PLACE IN RETURN BOX to remove this checkout from your record. TO AVOID FINES return on or before date due. MAY BE RECALLED with earlier due date if requested. DATE DUE DATE DUE DATE DUE ”MN“ N 11/00 C'JCIRC/DateDmpGS-p. 1 4 AN ENVIRONMENTAL armor or: THE USE or INSULAT NS GLASS FOR THE HOUSING OF SWINE By Charles Nelson Hinkle W THESIS \. \ Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of/Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science ‘ in partial fulfillment of the requiremefite for the degree of ‘ EASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Agricultural Engineering 1953 THESIS ii «ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The author wishes to eXpress his sincere thanks to Dr.'w. M. Carleton and Professor T. J. Brevik for their many helpful suggestions during the course of the study and the preparatiOn of this thesis. He is also greatly indebted to Professor E. H. Kidder for a review of the solar energy caleglations made as a part of this study. a. Grateful afknowledgment is also due Professor J. A. Hoefer whose COOperation in the use of the new swine barn made this study possible. The writer appreciates the support of the Libbey— Owens-Ford Glass Company who supplied the insulating glass and the necessary funds for this study. 1‘; ,4“ ‘5 na“?' {,3 U '13: u" x) AN ENVIRONMEKTAL STUDY ON THE USE OF INSULATIIG GLASS FOR THE HOUSING OF SHIJE By Charles Nelson Hinkle AN ABSTRACT Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies of Michigan State College of Agriculture and Applied Science ' in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE Department of Agricultural Engineering 1953 Approved w mm; aim iv ABSTRACT The basis for this study was a comparison of environmental conditions between the two wings of the new Michigan State Col- lege swine barn. One wing is solar oriented with insulating glass windows along the entire south wall. The other wing, of conventional construction, is oriented on a north-south axis. Both wings are of similar construction to the t0p of the four foot concrete block lower wall and have the same number and location of pens, doors, heaters, and ventilating ducts. The difference in the two buildings lies in the insulating glass windows and shed roof construction of the solar wing and the Sable roof and small ventilating windows of the regular wing. A recording potentiometer was so wired that it was pos- sible to take hourly readings automatically of temperatures and humidities. Twenty thermocouples were located in each wing for temperature measurement and a Special unit was built to give wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures for determination of relative humidity. The data was plotted onto weekly charts which also in- eluded values for solar radiation and outdoor temperatures. Charts were prepared for eight summer weeks and thirteen winter weeks. An analysis of the charts followed. General weather c°nd1tions for the winter weeks were obtained from the Lansing Weather- Bureau to help eXplain the variations in the recorded data from the two wings. A formula was constructed for converting solar radia- tion on a horiZontal surface to solar radiation on a verti- cal south facing surface. This formula gave good results for the winter of 1953 when compared to calculations by other methods. These results indicated that it was possible to gain over four hundred BTU's per hour per pen by using solar oriented fixed sash insulating glass instead of con- ventionally located single glazed ventilating windows. Data from the first year of the study, as a whole, were not conclusive because it was found to be practically impossible to control the conditions closely enough in the large piggery to make accurate comparisons between the solar and regular wing. Smaller buildings in which the variables can be more accurately controlled are necessary for future tests. I J. ‘ -——_,_: vi INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description of Project . . . . . . . . . Description of New Swine Barn . . . . . Environmental Requirements of Swine . . Effects of environment on the rate of Heat production of swine . . . . . . The central farrowing house . . . . Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General facts . . . . . . . . . . . Telluric adsorption . . . . . . . . Studies for house heating . . . . . Instrumentation . . . . . . . . . . . . Thermocouples . . . . . . . . . . . Relative humidity measurement . . . APPARATUS AND KETHODOLOGY . . . . . . . . . Use of Brown Recording Potentiometer . . Fifty-two point switching box . . . method for winter switching . . . . Time Control Circuit for Brown Recording Potentiometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . Control for summer study . . . Control for winter study . . . . . . Temperature Keasurement . . . . . . . Construction of thermocouples . . . Installation of thermocouples . . . Checking of thermocouples . . . . . Relative Humidity Measurement . . . . . Construction . . . . . . . . Installation . . . . . . . . Controlling the wet bulb fan . . Checking . . . . . . . . . . . . u) (r—aox (thk‘ +4 FJH naoxo I—’ #- FHA m4:- F’ +4 -q -4 NH 04 vii Recording of Heater Fan Operation . . . . . . . . . PRESENTATION OF DATA AND RESULTS . . . . . . . . . . . use Of Neel {1y Charts 0 o o o o o o o o o o o o o 0 Summer months charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . winter months charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Summer Charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . Analysis of Winter Charts . . . . . . . . . . Results of Calculations of Appendix A . . . . . . . Heat gain through insulating glass windows facing south . . . . . . . . . . . . Heat gain through single glazed windows facing east . . . . . . . . . . . . . COD‘ICLUSIOA‘TS o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o a o o 0 Use of Insulating Glass in Swine Buildings . . . . Calculation of Solar Heat Gain . . . . . . . . . . Suggested future investigations . . . . . . . . . . APPENDIX A - CALCULATION OF SOLAR HEAT GAINS . . . . . Calculation of Solar Heat Gain Through Insulating Glass Windows Facing South . . . . . . Calculation by use of Sun Angle Calculator . . Results from A. E. 500 special problem . . . . Calculation of heat gained during winter 1953 . Radiation Gains Through Other Parts of a Structure. Gains through walls . . . . . . . . . . ... . . Gains through roofs . . . . . . . . . . . Gains through single glazing on east and west facing walls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Possible Radiation Losses at Night . . . . . . . . 'Charts and Tabular Results . . . . . . . . . . . . Results from the use of the Sun Angle Calcu- lator . . . . . Tabulation of results from A. E. BOO Special prOble m 0 O O O O I 0 I O O O 0 Results from the winter of 1953 . . . . . . . . 59 73 75 75 76 77 78 79 79 81 81 83 83 83 84 81+ 87 87 97 99 viii APPENDIX B - LOCAL CLIEATOLOGICAL DATA . . . . . . . llO GLOSSARX o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 115 BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table II. III. IV. VI. VII. VIII. IX. II. III. IV. ix LIST OF TABLES Calculation of theoretical instantaneous heat gain through insulating glass windows facing south - clear atmOSphere . . . . . . . . . . 89 Calculation of theoretical instantaneous heat gain through insulating glass windows facing south - industrial atmosphere . . . . . . . 9O Calculation of theoretical instantaneous heat gain through single glazed windows facing east - clear atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . 91 Total daily heat gain computed from areas under daily heat gain curves . . . . . . . . 95 Total daily heat gain for average day during the indicated week . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 Heat gained by solar radiation through insul- ating glass windows facing south by Saia . . 98 Weekly means of direct and diffuse radiation in gram-calories per square centimeter of horizontal surface by hours . . . . . . . . 106 Daily average cloudiness computed from Lansing Weather Bureau data . . . . . . . . 107 Calculated solar heat gains through insula- ting glass windows facing south for average day of indicated week during winter of 1953. 109 Local climatological data for December, 1952 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 Local climatological data for January ’ 1953 I O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 112 Local climatological data for February, 1953 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 Local climatological data for I':ar0h, 1953 o c o o o o o o o o o o o o o o 114 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure F1Sure Figure 12. LIST OF FIGURES hichigan State College swine barn looking northwest towards College and Forest Roads . . Interior view of regular wing from con- necting doorway to main barn . . . . . . . . . Exterior view of solar wing on September 22, 1952; overhang in "extended" position . . . . Interior View of solar wing from connecting doorway to main barn . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instrument location from door leading to solar wing. Shows reSpective location of potentiom- eter, switching box, time clock, transformer, and eight point plug. Sign on wall eXplains location of different thermocouples being recorded. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fifty-two point switching box slide off shelf for picture. Forty-six thermocouple leads were connected to box at this time .. . Location of switching box and time clock below potentiometer. Lightbulb to which thermocouple lead was attached appears in upper right-hand corner . . . . . . . . . . . This plug was used when it was desired to bypass 52 point switching box with eight thermocouples. Only eight of eleven sockets on plug were used . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Time control circuit used during summer months Box switch and relay switch were located in— side of 52 point switching box. . . . . . . . Location of Micro Switch on chassis of potentiometer O O O O O O O O O 0 O O 0 0 O 0 Arrow points to location of shaft on which cam to Operate Micro Switch was located . . . Drum with crank was used to wind up wires which made thermocouple strings. Drum revolu- tion counter to meter out correct length of wire was located at fron edge behind drum . . 18 l9 19 2O 23 25 29 Figure Figure Figure figure Figure Figure , F'1gure PAJ H m c: *3 m F1Sure a H ‘2 re Figure l3. 14. 17. 18. 190 Al. A2. A3. A4. A5. xi Floor plan of Michigan State College piggery showing location of present and relative humidity thermocouples and instrument loca- tion 0 O O O O O O O O O O I 0 O O O I O O 0 Typical location of thermocouple Junction on every other post along alley of both wings Typical location of thermocouple junction along outside walls . . . . . . . . . . . . Relative humidity measuring unit. Water level in large glass tube was always at same heighth because small tube in Erlenmeyer flask Opens to atmosphere. Fan is eight inch household fan . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transformer connected to convenience outlet from potentiometer provides six volts to fan switch whenever chart drive Operates . . Relay switch which turned fan on and off; wired as double pole switch . . . . . . . . Clock connected in parallel with heater fan was used to record total hours of heater fan Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results Of summer hourly temperatures and solar radiation plotted on weekly charts . . Results of winter hourly temperatures, rela- tive humidities, and solar radiation plotted on weekly charts . . . . . . . . . . . . . Daily heat gains. Data from theoretical instantaneous heat gain calculations for a clear atmOSphere (Table AI) . . . . . . Daily heat gains. Data from theoretical instantaneous heat gain calculations for an industrial atmOSphere (Table AII) . . . . . Daily heat gains. Data from theoretical instantaneous heat gain calculations for a clear atmosphere (Table AIII) . . . . . . . Seasonal variation of solar altitude angle for indicated hour angles . . . . . . . . . Seasonal variation Of solar azimuth angle for indicated hour angles . . . . . . . . . 33 33 33 35 35 37 39 48 92 93 94 103 104 xii Figure A6. Seasonal variation of cos a cos D for indicated hour angles . . . . . . . . . . 105 Figure A7. Graphical values for ID/IH for differ- ent cloudiness values for four winter months. Data from Hand (12) . . . . . . 108 INTRODUCTION Description of Project In June, 1952, work was started on the project which was to provide data for this thesis. This project was sponsored Jointly by the Michigan Agricultural EXperiment Station and Libbey-Owens-Ford Glass Company. The particular phase carried out in this work was a comparative study of the environmental conditions in the solar wing to the conditions in the regular Wing of the new swine barn. Temperatures and humidities from 'both wings were recorded. Amounts Of solar radiation and out- <1oor temperatures were Obtained from the Michigan Hydrologic Ihasearch Station and the general weather conditions during the ‘Winter months were Obtained from the Lansing Weather Bureau. 