:. ELI .Lfl"! ;. IL. :3 'u ‘f'ng "I- ' _ 0‘ «I» h- I o I . . I . J - tJdIt final v I O I- I g, I ‘ 0 ‘ 0‘. .0 l l . o _ - .W I I. . . i . Ho .- l I f ' ‘J ‘1? t’” I . I I H I I ' -I' t - IoI ‘4' - ' I b - ‘ 'Ot ‘ o I" ' ~‘KF‘L I _ -' '. ‘ co ‘ ' .- .. ' " ‘- l'.. l O l . . .- . .. I . - O O - ' . I\- V "' I't" "- ' .' ' ' ‘— ' ' ' "I! ' . ‘ a I O _ C _ . II .- ' I1 ' ‘ - -_ ..fi 4 l ‘l . I. F .‘C'? .-‘ ."H. .00“: .- . . - . ' F I I ’ ' II- . I ‘ . ‘I | I . " I o o I ‘ 'u' ‘ I I'I- I ’ . - | l" | I I II ‘ -' ' I . _- I f - ‘ . -. J. . . . - : 9' . D O i . I f ‘. . .' .g ' r _ I __ 0 Lo . ‘ o ‘—_ ' II‘! I. I ° 0 o. . I . I ' . . 1' I ' ' U . i. 3 h CI . . . ‘ o J 'P' A‘ 0 o — -‘ - O" ‘ .. 2 I . I O ' I - I U" __ O 9 .I. I I O ' 5 o ' ’ I . ' u I I o I ‘u 0 I - O . . i “t o " _ U L - on - 4 ’ - . ' " I ‘ ‘ ' I ' I _. '0‘ ' I ' ‘ . 'I ‘I . ‘ ' I . - I : - ' - ~ . - o l" I I _ ._ I H i I '- O O - . . t O - .I I _ . - _ - . - ‘. - ¢.- Gr. 1» . - . - u . I . ' . ' I II o ' I ' i - - - 0 fl . I .. 0.: 1° I I .‘0‘ “L113" 0 ° I . . l ...’_ OI ' 5". :(4‘ I I - - ‘ o 4 . . ‘ -0 . ‘ j .. .; - ”.— ... o ' 0 _ I I '9. . I . I ' O ”'0': I u ' :1; - II o — I I. _ . - . . 4'. -_ I. T.‘ ’f‘ .- 9 . 3?; - ‘. ‘1 ' ~. . y: o . . ' t“ | I. I '. "I ' I - .’.- Q... I . ' - - - O " I 1' ' I ’ o' I ' ' - - L I ' . . - 0 0 l I ' 0 I i’ Z! ° ' TI I I.'Q; "r . ' o. :... . 0:2'3'; ‘_- 4.- '0' - “ . . . '. I. o.. I. I b -I. .9- o _ a - o I | o t-.. O I ~ - g *0 - i a. 1". :00-00 f" I... * .1 .11:.:.'.‘.; on " . J - I O . 0. ‘. t 0". t - a I. O O _ ‘ ' a o -. I-- ‘3" ..t..... ,u -- 1 -_ - o- . — r. ' _o'a ‘ '1 ' ' T - I' - .-’o'- ‘II‘ k *6... ' t ' ' I .1 I _I- _ ° 051 . O. - K; o -Io a... i .. h ' i .‘ ‘ 0. I . ‘ . ...‘. J ’ --:‘ I. .. ‘ - 0.- O ... .‘ D I . _ .. + 0. 4 __ 9 . ' l. . - - ‘. £1 _ . . riff ‘- I - . ’. u- ‘1'. t .1 : ’I‘c‘. o I O.- " I '6' - til .. -.; O .." " - "' ' '. a“--...1.". l;.;-'. ‘ .éo -0 d 14.1: ,‘J 0 o. - - ‘ 1' _ , ‘ . - “ .c n p ‘- p'f. Q r. . . '. - . . ‘ ‘0 . OD. '- '\ f 0' I . ’ . .1.’.-.-. I ‘ O H . '- O J. - .1 I0 ‘ - ‘ r ' I. .‘ ' .a .' A I- ' __ _‘ ‘ ‘_ * '- I .. ’ - - ‘. «1... ...-..'- .go . "':"-‘.h‘-I‘~e"f'""-'.,-I‘.-‘.'_..g:,-._‘ I:- H. ' .=-’-‘- . .4“ --'~..-‘-' . < . ‘ f” ‘.| "O 0 ..I. If -t I. ‘... l" L . . ... ... ‘ .P_ ' _’ 'l . I .' ”.. . 1‘ v. I- H . h v .. '_ 4 ‘ ~ -- t o ' f 2 . ' ..‘.9. ”a. ‘ I f '0 ‘. .I 4'...» a 1 II} ‘_ _' -9. .‘I. 3"?" .3 "’1 ‘ 'u; :v, .o' - .-"~; -.I f - -"*",|";! a ' ." 2'" 9-3,. ’— , * f...‘ ’1 - - .' ' -- - . ' . J ”3“" if; r u‘“ --' ~'-'-'-.:‘-I IN." ' F :4 "fit- "'f .’—‘”“‘ ’-' I-” ° . - 4! J:II1 0, I, - r _ Ito-v --'__I} 0- 1‘ ’ o...» I - V LIE‘” 1.. . u o' , j. o_ . 4. (do: 0‘ ..___ I 'If .4; _ j - .. l' .4 { 3:.(11 -..f.":.i . :, '11. . 3... I. 1.: . . . ‘ . o '.’. ”J’o; yr, ." ‘1'”. I I."I;I-l_m '0. EL}... t '1‘: . ' :" ::,}'ll'..’ I” fi"-Jofwy r'; I Télzit; .8“ S.” ‘c - -Y . x;:: . I _: :_. _ ‘.L..“ _- I 'h'" . I'Lfi‘ . . ' :4 'g'l.a' ..""E:.-' :.“I; ‘ "O‘fii'O!’ .Yv‘y'. irri- t.‘£o'o 'l . i‘__ - _:‘; ‘ I 1"”: :-7 '.. l‘ ' '! ‘_' "‘9'“ _ : -!. .' vi .. my: *- I: .v . '-" 3‘2“. ‘4' 'f’Ji-I. ii . . 53-41-75?" “?:""”‘ " ‘4'. I ' ‘ "I * I - - .. _ g ' , 1 II 5 v" I I 'I. " o aflh o — 9 n- ‘ _ ‘~ :' O -‘ -g -‘ . Q - ,"‘ 'I ' ' ‘ '° "r" f" flute-91%.! m .- QI‘IJ‘Iu-r-«finu—u .. I 31.431 0;"; wwl- n23???" £3:?~a‘;*v-=- "IT" “if? “1%?!“ 1‘" It“ “loaf; {£33. ‘IIU'ILIM I???” h‘f Wire?” «f- gf‘ g “V..." 'f 3" T”. . Fr 3.- chafing“! 4'1. . (pr. $5.453!” 4'” P 5)?) ’ .t‘ "",,_.qfr.*“" ' .' . .’ quil; W ‘aLt‘ r g 1": «Ia-guru, H'Laémmr. 4*" ‘Q utiéww-zb- 3' sax-=3. ‘. - vs. IIo"."-:.. dir‘)'-f.tflf .9'Tl;" it??? “#54 - in?" “331}34 a. . . fig; ”giT‘jflu'i L} I 3"}- b‘ i; 113%.; * ‘ I- * ‘. . *; -. r' W3- $13.6“ ”g4 . :b'd’ ,a‘AQngL f‘L ‘ ‘ .. effigy”! 1:. . . . vzl" ' P147 '.;;1’éJ-:F.- -2 . u ‘ ;.‘ ‘0. rtr.$fl .. o " c-‘J-‘ .. ' ". o. l;l._l..l!.. 1325-" ‘I- 51*; .- . . "’ -' 73.19:; -.‘ VI; 'I‘ ‘ 'Eadfr .5 I. f- ”. __ " 'J§j§"1;3111 ' a F- - '5o‘- ~ _,' 3 f.’mu.:fl «.a-o. u h ._ - 00 y . ' ‘ ‘. . . '. ' t._ - :1.- '\ C 3.. . o ’% It. .’ .1. ', “4,4 0 L'.‘ I I N I“ -. V I . ‘ . 4’ ' . - ’ , _, --_- a. "II .- ' _.... . .‘ .‘ ' ‘ .: - {J'TI'IJ’J-h GAN SETAT lllllllllllllllllll lllllllllllfllllllllll‘lllllllllllll 31293 00882 3993 This is to certify that the dissertation entitled SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A STUDY OF THE PERCEIVED LEADERSHIP STYLES OF DEANS OF STUDENTS AT SELECTED LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES presented by Janis L. Coates has been accepted towards fulfillment of the requirements for Ph . D . degree in Ed . Admin . ./?4P -- Major professor Date July 30, 1992 MSUB an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Institution 0-12771 _ , _ iii ,77, 2,101 - 3 1 Li‘- BRARY Mlchlgan State U nlve rslty PLACE IN RETURN BOX to rernovo‘flwle checkom from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before due due. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE J\fi w l.———— ‘l’ ”‘1 7i —— _—— ;_____..lE/J ‘JAN252004 44-2-6—04 * i ‘- l b—i ___- #— —' 4 ———— ____ \ __—— —i lFf nstltutlon MSU. Is An Affinnettve Action/Equal Opportunity I GWWH1 SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A STUDY OF THE PERCEIVED LEADERSHIP STYLES OF DEANS OF STUDENTS AT SELECTED LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES By Janis L Coates A DISSERTATION Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Department of Educational Administration 1 992 ABSTRACT SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP: A STUDY OF THE PERCEIVED LEADERSHIP STYLES OF DEANS OF STUDENTS AT SELECTED LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES 3)! Janis L. Coates The overall purpose of this study was to determine and describe the self- perceived leadership styles of deans of students at liberal arts colleges holding membership in the Great Lakes College Association (G.L.C.A.) and the Associated Colleges of the Midwest (A.C.M.) consortia. applying Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory. The specific purpose of this study was to determine whether or. not deans of students at liberal arts colleges in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia define themselves as situational leaders. Three research questions provided the focus for this study: 1. Do Deans of Students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. Colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? 2. Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to job related situations involving a leader and one or more followers? 3. Do Deans of Students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style? A literature review was conducted in the areas of leadership studies and theory, the small college and self-perception. In addition, deans of students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia Colleges completed the WM research instrument designed to measure leader behavior. The major findings were: Deans of students in the sample preferred a high supportive/low directive leadership style and demonstrated a below average willingness to vary their leadership style from situation to situation. The leader effectiveness score revealed an average ability by the group to match effectively the task relevant maturity of a follower with leadership style in a given situation. Finally the deans in the sample received “good” to “excellent” scores for situational leadership potential. Copyright by JANIS LOUISE COATES 1 992 DEDICATION I dedicate this work to my parents who have invested so much of themselves in my growth and development as an individual. Thank you with all my heart for your love, patience, encouragement and for instilling in me a sense of wonder. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to take this opportunity to thank my family, friends and colleagues for their patience. encouragement and guidance, so essential to the completion of this dissertation. Appreciation is extended to Jim Ferguson for his computer assistance, Marge Dandridge for her determination to keep me on task, Jim Douthat for his encouragement and friendship, and to Hank Payne for his generosity and ' support. To my advisor, Dr. Louis Stamatakos, I extend my heartfelt thanks for believing in me as a professional and as a student, for his guidance, patience, and famous red pen. In addition, I would like to thank Nancy Thompson for her empathetic ear and willingness to accept additional responsibilities that allowed me to direct energy toward the completion of this dissertation. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page LIST OF TABLES ix LIST OF FIGURES x l. STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM ..................................... 1 Background ........................................................................ 1 Leadership ......................................................................... 3 Need for the Study ................................................................... 5 Purpose of the Study..‘ ............................................................. 7 Research Questions ........................................................... 8 Assumptions ....................................................................... . 13 Definition of Terms ................................................................... 13 Methodology of the Study ........................................................ 15 Limitations of the Study ............................................................ 16 Overview .................................................................................. 17 II. A LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................. 18 Evolution of Situational Leadership Theory ............................. 18 Scientific Movement and Human Relations Movement... 19 Motivation Studies .............................................................. 24 The Ohio State Leadership Studies .................................... 31 Fiedler’s Contingency Model of Effective Leadership ......... 36 House-Mitchell Path-Goal Theory ...................................... 39 Situational Leadership Theory ............................................ 40 Characteristics of the Small Liberal Arts College ..................... 47 Research Findings .............................................................. 47 Increasing Expectations ..................................................... 49 Summary ............................................................................ 50 Self-Perception ........................................................................ 51 Introduction ......................................................................... 51 Research Findings .............................................................. 52 Summary .................................................................................. 53 Ill. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY .......................................... 54 Introduction .............................................................................. 54 vii Sample and Data Collection ..................................................... 54 The Research Instrument and Analysis ................................... 56 IV. PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA... 60 Data Collection ......................................................................... 60 Research Question #1 ........................................................ 61 Research Question #2 ........................................................ 69 Research Question #3 ........................................................ 70 V. SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH ............ 71 Purpose of the Study ................................................................ 71 Need for the Study ................................................................... 71 Limitations of the Study ............................................................ 75 Methodology of the Study ......................................................... 75 Findings .................................................................................... 76 Research Question #1 ........................................................ 76 Research Question #2 ........................................................ .78 Research Question #3 ........................................................ 78 Conclusions .............................................................................. 79 Implications .............................................................................. 80 Recommendations for Further Research ................................. 83 Concluding Statement .............................................................. 85 APPENDICES .......................................................................... 86 l. LBA ll Self Instrument ......................................................... 87 ll. LBA II Self Scoring Scale .................................................... 94 Ill. Research Data .................................................................... 99 A. Style Matrix .................................................................... 100 B. Style Flexibility Score .................................................... 101 C. Style Effectiveness Score ............................................. 102 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................... 104 GENERAL REFERENCES ....................................................... 111 viii LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. Motivation and Hygiene Factors .......................... 28 2. Leadership Styles Appropriate for Various Readiness Levels .................................................. 45 3. Analysis of Leadership Styles .............................. 64 4. Style Flexibility Score ........................................... 65 5. Style Effectiveness Score .................................... 65 6. Overall Score LBA lI Self ..................................... 67 LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. 2. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs .............................................. The Ohio State Leadership Quadrants ................................ Continuum of Leader Behavior .......................................... Leadership Styles Appropriate For Various Group Situations Follower Readiness ........................................................... Expanded Situational Leadership Model ............................. Style Flexibility Score ......................................................... Style Effectiveness Score .................................................... Page 25 34 36A 38 ‘44 46 66 68 CHAPTER I STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 312W Historically, some institutions of higher education have attempted to respond to changes in society. This postulate can be substantiated by tracing the history of higher education and noting what conditions in society influenced periods of expansion. The colonial colleges of the eighteenth century, for example, responded to the need for educated clergyman and societal leaders. Later, in the mid-nineteenth century as society became more industrialized the need for more sophisticated technology became evident, and universities and colleges with broader missions (i.e. the land grant institutions and the state universities) emerged (Garland, 1985). During the nineteenth century, in response to the increased knowledge base and institutional size, institutional purposes and functions multiplied. As institutions changed so did the roles and responsibilities of the employees within them. Increased enrollment resulted in a proliferation of demands for new services leading to the establishment of specialized agencies and administrators to direct them (Rudolph, 1962). This increase of administrators was also influenced by a growing emphasis in the academy on research and its application in agriculture, commerce, and industry. Shortly after the Civil War, faculty trained in German institutions called for greater intellectualism and impersonalism on the part ofthe faculty (Appleton, 1978; Brubacher and Rudy, 1958). Faculty became more interested in research than in working with students on a personal level and were freed from institutional management responsi- bilities to pursue scholarship (Rudolph, 1962; meacher and Rudy, 1958). This shift in faculty responsibilities from administration to research, as well as the increased need for specialized services within diverse institutions of higher education, contributed to the evolution of the student affairs profession. Over the past fifty years institutions of higher education have changed in scale, purpose, and clientele. What was once a relatively homogeneous system of colleges and universities, whose primary purpose was the development of student character and good moral habits, is now a complex system of varying institutional types serving a vast number of students with increasingly diverse needs (Miller and Winston, 1991 ). As a 1 2 result, the organizational structure of colleges and universities as well as the responsi- bilities of administrators who work within them, have become increasingly complex. “Although ideas about the practice of administration date back for more than two thousand years, organized administrative science was brought into existence in the late 1800’s. Until recently, however, most literature on the subject emerged from casual reflections by those practitioners perceived as successful” (McCarty and Reyes, 1987, p.2). Management theory and management science, while taught in most colleges and universities, were not viewed as providing legitimate methods or strategies for manag- ing institutions of higher education. Consequently, Bennis (1979) notes, “universities are among the worst-managed institutions in the country" (p.41 ). Today, the need for leadership within colleges and universities stems from a lack of shared direction and purpose exaggerated by economic and demographic conditions which have intensified the level of competition among institutions for students, research monies and federal financial support (Green, 1988). Additionally, the changing profile of students, the shifting priorities of the faculty, the call for curriculum reform, existing external and internal demands and the diversity of institutions have confused the organizational context. Presently, “the challenge is how to govern, manage, and lead our colleges and universities in spite of this complexity” (Peterson and Mats, 1987, pp. 2&3). While good management practices will continue to be vital to the welfare of colleges and universities, “campuses as well as society will look to academic leaders to clarify their institutional mission, to articulate an academic vision, and to be accountable forthe quality of their programs and graduates. They will have to do all in an atmosphere of growing external controls, decreased institutional autonomy and generally scarce resources” (Green, 1988, pp. 35-36). According to Bennis (1979) these factors necessitate a first-time determination by colleges and universities to identify “what is essential and what is expendable” (p.41). Issues facing higher education today have provided both the motive and the incentive for colleges and universities to evaluate their priorities and to examine their mission statements. According to Birnbaum (1988), “lack of clarity and agreement on institutional goals and mission has equally important effects on organization and management” (p. 11). 3 The role and responsibilities of the chief student affairs officer are directly influenced by the issues facing higher education today. A growing desire for accountability, increased legal and governmental restrictions, the influence of social changes, health issues, limited resources, changing student profile, technological advances, and expanded expectations of the academy have presented new challenges and opportu- nities for student affairs organizations and the chief student affairs officer. Albright and Barr (1990) note that, “a number of distinct, conflicting, and sometimes unrealistic roles have emerged for student affairs organizations over the years: controller of student behavior, manager of facilities, administrator of programs, student development educator, and campus environmental expert” (p.1 88). According to Miller and Winston (1991), there are four categories that describe most student affairs functions; organizational maintenance, staffing, management, and education. These responsibilities require that the chief student affairs officer possess the leadership and management skills necessary to successfully meet existing organizational and educational goals of student affairs. Therefore, chief student affairs officers must have an accurate and realistic understanding of their skills and competencies if they are to be effective leaders within their organizations. Consequently. the study of leadership is of growing interest to student affairs professionals. An examination of the literature on leadership has yielded the following overview of the evolution of leadership studies and resulting theories. Leadmhln Throughout history, the subject of leadership has been widely examined. Fiedler (1 967) cites Plato’s Republicas an illustration of this early concern and curiosity about leadership as Plato speculates on the proper education and training of political leaders of the time. There is historical evidence to substantiate the postulate that the subject of leadership was examined by the Chinese, Egyptians and Greeks. Bass (1981) suggests that, “the earliest literature on leadership was concerned almost entirely with theoretical issues. Theorists sought to identify types of leadership and relate them to the functional demands of society. In addition, they sought to account forthe emergence of leadership either by examining the qualities of the leader orthe elements of the situation” (pp.5&6). While the subject of leadership has been a curiosity throughout history, it wasn't until 4 the twentieth century that scientific research on leadership was conducted (Yukl, 1 981 ). Green (1988) explains that, “the subject of leadership has been described and analyzed from many perspectives - sociology, psychology, business, history and education” (p.3). A review of the research on leadership discloses four approaches which categorize leadership studies: 1. power-influence approach, 2. trait approach, 3. behavioral approach, and 4. situational approach (Yukl, 1981 ). A succinct review of each of these approaches will illustrate the evolution of the concept of leadership. The earliest leadership studies examined the relationship between leaders and followers focusing on issues of power. Appropriatelythis approach was identified as the power and influence approach: it defines leader effectiveness in terms of the exercising of power over followers, and examines the sources of power available to the leader. Later, during the first half of this century leadership studies focused on “the Great Man” Theory, which attempted to identify the personality traits of successful leaders (Green, 1988). These studies were designed to identify the characteristics or person- ality traits of a leader and determine the various ways these characteristics were transferred from situation to situation (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). These studies were viewed as increasingly important as the ability to identify leadership traits aided in the selection and recognition of potential leaders. It was believed that leaders simply possessed characteristics which predisposed them to certain kinds of behavior (Hunt, 1984). Thetrait approach to leadership impliedthat leadership skills could not betaught, as personality traits are inherent and therefore, specific to the individual. Fiedler (1967) notes that the 40’s and early 50’s witnessed a proliferation of studies designed to identify those personality traits and attributes that distinguish leaders from followers. After a close examination of these studies Stodgill (1948), Gibb (1954), and Mann (1959) concluded that the research supports the contention “that a man becomes a leader not only because of his personality attributes, but also on the basis of various situational factors” (Fiedler, 1967, p.10). Consequently, behavioral scientists became concerned with the identification of traits, abilities, behaviors, sources of power, or characteristics of a particular situation that contributed to an individual’s leadership effectiveness (Yukl, 1981). Discussion on leadership broadened in the 1940’s and 50’s as a result of psycho- logical and sociological research. Behavioral theorists began to study the behavior of leaders in an effort to identify behaviors which distinguished successful leaders from 5 less successful ones (Hunt, 1984). Consonant with the findings of behavioral theorists, leadership was thought to be influenced by external factors and societal expectations. This was a significant finding as it validated the premise that leadership could be observed and taught. As a result of behavioral studies leadership was viewed as a dynamic process that took into consideration the relationship between the leader and the follower as well as the situation. Changes in the behavior of the leaderfrom situation to situation were expected and it was believed that leaders could enhance their leadership effectiveness through training, education and development (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). The focus of the situational approaches to leadership studies signifies movement on the part of theorists well beyond the trait approach to consider situational elements as well as the relationship between leader and follower. The situational leadership approach requires that the leader behave in a flexible manner, have the skills to diagnose a situation, and prescribe as well as apply an appropriate leadership style (Hersey and Banchard, 1988). The person-situational theorists began to focus attention on the process of interac- tion, recognizing that the nature of the group and its individual members, as well as the event or problem facing the group were important in determining an effective leadership style (Bass, 1981). Bass notes that, “strong evidence indicates that different leadership skills and traits are required in different situations” (p.73). The situational approach to leadership studies, specifically the research of Hersey and Blanchard provide the basis for this study. W Effective leadership is essential if student affairs organizations are to be viable contributors in meeting the increased expectations and the growing range of challenges facing American higher education today. Kuh (1991) suggests that responding to student needs has become more challeng- ing then ever before. The increased organizational complexity of institutions, the changing profile of students with diverse backgrounds and interests, as well as a growing demand for accountability and quality in the educational enterprise have challenged student affairs organizations and chief student affairs officers (CSAO) to examine their roles and responsibilities. Albright and Bar (1990)r contend that, “Student Affairs organizations are faced with three major issues: confusion about organizational purpose from within and without the institution, lack of consistency regarding student affairs organizational stmctures, and ambiguous goals for student affairs that must nevertheless be appropriate to the enterprise” (p.183). Consequently, not only must CSAO’s (deans) respond to the changing needs and interests of students in a manner consistent with the goals of the college, but they must achieve these ends while addressing organizational and managerial concerns. As the chief student affairs officer, the dean of students must possess both leadership and management skills, as well as the ability to assess institutional culture in order to meet these growing demands within colleges and universities. It wasn’t until the late 1950’s that researchers and practitioners realized that institutions of higher education had developed characteristics much like those of other organizations (Strange, 1 983). Like other organizations, the organizational structure of most colleges and universities is hierarchical, however, the relationship between the faculty employee and the student to the institution and existing governance systems poses unique leadership and management challenges. Birnbaum (1988) notes, that most studies of leadership have focused on business, government orthe military and that there has been little research conducted on leadership and higher education. He further contends that, “the study of leadership is even more difficult in colleges and universities than in other settings because of the dual control systems, conflict between the professional and administrative authority, unclear goals, and other unique proper- ties of professional, normative organizations” (p.22). College and university presidents and administrative officers have hesitated to introduce theories of management and leadership within their institutions for a variety of reasons. Some speculate that the fear of faculty criticism and acknowledged disdain for business practices, coupled with an administrative lack of understanding relative to the application of management strategies and leadership theories to a complex organization, has impeded the adoption of such practices in addressing fundamental organizational issues. Keller (1 983) notes that colleges and universities are “the largest industries in the nation but are among the least businesslike and well managed of all organizations” (p.5). 