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1

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF POLICE PERCEPTIONS
OF POLICE TRAINING CURRICULUM TOPICS

 

By
Roger C. Steggerda
AN ABSTRACT OF A THESIS
Submitted To
The College of Social Science
Michigan State University

 

ln Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
MASTER OF SCIENCE
School of Criminal Justice

1971

      
 
   
 

/ 0%» 47¢

J n H. McNamara. Chairman-

W
. R delet

3222.42?“

Will am H. Hegaruf

Approved:

 

 

ABSTRACT
A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF POLICE PERCEPTIONS
OF POLICE TRAINING CURRICULUM TOPICS
by
Roger O. Steggerda

The study investigated police perceptions of the
importance of training subjects focusing on employment
benefits and on public understanding. The perceived
importance of these two subject categories was then
examined with respect to education, experience, age,
rank, and perceived childhood economic situation.

Several hypotheses were tested in the study: First,
that police perceive employment benefits topics to be
more important than public understanding topics; second,
that perceived importance of employment benefits subjects
varies inversely with educational level, while perceived
importance of public understanding subjects varies directly
with education; and third. that both employment benefits
and public understanding subjects are perceived to be
less important as eXperience increased.

Approximately three hundred police officers were
studied from a medium-sized midwestern city. The data
obtained were analysed by means of a repeated measures
analysis of variance technique. The analysis resulted in
confirmation of the first hypothesis and rejection of the

second and third hypotheses.

A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF POLICE PERCEPTIONS
OF POLICE TRAINING CURRICULUM TOPICS

 

A Thesis
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Criminal Justice

Michigan State University

 

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree

Master of Science

 

by
Roger O. Steggerda
1971

To Jeff and Todd

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Those to whom I am indebted in this endeavor
are abundant. The data were furnished by John E. Angell,
who designed and executed the original study. The analysis
was aided by several persons in the Office of Research
Consultation. College of Education. Michigan State University.
Most of the computer programming was done by persons in
the Computer Institute for Social Science Research at
Michigan State University.

Rather constant encouragement was provided by my
colleagues, friends, teachers, and father-in—law. Thanks
go also to members of my committee, Professor Louis A.
Radelet and William G. Hegarty. whose task of evaluating
this work is appreciated. I am especially indebted to
Dr. John H. McNamara who as teacher, boss, and committee
chairman has provided much more in the way of advice.
criticism. and concern in the past year and a half than
any student has a right to eXpect. Finally, to my wife.
Diane, I am grateful for help in more ways than I can

possibly ennumerate here.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . . . 1
The Conceptual Framework . . . . . . . 1

The Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

II. THE HYPOTHESES AND THE VARIABLES . . . . 8
The Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

The Other Concepts of Interest . . . . 12

III. METHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
The Design of the Study . . . . . . . . 16

The Population and the Sample . . . . . 17
Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

IV. ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . 26

Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

v. SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS . . . . . . . . 44
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

APPENDIX 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 52

TABLE
I.

II.

III.

IV.

VI.

VII.
VIII.

IX.

X.

XI.

XII.

LIST OF TABLES

PAGE
Summary of Responses on the Dependent
Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Summary Table of the Analysis of Variance
of Education By Repeated Measures . . . 30
Educational Level X Repeated Measures
Data Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Summary Table of the Analysis of Variance
of Experience By Repeated Measures . . . 32
Experience X Repeated Measures Data Matrix 33

Summary Table of the Analysis of Variance

of Age By Repeated Measures . . . . . . 35
Age X Repeated Measures Data Matrix . . . 36
Collapsed Categories of Age X Repeated

Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Summary Table of the Analysis of Variance

of Rank By Repeated Measures . . . . . 39
Rank X Repeated Measures Data Matrix . . . 39
Summary Table of the Analysis of Variance

of Childhood Economic Situation By

Repeated Measures . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Childhood Economic Situation X Repeated

Measures Data Matrix . . . . . . . . . #2

CHAPTER I
THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY
I. THE CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

CorreSponding to the recently increased attention
upon the criminal justice system, in general, has been
the more specific focus upon the training of personnel
to work within that system. Although a general systemic
view is often attempted, a substantial part of this
emphasis has been on police training.

Perhaps, the most important comprehensive treatment
of the current state of police training needs has been the
Task Force Report on the Police.1 In this document. the
Task Force identified at a very broad level many of the
deficiencies of the police and made several recommendations
for resolving these deficiencies through training efforts.
The recommendations of the Task Force have had no little
impact. In a recent study of the comprehensive plans
of the state planning agencies ("crime commissions”),

McNamara has identified the rather substantial and varied

 

1The President’s Commission on Law Enforcement

and Administration of Justice, Task Force Re ortn The
Police (fiashingtons Government Printing Office, 19675,
pp. 137- 30

2
efforts being made by the states to improve and increase
police training.2

Nor has the emphasis on police training been limited
to agencies reSponsible for project development and funding.
The concept of police training has become widely accepted
both by police professionals and academicians. It is
highly understandable, therefore, that these professionals
and academicians look to police training programs as rather
natural arenas within which correctives for the deficiencies
of the police may be applied.

The general concept of the utilization of the
training program for the initiation of long-range
correctives for police deficiencies has inevitably led
to the Specification of concrete training content proposals
in reSponse to identified problems or needs. Indeed, when
a deficiency of the police is identified, its implication
for police training often follows.

Although most police ”experts" have had occasion to
recommend changes in police training content. the opportunity

for the police themselves to assess the importance of various

training program subject areas has been rare. Notable among

 

2John H. McNamara, "A Review of the 1970 State
Comprehensive Plans and Their Implications for the
Future of Criminal Justice Education and Training"
(Paper submitted to Law Enforcement Assistance Adminis-
tration, U.S. Department of Justice, 1971).

3

the exceptions has been the work of Watson and Sterling who,
in a study of police opinions, included some items directly
related to training programs.3

Failure to seek police Opinions of the importance of
various training subjects appears to be a rather serious
ommission, since knowledge of these opinions would provide
substantial insight on at least two levels. First. police
opinions about training content would provide some knowledge
of police attitudes towards the training program and would
be an important part of the evaluation of the training
content. More indirectly, these opinions would be an
important key to the understanding of police perceptions
of their role. As McNamara has pointed out, training
programs are usually designed to produce a standardized
product.“ One's assessment of a training program is
inevitably very closely related to his notions of what
should characterize that standardized product.

Police perceptions of the importance of various

subjects in a training curriculum thus provide some insight

 

3Nelson A. Watson and James W. Sterling, Police
And Their Opinions (Washington: International Association
of Chiefs of Police. 1969). pp. 157-60.

“John H. McNamara, "Role-Learning for Police
Recruits: Some Problems in the Process of Preparation
for the Uncertainties of Police Work" (unpublished
Ph.D. dissertation, The University of California. Los
Angeles, 1967), pp. Sff.

into police perceptions of what their role should be.
Moreover. it could be argued that this method of identi-
fying police role perceptions might be even more valid
than a more straight-forward approach, since a police
officer is likely to be somewhat more reluctant to express
honest opinions about his role than about the needs of a
faceless recruit.

Of the many recruit training needs which have been
identified, several have resulted from social trends.
Specifically, two trends stand out in their implications
for police training.

For the past decade or more. there has been an
awareness of the need for greater attention to the area
of police and community relations. Piloted to a great
extent by the National Conference of Christians and Jews,5
the concept of police-community relations grew in acceptance
to such an extent that it comprised a substantial portion
of the Task Force Report on the Police.6 For several
years, the pOpular notion of police-community relations

involved the perceived need for greater understanding and

 

5And ultimately by the National Center on Police
and Community Relations, Michigan State University.

6The President's Commission on Law Enforcement
and Administration of Justice, 0 . 9it., pp. 1uurr.

5

acceptance of the police by the community.7 Of more recent
vintage, however, has been the notion that greater under-
standing of the community by the police ought to be fostered.
The implications of this notion for police training is
evident: Training programs should include subjects which
improve police understanding of the public they are to serve.

Corresponding to the increasing emphasis upon police-
community relations training has been the increasing concern
about the rights and responsibilities of public employees.
Traditionally, public employment had been viewed as public
service which was often characterized by selfless dedication,
low pay, and questionable working conditions. Gradually.
however, this view has begun to be replaced by a greater
concern on the part of the public employee about work
conditions, employee rights, job benefits, etc. The trend
toward unionization and withholding of services by public
employees is now clear to even the most casual observer.