7Phese two sources of data were used in an attempt to help ex- Plain the variations in the recorded data from the two wings. Description Of New Swine Barn During the late summer of 1951 the new swine barn at Michigan State College was completed. As shown _in Figure 1, llot only was this a new building, but it was also a new design. 7Phe barn, commonly referred to as the piggery, is composed of 1Lhree main parts. These are the two wings in which pens are located and the forty foot by eighty foot main barn which houses feed and bedding supplies, scale room, Office, and living quar- ters for workers. 2. One wing of the piggery is of standard construction and is referred to as the regular wing (Fig. 2). This wing is oriented on a north-south axis and is ninety—six feet long and twenty- six feet wide. There are twelve pens on both sides Of a six foot center alley each measuring eight feet wide and nine feet deep. (Sidewall construction consists of concrete block ex- tending forty-four inches above the floor and two by four frame construction for the remaining three feet of wall heighth.) A Sable roof over this wing gives a ceiling heighth in the center '5 .. alley of about ten feet. Pen floor construction consists of a thzee inch concrete slab, one-half inch insulating board laid 111 a fifteen pound felt and hot pitch sandwich type construction, and a tOpping of three-quarter inch mastic. The second wing of the piggery, commonly referred to as the solar wing, is oriented on an east-west axis. Layout and cOnstruction of this wing are similar to the regular wing to the tOp of the concrete block wall. From here on there is a I‘adical change. Instead of the characteristic gable roof a Shed roof Opens to the south. Windows are found in the south Wadl.only and consists of twenty-six pieces of three foot by five foot insulating glass. Each pane is composed of two pieces of three-sixteenth inch heavy sheet window glass with a one-half inch air space separating the two pieces, a total glass area of three hundred ninety square feet. To prevent the sun from entering during the summer months, an overhang was extended from the roof a distance of about five feet. Several views Of this wing are shown in Figure 3 and Figure 4. Fig. 2. Interior view of regular w connecting doorway to main barn. Iniuu“‘imi“‘ Q! ’ ‘ ‘ I [ I “ ‘ .. ~._( I s“4f‘~L‘l-1111. Fig. 1. Michigan State College swine barn looking northwest towards College and Forest Roads on March 26, 1953; overhang in "back" position. Fig. 2. Interior v e . .- connecting doorway to main barn. There are other features which are common to both wings such as the heating system and the type and arrangement of the exhaust system. Both wings are heated by hot water unit heaters supplied by an oil furnace located in the main barn. There are two heaters in each wing, each having a rated capacity of 58,400 BTU's per hour. These are Operated from one thermostat located in the center of each wing. The exhaust ventilation system is composed of three stacks in each wing starting three feet above the floor. The two outer stacks of each wing have ‘Wind driven fans at the tOp which will start to turn in a four Inile an hour wind. The center stack of each wing is equipped \vith.a manual switch motor driven fan which has an air output of’fifteen hundred cubic feet per minute. All six of the stacks tuave dampers in them which are controlled by one humidistat Ifor each damper. There are eight fresh air inlets in the regu- lar wing, four along each of the long walls, and only four in- lets in the solar wing, all located along the low'north wall. There are two main uses for’this new piggery. One is to ZDPONide a place in which to conduct nutrition or feed studies and the other is to provide a place for farrowing. Since the 33$ed.studies are usually continuous and run for two to three Inonth periods, this type of work is done in the regular wing. rI‘he main reason for this choice was that the regular wing is easier to clean daily since the manure can be carried directly out of the south door of the wing and placed in the manure Spreader. Also this would leave the solar wing for the farrow- ing activities where the greater amount of light may be of more "_' ‘....."1. -.von- 1-.~‘.u Fig. 3. Exterior view of solar wing on September 22, 1952; overhang in "extended" position. Tig. 4. Interior view of so a connecting doorway to main barn. benefit. Thus each wing is used for a different purpose and has a different type of animal in it. Environmental Requirements of Swine The requirements of swine other than nutrient are not truly known and the design of buildings for swine involves a number of technical problems on which basic information is lacking. Only a small number of eXperiments dealing with environmental conditions on swine have been made and the [maJority Of this information dealt more with extreme condi- ‘tions in temperatures and humidities than with desired condi- ‘bions. Much general information has come from Observations xvhich may not always be correct. Even so, prOper housing is (Inc of the first points in successful swine enterprises and ‘the hog, more than any other farm animal, is sensitive to the extremes of heat and cold. Effegtg of envirpnment on the rgte of ggin. Heitman and Hughes (14)* made a study which was "concerned with the effect of’changes in environmental temperature and humidity on the 1Dody temperature, respiration rate, pulse rate, and other factors in swine." They used a small air conditioned room which had a controllable air temperature and relative hu- Inidity. The results of these tests indicated that "hogs weigh- ing 166 to 260 pounds gained most rapidly in the neighborhood of sixty degrees, while lighter weight animals weighing 70 to 144 pounds gained most rapidly at approximately seventy-five * Numbers in parenthesis refer to the appended bibliography. degrees." The amount of feed required to produce one hundred pounds of gain was at a minimum when the rate of gain was at a maximum. This would indicate then that if it were Just a mat- ter of fattening pigs the best results would be had starting with a temperature of seventy-five degrees and gradually lower— ing it as the weight of the pigs increased. The necessary heat- ing equipment to do this in the winter time would be prohibi- tive in cost. Heat nrodpction of swine. Work was done by several in- vestigators to determine the amount of heat produced by swine. The results of these separate investigations agree closely. The estimations which were made by Mitchell and Kelley (29) were from an "analytical study of the energy requirements of swine and the results were given for any particular age and weight]' Their result for a two hundred pound fattening hog was 815 BTU's per hour. Since at seventy degrees, the temper- ature of the investigation, "twenty-five percent of the heat produced is latent heat," the actual amount of sensible heat would be about six hundred BTU's per hour. The studies carried on by Kelly, Heitman and Morris (21) were measures on the heat loss from swine under various en— vironmental conditions. This was done in the small air— conditioned room mentioned earlier. The heat loss from one two hundred pound fattening hog under conditions similar to the above example of Mitchell and Kelley was scaled from the graphical results for a value of 580 BTU's per hour which is almost the value obtained by Mitchell and Kelley. At forty degrees, this heat loss was about double the above value for seventy degrees. The study of heat loss from a pen of hogs becomes complicated for temperatures below sixty degrees be- cause Of their huddling together which reduces their exposed surface as much as sixty percent. The central faggoglng hougg. The use of a central Spot for the swine enterprise, both farrowing and fattening, has had a lot of discussion both pro and con. The chief Objection was the disease problem which can now be largely eliminated with prOper management. For the convenience Of the Operator, a central farrowing house or system is almost a necessity for a large swine enterprise. The design conditions for a cen- tral farrowing house usually list a desirable temperature somewhere between fifty and sixty degrees and the use of electric pig brooders. The ventilation rate is given as six to ten cubic feet per minute for every one hundred pounds of pigs. Amounts of insulation recommended also varies, but there is common agreement that more insulation is desired in the ceiling than in the walls. Thus, if condensation takes place, it will occur on the walls and not on the ceilings where it would "rain" into the pens. The amount of sunshine which should be admitted to the farrowing house is also debated. Large single glazed win- dow areas are heat wasters. Even the generally accepted value of three to four square feet of window Space per pen may waste too much heat. The use of insulating glass may pro- vide a method of letting in more sunlight with a lower heat loss through the windows. For the fixed sash insulating glass installation at the piggery, heat loss due to infiltration is greatly reduced. According to the recommendations of Oregon State College (4), hog houses should be constructed "to pro- vide maximum sunlight and good ventilation. This is an aid in the control of disease." Solar Energy When one starts thinking about solar energy, it is hard to conceive the vastness of the subject. The sun was a source of wonder to the earliest cavemen and even today there is probably nobody who really knows Just how this energy keeps coming. Some eXperimenters have come forth with interesting facts about the sun and the energy emitted from it. General facts. The diameter of the sun is roughly one hundred times that of the earth or approximately 863,600 miles. Ackermann (1) said that each square foot of surface on the sun emits 12,500 horsepower which would be equivalent to 3.18 x 107 BTU's per hour. Thus, the energy emitted from four square feet of the sun's surface in one hour would be sufficient to heat an average six room Michigan house for one year. If all the energy from the entire surface of the sun for one hour were available, it would provide enough heat for heating three and one-half million average six room Michigan homes for one million-million years! Ackermann (1) also states some of the conclusions made by Herschel from the results of his eXperiments conducted during 10. the winter’of 1836 to 1837. From these eXperiments he deduced that a cylindrical rod ‘of ice, 45.3 miles in diameter, and of indefinite length, con- tinually darted into the sun with the velocity of light would barely suffice to employ the whole radiant heat for its fusion, without at all reducing the temperature of the sun. A very minute amount of energy from the sun actually reaches the outer atmOSphere of the earth and an even smaller amount will reach the ground. Of all the energy that leaves the sun, only 7,300 horsepower per acre, 1.93 gram—calories per square centimeter per minute, or 426 BTU's per square foot per hour reach the outer atmosphere. From this amount, about thirty percent more is lost before it reaches the earth's surface at noon on a bright sunny day. Telluric adsorption. This adsorption by the atmosphere, referred to as telluric adsorption, is caused by many things. Chief among these would be water vapor, carbon dioxide, dust, smoke, and ozone. The season of the year also plays an impor- tant roll in the amount of telluric adsorption. Kimball (26) states that "the values of radiation intensity with an air mass equal to two is higher in winter than in summer partly due to the fact that the earth's 'radius vector' reaches its maximum value in early July and its minimum in early January, and partly to the fact that the atmOSphere contains much less water vapor in winter than in summer." Ackermann (1) also states that "the adsorption of solar energy by the atmosphere is about twenty percent greater in summer than in winter." 11. About seven percent of this increase in winter transmission over summer transmission through the atmOSphere is due to the earth's being closer to the sun in the winter than in the sum— mer. In some experiments conducted by Kimball (26), it was found that for an air mass of one (solar azimuth of zero de- grees) and a perfectly dry atmOSphere, ninety percent of the solar energy would pass through the atmOSphere. For an air mass Of two (solar azimuth of sixty degrees) this transmission was reduced to eighty-four percent and for an air mass of four (solar azimuth of seventy-five degrees) this was down to seventy-six percent. The effect of the water vapor content of the atmosphere was even more pronounced. The amount of water vapor content was given as the depth Of water that would be obtained if all the water vapor in the atmOSphere were precipitated. With an air mass of one and one centimeter of water vapor, the trans- mission would be eighty percent. When the water vapor was in- creased to two centimeters, the transmission was seventy-six percent and for three centimeters of water vapor the trans- mission was reduced to seventy—three percent. The water vapor content of the air had the greatest reduction affect upon the transmission of the ultra-violet energy. The depletion of energy by atmospheric dust amounted to about ten percent for most conditions. Dust had the greatest reduction affect again upon the ultra-violet energy and the least effect upon the infra-red energy. 