7 Issues facing higher education today have provided the impetus for colleges and universities to evaluate their priorities and practices. Distinctions are being made between management and leadership as the need for accountability to both internal and external constituencies increases. Green (1988) argues that, “in order to understand leadership development in higher education one must begin with an analysis of higher education itself giving full examination of its organizing principles, traditions, and values which provide the context of the exercise of leadership” (p.13). Kuh and Whitt suggest that, “seasoned professionals know that the institutional context has a significant effect on what one does, how one does it, and whether the contributions of the student affairs organizations are considered useful by faculty and students” (Miller and Winston, 1991 , p.37). W The overall purpose of this study was to determine and describe the self-perceived leadership styles of deans of students at liberal arts colleges holding membership in the Great Lakes College Association (G.L.C.A.) and the Associated Colleges of the Midwest (A.C.M.)consortia, applying Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadership theory. The specific purpose of this study was to determine whether deans of students at liberal arts colleges in the G.LC.A. and the A.C.M. consortia define themselves as situational leaders. Hersey and Blanchard (1988) assertthat, “situational leadership is based on an interplay among (1) the amount of guidance and direction a leader gives, (2) the amount of socioemotional support a leader provides, and (3) the readiness level that the followers exhibit in performing a specific task, function or objective" (p.170). Situational leadership theory can be applied to a variety of organizational or group settings. The research of Hersey and Blanchard on situational leadership has resulted in the development of the Leader Behavior Analysis ll, an instrument designed to examine leader behavior. This instrument has yielded constant scores on leadership effectiveness across a variety of organizations ie. business, education, nursing. These studies provide evidence that the principles of situational leadership theory and the Leader Behavior Analysis ll (LBA II) are applicable to a variety of organizational and group settings. Won: The following research questions were examined in this study: 1. Do Deans of Students at G.L.C.A and A.C.M. Colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? 2. Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to job related situations involving a leader and one or more followers? 3. Do Deans of Students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style? Why was it important to examine these questions? As stated earlier, the challenges facing higher education today are unlike those of any other decade. Competition for students, limited resources and soaring tuitions, and a decline in the professoriate, dictate that colleges and universities exercise prudent fiscal management as well as provide a quality educational program in order to remain competitive. Many institutions, both private and public, have been plagued by financial difficulties. In response, some institutions have down-sized institutional services resulting in the elimination or modification of administrative and staff positions and programs. Consequently, institutional leaders are faced with difficultdecisions pursuant to determining institutional priorities and maintaining institutional quality with fewer resources. The chief student affairs officer must juggle a variety of roles and responsibilities within an environment of increased demands and complexities. As noted by Sandeen (1991), “colleges and universities are expected to provide personal support and extensive services to students, and all of these efforts need to be coordinated and managed by someone" (p.3). He goes on to note that the position of chief student affairs officer has “evolved over a period of 100 years from a collegiate, almost parental concern for student welfare to the current complex array of services and programs for students that extend throughout the campus” (p.4). Today, the responsibilities accompanying the chief’s position fall underthe rubric of “manager, mediator and educator" (Sandeen, 1991, p.5). Thus, chief student affairs 9 officers (deans), work with multiple constituencies and expectations for services that required them to move beyond the traditional responsibilities associated with the position earlier in the century. Sandeen (1 991 ) suggests that, “while few possess all the myriad skills necessary to meet the varying demands of the chief student affairs officer position, there are broad areas of competence that are needed by all. Because of the heavy administrative and fiscal responsibilities extensive skills in management and decision-making are essential” (p.16). He goes on to say that, “at a residential liberal arts college of 1 ,500 students, effective personal mediation may be more importantthan fiscal management” (p.17). This suggests that it is important for chief student affairs officers, namely, deans of students at small colleges, to possess effective interpersonal skills as the environment of the small college allows for less restrictive and more personal relationships. As stated earlier, the chief student affairs officers role has changed dramatically over the last 100 years. This change has been influenced by the increased scope and complexity of higher education and a changing student profile. Consequently, the role and responsibilities of the dean of students position have changed, requiring new skills and levels of accountability. As student affairs professionals, deans of students are influenced by the standards and guiding principles of their profession as well as the culture, structure and hierarchy of authority within their respective college or university. Thus, deans of students are members of two systems each possessing an established set of values and goals which at times may be in conflict with one another. The manner in which deans of students carry out their responsibilities has direct bearing on the perceptions held by others of the importance and centrality of student services in meeting espoused educational objectives, as well as upon the expectations held by various constituencies for student affairs programs and services. Additionally, how deans implement their responsibilities effects their perceptions of themselves as professionals and leaders. A review of the literature pertaining to the development of the student services profession reveals that a fundamental principle of the profession is the concern forthe total development of the individual student. This principle suggests that cleans of students should develop a leadership style that considers the uniqueness of each individual as well as the characteristics of a particular situation. Additionally, in order to 10 respond effectively to various student needs and interests, deans should have the ability to vary their leadership approaches. Situational leadership theory provides a methodology for assisting deans of students in establishing effective interactions with others. This leadership approach considers the individual as well as the situation, calls for flexibility in leadership approach in order to respond effectively to a given situation, and is an appropriate leadership model for deans of students at small colleges. Therefore, the research questions that follow were designed to identify the situational leadership tendencies of deans of students. W Do Deans of Students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. Colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? The basic premise underlying situational leadership theory is that there is no one “best” style of leadership. Therefore, an individual in a leadership role must develop the ability to diagnose a situation and prescribe an appropriate leadership style given the elements of the situation. By identifying and examining their leadership styles deans of students can obtain valuable information about their leadership style preferences, how their response given a particular situation might affect others and what situational elements they consider when selecting a leadership style. Given the proliferation of responsibilities and the variety of constituencies with whom the dean has contact, it is vitally important that information pertaining to the dean’s effectiveness as a leader and officer of the college be made available. “Research has shown that leadership is an observable, leamable set of practices” (Kouzes and Posner, 1987, p.13). Kouzes and Posner (1987) believe that, “the self- confidence required to lead comesfrom learning about ourselves - our skills, prejudices, talents, and shortcomings. Self-confidence develops as we build on strengths and overcome weakness” (p.227). The behavioral approach to leadership studies which includes situational leadership theory, posits that effective leadership can be taught. Therefore, a determination by the research group of deans that they perceive them- selves to be situational leaders has implications for in-service and professional development programs, as well as forthe preparation of professionals for chief student affairs officer positions. 11 W Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to job related situations involving a leader and one or more followers? Wynn and Gudins (1984) state that, “leadership style is a crucial variable in organiza- tional effectiveness. Effective leaders are skillful in analyzing the maturity and needs of the organization and its workers to determine the style most appropriate to the task and individual at a given time" (p.67). The range of leadership styles denotes the deans flexibility and adaptability to respond to a variety of situations. Situational leadership theory by definition requires a leaderto consider the needs of the follower. A leader can be at times directive and task oriented while at other times supportive and relationship oriented. An appropriate leadership style is chosen by the leader pursuant to determining the abilities of the follower in relationship to a given situation. For example, if a follower is highly competent at accomplishing a particular task the leader may assert a leadership style that is relationship oriented rather than directive. It is important to determine whether deans utilize a range of leadership styles forthe following reasons: first, it demonstrates that when influencing the behavior of others deanstake into consideration the ability ofthe followers as well as the situation. Second, it suggests that deans believe that there is no one “best” leadership style and that in order to be an effective leader a dean must manifest a variety of leadership styles. Third, it reflects the dean’s ability to diagnose a situation, assess the skills and abilities of the follower, and prescribe the appropriate action to be taken by the leader in a given situation. Fourth, it considers the varied and complex nature of the dean’s responsibili- ties and the uniqueness of the organizational setting within which the dean holds a leadership position while acknowledging the numerous and varied demands placed upon the dean for leadership by diverse and sometimes competing constituencies. W Do Deans of Students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia collectively exhibit a 12 dominant leadership style? The dichotomy between size and specialization of colleges and universities has long been realized. Astin and Scherri (1980) express the differences between large and small institutions in the following way: “Large institutions tend to have bureaucratic presidents, hierarchical administrations, and faculties who devote a good deal of time to administrative tasks and relatively little time to teaching. The faculty in the small institutions also tend to be more satisfied with administrative services and with their relations with students and their influence within the institution” (p.141). Baldridge (1978) suggests that private liberal arts institutions are small enough to “permit environmental factors which would hardly effect a larger institution to have significant impact” (p.93). The small size and residential nature of these institutions also influence the perceived and expected educational climate found within the private liberal arts college. The institutional context forthis study was the private residential liberal arts colleges of the Great Lakes College Association and The Associated Colleges of the Midwest. Member colleges are private and residential with enrollments of under 3000 (except for the University of Chicago) and profess as well as claim history and commitment to the liberal arts. Quality teaching, as well as scholarship and artistic accomplishment are highly valued within these institutions. Through consortium activities and programs, faculty, administrators and students are availed of educational and professional development opportunities which could not be provided singularly. Astin and Scherri (1980) have identified “initiative, effectiveness in dealing with students, interpersonal skills, cooperation, creativity, and professional or technical competence” as traits most valued by chief student affairs officers in their employees (p. 215). These traits suggest that chief student affairs officers may be predisposed to choose a leadership style which is highly supportive and relationship oriented balanced with a concern for goal attainment. By determining if deans collectively demonstrate a dominant leadership style, common characteristics of the deans leadership style preferences within philosophi- cally like institutions can be identified. This information may assist researchers in the identification of the leadership style practiced by small college deans. 13 Assumntlons The underlying assumptions guiding this study were: 1. The chief student affairs officer is an officer of the college and by definition holds a position of leadership within the institution. 2. The environment of the small private liberal arts college is distinctly different from the environments of other institutions and is characterized by size, individualized attention, involvement in governance and campus life, accessibility of faculty, quality teaching and expectations for the development of a caring community. 3. Given the unique nature ofthe small college, it appears that situational leadership theory is an appropriate leadership approach for deans of students in these institutions. QEEINJJJQNQEIEBMS The following terms are defined to assist in the interpretation and understanding ofthis study. Leadership ...... ”Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an individual or a group in efforts toward goal achievement in a given situation” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.86). 1 Leadership Process ...... “Leadership is a process, atransaction between an individual leader (or possibly a group of leaders) and followers. Furthermore, that transaction takes place in a given context that shapes the nature of the transaction. Thus, the various elements of leadership - the leader, the followers, the relationship between them, and the context - can be examined singularly or in combination” (Green, 1988, p.3). Applied Behavioral Science ...... The application of “theoretical models and principles of human behavior" developed from laboratory research to real-life situations (Goldstein and Krasner, 1987, p.4). Management ....... "The process of working with and through individuals and groups and other resourcesto accomplish organizational goals” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.5). Chief Student Affairs Officer/ or Dean of Students ...... This title refers to the adminis- trative officer responsible forthe student affairs organizational unit (Miller and Wrnston, 14 1991). For the purpose of this study the chief student affairs officer and term dean of students will be used interchangeably. Liberal Arts 1 Colleges ...... 'These highly selective institutions are primarily under- graduate colleges that award more than half of their baccalaureate degrees in arts and sciences” (Chronicle of Higher Education, Almanac Edition, July 8, 1987, p.22). LBA ll ...... LBA II is an acronym for Leader Behavior Analysis I I. This instrument is the revised version of the LEAD (Leader Effectiveness and Adaptability Description) instrument developed for leadership training. The LBA II is designed for research and measures leadership style, style flexibility, and style effectiveness. Task Behavior ...... This term is defined “as the extent to which the leader engages in spelling out the duties and responsibilities of an individual or group. These behaviors include telling people what to do, how to do it, when to do it, where to do it, and who to do it to” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.172). Relationship Behavior ........ This term is defined “as the extent to which the leader engages in two-way and multi-way communication. The behaviors include listening, facilitating, and supportive behavior" (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.172). Readiness ...... Thisterrn is defined as a person’s readiness to perform a particulartask and consists of two components. The first is having the ability, ie. “the knowledge, experience and skill that an individual or group brings to a particular task or activity” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.175). The second is having the willingness, ie. “the extent to which an individual or group has the confidence, commitment, and motivation to accomplish a specific task (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.175). Leadership Style ...... A consistent pattern of behavior exhibited by an individual engaging in leadership activity (Hersey and Blanchard, 1981). Style Range/Flexibility ...... The extent to which an individual is able to use different styles in response to different situations ( Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). Maturity ...... This term is defined as, “the capacity to set high but attainable goals (achievement-motivation) willingness and ability to take responsibility, and education and/or experience of an individual or group” (Gates, Blanchard and Hersey, 1976, p.349). 15 MW Three research questions posed earlierin this chapter have provided the focus forthis study. The first study objective was to examine how deans of students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. colleges respond to the leadership style characterized by situational leadership theory. To achieve that end, a group of twenty-one deans were administered the Leader BehaviorAnalysis ll (LBA ll) research instrument, developed by Blanchard, Hambleton, Zigarmi and Forsyth, l n r r i i v I at the Fall 1991 meeting of the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. deans of students in Chicago and through the mail. The LBA ll instrument was designed to provide information to the respondent(s) about their self-perceived leadership style. The research instrument consists of twenty situations that involve a leader and one or more followers. By tabulating the dean’s responses within the scoring framework accompanying the instrument, the investigator was able to determine the perceived leadership style, style range or flexibility, and style adaptability of the respondent(s). The leadership style score identifies the respondent’s preference towards various combinations of directive and supportive leader behavior when responding to a given situation. The style range or flexibility score denotes the willingness of the respondents to vary their leadership style in response to the twenty situations. A single response or limited variation of leadership style exhibited by the respondent reflects low flexibility. The adaptability or effectiveness score reveals the appropriateness of the chosen response to the situation by the respondent. This score provides insight relative to the respondent’s leadership style. A high score indicates that the respondent(s) posses strong analytical and diagnostic abilities. After collecting the completed research instmments from the respondents the results were tabulated. Observed trends in the recorded responses of the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. deans were noted and analyzed. A summary of the findings was made for each respondent as well as for the collective sample for leadership style and style range or flexibility and adaptability. The leadership style profile resulting from the analysis of the research findings provided the investigator with the information necessary to respond to the stated research questions. An explanation of the concepts and theories 16 underlying situational leadership introduced in this chapter are developed and pre- sented in Chapter ll. A reporting of the findings and their significance given the research questions posed is provided in Chapter IV. W This study was limited to the examination of the situational leadership styles of chief student affairs officers at member colleges of the Great Lakes College Association and the Association of Colleges of the Midwest consortia. The combined membership of colleges comprising the consortia equals twenty-six. All member colleges are private, selective, liberal arts colleges with enrollments of under 3000 undergraduate students. The environment of the selective small private liberal arts college characterized by expectations for community development, individualized attention, involvement in institutional governance and quality of the educational experience provides the context within which the dean(s) must execute their responsibilities. This study was limited to the small private liberal arts college and to the chief student affairs officer and no other administrators. While there are many theories of leadership, this study was limited to measuring the degree to which chief student affairs officers considered themselves to be situational leaders. The data collected from the study sample represents the personal perceptions held by chief student affairs officers of their leadership behavior in the situations identified in the LBA ll Self. The results of this study may be applicable to other small selective liberal arts colleges outside of the G.LC.A. or A.C.M. consortia but may hold little significance for non-liberal arts institutions or for colleges and universities with a mission and size different from the colleges in the sample. 17 QMEBMIEIM Given the research questions posed and the methodology selected for this study, Chapter II contains a review of the literature in the following areas: first, an examination of the theories and research studies which have influenced the development of situational leadership theory, specifically the work of Hersey and Blanchard; second, a review of the literature on the characteristics of the small liberal arts college; third a statement and supportive evidence of the significance of self-perceptual studies and their validity as a research method. Chapter III provides a description ofthe procedures for data collection and analysis utilized in this study. Chapter IV contains a presentation, analysis, and interpretation of the findings of the study. A summary of the study; its purpose, major findings, conclusions and implications for practitioners and theorist, as well as recommendations for future research are presented in Chapter V. CHAPTER II A LITERATURE REVIEW This literature review was guided by three important objectives: (1) to understand the theoretical origins of situational leadership theory, specifically the work of Hersey and Blanchard, (2) to provide a summary view of espoused characteristics of the small liberal arts college, and (3) to define self-perception and establish its validity as a determinant of behavior. Accordingly, this literature review consists of three sections which are identified in the following way: 1. Evolution of Situational Leadership Theory 2. Characteristics of the Small Liberal Arts College 3. Self-Perception WW ‘ According to Finch, Jones and Litterer (1976),"the successes and failures of groups, organizations, societies, and empires have been attributed to the characteristics and behaviors of their leaders” (p.89). As noted in Chapter I, the subject of leadership has been discussed and debated for centuries and still remains a curiosity today. During the past fifty years researchers have witnessed an increased interest in leadership studies. As men and women in positions of leadership strived to identify and understand the variety of factors influencing the productivity and job satisfaction of individuals in organizations and groups, the importance of leadership studies was realized. A review of the literature on leadership reveals an absence of a commonly accepted definition of leadership. Consequently, researchers invest valuable amounts of time defining the phenomenon being studied and experience difficulty applying the research findings of one leadership study to another (Bryman, 1986). The focus of this study was on leadership in a group or organizational setting. Therefore, group and/or organization provided a common denominator which when applied to the research on leadership revealed the existence of congruency between some definitions of leadership. Another common thread manifested in several definitions of leadership is the concept of influence (Finch, Jones and Litterer, 1976). 18 19 Bryman (1986) reports that Stogdill 1950, Hollander 1978, Hemphill and Coon 1957, devised definitions that identified leadership as a social-influence process that guides group members toward the accomplishment of a goal. This concept of leadership connotes an image of a leader with followers in an organization or group setting and implies not only a hierarchy of authority and structure, but also the existence of a relationship between the leader and the follower. The research of Hersey and Blanchard recognizes the importance of the interaction between the leader and the follower, and its implications on job satisfaction and productivity within organizations and groups. The situational leadership approach considered in this study emphasizes the interaction between the leader and the follower within a given job related situation. This theory of leadership has evolved over many years and has benefited from early leadership studies. Want A review of the literature pertaining to leadership studies reveals and acknowledges the contributions of two distinct movementszthe early scientific movementtypified by the research of Frederick Taylor and the human relations movement which emerged from the Hawthorne Study conducted at the Western Electric Company in 1924 and associated with Elton Mayo. The scientific movement postulated that the primary function of the leader was to achieve organization and production goals. These early organizations subscribed to a strict hierarchy of roles and responsibilities, placed emphasis on an authoritative leadership style, and identified task accomplishment as their primary focus. Wrthin the formal organization the designated leader was the manager. Scientific management primarily consisted of the planning and implementing of tasks. Wrthin an organization, management planned what task each worker was to accomplish, how the worker was to accomplish it, and specified the amount of time needed to complete the task The worker received a monetary reward from manage- ment if the task was accomplished within the framework outlined. The objective was to maximize productivity by increasing organizational effectiveness (Vroom and Deci, 1970). The research of Fredrick Taylor is associated with the scientific movement. An 20 engineer, Taylor was interested in the activities of workers and their effect on I productivity. He proposed that by systematizing the performance of workers within an organization efficiency would be increased (Harrison, 1976). Taylor undertook a series of time and motion studies, analyzed the task to be accomplished, the tools needed by the worker to accomplish the task and conducted a comparison analysis amongst workers performing the same task. Through these studies, a best method for completing a task was identified. The method became the standard for performing the task and was taught to every worker. Subsequent studies were conducted to refine the method employed by management for task accomplish- ment and to determine the existence of an even more efficient method (V room and Deci, 1970; Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). Harrison (1976) notes that there are three components to scientific management directed at managing the physical environment. First, workers were instmcted on the one best way to perform specialized jobs. Second, a strict hierarchical organization was imposed. Third, workers were given incentives in order to motivate performance. “The underlying philosophy of the movement was based on the economic doctrine that man is driven by the desire for economic betterment, and that the major means for the work to accomplish his goals is through performance. The piece-rate incentive system encouragesthe workerto produce at his maximum effort, because his individual economic rewards are aligned with his performance” (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974, p.57). Taylor compared the workerto a machine, ignoring the psychological and sociologi- cal variables found in the workplace, even though he did pay special attention to motives which influence the individual. He states that, “perhaps the most important law belonging to this class, in its relation to scientific management, is the effect which the task idea has on efficiency ofthe workman. This, in fact, has become such an important element of the mechanism of scientific management that, by a great number of people, scientific management has come to be known as “task management” (T aylor, 1974, p.300). In 1919, Henri Fayol published writings on management positing that the leader must considerthe whole structure of the organization ratherthan focus only on the worker as Taylor had done. “Fayol claimed that, in spite of the variety of corporate goals and the many environmental pressures, it was possible to identify essential similarities in 21 structure and processes among organizations" (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974, p.58). Fayol believed that an organization contains a vertical structure representing the hierarchy found within it, and a