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EXPERIMENTAL PROPAGATION AND PRODUCTION OF BAIT FISHES
IN MICHIGAN PONDS

BY

DAVID LEAR SHULL

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements

for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Zoology

1952

THESIS

ACKN‘ OYLEDCEENI‘S

This study was conducted by the Institute for
Fisheries Research of the Michigan Department of
Conservation in 000peration with the Michigan State
College Agricultural Experiment Station. The assist-
ance extended by the officials and employees of these
departments in furthering this study is gratefully
acknowledged.

A.Special expression of gratitute is extended
to Dr. Robert C. Bell, Professor of Zoology) Michigan
State College who was a constant source of guidance
and inSpiration throughout the entire project.

The author is indebted to Mr. C. Troy Yoder,
Fish Division, Michigan Department of Conservation,
who contributed some of the data to this report.

The cooperation extended by the personnel of
the state fish hatcheries, where these investigations

were carried on, is appreciated.

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vi
V

TABLE OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . .

REVIEW OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

SOURCES OF DATA AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS .

Source of Data. . . . . . .
Definitions of Tenms. . . .
POND MANAGER-{EMT PRACTICES. . .
Fertilizing Ponds . . . . .

Effects of fertilizer on

fish food

organisms

Reaponse of fishes to fertilization.

Application of fertilizer. .

Feeding of Bait Fishes. . .

Feeding in ponds and raceways.

Feeding schedule . . .
Methods of feeding . .
Experimental diets . .
Species Combinations . . .
Overwintering Bait Fishes .

Harvesting the Minnows. . .

LIFE HISTORIES AND PRODUCTION DATA

BAIT MINNOW SPECIES . . . . .
The Northern Creek Chub . .
Life history . . . . . .
Producing the chub . . .

PAGE

\OO\O\+‘-

ll
11
11
11+
14
18
18
l9
19
22
26
27
29

37
37
37
39

PAGE
Methods of propagation . . . . . . . . . . 39
Stocking the rearing ponds . . . . . . . . Al
Chub production in fertilized and
non-fertilized waters . . . . . . . . . . A9
Chub production by direct feeding . . . . 52

Chub and fathead production reared in

combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Overwintering chubs . . . . . . . . . . . 60

The Comnon‘Whito Sucker . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Life history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Producing the sucker . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Methods of propagation . . . . . . . . . . 63
Stocking rearing ponds . . . . . . . . . . 65

Sucker production in fertilized and
non-fertilized waters . . . . . . . . . . 66

Sucker and chub production reared in

combination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7h
Cverwintering suckers . . . . . . . . . . 7h

The Golden Shiner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Life history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Producing the golden shiner . . . . . . . . 80

Overwintering golden shiners . . . . . . . 84

PAGE

The Fathead Minnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Life history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
Producing the fathead . . . . . . . . . . . 88

Method of propagation . . . . . . . . . . 88
Stocking the rearing ponds . . . . . . . 88

Fathead production in fertilized and
non-fertilized waters . . . . . . . . . . 91
The feeding of fathead . . . . . . . . . 93

Fatheads reared in combination with

other minnows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Overwintering fatheads . . . . . . . . . 93
PrOpagation of Other Bait Minnows . . . . . . 96
Chubsucker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Red belly dace . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Mudminnow................ 97
Brassy minnow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Northern pearl dace . . . . . . . . . . . 103

DISCUSSICII O O O 0 O O O O O I O O I O O O O O O 0 101+
SUIEIIARY O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O I O O O 108
LITERATIM CITED 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 111

TABLE

10

ll

12

LIST OF TABLES

Diets Fed to Bait Fishes . . . . . . . . . .
Survival Rate of Chubs Stocked as Sac Fry
and Advanced Fry . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Production in Fertilized

and Non-Fertilized Ponds . . . . . . . . . .
Advanced Fry Stocking Rates Based on
Average Production from the Fertilized

and Non-Fertilized Ponds . . . . . . . . . .
Results Obtained by Feeding Chubs in
Raceways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Crayfish and Tadpole Production from

Eaters Non-Fertilized, Fertilized, and Fed .
Production of Chubs and Fatheads

Reared in Combination. . . . . . . . . . . .
Overwinter Survival of Creek Chubs in Ponds.
Sucker Production in Fertilized and Non-
Fertilized Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sucker Production from Fertilized and
Non-Fertilized Raceways. . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of Sucker Production frmn

Fertilized and Non-Fertilized waters . . . .

Survival of Sucker Eggs and Fry. . . . . . .

#3

SO

51

5h

56

59
61

67

68

7O
69

TABLE
13

1h

15
l6

17

18

19

20

21

22

Data from Feeding Suckers in Raceways

and Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production Resulting from Feeding Chubs

and Suckers Reared in Combination . . . . .
Overwinter Survival of Suckers in Ponds . .
Golden Shiner Production in Fed and
Non-Fed Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Production of Golden Shiners and Fatheads
Reared Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparison of Fathead Production from
Fertilized and Non-Fertilized Ponds . . . .
Fathead Production from Fertilized Ponds. .
Results of Overwintering Fatheads in Ponds.
Chubsucker, Red Belly Dace and Brassy
Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Comparative Holding Qualities of Some

cmon Bait Minnows O O O O O O O O O O O 0

PAGE

73

77
78

82

83

92

93

9h

98

103

10

11
12

LIST CF FIGLAES

Location of the Experimental Bait Minnow Ponds

Fertilization of a Bait Fish Pond . . . . . .
Minnow Feeding Devices . . . . . . . . . . .
Preparing a Heavily Needed Pond Basin for
Final Draining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Harvesting the Minnow Crop Within the Pond
Basin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Harvesting the Minnow CrOp at the Drain Pipe
Outlet. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Inverse Relationship Between Size and

Numbers of Bait Minnows Produced in a Pond. .
Stocking a Pond with Chub Fry . . . . . . . .
Northern Creek Chub Production from Eaters
Non-Fertilized, Fertilized, and Supplied with
Food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sucker Production in Terms of Pounds Per Acre
for waters Non-Fertilized, Fertilized, and
Supplied with Food. . . . . .p. . . . . . . .
Fathead Spawning Boards . . . . . . . . . . .

A Comparison of Chub and Brassy Minnow Growth

22

32

31+

36

45

AS

58

76
89
102

INTRODUCTION

Within the past few years, Michigan's second
largest industry, the resort industry, has shown remarkable
growth and expansion. Today Michigan's tourists number
in_ the millions with the number increasing each year.

For the most part this great throng of vacationers migrate
from outstate farming and metropolition areas to Michigan
wilderness expanses for outdoor recreation. A very large
portion of these tourists plan some fishing on Michigan's
scenic lakes and streams. This influx of sportsmen,
supplemented by a large resident angling population,
combine to create an annual army of fishennen reaching
well over a million. Many of these anglers are bait
fishermen and the magnitude of the demand for live-bait
is evident.

Increasingly greater demands for live-bait result-
ing fran expansion of the resort industry, led to zealous
exploitation and soarcities of natural bait minnow
supplies. Such scarcities were noted in reports by
Hubbs (1933), Hobbs and Cooper (1936), Carbine (191.0),
and others. The commercial minnow dealers of the state
attested to the existence of minnow shortages through a
Michigan Institute for Fisheries Research post card survey
showing that 9k per cent of those answering the question-

naire were unable to obtain an adequate supply of bait
(washburn, l9h6). Complaints from fishermen about high
cost of minnows or the inability to purchase the desired
size gave indication of scarcity from yet another source.
Thus the evidence at hand from biologist, minnow dealer,
and fisherman alike, supports the contention that a
scarcity of minnows and bait fishes actually does exist
in many areas of Michigan during some seasons.

Michigan‘s minnow problem is not unique. workers
from Minnesota (Dobie, 1948), Chio (Fascko and Clark, 1948),
Illinois (Hutchins, 1946), and others, indicate minnow
population depletion in regions of these states adjacent
to the better fishing areas. So many similar but separate
observations in varied locations seem to warrant the con-
clusion that the minnow is unable to compete successfully
in the face of both a heavy natural predation and collection
by Man for commercial purposes.

Minnows have considerable direct economic value when
sold as bait fishes. A 1950 Michigan survey (Lauff, 1951 ms.)
verifies this by showing minnow sales of the year to have
been nearly two million dollars.

The indirect value of adequate minnow supplies is of

even greater and more far reaching consequence than the

direct values. These small, soft-rayed, fishes are converters

of minute aquatic animal and plant forms into larger food

forms useable by the major game-fish Species. In many
lotic environments the productive level attained by warm
water, fish eating, game fish, Species may be reflected

by the pepulation levels of the minnows present. Decimation
of minnow populations in these streams through increasing
industrial pollution and intensified commercial harvest,
have probably been deleterious factors contributing to the
unproductiveness of streams once known for their game fish
populations. These forage fishes are an essential link

in the fish food chain and their influence on the dynamics
of game fish populations should not be underestimated.

The scarcity and importance of the minnow to the
state's Sports fishing industry warranted experimental
propagation investigations toward an alleviation of shortages.
The success of such a program hinges prhnarily on the
facility with which bait fishes can be propagated and upon
the production that can be achieved. The purpose of this
investigation was to Show by experimentation the feasibility
of producing bait fishes in.Michigan ponds.

REVIEW'OF THE RELATED LITERATURE

The Institute for Fisheries Research of the
‘Michigan Conservation Department has conducted several
projects in an effort to obtain a realistic picture of
the states minnow pepulations and bait fish propagation
possibilities.

COOper (1935) found that the red bellied daoe
(Chroscmus 993), the western golden shiner (Notemigonus
crysolencas auratus), the fathead minnow (Pimephales
promelas), the bluntnose minnow (Hyborhynohus notatus)
were Species which reproduced successfully in ponds.
The horny-headed chub (Nocomis biguttatus) and the
common shiner (NotrOpis cornutus chrysocephalus) failed
completely to reproduce.

washburn (1946 and 1947, Unpublished Institute
Reports 1052 and 1084) worked principally on a method
of propagating creek chub fry (Semotilus a, atromaculatus)
in Specially designed raceways. Some propagation work
was carried on for the cannon sucker (Catostomus g,
commersonii), golden shiner (Netemigonus chrysoleucas),
northern fine scale dace (Pfrille neogaea), and the

northern pearl dace (Margariscus margarita nachtriebi).

