AN HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 0F {RRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN THE CHICAMA VALLEY, PERU Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE SNWERSITY JAMES S. KUS 196.7 lax/“‘1 LIBRA r—uz.‘uru~.gu fl. vb 1‘ " ' ' V ‘blia' '.l , mm 696 4294 1 ' 5. State University v WIN/WW KIWI/1m '7ng I M? "WI/fl ABSTRACT AN HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN THE CHICAMA VALLEY, PERU by James S. Kus This thesis constitutes a survey and analysis of irrigated agriculture in the Chicama Valley of northern coastal Peru. This valley is one of many within the region in which a long sequence of occupation has been recognized. By studying the relationships between agricultural patterns of the early cultures and those of the Valley today a better understanding of the region can be achieved. The Chicama River, which originates in the Andes about one hundred miles from the Pacific Ocean,is used ex- tensively for irrigation. The coastal part of its valley is only about thirty miles wide and would be a desert ex- cept for irrigation water from the river. In recent years wells have been used in the coastal areas to increase the amount of water available. The major crop cultivated is sugar cane, which is grown on large haciendas. There are two sugar mills which process the cane from all fields in the valley. The pro— duction of these mills, including several grades of sugar and various by-products, is consumed in the northern coastal region, in other areas of Peru, and in the rest of the world. Other crops, including rice, maize, beans and squash, are James S. Kus grown on a limited basis. The cultural history of the Chicama Valley has been traced for over 4,000 years. One of the earliest sites thus far discovered on the Peruvian coast, Huaca Prieta, is near the mouth of the Chicama River and was occupied for almost two thousand years by primitive agriculturalists. Later peoples developed elaborate irrigation systems to permit the cultivation of crops on extensive areas of the coastal plain. The most important of these were the Mochica and Chimu, both highly advanced in their agricultural tech- niques and socio—political development. It has commonly been asserted that more extensive areas were cultivated during the Mochica and Chimu eras than are under cultiva- tion today. However, a major conclusion of this study is that at no time in the past has the amount of land under irrigation been more extensive than at present. The thesis concludes with a discussion of factors causing changes in land use from prehistoric to modern times. AN HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY OF IRRIGATED AGRICULTURE IN THE CHICAMA VALLEY, PERU By James S. Kus A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Geography 1967 1‘ j ACKNOWLEDGMENTS As with any undertaking of this type, many people have contributed to the completed work. This study could not have been conducted without the grant for travel received from the Ford Foundation, through the Latin American Studies Center at Michigan State University, or the use of facili- ties at Hacienda Cartavio, which were made available through the good offices of Mr. Norman Carignan, a Vice President- of the Latin American Group of w. R. Grace and Company. For assistance in securing these grants, for in- itial suggestions and ideas while in the field, for guid- ance during the writing of this thesis and for extensive editing, I thank my advisor, Dr. C. w. Minkel, Professor of Geography at Michigan State University. Other faculty members at Michigan State University, including Dr. Dieter Brunnschweiler, Dr. Joseph Spielberg, and Mr. Ernest Kidder, contributed ideas to the development of the study. Dr. M. M. Walmsley, of Case-Western Reserve University, encour— aged my study of geography and first stimulated my interest in Latin America. Many other faculty members and students have contributed ideas and suggestions which have been in- corporated in this thesis. The assistance of many people in Peru must be ack- nowledged. Sr. Percy Barkely, Mr. Ted Lindsey, and Dr. ii James Ialy, of w. R. Grace and Company, were very helpful in the initial stages of field research. Professor Rodriguez Suy-Suy of the Universidad Nacional de Trujillo and Sr. Jorge Levallos Quinones, Director of the Museo de Arqueo— legia of the University, furnished valuable material, and Sr. Abel Vega Ocampo, the librarian of the Museum, was a ready source of assistance during the study of literature on the early north coast cultures. The Director of the Departamento de Aguas de Regadio, Sr. Carlos A. Lizarraga F. D., and the head of irrigation in the Chicama Valley, Ing. César Gonzales Vasquez, provided valuable information. The president of the Comité de Productores de Azucar, Sr. Carlos Orbegoso Barda, and its technical secretary, Alberto Cedion P., also gave freely of their time. Dr. George Bornhardt, of Projecto Tinaiones, in the Cajamarca area, clarified my thinking with regard to coast-sierra relation- ships and answered many questions during travel through the northern sierra. In the Chicama Valley I left many friends, to whom I owe debts for assistance in carrying out my study. At Hacienda Cartavio, Sr. Manuel Mendiola, Sr. Guillermo Ganoza, Sr. Manuel Monterro, and Ing. Jaime Seoane were especially helpful. Dr. George Husz, the director of the agricultural experiment station at Hacienda Casa Grande, aided in the study of water use and requirements of various crops in the valley. Finally, Sr. Fernando Rey, of Colmansa iii Ingenieros, was of great assistance in the analysis of physical features of the Chicama Valley and also furnished detailed air photos. To all of the people who have assisted in this undertaking, I give my sincere thanks. Especially, I must express thanks to my parents, who have furnished support for the past two years of study at Michigan State Univer- sity, which are concluded with this thesis. