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This is to certify that the

thesis entitled

The Impact of Self—Disclosure & Self—Esteem
On Women's Same—Sex Friendships

presented by
Donna Kidner—Smith

has been accepted towards fulfillment
of the requirements for

Masters EifsArts degree in Communication

 

 

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THE IMPACT OF SELF-DISCLOSURE & SELF-ESTEEM
ON WOMEN'S SAME-SEX FRIENDSHIPS

BV

Donna Kidner-Smith

A THESIS
Submitted to
Michigan State University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of

MASTER OF ARTS

Department of Communication

1992

ABSTRACT

The effects of self-disclosure and the perception of
self-esteem were examined as they related to the number
of women's same-sex friendships. Self-disclosure was
determined by asking each woman how much personal
information they felt comfortable disclosing to another
female. The results indicated that both working women
and homemakers share approximately the same amount of
information with their friends, and that there is no
correlation between the amount of self-disclosure and the
number of same-sex friends. Additionally, men, working
women, and homemakers were surveyed for their level of
self-esteem. The results revealed that all three groups
measured relatively high in self-esteem, with the
homemakers measuring significantly lower than either
group. The study indicates there is no correlation
between the level of self-esteem and the number of same-

sex friendships a woman develops.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank Dr. Frank Boster
for his expertise and insight while completing
this thesis. Also, a very special thank you to
Marge Barkman, whose patience and thoroughness
in her work has made the experience
manageable.

Above all, I would like to give special
recognition to my loving family, without whose
encouragement and understanding I would not
have reached my goal. Thank you very much for
allowing me to pursue and complete this. Don,
Brittney, and Merideth, I dedicate this to

you.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1 ................. Introduction
Chapter 2 ................. Method
Chapter 3 ................. Results
Chapter 4 ................. Discussion
References ................

Appendix ..................

iii

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

Many studies have examined cross-sex friendships.
Some of them assess the level of disclosure between
men.andwwomen (Barret, 1981; Dolgin, Meyer and Schwartz,
1991; Hacker, 1981), as well as the similarities and
differences in disclosure between the sexes. Friendships
among women have also been explored, but to a limited
degree. Some of these studies attempt to explain the
impact of the women's movement on the friendships of
women (e.g., Seiden & Bart, 1975). They point out
that, although people make friends in all types of social
movements, the women's movement has had as a part of its
ideology the belief in sisterhood.

Additionally, researchers have investigated the
general importance of women's same-sex friendships,
indicating there is therapeutic benefit in these
relationships (Aries & Johnson, 1983; Bernard, 1981;
Scholfield, 1964; Seiden & Bart, 1975). Studies
have shown that there is a strong link between
friendship and basic health (Lynch, 1980, p. 4). Still
other research.has indicated that people without friends
are generally less able to sustain any other kind of
loving relationship (McGinnis, 1979, p.9).

Since medieval times, when ties expanded past
family circles, women have befriended women and gathered

1

2
together in groups. So strong was the need for

comradeship that women turned many of their household
chores into social occasions. With other social

outlets prohibited, women compensated by washing together
at streams, organizing sewing circles, and communally
putting up food for the winter. 0n the American frontier
where couples lived away from institutions of
civilizations, and often away from extended family, women
had to turn to women from other families for advice

and support (Block & Greenburg, 1985, p. 21). Without

a family to educate them on childbearing and

child rearing, young women often sought older women
nearby for advice, comfort, and aid.

Not only do women still seek each other, evidence
suggests women have a tendency to be attracted to
relating in general (Argyle & Furnham, 1983). The
abundance of women's groups is consistent with this
claim. These groups range widely in scope from
consciousness-raising groups to La Leche League meetings,
from divorcee's and widow‘s programs to mothers of
preschoolers organizations, from Christian womanhood
groups to feminist collectives. What they all have in
common is women united with women (Block & Greenburg,
1985).

