THE PELAGIC BIRDS AND MAMMAgs
10F THE CHUKCHI SEA IN FALL

THESIS- FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER. OF SCIENCE

GEORGE J. DIVOKY

1972

 

 

 

 

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ABSTRACT

THE PELAGIC BIRDS AND MAMMALS

OF THE CHUKCHI SEA IN FALL

By
George Joseph Divoky

As part of an ecological survey conducted.by the U. S. Coast Guard,
observations of pelagic birds and.mammals were made in the eastern
Chukchi Sea between 22 September and 17 October 1970. Additional obser-
vations were made in the Bering Strait on 18 October. Sightings of
these animals were plotted on.maps and compared with previous published
observations from the area. Some southward migration had already oc-
curred, and.no Arctic Terns or Grey Whales were observed. Other species
including loons, phalarOpes and jaegers were seen only during the first
weeks of the study. Species seen throughout most of the study include
Oldsquaw, eider, Glaucous and Ivory Gulls, Black-legged Kittiwake, Ross'
Gull, Black Guillemot and walrus. Birds were collected for stomach
analysis, and observations of the feeding behavior of gulls were corre~

lated with the distribution data and stomach content findings.

|1pll

THE PELAGIC BIRDS AND MAMMALS
OF THE CHUKCHI SEA IN FALL

By

George Joseph Divoky

A THESIS

Submitted to
.Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

.MASTER.OF SCIENCE

Department of Zoology

1972

‘3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply grateful to George E. watson, Chairman, Department of
Vertebrate Zoology, Smithsonian Institution, for allowing me to partic-
ipate in the western Beaufort Sea Ecological Cruise. The field work
on which this paper is based was done in conjunction with him. Dr.
watson offered suggestions on an earlier draft of this thesis. For
their assistance at sea, I am indebted to Captain Theodore L. Roberge
and the officers and crew of the GLACIER, especially the marine
science technicians and small boat crews. Merton C. Ingham, then
Director of the United States Coast Guard Oceanographic Unit, coordin-
ated the scientific work aboard ship. J. Larry Haddock, Bureau of
Sports Fisheries and Wildlife, assisted in making Observations during
the first two weeks of the cruise.

My participation.was made possible through special funding from
the Smithsonian Oceanography and Limmology Program.

George J. wallace, Chairman of my graduate committee, critically
reviewed an early draft of this thesis as did Rollin H. Baker and
Bertram G. Murray. Special thanks are due Miss Susy Fidelman Who
helped with the preparation of teXt and.maps, and Whose patience dur-

ing the course of this work is greatly appreciated.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

List of Tables ................................................... vi

List of Figures .................................................. vii
Introduction ..................................................... 1
Description of Study Area ........................................ 2
Methods and Cruise TraCk ......................................... 6
Previous Studies on Marine Birds and Mammals ..................... 10
Species Accounts ................................................. 15
Loons ......................................................... 16
Northern Fulmar ............................................... 18
Slender-billed Shearwater ..................................... 20
Pelagic Cormorant ............................................. 21
Oldsquaw ...................................................... 23
Eiders ........................................................ 26
Common Scoter ................................................. 29
Red-breasted Merganser ........................................ 29
Sparrow Hawk .................................................. 31
Red Phalar0pe ................................................. 31
South Polar Skua .............................................. 33
Jaegers ....................................................... 34
Glaucous Gull ................................................. 36
Slaty-backed Gull ............................................. 41
Herring Gull .................................................. 42

iii

Ivory Gull ..................................................... 44

Food of Ivory Gull ............................................. 46
Black-legged Kittiwake ......................................... 47
Ross' Gull .................................................... 3 50
Food of Ross' Gull ............................................. 54
Sabine's Gull .................................................. 54
Murres ......................................................... 57
Guillemots ..................................................... 61
Kittlitz's MUrrelet ............................................ 62
Parakeet Auklet ................................................ 66
Crested Auklet ................................................. 67
Horned Puffin .................................................. 67
Snowy Owl ...................................................... 70
Raven .......................................................... 70
Yellow Wagtail ................................................. 70
Savannah Sparrow ............................................... 72
Snow Bunting ................................................... 75
Mbmmals
Polar Bear ..................................................... 75
walrus ......................................................... 75
Seals .......................................................... 77
Whales ......................................................... 77
Discussion
Mbvements and.Migration ............................ , ............ 80
Ice Affinities on Feeding Habits ............................... 82
Oil Pollution and Seabirds ..................................... 90

iv

LIST OF TABLES

Page
Table 1. Bird Specimens Collected in the ChukChi Sea .......... 13
Table 2. Stomach Contents of Birds Collected in the
Chukchi Sea ....................................... 14
Table 3. Flocking of Gulls on Transects and Stations
in the Study Area ................................. 39
Table 4. Ice Affinities of Gulls .............................. 40

Table 5. Food Items Present in Rhodostethia rosea stomachs.... 55

 

Table 6. Seabirds seen between 22 September and 10 OctOber,
1970, but not seen in the Study Area after
10 October ........................................ 83

Table 7. Seabirds seen after 10 October in the Study Area ..... 84

vi

Figure
Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure
Figure
Figure

Figure

Figure

10.
11.
12.

13.

LIST OF FIGURES

The Chukchi Sea and adjacent waters ...................

Ice coverage encountered during the cruise expressed
as eighths (octaves) of total surface area. Edge
of pack ice shown by dotted line ....................

Transects (numbered arrows) and stations (numbered
squares) on which birds and.mammals were observed
or collected between 21 September and 17 October
1970 ................................................

Transect 42 through the Bering Strait on 18 October
1970 ................................................

Distribution of Gavia sp. in the east central Chukchi
Sea. Abundance key applies to all other east
central Chukchi Sea maps ................ . ...........

 

Distribution of Fulmarus glacialis in the Bering
Strait. Abundance‘key applies to all other Bering
Strait maps .........................................

 

Distribution of Puffinus tenuirostris in the
Bering Strait .......................................

 

Distribution of Clangula hyemalis in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of Clangula hyemalis in the Bering Strait.

 

Distribution of eider in the east central Chukchi Sea..

Distribution of eider in the Bering Strait .............

Distribution of unidentified ducks in the east central

Chukchi Sea ..........................................

Distribution of Phalaropus fu1icarius in the east

 

central Chukchi Sea ..................................

vii

Page

17

19

22

24
25
27
28

30

32

Figure

Figure

Figure
Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure

Figure
Figure

14.

15.

16.
17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.
25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

30.
31.

Distribution of Stercorarius pomarinus in the east
central Chukchi Sea .................................

 

Distribution of Larus hyperboreus in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of Larus hyperboreus in the Bering Strait.

 

Distribution of Larus argentatus in the east central
central Chukchi Sea .................................

 

Distribution of Pagophila eburnea in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of Rissa tridactyla in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of Rissa tridactyla in the Bering Strait.

 

Distribution of Rhodostethia rosea in the east
central Chukchi Sea .................................

 

Distribution of Xema sabini in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of Uria sp. in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

Distribution of Uria sp. in the Bering Strait .........

Distribution of Cepphus grylle in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of Brachyramphus brevirostre in the east
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of Brachyramphus brevirostre in the
in the Bering Strait ................................

 

Distribution of Aethia cristatella in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

 

Distribution of unidentified large black and white

alcids and Fratercula corniculata in the east
central ChukEhi Sea .................................

 

Distribution of Nyctea scandiaca in the Bering Strait.

 

Distribution of uncommon species in the east central
Chukchi Sea .........................................

viii

35

37
38

43

45

48
49

53

S6

59
60

63

64

65

68

69
71

73

Figure 32. Distribution of uncommon species in the Bering Strait.. 74

Figure 33. Distribution of Odobenus rosmarus in the east
central Chukchi Sea .................................. 76

 

Figure 34. Distribution of seals in the east central Chukchi Sea.. 78

ix

INTRODUCTION

Oil pollution of the world's oceans has increased in recent years
with the development of offshore drilling and the increasing size of
tankers. The discovery of oil at Prudhoe Bay on Alaska's North Slope
has been a.major concern for environmentalists. The transporting of
oil to refineries will have to be accomplished.by pipelines or, less
likely, supertankers. Though the use of a pipeline will lessen the
chances for major oil pollution of the Arctic Ocean, there will un-
doUbtedly still be a sizeable quantity of oil entering the marine
environment. One of the shortcomings of most studies on the effects
of oil pollution is the lack of data prior to the onset of pollution.
In order that the full impact of oil pollution in the area of Prudhoe
Bay can be measured, the United States Coast Guard contacted various
agencies to participate in the western Beaufort Sea Ecological Cruise
(WEBSEC). Through the Smithsonian Institution, I was given the Oppor-
tunity to assist in the censusing of birds and.mammals. The USCGC
GLACIER was made available in late September and early October 1970
for this survey. Heavy ice conditions in the Beaufort Sea forced a
change in the study area to the eastern ChukChi Sea. .Although the
ChukChi coast is not receiving the extensive exploitation now being
undertaken on the Beaufort Sea coast, exploratory drilling is taking

place and oil development will undoubtedly occur in the fUture.

DESCRIPTION OF STUDY AREA

The Chukchi Sea is a shallow basin of the.Arctic Ocean, lying north
of the Bering Strait (Figure 1). It extends east to Point Barrow, west
to Wrangel Island and north to the 100 fathom line (approximately
73°-74°N). Depths throughout most of the Chukchi vary from 10 to 30
fathoms with the bottom composed of silty sands and clayey mud and
having no prominent features. .A strong warm current enters the Chukchi
through the Bering Strait, and continues north to the area of Point HOpe
where it divides into two branches: one moving northeast to the area of
Point Barrow while the other moves northwest. There is little movement
of water south through the Bering Strait (Zenkevitch, 1963). Details of
the bottom contours, sediments, currents and seawater chemistry
encountered in the primary study area covered by this paper may be found
in Barnes (in prep.) and Ingham and Rutland (in prep.). iMidwater trawls
conducted during this study found the eastern Chukchi Sea to be a

gigantic "nursery" for Arctic Cod (Boreogadus saida) and Sand Lance

 

(Ammodytes hexapterus). These were the principle species taken in most

 

of the study area. In the area of Cape Lisburne, however, Arctic Cod
were less numerous and a more diverse fish fauna was present (Quast, in
prep.). Invertebrate sampling revealed species and individuals to be
abundant (Wing, in prep.).

weather conditions were exceptional for early fall in the area and
fog and snow rarely hindered observations. Days were generally overcast
but cloud cover was high and visibility was seldom less than seven miles.
Daytime air temperatures ranged from 3.2°C to -8.6°C during the first
week to -6.6°C to -16.6°C in the last week. Temperatures dropped about
4°C when the ship approaChed extensive areas of pack ice. Winds were

predominantly from the northwest during the first week of the cruise

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after which they were predominantly from the northeast. Winds were
seldom more than 25 knots, and seas were moderately calm throughout the
cruise due to the close proximity of ice. Surface water temperatures
ranged from 4.0°C in ice-free areas early in the cruise to -l.8° later
when grease ice began to form in the primary study area. In the Bering
Strait on 18 October, air temperatures ranged from -0.8°C to -1.7°C
while the sea surface temperature varied from 1.2°C to 2.4°C. Winds
and waves were moderate, and visibility was excellent except for a few
small patches of snow squalls.

