NG TRAMZNG PRO‘SR AMS THE EFFEC'SS 09F DWFERA UPON THE. ENDURMME (2‘? mm RATSw 9 szm at? M 3%. ST ATE U 2*! 3‘! ERSWY harms Weber? 3961 Thesis ‘Eer tb MCHEGAN jemma C Man: ‘ «MIMI; WIIWIW WWI 300649 7949 RETURNING MATERIALS: )V153l_] Place in book drop to I remove this checkout from ;:::::E2E:_ your record. FINES wiII be charged if book is returned after the date stamped below. um: SIN:%9>WV§E;;:’ ‘ ' ’ - INSTRUCTION exams cam-Ea 0! Take From This 300,1! CO E OF 'CAIIQN THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERING TRAINING PROGRAMS UPON THE ENDURANCE OF MALE RATS by Jerome Charles Weber A THE IS U4 Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Approved [/ll 4/11 Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1961 ‘BUREAU OF EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH MICHIGAN mm;- ‘ EASI LANSING. MICHIbAN Uni": CH?!” Y / ; i} ’\ (\I ~41 l/jfiéL70 ABSTRACT THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERING TRAINING PROGRAMS UPON THE ENDURANCE OF MALE RATS by Jerome G. Weber The purpose of this study has been to compare two different methods of training for endurance and to evaluate their relative effectiveness. This was accomplished using a treatment by level experimental design which included a group of animals which trained by an underdistance method, a second group which trained by an overdistance method, and a third group which was sedentary. Twelve animals in each group were kept in individual cages. The animals in the underdistance group trained each weekday, except testing days, by swimming for one minute and then resting for one minute. This was done with a high per- centage of their body weight attached by means of lead sink- ers, strung on wire, and held in place with waterproof adhesive tape. ’This was done to a maximum of twenty repet- itions. The animals in the overdistance group were trained the same number of days by constant swimming with a small percentage of their body weight attached for a maximum of sixty minutes. The sedentary group received no exercise. Each group was handled equally and the sedentary group was placed in the water for approximately one minute once each week with no weights in order to accustom the animals to the water. -2- On Friday of every third week, three animals from each group were chosen to be tested. These animals were shaved and washed in a detergent solution in order to negate any unfair advantages of excessive hair growth or body oils which would add to an animal's buoyancy. These animals were then placed in a deep can lined with plexiglass and their total elapsed swimming time with four percent of their body weight added in the usual manner was timed to the nearest second. Swimming times were recorded and averages for each group at each of the fovr levels of testing were calculated. Analysis of variance results indicated no statistically sig- nificant results between groups. Recommendation is made that this study be repeated using larger numbers of animals in each group so that any unusually high or low performance by an individual subject would not have so great an effect upon the group average. THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERING TRAINING PROGRAMS UPON THE ENDURAN‘E OF MALE RATS by Jerome Charles Weber A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF AITS Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation 1961 TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction . . . . . . . . . Statement of the Problem . . . . . Importance of the Problem. . . . . Limitations of the Study . . . . . Definitions of Terms Used. . . . . II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . . . III. EXPERIMENTAL METHOD. . . . . . . . Design of the Experiment . . . . . Subjects and Equipment. . . . . . The Testing Period . . . . . . . IV. RESULTS. . . o . . o . . . . . V. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary. . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . Results. . . . . . . . . . . BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E3 ~o «3 a? In a) r4 a» +4 :4 N pa +4 +4 «JOO‘F‘ FIGURE I. II. III. IV. CHART I. II. III. IV. TABLE I. II. III. Iv. V. VI. VII. VIII. FIGURES, CHARTS, AND TABLES Tail Weighting Technique. . . . . . . . Under'DiStance BaSket. o o 0 e o e o 0 Identifying Ear Markings. . . . . . . . StatIStICal AnaIYSiS e o o e o o a o 0 Average Testing Performances . . . . . . Average Daily Swimming Time and Percentage of Body Weight Carried- Group I . . . . Average Daily Swimming Time and Percentage of Body Weight Carried- Group II . . . . Weekly Changes In Average Body Weight . . . Results of All-Out Tests- Group I. . . . . Results of All-Out Tests~ Group II . . . . Results of All-Out Tests- Group III . . . . Individual Daily Swimming Times- Group I . . Individual Daily Swimming Times- Group II . . Individual and Average Weekly Body Weights- Group I . . Individual ani Average Weekly Body Weights- Group II . . Individual and Average Weekly Body Weights- Group III.‘ . PAGE . lO . 12 . lS . 26 PAGE DEDICATION This paper is dedicated to my parents, Morris and Ethel Weber, who imbued me with the desire to secure an education and were a constant source of inspiration and encouragement to me. