ABSTRACT

STANDARDS FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN SYRIA

by Najati Ibrahim El—Imam

InSpired by thier fine taste and culture, the Syrian people through
the ages created a vast domain of commercial and industrial enterprise,
and they built big cities. By its nature the city is a permanent in-
stitution whose purpose is to shelter the continuing activities of people.

The Syrian people have gathered in cities to exchange their mutual
welfare. This is an age of industry and technology, and the urban tex-
ture accommodates the Syrian economic and social system. By the year,
1956, the number of urban dwellers had increased to one—third the total
population. The Syrian cities are scarred by congestion and corruption,
faulty experiments and ugliness. It is not the desire of the Syrian
people that their cities and urban communities be so built. It is rather
their desire and ambition to create fine cities to accord the require-
ments of science, technology and new inventions of this remarkable age.

The Syrian urban dwellers during the last two decades, have been
fleeing from the city in Search of relief from the ugly evils of con-
gestion in the old sectors of Damascus and Alleppo. This has never
meant to raise the question of decentralization versus rebuilding. This
was an outward movement under the pressure of new waves of overspill
that sought dwelling space in the vicinities of the two big cities,
Damascus and Aleppo. The central problem is to accommodate this over-
spill in small, compact and healthy urban environment.

Thus far, expansion has sprawled in the form of scattered homes

1

2 Najati Ibrahim El-Imam
over the available outlying orchards and countryside. This has provided
an outlet to the congestion in the outmoded living environment within
the old sectors of the cities rather than a means to accommodate grace-
fully the expanding urban population. It has not been guided by the
conceptions of planners, progressive civic leadership in business and
governmental administration. In brief, it lacked coordination, sys—
tematic direction, and inspired design.

Stability depends upon the quality of the new developments them-
selves. It also depends upon the quality of the other inherited urban
environments and those that will follow. Stability is dependent on the
physical, social and economic standards at which a community maintains
itself, the improvements and maintenance of existing facilities and the
standards it demands for future improvements. These standards show the
difference between healthy and degenerated urban environment.

Urban growth is, in some respects, similar to organic processes in
nature. All urban activities and functions are separable. The only
case in which they may be isolated is that of sprawl, and, for that
reason, sprawl is bad and destructive to the urban texture.

Urban development requires continuous responsibility, all contrib-
utors act together and interdependently. The degree to which the ef-
forts of these contributors are integrated reflects the ambitions and
aspirations of the community; the responsibility and social interactions
of the Syrian citizens. When the efforts of those contributors to the
urban deve10pment are unbalanced, absolescence develops and the community
declines. Progress becomes inert, the community no longer provides a
successful commercial and living opportunity, and the environment de-

generates.

3 Najati Ibrahim El-Imam

The real plans for the Syrian cities are the standards of the
physical environment as prescribed by the living habits, social econom-
ic and educational activities. The implementation of these standards
imposes a singular responsibility upon the citizen as must be self
evident. It is the obligation of the Syrian urban dwellers to deter—
mine the standards they deem appropriate for the urban environment and
translate these standards into effective codes. It can be fairly stated
that this reSponsibility has been accepted with intelligence and ambi-
tion by the Syrian citizens. Damascus is an arena to that fact. If
the Syrian urban dweller will bring improvement to the urban environ-
ment, it is the duty of the people, civic leaders in politics and bus-
iness to assure this responsibility with courage, integrity and impar—
tiality to serve the public interest.

Since the principles and plans applied for the physical develop-
ment of the community set the standards for that development, it is im-
portant to examine, re-check and change the effect of these principles
and the potentials for progressive improvements in them. As a matter
of fact, the urban developments themselves bear evidence to the inef-
fective principles and bad physical planning.

The standards and master plans mold the urban environment progres-
sively, but, it is the responsibility Of the Syrian urban dweller to
avoid drifting this environment into a state approaching anarchy.

As a basic solution for the physical planning dilemma, this study
designates the areas of the proposed new community-unit and the various
urban land uses: residential, commercial, recreational, transportation

and open Space. It Spells out the density of land use in terms of

h Najati Ibrahim El-Imam
population or building coverage; it specifies the areas for multiple
housing and single dwellings.

This study will establish the allocation of the heiye or neigh-
borhood units, centered by the educational institutions, shopping stores
and other servicing facilities. It is the study which sets the stand-
ards to a sound comprehensive and health urban growth. This study
establishes sound standards for major highways, minor arterials and
local streets network as well as the pedestrians sidewalks and malls.
These standards as prOposed in this study will help in the integration
of the vehicular and pedestrian circulation systems. This study forms
the foundation for zoning ordinances, and the precise plans for parks
and recreation, the location of schools, children and youth play areas,
the community center, social and recreational center and adult athletic
fields. No doubt that these standardized urban facilities will create
a decent Syrian urban environment and improve contemporary Syrian living

patterns.

STANDARDS FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN SYRIA

A SCHEDULE OF STANDARDS FOR COMMUNITY FACILITIES AND LAND SPACE REQUIRE—
NENTS AS RELATED TO THE DEVELOPMENT'OF.A THEORETICAL NEW COMMUNITY-UNIT
TO SERVE DAMASCUS, SYRIA. BASES OF CALCULATIONS AND DERIVATIONS FROM
ACCEPTED STANDARDS OF OTHER NATIONS ARE INCLUDED.

By

Najati Ibrahim El—Imam

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan.State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER IN URBAN PLANNING

Department of Urban Planning and
Landscape Architecture

1962

(g X?

i;

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author wishes to express deepest gratitude and sincere apprec-
iation to his advisor, Professor Myles A. Boylan, chairman of the Depart-
ment of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture, for his knowledge,
understanding and guidance toward the completion of this thesis.

The author also would like to express his hearty appreciation to
Associate Professors Robert B. Hotaling, Carl Goldschmidt, Joseph M.

Prochaska and Stewart D. Marquis for their criticism and critical read-

ing of the text of this study.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE
PART ONE: HUMAN SOCIETY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... 1
CHAPTER
1. HISTORIC BACKGROUND . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Glimpse in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Geographic Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Emergence from Subjugation . . . . . . . . .

mmascus oaSiS O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0
Late Medieval Urban Pattern

O\\J'LLUI\)|\)

20 NEW HORIZDNS o o 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 15

The Experience of Other Societies in Accommodating

New Urban Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Sweden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Holland . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Britain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

3. PROPOSAL: A BETTER SYRIAN URBAN SOCIETY . . . . . . . 28

Social Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Cultural Goals . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . . . . . 3h

PART TWO: PHYSICAL PLANNING AND LAND USE . . . . . . . . . . 36
Proposed Community Unit to Accommodate New Urban Growth37
h. LAND FOR HOMES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

No Planning Era—-Bad Planning Era . . . . . . . . . 39
The Urban Land Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . hO
Density Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . bl

5. LAND FOR COMMUNITY—SERVING FACILITIES . . . . . . . . 52

I. Land Requirements for Educational Facilities . . . 52
School Age Population Distribution . . . . . 53
Pre- School Facilities--Physical Planning and Space

Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Elementary School, Physical Planning and Space

Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Intermediate and Secondary School, Physical

Planning and.Space Criteria . . . . . . . . . . 67

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)

CHAPTER

6.

7.

8.

9.

PAGE

II. Land Requirements for Social and Cultural Facilities 69

Community Center, Physical Planning and Functions.
Age Distribution of Adults in the Population .

Criteria for Calculating Land.Area Requirement .

III. Land for Health Service Facilities
Elements of Health Service Facility.

Criteria for Calculating Land Space Requirement.

LAND FOR RECREATION . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pre-School Children Play-Area . . . . . .
School Age Youth Play—Area . . . . . .

Adult Athletic Field . . . . . . . . .

Passive Recreation "Community Parks" .
LAND FOR COMMERCE AND BUSINESS . . . . . . .

Historic Background . . . . . . . .
Present Economic Perspective . . . . . . .
FaCilities Needed 0 O O O O O O O O O 0 0

Criteria for Calculating Land.Area Requirement .

Land for Industry . . . . . . . . . .
LAND FOR TRANSPORTATION . . . . . . . . . . .

Land for Vehicular Traffic . . . .

Land for Pedestrian Walks and Malls for Internal

Circulation .. . . . . . . . . . .
Bus Terminal Station . . . . . . . . . .
Municipal Parking Lot . . .

Freight and Parcel Pick- -Up Service Station .

Taxi Cab Parking Station . . . . . . .
Other Facilities . . . . . . .

S WY 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Residential Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Educational Institutions . . . . . . . .

The Community Center . . . . . . . . . . .

Health Services Center . . . . . . . . .
Recreation Facilities . . . . .

Commerce and Business Facilities . . . .
TranSportation Facilities . .. . . . . .

iv

69
71
71

75
75
75

78

101

. 101

101
102
102
103

105

107
108
108
109
109
110
110

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Cont.)

PAGE
PART THREE: APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . llh
APPENDIX I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
APPENDIX II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
APPENDIX III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12S

10.
11.

12.

13.

1h.
15.

l6.

17.

LIST OF TABLES

Net Dwelling Densities, Bases of Calculations . . .

variable Net Residential Density and Land Coverage
Recommended for Areas of Multi—FamiLy Dwelling Units

Net Dwelling Units Density per one Acre if Residential
Land and Building Coverage . . . . . . . . . . . .

Land.Areas Recommended as Exterior Space per Habitable
Room of All Major Dwelling Uses . . . . . . . . . .

Land Requirements per 1000 Persons for Auxillary Land
Uses for various Gross Densities . . . . . . . . . .

Assumed Family Size and Age Distribution for Nursery,
Kindergarten and Elementary School Ages . . . . .

Assumed Intermediate and Secondary School Age
Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Space Requirements for a Pre-School Unit to Accommodate
Nursery and Kindergarten Functions for One "Heiye"

or Neighborhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Elementary School Site Size. Areas for Different
School Uses, and Total Area by School Age Population

Secondary School Site Sizes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Age Distribution of Adults per 1000 Persons . . A. . . .

Community Center Activities and Land Uses, Basis of
Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Community Center Land Uses, Lot Size, and Total Area
for 10,000 and 30,000 People Community . . . . . . .

Health Services Site Size . . . . . . . . . . . .

Bases of Calculation of Unit Space Requirements for
Play-Park Area for Pre-School Children 2—6 Years .

Bases of Calculation of Unit Space Requirements for
Play-Park Area for Elementary School Age Children

Bases of Calculations of Unit Space Requirements of
Athletic Field for Adults Aged from 18 and Over.

vi

PAGE

A6

A8

A9

50

51

SA

56

6O

66
68

72

73

7h
77

79

8l

83

TABLE

18.

19.

20.

LIST or TABLES (Cont.)

PAGE

Syrian Urban Communities Recreational Park Sizes Recom-

mended Total Area, by Type of Use and Population of

Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Space Requirements for Shopping Facilities for Dif-

ferent Sizes of Urban Developments and Use . . . . . 93
Standards for Highways, Streets and Pedestrian Walks. . 10h

APPENDIX I. TABLES

Application of Different Rates of Densities on Families

With Households that Range Between 3-h Persons With

Number of Rooms per Dwelling Unit . . . . . . . . . 115
Allocation of Net Residential Area Per Dwelling Unit,

To Major Dwelling Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Allocation of Net Residential Area per Dwelling Unit,

To Major Dwelling Uses for Multi-Family Dwellings. . 117
Analysis of Space Requirements of Unit Per Pupil for

Syrian Secondary School . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
Space Requirements by Standards for Syrian Secondary

School Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Estimation of various Gross and Net Densities and Its

Effect on Open Space Standards . . . . . . . . . . . 120

vii

LIST OF GRAPHICS AND PHOTOS

GRAPHICS
A Map Of syria O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O O O
A Graphic Presentation for a Schematic Grouping of Resi—
dential and Urban Facilities . . . . . . . . . . .

PHOTOS

An Aerial View of the Old Sectors of Damascus . . .

A Scene of a Street With the Abutting Houses in the Old

Sectors of Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...

viii

PAGE

121

10

13

PART ONE

HUMAN SOCIETY

CHAPTER 1

HISTORIC BACKGROUND1

A. Glimpse in Histomy

 

Owing to its geographical position, Syria has been well known
historically as the bridge of three continents, Asiz, Europe and Afica.
It has been the battle ground of many wars that have changed the face
of history. It has witnessed the wars involving the Phoenicians versus
the Greeks, Assyrians versus Egyptians, Greeks versus Persians, Romans
versus Parthians, Byzantians versus Arabo-Persians, Crusaders versus
Saracens and, more recently, the French versus the Syrians. As a
frontier, Syria has had only the briefest periods of security and
independence. Prosperity of this country usually went hand in hand
with systematic development. For example, Syria experienced stability,
security, a high standard of living and wealth during the rules of the

Romans (2? B.C.-28h A.D.) and Omayyads (700 A.D.-lO5O A.D.).

B. Geographic Characteristics

 

As a geographic region it is limited from the north by the Tourus
mountains of Turkey, the Arabic Desert to the south, the Euphrates
River to the east and the Mediterranean Sea to the west.

Nature and weather complicates living conditions. The Alawites,

Lebanon, Anti-Lebanon and the Hermon ranges of mountains influence the

 

lR. Fedden, Syria, An Historic Appreciation, London: Robt. Hale
Ltd., pp. h-39.

3
rainfall Season. The Orontes River runs from the south to the north.
The Euphrates crosses the northeastern corner of the region. The Barada
River courses for 100 miles creating the Damascus Oasis and then plunges
into a desert marsh lake; wasted, in an area that needs every drop of
its water for land reclamation projects; an example of irrational com—
bination of water and land resources. Where there is a sea of flowers
in Spring, there are absolute grassless plains and arid lands in JuLy.
Thus, types of vegetation in the mountains and hills, in the littoral,
and the inland are utterly different. This difference creates very un-
balanced income levels and standards of living between the farmers in
different parts of the country. These geographic and political factors
have played majorroles in the general decline of Syria and the atrophy

of its life over the last ten centuries.

C. Emergence from.Subjugation

 

The descendants of the men who presented to civilization the first
alphabet and a permanent numerical system, who explored the Indian Ocean
and West Coast of Africa. who contributed to the Greek anthology and
civilization, who harboured and preserved the refugee Greek culture from
Roman occupation and built the great basilica of St. Simeon Sty-lites
in Damascus were disorganized and impoverished by the incompetence of
the Fatimid Caliphs in Cairo (1350—1h20), ravaged by the holocaust of
the Mongal emperor Tamerlane (lhOO) and finally impoverished by the un-
compromising rule of the TUrks (1550-1915) and later by the French (1920-
19h8).

The middle of the nineteenth Century saw new horizons in the Syrian

history. This country, with a heavy load of debt and a painful heritage,

 

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began to draw a new plan of life and survival. Syria integrated itself
into the near-eastern countries and the Mediterranean family. The
economic development was obvious but slow; cultural and social develop-
ments were enormous. Western techniques were adopted to improve local
industries. Western educational methodology, clothes, and urban way
of life were adopted to improve the domestic life in Syria, and are

continuing to do so with ever—increasing effect.

D. Damascus Oasis2

 

To trace the urban growth of Syrian cities more specifically, a
description of some of the characteristics of such a city as Damascus,
the oldest city in the World, will illustrate this development. The
ancients were right when they called the Barada the "River of Gold".
Itliterally creates Damascus and its surrounding Oasis. The so called
oasis is a fertile land surrounded by arid and semi—desert areas. The
Barada River Springs from the anti—Lebanon mountains and flows to the
southeast irrigating the valleys and nourishing villages and life along
its way. Barada made possible the existence of this ancient city and
contributed more than anything else to its particular structure and
character.

The complex system by which this river is made to irrigate the city
and its suburbs dates mainly from the Aramic, Greeks, Romans, and
Umayyad periods. Turkish baths, bazaars, and inns bringing the echo
of gurgling and running water to the ears of the residents. To this

essential resource the old sectors of Damascus owe most of their charm,

 

ZIbid.

6
and private residences owe much of their atmosphere of leisure and com-
fort.

The history of Damascus, unlike that of many other cities, does not
have to be compiled from fragments of manuscripts or pages of books,‘

It exists in carefully located monuments and architectural remains that
tell the whole story and reflect the ages and events.

For most historians and archeologists the importance of the City
does not begin with the Aramic, Roman or Byzantine Damascus; they begin
with the period of the Umayyad's Caliphs who are famous for their effic—
iency in administration and executing improvement projects. Under the
regime of these Caliphs the town, as the Capital of the Islamic World,
witnessed its golden age; a hundred years of incomparable splendour,

from the middle of the seventh to the middle of the eighth centuries.

E. Late Medieval Syrian Urban Pattern

 

For a newcomer to Damascus and its Oasis, it is precisely the
Damascus character and Syrian tradition that create its charm. The
more it thoughtlessly imitated the West, the more it lost its charm
and oriental flavour. In the more interesting parts of Damascus, where
the influences of the West have hardly penetrated, a medieval tradition
of life and conduct exists unchanged.

Should a governor or "Wali" of the fifteenth and sixteenth century
return in a visit to Damascus he would recognize the same types of
craftsmen and artisans in the same spots where he used to see them.

He would find his way without difficulty through the twisting and tin-

roofed markets and bazaars, locating many of the crafts he knew in their

7

old streets. He would find the Thrkish public baths he used to enjoy
with his friends still in use. He would see the mosques at noon jammed
with rows of worshipers facing Mecca with confidence and dignity.

The town declined when Abbasides of the eighth century moved the
Caliphate (the capital) to Bagdad on the banks of the Tigris. During
the reign of Saladin and the Ayyubids in the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, the town re—built its glory and magnificence and there arose
countless buildings — mosques, bazaars, hospitals, khans, mausoleums,
monastaries, and public baths - which were a dominant feature of the.
urban pattern of this era. The Mongol invasion (lAOO A.C.) was so
completely destructive that it left the town in ashes and desert-like
conditions for two generations. However, the buildings that escaped
Tamerlane's holocaust in the year lhOO A.D. are still existing up to
the present time, a living record of its fascinating history. The
principal features of the Syrian city that have endured from the past
till the present time are: (1) the mosque, (2) the inn, or "Khan",

(3) the market, or "Suk" and (h) the homes and residential areas, or

"heiyes".

l. The Mosque

 

In the course of reviewing the medieval Syrian urban patterns of
Damascus and.Allepo, the visitor sees many fascinating architectural
features: the magnificent and balanced architectural massing of the
Tekkiyeh - Mohammaden monastary - of Sultan Salim; the pencil-shaped
minarets of the mosque, with arcaded Cloisters built in alternating
courses of black basalt and white stone, and capped with small domes

penetrated with glass discs; its basin of grey-green water and perpetu-

ally bubbling fountain.