Daylight hours decreased almost twenty-five percent during the
cruise. There were 12 hours, 19 minutes of daylight at the start of
the cruise and this decreased by 8 to 9 minutes a day so that on
18 October there were only 8 hours 50 minutes of daylight.

Ice covers the Chukchi Sea from late October to early May. During
the summer the pack ice edge is usually present off shore at Barrow and
approximately ten miles off shore at Icy Cape. The ice edge then swings
northwest to the area of Herald and wrangel Islands and then south to
the Siberian coast. The ice conditions encountered during the cruise
are shown in Figure 2. The approximate edge of the pack is shown by a
dotted line. Observations of ice coverage away from the pack are shown
as octaves or eighths of the total surface area. Pack ice closed in on
the study area from the north and west during the course of the survey.

The nature of the northwest coast of Alaska affects the breeding
distribution of certain species of seabirds. From Cape Lisburne
northeast to Cape Beaufort, a distance of approximately fifty miles, the
Brooks Range runs directly to the sea and provides the most northerly

breeding sites in Alaska for cliff nesting species. The cliffs at Cape

Lisburne are 900 feet high and there is a gradual decrease in elevation

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north along the coast. Northeast of Cape Beaufort the coastal relief is
not as great and cliffs, when present, are composed of soil and gravel
that erodes into the sea during the summer months (Shepard and wanless,
1971; 480-484). Such cliffs are unsuitable for cliff nesting species.
However, Skull Cliffextending some fifty miles southwest of Barrow has
mud cliffs as high as seventy feet. These cliffs apparently have been

' the sight of a few successful breeding attempts by cliff nesting species.
These will be mentioned in the species accounts. The Seashore Islands,
mentioned at various times in this paper, lie at the southwest end of
Skull Cliff. Inland from the coast, the wet tundra of the coastal plain

provides breeding sites for numerous species of waterbirds.

.METHODS AND CRUISE TRACK

Whenever the ship was underway during the daylight hours, a watch
for birds and marine mammals was maintained. The great majority of all
observations were made from the flying bridge of the GLACIER (48 feet
above waterline). Severe weather conditions caused some observations to
be made from the crow's nest (74 feet above waterline) or rarely the
pilot house (39 feet above waterline). Visibility was good in all
directions except astern from the pilot house. The barrier islands at
Point Lay were visited on 26 September and 5 October for the purpose of .
observing and collecting birds. Species, numbers, time and behavioral
notes were recorded on sealog sheets at the time of Observation. Tracks
and positions of the ship were plotted later from bridge navigation data.
weather conditions, sea state, water temperatures and ice conditions
were recorded every three hours by the ship's marine science technicians.
When on station the presence and abundance of birds were recorded, and

whenever possible specimens were collected from the small boats. A few

specimens were caught from the fantail on baited fishlines. Sixty-six
specimens were collected (Table 1), most being frozen for later use, but
a few were prepared as study skins aboard ship.

Stomach contents from specimens prepared aboard ship were preserved
immediately in formalin. The remainder of the stomachs were removed
later and preserved in 70% alcohol and glycerine. Ectoparasites were
collected aboard ship and Mallophaga were given to Dr. K. C. Emerson for
identification.

All specimens not prepared as study skins aboard ship were given to
Drs. Lucille F. Stickel and Eugene H. Dustman of the Patuxent Wildlife
ResearCh Center, Laurel, Maryland. They removed tissue and organs for
analysis of chlorinated hydrocarbons, polychlorinated biphenols and
heavy metals. Carcasses were returned to the Smithsonian Institution
for museum specimens.

Figures 3 and 4 present only stations and transects where
observations were made. The entire cruise track and all station
coordinates are presented in Ingham and Rutland (in prep.). The station
numbers are the same as those used for oceanographic, geological and
marine biological sampling in other phases of the survey. In this paper
the tenm "study area" denotes the zone of intensive investigation
between Icy Cape and Cape Lisburne (stations 8-91 and transects 9—41),
which was surveyed from 25 September to 17 October. Observations were
also made while the ship was anchored and in transit in the area of
Point Barrow on 22-23 September (stations 1', l and transects 1-3), in
transit to Icy Cape on 23-24 September (stations 5-7 and transects 4-8)
and in the Bering Strait enroute to Nome, 18 October, (transect 42)

(Figure 4).

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10

Sightings were plotted on maps (Figures 5 to 34) with all mammals
and birds, except gulls and tubinares, seen during each 20—minute
interval or station being summed. Abundance is indicated by symbols
keyed in powers of three (see Figures 5 and 6 for key). Gulls, Fulmars
and shearwaters had varying tendencies to be attracted to the ship and
the actual number seen in a 20-minute interval could not be obtained.
These Species were censused by taking the highest count in each
20-minute interval and at each station as an index of abundance.

Marine science technicians aboard the GLACIER recorded bird
observations sporadically and collected three specimens from 18 August
to 21 September 1970 while the ship was engaged in geological sampling
in the Chukchi Sea. In 1971, I boarded the GLACIER at Long Beach,
California, and.made observations while the ship was enroute to Barrow
from 2-14 August. When these observations augment my 1970 findings,

they will be included in the species accounts.

PREVIOUS STUDIES ON MARINE BIRDS AND MAMVIALS

The lack of shipping routes through the Chukchi Sea has lflnited
knowledge of the distribution and abundance of pelagic birds for this
area. There are only three published accounts of extensive at-sea
observations. E. W. Nelson (1883, 1887) entered the Chukchi aboard the
U. S. revenue steamer CORWIN on 30 June 1881, and except for a short
time in the Bering Sea, stayed until 14 September of the same year.
His exact cruise course is not clear, but he visited the Siberian coast
as far west as North Cape, including Herald and wrangel Islands, and
the Alaskan coast as far east as Point Barrow. F. L. Jacques (1930)
was in the ChukChi aboard the schooner MORRISSEY from 30 July to

25 August 1928 as part of the Stoll4McCracken Expedition. Mest of the

ll

cruise track was south and east of Herald Island. His most easterly
position was approximately 164°W and the most northerly, 73°N. Swartz
(1967) published at-sea observations obtained by E. J. Willoughby aboard
the researCh vessel BROWN BEAR from 6 to 28 August 1960. Most of the
cruise was south of Point Hope and in the Kotzebue Sound area; only a
small portion was north of Cape Lisburne with 70°N being the most
northerly position. Swartz's detailed account is the only one of the
three that attempts to deal with observations on a quantitative basis.
In addition to these accounts, Stresemann (1949) published the account
of birds observed and collected on Captain Cook's last voyage. The
RESOLUTION and DISCOVERY were in the Chukchi Sea from 11 August to
3 September 1778 and from 5 to 31 July 1779. Cook sailed up the
Siberian and Alaskan coasts until he encountered ice. An expedition
from Harvard University, aboard the power schooner POLAR BEAR, sailed
through the Chukchi Sea from Cape Serdze, Siberia to Cape Lisburne and
then north to Point Barrow in July 1913. Brooks (1915) and Dixon (1943)
reported extensively on land observations in Siberia and on the Beaufort
Sea coast of.A1aska, before and after their Chukchi crossing, but they
recorded few at-sea observations. Alverson, Wilimovsky and Wilke (1960)
made casual observations in August 1959 from Cape Lisburne to Kotzebue
Sound while engaged in fisheries research (Alverson and Wilimovsky, 1966).
IMuch of the information on seabirds in the Chukchi Sea has been
obtained by land-based Observers and has been summarized.by Bailey (1948),
and Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959). Barrow has been the center of
ornithological work in arctic Alaska. Harting (1871) collected in the
area of Barrow and in Kotzebue Sound from 1852-1854. Murdoch (1885)
collected at Barrow from 1881 to 1883 as part of the International Polar

Expedition. iMCIlhenny (Stone, 1900) spent parts of 1897 and 1898 doing

12

extensive collecting at Barrow. In 1921 and 1922 A" M. Bailey and
R. W. Hendee (Bailey, 1948) collected along the entire Arctic coast of
Alaska with the most intensive work being done in the area of Wainwright.
From 1922 to 1945 Charles Brower (Bailey, 1948) collected at Barrow and
greatly increased the number of species known for that area. Pitelka
and his students have amassed a number of unpublished "opportunistic”
records of seabirds for the Barrow area during studies of shorebird and
tundra ecology. Their only publications on seabirds, however, are
Pitelka, Tomich and Treichel (1955a, 1955b), Maclean and Verbeek (1968)
and.Maher (1970). Ornithological records from the Barrow-wainwright
area southwest to Point Hope are few and scattered. Tarelton Bean
(1882) collected along the Siberian and Alaskan shores of the Chukchi
Sea in 1880 as did F. S. Hersey (1917) in 1914. Benjamin Sharp visited
points along the Alaskan coast in the summer of 1895 as did Seale (1898)
in 1896. The Cape Thompson and Kotzebue Sound areas have been more
intensively studied. Grinnell (1900) spent a year in Kotzebue Sound in
1897 and 1898 collecting birds. During the Project Chariot Program
(Wilimovsky and WOlfe, 1966), the birds of the Cape Thompson region were
studied from 1959 to 1961 (Williamson, Thompson and Hines, 1966; Swartz,
1966). Bird observations for the Siberian side of the Chukchi Sea have
been summarized by Pleske (1928) and Dementiev and Gladkov (1969).
Studies of marine mammals in the Chukchi Sea area are likewise few.
The whales, seals, walrus and bears that are utilized for skins, oil and
food by the Eskimos move north with the edge of the pack ice in summer
and are mainly hunted during migration in the fall and spring or from the
ice in winter. The major sources of general information on northern
Alaskan marine mammals are Bailey and Hendee (1926), Brooks (1954) and

Bee and Hall (1956).

13

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SPECIES ACCOUNTS
The sequence of Species and nomenclature in the following accounts
follow the American Ornithologists' Union Check List (1957) for birds,
and Rice and SCheffer (1968) for mammals. Terms used to describe
feeding methods of birds are based on Ashmole and Ashmole (1967).

Contact dipping - The bird remains airborne and forward.motion
does not stop as it snatches its prey from the water.

Hovering.- The bird remains airborne and forward.motion ceases as
the bird, with wings beating, picks its prey from either the
water or ice.

Plunge to surface - The bird partly folds its wings and drops to
the water's surface. Complete submersion of the bird's body
may occur, but there is no underwater pursuit.

Surface feeding - The bird swims on the surface and picks up its
(prey on, or just below the surface.

Surface diving - The bird, while sitting on the surface, dives and

pursues its prey underwater.

15

Loons Gavia sp.

The Yellow-billed (Gavia adamsi), Arctic (G, arctica), and

 

Redrthroated Loons (Q, stellata) breed on the Arctic coast of Alaska,
while the Common Loon (G, immer) breeds only as far north as Kotzebue
Sound. .All four species winter from the Aleutians and southern

Alaska southward. Loons are rarely found far from land during the
summer and at-sea Observations are few during that season. Bailey
(1948) found that.most of the loon migration took place in early and
mid-September. Of the 112 loons I observed (Figure 5), one seen be-
tween Barrow and Wainwright on 24 September was identified as

G, adamsi. The Common Loon was seen twice: one north of the usual
breeding grounds 20 miles northwest of Point Lay on 4 October, and
another in the Bering Strait on 18 October (Figure 32). The remainder
of the loons were either G, arctica or G, stellata. The similarity of
the two species in winter plumage and the distance from which most
birds were Observed did not allow positive identification, but on the
basis of flight Characteristics, I thought that the majority were
Arctic Loons.