5
Yoder (1950, Unpublished Institute Report No.1267)

worked mainly with common sucker (Catostomus g. commersonii)
and chub (Semotilus g, atromaculatus) prepagation. Some
work was done with the fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas),
golden shiners (Notemigonus crysoleucas auratus), the
northern red belly dace (Chrosomus eos), and the northern
pearl dace (Margariscus margarita nachtrilbi).

Bacon (1951 ms.) experhmented with pituitary

injections as a means of producing creek chub fry (Semotolus

 

g. atromaculatus).

 

Surveys designed to evaluate certain aSpects of
the bait minnow problem were carried on by Carbine (1940,
Unpublished Institute Report No. 627), fashburn (1946,
Unpublished Institute Report No. 1046), and Lauff (1951,
ms). Bait dealer business facilities, collecting equipement,
and general practices employed were surveyed by Carbine
and Lauff through personal interviews while Washburn
collected the Opinions of minnow dealers on various bait
fish questions by means of a post card questionnaire.
Questionnaires mailed to 901 dealers in the state resulted
in a 37 per cent return. Bait minnows were declared to
be scarce by 94 per cent of the dealers. Minnows of the

2 to 3% inch size and 3 to 6 inch size class were reported

as being scarce by many of those canvassed.

Hedges (1951 ms.) worked on methods of harvesting

minnow pOpulations from small ponds.

SOURCES OF DATA AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS

Source of Data

During the course of these investigations the
facilities of seven.Michigan State Fish Hatcheries were
used (Figure 1). Several workers besides the author
conducted experiments at these hatcheries on various
phases of bait minnow culture. Others working on the
project wereer. Troy deer, Dr. Robert Ball and graduate
students of Michigan State College. This report sum-
marizes the minnow propagation and production data from
114 SXperimental ponds representing a water area of
80.2 acres. The investigations were made over a five-
year period.

Nine Species of minnows and bait fishes were
propagated. These were Semotilus atromaculatus atroma-
culatus.Mitchill (northern creek chub), Notemigonus
crysoleucos auratus Rafinesque (western golden shiner),
Pimephales promelas promelas Rafinesque (northern fathead
minnow), Hybggnathus hankinsoni Hubbs (brassy minnow),
Chrosomus egg 9229 (northern redbelly dace), margariscus

margarita nachtriebi Cox (northern pearl dace), Catostonus
commersonnii commersonnii Lacepede (common white sucker),

Erimyzon sucetta kennerlii Girard (western lake chubsucker),

and umbra limi Kirtland (western.mud minnow).

Figure 1: Location of the Experimental Bait minnow Ponds.

 

 

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Definitions of Terms

Minnow.--The term minnow is construed to:mean a member

of the family Cyprinidae. The following characteristics

taken collectively separate the Cyprinidae from other

families.
1.

2.

4.
5.

6.

Soft-rayed fishes (excepting the introduced
carp and gold fish which have a stout serrate
spine anterior in the dorsal and anal fin).
A single dorsal fin of less than 10 soft rays
(excepting the introduced carp and gold fish
which have more than 11 soft rays).

well develOped pharyngeal teeth in not more
than two rows (excepting carp which has 3
rows).

A non~suoking mouth formed by toothless jaws.
The distance from the snout to the insertion
of the anal fin is less than 2.5 times the
distance from the insertion of the anal fin
to the caudal base (excepting the carp and
goldfish which contains the anal insertion-
caudal base distance more than 2.5 times in
the snout tip-anal insertion distance).

Head is naked (except in Spawning season,

breeding tubercles may be present).

10
fishes suitable for bait purposes. Although.most bait
fish Species are members of the family Cyprinidae, the
families umbridae (mud.minnow), Catostomidae (sucker),
and Cottidae (Millers Thumb), also contribute sane

Species to this grouping of fishes.

Raceway gg‘gggg,--The raceways used in these experiments
were approximately 125 feet in length, with a depth of
1.5 feet at the upper end and grading to 3.5 feet at the
lower end. The surface area of these ponds was .04 of
an acre. The long narrow construction make it possible

to:maintain a continual flow of water through them.

Ezgd eggs.-4When the eyes or eye Spots of the develOping
embryo are discernable to the unaided eye, the eggs are

known as eyed eggs.

§gg.ggy.--This designation is given to those small fishes
which bear a yolk sec. The term covers that stage of
developement fron the time of hatching to the time the
yolk sac is absorbed and feeding begins.

Advanced fgy.--As the yolk sac nears complete absorption,

the fry are able to maintain a normal position, swim

feebly and support themselves in a weak current. ‘With
absorption of the yolk sac nearly complete, the fry is

ready to begin feeding and the advanced fry stage is reached.

POND MANAGEMENT PRACTICES

The pond management practices of fertilization,
direct feeding, and rearing Species combinations were
employed in efforts to obtain greater production. Both
ponds and raceways were used. The relative value of
these programs as a means 0f increasing production were
determined by comparison of the yields taken from control

waters.

Fertilizing Ponds
Effects 2; fertilizer pgflfigh food organisms.--The
addition of organic and inorganic fertilizers to pond
waters to increase fish production, is an indirect method
of feeding. The nutrient materials of the fertilizer
dissolve in the water, then become diapersed throughout
the environment. Minute algal plants (phytoplankters)
appear'more numerously which in turn support a greater
population of small animal forms (zooplankters). Small
fish of nearly all Species, and adults of several kinds,
depend directly on these minute forms for food. Other
aquatic fauna, including the water insects, depend on
these organisms directly or indirectly for sustenance.
The fish food-chain resulting from the natural fertility

of the water is thus supplemented by the nutrients of the

12

fertilizer and the productive capacity of the pond is

increased.

Reports from biologists working with farmppond
fertilization vary greatly in detail but seem to agree
generally on two:major points:

(1.) Plankton and bottom fauna in fertilized
ponds are usually present in larger quantities
than in unfertilized controls (van Deusen,
me. 1946), (Swingle 191.7). (Ball 191.9),
(Patriarche and Ball 1949).

(2.) The fertilization of pond waters starts a
succession of events resulting in an unpre-
dictable growth and Species composition of
algal populations.

Ponds fertilized alike, with similar physical
characteristics, often produce highly divergent results.
workers report variations in the effect of fertilization
from.immediate plankton blooms to delayed blooms or no
apparent change in the waters treated. methods developed
by Swingle (19A?) for ponds in Alabama generally fail to
give corresPonding results when applied to ponds in
hiichigan.(Patriarche and Ball, 1949) (Ball in press).
IJifferences in climate, soil; and water are factors

.influenoing,the results of fertilization.

13

Since most bait minnows are produced over a short
period and delayed plankton blooms often occur, it is
assumed that much of the value of fertilization may be
lost before the elements are transferred through the
food-chain to ultimately become salable fish. To justify
fertilization on a production increase basis for Short
seasons, the bait fish culturist:must determine if his
particular ponds will produce plankton blooms early in
the growing season without undue quantities of fertilizer.
‘When the ponds in question do reapond well, the fertiliz-
ation.method of pond management causes increased production
with little labor or capital outlay and is economically,
sound.

No chemical tests are presently available which
make it possible to calculate the amount or type of
fertilizer needed to produce ”blouns". Experience with
pond fertilization or experimentation are the only guides
to individual pond needs.

The fertilization of sons pond waters produces
deleterious results. Applications of fertilizer’may
cause a filamentous algae scum covering the most of the
pond surface. This type of growth creates difficulty
if the ponds are drawn down to harvest the minnow crep.
Constant attention must be given the screens at the drain
to prevent clogging and the fish have a tendency to

becune helplessly entangled in the filamentous mass.

11+

Harvest by any method other than with glass traps is
very difficult under these conditions. The culturist
should also consider the greater risk of winter kill

in ponds that have been heavily fertilized.

ReSponse 23 fishes 32 fertilizers.--All bait fish Species
do not reapond equally well to fertilizers. Those fishes
feeding directly on the lower organic forms, such as
phytOplankton and the smallest zooplankton, benefit most.
Fertilization promotes a greater quantity of this type
of food and it is available earlier in the growing season.
There appears to be some evidence that fertilized
waters are beneficial to the survival of young fish.
Chub and sucker fry stocked in fertilized ponds survived
better than did the fry introduced to non-fertilized
waters.
The data collected in these investigations reveal
that increases in the production of crayfishes and tadpoles
were greater than increases in fish production in fert-

ilized ponds.

Application 2; fertilizer.--Various methods for applying
fertilizers to ponds can be used. Organic fertilizers

are most easily applied to the pond bottom after draining.
Inorganic fertilizer may be applied to small ponds by

casting from shore or from a moving boat on larger

15
impoundments (Figure 2). Application of fertilizer
should be made to shallow waters.

A commercial 10-6-4 fertilizer applied at the rate
of 1250 pounds to the acre proved satisfactory. Production
results did not indicate that weekly or biweekly appli-
cations were advantageous where the fertilization rate
per acre remained constant. Applications at three week
intervals were used most extensively to save labor. Blooms
.should be perpetuated early in the growing season to be

most beneficial to the short term.minnow production period.

Figure 2: Fertilization of a Bait Fish Pond.

 

 

l8
Feeding of Bait Fishes

Several Species of bait fishes were fed to obtain
information on diets, production increases, and feeding
methods. The largest minnow crops per unit water area
produced in these investigations resulted from feeding
programs. Significant increases in production were found to
parallel large seasonal production costs and to require
additional facilities for handling volumes of perishable
food materials.

In contrast to the use of fertilizer the percentage
increases in fish production under direct feeding programs
were much greater than increases occurring in the crayfish

and tadpole production.

Feeding ig’pgggglggg.raceways.-~It was difficult to feed
fish efficiently in ponds of over one half acre in size,
eSpecially if heavy growths of aquatic vegetation existed.
Under such circumstances where few feeding stations were
employed, small pOpulations of chubs in the immediate area
feed to the exclusion of others further removed. On several
occassions in heavily weeded ponds it was possible to remove
a population in the feeding area to a point where further
trapping proved fruitless. Movement of fish from other
areas of the pond usually took from one to two days to
rebuild a comparable population. The need for closely Spaced

feeding stations in the situation described is therefore

l9

apparent if all the fish are to be fed. The production in
terms of pounds per acre coming from ponds was generally
found to be less than yields obtained from raceways.

Intensified feeding programs were carried on in
raceways. The narrow construction of the raceway basins
allow running water to counteract the detrimental effects
of crowded fish populations and the decay of rejected
food materials. A comparatively high chub or sucker
production per water surface area can be obtained by
feeding a good diet to these fishes in raceways. The
amount of labor involved to feed an acre of small race-
ways is much greater than that required to feed an equal

surface area of ponds.

