OP‘ERA'E'KQSNAL AND LQCAHGNAL ASPECTS 0F FUNERAL HOW EN YHE UAR-BAN CQMMDNWY AN EXAMiNATl—GN @F HESTOMCAL DEVELOPMENT, QUEEN? RQLES AND CHARACTERESTECS, PHYSICAL DISHEBWTEQNS, AND LGCATEQNAL REQUE—REMENTS Thu {‘00 {ha Dogma emf M. U.- D, MICEIGAN STATE UNWEBSITY James Simon Verpian-ck 1966 E2515 .( $59 091999 ABSTRACT OPERATIONAL AND LOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF FUNERAL HOMES IN THE URBAN COMMUNITY by James Simon Verplanck The process of formulating physical development plans and programs in an urban area in order to produce a desirable environment depends on the planners' ability to understand and reconcile the needs, desires, and rights of those who own and use land in the community with the goals and objectives of the total community. Funeral homes constitute one of the many land use activities of concern to the planner. The purposes of this study are' to isolate and examine the problems created by funeral homes, which are an essential service establishment in every community, and to develop bases to be utilized in formulating "model" funeral home zoning regulations. There are two major problems involved in this study: 1) the operational characteristics of a funeral home, which results in the second problem, 2) of determ- ining the prOper placement of funeral homes in the urban community. James Simon Verplanck Recognizing these objectives and problems, research has been conducted on the historical and current roles of funeral customs, funeral homes, and funeral directors; the types of funeral homes; typical community attitudes; zoning provisions; court decisions; and existing locational policies of funeral directors. An essential feature of this analyti- cal approach was a case study of funeral homes within sev- eral urban communities. Through this examination and an- alysis, it was revealed that funeral directors, typically, have not develOped and utilized definite Operational and locational policies. Physical planning and legislation concerning funeral homes vary a great deal in both sc0pe and content, and have failed to include and integrate fun- eral homes into the urban development pattern in a satis- factory manner. The absence of more comprehensive commun- ication between funeral directors and planners, public officials, and the public has resulted in a lack of ade— quate knowledge concerning the sc0pe and nature of funeral homes in the urban community. Most of the efforts made by funeral directors and planners to remedy these prob- lems have been isolated and piecemeal in their approach, thus failing to provide adequate solutions. 2 James Simon Verplanck To overcome this limitation, funeral home operational and locational characteristics within the Detroit and Lansing, Michigan, urbanized areas and fifty other Michigan communities, were examined to provide some basic facts on funeral home operations and their locational implications. This case study reveals that the total number, the probable need for expansion of existing, and construction of new funeral homes warrants careful consideration by planners and public offi- cials. Additional findings point out relationships which are essential to the determination of model funeral home zoning regulations. Most funeral homes prefer locations on major streets which provide access to several residential neighborhoods. Nearly all funeral homes contain living quar— ters, and are well maintained, both physically and aestetic— ally. Population growth and an increase in the number of deaths will create a demand for larger funeral homes on larger sites. Many funeral homes have a service area and will locate in relation to the pattern of church distribu- tion in a community. Funeral homes require a reverent, dignified and quiet atmosphere, but, because of their asso- ciation with death are not compatible with areas developed 3 James Simon Verplanck primarily for residential purposes. They are more compat- ible with the various transitional zones such as those for various professional and office uses and many mixed residen- tial-commercial areas. Information on existing funeral home to population ratios; locations related to zoning provisions; various site arrangements and sizes; building arrangements and sizes; operating characteristics; visiting hours; funeral processions; funeral services; parking; and funeral home ownership have been provided as factual bases for develop- ing defensible funeral home principles, standards, and policies. When completed, these model regulations can be used to guide funeral homes to appropriate locations in the community develOpment pattern. These locations then will be appropriate to funeral home purposes and will realize community develOpment objectives. OPERATIONAL AND LOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF FUNERAL HOMES IN THE URBAN COMMUNITY An Examination of Historical Development, Current Roles and Characteristics, Physical Distributions, and Locational Requirements BY 'James Simon Verplanck A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER IN URBAN PLANNING School of Urban Planning and Landscape Architecture 1966 PREFACE Urban planning is now entering a period character- ized by the development and application of highly sophisti- cated techniques for analyzing the components of the urban community. The profession has moved beyond the area of generalized knowledge into one of specific knowledge based on detailed analysis of various problems in a changing ur- ban complex. There are a growing number of studies based on the efforts of analysts, researchers, and statisticians in planning agencies, who utilize such techniques as com- puter operations. These highly advanced methods of analy— sis indicate that solutions to complex urban problems can be found without detailed study and analysis. This study represents the sc0pe and depth which is necessary for effective urban planning. The particular subject of the study was chosen because of the need for detailed examination of the problems of funeral home lo— cation, and because little or no useful information con- cerning the problems of funeral home location and their solutions is readily available. ii Mr. Charles W. Barr, Professor of Urban Planning at Michigan State University, served as faculty advisor to the study. His guidance and suggestions were essential to the study, and provided a valuable learning experience which a project of this type entails. Mr. Howard C. Raether, Ex- ecutive Secretary of the National Funeral Directors Associ- ation, and Mr. Jack. D. Jorgensen, Executive Secretary of the Michigan Funeral Directors Association, provided most of the sources of information for Chapter I. The information on locational and Operational fac- tors of funeral homes, which provided insights into various aspects of the case study, was supplied through the cooper- ation of members of the Michigan Funeral Directors Associa- tion. I am deeply grateful to Mr. Jorgensen and his staff for mailing the questionnaires to the funeral directors. The assistance of Mr. Jorgensen and Mr. James Sullivan of the William Sullivan and Son Funeral Home in Royal Oak, Michigan, in arranging for interviews with several funeral directors was most helpful. The time given and information provided by the funeral directors for the interviews was very beneficial to this study. I am grateful for the fin- ancial assistance of the Michigan and National Funeral Dir- ectors Associations who provided the funds for the completion of this study. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS PREFACE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LIST OF TABLES. LIST OF PLATES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter I. II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE. . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . American Funeral Customs. . . . . . . . . . . DeveIOpment of Funeral Customs. . . . . . . . Purpose of the Funeral. . . . . . . . . . . . The American Funeral. . . . . . . . . . . . . The Funeral Director. . . . . . . . . . . . . Historical DevelOpment of the Occupation. . . Licensing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Existing Roles and Functions. . . . . . . . . Occupational Characteristics of Funeral Directing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Educational Requirements in Mortuary Science. Associational Deve10pment Among Funeral Directors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . THE FUNERAL HOME AND COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES . . Types of Funeral Home Operations. . . . . . . Geographic Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . Branch Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of Funeral Home Ownership . . . . . . . iv Page ii vii viii l3 17 22 24 27 32 33 34 37 41 42 45 48 50 53 55 58 Table of Contents—~continued III. IV. Basis of the Modern Funeral Home. The Modern Funeral Home Typical Community Attitudes Typical Zoning Provisions Legal Decisions . . . LOCATIONAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR EXPRESSED BY FUNERAL DIRECTORS. POpulation Factors. . FUNERAL Relationships to Other Funeral Homes. Relationships to Other Land Uses. Relationships to Streets. Specific Site and Building Considerations . Conclusions . . . . . A STUDY OF FUNERAL HOMES IN URBAN COMMUNITIES Introduction. . . . . Methodology . . . . . Study Areas . . . . . Funeral Homes to Population Ratios. Qualitative Aspects of Funeral Home ’ Districts . . . . . Spatial Distribution. Location. Funeral Home Location Related to Zoning Locations Related to Surrounding Land Length of Time at One Location. Building and Site Considerations. Building Sizes and Arrangements Site Arrangements . . Site Sizes. . . . . . Yard Requirements . Parking . . . . . . . Operational Characteristics Family Business and Branch Operations Number of Funeral Services. Funeral Home Employees. Funeral Home Visiting Hours The Funeral Service . Ambulance Service . . O Page . 6O . 61 . 63 . 73 . 76 . 8O . 83 . 84 . 86 -. 9O . 91 . 98 . 100 . 101 . 102 . 105 . 108 . 112 . 112.. (19 . 130 . 134 . 137 . 139 . 142 . 146 . 146 . 148 . 149 . 149 . 151 . 153 Table of Contents--continued Page Property Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154 Psychological Effects of Death. . . . . . . . 157 Summary and Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . 160 APPENDIX I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 APPENDIX II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 BIBLIOGRAPHY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 vi Table II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. XI. LIST OF TABLES ESTABLISHMENT OF BRANCH FUNERAL COMPARISON OF BUSINESS FAILURES. FUNERAL HOME SITE DIMENSIONS HOMES. COMPARISON OF POPULATION TO FUNERAL HOMES. FUNERAL HOME LOCATION BY ZONING DISTRICT CONDITIONS FOR FUNERAL HOME LOCATION LENGTH OF TIME AT ONE SITE BUILDING DIMENSIONS. . . . FUNERAL HOME SITE SIZES. . COMPARISON OF FUNERAL HOME SITES OFF-STREET PARKING SPACES. vii Page 57 68 92 110 113 114 128 132 138 138 142 LIST OF PLATES Plate 1. Funeral Home Distribution in the Lansing Urbanized Area. . . . . . 2. Funeral Home Distribution in the Detroit Urbanized Area. . . . . . 3. Funeral Homes the Lansing 4. Funeral Homes the Detroit 5. Typical Urban 6. Typical Funeral Home Site Plans Related to Major Streets in Urbanized Area. Related to Major Streets in Urbanized Area. Funeral Homes viii Page 115 120 122 125 133 135 OPERATIONAL AND LOCATIONAL ASPECTS OF FUNERAL HOMES IN THE URBAN COMMUNITY INTRODUCTION Community Planninqfiand Funeral Homes The development of large centers of urban concen— tration has brought about many changes in the social struc— ture of American communities. Some of the lesser known changes are those of funeral behavior and customs, and the changing role of the funeral director. There has been very little effort on the part of funeral directors, urban plan— ners, and public officials to develop comprehensive criteria for determining funeral home location and site requirements. In this case many funeral directors have been interested in the number of funeral services they conduct annually without regard to the effect of their Operation on site and loca— tional factors. Planners and public officials have failed to agree on basic considerations pertaining to funeral home Operations and have generally used out-dated thinking and ideas when determining funeral home location. Most funeral homes have been excluded from all areas of the community except the commercial and industrial zones. This has been done to avoid conflict with residen- tial living patterns, but has failed to consider the needs and desires of funeral directors and their clients. The following statement presented in a 1957 report of the Amer- ican Society of Planning Officials, Planning Advisory Service Report No. 97, entitled "Funeral Homes," summarizes this situation: . . . it seems fairly evident that many cities have failed to closely examine and consider the locational requirements of this important service enterprise that needs protection from congested streets and noisy surroundings.l There may be a natural inclination for most persons to think about funeral homes in negative terms or fail to consider them at all. It is characteristic of most Ameri- cans to avoid thinking about death or anything associated with it. This is evident in the manner to which funerals, funeral homes, and funeral directors are humorously referred to in various articles, books, and entertainment media. The important serious considerations of the needs of an estab- lishment whose services every member of society will require American Society of Planning Officials, "Funeral Homes," Information Report No. 97 (Chicago: Planning Ad- visory Service, April, 1957), p. 23. sooner or later are neglected, and the funeral profession is thought of only in terms of dealing with death and the dead. This has proved to be a false premise because most of the problems mentioned in connection with funeral homes have effects on the living. Death, because of its finality removes the problems from the dead. Therefore, these prob- lems can only affect the living and the living are the only means through which these problems can be reduced or elimin- ated. The more obvious implications of the appearance and development of facilities for performing funeral services have made themselves known to some extent in most urban areas. Mixing of land uses, changing traffic patterns, increased traffic congestion, increased parking on public streets, and conflicts between funeral directors, local public officials and the community point out the failure of