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author wishes to acknowledge the aid and encourage- ment given him.by the members of the department. These include Dr. Henry J. Montoye and Dr. Wayne D. VanHuss who gave unstintingly of their time and efforts, and Janos Nevai and David Anderson who were a constant help in setting up and carrying out this experiment. The author also wishes to express his gratitude to his wife Barbara who was a great help in the preparation of this paper and without whose patience and understanding this work would not have been possible. CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM Introduction For many years, trainers and managers of athletic per- sonnel have attempted to discover a single best method of training an athlete to compete in the most effective manner. This has been especially true in sports in which endurance is a major factor in the calibre of an athlete's performance. Much has been reported in athletic journals to the effect that one system of training or another will accomplish the best results. However, in few of these reports has there been any attempt to scientifically validate these theories. Statement of the Problem The purpose of this study was to compare overdistance and underdistance methods of training for endurance and to estimate their relative effectiveness. Importance of the Problem Endurance is an extremely important asset for athletes in many sports. In some sports, such as long distance running and swimming, it is the most important single factor relative to an athlete's success. In some team games, such as hockey, soccer, football, and basketball, it is almost as important as the athlete's special skill in the sport. Many different methods of endurance training have been used over the years and their popularity has often been based -2- on the success obtained by a single team or athlete which has used this particular method. Too often these training methods are expected to bring about the same results in the mediocre athlete that they have brought about in the superior athlete. It should be realized that there is no single method of train- ing which will act as a panacea for an athlete's lack of ability in other facets of playing ability. Most of the studies done in this area have been studies of a specific rather than a general nature. They have attemp- ted to show how an athlete would best prepare for a distance swimming event or a cross-country event or how endurance training could be incorporated into a football conditioning program. The studies are primarily concerned with specific sports or parts of the body. The problem under investigation in this study however, is to try to determine the most eff- ective method of training for endurance in general. Limitations of the Study The present study was performed using male albino rats. Many people may feel that a training method which produces results, no matter how significant, in lower animals cannot be considered applicable to human training. This study was concerned mainly with the effects of training upon performance of an endurance event. The results have been interpreted upon the basis of performance only. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED Endurance Endurance is interpreted as the capacity or ability to -3- continue, without interruption, a physical act for an extend- ed period of time. Training Training denotes any process or method used to prepare a subject to be capable of performing a specific act. Control Group Control group is used to denote that group of subjects which were given no specific method of training designed to increase their endurance and which were incorporated into the study for the purpose of serving as a standard or basis of comparison. Experimental Group Experimental group is used to denote those groups of subjects which were subjected to specific methods of endur- ance training and which were incorporated into the study for the purpose of demonstrating their effects upon endurance. CHAPTER II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE There has been a great deal of literature in the past twenty years describing specific methods of training for endurance. In almost all of these studies, the subjects have been humans and the type of training described was oriented towards a specific athletic event. There has been no previous literature dealing with the exact topic involved in this study. The purpose of this chapter will be to brief- ly describe the training methods currently in use as described in the literature. Most of the literature to be found on various methods of training for endurance has been published in athletic journals since l9h3. Methods of training have become more scientific and successful methods have been widely copied. One of the most successful_methods which Americans have c0pied from Europe is the Swedish system of training for distance track events called "fartlek". The success of the Swedish runners in the distance events of the lQhO Olympics was the event which gave impetus to waves of emulation of this method of training. This is a rather unique method of training in the sense that the individual runner is left almost to his own devices in deciding just how much work he will do each day and at what rate he will work. Lacey (11) describes this method of training as alternate walking, jogging, striding, and sprinting. A day's workout in the fartlek system is not -5- considered successful unless the runner feels better at the completion of the workout than he did at the outset. The runner is supposed to set his pace so that he is never fully tired and never fully rested. The objective of this system of training is to have the athlete build up his body during training rather than have him tear it down by extremely stren- uous workouts and then having to build it up again. Most of the previous systems of training were aimed at building speed or endurance in a runner. This was one of the first methods advanced which attempted to improve both. This is typical of the systems used by athletes of a high calibre which might very well be unsuccessful if tried by runners of a lower calibre. The success of this method of training depends al- most entirely upon the judgement and maturity of the athlete. This method is particularly suited for EurOpean runners who are not considered to be in prime until the age of twenty- five or later. The underlying principle behind