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A SURVEY OF LIVE-BAIT DEALERS

IN MICHEGAN

Thai: for The Degree of M. S.
MICHIGAN STATE COLLEGE

George Howard Laufi
I951

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theeis entitled
"A'Survey of Live-Bait Dealers in Michigan“

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A SURVEY OF LIVE-BAIT DEALERS IN MICHIGAN

By

George Howard Lauff

A THESIS

Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan
State College of Agriculture and Applied Science
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Zoology

1951

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

This survey was conducted by the Institute for
Fisheries Research of the Michigan Department of Conserva-
tion. The author is grateful to the officials and em-
ployees for their cooperation.

Dr. Robert C. Ball, Professor of Zoology, Michigan
State College, was a constant source of guidance and sug-
gestions throughout the work. Dr. William D. Baten, Pro-
fessor of Mathematics, assisted in determining sampling
methods.

A Special note of gratitude is due Mr. Ralph Marks
and Mr. C. Troy Yoder, Fish Division, Michigan Department
of Conservation, for aid and suggestions in initiating
the survey. Mr. Spenser Bower, Fish Division, was help-
ful in obtaining data regarding legislation and license
sales. The ready cooperation of those bait dealers con-

tacted during the survey was appreciated.

‘ f. ' ' ~'
23;>I)?1T}A3

TABLE OF

INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . .
DEFINITION OF MINN W8 . . .
LIVE-BAIT DEALERS . . . . .
Classification . . . .
Growth of the Live Bait
LIVE-BAIT DEALER SURVEY. . .
LITERATURE . . . . . . . . .
DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF
Business Operation . .
Equipment . . . . . . .
Transportation . .
Collection . . . .

Bait Minnows . . . . .

Common.Bait Species . . . . . . . . . .

Lake Emerald Shiners . . . . . . . . . .

Availability of Minnows
Source of Minnows . . .
Private Ponds . . . . .
Holding Facilities . .
Minnow Loss . . . . . .
Holding Tank Care . . .

. Cleaning . . . . .

Treatment . . . .

CONTENTS

PAGE

03010er

Business . . . . . .
15
19
20
21
24
24
29
30
50
55
39

. . . . . . . . . . . 41
44
48
50
51

51

PAGE

Feeding O O O C O O O O O O O O O O O O 55
Mimow Sales O O O O O C 0 C O O O O O O O O 53
Other Live Baits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

Income, Gross Sales, and Investment of

Dealers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
SUGGESTIONS ON COMMON PROBLEMS . . . . . . . . . 72
Minnow Transportation Units for Vehicles . . 72
Handling of Minnows . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Holding Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Minnow Sorting and Sales . . . . . . . . . . 83
Minnow Ponds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Pond Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 85

Aquatic Plants. . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

Poisoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

SUMMARY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92

LITERATURE CITED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

CHART
II

III

IV

VI
VII
VIII

IX

XI

XII

LIST OF CHARTS

Bait License Sales in Michigan 1959-1950 .
Comparison of Bait License Sales and Fish-
ing License Sales in Michigan: 1930-1950 .
Distribution of Wholesale and Retail Live-
Bait Dealers in Michigan (January 1, 1949-
Apriils, 1950). . . . . .'. . . . . ... .
Form Used in the Live-Bait Dealer Survey .

-Business Operations of Michigan Live-

Bait Dealers . . . . . . . . . .1. . . J .
Types-of Equipment used by Michigan Live-
Bait Dealers . . . . . . . . . . . .1. . .
Price Range of Minnows in Michigan (Spring
and Summer, 1950). . . . . . . . . . . .
Sources of Bait Minnows for Commercial
Sale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Data Concerning the Use of Minnow Ponds

in Michigan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minnow Sales Practices . . . . . . . . . .
Live Bait Other Than Minnows Sold by Live-
aait Dealers in Michigan . . . . . . . . .
Data Concerning Income, Gross Sales, and

Investments of Michigan Live-Bait Dealers.

PAGE

11

15

18

23

27

34

45

47
54

57

71

INTRODUCTION

Michigan has many hundreds of miles of rivers and
thousands of lakes. Its waters, beaches, and vacation
lands attract people from all areas. The wealth of water
and its fishery resources has gained Michigan wide renown
and the state has become of great importance as a resort
area. During certain periods of the year, the fish in
its waters attract over a million tourists and resident
anglers. Since many anglers prefer to fish with live
bait, the demand has given rise to an industry concerned
with the collecting, raising, and selling of such baits
as minnows, adult insects, insect nymphs and larvae, and
worms of various kinds.

Coincident with this increasing demand for bait
and the efforts to supply it has arisen the problem of
seasonal shortages of certain types of bait and perhaps
the over exploitation of a valuable natural resource. As
a result, it has become necessary to enact legislation to
control the collection and sale of live bait. Since the
chief demands are for minnows and insect larvae, it is
these baits which are regulated by state legislation.

The first official report of the minnow shortage
in Michigan was made in 1953 by Hubbs of the Institute
for Fisheries Research in his reply to the Department of

Conservation concerning their inquiries regarding the
status of minnows. He reported that observations indi-
cated a considerable depletion of the bait minnow stock
had taken place. Streams near fishing lakes had a min-
now population well below that which would be expected.

He noted, however, that streams hidden from view and those
streams that were comparatively inaccessible had a much
larger minnow supply. Even at that time, bait dealers
were often ferced to travellong distances to obtain an
adequate supply of minnows. He blamed unregulated and
wasteful methods of handling for the depleted stock and
suggested bait minnow culture as one of the possible solu-
tions.

Despite legislation, native minnow resources could
not satisfy the increasing demand for live bait. The
shortage continued and became more acute. Bait dealers
asked for help concerning pond construction, pond culture
and propagation of bait minnows. In 1947, a series of
experiments were conducted at state fish hatcheries which
determined that bait minnows could be propagated success-
fully (Yoder, 1950). A program was inaugurated by the
state in which minnow fry were offered for sale at a
price to cover only the costs involved. The northern
creek chub, Semotilis atromaculatus atromaculatus, and

the white sucker, Catostomus commersonnii commersonnii,

were selected since results of Washburn's survey (1946)
indicated a preference for these species. Adult breeding
stock was collected and the eggs taken and hatched. Fry
were distributed when the egg sac had been absorbed suffi-
ciently to allow them to become free swimming. This pro-
gram is in operation at the present time.

This thesis represents a summarization of the data
collected during the survey of Michigan live-bait dealers
conducted during the Spring and summer of 1950 by the In-
stitute for Fisheries Research, Michigan Department of
Conservation, in cooperation with Michigan State College,
to determine the importance and extent of the live bait
business in the state and to study practices and problems
common to the dealers. Data gathered as a result of the
survey were used to evaluate the state's program of supply-
ing minnow fry for propagation purposes and to assist in
the formulation of legislation that would give increased

protection to live bait resources.

DEFINITION OF MINNOWS

The true minnows belong to the family Cyprinidae.
Carbine (1941) states that the name “minnow“ is commonly,
but erroneously applied to small fish of all species.

The mud minnow, sucker, and the t0p minnow, three species
which are used as bait, belong to other families. Young
Specimens of game and food fish, which should be called
fry or fingerlings, are often spoken of improperly as
minnows, e.g., perch minnows and pike minnows. The true
minnows are distinguished from all other fishes by their
possession of the following characters:

1. There are no teeth on the Jaws.

2. There are no scales present on the head.

5. There are no spiny rays in the fins.

4. The single dorsal fin has less than ten rays.

The commercial minnow law, Act 165, P.A. 129, states
that ”minnows shall be defined as chubs, Shiners, suckers,
(when‘of a size ordinarily used for bait in hook and line
fishing), dace, stonerollers, muddlers, and mud minnows.
Wigglers shall be defined as May-fly nymphs or larvae.
Commercial purposes shall be construed to mean offering

for sale, selling, giving or furnishing to others”.

‘

LIVE-BAIT DEALERS
Classification

There are two legal classifications of live-bait
dealers in the state of Michigan: the retail dealer and
the wholesale dealer. Regulations and provisions for
operation are essentially similar with the exception that
wholesale dealers may offer bait for resale. Another
general classification can be readily observed, however.
It may be termed a socio-economic grouping.

Marginal dealers: This group is characterized by
small dealers, Operating from roadside stands, back porches,
or basements. The total investment is very small, perhaps
no more than the price of a wash tub, a pop cooler, or a
stock tank. They are in Operation only when bait is
readily available and their operation is definitely
seasonal in nature. Patronage is usually limited and
quite Sporatic. There is no regular income, livelihood
being derived from both bait sales and odd jobs. Resort
owners operating a few cabins or a boat livery are in this
classification.

Part-time dealers: A majority of the live bait
dealers fall into this category. The major portion of
their total income is derived from some full-time occupa-

tion but Off hours and week-ends are spent collecting

6
bait. A part of a basement or garage may be divided off
to provide a small shop. A line of fishing tackle and
equipment is usually stocked. Business may be either
seasonal or year around. Gas stations, general stores,
and other such establishments which often handle bait and
fishing supplies are included in this grouping.

Large seasonal dealers: Dealers of this type are
found in an area which supports a large summer resort
population. The dealer devotes his full time and energies
to his business during its operation which is typically
from mid-June until Labor Day. While in operation, a
fairly complete line of supplies and equipment is stocked.
The place of business is usually of a permanent nature
and an effort is made to attract trade.

Permanent dealers: Dealers in this grouping oper-
ate a bait business in cOnjunction with a fairly large
sporting goods store or tackle shop. The bait department
is built as a part of the store and some live bait is
available throughout the year even though the range or

selection will not equal that of the summer season.
Growth of the Live Bait Business

Since the regulation of live bait sales was effected
in 1930 (Act 165, P.A. 129), the growth in the number of
licensees has increased rapidly. In 1940 (Act 557,

P.A. 1959) provision was made for both a retail and a
wholesale license. Wholesale license sales were relatively
constant from their initiation in 1941 until 1945. In
1946, the sale of both wholesale and retail bait licenses
increased; wholesale license sales had more than tripled
and retail license sales had nearly doubled by 1949. A
graphic representation of the growth of license sales is
illustrated by Chart I.

Carbine (1940) estimated that 50 per cent of the
fishermen relied on bait dealers for their live bait. A
comparison of bait license sales and fish license sales in-
dicates an approximate ratio of one bait dealer license for
600 fish licenses. This could be construed to mean that
one bait dealer would serve approximately 300 fishermen.

There is an apparent correlation between the number
of bait licensees and the number of fishing licenses sold
(Chart II). The first resident fishing license was required
in 1927 fOr the taking of any trout, excepting mackinaw
trout. In 1955, a general resident license was required
for all fishing. The rapid rate of increase of licenses
sold is shown on the chart. The sudden reduction in sale
of both bait licenses and fishing licenses during the war
years, 1940-1945, may possibly have been caused by sev-
eral factors. The decline might be contributed to trans-
portation difficulties due to war-time restriction, to

high war time employment in industry, or to an engagement

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12
in active military service. Trends in both bait and fish-
ing license sales are similar and it may be assumed that
the increase in sales of fishing licenses and the conse-
quent demand for live bait by the increased population of
fishermen suggested favorable business opportunities in

live bait sales.