The police have not been untouched by this trend.
Increasingly, police have been attempting to achieve more
benefits and higher pay through the utilization of collective

bargaining procedures which often result in the withholding

 

7A worthwhile treatment of the development of
Police-Community relations may be found in the
initial chapters of Thomas Alfred Johnson. ”A Study of
Police Resistance to Police Community Relations in a
Municipal Police Department" (unpublished Ph.D. dis-
sertation, The University of California, Berkeley, 1970).

of services. A corallary to this trend has been the

recommendation that police training programs include

subjects to enhance understanding of police benefits,

retirement systems, and collective bargaining techniques.
Thus, the perceived need for greater understanding

of the public by the police and the concern about employment

benefits have had a nearly simultaneous impact upon the police

community. What makes this impact particularly fascinating

is the suggestion that the two concepts represent opposite

ends of a continuum. On the one hand, police are directing

their attentions toward the public they serve in an

attempt to better understand the behavior and culture of

the public. On the other hand, attention is directed

toward the personal benefits to be received. The first

might be seen as other-directed; the second, as self-directed.
Whether or not the two concepts are as polarized

as it might appear, it is clear that they present two

quite different perspectives. Determination of the per-

ceptions of police personnel towards the relative importance

of inclusion of these concepts in a police training program

would provide not only a measure of the perceived importance

of the two training concepts but also an indication of police

attitudes toward police work itself. This study seeks to

determine these police perceptions.

II. THE PROBLEM

The major problem addressed in this study is this:
What are the relationships between selected socio-
demographic characteristics and police perceptions of the
relative importance of public understanding and employ-
ment benefits as subjects in a police training curriculum?

Several associated questions are suggested. Do
police perceive subjects fostering public understanding
to be important to a training curriculum? Do they perceive
employment benefits as an important training topic?

Which is more important? What characteristics are
associated with these perceptions? What is the nature of
the associations?

Little information is available on the basis of
which these questions might be answered. Yet, some know-
ledge of how the police themselves perceive the content
of their training seems crucial. In their day-to-day
endeavors, the police must continuously weigh their needs
against their preparation. Perhaps, the police themselves
are the best judges of the adequacy of their training.
Knowledge of police perceptions of the importance of various
training topics could be of great value in making decisions
about training program content. More specifically, answers
to the questions posed above could begin to fill the gaps
in currect knowledge about police perceptions of their

own training needs.

CHAPTER II
THE HYPOTHESES AND THE VARIABLES
I. THE HYPOTHESES

The questions which have been identified above
lead to the develOpment of several hypotheses. Each of
the hypotheses is related to one or both of the two
dependent variables selected for study. These two
variables are ”public understanding" and ”employment
benefits."

Public understanding refers to training subjects
designed to create an understanding of the behavior
and culture of the public by the police. Although
understanding of the police by the public is possibly an
important consideration and for some years appeared to
be the focus of police-community relations training, the
emphasis here is on its counterpart. The specific
measurement of public understanding will be discussed in
CHAPTER 111, but it is important to note here that the
public understanding subjects of primary interest are
those which focus upon understanding of minority groups,

specifically blacks and southern migrants.1

 

1The population of the city in which the study
was conducted is comprised of approximately 30 per cent
Blacks and 30 per cent southern migrants.

Employment benefits refers to training subjects
designed to acquaint the trainee with the conditions of
his employment. His reSponsibilities as an employee
are unquestionably a part of the employment conditions,
but the focus here is upon those subjects dealing with
the rights and benefits that accrue to him. The
Specific measurement of employment benefits is also

discussed in CHAPTER III.

Hypothesis 1

Police perceive employment benefits subjects to
be more important than public understanding subjects.

This hypothesis is based upon two impressions.
First, police training programs seem to consist primarily
of tOpics focused on the deveIOpment of job skills and
techniques. The development of interpersonal skills is
often attempted through the teaching of ”gimmicks,”
rather than greater understanding of peOple. Second, the
civil service protections of the police job still consti-
tute one of its distinct and recognized advantages.2

Many police officers are undoubtedly strongly in
favor of public understanding subjects in the training

curriculum. However, many other officers are quite

likely to be strongly opposed to such training. It is

 

230th of these impressions are supported in McNamara,
2p. cit., chapters 6 and 7.

10
predicted that perceptions regarding public understanding
subjects are highly variable, with an approximately
neutral typical value. On the other hand, perceptions
of employment benefits are not likely to be so highly
variable. While public understanding relates to an
extremely controversial area, no such extreme controversy
exists with reSpect to employment benefits. Perceptions
of employment benefits training subjects are expected

to be positive and less variable than public understanding.

Hypothesis 2

Perceived importance of public understanding
subjects is directly related to educational level,
while employment benefits subjects and educational
level are inversely related.

Educational level refers to the amount of formal
education received. It is expected that as amount of
education increases, police perceptions of the importance
of public understanding subjects will also increase. This
expectation is hardly unique. Appeals for more education
in the police field are often justified on the basis
of arguments very closely related to that suggested by
public understanding. Greater understanding of the public
is a characteristic often attributed to the more educated
officers. It is, therefore, predicted that the more

educated officers will regard public understanding to

be more important than the less educated officers.

11
On the other hand, as educational level and
perceived importance of public understanding training
subjects increase, the perceived importance of employee
benefits is expected to decrease. Watson and Sterling
found that as education increased, low pay was perceived
to be a less important problem.3 .There is no reason

to eXpect a contrary outcome in this study.

Hypothesis 3

Police perceptions of public understanding subjects
and employment benefits subjects both vary inversely
with eXperience.

Years of experience in police work has become a
common variable of interest in research on the police.
This interest could be due in part to the practice of
requiring Specified amounts of eXperience for most non-
patrolman jobs in the police field. It can also be
partially eXplained by the notion that experience
results in substantial attitudinal or performance
differences. From either interest, years of eXperience
appears to be worthy of careful examination.

It could be suggested that associated with years

of police experience is a growing Skepticism about the

ability of a training program to provide answers or

 

A 3Nelson A. Watson and James W. Sterling, pp. cit.,
p. 15 .

12
perspectives which the more experienced officers has
reached through his eXperience. In this sense, the
perceived importance of both public understanding
subjects and employment benefits subjects could be
expected to decline as eXperience increases.

However, this does not suggest that the perceived
importance of the two concepts are equivalent. Employ-
ment benefits are still expected to be of greater importance
to the police officer than public understanding. Watson
and Sterling found that a decrease in concern about low
pay was associated with increased experience. But, even
at the highest experience level, 45 per cent of the
officers identified low pay as the most important
problem faced by police officers as individuals}+

Thus, both concepts are expected to decline in
perceived importance as eXperience increases. Employment
benefits are expected to be more positive than public

understanding at all experience levels.
II. THE OTHER CONCEPTS OF INTEREST

The primary hypotheses selected for testing in

this study deal with an overall comparison of the two

 

”As compared to 68 per cent of the least experienced
officers, Ibid.

13
dependent variables as well as tests of relationships
between the two dependent variables and both amount
of education and years of experience. In addition to
these tests, relationships of rank, age, and childhood
economic Situation with the dependent variables will

be examined.

Age

Age and rank are both definitionally rather straight-
forward. Their selection for examination is born not so
much out of the rationale or findings in other research
as out of the apparent probability that both are con-
founded with experience. If a confounded relationship
exists, any relationship found between experience and the
dependent variables could be partially explained on the
basis of the confounding variable.

Because of the age restrictions on initial employ-
ment in the police field, the variables of age and ex-
perience are almost totally redundant. To the extent
that they are not redundant, examination of relationships
between age and the dependent variables may be meaningful.
It is expected that police perceptions of the importance
of both public understanding and employment benefits

subjects decrease as age increases.

14

w
w

Rank is not so redundant with experience as is
age. The lower levels of rank will be comprised of all
of the levels of age and experience. However, the
upper levels of rank will be comprised mostly of the
upper levels of age and experience. To the extent that
only older, more eXperienced police officers achieve
the higher ranks in a department, the variables are
confounded. But since all or even most older, more
experienced officers do not advance to the highest
ranks, examination of the relationship between the
dependent variables and rank may provide some mean-
ingful information.

It is expected that a direct relationship exists
between both of the dependent variables and rank. In
addition, it is expected that both of the dependent
variables will be quite positive among the higher ranks.
However, this positive perception may be less a measure
of the two dependent variables as it is a measure of
the perceived worth of the training program. It is
plausible that advancement in rank is accompanied by an
increased reliance on a training program to provide
correctives for almost any deficiency. As such,
measures on the dependent variables among the higher

ranks may be best regarded as measures of the entire

15
training program. The question raised by this dis-
cussion cannot be answered within the scope of this
study. It will, however, be an important consideration

in the interpretation of the findings in the study.

Childhood Economic Situation

Childhood economic situation could be related very
strongly with both public understanding and employment
benefits. The lower levels of childhood economic Situation
appear almost certainly to related to both dependent
variables, although any prediction of the nature of that
relationship would be purely speculative.