this type of training is also used now in other methods of training. Rankin (13) describes training methods for middle and long distance run- ners in which the attempt is made to have the runner adjust to stresses placed upon him and also to think in terms of the body repair needed after a particularly strenuous workout. He states that speed is an outgrowth of strength and endurance and that the distance runner must train for these qualities initially rather than to first train for speed when he is con- cerned with a distance event. He suggests the use of both -6- overdistance and underdistance running and also suggests that both these methods be done only at 2/3 Speed at first. Gobleman, (19) in a study done at the University of Oregon, attempted to determine how various physical educa- tion activities would rank in terms of their contribution to physical fitness. He found that those activities which were conducted for general body conditioning and were trained for by endurance techniques contributed the most. This is typical of a great many studies which have attemp- ted to incorporate endurance training into training for gen- eral fitness or training for power and strength. Capen (7) has reported the effects of weight training upon strength and endurance. In this study the principle which was involved was the overload principle for specified periods of time with an increasing overload. Definitions of endurance have been incorporated into most of the other studies on endurance. Karpovich (10) de- fines endurance in terms or how long an exercise can be con- tinued. He states that fatigue limits a person's endurance. Any factor which delays the onset of fatigue will increase endurance. Endurance depends upon the ability of a person to counteract the accumulation of fatigue products. Steinhaus (1h) discusses the effects of training on animals in great detail. He stated that the literature in this area shows a great increase in heart weight due to train- ing and also an increase in the ratio of heart weight to body weight. Training serves the purpose of allowing the person -7- to perform a given task with less expenditure of internal work as measured by the subject's oxygen requirement. He stated that "endurance, or the postponement of fatigue, is the ability of an organism to balance anabolic and catabolic processes. This means a sufficent oxygen supply and food supply" He goes on to state the following as the most prob- able causes of fatigue: "1, depletion of the phosphocreatine store by loss of one or both of its breakdown products; 2, failure of the resynthesis process due to some limitation being set on the production of lactic acid which.most commonly is probably due to the accumulation of lactic acid and therefore due to 3, inability to oxidize lactic acid promptly, due to a shortage of oxygen. The lactic acid accumulated enters the circul- ation and causes h, disturbances in carbon di- oxide carrying power of the blood, in the respiratory center, and in the vasomotor reg- ulation which an increased circulation can only temporarily compensate; 5, failure of the circ- ulatory and respiratory systems to meet these demands." He stated that training increase endurance by meeting these problems in reverse order. An increased return of the venous blood fills the heart more completely and prod- uces stronger systoles. This causes cardiac hypertrophy with greater volume per stroke, resting volume, and a slower pulse. This faster circulation causes fragmentation of older corpus- cles and stimulation of the production of new ones. The greater resting volume carries more oxygen to the tissues and helps to remove lactic acid before it enters the circulation in large quantities. Since in the presence of enough oxygen, phosphocreatine may be directly resynthesized without the formation of lactic acid, there is a strong possibility that -8- the increased oxygen transport of the trained person may provide the conditions necessary for this direct resynthesis and therefore reduce the burden of the lactic acid formation. Ackerman (l?) in a study on the relationship of exercise to electrocardiograms in rats indicated to the author the method for training which will be discussed later and also the proper method of housing and correct water temperature. He also defined the procedure for an all-out testing session which was incorporated into this study. His conditioned animals showed slower pulse rates than the sedentary animals and he felt that training might even retard the aging process of the heart. Wilbur (16), in a study conducted with guinea pigs also aided the author in the procedure for the all-out testing session. He found that if weighted guinea pigs were forced to swim in a group rather than individually, 70% of the animals showed a decrease of 50% in swimming time. CHAPTER III EXPERIMENTAL METHOD Design of the Experiment The object of this study was to compare the relative effectiveness of two commonly accepted methods of training for endurance. These methods were the underdistance and overdistance methods. The animals which were assigned to Group I were to train by the underdistance method. Those which were assigned to group II were to train by the over- distance method. In addition, an overload principle was to be applied to both groups. Those animals which were assigned to Group II would train for endurance by swimming for an extended period of time with a small percentage of their body weight added for overload. This weight was added by means of lead sinkers strung on a piece of wire and held in place by waterproof adhesive tape wrapped around the animal's tail. (see figure 1) The weight which was added would be three percent of the animal's body weight at the beginning of the experiment and would increase in gradations of one-half percent of the body weight