Feeding schedule.--For best results, the feeding schedule
must be adjusted to the habits of the fish. As water
temperatures rise to 800 F. or above, many bait fish do
not feed actively and early morning or late evening
feeding schedules result in a higher food consmmption.

In these experiments two feeding periods a day were
established as soon as the fish indicated a need for the

added ration.

.Methodslgf feeding.--The usual method of feeding employed

111 these investigations was to establish a permanent

20
station by cleaning the bottom area of aquatic vegetation
or other debris and placing the food on the pond bottom
at these locations. A ration sufficient to permit feeding
- over a two hour period was introduced. Daily increases
in rations were based on the previous days feeding act-
ivities. This method allowed a more accurate appraisal
of the amounts of food utilized by the fishes than could
be determined from scattering methods of feeding. Food
waste is reduced to a minimum and labor involved in feeding
is considerably less, thus making it possible to manage
more ponds.

The practice of hand feeding or scattering food
over the surface of the water was not generally used in
these feeding experiments even though this method has
certain advantages. Most bait fishes measuring less
than 1% inches in length will eat sinking food particles
but show disinterest for food piled on the pond bottom.
Even the larger fishes which do eat from piles of food
seem to eat more voraciously when hand fed.

In an effort to combine the efficiency of the
feeding method used in these experiments with the advant-
ages of the method just described several feeding devices
were constructed and tested. The devices operating best
were hardware cloth baskets having a weave size permitting
the gradual diSposition of food from the bottom and sides

(Figure 3). The baskets were supported on stakes over

Figure 3: Minnow Feeding Devices.

 

23
several feet of water in an area previously cleaned of
plants, silt, or debris. *Where water levels fluctuate,
anchored, floating baskets serve well. wading to the
baskets with food usually clouds the water with silt
and for this reason a small container on the end of a long
handle is the recommended tool for filling these devices.

I The rate at which the food is released to the fish is
dependent upon the bottom area of the basket, mesh size

of the hardware cloth, texture of the food, agitation of
the water caused by the wind and the feeding activities

of the fish. The containers on the water surface delivered
food more rapidly when.long sides or open ends were faced
toward the wind. Devices submerged, Operated independently
of surface disturbances, emitting food in increasing
quantities as larger numbers of minnows congregated in

the area and created more subsurface disturbance. Nibbling
at the food through the mesh by a few fish causes a down-
fall of food providing the more hesitant fish with the
incentive to attack the Slowly sinking particles. Food

not taken while Sinking, piles up at the base of the
supporting stake and is utilized by those fishes inclined
to feed on the bottom. The devices have the advantage

of discriminating against crayfish and tadpoles. Type A
(Figure 3) with a narrow bottom submerged less than one

inch delivers food more rapidly and in larger food

24
particles. Prepared livestock food in pellet fonn acted
or served well with gentle surface disturbance. Type B
was submerged in the water to the t0p of the basket. Con-
siderable surface disturbance or feeding activity at the
bottom of the basket causes moderate food emission. Ground
food mixed with water to fern a dry paste or food in pellet
form.can be used. Type C is supported several feet above
the bottom on a post and submerged about eight inches below

the surface. Feeding occurs from above and below.

Experimental gig§§.--Nine diets were fed to bait fishes.
The availability and keeping qualities of commercially
prepared livestock feeds prompted trials with chicken
mash and dog foods. Cereal and liver-cereal combinations
were also used.

The cereal component of all the diets was composed
of 20 per cent dried milk, 35 Per cent meat scrap (pork
melts), 30 per cent cotton seed meal, 9 per cent low
grade flour and 6 per cent salt.

Sources of fresh meat in.the liver-cereal combin-
ations were horse and condemned beef livers.

The composition of the nine diets used in these

investigations may be found in Table 1.

Diet Designation

1

Table 1

Diets Fed to Bait Fishes

Composition

65 per cent liver, 35 per cent
cereal.

54 per cent liver, 46 per cent
cereal.

100 per cent cereal.
Chicken mash.

35 per cent liver, 65 per cent
cereal.

29 per cent liver, 71 per cent
cereal.

15.6 per cent horse liver,
78.1 per cent chicken mash,
3.1 per cent dried clam meal,
3.1 per cent dog ration, and
.2 per cent powdered egg meal.

4.7 per cent horse liver,
79.4 per cent chicken mash,
2.6 per cent dried clam.meal,
19 per cent powdered egg meal
and 13.1 per cent dog ration.

36.5 per cent chicken mash,
28.5 per cent dried clam.mea1,
3.8 per cent powdered egg meal
31.1 per cent dog ration.

25

26

Species Combinations

Combinations of Species were reared together in an
attempt to obtain a greater total production from ponds.
Examination of the feeding habits of fish have shown that
certain food organisms may be utilized quite extensively
while other foods in the environment remain untouched or
little used. Competition in many reapects is keenest among
crowded individuals of the same kind because they need and
strive for essentially the same food, Spawning places,
and other life necessities. When only one Species of fish
is present in an environment the unused niches represent
a lose to maximmn fish production. Canbinations of fish
species having unlike habits tend to fill these unused
niches by crOpping Off a greater number and variety of the
food organisms present in the pond. A considerably greater
total fish production per water area results.

In most localities fishermen prefer to buy minnows
of a certain size and kind. The Operator raising bait fish
canbinations will be forced to sort the harvest, which
entails considerable labor. Significant mortalities may
occur during sorting, depending on temperatures, size of
fish, or amount of handling required by the sorting facil-

ities available. In sane instances the increases in

PrOduction resulting from rearing mixed Species did not

Justify the added labor and loss of fish.

27
Overwintering Bait Fishes

The Spawning activities of most bait minnows do
not occur until late Spring in southern Michigan waters.
The growth rate of the new fry in the experimental ponds
was fast enough so that a limited amount of bait suitable
for the smaller'geme fish Species could be grown in time
for late summer and fall fishing of the same year.

Uhder the methods and population densities employed
in the investigations a minimum of one growing season was
necessary to rear bait fishes to the customary three inch
length used for bass and the five inch size used for pike
fishing. IMost fishes raised for pike bait must be held
two growing seasons. AS a consequence the propagator
intending to supply pike fishermen or any early season
fishing needs, must maintain large pOpulations of minnows
through the winter.

The overwintering results given in this report for
the various Species were obtained from rearing ponds of
the usual type. Shallowness, aquatic vegetation, and silt
deposits were common characteristics. These waters are
not ideal for overwintering and it is assumed that better,
more consistent results would be obtained frcm ponds designed
Specifically to overwinter fish. The EurOpean carp in-
dustry long ago found it necessary to utilize Special
wintering ponds in climates similar to that of southern

28
IMichigan (Schaeperclaus 1933). waters with a 9 foot depth
or more, a constant flow of aerated water, negligible
amounts of aquatic plants and organic bottom mud deposits,
make good overwintering ponds. The quantity of oxygenated,
inflowing water is probably the most important Single
factor to successful overwintering since accumulations
of plants or organic mods can be removed and a large inflow
compensates somewhat for less depth.

Other'methods preventing oxygen depletion in shallow
waters have been used. One of the most practical methods
is mechanical snow removal which permits the penetration
of enough sunlight for the photosynthetic action Of plants.

Dobie (1948) cites some work done by John O'Donnell
of the‘Wisconsin Conservation Department who used the heat
absorbing power of soot to remove the unwanted snow cover.
A pond receiving a light soot covering melted 6 inches
of snow and 3 inches of ice during two cold sunny days
‘with a subsequent jump in the dissolved oxygen from 2.4
to 7 parts per million.

Eur0pean food fisheries in cold climates are pro-
tected from winterkill by the construction of a heavy
plank framework just below the nomal water level of the
special overwintering ponds (Schaeperclaus 1933). After
the ice forms around the framework the water level is
lowered which forms an air space. This method is reported

to prevent winterkill and provide access to the fish for

29

winter harvesting. A subsistence diet is usually provided.

Harvesting the Minnows

Nearly all of the ponds used in these minnow
investigations were equipped with drains which greatly
facilitated the harvest of the fish crOp. The pond water
was allowed to drain slowly from the outlet pipe enabling
the fish to retreat to deeper water with less tendency
of becoming stranded or entangled in the pond vegetation
as the waters receeded. Where the aquatic vegetation
was dense a large area of the deepest water adjacent to
the drain box was cleaned of vegetation and escape channels
radiating from this area to the shallow regions of the
pond were made (Figure 4). AS much.as thirty-three hours
of labor per acre may be required to prepare heavily
weeded pond basins for the final phases of draining.

The method used to take the minnows from the pond
was dependent upon the construction of the drain. Figure 5
illustrates the method used where the pond drain pipe was
long. A 30 foot minnow seine supported vertically on a
pole provides an effective barrier to the drain valve
within the pond basin. The fish were caught in soap

nets and transferred to tubs as they collected against

the seine. Ponds having short drain pipes emptying into

other ponds or small streams were crOpped as shown in

30
Figure 6. A crib framework was constructed to support
a large seine horizontally just below the outlet end of
the drain pipe. The seine leads when tied around the
exposed end Of the drain pipe form a net to receive the
minnows. This latter method harvests minnows in better
condition and requires less labor than any other'method
used.

Partial population removal can be accomplished
with lift nets, seines or glass traps but the value of
drainable ponds cannot be overemphasized when total
populations are to be removed.

Harvest mortalities are materially reduced if cool

days are selected for the pond draining operation.

 

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LIFE HISTORIES AND PRODUCTICN DATA
OF THE MAJCR BAIT MINNOW

SPECIES

The Northern Creek Chub

The creek chub or "horned dace" is an excellent
bait minnow. It is an active suimmer, tenacious of life,
and more tolerant to handling than most other bait fishes.
The dusky, Olive-green coloring of the back, shading to
(the steel blue sides and silvery bottom give this fish

attractive coloring.

Life history

The natural habitat Of the chub is the swift to
moderately flowing creek having a rock and sandy bottom.
The Species shows a preference for small streams over
larger streams, swift to moderate current over a slow to
stagnant current, and rock and sand bottoms over mud
bottoms. POpulations may be found in lakes with inlets
or outlets.