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O 0 LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES. . . . . . . Chapter I. II. III. IV. INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . The The Procedure. . . Conclusions. . Problem. . Study Area PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY . . . . . . The The Northern Coast . . . . . Chicama Valley . . . . . ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY . . . . . . The The The The The North Coast: North Coast: North Coast: Chicama Valley: Transportation . Agriculture. . . Other Economic Transportation. Chicama Valley: Agriculture . Sugar Cane: Sugar Cane: Mechanization . . Sugar Cane: PRE-INCA CULTURES o o o o o o o The The Northern Coast: Culture The Incipient Era. . . . The Developmental Era. . The Florescent Era . . . The Climactic Era. . . . Northern Coast: Spatial Cultures . . . . . . . . . The Incipient Era. . . . The Developmental Era. . The Florescent Era . . . The Climactic Era. . . . Sequence. Distribution 0 Planting and Irrigation Processing and Shipment Other Agricultural Commodities Activities oooooI-hooooo Page ii vii viii [—1 \‘l (”:5an 72 72 75 76 80 82 84 84 86 89 93 Chapter Page The Chicama Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 The Incipient Era. . . . . . . . . . . . 95 The Developmental Era. . . . . . . . . . 98 The Florescent and Climactic Eras. . . . 100 V. RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN PRE-INCA AND MODERN IRRIGATION SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 The Northern Coastal Region. . . . . . . . . 108 The Chicama Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112 Summary and Conclusions. . . . . . . . . . . 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY. O O O O O O O 0 O O O O I O O O O O O O 119 vi 10. LIST OF TABLES Hydrographic Summary of Northern Coastal Rivers Of Peru 0 O O I O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O Meteorological Data for the Chicama Valley, Peru. 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 0 Average Rate of Flow, Chicama River, Peru . . . Northern Peruvian Ports--l96l: Percentage of Total Peruvian Imports and Exports. . . . . . Economic Importance of Various Crops in Peru. . Water Rights in the Chicama Valley, Peru. . . . Hacienda Cartavio: Irrigation and Labor Data . Cartavio Sugar Mill: Tons and Source of Cane GrOund, 1928-1966 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o Cartavio Sugar Mill: Production of Sugar and its By-prOdUCtS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Archaeological Eras of Northern Coastal Peru. . vii Page 19 26 32 38 41 58 61 68 69 74 Map l. The Physical Divisions of Peru . . . . . . . . 2. Principal Rivers of Northern Coastal Peru. . . 3. The Chicama Valley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4. Economic Features of Northern Coastal Peru . . 5. Economic Features of the Chicama Valley. . . . 6. Distribution of Pre-Inca Cultures in Northern Coastal Peru . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7. Principal Ruins in the Chicama Valley. . . . . Figure LIST OF MAPS AND FIGURES Types of Crops in Peru . . . . . . . . . . . Distribution of Agricultural Return in Peru. viii Page 16 23 37 52 91 97 Page 40 4O CHAPTER I — INTRODUCTION This thesis constitutes a survey and analysis of irrigated agriculture in the Chicama Valley of northern coastal Peru. The general objective is to evaluate the role of irrigated agriculture in relation to the trans- formation of primitive peasant society to advanced cul- tural forms and the consequent changes from subsistence to commercial land use. A more specific objective is to determine the location and extent of both present and past irrigation systems and to ascertain the causes for varia— tions that may have occurred through time. Throughout the text, a description of features in the northern coastal area precedes discussion of the Chicama Valley as a detailed example. ‘Thg_Problem During the past four to five thousand years, ad- vanced cultures developed slowly in the coastal valleys of Peru. These cultures were based upon irrigated agri— culture, for this region is one of the driest on earth. Despite repeated invasions by highland people, at least one of the coastal cultures, the Chimu, reached a high level of civilization, traces of which were still in evi- dence when the Spanish conquered the coast in 1533. After the Spanish conquest, the control of the irrigated coastal lands passed to appointees of the Spanish Crown, who were for the most part uninterested in farming and therefore permitted the complex irrigation systems to decay and fall into ruin. This state of affairs continued until the Nine- teenth Century, when commercial agriculture developed on a large scale, with intensive irrigation farming taking place in the same valleys as were previously cultivated. The role that irrigated agriculture played in the course of history in the Chicama Valley is typical of the signif— icance of irrigation in the sequence of events all along the Peruvian coast. Thus, this valley is worthy of study as an example of an area where cultural richness and social complexity developed entirely on the basis of irrigated agriculture. The Chicama Valley is without serious physical limitations for irrigation in that there is relatively more arable land than there is water available. The cli- mate and soil are such that with irrigation the land pro- duces abundant, even multiple, crops each year. In pre- Columbian times the principal crop was maize, which re— quired little water per unit of land and therefore allowed the farmers to irrigate relatively large areas. Today the major crop is sugar cane, which requires large amounts of water per unit of land, resulting in a reduction of acreage that can be irrigated with the available flow of water in the Chicama River. Archaeologists and anthropologists have repeatedly used these facts to explain the existence of ruins in the desert margins of the valley, far beyond the area that is presently irrigated. There are various rea- sons why this explanation is unsatisfactory. It is a major conclusion of this thesis that