when, and if, the animal managed to swim for sixty minutes with the preceding weight. The animals in this group were placed in the sink and were timed by means of a Kodak timer. The maximum swimming time, for reasons of practicality, was limited to one hour. If an animal was Figure I Tail Weighting Technique -11- unable to swim for the full sixty minutes, he would be re- moved from the water and his total swimming time would be noted on the data sheets. Whether an animal was able to continue or not was determined by the author's subjective decision. When the animals were removed from the water they were placed in towels and were dried off and returned to their cages. The animals which were assigned to Group I trained for endurance by swimming for a shorter period of time with a large percentage of their body weight added for overload. This weight was added by the same method used for Group II. The weight which was added was three percent of the animal's body weight at the beginning of the experiment and was inc- reased in gradations of one-half percent of the body weight when, and if, the animal managed to swim for twenty repet- itions with the preceding weight. The animals in this group did not swim constantly but instead swam twenty repititions of one minute each. Between each repitition the animals were allowed one minute to rest. In order to be sure that each animal in this group was in the water swimming for exactly one minute and was resting for one minute, a basket was built which snugly fitted the inner dimensions of the sink in which the animals swam. This basket was constructed of one quarter inch wire mesh which sunk immediately when placed in the water and was easily raised to the surface. (see figure 2) When each of the animals in this group had been weighted at the tail, they i:(./,( /" /“ (’/:/< I (.i K ‘/(( I / , ’ / ' § <,<,‘/ I / .(~ I . ( ‘ 4‘, '\/ . V I I ' - .' \ § I (,/<(‘/‘.{ \\ f _ . ~ . «At (t I (/(/\, _ . e' i l ' ‘ ‘ \ t (‘1 \,\'I,(’ \/‘\/ \, I ,\\\ 1\r‘ /\/\ 1‘ .\ l‘ K \ ‘ ‘ ‘ " I’. '\'\r‘ "l‘ "\ '\ ‘ ' ‘ I I I I \"‘\ I, \ A ' ' ""'\«\,\,\,K ‘ K ‘ \ ‘ V . \r‘,\ \,\'\"\ ""\ K \ I I / \/ / /-~/ . A ,x v \ I "" ""‘/'\."."\/\ \ 'I r ' ‘ \ ‘\- ‘ ’\ l\ l'\ 1‘ '\I\,\ 1‘ ,( ,'\ I‘ ‘ I - ‘fl ‘1 ‘1 ,, ‘,\\,\‘,\‘ '\ ' ‘ K I I\/\/',{\/‘ /( ’ /\ ' I r ' / \,\’-\’\(,v\”\ \v \,\f' [‘1‘ ~\,\.",\\\ \I , ""\"~I'.‘ 1" \ ' '\ «AAA "3"! v , ‘\w"‘«& \' x \ l’\’ ' ’ l\/ , , ' A ..\ "‘1‘ ”A . . x, x, 'i s K k I I\’\‘\/\/'\ 1‘ \ ‘ "‘r‘ I(\,‘ k \ I .\ .1 \ IAN,” l\,\ ! "k ’\ A "A "‘ /“ \,\. ,\ v \ V ‘ \t\/\," 1‘: \ \ \,\ I"\" K \ ‘ ‘ .\,'.,'. v A.,\ , Figure II Under—Distance Basket -13- were placed in the wire basket and placed in the sink. As the basket entered the water it sunk, and the animals were free to swim. At the end of one minute, which was determined on a Kodak timer, the basket was brought to the surface of the water. Since the basket fitted the sides of the sink snugly, the animals in the sink were raised also. During the minute of rest the basket was held at the surface of the water and the animals were able to simply stand or lie in the basket and rest. If an animal was unable to continue for the full twenty repetitions, he was removed from the water, his time was recorded, he was dried off, and then returned to his cage. The author again had to make a subjective decision as to whe- ther or not the animal was able to continue. The times for Group II were recorded to the nearest whole minute until which the animal swam. The number of repetitions for Group I were recorded as the number of comp- lete repetitions which the animal swam unless it was within ten seconds of completing another when it was removed from the water. The animals which were assigned to Group III were used as the control group. These animals were kept sedentary. A particular point was made to handle these animals as much as those in the two exercise groups so that a difference in the amount of handling wduld not become a factor in the exper- iment. The exercise which these animals received was limited to the movement they could get while confined to their cages. -1u- In addition, once a week they were taken out of their cages and placed in the water so that the water would not be comp- letely strange to them when they were placed in it for the testing sessions. Subjects and Equipment The animals used in the experiment were male albino rats of the Sprague-Dawley strain. The animals were fifteen weeks old when they arrived at the laboratory. All the animals were born on the same day but were not litter mates. Before the actual experimental work was begun, the animals were kept in the laboratory for three weeks. During this time, the animals were assigned to groups on the basis of a random sel- ection. The animals were housed in individual cages measuring approximately 10 inches long, 8 inches wide, and 7 inches high. Each animal had its own food and water supply. Water was supplied to the animal by means of an inverted bottle hung outside the cage and leading into the cage through a piece of bent metal tubing. Throughout the experiment the animals were fed Wayne Lab Blox manufactured by Allied Mills Of Chicago. Care was taken to be sure that the animals were never short of food or water. After the animals had been assigned to their respective groups, each animal was marked for purposes of identification. This was done by a series of coded round and triangular cuts made in the ears. (see figure 3) The round holes were made with a paper punch and the triangular cuts were made with a 2 \ 3 3 FIGURE III- F) \O H \n // \\\ _‘ 1 NA ( - _ ._ i/ 5 /, 11 3I 17 \x ,4 v \ 1’9. \ \ IDENTIFYING EAR IVIARl‘iINGS -16- pair of scissors. There was almost no bleeding and no infec- tion at all due to this procedure. The groups were further identified by means of a small stain mark placed on