horizontal stmcture reflecting the organizational functions. Thus, Fayol makes a clear distinction between the individual who holds a particular position within an organization, and the position itself. While it is the task of management to setgoals and determine the tasks necessary to insuretheiraccomplish- ment, the process of how the organization functions was also of interest to Fayol (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). Researchers have noted that there are common threads which transcend scientific management, bureaucracy and administrative-management models. These are: the division of labor, hierarchical arrangements between positions, and mice and regula- tions. Under all three models the individual workerwas viewed asthe key to productivity. It was believed that worker motivation was stimulated by the prospect of monetary gain and not influenced by peers or environmental factors (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). In summary, the focus of management during the era from 1900 to 1933 was primarily on determining the one best method for performing a task and establishing performance criteria to meet organizational goals. In the 19205 and 30s, the human relations movement, inspired by Elton Mayo and his associates, resulted in management’s shift in focus to relationships. The needs of the employees and their relationship to the organization was realized as a significant factor influencing job satisfaction and productivity, which resulted in the employment of a more democratic leadership style within organizations. “The function of the leader underthe human relationstheory was to facilitate cooperative goal attainment among followers while providing opportunities fortheir personal growth and development” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.87). Thus, the attention of management shifted from task accomplishment typified by the scientific movement to the needs of the workers and their relationship to the organization. The Hawthorne Study conducted at the Western Electric Company in 1924 along with Elton Mayo provided a parental influence on the human relations movement. The goal ofthe Hawthorne study was to determine a method to improve productivity. Rather than analyzing only the task of the worker, the research method prescribed by the scientific movement, Mayo examined the working conditions related to worker perfor- mance and productivity (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). ' The Hawthome studies focused on the relationship between workplace illumination 22 and productivity. The hypothesis was that if workplace illumination was improved, productivity would increase. The study consisted of a control group and an experimental group. Different levels of light were applied to the experimental group while the level of light remained constant forthe control group. The researchers reported that as the light was increased in the experimental group, productivity increased. However, they also witnessed an increase in productivity in the control group where the level of illumination had not been altered. Two additional experiments were conducted comparing the productivity of the control group and the experimental group. One study examined the effects of lowering the level of light on worker productivity and found that both the experimental and the control groups demonstrated increased rates of productivity. Thus, researchers concluded that no cause and effect relationship existed between illumination and productivity. “After two years of study, the researchers turned their attention to psychological and sociological factors to explain the behavior of workers” (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974, p.61 ). , Elton Mayo and his associates, professors at Harvard University, were asked by the Western Electric Company to continue to examine the relationship between illumination and productivity. Mayo introduced in his experiments, directed at examining the relationship between fatigue and productivity, a series of variables i.e. ; frequency of rest periods, length of work period and wage incentives. “The results of this program of research led Mayo and his associates to place major emphasis on the social organiza- tion of the work group, on the social relations between the supervisor and his subordinates, on the informal standards governing the behavior of members ofthe work group, and on the attitudes and motives of the workers existing in a group context” (Cartwright and Zander, 1968, p.10). As a result of the Hawthorne Studies, the assumptions made about the worker associated with the scientific management movement were countered by the aware- ness that a worker's relationship to the organization and level of productivity were effected by the motives, needs and expectations brought to the workplace (Schein, 1970). Mayo developed a set of assumptions that viewed man as a social being and acknowledged the importance of social motives in organizations. These assumptions are: a. “Man is basically motivated by social needs and obtains his basic sense of identity 23 _ through relationships with others. b. As a result of the industrial revolution and the rationalization of work, meaning has gone out of work itself and must therefore be sought in social relationships on the job. c. Man is more responsive to the social forces of the peer group than to the incentives and controls of management. d. Man is responsive to management to the extent that a supervisor can meet a subordinate’s social needs and needs for acceptance” (Schein, 1970, p.58). According to Schein (1970) these assumptions had a dramatic effect on the role of the manager and advocated the following: First, that the worker as well as the task should be viewed as deserving attention bythe manager. Second, the manager should be concerned with fostering a sense of identity and fit between the worker and the organization ratherthan on controlling or regulating worker behavior. Third, the reward system within the organization should considerthe work group as a whole and not focus solely on the individual. Fourth, the role of the manager should be that of a facilitator and advocate between the worker and management, representing the affective and work-related needs of the employee. The desire to understand worker behavior within an organization and its relationship tojob satisfaction and productivity directed the efforts of researchers to study motivation. Early researchers held certain assumptions about the nature of the worker and productivity which provided the foundation fortheir studies. As noted by Finch, Jones, and Litterer (1976), “Management’s assumptions about the people in the human organizations they manage can have a significant impact on the ways in which these organizations function” (p.101). The research of Katz and Kahn (1966) focused on the behavioral requirements of an organization and posits that in order for an organization to be effective it must be able to attract and retain workers who are reliable and strive to achieve levels of performance beyond what is prescribed in a creative, innovative and spontaneous manner (Steers and Porter, 1975). According to Katz and Kahn, organizations must motivate workers not only to participate in the organization but to do so at a high performance level ifthey are to be effective. Steers and Porter (1975) concluded that, “an understanding of the topic of motivation is thus essential in order to comprehend more fully the effects of variation in other factors (such as leadership style, job design, and salary systems) as they relate to performance, satisfaction and so forth“ (p. 4). For these reasons and 24 others, researchers focused their attention on the study of motivation. Motlxatlonfludlcs There are several theories on motivation that have influenced leadership studies. Three researchers who have made significant contributions to our assumptions and understanding of motivation are A. H. Maslow, F. Herzberg and D. McGregor. In the mid-1940's Maslow introduced his theory that individual behavior is motivated by a desire to satisfy a specific set of needs. A psychologist by profession, Maslow based his theory on clinical observations. He observed that individuals strive with various degrees of intensity to satisfy the following needs: (1) physiological; (2) safety; (3) belongingness; (4) esteem; and (5) self-actualization (Steers and Porter, 1975). Maslow classified the needs in the hierarchy in the following manner: The lower-level needs are the physiological needs or basic needs of air, food, water and shelter. The second-level needs are safety needs which referto an individual's needforasecure and stable environment free from catastrophe. The third-level needs are belongingness needs which include social affiliation and the need to be loved. The fourth-level needs are the esteem needs represented by the individual’s need to feel worthwhile and successful. The fifth-level needs are the self-actualization needs which refer to the positive striving of an individual towards the utilization of one’s skills and abilities to their fullest potential (Harrison, 1976). Maslow’s theory provides a scheme for predicting the probability of an individual’s behavior based on a hierarchy of needs structure consisting of the five categories noted above. His work focused on the individual as the unit of analysis and examined the process by which importance was placed by the individual on each of the need groups causing it to become active (Lawler, 1973). Maslow posits that, “those needs which are largely unsatisfied tend to produce tensions within individuals which lead them to behave in a certain fashion in the hope of reducing the tension and restoring intemal equilibrium” (Steers and Porter, 1975, p.31 ). Maslow hypothesized that each person has a need hierarchy which influences behavior at a given moment. Therefore, it is possible that a need could fade in and out of intensity depending upon the degree to which the individual has satisfied a particular need. Figure 1 outlines Maslow’s hierarchy of needs in diagram form. Physiological needs 25 A I Physiological l __ fSoIety 1 (Security) ___ Social (Affiliation) Esteem (Recognition) Self-Actuolizction (Loan) Strength of Needs (High) Figure I "BSiOVfS hierarchy 0T needs (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.33) *Physiological needs are placed at the top of the heirarchy because they are the most potent and the first needs to be met in the sequence. 26 are placed at the top of the scheme because they represent the basic needs of food, clothing, and shelter (life sustaining needs) which are the most potent. Until these needs are satisfied at a level acceptable to the individual they dominate the individual’s attention and motivate behavior. Once a need is satisfied another need emerges which the individual must address. Consequently, once the self-preservation needs (i.e. physiological and safety needs) are met then the esteem needs are attended to and so on in a sequential hierarchical manner (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). The esteem needs and the self-actualization needs are perhaps the most important when considering motivation of an individual to accomplish a task, as individuals may strive to satisfy a need for recognition or achievement through theirjob. Therefore, the climate present in the workplace has the potential of either depriving or supporting an individual in meeting a desired need. An organizational climate that supports the growth and development of workers may be more successful in providing opportunities for employees to satisfy high level needs, and thus improve worker performance and job satisfaction. Conversely, a climate that creates worker frustration will witness a lower level of job performance and satisfaction (Steers and Porter, 1975). The research of Fredrick Herzberg examined the effect of need satisfaction on job performance. At the Psychological Service of Pittsburgh, Herzberg interviewed 200 accountants and engineers asking each person interviewed a set of questions designed to identify job attitudes. Individuals in the research sample were first asked to describe the last time they felt exceptionally good about theirjob and laterto describethe last time they felt exceptionally negative about theirjobs. Herzberg referred to factors leading to good feelings as satisfiers and negative feelings as dissatisfiers. Respondents were questioned furtherto ascertain whethertheirfeelings of satisfaction affected their work performance or their relationships with others. An analysis of the responses revealed that the respondents had identified two different sets of job experiences or factors influencing job satisfaction. One corresponded to responses given when describing exceptionally good feelings on the job and the other when describing exceptionally negative feelings. Herzberg concluded that individuals have two separate sets of needs which are independent of each other and affect behavior differently. He noted that individuals who reported being dissatisfied on the job described factors in the work environment as causing negative feelings. Additionally, he found that individuals who reported satisfaction identified factors in the work itself. He also observed that the 27 absence of a factor identified as causing satisfaction was not identified as a factor causing dissatisfaction. Based on this study Herzberg developed the motivation- hygiene theory (Steers and Porter, 1975 and Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). “According to the theory, the satisfiers are related to the nature of work itself and the rewards that flow directly from the performance of that work The most potent of these are those characteristics that foster the individual’s need for self-actualization and self-realization in his work These work-related or intrinsic factors are achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, and advancement” (Herzberg, 1975, p.103). Herzberg defined hygiene factors as needs that are extrinsic yet associated with the work environment i.e., working conditions, status, salary, security and preventing job dissatisfaction. They have also been referred to as maintenance needs because they are never fully met and therefore, require continual attention. The motivators are intrinsic needs associated with job satisfaction that motivate the individual to higher levels of performance (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). ‘ Herzberg stressed that factors which influenced employee motivation, challenged the worker, and instilled a sense of accomplishment in the employee. This finding is consistent with Maslow’s need hierarchy. The hygiene or maintenance factors correspond to Maslow’s lower-level needs in that they must be satisfied before the employee can realize job satisfaction and achieve higher levels of performance. When dissatisfiers are present, the employee’s attention remains directed at satisfying these needs rather than at improving work performance (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). Table 1, illustrates the dichotomy existing between various elements of the work environment. While hygiene factors eliminate dissatisfaction they do not motivate the individual to higher performance levels. They do, however, affect the individual’s openness and motivation to focus on the job rather than on the job environment. An individual’s ability to perform a job at a higher level is influenced by motivators, those factors associated with job satisfaction (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). Herzberg’s findings provide a framework for understanding work motivation and encourage consideration by management of the human resources present in the work environment. As with Maslow and Mayo, Herzberg posits that organizational life has extracted the meaning from work. Schein (1970) notes that, “this loss of meaning is not related as much to man’s social needs however, as to man's inherent need to use his capacities and skills in a mature and productive way” (p.65). Jobs have become 28 Table l I‘Iotlvatlon and Hygiene Factors (flame and Blanchard, I988, p.64) Motivator: Hygiene Factors The Job Itself Environment Achievement Policies and administration Recognition for accomplishment Supervision .. Challenging work Workrng conditions Increased responsibility Interpersonal relations Growth and deveIOpment Money, status, security 29 specialized to the extent that the individual worker is not able to grow and develop within the job nor is the worker able to realize the importance of a particular job to the organization asawhole. Schein (1970),summarizedthe research supporting the notion of the self-actualized man in the following way: “I" he assumptions underlying the concept of self-actualizing man place emphasis on higher-order needs for autonomy, challenge, and self-actualization, and imply that such needs exist in all men and become active as lower-order security and social needs come to be satisfied” (p.69). These findings have implications for the structuring of the work environment as well as for the role of managers and their relationship to the employee. If, as stated earlier, leadership is defined as an influencing process involving the accomplishment of established goals through the efforts of an individual or group, then based on the findings of Taylor, Mayo, Maslow and Herzberg a leader/manager must be concerned with human relationships as well as the task, if organizational goals are to be met effectively. The research of James McGregor considered the environment of a traditional organization and examined the effect of attitudes held by managers on the way an organization functions. His research, like that of Maslow and Herzberg, focused on motivation. McGregor posits that there are two theories of management that influence the manner in which organizations function. Theory X, according to McGregor, assumes that people inherently dislike work, and therefore, will avoid it if possible. Theory X also assumes that people are motivated by incentives such as money and fringe benefits, etc. McGregor contends that managers who adopt Theory X tend to be directive, controlling and coercive in their style of management. FII'ICI'I, Jones and Litterer, (1976) note that, “ people behave or attempt to behave in congruence with their assumptions and expectations about their world. If managers hold Theory X assumptions abouttheir employees, they are likely to (1 ) tell them what to do and when to do it and (2) institute a variety of control procedures to ensure that they do it” (p.103). This creates an organization that is highly structured, controlling, and requires managers to closely supervise employees. Employees become lazy and irresponsible unless driven and thus fulfill the expectations of management. Recognizing the existence ofa self-fulfilling prophecy and considering the realities of human nature, McGregor proposed a second set of assumptions manifested in Theory Y. Theory Y posits that human beings do not dislike work and encourages managers 30 to create work environments where expectations for performance are clear, commit- ment to goal accomplishment can develop and is rewarded, responsibility is valued and human resources present in the work environment are utilized. McGregor concluded that managers who adopted the assumptions espoused under Theory Y would behave very differently than those who adopted those of Theory X. Work environments would be more healthy and supportive and employees more creative and productive (Frnch, Jones and Litterer, 1976). It should be noted that both Theory X and Theory Y suggest a predisposition held by management about the nature of man. While it appears that Theory Y managers create a more democratic work environment, this may not be effective in all work settings, particularly those where the skill level of the worker is low. As stated previously, if Maslow's lower-order needs, such as physiological and safety needs, have notyet been met it is difficult to motivate workers toward self-actualization. While the management style associated with Theory Y managers may not always be appropriate, the assump- tions aboutthe nature of man are. Thus, a manager may have an attitude about workers that is consistent with Theory Y but a management style that is associated with Theory X (Pascarelli, 1985). In summary. the work of Maslow, Herzberg and McGregor is concerned with understanding human behavior. They strived to determine what motivates behavior and to identify attitudes held by others in evaluating work performance. The work of these men is extremely important as it represents a shift in research focus and concern from the taskto the individual worker and the work environment. The emergence of the behavioral science approach to the study of leadership resulted from this shift in emphasis by researchers. The behavioral science approach appeared in the late 1940's and was primarily concerned with examining what leaders do. Leadership was defined by the behavioral scientist as an activity or process that some individuals may engage in (Bryman, 1986). Afterthe Hawthorne studies attention was placed on the importance of leadership style and its effects on worker attitude and productivity. Hersey and Blanchard (1988) contend that “the real test of our abilities as leaders and managers is how effectively we can establish and maintain human organizations” (p.1). The famed Ohio State Studies provide a backdrop for this review of the behavioral science approach to the study of leadership. 31 We: During the 1940’s and 50’s, studies on leadership centered on defining the functions of leadership. The work of RF. Bales at Harvard University along with John Hemphill, Ralph Stogdill, Carrol Shartle, and others at the Personnel Research Board at Ohio State University, advanced the definition of leadership by recognizing influence as a significant part of leadership. In addition, individuals and group members were cited as having a function in the achievement of a goal (Wrightsman, 1973). The Ohio State Studies were conducted by an interdisciplinary team of researchers who focused their attention on the activities of leaders. The researchers identified two basic dimensions of leader behavior as the focus of their studies, “consideration” and “initiating structure”, for which the Ohio State Studies are remembered. The research instrument used in the Ohio State Studies was the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) which was initially designed to consider eight aspects of leader behavior. The LBDQ questionnaire was administered to 300 members of aircrews who were asked to describe the behavior of their leader. A factor analysis of the data revealed four factors that describe leader behavior (Bryman, 1986). The first factor was referred to as consideration. “Consideration: (C) reflects the extent to which an individual is likely to have job relationships characterized by mutual trust, respect for subordinate's ideas, and consideration of theirfeelings" (FIDCI'I, Jones and Litterer, 1974, p.94). The second factor was called initiating structure. “Initiating Stmcture (IS): reflects the extent to which an individual is likely to define and structure his role and those of his subordinates toward goal attainment. A high score on this dimension characterizes individuals who play a more active role in directing group activities through planning, communicating information, scheduling, trying out new ideas, etc.” (Finch, Jones and Litterer, 1976, p.93). The third and fourth factors, respectively, were called production emphasis and sensitivity or social awareness. Factors one and two received a significantly higher percentage of response than factors three and four. The emphasis forfu rtherstudy was, therefore, placed by researchers on consideration and initiating structure (Bryman, 1986). 32 The researchers initiated studies to examine the relationship between these two factors or dimensions of leader behavior and employee satisfaction and productivity. The LBDQ was administered to military air crews and commanders and later to their supervisor, to determine combat performance during the Korean War. Researchers found that there existed a negative correlation between the ratings of the supervisors and the commanders on consideration. Thus, supervisors who were described by their crews as considerate received low success ratings from their superiors. One could conclude bythisanalysisthat good pilots were considered bytheircrews to be more task oriented and more able to obtain goals. On the other hand researchers found that satisfaction among crews was associated with considerate supervisors. The research supports the notion that Initiating structure or behavior directed at task accomplishment and consideration or relationship directed behavior, are two separate and distinct dimensions. Thus, a low score on one dimension does not result in an opposite score on the other dimension. This research introduced two competing goals confronting leaders; to achieve or to care (Wrightsman, 1973). Research conducted by Bales on leader behavior also revealed two dimensions of leadership functions which he identified as task orientation and maintenance orienta- tion. He defined task orientation as the achievement of goals and maintenance orientation as those leadertunctionsthat maintain cohesiveness in agroup (Wrightsman, 1973). Hemphill (1955) utilized the LBDQ in an educational setting. He asked faculty members to identify five departments on the campus that they believed to be adminis- tered effectively and five other departments that were not perceived as being effectively administered. He then asked each faculty member in each of the departments identified, to rate the chair of each department using the LBDQ. An analysis of the results revealed that department chairs who were perceived by faculty as being effective had scores above the median on both the measure of consideration and initiating stnrcture. Hemphill concluded that effective leadership behavior is associated with both the accomplishment of tasks and concem for workers (Wrightsman, 1973). The Ohio State studies are important for a number of reasons: (1) For the first time a questionnaire was used to describe leader behavior in a group or organization. By utilizing the LBDQ researchers were able to gather large samples of data from which to determine patterns of leader behavior. The unit of analysis shifted from that of the 33 individual to the group. (2) They attempted to establish a relationship between descripters of leadership behavior and measurable outcomes such as: performance, job satisfaction, absenteeism etc. (3) They identified two independent variables of leadership behavior (consideration and initiating structure) and thus established that leader behavior was not centered on a single continuum. Four quadrants, displayed in figure 2, were developed to illustrate possible combinations of consideration and initiating structure leadership behavior. The Michigan Studies and the research of Rensis Likert and others continued to study leadership by locating and examining clusters of behavioral characteristics that appear to be associated with and determine leader effectiveness. Two important theoretical concepts emerged from this research, one emphasizing task accomplish- ment and the otherthe development of personal relationships. The work of Robert R. Blake and Jane S. Mouton elaborates on these two concepts through the use of the Managerial Grid. The Managerial Grid expanded upon the four quadrants introduced by the Ohio Studies by identifying five different types of leadership associated with task or relationship behaviors and placed them on fourquadrants. Blake and Mouton placed concern for production on the horizontal axis and concern for people on the vertical axis. This model differs from the Ohio State Studies in that, “the Managerial Grid tends to be an attitudinal model that measures the values and feelings of a manager, while the Ohio State framework attempts to include behavioral concepts (items) as well as attitudinal items” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p. 100). The five categories used by Blake and Mouton are: lmpoverishment, Country Club, Task, Middle-of-the-Road and Team. These terms are defined in the following way: “lmpoverished. Exertion of minimum effort to get required work done is appropriate to sustain organization membership. Country Club. Thoughtful attention to needs of maple for satisfying relationships leads to a comfortable, friendly organization atmosphere and work tempo. Task. Efficiency in Operations results from arranging conditions of work in such a way that human elements interfere to a minimum degree. Middle-of-the-Road. Adequate organization performance is possible through bal- ancing the necessity to get out work while maintaining morale of people at a satisfactory level. Team. Work accomplishment is from committed people; interdependence through Consideration —-—> (High) (Law) 34 High High Consideration Structure and and LOW High Structure Consideration Low High I Structure Structure and and Low Low Consideration Consideration (Low) Initiating Structure -—->- (High) Figure 2 The Ohio State leadership quadrants (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.92) 35 a “common stake' in organization purpose leads to relationships of trust and respect” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.100). Blake and Mouton along with McGregor believed that the leadership style that is most effective is one which “maximizes productivity and satisfaction and growth and development in all situations” (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p. 101 ). Blake and Moulton (1982) are among those theorists who believe that there is “one best” leadership style. However, the situationalists and the contingency advocates contend that there is no “one best” style and that this conclusion is based on research findings. Hersey and Blanchard (1988) report that for most researchers, effective leaders must be able to adapt their style to