the amount of land used today is greater than at any single time in the past and that the present irrigation systems are more efficient than those that previously existed. By mapping both the present limits and the traces of former systems, a basis for comparison and analysis can be established. The cultural artifacts of the pre-Columbian coastal civilization are well known throughout the world and have been the object of much study and discussion. While there have been several studies of the social and cultural im- plications of irrigated agriculture in relation to early societies, there has been little study of the nature and scope of the irrigation systems themselves. It is useful, therefore, to ascertain in some detail the nature and ex— tent of this sophisticated form of agricultural enterprise and its interrelationship with other significant cultural and social factors. This study also provides a basis for evaluating the nature of the interaction between coastal cultures and those of the Andes, as well as for a compari— son of former and present irrigation systems in coastal Peru. flames; The area studied is that portion of the Chicama watershed which lies within the coastal plain, rather than the entire drainage basin. Almost all of this area lies below an elevation of 1,300 feet. No exact line can be drawn to differentiate the coast from the Andes, and the northern and southern limits of the valley on the plain are also rather vague. These limits are here defined as shown on Map 3 (page 23), which places them three or four miles into the desert beyond the margins of presently cul— tivated land. The study area thus comprises about 400 square miles, of which about one—third is presently irri- gated. Procedure An extensive survey of literature related to the Peruvian coastal cultures, the use of irrigation, and the cultivation of sugar cane was conducted in the United States, both before and after the period of field work in Peru. In Peru a thorough study was made at the library of the Museo de Arqueologia of the Universidad Nacional de Trujillo, which contains one of the best collections of material pertaining to the coastal region. Field research was conducted in the Chicama Valley to determine 1) the location and extent of modern and pre— Inca irrigation systems, 2) the role of water and irrigated agriculture within the valley today, and 3) the use of water during the period of the pre—Inca cultures. This work was carried out during a ten-week period in January, February, and March, 1967. The first half of the period was devoted to the study of modern irrigation, while dur- ing the second half the remains of ancient systems were traced. The primary research method involved direct ob— servation and identification. The use of a motorcycle gave easy and rapid access to almost all parts of the study area. Detailed field maps were supplied by the cartographic section of Hacienda Cartavio, greatly facilitating the recording of information. One fairly old aerial photo- graph (1943) was available at Hacienda Cartavio, while recent (1964) photos were supplied by a soil survey crew working in the valley. Topographic maps were unavailable. Conclusions From field study and readings, the following con- clusions are drawn: 1) that irrigation did indeed play an important role in the cultural history of the coastal peoples, and that advances in cultural level were related to advances in irrigation in either a cause or effect reé lationship; 2) that irrigated agriculture within the Chicama Valley is now at the highest technical level achieved to date, and at no time in the past was the amount of land irrigated greater than at present; 3) that cultivation of 1 sugar cane is the most efficient use of the land and that i any other use would at present be uneconomic and impractical; 4) that almost all historical variations in the location and extent of irrigation were due to changes in agricultural techniques, the change from subsistence maize to commercial sugar production, or saline conditions of the soils; 5) that the findings related to the Chicama Valley can, with relatively little modification, be applied to the other irrigated valleys of northern coastal Peru. CHAPTER II - PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY Peru, the fourth largest nation in Latin America, exhibits within its borders some of the most diverse top- ography in the world. Georgraphers are in agreement, how— ever, on the division of the country into three distinct regions. These regions are the coast, a narrow desert belt along the Pacific; the Andes, which border the desert plain and reach heights of over 20,000 feet within a hun- dred miles of the Pacific; and the montafia, a tropical for- ested lowland east of the Andes and containing over half of the land area of Peru but only a small percentage of the population. A north-south division of the country, and specif- ically of the coastal region, is more difficult to estab— lish because of the lack of major differences between land- forms along the coast. The plain varies in width from about one hundred miles in the desert at Sechura, in ex— treme northern Peru, to points such as Pasamayo and Pati- vilica where the Andean foothills reach the sea and the coastal plain is non-existent. In this study the division of the coast as made by Preston E. James is followed; that is, into Northern, Central, and Southern Coastal regionsl lPreston E. James, Latin America, Third Edition (New York: The Odyssey Press, 1959), p. 189. 