LIVE-BAIT DEALER SURVEY

The purpose of this survey was as follows:

1. To determine the importance and extent of the
live bait business in Michigan.

2. To study some of the problems and practices
common to bait dealers.

Data gathered during the survey were used to evalu-
ate the state's program of supplying minnow fry for propa-
gation purposes and to assist in the formulation of legis-
lation that would give increased protection to live bait
resources.

The dealers contacted were among those who had ob-
tained either a wholesale or a retail minnow license during
the period January 1, 1949 to April 13, 1950. The state-
wide concentration of dealers was determined by plotting
the number of licenses sold in each county as indicated
by the Department of Conservation's list of minnow dealers
licensed for that period. The number of wholesale dealers
and the number of retail dealers were determined and are
indicated on Chart III.

Sixteen per cent of the retail dealers and 30 per
cent of the wholesale dealers were contacted to allow a
complete coverage of the state in the allocated time. A

larger percentage of wholesalers were contacted since it

Chart III: Distribution of Wholesale and Retail
Live-Bait Dealers in Michigan

(January 1, l9h9-April 13, 1950)

 

 

 

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16
was believed that they would be more familiar with exist-
ing conditions of supply and demand of the bait industry.

Those dealers to be contacted were selected at ran-
dom from the Department of Conservation's list of licensed
minnow dealers. A total of 60 wholesale contacts and 328
retail dealer contacts were made from the beginning of
the survey, June 7, 1950 until its completion, September
12, 1950. The survey was conducted on a personal inter-
view basis with the proprietor or a person closely associ-
ated with the business. The mimeographed form that was

used is shown in Chart IV.

 

 

mo>ndm 93”me pfimmumnfiq 93 :a comp Show “>H p.850

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Name Address

Location County

BUSINESS 1
Type: wholesale retail ooth
Size: large small part—time seasonal

 

 

 

 

Bait only
Years in business
Radius served

EQUIPMENT
Transportation
Truck:

bait, tackle, etc.

 

size condition tank size type of aeration

 

Trailer:

 

2

 

Collection
Seines:

numoer size

 

Glass traps:

 

Hook and line:

 

Wire traps:

 

Holding tanks:

 

O
5

Real estate

0 O.

 

 

TOPal value OT’equipment: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $

BAITS
Minnow species
Main species

00

 

Perch Bass Pike Decoy

 

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Regional sp.

 

 

seasonal spT

 

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Other baits
Worms:
Red:
Night crawlers:
:
Cribkéts:
Wrigglers:

yes no source

 

 

 

 

 

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Availability
General:

 

Specific:

 

Seasonal:

 

Radius of collection:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

SOURCE OF MINNOWS yes no
Collectors:
Collect own:
Out~of~state sources:
Wholesalers:
Raise own:
PRIVATE PONDS
Numoer , Average size Total area
Source of water
Species numUer feed or fertilizer production
SHOOeSs: .
Percentage 01 own supply: surplus
Remarks on ponds:__
HOLDING FACILITIES number '
Tanks: Size
Source of water: «7 .
Percent fish 1035” *“bUlorine—‘ aeration
Feeding: —”‘
Treatment:__
MINNOW SALES
Number per person:
Numoer per containEF: ‘““
Types of containers II percent

Minnow pails:
Cans:

 

 

 

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INCOME

Gross from live bait only:

Percentage of total
Total gross SaIeS:

 

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Sales:

 

 

 

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LITERATURE

There have been two other minnow dealer surveys
made in Michigan. Carbine, (1940) interviewed 65 dealers
during the period 1937-1939 to determine minnow loss and
methods of collecting, handling, and holding.

Shortly before the state undertook the demonstra-
tion experiment for determining the practicality of bait
minnow culture, Washburn (1946) conducted a postcard ques-
tionnaire concerning the scarcity of bait minnows and the
advisability of the demonstration prOgram prOposed. He
concluded from the 37 per cent returns that minnow dealers
recognized that an acute shortage of bait existed and were
in favor of the program to study methods of propagation

of these fish.

DISCUSSION OF RESULTS OF THE SURVEY

In the discussion that follows, reference is made
to the division of the state into ”regions". These regions
are indicated on Chart III. This division of the state,
which is utilized by the Department of Conservation, has
been followed because each of the three regions generally
represents differences in soil, agriculture, vegetation,
and population density.

Region I is an area that is sparsely populated in
comparison to the other regions of the state. Poor soils
and a short growing season limit agriculture. Vegetation
is a mixture of conifers and more tolerant deciduous trees.
Tourist trade is an important part of the economy of the
area.

Region II is intermediate between regions I and III
in most reSpects. Fruit farming, dairy farming, and other
agricultural practices are carried on as soil types and
the length of the growing season will permit. Population
is more dense than the northern region and industrial
concerns are more numerous. Vegetation varies from mostly
deciduous fOrms in the southern portions of the region to
a mixture of conifers and deciduous trees or pure conifer
stands at the northern limits. This area has centers

which are widely known as tourist resorts.

21

Region III is characterized by greater industriali-
zation than the other regions. General farming as well
as specialized agricultural practices are conducted. Soils
in this area are generally more fertile than northern soils.
Tourist trade is of some significance in this area but not
to the extent it realizes in the two northern regions of
the state.

In the discussion of the results of the survey,
percentages or averages given are representative of the
state unless otherwise indicated in the text. Figures
that are representative of the regions are given in charts
that accompany the text. Percentages and averages are
arithmetic means calculated from data obtained by survey
contacts which were a random sample of the live-bait

dealers in the state at the time the survey was conducted.
Business Operation

Under the provisions of Act 337, P.A. 1939, a
dealer purchasing a wholesale license may also operate a
retail establishment. Nearly 70 per cent of the whole-
sale dealers were following this practice. Some, however,
apparently were not aware of the provisions of the act
since they purchased both the retail and wholesale license.

Over half of the wholesale dealers contacted (Chart

V) had a gross sale of live bait totaling $2000.00 or more

mundane gammaoga cmmanga .Ho $838an0 $2535 1. 3.995

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24
per year. Less than one quarter of the retail dealers
obtained that volume of sales.

Part-time operators were found to be most prevalent,
with 65 per cent of the retail dealers working at some
other occupation throughout the year. Forty-four per cent
of the wholesale dealers were in this category. Four out
of every ten retail dealers operated seasonally as compared
to two out of ten wholesale dealers.

The majority of the wholesale dealers in the state
handle only live bait. Over 70 per cent of the retail
dealers handle fishing tackle, sporting equipment, or other
materials in addition to live bait.

The average retail bait dealer has been in business
for 5.7 years as compared to 9.2 years for the average
wholesale dealer.

The radius of collection for the average retail
dealer is 16.6 miles, exceeding the radius of service
which is 9.2 miles. The average radius of collection for
wholesale dealers is 38.1 miles as compared to a service

radius of 46.1 miles.
Equipment

Transportation Equipment:
Trucks, trailers, autos, and boats are utilized in

transporting bait from lakes and streams and of these,

25

trucks are by far the most common. Thirty-six per cent
of the retail dealers used trucks (Chart VI) as compared
to 75 per cent of the wholesale dealers. The auto was
next most important means of transportation for retail
dealers, followed by auto trailers, and boats. Wholesale
dealers utilized auto trailers more than either boats or
autos. Factors that determine the type of vehicle used
in the transportation of bait are: the ability of the
dealer to invest in a special vehicle for bait purposes,
the quantity of bait that is transported, and the dis-
tance that the bait is tranSported.

Tanks and containers of every size, shape, and
description are used. Metal stock tanks six to eight
feet in length are common. Tanks of sheet metal or wood
construction are sometimes built to utilize all available
Space on truck or trailer beds. Use of metal having a
natural light reflective quality is advisable in tank con-
struction. Light colored paint may be applied to dark
tanks to decrease heating from the sun. Tanks may be in-
sulated with commercial materials or a small cooling unit
may be installed. Smaller containers such as barrels, gar-
bage cans, pails, and wash tubs are used.

Despite the fact that they are aware of the oxygen
needs of fish, many dealers have no provisions for adequate

aeration on their tranSportation equipment. Manual dipping

 

maoamma pflmmuoifi Swansea \3 comb pcosmgvm Mo momma a”; ”73:0

27

I.

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me.ha mm.mm mm.wm u can” use zoo: mcdpsno
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m$.m mm.m “K.m a sauna mun: mcdpmno
m$.>o mm.mo am up em Iao aHOHeoe no omapcoonom
mw.mm . mm.0$ mm.w% I wanna nmddw wadpdho
mm.>o mfi.mc an. n ma Iao mnofiwou no owonooonom
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so Iao unnamed no owdncoohom I
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so mm mm.mm mn.m no oou>oc convened on man
.m m$ I>wz uneddou no owducoonom
mm. .HH mm.m h each o>
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mm Ha ma moan: unoadov no owdpcoonom
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. «a: mundane no ammunoonom
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moan: nuoaoou no owaucoonon
«Scum HHH HH H
aoamom nonwom scams:

1

28
of the water or the Splashing of water during transit are
relied upon to provide oxygen.

In transporting minnows with or without the aid of
some mechanical means of aeration, consideration must be
given to water temperature, air temperature, number and
size of minnows to be carried, and the distance to be
traveled. Without some device to provide aeration, there
is seldom any margin of safety to allow for accidents such
as flat tires or motor trouble, not to mention providing
time fOr catching a load of bait after arriving at the
desired collection area.

Aeration devices were present on one fOurth of the
vehicles used in the transportation of minnows by retail
dealers; two thirds of the vehicles operated by wholesale
dealers possessed such equipment. Small gasoline motors
with pump attachments were in wide use. Some dealers
attached small water pumps beneath the hood of the truck
and operated the pump from the fan belt. This proved to
be a convenient, neat arrangement that is economical to
install and less vulnerable to mechanical failure than
gasoline motor types. Compressed air from pressure tanks
or spare tires is used as a means of aeration. Funnel
arrangements which force air into the water while the
vehicle is in motion are sometimes employed. The use of

oxygen tablets in small containers is common practice.

29

Collection Equipment:

Equipment that may be used for taking minnows in
Michigan is defined by law (Act 165, P.A. 1929). Seines
are mOst widely used, followed by glass traps, hook and
line, and wire traps (Chart VI). Dip nets are seldom

used other than for lake emerald Shiners (Notropig

 

atherinoides acutus). There has been considerable con-
troversy concerning minnow injury caused by seining
practices. It remains, however, the most widely used
means for taking minnows throughout the state. The use
of seines is most prevalent in the northern portions of
the state where they are the chief means of taking minnows.
Glass traps are employed widely in southern areas
of the state and used very little in the Upper Peninsula.
They.are used with varying degrees of success, dependent
_ upon the skill and experience of the trapper. Glass traps
have the advantage of not injuring the minnow, a serious
fault of the seine and the wire trap. Experimental trap-
ing in trout streams has shown that trout are not readily
taken by glass traps, a fact which has opened many waters
to the bait dealer which otherwise would have remained
closed (Carbine, 1943; Washburn, 1945; Yoder, 1948).
Considerable use of hook and line for taking bait
minnows was also noted in the southern portions of the

state. This method is employed while tending glass traps

30
and is eSpecially productive for the larger size min-
nows.

