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' - ' 355v emuans “ |\‘\—> /._—:_\1 A 3‘9"" . -,,-':3 0 1992 p INCR‘ TO] ABSTRACT INCREASING AWARENESS: AN ACTION APPROACH TO MOTIVATION AND ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS AT UNIVERSITY By Raymond Penney During Spring term, 1971, two sections of Psychology 107, an orientation course at MSU for ”high risk" students, were organized according to a model based on the self-actualization theory of motivation. This innovative approach focused on increas- ing awareness by requiring students to become researchers with themselves as subjects. Twenty -nine of the forty students involved were still registered the following Fall term when data were gathered on academic adjustment and motivation for Spring and Fall terms (as measured by GPA), personal adjustment (as measured by CUES), and student satisfaction with the course. Study I compared this group with (a) a stratified random sample of students regis- tered in other Psychology 107 sections and (b) a university -wide control grou previous ter program by . (X = 53) of s gPOUp, Stu Program at those of the tive approa improvem. WIS effect ment. Th Raymond Penney control group; the groups were stratified on sex, class level, and previous term' 3 GPA. A second study evaluated the Psychology 107 program by comparing the GPA' s (N = 139) and CUES scores (N = 52) of students who took Psychology 107 with those of a control group. Students were extremely satisfied with the Psychology 107 program and during Spring term their GPA' s were higher than those of the control group. Those students involved in the innova- tive approach were particularly satisfied and showed marked improvement in GPA. During the following Fall term, however, this effect vanished. No difference was found in personal adjust- ment. The potential of a course which has a personal approach ‘ and focuses on increasing awareness is indicated; recommendations for a more individualistic orientation program are presented. /. // /‘ , /‘ // Approved: a! If 7 r ' '14“ .41..” Date: 3/77/77/ I l INCR TO INCREASING AWARENESS: AN ACTION APPROACH TO MOTIVATION AND ADJUSTMENT PROBLEMS AT UNIVERSITY By Raymond Penney A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Psychology 1972 To Becky - - who strives to expand her awareness Knowledge Of oneself is indeed the greatest of human adventures, the one of which all outward adventures are only the symbols. Benoit (1955) ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to thank Andy Barclay, Joel Aronoff, and Gary Stollak for reading and evaluating the manuscript. Andy also provided valuable assistance in analyzing the data. Research funds for this project were kindly supplied by the Educational Development Program at Michigan State University. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES . CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION Response to the Problem Psychological Conceptions of MotivatiOn The Tension -Reduction Model The Self -Actualization Model Motivation and Change Action Research The Orientation Program at MSU Students as Researchers Measuring the Effectiveness of Orientation Programs . Motivation Adjustment Student Satisfaction Research Purpose and Hypotheses II. METHODS . A New Orientation Program . Study I Design Subjects Procedure Analysis Techniques Study II Page . vii N 12 16 18 20 24 26 26 28 34 CHAPTER UL HZ REFEREE CHAPTER III. RESULTS Grade -Point -Average . Study I Study 11 College and University Environment Scales Study I Study 11 Student Satisfaction . . A Classification System Determination of Significant Categories Group Differences in Response Summary of Student Evaluation Results IV. DISCUSSION . REFERENCES APPENDIX A. COURSE OUTLINE AND STUDENT QUESTION- NAIRE FOR INNOVATIVE ORIENTATION MODEL . B. OUTLINE OF TYPICAL PSYCHOLOGY 107 COURSE vi Page 35 35 42 46 58 65 71 .113 Table 10, 11. 12. Klea: Sprh Alult: Grad Smnn Table 10. 11. 12. LIST OF TABLE S Mean Grade -Point-Averages for Study 1: Spring, 1971. . . . . . . Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study 1: Grade -Point-Averages, Spring, 1971 . . . Summary of Newman ~Keuls Test for Study I: Grade —Point-Averages, Spring, 1971 . Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study I: Grade -Point Averages, Fall, 1971 . Mean Grade —Point-Averages for Study 11: Spring, 1971 . . . . . Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study II: Grade -Point-Averages, Spring, 1971 . Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study 11: Grade -Point—Averages, Fall, 1971 . Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study 1: CUES Data Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study II: CUES Data Percentile Equivalents of CUES Scores . Student Evaluation Responses Summary of Chi Square Tests for Group Differences vii Page 36 37 37 38 40 40 42 43 45 46 . 55 .56 CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Student failure is an integral part of the life of any educational institution. At the university level it exists in spite of selection proce- dures which insure that a student has sufficient ability to succeed. Most universities subject entering freshmen to a battery of intelligence and aptitude tests designed to predict achievement; nevertheless, the corre- lation between ability and actual academic success is invariably low. To account for this apparent discrepancy, educators usually postulate the concept of motivation (Frymier, 1970). Motivation explains that aspect of an organism which propels it to behave; in addition, it gives direction and intensity to the behavior. Motivation is thus distin- guished from ability in that it refers to what a person wants to do rather than what he can do. From this perspective a student fails not because he lacks ability, but because he has insufficient desire to succeed. Faulty motivation is inevitably associated with difficulties in adjusting to the demands of university life. The constant pres - sure to keep up with class assignments and to achieve good grades is probably a new experience for most students. It is particularly acute for those with inadequate background preparation and poor study habits. Personal issues may further aggravate this difficulty: a student may have a high fear of failure, he may lack long range goals and see his work as irrelevant; he may have negative reasons for attending university (e. g. , to leave home, to fulfill family expectations, to meet the right people, to get a better job). Adjustment problems unique to his age group are also a major concern for many students. Most university students are at what Erikson (1963) calls the adolescent or young adult stages of development. The search for a personal ideological view or identity, which characterizes the crisis of the adolescent stage, seems par- ticularly important now that the individual has established a physical independence from his parents. Because of the close association with others his own age, the problems of friendship, love, and sexual intimacy, which characterize the young adult stage, may be accentuated. Co-ordinating study and these pressing issues of personal growth constitute an essential dilemma for most students; necessarily intellectual pursuits often take second place. Response to the Problem The usual administrative response to motivation and adjust- ment difficulties has been to implement orientation programs for ”high risk" students. The typical structure focuses on study skills, but may include such. topics as college regulations and choice of a major (Gerber, 1970). Other program directors have been more ambitious: Briggs, Tosi, and Morley (1971) taught a study technique based on Robinson' 5 SQBR method, but in addition, used a condition- ing procedure which rewarded various stages in the acquisition of the new technique and reduced the adversive properties of the study situation. Many universities report an improvement in grades as a result of such programs (Di Lorenzo, 1964; Brown, 1964; Blake, 1955). This approach, however, is less successful than it could be. Like most of today' 3 education, orientation programs are geared to the past, that is, to the development of an individual with a standardized body of knowledge. The student' 3 problem is seen as one of inadequate academic adjustment and an attempt is made to improve his study skills; issues concerning his personal growth and adjustment are ignored. This neglect of the total person arises from a failure to consider some current developments in motivation theory. Psy— chologists working from the humanistic perspective suggest that behavior change which is sparked by internal contingencies may be more enduring than change created by external pressures. Maslow (1968), for example, distinguishes between extrinsic and intrinsic learning: the former is impersonal, it comes from the outside, and someone else decides what is important; the latter is learning about the self, learning to be a person. Students need more educa- tion of an intrinsic nature which will aspire "to help a person find out what' 3 already in him rather than to reinforce him or shape or teach him into a prearranged form, which someone else has decided upon in advance, a priori. " Psychological Conceptions of Motivation Two general theoretical models of motivation can be dis- tinguished in psychology. The more traditional one postulates some form of organismic equilibrium: an organism prefers a state of internal balance; if this is disrupted, a tension is created which the organism attempts to reduce. This is the tension —reduction model; it focuses on only part of an organism' s behavior. A more recent development in humanistic psychology, the self—actualization model, is concerned with the total person and the conditions neces- sary for a satisfactory life. The Tension— Reduction Model Some type of tension reduction is central. to most general theoretical perspectives in psychology. Psychoanalytic theory (Freud, 1952), instinct theory (Tinbergen, 1951), cognitive theories (Lewin, 1935; Festinger, 1957), and traditional learning theory (Hull, 1952) are similar in this respect. The Freudian psychoanalytic theory postulates that an organism contains a finite amount of energy which originates in the id. When needs are unsatisfied, tension builds up and energy increases. The id attempts to remove the tension and some of the energy gets discharged in the form of a mental image (i. e. , pri- mary process). In this way the energy is kept within tolerance limits. Survival of the organism is accomplished by the emergence of the ego which can distinguish between an image and reality. It postpones immediate energy discharge until an appropriate tension- reducing Object is encountered in the environment (i. e. , secondary process). Internal bodily stimulation then is the source of an indi- vidual' s instincts; the energy relevant to a given instinct has a particular force or impetus; the instinct is directed or aimed towards some object which removes the internal stimulation and discharges the energy. The instinct conception which most directly influences con- temporary research comes from the ethologists (Lorenz, 1965; Tinbergen, 1951). A number of major instincts are identified; each of these includes a number of subinstincts which control particular behaviors. The reproductive instinct Of the male stickleback, for example, is divided into fighting, nest building, mating, and care of Offspring; in turn, each of these controls specific motor responses. Each activity has its own neurological coordinating center where energy relative to a specific response accumulates. When this energy reaches a certain threshold, appropriate stimuli or cues can trigger an innate releasing mechanism (IRM) which is associated with each center. The resulting behavior discharges or releases the energy and the organism returns to a state of relative equilib rium. The most influential cognitive theories are those proposed by Lewin (1935) and Festinger (1957). Basic to Lewin' s conception is the concept of life space which consists of the person and his psychological environment (1. e. , all the potential psychological factors which influence behavior), Both the person and the psycho- logical environment are divided into regions which 'are separated by boundaries. An organism prefers a state of balance between these regions. When this harmony is disrupted, however, as when a need is aroused, an emotional, psychological state of tension occurs which gives environmental objects a positive or negative valence. Action or locomotion in relation to this goal object even- tually discharges the energy and the organism returns to a state of equ ilib rium. Although Festinger' s theory is narrower in scope than Levin' s, a similar tension -reduction conception is proposed. Cognitions, which are simply bits of information about oneself or the environment, influence behavior. Feedback from this behavior, however, produces new cognitions which may be consonant (i. e. , consistent) or dissonant (i. e. , inconsistent) with the old. If they are dissonant, tension arises which the organism tries to reduce by either altering his cognitions or his behavior. Learning theories are generally based on a tension- reduction model of motivation. The central concept is that of drive, which was introduced by Woodworth (1918) to account for that energy within an organism which impels activity. A physio- logical basis is provided by Cannon' 3 (1932) concept of homeostasis-- the tendency of the body to maintain balance in internal physiological conditions. When this balance is interrupted, the organism attempts to correct it by internal mechanisms or regulatory behavior (1. e. , .motives). Hull' 3 learning theory (1952) has been the most influential: the reaction potential of an organism (SE!) is determined by habit strength (SHr), generalized drive (D), and the incentive value of the reward (K). These factors interact to pro- duce-behavior (SEr = er X D X K). Drive is essential: it instigates and directs behavior; for learning to occur, it must be reduced by reward or reinforcement. In spite of their popularity, the tension -reduction models have been severely criticized (White, 