7 (See Map 1). There are three principal reasons for using this system: 1) the coastal plains are physically rather homogeneous in each of the three areas, 2) economically they are more similar internally than would be any other broad division of the coastal plain, and 3) they had inde- pendent cultural histories and as such are the standard divisions used by archaeologists and anthropologists work- ing on the cultural history of the coastal regions. L. M. Stumer, a well-known archaeologist, has said that "these three regions are separated from one another by unusually large strips of desert between river valleys, a geograph- ical division which is also reflected in cultural develop- ments. In other words, the separation of the Peruvian coast into three parts is not arbitrary but has been forced upon us by the prehistoric culture pattern."2 Th§_Northern Eggs; Physically, the northern coastal region offers a number of advantages for irrigated agriculture as compared with the central and southern regions. The northern coastal plain is generally wider than the plain to the south. It also receives more rainfall, and the rainfall is generally more dependable. Finally, the northern coastal region 2L. M. Stumer, "The Chillon Valley of Peru," Archaeology, Vol. 7, p. 171. l MAPI ' | THE PHYSICAL DIVISIONS 'OF PERU l IOUIYOC 2 TUIIIII 3 CHOCLAYO 7 LIMA ’——I 00800 IO HOLLIID 0 50 SOURCE! HAPA 4 CAJAIAICA 5 TIUJILLO C CNIIIOTI O AIIOUIPA .J\ X) .\ I / ‘-\. . \. f) \. cow-nu tcuaoon ./'/. ‘ '\-~P-.a"-'\""\.\’ . j o. L.\ 0’ ‘ . ./"'v .0 "I ./- ! I ~~./'\ \ \' 4’4 \ 4;, O / c'mu :00 200 8 W - 7. Lo. DEL PERU FISICO-POLITICO 74' IOLIVIA J 10 receives more sunshine, a cloud cover being common farther south during the winter months. The broad area under discussion extends from about 6 1/2 to 10 l/2 degrees south latitude, or from La Leche Valley, north of the city of Chiclayo, to the Pativilca Valley, south of Chimbote. This region includes the coast- al sections of Lambayeque, La Libertad, and Ancash Depart- ments. Because of economic and cultural differences, the northernmost portion of the Peruvian coastal plain is ex- cluded from this thesis. This eliminates from considera- tion the Sechura Desert and the oilfields near Tumbes, but makes the study area more homogeneous and therefore a more valid region. While the northern and southern boundaries of the area are easily delineated and the west- ern boundary (the Pacific Ocean) is obvious, it is more difficult to establish an eastern boundary for the region. At least four different criteria can be used to determine the eastern limits. These include geomorphic, vegetative, demographic, and political distinctions. Actually, a com- bination of all of these elements has been used in this text. The variety of landforms within this area is great. The coastal plain is a desert, however, and except where exotic rivers flow from the mountains eolian landforms predominate. The coastal area and the parallel Andes are geologically complex, but in the interests of the present 11 discussion some consideration of the geological history of the area is essential for an understanding of past and present cultural conditions. During the Cambrian Period the region was occupied by the ancestral Andes. The leveling of these mountains was almost completed during the Silurian and Devonian Periods, although the famous guano islands along the coast are thought to be remnants of this mountain range. During the Tertiary Period the present Andean ranges were uplifted and took approximately the form they have today. The ero- sion of these ranges has taken millions of years. The materials removed by the west-flowing rivers formed the Tertiary and Quaternary deposits which make up the present coastal plain. Pleistocene glaciation in the adjacent Andes did not produce glacial landforms in the coastal areas but also contributed heavily to the deposition of sediments in the region. Extremely varied rock types are found within the region, but most are within sedimentary deposits, indicat- ing the transport of igneous and metamorphic material to its present location. Most of the larger erosional rem- nants, known locally as cerros, consist of Cretaceous or Jurassic crystaline rocks, although a few are of volcanic origin. Of the many landforms in the region, only a few are of major significance for this study. Among these are 12 the wave-cut benches along the shore. Generally there are two benches along the northern coast, but in some cases only one is present and in others three or more may have been formed. Nearly all of the fishing villages and small port towns are located on the first of these benches, while larger towns are located on the second bench some distance inland. Another significant type of landform of the coastal region is the guebrada, or dry valley, which is found throughout the desert areas between the river valleys. While these guebradas divide the landscape into the famil- iar dendritic drainage pattern, they function as channels for flowing water only on rare occasions. But when the water does flow, it can rapidly change the profile of the guebrada, due to the lack of sufficient vegetation to bind the soil and prevent erosion. The landscape can thus change drastically overnight after one of the major, though infre— quent, rains that occur in the region. Another conspicuous landform in the region is the sand dune. The prevalent onshore breezes, the fine alluvial materials found throughout the area, and the lack of vege- tation contribute to the formation of dunes of a fairly large size. These dunes, where the wind direction is relatively constant, are of crescent shape, and their slow movement across the landscape is one of the geomorphic spectacles of the region. They have a negative effect on 13 human occupance, as roads and railroads within the region are sometimes closed by their encroachment. The same phe- nomenon can result in the abandonment of valuable fields or the destruction of irrigation ditches in areas where the advancement of the dunes is fairly rapid. On the whole, however, the role of the wind in the transformation of the landscape has not been as significant as that of water. The most influential geomorphic agents in the region re- main the rivers which flow across the coastal plain. The principal climatic condition in the northern coastal region is aridity. The entire coast of Peru is one of the driest regions on earth, and although the north- ern part receives slightly more rainfall than areas to the south, the scarcity of water is still the predominant fea— ture of the