Loons were common in the area of Barrow and along the coast to
the study area (Figure 5). In the study area, loons were observed
primarily within 40 miles of land and the majority were heading
southwest. The largest number (54 in three and one-half hours) was
seen on 27 September on transects 10 and 11 extending northwest from

IPoint Lay. No loons were observed in the study area after 6 October.

16

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Northern Fulmar Fulmarus glacialis
The Fulmar has been the subject of an extensive monograph by Fisher
(1952). In the Pacific the Northern Fulmar breeds north to St. Lawrence
Island in the Bering Sea. ’Birds observed in the Chukchi Sea in the
summer are probably all nonbreeders. It winters from~the Aleutians
southward. Summer observers have all recorded this species from the
Chukchi. Nelson (1887) found it abundant along the Siberian coast, but
rare in the eastern Chukchi. He mentions it breeding on Herald Island:
but subsequent investigations have failed to find evidence Of nesting.‘
Jacques (1930) saw it occasionally south of 71°N, and abundantly south
of 68° 30'N in late August. Both Swartz (1967) and Alverson et a1
(1960) found it uncommon in the southeast Chukchi in August. There is a
specimen from wainwright as early as 14 June and a specimen collected on
11 September is the latest for Barrow (Bailey, 1948). Fulmars were
observed in early September by marine science technicians aboard the
GLACIER. Their most northerly sighting was made at 72° 22'N, 167° 22'w
on 6 September, and their last observation was made on l7_September at
71° 22'N, 167° 15'w. I did not observe Fulmars in the study area, but
they were present in the Bering Strait throughout the day on 18 OctOber
(Figure 6). Eighteen of the 20 20—minute intervals on which it was seen
had less than five individuals. The other two each had ten individuals.
Fulmars were common in the Bering Strait on 13 August 1971, and small
:numbers were present on 14 August in the Chukchi Sea north to 70° l6'N,
163° 35'W.
All 1970 observations for the Bering Strait were of light phase

txirds. In the Pacific, dark phase individuals predominate in the southern

Ixxrtion of the breeding range and do not breed north of the Pribilofs.

18

19

 

I I
l—3 ° -

o 4—9 0 U

lO-27 0 El
: 28 -8l 0 '3
. OVER 8| 0 I
° TRANSECTS
o ._ .
6f STATIONS
. .—.
e /
5

 

Fulmarus olacialis

l l ‘
I70° I68°
Figure 6. Distribution of Fulmarus glacialis in the

Bering Strait. Abundance key applies to all
other Bering Strait maps.

 

 

 

 

20

Jacques (1930) is the only observer to see dark phase birds in the
northern Chukchi. They constituted roughly one percent of the Fulmars
he observed. Nelson (1887) observed dark phase birds just northwest
of the Bering Strait. On 13 August 1971 I observed them in the Bering

Strait north to 66° 30'N.

Slender-billed Shearwater Puffinus tenuirostris

 

The Slender-billed Shearwater breeds on islands in the southwest
Pacific Ocean from September to May and.migrates to the northern
hemisphere from.June to October. The figure-eight mdgration route of
this species is presented in Marshall and Serventy (1956). It is
abundant in the Bering Sea in the summer and fall while smaller
numbers are found in the Chukchi Sea from July to November.
Observations from this area in autumn are probably of nonbreeding
individuals. Nelson (1887) saw a number of birds just northwest of
Bering Strait on 31 August that he believed to be of this species.
Jacques (1930) found it extremely abundant in the western Chukchi in
late August. Swartz (1967) reported it most frequently from the Point
Hope and Cape Thompson area with one of the sightings a flock of 500
to 1000 individuals. A1versOn et_al_(l960) observed it in increasing
numbers in the month of August and groups of 200 to 300 were seen at
the end of the month. iMarine science technicians aboard the GLACIER
observed Slender-billed Shearwaters in the ChukChi in early and mid-
September. Their most northerly sighting was made on 17 September at
71° 21'N, 167° 35'W, and their last sighting on 20 September at
68° 22'N, 167° S4'W.

 

21

I only saw this species south of 67°N in the Bering Strait on 18
October when it was observed on twelve of the 30 20-minute intervals
(Figure 7). Nine of these observations were of less than five
individuals though flocks of up to 100 birds were observed on two
occasions, east of East Cape and west of Cape Prince of Wales. My lack
of sightings in the study area indicates that most Slender-billed
Shearwaters had left that area by late September. It occasionally
stays later since Brower observed thousands at Barrow in September and
October associated with the ice (Bailey, 1948).

No individuals of this species were observed in the Chukchi in
August 1971. Although extremely abundant just south of the Aleutians
in the area of Unimak Pass on 9 August, few were seen in the Bering Sea.
My most northerly sighting was on 12 August at 63° 30'N, 167° 35'w,

80 miles south of the Bering Strait.

Pelagic Cormorant jPhalacrocorax pelagicus

 

The Pelagic Cormorant breeds commonly in and south of the Bering
Strait, but it is found only sparingly in the Chukchi Sea. On the
Alaskan coast the northern extent of its breeding distribution is
probably detenmined by the availability of suitable nesting cliffs.
When the Cape Thompson cliffs were censused in 1961, they found to
support 23 pairs (Swartz, 1966). Like other cormorants it is not
commonly found far from land and has been observed only infrequently by
pelagic observers. Nelson (1883) saw birds in the area of wrangel and
Herald Islands and at Cape Beaufort. Jacques (1930) did not encounter
it north of the Bering Strait. Swartz (1967) reported four

observations, two in the Bering Strait and two further north in the

22 ,

 

 

 

0°.

 

Puffinus tenuirostris

 

l l

 

I70“ uea°

Figure 7. Distribution of Puffinus tenuirostris in
the Bering Strait.

23

Chukchi, all near nesting cliffs. There are five records for Barrow in
the summer and fall and a January record for wainwright (Bailey, 1948).
I saw this species only once in 1970 when two birds were observed

flying approximately 15 miles south of Cape Prince of wales (Figure 32)
on 18 October. In 1971, a single individual was observed on 14 August

at 70° SO'N, 161° 27'w.

Oldsquaw Clangula hyemalis

 

The Oldsquaw is circumpolar north of 50°N in its breeding
distribution and nests abundantly on both sides of the ChukChi Sea. It
is rarely observed far from land during summer. The only fall
migration data for the.Arctic coast are those of Bailey (1948) who first
saw large flocks off Icy Cape on 7 September. He observed it for the
rest of September and on 1 October found it abundant offshore. His last
Observation was made on 19 October. It usually winters well south of
the breeding range, but individuals have been reported at Barrow as late
as early December (Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1959). Bartonek (1969) has
estimated that over 300,000 Oldsquaw migrate along the Arctic coast of
Alaska.

This species was Observed throughout the cruise (Figure 8). The
larger flocks were all observed close to shore with the majority in the
area of Point Lay where 2,400 were seen in a three—hour transect on 25
September and smaller numbers on 4 OctOber. Presumably some of the
unidentified ducks seen at a distance in the study area were Oldsquaws
(Figure 12). .A flock of 24 Oldsquaws was Observed off Cape sabine on

16 October when new ice covered 7/8 of the water's surface. It appears

24

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Clangula hyemalis

 

1 J

 

|70° |68°

Figure 9. Distribution of Clangula hyemalis in the Bering Strait.

 

26

that a few individuals remain in the Chukchi Sea until driven out by the
formation of new ice. Small numbers were Observed in the northern part
of the Bering Strait on 18 October (Figure 9). The stomach of a single

immature specimen collected at Point Lay (Table 1) contained only grit
(Table 2). Other studies have found molluscs and crustaceans to be the

primary foods.

Eiders ’Somateria sp., Lampronetta fischeri

 

Three species of eider were observed. Positive identification was
possible only of a few males and of females that came near the ship.

The Common Eider (Somateria mollissima) breeds commonly along the entire

 

Alaskan Arctic coast. 'MOst.Alaskan breeding records for the King Eider

(S. spectabilis) come from the area of Barrow. The main breeding

 

grounds of the Spectacled Eider (Lampronetta fischeri) in northern

 

Alaska lie to the east of Barrow. iMale eiders migrate south before
females and young and pass Barrow from late June until early August.
The majority of eiders passing Barrow after mid-August are females and
young. An estimated one million migrated south past Point Barrow in
1953 (Thompson and Person, 1963).

Only a single eider was seen in the area of Barrow, and only one
flock of six was seen between Barrow and the study area (Figure 10).
The greatest numbers were seen on 25 and 26 September when large flocks
were observed inshore in the area of Point Lay. Smaller flocks were
observed in the same locations on 4 October. Eider were seen throughout
the study area and small numbers were observed far from land. Some of

the "unidentified duCks" seen at a distance in the study area were

27

 

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Eider

 

l J
|70° 168°

 

 

Figure 11. Distribution of eider in the Bering Strait.

29

eiders (Figure 12). One was observed in a lead during the deepest
penetration into heavy pack ice while small flocks were also found off
Cape Sabine when new ice covered 7/8 of the water's surface. Of the
approximately 1,300 eiders seen in the study area, only 100 or 7.7
percent were males. Four of the males were identified as King Eiders
and the remainder were either Common or Spectacled. Eiders were seen
in the northern part of the Bering Strait on 18 October (Figure 11).
Eider feed by surface diving for benthic molluscs and crustaceans.
The stomaCh of one of the two immature specimens of Common Eider
collected (Table 1) contained two columella from gastropod shells and

plant material (Table 2), the other was empty except for gravel.

Common Scoter Oidemia nigra

 

The Common Scoter is circumpolar north of 45°N in its breeding
distribution, but is uncommon on the Arctic coast of Alaska. I
observed it on two occasions: a flock of 300 individuals on 24
September near wainwright, and a flock of 25 west of Point Lay on 27

September (Figure 31).

Redrbreasted.Merganser Mergus serrator

 

The Red4breasted.Merganser is a rare breeder on the Arctic coast
of Alaska, but is common south of Kotzebue Sound. It was recorded
only twice in the study area: one individual seen from the barrier
island at Point Lay on 26 September, and another at sea 20 miles
Inorthwest of Point Lay on 27 September (Figure 31). In the small boat

harbor at Nome on 19 October, a single bird was observed swallowing a

ifiisihn

30

 

 

 

 

 

1 l
o
o
0 ° 9
o
o
o o
09
o
6 469°
..'-. . Unidentified ducks
.2311 l
l66° |64~°

Figure 12. Distribution of unidentified ducks in the
east central Chukchi Sea.

Sparrow Hawk Falco sparverius

 

The Sparrow Hawk is an uncommon breeding bird in south and central
Alaska. Vagrants have been recorded as far north as Barrow. I observed

a single individual at Nome on 19 October.

