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THE DEVELOPMENT AND
ADMINISTRATION OF AN ATTITUDE
INSTRUMENT TO MEASURE CHANGE
EFFECTED BY A HOME ECONOMICS

SENIOR SEMINAR

Thesis for the Degree of M. A.
MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY
SALLY A. COWEU.
1968

 

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ABSTRACT

THE DEVELOPMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF AN
ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT TO MEASURE CHANGE
EFFECTED BY A HOME ECONOMICS
SENIOR SEMINAR

by Sally A. Cowell

This study attempted to assess the degree of atti-
tude change, as indicated by a deve10ped instrument, which
resulted from a student's being a member of the course,
Senior Seminar, H.E. 401. The instrument dwelt on atti-
tudinal concepts that comprised the bulk of the course
content. A pretest - posttest administration was given to
the Senior Seminar group. Single administrations of the
same instrument were given to a group of fifty-five Pro-
fessional Home Economists and eighty-eight Social Psychol—
ogy students for comparison. The results were not in the
predicted directions; in most cases the F ratio indicated
no statistical difference. On individual subscales, re-
versals occurred which placed the seminar posttest scores
lower than the pretest. No predictor variables were iden—
tified as significant from a battery of potential variables

regarding the students' mothers employment practices.

THE DEVELOPMENT AND ADMINISTRATION OF AN
ATTITUDE INSTRUMENT TO MEASURE CHANGE
EFFECTED BY A HOME ECONOMICS

SENIOR SEMINAR

BY

Sally A. Cowell

A THESIS

Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department Secondary Education and Curriculum
Home Economics Education

1968

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to express sincere.appreciation to my ad-
visor Dr. Twyla Shear who was so generous with her time
and support and who provided much valuable guidance. I
also wish to thank Dr. Jean Schlater for her encouragement
and support throughout the duration of this study, and
Dr. Francis Magrabi for her invaluable assistance with the
computer analysis. Thanks is also due Dr. D. W. Olmsted
for his c00peration in allowing the participation of the

Social Psychology group.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

AC KNOWLE DGME N T S O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

LIST OF TABLES O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0

Chapter
I.

II.

III.

IV.

V.

BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM . . . . .

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE . . . . .

Women's Roles as Expressed in the

Literature . . . . . . . .
Attitude Change . . . . . .
Attitude Scale Construction
Summary . . . . . . . . . .

DESIGN OF THE STUDY . . . . . . . .

Instrument Development . . . .
Administration of Attitude Scale
The Hypotheses . . . . . . .
Objectives . . . . . . .

Operational Definitions
Statistical Analysis .

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS . . . . . .

Hypothesis I .
Hypothesis II .
Hypothesis III
Hypothesis IV .
Hypothesis V .
Hypothesis VI .
Hypothesis VII
Hypothesis VIII
Hypothesis IX .
Summary . . . .

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS . .

iii

Page

ii

21
29
40

41

41
46
51
52
52
53

54

55
56
59
59
60
61
61
62
64
64

66

Page
BIBLIOGRAPHY................... 72

APPENDIX 0 O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 78

iv

Table

4.5

4.6

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Comparison of within group variances . . . . 56
F ratio on thirteen subscale mean scores

by group 0 o o o o o o o o o o ' o o o o o o 58
Comparison of results on subscale I between

professionally employed mothers and

mothers never employed . . . . . . . . . . 62
Comparison of results on subscale I between

mothers employed eleven or more years and

mothers never employed . . . . . . . . . . 62
Comparison of results on two subscales

between mothers employed full time and

mothers never employed . . . . . . . . . . 63
Comparison of results on four subscales

between interior design-retailing majors

and child development-education majors . . 65

CHAPTER I

BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM

A curriculum revision started in 1957 was insti-
tuted by the College of Home Economics at Michigan State
University in 1961. Results of this revision included a
series of five core courses designed to provide common
learnings for all home economic students in the various
subject matter areas included in the College. Included in
this core curriculum was a capstone core course, H.E. 401,
entitled Senior Seminar which was designed to ". . . inte-
grate the total university experience of the student."
[Mentzer, p. 17] This intent is in agreement with the
purpose of a capstone course as viewed by the University
which is to reinforce student understanding of the rela-
tionship between his major field and allied fields. [CUE,
p. 68] Increasing specialization within professions and.
professional education can cause segmentation and narrow-
ness of intellectual awareness if students are not provided
an Opportunity to view the totality of their field and
their function within that field. [Nosow, p. 5] Senior

Seminar, then, has as its task creating an interdisciplinary

concept of the field of home economics and integrating the
university experience of its students into a meaningful

whole.

Purpose of the course.--As a field of study, home
economics is interdisciplinary for it comprises subject
matter drawn from the natural and social sciences and the
arts for the purpose of understanding man, his near envi-
ronment and the relationship between them. [Budewig, p. 6]
However, the field is more readily conceptualized as being
multidisciplinary by both "laymen" and prebaccalaureate
home economics students. In the interest of broadening
student understanding and strengthening relationships with-
in the field, it appears expedient to bring students of
the various home economics majors together to discuss the
relationship of the majors to each other and to the total
field. Senior Seminar was intended to fulfill this objec-
tive. While viewing the totality of home economics, it
seems Opportune to discuss the concept of professionalism
as it relates to society, to the field of home economics,
to the specific majors within the field and to the students
themselves as prospective professional persons. Since
eight of the nine majors offered in the College prepare
graduates for professional work, and because the great
majority of the students are women, the Senior Seminar

also focuses on the role of professional women in

contemporary society; particularly their life styles in
relation to family and profession and the combination of

these two roles.

Structure of the Senior Seminar.beThe*core courses
are required of all students in the College of Home Eco-
nomics. Thus class enrollment for Senior Seminar averages
100 students per term. In order to provide a more apprOp-
riate seminar setting, the total ClaSS'iS divided into
three discussion sections which are further subdivided into
discussion groups of approximately ten students each. The
two primary reasons for the subdivision into groups of ten
may be considered (1) to allow for greater participation
of each student, and (2) to free the range of Opinions and
tOpics to which the students wish to react by removing the
authority figure from the discussion. The three staff per-
sons function as observers among the small groups, not as
leaders. Since each student has had a university exper-
ience unique to her, the process of integrating various
aspects of her experience can only evolve from the student's
own mental efforts. The small group discussions are meant
to provide a setting where this can take place. Discussion
guide questions are issued a week prior to each discussion
session, giving the student time to reflect on the desig-
nated tOpic so she may participate in the discussion more

fully.

Requirements of'the'coursezbbFor‘purposes of eval-
uation, three methods of intellectual-communication are
utilized. Throughout the term the students develop three
or four papers on designated tOpics. This provides the
student an Opportunity to organize her thoughts on a par—
ticular tOpic minimizing time as a pressure factor. The
discussion sessions (evaluated by peer ratings) are based
upon the ability to communicate verbally on both known and
spontaneous tOpics. The final examination is a series of
short discussion questions requiring the student to organ-

ize her thoughts quickly and concisely on selected topics.

Content of the course.~-As*iilustrated in the re-
view of literature, all learning and teaching processes
are intertwined with attitudes but particularly is the role
of the college educated woman a concept characterized by a
wide diversity of attitudes.’ When a teacher is primarily
concerned with imparting certain knowledge and the student
is concerned with increasing her intellectual repertoire,
evaluation of the student's success may be measured rel-
atively accurately with a well written examination. Test
results are used to demonstrate whether the student has an
understanding of the material and is able to apply it ac-
curately_in accordance with the course objectives.. But
when the instructor’s objective is to effect personal eval-
uation of central attitudes evaluative measures do not come

easily.

Unlike many courses primarily concerned with im-
parting knowledge, Senior Seminar is primarily concerned
with creating or reinforcing attitudes favorable to aspects
of professionalism and home economics. It is not possible
for Obvious reasons to evaluate students for purposes of
grading according to their attitude stance.. Instead eval-
uation is based more directly on the ability of the student
to support verbally and in writing her particular attitude.
Yet it would seem that the course has not achieved some of
its major objectives if there has been no shift toward
greater acceptance of ideas presented.

As discussed above, the course deals not with par-
ticular home economics competencies, but with the role of
women in today's society, professionalism, and home eco-
nomics as a professional field. The expressed course ob-
jectives and rationale are laden with the following atti-
tudinal areas: professions; women as professionals; student'

self-concept as agprofessional; home economics aS'ajprofes—..

 

sion; student self-concept as a home economist; home eco-

nomics as a single, interrelated'fieidy'and'the'life styles

 

of educated women.

 

Attitudes in these areas are intrinsic to the basic
decisions Senior Seminar students will be making in the
immediate future regarding their own individual life styles
as they contemplate the several Options available to today's

educated women (i.e. marriage, employment, and continuing

education). The relation and integration of these Options
to each other is most poignant as graduation nears and
graduating seniors are considered by the university and
society as qualified to hold a professional position in
society.

When confronted with ideas that imply a threatening
decision, hostility'is a not uncommon reaction. Much is
written on the role conflicts facing American women. A
preponderance of the literature deals specifically with
the resolution of the traditional role of women with the
desire for productive individuality. Since a woman's life
style decisions revolve around an acknowledged role 222:.
fligg, career and family, the concepts with which Senior
Seminar deals, hold a potential for threatening a student's
self concept. This threat in itself may generate student
hostility toward the course.

Senior Seminar has several other characteristics
likely to generate student hostility. It is a required
courSe on the senior level, outside the students' specific
major area. The material which may be personally chal-
lenging or threatening to the student, is presented imper-
sonally with little built in Opportunity provided for
significant interpersonal relations with either the in—
structor or the assistants. Finally, all evaluations
within the course are subjectively based; the four essay
papers on designated topics, peer evaluations of discussion

participation and the essay final examination.

Statement of the problem.h~Being‘a required course
assumes the time and energy spent by students is justifi-
able. Senior Seminar is a relatively new course (1964)
and its effectiveness has not been empirically, nor objec-
tively demonstrated. It seems necessary to have this type
of information upon which to base future activity within
the course.

It is assumed by the teaching staff of the Seminar
that students enter the course with predetermined attitudes
in the areas which constitute the content of the course.
The overriding goal of the Seminar is to cause considera-
tion of, and induce attitudes favorable to, the concepts
presented. Materials and methods of presentation which
challenge, but do not alienate, students to reconsider
their own attitudes and values should activate student
interest and stimulate more sound learning and reliable
scholarship. By knowing the predispositions of the student
group, one is more able accurately to challenge attitudes
held. This study attempts to identify variables which may
correlate with, and in the future identify, an attitudinal
stance. Through administration of the developed instru-
ment, the study attempts to provide empirical data as a
basis for evaluating the effectiveness of this required
Senior Seminar course in causing attitude change. The

question to which the instrument is directed is, "Does

Senior Seminar cause students to alter their attitudes
regarding professionalism, women working and home econom—

ics?".

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

As one attempts to discuss the conflicts and sat-
isfactions encountered by women who combine the roles of
family and career, it soon becomes evident that this dis-
cussion requires a degree of understanding regarding the
function of attitudes on both an individual and societal
level. Any attempt to measure attitudes requires famil-
iarity with the particular technique of scale construction
chosen. This chapter focuses attention on each of these
areas. The first section reviews current literature on
the roles of women paying particular attention to the dual
role of family and career. The second section concerns
the function of, display of, and consideration for, chang-
ing attitudes while the last section presents a discussion
on the Likert scaling technique of summated rating. Impli-
cations for education are considered in the first two

sections.

Women's Roles as Expressed
in the Literature'

Due to technological and sociological advances in
the past few decades, many women today are not required to

9

10

devote their full time and energies to homemaking tasks.
"Given the level our industrial society has now reached,
it is no longer necessary for women to confine their life
expectations to marriage and parenthood." [Rossi, p. 105]
The world wars, the depression and increased technology
caused men's jobs in factories to do away with much of
women's traditional work and her direct contribution to
the economic process. [Bettleheim, 1964, p. 7; Mueller
and Mueller, p. 2] Within the labor market, changes such
as machine rather than muscle force, hygenic conditions,
reduced hours of work, more favorable employer attitudes
and better labor relations facilitated female entry into
the gainfully employed category. [Myrdal and Klein, 1956,
p. 4] Instrumental social factors as longer schooling,
earlier marriage and smaller families, increased life ex-
pectancy, rising level of personal aspirations, lure of
rising wages and a higher standard of living are cited as
contributing to woman's emancipation from full time home-

making. [Smith, G., p. 2]

Role combination.--The fact that role conflict is
the primary concept used to present the topic of role com-
bination of women indicates that attention centers on prob-
lems involved in combining a career and marriage whether
those problems are real or imagined. A nucleus of concerns

pervades most all discussions of woman's dual role, each

ll

tending to stress specific phases of the situation. It is
worth bearing in mind as one reads through the wealth of
literature however, that ". . . there is no single problem
which can be identified as Eh§_problem of the working moth-
er or wife," but rather there are a ". . . complex of dif-
ferent and uneven problems, some of them major and others
of trivial importance." [Amidon, p. 50]

Much of the literature available, both academic
and pOpular, on the dual role is subjectively written from
the vieWpoint of the author. Validation is either in terms
of available supporting literature which is also often from
a subjective viewpoint or through selected observations.
Examples here include Friedan (1963) and McGinley (1964)
who have perhaps, acted as catalysts in stimulating activity
around this topic. In pOpular woman's magazines, articles
appear regularly both promoting and condemning the combina—
tion roles of women.

One of the most empirical studies to date is that
by Eli Ginzberg et al which analyzed, via questionnaires,
the life styles of over 300 college educated women. Two

books have evolved from this study: Life Styles of Ede

 

ucated WOmen (1966) and Educated American‘Women:"Self""

 

Portraits (1967). Three other empirical studies include
the works by G. Smith (1964), Myrdal and Klein (1956), and
Gendall (1963).