various positions of the tail for each group. In addition, each cage was marked with the individual and group number of the animal in it. During the three week period preceding the beginning of the experiment, the animals were handled each day so that they would become accustomed to being picked up. They were also placed in the water during this time, without weights, so they might become accustomed to being placed in the water, to being lifted out of the water, and to being dried off. The temperature in the laboratory was constantly kept at 80:3 degrees Farenheit. It was deemed adviseable to keep the room this warm in order to negate any possibility of the animals developing colds and pneumonia after swimming and thus losing subjects. The animals swam in a sink which measured approximately 2h inches wide, 2h inches long, and lb inches high. It was soon discovered that the height of the sink was not great enough to keep the animals from clambering out of the sink so sheet metal inserts were obtained which raised the height of the swimming area to 97 inches. This was the area used for the daily training of the animals. The water in this sink was always between 35 and 37 degrees Centigrade. The Testing Session The entire experimental period lasted for twelve weeks. -17- The animals in the two experimental groups were trained each weekday for this period with the exception of the testing days. There were four testing sessions and these were on the Friday of weeks 3, 6, 9, and 12. On these days, three animals from each group were selected randomly to be tested. These animals were first shaved with an electric animal clipper. The hair on the animal's body holds air which cont- ributes to his buoyancy. Since the amount of hair on each animal is not the same, this factor was eliminated by shav- ing each of the animals. In addition, before being tested, the animal was washed off in a detergent solution. This was done to remove as much of the body oils as possible. These oils also contribute to the animal's buoyancy and are not equal in each animal and this factor was also eliminated. Since the test was to be a measure of all-out swimming, it was decided not to use the sinks. These were shallow enough to afford the animal the Opportunity of going to the bottom and then pushing off and coming to the tOp again. A common ten gallon garbage can was used for the testing session. This was lined with a sheet of plexiglass so that the animal could neither go to the bottom of the can and push off, or cling to any support on the sides of the can. With the plexiglass in place, the can measured 17 inches in diameter and was?5 inches deep. The length of the swim was recorded on.a Cenco electric timer. As the animal was placed in the 'water the timer was started and as he was removed from the 'water it was stopped. This time was recorded to the nearest -18- whole second. The animals were tested with a weight attached to their bodies in the same manner as previously described. The animal was weighed to the nearest half gram.with 15 3 hours before he was tested. The weight used for each animal was h percent of his body weight at this final weighing. This weight was constructed to the nearest half gram. After being tested, the animal was dried off and returned to his cage. 'On the day following his testing period, the animal was sacrificed in conjunction with another study which was being done concurrently. CHAPTER IV RESULTS When all of the data from the experimental period had been compiled, there were twelve measures of all-out swimming for each of the three treatments or exercise groups. These twelve measures were obtained over the twelve week experimental period by testing three animals from each group at each of four levels. These four levels were at the end of the third, sixth, ninth, and twelfth weeks. Test results are shown in Chart I. With the exception of the second testing period, the animals in group I scored higher than those in the other groups on each of the testing days. This was the group which trained by the underdistance method with the heavy overload. The performance of this group improved steadily from one testing session to the next. The animals in group II, which trained by the overdist- ance method with a light overload, scored lowest in each of the testing sessions with the exception of testing session number three. The animals in group III, which was the seden- tapy group, scored highest in the second testing session, lowest in the third testing session, and in the middle in testing sessions one and four. The highest single achievement was recorded by group I. The greatest achievement of group II was higher than the greatest achievement of group III but group II also recorded thG lowest achievement of any of the groups in any testing CHART I- AVERAGE TESTING PERFORMANCES Performance in Sec nds (I Group I C Q ‘ 1m __+' Group II o ./ i Group IIIA 128 -—+L 6’4 -21- session. The difference between highest and lowest achievement between testing sessions was greatest for group I, next for group II, and lowest for group III. The two most surprising points on the chart are indicated by the best performance of group III in the second testing session and the drop in performance recorded by group II in the final testing session. Both of these may be explained bv analyzing the raw data to be found in the appendix. (see tables 1 and 3) The reader will note that animal number eight' in group III recorded a swimming time of 162 seconds in test- ing session two. It may be further noted that animal number nine in group II recorded a swimming time of only M9 seconds in the final testing session. The time recorded by animal number eight in group III was the highest time recorded by any animal in any of the testing sessions with the exception of one animal in group I during the final test. The time recorded by animal number nine in group II was the lowest time recorded by any animal in any of the testing sessions. The effect of any outstandingly high or low performance by any individual subject upon the average of three subjects is obviously great. This will be discussed further in the final chapter. Charts 2 and 3 graphically represent the weekly average swimming time recorded by groups I and II, and the weekly average percentage of body weight which each of the groups carried. Since the study was concerned with the effects of overdistance versus underdistance training in increasing CHART II- AVERAGE DAILY SWIMMING TIME AND PERCENTAGE OF BODY WEIGHT CARRIED- GROUP I Average Swimming Time.