 

 

 

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8

The great mosque which stands on the site of the temple of Jupiter
Damascenus was once the center of the early Roman town. Avenues lead
up to it from east and west. What makes the great Mosque's magnificence
is in fact its atmosphere and its mosaics - not its history. The court—
conveys a sense of Spaciousness and dignity in Spite of its silence and
echos. The stones are worn and dim. Some of the courses of masonry
are mortarless, and the arches are piled with faded decorations of red
and blue. All the features of the mosque show repeated adaptations to
particular circumstances and the flavor of time. When looking at
specific details, such as the massive northern minaret, one's interest
in history stirs. The mosaics show the Byzantine elegance and fine
craftsmanship; they are the wonder of the mosque. They exhibit a de-
sign that is a masterpiece of craftsmanship, made by Byzantine artisans

with a compromise that was characteristically Syrian.

2. The Inn "the khan"

 

The vaulted Azem Khan is another prominent feature of the medieval
quality of Damascus. This urban facility was built for the convenience
of the eighteenth century merchants and caravanists. It exhibits an
impressive facility of the caravan traffic which at that period brought
immense wealth and repute to the town. The Khan in general represents
a type of multi-purpose facility. It is built in the standard fashion
of the college of the past with four sides of a quadrangle centered
through an archway. A Khan is designed to accommodate not only a var-
iety of oriental goods but a number of merchants and travelers.

The first story (in.America the second story above the ground) is

divided into separate living quarters, while the ground floor consists

9

of a series of lock-ups for a safe storage of merchants goods. Stables
for the camels and horses of the caravan are included here along with
food storage vaults.l The courtyards with water fountains, planted trees
and bright sunlight round out the picture. The functions of Khans are
obsolete today; but because of their close proximity to the markets,

they are still used as handicrafts workshops and warehouses.

3. The Market " the Suk"3

 

The traveler, wandering through the Suks of Damascus in the old
parts of town would be surprised and delighted at certain local figures:
the sherbet seller with his leather geared lever, dressed in striped
Damascus silk of red and white; the student of the koran, in the dark
gown over a striped Silk robe; and the university of Damascus student
with his western type dress enthusiastically rushing to school. These
and many other types are as good examples as could be found combining
the ancient with the new, the East with the West.

Shops for gifts and oriental souveniers of Damascus include a
variety of the best articles of the Syrian artisans. For example,
there is the Damascus pottery of richness and elegance and the Turkish
and Persian imported carpets reflecting the colorful image of the or-
iental bazaar. The silver-hilted daggers, bridles, leather works, and
saddlebags of purely nomadic character are sold along busy streets
which cater to the Bedouins and supply the tools for local crafts and
livestock husbandry. In the neighborhoods there are other streets that
trade the modern textile, the Damascus silks and embroidered cottons and

silks which are well known to all fashion designers in EurOpe.

 

3Ibid.

 

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11

The creditable workmanship of the past Still exists. It has been
transferred from fathers to their grandsons through inherited taste based
upon traditions. The cunning glass blowers and leather workers still
resist the tough competition of the machine with patience and courage.
The smiths who tempered the world—famous blades, no longer exist. The
inlay workers still produce rich works famous for their elegance and
sense of design.

The fruits markets demonstrate the different products of Damascus
Oasis, some of the best fruits of the middle East. There are the multi-.
colored grapes with their different flavors, the apricots for which the
Oasis is famous, and the great, coral-colored water—melons that melt in
the mouth. One can also find the well known crystallized fruits and
candies of Damascus and the luscious Turkish sweetmeats and biscuits
stuffed with sugar and Turkish nuts.

The markets of Damascus and Aleppo have been described by many
romantic writers with all the atmosphere and contrasts familiar to the
reader of "Arabian Nights". Behind all this romantic glamour, however,
exists significant functional relationships between the huStle of the
markets and the supporting industrial—like activities. They-are in
close proximity to the warehouse and workshops where many of the com-
modities on display are manufactured and stored and where the merchants

and workers live.

h. Homes and Residential Areas "the helye"4,

 

Walking into the higher quality residential sectors of Damascus,
one will be surprised at the unattractive, dull and twisted lanes that

extend across those sectors.

 

411311, pp. A-32.

l2

Entering one of the private houses, one sees a prison-like exterior
facade, but an interior like a miniature palace. He would recognize a
dignified merchant-family life like that common to the fifteenth century.
The romantic traveler Warburton in the nineteenth century visited the
English counsul in one of these old Damascus houses. His description
is still fitting today.

entered from a dull street, by a low and unpretending portal - the

small outer court whence I passed into a garden, round three sides

of which the apartments ranged. A little lake of crystal water lay

enclosed by marble banks, and over shadowed by beautiful weeping

willows. Little fountainsleaped and sparkled in all directions,

and shook their loosened silver in the sun ... at one end of this

court, or garden, was a lofty alcove, with a ceiling richly carved

in gold and crimson fretwork. The walls were ornamented with ara-

besques, and a wide divan ran around the three sides of the appart-

ments, which opened on the garden and its fountains. Next to this

alcove niches and softened lighting falling on delicately painted

walls. In the middle of the room was an alabastar basin, into which

fell water from four fantastic little fountains.5

Some private houses of the high income people have typical design:
the house is entered through a lobby bordered on both sides by stairwells
that lead to the rest of the house. A series of rooms open to the
courtyard surrounded by a gallery. The ceiling of the gallery and the
reception saloon "divan" on the first floor, (American second floor)
covered with exquisite paintings in geometrical design. The rest of
the rooms are decorated with branches of flowers, and geometric orna-
ments combined with arabic inscriptions, set off by medalions of relieved
and colored plaster. The quality of the interior of the house reflects

the social rank and the level of income of past owners.

Passing through the middle class residential sector of the old city

 

51bid., pp. 25-26.

 

ii

 

!. .iq . 3:11 .fllilili “'1 I

t
1 li Illflli I."

 

DAMASCUS: The aged sectors of no-planning and bad—planning eras.
The twisted narrow lanes of the old city, buttressed walls, dormer
windows, solid facades, lack of sunrays, lack of fresh air and open space.

 

lb
of Damascus, one will be impressed by the narrow, twisted and terraced
lanes. These lanes are unaccessible to vehicular traffic, engulfed by
the solid exterior walls of the abutting houses. These walls are pierced
with dormer windows of enriched wood work; some walls are higher than
one and a quarter times the width of the abutting road, blocking out
sunlight and fresh air. Thus, huge areas in the old city could be label-
led as sunless and unsanitary.

The new developments which have been built during the recent era
of bad planning (1890—1930) to relieve the existing conditions in the
old city were not a complete success. In chapter four the writer will.
elaborate on the deve10pments constructed during this era and they will
be described in greater detail.

In the following chapter, some of the successful solutions that
other nations have achieved in physical planning for their post-war
urban problems are appraised. It is quite possible that the modifica-
tion of such solutions would be helpful for a better new Syrian urban

deve lopment .

CHAPTER 2

NEW HORIZONS

A. The EXperience of Other Societies in Accommodating New
Urban Development

In comparison to what other nations experienced in new urban de-
velopments, examples of new developments in Sweden, Holland and Britain
reveal possible guidelines for directing Syrian growth.

This chapter is not intended to be an analytical discussion or
chronological review of the urban problems of the countries mentioned
herein. The author touches very briefly on the broad aspects only of
some urban issues and new developments of these selected countries.

Syrian planners should benefit from the experience of other nations
who have worked out solutions for similar or different urban problems.
This experience will help to give some clues and to crystallize new
ideas and concepts which could be adopted with some modification to
suit the Syrian circumstances. Review of experiences of other nations
can offer evidence as to: How other nations analyzed their urban growth
problems, how problems developed and what forces lay behind them; how
solutions have been achieved and what objectives were accomplished in
solving the problems.

These three nations have been selected for review in terms of
these questions just stated. Selection was based on the validity of
the following conditions.

1. The existence of urban land problems.

2. Natural increase in pOpulation.

15

‘.r~‘

 

urn.-

 

’.
[I

“V

 

4.")
l"

 

~‘~

.“‘
1

l6
3. Necessity for the growth limitation of existing urban centers.
h. The development of a solution to solve the previously mentioned

conditions.

B. Sweden1

 

Swedish planners abandoned the old plans of Stockholm they had pre—
pared before World War II in response to the drastic demand for new ur-
ban developments caused by natural growth and immigration of population.
The old Stockholm master plan consisted of ring developments surround-
ing the core of the old town. One ring was for business, another for
industry and another for residences. All the areas were punctuated byy
green pockets of parks and open spaces. This concept was outdated by
World War II influences and new planning concepts.

By the end of World War II, the housing situation had deteriorated
badly because of many unforseen problems. The new solution was summarized
by a comprehensive master plan based on two principal objectives: (1)
an overall redevelopment project for the already existing older areas
of the capital city and (2) the construction of new self-contained com-
munities outside the built—up area of the metropolitan limits... a de—
centralization program.

Sweden is outstanding in terms of what has been done in relation
to Stockholm because of the existing condtions there.

Three farm estates known as (1) vallingby, (2) hasselby, and (3)

Racksta were chosen as the Sites of new development.

 

1W. vera Beggs, "Operation Vallingby", The American City Magazine,
July 1955, pp. 117-120.

 

l7

1. Operation vallingby2

 

Planning authorities of Sweden in their experiments for planned de—
centralization started with vallingby, the first organized Suburban de-
velopment in that country. This type of development started from a
dormitory village concept with fairly complete built-in social, economic,
and cultural facilities; but still politically tied with Stockholm.

Many of the sixty thousand persons who lived in this new town easily
found employment Opportunities near their homes; many others had to
commute between vallingby and the Capital City.

Mr. Sven Markelius, the eminent Swedish authority in town planning,
based his apporach to the whole planning process on the philosophy of
"The human being first". He said, "We require to be constantly reminded
that the aim of all this progress must be to serve mankind to build a
new world which represents a better way of life in the widest sense."3
This philoSOphic concept has guided the planning of vallingby. It has
more planning lessons to offer the big cities of out time than any other
recent urban development.

The factors behind the selection of the Site for vallingby were:
first, the availability of land for urban'development in conformity with
the Swedish codes leaving an ample space for public parks and new indus-
trial establishments; second, the existence of adequate tranSportation
facilities; third, the feasibility of extending municipal utilities such
as water, power and sewerage systems to the new developments.

The planning concept of Vallingby achieved the following objectives.

 

2Ibid.

3Ellis Clough Williams, Town and Countgy Planning,London: Longmans
Green and Co., pp. 32-h8.

 

l8

1. The preservation of the beauty of the natural landscape.

2. Flexible planning and manipulation of Space with green fingers
of open space penetrating the built-up areas.

3. The separation of pedestrian malls and walks from vehicular
traffic.

A. An integrated tranSportation system comprised of highways,
rapid transit and railroads linking vallingby with Stockholm.

5. A two-fold parking system to serve the shOpping center and rapid
transit terminal simultaneously.

6. The provision of community "centrum" as a civic center that
contains shopping and entertainment facilities with transporta-
tion terminal in a compact well—balanced unit.

7. The implementation of different residential densities that
range from high-rise apartments to detached cottage accommoda—
tions.

Three features of the vallingby deserve elaboration — the trans—

portation system, the centrum, and the residential areas.

2. Transportation System

 

The Vallingby site is ten miles from Stockholm's central business
district. Thousands of people during the peak hours jam the traffic
between home and work. To solve such traffic congestion, an efficiently
integrated tranSportation system was needed. Previously, there existed
the railroad that passes the northern territory, a main highway that
goes to the west, and the underground transit lines of Stockholm that
could be extended. These facilities were fused into one operational
system, that was designed to terminate in the underground floor of the

terminal station in the norther corner of the centrum.

l9

3. Vallingby Centrum

 

The second principal element is the vallingby Centrum, a physical
focus as well as a functional one. This Spacious centrum includes com-
merical, cultural, and entertainment facilities for a population of
over 60,000 people.

People can feed into this centrum by many ways. Pedestrians can
walk to its malls through carefully designed systems of sidewalks. Bi-
cycle riders can reach it through special cycling routes. Private
drivers and main transit riders can get in through the terminalstation
and parking facility, both neatly located on the edge of the centrum.
Vallingby Centrum demonstrates efficient multiple land use accommodat-

ing all the facilities needed for 60,000 residents.

h. vallingby Residential Areas

 

A new comer to vallingby will notice the gradually increasing
height of residential buildings as they near the centrum. The high—
rise apartments on one fringe of the Centrum indicate the grouping of
a great number of people who prefer to live close to the core of the
community where the higher density exists. The homes of aged persons
have been appropriately located, bordered by the centrum on one side
and open green space on the other.

In a lower density beyond the high—rise apartments, there are med-
ium-height apartments buildings for large families with children. These
apartment blocks are carefully designed so that there is ample space
available for the use of all residents.

Beyond the apartment block areas, row houses and cottages in a
very low density are available for those who own cars and prefer to

live in the fringes of the community. vallingby exhibits the best

2O
thinking in residential areas. The whole town is subdivided into
neighborhood units, or residential sectors, each with such neighbor—
hood facilities as nurseries, kindergartens and shopping stores, skill-
fully located in green pockets, within walking distances convenient for

children and housewives.

C. Holland

1. The Land and the People

 

According to the census of 1951, the Netherlands had a population
of ten million persons living on 3 million hectares (7.h million acres).4
Thus an average denisty of 333 persons per square kilometer (.385 square
mile) makes this country one of the most densely populated areas in
Western Europe. By 1970 it is expected that the population will grow
by 2 or 2.5 million. The ministry of Reconstruction and Housing eSti-
mated in 1955 that not less than 800,000 dwelling units will be needed
for the next 15 years; to balance the existing housing shortage and to
provide housing accomodations for the natural growth of the population.

The population is densely concentrated in the Western provinces
where the seaports of the country, the industrial towns along the navig-
able rivers, the centers of commerce, ship building and other local
industries are located. For example, "Randstad District" the industrial
core of the Netherlands, which has a total population of 3.5 million,
is expected to absorb most of the anticipated population increase.

At the present time, there are strong local trends to urbanize the

agricultural suburbs in the vicinity of the big cities, thus creating

 

4"United Nations' Urban Land Problems, Policies," Housing and
Town and Country PlanningLBulletin 7, ST/SOA/SER. C/F., pp. 98-1011.

 

 

..
nxv

r4

 

 

 
 

21
sharp conflict in land use policies. Where there is a need of land for
urban development, there is also a need of land for cultivation and
production of food and fiber. The land shortage and the continual pop-
ulation increase make it very essential to rationalize land use within
a frame of natural resources policy.

The traditional skill of the Dutch people in land reclamation has
continued since the 16th century. A long series of draining and land-
reclaiming-activities developed greater technical efficiency. One—
fifth of the land area of this country lies below the average sea level,
which has been won and maintained through continuous struggle with the
ocean. In total, five "polders"—-regions of land under sea level-- have
been reclaimed Since 1916, to bring the total area of gained land to
5h6,000 acres.

Big municipalities of the Netherlands followed systematic land
acquisition policy. Half a century ago, the City of Amsterdam pioneered
in acquiring its own tracts of land for development. Other municipal—
ities have acquired title to substantial properties which they develop
for residential purposes. The objectives of municipal land policy have
been stated by an official of the Hague, a quarter of century ago as
follows.5

1. Sufficient lagd should always be available for the City's growth.

2. The municipality should guide the develgpment of the new areas,
and should anticipate in advance the need for land for schools
and other public buildings and for recreational facilities, so
as to assure the availability of sites at minimum costs.

3. The increase in land value resulting from the development of

these areas Should redound primarily to the benefit of the
community.

 

 

 

 

 

5
Ibid.

22

These recommendations are just as good today as they were a quarter
century ago.

Water canals are used as roads in carrying freight, passengers and
urban traffic in this country. The bicycle or boat is as important to
the Dutchman as the car is to the American. Houses are built without
porches or outdoor living areas. In the more recently finished parts
of the Zuyderzee polders, buses and trucks play a dominant role6 in
tranSportation. The school bus is already in use in these parts. More-
over, the ordinary bicycle has been replaced by the motorized one, es—
pecially in the unsheltered and windy parts of the country. In the
residential and industrial regions, the scale of development is deter-
mined by the speed and mode of transportation. Motorized transporta-
tion permits light densities whereas canals and bicycles permits more

dense development.

2. New Urban Developments

 

Rutterdan was destroyed during the bombing of World War II. In
the course of restoring the residential sectors of the city, the Dutch
constructed neighborhoods of at least 3,000 people to justify the estab-
lishment of minimum.urban facilities. Dutch planners modified the con-
cept of the neighborhood unit in the restoration of their community
structure. They considered the neighborhood as an urban nucleus and
located the nursery, rather than the elementary school in the center
of the unit and developed their own formula for the rest of urban growth.
Their formula reflects their urban planning philosophy and social under-
standing. They believe that the growth of a town develops out of four

four concentric circles.

 

6J. T. P. Bijhouwer, "The Netherland Landscape," Forum, the Nether-
lands Magazine of Architecture and Applied Arts. pp. 9-22.

23
l. The family as the basic unit of the society.

2. The neighborhood, with the nursery as focal point, populated by

 

3,000 to 5,000 people.

3. The community with elementary schools, churches, big shopping cen—

 

ters, well balanced traffic and street patterns, and an administra-
tive center. Its population ranges from 15,000 to 30,000 people.

A. The urban district where the young people contribute to social and

 

cultural activities in secondary schools, concert halls, theaters

and where housewives shop in highly organized centers.

In this way the big city will be composed of such urban districts
as reflect rational land use, cohesion, and strong functional interrela-

tionships.

D. Britain

1. Limitation for the Urban Growth

 

"London shall grow no more." This was the decree of Queen Elizabeth
I in the 16th Century. But London continued to grow in spite of all the
decrees and measures imposed to stOp the natural growth of the big city.
The capital, like many other British cities, witnessed the birth of the
industrial revolution (1765) and was the stage for its successful develop-
ment. The towns expanded with no planning (1500—1750) or with the bad
planning of the laissez-fair era, the period of the late 18th and early
19th Centuries (1750-1870) when cities expanded without effective plan-
ning policy and control.

The modest court stenographer, Ebenezer Howard, was the first man
to plant the seeds of the new town policy. Howard was influenced and

pushed by the evils of all phases of urban life in the industrial

211
British cities. Howard's book, "Tomorrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Re-
form," explained his proposals for a new solution to the endless urban
sprawl.

Many distinguished philOSOphers such as George Bernard Shaw, Sir
Raymond Unwin and Fredric J. Osborn, and later Lewis Mumford, Clarence
Stein and Clarence Perry advanced his philosophy. The first applications
of the garden city approach were achieved in two garden cities, Letch-
worth, (1903) and Welwyn, (1917).

The extraordinary loyality of such people to the concept of the
garden cities, limited their awareness of many of the shortcomings
of new towns. At the time there were drastic obstacles for carrying
out this idea; the enthusiastic people pushed aside these obstacles so
that the eXperience could survive in Letchworth and Welwyn. Whatever
the judgment that planners and others may form in criticism of the ex-
perience, the initial concept has been realized despite all the mistakes,
and the financial and administrative obstacles. The two small towns of
Letchworth and Welwyn were built and proved to be living solutions to
the problem of urban sprawl. These Garden Cities pioneered some sig—
nificant physical planning innovations in Britain:

1. Careful grouping of compatible uses such as, residential separated
from commercial and industrial.

2. A form of residential sector originally labelled as a "neighborhood".
3. The employment of the green-belt ring for twofold benefits — firstly,
the control of future expansion of the built-up area of the small
City, and secondly, the provision of scenic and recreational area.

b. The incorporation of urban land ownership for effective land man—

agement by local government.