12

Most of the recent literature, both subjective and
empirical, has been written in defense of women who combine
work and family. The case for the defense has been based
upon alleviating fears of unfounded problems, illustrating
the value an outside interest holds for a woman's self
realization, and suggesting solutions for problems which
are hindering further participation of women in the labor
force. In general the appeal has been to stress the nor-
malcy of the dual role for women today and to create more
favorable social attitudes so that women who want to work
and women who have to work may do so without guilt feel-
ings. [Bailyn, p. 236] The higher educated women at
least, appear to be nearing this Objective. "There is
little in our analysis to support the wide spread belief
that most educated women are trapped in situations which
create frustration and disappointment and that it is the
rare woman indeed who is able to fulfill her potentiality.
The opposite is much closer to the truth." [Ginzberg,
1966, p. 143]

A book which has recently been published, The Com-
plete Guide for The Working Mother [Albrecht], attempts to
provide managerial aids for the mother and reinforcement
as to the value of her working. The dilemma that has fos-
tered a book of this nature revolves around the desire of
women to utilize their abilities outside of the home with-
out feeling that they are neglecting or deserting their

homes and families. [Bettleheim, 1965, p. 12; Clark, p. 13;

13

Hansl, pp. 9, 16, 17; Cutler, p. 7; Smith, G., p. 61;
Bloustein, p. 38] This dilemma is the same for both col-
lege educated and noncollege educated women. There is
possibly more stress on college educated women however,
due to the behavioral science courses they are likely to
have had increasing their awareness of the emotional needs
of children. [Bettleheim, 1965, p. 13]

Women of whom this literature on role conflict is
written are increasing in number. The participation rate
of married women in the labor force doubled from 1900-1940,
then doubled again from 1940-1960. [Cain, p. 1] Today 37
percent of the married women are gainfully employed. [93:
dies Home Journal, p. 85]' Figures indicate that while in
general one of every three American women is employed, two
of every three college educated women are employed. [Za-
poleon, p. 87] This task of facilitating the role combina-
tion is imminent on the college campus and especially needs
to be a concern of the field of home economics, which edu-
cates women primarily to become professionally competent.

[Amidon, p. 44]

Assessment ofproblemS'resulting'from'role'combinah '
Eign.--The problems associated with women's dilemma each
contain a strong attitudinal component. While measures for
lessening the problems are suggested in the literature, it

is evident that before these measures can be effective the

14

social attitudes must first be changed. The complex of
problems most frequently presented include: the welfare

of children [Bettleheim, 1965; Gendall; Ginzberg, 1966;
Jephcott; Rossi; Zapoleon]; lack of a nurturant, supportive
figure maintaining the home [Bettleheim, 1965; Bloustein;
Clark; Cutler; Hansl; National Manpower Council; Albrecht];
job discrimination and professional exploitation [Bailyn;
Bloustein; Ginzberg, 1966]; social pressure experienced
both by those working and those not working [Cutler; Blous-
tein; Hansl; Jephcott; Mueller and Mueller; Myrdal and
Klein; National Manpower Council; Smith, G.; Zapoleon]; the
discontinuous work pattern of women [Bettleheim; Bunting;
Clark; Hansl; National Manpower Council; Zapoleon]; and the
lack of initiative demonstrated by women in rectifying
these problems [Cutler; Degler; Friedan; Gendall; Hansl;
Killian; Mueller and Mueller; Myrdal and Klein; Nat'l Man-
power Council; Smith. G.].

The trend reflected in the literature moves from
the predominantly descriptive, demographic data of the late
50's and early 60's to the present assessment of attitudinal
stances both of women working and of society fostering
their employment. Initially the most evident and ubiqui-
tous concern was for the welfare of children involved.
Although this concern is still prevalent, scientific re-
search has concluded that the fact of mothers working does

not, in and of itself, cause harm to the children involved.

15

[Gendall, p. 231; Jephcott, p. 23; Zapoleon, p. 85] It is
the quality and not the quantity of the mother-child rela-
tionship which is the significant factor. [Rossi, p. 111]
Thus if it appears that fears of child neglect are without
foundation, attention can be focused on the woman herself.

The global concept of self—realization is being
increasingly considered as a major reason for women to seek
gainful employment. "All too much of the discussion of
women's roles in society concentrates on externals . . .~to
the detriment of our recognizing that the essential problem
is self-realization." [Bettleheim, 1964, p. 5] Specifics
which comprise the self-realization concept include social
contact, a sense of personal achievement, awareness of use-
fulness to others, and awareness of one's own increasing
skill. [Clark; Friedan; Gendall; Myrdal and Klein; Smith,
G.] The importance that Betty Friedan placed on gainful
employment over nonpaying activities was verified by 13
percent of a sample used in Smith's study from Rutgers:

"It was not the job itself which bolstered their self es-
teem but the fact that someone valued their service enough
to pay for it." [p. 68]

In attempting to achieve self-realization, social
pressures and feelings of guilt are brought to bear on
women. Ironically, depending to which source one is re-
ferred, this guilt and pressure is acting on the woman who

is gainfully employed as well as on the full time homemaker.

l6

Opposing arguments.hhThe'ambivalent character of
both pOpular and scholarly literature expresses varying
degrees of admonition. A frequent comment is, ". . . the
fundamental job of the American woman remains what I con-
sider to be the most difficult of all jobs, being a good
wife, homemaker and mother. She is only secondarily an
economic provider." [National Manpower Council, p. 15]
This quotation directly reflects the idea cited by Clark,
that domesticity has so long been the main role of married
women that anything else they do is treated as almost inci-
dental. [p. 13] A more strongly stated placement of wom-
en's talents is voiced as, "We must start out with the
realization that they are first and foremost mothers and
not workers." [Bettleheim, 1964, p. 14] This crescendo
is completed by Phyllis McGinley [1964] applauding the
homemaker for her age old profession and Guitton's, Egg: '
inine Fulfillment [1965], which advocates the "famine mys-
tique" without frustration.

The counter argument, augmented by employment sta-
tistics, indicates that sending women back to the kitchens
is no longer a realistic alternative. Particularly is this
true for women with higher education who desire to use
their abilities outside of the home without feeling that
they are neglecting or deserting their families. Much of
this argument is based on the assumption that the most time

consuming child-bearing years are completed while the

17

average woman is in her 30's and that she simply will not
find contentment and fulfillment by concentrating her en-
tire life on the child rearing function. [Rossi, p. 105]
Rather for her own good she should seek involvement outside
of the confines of her home. The extremists in this cat-
egory include Friedan [1963] who sees pp_alternative to a
psychological crisis for the woman except that she be gain-
fully employed, and by Myrdal and Klein [1956 and 1966] who
contend that women have a social obligation to work. The
latter also feel it is necessary for society to distinguish
between productive, necessary work and time consuming pre-
text; between well earned leisure and sheer waste of time.
[pp. 6, 89]

Even from this very cursory look at the Opposing
arguments, credibility is given to the View that, "A young
woman faces an almost irresistable series of pressures -
pressure of the peer group that suggests she's missed the
boat if not engaged by 20, pressure of family to do 'some-
thing useful' before marriage, pressure to have a marketable
skill apart from being a woman, plus the fact there is no
consistent and impelling supportive pressure to assure her
that college is really worthwhile." [Smith, S. p.“26]
Marie Jahoda suggests that the intense problem caused by
these varying pressures stems from the fact that each por-.
tends the "one right answer" with regard to patterns of

living for women. [Zapoleon, p. 82] This conflict in

18

cross pressures is even further increased since, ". . . the
decisions involved in the career-family combination are no

longer an either-or absolute to be decided on at the begin-
ning of adult life. The pull goes on practically through-

out a woman's life." [Bailyn, p. 243; Myrdal and Klein,

1966, p. 136]

Proposed solutions.ehThat conflicting role pres-
sures will continue, and in fact increase among women in:
the future, is predicted by various sources, particularly
the labor statistics. The several solutions posed in an
effort to alleviate the problems presently involved fall
basically into two categories: (1) those requiring change
in the social structure of a rather definite and concrete
matter, and (2) those involving a change in the attitude~
structure of society. For the success of social changes,
it appears that attitude changes must precede or at least
be concurrent_with them. The social changes have as their
primary purpose to provide greater time flexibility in
dovetailing both marriage and career objectives. On the
other hand the attitude changes seek to cause greater
awareness, primarily on the part of women themselves, that
gainful employment in particular and commitment to a career
in general, may be accomplished without sacrificing one's

feminine attributes.

19

In the social change category, the most frequently
mentioned solution is the establishment of professionally
Operated nursery schools in accessible numbers to all res—
idential areas and all socioeconomic levels. Other solu-
tions involve more flexible work schedules, a change in
residential patterns to bring home closer to work than the
present suburban setting allows, elimination of job dis-
crimination, increased status for positions held predom-
inantly by women, realistic college preparation in light
of the discontinuous pattern of women's employment and
greater participation by men in household activities.
[Bailyn; Bettleheim, 1964; Bloustein; Cain; Friedan; Ginz-
berg, 1966; Hansl; Killian; Myrdal and Klein; Rossi]

However, the critical factor determining the extent
to which these prOposals are instituted, seems to be the
initiative and demand for these programs as demonstrated by
women themselves. One of the major obstacles appears to be
overcoming the feeling referred to above that women's activ-
ities outside the home are incidental and that the domestic
role is her primary concern. [Clark, p. 13] This change
in social culture can only come about as it is demanded by
women. The status of women has been likened to the status
of the Negro [Degler, p. 11], with the implication that
adjustments in the status quo have to be obtained by, not
given to, the subordinate group. The desire for change, as
well as the ability to live up to the responsibilities en-

tailed, has to be demonstrated by women themselves.

20

The position which must be played by women has been
expressed in a variety of ways as evidenced by the following
quotes:

The major reason for the present status of women in
the professions is that women do not envision them—
selves in such positions which are still thought of
as men's professions. [Degler, p. 25]

The lack of a professional attitude is the most serious
lack in part time workers. [Hansl, p. 47]

. .,. most young people have not been informed that
the role of homemaker can well be combined with other
creative endeavors and responsibilities. [Cutler,.
p. 222]

Women must adOpt more realistic attitudes towards a
career. They will be taken seriously in their work
when they have learned that taking a job is not a mat-
ter of temporarily earning a living. [Myrdal and Klein,
1956, p. 155]

Women need not and should not repress the feelings they
have toward their work. [Bettleheim, 1965, p. 5]

There must be more women who really want to achieve
professional staying power. [Killian, p. 136]

Implications for educationzhbThe'biggest implication

 

from the female role conflict for educational institutions
comes in ". . . restructuring of the attitudes of women in
society." [Degler, p. 25] For to take gainful employment
out of the incidental and place it in a more responsible
class, the post high school training and/or college educa-
tion of women must enable them to function in work meaning-
ful to themselves. ‘For ". . . to be committed to their
work, human beings need the conviction that what they do is

intrinsically important, that to do it is important to them

21

regardless of the needs of others or society." [Bettle-
heim, 1965, p. 8] But, as has.been stressed throughout'
this chapter, such a commitment to a career cannot realis-
tically take place if it appears that the woman's family

is "suffering" from her participation in the labor force.
Education must prepare women to combine marriage and par-
enthood with careers and community service. [Amidon, p. 43]
Education to this end does not involve the provision of an
image to follow nor THE answer. But it does require creat-
ing an awareness of the conflicts, accommodations and al-
ternatives that are existent so that decisions made can be
decisions.in fact, and not circumstantial happenings. For
each woman the conditions will be unique. Each woman must
work out her own life style and work pattern. Education,
and in particular college education,.must allow the young
woman to push to the extreme her talents and find the one
identity which constitutes the person she really is or

desires to be. [Taylor, p. 99]

Attitude Change

 

The involvement of attitudes with learning;~eAttih‘

 

tudes are recognized as being intimately involved with the
educational process. The school is not credited with being
the primary source of attitude formation [Child Dev., 1961,
32, p. 373], but individual's attitudes must be taken into

account in an attempt to cause involvement of the student

22

with the educational process. Fromm says that the task
for education is as it is for parents: to make the child
wgpp_to act as he ha§_to act in a given system. [p. 129]
Within the context of this thesis, it is worth emphasizing
that learning (i.e. the internalization of knowledge) and
attitudes (i.e. the predisposition to respond to a social
object) can be related to the same foundation of need ful-
fillment. Thomas Dewey is perhaps the most influential
prOponent of educating in relation to a child's needs.
[Hook, pp. 31-37] His theory of education is based on the
assumption that an individual attends to and internalizes
information when it appears to satisfy a recognized need
for him. [Zander, p. 546] This need may be personal, pro-
fessional or social, but in any case the information at
the student's disposal is perceived as being relevant to
his situation.

A primary concern of teachers is student motiva-
tion. "Attitudes are similar to motives in that both terms
refer to the directionality of behavior but not to behavior
itself." [Shaw and Wright, p. 5] The differences cited
by this same reference are twofold: an attitude refers to
the probability that a given motive may be elicited, and
attitudes are labelled as object specific where motives
are labelled as goal specific. The relationship of motives

and attitudes is a crucial one for education.