For the woman whose family ties are strong, so
that those relationships meet most of their needs,

examining friendships may be insignificant. 0n the

3
other hand, the kinship component in the social networks

of modern middle-class women is waning (Bernard, 1981).
It is logical to expect that the many new elements in
middle-class women's lives, (i.e., advanced education,
continuous employment, later marriages, demanding
careers, fewer children) will not only change their
attitudes, values, and life styles, but also influence
their relationships (Gouldner & Strong, 1987, p. 4).
The degree to which a woman self-discloses may be
one factor that affects her relationships, particularly
the same-sex friendships that.awwoman desires to develop.
ISelf-disclosure is defined as, "...any information
exchange that refers to the self, including personal
states, dispositions, events in the past and plans for
the future. It can be objectively defined as any verbal
message that formally begins with the word "I" or any
other verbal message about the self" (Chelune, 1979).
Researchers have identified the positive effects of
intimacy (Altman a'Taylor, 1973; Bochner, 1974; Erikson,
1959; Hacker, 1981; Jourard, 1971; Wright, 1982).
Intimacy can contribute to a fuller, more enjoyable, and
rewarding life. One who experiences a low level of
intimacy may thus face a number of problems, including
dissatisfaction with life and difficulty developing a
sense of self (Erikson, 1959). Studies have found that
women who self-disclose are viewed as better adjusted and

more likeable than women who do not self-disclose

4
(Chelune, 1976; Derlega and Chaikin, 1976).

Additional studies of sociability and

loneliness have indicated that people need.two kinds
of social relationships to ensure a sense of well-
being.

The first type provides people with a sense of
attachment that, for most individuals, comes from an
intimate relationship with a spouse (Weiss, 1969, 1973).
Sometimes a.woman establishes this kind.of intimacy'with
a close friend” her mother, or a sister. The second kind
of relationship provides a sense of community that comes
from a network of friends who share concerns and.va1ues
(Weiss, 1969, 1973).

Most friendships do not meet the needs ordinarily
supplied by marriage, nor, does marriage usually provide
the needs ordinarily met by friendship. As Gouldner and
Strong state, "Relationships like marriage and
friendship tend to be relatively specialized in the needs
they answer.... "(Gouldner & Strong, 1987, p.118).

In a study of women's friendships the majority of
respondents had.a close female friend, and those who did
not yearned for such a relationship. It was a rare woman
who was so totally enthralled with the role of homemaker
and mother or obsessed with her career that she
completely ignored the need for friendship (Block &
Greenburg, 1985, p.13).

Yet another factor that may explain why some women

5

have many friends while others have only a select few
concerns the issue of self-esteem. self-esteem is
defined as an individual who respects herself; considers
herself worthy, and expects to grow and learn” "A major
function of friendship and love relationships may be to
validate one's self concept.by obtaining the support and
understanding of the other person" (Derlega and Chaikin,
1977, p. 102). Mental health professionals have
repeatedly found that women who suffer from.aiwide range
of dangerous symptoms, ranging from low self-esteem and
a sense of "missing something" in their lives to clinical
depression and suicidal tendencies, rarely regard their
lack of a support system to be at the core of their
problems. Yet when these women eventually understand.the
barriers they have erected against friendships and the
possibility of its importance in their lives, they are
often able to be helped.(Block.& Greenburg, 1985, p. 50).
The relationship between social support and psychological
health or distress has been explored further and those
results have indicated that the presence of a confidante,
a category which includes friends, was related to better
psychological adjustment (Brown, Bhrolchain & Harris,
1975; Lowenthal & Haven, 1968).

American studies show that women perceive their
same-sex friendships to be therapeutic (Aries & Johnson,

1983; Davidson & Packard, 1981) and women find their

6
social relationships with other women emotionally

supportive (Bernard, 1981). Because empathetic
understanding is a'vital characteristic of therapy, this
intimate, emotional sharing that is an ingredient of
women's friendships may contain a degree of inherent
therapeutic value (Carkhuff, 1983).

With employed women commonly experiencing
stress from their jobs and guilt from the hours spent
away from home, and.the homemaker feeling "out of touch"
in her role, low self-esteem is still an issue many'women
are confronting. (Dobson, 1975, 1985). And.while this is
true, the working women, who may have lower self-esteem
than men, may have a higher level of self-esteem than
does the homemaker.