Further, childhood economic situation may be
partially confounded with education. The higher
educational levels may be found principally among the
officers who characterize their childhood economic
situation as above average. The lower educational
levels, on the other hand, may be found among all levels
of childhood economic situation.

The nature of the possible effects of childhood
economic situation on the relationship between education
and the dependent variables is not possible to identify
on the basis of available information. The reason for
its inclusion in the study is to explore its relation-
ships. Such an exploration may reveal more precise

questions for future study.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
I. THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The study may be viewed most appropriately as
having a survey design. Its purpose was to ascertain
the attitudes and perceptions of police personnel and
to attempt to discover the degree to which certain
socio-demographic variables are associated with these
attitudes or perceptions. One observation ( in the form
of a self-administered questionnaire) was taken from
each participant in the study.

Such a design has rather obvious limitations.
It is not possible through a "one-shot study" such as
this to affirm (with confidence) any causal relationships
among the variables. Given appropriate analysis techniques,
together with a very well designed questionnaire, it is
sometimes possible to suggest the existence of causal
relationships. In this study, however, any determination
of causality is precluded by the imprecise nature of
the measurement technique and the limitations this
imprecision imposes upon the analysis.

However, the survey technique has some distinct

advantages as well. To identify attitudes or perceptions,

17
few controls are really necessary. The identification
of the variables which tend to be associated with the
attitudes and perceptions is also a task handled rather
well by the survey technique. Further, the survey often
suggests methods whereby causal relationships could be
studied. To this extent, the survey is a highly useful
technique in the researcher's quest for knowledge. And
to this extent, the survey studied here may have been

successful.1
II. THE POPULATION AND THE SAMPLE

The sample consists of 301 of the sworn personnel
of the Dayton (Ohio) Police Department. Although the
precise number of officers in the department is not
known, the sample apparently represents approximately
80 per cent of the total number of officers at that time.
Excluded from the study was one shift of personnel which
was not assigned during the twenty-four hour period in
which the observations were taken. -

It is clear that the Dayton Police Department was

 

11t should be noted here that this study was
designed and conducted by a party other than the author.
The use of some of the data has revealed many problems
in the methodology of the study. These problems not-
withstanding, much meaningful information was obtained.

18
the target population. It is equally clear that the
sample was not randomly selected. Consequently, general-
ization of the findings to the entire Dayton Police
Department, and further, to other police officers is
technically precluded.

However, some tentative generalizations appear to
be legitimate. Even though the excluded shift was not
likely to have been assigned in a technically randon
manner, it is also unlikely that its exclusion created
any systematic sample bias. The lack of systematic bias
in sample selection combined with the substantial percentage
(80 per cent) of officers actually sampled enhances the
legitimacy of generalizing to the entire department.
Further, by carefully considering the characteristics
of the sample and of the department itself, it is
legitimate to generalize to a larger (if unknown and
undefined) pOpulation which possesses similar character-

istics.2

III. MEASUREMENT

The Instrument

All data were gathered by means of a pretested

 

2J. Cornfield and J. W. Tukey, "Average Values
of Mean Squares in Factorials,” Annals of Mathematical
Statistics, V. 27, pp. 907-h9.

19
questionnaire which consisted of twelve pages and
required thirty to forty-five minutes to complete.3

0f the information contained in the questionnaire,
only a small portion is utilized in this study. For
this reason, discussion of the questionnaire will be
limited to only those portions of interest to this study.
The first section of the questionnaire contains
ninety subjects which might be included in a police
training program. Prefacing the ninety subjects are
instructions to the reSpondent to judge each subject
according to the following Lykert-type scale:
Circle 1 if you feel the course is absolutely
essential:
Circle 2 if you feel the course is important
but not essential:
Circle 3 if you feel the course is desirable
but not important:
Circle 4 if you feel the course is undesirable
but could be offered;
Circle 5 if you feel the course is irrelevant
and should not be included.
The list of ninety courses follows the instructions.
Each of the courses listed is followed by the numbers
1, 2, 3, h, 5 for encircling by the reSpondent. The
instructions are not repeated for each item or for each

page, although the "1” column is headed by the word

 

3The entire questionnaire is included in the
Appendix. The author was informed only that the instrument
was pretested. No information regarding pretest subjects,
results of the pretest, or changes made subsequent to
the pretest is available.

20

”essential" and the "5" column is headed by the word
"exclude.” Both the instructions and the individual
item response design seem fairly clear.

The final portion of the questionnaire provides
for biographical information about the reSpondent.
To preserve anonymity, no name was requested although
the large number of such biographical questions (twelve)
may have caused some scepticism about the actual anon-
ymity. However, since the biographical data are requested
at the end of the questionnaire, it is likely that any
distortion of response due to this scepticism would
occur in the biographical information rather than in
the first section. Several of the items in this section
were omitted by a large number of reSpondentS. Some
other items contained a large number or reSponses that
appeared to be purposefully distorted. However, the
five items of interest contained only three omissions

and no evidence of invalid reSponses.

The Variables

Two dependent variables-~public understanding
and employment benefits--are analysed in the study.
The items comprising each of these variables were

determined by the use of a cluster analysis, which is

21
designed to identify those items which tend to be
positively associated with each other. Five variables
were selected which could be treated as independent var-
iables. These variables are age, rank, education,

experience, and perceived childhood economic situation.

Employment benefits. As has already been stated.
employment benefits refers to training subjects designed
to acquaint the trainee with the condition of his employment.
Four items were identified in the cluster analysis
which have a very high intra-cluster correlation (.6)
and which are all related to employment benefits, as
defined here. The items in the cluster are the following:

#48. Understanding your retirement system

#56. Review of employee benefits

#65. Employee rights

#81. The politics of improving police benefits

Since each of these items is answerable on a one
to five ordinal scale, the total summated score for one
individual on this variable may range from four to twenty.
As such, a high score (above twelve) indicated a somewhat
unfavorable perception of the importance of employment
benefits as subjects in the training program, while a

low score (below twelve) indicates a more positive

perception.

1h

:0
W

Rank is not so redundant with experience as is
age. The lower levels of rank will be comprised of all
of the levels of age and experience. However, the
upper levels of rank will be comprised mostly of the
upper levels of age and experience. To the extent that
only older, more eXperienced police officers achieve
the higher ranks in a department, the variables are
confounded. But since all or even most older, more
experienced officers do not advance to the highest
ranks, examination of the relationship between the
dependent variables and rank may provide some mean-
ingful information.

It is expected that a direct relationship exists
between both of the dependent variables and rank. In
addition, it is expected that both of the dependent
variables will be quite positive among the higher ranks.
However, this positive perception may be less a measure
of the two dependent variables as it is a measure of
the perceived worth of the training program. It is
plausible that advancement in rank is accompanied by an
increased reliance on a training program to provide
correctives for almost any deficiency. As such,
measures on the dependent variables among the higher

ranks may be best regarded as measures of the entire

15
training program. The question raised by this dis-
cussion cannot be answered within the scope of this
study. It will, however, be an important consideration

in the interpretation of the findings in the study.

Childhood Economic Situation

Childhood economic situation could be related very
strongly with both public understanding and employment
benefits. The lower levels of childhood economic situation
appear almost certainly to related to both dependent
variables, although any prediction of the nature of that
relationship would be purely speculative.

Further, childhood economic situation may be
partially confounded with education. The higher
educational levels may be found principally among the
officers who characterize their childhood economic
situation as above average. The lower educational
levels, on the other hand, may be found among all levels
of childhood economic situation.

The nature of the possible effects of childhood
economic situation on the relationship between education
and the dependent variables is not possible to identify
on the basis of available information. The reason for
its inclusion in the study is to explore its relation-
ships. Such an exploration may reveal more precise

questions for future study.

CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
I. THE DESIGN OF THE STUDY

The study may be viewed most apprOpriately as
having a survey design. Its purpose was to ascertain
the attitudes and perceptions of police personnel and
to attempt to discover the degree to which certain
socio-demographic variables are associated with these
attitudes or perceptions. One observation ( in the form
of a self-administered questionnaire) was taken from
each participant in the study.

Such a design has rather obvious limitations.
It is not possible through a "one-shot study" such as
this to affirm (with confidence) any causal relationships
among the variables. Given appropriate analysis techniques,
together with a very well designed questionnaire, it is
sometimes possible to suggest the existence of causal
relationships. In this study, however, any determination
of causality is precluded by the imprecise nature of
the measurement technique and the limitations this
imprecision imposes upon the analysis.

However, the survey technique has some distinct

advantages as well. To identify attitudes or perceptions,

1?
few controls are really necessary. The identification
of the variables which tend to be associated with the
attitudes and perceptions is also a task handled rather
well by the survey technique. Further, the survey often
suggests methods whereby causal relationships could be
studied. To this extent, the survey is a highly useful
technique in the researcher’s quest for knowledge. And
to this extent, the survey studied here may have been

successful.1

II. THE POPULATION AND THE SAMPLE

The sample consists of 301 of the sworn personnel
of the Dayton (Ohio) Police Department. Although the
precise number of officers in the department is not
known, the sample apparently represents approximately
80 per cent of the total number of officers at that time.
Excluded from the study was one shift of personnel which
was not assigned during the twenty-four hour period in
which the observations were taken.