1959). This is especially true for the variation used by the learning theorists. Many experi- mental observations argue against drive reduction--exploratory behavior (Berlyne, 1958), curiosity (Dember and Earl, 1957), manipulatory behavior (Harlow, Harlow, and Meyer, 1950), brain stimulation effects (Olds and Milner, 1954). Sexual behavior does not seem to fit: such behavior proceeds relatively independently of hormonal level (Beach, 1956); tension increments as well as tension reduction have a rewarding effect (Sheffield, Wulff and Backer, 1951). The implied mechanical view of human behavior is also considered offensive. Revisions to the tension -reduction models have generally been towards a more cognitive approach, towards a recognition of the expectations and anticipations of the organism. Because of experimental demonstrations like the existence of latent learning (Tolrnan and Honzik, 1930),. Hull' 3 basic learning theory has been modified and a greater emphasis placed on incentive motivation (Hull, 1952; Spence, 1960): a fractional anticipatory goal response (rg) is postulated to account for the apparent reinforcing quality of environmental stimuli. In essence this amounts to the introduction of a cognitive concept which parallels Tolman' s purposive behaviorism (1959). Other theories have put more emphasis on an organism' s anticipations. According to McClelland (1955), motivation consists of learned expectations that certain stimuli will arouse pleasure or pain. Depending on an organism' s adapta- tion to these stimuli, a specific, measurable. amount of approach or avoidance behavior occurs. Each of these modifications places more emphasis on the individual interacting with his environment. The Self-Actualization Model The self-actualization or growth model is much broader in scope than the traditional theories. Originating in the existentialism of such philosophers as Kierkegaard, Nietzsche,- Heidegger, and Sartre, it is concerned with the whole individual and his attempt to achieve a meaningful life through his personal, subjective experience. Man is innately good and when properly motivated strives to enhance his self (Rogers, 1961) or to become what he potentially is (Maslow, 1970). In the terms of various writers, such a person is self- actualized (Maslow, 1970), is a fully functioning person (Rogers, 1961), has a productive orientation (Fromm, 1955), or is in a process of creative becoming (Allport, 1955). In contrast to the tension -reduction model which postulates that an individual' s behavior is conservative and serves to maintain 10 a state of equilibrium, the self-actualization model sees behavior as being directed towards a development of potential, as growth oriented. In common with all men, an individual has some deficiency needs (e. g. , physiological, safety, love and belonging- ness, esteem) which must be satisfied. In addition, however, he possesses idiosyncriatic growth needs towards his own development; behavior based on these is not as predictable. When a person is fully functioning, impulses are welcomed rather than rejected. Grafitication does not decrease motivation as the tension -reducing model would predict: it heightens the desire. Motivation and Change All motivation theories assume the existence of some representation of inherited potentials and past experience within the individual. This entity may be labeled (e. g. , habit, attitude, sentiment, trait) or it may simply be taken for granted. In any case, the «construct refers to the relatively constant, enduring aspect of personality. This internal representation may be modified in two ways: (a) by external stimuli from the environment and (b) by internal stimulation from an individual' 3 own awareness of himself. The tension -reduction model of motivation focuses on the former. 11 Working from this model, to change behavior, a change agent attempts to alter the external stimulation impinging on the individual. Thus, to correct adjustment problems, he uses direct attempts to achieve insight (e. g. , psychoanalysis) or he changes a person' 3 habits (e. g. , behavior therapy). If the problem is one of academic adjustment, the change agent can teach the individual new study skills. The self -actualization model is more concerned wifli the second means by which a person' s inner nature may be modified; that is, by impulses arising from an individual' 3 self-awareness. Thus, to change behavior, an agent attempts to expand an individu- al' 3 awareness, to help him come closer in touchwith his own experiencing. This is essentially the method used in non -directive approaches to adjustment problems (Rogers, 1961). It is also the basis for change in encounter groups: their potency lies not in teaching empathy or new interacting skills, but in sparking a greater awareness of oneself. As Lewin stated in his studies of prejudice, "No amount of telling people what to do could compare with having them 'discover' the same information for themselves. " (Howard, 1970). With this latter approach the change agent does not attempt to produce a specific result; the best he can do is to arrange the 12 situation such that it is not threatening and may stimulate the individual to confront his own conceptions. Given these conditions, change, if necessary, will naturally occur in the healthy person; if it does not, it would be useless (and immoral?) to impose it. This point of view is echoed in Stevens' words (1971): Rather than try to change, stop, or-avoid something that you don't like in yourself, it is much more effective to stay with it and become more deeply aware of it. You can' t improve on your own functioning; you can only interfere with it, distort it, and disguise it. When you really get in touch with your own experiencing, you will find that change takes place by itself, without your effort or planning. With full awareness you can let happen whatever wants to happen, with confidence that it will work out well. [p. 2] Action Research In contrast to the traditional separation of action and scientific research, in recent years a tremendous amount of interest has been generated by research programs which attempt to apply scientific methodology to significant social issues (Deutsch, 1969; Miller, 1969). Whether this. research is called community psychology (Adelson and Kalis, 1970), evaluation research (Suchman, 1967), or experimental social innovation (Fairweather, 1968), it has its roots in Lewin' 3 method (1947) of studying events by changing them and seeing what impact the change has. I'll. {IIIIIIIII III Ami-I ’Vm.'. " 13 This zest for innovation has been particularly felt in educational institutions (Miles, 1964). C. P. Snow (1961) has commented that: In a society like ours, academic patterns change more slowly than any others. In my lifetime, in England, they have crystallised rather than loosened. I use to think that it would be about as hard to change, say, the Oxford and Cambridge scholarship examination as to conduct a major revolution. I now believe that I was over-optimistic. In spite of this ingrained nature of educational institutions, there has been an increased demand for change (Johnson, 1969). Messich (1970) has emphasized the need for evaluational research in educa- tional programs; that is, "carrying out the research and the program simultaneously, by including within the administration of the program provision for collecting information relevant to its evaluation and improvement." Educators cannot afford to wait, he stresses, until research makes you sure of what you are doing. It has been noted that change on an individual level can occur in two ways: the external stimulation impinging on an indi- vidual can create change or change can be sparked from within when the individual becomes more aware of himself. From the point of View of a change agent interested in innovative solutions to social problems, action research programs may focus on either of these channels. Havelock (1971) summarized the existing innovative studies and classified them into three basic approaches: the social 14 interaction model; the research, development, and diffusion model; and the problem —solver model. The first two of these focus on themore external channel for change; the third, on the more internal channel. The social interaction model is concerned with the pre- sentation of an external stimulus to modify an individual. The diffusion process begins with the existence of some innovation which the innovator attempts to transmit to a chosen target popula- tion. An individual receiver proceeds through a series of stages before final adoption; for example, awareness of the message, interest or seeking of information about it, evaluation or mentally testing its influence, trial, and finally adoption (Rogers, 1962). The innovation then spreads throughout the population by social interaction or personal contact. The research, development, and diffusion model has essentially the same perspective; it adds to the former model, however, by providing a broader scope. The initial stage in the diffusion process consists of basic scientificresearch. Working from this information, an innovator develops a solution to a need he has perceived in society. An illustrative example of this model is that of Guba and Clark (1966); for them, planned change pro- ceeds through four stages: (a) basic research, (b) the development 15 of a solution to a problem based on this research, (c) the diffusion of the solution to a target population, and (d) the adoption and eventual institutionalization of this innovation. As with the social interaction model, however, individual change is attempted by presenting external information. Model three, the problem -solver model, adds a unique perspective which has its roots in theself-actualization view of human behavior. The focus is not on the activities of a message sender, but on the receiver and thechange which he desires. A typical example is that of Lippitt, Watson and Westley (1958). The change process begins with a client' s perceived awareness of some difficulty, a desired change, and a desire for outside help to effect that change. The change agent works to establish a change relation- ship with the client, helps him diagnose the problem, examine alternative routes and goals, and transform intentions into change efforts. Actual change is then the result of expanded awareness. In an attempt to synthesize these three models, Havelock (1971) draws heavily on the problem -solver model. The resulting linkage model stresses the two ~way interaction between user and resource systems: each must learn to appreciate the other' 3 needs and work to create collaborative, trusting relations. A particular image of man emerges from this view: man is influenced by and at 16 times may appear to be a slave to his values, his needs, and situational forces; but in spite of this, the individual makes deci— sions such that his choices are more rational than often supposed. Other theorists have presented similar views. Chin and Benne (1961) in their "normative -re -educative" strategy for effect- ing change emphasize the person and his attempt to improve him- self. A solution is not assumed to consist of simply more technical knowledge, but is based on a collaborative relationship between the client and change agent. Similarly Schein (1961), in describing various mechanisms for change, suggests that the ~more enduring approach is based on positive rather than defensive identification: the target is free to leave the situation and feels trust for the change agent, rather than being captive and feeling helpless; the agent relates as a person, not as a knowledge dispenser; the outcome is spontaneous, rather than ritualized behavior. The Orientation Program at MSU The problem of student failure has been traced to difficulties in motivation and adjustment. These difficulties stem from both academic concerns and personal problems of the student. At an institutional level the usual response to student failure has been to implement study skills programs. These programs are less 17 successful than they could be because they neglect the whole person, especially his more personal difficulties, and they fail to consider some of the advances in motivation theory. The self - actualization model of motivation focuses on the whole individual and his attempt to grow. It suggests that change can occur by increasing an individual' 3 awareness as well asby direct attempts to manipulate him. Action research programs may focus on either of these channels for change: externally presenting information or attempting to expand awareness which in itself may then spark change. The existing orientation program at Michigan State Uni- versity generally attempts to create change by presenting new information. It consists of a course, Motivation and University Life, which-is administered by the psychology department. Psy- chology 107 was designed to help minority students and others with low grade -point -averages become better motivated and adjusted to university life. The course comprises a number of small sections of less than twenty -five students. Each section is taught by an independent instructor, usually a graduate assistant in the Depart- ment of Psychology. He is free to choose his own course content and method of instruction. Typically the instructor combines information on study skills and a personal approach to problems 18 relating to university regulations, personal difficulties, who to contact for help, etc. An outline of one such method is-given in Appendix B. 1 By emphasizing a more personal approach, the existing course pre- sents some improvement over those programs which focus almost exclusively on study skills. Nevertheless, it basically assumes that change occurs when an individual obtains new information. Students as Researchers Action programs which take advantage of the capacity of an individual to create change within himself are relatively rare, especially in educational situations. One such program has been implemented by Sanford (1969). Stressing the fact that research has consequences for-the subjects, he arranged a class at the Graduate Theological Union, University of California at Berkeley, such that the students studied other students by a series of interviews and later reported the results to them. All of his students reported that this was a great learning experience: Sanford concludes that they "not only acquiredsome knowledge and skills, but they became more aware of themselves at the same time that they gained under- standing of their research subjects.