region. There are three major factors that influence the rainfall regime of the coast. First and probably foremost is the South Pacific high pressure sys- tem off the Peruvian coast. Air moving landward out of this high is descending and gathering moisture; it is phys- ically impossible for this descending air to produce pre- cipitation. Of secondary importance is the cold water along the Peruvian coast. The Peru or Humboldt Current is responsible for the relative coolness of the coastal areas. The cold water acts as a deterrent to evaporation and hence reduces the amount ofemoisture that can be gained by the descending air. It also has a stabilizing effect 14 on air masses that reach the water surface. Once the air masses reach land they are forced to rise only slightly, but even then the descending air is of prime importance in decreasing the possibility of rainfall. In the north— ern coastal areas the cloud cover is generally light, while to the south the winter skies are often completely clouded over, with fog or mists striking the tops of hills and fur- nishing moisture for an extensive cover of grasses. The third factor contributing to the dryness of the area is the Andean barrier to westward—moving air masses. Atlantic air masses are forced to rise and loose their moisture on the eastern slopes so that upon reaching the Pacific coast they are either descending and absorbing moisture from the area or remaining as upper level masses. In either case, little or no moisture is contributed to the coastal areas. It is quite common, in fact, to distinguish between high level westward-moving air masses of Atlantic origin and the intermediate-level air masses of Pacific origin, due to cloud layers moving in opposite directions over the area. The amount of rain that does fall is much less than the potential evapotranspiration and fluctuates greatly from year to year. Although it is impossible for man and his agricul- tural activities to exist on the coastal desert without supplemental water, it is possible for an amazing variety of life to survive in this region. The basis for the life 15 that does exist here lies either in the cold water of the coastal currents or in the isolated areas of underground or surface water. The Peru Coastal Current is very rich in marine life, the cold water being filled with plankton which supports an abundance of higher marine life. This, in turn, supports a large bird population on the coastal islands and the more isolated peninsulas. The bird drop- pings constitute the guano which has long been a major factor in the Peruvian economy. Of more recent importance has been the marine life, however, for Peru is now the world's greatest fishing nation in terms of tonnage. On land, the existence of life is dependent upon various sources of water, the most important being the exotic streams that flow from the Andes. Where there are no major rivers, xerophytic shrubs and cacti exist in the lower portions of the guebradas or leeward of the sand dunes. Shrubs, mosses, and transitory grasses are also found in the higher coastal elevations. The latter are similar to, but not as extensive as, the 19mg; (fog-sup- ported winter grasses) of the central and southern coastal areas. The desert fauna includes lizards, several species of fox, other mammals, and a variety of bird life. The only areas of importance for human occupance today are the valleys of the exotic rivers (Map 2). There are over a dozen of-these valleys within the northern coast- al region, all very similar in nature. Among the most 5:31.} MAP 2 PRINCIPAL RIVERS OF j NORTHERN COASTAL PERU ‘I on ”4050 ”ALEIIHJS 17 important of these are the valleys of the Rios La Leche, Lambayeque, Jequetepeque, Chicama, Moche, Viru, Santa, Nepena, and Pativilca. "The Lambayeque and La Leche val- leys form one of the richest agricultural areas on the coast. These two valleys cross the coastal plains in the zone of maximum width, and the rivers descending from the interior flow out onto a slightly elevated plain; where they leave the foothills, their level is little below that of the surrounding land. As they extend seaward over the gently sloping plateau, their burden of sediment is spread over a large area, making it possible to grow sizeable quanti— ties of rice. . . ."3 The Jequetepeque, Chicama, and Moche valleys are well-watered; extensive areas in each of these valleys are devoted to sugar cane and rice. The Viru river is one of the smaller streams on the coast, but the valley could become more important in the future if projects to draw water from the Santa valley, the next valley to the south, are completed. The Nepefia and Pativilca valleys have only limited amounts of arable land, but what is avail- able is used for commercial crops and is thus of major im- portance.4 Although only the Santa is among the six leading coastal rivers of Peru in average yearly discharge, the 3David A. Robinson, Peru in Four Dimensions (Lima: American Studies Press, 1964), p. 174. 41bid., pp. 174-76. 18 Lambayeque, Chicama, La Leche, and Jequetepeque are among the six leading coastal valleys in amount of land under irrigation. There are several reasons why these valleys of the north coast have relatively larger irrigated areas than the valleys to the south. First, as shown in Table 1, these four valleys have smaller year-to-year and month-to- month fluctuations in the amount of water available. This simply reflects that to maximize the use of water a depend- able supply must be available. Second, the amount of water available in these four valleys is relatively large. While the Lambayeque, Chicama, La Leche, and Jequetepeque rivers are not large enough to be included among the six greatest in amount of flow, each does have a larger flow than the average for all Peruvian coastal streams. Finally, and probably most important, there is within the valleys of these rivers a fairly large amount of flat land that can be readily irrigated. In valleys to the south the amount of irrigable land is relatively small, hence a greater per- centage of water in southern valleys goes unused. In the valleys of the north, and especially in the above mentioned, the amount of irrigable land is fairly large and, in some cases, even greater than the amount that can potentially be irrigated. The Chicama Valley The Chicama Valley has been selected as the focal point in this study because of historical, economic, and 19 .mmlmma .Qa .woma .mcoamcmsao usom ca summ .comcanom .