It is clear that the Dayton Police Department was

 

1It should be noted here that this study was
designed and conducted by a party other than the author.
The use of some of the data has revealed many problems
in the methodology of the study. These problems not-
withstanding, much meaningful information was obtained.

18
the target population. It is equally clear that the
sample was not randomly selected. Consequently, general-
ization of the findings to the entire Dayton Police
Department, and further, to other police officers is
technically precluded.

However, some tentative generalizations appear to
be legitimate. Even though the excluded shift was not
likely to have been assigned in a technically randon
manner, it is also unlikely that its exclusion created
any systematic sample bias. The lack of systematic bias
in sample selection combined with the substantial percentage
(80 per cent) of officers actually sampled enhances the
legitimacy of generalizing to the entire department.
Further, by carefully considering the characteristics
of the sample and of the department itself, it is
legitimate to generalize to a larger (if unknown and
undefined) population which possesses similar character-

istics.2

III. MEASUREMENT

The Instrument

 

All data were gathered by means of a pretested

 

2J. Cornfield and J. W. Tukey, "Average Values
of Mean Squares in Factorials," Annals of Mathematical
Statistics, V. 27, pp. 907-49.

19
questionnaire which consisted of twelve pages and
required thirty to forty-five minutes to complete.3

Of the information contained in the questionnaire,
only a small portion is utilized in this study. For
this reason, discussion of the questionnaire will be
limited to only those portions of interest to this study.

The first section of the questionnaire contains
ninety subjects which might be included in a police
training program. Prefacing the ninety subjects are
instructions to the respondent to judge each subject

according to the following Lykert-type scale:

Circle 1 if you feel the course is absolutely
essential;

Circle 2 if you feel the course is important
but not essential:

Circle 3 if you feel the course is desirable
but not important;

Circle 4 if you feel the course is undesirable
but could be offered;

Circle 5 if you feel the course is irrelevant

and should not be included.
The list of ninety courses follows the instructions.
Each of the courses listed is followed by the numbers
1, 2, 3, 4, 5 for encircling by the reSpondent. The
instructions are not repeated for each item or for each

page, although the "1” column is headed by the word

 

3The entire questionnaire is included in the
Appendix. The author was informed only that the instrument
was pretested. No information regarding pretest subjects,
results of the pretest, or changes made subsequent to
the pretest is available.

20

"essential" and the "5" column is headed by the word
"exclude." Both the instructions and the individual
item response design seem fairly clear.

The final portion of the questionnaire provides
for biographical information about the reSpondent.
To preserve anonymity, no name wasrequested although
the large number of such biographical questions (twelve)
may have caused some scepticism about the actual anon-
ymity. However, since the biographical data are requested
at the end of the questionnaire, it is likely that any
distortion of response due to this scepticism would
occur in the biographical information rather than in
the first section. Several of the items in this section
were omitted by a large number of reSpondents. Some
other items contained a large number or reSponses that
appeared to be purposefully distorted. However, the
five items of interest contained only three omissions

and no evidence of invalid responses.

The Variables

Two dependent variables--public understanding
and employment benefits--are analysed in the study.
The items comprising each of these variables were

determined by the use of a cluster analysis, which is

21
designed to identify those items which tend to be
positively associated with each other. Five variables
were selected which could be treated as independent var-
iables. These variables are age, rank, education,

experience, and perceived childhood economic situation.

Employment benefits. As has already been stated,

employment benefits refers to training subjects designed
to acquaint the trainee with the condition of his employment.
Four items were identified in the cluster analysis
which have a very high intra-cluster correlation (.6)
and which are all related to employment benefits, as
defined here. The items in the cluster are the following:
#48. Understanding your retirement system
#56. Review of employee benefits
#65. Employee rights
#81. The politics of improving police benefits
Since each of these items is answerable on a one
to five ordinal scale, the total summated score for one
individual on this variable may range from four to twenty.
As such, a high score (above twelve) indicated a somewhat
unfavorable perception of the importance of employment
benefits as subjects in the training program, while a

low score (below twelve) indicates a more positive

perception.

22

Public understanding. Referring to subjects designed
to enhance police understanding of segments of the com-
munity, public understanding also consists of four items
identified by the cluster analysis as having a very high
intra-cluster correlation (also approximately .6). The
items contained in this cluster are the following:

#25. The behavior of southern migrants

##6. Customs and habits of black people

#67. Race relations

#71. Understanding southern migrants

The procedure used for scoring public understanding

is the same as for employment benefits.

§g_. Question #1 on page ten of the questionnaire
provides the age of each reSpondent.

#1. Approximate age: ___21-25, ___26-30, ___31-35,

__36-L+o , __L:1 4+5, _L:6-5o .
___51 and above.

These seven levels of age were provided in the
question. The last two levels ( __;u6-50 and 51 and above)
were combined in the analysis to more closely equate the
size of each group.

A definite problem exists in this type of question.
The selection of levels prior to the data gathering stage
results in the loss of information which could have potential
meaning in the study. To illustrate, if one of the levels
selected here was analysed to have a very high variance,

it is possible that a very meaningful cut-off point

exists somewhere within the level. More Specifically,

23
if age level twenty-one to twenty-five was highly
variable, it is possible that a large difference
exists between age groups twenty-one to twenty-three
and twenty-four to twenty-five. With information in pre-
grouped form, it is not possible to distinguish between
the subjects within a single group.

This problem could have been avoided by simply
asking each respondent to identify his correct age. In
this manner, groups could be formed in.such a way that

within group homogeneity and size would be enhanced.

Experience. Question 34 on page ten of the question-

naire provided the experience information.

##. How long have you been a policeman (total
regardless of the number of organizations
you have been employed by): less than
3 years, 3 to 6 years, 7 to 9 years,

10 to 12 years, 12 to 16 years,
above 16 years.

Each of the six levels identified in the question

are used in the analysis. The problem here is identical
to that involving age. The question should have been

open-ended to prevent possible loss of meaningful information.

Rgnk. Question #5 on page ten of the questionnaire

reads as follows:
#5. What is your present rank?
Patrolman Sergeant Lt. Capt. or
above civilian.

Three levels of rank were used in the analysis:

24
Patrolman, Sergeant, and Lt. or above. The third and
fourth categories were combined due to the small number
of reSpondents in those categories. The final category
(civilian) was eliminated since only one respondent

identified himself as a civilian.

Perceived childhood economic situation. Question #6
on page eleven of the questionnaire asks for the following
information:

#6. How would you characterize your childhood

economic situation?
Poverty conditions--among the poorest
families in the state.
A little poorer than the average family
in the state.
About average for families in the state.
A little above the average family in
the state.
Wealthy--we had plenty of money in the bank.

Because of the relatively small number of persons
responding in the last two categories, the analysis
used three levels: below average, average, and above
average.

Although several socio-economic status measures
exist which may provide more valid information about one's
childhood economic situation, it appears that the measure
here of perceived childhood economic situation may be
more highly related to the measures of interest in this
study than actual childhood economic situation. Whatever

a respondent's actual situation was, his perception of that

25

situation is likely to have had more effect on his other

perceptions than his real situation would have had.

Education. Question #8 on page eleven of the

questionnaire identifies the educational level of each

respondent.

#8. What is the highest level of formal education

you

have completed?

below high school

high school

one year of college

two years of college

three years of college
four years of college

over four years of college

This question provides a relatively straight-forward

measure of amount of education although it obviously does

not provide information about the quality or emphasis

of that education. Amount of education was reduced to

five levels due

to the small number of reSpondents in

the higher levels. The levels used in this analysis are

below high school, high school, one year college, two

years college, and three or more years of college.

CHAPTER IV
ANALYSIS

1. METHODS OF ANALYSIS

Several statistical methods were employed in the
analysis of the data. Initially, a correlation matrix
was generated to find the correlation within each pair
among the ninety training subjects listed. Utilizing the
correlation matrix, a cluster analysis was conducted to
identify those subjects to which the reSpondents tended
to reSpond in the same way. The cluster analysis yielded
ninety-eight clusters ranging from two items per cluster
to sixty-three items and ranked from the highest within
cluster correlation to the lowest. The initial clusters,
of course, were substantially two-item clusters, while
those at the lower correlation ranks tended to be much
larger. However, two clusters were revealed rather early
in the ranking (clusters #12 and #14) which contained four
items each, and which became the two dependent variables
of interest in this study.