12. Studies for house heating. During the past ten to fif- teen years much interest has been taken in the heating powers of the sun. The majority of the work which has been done, however, was concerned more with the heat gain during the sum- mer months as it would affect an air conditioning system. One such study (16) indicates from the results of many tests that "with minor variations the heat flows through the east, south and north walls were 83, 75 and 46 percent, reSpectively, of that for the west wall" during the summer months. It was impossible to use information such as this for winter studies when the sun is lower in the sky. Cottony and Dill (8) found that "a surface capable of emitting long-wave radiation (radiant heat) will remain cooler when eXposed to the sun than another surface which is similar with the exception that it emits less of such radiation." This means that a white gloss painted surface would be cooler than a green painted surface. Although these tests were made dur- ing the middle of the summer, the tests were made with the surfaces facing south and inclined at various positions to the horizon. Data such as this would then be applicable to winter months as well as summer months. Only three investigators were found who had done a con— siderable amount of work on the possibilities Of heating structures, namely houses, by the use Of solar energy. Hutch- inson (17) was directly connected with the solar heated house experiments at Purdue University. These eXperiments were con- ducted on two unoccupied houses which were architecturally, 13. structurally and thermally similar. The glass area on the north and west sides were the same for both houses, but the solar house had an excess of sixteen square feet of glass on the east side and seventy-one square feet of glass on the south side. The glass in both houses was insulating glass. During a nine week test period in the winter of 1946—47, it took 2,924 kilowatt hours to heat the solar house and 2,514 kilowatt hours to heat the regular house. Hutchinson also made up tables (18, 19, 20) to help in the calculation of solar energy impinging upon vertical walls facing east, southeast, south, southwest, or west. These tables provide a figure for various latitudes and represent the amount of solar energy on the wall for an average clear day during each of the winter months. Hand (12) constructed tables to aid in the conversion of energy received on a normal surface to energy received on a vertical south facing surface for the winter months. With these tables it was possible to calculate instantaneous heat gains using data gathered locally. The formula which he recommended follows: Is : In (cos a cos D) + Isd where IS : energy normal to a south facing vertical wall In : direct solar radiation on a surface normal to the sun Isd diffuse energy on a south facing wall a = solar altitude angle D = solar azimuth angle 14. He further states that "owing to the insufficient data on values of Isd' we used the formula Is : In (cos a cos D)." This further simplification makes the conversion more approx- imate and the results less accurate. The majority of the work which was done by Telkes (38) was along the lines of possible methods of solar heat storage. Methods were develOped for using the heat of fusion of a com- mon chemical salt for the storage of solar heat. This work was done in the vicinity of Boston, Massachusetts and does show a solution to the heating of a house by the use of the sun's energy only. Instrumentation Thermocouples. All of the instruments which were used in this project were thermocouples in basic construction, designed to record automatically in conjunction with a Brown Recording Potentiometer. The wires used for these thermo- couples were twenty-six gauge c0pper and constantan. This size of wire was chosen because "small couples respond more promptly to changes in temperature and are less affected by radiation than large ones" (2—p. 1023). In the same reference a method was described for avoiding error due to radiation by using several thermocouples of different sizes, the true temperature being estimated by extrapolation of the readings to zero wire diameter. There was the possibility in this study for the sun to be shining directly onto almost every one of the thermocouple 15. junctions, especially during the winter when the sun was low in the sky. To prevent any increase in the recorded tempera- tures due to radiation, the junctions were placed inside of a paper cup from which the bottom had been removed. A close inapection of Figures 2 and 4 will show how these cups were used. This method had been used previously by other members of the Michigan State College Agricultural Engineering De- partment. Since from all of the recorded temperatures in each wing an average value was to be used, two methods were investigated which would give average readings directly (31). One of these methods was composed of thermocouples connected in series in which every alternate junction was kept at a common tempera- ture and the other junctions at various temperatures. This gave an electromotive force which,divided by the number of pairs of junctions, would give the true mean electromotive force. This large electromotive force would have been much too great from twenty thermocouples to be recorded on the re- cording potentiometer. The second method was the connection of the thermocouple leads in parallel, the similar metals being connected together. The chief objection to this method was that for the recording, of a true mean, for all temperatures, the electrical resist- ance of all the lines would have to be the same. In effect this would mean that all of the thermocouple leads would have to be the same length. Neither of these two methods were considered usable and 16. the final average temperatures were obtained by averaging the individually recorded results mathematically. Relative humidity measurement. The measurement of rela- tive humidities was accomplished with a wet bulb dry bulb thermocouple unit. The use of a hair element hygrothermo- graph was ruled out because of the large amount of dust in the air. According to Bruhn (7), "usually there is dust present which interferes with the accuracy of many instruments. The. hair element hygrothermograph at best is not tOO accurate even when calibrated for a given range, and moving the instrument from the calibrating laboratory to a remote installation or changing the range of Operation often causes inaccuracy." Thermocouples are well suited for psychrometric use. When used as such, Wesler (40) states that they give low lag and are good for little or no ventilation. Bruhn (7) ob- served that dust accumulation seemed to have no effect on the wet bulb thermocouple unit. The particular method employed was develOped by Hender- son (15). A picture of this unit as it was used for the pro- ject at the piggery is shown by Figure 16. The only changes in the plans presented by Henderson were the shortening of the wet bulb glass tube by about one-half inch and the omis— sion of the paraffine which he used as a thermal fill in the glass tube. Tap water was used and the deposits left after evaporation and the dust accumulation on the wet bulb sock caused no discrepancies in the recorded data. The wet bulb socks were washed twice during the winter study. 17. APPARATUS AND METHODOLOGY Use of Brown Recording Potentiometer When this study was first started in the Spring of 1952, it was decided to make the recording of data as automatic as possible. The eight point Brown Recording Potentiometer was available and was used throughout this first summer and winter of the project for recording the data (Fig. 5). Fifty-two point switching box. Since it was going to be necessary to measure more than eight different tempera- tures with the recording potentiometer at the start of the study, it was decided to use the fifty-two point switching box which was develOped by Hansen and Hall (13). This box, which permitted the use of up to fifty-two thermocouples is shown in Figure 6 as it was wired for the winter study. A total of forty—six wires were hooked into the box during the winter study and twenty-two during the end of the summer study. The leads from this box went to the potentiometer where they bypassed the eight point switching mechanism of the potentiometer. The location of the switching box with respect to the potentiometer is shown in Figures 5 and 7. To keep the identity of the points straight on the strip chart, one thermocouple was taped against a continuously burn- ing lightbulb (Figs. 5 and 7). This thermocouple was wired into the switching box twice to give a high temperature reading at the end of the temperature readings from each wing. 18. Fig. 5. Instrument location from door leading to solar wing. Shows respective location of potentiometer, switching box, time clock, transformer, and eight point plug. Sign-on wall eXplains location of different thermocouples being recorded. 19. Fig. 6. Fifty—two point switching box slide off shelf for picture. Forty-six thermocouple leads were connected to box at this time. ‘: .i‘ilmi‘l‘a‘t: . | _ ' p . a .. .. - - . - o .’ . o *» at”? Tig. 7. Location of switching box and time clock below potentiometer. Light- bulb to which thermocouple lead was attached appears in upper righthand corner. 20. This method helped greatly in the identification of the print- ed points on the strip chart record during the summer study. Method for winter switching. During the winter study it was decided that it would be necessary to record only eight temperatures and thus the switching mechanism in the poten- tiometer was used. In order to make it easy to switch to all of the points from the switching box when desired, a special plug was used as shown in Figure 8. Eight of the sockets were used on this plug with the constantan wire coming to the poten- tiometer from the original position on the fifty-two point switching box. Jumper wires were used from the switching box to eight connections on the female plug which was fastened to the wall. The male plug carried these eight thermocouple leads to their connections on the potentiometer. Fig. 8. This plug was used when it was desired to bypass 52 point switching box with eight thermocouples. Only eight of eleven sockets on plug were used. The Operation of this set up was as follows. When only 61Eht points were to be recorded, the plug in Figure 8 was Plugged in, the c0pper lead from the switching box was 21. disconnected, and the wires from the potentiometer to the switching box which provided the electrical impulse for the switching action were disconnected. This would then result in the normal recording of only eight points. When it was desired to record more than eight points, the above procedure was reversed which then resulted in the use of the switching box. This method worked satisfactorily until the high humid- ities and dust caused the switching box to give false readings during the winter study. From that point on the switching box was bypassed and only eight points were recorded. Time Control Circuit for Brown Recording Potentiometer At the start of the study it was decided that a temper- ature record taken once every hour would be sufficient. These records were to be plotted onto weekly charts which would make anything more than an hourly record extremely hard and time consuming to plot. For this hourly record to be possible then, it was necessary to construct some type of time control mechanism for the chart drive. It was necessary to build this control so that the instrument power would be left on continously while turning the chart drive on and off once every hour to record the points. A time clock alone was first tried for this control, but it did not work satisfactorily. The clock would turn the chart drive on accurately, but trouble was experienced on turn— ing off the circuit. The clock used was a synchronous clock 22. with.a one hour switch period which shows up well under the right side of the potentiometer in Figure 7. The switch setting dial was marked in percent of an hour during which the switch would be closed and it was only possible to set the time duration of the switch to within about one—half of one percent of an hour. This time error could have amounted to about eighteen seconds which was always accumulating. After one hour there would be a maximum surplus of eighteen seconds and after two hours a maximum surplus of thirty-six seconds. Thus, since the recorder printed one point every thirty seconds, there would be an error possibility of one reading every other hour. This made it impossible to identify the prOper points with their respective hours. Control for summer study. A solution to this problem during the summer study was found by using a switch built into the switching box in conjunction with a relay switch and the time clock. The circuit diagram for this time control BWitch method is shown in Figure 9. The switch,which is labeled box switch, was built into the switching box and was set in the normally closed position. It was built to Open momentarily when tripped by the prong on the rotating switch- ing arrangement in the switching box as this prong passed the laSt thermocouple lead. The relay switch was set in the normally Open position and made contact only when the coil Was energized. The time clock switch completed the circuit and was also in the normally Open position across the relay BWitch. 