Wire traps are commonly utilized in northern areas

of the state but seldom in the southern waters.
Bait Minnows

Common Bait Species:

Bait minnows are offered for sale in four ways;
(1) stream run, (2) size, (3) species, and (4) Species
and size. Some dealers have a straight price for their
minnows which gives a customer a distribution of sizes
and species as they were captured from the stream. No
sorting is involved. One of the more common methods of
presenting minnows for sale is to sort them according to
size. Since most fishermen prefer minnows within a cer-
tain size range when angling for a specific game fish,
the Size of the minnow and the name of the game fish for
which they serve as bait has become almost synonomous.
Minnows measuring up to three inches in length are com-
monly referred to as perch, Speck, or crappie minnows;
minnows from three to five inches in length are called
bass or walleye minnows while larger minnows are called
pike minnows. Sorting of this nature is accomplished by

hand in most cases.

 

fl. 3 Ni 1..

31

Fishermen may express a desire for a definite species
of minnow. To supply these requires sorting by hand where-
as minnows may be sorted to size by a mechanical fish sorter.

The most frequently used division is a combination
of size and species. This method, too, involves hand sort-
ing. Loss can be kept to a minimum if care in handling
is exercised. Dealers who present minnows sorted in this
manner for sale are better able to meet the demands of
Specialized anglers who prefer a certain species of min-
now. On the whole, it leads to more satisfied customers.

V Large suckers, golden Shiners, and chubs are often
utilized as decoy minnows in winter spearing to lure large
predatory fish into spearing position. These minnows
usually are larger in Size than pike minnows used for bait
during the regular fishing season. Large suckers are also
cut into strips and used as bait for lake trout in areas
where these fish are found.

Muddlers are sold by few bait dealers; they are a
bait that some trout fishermen prefer over all others.
Since muddlers are not plentiful and are difficult to
capture, they generally are high in price.

The cost of bait minnows varies from area to area
and from week to week, depending upon the competition and
availability. Localities were noted in which minnows
could be purchased for only one-half the cost ordinarily

32
expected. Several dealers were located in the area but
a policy of under-selling had developed and Often minnows
were retailed for the usual wholesale price. The reverse
situation is also true: isolated dealers may charge prices
far in excess of those eXpected. The practice of under
or over-selling is not the general rule, however. Most
dealers have arrived at a reasonable price that they at-
tempt to maintain as long as availability of the minnows
continues. As bait minnows become difficult to obtain,
more effort is expended in their capture with a consequent
increase in price that is passed on to the angler.

Minnow populations available to bait dealers
fluctuate. Minnows are generally available in the spring
and fall but warm water temperatures during the summer
months force them into waters where they are inaccessible.
Heavy rains may cause water levels in streams to rise and
the water may become heavily laden with silt, making
glass trapping and seining impossible. Fluctuation in
barometric pressure is believed to have an influence on
the trapping of minnows.

It is difficult to arrive at a specific price for
each Size class and species of bait minnow because of
variations induced by competition and availability. The
range of prices by species and size class is given in

Chart VII. The species are listed in order of their

.omma .nmaasm can wannamv..

camnnonz on msocqfiz no mwcsm manna “HH> nacho

 

 

Retail price range

per dozen

Wholesale price range per 1,000

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Species
Perch Bass Pike Perch Bass Pike
REGION I
Creek Ohuo .25-.5O .40-1.00 .75-3.00 Retail dealers do not commonly pur-
White suc-
ker .25-.5O .50-1.00 1.00-3.00 chase live oait from wholesalers.
Common 3
shiner 25-.50 .40—1.00 .75-1.5O Only two wnolesale dealers were
Long nosed
dace .25-.5O .45-.5O - present in the region at the time of
Mud minnow .25-.35 .45-.oO .00--75
, the survey. Neither was contacted.
Northern
red-nel-
1ied dace .25 - —
Golden
Shiner .30 .00 .75
Fatnead .30 _ -
Lake emer-
ald and
other lake
shiners .20-.4O - -
Decoy minnows , ,
(all species) '50-'73 eacn
REGION II
White suc—
ker 010-035 o30"o85 .50‘1050 3050’7050 20.00-40000 40.00-50.00 -'
Common _
shiner .10-.35 .30-.85 .bO-l.50 3.50-7.50 20.00-40.00 40.00-50.00
Long nosed
dace .lO-.35 .40-.5O .hO-.75 ~ 25.00 -
Golden
shiner .25-.50 .40-.7O .00-1.2O - - _
Fathead .lO-.25 - - 5.00 - -
Lake Emer—
ald shiner .lO-.25 .35 - 2.00-6.00 - -
Muddlers .40 .75-1.00 - - - -
Decoy minnows 1‘ :0
(all species) ' 3") each -
REGION III
Creek chub 15-.25 .35-1.00 .OO-l.80 3.00-l0.00 20.00-30.00 30.00-50.00
White suc-
ker .15- 25 .35-1.00 .OO-l.50 - - 00.00
Common
Shiner .15-.25 .35-.75 .OO-l.80 3.00-10.00 20.00-30.00 30.00-50.00
Golden _
Shiner .20-.25 .50-l.OO .00-1.80 8.00-10.00 30.00-40.00 50.00-70.00
Fathead .20-.25 - - 7.00-1o,oo _ _
Lake emer-
ald Shiner .1O-.33 - - 3.00-0,00 _ _

 

Decoy minnows
(all species)

.15—l.OO each

 

35
prominence in the region. The species sold are largely
determined by availability,locally or from wholesale
sources, and by the demands of the fishermen. Three,
species which are common in all three regions of the state
are the northern creek chub, white sucker, and the common
Shiner, Notropis cornutus.

Lake Emerald Shiners:

The readily accessible supply of lake emerald
Shiners in certain areas in the Great Lakes has provided
a seemingly inexhaustable supply of small minnows. They
are an attractive, bright minnow which some anglers claim
to be more readily taken by fish than darker bait minnows.
Although these minnows are not particularly hardy on the
hook and are easily injured in handling, their abundance
has nearly excluded any species that might be cultured to
compete in this size class. In areas more remote from
the Great Lakes, fatheads, golden Shiners, and numerous
species of other Shiners commonly found in streams are
used.

Specific areas along the Great Lakes have been
fortunate enough to have a year-around supply of lake
emeralds with few periods of scarcity such as experienced
in many other localities. Port Huron is the center of
lake emerald Shiner activity in the state and the minnow

supply from that source supports a large number of

36
wholesale bait dealers, some among the largest in the
state. Minnows are transported along the eastern shore
line of the state, ranging far inland or across the state
except for the months of July and August when inland
lakes and streams are too warm for the use of the lake
emerald Shiner.

Mortality of lake emerald Shiners is generally
quite high since they are easily injured in handling and
are sensitive to water temperatures. Following delivery
from a wholesaler, retail dealers may suffer 100 per cent
minnow mortality in a three day period. Most bait dealers
operating on the Great Lakes during the summer months ex-
pect a mortality from 33 per cent to 50 per cent. This
is a variable dependent upon the holding facilities, most
of which are live boxes located in the lake or river. If
care is exercised by the wholesaler in handling, allow-
ing as little rehandling as possible, minnow loss can be
reduced.

Generally, lake emeralds are not counted when sold.
Prices range from less than one cent apiece upward. The
customer may in many cases receive a scap net of minnows
which will severely over-crowd his minnow bucket and the
minnows usually are dead when the angler arrives at his

fishing site.

37

Since lake emerald shiners are not tolerant of
high water temperatures, they are not a minnow that should
be used in many of the inland lakes and streams during
the summer months. Lake emerald shiners are utilized ex-
tensively as a winter bait in such areas since they are
easily held in cold water and require little or no care
during this time.

Lake emerald shiners are usually captured by one
of two methods. The most wide-Spread method is seining
which must be carried out carefully or considerable scal-
ing and injury may result. Dip nets of commercial types
or of camouflage netting are used if shiners are present
in water near boat docks or pilings. This method is less
injurious to fish than seining since there is not the
same likelihood of mechanical injury involved.

Once the minnows have been collected, they are
transported by pails or tubs to tanks on carrying vehicles.
Wholesale dealers may use large live boxes in the vicinity
for storage or the minnows may be placed in a delivery
truck which can either deliver them directly to the retail
dealers or take them to reserve holding ponds. The in-
creased handling involved in placing minnows in live boxes
or in storage ponds increases the mortality rate. If the
wholesaler has a rapid turn over, these injured minnows may

be passed on to retail dealers who suffer the loss.

58

Live boxes used for storage are usually provided
with some screening device which will allow the smaller
minnows to escape. The box is generally of heavy con-
struction to withstand the buffeting of wave action. The
location of the live box in the lake or river is of con-
siderable importance, particularly if heavily loaded with
minnows. Boxes placed in areas where there is no current
may not receive adequate aeration. In contrast, the plac-
ing of a box in a current that is too strong will cause
minnows to become weak from fighting the current. Hold-
ing in close confines without food will cause minnows to
loose condition which eventually results in increased
mortality.

Some dealers have established routes with definite
customer stops. Other dealers are competing for retail
outlets on a first come first serve basis. This practice
may result in the loss of a complete truck load of min-
nows if a wholesaler is unfortunate enough to be on a
route traveled earlier by another dealer.

Minnows are usually sold by the gallon. A pail
is employed and the minnows are netted from the tank and
transferred to the tanks of the retail dealer. If the
wholesale dealer fears he may lose his load of bait, ”bar-

gin“ rates or extra large measures may be given.

A

39

In some instances, retail dealers are forced to
purchase a certain amount of minnows or go without any at
all. This practice often results in overloading the tanks
of the retail dealer. Since the supply of lake emeralds
may fluctuate, retail dealers eXperience periods when no
minnows are available. As a precaution against this, re-
tailers may purchase from two or more wholesale dealers
to insure a supply in the event one wholesaler cannot
make delivery.

The abundant supply of lake emerald shiners has
counteracted their high rate of mortality eXpected in the
ordinary conditions of wholesale and retail live bait
sales. They are not a hardy minnow and are easily in-
jured in handling, they are not temperature tolerant, and
they lose condition quickly in holding. Their low cost
and the fact that many anglers prefer them has excluded
other species that might otherwise compete in this size

class.

Availability of Minnows

No definite conclusions could be determined from
the survey concerning the availability of bait minnows.
Dealers in a specific area would state that minnows were
generally abundant. Yet, another dealer contacted in

that same area would claim poor availability of bait

4O
minnows. The varability in most cases was probably due
to differences in the collecting techniques employed by
dealers as well as knowledge of the streams and lakes
available to the taking of bait minnows.