- Repe tions 18.0 TIME L" PERCENTAGE Q 0 15.5_? 13.0_s 75.0 3 i 9 i 10.5“ Lino / 3' : 8.? Bl I-.. L3,0 ”r l 3 4 I 12 WEEKS OF TRAINING -23- CHART III— PERCENTAGE OF BODY WEIGHT CARRIED- Average Swimming Time- Minutes no .. 35.0 -a 2 -- ewe-e 2900 —- I!- 0‘4? I ' ,/ 17.0 _L 11.0 ‘ ” . E3 WEEKS OF TRAINING PE RC ENT AGE . AVERAGE DAILY SWIMMING TIME AND GROUP II % of Body weightu.o _. 3.5 -. q—ns-‘ a ”I o -- _-__..._T_.._ ,.._ A .4 W e O -gg- endurance, at the conclusion of weeks 5, 6, and 9 it was deemed adviseable to decrease the percentage of weight att- ached to the animals in group II. When this was done there was an increase in the amount of minutes which this group was able to swim. The weights attached to the animals in group I were gradually increased over the twelve week period from 3 per- cent of body weight to an average of 6.8 percent at the end of the twelfth week. The sharpest drop in performance came at the end of the eighth week when the animals in thisKgroup ~ were carrying 5 percent of their body weight. However, the ' recovery was rapid following this drop and by the end of the ninth week the animals were carrying an average of 5.375 percent of their body weight during the swimming periods. During the experimental period the animals were weighed every Thursday evening. The results of these measures are shown in Chart IV. The average weight of group III was the highest of the three groups during nine of the twelve weeks. This was as expected. It is interesting to note that the underdistance method of training brought about the greatest immediate weight loss when the training was initiated. However, it should not be inferred that this is always the case since the object of this paper was not to determine weight loss and the food intake was no regulated or measured. It may also be noted that at the end of the experiment, the average body weights of the three groups were in the same relative position as at the beginning of the experiment. -25- CHART IV- WEEKLY CHANGES IN AVERAGE BODY WEIGHT Weight in Grams A90 Group I C' Group II 0 ; Group III A h65_ mid ._ Lop—M MS ;a0 4 —... u‘ ._ _...—~..— ._.._._ /‘-'/ I R) NUMBER OF WEEKS IN TRAINING -25.. The data which were obtained from the all-out testing sessions of the three groups of animals were statistically analyzed by means of an analysis of variance. The results of this analysis are presented below in figure h. FIGURE IV- STATISTICAL ANALYSIS df Sum of Squares Mean Squared F Treatment 2 3,869.h8 1,93uo7h P.16 Level 3 6,336.22 2,112.07 2.36 Interaction 6 5,937.19 989.53 1.10 Error 2h 21,501.67 895.93 Total 39 37.6hh.56 The F ratios which were obtained were not statistically significant. No interpretations of the data are warranted. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS Summary The objective of this study has been to compare two different methods of training for endurance and to evaluate\ their relative effectiveness. This was accomplished using a treatment by level experimental design which included a group of animals training by an underdistance method, a second group which trained by an overdistance method, and a third group which was sedentary. Twelve animals in each group were kept in individual cages. The animals in the underdistance group trained each weekday, except testing days, by swimming for one minute and then resting for one minute with a high percentage of their body weight attached. This was done to a maximum of twenty repetitions. The animals in the overdistance group trained the same number of days by swimming constantly with a small percentage of their body weight attached to a maximum of sixty minutes. The sedentary group received no special exercise. Each group was handled equally and the sedentary group was exposed to the water for approximately one minute once each week in order to accustom them to it. On Friday of every third week, three animals from each group were chosen to be tested. These animals were shaved and washed in a detergent solution to negate any unfair advantages of excessive hair growth or bvdy oils. These -28- animals were then tested and their total elapsed swimming time with four percent of their body weight added was mea- sured to the nearest second. These times were recorded and averages for each group at each of the four levels of testing were determined. These twelve averages were then tested for statistical significance by means of an analysis of variance. Conclusions- 1. No statistically significant differences were found between the two training methods or between the trained and untrained groups. Recommendations 1. Experimental work related to the nature and cause of physical changes such as endurance is of extreme importance to the field of physical education. 2. Although the evidence presented in this study did not indicate that different training methods caused a ' significant difference in performance as measured on an all-out endurance test, it is recommended that a study such as this one be repeated using larger numbers of animals in each group. 