< oa>mn "muusom mmavm ammmm ommam om mama bmemv muaa>aumm mmaa aamm mmem ma mmma «Hem mmmamz mmaoaa mmmmmm eammma mm mama mmsowm mucmm amwa momsm meme hm mama mmmm sua> mmmm masma oamoa me mama mmmaa mruoz mmmm wmmmm mmmmm me mama maehm memuacu seam mmmms ssmam ee vama whomm msvmamumsvmw mmooa memmaa moamm ee eama emmem msvmsmnsmq mmmm eomma moms oe fiama mmmm mcuma ma mmumcumao mmumnumao mmumcUmaQ ououmm mo onoumm abmlmfimav um>am ESEacaz ESEaxmz ommum>< mummw amuoa mo mumo .mmmum>< aououmm mo mummy amuoav unmaaumm haummw mmumnumaa Named» mmmum>< ommm mmmm msmm oova mmma Obfia omma omom mmbm oaBOa mmom ommm avaa>aumm mm mm mm mm mm cm as oea mom omm mam mew mamamz mamaa oovm mvmm omue ommv mmvm ommb ommaa omaem moomm mmmem ommba mucmm mm oea moa mm mm mm on 0mm mvm omma mem ome sua> msa mvm oam mm mm on msa oom mmmm mmmm mmba mvoa 0:00: owm ovm mm¢ mam omv mmm mvm mmam msfim oamm mome mavm mEmuacU Omoa omaa mms mam omm omm maoa oamm mmma mama mmem mmom mzammmumsvms mama oama omaa ome com oem oova comm meme omse omam momm msvmstqu oam 0mm omm mba ova omm omv 0mm mmma oowa own mmfi mrowa ma .umo .>oz .uoo .uamm .m:< maso mono mm: .HQ< .umz .nwh .cmo um>am asmtmvmav mmumnumao um>am mo mommum>< ummwlcws rummm uansu mo mcoaaaaev Dmmm ho mmm>Hm Acn4 mxwzq , . _ y . I ,HH“ , , . .XsTI n. .1 1 . II a: L ,z I 4,. I. _.H _ ‘15 _O,, p111) c. .1. I: In If. _ . r , .. .I. u: . .m 74.) m ,, ..,.. ,u, . ._ . ; .f.211,. . o. u . w .« . ......... 1.. . , ,_ . U r .. .. n H, +3 . g _ ,, .1, , OI , _Z ,7. .5. .. ; 1.1 : .2 I . , A0,, . .. _. (.1 I T .5 ,, . . .. J l, . I I\ _—_ , ..... .1 _ ka VVAU . H. , .d . . _ )II) .. I ,,,,, . w pnflqfi «HUGH 4).: u L», H ......... , A r. ,1 1:11.” _ I «m z / Izz/I... _ .Zi, , N ,f. a . 1m. v.4.) o . , . ... L. . , ”,J p i . ..... . . , . , ., ,1 n, ,.. I ,momxi w fiqafid «Liv 1“]: Int, . .. ;IoVUI;:, Dr! >mlj<> 3240.10 MIC. m d<§ 24 that of the entire northern coast. However, there are some relevant micro—climatic changes within the valley, espec- ially between the areas above Hacienda Pampas de Jaguey and the lower areas on the coastal plain. Nevertheless, there is a remarkable consistency of weather throughout the valley, almost to the extent that one accustomed to frequent change might find it unpleasant. Wallace E. Howell, of Harvard University, has written the following descrip- tion: The Chicama Valley, lying close to the equator and being largely under the influence of the sub- tropical high pressure cells, experiences rela— tively small changes in most weather elements due to large—scale weather processes, and a large part of the change is therefore diurnal in nature. The diurnal influences in the form of valley and moun— tain winds and sea breezes find clear and regular expression, and dominate many features of the daily weather.7 These diurnal changes take the form, in the lower valley at least, of morning off-shore breezes of considerable strength and on-shore breezes in the late afternoon and early evening. Meteorological statistics for the Chicama Valley are well kept and easily available. There are at present four meteorological stations within the valley, although the length of record and the type of data recorded is not uniform. Puerto Chicama, in the northwestern part of the 7Wallace E. Howell, Local Weather of the Chicama Valle (Cambridge, Mass.: Wallace E. Howell Associates, 1952) p. 8. 25 valley, has recorded average temperature since 1925 and rainfall since 1945. Hacienda Chiclin, near the central part of the valley, recorded temperature and precipitation from 1930 to 1936 and has been recording only temperature since 1957. Hacienda Cartavio, in the southern part of the valley, has recorded precipitation, evaporation, and average, minimum, and maximum temperatures since 1944, while Hacienda Casa Grande, in the northern part of the valley, has recorded the same data since 1934. An abstract of figures for each of these stations is presented in Table 2. The warmest months are during the southern hemi— sphere summer, with February usually the warmest. In gen- eral, there is a ten degree F. range between the warmest and the coldest month. Elevation or location within the valley are relatively unimportant in determining average temperatures, but have a greater relationship to the rain- fall pattern. Puerto Chicama, along the shore, receives the least rainfall, while Hacienda Casa Grande, the high- est and most inland climatic station of the lower valley, has the greatest rainfall of the four lower valley stations. The figures for Cajamarca, about seventy-five miles to the northeast of Casa Grande and at an elevation of over 8,000 feet, are indicative of the amount of rain received in the headwater areas of the Chicama River. The dry winter sea- son is especially notable at all of the stations. 26 5.05 m.a5 o.mm m.©m a.mw a.mm 0.50 o.mm m.mm 5.85 $.55 m.55 m.m5 .>< ummw .Umn .>oz .uoo .uamm .ms< Mano 0:55 hm: .HQ< .umz .nmm .cmo Amummx aa upuoomm mo poaummv .m mmmumma ca mmusumumasma mmmum>< mm. 00. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. 00. ac. oo. 304 vm.a vm. mo. ea. ao. 00. ca. mo. mo. ma. we. we. 5m. rmam m5. mo. mo. eo. 00. mo. mo. 00. ac. 50. mm. ma. ma. .>< new» .ooo .>oz .uuo .uamm .034 hash mono Mm: .HQ4 .wmz .nmm .cmo Amado» m upuouwm mo poaummv monuca ca aammcamm amuoa cmauanu mocmaumm v.05 m.a5 m.mm o.mo 5.5m o.mm m.mm m.mm m.a5 o.¢5 m.m5 a.m5 m.v5 .>< new» .umo .>oz .uuo .udmm .m:< hand mcso he: .HQ4 .umz .Qmm .cmo Amummw mm «ououmm mo ooaummv .m mmmummn ca wouSDMHMQEmB mmmum>< oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. oo. 304 mm. vo. oo. #0. oo. oo. 00. mo. 00. ma. ma. oa. ma. roam ma. ao. 00. ac. a0. 