Red PhalarOpe Phalaropus fulicarius

 

The Red PhalarOpe is circumpolar north of 50°N in its breeding
distribution and is found in abundance on both the Siberian and Alaskan
sides of the Chukchi Sea. Unlike other shorebirds, it Spend the
nonbreeding season in.pe1agic environments, wintering in the southern
hemisphere. Fall migration begins as early as July. Summer Observers
have found it abundant throughout the ChukChi. Both Nelson (1883) and
Jacques (1930) encountered large concentrations at the edge of the ice.
Swartz (1967) mentions 59 sightings of phalaropes with no areas of large
concentrations. From the abundance of summer pelagic Observations in
the Chukchi it appears that individuals disperse to the open ocean after ‘
breeding rather than immediately migrating southward along the coast.
Coastal concentrations may occur at times, however, as Bailey (1948)
found 100 in the shallows at Wainwright during the first week in
September. From 15 to 17 August 1971, I found them to be abundant along
the Shore at Barrow.

Eleven sightings of phalaropes were made between Point Barrow and
Icy Cape, and nine sightings were obtained in the study area. lMost
observations were of flocks of ten individuals or less (Figure 13). .All

phalaropes were identified as P. fulicarius although it is possible some

 

unere the Northern PhalarOpe (Lobipes lobatus), a less pelagic Species

 

31

32

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33

but frequent in Alaskan coastal waters. My few sightings indicate that

HDSt P, fulicarius had left the arctic by late September. I last

 

observed it in the study area on 7 October but it has been recorded at
Barrow as late as 16 October (Murdoch, 1885b). While my number of
observations is too small to demonstrate an ice affinity that other
observers have commented on, the largest flocks were close to the paCk
ice in the area of Barrow and wainwright. A Single bird was Observed

on 18 October in the Bering Strait (Figure 32).

South Polar Skua Catharacta maccormicki

 

While I was collecting birds from one of the ship's small boats at
70° 18'N, 164° 41'W (Figure 31) on 29 September, a large all dark bird
with a CODSpiCUOUS‘Whlte patch at the base of the primaries passed
directly overhead. The bird's dark greyish brown breast and uniformly
dark back, lead Dr. George E. watson (who was familiar with skuas both
in the North Atlantic and Antarctic) to conlcude that it was a dark
phase South Polar Skua from.the Antarctic rather than a Northern Skua
(Q, skua)from.the.At1antic. Three Ross' Gulls harried the Skua and
drove it away from the area of the boat. This is the first record of
any Skua in arctic.A1aSka. There are two Skua records from just south
of the Aleutians. A.specimen of the South Polar Skua was collected by
Max Thompson on 16 October 1965 (USNM 496196) at 45° 20'N, 172° 00'E.
A.Skua was reported south of.Adak Island in July 1969 (Sanger in Gibson,
1970). ,

Jaegers Stercorarius sp.

 

All three species of jaeger, the Pomarine (Stercorarius pomarinus),

 

the Parasitic (S, parasiticus), and the Long-tailed (S, longicaudus),

 

 

are found in arctic Alaska. They winter in temperate and tropical seas,
beginning southward migration as early as mid-July.

The Pomarine has the most restricted breeding range in Alaska with
most records coming from the Barrow area where Brower considered it to
be more coastal than the other species (Bailey, 1948). Outside of the
breeding season, jaegers obtain much of their food by robbing other
birds so that their distribution at sea and during migration is
somewhat dependent on the presence of other Species. Nelson (1883)
observed the Pomarine Jaeger in scattered areas close to shore in the
Chukchi. He found.it more common on the Siberian side than the Alaskan
side, except at Barrow where it was abundant. Jacques (1930) considered
it, at times, to be the most abundant bird in the western Chukchi.
Swartz (1930) reported seven sightings all north of 67°N.

I observed Pomarine Jaegers on seven occasions, totaling twelve
individuals (Figure 14). In early September observers aboard the
GLACIER saw jaegers more frequently and my observations are of the last
of the fall migration. None was observed in the study area after 29
September. .A single individual was seen in the Bering Strait on
18 October (Figure 32). ‘MOst of the sightings were in ice areas where
large concentrations of other birds were present. One case of
harassment of gulls was recorded, two Pomarine Jaegers chasing an Ivory
Gull. Five of the seven Pomarine Jaegers closely observed were in dark

phase.

34

 

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36

.A single Parasitic Jaeger was observed on 30 September (Figure 31).
This is the least abundant jaeger in the Barrow area (Bailey, 1948).
Both Nelson (1883) and Swartz (1967) reported this Species from the
ChukChi. Swartz's twelve observations were all north of 67°N. No
Long-tailed Jaegers were encountered. Summer observers in the Chukchi
have found it uncommon. An unidentified jaeger was seen on land at

Barrow on 22 September.

Glaucous Gull Larus hyperboreu§_

 

The Glaucous Gull is a common to abundant breeder on both sides of
the Chukchi Sea and at Herald and wrangel Islands. Its scavenging and
predatory habits cause breeding individuals to concentrate at seabird
cliffs; 150 pairs bred at Cape Thompson in196l (Swartz, 1966). During
the breeding season it remains near land and is not commonly seen far
out at sea. Nelson (1883) mentions no pelagic observations; Jacques
(1930) found it present but uncommon north to Herald Island. Mest
observations reported by Swartz (1967) were within 25 miles of land.
There are few fall migration data for the Arctic coast. Birds which
breed inland move to the coast where both adults and young stay until
driven south by ice and lack of food. Bailey (1948) observed hundreds
passing Wainwright on 16 September. The latest date he recorded the
species was 19 October.

Glaucous Gulls were observed through the cruise (Figure 15).

They were abundant at Barrow on 23 September when a flock of forty
individuals followed the ship while it was just south of the pack ice.

From Barrow to the study area only small infrequent flocks were seen.

37

 

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o
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Figure 16. Distribution of Larus hyperboreus in the Bering Strait.

 

Tflfle3.

Flocking of Gulls on Transects and Stations
in the Study Area.

Observations during 208 20—minute intervals on transects

Species

Larus hyperboreus

 

Pagophila eburnea

 

Rissa tridactyla

 

Rhodostethia rosea

 

Larus hyperboreus

 

Pagophila eburnea

 

Rissa tridactyla

 

Rhodostethia rosea

 

IntervalS‘with

gulls seen

74
61
44

70

Mean no.
gulls/interval
when present
3.3
4.3
2.8

18.8

Observations at 28 stations

Stations with

gulls seen

22
19
12
20

39

Mean no.
gulls/station
when present
18.7
14.3
5.9

22.6

Single gull
intervals
32
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41

They were present throughout the study area but were most common in the
northeast portion and at other stations close to the shore. The species
was noted throughout the day in the Bering Strait (Figure 16). It
displayed no obvious affinity for ice areas (Table 4). Approximately
25 percent of all birds seen were immatures.

Glaucous Gulls tended to flock less than other gulls and single
individuals were frequently seen on transects. On the other hand large
numbers gathered about the ship on stations (Table 3) to accept scraps
thrown over the side. Most of their food is probably live fish and
crustaceans, but I also saw it feeding on walrus dung. Hovering,
contact dipping and surface feeding were all observed for this species.
Examination of stomach contents indicates that fish may be the major
food during this time of year (Table 2). Three of the seven specimens

collected.were adults (Table 1).

Slaty-backed Gull Larus schistisagus

 

On 25 September approximately 20 miles northwest of Point Lay, a
large dark-backed gull was observed that was probably a Slaty-backed
Gull (Figure 31). This is a species of the Siberian Pacific coast and
not common in Alaskan waters. Mest Alaskan records are for the
Adeutian Islands although it is also regular in Norton Sound in
September. .A specimen collected by Bailey at Icy Cape on 16 September
1921 was thought to be this species (Bailey, Brower and Bishop, 1933)
but according to Bailey (1948) further investigation proved it to be

the Siberian Lesser Black-backed Gull (Larus fuscus). A straggler has

 

also been reported for Herald Island (Nelson 1883).

Herring Gull Larus argentatus

 

The Herring Gull is found throughout most of the northern
hemisphere including the Canadian.Arctic and Siberia, but does not
breed on the Arctic coast of Alaska. In fall, and.probab1y in spring,
it is a regular but uncommon migrant in northern Alaska. I Observed
this species five times in the study area (Figure 17). Three of the
six individuals seen were immatures. In the Bering Strait, two
sightings were made; a single bird at 66° 22'N and a group of five at

approximately 66° 04'N.

42

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Ivory Gull . Pagophila eburnea

 

The Ivory Gull is a high Arctic species that breeds north of 70°N.
The known breeding grounds closest to the study area are at Herald
Island and in the Canadian Archipelago. The known breeding sites in
Canada have been listed by MacDonald and Macpherson (1962). Pagophila
eburnea is a bird of the pack ice. Breeding sites are situated close to
the pack ice and the southern extent of its wintering range is largely
detenmined by the southern margin of the ice. The most northerly record
is that of an individual at 86°N (Collett and Nansen, 1900). Ivory
Gulls move through the Chukchi Sea to the Bering Sea with the ice in
spring and fall. Small numbers are probably present in leads in the
Chukchi throughout the winter. The pelagic habits of this Species have
caused land Observers to underestimate its abundance in this area
(Gabrielson and Lincoln, 1959). It was reported common in the "frozen”
Chukchi Sea on Cook's last voyage from August to September 1778 and in
July 1779 (Stresemann, 1949). No other summer observers have
encountered Ivory Gulls at sea though all have come in contact with the
pack ice. Jacques (1930) observed birds at Herald Island as did
Newcomb, the naturalist of the "Jeanette" (Nelson, 1883).

,I observed few Ivory Gulls in the Barrow area although they were
common near wainwright (Figure 18). In the study area this species was
largely associated with the ice (Table 4). Large flocks assembled at
stations with smaller groups being Observed on transects (Table 3). The
marine science technicians saw a pair tentatively identified as this
species at 71°25'N, 167°13'W on 17 September 1970 when ice surrounded
the ship. None were observed south of the study area. Immatures
constituted roughly one quarter of all individuals observed. Six of the

fourteen Specimens collected were immatures (Table l).

44

45

 

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Food of Ivory Gull
Outside of the breeding season the Ivory Gull is thought to be
primarily a scavenger, feeding to a great extent on the remains of seals

killed by Polar Bears (Thalarctos maritimus). The breeding population

 

of P. eburnea on Spitsbergen has declined since the turn of the century
(Bateson and Plowright, 1959; Birkenmajer, 1969) and Birkenmajer
believes this may be due to a corresponding decrease in the Polar Bear
population. No Ivory Gulls were observed in close proximity to the few
Polar Bears I encountered. Aside from feeding on the shipTS garbage,
the only instances of scavenging observed were small flocks flying over
whales on two occasions, and a single individual feeding on walrus dung
on an ice floe.

Ivory Gulls were observed feeding by hovering and contact dipping.
This species' habit of rarely wetting its plumage limits it to these
feeding methods. Feeding was done primarily next to ice cakes and
Arctic Cod appear to be the major food obtained in this way (Table 2).
The contents of the stomachs I examined varied principally in the degree

of digestion of the fish. A single amphipod.Apherusa glacialis was

 

present in one of the stomachs and remains of two or three tunicates
were in another. Garbage from the ship, a small amount of gravel, and
remains of seaweed constitute the other items found in the stomach.
Little research has been done on the feeding habits of the Ivory
Gull. Almost all authors mention its fondness for carrion, primarily
seal carcasses. Studies on stomach contents have found crustaceans to
constitute a large amount of its food. An individual collected in the

summer off Greenland contained 115 Thysanoessa inermis, a schizopod, and

 

five Apherusa glacialis. Arctic Cod was also present, but constituted

 

only one percent of the total volume (Cottam, 1936). I, inermis was the

46

47

only food in the stomach of a bird collected at Spitsbergen in an area
where a glacier entered the water (Hartley and Fisher, 1936). Kumlien
(1879) found only small crustaceans in the stomachs he examined.
Mentague (1926) studied this species at its breeding sites on
Spitsbergen and found the stomachs of most specimens to be empty, though
a few contained fish and carrion.

