13

R2 = 64.5 R1 = 71.5

u = 28.5

(p < .37)

 

The u value of 28.5 was not significant. There
was no significant difference between the pitch matching
abilities of the control and experimental groups. The

null hypothesis was not rejected.

Results of Teachers' Evaluation

 

Near completion of the study, the three fifth-
grade classroom teachers were asked to evaluate each of
their students in the study on five areas: (1) reading,
(2) mathematics, (3) Spelling, (4) self-concept, and (5)

peer relationship. Teachers were to indicate high ability,

38

average ability, and low ability in reading, mathematics,
and spelling. Self-concept was to be rated good, fair,
and poor. The three choices for peer relationship was
(1) makes friends easily and is well liked; (2) does not
make friends easily; and (3) is easily influenced by his
peers.

High, average, and low ability were rated 1, 2,
3, respectively. Self-concept image of good, fair, and
poor were also rated 1, 2, 3, respectively. Reading,

mathematics, spelling, self-concept, peer relationship,

and musical gain scores were all correlated. The corre-
lations obtained are shown in Table 3.

There were no high correlations between music
achievement and academic skills or music achievement and
self-concept or peer relationships. The fact that there
were no correlations may be due to the small size of the

sample population.

Final Questionnaire After Post-test

A final questionnaire was given to subjects at
the completion of the study. The purpose of this question-
naire was to ascertain the subjects' feelings about having
been in the study and their feelings of achievement. A
copy of the questionnaire is shown in the Appendix.

Of all the subjects, 56.25 per cent thought they
sang better, 31 per cent did not know if they sang better,

and 12.50 per cent thought they did not sing better.

39

.mumusoom
on on Um>wfiamn #0: ma cowumsam>o mane .umwoaoonmamm @000 m mca>mn mm muomnnsm

um: mo cop Ham pmxumfi umnomwu mco umsu Doom map CD can HoQOSm ma musmflm mazes

 

 

amwma.o woowom.on momma.o moomo.o: mnmmo.ou mesmGOHumHmm
Homm
mnmmv.o: mbmmm.o mmamm.o mommm.o mmuoom cflmw
magma.o ommho.o mmaa.o ummocoo
umamm
Hmmmm.o mmmma.o maflasmam
mommn.o cum:
mcflpmmm
mflnm mmuoom ummocou wcHHHmmm cums mcflpmmm
IcoflumHmm cflmu Imamm

ummm

 

.COHHMSHMKVQ .mHGSUMGfl MO mCOH#MHOHHOU om. “NJ—”mama”.

40

All of the subjects responded they would be will-
ing to sing more, 37.50 per cent indicated they would be
willing to sing a solo if asked, 43.75 per cent indicated
they were not sure if they would be willing, and 18.75 per
cent indicated they would not be willing to sing a solo.

A majority, 87.50 per cent, of the subjects
thought the special singing group helped them, 12.50 per
cent indicated they did not know if the group had helped
them, 87.50 per cent said they liked being in the groups,
and 12.50 per cent said they did not know if they liked

being in the groups.

Conclusions and Recommendations

 

There were no significant differences between the
singing achievement of the control and experimental groups.
Neither treatment was proven to be more effective than the
other although the pre—test-post-test scores of each group
indicate improvement. The null hypothesis could not be
rejected. Likewise, there were no significant differences
in the pitch matching abilities of the two groups. It can
be concluded that these children improved equally well with
either method.

There were no significant correlations between
music achievement and academic skill or music achievement
and self-concept, although 100 per cent of all subjects
indicated in the questionnaire, after the study, that they

would be willing to sing more. A majority of the subjects

F—_-j

"L.

41

indicated that they thought they sang better and that the
singing groups had helped them. Although there were no
significant differences in treatment methods, the experi-
mental method is effective as a remedial technique for

uncertain singers. Both methods worked equally well.