The relationships between each of the demographic
characteristics and the two dependent variables were then

examined by means of a repeated measures (split-plot) design.l

 

lFor eXplanations of the repeated measures or
Split-plot design, see D. R. Cox,Plannin of Ex eriments
(New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1968), pp. 142-151:

Jerome L. Myers, Fundamentals of Ex erimental Desi n
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 1966), pp. 153ff.

27
This design is essentially an analysis of variance tech-
nique. As such, it is equipped to detect differences
between the two dependent variables, differences between
the levels of the independent variable, and any interaction
effects between the independent and the dependent variables.

The repeated measures design has three principal
assumptions: first, the dependent variables must be
normally distributed when testing random effects: second,
the within cell variances must be equivalent: and third,
the off-diagonal elements in the correlation matrix must
be equal.

The normality assumption is not of concern in this
study, since the levels of both variables were fixed rather
than random. The analysis of variance F-test is robust
with reSpect to violations of normality when testing for
a fixed effect. The assumption of equality of the off-
diagonal elements in the correlation matrix is met, since
only two dependent variables were used. In the case of
two dependent variables, only one off-diagonal cell
exists. A single cell, of course, cannot be unequal to
itself.

The assumption of equal within cell variances, if
violated, can be met if the number of observations within

all of the levels of the independent variable are equal.

28
However, this was not the case in this study. A question
exists as to how much difference in the variances can be
tolerated before the statistic becomes invalid. Although
the cell variances in this study differ, the precise effects

of the violation are not known.

II. RESULTS

Employment Benefits Vs. Public Understanding

Hypothesis 1 stated that police perceive employment
benefits subjects to be more important than public under-
standing subjects. Due to the nature of the repeated
measures analysis, this relationship was not tested inde-
pendently, but rather was tested in connection with each of
the independent variables. InSpection of TABLE I reveals
that police do in fact perceive employment benefits subjects
to be more important to a training curriculum than public
understanding subjects.

TABLE I
SUMMARY OF RESPONSES ON THE DEPENDENT VARIABLES

 

 

 

Employment Public

Benefits Understanding

Subjects Subjects
Mean Score 8.014 8.838

Pooled Standard
Deviation 2.537 3.181

 

 

29

The mean score for employment benefits subjects
was 8.014, while the mean for public understanding subjects
was 8.838. Further, this difference was found to be
significant beyond the .001 level.

The differences may appear to be somewhat more
statistically significant, however, than meaningfully
significant. The relatively small difference between
the means is statistically significant primarily due to
the rather large number of observations (N=291). InSpec-
tion of the data matrices in this chapter, on the other
hand, reveals that among all of the levels of all of the
independent variables there exists a small but very con-
sistent preference for employment benefits subjects (of
the twenty-three levels analysed, twenty-one have a lower
mean score for employment benefits subjects than public
understanding subjects). Inspection of the raw scores
yielded a similar result. 0f the 291 responses, only 115
indicated a preference for public understanding subjects.

Thus, Hypothesis 1 is supported by the analysis.

Education
Hypothesis 2 stated that perceived importance
of public understanding subjects is directly related

to educational level, while employment benefits subjects

30
and educational level are inversely related. TABLE 11

reports a summary of the repeated measures analysis.

TABLE II

SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
OF EDUCATION BY REPEATED MEASURES

 

 

 

 

Mean

Source Of Variation D.F. Squares F Sig.
Groups 4 14.11 1.10 N.S.
Subjects within Groups 286 12.78
Repeated Measures 1 98.97 25.03 .001
Repeated Measures X Groups 4 6.05 1.53 .20
Repeated Measures X Subjects

Within Groups 286 3.95
Total 581 8.55

 

As reported in TABLE II no significant relationship
exists between educational level and either employment
benefits subjects or public understanding subjects (F=1.10,
N.S.). The highly significant difference between repeated
measures has been indicated.

The repeated measures by education interaction
suggested in the hypothesis appears to be somewhat more
significant than the difference between levels of education
(F-1.53, p:.20). However, the significance level is too
high to warrant any definitive statement about the inter-
action. Further, visual inSpection of TABLE III reveals

that the interaction exists between only two levels of

EDUCATIONAL LEVEL X REPEATED MEASURES DATA MATRIX

TABLE III

31

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Employment Public
Benefits Understanding
Subjects Subjects
Below High School $6 = 8.455 Tc = 8.667
n=33 S = 2.807 S = 3.198
High School 32' = 7.972 3'5 = 8.842
n=177 S = 2.687 S = 3.250
One Year College 3': 7.500 ‘X = 8.550
n=40 S I 2.219 S = 2.978
Two Years College 32' a 8.448 3? a 9.931
n-29 S = 1.901 'S a 3.229
Over Two Years _ _
College X c 8.083 X - 7.583
n=12 S a 1.782 S a 3.175

 

 

 

32
education, one of which consists of only twelve observations.
Thus, the data tended to follow the direction sug-
gested in the hypothesis, but not with sufficient consis-
tency or magnitude to warrant confirmation of the hypothesis.

Hypothesis 2 is, therefore, rejected.

Experience
Hypothesis 3 posits that police perceptions of

public understanding subjects and employment benefits
subjects both vary inversely with experience. TABLE IV

reports a summary of the repeated measures analysis.

TABLE IV

SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
OF EXPERIENCE BY REPEATED MEASURES

 

 

Mean

Source Of Variation D.F. Squares F Sig.
Groups 5 21.20 1.675 .15
Subjects Within Groups 285 12.65
Repeated Measures 1 98.97 24.82 .001
Repeated Measures X Groups 5 3.68 .92 N.S.
Repeated Measures X Subjects

Within Groups 285 3.99
Total 581 8.55

 

As indicated, there are no significant differences
between eXperience levels, although some possible differences
are suggested by the significance level of .15. Visual

inspection of TABLE V reveals that a comparatively

TABLE V

EXPERIENCE X REPEATED MEASURES DATA MATRIX

33

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Employment Public
Benefits Understanding
Subjects Subjects
Less Than 3 Years X's 8.397 ‘X = 9.793
n=58 S 8 2.582 S = 2.845
3 To 6 Years X = 7.306 ‘X = 8.028
n=36 S = 2.109 S = 2.772
7 To 9 Years X = 8.098 X’2 8.463
n=41 s = 2.343 S = 3.557
10 To 12 Years ‘i = 7.452 'i = 8.613
n=31 S 2 2.111 S 8 2.895
12 To 16 Years X’s 7.967 2': 8.833
n=30 S a 2.356 S = 3.119
Above 16 Years Y's 8.211 Y’s 8.800
n=95 s = 2.888 s . 3.481

 

 

 

34
sizable difference exists between the first two eXperience
levels, but that there are no consistent differences
between the remainder of the levels of experience.

No evidence can be found in either TABLE IV or
TABLE V to suggest anything approaching the inverse
relationships stated in the hypothesis. Further, there
are no interaction effects. At every experience level,
employment benefits subjects are perceived to be more
important than public understanding subjects.

Thus no relationship between experience and the

dependent variables can be detected.

Age

No hypothesis was stated regarding the relation-
ship between age and the two dependent variables. The
discussion in CHAPTER II, however, did suggest some ex-
pected relationships. It was suggested that age and
experience were redundant to the extent that one would
provide little more information than the other. It
was further suggested that the perceived importance of
the two training subjects areas would both decrease as
age increases. TABLE VI provides a summary of the
analysis.

It is clear from the table that age and experience

are not totally redundant. There are significant differences

35

between the various age groups (p=.005) where no such
differences were found between experience groups.
Examination of TABLE VII provides some insight into

the nature of the differences.

TABLE VI

SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
OF AGE BY REPEATED MEASURES

 

 

Source Of Variation D.F. Squares F Sig.
Groups 5 41.05 3.34 .005
Subjects Within Groups 285 12.31
Repeated Measures 1 98.97 25.43 .001
Repeated Measures X Groups 5 9.22 2.37 .05
Repeated Measures X Subjects

Within Groups 285 3.89
Total 581 8.55

 

Mean scores of each group toward both dependent
variables is rather high at the youngest level (21-25)
and drOps dramatically for the age group 26-30, indicating
a more positive attitude towards both subjects at the
second age level. After age 30, however, the perceived
importance again drops (scores get larger) until age
group 46 and above, where perceived importance again
rises. In most cases, the scores on the two variables
vary together as age level changes. However, the signi-

ficant age by repeated measures interaction reported in

TABLE VII
AGE X REPEATED MEASURES DATA MATRIX

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Employment Public
Benefits Understanding
Subjects Subjects
21-25 Years 3? = 8.585 X a 10.113
n853 S = 2.397 S = 2.853
26-30 Years i = 7.283 X = 7.981
n=53 S 8 2.125 S = 2.99
31-35 Years 33 a 8.146 I - 8.195
n=41 S a 2.22 S = 2.768
36-40 Years X’s 7.964 ‘X - 9.418
n=55 S I 2.854 S a 3.326
41-45 Years Y a 8.34 "i - 9.02
{1350 S 3 2.182 S . 3035
46 and Above X I 7.744 X's 7.897
n=39 s = 3.306 s = 3.455

 

 

 

37
TABLE VI may be found between age group 31-35 years and

age group 36-40 years. The perceived importance of
employment benefits subjects increases at the same time
as perceived importance of public understanding subjects
decreases.