Winter may be the season when Ivory Gulls are most dependent on
carrion for a source of food. During the summer and fall, fish and
crustaceans appear to be of primary importance. If the number of Ivory
Gulls is declining, it could well be due to a general decrease in
numbers of all mammals associated with the pack ice and not just the
Polar Bear, as Birkenmajer suggests. IMany of the pinniped species, whose
placentas provide food for Ivory Gulls in the winter, have also declined

Since the turn of the century.

Black-legged Kittiwake

The Black-legged Kittiwake breeds throughout the Chukchi Sea
wherever suitable nesting cliffs exist, almost as far north as Barrow.
It was the third most abundant species at the Cape Thompson cliffs in
1960 with 13,000 breeding pairs (Swartz, 1966). This most pelagic of all
gulls feeds far out to sea in all seasons. Summer observers have found
it common in the Chukchi. Nelson (1883) saw it in all parts of the
Chukchi, with large numbers present at Herald Island smaller numbers at
wrangel Island. Jacques (1930) found it sometimes abundant. Swartz
(1967) reported it most common near the breeding cliffs in the Point
Hope - Cape Thompson area. The species probably winters at sea from the

Aleutians southward but there is no evidence of mass migration.

48

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Rissa tridactyla

 

 

l 1
F70" |68°

 

Figure 20. Distribution of Rissa tridactyla in the Bering Strait.

 

50

Kittiwakes were present in small numbers in the area Of Barrow and
along the coast to the study area. In the study area this was the
least common of the major species of gulls I observed (Figure 19), and
tended to flock less than the others (Table 3). It showed affinity for
areas of open water (Table 4) and in the Bering Strait it was seen
throughout the day of October 18 (Figure 20). Approximately three
quarters of all individuals observed throughout the cruise were
immatures.

Plunging to the surface was the most common mode of feeding
observed for this species. On the few occasions when it was observed
in ice areas, individuals were seen feeding while hovering near ice
cakes. The stomachs of the four Specimens collected (Table 1) contained

remnants of Arctic Cod (Table 2) .

Ross? Gull ' Rhodostethia rosea

 

The Ross' Gull has a highly restricted breeding ground on the wet
tundra of the Kolyma and Indigirka River deltas in northern Siberia
(62°27'-70°30'N, 142°-162°E). There are scattered records of pairs of
birds elsewhere in the arctic during spring and early summer, but only
one definite breeding record outside of northern Siberia; a nest found
on Disko Bay in western Greenland (70°N, 53°W) (Dalgleish, 1886).

This record was in some doubt until Ticehurst (1933) published the
details of the collecting of an egg and a pair of birds at the nest so
that the record now appears to be valid. There are four summer records
for northern Alaska. An adult male was taken at Barrow on 9 June 1898
(Stone, 1900). Hendee collected an adult male out of a-flock of five

birds he observed at Wainwright on 24 July 1922. Brower collected two

51

pairs at the Seahorse Islands on 16 June 1935. These four birds were all
in breeding plumage although none had bare brood patches. Brower also
took a single bird in the summer juSt east of Point Barrow (no date
given) (Bailey, 1948).

Individuals arrived on the nesting ground in late May and early June.
The first young hatch in late June, and all birds have departed from the
breeding grounds by the end of July with some colonies being deserted as
early as 11 July (Buturlin, 1906). In the late summer and early fall,
there are records from the New Siberian Islands and the DeLong
Archipelago to the north and northwest of the breeding grounds.
Observers there have found them.most commin in early and.mid—September
(Pleske, 1928). In late summer and early fall, Ross' Gulls move
eastward through the Chukchi Sea. R. L. Newcomb, the naturalist of the
"Jeanette" expedition, collected a number of individuals in late June
and a single bird on 7 October all near Herald Island (DeLong, 1884).
Nelson (1887) saw a single immature off Wrangel Island in August.
Jacques (1930) saw a total of eight birds in.mid and late July; all were
north of 70°N near Herald and Wrangel Islands.

In September and October, Ross' Gulls are commonly seen in the area
of Point Barrow where Eskimos used to shoot them in numbers for food.
Murdoch (1885a) was the first to report them for this location. From
28 September to 22 October 1881, he found them sometimes exceedingly
abundant. The following year MurdoCh observed them from 21 September to
9 October. The McIlhenny expedition found them.to be less common and
collected only two fall specimens; on 9 and 23 September 1897
(Stone, 1900). Bailey in 1921 was the next ornithologist to observe

them in the Barrow area, and Brower took many specimens in subsequent

52

years. The earliest date they recorded was 19 September and the latest
27 October. Both Abbott (1929) and Bent (1929) reported on the flight
of 1928 when the peak of abundance was 26 September. All Alaskan
records away from Barrow are for the Bering Sea. There are three
records of single birds for St. George Island, one of the Pribilofs, in
March, May and September (Preble and McAtee, 1923; Kenyon and Phillips,
1965). There is a single specimen from St. Paul Island in June. Nelson
(1883) took a single bird on 10 October at St. Michaels, Norton Sound.
Fay and Cade (1959) report that the Eskimos of St. Lawrence Island are
familiar with a "pink gull" that arrives in November and December. The
occurrence of Ross' Gull at St. Lawrence Island has recently been
confirmed by the observation of a flock seen in early December (Sealy,
Fay, Bedard and Udvardy, 1971). In addition to these Alaskan Bering Sea
records, a specimen has been taken on Bering Island, one of the
Commander Islands, on 10 December (Stejneger, 1898).

Ross' Gulls were present in the area of Barrow and along the coast
to Icy Cape, but only in the study area were large flocks observed
(Figure 21). It was most common in the northeast portion of the study
area where the ice coverage was the greatest. Flocks of approximately
120 birds were observed on two occasions; southwest of Icy Cape and at
one of the most westerly stations northwest of Cape Lisburne. This was
the most social of the gulls I observed and only 10 percent of the 70
20-minute interval counts were of Single individuals (Table 3). All
single individual records were made in the last week spent in the study
area. It is not known whether thiS‘WaS due to Ross' Gulls leaving the
ChukChi, or because the last week was spent in the southern part of the
study area away from.heavy pack ice. Approximately one—half of all

birds seen were immatures.

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Food of Ross' Gull

This species was observed feeding by three different methods. Like
other gulls individuals fed by hovering in the area of ice cakes,
whereas in more open water they plunged to the surface. Flocks sitting
in leads in the ice were seen feeding on the surface. One instance of an
individual hovering while feeding on walrus dung was observed. Arctic
Cod and crustaceans appear to be of equal importance as food items (Table

2 and Table 5). The amphipod.Apherusa glacialis (Hansen) is by far the

 

most abundant crustacean found in the stomachs. They ranged in size from

six to fourteen.millhmeters. The three Anonyx nugax (Phipps) ranged in

size from 20 to 40 millimeters. The single Atylus bruggeni Gurjanova and

 

the two Gammarus locusta (Linneaus) were 20 millimeters. The pieces of a

 

coleoptera exoskeleton had apparently persisted from the breeding season
when insects make up muCh of its food (Buturlin, 1906). The only
previous information on the at-sea food of the Ross' Gull is that of
Collett and Nansen (1900) who collected eight young birds at 81°00N,

127°00B in heavy ice conditions. .All of their specimens contained

 

 

'remnants of Hymenodora glacialis and cod otoliths. Gammarus locusta was

found in one of the stomachs.

sabine's Gull Xema sabini

 

sabine's Gull is circumpolar between 65°N and 80°N in its breeding
distribution and breeds locally on the Arctic coast of Alaska. In
summer, when there are few at-sea records, it obtains most of its insect
food by contact dipping in tundra ponds. After breeding it feeds on
invertebrates cast up on the shore and fish that it captures by contact

dipping. Nelson (1883) did not observe it in the Chukchi. Jacques

54

Table EL Food Items Present in Rhodostethia rosea Stomachs.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

STATION 7 INVERTEBRATES FISH
Field Number Arctic Cod
187002 3 Anonyx nugax (Phipps) x
187003 1 Apherusa glacialis (Hansen) x
187004 x
187005 x
187006 x
187007 x
187008 x
187009 x
187010 1 Atylus bruggeni Gurjanova x
STATION 9
187032 x
187033 1 Apherusa glacialis x
187034 160 Apherusa glacialis x
187035 x
187037 80 Ampherusa glacialis x
187038 80 Ampherusa glacialis
2 Gammarus locusta (Linneaus)
STATION 19
187045 80 Apherusa glacialis
STATION 23
187049 40 Apherusa glacialis
187050 60 Apherusa glacialis and
coleoptera exoskeleton
187051 Unidentifiable crustaceans x
187052 Unidentifiable crustaceans x
187053 90 Apherusa_glacialis
187054 5 Apherusa glacialis x
187055 x
STATION 50
187065 x

55

56

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57

(1930) saw adults on six days during August and juveniles on 22 and 25
August south of wrangel Island. Swartz (1967) reported six scattered
Observations in the eastern Chukchi. This species winters in the
southern hemisphere. Birds have been observed at Wainwright as late as
mid-September (Bailey, 1948) and 22 October at Barrow (Murdoch, 1885b),
but the bulk of migration probably takes place earlier, since
Gabrielson and Jewett (1940) mention a large movement off the Oregon
coast on 30 August. I observed Sabine's Gull only in the area of
Barrow and wainwright on 23 and 24 September (Figure 22). Eight flocks
were observed near ice cakes with the largest flock containing ten
individuals. The northerly location of these observations and the lack
of subsequent observations at more southerly locations, during the
cruise, indicate that migration in this area takes place close inshore.
Gabrielson and Lincoln (1959) thought that the lack of fall records for
the Alaskan coast suggested that migration takes place well offshore

although they were discussing more southern Alaskan locations.

Murres yria_sp.
Both species of murre breed in the Chukchi Sea. The Thick—billed
Murre (yria_lgmvia) is more northern in its breeding distribution than
the Common Murre (9} gagge). Both species breed in the Bering Strait
and at Cape Thompson, while 9, lgmyia_also nests at Herald and wrangel
Islands and rarely at Barrow (Stone, 1900). IMurres are the most
abundant birds at Cape Thompson. In 1960, 118,000 pairs of Thick-billed
and 78,500 pairs of Common Murre were breeding on the cliffs
(Swartz, 1966). Flocks of g, lgmvia_thatpass Barrow in the spring and

fall (Bailey, 1948) presumably nest in the western Canadian Arctic where

58

suitable cliffs exist. The only known breeding site is that of a colony
of 100 pairs nesting at Cape Parry, south of Banks Island (Hohn, 1955).