Reproduction of the Species occurs only where
breeders have access to flowing water over a gravel
bottom. Spawning season begins around mid-April in

southern.Michigan at temperatures Of about 550 p,

38
and.may extend through the month of June in the Upper
Peninsula. Spawning activities cease at temperatures
below 51° F. The spawning period in any one locality
usually lasts about four weeks. Preparatory to mating,
the male builds a small concavity by tranSporting pebbles
in his.mouth and piling them at the upstream edge of the
depression (Hubbs and COOper 1936). The male lies in
wait in this depression, fending off fishes entering the
territory. A.female enters the concavity below the mound
and.the male embraces her in the Ueshaped curve of his
body aided by his nuptial tubercles. Eggs and milt are
emitted simultaneously. The male then covers the eggs
with gravel filling the Old depression and creating a
new one adjacently down stream, Nests continue to grow
in this fashion as the males mate with other females or
the same female on a later date. Finished nests, oriented
with the current, consist of gravel ridges several inches
deep, a foot or so wide, and may be as long as 10 to 15
feet. Females of 5 to 6 inches in length produce 2,000
to 4,000 eggs.

The chub is one of the larger minnows occurring
in.Miohigan, reaching a length up to 12 inches with sizes
of 6 to 8 inches being much more common. In natural
habitats, Greeley (1930) reports a growth of 2 to 3 inches
for the first year and the attainment of a 4 to 7 inch

Size during the fourth year. The females and males

39
matured in the fourth and fifth year reapectively. The

growth potential of the chub is considerably greater than
this however since a population has shown an average
growth of 4.7 inches in a 118 day growing season in ponds.
Of this group approximately one third were more than 5
inches in total length and two thirds were between 4 and
5 inches. The average growth was .3 inches per week
through July and September. Since the attainment of a
certain size is probably more important to:maturity than
age, these chubs would nearly all be ready to Spawn by
the second year.

Records reveal a longevity of 6 to 7 years for

some individuals.

Producing the chub

Methods gg‘pggpagation.--Since chubs do not Spawn in ponds,
the fry stock must be obtained by artificial methods.

Three methods for propagation have been used and brief
descriptions of these methods are presented.

PrOpagation can be achieved by introducing adult
Spawners into a raceway designed to provide spawning
facilities. (Clark 1940, washburn 1948). Eggs may be
left in the redds in the raceways and the resulting fry
allowed to move into a rearing pond at the base of the

raceway. An alternate method is to remove the eggs from

40
the redds, placing them in hatching jars for further
development and hatching. Such raceways necessitate a
sizable, constant flow Of water and are expensive to
build. This method of propagation is laborsome, the
mortality Of the eggs is high, and Since the adults
Spawn over an extended period the fry are not available
for distribution at any one time.

Attempts to propagate chubs by stripping adults
were unsatisfactory. Mortality or injury to the breeders
resulted and very few eggs mere Obtained.

At the present time the most successful way to
Obtain chub fry on a large scale is by use Of pituitary
injections (Bacon, 1951 ms.). Male and female chubs
in the Spawning condition are given an injection in the
abdominal cavity with a carp pituitary suspension. The
suSpension brings the adults to a ripened condition
enabling nearly all of the fish to be stripped within
48 hours. The resulting eggs-are impregnated, water
hardened, washed and placed in jars receiving a gentle
inflow of water. Incubation lasts approximately 11 days
at 560 F. Sac fry are transferred to a trough where
development to the advanced fry stage is reached. Several

egg lots incubated as described resulted in a 76 per cent

hatch.

_ Al
Stocking the rearing ponds.--Chub production necessitates
the introduction of chub fry to the waters of rearing
ponds. The survival results from ponds stocked with sac
fry or advanced fry show distinct advantage in stocking
advanced fry. Approximately 60 per cent of the chubs
stocked as advanced fry survived and were present at
draining, whereas only 9 per cent remained from the sac
fry plantings (Table 2).

The establishment of preper stocking rates is
very important since there is a trend toward an inverse
relationship between size and numbers of fish produced
in a pond (Figure 7). Even ponds similarly constructed
and having a common water source often vary in the number
or weight of organisms they will produce. A particular
pond usually possesses characteristics which favor some
Species of bait minnows more than others. Good pond
management requires the consideration of these inherent
pond characteristics when stocking rates are fonnulated.

Whenever the producing capacity of pond waters is
increased, either indirectly through the use of fertilizer
or directly by adding food, the stocking rates can be
revised upward. The phenomenon of inverse relationship
between size and numbers of bait minnows produced by a
pond allows further stocking rate increases when greater
numbers or smaller fishes are desired. Optimum stocking

rates for individual ponds can be determined through a

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Figure 7: Inverse Relationship Between Size and Nunbers

of Bait Minnows Produced in a Pond.

 

 

SIZE IN INCHES NUMBER HARVESTED

 

PER ACRE
/ I06l
--— POND 4 l95| ,
4,0 L- — POND e l95l /
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--- POND 6 I950
I.
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MAY JUNE JULY AUG. SEPT.

 

 

#6
process of increasing or decreasing the recommended rates
until the desired size of bait minnow is produced.

Occasionally the fry may be produced in places distant
fran the rearing ponds. Trials showed that fry can be
transported in 10 gallon.milE cans without aeration for 3

or 4 hours at temperatures of about 50° F. but not exceeding

60° F. As many as 50,000 fry may be carried in each milk
can without significant loss.

The actual stocking procedure is simple but utmost care
at this time will pay dividends. If wide differences in
water temperatures exist between the pond water and water in
the transfer can, the container should be placed in the
shallow water of the pond for a period of time to allow
gradual tempering of the fry and ultimate transfer to the
pond water with little shock to the fishes. The fry and
water may then be gently poured from the transfer can into a
smaller basin, and in turn distributed to the shallow waters
of the pond. When this is accunplished without wading,
suffocation loses caused by stirring up bottom.mud and silt
do not occur (Figure 8).

‘With consideration for the natural spawning require-
ments of this fish and supporting experimental evidence, the
stocking of the fry should be made over the gravel shoal
areas of ponds if they are present. Greaterwmortalities

occurring from plantings in silty, weedy ponds is believed

Figure 8: Stocking a Pond with Chub Fry.

 

#9
to result from suffocation of the heavy sac fry or predation
by aquatic insects. Predation has been observed on several
occasions in weedy ponds where greater populations of insects
exist. In weedy, silt bottomed ponds, specially constructed
devices or beds to receive the fry stock might help to

increase the survival rate.

‘thp production ig fertilized Egg.§£gffertilized waters.--A
series of 10 ponds was used to measure the effect of fert-
ilization on chub production. The chub harvest from the four
ponds receiving the fertilizer averaged 65.h pounds to the
acre more than the harvest taken from the non-fertilized
waters.

Chub mortalities were slightly less in fertilized
waters. Stocked sac fry survived 3 per cent and advanced
fry 1.2 per Cent better in the fertilized ponds.

Enrichment of the waters seemed to be more effective
in increasing crayfish-tadpole production since the harvest
of these organisms from fertilized waters was nearly five
times that taken from waters not receiving fertilizer.

A summary of the chub production from fertilized and
non-fertilized ponds may be seen in Table 3.

Organic (manure) and inorganic (commercial lO-6-L)
fertilizers were used. Ponds fertilized with.manure,
received 1320 pounds per acre before the fish were stocked
and 200 pounds per acre of 10-6-4 in three applications

through the summer. Other ponds were fertilized exclusively

50
Table 3

Summary of Production in Fertilized and Non-Fertilized

 

Chub Ponds
Organisms Non-fertilized Fertilized pond
pond averages* averages**
Chubs
numbers/acre 15,300 71,700
pounds/acre 80.h 145.8
total length 2.6 2.9
(inches)
per cent survival
sac fry 7.0 10.0
advanced fry 51.8 53.0
Miscellaneous
(crayfish-tadpoles)
pounds/acre 39.9 195.0
Total organisms

pounds/acre 120.6 340.8

 

* 6 ponds

** h ponds

51

'with 10—6-4. The greatest production of bait minnows for
this series of fertilized ponds occurred where a total of
1250 pounds of 10-6-4 per acre were introduced by three
applications.

The optimum advanced fry stocking rates per acre
for the experimental fertilized and non-fertilized chub
ponds, based on average production and survival are given
in Table 4. Pond owners will need to modify these stocking

rates to suit their own local conditions.

Table 4
Advanced Chub Fry Stocking Rates Based on Average Production
From Fertilized and Non-Fertilized Ponds

 

Fertilized ponds** Approximate Non-fertilized ponds*
total length
per acre at harvest per acre
Stocked-~harvested (inches) stocked-~harvested
88,000 46,600 2 50,600 25,800
30,200 16,000 3 17.400 8,800
3,300 1,700 , 5 1,900 960

 

** Average production l45.8#, 54% survival, 123 growing days

* Average production 80.7#, 51% survival, 125 growing days

52
gggp production by_direct feeding.--Most of the chub feeding
experiments were carried on in raceways. Cereal, meat-
cereal combinations and a commercial chick starter were
used as feed.

Diet 1 (composition 65 per cent liver and 35 per cent
cereal) proved superior to the others fed in these chub
experiments. A large harvest resulted and a relatively
small amount of food was supplied for each pound of fish
produced. An attempt was made to feed the fish in two
raceways (Races 11 and 12) all they would eat within a
two hour period. In comparison, chubs in another raceway
(Raceway 10) were fed half as much food. The harvest from
the three raceways show a decreasing efficiency with the
higher feeding rates (Table 5). In this connection it should
be remembered that the natural productive capacity of a
pond becomes progressively less important to the harvest
with increased feeding rates. Miscellaneous organisms, such
as crayfish and tadpoles, composed approximately 20 per
cent of the total harvest from the raceways supplied with
food at the heaviest rate. This same group of organisms
made up only about 9 per cent of the harvest from the raceway
supplied with half as much food. On an acre basis, Raceway

11 and 12 received 400,000 fry while Raceway 10 was stocked

with 200,000.
Diet 2 composed of 54 Per cent liver and 46 per cent
cereal, did not prove efficient. The high rate of feeding,

small average size of minnows produced, and total production

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55
are the basis for the assumption. The stocking rate was
1,000,000 fry per acre.

Diet 3 (100 per cent cereal) did not give comparable
results to either of the preceeding diets. A heavy feeding
schedule with this food produced an inferior cr0p with
regards to the total weight of minnows harvested and average
length attained by the fish. The stocking rate was
1,000,000 fry per acre.

Diet 4 (wayne Chick Starter, Allied Mills, Inc.).
A.much lower rate of feeding, in this case, make direct
comparisons with other diets difficult. The effect of this
food on the production of bait minnows was compared to the
harvest obtained from a raceway stocked at the same rate
(100,000 fry per acre) but receiving neither feed nor
fertilizer. The three weir Lake Raceways fed Diet 4 aver-
aged 340 pounds of minnows t0 the acre with the fish attain-
ing an average total length of approximately 2.6 inches. The
raceway not supplied with food produced 235 pounds of minnows
of 2.6 inch average size. The difference in these crops
is presumably the result of feeding and.on this basis about
12.0 pounds of food was supplied for each additional pound
of minnows harvested from the raceways receiving the food.