25

World War II imposed new determinants and influences on physical
planning philosophy in Britain. Planning literature, research studies,
and planning projects turned to such new problems as unmanageable size
of cities, the need for comprehensive planning, the need for natural re-
sources policies, industrial population dispersal, etc. Mr. William
Ellis reviewed the issues of the time in his book "Town and Country
Planning":

When a city or town has swollen to an unmanageable size, when its
traffic is jammed, when its country has been pushed out of reach
and peOple are forced to live in dirt and noise and darkness, it

is Surely humane, sensible, and even good business to replan and

rebuild with more trees and grass and open spaces and amenities of
all sourts, and with fewer people. But where are the people thus
diSplaced to go? Are they to be housed by yet more planless sprawl,
yet more ribbon-building? . . . . . We've tried that and we don't
want any more of it.7

London is a good example of all the evils caused by maldistribution
of land use and of bad planning inherited through the decades. It is
unbelievable that the amount of built-up—area added to its urban limits
between World War I and World War II, was as large as its entire area

in 1918. This growth was partially unplanned addition of new chaos to

the old.

2. New Towns

The exciting, simple two words — New Towns - were the promising
answer to the urban chaos. Since 19h5 approximately a dozen new towns
appeared in carefully selected positions in a ring around London with
a radius of some thirty miles from the center.

As vallingby was to Stockholm, the new British towns were planned

primarily to stop the unmanageable size of London by housing the surplus

 

7Ellis Clough William, op. cit., pp. 32-118.

26

population. Then the new town’s project developed into a national land
use and natural resources policy, within comprehensive regional planning
projects.
Mr. William Ellis briefly described the new towns' functions and
urban facilities.
Each New TOwn so far envisaged in the Home Counties is only a part
of the Greater London Plan, into which it must fit harmoniously.
Each will be carefully and individually zoned; where will be indus-
trial, shopping, residential and recreational areas, with parks and
playing fields separating ward from ward, and wards themselves form—
ing compact and recognisable social units. The optimum population
of 60,000 already referred to means that each town will be big
enough to allow the main TOwn Center and the chief municipal and
other amenities to be on a generous, even a handsome scale.8
The new towns opened new horizons for the urban dwellers in Britain,
and the results attained up to the present time show the success of
the British venture.
In those new towns the British planners crystallized the concept
of Ebenezer Howard whereby the garden city is concerned as a residential
entity. The towns were subdivided into a number of neighborhoods some
of them as high as five to ten thousand inhabitants to justify the es-
tablishment of a nursery, kindergarten, infants and grammar schools.
Neighborhood shopping centers were located in convenient areas for the

housewives. In conclusion the towns were designed to serve as social,

cultural, educational and economic units.

531.17%:

The main objectives of all the reviewed philosophies of physical

planning as applied to new urban developments, are first, to stop the

 

8Ibid.

27
uncontrolled growth of the city, and secondly to accommodate the over-
spill in new towns. The new towns are composed of several neighborhoods,
each a compact residential sector, constructed within the confines of
green Open areas, integrated with common urban facilities, such as schools
and shopping centers. These objectives will be emphasized in applica—
tion to what might be needed for new urban develOpments around Syrian

Cities.

CHAPTER 3

PROPOSAL: A BETTER SYRIAN URBAN SOCIETY

This chapter is not intended to be an empirical review of social
problems, nor to submit proposals for the solution of such problems
that endure within the Syrian Society. What is intended is the review
of social goals that might be achieved through sound physical planning,

based upon social needs.

A. Social Goals

 

The labor force of Syrian urban population is comprised predomin—
antly of workers engaged in industry, crafts, art, professional work,
government services and small businesses. The actual figures for those
employed in various industries during the summer of 1953 and early l95h
were l32,h00.1 This shows a large ratio of industrial pOpulation in a
country considered to be primarily agrarian. This trend reflects in—
directly the fast develOpment and progress of the Syrian region toward
urbanization and industrialization.

Social life in Syria is a true picture of Syrian culture as in—
fluenced by the following significant forces: first the Arabic cultural
heritage; secondly, the physical environment; thirdly, the religious
traditions; and fourthly, adaptations of the western culture.

The old walled city of Damascus that dates back to the fifteenth

and sixteenth centuries had been comprised of three principal sectors

 

iNichola Ziadeh, Syria and Lebanon, New York: Frederick A.
Praeger, pp. 236-261.

 

28

29
or quarters: Moslem, Christian, and Jewish. This Showed some kind of
social partitioning as inherited from the medieval age. Such partition—
ing has been vanishing gradually since the early twentieth century. In
the new urban developments in Damascus and Aleppo, the income factor is
dominating social grouping rather than the religious factor.

A tourist or passerby might be unable to recognize any big differ-
ence between the Syrian urban environments of thirty years ago and those
of today. But Syrians are aware of the progressive Changes and develop-
ments occurring in their society. In fact, changes are really deep in
the complete sense of the word, even within the religious, occupational,
social and neighborhood groups. For example, a religion and Arabic
culture used to form the basis of values, but recently some of the west—
ern cultural values have been adopted. No one can tell to what extent
the latter is being absorbed by the Syrian Society.

Social patterns and manners of living influence physical planning,
but physical planning can also help to correct social problems. In
urban Syria, problems are created by the following social patterns:

(1) Conservatism and rigidity of living habits. (2) Excessiveness of
privacy for each family. (3) very strong family ties. (h) The lack
of community organizational activities. (5) The lack of public initia-
tive, and (6) Middle and low income status of many of the people.

How effectively can physical planning solve such social problems?

O

1. Physical Planning and Social Interaction

 

Dr. John P. Dean2 of Cornell University indirectly answered the

 

2John P. Dean, "The Neighborhood and Social Relations," Philadelphia
Housing Association, Paper 3, April, 1958, Forum.

30
question as to how far physical planning influence social problems.

The kinds of social relationships 3 given family will develop in
a residential area depend on two sets of factors: (a) the composi-
tion of the family and the activities, organizational ties, and
social habits of the individual members and (b) the types of families
and individuals that live in the locality, the organizational life
of the area, and the nature of the informal social activities and
interactions that take place there. The second set of factors is,
of course, determined in part py the physical layout of the area
and the facilities such as schools,pplaygrounds, community services,
and shopping areas that service the locality.

 

 

 

 

Some of the findings emerging from Cornell University's various
community studies seem rather obvious when achieved and stated, but they
are of significant value to physical planning. Most people, the Syrian
people included, develop a pattern in their daily activities. A sort
of "beaten path" stretches from home to work, then back to home, to
lodge meeting and back to home. The weekend includes a visit to the
Mosque, or to the church, perhaps a visit to relatives, or close friends,
or an excursion to a public park. Then the pattern repeats.

For the average Syrian this "beaten path" is a narrow walk of life
that exposes him to three, four, or maybe five different social environ-
ments-—that's all. Each of these environments imposes on him its social
pressures, its values and standards of behaviors.

As mentioned above, the physical planning and community_facilities

 

 

stimulate and develop inter-action among Syrian family members. In
fact more and more evidence suggests that members of families are in-
fluenced by their living environments in a manner that neither the family

members nor the urban planner, nor the social scientists realize.

2. Planning For the People

 

The question is now being asked how far social physical planning

of new urban developments will improve the old situation: Will self-

ishness and poor social relationships, give way to good neighborliness

31
and sociability, and will the sharp interest in local and national af—
fairs and cultural pursuit continue to develop? The answer depends on
the extent to which the structure of a new urban development is designed
to foster and to stimulate the desire of Syrian urban dweller for a
better life.

The intimate social life of the outdated "heiye" or neighborhood
of the old city of Damascus engenders a natural feeling of community.
Everyone knows his neighbor's troubles, feel that their welfare is his
own concern, and can take his part in the discussion and adoption of
collective remedies for common ills. Also, the "heiye" as a place of
social interaction and community activities, exposes the family to ex—
periences and gives the children an opportunity to intermix with others
of their own age as well as with older Children. This experience has
its benefits and its drawbacks, but generally it exposes the children
to experiences that develop their growth and maturity.

In comparison we Shall now turn to a review of some new suburban

developments around Damascus.

3. New Extensions--Bad Planning vs. Good Planning

When the new extensions of urban development spread the suburbs of
Damascus into a sprawling, shapeless mass of masonry and concrete, their
density became blurred along with the civic sense of their inhabitants.
The community in these poor developments became a remote environment
rather than a fact of everyday experience. The individual could no
longer make his voice heard by the vast multitudes of his neighbors.
There no longer existed an opportunity for local opinion to crystallize

and find effective response.

32

In some extensions, narrow front setbacks and poor facade design,
interrupt the privacy of the apartments that are facing the streets.

For the dweller who is accustomed to the privaoy of the old city houses,
it is very discomforting and irritating.

Thus, these new extensions, in short, had lost touch with their
citizens. It is hardly surprising, then, that most of Citizens lost
interest in an organized growth of Damascus.

Even in the western culture, the sociologist Louis Wirth in review-
ing social ills as related to planning, said,

The distinctive features of the urban mode of life have often
been described sociologically as consisting of the substitution
of secondary for primary contacts, the weakening of bonds of kin—
ships, and the declining social significance of the family, the
disappearance of the neighborhood, and the undermining of the tra—
ditional basis of social solidarity. All these phenomena can be
substantially verified through objective indices. Thus, for in-
stance, the low and declining urban-reproduction rates Suggest that
the City is not conducive to the traditional type of family life,
including the rearing of children and the maintenance of the home
as the locus of a whole round of vital activities.3

For a better result in these new urban developments, experiments
are needed in which physical planners, architects and sociologists
would work together in order to analyze the relationship between physi—
cal urban design and social interaction. The conclusions would make it
possible to progress toward the goals that society deems desirable - the
nourishment of the community and true social self-expression.

An urban environment can be designed to promote a large amount of

social interactions by providing many contact points, and at the same

time to assure great privacy by allocating the space required to conform

 

3Louis Wirth, Community Life and Sogial Policy, Selected Papers,
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, "Urbanism as a Way of Life."
pp. 110-132.

33
to Syrian social patterns.

Desirable social contacts4 are the results of more than just time,
and proximity, since they may flow from ease of meeting, the layout of
the new extension should assist these social goals. The extensions
should be large enough to provide social relationships and activities.
Yet they should be small enough to operate as real social cells in
whose life every individual can take an effective share.

Privacy is, in large part, an individual matter. Each will find
it in his own way. The planner's job then is to designate the space
criteria to help achieve privacy in the new urban developments.

The "Heiye" or the neighborhood, as an urban extension unit, should
be a nucleus based on the home and the school. It should include a unit
of schools from nursery to elementary schools--and dwellings to incor-
porate an average cross section of the population. In this self—con-
tained unit all facilities for daily family activity -— schools, markets,
parks -- should be within a walking distance of the dwellings. This
organic cell should possess the best qualities of the "small towns",
without sacrificing the variety of opportunities available in the large
city. ’

In conclusion, the large new developments should be grouped and in-
tegrated in wider inter-woven organizations to form an urban community
or district large enough to justify the establishment of high schools,
branch libraries, community centers and other urban facilities that

offer social benefits.

 

4James Dahir, The Neighborhood Unit Plan, Its Spread and Acceptance
(Selected Bibliography) New York: Russel Sage Foundation, p, 38)

)

3A
B. Cultural Goals

 

As mentioned in the first chapter, due to political and weather
catastrophes, the Syrian region has suffered serious damages and draw-
backs. These experiences led the Syrian people closer to each other.
They have become more friendly, more interested in their neighbors and
more fully aware of their social responsibilities.

At the present time, political activities are apparent in mild
clashes between power groups. These clashes center around improvements
projects such as land reform, irrigation, housing, education, health
services and social security.

Culturally, the Syrian people in urban areas are showing an increas—
ing enthusiasm for music, dramatic arts, new concepts of Western litera-
ture. The trend in response to these cultural currents is to absorb
and localize the Western concepts to add to the Syrian culture rather
than to adopt them in a senseless, blind imitation.

The naked adoption of Western culture imposes tremendous strain on
the social and cultural patterns of the country. How is the Syrian to
preserve all of the fruitgul Islamic and Arabic culture, adopting only
what he lacks from the Western culture, thought and technology, and work—
ing a stable framework of ideas with dignity? These are problems to the
Syrians that exceed all others in importance. The thinking people of
the country will have to solve these problems during the coming genera-

tions.

1. PhysiCal Planning Establishs Cultural Institutions
One of the progressive elements in the design of new urban units

is the educational system--extended to include nursery and kindergarten

35
for the very young, secondary schools for the youths, and night classes
for adults. Educational structures5 will not be "mere school buildings
where children and youths are to be educated". The secondary school
campus as described in chapter five on land use will probably be the
strongest social and cultural institution in Syria when the facilities
are available for more community activities.

The cultural and social prospects of any civilization can only be
enjoyed to their full in an urbanized community of a certain size and
compactness6. No matter to what extent communications and tranSport
may be improved, the new urban development still remains essential to
Civilization and prosperity. What that urban development should have
in the way of industries and optimum population, of commercial and bus-
iness areas, universities, Schools, movie theaters, clinics, public
halls, museums, and public libraries, and so on is a matter‘ about which
most of us still speculate.

Piecemeal developments which had seemed very promising made the
Syrian urban environment uncomfortable. Fewer and fewer remained in
the old City who were willing to put up with the unpleasantness for the
sake of its cultural and social advantages.

The cultural goal that has to be achieved is primarily a higher
intellectual standard for the average Syrian individual by making opti-
mum use of community facilities. These facilities are suggested by the

author in the following land use chapters.

 

51bido , ppo 37-38 0

6Ellis Clough Williams, Town and Country Planning, Longman's,Green
and Co. London, p. 20.

 

PART TWO

PHYSICAL PLANNING AND LAND USE

36

PROPOSED COMMUNITY-UNIT‘TO ACCOMMODATE NEW URBAN GROWTH

In chapter two, the necessity of examining other nations' exper—
iences was cited. For example, the British "New Towns" system, designed
primarily to help in decentralization of the industrial population, was
described. In Holland, the use of the neighborhood concept with a pop-
ulation of 3,000 as the nucleus for the new urban development serving
Rotterdam was analyzed. Vallingby, a satellite town serving Stockholm,
Sweden, was seen as a "village"-dormitory, a completely separate physi-
cal unit with partial economic independence, but without political
autonomy.

These examples all show the use of the physically-separate unit of
urban development, with or without political autonomy, as a solution
for accommodating surplus population from dense urban concentration.
They are sufficiently representative to suggest the use of this concept
as a means for accommodating increased urban growth in such Syrian
Cities as Damascus. Namely, new urban units, physically separated,
serving as residential satellites, preferably with some economic base
operations of their own. The size of any one unit may not be big enough
to allow for economic and political independence, and thereby would have
to rely heavily on Damascus for economic and political nourishment. It
would have to be carefully located on a site that would make it easy to
extend municipal utilities within reasonable costs. It would have to
be close enough so that its dwellers would not suffer from traffic de-
lays and difficulties in their daily trips from home to work, and vice—

verse. 0

37

38

The proposed new urban develOpment will be designed in accordance
with the concept of a series of residential "heyes" or "neighborhoods",
as the nuclei for the new community-unit. Each "heiye" will accommodate
2500 persons and, collectively, will compose the total community. This
size of population for the "heiye" justifies the establishment of nursery,
kindergarten and elementary schools within a reasonable walking distance
of homes. The community-unit, then, would consist of four heiyes, each
with an approximate population of 2,500 persons. The combined popula-
tion of the four "heiyes" justifies the establishment of intermediate
and secondary schools that will also be used for adults in education
programs and activities.

Within the confines of the proposed community-unit, usual urban
facilities would be included in conformance with the author's concept
for optimum living environment for Syrian urban dwellers; for there
would be a library, dramatic arts theater, Syrian arts and crafts exhi-
bition hall, workshops, social and recreational indoor activities center,
playing fields, public parks, health services center and other facilities.
In spite of the fact that the population of the proposed new development
will rely on Damascus economically, a compact neighborhood shopping
market for purchasing convenience goods should be included. The mater-
ial in the following chapters presents a basis of justification for
the proposed concept of the community-unit and offers a schedule of
standards for development in keeping with the characteristics of the

Syrian people and their culture.

CHAPTER h

LAND FOR HOMES

A. No Planning Era-—Bad Planning Era

 

l. The "No Planning Era"

 

During the nineteenth century, large areas of the old cities of
Damascua and.Aleppo grew haphazardly. This indelible urban growth made
it impossible to renew the old cities without painful and expensive
operations.

After the period of no planning in the nineteenth century, there
next arose a period of bad planning. The new developments were planned
and built in immitation of the European system of the apartment block.
These poor developments had been constructed without any basic study or
analysis of the fundamentals of urban growth, such as analysis of pop-
ulation characteristics, residential density standards, land use analysis,
and urban community facilities.

At the present time housing problems in all Syrian urban communi—
ties have reached intolerable conditions and are creating a very serious
dilemma. There are many factors contributing to this acute problem.
Some have deep foundations in the Syrian culture and manner of living
as previously mentioned in Chapter 3. Others have developed during the
last two decades as a consequence of the industrial and agricultural
boom following World War II. Another impOrtant factor was the contin—
uous rapid increase of population. The expansion of families was so
high that the demand for new dwelling units exceeded what the home
builders could manage to build.

39

No

B. The Urban Land Problem

 

The major cause of present housing inadequacies is the defective
and incompetent urban planning that has occurred since the early 1930's.
However, planning has been basically hampered by a scarce supply of
developable land for urban development. Nobody had been aware of the
natural growth of the population and the perpetual expansion of the
City which had doubled its built—up area in the last four decades.
Damascus as the focal point in the Damascus Oasis, is surrounded by
extremely fertile and productive orchard land. Home builders prefer to
develop these lands because of their proximity to the city and the ease
of development and economical extension of municipal utilities. In
general, there is an abundance of arid land that should first be uti-
lized for expansion development; but such lands are more costly to
develop and are farther out from the developed urban fringe.

Under the pressure of social and economic forces, new urban type
developments Sprawled over into the orchard land areas. Piecemeal
planning projects and partial solutions were worked out, one after the
other. Orchard land areas and naturally beautiful open lands were
abruptly changed from open use to dense use without any consideration

of relationship to the total living environment.

1. Steps Towards Solution to the Urban Land Problem1
In the way of submitting a permanent solution for major urban

centers, including Damascus, the following policies should be instituted:

 

1The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, :23
Economic Development of Syria. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press,
pp. 10—13.

Al

1. Land use survey as basis for development of effective land use
policies.

2. Land use policies to be drawn up for the control of urban
growth.

3. A comprehensive master plan for each major urban center.

A. The participation of the central government by controlling the
urban land prices and by purchasing large tracts of land in ad-
vance of need, establishing development standards, and even
specific Site plans, and finally supervising actual development.