Assertions that support this hypothesis are that
although many homemakers are in that role by choice,
homemakers often do not see immediate results for their
effort. Most homemakers do not receive payment for
services rendered. Questions may arise as to'whether the
right decision‘was made to stay at home, particularly for

the career orientedq whose former colleague is employed,

7
"succeeding," and receiving tangible rewards.

Additionally, having young children may discourage
involvement in former interests or hobbies. Feelings of
isolation and uselessness can surface.

While the employed women may struggle with low self-
esteem, she often receives immediate Compensation and
recognition for the work completed. She may gain
satisfaction from feeling she is productive within the
work force and that she is utilizing her time and
education. All of this contributes to her self-esteem.

The first hypothesis of this study'is developed from
the connection between self-esteem and the number of a
woman's same-sex friends. This question has yet to be
examined.empiricallyy but.because studies have indicated
that friendships are therapeutic in nature, and serve to
validate one's self, the level of self-esteem increases
with increasing same-sex friends. Thus:

Hypothesis One:
The number of same-sex friendships a woman

develops positively affects her self-esteem.

The second hypothesis of this study stems from the
link between self-disclosure (intimacy) and the number of
same-sex female friends. Although the friendship
literature has not examined.this possibility in depth, a
strong correspondence between self-disclosure and the

number of same-sex friendships should be found. Thus:

 

Hypothesis Two:

The more comfortable a woman feels in self-
disclosing and listening to other women self-
disclose, the more same-sex friends she will
have.

The third hypothesis, never tested empirically, is
based on the theory that homemakers experience lower
self-esteem than both the working women and the men.
Thus:

Hypothesis Three:
Men will measure a higher level of self-esteem
than women, but that working women will measure

higher self-esteem than will homemakers.

CHAPTER TWO
METHOD

Respondents
The respondents for this study were 34 full-time employed
women, 43 homemakers, and 30 men in a Western Michigan
city. Potential volunteers were recruited by approaching
the researcher's neighbors, employees of a hospital,
elementary school, engineering department, and
business college. Persons were asked if they would
complete a questionnaire; anonymity was guaranteed. If.
they agreed, a questionnaire was provided to them. The
questionnaire took approximately six minutes to complete.
All respondents completed the survey when first contacted
and returned the surveys immediately to the
administrator.
Instrumentation
In order to test the three hypotheses, two different
items were measured; (1) men and women's self-esteem and
(2) women's level of self-disclosure to same-sex friends.

1. The self-esteem scale used (Rosenburg, 1965) was

fl .H 1..., ,_
“a...“ ‘_‘- rk“ ,-J—. i_ a ’

designed to measure attitudes toward the self along a
favorable-to unfavorable dimension and was constructed
for use in a large scale survey.

When the author speaks of high self-esteem he simply
meant that the individual respects herself, considers
herself worthy, she does not necessarily consider herself

better than others, but she definitely does not consider
9

10 '
herself worse, she does not feel that she is the ultimate

in perfection but, on the contrary, recognizes her
limitations and expects to grow and improve.

The ten items are Likert type questions, allowing
one of four responses: strongly agree, agree, disagree,
and strongly disagree. The items were presented
alternatively in order to reduce the possibility of
response set. The test was administered to both genders.
2. The second section of the survey measured the level
of self-disclosure and the comfort level of self-
disclosure among women. The survey was designed by the
researcher and contained the Likert- type questions,
again allowing one of four responses for the seven
questions: strongly agree, agree, disagree, and strongly
disagree.

Self-disclosure has been defined as any statement
that begins with the word, "I" or includes any personal
reference or opinions and feelings of the person
speaking. Women exclusively completed this section.of the

survey.

Analysis
What is expected to be found is as follows:

Hypothesis One: The more same-sex friendships a
woman develops the higher her self-esteem will be. Thus,
these variables should correlate positively and

substantially.