Areas such as Roscommon County, Mackinaw County,
Cakland County and St. Clair County that support a large
tourist population or have a high population of resident
fishermen were noted to suffer from minnow shortage in
all size classes. Otherwise, pike minnows were said to
be least abundant. In areas where lake emerald shiners
were not available, perch minnows were sometimes scarce.
The bass and walleye minnows were never particularly
difficult to obtain.

Suckers are seldom abundant. In most instances,
the scarcity of suckers is not caused by a low native
population in streams and lakes but is due to the fact
that legal methods fbr their capture are not satisfactory.
Suckers may be seined but will rarely enter glass traps;
this fact alone makes those in trout waters unavailable
to bait dealers.

Availability of all species is in part seasonal,
minnows being more abundant in the spring and fall but
less plentiful in the warm summer months when the demand
for minnows is greatest. During the survey it was noted

that dealers who had private ponds or lakes had fewer

41
problems but rarely was the supply available from their
ponds alone adequate to fill demands. Holding ponds or
a combination holding and rearing pond that was stocked
when the native minnow population was high generally pro-
vided the best solution to the problem of minnow availability.

Sources of Minnows

Minnows are obtained by dealers by the following
means: (Chart VIII)
' 1. Purchase from licensed wholesale live-bait
dealers
2. Purchase from out-of-state sources
5. Purchase from unlicensed collectors
4. Collection from natural habitats
5. Pond propagation
6. Any combination of the above
Collection from natural habitats such as lakes and
streams is the most common practice. Over 95 per cent of
the wholesale dealers utilize this source to obtain all
or a portion of their minnows. Seven out of ten retail
live-bait dealers also collect their own minnows. How-
ever, if the supply available is not sufficiently large
to meet the demand, the dealer is obliged to resort to
the purchase of minnows. Sixty per cent of the retail

dealers purchase part or all of their minnows from

odwm defloamssoo 90% $6552 pfiwm .Ho mmogom "HES p.530

 

43

5

uhoamoo cadmoaonztc
unnamed Haduom c

 

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. . . «when a so add madnudn
ms m as m m@ 0H nhofimou no omducoohom
Rvam $.4on Knob: I 80 094333023
.- . . . ah ascends wnacddp
an do me me up mm mm ma ano chanson no omoaaoohom
u . moondoa ocean no
mme mm mm mfi.m use soak axoccaa mnacddu
ano aheadou Mo omdncOohom
ma.om ma.sm mn.:m u ascends :30 «doc» wcdpooa
mm.o~ mF.mm n®.m> um.am taco amended no omoucooaom
mo mo sumo a son uuouooadoo
. . . . h ascends wcacduu
mi 0 mf m can A mp on uno «nuance mo omducoouom

HHH HH H
madam codmom coamom coumom

;

44
wholesale live-bait dealers. Wholesale dealers may also
purchase minnows from other wholesalers to meet existing
demands. This is particularly true in the case of lake
emerald shiners because access to sources of supply is
usually limited to specific areas.

A very small percentage of minnows are purchased
from out-of—state sources. It is largely restricted to
the western portion of the Upper Peninsula where mud min-
nows, Umbra limi, are imported from'Wisconsin to meet the
demand for a walleye bait.

Approximately 5 per cent of the dealers purchased
some minnows from unlicensed collectors who operate in
violation of the law.

The percentage of dealers who raise all or a portion
of their minnows is approximately one half of those own-
ing or having access to private ponds or lakes. Very few
dealers were noted who were able to raise their total
supply of minnows. In many instances, failure could be
attributed to improper pond construction or poor selection

of water supply.
Private Ponds

There are approximately 1180 private ponds in
Michigan that are used to raise or hold bait minnows.

The average number of ponds per wholesale dealer is 1.55;

45
retail dealers average 0.46 ponds each. As indicated in
Chart IX, 22 per cent of the retail minnow dealers and
40 per cent of the wholesale dealers in the state own or
have access to private ponds.

There is a wide range in size and suitability of
ponds. Those that were constructed specifically for hold-
ing purposes are usually small. In many holding ponds,
as well as in successful rearing ponds, the minnows are
collected only with considerable difficulty since no pro-
vision for draining the ponds was provided.

During the course of the survey, minnow dealers
who had purchased minnow fry from the state for propaga-
tion purposes were contacted in order to evaluate the
success of the program. Dealers who stocked minnow fry
in suitable ponds usually meet with success. In nearly
every case in which attempts at minnow propagation failed,
the cause could be attributed to unsatisfactory pond con-
struction or poor water supply.

Dams were noted to be poorly constructed and were
frequently washed-out. Screening of water inlets and
outlets was in most cases inadequate to keep small minnow
fry in the pond. Predatory fish which were sometimes
present removed the fry soon after they were stocked. In
many instances, minnow fry were placed in ponds where little

fbod was available. Water temperatures were often too low

to permit an acceptable rate of growth.

gmfinofia ca meson Bosses Mo own one mcflcaoocoo 3mm “NH p.330

 

47

 

aheadmu madmmdonztt
panacea Haapom t

crocoda wcficao: now flamenco

 

mwnww ”MUM: “Wumm m6” soda mecca hams» wcdnovum
: m m om anon «nuance no owdpnoonom
mzoccaa wcdndoa you flamenco
mm mm an em mm m: I yuan meson hams» meanoeau
an em ma a: ma mm m6 om scoo uncaooo no omdncoonom
mm.a ha.a H>.H a sudden hon meson
we. mm. . em. mm. onw>auo.uo honed: owduo><
m$.o: ud.o: timN.Ha a meson ovapuan wad>dn
Rs.dm me.mn omw.mm ad.em maoddov no omducoohom
HHH HH H
madam coawom :oawom coamom

 

48
The program fills an important need since it pro-
vides dealers with highly desired creek chub and white
sucker fry which otherwise would not be available. The
demand for fry will undoubtedly continue and increase as
bait dealers accept minnow culture as a solution to the
minnow shortage and provide adequate facilities for min-

now propagation.

Holding Facilities

 

Many types of tanks are utilized in holding min-
nows for sale; metal stock tanks are most common. Little
uniformity in size is found since tanks are purchased as
needed and usually are second-hand to make initial cost
as low as possible. Metal tanks are often replaced with
cement or cement-block type tanks which can be constructed
in any desired size or shape. In addition, these tanks
improve the overall appearance of the establishment.
Cement tanks can be partitioned into various sized com-
partments readily, they are easily cleaned, and generally
offer more flexible utilization than standard stock water-
ing tanks.

In permanent tank installations, complete drainage
is possible by removable plugs in the floor of the tanks.
In the survey it was noted that many dealers failed to

install drains in larger tanks. Overflow pipes are usually

49
found to be located near the top of the tank. However,
tanks having a device whereby overflow water is taken
from the bottom rather than the top have the advantage of
obtaining a more complete change of water in addition to
removal of some bottom sediment and debris.

Smaller operators employ wash tubs, p0p coolers or
pails for holding purposes. Facilities of this type are
not adequate for the purpose since they must necessarily
hold only a few minnows. Nearly constant attendance is
required to keep water changed or aerated.

Dealers having access to nearby lakes or streams
may employ Slive boxes” or ”live screens" for holding
minnows. These devices are box-like structures of metal
screen of a combination of metal screen and wood. Hold-
ing facilities of this nature are widely used by small
bait dealers and resort operators in the northern areas
of the state where bait sales are small and seasonal.
Considerable loss was noted in this type of holding
structure. This loss may result from mechanical injury
from contact with screening, buffeting by waves or current,
fatigue from constant presence of a strong current, warm
water temperatures, or low oxygen supply.

Sources of water commonly utilized for holding
facilities are wells, springs, city supply or water pumped

from rivers or lakes. Temperature extremes, presence of

50
toxic chemicals or industrial waste, and constancy of flow
must be considered in selection of the source of water
supply. In urban areas where chlorine or some other
chlorinated compound has been added to the water, a filter-
ing system may be installed. In some instances, where the
amount of chlorine contained in the water was not great,
the chlorine can be eliminated by spraying the water into
the tank in the form of a mist or fine spray.

Aeration is accomplished by use of jets that Spray
water into the holding tanks with considerable force.
Water can be allowed to Splash into the tank from the in-
flow pipe or dribbled in through holes in a pipe hung
over the tank. In some instances, a circulating pump is
employed. The amount of water that enters the tank should

be controlled as an economic measure.
Minnow Loss

A wide variation in the percentage of minnows lost
due to transportation, handling, and holding was noted in
the survey. Greatest loss occurred in the various species
of shiners, especially lake emerald shiners. Handling
techniques, improper tempering of the minnows, and adverse
holding water temperatures were indicated as major causes

of mortality.

51
Most dealers found golden shiners difficult to
handle and hold without high mortality. Trouble was ex-
perienced in holding all Species due to injury or scaling
in seining and handling which was followed by fungus in-
fection. Considerable mortality was noted in species that
were captured during their spawning season. Females appar-
ently became egg-laden and died.
Average Percentage of Minnow Loss
Region I Region II Region III State
Retail dealers: 21.7 ' 14.4 16.6 16.4
Wholesale dealers: __. 9.2 8.0 8.4
Wholesale dealers incurred a smaller percentage
loss than retail dealers. Better handling techniques,
equipment, and knowledge of tempering and treatment may
account for this difference. The percentage of mortality
as indicated by the results of the survey are considerable
lower than generally estimated. Observations made during
the survey suggested that many dealers suffered bait min-
now mortality that was substantially greater than that

stated during the interview.
Holding Tank Care

Cleaning:
The majority of the bait dealers have no Specific
policy for preventing disease in minnow holding tanks.

52
Among dealers who employ some method of cleaning and
disease prevention, the scrubbing of tanks with a salt
and water solution is most common. Commercial soaps,
bleaches, and cleaning agents are often used, as well as
boric acid, baking soda, or vinegar. Tank cleaning may
vary among the bait dealers from as often as once each
week to only once or twice a season.

Painting of holding tanks is carried out by some
dealers who rely on this means of keeping tanks clean
rather than occasional washing or scrubbing. Tanks may
be repainted as often as six times a season. Paints of
almost every type are used but a preference of aluminum
paint for metal tanks and aSphalt paint for cement tanks
was noted. Commercial rubberized paints with fungus re-
pellent qualities are sometimes used.

Treatment:

The addition of salt to water in holding tanks is
the most widely used treatment for minnows. Few dealers,
however, are aware of the proper concentrations to be
used. A handful or two of salt may be placed in a tank
and the treatment is considered completed. Salt and mer-
curochrome in combination is sometimes used. There is no
flushing to remove the salt solution or the sloughed-off

ectoparasites.

55

COpper sulfate, potassium permanganate, and forma-
lin are used by some dealers. Treatments are made in a
haphazard manner and value of such procedure is doubtful.

In some instances, an effort is made to remove weak
or infected minnows as soon as they are noted but more
often they are allowed to remain in the tank for consider-
able periods.

The recognized malachite green treatment for fungus
is seldom practiced. Dealers who are aware of the treat-
ment and who would attempt to use it are not able to ob-
tain malachite green from local sources or from nearby
cities.