5. The use of modern machinery in land development operations--
particularly the earth-moving equipment for reshaping land
forms, excavating rock, and reclaiming marshlands. Such equip-
ment can afford to reclaim big enough areas to help solve the
urban land—supply problem, and thereby eliminate this obstacle
to sound urban growth.

Residential land uses are the predominant occupants of urban areas.

In this chapter workable requirements for the residential land uses in
the proposed community-units are offered. The cornerstone of any criteria
for allocating development Space is density.2 It is on this basic stan-

dard that all other standards must be structured.

C. Density Standards

 

The relationship between the people and the amount of land they
need to accomodate their various activities may be designated by dif-
ferent methods. The major method to physical planning is an estimation

of the amount of land that a given number of people will require for

 

2Types and Definitions of which are included in the Appendix III,
of Technical Definitions.

A2
their dwellings, schools, commercial and business stores, recreatiOn
facilities, public parks, open spaces, and other associated needs. In
all this kind of research and analysis that involves what is known to
all planners as the calculations of density, or the density at which
land is occupied, there are two significant purposes.

The first is related to the £323 of land use. The density calcula—
tions are made for the estimation of land area needs by each type of
activity. Land area estimation should be carefully figured, since the
availability of urban land for an exact purpose is a complicated prob—
lem in major Syrian urban centers, especially in one the size of Damascus.

The second purpose is connected with.lizipg conditions. Density
calculations are provided for the achievement of specific standards in
new urban developments like the one proposed. This process of relating
living conditions to density calculations involves problems more compli-
cated than mere land need computations. It is essential to establish

the bases of calculations that must support standards for residential

 

development.3

1. Residential Densities4

 

Residential development is the biggest and fastest consumer of ur-
ban land; therefore, it is most important to develop workable standards
for this use before considering other land uses. As a basis for draw-
ing up residential standards for Syrian urban circumstances, some basic

development and environmental objectives should be first established:

 

3The Ministry of Housing and Local Government, The Density of
Residential Areas, London: By Her Majesty's Stationery Office, pp. 2-lh.

 

4Ibid.

b3

1. A sufficiency of living accomodations distributed among suit-
able variety of dwelling units.

2. These dwelling units must be grouped and arranged on the
ground so that living rooms get sufficient light, air and sun-
shine. In addition to this, it is necessary to have ample open
space surrounding all dwelling structures as a multi-purpose
outdoors area.

3. The Clusters of blocks of dwelling units should be conveniently
located in relation to stores, nurseries, kindergartens, ele—
schools, parks and other urban facilities required for the self-
containment of the residential sector of "heiye."

h. The residential sectors as a whole should be functionally and
physically related to the rest of the town allowing ease of
access and sound functional interrelationships with the other

sectors.

2. Density in Relation to the "Heiye" or Neighborhood
It is evident that within each "heiye" of the proposed community-
unit, there should be planned, in addition to dwelling units, certain
other facilities which the residents need which may be classified as
follows:
1. Convenience goods shopping stores to include sale of all food-
stuffs and drug supplies (See Chapter 7).

2. Personal service facilities to include barber shops and laundries,

 

etc.
3. Schools to include nursery, kindergarten and elementary units.

A. Public buildingg such as mosques, churches, and clinics.

 

Ah

5. Public open space in adequate amounts and location.

The amount of land required for the whole "heiye" will clearly de-
pend in part upon the net density of the residential pockets and also
on the amount of space devoted to the other facilities listed. Space
criteria for each facility will be presented in separate following
chapters.

Gross denisty is the scale by which the planner is able to gauge
approximately the total amount of land a given concentration of people
will require for their dwelling units and supporting uses. Thus, it
would appear that the fundamental relationship is one of people to
Space, and that a usable term in which to express density is the num-
ber of people occupying a unit area. This is the basis of the commonly-
used method of expressing gross density in "person per acre".

Any particular figure of persons per acre will not indicate the
manner the dwelling units are arranged on the ground. The people may
be housed in flats at a high net density but with a generous provision
of green common open Space, or alternatively, there could be no common
green Open space when people are housed in cottages and detached houses
at lower net densities. The land still accomodates the same gross fig-
ure per acre, but the figure is capable of conveying at once a general
idea of the distribution of people on land. The community planner in-
evitably faces the difficulty of including and evaluating the many vari-
ables that affect residential density calculations.

Density standards must be sufficiently flexible to permit applica-
tion to varying residential needs. For example in the proposed standards
it is recommended that the average dwelling unit consist of 5.5 rooms.

It could be split into two halves of two or three room units for small

AS
families, thus doubling the number of dwelling units without Changing
the land coverage rate.
In the pages following, bases of calculations and supporting tables
will Show a variety of applicable densities that suit residential needs

of the proposed community-unit.

3. One-Family Detached and.Semi-Detached Dwelling Units

 

The typical Syrian family, deeply affected by traditions, strongly
prefers a strict atmosphere of privacy for its living environment. The
one-family detached and semi-detached dwelling unit most completely ful-
fills this significant requirement. But it is apparent that not every
Syrian family can afford this type of dwelling structure. Only the
higher income families can afford the one—family detached house, and
the middle—income families, at least, might afford the one-family semi-

detached house.

A. Two Family Attached Dwelling Unit

 

This type of dwelling unit will comprise most of the built—up area
in any newly developed heiye as a middle class residential area. These
blocks of dwelling units can enclose communal interior green Spaces be—
tween each other and between other neighboring buildings. With adequate
landscape features they will create interesting and satisfying Spaces
which will enhance the environmental amenity. These areas will be
used by the middle income families and.will provide healthy, secure
dwelling accommodations with reasonable rents in interesting surround-
ings and sociably-balanced environment.

This type of dwelling is transitional between the single family

detached and semi-detached unit and the apartment flat of three, four

A6

The following residential densities are proposed as a basis of

calculating land space needs:

Table l.Net Dwelling Densitiesa: Basis of Calculations

 

 

 

 

 

Lot size per Net Land
Dwelling Type Dwelling Structure area per family
feet meters sq. ft. sq. meters
a) one-family 60 x 121 21 x 32 7260 672
detached
b) one-family 100 x 83b 33 x 25 A150 A12
semidetached
C) two-family 90 x 120b 30 x 36 5AOO 5A0
attached,
two story
d) one-family 30 x 90* 9 x 27 2700 2A3
attached (row)
e) two-family 53 x 100 16 x 30 2650 2A0
semidetached
f) multi-family See Tables "2" and "3".

*Plus 33ft. or Elmeters side yard between each 10 units.

 

aThe standards in this table are adopted from the American Public
Health.Association book--Planning the Neighborhood, pp. 37, modified to
suit the standards of new urban developments in Syria.

bThe area shown for two families.

A7
and five stories. The author has detailed this type of dwelling unit
into different densities as shown in Table 1 of Appendix I for more ef-

ficiency and variety in the layout of this type of dwelling.

5. Multi—Family Dwelling Units
Multi-family dwelling density as related to number of stories and
land area covered per family is most usefully figured on the basis of

the number of rooms per acre rather than dwelling units per acre.

A8

Table 2. variable Net Residential Density and Land Coverage Recommended
for Areas of Multi-family Dwelling Units.

 

 

Number of Dwelling Total Land % of Land Rooms per Persons

 

Stories Units b Area, d Covered by net Acre Per
Per Acre Sq. Ft. Buildings Acre
"covered by Grossc
building"

2 10 7vo 16.2 55 SO
2 l2 8AA8 19.5 66 6O
2 1A 9856 22.6 77 7O
2 18 12672 29.0 99 9O
2 22 ISASS 35.0 121 110
3 27 12672 29.0 1A8.5 135
A 28 9856 22.8 15A 1A0
5 3O 8AA8 19.5 165 150

 

aThis table is adapted from the American Public Health Association
Committee on the Hygiene of Housing book, Planning the Neighborhood,
Table 3, p. 38, modified to suit the Syrian circumstance, published by
the Public Administration Service, Chicago.

 

bFamily dwelling unit is 5.5 rooms for a household of 5 persons.

CPercentage of the ground floor area to the acre 7OAO/A3560 = .162.

dThese figures are obtained by multiplying the number of rooms (55)
by the number of the area of each room (256) then dividing by the number
of stories(2) = 55 x 256/2 - 7vo.

A9

Table 3. Net Dwelling Units Density per One Acre of Residential Land
and Buildipg Coverage. Recommended Standard values by Dwell-

 

 

 

 

 

 

ing Units.
Net Dwelling Densityb Net BuildingC
Units per acre of net resident- Coverage-"Percent
Dwelling Type ial land net Residential
Standard Standard Land Built over"
Desirable Maximum
One and Two Family
l-Family detached 6 9 16.7
l—Family Semi—detached 10 15 , 2O
l-Family Attached
Row Houses
2-Family Detached l6 l9 ‘ 31
2-Family Semi-detached
Multi—Family
2—Story 22 28 35
3-Story 27 32 28
A-Story 28 33 22.5
5-Story 30 35 19

 

3This table is adapted from.American Public Health Association
Standards published in Planning the Neighborhood, Table A, page 39,
modified to suit the standards of the proposed new urban development.

 

bThe dwellings meant here are those of Table 2 of Appendix I.

CPercentage of built up area of dwelling unit of 1A08 sq. ft. to
the land provided for the unit.

50

a
Table A. Land Areas Recommended as Exterior Space Per Habitable Room
of All Major Dwelling Uses

 

 

Area per Exterior Exterior spaceC
Space not per Habitable Room

Type of Dwelling Number
Dwelling Units per of Rooms Acre
Acre per Acre Covered by Covered by

 

 

é§:;,:: Buildings Buildings Sq. Ft. Sq. Mt.
2 10 55 7OAO 36520 665 62
2 12 co 8AA8 35112 532 A9
2 1A 77 9856 3370A A37 A1
2 ‘ 18 99 12672 30888 310 28
2 22 121 15A88 28072 232 21.8
3 27 1A8.5 12672 30888 208 19.A
A 28 15A 9856 3370A 221 20
5 30 165 8AA8 35112 213 20

 

aThis table is adapted from the American Public Health Association
book, Planninggthe Neighborhood, Table 3, page 38, modified to suit the
standards of the proposed new urban develOpment.

bFor design purposes an area equivalent to 15-25% of the developed

area for garages, roads, paths and miscellaneous.

CThis number is the quotient of the non—built up area in one acre

divided by the number of rooms per acre.

51

Table 5.a Land Requirements per 1000 Persosn for Auxiliary Uses for
various Gross Densities for Optimum Development

 

 

Gross Densities Acres of Land Required per 1000 Persons

 

 

 

 

ersons land uses
10 Shops Public Build- Service Total
per acre b
ings lands
10 1.1 1.8 0.9 3.8
20 0.9 1.3 0.8 3.0
30 0.8 1.0 0.7 2.5
A0 0.7 0.9 0.6 2.2
50 0.6 0.8 0.5 1.9
60 0.5 0.7 O.A 1.6
70 0.11 0.6 0.3 1.3

 

aThis table is adapted from the Ministry of Housing and Local
Government--London--Book entitled, The Density of Residential Areas,
Table 6, p. 3A; modified to suit the new community unit of Damascus.

 

bThis use will include schools of all kinds, mosques, churches,
hospitals, libraries, etc.

CHAPTER 5
MMRWMWMMSWRWWWHW%WMGMHHH$

As noted, the community—unit proposed herein as the means for
accommodating additional population of a city like Damascus would con-
sist of four distinct sectors, (heiyes or neighborhoods) each containing
such facilities and arrangements of land uses as to provide physical,
social and cultural unity. The facilities considered essential to
achieve this unity, over and above purely residential facilities, are
those that are community-serving in nature. In the sense that they 0c-
cupy land, they are commonly classified as particular "land uses". Land
Space is reserved in a community plan to accommodate these uses-—the
amounts of area determined by established standards.

In approaching determinations of land area needs for a new Damascus
community—unit, the following general categories of land use will be
used:

I. Land for educational facilities.

II. Land for social and cultural facilities (other than education).
III. Land for health services facilities.

Manifestly, varying amounts of land area are required for all of
these facilities and activities. The following space requirements are
offered as rules-of-thumb for calculations of Space needs for Community-

Serving facilities.

I. Land Reguirements for Educational Facilities

The Syrian educational curriculum of pre—college schools requires

the establishment of the following facilities:

52

53

a. Nursery Schools for children of ages from 3 to 5 years.

b. Kindergarten for children of ages from 5 to 6.

c. Elementary schools for boys and girls from 7 to 11 years of age.
d. Intermediate and secondary schools for boys and girls from 12

to 17 years of age.
A. School Age PopulatiOn Distribution

1. The Pre-school and Elementary School Age Groups

From the research and analysis made by the board of the International
Bank for Reconstruction and Developmentl, as shown in its report, 223
Economic Development of Syria, it was convenient to predict calculations
in terms of a population similar in structure to Syria's over-all popu-
lation, that is, by grouping the age groups of children, in every year
of age from 6 through 11 inclusive. Each year of age is found to com-
prise approximately 2.6 percent of the total population. This can be
calculated in urban areas only. The six years of age groups comprising
the pre-school and elementary school ages would, therefore, be:
2.6 x 6 = 15.6 percent of the population.

For example, in Damascus, Aleppo, and the proposed community-unit

the pre-school and elementary school age pOpulation will be as follows:

 

wan Population Percentage Pre-School and School Age
Population
Damascus AO0,000 15.6 62,AOO
Aleppo AO0,000 15.6 62,AOO

Proposed new
Community-unit 10,000 15.6 1,560

 

1The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Tho
Economic DevelOpment of Syria, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, pp. A52—A62.

SA

Table 6. Assumed Age Distribution of Children in Nursery, Kindergarten
and Elementary School Age Levels

 

 

1) Average size of family 5 persons

2) Age distribution of childrena
served by the Community
Children per Children per

 

 

 

Children by School age Group 1000 persons family
Pre-school from 1 - 2 1/2 years 62.5 .313b
Nursery school from 2 1/2 to 5 years'Inclusive" 62.5 .313
Kindergarten from 5 to 6 years "EXclusive" 25 .125
Elementary School from 7 to 11 years 125 .625
Total Children 1 - 11 years 275 1.376

 

aIt is assumed that there are 150 children of elementary school
age per 1000 persons of Syrian urban population. The 150 have been even-
ly distributed over the 6 years that include one kindergarten and five
elementary schools. This gives 25 children per 1000 per year of each
age which is very close to the figures mentioned before in the report
of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development.

bThis figure represents the population of the age bracket in one
family which is 5/1000 x 62.5 = 0.313.

55

For more accuraoy in school age population problems, an analysis
of school age distribution on the basis of the Syrian household of 5
persons and a sample of pOpulation of 1000 people is essential. The
author will adapt the standards and methodology recommended by the Amer—
ican Public Health Associationz, Committee on the Hygiene of Housing,
and will modify it to suit the Syrian circumstances.

The author would like to point out that statistical concepts have
limitations and it must be realized that the application of such statis-
tics must be continually examined as to reliability and brought up to

date to conform with new census figures or revised estimates.

2. Intermediate and.Secondary School Age Population

 

The percentage of the total population consisting of each year of
age of intermediate and secondary school students is 2 percent.3 This
level of school includes boys and girls of 12 to 17 years old. It is
evident that 6 x 2 percent, or 12 percent, of the total population of
an average Syrian Community consists of students of intermediate and
secondary school age and the following tabulation shows how this distri-
bution applies to Specific cities.

wan Population . Percentage Students of Intermediate
and Secondary School

 

 

Damascus AO0,000 6 x .02 = 12 A8,000

Aleppo AO0,000 12 A8,000

Proposed new

urban develop. 10,000 12 1,200
2

American Public Health Association, Committee on the Hygiene of
Housing, Planning the Neighborhood, Chicago: Public Administration
Service, p. A.

 

3The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, op. cit.
PP- ASS-A62.

56

Table 7. Assumed Age Distribution of Children in Intermediate and
Secondary School Levels

 

 

1) Average size of family 5 persons

2) Age distribution of students
including bays and girls at equal

 

 

 

percentages
Students (boys and girls) by Students per Students per
School Age Groups 1000 persons Family
Intermediate School from 12 to 1A years 60 0.30
Secondary School from 15 to 17 years 60 0.30
Total: 12 — 17 years old 120 0.60

 

aIt is assumed that by age groups there are 120 students, boys
and girls, of intermediate and secondary schools age per 1000 persons
in a Syrian urban population. The figure 120 will be evenly distributed
over the 6 years that include the secondary school. This gives 20
students per 1000 per year of age which is very close to the findings
of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, Committee
for the Economic Deve10pment of Syria. '

57

By applying the same analysis and tabulation used for the elementary
school children (Table 6), the distribution of children of intermediate

and secondary school age levels would be as shown in Table 7.

B. Pre—School Facilities, Physical Planning and Space Criteria

 

In the Syrian school system, pre-school facilities and institutes
are separated from the elementary school, either as a combination of
nursery school and kindergarten or by separating both as each case may
deem necessary. The nursery and kindergarten are considered as child-
care and transitional functions respectively. For this reason, the basis
of calculation of the nursery and kindergarten space requirements are

presented as separate analyses.

1. Nursery School

 

Space requirements for nursery school and the number of children
assigned to each school should be determined on the basis of size of
the neighborhood and the residential areas that each school is to serve.
It is important that reliable bases of calcuation for space requirements
be established so that each school facility will be used to its maximum.

The ministry of education regulations permit classrooms of combined
sexes for both nursery and kindergarten schools. Since these school
units are such an intimate and integral part of the residential areas,
it is fortunate that this combination can be used.

The table on the following page shows the bases of calculations
for space requirements for nursery school with allowance for outdoor

playing space.

58

Basis of Calculations for Site Space Requirements for Nursery School8

 

 

 

Number of pupils Lot size or equivalent in Net area per pupil
from 2 lZZ - 5 years sq. ft. in sq. ft.
A0 1/3 acre = 1A520 sq. ft. 363
for each additional 1/8 acre = 5AA5 sq. ft. 273
20 pupils
maximum capa ity 1/3 x A(l/8) = O.8A acres '
120 pupils or 386AO sq. ft. 322

 

aThis table is adapted from the recommendations of the American Public
Health Association, Committee on the Hygiene of Housing in the book
Planninggthe Neighborhood, p. A6, but the figures are modified to suit
the proposed new Syrian community—unit.

bNumber of pupils in the nursery school is tied to the size of
. neighborhood or sector of the community that the School serves and the
capacity might range from 20 - 120 children.

As regards the number of pupils per class or per supervisor, educa-
tional sources recommend a range of 15 — 20 pupils per supervisor or up
to 30 children under one teacher and one assistant. The total nursery
school capacity might range from 30 to 120 children. As previously Shown
in the school age distribution tables, there would be the following
number of children of nursery school age in the prOposed community-unit.,

For a pOpulation of 1000 persons . . . . . . . . . 62.5 children

For each neighborhood of 2500 persons . . . . . 156.25 children

For the proposed community—unit of 10,000 persons 625 children.

