ifi __..‘_‘. 4....-.- - AA— -_ ‘4 M A.“ AUTHORITARIANISM AND THE "PERCEPTION or . £NTERNAT‘EONAL THREAT AND CONFLICT :_ A COMPARATIVE ANALYSE ' Thesis for the Degree of M. A. MICHIGAN STATE UNIVERSITY Mary Anne R. Carmichael 19.63 mu! AUTHORITARIANISM AND THE PERCEPTION OF INTERNATIONAL THREAT AND CONFLICT: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS by 4}) 6" Mary Anne Rmmgarmichael AN ABSTRACT Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Communication 1963 ABSTRACT AUTHORITARIANISM.AND THE PERCEPTION OF INTERNATIONAL THREAT AND CONFLICT: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS By nary Anne R. Carmichael This thesis reports the investigation of responses to the perception of international threat and conflict among individuals of different au- thoritarianism levels. It was hypothesized that the more authoritarian individual would be more likely to view the world as hostile and more likely to feel threatened by international events. He would tend to distrust other people and be cynical about the possibility of a united world government. He would also tend to make sharp ingroup-outgroup distinctions which would make it difficult for him to identify with humanity. The less authoritarian individual, however, would tend to experience a "strong" identification with people and problems the world over. He would be hopeful for the possibility of international peace and cooperation. The dependent variables specified for analysis were: a. Tolerance toward deviant attitudes b. Threat of war c. .Attitude toward giving up sovereignty d. Possibility of war e. Valence of war f. General apathy The data analyzed were gathered in interviews with representative samples of primary and secondary school teachers in five European coun- tries coordinated by the Organization for Comparative Social Research. The study was designed to collect comparative quantitative data related Mary Anne R. Carmichael to social and political attitudes. This thesis centers upon the independent variable of authoritarian- ism as a personality characteristic. A modified F-scale incorporated into the questionnaire as a measure of general authoritarian attitudes provided the scores for level of authoritarianism. The countries were ranked by the general level of authoritarianism represented in each sample. Belgium ranked as the most highly authoritarian, followed by The Netherlands, Sweden, England and Norway, which ranked as the least authoritarian of the country samples. The overall investigation of the background correlates of authori- tarianism.showed that, generally, female teachers tend to be more highly authoritarian than male teachers, that primary school teachers are more highly authoritarian than secondary school teachers, and that age is directly related to authoritarianism, while educational level is in- versely related to it. The investigation into the relationship between authoritarianism and the perception of international threat and conflict produced one significant finding: that authoritarianism is inversely related to approval of having one's own country give up some of its sovereignty to become part of a united world government. This finding was statis- tically significant in four of the five country samples. The investi- gation showed no significance for the relationship between the level of authoritarianism and the threat of war. For each of the remaining dependent variables significance was only found in one country sample, so that the conclusions remain tentative as to their relationship with the overall personality make-up tapped by the F-scale. AUTHORITARIANISM AND THE PERCEPTION OF INTERNATIONAL THREAT AND CONFLICT: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS by Mary Anne R. Carmichael A THESIS Submitted to Michigan State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS Department of Communication Approved :I‘Q Acknowledgements I wish to thank Dr. Hideya Kumata who served as thesis advisor, Dr. Eugene Jacobson who made available the survey data of the OCSR study and gave his constant advice and encouragement, and Dr. Erwin Bettinghaus. I am especially indebted to Mrs. Virginia MbIntosh for the typing and final preparations for the thesis and to Mr. Rdbert Van Dam for data processing. And to my mother, Mrs. maria Carmichael, for her patience and understanding of "graduate work." ii Table of Contents Chapter Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . l I THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE . . . . . . . . 3 Ethnocentric ideology 4 Authoritarian personality structure 5 Political attitudes and personality structure 11 Conflict and resolution 14 Cultural and social determinants of attitudes 15 Background factors as related to authoritarianism. l7 Aim of the study 19 11 METHOD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 Investigational design 24 The sample 28 The questionnaire 31 Data collection 33 Data recording 33 III “SMTS O O O O I O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O 35 Background correlates of authoritarianism 35 Summary of background correlates of authoritarianism 42 Tolerance toward deviant attitudes 42 Possibility of peace 51 Valence of war 54 General apathy 59 Threat of war 62 Attitude toward giving up sovereignty 63 Summary of the relationship between authoritarianism and the perception of international threat and conflict 75 N SWY O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O 79 Conclusions 79 Discussion 80 Implications for further study 85 REFERENCED BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87 APPENDIX I -- Items drawn from the final field version of the survey interview questionnaire . . . . . . . . . . . . 91 iii 9a. 9b. 9c. 9d. 10. 10a. 10b. List of Tables Overall breakdown of F-scores . . . . Distribution of subjects according to authoritarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Regrouping of authoritarianism categories for four comtries O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 O O O O O 0 Percentage of samples for background factors . . . . . Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers by levels of authoritarianism. . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of male and female school teachers by levels of authoritarianism. . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of teachers of different age ranges by levels of authoritarianism. . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of teachers by different education levels by levels of authoritarianism. . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of responses to general tolerance of deviance in levels of authoritarianismr-England . . . Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of male and female school teachers on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage by age range on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of secondary plus and university educated teachers on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of responses to changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianismr-Norway . . . . . . . . Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritari- “18m 0 O O O O 0 O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O O 0 Percentage of male and female teachers on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianism . . . . iv Page 25 26 27 30 36 37 39 41 44 45 45 46 47 48 49 Table 10c. 10d. 11. 11a. 11b. 11c. 11d. 12. 12a. 12b. 12c. 12d. 13. 13a. 13b. 13c. 13d. List of Tables--cont. Percentage by age range on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianimn . . . Percentage by education level on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . Percentage of responses to possibility of peace by levels of authoritarianism--Belgium . . . . Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on likelihood of peace by levels of authoritarianism . . Percentage of male and female teachers on the like- lihood of peace by levels of authoritarianism . . . . Percentage by age range on the likelihood of peace by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . Percentage of education level on the likelihood of peace by levels of authoritarianimn . . . . . . . Percentage of responses to valence of war by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on valence of war by levels of authoritarianism . . . Percentage of male and female teachers on valence of war by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . Percentage by age range on valence of war by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . . . Percentage by education level on valence of war by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . . . . Percentage of responses to general apathy by levels of authoritarianism--Sweden . . . . . . . . Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on general apathy by levels of authoritarianism . . Percentage of male and female teachers on general apathy by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . . Percentage by age range on general apathy by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . . . . . . . Percentage by education level on general apathy by levels of authoritarianism . . . . . . . . . . Page 50 50 52 52 53 54 55 56 57 57 58 58 6O 61 61 62 63 Table 14. 14a. 14b. 14c. 14c. List of Tables--cont. Page Percentage of responses to giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianisms-four countries . . . . 65 Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on giving up sovereignty by levels of authori- tarianisms-four countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 Percentage of male and female school teachers on giving up sovereignty by levels of authori- tarianism-“four countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69 Percentage by age range on giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianisms-four countries . . . . 71 Percentage by education level on giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianism-- four countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73 vi Introduction The purpose of this thesis is to look at the differential response patterns relating to the perception of international threat and danger among individuals ranging in different levels of authoritarianism. The study is of special value since the survey material was gathered on a highly systematic basis in five European countries. This oppor- tunity to test a set of theoretical hypotheses in a comparative cross- culture design is of extreme importance in discerning the cultural application of the theory. If the predictions can be supported in these different settings, stronger support is available for the valid- ity of the concept of authoritarianism. Christie and Jahoda (1954) imply that an agreement with F-scale items implies a view of the world as hostile and threatening. In per- ceiving international affairs, the more highly authoritarian the in- dividual, the more anxious he is to feel about conflict among nations. International events are easily perceived as threats to the maintenance of peace and as increasing the possibility of war. The perceived threat, combined with sharp ingroup-outgroup distinctions which the highly au- thoritarian individual is prone to make, lead to a rigidity in opinion- ation and, as MacKinnon and Centers (1956) found, to a non-functional view of learning more about the situation. The cynicism he feels re- garding humanity does not allow him to believe in a united world govern- ment. The less authoritarian individual tends to display a strong in- terest in humanity, a worldmindedness rendering him hopeful for the possibility of international peace. This individual would then be more tolerant of deviance and feel less resistant to compromise. As Adorno -1- -2- SEL£flr (1950) note, the less authoritarian will be less likely to rely on reports from authority figures and stereotypy in perceiving a situ- ation. .A further point of significance concerns the population from which the samples were drawn-- primary and secondary school teachers in pub- lic and church school systems. Teachers are opinion leaders not only for the students they teach but also within the general community. An understanding of their attitudes and value statements relating to international affairs can reveal something about the trends of opinion throughout the different communities. Chapter 1 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND AND RATIONALE The study of attitudes and the polling of opinions as isolated phenomena has been characteristic of much of the work done by social scientists. The more recent approach of looking at the interrelation- ships among attitudes is an advance into the investigation of human personality. Eysenck (1954) developed a model of social attitudes on the basis that attitudes appear to be arranged in some hierarchical order. At the bottom of the structure are the opinions which are not related and seem in no way characteristic of the person voicing them. On a second level are the opinions which are reproducible and form a relatively constant part of the individual's make-up. Thirdly, the individual holds concurrently a large number of other opinions on the same issue which, in combination, define his attitude toward that par- ticular issue. But even these attitudes are not independent. They often appear to be highly correlated, giving rise to super-attitudes or ideologies. The structure of the individual's total ideology is organized in a psychologically meaningful way with his needs, desires, and wants. Adorno g£_gl. (1950) specify that ”the political, economic, and social convictions of an individual often form a broad and coherent pattern, as if bound together by a 'mentality' or 'spirit' and that this pattern is an expression of deep-lying trends in his personality." Personality as a concept has been developed to account for the relative permanence of attitudes and behaviors displayed by an individual. The personality evolves under the impact of the social environment essentially as an organization of needs which lies behind behavior and within the individual, capable of self-initiated action. -3- -4- Ethnocentric Ideology: A look at the studies done investigating the phenomenon of prejudice as a feeling of dislike for a specific group indicates that individual prejudice often exists toward a variety of minority groups even when there has been no contact with some of these groups. The term "ethnocentrism" comes closer to a general meaning of provincialism, or cultural narrowness which renders the individual "ethnically center," and rigid in his acceptance of cultures like his and rejection of those unlike his. Ethnocentric ideology attributes superiority in morality, ability, and general development to the ingroups and views conflict as the struggle between an ingroup trying to maintain or recapture its just- ly superior position and an outgroup trying to stand in its way. This conflict and threat are seen as virtually permanent and unresolvable; the only alternatives are dominance or submission. The social struc- ture of society is seen as composed of fairly rigid levels with indi- viduals being born to and remaining at a particular level. Social interaction between groups is based on hierarchical and authoritarian terms. The ethnocentric's need for an outgroup prevents his possible identification with humanity as such, with other nations in general. This inability to identify with humanity takes the political form of nationalism, isolationism, and pseudopatriotism combined with a cyni- cism about world government and permanence of peace. The solution to problems of group conflict is based on the attitude that the ingroup must be kept pure and strong. The only methods of doing this are to either liguidate the outgroups altogether, to keep them entirely §2§f ordinated, or to segregate them in such a way as to minimize contact with the ingroups. In approaching a new group, the ethnocentric is likely to display doubt and rejection rather than curiosity and interest. The feeling of difference appears to be transformed into a feeling of threat lead- ing to an attitude of hostility. The group comes to be defined as an outgroup and is treated in the manner consistent with behavior towards outgroups generally. Campbell and LeVine (1961) conclude that the available data in- dicate that ethnocentrism is a universal phenomenon and that stereo- types are common "projections" of unconscious guilts and wishes and are used to explain hostility. Siegel (1954) found that stereotyping was a behavioral correlate of authoritarianism. Authoritarian Personality Structure: The major work.which has served as an impetus to personality variable research is The Authoritarian Personality. Adorno g£_gl. (1950) state that it became apparent that anti-semitism and ethnocentrism were not merely matters of surface opinion but general tendencies within the individual. An F-scale was devised to measure anti-democratic tendencies with its content based on the research which the California team.had completed on ethnocen- trism, anti-semitism, and politico-economic conservation as well as on the work done by Stagner, reported in Adorno g£_gl. (1950), dealing with fascistic attitudes. The seven categories isolated by Stagner were: nationalism, imperialism, militarism, racial antagonism, anti- radicalism, middle-class consciousness, and a strongman philosophy of government. -5- The variables which make up the basic content of the F-scale are: a. Conventionalism. Rigid adherence to conventional, middle-class values. b. Authoritarian submission. Submissive, uncriti- cal attitude toward idealized moral authorities of the ingroup. c. Authoritarian aggression. Tendency to be on the lookout for, and to condemn, reject, and punish people who violate conventional values. d. Anti-intraception. Opposition to the subjec- tive, the imaginative, the tender-minded. e. §gperstition and stereotypy. The belief in mystical determinants of the individual's .fate; the disposition to think in rigid categories. f. Power and "toughness." Preoccupation with the dominance-submission, strong-weak, leader- follower dimension; identification.with power figures; over-emphasis upon the conventional- ized attributes of the ego; exaggerated asser- tion of strength and toughness. g. Destructiveness and cygicism. Generalized hostility, vilification of the human. h. Projectivity. The disposition to believe that wild and dangerous things go on in the world; the projection outwards of unconscious emotional impulses 1. Sex. Exaggerated concern with sexual "goings-on." Christie and Jahoda (1954) note that nowhere in The Authoritarian Personality was the F-scale described as a measure of authoritarianism, yet the one operational definition for the variable is the relative score on an P-scale. Shils, in Christie and Jahoda (1954), summarizes the California findings related to the F-scale scores. The high scorer is distinguished by anti-semitism, ethnocentrism, and politico-economic conservatimm. Hyman and Sheatsley, in Christie and Jahoda (1954), point out that this relationship is not as clear as it sounds. The -7... items for successive forms of the F-scale which did not correlate with anti-semitism.were dropped from the instrument. The relationships may only reveal that the various scales contain items of basically similar content. Agreement with the items on the F-scale implies a weltanschauggg characterized by dichotomization of complex issues, acceptance of au- thority figures, and a view of the world as hostile and threatening. Cogan, reporting in Christie and Jahoda (1954), found a modest but significant correlation between F-score and hypersubmission to author- ity as well as rejection of outgroups. DeSoto, Kuethe, and Wunderlich (1960) found that high scores exhibited general fear, suspicion, and moralistic condemnation of strangers, while glorifying their own virtue and ability. In the California study the high scorer tended to be rigid in his beliefs, making frequent use of stereotypes in his perceptions and judgments, and was sympathetic with the use of violence against his enemy. He made sharp ingroup-outgroup distinctions and shared common- place vulgar cliches about minority groups. At the other extreme the low scorer tended to be sympathetic to the outcasts of society, the underprivileged, the discriminated-against ethnic minorities. He saw through the hollowness of patriotism, and was alert to the defects of politicians and the selfishness of businessmen. Christie, as reported in Christie and Jahoda (1954), found that low scorers were more sensitive to the interpersonal relationships among their peers than were the high scorers. Scondel and Mussen, as reported in Christie and Jahoda (1954), found that in role-playing situations, the low scorers were more accurate in predicting the -3- responses of the opposite partners than were the high scorers. The high scorers were also more likely to attribute their own attitude to others than were the low scorers. Davitz (1959), in investigating interpersonal relations, found that those subjects who characterized themselves as highly fearful and anxious described others as more threatening and punishing than did the less fearful. Srole, as cited in Christie and Jahoda (1954), reported a positive correlation between F-score and social distance rating. One of the major criticisms voiced against The Authoritarigg Personality by Christie and Jahoda (1954) is that the content of the F-scale is such that to rate low means to disagree with the anti- democratic statements. There is, therefore, no way of allowing for the positive description of the low scorer's beliefs. This may be related to the chapter in Adorno‘ggygl. (1950) where it is pointed out that one outstanding finding of the study is that "highness" on the F-scale is essentially one syndrome. There does seem to exist something like "the" potentially fascistic character, which is by itself a "structural unit." Among the low scorers, this was not the case. They were more loosely interconnected, falling into different syndromes. The two most common syndromes were the Protesting and the Easy-goigg low scorers. This breakdown of low scorers was based on the intensive clinical interviews conducted. Eysenck (1954) reports that Melvin's analysis of the California data shows a tendency for the materialistic and aggression items to cluster together and be opposed to a cluster of items dealing with superstition and submissiveness. The point is made, however, that this is not strong enough to detract from the unitary nature of the -9- scale. Gage and Chatterjee, as reported in Moscovici (1963), provide further evidence that negative items (those stating authoritarian be- liefs and attitudes) are more valid than positive items for measuring authoritarianism. In criticizing The Authoritarian Personality, Hyman (1955) points to the analysis principally centered on the comparison of two extreme groups as a basis for drawing conclusions about personality determinants of ideology. Shils, as reported in Christie and Jahoda (1954), also makes the point that those subjects showing a mixture of both high and low attitudinal approaches to political and social relations should also be included in the analysis of authoritarianism, This deviant case analysis may throw further light on the existence of anti-democratic tendencies in the general population. Christie and Jahoda (1954) pre- sent a case for analysis of extreme cases. In an attempt to discover relationships between mental disease and social environment, it is well to start with relatively clear-cut, uncomplicated cases of the various mental disorders. This justifies the original investigations conducted by the California team, but does not apply to the extensive research which has been done since then on authoritarianism. Still, the analysis in most of this work has been in terms of high and low authoritarianism and its relation to other variables. Another major criticism against the F-scale is the question of what it is measuring. Bass and Krug, both cited in Noscovici (1963), showed that the F-scale is far less a measure of authoritarianism.than of social acquiescence. Zuckerman and Norton, as reported in Mbscovici (1963), conclude that general authoritarianism.and primary acquiescence tend to have equal effect. Peabody, as reported in Moscovici (1963), -10- suggests that acquiescence might be considered as a characteristic of the authoritarian personality. Couch and Keniston, as reported in Christie and Lindauer (1963), report that a tendency to agree is asso- ciated with dependence anxiety; whereas the tendency to disagree or deny expresses self-assertion and stability. Banta, as cited in Moscovici (1963), further shows that acquiescence increases as the item wording is more ambiguous. Taylor, as reported in Moscovici (1963), contests the existing influence of acquiescence set in the F-score, contending that the only influence involved is the social desirability of the item. He contends that scale items are phrased in such a way that social desirability can be read in them; that subjects differ in tendency to accept socially undesirable items; and that subjects who are capable of admitting to undesirable personality traits will also be capable of accepting un- desirable attitudinal responses. Couch and Keniston, as cited in Christie and Lindauer (1963), through factor analysis, report that social desirability and the tendency to acquiesce are independent factors. ‘Moscovici (1963) points out that a person who is "pro" or "con" is not only "favorable" or "unfavorable" to an object, but has different ways of being one or the other. Taylor, as cited in Moscovici (1963), found that extreme attitudes have a common structure. Mogar, also cited in Moscovici (1963), reported that the high authoritarians tend to make more extreme judgments than the low authoritarians, and to be more strongly committed to their judgments. The low authoritarians tend to be mere reticent. Moscovici (1963) found that subjects with "unfavorable" attitudes are usually more consistent in their responses and vary less in their judgments while the subjects with "favorable" attitudes show -11- more inconsistency. Political Attitudes and Personglity Structure: Incorporated into the California study was an attempt at studying politico-economic conserva- tism. Liberalism was conceived of not as a single, unitary attitude but as an ideological system containing a number of trends or compo- nents. Theoretically, the prototypic "liberal" is an individual who actively seeks progressive social change, who can be militantly criti- cal of the status quo, who opposes or de-emphasizes numerous conserva- tive values and beliefs regarding business success, rugged individualism, human nature, and one who would diminish the power of business by in- creasing the power of labor and the economic functions of the govern- ment. The prototypic "conservative" is one who supports the status quo and resists changes in existing politico-economic power arrangements, who supports conservative values and traditions, believes that labor is properly subordinate to employer or management, and who wishes to mini- mize the economic functions of government in order that individual businessmen can, in free and equal competition, provide goods of maxi- mum.quality at minimum cost to the consumer. Many individuals, however, do not exhibit one particular pattern. Some of this inconsistency may be due to confusion resulting from lacks and distortions in the media and seem to partly reflect deep-lying emotional trends. One of the basic problems introduced in the investi- gation of liberalismrconservatism is that political and economic fgggg are subject to rapid change and the phrasing of the items may serve a biasing function. Christie and Jahoda (1954) argue that the F-scale measures right authoritarianism, not general authoritarianism. Eysenck (1954) suggests -12- that political ideology must be viewed from two dimensions. The first is radicalism-conservatism; the second, toughmindedness-tendermindedness, which is likened to the variable measured by the F-scale. Rokeach and Hanley (1956), in a critique of Eysenck's The Psychology of Politics, point out that some of the items used in measuring toughmindedness- tendermindedness are saturated with "humanitarianism" and others with "religiousness." Milton, as cited in Christie and Jahoda (1954), reports a rank- order correlation between authoritarianism as attributed to political aspirants and the F-scores of the subjects preferring each man. Sanford, also cited in Christie and Jahoda (1954), found that authoritarian in- dividuals are not highly participant in political affairs, do not join many community groups, and do not become officers in the groups in which they hold membership. But since it is known that political participa- tion is related to such indices as educational level and income, and F-scores are generally negatively related to these, the Sanford finding is not startling. Mussen and Wyszynski, as reported in Christie and Jahoda (1954), found no relationship between political participation (or apathy) and scale responses on ethnocentrism and authoritarianism. Instead the apathetic subject can be characterized as showing (a) an inability to recognize personal responsibility or to examine or accept his own feelings and emotions, (b) vague feelings of worry, insecurity, and threat, (c) complete and unchanging acceptance of constituted au- thority such as social codes, parents, and religion, and (d) a relative absence of responses emphasizing self-expression, ego-strivings, and satisfactions of warm interpersonal relationships. Dombrose and Levinson, as reported in Christie and Jahoda (1954), found that an -13- individual's F-scale score operates in determining the ideology he favors. They contend that the F-score does not necessarily determine the degree of political activity since it is the intensity with which attitudes are held which may be related to actual political behavior. In com- paring two levels of low scorers, they found that the extremists fa- vored much more militant action against minority groups. It might then be expected that a curvilinear relationship exists between author- itarianism.and political participation, under conditions in which equal opportunity for political participation is possible. With respect to leadership, Sanford, as cited in Christie and Jahoda (1954), reports that authoritarian subjects tend to talk of leaders in stereotyped moralistic terms. They prefer leaders who are strong and possess ingroup status.) They are also not so much inter- ested in the leader's relation to the job to be done or in his relation to 511 of the followers, but are concerned with the leader's relations to each of them individually. Haythorn.