a given situation and view leadership as basically situational. This requires that leaders be versatile and able to adapt their behavior to the situations and ensuing demands placed upon them (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). Robert Tannenbaum and Warren H. Schmidt introduced a theory which recognized the relationship between the leader, follower and the situation when determining leader behavior. The theory was represented by a continuum or range of choices available to the leader when determining leader behavior. The continuum consisted of seven leader behaviors ranging from democratic (relationship oriented) behavior to authoritarian (task oriented) behavior. The leader, after considering the follower and the situation, selected a corresponding behavior represented on the continuum. The areas identified on the continuum represented a relative degree of freedom forthe follower in making decisions. The autocratic leader maintained a high degree of control while the democratic leader provided a high degree of freedom to the follower. These two styles represent basic assumptions held by leaders about theirfollowers and source of power and authority (Helliegel and Slocum, 1974 and Hersey and Blanchard 1988). Tannenbaum and Schmidt suggested that a manager should do the following: (1 ). “Assess his own value system; (2) weigh the degree of felt confidence in subordinates; (3) analyze personal feelings of security in the situation; and (4) then determine the general style of leadership with which he or she is most comfortable and under which the subordinates can effectively operate” (Hellriegel and Slocum 1974, p.339). This strategy allows the leader to identify attitudes and assumptions that they hold, relative to the situation and the follower or subordinate. Theory X assumptions are often associated with authoritarian style of leadership and Theory Y with democratic style. Power is viewed as originating from the leader position under theory X and from the 36 followers or group under Theory Y. The continuum illustrated in figure 3, is recognized as influencing the development of the situational or contingency approach to the study of leadership (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). WWW While theorists recognized that elements of a situation influence the effectiveness of a leader, little research was conducted to identify those situational factors that influence leadership style. Fred Fiedler can be cited as the developer of the contingency model of effective leadership. The focus of his research was on examining the relationship between leadership effectiveness and situational aspects within a group. “Fiedler’s initial basic assumption was that a leader’s attitude towards his subordinates is related to his leadership style, which in turn influences group interaction and performance" (Finch, Jones and Litterer, 1976, p.96). “The theory (the so-called “Contingency Model”) postulates that the effectiveness of a group is contingent upon the relationship between leadership style and the degree to which the group situation enables the leader to exert influence" (Fiedler, 1967, p.16). Fiedler(1967) defined leaders as, “the individuals in the group given the task of directing and coordinating task-relevant group activities or who, in the absence of a designated leader, carriesthe primary responsibility forperforming these functions in the group'(p.8). Leader effectiveness was defined in terms of group performance or productivity. The primary focus of Fiedlers research is on predicting leadership effectiveness. Fiedler designed an instrument to assess attitudes held by leaders of their co-workers known as the Least Preferred Co-worker (LPC). On a bipolar rating scale with eight points, leaders were asked to rate the co-worker with whom they least and most preferred to work “Fiedler's reason for measuring the leader’s orientation towards his LPC is that it distinguishes between the person and the way he works” (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974, p. 343). Two different leadership styles emerged from the study. As predicted, one leadership style was primarily task oriented and the other relationship oriented. The high-LPC scores corresponded to relationship oriented leaders and the low-LPC scores tended to be task oriented leaders. These scores suggest that leaders have different basic needs that are satisfied in the work group. The task oriented leader receives Source of (Democratic) < Relationships Oriented 36A ; (Authoritarian) Task Oriented r_______ Authority Leader permits subordinpleS to (unClIOf'I wififinIimih defined by superior Area of Freedom for Subordinales Leader Leader presents presents problenn ideas gets and suggestions, invites Leader and makes Leader questions defines deCISIOO presents limits; tentative asks group decision to make subject decision to change Figure 3 Continuum of leader behavior (Herseq and Blanchard, I988, l06) Leader makes decided and onnoances Leader ii 'Xelh” decificn 37 satisfaction from goal accomplishment while the relationship oriented leader gains satisfaction from strong interpersonal relations with group members. Thus, according to Fiedler, a leader’s style reflects the individual’s motivation system (Wrightsman, 1973; Bryman, 1986 and Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). There appears to be no relationship between these two leadership styles and productivity. “However, when the situations in which leadership occurred were categorized according to the extent of favorableness forthe leader, a definite relation- ship between leadership style and performance emerged” (Finch, Jones and Litterer, 1976, p.96). Fiedler (1967) defines situational favorableness “as the degree to which the situation enables the leaderto exert influence over his group” (p.13). Owens (1987) reports that situational favorableness is determined by three situational variables or factors: 1 ) the personal relationship between leader and follower, 2) the stmcture of the task, and 3) the position power of the leader. These three variables should be considered when determining an appropriate leadership style. Fiedler's theory predicts that, “a task-oriented style will be maximally effective in favorable leadership situations, a relationshiporiented style will be effective in intermediate situations, and a task- oriented leadership style will again be most effective in unfavorable group situations” (Fiedler, 1967, pp.13 814). For example, a situation is favorable when a rapport exists between the the leader and followers, the task is well defined, and the leaders’ position power is strong. Under these conditions, the ability of the group to accomplish a designated task is high. Fiedler introduced a complex situational variable that according to his theory influences the relationship between LPC scores and leader effectiveness. Therefore, the product of an appropriate match between leadership style and the demands of a situation is group effectiveness (Hunt, 1984). Figure 4 illustrates Fiedlers’ model. His model was important because it provided evidence that there is no “one best" style of leadership and that it is easier to change the leader’s situation than it is to change the leader’s style. If the three situational variables are considered, then adjusting the task stmcture may result in the groups ability to obtain a particular goal. Adjustments may be made to the other variables in an effort to make the situation more favorable to a particular leadership style. Thus, Fiedler advocates that emphasis must not only be placed on the training of leaders but also on the development of work environments that support the worker and reward performance. 38 ReIclionships-oriented - Task-oriented style Task-orient“j "I’Ie considerate style AL objc (codership Situation intermediate Unfavorable leadership m! . l I Fa ‘ruclion in favorableness for situation SI leader Figure 4 Leadership stgles approriate for various group Situations (Herseg and Blanchard, I988, p_l09) 39 Wheat! Building on the findings of the Ohio State Studies and the expectancy model of motivation, House and associates developed the Path-Goal Model of leadership. The model posits that “a person will engage in behavior that is directed towards satisfying certain needs and for which the individual perceives a high probability of satisfying needs when engaging in this behavior” (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). This model suggests that a leader's effectiveness is determined by the extent to which the leader's behavior influences the motivation level of subordinates. The Path- Goal Theory is, therefore, concerned with how the leader influences “the subordinates perception of their work goals, personal goals and path to goal attainment”, thus acquiring the name Path-Goal Theory (House and Mitchell, 1975, p.383). The Path-Goal Theory has its roots in the expectancy theory which posits an individual’s motivation is based on the individual’s perceived ability to achieve a particular goal and the value placed on goal attainment by the individual. This approach to leadership recognizes that the behavior of the leader affects the motivation of the subordinates relative to goal attainment and personal satisfaction (Steers and Porter, 1975) Hersey and Blanchard (1988) point out that subordinate job satisfaction is most prevalent in situations that are unstructured and, therefore, offer greater challenge and intrinsic satisfaction tothe subordinate. The leader behavior prescribed for unstmctured situations is high on task orientation, as the goal needs to be clarified forthe subordinate and low relationship orientation. House was particularly interested in examining situations where a high task oriented style was effective and those where a high relationship oriented style was effective, in orderto identify the situational determinants associated with each (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). House developed the Path-Goal model based on two key variables; goal ambiguity and job satisfaction. House postulated that role ambiguity was effected by the degree of structure and direction provided by the leader to clarify the task or goal to be accomplished. Two styles of leadership, consideration or relationship oriented and initiating stmcture ortask oriented revealed in the Ohio State Studies were utilized in the Path-Goal model. By applying this concept, House proposed that the leader's style 40 could influence subordinate job satisfaction while decreasing role ambiguity. This suggests that the leaders provide a valuable source of motivation to workers and thus can influence both worker job satisfaction and role ambiguity. Subordinate job satisfaction was associated with presence or absence of perceived rewards in the work environment. Therefore, it was believed that a worker selects the amount of energy directed toward the completion of a task based on the perceived worth or reward associated with accomplishing it (Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974). In the past twenty years, researchers have refined the Path-Goal Theory by identifying fourtypes of leaderbehaviorthat mayinfluence worker motivation. Theyare: instmmental leadership, supportive leadership, participatory leadership and achieve- ment-oriented leadership. In addition, researchers observed that there are two situational or contingency factors that must be considered when determining which leader behavior will motivate subordinate productivity and satisfaction. The two contingency factors are the personal characteristics of the worker and the environment or work setting (Bryman, 1986). The Path-Goal approach suggests the leadership style that may be most effective in a given situation and assists the leader in determining the situational factors that cause a particular style to be effective (Steers and Porter, 1975). Windham As stated earlier in this chapter, as a result of the research of Fiedler and others it was discovered “that different traits and behaviors are important for leaders in different situations” (Yukl, 1 981 , p. 1 32). As expected, researchers attempted to analyze various situations to determine what factors within the situation influence leader effectiveness. This analysis resulted in the identification of two measures of leader effectiveness, the introduction of consideration and initiating structure and subsequently the recognition that although these measures are useful, they are not always consistent measures of leader effectiveness. Hersey and Blanchard introduced the life cycle theory of leadership in an effort to explain existing inconsistencies. This contingency theory draws upon the work of Blake and Moulton as well as the two-dimensional Ohio State Model and provides a model for diagnosing a situation and determining appropriate leadership styles given situational factors. While the influence ofthe Ohio State Studies 41 on the work of Hersey and Blanchard is evident, it is also important to acknowledge the contributions of William Reddin's three-dimensional theory of leadership. Reddin introduced the dimension of effectiveness to the two-dimensional Ohio State Studies. Like so many other dimensions of leadership, effectiveness was represented on acontinuum. A situational theorist, Reddin identified five factors present in a situation and, consistent with Moulton, Blake and others, identified four basic leadership styles. Reddin's hypothesis was that “different situations require different styles and that the effectiveness of a style depends upon the situation in which it is used” (Owens, 1987, p.148) The work of Hersey and Blanchard essentially expanded upon the two-dimensional model of leadership by introducing four leadership behaviors resulting from combina- tions of initiating structure and consideration as descripters of leadership behavior and introducing a situational dimension namely, the task-relevant maturity of the follower. Terms such as task and relationship behaviors were substituted for initiating structure and consideration respectively. Two assumptions shaped the work of Hersey and Blanchard. The first simply stated that there is no “one best” leadership style for all situations. The second contended that in orderto be effective a leader must be able to diagnose a situation and prescribe an appropriate leadership style given situational factors. Life-Cycle Theory developed by Hersey and Blanchard, not only considered the leader and situational factors but also placed emphasis on the follower. It introduced the notion that the “maturity” level of the subordinate was a determining factor relative to the leader exercising a task or relationship-oriented style of leadership. Hersey and Blanchard defined “maturity” as being made up of two components: the willingness of the subordinate to perform a task, and the ability or skills possessed by the subordinate necessary fortask completion. Based on this theory, if an individual is assessed by the leader to lack the task-relevant experience needed to complete a particular task, the leader may assume a style that is high-task and low-relationship. As the worker performs within the expectations set by the leader, the behavior is reinforced and the leader may adopta leadership style with astronger relationship emphasis (Jones, Finch and Utterer, 1976). Thus, Hersey and Blanchard’s Life-Cycle Theory emphasized the importance of the characteristics of the subordinate or follower in determining an appropriate leadership 42 style. This theory later became known as the situational theory of leadership, which is the focus ofthis study. For Hersey and Blanchard the level of maturity of group members or subordinates in a work setting is a critical situational determinant of an effective leadership style. Not only must a leader be able to diagnose a work group or unit but must consider the maturity of each individual as well. Therefore. the leader must be flexible in choosing a leadership style, recognizing the variety of maturity levelsthat may be present within a work group. Accorcfing to Owens (1987), “essentially, situational leadership theory contends that (a) the maturity level of organizational participants can be increased over time and (b) as the maturity level of participants increases, the effective leadership style will be characterized by a reduction in task-oriented behavior and by an increase in relationship-oriented behavior” ( pp.150 8151). The research of Hersey and Blanchard has been criticized for not considering other situational factors that may influence leadership behavior. As noted earlier, Hersey and Blanchard focused their attention solely on the psychological and job maturity of group members and workers (Bryman, 1986). ‘ Hersey and Blanchard’s more recent writings describe a refined version of the Life- Cycle Theory of leadership, namely, the Situational Leadership Model. There are a number of elaborations which distinguish the Situational Leadership Model from the Life-Cycle Theory. The first and perhaps most important is the acknowledgement by the theorist that the Situational Leadership Model isjust that, a model designed to assist leaders in selecting an effective leadership style given situational factors. For Hersey and Blanchard (1988), “situational leadership is based on an interplay among (1) the amount of guidance and direction (task behavior) a leader gives, (2) the amount of socioemotional support (relationship behavior) a leader provides, and (3) the reacfiness levelthatthe followers exhibitin performing aspecifictask, function orobjective'(p.1 70). Like the life-cycle theory emphasis is placed on the follower. The maturity level of the follower introduced under the Ute-Cycle Theory is referred to as follower reacfiness in the Situational Leadership Model. Additionally, the four leadership styles introduced in the Ohio State studies are redefined and simply represented as Style 1, 2, 3 and 4. Hersey and Blanchard (1988) defined the four leadership styles in the following way: “Style 1: This leadership style is characterized by above-average amounts of task behavior and below-average amounts of relationship behavior. Style 2: This leadership style is characterized by above-average amounts of both 43 task and relationship behavior. Style 3: This style is characterized by above-average amounts of relationship behavior and below-average amounts of task behavior. Style 4: This style is characterized by below-average amounts of both task behavior and relationship behavior" (p.173). Thus, Hersey and Blanchard believed that an individual’s leadership style is influenced by both task behavior and relationship behavior. Another dimension or variable influencing leadership style is follower readiness or maturity, which is depen- dent uponthe individual’s willingness and ability to perform aparticulartask. Hersey and Blanchard placed readiness on a continuum citing four levels of readiness based on the degree of willingness and ability of the followerto perform a particular task Each point along the continuum was identified by the letter R and a corresponding number of 1-4. Figure 5 illustrates the four combinations of follower willingness and ability as it applies to task accomplishment. A Leadership style is then selected to correspond to the readiness of the follower orgroup. For example, afollower orgroup at level R1 (unable and unwilling or insecure) may respond best to a leadership style that is directive, offering guidance and structure necessary to complete a particular task This has been referred to as the "telling” style of leadership. Hersey and Blanchard extend this concept by corresponding each of four leadership styles to a level of readiness in the following manner: Readiness level 2, corresponds to Style 2, Match-Selling; Readiness Level 3, corresponds to Style 3, Match-Participating and Readiness Level 4, corresponds to Style 4, Match-Delegating. Table 2 represents the combinations stated above. It is important to note that while there are models to assist managers and leaders in selecting an effective leadership style given a particular situation, leader behavior should not be locked in to the dictates of the model. The Situational Leadership Model is atool that predicts the probability of selecting a leadership style appropriate fora given situation. It should be noted that a leader is attempting to develop the readiness level of the follower(s) by adjusting the leadership style in response to the follower(s). Therefore, while low readiness level followers may require a strong task oriented leader as they perform the task, as readiness increases the follower should be rewarded, and the behavior reinforced and supported reflective of a relationship leadership orientation. Figure 6 provides a diagram of the expanded situational leadership model. The Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self instmment utilized in this study is an extension 44 HIGH MODERATE ,Law R4 R3 R2 R1 Abl d Able but Unable but Unable and .99” Unwilling Willing UnwiIIing WrIIrng . ‘ C Iidenl or 0‘ 0' 0' 0“ Insecure Confident Insecure Figure 5 Follower readiness (Hersetj and Blanchard, 1988, p.176) 45‘ Table 2 Leadership styles appropriate for various readiness levels (Hersey and Blanchard, I988, p.180) Readiness Level Appropriate Style R1 Low Readiness Unable and unwilling or insecure S 1 Telling High task Low relationship behavior R2 Low to Moderate Readiness Unable but willing or confident 82 Selling High task High relationship behavior R3 Moderate to High Readiness Able but unwilling or insecure $3 Participating High relationship Low task behavior R4 High Readiness Able/competent and willing/confident S4 Delegaring Low relationship Low task behavior TASK BEHAVIOR— ihe extent to «men inc leader engages in defining roles telling what. “Ow. when. where and II me than one Demon who is re do WI in 0 Goal-Selling - Organizing ° Establishing time Lines - Directing 0 Canliomng RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR— The extent to which a leader engages in two-way (mafia-way) commanicaiion iisiemng facilitating benawors socoemononar support — Giving Support - Comr'numcaiing . FaCiIIllliflg interactions 0 Active Listening - Prowamg Feedbac- (Supportive Behavior) “RELATIONSHIP BEHAVIOR—thIGH) 46 Share «as and laciiiiaie on oec-saon matting G ,s Q? \ 9 Is m <1 0. Hi Rel to Task LEADER BEHAVIOR 2 E core-n OCCrSrOflS {L and prev-0e wriufliiy tor clauiocairon Hi Task Lo Rel Turn over responsibility for 09051005 and molemenlalion spec-lac MSIIUCI-ons and closely supervise perIOrmance DECISION STYLES 1 Leader Jude Decision 2 Leader-Mace Deers-on min Drarogue analor Explanation 3 LeaoertFOquv-Maoe Dec-soon or Former- Maoe Dec-soon min Encouragement from LCIOQ' 4 Forr0wer Mace Decision ABILITY has the necessary knowredge. exper-ence and still WiLLINGNESS has the necessary confidence. commitment mtivahon rtowi< TASK BEHAvron——+rHiGHi (Guidance) FOLLOWER READINESS HIGH MODERATE LOW Able and Able but Unable but Unable and Willing Unwilling Willing Unwilling Of 0! Oi Oi Confident insecure Confident Insecure \ A J FOLLOWER LEADER DIRECTED DIRECTED When a Leader Behavror is used appropriately with its corresponding level of readiness. ii rs termed a High Probability Match, The loll0wing are descriptors that can be useful when usrng Situational Leadership for specrlic applications S1 Telling Guiding Directing Establishing $2 SBIIing Explaining Clarifying Persuading $3 Participating Encoirraging Collaborating Committing S4 Delegaiing Observing MoniIOring Fulfilling Figure 6 Expanded Situational Leadership flodel (Hersei; and Blanchard, i988, p.l82) 47 of Hersey’s and Blanchard's Situational Leadership Model. The various leadership and motivation studies examined in this chapter provide the foundation for understanding the evolution of Hersey’s and Blanchard's situational leadership theory. Attention is placed by these theorists on the importance of situational variables and follower motivation and ability in determining an effective leadership style. The literature supports the behavorial science approach to the study of leadership and stresses the need for leaders to possess diagnostic skills and a repertoire of leadership styles. W The small private residential liberal arts colleges ofthe G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia provided the organizational and environmental context for this study. Wm While the liberal arts college has enjoyed a long and distinguished history in American higher education} the (higher education) literature is devoid of significant research on these colleges. Given the limited availability of research directed at determining characteristics of the small liberal arts college, the observations that follow are derived from a variety of sources including empirical knowledge about the nature of these institutions. WW Prototypes of the early colonial college, small private liberal arts colleges are most often characterized by their small size, selectivity, academic reputation, caring commu- nity, commitment to general education, and emphasis on quality teaching. The literature suggests that these characteristics are manifested in low faculty student ratios, high levels of contact between faculty and students both in and outside of the classroom, rigorous curriculum requirements and content, and valued traditions (Boyer. 1987; Horowitz, 1987; Martin, 1982; Rudolph, 1962). Perhaps the most obvious difference between small colleges and their counterparts 48 is size. The small size and low faculty student ratio posits a campus environment where individualized attention, strong student faculty relationships, small course enrollments, opportunities for involvement in governance and campus life, accessibility of faculty, quality teaching and the presence of a caring community are communal values. According to Astin (1978) “the most important institutional characteristics affecting student satisfaction are academic selectivity, prestige, and institutional size” (p.182). The small size and residential nature of these institutions influence the perceived and expected educational climate found within the private liberal arts college. Kuh (1989) notes that the outcomes of a small college experience for students are responsible citizenship, enhanced capacity for independent judgement, and critical thinking. He also reports that students develop a stronger identification with the institution, are involved in the activities of the college both curricular and co-curricular and are recognized at greater levels for their accomplishments. The small college environment allows students, faculty and administratorsto interact with one another in a variety of capacities and settings. This interdependence between faculty, students, administrators and staff is manifest in a collegial approach to institutional governance and the perception that these institutions possess a flat hierarchy of authority, and are highly personalized. The collegial model of govemance is opposed to hierarchy and structure rather advocates high levels of participatory decision-making (Richman and Farmer, 1974). “In the small college, fewer staff and a small number of students yield a situation with significant implications for interpersonal relations and administrative style” (Shaw, 1985, p.45). Wrthin these institutions people and functions enjoy a high level of visibility to one another. Kouzes and Posner (1989) note that “while scholars may disagree on the origins of leadership, there is strong consensus that leaders must be interpersonally competent” (p.299). Sandeen (1991) supports this finding noting that in a small college effective mediation skills are extremely important for deans of students to possess. These statements suggest that strong personal relationships between members of the small college community are highly valued. This notion is further strengthened by the commitment inherent in the liberal arts tradition to educate the total student. Bowen and Douglass (1971) proclaimed that “ ......... good liberal education involves more than the transmission of facts and ideas of a kind that can be measured by test scores. It also involves outlooks, attitudes, values, motives, and development of 49 character and personality” (p.4). Educating the whole person has long been a goal of liberal learning. Kuh, Shedd and Whitt (1987) report that, “the objectives of a liberal education are consistent with a holistic approach to human growth and development (Berg, 1983)” (p.254). Astin and Schein (1980) substantiate this finding by posing that small private liberal arts colleges are generally regarded as highly concerned with student development. This commonly held objective has ramifications for the student affairs organization within the small college and the expectations associated with its programs and services as well as its relationship to the mission of the college. Walton: Today more than ever before, effective marketing of higher education, including the small private liberal arts college, to perspective students and parents is of primary importance. The competitive marketplace of higher education has caused some liberal arts colleges to close while others offer a specialized curriculum deviating from the traditional liberal arts curriculum in an effort to remain viable competitors in a declining market. Asthe cost of attending a private liberal arts college increases, the expectations held by the consumerforquality in all aspects of the educational program also increases. In response to these pressures liberal arts colleges have launched a more aggressive approach to marketing themselves to the public. By examining the literature distributed to prospective students and their parents, distinguishing features of the private liberal arts college can be determined. Ragan and McMillan (1989) note that in their marketing efforts, “the liberal arts institution first establishes the expected persona of an intimate, caring community, where each individual is known personally and education is custom-made“ (p.690). They further state that “tothose students forwhom size and personalization are salient