23

Baldwin defines needs as a condition of the organ-
ism that makes it susceptable to a certain pattern of stim-
ulation. The characteristics that determine motivation
are needs. [p. 171] In relating attitudes to needs, All-
port states that, ". . . an attitude is retained so long as
it satisfies the individual, but it is likely to be mod-
ified under the provocation of serious affective disorgan-
ization." [p. 8141’ Sarnoff sees attitudes develOped ". . .
in the process of making tension-reducing responses to
various classes of objects." [Jahoda and Warren, p. 279]
It is through this pattern of thinking that one arrives at
the concepts of balance and congruity in relation to the
structure of an individual's attitude system and behavioral
patterns. ". . . the concept of consistency underscores
and presumes human rationality. It holds that behavior
and attitudes are not only consistent to the objective
observer, but that individuals try to appear consistent to
themselves." [Zajonc, p. 261] The relationship of incon-
gruity to learning is expressed by Mueller [p. 3], "When-
ever the students are happy in their work, satisfied in
their homes and nicely free from worry and frustration,
they are not learning, and in fact, in many cases it is
not even possible to educate them. Without puzzlement,
discontent and anxiety there is no progress in.learning."

The attending to and internalization of knowledge

is behavior. In order to manifest this behavior the student

24

must be motivated to display this behavior. Thus-it ap-
pears that an educational setting will have the greatest
influence on the student when that student's predisposition
allows him to be receptive to the information being commu-
nicated and when the student is able to evaluate his pres-
ent stance, in relation to the object in question, in light
of the new information being presented. To summarize,
attitudes are a predisposition to act; an individual in-
ternalizes and attends to those things that satisfy his
needs.

If one is aware of his needs, and if information
is available to fulfill those needs, then one may be fa-
vorably disposed to react to that information. Some of
the Hovland experimental research reported in the Cohen
(ed) book, supports this logic. In one instance the design
involved varying the order of presentation, i.e. pretest-
need arousal-information-posttest, pretest-information-need
arousal-posttest, and pretest-information-posttest. Hov-
land's conclusions support the hypothesis that the infor-
mation is more readily accepted when it follows need arous-

a1 than when information preceeds need arousal.

In addition to need awareness, the subject's per-
ception of the communicator is crucial in allowing the
subject to be receptive to the message. If the communi-

cator is seen as being a valid authority and/or if the

25

subject is able to identify positively with the communi-
cator, the subject will be more responsive to the message.
[Ash et al., p. 249] This point is discussed in relation
to the Hovland experiments, by child deVelopmentialists

and by research on small group interaction.

Significance of group influence*on<attitudeS'and'
attitude changg.--Much of the research work regarding atti-
tude change involves the use of small groups. This is
consistent with the information available on attitude for-
mation wherein the individual develops attitudes which hold
the potential of bringing him most nearly to his objectives.
From earliest childhood on, behavioral patterns evolve from
actions which bring a desired response from significant
others. [Allport, p. 332] A person's self concept is
formed, in part, through his perceived acceptance by sig-
nificant others. The norms and the attitudes, of these
significant others must be adhered to either through per-
sonal internalization of these standards or at least by
public display of their acceptance. [Kay, p. 5; Kelman,

p. 511; Sherman, p. 40]

Since attitudes are the predisposition to behavior
rather than the actual behavior, it is quite possible for
a person to behave in a manner not entirely consistent with

his internalized attitudes, providing the phenomenon of

26

public-private attitudes. The public attitudes are con—
sidered, by.the individual, expedient for obtaining desired
ends whereas the private are his "actual" or "true" feel-
ings. [Kelman, pp. 511, 512] These "true" feelings are
seen, however, as not being most expedient in a particular
situation. Again related to motives, ". . . attitudes
point out the direction an activity will take; motives are
the starter of the activity." [Allport, p. 817] Resolu-
tion of the dissonance between public and private attitudes
can take place either through change of beliefs or concepts
consistent with public attitudes, or a restructuring of
attitudes to be consistent with behavior. [Sherman, p. 40;
Zajonc, pp. 267-70]

Those attitudes that are most difficult to change
are-those that structure self concept - the central atti-
tudes. [Cartwright, p. 703; Kay, p. 49] Also difficult to
change are those that are most extremely held, i.e. strongly
agree and strongly disagree. It follows that attitudes
more easily changed are those that are not strongly held
and those which are not an intimate part of one's makeup.
From this would follow that when one manifests behavior
publicly which is contradictory to his privately held at-
titudes, these attitudes are less strongly held since the
individual is willing, for whatever reason, to violate his

private disposition.

27

It appears also, that within a group setting, if
the group hOlds significance for the individual and if the
individual is receptive to the group interaction, an indi-
vidual will either attempt to cause group acceptance of
his beliefs or more likely he will accept the group be-
liefs. [Campbell, p. 22; Cartwright, p. 702; Zajonc, p.
265] This latter alternative causing a behavioral and
attitude change, the former requiring an influential per-
sonality. The alternative that seems to elevate the indi-
vidual most within the significant group is the behavior
the individual is most apt to follow. [Cartwright, p. 702;

Kelman, pp. 511, 512]

Attitudes and education;~~With'the myriad independ-

 

ent variables operant, the task of teaching or significantly
affecting a student's attitudes in a classroom situation
appears quite difficult, particularly when the attitudes
being dealt with are central attitudes. But, however dif-
ficult the task, it is one of which teachers must be cog-
nizant.
Since attitudes have so much to do in determining human
behavior, it seems highly important to make a direct
effort to develOp 'desirable' attitudes . . . Attitudes
are now thought to be as specific as other objectives
and like others they must be directly sought by spe-
cific efforts if they are to be developed. [Lichten-
stein, p. 3]
Given the present difficulty in assessing attitudes this

writer is not so sure they can be dealt with via the spe-

cific methods put forth by Lichtenstein.

28

Realistically it appears the class situation can
have the greatest influence on attitude formation by pro-
viding an atmosphere conducive to evaluation of one's
present attitudes, and sufficient and valid information
upon which to base that evaluation. A main consideration
in providing a conducive atmosphere appears to be the alle-
viation of a perceived threat to the student's self con-
cept. If the group or communicator is significant to the
individual, and if the private attitudes of the individual
are directly at odds with expressed attitudes of signif-
icant others in the group it is possible that in defending
his desired status, the individual does not acknowledge to
himself or to others, his private attitudes, thus not al-
lowing himself a rational evaluation of his attitudes in
relation to the information being presented. [Sherman, p.
40] Zander terms the protectionof one's self concept
resistance. [p. 544] This resistance is against the com-
municator and message, but more totally it is against
change. To prevent resistance by the subject, ". . . the
changers (must help) the changees to develop their own
understanding of the need for the change, an explicit aware-
ness of their feelings about it, and what can be done about
those feelings." [Zander, p. 546]

The formidable task in teaching subjective content
is to direct it toward the needs of the students causing

an awareness of those needs, illustrate how these needs

29

may be fulfilled in regard to the subject matter of in-
terest, and provide an awareness of the consequences of
acting upon these needs and upon the subject matter. To
internalize and become involved with the subject matter,
the student must see relevance of the content to himself.
In other words the changers, in this case teachers, must
be able to empathize with the changees, students, in order
to allow awareness of the students' needs to come to the
fore, rather than challenging the student in such a way
that he has to defend himself.

"If in education we have the purpose of developing
attitudes, desires and tastes of the entire personality
how shall the results of our efforts be measured?" [Katz
and Allport, p. v] 'Gaining information of a groups' atti-
tudes in an empirical fashion, has been through the means

of attitude scales primarily.

Attitude Scale Construction

Considerable interest in investigating the function
of attitudes and in developing means by which attitudes
could be measured was displayed in the late 1920's and
early 30's. The foundations laid at that time by men as
Allport, Thurstone, Chave, Bogardus and Likert continues
to initiate much discourse in the present as to the struc-
ture, function and the measurement of attitudes. Debate

as to definition of attitudes continues today. A familiar

30

approach is to ". . . present a dozen or two definitions
of attitudes found in the literature and then, after com-
menting on their common elements, present one's own with
the hOpe it is a distillation of the essence of these other
definitions." [Rokeach, p. 2] A common characteristic
Often identified among the definitions, ". . . entails a
predisposition to respond to social objects. . . ." [Shaw
and Wright, p. 2] The function of attitudes appears to
center on their comprising the evaluative dimension of a
concept. [Rhine, p. 384; Rokeach, pp. 8-9; Fishbein, p.
389; Shaw and Wright, p. 11; Insko, p. 2]

The measurement of attitudes, with which this the-
sis is primarily concerned, is a very open and experimental
field. Methods of scale construction, as reviewed par-_
tially by-Shaw and Wright, number eleven. Actual scales
constructed and administered are innumerable. Each method
of construction attempts to be an improvement over the
others either in gaining greater control over the confound-
ing variables or in providing greater precision in the
statistical analysis. The success of these attempts is
questioned by Shaw and Wright:

The survey of the literature upon which this volume is
based leads to several inevitable conclusions. First,
there seem to have been few major advances or break-
throughs in techniques of scale construction since the
Thurstone and Likert.methods were developed. Guttman
scales represent a different approach and have some
advantages but also some serious disadvantages relative

to the Thurstone and/or Likert techniques. Techniques
such as those prOposed by Lazarsfeld, Coombs, and

31

others show promise but have not been fully develOped.
Also, little progress has been made toward the measure-
ment of structural characteristics of attitudes and
attitudinal systems, despite theoretical formulations
directed toward this aspect of attitude. [p. 559]
The Thurstone and Likert techniques are the most frequently
used particularly by persons outside of psychology. [Ed-
wards and Kenney, p. 249; Shaw and Wright, p. 560] Since
the Likert summated rating technique was used by the writer,

this portion of the literature review will focus on the

development, use and evaluation of the Likert scale.

Develgpment of the'Likert'summatederatipgjtechh

nique.--There now exist several methods of attitude scale

 

construction. First to offer a major alternate method was
Rensis Likert in his descriptive monograph "A Technique
for the Measurement of Attitudes," published in 1932.
Prior to this, the equal appearing interval technique,
developed by Thurstone and Chave in 1929, was being used
almost exclusively. The rationale on which the Likert
technique was based centers on the desire for a less la—
borious method of scale construction, which would provide
equivalent results.
The main contentions of Murphy and Likert regarding the
method of summated ratings seem essentially to be: 1)
'it avoids the difficulties encountered when using a
judging group to construct the scale' 2)'the construc-
tion of an attitude scale by the sigma method (later
replaced by the 1-5 method) is much easier than by
using a judging group to place the statements in piles

from which the scale values must be calculated' 3) 'it
yields reliabilities as high as those obtained by other

32

techniques with fewer items' 4) it gives results which
are comparable to those obtained by the Thurstone tech-

nique.

'More generally, the method of summated ratings

'seems to avoid many of the short comings of existing

methods of attitudes measurement, but at the same time
retains most of the advantages present in the methods

now used.‘ [Edwards and Kenney, p. 251]

The procedure for constructing a summated rating

scale is summarized in five steps:

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

The investigator assembles a large number of
items considered relevant to the attitude being
investigated and either clearly favorable or
clearly unfavorable.

These items are administered to a group of
subjects representative of those to whom the
final questionnaire is to be administered.
The subjects indicate their response to each
item by checking one of the categories of
agreement-disagreement.

The responses are scored in such a way that a
response indicative of the most favorable atti-
tude is given the highest score.

Each individual's total score is computed by
adding his item scores.

The responses are analyzed to determine which
of the items discriminate most clearly between
the high scorers and the low scorers on the
total scale. Items that do not show a substan-
tial correlation with the total score or that
do not discriminate those who score high from
those who score low on the total test are elim-
inated to ensure that every item is related to
the same general attitude. [Selltiz et al.,
pp. 367-8]

Although the procedure as outlined above will iden-

tify discriminating items, initial selection of statements

should be such that ". . . persons with different points

of View, as far as the particular attitude is concerned,

will respond to it differentially. It is essential that

33

all statements he expression of desired behavior and not
statement of fact."‘ ILikert, p. 90] For while integrally
involved with beliefs [Rokeach, p. 2] or concepts [Fishbein,
p. 394], it is only through eliciting the evaluative, af-
fective response rather than the cognitive response, that
enables the investigator to more accurately assess the
individual's or group's predisposition to action.

A criterion cited by Likert to minimize individual
interpretation of either the statement or the response to
the statement requires the use of clear, concise, straight-
forward statements, using the simplest possible vocabulary.
[Likert, p. 91] Two other selective criteria suggest that
each item be definitely favorable or unfavorable although
they need not be at either extreme and, in order to avoid
a response set, some statements should be worded in reverse
order so that a subject who is favorable to the attitude
is required to mark a negative response approximately half
the time. [Likert, p. 91]

Objectivity in the selection and inclusion of
statements on the Thurstone scale is achieved through
judges independently assessing the degree of favorableness
and relevance of each statement. In the Likert technique
objectivity is obtained through checking for internal con-
sistency when analyzing the pilot test. A note of caution

is given on this point by Likert however:

34

No matter for what a priori reasons the experimenter
may consider a statement to belong in a scale, if the
statement, when tried on a group, does not measure what
the rest of the statements measure, there is no justi-
fication for keeping that statement in the battery.
We are interested in measuring the attitudes of the
members of the group, not those of the experimenter.
[Likert, p. 93]
For determination of content validity and reliabil—
ity of his scaling technique, Likert suggested use of the
internal consistency check and split-half reliability.
The split—half reliability should be found by correlat-
ing the sum of the odd statements for each individual
against the sum of the even statements for each indi-
vidual against the sum of the even statements.--In
using the criterion of internal consistency the reac-
tions of the group that constitute one extreme in the
particular attitude being measured are compared with
the reactions of the group that constitute the other
extreme. In practice approximately ten percent from
each extreme was used. [Likert, p. 91]

Use of item analysis is also suggested, wherein the corre-

lation coefficient of each statement with the battery is

computed and analyzed.