Contrary to what had been expected, perceived
importance of employment benefits subjects remained
approximately the same over all levels of age, while
perceived importance of public understanding subjects
increased. This is made evident if the various levels of

age are combined as in TABLE VIII.

TABLE VIII
COLLAPSED CATEGORIES OF AGE X REPEATED MEASURES

W

 

 

 

Employment Public
Benefits Understanding
Subjects Subjects
21-30 years if = 7.934 31' - 9.047
n-106
31-40 years i = 8.041 31' = 8.896
n=96
41 years & above ‘X - 8.078 IX a 8.528
n=89

 

 

 

Inspection of TABLE VIII also aids in the interpretation

of the significant age by repeated measures interaction.

38
Although perceptions of employment benefits subjects are

always more important than public understanding subjects,
they remain stable as public understanding perception
scores decrease.

Thus, several conclusions may be drawn. Police
perceptions of the importance of employment benefits
subjects and public understanding subjects differ
significantly by age group: police perceive employment
benefits subjects to be more important than public under-
standing subjects across all age groups: and police
perceptions of employment benefits subjects remains
relatively stable over all age groups while perceptions
of public understanding subjects become more positive

as age increases.

Rank

In CHAPTER II, it was suggested that a direct
relationship exists between both of the dependent vari-
ables and rank, that is, that as rank increases, per-
ceived importance of both dependent variables increase
as well. TABLE IX reports a summary of the analysis.

On the basis of the information in TABLE IX,
it can reasonably be concluded that perceived importance

of the training subjects differs on the basis of rank

(p=.075). More important is the significant interaction

39

between rank and the two training subjects (p=.005).

TABLE IX

SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
OF RANK BY REPEATED MEASURES

 

 

 

Mean

Source Of Variation D.F. Squares F Sig.
Groups 2 35.08 2.77 .075
Subjects Within Groups 288 12.65
Repeated Measures 1 98.97 25.73 .001
Repeated Measures X Groups 2 23.58 6.13 .005
Repeated Measures X Subjects

Within Groups 288 3.85
Total 581 8.55

 

TABLE X provides the information necessary to

understand these relationships.

TABLE X

RANK X REPEATED MEASURES DATA MATRIX

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Employment Public
Benefits Understanding
Subjects Subjects
Patrolman XI: 8.00 X'= 9.065
n=232 S = 2.488 S = 3.147
Sergeant X'= 8.244 ‘X = 8.585
n=41 S a 2.870 S = 3.571
Lt. and above X'= 7.667 X’= 6.5

 

 

 

40

While a rather significant difference is detected
between the ranks, inspection of TABLE X reveals that
most of the difference occurs with reapect to public
understanding subjects. Perceptions of the importance of
employment benefits subjects is fairly similar across
ranks while public understanding subjects is perceived
to be more important as rank increases. It is apparent
that the differences in employment benefits perceptions
are not sufficient to reach a significant level. The
significance levels reached for both differences between
ranks and rank by measures interaction appear to be a
result of the substantial differences in the perceived
importance of public understanding subjects.

Thus, as eXpected, perceived importance of the
two training subjects is quite high among the advanced
ranks. It is possible that this increase in perceived
importance is as much a result of more positive attitudes
toward the entire training program among the upper ranks
as it is a measure of the two Specific training subjects.
However, this possibility does not detract from the im-
portance of the interaction effect. Whatever the reasons
are for the lower overall scores in the highest ranks,
the perceived relative importance of the two subjects was

reversed, indicating that as rank increases a positive

.IIII 1' 11““ III! '1 I'll.

 

I I ‘ . v

 

41
shift in perception of public understanding subjects

also occurs.

Childhood Economic Situation

In CHAPTER II, no relationships between childhood
economic situation and the two training subjects were
suggested. The characteristic was included in this
study in an attempt to identify possible relationships,
and to identify possible questions to be studied further.

TABLE XI is a summary of the analysis.

TABLE XI

SUMMARY TABLE OF THE ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE
OF CHILDHOOD ECONOMIC SITUATION
BY REPEATED MEASURES

 

 

 

Mean
Source Of Variation D.F. Squares F Sig.
Groups 2 19.67 1.54 N.S.
Subjects Within Groups 288 12.75
Repeated Measures 1 98.97 25.03 .001
Repeated Measures X Groups 2 8.20 2.07 .15
Repeated Measures X Subjects
Within Groups 288 3.95
Total 581 8.55

 

It is clear that no significant differences exist
between perceived childhood economic situation and per-
ceived importance of the two training subjects. Nor is

there any significant interaction between childhood

42
economic situation and the dependent variables. Inapection
of TABLE XI reveals no information which might explain or
suggest a relationship between childhood economic situation
and perceived importance of the two training subjects.

However, examination of TABLE XII may yield some impressions.

TABLE XII

CHILDHOOD ECONOMIC SITUATION X
REPEATED MEASURES DATA MATRIX

 

 

 

 

 

Employment Public
Benefits Understanding
Subjects Subjects
Below Average X": 8.430 1X = 9.056
n=107 S = 2.469 S = 2.971
Average IX a 7.807 1X = 8.552
Above Average {X - 7.641 X'= 9.308
n-39 S a 1.885 S = 3.518

 

 

 

The data suggest that perceived importance of
employment benefits subjects may increase as perceptions
of childhood economic situation proceed from "poor” to

”wealthy." At the same time, however, respondents who
perceive their childhood economic situation to have been
average are somewhat more positive in their perceptions

of the importance of public understanding subjects than

43
those who perceived their situation to have been either

above or below average. It is interesting to note that
the group who perceived their childhood economic situation
as ”above average” was more positive in the perceived
importance of employment benefits subjects than either of
the other groups: the “above average” group was also the
least favorable of all the groups toward public under-
standing subjects. This situation aids in the interaction
effect in TABLE XI which fell just short of the required
significance level (p=.15). Thus, no significant relation-
ship appears to exist between perceptions of one's
childhood economic situation and perceptions of the
importance of employment benefits subjects and public
understanding subjects in a police training curriculum.
However, the relative importance of the two training
subjects seems sufficiently related to perceived childhood

economic situation to warrant further study.

CHAPTER V

SUMMARY AND IMPLICATIONS

Throughout this study the perceptions of the im-
portance of training topics focused on employment benefits
and on public understanding have been examined among
police officers from a municipal police department.
Following a direct comparison of police perceptions of
the importance of these two training tOpics, several
characteristics were examined to further explain these
perceptions.

In the test of Hypothesis 1, a significant difference
was found between police perceptions of the importance
of employment benefits subjects and their perceptions of
the importance of public understanding subjects. Employ-
ment benefits subjects were rather consistently considered
more important than public understanding subjects. However,
as was noted in CHAPTER IV, this difference is probably
more significant than meaningful. Mean scores could range
from four to twenty. The mean scores on the two subjects
were 8.014 and 8.838, indicating that perceptions of both
were positive as well as that they were separated by less
than one point.

Achievement of significance with such a small differerce

45

was facilitated by three conditions. First, the varia-

bility of response on each subject was relatively small:
second, the number of observations was quite large: and

third, the preference for employment benefits subjects,

while small, was very consistent.

Both Hypotheses 2 and 3 were rejected. No signi-
ficant relationships were found between perceived importance
of the two training subjects and either education or
experience. In the case of educational level, the data
tended to follow the direction suggested in the hypothesis
but with neither sufficient consistency nor magnitude to
achieve significance. Across the levels of experience,
however, the data did not follow any perceivable direction.
Experience appears to be totally unrelated to the two
dependent variables.

The perceived importance of the two training subject
areas was then examined with respect to age, rank, and
childhood economic situation. Although no hypotheses were
developed with respect to these variables, several conclusions
may be drawn.

A significant relationship exists between age and
the police perceptions. Across all age groups, police
perceived employment benefits subjects to be more important

than public understanding topics. However, the perceptions

46
differ significantly by age group, due primarily to increases
in perceived importance of public understanding subjects
with increases in age. Perceived importance of employment
benefits subjects remained relatively stable across age
groups.