intheirchoice, leading issues include the amount of individualized instruction, size of classes, accessibility of faculty, degree of personal attention, and quantity and quality of resources for academic and social activity“ (p. 690). After reviewing publications of 28 selective liberal arts colleges, Regan and McMillan (1989) concluded that these colleges “define themselves as capable of being all things to all people” (p.689). By comparing the descriptions ofthese colleges presentedintheir respective publications, Regan and McMillan (1989) identified the following contrasting 50 features: (1) “intimate / worldly environments (2) exclusive / inclusive (3) accessibility / scholarly faculty (4) academic / social climate (5) rigorous / manageable academics (6) classical / vocational education” (p.690). This desire to be “all things to all people” has resulted in a greater degree of ambiguity relative to the goals and purposes of these institutions, which in turn has influenced the need for greater institutional definition. It is this broad definition of institutional purpose and the promise of providing “all things for all people ," that create unique challenges for deans of students at small liberal arts colleges. filimmanr While research focusing on the unique characteristics of the small college is limited, there is empirical evidence that these institutional are most often characterized by their small size, quality and personalized attention. Relationships between members of the community are valued, and participation in the life and governance of the college expected. Issues facing higher education today have generated new and sometimes compet- ing expectations for programs and individualized services. Consequently, small college deans must considerthe unique organizational and environmental context within which they hold a position of leadership. The history, values and goals of the liberal arts as well as the role expectations held for deans by others, both in and outside of the college environment, influence leader behavior. In higher education today, providing educational opportunities through curricular and co-curricular programs, tailored to meet the specific needs of an increasingly diverse student population with expectations that rise with the cost of tuition, is indeed a challenge. In order to minimize the inherent conflicts described by Ragan and 51 McMillan (1989) it is essential that administrators within the small college be effective leaders. Situational leadership theory recognizes the significance of the interaction between an individual and the environment as a determinant of behavior. Therefore, it is important to measure the situational leadership tendencies ofdeans of students holding leadership positions in small colleges. SELEEEBQEEIIQN The purpose of this study was to determine and describe the perceived leadership style tendencies of deans of students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia using the Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self research instrument. A variable in this study was the effect of self-perception on determining leader behavior. W According to Kleinke (1 978), studies of self-perception fall into two categories: (1 ) “the perception and interpretation of bodily states, and (2) the perception and interpretation of overt behaviors” (p. xiii). it is important to note that, overt behaviors serve as cues for perceiving attitudes and that”people form their attitudes by observing their behaviors and making attributions about the causes of these behaviors” (Kleinke, 1978, p.78). Therefore, it is important for individuals to identify the perceptions that they hold for themselves and others. This study sought to determine and describe the self-perceived leadership behav- iors of deans of students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. member colleges using the Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self research instrument. Hersey, Blanchard and Natemeyer (1981) note that, “truth and reality do not necessarily evoke behavior; perception and interpretation of reality produced behavior" (p. 425). They suggest that the closer an individual's perception is to the perception held by others, the greaterthe consistency or internal validity of their perceptions. The Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self instrument, utilized in this study was designed to provide insight to respondents on their perceptions and interpretations of reality, relative to leader behavior. While not part of this study, the LBA ll Other, when 52 administered to subordinates, generates valuable information for determining the consistency of the respondents’ self-perceptions of their leader behavior relative to the perceptions held by others. By administering both instruments, a comparison of the findings can be conducted to determine the degree of congruence between the perceptions held by self and another. The self-perceived leadership style may or may not be different from an individual’s actual leadership style. The more closely aligned one's perceptions are with those of others, the more likely the behavior will be exhibited. Wading: How valid is the use of self-perception as a predictor of behavior? Two kinds of evidence can be presented to validate the use of self perception as a means of predicting behavior. First, research reveals that people's perceptions of themselves (self-perceptions) are consistently and significantly related to the percep- tions held by others who know them well. Secondly, researchers found that people’s self-perceptions are, consistently and significantly related to ratings of these individuals social behavior made by trained, disinterested observers. Research conducted by Punch (1987) using the Rasch measurement model as a method of analysis sought to determine the degree of discrepency between what is predicted and what actually occurs (Zigarmi, Edebum and Blanchard, 1991). Referred to as a “test of fit”, the Rausch measurement model provided evidence of internal consistency in the LBA ll Self instrument. Given evidence to support the contention that an individual’s perception is an important factor in determining behavior, the LBA ll Self provides a method for enhancing one’s self-understanding. As noted by Kouzes and Posner(1987), “the self- confidence required to lead comes from teaming about ourselves - our skills, prejudices, talents, and shortcomings” (p.227). Not only must leaders understand themselves, but they must also seek to understand others. Situational leadership theory values both of these factors as they influence leader behavior. This study considers only the perceptions of the individuals’ in the sample and is considered an important determinant of behavior. 53 SUMMABI The subject of leadership has been a subject of curiosity throughout history that continues to intrigue us today. The studies and theories presented in this chapter provide the context and direction for this and possibly future studies on leadership. Today, interest in the development of leadership is shared by the worker as well as management. Situational leadership theory provides a framework for examining the interaction between the leader, follower and the situation, as components of effective leadership. The basic premise underlying situational leadership theory is that there is no one “best” style of leadership. Therefore, an individual in a leadership role must develop the ability to diagnose a situation and select a leadership style appropriate to the elements of the situation. Deans of students at small private liberal arts colleges work in an environment that breeds expectations of high quality education through a rigorous academic program, personal attention, and community involvement. In order to meet existing responsibili- ties, as well as competitive market pressures, it is vital that deans of students as chief student affairs officers continue to examine their leadership effectiveness. Chapter III contains a description of the research instrument, and the procedure for data collection and analysis utilized in this study. CHAPTER III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY INIBQDJJQIIQN As stated in Chapter I, the purpose of this research was to study the perceived leadership styles of deans of students at selected liberal arts colleges in orderto answer the following questions: 1. Do Deans of Students at Great Lakes College Association and Associated Colleges of the Midwest member Colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? 2. Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in respondng to situations? 3. Do Deans of Students collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style? This chapter includes a description of the research sample, the survey instrument and the procedures for data collection and analysis used in this study. W Since the purpose of this study was to answer several research questions regarding the perceptions of deans of students within selected forthis study liberal arts colleges, a sample of that population was selected for this study. While there are approximately 3400 institutions of higher learning in the United States, less than 8% or 272 are private liberal arts colleges. The twenty-six member colleges of the Great Lakes College Association (G.LC.A) and the Associated Colleges of the Midwest (A.C.M.) were selected as a representative sample of the population of liberal arts colleges in the upper Midwest. Each of the member G.LC.A. and A.C.M. institutions, except for the University of Chicago, is a small, private, residential, liberal arts college and has a dean of students. There are thirteen colleges which comprise the Great Lakes College Association and an equal number in the Associated Colleges of the Midwest consortia. Quality teaching, as well as scholarship and artistic accomplishment are highly valued educational goals of these institutions. All 54 55 . tions. All but three of the memberinstitutions are classified bythe Carnegie Foundation as Liberal Arts 1 Colleges. According to the Almanac edition of the Qhrgnicle QI Higher Education, “these highly selective institutions are primarily undergraduate colleges that award more than half oftheir baccalaureate degrees in arts and sciences” (July 8, 1987 p.22). In addition to having consonant missions these institutions share other charac- teristics that influence the political, social and intellectual climate on their campus. Membership in the consortium benefits member colleges in a variety of ways. Teaching institutes, joint recruitment and marketing efforts, workshops and confer- ences are illustrative of the professional development programs and meetings spon- sored by the consortium. These programs provide a forum for colleagues from similar institutions to share ideas and concerns, as well as to gain valuable perspective on issues. Deans of students represent one administrative group that meets twice a year for the purpose of discussing current issues and sharing information and advice among colleagues with a similar repertoire of responsibilities within similar institutions. Each June, a meeting is held for the deans of students within the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. respectively. Additionally,the consortiums co-sponsorajoint meeting ofthe deans each fall in Chicago. A liaison person from each consortium is identified each year to coordinate arrangements and determine the program for the joint meeting. Once the consortium colleges of the G.LCA and A.C.M. were selected as the research sample forthis study, the G.LC.A. office was contacted to ascertainthe names of the co-chairs for the fall meeting. The purpose of the study was shared with the G.LC.A. representative serving as co-chair, and a commitment was made to return the next year to present the results of the study with participating deans. Permission to attend the meeting was received and time reserved on the agenda. The study was introduced to the deans through an oral presentation which outlined the purpose of the study and its potential for identifying leadership styles of deans of students at liberal arts colleges. It was made clear that participation in the study was voluntary and that the analysis of the data collected was directed at examining the collective response patterns of the deans as a group. The individual responses and corresponding scores were to remain confidential unless specific direction was given to tabulate an individual score and report the results to the corresponding dean. The signing of the dean's name on the questionnaire authorized the researcherto tabulate 56 and report the resulting score to that dean only. I The Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self (LBA ll Self) was administered to eighteen G.LC.A. and A.C.M. deans attending the joint meeting in Chicago (Appendix I). The number ofdeans who participated represented 72% ofthe total sample size. Given that the total sample size was small, a participation level of 100% was desired. Therefore, letters were sent to consortium deans who were not in attendance at the Chicago meeting requesting their voluntary participation. The LBA ll Self was enclosed with an addressed, postage paid return envelop. A 50% response rate was obtained from deans receiving letters, contributing to a total sample size of 21 or 80% of the possible sample size. W The research instrument selected for this study was the Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self, developed by Blanchard, Hambleton, Zigarmi and Forsyth, Blanchanflfiminjng W, Escondido, CA. 1991. Twenty-six copies of the instrument, along with a scoring guide, were purchased from W (up. Contact was made with the research department at Blanchard Training and Development to discuss previous use of the instrument in research conducted in a higher education setting and the reliability and validity of the LBA ll Self as a research instrument. Documents reporting the development of the Leadership Behavior Analysis ll Self substantiated the instrument as a revised version of the Leader Effectiveness Adapt- ability Description (LEAD) instrument designed earlier by Hersey and Blanchard and used in leadership training seminars and workshops. The LBA ll Self, a research instrument, was designed to provide information on perceived leader behavior in the areas of leadership style, style range orflexibility, and style adaptability or effectiveness. The instrument requires each respondent to consider twenty typical job situations that involve a leader and one or more followers. Following each situation, four possible responses were identified from which the respondents must select the one response which best describes their leader behavior in the situation presented. The LBA ll Self instrument identifies two types of leader behavior: directive/task and 57 supportive/relationship behavior. These two behaviors, utilized in combination with one another, result in four possible leadership styles: high direction/low support (81), high direction/high support (82), low direction/high support (83), and low direction/low support (S4). By examining the dean’s selected response to each of the situations presented in the LBA ll Self, the dean’s leadership style tendency was determined. The frequency with which a particular response was chosen corresponds to one of the four possible leadership styles, revealing the respondent’s actual or preferred leadership style. Information on the respondent’s style range or flexibility was also secured by using the LBA ll Self. The flexibility score denotes the degree to which the respondent utilized different styles in responding to the situations described in the instrument. The greater the variety of responses among the four choices for the twenty situations, the greater the style flexibility. The flexibility score was determined by examining the range of scores from 0 - 30 which correspond to the four leadership styles: 81, S2, 83, S4. Appendix II contains a copy of the scoring instrument forthe LBA ll Self which outlines the method for calculating leadership style flexibility. Research on situational leadership theory posits that a leader must behave in a flexible manner, possess the skills to diagnose a situation and prescribe as well as apply an appropriate leadership style (Hersey and Blanchard, (1988). The tabulated scores of the respondents provided the necessary information to determine leadership style, flexibility and effectiveness of the deans as a group. The effectiveness score measured the respondent’s ability to appropriately select and apply a leadership style in a given situation. The ability of the respondent to determine the appropriate fit between style and situation was dependent on assessed competence and commitment ofthe follower. A high score in this category indicated that the respondent(s) demonstrated a high degree of effectiveness in matching leader style with the situation. Responses on the LBA ll Self were tabulated using the scoring instrument developed by Blanchard, Hambleton, Forsyth and Zigarmi (1991) Blanchard Training and Devel- opment lnc., Escondido. CA. (Appendix II). Analysis ofthe data for each individual dean and forthe deans as a group provided valuable information on the perceived leadership behaviors of participating deans of students. An analysis of the leadership style scores revealed the style preference of each dean as well as forthe group. The style score reflected the preferred leadership style selected 58 from four possible combinations. The willingness of the deans to vary their leadership style was determined by calculating the style flexibility score for each dean singuarly and then collectively to acquire a profile of the group’s flexibility. A low score denotes inflexibility while a high score suggests the respondent is able to assess a situation and determine an appropriate leadership style choice. The effectiveness score corre- sponded to a scale reading of poor orfairfor a low score and excellent or good fora high score. A low score depicts the inability of the respondent to determine appropriate leadership style selection across the 20 situations identified in the questionnaire and a high score represents the opposite. The LBA ll Self instrument has been administered in a variety of organizational and professional settings. Reported flexibility and effectiveness scores reveal consistency over a variety of research settings (Zigarmi, Edebum and Blanchard, 1991). The following research questions were examined by administering the LBA ll self questionnaire to deans of students of the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia: 1. Do Deans of Students at Great Lakes College Association and Associated Colleges of the Midwest member Colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? 2. Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to situations? 3. Do Deans of Students collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style? The results of the LBA ll Self questionnaire were analyzed using the LBA ll Self scoring sheet and descrl ptive statistical methods to determine the situational leadership tendencies of the subjects in this study. Areas of analysis were leadership style, style flexibility, style effectiveness, and overall rating. Statistical applications were made to the information generated by the LBA ll Self as a method for organizing and summarizing the research data. Descriptive statistical methods employed in this study were the construction of graphs and tables as well as the calculating ofaverages andindices. The mean score, standard deviation,frequency and frequency distributions were statistical applications used in analyzing the data collected. 59 Individual and group scores for leadership style, flexibility and effectiveness were deduced by calculating the average or mean score for the sample and illustrating the leadership style frequencies on a frequency distribution table. These scores were then compared to the average score for style flexibility and style effectiveness provided by the research department at W, Escondido, Ca., derived from numerous studies using the LBA ll Self in various organizational settings. A presentation and interpretation of the data received from the subjects; statistical findings, (frequency distribution, mean score, standard deviation, and overall percent- age), as well as observed trends will be presented for each of the areas assessed by the LBA ll Self instrument (style, style flexibility, and style adaptability) in Chapter IV. The research questions will be considered singuarly and a brief summary of the research findings presented. CHAPTER IV PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA In this chapter, the research questions outlined in Chapter I are discussed contigu- ously with the presentation and analysis of the data collected for this study. QAIAQQLLES‘JIQN Data was collected with the cooperation of 21 deans of students from the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia, who volunteered to complete the Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self questionnaire (LBA ll Self). Eighty percent of all eligible deans volunteered to participate in this study. The common denominator for the research sample was membership in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia. Neither demographics, years of experience nor gender of the deans in the sample were considered in this study. The deans participating in the research sample represented 21 different member colleges. Application of the LBA ll Self scoring scale (Appendix II) provided the methodology for determining the style, style range or flexibility and style adaptability or effectiveness forthe 21 deans inthe sample given their responses to the 20 situations cited in the LBA ll Self instrument. The average flexibility and effectiveness scores for the LBA ll Self was obtained from the research department at W 105;. These scores will provide a reference for the interpretation of the data generated in this study. In order to calculate style Scores for the sample group, each of the four possible leadership style responses, (S1 , 82, S3, S4), was tabulated by counting the frequency of each response. A response of a, b, c, d, corresponded to S1 , $2, $3 and S4 respectively for each of the 20 questions on the research instrument. By counting the number of responses in each column the primary leadership style ofthe respondent was determined. Columns with four or more responses denote asecondary leadership style and columns with less than fourathird leadership style which is less refined and seldom used. Situational leadership theory is predicated on the fundamental belief that a leader must have the ability to select from different leadership styles pursuant to the task relevant maturity ofthe follower in agiven situation. Therefore, the flexibility score which 60 61 measures the respondents’ willingness to vary their leadership style from situation to situation is evaluable indicator of situational leadership. The flexibility score istablulated by determining how frequently a different leadership style is selected in response to the twenty situations given. The greater the distribution of styles across the twenty situations, the higher the flexibility score and style consistency exhibited by the respondent. Consistent leadership behavior is defined as “not using the same leadership style all of the time, but using the style appropriate for the followers’ level of readiness in such a way so that the followers understand why they are getting a certain behavior, a certain style from the leader" (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988, p.121). The effectiveness score reflects the degree to which the respondent(s) can diagnose a situation and choose the appropriate style considering the maturity level of the follower. The effectiveness score is an overall evaluation of the respondent’s profile as a situational leader. Therefore, poor, fai r, good and excellent are the adjectives selected in the scoring instrument to represent the leader’s overall effectiveness relative to the criteria for situational leadership. The following research questions were examined by administering the LBA ll Self questionnaire to deans of students of the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia: 1 . Do Deans of Students at Great Lakes College Association and Associated Colleges of the Midwest Colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? 2. Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to situations? 3. Do Deans of Students collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style? In this chapter the findings for each research question will be considered singularly. Beseamluuestimfl Do Deans of Students at Great Lakes College Association and Associated Colleges of the Midwest perceive themselves to be situational leaders? As stated in Chapter II, two assumptions shaped the development of Hersey and Blanchard’s situational leadershiptheory. The first, contends that there is no “one best” leadership style for all situations and the second, that an effective leader must be able to diagnose a situation accurately and prescribe an appropriate leadership style match given situational factors. The second assumption requires that the leader have an understanding of the skills and level of motivation possessed by the individual being 62 influenced or directed in a given situation in order to select an appropriate style match. For Hersey and Blanchard (1988), “situational leadership is based on an interplay among (1 ) the amount of guidance and direction (task behavior) a leader gives, (2) the amount of socioemotional support (relationship behavior) a leader provides, and (3) the readiness level that the followers exhibit in performing a specific task, function or objective” (p.170). Consequently, situational leadership defines effective leader behavior as being characterized by a high degree of style flexibility coupled with the ability to select and apply an appropriate style to a situation. This calls the leader to consider all elements of the situation, the individual(s) to be supported and directed, when determining the appropriate corresponding style choice. Given these compo- nents, situational leadership can be measured by determining the style, style flexibility, style effectiveness and overall rating of the leader using the LBA ll Self. While situational leadership theory contends that there is no “one best" leadership style, it is widely accepted that individuals respond best to a high support! low direction style of leadership. This style is viewed as the most effective in influencing followers because, by selecting it, the leader is demonstrating confidence and trust in the follower's ability and willingness to complete a specific task Low direction implies that the leader has assessed the follower's competence, given the situation, and determined that a high level of direction was unnecessary to assure task accomplishment. The leader, therefore, provides support forthe individual and acknowledges ajob well done. Wrthin this style the leader shares the decision making responsibilities with the follower, in orderto accomplish the task This style is identified on the scoring sheet as S3 and has been referred to as the “participating” style. The leader determines an appropriate style match by examining the situation and the maturity of the follower. “Maturity is defined in situational leadership as the willingness and ability of a person to take responsibility for directi ng his or her behavior. “ ...... People tend to have different degrees of maturity for specific tasks, functions, that a leader is attempting to accomplish through their efforts” (Hambleton and Grumpet, 1982, p.228). The leader must consistently determine the appropriate balance between providing necessary direction for task accomplishment and socioemotional support when inter- acting with a follower in a given situation. Hambleton and Gumpert (1982), have identified two dimensions of maturity. They are: psychological maturity which is defined as being related to an individual’s level of 63 motivation and self-confidence, and job maturity which is related to the skills, experience and competence of the individual, given a particular situation or task. Both dimensions of maturity must be considered by the leader when selecting an appropriate leadership style for a given situation. The leadership style flexibility score and the style effectiveness score are indices of the leader's ability to assess accurately the maturity of the follower and match effectively that assessment with an appropriate leadership style. The style flexibility score is derived by tabulating the number of times leadership styles 81, 82, S3, and S4, were selected in response to the 20 situations identified on the LBA ll Self questionnaire. The level of variance in the respondent’s style choice determines the style flexibility score. The style flexibility score is calculated on a scale ranging from 0-30. The average flexibility score for the LBA ll Self reported by the research department at Blananam W is 20. The effectiveness score is an evaluation of the respondent's effectiveness as a situational leader. A leader must have the ability to effectively choose the appropriate leadership style given situational factors. Knowing the ability and motivational level of a follower in a given situation is a key factor in style selection. The effectiveness score measures the ability of the respondent to select the best style choice given the 20 situations represented on the questionnaire. Effectiveness scores range from 20-80 and were calculated by multiplying the number of times the respondent selected a poor, fair, good or excellent answer by 1 , 1 , 3, and 4, respectively. The average effectiveness score forthe LBA ll Self reported by the research department at Blamllardlcajmngand Qayalgpment Inc, is 53 plus or minus 3. The LBA ll Self provides an overall score which represents a composite evaluation of the respondent’s performance given the criteria of situational leadership. This score reflects the effectiveness score which measures the ability of the respondent to assess accurately the maturity level of the individual in the situation and select the best leadership style and the flexibility score which measures the respondent’s willingness to alter style choice in response to situational factors. The adjectives assigned to describe the respondent’s overall performance are poor, fair, good and excellent. As noted above, the LBA ll Self was designed to measure leader behavior relative to style, style range or flexibility, style adaptability or effectiveness and overall potential as a situational leader. Table 3 represents the perceived leadership styles of twenty.