Feeding:

The policy of feeding minnows held in holding tanks
during summer is not usually practiced. The turn-over of
minnows is sufficiently fast that feeding is not necessary.

Dealers who do feed use several different types of
food. The most widely used are cracker crumbs, dog food,
and oatmeal. Others are bread, worms, toast crumbs, soy-
bean meal, corn meal, cooked oatmeal and corn meal, meat
scraps, cream of wheat, Pablum, chicken mash, and chick

starter.
Minnow Sales

In order to supply a greater percentage of their

patrons, a small number of the dealers in the state limit

54
the number of minnows to be sold to one customer. Fisher-
men are offered a refund for the return of any minnows
that are not used. This practice, however, is the excep-

tion rather than the rule.

CHART X

Minnow Sales Practices

Region I RegionAI;_ Region III State

Percentage of dealers O 4.1* 2.9 3.8
limiting minnow sales: --- O** O 0
Percentage of dealers

limiting the number of 97.5 99.2 95.7 97.3
minnows per container: --- 100.0 100.0 100.0

Average percentage of
sales made to fisher-
men using commercial 78.7 81.6 76.6 78.9
minnOW pails: o o o o --- 68.5 70.5 69.8
* Retail dealers; ** wholesale dealers

Nearly all dealers in the state attempt to limit
the number of minnows sold in any one container. In most
instances, the number is too great. The number varies with
the type and size of the container, the size of the min-
now, and the distance to be traveled. Fishermen are usually
urged to purchase oxygen tablets to supply additional oxy-
gen to the water in the event of some emergency.

Commercial type minnow pails are used by eight out

of ten fishermen purchasing minnows. Rental of minnow

pails is sometimes permitted. Other containers of all

55
kinds are employed as substitutes for minnow pails: tin
cans, bottles, crooks, or nearly any other vessel that

will hold water.
Other Live Baits

Chart XI indicates forms of live bait, other than
minnows, which are handled by live-bait dealers. A des-
cription and a brief life history are given for the larval
and nymphal forms since they are generally not well known.
Material for descriptions and life histories has been
taken largely from Morgan (1950), Matheson (1947), and
Comstock (1949).

Night crawlers and the earthworm, or common garden
worm, are the most common live bait. The nymphal form of
the Mayfly called “wigglers" is the most important aquatic
representative. Wigglers are in great demand as an ice
fishing bait and some dealers are successful in holding
them for summer sales. The combination of wigglers and
night crawlers constitute, in some instances, a major por-
tion of all live bait sales.

Other forms of live bait have varying degrees of
importance depending upon the type of fishing in the area,
the demand for a Specific bait, and the availability of
that bait. The common live baits are obtained by the

following means:

rfi ! ,
' arr-1:

 

 

Chart X1: Live Bait Other Than Linnows Sold by

Live-Bait healers in hichigan

Form and name
of live bait I II

     

Region Region

57

Region
III

 

Worms:

Night crawlers
Red worms
Earth worms

*><*
at

Leeches:
Leech x

Crustaceans:
Crayfish *

Insects:

Adult forms:
Grasshopper
Cricket

101%

Larval forms:
Cornborer
Meal worm
White grub
Caddie
Wax worm
Golden rod grub
Catalpa worm-
Hellgrammite
Sand borer
Wood borer
Rat-tailed maggot
Nut weevil

>4><><><>4 *N It

Nymphal forms:
Wiggler X *

Frags:
Grass frog ' e

Mice:
Field mouse

*

><><

*><><><It*#><**><*

 

X Sold by some dealers
* Commonly sold

 

58
1. Collection by the dealer, his family, or his
hired help.
2. Purchase from wholesalers or collectors.
5. A combination of the above.
Some of the live bait forms listed are “speciality”

items handled by only a few dealers in an area. In many

cases, these items are not plentiful or are otherwise

I‘ " . _"' '1‘""—'_<-.; 4.3.3

difficult to obtain.
EUROPEAN CORN BORER:

 

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pyralididae
Pyrausta_nubilali§
The European corn borer came into the United States
sometime before 1917. The adults are pale yellowish moths
with a wing expanse of about 25 to 30 millimeters. The
Species pass the winter as a larvae in burrows in corn-
stalks, stubble, or cobs, or in the stems of other host
plants, as dahlias and gladiolus. In the Spring they
pupate in the burrows and the adults emerge in two or
three weeks, from late May to early June. Females lay
their eggs in small masses on the under sides of leaves.
The eggs hatch in a week or ten days and the larvae usually
burrow into the host plant. The larvae of this brood '
mature in July and the adults emerge in August; the fe-0
males oviposit mostly on corn. The eggs hatch and larvae

burrow into the stalks or the developing ears where they

59
hibernate in their burrows. There are two strains of
this insect, one with two generations a year, as outlined
above, and the other with but one generation.

MEAL'WORM:

 

Order: Coleoptera

Family: Tenebrionidae
Tenebrio,molitor
Tenebrio obscurus

 

The meal worms are a common pest in mills, gran—
aries, and wherever grain is stored. The adult of T, mgli:
39; is shining brownish-black in color and about 15 mm.
long. The females lay their eggs in cereals, flour, or
any kind of grain. The mature larva is a hard, Shining,
yellowish, cylindrical worm closely resembling a wire-
worm. The entire life cycle from egg to adult requires
three or four months. In warm places it breeds throughout
the year. A closely related species with similar habits,

.2. obscugus, is about the same size but is opaque black

 

in color.

After reaching the full larval Size, larvae may
pupate at once or may remain for months without any visible
change. When the larvae are ready to pupate they become
sluggish. Within a few hours the larval skin splits and
the white, naked pupae frees itself of the old larval skin.
When the pupae is mature, the colorless adult emerges.

With time, the white changes to brown and the brown grows

darker until the characteristic adult color is obtained.

60
WHITE GRUB:

 

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Scarabaeidae
, Phyllophaga.§p.

The adult May beetles are comparatively large in-
sects, robust, pale reddish, brownish to almost black.
They appear in May, June, and July. During the day they
remain hidden under grass or debris, or in some place of
concealment. At night they come out to feed on plant
foliage.~

The life cycles of most of the species are quite
similar. The females enter the soil and deposit each egg
in a ball of earth some inches below the surface. There
seems to be a preference for sod land, especially in high
areas or near wooded tracts. The eggs hatch in three or
four weeks and the young ”white grubs' appear. These
larvae are thick, fleshy grubs, with well-developed legs.
The caudal segments of the abdomen are very large and ap-
pear black because of the dirt in the intestine. The
grubs feed upon decaying vegetation and the roots of grass
and other plants. At the approach of winter, they burrow
deeper into the soil and hibernate. The next spring they
come near the surface and feed actively all summer. The
following winter is passed as before and the next Spring
the grubs again come near the surface to feed. This time,

however, it is only for a short period which is followed

61
by the formation of rough oval pupal cells in the ground.
Pupation takes place during the summer and the adults
emerge from the pupal skins but remain in the cells until
the following spring. The emergence of the adult beetle
completes the three year cycle.

CADDIS:

Order: Trichoptera

The caddis flies are moth-like insects which are
common in the vicinity of streams, ponds, and lakes. The
body wall and wings of the adult are clothed with hair.
Eggs are laid either in water or upon objects above the
water from which the larvae can drop into the water.

The larvae of most caddis flies are somewhat cater-
pillar-like in shape and build portable cases in which
they live. The cases of different species differ greatly
in form and in materials used in their construction. The
larvae drag the cases about, projecting only the front
end of the body and the legs from the case when they
travel.

When full-grown, caddis worms do not leave the
water to transform as do nearly all other aquatic larvae.
When about to pupate, some of the case-building species
change the form and material of their cases and nearly
all of them partly close their cases so as to keep out

intruders and silt. Some provision is made for the entry

62
of water for respiration. When the adult insect reaches
the surface of the water, its wings eXpand instantly and
are fitted for flight.

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Pyralididae
Galleria mellonella
The bee moth is a common pest in apiaries. The
adult female enters a hive at night to lay its eggs. The
larvae feed on the wax, making silk-lined tunnels in the
combs. Pupation takes place in tough cocoons within the

hive.
GOLDEN ROD GRUB:

 

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Gelerchiidae
Gnorimoschema gallaesolid-

aginis

There are two kinds of conspicuous galls which are
enlargements of the stems of golden-rods. One is spindle-
shaped and caused by the moth Q, gallaesolidaginia. The
eggs are laid on the old plants in the fall and hatch in
the spring. The young larvae crawl to a new shoot and
bore down into it causing the growth of the gall. The
larvae become full-grown about the middle of July. Then,
before changing to pupae, a passage-way is eaten through
the wall of the gall at its upper end, and the opening is
closed with a plug of silk so formed that it can be pushed

out by the adult moth when it is ready to emerge.

63
Order: Diptera
Family: Trypetidae
Eurosta solidaginis
The round golden-rod gall that is a common sight

on the stems of the plant during late summer and winter

is produced by the larva of E. solidaginis. The species

 

passes the winter as mature larvae within the gall. Be-
fore the larvae hibernate, a tunnel is cut to the surface
of the gall, but a tiny cap is left for protection. Pupa-
tion takes place in May. The adults emerge and the fe-
males lay their eggs in the apical rosette of leaves of
the young plants. The larvae burrow down the stem and

the gall develops. There is only one generation a season.

CATALPA WORM:

 

Order: Lepidoptera
Family: Sphingidae
, Ceratomia catalpae
The adult form of the catalpa worm is a moth which
ranges from New Jersey and southern Pennsylvania south-
ward to Florida and westward through the Mississippi
Valley wherever its food-plant is found. The larvae,
like all moth larvae, have chewing mouth parts, three
jointed thoracic legs, and five pairs of abdominal prolegs
which bear hooks at the ends. The larvae feed upon var-
ious Species of catalpa and have in recent years been

charged with doing considerable damage to these trees by

denuding them of foliage.

64
HELLGRAMMITE:

 

Order: Neuroptera
Family: Sialidae
Corydalus cornutus

The larvae of this insect, commonly known as
“hellgrammites”, live under stones in the swift part of
rapid streams.“ They are predacious insects, feeding upon
mayfly nymphs, stonefly larvae, and the larvae of other
aquatic insects. When full grown they are two or three
inches long with dark brown, rough looking Skin, and large
jaws. Their bodies are flattened and sprawling with a
tuft of white hairlike gills at the base of each of the
lateral appendages on the first seven abdominal segments.
In May and June when they are about three years old, they
crawl out on shore and under a log or stone to pupate.

The pupa is at first pale-colored and soft but it grad-
ually darkens. The adults emerge about ten days after
pupation.

The adults have cinnamon brown bodies and gray-
white spotted wings which measure four or five inches from
tip to tip when fully spread. The female has short, stubby
mandibles but those of the male are tusk-like and more
than three times the length of the head. As adults, the
dobsonflies are Short-lived and although they possess

strong mouth parts, they probably eat nothing. The eggs

are laid on stones or sticks overhanging the water and the

65
newly hatched larvae drop into the water to begin their
larval life.