. 11
Hypothesis Two: The more a'woman self-discloses and

the more she feels comfortable when other women self-
disclose to her, the more same-sex friends she will
develop. These variables should correlate positively and
substantially.

Hypothesis Three: Women will measure lower self-
esteem than will the men, but that the working women.will
measure higher than will the homemakers. Thus, these

variables will correlate negatively and substantially.

CHAPTER THREE
RE SULTS

Data were inconsistent with the first hypothesis.
Self-esteem was unrelated to the number of friends a
woman has, and unrelated to the number of female friends
with whom women shared information (; =.08; df = 75, p >
.05 and r = -.04; df = 75; p > .05 respectively). The
mean number of friends for working women was 11.02, and
for homemakers the mean was 9.23. This difference was not
' statistically significant (t_= 1.00; df = 75; p > .05).
The mean number of friends with whom professional women
shared information was 5.06, and for homemakers this
figure was 4.79. This difference was not statistically
significant (3 < 1.00; df = 75; p > .05).

Concerning the second hypothesis only’one of the six
items correlated substantially'with the number of female
friends a woman had, and it was the item concerning the
desirability of having intimate female friendships (; =
—.29, p,< .01, one-tailed test). The data indicate that
woman.with few such friends found such relationships very
desirable; whereas, women with many such friends found
such relationships less desirable. The same correlation
(;,= -.29) was found between the number of female friends
with whom one shared information and the desirability of
having intimate female friendships. Because the data are
correlational it is impossible to deduce the cause and

the effect in this analysis. The effect may well be
12

13
interdependent, however, so that each variable is the

cause of the other at various points in time.
Interestingly, items tapping the closeness of one's
present set of relationships and the desirability of
closeness were more frequently associated with the number
of women friends and the number of women friends with
whom one shares information. For instance, the more
likely one was to report that casual friends were
rewarding, the less women friends one had with whom one
shared information (; = -.27, p < .01). Moreover, if

-.27, p < .05) or family/work (;

either personality (I
= -.27; p < .01) prohibited friendship development, one
was likely to have fewer women friends.

Furthermore, there were several interesting
relationships between the disclosure items and the
closeness items. For example, the more persons reported
disclosing personal information, the more likely they
were to agree that close friends are rewarding (r = .39,
p,< .01). In addition, the more comfortable subjects were
with disclosing, the more they found close friends
rewarding (I = .39, p < .01). Conversely, the more
persons reported disclosing personal information, the
less likely they were to agree that casual friends are
rewarding (2,: -.31, p < .01), and the more they desired
intimate female friendships, the less they found casual
friends rewarding (r = -.29, p < .01).

Pertinent to the third hypothesis, all groups had

14
reasonably high self-esteem (M = 31.89). Nevertheless,

the self-esteem of homemakers (M.= 30.30) was less than
the self-esteem of professional women (M = 32.65) , which
did.not differ substantially from the self-esteem of men
(M = 33.30). A one-way analysis of variance for
independent groups and fixed effects indicated.that these
differences were statistically significant (£==4.49; df
= 2, 104; p = .0135). Thus, the data are consistent with
the third hypothesis.

These data are summarized and presented in the
following tables. Tableel contains the correlations among
the items measured in this study. Table 2 breaks down the

critical dependent measures by gender and occupational

group.

Table 1

Correlation Matrix for Questionnaire Items

Disc. 1
Disc. 2
Disc. 3
Disc. 4
Disc. 5
Disc. 6
Friends
Share

Close 1
Close 2
Close 3
Close 4
Close 5
Close 6
Close 7

Esteem

1

Disc.

.00
.69
.05
.39
.19
.11
.01
.07
.39
.31
.12
.02
.23
.12
.32

.04

.69

.OO

.01

.03

.04

.39

.13

.08

.02

.07

.25

.15

Disc.2 Disc.