- 64 one deans participating in this study measured by the LBA ll Self. 11919.3 Analysis of Leadership Styles N=21 Dominant Style S1 82 S3 S4 82-S4 S2-S3 Frequency distribution 0 1 18 0 1 1 % total responses 0 4.76 85.7 0 4.76 4.76 Of the twenty-one deans in the sample, the scores of two deans revealed no single dominant or preferred leadership style. Therefore, two additional leadership style categories were included in the table, namely, S2-S4 and S2-SS. The results reveal an obvious preference among deans for the S3 or high relation- ship/low directive style of leadership. This style represented the dominant or primary style of 85.7% of the respondents in the sample. The second most frequently selected style was 82, 82-S4 and 82-83, each with a frequency distribution of one representing 4.76% of the total sample size. The S2 or high directive/high supportive style has been referred to as the “consulting” leadership style. This style appears as the common denominator between the dominant style scores of two deans demonstrating equal preference for two different styles. Characterized by low direction/low supportive leader behavior, S4 or “delegating” style was not represented in the sample nor was St, high directive/low supportive leader behavior identified as the “telling” style of leadership. Results indicate that 83 or high supportive/low directive was the dominant style choice for 85.7% of the research sample. Appendix Ill-A contains the raw data collected forthe primary, secondary and developing leadership styles of the respondents. The second set of scores generated by the LBA ll Self, found in Table 4, measure the style range or flexibility of the respondents across the 20 situations identified in the questionnaire. 65 Style Flexibility Score N=21 M=14.57 SD=5.63 Flexibility Score 0-10 1 1-20 21-30 Frequency Distribution 5 15 1 Percentage of Scores 23.8 71.4 4.76 The range of possible scores on the style flexibility scale is 0-30. The sample variance equals 24, with the highest score and the lowest score recorded as 26 and 2 respectively. As noted above, the mean is 14.57 and the standard deviation which measuresthe dispersion of scores relative to the mean is 5.63. The scoring results were grouped into three categories to represent the distribution of scores corresponding to high, moderate and low ratings on the performance scale. The results indicate that the scores of respondent's style selections overthe 20 situations represent a moderate level of flexibility. Scores ranging from 1 1 to 20 account for 71 .4% of the sample while, 23.8% are in the low level and 4.76% in the high level. The graph labelled Figure 7, Style Flexibility Score illustrates the flexibility score for each respondent. The raw score for each respondent is located in Appendix lll-B. The effectiveness score is the third score considered as a measure of situational leadership. Table 5 contains the results of the scoring relative to this characteristic of leader performance. mu Style Effectiveness Score N=21 M=52.95 SD=5.56 Range (20-30) (31-40) (41-50) (51-60) (61-70) (71-80) Frequency Distribution 0 0 6 14 1 0 Percentage of Sample 0 0 28.57 66.66 4.76 0 66 RE on 2 S S @— 28m $5on 2.3m I 3855 5:2:on 2.3.. I scoucogmom n _ E 2 ~— : o. o m N. 9.8m 3:528:— 2.3m 3 cm areas [tiliqrxau airsoduiog 67 The range of possible scores on the effectiveness scale is 20-80. The sample variance equals 24, with the highest and lowest score recorded at 65 and 41, respectively. As noted above, the mean is 52.95 and the standard deviation which measures the dispersion of scores relative to the mean is 5.56. The scoring results were grouped into six categories to represent the distribution of scores corresponding to intervals on the effectiveness scale. A high score indicates a high response rate of effective leadership style selection for the 20 situations outlined in the LBA ll Self. The effectiveness score for the lowest two categories (20-30 and 31 -40) was zero balanced by a score of zero forthe highest category (71 -80). The highest percentage of scores were in the range (51 -60) representing 66.66% of the scores in the sample. The next highest was (41 -50) with 28.57% and then (61 -70) with 4.76%. The average effectiveness score reported from the research department WM; is 53 plus or minus 3. The graph labelled Figure 8 Style Effectiveness Score located on the following page illustrates the effectiveness score for each respondent. The raw‘data collected from the sample is located in Appendix Ill-C. The overall score is a combination of the leadership characteristics noted earlier in this chapter. The effectiveness score, flexibility score and style are all components of the overall score assigned to each respondent. Table 6 contains the overall score categories established in the LBA ll Self scoring scale; fair, poor, good and excellent, for each respondent. Overall score using LBA II Self N=21 0:420 Style Choice Poor Fair Good Excellent No. of Responses 20 130 1 18 152 Percentage of Total 4.76 30.95 28.09 36.19 The total number of responses tabulated equals 420 or n=420. The overall scores measure the ability ofthe respondents to selectthe best style choice fora given situation. The distribution of responses across the fourcategories reveals a profile of the potential Style Effectiveness Score 68 EIQURE fl 80 O (\ i i i O O o in $3 8 :3 31033 ssauaiitaaug attsodmog 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 l8 19 20 21 10 Respondents 69 of the respondents in the sample as situational leaders. The results suggest that respondents chose a leadership style with an excellent or good fit, given the situation 64.28% of the time and a poor or fair response for 35.71% of the responses. In conclusion, the three measures of situational leadership reveal that the respon- dents in the sample have a dominant leadership style identified as S3 or high support/ low direction. This style tendency is often referred to as a “participating” leadership style. Two respondents demonstrated no single dominant style preference. The mean flexibility score for the sample, recorded in Table 4, was 14.57 with over 75% of the respondents scored between 11 and 20. Scores ranged from 2 to 26 depicting the presence of both extremely high and low levels of style flexibility in the sample. Overall, the deans scored below average for style flexibility. The mean effectiveness score for the sample, recorded in Table 5, was 52.95. The majority of respondents (66.66%) scored in the 51 -60 range with 80 being the highest score possible and 20 being the lowest. Overall, the sample score reflected average style effectiveness. W Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to job related situations involving a leader and one or more followers? As noted earlier in this chapter, the LBA ll Self instrument measures style flexibility (T able 4) a characteristic of situational leadership. According to the LBA ll Self scoring scale, the highest possible score for style flexibility is 30 and the lowest 0. The style flexibility score forthe respondents (deans) in the sample ranged from 2 to 26, although the mean score was 14.57. The majority ofthe deans demonstrated astrong preference forthe $3 leadership style over St , S2, and S4. Eighteen out the twenty-one or 85.7% of the deans in the sample perceive themselves to exhibit a high supportive/low directive leadership style. The average flexibility style score reported by the research department at BJangflaLdlLamipgadeeleiogmenflpa, is 20 forthe LBA ll Self. This suggests that the deans in this sample demonstrate a below average willingness to vary their leadership style from situation to situation. 70 W Do Deans of Students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style? The primary leadership style was determined for deans of students in the G.LC.A. and the A.C.M. consortia by administering the LBA ll Self instrument and tabulating the results. Research findings reveal a preferred style among the deans. The primary leadership style for eighteen deans was 83, high supportive/low directive. Two of the remaining three deans in the sample demonstrated equal preference for 82, high directive/high supportive and S4, low supportive/low directive; S2, high directive/high supportive and 83, high supportive/low directive, respectively, while one dean preferenced 82, high directive/high supportive only. The secondary style matrix revealed S4 as the preferred style for the majority of deans, reflecting low supportive/low directive leader- ship style tendencies. A summary of research findings, conclusions and implications and recommenda- tions for further research are contained in Chapter V. CHAPTER V SUMMARY, FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONS, AND RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Chapter V contains a summary of the study, major findings, conclusions, and implications resulting from the analysis of the data collected, and concludes with recommendations for further research. 21132939311111.5191! Through this study the investigator sought to determine and describe the self- perceived leadership styles of deans of students at liberal arts colleges that held membership in the Great Lakes College Association (G.LC.A.) and the Associated Colleges of the Midwest (A.C.M.) consortia, applying Hersey and Blanchard’s situ- ational leadership theory. The specific purpose of this study was to determine whether deans of students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. member colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders. The literature was reviewed to include the following topics: (1) Evolution of Situational Leadership Theory, (2) Characteristics of the Small Liberal Arts College and, (3) Self-Perception. W Effective leadership is needed at all levels of institutional operations it college and university administrators are to be viable contributors within increasingly complex and demanding organizationsthat typify colleges and universities today (Millerand Vtfinston, 1991). While management and leadership studies are taught at colleges and universities, presidents and administrative officers have hesitated to apply management strategies and leadership theories to these organizations. Some speculate that the fear of faculty criticism and acknowledged disdain for business practices, coupled with a lack of understanding of the applications of management strategies and leadership theories to 71 72 an organization, have impeded the adoption of such practices in addressing fundamen- tal organizational issues. It is said that, “the successes and failures of groups, organizations, societies, and empires have been attributed to the characteristics and behaviors of their leaders" (Finch, Jones and Litterer, 1 976, p.89). While the literature on leadership studies yields many definitions of leadership, there is agreement on the importance of understanding the leadership process (Bryman, 1986; Bass, 1981). The group or organization and the concept of influence are two common elements of leadership definitions (Finch, Jones and Litterer, 1976; Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). The existence of these elements in various definitions of leadership denote the existence of a relationship between the leader and the follower in an organization or group setting. Schein (1986) contends that leadership and organizational culture are mutually dependent. He goes on to say that, if the concept of leadership as distinguished from management and administration is to have any value, we must recognize the centrality of this culture management function in the leadership concept” (p.2). The literature on leadership studies provides empirical evidence that organizational factors, such as culture, organizational history, formal organizational structure etc. influence leader behavior. As disc'Ussed in Chapter II, the Ohio studies and the Michigan studies were among the first to recognize the importance of influence on leadership. These studies introduced the concepts of task and maintenance functions of leadership, while the path-goal theory introduced the prospect that a relationship existed between leader behavior and job satisfaction (Bryman, 1986; Hellriegel and Slocum, 1974; Hersey and Blanchard, 1988; Wrightsman, 1973). These studies were precursors of the contin- gency theory which examined the relationship between leadership effectiveness and situational aspects of leadership (Fiedler, 1967). Relevant to this study was the contention that organizational context and the relationship between leaders and those they seek to influence, as well as situational factors, influence leader behavior. The research of Hersey and Blanchard recognizes the importance of the interaction between the leader and the follower, and its implications on job satisfaction and productivity within organizations and groups. Situational leadership theory contends that there is no “one best” leadership style. According to situational theorists, an effective leader can diagnose a situation and considering the task relevant maturity of the follower choose the appropriate leadership 73 style (Hersey and Blanchard, 1988). Situational leadership was the theory applied in this study. Deans of students, holders of leadership positions within the small liberal arts colleges of the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia, were the subjects of this study. As colleges and universities have changed in response to societal demands, so have their organizational structures and the personnel within them. The dean of students position, as noted in Chapter I, has undergone dramatic change since its inception. Today, deans of students have a more diverse set of responsibilitiesthan theirpredecessors. Sandeen reportsthatthe position of dean of students (chief student affairs officer) has “evolved over a period of 100 years from a collegiate, almost parental concern for student welfare, to the current complex array of services and programs for students that extend throughout the campus” (p.4). The expectations for services and programs that provide personal support and meet a diversity of student and institutional needs are growing. This condition coupled with a growing demand for accountability and quality in the educational enterprise have challenged student affairs organizations and deans of students to examine their roles and responsibilities (Barr and Upcraft, 1990). Today, deans are called upon to provide the leadership within their institutions to meet this growing set of expectations. Given this proliferation of responsibilities and the variety ofconstituencies with which the dean has contact, it is vitally important that deans of students have the skills and competencies necessary to be effective leaders. Sandeen (1991) notes that “the major issues and problems facing colleges and universities now are so critical, and the public’s stake in these matters is so important, that they have to be addressed; if the leadership and initiative are not forthcoming from CSAOs, the gap will be filled in some other way, perhaps even from outside the institution” (p.9). As chief student affairs officers, deans of students must possess both leadership and management skills, as well as the ability to assess institutional culture, in orderto be an effective leader. Kuh and Whitt (1 991 ) suggestthat, “seasoned professionals knowthat the institutional context has a significant effect on what one does, how one does it, and whether the contributions of the student affairs organizations are considered useful by faculty and student” (Miller and Winston, 1991, p.34). Richman and Farmer (1974) report that “effective leadership, especially in relatively democratic organizations often 74 depends on much more than formal authority and official power although these, too, are important. It also depends on providing an environment and structure that adequately satisfy important human needs, on various personality factors, on mutual respect, trust and confidence, on knowledge, information, and wisdom and more” (p.21 ). The small private residential liberal arts colleges of the G.LC.A. and the A.C.M. consortia provided the organizational context forthis study. The availability of research directed at determining characteristics ofthe small liberal arts college is limited. Perhaps the most obvious difference between small colleges and their counterparts is size. “In the small college, fewer staff and a small number of students yield a situation with significant implications for interpersonal relations and administrative style” (Shaw, 1985, p.45). Within these institutions people and functions enjoy a high level of visibility to one another. Kouzes and Posner (1989) note that “while scholars may disagree on the origins of leadership, there is strong consensus that leaders must be interpersonally competent” (p.299). Sandeen (1991) echoes this sentiment noting that in a small college effective mediation skills are extremely important. These statements suggest that strong personal relationships between members of the small college community are highly valued. This notion is further strengthened by the commitment inherent in the liberal arts tradition of educating the total person. Educating the whole person has long been a goal of liberal learning. Kuh, Shedd and Whitt (1987) report that, “the objectives of a liberal education are consistent with a holistic approach to human growth and development (Berg, 1983)” (p.254). Astin and Schein (1980) substantiate this finding by posing that small private liberal arts colleges are generally regarded as highly concerned with student development. This commonly held objective has ramifications for the student affairs organization within the small college and the expectations associated with its programs and services, as well as its relationship to the mission of the college. In summary, small college deans must consider the institutional context or environ- ment within which they hold a position of leadership. The history, values and goals of liberal arts, as well as the role expectations held for the deans by others, both in and outside of the college, all influence leader behavior. The small college places emphasis on the personalized attention and inclusion. As private institutions, these colleges are expected to have a well defined mission influenced by their historical roots and often religious affiliation. Ragan and McMillan remind us, however, that in an attempt to be 75 competitive in the marketplace some liberal arts colleges “define themselves as capable of being all thingsto all people" (p.690) This definition has exacerbated the expectations held by students and their parents for programs and services especially designed to meet unique individual student needs. Thus in the small college today, deans of students must be cognizant of the role expectation held forthem by others, the needs of various constituencies with whom they have contact and the environment factors influencing leader behavior. Situational leadership theory recognizes the significance of the interaction between people and the environment as a determinant of behavior. ”MW!!! 1. This study was limited to the examination of situational leadership styles of deans of students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. member institutions. 2. This study was limited to the small private residential liberal arts college. 3. This study measured only whether or not deans of students at G.LC.A. and AC.M. colleges perceived themselves to be situational leaders. 4. This study was limited to the deans’ self-perception of their leader behaviorwithout testing their responses against the perceptions others hold of them. MW Three research questions provided the focus of the study. They are: 1. Do Deans of Students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. Colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? 2. Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to job related situations involving a leader and one or more followers? 3. Do Deans of Students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia collectively exhibit a 76 dominant leadership style? Twenty-one deans were administered the WWII question- naire developed by Blanchard, Hambleton, Zigarmi and Forsyth (Appendix I), designed to assess leader behavior relative to the principle of situational leadership. The research instmment consists of twenty situations that involve a leader and one or more followers. By applying the scoring methods outlined in the LBA ll Self Scoring Scale (Appendix II), the respondents leadership style, style range or flexibility, style adaptability or effective- ness were determined. The leadership style score identifies the respondent’s prefer- ence toward various combinations of directive and supportive leader behavior when responding to a given situation. The style range or flexibility score denotes the degree of willingness exhibited by respondents to vary their leadership style, while the adaptability or effectiveness score determines how well the leadership style selected by the respondent fits a given situation. EINQINGS Chapter IV included a detailed report of the findings generated from the data collected in response to the three research questions posed. A brief summary of those findings is presented in this section. W Do Deans of Students at G.LC.A. and A.C.M. colleges perceive themselves to be situational leaders? As first defined, situational leadership theory advocates that proper leadership style selection is based on the task-relevant maturity of the follower. An individual’s ability to assess a situation, accurately, is reflected in both style flexibility and style effectiveness. These behaviors denote the ability of the leader to assess accurately the skills and motivational level of the follower and select an appropriate leadership style for a given situation. An appropriate balance between support and direction is essential to the growth and development of the follower and to task accomplishment. The participants in this study were administered the Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self 77 instrument to determine their tendency to be situational leaders. By tabulating responses to the various situations identified in the LBA ll Self, the leader behavior tendency ofthe 21 participating deans from G.LC.A. and A.C.M. member colleges was measured for the following categories: style, style flexibility, effectiveness and overall score. The results of the LBA ll Self indicate that the deans shared a dominant leadership style, a below average willingness to vary their leadership style from situation to situation, and average effectiveness as situational leaders. The dominant leadership style. S3, high supportive and low directive, was recorded as the dominant style choice for 85.7% ofthe respondents (Table 3 in Chapter IV). The presence of a high supportive/ low directive style amongst deans of students at community colleges was researched by Nasti (1985). He reported that 95% of the deans in his sample preferenced high supportive/low directive leadership style. Nasti’s dissertation titled Wham :er' I. 1" Anne .0‘ ‘A3 but 201»! I‘ Liv. -. I ‘I W investigated the congruence between the philosophy of student services and situational leadership and the influence of empathy on leader style choice. Twenty of those administrators were deans of students or associate deans of students. The average score for flexibility obtained from the researchers at Blapanard Qeyalgpmaatanflmiginglnaforthe LBA ll Self is 20. Nasti reportsthatthe community college deans in his sample had a mean score of 16. These scores provided a point of reference forinterpreting the mean flexibility score for deans in the sample, measured at 14.57 (Table 4 in Chapter IV). It is evident that the deans in the sample fell below the average population of scores forthe LBA ll Self. This finding suggests a below average degree of willingness on the part of the respondents to vary their leadership style from situation to situation as compared both with deans of students at community colleges in Nasti’s sample orthe average. Finally, the mean effectiveness score of the research sample was measured at 52.95 (T able 5 in Chapter IV) on a scale of 20-80. This finding suggests that there exists an average probability for appropriately matching leadership style with the maturity level of the follower, when compared with the average score determined by the research department at W. of 53 plus or minus 3. Nasti reports that the mean effectiveness score for community college deans in his sample was 60.5. This score is higher than the scores of the small college deans inthe sample. The overall score forthe deans indicates good to excellent 78 levels of situational leadership potential (Table 6 in Chapter IV). This finding is consistent with community college deans in Nasti’s sample. rh in2 Do Deans of Students use a range of leadership styles in responding to job related situations involving one or more followers? The research findings revealed a below average willingness by deans in the sample to vary their leadership style from situation to situation. Table 4 located in Chapter IV, contains the statistical descripters of the score generated by the sample for flexibility. The average score for flexibility obtained from the researchers at Blamham W for the LBA ll Self is 20. Nasti reports that the deans at community colleges in his sample had a mean score of 16. These scores provided a point of reference for interpreting the mean flexibility score for deans in the sample, measured at 14.57. It is evident that the deans in the sample fell below the average population of scores forthe LBA ll Self. This finding suggests 3 below average degree of willingness on the part of the respondents to vary their leadership style from situation to situation as compared both with the deans of students at community colleges in Nasti's sample and the average score for the LBA ll Self reported by the Research Department of BJanchaeLQeerppmenLandlLaininng. W Do Deans of Students in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortium collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style? The research findings revealed that the deans in the sample collectively exhibit a dominant leadership style. Table 3 located in Chapter IV, contains the frequency distribution of style choices. Nineteen of the twenty-one deans in the sample chose the high supportive/low directive leadership style over all others measured by the LBA ll Self. 79 CONCLUSIONS Hersey and Blanchard (1988) assert that, “situational leadership is based on the interplay among (1 )the amount ofguidance and direction a leadergives, (2) the amount of socioemotional support a leader provides, and (3) the readiness level thatthe follower exhibits in performing a specific task, function or objective” (p.170). Therefore, in order to determine whether or not, deans of students at G.LC.A. and AC.M. consortia colleges believe themselves to be situational leaders, the LBA ll Self instrument was administered to measure leader behavior. An analysis of the research data reveals three measures of situational leadership; (1) the leadership style, (2) style flexibility and (3) style effectiveness for the study sample. By applying the definition of situational leadership stated above, drawing from the literature on situational leadership, considering the assumptions stated in Chapter 1, and comparing the study findings to research conducted at the Blancnamlraming W., the following conclusions can be drawn. 1. Research data secured through the administration of the LBA ll Self, provides evidence that 85.7% of the deans of students at small residential liberal arts colleges in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia prefer a high supportive/low directive leadership style. This style is identified as $3 and is known as the “participati ng" style. This finding supports the conclusion that deans of students at small colleges are more relationship oriented than task oriented in their behavior as leaders. Given the changing role of the dean and the multiple demands confronting higher education deans must develop the ability to be good managers as well as leaders. These factors necessitate that deans demonstrate a willingness to vary their leadership style from situation to situation. Therefore, deans must develop equal ability to apply the skills associated with directive leader behavior as well as supportive behavior as organizational effectiveness is influenced by style choice. 2 . The research data collected denotes an unwillingness among deans of students in the study to vary their leadership style from situation to situation. This supports the conclusion that cleans of students do not consider the uniqueness of a situation before selecting a leadership style. This infers that some deans in the sample may believe that 80 there is “one best" style of leadership. This belief is counter to Fredler’s finding, “that different traits and behaviors are important for leaders in different situations” (Yukl,1981, p.132). 3. The research findings suggest that the deans in the sample have an average ability to effectively match leadership style with the task relevant maturity of the follower(s) in a situation. This finding supports the conclusion that deans of students in the sample may not have the diagnostic skills to consistemly assess the skill and motivation level of the follower in a given situation nor a repertoire of styles from which to choose. 