community planning to effectively guide the develOpment of funeral homes in most areas. This failure is a reflec- tion of a wideSpread lack of knowledge as to what the problems associated with funeral homes actually are and their cauSes. Methodology This study is organized and undertaken to provide adequate information and background to enable formulation of "model” provisions. Since adequate funeral home loca— tional requirements and site standards for use by public officials, planners, and funeral directors have not yet been develOped, the purpose of this study is to develOp a body of knowledge by isolating and examining funeral home problems, locations, sites, and Operations. From this an- alysis recommendations can be made as to any additional study required and the develOpment of model locational provisions for use in a community planning program. To accomplish these objectives the study has been organized into the following four phases. I. An examination of the historical development and existing role of funeral customs and the funeral director. II. A brief analysis of the types of urban funeral homes and the attitudes of the community and courts toward funeral homes. III. An examination of funeral home locational policies fostered by funeral directors and their signifi- cance. IV. A case study of funeral homes based on information from several communities to isolate and examine the operational and locational implications within the urban environment. The use of several Michigan communities is an essen- tial part of this study. The aspects of Operational and locational policies, if any, have been observed and docu- mented. A basic element of this analysis is a questionnaire which was mailed to funeral directors throughout the South- ern Peninsula of Michigan. This provided information on funeral home sites, operations, and locations, along with viewpoints of funeral directors as to various aspects of funeral home location. This information, along with the physical analysis, will enable recommendations to be made on model funeral home locational policy that may be useful to both funeral directors and planners as a basis for mini- mizing or eliminating land use problems associated with funeral homes. Definitions For the purposes of this study funeral practice is considered the care of the body and the social ceremonies, rituals and usages in connection with the funeral which is in an organized, purposeful, time limited, flexible group centered reSponse to death. An important aspect of such practice is the prOper handling of the emotions, disposi— tions, and needs of the bereaved and in providing the per— sonnel, facilities, and equipment necessary therefor. A funeral home is that place set aside for the practice of funeral service. The funeral home usually contains a room or rooms for funeral services, reception areas, reposing rooms and preparation areas. The term embraces all buildings designated as a funeral home, mor- tuary or funeral parlor, storage area for funeral vehicles, parking lots when located on the same site or adjoining sites and living quarters which are accessory to the fun- eral home operation. A funeral director, who may also be an embalmer, is that person who may either own, manage or be employed by a funeral firm to serve the public in all aspects of funeral service. He also coordinates activities of all funeral home employees and must be licensed in all but a few states. An embalmer is that person who by virtue of his education and training is licensed to prepare human remains for the purpose of a funeral and burial. All states re- quire such persons to be licensed before practicing embalm— ing. Every state has a mortuary science act and mortuary laws among states may be different. Mortuary law is that which governs licensing and regulation of persons who practice mortuary science. These persons include embalmers. funeral directors, and in some states funeral homes are licensed. This law may also regulate and make periodic checks on resident trainees in mortuary science. One of the main purposes of mortuary law is to prohibit unlawful practice in mortuary science by unqualified persons and/or irresponsible practitioners. Enforcement of mortuary law is accomplished either through a State Board of Mortuary Science or a department within the State Health Department. In summary, this study will present the growing im- portance of funeral homes in the urban community from social, cultural, and physical standpoints. Funeral homes will be analyzed not only in terms of the significance of their ser- vices to society, but also in relation to their significant implications on land use. With the importance of these items in mind, this thesis studies and presents Operational and locational factors which can be used as the basis for develOping model funeral home operational and locational provisions. 2Interview with Mrs. Thelma Whitlock of the Michi- gan State Board of Mortuary Science, July 14, 1966. Con- firmation of material by Jack Jorgensen, Executive Secretary of the Michigan Funeral Directors Association, July 14, 1966. CHAPTER I HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE I . HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Introduction Funeral homes are important for reasons which have far greater impact than their sheer numbers, the number of persons they employ or the amount of money they represent in land, prOperty, and salaries to employees. They serve as an institution which provides a social service to the community. There are very important social implications involved with the funeral home. Rites performed for the dead usually have important effects on the living. A fun- eral ceremony is personal in its form but is societal in its consequences. The people of every society have a pat- tern for dealing with the death of one of their fellows and no matter how unprepared an individual may be for the fact of a particular death, the group or society must al- ways have some plan of action in the event of death. Fun- eral homes, in this context, function as an institution on which the members of society can rely as the vehicle for providing the essential services required when a death occurs. 1David G. Mandelbaum, "Social Uses of Funeral Rites," Death and Identifiy. ed. Robert Fulton (New York/London/ 9 10 Functions of the funeral home and services which funeral directors provide the urban community are unknown by many citizens, as well as, by many government officials. This may be particularly true among those who have never been involved in making arrangements for a funeral. Fun- eral homes must be given much more consideration by the urban planner, not only for social reasons, but because of their number. Statistics recently gathered indicate there are approximately 24,000 funeral homes in the United States.2 The total number of funeral homes has increased slightly in recent years, while the total number of funeral firms has decreased. There are certain funeral firms which have added a second, and occasionally a third funeral home. In some instances funeral firms have gone outside the city to serve suburban families or to extend their operations into nearby and adjacent communities. Sidney: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965), p. 338. 