The author recommends two pre-school units for each of the four
heiyes comprising the proposed community-unit, provided that it is
functionally designed and constructed alone, separate from the kinder—

garten.

S9

2. The Kindergarten

 

As previously mentioned, the Syrian educational curriculum considers
the kindergarten as a second transitional step that transfers the child
from the atmOSphere of the home to that of the school.

A standard recommended by the American Public Health Association
considered most workable for application to Spacerequirements for the
Syrian kindergartens. Both indoor and outdoor Spaces are considered as
one Space to serve integrated functions.

The basic kindergarten room4 should be a self-contained one that
measures approximately 26 feet by 60 feet Supplemented by an outdoor

activities area of 90 feet by 90 feet.

Basis of Calculations for Site Area Requirements for Kindergarten.

Number of phpils Type of facility-area in sq, ft. Area per pupil

 

A0 26' x 60’ indoor self-contained 30 ft
kindergarten, 5th or 6th year room. Sq' °
A0 90' x 90' outdoors activity space 200 sq. ft.

 

AS mentioned earlier, it is customary to combine nursery and kin-
dergarten functions into one faCility. It is prOposed that each of
the four heiyes contain one combined nursery-kindergarten.‘ In such a
case the maximum number of children to be admitted to the facility could
be ignored because there will be more efficiency in management. For

combined facility the land areas shown in Table 8 are required.
C. Elementary School, Physical Planning and Space Criteria

1. Basic Considerations in School Planning

There has been very little study of education processes and needs

 

4American Public Health Association, Op. cit., p. 5.

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61
in Syrian schools. Both detailed and comprehensive data are needed to
support the standards proposed in this study; but in the absence of
available information, four factors are offered as basic considerations
for planning physical facilities for Syrian elementary and secondary
education.

a. The School Program.—5 This includes the academic curriculum,

 

athletic acitivies, and possible community organization activities and
should be accommodated in the school plant. Since a School building,
once built, must be used for a good many years, it is vital that all
possible foreseeable developments of the Syrian educational program be
provided for.

b. The Community Needs.- The up—to-date Syrian educational pro-

 

gram of this day is greatly different from that of a generation ago.
This change has come about gradually hand in hand with many economic,
social and cultural phenomena. There is convincing evidence that there
will continue to be educational developments in the future, and the
possibility of the use of school buildings and equipment for non-school
community purposes. Thus physical planning must give consideration to
expansion and flexibility, to meet the needs of the growing and develop-
ing Syrian urban communities.

c. Pupil Population to be Housed in Schools.— This third factor
determines the number and location of the school buildings. Taking into
consideration the lack of reliable statistical data; the determination

of future pupil enrollment is a very difficult problem.

 

5Walter F. Bogner, et a1, "Planning a School House for Tomorrow's
Citizens!‘ A report of a case study for Kingston, Massachusetts,
Published by the City Council, pp. 15-22.

62

In addition to community needs there are other factors that must be
known, such as, the trends of increasing population growth in the urban
areas, and the expanding birth rate provide perplexing variables in any
planning analysis. The planner must rely on his own judgment for reli-
able calculations. His plans should be primarily flexible to meet unpre—
dictable variations in ultimate need.

d. The economic Strength of the Community.- In Syria, local plan-
ning is a function of the central government including planning for
School facilities. This factor is strongly related to the implementa—
tion of planning proposals. The effectiveness of any local school sys-
tems, including the planning and implementation into ultimate construc—
tion depends very much on the economic well-being of the community as
that condition relates to tax-paying ability and general participation
in the educational process. The central ministry can carry forward
school programs much more effectively when the community can offer this
economic strength. In relation to school planning, it is a vital matter
to provide adequate funds for the research, planning and construction

of new Schools and education institutions.

2. New Policies Needed

In the absence of published reliable data, the author must offer
his own observations of the principal problems that impede the effective
operation of the existing educational facilities in Syrian cities.
Problems of curriculum administration and teaching are not included in
these considerations. The following factors are considered to be the
most significant obstacles to effective use of school sites and build-

ings:

63

a. The outmoded location and structure of a majority of existing
schools.

b. The lack of other school facilities besides the academic class-
rooms and laboratories.

c. The separation of sexes which imposes some economic and operation—
al pressures on the school administrators.

In an endeavor to cure some of the present Short comings the.
author wOuld like to suggest the following:

a. The availability of land for school facilities, play areas,
and parks is even a greater problem than that for residential uses. It
is most important that any lands acquired for these community-serving
functions be used to the fullest possible capacity. The "school—park"
concept, so well-developed in some American cities, is offered as one
solution to achieve maximum utilization of public facilities in Syrian
communities. The advantage of this system is well illustrated by the
following quotation:

It... combines a park, a school, and a playground, and similar
recreation facilities into a single functional unit for education,
recreation, and other community activities. The concept is greater
than just a grouping of these facilities on a single site. It is
a unit, the wholeness of which is its essential characteristic. It"
is a plant functionally designed to house and make possible an inte-
grated program of education, recreation, and community activities
suitable to the geographic area it serves. In addition to the economy
it represents in land use, construction, and operation, it repre-

sents a wholeness of environment in which integrated living in edu-
cation, recreation, and community life takes place.6

 

6TheAthletic Institute Description of the School-park Concept
Sylvania Township and Village, Toledo-Lucas County Planning Commissions,
School-park plans report, pp. 3A. Published by the Toledo-Lucas County
Planning Commission -

6A

b. The elementary school buildings have to be designed as a
school hhhpg§_i.e., a complex of buildings composed of separated aca-
demic classrooms and laboratory units for both sexes, with a combined-
use gymnasium, library, audio-visual hall, cafeteria and auditorium.
The use of these units by boys and girls in alternative time Schedules
will be a financial saving to the concerned authorities both in opera-
ting costs and teaching staff.

c. Accessibility to the school is very important. Elementary
and secondary Schools should be within walking distance for the pupils.
In the "heiye" they should be centered in the residential area and there
should be direct and safe home-to-school tranSportation routes for com-
muting students and instructors.

In establishing a basis of calculation for space criteria for the

elementary school space needs the area required per_pupi1 will be used

 

as a unit of measurement. The number of students per classroom will be
a maximum of A0 and a minimum of 30. As a rule of thumb, 16 square feet,
or 1.5 square meters, per pupil is sufficient for the traditional urban
school prOgram. In addition to classrooms, there are many other indoor
activities that require Space. The following activities are tabulated
to indicate the component floor and land areas needed for a complete
elementary school plant.

By extracting the elementary school population from the age distri—
bution, (Table 6) there will be 125 pupils per 1000 people, or 312.5
pupils for each heiye of 2500 persons. These figures include equal
distribution of both males and females. Theoretically there should be
an elementary school for each residential neighborhood of the new com-

munity-unit. The author subject to his experience is of the opinion

65

Analysis of Unit Space Requirementa for an Elementary School

 

Type of Facility

Space per pupilC
Sq. Ft. Sq. Mt.

Remarks

 

I. Indoors Areas

 

1.Classrooms and Labs

2.Multipurpose

3.Library and Audio-
visual facility

A.Arts and Crafts Studios

5.Auditorium
6.Cafeteria
7.Workshop

Total

11. Outdoors Activitiesb

 

School playgrounds
"not play—fields"

III. Playing fields on
basis of 1/2 acre or
2 Dunums per 1000 pupils

 

 

16 1.5
20 1.86
10 0.93
6 0.53
9 0.83
8 0.7A
6 0.56
75 6.98 or
7.00
5A 5
1/2 A 2000

 

including administra—
tion and services

(50x80)ft. standard for
schools less than 500
pupils

may be provided on
standardized basis

standard by ministry
of education—Damascus

 

aExclusive of playing field.

bPlayfields are excluded from this Space requirement.

CThese standards are adapted from British Standards by E. and 0.E.

in their book Planning, pp. 125—175.

buildings in the prOposed new community—unit.

They are modified to suit school

Table 9.

66

and Total Area by School Age Population

Elementary School Site Size--Areas for Different School Uses,

 

 

School Site

Neighborhood Population

 

Area

1000 persons

200 families

2500 persons
500 families

, 5000 personsC
1000 families

 

 

 

 

 

125 pupils 312.5 pupils 625 pupils
sqygt. sq.mt. sq.ft. sq.mt. sq.ft. sq.mt.
Component Uses
l'Indoors “585 9375 875 23A37 2160 A6875 A375
and activities
2.0utdoor uses
and playground; 6750 335 16875 1550 33750 3125
Total 16125 1500 A0312 3710 80625 7500
Total areasd Acres Dunums Acres Dunums Acres Dunums
in acres and
Dunums .37 1.5 1.12 3.7 1.85 7.5

 

aBased on providing 75 sq. ft.

bBased on providing 5A sq. ft.

per pupil or 7 sq. mt.

per pupil or 5 sq. mt.

CFor more than 500 pupils provide 65 sq. ft. per pupil for in-

doors activities.

dTwenty—Six percent of total areas should be added as a margin
for expansions for ten years to indoors and outdoors uses.

67
that it is more feasible to provide an elementary school campus for
every two adjacent neighborhoods. This is mainly because of the short-
age in teaching staff, and the plans of the Ministry of Education to
cut down maintenance and operating costs.

D. Intermediate and Secondary School,
Physical Planning and Space Criteria.

 

In the Syrian educational system the school program beyond element-
ary years actually consists of "intermediate" and "secondary" units.
However, to avoid confusion, one term "secondary", will be used to re-
fer to the school years of 7th through 12th grades. All the factors
and problems outlined in relationship to the elementary Schools apply
with equal validity to the secondary level.

The secondary school campus will be well-centered.within the resi—
dential areas, within easy reach of the pedestrian students as well as
to those traveling by vehicles.

As already mentioned, the secondary school campus has to serve as
a tool for integrating the community with the educational institutions.
In addition to the fact that the campus should be planned according to
the school-part system, the component facilities of the campus, such as
the gymnasium, cafeteria, library, audio-visual rooms, auditorium, and
playing grounds, could and should be used by the community groups and
organizations. For example, the gymnasium when designed as a multi—
purpose hall could be used for various adult group meetings, dramatics,
banquets, luncheons, and dances. The auditorium may be used for lec-

tures, general meetings, panel discussions, debates, films and concerts.

68

1. Space Requirements for Intermediate and Secondary School Sites.

 

As shown in Table 7, the proposed community—unit will have a second-
ary school age population of 1200 pupils. Again, it is assumed that
use of all facilities will be more or less equally divided between both
sexes.

The following table shows the site size of a complete unit of

intermediate and secondary schools for given population groups.

Table 10. Secondary School Site Sizes. Areas required for different
school uses, and total area required by community and school
age population.

 

 

Governing Population Factors

 

School Site

Areaa 10:000 People 15,000 Peeple 20,000 People

2,000 families 3,000 families A,OOO families
1,200 pupils 1,800 pupils 2,AOO pupils

Component School Sq.ft. sq.mt. sq.ft. sqgmt. sq.ft. sq.mt.
Uses and
Activities

 

 

 

1. Indoor uses and
activitigs in built 96,600 9,000 1AA,9OO 13,500 193,200 18,000
up areas

2. Outdoors uses and

 

playgroundsc(not 70,800 6,600 106,200 9,900 1A1,600 13,200
playfields) -
Total Areas 167,A00 15,000 251,100 23,A00 33A,800 31,200

3. Acres or Dunums 3.83 15.6 5.76 23.A 7.70 31.2

 

aMargin of expansion is ignored in the case of secondary school.
A drastic pOpulation increase would require a new school.

bBased on areas taken from Appendix I, Table A, 73 sq. ft. and
Table 5, 7.AA sq. ft. totaling 80.5 sq. ft. or 7.5 sq. mt. per pupil.

CBased on figures taken from Appendix I, Table 5, 59 sq. ft. or
5.5 sq. mt. per pupil-playfields are not included in this standard.

69

II. Land for Social and Cultural Facilities
A. Community Center, Physical Planning and Functions

The Community Center will be used for the following three major
activities that are strongly related to the welfare of the community:
(1) social, (2) recreational, and (3) educational. The activities to
be held in the Community Center of the proposed community-unit could
be accommodated within one building. But the great variety of commun-
ity-centered activities would be most effective is housed as groups of
activities. The activities will be accommodated in separate buildings
purposely designed so that the residents will be able to experience
the different activities to an optimum degree. However, a community-
center would be most useful if the many buildings housing activities
were grouped in a campus-type arrangement.

The social, recreational, and educational activities that might
function in this center are as follows: .

1. Educational activities to be held in a branch library for

 

science and arts. The size of the typical community justifies the
establishment of a branch library including a Special section for the
children to enjoy story-telling, movies and slide-Shows, reading and
other children’s activities.

2. Educational activities to be held in a Syrian Arts and Crafts

 

922295 to include an exhibition hall and workshops. The Syrian arts and
crafts workshOps and exhibition hall will aim to establish a permanent
demonstration and exhibition of the famous Syrian Arts and Handicrafts
in jewelry, brass, COpper and metal works, embroideries, and many other

local handicrafts and industries.

70

3. Social and indoor recreational activities to be held in a
Social and Recreational Center. The social activities center will ac-
commodate branches of all the Syrian urban community organizations in
a manner that will organize functions effectively. By having the com-
munity chest, charitable societies, red crescent and cross association
in one compact wing, they can operate and be in closer contact with the
community. The recreation wing will function as an indoor, active
recreation center for games, billiards, TV watching, lounging and many
other recreational functions. A

A. Educational, recreational and entertainment activities to be
held in a Dramatic Arts Theater. This is a very promising element of
the community center. It has the potential to stimulate the Syrian
people and advance their good taste and love for music and the other
arts. A well organized program of adult education or professional pro-
grams of arabian literature, staging, singing, and folk dancing will be
a good revival of the Syrian heritage in dramatic arts. The function
of this facility is similar to the author's concept for achieving the
Social and Cultural Goals of the Syrian Urban Society as explained in
Chapter 3.

5. Religious and cultural activities to be held in religious

 

institutions. Because the Syrians are a religious people, the designa-
tion of land for the use of religious institutions is essential for the
proposed new Damascus community-unit. In the Syrian culture, religious
institutions also accommodate mass activities such as occur on holidays

when the whole community meets to enjoy ceremonial festivals and feasts.

71

B. Age Distribution of Adults in the Population

An analysis of Syrian urban population indicates the age distribu-
tions that are significant for determinations of space requirements for

community center activities. (See Table 11).
C. Criteria for Calculating Land Area Requirements

The Space required for the great variety of activities that could
be accommodated in a community center are listed in Table 12, in accord-

ance with the area required per person for different sizes of population.

72

Table 11. Age Distribution of Adults for 1000 Persons.7

 

 

1) Average size of family 5 persons
2) Age distribution of adults by Adults per 7 Average Number
age groups. 1000 persons of Adults Per
Family
Youths 18 - 208 inclusive ‘ 60 .30
Adults 21 - 30b inclusive 160 .80
Adults 31 - A0C inclusive 180 .90
Adults A1 — 50d inclusive 120 .60
Adults 51 - 608 inclusive 80 .A0
Total Adult Population 600 3.00
Children of age 1 - 17 years
(see Tables 6 and 7) 395 1.96
Total POpulation 995 A.96

 

aAssume 60 youths per 1000 peOple for the population for three
years of age bracket making 20 youths per year.

bAssume 160 adults per 1000 people for 10 years making 16 persons
per year.

gAssume 180 adults per 1000 people for 10 years making 18 persons
per year.

dAssume 120 adults per 1000 people for 10 years making 12 persons
per year.

eAssume 80 adults per 1000 people for 10 years making 8 persons
per year.

 

7This table is adapted from the American Public Health Association
Committee on the Hygiene of Housing Book, Planning the Neighborhood, p. A
Table 1, modified to suit the Syrian circumstances.

3

 

73

Table 12. Community Center Activities and Land Uses -- Basis of
Calculation

 

 

l. Librariesa = The American Library Association Rule can be used as
a rule of thumb:

10,000 to 50,000 people, provide .5 sq.ft. or .OA7 sq.mt.
per person.
50,000 to 100,000 people provide .A5 sq.ft. or .OA25 sq.mt.
per person.
100,000 to 200,000 people provide .35 sq.ft. of .032 sq.mt.
per person.
2. Sygian Arts and Handicrafts Exhibition and Workshgps.
10,000 - 50,000 population = 1 acre site or A.OO DM.
50,000 - 100,000 population = 2 acre site or 8.00 DM.

100,000 — 500,000 population = A acre site or 16.00 DM.

3. Social and Recreational8
a) games = 6.5 sq. ft. or .60 sq. mt. per person
b) billiards = 7 sq. ft. or .65 sq. mt. per person
c) TV watching = 7 sq. ft. or .65 sq. mt. per person
d) lounging = 7 sq. ft. or .65 sq. mt. per person.
e) club rooms = 8 sq. ft. or .75 sq. mt. per person.

A. Dramatic Arts Theater. Entertainment Uses9
a) Audience = 6 sq. ft. or .55 sq. mt. per person
b) Orchestra = 9 sq. ft. or .8A sq. mt. per person
c) Choir = 6 sq. ft. or .55 sq. mt. per person

d) Dining halls, cafes and restaurants = 10 sq. ft. or .93 sq. mt.
per person

e) Conference hall = 6 sq. ft. or .55 sq. mt. per person
f) Dancing = 5 sq. ft. or 10 sq. ft. per couple, or 0.9 sq. mt.

5. Religious Institutions
For a community population up to 10,000 = 1 1/2 acres or 6 Dunums
For a community population up to 30,000 - 50,000 = '2 1/2 acres or 10 DM

 

aThese figures are adapted from the standards provided by the Amer-
ican Library Association, modified to suit Syrian circumstances. They
are roughly based on the maximum number of readers likely to be in an area
of a lending library.

8These figures are adapted from British and.American Standards mod-
ified to suit the new community-unit in Syria. Refer to E. and 0.E., op.
lg;§., and Community Builders' Handbook, Urban Land Institute, Washington

9Ibid.

7A

Table 13. Community Center Land Uses. Space Criteria, Lot Sizes and
TOtal Area for 10,000 and 30,000 People Community. (Service
radius, 1 - 2 miles)

 

 

Community Population

 

 

 

10,000 people 30,000 people
Community Center 2,000 families 6,000 families
Facility 6,980 adultsa 20,9A0 adultsb
Component Uses and Facility sq.ft. sq.mt. sq.ft. sq. mt.
1. Libra1_~yC 5,000 A68 15,000 1,A00

2. Syrian Arts and Crafts10 A3,560 A,OA6 A3,560 A,OA6
Exhibition Hall and Workshops

 

 

3. Social and Recreational

 

 

 

Facility
a. Games 1,900 177 1,900 177
b. Billiards(300x7) 2,100 195 2,100 195
C. TV watching lounge 2,100 195 2,100 195
d. Lounging 2,100 195 2,100 195
e. Club rooms 2,A00 223 2,AOO 223
Sub-Total 10,600 985 10,600 985

A. Dramahic Arts Theater11
a. Theater for play acting
music, concerts, Syrian

 

ballet 9,000 835 9,000 835

b. Movies Show hall12 9,000 835 9,000 835
Sub-Total 18,000 T:2;T:-' 18,000 1,670
5. Religious Institutionsd A3,560 A,0A6 65,3A0 6,000
Grand Total 102,720 11,215 152,500 1A,101

 

aSee Table 11 of age distribution.

bIbid.