££_§l, (1956) found a differ- ence between high authoritarian and low authoritarian leaders as well as followers, and that the behavior of leaders was a function of whether the followers were high or low authoritarians. In looking at attitude change and its relation to authoritarian- ism, Wagman (1955) predicted that attitude change in response to rela- tively non-authoritarian information varies as a function of the sub- ject's F-score. Under authoritarian suggestion the high authoritarian will show more suggestion acceptance than the low scorer. Thibaut and Riecken (1955) found that controlling for authoritarianism and for formal status of the instigator relative to the subjects did not affect initial acceptance or rejection significantly. However, in measuring -14- attitude change, with increasing authoritarianism, instigatees facing a higher status instigator changed toward lesser rejection of him and those facing a lower status instigator changed toward greater rejection of him, In terms of overt (verbal) communication, less intense aggres- sion was directed against a higher status instigator. Roberts and Jessor (1958) found this influence of status in their investigation of degree of punitiveness. There was no difference between high and low authoritarians on punitiveness. With a low status frustrator the high authoritarian responded with more direct hostility and aggressive- ness; with a high status frustrator with more indirect, displaced hos- tility. The low authoritarians manifested no difference in their re- action to the high and low status of the frustrator. Conflict and Resolution: The study of clusters of related attitudes such as ethnocentric ideology, politico-economic conservatism, anti- semitism, outgroup rejection, and superpatriotism in a personality structure framework allows the researcher a better understanding of an individual's behavior in conflict situations, in competitive envi- ronments, and his interaction with other individuals or groups. Smith (1958) believes in looking at the functions served by opinions which individuals hold. These might be: a. object appraisal - the process of testing reality in order to assess the relevance. b. _ social adjustment - facilitating, disrupting, or maintaining one's relations with others. c. externalization - response to events is colored by one's unresolved problems; defensive rigidity. Gladstone (1955) reports that reaction to an event may depend upon perceived threat as well as the position an individual holds in the -15- power structure in which he operates. The findings showed that there is not as much significance in interpersonal situations as there is in reacting to international events. Siegel (1954) reports that anx- iety is a correlate of authoritarianism. Singer and Feshbach (1959) also report a significant correlation between authoritarianism and anxiety. May, as cited in Siegel (1954), sums up these relationships by stating the circular hostility and conflict problem faced by an individual. Inconsistencies in the environment lead to feelings of hostility; these feelings increase the anxiety level which in turn increases competitive striving; this increases hostility, and so on. In viewing ”the world" the authoritarian person characteristically exhibits an intolerance for ambiguity as supported by Siegel (1954). Rokeach, as reported in Brown (1953), hypothesized a general rigidity within certain personality types which will manifest itself in the solution of any problem, social or non-social. Brown (1953), however, notes that there is a higher correlation between F-score and problem- solving if it is an ego-involved situation. Arousal of rigidity as a defense is dependent upon situational factors. Cultural and Social Determinants of Attitudes: Siegel (1954) points out that the majority of the investigations into the authoritarian personality has been oriented toward attaining an understanding of the correlates involved and tells us little about the generalizability of the phenomena in social situations. Smith.ggygl. (1956) criticize the California study for its disconcern with cultural and social de- terminants and questions the significance of such findings. Christie and Garcia, as reported in Christie and Jahoda (1954), found a greater range of inter-item correlations than that reported in The Authoritarian -16- Personality and concluded that with more heterogenous populations it is to be expected that greater variability might exist than for the limited samples generally used. Rokkan (1956) questions the generalizability of any investigations into authoritarianism as related to political attitudes and behavior, especially in cross-cultural situations. The items and analyses com- pleted to date are primarily based on the political patterns in the U. S. In doing investigations of this nature, information concerning the political philosophy of the particular country is necessary as well as an understanding of the control imposed by the political ma- jority and the existence and power of the minorities. Smith (1956) adds that reference has to be made to the extent to which deviance is accepted in the country, the types of ethnic groups within the social setting, and related historical events. Berrol and Holmes (1952) cam- paign for the integration of survey and area approaches to research in cultural settings. Without prior knowledge of the area, the re- searcher may not know the variables which are operating and how to go about measuring them. In accepting the statement repeated in Adorno g£_gl. (1950) that personality evolves under the impact of the social environment and can never be isolated from the social totality within which it occurs, one becomes interested in learning more about the subject's membership‘ in and identification with social groups. Eysenck (1954) points out another determinant which is often overlooked-- the general cultural climate involving opinion leaders and the role of the media. Thinking habits of individuals reflect the standardization of cultural climate as well as the dynamics of their own personalities. Hyman (1955) points -17- out that without this approach to the study of attitudes, findings will only be related to the process of attitude formation, not to a definition of its location within some part of the social order. ngkground Factors as Related to Authoritarignism: In looking at the differences among levels of authoritarianism, it appears necessary to control for a number of background factors. Education is one factor which could be expected to make a difference. Hyman's (1955) criticism of The Authoritggian Personglity included the point that the California team did not control on the years of formal education, in the analysis of F-scores. In their investigation of ethnocentrism, Adorno §£_§1. (1950) theorized that the more ethnocentric individuals would tend to be less intelligent, generally, than the less ethnocentric ones. The low correlations obtained may indicate that exposure in terms of years of completed education is not meaningful. Perhaps an estimate of the desired rather than the actual amount of education would be a more valuable factor. Srole, as cited in Christie and Jahoda (1954), reports that authoritarianism tendencies and anomie were more prominent in the lower educated group. And it is among the university-educated sample that prejudice and authoritarianism are highly correlated. Eysenck (1954) found that the university-educated subjects tend to have a more definite structure of attitudes than the non-university educated. Christie and Jahoda (1954) summarize findings on the relationship be- tween education and F-scale scores for educationally heterogeneous samples as ranging between -.45 and -.54. Greenberg and Bivins (1959) found a significant decline in authoritarianism.with increasing edu- cation. -18- Igtelligence is another factor which has been controlled in some of the studies dealing with authoritarianism. Marks and MeDougall (1959), in explaining a negative correlation between authoritarianism and the supervisor's rating of effectiveness, note that IQ is negatively related to authoritarianism and positively to effectiveness. Jacobson and Rettig (1959) conclude that any investigation of authoritarianism must control for intelligence. Youniss (1958), on the other hand, found no relationship between authoritarian attitudes or intelligence and conformity. Greenberg and Fare (1959) note that college has a democratizing effect on students with segregated educational systems tending to produce more authoritarianism than integrated ones. Another factor which should be controlled is gg_. Eysenck (1954) reports that older persons tend to have a more definite structure of attitudes than younger persons. As to Egg, Eysenck (1954) notes that males have more well-defined personality structure than do women. Irvine (1957) found significant differences between men and women for scores on au- thoritarianism.and hostility. However, he found no difference in terms of anti-semitism and anxiety. In analyzing political attitudes, it is necessary to control for political preferences. Rokkan (1956) in reporting the findings of the OCSR seven-nation study notes that there was a difference in all countries between subjects who preferred "working class parties" and those who preferred "middle class parties." Also, Leftists had the lowest mean scores on authoritarianism and the greatest standard deviations. Other factors would depend basically on the variables under in- vestigation. Religion is one such factor. Rhodes (1960) reports that attitudes of authoritarianism.are not independent of religious preference, -19- with more variation found among protestants than between protestants and catholics. He also notes that the scores are not independent of socio-economic measures or of urban-rural residency. Control for background factors in the investigation of personality structure is essential in pointing out the extent to which these factors are influencing the dependent measures. In the study of authoritar- ianism, as related to other attitudes which an individual expresses, it is essential not only to check whether certain background factors make a difference, but also to pinpoint which combinations of the two tend to contribute the greatest influence. Aim of the Study The general hypothesis underlying this study is that authoritarian level makes a difference in the way an individual responds to attitudi- nal items related to international affairs, particularly perceptions of danger and threat. The more authoritarian the individual, the more likely he is to feel threatened by international events. As Christie and Jahoda (1954) note, an agreement with the items on the F-scale implies a weltanschauung characterized by a view of the world as hostile and threatening. Gladstone (1955) reports a significant difference between high and low scorers in their perception of international threat. The orientation or frame of reference which the individual holds regarding other peoples, other nations, may determine the extent of threat he is likely to perceive. An interest in humanity, a feeling of worldmindedness, would render the individual more antagonistic toward war and more hopeful for the possibility of inter-nation peace. Sampson and Smith (1957) report an inverse relation between worldmindedness and -20- authoritarianism. This finding is supported by Smith and Rosen (1958). Siegel (1954) reports that anxiety is a correlate of authoritar- ianism, as do Singer and Feshbach (1959). In viewing the "world situ- ation," the more highly authoritarian the individual, the more anxious he is to feel about international affairs. Conflict among nations is perceived as highly threatening to the maintenance of peace and as increasing the possibility of war. This increased threat to the highly authoritarian individual leads to feelings of insecurity and hostility. The authoritarian person holds to the idea that his nation is the one important group in the international scene, that it should be kept stable and apart from the influence of other nations. Adorno g§_gl. (1950) found that the high scorers on the F-scale tended to make sharp ingroup-outgroup distinctions and made frequent use of stereotypy in their perceptions and judgments. This distrust in members of the out- group on the international scene contributes to the individual's dis- interest in learning more about them, MacKinnon and Centers (1956) report that the high scorers held onto their nonfunctional knowledge concerning an international event, displaying a rigidity in opiniona- tion. After all, with increased information one may sense an increased tension regarding the world affairs which is very threatening. More specifically related to this study, the more authoritarian the individual, the less likely he is to believe in the possibility of forthcoming peaceful conditions in Europe, the more likely to antici- pate Russian influence in Europe. As to the valence of war, the more authoritarian subjects will be more likely to say that under no circums stances would war be the lesser of two evils. -21- The cynicism experienced by the high authoritarian regarding world government and the permanence of peace combined with his inability to identify with humanity will make him less likely to agree to the possi- bility of his nation's giving up its sovereignty to become part of a united world government. Lentz (1950) adds that the less worldminded the subject, the less hopeful he tends to be regarding the possibility of universal disarmament. These feelings held by the highly authori- tarian individual do not allow him to believe that problems hampering peace on the international level could possibly be ironed out through the influence of the ordinary citizen. His reliance upon authority figures for guidance and direction, as noted in Christie and Jahoda (1954), would tend to make him.look up to governmental or other author- ity figures as the only persons who could possibly influence world af- fairs. Theoretically, the more authoritarian an individual, the more likely he is to be intolerant of deviant persons within his own country. Kenny and Ginsberg (1958) found a positive relation between authoritarian submission (one subcategory of the F-scale) and aggression against non- conforming individuals. Frenkel-Brunswik (1952) states that authoritar- ian persons are characterized by extreme conformity to the status quo and tend to resist change. This reliance on conformity, combined with a strong feeling of nationalistic identity, leads the more authoritar- ian individual to prefer that the citizenry be a pure, highly integrated and close-knit group sharing much the same opinions, working under one basic code. His strong concern for his nation makes him feel the urgency of doing something to erase or at least reduce any signs of deviance. On the international scene he is equally intolerant of deviance but is -22- less concerned with trying to do something about it, recognizing his inability to change events. To better understand the relationship between authoritarianism.and the way people respond to international threat, this study deals with data from five European countries. Testing the hypotheses in five different countries allows a check on the generalizability of results given different social and cultural settings. Secondarily, comparisons of the attitudinal responses can be made among countries. It is hypoth- esized that, for the nations which appear to have more high authori- tarians, the difference in response patterns among the different levels of authoritarianism will tend to decrease and approach insignificance. The rationale for this is that the low authoritarians are generally more reticent, as reported by Hogar, and cited in Mbscovici (1963), and receptive to different ways of looking at events. For the less authoritarian countries the differences, especially between the extremes (high and low authoritarianism), should be very significant. The high authoritarians being much more strongly committed to their opinions, and being more rigid in their ingroup-outgroup distinctions, will not be easily swayed by the opinions of the low authoritarians. Chapter 2 METHOD The data analyzed in this study was part of the information gath- ered by the Organization for Comparative Social Research in seven European countries. The Organization for Comparative Social Research included sociologists, psychologists and public opinion specialists from.universities and research institutes in Belgium, France, Germany, The Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and the united Kingdom. It was coor- dinated by an administrative group at the Institute for Social Research in Oslo, Norway, directed by Stein Rokkan and Erik Rinde. Planning was begun in Oslo in 1951 to investigate the possibility of conducting a Western European cooperative, comparative, quantitative study of social and political attitudes. The purpose of conducting the study in various countries was to collect useful comparative social science data and to provide training opportunities for research teams in each country. In April, 1952, the third planning conference was held at the University of Amsterdam, under the direction of Daniel Katz of the university of Muchigan. Some of the decisions specified were: a. The research problem would be to study the effects of varying conditions of experienced threat on group members as reflected in their attitudes toward deviants within the group. b. The content of threat would be looked for in the general area of international affairs with an emphasis on threat of war. c. The group to be studied would be primary and secondary school teachers, both because sev- eral of the investigators had continuing in- terests in studies among teachers and because teachers were judged to be a relatively avail- able and readily sampled population. -23- -24- A random and representative sample of teach- ers would be selected by area probability sampling where appropriate, and with the help of teacher rosters in those countries where central records were conveniently available. The data would be collected by personal in- terviews with the selected respondents, dur- ing which they would be asked a standard set of questions and their answers would be re- corded verbatim. The recorded questionnaire protocols would be coded by standard content analysis pro- cedures to allow mass analysis with punched card methods. Sub-committees of the whole seven-nation set of investigators would prepare the study in- struments with the help of a project coordi- nator working out of the central office. The project coordinator would have the respons- ibility of devising and administering tech- niques for standardizing the research operations. Data would be gathered during the winter of 1952-1953. Investigational_pesig§ The analysis for the study reported here, based on a portion of the data gathered by OCSR, centered upon the independent variable of authoritarianism. Fifteen items incorporated into the questionnaire were intended to tap general authoritarian attitudes. Levinson and Couch (1957) specified ten of the items as being useful as an "F-scale” and correlating over .35 with each other in all seven countries. These ten items are: 1. 