This ratio of pounds of food to pounds of fish produced

compares favorably with diets containing fresh meat. Some

loss in efficiency due to heavier feeding rates would probably

56
take place.

Details and production results from feeding chubs
in raceways may be found in Table 5.

Miscellaneous organisms, such as crayfish and tad-
poles, composed approximately 18 per cent of the total
production from artificially fed raceways. This was con-
siderably less than was obtained from fertilized or non-

fertilized waters (Table 6).

Table 6
Crayfish and Tadpole Production
from waters Non-Fertilized,

Fertilized, and Fed

 

Pond Observations Per cent of total
Management pond production
Non-fertilized 6 33
Fertilized 4 57

Fed 7 18

The production in pounds per acre obtained by feeding
(Diet 1) as compared to the production averages from fertil-
ized and non-fertilized ponds may be seen by reference to

Figure 9.

Figure 9: Northern Creek Chub Production frcm
Eaters Non-Fertilized, Fertilized, and
Supplied with Food.

 

 

afimvssr m POUNDS
3 I400 (—

 

 

 

 

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l262

 

 

 

CHUBS

 

 

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800 --

600 I-

400 L

300 -

200 '-

 

 

 

 

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50
0.

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NON-FERTILIZED FERTIUZED FED
PONDS PONDS PONDS

 

 

59

‘thpuggg fathead production reared i3 combination.--Chubs
were reared in combinations with suckers and fatheads.

The chub-fathead combination was attempted as a
method of providing food for chubs in the form of fat-
head fry. A one-acre pond was stocked with 50,000 chub
fry and 1400 adult fathead minnows. A good cr0p of
minnows suitable for perch and bass fishing was harvested

four months later (Table 7).

Table 7
Production of Chubs and Fatheads

Reared in Cunbination

 

Chubs Fatheads
Numbers
stocked 50,000 1400
(fry) (adult)
Numbers
harvested 10,454 71,564
Pounds
harvested 103.5 121.5
Average harvest
size (in.) 3.2 1.7

Chub stomach samples taken in August revealed identify-
able fathead rib-bones, scales, and pharyngeal arches with
teeth, in 15.5 per cent of the fish examined. The chubs were
often observed under fathead spawning boards containing nests

and many newly hatched fathead were undoubtably utilized

60
even though they were not found in the stomachs. Fish
eating the fry had little else in their stomachs. The
predilection however, was for insects since nearly all
chub stomachs contained them inspite of the more abundant
fathead fry. Three hundred pounds of 10-6-4 fertilizer
was added to the pond during the summer.

The production resulting from the chub and sucker

combination is discussed under sucker production.

Overwinteringgpgp§.--Chub populations were overwintered

in two ponds (Table 8).) or the 22,712 fish placed in the
ponds during the fell, 64.8 per cent survived to be harvested
the next spring.

One of the ponds contained rich deposits of organic
muds and quantities of aquatic vegetation yet about 89 per
cent of the fish population wintered successfully. The
continual flow of fresh water through this pond was probably
a factor contributing to the high survival rate.

Preliminary studies of chub mortalities occurring
in the latter half of the first year growing season show a
75 per cent survival for the 9 week period (July to September)
suggesting that mortalities may usually be less during the
.fall and winter than they are for correSponding periods during
the growing season. Extreme winter weather may eliminate
an entire fish pepulation in ponds if the oxygen is exhausted

or becomes too low to support fish.

61

 

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62

The Common White Sucker

The young of this Species up to 8 inches in length
are natural food for pike and pikeperch. Fishermen desiring
a large bait fish for still fishing or an excellent decoy
for winter Spearing activities, depend heavily on supplies
of young suckers. The sucker survives for long periods
of time when hooked pr0perly and is suited to artificial
pr0pagation. Growth is fast in warm waters where adequate
food is available. The sucker has a dusky back and Sides

with creamy white underside.

Life history

The sucker inhabits the bottoms of lakes and streams.
Sluggish currents over sand and mud bottoms are environmental
conditions where suckers thrive best.

Under natural circmnstances suckers usually migrate
to tributary waters to Spawn in the clear, swift, riffles
over gravel bottoms. Shallow wind swept Shoal areas of
lakes are also used in many instances. Spawning begins
early in April in southern Michigan. No nest is built nor
parental care of the eggs or young exercised.

Suckers are prolific with females of 14 to 16 inches

containing an average

63

of 67,000 eggs per fish (Vessel, Matt and Eddy 1941).

The growth rate potential of the sucker is consider-
‘ably greater than might be expected on the basis of studies
of these fish in natural habitats. Populations exceeding
an average length of 8 inches have been raised in ponds
within 149 days while growth in natural environments for
a correSponding period is usually much less. Adults reach
an age of 10 years (Bean 1936), 22 inch length, and 5 pounds
weight (Forbes and Richardson, 1920). Suckers of 15 to 18

inches are common to many places in Michigan.

Producing the sucker

Methods 2; propagation.--Suckers produced in rearing ponds
must be introduced to the waters as eyed eggs or fry. Attempts
'to stock a rearing pond with 16 adult Spawners yielded 8,511
young suckers in one instance and 13 Spawners produced 6,800
young on another occassion yet other ponds stocked at the
same rate produced no young. The uncertainty of adults to
produce young in ponds combined with the difficulty of
predicting and controlling the stocking rate per acre, made
it advisable to resort to other propagation methods. At the
present time sucker young are obtainable in two ways.

1. Fertilized eggs may be collected from natural
Spawning places. A sufficient population of suckers congre-

gating in suitable Spawning areas of small streams sometimes

64
make egg collection possible or eggs can often be gathered
from wind swept shoal areas of lakes where suckers are
Spawning in large numbers. Following collection, the eggs
should be screened to remove the intermingled gross debris.

2. Eggs may be obtained by stripping ripe adults
netted during the spawning season. The eggs procured are
impregnated, water hardened, and placed in jars. Two to
three quarts of eggs may be incubated in a standard hatchery
jar supplied with running water at the rate of one to two
gallons permminute, depending on water temperature. A two
week incubation period with temperatures in the low fifties
is required to bring developement to the hatching phase.
Suckers hatch in the jars and swim out through the jar lip
collecting in a tank provided for that purpose. Feeding
or stockingxnust follow within 4 days if heavy mortality is
to be avoided.

The survival of many thousand eggs from several lots
gathered along lake Shoal areas or obtained by stripping
adults ranged between 50 and 59 Per cent.

Preliminary attempts in.Michigan to obtain sucker
eggs by the pituitary injection.method have not been entirely
satisfactory. However, inasmuch as some positive results
have been obtained (Bacon 1951), the technique holds promise

for refinement making it practical for sucker prepagation.

65
Stocking rearing‘pppg§,--Experimental ponds were stocked with
eyed eggs or free swimming fry.

Eyed eggs were stocked principally in the early
phases of these investigations. Trays on legs placed in
shallow pond waters received the eyed eggs. (Eggs dis-
turbed after water hardening up to the time the eye spot
developes, are very likely to suffer heavy mortalities).

The eggs were deposited on these trays just prior to hatch-
ing at rates as high as one pint (approximately 15,000 eggs)
per square foot of tray bottom area. Covers help to prevent
predation within the trays. The fry escape through a

14 XI18 mesh screen after hatching and consequently a smaller
mesh is better to retain the fry where pond bottoms are silty.
Average survival rates for ponds stocked with 420,000 eyed
eggs was 9.5 per cent.

Much better survival rates were obtained when ponds
were stocked with advanced sucker fry. These ponds had an
average survival of 29 per cent.

Eyed eggs or fry may be transported for considerable
distances with little difficulty. Ten gallon.mi1k cans
containing eggs or fry in water at temperatures from 460 F.
to 56° F. maybe tranSported without appreciable loss. Fifty
thousand sucker fry per container experience negligible loss
when tranSported without aeration for three or four hours
and at 2,000 fry per container little loss occurred for

periods of 15 hours.

66'
Sucker production ip_fertilized gpg_ppgffertilized waters.--
In all, twenty eight ponds and raceways were used to raise
suckers in non-fertilized and fertilized situations. A
comparative study of the results from these waters indicates
that suckers reapond well to a fertilization.management
program.

In one experiment, a series of Six ponds were stocked
similarly but three received 10-6-4 fertilizer at the rate
of 370 pounds per acre. The average production for the
fertilized ponds was 68.8 per cent greater than the non-
fertilized controls (Table 9).

In another experiment six raceways were used. Three
of the six raceways received 10-6-4 fertilizer at the rate
of 1200 pounds per acre. An attempt was:made to regulate
the inflow of water to equalize seepage and evaporation.

The differences in production obtained from the fertilized
and control ponds was 187.5 pounds per acre. The greater
harvest came from the fertilized raceways and was 115.4
per cent of the average non-fertilized raceway production
(Table 10).

A summary comparison of all fertilized and non-
fertilized sucker waters was made. The 14 sucker ponds, of
which half were fertilized, shows that the enriched waters
produced a 31.4 per cent larger crop. Four fertilized race-
ways yielded a cr0p of suckers that was 72.5 per cent greater

than production from the 3 non-fertilized races. Collectively

67

 

 

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68

 

 

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69
the fertilized waters produced a crop of fishes 54 per cent
greater than the non-fertilized waters. Production details
for the 21 sucker waters can be found in Table 11. Seven
waters producing less than 29 pounds of fish to the acre
were not included in these discussions.

Apparently the fertilization of sucker waters promotes

higher survival rates when eyed eggs and advanced fry are

stocked (Table 12).

Table 12
Survival of Sucker Eggs and Fry

 

Non-Fertilized waters Fertilized waters
Per cent survival - Per cent survival
Eyed eggs-~Advanced fry Eyed eggs-~Advanced fry
4.8 6.9 13.1 29.6

Sucker ppoduction from waters directly £2d.--Six diets
were employed in sucker feeding experiments.

Diet 3 (100 per cent cereal) produced a greater
minnow harvest in pounds per acre than other diets used in
the raceway feeding experiments. The harvest was 1,487.5
pounds of suckers to the acre. Nearly 15 pounds of this diet

were placed in the raceway for each pound of suckers removed

7O

 

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use
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unsung conufipyohanoz use coudaapneh gnu 330500an nee—05m H0 domanemadc

AH mange

71
at harvest.