2Robert W. Habenstein and William M. Lamers, Fun- eral Customs the World Over (2nd. Ed.; Milwaukee: Bulfin Printers, inc., 1963), p. 750. 3National Funeral Directors Association, The Amer- ican Funeral (Milwaukee: National Funeral Directors Asso- ciation of the United States, Inc., 1963), p. 18. 11 According to statistics collected and published by the National Funeral Directors Association, the average funeral home represents aninvestment of $123,902.4 These figures, along with the number of funeral homes, emphasize the fact that they constitute a significant user of land and investment in land and property in American communities. Funeral homes occupy parcels of land of varying sizes and their locations relative to the size of the areas which they serve vary from community to community, although by and large, the distribution of funeral homes reflects the distribution of population. The current estimated annual number of births in the United States is 4.1 million;5 the estimated total pOp- ulation is 196,320,000;6 and the current estimated number of deaths per year approximates 1.8 million.7 By comparing the total number of funeral homes to the total population there is approximately one funeral home per every 8,180 persons in the United States. A comparison of the total 4Funeral Service: "Statistical Data," ed. Robert C. Slater (Milwaukee: National Funeral Directors Associa— tion of the United States, Inc., 1964). 5U. 8., Statistical Abstract, 1956, p. 10. 6U. S., Department of Commerce, Business Service Checklist, Vol. 21, No. 3: April 8, 1966. 7Statistical Abstract, op. cit., p. 10. 12 number of funeral homes to the approximate number of deaths per year indicates a ratio of about 75 funerals per funeral home annually. It has been estimated by some persons that the fu- ture number of deaths will increase a great deal over the present number. These estimates are based on population growth trends and related to the past and present number of deaths to population in this country.8 From this brief synopsis of the various elements of the funeral complex it can be seen that their impact on our communities is very great. The funeral service has been shifting from an emphasis on the preoccupation with death and the dead to a concern for life and the living. In terms of community development the funeral home is a significant factor. The current number of funeral homes and potential for an increase in this number, because of an expanding population and an increase in the number of deaths, points out the need for consideration of funeral homes in community planning. 8In an address to the Michigan Funeral Directors Association, Dr. Robert Fulton estimated that the number of deaths in this country by 1975 will be almost twice the number in 1965. Mr. Raymond Neff of the Michigan State Insurance Bureau said the death rate will not necessarily increase but the number of deaths will increase as the pOp- ulation of the country becomes greater. 13 American Funeral Customs Wherever history is recorded, there is an account of ritual and rites that paid honor to the dead. While some cultures had rituals which were elaborate, such as those of the Egyptians, others employed simple rites such as those of certain American Indian tribes. It has been universal that throughout history humanity has practiced the burial of the dead with a certain type of ceremony. In early America several members of the community assisted in the preparation of the body for burial. Cer— tain of them performed the ritual of washing the body; others undertook the task of making the coffin; and others were responsible for digging the grave. Once this was completed, the entire community participated in the relig— ious service which accompanied the burial. When communities began to grow at faster rates the customs and funeral prac- tices slowly changed. The need for coffin makers required that the cabinet maker Specialize in his work and by the same token, others were called upon through greater demand to perform the acts of preparing the body for burial. In the United States today there are a great number of matters which men view with a common mind. It has been established in the heritage of the United States of America 14 that every man has a right to "life, liberty, and the pur- suit of happiness.“ Another fundamental of life in this country is that equality before the law is a part of man‘s natural birthright, that people should be allowed to select their occupations, places of residence, and should be per- mitted to make most of the decisions which affect their lives. A less popularly expressed assumption which has been taken for granted in this country is that every person, no matter what the circumstance, has the right to a decent burial.9 Why has this assumption been expressed? How did this assumption or the expression of it evolve? In the days when this country was expanding and developing many persons died while moving across the frontier to new homes in undeveloped areas. Those who had been traveling with the deceased person would assume the responsibility of burial of the body in what was termed a "fitting or decent manner." This is one of the traditions which helped develop funeral customs. In a society there are a number of common individual and group beliefs and Opinions which become the bases of 9Robert W. Habenstein and William M. Lamers, The History of American Funeral Directing (Revised Ed.; Milwau- kee: Bulfin Printers, Inc., 1963). PP. 3-4. 15 laws, customs, fashions and traditions. In dealing with death in this society, the accumulation and development of these common beliefs became the firm premise upon which the people based their individual judgments and group thinking. They constitute the central or basic tenet upon which the society deals with the disposition of the dead body of one of its members. The roots of American funeral customs and proced- ures are derived through Western Civilization, from the early Judaeo—Christian beliefs concerning the nature of God, man, and the hereafter. The underlying conviction of these beliefs maintains that the soul or the spirit is the sacred quality of man and the body is the temple for this spirit during life. This belief that the body is the temple for the soul or spirit of man also follows that this body should be treated with respect and should be dis— posed of with due ceremony. As a result of a long slow development through the history of Western Civilization, the funeral customs which are prevalent in America today provide that the dead merit professional funeral services. These services include 10Habenstein and Lamers, Funeral Customs the World Over, op. cit., p. 729. 16 embalming, preparation of the body for viewing, a period of waiting between the time of death and disposition, the placement of the body in the casket, a ceremonious service honoring the dead with consideration for the bereaved and the burial of the remains in the ground or other disposi- tion which is dignified and not contrary to public health. The ceremonial care of the dead has been held to be a re- ligious matter, or at least the participation of the clergy (has been deemed an essential part of the services rendered to the dead and the bereaved. As part of the basic beliefs and customs regarding death in the United States, a set of social usages and amenities has evolved which includes the vocational tasks performed by an occupational group other than the clergy.11 Essentially then, the expressed assump- tion that every person is entitled to a decent burial is accepted in American thought and life. It is further ac- cepted that the services of a member of an occupational group known as a funeral director are used in the perform— ance of this burial.l llIbid. 