‘ But perhaps more important is theaimpact this process of self-analysis had on the interviewees; 1This course outline was kindly provided by Karen Duffy, a graduate student in psychology and axfellow -instructor in Psy- chology. 107. 19 they also reported feelings of belongingness and a greater awareness of themselves. In Sanford' 3 words, "Students saw their goals with new clarity, became aware of the lack of fit between these goals and what they were doing as students and, discovering that their hopes and dissatisfactions were widely shared, became prepared " The program clearly for group action to improve their education. showed that positive outcomes accrue from an increased awareness of oneself and others. This approach is distinguished by a unique conception of research, teaching, and social action. Students act as actual researchers with themselves as subjects; in this way research becomes a program of self-study. The teacher-is a resource per- son; his students learn by doing, by becoming involved. Because the'results of the research are reported to those who were studied, social action may be instigated; in Sanford' 3 study (1969) students began to work towards changing the institution to make it correspond to their expectations. The agent of change is. not an individual or team, but a process of inquiry. Stanford (1970) believes that this approach is also relevant to the study of university faculty and the American Psychological Association. A key finding which emerges from this research is that, from an individual perspective, the most potent form of knowledge 20 is an awareness of oneself and an understanding of the position of others. This conclusion provided the basic assumption for design- ing a new orientation program for "high risk" students at MSU. With this approach, change originates within the individual. Measuring the Effectiveness of Orientation Prpgrams Orientation programs like the Psychology 107 course at MSU are designed to help students with low grade -point-averages become better motivated and adjusted. The major criteria for determining the effectiveness of such programs must be concerned with their impact on these factors. Student opinion, however, is also important; an adequate evaluation must consider the students' satisfaction with the program. Motivation Academic motivation can be measured in a number of ways. West and Uhlenberg (1970) have outlined these as follows: (a) pro- duction measures (e. g. , grade epoint-average), (b) self —report instruments, (c) observer'ratings, (d) projective. tests, and (e) objective tests (e.g. , Junior‘Index of Motivation). Each of these presents its own unique problems and advantages. Since orientation programs are usually designed to improve a student' 5 grades, 21 prediction measures. like grade -point -average are most valuable in determining program effectiveness. In addition, GPA is unob- trusive, easily available, and has tremendous face validity: the relationship between motivation and good grades is generally accepted. A major difficulty with using GPA as a measure of motiva- tion relates to its reliability. Grades may not be an objective measure of a student' 8 achievement, but a highly subjective evalua- tion of performance. A wide range of intervening variables in addition to motivation may influence it. The most important of these is ability. This factor may be controlled, however, by partialling out the variance in GPA caused by ability differences or matching students on some measure of ability. Adjustment Arkoff (1968) suggests two possible meanings of college adjustment: (a) academic achievement and (b) personal growth. The first dimension may be defined in terms of such factors as ability, motivation, and study habits. Grade -point-average is per- haps the most objective measure of these concepts. Personal growth is more difficult to measure ; the most objective way is by a test such as the College and University Environment Scales (CUES) which was developed by Pace (1969). 22 CUES was designed to define the prevailing atmosphere of a university. Respondents indicate which of 100 items are charac- teristic of their university. There are five basic scales consisting of twenty items each and two subscales comprised of items appear- ing in the basic five. Pace (1969) describes these scalesas follows: Scale 1. Practicality: The 20 items that contribute to the score for this scale describe an environment characterized by enterprise, organization, material benefits, and social activi- ties. There are both vocational and collegiate emphases. As in many organized societies there is also some personal benefit and prestige to be obtained by operating in the system-~knowing the right people, being in the right clubs, becoming a leader, respecting one' s superiors, and so forth. The environment, though structured, is not repressive; it responds to entrepre- neurial activities and is generally characterized by good fun and school spirit. Scale 2. Community: The items in this scale describe a friendly, cohesive, group -oriented campus. There is a feeling of group welfare and group loyalty that encompasses the college as atwhole. The atmosphere is congenial; the campus is a community. Faculty members know the students, are interested in their problems, and go out of their way to be helpful. Stu- ' dent life is characterized by togetherness and sharing rather than by privacy and cool detachment. Scale 3. Awareness: This scale reflects a concern about, and emphasis upon, three sorts of meaning--personal, poetic, and political. An emphasis uponself—understanding, reflectiveness, and identity suggests the search for personal meaning. A wide range of opportunities for creative and appreciative relation- ships to painting, music, drama, poetry, sculpture, archi- tecture, and the. like suggests the search for poetic meaning. A concern about events around theworld, the welfare of man- kind, and the present and future condition of man suggests the search for political meaning and idealistic commitment. What seems to be evident in this sort of environment is a stress on awareness-~an awareness of self, of society, and of aesthetic 23 stimuli. Along with this push toward expansion, and perhaps as a necessary condition for-it, there is an encouragement of questioning and dissent and a tolerance of nonconformity and personal expressiveness. Scale 4. Propriety: These items describe an environment that is polite and considerate. Caution and thoughtfulness are evident. Group standards of decorum are important. There is an absence of demonstrative, assertive, argumentive, risk- taking activities. In general, the campus atmosphere is mannerly, considerate, proper, and conventional. Scale 5. Scholarship: The items in this scale describe a . campus characterized by intellectuality and scholastic disci- pline. The emphasis is on competitively high academic achievement and a serious interest in scholarship. The pursuit of knowledge and theories, scientific or philosophical, is car- ried onrigorously and vigorously. Intellectual speculation, an interest in ideas, knowledge for its own sake, and intellectual discipline--all these are characteristic of the environment. Scale 6. Campus Morale: The 22 items in. this scale indicate acceptance of social norms, groupcohesiveness, friendly assimilation into campus life, and, at the same time, a com- mitment to intellectual pursuits and freedom of expression. Intellectual goals are exemplified and widely shared in an atmosphere of personal and social relationships that are both supportive and spirited. Scale 7. Quality of Teaching and Faculty -student Relation- ships: This 11-item scale defines an atmosphere in which professors are perceived to be scholarly, to set high standards, .to be clear, adaptive, and flexible. At the. same time, this academic quality of teaching is infused with. warmth, interest, and helpfulness toward students. Personal adjustment can be determined from scores on each of these scales. 24 Student Satisfaction In a comparison of various methods of evaluating teacher effectiveness, Harvey and Barker (1970) concluded that gross subjective student evaluations are just as effective as elaborate rating scales. This suggests that students may accurately indicate their satisfaction or dissatisfaction with different orientation pro- grams by asking them an open —ended question. A coding system to categorize the answers can be developed afterwards. Research Purpose and Hypotheses In a discussion of evaluational research, Suchman (1967) states that "the evaluational researcher who approaches his task in the spirit of testing some theoretical proposition rather than a set of administrative practices will in the long run make the most significant contribution to program development." The present research attempts to evaluate the existing orientation program at MSU and test the effectiveness of a new approach based on the self- actualization model of .motivation and the problem -solver model of action research. In particular, it seeks to determine if individual change could be created by attempts to increase an individual' 3 awarene SS . 25 Hypothesis 1: Compared to students who do not complete an orientation program, students who take a course in motivation and adjustment become: (a) better motivated as measured by GPA, (b) better adjusted academically as measured by GPA, (c) better adjusted personally as indicated by CUES, and (d) are satisfied with the course. Hypothesis II: Motivation and adjustment course material has a greater impact when social conditions assist students in increasing their own awareness (i. e. , students become researchers upon themselves) than when the same material is taught by tradi- tional methods. The former students become: (a) better motivated as measured by GPA, (b) better adjusted academically as measured by GPA, (c) better adjusted personally as indicated by CUES, and (d) are satisfied with the course. CHAPTER II ME THOD Two interrelated studies were designed to answer the questions raised above. Study I was more concerned with a new orientation model based on increasing awareness. For the second study, the sample size was increased to provide a more accurate picture of the effectiveness of the entire Psychology 107 program. Consequently the methodology in both studies is essentially the same. A New Orientation Program During Spring term, 1971, two sections of Psychology 107 were organized according to a model developed from Sanford' 3 research. On the first day of class, students were asked to sug- gest topics, both academic and personal, whichthe;r were concerned with and would like to cover in the course. After considering a range of possibilities, a consensus was reached on the following major subjects: university adjustment, study techniques, student protest, drug use, racism, sexuality, and love. 26 27 In each section, the class was divided into smaller groups of four or five students according to the topic they chose to work on. Each group was responsible for constructing a questionnaire in their area; every student, however, was encouraged to submit pos- sible questions. The group members collaborated with the instructor on the final draft which was then completed by all members of the class. The group was then responsible for tabulating the results of the questionnaire, reporting back to the class as a whole, andlead- ing a discussion on the topic. In this way studentsbecame active researchers with themselves as subjects; the instructor acted as an organizer and guide. The discussion generated by reporting back the results provided an opportunity to question motives and instigate change on an individual level. An outline of the course and a copy of each questionnaire is given in Appendix A. A major problem concerned the logistics of handling the course. The instructor completed the questionnaires on the first two topics, university adjustment and study techniques, compiled the results, and led the discussion. This allowed time for the groups working on subsequent topics to construct their question- naires. Copies of the questionnaire were handed out in class one week prior to the time that topic was scheduled to be discussed. This gave the class members four days to respond to the questions 28 and return them to a designated mail box in Olds Hall (fifteen minutes of class time were also allotted for this purpose; the remainder of the two -hour period each week was spent in discus - sion). The group collected the completed questionnaires and analyzed the results. A more detailed description of the timing w- involved for each topic is provided in the course outline, Appen- dix A. Requirements in the class were minimal. In addition to working in a group, each student was required to complete the questionnaires constructed by other groups and hand them in on time. No attempt was made, however, to rigidly control this. The final examination was in the form of a take-home paper. It consisted of two parts: (1) a summary of feelings on each'topic and (2) a question which asked students to react to the class as an experience and describe what was good and bad about it. Study I Design Study I attempted to compare two approaches to university orientation: the current program at MSU, the Psychology 107 course, and the orientation model outlined above which stresses increasing awareness. These may be labeled the MAC- TTT 29 approach (1. e. , a motivation and adjustment course using the traditional teaching technique) and the MAC— SRT approach (i. e. , a motivation and adjustment course using the students ~as-researchers technique). A third group, the control, was not involved in any orientation program. F“ When the orientation courses were completed, the groups were compared on three dependent variables: (a) grade -point- average both for the term during