' GROUND BORER:

 

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Trogidae
A T£2§_§p,

The adults are oblong, convex insects with the
surface of the body and wing covers usually very rough,
and covered with a crust of dirt. They are small or of
medium size, most commonly measuring from 8 mm. to 12 mm.
in length. These beetles feed upon dried, decomposing
animal matter; many Species are found about the refuse of
tanneries, Slaughter houses, and upon the hoofs and hair
of decaying animals.

Larvae are one half to three quarters of an inch
long, white bodied, with a black or brown chitinized head.
They are similar to the European corn borer larvae in ap-

pearance. Little is known about the life history.

WOOD BORER:

 

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Cerambycidae

The adult beetles are of medium or large size,
graceful in appearance, and often beautiful in color.
They possess long antennae which accounts for the common
name, “long-horned beetles”. So far as is known, both

the adults and larvae are vegetarians.

66

The larvae are borers, living within the solid
parts of trees and shrubs, or beneath bark. They are
white or yellowish grubs. The body is soft, and tapers
slightly from head to tail; the jaws are powerful and
well adapted for the burrowing habit. The larval state
usually lasts two or three years. The pupal state is
passed within the burrow made by the larva.

BAL—TAILED MAGGOT:

Order: Diptera
Family:.Syrphidae
_ Eristalis Egggg

The drone fly is a rather large, bee-like fly which
frequents flowers and feeds on nectar and pollen. They
are commonly seen flying about polluted ponds, liquid
manure, and such.places, where eggs are deposited. The
larvae of several species that live in water as well as
some that live in rotten wood are known as "rat-tailed
maggots" because of the long tail-like tube which can be
extended to the surface when the larvae is immersed in
water. This tube is composed of two segments, one of
which can be slipped over the other; a rosette of hairs
at its tip keeps water out of the air tube. The body of
the larvae is about half an inch long. The larval skin

contracts to form the dark horn pupal case from which the

adult fly emerges.

67
NUT WEEVIL:

Order: Coleoptera
Family: Curculionidae
, Belaninus Sp.

These insects have larval forms that are common in
nuts and acorns of some of the chestnuts and oaks, hazel
nuts, hickory nuts, and others. The adult beetle is
yellow, Spotted and mottled with rich brown shades. They
possess the prolongation of the head as a distinct snout
with the biting mouth parts as the tip of the snout which
is typical of this family. The eggs are laid in a hole
in a nut that the female has drilled with its beak. The
grubs feed in the nuts and drop to the ground with them,
where they cut their way out and enter the soil. The
grubs pupate the following summer and the adults emerge
in August.

WIGGLER:

Order: Ephemerida

Mayflies Spend nearly all of their lives as nymphS‘
in the water. The nymphs, "wigglers”, are of various
shapes and sizes but all agree in having seven pairs of
gills on the abdomen, two or three slender tail filaments,
and but a single claw on-each foot. Wigglers live in every
aquatic situation except foul water. JThese nymphs are

abundant from March to late June and adults are emerging

and swarming at this time.

68 -

AS winged insects, their lives last only a few
hours or days at most, during which time they do not feed.
Adults have large front wings and small hind wings except
in some very small Species in which hind wings are absent.
The adults have either two or three tail filaments which
are longer than those of the nymph. The mating flight
usually takes place in late afternoon or twilight. Dur-
ing this flight the males mate with the females which al-
most immediately lay their eggs in the water and die upon

the surface.
Income, Gross Sales, and Investment

The income, gross sales of live bait, and the
value of equipment for the three regions of the state ex-
press an interesting relationship. The percentage of the
total income of bait dealers located in the more northern
portions of the state is largely derived from sales of
live bait. Bait dealers in southern counties sell a
greater volume of live bait yet it is a smaller percent-
age of the total income since sales of fishing tackle
and other equipment are considerable (Chart XII). The
average percentage of the total income derived from live
bait for retail dealers in region I is 60 per cent, fall-
ing to 47 per cent in region III. In contrast, the

average gross sales from live bait increased from $300.00

69
to $1800.00 in these same regions. Likewise, the average
total value of equipment used in the live bait business
increased from $150.00 in region I to $1000.00 in region
III. The percentage of retail dealers having Special
housing for their bait business ranged from 3 per cent in
region I to 35 per cent in region III. Values determined
for wholesale live-bait dealers are comparable and parallel
the regional differentiation noted for retail bait dealers.

'An estimate of the total gross sales of live bait
in the state, based on the state averages for both retail
and wholesale dealers, would approximate 3.8 million
dollars per year. Approximately half of that amount is
derived from sales of minnows while the remainder is from
sale of all other live bait. The importance of live bait
cannot be placed on a dollar basis alone since it is
closely linked with tourist trade and with the sales of

sporting equipment and other items.

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anon o>da
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no oweucoouoo owene>¢
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SUGGESTIONS ON COMMON PROBLEMS
Minnow TranSportation Units for Vehicles

Consideration should be given to the following
factors in planning and construction of minnow tranSporta-
tion units:

1. Type of vehicle available for the installation

of the unit

2. Size and number of compartments in the unit

3. Removal of minnows from the unit

4. Construction and operational cost of the unit

Vehicles ordinarily used in tranSporting minnows
are trucks, autos, auto trailers, and boats. The size of
the vehicle and the space available for the transportation
unit must be considered as well as the portability of the
unit if the vehicle must serve other needs. The size of
the unit is determined by available space and the number
of minnows to be carried. Division of the unit into com-
partments depends upon the extent of sorting at the time
of collection or before delivery to retail outlets. Small
compartments will aid in minimizing water surge, water loss,
and minnow damage. Large transportation units should be
provided with drains to permit the water level to be
lowered for easy access to the minnows. In consideration

of construction and operational costs of the unit, the

I! [I'll

73
permanence of the construction as well as the maintenance
required should be taken into account.

Most of the available knowledge concerning fish
tranSportation units has been made available through ex-
perimental work carried on by the Fish and Wildlife Ser-
vice and state conservation agencies. There are appar-
ently two factors which govern the degree of success of
transportation units: aeration and cooling of the water.

Aeration is required to replenish the oxygen supply
in water used in fish transportation units. Legislation
has been enacted in many states which requires the installa-
tion of some device on such units to maintain the oxygen
content in the water. Copeland (1947) classifies methods
of aeration as follows:

1. Aeration by circulation of water through a

Venturi valve

2. Aeration by spraying

3. Aeration by forced air, i.e., by the use of air

compressors

4. Aeration by introduction of ”canned” oxygen

The circulation of water may be effected by the in-
stallation of a water pump driven by a small gasoline
engine or other means. Considerable experimental work
has proved conclusively that the mixing of natural atmospheric

oxygen with water is superior to other methods of aeration

74
(Cepeland, 1947). The results of these experiments have
indicated the desirability of the introduction and use of
a special mechanism known.as a Venturi valve placed be-
tween the water pump and the intake of the tank. As
water is drawn to the pump, air and water are mixed at
the valve, saturating the water with oxygen and changing
the water to a white, milky color.

In aeration by spraying water into fish transporta-
tion units, water from near the bottom of the tank is re-
moved through a large, screened outlet and Sprayed back
into the tank from the topof the unit. This permits the
water to absorb oxygen and release carbon dioxide as it
passes through the air. The water may also be cooled by
evaporation. The cost of operation for these methods is
about the same as for compressed air. They are subject
to mechanical failure and only relatively clean water
should be used. Trouble caused by clogged screens and
pipes may be reduced by the installation of a drain on
the side of the tank near the bottom rather than on the
bottom. Heavier debris can then be avoided. Pressure of
the spray system should be kept low since high pressures
may cause injury to the fish. Wilson (1950) found seven
pounds sufficient. 7

Aeration by forced air requires the use of a com-

pressor driven by a small gasoline engine. Air is forced

75

into equalizing tanks and released through carborundum
stone which breaks the air into fine bubbles that are re-
leased into the water. Aeration by forced air is not as
efficient in eliminating carbon dioxide as the water spray
method and it may assist in raising water temperature
through the induction of warm air. Stubblefield (1949)
has described Lefevre's aeration unit in which water is
cooled and is circulated and constantly changed by means
of a hollow rotating propeller Operated in the center of
the tank. Fresh air is brought into an air tube located
in the propeller and then diffused through the water by
means of veins at the heel or along the edges of the
propeller blades.

The canned-oxygen method is probably the most
simple to install and mechanical failures are unlikely.
Oxygen is released directly through a carborundum stone.
'Wilson (1950) states that it has a negligible effect
upon the water temperature. The disadvantages are that
carbon dioxide is not eliminated efficiently and there is
the possibility of charging the water too highly. Gen-
erally, Operation costs are greater than for other methods.

As water holds more oxygen at a low temperature
than at a high temperature, any process which will keep
the temperature low as is consistent with the well-being

of the fish will increase the number of fish that can be

safely carried. Crushed ice can be placed in compartments

76
on the exterior of the tank and at the same time covering
the intake and exit water pipes. Ice compartments may be
constructed on top the unit so as to allow melted ice
water to drop into the compartment below. Both cooling
of the water and aeration may be effected in this manner.
Water may be cooled by evaporation as in the spray system.

Small refrigeration units may be installed or the material

A

used in tank construction can be chosen to provide insula-
tion qualities.

A number of materials can be used in tank con-
struction and several methods of assembling the material
are satisfactory. weight of the completed tank and the
water contained in it must be consistent with the load-
limits of the vehicle used to transport it. Demountable
tanks should be fairly light in weight to facilitate hand-
ling. The design of the tank should be such that it can
be mounted forward of the rear wheels of the vehicle to
reduce Splash and surge, minimizing water loss and damage
of fish.

‘Wood can be used in the construction of tanks. It
is fairly light and provides some insulation. It requires
constant maintenance. Welded sheet metal can be used but
it is heavy and also requires painting and rust prevention.
Wilson (1950) found that a tank made from 24 S-T aluminum

alloy and riveted together to be highly satisfactory. The

77
tank required more work than welded tanks but the result
was a strong, light, flexible unit. The aluminum material
used in its construction is a good reflector. Aluminum-
colored tanks were noted to run considerably lower tempera-
tures than one painted black or green.

Copeland (1947) and Stubblefield (1949) have pre- F
sented plans and construction details for large transporta-

tion units suitable for wholesale purposes. Smaller units

 

are described by Copeland (1947) and Wilson (1950).
Basic designs are good but variations can beplanned to

fill the requirements of individual dealers.
Handling of Minnows

Greatest minnow loss occurs in handling and hold-
ing minnows. A survey conducted in 1948 by the Minnesota
Bureau of Fisheries Research determined that minnows are
often killed during seining operations (Dobie, Meehan,
and Washburn, 1948). Some are crushed in the net, and
the small ones are often left stranded on the beach.

Some are killed by slow and careless handling during sort-h
ing. The loss is extremely high when "soft" minnows

like the golden Shiner are handled during hOt weather.
Rough handling often causes injuries through which fungus

is able to start its growth.