Diet 5 (35 Per cent beef liver and 65 per cent
cereal) was a more costly feed than the all cereal diet
due to the meat content and the harvest results were
less compensating. Two raceways averaged 1062 pounds of
fish to the sore on this diet. Nearly 25 pounds of food
was supplied for each pound of fish produced. A third
raceway receiving half as much food during the growing
season produced 725 pounds of suckers to the sore. Less
than 18 pounds of food was fed for each pound of fish
harvested in this raceway showing greater efficiency when
feeding rates are lower.

Diet 6 (29 per cent liver and 71 per cent cereal)
produced small fish as well as a low yield at harvest.

The cr0p of suckers taken from the raceway weighed 675
pounds to the sore and was produced at the expense of pro-
viding 32.6 pounds of feed for each pound of fish harvested.

Diet 7 (15.6 per cent horse liver, 78.1 per cent
Rowena Chicken Mash, 3.1 per cent Balto Dog Ration and
.2 per cent powdered egg meal) was fed to suckers in a
small pond. A crop of fishes weighing 578 pounds to the
acre resulted. Food was placed in the pond at the rate
of 17.9 pounds for each pound of suckers removed at harvest.

Diet 8 (4.7 per cent horse liver, 79.4 per cent

Rowena Chicken Mash, 2.6 per cent dried clam meal, 19 per

72
cent powdered egg meal and 13.1 per cent Balto Dog Ration)
fed to suckers gave the best results obtained in ponds.

A yield of 1,152 pounds of suckers per acre resulted from
a pond .41 of an acre in size. Bait minnows of the size
used for bass fishing were raised and the ratio of food
pounds supplied per fish pound harvested was 6.5 to 1.

Diet 9 (36.5 per cent Rowena Chicken Mash, 28.5
per cent dried clam meal, 3.8 per cent powdered egg meal,
31.1 per cent Balto Dog Ration) was supplied to suckers in
two small ponds. The two ponds averaged 549 pounds production
to the sore. Food was placed in the two ponds at the average
rate of 4.2 pounds for each pound of suckers harvested.

The feeding rates per acre were comparatively lower in these
instances which may eXplain in part the low ratio of food
supplied per pound of fish removed at harvest.

The production results obtained in these sucker
feeding experiments Show a parallel relationship between
high liver content in the diet and poor food conversion
efficiency. Whether this relationship is coincidental or
obligatory can not be decided on the limited data presented.
The cheaper and more easily fed cereal diets are apparently
the better producers.

The miscellaneous harvest of crayfish and tadpoles
from raceways and ponds where suckers were fed was 18 per
cent of the total production. The results of feeding

suckers in ponds and raceways are summarized in Table 13.

73

 

 

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modem
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7L

Figure 10 compares sucker production from non-
fertilized, fertilized, and artificially fed waters. The
results graphed were obtained by averaging the fish production

for the respective management programs.

Sucker and chub production reared 1p.combination.--Suckers
and chubs were fed and reared together as a means of
obtaining better food utilization. Food material unavail-
able to chubs in the bottom muds are still often accessable
to the suckers. Diet 9 was supplied to the fish in a .5
acre pond in this eXperiment. A good production of bass
sized bait minnows resulted (Table 14) and the 6:1 ratio

of food supplied per fish pound harvested is evidence to

support the recommendation of this method.

Overwintering suckers.--Loses in overwintering sucker
populations were calculated for three ponds. Of the

59,322 suckers stocked in the three ponds 57.4 per cent
were recovered after overwintering (Table 15). The average
growth in the ponds for the eight months period varied from
.3 to .8 of an inch. Greatest losses occurred in a shallow

pond.

Figure 10: Sucker Production in Terms of Pounds
Per Acre for Waters Non-Fertilized,
Fertilized, and Supplied with Food.

 

 

POUNDS HARVESTED

IOOO "'
900 _ '003
800 "'
700 '
600 _ 707
500 "
400 L"
300 '-

200 -

u i
0. fl

 

 

PONDS - RACEWAYS PONDS— RAGEWAYS PONDS - RAGEWAYS

NON-FERTILIZED FERTILIZED F ED

WATERS WATERS WATERS

 

 

Production Resulting from Feeding

Table 14

Chubs and Suckers Reared

in Combination

77

 

Chubs Suckers Chubs and Suckers
combined

Fry stocking

rate/acre 33.600 300,000 333,600
Numbers/acre '

harvested 29,400 72,836 102,236
Pounds/acre

harvested 246 570 816
Average length

(inches) 2.8 3 --
Growin period

days) 112 138 --
Pounds food

fed/acre* hI955

 

* Diet 9

78

 

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ma OHANB

79
The Golden Shiner

Many fishermen prefer the "flashy” shiner bait minnows
to all others. The golden Shiner known also as the roach or
bream, is able to withstand conditions of low oxygen better
than most of the common bait minnows but is easily subject
to.mortalities from bruises and fungus growth. The color is
an iridescent golden lustre imposed on an olive green back,

silvery sides and cream white underside. The fins are yellow.

Life history

The golden shiner is found abundantly throughout most
of Michigan. Shallow bays of lakes or ponds having mud
bottoms which support heavy growths of aquatic vegetation
comprises suitable habitats. P0pu1ations may also be found
in rivers or creeks sepecially where currents are sluggish.

The Spawning season is prolonged, extending from June
to August in southern Michigan. Adhesive eggs are scattered
over algae or beds of higher aquatic vegetation in shallow
waters. In natural waters of the state this fish reaches
a total length of 3 inches during its second summer, 4.5
inches during its fourth, and 5 inches during its fifth
summer (COOper 1936). Females were found to grow faster
than males, attain a greater size and live longer. .Maturity

is reached when a length of 2.5 to 3.5 inches is attained or

80
when reaching an age of 1 to 2 years. Cooper (1936) reported
finding some fishes 10 inches in total length and 8 years old.

Experiments with the golden shiner show the growth
potential to be considerably greater than that usually occurr-
ing in natural habitats. Experimentally, fishes averaging
.9 inches when stocked averaged 3.2 inches 62 days later.

The size range was from 2.8 to 3.6 inches with 96.1 per cent

of the population attaining a 3 inch size or better.

Producing the golden shiner

In southern Michigan the breeders should be placed
in rearing ponds by the first of May. Breeding stock should
not be selected on the basis of largest size only since
females grow larger than males and a preponderance of females
would thus be chosen. In the spawning season males may be
differentiated from females by examining the back which is
somewhat more swollen at the nape. Seven hundred to 1000
breeders averaging 5 inches in total length will populate
one acre ponds. Approximately 200 young for each female
stocked were harvested in these investigations under favorable
circumstances. Local conditions, such as predation and
adequacy of the Spawning area, exert a great influence on
the number of young obtained from each female at harvest.
Attempts to prepagate golden shiners in ponds void

of higher aquatic plants or.matts of filamentous algae were

81
usually unsuccessful. Best results occurred where a dense
growth of Anacharis canadensis filled the pond basin. Efforts
to stock ponds lacking natural Spawning areas by capturing
fry from ”brood ponds" and tranSplanting them were generally
unsuccessful. The small shiner fry are exceedingly susceptible
to injuries and even a short exposure to air produces
mortalities. With careful handling, small fishes of .9 to
1.0 inch in length can be transferred without great loses.

Unfortunately, the experimental production data for
this fish is limited due to pond drain box failures or
instances where Spawning was unsuccessful. In these minnow
investigations a pond neither fertilized nor fed produced
73 pounds of fish to the sore. No data from fertilized
ponds is presently available for comparison but fertilization
should be effective as a means of increasing production
since COOper (1936) found rapid growing pepulations of golden
shiners in waters enriched by domestic sewage near Ann Arbor,
Michigan.

Two attempts were made to feed golden shiners. Diets
3 and 4 were used with little success. Production details for
these ponds may be found in Table 16.

Golden shiners and fatheads were propagated together
in four ponds (Table 17). Perch sized minnows were produced
in each pond and the average production was 194 Pounds per
acre. Species sorting of fishes this size proved difficult

and time consuming.

82

 

 

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ma canes

83

 

 

 

 

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omenobw onoe\mcnsom 0900\0Heps:z cnom

homeomoa ceaeom mceoapwh one mneqaam docaou no doaposuoum

5H capes

84
Overwintering golden shiners.--Golden shiner overwintering
data is available from one pond. Of the 283 adults intro—
duced to a pond in the fall, 70.4 per cent by number were
recovered the following Spring.

7 Although experimental evidence is limited, golden
shiners should winter comparatively well. On-the basis of
pail holding tests where several Species of bait minnows
were kept under crowded conditions and low oxygen tensions,
the golden shiner survived better than.most of the others
tested. ‘Young golden shiners lived slightly longer than
adults when equal weights of fish were placed in small

containers of water.

85
The Fathead.Minnow

The fathead or black-head is one of the easiest
minnows to raise in ponds. It is a suitable bait for
the smaller piscivorous game fishes. Pail holding tests
showed the fathead survived equally as well as did chubs
under crowded conditions and low oxygen. This minnow is
not highly colored being dark olive or black on the back.

The entire body has a dusky appearance.

Life history

The fathead.minnow is found most often in creeks
and small streams where the current is moderate. ZMost
typical bottom types forming a part of the environment
are combinations of sand and rock orznud. Small ponds and
lakes may also have considerable p0pu1ations of fatheads,
especially where the competition from other fishes is not
keen.

During the breeding season, which extends from May
through August in southern.Michigan, the males acquire a
black head and three rows of horn-like breeding tubercles
across the snout. The male selects a small territory poss-
essing a suitable place for egg diaposition. Branches,
stones, boards, or any object presenting a submerged under-
side for egg attachment may be used. Males guarding adjacent

territories were observed to approach each other cautiously,

86
then turn and back up in a manner bringing the caudal
peduncles together. The two swim about with heads apart
and tails adjoining forming a V of their bodies. Sculling
actions of the tail are accomplished in unison. This
ceremonial behavior is usually of short duration, being
quickly terminated if other fishes chance to enter the
territories under guard of the participating males.

When a ripe female skirts the guarded territory, the
male darts out to strike her. A female ready to Spawn is
herded to the designated place where spawning commences.
IMales use their tail and pelvic fins to clasP the female
and push her around in "cartwheel" fashion. The female
wriggles stiffly with the body color becoming noticeably
lighter. The Spawning embrace may be broken for an instant
while the male darts out to strike other females as invitation
to the Spawning set. If the male is successful in acquiring
another Spawning partner, he arranges himself to one side of
both the females and continues the spawning behavior.