4. Given the variety of demands placed on deans of students at small colleges situational leadership is a viable approach to effective leadership. The literature review in Chapter II traced the development of the situational leadership theory. The principles of situational leadership contend that in order to be effective, leaders must have the abilityto diagnose a situation and select and apply the leadership style that best matches a given situation. Central to situational leadership is the existence of a relationship between the leader and the follower. Within a college the dean of students encounters many followers. Followers who at times are students, alumni, faculty, colleagues, staff members, tnistees etc. each with their own set of needs and expectations. Deans must possess the ability to assess a given situation relative to the individual needs and expectations present within it. Therefore, by applying the principles of situational leadership deans can become better prepared forthe increasing demands and growing complexities that typify dean’s position today. The findings generated by this study support the conclusion that the deans in the sample do not fully exercise the principles of situational leadership and therefore, are not as effective as they could be in meeting the needs of various constituencies and addressing the complex issues facing deans today. [MELIQAIIQNS The findings and conclusions resulting from this study imply that deans of students at small private liberal arts colleges may not be fully versed on the principles of situational leadership, and how to effectively apply them in decision-making situations. Perhaps 81 the most revealing aspect of this study was the determination that 85.7% ofthe research sample exhibited a high supportive/low directive style preference, coupled with a below average willingness to alter leader behavior from situation to situation. Earlier, it was noted that deans of students interact with a variety of constituencies on increasing more demanding and difficult issues. The absence of a high degree of style flexibility among the deans in the sample suggeststhat when interacting with others regardless ofthe constituency, one style of leader behavior namely high supportive/low directive behavior is exercised most frequently. This clear style preference influences the manner in which the deans execute their responsibilities. This finding has implications for the training needs of small college deans. As preparation programs prepare young professionals for the student affairs profession they must be cognizant of the changing role of student affairs administrators in colleges and universitiestoday. In addition consideration should be given to special skills needed to be an effective leader in the small college setting. While the literature on the small college is limited, empirical data is abundant. Individuals who work in the small college setting would be the first to acknowledge that distinctions exist between the small college and other institutions of higher education. Shaw (1985) notes that one difference is the low numbers of staff to provide necessary services. High visibility and need for cooperation between departments contribute to a less restrictive and informal pattern of communication between members of the community and departments not restricted by organizational stnrcture (Shaw,1985). A high supportive/low directive leadership style emphasizes two-way communication and a high degree of participation in the decision-making process. it demonstrates a high degree of trust in the followers abilities and level of motivation. This willingness to invest in the abilities of others may be a result of respect for the experience of the seasoned professional, motivated by time restraints, or simply is the preferred style of the dean. When viewed by others this style choice carries different meaning depending on whether the choice is effective or ineffective, appropriate or inappropriate, for a given situation, under the definition of situational leadership. Hersey and Blanchard (1988) have described the high supportive/low directive style as being viewed by others when applied effectively “as having implicit trust in the peOple and being primarily concerned with facilitating their goal accomplishment” (p.120). However, when this style is ineffective it is “seen as primarily interest in harmony; sometimes seen as unwillingness 82 to accomplish a task if it risks disrupting a relationship or losing “good person image” (p.120). There are several other manifestations of the high supportive and low directive leadership style in the daily interactions and work practices of individuals in leadership positions. 1. Supervision: When supervising a staff member, the dean may be extremely encouraging and supportive but neglect to provide the guidance necessary to build the self-confidence needed for self-direction on the part of the employee. Problems may go uncorrected and much needed structure in the workplace for the less experienced professional may not be provided. On the other hand, forthe seasoned professional this leadership style is most appropriate, as senior professionals possess the expertise, experience and self-knowledge necessary to be self-directed and motivated. As supervisors, deans must have the ability to assess the level of competency and motivation an individual brings to a position, in order to provide the most effective style of supervision for a particular employee. Schuh and Carlisle define supervision as “a relationship where the person has the responsibility to provide leadership, direction, information, motivation, evaluation or support for one or more people” (Miller and Wrnston, 1 991 , p.497). Clearly, supervision is an important role ofthe dean of students. If deans are unable to identify the differing needs of various staff members relative to task-relevant maturity, then they may not be supervising their staff in the most effective manner. 2. Decision-making: The selection of a high supportive/low directive or “participa- tion” style, implies that deans preferto include others in the decision-making process and may have difficulty making-decision when participation by others is not appropriate. Budget allocations, hires and fires, student disciplinary action and crisis management are all examples of situations where a high supportive/low directive style of leadership may not be effective. 3. Team Building: In the student affairs profession mid-management personnel are specialists in a given service or program area. Within the small college these directors and assistant or associate deans often are “one person shops.” Thus, they are respected for the expertise they bring to the student affairs organization as they participate in the development of broader division goals, as well as defining goals and objectives fortheir individual service area. Developing a commitment and appreciation 83 forthe broader goals ofthe student affairs organization is essential to achieving the level of interdependence and cooperation needed among the personnel and functions to obtain them. This suggests that a high supportive/low directive style may be a better choice over other style choices as leader behaviors associated with a high supportive style/low directive style include team building. 4. Professional Development: The findings and conclusions of this study have implications for professional development programs and workshops: a. The below average flexibility score suggests that deans may not be as confident in the skill areas identified for directive behavior as they are for supportive behavior. Therefore, workshops directed at planning, supervision, goal setting and evaluation may be appropriate topics for professional development programs designed specifically for deans. b. Understanding the context within which one leads is vitally important to one’s success as a leader. A workshop or seminar on assessing environmental needs and culture within which one leads is vitally important to effective leadership. c. Given that the deans in the sample showed average ability to successfully match leadership style with the task relevant maturity in a given situation, diagnostic skills need to be taught. 5. The following findings may have implications for theorists: a This study provided background information on the small college and estab- lished the need for college administrators and deans to apply the teachings and practices of management and leadership sturfies. b. This study focused on a research sample outside of the traditional business setting and demonstrated the utility of the LBA ll Self fordetermining the leader behavior tendencies of deans of students at small colleges. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH The following recommendations are identified for future study; 1 . Investigate and determine the characteristics which distinguish the small college from other institutions of higher education. This research is needed in order to 84 understand more fully the special training needs of student affairs professional holding positions within the small college setting. Research findings generated by such a study could influence the content of professional preparation and professional development programs directed at professionals interested in or presently working in the small college. As noted in this study, the literature is presently devoid of research directed at the small college and its unique characteristics. There is empirical evidence that they are different from other institutions of higher education however, evidence supporting commonly held expectations and observations about the small college is limited. 2. Investigate the following question: To what extent does institutional culture influence the leader behavior of deans of students at small private residential liberal arts colleges in the G.LC.A. and A.C.M. consortia? This question could be investigated by conducting a comparative study designed to ascertain the similarities and differences between the leader behavior of deans and chiefs from different types of institutions. A representative sample at deans of students/chief student affairs officers from each institutional category recognized in higher education could provide the subjects forthis study. The LBA ll Self and Other could be administered to the individuals and subordinates in each sample, to determine the differences and similarities of style, style flexibility and effectiveness forthe dean and chiefs selected forthe study. The research results could provide information regarding the possible influence of institutional setting on the leader behavior of deans and chiefs in the sample. 3. Determine if deans actually trained in situational leadership principles apply those principles to their decision-making. This could be done by conducting a series of workshops and seminars for deans on situational leadership, strategies for diagnosing a situation, assessing follower task relevant maturity and examining leadership style options. A pre-test and post-test could be administered to the deans to determine the influence of training on their decision-making behavior. This study did not provide information about the respondents level of knowledge or training relative to the principles of situational leadership. Therefore, it is unclear whether the deans in the study lack the skills to be effective situational leaders or whetherthey have never examined the strategies and principles inherent in situational leadership theory and its application to decision-making. 85 4. Explore the influence years of experience in small college administration and training in student affairs administration to determine what fundamental principles, teachings or experiences influence the leadership style of deans of students at small colleges. This exploration could provide information about the predisposition of deans to either accept or reject the principles of situational leadership as a model for determining leader behavior. Given that deans in this study sample demonstrated a below average willingnessto altertheirleadership style from situationto situation further exploration is needed to determine the possible reason(s) for this finding. CONCLUDING STATEMENT Leadership remains a curiosity even today. More and more researchers and professionals are contributing to our understanding of this phenomenon in an effort to improve leader effectiveness in a variety of situations and settings. Situational leadership is one approach to leadership, although it is certainly not the only approach as evidenced in the literature. It was considered in this study because of the emphasis placed on the relationship between the leader, follower and the situation. Given the growing demands and responsibilities of deans of students, it is essential that they possess the understanding and ability to apply the principles of leadership theories in orderto be effective leaders. Deans must evaluate theirjob performance and effectiveness on an ongoing basis in order to acquire a realistic understanding of their strengths and weaknesses as leaders. The Leader Behavior Analysis ll Self instrument provides valuable information pertaining to leader behavior. Through further develop- ment of their situational leadership skills, deans of students in small colleges can become more effective leaders in meeting the expectations and job responsibilitiesthat typify their positions today. APPENDICES 87 APPENDIX I LEADER BEHAVIOR ANALYSIS 11 Kenneth H. Blanchard. Ronald K. Hambleton, Drca Zigarmi and Douglas Forsyth SELF-A PERCEP‘I‘IONS OF LEADERSHIP STYLE DIRECTIONS: The purpose ol~ the UM ll Self-A is to provide you with infor- mation about your rx'rt‘t'ptions of your own leadership style. The instrument consists of twenty typicaljoh situations that involve a leader and one or more staff members. Following each situation are four possible anions that a leader may take. Assume that you are the leader involved in each of the twenty situations. In each of the situations, you must choose one of the four leader decisions. Circle the letter of the decision that you think \s'ltllld rnosl closely describe your behavior in the situation presented. Circle only one choice. bid Blanchard Training and Development, Inc. 125 State Place. l'lscondidri. CA 92029 (800) 728-6000 (619) 489-5005 0 1991 Blanchard Training and Development. inc. IIt‘tIt U ”'1 ll You have asked a new employee to write a report to buy new equipment for the division. She needs to learn more about this equipment to make a sound decision about options and costs. She feels this assign- ment will stretch her already full schedule. You would... A Tell her you want the report. Explain what you want in the report. Outline the steps she should take to become knowledgeable about the new equipment. Set weekly meetings with her to track progress. II Ask her to produce the report. Discuss its impor- tance. Ask her for a deadline for completion. Give her resources she thinks she needs. Periodically check with her to track progress. (1 Tell her yott want the report and discuss its impor- tance. Explain what you want in the report. Outline steps she should take to learn more about the equip- ment. Listen to her concerns and use her ideas when possible. I’lzin weekly meetings to track her progress. I) Ask her to produce the report. Discuss its impor- tance. Explore the barriers she feels must be removed and the strategies for removing them. Ask her to .set :i deadline for completion and periodically check with her to track progress.- Your task force has been working hard to complete its division-wide report. A new member has joined the group. He must present cost figures at the end of next week, but he knows nothing about the report requirements and format. He is excited about learning more about his role in the group. You would... A Tell him exacdy what is needed. Specify the rummi and requirements. Introduce him to other task-force members. Check with him frequently during the week to monitor progress and to specify any corrections. Ii Ask him if there is anything you can do to help. Introduce him to other task-force members. Explore with Iiiiii what he thinks he needs to get ‘tip to speed" with the report. Check with hitti frequently during the week to see how he is doing. (3 Specify the report formal and information needed, and solicit his ideas. Introduce hint to each task-force member. Check with Itim frequently during the week to see how the report is progressing and to help with modifications. I) Welcome hitn and introduce hint to members of the task force who could help him. Check with him during the week to see how he is doing. oiccrauiwctimwwje You have recently noticed a performance problem withoneofyourpeople. Heceemstochowc “don’t care” altitude. Only your constant prodding has brought about lack completion. You aspect be may not have enough expertise to complete the high-priority lack you have given him. You would... A Specify the steps he needs to take and the outcomes you want. Clarify timelines and paperwork require- ments. Frequently check to see if the task is progressing as it should. I'ix'Spet-ify the steps he needs to take and the outcomes you want. Ask for his ideas and incorporate them as appropriate. Ask him to share his feelings about this task assignment. Frequently check to see the task is progress- ing as it should. ( : Involve hint in problem solving for this task. Offer your help and encourage him to use his ideas to com- plete the project. Ask him to share his feelings about the aiuignmeiit. Frequently check to see that the task is progressing as it should. I) let him know how important this ml: is. Ask him to outline his plan for completion and to send you a copy. Frequently check to see if the task is progressing as it should. Your work group’s composition has because of company rccuucniring. Performance levels have dropped. Decdlinescrebeingmiccedcndyourbomis concerned. Groupmemberswanttoimprovetheir performancebutneedmoreknowledgeandsldlls. You would... A Ask them to develop their own plan for improving performance. he available to help them, if asked. Ask them what training they think they need to improve performance. and give them the resources they need. Continue to track performance. II Discuss your plan to solve this problem. Ask for their inpttt and include their ideas in your plan. if ponible. Explain the rationale for your plan. Track performance to see how it is carried out. ( 1 Outline the specific steps you want them to follow to solve this problem. Be specific about the time needed and the skills you want them to learn. Continue to track performance. I) Ilelp them determine a plan. and encourage them to he creative. Support their plan as you continue to track performance. ‘ B‘ I .tgr‘ . 90 Because of budget cuts, it is necessary to consoli- date. You have asked a highly experienced department member to take charge of the consolidation. This person has worked in all areas of your department. In the past. she ha usually been eager to help. While you feel she is able to perform the mignment, she seems indifferent to the task. You would... i\ Reassure her. Outline the steps she should take to handle this project. Ask for her ideas and incorporate them when possible. bttt make sure she follows your general approach. Frequently check to see how things are going. 3 . li Reassure her. Ask her to handle the pron-ct as .she sees fit. let her know that you are available for help. lie patient. but frequently check to see what is being done, ( ; Reassure her. Ask her to determine the best \s':t\' to approach the project. Help her develop options. and encourage her to use her own ideas. Frequently check to see how she is doing. l ) Reassure her. Outline an overall plan and specify the steps you want her to follow. Frequently cherk to see how the steps are being implemented. For the second time in a month. you are having a problem with one of your employees. His weekly progren reports have been incomplete and late. In the put year, he has submitted accurately completed reports on time. This is the first time you have spoken to him about this problem. You would... I\ Tell him to improve the completeness and timeliness of his paperwork. Go over the areas that are incomplete. Make strre he knows what is expected and how to till out each report section. Continue to track his performance. Ii Ask him to rum in his paperwork on time and accurately. without pushing lritn. Continue to track his performance. (3 Discuss time and completion standards with him. listen to his concerns. but make sure he knows what is expected. 00 over each report section. and answer any questions he may have. Use his ideas. if possible. (2on- tirnre to track his performance. I) Ask him why the paperwork is incomplete. listen to his concerns. and do what you can to help him under- stand the irnportancc of timeliness and completeness. (Iontinue to track his performance. 0t!” Whaling-UM he You have asked one of yoursenior employees to takeonanetvproject. Inthepasehisperforrnance has been outstanding. The project you have given him is important to the future of yourwork group. He is excited about the new assignment but doesn‘t know where to begin because he lacks project information. Your relationship with him is good. You would... A Explain why you think he has the skills to do thejob. Ask him what problems he anticipates and help him explore alternative solutions. Frequently stay in touch to support him. Ii Specify how he should handle thé'pr'oject. Define the activities necessary to complete the job. Regularly check to see how things are going. ( 1 Ask him for a plan for completing the project in two weeks and to send you a copy for your approval. Give him enough time to get started. without pushing him. Frequently oIfer your support. ll Outline how the project should be handled. and solicit his ideas and suggestions. Incorporate his ideas when possible. but make sure your general outline is followed. Regularly check to see how things are going. One of your staff members is feeling hrseeure about ajobyouhavemignedtohim. Helshlghlycompe tentandyoulmowthathehastheskillstosuccessfully completethetask. Thedeadlineforcompletlonisnear. You would... /\ let him know of your concerns about the impend- ing deadline. Help him explore alternative action steps. and encourage him to use his own ideas. Frequently check with him to lend your support. Ii Discuss with him your concerns about the impend- ing deadline. Outline an action plan for him to follow. and get his reactions to the plan. Modify the plan if possible but make sure he follows your general outline. - Frequently check with him to see how things are going. ( i Specify the reasons for on-time completion of the assignment. Outline. the steps you would like him to start following. Ask that the steps he followed. Fre- quently check to see how he is progressing. I) Ask him if there are any problems. bttt let him resolve the issue himself. Remind him of the impending deadline. without pushing him. Ask for an update in three days. Page 'i 91 9 Your staff has shed you to consider a change in their work schedule. Their changes make good sense to you. Your staff is well aware of the need for change. Members are very competent and work well together. You would... I\ Help tltetn explore altematis‘e scheduling possibili- ties. lle available to facilitate their group discussion. Support the plan they develop. Check to see how they implement their plan. li Design the work schedule yourself. Explain the rationale behind your design. Listen to their reactions. ask for their ideas and use their recommendations when possible. (Zheck to see how they carry out your schedule. ( - Allow the staff to set a work schedule on their own. let them implement their plan after you approve it. Check with them at a later date to assess their progress. l) Design the work schedule yourself. Explain how the schedule will work. and answer any questions they may have. Check to see that your schedule is followed. 1 Due to an organizational change. you have been assigned six new people whose performance has been declining over the past three months. They do not seem to have the task knowledge and skills to do their new jobs. and their attitudes have worsened because of the change. In a group meeting. you would... A Make them aware of their three-month performance trend. Ask them to decide what to do about it and set a deadline for implementing their solution. Monitor their progress. l’i Make them aware of their three-mouth performance trend. Specify the action steps you want them to follow. (:ive constructive feedback on how to improve perfor- mance. Continue to monitor performance. ( 1 Make them aware of their three-month performance trend. Outline the steps you want them to follow. explain why and seek their feedback. Use their ideas when possible. httt make sure they follow your general approach. Continue to monitor performance. l) Make them aware of their three-month performance trend. Ask them why their performance is declining. Listen to their concerns and ideas. Help them create their own plan for improving performance. Track their performance. !‘ "fit We! Vim-Hm. he Amemberofyourdepartmenthashadaf'me 11 performancerecordoverthelastnmonths. He is excited by the challenges of the upcoming year. Budgets and unit goals have not changed much from last year. lnameetingwith him to discusgoalsandan action plan for next year. you would... I\ Ask him to submit an outline of his goals and an action plan for next year for your approval. Tell him you will call him if yott have any questions. ll Prepare a list of goals and an aetion plan that you think he can accomplish next year. Send it to him and meet with him to see if he has any questions. ( 3 Prepare a list of goals and an action plan that you think he can achieve next year. Meet with him to discuss his reactions and suggestions. Modify the plan as you listen to his ideas. httt make sure you make the final decisions. l) Ask him to send you an outline of his goals and an action plan for next year. Review the goals and plan with him. Listen to his ideas and help him explore alterna- tives. Let him make the final decisions on his goals and plan. 12 Your unit has had an excellent performance recordoverthepasttwoyears. However. they have recently experienced three major setbacks due to factors beyond their control. Their performance and moralehavedrasticallydroppedandyourbouiscon- cer'ned. In a group meeting. you would... /\ Discuss the recent setbacks. Give them the specific steps you want them to follow to improve their perfor- mance. Continue to track performance. ll Ask them how they feel about the recent setbacks Listen to their concerns. and encourage and help them explore their ideas for improving performance. Con- tinue to track performance. ( : Discuss the recent setbacks. Clarify the steps you want them to follow to improve performance. Listen to their ideas and incorporate them. if possible. Emphasize results. Encourage them to keep trying. Continue to track performance. I ) Discuss the recent setbacks. without pressuring them. Ask them to set a deadline to improve perfor- mance and to support each other along the way. Con. tinue to track performance. Page 4 92 19 You were recently assigned a new employee who s) will perform an important job in your unit. Even though she is inexperienced. she is enthusiastic and feels she has the confidence to do the job. You would... .‘\ Allow her time to determine what the job requires and how to do it. Let her know why thejoh is important. Ask her to contact yott if she needs help. Track her progress. I’ s ' t . pectfy the results you want and when you want them. (Ilearly define the steps she should take to achieve results. Show her how to do thcjob. Track her progress. ( 1 Discuss the results you want and when you wattt thetn. (llearly deline the. steps site can take to achieve results. Explain why these steps are necessary and get her ideas. Use her ideas if possible. httt make sure your general plan is followed. Track her performance. l l Ask her how she plans to tackle thisjoh. Help her explore the problems she anticipates by generating possible alternative solutions. Encourage her to carty out her plan. he available to listen to her concerns. 'l'rack het perliit'tttztttt‘t'. 14 Your boss has asked you to increase your unit's output by seven percent. You know this can be done, but it will require your active involvement. To free your time. you must reasign the task of developing a new cost-control system to one of your employees. The person you want has had considerable experience with cost-control systems. but she is slightly unsure of doing this tnk on her own. You would... .\ Assign her the task and listen to her concerns. Explain why you think she has the skills to handle this assignment. Help her explore alternative approaches if she thinks it would be helpful. Encourage and support her by providing needed resources. Track her progress. l’t Assign her the task and listen to her concerns. Discuss the steps she should follow to complete the task. Ask for her ideas and suggestions. After incotporating her ideas. if possible. make sure she follows your general approach. Track her progress. ( 3 Assign her the task. listen to her concerns. httt let her resolve the issue. Give her time to adjust. and avoid asking for results right away. Track her progress. ll Assign her the task. listen to her concents. attd tninitnire her feelings of insecurity by telling her specifi- cally- how to handle this task. Outline the steps to be taken. (Ilosely monitor her progress. 0 not We Its-uh. ans W. he Your boss has asked you to assign someone to .15 serve on a company-wide task force. Th- task force will make recommendation for restructuring the company's compensation plan. You have chosen a highly productive employee, who knows how her co- workers feel about the existing compensation plan. She has successfully led another unit task force. She wants the mignment. You would... .