which the programs were in 1'" progress and for the following term, which was preceded by * Summer break, (b) scores on CUES, and (c) student satisfaction. Individual scores were also obtained on cumulative GPA previous to the orientation courses and on MSU entrance examination reading score (i. e. , the percentile rank of a student on MSU Reading Test, Form A). These two variables were used as covariates to control for differences in ability. Subjects All of the subjects were students at Michigan State Uni- versity during Spring and Fall terms, 1971. The MAC— SRT group consisted of those students who had registered for Psychology 107, Sections seven and eight, in Spring term. Since they did not know that these sections were going to be taught by a different method, a 30 student' s choice of these sections was probably-influenced primarily by scheduling requirements: they met 3 to 5 P. M. Tuesday and Thursday. Both sections were taught by the writer. Of the 40 students who completed the course, only 29 were still registered the following Fall term; GPA data were gathered on each of these. Only 26 students could be contacted and were willing to complete the CUES and student satisfaction questionnaire. ;f The MAC- TTT group consisted of a stratified random sample from those students who were registered during Fall term and had completed one of the other Psychology 107 sections during the previous Spring term. A number of instructors taught these other sections ; although they were aware that an alternative method was being tried, they were not directly involved. There were an equal number of students as in the MAC-SRT group and they were matched on class level, sex, and previous term' 3 GPA (within 0.2 points). The control group was a stratified random sample from the entire university population who were registered at MSU during Spring and Fall, 1971. They were matched with the other two groups on class level, sex, and previous term' 3 GPA, but differed in that they had not registered for Psychology 107. Students who do take this course Often demonstrate adjustment difficulties and are referred to the course by their adviser. 31 Procedure The innovative orientation model was implemented during Spring term, 1971. The actual research did not begin until the following Fall term. At this time those students who had completed the new orientation program and were still registered at MSU were :3 identified. Stratified random samples for the other two groups were chosen with the help of the Data Processing Department. This department provided a list of students who had taken Psychology 107 during Spring term, 1971, and appropriate information on them; matching students for the MAC-TTT group were then selected. A similar list of every tenth student at MSU provided the basis for selecting the control group. GPA information was gathered from student records at the Data Processing Department during Winter term. The Office of the Registrar consented to the release of the necessary information. Reading Scores were obtained from student records at the Counsel— ing Center. The CUES booklets and the student satisfaction question- naire were administered together during Fall term. The satisfac- tion scale consisted of a single question: "What influence did Psychology 107, Motivation and University Life, have upon you? How valuable was it as a course?" Initially the students in each 32 group were solicited by phone and enticed to come to an appointed place for a monetary reward. Because students inevitably failed to keep their appointments, a second method of collecting the data was attempted. The appropriate materials were mailed to students; when these were returned a check was sent to them. Students in ”ma the two experimental groups received four dollars; the control group completed only the CUES booklet and received two dollars. 1'1 . Analysis Techniques The GPA data were analyzed by a multivariate analysis of variance. Three different analyses were used: the first examined the difference between group means for both Spring and Fall terms; the second used the students' reading scores as a covariate; the third used both the reading scores and cumulative GPA prior to Spring term as covariates. The recommended scoring procedure for the CUES booklet, the 66+/33 - method, is based on a collective perception rationale. Only items for which there is a 2 to 1 consensus by respondents are counted. A scale score is then found by: (1) adding the number of items answered in the keyed direction by 66% or more of the respondents, (2) subtracting the items answered in the keyed direc- tion by 33% or less, and (3) adding a constant of 20 (or 22 and 11 for the'subscales) to eliminate negatives. This method was not used. 33 The actual scoring system employed was based on an individual differences rationale. For each scale the number of responses in the keyed direction were counted; the mean of the resulting distribution is then a measure of environmental press. These data were analyzed by a multivariate technique to determine the magnitude .Of the difference between group means. A second analysis used reading scores as a covariate. The unstructured nature of the student evaluation material V a necessitated the development of a set of classificatory categories. A system, to be presented in the results section, was developed and responses were placed in the appropriate category. Since the respondents were actually composed of two separate groups (MAC— SRT and MAC - TTT), the analysis to determine which categories had sufficient frequencies to be significant was done on each group separately. The distribution of comments in each category may be considered to be a binomial with the probability of a response in any category being equal to the proportion of responses made relative to the total number possible. In this way the . 05 and .01 confidence intervals could be obtained. To determine if there were any dif- ferences between the two groups, 2 X 2 contingency tables were set up for each category and a chi square for correlated groups was calculated . 34 Study 11 The second study was designed to provide a more comprehensive evaluation of the Psychology 107 program. The experimental group consisted of all students who had taken Psychology 107 during Spring, 1971, and were registered at MSU the following Fall (N = 139). These students were compared to a single control group who had not taken the Psychology 107 course The groups were matched on class level, sex, and previous term' 3 GPA. The Psychology 107 group included both experimental groups in study I; the control group in the former study was similarly used. Not all of these students completed the CUES booklet. To obtain this data, both experimental groups in study I were combined to represent the Psychology 107 group (N = 52); to form the control, 26 new subjects, matched as before, were added to the control group in the first study. All variables, procedures, and analysis techniques were identical to those in study I. ‘33.... .- CHAPTER III RESULTS . Grade -Point -Average_ Study I During Spring term, when the orientation courses were in progress, the mean GPA in all three groups increased from its previous term' 3 value. The mean for the MAC-SRT group was now 2. 64; the MAC-TTT group, 2. 50; the control, 2.47 (see Table l). 2 These groups do not differ significantly. But the groups also differ on two variables which are indicative of general ability, mean cumulative GPA prior to imple- mentation of the study and mean score on the MSU entrance examina- tion reading test (F = 3. 56, p < .05 and F = 8.02, p < .001 respec- tively). As Table 1 shows, on each variable the mean is lowest in 2In both the MAC- SRT and MAC - TTT groups, the apparent improvement in GPA is partially caused by the higher grades given in Psychology 107 (average grade = 3. 58). Since this is only a two credit course, however, the influence is minimal. When the Psy- chology 107 grade is removed from a student' 3 average, the mean GPA drops to 2.59 in the MAC-SRT group and 2. 38 in the MAC -TTT group. 35 36 Table l Mean Grade -Point -Averages for Study 1: Spring, 1971 Spring Previous Pre - Test . . Reading Group Term Term Cumulative S r GPA GPA GPA °° e “3. MAC-SRT 2.64 2.14 2.11 15.83 ' MAC-TTT 2.50 2.11 2.22 30.31 NOMAC 2.47 2.14 2.40 41.21 the MAC - SRT group and highest in the control group. When the variance due to pre -test cumulative GPA is covaried out by a multi- variate technique, the difference between group GPA means for Spring term is still not significant. It becomes significant, however, when both pre -test cumulative GPA and reading score are used as covariates (F = 3. 08, p = .05). A summary of this analysis is given in Table 2. The adjusted treatment means were compared by the Newman-Keuls procedure. The MAC - SRT group had a higher mean GPA than the MAC-TTT group (p = . 10) and the control group (p < . 01); the MAC- TTT group did better than the control (p < . 10). These results are summarized in Table 3. 37 Table 2 Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study 1: Grade —Point-Averages, Spring, 1971 Source df MS F p A. Simple ANOVA fl Treatment 2 .231 . 533 n. s. " Error 84 . 434 : '5‘... T" B. Pre -test cumulative GPA as Covariate Illa Treatment 2 . 636 1. 594 n. 3. Error 83 . 399 C. Pre -test cumulative GPA and Reading Score as Covariates Treatment 2 1.186 3. 08 = .05 Error ‘82 ' . 385 Table 3 Summary of Newman-Keuls Test for Study I: Grade -Point -Averages, Spring, 1971 Conditions Control MAC - TTT MAC - SRT Control ** *** MAC - TTT * MAC — SRT **p < . 10 ***p < . 01 38 When the mean GPA for each group was calculated for the following Fall term, this effect had disappeared. For the MAC - TTT group and the control, the mean GPA dropped to its pre -study value (2. 15 and 2. 14 respectively); the MAC —SRT group dropped even lower (1. 89). Only when these scores are adjusted by partial- ling out the variance caused by pre -test cumulative GPA and reading score does the MAC - SRT group outperform the control. As Table 4 shows, in neither case is this difference significant. Table 4 Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study 1: Grade -Point -Averages, Fall, 1971 Source df MS F p A. Simple ANOVA Treatment 2 . 654 1. 211 n. 3. Error 84 . 540 B. Pre -test cumulative GPA as Covariate Treatment 2 .280 .638 n. s. Error 83 . 439 ‘3 C. Pre -test cumulative GPA and Reading Score as Covariates Treatment 2 . 391 . 941 n. 3. Error 82 . 416 ' I . . I iv.“ .. J . . - ”3.3!! in}... Qpéavgj 39 For Spring term, when the orientation programs were in progress, the results confirmed hypotheses II (a) and II (b): students who take a motivation and adjustment course which focuses on increasing awareness become better motivated and better adjusted academically than those who are taught by traditional methods. Some support is also demonstrated for hypotheses I (a) and I (b): students who take any course which attempts to improve their moti- vation and adjustment do in fact become better motivated and academically adjusted. The long range impact of both approaches, however, is questionable. Study 11 When the whole Psychology 107 course is considered, results similar to those obtained in Study I appear. During Spring term, the mean GPA for both the Psychology 107 group and the control, increased from the previous term. As Table 5 shows, this increase was from 2. 14 to 2. 53 for the Psychology 107 group and 3 from 2. 15 to 2. 36 for the control. This difference in Spring GPA' s is significant (F = 3. 67, p < .06; or t = l. 9, p < .05, one-tailed test). 3When the grade 'repeivedin the Psychology 107. course is removed from each student' s GPA, the mean GPA in the experi- mental group drops to 2. 46. Thus, the apparent improvement is not as great as it first appears. J Mean Grade -Point -Averages for Study II: 40 Table 5 Spring, 197 l Spring Previous Pre -test . Group Term Term Cumulative Rseacdling GPA GPA GPA C e — Psych 107 2.53 2.14 2.15 25.90 No Psych 107 2.36 2.15 2.36 40.92 Table 6 Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study II: Grade ~Point-Averages, Spring, 1971 Source df MS F p A. Simple ANOVA Treatment 1 1. 983 3. 617 < .06 Error 276 . 548 B. Pre -test cumulative GPA as Covariate Treatment 1 5. 082 10. 192 < . 001 Error 275 . 499 C. Pre -test cumulative GPA and Reading Score as Covariates Treatment 1 4. 777 9. 546 = .002 Error 274 . 500 41 Table 5 also shows that the Psychology 107 group had significantly lower means on pre —test cumulative GPA (F = 16. 11, p < .0001) and on reading score (F = 24. 17, p < .00001). The difference in Spring GPA between groups is highly significant when pre -test cumulative GPA is used as a covariate (F = 10. 19, P p < . 002) and when both pre -test cumulative GPA and reading score are covariates (F = 9. 55, p = .002). Students who took Psychology. 107 obtained higher grades than students who did not. 17“" These results are summarized in Table 6 on the previous page. During Fall term, any beneficial effect of the Psy- chology 107 program seems to have vanished. The mean GPA of the Psychology 107 group dropped to the previous Winter term' 3 level (2. 13); the control group dropped to the cumulative GPA level prior to the study (2.34). As Table 7 shows, this difference is significant (F = 5. 74, p < . 02). When the variance due to pre -test cumulative GPA and reading score is covaried out, the difference is neutralized. When the results for Spring term are considered, sub- stantial evidence exists for hypotheses I (a) and I (b): students who take a motivation and adjustment course do in fact become better motivated and adjusted academically. When time elapses after having taken the course, however, any beneficial effect seems to be eliminated. 42 Table 7 Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Study II: Grade -Point -Averages, Fall, 1971 Source df MS F p A. Simple ANOVA F- 'Treannent 1 2.982 5.736 < .02 i Error 276 . 532 i B. Pre -test cumulative GPA as Covariate Treatment 1 . 496 1.057 n. 8. Error 275 . 469 rm... C. Pre -test cumulative GPA and Reading Score as Covariates Treannent l .043 '.094 n.s. Error 274 . 