 

CThese standards are adapted from the American Library Association
modified to suit the Standard of the proposed Syrian new community-unit.

dThis facility may be constructed as independent item and separate
from the community center.

 

10These standards are adapted from British standards of E. and 0.E.,
OE. Cit.) pp. 201-2190

111bid., pp. 208-211.
121bid., pp. 355—366.

75

III. hhnd for Health Service Facilities

 

A. Elements of Health Service Facility

 

The essential elements of health service facilities in Syrian urban
communities are the following:

1. Pre-natal and post-natal care clinics.

2. School and infant health service.

3. Community hospital services.

A. Examination and laboratory facilities for diagnosis.

5. Outpatient departments.

B. Criteria for Calculating Land Area Requirements

 

Bases for calculation of space requirements for health services
facilities are not needed. There are international standards develOped
by the United Nations, and influenced by local factors, such as:

l. The density of population where the health service center will
be located.

2. The health standard of the average individual and the whole
community.

3. The availability of doctors, nurses, and medical technicians
which some Syrian rural areas lack.

The five health service facilities considered herein will be con-
sidered on the basis of 2 square feet13 for each person in the community.
Hospital Space requirements and nurses' housing will be tabulated by
following the international standards that are considered acceptable and

practical for many countries.

 

13United Nations Health Organizations Standards Bulletin No. 35,
of 1953, Published by the United Nations. Modified to suit the Syrian
Circumstances.

76

Basis of Calcualtions for Space Requirements for Health Service Buildings

 

Type of Facility and Service Sq. Feet Sq. Meters
per person per person

 

1. —Child, school, infants, examinations
laboratory for diagnosis, X-rays, and

outpatient, clinics A 0.36
2. Area per bed in hOSpital 125 per patient 11.6 per patient
3. Nurses homes 250 per nurse 23 per nurse

A. Nurses need as staff for the

care of patients one nurse per 8 patients
5. Community hospital services b 10 beds per 1000 persons of
including maternity sections population

 

aThis standard is adapted from British standards and modified to
suit Syrian circumstances, See E. and 0.E., Planning, op. cit., pp. A07-

AlA.

bThis figure is adapted from Denver, Colorado intercounty standards,
modified to suit the Syrian circumstances. Urban Land, March 1961, of
the Urban Land Institute.

 

CThese standards are adapted from United National Health Organiza—
tions Standards Bulletin No. 35, modified for Syrian circumstances.

77

Table 1A. Health Services Site Sizea. Recommended Total Areas by Type
of Facility and Population of Community

 

 

Type of Facility Community Population 10,000
persons -- 2,000 families
Area Required

 

Square Feet Square Meters

 

1. General Health Services "To include A0,000 = 3710 =
child, school, infants examination, 0.92 acre 3.70 Dunums
laboratory for diagnosis, X—ray, and
outpatient clinics

2. Community HOSpital Services 12,500 = 1160 =
(100 bed) 0.29 acre 1.16 Dunums

3. Nurses” Homes (on basis of 250 sq. ft.
per nurse for 12 permanent nurses 3,750 3A5
plus 3 reserved)

 

 

TOtal in Acres and Dunums 56,250 sq.ft. 5215 sq.mt.
1.30 acres 5.21 Dunums

 

3All areas here are figured on basis shown in previous tabulation
of basis of calculations, page 76. NOTE: It is important to realize
that all of the Space standards offered are rules of thumb and should
be used as average figures.

CHAPTER 6
LAND FOR RECREATION

For the proposed community-unit extension of Damascus, school
buildings, parks, apparatus areas, and play fields will be integrated
for the well being of the whole community.

Neighborhood and community recreation in Syrian Cities can best
be met by the "school-park" principle (as noted in Chapter 5). The
scarce supply of land alone would justify this principle that provides

for multiple use of school properties.
A. Pre-School Children Play Area1

The following tabulation (Table 15) presents Space requirements for
play area of different groups of activities.

It will be recalled that the proposed community—unit will contain
four "heiyes" or neighborhoods, each to accommodate 2500 persons. From
the age distribution data (Table 6) there would be 250 children aged
2 - 6 years in one neighborhood. Assuming that the total area of 7250
square feet, shown in the basis of calculation is adequate for one
"heiye", the Space requirement of apparatus and general play area for

one "heiye" or neighborhood, would be:

 

Apparatus play area 7250 sq. ft. a
Children per "heiye" or neighborhood 250 children
Apparatus area per one child 7250/250 = 29 use 30 sq. ft.
Adding as general play area 20 sq. ft.

Total area per child 50 sq. ft.

 

1George D. Butler, Recreation Areas, their Design and Equipment,
New York: The Ronald Press Company.

79

Table 15. Basis of Calculations for Unit Space Requirementsa of play-
park for Pre-School Children 2 - 6 Years

 

 

 

Name of activity or game Dimension of Space R k
play area requirements emar S
1. Swings 3(20x25)a 1500 The number of
b units is-Optional
2. See-saw 3(1Ax10) A20 " "
3. Giant stride 30' diameterb 700 " n
A. Sand box 2(10x10)b 200 n n
5. Slide for young children 2(12x25)b 600 H n
6. Slides 6' high for b
older children 2(12x25) 600 " "
7. Climbing bars (lOXlO) 100
Total activities area A120
Safety zone 75%C of the
activities area 3130
Total site requirement 7250

 

aThese standards are adapted from the American Standards as recom-
mended by the National Recreation Association in the book, The New Play
Areas-~Their Design and thipment, pp. 37. Slightly modified to suit
Syrian circumstances.

 

bThese dimensions are international standards.

CThe 75% safety zone is an extra area to be added to and encircle
the play area for the safety of the players and the spectator children.

80

Total area per one "heiye" or 250x50 = 12500 sq. ft. or
neighborhood 0.28 acre or 870 sq. mt. = 0.87 dunums
Area for four "heiyes" h x 12500 = 50000 sq. ft.

= 1.15 acres = h.6 dunums.

 

aAs rule in American practice, it is impractical to provide recrea—
tion play area for less than 200 children. See Arthur Gallion, The
Urban Pattern, New York: D. van Norstand and Co., Inc., p. 283.""
The author arbitrarily recommends 250 children for one play area.

 

B. School Age Youths Play Area

 

The possible recreational unit as park-play area of 12,500 square
feet could be integrated with the nursery school and kindergarten facil—
ity provided each "heiye".

Children from 7 - 11 years of age need recreational areas. Mani-
festly the requirements for these older groups are substantially greater.
The following tabulation (Table 16) presents the basis of calcualtions
for the recreational Space requirements for this 7 - 11 age group.

Table 6, of age distribution shows that the children, aged from
7 - 11 years in the four "heiyes" of the whole community-unit total
1250 children. For calculating the Space requirement of apparatus and
general play area, it is assumed that the total area shown in the basis
of calculations on page 81 is adequate for the four "heiyes", and that

the following data is the result:

Play park area 50,810 sq. ft.
Children Aging 7 ~ 11 in four "heiyes" 1,250 children
Area per one child 50,810/1250 = no.6o sq. ft.
Adding hO sq. ft. per child for

general play area ho

 

Total area forthe children 480'66 sq. ft'
population aged 7-11 years 1250 x 80 = 100,000 sq. ft. or 2.3 acres
that equals 9290 sq. mt., or 9.29 dunums.

81

Table 16. Basis of Calculation of Unit Space Requirements for Play-Park
Area for Elementary School Age Children 7 - 11.2

 

 

Name of Activity or Dimension of Overall Space Area Required

 

Game Actual Play Requirements Sq. Ft.
Area Dimensiona
1. Basketball 35x60 ft. 50x70 ft. 3,750
2. Soccer ZDOXIZO ft. 260thO ft. 36,LOO
3. Handball 20x30 ft. 35xh0 ft. 1,h00
A. Deck tennis l8xh0 ft. 28x50 ft. l,h00
5. Swings 20x20 ft. 20x25 ft. 500
6. Paddle Tennis and

Badminton 20Xhh ft. 30X5h ft. 1,620
7. Volley Ball 25x20 ft. h0x60.ft. 2,h00
8. Rings 22x20 ft. 35Xb0 ft. l,h00
9. Horizontal bars 15 x 8 ft. 25x20 ft. 500
10. See-saws 3(thlO) ft. 3(2bx20) ft. l,hh0
_Total Area Required 50,810

 

8'This area includes the safety zone per each game.

 

2E. and 0.E., Planning, op. cit., pp. h63—h73. These standards are
adapted from the British standards modified to suit the standards of the
Syrian new community-unit.

82

It should be obvious that the community can economize if school
functions are carefully planned in conjunction with recreation functions.
As stated in Chapter 5, the use of the school—part system can benefit
all the residents of a neighborhood.

In analyzing the needs of play area space for children of ages
12 - 18, the intermediate and secondary school ages, it is recognized
that the same kind of play area is needed for this group as for the 7 -
11 age group. In addition, the dimension of each type of play Space
would be the same. Therefore, the gross Space requirement per youth
of 12 - 18 will be the same -- 80 square feet.

In the proposed community—unit, there will be 1200 youths. For
calculating the gross space requirement for apparatus and general
play area, it is assumed that the total area shown in the basis of
calculations on page 81 is adequate for the four "heiyes" and the fol-
lowing space requirements result:

Area per single youth 80 sq. ft.

Population of youths, aged 12 - 18 1200 youths

Total area of apparatus and general play 1200 x 80 = 96000 sq. ft. =
8900 sq. mt. or

2.2 acres or 8.9 dunums.

C. Adult Athletic Field

 

One athletic field should be adequate for active play needs of the
adult population over 18 years of age that will be residing in the pro—
posed community-unit.

The following tabulation (Table 17) shows the basis of calculation

of one athletic field.

 

3A Guide for Planning Facilities for Athletics, Recreation, Physical
and Health Education, Chicago: The Athletic Institute, Inc., l9h7.

 

 

83

Table 17. Basis of Calculations of Unit Space Requirements of Athletic
Field for Adults Aged from 18 and Over

 

 

 

Name of Activity Dimension of Overall Space Area
or Game Actual Play Requirement sq. ft.
Area (ft.) (feet)
1. Basketball 9h X 50 105 X 60 6300
2. Handball 20 X 30 35 X to 1h00
3. Deck Tennis 18 X hO 28 x 50 lbOO
A. Paddle Tennis 26 X ht 30 X St 1620
5. Swings 20 X 20 20 X 25 500
6. Volley Ball 25 X 50 hO X 60 2h00
7. Rings 22 X 20 35 X b0 lhOO
8. Horizontal Bars 15 X 8 25 X 20 500
9. Tennis-single 27 x 78
Tennis-double 36 X 78 60 X 120 7200
10. Athletic arenab (328 x 297) + 2nr2 = 97u16
to include: 2(fl1232) + (16 X 378) h7529
soccer, h running , 60h8
tracks, high jump,
javelin, long jump,
discus base.
Total Area 173,713

 

aThese standards are adapted from the Standards submitted by the
national recreation association in the book, The New Play Area, pp. 37-
80, and the National Industrial Recreation Association in the book,
Standards Sports Area, and British Standards of E. and 0.E. in the book,
Plannin , pp. L514E76—-a11 modified to suit the Syrian circumstances.

 

bSoccer field alone for adults could be (360 X 225) feet.

8h
For the purpose of calculation, the people likely to use this
facility are the adults aged 18 - hO. From the age distribution (Table
7) there would be 3,880 adults in this age group. So Space requirements

could be estimated as follows:

Athletic field total area 173,713 sq. ft.
Number of people most likely to use it 3,880 adults

Area per one adult 173713/3880 = hh.5 sq. ft. per adult
Adding 50 sq. ft. per adult open Space 50

Total area per adult for this type of

facility 9b.5 sq. ft. use 100 sq.ft.

Total area for the new community-unit

as proposed 3880 X 100 = 388,000 sq. ft. = 8.9 acres
or 38,800 sq. mt. = 38.8 dunums.

D. Passive Recreation: "Community Parks"4

 

There are no standards to govern this important land use which is
a necessity for Syrian urban development. The difficulty of acquiring
land in the midst of the built-up areas is insurmountable.

Many of the American standards published by metrOpolitan author-
ities the National Recreation Association, and the Urban Land Institute
while usual for American needs, are extravagant for Syrian conditions.
Even the rough standard of one acre per 1000 persons generally used as
a point-of-departure by American and European planners is much too lib-
eral for application to Syrian urban situations. In lieu of any degree
of precision, it is deemed reasonable to propose an arbitrary scale of
one-half acre per 1000 persons for community parks, that is, for non-

active types of urban open Space use.

 

4Arthur B. Gallion and Simon Eisner, The Urban Pattern, City Plan—
ning and Design, New York: D. van Norstand and Company, Inc., pp. 282-
290.

 

 

85
Application of this rough standard will yield 21.78 square feet,
or 2.00 square meters per person. Personal knowledge gained by the
author in his life-time supports this figure as being reasonable for
Syrian urban conditions and capacities. Overall, there should be pro-
vided no more than four acres, or 16 dunums, of community park for the

10,000 residents of the prOposed Damascus community-unit.

Basis of Calculation for Passive Recreation Space Requirements5

 

 

 

Type of Development Acres per Population
Community Park 1000-2000 2000—5000 5000—10,000

l. Zones of detached resi- ‘ 3/10 per l/h per 1000
dential dwelling units 1000 persons persons

2. Semi-detached and multi- 1/2 per 1000 b/lO per 3/10 per 1000

famiLy dwelling units persons 1000 persons persons

 

 

5These figures are adapted from British Standards as shown in the
book, by the Ministry of Housing and Local Government, The Density of
Residential Areas, London: Her Majesty's Stationety Office, pp. 33.
Modified to suit the Syrian standards.

 

Table 18.

Syrian Urban Communities Recreational Park Sizes Recommended

Total Area, by Type of Use and Population of Communitya

 

 

Type of Development
and

Community Population

 

 

 

 

2500 people 5000 people 10,000 people
component used 500 families 1000 families 2,000 families
sq.ft. sq.mt. sq.ft. sq.mt. sq.ft. sq.mt.
Active Recreation
l.Pre-School childrenb
play area, 2—6 yearslA125 A308 28,250 8616 56,500 17,232
2.Children PlayAreaC
aged 7—11 years —- -- 50,000 15,250 100,000 30,500
3.Youth Play Aread
aged 12-17 years -- -- A8,000 lA,6AO 96,000 29,680
A.Adult Athletic fielde
aged l8-AO years .__ -- -- —- 360,8AO 3A,3OO
Passive Recreation
f acres dunums acres dunums
5.Community Park —— —- 2.5 10 A 16

 

aSee tables of Basis of Calculation and Analysis.

bOn basis of 50 sq. ft. for one pupil of 113 per

COn basis of 80 sq. ft. for one pupil of 125 per

dOn basis of 80 sq. ft. for one pupil of 120 per

1000 of population.
1000 of population.

1000 of population.

eOn basis of 93 sq. ft. for one pupil of 388 per 1000 of population.

fOn basis of 1/2 acre for each 1000 of population, but not to exceed

A acres for 10,000 population.

CHAPTER 7

LAND FOR COMMERCE AND INDUSTRY

A. Historic Background

 

In reference to what has been said in Chapter 1, the Syrian people
naturally lean toward commerce and trading because of their country's
location between three continents.

Since the days of the Phoenicians, the dawn of Commerce, Damascus
and Aleppo, the main Syrian cities, have had the oldest markets or
"Suks" in the Middle East. Some historians counted as many as 139
Suks in Damascus.

Regional and local economic factors were behind the formation,
character and function of the Suks. They were unique in their charac-
ter, the organization and classification of individual enterprises being
based on and named according to the commodity, trade, or craft they
provided, e.g. tailor Suk, coppersmith Suk, and silk Suk. These Suks-
can still be visited in the old sectors of Damascus and Aleppo. Even
in the past, the Suks were strongLy and functionally related to other
urban facilties such as the khans, the workshops and the residential

districts. The photograph in the first chapter shows a typicallayout

of Suks from the last two centuries.

B. Present Economic Perspective

 

The older type of arrangement doesn't work in the new sectors of
Damascus and Aleppo because of the new developments in the whole economic

system and urban life in Syria. A systematic approach based on economic

8?

88

factors is very essential for the development of bases of calculations
for floor space requirements. This kind of approach can prevent such
problems as an oversupply of many commercial facilities, particularty
small marginal stores and provides a basis for determining fundamental
commercial space needs. A basic kind of information needed for any
sound analysis of commercial facilities space needs is the determination
of the purchasing power of the population and the conversion of this
data to actual floor Space requirements. This is a difficult task for

Syrian circumstances.

C. Facilities Needed

 

In recent years in America and Western Europe some very elaborate
and SOphisticated techniques have been perfected for measuring the
floor area and land area needs for commercial facilities in a given
urban center. Most of these techniques are based on potential purchas-
ing power, measurement of trade areas, and predictable shopping habits
that are based primarily on the use of the automobile.1

The Syrian shopper has unique characteristics that render these
techniques, referred to, inoperable; for the Syrian family is very er—
ratic in its shopping habits. Its volume and quality of purchases have
little direct relationship to family income. Most Syrian shOppers are
pedestrians; and they shop in the large, central, market place, leaving
scant economic opportunity for the development of suburban or neighbor—

hood markets. With this important qualification in mind, the following

 

lF. Stuart Chapin, Jr., Urban Land Use Planning, New York: Harper
and Brothers, pp. 303-327.

89

lists indicate those kinds of commercial facilities that are needed in

the Syrian community of today.

I.

II.

III.

Daity Conveniences and Service Shops

 

l.

2.

Bakety

Grocery

Butcher

Green grocery
Delicatessen shop

Sweets shOps

7.
8.

9.
10.
ll.

12.

Restaurants

Preserved and Conserved
foods shop

Nuts sh0p
Refreshments shop
Dairy

Cafes

13. News-stand and Tobacconist.

Shops for PeriodicalLy-Consumed Goods.

 

1.

2.

Pharmacy and drugs shops
Arabic drugs shop
Textiles shops

Clothing and Wear shop
Grains shop

Bookstore

Laundry shop

Glassware and porcelain

9.
10.
ll.
12.
13.
1A.
15.
16.

Fancy goods sh0p

Stationery shop

Barber sh0p

Fuel(c0al, wood and oils)
Souvenir shops

Furniture shop

Hardware and building materials

Beautician shop

Randi-Crafts Shops and Light Industries.

 

Tailors

Textiles workshops
Blacksmith
Carpentry "domestic"

Car repair Shop

6.

7.
8.