00. oo. oo. oo. 00. mo. mo. mo. .>< ummw .omQ .>oz .uuo .udmm .ms< haso 0:38 hm: .ua4 .umz .Qmm .cmo amummw ma «oncomm mo ooauwmv mmcuca ca aammcamm amuoa memuacu ouumsm Dmmm .quq<> 4 .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 >a30 0030 M02 .004 .002 .400 .000 A0000N am "000000 m0 0040000 00000H 0a 004000000>m amuoe oo. oo. oo. 00. oo. oo. 00. 00. oo. oo. oo. 00. oo. 304 am.a o0. ma. 00. 5a. 00. 0a. mo. m0. mm. 00. 00. mm. 004: m0. 00. mo. mo. mo. 00. a0. 00. a0. 00. 5a. ma. 00. .>4 000M .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 >a30 0030 >0: .004 .002 .400 .000 40000» 5m "000000 m0 0040000 00000H 04 aa0m0a0m amuoe 000000 0000 0000a00m 0.00 m.m0 a.m0 0.00 m.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 m.m0 0.a5 0.05 m.m5 v.M5 .>4 000M .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 >a30 0030 >02 .004 .002 .000 .000 A0000» 5a "000000 mo 0040000 .0 0000000 ca 000300000508 00000>4 a.0 0.0 0.0 m.m 0.m m.m 0.0 0.0 5.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 .>4 .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 >a30 0030 N02 .004 .00: .400 .000 A0000» am «000000 mo 0040000 00000H ca 0oau00000>m a0uoa oo. 00. oo. 00. 00. 00. oo. 00. 00. oo. oo. 00. oo. 304 0m.a om. mo. 00. 00. mo. 50. ca. 00. mm. mm. am. mm. 00am av. m0. mo. 00. a0. 00. a0. mo. a0. 00. 00. aa. 00. .>4 000» .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 za30 0030 m0: .004 .002 .000 .000 400000 5a «000000 00 0040000 00000H 0H aa0m0a0m a0#OB oa>0p00u 00004000 U030HuCOUlIN m4m48 28 .malma .00 .00300000008 00 000a00a000000z 000006000 000 .mm 000 malm .00 .ama>3a0 004000w000000 m a0009 004000000>m 00 00040ma00o000z 00a005000 «000300 5.mm 05.m 00.m v0.m 00. 00. 0a. 0m. 0m.a m0.0 0m.0 mm.m m5.m .>4 000M .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 >a30 0030 N02 .004 .002 .000 .000 00000» 0a «000000 mo 0040000 00000H 04 aa0m0400 a00oe 000080n0u 0.m0 5.05 0.50 5.00 m.00 m.00 0.00 a.50 m.00 0.M5 a.05 0.55 a.05 .>4 000M .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 >a30 0030 >02 .004 .002 .000 .000 A0000» 5m «000000 00 0040000 .0 0000000 04 000300000509 00000>4 00030400000 000000 0000 0000a000 0030H0COUIIN M4048 29 An important climatic factor in the Chicama Valley is the great variability of precipitation. Rainfall in the valley follows the geographic maxim that the less pre- cipitation there is the less dependable it is. Almost every month at every station has at some time been com— pletely rainless during the period of record. On the other hand, the maximum rainfall in a given month is often six or seven times greater than the monthly average. While the maximum figures for the individual months have seldom been within the same year, the recording of several rain— less months in succession is not uncommon. In fact, at Cartavio there was no rain recorded at all during 1944 and 1945, and it was not until December, 1946, that the dry spell was broken by .13 inches of rain. Casa Grande's longest period without rain was twenty-six months, while Puerto Chicama once discontinued recording precipitation after only .30 inches of rainfall occurred during fifty- eight months! It is obvious from these examples that pre- cipitation within the valley is not only undependable but that the entire area would be a barren desert without some external source of water, gig., the exotic rivers. Historically, the principal source of water avail- able to the valley has been the Chicama River. While the emubunt of water supplied by the river is not great when connpared with several other Peruvian rivers, the relative abLlndance of arable land permits maximum utilization. The 3O Chicama Valley consequently ranks second among all Peruvian coastal valleys in total area under cultivation. Wallace E. Howell, in his study of weather in the valley, describes the Chicama River as follows: On the Pacific side of the divide . . . the grassland falls off abruptly into steep V—shaped ravines, relieved by less steeply sloping benches at disconnected levels mostly above 8,000 feet elevation. Below 6,000 feet elevation, nearly all slopes are steep and eroded. . . . In its lower course the Chicama is obviously an exotic river and receives no significant in— flow from tributaries or percolation. At inter- mediate levels, the nature of the river changes with the season; from some time after the begin- ning of the rainy season until its end, water reaches the river both as run-off immediately following rainfall and as infiltrating ground- water. During the dry season, the inflow becomes insignificant in this part of the valley too, and the small amount of rain that might reach it is re-evaporated into the air. Only at the very highest elevations does inflow continue through- out the year, and even there it is limited to infiltration of ground water for a considerable part of the dry season.8 The amount of water in the Chicama River varies markedly from month to month and from year to year. The average flow over a fifty-year period is 12,927 cubic feet per second. The highest rate of flow for a single year during the same period was over three times this amount (41,375 cu. ft./sec.), and the lowest rate of flow was lxass than one-third the fifty-year average (3,355 cu.ft./ 8Ibid., pp. 1 and 12. 31 sec.). The monthly averages, summarized in Table 3, show a similar relationship between high, low, and average rates of flow° While these figures of the rate of flow are for the period 1911 to 1960, if similar data were available for the period 1961-66 it would not be very different. The past few years have been very dry, corresponding to the several dry periods which reduced the flow of the river in the past. The most recent dry period began in 1958, and was of much concern in the valley during the initial period of field work for this study. However, the river was in peak flood stage during much of February and March, 1967, so the drought conditions have apparently been broken. During recent decades, and especially during the past few years when the availability of water has been erratic, the agriculturists of the valley have increasing- ly turned to wells as a secondary source of supply. Some of the first wells, however, were excavated to compensate for inequalities in the distribution of available water .rather than fluctuations in amounts. These wells were in use during the first years of the Twentieth Century, when the amount of ground water was thought to be almost limit— Jfiess. However, the expense of digging wells and maintain— ing; them prohibited their widespread use. Wells were 32 .m0I00a .00 .00ma .0004000Ea0 0300 04 3000 .00004000 .4 0a>00 «000300 mm0 «300 0000 ".