12Habenstein and Lamers, The History of American Funeral Directing, op. cit., p. 5. 17 National traits and traditions based on ethnic origin and background are a strong determining factor of the variations in the type of funeral ceremony which can be found in the United States. In observing the funeral rites performed in this country, there are differences in practices such as those found in Southern California, which would be unknown and unacceptable to the people of New Eng- land. It can also be observed that the funeral rites prac- ticed in New Orleans are different from those found in the mid-western states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Michigan, and Ohio.13 Development of Funeral Customs In understanding the reasons for the existence of funeral practices as they are today in America, it would be beneficial to briefly trace some of the developments in funeral behavior from colonial times. The Colonial Period: In early colonial times, when a person died, he was quietly buried without ceremony and usually without the attendance of the clergy. Although the burial in early America was in the church yard, the peOple 3Edgar N. Jackson, For the Living (Des Moines: Channel Press, 1963), pp. 17-18. 18 in the colonies were attempting to break away from the ecclesiastical law of the Church of England and were fol- lowing the Colonial practices which stated that burial should be subject to civil action. This civil action did not include the clergy saying prayers over the dead.14 The Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries: In the middle of the eighteenth century, the funeral services were held in the church and a funeral procession was then made to the grave on foot with the body carried by persons known as underbearers. The conduct of the funeral service began to change from stiff formality and gloom to one which demonstrated more informality and beauty. This included the procedure for encasing the body and the use of embalm- ing methods which would temporarily preserve the dead so that relatives located great distances away could return and participate in the funeral service. The use of embalming was partially a result of the influence of the cultural practices of EurOpe where the bodies of important persons were allowed to lie in state for long periods of time. It also was the result of the previously mentioned characteristic of the western world l4Habenstein and Lamers, The History of American Funeral Directing, op. cit., p. 197. 19 tradition to delay burial until the members of the family and friends who lived great distances away could get to the place of the funeral service. The Twentieth Century: Funeral services in the urbanizing areas of the country began to take on different characteristics than those of the past. Most deaths oc- curred in the home, but if it occurred outside the home the body was quickly returned there, thus making the home of the deceased the central place of mourning. The funeral services were still held in the home of the deceased or sometimes in the church, and very seldom in the funeral home. These services held in the home were usually quite long and were filled with a great deal of emotion. After the services, the funeral procession would form and nearly everyone attending the funeral would go to the cemetary for the burial.16 As we move into the second quarter of the twentieth century more funeral services were being held in the funeral home. The funeral director had the specialized equipment for preparation of the body and more of the persons living lsIbid., pp. 313-14. l6Ibid., p. 394. 20 in urban areas were residing in apartments or homes which were not large enough to accomodate the funeral service. Another important reason for the increasing use of the funeral home, and the decreasing use of the home, was due to the enactment of health laws regarding the embalming of the dead. The embalming had previously been done in the home, but conditions for this work were not all good. Therefore, special rooms known as preparation rooms were added to the funeral home where the necessary equipment could be permanently installed and utilized.17 American funeral beliefs also experienced changes which were explained as a result of a change in social processes rather than a marked change in the actual customs. Two of the more significant social conditions or processes which are given as causes for the changes are the growth of a mass society and the changing functions and form of the American family. These were changes in the ways groups held together by the traditional ties of blood, ethnic back- ground and religion became dispersed and scattered to other communities throughout the country. This had the effect of weakening community ties and placed many people further 17Ibid., p. 570. 21 away from the presence of death unless it occurred among an immediate contemporary group. In small towns, villages, and rural areas death and burial are events which reach many people because each person generally knows every other person living in their community. In contrast to the practice in rural areas, death touches fewer persons in urban America today, unless the deceased was a prominent person. Funeral directors, florists, monument and casket manufacturers have had a great deal of influence on Ameri- can funeral customs and burial practices. In some instances the advancement in funeral customs has been related directly to funeral directors and the occupations referred to as "allied industries." All of these occupations, because of their relationships to funerals and disposition of the dead, have an influence on funeral practices, but it is difficult to assess the full extent of their influence. Nevertheless, it must be recognized that these occupational groups have been and are in positions to influence present— day funeral practices. 18Ibid., p. 561. 19Jessica Mitford, The American Waygof Death (New YOrk: Simon and Schuster, 1965), pp. 96-109. 22 Purpose of the Funeral The funeral has several major purposes. First and foremost it provides an acceptable method and means for dis- posing of the body of a person who has died. Another pur- pose of the funeral is it offers an Opportunity for the bereaved to express themselves. This is especially true for those of a religious faith that can help sustain the bereaved. One of the purposes of the funeral which relates to the community, and which deals with the involvement of various members of the community at one time or another, is that the funeral allows the community an Opportunity to recognize the loss of one of its members. Not only does the community recognize the loss by paying respect to the dead, but in so doing they offer support to the relatives of the deceased.2 Not every funeral is the same and some will, be- cause of various circumstances, involve many more people than others. In the funeral which involves very few people there is the Officiant who conducts the religious service; the funeral director who handles the arrangements as to the 20Jackson, op. cit., p. 15. 