Eggs deposited on the undersides of submerged objects
are guarded by males who stroke them with a special Spongy
dorsal pad. Territories are maintained over a considerable
period resulting in nests which contain eggs in.many develope-
mental phases from several female breeders.

A few Spawners within a favorable environment, are
capable of producing prodigious populations of young. As

many as 4,144 offSpring are known to have been produced by

87
one female that Spawned 12 different times in a 68 day
period (Markus 1934). Observations at Hastings showed that
nesting sites covered areas of 6 to 120 square centimeters
and contained up to 2400 eggs. Female egg counts were found
to range from 200 to 1,000 eggs (wascko and Clark 1948). The
egg incubation period ranges from four to five days. In
southern Michigan, fishes become mature during the second
summer of life.

Hubbs and COOper (1936) give the maximum length of
this minnow to be 3 inches for females and 3% inches for
males. The males have the faster growth rate. This should
be remembered when choosing brood stock Since a preponderance
of males is not desirable. The maximum growth under natural
situations is usually attained during the second or third
year of life. The growth potential is greater under more
ideal Situations as demonstrated by a population of fatheads
stocked at .8 inches and harvested 63 days later at 2.5 inches
in length.

The fathead is relatively short lived. Apparently
considerable mortalities of the Spawners occur since only
1.6 per cent to 27.7 per cent of fin clipped breeders have

been recovered at harvest.

88

Producing the fathead

Method‘ggqppppaggtion.--Of all the bait fish Species reared
in these experiments, the fathead is the easiest of all to
propagate. Mature fishes placed in the rearing pond soon
populate the waters with thousands of fry. The number of
Spawning Sites in the rearing pond may be greatly increased
if Spawning boards are placed in the shallows of the pond
(Figure 11). Boards 10 X’l2 inches, stapled to a rope or
wire which is anchored at both ends will suffice. Boards
swinging with the wind or placed in deeper water were used
less often than those holding position in 2 t0 4 feet of
water. An alternate method for drainable ponds is to drive
boards or shingles in the mud of the pond bottom at a 45

degree angle.

Stocking Egg rearing pppg§.--The optimum number of breeders
to stock depends somewhat on individual pond characteristics
and local situations. From 900 to 1400 adults per acre of
water is the recommended stocking rate. Under favorable
Spawning conditions 1000 breeders stocked one acre ponds

in these experiments to the point of stunting the growth

of the progeny. .More fertile ponds or those where greater

mortalities occur may, of course, require larger numbers of

breeders. The bait minnow pr0pagator having a demand for

small minnows such as used for crappie fishing may intent-

Figure 11: Fathead Spawning Boards.

If

”CZ, ..

. t/ I. .
III, v.1...

 

91
ionally overstock the pond to obtain greater numbers of
the smaller sizes.
The adults should be placed in the rearing pond by
the latter part of April.

Fathead pgpduction ig fertilized and aggrfertilized waters.--
Two ponds for three consecutive years were utilized in
raising fatheads under fertilized and non-fertilized programs.
Pond 4‘Wolf Lake received an average of 550 pounds of 10-6-4
fertilizer per acre per year, while Pond 5 W01: Lake received
no fertilizer over the same period. The two ponds are quite
similar in physical characteristics. The growth period
varied from year to year but in each instance was equal for
the fertilized and non-fertilized ponds. Examinations of
fathead stomach contents showed considerable quantities of
algae and small aquatic animals explaining in part the effect
fertilization presumably had in increasing production. The
average non-fertilized pond production obtained in this
series is considered to be low. Table 18 summarizes the
yearly production obtained from these ponds.

Two other ponds were fertilized to obtain fathead
production data. Pond 2 Hastings received 600 pounds per
acre of 10-6-4 fertilizer and 1000 adults. Pond 10 wolf Lake
received an application of 2000 pounds per acre of sheep
manure and 3,400 breeders. The harvest, after a 3% month

growing period, is shown in Table 19.

92

 

 

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IIoweHo><II
m0 00e.mma 0mm II000~II ms 0H5.0m me.
am 00m.55 0AA II000mII 0m 0m5.0a 0H
0 000.00 and II050II 0H 005.mm mm
summed eczema m.H once you once you Amadeus. summed memos“ m.H once you once you
muaceeowo admonom enemasz meadow eoxeopm mnaeooowo psoonem mnonssz mcqeom

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meson cesaaapnohIaoz one ceuaaflphom son“ soaposconm coonpeh no domanwmsoo

ma canoe

dodposcoam coom noNHHHpHoMIsoz

93
Table 19

Fathead Production from Fertilized Ponds

 

Production Pond 10 wolf Lake Pond 2 Hastings
Pounds/acre 161 212
Numbers/acre

harvested 141,462 251,375

Average len th
at harvest in.) 1.2 1.1

are. feeding 2; fatheads.-~On1y one attempt was made to feed
fatheads. A Wolf Lake one acre rearing pond fertilized
with 2000 pounds of sheep manure and fed 5,088 pounds of
Diet 3 produced 461 pounds of fatheads. The 380,100 fish
harvested resulted from 4000 breeders or an average of

95 young per adult. A growth of 1.8 inches was attained
by 59 per cent of the fishes harvested with the remainder

of the crop averaging less than 1.5 inches.

Fatheads reared $3 combination with'gppgg1minnows.--Fatheads
were reared in combination with golden Shiners and northern
creek chubs. The resulting production from these experiments
have been discussed in sections dealing with golden shiner

and chub production.

Overwintering fatheads.--Three pepulations of fatheads were

placed in ponds to obtain information on survival rates.
Of the 460,595 fish stocked in the fell 70.2 per cent survived

the winter and were harvested the next spring (Table 20).

9h

 

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a. 0.50 0H 000.00H ~.H 05
N. «.mw w 050.00H m.H mNm
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hhobooom moanmm

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modem SH mowonpem modnopsH3ho>o Ho madamem

ON magma

95

Tests designed to Show the relative hardiness of
fatheads to crowded conditions and low dissolved oxygen
indicate that this fish reacts as well to these conditions
as does the northern creek chub. The average overwintering
survival rate obtained for chubs and fatheads in these
eXperiments compare favorably. The fatheads held over the
winter were young fish and since the life expectancy of
fatheads iSInuch shorter than for chubs the survival per-

centages obtained with adult pepulations might be lower.

96
Pr0pagation of Other
Bait‘Minnows

Chubsucker.--The chubsucker is an excellent bait minnow and
the growth is comparable to the other larger bait Species.
These fish are reported to attain an age of 8 years (Underhill
1939). Sizes run to 10 inches.

Chubsuckers should overwinter very well. Tests
showed ability to withstand crowding and low oxygen
tensions comparable to the most resistant bait minnows
tested.

Highly successful propagation and production of the
chubsuckers was not attained in the experiments (Table 21).
Cooper (1935) reports ovary counts of 3,000 to 20,000 eggs
and yet the maximum number of young produced for each
female in these tests was approximately 110. ‘Much lower
ratios of young produced to females stocked usually resulted.
The future status of the chubsucker as a pond reared Species

depends on the developement of methods for obtaining fry.

32g p_e__l_._1_y Qatar-The red belly dace is often used as bait
for the smaller game fish. This minnow is attractively
colored with a rich olive back, white below, and is doubly
stripped with broad black bands along each side. Lower
portions of breeding males are vermilion with red and yellow

fins while breeding females are duller in color with noticeably

97

distended abdomens. Females, attended by one or*more males,
Spawn in filamentous algae from the latter part of May into
August (Hubbs and Cooper 1936). Biologists report a
longevity of about 3 years and growth to 2% inches.

Attempts to prOpagate the red belly dace were not
successful in these investigations, however this minnow does
produce well in ponds under some circumstances (Table 21).
In one or two instances red bellied dace occurred in
considerable number as volunteer fish in the eXperimental
ponds. The origin of the volunteers is not known but
presumably a few adults may have been accidently introduced
with other breeder stocks or the fish.managed to penetrate
screen barriers to river water supplies.

CoOper (1935) described ponds where successful
reproduction took place as being supplied with water frmn
springs and seepage. Owners with ponds having these char-

acteristics may have success in raising the red belly dace.

Mudminnow.--The demand for this Species of bait fish is

local in nature in.Michigan. Many fishermen confuse the
mudminnow for the young of dogfish accounting in part for
it's unpopularity in some places. The back isxnottled

brown or olive arranged in a manner that gives the impression
of tranverse bars. The interspaces and undersides of cream
to yellow are often flecked with lavender anteriorly. In

these southern Michigan experiments Spawning commenced before

98

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99
the middle of April. Eggs are laid on aquatic vegetation
(Forbes and Richardson 1920). Ovary counts disclosed
425-450 eggs per female (Evermann and Clark, 1920).

The mudminnow diaplayed holding qualities and resist-
ance to low oxygen tensions unmatched by any other bait
minnow Species. Overwintering Should not be a problem with
this fish.

Attempts to propagate the mudminnow in ponds have
not been successful. Some reproduction invariably was
obtained but has been insufficient in these tests to
populate ponds. In some instances breeders were stocked
after Spawning hadalready begun which could have interfered
with good reproduction. Breeding stock Should probably be
placed in the ponds during the last week in February.

Brassy:minnow.--The brassy minnow attains a length of
3 to A inches and serves well as forage fish or bait minnow.
Coloring is oliveaceous above with light lower portions
reflecting a brassy or golden sheen. A dark band strips
the body on each Side and dorsal midline.

0n the basis of preliminary studies the brassy
minnowwmay prove to be a good Species for pond culture.
Ovaries from 15 fish averaging 2.8 inches in total length
disclosed 6,830 eggs per female. The females, from which
this sample was taken, were placed in a pond at Hastings

where the Spawning period extended from the middle of June

100
to July 25. The number of females in the brood stock were
estimated to be 384 and on this basis about 85 young were
harvested for each female stocked (Table 21).

The growth of the brassy minnow throughout the
summer period was compared to chub growth in a pond where
a Shmilar population density existed (Figure 12).

Although no production data are available from ponds
artificially fed, feeding was attempted to determine the
reSponse of the fish to various.methods. Food (Diet 4)
placed in Shallow water on the pond bottom soon attracted
much feeding activity indicating that this method of
management may be productive.

The brassy was more easily harvested by glass trap
than any other minnow prepagated. Baited glass traps often
captured between 600 and 700 minnows per trap with one set
of an hours' duration.