Use of the summated rating technique.--If correct
procedures for scale construction have been followed, the
summated rating scale is adaptable to a variety of attitude
areas and can be administered to a wide variety of audi-
ences. The majority of scales concerned with social prac-
tices and social issues and problems reviewed by Shaw and.
Wright [pp. 33-192] used the Likert technique. The length
of the scales dealing with social practices ranged from

eleven statements to seventy-seven. The average length

35

was thirty-five statements. Reliability was determined
almost solely by the split-half technique with reported
reliabilities ranging from .70-.97. Validity evidence
rested primarily on internal consistency through item anal-
ysis which Shaw and Wright assessed as minimal at best.
Several scales used two or three different means to deter-
mine validity: known group, item analysis, descrimination
index,.or the judgment of experts for content validity.
Scales employing two or more methods of validation were
considered adequately validated by Shaw and Wright. The
methods of response provided by the Likert-type scales
varied considerably using: + and -, 1-5, a-e, S-D, and
+l+2+3-l-2-3. There was no significant discussion regard—
ing the advantages or disadvantages of these methods. In
fact, many of the scales were recommended for research use
only since they were not considered adequately standardized.

In addition to inadequate standardization, the
confounding variable of a response set was noted in several
of the scales due to the predominance of positively stated
items. [Shaw and Wright, pp. 102, 109, 146]. The use of
monotone, Opinion statements makes this a particularly vul-
nerable area of the Likert scale. J. P. Guilford presents
a discussion of the kinds, principles of, and control of,
both response biases and response sets. [pp. 277-281]

His discussion could be quite useful to scale constructors.

36

A unidimensional scale is considered necessary for
a scale score to have an interpretable meaning. [Shaw and
Wright, p. 20; Thurstone, p. 218; Schmid, p. 326] Partic—
ularly is this true for the summated rating scale since an
individual's score is the summed total of his response to
each item. As discussed by many writers however, attitudes
are held by an individual in clusters rather than as an
isolated factor. [e.g. Rokeach, p. 3; Fromme, p. 456] Two
approaches may be used to deal with this situation. One
may deal with an attitude continuum in which case the atti-
tude scale is assumed to measure several closely related
attitudes. This is the method most often used. Speaking
to this point, Likert stated, "If . . . two groups of
statements are found to involve the same attitude contin-
uum, they can be combined into a single scale." [p. 95]
As these scales are actually constructed, administered,
analyzed and reported however, they are assumed to be
strictly unidimensional. Also, the manner in which two or
more attitudes are "found" to be of the same continuum
leaves much open to question. It appears that attention
to delimiting the attitudes within the cluster being meas-
ured should be made more apparent to readers and users of
the scales. [Fromme, pp. 332-335] Another method to han-
dle an attitude cluster is through a combined scale as was

used in the Melon Foundation Study of Vassar College.

37

In the interests of economy and continuity, it was
decided to develOp all the scales out of a single large
pool of items sufficiently varied in content that all
potentially relevant areas of personality and attitudes
would be touched upon. This pool consisted of 677
verbal items, consisting of items from the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the California Psy-
chological Inventory, and the Maslow Scale of Dominance
Feeling in Women. [p. 4]

The multidimensional scale can be as useful as a unidimen-
sional scale so long as the individual items are known and

separable by the researcher.

Evaluation of the summated rating technique.--
Likert developed the summated rating scale in order to have
a method comparable to Thurstone and Chave's only less la-
borious to construct. In a comparison of these two tech-
niques by Edwards and Kenney, it appears Likert's intentions
were met. Regarding the amount of time to construct the

scales:

After our own experience in constructing both Likert
and Thurstone scales, we are inclined to agree with
other investigators that scales can be constructed by
the method of summated ratings more quickly and with
less labor than by the equal appearing interval method.
We found, that construction of the Thurstone scales
required about twice as much time, exclusive of the
time spent by the judging group in sorting the items,
as did the Likert scale. [p. 251]

Two other conclusions that bear out the validity of Likert's
contentions:

As far as we can determine there is nothing of a prac-
tical nature to indicate that a judging group, in the
Thurstone sense, is a prerequisite for the construction
of an adequate attitude scale. [p. 255]

38

Scales constructed by the Likert method will yield
higher reliability coefficients with fewer items than
scales constructed by the Thurstone method. [p. 255]

An additional advantage stated by Selltiz et al
[p. 368] is that the, "Likert method permits use of items
that are not manifestly related to the attitude being stud—
ied. . . . any item found empirically to be consistent with
the total score can be included."

The primary disadvantage attributed to the Likert
method is the inability to accurately interpret an indi-
vidual's intensity of attitude by either his mean score or
his total score since many patterns of reSponse could pro-
duce the same score. [Edwards, p. 11; Selltiz et al,.p.
369] This liability is lessened depending upon the use for
which the results are intended. Stated concisely by Shaw
and Wright [p. 25], ". . . interpretation of Likert scores
is based upon the distribution of sample scores, i.e. a
score has meaning only in relation to scores earned by
others in the sample." Edwards stated that one was jus-
tified in using the mean score of the Likert-type scale
when the researcher's interest is in comparing the mean
change in attitude scores in a pretest - experiment -
posttest design.

Another disadvantage of the Likert scale is in-
herent with the use of Opinion statements. Response to
these statements is sensitized to their wording; a slight

word change producing a response change. Elimination of

39

this liability depends upon the pilot test and the discrim-
inating checks that follow. This disadvantage, though
frequently encountered, may be considered more inherent in
the scale constructors rather than in the scaling method.
[Katz and Allport, p. 356; Schmid, p.-326]

Two other criticisms that should be considered are
not unique to the Likert-type scale but to all attitude
scales. One is the criticism of internal consistency,
levied by Goode and Hatt. [p. 285] "A scale can only give
a crude measure (of internal consistency) for the defini-
tion of what it actually measures is always Open to ques-
tion.” The great use to which this measure is put in de-
termining scale reliability should caution scale constructors
and users to be aware of this limitation.

The other major criticism of attitude scales in
general, is the lack of adequate validation procedures.
Validity is perhaps the most important criteria for any
measurement instrument yet it is sorely slighted in atti-
tude scales.. One reason for this is given by Moser, "Va-
lidity measures in attitude scales are very difficult to
Obtain since the measure itself is indirect; i.e. the atti-
tude being measured is inferred from the responses." [p.
242] Shaw and Wright found measures of content validity in
the majority of scales they reviewed, but even here, ". . .
many authors fail to consider the degree to which the items

sample the total range of the attitude dimension." [p. 562]

40

These authors summarize their review of attitude measure-
ment scales, probably the most comprehensive study to date,
with the statement:
The measurement of attitude may be improved in at least_
four ways: by improving the techniques of scale con-
struction, by careful construction of attitude scales
according to the best procedures known, by selecting
the best scales available, and/or by modifying or re-

evaluating the scales that are selected for use. [p.
570]

Summary

From this review of the literature, it is evident
that the topic of women's roles is being actively debated
from several perspectives, and that this discussion takes
major account of both social and personal attitudes in
one's striving to attain satisfactory solutions. It was
alSo seen that attitudes and attitude change are a major
consideration of the education process. Finally, the dis-
cussion on characteristics of Likert's scaling technique
illustrates that this method is adaptable to a variety of
tOpics and provides information against which to evaluate

a scale of this design.

CHAPTER III

DESIGN OF THE STUDY

This study attempted to assess the degree of stu-
dent attitude change resulting from enrollment in the
Senior Seminar course. An instrument dealing with atti-
tudinal concepts that comprised the bulk of the course.
content was develOped by the writer to assess the attitude
change.. This chapter is concerned with the methodology of

develOpment and administration of the Scale.

Instrument Development

 

One scale item does not provide the basis for in-
ferring an attitude disposition. Rather it is the collec-
tion of items which, taken together, provide a picture of
the subject's response. [Moser, p. 234] Items must be
written so that each response gives the researcher specific
information about the respondent's attitudes. Two factors
demand utmost attention in item construction: the content
through which the attitude position is to be inferred, and

the wording of the item..

41

42

Source of items.--Before identifying content for
the items, the attitude to be elicited must be clearly and
Specifically defined in the researchers mind. If a general
attitude area is sought, a general response will be ob-
tained leaving the researcher in the undesirable and ten-
uous role of interpreter. The attitude areas for this

study were categorized as follows: professions, women as

 

professionals, student self-concept as a professional, home
economics as a profession and college education for women.
With these categories in mind literature in the areas of
women working, professional women and roles of women was
reviewed. Professional literature and discussions with
fellow home economics graduate students provided content
for the items on home economics and professionalism. A
third source of content was provided by one section of the
winter term 1967 Senior Seminar students. The students
were asked to write in a sentence their reactions to each
of the five general categories.

These three content sources were used in an attempt
to obtain timely concerns as well as phraseology used to
express these concerns. From notes accumulated on these
general dimensions, concerns to which the items should be
written seemed evident. It-was decided to have approx-
imately 15-20 items per subscale on the assumption that
after the pilot administration of the instrument, the less

discriminating items would be discarded.

43

Most scale items were developed to present a strong
position, either favorable or unfavorable, in an attempt
to allow the respondent to position himself in relation to
the given position. In all attempts to write mildly posi-
tioned statements, the researcher was confronted with the
problem of interpretation. Strongly positioned statements

seemed less ambiguous, thus more reliable.

Pilot study.--The questionnaire for the pilot study

 

included 114 items to be responded to in the Likert style

of strongly agree, mildly agree, mildly disagree and strong-
ly disagree. No neutral position was provided in the belief
that an awareness of the attitudes in question would be

held by all respondents.

A pilot questionnaire was administered to faculty
members of the College of Home Economics who were on either
three-quarter or full time appointment. Thirty-six of a
total faculty of ninety-five participated. A frequency
distribution of the responses was tallied but neither sta-
tistical tests nor discrimination tests were carried out

on these results.

Scale alterations.--Several changes were made in.
the final questionnaire as a result of evaluating the pilot
study tabulations. First, only eight items were deleted

from the pilot scale. Several items which may not have

44

direct inference for a particular subscale concept were
thought to provide information of value to the Senior Sem—
inar staff. These items were analyzed separately in the
correlation study of the final scale. The second change
involved wording of the items. Several items proved dif-
ficult to interpret either by the respondents in marking
or the researcher in decoding a response. Changes for the
most part were toward more strongly worded statements omit-
ting conditional words such as "could," "might," or "may."
The more strongly worded statement required the respondent
to insert his own conditioners by virtue of his degree of
acceptance or rejection of an item.

The third change involved revising the method of
scale responses. The writer experienced difficulty asses-
sing how "mildly" might have been interpreted by various
respondents. It was decided to use a numerical scale sys-
tem since the concept of absolute magnitude associated with
numerals leaves less interpretation for the respondent and
researcher. However, it was believed that a scale of in-
creasing magnitude might confound the response due to a
greater value commonly being attributed to larger numbers.
In an attempt to make both agreeing and disagreeing with a
statement equal in value, a numerical scale of 100 80 60 -
60 80 100 was used with the left half designated agree and
the right half labeled disagree. (Appendix F) This scale

was then converted to a l - 6 basis for key punching.

45

Inclusion of the 60 - 60 response category allowed those
who would be likely to select the neutral position, if one
were provided, to demonstrate their leanings.

The final form of the attitude questionnaire in—
cluded 106 items, a data sheet to obtain information of
the independent variables, and instructions for marking

the responses. (Appendix F)

Limitations of the study.—-Although this study may

 

identify the degree to which professional women do in fact
hold the attitudes to which Senior Seminar attends, a lim-
itation of this study is that no method for determining
the formation of these attitudes in the professional sector
is provided. Does the fact of working develop attitudes
favorable to a situation or are the women working those
who held pre-existing favorable attitudes? Several studies
indicate that women work primarily for financial gain.
Whether or not a favorable attitude predisposition is a
necessary though insufficient cause for a woman to be pro-
fessionally employed, or whether the financial impetus is
a sufficient, but not necessary, condition remains a ques-
tion.

To assess the behavioral component of the attitudes
in this instrument, a follow up study should be conducted
on the present seminar students several years hence. Until

such data are available, one may only surmise that favorable

46

attitudes toward professionalism, women working and home
economics will be followed by gainful employment of these

students in their professional major areas..

Administration of Attitude Scale

The develOped attitude scale was administered sep-
arately to three independent groups, Senior Seminar stu-
dents, Social Psychology students and Professional Home
Economists. Two administrations of the scale to the Senior
Seminar students were made to determine the amount of
change in attitude as per scale results, between the first

class meeting and the last class meeting of fall term, 1967.

Senior Seminar.--The treatment group was composed

 

of enrollees in the 1967 fall.term Senior Seminar. The
only prerequisite for taking Senior Seminar is senior sta-
tus in the College of Home Economics. Each senior may
select which term she will take the course as it is of-
fered all three terms of the regular school year. There
is no reason known to the experimentor, to believe that
the 1967 fall students differed significantly from other
senior home economics students at Michigan State Univer-
sity. A breakdown of enrollment by majors showed a pro-
portional representation to the total senior class.

The staff associated with Senior Seminar included

a faculty member as coordinator, a faculty member as

47

discussion leader, and the writer as grader and discussion
leader. At the first class meeting of fall term, the coor-
dinator introduced the writer as a Ph.D. candidate in home
economics education, who desired the COOperation of the
students in a research project. The candidate then intro-
duced the questionnaire prior to the pretest administration.
(Appendix B) Note that no mention of the Senior Seminar
course, nor the experimentor's association with the course
was made known to the students. The students were asked

to keep the attitude instrument on their desks until all
students were finished scoring. Afpg£_all students had
completed the questionnaire, they were asked to place their
student identification numbers on the back page for pur-
poses of future data analysis. All students marked their
forms, the questionnaires were collected, and the regular
class session was begun.