23 body of the deceased and the funeral ceremony; the medical examiner, coroner or physician who helps fulfill the legal requirements by signing the death certificate necessary for the issuance of a burial or cremation permit; and fin- ally the members of the family, who are responsible, along with the funeral director and clergy, for making the arrange- ments for the funeral, as well as friends who enter into the funeral activities to some extent, depending upon the circumstances. The funeral of a person who held a prominent place in the life and activities of the community will usually involve many more peOple. In these instances it is common for participation in the funeral activities by fraternal organizations or special groups who conduct their own services. Another vital purpose which is very important to the well-being of a community is the disposal of the dead for the protection of the health of the living. Because death is inevitable, it is necessary to have regulations dealing with the disposition of the body and the funeral director performs this very important function in the com- munity. In this regard he must be qualified to undertake 2lIbid., 15-16. 24 certain procedures which will not jeOpardize the living. There are health laws in the various states dealing with the procedures for disposition of fine dead. The state health departments have established rules to effect these laws and the funeral director is obligated to follow and abide by these procedures, laws, and rules. The American Funeral Home funerals are very rare today in the urban com— munity. The typical funeral, originating in an urban fun- eral home, covers a period of about three days, beginning with the removal of the remains and ending at the grave or Crematory. The body is prepared for viewing by a licensed practitioner who has been trained in a school of mortuary science. Once the body is placed in state, relatives and friends may call at the funeral home. Most of the visits to the funeral home are made in the afternoon and evening prior to the funeral service. It is a general practice today in the Eastern, Mid—Western, and Southern areas of the United States that many more friends of the deceased 2Michigan Funeral Directors Association, Depart- ment of Health Rules, A Ready Reference Manual for Funeral Directors (Lansing: Michigan Funeral Directors Association, 1961), B. 2. 25 come to pay their respects at the funeral home while the body is in state, than attend the funeral services and burial. Exceptions to this can be found in the Mountain States and the Pacific Coast areas where more peOple attend the funeral services and burial than visit the funeral home while the body reposes in state. It is most likely that the actual funeral service will take place on the third day following death. The fun- eral custom of today holds that this service will be con- ducted either in the church, the funeral home, or both. For those who regularly practice Catholicism a church cer- emony is required, except in the case of infants. The Jew— ish have an Option of burying their dead from a Synagogue. Most Protestants have the choice of holding the service either in the funeral home or in the church. Funeral services were often held on Sunday until a few years ago in most parts of the United States. Today the trend is away from Sunday services and generally Speak- ing, the Catholic services are held in the morning and the 3Habenstein and Lamers, Funeral Customs the World Over, op. cit., p. 739. 4Habenstein and Lamers, The History of American Funeral Directing, Op. cit., p. 571. 26 Protestant and Jewish funeral services are usually held in the afternoon. Some Protestant funeral services are also held in the morning. The committal service at the grave is preceded by the funeral procession. The funeral procession for many is a symbol of expression of esteem for the deceased and may contain a long array of vehicles. The average funeral procession of today contains fewer persons, most of whom ride in privately owned automobiles. When the committal services are concluded the actual funeral service is com- pleted and the grave is filled by cemetary workers after the participants in the ceremony have left.26 While most families require a complete funeral ser- vice, there are a few who do not. These families request the minimum service which customarily includes the picking up of the body, casketing, and taking the body directly to the cemetary or crematory without a religious service. 5National Funeral Directors Association, The Amer-' ican Funeral, op. cit., pp. 14-15. 26Habenstein and Lamers, Funeral Customs the World Over, op. cit., pp. 748-49. Interview with Jack Jorgensen, Executive Secre- tary, Michigan Funeral Directors Association, May 31, 1966. 27 The Funeral Director The origins of the present-day funeral director are shrouded in the mysterious legends of ancient times. It is known that even in the Stone Age, earth burial was practiced and prized possessions were interred with the body, with the belief they would be used in whatever hereafter our early ancestors may have envisioned. It was not until the late eighteenth century that cabinet makers began to construct coffins in advance of their need and also offer their ser- vices to the public as ”undertakers." The subsequent evo- lution of the funeral director as we know him today has been an adaptation to American civilization. "The funeral director of today is clearly a product of our times and 28 our culture." Historical Development of the Occupation If the meaning of the term "funeral director" is limited to an occupation which: 1) provides a set of tasks for the care and disposal of the dead; 2) embodies the form of a personal service; and 3) operates in a limited 28Assembly of the State of California, Final Report of the Assembly Interim Committee on Public Health Relative to Funeral Directors, Embalmers, Morticians and Funeral Es- tablishments, 1953, p. 14. 28 form as a business enterprise, then it can be said that modern funeral directing as an occupation was born in the United States during the nineteenth century. Although this may be true, as with most new vocations, the position of funeral director was not created immediately as we know it today. Duties of the funeral director grew slowly through an evolving process of adding specific funeral tasks to his range of services which were previously carried out by other occupations.29 To understand the range of services provided today, a brief description will be given of some of the tradesmen who were involved in various aspects of funeral service at the period when "funeral undertaking," the predecessor of modern funeral directing, was evolving. Tradesman Undertakers: The first of the persons who came under this category were those who immigrated from England and recorded history indicates very few of these tradesmen existed in America. Most of those who were dedi- cated to the trade were also associated with the clothing and upholstering trades. Along with this combination was added the trade of cabinet making and some people advertised 29Habenstein and Lamers, The History of American Funeral Directing, op. cit., p. 225. 