23. CHART BOX QWITC H DRlVE Ldnl'L—A TIME \ CLOCK I RRLAY I “m" $WIT¢H I Fig. 9. Time control circuit used during summer months. Box switch and relay switch were located inside of 52 point switching box. When it came time to record, the time clock switch would close, completing the circuit, and energizing the relay coil which in turn closed the relay switch. After several minutes, the time clock switch would Open without disturbing the cir- cuit. ‘When the last reading was completed, the prong on the rotating switching arrangement would Open the box switch momentarily, causing the relay coil to de-energize with the resulting Opening of the relay switch. This permanently breaks the circuit until started again the following hour by the time clock switch. This mechanism was positive in Operation and would re- sult in the chart drive being stOpped in the exact spot every hour. Having the relay coil in series with the chart drive motor had no ill effects on it other than the fact that it Pan at about seven-eighths normal speed. During the last several days of the summer study, trouble Was experienced with.this circuit due to faulty action of the box switch which was a rather crude homemade switch. Thus, it was decided to find some other means to control the chart drive action during the winter phase of the study. Control for winter study. Only eight points, the normal complement of the potentiometer, were to be recorded for the majority of the time during the winter study. Thus, it was decided that some type of internal switch was necessary so as to be an integral part of the potentiometer. It was also necessary to find a more permanent type of switch than that which was used during the summer study. The solution to these problems resulted in the construction of a new time control circuit. The principle used was the same as before; that of turning the chart drive on and off while having the instrument power on all the time. The time clock switch used previously was retained to initiate the circuit. To turn the chart drive off after it had been started by the time clock, a Micro Switch was mounted on the potentiometer as in Figure 10. The switch had a flat follower which made contact with a cam mounted on the shaft pointed to by the arrow in Figure 11.‘ On the eight POint potentiometer two cam rises were necessary since this Shaft revolved once every sixteen points. The Micro Switch Wes wired in the normally closed position and was Opened at the end of a series of readings by the action of the cam against the follower. To prevent the stOpping of the instrument during the standardization cycle, five seconds were allowed to elapse between the recording of the last point and the Opening of the Micro Switch when used with the eight point potentiometer. Fig. 10. Location of Micro Switch on chassis of potentiometer. Fig. 11. Arrow points to location of shaft on which cam to Operate Micro Switch was located. 26. Both the time clock switch and the Micro Switch were wired in parallel with the chart drive switch located on the front of the chassis. The closing of any of these three switches would thus start the chart drive action. A typical cirmuit sequence for the eight point potentiometer would then be as follows: 1. The chart drive switch would be set in the off position. 2. At the hour, the time clock switch would close starting the chart drive action. 3. After a short interval of time required for printing approximately two points, the cam for the Micro Switch would have turned enough to allow the follower to fall thus closing the Micro Switch. 4. Somewhere during the middle of the series the time clock switch would Open, but the chart drive action would continue because the Micro Switch would be closed. 5. At the end of the eight point series the cam will raise the follower Opening the Micro ‘Switch and thus stOp the chart drive action. For every following hour, steps 2 to 5 would be repeated. When the fifty-two point switching box was used to increase the maximum possible number of temperatures recorded by the potentiometer, the set-up would be similar to that above. In this case, however, the time clock switch was left closed until 27. the middle of the final set of eight points. When it was necessary to run the chart drive continuously, the chart drive switch on the front of the chassis was turned to the on posi- tion and the other two switches then had no effect on the circuit. Because of the simplicity of both construction and Oper- ation of this circuit, a paper was prepared and submitted for publication in the "Journal of the American Society of Agri- cultural Engineers." Tempe ratu re Measurement The measuring of temperatures was accomplished with thermocouples. The thermocouples used during the majority of the summer study consisted of two lines of ten thermocouples each, one line being placed in each wing. Since these lines were constructed for another project, they did not fit too well. It was possible to place eight thermocouples over the pens on the north side of the solar wing and only seven ther- mocouples over the pens on the east side of the regular wing. These were all located about one foot down from the ceiling. These thermocouples were considered as temporary and were replaced as soon as new lines were constructed. Construction of thegmocoupigg. A cOpy of the building Plans for the piggery was obtained so that it would be pos- Sible to make the thermocouple strings fit as close as pos- sible to the positions chosen. It was decided to place the thermocouples at pen height at the front and rear of every 28. other pen. This took four strings of wire, one for each side of the alley of each wing. It was decided to make up each of these four strings with a common constantan wire. This would simplify construction and still give accurate results. The method of construction used for these four strings was a unique one and greatly simplified the construction of the lines which were up to two hundred feet long. A picture of the apparatus used is shown by Figure 12. A two foot sec- tion of seven inch diameter stove pipe made up the main body of the apparatus. Wood blocks with a hole just large enough to pass a broomstick were nailed into the ends of the stove- pipe and a broomstick placed through the holes in the block. Cardboard rings were cut with a seven inch inside diameter and an eight inch outside diameter. These were slipped over the stovepipe and fastened with masking tape about two inches apart to provide dividers to keep the different lengths of thermocouple wire separated. This provided the drum upon Which the thermocouple wire was wound during construction. A crank handle provided a means for turning the drum. To count the revolutions and thus measure out the wire, a counter was mounted where the crank handle would make con- tact with the counter arm once every revolution. Thus, it was possible to rapidly spool off onto the drum the correct amount of wire for each thermocouple in the string. The num- ber of feet for each wire multiplied by 0.545 gave the number of turns. When the wires were wound back onto the smaller drum 1 29. Fig. 12. Drum with crank was used to wind up wires which made thermocouple strings. Drum revolution counter to meter out correct length of wire was located at front edge behind drum. shown in the center background of Figure 12, they were com- bined into the thermocouple string. The junctions were made by scraping about three-eighths of an inch of insulation off the end of both the OOpper and constantan and twisting this length together. They were then dipped in hot solder to complete the junction (2-p. 1022). Installation of thermocouples. The location of the thermocouples is shown by Figure 13. The string along the east wall of the solar wing and the string along the west wall 0f the regular wing were put into Operation about the first of September. A shortage of wire did not allow the placing of the other two strings until November. Typical installations of the thermocouples are shown by Figures 14 and 15. The use of a staple gun provided a fast method for string- ing the thermocouple wires. For the leads which ran down the 30, 2‘ m. HEDGE 20...<00.. hzmaamkmz. 024 mNJADOOOZKNIk .53.... .4“! 024 hzumumm ...0 203.400.. 02.305 rmuwwi wouJJOO whdhm 240.20.! ...0 2<..m 200...... mbzufiamhmz. $ mudDOOOZmur... .531 .Jmm. O mmqmasoimmx... hzmmmmm x svvnsas j J 02.3 440$ '1 VI 31. steel posts, masking tape was used to hold them in place. It was necessary to exercise some care with the use of metal staples since a break in the insulation of the wires would cause a faulty reading. Checking of thermocoupies. After the installation of all the thermocouple wires was completed they were checked in place by the use of an ice water solution in a thermos bottle. The potentiometer was set to record just one point continuously by bringing the thermocouple lead past both.the switching mechanism of the potentiometer and the switching box with a jumper wire directly to the amplifying system. The thermocouple junction was then placed in the ice water solution for a period of about a minute and a half which was time enough for this thermocouple to be recorded on the strip Chart two or three times. By checking this temperature re- corded on the strip chart, it was possible to tell whether the thermocouple was Operating correctly. Each succeeding thermocouple lead was brought into the Potentiometer one at a time by switching the jumper wire to the next lead. After moving the jumper wire each time, the Proper thermocouple junction was placed in the ice water solu- tion and the temperature recorded. A check of the recorded data after the recording of the last point indicated that the last six thermocouples from the west side of the regular wing were giving false readings. This was corrected by loosening the staples along theline and a sec0nd check of this line showed that they had been put into 32. good working order. Thus all forty of the thermocouples were in good working order during the winter study. Relative Humidity Measurement Construciigg. The problem of relative humidity measure- ment was also solved by the use of thermocouples. A constant feed wet bulb unit was built according to plans by Henderson (15) and is shown in Figure 16. The bottle is a 250 ml Erlen- meyer flask and the glass tubing was 5 mm in diameter. This method maintained a constant level of water from which the wet bulb wick would draw. The thermocouple junction was enclosed in a glass tube which was surrounded by the wick. The upper set of thermocouple wires in Figure 16 measured the dry bulb temperature at a point about two inches to the side of the wet bulb unit. The thermocouple wires were constructed by the eame method outlined earlier for the temperature recording lines. Installation. Since it was decided to use a fan to sup- PIY'air movement, it was necessary to mount the relative humidity unit where it would be out of the way. Thus, these ‘Mhits were hung from the girders on the righthand side of the alley of each wing. A location as close to the center of the wine as possible was chosen. In this location the instruments were undisturbed. Controlling the wet bgib fig. An eight inch household fan (Fig. 16) was used to supply the air movement across the wet bulb units. The stands were removed and the fans hung in an inside-down position. A system was set up whereby the fans 33. '0 ‘o Fig. 15. Typical location Fig. 14. Typical location of thermocouple junction on of thermocouple junction every other post along along outside walls. alley of both wings. Q Fig. 16. Relative humidity measuring unit. Water level in large glass tube was always at same heighth because small tube in Erlenmeyer flask Opens to atmosphere. Fan is eight inch household fan. 34. were turned on once every hour while the readings were being taken and then turned off again after the last thermocouple was recorded. This meant that the fan would not have to be run continuously. When the time control chart drive circuit was set up for the potentiometer, it was found that whenever the chart drive switch was on, there was a 110 volt current source at ter- minals B and F of the chassis terminal block. Thus, it was possible to run wires from these terminals to a convenience outlet which was located on the tap side of the potentiometer (Fig. 17). Whenever the chart drive mechanism was running, there was a 110 volt supply which would be turned off when the Micro Switch stOpped the chart drive motor. A six volt filament transformer (Fig. 17) was used to Provide a control circuit for turning the fans on and off because of the distances involved. A relay switch (Fig. 18) was mounted near the fans and was energized by this six volt c1rcuit. The Operation of this relay switch would then turn the fans on and off with the chart drive motor. Since the Potentiometer was a slow speed machine, printing one point eVery thirty seconds, by making the wet bulb thermocouples the last ones to record, at least three minutes of air move- ment would elapse before the points were recorded. This was sufficient time to give the desired reSults. I Checking. The thermocouples for the relative humidity measurement were checked by the same method which was des- cribed earlier for the temperature recording thermocouples. 