Furniture makers
Tinsmith
Leather crafts shops

Shoemaker shop

90
IV. Warehouse, Wholesale and Brokers Shops "Suk el Hal".

 

1. Vegetable and fruit brokers 3. Oils and dairy goods brokers

2. Grains brokers A. Miscellaneous storage

V. Public Service and Highly Skilled Professionals' Offices.

 

1. Banks 6. Contracting offices

2. Finance and auditing offices 7. Lawyers' offices

3. Doctors' "physicians" clinics 8. Foreign trade agency
A. Bacteriological labs 9. Other uses

5. Engineers' offices 10. Hotels.

D. Criteria for Calculating Land.Area Requirement

 

Because of the lack of any statistical data or prepared basis of
calculation, it was necessary that the author analyze and adapt the
techniques used by the American Public Health Association and the

British Planner Wilfred Burns, the author of British Shopping Centers,

 

as bases of calculations for commercial land needs. Difficulties have
arisen in adapting and correlating some of the terminology and principles
followed in the American Public Health Association and Mr. Burns'
techniques. The major obstacles were the differences in shopping
habits, manners of living, commercial commodities and purchasing powers.
For this type of facility it is apparent that in the Syrian case, the
area needed is less than that of the American because of the factors
noted. Relying on his experience, the author was obliged to develop
arbitrarily workable bases of calculation for this type of facility.

It is assumed that one—half of each "heiye" or neighborhood of the

proposed community-unit that contains 1250 persons or 250 families should

91
have at least the following facilities for their daily needs. This

need Shall be the basis for land area estimates.

1. Bases of Calculation for Space Requirements of Commercial and Bus-
iness Shops

 

 

 

 

Area
Feet Meters Sq. Mt. Sq. Pt.

I. Convenience and Service
1. Bakery 32.8x32.8 10 x 10 100 1075
2. TWO Grocery 2(16.AX16.A) 2(5X5) 50 5A0
3. Two Butchers 2(16.AX16.A) 2(5X5) 50 5A0
A. TWO Green grocer-

fruiterer 2(16.AX16.A) 2(5X5) 50 5A0
5. Sweets and Refreshments 16.A x 16.A 5 x 5 25 270
6. Dairy 16.A X .6.A 5 X 5 25 270

Total 300

II. Periodically Consumed Goods

 

Assuming that the purchasing power of 250 families justify the

following shopping facilities.

7. Clothing and Apparel shop 16.A x 26.2A 5 x 8 A0 A30
8. Textiles and Silks 16.A x 26.2A 5 x 8 A0 A30
9. Newstand and Tobacconist 16.A X 16.A 5 x 5 25 270
10. Glassware and Porcelain 16.A x 16.A 5 X 5 25 270
ll. FUrniture 16.A x 32.8 5 X 10 50 537
12. Barber 16.A x 13.12 5 x A 20 275
13. Miscellaneous 16.A x 32.8 5 x 10 50 537

 

Total 250

92

 

 

 

 

 

 

Area
Feet Meters Sq. Mt. Sq. Ft.

111. Handicrafts and Light Industriesa

Assume that the need of 250 families or
1250 people can justify and support
economically an area of 10 X 10 sq. mt. = 100
32.8 X 32.8 = 1085 sq. ft.

32.8 X 32.8 10 X 10 100 1075
IV. Warehouses, Wholesale and
Brokers' Shopsa

Assume that the need of
250 families or 1250 pe0p1e
can justify and support
economically an area of
10 X 10 meters 32.8 X 32.8 10 X 10 100 1075
V. Public Service and Highly a

Skilled Professional Offices

Assume that the need of 250
families or 1250 people can
justify and support economically
an area of 10 x A5 meters
including service areas and
driveways 32.8 X1A7.6 10 X A5 A50 A820

Total 1300

 

aThrough his research the author could find no bases, no experience
and no field research available for determining the land area required
for such facilities. These figures are to be used carefully and are put
here arbitrarily because of the need for this type of land use.

The following table (Table 19) shows the space requirements for

shopping facilities for different sizes of urban developments.

93

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9A

E. Land for Industny

 

The Damascus, Alleppo, and Homs—Hama2 areas are the main centers
of manufacturing in Syria. These industrial towns are less than 150
miles from the nearest sea port. By nature of their location, Damascus,
Alleppo, and Homs-Hama have the advantages of easy accessibility through
railroads and highways, the proximity in raw materials, water and power
services and skilled labor. Latakiya, next in importance, is a growing
port town with a promising industrial future.

After World War II, industry in Syria grew steadily. The number of
workers employed in manufacturing is difficult to estimate because of
the continuous growth since the last census of 19A73.

Industrial development in Syria has become Such a Significant com-
ponent of the nation’s economy that it deserves careful consideration
in the planning for all urban areas. Provisions of land for industry
is a unique feature now for Syrian community development; and such in-
dustry promises to be a steadily more significant economic factor. It
is most important to establish sound standards for reserving adequate
land for industrial functions in major Syrian Urban centers.

The new community—unit of Damascus as proposed by this study will
not be an industrial community; criteria for space requirement for in—
dustrial uses must be based on very many and complicated factors and re—
quires extensive research. Such a study is beyond the scope of this

thesis, and therefore, will not be presented. Land for industry is

2The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development, The
Eggnomic Development of Syria, Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press,

pp 0 10" 13

3Ibid.

 

9S
worthy of being the topic of another thesis in physical planning and
urban land use analysis.

Industrial nations, through long experience, become aware of cer-
tain factors that are essential for the success of any industrial es-
tablishments, such as markets, labor,1and, tranSportation, utilities
including gas, water waste and refuse disposal, etc. Most of these
factors are available in major Syrian cities including the proposed
community-unit. This prOposal does not call for any significant indus-
trial activities; but it is quite likely that it could serve as the
location for some new light industries.... particularly those that might
be served by the resident labor force. However, industrial development
without question, shall be booming as a substantial key to the economic
up—grading of Syria, and considerable research should be carried on to

determine Syria's need potentials in this important direction.

CHAPTER 8
LAND FOR TRANSPORTATION

Effective tranSportation facilities are the lifeblood of any nation
or community. The principal core of the Syrian economy, throughout its
history, has been commerce. Syria has served as the "crossroads" for
the exchange of goods in all but recent periods of civilization. It is
evident that over the ages transportation has been extremely critical to
the success of commercial ventures. However, up until this century, the
tranSportation means were principally the beast-of-burden and the water-
borne vessel.

As Syria emerged, tardily, from its persistent medieval culture into
the dynamic and turbulent streams of contemporary civilization, it has
been feverishly transforming its economy from one of predominant agri-
culture and commerce to one with strength in manufacturing. This trans— .
formation has required parallel development in up-to-date transportation
systems.

Syria's transportation requirements are essentially similar to those
of any other nation; there must be adequate land to accommodate vehicu-
1ar traffic, pedestrian traffic, passenger terminals, vehicular parking
Space, freight and parcel pick-up service stations, taxi-service stations,
airports, water-transportation terminal facilities, and railroads.

As part of the total needs for a new community-unit to serve a city
like Damascus, there are land area needs to accommodate most of these
transportation facilities. Standards to fit the peculiar needs of Syrian

Circumstances are outlined in the following sections.

96

97

A. Land For Vehicular Traffic

 

Up until World War I most roads and streets in Syria, even those in
urban areas, were predominantly earth materials, brick, or cobblestone
surfaced. Starting in the early 1920's, impervious-surfaced, or all-
weather surfaced, roadways began to replace the wearing-courses of the
more important routes, particularly in the major urban centers, like
Damascus and.Aleppo. Roadway improvements proceeded much more slowly
in the rural and minor urban areas. Today, street facilities in the
larger urban centers are still quite limited. Improvements are made
piecemeal, in response to particular pressures and expediencies; there
are no systematic, coordinated programs, based upon sound fiscal policies.

The planning, construction and/0r improvement of a street gyptgm is
completely absent in the processes that bring about new development in
Syrian cities. Even standards of design and construction appear to be
lacking. It is most important, therefore, that some basic, minimal
standard be included in any consideration of criteria for community
development.

In terms of circulation needs for a city like Damascus, the follow-
ing types of road structures should be developed in accordance with the

prescribed standards.

1. Intercity Highway for All Automotive Vehicles

 

A road of this category is already located within the vicinity of
the prOposed community—unit. This road not only connects Syrian cities
but its neighbors, Turkey, Jordan, Iraq. This roadway should be con-

structed with four lanes, with two lanes for each direction. Each two

98
lanes should be 15 feet in width separated by a median strip ten feet
wide. The roadway system should be placed within a right-of—way 200
feet (60 meters) wide, should not exceed a six percent gradient, and
should accommodate Speeds up to 50 miles per hour (25 kilometer/hour)

for each direction.

2. Major Arterial Road

 

This road is known in Syria as a "First Class Road" and is the type
of roadway which ties together the capital cities of the Syrian Districts.

The following Specifications Should be met by this kind of roadway:

Basis of Calculationsl

 

Type of Facility
Major Arterial
Right-Of-Way 120-150 ft. or 36-AS mt.
Pavement 56ft. or 17 mt.
Desirable Maximum grade 6 percent

Desirable Speed 60 miles/hour of A0 kilometers/hour.

3. Minor Arterial Road

 

This road is known as a "Second Class Road". It ties the major
urban centers or the capitals of the districts together and is linked
to the major arterial. The proposed new urban development is tied with
Damascus' major arterial by one of these roads. The following dimensions

are suggested as the basis of calculation for this type of road:

 

1These standards are adapted from the Denver Standards as shown in
_Q§ban Land, May 1961, magazinecf Urban Land Institute,"Standards for
new Urban Development", The Denver-Colorado, modified to suit Syrian
developments .

99
Basis of Calculationsz
Type of Facility

Minor Arterial

 

Right-of-Way 81 ft. or 27 mt.
Pavement 36 ft. or 12 mt.
Desirable Maximum grade 5 percent

Desirable Speed 50 miles/hour or 35 kilometers/hour.

A. Collector Roads

This is the busiest type of road in Syrian urban centers. In the
proposed new-urban development, this road will have paved sidewalks and
planting strips on each shoulder. A detailed study of the pedestrian
circulation system shows that the sidewalks have to be tied with the
pedestrian malls for the safety of the pedestrian. For the basis of

calculations, the author suggests the following dimensions:

Basis of Calculations3
Type of Facility
Collector
Right-of—Way 60 ft. or 20 mt.
Pavement 30 ft. or 10 mt.
Desirable Maximum grade A percent

Desirable Speed 30 miles/hour or 20 kilometers/hour.

5. Major Neighborhood Street

This type of main road collects the neighborhood minor roads and

 

zIbid.

 

3Ibid.

lOO
pours traffic into the neighborhood collector road. For the proposed
new community—unit, pedestrian sidewalks of this street should be given
the same consideration as those of the collector road. The following
dimensions are suggested as the basis of calculation:

Basis of Calculations4

 

Type of Facility

 

Major Neighborhood
Right-of—Way A5 ft. or 1A mt.
Pavement 18 ft. or 6 mt.
Desirable Maximum grade A percent

Desirable Speed . 3O miles/hour or 20 kilometers/hour.

6. Minor Neighborhood Street
This type of street should be detailed in the early stages of the
design of the residential blocks. It ites the residential sectors to-
gether, then ties the whole with the nursery, the kindergarten, and ele-
mentary school, which are located in the green park in the middle of
the residential area. The proposed new community-unit can be designed
in accordance with the cul—de-sac pattern or any other system which the
terrain allows. The author suggests the following dimensions as the
basis of calculations.
Basis of Calculations5
Type of Facility
Minor Neighborhood Street
Right-of-Way 36 ft. or 12 mt.
Pavement 12 ft. or 6 mt.
Desirable Maximum grade 3 percent

Desirable Speed 10 miles/hour or 7 kilometers/hour.

 

41bid. _ sigi_d.

101

B. Land for Pedestrian Walks and Malls for Internal Circulation

 

The majority of the Syrian people are either pedestrians or bus
riders, so the road and street network in the proposed new urban devel-
Opment will be designed to work without conflict with the pedestrian
walks, malls and circulation systems.

As a rule—of-thumb for the basis of calculations the author sug-
gests five square feet or 0.50 square meter as a minimum land area per
resident of the development for the pedestrian walks and malls. This
criteria applies only to the pedestrian malls specially designed in the
areas and prohibited to vehicular traffic; sidewalks abutting vehicular

roads are excluded from this rule.

C. Bus Terminal Station

 

This is a very important urban facility, but there have never
been developed any Specific standards for designating land area re—
quirement by any planning authority for such facility. For the pro-
posed new urban development and others, the author, relying on his ex-
perience, proposes arbitrarily the following:

Basis of Calculations for Bus Terminal Station

 

Size of Town Site Size
AO0,000 persons or more 2 acres or 8 Dunums
AO0,000 - 100,000 persons 1 acre and half or 6 Dunums
100,000 — 5,000 persons 1 acre or A Dunums.

D. Municipal Parking Lots

 

Car registration in Syria is less than in many other countries,

but it is on the increase. The author is of the opinion that public

102
parking lots near the central business districts is essential for the
proposed new community—unit. The only basis of calculations that could
be considered for this facility is the Space required for parking one
car which is 10 feet by 30 feet which equals 300 square feet or 30 square
meters. It is assumed that car ownership in this develOpment will be
as high as 100 cars; thus, for a municipal parking lot of 100 cars capa-
city, land area requirement will be:

Basis of Calculations for Municipal Parking Lot

 

Type of Facility Areas
Space required for parking

of one car 10 ft. by 30 ft. or 3 by 10 mt.
Area per 100 cars 100(10 x 30) = 30,000 sq. ft. or

2,760 sq. mt.
E. Freight and Parcel Pick-up Service Stations

In this facility, pick—ups park to offer their rental services for
moving merchandise, parcels and furniture within the city limits. The
proposed new community-unit population does not justify the establish-
ment of such facility. It will be mentioned for possible use in other
urban extensions. The basis of calculation and space requirement of the

municipal parking lot governs this facility: 300 square feet per vehicle.

F. Taxicab Parking Station

The basis of calculation and space requirements of the municipal

parking lot governs this facility: 300 square feet per vehicle.

103

G. Other Facilities

 

Other facilities which are necessary in connection with the new
community- unit would be: Airport facilities, Railroad facilities, and
Waterfront facilities.

The physical planning of the above mentioned facilities requires
emperical analysis, surveys and miscellaneous data compiled for a speci-
fic project to be planned and executed in any area. Railroads stations,
airport terminals and water-front facilities are unique in their require-
ments and highly complicated in function. Such conditions impose drastic
impact on the adjoining land uses that requires the serious consideration
of the planning authorities in the preliminary stages of the planning
process.

The size, population, and occupations of the proposed community-
unit does not justify the establishment of railroads, airports and
water—front facilities; the author must leave the task of evolving

planning standards for such facilities to subsequent research endeavors.

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CHAPTER 9
SUMMARY

A city is an ever-changing, organic manifestation of a vast number
of forces, ideas, beliefs, and confluences. Depending upon the nature
and intensity of such factors, it either shrinks or expands; but it
never remains fixed in static dimension.

Professor Myles Boylan, in an unpublished paper treating urban
growth said:

A striking phenomenon of the twentieth century is the rapid
eXpansion of population in all parts of the world; and a major
share of this expansion is occurring in cities. Congestion of
people, structures, and vehicles in urban centers is building up
at such a rate that the prOSpects for most large cities indicate
a future of endless proliferation and unmanageable size. If
cities are to continue to fulfill their traditional role as "the
vessels and generators of civilization", as "special instruments
of social organization", or as centers of man's creativity, they
must be brought into manageable size, organic and coherent form,
and systematic ordiliness.

Urban planners as well as local government officials in all
countries worked out proposals in different forms for curing the un-
healthy urban environment. Professor Boylan suggested in his paper
pre-requisite steps for a healthy urban environment:

Any means for achieving rational and effective management of
urban environment can only be developed from the institutionzind
application of many separate and combined actions. Basic to the
success of any action is the development of enlightened leader-
ship among the political, technical, and professional personnel
of all nations. Any such leadership must be sustained by the pre-

requisites of clear-cut objectives and environmental standards

for all urban, rural, and regional redevelopment and expansion.

The concern of this study was the articulation of those objectives

and standards that can nourish the urban administrative processes in

105

106
Syria for the achievement of satisfying urban environment.

Urban development in Syria is not significantly different from
that in other nations of the world, except for the factor of time. As
Syria shakes off the torpor of medieval influences and engages in the
social, economic, and cultural realignments more characteristic of the
contemporary Western world, it is finding that the city is the focus
for its creative energy. Since land is a basic ingredient for urban
physical development anywhere, any objectives and standards should, in
large measure, be predicated on land area requirements for the differ—
ent components of urban structure.

In most nations, land needed for urban expansion is obtained by
the simple natural economic process of converting land from existing
uses to those that promise a greater economic return to the entrepre-
neur. This process often does not take into consideration the welfare
of the community at large and, thereby, imposes problems for the general
economy of the community and the nation. Syrian cities suffer greatly
from this arbitrary and inefficient conversion of land from one use to
another as they expand. This process represents, essentially, the pre—
dominant urban land policy in this nation.

Syria's needs for effective development policies and programs are
very fundamental ones; it has to develop frameworks in the next few
years that have taken many generations to achieve in other countries.
As basic steps in policy formulation Syria should, first, establish an
urban research center in which significant land use data can be col—
lected, analyzed, and.published for daily application; and, second,
utilize all appropriate technical personnel for evaluating urban land

use needs as they may relate to all urban facilities required for

107
economic and social functions of the community. These kinds of analyses
will result in comprehensive master plans for major urban areas and for
urban-rural regions.

It is unthinkable to consider a future Syria where the present
sporadic and unsystematic processes of expansion development will con-
tinue unabated. Urban development throughout the Western worl over the
past half-century offers many alternatives that might serve as models
for Syrian needs; but studied consideration of Syrian circumstances sug-
gests that any one previously tested policy must be greatly modified if
success is to be achieved.

This study has proposed that new urban development for major urban
centers in Syria can best be accommodated by the organizational form of
new, physically separate units of development, similar, in general, to
the satellite town that is typically economically dependent upon the
major urban center; but is physically separate and self-servicing.

These "community-units", as related to such a city as Damascus,
would contain all the essential urban-type land uses, services, and

facilities. In terms of the types of land use, any one community—unit

would consist of the following:

A. Residential Areas

 

In parallel to what other nations experienced, the homes for a new
community-unit will be grouped in a compact modernized "heiye" or neigh-
borhood. Hygiene and safety, as well as social and cultural aims, have
been taken into consideration. Nurseries, kindergarten and elementary
schools would be located in green pockets between the residential blocks

for the convenience and safety of the inhabitants. Table 6, Appendix I

108
demonstrates a variety of neighborhood gross and net densities. Land
area requirements are shown for dwelling structures, appurtenant open
space, roads, and school sites in accordance with a variety of desirable

neighborhood densities.

B. Educational Institutions

 

Nurseries and kindergartens will be located in green pockets be-
tween the residential blocks with ample sites for integrating the pre—
school units with the residential environment. In regard to elementary
and secondary School facilities, two important concepts are recommended
The first, is the utilization of the school—park system and the second,
the adoption of the elementary school-campus concept for boys and girls,
with segregated classroom units and combined activities facilities such
as gymnasium, library, cafeteria and auditorium. The secondary school
facilities will be organized similar to those of the elementary school
campus, and will also be made available to community organizations.