.05

-.01

1.00

-.03

.05

.22

-.05

.19

.11

.08

*J
‘71

3 Disc.

.39

.33

.05

.00

.16

.11

.06

.14

.05

.08

.16

.08

.07

.18

.19

.22

.20

.16

.00

.26

.08

.09

.15

.99

.24

.01

4 Disc.5 Disc.6
.11
.14
.00
.11
.26

.00

.12
.03

.01

Table 2

Mean Score on the Dependent Measures Broken Down By
Gender and Occupational Group

Homemaker Professional Women
Disc. 1 3.023 3.029
Disc. 2 3.162 3.117
Disc. 3 2 255 1.941
Disc. 4 3.302 3.205
Disc. 5 1.860 2.058
Disc. 6 2.744 2.558
Friends 9.232 11.02
Share 4.790 5.058
Close 1 3.395 3.470
Close 2 2.699 2.882
Close 3 2.604 2 382
Close 4 2.186 2.147
Close 5 2.418 2.617
Close 6 1.860 1.882
Close 7 1.720 1.735
Men Homemakers Professional Women
Esteem 33.30 30.30 32.64

16

 

CHAPTER FOUR
DISCUSSION

The first hypothesis asserted.that.the:more same-sex
friends a woman develops, the higher her self-esteem. v
The data were inconsistent with this hypothesis. The
results indicate that there is no correlation between the
number of same-sex friends and the level of a woman's
self-esteem. There are at least two explanations for
these results. First,.the majority of the working
women surveyed had completed, or were in the process of
completing, graduate studies. The majority held upper
management or professional positions. It is reasonable to
believe that the level to which they have aspired in
their career lends to their level of self-esteem and that
friendship has less of a bearing on self-esteem on this
group than friendships would have on the uneducated or
unskilled.fu11-time worker. Future research could profit
by selecting variables with proven relationships to
women's self-esteem outside of friendship development.

Second, the homemakers surveyed were a homogeneous
group. The majority lived within the same area of the
city, attended the same church, and held similar values.
It is possible that both the income level and educational
level of the homemakers surveyed.were above the national
mean for homemakers within the same age group. Friendship
may have less of an effect on this particular group of

women than it would for women in other areas of the same
17

18
city or across the state who have experienced fewer

opportunities. Additionally, although all homemakers were
not employed full-time outside of their home, many
surveyed were employed part-time, which may contribute to
their self-esteem. Consequently, this fact most likely
had a bearing on the results. Thus, future studies
would profit by measuring a broader cross section of
the female population.

The second hypothesis posited that the more
comfortable a woman feels in self-disclosing and
listening to other women self—disclose, the more same-sex
friends she will have. No correlation was found between
these two variables. The data did, however, indicate
that the women who self-disclosed within their
friendships (4.90) desired fewer intimate friendships
(2.55) while those who did not self-disclose as much
(4.79) had more of a desire for intimate friendships
(2.74).

One recommendation for further studies on self-
disclosure is to provide an explanation of self-
disclosure on the survey. The survey used failed to do
so, which left the interpretation of self-disclosure to
each confederate (see appendix). This same recommendation
would be made when asking for the number of friends.
Confederates had their own interpretation of what
comprised a friend, which possibly accounts for the

difference in means between the two groups.

19
The third hypothesis asserted that men would have

higher self-esteem than both groups of women, but that
professional women would have a higher score than
homemakers. This hypothesis was found to be true.
However, in future studies researchers may want to survey
two groups of men, one group who hold comparable socio-
economic and/or educational levels as the working women
and one group‘with.a.mixture of educational and economic
levels. The majority of men surveyed were not college
graduates and very few hold professional positions.

As was stated previously, "A major function of
friendship and love relationships may be to validate
one's self concept by obtaining the support and
understanding of the other person" (Derlega & Chaikin,
1977). From the results of the research, the group of
women surveyed have healthy friendships that are
currently meeting their needs.

The study was based of on correlational data. Future
research may benefit from replicating the study
longitudinally. By looking at the impact of such
variables over time, it is easier to make stronger causal

inferences.

APPENDIX

QUESTIONNAIRE

I am currently writing a thesis on the friendships of women. Please
fill out this survey entirely and return it to me, Donna Smith.
All information is confidential. Do not place your name on any
section of this survey. I will have the results available in the
fall if you would like to know the outcome of my research. Thank
you.