3. In a similar study using larger numbers of animals, the average performance for each group wauld not be as greatly affected by any single unusually high or low performance. 11. It is recommended that the experimental period either be extended to fifteen weeks or that the animals in -29- training 'ected to rimental groups be subJ he expe each of t twice each day. BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS Bovard, John F. and Frederick W. Cozens. Tests and Measurements in Physical Education. PhiladeIphia: W.B. Saunders-Company,II930. Dixon, Wilfrid J. and Frank J. Massey. Introduction E% Statistical Anal%sis. New Ybrk: McGraw-Hill_EOO Cbmpany, Inc., Edwards, Allen L. Statistical Analysis for Students 33 Psychology and Education. New York: Rinehart and Company, Inc., I9h6. Griffith, John Q. and Edward J. Farris (eds.). The Rat In Laboratory Investigation. Philadelphia: J.B. ‘Lippincott Company, 19h2. Mathews, Donald K. Measurement in Physical Education. Philadelphia: ‘W.B. SaundErs Company, 1958. Stroup, Francis. Measurement in Physical Education. New Ybrk: Ronald Press Company, 1957. B. PERIODICALS Capen, Edward K. "The Effect of Systematic Weight Training on Power, Strength, and Endurance," Research Quarterly, 21:2, May, 1950, pp. 83-93. Dukelow, Donald D. "A Doctor Looks at Exercise and Fitness," Journal of Health Physical Education and Recreation, epfember, 1957, pp. Zh- ~26. Hartlaub, Paul. "Conditioning for Swimming," Athletic Journal, 3h:2, October, 1958, pp. 50-51. Karpovich, Peter V. "Fatigue and Endurance," Research Quarterly, 12:2, May, 19h1, pp. h16-h22. Lacey, Richard. "Fartlek for American Distance Runners," Scholastic Coach, 21:7, March, 1952. Pp. 20-2h. IMcCloy, Charles H. "Endurance," The Physical Educator, 5:2, March, l9h8, pp. 9-12. Rankin, David. "Trends in Middle Distance and Distance Running," Journal of Health Physical Education and Recreation, 35: 5, May, I959, pp. 53 5h. 16. 17. 18. 19. -31- Steinhaus, Arthur H. "Chronic Effects of Exercise," Physiological Reviews, 13:1, January, 1933, pp. 10h- 1&7. Thompson, Hugh L. and G. Alan Stull. "Effects of Various Training Programs on Speed of Swimming," Research Quarterly, 30:h, December, 1959, pp. h79-h85. Wilbur, Charles G. "Some Factors Which Are Correlated With Swimming Capacity," JOurnal 2: Applied Physiology, C. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS Ackerman, Kenneth J. "An Investigation of the Effects of A Twelve Week Conditioning Program On the Electro- cardiOgram of Albino Rats." Unpublished Master's Thesis, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 1959. Cureton, Thomas K. (ed.). "Effects of Physical Education and Athletics Upon College Men." Urbana: 1955. (MimeOgraphed.) Gobleman, Arthur A. "A Study of Physical Activity Courses In Terms of Their Contribution Toward Physical Fitness." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Oregon, Eugene, 19h9. APPENDIX TABLE I- -33- RESULTS OF ALL-OUT TESTS GROUP I Testing Period One (March 2h) NUmber Time for Swim 7 103 8 77 11 96 Testing Period Two (April 1h) NUmber Time for Swim S 1A1 6 77 9 77 Testing Period Three (May 6) Number Time for Swim 1 13h 12 122 16 115 Testing Period Four (May 27) Number Time for Swim 13 167 15 95 17 185 (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) -3g- TABLE II- RESULTS OF ALL-OUT TESTS GROUP II Testing Period One (March 2h) Number 11; 15 16 Testing Period Two (April 1h) Number h 11 12 Testing Period Three (May 6) Number 5 6 17 Testing Period Four (May 27) Number 9 10 13 Time for Swim 7O 61 75 Time for Swim 100 82 90 Time for Swim 112 162 96 Time for Swim M9 98 139 (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) -35- TABLE III- RESULTS OF ALL-OUT TESTS GROUP III Testing Period One (March 2h) Number 5 10 1h Testing Period Two (April 1h) Number 1 2 8 Testing Period Three (May 6) Number 3 h 6 Testing Period Four (May 27) Number 9 11 12 Time Time Time Time for Swim 100 70 79 for Swim 6h 87 162 for Swim 77 8h 79 for Swim 130 80 105 (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) (seconds) -35- TABLE IV- INDIVIDUAL DAILY SWIMMING TIMES- GROUP I Week II III IV VI (T)* ANIMAL NUMBER 1 2 3 u 5 6 7 8 9 u 3 u S 5 5 h u u 11 9 8 12 8 12 12 8 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 2o 11 20 20 20 20 20 6 9 3 S 7 13 S u 20 20 7 20 20 2o 8 5 h h 11 6 3 S 12 10 13 6 o 13 8 lb 1 3 12 S 12 7 9 6 9 15 S 12 u 7 5 u 17 8 1h 7 1o 9 7 S o u o 3 o 1 8 3 7 h 9 2 u 16 7 u 17 3 1 'raa T T (T)99 (T) T 8 lo 1 3 2o 20 20 2o 17 16 17 19 18 13 16 16 20 20 A 3 16 19 8 6 l8 15 13 10 13 16 17 13 12 1h 11 9 9 11 13 11 13 19 15 1a 20 15 P0 20 13 16 12 8 11 1h 15 9 T (T) (T) (T) Friday of every third week was devoted to testing. On these days, those animals which were not tested were not exercised either. Denotes those animals which were tested on that partic- ular day. (continued) Week VII VIII IX XI XII -37.. INDIVIDUAL DAILY SWIMMING TIMES- GROUP I ANIMAL NUMBER 1 S o 7 8 (continued) -33- INDIVIDUAL DAILY SWIMMING TIMES- GROUP I ANIMAL NUMBER Week 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 h 2 3 3 3 A 3 5 13 13 6 8 8 7 16 16 I 20 20 10 20 10 20 20 2o 1 20 20 2o 20 20 20 20 1 7 7 6 8 5 15 9 11 13 17 11 20 2o 13 16 18 17 15 1 5 II 3 5 8 1 6 7 18 5 11 10 1 11 13 13 5 11 8 7 11 1 13 8 13 11 9 16 8 11 2 5 h 1 3 5 6 III 8 11 9 5 10 1o 9 1 3 3 2 10 3 11 (T) T T T T T T 6 2 1 20 3 5 20 20 5 20 20 20 IV 18 18 11 17 19 16 13 18 18 19 17 19 9 20 7 20 5 20 11 18 11 18 7 11 12 18 13 19 12 18 v 9 1 15 11 11 11 13 1 12 17 17 13 18 15 17 11 12 16 12 17 13 18 20 11 20 20 20 20 20 20 v1 11 11 18 15 13 11 12 18 18 13 9 17 T T T T T T (continued) INDIVIDUAL DAILY SWII'II’III‘IG TIMES- GROUP I AN IMAL I'IUMBER Week 10 11 12 13 11 15 16 17 11 13 18 11 12 15 17 17 18 18 15 18 VII 11 11 13 15 13 18 13 12 16 17 18 15 18 15 15 11 18 17 10 12 19 9 10 11 11 9 8 7 11 12 VIII 8 1o 7 1 7 11 3 9 3 3 3 16 A 5 3 5 3 13 5 9 8 11 7 12 10 2o 5 2o 8 20 IX 