2. Human nature being what it is, there must always be war and conflict. The most important thing a child should learn is obedience to his parents. -25- 3. A few strong leaders could make this country better than all the laws and talk. 4. Most people who don't get ahead just don't have enough will power. 5. Women should stay out of politics. 6. Our national life suffers from lack of discipline. 7. Parents these days allow their children too much freedom. 8. Only the person who has been taught strict discipline can fully appreciate freedom. 9. Once a problem child, always a problem child. 10. These days too much attention is being paid to the difficult child at the expense of normal children. The responses to these ten items were coded along a seven-point scale with l--"agree very much," through 4--"no answer," to 7--"disagree very much." Each respondent's scores for the items were then summed, and this was his F-score. The possible distribution of F-scores ranged from 10 to 70. Arbitrary division of these into four categories of authoritarianism was performed. This was done to avoid the comparison of only two extremes, a criticism which can be made of the majority of studies on authoritarianism. The breakdown of scores is indicated in Table 1. Table 1. Overall breakdown of F-scores. Authoritarian Categories Scores High 10 - 29 Medium High 30 - 39 Medium Low 40 - 49 Low 50 - 70 -25- The five nations included in this analysis can be ranked by the general level of authoritarianism indicated by its sample of primary and secondary school teachers. Belgium ranked as the most highly au- thoritarian; The Netherlands, the second highest; Sweden as the third highest; England was second lowest; and Norway ranked as the least authoritarian of the country samples. The distribution within each country sample of authoritarianism categories is summarized in Table 2. The attempt to keep a four category breakdown of F-scores for the final analysis proved impractical for all countries, except England, given limited cell sizes. It was de- cided to combine some of the cells summarized in Table 2. The regroup- ing for the final analysis is presented in Table 3. Table 2. Distribution of subjects according to authoritarianism. Country Authoritarianism High Med. High Med . Low Low Total Belgium 209 124 54 12 399 Netherlands 117 147 99 34 397 Sweden 119 163 108 53 443 England 61 141 131 65 398 Norway 45 110 135 110 400 -27- Table 3. Regrouping of authoritarian categories for four countries. Country Authoritarianism High Medium. Low Total Belgium 209 124 66 399 Netherlands 117 147 133 397 Weden ' 119 163 161 443 Norway 155 135 110 400 These levels of authoritarianism represent the independent vari- able, with the analysis being centered on the relationship between the different levels and the responses to items intended to tap attitudes toward international affairs and the perception of danger. The depend- ent variables are: a. Tolerance toward deviant attitudes b. Threat of war c. Attitude toward giving up sovereignty d. Possibility of war e. Valence of war f. General apathy Each item intended to tap these dependent variables was analyzed sepa- rately and checked for difference of response among the levels of au- thoritarianism for each country. Those items which did demonstrate statistical significance in the chi-square analysis were then looked at more closely to pinpoint the cells where the action was occurring. Further analysis in terms of background factors which might be affecting -23- the action was carried out. The background factors which were expected to have some influence were: teacher classification (primary or sec- ondary), sex, age, and educational level. The Sample The intention for the sampling was to provide a representative sample of all of the primary and secondary school teachers within each country. It was decided that a sample of 300 primary and 100 second- ary school teachers would be interviewed, reflecting not only a random sample but also representing the major distributions of teacher char- acteristics within each country. This would allow for a comparative analysis of teachers in several nations. Only full-time teachers in regular schools in the state and religious systems were to be selected by the team leaders in each country. This concentration of the samples on the two categories of teach- ers reduced the amount of variance which would be expected from a cross- section sampling of occupational categories. It also served to keep each country sample manageably small, while still allowing for valid statistical analyses within each country. As pointed out earlier, teachers proved to be an easily accessible and easily identifiable population. A more important reason for the selection centered around an interest in the teacher as an important link in social and political communication processes in the national community, as a transmittor of information, and as an actual or potential molder of opinions; and an interest in the professional problems of adjustment within the na- tional educational system, problems of status, and those of community relations. The major focus of the study, however, was on the teacher -29- ._§ 3 citizen: his role as a member of the national community. Altogether 2,758 teachers were interviewed for the OCSR study, although only 2,037 were included in this analysis since the author chose to exclude two of the country samples. These were Germany and France. It was pointed out in the OCSR reports that in these two coun- tries the samples compiled were not random probability samples in a strict sense. The data obtained from Belgium, England, and The Netherlands can be said to be highly representative of the teacher populations within these countries. In Norway and Sweden, where urban areas were over- represented, the conclusions based on this data will have to be restricted to "teachers in the areas sampled." The samples for England and Sweden included a high percentage of female teachers, while The Netherlands and Norway samples had a higher percentage of male teachers. In Belgium there was basically an equal proportion. In considering the breakdown of the samples by age, the overall majority across the five countries was from 31 to 50 years of age. Norway and Sweden samples had the highest percentage of older teachers, over 50 years old. In the England and Netherlands samples there was the highest percentage of young teachers, below 31 years of age. The summary of the breakdown of the individual samples by these background variables is presented in Table 4. Requirements as to the amount of education an individual must have before being eligible to teach in the primary or secondary school systems vary among countries. Discrepancies among the countries sam- pled showed that, overall, the English teachers were the most highly educated. The Belgium sample had received the lowest level of education, -30- with 71% listing primary and primary plus teacher's college as their educational background. The Netherlands sample was quite similar to the Belgian sample with respect to educational levels. In Sweden the secondary school or secondary plus teacher's college educational level were the most common, with equal percentages representing the univers- ity and primary plus educational levels. This trend is evident in the Norwegian sample. These results are summarized in Table 4. Table 4. Percentage of samples for background factors. Belgium Netherlands Sweden England Norway ‘glassification Primary 75 75 73 75 75 Secondary __2_§__ __2§_ __2_Z_ _25__ __2§_ 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Sex Male 49 61 36 41 63 Female _51. a; _6_4_ .29.. .232. 100% 100% 100% 100% 101% Age Below 31 23 29 19 29 14 31 - 50 59 49 46 50 49 Over 50 .18.. .22. .32. as. as. 100% 100% 100% 99% 101% Education Primary plus 71 65 23 2 29 Secondary plus 11 15 54 65 41 University __1_8;_ _g_Q_ __2__3__ __3_3___ _§_(_)__ 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% -31- The Questionnaire One of the basic aims of the OCSR study was to make it possible to obtain comparative data from different countries. In view of the tremendous problems of standardizing research across national and cul- tural borders, an elaborate system.of pre-tests, conferences, and memo- randa distribution was included in the organizational plan for the study. Seven principal investigators in the seven countries would have to be satisfied that a very concrete and vulnerable collection of questions, representing appropriate means of getting evidence about the relatively ambiguous framework of constructs, had been developed. The extensive pre-test period was begun in the Fall of 1951, and was followed by four other pre-tests for the revised schedules before the October 1952 meeting of the team leaders. The five additional revisions based on the discussions of the individual team experience and analysis of the pre-test data culminated in a questionnaire form which was accepted by all of the principal investigators as being ap- propriate in meaning and sequence. In cross-national research the attempt is to study 523 EEESHEEEEE pf phenomena in different national and cultural settings. The basic problems involved in any study of this nature include those of language equivalence and functional comparability at three stages: data collec- tion, data recording, and data analysis. Ikegional language differences were not formally considered with the exception of Flemish and Walloon as the two languages in Belgium. The liltnguages of the study were Norwegian, Swedish, German, French, DutCha and English. Instructions on translation were issued in a InemorIaLzrudum.by Eugene Jacobson, Survey Coordinator, and Stein Rokkan, -32- Executive Secretary. It was specified that each team would have five different persons translate the English questionnaire into the language of the country. These five were to be compared and items separated into three categories: 1. Those which had been translated identically or with minor discrepancies. 2. Those which had been translated differently because the translator interpreted the Eng- lish differently. 3. Those that had been translated differently because no adequate equivalent translation could be found in the language. Items in the second two categories were then reviewed by the cen- tral office and appropriate revisions made in the questionnaire. Team leaders were instructed that when there were several equally appropriate translations they would choose the form judged to be best in establish- ing rapport, or in terms of simplicity and style. In terms of judging the functional equivalence of the question- naire in the different countries, the evaluation must rest on the ex- tent to which the sets of questions are capable of providing data that allow the examination of parallel relationships. The extensive pre- testing periods were designed to uncover problems and it is the judg- ment of the team leaders and the central office staff that many of the equivalence difficulties were avoided. A related problem is that of interpreting results in cross-national research. If the same relationship among variables is found among countries to a degree not attributable to chance, a very convincing demonstration of the equivalence of questions has been established. Similarly, systematically different sets of relationships in the data -33- among countries, when these relationships have been predicted on an ‘5 priori basis, constitutes good evidence of equivalence. The unre- solved problem is in the interpretation of the absence of systematic similarities or variations among the sets of data. Qgta Collection Another basic problem in cross-national research is that of pro- viding equivalent data-gathering situations throughout. In the OCSR study the interviews generally took from one to two and a half hours, and the standardizing of interviewer behavior was extremely important. Persons selected as interviewers were either graduate students in the social sciences or trained professional interviewers on the staff of continuing field organizations. The number of interviewers in each country ranged from 20 to 50. Training was conducted continuously, from the time of the first pre- test, by each team.and coordinated by the OCSR advisory committee. The final interviews were completed between January and April, 1953. 233a Recording Throughout the pre-testing periods an attempt was made to develop workable equivalent codes. In the different countries discussion ses- sions were held for the purpose. Coder reliability checks were con- ducted by the individual teams. Wherever necessary, nation-specific codes were incorporated into the original coding scheme and circulated among the other teams and the central office. In each country the collected data were trans- ferred to punched cards by the team, then a set was sent to The Nether- lands team where the central collection of the OCSR data was based. -34- Here a master code and a master deck of cards were prepared. Upon completion of the master code a complete tabulation of the data was issued. Review of this material among the teams resulted in the selection of 50 codes for the analysis of 12 major attitudinal variables and 30 items of background information. Chapter 3 RESULTS Primary and secondary school teachers in five European countries were interviewed on a variety of topics, including attitudes related to the perception of international threat. The subjects were separated into levels of authoritarianism based on their scores on the ten-item F-scale. An overall investigation into the background correlates of authoritarianism was performed for each country sample. Major analysis dealt with the differential responses to items dealing with international threat by the subjects ranking on different levels of authoritarianism. Each item.designated as a measure of the dependent variables was analyzed for a significant relationship with the general level of authoritarianism. For each sample which showed an overall significant chi-square for the frequency data, further break- down by percentages was performed to pinpoint the cells which contrib- uted most to the overall significance. Further breakdown by background factors on the significant tables was performed to locate the influence which these factors had on the response patterns of the subjects. Background correlates of authoritarianism. Teacher classification. Primary school teachers tended to be high scorers on authoritarianism in Belgium and Norway. In Sweden and The Netherlands they were more likely to rate medium on authori- tarianism, and in England the majority were medium high scorers, with medium low being a close second. In all countries except Sweden the primary school teacher was least likely to rank as low authoritarian. In Sweden he was least likely to rank as a high authoritarian. -35- -36- Secondary school teachers in Norway, The Netherlands, and Sweden were more likely to score low on authoritarianism. In England the secondary school teacher was more likely to rank as medium low or me- dium high authoritarian. For all of these countries the secondary school teacher was least likely to rank as a high authoritarian. In Belgium, however, the secondary school teacher was most likely to be a high authoritarian. Results of the breakdown by teacher classifi- cation are presented in Table 5. Table 5. Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers by levels of authoritarianism. Classification Country Belgium Netherlands Sweden Norway England Primary High 55 33 27 42 16 Medium 28 37 38 34 g; * Low 17 3o 35 24 14 100% 100% 100% 1002 99% Total 324 297 324 300 298 Secondary High 45 19 25 28 12 Medium 39 36 34 33 gg * Low 16 45 41 39 23 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 119 100 119 100 100 *For England two categories of medium authoritarianism were designated-- high authoritarianism and low authoritarianism. Sex. as high authoritarians and least likely as low authoritarians. -37- Male teachers in Belgium and Norway were more likely to rank In The Netherlands and England these teachers were more often medium scorers. In Sweden the male teachers were most often low scorers and, as in The Netherlands and England, they were least often high scorers. The female teachers in Belgium, The Netherlands, and Norway were more likely to score high on authoritarianism.and least likely to score low. In Sweden and England these teachers would tend to rank as medium (medium.high in England) on authoritarianism. Like The Netherlands, Belgium, and Norway, England female teachers were least often among the low~scorers. high scorers. Table 6. In Sweden, however, these teachers were least often Results of the breakdown by sex is presented in Table 6. Percentage of male and female school teachers by levels of authoritarianism. Sex Country Belgium Netherlands Sweden Norway England 21.9.1.2. High 49 24 26 36 13 Medium 30 39 3o 34 333% Low .21. .17.. .4.4_ .29.. .29.. 