458 Collie and University Environment Scales Study I No significant difference was found between the three groups on any of the CUES scales. The group means on each scale and a summary of the multivariate analysis of variance are pre- sented in Table 8. Hypothesis II (c) is not confirmed: when students become researchers upon themselves, a motivation and adjustment course does not result in better personal adjustment. 43 .n .e e8. .n .e new. mm .m on .m on .m nEnnaosem ed So. we SH. 3.: 3.: 3.: 38335. n .n one. .n .e as A S .w as .m E. .m bsnosornm n .e «a... n .e 2:. a. .m as .m 8 .m 5358800 n .c mom. .n .e 8o 4 mo c. S .e on .e heinous .n .n m3. n .n was. a. .n E .m so .3. 03.82 n .: m8 4 n .n 34. em .n S .w 3 .v bumps measures oumwnmurov on no I weavers a e O EL. O; smm ofiz a can a .m 3.8m copmmflgw msmofi 9680 m 3an Sec 350 s seam n8. mouse; .8 manner. 833532 44 Study 11 When all of the students who took Psychology 107 are compared to a control, similar results are obtained. Table 9 shows the group means on each scale and a summary of the multi- variate analysis of variance. Only on the practicality scale is 1 there a significant difference (F = 4.036, p < .05). After taking Psychology 107, students appear to see the university environment as containing both work and social activities with a personal emphasis on working within the system. When the variance due to reading score is covaried out, however, this difference vanishes. Hypothesis I (c) is not confirmed: a motivation and adjustment Course does not result in better personal adjustment. To check the reliability of the scoring'method used in this study, the differences between group means on each scale may be compared to the percentile equivalents of these scores based on the norms developed by Pace (1969). Table 10 shows the percentile equivalents of the scores of both the Psychology 107 group and the control. The difference between these groups in percentiles seems to compare favorably to the-difference in means. Compared to national norms, both groups score relatively low on all scales except the awareness one. 45 n .n mow .m .n .n sea. we .m cm .w nEnnaosom n .n 2m. .n d :5. of: we .2 nnenenesé n .n :3 .H no. v e84. S. .w or .m b28385 n .n owe .H .n .c Sm. on .a 2 .m 3358800 n .e a? .H .n .n a: .m on c. on .e panacea n .e s: .N .n .: So. so .3 a. .m 2202 n .e :1 .N .n .n mmo .H mm .m we a. 5:30 manners ewmmmmwmo 2: noses oz 2: seems a ran a h ofimom coummfipdfl onon 96.50 sec 325 u: seam n8 ocean; .8 masses. 333352 m 3an 46 Table 10 Percentile Equivalents of CUES Scores Scales Psych 107 Psy1::107 Teaching Quality 8 29 F"? Morale 17 35 A I Propriety 30 37 A Community 19 20 Practicality ' 62 36 3'" Awareness 76 76 Scholarship 15 _ 3 3 Student Satisfaction Classification System Guided by the hypotheses underlying the study and working hypotheses which emerged from reading each evaluation, a system was developed to handle the student responses. Each evaluation was first classified as being either favorable, unfavorable, or neutral. An attempt was then made to pinpoint more accurately what con- tributed to this view. The exact categories with definitions and principles for including comments are as follows: 48 I. Favorable Attitude Towards Psychology 107 From a total of 46 subjects, 4 44 expressed some favorable comment towards the course. This was usually expressed as the student stating that he "was happy with the class, " thought it ”was worthwhile, " felt it "was a great help, " etc. These favorable com- ments were subdivided into those dealing with (A) the content of the ___.- .3 course, (B) the method used to conduct the-class, and (C) the impact which the course had. 1'?” a“. 'K' A. Course Content Statements were classified in this category if they indicated that the student felt the information he received was valuable to him. The type of content was then classified as being relevant to study skills, university problems, extra- curricular educational opportunities, or relevant social issues. 1. Study skills. --Four students indicated that they gained some knowledge which would help them in their studies. E. g. : ”I' m truthfully able to say I- learned to improve my study habits greatly from this course. " 2. University problems. -- Six students felt that they received information which helped them with problems 4Three other subjects in the MAC- SRT group replied but were dropped from the analysis because their matches in the MAC -TTT groupdid not reply. All of their comments, however, were favorable. 49 like registration procedure, picking a course, choosing a major, counseling, etc. E. g. : "It helped me become better acquainted with the university by showing me how to use the library, telling me where I could go for counseling, a job, or any problem. " 3. Extra -curricular educational opportunities. -- Five students reported greater awareness of extra -curricular opportunities offered by the university. E. g. : "The class also made students aware of some of the opportunities they have here on this large and sometimes bewildering campus that could be useful to them, such as the speed reading class Offered at Bessey Hall. " 4. Relevant social problems and issues. --Twenty -one students stated that they liked the information given on such topics as drugs, sex, racism, and student protest. E. g. : "It made me think quite a lot about things that were happening around me . . . I. learned stuff about drugs and other topics that I didn' t know before. ” B. Method of Conducting the Class Many students expressed satisfaction on the way the course proceeded. - In particular, students liked me features. 1. The relaxed, personal, informal atmosphere. -- Ten people commented. E. g. : "I truly enjoy a class which 50 is very informal and where the students just sit around and rap. 2. The openness of the discussions. --Fifteen people commented. E. g. : "It is a refreshing change from the normal routine of going to class. It is an open atmosphere and allows people to speak their minds, something that is lacking in most classes at this university. " C. Perceived Impact of the Course Students reported that the impact of the course ranged from simply obtaining a .good grade, through helping adjustment and . increasing awareness, to behavioral change. 1. Increased awareness. --Greater awareness occurred on two levels. (a) Self. -- Ten students felt that they were more in touch with their motives, aims, etc. E. g. : "A lot of things shocked me during my first year, but your course sort of eased the blow by finding out some deep down, feelings about myself. " (b) Others. -- Twenty students felt that they became more aware of the feelings or beliefs of others (especially of a different race). E. g. : "Seeing how other people reacted to certain topics helped me in 51 understanding that my way is not always the right H way. 2. Behavioral change. —- This change occurred on two levels. (a) Study habits. --Three people commented. E.g. : "I took advantage of some of the suggestions made and found them to be very workable and profitable methods. . My studying has been made somewhat easier . . . my grades are sure to rise. " (b)- Personal behavior and goals. -- Three people commented. E. g. : "At first, I was more of an intro- vert, a little narrow -minded, and so shy and shut -up within myself until I was afraid to relate to some people. . . . After taking this course, I was able to relate to people, to share, discuss, and exchange ideas on certain issues. It also gave a great insight as to a lot of things. I began to really think about things that I had accepted for granted. It helped to motivate me as far as speaking to other people. I can really say that I have grown from this course. " 3. Good grade. --Because of the relatively high grades given in the course, four students felt that their GPA' s 52 would improve. E. g. : "I received a 3. 5 which helped my grade point. " 4. Improved adjustment. --Nine students indicated that the course helped them adjust to university better. E. g. : "It was valuable in helping you actually adjust to the 'big university' situation. I feel that it helped you to cope-with the alienation you experience here, especially in the first year.” 5. Would recommend the course. --Seven students expressed an enjoyment in coming to class and stated that they would recommend it to their friends. E. g. : "I have and will continue to recommend this class to my friends as that of an enjoyable class. " II. Neutral Attitude Towards Psychology 107 In addition to favorable comments, a number of students also expressed views which were classified as neutral. These were of two types. A. Eleven students had statements such as the course "did not have much influence, but . . . ” B. Seven students felt that the course may not be applicable to upperclass people or others who are familiar with the course content, but was valuable for freshmen. E. g. : "I think the 53 course has great value for someone coming from a small or sheltered community where, for example, drug information was limited and the education pretty standard. " III. Unfavorable Attitude Toward Psychology 107 Only two students stated that the course did not help their .41., motivation or adjustment. E. g. : "As far as university life is con- cerned, this course did not help me at all. I would say that it was somewhat valuable because I did read some books, but they did not help me with my motivation and university life. " _,_. Determination of Significant Categories An attempt was made to determine which categories had sufficient frequencies to be significant for each group. Since the distribution of comments in each category may be regarded as a binomial, appropriate confidence intervals can be determined. The probability of a particular category being commented on by a particular individual is equal to the total number of responses divided by the total number possible. With the MAC - TTT group, this probability is . 16 and the mean number of responses in each category is 3. 75. The .05 confidence limits are . 3 and 7. 2 (i. e. , 3.75 d: l. 96V23 X . 16 X .84 ). For this group there are no sig- nificant categories. The . 01 confidence limits for the MAC-SRT 54 group are -.23 and 9. 83 (4. 8 r 2. sol/23 x .21 x .79). Three categories are significant: (a) relevant social problems and issues, (b) openness of discussions, and (c) increased awareness of others. A summary of the responses in each category is presented in Table 1 l. 'fi"'e‘_ )— 1; B] I- Group Differences in Responses To determine if there were any differences between the 13135;. 1.4““! fla- __._. I -r ! two groups, 2 X 2 contingency tables were set up for each category and a chi square for correlated groups was calculated. Four cate- gories received more comments from the MAC-SRT group: (a) relevant social issues (x2 = 7. 14, p < .01), (b) openness of dis- cussions (x2 = 6. 55, p < .02),. (c) increased awareness of others (x2 = 4. 26, p < .05), and (d) would recommend the course (x2 = 3. 57, p < . 10). The MAC-TTT group commented more on: (a) extra- curricular educational opportunities (x2 = 6. 00, p < .02), (b) uni- versity problems (x2 = 3. 75, p < . 10), and (c) study skills (x2 = 3. 00, p < . 10). A summary of this analysis is presented in Table 12 . 55 Table 1 1 Student Evaluation Responses Category MAC - SRT MAC - TTT Total I. Favorable A. Content 1. Study Skills 0 4 4 2. University Problems 0 6 6 3. Educational Opportunities 0 5 5 4. Relevant Issues 16* 5 21 B. Method 1. Informal Atmosphere 5 5 . 10 2. Open Discussions 11* 4 15 C. Results 1. Increased Awareness (a) Self 5 5 10 (b) Others 14* 5 20 2. Behavior Change (a) Studying 2 1 3 (b) Personal 2 1 3 3. Good Grade 2 2 4 4. Helped Adjustment 6 3 9 5. Would Recommend 5 2 7 II. Neutral A. "Not Much Influence, But . . . " 5 6 11 B. Not Relevant to All 4 3 7 III. Unfavorable A. Did Not Help Adjustment 0 2 2 *p< .01 56 Table 12 Summary of Chi Square Tests for Group Differences Category 1::2 p A. MAC- SRT Group Received More Comments Relevant Social Issues 7. 14 < . 01 Openness of Discussions 6. 55 < .02 Increased Awareness of Others 4. 26 < .05 Would Recommend the Course 3. 74 < . 10 Improved Adjustment 2. 67 n. 8. Change in Behavior and Goals .33 n. 3. Increased Awareness of Self . 1 1 n. s. B. MAC - TTT Group Received More Comments Extra -curricular Educational Opportunities 6. 00 < . 02 University Problems 3. 75 < . 10 Study Skills 3. 00 < .110 Unfavorable 2. 00 n. 8. Good Grade 1. 43 n. s. Informal Atmosphere 1. 