35. . ,h Fig. 17. Transformer connected to con- venience outlet from potentiometer pro- vides six volts to fan switch whenever chart drive Operates. Relay switch which turn- Fig. 18. ed fan on and off; wired as double pole switch. 36. The Operation of the fans was checked in the laboratory be- fore being installed. It was found that the maximum air movement which occurred close to the fan about two inches in radius from the center was six hundred feet per minute. The entire unit was checked with a sling psychrometer while the unit was in Operation. The results from the wet bulb dry bulb thermocouple unit were about five percent higher than the values obtained by the use of the psychrometer and were considered sufficiently accurate for the type of data being taken. Recording of Heater Fan Operation During the last weeks of the winter study, an attempt was made to record the amount of time during which the fans on the unit heaters were Operating. The method used was to connect a self starting clock in parallel with the wires running to the heater fans as shown in Figure 19. It was thought that by observing the time on every day, the differ- ence in time between the readings of the present day and the PPeVious day would give the total time of Operation. This method failed because of the impossibility of getting to the Study every day to record the clock time. 37. Fig. 19. Clock, connected in parallel with heater fan, was used to record total hours of heater fan Operation. 38. PRESENTATION OF DATA AND RESULTS Use of Weekly Charts The data which were recorded on the strip chart during the summer and winter tests were transferred to charts for each week of the study. These charts (Figs. 20 and 21) were specially prepared for this study. The indoor temperatures plotted on these charts for both the summer and the winter (months were average values for each wing obtained by a mathe- matical average of the recorded thermocouple temperatures. The outdoor temperatures for both sets of charts were trans- cribed from hygrothermograph data collected by the Michigan Hydrologic Research Project. A psychrometric chart was used to convert the wet bulb and dry bulb temperatures to relative humidity. Total solar radiation was also included on these weekly Charts. The values plotted were the total accumulations of eelar radiation for each hour. Thus, the values for 12:00 noon Would be those which were accumulated between 11:00 AM and 12:00 noon. These were plotted in units of gram-calories per Bquare centimeter. To convert to BTU's per square foot, multi- ply by 3.68. 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BC 3 0 «.I 0.64 IE: 9.3 26.6 3 IQ 49 62.5 26.5 O 65' 0.64 46.6 .70 57-e 2 26 4O 96 38 0.68 0.64 ea; 7.4.3 94.6 I C 54 II4 45.6 0.68 0.64 77.5 2?.6 .cc.5 0 32 32 I22 48 0.68 0.64 sec 30.8 Irons FEB,’£I 5 ’5 7’; 7,4 4.3 .‘J. 5 0.7.4 3.5. . 2.7 0,0 4 I3 .62 33.5 .56 0-15" 0.64 III. 7 70.0 21‘. 7 :5 2'2. 52 96‘ z-I 63.0 4 0.64 43.: .81: 1.2." .1 28.5 3- v7 34 0.67 3.64 05.6 25.0 70.0 i 33.5 ‘57.) lib 4b.; C.c8 3»¢‘4 79.6 2.9-8 ‘CF.“ 0 35 as I22 4-I 47-c8 0.64 83-0 EM II‘M MAR. I 5 C 74 I' I 7.1 C. C‘- 3 04 4,4 4.0 9.0 ‘5‘; I6 ‘74: 37.5 I65 0-58 ”3.04 2I.7 “-8 33.5 f 2‘3 54-“ 6‘) EC 0-65 3.64 43.5 I1)". (72”.? A 3:; 27 ‘77 4.6 Oct 0.04 04.6 25.6 5354.0 | 37 ‘ 417 4% 6.08 C.é4 795 ‘20. 7 “O". 0 “58-5 '58-‘5 1'22 5(5 axes 1264 83.0 {v.20 “5.3 CALCULATIONS_ OF THEOQETICAL SINGLE GLAZED WINDOWS TABLE AIII INETANTANEODS HEAT. GAIN THROUGH FACING EAST ~CLEAE ATMOSPHERE DATE TIME ALTITUDE INCIDENCE DIRECT DIFFUSE DIREOT DIFFUSE Sub—TOTAL SUB-TOTAL TOTAL ANGLE ANGLE ENERGY ENERGY TRANSMISSION TRANSMIS‘JION DIRECT DIFFDSE ENERGY ENEkéY ENERGY BTU/F12 HR DEC. 2| 8 .5 38 37.5 4_7 C 90 (7.83 ZQS 3".Q 33.? 9 II 4‘? 88 I4.6 O 88 0.83 77.5 ml 89.0 Io I7 62.5 84 NJ 0.8: 0.85 68.9 14.7 83.6 H 2I 76 49 I83 0.59 0.85 28.4 I532 43. b I? 7.? 90 O I7.3‘ 0.0 6.83 (LC I4-4 I4. 4 I 2I I23 35.2 6.83 (2.6 I2.6 2 I7 ~I48 I23, 985 I02 IR? 3 II I64 9.4 972.83 1n - I C‘ 4 3 I76 2.4 0.83 7.0 2.c JAN- H 8 4 36.5 45' 6.3 0.90 O83 405 5. .1 49’. 7 9 I2. 4‘? 94 755 0.88 63.85 81.7 I14 7516 I0 I8 67; 88 I8.é 6.82. 0.82; 72.! [5.4 53/ 5 II 22.5 76 5‘0 I‘LC (“.56 0.83 24.6 I58 44.9 n 24 90 (‘ 58.0 (1.0 3.85 C. ." I10 I5.C‘ I 22.5 I’Z’I; I5.7 0.8:: ' I3.(- [DC 2 I8 I45 I10 as: I08 .619 3 I’2 103 9.0 5.93 7.5 7 5 4 4 I75 5.I 6.8:“. 2.6 2.6 JAN. 2! 8 6 35 66 ‘7 - 5 0.90 O. 63 59. 4 7. '7 b 1.: ‘7 13.5 48 I05 I722 088 (.9: 72.4 I45 ICE-7 Io "O .57. 43' 29.0 3.92; CF?- 76.2. I66 12.9 I2 7.6 70 C- I9.C~ 0.0 (.213 C.C I59 .59 I 24.5 I20 I6.5 0.83 I347 I617 . 2 20 I43 I4.C‘ (1.8:.- I..t: II.b 3 I15 I60 IQO 08.5 8.: 6.3. 4 c I73 . 4.7 0-63 3.1 3.4 FEE. I e 7.5 34 8?. “.7 0 ?CI r15: 7’...% 7.8 9‘5. E 9 I6 47.5 IIe [9-9 G 68 0.82 ,<>4.C 76.5 no.3 I0 22.5 6L5 ‘79 n3 (.82: (EC-‘3, 8... I77 98 a II 27 75.5 57 am O5; 0.8.: 25.6 17.4 57.6 I2 28.5 '70 0 I76 ac 42.653 CO I64 76.4 I 27 116 17.8 $.85 I473 . Its 2 22.5 I4I I510 0.6.: I74 ”,4 3 16 I58 II-f ‘ OCI; '7‘. M. 4 7.5 I7! 518 inf—.2: 4-8 9.5 FEB. II 7 I 2I I3.4 1.9 0.91 0-81' .'. .. I: CI 8 I0 .3 I05“ [5.4 O. 90 1:29: 174..“ 1‘42; III: 4 I4 46.5 I34 7.2.0 0.8? 3.8: {It} .53 we 5 lo 26 6I I09 23.0 0.93 (“95 95.5 H" If”? II 30_ 75‘ 6‘ 7.2.4 0.4:! (.9.- 37; ‘ét jg} II 32 O O 2I.O 0.0 CG... .5 O I74 , .‘I I 30 II? 18.8 OEE 1;;4.» :'~;c 7- 7" I38 “9.5 6.83 .1...) .17 3 Iq I55 13.0 9.93 ;, F :5. ' 4 70 I68 7.; 5,93 [:3 I: / 5 I I78 0.8 5.85 5 . 7 O. 7 FEB. 2I 7 3 I8 39 5.5 0.71 0.83 55 5 II c qo I 8 IS 32 I30 19.0 0.?0 5.593 ”70 :p I 27;; 9 22 46 I44 24.5 0.8? {2.95 Mar: III-II. 93.4 ’0 285 b0 l‘7 24.8 0.84 r; 17 -/- ‘0' ‘*‘. . a , .1 _,, ‘ J -./ L -L II I-C H 35.5 75 b4 “35 0-0! ’79):- OII?/, I? .~ I‘q ‘ I2 35 . 90 o ;.;.0 0.0 27;: 5.}; ,5 '5." I 23.5 I15 zuc- Ow 7" ‘ ".1 2 28.! I35 .75 z, I; 13': ”'C» a 22 152 74,4 r392 '2 ‘5'“- 4 I3 ...: .5 :s..: W 5 3 ‘77 2.4 gév {.1 7.7 . .- ’~. g: 4.0 MAR.‘ 7 0 Ii [0 ((2.? (9‘ {I 08; 6%}:- 2. f I 78 -__. 8 lb 30.5 I570 21.9 0.90 6.9" ..pgrx '. c- ' d n r .r I ,v...’ [CL] ~43. 7 q ‘4 4" 35;. Led-O 5.69 (.8; -'-’r ".7 t- ‘44 . Io 32 60 .zz 26.6 5.5;: 0.9; ‘2'?) f. ' ' 'jf'e U 37 75 cu 1.4.8 (3 (2| 0.8:; r; “:6 ”‘16 '2 38.5 ?0 o 15.0 0.0 9.9; fix: .../.0 4...?) | E7 “3 I‘LL CE; *- lil [7.1. 7. 31 I33 ,6”; (.9; 27:4 NJ“ 5’ 24 NH 1.5.0 ’:6’ ‘J'4 “'4 45 1b I02. “.33 (:9; 1:: ‘1‘: e .‘ . ° .. ‘ o . g,“ ‘4‘? (F; 3" .J". '16 ‘02. FIGURE A I TOTAL ENERGY BTU /FT‘ DAILY HEAT GAINS. DATA FROM THEORETICAL I75 IFO INSTANTANEOUS HEAT GAIN CALCULATIONS FOR A CLEAR ATMOSPHERE (TABLE AI) ,FEBJI FEB.“ \0, MW. ‘\ MARJ [15 '6 o q I. ‘6' 75 DEC.“ JAN. H JANJZI Fee. I FIB. H FEB. 2| llllll P—N20‘ 4 2 0 2 4 ‘ HOUR ANGLE 93. FIGURE, Aa' I78 I50 I35 DAILY HEAT GAINS. DATA FROM THEORETICAL INSTANTANEOUS HEAT CAIN CALCULATlONS FOR AN INDUSTRIAL ATMOSPHERE (TABLE AH) E BTU/FT‘ .1 {I TOTAL ENERGY (a O 16 DEC. u JAN.” JAN.“ IIBJ ~——-—-Fla.u —---FEI.:| MAQ.‘ HOUR o . ANGLE 2 94. FIGURE A3 DAILY HEAT GAINS. DATA FROM THEORETICAL INSTANTANEOUS HEAT GAIN CALcuLATIONs FOR A CLEAR ATMOSPHERE (TABLE AIII) 3 o BTU/FT‘ ). 0 d I! Z w .J < ’- O l- TOTAL DAILY HEAT UNDER CAI LY H E AT GAIN TABLE 95'. ‘OMP”' ‘V ,fi J AU GAIN 'r‘ u URVES m SOUTH FACING lNldLATING GLAsc WINDOWS EAST FASING WINUON: 3-AzEL SIN’JLE CLEAR ATMos PHERE IND‘JsTkIAI. ATMOmvH’éKE CLERK ATMO; PHEKE AREA «JNLER TOTAL HEAT AREA JNDEK TOTAL HEAT AKEA JNDER TOTAL HEAT DATE OJRvEs-IN‘ BTv/FTt cuRvEs'm‘ BTU/FT]. anus. m‘ BTU/FT“ Lac. zI No.0: 4:36 9.70 2:54 5.44 .48 JAN.“ [0.58 457. (0.2.5 260 s' i}. ICE. UANKZI t7-4’L 47c I647 24? «“59 NE: FEB.I Ie.Ie 4*95 ”.64 SIE 7.52 405’ FEEJI I904 .516 [L37 337 cis; 254 FEB.2I 19.37 .528 12.91 355 16.4. 264 MARJ III.I3 :22 I335 :64 .I.7«' 32' 96. TABLE A Y TOTAL DAILY HEAT GAIN FOR AVERAGE DAY DURING THE INDICATED WEEK QouTI-I FACING ONIUI-ATING ‘LA‘! WINDOW‘ (As? FACING swat: GLA‘IID wmoows wulx CLIAR ATMOS'HIRI ImusTRIAL ATMOWHIRI CLIAII ATMosPI-IERI TOTAL HEAT BTU/py' TOTAI. HEAT aTu/nt TOTAL HEAT BTU/"t DECJO-lb _ T 433 Ebb I50 ”'23 4 36 . z 64 149 24-3! 4‘38 266 7 [6'0 JANA-7 445 272 I55 8- I4 452 280 162 I5 - 2| 470 7.90 I74 ‘27.- 28 485 305 |90 JAMZQ- FEBA 4 Q5 3 I8 205 5'” 516 33 3 2 33 l‘l-IG 527 345 262 III- 25 528 354 7.87 n23.25- IIIAIM 52 2 364 320 5-II 6:0 365 349 TOTAL 626! 4025 7.794 97. Tabulaggon of results from A.E. 500 soecialAproblem. Saia's calculations (35) were made by using the average weekly mean values for solar radiation on a horizontal surface as recorded at East Lansing by the nichigan Hydrologic Research Project from the years 1943 to 1950. These values were multi- plied by a ratio of total radiation on a south facing vertical wall to the total radiation on a horizontal surface obtained during the winter of 1945-1946 at the Blue Hill, Massachusetts, Weather Station (11). A transmission value of seventy percent was used for his calculations (38).' The results from these calculations are recorded in Table AVI and were taken for the period of the study only. 98. TABLE A III . HEAT CAINED BY SoLAR RADIATION THROUGH INSULATING GLASS WINDOWS FACING SOUTH CALCULATIONS BY WIiKI-Y TOTAL SAIA AVERAGE DAI LY WEEK HIAT GAIN HIAT GAIN BTU/[31'I BTU/n: DEC. Io-Ié 3390 435 I7-23 4 I48 boo 24°3I 3I66 39‘: JAN. I-7 3I66 453 8TH 35H: 5'02 I5-2I ‘7II7 IOI‘I 22-28 6374 Mo JAN.29 - FEB.4 7004 I000 5'II 5'8I'Z. 8'30 l2-I8 5330 7H Iq-zs 505i 7'“ ”3.26 - MAR.4 4993 TH S-II 52!? 745 TOTAL 64,536 9’I34 99. Results from the winter of lQEZ- The equation used for the calculations in this part of the Appendix, Iv = IH (cot a cos D)%(2-§%) / $IH(;%), was develOped earlier and the develOpment will not be repeated at this time. Table AVII was taken from data gathered by the Michigan Hydrologic Research Station and was used with their permission. The values are weekly means and thus these weekly periods were used for the calculation. These data were recorded in units of gram-calories per square centimeter of horizontal surface and were converted to BTU's per square foot of horizontal sur- face (by multiplying by the factor of 3.68) and were then listed in column 3 of Table AIX. Values for the solar altitude and solar azimuth, Va" and "D" respectively, are plotted in Figures A4 and A5 for various hour angles through the year. These values were taken at 42° north latitude which was considered sufficiently accurate for this study. From these two graphs, calculations of the mid- month values of "cot a cos D" were made and these results plotted in Figure A6. This then made it possible to scale these values from the graph for any hour angle and any date with a fair degree of accuracy. This method was used to get the necessary values for column 4 of Table AIX. The values for the ratio of ID over 1H of column 5, Table AIX, were obtained from Figure A7. Values to plot these graphs came from data obtained at the Blue Hill, Massa- chusetts, Weather Station (12) during the period from September, 1945, to March, 1946. Since this was a collection period of 100. only seven months, or one winter, its application to other conditions may be questioned. The use of Figure A7 depended upon the amount of cloudiness recorded in Table AVIII. Cloud- iness is measured from O to 10 with 10 being a complete cloud cover. The usual range is O to 3, clear; 4 to 7, partly cloudy; and 8 to 10, cloudy. Values for the amount of cloud- iness were taken from the climatological data of Appendix B for the days of the weekly period and an average value was obtained for the week. These values were recorded in Table AVIII. Column 6, Table AIX, was obtained mathematically from column 5. Column 6 was so arranged that its value would never be less than 50% of the total solar radiation. This occurred whenever the ratio of ID over IH equaled one. When this ratio was equal to one, the values of ID and IE would be equal. This might appear to mean that all of the energy was diffuse. This would only be true for an extremely heavy cloud layer, however, since with a light cloud covering such as Cirrostatus, which would still be rated as a cloud covering of 10, a large amount of direct radiant energy will pass through. According to Kim- ball (22-p653) the ratio of diffuse illumination to total illum- ination on a horizontal surface at noon in midwinter varies from one—half to one-fifth. Also, over two-fifths of the sun's radiant energy is in the infrared region beyond the visible Spectrum (1). This infrared energy is much more penetrating through the atmospheric layers than energy of other wave lengths. It does not seem incorrect then to allow for 50% direct energy ‘when there is a complete cloud covering of average density. lOl. Column 7 of Table AIX was obtained as the product of columns 3, 4, and 6. This represents the total amount of direct solar energy perpendicular to a south facing wall. Multiplying the total energy received on a horizontal surface, IH, by the rptio of ID over IH gives an answer which is the total amount of diffuse energy received on a horizon- tal surface from all Of the sky. Since a south facing ver- tical wall is eXposed to only one-half of the sky, the diffuse radiation for a horizontal surface was multiplied by one-half to obtain the values for column 8 of Table AIX. It was recog— nized that normally the southern half of the sky will be brighter than the northern half (24), but it was felt that this was due more to the direct radiation (even when cloudy) than to any appreciable amount of increase in diffuse radiation. This increase has already been accounted for, then, in the preceding paragraph. Column 9 is the sum of columns 7 and 8 and represents the total amount of radiation or energy eXpressed in BTU's per square foot impinging upon a south, vertical surface. For the first nine weeks, column 9 was totaled for the day and then multiplied by the transmission percentage of the glass and recorded in column 11. For the last four weeks of the table, column 9 was first multiplied by the transmission percentage and the results were totaled in column 11. The transmission percentage of column 10 was taken from data compiled by Parmelee (32) for a double glass which resem- bled the type of insulating glass used in the piggery. The 102. transmission observed on several dates averaged 59.7% for values of the incident angle up to sixty degrees. At about sixty degrees, the transmission dropped off rapidly. This accounts for the use of a transmission value of twenty per- cent for the early morning and late afternoon hours. The totals in column 11 represent the total amount of solar energy passing through the south facing insulating glass windows in BTU's per square foot of glass for an average day during the week indicated. 