100% 100% 100% 99% 100% Total 195 243 158 250 165 1.911.119. High 56 38 27 43 17 Medium 32 34 41 33 3: Low .12. .29.. .12.. .25.. .14. 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% Total 204 154 285 150 233 -38- ‘Agg. Teachers below the age of 31 in three countries--Norway, England and The Netherlands--were most likely to rank as medium on authoritarianism and least likely to rank as high scorers. In Sweden these teachers were most likely to rank low and least likely to rank high on authoritarianism. In Belgium teachers below 31 years of age were most often high scorers on authoritarianism. Teachers between the ages of 31 and 50 in England and The Nether- lands ranked most often in the medium authoritarianism level. Teach- ers in this age range in Norway rated evenly as medium and low scorers, while those in the Sweden sample were most likely to rank as low au- thoritarians. In Belgium, teachers in this age range were overwhelm- ingly ranked as high authoritarians. Teachers 51 years of age and over in Belgium, The Netherlands, and Norway were most likely to rank as high authoritarians. For The Netherlands, however, they were almost as likely to score as low au- thoritarians. In England these teachers were most often in the medium high level and in Sweden they generally fell into the medium authori- tarianism level. In both England and Sweden the teachers in this age range were least likely to rank as low authoritarians. The results on the breakdown by age categories is presented in Table 7. Education level. Teachers who claimed to have had either a pri- mary school only or primary school plus teachers' college education were most often high authoritarians in three countries--Norway, Belgium, and England. In The Netherlands these teachers were almost equally likely to rank as high or medium authoritarians. In Sweden these teach- ers were most often among the medium level scorers. In all countries -39- except England teachers with this primary plus education were least likely to rank as low authoritarians. to rank in the medium levels. In England they were least likely Table 7. Percentage of teachers of different age ranges by levels of authoritarianism. Age Country Belgium Netherlands Sweden Norway England Below 31 High 39 21 15 28 12 Medium 37 43 38 43 3; Low 24 36 47 30 16 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% Total 90 116 86 54 110 Between 31-50 High 53 3o 28 31 15 Medium 32 4o 33 34 3f; Low 14 30 39 35 16 99% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 231 192 203 194 187 der 50 High 68 39 32 52 21 Medium 19 23 4o 31 3g Low 13 38 28 l7 16 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 69 87 153 150 76 -40- Teachers with either a secondary school only or secondary school plus teachers' college education in The Netherlands and England tended most often to rank as medium (medium high in England) authoritarians. In Norway these teachers were as likely to rank as medium or as high authoritarians; in Belgium most likely to rank as high authoritarians. Only in Sweden were these secondary plus teachers most likely to rank as low scorers. In England, Norway and Belgiwm these teachers were least likely to rank as low scorers while in Sweden and The Netherlands they were least likely to rank as high scorers. Teachers with a university education were most likely to score low on authoritarianism in The Netherlands, Norway, and Sweden. In England they were most likely to rank as medium low scorers. Only in Belgium were the teachers with a university education most likely to rank either as high or medium authoritarians, and least likely to rank as low authoritarians. In the other four countries the least likely rank for these teachers was that of high authoritarian. The results on the breakdown by educational level are presented in Table 8. -41- Table 8. Percentage of teachers by different education levels by levels of authoritarianism. Education Level Country Belgium Netherlands Sweden Norway England Primaryuplus High 55 35 37 51 43 Medium 29 36 42 31 14 14 Low 17 29 22 17 29 101% 100% 101% 99% 100% Total 272 257 101 115 7 Secondarygplus High 54 15 26 37 15 Medium. 34 51 36 37 :3 Low 12 34 38 27 12 100% 100% 1002 1012 100% Total 41 59 238 161 251 W High 41 21 18 3o 13 Medium 40 31 35 32 fig Low 19 48 47 38 22 100% 100% 100% 1002 99% Total 68 81 100 119 126 -42- Summary of the background correlates of authoritarianism. Teacher classification. Primary school teachers tended to score as highly authoritarian while the secondary school teachers were more likely to rank as low authoritarian. There was no difference between primary and secondary school teachers with respect to medium level of authoritarianism.except for Belgium where the secondary school teach- ers were most likely to score on this level. §£§a Female teachers tended to be more highly authoritarian, while the male teachers were more likely to be low authoritarian. Only in Sweden was there any difference between male and female teachers rank- ing on medium authoritarianism, with more females than males likely to rank on this level. Age, The older teachers were more highly authoritarian and the younger were more low authoritarian. With increasing age there was a decrease in percentage for the medium authoritarianism.level. Education levgl. Teachers with a primary plus education were more high authoritarian, while the teachers with a university education 'were more low authoritarian. Teachers with the secondary plus educa- tion generally ranked in either the high or medium levels with the ex- ception of Sweden, where they ranked most often as low authoritarian. Tolerance toward devignttgttitudes. The item in the questionnaire selected as a measure of this de- pendent variable read, "In general, what do you think should be done with people who have different opinions from those of the majority in times of war." A general index of tolerance of deviance was devel- oped for coding. Responses were coded on a 5-point scale from -43- 1--"Very tolerant," through 3--"Tolerant in some ways," to 5--"Very intolerant." No answer responses were coded separately. The general hypothesis was that authoritarianism level would be inversely related to tolerance of deviance. A significant chi square supporting the hypothesis can be reported for only one of the five countries--England. The major contribution to the overall relation- ship between authoritarianism level and response to general tolerance for deviance came frmm all cells except "Very intolerant” for the high authoritarians, and "Somewhat tolerant” for the low authoritarians. The results for the England sample are summarized in Table 9. For the other samples the level of authoritarianism.did not have an over- all influence on the responses to general tolerance for deviance. Breakdown by background factors for the response categories is re- ported below. Teacher classification. Secondary school teachers in England were generally more tolerant than were the primary school teachers who tended to be more intolerant regardless of authoritarianism. Re- sults are presented in Table 9a. §g§, Female school teachers generally were more tolerant than were the male teachers. This was most obvious for the medium high and medium low categories of authoritarianism. Results are presented in Table 9b. A33. Generally teachers below 31 years of age were more tolerant than those in the 31-50 years of age range. The older teachers tended to be more intolerant than the teachers below 31 years of age. Results are presented in Table 9c. -44- Table 9. Percentage of responses to general tolerance of deviance in levels of authoritarianisms-England. Response Authoritarianism Medium Medium High High Low Low 1. Very tolerant 38 38 44 66 2. Somewhat tolerant 36 34 40 20 3. Tolerant in some ways 7 ll 7 7 4. Somewhat intolerant 7 6 3 7 5. Very intolerant 13 10 6 - 101% 99% 100% 100% Total 56 131 116 59 No answer 5 10 15 6 x2 : 23.493; d.f. : 12. p<.05 Table 9a. Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism. Reaponse Classification Primary Secondary Medium Medium, Medium. Medium High High Low Low High High Low Low 1. 34 41 42 62 50 28 50 62 2. 41 31 4O l9 17 45 40 19 3. 5 10 8 ll 17 17 3 11 4. 5 6 3 8 l7 7 3 8 5- ___.16 ___12 ___._7 __"_ .4. ___3_ _.§_ ___.:_ 101% 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 99% 100% Total 44 102 86 37 12 29 30 22 -45- Table 9b. Percentage of male and female school teachers on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism. W Response Sex Male Female Medium Medium Medium. Medium High High Low Low High High Low Low 1. 37 31 37 66 38 43 49 67 2. 32 41 37 21 38 30 42 20 3. l6 8 10 10 3 13 5 3 4. 5 10 6 3 8 4 2 10 5. ll 10 10 - 14 10 3 - 101% 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 101% 100% Total 19 49 81 29 37 82 65 30 Table 9c. Percentage by age range on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism. Response Age Below 31 31 - 50 Over 50 Med. Med. Med. Med. Med. Med. High High Low Low High High Low Low High High Low Low 1. 62 46 44 65 41 23 47 62 13 50 41 78 2. 31 36 50 12 26 39 33 31 60 32 41 ll 3. - 13 - 12 11 12 9 3 7 4 6 - 4. - 3 3 12 ll 11 5 3 7 4 - ll 5. 8 3 3 - ll 16 7 - 13 11 12 - 101% 101% 100% 101% 100% 101% 101% 99% 100% 101% 100% 100% Total 13 39 36 17 27 57 58 29 15 28 17 9 -45- Education level. In the England sample there were only seven teachers who listed a primary plus educational level so no meaningful comparison can be made by level of authoritarianism.with such a small number. The university-educated teachers tended to be more tolerant, while those with a secondary plus level were more intolerant. These results are presented in Table 9d. Table 9d. Percentage of secondary plus and university-educated teachers on tolerance of deviance by levels of authoritarianism. Response Education Level Secondary plus University Medium Medium Medium Medium High High Low Low High High Low Low 1. 34 41 42 68 47 28 46 65 2. 43 31 37 ll 18 47 44 31 3. 3 10 10 ll 18 14 3 - 4. 6 7 3 ll 12 6 5 4 5. 14 12 8 - 6 6 3 - 100% 101% 100% 101% 101% 101% 101% 100% Total 35 91 73 28 17 36 39 26 A second part of the item dealing with tolerance toward deviant attitudes asked, "Do you feel that people should try to change the opinions of others who disagree with them?" Responses were coded on a 5-point scale ranging from l--"Definite1y yes," through 3--"Uncertain," to 5--"Definitely no." Don't know and No answer responses were coded separately. -47- The hypothesis stated that authoritarianism would be directly related to an attitude toward changing deviant opinions. An overall significance can be reported for the Norway sample, which shows an inverse relationship between authoritarianism and attitude toward changing deviant opinions. All individuals were most likely to respond "Yes, with reserva- tions," and highly unlikely to respond "uncertain." Only the medium authoritarian level was highly likely to respond "Definitely yes." The high and low authoritarian levels were less likely to respond "Definitely no." The results are summarized in Table 10. Breakdown by background factors is reported below. Table 10. Percentage of responses to changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianism--Norway. Response Authoritarianism High Medium Low 1. Definitely yes 16 13 18 2. Yes, reservations 42 50 45 3. uncertain 7 6 4. No, reservations 21 15 17 5. Definitely no l4 l6 13 100% 100% 100% Total 123 117 89 Don't know 6 l S No answer 26 l7 16 x2 : 19.671; d.f. = .8. p < .02 -43- Iggcher classification. Secondary school teachers in Norway were generally more emphatic about the changing of deviant opinions. This general tendency was not as sharp in the high level of authoritarian- ism. Results are presented in Table 10a. Table 10a. Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianism. Response Classification Primary Secondary High Medium. Low High Medium Low 1. 16 10 15 18 19 22 2. 43 53 . 43 41 42 47 3. 7 6 8 5 6 6 4. 21 15 17 23 13 17 5. 14 15 17 14 19 8 101% 99% 100% 101% 99% 100% Total 101 86 53 22 31 36 Sex. Male school teachers were generally more likely to respond with reservations but affirmatively with respect to changing deviant opinions. Female teachers were more likely to respond negatively to the suggestion of changing deviant opinions. Results are presented in Table 10b. -49- Table 10b. Percentage of male and female teachers on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianism. L Response Sex Male Female High Medium Low High Medium Low 1. 16 12 24 17 14 9 2. 45 53 47 38 45 41 3. 5 4 7 9 10 6 4. 21 13 13 21 17 24 5. l3 l7 9 15 14 21 100% 99% ' 100% 100% 100% 101% Total 76 75 55 47 42 34 [Agg. In general teachers under 31 years of age tended to respond that no attempt need be made to change deviant opinions. Teachers between the ages of 31 and 50 tended to prefer that changes of deviant opinions be carried out. For the medium and low levels of authoritar- ianism these teachers were even more intolerant of deviance than were the older (over 50) teachers. Results are summarized in Table 10c. Education level. Secondary plus educated teachers were generally most opposed to trying to change deviant opinions. The teachers with a primary plus education were generally the most likely to feel the need to change deviant opinions, but expressed reservations. The uni- versity educated teachers were most likely to feel that definitely an attempt should be made to change the deviant opinions, given the low -50- and medium levels of authoritarianism. Results are summarized in Table 10d. Table 10c. Percentage by age range on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianism. Response Age Range Below 31 31 - 50 Over 50 High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low l. 18 10 15 12 12 20 18 15 15 2. 27 40 23 39 54 52 49 50 4O 3. - - - 8 9 4 7 5 20 4. 27 15 31 27 12 18 16 18 5 5. 27 35 31 14 12 7 10 13 20 997. 1007. 1007. 1007. 997. 1017. 1007. 1017. 1007. Total 11 20 18 49 57 56 61 4O 20 Table 10d. Percentage by education level on changing deviant opinions by levels of authoritarianism. Response Education Level Primary plus Secondary plus University High Medium Low High Medium. Low High Medium Low l. 13 3 15 18 15 14 14 18 23 2. 42 76 54 45 43 39 39 41 49 3.. 7 3 15 6 8 3 7 6 5 4. 31 14 8 10 13 22 25 15 15 s. __l___2__§.._29__z_1__a__li._z_l___§. 100% 99% 100% 99% 100% 100% 99% 101% 100% Total 45 29 13 49 53 36 28 34 39 -51- Possibility of_peace. One question asked of the teachers dealt with the likelihood that the "cold war" would, gradually, over a couple of years, become less important and would be followed by more peaceful conditions, without much change in the Western European political and economic situation. Responses to the item were coded on a 5-point scale ranging from 1--"Most likely," through 3--”Neither likely or unlikely," to 5--"Most unlikely." No answer responses were coded separately. The hypothesis stated that authoritarianism would be inversely related to belief in the possibility of peace. A.significant chi-square can be reported for the Belgium sample. Authoritarianism was inversely related to extremist opinions about the possibility of peace, but di- rectly related to more moderate opinions on the same issue. Medium authoritarians were most likely to respond "Neither likely nor unlikely.” The results are summarized in Table 11. Further breakdown by background factors is presented below. Teacher classification. For the high and low levels of authori- tarianism the primary school teachers were more likely to believe in the possibility of peace. For the medium authoritarianism level, how- ever, it was the secondary school teachers who responded with the like- lihood of peace. Only among the low authoritarians was there a large difference in responding to the unlikely nature of peaceful conditions in Europe. It was the secondary school teachers who were most likely to believe that peaceful conditions were highly unlikely. Results are presented in Table 11a. -52- Table 11. Percentage of responses to possibility of peace by levels of authoritarianism--Belgium. Response Authoritarianism High Medium Low 1. Mbst likely 20 17 23 2. Somewhat likely 22 17 ll 3. Neither 1ike1y nor unlikely 15 31 16 4. Somewhat unlikely 17 15 26 5. Most unlikely i _12_ _2£1_ 101% 99% 100% Total 193 105 62 No answer 9 l6 l9 4 x2 = 50.687; d.f. 8. p(.001 Table 11a. Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on likelihood of peace by levels of authoritarianism. Response Classification Primary Secondary High Medium. Low High Medium Low 1. 20 14 30 18 25 - 2. 23 18 13 l8 l6 7 3. 13 34 15 20 25 20 4. l7 l6 l9 l8 13 47 5. 27 18 23 28 22 27 100% 100% 100% 102% 101% 101% Total 153 73 47 40 32 15 -53- ‘§g§. Female teachers in the high and medium authoritarianism levels tended to believe that peace was an unlikely outcome. The male teachers were less likely to believe this way. For these levels of authoritarianism the male teachers were more likely to believe in the possibility of peace than were the female teachers. Results are sum- marized in Table llb. Table 11b. Percentage of male and female teachers on the likelihood of peace by levels of authoritarianism. Response Sex Male Female High Medium Low High Medium Low 1. 17 24 23 22 11 22 2. 26 16 8 18 18 17 3. 17 31 15 12 32 17 4. 15 10 28 19 20 22 5. 24 18 26 30 20 22 99% 99% 100% 101% 101% 100% Total 92 49 39 101 56 23 535. The younger teachers (below 31) were generally less likely to believe in the possibility of peace in Europe. The older teachers were increasingly more likely to believe that peaceful conditions would develop in Europe. Results are summarized in Table 11c. -54- Table llc. Percentage by age range on the likelihood of peace by levels of authoritarianism. Response Age Range Below 31 31 - 50 Over 50 High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low l. 22 3 10 20 22 31 22 38 25 2. 16 13 10 21 22 13 28 - l3 3. 13 33 19 - 15 31 9 13 25 38 4. 31 20 24 14 ll 31 13 38 13 5. 19 30 38 31 15 16 24 - 13 101% 99% 101% 101% 101% 100% 100% 101% 102% Total 32 3O 21 111 65 32 46 8 8 Education level. Education level tended to make no large differ- ence in the responses of the high authoritarians. Among the medium authoritarians, the university educated teachers tended to be more convinced of the possibility of peace. For the low authoritarians, it was the primary plus teachers who were most convinced of the possi- bility of peace, while the university educated teachers were strong believers in the unlikely nature of peace. Results are summarized in Table 11d. Valence of wgg. Included in the questionnaire was the item, "under what circum- stances would war be the lesser of two evils?" Final coding reduced -55- the response categories to either ”Under some circumstances" or "Under no circumstances." The no answer responses were coded separately. Table 11d. Percentage of education level on the likelihood of peace by levels of authoritarianism. Response Education Level Primary plus Secondary plus University High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low l. 20 14 28 26 9 20 16 32 8 2. 22 17 12 16 27 20 20 14 8 3. 12 33 16 11 18 4O 24 27 - 4. l8 17 21 21 18 20 16 9 50 5. 28 17 23 26 27 - 24 18 33 100% 99% 100% 100% 99% 100% 100% 100% 99% Total 139 69 43 19 ll 5 25 22 12 The hypothesis stated that the more authoritarian an individual, the more likely he would be to say that under no circumstances would war be the lesser of two evils. Overall support for this relationship between valence of war and authoritarianism was found for only one sample--Sweden. Medium and low authoritarians did not differ, both being more likely than the high authoritarians to respond that under some circumstances war might be the lesser of two evils. The results are summarized in Table 12. Further breakdown by background factors is reported below. -56- Table 12. Percentage of responses to valence of war by levels of authoritarianism. Response Authoritarianism High Medium Low 1. Under no circumstances 43 30 29 2. Under some circumstances 57 70 71 100% 100% 100% Total 113 149 153 No answer 6 l4 8 x2 = 6.809; d.f. = 2. p (.05 Teacher classification. For the high and medium levels of author- itarianism, the secondary school teachers were more likely to say that war could be the lesser of two evils under some circumstances than the primary school teachers. For the low authoritarians there was no dif- ference between primary and secondary school teachers. Results are summarized in Table 12a. §§§, Male teachers were more likely to say that war could be the lesser of evils under some circumstances than were the women teach- ers, regardless of authoritarianism level. Results are presented in Table 12b. ' A35. Generally it was found that the older a teacher was, the more likely he was to believe that war could be the lesser of two evils under some circumstances. This was most significant for low authori- tarians. Results are summarized in Table 12c. -57- Table 12a. Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on valence of war by levels of authoritarianism. Response Classification Primary Secondary High Medium Low High Medium Low 1. 49 33 29 26 22 30 2. 51 67 71 74 ~ 78 70 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total ‘86 113 106 27 36 47 Table 12b. Percentage of male and female teachers on valence of war by levels of authoritarianism. Response Sex Male Female High Medium Low High Medium Low 1. 30 14 27 51 37 31 2. 70 86 73 49 63 69 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 40 44 67 73 105 86 -58- Table 12c. Percentage by age range on valence of war by levels of authoritarianism. Response Age Range Below 31 31 - 50 Over 50 High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low 1. 46 29 34 45 32 28 40 29 28 2. 54 71 66 55 68 72 60 71 72 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 13 31 38 55 62 76 45 55 39 Education level. Generally, the more highly educated the teacher, the more likely to respond that war could be the lesser of two evils under some circumstances. This relationship was the strongest among highly authoritarian teachers. Results are presented in Table 12d. Table 12d. Percentage by education level on valence of war by levels of authoritarianimn. m Response Education Level Primary plus Secondary plus University High Medium Low High Medium.Low High Medium Low 1. 57 32 24 40 33 31 18 12 29 2. 43 68 76 60 67 69 82 78 71 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 35 38 21 58 79 86 17 32 45 -59- General apathy. One item questioned the teachers' opinions regarding the amount of influence which an ordinary éitizen can have on international events. Responses were coded on a 5-point scale from l--"Can do very much," through 3--"Something about some things, not about others," to 5--"Can do nothing." Don't know and no answer responses were coded separately. The theoretical hypothesis was that the more authoritarian the teacher, the more likely he would be to believe that an ordinary citi- zen could do little or nothing to influence international events. The overall analysis of just the Sweden sample was significant and supported the theoretical hypothesis. The high authoritarians were more likely to respond that "Nothing can be done" than were either the medium or low authoritarians. The medium authoritarians did not differ from low authoritarians in responses to general apathy. The results are presented in Table 13a. Further breakdown by background factors is reported below. Teacher classification. Primary school teachers tended to believe that the ordinary citizen could do some things to influence interna- tional events, while the secondary school teachers were moat likely to feel that an ordinary citizen could not influence international affairs. The results are summarized in Table 13a. §g§, For high and low authoritarianism levels the male teachers were less likely to believe in the possibility that an ordinary citi- zen could influence international events than were the female teachers. For all authoritarian levels, male teachers were more likely to believe that nothing could be done. For the medium authoritarianism level, -60- the female teachers were more likely to respond that some things could be done, but not others, than were the male teachers. Results are sum- marized in Table 13b. Table 13. Percentage of responses to general apathy by levels of authoritarianism--Sweden. Response Authoritarianism High Medium Low 1. Can do very much 1 5 S 2. Can do something 47 52 53 3. Some things, not others 7 8 10 4. Can do little _ 15 22 18 5. Can do nothing 3O 13 14 100% 100% 100% Total 113 154 154 Don't know 5 8 5 No answer 1 1 2 x2 = 18.405; d.f. = 8. p (.02 Agg. For the high and medium levels of authoritarianism, the older the teacher, the more likely to believe that an ordinary citizen could have some influence on international events. For all levels of author- itarianism teachers in the age range of 31 - 50 were the least likely to believe that an ordinary person could have any influence on inter- national events. Results are summarized in Table 13c. -61- Table 13a. Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on general apathy by levels of authoritarianism. Response Classification Primary Secondary High Medium Low High Medium Low 1. l 5 5 - 3 4 2. 50 54 57 37 46 45 3. 8 9 8 4 8 l3 4. 19 21 18 4 24 19 5. 22 ll 12 56 19 19 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 100% Total 86 117 107 27 37 47 Table 13b. Percentage of male and female teachers on general apathy by levels of authoritarianimn. .3 Response Sex Male Female High Medium Low High Medium Low 1. - 7 l 1 4 7 2. 41 53 51 50 51 55 3. 8 - 13 7 12 8 4. 13 24 l8 16 21 19 5. 38 16 18 26 12 12 100% 100% 101% 100% 100% 101% Total 39 45 68 74 109 86 -62- Table 13c. Percentage by age range on general apathy by levels of authoritarianism. W Response Age Range Below 31 31 - 50 Over 50 High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medilml Low 1. - 3 5 2 2 5 - 9 3 2. 38 57 54 34 47 50 64 54 59 3. 8 - 8 8 12 9 6 9 l3 4. 23 20 21 19 27 18 9 18 15 s. _.3_L.2.9__l§__§.§__12.__1_7__.2_L_LL__19_ 100% 100% 101% 101% 100% 99% 100% 101% 100% Total 13 30 39 53 66 76 47 57 39 Education level. Teachers with an educational background of sec- ondary only or secondary plus teachers' college were the most likely to believe in the possible influence that an ordinary citizen could have on international events. The university educated teachers tended to be doubtful about such influence. Results are summarized in Table 13d. Threat of war. Three items were selected as measures for the dependent variable of threat of war. One item asked about the likelihood that the "cold ‘war" would go on for a long time, with Russia getting predominant po- litical and economic influence in Europe. A second item.asked about the likelihood that the "cold war" would develop into another world ‘war in which Western Europe would be involved. A third item asked if -63- present developments were making another world war more or less likely during the following two to three years. All of the responses for these items were coded on a 5-point scale ranging from 1--"Most likely," through 3--"Neither more nor less likely," to 5--"Most unlikely." Don't know and no answer responses were coded separately. Table 13d. Percentage by education level on general apathy by levels of authoritarianism. Response Education Level Primary plus Secondary plus university High Medium Low High Medium. Low High Medium Low 1. - 8 - . 2 4 4 - 3 7 2. 65 45 50 38 56 58 38 50 47 3. 12 10 ll 7 8 ll - 9 7 4. 9 23 22 22 20 16 - 26 20 s. _.l.s__12__17___:iz_.l§_..11__6_3__1_2__.2.9_ 101% 101% 100% 100% 101% 100% 101% 100% 101% Total 34 40 18 60 80 90 16 34 45 It was hypothesized that authoritarianism would be directly re- lated to perceived threat of war. However, for none of these items ‘was an overall significant relationship found. Attitude toward giving up sovereiggty One item asked the teacher how he felt about his country's giving up its sovereignty to become part of a united world government. -64- Responses were coded on a 5-point scale ranging from 1--”Strong approvaly' through 3--"Uncertain," to 5--"Strong disapproval." Don't know and no answer responses were coded separately. The theoretical hypothesis stated that authoritarianism would be inversely related to approval of giving up the national sovereignty. Support for the theoretical hypothesis was found in all country samples with the exception of Belgium. In all of these countries, the low authoritarians were most likely to approve of giving up national sov- ereignty for a united world government, while the high authoritarians tended to disapprove of this possible action. The results for The Netherlands, Sweden, Norway, and England are reported in Table 14. Breakdown by background factors is reported below. Teacher classifigggion. Generally, in all of the countries, the secondary school teachers tended to be more in favor of giving up na- tional sovereignty for a united world government than the primary school teachers. Results are summarized in Table 14a. Sgg, Male school teachers were generally more in favor of giving up national sovereignty of their country for a united world government. The female teachers were more likely to be uncertain than the male teachers across the four samples. Results are summarized in Table 14b. 53;. Overall, as the age of the teachers increased, the likeli- hood of saying that sovereignty should be given up increased. The younger the teacher, the more likely he was to disapprove of such policy. One general exception is that in England the high authoritarians who were older tended to disapprove more than the younger ones. Results of this breakdown are summarized in Table 14c. -65- Table 14. Percentage of responses to giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianism--four countries. Response Authoritarianism High Medium Low The Netherlands Strong approval 9 21 24 Approval 44 42 51 Uncertain 25 20 14 Disapproval 10 8 6 Strong disapproval _i3_ ___9_ ___§__ 101% 100% 100% Total 110 143 130 x2 = 17.397; d.f. = 8. p"\/.05 Sweden Strong approval 11 21 28 Approval 35 35 41 Uncertain ll 11 13 Disapproval 20 17 10 Strong disapproval _23_ __1_Z__ ___§_ 100% 101% 100% Total 110 150 156 x2 = 23.412; d.f. = 8. p (.01 Table 14--cont. -66... Response Authoritarianism High Medium Low Hm Strong approval 6 7 11 Approval 40 50 56 Uncertain 19 23 14 Disapproval 31 16 13 Strong disapproval __£L_ __;4_ __11_ 100% 100% 100% Total 144 127 104 X? : 18.295; d.f. = 8. p {102 Medium Medium High High Low Low England Strong approval 9 17 22 35 Approval 22 20 22 35 Uncertain 10 6 l4 7 Disapproval 20 ll 12 5 Strong disapproval __l_l§__ __li _39_ _];§_ 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 54 124 106 60 x2 = 36.540; d.f. : 12. p(.001 Table 14a. Percentage of primary and secondary school teachers on giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianism--four countries. Response Classification Primary Secondary High Medium Low High Medium Low The Netherlands 1. 9 16 22 ll 36 28 2. 40 43 53 61 39 47 3. 25 21 13 22 19 16 4. 12 10 5 - - 9 5. 14 10 8 6 6 - 100% 100% 101% 100% 100% 100% Total 92 107 87 18 36 43 Sweden 1. 13 21 34 4 21 19 2. 34 36 31 39 34 54 3. 13 13 17 4 3 7 4. 22 15 10 14 21 10 5. 17 15 8 39 21 9 99% 100% 100% 100% 100% 99% Total 82 112 88 28 38 68 Table l4a--cont. ~68- Response Classification Primary Secondary High Medium Low High Medium Low Norway 1. 5 6 8 ll 9 16 2. 35 49 55 61 53 58 3. 19 23 18 18 22 8 4. 35 17 ll 11 13 18 5. 5 4 9 - 3 - 99% 99% 101% 101% 100% 100% Total 116 95 66 28 32 38 Medium. Medium Medium. Medium High High Low Low High High Low Low Eggland 1. 5 16 21 30 27 20 25 43 2. 23 17 18 41 18 30 32 26 3. 7 7 10 5 - - 25 9 4. 19 ll 14 5 27 13 7 4 5. 47 49 37 19 27 37 ll 17 101% 100% 100% 100% 99% 100% 100% 99% Total 43 94 78 37 11 30 28 23 -69- Table 14b. Percentage of male and female school teachers on giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianism--four countries. Response Sex Male Female High Medium Low High Medium Low The Netherlands l. 10 22 27 8 l9 l8 2. 53 4O 49 33 46 55 3. 16 20 14 35 21 13 4. 7 7 7 13 8 5 5. 14 __1_1___ 3 12 6 __1_g_ 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 101% Total 58 95 90 52 48 4O melee l. 18 41 36 7 12 21 2. 40 41 40 33 33 42 3. 13 2 10 10 14 15 4. 8 ll 7 27 19 13 s. .22. .3. __z_ .23.. .22.. .2. 102% 99% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 40 46 70 70 104 86 Table l4b--cont. -70- Response Sex Male Female High Medium Low High Medium Low Norwa 1. 9 8 l3 2 5 6 2. 48 56 61 29 40 45 3. 