Summer observers in the Chukchi have found.murres primarily in the
waters around breeding cliffs. Swartz (1967) reported that during the
breeding season 9, lgmyia_constituted 90 percent of all murres seen
further than five miles from shore. Since 60 percent of the murres
breeding on the cliffs are 9, lgmvia, he believed that g; aalge_fed
closer to the shore, at least during the breeding season. He found few
murres feeding more than 40 miles from the cliffs. ZMurres do not have
a well-defined.migration and most winter in open water south of the
pack ice. Some individuals winter in leads in the pack ice and an
individual has been taken at Barrow in December GWurdoCh, 1885a).

Swartz (1966) found some murres staying in the area of Cape Thompson
throughout the year. -

I made scattered sightings of single birds in the eastern portion
of the study area but only on the most westerly transects were murres
observed in numbers (Figure 23). IMurres could not be identified to
species. The similarity of murres and the Horned Puffin at a distance,
caused me to list some birds as large black and white alcids (Figure 29).
.Murres were seen throughout the day on 18 October in the Bering Strait
(Figure 24). The stomaCh of the one Common Murre collected (Table 1)
contained remnants of Arctic Cod and a larval hermit crab (Pagurus sp.)

(Table 2).

 

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1 1
I70“ 68"

Figure 24. Distribution of Uria sp. in the Bering Strait.

Guillemots Cepphus sp.

Both Black (Cepphus grylle) and Pigeon Guillemots (Q, columba)

 

breed in the Chukchi Sea. The Black Guillemot is also found in the
North Atlantic and.Arctic Oceans, but the Pigeon is restricted to the
Pacific sector. The Chukchi is the only area where the two species are
sympatric, with both breeding on Herald and wrangel Islands and at Cape
Thompson. The Pigeon Guillemot also nests in the Bering Strait area
while the Black Guillemot probably nests north along the Alaskan coast
wherever suitable cliffs exist. Bailey (1948) believes Black
Guillemots may breed in the area of Skull Cliff and has obtained
immature birds off Barrow in June. Recently Black Guillemots have been
found utilizing oil drums and old buildings as nesting sites in the
Point Barrow area (MacLean and Verbeek, 1968). Swartz (1966) found'
fewer than eight pairs of either species breeding at Cape Thompson but,
unlike other alcids, guillemots rarely breed anyWhere in dense
concentrations.

Summer observers in the Chukchi give conflicting reports on the
status of these two sibling species that are not easy to separate at
sea. Nelson (1883) observed both species and considered the Pigeon
Guillemot to be the more common of the two. He found it to be the most
abundant bird at Herald Island.where he also saw numerous Black
Guillemots. Jacques (1930) did not Observe the Pigeon Guillemot north
of the Diomedes but found the Black Guillemot common north of 69°N. He
found it to be abundant at Herald Island and at the edge of the ice.

In the eastern Chukchi, Swartz (1967) reported only the Pigeon
Guillemot. One of his two sightings was off Cape Lisburne and the
other at the edge of the pack ice at 70° SO'N, 165° SO'W. Black

61

62

Guillemots are present at Barrow throughout the winter in leads in the
ice.

All guillemots I observed were in winter plumage and were identified
as Q, grylle (Figure 25). The only possible 9, columba was an immature
individual west of Cape Lisburne. .Although it was not common at Barrow,
a flock of thirty individuals was observed in that area. Lesser numbers
were seen on transects 4 to 8 from Barrow to the study area.

In the study area, the great majority of observations were on the
most northerly transects near the edge of the pack ice. The largest
concentrations were in the eastern portion of the study area. None was
seen in the Bering Strait. Fish are the primary food of guillemots,
but crustaceans sometimes also constitute a large portion of the diet.
The stomachs of the three Black Guillemots collected (one adult,

2 immature; Table 1) all contained remnants of Arctic Cod (Table 2). One

of the stomachs also contained four gammarids: two Gammaracanthus

 

loricatus (Sabine) (one 43 mm. and one 25 nm.), one Gammarus locusta

 

(Linneaus) (17 mm.) and one Weyprechtia pinguis (Kroyer) (20 mm.).

 

Kittlitz's MUrrelet Brachyramphus brevirotre

 

Kittlitz's Murrelet breeds in scattered coastal locations in Alaska
from Leconte Bay pOssibly north to Point Barrow and on the ChukChi
Peninsula in Siberia, but is rare north of the Bering Strait. This small
alcid nests on inland.mountains and its breeding has probably been
overlooked.by investigators. Brower took many at Barrow, but although
Bailey (1948) believed suitable nesting sites existed between the
Seahorse Islands and Barrow, there is still no proof of nesting. The

only previous pelagic Observations are those reported by Swartz (1967):

63

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Brachyramphus brevirostre

 

I 1
WC" |68°

Figure 27.

 

 

Distribution of Brachyramphus brevirostre in the

Bering Strait.

66

three sightings, totaling four birds, north of Cape Lisburne. Little
is known of the migration of this species. There are records for the
Barrow-Wainwright area fromeay to October.

I recorded 15 sightings of Kittlitz's Murrelet between 24 September
and 8 OctOber, eight of them between Barrow and Icy Cape. The remainder
were in the northern part of the study area. It was never abundant,
with 12 of the sightings being of three or less individuals (Figure 26).
Small numbers were also seen in the southern part of the Bering Strait
on 18 October (Figure 27). The latest previous record for Alaska is

that of a specimen collected at Barrow on 4 OctOber 1927.

Parakeet Auklet Cyclorrhynchus psittacula

 

The Parakeet Auklet breeds from the area of the Bering Strait south
to the Aleutian Islands. Small nesting colonies occur on the Siberian
coast in the western Chukchi Sea (Koslova, 1957) but none on the Alaskan
Chukchi coast. It winters off the Pacific coast of Canada and the
united States. Jacques (1930) saw several flocks of small auklets at
69° 40'N, 170° OO'W on 14 August which may have included this species.
Grinnell (1900) found it common in Kotzebue Sound on 1 June, but Swartz
(1967) reported only one sighting of several individuals there in August.
There are only three records for Barrow: 12 September 1896 (Seale, 1898)
3 OctOber 1932, and 27 July 1942 (Bailey, 1948). Three individuals were
Observed in the study area at 69° 47'N, 167° SO'W on 9 October
(Figure 31). A single bird was seen in the Bering Strait on 18 October

(Figure 32).

Crested Auklet Aethia cristatella

 

The Crested Auklet has the same general breeding range as the
Parakeet Auklet. It is one of the most abundant species breeding on the
Diomedes, but is not known to breed in Alaska north of the Bering Strait.
Bailey (1948) listed a number of summer records for Barrow and
wainwright from May to October and believed a few individuals might nest
on Arctic coastal boulder fields. Jacques' (1930) only possible sighting
was of unspecified auklets at 69° 40'N, 170° OO'W on 14 August. Swartz
(1967) had two sightings 18 miles west of Cape Thompson. This species
winters just south of the pack ice, especially near the Pribilofs,
.Aleutians and Kodiak. Seven of my twelve sightings were north of the
study area between Point Barrow and Icy Cape (Figure 28). The largest
concentration was a group of-more than one hundred individuals swimming
among the ice cakes, suggesting a considerable northward movement after
breeding or that immature birds summer north of the breeding sites.

None was observed after 27 September. This is the only alcid in which

a large flock (30 individuals) was observed sitting on the ice.

Horned Puffin Fratercula corniculata

 

The Horned Puffin is a north Pacific species found breeding in the
ChukChi Sea from the Bering Strait north to Cape Lisburne. Nelson
(1883) and Jacques (1930) reported it from Herald Island, but there are
no definite breeding records. Swartz (1966) found 950 pairs breeding at
the Cape Thompson cliffs in 1960. Summer observers have reported Horned
Puffins primarily from Point Hope and Kotzebue Sound. Swartz (1967)
thought they prObably utilized the same feeding areas as murres. They

winter in ice-free waters in and somewhat south of the breeding grounds.

67

68

 

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69

Snowy Owl Nyctea scandiaca

 

While passing through the Bering Strait within sight of both
.Alaskan and Siberian coasts on 18 October, Snowy Owls were Observed nine
times in a period covering nearly four hours (Figure 30). Though only
one bird was observed at a given time, differences in plumage and
direction of flight indicated that at least four individuals were
involved. Glaucous Gulls and Kittiwakes drove the owls away from the
ship, otherwise they might have landed in the rigging. Although my
Bering Strait observations are probably of individuals migrating between
the two continents, it may be that Snowy Owls are rather frequently
found at sea when ice is present and affords a suitable roosting site.
Irving, McRoy and Burns (1970) had six observations in the ice-covered
Bering Sea.in.March, and in 1971 I Observed a first year Snowy Owl 45

miles from land in the western Beaufort Sea.

Raven Corvus corax

 

On 17 October, 10 miles west of Cape Lisburne, a Raven flew over
the ship (Figure 31). This species is a year round resident throughout

arctic.Alaska.

Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava

 

A Yellow wagtail in winter plumage landed on the deck of the ship
in the Bering Strait 20 miles east of East Cape on 18 OctOber and
remained aboard for about five minutes (Figure 32). The Yellow wagtail
is primarily an Old WOrld species but also breeds in western and
northern Alaska. Individuals migrate across the Bering Strait in the

spring and fall and five previous pelagic observations have been

70

71

 

 

 

Nyctea scandiaca

l

 

 

I 70°

Figure 30. Distribution of Nyctea scandiaca in the Bering Strait.

l68°

 

 

72

reported for this region. On Cook's last voyage one was reported in the
Bering Strait at 66° OO'N on 3 September 1778 (Stresemann, 1949). An
individual was Observed in the Bering Sea west of St. Matthew Island on
10 August 1866 (Dall and Bannister, 1869). Swartz (1967) reported three
observations in the Chukchi Sea: one off Point Lay on 7 August and two
southwest of Point Hope on 10 and 13 August. In addition there have
been a number of records from the islands in this area. .A specimen was
collected on Little Diomede on 13 July 1958 (Kenyon and Brooks,l960).
Flocks with as many as 200 birds have been seen on St. Lawrence Island
in August (Sealy §t_al_1971). There is a record for St. Paul Island on
31 August 1957 and July, August and September records for Nunivak Island
(Gabrielson and Lincoln,l959).

My observation is an extremely late record for this area; most
individuals leave Alaska in late August and early September. A record
for St. Michael on 21 September (Gabrielson and Lincoln,l959) is the
latest previous record for the mainland/:fiSird on Attu Island, the most

westerly of the Aleutian Islands, on 8 October 1880 (Turner, 1886) is

the latest previous record for the state.

Savannah Sparrow Passerculus sandwiChensis

 

The Savannah Sparrow is a common nesting species in arctic Alaska.
A specimen of this species was collected by marine science technicians
aboard the GLACIER at 72° 59'N, 167° 36'W 110 miles from the nearest
land on 6 September. On 24 September a bird, presumed to be this

species, circled the ship ten.miles northwest of wainwright (Figure 31).

73

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amm— ONQ 000.—

 

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_ \9.-|.|

 

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£00000

 

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74

 

D.> I.

66°

 

Uncommon spaces
0 Gavin immor

O Phalacroconx polaoicus
O Phalaropus fulicarius

O Stercorarius pomarinus

a Cyclorrhynchus psittacula
I Fratercula corniculata

A Motncilla flava

1 I
170° . I68°

Figure 32. Distribution of uncommon species in the Bering Strait.