No further mention of the attitude scale was made
to the students either in or outside of class until the
last half hour of the final class meeting. At that time
the course coordinator concluded the course instruction,
gave information regarding the final examination, then dis-
missed herself from the classroom and the experimentor took
over.

The introduction to the posttest (Appendix C) em-
phasized that there would be no analysis of the question-

naires until winter term, after these students had received

48

their credit for the course, and that the questionnaire
responses would in no way influence their grades. Near
the end of the second administration, they were asked to
place their student numbers on the back page again under
reassurance that no one would be working with these ques-

tionnaires until winter term.

Social Psychology.--One administration of the atti-
tude scale was given to a junior level course in social
psychology (psy 351) during a regularly scheduled class
meeting of fall term, 1967. There were two reasons for
only one administration of the questionnaire rather than
a pre-post test design. First, there was to be no treat-
ment which could be expected to influence an attitude
change. Throughout the term there were no unusual inci-
dents to call attention to the field of, or College of Home
Economics. Second, although a posttest administration of
the instrument to this student group would have provided
an excellent reliability check on the scale, the experimen-
tor did not feel justified in asking the social psychology
professor to forfeit two of his class periods. It was thus
decided to use the split half technique as a reliability
check and give the scale once only to the Social Psychol-
ogy class.

The same introduction to the questionnaire was

given these students as was given to Senior Seminar students

49

with the exception of a change in reasons for group selec-
tion. (Appendix D) No identification numbers were re-
quired of these students.

Social Psychology 351 was chosen as one of the
comparison groups because it was believed that students
enrolled in a course of this nature would have an interest
in and sensitivity to the role concepts presented in the
Scale. This group also provided the equivalent in grade
level and class size to Senior Seminar. It was desired
that this group have a lack of known association with the
College of Home Economics so that the "outside" attitude
might be compared to home economics students. Responses
of those Social Psychology students indicating on the data
sheet a major in any of the home economics areas were dis-
carded. A breakdown of enrollment by majors showed sixty
students from the social sciences, twelve each from educa-
tion and University College and four from the natural sci-
ences. Distribution by sex was thirty-three male and
fifty-five female students. In analyzing the data from

this group, total mean including male and female was used.

Professional Home Economists.--The third group to

 

respond to the questionnaire was composed of professional
home economists, presently or recently employed. Names of
seventy-six persons were selected alphabetically from the

master membership list of the American Home Economics

50

Association for Michigan. The first thirteen names in each
of seven subject matter divisions were used. There was no
discrimination as to age, years of work experience or place
of college education for these women. Membership in their
professional organization was the sole requirement.

Administration of the questionnaire was done by
mail. Enclosed in a 9 x 12 mailing folder were the ques-
tionnaire, a cover letter (Appendix E) and a return mailing
folder, stamped and preaddressed. No method was employed
to personally identify these questionnaires as they were
returned. Fifty-five of the seventy-six contacted, re-
sponded.

Again one administration was given as there was no
reason to expect an attitude change on the part of these
women within a nine week period. The cost of mailing two
sets of questionnaires to this group also proved to be a
restraining factor.

This group was chosen initially as a known group
validity check, since it was assumed these subjects hold
attitudes favorable to each of the subscale dimensions if
these dimensions have been correctly identified. A state-
ment encountered in the review of the literature also made
it seem worthwhile to obtain results from a sampling of
professional home economists. Eddy [p. 114] stated, "Much
of what we like to think college accomplishes is really

due to natural maturation." Thus, we are allowing

51

ourselves to compare the mature with those in the midst

of college education.

The Hypotheses

 

The hypotheses established for this study are of

two kinds:.

those seeking comparisons between the three

groups of subjects and those comparing pre and post test

results of the Senior Seminar students.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

Attitude scores of the Social Psychology stu-
dents will have the greatest within group var-
iance, as compared to the variance within the
professional group and the variance within each
of the scale administrations to the seminar
students.

The Social Psychology students will show a
lesser acceptance of the attitude statements
than do the Professional Home Economists.and
seminar students.

The responses of the Professional group will
show more acceptance of the statements than
the pretest responses of the Senior Seminar
students.

The expressed attitudes of the Senior Seminar
students will show greater acceptance of the
attitude concepts on the posttest as compared
to their position on the pretest.

The seminar posttest results will show the

greatest degree of acceptance on the attitude
concepts as compared to the Social Psychology
students and the Professional Home Economists.

Seminar students who indicate their mothers
were professionally employed will have more
favorable responses to the attitudes in ques-
tion than those students whose mothers had
never been employed.

52

7) Students with mothers employed eleven or more
years will be more favorable to the attitude
concepts than students whose mothers were never
employed.

8) Students whose mothers were employed full time
will be more favorable to the attitude concepts
than students whose mothers were never employed.

9) The interior design and retailing majors will ex—
press more favorable attitudes to all subscales
than the child develOpment and home economic
education majors.

Objectives

 

1) To develop an instrument which will be reliable
and valid in assessing the change in expressed
student attitudes relative to Senior Seminar.-

2) To analyze the change indicated by use of the
develOped instrument in relation to specific
course content and Objectives of Senior Seminar.

3) To identify certain variables of the students

background which correlate with a particular
attitudinal stance.

Operational Definitions

 

Attitude: The response indicated by the students'
mean score on each subscale within the questionnaire.

Attitude evaluation instrument: A summated rating
scale composed of thirteen subscales based upon
five attitude concepts under consideration in this
study.

Senior Seminar (H.E. 401): A course required of
all College of Home Economics students in their
senior year at Michigan State University.

53

Statistical Analysis-

 

The statistic used in this study was the analysis
of variance with the F ratio. Assumptions of equal error
variance, normal distribution of errors, and independence
among errors, for use of this test are of importance par»
ticularly when one attempts to infer to a wider population.
The entire pOpulation of interest was used in this study
with no intent to generalize results. On this basis any
assumption violations are not considered as critical by
the writer.

Means were computed for each group both on the
basis of individual-subscales and total scale score. Both

of these means were compared for differences..

CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS

The purpose of this study was to determine if,
after taking the Senior Seminar course, students responded
more favorably to attitudinal concepts relative to the
course content than they had responded prior to the course.
Comparisons were made among students enrolled in Social
Psychology 351, Professional Home Economists, and a pre
and post test administration to Senior Seminar students.
Analysis was carried out on five independent variables
within the seminar group to determine if these variables
had a significant correlation with scale scores. Both
total scale score and individual subscale scores were used
as a basis for comparisons.

The instrument administered to all subjects con-
sisted of thirteen.Subscales each identified by a partic-
ular concept:

I Home economics as a field has professional
status
II The subject matter areas of home economics
have significant commonalities.
III The status of home economics is low
IV There is a general value and necessity for
home economics in society

V Increased in-depth education increases pro-
fessionalism

54

55

VI Professionally trained persons have a social
responsibility to participate in community
volunteer functions

VII Professionalism increases as participation
in work increases
VIII A woman professional is as capable and re-
sponsible as a male professional

IX Regardless of professional ambitions, the
home making function of a woman is primary

X Harm will come to children when the mother
works

XI Harm will come to the marriage when the wife
is employed

XII Husband and wife should share role responsi-
bilities when the wife works

XIII College education should emphasize specialized
education over liberal education

In most instances analysis of the data was conduct-
ed on each of the subscales rather than on the total scale
score only. Results are presented for each of the stated

hypotheses in turn.

Hypothesis I

Hypothesis I predicts: Attitude scores of the So-

 

cial Psychology students will have the greatest within '
group variance, as compared to the variance within the
professional gropp and the variance within each of the

scale administrations to the seminar students. This hypo-

 

thesis originated on the assumption that persons in home
economics would be a more homogeneous group due to greater
similarity of interests and experiences than the Social
Psychology students. However, the most significant result
from this data, as shown in Table 4.1, is the comparison

of pretest and posttest variance of Senior Seminar students

56

indicating that a homegenizing effect did take place during
the ten week experience of Senior Seminar. The greatest
variance was found within the pretest seminar group rather
than within the Social Psychology group. The hypothesis

as stated was rejected.

TABLE 4.l--Comparison of within group variances

 

 

 

Standard
Group - Deviation Variance
Professional 2.527 6.3857
Social Psychology 351 2.664 7.0969
Seminar Pretest 2.728 7.4420
Seminar Posttest 2.028 4.1128

 

Hypothesis II

 

Hypothesis II predicts: The Social Psychology

 

students will show a lesser acceptance of the attitude

 

statements than do the Professional Home Economists and

 

seminar students. An analysis of variance was computed on

 

means from each of the four groups on each of the thirteen
subscales. Although a significant F ratio (.05 level) was
Obtained on all but subscale XII, "husband and wife should
share role responsibilities when the wife works," the So-

cial Psychology students scored lowest on only five of the

57

remaining twelve scales. (Table 4.2) Since agreement with
the hypothesis occurred on only five of the possible twelve
scales, this hypothesis is not strongly supported. In tab-
ular analysis however, the psychology group scored lowest
on the greatest number of subscales, while the professional
group scored lowest on four scales, the seminar posttest
group scored lowest on three scales and the seminar pretest
group scored lowest on one. Thus the hypothesis as.stated
is supported on the basis that Social Psychology students
showed lesser acceptance of the statements than the other
groups.

Several items of interest deserve attention in
Table 4.2. Scale IV regarding value and necessity Of home
economics in society secured the lowest score from the
Professional Home Economists, those who are presently oc-
cupied ip society. The professional group also reacted
lowest to the concept of in-depth education increasing
professionalism and highest to the concept that work ex—
perience increases professionalism, subscale VII.

No significant difference is apparent among the
groups on subscale XII which states husband and wife should
share role responsibilities when the wife works. Scores
here all clustered close to four, mildly agree.

Also of particular interest in Table 4.2 is sub-
scale III in which the group attributing the lowest status
to home economics is the seminar posttest whereas their

pretest score was the highest on this scale.

58

TABLE 4.2--F ratio on thirteen subscale mean scores by
group

 

 

a

 

 

Sub- Group Mean b .Level of
scale 1 2 3 4 F Significance
I 5.253c 4.810 5.229 5.041 8.249 .0005
II 3.839 3.450 3.514 3.510 10.526 .0005
III 3.569 3.565 3.676 3.450 3.492 .016
IV 2.955 3.213 3.225 2.992 2.851 .037

V 2.898 3.245 3.190 3.103 4.229 .006
VI 3.157 3.463 3.262 2.887 8.777 .0005
VII 3.952 3.540 3.638 3.631 16.469 .0005
VIII 3.649 3.604 3.533 3.383 6.896 .0005
IX 3.484 3.747 3.820 3.883 5.196 .002
X 2.566 3.472 2.997 3.087 23.540 .0005
XI 4.752 4.121 4.620 4.508 9.995 .0005
XII 3.879 3.938 4.006 3.926 0.969 .409
XIII 4.123 3.802 3.891 3.862 3.266 .022
a Group 1 = professional home economists; Group 2 =

social psychology; Group 3 = Senior Seminar pretest;
Group 4 = Senior Seminar posttest

b In each case the degrees of freedom are 3 and 298
for between the within groups respectively

c 6 indicates greatest agreement with concept as
stated; 1 indicates least agreement

59

It should be noted that most subscale mean scores
for all four groups cluster at the three range indicating
mild disagreement. On only the first subscale, dealing
with the professional status of home economics, did a score
of five indicating solid agreement appear. All scores of
two, solid disagreement, range near 2.8 bringing the re-
sponse close to mild disagreement rather than solid dis—

agreement.

Hypothesis III

 

Hypothesis III predicts: The responses of the
professional group will show more acceptance of the state-
ments than the pretest responses of the Senior Seminar
students. Evidence-reported in Table 4.2 appears mildly
supportive of this hypothesis. Discounting the scale of
no significant difference, the professional group scored
highest on seven scales and the seminar pretest group was
highest on five. However, the analysis of variance com-
puted on the total scale score between professional and

pretest groups resulted in a non significant F ratio of

.264. This hypothesis as stated is rejected.

Hypothesis IV

 

Hypothesis IV predicts: The expressed attitudes
of Senior Seminar students will show a greater acceptance

of the attitude concepts on the posttest as compared to

60

their position on the pretest. Again referring to Table
4.2, a comparison of pre-post test results from Senior
Seminar shows the pretest results higher on all but sub-
scales IX and X which are stated negatively. That is to
say that in acceptance of concepts being discussed in the
course, H.E. 401, the pretest results are higher on all
subscales. The analysis of variance computed on the total
scale scores has a significant F ratio, however, the re-1
sults are reversed from the hypothesized results. Thus

the hypothesis is rejected.

Hypothesislv

 

Hypothesis V predicts: The seminar posttest re-
sults will show the greatest degree of acceptance on the
attitude concepts as compared to the Social Psychology

students and the Professional Home Economists. A final

 

analysis of Table 4.2 causes us to reject this hypothesis.
The Professional Home Economists showed greatest acceptance
of the subscales (highest on six scales) while the posttest
results of Senior Seminar were highest on none of the sub-
scales. Again the F ratio was significant, F = .041, how-
ever as with hypothesis IV, the results are reversed with
the professional group scoring the higher mean. A separate
analysis of variance was computed between the Social Psy-
chology students and the seminar posttest providing a re-

sult of no significance. (F = .056)

61

The remaining hypotheses deal only with the pre -
post tests results of Senior Seminar students. Three hy-
potheses concerning patterns of the students' mothers' em-
ployment, originated from the possibility of identifying
predictor variables for use with future students. Only
tables illustrating a significant difference will be

presented.