\ Give. her the assignment. but tell her how she should represent her co-workers‘ point of view. Specify that she give you a progress report within two days of each task-force meeting. ll Ask her to accept the assignment. Help her develop the poittt of view she will take on the task force. Periodically check with her. ( i Give her the assignment. Discuss what she should L do to ensure her ctr-workers“ perspective is considered by the task force. Ask for her ideas and make sure she follows your general approach. Ask her to report to you after evety taskoforcc meeting. l l (iive her the assignment. Ask her to keep yott informed as things progress. Periodically check with her. 1 6 Due to illness in your family, you have been forced to miss two meetings of a committee under your direction. Upon attending the next meet- ing. you find that the committee is operating well and making progress toward completing its gosh. All group members come prepared. participate and seem to be enthusiastic about their progress. You re unsure of what your role should be. You would... .'\ Thank the committee members for their work so far. let the group continue to work as it has durittg the last two meetings. ll Thank the committee members for their work so - far. Set the agenda for the next meeting. Begin to direct the group’s activities. ( 3 Thank the committee members for their work so far. Do what you can to make the members feel impor- tant and involved. Try to solicit alternative ideas and suggestions. I l Thank the committee members for their work so far. Set the agenda for the next meeting. but make sure to solicit their ideas and suggestions. 93 1 Your staff is very competent and works well on their own. Their enthusiasm is high because of a recent success. Their performance a a group is out- standing. Now. you must set unit goals for next year. In a group meeting. you would... .’\ l'raise them for last year's results. Involve the group in problem solving and goal setting for next year. l-ero courage them to be creative and help them explore alternatives. Track the implementation of their plan. l’i l‘raise them for last year's results. Challenge them by setting the goals for next year. Outline the action steps necessary to accomplish these goals. Track the imple- mentation ol'your plan. ( I l‘raisc them for last year's results. Ask them to set the goals for next year. and define the action plan needed to accomplish these goals. lle available to contribute when asked. Track the implementation of their plan. l l l'raise them for last year's results. Set the goals for next year and outlirte the action steps necessary to accomplish these goals. Solicit their ideas and sugges- tions and incorporate tlrertr ifpossiblc. Track the intplcnreutatiou of your plan. 18 You and your boss know that your department needs a new set of work procedures to improve long-term performance. Department members are eager to make some changes but. because of their specialized functions, they lack the knowledge and skills for under- standing the ‘big picture." You would... :\ Outline the new procedures. Organize and direct the intpleruentatiott. Involve the group in a discussion of alternatives. Use their suggestions when possible. bttt make them follow your general approach. Track their use of the new procedures. l’r Outline and demonstrate the new procedures. Closely direct the group itt their initial use of the proce- tlures. Track their use. ( I Involve the group iii a discussion of what the new procedures should he. Encourage their initiative and creatin‘ty in developing the new procedures. Help them explore 'wrssible alternatives. Support their use of the procedures. Closely track results. i ) Ask the group to formulate arid implement a set of new procedures. Answer arty informational concerns. btrt give them the responsibility for the task. Closely track the use of the new procedures. -' Iflr Dawn train-q at! W R 19 You were recently appointed head of your division. Since takingover.youhavenoticedadropin perfonmance. There have been changes in technology. and your staff has not mastered the new skills and techniques. Woratofalktheydonotaeemtobcmotio vatedtolearnthesesltills. lnagroupmeeting.you would... A Discuss the stall‘s drop in performance. Listen to their concerns. Ask for their solutions for improving performance. Express your faith in their strategies. Erttpltasize their past efforts. but track performance as they carry out their strategies. li Outline the necessary corrective acrions yotr want tltem to take. Discuss this outline and incorporate their ideas. but see that they implement your corrective action plan. Track their performance. ( I Tell them about the drop in performance. Ask them to analyze the problem. and draft a set of action steps for your approval. Set a deadline for the plan. Track its implementation. l l Outline and direct the necessary corrective actions you want them to take. lit-line roles. responsibilitirw and standards. Frequently check to see if their per formant c is improving. ' You have noticed that one of your inexperienced employees is not properly completing certain tasks. She has submitted inaccurate and incomplete reports. She not enthusiastic about this task and often thinks paperwork is a waste of time. You would... A Let her know that she is submitting inaccurate and incomplete reports. Discuss the steps she should take and clarify wlty these steps are important. Ask for her snggestiorrs. hrrt make sure she follows your general ntttliuc. Ii let her know that she is submitting inaccrrrate and incomplete reports. Ask her to set and meet her own paperwork deadlines. (live her rrrore time to do the job properly. Monitor her performance. ( i let her know that she is submitting inaccurate and incomplete reports. Ask lter what she plans to do about it. Help her develop a plan for solving her problems. Monitor her performance. l l let her know that she is submitting inaccurate and incomplete reports. Specify the steps she should take with appropriate deadlines. Show her how to complete the reports. Monitor her performance. ling" ' 94 APPENDIX II 95 LEADER BEnAVIOR ANALYSIS 11 Kenneth Blanchard. Ronald Hambleton. Douglas Forsyth. Urea Zigarmi SCORING-A Dmurrttms: I. Recm'cl _\'ntn' :tnswetx hunt the Lender Ilelmvinr Analysis ll l'm'tn in the enlnntns lztheletl SI. 52. $3 nr S4 llll(l(‘l’ Style Flexibility. Fur eztclt sitttzninn (L20). circle the letter that Cnrrespnntls In ymn‘ answer. 2. Once this step is mmpleted. repeat the procedure in the t'nltnnns labeled l'. l". (3 nr I". under Style Effectiveness. 3. Add the number nl'circletl letters in each of the. eight columns on the «(wing sheet. and enter the sums in the lmxes labeled "Tntals.’ bid Blanchard 'l'ntining :tntl llevelnptnent. lnc. l25 State l’lztee. l‘LWntuliclu. (IA 92029 (sou) 7284mm ((319) 439.5th a" test Elmo Tun-n9 and Devezopmont Inc .ML‘.‘ mi 96 STYLE FLEXIBILITY l The column headings under Style Flexibility t~ot-res|mtu| to the [our leadership styles. SI - High Directive. Low Supportive Behavior 52 - lligh Directive. High Suppottive Behavior 32% - High Supportive. Low Directive Behavior . S4 - Low Supportive. bow Directive Behavior The column (SI. 52. 53 and S4) with the kttgest number of t ll‘t'lCtl letters is your primary leadership style. Enter this number in the circle in the appropriate quadrant on the l‘n’maty Style Matrix. For example. assume that the column with the largest number of circled items is column 83. If eight items have heen circled. you would enter the number ll in the S3 circle on the l'Iimaty Style Matrix. lfyou have a tie for your primary style (two or more Columns with the same number of items circled). enter the numbers from each of these styles in the appropriate quadrants. t Any column with four or more circled lettets. other than ... your ptintaty style(s). indicates a secondIny leadetsltip style. Enter this number(s) in the appropriate triangle“) on the Secondaty Style Matrix. s1“ E H a“ I m, Primary Style Matrix Style at Flexibility SI S2 53 S4 Graph 1 A C D B 2 A C B D . . . ‘ 'Ilgh . A's":- 30 53 ‘r: S? J . _ . 3 A B C D . {14. 4 c II n A ' 5 D A C B . i; 6 A C D B 54 - st 5 :1 , . 15 7 B D A C .;, {Si-ii; I: 8 C B A D in: _ 9 D B A C Secondary Style Matrix all. .... 10 B C D A ... ‘- 9 .— 20 I I B c D A /\ /\ - ..— ._ [2 A C B D — l3 B C D A S: . 52 J _ H D B A C "i ' _ '5 l5 A C B D __ 16 B D C A 5‘ 5| '5‘ —— t7 8 D A C : ...!8 B A C D _ l0 '9 D B A C Developing Style Matrix — 20 D A C B ‘ .— Totals FT - llll'flillENCE 3mm ._ 5 5 5 5 5 Suthtal _ D+D+D+D = l: _ sow-ct on ...-bu h on w ... has he. 30 to get you la M 0 Style Flexibility Score [3 6" IWI lllancltattl Training and lkvehqunent. lm 97 f, Any column with less than [our circled letters should he s considered a style you may want to develop. Enter this number(s) iii the appropriate box(es) on the Developing Style Matrix. S-‘t'ytr It'll-:xmul'ry Scout: To obtain your Style Flexibility Score. calculate the dtfleI'ence between 5 and each total. Subtract in either direction. Disregard the plus or minus sign. Enter these numbers in the shaded boxes at the bottom of the Style Flexibility colunms. For example. if the total in column S? is ‘2. . . Style S'HLEEFRCI‘IVENESS E" . _ ecuseness P F G E Graph 1 B a D 3 I‘ C ._ .2 D ‘ B 3 c A High 80 3 D 4 C; A B 4 A 4 D 3 B C 5 D l B 4 A C. e A . c, B D 7° 7 c. A, o a ”— 8 C i B 2 D A '_ .r- H B I C: D A IP- 12 A . c, o n 2: L: A . D, c B i __ l4 Dt B 2 C A . i— so 16 B I D: C A P— I? a D A c "" I 2 L— IS D . C, A B _4o l9 C 4 A 3 D B __ 20 B 4 C 3 D A *- l‘otals — MULTIPLY 3r __ so I l 3 4 .... D CHINE = C3 — Style '— El'feetiveneas *—' Score low 20 then the dillerent'e between 5 and ‘2 would be S. and a 3 should be entered in the box. If the total is 6. then the difference between 5 and 6 would be I. and a I should be entered in the hos. ( Add all lour numbers in the shaded boxes and enter this sum in the Subtotal box. Subtract the Subtotal from 30 and enter this number in the Style Flexibility Score box. Scores can range from (L30. Draw an arrow at the corresponding number along the Style Flexibility Graph. A lower score indicates low style flexibility. which means that you select the same one or two styles for every situation. A higher score indicates high style flexibility. which means that you use all of the four styles more or less equally. S'l‘YlJ-Z El"l-‘l".(.’l‘l\’l-LNESS To score high on style ellectit'eness. you must not only ShO'» a high level of flexibility in style selecuon. bttt you must also choose the leadership style that is most appropriate for each situation. The Style l’lecctiyeness columns are headed hs poor (I'). fair (F). good ((2) or excellent (E) ratings. The totals at the bottotn ofthese columns indicate how often you (“NOW .1 pout . fair. good or excellent answer. S'rvtr. Et-‘IttaCt‘IVIiNFss SCORE To obtain your Style Eflectiyeness Score. multiply each total entered in the P. F. C- and E columns by the number below each total. Enter the products in the shaded boxes 2'. the bottom of the Style Eflectiseness columns. Add all four numbers and enter the sum in the Style Effectiveness Score box. Scores range from 20-80. A lower score indicates low sale eflcctiveness. which means that you chose a greater number of fair or poor leader style choices for the 20 situations. A hicner score suggests high effectiveness. which means that you chose a greater number ol good and excellent leader style choices Draw an arrow at the corresponding number along the Style I'leectiventss (iraph. ((Ionttuued on back page) 98 S'ryu-z DIAGNOSIS To better understand how you might improve yottr elleetiye- ness score. it is helplttl to examine the appropriateness of your style selections. The numbers in subscript in the poor and fair Style l- ltt-t-tiyeness columns are the leadership styles you chose nht-u son t'itt led responses A. ll. (3 or I). Record the number ol Style I choices you made in the poor and lair columns and place Ill.” number in the oval in the SI quadrant on the Style Diagnosis Matrix. Repeat this procedure for Style 2. Style 3 and Style l choices within the poor and lair columns. A pattern of {our oi mote answers in the fair and poor categories in one leadership style means that you may not be taking the develop- ment lest-l ol the person or group \sith whom you are not king ittto t mtsitlt-tanon when choosing a leadership style. (in back to you! l.ll:\ll Sell form. and reanalyte the situations to see if you (All better understand why you may be using those styies inztl ll ll c ipriateh'. St} le Diagnosis Matrix Illant'haril Training and llewlopment. Inc. is a full-sewin- t'onstihing and training company in the areas of leadership. customer sets ice. perlormanre management. ethics aml wellness. (Ltll or suite lot inlormation on seminars and consulting setsices. oi to "1 rise a t ttrrent catalog leatttring ll’l'll's training products. t‘t-n W “chard lusting and lies-slim. low bid Blanchard Training and Development. Inc. IZS State l’lace. Escondido. CA 92029 (800) 728-6000 (6l9) 489-5005 lteml llllll Ina-l- '- 11”.”. Intel—a he can.“ 99 APPENDIX lll 100 APPENDIX Ill-A ... {.nlaletsi . .o .4. .v - WWW V‘t'f} \OO _ N g N _ m _ _ h N H N ~ m m m m N _ m N N N _ m m N _ N vm mm Nm 5 v2.52 2.3m mcfioaio vm mm mm 5. x232 25m 35.28% E _N m. 3 3 S 2 w 2 S N_ m: 9 3 N" v 2 2 a 0 NH 3 Z N_ 0 N_ a 2 m E h a 3 m a v o o n __ N C _ em mm Nm 5 an: anZ 2.3m Enact; 2295C. warms/x Eco 52.6 : warns/x 8325 25.53.64 101 APPENDIX Ill-B man J... .. .“L... i... ON 2 O O O v ON O OO e O ON 9 ON m OO v m ON N 2 O N ON NO wO v o O n ON O 3 O O 3 m NN N OO n v ON m OO O O OO N N v E n n ON O OO O O NO OO 3 O O. N m ON O NO m O OO ON OO O n O m ON O OO O O O— OO 3 O O. m w ON O NO N O 2 3 OO m O OO O ON N O 2 O n. 3 OO O. v v v ON O O a O NO NO O: N a N O ON m 3 N O OO OO 3 O O. N O ON O NO O O OO 3 N O. O n ON m NO O O a 3 OO m OO O O. ON N 2 e O O NO NO O n O n ON O OO e O h ON OO O v N m ON O O m N O m NN m OO N O ON N OO N O m ON OO O v O v ON v a O O v ON e O O O N ON O O O m O OO NO O O N m ON v OO m N N O N v NO m n ON O NO N O O 88m .8296 em 8 NO Om 8N em mm «m Om um: 5:7:qu 32::on 9.3.x. szfion 22m 9 E2...“ 3on E30 E25 ...on 2.3m 2.3, .oOm .Nm.Om x820 Ea . Om 858 O0 Esm €on - O O0 029, 2203< .8252 2.9m 9.62260 can ..Cwucooom .SEFO E 8:52 2:6on 0O 82? 085 33 2295... warns/x 2.6 .335. : mabac< OCT/Eon 3:22:64 102 APPENDIX Ill-C O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O . O O O O O O O O O O O Nv ON O N O ON N O N O OO NO OO O O ON O O O O OO Ov O O O O ON 9 O O O NO ON ON N O ON O O. N O OO vN OO O O ON O O O O OO ON OO O O ON N O O O OO Om OO O N ON 9 O m N NO NO NO N O ON O O. N O Nv ON OOl O O ON O O O O OOV ON O OO O ON O O OO O OO ON OO O O ON O O O O OO Ow NO O O ON OO v O O NO OO O O O O ON m O O NO ON ON N O ON O N N O O O ON 5 O N ON O O O N OO ON O O O O ON N O O O OO ON O O N O ON N O N O OO NO N O. O ON O O O. O OO NO O O O ON OO O O O OO ON N O O ON O O O O 9. ON ON O O ON O N O O 38m m O .O m NON m U m m aucoztém mOaOoNOoU Omocm>OO8tm 0O 83 3.80 .580 2:80 OESU 25m v O O O x820 umcamom Oo OBEOZ 2283‘ EOOOOOE OoOOOOOOOE SE: 6on oEOnOEoO. OOOOOOEO Sam 53% : 3.255. Octagon 9.7.833 103 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND GENERAL REFERENCES 104 BIBLIOGRAPHY Albright, Robert I., Barr, Margret J., in Barr, Margret J. Upcraft, Lee M, and associates (Eds.) New Futurgs for Studgnt Affairs, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990. Appleton, James and Others. i fEi h : i l h ann, by Eight Whg Have ngn Inerg. National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, (1978). Astin, Alexander W. FgurQritiglegarg. San Francisconossey-Bass, 1978. Astin, Alexander W. and Schein, Edgar H., Effective Leadership. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980 Astin, Alexander W. and Scherri, Rita A. W W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1980.Astin, Alexanderw. and Schein, Edgar H. W San Francisconossey-Bass, 1980. Baldridge, VictorJ. ; Curtis, David V.; Ecker, George; and Riley, Gary L. W W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978. Barr, Margaret J; Upcrait, M. Lee and Associates. W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990. Bass, Bernard M. ill’ n k f r hi . New York: The Free Press, 1981. Bennis, Warren. “Why Leaders Can’t Lead.” In Rosabeth Moss Kanter and Barry A. Stein (Eds.), W. New York: Basic Book Inc., 1979. Birnbaum, Robert. W. San Francisconossey-Bass, 1988. 105 Boyer, Ernest L. ll :Th n r r x ri n in Am ri .New York: Harper and Row, 1987. Bowen, Howard R. and Douglass, Gordon K. Efficiency in Liberal Edumign. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1971. Brubacher. John S. and Rudy. Willis. W W. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1958. Bryman, Alan. W. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1986. Cartwright, Dorwin and Zander, Alvin. W. NewYOIk: Harperand Row, 1968. “Carnegie Foundation’s Classifications of More than 3,300 Institutions of Higher Education.” WW, 8 July, 1987, Almanac Edition, p.22. Fiedler, Fred E. W. NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Finch, Fredrick E., Jones, Halsey R. and Litterer, Joseph A W W New York: McGraw-Hill. 1976. Gates, Philip 15., ° Blanchard, Kenneth and Hersey, Paul. “Diagnosing Educational Leadership Problems: ASItuatIonal Approach WM WWW 33 N05(Feb 1976) 348-54. Garland, Peter H. W. ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 7, Washington D.C.: ASHE, 1985. Goldstein, Arnold P. and Kraser, Leonard. W. New York: Pergamon Press, 1987. 106 Green, Madeline. Leadere fer e New Era. American Council on Education. New York: Macmillan, 1988. Hambleton, Ronald K. and Gumbert, Ray. “The Validity of Hersey and Blanchard’s Theory of Leader Effectiveness.” WWI], No.2, (June 1982): 225-242. HaMson.AlbenA.1ndmdualsansLGrQuszmmmudmg§maLBeba¥m Monterey: Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1976. Hellriegel, Don and Slocum, John W., Jr. W. Reading: Addison-Wesley Publishing, 1974. Hersey, Paul and Blanchard, Kenneth. “So You Want To Know Your Leadership Style?” [raining end Qevelepment Jeurnel, Vol. 35, No.6, (June 1981): 34-54. Hersey, Paul and Blanchard, Kenneth. W- New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1988. Hersey, Paul; Blanchard, Kenneth and Natemeyer, Walter E. “Situational Leadership Perception, and the Impact of Power.” W Vol.4, No.4, (Dec. 1978): 418-428. Herzberg, Fredrick. “One More TIme: How Do You Motivate Employees?” In Richard M. Steers and Lyman W. Porter (Eds.), W. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. Herzberg, Frederick. “The Motivation-Hygiene Theory.” ln Victor H. Vroom and Edward L. Deci (Eds.), MW. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1970. Horowitz, Helen L. QameueLije. Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1987. 107 House, Robert J. and Mitchell, Terence R. “Path-Goal Theory of Leadership” In Richard M. Steers and Lyman W. Porter (Eds.), M iv ti n W rk h vi .New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. Hunt, James G. “Leadership and Management Behaviors.” In James E. Rosenzweig and Fremont E. Kast (Eds.), W. Chicago: Science Research Associates Inc., 1984. Kanter, Rosabeth Moss and Stein, Barry A. W. New York: Basic Book Inc., 1979. Keller,George. A .qq‘ri r '0. ' I'II-.1-.O.'rr‘r " | Jon '1 nu: 0, , ...- tien. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1983. Kleinke. Chris L W San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and Comp., 1978. Kouzes, James-M. and Posner, Barry 2. W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987. Kuh, George D. and Whitt, Elizabeth J. “Organizational Theory : A Primer.” In Theodore K. Miller; Roger B. Winston and Associates (Eds.), W W. Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Development Inc., 1991. Kuh, George D.; Schuh, John H.; Whitt, Elizabeth J.; Andreas, Rosalind E.; Lyons, James W.; Strange, Carney C.; Krehbiel. Lee E. and MacKay, Kathleen A. 101011100 Qeflegee. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991. Kuh, George D. and Whitt, Elizabeth J. “Student Affairs and Liberal Arts: Unrecog- nized (and Unappreciated) Common Law Partners.” WW Eersomel. (May, 1987): 252-260. Lawler, Edward E. III. WWW. Monterey, Ca.: Brooks/Cole, 1 973. 108 Martin, Warren Bryan. Qellege ef Chereeter. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1982. McCarty, Donald J. and Reyes, Pedro. “Organization Models of Governance : Academic Deans’ Decision Making Styles.” JemeLelleeLheefidlhethe, Vol. 38, (Sept/Oct. 1987): 2-27. Miller, Theodore K. and Winston, Roger B. “Managing College Environments: Theory and Practice.” In Theodore K. Miller; Roger B. Winston and Associates (Eds.), WW Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Devel- opment Inc, 1991. Nasti, Richard K. “An Investigation of Leadership Styles Among Student Services Administrators in the Massachusetts Community College System.“ Diesenethe Wheel, Vol.46, No.7-A, (Jan. 1986). Owens, Robert G. W. NewJerseszrentice-Hall lnc.,1987. Pascarella, Salvatore V. “A Field Test of Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory.” Wheel, Vol.46, No.5-A, (1985). Peterson, Marvin W. and Mets, Lisa A. W W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. 1987 Ragan, Sandra L. and McMillan, Jill J. “T he Marketing of The Liberal Arts.” l.hemel efljheeLEeueelhe, Vol.60, No.6, (Nov/Dec. 1989): 682-703. Richman, Barry M. and Farmer, Richard N. W Edecelhe. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1974. Rudolph. Frederick W New York: Random House, 1962. 109 Sandeen, Arthur. The thef Student Affeire Qffieer. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991. Schein, Edgar H. QJgeeigetmeLQulteeeeeiLeeeejeeie. San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1986. Schein, Edgar H. W1. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1970 Schuh, John H. and Carlisle, Wayne. “Supervision and Evaluation : Selected Topics for Emerging Professionals.” In Theodore K. Miller; Roger B. Winston and Associates (Eds.).AdmmistratimandLeaderstinfimoentAflairs. Muncie. Indiana: Accelerated Development Inc, 1991. Shaw, W. B. “Graduate Student Affairs Education and the Small College.” Netheel WW Vol. 22. No. 3. (1985x4446. Steers, Richard M. and Porter, Lyman W. Methetheeegfleekfieeeem. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1975. Strange, Carney C. “Traditional Perspectives on Student Affairs Organizations". In George D. Kuh(Ed.) u Ii ‘OIIn for .- n - ° nrn-:~;-.- -. q-n We. No. 23, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1983. Taylor, Frederick W. “T he Principles of Scientific Mangement”. In Victor H. Voom and Edward L. Deci (Eds), MeeegereemeeiMele/eM. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1970. Vroom, Victor H. and Deci, Edward L. MeeegemeeteeeMetelelhe. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1970. Wrightsman, Lawrence S. and Associates. WES- Monterey: Brooks/Cole Publishing, 1973. 110 Wynn, Richard and Guditus, Charles W. I_ee_re_Meeegen_feel. Columbus, Ohio: Charles E. Merrill, 1984. Yukl, Gary A. Leegerehip in Qrgenizeliene. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1981. Zigarmi, Drea; Edeburn, Carl and Blanchard, Kenneth. WM WM. Escondido, Ca.: Blanchard Training and Development, Inc., 1991. 111 GENERAL REFERENCE Axlrod, Joseph; F reedman, Mervin B.; Hatch, Winslow R.; Katz, Joseph; and Sanford, Nevitt. Seereh fer Relevenee ; lhe Qempee in Qrieie. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1969. Ayers, A. R. ; Tripp, PA and Russel, J. H. “Student Services Administration in Higher Education," Bulletin. Washington: US. Govenment Printing Office. No.16, (1966). Bennis, Warren and Nanus, Burt. Leedeee. New York: Harper and Row, 1985. Bennis, Warren. W. Reading: Addison-Wesley Pub., 1989. Blake, Robert R. and Mouton, Jane Strygley. “How to Choose a Leadership Style?” W Vol.36. No.2 (Feb 1982): 38-42- Blanchard, Kenneth; Zigarmi, Drea and Zigarmi, Patricia. “Situational Leadership.” ' I it I h l ' ' Vol.66, (March1987):12-16. Bok,Derek, 3‘ I I ‘ II I ' ' Itali‘ III iI'liI I h I III‘n ni ‘bI. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1982. Bolman Lee G and Deal Terrace E W W. San Francisco: Jossey- -,Bass 1984. Boyer, Ernest C. “Leadership: A CLear and Vital Mission.” WWW. Vol. 150, (WInter1988-89): 6-9. Brown, Douglas J. Iee Lhegel uniyere'ny Ae Institutieeel Analysis. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1969. Burns, James M. Leedeeseh. New York: Harper 8 Row, 1978. 112 Campbell, John P.; Dunnette, Marvin D.; Lawler, Edward E. III; and Welck, Karl E. Jr. “Environmental Variation and Managerial Effectiveness.” In Richard M. Steers and Lyman W. Porter (Eds.), Metivelien ene Werk Behevier. New York: McGraw-Hill,1975. Caple, Richard B. and Newton, Fred B. “Leadership in Student Affairs.” In Theodore K. Miller; Roger B. Winston and Associates (Eds.), AgeemsjeeMeelLeegeQO StudeeIAfleLre. Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Development Inc., 1991. Carew, Donald K.; Parisi-Carew, Eunice and Blanchard, Kenneth H. “Group Devel- opment and Situational Leadership: A Model for Managing Groups.” ILelelegeeg W Vol.40, No.6, (June 1986): 46-50. Cohen, Michael D. and March, James G. W QQlIeQeELeeldem. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1974. ‘ Conyne, Robert K. “Organizational Development: A Broad Net Intervention for Student Afffairs.“ In Theodore K. Miller; Roger B. Winston and Associates (Eds.) WW. Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Devel- opment Inc., 1991. Corson, John J. “T he Role of the Deans.” In Arthur J. Dibden (Ed), IheAeedemh WW Carbondale: Southern Illinois Unversity Press, 1968. Delworth, U.; Hanson, G. and Associates. W Ehleeehe. (2nd ed.) San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1989. Dill, David D. and Fullagar, Patricia K. “Leadership and Administrative Style.” In Marvin W. Peterson and Lisa A. Mets (Eds.), W W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987. DeCoster, David A. and Brown, Suzanne S. “Staff Development: Personal and Professional Education.” In Theodore K. Miller; Roger B. Winston and Associates 113 (Eds.), Adminietretien end Leeeerehie in Student Affeire. Muncie, Indiana: Accelerated Development Inc., 1991. Durand, Henry F. and Reister, Barry W. “Management Theory Meets Student Development Theory: Implications for Student Affairs Programming.” NetheelAesg; eietiee 91 Student Pereeenel Administretete, Vol.25, No.2, (Fall 1987): 82-90. Eble, K. E. lee Ae Qt Aeminietrethe. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978. Etzioni, Amitai. W. New York: The Free Press, 1961. Feldman, K. A. and Newcomb, T. M. W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1969. Goodson, Jane, R.; McGee, Gail W. and Cashman, James F. “Situational Leadership Theory.” W Vol. 14, No. 4, (Dec. 1989): 446-461. Graeff, Claude. “The Situational Leadership Theory; A Critical View.” Aeedemlet MeegereeeLBeetiew, Vol.8, No.2 (1983): 285-291. Heath, D. We. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,1968. Hersey, Paul; Angelini, Arrigo L. and Carakushansky, Sofia. “The Impact of Situational Leadership and Classroom Structure on Learning Effectiveness.” W01: ;ethefitttdlee, Vol. 7, No.2, (June 1982): 216-224. Hersey, Paul. W. Escondido, Ca.: The Center for Leadership Studies, 1984. Hersey, Paul and Blanchard, Kenneth. “Leadership Style: Attitudes and Behaviors." WW Vol. 36. No.5. (May1982li50-52- 114 Heyns, Roger. r hi f rHi h rE i nA m Vi .Washington,D.C.: American Council on Education, 1977. Hollander, E. P. W. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964. Knock, G. H. “The Philosophical Heritage of Student Affairs.” In A. L. Rentz and G. L. Saddlemire, (Eds.), n Aff i n i n In Hi h r i . Springfield, Illinois: Charles C. Thomas Publisher, 1988. Kuh, George D.; Evans, Nancy J. ; and Duke, Alex. “Career Paths and Responsibilities of Chief Student Affairs Officers.” W W, Vol. 21, No.1 (Summer 1983): 39-47. Leary, Mark R.; Barnes, Bryon D. ; Robertson, Rebecca B. and Miller, Rowland S. “Self-Presentation of Small Group Leaders: Effects of Role Requirements and Leader- ship Ofientation.”.¢QLLrnaLoLEersQnaflty_amifiocial.Esy&me- Vol.51. No.4. (1986): 742-748. Lyons, Jim. “Examining the Validity of Basic Assumptions and Beliefs.” In. Margaret Barr; Lee A. Upcraft and Assoc. (Eds.), W. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990. Maslow, A. H. “A Theory of Human Motivation.” In Victor H. Vroom and Edward L Deci (Ed.), Meeegeeleeteed_Meti_vethe. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1970. Mayhew, Lewis 8.; Ford, Patrick J., and Hubbard, Dean L. IheQeeetjeLQeelietfiee h II n r r i ' h ' . San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1990. McGregor, Douglas M. “The Human Side of Enterprise." In Victor H. Vroom and Edward L. Deci (Eds.), MeeegereeeteedMethetltm. Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1970. 115 McVey, Frank L. and Hughes, Raymond M. Ereeleme ef ggellege engl University eeminietretiee. The Iowa State College Press, 1952. Miles Albert and Steiner. Peter MW AW. Alabama: Randall Publishing Division, 1981. Orr, David. “The liberal Arts, The Campus, and The Biosphere." fleeteeifidthetheel Em. Vol.60, No.2, (May 1990): 205-217. Pascarella, Salvatore V. and Lunenburg C. “A Field Test of Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory in a School Setting.” Collegefledeeueemel, Vol.22, (Spring 1988): 33-37. Peters, Thomas J. and Waterman, Robert H. Jr. W. New York: Harper and Row, 1982. Rickard, Scott T. “Titles of Chief Student Affairs Officers : Institutional Autonomy or Professional Standardization?" i I ' i f i ' - W1. Vol.23, No. 2, (Fall 1985): 44-49. Rost, Joseph C. “Distinguishing Leadership and Management: A New Consensus.” Organizational Development National Conference Paper, San Francisco: October, 1985. Skipper, Charles E. “Personal Characteristics of Effective and Ineffective University Leaders.” Qoflegflmuem Vol. 5, No. 2, (Winter 1976): 138-41. Williams,E.G. o-n '-r . l - i- 'I II‘I.‘ ._ I I' --ri' .NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 1961. HICHIGRN STRTE UNIV. LIBRRRIES HI 1 31293008823993