43 n. 3. "Not Much Influence, But . . ." .20 n. 3. Change in Study Habits 0 n. s. Not Relevant to All 0 n. s. Summary of Student Evaluation Results Students reported alarge amount of satisfaction with the motivation and adjustment course independent of the method used 57 tO teach it. From a total of 137 comments, only 2 were unfavorable and 18 neutral. Most of the favorable comments were directed towards the relevant issues discussed, the openness of the dis- cussions, and the increased awareness of others which resulted. The difference in orientation of the two approaches to university adjustment is reflected in the comments made by each group. The MAC- SRT group particularly liked the interaction between students on important issues and the greater awareness 'lhrflm which resulted. The MAC- TTT group liked the information they ~r- v—~ I received about study skills, university problems, and extra- curricular educational opportunities. Hypotheses I (d) and 11 (d) are confirmed: students who take Psychology 107 are generally satisfied with the course; stu- dents who take an innovative section which stresses increasing awareness are also satisfied. CHAPTER IV DISCUSSION The most dramatic aspect of these results is their apparent inconsistency over time. While students were taking the Psychology 107 course, their GPA' 3 improved. This was par- ticularly true for students in those sections of the course which stressed increasing awareness and required students to become actively involved doing research on themselves. (Whether this improvement was caused by the uniqueness of the method or the instructor cannot be determined.) One term. later, when students had returned from summer vacation, the mean GPA dropped to its pre -study value. One possible explanation for this inconsistency is that Psychology 107 has only temporary influence. The course provides a haven where a student can discuss his problems and listen to people who have similar difficulties. This supportive atmosphere helps him absorb the shocks generated by university life and devote some of his attention to the new methods of studying which he is 58 59 learning. When the support is removed, however, the student reverts to his former modes of adjustment. Thisis essentially the explanation used by Kolb (1965) to account for a similarresult with a training program in achievement motivation. Lower class boys, he argued, returned to an environment which did not support the values learned during the program; consequently, no lasting impact was demonstrated. There are other explanations which suggest that any beneficial, enduring effect may not have been exhibited during Fall term. . Having done so well Spring term, a student may feel over- confident and not work as hard; consequently, his GPA suffers. In addition, the nature of the Psychology 107 program may adversely influence GPA for the succeeding term. The individual student has a bundle of problems, both personal and academic, which are always crying for his attention. Usually, he keeps these partially submerged and does not devote enough time to resolve any of them. The Psychology 107 program, especially the MAC-SRT model, forces students to confront these issues. But by stimulating a students' problems and bringing them to the surface, a veritable Pandora' s box of anxiety may be opened. Initially the student may direct his attention away from academics to focus on the more pressing, personal issues; consequently, 60 academic matters suffer. Nevertheless, by becoming more aware of these issues and facing up to them, the foundation is laid for a more stable adjustment. Only when the individual has resolved these personal issues to his own satisfaction will he be free to con- centrate on academics; only then will his motivation stem from ' “Ar: 1.13 . .. internal concerns rather than fear of failure ordesire for good grades. The term following the Psychology 107 course may be too early for the change to have occurred. !“ -KT Any recommendation based on this research hinges on the resolution of -these inconsistent results and a determination of which explanation is accurate. If the influence of. Psychology 107 is momentary, the feasibility of implementing a supportive environ- ment as long as the student needs it may be considered. More likely, however, the results for Fall term are not indicative of the long range impact of the course. Only by checking GPA' 5 during future terms will this issue be resolved. The short time interval between the orientation program and the collection of the CUES data may also account for the apparent lack of greater personal adjustment. Improved adjustment is expressed as individual change and growth. An adjustment course may sow the seed, but perhaps more time is needed for the change to be manifested to an observer. Objective tests, like CUES, may not be sensitive to initial stages in the growth sequence. 61 Some of the most interesting results are related to satisfaction with the course. An overwhelming majority of students were not only contented with the course, but also expressed very favorable responses towards it. In general, they liked the personal contact and the information gained about themselves in relation to the university. Students involved in the innovative model which focused on increasing awareness were especially attracted to the personal, informal discussions about issues which were relevant to them. Student satisfaction with this format suggests that perhaps more courses are needed which focus on a personal relationship between teacher and student; where a student is motivated to learn because the material is important to him, not because he fears getting a low grade. The learning situation is further improved if the stu— dent can become involved and actually do something besides absorb information. A first step in this direction is to modify the grading structure: reward students for how much work they have done, rather than how they perform on an exam. A course designed to improve study skills, for example, could, depending on the instructor' 8 objectives, award points for satisfactory completion of each of the following tasks: (a) a report on some book concerned 62 with study techniques, (b) a personal account of the student' 8 attempt to incorporate some of these techniques into his own style, (c) an outline of some technique which may help some other students in class, ((1) an exam on the important concepts. Students would receive twenty —five points for each task; a total of 50 would receive a 2. 0 grade, 75 a 3. 0 grade, 100 a 4.0 grade. The investigator feels that a more complex orientation program than the one outlined above is needed to fulfill all students' needs. This view is based more on personal impressions while teaching the Psychology 107 course than on the objective results of this study. The key requirement is an individualized orientation program designed to match the particular needs of a student. The necessary first step is to identify those students in need of help. A criterion of satisfactory performance should be set; if a student does not achieve this standard, he should be asked to see a counsellor-who will assist him in pinpointinghis problem. The counsellor' 3 initial task is to determine if the student is interested in changing. If he is not, the conference should end there. Never- theless, university officials should reach out and show the student that help is available. A number of corrective routes should be available; from these, the student and his counsellor can pick one which suits the 1‘."— 63 individual' 3 particular problem. Some possible directions are the follow ing : 1. Some students may not have sufficient ability to do the work demanded of them. These students should be informed and alternative suggestions made. A student may have a negative attitude towards the uni- versity or be attending for the wrong reasons (e. g. , family expectations, get a better job). The counsellor should attempt to make the student face up to why he is attending. A student may lack the necessary information about the university--its procedures and requirements, the services available. A lecture sequence (perhapsvideotaped) could be made on these issues. The student should be directed towards these and given a schedule indicating when specific topics would be covered. If a student does not like the courses he is doing, switching majors may help. Interest and aptitude tests may help the counsellor'make appropriate suggestions. There will probably be a number of students who have dif- ficulty reading and writing. A remedial program which emphasized writtenwork and personal advising could be designed. Classes would be relatively small and taught only by people interestedin this type of work. A large number of students may need help with study skills. A videotaped series of lectures may be the most economical answer here. Some students will have recurring personal and adjustment problems which interfere with their academic work. One possible answer might be a T-group where such students could interact in a supportive atmosphere with other students who have similar problems. These suggestions do not constitute a complete program to help-students who have adjustment problems. It is simply an outline 64 of what the investigator feels is an ideal orientation program. Each student has his own unique problems; the key to these is not a standardized orientation program, but an individual approach which tries to match a solution to a particular student' 8 needs. This study indicates the potential power of a course which focuses on the total person rather than some semi-distant subject matter. Because the student is seen as a whole, he is free to be a decision —maker instead Of an information ~gathering machine moti- vated by fears of becoming obsolete if he doesn' t perform. Not only is information gained, but because of the individual' 3 greater aware- ness, change may occur. In a society of overwhelming transience, a standardized student product is no longer desirable. By dismant- ling the assembly line, a university can cease to be a training ground with an Obstacle course and become a true center of learning. REFERENCES tun.- REFERENCES Adelson, D.,, & Kalis, B. (Eds.). Community psychoggy and mental health. Scranton: Chandler, 1970. Allport, G. W. Becoming: Basic considerations for a psychology of personality. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1955. Arkoff, A. Adjustment and mental health. New York: McGraw— Hill, 1968. . Beach, F. A. Characteristics of masculine sex drive. In M. R. Jones (Ed.), Nebraska symposium on motivation, 1956. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1956. Berg, P. C., & Rentel, V. M. Improving .study’skills. Journal of Reading, 1966, 9, 343-348. Berlyne, D. E. The influence of complexity and novelty in visual figures on orienting responses. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1958, 55, 289 -296. Blake, W. S. Study skills programs. Journal of Higher Education, 1955, 24, 97-99. ._ Briggs, R. D., Tosi, D. J., & Morley, R. M. Study habit modi- fication and its effect on academic performance: a behavioral approach. Journal of Educational Research, 1971, 64, 347- 350. Brown, F. G. Study habits and attitudes, college experience, and college success. Personnel and Guidance Journal, 1964, 43, 287 -2 92. Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. Experimental and quasi- experimental designs for research. Chicago: Rand McNally, 1963. 65 66 Cannon, W. B. The wisdom of the body. New York: Norton, 1932. Chin, R. , & Benne, K. D. General strategies for effecting changes in human systems. In W. G. Bennis, K. D. Benne, & R. Chin (Eds), The planning of change. (2nd ed.) New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston,_1_961. Clark, P. M. Psychology. education, and the concept of motivation. Theory into Practice, 1970, 9, 16-22. Cofer, L. N., & Appley, M. H. Motivation: Theory and research. New York: John Wiley, 1964. Dember, W. N., & Earl, R. W. Analysis of exploratory, manipu- latory, and curiosity behaviors. Psychological Review, 1957, 64, 91-96. Deutsch, M. Organizational and conceptual barriers to social change. Journal of Social Issues, 1964, 25(4), 5-18. Di Lorenzo, L. T. The discriminating effects of a college "how to study" course. Journal of Educational Research, 1964, 57, 472 -475. Duran, J. A. , & Duran, E. D. A program for problem students. ImprovingCollege and University Teachigg, 1970, 18, 144-145. Erikson, E.H. Childhood and society. (2nd ed.) New York: Norton, 1963. Fairweather, G. W. Methods of experimental social innovation. New York: John Wiley, 1968. Festinger, L. A theory of cognitive dissonance. New York: Harper & Row, 1957. Freud, S. A general introduction to psychoanalysis. New York: Pocket Book, 1952. Fromm, E. The sane society. New York: Rinehart, 1955. Frymier, J. R. . Motivation: The mainspring and gyroscope of learning. Theory into Practice, 1970, 9, 23 -32. 67 Gerber, Sterling K. Four approaches to freshman orientation. Improving_College and University Teachipg, 1970, 18, 57 -60. Guba, E. G. The change continuum and its relation to the Illinois plan for program development forgifted children. Paper delivered to a conference on educational change, Urbana, Illinois, March, 1966. Cited by R. G. Havelock, Plan- ning for innovation through dissemination and utilization of knowledge. Ann Arbor, Mich. :CRUSK , ISR, 1971. Harlow, H. F., Harlow, M. K.. & Meyer, D. R. Learning moti- vated by a manipulation drive. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 1950, 40, 228-234. Harvey, J. N., & Barker, D. G. Student evaluation of teaching effectiveness. Improving Collgge and University Teaching, 1970, 18, 275-278. Havelock, R. G. Planning for innovation through dissemination and utilization of knowledge. Ann Arbor, Mich.: CRUSK, ISI, 1 97 1. Heyes, R. W. The psychology of personal adjustment. New York: . Henry Holt, 1958. Howard, J. Please touch. New York: Dell, 1970. Hull, C. L.. A behavior system. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1952. Johnson, B. L. Islands of innovation expanding: Changes in the community college. Beverly Hills: Glencol Press, 1969. Kolb, D. A. Achievement motivation training for underachieving high -school boys. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1965, 2, 783 —792. Lewin, K. Adynamic theory of personality (trans. D. K. Adams and K. Zener). New York: McGraw-Hill, 1935. Lewin, K. Group decision and social change. In T. M. Newcomb and E. L. Hartley (Eds. ), Readings in social psychology. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1947. 68 Lippitt, R., Watson, J., & Westley, B. The dynamics of planned change. New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Co. , 1958. Lorenz, K. Evolution and modification of behavior. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1965. Marx, M. M., & Tombaugh, T. N. Motivation: Psychological principles and educational implications. San Francisco: Chandler, 1967. Maslow, A. H. Some educational implications of the humanistic psychologies. Harvard Educational Review, 1968, 38(4) 685-696. Maslow, A. H. Motivation and personality. (2nd ed.) New York: Harper & Row, 1970. McClelland, D. C. (Ed.). Studies in motivation. New York: Appleton -Century -C rofts, 1 9 55 . Messick, S. Evaluation of educational programs as research on the educational process. In F. F. Korten, S. W. Cook, & J. I. Lacey (Eds. ), Psychology and the problems of society. Washington, D.C.: APA, 197T Miles, M. B. (Ed.). Innovation in education. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. Miller, G. Psychology as a means of promoting human welfare. American Psychologist, 1969, 24, 1063 -1075. Murphy, G. Motivation: The key to changing educational times. Theory into Practice, 1970, 9, 3-9. Olds, J. , 8L Milner, P. Positive reinforcement produced by electrical stimulation of septal area and other regions of rat brain. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1954, 47, 419-427. 