17 26 13 21 16 18 4. 24 8 13 41 30 15 s. __2. __1. __1. __z. __2. .15. 100% 99% 101% 100% 100% 99% Total 88 84 71 56 43 33 Medium Medium Medium. Medium High High Low Low High High Low Low England 1. 12 20 34 35 8 15 ll 34 2. 18 29 22 45 24 15 21 24 3. - 2 14 10 8 8 14 3 4. 24 10 8 3 19 12 16 7 5- az._3_9._2_2....6.._4_1._5_1__3§..3.1. 101% 100% 100% 99% 100% 101% 100% 99% Total 17 49 50 31 37 75 56 29 -71- Table 14c. Percentage by age range on giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianism--four countries. Response Age Range Below 31 31 - 50 Over 50 High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low The Netherlands 1. - 10 15 11 26 25 13 30 34 2. 36 47 49 47 42 49 42 30 56 3. 23 20 15 25 18 18 23 30 6 4. 14 10 7 9 7 7 10 5 3 5. _gz__ _;g_ ._1;_ 7 8 2 13 5 - 100% 99% 101% 99% 101% 101% 101% 100% 99% Total 22 49 41 55 74 57 31 20 32 §H22£2. 1. - 24 26 7 19 26 18 21 31 2. 25 38 39 39 32 42 34 37 40 3. 17 - 11 13 16 14 7 11 12 4. 17 24 18 19 17 7 23 12 10 5. _5g;_ ._gg_ 5 _3g;_ 16 11 18 19 7 101% 100% 99% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 12 29 38 54 63 76 44 57 42 -72- Table l4c--cont. Response Age Range Below 31 31 - 50 Over 50 High Medium Low High Medium.Low High Medium.Low Max 1. 7 - 13 ll 8 11 3 10 8 2. 29 61 60 42 44 54 41 55 58 3. 29 22 13 20 18 17 15 31 8 4. 36 17 7 25 24 ll 34 2 25 5- - - 7 ‘__2_ 6 8 7 2 __;;_ 101% 100% 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 100% 99% Total 14 23 15 55 62 65 73 42 24 Med. Med. Med. Med. Med. Med. High High Low Low High High Low Low High High Low Low England 1. 17 22 10 38 12 14 28 27 - 13 25 50 2. 25 8 21 19 23 28 15 43 23 21 31 40 3. l7 5 14 6 - 7 l3 7 - 4 19 10 4. l7 8 17 6 l9 7 11 7 31 21 6 - 5. 25 57 38 31 46 45 32 17 46 42 19 - 101% 100% 100% 100% 100% 101% 99% 101% 100% 101% 100% 100% Total 12 37 29 16 26 58 53 3O 13 24 16 10 -73- Education level. Generally, the more highly educated the teacher, the more likely he is to approve of giving up national sovereignty. With the exception of the Sweden sample, the teachers with lower education were more likely to disapprove of giving up national sovereignty for a united world government. Results are summarized in Table 14d. Table 14d. Percentage by education level on giving up sovereignty by levels of authoritarianism--four countries. Response Education Level Primary plus Secondary University High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low The Netherlands 1. 9 17 22 - 24 21 13 32 29 2. 41 37 53 50 59 58 56 40 42 3. 24 25 12 25 7 16 25 20 16 4 . 12 10 3 13 7 5 - - 13 5. 14 ll 10 13 3 - 6 8 - ~*“~_ 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 86 89 73 8 29 19 16 25 38 §E2922 1. 17 15 29 9 21 23 6 27 37 2. 36 33 48 29 38 45 44 33 28 3. 14 10 14 11 14 14 6 3 11 4. 19 30 10 25 10 9 6 15 13 5. _1_4__ _Q_ - 25 __1_z_ 9 38 21 11 100% 101% 101% 99% 100% 100% 100% 99% 100% Total 36 4O 21 55 77 88 16 33 46 -74- Table 14d--cont. Response Education Level Primary plus Secondary University High Medium Low High Medium Low High Medium Low 110.191 1 9 9 5 2 5 8 8 8 16 2. 31 35 47 36 59 56 61 51 61 3. 19 29 21 19 18 18 17 24 7 4. 35 24 16 38 13 8 l4 l4 l6 5. ___5. __12... .11. _.§._ .2. .19... __':.. __L __:_ 100% 100% 100% 101% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Total 54 34 19 53 56 39 36 37 44 Secondary plus University Medium Medium Medium. Medium High High Low Low High High Low Low England* 1. 3 15 20 32 24 24 19 33 2. 26 18 20 32 18 24 25 44 3. 9 8 9 4 - - 25 ll 4. 18 9 15 7 24 15 8 - 5- .99.. .42. .26.. 2.2.9.5.. .331. .22. _1..1_ 100% 99% 100% 100% 101% 101% 99% 99% Total 34 87 66 28 17 34 36 27 *Only 7 teachers in the England sample had only a primary or primary plus teachers' college education. Breakdown by percentage on these teachers would be meaningless. -75- Summaryiof the relationship_between authoritarianism and the perception of international threat and conflict. ‘gglgrance toward deviant attitudes. An inverse relationship was predicted and found between level of authoritarianism and general tolerance of deviant attitudes. Primary school teachers tended to be less tolerant than secondary school teach- ers. Female teachers were more tolerant than the male teachers for the medium high and medium low levels of authoritarianism, but there was no difference for the high and low levels. As to age differences, the high authoritarians tended to be less intolerant with increasing age, the medium high scorers in the 31 - 50 age range were the least tolerant, and among the low scorers, who all were very tolerant, the teachers over 50 years of age were the most tolerant. Generally, as the education level of the teacher increased, the more tolerant he was of deviance. A slight inverse relationship was found between authoritarianism and the attempt to change deviant opinions. The secondary school teacher was more apt to approve of an attempt to change deviant opin- ions than was the primary school teacher. The male teachers were more likely to believe in making this attempt than were the female teachers. This was particularly significant among the low authoritarians. The young (under 31) teachers were the most apt to believe that no attempt should be made to change deviant opinions. The teachers with a secondary plus education among the low authoritarians were the most apt to believe that deviant attitudes should be left unchanged; among the high authori- tarians they were the most likely to say that an attempt should be made to change deviant opinions. Among the medium scorers the teachers with a primary plus education were the most likely to agree, with reserva- tions, that the attempt at change should be made. Possibility of peace. Low authoritarians were the most likely to believe in the possi- bility of peace, then the high authoritarians, and the medium scorers were the least likely to believe in the possibility of peace. Generally the primary school teachers were more likely to believe in the possi- bility of peace than were the secondary school teachers. The female teachers were less likely to believe in the possibility of a peaceful outcome in Western Europe than the male teachers for the high and medium levels of authoritarianism. Among the low scorers the opposite was the case. Age was found to be directly related to the belief in the likelihood of peaceful developments. For the high and low scorers an increase in education tended to decrease the belief in the possibility of peace. For the medium level teachers the increase in education was related to an increase in the belief of the possibility of peaceful developments. Valence of war. The more authoritarian the individual, the more likely he was to say that under no conditions would war be the lesser of two evils. There was, however, no difference in the responses of the low and medium scorers. Primary school teachers were more likely to believe in this ‘manner than were the secondary school teachers, for both the high and medium.levels of authoritarianism. Among the low scorers there was no difference attributable to teacher classification. Female teachers were more likely to say that under no circumstances would war be the -77- lesser of two evils than were the male teachers. An increase in age of the teacher tended to decrease the probability of responding with "Under no circumstances." This relationship was found with the increase in educational level. General apathy. The more authoritarian a teacher, the more likely to believe that the ordinary person can do little or nothing to influence international events. Primary school teachers were more likely to believe that the ordinary person could do something than were the secondary school teach- ers. Male teachers were more likely to believe that little or nothing could be done by the ordinary citizen than were the female teachers. Generally the older teachers (over 50) tended to believe that the ordi- nary person could do something, while the teachers in the 31 - 50 range were the most apt to believe that an ordinary citizen could do nothing to influence international events. Among the high scorers the more highly educated the teacher, the more likely he was to believe in the impossibility of any influence by an ordinary citizen. Among the medium and low scorers, however, it was the teachers with the secondary plus education that were least apt to feel this way. Threat of war. For three items designated to measure threat of international conflict and the likelihood of war, no significant overall relationship was found to level of authoritarianism. Attitude toward givingiup sovereign_y. It was predicted and found in four of the five country samples that authoritarianism level was inversely related to approval of O-land's -73- giving up some of its sovereignty to become part of a united world gov- ernment. The general tendency was for primary school teachers to be less likely to approve of such an action than were the secondary school teachers. In the Sweden sample there was a slight trend in the opposite direction with the primary school teachers being more apt to strongly approve of giving up some of their country's sovereignty. In all four countries the male teachers were more likely to approve than were the female teachers. Generally, as the age of the teacher increased, the likelihood of saying that sovereignty should be given up for partici- pation in world government increased. Generally, the more highly edu- cated the teacher, the more likely to approve of giving up some of the nation's sovereignty. Chapter 4 SUMMARY Conclusions Low authoritarians tended generally to be characterized by a belief in the unlikely possibility of a peaceful outcome in Western Europe, a tendency to believe that war, under some circumstances, could be the lesser of two evils, and by a high tolerance for deviance. They were likely to believe that an attempt should be made to change the opinions of those who do not agree with them. They were apt to agree that their country should give up some of its sovereignty to become part of a united world government. Also they tended to believe that the ordinary person can do something to influence international events. The medium authoritarians tended to be somewhat tolerant of deviant opinions, but believed that an attempt should be made to change these opinions. They believed that, under some circumstances, war could be considered the lesser of two evils and that perhaps a country should be willing to give up some of its sovereignty to become part of a united world government. They generally felt that there was little hope for a peaceful outcome in international affairs, but that the ordinary citizen could do something to influence the world situation. The high authoritarians were characterized by a relatively high intolerance for deviance, but were not likely to believe that an attempt need be made to change deviant opinions. They were as likely to believe in the possibility of peace as to disbelieve it, but were somewhat likely to believe that the ordinary person could do little or nothing to influ- ence international events. For the high scorers war was not generally -79- -30- the lesser of two evils and there was disapproval of having the country give up any of its sovereignty for participation in a united world government. Discussion As was predicted by the general hypothesis underlying this study, authoritarianism level makes a difference in the way an individual re- sponds to attitudinal items related to perceptions of international threat and conflict. The high scorer on the F-scale seems to be char- acterized by a view of the world which is quite threatening. This in turn leads to feelings of insecurity and hostility against outsiders. The generally low tolerance for deviance may be considered evidence for this conclusion. The finding that the high authoritarians were not overly concerned with attempting to change deviant opinions is contrary to the predictions. One explanation may rest with the wording of the item in the questionnaire: "Do you feel that people should try to change the opinions of others who disagree with them.on matters like (military preparedness)?" The reference to military preparedness may have biased the item either in that it need not be a highly salient problem for the citizens, who are teachers, of these particular countries, or it may have been associated with governmental policy with which the highly authoritarian person can be expected to generally agree. Perhaps, too, the high authoritarian does not need to convince others of his opinions, in that he generally is more strongly committed and sure of his opinions. The highly authoritarian individual is said to characteristically make sharp ingroup-outgroup distinctions and to feel doubt and distrust toward the outside groups. On the international perceptions he is cyni- cal about the possibility of the development and continuation of any ~81- united world government. For this reason, and because he still tends to consider his own country as being the most important, he is unwilling to approve of his country's giving up some of its sovereignty to become part of a united world government. For him, war is threatening to him as well as to his country, and therefore he is not likely to respond that under some circumstances war could be the lesser of two evils. His general orientation toward authoritarian submission makes him more apt to place the burden of international conflict and threat on his authority figures, probably governmental and national leaders. He then does not tend to see that the ordinary person could do anything which would directly influence the international events. As to the possibility of the development of peaceful relations in Western Europe, the high authoritarian is as likely to believe it probable as not to. It was predicted that the highly authoritarian individual would be less likely to believe that a peaceful outcome could develop among different national groups with conflicting aims and objectives. His general lack of identity with humanity as such makes him doubt the possibility of bringing about peace through negotiations and verbal contracts. The low authoritarian personality theoretically is deeply concerned with the problems of humanity, especially those of the outcasts of society. He is able to understand and be receptive to the opinions of others, even if these be contrary to his personal convictions. This belief in his fellow man makes him feel that even the ordinary person can do something to influence the international situation. It is unfortunate that there is no available data as to judgments of how much and in what ways such a person could influence international events. -82- The low authoritarian is generally characterized by a feeling of worldmindedness and a belief that conflict can be ironed out through personal negotiations. He is likely to believe in the possibility of a united world government and is willing to see his country give up some of its sovereignty to become part of it. He is not as concerned with keeping his ingroups pure and apart from other countries, nor is he generally an isolationist about the role which his country should play in international affairs. Being aware of the multitude of problems confronting peaceful re- lations among nations, he is able to see that under some circumstances war could be the lesser of two evils. At the same time, he would be likely to agree to the possibility of universal disarmament. As much as he would like to see the peaceful outcome of international relations, he is disillusioned at the present developments and cannot see the like- lihood of a change in the near future. Perhaps because he places so much hope on humanity, he is more easily disappointed at the conflicts which continue to arise between countries. Authoritarianism, similar to many personality theories, tends to concentrate on the study and description of extreme cases. There is little concern with the medium level, perhaps due to its complexity. To be medium authoritarian implies that in some aspects (on some items) the individual is likely to respond in a manner characteristic of a highly authoritarian personality, while in other aspects he responds in a low authoritarian manner. Nowhere in the literature is a theoretical rationale stated for the attitudinal and behavioral correlates of medium authoritarianism. One main inquiry might be as to whether this type of person is more apt to respond as characteristically high or low authori- tarian, in what situations, for what reasons. -83- In this study it was found that medium authoritarians tended to be somewhat