29 as “Cabinet Maker, Upholster and Undertaker." As urban communities began to grow and the material resources of the urban dweller increased, the livery stable keeper was faced with an increasing demand of providing carriages for the funeral service. During this period it was also possible to find a person whose trade included pulling teeth, "under- taking," and framing pictures. Although there were various combinations of tradesmen performing the funeral tasks of the time, the dominant combination of trades was that of cabinet making or furniture and "undertaking." Performers of Personal Service: Long before funeral directors came to be known as a distinct occupation there were those in the community who assumed the task of laying out the dead. Many of these people were friends of the family. The first instance of connecting this informal personal service with a recognized occupation was when the family nurse or nurse—governess began to assume the informal responsibility of preparing the dead for burial. Later there came a group of peOple who actually were known as "Layers Out of the Dead." Religious Functionaries: The place of burial in early America was the church yard and the church caretaker, or sexton, has always been associated with the church yard 30 burial and care of the cemetary. Because law did not de- fine his exact duties and responsibilities, the sexton also began to perform the tasks of digging of the grave, tolling of the bell, laying out the body, being in attendance, di- recting the funeral procession, and later began to furnish undertakers with funeral supplies and paraphernalia for funerals. Municipal Officers: History indicates that munici- pal concern for burial of the dead occurred early in Amer- ica. In some communities an official of the government was appointed and paid to attend the funerals of Community res- idents. In many cases the funeral services were carried out by a person known as the town undertaker who was charged with the responsibilities concerned with public health and sanitation. He also was given the duties of coroner because of his technical skills and knowledge about death and the disposition of the dead.30 The first half of the nineteenth century is very important in understanding the evolution of the modern fun- eral director because this era points up all the basic fun- eral service functions being collected and organized under 3OIbid., pp. 227-42. 31 the conventionally named and recognized title known as 'funeral undertaker." These organized funeral services bas- ically included the laying out, the coffining, and trans- porting the body to the grave. Around these major functions certain accompanying functions such as the furnishing of funeral paraphernalia also were included.31 In the late nineteenth century the role of the fun- eral director began to take many new appearances. This was a period in America when large numbers of immigrants were continuing to pour into our cities. The frontier was pass- ing and there were new social movements forming as the way of life in this country began to change from a fundamentally rural and agricultural one to being predominantly industrial and commercial. The funeral director began to act more in an advis- ory role in the early 1900's and arranged for the death notices as well as casket selection by the family. The emphasis on the casket was becoming more of a function of the funeral director. At this time the family would be given the various catalOgs showing the range of caskets 31Ibid., p. 249. 32Ibid., p. 394. 32 and the funeral director would then have the one which they selected sent to the home from the factory. Early in the twentieth century, the vocation of funeral directing began to face the problem of becoming institutionalized. Some major advances in the field of funeral directing were schools of mortuary science; the agencies controlling the activities of these schools and setting standards for their conduct; and legislative action and rules which were developed and came to be known as mor- ‘tuary law. By 1900 there had evolved a distinct vocation, in Vaihich an occupational group, aspiring toward professional- ;i.£nm was legally required to possess certain training and CD'tiher qualifications in order to perform specific tasks 'Vviiiich were assigned exclusively to it by both law and cus- ‘tlcanu These people were not only preserving the dead through eitn‘balming,34 but were also taking care of many funeral details 331bid., p. 508. 34The brochure "Funeral Service," National Funeral IDirectors Association (Milwaukee: 1964), notes that in the Tnid-lBOO's "Sanitation became the prime concern. Epidemics 13rought public health consciousness into focus, stressing ‘the need for methods to preserve the dead and thus render “them harmless to the living. Thus it became evident that «embalming could serve both as a preservation process and an antiseptic one." 33 and arrangements. An emerging professional consciousness continued to take funeral operations out of the category of trade and business and place it into the category of professional services to people. Licensing All states now require that all embalmers be lic- ensed. Funeral directors are licensed in forty-two states, while seven states issue combination licenses including both embalming and funeral directing. There are certain require- ments for licensing such as attendance at a recognized col- lege of embalming for at least twelve months and completion of a one to three year apprenticeship. All applicants must pass examinations given by state boards which issue licenses that can be revoked for cause. Licensing legislation has had an effect of setting up standards of competence and performance which are both necessary to the public health and welfare of the community and the funeral profession itself. A majority of state licensing laws specify the physical equipment of the fun— eral home, with minimum requirements, such as a sanitary 5Funeral Service, "Historical Perspective," op. cit. 36Assembly of the State of California, op. cit., p. 14. 34 preparation room and the necessary instruments.37 Licens- ing boards are usually made up of funeral directors and em- balmers and in some states the director of the state depart- ment of health serves as an ex-officio member of these boards.38 Existing Roles and Functions The role of the funeral director has develOped rapidly in the last few decades and will probably continue “to expand the social area it controls. The funeral direc— t:or is called upon to take charge of the full process of Ciisposition of the dead. Basically he is a private entre- 1;>reneur who does the ritually unclean and physically dis- tléisteful tasks of disposing of the dead.39 In the execution of his duties the funeral director ITrLlst observe and respect the feelings and sentiments of the 12><3reaved. The nature of his work is such that his relation— 53'hip to his client cannot be totally defined by contract. x 7Habenstein and Lamers, The History of American .Eipneral Directing, Op. cit., pp. 554-55. 8Habenstein and Lamers, Funeral Customs The World SQver, op. cit., p. 751. 39W. Lloyd Warner, "The City of the Dead," Death 33nd Identity, ed. Robert Fulton; (New York/ London/ Sidney: .John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1965), pp. 376-77. 