11 17 8 2o 7 2o 11 18 8 15 7 20 (T) T T T (T) T 20 8 23 2o 17 9 11 18 x 18 18 20 2o 18 9 20 15 17 10 18 18 15 10 19 2o 15 9 15 1? XI 16 9 18 2o 17 10 16 2o 17 12 17 29 19 11 23 21 18 12 19 29 XII 17 15 18 3 21 15 20 20 (T) T (T) (T) -10- TABLE V- INDIVIDUAL DAILY SWIMMING TIMES- GROUP II ANIMAL NUMBER Week 1 2 3 1 5 6 7 8 9 S S 18 9 9 7 7 6 6 1+ 17 9 15 5 9 5 5 I 15 6o 19 6O 53 6O 38 37 1 6 5 6 12 5 5 5 19 6 5 9 6 7 21 51 19 1o 29 12 13 36 57 3o 18 12 51 28 II 1 55 3 5 3 2 1 3 85 3 3 5 2 2 3 28 3 1 7 1 2 8 3 8 11 18 6 3 2 5 1 5 1 III S 30 7 6 9 7 35 3 2 11 8 T%€ T T T T 60 h h 60 5 17 7 9 27 7 IV 23 13 17 3h 18 32 17 15 22 19 7 18 15 2o 11 8 LL 5 8 12 6 6 10 v 5 2 1 1 6 6 A 5 8 5 5 7 8 11 7 5 12 13 10 8 VI 27 18 18 5 AS 17 15 9 (T)% T T T T%% Friday of every third week was devoted to testing. On these days, those animals which were not tested were not exercised either. (T)% Denotes those animals which were tested on that partic- ular day. (continued) Week VII VIII IX XI XII -11- INDIVIDUAL DAILY SWIMMING TIMES- ANIMAL NUMBER 2 3 u S 25 2O 22 2h 17 22 21 22 18 2O 19 2o 12 15 (T 6 ) (T) (continued) GROUP II [\J H raxrq-QUI crcrc»4\n uhqcr~a~a ~o -17- INDIVIDUAL DAILY SHIMMING TIMES- GROUP II ANIMAL NUMBER week 10 11 12 13 11 15 18 17 2 3 2 9 3 3 5 1 7 11 5 6O 6 8 23 59 1 8o 59 11 6O 31 39 53 6O 19 8 5 1O 7 23 11 27 7 7 8 11 9 17 15 18 37 22 35 16 38 50 55 29 13 32 37 20 13 52 55 36 11 2 2 2 1 2 3 5 7 6 1 3 7 6 1 8 9 5 1 2 12 5 7 7 3O 11 13 9 21 12 11 18 28 3 1 2 5 1 5 5 11 III 8 11 7 18 9 7 10 52 6 3 3 9 5 7 6 18 T T T T (T) (T) (T) T 5 1 3 12 6O 32 10 S 18 11 IV 11 27 19 53 19 17 33 21 16 17 28 31 2o 31 10 10 1 3 11 10 8 11 5 18 15 V 1 6 2 36 6 5 6 2 3O 6 6 6 3 311 10 7 ' 8 1 25 8 9 11 28 12 VI 10 25 28 25 18 10 21 31 52 22 T (T) (T) T T (continued) Week VII VIII IX XI XII -13- INDIVIDUAL DAILY SWIMMING TIMES- ANIMAL NUMBER 10 11 12 13 11 IS 23 56 26 55 23 51 20 5 7 12 6O 23 57 20 58 23 57 19 12 18 52 12 52 18 S1 9 26 1 3 30 T T 60 6O 25 1O 17 11 16 31 22 3o 29 6O 32 56 30 83 36 51 39 52 13 60 32 8o 11 51 GROUP II l6 l7 fly \1' ‘i 'T' 1:115:43; V-L' Animal Number 1 OCDKIO‘Ul-C'WN F3 +4 (A F‘ +4 F’ +4 o~ U1 2? x» n) +4 o 17 3/2 188.5 116.0 102.5 135.5 391.0 121.0 153.0 121.0 111.0 119.5 100.5 391.0 132.5 365.0 108.5 113.5 100.5 Average 118.7 3/9 128.0 118.0 329.5 377.0 393.5 123.5 392.5 387.5 107.5 367.0 386.0 113.5 360.0 373.0 111.0 371.0 389.9 -11- INDIVIDUAL AND AVERAGE 3/16 131.5 107.5 380.0 391.5 118.5 390.0 361.0 389.5 390.0 103.0 377.5 376.0 118.5 392.5 393.3 DATE OF WEIGHING 3/23 117.5 385.5 398.0 103.0 383.5 357.5 379.0 395.5 382.5 101.0 383.5 121.5 132.0 397.5 3/30 162.0 388.0 355.5 370.5 112.5 393.0 381.5 379.0 383.5 121.0 392.1 1/6 150.0 115.0 132.0 109.0 120.0 123.5 375.0 372.5 390.0 125.0 111.7 (continued) WEEKLY BODY WEIGHTS- GROUP I 1/13 110.0 1.12200 115.0 118.0 110.9 139.0 385.5 385.5 121.0 178.5 123.6 -15- INDIVIDUAL AND AVERAGE WEEKLY BODY WEIGHTS- GROUP I DATE OF WEIGHING Animal Number 1/20 1/27 5/1 5/11 5/18 5/25 1 119.0 157.9 171.5 2 3 1 5 8 7 8 9 10 11 12 113.5 118.0 13 129.0 131.0 118.5 162.0 113.5 161.5 11 389.0 101.5 112.0 138.0 119.5 112.0 15 388.5 190.5 111.0 128.0 138.5 151.5 18 111.5 129.0 115.5 17 181.0 173.5 187.0 192.0 501.5 513.5 Average “.1909 (4.2909 (1.2.11.9 151.5 (.150 .3 (4.6709 TABLE VII-INDIVIDUAL Animal Number 17 3/2 103.0 115.5 119.0 121.0 123.5 389.5 129.0 115.0 116.0 117.0 138.5 187.0 118.5 329.0 151.0 380.5 382.0 Average 111.0 3/9 385.0 AN D -16- 3/16 373.5 100.5 390.0 331.5 397.0 387.0 376.5 395.0 101.5 383.0 111.0 317.5 191.5 398.0 371.5 389.1 N - BUREAU OF EDU‘fgu CC-‘.-_‘ .' N'.1:.:'.g...\- 3.... EAST LANom DATE OF WEIGHING L5, NI.C'.'HL§AN 3/23 3/30 103.0 112.0 379.5 355.5 393.0 373.5 107.5 358.0 370.0 381.5 398.0 108.5 102.0 100.0 378.5 380.0 122.5 108.0 357.0 117.0 107.0 385.0 391.0 393.8 385.5 (continued) “~01 T‘SCARCH ‘. 1/6 195.5 371.5 3 '1? E3 0 3 108.5 388.5 118.0 385.5 122.5 117.5 102.2 AVERAGE WEEKLY BODY WEIGHTS-GROUP II 1/13 100.0 399.5 103.0 108.5 110.0 110.0 397.0 151.0 111.0 INDIVIDUAL AND AVERAGE. WEEKLY BODY WEIGHTS- GROUP II DATE OF WEIGHING Animal Number 1/20 1/27 5/1 5/11 5/18 5/25 1 2 3 1 5 135.5 128.0 121.5 8 111.0 108.5 102.5 7 8 9 110.5 111.0 112.5 151.0 151.5 158.0 10 110.5 116.0 119.0 112.5 153.0 158.5 11 12 13 117.5’ 158.0 171.5 182.5 197.5 151.0 11 15 16 17 137.0 138.0 138.5 Average 130.8 131.3 133.1 158.7 188.3 155.8 -15- TABLE VIII-INDIVIDUAL AND AVERAGE WEEKLY BODY WEIGHTS-GROUP III DATE OF WEIGHING Animal number 3/2 3/9 3/18 3/23 3/30 1/6 1/13 1 150.0 117.5 118.0 152.0 118.0 398.0 117.0 2 252.5 319.0 337.5 368.0 355.5 389.5 369.5 3 116.0 157.5 151.0 157.5 122.5 138.0 393.5 1 151.0 180.0 181.0 181.5 125.0 118.5 399.0 5 113.0 121.5 129.0 118.5 6 - 107.0 399.0 103.0 121.5 139.5 130.5 392.5 7 111.5 101.5 111.0 128.5 133.5 112.5 105.0 8 123.0 398.5 117.5 138.0 133.5 112.5 105.0 9 153.5 125.5 131.0 111.5 110.5 118.5 108.5 10 121.5 123.5 120.5 122.0 11 159.0 116.0 150.0 187.0 185.5 178.0 151.0 12 111.0 150.0 157.5 181.5 182.5 181.5 158.0 13 135.0 135.0 131.0 127.5 129.5 152.5 137.5 11 150.0 131.0 117.0 180.0 15 112.0 132.0 137.0 118.0 155.0 173.0 112.0 16 371.5 392.0 397.5 111.0 118.5 136.5 111.5 Average 120.8 121.8 127.0 138.8 125.9 138.3 111.5 (continued) -19- INDIVIDUAL AND AVERAGE WEEKLY BODY WEIGHTS- GROUP III DATE OF flEIGHING Animal Number 1/29 1/27 5/1 5/11 5/18 5/25 1 2 3 390.0 119.0 151.5 1 379.0 393.5 155.5 5 6 395.5 130.5 152.5 7 128.5 110.0 182.5 181.0 121.5 158.5 8 9 115.0 137.0 151.5 183.0 101.5 188.0 10 11 178.0 183.0 199.5 518.0 166.0 165.5 12 185.0 192.5 512.0 522.0 167.0 517.5 13 128.5 111.5 176.0 180.5 181.5 198.5 11 15 113.0 127.5 387.0 18 111.5 137.0 176.0 190.0 153.5 191.0 Average 125.3 110.2 183.1 109.8 115.2 182.5 MICHEGAN ST ATE UF‘JI‘JEEZSHY 71435212770111}. 1317521115 crrwr'r' COLIFA; he r7.‘,""‘AT'v“\p! 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