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Fastest 01:. Possible. 5: 0.7 0.0 — — A1_ __ 7 7 719. Theda-mellendOtsdicetee amoesttnosmafltem. MISC. 45 N 91:13 15 — — _ — ‘1 ‘1 1 lg TEMPERATURE: ('F) HEATINGth DEGREE DAYS (base 65'): PRECIPITATION: (In.) Symbolsueed in columns 18-19 Average monthly 26.8 Total this month 1179 Total for the month Zom e from normal ‘3:0 Departure from normal 7133 Departure from normal 70.115 A - 21.11 L - Drusle Highest 56 on 15th Seasonal total (since July 1) 3757 Greatest in 24 hours 0.78 on 2.5 62 24 Is - sum-o ..o- N - 0...: Invest 5 on 7th Seasonal departure from normal -236 Snow, Sleet and Hall — 31-92:“. ' mm,“ : - g:- Number 0‘ days With — Total for the month 7.9 s _ 3,... 1. Z “:4"...- Max. 32 0‘ b01011 13 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE (In) Greatest in 24 hours 1-7 on 30th I - so. 2;. .. 7...... drink Mex. 90' 0! IbOVO 0 AV station (elev. 878 feet, 711.0. 1.) 48.986 Greatest depth on ground 3 onB, 3,10,11,21 - Hess zn - Ireeeisg «:4 Min. 32' or below 50 Hiq alt sea level 30.58 on 16th Dates of — Hail -- 12‘ "‘°'” Min. 0' or below 0 lowest sea level 29.“ on 24th $19.7 8,9,17,24 Glaze 8,9,10,11,17 The month of January we: characterized by above nor-11.11 tnperstures mmcipitation, but belos normal that. till. There have been only {our other times since begiming of record that tenperstures for the three month period 290v January has been earner than the past three months. The sarmest period Ihich occurred during November-January, 1351-54, averaged 8.1' above normal. For the past three months, tmperatures averaged 5.3' above normal. Snow- 8611 for the seascn is 10 inches below. nor-cal. Closing conditions existed several days during the month causing numerous traffic accidents,and 3 deaths on 17th. HOURLY PRECIPITATION Date A. M. Hour ending at P. M. Hour ending at Date 1121 41516 7|01 10L11112 11213 41510 71011910111112 1 * 1 2 7 7 7 .01 .01 7 7 2 3 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 4 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 5 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .01 .02 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 .01 7 7 5 g 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .02 .01 01 .01 7 7 7 g 7 8 7 7 7 7 .07 .00 .07 .04 .04 .02 .04 .02 .02 .01 .01 .01 .01 7 7 8 9 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7' 7 7 7 .01 .01 7 9 10 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 10 ll 7 .01 .01 7 .02 .01 .02 .00 7 7 7 7 - ll 12 12 13 13 14 7 7 .01 7 .01 7 7 14 15 7 .01 .01 .01 7 7 .04 .01 7 .01 7 15 15 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 16 17 7 .02 7 7 7 .10 .00 .02 7 7 .02 7 7 7 l7 18 '1' 1- 18 19 7 .01 7 7 7 19 20 20 21 21 22 7 7 7 7 22 23 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .07 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .12 .00 23 24 .01 .01 .00 .02 .01 .02 .01 7 .02 .00 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 24 25 7 7 7- 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 25 23 26 27 2'1 28 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 28 29 .01 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 29 30 .0. .02 .02 .02 .01 7 7 7 ' 3° 31 7 7 L 7 7 7 31 lifective January 1, 1953 the tenpersture and precipitation normals used for these reports are derived iron the period 1921-1950. 3M1ption Price: 50 cents per year including annual sun-ary it published. Separate copies, sonthly 5 cents each. annuals 10 cents esch. checks and money orders should he made payable to the Treasurer of the United States. ltenittances and correspondence regarding “mxptions should he sent to the superintendent or Docunents, Govern-ent Printing Office, Iashington 25, D. C. UPC, Kansas City, b. -- 2—5—58 -- 325 l05'. FtGUPE A6 $4024 ~30: owbqoaz. «on o mOU 5.30 no 29.254) J2 m2 «.2 m6 «.9 h; ... .n.v« ..cb .r 5.. ..m v... N... 0.2 us 06 o; ..0 9.4.1.. 0.00 ...0 nfi MN 0.: ha: 6&- h... NJ ..N .70 G... 0. duo 455.0... 3002 1883 74.49 ...... u; Tu at» 7. ...! .... ....2 2.» Yo 0 ..s ... -0 a -h 93:... 2(nl 0 w v D N . O . N n v n O 8J62( U301 IllLlll I“ J, MUDOI >m uu 1 3911 2.2 309‘ (0.54 40.8 19.1 04.1 1 30.2 2.5 6.7.96 (.54 elf-I 10.7 .fmt 3 9.2 3.1 (.14.. (...:‘4 ‘0."4 4 6 4".C 4 "/14 7'? fift— ‘/.'«’-4 1 ‘ f ‘— ' 7 4:41 ”...." = 2:01 AN. 7 0.7 —- — - - . - I - 7 8 11.0 7.10 1.00 0.50 41.7 5.5 47.1 9 2M 33 1,00 0.50 48.5 14.7 63. 2 IO 649 2.5 1,00 0.50 64.8 25.9 90.7 11 {2.10 2.15 1.00 o. 50 56.6 26. 5 32.9 17. 46.2 -2.I 1.00 0.50 47.4 12.6 700 I 34.6 2.15 1.00 0.50 37.2 I7. 5 54.5 2 24.3 2.5 1.00 0.50 30.4 11.4 41.6 ‘5 9.9 3.3 1.00 0.50 16.0 5.0 21.3 4 1.1 7.6 1.00 0.50 4. 7. 0.40 4.9 477, z 0.00 = 236 JAN. 7 c: -— - - - ~ - 5 - I4 8 6. 3 6.35 0.90 0.55 212.0 :;.e 14.6 I? «22.4 3.0 0.90 6.55 '50.? 16.1 4 7.6 1c 419.8 2.35 0.90 0.55 52.7 [9.“ 7 I.l II 410.2 1.05 0.90 0.55 5'4... 2. I.'1 705. 17. 44.5 2.0 0.90 5.55 414.1 7.0.C 08.0 I "50.4 2.05 0.90 0.5.5: 41f 1"..4 477.4 2 25.8 2.35 0.90 0.55 '00... 11.0 40.1 3 9.9 3.0 0.90 0.55 10.3 .1 f 16. 6 4' 0.7 6.35 0.90 0.55 2.4 0.; 1.7 412.7 C’.D(- :: 2148. JAN. 7 1.5 - — - - - - 15—21 8 15.5 5.0 0.82 0.017 45.7 6.3 52.0 9 34.2 2.65 0.8: 0.09 53.5 14,0 4,7,5 10 4.2.5 7.15 0.61. 0.59 79.4 75.6 105.0 II 71.8 1.90 0.84 0.59 30.5 79.4 109. 9 I2 61.8 1.65 0.82 0-59 67.5 1.5..» 9 (.8 I 34.0 1.90 0.82 0.59 40.7 [6.0 59. 7 2 25.8 2.15 0.60 0.54 32.6 10.6 43.4 3 ‘ 15.1 1.65 0.82 0.59 24.0 6.: 10.8 4 1.5 010 0.80 0.561 4.4 0.6 ~{.0 566.1 0.00 = 340 1 JAN. 7 3.3 - - - - ’ «- al'ls a 46.1 4.0 [cc C.:( 3‘5.“ 8.! 4(2. .1 Q 41.2 2.4 1.60 0.50 .1 9.4 ‘0... 75,0 ’0 48.2. 1.0 ].CC €7.57" “Q,‘_ L“; 71'; H 49.6 [.8 LC" ’.5’“ .1 .. I ‘4'; 372‘}: 11 48.2 1.75 1.66 0.5.” .12... 24.. 9.. , l 4‘1 "a {-(C :gji‘ :11-4 "61.5. [1.] “I 19.4 LO LC? (.5:- 47.4 14.7 44.. s 16.1 4.4 1.00 0.50 11.4 9.1 2.1.5 4 2.2. 4.0 1.60 0.5r 4.4 1.1 5.5 46v! 006 ‘-' 271 JAN]? 7 3.0 - — - _ - . To 3 20.7. 3.65 0.70 0.05 480 7.5 55.5 “56- 4 4 44-5 7.3 0-70 0.60: 66.5 1076 32.I 10 56.3 1.9 0.70 0.69 99.5 19.7 89.1. H 71.0 L75 .. 0.70 0.65 80-7 24.3 [05.5 12 78.4 1.70 0.70 0.65 96.5 27,4 1’ 3,0 " ‘8-5 L75 0.70 0.65 716 (4.0 ’0'. a . Z 65-5 1.9 0.70 0.65 60.9 22.9 10.1 e 3 7.7.1 2.3 0.70 0.65 40.5 10.; 5.1.7 4 5.3 3.65 0.70 0.05 14.9 2. a 17.1 722.6 0.60 = 433 “be 7 4.4 ‘- '— "' " .- . 5 " H 8 20.2. 3.0 0.86 0.57 ’5 4.6 8./ 4J_ :- 9 32.4 2.05 0.86 0.57 3 7,7 .-.-1 5"; 10 50.7 1.75 0.66 0.57 50.6- ..I.I’-‘ / ...4 11 54.I 1.65 6.86 0.57 56.1 2;. 1.... 11 55.I 1.6 6.80 6.57 .76.. "...-g 1.4.0 ' 38.1 1.65 0.86 0.5 55.11 “”1. 5...}, {- Sz.0 1.75 0.810 0.51 [91.1 My 453 J 16.5 1.05 0.86 0.57 .10 2.1 4.0+ 4 3.7 3.0 0.96 0.5/ ...: 1- 7.1 4117.8 C.L~r .-. 2‘ c. 1 $358 7 531 1.1 0.68 0.66 ‘3 5.4 2.0 37.4 0.20 7 5' Id I8 8 25.4 235 0.65 06¢: ~ Q r ' 54- 4 5.6 4 8.0 0.60 2,3,8 47— J 1.7: 0.68 0.0., rq q I , . 0 . lb. 71.0 0.50 44.6 IC 74.(‘ 1.55 0.68 OJoG 73,6 . 5' 11 ‘° Z ‘ /00.7 0.60 190,5 91.8 1.48 0.68 0.66 89.6 ---1 2 . , . .. 3 J I 0.8 0.60 74.4 12 102.6‘ 1.45 0-68 0 ‘ ‘ .490 97.6 04-6 152.7. 060 774 81.0 1.48 0.68 0 be 791 - 5 ‘ . , 2 ' ,' 17' [06.6 0.60 64.0 , 6"? l-55 0.68 6.66 65" 2L0 8Q.Z 0'60 go 5 5 30.4 1.75 0.68 0.06 - 1.5 .. “ ', . . '4 12.1 5.1. 7 o b0 , - 45 [1.0 1.55 0.68 Q69 17.] 3.7 l o 8 C. be 0 0.; ' 0.4 9-1 0.66 0.66 2.4 0.1 1,5- 040 3""; «'4‘ 5'1.” FEB. 7 17.7 ~10 ,5 - .3. . “9‘25 8 014.5 7_q0 i”: 5.17, 646’: 5:0 6 ”'93 (9-46 15.8 / __ .0 ..1. ....L /cI..« 10.; 51/ aw. 1'09 "I 7%.5 I.Q> C’I. f‘ 8'- (- . --. dd.‘ \ f' .v' m." .u‘. 2"4 ‘05.", C_b’:. .- . I" 9.2-0 1. 55' 5.4, c 77. ’-. r . .. b h‘ ’ v ' {v-»‘ 49,“ ‘V.E, C .yc. H 104-0 13:, 22.50 (.71, ;~- H .1. ' ‘ L. “ 71.8 I; I045 )3. f. .- P 3‘ {2‘1 «1.1 IL(.J. ,Ci‘t'.c. I/C.(~- - ”I -.w‘C » . /C 9;. / 48““ ‘ ‘1‘. :1 C _ C --. ‘ ‘ 88.7 1.0‘ C c. (. /" :- . . .. "" (““- . __ .3 "1 " " 6.1.0 2.14.6. 1GLE‘ o- .C _ . .l' 7‘7“? l-J'C (...-<0 €7.74 71.6 in} +- r ‘1“, 0.30.; :4. ‘ ‘ I" ,r' . . 'd' ‘~~/ K,C.~.-' J;- ,0: 6r 2 ‘. w'.~b (../6— ‘|.(_ .4.“ help 0 ‘r. "‘L - I" ‘7‘ C P93,“ ’77-. 0.: ”.4 .../ 'U" ‘:.4. 4..” 4-4. 5 FEBRI. _ 7 19.5 3.2 O. )6 0,1,; 3 8.7 14 4 6.1 C to To - 8 41-9 1.6 0.76 062. 41 5 ' 9'1 M841. 4 Q 62.2 0 6 . ‘ ' ’{q 52-4 0.60 34.4 1.35 -7 0.62. 0 2.1 10.6 70“! o lo 74.7 I. 13 0.75 0.61 570 :8 4 8 :4 .60 45.4 H 822 [.20 0.76 0.61 ‘4 9 _,' 3' 0'60 5L1 1 . ' - ~51 6’86 00.0 896 0 60 61.0 [.2 0.76 052 499 , ' .' ' {3.2 7- 76.0 I. 1.1 0.76 0.62. 0‘84 25.4 79-2 0'60 45'. 3 43.6 1.30’ 0.76 0.102 35.6 26A 810 0'60 5)": :5 19.8 1.6 070 0.02. ,3'7 ’7‘}: f}; 0:2 32.0 1.5 3.2. O. b o. ' ° .' 0' ’55 7 61 3.0 0.6 5.6 0.10 0.7 ”097.6 M42. 7 253 ,9 c » . .- - ' "I“ 0'64 29.1 7.3 0.: - .0 5 ll 8 60-0 1.0‘ 0.7... 0.04 '.;'_.'i A . " ‘76:. (“‘0 ”LE 9 78.0 1.15 0.72. 0.1.4 ’89 96‘" 71f“ 3"“ 09. IO 91.2 1.1 0.1; 0.134 24" $38 67f. nor. 5‘.“ II 114.9 1,014 05,-.- 0.04 79'... 3‘“: jac 0.00 55‘»...- H 1160 1.08 0.7!. 0&0 60'; 4 '7 ‘70” («‘0 77.4 9 [00.4 [-08 0.72 05‘. II}. AP - l‘lx“, ~O,&;C1 730:" I 88.3 [.1 0'); 0.6“ £1“ “‘5‘ 1035.} C.tO .ch 3 45-7 1.18 O. 7 2. 0.64 Ti? '-» 3 ," 8 7357 C. ..c 50.3 4 21.0 3 0-- 6".“ 1645 56.0 0,6(7 :3 -I 5 30 [-8 -(£ 064 18-5 7.1 “to" p 0L6- . 1. Ofl‘ I" 1’ 5. ° 4'. ‘-- 02.00 (5.7 L 604 3.- [.0 4_5 0.2.9 0.9 4 7'.) ‘1 SEAfiON PTA_ -.~ 4434 ) 110. APPENDIX B LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA The following climatological data were gathered by the Lansing, Michigan, Weather Bureau located at the Capitol City Airport about eight miles from the location of the piggery. These four tables, representing the winter months of December, January, February, and March, contain the follow- ing information for each dayzl 1. Maximum, minimum, and average temperatures. 2. Departure of temperature from normal. 3. Number of degree days. 4. Total precipitation with an hourly record. 5. Wind directions and velocities. 6. Total and percent sunshine. 7. Amount of cloudiness. Also of interest is the commentary for the month appearing dir- ectly above the hourly precipitation record. ll]. . " “"5 TABLE. B I . u. s. DEPARTMENT 01-“ COMMERCE, WEATHER 811871.11 mama, 1110810111 (04121331 City Airport) 080m, 1932 Hand- 42 '47 'N- longitud- 84 ' 33'W. unmouqmnd) 839 13 sum-n Sundudfimeueed Temperature ('F) Precipitation SHOW. Wind Sunshine Sky cove: ,2 51°“ Put-at 111110 A .. o 3' Hail or '2 ... ‘5 ° 5 a 1 g s A i» Ice on . 5 8 . a o g E .37 i 2 l 5 O E .8 e" d E _. A ground D A A a O ‘5 .-4 3 8 z I: o 3- 8 5 § 2:8 E3 “-3 .. as” 2 ° £g~ 7““; is”. - .. .> i , g g 0'. o. g i 3 g 5'3 ‘3 . 8 _ g E 33 g E. g 3 7:50 817 . g . E g 1, a _ :3 u :3 It 3 ... 7— w (111.) 3:5 435711., 3 858.3785 615'. 3 >2 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 30 18 24 - 7 41 0.02 0.2 7 s 12.1 17 3 0:00 0 9 9 1 2 31 21 23 - 4 39 0.23 3.1 3 118 8.0 13 a 3:18 33 8 9 r 2 3 34 2 29 - 1 33 o o 3 r: 10.0 17 113 0:23 3 10 10 3 4 37 23 32 . 2 33 0.23 7 2 33; 17.3 20 32 0:00 0 10 1o 4 5 37 31 34 . 4 31 0.14 0.3 7 7.53 13.9 20 3' 0:00 0 10 10 1’3 5 6 33 30 33 . 4 32 7 7 7 7.37 13.0 20 3 0:00 0 10 9 5 7 48 30 32 .10 23 0 0 7 3 13.7 18 88 8:33 97 2 3 7 8 33 34 43 :13 20 7 o 0 s 14.3 23 3 0:03 1 1o 8 a 9 37 43 31 :23 14 o 0 0 383 8.8 20 3 0:34 3 9 8 n 9 10 49 33 41 :13 24 0.08 7 0 7 13.1 21 I 0:00 0 1o 10 m 10 ll 34 27 31 . 3 34 0.04 0.3 7 3 14.3 28 71 0:00 0 10 10 11 12 32 23 28 0 37 0.03 0.7 1 x 7.8 13 8 0:22 4 9 9 12 13 31 24 28 4 1 37 0.01 7 m: 13.4 18 10. 0:00 0 10 9 13 14 27 23 23 - 2 40 0.09 0.9 7 a: 17.3 23 71 0:00 0 10 10 14 15 33 28 31 . 4 34 0.01 7 1 7571 13.0 22 I 0:37 7 10 7 15 16 40 23 33 : 3 32 0 0 7 SW 13.0 17 3' 9:03 100 0 o 16 17 40 28 33 . 7 32 0 0 7 I 8.3 13 I 1:27 13 7 3 73 17 18 30 19 23 - 1 40 0 0 7 113 7.3 13 137 2:31 28 3 4 18 19 32 18 23 - 1 40 7 7 7 B 11.3 23 118 0:00 0 9 7 19 20 33 30 33 . 7 32 0.39 7 7 3 13.9 23 118 0:00 0 10 10 20 21 33 34 33 . 