35 He conducts his practice within the context of an individ— ual enterprise for remuneration which is adequate for his support, but he does not have the sanction to deal with the dead as merchandise and with the bereaved as one who is seeking to maximize the value of a purchase. The customary duties and responsibilities of the present day funeral director begins when, after being se- lected by a family to serve them, he removes or arranges for the removal of the deceased to the funeral home. He secures information from the family which is required for the death certificate and the obituary notice. The funeral director is responsible for correct completion of the death certificate, filing of the certificate with the proper au- thorities and securing the burial or transit permit. The funeral director arranges for an appointment with the rela- tives of the deceased to discuss with them the various phases of the service. Briefly these details include: the place 0f the service; church or funeral home; time of the service; the clergyman to officiate at the funeral service; selecting tine place’of interment; music for the service; contacting fratternal officials; notifying casket bearers; selecting \— O . . . Habenstein and Lamers, The History of American EEEEEEral Directing, op, cit., p. 533. 36 the clothing necessary; and choosing the casket and outside receptacle. These are preliminary arrangements and usually require subsequent checking and further organizational de— tails. If the body is to be shipped to another city for interment additional arrangements will be required. While the body lies in state the funeral director assumes respon- sibility for arranging the flowers in the reposing room and makes certain that all visitors to the funeral home are properly served. On the day of the service the funeral director at- tends to floral arrangements, arranges for the physical facilities, provides automobiles for the family and casket bearers, receives and ushers friends to seats, assists the clergyman, organizes the funeral procession, and makes a vehicle available to transport flowers to the cemetary. The direction and conduct of funerals brings the funeral director into close contact and working associations ‘with members of other service professions and a variety of INJsinessmen. He has frequent contacts with physicians, nleadical examiners, health officers, and coroners in the letgal and medical aspects of death. He also has frequent aSSociations with clergymen of all denominations in planning \ 1Funeral Service, "Duties and Responsibilities," 0 . cit. 37 funeral services. Legal, tax, and business affairs bring him in contact with lawyers, accountants, and newspaper reporters and editors and he must also work closely with cemetary, mausoleum, and crematory officials. Most funeral directors belong to the state and national funeral directors' professional associations. These professional organizations give him an Opportunity to meet with the other members of his vocation and also gain further knowledge and utility from various institutes and service training programs which are made available to . . . 42 him from time to time. Occupational Characteristics of Funeral Directing A fundamental which is basic to zoning is the class- ification of the various occupations and establishments which Operate in the community. In order to adequately determine which zones of the community the funeral home Should be allowed, the occupational status of funeral di- rectors should be clarified. One of the most widely de— bated questions concerning funeral direction is whether it should be considered as a profession, business, or a trade. 2Funeral Service, "Professional and Business Re- lationships," Op. cit. 38 Funeral directors through the develOpment of: the vocation as a full time occupation; educational programs in mortuary science; formation of professional associations; a strong interest in legislative action regarding their vocation and a code of ethics, definitely consider themselves as members of a profession. There have been other occupational groups and professions which have tended to look upon the funeral director as primarily a business man or strictly as a mem- ber of a trade. This has been true when the urban planner has attempted to identify funeral direction for the purpose of establishing Operational and locational policies as a basis for zoning regulations. Although there have been a few exceptions, many urban planners through the zoning or- dinance mechanism have expressed that the funeral home is not a professional establishment in the true sense of the word “professional.“43 The Operation and management of funeral homes sug- gest a combination of three occupational roles. The funeral director is considered by some as a businessman because he deals in merchandise in the form of caskets, and in some ‘ 43American Society of Planning Officials, "Funeral Homes," Information Report No. 97 (Chicago: Planning Ad- visory Service, April, 1957), p. 10. 39 instances, with clothing for the deceased. It is true that the cost of a funeral service includes the price of the casket. This is a type of merchandise which is purchased only for the burial of the dead and cannot be considered a purchase in the usual business-sense of the word. Caskets are sold to those who want them and cannot be purchased from anyone but a funeral director. A casket is not re- quired by law, but one is required by funeral directors if there is to be a funeral service with the body present. In this case the client is required to purchase a casket.44 Funeral homes and funeral directors are listed in 'tima”yellow pages” of telephone directories and, in some <:nases, their listings have been defined as advertising. '53<3me funeral homes advertise in newspapers. These items Eadre usually very brief. They may contain a picture of the ifTUneral home, and usually point out the competitive advan- t:ages of this funeral home over others in the community. A second occupational characteristic of the funeral c3+m III co_+mOOE meo: .mt0csm . zo_»2m.mkm_o mZOI 4dJ/LIJQ . 121 If there are any limiting service areas in Lansing, they are defined by racial, religious, or ethnic characteris— tics rather than by mileage distances. In some communities the service area is limited by the distance of the local telephone service. Some funeral directors indicated their funeral home service area corresponded to the local telephone service area. In other cases, the service areas were limited by physi- cal features such as a river or natural boundary. Others stated that service areas were defined by city, township, or county boundaries. Locations Related to Surrounding Land Uses There are several factors which determine the lo- cation of a funeral home. Many choices usually influence the actual selection of a site such as pOpulation charac- teristics and size, availability of vacant land, zoning, price of real estate, presence of incompatible land uses and other funeral homes in an area. The great number of variants make it difficult to characterize specific land use patterns around all funeral homes. The Lansing area is used as an example for Showing locations related to other land uses. In Lansing, 75 per cent of the funeral homes are located in areas which can 122 +mmt+m Lmezull. moL< >pn+mlll co_+mOOD OEOI .mL6cam . mhmmmhm mOw