78

Prevention of injury must start at the time of
collection. Seines should be landed on sand or hard
bottom whenever possible to prevent roily water. A seine
containing minnows should be bagged loosely and floated
to deeper water where the minnowscan be dipped into
floating live boxes. The seine should never be pulled up
on Shore when it contains minnows.

The likelihood of mechanical injury to minnows is
not great when glass traps are used. ‘Wire screen traps
and plastic screen traps may result in scaling or other
injury. Traps should be attended frequently and floating
live boxes or other portable holding facilities should be
available in the stream when the minnows are captured.
Every precaution Should be exercised to prevent injury.

Fish have no means of adapting themselves to
rapid changes in water temperature. If minnows are to be
transferred from water having a temperature appreciably
different than another, the change should be accomplished
by mixing the two waters slowly, allowing at least 20
minutes for each 10 degrees F. change in temperature. A
sudden change in water temperature may cause Shock which
will prove fatal to the minnows. Care must be exercised
in placing minnows taken from the stream into the carry-
ing truck and also when placing the minnows in the hold-

ing tanks.

79
Removal of minnows from the carrying tank is best
accomplished by lowering the water level. Minnows may
then be gathered quickly and easily with a soap net. It
was noted on the survey that this provision for allowing

controllable drainage of tanks is often omitted.
Holding Facilities

The preferred type of holding tank construction is
cement. Tanks Should be painted with an asphaltum paint
to provide a smooth finish and to prevent toxic substances
in the cement from entering the water. Tanks should be
sufficiently deep to prevent injury to minnows from aera-
tion jets but the depth should be such that the minnows
can be readily collected. The size of the tanks should
be such that all minnows can be sold within a few days
since periodic cleaning is recommended. Additional min-
nows Should not be added until all the others have been
sold and the tanks drained and cleaned.

Large drainage plugs should be installed at the
time of tank construction. Plugs, together with a slop-
ing floor, will facilitate draining and cleaning. Over-
flow water should be taken from the bottom of the tank
rather than the top. Individual overflows should be
present to prevent the spread of disease from tank to

tank. Minnows should not be transferred from one holding

8O
tank to another. Scap nets or other equipment should be
sterilized often to prevent disease transmission.

Following the removal of minnows from a holding
tank, the tank should be drained, cleaned, and sterilized.
This can best be accomplished by scrubbing the sides and
bottom of the tank with a solution of sodium hypochlorite.
One-half pint of bleach (Hilex or Chlorox) in 15 gallons
of water is suitable (Dobie, 1948). Following this treat-
ment, all traces of chlorine must be rinsed away before
refilling the tank for use.

During the survey it was noted that dealers operating
in urban areas were sometimes required to use city water
which had been chlorinated. Rodgers (1949) explains a
simple method for neutralizing chlorine. Baking powder
or similar tin cans with covers are used as containers for
a quantity of sodium thiosulphate. A number of holes are
punched in the top and the bottom of each can. Strings
are attached to the cans and the cans are then submerged
in the middle of the tank. The Strings enable the cans
to be removed easily for refilling and provide a means of
shaking the can if the action of the fish indicate that
too little of the chemical is dissolved in the water. The
quantity to be used and the period between refilling

should be determined by trial tests with a few minnows.

81

Fungus disease is often present in the tanks of
dealers who are suffering a high minnow mortality. Death
is probably caused by the direct effect of the fungus in-
fection or by injury which has been followed by fungus
infection. Dead minnows should be removed and destroyed.
Minnows that have become infected and those exposed to the
disease should be treated and placed in a sterilized hold-
ing tank. All nets and tools Should be sterilized.

The treatment most widely recommended by biologists
is a 10 second dip in a 1:15000 malachite green solution
which is the equivalent of 1/8 ounce in 15 gallons of
water (Dobie, Meehan, and washburn, 1948). The solution
should be discarded after 100 pounds of minnows have been
treated or at the end of the day.

The addition of salt to holding tanks for the con-
trol of external parasites is common practice. It is a
fairly effective treatment but some parasites survive and
the treatment must be repeated frequently. It is, how-
ever, the only treatment which should be applied in the
absence Of definite knowledge regarding the cause of the
mortality. Davis (1946) states that the common hatchery
practice is to distribute salt throughout the trough,
having first turned off the water supply. When fish begin
to Show signs of distress, the water is then turned on again.

Fish (1938) suggests determining the volume of water

82
contained in a trough drawn down to a predetermined depth.
For each 60 cubic inches of water in the trough at this
depth, one ounce of finely ground salt is dissolved in a
pail half full of water. To administer the salting, shut
off the inflow, drain the trough to the predetermined
depth, and spread the salt solution evenly over the trough.
When the weaker fish begin to suffer, the inflow is re-
sumed at the maximum rate the fish will withstand to per-
mit a rapid replacement of the salt water. These treat-
ments are difficult for most bait dealers to apply cor-
rectly since the water source available generally is not
adequate for rapid removal of the salt solution. Salting
in this manner becomes more expensive, less effective,
and more difficult as the size of the tank increases.
Davis (1946) suggests that a better method is to dip the
fish for a Short time in a 3 per cent salt solution.

The general salt solution treatment and the mala-
chite green dip for fungus will control disease epidemics
in holding tanks in the majority of instances. Disease
prevention and control should follow recommended treat-
ments rather than hit and miss methods. Should a high
mortality rate continue, a trained biologist should be
contacted or a few infected fish Should be preserved in
a ten per cent formalin solution or in alcohol and sent

to the nearest pathologist.

83

Minnow Sorting and Sales

Minnows that are offered for sale are generally
segregated by size and species. In instances, minnows
sorted in this manner demand a higher price than unsorted
minnows. There is no Single type of sorting device in
general use. Sorting may be accomplished from a dip net
held at the water surface, from boxes attached inside
holding tanks, or with tubs and miscellaneous containers.

Minnows can be easily sorted to Size by the use of
mechanical fish graders which are no more than wooden or
metal boxes with a bottom or sides of dowels or rods so
Spaced as to allow the escape of small minnows which can
pass between the rods. The fish remaining can be placed
in the next larger grader and so on. Bengard (1951) pre-
sented a design for metal fish graders which should work
well in minnow operations.

A sorting table of the type suggested by Topel
(1947) can be used to advantage in sorting minnows by species
or by size. The design was patterned after an ordinary
four-legged, flat-topped table, to which side-boards con—
taining Openings cut flush with the table top were added.
The table top was covered with sheet metal and held in
place by quarter round molding. Flaps of light rubber at
the openings.were used to control the ejection of fish in-

to the containers below the table. The construction of

k" 7 u“"_-T—"._"T'Tw
l.

84
the table is simple, and a number of minnows can be
sorted in a short time. Injury is held to a minimum
since fish are not handled but pushed on the film of water
always present on the table during operation.

The practice of selling small minnows wholesale by
the gallon is common. Considerable loss may be involved
Since this procedure necessitates measuring of minnows in
a nearly dry state. Dobie (1948) states that minnows may
be weighed by first filling a metal basket half full of
water, weighing the basket and water, and then adding the
fish and reweighing. The difference in weight is the
weight of the minnows. Little injury occurs during weigh-
ing. By counting the number of minnows in a pound, it is
possible to determine the number of fish sold. Fish may
be sold by numbers, pounds, or by gallons, allowing eight

pounds to the gallon.
MinnoW'Ponds

Within the past few years, attempts at minnow
culture have prompted construction of many ponds through-
out the state. Small natural lakes and ponds have been
used as well as ponds formed by dammed streams or creeks.
Many articles have been written concerning all aspects of‘
pond propagation. Planning and construction has been

covered in detail. Despite the available literature, most

85
minnow dealers have resorted to their own ideas of pond
construction and many have been sadly disappointed with
the results. Wherever possible, the services of an
engineer or someone eXperienced in fish pond construction
should be employed in order to make best possible use of
material at hand.

The general considerations and suggestions dis-
cussed are presented to indicate those problems which
most often occur.

Pond Requirements:

There are three requirements generally considered
for a good minnow pond site: (1) a topsoil or subsoil
that contains a sufficient amount of clay to hold water,
(2) a water supply that will provide an adequate supply
of water but not an excessive amount, and (3) a topography
that can be converted into a pond economically (Lawrence,
1949).

Considerations of the topsoil and subsoil types
are necessary in determining pond locations. Since a
pond is nothing more than a bowl for collecting and hold-
ing water, its bottom and dam must be composed of clay
soils which are best adapted to reduce seepage to a mini-
mum. If there is doubt as to the type of soil present,

a County Agricultural Agent may be contacted. If seepage

occurs after the pond construction is completed, the

86
fault may be corrected by bringing in clay or commercial
soil-sealing compounds to cover the bad spots. Duncan
(1947) believes that water loss through seepage can be
corrected by careful application of a water repellent
material like bentonite. Each job will require study of
soil type and other conditions since they will affect the
amount of bentonite required as well as the method of
application.

A suitable source of water must be available to the
pond site. It must be sufficient to fill the pond and
maintain the water level with little fluctuation. From
the fish management point of view, any overflow is waste.
The ideal water supply is one that keeps the pond full
without running over. It should be only moderately hard,
slightly alkaline, and have a temperature high enough to
promote rapid growth.

Springs and artesian wells furnish a good source
of water Since they are usually easily controlled and gen-
erally free from pollution. Most Springs are a steady,
dependable source which have enough flow to keep a small
pond well supplied but not so much as to cause trouble.
Water from artesian wells may need to be aerated befbre
it enters the pond.

Natural water supplies like creeks or streams may

be used to satisfy water requirements but they should not

87

be subject to excessive flooding. They should also have
a well vegetated watershed which will permit the stream
to remain fairly clear from silt even during rains. In
addition to being subject to changes in volume and tur-
bidity, the water may be polluted or the temperature may
fluctuate greatly. Undesirable species of fish may be
present and successful screening to prevent their entry
into ponds is expensive.

Surface run-off from lands may be used to provide
water to ponds. The type of soil, vegetation, and steep-
ness of the slope will effect the surface run-off.
Drainage area ratios per-acre-of-pond should be determined
by some qualified individual and these should be closely
followed when selecting pond sites in order to provide
sufficient water.

Topography refers to the surface features of the
area. It should provide a place where a pond can be made
with a small dam or by little excavation of soil. The
ideal topography for a Single pond is bowl shaped with an
Opening where a dam can be placed. If an extensive pond
system is planned, the area should be relatively flat and
large enough to include all ponds and buildings. The
tOpography should slope gently downward from the upper
end to provide drainage for the ponds. The main object

is to select a site of sufficient size and of lepe such

88
that ponds will be completely drainable, preferable in-
dependently, and can be constructed without moving or
hauling an excessive amount of dirt.

It is particularly advisable that a qualified
engineer be contacted to aid in making a survey to deter-
mine the volume, depth, and area of the pond. Schaeperclaus ,
(1933) States that the relatively high productivity of

the pond is due - in greater part - to its shallowness,

 

which allows the penetration of light down to its very
bottom and at the same time facilitates the rapid warming
up process of the whole mass of water. Based upon these
theoretical considerations, the depth of the water has
quite often been calculated too low, with resulting bad
shore infringements. Ponds located in areas where the
winter is cold must necessarily be relatively deep to pre-
vent winter kill.