1 Pace, R. C. College and university environment scales: Technical manual. (2nd ed.) Princeton, N.J.: EducationalfTesting Service, 1969. 69 Rogers, C. R., On becomirg a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1961. Rogers, E. M. Diffusion of innovations. New York: Free Press, 1962.. Sanford, N. Psychology in action: Research with students as action and education. American Psychologist, 1969, 24, 544-546. Sanford, N. Whatever happened to action research? Journal of Social Issues, 1970, 26(4), 3-23. Sheffield, F. D. , Wulff, J. J., & Backer, R. Reward value of copulation without sex drive reduction. Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 1951, 44, 3-8. Shein, E. H. Mechanisms of change. In W. G. Bennis, K. D. Benne, & R. Chin (Eds. ), The planning of Chang. (2nd ed.) New York: - Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1961. Sherman, J. C. The students' study skill needs. Improving Colleg_e_ and University Teaching, 1971, 19, 214-216. Snow, C. P. Miasma, darkness and torpidity. New Statesman, 1961, 42(1587). Cited by M. B. Miles (Ed.), Innovation in education. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia University, 1964. Spence, K. W. Behavior theory and learning: Selected papers. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice -Hall, 1960. Stevens, John 0. Awareness: Exploring, experimenting, experi- encing. Moab, Utah: Real People Press, 1971. Suchman, E. A. Evaluative research. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1967. Tinbergen, N. The study of instinct. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1951. 'I‘offler, Alvin. Future shock. New York: Bantam Books, 1970. 70 Tolman, E. C. Principles of purposive behavior. In S. Koch (Ed.), Psychology: A study ofa science, Vol. 2. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1959. Tolman, E. C., & Honcik, C. H. Introduction and removal of reward and maze performance in rats. University of California Publications in Psychology, 1930, 4, 257 -275. Waetjen, W. B. The teacher and motivation. Theory into Practice, 1970, 9, 10-15. West, 8., & Uhlenberg, D. Measuring motivation. Theory into Practice, 1970, 9, 47-55. White, R. W. Motivation reconsidered: The concept of competence. Psycholggical Review, 1959, 66, 297 -333. Woodworth, R. S. Dynamic psychology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1918. APPENDIX A COURSE OUTLINE AND STUDENT QUESTIONNAIRES 4 "T FOR INNOVATIVE ORIENTATION MODEL H PPENDI x I Motivation and University Life Psych. 107, Sec. 6 as! Course Outline Aim of the Course When most people think of a university, the thoughts which usually flash through their minds are those of study, of reading, of examinations. Undoubtedly these academic aspects are very important; often, however, more basic issues .'55 demand a student's attention. The confusion, which is an inevitable part of E student life, stems as much from extracurricular activities as it does from aca- demic concerns. This course will attempt to explore any issues of university life which students are concerned about. It is based on the belief that from i {f .. .2 an individual perspective, the ultimate form of knowledge is an awareness of ourselves and an understanding of the position of others. How this Aim Can be Accomplished When a scientist wants to obtain information about a subject, he does re- search upon it. Since we want to understand ourselves and others, why don't we follow his example, why don't we do research upon ourselves. More concretely this will involve constructing questionnaires on relevant topics, completing them as a class, and reporting back the results. The discussions which stem from this should provide an opportunity to question our own motives and those of others. Student Re5ponsibilities The class will be divided into smaller groups of 2 or 3 people who will concentrate on a particular topic. The topics will be those decided upon during the first day of class. Each small group is responsible for: (I) constrUCting an appropriate questionnaire, (II) tabulating the results, and (III) leading a discussion on that topic. _ 2 _ Each student may suggest items to be included on the questionnaireS'compiled by others. He is also responsible for (I) filling in these questionnaires, (II) handing them in on time, and (III) attending the discussions. As far as can be predicted the amount of required work will not be great; but when there is something to do, it has to be done on time. .Check the attached "Calendar of Important Dates” for more information. Examinations and Grades A final exam in the form of a take-home paper will be required. It will consist of two parts: (I) summarize your feelings on each of the topics which we discussed and (II) react to the class as an experience, what was good or bad about it, how can it be improved. ' Don't sweat the grade! (I'm not sure this is completely possible, but try your best). Just fulfilling the responsibilities mentioned above merits a B. A's will be determined by performance on the t0pic you are responsible for and the final paper. .flgtg I guess I see my role in this class as being more of a resource person then as a conveyer of factual information. This will be especially true when we begin the topics on which you construct the questionnaires. I will assist you on your topics by suggesting some items, which you are free to include or dis- gard. I will also help analyze the results and in any other way I can. But what you learn, what you get out of the cOurse depends upon you. If you don't feel like accepting this responsibility, if you think you cannot put up with the interested in the topics, or if you detest filling out questionnaires, please change sections. I'm convinced that this approach is a good one, but it's untrhm. I confusion which is bound to occur in the initial stages, if you are not really I Changing sections may work out to be a good decision. L WEI-u. r! 1‘“ «milk omwmwmmn om Hauonnman UmnmmH N HHBm no wow»: u ocmmnHowumHnm HM ocmmnflosnmunm m ocmmnfloanmwnm xmmcHnm wmvonnma cmnm ocmmnwoaanno nonmnnconwou chwmn m mmamm :mumoa no owmmm wmncnama mam Hovpn UHmocmmmn >pnfiw Hw Wowm om csn<.l an<. >aucmn. Anocnmm OHmmnHN.U Awnwpvwm II IIIIddwd. >Qucmn. No I uncmm llllllllllllllllll mon om csw<. macaw Hmnr.III II IAan4. >mucmn.u Amnw.vwm mncmw Hons. Nu IIII wNOHma I Uncmmll wOHm om CUH<.III IIIIAmncaw Hmor.v AmHH.VwOII I III IIIIIIIIIIIonm om :5H4. zmw b III mmx lllllllllllllllllllllll wmonBIIIIIIII Udcmm IIIIIIII . llllllllllll mowm om cuwd. Amue.v u II III I - I I- I uwcmm PH IIIIIIIIIIIII bo ' _ 4 _ Motivation and University Life Psych. 107, Sec. 6 & 7 Suggested Reading List Note: These are only suggested readings if you would like further information on the topics we covered. University Adjustment Barclay, A. N., Crano, Thorton, and Warner. How to Do a University. (A book which I strongly recommend that everyone read. It has information on almost all of the topics we will discuss.) Study Skills Robinson, F. P., Effective Study. Morgan, C. T. and J. Deese. How to Study. Role of the University, Student Protest Farber, J. The Student as Nigger. Foster, J. and D. Long. Protest. Drugs Nowlis, H. H. Drugs on the College Campus. Solomon, D. (ed.) The marijuana Papers. Racism Kerner Report of National Advisory Committee on Civil Disorders. Skolnick Report to National Committee on Causes and Prevention of Violence. Sex McCarey, J. L. Human Sexuality. Reuben, D. Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex. Love, New Life Styles, Religion Fromm, E. The Art of Loving. Slater, P. E. The Pursuit of hauliness. Motivation and University Life Psych. 107, Sec. 6 & 7 Questionnaire No. l - University Adjustment 1. Why did you decide to go to university? What factors influenced your decision? 2. Why did you decide to come to Michigan State rather then another university? 3. What goals or aims do you hope to accomplish here? 4. How well have these aims been accomplished so far? 5. What factors have contributed or may contribute to failure to achieve goals? 6. People aroundus influence our success and the way we feel. (a) How would you characterize most of the students that you have met here? (e.g. friendly? snobbish? etc.) (over) 10. _ 2 _ (b) How would you characterize the faculty and administration? (e.g. coopenr tive? unconcerned? etc.) University life is usually filled with periods of loneliness. Can you remmmer the circumstanceswhich have made you most lonely? Depression is the most common emotional difficulty of students. Can you reufll the circumstances which have made you most depressed? How do you usually solve personal problems which occur in your life? Wheredo you turn for help? How do you react when you recognize that a friend of yours (e.g. a roommate)is in trouble? When is it "your business”? - 3 _ 11. Are you content with your course and curriculum requirements? 12. How important are good grades to your goals? 13. Do grades reflect learning or education? Why? 14. Is it possible to obtain good grades and become educated at the same time? How? 15. From the time you began university, how long do you anticipate it will be before you graduate? 16. In what areas of university life do you anticipate your chief problems and difficulties? (over) 2m 'J-F Tr 17. Consider the example of a student who is uncertain about what he would like to do and is anxious and unhappy at university. If he makes a decision to drop out for a while, would you characterize this decision as good or bad? Why? 18. Comment on the statement that a student's primary obligation is to "get his head together?, "to develop an appreciation of himself as a person"? L RPzpkc Motivation and University Life Psych 107 ~ Ray Penney Questionnaire No. 2: Study Techniques From an individual perspective, success in university depends on three things: ability, techniques, and motivation. Which of these do you consider most important. Perhaps the single most important key to grades in university is effectively organizing your time. Do you keep a study schedule? How does it work? How much time do you think it is proper to spend on each credit hOnr per week ( for an average course)? Many peOple recommend what is called the "4-1ook" method of study. Following this method allows you to see the same material four different times: (1) before class when you read the materialiin theiteXt, (2) during class, (3) immediately after class, and (4) when you study at night. Comment on the possible advantages and disadvantages of this method and whether you feel it is applicable to you? Ii,~ -2- Suppose you had to write a paper on student protest. Where would you go for background information? What sources are available? Suppose you have just finished a multiple choice exam and upon checking it over, you think you should change some answers. Should you change them or stick with the first impression? How do you overcome emotional and physical distractors which keep you from studying effectively? How do you usually handle material presented in a lecture? Do you take notes? How detailed are they? An essential activity of every student is studying textbooks on their own_ Describe how you go about completing a chapter in a text? -3- 10. Perhaps the first problem encountered when you begin to read a textbook is how to select and comprehend what is important. How do you solve this problem or how do you think it can be solved? 11. The biggest bummer with reading a textbook is that you forget what you read quickly. How do you or how can you reduce forgetting? 12. Do you make a preliminary survey of a chapter before you read it? Why? 13. With most textbooks it is usually valuable to somehow indicate or mark what is important. Do you underline or do you make working notes in a notebook? Does this activity work for you? Why or why not? ..4 .. ...r. I... u w A”; N‘nn. 3.5 3% .H .r r r j.- . . m Motivation and University Life Psych. 107 - Ray Penney SQ3R Method of Study When it is used When you are reading a textbook in detail Steps 1. Survey Activity- (a) Glance over the heading (b) Read the final summary paragraph Reason- It gives an orientation and helps you select and comprehend what is important. Time- 1 minute II. Question Activity- Turn the first heading into a question Reason- It leads to greater curiodty and greater comprehension Time- 5 seconds III. Read Activity- Read to the end of the first headed section in an attempt to answer the question. Reason- Obvious Time- Variable IV. Recite Activity- Without looking, try to recite the answer to the question. If you can't, look at the section again and find the answer. Recite has a number of meanings. (l) saying out loud (2) underlining (3) making notes in a notebook I suggest (3), but pick the method which suits you best.