Some characteristics exhibited by the brassy must
be considered objectionable. Records Show that brassys
succumb to roily waters and injuries occurring at harvest
:much.more readily than some of the other bait.minnows. To
further substantiate these observations the holding qualities

of the brassy are comparatively poor (Table 22).

Figure 12: A Comparison of Chub and Brassy Minnow Growth.
(Adult brassy minnows and chub fry stocked.
Growth occurring in ponds supporting

Shnilar populations.)

 

 

SIZE IN INCHES

 

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— CHUBS
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2.0 "
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103
Table 22

Comparative Holding Qualities

of Some Common Bait Minnows

Rating* Bait Minnow Species

 

Best mudminnow

chubsucker

golden Shiner

l

2

3

A red belly dace
5 chub

6 fathead

7

Poorest brassy

 

* Rating based on per cent survival of a 1 pound

population in 2 quarts of water at 14.50 C.

Nerthern pearl dace.--Attempts to propagate this minnow in

ponds were not successful.

DISCUSSICN

The pond production of bait minnows in localities
where inadequate supplies of these fish exist seems
practical in view of the experimental findings. The four
Species of bait minnows which were most successfully reared
in ponds fulfill fishermens needs for good bait. Chubs
and suckers of proper sizes are highly desirable lures
for nearly all piscivorous game fishes, they are long-lived
on the hook and resistant to rough treatment. Although
these Species do not Spawn in ponds, the fry may be
purchased or the technique of culturing fry can be easily
mastered. Preperly stocked ponds with chub and sucker fry
produce fishes suitable for bass bait the following fall.

The demands for bait minnows of a size suitable
for the smaller game fishes can be supplied with stocks of
fathead minnows or gohden Shiners. The natural reproduction
of these fishes in ponds greatly facilitates their culture.
Preliminary studies of the brassy minnow as a bait Species
are encouraging and warrant consideration where small minnows
are desired.

The pond management techniques to be employed in
producing minnow crops will depend on the bait demands to

be fulfilled. Where the demand is great, the culturist

105
will be interested in producing the maximum harvest possible
from all ponds and to accomplish this a feeding program
must be established. Only culturists operating on a large
scale will find it possible to produce minnows by the feeding
method since seasonal production costs are several thousand
dollars per acre depending somewhat on local feed and
labor markets. The experimental diets cannot be considered
very satisfactory on the basis of the food conversions
obtained.

Minnow dealers having more limited demands for
bait or who wish to supplement minnow supplies obtained
from natural waters with pond reared minnows, will find it
more within their>means to increase fish production through
the enrichment of waters with fertilizers or rear a combin-
ation of Species together. Labor and production costs are
held to a minimum when these methods of pond management are
employed.

On the basis of the findings of these experiments
relative to the relationship between p0pulation densities
and growth rate, the removal of minnows from rearing ponds
as soon as they attain a salable size is advocated since
this releases pond space and food organisms pennitting a
more rapid growth of the remaining fish population.

The phenomenon diSplayed by an equal area of Small
ponds in out producing larger ponds may be explained on the

basis of their respective shore line lengths. The Shore

106
line of an acre of raceways is many times as great as that
of a one acre pond. Minnows, like many other fishes, ex-
hibit a tendency to travel the shore lines preferring to
forage on the shoal areas.

In northern Michigan ponds where the period between
last frost in spring and first frost in fall is short, the
bait culturist must anticipate slower growth rates and lower
pond production.

Those who contemplate the developement of an exten-
sive bait minnow enterprise Should plan the construction of
drainable ponds. Experience with pond management has
unmistakably shown that ponds which cannot be drained soon
acquire an undesirable combination of fish Species which
interfer with efficient minnow production and are difficult
to eliminate. A complete and less laborsome fish harvest
is achieved from drainable ponds.

Unfortunately, there is a great diSparity in the
prices obtained for perch-size minnows and those suitable
for pike or bass fishing in comparison to their reSpective
production costs. The greatest shortages of bait minnows,
in many localities, is for the larger sizes yet these fish
are more costly to produce and bring a lower price per
pound. If there is a ready market for minnows of a size
suitable for perch or crappie fishing, ponds producing the

smaller sizes of bait fishes will give a much greater

financial return to the culturist.

107
Vital details of bait minnow life histories were
included in this report to aid the prOSpective culturist
in planning a sound propagation program. Information
of this type was taken from the literature when it could
be found and was supplemented to a large extent by obser-

vations made during these investigations.

1.

SUMMARY

The facilities of seven state fish hatcheries were
utilized to investigate the practicality of producing
bait minnows. Production and prOpagation data were
collected from 114 ponds representing a water surface
area of 80.2 acres. 0f the nine bait minnow species
used in these experiments the most successful results
were obtained with the northern creek chub, common

white sucker, golden shiner and fathead minnow.

Several methods of pond management were used to obtain
greater production. waters were enriched with fertilizer,
fish were fed and different Species of fish were reared

in combination.

Fertilizer added to pond waters increased the survival
of young fish and gave significant increases in fish
production. Increases in crayfish and tadpole production

were much greater than increases in fish production.

The largest crOpS of bait minnows produced per unit
water area resulted from artificial feeding. Diets
supplied to suckers and chubs gave yields exceeding
1200 pounds of fish per acre. Chubs reSponded better
to diets having a high liver content while suckers
thrived best on the cereal diets. The ratio of food

109

supplied to each pound of fish harvested increased

with higher feeding rates.

The Space and natural food organisms of ponds were
utilized more efficiently when several bait minnow
Species were reared in combination. Greater harvests

of fish from ponds resulted.

An inverse relationship exists between the numbers of
fish supported by a pond and the average growth rate
of the pOpulation. Fish populations in ponds must
therefore be regulated to obtain the desired growth

rate and Size of bait minnows at harvest.

The raceways and smaller ponds produced the largest
crops of fish per unit of water surface area. This
observation applied to waters supplied with feed and
fertilizer as well as waters which received no added

nutrients.

Bait minnow Species which fail to Spawn naturally in
ponds Should be stocked as advanced fry. The advanced
fry survived from 3 to 6 times better than sac fry
depending upon the Species of fish stocked.

The culturist who wishes to supply Spring and early
summer fishing needs or bait minnows of a size suitable
for pike fishing, must overwinter large populations of
fish. The regular hatchery-type rearing ponds are not

110

well suited for holding fish populations through the

winter.

10. The value of drainable ponds to an extensive bait
minnow enterprise cannot be overemphasized. A complete

and efficient harvest can be obtained.

LITERATURE CITED

Bacon, Edward H.
1951 Experimental use of carp pituitary in the
production of fish. Unpublished M. A.
thesis. Michigan State College, 80 numb.

leaves.

Ball, Robert C.
1949 Experimental use of fertilizer in the pro-
duction of fish-food organisms and fish.
Mich. State 0011., Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech,
Bull. 210, 28 pp.

Bean, Leslie S.
1936 Fish yield on the National Forests. Proc.

Carbine, W; F.
1940 Michigan.minnow dealers. Mich. Dept. Cons.,
L. F. R. (Unpublished) Report No. 627.

Clark, Clarence F.
1940 Creek chub minnow prOpagation. Ohio Dept.
Agr., Cer. 190-A A. pp.

CoOper, Gerald P.

1935 Some results of forage fish investigations
in Michigan. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 65:
132-142.

_l936'_'_'Age, growth and suitability for propagation
of the olden shiner (Notemigonus crysoleucas
auratuSI. Paperstich. Acad. Sci. Arts and
Letters. Vbl. 21, pp. 587-597.

Dobie, John R.
1948 Minnow propagation.
Minn. Dept. Cons., Bull. 13, 25 pp.

Evermann and Howard walton Clark
1920 Lake Maxinkuckee. Indiana

112

Forbes, Stephen A. and R. E. Richardson.
1909 The fishes of Illinois. Nat. His. Survey
Of Ill. V01. 3: 1.357.

Greeley, John R.
1930 A contribution to the biology of the horned
dace, Semotilus atromaculatus Mitchill.
Abstract of thesifi, 3 pp.

Hedges, Sheldon B.
1951 Harvesting and production of bait fishes in
ponds. (Unpublished Masters thesis, Mich.
State College.)

Hubbs, Carl L.
1933 (Unpublished Mich. Dept. Cons. I. F. R. Report).

__ __ __ _ _ and Gerald P. Cooper
1936' Minnows of Michigan. Cranbrook Inst. of Sci.
Bull. 8: 1-95.

Hutchins, Lynn H.
1946 Bait minnows and their propagation. Nat.
Hist. Survey of I11., circ., 3 pp.
Lauff, George H. '
1951 A survey of live-bait dealers in.Michigan.
(Unpublished Masters thesis, Mich. State
College.)

Markus, Henry C.
1934 Life history of the blackhead minnow
(Pimephales promelas). COpeia, 1934, No 3,
Pp 0 116-122 0

Patriarche, M. H. and Ball, R. C.

1949 An analysis of the bottom fauna production
in fertilized and unfertilized ponds and its
utilization by young-of-the-year fish. Mich.
State 0011., Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. Bull. 210,

35 PP-
Schaeperclaus, Wilhelm Translated by F. Hund.
1933 Textbook of pond culture. U. 8. Dept. Int.,

F. and W. 8., Fishery leaflet 311.

Swingle, H. S.
19h? Experiments on pond fertilization. Ala. Agr.
Exp. Sta., Bull. 254, 34 pp.

113

Underhill, A. Heston
1941 Estimation of a breeding population of chub
suckers. N. Am.‘Wildlife Conf. Trans.
5: 251-256.

Van Deusen, R. D.
1947 Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of
plankton from fertilized and non-fertilized
onds, with an appraisal of methods used.
Master's thesis, Michigan State College.)

Vessel, Matt F., and Samuel Eddy
1941 A preliminary study of the egg production
of certain.Minnesota fishes. Minn. Bur.
Fish. Res. Invest. Rept. 26: 26 pp.

Whacko, H. and Clarence F. Clark
1948 Pond propagation of bluntnose and blackhead
minnows. Ohio Dept. Cons., Bull. No. 4, pp. 15.

flashburn, George N.
1946 .Minnow propagation program for 1946. Mich.
Dept. Cons. I. F. R. Report 1052

_______ Propagation of the creek chub in ponds with
artificial raceways. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc.

75: 336-350.

Yoder, Troy C.
1947 Minnow propagation experiments for 1947.
Mich. Dept. Cons., I. F. R. (Unpublished)
Report No. 1267.