The perceptions also differed significantly on the
basis of rank. At the patrolman level, employment bene-
fits were seen as more important, but at the highest rank
group (Lt. and above) public understanding subjects were
more important. It should be noted that both t0pics were
perceived more important within the highest rank group than
within any other rank. Further, the within group varia-
bility was least in the highest group. From this informa-
tion, it is apparent that the upper ranks are both more
homogeneous and more positive in their perceptions of
public understanding subjects than lower ranks.

No significant relationships were found between
perceptions of the training subjects and perceived childhood
economic situation. The achievement of significance was
seemingly hampered by the diSparities in variability. For
example, among the group who perceived their childhood
economic situation to be above average, the standard de-
viation of the subjects'perceptions of public understanding

subjects was nearly double that of employment benefits.

47
Although significance was not reached, the data suggest
some interesting interpretation. Perceived importance of
employment benefits subjects seems directly related with
childhood economic situation. Perceived importance was
highest in the above average group. On the other hand,
public understanding subjects were perceived most
important by the average group. Both above average and
below average saw public understanding subjects as less
important than the average group did.

The validity and generalizability of these results,
however, are limited in some important ways. It appears
that the assumption of equality of variance was violated,
and that this violation did effect the results. It is
quite possible that if the cell variances had been equal
the differences between ranks may not have been significant,
and that a significant difference may have been found for
childhood economic situation.

Several factors exist in this study which detract
from the generalizability of the findings. The sample can
be considered to be only a sample of the Dayton Police
Department. Even though it was not randomly selected,
the large percentage of Dayton Police Officers participating
in the study and the lack of any apparent systematic

sample bias increase the likelihood that the sample was

48
representative of the Dayton Police. Yet, any general-
izations beyond the Dayton Police must be very tentative.
Any population to which these findings may be generalized
must resemble very closely the characteristics of the
Dayton Police Department, police officers, and community.

Further, the relatively small differences detected
in this study, although statistically significant, may
not possess sufficient meaning to warrant any strong
generalizations. Again, any generalizations must be made
tentatively.

Several ideas are suggested by this study. It
appears that among police officers in a community similar
to Dayton, Ohio, employment benefits subjects and public
understanding subjects are both perceived to be important
to police training. Of the two, the greater importance is
given to employment benefits subjects. Both subjects
are perceived to be very important by the upper ranks of
the department, although the differences among ranks are
much greater for public understanding subjects than
employment benefits subjects.

More Specific statements are not warranted by
this study. Further study of these relationships should
be conducted using a research design which allows the

detection only of differences that are meaningful and

49
which enables the researcher to analyse the interactions
between several of the independent variables. With a
crossed and balanced design, it would be possible to
examine all of the combinations of educational level,
experience, and childhood economic situation, for example,
to determine the ways in which these variables interact
with each other in the development of perceptions.

Future study should be conducted not only to
examine police perceptions of a variety of potential
training topics, but should attempt also to compare the
perceptions of police practitioners with the perceptions
of police scholars, etc. Successful implementation of
new or unique training ideas would be much more likely
if the perceptions of police personnel towards those ideas
were both known and considered.

Finally, it should be suggested that study of
police perceptions will need ultimately to be extended
to study of police behavior as well. It is becoming
increasingly apparent that perceptions or attitudes vary
greatly in efficiency as predictors of behavior. Possibly,
further study of perceptions could be of greatest worth
if regarded as supplementary to a more direct study of

behavior.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
A. BOOKS

Backstrom, Charles H. and Gerald D. Hursh. ~Surve
Research. Northwestern University Press, 19 3.

Bordua, David J. (ed.). The Police: Six Sociological
Essays. New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.

Cox, D. R. Pigppipg 91 Ex er'm nts. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1958.

Hays, William L. Statistics. New York: Holt, Rinehart
and Winston, 19 3.

Myers, Jerome L. Fupdamentals pf Ex er’ment Dgsig .
Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 196 .

Oppenheim, A. N. Questionnaire Desigp apd Attitude
Measurement. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1966.

Selltiz, Claire, Marie Jahoda, Morton Deutsch, and
Stuart W. Cook. Research Methods ip Social Relations.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1959.

B. PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNMENT
OR OTHER ORGANIZATIONS

The President's Commission on Law Enforcement and
Administration of Justice. Task Force Repopt:
2p; Police. Washi ton D.C.: Government
Printing Office, 19 7.

Watson, Nelson and James Sterling. Police and Their
Opinions. International Association of Chiefs
of Police, 1969.

51
C. PERIODICALS

Cornfield, J. and J. W. Tukey. "Average Values of Mean

Squares in Factorials," Appais Q; Mathematicai
Statist'cs, 27, pp. 907-49.

Greenhouse, Samuel w. and Seymour Geisser. "On Methods

in the Analysis of Profile Data," Ps chometrika,
24 (June, 1959), pp. 95-112.

Olson, Bruce. "The City Policeman: Inner--or Other--

Directed?" Pnblic Pgrsonnel Rev'ew, April, 1970,
pp. 102-107.

D. UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS

Keisler, Charles A. "Individual Differences in Making

Perceptual Inferences." Unpublished Master's
thesis, Michigan State University, 1960.

McNamara, John H. ”A Review of the 1970 State Comprehensive

Plans and Their Implications for the Future of Criminal
Justice Education and Planning." Paper submitted to
Law Enforcement Assistance Administration, U.S.
Department of Justice, 1971.

. "Role-Learning for Police Recruits: Some
Problems in the Process of Preparation for the
Uncertainties of Police Work.” Unpublished Ph. D.
dissertation, The University of California, Los
Angeles, 1967.

APPENDIX

STATEMENT OF PURPOSE

This questionnaire is designed to get your perceptions
of training needs and relevant control factors. We hope this
will give us information about differences among various groups
of officers which would dictate differences in training needs.
We expect to use this information to improve our training and
make it more relevant to you.

Ge era Instructio 8

Specific instructions will be given before each of the
four sections in this questionnaire. However, it is important
that each response you make reflects ypur personal opinion,
knowledge, or feeling regardless of what you believe other
pe0p1e think.

Section I, The following are courses which might be
offered in a police training program, although many are not
offered at the present time. Forgetting the curriculum you
are familiar with, how important do you believe each of the
follow courses would be to ou ersonall ? Forget about
what others think, be an individual and express your own
feelings.

Circle 1 if you feel the course is absolutely essential.

Circle 2 if you feel the course is important but not
essential.

Circle 3 if you feel the course is desirable but not
important.

Circle 4 if you feel the course is undesirable but could
be offered.

Circle 5 if you feel the course is completely irrelevant

and should not be included.
W M
1. The role of the supervisor . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
2. Departmental rules and regulations . . . 1 2 3 4 5

3. How to "Win Friends and Influence
People" 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o I 1 2 3 L” 5

4. Handling of intoxicated, mentally
ill persons, and delinquents . . . . 1

5. Promotion of morale in the department . 1

6. Expertise in report writing . . . . . . 1

NNNN
muwu
c- 4r -: c-
\n \h 0: kn

7. Functions of the F.O.P.. . . . . . . . . 1

10.
11.

12.

13.

14.

15.
16.

17.
18.
19.

20.
21.
22.

230

24.

25.
26.

27.

Money escort and transfer . . . . . .

Community reSpect for their local
police . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Criminal law I O O O O O O O O O I 0

Analysis and investigation of
subversive activities . . . . . . . .

Handling sick and injured persons
(firSt aid) 0 0 O O O O O O O O O 0

Rules of evidence, arrest, search
and seizure . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Police Traffic Supervision (direction,
acc. investigation, law enforcement).

Advantages of Capitalism . . . . . .

Function of the Supreme Court in the
area of law making and review . . . .

How to shoot accurately . . . . . . .
The need for police in our society .

Rehabilitation of alcoholics, drug
addicts, and the mentally ill . . . .

Prevention of riots . . . . . . . . .
Crime scene investigation techniques.
Self-defense and arrest techniques. .

Functions and techniques of
collective bargaining . . . . . . . .

Letter writing. . . . . . . . . . . .
The behavior of southern migrants . .

How to assist merchant's to improve
the security of their business. . . .

Nuisance complaints--barking dogs,
liquor law violation, bats in
basement . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

N

NNNN

N

UUUU U

U

c-

c— 4: -¢ :-

U'IUIU'tU'K

U1

28.

29.
30.

31.
32.

33.
34.

35.
36.
37.
38.
39.

40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.

-3-
The importance of law enforce-

ment in mOdern BOCietyo o o o o o o 0
When to use your firearm. . . . . . .

Social Welfare Department duties
and services. . . . . . . . . . . . .

Politics and law enforcement . . . .

Firearms registration and control
laws and their enforcement . . . . .

Studying for college courses . . . .

How to command reapect from the
people you encounter . . . . . . . .

Crime prevention . . . ... . . . . .
Civil Service regulations . . . . . .
Patrol and pursuit driving . . . . .
Inspecting automobiles for safety . .