 

 

 

 

Snow Bunting Plectrophenax nivalis

 

On 26 September a flock of 15 Snow Buntings was observed on the
barrier island at Point Lay. They were feeding on Beach Ryegrass

(Elymus mollis), the only conspicuous vegetation on the frozen beach.

 

Six specimens, one an.immature, were collected (Table 1). This spe-
cies was not observed on a second visit to Point Lay on 5 October
when snow coverage was greater than on the earlier visit. Must Snow
Buntings leave arctic Alaska on migration by mid-September. The
latest recorded date for this region is 5 October, when Bailey (1948)

saw two birds at wainwright.

MAMWALS

Polar Bear Thalarctos maritimus

 

Polar Bears live on the pack ice throughout the year and are
usually found close to areas of water where seals can be Obtained.
Polar Bears were observed on four occasions, either on the pack ice
or swimming next to it. TwO lone individuals were seen near Point
Barrow on 23 September. On 24 September three bears, presumably a
mother and two nearly full-grown young were seen at 71° 08'N, 158°
SS'W. A.single bear was seen during our deepest penetration into the

pack ice at 70° 34'N, 163° l6'W on OctOber l.

Walrus Odebenus rosmarus

 

The Chukchi Sea is the main summering ground of the Pacific walrus.
MOst females and young stay in the western Chukchi while the majority
of individuals near Barrow are males. Walrus move north in the spring

and early summer on ice floes, reaching Point Barrow in mid-July, and

75

76

 

.mm museum

 

 

 

.mom HQUMSSU HNH#C®U Hmmm ®£H CM WDFMEWOH MUCGQOUO %O COHHDQMHflmMQ
owfl o
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77

start their southward migration toward the Bering Sea in mid-September
(Brooks, 1954).

walrus were observed primarily in the northeast portion of the
study area (Figure 33). .All large groups were seen in ice areas and
most were hauled out on ice floes. The largest single sighting was a
group of approximately 525 individuals seen twenty-fice miles northwest
of Point Lay. Females with young were observed on six occasions.

walrus feed by foraging for benthic organisms in water up to 40
fathoms deep. Thus, most of the Chukchi Sea and all of the study area
provide suitable depths for feeding. Bivalve molluscs usually consti-

tute the bulk of the food and Mya truncata is the primary food in the

 

waters off Barrow (Brooks, 1954).

Seals Phocidae
Seals were seen throughout the cruise though few were observed

well enough to be identified to species (Figure 34). ‘MOst seals ob—

served swimming in ice areas were identified as the Ringed Seal (Busg;

hispida). Harbor Seals (Phoca vitulina) were seen in the open water

 

off the barrier island at Point Lay. Must of the seals hauled out on
the ice during the last days of the cruise were identified as Bearded

Seals (Erignathus barbatus). No Ribbon Seals (Histriophoca fasciata),

 

 

rare visitors to the Chukchi, were observed.

Whales Cetacea
Whales were Observed on three occasions. At 71° 08'N, 158° SS'W

on 24 September and at 70° 34'N, 163° 16' w on 1 October, single whales

78

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cum.

.am museum

 

o8.

at.

 

 

_

 

s mer _

00°00

00.

 

 

 

79

tentatively identified as Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus) were ob-

 

served. Both individuals were next to the pack ice. The BoWhead
Whale is a species usually associated with the pack ice and is more

common throughout the Chukchi Sea in the winter. The Grey Whale

 

(Eschrichtius gibbosus) is found in the Chukchi in the summer, but it
migrates south in late August and none were observed in the fall of
1970. In 1971, I observed a single Grey Whale in the Bering Strait

on 13 August and a herd of five on 14 August ten miles north of Cape
Lisburne. Both the Bowhead and Grey Whales are baleen whales which
feed on plankton. .A group of five to eight Killer Whales (Orcinus
9:93) was observed in a lead in the ice at 70° OS'N, 168° 53'W on

8 OctOber. A.number of Walrus were present in and around the lead and
the whales appeared to be pursuing a female walrus with a young on her

back.

DISCUSSION

‘MOvements and Migration

Since no land lies directly north of the central Chukchi, any sea-
birds seen far offshore in fall are either north of their breeding
grounds or have moved into the Chukchi from.the east or west. Much of
the migration of such species as loons, Oldsquaw, eider and other
‘waterfowl occurs inshore and most flocks seen at sea migrate parallel
to the shoreline. The species I observed that were north of their
breeding grounds include the Slaty-backed Gull, Black-legged Kittiwake
and most alcids. In addition to these, the South Polar Skua was Ob-
served far north of its usual range. Kittiwakes observed far from the
breeding cliffs during the summer are prObably primarily non-breeding
birds (Swartz, 1967). IMy observations in September and October un-
doUbtedly also included adults that had moved north after breeding.
Murres and Horned Puffins present in the study area had apparently dis—
persed north and west from the Cape Lisburne cliffs. Murres in the
eastern part of the study area could be individuals migrating south
from the breeding colony in western Canada. Parakeet and Crested
Auklets were considerably north of their nearest breeding grounds in
the Bering Strait. PrObably most of the Black Guillemots observed had
bred in the area of the Cape Lisburne cliffs. Some could also have
followed the ice edge eastward from the area of Herald and wrangel
Islands or been among the few birds that nest in the more northerly
locations on the Alaskan Chukchi coast.

Must other species I Observed had.moved into the central Chukchi

from either the east or west. Glaucous Gulls are uncommon at sea in

80

81

the summer, but my observations show that as they migrate southward,
‘they disperse to the open sea. This is due, in part, to their being
freed from ties with land at the end of the breeding season. As fall
progresses the southward.migration of other avian species decreases
the predatory and scavenging opportunities on the tundra and Glacous
Gulls can probably find more food at sea.

Ivory Gulls had probably moved into the Chukchi from the
Canadian Arctic though it is possible some had also come from breeding
colonies on islands north of Siberia. They then move southward later
in the fall as the ice edge advances into the Bering Sea. Ross' Gulls
had dispersed into the ChukChi from the west and on 25 September,
flocks were observed.moving in an easterly direction. At most other
times, flocks circled the ship and no direction of movement was appar-
ent . It is not known if Ross' Gulls remain in the Chukchi Sea
through the winter or continue east to the Canadian Arctic or move
circumpolarly in the Arctic Ocean all winter.

Much of the southward.migration had already taken place when my
observations began on 22 September. No Arctic Terns (Sterna

paradisaea) or Grey Whales were seen. The Tufted Puffin (Lunda

 

cirrhatta),which in.August 1971, I found to be more common in the
Chukchi than Horned Puffin, was not seen in 1970. The Slender-billed
Shearwater and Northern Fulmar had already withdrawn southward from
the study area and were seen only in the Bering Strait. The Least
Auklet is the most abundant small alcid breeding on the Diomedes, but
none was seen in the Bering Strait on 18 OctOber.

Between 11 and 17 OctOber, pack ice moved in on much of the study

area and new ice began forming in areas of open waters. These

82

<:onditions rendered it impossible for some species to find food and
cause them to migrate southward. Table 6 lists those species of sea-
‘birds seen between 22 September and 10 October, but not seen in the
study area in the last week spent there. Several of these species were
encountered again in the Bering Strait on 18 October, but in rather
small numbers. The species listed in Table 7 are capable of spending
the winter in more northern waters and were seen in the study area
during the last week spent there. Of these, the Glaucous Gull, murre
and Black Guillemot are known to winter in the Chukchi. Probably the
Ivory and Ross' Gulls winter there also. The species listed in Table
7 appear to be the ones found next to and around the ice in the Bering
and Chukchi Seas; Irving EEҤ1.1970: observed most of them in the ice-
covered Bering Sea in March. They did not, however, observe Ross'

Gull and they saw the Pigeon Guillemot rather than the Black Guillemot.

Ice Affinities and Feed Habits

The ice edge offers a variety of benefits for the birds associated
with it, although the primary one is the availability of prey organisms.
The concentration of plankton associated with the ice may be due to a
variety of factors. Barnard (1959) found that certain crustaceans,
which are usually benthic in inshore areas are closely associated with
the ice under surface in the Arctic Basin. This ”inverted benthic
fauna" is dispersed by meltwater in warmer months. The colder, less
saline, meltwater apparently acts, in some instances, to concentrate
crustaceans at the water's surface. Hartley and Fisher (1936)

found large numbers of copepods swarming and being fed

'Iable 6. Seabirds seen between 22 September and 10 October 1970, but

not seen in the study area after 10 October.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SPECIES LAST DATE SEEN IN STUDY AREA
Gayia, sp. 6 October
Oidemia nigra 27 September
Mergus serrator 27 September*
Phalaropus fulicarius 7 October
Stercorarius pomarinus 29 September
Stercorarius parasiticus 30 September*
Catharacta maccormicki 29 September*
Larus schistisagus 25 September*
Larus argentatus 8 October
Xema sabini 24 September
Brachyramphus brevirostre 8 October
Cyclorrhynchus psittacula 9 October*
Aethia cristatella 27 September
Fratercula corniculata 10 October

 

*Single sighting.

83

Table 7, Seabirds seen after 10 October in the study area.

Clangula hyemalis

 

Eider sp.

Larus hyperboreus

 

Pag0phila eburnea

 

Rissa tridactyla

 

Rhodostethia rosea

 

Uria sp.

Cepphus grylle

 

84

85

upon by Thysanoessa inermis swarming where a glacier entered the water.

 

The concentration of plankton.may be due to the differences in salinity
between meltwater and the surrounding seawater. In a situation which
did not involve ice, Belopolskii (1961) observed/Sggregation of plank-
ton in an area where fresh and salt water came into contact during a
tidal movement. In addition to the ice creating conditions that bring
crustaceans to the surface, certain species are usually only found
associated with the ice and are adapted to living under the pack.

Apherusa glacialis is one of these species. The primary fish found

 

associated with the ice is the Arctic God. I observed Arctic Cod com-
monly close to the surface at the edge of ice floes. Frequently the
ice would extend under the water Where the cod was located, rendering
them conspicuous from above. The actual concentration of organisms
under the ice is poorly known due to the difficulty of making quantita-
tive horizontal tows in suCh areas. Fish and invertebrates sampling
done during the course of WEBSEC 70 was carried out principally in
areas of open water, thus not allowing a comparison of the abundance
of organisms found in ice and Open water areas.