>¢ 0000 “0000 mmmmum>m 000 mo :00: 00m «304 a00a «.>4 0m0m «00am 000000>0 >a000w m5m 00 m0 5m 00 a5 0ma 00m 00m 000 5ma 055 304 0mma 0m0 moma mama 000 a00 m5ma 000m 000m mm00a 00ama 0mmma 0040 0am 0ma mmm mam 00a mmm 0m0 a00a mm5m m5mm mmmm 50aa .>4 .000 .>oz .000 .0000 .034 >a30 0030 >02 .004 .002 .000 .000 0004000 0000 000 A000000 000 0000 040300 0000 .mm>Hm 4240000 .3000 mo 0040 mw< m m4mO»_DO_IU do: : .hu OOn. Alla! till!!! I l ' ’1'; I .haaIIOI III: IIHHH 0.252.: V A \v r m0<0c3¢c wom.3<> 3240.10 NIH mo mwmakdmm o=zozoow m 042 O_>< 4 E o «o: o. 06: m3: Ill 63 s, 3 ex .. ,mmmmm “O .w 06 araoo a «I m xxx. . . xx” [coral . ...\ It‘ll! a moz<¢o (ado "xx 4.. xxx... ..,. I 4:40.10 o xx ,xxmw AV.P all a. It!!! uzdu x. . xxx. 3.5.10 <0: .Ea : . xxx. 9. . 4. 02; am no.5; . s .. xxx. .35.. . .31 W voeltll .ptpaol ”Human“. ”"3”“. n “QOUOIU o . llflfivlllannyr aarrlnuq . IrtlaIIIOIIII onnlllac _ 1.1.133". :33. O.>032. 00 937.44 «or n h. .. .53... Any I 0:01:00 :1: to .L’l '0 III! at: ,Lila IN" II: III II 1 11:: $1. Ill: 00"]! am I v 0.8qu ~ (1. . 1(1.. .xuxx" . H. mm” . _ . onyx 13.... ....uunnuuuuuunuuuun.31.3... an“ .( «33:6 0 m3 .1 .33.... .,zinxzxxuxxxxzxux. z. 1 P“ Q . \A’a v. \A’ll ' Ill! Obit! l‘ .x 0.1 Juo duzwDU Ill/III]!!! ”umdm owl .Onome. 53 Paijan are located along the Pan-American. Paijan, the northernmost of the three, is about 360 miles north of Lima via the highway. Trujillo is about fifteen miles south of Chicama. Besides the Pan-American Highway, there are two other systems of paved roads within the valley. These are on the haciendas Casa Grande and Cartavio, both of which make use of large trucks in the hauling of sugar cane. Cartavio has about fifteen miles of paved roads, while Casa Grande's system consists of almost thirty miles. Thus, nearly all of the cane fields in the valley are within a few miles of a paved road. Two roads connect the coastal plain and the sierra. One leaves Ascope, which can be reached by paved roads from Hacienda Casa Grande, and goes east to what was formerly Hacienda San Antonio before turning to the northeast and crossing the divide out of the valley. This road can be followed to Chilete and Cajamarca. The second road leaves the Pan-American Highway at the town of Chicama and closely parallels the Chicama River to its headwaters. The latter is about one hundred miles from Chicama and some fifty miles from Cajamarca. These dirt roads are little more than paths and are often blocked by huaycos or landslides during the rainy season. The type of country traversed in the upper valley is reflected by part of the Sunchubamba route, between Haciendas Campoden and Salagual, which extends 54 for a straight—line distance of about three miles but a road distance of more than twenty miles. Both roads are classified as vehicle trails and are little traveled. Major routes enter the sierra from the Jequetepeque and Moche valleys but not from the Chicama. In addition to the paved roads, a network of un— paved roads covers the irrigated parts of the lower valley. Every field of sugar cane has some access road, and it is only in the uncultivated areas that access is difficult. This is not to imply that access to all fields is easy, since many are reached only by devious paths. Former fields are often practically inaccessible, due to irri- gation canals which act as barriers around the present limits of irrigation. However, access to almost any area within the lower valley is still much easier than to most areas in the upper valley. The railroad system in the valley is extensive, although the total track mileage is gradually being reduced. There is no longer a rail connection with the Moche Valley, so all exports leave either by truck or through Puerto Chicama. Two of the haciendas, Casa Grande and Chiclin, operate private railroads, with the Casa Grande system by far the larger (125 miles of track, as compared with about fifteen for Chiclin). Both of these railroads are used to transport sugar cane from the fields to the mills, the cane from Chiclin being hauled to Cartavio and that from 55 Casa Grande to its own mill. The railroad at Casa Grande is also used to transport sugar from the mill to Puerto Chicama. A fairly complex system of portable track is used on both haciendas. Track is laid directly into the sugar fields after the cane has been cut. Cane can there- fore be loaded onto flat cars and hauled into the mills without being handled twice, as would be the case if the cars were not loaded in the field. Much of the Casa Grande railroad is along the southern side of the river in an area where access by truck would be difficult. The only port in the valley is Puerto Chicama, which is wholly owned and operated by Hacienda Casa Grande. This port consists of a single long pier which permits the direct unloading of railroad flatcars to lighters, for transport to ships anchored a mile or more offshore. There are five airstrips in the lower part of the valley, designed primarily for private use by personnel of the haciendas. One is located near Nepefia on Hacienda Cartavio and has been used for a Grace and Company plane on regular flights to and from Lima. The other four strips are located on Hacienda Casa Grande and are used mainly as supply bases for aircraft used in cropdusting. All transportation facilities in the Chicama Val— ley, except the Pan-American Highway and the two roads to the sierra, are intimately connected with sugar operations oo< m