Handling sick, injured, dangerous
animals I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I

Civil defense and disaster relief . .
Improving race relations . . . . . .
First aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Understanding subversive activities .
Causes of crime . ... . . . . . . . .
Mob psychology. . . . . . . . ... . .
Customs and habits of black people .
Judo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Understanding your retirement system

The problems of the poor . . . . . .

...

H F5 :-

N

NNNNN

NNNNNNNNNNN

U

UUUWW

uwwuuwuuwuu

s— 4: .p c- c:

c- {r .t c- 4r 4: .c c- c: 4: .:

UIUI

U‘

U'tknknant

mmmmmmmmmmm

Essential _.9__eEx incl

50. How to become a police specialist
(fingerprints, polygraph, organization . 1 2 3 4 ,5

51. Understanding the behavior of your
fellow officers. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

52. Police community relations . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
53. Ways and means to promote the passage

of good legislation in the area of

law enforcement. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

54. Courtroom procedure and testifying
(adult and juvenile) . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

55. Study of Communism, Revolutionary Left,
Militant Blacks, and student unrest. . . 1 2 3 4 5

56. Review of employee benefits . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

57. How to command respect from
subordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

58. How police policy is developed . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5

59. How to Speak in public and get your
ViewsacrOSSoooo0000000000123,45

60. The role of the police in protection

of life and property . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
61. Firearms safety. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
62. Crowd and riot control . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
63. Handling of domestic disputes . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
64. Professionalism in law enforcement . . . 1 2 3 4 5
65. Employee rights. . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
66. The role of the police in a democratic

society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 5

67. Race relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 3 4 5
68. How police officers can prevent crime . 1 2 3 4 5

69. Ways and means to Oppose laws that
are unconstitutional or unenforceable. . 1 2 3 4 5

70.

71.
72.
73-
74.

75.
76.
77.
78.
79.
80.
81.

82.
83.
84.
85.
86.
87.
88.
89.
90.

-5-

The role of the police in keeping
thepeace...............

Understanding southern migrants . . .
Handling your family and private life
The meaning of violence ... . . . ...

Professional behavior for the police
Officer-00000000000000

How to conduct a crime scene search .
Major citizen complaints about police
Interviewing techniques . . . . . . .
Report writing . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laws of arrest . . . . . . . . . . . .
How to pass promotional exams . . . .

The politics of improving police
benefit8000000000000000

TranSporting sick and injured persons
Checking buildings . . . . . . . . . .
Sunday closing laws . . . . . . . . .
How to figure your income taxes . . .
Disciplining children . . . . . . . .
Handling bank robberies . . . . . . .
Con games . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The psychology of deviates . . . . . .

Prisoner problems . . . . . . . . . .

ho to a: to

NNNNNNN

NNNNNNNNNN

WUUU

UUWUUUU

uuuwuuuuww

c— 4r -: :-

kirk-P???”

-p c- 4: .t c- 4: .p c- 4r -:

w

MUlU'tU'l

UtU'tUtvatant

mmmmummmmu

-6-
Section 11, Answer the following as accurately as

you possibly can.

1.

How many training programs outside the department has
the police department sent you to?

0

 

l or 2
3 or 4
5 or 6

7 or more

 

For the type of job you now hold, do you fee; your
training has been: ”“‘”’ '

 

excessive but related to your duties
excessive and unrelated to your duties

adequate and useful to you

insufficient and unrelated to your duties

insufficient but related to your duties

 

Listithe_3hree,most valuable courses you have had in the
police academy:

 

 

 

List the three most worthless courses you have had in
the police academy:

 

 

 

-7-

5. If you could have any course you want, describe the
copgse which you believe would be most helpful to you
in your present assignment.

 

 

 

6. Read each of the following statements and indicate after
it whether you agree with it, disagree with it, or have
no opinion.

Agpge Disagree No opinion

A. The recruit training
program places too much
emphasis on one way of
doing the job.

B. The recruit training
program is too theoritical.

C. The recruit training
program is too structured.

D. The older officers teach
new recruits more about the
use of discretion when
dealing with a law breaker
than he learns about it in
the academy.

E. The new recruit can learn
more about how to do the
right thing from the aca-
demy than from on the job
training.

F. It is important for a
police officer to know how
laws are made.

 

G. The recruit training really
helps new policement to
understand people.

 

H. Most citizens believe that
Dayton Police Officers are
well trained.

-8-

WWW

I. Minority group citizens
believe that Dayton
Police Officers are
well trained.

J. Dayton Police Super-
visors are adequately
trained.

K. Supervisory skills are
best taught in the
classroom.

 

L. Supervisors would do a
better job if they had
a college degree.

M. Police training should
make it easier for an
officer to decide if a
person is right or
wrong.

 

N. Police training should
teach a person to be
suspicious of pe0ple
who he deals with.

0. Police training helps
you to identify crimi-
nals by their
appearance.

P. Police training im-
proved your ability
to tolerate people who
do not like you.

 

Q. Police officers should
be permitted to attend
college courses while
on duty.

Sgction III. Which of the following do you favor
or believe in?
Circle "yes“ or "no." If absolutely uncertain, circle "?“
There are no right or wrong answers: do not discuss: just
give your first reaction. Answer all items.

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ll.
12.
l3.
14.
15.
l6.
l7.
l8.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

death penalty
evolution theory
school uniforms

striptease shows

Sabbath observance

beatniks
patriotism
modern art
self-denial
working mothers
horosCOpes
birth control
military drill
co-education
Divine Law
socialism
white superiority
cousin marriage
moral training
suicide

chaperones

legalized abortion

empire-building
student pranks
licensing laws
computer music

chastity

yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes

yes

'O-O'OQ‘O'OQND'ON)’0'0-0'0'000N7Q-000N390N3'0'0'0'0

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

28.
29.
30.
31.

32.

33.

34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

46.
47.
48.
49.
50.

fluoridation
state's rights
women judges

conventional
clothing

teenage drivers

strict segregation

nudist camps
church authority
disarmament
censorship
white lies
spanking
mixed marriage
strict rules
jazz
straitjackets
casual living

required Latin
in school

divorce

inborn conscience
Black Power

Bible truth

pajama parties

yes
yes
yes

yes

yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes
yes

yes

yes
yes
yes
yes

yes

Q-O-IQQQ'é'O-‘D'QNDQd-O «Dd-‘3“)

20°¢°0°0~3

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

no

' 7723-1553: 37

 

5.

-10-
§gpiipp_i!i General Information. Answer all questions.

Approximate age: ‘___21-25,‘___26-30,.___3l-35, ___36-40,
___46-50, ___51 and above.

Height (compare to other policement): ___Short, ___Average,

___Tall.

When you first became a Dayton Police Officer, you

received a pay increase of over a $1000 a year.

received a pay increase of between $10 and $1000 a year.

received about the same pay as your previous job paid.

took a pay cut of between 10$ and $1000 a year.

took a pay cut of between $1000 and $5000 a year

took a pay cut of over $5000 a year.

How long have you been a policeman (total regardless of the
number of organizations you have been employed by):

‘___ less than 3 years.
3 to 6 years.

7 to 9 years.
10 to 12 years.
12 to 16 years.
____above 16 years.
What is your present rank?

.___ Patrolman ___ Sergeant ___ Lt..___ Capt. or above

Civilian

6.

1‘0"?

-11-

How would you characterize your childhood economic
situation:

Poverty conditions--among the poorest families in
the state.

A little poorer than the average family in the state.

About average for families in the state.
A little above the average family in the state.
Wealthy--we had plenty of money in the bank.

If you could not be a police officer, what career do you
feel would give you the most pleasure?

 

What is the highest level of formal education you have
completed?

below high school

high school

one year of college

two years of college

three years of college
four years of college

over four years of college

Approximately how many times do you use force to effect
an arrest in the average month?

less than one ___ 7 to 9
l to 3 Above 9
. 4 to 6 Not applicable

Marital status? Married Divorced Single

-12-

Which of the following describe your father? Circle ”yes”
or "no." If uncertain, circle ”?”.

A. American Indian yes ? no
B. Afro-American yes ? no
C. Mexican American yes ? no
D. Eur0pean American yes ? no
E. Puerto Rican American yes ? no
F. Oriental American yes ? no
G. Middle Eastern American yes ? no
H. Born in Ohio yes ? no
I. Born in Dayton Area yes ? no
J. Born in Appalachia South of Ohio yes ? no
K. Foreign birth place yes ? no
L. Born West of the Mississippi yes ? no
M. Very religious yes ? no
N. Rural yes ? no

Answer this guestion only if you are a Sergeant or Patrolman.

Where are you presently assigned?

___ Field patrol

Traffic enforcement or accident investigation
Tactical patrol

Criminal investigation

Staff services

Administrative services (planning, community relations,
inspections)

Other

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