tolerant of deviance, although this was predominantly char- acteristic of the medium low authoritarians in England. Also they were likely to believe that an attempt should be made to change the opinions of those who did not agree with them. A basic concern is still present to keep the ingroup as alike as possible. The medium authoritarians were likely to respond in the same manner as the low scorers in saying that under some circumstances war could be the lesser of two evils. Also they were willing to have their country give up some of its sovereignty to become part of a united world gov- ernment. There is a general trust in humanity and in the relations among countries which is generally characteristic of the low authori- tarian. There is also the belief that the ordinary person can do some- thing to influence the international events. The problem of drawing conclusions from a comparative analysis which does not indicate consistent relationships between authoritarianism and the dependent variables faces the investigator interested in cross-cultural research. As was reported in this thesis, only for some country samples was a significant relationship found between authoritarianism and the variables related to the perception of international threat and conflict. The question now arises concerning the merit of the construct, authori- tarianism, in analyzing the perception of international threat and con- flict. In the analysis reported in this thesis, one dependent variable, attitude toward giving up national sovereignty to become part of a united 'world government, was significantly related to the level of authoritarian- ism in four of the five country samples. It is possible then, to con- clude that the scale designated to measure personality make-up characterized -84- by the dichotomization of issues, attitude toward authority figures, and the tendency to stereotypy, is useful in predicting this one aspect of perception of international conflict. The reliability of the rela- tionship between authoritarianism.and the attitude toward giving up national sovereignty attests to the validity of considering it a uni- versal phenomenon. For the other indicators of perceived international threat and conflict there were no significant patterns found either among the vari- ous country samples or within one country. This is not unusual, since this particular approach to the analysis of authoritarianism has never been conducted even in the American culture within which the authori- tarianism scale was developed and tested. The question of the applica- bility of an authoritarianism theoretical approach to the dependent variables under investigation is dealt with in the first chapter of the thesis under the Aim of the study. It is the contention of the author that it is useful to consider authoritarianism in the analysis of the perceptions of international threat and conflict. However, the question arises concerning the usefulness of the F-scale scores as measures of authoritarianism. The scale was developed within the Ameri- can culture and has not, to the author's knowledge, been checked out in a comparative cross-cultural design for internal consistency and reliability of measurement and predictability. This poses a problem in interpreting results. A further problem concerns the specification of the dependent variables. It is possible that the items did not in actuality test the specified variables or that they were only valid in a few countries. The significance of the relationship between authoritarianism and variables -85- such as tolerance toward deviant attitudes, therefore, might be due to chance. Then again, it is possible to conceptualize that a relationship between two variables might occur in one cultural setting but not in another. The problem of interpreting the significance of such a finding is an extremely difficult one. Implications for further stud . It is necessary to become more aware of the personality make-up of the individual who is neither highly authoritarian nor a consistent low scorer. An item analysis of his responses to the F-scale items may point out the clusters on which he tends to respond as highly authori- tarian and those to which he responds characteristically as low authori- tarian. Analysis of response patterns to the perception of threat and conflict should then control for this clustering. .A question which arises deals with the stability of the personality variable of authoritarianism. Does an individual consistently respond to items dealing with different social and political attitudes in a manner characterized by his level of authoritarianism, as measured by one particular instrument? Or does he react as highly authoritarian on some issues, while being able to appear low authoritarian on others. Further investigation should be conducted in establishing whether there is a difference between worldmindedness and international-mindedness. Worldmindedness, as a personality characteristic which exhibits a con- cern for humanity, a deep interest in other persons unlike oneself, has been found to be inversely related to authoritarianism. International- mindedness, however, implies an interest in learning about people and events and a definite attempt to gain as much knowledge as possible about international affairs. The question arises as to whether there are -86- highly authoritarian individuals who are characteristically low in their concern for humanity in general, but who do have this extreme interest in keeping well informed about international events. How differently would these people perceive the international scene than the high au- thoritarians who do not feel a need or desire to gather knowledge which might prove threatening. Then again, what difference would the degree of internationalmindedness make in the responses of the low authoritarians. An attempt at having subjects take these opinion polls when dif- ferent international events are transpiring for which general threat is felt would give us a chance to test the consistency of the response patterns and the reactions of individuals of varying authoritarianism levels given varying threat situations. Before further cross-cultural investigations are conducted utilizing the F-scale data, an item.analysis of the scale items should be done given a comparative design. This could be done with the data available by the OCSR study. A further investigation into the replicability of the F-scores would allow the researcher to check out the stability of a basic personality structure, authoritarianism, in different social and cultural settings. Referenced Bibliography Adorno, T. W., Frenkel-Brunswik, E., Levinson, D. J., and Sanford, R. N. The authoritarian pgrsonality. New York: Harpers, 1950. Berrol, E. and Holmes, 0. Survey and area approaches to international communications research. Publ. opin. Qggrt., 1952, 16, 567-78. Brown, R. W. A determinant of the relationship between rigidity and authoritarianism. ‘J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1953, 48, 469-76. Campbell, D. J. and LeVine, R. A. A proposal for cooperative cross- cultural research on ethnocentrism. g, confl. Resolut., 1961, 5, 82-108. Christie, R. and Jahoda, M. (Eds.) Studies Lg the scope and method'gf The Authoritarian Personality. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1954. Christie, R. and Lindauer, F. Personality structure. Annu. Egg. Psychol., 1963, 14, 201-26. Davitz, J. Fear, anxiety, and the perception of others. ‘J. genet. ngch., 1959, 61, 69-73. Eager, J. and Smith, M. B. A note on the validity of Sanford's authori- tarian-egalitarian scale. ‘g. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1952, 47, 265-67. Eysenck, H. J. The psychology gf,politics. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1954. Eysenck, H. J. The psychology of politics: a reply. Psychol. Bull., 1956, 53, 177-82. French, E. G. and Ernest, R. R. The relation between authoritarianism and acceptance of military ideology. g. Pers., 1955, 24, 181-91. Frenkel-Brunswik, E. Interaction of psychological and sociological factors in political behavior. Amer. 20 . sci. Rev., 1952, 46, 44-65. 'George, A. L. Comment on "opinions, personality, and political behavior." Amer. pol. sci. Rev., 1958, 52, l8-26. Gladstone, A. I. The possibility of predicting reactions to international events. .g. soc. Issues, 1955, 11, 21-28. Haythorn, W., Couch, A., Haefher, D., Langham, P., and Carter, L. The effects of varying combinations of authoritarianism and eqalitarian leaders and followers. ‘J. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1956, 53, 210-219. Hyman, H. Survey design and analysis. Glencoe: The Free Press, 1955. Irvine, L. F. Intensity of attitude, personality variables and attitude change. Dissertation abstract. 1956, 16, 15-19. -37- ~88- Jahoda, M., Deutsch, M., and Cook, S. W. Research methods ig_social relations. New York: The Dryden Press, 1951. Kenny, D. T. and Ginsberg, R. Authoritarian submission attitudes, in- tolerance of ambiguity and aggression. Canad. g, Ps chol., 1958, 12, 121-126. Lentz, T. F. The attitudes of world citizenship. J, soc. Psychol., 1950, 32, 207-14. MacKinnon, W. J. and Centers, R. Authoritarianism and internationalism. Publ. opin. Quart., 1956, 20, 621-30. MeClelland, D. C., Sturr, J. P., Knapp, R. H., and Wendt, H. W. Obliga- tions to self and society in the U. S. and Germany. ‘g. abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1958, 56, 245-55. Moscovici, S. Attitudes and opinions. Annu. rev. Psychol., 1963, 14, 231-60. Rhodes, L. A. Authoritarianism and fundamentalism of rural and urban high school students. J, educ. Sociol., 1960, 34, 97-105. Roberts, A. H. and Jessor, R. Authoritarianism, punitiveness, and per- ceived social status. J, abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1958, 36, 21-24. Rokeach, M. The open and closed mind. New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1960. Rokeach, M. and Hanley, C. Eysenck's tendermindedness dimension: a critique. Psychol. Bull., 1956, 53, 169-76. Rokkan, S. Party preferences and opinion patterns in Western Europe: a comparative analysis. Int. soc. sci. Bull., 1956. Sampson, D. L. and Smith, H. P. A scale to measure worldminded attitudes. g, soc. Psychol., 1957, 45, 99-106. Siegel, S. Certain determinants and correlates of authoritarianism. Genet. Psychol. Mono r., 1954, 49, 187-229. Siegel, S. The relationship of hostility to authoritarianism. g, abnorm. soc. Ps chol., 1954, 49, 349-54. Singer, R. and Feshbach, S. The effects of personal and shared threats upon social prejudice. J, abnorm. soc. Psychol., 1957, 54, 411-16. Smith, H. and Rosen, E. W. Some psychological correlates of worldminded- ness and authoritarianism. ‘g. Pers., 1958, 26, 170-83. Smith, ML B. Opinions, personality, and political behavior. Amer. pol. sci. Rev., 1958, 52, 1-17. Smith, M. B., Bruner, J. S., and White, R. W. Opinions and pgrsonality. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1956. -89- Thibaut, J. W. and Riecken, H. W. Authoritarianism, status and the communication of aggression. Human Relat., 1955, 8, 95-120. Wagman, M. Attitude change and authoritarian personality. ‘J. Psychol., 1955, 40, 3-24. Publications based on. A Comparative Study of Attitudes in Seven Western European Countries conducted in 1953 by the ORGANIZATION FOR COMPARATIVE SOCIAL RESEARCH Oslo, Norway The two major sources, to date, of published information about the seven- nation study are: l. Cross-national research: a case study. ‘g. soc. Issues, 1954, 10, 4. including the following articles: Katz, D. and Hyman, H. Introduction. Duijker, H. C. J. and Rokkan, S. Organizational aspects of cross-national social research. Aubert, V., Fisher, B. R., and Rokkan, S. A comparative study of teachers' attitudes to international problems and policies. Jacobson, E. Methods used for producing comparable data in the OCSR seven- nation attitude study. _ Schachter, S. Interpretative and methodological problems of replicated research. Rommetveit, R. and Israel, J. Notes on the standardization of experimental manipulations and measurements in cross-national research. 2. Comparative cross national research. Int. soc. sci. Bull., 1955, 7, 4. including the following articles: Duijker, H. C. J. Comparative research in social science with special reference to attitude research. Rokkan, S. Party preferences and opinion patterns in.Western Europe: A comparative analysis. Rokkan, S. An experiment in cross-national research cooperation: the organization for comparative social research. Some special analyses of parts of the research have been reported in the following publications: 3. Aubert, V., Haldorsen, O. og Tiller, P. 0. Laereres holdning til ygkesrollen‘gg oppdragelsessporsmal. Institute for Social Research, Oslo, 1956. -90- 4. Leplas, C. Differences culturelles entre instituteurs d'expression francaise et flamenda. Bulletin de L'Institut de Recheres Economiques gt Sociales §_e_ _I_.:'Universite g3 Louvain, 1955, Extrait du No. 7. 5. Schachter, S., et al. Cross-cultural experiments on threat and rejection. Human Relat., 1954, 7, 4. 6. Rokkan, S. Party identification‘ggg opinions‘gg issues pf domestic and international policy. An analysis 2: relationshippgig data from interviews with teachers i3 seven Western European countries. Center for International Studies, Cambridge, Mass., 1955, 31, mimeo. Appendix I Items drawn from the final field version of the survey interview questionnaire Appendix I Items drawn from the final field version of the survey interview questionnaire. Background data. 1) Teacher classification: primary or secondary. 2) Sex. 3) Age. 4) Education: name and type of school; certificates or degrees. Items. 1) Some people think that the way world events are proceeding, these are some of the developments that are possible: a) The "cold war" will go on for a long time without changing present conditions very much; - b) the "cold war" will go on for a long time and gradually lead to the United States getting predominant political and economic influence over Western Europe; c) the "cold war" will go on for a long time and gradually lead to Russia getting predominant political and economic influence over Western Europe; d) the "cold war" will develop into another world war in which Western Europe will be involved; e) the "cold war" will gradually, over a couple of years, become less important and will be followed bymmore peaceful conditions, without much change in the present Western European political and eco- nomic situation. In your judgment, which of these five possibilities is the most likely? Rank them in the order of most likely to least likely. 2) In your judgment, the way things are going now, are develop- ments making another world war more or less likely during the next two or three years? 3) Under what circunstances would you look upon a world war as an alternate that would be the "lesser of two evils"? 4) Do you think it would be a good idea for O-land to give up some of its sovereignty to become part of a united world government? -91- -92- 5) Now we have been talking in general about governments and their activities. In your judgment, what, in practice, can the ordi- nary person in O-land do to influence the course of international events? 6) Do you think it is good or bad to have fundamental differences of opinion, within a country, on such matters as military preparedness? 7) Do you feel that people should try to change the opinions of others who disagree with them on matters like this? The F-scale items. Here are some statements that have to do with education and other matters. Please indicate your agreement or disagreement with the follow- ing statements by making a mark in the appropriate column- AGREE: Very much. To some extent. A little. DISAGREE: A little. to some extent. Very much. a) Human nature being what it is, there must always be war and conflict. b) The most important thing a child should learn is obedience to his parents. c) A few strong leaders could make this country better than all the laws and talk. d) Most people who don't get ahead just don't have enough will power. e) Women should stay out of politics. f) Our national life suffers from.lack of discipline. g) Parents these days allow their children too much freedom. h) Only the person who has been taught strict discipline can fully appreciate freedom. 1) Once a problem child, always a problem child. j) These days too much attention is being paid to the dif- ficult child at the expense of normal children. 4 b.‘ 1‘1, -1: a . - . 7‘ ‘ '71"? .,1 E, 4.317528. 69 d f 4 fl '6 UN 7 USE 3::sz "11111111111814I?“