9 30 0.08 0 0 3118 4.0 8 11 0:00 0 1o 10 18.1. 21 22 40 34 37 +12 28 0.03 0 0 32 11.8 22 3 0:00 0 10 10 71. 22 23 44 37 41 :13 24 0.11 0 0 38 13.3 12 33 0:00 0 10 1o 23 34 38 32 33 410 30 7 0 0 m 18.3 17 I 0:00 0 10 1o 24 25 32 27 30 . 3 33 0.03 7 7 I 18.3 23 9 0:00 0 10 10 25 26 30 24 27 . 2 38 7 7 7 59 18.3 23 7 0:00 0 10 10 26 27 23 13 20 - 4 43 7 7 7 1:3 12.9 23 71 3:33 33 3 4 27 28 33 13 23 - 1 42 0 0 7 3571 12.8 10 3 2:43 31 3 3 28 39 37 27 32 . 8 33 7 7 o 37 10.0 13 38 0:00 0 10 10 29 30 34 30 32 . 8 33 0.02 0.1 7 112 9.7 17 31: 0:00 0 10 10 7 30 31 31 27 2L 4 3 7 7 0 12.3 17 115—421.“? 0 10 A9. 31 41323439 — — 1.34 3.8 — .4 — 33:33 — ;2_33 234 — * 491mm — — - Put-It NEH. x 8.3 8.2 — -— Thalia-1.0.3-dilefleehemm—eflbm ‘ £9 E 115 L) — — — — TEMPERATURE: ('F) HEATING DEGREE DAYS (hue 65°): PRECIPITATION: (10.) Symbol-medium 1849 Average mgnthly 771781 51.7 Total this month 13:: Total for the month 435$: Depuhue 078170 04.8 ehomnonnal ‘ Depnnuxefromnomnl .2 Run“ 1.8.4.1. 57 on 931: memnc-My 1) 2578 emu-71824113“ 0.30 04:20 1. 21 ...-...... ...-.4 Lowest 15 Mann‘s-53w Seuonaldepnnuxefmnnoxmal ”127 Snow,SleetndHafl~ tat-mu“ "h Nunbaoldarwith - Tohlfotthenooih 5.8 2:: :Z:.___ “1:32 otbolow 11 WOWCPRESSUREUIL) Grate-7171241381379 3.3 cunt-hand l-lee 77-7....“ “II-90.03%. 0 AV .Iution(olev. 878 kennel.) 29.095 Greatestdepthonground 3 011285 n-Iu- 13-0-auscu- 34111.32”me '35 Hid sec .1 50.43 on 1971: Mag-Hm —- “5*- Min. 0' or below 0 Meal-vol 29.64 on 10th 31... 4:, 19, 20 Glue 15, 20, 25 The month or Decedm- us charcctcrised by cloudy 311.133, above 17071781 t-penturee and cub-110ml precipitetion. 'r-penturec for the :11-dc: period dvcrdged 812037. 5' cbove nornl and m the uncut. Dec. lince 1961. The total sunshine for the month '83 cheer-DJ 19- for Dec., tying the la- record ta- percent. of pouible eunehinc. Only in 1320 and 1355 did 30 little 311118111119 occur. While precip. 1.171; math m dinner. 1]“ below 1107181,, ruin or eno- fell on an duc. Haw-dons driving conditions exiebed on several occasions. Severn percent]. injury accidente me accredited to 8 update due of mu tog. HOURLY PRECIPITATION D. LIL Homadimd PJL Homendingd to D339 11213 41513 71819 10111112 11213 41513 71819 10111112 1 7 7 .01 .00 1 g .04 .03 .03 .03 .04 .01 7 7 .02 .01 7 g 4 7 7 7 7 7 7 .03 .01 7 .01 .03 .09 .03 7 .03 4 5 .04 .03 .01 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .03 .01 7 7 7 7 7 .01 s 6 1' ‘1‘ ‘1' ' 6 7 - 7 8 7 8 9 1 9 10 7 .03 7 7 7 .02 7 7 10 11 .02 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 . 7 .01 7 11 12 .01 .01 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .01 .01 7 12 13 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 13 14 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .02 .02 7 7 7 .01 .01 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .02 14 15 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 15 16 16 17 17 18 18 19 _ . 1' 1' 19 20 .01 .04 .03 .02 .02 .01 .02 .02 .13 .08 .01 .03 .01 .01 7 7 7 7 .03 .03 .04 .01 20 21 .02 .01 .01 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 .01 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 21 22 7 .01 .02 7 .01 7 7 7 7. 7 7 .02 22 23 .03 .01 7 7 .01 .01 .01 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 23 24 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 24 25 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .01 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 25 26 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 26 27 7 7 7 7 7 27 28 28 29 7 7 7 7 7 29 I!) .01 .01 30 31 1' ‘1‘ 1' ‘1' L J 31 Subecflpuonl’doe: BOmhpayedrinoludhomulnnI-uyflpubhehed. Sepuete mMdehmtbthemdDoann-Ihwm mummiysmmmuAhIOoenheeoh. Chechandmoneyodenehauldhe Ofllce. wamzsmfi. wwblebtheMdtheUnfledm “Mundane-pended“ “.mcity,loo-H48—Iu 112 . TABLE E II . U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF COMMERCE, WEATHER BUREAU LOCAL CLIMATOLOGICAL DATA lAflSlNG, {ICHIGAN (*Japitol City airport) 1.3.0.311, 1353 latitude 42 ' 47 ' N. Longitude 84 ' 33 ' w. Elevation (ground) 859 1:. Eastern Standard time used Temperature ('17) Prec1p1tat10n Snow. :— Wmd Sunshine Sky cover 0 f 1 i 1 A 1 8133:, l |Faateet mm: | 1 1: _ o ,3 1 ' ' .5 ‘ ““1 0’ I 'U 1 ‘ A 5 O .5 ll ' 1 g 5 j .: Ice on g I g 3 g 1 o g E B 73 3‘ 5 El [SEI’S'A 3E 31’? ground 3'“ ._ -1 5 3°21 33921:: 7,0313. 29% 8 31119228” “1:“. .. 9.082.812 552522833232. I 3519 E éal§§93 3377073131727? 82182119993325 3 o 212 <1o§1o87~°¥ :23: (In) c128 EE :35 c5 13389693135285.4533: _ 5 1 2 I 3 j 4 ‘ 5 6 7 8 9 10 p 11 ‘ 12 13 14 15 16 . I7 18 19 20 21 22 . 23 24 l 35 27 31 . 3 34 0 ' 0 c 83‘ . 12.0 17 87. 0:00 0 10 I 10 1 2 33 1 28 I 31 . 3 ' 34 0.02 0.2 0 882 7.9 14 3.; 0:00 0 10 1 10 2 3 31 1 19 . 25 0 . 40 7 7 7 1.173 . 14.8 .2 3 0:00 0 10 4 10 3 4 1 29 I 13 l 2 - 2 42 7 7 7 "2.8 10.5 17 8 0:00 0 9 8 1 4 5 23 11 | 19 - 3 43 0.07 1.0 7 701.. 1 17.3 27 7: 0:33 3 9 1 9 5 6 2 1 3 1 13 -12 32 0.03 0.8 1 7 1 7.3 14 . 3:2: 33 7 8 I 6 7 22 3 13 -12 2 7 ! 7 1 3 1 14.0 1 26 2 0:35 ‘ 3 10 1 7 ’ 7 3 27 i 19 ‘ 23 - 2 0.41 1.3 1 ENE. 21.3 35 -... 0:00 0 10 10 8 9 29 23 27 I: 3 0.03 1 7 3 11:; 1 13.4 20 N 0:00 1 0 10 1 10 r 1 9 10 33 1 2 30 1: 3 0.02 1 0 2 1:8 , 3.3 19 I ‘1 0:00 1 0 10 . 10 1‘21 1 10 11 33 17 25 1. 1 0.10 1.0 2 1:. 1.3.3 37 .. 0:41 1 7 10 ‘ 7 11 12 37 13 25 I: 1 0 0 2 $511 ‘ 15.5 34 1 5.: 0:23 4 9 7 1 . 12 13 42 30 30 . :12 0 0 2 757. 9 .8 13 71. 7 :27 80 1 ‘ 3 13 14 43 30 ' 37 1:13 0.02 0 1 s 1 10.1 14 s 0:c0 0 10 10 1 14 ‘5 53 I 33 I 45 :21 0.09 0 7 88.. | 17.8 33 5. 0:10 , 2 9 10 1 15 15 33 18 23 . 2 7 7 7 2.2. 1 15.9 37 7. 3:23 38 3 3 16 17 33 18 . 23 : 2 0.29 7 0 1;: 13.8 25 3: 0:00 0 10 9 17 13 33 28 1 31 . 7 7 , 7 7 48. 1 13.3 21 . 1:37 17 8 l 9 18 19 30 23 . 28 . 4 0.01 7 0.1 7 1:8 5.8 17 1 3' 0:00 0 10 10 19 20 31 l 2 23 4 2 0 0 7 N3 ’ 7.9 13 1 NE. 0:32 ; 8 9 . 3 l 1 20 21 33 23 31 :8 0 0 7 118 l 5.3 1 8 , N 3:21 '58 5 ' 5 l 21 22 33 25 29 . 3 7 0 7 88;; 11.3 13 1 88 0:43 7 10 8 1 ' I 22 23 33 32 34 +11 0.32 0 7 11:; 1 9.9 11 t 118 0:00 1 0 10 10 I :23 24 33 23 30 . 7 0.18 1.3 1 1m 18.3 1 29 ‘ 371 0:00 i 0 10 ; 10 ' , 124 25 27 13 20 - 3 7 7 1 m. 1 17.7 33 1 113' 1:02 . 11 9 1 7 | . 25 25 27 3 18 - 7 o ' 0 1 33 1 14.0 1 22 88 3:28 35 8 3 . ‘ 1 26 27 38 23 32 . 9 0 l 0 1 37: 13.3 1 27 7; 0:00 , o 10 10 . l 1 27 33 23 21 24 . 1 7 | 7 7 m: 118.2 1 28 1 71 0:00 I 0 10 10 l 28 29 23 19 23 . 0 0.02 1 0.1 7 n 13.4 1 24 17.. 0:22 4 9 10 1 ' | 29 30 33 19 27 . 4 0.11 1 1.7 2 3.88 l 8.3 13 ’ 88 7:33 77 2 1 5 1 1 30 :11 45 13 +182: 7;~ “7 ,, -L 1 31m ; -19.2_L43_ -1. 210130--.- 5_ .19 1-8 - 1 , I, 1 : ._3_1_ — 2.02 l 7.9 T 813‘ .4 l T “723217511: 3.6.91 1857 :r. _—_—_. _ _ . -7 . 131m V —1‘— 1— 1—4 13-1 Fastest Du. Possible 9: 8.7 18.5 —7 ,:‘__7_ I__ .1179. Y heels-ls Ila-d OindbebenoutbenaUOe-eeeue1 [ WE- l 45 ' gill? l 15 —l— _ — l lMllC TEMPERATURE: (‘1’) HEATING DEGREE DAYS (base 65'): PRECIPITATION: (1a.) Symbolsused 7:: columns 18-19 Average monthly 26.8 Total this month 1179 Total for the month 2-m e from normal ’5-0 Departure from normal "-133 Departure from normal 70.115 A - 11.11 1. - om. Highest 56 on 1501 Seasonal total (since July 1) 3757 Greatest in 24 hours 0.78 on £3 1'.- 24 as - 313-8.. ...:- 14 - Send Lowest 3 on 7th Seasonal departure from normal -256 Snow, Sleet and Hall — 3L “0:?" "flu" ' ' m Number 01 days with -— Total for the month 7.9 . Z 3,... : '_' 3:, I Max. 32 or below 13 BAROMETRIC PRESSURE (In) Greatest in 24 hours 1-7 on 30111 1 - 'eg 21. - 1.4.4:... 3mm Max. 90. 0! above 0 AV . station (elev. 878 feet. 1n.s. 1.) 48.986 Greatest depth on ground 5 on8,3,10,ll,n - Heu 2' - how-e m- Min. 32' or below 30 Rio est sea level 30.56 on 16th Dates of - Hail -- 12 ‘ ' 3““ Min. 0' or below 0 Lowest sea level 29.“ on 28th Sleet 8,9,17,24 Glaze 8,9,10,11,17 The month or January was characterised by above normal tesperatures and recipitation, but balm normal shantnll. There have been only four other tines since begiming of record that tenpsratm'es for the three month period Revenge:- throuah January has been warmer than the past three months. The earnest period Ihich occtn'red during November-January, 1331—34, averaged 8.1‘ above normal. For the past three months, tuperatures averaged 5.3’ above normal. Snow- {all for the seascn is 10 incher. below normal. Gluing conditions existed several days during the month causing nunsrous traffic accidents,a.7d 3 deaths on 17th. HOURLY PRECIPITATION Date A. M. Hour ending at P. M. Hour ending at Date 11213 415T6 71819 1fl11112 1T273 415T6 71819110111le 1 f 1 2 7 7 7 .01 .01 7 7 2 3 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 3 4 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 4 s 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .01 .02 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 .01 7 7 5 55] 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .02 .01 .01 .01 7 7 7 g 7 8 7 7 7 7 .07 .03 .07 .04 .04 .02 .04 .02 .02 .01 .0 .01 .01 7 7 8 9 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7' 7 7 7 .01 .01 7 9 10 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 10 ll 7 .01 .01 7 .02 .01 .02 .03 7 7 7 7 » ll 12 12 13 - 13 14 7 7 .01 7 .01 7 7 14 13 7 .01 .01 .01 7 7 .04 .01 7 .01 7 15 16 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 16 17 7 .02 7_ 7 7 .13 .08 .02 7 7 .02 7 7 7 17 18 ‘1' 7 18 19 7 .01 7 7 7 19 20 20 21 21 22 7 7 7 7 22 23 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .07 .08 .08 .03 .08 .08 .12 .03 23 24 .01 .01 .03 .02 .01 .02 .01 7 .02 .03 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 '1 24 23 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 25 26 26 27 27 28 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 28 29 .01 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 29 30 .0. .02 .02 .02 .01 7 7 7 30 31 7 I; 7 7 7 7 31 Directive January 1, 1953 the tenperature and precipitation nor-ale used for these reports are derived iron the period 1921-1980. Wriptiou Price: 50 cents per year including annual sun-ary it published. Separate copies. nonthly 5 cents each, annuals 10 cents each. Checks and noney orders should he nade payable to the Treasurer o! the United states. Benittances and correspondence regarding umcriptions should he sent to the Superintendent of Docunents, Govern-ent Printing Office, Iashington 25, D. C. 13170, Kansas 0123:. 18:. -- 2-3—33 .- 323 113. TABLE B III . u. 8. DEPARTMENT or COMMERCE, WEATHER BUREAU Luann, mum (Capitol City Airport.) mm, 1955 ham. ‘2 o ‘7' N. Longitude 34 ° 36 ' W. Elevation (ground) 859 ft. Eastern Stlndlld fill. “I‘d Temperature ('F) Precipitation Snow, Wind Sunshine Sky cover 0 ..2 SIM Fastest mile ‘ A h 3 Hail or Z ... 2% ° E a g ... 5 2 i Ice on . 5 3 .5 2 3 (E, .r: g 3 1 cum: 9 O .3- 6: ~'7 ground ... A o 5 333 2.: 3“ Denim 5 § 5331-3 5% 10.5 at 58 §n 1: o 5.5 .3 vansflgbgffl . ... be > ‘ V . . = 3 5: ”7H:§;1'*‘°“1‘E*i“£ 343335313?“- . E: It :5 .g 2, [- 0) (In.) 8 < 5 m E l4 5 15.3 m I5 3 inn 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 17 4 11 -15 54 7 7 7 III 11.4 35 II 3:55 39 4 4 2.0 1 2 29 12 21 - 5 44 7 7 7 53 12.8 20 53 0:00 0 10 10 1.7 '2 3 23 19 23 - 1 42 7 7 7 III 3.3 13 I 1:12 12 9 8 1.5 3 4 55 17 23 . 2 39 7 7 7 an 8.9 15 5 1:57 13 9 8 1.3 4 5 45 32 58 414 27 0.09 0 7 5 19.3 55 53 0:00 0 10 10 1.3 s 6 44 31 58 :14 27 0.11 7 o m 23.1 50 38 0:00 0 10 10 1.3 6 7 35 52 34 :10 51 0.01 0.1 7 71871 13.9 17 I 0:00 0 1o 10 1.5 ' 7 8 55 20 27 + 3 58 0.02 0.5 7 III 10.9 20 I 1:50 13 9 7 1.3 8 9 51 13 24 0 41 7 I 7.9 15 II 9:55 93 2 1 1.5 9 10 55 25 29 1. 5 53 0.01 0.1 7 8 15.1 24 a; 0:00 0 10 10 1.3 10 11 58 29 54 410 31 0.03 0.1 7 58 18.8 50 58 0:00 0 10 10 1.5 u 12 53 29 32 4 8 35 0.02 0.2 o I). 15.8 51 II 0:00 0 10 10 1.5 12 13 52 23 29 . 3 53 0.04 0.4 7 I 13.5 23 I 1:15 12 9 8 1.3 - 13 14 45 28 57 415 28 7 88' 13.0 23 a 3:55 85 z 4 1.3 14 15 52 17 25 . 1 40 0.01 0.1 0 m 18.1 34 I 1:45 13 a 7 1.5 16 21 15 17 - 7 48 7 7 7 m 9.8 23 I 1:50 14 9 7 1.5 16 17 23 15 21 - 5 44 7 7 r I 14.9 23 I 0:58 9 9 7 1.5 17 18 45 10 27 4 3 58 7 7 o m 14.2 23 5 4:15 59 7 8 1.5 18 19 48 24 33 411 29 0 0 o r 10.0 17 5 2:21 22 7 3 1.5 19 20 35 40 48 :25 17 0.45 0 0 as 20.7 55 a 0:00 o 10 9 7 1.7 21 50 17 54 . 9 51 0.01 7 7 In 29.2 54 I 0:00 0 9 9 55 2.0 21 22: 29 9 3: - 3 43 0.01 0.1 7 I 13.0 25 I 5:18 49 4 8 2.9 22 23 .44 27 41.1 29 0 0 7 I 12.7 18 I 10:53 100 o 1 2.5 23 24 42 51 57 :12 28 o 0 0 I 12.8 18 I 2:15 20 e 7 2.0 24 23 59 24 59 . e 55 7 0 0 as 10.1 17 a 2:22 21 e 7 1.9 25 26 45 52 58 412 27 0.18 0.2 7 I85 22.5 50 a 5:25 31 9 10 1.9 26 27 40 25 53 o 7 52 0.08 0.3 7 I 91.4 45 I 2:09 19 e 9 s 1.s 27 g 55 18 27 . 1 98 0.09 0.2 7 III 19.1 45 II 1:55 14 9 7 1.7 2,6 30 30 31 ———1.ga2.a —— .5——- — ——4_7.9 — f— — — 1— Fans: Do. a: 7.8 7.5 — -— 1.7 Theolnmns‘l.&.d0hdleahsapeentlse-sflbmeasnss.0 J l A — — — TEMPERATURE: (' h HEATING DEGREE DAYS (base 65’): PRECIPITATION: (In.) Wan-dined“ 1849 Average monthly 2 J Total this month ”7 Total for the month 1403 tromnonnal “-3 Departuretromnormal 413 Departureirolnnonnal ~70 I-Ilsll L-on-b Highest 55‘ on 20“ SeasonaltotaHsincsluly 1) d7“ GreatsstinZdhours1 0.48 on m n-l-vhe-n lei-d Lowest V on let' Seasonaldeparturehocnnonnal 478 8now,$estand — :L_-Dl::I-Ielhhe :'=' Numberotda‘yswith— Totaltorthemonth 34 3-... 2:15....- Max32 orbelow 9 WOMCPRISSURIUn.) Grestesttnflhours 0.7 “27828 9.9.. 