The playing fields will be used by community athletic clubs and organiza-

tions.

C. The Community Center

 

The community center will be the focal point for cultural as well
as social and entertainment activities. The center will include the
following groups of facilities:

1. The library for literature and science with a Special branch
for children, a lecture hall, different reading halls, and audio-visual

facility.

109
2. Syrian arts and crafts exhibition hall and workShOp for demon-
strating Syrian masterpieces of arts and crafts.
3. Dramatic arts theater for staging music concerts, Syrian folk
dances, movies, lectures and public meetings.
A. Social and recreational center for social and recreational ac-
tivities, television lounges, game rooms, billiard halls, etc. are in-

cluded.

D. Health Services Center

 

This facility will include an out-patient clinic, pre-natal and
post-natal clinic, diagnosis laboratories and a branch hospital. Many
pe0ple of the average and low income in the new Syrian community-unit

will enjoy the services of this center.

E. Recreation Facilities

 

l. Pre-School Children Play Area

 

The proposed new community-unit will include a pre—school play
area for each neighborhood designed for youngsters aged 2—6 years.
This play area is divided into open Space and apparatus that fits the

age of the children.

2. School Age Youth Play Area

 

The play area of this group is combined with the public park. It
includes playing fields for basketball, soccer, handball and paddle

tennis. Open space for general play area will be provided.

3. Adult Athletic Fields

This facility will serve all the population of the proposed new

110
community-unit. It will contain a soccer field, basketball courts,

an athletics arena, volley ball courts, and many other game areas.

A. Community Parks

 

The land designated for recreation includes ample space for passive
recreation and picnic grounds, in a community park. The tables included
in Chapter 6 Show the rule of thumb for allocating the land area re-

quirements for this kind of facility.

F. Commerce and Business Facilities

For each neighborhood of the proposed new community-unit there will
be a compact group of lock—up shops for convenience and goods daily-con-
sumed commodities. These units have to be located in very close prox-
imity to residential areas, on the fringes of the green pockets, to pro-
tect the customers from the dangers of traffic. A supermarket for

periodically-needed commodities may be included on a trial basis.

G. Transportation Facilities

Different categories of roads and highways are standardized for

use in the proposed new community-unit such as the following:

1. Inter-city Highway

 

This type of road is part of the international roads network and
the author assumes that the proposed new community-unit will be laid
out in the vicinity of this road, whose width will be 200 feet or

60 meters.

111

2. Major Arterial or "First Class Road"

 

This type of road ties the proposed new community-unit with Damas-
cus as well as to the capitals of other provinces. Its recommended

width is 150 feet or A6 meters.

3. Minor Arterial or "Second Class Road"

 

This road is recommended to be 80 feet wide or 27 meters._ It is
the major tranSportation facility in the local street network of the

prOposed new community-unit.

A. Collector Road

 

This road is the main collector that runs through the urban limits.
It is intended to be 60 feet or 20 meters wide, with paved sidewalks

and planting strips.

5. Major Neighborhood Street

 

This is the neighborhood major street. It is intended to be A5
feet or 15 meters wide. It conveys the neighborhood's traffic to the

main collector. It will have two Sidewalks with planting strips.

6. Minor Neighborhood.Street

 

This road ties the residential blocks of the neighborhood with
the rest of the community. It will be shouldered with wide pedestrian
sidewalks for the convenience of the residents, especially the young—

sters in their daily trips to school.

7. Pedestrian Walks and Malls

 

These walks will be mapped out for the convenience of pedestrians.

The transportation facilities for vehicles and pedestrian walks will be

112
integrated in a flexible system to avoid traffic congestion and danger-

ous crossings.

8. Bus Terminal Station

 

The prOposed new community-unit will be tied with Damascus through
organized bus lines that terminate in a bus station functionally located

in the vicinity of the community center.

These seven functions, namely, residence, public education, cultural
activities, health services, recreation, local business, and transporta-
tion, comprise the principal ones necessary for the adequate operation
of a self—servicing residential unit of any urban community. There
are many additional functions that are essential for the overall urban
operation, Such as, industry, Specialized tranSportation facilities
(airports, water ports, railroads, etc.), centralized retail, whole-
sale, and service businesses, government centers, and universities; but
these serve the urban complex as a whole, and so, have not been included
in this study that has concentrated on the more parochial aSpects of
the residential sector of urban develOpment.

The standards proposed in this study may impress the reader as
being too elementany for the more advanced development of community
standards in use in a country like the United States; but it must be
emphasized that Syria has little or no knowledge of standards, and it
truly does not have any policies or programs based on sound standards.
This thesis is intended as a primer for Syrian urban development. After
some initial experience, the standards offered in this study should be
re—evaluated and progressively expanded to more detailed and sophisti-

cated dimensions and determinations. This thesis is a most humble and

113

sincere effort to break ground on this most fundamental area of commun-

ity develOpment in Syria.

Under the influence of the forces mentioned at the beginning of

this chapter, urban Syria manifestly needs progressive and continued

research in the following fields:

1.

2.

Continuous inventory and comprehensive research in housing.
Regional planning programs within the frame of a policy to
accomplish fast and sound urbanization and growth of rural
areas.

Transportation.

Industrial development, land requirements, locational and space
criteria.

Commercial land needS-—particularly in the cores of the cities.

PART THREE

APPENDICES

APPENDIX I
TABLES
APPENDIX II
A Schematic Grouping of Residential

and Urban Facilities

APPENDIX III

Definitions of Selected Terms

111-

115

APPENDIX I

Table 1. Application of Different Rates of Densities on Families with
Households that Range between 3-A persons with number of
rooms per dwelling unita

 

 

 

Rogms per Persons/acre Rooms per Persons perb Dwelling
cre Dwelling dwelling unit units/acre
Unit

55 50C 3.9 3.56 1A

55 SO A.58 A.17 12

66 60 3.3 3 20

66 6O A.A A 15

77 70 3.50 3.18 22

77 7O ' A.28 3.88 18

99 90 3.3 3 3O

99 9O A.S A.1 22

 

aThis table is adapted from the booklet of "The Density of
Residential Areas", published by the British Ministny of Housing and
Local Government, Table 1A, pp. 18-19, modified to suit the Syrian
circumstances.

bRate of occupancy 0.91 persons per room.

CExample to show how the table is used: divide the household
(3.56) over the recommended occupancy rate of (0.91) to have (3.9)
rooms per dwelling units; then divide number of rooms per acre (55)
over that of dwelling unit (3.9) to have (1A) dwelling units per
acre.

116

Table 2? Allocation of Net Residential Area per Dwelling Unit to
Major Dwelling Uses.

 

 

Land Area: Square Feet per Dwelling Unit

 

Dwelling Type Total Percent of Percentage of Non-built—

Lot Covered up Area of Each Lot.

Sq.Ft. Sq.Mt. by Building Frontb ‘Backb Sideb
Yard Yard Yard

 

 

One Family
1. One family de- c
tached-6D.U./acre 7260 675 Varies 20 20 10

 

2. One family semi-
detached-8D.U./acre SAOO 500 Varies 17.5 17.5 5

3. One family at—d
tached "row houses"
1A D.U./acre 3111 288 varies 11 ll 3

Two Famiiy

A. TWO family de-

tached-Split lot

or one family semi- 5AOO 500 Varies 17.5 17.5 5
detached, 8 D.U./acre

 

5. Two family semi-
detached-1A D.U./acre3lll 288 Varies ll 11 3

Multi1Famiiy
See Next Table No. 3.

 

 

aThis table is adapted from the American Public Health Association
book, Planning the Neighborhood, Table 3, p. 38, modified to suit Syrian
new community-unit standards.

bvariable, subject to detailed site planning and general community
layout plan and design concept. I will Show the front and rear set
back equal assuming that the building will be centered in the middle of
the lot.

CThe figures in this column are the results of dividing the acre
Square footage over the number of D.U. per acre, i.e., A3560/6 = 7260.

dSide yards for row houses should be 3 feet or 1 meter from each
D.U. totaling 30 feet or 10 meters in every 10 D.U.

117

Table 3. Allocation of Net Residential Area Per Dwelling Unita to
Major Dwelling Uses for Multi-Family Dwellings

 

‘—

 

Land Area: Square Feet

 

Lots Total Covered No. No. of

 

 

 

 

Dwelling
b by D.U. D.U. Front Back Side
Type Sq.Ft..Sq. Mt' Build- Struc- Yard Yard Yards
ingsC tural
Blocks
1 2 3 4h 5* 6 7 8

Multi-Family
l)2story-Split 5xlAO8==
lot-lOD.U./acre 8712 810 70A0 10 5 3000 3000 1301
2)2story-Split 6X1AO8=
lot-12D.U./acre 7260 679 8118 12 6 2100 2100 1052
3)2 story-s lit 7XlAO8
10t-1AD.U./§cre 6222 580 9856 1A 7 ‘1907 1907 1000
A)2story-split 9xlA08
lot-18D.U./acre A810 AAS 12072 18 9 1300 1300 832
5)2story-Split llxlAO8=
lot-22D.U./acre 3960 368 15A88 22 11 1000 1000 552
6)3 stor 9X1A08=
27 D.U. acre A8AO AA8 12672 27 9 1300 1300 832
7)A stor 7XlA08=
28 D.U. acre 6223 580 9856 28 7 1600 1600 1615
8)5 stor 6X1A08
30 D.U. acre 7260 _670 8A98 30 6 2A00 2A00 1052

 

aThis table is adapted from Table A of the book, Density Of Residential
Area, of the Ministry of Housing and Local Government in England, modified
to suit Syrian new urban development standards.

 

bFigures in this column are the quotients of the division of the
acre on the number of lots as shown in Column '5'.

CThis column shows the total built up area per acre. Note: Add
the figures in Columns 8, 7, 6 and 1A08 sq. ft. as shown in Column 3
and you will have the total as shown in Column 1. One D.U. area =
5.5 x 256 = 1A08 sq. ft.

118

Table A. .Analysis of Space Requirements of Units per Pupil for Syrian
Secondary Schoolsa

 

 

Type of Facility Space
Requirement
per pupil Remarks
Sq. Ft. Sq. Mt.

 

I. Indoors Areab

 

l. Classrooms and Corridors only 20 1.86
2. Lockers and toilets 1.5 0.1A
3. Administration(including

health services) 1.5 0.1A
A. Horizontal and vertical

circulation and mechanical 6.5 0.65
5. Multi—purpose spaces 20 1.86

6. Library facilities(including

 

art exhibition) 5 O.A6
7. Audio-visual 1 0.093
8. Auditorium 9 0.85
9. Cafeteria facilities 8.5 0.79 Including kitchen
facilities
Total 73 6.8A

area per pupil

 

aThese standards have been adapted from American Standards and Bri-
tish Standards modified to suit the standards for the Syrian new urban
developments.

bG. Russell Holy, "The Relationship of City Planning to School
Plant Planning," James MacConnell, "Planning for School Building",
E. and 0.E., Planning, The Architects’ Handbook, pp. 125-175.

119

Table 5. Space Requirements by Standards for Syrian Secondary School
Facilitiesa

 

 

 

Space
Requirement
in Standards Remarks
Sq.Ft. Sq.Mt.

Type of Facility

 

I. Indoors Areab

 

1. Space for Teachers and staff 1500 1A0 Standard by the Syrian
for A0 teachers plus 10 janitors Ministry of Education
2. Arts and Crafts Shop (900+960) 1860 173 Std. facility/school
3. Science Room Facility 1200 111 The same
A. School Activities and Hobbies (2OX30)
600 56 The same
5. Carpentry Shop 850 79 The same
6. Metal work Shop 850 79 The same
7. Drawing Room 960 89 The same
8. Music Room (20 x 25) 500 A6.5 The same
9. General Laboratory (25 x 2A) 600 56 The same

Total of Standardized 8920/1200 = 7.AA 819.5/1200 =
facilities 0.68

Area per Pupil 7.AA 0.68

II. Outdoors Academic Activities
1. School play grounds and outdoors Standard by the Syrian

academic activities, including 59 5.5 Ministry of Education
outdoors teaching area

III. Playing Fields

 

Field to include all athletic 32750 3000 Standard by the Syrian
activities on basis of unit area 6/8 acres or Ministry of Education
per 100 students 3 Dunums

 

3The number of students is 1200, the secondary school age population
for the proposed new urban development.

bThese standards have been taken from the standards designated by
the Syrian Ministry of Education as modified originally from British and
French Standards to suit the Syrian School uses.

120

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APPENDIX III

DEFINITIONSa

 

A Habitable Room: is a room.which is normally used for any of the major
living activities, i.e., sleeping, dining and sitting or lounging.
A kitchen is regarded a habitable room when it is also used as din-

ing Space.

Occupangy Rate: The ratio of persons living in a dwelling unit to the

number of habitable rooms in one or a group of dwelling units.

Detached Dwelling Units: a dwelling unit for one household that has

direct access to the exterior from all four sides.

Semidetached Dwelling Units: Two dwelling units in one structure divided

by a partition wall.

Attached Dwelling Units: A structure that contains a row of dwelling

units divided by a combined partition wall.

Multi—Family: A structure that contains three or more dwelling units,

usually with common access, services and use of land.

Density: The number of dwelling units or habitable rooms or households

or persons per acre or Dunum.

Overall Density: The total number of residents in a community divided

by the total developed area of the community.

Gross Density: The total number of residents in an area divided by the

grOss residential area.

aThese definitions are adapted from the American Public Health Assoc.
Committee on Hygiene book, Planning the Neighborhood, pp. 71-76, and the
ministry of Housing and LocaIGovernment, London,"The Density of Residential
Areas", pp. 70, modified to suit Syrian circumstances and standards.

 

 

123

Gross Residential Area: The area includes the net residential area and

 

8..

The sites and the courts of nurseries, kindergartens and elementary
schools, local shops, professional offices, business premises,
cinemas, public houses, neighborhood local service industries

and handicrafts, mosques and churches and public buildings;

Open spaces not included in the net area;

Half the width of any street that abuts the land of any of the

facilities mentioned in (a) and (b).

Net Residential Area: The area of land actually developed to contain

 

the dwelling units, and including:

a.

The sites of the houses and other residential buildings and
their outddors living areas and courts;

Any small public or private open courts included in the project;
Half the width of any street abutting the sites of dwelling

units or attached open courts.

Neighborhood or "Heiye" Density: The number of persons, households,

 

dwelling units and habitable room per acre of neighborhood land

area. Included in the essential facilities of the neighborhood

or "Heiye" such as nursery, kindergarten, elementary school, lock—

up-shops, streets, open space, service premises.

Net Population Density: The total number of persons in a residential

 

sector of an urban develOpment, divided by the net residential area

in acres. It is quoted as persons per net residential acre or dunum.

12h
Urban Facilities: All facilities essential for urban way of living such
as, residential neighborhoods or "Heiye," local commercial and indus-
trial facilities, educational institutions, schools from nursery to
secondary school; recreation facilities, public open spaces, relig-
ious institutions, streets, roads and transportation facilities,

cultural and social activities facilities.

Neighborhood Shopping Facility: A group of lock—up-shops of convenience
goods and daily needed commodities and services, located within

walking distance from the residential buildings of the neighborhood.

Play.Area: A lot of ample Space containing some apparatus and diversi—

fied facilities for active recreation of pre—school children.

Playground: A play area containing apparatus and diversified recreational
facilities, primarily for active recreation for children of elementary

school age population.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

American Public Health Association, Committee on the Hygiene of Housing,
Planning the Neighborhood, Chicago: Public Administration Service.

 

Athletic Institute, The, A Guide for Planning Facilities for Athletics,
Recreation, Physical and Health Education, Chicago: The Athletic
Institute, Inc.

 

 

Bogner, Walter F., et al., "Planning a Schoolhouse for Tomorrow‘s Citi-
zens", Kingston, Massachusetts: A case study.

Beggs, W. Vera, Operation vallingby, The American City Magazine, July
1955, pp. 117-1200

Bijhouwer, J. T. P., "The Netherland Landscape," The Netherlands Maga-
zine of Architecture and Applied Arts, pp. 9-22.

 

 

Burns, Wilfred, British Shopping Centers, London: Leonard Hill, Ltd.

 

Chapin, F. Stuart,Jr., Urban Land Use Planning, New York: Harper and
Brothers,

 

Dahir, James, The Neighborhood Unit Plan its Spread and Acceptance ,
New York: Russel Sage Foundation, (Selected Bibliography}.

 

Dean, John P., "The Neighborhood and Social Relations," Philadelphia
Housing Association Paper 3, April, 1958, Forum.

E. and 0.E., Planning, The Architect's Handbook, London: IAIFFE and
Sons, Ltd., (The Architect and Building News).

 

 

Fedden, Robin, Syria, an Historical Appreciation, London: Robert Hale
Ltd. .

Gallion, B. Arthur and Eisner, Simon. The Urban Pattern, City Planning
and Design, New York: D. van Norstrand and Company, Inc.

 

George, D. Butler, Recreation Areas, Their Design and Bquippent, New
York: The Ronald Press Company.

 

Goodman, Paul and Percival, CommunitaS-Ways of Livelihood and Means of
Life, New York: Random House, Vintage Books.

 

Gruen, Victor and Larry Smith, Shopping Towns U.S.A., The Planning of
Shopping Centers, New York: Reinhold Publishing Corp.

 

 

Hitti, Philip Khalil, History of Syria, Including Leganon and Palestine,
New York: The Macmillan Company.

 

125

126

International Bank for Reconstruction and Deve10pment,The, The Economic
Development of Syria, Baltimore: The Johns HOpkinS Press.

 

Ministry of Housing and Local Government, The, The Density of Residential
Areas, London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

 

National Recreation Association, Play;AreaSj Their Design and Require-
ments, A. S. Barnes and Company, 1933.

 

Perry, Clarence, Housing for the Machine Age, New York: Russel Sage
Foundation.

 

"Special Attention to Land Problems as Related to Housing", House and
Home, August 1960.

Stamp, L Dudly, Applied Geography, Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin
Books, Ltd.

 

Sylvania Township and Village, Toledo—Lucas County Planning Commissions,
School-Park Plans.

 

United.Nations, Urban Land Problems and Policies, Housing and Town and
Country Planning, Bulletin 7-ST7SOA/Ser. C/7, pp. 98-th.

 

Urban Land Institute, "Urban Land", monthly paper, May 1961, Washing—
ton, D.C.

Urban Land Institute, The Community Builders, Washington, D.C.: Urban
Land Institute.

 

Urban Land Institute, "Standards for New Urban Development--The Denver
Background," Urban Land, May 1961, pp. 1—8.

 

Williams, Ellis Clough, Town and Country Planning, London: Longmans,
Green and Co., pp. 32-h8.

 

Wirth, Louis, Community Life and Social Policy, Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, (Selected Papers).

Ziadeh, Nichola, Syria and Lebanon, New York: Frederick A. Praeger.

 

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HICHIGRN STATE UNIV. LIBRRRIES

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