(See note below for further explanation)* Reason- It increases comprehension and helps retard forgetting. Time- Variable Repeat steps II, III, and IV for each succeeding heading. ll V. Review Activity- (a) Look over your notes and try to get a birds-eye view of the major points and the relations between them. (b) Try to recall the major points under-each heading. Reason- It retards forgetting Time- 5 minutes maximum *Notes: Various methods of reciting. I. Working notes as a recite method: points to remember (a) Make your notes very, very brief— no sentences, just cue phrases if possible. (b) Read the whole section before you write anything. (c) Jot down the notes from memory if you can. (d) Use your own words. II. Underlining as a recite method Sources of difficulty (a) Underlining too much (b) Underlining whole sentences (it is difficult to see the 0 organization then) (C) Underlining can become a habit without comprehension. Suggestionsgfor'making'underlining effective (a) Wait until the end of the section before marking anything (b) Think about what the important point is (c) Underline only key phrases (d) Use a numbering system in the margin of the book which shows the relation between points. A Word of Caution The Value of this method lies in the fact that it makes studying an active, thinking process, instead of a mechanical one. In its entirety, however, I doubt if it is used by many people. Nevertheless, all of it is worth considering; I suggest you try to adopt those aspects which fit into your personal style. ' Motivation and University Life Psychology 107 - Ray Penney Notetaking Formats Use The following three formats present three different ways to organize lecture material so that optimum use is made of learning principles. Each consists of ruling your notebook into a number of columns of specific length. Ffifi I The 2—5—1 Format . ‘- J‘“ t- Your notebook is ruled into three columns of length 2 inches, 5 inches, 3 and 1 inch respectively. What is written in each of these columns is suggested by the following diagram. ;w 2" 5" lll < > < w > < > Reduce ideas to.a concise Recored the lecture as fully and Reflect on outline as recite cues. meaningfully as possible. the ideas and synthe: size them with your own. II The 2—6-2 Format The format utilizes a division of your notebook into two columns, but saving two inches at the bottom of your page for reflection and synthesis. It may be diagrammed as follows: 2H 6H / > \ > Summary Lecture Notes cues Reflection & 2" Synthesis (over) L III The 2—3-3—2 Format I This format is applicable to only one particular situation: Where lecture notes amplify the test. It is diagrammed as follows: These formats present a valuable way to organize lecture material, but again adopt the variation which fits your own personal style. Personally, I'm partial to the 296—2 format with these variations: (1) I do not rule my notepaper in columns at all, but prefer to take notes in blue ink and then out- < 2" % <’ 3" > \L; 3" \> Summary Textbook Notes Lecture Notes Cues p\ | Reflection & 2|! .I Synthesis \I/ i Notice: Each of these formats make use of the 5 R's of notetaking 1. Record: during the lecture 2. Reduce: An outline helps clarify meanings and relations, reinforces continuity in notes, strengthens your memory, and allows you to prepare for exams in advance. It should be done as soon as possible after taking the notes. \ 3. Recite: When you study, use the jottings in the first 2—inch column as cues to help you recall the material in the lecture. Verify that you have recalled it correctly. I 4. Reflect: Think about the material; see it in relation to what you already know. This is the essence of any originality or creativity. I 5. Review: At leat once before studying for the final exam. r Note line them in red, (11) I do not have a "Reflection and Synthesis" division on every page, but prefer to go four or five pages before I do this. Motivation and University Life Psychology 107 (7) - Ray Penney Questionnaire No. 3 - Role of the University and Student Protest Should the university have the power to regulate where students live? Are you satisfied with living in the dorm? Why? 2. If you had the choice, would you choose to live in a co-ed dorm? Why ? Should university education be made free for everyone? Why? Are you in favor of a university "Open admissions policy" which would allow anyone, regardless of prior preparation, to go to university if they really wanted to? (Perhaps if too many people apply, those who are admitted could be determined by lottery). Why? (over) I? 5. "It gets pretty depressing to watch what is going on in the world today and realize that your education is not equipping 'you to do anything about it.” Do you feel the same way about your education? 6. How much power should students have in deciding about university affairs? 7. Student protest has been labeled as the activity of an insignifi- cant and unrepresentative minority of maladjusted students. How well do you feel that this characterizes activists? 8. The current protest movement seems to have started in the early 1960's. What does the New Left want? What do you see as the most important issues? 9. Do you feel that student protest is legitimate? Should it be tolerated on a university campus? Why? 10. Do you feel that student protest can really accomplish anything. If so, how? 11. Do you feel that student activism is a new phenomena in contem- porary society which may lead to a full scale revolution? EXplain? 12. Should the univeristy faculty become involved in demonstrations? Under what circumstances? (over) I .I 13. Should the univesity as an institution in society take a stand on social and political problems or should it remain detached from world issues? 14. If a police force offered you as much money as you wanted, would you consider becoming a cop? Why? 15. Have you had any dealings with the Michigan State Police? What do you think of them? 16. It has been suggested that the war in Viet Nam is largely responsible for the current unrest. How do you feel about the war? About the draft? Is it worth demonstrating about? -_.. -_-~—_. H . 17. What effect do you think Kent State had upon the student protest movement? Upon the nation? '''''' 18. Is violence in a demonstration legitimate? Under what circum— stances? 19. If you were the university president, what would you change? Motivation and University Life Psych 107 - Ray Penney Questionnaire No.4: Drugs 1. What are the different types of drugs? What effects do they have? 2. (a) Have you ever tried marijuana? If so, how often? (b) Describe the effects it had upon you? 3. (a) Have you ever tried hard drugs? If so, how often? (b) Describe the effects it had upon you. 4. (a) Have you ever taken dex (or other pep Iills) to stay awake? (b) Describe the effects it had upon you? Would you try it again? ‘m 5, How do you feel about people who take drugs? 6. Why do people use drugs? (Why did you try it?) 7. Do these reasons explain why more minority groups members become addicts? 8. How do you feel about the statement: "Drug use is another of the white man's acquired ways to keep the black man oppressed”? L... 9. Suppose you came home some night and found that your roommate had taken some drugs. (a) How would you react if he (she) was having a good trip? ymtnka (b) HOW would you react if he (she) was having a bad trip? F 'i 10. The university's role in society is usually thought to be one of leader- ship, where new ideas are encouraged and tested out. If this is so, maybe the university should encourage drug use and experimentation with drugs. How would you feel if this happened? I .V. s‘k'j" "~ “I4 .~‘ 5' .~.- 11. The laws against drugs 'use do not distinguish between the different‘types of drugs and the penalties are quite stiff. In some states the penalty for possession is two to ten years plus $20,000 and for sale ffo a minor the penalty may be death. Do you feel that these laws should be more liberal? 12. Should marijuana use he legalized? Why? 13. The Federal Narcotics Bureau treats the drug addict as a criminal; other people suggest that addiction should be treated as an illness. J How do you feel about this? 14. Some people suggest that narcotics should be made legally available through controlled channels to anyone who wants them. Thus, all you would need is a doctor's perscription. Do you think that this would solve the drug problem? Why? Motivation and University Life Psych 107 (7) - Ray Penney Questionnaire flo.5.: Racism 1. Does racism exist in American Society? Explain? 2. How would you define racism? 3. How do you feel about dating a person of the opposite race? 4. Do you think that interracial marriages can work? Why? 5. Which black leader most clearly represents (or represented) the black people? (e.g. Cleaver? King? etc.) 6. What impact do you think white racist attifiudes have had upon black people? 7. (a) How can the plight of blacks in society be altered? What strategies for change have been used in the past? (b) What can whites do? Egifl‘» u int-ad“! . . x w, (c) What can blacks do? 8. A new strategy for change based on black power and the use of violence if necessary has been advocated. How do you feel about this? 9. Many black militants now repudiate American culture and values; as James Baldwin has said, "Who wants to be intergrated into a burning house?” What factors have contributed to this attitude. 10. What does the future hold for the Black Revolution? 11. Does the university perpetuate racism? How? 12. What can the university as an institution in society do to change things? 13. Do black study programs have any value? AB:PAM 5/3/I971 1n‘azr- ‘\v Motivation and University Life Psychology 107 - Ray Penney Question #6 - Sex 1. Do you believe in pre-marital sex? For 2 people who are close and have a genuine concern for each other, how would you define "going too far"? 2. Some people advocate really living with a person for a year or more before marriage. Do you think this is wise? Why? 3. If the girl gets pregnant, should the couple get married? Why? 4. Do you feel that VD is a problem today? (over) h..- 5. Would you like your husband to be in the delivery room when you are giving birth or would you like to be in the delivery room when your wife is giving birth? 6. (a) (For Men) Would you want your wife to be a virgin when you marry her? Is it important for you to be? (b) (For Women) Would you want your husband to be a virgin when you marry him? Is it important for you to be? 7. Should abortion be legalized? Under what circumstances should the law allow it? u when you 8 , room drugs 9 o 7 her? 15:; 10. a"? he? 11. as Shades Is abortion murder? Why? Can you name the different methods to produce an abortion? How can you go about obtaining a good, legal abortion if you live in.Michigan? If you were married, would you or would you let your wife use the pill as a contraceptive method? Why? (over) —L}-— 12. What type of contraception would you ("you” means "a couple") use if you were married? 13. What type of contraception would you use if you weren't married? I I 14. Have you ever been approached by a homosexual? If so, how did you feel about it? If not, how would you? 15. Have you ever had any homosexual dreams? €) 16. Do you feel that it is possible to masturbate too much? How much is "too much”? MW? 17. Have you ever encountered a Peeping Tom or an exhibitionist? How did you feel? 18. Have you ever gotten an obscene phone call? What do you think is the best way to handle it? 19. Do you think that pornography can be harmful? Should it be legalized? (over) -0- 20. How do you feel about sex without love? 5” 21. Do you feel girls fool themselves by using love as an excuse to , have sex? r! RP:rb I EXCUSE [0 APPENDIX B OUTLINE OF TYPICAL PSYCHOLOGY 107 COURSE ) P 1 O ~I.. ,. .I... Vl~ .. n . . . , . . . ‘ 1— — . I. l ,r. 1.. ..I. .f, y. 9 ,... - ..w u. .a ._ . f. . . <. I a» H. _ . V. . . . .3. I; I. . .1 _ . . .. I 6 x . . I. F. a a s ..\I. . . I I. . uIl . .I. . I a .2: \. ... . I. . a . . . . . t . t. I.. .7. .\ . v I I T . I. I .. Y. I I O . a. u v I s , a» u I .I, . I... A. . I - o I ~ . 4 l v II- I I I I \. ‘4, :.CJ '1. a. u .\ I. r a . a; V . I . I . . . . . Ir . r . b.— .. . . . . I .s I.» .. II. , c x , . . I. . . r. u I u . J ..I v. 1. I: IL .45 .t I .I ‘ . I .f . v.» . :\ .. 3 It i.” ...TH I! o...— .Iov a... i . n.» . (I i. II. VI \, . . r; ...a a. ..p win 9' i r n , f. 9.; .a ”I. .. a. . .. . . ..\ c r: s . II .. ._ ‘3, _ .. .I . .. , I. 5 .. .1. .‘a .. .n .. \ I! ..1 I .3, 3. VII. _ 1. fl 7. . . , u. c .I . t .I, . .I s I ,.v ! 11:1 .3. . i . \. . ~ I. K . . a II. 1.. ..r I. I ~ I \J .. . 2 _ ,. . VI ‘. . I I . . u . I4 .. . . at b. I; x.’ .. .1» II I .I . . i i I. . . . II a I. I .s I I’ll . . . 1 1.. 2. O . I -II .I r . x .. .II. I I — a .X i. F, 1' {k i a . .I. libs xi. Ilr . . . .. r .. ...I.. (a « A h ‘L lb 4. . I. v.. . In! ) 'w. \ _ 7 ,‘u u u a . .2. n . a... . . . . LI. II. . - I. . ..I v, I i r nit. I .H., I "I -‘ I..‘;.'-‘..--.—-L.-- n- ~- r-v». .~.- ‘3...,'-E-.-. -. ...,.,- -l. D. TIP. .‘.1 4.0 In?) . (11.4-ain. :.th'r. L I‘ I, :8 1..."... I. LAM-1.. 1 Snailco'u. :32. 3.4.2-4. ‘.{ mat. . 02:13 .‘T ., J . . .'L ETC-dz! LIPDE. (3.51. if” ‘-.‘I ..uS‘L'I' SCI-3 for minterms. Kay 3 What students can do who flunk Paper on what I'm going out, drop out, or graduate. to do with my future. How to select majors, etc. May 10 Discussion of Ir gis-.:raticn Paper on what aspect of and other aspects of university unive.rsity life you would red tape. (Also about university chaLge: why and how. , {is services, ccunILling center, etc) May 17 Term papers and projects: how to do them. iESpecial assignment to be given in class. (A.ssign. to be dame in 1 ii)? ary) May 24 Each student is to discuss a personal, rcivc*sity, sociaI or warid problem briefly in class. Tell what the pircblem is, how it bezane a problem, and wast can be done about it. S :ucenta ra.y WGIIR in groups under appropriate conditions. Also til rn in a short pzzp2r HhcuL the topic.) May 31 Discussion of extracurri.c:lar and coriizInitv activities. (Each stuclet. is to haie visited an appropria ate piece or activity some time duri g the term.) H) T.Io fi inal notes should be msie. First of all, i a s.a.cnt or group of stwdents encounters a problem that thc2y wouli like d scusssd and it has not been dizzm sod, please notify me and we'll try to get to it as soon as possible. (The course is flexible remember.) Second, one other requirement, not gia an above, is th throughout the term ea-c II studer'.t is to see me in my of;:ice at least once. his is to be sure that the stude=nt is g tting a1 ono wL:h tlm: university and also tr q give the student a chance to describe hi 3 problems prim. mly, problems he m277 not want to discuss in class. Do njtw wait Lntil the Izst few weeks of class. Office: 426 Baker Hall home: ISSZC Spartan Viliag o (355»2398) Hours: Monday and Wednesday 9:10 to 10: 20 Tuesday 12:20 to 2:40 And by appointment when F‘“C“‘ 7y unmam‘ru—c a —- “‘1‘ a above office is for all 107 star f members. If I am not there and you can 8 use your problem with someone else, feel free to introduce yourself to whomever is there. Perhaps they can — assist you. This course whill be a help to you (and it can also be fe.n . I and easy as you might have has rd) if you take advantage of what is offered. 192m th. Lo 353-? you, but I cannot he..p you if I don' t know you or year prob: «.ms. Keep in touch with me and with on:r fellow students. "DU CAR AND WIL LL SUKSIEE. ‘i A.‘ d I"A”mu°ndOd but not requii.ed: Robinson, F. P ffective S‘ .udz, New York: Harper and RC-W, 1961. .— FatQUhar, W., ’rumboltz, J., and Wrcnn, C. G. Tofrnrrf :9 Strdz; Ii2w Yo tit: The Ronald Press, 1960. "IiiiiiiiiiiiiI"