3-9....” MaxQO'orabove 0 AV .ststion(elev. 878 teetm.s.l.) 29.010 Grestsstdspthonground 1 «my n-n-n ll-h-s-I-e-h Min.32°orbelow 27 Rio sealevel 50.65 on 10th Detesol—Hail ... s-haa- MinO’orbelow 0 Lowestsealevel 29.35 on 20th Slsst nu: Glass 1151:, 1271: yuan-ream tuner-stores tor the fourth math in a roe averaged Iell above nor-a1. his use the earnest February since 1988 and the fifth unset February since 1900. total snoefall for the nonth eas unusual in that there have been only tee other such February's Iith less than 2.0 inches of anon. The smart or snoutall eo far this season totals 17.0 inches Ihieh is 17.8 inches belou the seasonal nasal. HOURLY PRECIPITATION D. AM. Hoursndinqat ML Hourendinqat . to on. 1f213 41516 71819 10111112 11213 41516 718L9 10111112 1 7 7 ' l 2 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 2 3 7 7 7 3 4 7 4 5 7 7 0.00 7 0.01 7 7 s 6 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.00 7 7 7 7 3 7 7 0.01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 r 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 7 0.01 7 7 0.01 7 7 7 8 9 9 10 . 0.01 7 7 7 7 7 10 11 0.02 0.01 7 7 7 7 0.01 7 7 7 7 7 0.02 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 n 12 7 .02 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 12 13 7 0.01 0.02 0.01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 13 14 7 7 7' 7 14 15 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 0.01 7 7 7 15 16 7 16 17 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 17 18 1- : 18 19 19 20 7 7 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 7 7 7 7 0.22 0.02 0.08 0.01 7 20 21 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 0.01 7 7 7 21- 22 0.01 7 7 7 7 7 7 22 23 23 24 24 25 7 7 7 '1' 25 26 7 0.02 0.02 7 0.01 7 7 7 7 0.01 7 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.09 26 27 7 7 0.02 0.03 7 7 0.02 7 0.01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7- 27 28 0.01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 0.01 7 7 28 29 29 30 30 31 81 sMptionPrioe: BOoentsperyearincludinoannnalsnmmarytipuhlished. Separate mdinqnbsaipfionsshmdd'beuntbthehptdmmm 0°94“, monthlyScents each. annuals 10 oentleach. Checksand money orders shouldbe Oliioe. Washington 25, D. C. made payable to the Treasurer of the United States. Remittances and correspondence “0 In!“ 01W. ‘0- '- M " 8' 114. TABLE B IV . U. 5. DEPARTMENT or COMMERCE. WEATHER BUREAU LLNSIM, 1108161411 (Capitol City airport) “CH, 1955 Latitude 42 ‘ 47 ' N, Longitude 84 ° 55 ' w. Elevation (ground) 859 1:. Eastern Standard time used Temperature ('F) I Precipitation Snow, Wind Sunshine Sky cover a- . d 315.: Fastest mile " ~ 5 “ GRAND 3 am or 1. 5 ° _ 3 050111 8111571 ' 7' V .1 Ice on .2 A ‘5 8 E .5 i 1733 AT 1 >5 0 A a . O 0‘ O A O .4. 108 ”4’" :3 8"? ground 0 'A A 8“ .233 “V o~“4.‘r hm- 55830183572 .. €857 7' 3 ‘§~§v55§==r:w ... 2 o 4. z > - 4.. . . ' V ' . 17 7' um. 5 ‘3 73 2.5215" §§7=Wfi§9§9§ 3.75 13551313311» 8 o z 2 n: ozone-i” m (15.) 513-2587.“, 3 pim’fim £5 3 5! 5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 27 14 21 - 5 44 7 7 7 7.118 17.0 27 N 8:18 74 5 5 1.7 5.2 1 2 29 17 25 - 4 42 7 7. 7 s 27.5 45 8 0:00 0 10 10 1.9 3.1 2 3 57 28 55 . 5 52 0.88 7 7 58 14.5 29 ma 0:00 0 10 10 1.9 2.7 3 4 55 22 28 0 57 0.09 1.5 7 7.871 21.5 52 8 0:28 4 9 10 5.5 4.5 4 5 25 17 22 - 7 45 0.02 0.5 1 7; 21.5 52 71 4:07 55 5 5 4.8 5.5 s 6 27 14 21 - 8 44 7 7 1 s 14.5 55 71 2:20 20 9 7 4.0 5.5 6 '1 25 9 15 -14 49 7 7 7 l 5.9 10 vs 5:54 51 9 5 5.5 4.5 7 8 28 12 20 -10 45 0.02 0.5 7 m 8.9 18 71 0:54 5 10 7 2.5 4.1 8 9 58 17 28 - 2 57 7 7 7 71371 9.0 15 55 2:07 18 9 7 2.4 4.1 9 10 40 52 55 4 5 29 0 0 7 55 15.0 25 58 1:10 10 10 9 2.2 4.2 10 ll 55 51 45 :12 22 7 0 0 533 15.5 17 55 2:45 24 9 8 2.0 5.8 11 12 50 42 51 +19 14 0.22 0 0 55:: 11.2 19 53 5:14 28 10 10 2.0 3.7 12 13 51 55 42 :10 25 0.01 0 0 mm 15.4 21 71 0:00 0 10 10 r 2.4 4.1 13 M 42 52 57 . 4 28 0.20 0 0 a 15.0 54 8 0:15 2 10 10 2.5 4.2 14 15 49 54 42 . 9 25 0.29 7 0 7571 17.4 29 3 0:00 0 10 10 7 t 5.1 4.5 15 16 55 52 54 0 51 7 7 0 I 18.5 52 II 0:25 5 10 10 5.7 5.0 16 17 54 51 45 . 9 22 7 7 7 555 10.1 18 55 11:15 94 1 4 5.5 5.1 17 18 55 54 44 +10 21 0.25 0 0 353 15.5 45 1.71 0:18 2 10 9 5.2 4.8 13 19 40 50 55 0 50 0.05 0.2 7 m 17.7 28 7 1:45 15 9 5 5.2 4.8 19 20 49 25 57 . 2 28 0 o 0 83 8.5 17 53 11:58 95 5 5 5.2 4.8 21 58 57 55 918 12 7 0 0 58 20.2 52 55 9:57 79 4 5 2.9 4.5 21 22 55 45 52 :15 15 0.12 0 0 588 17.0 52 33 0:00 0 10 9 2.8 4.0 22 23 58 45 52 :15 15 0.02 0 0 5' 19.5 57 52 8:04 55 7 8 2.8 4.5 23 24 55 52 45 . 5 22 0.01 0 0 I 12.1 27 5 5:55 45 7 a 2.8 4.5 24 25 59 50 55 - 2 50 7 7 m: 9.5 15 an 0:40 5 10 10 2.8 .... 25 26 45 50 58 . 1 27 0.02 7 7 1171 19.5 57 It 4:28 55 8 9 2.8 4.5 26 27 55 55 44 . 5 21 o 0 0 m 17.8 . 55 5 4:55 59 8 7 2.7 3.5 27 28 40 55 57 - 1 28 0.01 7 0 m 20.5 55 W 0:19 5 9 8 2.5 5,5 28 39 40 54 57 - 1 28 7 7 0 m 15.4 22 14 0:45 5 10 9 2.4 ..5 29 30 42 51 57 - 2 28 0 0 0 s 7.5 17 5 5:15 41 9 9 2.2 5,9 30 311 51 2L 40 . 1 2L 0.08 0 0 2 9.5 18 8 1:01 8 10 9 2.1 2 4 — — 2.2.2 2.5 — .7 — — 95: "— .25....322 — — 1% —- — — 1—- Fastest 01:. 95-13814} 5.0 — — Theda-ne?...and0hdleahsa-eentbe-ellbneeeua. Liz—[MW — — _ TEMPERATURE: (‘ngs HEATING DEGREE DAYS (base 65'): PRECIPIT 'l'ION: (111.) Synhohueedtnooh-ns 18-19 Average monthly . Total this month 391 Total tor the month 2°39 e from normal ’2-8 Departure from normal ~19? Departure horn normal -O.28 a - 15.41 I. - oa-n. Hiqhed 88 on diet SeasonaltotaHstnoeIulyl) 5635 Greahetinflhouu .90 on 3 8 l-II-uvaa-n I-l-as Lowest 9. on 7th Seasonaldepaflmehon “‘35 8now,3|eetandflail" 35:?“ :-=- Numberddayswith - Totaltorthemonth. 2.5 a.” 7:71....- Max32 orbelow 6 mommcmnssunxun) Gueateeunflboun 1.3 on ‘GLS rush. 3-9....“ MnQO’orabove 0 Av .mtionhlev. 878 foetus.“ 29.050 WMoflmnd 2 a 5th 17.n- n-h-uuaa. Min.32°o7below 21 His: eealevel 50.59 on 7‘11 Datesol- Han — ""'"" MinO'orbelow 0 Loweetsealevel 29.20 on 51-5 31.44 — Glue 51.4 For the fifth consecutive month, tuperatures averaged above normal for the 51-day period making it the lamest larch since 1946. Temperatures during the last half of the month averaged ten degrees earner than the first fifteen days of March. Snowfall for the season through the end of 1141-55 totaled 19.5 inches, second only for the least shortfall to the season of 1905-06, then 0711,] 17.7 inches of snow accnmflated. Lt this tins last year, the «using area had received 77.5 inches or enoel. Ho serious storms occurred in the area throughout larch. HOURLY PRECIPITATION Date A. )1. Hour ending at P. M. Hour ending at Date 11213 41515 7181910111112 11213 41515 7181910111112 1 7 7 fl 1 2 7 2 3 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .10 .14 .21 .05 .08 .12 .02 .01 .14 3 4 .01 .01 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .02 .01 .04 4 5 .01 7 7 7 'r 7 .01 7 7 7 7 5 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 6 7 7 7 7 7 7 8 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 .7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 8 9 T 1- 9 10 10 ll 7 1- 1 ll 12 7 7 7 7 7 7 .05 .07 .05 .05 .02 .01 .01 12 13 .01 7 7 7 7 13 14 7 .05 .04 .04 .08 .01 7 14 15 .08 .19 .01 7 .02 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 7 15 16 7 7 7 7 16 17 ‘1‘ ‘1‘ ‘1' 17 18 7 7 .01 .05 .02 .02 .17 7 7 18 19 7 .01 .05 .01 19 20 20 21 '1‘ 21 22 7 .02 7 7 T .05 7 7 .02 .01 .02 7 .02 7 22 23 7 7 7 7 .01 .01 23 24 7 7 .01 7 7 24 25 7 7 'r 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 25 26 .01 7 '1' 'r 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 26 27 27 28 ' 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 .01 7 7 7 28 29 ‘1‘ '1' '1' '1' ‘1' ‘1' '1' '1' 29 3O 30 31 7 101 .01 J .01 .01 40; Wm SOoentapesyeartnohdlnoannnalsunnarytipubuahed. Separate mmmmbumbmsuudmwm mmtflySmhewLannulleoanheech. Cheohandnoneyosdenshouldbe Oflioe, Weahtnqbnszlc. Mpyabhtothe'rreaenmdtheuwm Bentttanoesandomeepondenoe 'O‘OPeCe’ Ill-ll 01w. 'oe .. “1-58 .— m 115. GLOSSARY DEFINITIONS OF TERMS RELATING TO SOLAR ENERGY Air Mass--a number representing the ratio of the relative length of the path at sea level of solar rays through the at- mosphere as compared with the extent of the path when the sun is in the zenith, or approximately the secant of the sun's zenith distance. Atmosbheric Transmittance--the direct normal solar radia- tion at the earthrs surface divided by the solar constant. British Thermal Unit--heat required to raise one pound of water at its temperature of maximum density one degree Fahren- heit. This equals 252 gram-calories. Diffuse Sky Radiation-(energy)--the scattered solar radia- tion energyjreceived by the earth from the atmosphere as dis- tinguished from the radiation incident in direct sunlight. Direct Solar Radiation-(energy)--the energy received directly from the sun. Its Spectral distribution is character- ized by a maximum intensity in the blue-green portion of the Spectrum at about one-half micron and hence often is called shortwave radiation to distinguish it from the predominantly longer wave terrestial radiation. As received at the earth, the spectral distribution is characterized by numerous intense telluric adsorption lines and bands. The most important are produced by oxygen, ozone, carbon dioxide and water. Eguinox—-the moment (occurring twice each year) when the sun in its apparent annual motion among the fixed stars crosses the celestial equator. 80 called because then the night is equal to the day, each being twelve hours long over the whole earth. The Autumnal Equinox occurs on or about September 22 when the sun is traveling southward. The Vernal Equinox occurs on or about March 21, when the sun is moving northward. Gram-Calorie--the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one gram of water at 15 degrees centigrade one degree centigrade. This is not to be confused with the large calorie which has a value one thousand times as great. Hour_§ngle--the angle between the sun and the meridian of the zenith. Usually expressed in hours and fractions of an hour. For example, the hour angle at 7:35 A.N. solar time is ‘4:25 (12-7z35 is equal to 4:25). 116. Incidence Angle-~the angle between the direction of the sun's rays and a perpendicular to the surface being considered. Mean Solar Distance--mean distance of the earth from the sun; an arithmetical mean between its greatest and least dis- tances. Normal Incidence Radiation--as used in this paper, solar energy received at normal incidence denotes the impingement of solar energy on a flat surface at a right angle to the sun's rays. Overhang-—an architectural devise, such as a roof exten- sion, placed over a window or vertical wall surface, to inter— cept the sun's rays from above. Percentage of Possible Sunshine--percentage of the time that the sun casts a well defined shadow when the sun is above the true horizon. Profile Angle—-the angle through which a horizontal plane must be rotated about a horizontal axis located in the plane of the window or wall in order to include the position of the sun. §9lar Altipude--angular elevation of the sun above the true horizon. Solar Azimuth--the angular direction of the sun with res— pect to true south. True south, rather than true north is used because southern orientation is the more important in northern latitudes. Solar Constant-~the rate at which solar radiant energy is received outside the atmosphere on a surface normal to the incident radiation at the earth's mean distance from the sun. The value of 1.94 gram-calories per square centimeter per minute as determined by the astrOphysical observatory of the Smithson- ian Institute is used throughout this paper. léglar Declination--the angle distance of the sun north or south of the celestial equator. The solar declination in the northern hemisphere at the time of the equinoxes is zero de- grees. At the summer and winter solstices the solar declin- ation is plus 23 degrees, 27 minutes and minus 23 degrees, 27 minutes reapectively. Solar Time--the hours of the day as reckoned by the appar ent position of the sun. Solar noon is that instant on any day at which the sun reaches its maximum altitude for that day. Solstices—-points on the apparent path of the sun midway between the equinoxes when the sun attains its greatest north and south declinations. The summer solstice or the sun's most northern point on its travel path occurs about June 21. The 117. winter solstice or the sun's most southern point on the circle occurs about December 22. Telluric Adsorption-«the adsorption of solar radiation which is caused by the constituents of the earthly atmos- phere. Total Incident Solar Radiation--direct plus diffuse solar radiation measured perpendicular to the plane of a window or wall. Transmission Factor--the ratio of transmitted solar energy to total incident solar radiation. Transmitted Solar Energy--that portion of the total inci- dent solar radiation which passes directly through glass as radiation and which has the same wave length Spectrum as the total incident radiation. 118. BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Ackermann, A. S. E. The utilization of solar energy. Smithsonian Institute Annual Report. pp 141-166, 1915. 2.” American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers Guide. American Society of Heating and Ventilating En- gineers. New York, 1951. 3. Angstrom, A. K. 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