Four major recommendations are offered for further
study. First, this study should be replicated with a
larger sample pOpulation. Second, the length of the study
should be for a longer period with the remedial sessions
being shorter but occurring more frequently than twice a
week. Third, a group of uncertain singers receiving no
treatment should be included in the design of the study
to account for maturation in subjects. Fourth, this study
should be replicated using subjects in the junior high
school age range. Students in the age range of 13-15
listen more to popular music than do students in the age

range of 10-11 as were the subjects of this study.

fl

BIBLIOGRAPHY

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bentley, Arnold. Monotones. London: Novello & Company
Limited, 1968.

 

Cleall, Charles. "Tone Deaf-or Lazy Ear?" Music Teacher
and Piano Student, XLVIII (September, 1969).

 

 

Fieldhouse, A. E. "A Study of Backwardness in Singing
Among School Children." Unpublished Ph.D. thesis,
London University, 1937.

Gould, A. Oren. "Developing Specialized Programs for
Singing in the Elementary School." Councilifor
Research in Music Education Bulletin, No. 17.

 

 

Jersild, Arthur T. and Bienstock, Sylvia F. "A Study of
Children's Ability to Sing." Jgurnal of Edu-
cational Psychology, XXV, No. 7 (1933).

 

 

Joyner, David. "The Monotone Problem." Journal of
Research in Music Education, XVII (Spring, 1969).

 

 

Neiswender, Charles. "Is It Too Late to Teach All Children
to Sing?" Music Educators Journal, XLI (September-
October, 1954).

 

Nye, Robert and Nye, Vernice. Music In the Elementary
School. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964.

 

Paul, Quida. "Working With Singing Problems of Adults."
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Robinson, Doris. "New Horizons for Monotones." Music
Educators Journal, L (April-May, 1964).

 

Roggensack, Delinda. "Pertinent Factors in Monotone
Correction." Music Educators National Conference,
1939-40 Yearbook.

 

 

42

43

Romaine, westervelt B. "Developing Singers From Non-
Singers." Unpublished Ed.D. thesis, Teachers'
College, Columbia University, 1961.

Stein, Elin. "There Are No Monotones." Music Educators
Journal, LV, No. 8 (April, 1961).

 

Wolner, Manuel and Pyle, W. H. "An Experiment in Indi-
vidual Training of Pitch-Deficient Children."
Journal of Educational Psychology: XXIV (1933).

APPENDIX

MUSIC QUESTIONNAIRE

APPENDIX

MUSIC QUESTIONNAIRE

This questionnaire is to help me know a little more about
you, musically. It is very important that you answer all
these questions as best you can. No one will see your
answers but myself, so please answer them the way you wish.

10.

Name 2. Age

Name some of the songs you like that you have learned
in music class at school.

What type of music do you like most when you are at
home listening to radio, television, or record player?
(Ex. folk music, rock and roll, serious concert music,
etc.) -

Name some of your favorite songs that are on radio and
record?

1. 2. 3.

If you could sing in school some of the popular songs
on radio and records, what would they be?

1. 2. 3.

Do you have favorite groups or artists that you like to
hear sing or play? (Ex. Jackson Five, Stevie Wonder,
Tom Jones, etc.)

Are you taking lessons on an instrument? Yes No

If yes, what is the instrument?

If no, would you like to play an instrument?

Which one?

For how many months have you been taking? (Year=12
months rather than 9 months school year.)

44

ll.

12.

13.

14.

15.

45

Do your parents, brothers, or sisters play an
instrument. Yes No Circle the family person(s).
What instrument is it?

Would you like to be a member of the band, orchestra,
or choir in Middle School? Yes No Which one?

Which instrument would you like to play in the band
or orchestra?

Do you like music?
Do you like to sing?

Would you like to sing better?

 

46

THANK YOU for being in the special singing groups? Now
that we have finished, would you answer these questions.
Circle one answer! HAVE A FUN SUMMER!

Do you feel that you sing better?

Yes No I don't know

Are you going to be willing to sing more?

Yes No I don't know

Do you think the special groups helped you sing better?
Yes No I don't know

Did you like or dislike being a member of the special
singing groups?

Yes--liked No--disliked I don't know

You may use this space to write whatever you wish to
say about being in the special singing groups.

HICHIGRN STQTE UNIV. LIBRQRIES

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