Section 1.

1. I disclose personal information (such as marriage
problems, finances, personal struggles) to my female,
unrelated friends.

___strongly agree
___agree

___disagree
___strongly disagree

2. I feel comfortable disclosing personal information with
close, female, unrelated friends.
___strongly agree
___agree
___disagree
___strongly disagree

3. I sometimes feel that women will reject my friendship if I
share personal information.
___strongly agree
___agree
___disagree
___strongly disagree

4. I feel comfortable when a female, unrelated friend
discloses personal information to me.
___strongly agree
___agree
___disagree
___strongly disagree

5. I sometimes have friends withdraw from me because I expect
too much from them (time, self disclosure, dependency, etc.).
___strongly agree
___agree
_disagree
___strongly disagree

6. I wish I had more female friends with whom I could share on an
intimate level.
,___strongly agree
___agree
___disagree
___strongly disagree

20

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

21

 

How many female, unrelated friends do you currently have?

 

With how many female, unrelated friends do you share intimate
information with?

 

I believe that having a few very close, female friends
with whom I confide is personally rewarding for me.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

I believe that having many casual friends with whom I

have fun, but where confidences are seldom shared is personally
rewarding.

___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

I wish I had more casual female friends.
___strongly agree

_agree

___disagree

strongly disagree

Personality characteristics (boldness, shyness, other) keep
me from developing and maintaining friendships with women.
___strongly agree .

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

Family responsibilities and/or work keep me from developing
and maintaining friendships with other women.

___strongly agree

.___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

Women usually reject my friendliness.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

In one or two words only, please indicate the greatest benefit
you receive from having close, female, unrelated friends.

 

16.

17.

18.

19.

20.

21.

22.

23.

22

I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least an equal plane with
others.

___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

I feel I have a number of good qualities.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

.___strongly disagree

All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

I am able to do things as well as most other people.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

I feel I do not have much to be proud of.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

I take a positive attitude toward myself.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.
___strongly agree

___agree

___disagree

___strongly disagree

I wish I could have more respect for myself.
___strongly agree

___agree

_disagree

___strongly disagree

 

23

24. I certainly feel useless at times.
___strongly agree
___agree
___disagree
___strongly disagree

25. At times I think I am no good at all.
___strongly agree
___agree
___disagree
___strongly disagree

Section 2. Demographics

1. What is your date of birth?

 

2. Are you married___ unmarried___ divorced___
3. What is the level of education you have completed?

Junior High_____ What grade level?
High School What grade level?

 

College Freshman__ Sophmore__ Junior__ Senior__

Post Graduate School

4. I am employed outside of my home.

NO YES Part time Full time

 

THANK YOU FOR YOUR HELPFUL INPUT!

LI ST OF REFERENCES

24

LIST OF REFERENCES

Aries, E., & Johnson, F. (1983). Close friendships in
adulthood: conversational content between same-sex

friends. gen Boles, g, 1183-1196.

Altman, I., & Taylor, D.A. (1973). Secial Benetgation,

New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Argyle, M., & Furnham, A. (1983). Sources of
satisfaction and conflict in long-term
relationships. on of M r ' d a ' ,
en, '481-493.

Barret, C.J. (1981). Intimacy in widowhood. s c o o
of Wemen Qnertezly, 3, 473-417.

Bernard, J. (1981). The fenele HQEIQ- New York: Free
Press.

Block, J.D., & Greenburg, D. (1985). Women &
r' s ' . New York: Franklin Watts.

Bochner, A.P. (1984). Functions of communication in
interpersonal bonding. In C. Arnold & J. Bowers

(Eds.), o h ‘ o 1 'c t'
the :1, (pp.544-621). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.

Brown, G. W., Bhrolchain, M.N., & Harris, T. (1985).
Social class and psychiatric disturbance among women

in an urban population. Soeielogy, 2‘ 225-254.
Carkhuff, R.R. (1983). the en; of helping. Amherst, MA:

25

Human Resource Development Press.

Chelune, G.J. (1976). Reactions to male and female

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