In addition to food, the ice also provides roosting spots and acts
as a windbreak, making surface winds less than in open water. Swells
are also dampened by the ice which lets prey organisms be closer to the
surface. '

Of the species that displayed an affinity for ice, the most Ob-
vious was the Black Guillemot. Its close association with pack ice
edge is shown by comparing the Black Guillemot distribution map'"/

(Figure 25) with the ice condition map (Figure 2). Cepphus grylle is

 

86

found in the littoral zone during the breeding season and during the
winter, leads in the ice offer a substitute for this zone when the true
littoral zone cannot be occupied due to shore ice. Both provide a
community of invertebrates and fish associated with a substrate (or
actually a superstrate in the case of ice). The distribution of gulls
relative to ice was analyzed by dividing stations and 20-minute inter-
vals from.the study area into two categories: those with ice and those
in Open water when no ice was visible from the ship. Observations

made in fog were disregarded as were those made in short-lived ice
conditions, such as grease and pancake ice. On transects, Ivory and
Ross' Gulls showed a preference for ice areas, Glaucous Gulls showed
no preference and Kittiwakes were seen primarily in areas of open
water (Table 4). At stations, Glaucous, Ivory and Ross' Gulls showed
no preference while Kittiwakes again showed a preference for open
water. The conflicting figures for Ivory and Ross' Gulls may be due

to the resemblance that a large stationary white icebreaker has to an
ice floe. Stations at times lasted as long as two days, thus increas-
ing the chances that a species would be observed. Transect
observations, therefore, probably present a truer picture of birds'

ice preference or tolerance since, in general, the ship is moving through
the water and encountering birds rather than sitting at a fixed spot
and attracting them. That the Ivory and Ross' Gulls showed ice affin-
ities is not surprising since both are high arctic species. The Ivory
Gull's association with the ice is well known. Its habit of rarely sit—
ting on the water forces it to remain close to the ice which provides

roosting sites. The carcasses and feces of mammals of the pack ice also

87

are a major food source for this species. Plankton and fish crushed
by the grinding action of ice floes could provide food for the Ivory
Gull. Falla (1964) thought that much of the food of the Snow Petrel

(Pagodroma nivea) a bird of the Antarctic pack ice, might be made up

 

of crushed plankton. While I did not notice any material floating be-
tween ice floes, I did observe Arctic Cod being stranded on top of
floes by the shifting of the ice under the icebreaker. Such fish were
eaten by both Glaucous and Ivory Gulls. Arctic God could presumably

be stranded on ice when swells next to the pack ice are moderately
high. The Ivory Gull's association with the ice extends even to the
breeding season when adults may fly from breeding sites to the pack

ice in order to obtain food for the young (MOntague, 1926). Breeding
colonies have also been found on ice islands (MacDonald and.Macpherson,
1962). Ross' Gull is apparently associated with the ice for much of
the non-breeding season. The lack of any observations of large flocks
after the passages at Barrow in September and October indicates that
Ross' Gulls winter primarily around leads in the northern pack ice
rather than utilizing the full extent of the pack ice as does the Ivory
Gull. Aside from the species, I observed associated with the ice, sum—
mer observers have found Red Phalaropes congregating at the ice edge be-

fore their southward migration (Nelson, 1883; Jacques, 1930).

The other gull species did not show a preference for ice areas.
The generalized feeding habits of the Glaucous Gull allowed it to find
food in areas of both ice and Open water. The Kittiwake is the most
truly pelagic of the gulls and its occurrence in areas of Open water is

to be expected. It does not require the ice for a roosting site and it

was the

88

only gull that did not have difficulty flying in the high winds found
in open water areas. The absence of Kittiwakes from ice areas is not
easily explained since Arctic Cod, the only food present in the stom-
aChs examined was closer to the surface next to the ice.

The feeding methods utilized by the four species of gull, how-
ever, may be a major factor in their distribution with regard to ice
and Open water. In water away from the ice, swells are higher and prey
organisms occur at greater depths from the surface. Both the Glaucous
Gull and Kittiwake were found in open water and are capable of feeding
below the surface. The Glaucous Gull can thrust its head underwater
while surface feeding and thus feed relatively far from the surface.
The Kittiwake is able to submerge all of its body when it feeds by
plunging to the surface. The two species I observed primarily around
ice, the Ivory and Ross' Gull, are both limited to feeding on organ-
isms at or just below the surface. The Ivory Gull is restricted to
aerial feeding methods and the Ross' Gull does not submerge to any ex-
tent when plunging to the surface or surface feeding. The differences
in the feeding methods of the two species associated with the ice may
explain the difference in the food items found in the stomaChs. Ivory
Gulls are known to feed on crustaceans when they are available, but
crustaceans were almost completely absent from the Ivory Gull stomachs

I examined. The regular occurrence of Apherusa glacialis in the stom-

 

aChs of Ross' Gull may indicate that A, glacialis was deep enough to be
unavailable to the Ivory Gull. Ross' Gull was able to obtain
A, glacialis since surface feeding allows the capturing of organisms at

greater depths than aerial feeding. Arctic Cod, equally common in both

89

Ivory and Ross' Gull stomachs, were presumably present just below the
surface, since Ivory Gulls could Obtain them by hovering and contact
dipping.

Arctic Cod.was the primary food utilized by the seabirds other
than the Oldaquaw and eider in the study area. Its presence as a prey
organism was frequently indicated by otoliths found in bird stomachs.
Otoliths are retained in bird stomaChs for a while after the muscles
and bones of a fish are digested. They vary in shape and size between
fish species and are often diagnostic for specific identification.

No evidence of Sand Lance, the second most common fish in the study
area, was found in bird stomachs. This may be due, in part, to the
minute size of the Sand Lance otolith which would let it be easily
broken and digested. The Arctic Cod has a relatively large otolith
and though it is frequently broken in the stomach, pieces persist and
are identifiable. In order to see what size fish were being eaten by
the gulls, the intact otoliths present in the stomaChs were measured.
No difference between bird species was found in the range of the
length of otolith present in the stomachs. The stomaChs of all 4
species of gull contained otoliths as small as one millimeter, and as
large as 6.5 millimeters. Dissection of Arctic Cod.showed that a

one millimeter otolith is present in a fish of approximately 40 milli-
meters and an otolith of 6.5 millimeters in a fish of 140 millimeters.
The wide range in size of fish taken by the gulls is most interesting
‘with regard to the Ross' Gull. The Ross' Gull is a small gull with a
rather weak bill, but it apparently feeds commonly on fish as large as

120 to 140 millimeters.

 

Oil Pollution and Seabirds

It will be extremely difficult to use the data presented in this
thesis in any quantification of oil pollution effects. Bird migra-
tion and pack ice phenomena vary from year to year so it is possible
that future studies in the Chukchi in the fall may obtain results
that differ from.mine. The effects of oil pollution on North SIOpe
‘waterfowl pOpulations could best be monitored by yearly counting of
the southward migration past Barrow in the late summer and early fall
(see, for instance, Thompson and Person, 1963). Seabirds nesting on
cliffs provide the most accurate data on changes in their pOpulations
since breeding birds are concentrated and censusing is relatively
easy. Unfortunately, no censusing of the cliffs in the area of Cape
Lisburne has been done. The censuses of the Cape Thompson cliffs,
done by Swartz (1966), will provide excellent baseline data if oil
drilling is ever done in the Kotezbue Sound area. The observations
I made do show the Chukchi Sea to have large numbers of birds in the
fall that could be affected by oil pollution. ‘Mbny of the species I
observed are among those that have been most affected by oil pollu-
tion in the North Atlantic (Clark and Kennedy, 1968). These include
Gavi§_sp., Fulmarus glacialis, Clangula hyemalis, Somateria mollissima,

Oidemia nigra, Larus spp., Uria sp., and Fratercula sp. The effects

 

 

of oil pollution in the arctic could be much more severe and longer
lived than in warmer waters. The bacteria found in seawater that are
capable of degrading oil may be incapable of doing so in the low temp-
erature of arctic seawater (Glaeser and.Vance, 1971). Spills might

persist for extended periods and continue to affect avian populations.

90

The work that has been done on the behavior of oil under ice (Glaeser
and Vance, 1971) has shown that oil spreads out under a floe and fills
the crevices On the floe's undersurface. The importance of the ice
undersurface as a habitat for various organisms has already been men-
tioned. The paucity of species (partly compensated.by abundance of
individuals) in arctic ecosystems renders predators that are dependent
on specialized sources of prey particularly vulnerable to manrmade
disasters. If oil pollution greatly decreased the population of
Arctic Cod or the crustaceans the cod feed on, the major food source

for migrant seabirds in the Chukchi could be eliminated.

SUNNARY

The observations presented here are the only at-sea fall observa-
tions for the birds and mammals of the Chukchi Sea. Migration was
well underway by 22 September when my observations started. The less
tolerant species, including loons, phalaropes, jaegers and some spe-
cies of gulls were seen only in the first part of the cruise and only
in small numbers. Oldsquaw, eider and Black Guillemot were seen
throughout the cruise. Glaucous, Ivory and Ross' Gulls were common.
Black—legged Kittiwakes were seen in lesser numbers. ‘MOst noteworthy
of the distributional records are a single South Polar Skua and a
large concentration of Crested.Auklets. The ice edge proved to be an
important feeding zone for the Ivory and Ross' Gulls and the Black
Guillemot. These species were not seen commonly any distance from the
ice. Glaucous Gulls were found throughout the study area and Kittiwakes

avoided ice areas. The primary food of almost all species collected

91

was.Arctic Cod, though the amphipod Apherusa glacialis was equally com-
mon in the stomachs of Ross' Gull. The Chukchi Sea was found to have

many species present in the fall that could be adversely affected by

oil pollution.

92

LITERATURE CITED

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Alverson, D.L., and N.J. Wilimovsky. 1966. Fishery investigations of the
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[eds.], Environment of the Cape ThompEOn region, Alaska. U.S.Atomic
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Alverson, D.L., N.J.Wilimovsky and F. Wilke. 1960. A preliminary report
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American Ornithologists' Union. 1957. Check-list of North American
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Ashmole, N.P., andIMgJ. Ashmole. 1967. Comparative feeding ecology of
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Bailey, AtM., and R.W}Hendee. 1926. Notes on the mammals of northwestern
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Bailey, AgM., C.D.Brower and L.B.Bishop. 1933. Birds of the region of
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Bailey, ATM. 1948. Birds of arctic Alaska. Colorado Mus. Nat. Hist.
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Barnard, J.L. 1959. Epipelagic and under-ice Amphipoda of the central
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Bateson, P.P.G., and R.C.Plowright. 1959. The breeding biology of the
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Bean,T.H. 1882. Notes on birds collected during the summer of 1880 in
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Bee, J.W., and E.R.Hall. 1956. Mammals of northern Alaska on the arctic
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Belopolskii, L.O. 1961. Ecology of the sea colony birds of the Barents
Sea. Israel Program for Scientific Translations. 346 p.

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94

Bent,.A.C. 1929. A flight of Ross's Gulls. Auk 46:224-225.

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Brooks, J.W. 1954. A contribution to the life history and ecology of the
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Dalgleish, J.J. 1886. Discovery of the nest of Larus rossii in
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Dall, W.H., and HJM.Bannister. 1869. List of the birds of Alaska, with
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Dementiev, G.P., and NLA. Gladkov [eds.],l969. Birds of the Soviet
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Dixon, J.S. 1943. Birds observed between Point Barrow and Herschel
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Falla, R.A. 1964. Distribution patterns of birds in the Antarctic and
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Fay, F.H., and T.J.Cade. 1959. An ecological analysis of the avifauna
of St. Lawrence Island,.Alaska. Univ. California PObl. Zool.

63:73-150.

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Fisher, J. 1952. The Fulmar. Collins, London. 496 p.

Gabrielson, I.N., and S.G.Jewett. 1940. Birds of Oregon. Oregon State
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Gabrielson, I.N., and F.C.Lincoln. 1959. The birds of Alaska. Stack-
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Gibson, D.D. 1970. Alaska region. Audubon Field Notes 24:79-82.

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Grinnell, J. 1900. Birds of the Kotzebue Sound region, Alaska. Pacific
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Harting, J.E. 1871. Catalogue of an arctic collection of birds presented
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Hartley, C.J., and J. Fisher. 1936. The marine foods of birds in an in-
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