A seining or catch basin should be constructed at
the outlet to simplify collection of the minnows during
draining or marketing operations.

Aquatic Plants:

Higher aquatic plants are not desirable in minnow
ponds. They do not provide food to any appreciable de-
gree. The shelter provided fry is not needed in minnow
ponds and they often become difficult to control, taking

over large areas of the pond while making minnow collection

difficult.

89

Since there are three different types of higher
aquatic plants, control measures differ. Submerged
plants may be controlled by fertilization of the water to
develop heavy planktonic growth which cuts off the sun-
light vital to the growth of the plants. The addition of
nigrosine, a black aniline dye, affbrds promise of con-
trolling these coarse weeds in addition to encouraging the
development of water bloom algae (Surber and Everhart,
1950).

Rooted vegetation with floating leaves requires that
the leaf stems be cut below the water surface. Repeated
cuttings reduce the vitality of the plant and prevents
recouperation. Cornell (1949) found that certain Species
of floating aquatic plants could be eradicated with 2, 4-D.
Surber (1947) experienced some success with certain plant-
growth regulators which were used as herbicides.

Emergent vegetation may be most easily controlled
by poisoning or hand-pulling. Since these plants grow
only in shallow water, a pond that is correctly built will
limit them to a narrow band around the margin. Spraying
with 2, 4-D has proven effective (Surber, 1947; Cornell,
1949; and Snow, 1949). Solutions of copper sulfate or
sodium arsenite may be used. Care must be exercised in
the use of chemicals that are toxic to fish and advice

from a trained biologist should be sought.

90'

Fertilization:

The purpose in the application of fertilizer, other
than to control higher aquatic vegetation, is to increase
the production of planktonic forms which serve as food
for minnows. Both manure and various commercial fertie
lizers are used. Applications should begin in the early
spring and continue as often as needed to keep up the
bloom. Henderson (1949) used manganese in addition to
the major fertilizing elements (nitrogen, phosphorus,
potassium, and calcium) to help in causing and maintain-
ing water blooms in hard—water ponds. It is sometimes
very difficult to obtain water blooms by the use of fer-
tilizers alone in these ponds.

A general rule of thumb that is followed in fer-
tilization is to keep the water colored so that the hand
is not visible at the depth of one foot. Fertilization
should be done at the optimum rate since an excess is not
only expensive but may also endanger the oxygen supply.

Poisoning: .

.Many ponds and lakes used in minnow culture opera-
tions have no outlet to allow drainage. If predatory
fish have gained entrance through the water supply or by
accidental introduction in stocking, it is necessary that
they be removed. Removal in these ponds is limited to

poisoning. Probably the most important recent development

91
in poisoning has to do with the forms in which rotenone
is available. Forms generally used are simple powdered
derris or ”cube“ fOrm, a wettable rotenone paste, and
emulsifiable rotenone (Solman, 1950). The best procedure,
as outlined in ”Propagation of Minnows and Other Bait
Species" is to apply 1.32 pounds of 6 per cent rotenone
powder per acre-foot of water (0.5 p.p.m.). The powder
must be mixed with water to form a thin batter and spread
evenly over the pond.

Investigations in Ontario have found emulsified
rotenone very effective, presumably more so than rotenone
in derris powder. Rotenone kills fish in low concentra-
tions (0.025 p.p.m.) and at such concentrations it is not

toxic to most aquatic invertebrates (Smith, 1950).

SUMMARY

1. The majority of the retail live-bait dealers
in Michigan are part-time operators having a gross sale
of live bait less than $2000.00 per year. Over 70 per
cent handle various supplies in addition to live bait.
Approximately one-half of the wholesale dealers operate
full-time, dealing only in live bait, and having a gross
sale over $2000.00 per year.

2. nTwo-thirds of all minnow tranSportation units
operated by wholesale bait dealers are furnished with
aeration devices as compared to one-quarter of the units
operated by retail dealers that are so equipped.

3. Seines and glass traps are employed for minnow
collection by most bait dealers. Overall, the seine is
more widely used but the use of the glass trap is gen-
erally more common in southern portions of the state.
Wholesale dealers use glass traps to a greater extent
than retail dealers, a fact which may account, in part,
for the lower percentage of minnow loss incurred by whole-
sale bait dealers.

4. The cost of bait minnows varies from area to
area, and from week to week, depending upon the competi-
tion and availability. The creek chub, white sucker,

and common Shiner are preferred species.

93

5. The abundance and availability of lake emerald
shiners has excluded any species which might be cultured
to compete successfully in the perch minnow size class.

6. Availability of minnows is variable, depending
upon the experience of the bait dealer and the season of
the year. Areas supporting a large tourist population or
a high population of resident fishermen suffer from min-
now shortage in all size classes. Otherwise, pike min-
nows are least abundant.

7. Over 95 per cent of the wholesale dealers and
70 per cent of the retail bait dealers utilize natural
live bait resources in varying degrees. Sixty-five per
cent of the retail dealers purchase some or all of their
minnows from wholesale dealers. Over 20 per cent of the
retail dealers and 40 per cent of the wholesale dealers
own or have access to ponds, yet less than 10 per cent of
the retailers and less than 25 per cent of the wholesale
dealers raise minnows. Very few dealers raise their total
minnow supply.

8. There are estimated to be 1180 private ponds
in Michigan used to raise or hold bait minnows. Over
half the ponds are considered unsuitable for the propaga-
tion of minnows.

9. Direct or indirect effects of mechanical in-

jury, improper tempering of minnows, and adverse holding

94
water temperatures are major causes of minnow mortality.
Wholesale dealers incurred 8 per cent minnow mortality
while retail bait dealers suffered 16 per cent loss. The
total percentage of minnow mortality indicated by survey
results is substantially less than that estimated by ob-
servations made during the survey.

10. There is no general policy concerning holding
tank care involving cleaning, disease treatment, and feed-
ing. Accepted practices, if followed at all, are con-
ducted in a haphazard manner and value of such procedure
is doubtful.

11. The combination of wigglers and night crawlers
constitute, in some instances, a major portion of all
live bait sales.

12. An estimate of the total gross sales of live
bait in Michigan for a year would approximate 3.8 million
dollars. However, the importance of live bait can not be
placed on a cash basis since it is closely allied with

several other enterprises.

LITERATURE CITED

Bengard, F. A.
1951. Metal fish graders. Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 13,
No. 1, Jan, 1951, pp. 47-48

Carbine, W. F.
1940. Michigan minnow dealers. Mich. Dept. Cons., I. F. R.
Report, No. 627

Cmbnm,W.F.
1941. Minnows. Mich. Dept. Cons., I. F. B. Report No.
679

Carbine, W. F.
1943. Observations on the use of glass traps in mar-
ginal trout streams in Oakland and Macomb Counties.
Mich. Dept. Cons., I. F. B. Report 916

Comstock, J. H.
1949. An introduction to Entomology. 9th edit. rev.,
Comstock Pub. Co. Inc., Ithaca, N. Y.

Copeland, T. H.
1947. Fish distribution units. Prog. Fish Cult., Vol.
9, No. 4, Oct. 1947, pp. 193-202

Cornell, J. H.
1949. Eradication of emergent aquatic vegetation with
2,4-D. Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 11, No. 2, Apr. 1949,

Davis, H. S.
1946. Care and diseases of trout. Res. Report 12, F.W.S.,
Washington 25, D. C.

Dobie, J. R.
1948. Minnow propagation. Cons. Bul. No. 13, Minn. Dept.
Cons.

Dobie, J. R., O. L. Meehan, and G. N. Washburn
1948. Propagation of minnows and other bait Species.
Cir. No. 12, F.W.S. Washington 25, D. C.

Duncan, L. M.
1947. Use of bentonite for stopping seepage in ponds.
Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 9, No. 1, Jan. 1947, pp. 37-39

96

Fish, F. F.
1938. Treat-think-and be wary, for tomorrow they may
die. Prog. Fish Cult., No. 39, pp. 1-9

Henderson, C.
1949. Manganese for increased production of water-bloom
algae in ponds. Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 11, No. 3,
July 1949, pp. 157-160

Hmms,C.L.
1933. Bait Minnow Situation. Mich. Dept. Cons., I. F. R.
Report No. 196

Lawrence, J. M.
1949. Construction of farm fish ponds. Agr. Exp. Stat.,
Ala. Poly. Inst., Auburn, Ala.

Matheson, R.
1947. Entomology for introductory courses. Comstock
Pub. Co. Inc., Ithaca, N. Y.

Morgan, A. H.
1930. Field book of ponds and streams. G. P. Putnam' 5
Sons, New York, N. Y.

Rodgers, E. O.
1949. Neutralizing chlorine in trout display tanks.
Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 11, No. 1, Jan, 1949, pp.
82-83

Schaeperclaus, W. Translated by F. Hund
1933. Textbook of pond culture. Fishery Leaflet 311,
F. W'.S. Washington 25, D. C.

Smith, M. W.
1950. The use of poisons to control undesirable fish in
Canadian fresh waters. Can. Fish Cult., No. 8, Oct.
1950

Snow, J. R.
1949. Control of pondweeds with 2,4-D. Prog. Fish Cult.,
Vol. 11, No. 2, Apr. 1949, pp. 105-108

Solman, V. E. F.
1950. History and use of fish poisons in the United
States. Can. Fish Cult., No. 8, Oct. 1950

Stubblefield, A. G., L. Lefevre, and R. Smart
1949. Montana fish-distribution tank. Prog. Fish Cult.,
Vol. 11, No. 4, Oct. 1949, pp. 245-252

97

Surber, E. W., C. G. Minarik, and W'. B. Ennis, Jr.
1947. The control of aquatic plants with phenoxyacetic
compounds. Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 9, NO. 3, July
1947, pp. 143-150

Surber, E. W., and M. H. Everhart
1950. Biological effects of nigrosine used for control
of weeds in hatchery ponds. Prog. Fish Cult., Vol.
12, No. 3, July 1950, pp. 135-140

Topel, H. C.
1947. Sorting table. Prog. Fish Cult., Vol. 9, No. 4,
Oct. 1947, pp.‘209-21O

Washburn, G. N.
1945. Experimental use of glass minnow traps in certain
Michigan trout streams. Mich. Dept. Cons., I. F. R.
Report NO. 984

washburn, G. N.
1946. Post card questionnaire returns on the depart-
ment's bait-minnow program (results of partial re-
turns). Mich. Dept. Cons., I. F. B. Report No. 1046

Wilson, A. J.
1950. Distribution units for warm-water fish. Prog.
Fish Cult., Vol. 12, No. 4, Oct. 1950, pp. 211-213

Yoder, C. T.
1948. The use of glass traps in trout streams. Mich.
Dept. Cons., I. F. B. Report No. 1173

Yoder, c. T.
1950. Minnow propagation experiments for 1947. Mich.
Dept. Cons., I. F. B. Report No. 1267

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