Hypothesis VI

 

Hypothesis VI predicts: Seminar students who in-

 

dicate their mothers were professionally employed will have
more favorable responses to the attitudes in question than
those students whose mothers had never been employed.
Scores from subscale I, home economics as a field has pro-
fessional status, were the only ones indicating a differ-
ence in attitude among the students and that difference
(Table 4.3) is the reverse of the stated hypothesis. Stu-
dents whose mothers were never employed responded more
favorably as to the professional status of home economics.

Thus, the hypothesis as stated is rejected.

Hypothesis VII

 

Hypothesis VII predicts: Students with mothers

 

employed eleven or more years will be more favorable to

 

the attitude concepts than students whose mothers were

 

never employed. Table 4.4 illustrates that although there

62

is a significant difference indicated, the results are the
reverse of those hypothesized. This hypothesis as stated
is rejected.

TABLE 4.3--Comparison of results on subscale I between

professionally employed mothers and mothers
never employed

 

 

Source Mean _ .F _ v.‘Significance Level

 

Mother professionally
employed 4.964 19.764 .0005

Mother never employed 5.405

 

TABLE 4.4--Comparison of results on subscale I between
mothers employed eleven or more years and mo—
thers never employed

 

 

Source Mean F g _ Significance Level

 

Mothers employed eleven
or more years 5.011 17.975 °0005

Mothers never employed 5.408

 

Hypothesis VIII

 

Hypothesis VIII predicts: Students whose mothers
were employed full time will be more favorable to the at-
titude concepts than students whose mothers were never em-

ployed. This variable provided two scales with a

63

significant difference.

Subscale I again gives a reversal

of expected results, with students whose mothers were never

employed indicating greater favorableness toward the con-

cept of home economics as a profession.

Response to sub-

scale VI finds students of non-employed mothers agreeing

more than students of employed mothers that professional

persons have a social responsibility for volunteer activ-

ities.

This hypothesis as stated is rejected.

TABLE 4.5--Comparison of results on two subscales between
mothers employed full time and mothers never

 

 

 

 

employed
Source Mean_ ._. F~“_. _ Significance Level
Subscale I
Mother employed
full time 5.022 22.952 .0005
Mother never
employed 5.408
Subscale VI
Mother employed
full time 2.9318 4.253 .041
Mother never
employed 3.1875

 

64

Hypothesis IX

 

Hypothesis IX predicts: The interior design and
retailing majors express more favorable attitudes to all
subscales than the child development and home economic

education majors. Four subscales showed a significant

 

difference: two were in agreement with the hypothesis and
two were reversals. A very curious result is in regard to
subscale VII stating professionalism increases with work.
The majors in interior design - retailing, both occupations
which do place great emphasis on work experience, were in
less agreement than the more generalist majors child de-
velopment - education. Another unexpected result occurs
comparing subscales III and IV. The interior design -
retailing majors attribute lower status but greater value
and necessity to the field of home economics while the
child develOpment-education students reverse this response.
Since only two subscales of thirteen were in agreement with

the hypothesis this hypothesis as stated must be rejected.

Summary

For the most part, results from this study were
not in predicted directions. Only hypothesis II was sup—
ported. Although an analysis of variance table was com-
puted on each subscale, only tables illustrating a signif-
icant difference were given. Two important observations

are to be noted: the Social Psychology group does not

65

differ greatly from the Senior Seminar group relative to
expressed attitudes toward the concepts of interest, and
the seminar posttest scores are less favorable to the con—
cepts presented than pretest scores from this group.

TABLE 4.6--Comparison of results on four subscales between

interior design-retailing majors and child de-
velopment-education majors

 

 

Source Mean F. Significance Level

 

Subscale III
ID-Ret 3.680 5.684 .019

CD-Educ 3.485

 

Subscale IV
ID-Ret 3.292 7.389 .008

CD-Educ 2.948

 

Subscale VII
ID-Ret 3.530 11.827 .001

CD-Educ 3.731

 

Subscale XII
ID-Ret 4.050 5.168 .025

CD—Educ 3.880

 

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

This study attempted to assess the degree of atti-
tude change, as indicated by a developed instrument, which
resulted from a student being a member of the course, Sen-
ior Seminar. The instrument dwelt on attitudinal concepts
that comprised the bulk of the course content. A pretest -
posttest administration was given to the Senior Seminar
group. Single administrations of the same instrument were
given to a group of fifty-five Professional Home Economists
and eighty-eight Social Psychology students for comparison.
The results were not in the predicted directions; in most
cases the F ratio indicated no statistical difference. On
individual subscales, reversals occurred which placed the
seminar posttest scores lower than the pretest. No pre-

dictor variables were identified.

Conclusions.--Conclusions of this study of attitude
change have been grossly different from expected results.
Since all but one of the hypotheses were rejected and since
several findings were reversals of the expected, a consid-

erable amount of evaluation seems necessary. Explanation

66

67

of this phenomenon was not built into the instrument, thus
speculation must suffice until further, more explicit data
are gathered.

One must first question the instrument. Reliabil-
ity and validity checks on this scale are admittedly inad-
equate. Further work in this area is planned to take place
in the near future and such results, regarding the strength
of the instrument, will be submitted to this report as a
supplementary chapter.

In addition to the major question of the instru-
ment, several other explanations seem plausible: 1) one
is forced to examine the assumptions upon which this study~
is based; 2) in view of the type of objectives being sought
one must examine the class structure; 3) various reports
on attitude studies have identified a generalized effect,
visible only after a period of time has lapsed, which could
be operant here; 4) one may provide a psychologically based
explanation which views the individual in the face of a
challenge, strengthening a tenacious hold on time honored
beliefs. Each of these reasons is being offered as a pos-
sible partial rationale for the results obtained.

A An examination of this study's assumptions calls
into consideration the validity of the objectives upon
which the course was Operating this particular term. That
the course content included tOpics of a controversial and

attitudinal nature is substantiated by the review of

68

literature. Whether this content was communicated as being
controversial and attitudinal rests in large measure upon.
students' perception of the communication. The fact that
there was no significant difference statistically between
the seminar posttest and the Social Psychology group while
there was a statistical difference between these groups
and the professional group, posits the question as to
whether what is considered controversial for one maturity .
and age level, is also a questioned controversy with the
up and coming maturity and age level. It was stated in
this report [p. 5], ". . . Senior Seminar is primarily
concerned with creating or reinforcing attitudes favorable
to aspects of professionalism and home economics." It may
be that Senior Seminar was not dealing with attitudes but
primarily with transference of information.

The second explanation offered above, citing in-
validity of objectives due to class structure, seems to
this writer a most viable one. The initial administration
of the instrument was taken in a relatively neutral atmos-
phere. The Scale could, and no doubt did, act as a sensi-
tizing agent for the concepts to be discussed. During the
term the greatest quantity of information was disseminated
in the main lecture often by a resource person. This es-
tablished the contact ratio of approximately 100 to l.

The small discussion groups of ten met four times during

the term for blocks of time ranging from one—half hour to

69

one and one—half hours. In these groups an effort was made
by the discussion leaders to play a secondary role for
reasons cited earlier in this report [p. 3] In view of
the results obtained in this study greater emphasis may
need to be placed on the importance of an authority figure
or at least a figure with whom students may identify and
who emits a particular positional stance. It may be that
in the staff's attempt to remain objective in content pres-
entation, students were not involved past the level of cog-
nitive awareness and/or intellectualizing objectively on
the discussion topics. The small discussion groups, in
which it was assumed personal involvement would occur, were
established somewhat arbitrarily (alphabetically) inhib-
iting the degree of significance held by each individual
for this group. It is quite possible and probable that
personal acquaintances among group members were minimal.
The factor of a time lapse attitude effect also
seems quite relevant here. The ideas being discussed will
be increasingly viable for these students during the next
five years as they are on their first job, beginning their
families, or attempting to establish both. The literature
contains studies illustrating that generalized attitudes
become more effective over time when the source and specif-
ics of these attitudes are forgotten. It seems quite like-
ly that as students are in the midst of situations alluded
to during the Senior Seminar course, information and feel-

ings discussed may then be recalled.

70

Much of the role conflict involved in selecting
career, and/or family stems from extrinsic social pres-
sures. A reaction that has become increasingly evident
from students' class discussion over the past six terms is
the statement, "It depends on the individual." While on
one hand this may be considered the easiest way to avoid a
personal confrontation, it may also illustrate greater ac-
ceptance of individual differences. Coupled with the time
lapse attitude effect it may not be too much to assume that
these students will not experience the degree of social
pressure felt by their older sisters in living with what-
ever decisions of life style they make.

The final explanation, psychological reaction to a
value threatening situation, is based on the following line
of thought. During the initial questionnaire administra-
tion, students tended to mark a more intellectualized,
rational response. During the term if these attitudes, the
central attitudes as called in the review of literature,
were challenged, the most predictable immediate reaction
from the student would be to defensively strengthen orig-
inally held values. This reaction is more apt to occur
also when the meeting is not a personal setting. While it
seems plausible that this reaction would occur in several
cases it is questioned by the writer as to whether this

reaction is pervasive enough to alter all subscale means.

71

Rather than any one of these speculations being
given more weight than another, they are more likely all
operant in varying degrees with different individuals.

Failure to identify any specific predictor variables
of the mothers employment practices is perhaps due to the
fact that each variable was compared in isolation. A new
hypothesis should consider the individuals who indicate
presence of all three variables, mothers employed full time,
in a professional capacity and employed over eleven years.
It is suggested that one variable is not sufficient to in-

dicate a difference.

Recommendations.--Any recommendations must be de-

 

pendent upon results as to the strength of the develOped
instrument. Assuming the instrument is substantiated, two
recommendations are submitted. To maintain the present
Senior Seminar expectations, the structure of the course
should undergo consideration as to how greater sincere,
personal involvement of the students can be achieved. This
might be through more frequent meetings and several smaller
sections, allowing greater rapport to be established be-
tween students and instructor and among students. If this
is not desired then a reassessment of objectives and dis-
cussion tactics should be made with emphasis perhaps on

the transference of information.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Albrecht, Margaret. A Complete Guide for the Working Mo-
ther. Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Co.
Inc., 1967.

 

Allport, Gordon W. "Attitudes," A Handbook of Social Ps -
cholo (Ed.), Murchison, Worchester, Mass: CIarE
University Press, 1935.

Amidon, Edna. "Toward Successful Family Living," New Hor-
izons for College WOmen (Ed.), Mueller and MueIIer,
Washington, D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1960.

Asch et a1. "Studies in the Principles of Judgments and
Attitudes," Journal of Psychology. v. 5 (1938),
219-251.

 

Bailyn, Lotte. "Notes on the Role of Choice in the Psy-
chology of Professional WOmen," (Ed.) R. Lifton,
Boston: Beacon Press, 1965.

Baldwin, A. L. Behavior and Development in Childhood. New
York: The Dryden Press, 1955.

Bettleheim, Bruno. "The talented Woman in American Soci-
ety," Proceedings of the Conference on Talented
Women and the American College. (Ed.) Phillip
Metterling, Sponsored by the Inter-University Com-
mittee on the Superior Student and the U.S. O.E.,
in COOperation with School of General Studies,
Columbia Univ., 1964.

. "The Committment Required of a Woman Entering a
Scientific Profession in Present-Day American Soci--
ety," Women and the Scientific Professions (Ed.),
Mattfeld and Van Aken, Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965.

Bloustein, Edward J. "Man's Work Goes From Sun to Sun but
Woman's Work is Never Done," Peychologijod y vol.
1, no. 10 (March, 1968).

 

72

73

Budewig, Caroline. "Home Economics in Historical Perspec—
tive," Speech delivered at the American Home Eco-
nomics Association Annual Meeting, 1964.

Bunting, Mary I. "The University's Responsibility in Edu-
cating Women for Leadership," TheEducation of-
Women for Social and Political Leadership. Dallas:
Southern Methodist University Press, 1967.

 

 

Cain, Glen. Married Women in the Labor Force. Chicago:
The Univ. of Chicago Press, 1966.

 

 

Campbell, Donald T. "The Indirect Assessment of Social
Attitudes," Psychological Bulletin. V. 47 (1950),
15-34 0

 

Cartwright, Darwin. "Achieving Change in PeOple," The
Plannin of Chan e (Ed.), Bennis, Benne, Chin, New
York: Ho t, Rinehart and Winston, 1961.

Clark, F. LeGros. Woman, Work and Age. London: The Ruf-
field Foundation, 1962.

 

Cohen, Arthur (Ed.) Attitude Change and Social Influence.
New York: Basic BooEs, Inc., 1964.

 

Cutler, John Henry. What About Women? New York: Ives,
Washburn, Inc., 1961}

 

Degler, Carl. "American Women in Social and Political
Affairs--Change and Challenge," The Education of
Womep for Social and Political Leadership, DalIa :
SMU Press, 1967.

 

 

Eddy, Edward. The College Influence on Studentpgharacter.
Washington, D. C.: American Council on Education,
1959.

 

Edwards, A. L. Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction.
New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1957.

 

Edwards and Kenney. "A Comparison of the Thurstone and
Likert Techniques of Attitude Scale Construction,"
Readingepin Attitude Theory and Measurement. (Ed.)
Martin Fishbein, New York: Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
1967.

 

Fishbein, Martin. "A Behavior Theory Approach to the Rela-
tions between Beliefs about an Object and the Atti-
tude toward the Object," Readings in Attitude
TheoEy and Measurement (Ed.), Martin Fishbein, New
York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.

 

74

Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: W. W.
Norton and Co., Inc., 1963.

 

Fromm, Erich. "Social Psychological Theories," Theories of
Personality, New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
I957.

Fromme, Allan. "On the Use of Certain Qualitative Methods
of Attitude Research," The Journal of Social Psy-
01101092, V. 13 (1941) , 429-4590

Gendall, Murray. Swedish WorkingWives. Totowa, New Jer-
sey: The Bedminister Press, 1963.

Ginzberg, et a1. Life Style§ of Educated Women. New York:
Columbia University Press, 1966.

. Educated American WOmen: Self Portraits. New
York: Columbia University Press, 1967.

Goode and Hatt. Methods in Social Research. New York:
McGraw Hill, 1952i

Guilford, J. P. "Response Biases and Response Sets," Read-
ipgs in Attitude Theory andMeasurement (Ed.),
Martin Fishbein, New York: ‘John WiIey and Sons,
Inc., 1967.

 

Guitton,.Jean. Feminine Fulfillment. Chicago: Franciscan
Herald Press, 1965.

Hansl, Eva. Trends in Part Time Employment of Colle e
Trained Women. New York: The Woman's Press, 1949.

Hook, Sidney. Edugation for Modern Man. New York: Alfred
A. Knopf, Inc., 1967.

Im rovin Under raduate Education. Michigan State Univer-
sity, I367.

Insko, Chester A. Theories of Attitude Change. New York:
Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1967.

 

 

Jephcott, Pearl. Married Women Working. London: George
Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1962.

 

Kay, Lillian. "The Relation of Personal Frames of Reference
to Social Judgments," Archives of Psychology. No.
283, 1943.

75

Katz and Allport. Students' Attitudes. New York: The
Craftsman Press, Inc., 1931.

 

Kelman, H. C. "Attitude Change as a Function of Response
Restriction," Human Relations, v. 6 (1953), 185-214.

 

Killian, James R. "Enhancing the Role of Women in Science,
Engineering and the Social Sciences," Women and the
Scientific Professions. (Ed.) Mattfeld and Van Aken,‘
Cambridge: MIT Press, 1965.

 

 

Ladies Home Journal (March, 1968).

 

Lichtenstein, Arthur. Can Attitudes Be Taught Baltimore:
Johns Hopkins Press, 1934.

 

Likert, Rensis. "The Method of Constructing an Attitude
Scale," Readings in Attitude Theory and Measure-
ment. (Ed.) Martin Fishbein, New York: JOHn WiIey

Sons, Inc., 1967.

 

McGinley, Phyllis, Sixpence in Her Shoe. New York: Dell
Publishing Co., 1965.

 

Melon Foundation. Measurement and Evaluation of Change in
Colle e Women. FinaI Report, Vassar ColIege,
PoughkeepSie, New York, 1961.

Mentzer, Rosalind. A Report of the Process Used in Revis-
ing Curriculum in the College of Home Economics.
East Lansing: Michigan State University, 1962.

 

 

Moser, C. A. Survey Methods of Social Investigations.
London: William Hineman Ltd., 1958.

Mueller and Mueller (Ed.) New Horizons for_ College Women.
Washington, D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1960.

 

Myrdal and Klein. Women's Two Roles. London: Routledge
and Kegan PauI Ltd., 1956. (revised 1966)

 

National Manpower Council. Work in the Lives oprarried
WOmen. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958.

 

Nosow, Sigmund. "The Nature of the Professions: Home Eco-
nomics a Case Study." Speech delivered at the
American Home Economics Association Annual Meeting,
1964.

Rokeach, Milton. "The Nature of Attitudes," To be pub-
lished in the International Encyclopedia of the
Social Sciences, 1967.

 

 

76

Rossi, Alice. "Equality Between the Sexes: An Immodest
PrOposal," The Woman in America (Ed.), Robert Lif-
ton, Boston: Beacon Press, 1965.

Rhine, Ramon. "A Concept-Formation Approach to Attitude
Acquisition," Readings in Attitude Theory and Meas-
urement (Ed.), Martin Fishbein, New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1967.

 

Sarnoff, Irving. "Attitude Theory," Attitudes (Ed.), Jaohda
and Warren, Penguin Books Ltd., 1966.

 

Schmid, Calvin. "Attitude Scale Construction," Scientific
Social Surveys andResearch (Ed.), Pauling Young,
Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1966.

 

 

Selltiz et al. Research Methods in Social Relations. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston, 1963.

 

Serot, N. M. and Teevan, R. C. "Perception of Parent-Child
Relationships," Child Development, V. 32 (1961),
pp. 373-378.

 

Shaw and Wright (Ed.). Scales for the Measurement of Atti-
tudes. New York: McGraw Hill, 1967.

 

Sherman, Mandell. The Development of Attitudes of Mountain
Children. New York: The Payne Fund, 1933.

 

Smith, Georgina M. Help Wanted - Female. Institude of
Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, The State
University, 1964.

 

Smith, Seymor. "Women are PeOple," New Horizons for Col-
lege Women (Ed.), Mueller and Mueller, Washington,
D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1960.

 

 

Taylor, Harold. "The Demands of Modern Society," New Hor-
izons for College WOmen (Ed.), Mueller and MuelIer,
Washington, D. C.: Public Affairs Press, 1960.

 

Thurstone, L. L. "Attitudes Can Be Measured," American
Journal of Sociology, v. 33 (1928), 529-554.

 

Zajonc, Robert. "Attitude Theory," Attitudes (Ed.), Jahoda
and Warren, Penguin Books Ltd., 1966.

 

Zander, Alvin. "Resistance to Change - Its Analysis and
Prevention," The Planning of Change (Ed.), Bennis,
Benne, and Chin, New YorE: Holt, Rinehart and
Winston, 1961.

 

77

Zapoleon, Marguerite. "The Myth of the Marriage-Career
Conflict," New Horizons for College Women (Ed.),
Mueller and Mueller, Washington, D. C.: Public
Affairs Press, 1960.

 

APPENDIX

APPENDIX A

H.E. 401 SENIOR SEMINAR Fall 1967

Rationale and Objectives:

The College of Home Economics is one of several
colleges at Michigan State University which has as its
chief purpose the education of young people for a profes-
sional role. A great need exists for persons prepared to
assume this role in modern American society. Professionals-
in various areas of home economics have been and continue
to be in great demand to serve society in various ways.

Specific objectives of this course are: l) to
examine contemporary life styles of educated persons in
terms of career and family roles, 2) to understand the
attributes which characterize a profession and to examine
professions, for which preparation is offered in this Col-
lege, in respect to these attributes, 3) to help students
view themselves as potential professional persons, 4) to
reCOgnize the importance of a commitment with respect to
professional activities, 5) to strengthen attitudes and to
recognize abilities important to continued growth and com-
petence as.a professional person inta changing society, 6)
to examine the interrelatedness of the various subject
matter areas in this College, 7) to see the relationship
of professional areas in this College to the overall objec-

tives of home economics.
79

H.E. 401
Senior Seminar
Dr. Schlater

CLASS PROCEDURE

 

Discussions:

 

The class will be divided into three discussion
groups and further divided into subgroups. These discus-
sion groups are intended to offer you an opportunity to
verbally express your ideas, opinions and attitudes - pos-
itive and negative - concerning the tOpic under discussion.
You will be expected tolparticipate. Thoughtful, advance
consideration of the questions provided will be necessary
for effective and stimulating discussions. You are expect-
ed to have read the assignment before class. A discussion
grade will be obtained by peer evaluation.

Papers:

Papers should show evidence of personal reflection
and thought and should not merely be a copy of readings.
Document all quotations when used either directly or when
paraphrasEdT' All papers are to be typed and double spaced.
Exceptions to this rule may be discussed in advance with
Dr. Schlater. Instruction guides will be provided for each
paper. Follow them carefully; check to make sure you have
answered the questions as stated. Please identify all
papers with name, date, and the number of the paper in the
upper right hand corner. Please omit cover pages and bind—
ings on papers.

Components and Weighting of Final Grade'

 

 

Discussion 25%

Papers I - IV 50%

Final Examination 25%

H.E. 401 Staff Telephone' Office'

Miss Cowell 355—3519 Room 406
Mrs. Page 355-7690 Room 7
Dr. Schlater 355-7681 Room 401

80

H.E. 401
Senior Seminar
Dr. Schlater

 

Discussion Groups Room Leader

Group I 101 Dr. Schlater

Group II 301 Mrs. Page

Group III 102 Miss Cowell
BIBLIOGRAPHY

 

Bookstore:

 

Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique (also on
library reserve)

Mimeographed Hand-outs:
Budewig, Caroline. "Home Economics in Historical
Perspective"
Lee, Jeanette. "The Quest for Unity"
Nosow, Sigmund. "The Nature of the Professions"

Library References:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Call Number

HQ -Brenton, Myron. The American Male.

1067

.B7

2833 -A.H.E.A. New Directions.

2831 -Daeda1us. -“The Woman in America," Spring, 1964.

2835 -Porter, Thelma. (ed.) Administrators' Workshop on.
Home Economics in Higher Educetiop.

PS -McGinIey, Phyllis. Sixpence in Her Shoe.

3525

.A23293

ZS/Al

HQ -Merriam, Eve. After Nora Slammed the Door.

1420

.M4~

4301 -Sanders, Marion. "The New American Female: Demi—
feminism Takes Over." Hagpers. July, 1965,
pp. 37-43.

4443 -The National Observer. "The American Woman: Her
Search for Meaning in.A Changing Society."

4442 -Home Economics Seminar. French Lick, Indiana, 1961.

 

81

H.E. 401
Senior Seminar
Dr. Schlater

640.6 -A.H.E.A. Lake Placid Conference Reports.
Ll9.2

 

 

 

2409 -Ferrar, Barbara. The History of Home Economics
Education in America.
2408 -Home Economics in Land-Grant Colleges and Univer-

sities 1959, Home Economics Development Commit-
tee, Division of Home Economics of the American
Association of Land-Grant Colleges and State

 

Universities.
TX -Hunt, Caroline. The Life of Ellen H. Richards.
140 (not on reserve)
.R6
H8

Baldwin, Keturah. The A.H.E.A. Sage. (in the Home
Economics Reading Room 315)

 

Library references will be found in the Under raduate As-
signed Reading Room unless otherwise indffififgg.

 

 

TENTATIVE TOPICAL OUTLINE

 

Sept. 26 Organizational Meeting

General Announcements
Overview of the Course

October 3 The Woman in America

 

Paper I due
Group Discussion

 

 

 

 

 

 

References:

Friedan - The Feminine Mystique Chapters 1,
Read one Of the following:

Brenton - The American Male Chapters 1, 2.
McGinley - Sixpence in Her Shoe Chapters 2,
3, 22.

Merriam - After Nora Slammedithe Door Part 1
Sanders - 7fThe New American Female: Demi-
Feminism Takes Over." Harpers, July 1965.
Ibsen - A Doll's House

 

82

October 10

October 17

October 24

H.E. 401

Senior Seminar

Dr. Schlater
History of Home Economics

Resource Person: Dr. Rosalind Mentzer
Group Discussion

References:

 

A.H.E.A. - Hew Directions
Budewig - "Home Economics in Historical Per-
spective" (mimeo)

 

Optional Reading:

A.H.E.A. - Lake Placid Conference Reports

Baldwin - The A.H.E.A. Saga

Ferrar - The History of Home Economics Edu-
cation in America

Home Economics in Land-Grant Colleges and Uni-

versities 1959

Hunt - The Life of Ellen H. Richards

 

 

The Professions

Paper II due

Resource Person: Dr. Sigmund Nosow

Group Discussion (held in main lecture with
Dr. Nosow)

References:

Nosow - "The Nature of the Professions"
(mimeo)

Porter (ed.)Administrators' WorkshOp on Home
Economics in Higher Education.
Paul, pp. 1-7 (note Flexner and
McGrath references) and Carlson,
pp. 9-15 (note McGrath ref.)

 

 

Responsibility of the Home Economist
Resource Person: Dr. Dena Cederquist

Reference:

 

Daedalus- Rossi, "Equality Between the Sexes:
An Immodest PrOposal" Daedalus (in
preparation for Nov. 1

83

H.E. 401
Senior Seminar
Dr. Schlater

October 31 Developing an Academic Program in Home Economics

 

Paper III due
Resource Person: Dean Jeanette Lee

Reference:

 

Lee - "The Quest for Units" (mimeo)
Home Economics Seminar, French Lick, Indiana

 

November 7 Graduate Study in Home Economics

 

Resource Person: Dr. Pearl Aldrich (Research
Panel)

Reference:

 

Ginzberg- Life Styles of Educated Women,
Chapters 1, 3, 4, 5 (in preparation
for Nov. 21)

 

November 14 Role of Professional Women in America

 

Paper IV due
Group Discussion

References:

 

Daedalus- Bailyn, "Notes on the Role of
Choice in the Psychology of Pro-
fessional Women"

Rostow, "Conflict and Accommoda-
tion"

Optional Reading:

 

The National Observer "The American Woman:
Her Search for Meaning in a Changing
Society"

November 21 Life Styles of Educated Women

 

Group Discussion

Reference:

 

Ginzberg- Life Styles of Educated Women.
Chapters 6, 9, 10, ll

 

84

November 28 Panel of Professional Persons

H.E. 401
Senior Seminar
Dr. Schlater

December 8 Final Examination Friday 3:00-5:00 p.m. Room 101

85

APPENDIX B

INTRODUCTION TO THE ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE:
H.E. 401 PRETEST

A study is being conducted in the College of Educa-
tion for which we have been asked to collect data. You
are one of three groups which has been selected to partic-
ipate.

The data for this study are to be obtained through
the use of an attitude scale. Each of the three groups
participating in this study possess certain characteristics
considered relevant to the attitudes in question. You
peOple possess two pertinent characteristics: you are
upper level, predominately seniors, and your majors are
within the College of Home Economics. It was felt that in
this present setting we could reach the greatest number of

you.

 

Administrator shall read through the data sheet with the
respondents, illustrating on the board the method of mark-
ing the responses.

At the end of the questionnaire administration, the stu-
dents are instructed:

On the back of the questionnaire would you please
place your student number in the upper left hand corner.

86

APPENDIX C

INTRODUCTION TO THE ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE:
H.E. 401 POSTTEST

You may remember that at our first meeting you all
responded to an attitude scale as part of a study being
conducted from the College of Education. You are being
asked to take this questionnaire again.

Let me assure you and impress upon you that your
response to this questionnaire in no way affects your
standing in Senior Seminar. Results from the questionnaire
will not be dealt with until winter term, long after you
have each received your grade and credit for this partic-
ular course.

The manner of marking this questionnaire is ex-
plained on the data, cover sheet. Be sure to complete all
information of the data sheet. It is important that you

respond to these statements as you presently feel.

 

Students were asked to put their student number on the back
page with the assurance that it was only for handling and
analysis purposes and not for specific individual identi-
fication.

87

APPENDIX D

~ INTRODUCTION TO THE ATTITUDE QUESTIONNAIRE:
Social Psychology 351

A study is being conducted in the College of Edu-
cation for which I have been asked to collect data. You
are one of three groups which has been selected to partic-
ipate.

The data for this study are to be obtained through
the use of an attitude scale. Each of the three groups
participating in this study possess certain characteristics
considered relevant to the attitudes in question. You
people possess two pertinent characteristics: you are
predominately juniors, and your interests lie within the
College of Social Science. It was felt that in this pres-

ent setting we could reach the greatest number of you.

 

Administrator shall read through the data sheet with the
respondents, illustrating the scoring method on the board.

Respondents are asked to indicate on the data sheet their

sex (on the line with age), and their class level (on the
line with major).

88

MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY EASTLANSING-MICHIGAN 48823

 

COLLEGE OF EDUCATION 0 ERICKSON HALL

APPENDIX E

January 22, 1968

A study is being conducted jointly through the College
of Education and the College of Home Economics regarding
attitudes toward home economics and professionalism. Three
different groups have been selected to participate on this
study, selection being made according to certain character-
istics possessed by each. You have been selected because
you are a member of AHEA and are presently or have been
recently professionally employed.

This questionnaire takes approximately 30 minutes to
complete. Upon completion of the questionnaire, please
return it in the enclosed addressed folder. We are asking
that you please return the questionnaire by February 12,
1968. Your coOperation will be greatly appreciated.

Sincerely,

.5, a. [1'14 :2 0(4 N1... .2 ,
Sally Coweil, Graduate Assistant

m

k j gnaw Sci/[fa 2"}th

Dr. Jean Schlater, Associate Professor

 
  

 

 

ear, Associate Professor

SC:mg

Enclosure 89

APPENDIX F

DATA SHEET

Please complete the following information to aid in the analysis of the
questionnaire responses.

AGE

 

MAJOR

 

MARITAL STATUS: Single; Married; Divorced; Widowed
If married, how long?

 

Mother Employed: 1-5 years; 6-10 years; 11 or more years
Mother Employed: Full time; Part time; Occasionally

Mother Employed: Professional work; Clerical; Skilled; Unskilled

Each number on the response scale represents a degree of commitment to the
stated position. Draw a line through the number (e.g.,fid) which most accurately
indicates YOUR feeling toward the statement.

AGREE DISAGREE

Example: The United States should stOp the 100% ’80I 60 - 60 80 100%
bombing in North Vietnam.

 

No neutral position is given. Since these are opinion statements, you are
asked to indicate the degree to which you either disagree or agree with each
statement as given.

It is to be emphasized that your response is to indicate your own Opinions,
as they pertain to yoursel . You are to react as you actually feel toward the
statements, not as you think others might expect you to feel. There are no right
or wrong answers nor will there be personal indentification of the questionnaires.

Some of the statements may seem similar but it is necessary for this study
that you answer all the items.

90

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

The professions of retailing, interior design,
dietetics, child develOpment and home economics
teaching all have significant concepts in
common.

Professional peeple should provide the public
with what the profession knows to be best,
rather than with what the public thinks they
themselves want.

The emotional make-up of women limits their
effectiveness in authority positions.

There should be more public acceptance of
women who take on the dual responsibility
of family and work.

A student should take only the required courses
in his major area and should take all his
electives outside his major area.

A graduate of the College of Home Economics
is a home economist while at home but is
considered a retailer, teacher, dietitian
etc. when professionally employed.

A specialist is a more professional person
than a generalist in any professional area.

Women are capable of the same philosophic
and perceptive thinking as men of comparable
intellectual level.

Married women should engage more in part time
employment rather than full time employment.

The purpose of college education should be
professional preparation.

Food, clothing and shelter are the basic,
fundamental areas which relate the various
departments within the College of Home
Economics.

One does not have to be employed to be con-
sidered a professional person.

Equal rights for women and men should
correspond to equal levels of responsibilities
in the world of work.

A woman should work only if her children are
of school age. 91

AGREE

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 30

100 80

100 80

100 80

100 80

60

60

60

6O

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

 

2

AW

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100

15.

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

Undergraduate courses should be more practical
than theoretical, whereas the graduate courses
should emphasize the theoretical perspective.

"Home Economics” is a general title which
includes several distinct professional areas.

To be a professional, one does not need a
college degree; professionalism is more of an
attitude towards one's work.

A man commands more respect in a position of
authority than a woman would command in that
same position.

If both husband and wife are actively engaged
in their own careers, their children are going
to suffer.

College courses should prepare students more -
realistically for actual employment rather
than expecting the student to sift out

knowledge that is relevant after he is employed.

A person who is graduated from the College of
Home Economics with a bachelors degree is
accurately entitled a home economist.

In time of a family emergency, the father's
first duty is to his family rather than the
job.

Women who work full time are more ambitious
than women who are full time housewives.

Just as the wife is expected to follow when
her husband gets a better job in another
location, the husband should be willing to
make the same move if the wife is Offered a
better job in another locale.

General or liberal education is of little
value to many students since it gives them no
clear direction of how to use this knowledge.

The College of Home Economics would find its
status increased if it had as many men as
women enrolled in its subject matter areas.

The professional person is usually the most
effective person in organizing and Operating
community service functions.

92

AGREE

100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
. A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80
A
100 80

60

60

60

60

6O

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

 

DISAGREE

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100

28.

29.

30.

31.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

39.

40.

41.

42.

Aggressiveness is a desirable quality in a
profeSsional woman.

If more_nursery schools or adequate child care
facilities were available, more women would
be working than are presently.

If a man and a woman are competing for the same
graduate assistantship, the man should be given
priority.

A graduate in the area of home economics
secondary teaching, extension teaching or
general home economics is the only person who
should be considered a home economist.

Professional people in general receive too
much money for the work they do, compared to
non-professional pe0ple.

Being unmarried is less desirable to a woman
than to a man of comparable age.

A full time homemaker with a bachelors degree
is a more sophisticated thinker than a woman
without a bachelors degree.

Married women with children living at home
should work only if it is necessary to supple-
ment the family income.

The College of Home Economics is as respected
as other colleges on this campus.

A person with a graduate degree is more pro-
fessional than a person with a bachelors degree

A woman's need for achievement is different
from the achievement need of men due to her
biological role in society.

College should attempt to challenge the students
to reflect on their values.

A wife who is successful in a professional
career is a potential threat to the husband.

The physical manipulative skills in home
economics should be taught in a vocational-
technical setting rather than in a university
setting.

A college graduate is not a professional person
until he has work experience in his area.
93

AGREE
100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80

60I

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

 

60

4

W

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100

43.

44.

45.

46m

47.

48.

449.

50.

51.

52.

53.

54.

55.

56.

The husband should appear to be intellectually
superior to his wife.

Most college educated peOple are more mature
than non-college educated peOple of the same
age and social class.

Marriage and family should be the primary
interest of women.

Family relations, management and aesthetics
perform the integrating functions of the home
economic subject matter areas.

If her child is ill (enough to be out of school)
the working mother should be home.

A woman should be willing to lower her
housekeeping standards if she attempts to
perform the dual role of professional and
homemaker.

Courses which are not directly related to
one's professional ambitions are a waste of
the student's time and energy.

If both husband and wife hold high profes-
sional ambitions for themselves, the marriage
is going to suffer.

The public image of home economics limits
its appeal as an area of study to many capable
individuals.

Professionally trained individuals have a
valuable contribution to make to community
service activities.

Secondary schools should guide girls toward wage
earning occupations as diligently as it guides
the boys.

A college educated wife is more apt to be
understanding of her husband's professional
obligations than is a non-college educated wife.

A woman should be at home when her children are
under school age regardless of her career
ambitions.

The general major in home economics is not
a professional major, only the specializations

provide professional training.
94

AGREE

100 00
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80

60

60

60

6O

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

 

5

DISAGREE

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100

57.

58.

59.

60.

61.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.‘

71.

To be considered a professional person, full

time rather than part time work is a requirement.

Women have as much motivation to succeed in
their chosen careers as men.

Education provides individuals with a rational
basis upon which to make value judgments.

A man respects a successful housewife more than
he respects a successful professional woman.

Home economics as an academic area is a wise
choice of major for college women.

In time of a family emergency, the working
mother's first duty is to the family rather
than the job.

A woman who never marries is not as much a
woman as one who does.

College educated housewives are a discontented
group.

Knowledge for knowledge sake (liberal educa-
tion) is a sufficient reason to attend college.

The professions of dietetics, child develop-
ment, retailing, home economics teaching and
interior design do not have enough relatedness
to place them all within the College of Home
Economics.

People who are professionally employed have as
much responsibility to serve in the volunteer
activities of a community as do those who are
not professionally employed.

If the wife is working because she wants to
rather than of economic necessity, the husband
should be ready and willing to assist with the
housekeeping tasks.

In general, the husband% job should have a
higher status position than the wife's.

It is quite possible for a woman to keep her
intellectual curiosity active when she is a
full time housewife and mother.

Students in the College of Home Economics
should be predominantly women. 95

 

AGREE

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
sA

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

6O

60

60

60

‘60

60

60

60

I

 

6

DISAGRep

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 30 100
D

60 so 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 so 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100

72.

73.

74.

75.

76.

77.

78.

79.

80.

81.

82.

83.

84.

85.

86.

To be a professional person is the only way
to obtain real status in today's society.

A full time housewife is a better marriage
partner than a professionally active housewife.

Women profit most from a liberal education at
the bachelors level followed by professional
specialization preceding entry into the labor
force.

Women who work full time are more aggressive
than women who are housewives.

The majority of the subject matter areas in the
College of Home Economics are intellectually
stimulating.

When not employed, the professionally trained
woman has a greater responsibility to participate
in community service activities than the non-
prOfessionally trained woman.

Marriage and motherhood must have priority in
the life of a woman.

Women should attempt to achieve career goals
just as high as men.

A college education does not cause very funda-
mental changes in students.

The best place for a home economist is in the
home.

A professional man should be more active in
community service activities than the profes-
sional woman since the man does not have the
home responsibilities as does the woman.

In the public's eye, a single woman of any
age is viewed the same as a single man of
comparable age.

Homes and families can function smoothly even
though the woman works.

Being a full time housewife and mother gives
a woman time and opportunity to experiment
with new interests she gained while in college.

The various specialists in home economics have
not been as active as they should be in guiding
and strengthening American family life.

96

AGREE

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A.

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80

60

6O

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

I

 

W
60 80 100
Di
60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100.
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100

7

87.

88.

90.

91.

92.

93.

94.

95.

96.

97.

98.

99.

100.

The students in the College of Home Economics
are as capable intellectually as students in
other colleges on campus.

A professionally trained individual is shirking
his social responsibility if he does not
involve himself in community service activities.

Women who hold a college degree have a social
obligation to use their education in gainful

employment.

The major contributions of women to professions

should come mainly from single women since married
women cannot devote as much of themselves to their

jobs.

A college educated woman tends to be a better
mother than a non-college educated woman.

Home Economists have been innovative in devel-
oping goods and services for the home.

Many of the courses offered in the College of
Home Economics are trivial and/or busy work
as compared to courses in other colleges in
this University.

Marriage is more satisfying for the woman who

does not work than for the woman who is employed.

There must be something wrong with the woman
who feels "unfulfilled" in her roles as wife
and mother.

Universities should facilitate the education of
30-40 year old women who desire higher education
after child rearing.

Home economists have a major role to perform
in promoting the home and family as significant
values in our culture.

A College of Home Economics graduate should be
a better wife and mother than a graduate from
any of the other colleges in the University.

Home economics cannot contribute as much to the
future society as it has to the past.

Today the notion that a woman's place is in the
home is a traditional myth rather than a con-
temporary belief. 97

AGREE

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

10 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80
A

100 80

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

60

6O

 

DISAGREE

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 ‘100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100
D

60 80 100

AGREE D ISA (:ng

101. Some of the courses in home economics should ‘
be required of all university students, (e.g. 100 80 6O 6O 80 100
child development, decision making, family
relations).

102. Because most pe0ple in the areas of home A D
economics are women you can't expect this field 100 80 60 60 80 100
to be as active nor as innovative as others.

103. The father has as much responsibility to be A D
involved in PTA, Cub ScOuts, and other child 100 80 60 60 80 100
related activities as his working wife.

104. Some of the subject matter areas in the College A D
of‘Home Economics are not as intellectually 100 80 60 60 80 100
stimulating as they could be.

A D

105. Marriage is more satisfying for the woman who 100 80 60 60 80 100
works than the woman who does not work.

106. A working mother has just as much responsibility A D
to be involved in room mother, PTA, Cub Scouts 100 80 60 60 80 100

 

and othersuch child related activities as a non-
working mother.

98

 

 

Sally A. Cowell 1968
Degree 0 f FLA .

 

 

OVER

This book m I
first class on

 

 

 

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